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■

■ I

THE

STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK
1S77

FOURTEENTH ANNUAL PUBLICATION

THE

STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK

STATISTICAL AND HISTORICAL ANNUAL OF THE
STATES OF THE CIVILISED WORLD

FOE THE YEAE

l877

BY FREDERICK MARTIN

FOURTEENTH ANNUAL PUBLICATION

revised ^:ft:e:r- official eetxtbits

irt

MACMILLAN AND CO.
1877

The right of Translation and Reproduction is reserved

Man sagt oft: Zahlen regieren die Welt.
Das aber ist gewiss, Zahlen zeigen wie sie regiert wird.

Goethe.

LONDON : PRINTED BY

SP0TTISWO0DE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE

AND PARLIAMENT STREET

CONTENTS.

Introduction :
CHRONICLE OF < THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK '

FOE THE YEAK 1876 . . . page

COMPARATIVE TABLES:

I. Kelative Proportion of
the Sexes in the Prin-
cipal States of the
World . . . xxxvii

II. The Railways of the World :

1 . Railways of Europe

and America . xxxviii

2. Railways of Africa,

Asia, & Australasia xxxix

III. Telegraphs of the World xl

IV. Production of Coal in
the principal States .

V. The Import Markets of
the United Kingdom
in 1875 and 1876 .

VI. The Export Markets of

the United Kingdom

in 1875 and 1876 .

VII. Density of Population of

the States of Europe .

Part the First.
THE STATES OF EUROPE.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

Belgium : —

Reigning Sovereign .

Constitution, Government

— — of German Austria .

of Hungary

Church and Education

Revenue and Expenditure

of German Austria

of Hungary

Army

Navy

Area and Population .

Trade and Industry .

Railways .

Post Office and Telegraph.'

Diplomatic Representatives

> 25

W< ights and Measures

Books of Reference .

. 25

BELGIUM :—

Reigning Sovereign .

• 27

xli

xlii

xliii

xliv

Constitution, Government

Church and Education

Revenue and Expenditure .

Army .

Area and Population .

Trade and Industry .

Railways . . . .

Post Office and Telegraphs

Diplomatic Representatives

Weights and Measures

Books of Reference .

DENMARK:—

Reigning Sovereign .

Constitution, Government

Church and Education

Revenue and Expenditure

. 45

Army and Navy

. 47

Ana and Population .

Trade and Industry .

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

PAGE

Belgvcm : —

Rail-ways, Posts, and Tele-
graphs . • • •
Colonies . • • . •

Diplomatic Representatives
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .

FRANCE :—

Constitution, Government

Church and Education

Revenue and Expend

Cost, of the German W

Public Debt

Army

Navy

Ironclads .

Area and Population

Trade and Industry

Commercial Navy

Railways .

Post and Telegraphs
Colonies .
Diplomatic Representatives
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .

GERMANY:—

Reigning Emperor .

Constitution, Government

Church and Education

Universities

Revenue and Expenditure

Army

Fortress System

Navy

Area and Population .

Trade and Commerce

Weights and Measures

Books of Reference .

States of Germany : —

1. Prussia : —

Reigning Sovereign .
Constitution, Government
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditure

53
53
53
54

PAGE
123

12-3
127
129

63 |

90
90

93
94
96
97
98
100
103
104
107
181
186
187

110
113
117
120

Prussia : —
Army . .
Area and Population ,
' Trade and Industry .
Railways .

2. Bavaria : —

Reigning Sovereign .
Constitution, Government
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditure .
Area and Population

3. Wiirtemberg: —
Reigning Sovereign .
Constitution, Government .
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditure .
Area and Population .

4. Saxony : —
Reigning Sovereign .
Constitution. Government .
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditure .
Population

5. Baden:—

Reigning Sovereign .
Constitution and Revenue
Area and Population

6. Mecklenhurg-Schwerin

7. Hesse

8. Oldenburg

9. Brunswick

10. Saxe-Weimar .

11. Meeklenburg-Strelitz

12. Saxe-Meiningen

13. Anhalt

14. Saxe-Coburg-Gotha

15. Saxe-Altenburg .

16. Waldeck .

17. Lippe

18. Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt .

19. Schwarzburg - Sondershau-

sen .

20. Reuss-Schleiz .

21. Scliaumburg-Lippe .

22. Reuss-Greiz

23. Hamburg .

24. Liibeck

25. Bremen

130
132
132
133
13.3

137
138
139
140
142

143
144
144
145
146

147
147
149

150

1.32

154

156

158

160

161

102

164

166

167

108

169

170
171
172
173
174
177
178

CONTENTS

Vll

Alsace-Lokraixe : —

Constitution, Government .
Area and Population

Trade and Commerce of Ger-
many :—

The Zollverein .

Mercantile Navy

Railways, Post, and Tele-
graphs ....

Diplomatic Representatives

Money, Weights, and Mea-
sures ....

"Books of Reference concern-
ing Germany .

GREAT BRITAIN and IRE-
LAND :—

Reigning Sovereign and
Family ....

Constitution and Govern-
ment

Cabinet

Church and Education

Public Instruction

Revenue and Expend
ture

Taxation .

National Debt .

Army

Navy

Iron-clad Fleet .

Area and Population —
United Kingdom .
Number of Landowners
England and Wales
Scotland

Ireland ....

Islands in the British

Seas ....

Emigration

Commerce and Industry —

Imports and Exports

Shipping

Textile Industry .

Minerals and Metals
Railways .
Post and Telegraph- -

ISO
ISO

181
185

185

186

186
187

PAGE

Great Britain and Ireland : —
Colonial Possessions . . 272

Books of Reference —

Official Publications . . 277
Non-official Publications . 280

189

192
202
205
218

211
215
220
223
229
231

237
2t8
240
244
247

252

254
260
264
267
268
270

GREECE :

Reigning Sovereign .
Constitution and Govern-
ment
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditure
Army and Navy
Population

Trade and Industry .
Diplomatic Representatives
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .

ITALY :-

Reigning Sovereign .
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Church of Rome
Sovereign Pontiff
Cardinals ....
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditure .
Public Debt
Army and Navy
Area and Population .
Trade and Industry .
Shipping ....
Railways, Post, and Tele-
graphs ....
Diplomatic Representatives
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .

MONTENEGRO :—

Reigning Sovereign .
Government & Population
Books of Reference .

NETHERLANDS:—

Reigning Sovereign and
Family ....

Constitution and Govern-
ment ....

281

283
284
285
287
288
290
291
292
292

295

297
298
299
302
305
308
310
311
315
317
319

319
320
321
321

324
325
325

326

328

Vlll

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Netherlands : —

Church and Education . 329
Revenue and Expenditure . 330
Public Debt . . .332
Army and Navy . . 333
Area and Population . . 336
Trade and Industry . . 337
Shipping . . . .338
Railways, Post, and Tele-
graphs .... 339
Colonies . . . - 340
DiploraaticRepresentatives 341
Weights and Measures . 341
Books of Reference . . 342

PORTUGAL :—

Reigning Sovereign and

Family .... 344
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 346
Church and Education . 347
Revenue and Expenditure . 348
Army and Navy . . 350
Area and Population . . 352
Trade and Industry . . 352
Railways and Telegraphs . 353
Colonies .... 353
Diplomatic Representatives 355
Weights and Measures . 355
Books of Reference . . 355

RUSSIA :—

Reigning Sovereign . . 357
Constitution, Government . 359
Church and Education . 364
Revenue and Expenditure . 367
National Debt . . .369
Army .... 372

Navy 376

Ironclad Ships . . . 376
Area and Population . .379
Trade and Industry . . 385
Shipping . . . .387
Railways .... 387
Post and Telegraphs . . 389
Manufactures . . .389
Diplomatic Representatives 390
Weights and Measures . 390
Rooks of Reference . .391

SPAIN :—

Reigning Sovereign . . 394
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 395
Church and Education . 397
Revenue and Expenditure . 399
National Debt . . .402
Army and Navy . .403

Area and Population . . 405
Trade and Industry . . 408
Shipping . . . .410
Railways and Telegraphs . 410
Colonies . . . .411

Diplomatic Representatives 412
Weights and Measures . 413
Books of Reference . .413

SWEDEN and NORWAY:—

Reigning Sovereign .
Dynastic Union

Sweden : —

Constitution, Government .
Revenue and Expenditure .
Army and Navy
Area and Population .
Trade and Industry .
Railways ....
Post and Telegraphs .

Norway : —

Constitution, Government .
Revenue and Expenditure .
Army and Navy
Area and Population .
Trade and Industry .
Colony ....
Diplomatic Representatives
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .

SWITZERLAND :—

Constitution, Government

Church and Education

Revenue and Expenditure

Aimv

Area and Population .

Trade and Industry .

Railways and Telegraphs

415
416

417
419
420
422
424
425
426

427
429
429
430
433
433
434
434
434

436
438
439
442
443
445
446

CONTENTS.

Switzerland : —

Diplomatic Representatives 447

Weights and Measures . 447

Books of Reference . . 448

TURKEY and TRIBUTARY
STATES :—

Reigning Sovereign and

Family .... 449
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .451
Religion and Education . 453
Revenue and Expenditure . 455
Public Debt . . .457
Army and Navy . . 459

Ironclad Ships . . .461

Area and Population . 463

Trade and Commerce . 466

Tributary States —

1. Egypt: — See Part II. Africa.

2. Roumania: —
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .469

Revenue and Army . . 470
Area and Population . . 473
Trade and Commerce . 474

3. Servia : —

Government . . . 475

Revenue, Army, and Popu-
lation . . . .476
Trade . . . .477
Diplomatic Representatives 477
Weights and Measures . . 478
Books of Reference . . 478

Part the Second.

THE STATES OF AMERICA, AFRICA, ASIA,
AND AUSTRALASIA.

I. AMERICA.

ARGENTINE CONFEDERA-
TION :—

Constitution, Government . 482

Revenue and Public Debts 483

Army and Navy . . 485

Population . . . 485

Trade and Industry . . 486

Railways and Telegraphs . 487

Diplomatic Representatives 488

Weights and Measures . 488

Books of Reference . . 488

BOLIVIA :—

Constitution, Government . 490

Revenue and Army . . 490
Population, Trade, and In-
dustry . . . .491

Diplomatic Representatives 493

Weights and Measures . 493

Books of Reference . . 493

BRAZIL :—

Reigning Sovereign .
Constitution, Government
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditure
Army and Navy
Area and Population .
Trade and Commerce .
Railways and Telegraphs
Diplomatic Representatives
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference ..

CANADA:—

Constitution, Government
Church and Education
Revenue and Expenditure
Army and Navy
Area and Population
Trade and Industry .

494
495
497
498
500
501
503
504
505
505
506

508
510
511

."» 1 1
516
517

THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

„, i'AUJS

Canada: —

■Railways, Post, and Tele-
graphs . . , .519
Weights and Measures . 519
Books of Reference . . 520

CHILI :—

Constitution, Government . 522
Revenue, Army, and Navy 522
Population and Industry . 525
Railways . . . .526

Diplomatic Representatives 526
Weights and Measures . 527
Books of Reference . .527

COLOMBIA :—

Constitution, Government. 528

Revenue and Army . . 529

Population and Trade . 529

Diplomatic Representatives 531

Weights and Measures . 531

Books of Reference . . 531

COSTA RICA:—

Constitution, Government . 533

Revenue and Public Debt . 533

Area and Population . 534

Diplomatic Representatives 534

Weights and Measures . 535

Books of Reference . . 535

ECUADOR:-

Constitution, Government . 536
Revenue, Population, and

Trade • • • .536

Diplomatic RepreseDtatives 538

Weights and Measures . 538

Books of Reference . . 533

GUATEMALA:—

Constitution, Government . 539
Revenue, Population, and"
Trade . . . . 539

Diplomatic Representatives 541
Weights and Measures . 541
Books of Reference . . 542

HAITI:

Constitution, Government . 543
Revenue, Population, and

T^e • • . .543
Diplomatic Representatives 545

Haiti : —

Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .

545
545

HONDURAS :—

Constitution, Government . 546
Revenue, Population, and

Trade .... 546

Diplomatic Representatives 548

Weights and Measures . .548

Books of Reference . . 543

MEXICO: —

Constitution, Government
Revenue and Expenditure
Public Debt
Area and Population .
Trade and Industry .
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference

549
549
550
551
552
553
553

NICARAGUA :—

Constitution, Government . 555
Revenue, Population, and

Tra(le • 555

Diplomatic Representatives 556

Weights and Measures . 548

Books of Reference . . 556

PARAGUAY:—

Constitution, Government . 557

Revenue and Army . . 557

Population and Trade . 558

Diplomatic Representatives 559

Weights and Measures . 559

Books of Reference . . 560

PERU:—

Constitution, Government . 561

Revenue, Army, and Navy. 561
Population, Trade, and In-

dustry .... 563

Guano exports . . . 565

Railways .... 565

Diplomatic Representatives 566

Weights and Measures . 567

Books of Reference . . 567

SAN DOMINGO:—

Constitution, Government . 569

CONTENTS.

San Domingo : —

Revenue. Population, and

Trade . . . .569

Diplomatic Representatives 570
Weights and Measures . 570
Books of Reference . . 570

SAN SALVADOR:—

Constitution, Government . 57'2
Revenue, Population, and

Trade .... 572

Diplomatic Representatives 574

Weights and Measures . 574

Books of Reference . . 574

UNITED STATES:—

Constitution, Government . 575
Congress .... 578
Church and Education . 581
Revenue and Expenditure . 583
National Debt . . .585
Army . . . .588

Navy . . . .589

Iron-clad Ships . . . 590

Area and Population . . 592
Census of 1870. . . .593
Immigration . . . 597
Trade and Industry . . 599

PAOR

United States : — ■

Commercial Marino . . 603

Mines and Minerals . . 605

Railways .... 605

Post and Telegraphs . . 606

Diplomatic Representatives 607

Weights and Measures . 607

Books of Reference . . 608

URUGUAY :—

Constitution, Government . 611
Revenue, Public Debt, and

Army . . . _ . 611
Population, Trade, and In-
dustry .... 612
Diplomatic Representatives 614
Weights and Measures . 614
Books of Reference . .614

VENEZUELA :—

Constitution. Government . 615
Revenue, Public Debt, and

Army . . . .015
Population, Trade, and In-
dustry . . . .616
Diplomatic Representatives 617
Weights and Measures . 617
Books of Reference . .618

2. AFRICA.

ALGERIA :—

Government and Army
Area and Population .
Trade and Industry .
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE:—

Constitution, Government .
Revenue and Expenditure .
Area and Population
Trade and Commerce
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .

EGYPT: —

Reigning Sovereign .
Government, Revenue, and
Army . . . .

619
620
621
622
622

624
625
625
628
629
629

631

632

Egypt : —

Area and Population . 634
Trade and Commerce . 635
The Suez Canal . . 636
Railways and Telegraphs . 638
Diplomatic Representatives 639
Money, Weights and Mea-
sures .... 639
Books of Reference . . 639

LIBERIA:—

Constitution . . . 641

Population and Trade . 642

Weights and Measures . 643

Books of Reference . . 643

MOROCCO:—

Reigning Sovereign . . 6 44

Government and Religion . 644

Xll

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Morocco : —

Population and Trade . 645

Diplomatic Representatives 646

Weights and Measures . 646
Books of Reference . .647

NATAL :—

Constitution, Government . 648

Revenue and Expenditure . 648

Population . . . 649

Trade and Commerce . 650

Natal : —

PAGE

Books of Reference .

651

JNIS :—

Reigning Sovereign .

652

Government, Revenue, and

Army ....

652

Population and Trade

654

Diplomatic Representatives

656

Weights and Measures

656

Books of Reference .

656

3. ASIA.

CEYLON :—

Constitution, Government .

Revenue and Expenditure

Population

Trade and Industry .

Weights and Measures

Books of Reference .

CHINA :—

Reigning Sovereign .
Army and Government
Population and Trade
Treaty Ports
Diplomatic and Consular

Representatives
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .

HONG KONG :—

Constitution, Government
Revenue and Expenditure
Area and Population .
Trade and Commerce
Weights and Measures
Books of Reference .

INDIA:

657
657
658
659
660
660

661
661
663
665

667
667
667

670
670
671
673
674
674

Constitution, Government . 675
Revenue and Expenditure . 677
Public Debt . . .683
Army .... 684
Area and Population . . 686
Trade and Commerce . 692

Shipping . . . .695

Railways .... 696
Post and Telegraphs . . 698
Weights and Measures . 699

India : —

Books of Reference . . 700

JAPAN :—

Constitution, Government . 702

Revenue and Army . . 703

Population and Trade . 705

Diplomatic Representatives 707

Weights and Measures . 707

Books of Reference . . 707

JAVA :—

Constitution, Government . 710

Revenue and Expenditure 711
Army and Navy . .712

Area and Population . . 713

Trade and Commerce . 714

Weights and Measures . 715
Books of Reference . .716

PERSIA:—

Reigning Sovereign . .718
Government, Religion, and

Education . . .718

Revenue and Army . . 720

Area, Population, and Trade 721

Diplomatic Representatives 723

Weights and Measures . 723

Books of Reference . . 724

SIAM :—

Government and Revenue . 726

Population and Trade . 727

Diplomatic Representatives 729

Weights and Measures . 728

Books of Reference . . 72 9

CONTENTS.

4. AUSTRALASIA.

NEW SOUTH WALES :—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 730
Revenue and Expenditure . 731
Area and Population . .731
Trade and Industry . . 733
Mineral Productions . . 734
Railways, Post, and Tele-
graphs .... 734

NEW ZEALAND :—

Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 735
Revenue and Expenditure . 736
Area and Population . . 737
Trade and Industry . . 740
Mineral Productions . .741
Railways, Post, and Tele-
graphs .... 741

QUEENSLAND :—

Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 742
Revenue and Expenditure . 742
Area and Population . 743

Trade and Industry . . 744
Railways, Post, and Tele-
graphs .... 745

SOUTH AUSTRALIA:—

Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 746
Revenue and Expenditure . 747
Area and Population . . 748
Trade and Industry . . 750

South Australia : —

Mines and Mineral Produc

tions

751

Railways, Post, and Tele

graphs .

734

TASMANIA :—

Constitution and Govern

ment

752

Revenue and Expenditure

752

Area and Population .

753

Trade and Industry .

754

Railways, Post, and Tele-

graphs .

755

VICTORIA :—

Constitution and Govern

ment

756

Revenue and Expenditure

757

Debt .

757

Area and Population

758

Immigration

761

Trade and Commerce

. 762

Mining Industry

. 763

Railways .

764

Post and Telegraphs .

765

WESTERN AUSTRALIA:—

Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 766
Revenue and Expenditure . 766
Population and Trade . 767
Agriculture and Minerals . 768
Books of Reference con-
cerning Australasia . 769

INDEX 772

CHRONICLE

OF THE

STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK

FOR THE YEAR

1876

January.

1. Celebration of the ' incoming Centennial Year of American Indepen-
dence ' throughout the United States.

1. Chapter of the Knights of the Star of India held by the Prince of

Wales at Calcutta.

2. Opening of the Cortes Geraes of PorUigal, by King Luis I. ' We con-

tinue to maintain friendly relations with all foreign states.'

3. Bill for the appointment of regency during the absence of King

Georgios I. from the kingdom, passed by the Boule of Greece.

4. Resignation of Nubar Pasha, President of the Council of the State of

Egypt.

^ 6. Death of Marquis Bernardo de Sa da Bandeira, Portuguese statesman

and general, at Lisbon.

6. Raising of the siege of Hernani, by the Carlist insurgents of Spain.

7. Arrival of the Prince of Wales at Lucknow, India.
9. Changes in the Government of Turkey.

10. Meeting of the Reichsrath of Austria.

10. Death of Andrew Johnson, President of the United States from 1865

to 1869.

11. Arrival of the Prince of Wales at Delhi, India.

12. Prorogation of the Italian Parliament.

13. Proclamation of Marshal MacMahon, President of the French

Republic, countersigned by M. Buffet, giving advice to the people
regarding the approaching general elections. ' I advise all to rally
round my government, under the shelter of a strong and respected
authority.'

XVI THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877-

January.

15. Bill for the establishment of a network of railways, passed by the

Cortes of Portugal.

16. Opening of the Chambers of Prussia, by royal commission.

] 6. Resolution for the impeachment of the ministry adopted by the
Skoupschina of Servia.

17. Bill for the supervision of monastic institutions, adopted by the Upper

House of the Reichsrath of Austria.

18. Arrival of the Prince of Wales at Lahore, India.

19. Opening of the Diet of Sweden, by King Oscar II.

20. Purchase of the Eastern Railway of Hungary, by the Government.

20. Death of Henry Wilson, Vice President of the United States from

March 4, 1873.

21. Bombardment of the town of San Sebastian, by the Carlist insurgents

of Spain.

22. Grant of 1,500,000 dollars, voted by the House of Congress of the

United States, for the ' Centennial ' Exhibition at Philadelphia.

23. Changes in the Government of Turkey.

24. Adoption of a bill amending the penal laws of international conspiracy,

by the Reichstag of Germany, by 141 against 133 votes.

25. Completion of the general elections throughout Spain, resulting in an

overwhelming majority for the Ministry in power.

27- Opening of an International Postal Congress at Bern, Switzerland.

28. Death of Francis Deak, Hungarian statesman, at Pesth.

29. Defeat of Carlist insurgents near Duranza, by the royal forces under

General Quesada.

29. Outbreak of an insurrection at Jacmel, Haiti.

30. Elections throughout France for the new Senate, resulting in the return

of 110 Republicans, 58 Orleanists, 36 Bonapartists, and 21

Legitimists.

31. Presentation of a note, drawn up by Count Andrassy, President of the

Ministry of Austria-Hungary, to the Ottoman Government, by the
ambassadors of Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy, and Russia, re-
lative to reforms in the administration of the Turkish Empire.
'The Sublime Porte promised to examine the scheme, and to
acquaint the Powers with its decision.'

February.

1. Commencement of the actual working of the new International Tri-

bunals in Egypt.

2. Bill for the emancipation of slaves in the islands of St. Thomas and

Principe, adopted by the Cortes Geraes of Portugal.

3. Opening of the Storthing of Norway, by King Oscar II.

3. Signature of a treaty of peace between the Argentine Confederation,
Brazil, and Paraguay, referring the settlement of existing disputes
to the arbitration of the President of the United States.

CHRONICLE. XV ii

February.

4. Defeat of insurgent tribes on the Perak river, Malay Peninsula, by

British troops.

5. Close of the session of the Boule of Greece, by royal decree.

6. Reply of the Ottoman Government to the note of Count Andrassy,

delivered on the 31st of January. It is announced that 'the
Sublime Porte has resolved to carry out the leading measures re-
commended by the great Powers, namely, the establishment, of
religious liberty, a modification of the system of collecting tithes,
the granting of facilities to agriculturists, the application of a
portion of the revenues of the insurgent provinces to local improve-
ments, and the appointment of a mixed commission of Mussulmans
and Christians to watch over the execution of these reforms.'

7. Defeat of Carlist insurgents near San Esteban, by the royal troops of

Spain.

8. Opening of the second session of the 21st Parliament of the United

Kingdom by Queen Victoria. ' I have considered it my duty not to
stand aloof from the efforts now being made by allied and friendly
Governments to bring about a pacification of the disturbed districts
[in Turkey], and I have accordingly, while respecting the indepen-
dence of the Porte, joined in urging on the Sultan the expediency
of adopting such measures of administrative reform as may remove
all reasonable cause of discontent on the part of his Christian
subjects.'

9. Appointment of a new Ministry for Roumania.

10. Close of the Reichstag of Germany. Prince von Bismarck, defending
himself against the accusation of warlike designs, exclaims : ' We
have nothing to conquer, nothing to win ; we arc contented with
what we have, and it is a calumny to accuse us of any thirst for
conquest or territorial extension.'

10. Opening of the Parliament of the Dominion of Canada by the

Governor-General.

10. Death of Reverdy Johnson, American statesman, at Annapolis, Mary-

land, U.S.

11. Changes in the Government of Turkey.

13. Defeat of Carlist insurgents by the royal troops under General

Quesada, near Segara, Spain.

14. Decree of the Sultan of Turkey ordering all the reforms advised in

the note of Count Andrassy, delivered by the representatives of the
Great Powers on the 31st of January.

15. Opening of the newly-elected Cortes of Spain by King Alfonso XII.

' Inasmuch as the provinces of Biscay, Alava, and the gr< ater part
of Navarre have been reduced to obedience, as the Carlists are
hemmed in at the Pyrenees, and as the Cuban insurrection daily
becomes more feeble, my short but difficult reign lias not been

without ^avail for the public good I shall speedily proceed

to the North to contribute towards the restoration of peace.'

16. Departure of King Alfonso XII. of Spain from Madrid, to take the

command of the troops operating against the Carlist insurgents.
a 2.

Xviii THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877-

February.

17. Bill granting permission to the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland

' to add to her titles ' introduced into the House of Commons by the
Prime Minister.

18. Surrender of Estella. capital of the Carlist insurgents, to the royal

troops of Spain under General Primo de Rivera.

20. Elections throughout France for the new Chamber of Deputies, re-
sulting in a majority for the Republicans. (See March 5.)

20. Entry of Russian troops into the city of Khokand, and proclamation
announcing the immediate annexation of the Khanate of Khokand
to the Russian Empire.

20. Reception of the Prince of Wales at his entrance into Nepaul, India,

by Sir Jung Bahadoor, Prime Minister of Nepaul.

21. Vote of £4,080,000, for the purchase of Suez Canal shares, by the

British House of Commons, -without a division.

21. Death of Grand Duchess Maria, eldest sister of the Emperor of Russia,

at St. Petersburg.

22. Surrender of five battalions of Carlist insurgents to the royal troops,

under General Martinez Campos, at Tolosa, Spain.

23. Resignation of the French Ministry presided over by M. Buffet.

24. Appointment of a new French Ministry under the presidency of M.

Dufaure.

27. Treaty of commerce with Roumania adopted by the Reichsrath of

Austria, by 145 against 73 votes.

28. Flight of Don Carlos, head of the Carlist insurgents of Spain, into

France, surrendering his sword at St. Jean Pied-de-Port.

29. Changes in the Government of Turkey.

March.

1. Resignation of General Belknap, Secretary of War of the United

States.

2. Resolution of the House of Representatives of the United States,

directing the impeachment of General Belknap, before the Senate.

3. Bill for removing restrictions on burials for Dissenters from the Clrarch

of England refused by the House of Commons, by 279 against 248
votes.

4. Insurrectionary risings in several parts of Bosnia, Turkey.

5. Supplementary elections to the Chamber of Deputies in 105 arrondisse-

ments of France. The total results of this and the general election
of February 20 is the return of 330 Republicans, 92 Bonapartists,
58 Orleanists, and 38 Legitimists.

6. Opening of the Italian Parliament by King Vittorio Emanuele II.

'My Government is attempting to carry out a scheme for the
redemption of the railways. In this Italy ardently faces a very
grave problem, which has already for some time occupied the
attention of the Governments and Parliaments of the most civilized
nations.'

CHRONICLE. XIX

March.

7. Arrival of the Prince of Wales at Allahabad, India.

8. Opening of the newly-elected French Senate and Chamber of Deputies

at Versailles.

9. Defeat of the invading army of the Khedive of Egyyt by the Abyssinian

troops, under the command of King John.

1 1 . Changes in the Ministry of Roumania.

12. Defeat of a body of 8,000 insurgents, by Government troops, at Oaxaca,

Mexico.

13. Publication at St. Petersburg of an ukase of the Emperor of Russia

decreeing that the newly-conquered territory hitherto called the
Khanate of Khokand be incorporated in the Russian Empire, to
form a province under the name of Ferghana.

13. Departure of the Prince of Wales from Bombay for England. ' I can-

not leave India,' writes the Prince, in a letter to the Governor-
General. ' without expressing to you, as the Queen's representative
of this vast Empire, the sincere pleasure and the deep interest with
which I have visited this great and wonderful country.'

14. Message of the French Government to the Senate and Chamber of

Deputies. ' The Republican Government, already founded, has
been completed by the election of two great assemblies which con-
stitute with the Government the highest public authority. Uni-
versal suffrage has sanctioned the great constitutional results
accomplished by the last Assembly. Power cannot have a higher
origin in human society : never was a Government more legitimately
established.'

14. Bill reducing the salary of the President of the United States passed
by the Senate.

16. Amendment to the Royal Titles Bill, declaring it to be inexpedient
for the Queen to adopt the title of 'Empress of India,' rejected by
the British House of Commons, by 305 against 200 votes.

16. Insurrection at Jacmel, Hayti, and proclamation of a state of siege

throughout the republic.

17. Defeat of Turkish troops by insurgents at Muratovizza, Bosnia.

19. Resolution of want of confidence in the Ministry passed by the

Chamber of Deputies of Italy, by 243 against 180 votes.

20. Resignation of the Italian Ministry, accepted by the King.

20. Triumphal entry of King Alfonso XII. into Madrid, at the head of

25.000 men, having subdued the Carlist insurrection.

21. Capture of Ismail, leader of the insurrection in the Malay Peninsula,

by British troops, at Penang.

23. Bill giving the title of 'Empress of India' to the Queen of Great

Britain and Ireland adopted, on third reading, by the House of
Commons, by 209 against 34 votes.

24. Appointment of a new Italian Ministry, under the presidency of

Signore Depretis.

XX THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, ] 877.

March.

25. Bill authorising the Government to transfer the State railways of
Prussia to the German Empire, passed, on first reading, by the
Chamber of Deputies of Prussia.

27. Capture of the town of Jalapa, Mexico, by insurgent forces.

29. Decree of King Christian IX. closing the sittings of the Folkething of
Denmark, on account of ' inability to come to an understanding
with the Government.'

29. Departure of Queen Victoria from England for Germany.

29. Bill reducing the pay of officers in the army passed by the House of

Eepresentatives of the United States, by 141 against 61 votes.

30. Besolution of the House of Deputies of Wiirtemberg in favour of

transferring the State railways of the kingdom to the German
Empire passed, by 78 against 6 votes.

April.

1. Capture of the city of Matamoras. Mexico, by the insurgents against

the Government, under the command of Porfiris Diaz.

2. Close of the Cortes Geraes of Portugal by royal decree.

3. Bill giving the title of Empress of India to the Queen of Great

Britain and Ireland passed by the House of Lords, by 137 against
91 votes.

3. Nomination of two new cardinals by the Sovereign Pontiff of Rome.

4. Motion censuring the Government for the slow progress of the Pacific

railway works passed by the Senate of the Dominion of Canada,
by 34 against 24 votes.

5. Decree of the French Government raising the state of siege in the

departments of Seine, Seine-et-Oise, Ehone, and Bouches-du-Ehone.

5. Bill incorporating the duchy of Lauenburg with the kingdom passed

by the Chamber of Deputies of Prussia.

6. Decree of the French Government sanctioning the arrangements for

an International Exhibition to be held from the 1st of May to the
31st of October, 1878.

7. Changes in the Government of Turkey ; appointment of a new Minister

of Finance.
9. Meetings at Belgrade, calling for war with Turkey.

10. Sentences passed by the High Court of Justice at Athens upon the

ex-ministers, archbishops, and others, on charges of corruption and
simony. The ministers are condemned to undergo imprisonment
of from nine months to one year, and the archbishops to pay fines
of from 8001. to 2.000Z. sterling.

1 1 . Issue of a voluntary national loan by the Government of Servia.

12. Prorogation of the Parliament of the Dominion of Canada.

2. Arrival of Lord Lytton, the newly-appointed Governor-General of
India, at Calcutta.
14. Unveiling of a monument to President Abraham Lincoln, erected by
contributions of former slaves, at Washington, by General Grant,
President of the United States.

CHRONICLE. XXJ.

April.

15. Defeat of the Turkish troops under Mukhtar Pasha by insurgents of
the Herzegovina, engaged in blockading the fort of Niksies, at
Prejeska.

17. Commencement of the trial of impeachment of General Belknap,

former Secretary of State for War, before the Senate of the United
States.

18. Visit of the Emperor Wilhelm I. of Germany to Queen Victoria of

Great Britain, at Coburg.

IS. Insurrection at. Haiti and flight of the President of the Republic,
General Michel Dominique.

19. Changes in the Government of Turkey ; appointment of new Ministers

of War and Marine.

20. Commencement of agrarian riots, extending over several weeks, of

the coloured population throughout Barbadoes.

22. Departure of the King and Queen of Greece from Athens, on a visit to
Denmark and Germany.

22. Death of Princess Maria of Braganza, Regent of Portugal 1826-28,

at Lisbon.

23. Defeat of insurgents of the Herzegovina by Turkish troops at

Prejeska.

25. Arrival of the Prince of Wales at Madrid, on a visit to the King of

Spain.

26. Elections for the Folkething throughout Denmark, resulting in the

return of 74 opponents and 31 adherents of the existing Government.

26. Proclamation of Prince Milan of Servia enjoining the people of the

principality not to join the insurgents of the Herzegovina. ,

27. Launch of the double turret ship ' Inflexible,' the most powerful iron-

clad of the British navy, at Portsmouth.

28. Proclamation of Queen Victoria announcing that Parliament has

passed an Act ' to enable Her Most Gracious Majesty to make an
Addition to the Royal Style and Titles appertaining to the Imperial
Crown of the United Kingdom and its Dependencies,' and that,
therefore, in all documents ' not extending in their operation
beyond the United Kingdom the following addition shall be rnado
to the Style and Titles at present appertaining to the Imperial
Crown of the United Kingdom and its Dependencies : that is to
say, in the Latin tongue, in these words : " India} Imperatrix."
And in the English tongue in these words : " Empress of India." '

30. Changes in the Government of Turkey.

May.

1. Arrival of the Prince of Wales at Lisbon, on a visit to the King of
Portugal.

1. Resignation of the Ministry of Servia.

2. Bill providing for the transfer of all the State railways of Prussia

to the German Empire adopted, on thirl reading, by the House
of Deputies of Prussia, by 216 against 160 votes.

XX11 THE STATESMAN S TEAK-BOOK, 1877.

May.

3. Insurrectionary risings in many parts of Bulgaria, Turkey.

5. Formation of a new Ministry for Servia, under the presidency of

M. Eistics.

6. Assassination of the Consuls of France and Germany by Mahometan

fanatics, at Salonica, Turkey.

7. Changes in the Government of Tiu'key ; appointment of new Ministers

of War, Finance, and Justice.

8. Launch of the Italian ironclad ' Duilio,' reputed the most powerful

war-ship yet constructed (see Italian navy), at Castellamare, in
presence of the King of Italy and representatives of most of the
Governments of Europe.

8. Signature of a treaty of peace between Guatemala and San Salvador

at Santa Ana.

9. Launch of the British ironclad ' Temeraire' at Chatham.

9. Destruction of the village of Batak, Bulgaria, and murder of all the
inhabitants, by Turkish troops.

10. Opening of the French Assembly at Versailles.

10. Opening of the 'Centennial Exhibition' at Philadelphia by General

Grant, President of the United States, who states that its object
is ' that we may the more thoroughly appreciate the excellences
and deficiencies of our achievements, and also give emphatic
expression to our earnest desire to cultivate the friendship of our
fellow-members of this great family of nations.'

11. Arrival of the Emperor of Russia at Berlin, on a visit to the Emperor

of Germany.

11. Dismissal of the Grand Vizier and of the Scheik-ul-Islam of Turkey

by decree of Sultan Abdul-Aziz.

12. Riots at Constantinople, headed by the ' Softas,' directed against the

existing Government.

13. Destruction of the village of Peroushtiza, and murder of the inhabitants,

by Turkish troops.

14. Conference at Berlin between the representatives of Austria-Hungary,

Germany and Russia for the settlement of the affairs of Turkey.

15. Opening of the Delegations of Austria-Hungary, at Pesth.
15. Opening of the Rigsdag of Denmark by royal commission.

15. Decree of the Khedive of Egvpt ordering the establishment of a

' Supreme Council of the Treasury,' composed partly of Europeans,
for the control of the finances.

16. Arrival of a French and German flotilla before Salonica to watch the

investigation of the murder of the Consuls (see May 6.)

17. Close of the session of the Diet of Sweden by royal commission.

17. Changes in the Government of Turkey ; appointment of Midhat Pasha

as Minister.

18. Reception of the Delegations of Austria-Hungary by the Emperor-

King, who informs them that ' the events in the East have only

CHKONICLE. XXl'ii

May.

strengthened my resolution and that of the two great neighbouring
States to draw more closely and intimately the relations which
have already existed between our empires.'

20. Defeat of a strong body of insurgents by troops of the Government at

Matiimoras, Mexico.

21. Bill for the abolition of the ' Fueros' of the Basque Provinces passed,

in second reading, by the Cortes of Spain.

22. Agreement between the British and Italian Governments for the

prolongation of the treaty of commerce of August 6, 1863, signed
at Rome.

23. Decrees of the Government of Servia, suspending the liberty of the

press, and ordering a loan of 12,000,000 piastres, or 240,000^.,
by a voluntary subscription, ' for the defence of the country.'

24. Adoption of all the clauses of the new constitution by the Cortes of

Spain, by 285 against 40 votes.

25. Decree establishing a forced currency issued by the Government of the

Argentine Confederation.

26. Death of Field-Marshal Von John, Austrian statesman, at Vienna.

27. Changes in the Government of Turkey.

29. Bout of the main body of Mexican insurgents by troops of the

Government at Oaxaca.

30. Deposition of Abdul-Aziz, Sultan of Turkey. ' After vainly soliciting

the Sultan to reform the Government, the Grand Vizier, Hussein
Avni Pasha, and Midhat Pasha determined to depose him. The
Dolma Baghtche Palace was beset with land and sea troops, and
Murad was proclaimed Sultan at the Seraskierat before all the
ministers, the Scheik-ul-Islam, and Mollahs. Suleiman Pasha,
with soldiers and officers, intimated to Abdul-Aziz that the nation
deposed him, and that he should deliver up the palace to his
successor. The attitude of the troops convinced him of the im-
possibility of resistance. The ex-Sultan and his family and
household, 53 boatfuls of women, were conveyed under escort to
the Topcapou Palace, in the old Seraglio, and Murad V. proceeded
to take possession of the Dolma Baghtche Palace.'

June.

1. Publication at Constantinople of an Imperial Hatt of Sultan Murad

V. announcing his accession to the throne, ' by the Grace of God
and the Will of All.'

2. Appointment of a new Attorney-General and Secretary for War of the

United States.

3. Opening of the first line of railway in China, from Shanghai to

Kangwang.

4. Suicide of Abdul -Aziz, Sultan of Turkey from June 25, 1861, to Juno

30, 1875. 'He stabbed himself with a pair of small scissors in
Tcheragan Palace, at ten o'clock in the morning, and was buried at
Mahmoud the Second's tomb at six o'clock in the evening.'

XXIV THE STATESMAN'S YEAK-BOOK, 1877.

June.

6. Recognition of Sultan Murad V. by the Governments of Austria,

Germany, Great Britain, and Russia.

7. Bill restoring to the State faculties the absolute right of conferring

university degrees adopted by the Chamber of Deputies of France,
by 388 against 120 votes.

7. Death of Josephine, Queen Dowager of Sweden and Norway, at

Stockholm.

8. Appointment of General Tehemayeff, in the Russian service, to

the command of the Western division of the army of Servia.

10. Changes in the Government of Turkey.

11. Bill passed by the House of Representatives of the United States

authorising the coining of 30 millions of dollars additional silver
currency, one-third of the sum to be employed for the redemption
of paper-money.

12. Proclamation of Prince Milan of Servia stating that 'the insurrection

in the Turkish provinces has found its way to the frontiers of
Servia, enclosing the whole principality by an iron band,' which
has compelled him ' to place his people under arms.'

13. Elections for the Chamber of Representatives in Belgium, resulting

in a loss to the Ultramontane party, the majority of which in the
Chamber is reduced from 14 to 12 votes.

13. Bill making regulations for the 'protection rif labour' in all factories

and workshops passed by the National Council of Switzerland, by
89 against 17 votes.

14. Meeting of the Emperors of Germany and of Russia, at Ems,

Germany.

15. Assassination of the Turkish Ministers of War and of Foreign Affairs

by Hassan Bey, a Circassian, captain in the Turkish army, at
Constantinople. ' The Circassian shot them down like dogs while
sitting at the Ministerial Council table, and then killed and
wounded six other officials.'

17. Execution, by hanging, of Hassan Bey, murderer of two Turkish
Ministers, at Constantinople. ' There was no judicial inquiry
worthy the name, and the assassin was asked no questions.'

17. Resignation of the Secretary of the Treasury of the United States.

18. Treaty settling existing frontier disputes with Brazil ratified by the

National Congress of the Argentine Confederation.

19. Resignation of the Ministry of the Netherlands, the second Chamber

of the States-General having rejected the Ministerial Militia Bill.

20. Death of General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, President of Mexico

at various periods, at Vera Cruz, Mexico.

21. Appointment of a new Minister of War for Austria-Hungary.

21. Rejection of a bill for abolishing capital punishment by the Senate of
France.

CHRONICLE. XXV

June.

22. Statement of Mr. Disraeli in the British House of Commons that
' the Great Powers have unanimously agreed that, after the events
at Constantinople and the accession of the new Sultan, it was just
and expedient that he should not he unduly pressed, but that he
should Have sufficient time to survey his position.'

22. Decree of the Government of Servia ordering the mobilisation of the

first contingent of the militia.

23. Motion of want of confidence in the Government passed by the

Folkething of Denmark, by 62 against 24 votes.

24. Close of the session of the Folkething of Denmark by royal decree.

25. Defeat and extermination of United States troops, numbering 17

officers and 315 rank and file, under General Custer, by Sioux
Indians, in the Black Hills country. ' They fell into an ambuscade,
in a deep ravine, and every man was slain.'

26. Decree of the Servian Government ordering the mobilisation of the

militia.

27. Bill for the purchase of the Alta Italia railways by the State passed

by the Italian Parliament, by 344 against 35 votes.

28. Manifesto of the insurgent chiefs of Bosnia proclaiming Prince Milan

King of Bosnia.

29. Changes in the Government of Turkey.

30. Circular address of the Servian Government to the great European

Powers complaining of the action of Turkey in sending ' undis-
ciplined robber bands ' into Bosnia and ciose to the Servian
frontier.

July.

1. Commencement of the celebration of the centenary of the Declaration

of Independence at Philadelphia.

2. Joint declaration, of war sent by the Prince of Servia and the

Hospodar of Montenegro to the Turkish Government, their troops
crossing the frontier at the same time.

3. Circular of the Government of Turkey to the Great Powers denouncing

the hostilities commenced by Servia as a breach of allegiance.

3. Opening of an extraordinary session of the Koumanian Chambers by

Prince Karl.

4. Celebration of the centenary of the Declaration of Independence

throughout the United States.
6. Death of M. Casimir Perier, Minister of the Interior of France
1871-72, at Paris.

6. Defeat of the Servian forces at Novi Bazar by Turkish troops, under

Mehemet All Pasha.

7. Appointment of a new Secretary of the Treasury of the United States.

8. Meeting of the Emperors of Austria and Bussia at the castle of

Keichstadt, Bohemia. ' The two monarchs embraced and kissed
each other affectionately three times.'

XXVI THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

July.

9. Announcement of the Turkish Government that the dividends of the
public debt cannot be paid ' until the internal affairs of the Empire
have become more settled.'

10. Rejection of a proposed new law on military service by the people of

Switzerland, by 165,000 against 145,000 votes.

11. Appointment of a new Postmaster-General of the United States.

12. Announcement of a blockade of the sea-coast of Dahomey, Africa, by

British naval forces.

14. Bill authorising an International Exhibition at Paris in 1878 passed
unanimously by the French Chamber of Deputies.

14. Declaration of the Earl of Derby, British Minister of Foreign Affairs,
on the policy of the British Government in the Turkish question.
' We undertook undoubtedly twenty years ago to guarantee the Sick
Man against murder, but we never undertook to guarantee him
against suicide or sudden death. Now, that is in a few words our
policy as regards this war now going on. We shall not intervene,
but we shall do our utmost, if necessary, to discourage others from
intervening.'

14. Explosion on board the ironclad man-of-war 'Thunderer,' in Ports-

mouth harbour, with loss of 77 lives.

15. Circular note of the Government of Roumania to the Great Powers,

claiming greater independence from Turkey, together with the
cession of the Delta of the Danube.

16. Motion of confidence in the Ministry passed by the Cortes of Spain,

by 211 against 26 votes.

17- Election of General Boisrond Canal as President of the Republic of
Haiti, by 69 against 31 votes.

1 8. Defeat of Servian forces by Turkish troops at Isvor, near Saitschar.

19. Meeting of the Emperors of Austria and Germany at Salzburg,

Tyrol.

20. Prorogation of the Cortes of Spain by royal decree.

21. Rejection of the bill for restoring to the State the sole right of con-

ferring university degrees, by the Senate of France, by 144 against
139 rotes.

22. Decree of the Roumanian Government calling out the reserves of the

second territorial division of the army.

23. Defeat of Turkish troops, under Mukhtar Pasha, by Montenegrin

forces, commanded by the Hospodar.

24. Departure of Prince Milan from Belgrade, to assume the command

of the Servian troops in the field.

25. Decree of the Government of Turkey ordering the issue of 3,000,000^.

of paper money, ' guaranteed by the revenue derived from the
Heraclea coal mines.'

26. Bill ordering the establishment of free bonded warehouses at the

principal seaports of the kingdom passed by the Senate of Italy,
by 114 against 102 votes.

CHRONICLE. XXV11

July.

28. Defeat of Servian forces by Turkish troops at Gurgusovatz.

29. Arrival of ex-Queen Isabella of Spain at Santander, received by King

Alfonso XII.

30. Bill authorising an increase of 2,500 men in the cavalry force, to

operate against the Sioux Indians, passed by the Senate of the
United States.

31. Declaration of Mr. Disraeli in the House of Commons concerning

Turkish policy and the British fleet sent to BesikaBay. ' TheMediter-
ranean Fleet is the symbol and the guarantee of our power. We
never concealed that we had in that part of the world great interests
which we must protect and never relinquish, and it was no threat
to any particular Power that we said at such a moment that the
Mediterranean Fleet should be there, that the world should know,
whatever might happen, there should be no great change in the
distribution of territories in that part of the world without the
knowledge and consent of England.'

August.

1. Impeachment of General Belknap, former Secretary of War, before

the Senate of the United States, the votes being 35 guilty and
25 not guilty, and the result an acquittal, a two-thirds vote being re-
quired for conviction in the impeachment of a Minister.

2. Treaty of commerce between Bussia and Eoumania signed at

Bucharest.

2. Proclamation of the President of the United States admitting Colorado

as a State into the Union.

3. Circular note of the Turkish Government to the Great Powers

announcing the mental disease of Sultan Murad V., and the
probability of his abdication.

5. Encounter between Servian troops and Turkish forces at Gurgusovatz,

resulting in the defeat of the former, and the burning of the town
by the Turks.

6. Formation of a new Ministry for Eoumania, under the presidency of

M. Bratiano.

7. Eeport of the Government of Servia to several European Powers

announcing the committal of vast atrocities by Turkish troops in
Bulgaria. 'In the single district of Philippopolis 10,000 murders
occurred, and 2,000 bodies are lying unburied.'

9. Occupation of the town of Zaitschar, Servia, by Turkisli troops.
11. Declaration of Mr. Disraeli in the British House of Commons on the
crisis in Turkey. 'Those who suppose that England over would
uphold, or at this moment particularly is upholding, Turkey, from
blind superstition and from a want of sympathy with the highest
aspirations of humanity, are deceived. What our duty is at this
critical moment is to maintain the Empire of England; Dor will
we ever consent to any step — although it may obtain Comparative
quiet and a false prosperity— which could hazard the existence of
this Empire.'

XXV111 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

August.

11. Breaking out of a military insurrection in San Domingo, and flight

of the President.

12. Resignation of the Earl of Malmesbury as Lord Privy Seal of Great

Britain, and assumption of the post by Mr. Disraeli, First Lord of
the Treasury.

12. Eeturn of Prince Milan to Belgrade, and appointment of General

Tchernayeff to the command-in-chief of the Servian forces in the
field against Turkey.

13. Prorogation of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies of France.

14. Proposal made in the Cortes of Spain that General Martinez Campos

be appointed Governor-General of the Spanish possessions in the
"West Indies.

14. Reception of the Rt. Hon. Geo. J. Goschen and M. Joubert, delegates

of British and French holders of the Egyptian debt, by the
Khedive, to concert measures for a conversion of the debt.

15. Close of the third session of the 21st Parliament of the United

Kingdom by royal commission. ' The efforts,' says the Speech
from the Throne, ' which, in common with other Powers, I have
made to bring about a settlement of the differences unfortunately
existing between the Porte and its Christian subjects in Bosnia and
Herzegovina have hitherto been unsuccessful, and the conflict
begun in those Provinces has been extended to Servia and Monte-
negro. Should a favourable opportunity present itself, I shall be
ready, in concert with my allies, to offer my good offices for the
purpose of mediation between the contending parties.'

1 5. Close of the second session of the forty-fourth Congress of the United

States.

16. Elevation of Mr. Benjamin Disraeli, First Lord of the Treasury, to

the Peerage, under the title of Earl of Beaconsfield.

16. Arrival of the Earl of Dufferin, Governor-General of Canada and

British America, at Victoria, Vancouver's Island.

17. Appointment of a new Minister of Finance for Austria-Hungary.

18. Proclamation of Lord Lytton. Governor-General of British India,

notifying that the assumption by Queen Victoria of the title
' Indise Imperatrix' will be proclaimed at Delhi on the 1st of
January, 1877, before an Imperial assemblage of all the governors,
lieutenant-governors, heads of Government, princes, chiefs, and
nobles of India.

19. Death of the Hon. Michael C. Kerr, Speaker of the House of Repre-

sentatives of the Congress of the United States, at Rockbridge,
Virginia.

20. Proclamation of the Turkish Government to the Servians offering

pardon to all who will submit at once, and threatening severe
punishment to those who will further resist ' legitimate authority.'

21. Public degradation of three Turkish officials at Salonica, for having

connived at the assassination of the Consuls of France and
Germany.

CHKONICLE. XXIX

August.

Encounter between Servian forces and Turkish troops in the Morava
Valley, near Alexinatz, ending in the defeat of the Servians.

24. Address of the Servian Government to the Guaranteeing Powers of
the Treaty of Paris of 1856, invoking their intervention for
restoring peace between Servia and Turkey.

26. Defeat of Turkish troops by Montenegrins near Podgoritza.

28. Interview between Li-Hung-Chang, Chinese Imperial Commissioner,

and Sir Thomas Wade, British Commissioner, on board the iron-
clad ship ' Audacious,' in the harbour of Canton, to negotiate a
treaty between the two countries.

29. Military rising at Acapulco, Mexico.

31. Deposition of Sultan 3Iurad V. by the Council of Ministers of
Turkey, on the ground of mental incapacity, and proclamation of
his brother as Sultan Abdul-Hamid II.

September.

1. Battle between the Turks and the Servians before Alexinatz, resulting

in the defeat and rout of the Servian forces.

2. Note of the Government of Austria-Hungary to the Guaranteeing

Powers of the Treaty of Paris of 1856, suggesting terms of peace
between Turkey and Servia.

3. Changes in the Government of Turkey; appointment of a new Minister

of War.

4. Presentation of an 'aide memoire' by the representatives of the

Great Powers to the Turkish Government, proposing an armistice
with Servia and reforms in the administration of European
Turkey.

5. Arrival of Emperor Wilhelm I. of Germany at Leipzig, to direct

extensive manoeuvres of the German army.

6. Publication of a pamphlet by Mr. W. E. Gladstone, former Prime

3Iinister of Great Britain, on ' Bulgarian Atrocities ' and the mis-
government of Turkey. ' Mr. Gladstone has never written with
such vehemence since he assailed the rule of Naples, which he
pronounced to be a " negation of God." '

7. Investiture of Sultan Abdul-Hamid II. of Turkey with the sword of

Othman at the Eyoub Mosque, Constantinople.

8. Beconstitution of the Ministry of New Zealand, Australasia.

9. Defeat of Servian forces by Turkish troops at Shabatz, on the Drina.

10. Burning of the town of Kniajevatz, Servia, by Turkish troops.

12. Departure of 4,000 men of the Spanish army from Santander for
Cuba, to aid in suppressing the insurrection.

14. Reply of the Turkish Government to the ' aide memoire ' of the Great
Powers of September 4, declining the demand of an armistice, but
offering peace on conditions implying the humble submission of
Servia, and occupation of its fortresses by Turkish troops.

XXX THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

September.

16. Close of the session of the States-General of the Netherlands by-

royal commission.

17. Proclamation at Deligrad of General Tchernayeff, commander of the

forces of Servia against Turkey, declaring that the army has
invested Prince Milan with the title of Milan I., King of Servia.

17. Treaty of peace and amity between the Governments of Great Britain

and China, the latter affirming the right of foreigners to travel in
the country and enjoy protection, signed at Pekin.

18. Large meeting of the citizens of London, under the presidency of the

Lord Mayor, at the Guildhall, to express indignation at the
' Turkish atrocities ' in Bulgaria.

18. Opening of a new session of the States-General of the Netherlands by

King Willem III., who declares, in the speech from the throne,
the ' the country is in the most flourishing condition.'

19. Publication in the London Gazette of a report by Mr. Baring, British

Secretary of Embassy at Constantinople, on the results of his
mission to investigate the behaviour of the Turkish troops in
Bulgaria.

19. Arrival of General Ignatieff, Ambassador of the Emperor of Russia,

at Constantinople.

20. Sixth anniversary of the occupation of Rome by Italian troops cele-

brated at Rome by the uncovering of commemorative tablets on the
Capitol, in presence of the King.

21. Despatch of the Earl of Derby, Secretary of State for Foreign Aifairs,

to the British Ambassador in Turkey. ' I have already informed
your Excellency of the just indignation which the statements pub-
lished of these atrocities have aroused in the people of Great
Britain ; nor can I doubt that a similar feeling prevails throughout
Europe. The Porte cannot afford to contend with the public
opinion of other countries, nor can it suppose that the Government
of Great Britain or any of the Signatory Powers of the Treaty of
Paris, can show indifference to the sufferings of the Bulgarian
peasantry under this outbreak of vindictive cruelty. No political
considerations would justify the toleration of such acts ; and one
of the foremost conditions for the settlement of the questions now
pending must be that ample reparation shall be afforded to the
sufferers and their future security guaranteed.'

23. Address of the Permanent Committee of the Servian Skoupschina to

Prince Milan, urging him to accept the title of King of Servia,
conferred upon him by the army. (See Sept. 17.)

24. Insurrection at Cauca, State of Panama, quelled by the troops of the

Government of the United States of Colombia.

25. Presentation of a note containing propositions of peace with Servia to

the Government of Turkey by the British Ambassador.

26. Appointment of a new Minister of War in the Government of the

Netherlands.

CHK0N1CLE. XXxi

September.

27. Reception of a deputation of the citizens of London, headed by the
Lord Mayor, by the Earl of Derby, Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs, on the Turkish question. 'The feeling of the meeting
[September 18] which appointed this deputation,' said the Lord
Mayor, ' was very strong indeed, and went to show that the old
foreign policy of England with regard to Turkey and the East was
no longer tenable. That being so, the citizens resolved that they
would ask the Government of the day, backed as it thus was by a
strong and powerful expression of public opinion, to attend to the
voice of the community as far as possible.'

29. Defeat of Turkish troops by Montenegrin forces at Bojanobrodo,

Herzegovina.

30. Changes in the Government of Turkey.

October.

1. Unveiling of a statue of Sylvain Van de Weyer, Belgian statesman,

by King Leopold II., at Louvain, Belgium.

2. Opening of the Rigsdag of Denmark by royal commission.

3. Reception by Emperor Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary of General

Sumarokoff, bearer of an autograph letter from Emperor Alexander
II of Russia.

4. Declaration of the President of the Council of Ministers in the Diet

of Hungary that in the settlement of the Turkish question ' all
the Powers of Europe are acting in harmony.'

6. Decree of King Yittorio Emanuele of Italy dissolving the Chamber

of Deputies of the kingdom, and ordering new elections in
November.

7. Private audience of Sir Henry Elliot, British Ambassador, with the

Sultan of Turkey, and communication of the despatch of the Earl
of Derby. (See September 21.)

9. Decree of King Alfonso XII. of Spain appointing General Martinez
Campos commander-in-chief of the Spanish army in Cuba, and
ordering a reinforcement of 25,000 soldiers to ^suppress the
insurrection.

] 0. Meeting of an extraordinary Council of Turkish Ministers and grand
dignitaries of State to discuss the demands of the Great Powers,
the resolution come to being to grant an armistice of six months
to Servia.

1 1 . Decree of the President of the French Republic convoking the Senate

and Chamber of Deputies for the 30th of October.

12. Circular note of the Turkish Government to the Guaranteeing Powers

proposing an armistice with Servia of six months, instead of six
weeks.

12. Unveiling of a statue of Columbus at Philadelphia, United States.

13. Defeat of Turkish troops by Montouogrin forces near Dauilograd.

15. Embarkation of General Martinez Campos and a force of 14,000 men
at Santander, for Cuba. (See October 9.)
b

xxxii the statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

October.

16. Reply of the Russian Government to the proposal of the Turkish
Ministers for a six months' armistice with Servia. ' We must
insist upon an armistice of from four to six -weeks, originally
proposed by Great Britain.'

16. Bombardment of Alexinatz, Servia, by the Turks.

17. Decree of Emperor AVilhelm I. summoning the Reichstag of Germany

to meet on the 30th of October.

17. Proclamation of the President of the United States ordering the
immediate abandonment of all ' unlawful combinations ' to influence
the forthcoming elections in South Carolina and other States.

19. Encounter between Turks and Servians before Alexinatz, ending in

the defeat of the Servian forces.

20. Return of General Ignatief, Russian Ambassador, to Constantinople.

21. Renewed bombardment of Alexinatz, Servia, by the Turks.

22. Decree of the Russian Government ordering the concentration of ten

corps oVarmee in the south-western provinces of the Empire.

23. Announcement of the further prorogation of Parliament, from the

31st October to the 12th December, made in the London Gazette.

23. Trials with the new Armstrong gun made for the ironclad ' Duilio,'

of the Italian navy, at La Spezzia. ' The new 100-ton gun, firing
a shot of two thousand pounds weight, inaugurates a fresh revolution
in naval warfare.'

24. Discovery of a republican plot for overthrowing the Spanish Govern-

ment, and arrest of 150 persons, at Madrid.

25. Death of Baron Prokesch-Osten, Austro-Hungarian statesman and

diplomatist, at Vienna.

26. Presentation of a note by the Russian Ambassador to the Turkish

Government urgently demanding the conclusion of a six months'
armistice with Servia, and administrative autonomy for Bulgaria,
Bosnia, and Herzegovina.

27. Elections for the Prussian Diet, resulting in the return of a majority

for the Liberal party.

27. Return of the Arctic expedition sent out by the British Government

to Vnlentia, Ireland, and telegram of the commander to the
Admiralty announcing that ' the impracticability of reaching the
North Pole is proved.'

28. Battle between the Turkish and Servian forces in the Morava valley,

near Alexinatz, ending in the complete ruut of the Servians.

29. Capture of Djunis, 'key of the Servian position on the Morava,' by

the Turks.

30. Opening of the Reichstag of Germany by Emperor Wilhelm I.

' Whatever the future may bring,' says the speech from the throne,
' Germany may be assured that the blood of her sons will never
be staked except in the defence of her own honour and interests.'

31. Capture of the town of Alexinatz, head-quarters of the Servian army,

by the Turks. ' The Turkish troops entered at eleven in the
morning.'

CHRONICLE. XXXlii

October.

31. Presentation of an 'ultimatum' by the Russian Ambassador at Con-
stantinople to the Turkish Government, demanding the immediate
conclusion of a six weeks' armistice with Servia, under penalty of
the breaking-off of diplomatic relations. ' The presentation of the
ultimatum took place at seven o'clock in the evening, eight hours
after the capture of Alexinatz by the Turks.'

31. Fearful cyclone in Bengal, causing the loss of 220,000 lives. 'It
appears to have been the greatest calamity of the kind known to
history. An enormous storm-wave swept, with scarcely any
warning, over the islands and low-lying lands at the mouth of the
Ganges and Brahmapootra, overwhelming all — a new deluge.'

November.

1. Opening of a preat ship canal connecting the city of Amsterdam with
the North Sea, by King Willem III. of the Netherlands.

1. Occupation of the fortified town of Deligrad, Servia, by Turkish
troops, early in the morning.

1. Conclusion of a six weeks' armistice between Turkey and Servia,

coming into force at 3 o'clock in the afternoon.

2. Despatch of Lord A. Loftus, Ambassador in Russia, to the British

Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, relating an interview with the
Emperor Alexander II. of Russia at Yalta, Crimea. ' His Majesty
pledged his sacred word of honour in the most earnest and solemn
manner that he had no intention of acquiring Con,-tantinople, and
that if necessity should oblige him to occupy a portion of Bulgaria,
it would only be provisionally, and until peace and the safety of

the Christiam population were secured His Majesty

deeply deplored the distrust of his policy which was manifested in
England and the evil effects it produced, and he earnestly requested
me to do my utmost to dispel this cloud of suspicion and distrust
of Russia, and charged me to convey to Her Majesty's Government
the solemn assurance he had repeated to me.'

3. Despatch of the Earl of Derby, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs,

to the British Ambassador in Russia, stating ' that Her Majesty's
Government have received with the greatest satisfaction the
assurance which the Emperor has given to you of his anxious desire
for an understanding and co-operation with England, and his
solemn statement that he pledged his honour that he had no views
on Constantinople, nor of conquest.'

3. Opening of a new session of the French Chamber of Deputies,
and declaration of the Minister of Foreign Affairs that in the
Turkish question France will be absolutely neutral. 'We know
that to you, as to us, peace is the first, the most essential, of our
wants. We have always remained faithful to this conviction. It is
peace which enables France to devote herself to hor internal re-
organisation, and to repair little by little the disasters of a recent
past.'

o. Elections for the Italian Parliament held throughout the kingdom,
resulting in the return of 372 Liberals, or supporters of theexiM ing
Government, and of 136 opposition members, to the Chamber of
Deputies.

b 2

XXXiv THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

November.

6. Death of Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli, Pontifical Secretary of State,

at the Vatican, at Home.

7. Return of King Georgios I. of Greece to Athens, from travels in the

North of Europe.

7. Election of citizens appointed to nominate, in the name of the nation,

the next President and Vice-President of the Republic, throughout
the United States of America.

7 Death of the Duchess of Aosta, consort of Prince Amadeo, ex-King of
Spain, at San Remo, Italy.

8. Dismissal and imprisonment of Sadyk Pasha, Minister of Finance of

Egypt, for conspiracy and rebellion.

9. Speech of the Earl of Beaconsfield, First Lord of the Treasury, at the

Guildhall, London, on the Turkish question. ' Although the policy
of England is peace, there is no country so well prepared for war
as our own. If she enters into conflict in a righteous cause — and
I will not believe that England will go to war except for a righteous
cause — if the coUtest is one which concerns her liberty, her in-
dependence, or her Empire, her resources, I feel, are inexhaustible.
She is not a cotmtry that, when she enters into a campaign has
to ask herself whether she can support a second or a third campaign.
She enters into a campaign which she will not terminate till right
is done.'

10. Speech of the Emperor Alexander II. of Russia, at St. George's Hall,

Moscow, on the Turkish question. 'I have striven, and shall still
strive, to obtain a real improvement of the position of the Christians
in the East by peaceful means. In a few days negotiations will
commence in Constantinople between the representatives of the
Great Powers to settle the conditions of peace. My most ardent
wish is that we may arrive at a general agreement. Should this,,
however, not be achieved, and should I see that we cannot obtain
such guarantees as are necessary for carrying out what we have a
right to demand of the Porte, I am firmly determined to act in-
dependently, and I am convinced that in this case the whole of
Russia will respond to my summons, should I consider it necessary
and should the honour of Russia require it.'

11. Departure of 6,000 Spanish troops from Cadiz for Cuba, to suppress

the insurrection.

12. Ukase of the Emperor of Russia ordering the calling out of all the

young men liable to military service, for the 13th of December.

13. Changes in the Government of Turkey.

14. Opening of the Belgian Chambers by royal commission.

15. Decree of Emperor Alexander II. ordering the mobilisation of the

Southern Russian army, it being required ' that the principles of
justice, which have been recognised as necessary by the whole of
Europe, shall be carried out in Turkey under efficacious guarantees.'

16. Battle between the troops of the Mexican Government, under Presi-

dent Lerdo de Tejada, and an army of insurgents, commanded by
General Porfirio Diaz, resulting in the defeat of the former, and
overthrow of the Government.

CHRONICLE. XXXV

November.

17. Decree of the King of Italy nominating 32 new members of the Senate.

18. Agreement for a reorganisation of the finances and public debt of

Egypt, signed by the Khedive and the representatives of the French
and English bondholders, at Cairo.

19. Issue of a Eussian internal loan of 1,00,000,000 roubles by the State

Bank of St. Petersburg.

20. Opening of the 13th Parliament of the Kingdom of Italy, by King

Vittorio Emanuele II.

21. Death of Field -Marshal Duke of Saldanha, statesman and political

leader of Portugal, in London.

22. Kesignation of the Ministry of Serviu accepted by Prince Milan.

23. Vote of a grant of 4,000,000 lei, or £160,000, by the Chamber of

Deputies of Eoumania, ' to complete the national armaments.'

24. Bill giving the trial of press offences to juries adopted by the Eeichstag

of Germany, by 212 against 105 votes.

26. Kesignation of the Greek Ministry.

27. Signature of a treaty of commerce between Italy and Eoumania at

Eome.

28. Instalment of Don Carlos J. M. Iglesias as Provisional President of the

Mexican Eepublic, in the town of Guanaxuato.

30. Death of the Et. Hon. Edward Horsman, British statesman, at Biarritz,
France.

December.

1. Departure of Grand-Duke Nicholas, brother of Emperor Alexander II.,

from St. Petersburg, to take the command-in-chief of the Southern
army of Eussia.

2. Treaty of commerce between Italy and the Argentine Eepublic signed

at Eome.

3. Eesignation of the Ministry of France, presided over by M. Dufaure.

4. Opening of the second session of the forty-fourth Congress of the

United States, at Washington.

5. Speech of Prince Bismarck, in the Eeichstag of Germany, on the affairs
of Turkey. ' It is erroneous to suppose that Eussia asks great
favours of us at the present moment. That is by no means the
case. Eussia does not aim at great conquests. The Emperor
Alexander has ever been a loyal ally to us. and Eusssia only asks
us for our co-operation at the Conference for the improvement of
the position of the Christians in Turkey, a purpose to which our
Emperor and our nation willingly offer a helping hand.'

5. Arrival of the Marquis of Salisbury at Constantinople, to take part,

as first representative of the British Government, in the Conference
for the settlement of the affairs of Turkey.

XXXVI THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877-

December.

5. Message of President Grant to the Congress of the United States.
' The attention of Congress cannot be too earnestly called to the
necessity of throwing greater safeguards over the method of choosing
and declaring the election of the President. Under the present
system no means are provided for contesting the election in any
State. A remedy for this condition of things may partially be
found in the enlightenment of the voters and the compulsory sup-
port of free schools. The disfranchisement of all 'who cannot read
and write the English language after a fixed probation, both for
native and foreign-born citizens, would meet with my hearty
approval.'

7. Discovery of a plot for carrying off the ex-Sultan, Murad V„ at Con-

stantinople.

8. Further prorogation of the Parliament of Great Britain and Ireland

to Thursday, the 8th of February, 1877, to meet then 'for the
despatch of divers urgent and important affairs.'

10. Eeception of the Marquis of Salisbury by Sultan Abul Hamid of
Turkey.

10. Election of Don Bonaventura Baez as President of the Republic of

San Domingo.

11. First preliminary meeting of the Conference for settling the affairs of

Turkey at Constantinople, the Conference consisting of two repre-
sentatives of Great Britain, two of Austria-Hungary, two of France,
and two of Turkey, and of one representative of each of the
Governments of Germany, Italy, and Russia.

12. Appointment of a new French Ministry, under the presidency of M.

Jules Simon, Minister of the Interior.

12. Bill for the purchase of the Eastern railway of Hungary by the State

passed by the Lower House of the Hungarian Diet.

13. Appointment of a new Ministry for Greece, under the presidency of

M. Comoundouros.

14. Decree of Prince Karl, of Roumania, ordering the formation of eight

new regiments of troops, ' for the protection of the frontiers.'

16. Defeat of Cuban insurgents by Spanish troops, under General

Martinez Campos, at Santiago.

17. Death of Cardinal Constantino Patrizi, Vicar of the Sovereign Pontiff,

at the Vatican, Rome.

19. Dismissal of Mehemet Rushdi Pasha, and instalment of Midhat Pasha

as Grand Vizier of Turkey.

20. Last preliminary meeting of the Conference for settling the affairs

of Turkey, at Constantinople.

21. Bill establishing a new Penal Code for the Empire, passed on third

reading, by the Reichstag of Germany.

CHRONICLE. XXXV11

December.

22. Close of the session of the Reichstag of Germany, by the Emperor,

Wilhelm I., who declares, in the speech from the throne, that ' the
negotiations of the Powers upon the Eastern Question, as far as
they have hitherto proceeded, justify the hope that my efforts and
the mutually conciliatory and peaceful intentions of the Powers
immediately concerned, will be successful in solving pending
questions without prejudice to the good relations now existing
between the Powers.'

23. Promulgation, at Constantinople, of a charter for the Ottoman Empire

providing for the establishment of representative institutions, after
the West European model.

24. First meeting of the Plenary Conference for settling the affairs of

Turkey, at Constantinople.

25. Resignation of the Ministry of Servia.

26. Reception of the Marquis of Salisbury by Sultan Abdul Hamid of

Turkey. 'Lord Salisbury, in his audience, informed his Majesty
the Sultan that a complete understanding had been arrived at
between the Powers during the preliminary Conferences. This
agreement had resulted in a programme being drawn up which had
already been semi -officially communicated to the Porte. His lord-
ship recommended the Sultan to accept the proposals of the Powers.
His Majesty replied that he greatly regretted to be compelled to
decline giving his adhesion, as his powers were limited by the new
Constitution.'

27. Issue of new paper money, to the amount of £3,000,000, by the

Turkish Government.

28. Second meeting of the Plenary Conference, at Constantinople, and

acceptance by the members of a proposal to prolong the existing
armistice, between Turkey and Servia, till the 1st of March, 1877.

29. Departure of the British fleet from Besika Bay, Turkey, for the

Piraeus, Greece.

30. Close of the session of the Senate and Chamber of Deputies of France.

31. Reception by the Governor-General of India, at the Camp of Delhi, of

seventy-five native princes and chiefs, arrived to be present at the
proclamation, the next day, of the Queen of Great Britain and
Ireland as 'Empress of India.'

COMPARATIVE TABLES.
I.

XXXI X

RELATIVE PROPORTION OF THE SEXES IN THE PRINCIPAL

STATES OF THE WORLD.

Number of

States

Women
to every

States

Women

to every

1,000 Men.

EUROPE.

AMERICA.

Grkat Britain- and

Paraguay

2,070

Ireland

1,057

Ecuador

1,140

Colombia . • .

1,062

Scotland .

1,096

Chili . . ■ .

1,014

England and Wales .

1,054

United States

983

Ireland .

1,050

Dominion of Canada .

975

Argentine Confedration

942

Sweden and Norway .
Sweden

1,052
1,060

Brazil

940

Norway .

1,036

Total of America

980

Switzerland

1,045

Portugal .

1,039

AFRICA.

Germany

1,037

Egypt . . ' .
Cape of Good Hope .

1,025
950

Wlirtemberg

1,073

Natal . . . .

945

Bremen .

1,065

Total of Africa .

975

Alsace-Lorraine
Baden

1,058
1,052

Bavaria .

1,048

ASIA.

Saxony

1,040

Japan . . ' .

972

Liibeek .

1,036

British India . ■ .

955

Hamburg .

1,032

Java ....
Siberia

950
938

Prussia

1,030

Russian Central Asia .

910

Brunswick

1,010

Persia

850

Denmark .

1,026

Ceylon

Hong Kong . ' .

820
'400

Austria-Hungary
Netherlands

1,025
1,022

Total of Asia

940

Russia in Europe

1,020

Spain ....

1,015

AUSTRALASIA.

France

1,007

South Australia .

945

Italy ....

990

Tasmania .

890

Belgium

985

New South Wales

829

Rou.uania .

960

Victoria
New Zealand

824
721

Servia

948

Queensland

671

Greece

Total of Europe .

940

Western Australia'
Total of Australia

612
785

1,021

THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1877.
II.

THE BAIL WAYS OF THE WORLD.

States

Europe : —

Belgium . . .

Great Britain and Ireland

Switzerland

Germany .

France

Denmark

Netherlands

Austria-Hungary

Italy .

Spain

Roumania

Portugal

Sweden

Turkey in Europe

Russia in Europe

Norway

Greece

America : —
United States
Cuba ....
Chili ....
Jamaica
Uruguay

Peru ....
Argentine Confederation
Honduras .
Dominion of Canada .
Costa Rica
Paraguay .
Mexico
Brazil .

Length of

Railways open

for traffic

English miles

2,174

16,664

1,300

17,472

12,376

561

1,016

10,154

4,817

3,822

770

596

2,237

965

11,591

339

74,890

400

820

190

1,280

990

4,443

372

1,038

One mile of Rail-
way to square
miles of area

English square
miles

138

157

387

2,658

109

211

283

385

519

520

704

843

881
1,273
1,905
3,819

COMPARATIVE TABLES.

xli

II.

(continued).

THE RAILWAYS OF THE WORLD {continued).

Length of

One mile of Rail-

States

Railways open

way to square

for traffic

miles of area

America (continued).

Englis h miles

Engl. sq. miles

Colombia .......

6,883

Venezuela

45,461

Africa : —

Algeria

335

116

Egypt Proper .

955

222

Tunis

1.218

Cape of Good Hope

132

3,064

Natal

10,000

Asia : —

British India

6,461

139

Russian Caucasus

627

270

Ceylon

294

Java

163

314

Turkey in Asia .

172

2.677

Japan

4,110

Australasia : —

Victoria

618

155

New Zealand

542

426

Tasmania

167

582

New South Wales

437

793

Queensland

263

2,668

South Australia

258

4,643

Western Australia

24.450

Summary.

Length of

One mile of Rail- j

Divisions of Continents

Railways open

way to square

for traffic

miles of area

Engl. sq. miles

Eng. sq. miles

83,864

82,335

195

1,657

920

6,822

277

Australasia ......

Total

2,285

2.068

176,963

693

30,211

164

xlii

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.
III.

TELEGRAPHS OF THE

WORLD.

States and Territorial Divisions

Number of

Telegraph

Offices.

Length of
Telegraph Lines

One mile of

Telegraph Line

to square miles

of area

English miles

English
square miles

Great Britain and Ireland

5,602

75,000

Belgium

474

3,070

Switzerland .

815

3,736

France .

2,365

28,784

Italy .

1,408

12,622

Austria-Hungary

2,924

28,148

Netherlands .

330

2,150

Germany

3,325

19,152

Denmark

178

1,591

Greece

1,235

Portugal

144

1,944

Spain .

225

7,510

Sweden and Norway

692

9,041

United States of Americ

6,852

79,000

British India

225

15,705

Chili ....

2,650

Uruguay

—

958

Turkey ....

401

17,618

105

Costa Rica .

220

118

Argentine Confederation

182

4,820

123

Australasia .

665

18,448

160

Egypt ....

3,980

163

Mexico .

194

5,760

178

Guatemala

—

152

272

Dominion of Canada

830

10,995

316 ■

Russia .

895

31,459

330

Colombia

810

534

Peru

608

825

Brazil .

3,510

970

Bolivia .

475

685

Ecuador

210

1,091

COMPARATIVE TABLES.
IV.

xliii

, — — - — - — — — .

COAL PEODUCTION IN THE PRINCIPAL STATES

OF THE WORLL

States

Year

Total Production
of Coals

Production

per head

of Population

Tons

Great Britain and Ireland .

1875

131,867,105

4-018

, Durham and North-

j umberland .

32,097,333

Yorkshire

17,076,044

—

England - Lancashire

15,425,278

—

Stafford and Worces-

tershires

14,708,004

—

^ Other Counties

19,504,684

Wales ....

12,969,905

Scotland

18,957,507

—

Ireland

127,950

—

United States

1874

45,413,340

1-174

Germany

1874

47,787,704

1-112

Prussia

41,759,558

—

Saxony

3,855,254

—

Bavaria

1,481,514

—

Alsace-Lorraine

1,389,704

—

Other States

2,301,674

—

France

1875

16,949,031

0-469

Belgium

1875

15,011,331

2-859

Austria

1875

11,400,889

0-562

Russia .

1874

1,392,880

0-017

1 Australasia

1873

1,040,1.")!

0-664

Spain .

1872

718,504

0-044

Hungary

1875

1,701,000

0-109

Italy .

1872

95,95 t

0-003

Sweden

1874

60.051

0-014

Netheklands

1- -:

1874

46,510

0-012

xliv

THE STATESMAN S TEAK-BOOK, 1877.
V.

THE IMPORT MARKETS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM

in 1875 and 1876

Imports into the United Kingdom

from Foreign Countries and

British Possessions

Nine months ended 80th Sept. 1

[ncrease (+), or
Diminution ( — ),|
in 1876, as c< 'in-
pared with 1875

1875

1876

FIRST GROUP:—

United States of America

53,018,144

58,671,796

+ 5,653,652 j

France .....

35,718.291

34,013,376

-1,704,915 1

British India ....

23,375,267

23.106,087

- 269.180

Australasia ....

19,220,841

20,315,116

+ 1,094,275

Germany ....

15,321,725

15,193,539

- 128,186

Netherlands .....

10,809,850

12,023,468

+ 1,213,618

Russia ....

15,268,751

11,613,536

-3,655,215

SECOND GROUP:—

Belgium .....

10,598,740

10,269,983

- 328,757

China

9,571,978

9,442,905

- 129.073

Sweden and Norway-

5. r/ 2,018

7,648,050

+ 1,696,032

Egypt

6,747,834

7,591,720

+ 843,886

Dominion of Canada

5,689,364

6,398,253

+ 708,889

Spain .....

6,049,907

6,310,235

+ 260,328

THIRD GROUP:—

Peru . . .

3,561,208

4,199,763

+ 638,555

British West India Islands

4,944,427

4,181,465

- 762,962

Brazil .....

6,044,602

3,884,397

-2,160,205

Turkey in Europe

2,692,026

3,366,525

+ 774,499

Denmark

3,103,099

3,394,493

+ 291,394

Italy . . . .

3,499,472

3,317,767

- 181,705

Cape of Good Hope

2,959,790

2,843,292

- 116,498

Chili

2,873,188

2,765,067

- 108,121

Portugal ....

3,466,443

2,721,890

- 744,553

FOURTH GROUP:—

Ceylon .....

3,625,282

2,613.898

-1,011,384

Cuba and Porto Rico

2,954,131

2,535,620

- 418,511

British Guiana

1,638,678

2,130,084

- 491,406

Straits Settlements

2,285,878

2,034,520

- 251,358

Asiatic Turkey

1,615.590

1,989.310

+ 373,720

Java .....

1,403,213

1,267,665

- 135.548

Argentine Confederation .

927,794

1,187,438

+ 159,644

Philippine Islands .

1,186,260

1,135,146

- 51,114

Roumania ....

396.877

1,019.657

+ 622,780

Austria .....

1,073,589

630,357

- 443,232

COMPARATIVE TABLES.

VI.

xlv

THE EXPORT MARKETS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.

in 1875 and 1876.

Exports of British home produce

to Foreign Countries and

British Possessions

Nine months ended 30th Sept.

Increase ( + ),or
Diminution (— ),
in 187C, as com-
pared with J 875

1870

1876

FIRST GROUP:—

British India ....

18,745,431

16,630,254

-2,115,177

Germany ....

17,636,-124

15,161,548

-2,474,876

United States of America

i 17,600,545

13,196,877

-4,403,668

Australasia ....

13,650,394

12,166,217

-1,484,177

France .....

11,446,289

12,140,313

+ 694,024

SECOND GROUP:—

Netherlands ....

9,880,444

8,878,929

-1,001,515

Dominion of Canada

7,650,318

6,059,534

-1,600,784

Italy .

5,117,383

5,174,018

+ 56,635

Russia .

6,335,786

4,888,395

-1,447,391

Brazil

5,098,718

4,492,61S

- 606,100

| Belgium .

4,230,349

4,394,832

+ 164,483

China

3,920,916

3,418,235

- 502,681

Sweden and Norway

3,430,611

3,163,093

- 267,508

Spain

2,519,502

3,004,362

+ 484,860

THIRD GROUP:—

Cape of Good Hope

2,853,780

2,972,229

+ 118,449

Hong Kong .

2,811,046

2,268,855

- 542,191

Turkey in Europe .

2,812,978

2,260,033

- 552,945

Egypt .

2,259,140

1,867,313

- 391,827

Asiatic Turkey

1,580,888

1,834,436

+ 353,548

Portugal

2,006,506

1,783,586

- 222,9^0

Denmark

1,730,224

1,637,047

- 93,177

Chili .

1,673,617

1,614,456

- 59,161

Cuba and Porto Rico

1,899,986

1,569,744

- 330,242

Argentine Confederation

1,777,019

1,212,287

- 564,732

FOURTH GROUP :—

Japan .....

1,979,549

998,915

- 980,034

Uruguay

586,522

764,814

+ 178,292

Peru

1,347,961

710,857

- 637,104

Colombia

645,959

671,987

+ 16,028

Greece .

659,052

588,807

- 70,245

Austria .

708,262

578,257

- 130,005

1 Roumania .

857,923

576,492

- 281,431

3Iexico

710,497

346,832

- 363,665

xlvi

THE STATESMAN'S TEAK-BOOK, 1877.

VII.

DENSITY OF POPULATION OF THE PEINCIPAL

STATES

OF EUKOPE.

States

Census
Year

Area:
English
sq. miles

Population

Population per
square mile

Belgium

1873

11,373

5,253,821

460

Gt. Britain & Ireland

1871

120,879

31,783,700

265

! England and Wales .

„

58,320

22,712,266

389

Scotland .

„

30,685

3,660,018'

109

Ireland .

31,874

5,411,416

169

i Italy .

1871

114,296

26,801,154

238

i Germany

1875

212,091

42,726,844

201

Prussia .

137,066

25,693,688

187

Bavaria .

29,292

5,024,832

170

"Wiirtemberg

7,675

1,881,505

245

Saxony-

6,777

2,760,342

407

Baden

5,851

1,50.6,531.

257

Hesse

2,866

882,349

307

Oldenburg

2,417

319,314

132

Netherlands

1875

20.527

3,809,527

185

Switzerland

1870

15,233

2,669,147

175

AuSTRIA-HuNGAET

1869

240,943

35,904,435

149

Austria .

115,905

20,394,980

175

Hungary .

„

124,438

15,509,455

124

Denmark

1874

14,553

1,874,000

128

Portugal .

1868

36,510

3,995,152

108

. Spain .

1860

182,758

* 16,301,851

Greece

1870

19,941

1,457,864

Tuekey in Europe

138,264

8,315,000

Russia in Europe

1870

2,261,657

78,281,447.

Sweden and Norway

1875

290,322

6,200,528

Sweden . . .

168,042

4,383,291'

Norway .

122,280

1,817,237

PART I.
THE STATES OF EUROPE,

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

(Oesterreich-Ungarische Monarchie.)

Reigning Emperor and Family.

Franz Joseph I., Emperor of Austria, and King of Hungary, bom
August 18, 1830, the son of Archduke Franz Karl and of Arch-
duchess Sophie, Princess of Bavaria. Educated for the military
career; appointed Governor of Bohemia, April 5,1848; took part
in the battle of Santa-Lucia, near Verona, May 6, 1848; declared
of age, December 1, 1848. Proclaimed Emperor of Austria after
the abdication of his uncle, Ferdinand L, and the renunciation of
the crown by his lather, December 2, 1818 ; crowned King of
Hungary, and took the oath on the Hungarian Constitution, June
8, 1807. Married April 24, 1854, to

Elisabeth, Empress of Austria, and Queen of Hungary, born
December 21, 1837, the daughter of Duke Maximilian in Bavaria.
Ml'spring of the union are three children : 1. Archduchess Gisela,
born July 12, 1856; married April 20, 1873, to Prince Leopold,
second son of Prince Luitpold of Bavaria, born February 9, 1816
(see page 132). 2. Archduke Rudolf, heir-apparent, born August
21, 1858; 3. Archduchess Maria, born April 22, 1868.

Brothers of the Emperor. — 1. Archduke Karl Ludwig, field-
marshal-lieutenant in the Imperial arni)r, born July 30, 1833 ;
married, in first nuptials, November 4, 1856, to Princess Margaret,
born May 24, 1840, daughter of the late King Johann of Saxony ;
widower, September 15, 1858; married, in second nuptials, October
21, 1862, to Princess Annunciata, born March 24, 1843, daughter
of the late King Ferdinando II. of Naples; widower, May 4, 1871.
Married, in third nuptials, July 23, 1873, to Princess Maria, born
August 24, 1855, daughter of the late Prince Miguel of Braganza,
Regent of Portugal. Offspring of the second union are three sons
and one daughter, namely, Franz, born December 18, 186.') ; Otto,
born April 21, 1865; Ferdinand, born December 27, 1868; and
Margaret, born May 13, 1870. 2. Archduke Ludwig, major-general
in the Imperial army, born May 15, 1842.

Father of the Emperor. — Archduke Fran: Karl, born Dec. 7,
bsi»2, second son of the late Emperor Franz I. Renounced the throne
in favour of his eldest son, Dec. 2, 1848 ; married Nov. 4, 1824, to
Prince of Bavaria; widower, May 28, 1872.

R 2

4 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Aunts of the Emperor. — 1. Empress A una, born Sept. 19,1803;
married Feb. 27, 1831, to Archduke Ferdinand, subsequently,
from March 2, 1835, 1. Dec. 2, 1848, Emperor Ferdinand L; widow,
June 29, 1875. 2. Princess Maria Clementina, born March 1, 1798 ;
married, July 28, 1816, to Leopoldo, Prince of Salerno, royal Prince
of Naples; widow March 10, 1851.

Other Relations of the Emperor 1. Archduke Albrecht, born

Aug. 3, 1817, son of the late Archduke Karl, the celebrated general ;
field-marshal and commander-in-chief of the army of the Em-
pire, 1868-69; married, May 1, 1844, to Princess Hildegarde
of Bavaria, who died April 2, 1864. Offspring of the union is one
daughter, Maria Theresa, born July 15, 1845; married, Jan. 18,
1865, to Prince Philipp of Wurtemberg. 2. Archduchess Elisa-
beth born Jan. 17, 1831 ; married, April 18, 1854, to Archduke
Karl Ferdinand, brother of the preceding Archduke Albrecht ;
widow7, November 20, 1874. Offspring of the union are three sons,
Friedrich, born June 4, 1856, Karl, born Sept. 5, 1860, Eugen
Ferdinand, born May 21, 1863, and one daughter, Marie Christina,
born July 21, 1858. 3. Archduke Wilhelm, inspector-general of the
artillery, born April 21, 1827, brother of the two preceding arch-
dukes. 4. Archduke Leopold, inspector-general of the Imperial corns
of engineers, born June 6, 1823, the son of Archduke Eainer, fifth
brother of the Emperor Franz I. 5. Archduke F?mst, commander
of the 3rd corps d'armee, born Aug. 8, 1824, the brother of the
preceding Archduke Leopold. 6. Archduke Sigismund, commander
of the 45th regiment of Imperial infantry, born Jan. 7, 1826, the
brother of the two preceding archdukes. 7. Archduke Bainer,
administrator of the Imperial academy of sciences, born Jan. 11,
1827, brother of the three preceding archdukes ; married, February
21, 1852, to Archduchess Marie Caroline, daughter of the late
Archduke Karl of Austria. 8. Archduke Heinrich, major-general
in the Imperial army, born May 9, 1828, brother of the four
preceding archdukes; married, February 4, 1868, to Leopoldine
Hoffmann, elevated Countess "Waldeck, born November 29, 1842.

Besides the above, there are nineteen other Archdukes and Arch-
duchesses of Austria, members of the formerly reigning branches of
Tuscany and of Modena. Head of both branches — since the death
of Archduke Francisco, ex-duke of Modena, October 20, 1875 — is
Archduke Ferdinand, born June 10, 1835, nominal Grand Duke of
Tuscany from July 21, 1859, to March 22, 1860, now resident
at Salzburg.

The Imperial family of Austria descend from Rudolf von Habs-
burg, a German Count, born 1218, who was elected Kaiser of the
Holy Roman Empire in 1276. The male line died out in 1740 with
Emperor Karl VI., whose only daughter, Maria Theresa, gave her

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 5

Land to Duke Franz of Tuscany, afterwards Kaiser Franz I. of
Germany, of the House of Lorraine, who thereby became the founder
of the new Hue of Habsburg- Lorraine. Maria Theresa was suc-
ceeded, in 1780, by her son Joseph II., who, dying in 1790, left
the Crown to his brother Leopold II., at whose death, in 1792, his
son Franz I. ascended the throne, who reigned till 1835, and having
been married four times, left a large family, the members of which
aid their descendants form the present Imperial House. Franz was
the first sovereign who assumed the title of Emperor, or 'Kaiser,1 of
Austria, previous to being compelled by Napoleon to renounce the
Imperial Crown of Germany, for more than five centuries in the
Habsburg family. The assumption of the title of Kaiser of Austria
took place on August 11, 1804. Franz I. was succeeded by his son, the
Emperor Ferdinand IV., on whose abdication, Dec. 2, 1848, the Crown
fell to his nephew the present Emperor-King Franz Joseph I.

The present Emperor-King has a civil list of 7,300,000 florins,
or 730,000/. : one moiety of this sum, 3,650,000 florins, or 365,000/.,
is paid to him as Emperor of Austria, out of the revenue of German-
Austria, and the other moiety as King of Hungary, out of the
revenue of Hungary. The Austrian portion of the civil list was
raised from 2,650,000 to 3,650,000 florins in July, 1872.

The following is a list of the sovereigns of Austria, descendants of
Rudolf of Habsburg, with the date of their accession : —

House of Habsburg.

Kudolfl 1278

Albert 1 1291

*Friedrich III. . . .1308

•Albert II 1313

*Kudolf II 1358

•Albert III 1365

•Albert IV 1395

Albert V. (Albert II. of Germany) 1404
Friedrich IV. (Friedrich III. of

Germany) .... 1439

Maximilian 1 1493

Karl I. (Karl V. of Germany) 1519

Ferdinand 1 1556

Maximilian II. 1564
KudolfHI. (Rudolf II. of Ger-
many) 1576

Matthias
Ferdinand II. .
Ferdinaiid'III.
Leopold I.
Joseph I.
Karl II. .
•Maria Theresa

1611

1619

1637

1657

170

1711

1740

House of Habsburg-Lorraine.

Joseph II 1780

Leopold II 1790

Franz I. (Franz II. of Ger-
many) . . . 1792
•Ferdinand IV . . 1835
'•Franz Joseph I. . . 184 8

The average reign of the above twenty-six sovereigns of the House
of Habsburg, who ruled over Austria for nearly six centuries — filling
likewise, with the exception of those marked by an asterisk, the throne
of Germany (see page 94), and crowned Kings of Hungary since
Ferdinand I. — comprises a term of twenty-two years.

THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1877.

Constitution and Government.

Since the year 1867, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy forms a
bipartite state, consisting of a German, or ' Cisleithan,' monarchy,
and a Magyar, or ' Transleithan,' kingdom, the former officially
designated as Austria, and the latter as Hungary. Each of the two
countries has its own parliament, ministers, and government, while
the connecting ties between them consists in the person of the
hereditary sovereign, in a common army, navy, and diplomacy, and
in a controlling body known as the Delegations. The Delegations
form a parliament of 120 members, one-half of whom are chosen by
and represent the legislature of Austria, and the other half that of
Hungary, the Upper House of each returning 20, and the Lower
House 40 delegates. On subjects affecting the common affairs
(Gemeinsame Angelegenheiten), the Delegations have a decisive
vote, and their resolutions require neither the confirmation nor
approbation of the representative assemblies in which they have
their source. The ordinary mode of procedure for the Delegations
is to sit and vote in two chambers, the 60 deputies of Austria Proper
forming the one, and the 60 of Hungary the other. But it is pro-
vided that if no agreement can be arrived at in this manner, the two
bodies must meet together, and, without further debate, give their
final vote, which is binding for the whole Empire. The jurisdiction
of the Delegations is limited to Foreign Affairs and War. Each of
these has its own executive department, the finances of the two
being in charge of a third. The departments thus formed are : —

1. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs for the Whole Empire. — Count
Gyula Andrdssy of Csik- Szent-Kirdlij and Kraszna-Horka, born
March 8, 1823 ; representative of Zemplin in the Hungarian Diet,
1847-49 ; ambassador of Hungary to the Sultan of Turkey, 1849 ;
exiled 1849-60 ; re-elected representative of the district of Zemplin
in the Hungarian Diet, 1861 ; President of the council of ministers
of Hungary, Feb. 17, 1867, to Oct. 31, 1871; appointed Minister
of Foreign Affairs for the Whole Empire, Nov. 14, 1871.

2. The Ministry of War for the Whole Empire. — Lieutenant Field-
Marshal Count Bylandt-Rlieydt ; President of the Technical Com-
mittee in the Administration of the Army, 1870-76; appointed
Minister of War for the Whole Empire, June 21, 1876.

3. The Ministry of Finance for the Whole Empire. — Baron
Ludwig von Hofmann, formerly Under-Secretary in the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs; appointed Minister of Finance for the Whole Em-
pire, August 15, 1876.

The above ministers are responsible for the discharge of their
official functions to the Delegations.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. ~

German-Austria, or Austria Proper.

The first constitution of Austria, called also ' Oisleithania,'
originated in an Imperial diploma, dated Oct. 20, I860, followed by
an ordinance, or 'Patent,' of February 26, 1861. These decrees
laid the basis of a Charter, which, alter a suspension from 1865
to 1867, was put in force in December, 1867, with modifica-
tions rendered necessary by the recognition of the independence
of Hungary. The main features of this Constitution are a double
Legislature, consisting, first, of the Provincial Diets, representing
the various states of the monarchy, and secondly, a Central
Diet, called the Reichsrath or Council of the Empire. There
are seventeen Provincial Diets, namely, for Bohemia, Dalmatia,
Galicia, Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia,
Carniola, Bukowina, Moravia, Silesia, Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Gorizia,
Istria, and Trieste. The Diets of all these provinces are formed in
nearly the same manner, only differing in the number of deputies.
Each consists of only one assembly, composed, 1st, of the archbishop
and bishops of the Roman Catholic and Oriental Greek churches and
the chancellors of universities ; 2nd, of the representatives of great
estates, elected by all landowners paying not less than 100 florins,
or 10/., taxes ; 3rd, of the representatives of toAvns, elected by
those citizens who possess municipal rights ; 4th, of the representa-
tives of boards of commerce and trade-guilds, chosen by the respec-
tive members ; and 5th, of the representatives of rural communes,
elected by deputies called ' Wahlmiinner,' returned by all inhabitants
who pay a small amount of direct taxation. The Provincial Diets
are competent to make laws concerning local administration, particu-
larly those affecting county taxation, the cultivation of the soil,
educational, church and charitable institutions, and public works.

The Reichsrath, or Parliament of the western part of the Empire,
consists of an Upper and a LoAver House. The Upper House
(Herrenhaus) is formed, 1st, of the princes of the Imperial family
who are of age, fourteen in number in 1876; 2nd, of a number
of nobles — fifty-six in the present Reichsrath — possessing large
landed property, in whose families the dignity is hereditary ;
3rd, of the archbishops, ten in number, and bishops, seven in
number,' who are of princely title, inherent to their episcopal
seat ; and 4th, of any other life-members nominated by the
emperor, on account of being distinguished in art or science, or
Avho have rendered signal services to Church or State — one
hundred and tAvo in 1876. The LoAver House (Abgeordnetenhaus),
formerly composed of 230 members, nominated by the seArenteen
Provincial Diets of Austria, consists, under a new law passed in
1873, of 353 members, elected by the direct vote of all citizens Avho

8 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

are of age and possessed of a small property qualification. At the
first meeting of the Lower House of the Eeichsrath elected under
the neAv law, November 4 1873, there were 79 deputies natives of
Bohemia, 37 of Moravia, and CI natives of Galicia and the Polish
provinces, the rest being made up of members of German nationality.
The emperor nominates the presidents, and vice-presidents of
both Chambers of the Eeichsrath, the remaining functionaries being
chosen by the members of the two Houses. It is incumbent upon
the head of the State to assemble the Eeichsrath annually. The
rights which, in consequence of the diploma of Oct. 20, 1860, and
the ' Patent ' of Feb. 26, 1861, are conferred upon the Eeichsrath,
are as follows : — 1st, Consent to all laws relating to military duty ;
2nd, Co-operation in the legislature on trade and commerce, customs,
banking, posting, telegraph, and railway matters ; 3rd, Examination
of the estimates of the income and expenditure of the State ; of the
bills on taxation, public loans, and conversion of the lunds ; and
general control of the public debt. To give validity to bills passed by
the Eeichsrath, the consent of both Chambers is required, as well as
the sanction of the head of the State. The members of both the Upper
and the Lower House have the right to propose new laws on subjects
within the competence of the Eeichsrath ; but in all other matters
the initiative belongs solely to the Government.

The executive of Austria Proper consists of the following eight
departments : —

1. The Presidency of the Council. — Prince Adolf Auersperg, born
at Prague, July 21, 1821, youngest son of the late Prince Wilhelm
Auersperg; entered the army of Austria, 1837; retired as major,
1866 ; elected Deputy to the Diet of Bohemia, 1867; President of
the Diet, 1868-70 ; Civil Governor of the Duch)' of Salzburg,
1870-71 ; appointed President of the Austrian Council of Ministers,
November 25, 1871.

2. The Ministry of the Interior. — Baron Joseph Lasser von
Zollheim, born at Salzburg, September 30, 1815 ; Deputy of Salzburg
to the first Austrian Eeichstag, 1848 ; Under-Secretary in the
Ministry of the Interior, 1851-60 ; Civil Governor of the Tyrol,
1868—71 ; appointed Minister of the Interior, November 25, 1871.

3. The Ministry of Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. —
Dr. Karl von Stremayr, born at Graz, Styria, October 30, 1823 ;
Deputy to the German National Assembly at Frankfurt, 1848 ;
Professor of Jurisprudence at the University of Graz, 1850—70;
appointed Minister of Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs,
November 25, 1871.

4. The Ministry of Finance. — Baron von Pretis-Cagnodo; go-
vernor of the Coast-land, 1870-72 ; appointed Minister of Finance,
January 16, 1872.

AUSTEIA-nUNGARY. 9

5. Tlie Ministry of Agriculture. — Count Colloredo Mannsfeld,
formerly Captain in the cavalry of Austria ; appointed Minister of
Agriculture, May 23, 1875.

6. The Ministry of Commerce. — Johann von Chlumecfa/, born
in Moravia, 1824 ; Vice-Governor of Moravia, 1868-70 ; Minister
of Agriculture, 1871-75 ; appointed Minister of Commerce, May
23, 1875.

7. The Ministry of National Defence (Landesvertheidigung) —
Colonel Julius Horst, appointed March 23, 1872.

8. The Ministry of Justice. — Dr. Julius Glaser, born at Portel-
berg, Bohemia, March 19, 1831 ; Professor of Criminal Juris-
prudence at the University of Vienna ; Under-Secretary in the
Ministry of Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, 1868—70;
appointed Minister of Justice, November 25, 1871.

The responsibility of ministers for acts committed in the discharge
of their official functions was established by a bill which passed the
Reichsrath in July, 1867, and received the sanction of the emperor
on the 21st of December, 1870.

Hungary.

The constitution of the eastern part of the empire, or the kingdom
of Hungary, including Hungary Proper, Croatia, Slavonia, and Tran-
sylvania, dates from the foundation of the kingdom about 895.
There exists no charter, or constitutional code, but in place of it
are fundamental statutes, published at long intervals of time. The
principal of them, the ' Bulla Aurea ' of King Andrew IT., was
granted in 1222, and defined the form of Government as an Aristo-
cratic Monarchy. The Hungarian Constitution has been repeatedly
suspended and partially disregarded, until, at the end of the armed
struggle of 1849, it was decreed to be forfeited by the rebellion of
the nation. This decree was repealed in 1860, and the present
sovereign, on the 8th of June, 1867, swore to maintain the Consti-
tution, and was crowned King of Hungary.

The legislative power rests conjointly in the King and the
Diet, or Eeichstag. The latter consists of an upper and a lower
house, the first known as the House of Magnates, and the second
as the House of Representatives. The House of Magnates was
composed, in the session of 1876, of 731 members, namely 3 Princes
of the reigning house; 21 Archbishops and Bishops of the Roman
Catholic and Greek churches; 707 Peers and dignitaries of Hun-
gary ; 2 deputies of Croatia and Slavonia, and 3 of Transylvania.

Thelower house, or House of Representatives of Hungary, is com-
posed of representatives of the nation, elected by the vote of all
citizens, of full age, who pay direct taxes to the amount of eight
gulden, or 16s., per annum. No distinction is made, either as regards

IO THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

electors or representatives, on account of race or religion. New-
elections must take place every three years. By the electoral law
in force in the session of 1875, the House of Representatives con-
sisted of 444 members, of which number 334 were deputies of
Hungarian towns and county districts, 35 delegates of Croatia and
Slavonia, and 75 of Transylvania.

The executive of the kingdom is in a responsible ministry,
consisting of a president and nine departments, namely : —

The Presidency of the Council. — Coloman Tisza von Borosjeno ;
appointed President of the Council of Ministers, March 1, 1875.

1. The Ministry of Finance. — Coloman von Szell, appointed March
1, 1875.

2. The Ministry of National Defence (Landesverfheidigung). —
Bela Szende von Keresztes, appointed March 20, 1874.

3. The Ministry near the King's person (ad latus). — Baron
von Wenkheim ; appointed Minister ad latus, March, 1871.

4. The Ministry of the Interior. — Coloman Tisza, appointed March
1, 1875.

5. The Ministry of Education and of Public "Worship. — Dr.
August von Trefort, appointed September 5, 1872.

G. The Ministry of Justice. — Dr. Bela von Perczel, appointed
March 1, 1875.

7. The Ministry of Communications and Public Works. —
Thomas Pechy von Pechujfalu, appointed March 1, 1875.

8. The Ministry of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce. — Baron
Ludwig von Simonyi, appointed March 1, 1875.

9. The Ministry for Croatia and Slavonia. — Count Peter
Pejacsevich von Verocze, appointed March 20, 1871.

The sovereign of Hungary, though acknowledged Emperor of
Austria-Hungary, is styled 'King' in all public acts.

Church and Education.

The State religion of Austria is the Roman Catholic, but there is
complete toleration for all dissenters from it, of whatever form of
belief. According to the returns of the last census, rather more
than G6 per cent, of the inhabitants of the Empire are Roman
Catholics, while of the remainder 11 per cent, are Greek Catholics;
10 per cent. Evangelical Protestants, and 9 per cent. Byzantine
Greeks. The following table shows the numbers, in thousands, of
the various religious denominations, and the relative per-centage of
each, in Austria and in Hungary, as well as in the whole Empire.

AUSTRIA-H UNO A KY.

I I

Austria

Hungary

Whole Empire

Numbers
in 000

™„.„,»,«- Numbers L„ . Numbers

percent. ^ 000 jpercent. ^

percent.

Eoman Catholics .
Greek Catholics .
Evangl. Protestants
Byzantine Greeks

Catholic Armenians
Other Sects . .

15,766

2,303

351

490

683

4
6

Sd-4

11-7
1-7

2-5
3-5

0-2

7,120

1,498

3.088

2,630

428

48-1
10-1
20-8
177
2-9
0-3

o-i

23,265

3,861

3,495

3,166

1,121

66-4
110

10-0
9-0
3-2
0-2
0-1
o-i

Total . .

19,603

100

14,829

100

34,984

100

The ecclesiastical hierarchy of Austria comprises 11 Eoman
Catholic archbishops — of Vienna, Salzburg, Gbrz, Prag, Olmtitz,.
Lemberg, Zara, Gran, Erlau, Kalocsa, and Agram ; 2 Greek
Catholic archbishops — at Lemberg and Blasendorf ; 1 Greek Byzan-
tine archbishop, and 1 Catholic Armenian archbishop. The Eoman
Catholic Church has further 57 bishops, with chapters and consistories,
and 48 abbots of ancient endowed monasteries, in Austria, Styria,
Illyria, Bohemia, and Moravia. Hungary has 22 abbots with endow-
ments, 124 titular abbots, 41 endowed, 29 titular prebendaries,
and 3 college foundations. Transylvania has 3 titular abbots,
and upwards of 150 monasteries and convents; and Galicia 70
monasteries. The Greek United Church has 1 archbishop and
1 bishop in Galicia, and 5 bishops in Hungary. The Armenian
Catholic Church has an archbishop at Lemberg. The Archbishop of
Carlowitz is head of the Greek Church, with 10 bishops and 60
protopopas, or deans. Very extensive powers, secured by a special
Concordate with the Pontifical government, were formerly possessed
by the Eoman Catholic clergy in Cisleithan Austria, but the whole of
these were swept away in 1867 and 1868, by a series of laws enacted
by the Eeichsrath, the last and most important of which — passed in
April 1868 — established civil marriage, and the perfecl equality of
all religious creeds.

The extent of landed property in Austria belonging to the Eoman
Catholic Church is very considerable. Though reduced in number
within the last half century, there are still nearly 300 abbeys, and
above 500 convents in the empire. The Protestants have no churches
endowed by the state, the clergy being chosen and supported by
their congregations.

Education until very recently was in a greatly backward state in
Austria, the bulk of the agricultural population, constituting two-
thirds of the inhabitants of the Empire, being almost entirely illite-

THE STATESMAN'S YEAll-BOOK, 1877.

rate. During the last twenty years, however, vigorous efforts have
been made to bring about an improvement, by founding schools,
and appointing teachers, partly at the expense of communes, and
l artly, but less, at that of the state. It was enacted by a series
of decrees issued in the years 1848 and 1849, that education should
be genei'al and compulsory, and the principle, though not adhered
to in Transleithan Austria, nor in those parts of Cisleithan Austria
inhabited by people belonging to the Slavonian race, was fully
carried out among the Germanic population of the empire. In the
major part of German Austria, the law enforces the compulsory
attendance in the ' Volks-schulen,' or National Schools, of all
children between the ages of six and twelve, and parents are liable
to punishment for neglect. It is very rare, however, that cases
occur in which penalties for non-attendance at school have to be
enforced. The cost of public education mainly falls on the
communes, but of late years the state has come forward to assist
in the establishment of schools for primary education.

There are seven universities in the empire, at Vienna, Prague,
Pesth, Graz, Innsbruck, Cracow, and Lemberg. In the summer of
1875, the university of Vienna had 205 teachers and 3,920 students;
the university of Pesth 122 teachers and 1,912 students; and the
university of Prague 109 teachers and 1,751 students. None of the
other universities, at the same date, had over 900 students.

Revenue and Expenditure.

In accordance with the political constitution of the Austrian
empire, which recognises three distinct parliaments, there are also
three distinct budgets : the first, that of the Delegations, for the
whole empire ; the second, that of the Reichsrath, for Austria ; and
the third, that of the Hungarian diet, for the kingdom of Hungary.
By an agreement, or so-called 'compromise,' entered into, in Feb-
ruary 1868, between the governments and legislatures of Austria
and Hungary, the former has to pay seventy and the latter thirty per
cent, towards the ' common expenditure of the empire,' not includ-
ing the interest of the national debt.

The Whole Empire.
The budget estimates for the ' common affairs of the Empire,'
were as follows for the year 1876 : —

1 Divisions of Expenditure : —

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Tvr • . . w t Army, 97,430,000 )

Ministry ot \Var i XT J '''.',„„ >■

J \ iSavy, 10,949,438 S

Ministry of Finance ....
Total .

Florins

4,354,960

108,379,438

1,993,082

435,496

10,837,944

199,308

114,727,480

11,472,748

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

In the budget estimates for the ' common affairs of the Empire,
the expenditure is always divided into ordinary and extraordinary.
The ordinary expenditure for the year 1876 was estimated at
107,580,686 florins, or 10,758,668/., and the extraordinary expendi-
ture at 7,140,794 florins, or 714,079/., bringing the total to
114,727,480 florins, or 11,472,748/., forming an increase of 1,903,161
florins, or 190,316/., on the budget for 1875. The chief source of
revenue directly apportioned to meet the expenditure for the com-
mon affairs of the Empire is that derived from the customs, set
down at 17,500,000 florins, or 1,750,000/., in the budget for 1876.
The receipts from all other sources amounted to 5,815,125 florins,
or 581,512/. After deducting the special receipts of the common
ministries and the surplus of the customs revenue, in all 19,473,704
florins, or 1,947,370/., there remained a sum of 95,253,780 florins,
or 9,525,378/., to be provided for, of which 65,344,093 florins, or
6,534,409/., fell to the share of Austria and 29,909,687 florins, or
2,990,968/., to that of Hungary.

In the budget estimates for the year 1875, the ordinary expen-
diture was estimated at 107,807,443 florins, or 10,780,744/., and the
extraordinary expenditure at 5,087,268 florins, or 508,726/.,
being a total of 112,894,711 florins, or 11,289,470/. The direct
receipts, from customs, were estimated for 1875, at 15,000,000
florins, or 1,500,000/., and from other sources at 5,476,412 florins, or
547,641/., leaving a deficit of 92,418,299 florins, or 9,241,829/.. to
be covered by contributions from Austria Proper to the amount of
63,398,953 florins, or 6,339,895/., and from Hungary to the amount
of 29,319,346 florins, or 2,931,934/.

Austria Proper.
The accounts of actual revenue and expenditure of Austria Proper
are only published after the lapse of a number of years, and are very
intricate. They show invariably large deficits, and, in recent years,
a declining revenue with a growing expenditure. The budget esti-
mates of revenue and expenditure were as follows in each of the
eight years from 1869 to 1876 : —

Years

Revenue

Expenditure

1869

29.628,417

36,772,523

1870

31.987.901

37.019.734

1871

33.808,460

37,252,890

1872

35,782,824

37,898,701

1873

39.367,769

38,992.92!)

1874

38,980,000

38,730.000

1875

37,308,989

38.223,104

1876

37.270,234

40,317 054

THE STATESMAN S TEAK-BOOK, 1877.

The principal sources of revenue were as follows in the budget
estimates for the year 1876 : —

Sources of Revenue

Florins £

1 Direct taxes

! Customs' duties

l Salt monopoly

i Tobacco monopoly
Stamps
Judicial fees
State lottery

Excise (Verzehrungsteuer)
State domains and mint
Post and telegraphs
Miscellaneous receipts

87,785,000
18,171,000
19,163,000
58,500,000
16,800,000
32,624,000
17,293,700
59,797,000
1,900,000
17,800,000
42,86S,642

8,778,500
1,817,100
1,916,300
5,850,000
1,680,000
3.262,400
1,729,370
5,979,700
190,000
1,780,000
4,286,864

Total revenue

of 18

76 .

372,702,342 | 37,270,234

The principal branches of expenditure were as follows in the
budget estimates for the year 1876 :-

Brandies of Expenditure

Florins

Imperial household .....

4,650,000

465,000

Imperial Cabinet Chancery

74,745

7,474

Beichsrath

1,679,200

167,920

Council of Ministers

617,800

61,780

Ministry of the Interior

18,989.308

1,898,930

,, National Defence

8,441,800

844,180

,, Public Education

16,986.558

1,698,655

„ Agriculture .

11,557,470

1,155,747

,, Finance

70,800,250

7,080.025

,, Justice

21,408,035

2,140,803

„ Commerce .

23.249,300

2,324,930

Board of Control

158,500

15.850

Interest on public debt

103,16S,302

10,316,830

Pensions and grants .

39.875.913

3,987,591

Cisleithan portion of the Common Expen- .

diture of the Empire, including War |

and Foreign Affairs ....

81.513,397

8,151,339

Total expenditure

of 18

76 .

403,170,570

40,317,054

In the provisional budget for the year 1877, laid by the Minister
of Finance before the Keichstag in October 1876, the total revenue
was estimated at 877,850,000 florins, or 37,735,000/., and the total
expenditure is 404,000,000 florins, or 40,400,000/., leaving a deficit
of 26,650,000 florins, or 2,650,000/.

The largest branch of expenditure, as will be seen from the above
table, is the interest on the public debt, the burthen of which falls
mainly on the Cisleithan part of the monarchy. This debt has grown

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

up gradually since the middle of the last century. It amounted
in 1789, to 349,000,000 florins, or 34,900,000/., and had risen
to 825,000,000 florins, or 82,500,000/., in 1815 ; to 987,000,000
florins, or 98,700,000/., in 1820; to 1,084,000,000 florins, or
108,400,000/., in 1830; to 1,250,000,000 florins, or 125, 000,000/.,
in 1848; and to 3.009,804,134 florins, or 300,980,413/., in 1868.
The war against Prussia and Italy, in the summer of 1866, in-
creased the public debt by about 300,000,000 florins, or 30,000,000/. ;
but, on the other hand, freed Austria from the Lombardo- Venetian
Debt, which, by the terms of the Peace of Prague, of August 23,
1866, was transferred to the kingdom of Italy.

The following table gives the amount of the public debt of Austria
Proper — including the debt of the Whole Empire, but exclusive of
the special debt of Hungary — on the 1st of July, 1876 : —

Consolidated debt — old ....
„ ,, new ....

Total.

Florins

1,319,009

2,571,414,392

492,535,671

131,900

257,141.439

49.253,567

3,065,269,072

306,526,906

Eecent deficits were mainly covered by the floating debt, bearing
interest in paper money, which is largely increasing, and the exact
amount at any time can only be estimated. In a return issued in
August 1875, the floating debt was estimated to amount to
412,012,406 florins, or 41,201,240/., the total comprising 74,662,264
florins, or 7,466,226/. of hypothecary notes, and 337,350,142 florins,
or 33,735,014/. of bank notes.

The total annual interest on the debt amounted, in 1875, to
134,500,000 florins, or 13,450,000/. To this sum, Hungary had
to contribute 40,350,000 florins, or 4,035,000/., according to an
agreement come to in May 1868 by the Delegations and the go-
vernments of the Austrian and Hungarian parts of the monarchy,
by which the latter has to pay thirty per cent, towards the charges
of the common debt. Subsequent to May, 1868, all loans were
contracted separately by either Austria Proper or Hungary.

Hungary.

The budget estimates of revenue and expenditure of Hungary,
were as follows in each of the six years from lh>70 to 1875 : —

THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 187'

Years

Revenue

Expenditure

1870

21,154,100

21,065.200

1871

20,506,100

22,341.100

1872

20,680,500

24,205,800

1873

15,913,653

19,712,652

1874

24,402,790

25,673,382

1875

21,213.850

22,746,415

In the preliminary budget estimates for the year 1 876, the expected
total revenue was given at 207,000,000 florins, or 20,700,000/., and
the total expenditure at 223,000 florins, or 22,300,0002., leaving a
deficit of 16,000,000 florins, or 1,600,000/.

The budget estimates for the year 1875, adopted by the Diet of
Hungary, gave the sources of revenue and branches of expenditure
as follows :- —

Sources of Revenue

Florins

Direct taxes ....
Indirect taxes and monopolies .
State domains, mines, and mint
Post and telegraphs .
Miscellaneous receipts

Total revenue of 1875

70,734,088
83,418,565
41,381,507
5,683.856
10,920,502

212,138,518

7,073,408
8,341,856
4,138,150
568,386
1,092,050

21.213,850

Branches of Expenditure

Florins. £

Royal Household .....
Royal Cabinet Chancery
Diet and Council of Ministers
Ministry ' ad latus '

„ of Finance ....
,, „ the Interior
„ „ Education and Worship
,, ,, Justice ....
„ „ Public Works
,, „ Agriculture and Commerce .
Public Debt and Pensions
Extraordinary Expenditure
Transleithan Portion of the Common Ex-
penditure and debt of the Empire .

Total Expenditure for 1875 .

4,650,000 465,000
74,295 7,429

1,224,353 , 122,435

51,794 5,179

44,394,422 j 4,439,442

7,673,769 767,376

3,924,200 ' 392,420
10,488,117 1,048,811
10,772,003 j 1,077,200
10,804,450 ' 1,080,445
48,672,795 ! 4,867,279
26,609,063 : 2,660,906

58,124,931 j 5,812,493

227,464,192 1 22,746,415

The accounts of actual revenue and expenditure since the year
1867 showed large and annually increasing deficits, which gave rise
to the creation of a vast special debt of Hungary. It amounted, at
the end of November 1876, to 354,000,000 florins, or 35,400,000/.
The debt consists of four foreign loans, the first, for 60,000,000
florins, or 6,000,000/., contracted, in 1868 ; the second, of 24,000,000

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

florins, or 2,400,000/., issued, in 1870; the third, of 40,000,000
florins, or 4,000,000/., contracted in 1872 ; the fourth, for
150,000,000 florins, or 15,000,000/., issued in 1873-74; and the fifth;
for 80,000,000 florins, or 8,000.000/., negociated in December 1875.

Army and Navy.
1. Army.

According to official returns, Austria possessed, at the commence-
ment of 1875, a standing army numbering 278,470 men on the
peace-looting, and 838,700 on the war-footing, as follows : —

Number

Description of Troops of Standing Army

!*■:>'■■■

War

footing

Infantry: — ■

80 regiments of the line, each composed of 3 field

battalions, 2 reserve, and 1 depot battalion .

121,840

485,440

14 Military frontier regiments, 6 of 3, and 8 of 4

battalions .......

12,307

53,823

1 regiment of ' Kaiser-jage- ' of Tyrol, and 33 bat-

talions of ' Feld-jager ' .

20,251

54,463

12 companies of ambulance and hospital service .
Cavalry:— Total of infantry .
14 regiments of dragoons, 12 heavy, and 2 light;

1,180

3,876

155,578

597,602

14 regiments of hussars ; and 2 regiments of

liincers Total of cavalry .
Artillery :—

12 regiments of field-artillery, each of 14 batteries

35. 7!i::

58,794

of 8 pieces .......

17,880

43,836

12 battalions of fortress, and 2 battalions of moun-

tain artillery. ......

,-. . , „ . Total of artillery .
Em (juicers and Irani : —

7,778

18,938

25,658

62,774~

2 regiments of ' Genie,' each of 4 battalions .

4,662

13,240

1 regiment of pioneers, of 5 battalions .

2,803

7,747

54 squadrons of ' Fuhrwesen,' or train .

Total of engineers and train .
Miscellaneous Establishments : —

2.401

24,147
45,134

!i.s.;i;

Military instruction ......

2,234

Topographical survey

128

Commissariat and clothing departments .

3,705

7,200

Sanitary department ......

L,29]

6,200

Arsenais, military stores, and buildings .

3,000

4,500

Army studs ........

5.soo

5, sod

Military police and gensdarmes ....

7,700

Total of miscellaneous establishments
Total, inclusive troops of reserve .

23,858
278,470

33,762

838 700

1 8 THE STATESMAN'S TEAK-BOOK, 1877-

The general staff of the army on active service, in June, 1875,
comprised 2 field-marshals, 23 generals oi' infantry (Feldzeug-
meister) and generals of cavalry; 56 generals of division, and 110
generals of brigade. There were besides, on the non-active list,
7 generals of infantry and generals of cavalry, 81 generals of
division, and 188 generals of brigade.

By the terms of the ' Compromise ' come to between Austria and
Hungary, on which was based a law of army organisation, passed
December 5, 1868, the military forces of the whole empire are
divided into the Standing army, the Landwehr, or militia, and
the Landsturm. Under the law of 18G8, the total strength of the
armed forces, including marine troops, is fixed, for a term of ten
years, at 800,000 men, to which number Austria Proper has to
contribute 470,808, and Hungary 319,682 men. The regiments of
the Standing army are under the control of the Minister of War of
the Empire, and the Landwehr under the control of the Austrian
and Hungarian Ministers of Landesvertheidigung. All orders relating
to great concentrating movements of troops must emanate from the
Emperor-King.

The Standing army is formed, after the model of Prussia, by
universal liability to arms. The term of service is ten years, three
of which the soldier must spend in active service, after which he is
enrolle.l for the remaining seven years in the army of reserve, with
further liability to serve two years in the Landwehr.

Austria has 25 fortresses of the first and second rank, namely,
Comorn, Carlsburg, Temesvar, Peterwardein, Eszek, Brod, Carlstadt,
Castelnuovo, Arad, Munkacs, Cracow, Gradisca, Olmlitz, Leopold-
stadt, Prague, Brixen, Theresienstadt, Kufstein, Linz, Salzburg,
Buda, Eagusa, Zara, Cattaro, and Pola. The last-named is the chief
naval fortress of the empire.

2. Navy.

The naval forces of Austria consisted, in April 1876, of 10
ironclads, and 37 other steamers, the majority of them of small
dimensions, constructed chiefly for coast defence. There were,
besides, at the same date, 10 sailing ships. The following table
gives the names of the ships comprising the fleet of Avar, with their
horse-power, guns, and tonnage : —

,- Horse-

STEAMERS power

Iron-clad Line of Battle Ships : —

Custozza .... . 1.000

Kaiser SOU

Erzherzog Allrecht 800

Guns

Tonnage

6,200
5.711
5,500
5,500

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

I ■ .,i clad Frigates: —
Ferdinand Wax .

Habsburg .

Don Juan d' Austria

Kaiser Max

Prinz Engpn

Salamander
S ' w Frigates: —

Novara

Sclrwarzenberg

Aurora

Donau

Graf Padetzki
Screw Corv ttes : —

Graf Dandolo

Erzherzog Friedrich

Helgoland .

Zrinyi

Frundsberg
First-class Gunboats : —

Dalniat

Hum .

Velebich

Seehund

Streiter

Reka .

-class Gunboats : -

Sansego

Gemse

Grille .
Screw Shops: —

Kerka .

Narenta

Move .
Paddle Steamers: —

Kaiseriim Elisabeth

Greif

jNIiramar

Triest

Andreas Hoier

Triton

Fantasie

Fiume

Vulcan

Taurus

Gargnano

Hentzi

Alnoch

Thurn und Taxis

Gorzkowsky

Horse-

800

650

500

300

„m

300

230

400

230

2 10

230

350

300

220

160

120

100

270

•10

lit

•_>

G-uns

1.7..7
4,757
3,330
3, 130
3,330
2,824

2,4 07
2,514
2,198
2.198
2,198

1,594

1,474
1,635
],474

1.174

869
869
869
852
852
852

333
333
333

501
501

348

1.472

1.260

1,353

1,102

770

751

427

410

403

657

377

139

110

118

!:'

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Sailing Ships

Frigates : —
Bellona
Vesuv (school-ship)

Corvettes: —
Carolina
Minerva

Brigs and Schooners : -
Montecuccoli
Arethusa
Arthemisia .
Saida .

Transports : —
Camaeleon .
Pylades

Guns

18
12

,542
,490

860
556

586
154
167
269

143
140

The two most powerful ships of the iron-clad fleet are the
Cusiozza, and the Erzherzog Afbrecht, both launched in 1872.
They are of iron, while all the other iron-clads are wood-built.
Tbe principal of these, the Lissa, launched in 1869 ; the Kaiser,
launched in 1871; and the Ferdinand Max and the Ilahsburg,
both launched in 1865, are of antiquated construction, while the
remainder are ' converted ' ships.

The navy of Austria was commanded in June 1876, by 1 ad-
miral, 2 vice-admirals, 5 rear-admirals, 16 captains of ships-of-the-
line, 17 captains of frigates, 18 captains of corvettes, 117 lieu-
tenants, and 232 ensigns and cadets, and manned by 5,836 sailors.
The marines, at the same dare, comprised 1 colonel, 1 lieut.-colonel,
1 major. 8 captains, 23 lieutenants, and 850 non-commissioned officers
and privates. On the war-footing, the sailors are to number 11,532
men, and the marines 1,500. The navy is recruited, like the army,
by a general levy from the seafaring population of the empire.
A large proportion, however, is obtained by voluntary enlistment,
particularly in the province of Dalmatia, which enjoys special privi-
leges in return for the number of sailors which it furnishes to the
imperial navy. The term of service in the navy is eight years, after
which the men are liable to remain two years longer in the navy of
reserve.

Austria has two harbours of war, Tola and Trieste. Pola, the
chief naval port, is strongly fortified, both towards sea and land,
and has been recently enlarged, si. as to be able to accommodate
the entire Meet, while Trieste is the great storehouse and arsenal of
the Imperial navy. — (Official Communication.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Area and Population.

The Austrian empire extends over an area of 240,943 English
square miles, on which lived, at the date of the last census, taken
December 31, 1869, a population of 35,904,435, or 159 per English
square mile. The number of the civil population of the empire,
distinguished as such in the census returns, was 35,634,858, leaving
269,577 persons enumerated as belonging to the military class.

The following table gives the area, and total number of inhabi-
tants, of the various provinces of the empire, distinguishing its two
great political divisions, the German monarchy, or Cisleithan
Austria, and the Hungarian kingdom, or Trans] eithan Austria,
after the official returns of the census of December 31, 1869.
Included under Hungary Proper is the so-called Military Frontier,
a separate province at the date of the census, but incorporated with
Hungary by a law passed June 9, 1872.

A n -a :

Provinces of the Er

apire English

square miles

Population
De '. 31, 1869

., "Monarchy: —

Lower Austria (Unter der En

s) . • 7,654

1,990,708 i

XTpper Austria (Ober der En;

) 4,631

736,557

Salzburg

2.767

153,159

Styria (Steiermark)

8,670

1,137,990 |

Carinthia (Karnten)

4,00.)

337,694

Carniola (Krain) .

3.856

446,334 |

( !oas1 land I Ktisfenland)

3,084

600,525

Tyrol and Vorarlberg .

11,324

885,789

Bohemia (Bohmen)

20.060

5,140,04 i

Moravia (Alahren)

8,583

2.017,274

Silesia 'vSehlesien)

1,987

513.352

Galicia (Galizien)

30,307

5.444,683

Bukowina

4,035

513,404

Dalmatia (Dalmatien) .
Total, German Monarchy

4,940

456,961

115,905

20,394,980

Kingdom of Hungary : —

Hungary

87,043

11.530,397

Croatia and Slavonia .

16,773

1,846,150

Transylvania (Siebenbiirgen)

21,215

•J 1 15,024

Town of Fiume .
Total, Hungary
Total, Austria-Hungar

17, si i

124,438

15. 509,455

240,943

35,904,435

At the census of October 31, 1857, the last preceding that of Dec.
31, 1869, the population of the empire amounted to 37,339,913 souls,

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

living on an area of 248,727 English square miles. By the cession"
of its Italian provinces, in 1859 and 186G, the empire lest
4,7GG,910 inhabitants, and an area of 16,493 English square miles.
Comparing the extent of the empire as constituted at the date of
the census of 18G9 with similar limits at the census of 1857, the
population at the latter date was 32,530,002, showing an increase
of 3,374,483 in the course of twelve years, or rather more than 1 per
cent, per annum.

More than two-thirds of the population of the empire are
engaged in husbandry. There is, however, a constantly increasing
tendency towards concentration of the population in the larger
towns. A census taken April 17, 1875, showed the population of
Vienna to number 1,001,999, against 833,855 at the census of 1869\

At the last census, the Germans constituted 38 per cent, of the
inhabitants in the German or Cisleithan part of the empire, and
nearly 20 per cent, in the Hungarian or Transleithan part. The
people of the Slavonian races formed 49 per cent, of the population
in the Cisleithan, and 1G per cent, in the Transleithan division.
The race third in numbers, the Magyars, constituted 38 per cent.
of the population of the kingdom of Hungary, and not quite
■yq per cent, of that of the German or Cisleithan part of the empire.

Trade and Industry.

The commerce of Austria-Hungary, comprising imports and ex-
ports of merchandise, but not bullion, for the whole of the empire,
except the province of Dalmatia — not within the Imperial line of
customs — was as follows in each of the ten years 1865 to 1874 : —

Years

Imports

En ports

1865

25,075,397

34.06! i

1866

21,138,215

32,622

1867

28,645,242

tO 89,575

1863

37,653.303

: 7.:':".>

1869

41,243,627

!:; 233,640

1870

42,51)7,549

39,137,730

1871

52,458.14!)

46,305,684

IK 7 2 .

59,244,120

38,218,126

187"* .

57.102,986

39.507.850

1874 .

53,250.175

36,175,786

Nearly two-thirds of the whole commerce of the Austrian empire,
both as regards imports and exports, is carried on with Germany.
The next important market for Austria is Turkey, the importations

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

of which into the empire average 3,000,000/. in value, and the
exports to which are above 5,000,000/. sterling. Turkey is followed
in the commercial rank list, but at a long distance, by Italy and Russia.
The commercial intercourse of Austria with the United Kingdom
is comparatively small ; and it appears in the official returns even
smaller than it is in reality, owing to the geographical position of the
empire, which necessitates the transit of many Austrian goods des-
tined for the British market, and vice versa, through other countries,
as the exports or imports of which they come to figure. In the
Board of Trade returns, therefore, only the direct exports and
imports to and from Great Britain and Ireland, by way of the
Austrian seaboard, Trieste, Illyria, Croatia, and Dalmatia, are given.
The declared real value of these direct exports and imports in the
ten years 1866 to 1875 is shown in the following table: —

Exports from Austria-

Import? of British Home

Hun'

ary to Great Britain

Pri duce into Austria

1866

1,369,831

-
912,058

1867

1,203.660

963,952

1868

2,029,310

1,077,159

1869

2,276,806

1,341,102

1870

1,104,662

1,715.601

1871

1,238.428

1.588,352

1872

911,607

1,471,113

1873

869,433

1,484,320

1874

799.544

1.063,649

187o

1,318.889

897,069

The staple article exported to the United Kingdom from Austria
is corn and flour, the total value of which, in the year 1875,
amounted to 867,0-41/. This comprised maize, or Indian corn,
valued 477,278/. ; wheat, valued 10,013/.; barley, 1 5,889/. ; and
wheat flour, valued 477,278/. It will be seen from the preceding
table, that the total exports from Austria to Great Britain have
been decreasing since 1869 ; and this has been more particu-
larly the case with the staple article. In 1860, the exports of corn
and flour to the United Kingdom amounted to 1,806,250/., and in
1871 to 706.353/. The minor exports are made up chiefly of
hemp, glass beads, olive oil, currants and raisins, word, and wool.

The principal imports of British and Irish produce into Austria
are cotton manufactures and iron, the former of the value of
368,138/., and the latter of 117,201/. in 1875. Next in importance
are woollen manufactures, of the value of 60,685/. in 1875.

The total length of railways in the empire (pen for traffic ai d
under construction, was as follows on the 1st of October, 1875 : —

THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Austria Proper
Kingdom of Hungary

Whole empire

Open for Traffic. In Construction.

English miles. ] English miles.
6,139 1,684
3.999 949

10,148

2,633

The work of the Post Office in Austria-Hungary was as follows
in the year 1875 : —

Letters .....
Post Cards . . .
Parcels .....
Newspapers .....

Austria

Hungary

Number

174.S36.000

21.592,000

6,626,000

18,636,000

Number
243,8^6,000
7.149,000
1,039,000
5,658,000

On the 1st of January 1876, there were 4,366 Post Offices in
Austria Proper, and 1,930 in the kingdom of Hungary.

The Telegraph, in Austria-Hungary, carried 5,458,920 messages,
of which 102,153 were official, in the year 1875. On the 1st
of January 1876, there were in Austria Proper 19,819 English
miles, and in Hungary 8,329 English miles of telegraph lines
The length of wires at the same date was 51,698 miles in Austria
Proper, and 29,238 miles in Hungary. The number of telegraph
stations was 2,067 in Austria Proper, and 857 in Hungary.

The following tabular statement shows the strength of the com-
mercial marine of* Austria. It gives the number, tonnage, and
crews of all the vessels belonging to Austrian subjects on the 1st
of January 1876 : —

Steamers : —

Sea-going vessels (17.435 horse-power)
Coasters (778 horse-power)
Sailing vess., inch coasters and fishing smacks
Total.

Number of
Vessels

Tonnage

Crews

27
7,098

57,265

1,439

273,301

2,452
171

24,758

7,203

332,005

27,381

Of great importance for the commerce of the empire is the
' Gesellschaft des Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen Lloyd,' established
at Trieste in 1833. The company, which owned on the 1st of
January 1875, a fleet of 74 steamers, of 15,800 horse-power,
mainly Clyde-built, and superintended by British engineers, absorbs

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 25

the greater part of the trade of Austria with the East, through the
Suez Canal, being subsidized by the Imperial Government.

Diploma-tic Representatives.

1. Of Austria-Hungary in Gbeat Britain.
Amhassador — Friedrich Ferdinand, Count von Beust, Lorn at Dresden,

January 13. 1809; Envoy of Saxony in Great Britain, 1846-49; -Minister of
Foreign Affairs of SaxoDy, 184M-.J3 : Prime Minister of Saxony, 1853-66;
Minister of Foreign Affairs of Austria-Hungary, 1867-71. Accredited Ambas-
sador to Great Britain, December 21, 1871.

Councillor of Embassy— Count von Wolkenstein-Trostburg.

Secretaries — Count Mbntgelas ; Count Adolf Beust.

Naval Attache — Captain Baron von Spaun.

Consul General — Chevalier Karl von Scherzer.

2. Of Great Britain in Austria-Hungary.
Ambassador — Rigbt Hon. Sir Andrew Buchanan, G.C.B., liorn in 1807;

Envoy to Switzerland, 1852-53; to Denmark, 1853-55; to Spain, 1858-60;

and to the Netherlands, 1860-02. Ambassador to Prussia. 1862-64; and to

:. 1864-71. Appointed Ambassador to Austria-Hungary, October 16, 1871.

Secretaries — Robert F. French; J. P. Harris-Gastrell; Hon. H. G. -Edwardes ;
Hon. Edmund Monsou.

Military Attache — Major Thomas Gonne.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money-} weights, and measures of Austria, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —

Money.

The Florin, or Gulden, of loo Neu-Kreuzer, = about 2s.

The Golden Crcwn of 8 Florins = 16s.

The legal standard in the Empire is silver, and the Florin, divided into 100

' New ' Kreuzer, the unit of money. Practically the chief medium of exchange

is a paper currency consisting of banknotes of all denominations, from 1,000

florins down to 1 florin, convertible only at a large discount into gold.

Weights and Measures.

The Centner = 100 Pfund . = 123£ lbs. avoirdupois.

„ Elmer .... = 14p94 wine gallons.

,, Joch .... = 1*43 acre.

„ Metze .... =1*7 imperial bushel.

„ Klafter .... =67 cubic feet.

„ Meile — 24,000 Austr. feet = 8,297 yards, or about 4| miles.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Austria-
Hungary,

1. Official Publications.

Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Kaiserthums Oesterreich. 8. Wien, 1876.

Tafeln zur Statistik der Oesterreichischen Monarchic, zusammengestellt von
der Direction der administrativen Statistik. Folio. Wien, 1876.

Mittheilungen aus dem Gebiete der Statistik, herausgegeben von der
Direction der administrativen Statistik. 8. Wien, 1876.

26 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Staatsvoranschlag fur die im Beiehsrathe vertreteuen Koiiigreiche und
Lander fur das Jahr. 1876. In ' Wiener Zeitung,' Dee. 29, 187-3, and April 1,
1876.

Uebersicht der Waaren Ein imd Ausfuhr des allgemeinen Oesterreichiseh-
Ungarisehen Zollgebietes und Dalmatiens im Jahre 1875. 4. Wien. 1875.

Statistiscb.es Jahrbueb der Oesterreiehiseh-Ungarischen Monarchic fiir das
Jahr 1875. Herausg. von der k.k. statist. Central-Com. 8. Wien, 1876.

Navigazione e commercio in porti Austriaei nel 1875. 4. Trieste, 1876.

Statistikai adatok. Kiadja m. k. kozlekedesi ministerium. Buda. 1876.

Statistikai (es nemzetgazdasagi) Kcizlemenyck. Kiadja a. m. t. Akademia
statist, bizottsaga. Best. 1871-1876.

Beport by Mr. Andrew Buchanan, British Secretary of Embassy, on the
general trade ff Austria, dated Oetoler 30, 1873. In ' Beports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Bart I. 1S74. 8. London, 187-1.

Beport by Mr. Consul Harris- Gastrell on the commerce of Buda-Besth and
of Hungary, dated February 20, 1875; in Beports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
No. III. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Beports by Mr. Consul-Geuernl Monson and by Mr. Vice-Consul Francovich
on the trade and commerce of Fiume, at;d by Mr. Consul Brock on the com-
merce of Trieste, dated March-June 1876 ; in ' Beports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Bart V. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Austria-Hungary with Great Britain; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries, and British Bossessions,
in the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Bublicatk xs.

Annuario Marittimo per l'Anno 1875, compilato dal Lloyd austriaco coll' ap-
provazione dell' eccelso i. r. governo centrale marittirao. 8. Trieste, 1^76.

Austria. Arehiv fiir Consularwesen, Volkswirthschaft und Statistik.
4. 28. Jahrgang. Wien, 1876.

BracheUi (H. F. >, Statistik der Oesterreichischen Monarchie. S. Wien, 1873.

Ficker (A.), Die Volkefstamme der Oesterreiehiseh-Ungarischen Monarchie.
8. Wien, 1869.

Hunfalvi (Dr. J.), A magyar-osztrak monarchia rovid statistztikajn. 8.
Pesth, 1874.

Kelcti (Karl) Uebersicht der Bevolkerung, &c, sammtlicher Lander der Un-
garischen Krone. 16. Best. 1872.

Keleti (S.), Hazank es Nepe. 8. Best. 1871.

Kohn (Ignaz), Eisenbahn-Jahrbuch der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen Mo-
narchie. 8. Wien, 1876.

TAvy (Daniel), L'Autriche-Hongrie, ses institutions, &c. Paris, 1872.

Lbher (F. Von), Die Magyaren und andere Ungarn. 8. Leipzig, 1874.

Mulinen (Comte de), Les finances de l'Autriehe. 8. Paris, 1875.

Patterson (Arthur J.), The Magyars; their country and its institutions. 2
vols. 8. London. 1870.

T'rasch (V.), Handbuch der Statistik des Oesterreichischen Kaiserstaates. 8.
Briinn, 187-3.

Peez (Dr. Alexander), Oesterreich und der Orient. 8. Wien, 1875.

Schmitt (F.), Statistik des Oesterreichischen Kaiserstaates. 8. Wii-n, 1873.

BELGIUM.

(ROYAUME DE BELGIQUE.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Leopold II., King of the Belgians, born April 9, 1835, the son of
King Leopold I., former Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and of
Princess Louise, daughter of King Louis Philippe of the French ;
ascended the throne at the deatli of his father, Dec. 10, 18G5 ;
married Aug. 22 , L 858, to

Marie Henriette, Queen of the Belgians, born Aug. 23, 1836, the
daughter of the late Archduke Joseph of Austria. Offspring of the
union are three daughters: — I. Louise, born Feb. 18, 1858;
married February 4. 1875, to Prince Philip of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,
born March 28, 1844, eldest son of Prince August, cousin of the
reigning duke, and of Princess Clementine of Orleans, daughter of
the late King Louis Philippe of the French. 2. Stephanie, born
May 21, 1864; 3. Clementine, born July 30, 1872.

Brother and Sister of the King. — 1. Philippe, Count of Flanders,
born March 24, 1837 ; lieutenant-general in the service of Belgium ;
married April 25, 1867, to Princess Marie of Hohenzollern-
Sigmaringen, born November 17, 1845. Offspring of the union are
two sons and two daughters, namely, Baudouin, born June 3, 1869 ;
Henriette, born Nov. 30, 1870; Josephine, born Oct. 18, 1872;
and Albert, born April 8, 1875. 2. Princess Charlotte, born
June 7, 1840; married July 27, 1857, to Archduke Maximilian
of Austria, elected Emperor of Mexico July 10, 1863 ; widow
June 19, 1867.

King Leopold II. has a civil list of 3,300,000 francs, or
132,000/.

The kingdom of Belgium formed itself into an independent state
in 1830, having previously been a part of the Netherlands. The
secession was decreed on the 4th of October, 1830, by a Provisional
Government, established in consequence of a revolution which broke
out at Brussels on the 25th of August, 1830. A National Congress
elected Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg king of the Belgians on the
4th of June, 1831; the prince accepted the dignity July 12, and
ascended the throne July 21, 1831. It was not untilafter the sign-
ing of the treaty of London, April 19, 1839, which established
peace between King Leopold I. and the sovereign of the Nether-
lands, that all the States of Europe recognised the kingdom of
Belgium.

28 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Constitution and Government.

According to the charter of 1831, Belgium is ' a constitutional,
representative, and hereditary monarchy.' The legislative power
is vested in the King, the Chamber of Representatives,, and the
Senate. The royal succession is in the direct male line in the order
of primogeniture. The king's person is declared sacred ; and his
ministers are held responsible for the acts of the Government. No
act of the king can have effect unless countersigned by one of his
ministers, who thus becomes responsible for it. The king convokes,
prorogues, and dissolves the Chambers, and makes rules and orders
necessary for the execution of the laws ; but he has no power
to suspend, or dispense with the execution of the laws themselves.
He has the right to declare war, and to conclude treaties of peace,
of alliance, and of commerce, communicating the same to the
Chambers as far as may be consistent with the interest and safety of •
the State. Those treaties which may be injurious to the State, or to
the individual interests of the people, can only have effect after
obtaining the sanction of the Chambers. No surrender, exchange,
or addition of territory can be made except Avhen authorised by a
law passed by the Chambers. In no case can the secret articles of a
treaty be destructive or contrary to the public clauses. The king
sanctions and promulgates the laws. He has the power of remitting
or reducing the punishment pronounced by the judges, except in the
case of his ministers, to whom he can extend pardon only at the
request of one of the Chambers. He has the power of coining
money according to law, and also of conferring titles of nobility,
but without the power of attaching to them any privileges. In
default of male heirs, the king may nominate his successor with
the consent of the Chambers. On the death of the king, the
Chambers assemble without convocation, at latest on the tenth day
after his decease. From the date of the king's death to the ad-
ministration of the oath to his successor, or to the regent, the consti-
tutional powers of the king are exercised in the name of the people,
by the ministers assembled in council, and on their own responsibi-
lity. The regency can only be conferred upon one person, and no
change in the constitution can be made during the regency. The
successor to the throne or the regent can only enter upon his duties
after having taken an oath in presence of the assembled Chambers
to observe the laws and the constitution, to maintain the independence
of the nations and the integrity of its territory. If the successor
be under eighteen years of age, which is declared to be the age of
majority, the two Chambers meet together for the purpose of nomi-
nating a regent during the minority. In the case of a vacancy of
the throne, the two Chambers, deliberating together, nominate pro-

BELGIUM. 29

visiciiallv to the regency. They are then dissolved, and within two
months the now Chambers must assemble, which provide definitively
tor the succession.

The power of making laws is vested in the Chamber of Repre-
sentatives and the Senate, the members of both houses being chosen
by the people. The sittings are public, and by the decision of the
majority either Chamber may form itself into a private committee.
No person can at the same time be a member of both Chambers, and
no member can retain his seat after obtaining a salaried office under
the Government, except on being re-elected. No member can be
called to account for any votes or opinions he may have given in
the performance of his duties. No member can be prosecuted or
arrested during the session without the consent of the Chamber of
which he is a member, except in the case of being taken in flagranti
crimine. Each Chamber determines the manner of exercising- its
own powers, and every session nominates its president and vice-pre-
sident, and forms its bureau. No petition can be presented per-
sonally, and every resolution is adopted by the absolute majority,
except in some special cases, when two-thirds of the votes of the
members are required for its acceptance; in the case of an equality
of votes the proposition is thrown out. The Chambers meet annually
in the month of November, and must sit for at least forty days ; but
the king has the power of convoking them on extraordinary occa-
sions, and of dissolving them either simultaneously or separately.
In the latter case a new election must take place within forty days,
and a meeting of the Chambers within two months. An adjourn-
ment cannot be made for a period exceeding one month without the
consent of the Chambers.

The Chamber of Representatives is composed of deputies chosen
directly by all citizens paying direct taxes to the annual amount of
43 francs, or £\ 15s. Under this qualification, the electoral lists,
at the last general election, contained the names of only 111,135
el' ' tors, so that the right of suffrage was with 22 in every thousand
of the population, or about one-thirteenth of the adult male popula-
tion. The number of deputies is fixed according to the population,
and cannot exceed one member for every 40,000 inhabitants. In
the year 1875 they amounted to 124, elected in 41 electoral dis-
tricts. To be eligible as a member, it is necessary to be a Belgian
by birth, or to have received the ' grande naturalisation;' to have
attained the age of twenty-five years, and to be resident in
Belgium. The members not residing in the town where the
Chanil n-r sits receive, during the session, an indemnity of 430 fi'ancs,
or 17/. 5s., each per month. The members are elected for four
years, one-half going out every two years, excepl in the case of a
dissolution, when a general election rakes place. The Chamber has

30 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

the parliamentary initiative and the preliminary vote in all cases
relating to the receipts and expenses of the State and the contingent
of the arm}-.

The Senate is composed of exactly one-half the number of mem-
bers comprising the Chamber of Representatives, and the senators
axe elected by the same citizens who appoint the deputies. The
senators are chosen for eight years ; they retire in one moiety
every four years ; but in case of dissolution the election must
comprise the "whole number of which the Senate is composed.
The qualifications necessary for a senator are, that he must be a
Belgian by birth or naturalisation; in full possession of all political
and civil rights ; resident "within the kingdom ; at least forty years
of age ; and paying in direct taxes not less than 84/. sterling.
In those provinces "where the list of citizens who possess this last-
mentioned qualification does not reach to the proportion of one in
6,000 of the population, that list is enlarged by the admission into
it of those citizens "who pay the greatest amount of direct taxes, so
that the list shall always contain at least one person "who is eligible
to the Senate for every 6,000 inhabitants of the province. The
senators do not receive any pa}'. The presumptive heir to the throne
is of right a senator at the age of eighteen, but he has no voice
in the proceedings until twenty-five years of age. All the proceed-
ings of the Senate during the time the Chamber of Representatives
is not sitting are without force.

The Executive Government consists of six departments,
namely : —

1. The Ministry of Finance. — J. E. X. Malov, appointed Dec. 7,
1871.

2. The Ministry of Justice. — T. C. A. De Lantsheere, appointed
Dec. 7, 1871.

3. The Ministry of Public Works. — T. Beernaert, appointed
Oct. 10, 1873.

4. The Ministry of War. — General Thiebault, appointed March 24,
1873.

5. The Ministry of the Interior. — C. B. Delcour, appointed
Dec. 7, 1871.

6. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Count d1 Aspremont-Lynden,
appointed Dec. 6, 1871.

Besides the above responsible heads of departments there are
a number of ministers without portfolio, who form a privy council
called together on special occasions by the sovereign. The number
of these ' Ministres d'Etat ' at the end of 1876 was fifteen, the eldest of
whom, nominated in 1845, was Baron Nothomb, ambassador to the
Emperor of Germany. The ministers, as such, do not form part of
the privy council.

BELGIUM. 31

Church and Education.

The Roman Catholic religion is professed by nearly the entire
population of Belgium. The Protestants do not amount to 13,000,
while the -lews number less than 1,500. Full religious liberty is
granted by the constitution, and part of the income of the ministers
of all denominations is paid from the national treasury- The amount
thus granted in recent annual budgets was 4,568,200 francs to Roman
Catholics; 69,336 franc; to Protestants, and 11,220 francs to Jews,
being at the rate of 1 franc per head for the Catholics, of 5 francs per
head for the Protestants, and of 1\ francs for the Jews.

The kingdom is divided into six Roman Catholic-- dioceses,
namely, the Archbishopric of Malines and the Bishoprics of Bruges,
Ghent, Liege, Namur, and Tournay. The archbishopric has three
vicars-general and a chapter of twelve canons, and each of the
bishoprics two vicars-general and a chapter of eight canons. In
each diocese is an ecclesiastical seminary. There are few endow-
ments, and the clergy derive their maintenance chiefly from fees and
voluntary gifts. The salaries paid by the state are comparatively
small, being 21,000 francs, or 840/. to the archbishop ; 16,000 francs,
or 640/. to each of the five bishops; 2,000 francs, or 80/. to canons,
and from 600 to 800 francs, or 24/. to 32/. to the inferior parish
clergy. At the last census, there were 993 convents in Belgium, of
which number 145 were for men and 848 for women.

The Protestant Evangelical Church, to which belong the greater
number of the Protestants in the kingdom, is under a synod com-
posed of the clergymen of the body, and a representative from each
of the congregations. It sits in Brussels once a year, when each
member is required to be present, or to delegate his powers to
another member. The English Episcopal Church has eight minis-
ters, and as many chapels, in Belgium — three in Brussels, and one
in eacli of the towns of Antwerp, Bruges, Ostend, Spa, and Ghent.
The Jews have a central synagogue in Brussels ; three branch
synagogues of the first class at Antwerp, Ghent and Liege, and two
of the second class at Arlon and Namur.

Education is at present almost entirely the monopoly of the
Roman Catholic clergy, and to a great extent in that of the order of
the Jesuits. The colleges of the Jesuits have more pupils than
the royal athenseums and other upper and middle-class schools,
Avhile the Roman Catholic university of Louvain has twice as many
students as the two universities of the state put together. Elemen-
tary education is not yet generally diffused among the people, and
the existing schools are supported by the communes, the provinces,
and the State combined, the Government paying one-sixth, the
province one-sixth, and the commune four-sixths of the expendi-
ture. There is no compulsory law of education in Belgium.

THE

3TATESMANS YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

It appears from official returns, base I upon recent examinations of
the National Guards, or Civic Militia of the kingdom, that about
30 per cent, of the growa-up population are unable to read and write.
Luxembourg contains the smallest proportion of illiterate persons,
and the other provinces come in the following order as regards in-
struction: Natnur, Antwerp, Liege. Brabant, Limbourg, Hainaut,
West and East Flanders. About 44,000 youths of 19 are annually-
called upon to draw lots for military service, and the following
figures show the education of these ' miliciens ' of the two levies of
1865 and 187; : —

1«(J5

1S74

Able neither to read nor write ....

Able to read alone ......

Able to rea i and writs ......

I Higher attainments ......

Education unknown . ■

13,828

2,808

12.912

15,086

571

8,727

1.976

15.726

16,228

654

Total ' miliciens' of year ....

44,455

43,311

Proportion per ce it. who could read and write

6398 73-78

In the year 1874 the expenditure for public education amounted
to 9,701,628 francs, or 388,064/.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The public inc une and expenditure of Belgium in recent years
have mostly been balanced, with an occasional surplus. The actual
revenue for the year 1873, the last of which the accounts were pub-
lished, amounted to 184,223.000 francs, or 7,368,920/., and the
actual expenditure to 173,948,000 francs, or 6,957,920/., leaving a
surplus of 10,275,000 francs, or 411,000/.

The gross revenue and expenditure of Belgium, for each of the
ten years 1868 to 1877 — actual for the first six, and estimated for
the last four years — are shown in the subjoined table : —

Years

Revenue

Expenditure

1868

6,776,131

6,876,466

1869

6,975,040

7,061,000

1870

7,061,943

7,059.127

1871

7,124,960

6,774,516

1872

7,556,560

7,336,964

1873

7,368,920

6,957,920

1S74

9,185,720

9,456.696

1875

9,721,304

9,531,256

1876

10,009,760

9,790,480

1877

10,161,830

9,857,700

BELGIUM.

The following table gives the details of the budget estimates of
gross revenue and expenditure for each of the years 1876 and 1877 : —

Sources of Revenue

Land taxes

Assessed taxes

Trade licenses

Mines ....

Customs ....

Succession duties

Excise on foreign wines & spirits
,, native spirits
,, beer and vinegar
,, sugar

Registration duties and fines

Domains

Post office

Railways and Telegraphs

Packet -boats between Dover and
Ostend

Miscellaneous receipts

Total revenue

1876

Francs.

21, 17-"). 000

1 1,500,000

6,300.000

1,000,000

16,000,000

16,570.000
2,730,000

15,275.000

10,367.ooo
3,120.000

23,300.000
2,220,000
5,428.000

88,900,000

1,200.000
22,159,000

\<:

Francs
21,553,000
14,900,000

C,3oo.iMKi

1,000,000

17,600,000

16,740.000
•-'.'.157,000

15,600.000

10,367.000
3,120,000

23,500,000
2,230.000
5,581.000

88,900,000

1,200,000

22,497,000

25o.244.000
10,009,760

254,045,000
10,161,830

Branches of Expenditure

187G

1877

Interest on public debt .
Civil list and dotations .
Ministry of Justice

„ Foreign Affairs

„ Interior

„ Public Works

„ Army .

,, Finance
Miscellaneous expenditure

Francs
61,170,000

4.154,000
15.568,000

1,613,000
19,375 000
82.459)000
43,938,000
15.144,000

1,041.000

Francs
61,299,000

4,454,000
15,778,000

1,620,000 1
19,548,000
82,510,000
43,869,000
15,243,000

1,120,000

Total expenditure •! .

244,762,000 246,445,000
9,790,480 ' 9,857,700

It will be seen that the greater part of the revenue of the kingdom
is derived from indirect taxation, and that about one-third of the
expenditure is devoted to administrative purposes, while the other
two-thirds fall to the charges for public works, the army, and the
national debt.

The following table shows the total amount of the national liabili-
ties of the kingdom on the 1st of June 187o : —

THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Nominal Capital

Descriptions of Debt

Original

Paid -off

Remaining on
1st June, 1873

Annual interest •

Francs

2|% Old Debt . .

389,417,631

169,312,000

220,105,631

5,502.640

3% of 1838 & 1846.

58,474,800

44,058,800

14,416.000

432,480

U% 1st series, 1844

95,442,832

39,978,649

55,464,182

„ 2nd „ 1844

84,656,000

17,147,500

67,508,500

„ 3rd „ 1853

157,615,300

16,158,400

141,456,900

„ 4th „ 1857
and 1860 . . .

69,382,000

3,486,600

65.895,400

>■ 20,251,232

„ 5th „ 1865

59,325,000

612,600

58.712,400

6th „ 1867

and 1869 . . .

60,990,000

—

60,990,000

4% of April 1873

Total . .

240,000,000
1,115,303,563

—

240,000,000

9,600,000.1

290,754,549

924,549,013

35,786,352

48,612,142

11,630,182

36,981,960

1,431,454

To the 1st of January 1876 the total capital of the debt had
increased to 1,174,372,148 francs, or 46,974,885/., the amount in-
cluding annuities, of a total of 168,280,000 francs, or 6,731,200/.,
and Treasury bonds of 25,000,000 francs, or 1,000,000/.

The" 2i% old debt, and the 2nd series of the 44/% debt, repre-
sent the share which Belgium had to take in the national liabilities
of the Netherlands, after separating from that kingdom. Almost the
entire remainder of the debt of Belgium was raised for, and devoted
to works of public utility, particularly the construction of state rail-
ways. There is a sinking fund attached to all descriptions of the
debt, with the exception of the 2^% old debt. By a law passed on
the 12th of June, 1869, the government was authorised to reduce the
fixed annual payments out of the sinking fund for the whole of the
4i% debt. It is calculated that the amount spent on productive
public works, railways, roads, and canals, exceeds the sum total of
the public debt of Belgium. — (Official Communication.)

Army.

The standing army is formed by conscription, to which every able
man who has completed his nineteenth year is liable. Substitution
is permitted. The legal period of service is eight years, of which,
however, two-thirds are allowed, as a rule, on furlough. According
to a law passed on the 5th of April 1868, the strength of the army
is to be of 100,000 men on the war-footing, and of 40,000 in times
of peace. The war- footing is prescribed as follows, rank and file: —

BELGIUM.

Infantry
Cavalry.
. Artillery
Engineers and train

Total, without officers

Men

74,1)00
7,903

14,513
2,354

Horses

Guns

6,572
4,050

152
152

98,770

10,622

The actual number of soldiers under arms, on the 1st of June,
1876, amounted to 37,391 rank and file, comprising 24,409 infantry,
5,114 cavalry, 6,331 artillery, 667 engineers, and 570 train. Be-
sides the standing army, there is a Civic Militia — Garde Nationale —
organised, under laws dated May 1848, and July 13, 1853, to
maintain liberty and order in times of peace, and to defend the
independence of the country in time of war. The chief military
arsenal of the kingdom is Antwerp, the fortifications of which were
Greatly strengthened and enlarged in the years 1870-76, at a cost of
72,150,000 francs, or 2,886,000/.

By a royal decree passed Oct. 20, 1874, the kingdom was divided
into two military circumscriptions, the first embracing the provinces
of Antwerp and of West and East Flanders, and the second Brabant,
Hainaut, Liege, Limbourg, Luxembourg, and Namur.

Area and Population.

Belgium has an area of 29,455 square kilometres, or 11,373
English square miles. The kingdom is divided into nine provinces,
the area and population of which were as follows at the last decen-
nial census, taken Dec. 31, 1866, and after the calculations of the
Registrar-General, on Dec. 31, 1873 : —

Provinces

Area :
Eng. Sq. Miles

Population

186G

1S73

Antwerp (Anvers)
Brabant

Flanders f J'ef
[ East

Hainaut

Liege ....

Limbourg

Luxembourg

Namur

Total

1,093 474.145
1,268 820,179
1,249 639,709
1,158 801,872
1,437 847,775
1,117 .556,666
931 199,856
1,706 196,173
1,114 302,719

.513,543
922.468
82,921
54,366
932,036
023,165
202,922
200,069
316,331

11,373

4,839,094

5,253,821

D 2

2,6 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

It will he seen that Belgium had, at the end of 1873, a population
of 5,253,821 on an area of 11,372 English square miles, or 460 per
square mile, showing the kingdom to be the densest inhabited country
in Europe. About fifty-eight per cent, of the inhabitants are Flemish,
the rest Walloon and French, with 39,000 Germans in Luxembourg.

At the date of the last general census, the Flemish language alone
was spoken by 2,406,491 persons ; the French language, or dialect,
alone by 2,041,784 persons, and both languages were spoken by
308,361 persons.

The population of Belgium has increased very steadily since the
establishment of the kingdom in 1830, when it amounted to barely
four millions. The density of population at that period was that of
118 inhabitants per square kilometre ; and from 1830 forward it
rose almost exactly at the rate of one per annum — 119 in 1831 ;
120 in 1832, and so forth, reaching the figure 178 in 1873. Accord-
ing to the last census returns, one-fourth of the population of Belgium
is engaged in agricultural pursuits, and another fourth in trade and
manufactures, chiefly the staple industries, the iron and coal trades.

The tendency, visible in most European countries, of an agglome-
ration of the people in the larger towns, is also apparent in Belgium,
Of this Brussels is the most striking example. There were, in 1800,
only 66,297 inhabitants in the town, and 10,129 in the suburbs of
Brussels, while the number at the end of 1873 amounted to 365,404.
Besides Brussels, there were, on the 31st December, 1873, three
towns in Belgium with a population of above 100,000 inhabitants,
namely, Antwerp, with 141,910; Ghent, with 128,424; and
Liege, with 113,774 inhabitants.

Trade and Industry.

The foreign trade of Belgium, the same as that of France, is offi-
cially divided into ' general commerce,' including the sum total of
all international mercantile intercourse, direct as well as transit,
and ' special commerce,' comprising such imports as are consumed
within and such exports as have been produced in the country.
The value of the general commerce in 1875 was represented
by 2,456,583,000 francs, or 98,263,320/. of imports, and by
2,167,843,000 francs, or 86,713,720/. of exports. The special
commerce was as follows in 1875 : — Imports for home consumption,
1,458,375,000 francs, or 58,335,000/.; Exports of home produce,
1,123,682,000 francs, or 44,947,280/.

France heads the list of importing countries in the sj)ecial
commerce of Belgium, .followed, in order of importance, by
Great Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, l^ussia, and the United
States. In the export market of Belgian j)i*oduce France likewise

BELGIUM. 37

takes the first place, followed by Great Britain, the Netherlands,
and Germany.

The commercial intercourse of Belgium with Great Britain is
shown in the subjoined tabular statement, giving the total exports
from Belgium to the United Kingdom, and the total imports into
Belgium of the produce and manufactures of Great Britain and
Ireland, in each of the ten years 1866 to 1875 : —

Exports'from Belgium

Imports of British Home

to Great Britain

Produce into Belgium

1866

7,906,849

2,861,386

1867

7,555,202

2,816,481

1868

8,255,043

3,150,105

1869

9,391,403

4,003,535

1870

11,247,864

4,481,079

1871

13,573,274

6,217,005

1872

13,211,044

6,499,062

1873

13.075,186

7,200,949

1874

15,048,865

5,828,092

1875

14,822,240

5.781,938

The staple article of exports from Belgium to the United King-
dom consists in silk manufactures, oi the value of 2,506,940/. in 1875.
The other articles of export to Great Britain comprise chiefly
agricultural produce, among them flax, of the value of 982,688/. ,
butter, of the value of 499,028/. ; and live animals, principally sheep,
of the value of 564,778/. in 1875. The imports of British home
produce into Belgium consist in the main of iron, and of woollen and
cotton manufactures, the iron of the value of 672,189/., the
woollens of the value of 676,492/., and the cottons of the value of
973,596/. in the year 1875.

The international commerce of the kingdom is almost entirely
carried on by foreigners, chiefly under the British flag. The com-
mercial marine, on the decline for a number of years, consisted at
bhe end of 1875 of 57 vessels of an aggregate burthen of 45,322
tons, inclusive of 24 steamers of a total burthen of 30,397 tons.

One of the most important natural productions of Belgium, and
■chief basis of its industry, is coal, Avhich is found in three of the
nine provinces of the kingdom, Hainaut, Liege, and Namur, about
three-fourths of the total annual produce being raised in the first-
named province. The total amount of coal raised in Belgium in
the year 1875 was 14,669,029 tons, to which Hainaut contributed
1.0,698,130 tons; Liege, 3,530,775 tons; and Namur, 440,124
tons. The total quantity of coal raised in Hainaut in 1 cS 7 4 was
11,652.953 tuns, and in L872 it was 1 i ,<\ 1 ii. 1 66 tons. In the
1862 to 1871 the annual coal production of Hainaut fluctuated be-
tween nine and ton millions of tons.

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The imports of foreign coal into Belgium amounted in 1875 to
458,282 tons, being more than in 1872 but less than in 1873. In
the above total English coal counted for 243,361 tons, and Prussian
for 76,000. The exports of coal in 1875 amounted to 4,461,723
tons, being a decrease by 721,650 tons as compared with 1872, and
by 271,537 as compared with 1873. The aggregate value of coal
and coke exported in 1874 was 5,130,883/., or 687,677/. less than
in 1873. The great bulk of these exports went to France.

In Belgium the State is a great railway proprietor, and the State
Railway is one of the largest sources of national revenue. The sub-
joined tabular statement shows the length of railways, distinguishing
State and private lines, open in Belgium at the end of 1875 : —

Lines built and worked by the State

Lines belonging to Companies, but leased by the^

State J

f Kilom.

Total of State Keseau
Lines worked by Companies , .

Total lines open .

Kilometres

I Miles.

f Kilom. 1
(Miles. I
i Kilom.}
1 Miles. !

595

746

1,341

838

2,029
1,268

3.370
2,105

The cost of the permanent way and buildings of the State Bail-
way amounted to 18,280/. per mile. The net revenue of the State
Railway amounts at present to 1,508/. per mile ; but the working
expenses are very high, amounting to 68 per cent. It is stated that
neither the railways nor the lines of steamers belonging to the State
are a real source of profit. An official report on the finances of
Belgium by Sir Henry Barron, British Secretary of Legation, dated
Brussels, April 10, 1876, says: — 'The Belgian Government now
carries on a vast carrier's business by land and sea, of which the
gross receipts are large, the net receipts small, and the profits nil.
This result, not apparent without a close study of the accoimts, is
due to the excessive proportion of working expenses.'

The work of the Post Office in Belgium was as follows in the
year 1875 : —

Private letters ......

Official letters ......

Post Cards

Packets .......

Newspapers .......

On the 1 st of January, 1876, there were 486 Post Offices in Belgium.

The Telegraphs in Belgium carried 2,871,890 despatches, private

and official, in the year 1875. On the 1st of January, 1876, the

Number

60,522,771

8,499,343

7,848,651

33,335,710

65,480,125

BELGIUM. 39

total length of telegraph lines -was 4,959 kilometres, or 3,098 English

miles, and the length of wires 21,102 kilometres, or 13,189 English
miles. There were at the same date 586 telegraph stations.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Of Belgium in Great Britain.

Envoy and Minister — Baron Henri Solvyns, appointed October 18, 1S72.
Councillor of Legation — Arthur Vandevelde.
Secretaries — Count A. du Chastel ; Octave Delepierre.

2. Of Great Britain- in Belgium.

Envoy and Minister — John Savile Lmnley, C.B.. born in 1825; British
Charge d' Affaires in Bussia, 1862 and I860"; Envoy to Saxony, 186G-67 ; to
Switzerland, 1867-68; and appointed to Belgium, October 19, 1868.

Secretaries of Legation — Sir H. P. T. Barron, Bart. ; Edmund D. V. Fane;
John Savile Lumley.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Belgium, and the British
equivalents, are as follows: —

Money.
The Franc Average rate of exchange, 25 to £1 sterling.

Weights and Measures.
he Kilogramme, or Litre . . = 2-20 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Tonneau . . . . = 2,200 ,, „

tt7 . ,-, f Dry measure . = 2-75 imperial bushels.
^ Liquid measure = 22 imperial gallons.

„ Metre = 3-28 feet.

., Metre Oube . . = 35-31 cubic feet.

„ Kilometre- . . = 1,093 yards.

,, Hectare — 2-47 English acres

,, Square Kilometre . . = 247' 11 English acres,

or 0-386 square miles.

Belgium was one of the four Continental States — comprising,
besides, France, Italy, and Switzerland — which formed a Monetary
League in 1865. The four States entered into a Convention by
which they agreed upon the French decimal system, establishing
perfect reciprocity in the currency of the four countries, and giving
the franc, livre, or lira, the monetary unit of each of them, as well
as its multiples or fractions in gold or silver, the same course and
value throughout the extent of their respective territories.

Statistical and other Eooks of Reference concerning Belgium.

1. Official Publications.

Aim anach Royal Officiel de Belgique, contenant les attributions et le per-
sonnel de tons les services publics du royaume. Annee is;i;. Bruxelles, 1876.
Annuaire statistique de la Belgique. I. Bruxelles, 1876.

40 TEE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK. 1877.

Documents Statistiques, publics par le depart, de l'lnterieur, avec leeoneours
de la commission centrale de statistique. Bruxelles, 1875.

Population de la Belgique. Recensement general. Publie par le Ministre
de l'lnterieur. 4. Bruxelles, 1871.

Statistique generale de la Belgique, publie par le depart, de l'lnterieur. 8.
Bruxelles, 1865-75.

Tableau general du commerce avec les pays etrangers, publie par le ministre
des finances. 4. Bruxelles, 1875.

Report by Mr. E. H. Egerton, British Secretary of Legation, on the pro-
duction of coal in Belgium, dated Nov. 28, 1868; in 'Reports of H. M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. I. 1870. 8. London, 1870.

Report by Mr. H. G. Edwardes, British Secretary of Legation, on the coal
statistics of Belgium for the years 1868, 1869, and 1870, dated Brussels,
December 1, 1871 ; in ' Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Lega-
tion.' No. I. 1872. 8. London. 1872.

Report by Mr. H. Barron, British Secretary of Legation, on the population,
commerce, and industry of Belgium, dated Brussels, March 5, 1875 ; in ' Report,
by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Parti. 1875. 8. London,

Report of Sir Henry Barron, Secretary of Legation, of the finances and
railways of Belgium, dated Brussels, April 10, 1876; in 'Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part II. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Report by Mr. Vice-Consul D'Arcy on the trade of Ostend. dated Ostend,
December 2, 1874; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1875. 8.
London, 1875.

Report by Mr. Consul Grattan on the trade and commerce of Antwerp for
the year 1874; dated Antwerp. March 22, 1875; in 'Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part V. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. Consul Grattan, on the trade of Antwerp in 1875, dated
Antwerp, .Tan. 31, 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1876.
8. London, 1876.

Trade of Belgium with the United Kingdom; in 'Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Eoreign Countries for the year 1875.' Imp.
4. London 1876.

2. Non-Officiax Publications.

Annuaire financier de la Belgique. 8. Bruxelles, 1876.

Bavary (Ch. Victor de), Ilistoire de la Revolution Beige de 1830. 8.
Bruxelles, 1876.

Janssins (Eug.) Annuaire de la mortalite, ou tableau statistique des causes de
deces et (tu mouvement de la population. 8. Bruxelles, 1876.

Laveleye (E. de) Essai sur l'economie Rurale dela Belgique. 8. Paris, 1865.

Malou (J.) Notice historique sur les finances de la Belgique. Fol. Paris, 1868.

Meuhmans (Aug.) La. Belgique, ses ressources agricoles, industrielles et
commerciales. 8. Bruxelles, 1866.

Tarlier (II.), Almanach du commerce et de l'industrie de la Belgique.
8. Bruxelles, 1876.

DENMARK.

(KONGERIGET DaNMAUK.)

Reigning1 Sovereign and Family.

Christian IX., King of Denmark, born April 8, 1818, the fourth
son of the late Duke Wilhelm of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
Gliicksburg, and of Princess Louise of Hesse-Cassel. Appointed to
the succession of the Crown of Denmark by the treaty of London,
of May 8, 1852, and by the Danish law of succession of July 31,
1853. Succeeded to the throne on the death of King Frederik VII.,
November 15, 1863. Married, May 26, 1842, to

Louise, Queen of Denmark, born Sept. 7, 1817, the daughter of
Landgrave Wilhelm of Hesse-Cassel. Issue of the union are: — 1.
Prince Frederik, heir- apparent, born June 3, 1843 ; married July
28, 1869, to Princess Lou-isa, only daughter of the King of Sweden
and Norway ; offspring of the union are two sons, Christian, born
Sept. 26, 1870, and Karl, born August 3, 1872, and a daughter
Lowisa, born Feb. 17, 1875. 2. Princess A lexandra, born Dec. 1,
1844; married, March 10, 1863, to Albert Edward, Prince of
Wales. 3. Prince Wilhelm, born Dec. 24, 1845 ; admiral in the
Danish navy ; elected King of the Hellenes, under the title of
Georgios I., by the Greek National Assembly, March 31. 1863;
married Oct. 27, 1867, to Olga Constantinowna, Grand-Duchess of
Russia. 4. Princess Maria Dagmar, born Nov. 26, 1847 ; married,
Nov. 9, 1866, to Grand-duke Alexander, heir-apparent of Russia.
5. Princess Thyra, born Sept. 29, 1853. 6. Prince Waldemar,
born Oct. 27, 1858.

Brothers and Sisters of the King. — 1. Duke Karl, born Sept.
30, 1813; married, May 19, 1838, to Princess Wilhelmina, born
Jan. 18, 1808, daughter of the late King Frederik AH. of D
mark. 2. Princess Frederica, born Oct. 9, 1811; married, Oct.
30, 1834, to Duke Alexander of Anhait Bernburg; widow .'
19, 1863. 3. Prince Friedrich, born Oct. 2:!, L814; married, Oc .
16, 1841, to Princess Adelaide of Schaumburg-Lippe, of which
union there are issue two sons and three daughters, namely,
u usta, born Feb. 27, 1844; Friedrich, born Oct. 12, 1855;
Louise, born Jan. 6, 1858; Marie, bora Aug. 31, L859 ;
Albert, 1mm March 15, 1863. ■!. Prince Wilhelm, born .'
10, 1816: field-ma iitenant in the service of Austria.

42 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

5. Princess Louise, born Nov. 18, 1820; nominated abbess of the
convent of Itzehoe, Holstein, Aug. 8, 1860. G. Prince Julias, born
Oct. 14, 1824; general in the Danish army. 7. Prince Hans,
born Dec. 5, 1825, general in the Danish army.

The Crown of Denmark was elective from the earliest times. In
1448, after the death of the last male scion of the princely House
of Svend Estridsen, the Danish Diet elected to the throne Christian I.,
Count of Oldenburg, in whose family the royal dignity remained for
more than four centuries, although the crown was not rendered here-
ditary by right till the year 1GG0. The direct male line of the House
of Oldenburg became extinct with the sixteenth king, Frederik VII.,
on November 15, 1863. In view of the death of the king without
direct heirs, the great powers of Europe, ' taking into consideration
that the maintenance of the integrity of the Danish monarchy, as
connected with the general interests of the balance of power in
Europe, is of high importance to the preservation of peace,' signed a
treaty at London on May 8, 1852, by the terms of which the suc-
cession to the Crown of Denmark was made over to Prince Christian
of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-GlLicksburg, and to the direct
male descendants of his union with the Princess Louise of Hesse-
Cassel, niece of King Christian VIII. of Denmark. In accordance
with this treaty, a law concerning the succession to the Danish crown
was adopted by the Diet, and obtained the royal sanction July 31,
1853.

King Christian IX. has a civil list oi 500,000 rigsdalers, or 55,555/.,
settled upon him by vote of the Rigsraad, approved Dec. 17, 18G3.
The heir-apparent of the Crown has, in addition, an allowance of
60,000 rigsdalers, or 6,666/., settled by law of March 20, 1868.

Subjoined is a list of the kings of Denmark, with the dates of their
accession, from the time of election of Christian I. of Oldenburg : —

House of Oldenburg.

A.D.

Christian I. .

. i448

Christian V.

. 1670

Hans

. 1481

Frederik IV.

. 1699

Christian II. .

. 1513

Christian VI.

. 173()

Frederik I. .

. 1523

Frederik V. .

. 1746

Christian III.

. 1533

Christian VII.

. 1766

Frederik II. .

. 1559

Frederik VI.

1808

Christian IV.

. 1588

Christian VIII. .

. 1839

Frederik III. .

. 1648

Frederik VII.

. 1848

House of Schh'siciff-Hoi 'stein -Sonderburg- Grlucksburg.
Christian IX., 1863.

The sixteen members of the House of Oldenburg, who filled the
throne of Denmark lor 415 years, had an average reign of 26
years.

DENMARK. 43

Constitution and Government.

The present Constitution of Denmark is embodied in the charter
of June 5, 1849, which was modified in some important respects
in 1855 and 1868, but again restored, with various alterations, by
a statute which obtained the royal sanction on July 28, 18(50.
According to this charter, the executive power is in the king and
his responsible ministers, and the right of making and amending
laws in the Rigsdag, or Diet, acting in conjunction with the sove-
reign. The king must be a member of the evangelical Lutheran
Church, which is declared to be the religion of the State. The
Rigsdag comprises the Landsthing and the Folkething, the former
being a Senate or Upper House, and the latter a House of Com-
mons. The Landsthing consists of 60 members. Of these, 12
are nominated for life by the Crown, from among actual or former
members of the Folkething, and the rest are elected indirectly by the
people, for the term of eight years. The choice of the latter 54 mem-
bers of the Upper House is given to electoral bodies composed partly
of the largest taxpayers in the country districts, partly of deputies of
the largest taxpayers in the cities, and partly of deputies from the
totality of citizens possessing the franchise. Eligible to the Lands-
thing is every citizen who has passed his twenty-fifth year, and is of
unspotted reputation. The Folkething, or Lower House of Parlia-
ment, consists of 102 members, returned in direct election, by
universal suffrage, for the term of three years. The franchise belongs
to every male citizen who has reached his thirtieth year, who is
not in the actual receipt of public charity, or who, if he has at any
former time been in receipt of it, has repaid the sums so received,
who is not in private service without having his own household, and
who has resided at least one year in the electoral circle on the lists
of which his name is inscribed. Eligible for the Folkething are all
men of good reputation, past the age of twenty-five. Both the
members of the Landsthing and of the Folkething receive payment
for their services, at the same rate.

The Rigsdag must meet every year on the first Monday of Octo-
ber. To the Folkething all money bills must in the first instance
be submitted by the Government. The Landsthing, besides its L
lative functions, has the duty of electing from its midsl every four
years the assistant judges, four in number, of the lliiicsterct. or
Supreme Court, who, together with the Rigsred, form the highest
tribunal of the kingdom, and can alone try parliamentary impeach-
ments. The ministers have free access to both of the legislative
assemblies, but can only vote in that Chamber of which they are
members.

The executive, acting under the king as president, and called

44 TIIE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

the State Council — Statsraadet — consists of the following depart-
ments : —

1. The Presidency of the Council. — Jacob Bronnum Scavenius
Estrub, appointed President of the Council of Ministers, and
Minister of Finance, June 11, 1875.

2. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Otto Ditler, Baron Rosenom-
Lehn, appointed October 11, 1875.

3. Ministry of the Interior. — E. V. R. Skeel, appointed June 15,
1875.

4. Ministry of Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. —
J. C. H. Fischer, appointed June 11, 1875.

5. Ministry of Justice and for Iceland. — J. M. V. Nellemann,
appointed June 11, 1875.

6. Ministry of War and of Marine. — General Wolfgang von
Haffher, appointed June 11, 1875.

The ministers are individually and collectively responsible for
their acts, and in case of impeachment, and being found guilty,
cannot be pardoned without the consent of the Folkething.

The chief of the dependencies of the Crown of Denmark, Iceland,
has its own constitution and administration, under a charter dated
January, 5, 1874, and which came into force August 1, 1874. By
the terms of this charter, the legislative poAver is vested in the
Althing, consisting of 36 members, 80 elected by popular suffrage,
and six nominated by the King. The Althing is one chamber, but
for discussion and partly for voting purposes, separates into two,
like the Norwegian Storthing. A minister for Iceland, nominated
by the King and responsible to the Althing, is at the head of the
Administration : while the highest local authority is vested in the
Governor, called stiftamtmand, who resides at Reikjavik. Besides
him there are three amtmands for the western, the northern, and
eastern districts of Iceland.

Church, and Education.

The established religion in Denmark is the Lutheran, which was
introduced as early as 1536, the Church revenue being at that
time seized by the Crown, to be delivered up to the University, and
other religious and educational establishments The affairs of the
national Church are under the superintendence of the seven bishops
of Sjalland, Lolland, Fyen, Kibe, Aarhuus, Viborg, and Aalborg.
The bishops have no political character ; they inspect the conduct
of the subordinate clergy, confer holy orders, and enjoy nearly all
the privileges of episcopal dignitaries in Great Britain, except that of
voting in the legislature. Complete religious toleration is extended to
every sect. It is enacted, by Art. 76 of the Constitution, that 'all
citizens may worship God according to their own fashion, provided

DENMARK. 45

they do not offend morality or public order.' By Art. 77, no man
is bound to contribute to the support of a form of worship of "which
he is not a member; and by Art. 70 no man can be deprived of his
civil and political rights on the score of religion, nor be exempted
on this account from the performance of his duties as a citizen.

According to the census of 1870, there were only 14,614 persons,
or less than one per cent, of the population, not belonging to the
Lutheran church. Of this number 4,400, or nearly one-third, were
Jews; the remainder comprised 1,857 Roman Catholics; 1,430
members of the Reformed church, or Calvinists; 2,0G9 Mormons;
8,157 Anabaptists ; 57 members of the Anglican church ; and 1,181
members of a sect called ' Frimenighed,' or the free community.

Elementary education is widely diffused in Denmark, the attend-
ance at school being obligatory from the age of seven to fourteen.
In conformity with Art. 85 of the Constitution, education is
afforded gratuitously in the pitblic schools to children whose parents
cannot afford to pay for their teaching. Besides the university of
Copenhagen, there are 13 public gymnasia, or colleges, in the prin-
cipal towns of the kingdom, which afford a ' classical ' education,
and under them are a large number of Middle Schools, for the
children of the trading, and higher working classes. Instruction at
the public expense is given in the Parochial Schools, spread all over
the country, to the number of 2,940, namely 28 in Copenhagen ;
132 in the towns of Denmark, and 2,780 in the rural districts.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The annual revenue of the State during the five financial years
ending March 31, from 1872 to 1876 averaged 2,500,000/. The
expenditure during this quinquennial period was fully balanced by
the revenue, with an annual surplus, employed for the reduction of
the public debt.

By the terms of the Constitution of Denmark the annual financial
budget, called the ' Finantslovforslag,' must be laid on the table of
the Folkething at the beginning of each session. As to the annual
financial accounts called ' Statsregnskale,' the Constitutional Charter
prescribes them to be examined by five paid revisors, two of whom
are elected by the Folkething, and two by the Landsthing. The
revisors are entitled to call for persons and papers, and their
scrutiny of accounts is very rigid. Their report is submitted to
both Chambers, which, alter due consideration, pass their resolution,
generally to the effect that they have no remarks to make on the
balance-sheet.

In the budget estimates of revenue and expenditure for the finan-
cial year ending March 31, 1877, the revtnue was calculated at

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

48,085,952 Kroner, or 2,671,441/., and the expenditure at 4G, 095,071
Kroner, or 2,594,170/. The chief sources of revenue and branches
of expenditure were as follows : —

Sources of Revenue 1876-77.
Domains, surplus of .
Interest of Keserve Fund ....

Direct taxes .......

Stamp duty ... ...

Duty ou inheritance and transfer of property
Law fees .......

Custom-house dues and Excise on distilleries
Surplus on Postal and Telegraph Department
Surplus on State railways in Funen and Jutland
Contribution from the sinking fund
Miscellaneous receipts. ....

Total expenditivre

Kroner.
1,734,322
2,876,494
8,385,050
2,100.000
1,235,000
1,760,000
24,202,000
400,920
1,968,000
1,331,880
2,102,286

Total revenue ....

. 48,085,952

£2.571,441

Branches of Expenditure 187G-77.

Kroner.

Civil List and Appanages .....

1,442,544

House of Parliament and Council of State .

294,616

Interest on National Debt —

Foreign ........

849,700

Pensions, including invalids of war

3,433,089

Ministry of Foreign Affairs ....

383,512

„ Interior ......

1,508,226

,, Justice ......

2,260,414

„ Public Worship and Education .

932,697

War . . . . '.

8,593,247

Navy

4,774.802

„ Finance . . ....

2,960,706

„ for Iceland .....

109,209

Miscellaneous expenses .....

2,906,007

Management and sinking fund of the National Debt

—

200,000

4,802,500

46,695,071
£2,594.170

It will be seen that there was a calculated surplus of 1,390,881
Kroner, or 77,271/. in the financial estimates for the year ending
March 31, 1877.

An important feature in the administration of the finances of the
kingdom is the maintenance of a Reserve Fund of a comparatively
large amount. On the 31st of March, 18G8, the Fund stood at
6,317,000/., or as much as the national revenue for two years, but it

DKNMAEK.

was reduced to 5,687,000/. in 1869, and further reduced to 5,033,000Z.
in 1871, to 3,746,000/. in 1872, and stood on the 31st of March,
1875, at 2,255,000/. The object of the Reserve Fund is to provide
means at the disposal of the government in the event of sudden
occurrences.

The public debt of Denmark, incurred in part by large annual
deficits in former years, before the establishment of parliamentary
government, and in part by railway undertakings, and the con-
struction of harbours, lighthouses, and other works of public
importance, amounted to 185,835,623 Kroner, or 10,324,201/., on
March 31, 1875. The debt has been in course of reduction since
1866, as shown in the -following table, which gives the national
liabilities at six different periods, from 1866 to 1875 : —

Years,
ending March 31

Capital of Debt

1866
1869
1870
1872
1874
1875

Kroner
262,232,680
257,426,496
234,740,700
229,321,567
209,971,584
185.835,623

£
14,568,483
14,301,472
12.930,039
12,740,087
11,665,088
10,324,201

The annual charge of the national debt, comprising interest,
management, and a sinking fund, is gradually diminishing. It
amounted to the following sums in each of the financial years
1867-69, and in the estimates of 1876-77 : —

Years

Kroner

1866-67 .
1868-69 .
1876-77 .

24,066,946
23,825.190
12,596.733

1,337.053

1,323,622

699,818

The debt is divided into an internal and a foreign. The latter
consisted, March 1876, in part of an English loan contracted in 1825,
of the original amount of 5,500,000/., which is to be paid off entirely
in 1877, and of another loan, raised in London in 1864, the last
portion of which, 556,000/., was paid on the 1st of January 1876.
— (Official Communication.)

Army and Navy.

The army of Denmark consists, according to a law of re-organi-
sation, passed by the Rigsdag on July 0, 1867, of all the able

THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1877.

bodied young men of the kingdom who have reached the age of 22
years. They are liable to service for eight years in the regular army,
and for eight years subsequent in the army of reserve. The drilling
is divided into two periods : the first lasts six months for the
infantry, five months for the field artillery, and the engineers ; nine
months and two weeks for the cavalry ; and four months for the
siege artillery and the technic corps. The second period of drill,
which is for only a portion of the recruits of each branch of arms,
notably those who have profited the least by the first course, lasts
nine months for the infantry, eleven months for the cavalry, and one
vear for the artillery and the engineers. Besides, every corps has to
drill each year during from thirty to forty-five days. By the terms
of the law of 1867, the kingdom is divided into five territorial
brigades, and every brigade into two territorial battalions, in such
a way that no district and no town, the capital excepted, will belong
to more than one territorial battalion. Every territorial brigade fur-
nishes the contingent of a brigade of infantry and one regiment of
cavalry. The artillery contingent is furnished one-half by the two
first territorial brigades, and the second half by the three other ones.
The contingent of the engineers is furnished by the whole brigades.
The forces of the kingdom, under the new organisation, comprise
21 battalions of infantry of the line, with 10 battalions of reserve,
and 11 of second reserve; 5 regiments of cavalry, each with 3
squadrons active and a depot; two regiments of artillery, in 12
batteries, two of the line and one of reserve ; and tAvo battalions of
engineers. The total strength of the army was as follows at the
commencement of September 1876 : —

Regulai

Army

Army of Reserve

Infantry .
CaA*alry
Artillery .
Engineers .

i iffleers

Rank and File

Officers

Rank and File

774

128

145

26.992

2,180

4,755

624

245
41

10,925
2,068

Total .

1.106

1
34,551

286

12,993

The staff of the army was composed, in Septembsr 1876, of 25
commissioned and 21 non-commissioned officers.

The navy of Denmark comprised, at the commencement of Sep-
tember 1876. the following vessels, all steamers : —

DENMARK.

Name

Launched

Horse-
Power

Guns

1. Screw Steamers — Ironclads : —

Peeler Skram ......

1864

600

Dannebrog .......

1863

400

Eolf Krake

1863

235

Lindormen (Turret) .....

1868

360

Gorm (Turret) .....

1869

360

Odin (Turret)

1873

400

^toured vessels : —

Skjold

1858

300

Jylland

1860

400

Sjalland

1858

300

Niels Juel .

1855

300

Tordenskjold

1862

200

Dagmar

1861

300

Heimdal

1856

260

Thor .

1851

260

Fvlla .

1862

150

Diana .

1863

150

Absalon

1862

100

Esbern Snare

1862

100

Gunboats : — -

6 first-class, iron hull .....

—

480

1 second-class, ditto .....

—

240

2. Paddle Steamers : —

Holger Danske

1849

260

Slesvig

1845

240

Hekla .

1842

200

j (reiser .

1844

160

Skirner

1847

120

Total : 31 steamers.

6,875

314

The ironclads of the Danish navy are converted ships, on the
French model, with the exception of the Rolf Krake, the Lindurmen-
the Gorm, and the Odin. The Rolf Krake, built by Napier, of
Glasgow, is plated with A\ inch iron, and has two turrets, which
carry three 60-pounders. The Lindormen is plated from stem to
stern with 5-inch iron, over 10 inches wood-backing, and armed with
12\ tons rifled Armstrong cannon. Similar in construction to the
Lindormen is the Gorm. The most powerful o£ the ironclads in the
Danish navy is the Odin, constructed at the dockyard of Xyholm,
near Copenhagen, begun in 1870, and completed in 1873. The
Odin is plated with 8-inch iron amidships, and 5-inch fore ami .
and carries four 10-inch guns, of 19 tons each, sheltere i under a
rising turret on mid-deck, covering not only the guns but also
base of the chimnu} s and the upper part of the engines. The prow

5°

TIIE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

carries a steel battering-ram more than a foot square, and protruding
six feet, so arranged as to be screwed back into the hull.

The Danish navy is recruited, by naval conscription, from the coast
population. It was manned, in September 1876, by 911 men, and
officered by one admiral, 15 commanders, and 81 captains and lieu-
tenants.— (Official Communication. )

Area and Population.

The following table gives the area and population of Denmark,
according to the last census, taken February 1, 1870, together with
the estimated population on the 31st December, 1874.

Provinces

Area
English sq. m.

Population
Feb. 1, 1870 Dec. 31, 1874

Seeland and Moen .

Bornholm . . .

Fiinen and Langeland

Lolland-Falster

Jutland .....

Total .

2,793
221

1,302
640

9,597

637,711
.31,894

236,311
90,706

788,119

f70,200
33.200

245,900
92.700

832,000

14,553

1,784,741

1,874,000

Not included in the above returns are the three European depen-
dencies of Denmark, namely, the Faaroe, Iceland, and Greenland.
(See Colonies, page 53.)

The proportionate increase in the population of Denmark in recent
years has been larger in the towns than in the country districts,
averaging in the former 1(>29 per cent., and in the latter only 5-99
per cent, in the course of 15 years. The following was the population
of the four chieftowns at the enumerations of 1855, 1860, and 1870 : —

Chief Towns

Population

1855

I860

1870

181,291
16,721
13.020
11,953

Copenhagen (Kjobenliarn)

Odense ......

Aarlvuus ......

Aalborg ......

143,591

12,932

8,891

9,102

155,143
14.255
11,009
10,069

The soil of Denmark is greatly subdivided, owing partly to the
state of the law, which interdicts the union of small farms into
larger estates, but encourages, in various ways, the parcelling out
of landed property. It was found at the last census that out of an
average of 1,000 people, 395 live exclusively by agriculture.

Emigration carried off, chiefly to the United States, 4,359 per-

DENMARK.

sous in 1869; 3,525 in 1870; 8,906 in 1871; G,893 in 1872 ;
7,241 persons in 1873 ; and 3,322 in 1874.

Trade and Industry.

The commerce of Denmark is carried on mainly with Germany
and Great Britain. The precise value of the commercial transactions
with foreign countries is not known, as the Danish official returns
do not give the value of the imports or exports, but only the weight
of the same. The following table shows the comparative total weight
of the imports and exports for each of the years 1870 to 1874 : —

Years

Imports

Exports

Tons

1870

913,980

410,840

1871

988,280

518,750

1872

1,073,000

487,450

1873

1,069,020

553,870

1874

1,154,120

501,430

The imports of 1874 were valued at 115,364,448 kr., or 6,409, 136Z.,
and the exports of 1874 at 85,525,515 kroner, or 4,751,4121

The commercial intercourse between Denmark, including Iceland,
the Faroe Islands, and Greenland, and the United Kingdom is shown
in the subjoined tabular statement, exhibiting the value of the total
exports from Denmark to Great Britain and Ireland, aside with the
imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures into Denmark,
in each of the ten years 1866 to 1875 : —

Exports from Denmark to

Imports of British Home Produce

Great Britain

into Denmark

1866

2,291,909

1,202,811

1867

2,588,921

1,282,358

1868

2,470,398

1,450,359

1869

2,236,952

1,574,562

1870

3,053,425

2,021,611

1871

2,553,562

1,748,933

1872

3,618,337

2,056,390

1873

3,571,139

2,671,344

1874

3,890,492

2,519,522

1875

4,241,671

2,323,707

The exports of Denmark to the United Kingdom consist almost
entirely of agricultural produce, the principal of them butter, corn,
and live animals. The imports of butter rose from 767,190/. in
1870, to 1,009,332/. in 1872; and to 1,275,870/. in 1875. The
total exports of corn and flour amounted to the value of 1,269,809/. in

e 2

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

the year 1875, comprising 598,819/. for barley; 270,490/. for wheat;
185,803/. for oats; and 208,820/. for wheat flour. The exports of
live animals amounted to the value of 1,054,885/. in the year 1875,
comprising 563,043/. for oxen and bulls ; 299,005/. for cows and
calves. The exports of horses, of the value of 35,580/. in 1873,
sank to 19,810/. in 1875. Of British imports into Denmark, the prin-
cipal are cotton manufactures, coals, and iron. Of cotton manu-
factures the imports amoimted to 461,561/., of coals to 456,336/.,
and of iron, wrought and unwrought, to 388,959/. in the year
1875.

On March 31, 1875, the commercial fleet of Denmark consisted of
2,846 vessels, of an aggregate burthen of 212,600 tons. Of these
123, of 27,381 tons, were steamers, and 2,723, of a tonnage of
185,219, sailing vessels. Included in this account are all vessels of
not less than 4 tons. The commercial navy here enumerated, be-
longed to the following divisions of the kintrdom : —

Copenhagen, port of ....
Sealand, and adjacent islands
lumen and adjacent islands ....
Jutland .......

Total

Vessels

Tons

398
733
962
753

63.118
47,312
54,722

47,448

2,846

212,600

On the 1st of January 1876, there were railways of a total length
of 119 Danish miles, or 561 Engl, miles, open for traffic in the
kingdom. During the year 1874, two new lines of railway were
completed through the islands of Falster and Lolland, terminating
at the port of Nakskow, connected with England by a newly
established line of steamers. In course of construction at the com-
mencement of 1875 was a line, made at the expense of the govern-
ment, through the middle and western part of Jutland, terminating
at the village of Esbjerg, near the frontier of Germany.

The Post Office in the year 1874 carried 16,500,000 letters, and
15,621,500 newspapers. The Telegraphs in the same year carried
762,609 messages. The total length of telegraph lines, at the end of
1874, was 1,591 Engl, miles, and the length of wires 4,406 Engl.
miles. At the same date, there were 178 telegraph offices.

Colonies.

The colonial possessions of Denmark consist of the following
territories, chiefly islands, in Europe and America. The area and
population are given after the census return of 1870 : —

DENMARK.

Colonies

Area Population

Engl. sq. miles l 1870

Fseroe, or Horse Islands (17 inhabited).
Iceland ......

Greenland

j St. Croix
"West Indies j St. Thomas .

1 St. John

Total ....

510

39,756

46,740

9,992
69,763

9,825
22,760
14,007

1,054

87,124 : 127,401

The possessions in the West Indies alone are of any commercial
importance. The inhabitants, mostly free negroes, are engaged in the
cultivation of the sugar cane, exporting annually from 12 to 16
million pounds of raw sugar, besides 1 million gallons of rum. The
value of the total exports from St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John
to the United Kingdom amounted to 38,291/., and that of the im-
ports of British produce to 379,524/., in the year 1875. The chief
article of export in 1875 consisted of unrefined sugar, valued at
12,572/., while the British imports were mainly cotton goods, of the
value of 190,175/.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Of Denmark in Great Britain.

Envoy and Minister — Lieut.-General C. E. J. Von Biilow, accredited May
18, 1865.

Secretary — P. II. I\rag.

2. Of Great Britain in Denmark.

Envoy and Minister — Sir Charles Lennox Wyke, K.C.B., born in 1820 ;
Envoy to Guatemala and Honduras, 1859-60 ; to Mexico, 1860-61 ; and to
Hanover, 1865-66. Appointed Envoy to Denmark, December 16, 1867.

Secretaries— Hon. T. J. Pakenham ; Audley C. Gosling.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Denmark, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —

Monet.

Under a law which came into force on January 1, 1*7"), the
decimal system of currency was introduced in Denmark, the unit
being the Krone, or Crown, divided into 100 ore. The Krone is
generally accounted of one-half the value of the old unit of currency
of which it took the place, the Rigsdaler, divided into 96 shillings.

The Krone = 100 ore ... . Average rate of exchange, Is. 1 '..,/.,

: 18 A, mer to 1/. sterling,

54 the statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Weights and Measures.

The Found — 100 Krint . . = 1-102 avoirdupois, or about KlOlbs.

to the cwt.

Skip Last = 2 tons.

Tonde, or Barrel of Grain and Salt = 3-8 Imperial bushels.

Coal . . = 4-7

Foot . . . . . . = 1-03 English feet.

Fit rtel . .....— 1-7 Imperial gallor.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Denmark.

1. Official Publications.

Kongelig Dansk Hof og Statscalender. Kjobenhavn, 1875.

Statistisk Tabelvaerk. Tredie Kaekke. Indeholdende Tabeller over Kon-
geriget Danmarks Vare-Indf^rsel og Udfizfrsel samt Skibsfart m. m. Udgivet
af det statistiske Bureau. 4. Gyldendal. 1872-76.

Report by Mr. F. J. Pakenham, Secretary of Legation, on the imports and ex-
ports of Denmark, dated December 24, 1874 ; in ' Reports by IT.M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. F. J. Pakenham, Secretary of Legation, on the trade and
finances of Denmark, dated Copenhagen, May 6, 1875 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part IV. 1875. 8. London. 1875.

Report by Mr. T. J. Pakenham, Secretary of Legation, on the Trade and
Budget o' Denmark, dated December 31, 1875; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secre-
taries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Report by Mr. F. J. Pakenham, Secretary of Legation, on the Finances,
Trade, and Shipping of Denmark, dated May 30, 1876; in ' Report by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part III. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Report by Mr. Consul Crowe on the trade and commerce of Copenhagen for
the year 1874. dated Copenhagen. May 29, 1875; in ' Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part V. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Reports by Mr. Consul Palgrave and by Mr. Vice-Consul Du Bois, on the
Commerce of the Colonies of St. Croix and St. Thomas, dated Jan. -Feb. 1876 ;
in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Reports by Mr. Consul Crowe, on the Trade, Commerce, and Agriculture of
Denmark, dated Copenhagen, Feb. 26 and May 13, 1876; in 'Reports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1876. 8. London, 1 876.

Trade of Denmark with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
in the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Bagffesen (A.), Den Danske Stat i Aaret 1860. Fremstillet geographisk og
statistisk, tillige fra et militairt Standpunkt. 2 vols. 8. Kiobenhavn, 1860-63.

Petersen (C. P. N.), Love og andre offentlige Kundgjorelser, &c, vedkom-
mende Landvaesenet i Kongeriget Danmark. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1865.

Sainals (Harry), The State of Agriculture in Denmark. In ' Journal of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England.' vol. xxi. 8. London, 1866.

Trap (J. P.\ Statistisk-topographisk Beskrivelse af Kongeriget Danmark.
4 vols. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1857-63.

PRANCE.

(Republique Feanqaise.)

Constitution and Government,

The present constitution of France, voted by the National Assembly,
elected in 1871, bears date February 25, 1875. It vests the legis-
lative power in an assembly of two houses, the Chamber of Depu-
ties and the Senate, and the executive in a chief magistrate called
President of the Republic. The Chamber of Deputies is elected by
universal suffrage, under the ' scrutin d'arrondissement,' adopted by
the National Assembly, November 11, 1875. The law orders that
every arrondisseruent has to elect one deputy, and if its popula-
tion is in excess of 100,000, an additional deputy for each 100,000,
or portion thereof. The only requisite to be an elector is to be
possessed of citizenship and to be of the age of twenty-one years,
while the only requisite for a deputy is to be a citizen and twenty-
five years of age. There are 532 members in the Chamber of
Deputies. The Senate is composed of 300 members, of which 225
are elected by the departments of France and the Colonies, and 75
were nominated, in the first instance, by the National Assembly, and
subsequently are elected by the Senate. The senators for the
departments are elected by Electoral Colleges for the term of nine
years, retiring b)f thirds every three years, while those nominated
by the National Assembly or elected by the Senate sit for life.
No other qualification is required for a senator than to be a French-
man and forty years of age. The Senate and the Chamber of
Deputies assemble every year on the second Tuesday in January,
unless a previous summons is made by the President of the Re-
public, and they must remain in session at least five months every
year. Both begin and finish their session at the same time The
President of the Republic pronounces the close of the session, and
has the right of convoking the Chambers for an extraordinary meet-
ing. He is bound to convoke them if the demand is made by one-
half of the number of members composing each Chamber. The
President can adjourn the Chambers, but the adjournment cannot
exceed the term of a month, nor occur more than twice in the same
session. The Senate has conjointly with the Chamber of Deputies
the right of initiating and framing laws. Nevertheless, financial laws
must be first presented to and voted by the Chamber of Deputies.

Both the Senators and the Deputies receive payment for their
services, at a fixed rate per diem. In the session of 1876 the ex-
penses connected with the Senate amounted to 1,500,000 francs, or

56 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

180,000/., and those of the Chamber of Deputies to 6,775,000 francs,
or 271,000/., being a total of 11,275,000 francs, or 451,000/.

The President of the Eepublic is elected, by a majority of votes,
by the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, united in National Assem-
bly. He is nominated for seven years, and is eligible for re-election.
The President of the Republic has the initiative of legislation con-
currently with the two Chambers. He promulgates the laws when
they have been voted by the two Chambers. He watches over and
insures the execution of them. He has the right of pardon ; he
disposes of the armed force ; and he appoints to all civil and military
posts, including the heads of the ministerial departments. Every
act of the President of the Republic must be cotmtersigned by a
Minister. The President may, with the assent of the Senate, dis-
solve the Chamber of Deputies before the legal expiration of its
term, but in such event the electoral colleges must be summoned for
new elections within three months. The ministers as a body are
responsible to the Chambers for the general policy of the Government,
and individually for their personal acts. The president of the Re-
public is responsible only in case of high treason. In the event of a
vacancy by death, or any other cause, the two united chambers must
proceed immediately to the election of a new President.

President of the Rejmblic. — Marshal Marie Edrne Patrick Maurice
de MacMahon, born at Sully, dep. Saone-et-Loire, July 13, 1808,
son of a Peer of France, descended of an ancient Irish family ; edu-
cated for the military career at the School of Saint-Cyr, 1825-28 ;
entered the army as lieutenant, 1829 ; took part, as captain and
colonel, in successive campaigns in Algeria, 1833-52 ; general of
division, 1852; commander of the troops storming the Malakoff
tower, at the siege of Sevastopol, Sept. 8, 1855; commander-in-
chief of the French army in Algeria, 1857 ; commander of the
second corps of the ' Armee des Alpes,' 1859 ; nominated Due de
Magenta on the battle-field of Magenta, June 4, 1859 ; commander
of the 3rd corps d'armee, 1861-64 ; Governor-General of Algeria,
1864-70 ; commander-in-chief of the 1st and 5th corps d'armee in
the war against Germany, Jvdy-AugusL, 1870; taken prisoner at the
capitulation of Sedan, Sep. 2, 1 870 ; appointed commander-in-chief
of the 'Armee de Versailles,' April 11, 1871 ; elected President of
the Republic, by 360 against 344 votes, May 24, 1873 ; appointed
President for the term of seven years, by 383 against 317 votes,
November 19, 1873.

The salary of the President of the Republic is fixed at 600,000
francs, or 24,000/., with an additional allowance of 300,000 francs,
or 12,000/., for household expenses.

The Ministry, appointed by the President of the Republic, con-
sists of nine members, namely : —

FRANCE. 57

1. Minister of the Interior. — Jules Simon, born at Lorient, dep.
Morbihan, Dec. 31, 1814; studied philosophy, and appointed teacher
at the College of Rennes, 1832, at Caen in 1835, and at Versailles
in 1836 ; professor of philosophy at the Sorbonne, Paris, 1839-51 ;
member of the Constituent Assembly, 1848-49 ; member of the
Government of National Defence, 1870-71 ; Minister of Worship
and Public Instruction, 1871-73; appointed Minister of the
Interior and President of the Council of Ministers, Dec. 12, 1876.

2. Minister of Justice, ' Garde des Sceaux.' — Louis Martel, born
in 1830 ; studied jurisprudence, and admitted to the bar of Paris,
1846; member of the Constituent Assembly 1848-50 ; deputy to
the Legislative Body, 1863-69 ; returned Member of the -Senate,
Jan. 30, 1876 ; elected First Vice-President of the Senate, March
13, 1876 ; appointed Minister of Justice, Dec. 12, 1876.

3. Minister of Foreign Affairs. — Charles Elie Due Decazes, born
May 9,1819; envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary to
the Courts of Spain and Portugal, 1841-48 ; appointed Minister of
Foreign Affairs, July 20, 1874.

4. Minister of Finance. — Jean Baptiste Leon Say, born 1826 ;
studied political economy, and published a number of statistical and
financial works; administrator of the Northern Railway of France,
1865-70 ; Prefect of the department of the Seine, 1871-2 ; Minister
of Finance under Louis A. Thiers, 1872-3 ; re-appointed Minister
of Finance, March 10, 1875.

5. Minister of Commerce and Agriculture. — Vicomte Edmond
Teisserenc de Bort ; appointed March 10, 1876.

6. Minister of Worship and Public Instruction. — William Henry
Waddington, born at Paris, of English parents, in 1826 ; educated
at Rugby and Trinity College, Cambridge, and graduated B.A.,
1849 ; was naturalised in France, 1850 ; Deputy to the Legislative
Body, 1865-70; elected member of the National Assembly, 1875; ap-
pointed Minister of Worship and Public Instruction, March 10, 1875.

7. Minister of Public Works. — Albert Christophle, appointed
March 10, 1876.

8. Minister of War. — General Edouard Berthaut, formerly com-
mander of the 5th Corps d'Armee; appointed July 20, Ls7o'.

9. Minister of Marine. — Rear- Admiral Martin Fourichon, born
Jan. 10, 1809 ; appointed March 10, 1876.

At the census of May 1872, the number of civil government

functionaries, forming Tadministration publique' — exclusive of local

ils — was 205,008. With their families they numbered

296,387 individuals, and their servants 47,303, being a total of

! 18,698 persons, or l-56 percent, of the population of France.

The following is a list of the Sovereigns and Governments of
France, from the accession of the House of Bourbon: —

5& THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

House of Bourbon House of Bourbon — Orleans

Henri IV. . . . 1589-1610

Louis XIII., 'le Juste' . 1610-1643

Louis XIV., ' le Grand' . 1643-1715

Louis XV. . . . 1715-1774

Loius XVI. (+1793) .1774-1792

First Republic

Convention . . . 1792-1795

Directoire . . . 1795-1799

Consulate . . . 1799-1804

Empire

Louis Philippe ( + 1850) . 1830-1848

Second Republic
Provisional Government

Feb.-Dec. . . . 1848

Louis Napoleon, President 1848- 1852

Empire, Restored
Napoleon III. (+1873) . 1852-1870

Third Republic
Government of National

Napoleon I. ( + 1821) . 1804-1814 "^— . ™ 1870-1871

House of Bourbon, Restored

Louis XVIII. . . . 1814-1824

Charles X. ( + 1836) . 1824-1830

Louis A. Thiers, President 1871-1873
Marshal MacMahon, Pre-
sident .... 1873

The average duration of the seventeen Governments of France
since the accession of the House of Bourbon was nearly 17 years.

Church and Education.

The population of France, at the census of May 1872, consisted
of 35,387,703 Roman Catholics, being 98-02 per cent, of the total
population, of 580,757 Protestants, or 1*60 per cent of the popula-
tion, of 49,439 Jews, and 85,022 members of other sects and forms
of belief. In regard to Protestants, there was a decline between the
census periods of 1866 and 1872, in the former of which they
numbered 2*23 per cent, of the population.

All religions are equal by law, but only the Roman Catholics,
Protestants, and Jews, have state allowances. In the budget for
1876, these allowances were as follows : —

Francs
Eoman Catholic prelates and clergy . . 41,508,295
Eoman Catholic Churches, seminaries, &c . 10,205,400

Protestant clergy 1,416,000

Jewish rahbis 188,900

Protestant and Jewish places of worship . 80,000

Total .... 53,398,595 or £2,135,944
There are eighty-six prelates of the Roman Catholic Church —
namely, seventeen archbishops and sixty-nine bishops. The Protes-
tants of the Augsburg Confession, or Lutherans — 80,117 in number at
the census of 1872 — are, in their religious affairs, governed by a Gene-
ral Consistory, while the members of the Reformed Church, or Cal-
vinists — 467,531 in number at the census of 1872 — are under a
council of administration, the seat of which is at Paris. At the
census of 1872, the clergy of all denominations was found to number
150,654 individuals, while their families, supported by them,
numbered 24,204, and their servants 41,817, being a total of 216,675
persons, equal to 0'62 per cent, of the population of France.

FRANCE.

Public education in France is entirely under the supervision of the
Government, and to a great extent, partly directly, but much more
indirectly, in the hands of the Roman Catholic clergy. Together
with the general census of May 1>72, there was an official
inquiry into the educational state of the nation, which, being
very carefully made, gave, it is reported, accurate results. In
the enquiry of 1872, the population was divided into three groups,
according to ages, the first comprising all children under six ; the
second the growing generation between six and twenty ; and the
third all the grown-up persons above twenty. The following table
gives the total net results of the educational census of 1872 : —

Degree of Education.

Groups of Ages.

Under six years.

Prom 6 to 20.

Above 20 years.

Unable to read or write
Able to read only .
Able to read and write
Unascertained

Total

3,540,101

292,348

151,595

38,042

2,082,338

1,175,125

5,458,097

70,721

7,702,362

2,3(.5,130

13,073,057

214,005

4,022,086

8,786,281

23,294,554

popuL

ition .

36,102,921

The folloAving table expresses in percentages the degree of educa-
tion of each of the three groups of ages — deduction being made of
the small number returned as ' unascertained ' — in May 1872 : —

Degree of education

Ages : —

Under six.

From six

to
twenty.

Above Average of

twenty. *otal.
J i above six.

Unable to read or write
Able to read only
Able to read and write
Total

Per cent.

88.85

733

382

Per cent.
23-89
13-48
62-63

Per cent.

33-37

9-99

56-64

Per cent.
30-77
1094
58-29

10000

100-00

It will be seen from the preceding tables that nine-tenths of the
children under six ; more than a fifth, but less than a fourth of the
youths- of both sexes under twenty ; and more than a third of the
grown-up population of men and women, are unable to read or
write. Setting aside the four millions of children under six years of
age, it may be said that thirty per cent, of the population of France
are entirely devoid of education.

The census of 1872 showed an extraordinary difference in the
degree of education between the 87 departments of France, the
percentage of ignorance ranging between six and sixty. The
following tabular statement shows the departments in the order
of educational advancement, giving the percentage of all individuals
above six years of age unable to read or write : —

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Percentage of

Departments

individuals till-
able to read or

Departments

individuals un-
able to read or

write

Doubs

Charente-Inferieure .

32-2

Menrthe-et-Moselle .

8-3

Saone-fit-Loire .

32-3

Haute-Marne .

8-4

Loiret

32-4

Jura

9-3

Maine-et-Loire

32-4

Meuse

Mayenne .

327

Vosges

10-0

Card

337

Seine

11-4

Loire-Inferieure

33-7

Mania

11-8

Ile-et-Vilaine .

34-6

Haute-Saone

11-9

Puy-de-D6me .

35-9

Seine-et-Oise .

12-0

Herault .

36-1

Aube

12-4

Ardeche .

36-4

Rhin (Belfort) .

127

Nord

366

Cote-d'Or .

13 3

Sarthe

36-7

Hautes-Alpes .

14-3

Deux-Sevres

37-2

Rhone

14-5

Loir-et-Cher

37-6

Orne

159

Vaucluse .

37-6

Ardennes .

16-4

Hante-Garonne

377

Calvados .

16-5

Var ....

37-7

Lozere

20-3

Lot ....

38-7

Seine-et-Marne

20-4

Gers

39-6

Isere

21-0

Tarn

40-4

Oise

21-8

Lot-et-Garonne

41-5

Aveyron .

22-0

Aude

41-G

Haute-Savoie .

22-4

Tarn-et-Garonne

42-0

Savoie

23-2

Corse (Corsica)

42-8

Eure-et-Loire .

23-4

C6tes-du-Nord .

432

Cantal

235

Indre-et-Loire .

433

Ain ....

24-1

Creuse

46-6

Yonne

24-2

Nievre

47-4

Manche .

25-9

Charente .

48-4

Aisne

26-3

Vienne

48-6

Rautes-Pyrenees

27-2

Pyrenees-Orientales .

49-6

Bouches-du-Rhone .

27-6

Vendee

508

Eure

27-8

Morbihan

52-1

Seiue-Inferieure

28-7

Allier

52-5

Somme

28-8

Ariege

53-4

Basses-Pyrenees

28-9

Correze

55-8

Drome

29-1

Finistere .

56-3

Basses-Alpes .

292

Indre

56-8

Gironde .

29-2

Cher

573

Loire

29-5

Landes

57-6

Pas-de-Calais .

29-6

Dordogne

60-3

Alpes-Maritimes

31-8

Hante-Vienne .

61-8

Haute-Loire

318

General Average

30-8

It will be seen that, as a rule, education is most advanced in the
north-eastern departments of France, and least in the south-western

FRANCE.

departments. In the departments now constituting the German
' Eeichsland ' of Alsace-Lorraine, France lost the most educated
portion of her former inhabitants. The progress of education indi-
cated in the census returns of 1866 and 1872 was very slight, due
to some extent to the loss of these provinces.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The budgets of revenue and expenditure were as follows in each
of the seven years, from 1871 to 1877 : —

Years

Revenue

Expenditure

Francs

1871. . .

1,880,961.193

75,238,448

3,201.692,703

128,067.708

1872.

2,344,795,959

93,791,836

2,334,759,208

93,390 368

1873.

2,467,470,630

98,698,824

2,374.804,134

94,992,164

1874 .

2,533.262,199

101,330,488

2,532,689,922

101,307.596

1875 .

2,588,900,623

103,556,024

2,584,452,831

103,378,112

1870.

2,575,028,582

103.001,140

2,570,000,475

102,800,016

1877. . .

2,672,140,530

106,885,620

2,667,296,751

106,691,868

The principal sources of revenue and branches of expenditure in
the budget estimates for each of the two years 1876 and 1877 were
as follows : —

Sources of Revenue

1876

1877

Francs

Direct taxes .....

384.339,700

388,179,000

Special taxes assimilated to direct

taxes ......

23,069,000

24,291,600

Produce of domains

13,330,315

13,986,451

Produce of forests .

38,064,680

38,548,680

! Registration duties and stamps

606,159,000

620,619,000

i Customs and salt ....

236,983,250

273,730,000

i Indirect taxes ....

995,915,455

1,040,767,000

Posts

110,176,000

116,126,000

Tax on personal property ' Imput do

3 p. 0/0 '

35,174,000

35,676,000

Produce of telegraphs

ie,580,eoo

16,600.0011

Universities 'Produits universal aires'

4,352,847

4,471,660

] Revenue of Algeria

23,708,100

24,483,400

Tax upon civil pensions .

17,623,000

is. oi 1,000

\ arious receipts ....

49,403,735

53,117,739

New imposts .....

1 6,700,000

—

■ Ressourcea extraordinaires ' .

Total Revenue . . <

3,500,000

2,575,028,582
i 103,001,140

2,672,140,530
£106,885,620

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Branches of Expenditure

1876

1877

Francs

Public debt and dotations

1,182,312,281

1,201,428,330

Ministry of justice

33,690,S90

34,338,240

„ foreign affairs .

11,255,500

13,201,500

,, the interior

86,108,861

82,188,761

„ Algeria

26,931,531

25,111,472

,, finance

20,158,150

20,474,922

,, war

500,037,115

535,663,385

,, marine and colonies .

165,^3,496

185,975,023

,, public instruction,

worship and fine arts

97,189,390

104,209,182

,, agriculture and com-

merce . . ^

18,404,100

19,347,100

,. public works — ordi-

nary service .

78,873,514

94,184,895

extraordinary service

82,336,624

80.000,000

Cost of collecting the revenue

249,107,023

251,616,941

Drawbacks and restitutions .
Total expenditure .

17,782,000

19,557,000

2,570,000,475

2,667,296,751

£102,800,016

£106,691,868

The accounts of actual revenue and expenditure are not published
by the Government till after the lapse of six or seven years. When
the budget for 1877 was voted by the National Assembly in the session
of 1876, the last final account, or ' budget regie,' was for the year
1869. The following were the actual receipts and disbursements in
1869, the last normal year preceding the war and invasion : —

Francs

Receipts in the year 1869 1,798,187,538

Disbursements 1,740,213,970

Surplus of receipts 57,973,568

The following were the principal sources of actual revenue and

branches of actual expenditure in the year 1869, according to the final

' budget regie ' : — Somces of Revenue
Direct taxes .....
Special taxes assimilated to direct taxes
Produce of domains ....
Produce of forests ....
Eegistration duties and stamps . 456,983,648 fr.

Customs and salt .... 144,612,873
Indirect contributions . . . 627,379,876

Posts 94,628,646 )

Universities — ' produits universitaires ' . . . 4,024.062

Revenue of Algeria 15,023,618

Tax upon civil pensions 15,378,541

Various receipts ....... 60.826,121

'Ressources extraordinaires ' ..... 15,718,015

Total revenue

Francs

332,439.521

7,132,115

11,153,178

12,893,354

1,323,605,013

1,798,187,538

FRANCE.

Branches of Expenditure
Public debt and dotations
Ministry of justice .

„ foreign affairs

„ the interior

,, Algeria .

„ finance .

„ "war

., marine and colonies

„ public instruction, worship and fine

,, agriculture and commerce

„ public works — ordinary service

„ „ extraordinary servic

Cost of collecting the revenue .
Drawbacks and restitutions

Total expenditure .... 1,740,213,970

The enormously increased expenditure of recent years, compared
with 1869, due principally to the augmented public debt, and, to a
lesser extent, to cost of the army (see p. 69), was covered chiefly by
the imposition of new indirect taxes. Foremost in the list of these
were greatly raised customs duties, and stamps, both sources pro-
ducing together upwards of 430,000,000 francs, or 17,200,000/. per
annum. To balance the expenditure of the years 1872 to 1875, as
well as to provide for increased disbursements connected with the
army, the National Assembly, on the proposition of the Minister of
Finance, voted a variety of new indirect taxes, among them on sugar,
wines, salt, and transports by railway.

When laying one of the last budgets before the National
Assembly, the Minister of Finance gave an account of the total
direct cost of the war and foreign occupation of 1870-73, and of the
resources, from loans and new imposts, raised to cover the expendi-
ture. The following two tables embody a summary of the state-
ments of the Minister of Finance : —

Cost of the War and Foreign Occupation of 1870-73.

War expenditure, extraordinary, in 1870 1,173,016,000

„ „ " in 1871 . . . . 700,222 000

Foreign occupation of 1871-73 38.807,000

Provisioning of Paris 169,518,000

Grants to the families of soldiers ...... oO, 000,000

Interest on sums due to Germany 302,065,000

31 a intenance of German troops ... ... 248,620.000

Eepayment of fines, &c, levied by Germans .... 61,708,000

Disbursements on account of the loans of 1870-72 . . . 631,168,000

Loss from non-payment of taxes, 1870-71 .... 364,189,000

Miscellaneous expenditure ....... 548,564,000

War indemnity to Germany 5,000,0i

Total 9,287,882,<

£371,515,280

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Resources raised to cover the Expenditure of the War and Foreign Occupation

of 1870-73.

Francs
1,013,471,000
92.197,000
120,309,000
91.288,000
1,530,000,000
325,000,000
2,22.5.994.000
3,498,744.000
83,915,000
154,899,000
152,065,000

Proceeds of loans raised in 1870
Sale of rentes of the army dotation
Funds of the ' garde mobilises .
Sale of provisions for Paris
Loan from the Bank of France .
Loan from the Eastern Railway Company
Proceeds of the national loan of 1871
., „ „ „ of 1872

Produce of new imposts in 1871
„ „ „ in 1872

Estimated produce of new imposts in 1873

Total 9,287,882,000

£371,515,280

The necessity of further loans to cover probable deficits was
foreshadowed in the presentation of the budgets for 1875 and 1876.

There Avere deficits, more or less in amount, throughout the period
of the Empire, as well as under preceding governments. Almost
uninterruptedly, so as to make it the rule and not the exception, the
budgets voted by the representatives of the nation showed a small
surplus, while the ' compte definitif,' published a number of years
afterwards, exhibited a large deficit.

The following is a statement of the deficits of former periods, from
1814 till the last completed year of the reign of Napoleon III. : —

Bourbon Monarchy : April 1, 1814, to July 31, 1830 .
Reign of Louis Philippe: August 1, 1830, to Feb. 28, 184S
Second Republic : March 1, 1848, to Dee. 31, 1851
Second Empire : Jan. I, 1852, to Dec. 31, 1869 .

Total

Deficits.

810,920

39,914,520

14,374,960

85,541,580

140.611,980

The average annual revenue and annual expenditure during each
of the four periods here given were as follows : —

Periods.

Average Annual
Revenue

Average Annual
Expenditure.

Deficit

First: 1814-30 .
Second: 1830-1848
Third: 1848-51 .
Fourth: 1852-69 .

£
39,777.800
48.855,040
59,91S,560
78,507,730

£ £
39,828,520 50.720
51,072.52(1 2,217,480
63.512,320 3,593.760
83,260,040 '' 4,752,310

The continued deficits from 1814 to the end of 1869 were covered
by loans, inscribed in the ' Grand livre de la dette publique,' dating

FRANCE. 65

from the year 1793, when a general consolidation was made of
all the debts, annuities, and other Government obligations, which
were converted into a perpetual five per cent. ' rente,' entailing an
annual charge of 174 millions of francs, or 6,960,000Z. The divi-
dends were not, however, paid at first, except in assignats, or paper
of a fictitious value, and six years later the Government was forced
to compound with its creditors. The debt had become reduced by
confiscation of property of the ' emigres ' to 120 millions of francs of
' rente,' which was reduced by a fresh conversion to 40 millions, the
public being reimbursed the remaining two-thirds in bonds ex-
changeable for the confiscated lands of the church and the nobles.
Thus at the commencement of the 19th century the annual charge
of the National debt of France was only about 1,000,000/., or less
than one-tenth of that of Great Britain. The extension of the
French debt made little progress under Napoleon I., and -from 1800
to 1814, a period of fourteen years of almost continuous war, the
annual charge increased but from 40 millions of francs to Go mil-
lions, and of the 23 millions added to the yearly charge, 10 millions
represented ' rente ' created to repay debts left by the Government
of the Directory to its successor. In reality the debt was only
increased during the Consulate and the Empire by 7 millions of
francs of ' rente,' or 140 millions of capital, the famous maxim of
Napoleon the First that ' he would make war support war,' being
literally adhered to, as shown by these simple debt-figures. After
the fall of the Emperor the expenses of the Government were greatly
enhanced. The Restoration increased the annual charge of. the debt
between 1814 and 1830 from 63 millions to 1G5 millions of francs,
but that period had to bear the penalty of the doings of the
former Governments, and the loans issued by it were required to pay
the war indemnity of 700 millions, the indemnity of 1,000 millions
paid to the 'emigres' for their confiscated property, and the burden
of the occupation of a foreign army of 150,000 men. The 'rente '
created under the Restoration in reality amounted to 165 millions
of francs, but during the wdiole of the period a regular system of
amortization was maintained, and 54 millions of ' rente ' were re-
deemed; at the same time a saving of 6 millions was obtained by a
conversion of the debt in 1825, and 31- millions of ' rente,' having
reverted to the State, wrere annulled. The excellent administration
of several Ministers of Finance had in the meantime so improved
the credit of the country that from 7^ to 9i/ per cent., the cost of
the loans from 1815 to 1818, a loan of 80 millions of francs in 4 per
cent, 'rente ' was obtained in 1830 from the house of Rothschild at
102-?. This was the only instance in the financial history of France
of a loan being negotiated above par.

The total public debt of France amounted on January 1, 1875,

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

to a nominal capital of 18,751,685,045 francs, or 937,584,280/., the
interest on which, or ' rente,' was 748,401,971 francs, or 29,936,196/.
The number of ' inscriptions ' of ' rente,' that is of individual holders
was 4,380,933. The following table shows the nominal capital of
each of the four descriptions of ' rente,' the interest, or amount of
' rente,' and the number of holders on January 1, 1875 : —

i Description of Rente

Nominal Capital

Interest, or amount
of Rente

Number of Holders
of Rente

3 per cent. .

4 „ . .

1 H „ • •

! 5 ,,
1

Francs

12,164,905,045

11,152,400

832,232,800

5,743,395,400

Francs

364,947,151

446,096

37,450,476

345,561,248

1,498,688

779

171,471

1,709,995

Total .

18,751,685,645

748,404,971

4,380,933 i

The following table shows, after official returns, the number of
holders of ' rente,' together with the amount of ' rente,' at decennial
periods from 1798 to 1870, and annually from 1870 to 1875 :—

Years

Number of Holders of

Amount of Annual

January 1

Rente

Francs

1798

24,791

25,111,785

1810 .

145,663

56,730,583

1820 .

199,697

172,784,838

1830 .

195,370

204,696,459

1840 .

265,447

195,911,137

1850 .

846,330

229.608,758

1860 .

1,073,801

338,356,589

1870 .

1,254,040

358,087,510

1871 .

1.269,739

386,222,343

1872 .

2,147,130

502.126,256

1873 .

3,473,475

626,120,206

1874 .

4,130,040

690,013,493

1875 .

•

4,380,933

748.404,971

It will be seen that the national debt in recent years has been
steadily undergoing the process of complete subdivision among the
population of France, the number of the public fundholders having
come to approach that of the freeholders of the soil. (See page 80.)

At the commencement of 1875, the total burden of the capital
of the public debt of France was 515 francs, or 20/. 12s. per head
of population ; while the burden of the interest, or rente, was 19
francs, or 15s. 10c/. per head of population.

All the departments of France, as well as many of the great towns
have their own budgets and debts, which latter were largely increased

FRANCE.

by the war. The budget estimates of the city of Paris for each of
the years 1875 and 1876, were as follows : —

Ordinary receipts .
Extraordinary receipts

Total estimated receipts .

Ordinary expenditure
Extraordinary expenditure

Total estimated expenditure

187.}

1S7G

Francs
201,544,281

2,033,204

Francs
202,999,908
103,998,976

203,577.485
£8,143,096

306,998.974
£12,279,956

Francs Francs

193,453,669 j 202,999,998"
5,038,204 103,998,976

198,491,873 | 306,998,974
£7,939,672 £12,279,956

The principal source of revenue in the budget of the city of Paris
I* from tolls upon articles of general consumption, called ' droits
d'octroi,' which were calculated to produce 113,140,000 francs, or
4,525,600Z., in the year 187<i. The principal branch of expendi-
ture is for interest and sinking fund of the municipal debt, set
down at 97,205,885 francs, or 3,888,232/., in the budget for 187(3.
The nominal capital of the debt of the city of Paris at the end of
187G, amounted to 1,970,000,000 francs, or 78,800,000/. The
debt is rapidly increasing. A loan of 250,000,000 francs, or
10,000,000/., was issued in June 1875, and another loan of
120,000,000 francs, or 4,800,000/., in July 1876.

Army and Navy.
1. Army.
The military forces of France are in a state of reorganisation,
accomplished on the basis of a new ' loi sur le recrutement,' voted
by the National Assembly on July 27, 1872, and supplemented by
two further organisation laws, passed on July 24, 1873, and March
13, 1875. .The first article of the law of 1872 enacts universal
liability to arms : ' Tout Francais doit le service militaire per-
sonnel.' By Arts. 2 and 4, substitution and enlistment for money
are forbidden, and by Art. 3 it is ordered that ' every French-
man not declared unfit for military service may be called up,
from the age of twenty to that of forty years, to enter the active
army or the reserves.' The constitution oi" these divisions of
the armed forces is prescribed in the third chapter, the first
article, as follows: ' Every Frenchman not declared unlit for military
service must be for five years in the Active Army — " l'armee active " •

6$ THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

for four j'ears in the Reserve of the Active Army — " la reserve de
l'armee active" ; for five years in the Territorial Army — "l'armee
territoriale ;" and for six years in the Reserve of the Territorial
Army — " la reserve de l'armee territoriale.' " The Active Army is
composed of all the young men, not otherwise exempted, who have
reached the age of twenty, and the Reserve of those who have
passed through the Active Army. Neither the Active Army nor its
Reserve are in any way localized, but drawn from and distributed
over the whole of France. On the other hand the Territorial
Army and its Reserve are spread over fixed regions, determined
from time to time by administrative enactments.

The principle of universal liability to arms, laid down at the
beginning, is not carried out strictly in all the enactments of the
law of 1872, which admits of various exemptions from the military
service due by all Frenchmen. Beside those rejected on physical
grounds — les jeunes gens que leurs infirmites rendent impropres a
tout service— there are entirely exempt from service, first, the eldest
of orphans having neither father nor mother; secondly, the only son,
or the eldest of sons, or the grandson, or the eldest of grandsons, of
a widow, or wife separated from her husband, or a father upwards
of seventy ; thirdly, the eldest of two brothers liable for service at
the same time ; fourthly, the younger of two brothers, having his
elder brother actually serving in the Active Army ; and fifthly, the
younger son of a family whose elder brother had died in the service,
or has been discharged for wounds or illness contracted in the field.
There are, moreover, partly or conditionally exempted the pupils of
the Ecole polyteclmique and of the FJcole forestiere ; the teachers
and pupil teachers in public schools ; the professors of various
institutions; the artists who have gained any of the ' Grand Prix'
of the institute of France ; and, finally, the members and novices of
all religious associations devoted to teaching, and all ecclesiastics
borne on a list drawn up by their episcopal superiors. Partial or
additional exemption from military service may also be granted by
the municipal councils and other local authorities to all young men
who contribute to the support of their families, or who are engaged
in studies or avocations that would suffer from interruption. These
latter exemptions are subject to the revision of military councils
established in each department of France.

The law of 1872 permits young men who can prove a certain
amount of education by passing an examination to enlist as volun-
teers for one year only, and to obtain exemption thereby from
service in the Active Army. They must maintain and clothe
themselves at their own expense. All soldier3 in the Active Army
who have learnt their duties, and who can read and write, may be
sent on furlough, at the end of a year, for an indefinite time.

FRANCE. 69

In the year 1875 there were, according to official returns, .300,124
young men liable to the conscription. Of these 29,797 were ex-
empted as unfit for service, 42,2(38 were excused as sons or grand-
sons of widows, and for other domestic reasons; 19,508 were sent
back for a year, 25,778 were already under the flag, and 4,295 were
excused as professors, teachers, or seminarists. Of the remaining
number, 140,8G3, or not quite one-half of the total, were declared
immediately fit for active service, and 21,259 were draughted into
the auxiliary services. The conditional engagements for 12 months
numbered 9,204. Of the number declared immediately fit for
service, there were retained 95,788 for the fidl service of five years,
and 45,075 for service of from six to twelve months. Under the
existing law, at 29 years of age a Frenchman is no longer liable to
active service, and at 40 he is free from enrolment in the territo-
rial army.

Notwithstanding the loss of Alsace-Lorraine, resulting in a decrease
of population of more than a million and a half, the expenditure for
the army has largely increased since the war with Germany. In
the budget for 18G9, the expenditure for the army amounted to
383,979,851 francs, or 15,359,192/.; and in the estimates for 1875,
the amount stood at 493,776,321 francs, or 19,751,052/., being an
augmentation of 109,796,470 francs, or 4,391.860/. The rise was
due mainly to the increase in the numbers of the army under the
new organisation.

The organisation of the French army, under the law known as
the ' loi des cadres,' passed by the National Assembly, March 13,
1875, is as follows : —

Infantry : —
144 regiments of the line, each of 3 battalions of 4 companies, be-
sides 2 depot companies.
30 battalions of chasseurs a pied, each of 4 companies, with 1
depot company.
4 regiments of zouaves, each of 4 battalions of 4 companies, with

one depot company.
3 regiments of Tiralleurs Algeriens, each of 4 battalions of 4

companies.
1 regiment of Legion Etrangere, of 4 battalions of 4 companies.
3 battalions of Infanterie Legere d'Afrique.

The troops of the last four divisions form a special class, enrolled
as the 19th corps d'armee.
Cavalry :
12 regiments of cuirassiers.
26 regiments of dragoons.

•'12 regiments of light cavalry, including 20 of chasseurs and 12 of
hussars.

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

4 regiments of Chasseur d'Afrique.

3 regiments of Spahis.

Artillery and Engineers :
38 regiments of field artillery, forming 19 brigades, each of 13

batteries.
2 regiments of artillery pontonniers, each of 14 companies.
10 companies of artillery workmen for factories, &c.
57 companies of train artillery.

4 regiments of* sappers and miners, each of 5 battalions of 4 com-

panies.

The total effective force of the French army — ' effectifs du pied
de paix ' — was reported as follows to the National Assembly in the
session of 1875, by the ' Commission de la reorganisation de l'armee '
''session paper, No. 2,917) : —

Divisioas.

Commissioned ! ComSoned
Officers j 0fficerg

Bank
and
File.

Total j

Infantry ....

| Cavalry ....

Artillery ....
; Engineers (Genie) .

Train (Equipages) .

11,653 62,517

3,590 14,786

2,974 19,135

428 2,912

412 2,7S8

202,834

49,905

42,987

7,590

6,192

277,004

68,281

65,096

10,930

9,392

Total .

19,057 102,138

309,508 j 430,703

The whole of France is divided into 18 military regions, each
under a general of division, and subdivided into districts, of the same
circumference as the departments, under a general of brigade. The
fortified places are specially administered by a ' service des fortifi-
cations,' with ' chefs-lie.ux,' or head-quarters, at Arras, Bayonne,
Besancon, Bourges, Brest, Cherbourg, Grenoble, Langres, La Eo-
chelle, Le Havre, Lille Lyon, Marseille, Montpellier, Nantes,
Perpignan, St. Outer, Toulon, and Toulouse. Before the war of"
1870-71, there were two more of these ' chef-lieux,' Mete and
Strasburg, which also contained the chief military establishments,
manufactories, and stores. To replace them, it was ordered, by a
dercee of the Government, issued in July, 1872, to create military
establishments at Avignon, Perpignan, Quiberon, and Eouen.

2. Navy.
The war navy of France was composed, at the end of 187G, of
52 iron-clads, 2G4 unarmoured screw steamers, 62 paddle-steamers,
and 113 sailing vessels. The following statement gives the number
of vessels of each class, their horse-jwwer, and armament : —

FRANCE.

Classes of "Vessels

Number

Horse-power

Guns

1. Ironclads {Bailments cuirasses) : —

frigates (Fregates) (1st Class) .

5,900

(2nd Class) .

14,350

262

Corvettes (Corvettes) ....

•J

4,100

106

Coast-guard ships (Garde-cutes) .

3,850

Floating batteries (Batteries flottantes).
Total, Ironclads

2,040

146

30,240

605

2. Schew Steamees (Bailments a hilice) : —

Ships of the line (Vaisseaux)

16,680

386

Frigates (Fregates) ....

10,100

574

Corvettes (Corvettes) ....

7,940

156

Avisos (Avisos) ....

8,975

172

Gunboats (Canonnieros)

1,871

Transports (Transports)

10,222

160

Special boats (Batim. speeiaux) .
Total, Screw Steamers

264

55,812

1,547

3. Paddle Steamebs (Bdtiments a roues): —

Frigates (Fregates) ....

3,450

Corvettes (Corvettes) ....

1,870

Avisos (Avisos) ....
Total, Paddle Steamers .

44
62

3,345

104

8,665

154

4. Sailing Vessels (Bailments It voiles): —

Ships of the line (Vaisseaux)

—

440

Frigates (Fregates) ....

■ — ■

Corvettes (Corvettes) ....

—

Brigs (Bricks) . ' .

—

Transports (Transports)

—

Smaller vessels (Batiments de flotille) .
Total, Sailing Vessels
Total War Navy

—

113

—

672

391

94,717

2,978

The following is a list of the 52 ironclads of the French navy,
either afloat, or nearly completed, with their nominal horse-power,
number of gains and, when given, strength of crew, at the end
of 1876. The nominal horse-power of each vessel is calculated
after a rule which came into effect the 1st of January, 1867,
on the basis of a fourth of the utmost power attainable by the
engine, or, as officially described, ' le quart du nombre de che-
vaux de 75 kilogrammetres que la machine est susceptible de de-
velopper, a toute puissance, sur les pistons moteurs.' Each vessel
of the French navy is supposed to belong to one of the five great
'divisions maritimes ' of the country — namely, 1. Cherbourg;
2. Brest; 8. Lorient ; 4. Ilochefbrt ; and 5. Toulon; and in the.
following list the initial letter preceding the name of each ironclad
denotes the division on the register of which it stand : —

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Division
Maritime

Classes

Nominal
Horse-

Number
of Guns

Crew

power

Frigates cuirasses : — ■

Btdoutable (1st Class)

1,500

—

Fiiedland .,

1,200

Trident ,,

1,200

Colbert

1,000

850

Eichelieu „

1,000

850

Solferino (2nd Class)

900

765

Marengo .,

950

—

Ocean ,,

950

SnfFren ,,

950

594

Flandre „

900

594

Gauloise ,,

900

594

Guyenne „

900

594

Heroine ,,

900

594

Magnanime „

900

594

Provence ,,

900

594

Bevanehe „

900

594

Savoie ,,

900

594

Surveillante „

900

594

Valeureuse ,,

900

594

Couronne ,,

800

600

Gloire ,,
Corvettes cuirassees : —

800

570

Alma ....

450

310

Armide .

450

310

Atalante

450

310

Belli qneuse .

450

300

Jeanne d'Arc .

450

310

Lagalissonniere

500

310

Montcalm

450

310

Eeine Blanche

450

310

Thetis .
Garde-cotes cuirasses : —

450

310

Belier .

530

Boule Dogue .

530

Cerbere .

530

Onondaga

250

Eochambeau .

1,000

590

Taui'eau (cupola) .

480

120

Tigre .

Batteries fiottantes : —

530

—

Arrogante

120

200

Devastation .

150

282

Embuseade .

120

200

Foudroyante .

150

282

Implacable

120

200

Impregnable .

120

200

Lave

150

282

Opiniatre

120

200

Paixhans

150

212

FEANCE.

Division
Maritime

Nominal

Classes 1 Horse-
power.

Numher

of Guns

Crew

K.
E,
C.
L.
E.
T.

Batteries flottantcs— conti uued.

Palestro .....

Peiho

Protectrice .....

Refuge ......

Saigon ......

Tonnante .....

150
150
120

120
150
150

1(1
10
4
4
10
18

212
212
200
200
212
282

The most powerful of the ironclads of the French navy is the
Hedoutable, launched at Lorient, September 18, 187G. The length
of the Hedoutable is 830 feet, and breadth 70 feet, which give the
ship nearly the dimensions of the first of British ironclads, the
Inflexible (see page 236). The iron ram attached to the bow of
the Hedoutable weighs 30 tons, and the ■weight of each iron plate
is 2-1 tons, the thickness being from 8 to 10 inches. Horizontal
armour is used in sufficient strength to render the decks bomb
proof. Eight heavy guns form the armament, and mounted en
barbette they are capable of being used in all directions. Not much
inferior to the Hedoutable is the Friedland, launched in 1875.
The length of the Friedland is 314 feet, and breadth 59 feet, with
a water-line belt of armour of 8-^ inches. The third ship on the
list of Frencli ironclads, the Trident, similar in size and construction
to the Friedland, had not been launched at the end of 187G. Next
in rank to these three ironclads, built as models for aggressive
warfare, with the latest recognised improvements, stand the sister
ships, the Colbert and the Richelieu, both launched in 1875, the
former constructed at the dockyard of Brest, and the latter at
Toulon. They were both laid down in 18G9, so that they occupied
6 years in construction. The length of each is 314 feet, breadth
57 feet, and mean draught 2G feet. Each is armed with 4 mitrail-
leuses, 6 guns for the central turrets, 2 guns for side turrets, and 7
guns on main deck. The Colbert and the Richelieu are the only
vessels of this type in the French navy. The five ships here enu-
merated, with two smaller vessels, on the stocks at the end of 187G,
the Triomphaute and the Victorieuse, form the modern division of
the French ironclad navy, the rest being of more or less antiquated
construction. With the sole exception of the Couronne, the hull of
which is of iron, the whole of the older ironclads are wooden ships.

Among the more notable of the old ironclads are the two ' garde-
cotes cuirasses,' the Tavreau, a cupola ship, and the Rochambeau. The
Taureav, launched in 1865, is a strain-rain, of peculiar construction,
drawing but little water, and rising only a few feet above the waves.
Iler prow terminates in a point, and this point is armed with a kind of

74 TIIE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

massive bronze cone which serves as her spur. It is with this spur that
the Taureau, driven at a speed of 12 to 14 knots an hour by machinery
of 500-borse power, can strike and split a ship. The Taureau is>
moreover, supplied with two screws, which enableher to turn in a very
small space and with the greatest facility. She carries but a single
gun, which weighs twenty tons, and has but one deck, which is plated
with iron from one end to the other. The sides of the hull are like-
wise plated with iron the full length, from 3 i'eet under the water-
line to the deck. The deck and the sides form, as it were, an iron,
box, safe from any shot that maybe fired at it. It is in this iron box
that the machinery and the whole crew are placed during an action,
except those in the tower. The deck of the Taureau is covered over
its entire length with a cylindrical ball -proof dome. The surface of
the dome is so inclined that it is not practicable to walk on it, and
it is held to be impossible to capture the vessel by boarding. The
Hochamheau, formerly called ' Dunderberg,' is a ram built for the
United States, in 1865, which was purchased by the French govern-
ment in the summer of 18G7, for the sum of 400,000/. The ram of the
Rochambeau is part of the ship, and is not bolted or fastened on as is
usually the case, but is an extension of the bow, which for 50ft. is a
firm and solid mass of timber. This is covered over with heavy
wrought-iron armour, and forms a beak, which, driven at a high rate
of speed, it is said will pierce through the strongest ships. The smaller
of the French ironclads are mainly destined for the attack and defence
of coasts, roadsteads, or harbours. Not included in the preceding
list of ironclads are eleven armoxired floating batteries, of peculiar
construction, built chiefly for the llussian and Italian Avars, called
' Batteries fiottantes demontables,' which can be taken to pieces, and
carried any distance over land. They are stored at the arsenals of
Toulon and Brest ; but the last reports describe them as decaying,
and quite useless even for coast defence.

The greater number of the large unarmoured screw steamers of
the French navy are not in active service, being either stripped of
their guns, or on the reserve list. Only two out of the twenty-
nine ships of the line of this class, the ' Louis XIV.,' 480 horse-
power, with 116 guns, and the ' Jean-Bart,' 400 horse-power, with
66 guns, were afloat in 1876, and in all other cases the service was
carried on by smaller screw and paddle steamers. A considerable
proportion of the 113 sailing vessels are employed as ' Garde peches,'
on the fishing grounds near the coasts of France.

By a resolution of the National Assembly passed in the session of
1875, large additions are to be made to the navy of war, an annual
credit of 30,000,000 francs, or 1,200,000*., being set aside for the
purpose, to be applied to 50 vessels, the construction of which is
either to be finished, continued, or simply commenced within five

FRANCE. 7J

years. The greater number of these vessels are being or will be
built in the Government dockyards at Brest, Cherbourg, and
Toulon.

The French navy is manned partly by conscription and partly by
voluntary enlistment. The marine conscription was introduced as
early as the year 1683. There is an ' Inscription maritime,' on
the lists of which are the names of all male individuals of the
'maritime population; ' that is, men and youths devoted to a sea-
fai'ing life, from the 18th to the 50th year of age. The number of
men thus inscribed fluctuates from 150,000 to 180,000. Though all
arc liable to conscription the government, as a rule, dispenses from
taking men over forty and under twenty, as well as pilots, captains,
the lathers of large families, and able seamen who have signed for
long voyages. The time of service in the navy is the same as that
in the army, with similar conditions as to reserve duties, furloughs,
and leave of absence for lengthened periods. It is enacted by the
Jaw of 1872 that a certain number of young men liable to service in
the Active Army may select instead the navy service, if recognised
fit for the duties, even if not enrolled in the 'Inscription maritime.'

For administrative purposes, France is divided into five ' divi-
sions maritimes,' and subdivided into twelve ' arrondissements
monthlies,' as follows : —

Divisions Arrondissements

1. Cherbourg Dunkerque — Le Havre.

2. Brest Brest — Saint Servan.

3. Lorient Lorient — Nantes.

4. Boehefort Bochefort — Bordeaux — Bayonne.

5. Toulon Marseilles — Toulon — Ajaccio,

At the head of the administrative government of each maritime
division is a Vice-admiral bearing the title of ' Prefet maritime.'

In December 1876 the French navy was officered by 19 vice-
admirals in active service, and 13 on the reserve list ; 30 rear-
admirals in active service, and 21 on the reserve list; 109
captains of first-class men of war; 209 captains of frigates ; G4s
lieutenants; and 51G ensigns.

Area and Population.

The area of France at the census of May, 1866, embraced 5 1:3,05 1
square kilometres, or 207,480 Engl, square miles, and the popu-
lation at the same date numbered 38,007,091. At the census of
May, 1872, the area was reduced to 528,577 square kilometres, or
201,9()0 Engl, square miles, and the population numbered only
36,102,921. fhus France suffered in the interval of six years a
loss of territory amounting to 14,474 square kilometres, or 5,580
Bngl. square miles, and a loss in population of 1,964,178. The

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

following statement gives the summary of the census results of
May 1866 and May 1872 : —

Population of France in 1866 and 1872.
Census of May, 1866 . 38,067,094 i Loss of Alsace-Lorraine . 1,597,219
1872 . 36,102,921 | „ from other sources . 366,954

Decline of Population 1,964,173 | Total . . . 1,964,173

France was divided in 1866 into 89 departments, and subdivided
into 373 arrondissements, 2,941 cantons, and 37,548 communes. By
the Treaty of Peace with Germany, concluded May 10, 1871, modified
by the Convention of October 12, 1871, France lost one entire de-
partment, that of the Bas-Khin ; two arrondissements, with fractions
of a third, of the adjoining department of the Haut-Rhin; and the
greater portion of the department of the Moselle, together with a
number of cantons and communes in the departments of Meurthe
and the Vosges.

The following table gives the area, in English square miles, and
the population of the present 87 departments of France — or 86,
excluding the small district of Belfort, remnant of the old depart-
ment of Ehin — according to the census of Mav 1872 : —

Area :

Population

Departments

Engl. sq.
miles.

May 1872

Ain .........

2,239

363,290

Aisne

2,839

552,439

Allier

2,822

390,812

Alpes (Basses-) .

2,685

139,332

Alpes (Hautes-)

2,158

118,898

Alpes-Maritimes

1,482

199,037

Arcleche

2.136

380,277

Ardennes .

2.020

320,217

. Ariege

1,890

246.298

1 Aulie

2,317

255,687

i Aude

2,438

285,927

i Avevron .

3,376

402,474

1 Belfort district of (Kl

lin)

235

56,781

Bouehes-du-Ithuiie

1.971

554.911

Calvados .

2,132

454,012

Cantal

2,217

231,867

Chavente .

2,294

367,520

Charente-Inferieure

2,635

465,653

Cher .

2 780

335,392

Correze

2,265

302,746

Corse

3,377

258,507

Cote-d'Or .

3,383

374,510

Cotes-du-Nord .

2,659

622,295

Creuse

2,150

274,663

Lordogne .

j 3,546

480,141

FRANCE.

Departments

Area

Engl. sq.

miles.

Population
May 1872

Doubs

( 2.018

291,251

Drome

2,518

320.417

Eure

2,300

377,874

Eure-et-Loire .

2,268

282,622

Finistere .

2,595

642,963

Gard

2,2,33

420,131

Garonne (Haute-)

2,429

479,362

Gers .

2,425

284,717

| Gironde

3,761

705,149

; Herault

2,393

429,878

Ille-et-Vilaine .

2,597

589,532

Indre

2,621

277,693

Indro-et-Loire .

2,361

317,027

Isere

3,201

575,784

Jnra .

1,928

287,634

Landes

3,599

300,528

Loir-et-Cher

2,452

268,801

Loire

1,838

550,611

Loire (Haute-) .

1,916

30S,732

Loiro-Inferieure

2,654

602,206

Loiret

2,614

353,021

Lot ....

2,012

281,404

Lot-et-Garonne .

2,067

319,289

Lozere

1,996

135,190

Maine-et-Loire .

2,749

518,471

Manche

2,289

544,776

Marne

3,159

386,157

Marne (Haute-)

2,402

251,196

Mayenne .

1,996

350,637

Meurthe-et-Moselle

2,025

365,137

Meuse

2,405

284,725

Morbiliau .

2,625

490,352

Nievre

2,632

339.917

Nord

2,193

1,447,764

Oise .

2,261

396,804

Orne

2,354

398,250

Pas-de-Calais .

2,551

761,158

Puy-de-D6me .

3,070

566,463

Pyrenees (Basses-)

2,943

426,700

Pyrenees (Hautes-)

1,749

235,156

Pyrenees-Orientales

1,592

191,856

Rhone

1,077

070,247

Saone (Haute-) .

2.062

303,088

Saone-et-Loire .

3,302

598,344

Sarthe

2,396

446,603

Savoie

2,224

267,958

Savoie (Haute-)

1,667

273,027

Seine

184

2,220,060

Seine-Inferieure

2,330

790,022

Seine-et-Marne .

2,215

341,490

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Departments

Area

Engl. sq.

miles.

Population
May 1872

Seine-et-Oise .......

2,164

580,180

Sevres (Deux-) .

2,317

331,243

Somme

2,379

557,015

Tarn

2,217

352,718

Tarn-et-Garonne

1,436

221,610

Var .

2,349

293,757

Vaucluse .

1,370

263,4.51

Vendee

2.588

401,446 i

Vienne

2.691

320,598 !

Vienne (Haute-)

2,130

322,447

Vosges

2,266

392,988

Yonne

•

2,868

363,608

Total .

j 204,091

36,102,921

The decrease of population between the two census periods
1866 and 1872 extended over all the departments of France,
with the exception of fourteen. Of these, there were but eight
departments in which the increase exceeded 10,000, namely Allier,
14,648; Loire, 12,210; Nord, 55,723; Pas-de-Calais, 11,381;
Seine, 69,1-44; and Seine-et-Oise, 46,453. Nearly all these de-
partments suffered from the events of 1870-71, while many that
were not touched by the invasion showed a decrease of inhabitants,
thus indicating other causes than those of war for the decline of
population.

The increase of population in France within the last century
and a half has been comparatively less than in any other State
of Western Europe. The natural increase, from excess of births
over deaths, amounted, when at its highest, between the years
1820 and 1830, to not quite 280,000 per annum, and during
part of the decennial period 1850 and 18G0, sank to 51,200 per
annum. There was a slight recovery during the first half of the
next decennial period, but in the year 1869, the surplus of
births over deaths had again fallen to 68,137. In the following
two years, 1870 and 1871, the deaths exceeded the births, the
■excess of deaths amounting to 103,394, in 1870, and to 444,889
in 1871. In the year 1872 there was again a surplus of 172,937
births. The birth rate per hundred inhabitants was 3*11 in 1827,
and had Mien to 2*62 in 1868. It fell to 2-57 per cent, in 1869,
and to 2-26 per cent, in 1871, and was 2-67 in 1872, and 2-61
in 1873 — a birth-rate lower than that of any other country in
Europe.

The following table, compiled from the last official returns, gives the

FRANCE.

number of births, deaths, and marriages, in each of the fifteen years
from 1860 to 187-4 :—

Years

Births

Deaths

Marriages

1860 1

956,875

781,635 '

288,936

1861

1,005,078

866,597

305,203

1S62

99o,167

812.978

303,514

1863

1,012,794

816,917

301,376

1864

1.005,880

860,334

299,579

\ 186.3

1,005,753

921,887

298,838

1866

1,006,258

884,573

302,186

1867

1,007,515

866,887

300,333

1868

984,140

922,038

301.225

j 1S69

948,526

864,320

303,482

1870

943,515

1,046,909

223,705

i 1871

826,121

1,271,010

262,476

1872

966,001

793,064

352,754

1873
1874

946,364

844,588

321,238

953,652

781,709

303,113

Not included under either the births or deaths of the above table
are the ' mort-nes,' or dead-bom. The number of ' mort-nes ' was
39,778 in 1854, and, gradually increasing, reached 44,613 in the
year 1874. The births of 1874 consisted of 884,358 legitimate, and of
€9,294 illegitimate, or 'natural,' children, the latter forming 7*46 per
■cent, of the total. In the capital, represented by the department of
the Seine, the proportion of illegitimate children was 25*21 in the year
1874. The proportion of male to female children born was 10G to
100 previous to 1840, but since the latter date the male prepon-
derance has been gradually declining, and in 1874 had fallen to
105-2 to 100 for the whole of France; to 102-4 to 100 for all Paris
births, and to 100*2 to 100 for illegitimate children born in the
district of the capital.

The population of France, like that of most other European coun-
tries,, is agglomerating ever more in towns. In 1846 the rural
population constituted 75*58 per cent, of the total, and the urban
24*42 per cent. ; in 1856, the rural had fallen to 72*69, and the
urban risen to 27*31 per cent. ; in 1866, the rural was 69*54, and
the urban 30*46 per cent. ; and finally, at the census of 1872, it was
found that the rural population constituted but 68*94, and the urban
31*06 per cent, of the entire population. The total urban popula-
tion— defined in the census returns as living in cities and towns of
not less than 2,000 inhabitants — numbered 11,214,017, and the
total rural population 24,y88,904 at the census of 1872. But
though the rural population is declining, more than one-half of the
total population still depends on agriculture as a means of living.
The census returns of 1872 showed that there were 18,513,325 in-

TIIE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

dividuals — comprising 5,970,171 heads of families, and the rest de-
pendents— engaged in agriculture.

An exhaustive official inquiry into the distribution of the soil of
France, made in 1862 — when the area of the country amounted to
543,051 square kilometres, against 528,577 square kilometres as at
present — gave the following results: —

Distribution of the Soil.

Arable land (terres labourables)

Meadows (prairies naturelles)

Vineyards .......

Wood and forests ......

Commons and waste lands (paturages et pacages)
Orchards, &c. (cultures arborescentes) .
Buildings, roads and canals ....

Total

Extent square
kilometres. |

265,680
50 243
23,208
91,677
65,462
8,543
38.271

543,051

Land is very equally divided among the whole of the population.
According to the latest official returns the cultivated land of France
was divided into 5,550,000 distinct properties. Of this total the
properties averaging 600 acres numbered 50,000, and those
averaging 60 acres 500,000, while there were five millions of
properties under six acres.

The following table gives the population of the four principal
towns of France, in 1861, in 1866. and in 1872 : —

Towns

18161 I860

1872

Paris ....

I Lyon
Marseille
Bordeaux

1.667,841
318,803
260,916
162,750

1,799,980
323,954
300,131
194,241

1,794,380
323,417
312,804
194.055

The total number of dwellings in France at the census of 1872
was 7,704,913, of which 7,409,614 were inhabited, 254,391 unin-
habited, and 40,908 in course of construction. There were, on the
average, 14*47 houses per square kilometre, and each house con-
tained l-24 family, and 4'68. Except in the departments of the
Seine and theBhone, the Arast majority of dwellings contained but
one family, indicative of a nation of small proprietors.

There is scarcely any emigration from France, the only exodus
that has taken place in recent years consisting in a movement of the
Basques, in the department of the Ilautes-Pyrenees, to quit the

FRANCE.

country, in order to escape military service. In 1873 there emi-
grated 10,000 Basques to South America, chiefly to the Argentine
Confederation and Uruguay, and in 1874 the number rose to 12,000.
The stationary character of the mass of the population is shown also
by there being little migration within the country. At the census of
1*872 it was found that of the total of 36,102,921 individuals con-
stituting the population of France, 30,076,943 were born within the
registration districts. Thus out of every 100 individuals but 15
had quitted their native commune, and 85 lived where they were
born. Almost the whole of the existing migration is that from the
rural districts into the towns of France.

Trade and Industry.

The foreign trade of France is officially divided into ' commerce
general,' which comprises the entirety of imports and exports, in-
cluding goods in transit, and ' commerce special,' which embraces
the imports consumed within, and the exports produced within the
country. The general commerce of the year 1875 was valued in
imports at 4,450,000,000 francs, or 178,000,000/., and in exports at
4,823,600,000 francs, or 192,944,000^

The following table gives the value, in francs and pounds sterling,
of the total imports and exports of the special commerce of France — ■
■•exclusive of coin and bullion — in each of the fifteen years, from
1861 to 1875.

Tears

Imports for home consumption

Exports of home produce

Francs

1861

2,442,352,000

97,694,080

1,926,-371,000

77. 0.34. 840

1862

2.198,631.000

87,947,240

2,242.735,000

89,709,400

1863

2,426,432,000

97.o-37.280

2.612,(il7.ooo

105.704,680

1864

2. -328,217,000

101,128,680

2,924,238,000

116,969,520

1865

2,641,803,0(111

105,672,120

3,088,451,000

123,538,040

1866

2,793,.320.oii I

111,741,040

3,180,623,000

127.221.920

1867

3,026 581,000

121.063,240

2,82-3.9-3.3.000

113,038,200

1868

3,303,723,000

132,148,920

2,789,926,000

111,597,040

1869

3,153,162.000

126.126.480

3,074,981,000

122,999.240

1870

2,781,493,000

111.2-3'.i.720

2,860,157.000

114.106.280

1871

1 3,393,249.000

135,729,960

2,865,613,000

114,624,520

1872

3,4 17,465,000

137,89 600

3,679,007,000

147,160.280

1873

3,554,789,000

142,171,560

3,787,306,000

151,492,240

1874

3,718,01 l.o 'o

148,72i. IM

3,877,753,00 1

1.3.3.110.120

187-3

3.072,286,000

146,891,4 1"

1.022,162,000

1 10 880,480

The following statement shows the value of e ich of the four groups
of imports and of the three groups of exports, ace 'riling to the

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

classification adopted by the French Douane, or Custom House, in
each of the years 1874 and 1875 : —

Imports : —

Articles of food
Raw materials .
Manufactures

Other Articles .

Total

1874

187

Exports : —

Manufactures ....
Articles of food and raw materials
Other articles ....

Total

Francs

931.198.000

2,267,589,000

386,122,000

163,102,000

3,748,011,000

2.172,568,000

1,491,676,000
213,509,000

Francs

779,844,000

2,236,499.000

484.560,000

171,374.000

3,672,286,000

£146,891,440

2,224,281,000

1,590 726,000

207,155,000

3,877,753,000

4,022,162,000
£168,8S6,480

The imports of coin and bullion were of the value of 851,564,000
francs, or 35,2(32,500/., and the exports of the value of 233,833,000
francs, or 9,345,320/., in the year 1875.

The foreign commerce of France is chiefly with Great Britain,.
Belgium, Germany, and Italy — Great Britain ranking far above any
other country, the exports to it, in particular, being more than:
double in value to those to Belgium, the next export market in
order of importance.

The subjoined tabular statement shows the declared value of the
total exports sent from France to Great Britain and Ireland, and
of the total imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into France, in each of the ten years, from 18G6 to 1875: —

Exports from France to United

- -

Imports of British Home Pro-

1 ears

Kingdom.

duce into France

1866

37,016,754

11,700,140

1867

33,734,806

12,121,010

1868

33,896,327

10,652,734

1869

33,527.380

11,438,330

1870

37,607,514

11,643,139

1871

29,848,488

18.205,856

1872

41,803,444

17,268,837

1873

43,3^9,231

17,291,973

1874

46.51S.571

16,370.274

1875

46.720,101

15,357,127

The following table give- the declared value, in pounds sterling,

FRANCE.

§3

of the principal articles exported from France to the United King-
dom in each of the two years 1874 and 1875 : —

Exports from France to Great Britain

1S74

1875

Animals : Oxen and bulls ....

51,25S

260,991

Butter ....

3,944,233

3,387,210

Chemical manufactures and products

238,660

244,798

Clocks ......

271,459

254,886

Corn .-—Wheat ....

163,834

699,150

Barley ....

1,064,925

991,586

3Iaize or Indian corn

40,688

118,856

Wheat meal and flour

606,447

1,407.047

Cotton, raw .....

41,273

41,860

Cotton manufactures

809,018

525,319

Eggs

2,018,725

2,078.659

Fish

213,726

283,2Jii

Flowers, artificial

423,974

493.2K)

Fruit, raw .....

287,663

271,278

Hair : cow, ox, bull, or elk .

83,544

98,744

Hats or bonnets of straw

52,608

93,989

Hides, not tanned

139,614

57,344

,, tanned, tawed, curried, or dressed

418,929

346,631

Iron and steel, manufactures of, unenumerated

128.065

117,108

Lace ........

491.931

295,749

Leather manufactures, gloves

1,254,074

2,121,879

Madder, madder root, and garancine

414,051

199,244

Musical instruments

535,792

405,017

Oil-seed .....

63,931

74,280

Oil-seed cake ....

229.781

326,226

Potatoes .....

607,146

668,321

Seeds, clover and grass

221,012

276,710

„ of other sorts .

92,330

101,590

Silk, raw .....

2,092,157

377.755

„ waste, knubs and husks

156,818

159,415

„ thrown ....

135,360

81,639

,, manufactures, stuffs and ribbons

7,000,950

7,702,0S4

„ plush for making hats

10,197

20,006

,, unenumerated

1,745,533

1,552,396

Spirits, brandy ....

1,417,624

1,544,403

Sugar, refined and candy

2,816,274

2.918,854

„ unrefined ....

1,296,224

1,146,929

Tallow and stearine

29,854

58,338

Vegetables .....

92,872

77,625

Watches

43,566

37,056

Wine ......

2,616,355

2,517.978

Wool, sheep and lambs'

144,393

87,027

Woollen manufactures .

2,873,896

3,078,459

rags ....

122,049

138,413

All other articles ....

9,015,758

8,980,213

Total

46,518,571

16,720,101

(i 2

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The following table exhibits the declared value of the prin-
cipal articles of British and Irish produce and manufactures
imported from the United Kingdom into France during each of the
two years 1874 and 1875 : —

Imports of British produce from United Kingdom lg74

1875

into France

;

Alkali, soda ........

74,535

65,856

Animals, horses ......

74,340

87,251

Apparel and haberdashery ....

151,237

81,913

Beer and ale .......

40,073

38,685

Caoutchouc, manufactures of.

181,045

130,041

Cement .......

32,915

39,123

Chemical products or preparations

228.810

261,518

Coals, cinders, and fuel ....

1,876,158

1,617,038

Coal, products of coal, ecc.

178.012

173,302

Corn, wheat . . . .

167,666

27,715

,, wheat-Hour .....<

22,681

259

Cotton yarn ......

718,419

338,406

,, piece goods ....

2,074,065

1,622,360

,, hosiery and small wares

270,261

264,824

Earthenware and ehinaware .

52,684

61,106

Hardwares and cutlery ....

142,980

148,029

Linen yarn ......

55,331

204,444

,, piece goods .....

262,076

396,071

Machinery, steam engines

22,856

22,044

,, other sorts ....

449,645

563,232

Metals:—

Iron, wrought and unwrought .

776,575

798,539

Copper, wrought and unwrought

268,738

398,116

Lead, pig, pipe, and sheet

48,368

50,949

Zinc, wrought and unwrought .

i 11,501

18,452

Oil-seed ......

61,094

111,299

Painters' colours .....

56,194

83,881

Silk, thrown, twist, or yarn .

618,424

385,137

,, manufactures ....

289,688

349,631

Spirits, British .....

1,761

2,786

Telegraphic wires and apparatus .

8,824

1,227

Tin, unwrought .....

169,713

84,033

Wool, sheep and lambs'

242,029

236,284

Woollen and worsted yarn

327,504

295,661

Woollen manufactures, cloths, coatings, &e.

| 1,128,460

962,634

,, ,, worsted stuffs .

2,308,638

2,102,253

n „ flannels and carpets

129,943

125,640

(, ,, of other sorts .

184,550

172,783

All other articles .....

J 2,662,481

3,034,605
15,357,127

Total ....

•

(16,370,274

It -will be seen from the preceding tables that while the value of
the exports from France to the United Kingdom increased very
largely In recent years, the imports of British produce did not keep

FRANCE.

pace with this movement, and after remaining almost stationary
for some years, came to decline in 1874 and 1875.

The strength of the French mercantile navy, exclusive of small
fishing vessels — ' bateaux de la peche cotiere' — is shown in the fol-
lowing table, Avhich gives the number and tonnage of the vessels,
classed according to tonnage, on Jan. 1, 1874, and on Jan. 1,1875 : —

The above statement comprises both sailing vessels and steamers.
The total number of steamers on January 1, 1875, was 522, of
194,546 tons, and 68,495 horse-poAver. There were 247 steamers
belonging to the ports of the Mediterranean, and 275 to those
on the Atlantic. The total increase in tonnage of the French
mercantile navy was very slight in the ten years from 1866 to 1875,
the rise being not more than from 1,008,084 to 1,037,272 tons.
Since the 1st January 1873, when the total tonnage was 1,089,075,
there was a decline.

The growth of the railway system of France dates from the year
1840, previous to which there were but few lines in France. For
a time, the plan was entertained of making all the railways which
were to be built State property ; but in the end it was determined,
and settled by the law of June 11, 1842 — modified in 1858, 1859,
and 1863 — that the work should be left to private companies, super-
intended^ however, and, if necessary, assisted in their operations, by
the State. Under this arrangement, the whole of the railways,
already made, and about to be constructed, were classed under
two divisions, called ' ancien reseau,' or Old net-work, and
' nouveau reseau,' or New net-work ; the former, as implied by
the name, representing the first-built main arteries of traffic, and
the latter the by-roads, laid down, in most instances, with a view
to public utility rather than to profit. On this account, the lines
coming under the designation of New net-work received the grant
of a state guarantee of 4 francs per cent, interest, with 65 centimes
additional for a sinking fund, on the expended capital.

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 187/

The following table shows the length of railways built each year
in France since 1850, and the total open for traffic at the end of
each year : — ■

Tears

Lines opened
during the year

Total length

open at the end

of the year

1
Years 1

Lines opened
during the year

Total length

open at the end

of the year

Kilometres

1850

151

3,002

1863

944

12,031

1851

544

3,546

1864

1,037

13,068

1852

316

3.862

1865

515

13,583

1853

190

4,052

1866

953

14,536

1854

589

4,641

1867

1,193

15,729

1855

886

5,527

1868

606

16,335

1856

664

6,191

! 1869

795

17,130

1857

1,262

7,453

1870

620

17,750

1858

1,222

8,675

1871

672

17.665

1859

393

9,086

1872

111

17,776

1860

365

9,433

1873

763

1S.539

1861

672

10,105

1874

542

19.0S1

1862

982

11,087

!| 1875

721

19,802

It will be seen that from the end of 1870 to the end of 1871 the length
of railways opened for traffic declined from 17,750 to 17,6G5 kilo-
metres, notwithstanding that 672 kilometres of lines were opened in the
year 1871. The deficiency was caused by the loss of Alsace-Lorraine,
which necessitated the sale of 750 kilometres of railway, belonging
to the Eastern Company, to the Government of Imperial Germany.

The French railways at present are almost entirely in the hands
of six great companies. They are, first, the Paris, Lyons, and
Mediterranean ; secondly, the Paris-Orleans ; third, the Northern ;
fourth, the Western ; fifth, the Southern ; and, sixth, the Eastern,
companies. The following two tables give the length of lines open
for traffic at the end of 1875, and the total receipts in the years 1874
and 1875 of each of the six great and of the minor companies: —

Old Net -work.

Companies

Receipt-
Length of lines

Dec. 31, 1875 j lg74

1875

Paris-Mediterranean
Paris-Orleans ....
Northern .....
Western .....
Southern .....
Eastern .....
Minor Companies

Total ....

Kilometres Francs

3,854 i 262,374,526

2,017 | 91,065,673

1,151 1 103.624.026

900 64,592,430

796 46,663,229

533 39,212,413

53 6,194.686

Francs

266,643,880

100.901,016

108,364,804

67,430.032

48,047,826

40,732.241

6,852,156

9,304 1 613,727.053

638,971,955

FRANCE.

Ne^* Net-woi;k.

Receipts

Companies

Length of lines
Dec. 31, 1S75

1874

1875
Francs

Kilometres

Francs

Paris-Mediterranean . . ' 1,260

14,281,244

22,380,890

Paris-Orleans .

2,243

38,613,746

41.600,17(1

Northern.

oS7

11.687,737

12,929,595

"Western . . . ■

1,649

30,014,012

32,663,517

Southern .

1,235

18,975,538

19,692,809

Eastern .

1,722

50,809.012

53,407.992

Minor companies

1,602

14,054,433

17.771,124

Total

10,498

178,435,722

199,446,115

The total length of all the railways open for traffic on the 31st of
December, 1875, was 19,802 kilometres, or 12,37(5 English miles,
and the total gross receipts amounted to 839,418,070 francs, or
33,570,720/. The average receipts per kilometre on the whole'of
the lines amounted to 43,302 francs in the year 1875, but the vari-
ation was enormous on the different systems, the Old net-work of
the Northern earning 94,148 francs per kilometre, the New net-work
of some of the minor lines less than 4,000 francs per kilometre, equal
to rather more than 3 per cent, ol the total.

At the end of 1875 there were 51,712 kilometres, or 32,320
English miles, of lines of telegraphs, comprising 1-13,235 kilometres,
or 89,522 English miles, of Avire. At the end of 1875 there were
2,817 telegraph offices. The number of telegraphic despatches sent
during the year 1875 was 6,925,000, of which nearly one-fourth
were international messages. There were annual deficits since the
establishment of the Public Telegraph Department in March 1851.

The number of letters forwarded by. the French post-office in
the year 1875 was 359,878,000. In the year 1874 the number was
308,782,000, and they produced a revenue of 89,013,705 francs, or
3,560,550Z. The post-office besides forwarded in 1875 printed
matter and parcels to the number of 272,990,711 at a revenue of
11,455,053 francs, or 458,202/., and issued money orders to the
number of 3,951,185, and the value of 87,392,408 francs, or
3,495,098/. for France and foreign countries. During the year:?
1819 to 1857, the correspondence by letters increased at the rate of
about 12^ per cent, a year; from 1858 to L8.69, duing 12 years of
unprecedented prosperity the increase was only -15 per cent., or Sni-
per cent, per annum ; but from 1.S09 to 1875 the progression not
■ only ceased, but there was a slight diminution.

THE STATESMAN S YEAH-BOOK, 18/

Colonies.

The Colonial Possessions of France, dispersed over Asia, Africa,.
America, and Polynesia, embrace, inclusive of the so-called ' Pays
proteges,' or Countries under Protection, a total area of 536,951
square kilometres, or 335,594 English square miles. Not comprised
in the list is Algeria, which has a government and laws distinct from
the other Colonial Possessions, being looked upon, partly from its
proximity to France, and partly from serving as camp and practice-
held of a large portion of the standing army, as a more immediate
annex of the mother-country. Algeria, as well as all the other colonies,
are represented in the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, and con-
sidered to form, politically, a part of France. The estimated area and
population of the various Colonies and Countries under Protection,,
together with the date of their first settlement, or capture, is shown
in the subjoined table, compiled from the latest official returns..

I. Colonies.

Date of

Area.

Acquisi-

Square

Population

tion

kilometres

| Asia : —

1 Possessions in India .

1679

509

227,063

Cochin-China, old provinces

1861

22,380

502,116

„ new provinces
Total of Asia

1867

33,864

477,000

56,753

1,206,179

Africa : —

Senegal settlements .

1637

250,000

607,398

Gold coast and Gaboon

1843

20,000

186,133

Island of Reunion, or Bourbon .

1649

2,511

207,886

„ St. Marie .

1635

910

6,110

Islands of Mayotte and Nossi-Be

1843

520

20,717

Total of Africa

273,941

1,028,244

America : —

Guiana, or Cayenne .

1604

90,854

24,432

Guadeloupe and Dependencies .

1634

1,645

151,594

JMartinicpie ....

1635

988

139,109

St. Pierre and Miguelon .

1635

210

3.799

Total of America .

93,697

318,934

Polynesia : —

New Caledonia ....

1854

17,400

29,000

Loyalty islands.

1864

2,147

15,000

Marquesas islands . . .
Total of Polynesia.

1841

1,244

10,000

20,791

54,000

Total, colonies

445,182

2,607,357

FRANCE. 89

II. Pkotecteb Countries.

Date of 1

Area.

Acquisi-

Square

Population 1

Asia : —

tion

kilometres

Kingdom of Cambodge

1862

83,861

1,020,000

Polynesia : —

Tahiti and Dependencies .

1841

1,175

13,847

Touamotou islands .

1844

6,600

8,000

G-ambier

1844

1.500

Toubouaii and Vavitou
Total, protected countries .
Total, colonies and protectorates

1845 1

103

550

1,043,897

91,769

536,951

3,651,254

The commercial intercourse of the Colonial Possessions of France
is almost entirely with the mother-country, being restricted by
special legislation to this channel. But the only colonies possessing
commercial importance are the islands of Reunion, or Bourbon,
on the coast of Africa, and Martinique and Guadeloupe in America.
The trade between the Colonial Possessions of France and the
United Kingdom is very small. The only group with which there is
any notable commercial intercourse is that of the West India Islands,
which sent exports of the value of 134,862/., one-half consisting of
raw sugar, to the United Kingdom in the year 1875. The imports
of British home produce into the French "West India Islands were
of the value of 148,368/. in 1875, the chief article imported being
cottons, of the value of 61,281/.

It is calculated that the total number of natives of France, not in the
army and navy, settled throughout the whole of the Colonial Posses-
sions, is iinder 2,000. A large penal settlement was formed in the
colony of Guiana during the years 1852-60, and another at New
Caledonia in 1871-72, both for political prisoners.

Slavery was abolished throughout the whole of the Colonial Pos-
sessions of France by a decree of February 28, 1848.

For an account of the government, revenue, population, and com-
merce of Algeria, see part II., Africa, of the Statesman's Tear-book.

Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of France in* Great Buitaix.

Ambassador. — Marquis Bernard Hippolyte D'Harcourt, born in 1821 ; ap-
pointed May 1, 1875.

Secretaries. — Charles Gavard, Count de la Londo ; Count de Kergolay ;
Marquis de Brachet de Floressae; Count de Florian.

Military Attache. — Baron Charles de Mandatde Grance}'.

2\aval Attache. — Viscount de la Tour-du-Pin.

90 THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

2. Of Great Bkitain in France.

Ambassador. — Et. Hon. Lord Lyons, G-.C.B., born in 1817; Envoy to the
United States, 1858-64; and Ambassador to Turkey, 1S65-67. Appointed
Ambassador to France, July 6, 1867.

Secretaries. — Francis Ottiwell Adams; "W. E. W. Freeman; Eobert Et.
Hildyard ; George Sheffield; Hon. W. A. C. Earringtou; Falconer Atlee; Wni.
E. Gosclicii.

Military Attache. — Major-General J. Conolly, C.B.

Naval Attache. — Capt. E. H. Howard, R.N.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of France, and the British

•equivalents, are —

Money.

The Franc, of 100 centimes . . Approximate value 10c?., or 25 Francs to

£1 sterling.

Weights and Measures.

'The Gramme = 15-434 grains troy.

,, Kilogramme — 2-205 lbs. avoirdupois.

,, Quintal Metrique = 220 „ „

„ Tonneau „ . . . . = 2200 ., .,

„ Litre, Liquid Measure . . = T76 Impena pints.

tt,i-, f Liquid Measure = 22 ,, gallons.

\ Dry Measure . = 2'75 ,, bushels.

„ Metre = 3-28 feet or 39'37 inches.

„ Kilometre . . . = 1093 yards, or nearly 5 furlongs, or

f mile.

,, Metre Cube"] „, „, , • „ ,

" .,,, > . . . . = 3o-31 cubic feet.

„ btere J

„ Hectare = 2-47 acres.

„ Kilometre Carre = 247 acres, or 2| K.C. to 1 square

mile.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning

France.

1. Official Eui?lications.

Anmiaire de la Marine et des Colonies. 1876. 8. Earis, 1876.

Bulletin des Lois de la Republique francaise. 8. Earis, 1876.

Bulletin officiel du Ministere de l'lnterieur. Earis, 1876.

Compte general de I'administration de la justice civile et commereiale en
France pendant i'annee 1874. 4. Earis, 1876.

Compte general de 1' Administration de la Justice criminelle en France,
par le Garde des Sceaux, ministre de la justice. 4. Earis, 1876.

Denombrement de la population de la France, 1872. In ' Bulletin de lois
de la Republique francaise.' No. 114. 8. Earis, 1874.

Documents statistiques reunis par I'administration des douanes sur le com-
merce de la France. 4. Paris, 1876.

Enquete sur la marine marchande. 4. Earis, 1875.

Ministere des Finances : Comptesgenerauxdel'Administration des Finance
Paris, 1876.

FRANCE. 9 I

Ministere de 1' Agriculture, du Commerce et dea Traraux publics: Archives
statistiques. Paris, 187(5.

Rapport fait au nom de la commission de la reorganisation do l'armee/pur
M. le General Chareton. 4. Versailles, 1875.

■Situation economique et commerciale de la France. Expose comparatif pour
les quinze annees de la periode 1860-1874. Paris, 1870.

Statistique de la France. Monvement de la population pendant les annees
1870-74. 4. Paris, 1870.

Tableau du Commerce general de la France, avec ses Colonies et les Puis-
sances etrangeres, pendant l'Annee 1874. 4. Paris, 1876.

Tableau general des mouvcments du cabotage pendant l'annee 1874. Direc-
tion generate des douanes et des contributions indirectes. 4. Paris, 1876.

Report by Mr. L. S. Sackville West, on the Tenure of Land in France,
dated Paris, Nov. 19, 1809 : in ' Reports from H. M.'s Representatives respect-
ing the Tenure of Land in the several Countries of Europe.' Part I. Fob pp.
540. London, 1870.

Report by Mr. F. O. Adams on the Finances of France, dated Paris, March
23, 1875; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.'
Part I. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. F. O. Adams, on the Returns of Revenue and Foreign Trade
of France in the year 1875, dated Paris, Feb. 10, 1876 ; in 'Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Parti. 1876. 8. London, 1870.

Report by Mr. F. O. Adams, on the Budget of 1876 and 1877, and the
National Debt of France, dated Paris. April 12, 1876; in 'Reports of H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part II. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Report by Lieutenant-Colonel Playfair, British Consul-General, on the
Population, Trade, and Social and Political Condition of Algeria, dated Algiers,
November 15. 1872 ; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Consuls on British Trade abroad.'
Part I. 8. London, 1873.

Reports by Mr. Consul Graham, on the Trade of Bayonnc, ; by Mr. Consul
Hamilton, oil the Trade of Boulogne- sur-Mer ; by Mr. Consul Hotham, on the
Trade of Calais ; by Mr. Consul Vereker, on the Trade of Rochefort and the
District of Charente Inierieure ; by Mr. Consul Hamond, on the Trade of
•Cherbourg ; by Mr. Consul Bernal, on the Trade of Havre ; by Mr. Consul
Elmore, on the Trade of Nice; by Mr. Consul Segrave, on the Trade of
Reunion ; and by Mr. Vice-Gonsul MacGregor, on the Trade of St. Malo, dated
September — December, 1872 ; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Consuls, on British Trade
abroad.' Part I. 8. London, 1873.

Reports by Mr. Consul Hotham, on the Trade of Calais ; by Mr. Consul
Vereker, on the Trade of Charente; by Mr. Consul Hamond, on the Trade of
Cherbongh and St. Malo : by Mr. Consul Bernal, on the Trade of Havre ; and
by Mr. Consul Elmore, on the Trade of Nice, dated January to February, 1873 ;
in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls, on the Manufactures, Commerce, iV., of their
Consular Districts.' No. II. 1873. 8. London, 1873.

Reports by Mr. Vice-Consul Stigand and Mr. Vice-Consul Taylor on the
Trade. &c, of Boulogne and of Dunkirk, dated October, 1874; in 'Reports
from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1875. 8. London, 1873.

Reports by Mr. Consul Macgregor on the Trade of the districts of Cherbourg
and of St. Malo, dated January 11-16, 1875; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part II. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Reports by Mr. Consnl-General Playfair on the Trade and Commerce of
Algeria, and by Mr. Vice-Consul Stigand od the Commerce and Industry of
the Consular District of Boulogne, dated Sept. -Dec. 1875; in ' Reports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1870.' 8. London, 1870.

92 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Eeports by Mr. Consul Eaiirals on the Trade and Shipping of the Consular
District of Brest; by Mr. Consul Hamond, on the Commerce of Cherbourg;
by Jir. Consul Eernal, on the Trade and Commerce of the Consular District of
Havre ; by Mr. Consul Tremlett, on the Trade of Saigon ; and by Mr. Vice-
Consul MacCrregor, on the Commerce of St. Malo, dated Jan.-Feb. 1876 ; in
' Eepurts from H.M.'s Consuls.' Fart II. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Eeport by Mr. Consul Wooldridge, on the Trade and Commerce of French
Guinea, dated Cayenne, March 11, 1876; in ' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls/
Fart IV. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Eeports by Mr. Consul Hotham, on the Trade of Calais ; by Mr. Consul
Shortt, on the Commerce of Corsica; and by Mr. Consul Ferry, on the Trade
of Reunion, dated April-May, 1876; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Fart V. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of France with the United Kingdom; in 'Annual Statement of tho
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
for the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Not-Official Publications.

Aird (D. M), The Civil Laws of France to the present time. 8. London, 1875.

Annuaire des etablissements francais dans ILnde. 12. Pondichery, 1876.
1876.

Audiffret (Marquis de), Etat de la fortune nationale et du credit public do
1789 a 1873. 8. Paris, 1875.

Block (Maurice), Annuaire de l'Economie politique etde la Statistique. 1876.
16. Paris, 1876.

Orisenoy (De), Memoire de l'inscription maritime. Histoire de cette institu-
tion ; son influence sur le sort des marins, sur l'industrie maritime et sur la-
constitution de nos forces navales. 8. Paris, 1872.

David (J.), Le credit national. 8. Paris, 1872.

Dufour (Gabriel), Traite general du droit administratif applique ou Expose,
de la doctrine et de la jurisprudence concernant l'exercice de l'autorite du chef
de l'Etat, des ministres, des prefets, des sous-prefets, des maires, etc., 3*
edition. 8 vols. 8. Paris, 1872.

Dupont (P.), Annuaire de la marine pour 1876. 8. Paris, 1876.

Kleine (E.), Les richesses de la France. Etude complete sur la situation
agricole industrielle et commerciale de la France et de ses colonies. 12.
Paris, 1872.

Leon (M.), De l'Accroissement de la Population en France et de la Doctrino
de Maltlius. 8. Paris, 1866.

Moussy (N.), Tableau des finances de la France. 8. Paris, 1875.

JScy/nark (Alfred), Apereus financiers. 8. Paris, 1872.

Prat (Th. de), Annuaire protestant: Statistique generale des diverses
branches du Protestantisme francais. 8. Paris, 1876.

Roussan (A.), L'armee territoriale et la reserve de 1'armee active. 8. Paris,
1874.

Statistique centrale des Chemins de fer. 4. Paris, 1876.

Tirclcs (A. Freiherr Von), Die Volkskraft Deutschlands und Frankreichs.
Statistiche Skizze. 8. Berlin, 1875.

VrayeQtl. G.), Le budget de l'Etat. 8. Paris, 1875.

GERMANY.
(Deutschks Reich.)

Reigning Emperor.

WilhellH I., German Emperor, and King of Prussia., born
March 22, 1797, the second son of King Friedrich Wilhelm III. of
Prussia, and of Princess Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; educated
for the military career, and took part in the campaigns of 1813 and
1814 against France; Governor of the province of Pomerania,
1840; Military Governor of the Rhine provinces, 1849—57; appointed
Regent of Prussia during the illness of his brother, Oct. 9, 1858 ;
ascended the throne of Prussia at the death of his brother, Jan. 2,
18G1 . Commander-in-chief of the German armies in the war against
France, July 1870 to March 1871 ; proclaimed Emperor of Ger-
many at Versailles, January 18, 1871. Married June 11, 1829, to

Augusta, Empress of Germany, and Queen of Prussia, born
Sept. 30, 1811, the daughter of the late Grand-Duke Karl Fried-
rich of Saxe-Weiinar.

Heir Apparent — Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, born October 18, 1831,
eldest son of the Emperor-King; field-marshal in the army of
Prussia (see 'Prussia,' p. 110).

The Imperial throne of Germany lias always been filled by
election, though with a tendency towards the hereditary principle of
succession. Originally, the Emperor was chosen by the vote of all
the Princes and Peers of the Reich, but the mode came to be
•changed in the fourteenth century, when a limited number of Princes,
fixed at seven for a time, and afterwards enlarged to nine, assumed
the privilege of disposing of the crown, and, their right being ac-
knowledged, were called Electors. With the overthrow of the old
Germanic Empire by the Emperor Napoleon, in 1800, the Electoral
dignity virtually ceased, although the title of Elector was retained
sixty years longer by the sovereigns of Ilesse-Cassel, the last of them
dethroned in l^GO by Prussia. The election of the present Emperor
was by vote of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation, on
the initiative of all the reigning Princes of Germany.

Since the creation of the Imperial dignity by Charlemagne,
crowned 'Kaiser ' at Rome, en Christmas-day in the year bOO, there
have been the following Emperors of Germany : —

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

House of Charlemagne.

Karl I., ' Der Grosse'
Ludwig I., ' Der Fromme '
Ludwigll., ' Der Deutsche :

Karl II., 'DerKahle' .
Karl, ' Der Dieke' .
Arnulf ....
Ludwig III., ' Das Kind '

House of Frcmeoni

800-814
SI 4-8 40
843-876
876-877
881-887
887-899
900-911

911-918

Konrad I.

House of Saxony.
Heinrich I.,' Der Vogelsteller' 919-936
Otto I., ' Der Grosse ' . 936-973
Otto II. . . . 973-983

Otto III. . . . 983-1002

Heinrich II. . . . 1002-1021

House of Franconia.
Konrad II., 'Der Salier' . 1024-1039
Heinrich III. . . . 1039-1056
Heinrich IV. . . . 1056-1106
Heinrich V. . . . 1106-1125

House of Saxony.
Lothar II., ' Der Sachse ' 1125-1137

House of Hohenstavfen.
Konrad III. . . .' 1138-1152
Friedrieh I., ' Barbarossa ' 1 152-1 190
Heinrich VI. . . . 1190-1197
Philipp . . . 1198-1208

Otto IV. . . . 1208-1212

Friedrich II. . . . 1212-1250
Konrad IV. . . . 1250-1254

House of Hahshurg.
Albrechtl. . . . 1298-1308

Houses of liV.xemhurg and Bavaria.
Heinrich VII. . . 1308-1313

Ludwig IV, 'Der Baior' . 1313-1347
Karl IV. . . . 1348-1378

Second Interregn um.

Wenceslaus of Bohemia . 1378—1400
Kuprecht ' Von der Pfalz' 1400-1410
Sigmund of Brandenburg 1410-1437

House of Hahshurg.

Albrecht II. . . . 1438-1439

Friedrich III. . . . 1440-1493

Maximilian I. . . 1493-1519

KarlV. . . . 1519-1558

Ferdinand I. . . . 1558-1564

.Maximilian II. . . 1564-1576

Rudolf II. . • • 1576-1612

Matthias . . - 1612-1619

Ferdinand II. . . . 1619-1637

Ferdinand III. . .1637-1657

Leopold I. . . ■ 1657-1705

Joseph I. . . • 1705-1711

Karl VI. . . . 1711-1740

Karl VII. . . • 1742-1745-

House of Habsburg -Lorraine.

Franz 1 1745-1765

Joseph II. . 1765-1790

Leopold II. . . • 1790-1792
Franz II. 1792-1806

Third Interregnum.
Confederation of the Rhine 1806-1815
German ' Bund ' . .1815-1866
North German Confedera-
tion .... 1866-1871

House of Hohcnzollcrn.

Vvilhelml. . . .1871

First Interregnum.
Wilhelm of Holland . 1254-1256

Richard of Cornwall . 1256-1272

House of Hahshurg.
Rudolf I. . * . • 1273-1291

House of Nassau.
Adolf .... 1292-1298

The average duration of reign of the above fifty-five Emperors
of Germany was seventeen years.

Constitution and Government.

The Constitution of the Empire bears date April 16, 1871. By its
terms, all the states of Germany ' form an eternal union for the protec-
tion of the realm and the care of the welfare of the German people
_< schliessen einen ewigen Bund zum Schutze des Bundesgebiets,
und zur Pilesre der Wohlfahrt des Deutschen Volkes.' The supreme

GERMANY.

direction of the military and political affairs of the Empire is vested
in the King of Prussia, who. as such, bears the title of Deutscher
Kaiser. According to Art. 11 of the Constitution, ' the Kaiser
represents the Empire internationally' — 'hat das Reich volkerrecht-
lich zu vertreten ' — and can declare Avar, if defensive, and make peace,
as well as enter into treaties with other nations, and appoint and
receive ambassadors. To declare war, if not merely defensive, the
Kaiser must have the consent of the Bundesrath, or Federal Council,
in which body, together with the Reichstag, or Diet of the Realm,
are vested the legislative functions of the Empire. The Bundes-
rath represents the individual states of Germany, and the Reichstag
the German nation. The members of the Bundesrath, 59 in number,
are appointed by the governments of the individual states for each
session, while the members of the Reichstag, 097 in number, are
elected by universal suffrage and ballot, for the term of three years.
The various states of Germany are represented as follows in the
Bundesrath and the Reichstag : —

Number of

States of the Empire.

| members in

deputies in

Bundesrath

Reichstag

Kingdom of Prussia .....

236

,, ,, Bavaria. ....

,, ,, Wiirtemberg ....

,. ,, Saxony .....

1 Grand-Duchy of Baden ....

„ ,, 3Tecklcnburg-Schwerin

,, ,, Hesse ....

„ ,, Oldenburg

,, „ Saxe- Weimar .

,, ., Mecklenburg-Strelitz

Duchy of Brunswick .....

,, ,, Saxe-Meiningen ....

„ „ Anhalt .....

,, „ Saxe-Coburg-Gotha .

„ „ Saxe-Altenburg ....

! Principality of TValdeck ....

„ ., Lippe ....

„ „ Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt .

,, „ Schwarzburg-Sondershausen

,, ,, Reuss-Schleiz .

„ „ Schaumburg-Lippe .

,, ,, Reuss-Greiz

Free town of Hamburg ....

., ,, „ Liibeck. ....

,, ,, „ Bremen ....

Reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine

Total

397

96 THE STATESMAN'S YEAK-BOOK, 1877.

The total number of electors to the Reichstag inscribed on the
lists was 8,515,041 at the general election of 1874, while the number
of actual voters was 5,288,203 at the same election.

Both the Bundesrath and the Reichstag meet in annual session,
convoked by the Kaiser. The Kaiser has the right to prorogue and
dissolve the Reichstag, but the prorogation must not exceed sixty days ;
while in case of dissolution new elections have to take i)lace within sixty
days, and a new session has to open within ninety days. All laws
for the Empire must receive the votes of an absolute majority of the
Bundesrath and the Reichstag. The Bundesrath is presided over
by the Reichskanzler, or Chancellor of the Empire, and the Presi-
dent of the Reichstag is elected by the deputies.

The laws of the Empire, passed by the Bundesrath and the Reichs-
tag, to take effect must receive the assent of the Kaiser, and be
countersigned when promulgated by the Chancellor of the Empire.
The latter, in his capacity as President of the Bundesrath, has the
right to be present at the deliberations of the Reichstag.

Chancellor of the Empire. — Prince Otto von Bismarck- Schon-
Jiausen, born April 1, 1815 ; studied jurisprudence at Berlin and
Gottingen ; member of the Constituent Assembly of Prussia, 1848 ;
Minister Plenipotentiary of Prussia at the Diet of Frankfort, 1851-59 ;
Ambassador to the Court of St. Petersburg, 1859-62 ; Ambassador
of Prussia to the Emperor of the French, 18G2; Minister of Foreign
Affairs, and chief of the Council of Ministers of Prussia, September
23, 1862 ; Chancellor of the North German Confederation, 1867—70 ;
appointed Chancellor of the Empire, January 19, 1871.

Acting under the direction of the Chancellor of the Empire, the
Bundesrath, in addition to its legislative functions, represents also a
supreme administrative and consultative Board, and as such
has seven standing committees, namely for army and naval
matters ; tariff, excise, and taxes ; trade and commerce ; railways,
posts, and telegraphs ; civil and criminal law ; financial accounts ;
and foreign affairs. Each committee consists of representatives of at
least four states of the Empire ; but the foreign affairs' committee
includes only the representatives of the kingdoms of Prussia,
Bavaria, Saxony, and Wtirtemberg.

Church, and Education.

The census of December 1, 1871, showed the religious division
of the population of all the states composing the German Empire as
follows: — Protestants, 25,579,709; Roman Catholics, 14,867,463;
Christian sects of various denominations, 82,155; and Jews,
512,158. In Prussia, 65 per cent of the inhabitants were Pro-
testants in 1871, and 33^- per cent. Roman Catholics, while in Bavaria
71 per cent, were Roman Catholics, and 27 \ per cent. Protestants.

GERMANY.

In the Reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine 80 per cent, of the inhabitants
■were Roman Catholics and 17i per cent. Protestants.

Education is general and compulsory throughout Germany. The
laws of Prussia, which provide for the establishment of elementary
schools, supported from the local rates, in every town and village,
and compel all parents to send their children to these or other
schools, exist with slight modifications in all the states of the
Empire. It appears, from statistical returns relating to the formation
of the united German army, that all recruits of the year 1870 could
at least read and write, though in some of the southern states,
notably Bavaria, a small number of the young men entering
military service were declared of inefficient education, ' mangelhafte
Schulbildung.' (For further particulars see Prussia, pp. 118-19.)

There are twenty- one universities in the German Empire. At
the end of June 1876, the total number of professors and teachers
at them "was 1,800, and they were attended by 16,622 students.
The following table gives the list, in alphabetical order, of the
twenty-one universities, with the numbers of professors and teachers,
and that of the students of the various faculties in June, 187G : — -

J Professors

Students

Viiivcrsit i* s

and

i Teachers

Theology

Jurisprudence Philosophy

Medicine

Total.

Berlin .

197

162

802

911

263

2,143

Bonn

100

127

186

271

123

707

Breslau .

107

115

422

419

160

1,116

Erlangen

134

161

429

Freiburg

120

274 !

Giessen .

103

115

315

Gottingen

115

352

433

123

986

Greifswald

122

218

444

Halle .

187

130

441

112

870

Heidelberg

104

197

195

488

Jena

209

440

Kiel .

202

Konigsberg .

196

223

148

611

Leipzig .

156

337

1,171

989

428

2,925

Marburg

166

122

401

Munich .

116

276

496

347

1,203

Minister

208

—

223

—

431

Bostock .

39 .

153

Strassburg

197

239

191

6771

Tubingen

353

168

145

157

823

Wiirzburg

129

106

201

548

984

Total .

1,800

2,30/)

t,§78

6.H77

3,567

16,622

The number of students in the preceding table includes only those
matriculated at each university. There were besides the total

98 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

above given, 2,377 non-matriculated students — ' zura Besuch der
Vorlesungen berechtigt' — the vast majority of them, namely, 1,962,
at the university of Berlin. Thus there were altogether 18,999
students in the universities of Germany in June 1876.

Fourteen of the twenty-one universities of the Empire are Pro-
testant, that is teach only Protestant theology. These Protestant
high schools are Berlin, Erlangen, Giessen, Gbttingen, Greifswald,
Halle, Heidelberg, Jeua, Kiel, Konigsberg, Leipzig, Marburg,
Rostock, and Strassburg. In four universities, namely Freiburg',
Munich, Minister, and Wurzburg, the faculties of theology are
Roman Catholic. The remaining three are mixed, attended by
both Protestant and Roman Catholic students of theology, the former
predominating at Bonn and Breslau and the latter at Tubingen. A
faculty for medicine was instituted at Minister in July 1875.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The common expenditure of the Empire is defrayed, according to
Art. 70 of the Constitution, from the revenues arising from customs,
certain branches of excise, the profits of the post, and telegraphs.
Should the receipts from these various sources of income not be
sufficient to cover the expenditure, the individual states of Germany
may be assessed to make up the deficit, each state being made con-
tributory in proportion to its population. The common expenditure
is to be voted. ' as a rule ' — in der Regel — only for one year ; but
also for any longer term 'in special cases' — inbesondern Fallen.

The total actual revenue of the Empire in the year 1875 amounted
to 453,802,092 mark, or 22,690,104/., and the total actual expendi-
ture to 301,621,302 mark, or 18,081,065Z., leaving a surplus of
92,180,790 mark, or -4,609,039/. In the budget estimates for the
year 1876, passed by the Reichsrath, the total revenue was set
down at 474,256,998 mark, or 23,712,900/., and the expen-
diture at 474,458,198 mark, or 23,722,909/., leaving a small deficit.
The budget accounts of the Empire distinguish between ordinary,
or ' continual ' (fortdauernda) expenditure, and extraordinary, or
for once ' (einmalige) disbursements. In the budget of the Empire
for 1876 the sum of 403,272,262 mark, or 20,163,613/., was
placed under the head of ordinary, and that of 71,186,936 mark, or
3,559,346/., of extraordinary disbursements. The total ordinary,
or ' continual ' expenditure for the year 1876 was distributed as
follows : —

Mark
Imperial Chancery ...... 4,083,660

Keiehstag . . . . . . . . 318,150

Foreign Department ...... 5,592,455

Imperial Army 316,2()5;738

Imperial Navy 21,068,481

GERMANY.

Imperial Court of Railway-affairs .
Interest of Debt of the Empire
Imperial Audit (Rechnungshof)
Court of Commerce (Handelsgericht)
General Pensions ....
Invalid Fund ....

Total ordinary expenditi

Mark

276,490

2,742,700

398,466

353,370

23,403.141

28,828,611

403,272,2(12
£20,163,613

The extraordinary expenditure for the year 187G was distributed

as follows : —

Imperial Chancery .
Reichstag ....
Department of Foreign Affairs
Imperial Post and Telegraphs .
Imperial Army . .
Imperial Navy
Imperial Audit
State Railways

Fabrication of Exchequer-bills
.Manufacture of Imperial gold coin

Total extraordinary expenditure
Ordinary expenditure .

Total expenditure .

Hark

2,215,230

30,000

1,365,500

1,462,900

35,893,612

4,769,300-

40,000

17,010,394

600,000

7.800,000

71.186,936
403.272,262

174,458,198
.123,722,919

The estimated receipts for the year 1S7G embraced the following
branches of Imperial revenue : —

Customs and Excise Duties .
Stamp Duties .....

Profits of Posts and Telegraphs .
State Railways in Alsace-Lorraine
Interest of the Invalid Fund of the Kmpire
Surplus of 1872-1875 .
Imperial gold coin .
Interests of Imperial Funds .
Miscellaneous Receipts .

Total direct revenue .

Contributions of States to revenue

Total Revenue to cover expenditure

Mark

212,629,170

6,990,450

10,562,236

9,473,000

28,828,611

34,368,366

10,200,000

10,658,000

17,360.950

402,880,783

71,376 215

474,256,998

The contribution of the principal states of the Empire to the
revenue for the year 187G was calculated as follows: — Prussia
31,730,696 mark; Bavaria, 16,078,924 mark; Wiirtembenr
5,987,108 mark; Baden, 4,647,455 mark; Saxony, 3,676,779
mark; and the Eeichsland Alsace-Lorraine, 3,074,109 mark.

In the budget of the Empire the sums received from France as

IOO THE STATESMAN S YEAE-BOOK, 1877.

war indemnity are not entered, but are placed to a separate account.
Of* the war indemnity, agreed upon by Treaty of Feb. 2G. 1871r
amounting to five milliards of francs, or 200,000,000/. (see France,
p. G2), Germany had received the total at the end of September
1873. Besides this Treaty indemnity, Germany received a tribute
of 150,000,000 francs, or 0,000,000/., from the city of Paris, and
levied contributions in some of the French departments, the total
sum paid into the Imperial exchequer amounting, inclusive of
interest, to 1,486,500,000 thaler, or close upon 220,000,000/. Of
this sum nearly one-half was portioned out among the twenty-five
States of the German Empire. Of the other half, in accordance with
various laws passed by the Reichsrath 86,GGG,GGG thaler were paid
to France for the Alsace-Lorraine Railways ; 30,700,000 thaler were
accorded to private persons and corporations in Alsace and other
parts of Germany for damages and expenses during the war, an addi-
tional 5,600,000 thaler being awarded to shipowners on the same
ground; 18,412,300 thaler more were expended for rolling-stock
and railway material in Alsace and Lorraine, and 40,000,000 thaler
for the fortresses in the Reicbsland. The Invalid Fund absorbed
27,000,000 thaler ; the extra expenditure incurred by the occupa-
tion, 29,000,000 thaler ; and the armament and disarmament of
fortresses, the purchase of fresh siege material and naval re-equip-
ments, 28,000,000 thaler. Of the rest, 20,000,000 thaler had to be
restored to the Custom House Department; 11,000,000 thaler was
the amount consumed by Treasury bonds falling due ; 3,500,000
thaler were handed over to Bavaria and Wiirtemberg, whose
military administration is not under the Empire ; 5,450,000 thaler
went to the Government railways for the completion and repair of
rolling-stock; 4,000,000 thaler were allowed to Generals for
endowments, and the rest was spent, chiefly in supplying the
Imperial Exchequer with working capital and re-equipping some
special branches of the military service, while the sum of 40,000,000
thaler was set aside as a War Reserve Fund.

Army and Navy.

1. Army.

By the Constitution of April 1G, 1871, the Prussian obligation to
serve in the army is extended to the whole Empire, it being enacted
by Art. 57, that 'every German is liable to service — wehrpfiichtig —
and no substitution is allowed.' The time of service is thus pre-
scribed by Art. 59 of the Constitution. Every German capable of
bearing arms — ' wehrf ahig ' — has to be in the standing army for seven
years, as a rule from the finished twentieth till the commencing
twenty- eight years of his age. Of the seven years, three must be

GERMANY. 10 1

spent in active service — 'bei den Fahnen ' — and the remaining three
in the army of reserve. After quitting the army of reserve, he has
to form part of the Landwehr for another five years. The strength
of the German army on the j^eace footing was fixed in the Army
Bill, which passed the Reichstag in the session of 1874, at 401,65'J
men for a term of seven years, commencing on the 1st of January,
1875, and ending on the 31st of December, 1881. The volunteers
of one year's service are not reckoned in the number at which the
peace effective is fixed. By the Arm)' Bill, the Prussian military
legislation is applied to all the states of the Empire.

The strength of the armed forces of the Empire was greatly aug-
mented by a law called that of the Landsturm, which passed the
Reichstag in the session of 1875. Under this law, the army is
increased by the addition of all men capable of bearing arms, who
are not either in the Line, the Reserve, or the Landwehr. The
new force, the Landsturm, is divided into two classes, the first class
comprising all able-bodied men up to the age of 42, wdio are not
already in the army, and the second including the rest. The first
class is organised into 298 Landsturm battalions on the model of the
2!)3 existing Landwehr battalions, which adds 175,800 men to the
German forces. By application of the law, the German army,
without the second class of the Landsturm, which is not to be orga-
nized for the present, will number about 1,800,000 men.

The G3rd Article of the Constitution of 1871 enacts ' the whole
of the land forces of the Empire shall form a united army, in war
and peace under the orders of the Kaiser ' — ' die gesammte Land-
macht des Reichs wird ein einheitliches Heer bilden, welches im
Krieg und Frieden unter dem Befehle des Kaisers steht.' The
sovereigns of the principal states have the right to select the lower
grades of officers; and the King of Bavaria, by a convention, signed
Nov. 23, 1870, has reserved to himself the special privilege of
superintending the general administration of that portion of the
German army raised within his dominions. But the approval of the
Kaiser must be obtained to all appointments, and nothing affecting
the superior direction of the troops of any state of the Empire can
be done without his consent. It is enacted by Art. 64 of the Con-
stitution of 1871 that 'all German troops are bound to obey uncon-
ditionally the orders of the Kaiser' — 'alle deutschen Truppen sind
verpllichtet, den Befehlen des Kaisers unbedingt Folge zu leisten ' —
•' and must swear accordingly the oath of fidelity.' Art. G5 of the
Constitution gives the Emperor the right of ordering the erection
of fortresses in any part of the Empire ; and Art. <J8 invests him
with the power, in case of threatened disturbance of order—
x wenn die bffentliche Sicherheit bedroht ist' — to declare any country
or district in a state of siece.

102

THE STATESMAN'S TEAll-BOOK, 1877.

The army of the German Empire was formed in August 1875, of
148 regiments of infantry, including the guards ; 2G battalions of
jiiger, or riflemen ; 93 regiments of cavalry, 49 regiments of
artillery, 20 battalions of engineers, including a railway regiment,
and 18 battalions of military train. The folloAving table shows the
strength and organisation of the Imperial army on the peace-
footing : —

Peace-footing

Officers
8,750

Rank and File

Horses

Guns ,

Infantry, 148 regiments

255,278

4,176

Jiiger, 26 battalions

626

14,621

182

— .

Cavalry, 93 regiments .

2,902

65,512

68,515

—

Field Artillery, 36 regiments

1,800

30,637

17.100

1,200

Fortress Artillery, 29 bat-

talions ....

640

14,985

224

—

Engineers, 20 battalions

400

10,150

250

—

Train, 18 battalions .

300

5,049

3,600

Depots of Lancbvelir, 274

battalions

600

4,703

—

.Staff Division

2,061

—

3,329

—

Total.

1S,079

401,659

97,379

1.200

The following table shows the strength and organisation of the
Imperial army on the war-footing : —

Officers

Rank and tile

Horses

Guns

19,426

780

3,487

2,213

885,388 j
41,184 1

108,276
88,319 J

20,988

1,098

112,304

78.066

2,124

1,370

56,800 1

8,200

576

837
724

33,669
44,010

8,251
44,255

250

8,700

1,780

—

2,108

7,000 I

6,600

—

31,195

1,273,346 1

281,542

2,700

War Footing

Infantry, including guards
Jiiger or riflemen
Cavalry ....
Field Artillery
Fortress and Coast Artil- "\

lery . .... J
Engineers

Train and administration .
Railway and telegraph di- ~\

vision ... J
Staff division .

Total .

Not included in the above statements are the troops of the field
reserve, organised in 187G, calculated to number 250,000 men, and
those of the Landsturm (see page 101.) It is calculated that with
the addition of the latter, Germany may place in the field at any
time two millions and a half* of armed men, without drawing upon
the last reserves.

GERMANY.

10-

The Empire is divided for military purposes into 17 districts,
each represented by one corps d'armee. The guards alone, recrui-
ted from all parts of Prussia, do not belong to any special division.

For details regarding the German army, its formation, mode of
service, and general organisation, see Prussia, 'Army,' pp. 124—25.

Since the Franco-German war, the fortress system of Germany
has been entirely remodelled, and a number of old fortified places,
deemed useless, have been abolished, and many new ones erected,
and others enlarged. The Empire is at present divided into nine
' fortress districts ' (Festungs-Inspectionen), each including a certain
area with fortified places. The following table gives a list of these
districts, and the names of the fortresses in each, the fortified places
of the first class, serving as camps — mit verschanzten Lagern — being
distinguished by italics, while those specially designed for railway
protection, or obstruction — Eisenbahnsperren — are marked by
asterisks (*), and coast fortresses by a dagger (f). The table is
drawn up after official returns, dated November 1876.

Districts
1. Konigsbera . . .

3. Posen

4. Berli

Mayence (Mainz)

6. Metz

7. Cologne (Coin)

8. Altoua

Fortress

Kon igsberg

Memelt

Marienburg

Pillaut

Dirscb.au*

Danzig

Stralsundt

Thorn

Swinemiindo t

Kolbergt

Posen

Neisse

Glogau *

Glatz

Kiistrin

Konigstein *

Magdeburg

Torgau *

Spundau

Mayence

Utm

Bdstatt

Neu-Breisach

Strassburg

Metz

Saarlouis *

Diedenhofen*

Bitsch*

Cologne

Dusseldorf*

Koblenz

Wfesel*

Ehrenbreitstein

Sojiderburg-IHippel

Ki.elt

Trave mouth f

Elhe mouth t

i'rifdrichsortf

Weser mouth t

Ems mouth f

Wilhelmsbavenf

Inqolstadt

Germersheimu*

9. Munich (Miinclun).

It will be seen that at the end of '1876, the Empire had 1G
fortified places of the first class, serving as fortified camps, and 27
other fortresses. Works for enlarging six of the fortresses of the
first class, namely, Thorn, Posen, Kiistrin, Mayence, Strassburg,

104

THE STATESMAN'S YEAE-BOOK, 1877.

and Metz, were in hand at the same date, the most important of
these works, consisting of the building of a wide girdle of outer
fortifications, being nearly completed at Strassburg and Metz.
(Official Communication.)

2. Navy.

The formation of a German navy, due to the initiative of Prussia,
dates from 18-18, and rapid progress has been made in it for the Inst
ten years. The fleet of war of the Empire consisted, at the end of
November 1870, of the following steamers and sailing vessels : —

Steamers. — Ironclads : — ■
Frigates; —

Kaiser ....

Deutschland

Konig Wilkelm

Grosser Kurfiirst (turret) .

Friedrich der Grosse (turret)

Preussen (turret)

Prinz Friedrich Karl

Kronprinz
Corvette : —

Hansa ....
Batteries : —

Arminius (turret)

Prinz Adalbert (turret)

Total 11 Ironclads
Frigates : —

Leipzig ....

Sedan ....

Elizabeth ....

Hertha ....

Gazelle ....

Arcona ....

Vineta ....
Corvettes : —

Victoria ....

Augusta ....

Freija ....

Ariadne ....

Luise ....

Nymph e ....

Medusa ....
Avisos: —

Renown (artillery ship) .

Falke ....

Preussiseher Adler .

Pommerania

Grille (Imperial yacht) .
Loreley ....
Total, 31 Steamers

Tonnage ! Horse power

4,586
4,586

5,938
4.118
4,118
4,118
3,800
' 3,404

2,372

1,230

779

„42,0q0

2.856
2,856
1,996
1,846
1,691
1,691
1,846

1,550

1.550
1.258
1,258
1,258
9£0
970

3,318
, 1,014
800
406
493
332

"69,909

8.0(H)

8,000
8,000

5.400
5,400
5,400

3.500
4,800

3,000

1.200
1,200

32.300

4.800
4,800
2,400
1.450
1,300
1,300
1.450

1,300
1.300
2.400
2,100
2,100
800
800

3,000
300
300
175
160
80

64,615

105

12
12

2S
28
28
28

23
2
2
2
2
2

389

GERMANY.

I05

Gunboats : —

Tonnage

Horse-power

Guns

9 first-class, of 100 horse-power

and 3 or 4 guns each

3,484

S60

9 second-class, of 60 horse-power

and 2 guns each .

2,097

540

3 Torpedo Vessels

561

1,700

. .

10 Tenders and Tugs

2.-100

2,625

—

Seating Vessels.

! Frigate : —

iS'iobc .....

1,052

—

Brigs:—

Mosquito .....

551

Rover .....

551

1 Undine .....
Total, 4 Sailing Vessels
Grand Total

608

—

2,762

—

83.342

70,430

47S

Nearly completed, at the end of November, 1876, were five more
ironclads, the largest of them the armoured corvettes Zieten and
Ulan, built after the model of the Hansa.

The two most powerful ships of the navy are the ironclads
Kaiser and Deutsehland, both built by Messrs. Samuda, Brothers,
Poplar, the first launched March 19, and the second September 12,
1874. The Kaiser and Deutschland are sister-ships, 285 feet
long, constructed alike in every respect, after the designs of Mi-.
Edward J. Reed, formerly constructor to the British navy. Each
is protected with an armour belt extending all fore and aft, from 5
feet G inches below the water-line to the main deck, and has an
armour-plated battery, fitted with eight 22-ton steel breech-loading
Krupp guns, arranged to fire broadside. In addition to these eight
guns, there is another gun of 18 tons weight placed aft, capable of
being trained to an angle of fifteen degrees. The thickness of
armour-plates on the vital parts of the belt and battery is ten
inches; elsewhere it is eight inches, reduced at the ends of the
ship. The upper and main deck beams of each ironclad are com-
pletely covered with steel plating.

The next most important ironclads of Germany are the turret-ships
Grosser Kurflirst, Friedrich der Grosse, and Preussen. All three
were built at German dockyards, after the same model, duringtheyears
1873 and 1874. Each of them has two turrets, with armour of the
ihickness of eleven inches round them, and the centre, and of seven
inches fore and after, while the armament consists of four 2<!-ton

io6 the statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

guns in the turret?, and two 21 -ton guns placed fore and
aft. Not much inferior in size to these three turret-ships are
the ironclads Konig "Wilhelm, Prinz Friedrich Karl, and
Kronprinz. The Kiinig Wilhelm, built at the Thames Iron-
works, Blackwall, and launched on the 25th of April, 18G8, was de-
signed by the former Constructor of the British navy, and carries 23
rilled 96-pounders, made of Krupp's hammered steel. The armour
is 8 inches thick amidships, tapering gradually downwards to a
thickness of 7 inches at 7 feet below the water-line. Behind the
bowsprit and just forward of the stern are two bulkheads, each of
C inch armour and 18 inch of teak? which continue from the loAver
deck up through the main deck, and rise to the height of 7 feet
above the spar deck, where they are curved into the form of
semicircular shields, each pierced with portholes for cannon and
loopholes for musketry. Within these shields are four 300-pounders.
which can be used to fire straight fore and aft, or as broadside guns*.
The Prinz Friedrich Karl, was built at La Seyne, near Toulon,
after the model of the French 10-gun frigate the Couronne. (See
page 72.) The Kronprinz, built -at Poplar, by Messrs. Samuda
Brothers, and launched in 1867, is constructed with armour-plating
5 inches thick, so arranged as to protect the rudder and steering ap-
paratus, as well as the whole of the lower deck. The armament con-
sists of 14 steel breech-loading guns of 7 tons, and two pivot guns.

The German navy was manned, in the summer of 187G, by 5,500
seamen and boys, and officered by 1 admiral, 1 vice-admiral, 1 rear-
admiral, 28 captains, and 224 lieutenants. There were, besides, nine
companies of marines, six of infantry, and three of artillery, number-
ing 1,500 men. The sailors of the fleet and marines are raised by
conscription from among the seafaring population, which is exempt
on this account from service in the army. Great inducements are held
out for able seamen to volunteer in the navy, and the number of these
in recent years has been very large. The total seafaring population
of Germany is estimated at 80,000, of whom 48,000 are serving in
the merchant navy at home, and about G,000 in foreign navies,

Germany has three ports of war, at Kiel and Danzig, on the
Baltic, and at Wilhelmshaven in the Bay of Jade, on the North Sea.
The last-named, most important of harbours for the newly-created
German navy, was opened by the Emperor-King on the 17th June,
I860. The port of Wilhelmshaven is a vast artificial construction
of granite, and comprises five separate harbours, with canals, sluices
to regulate the tide, and an array of dry docks for ordinary and iron-
clad vessels. The first harbour is an artificial basin, flanked by
granite moles, respectively 4,000 and 9,600 feet long. This basin,
called ' the entrance,' is 700 feet long and 350 wide, and leads to
the first sluice, 132 feet long and 66 wide. The next basin, or outer

GERMANY.

IO7

harbour is GOO feet long and 400 wide ; the second sluice, imme-
diately behind, as long and as wide as the first. Then follows a canal
3,600 i'eet long, varying in width from 260 to 108 feet, and having
about halfway another harbour for dredging-steamers and similar
craft. This leads to the port proper, consisting of a basin 1,200 feet
long and 750 wide, with a smaller basin for boats. At the back of
the principal harbour there are two large shipyards.

Area and Population.

The following table gives the area and population of the twenty-five
States o I' Germany in the order of their areas, and of the Keichsland
of Alsace-Lorraine, together with the average density of population
of each, as returned at the last census, taken December 1, 1875 : —

States of the Empire

Area
English sq.

Population
Dec. 1 1K75.

Density of '
population per

miles

Emj. sq. mile

Prussia ....

137,(166

25,693,688

187

II.

Bavaria ....

29,292

5,024.832

170

III.

AViirtemberg

7,675

l",881,50o

245

IV.

Saxony ....

6.777

2,760,342

407

Baden* ....

5,851

1,506,531

257

VI.

Meeklenburg-Schwerin

4.834

553,734

114

VII.

Hesse .....

2,866

882,349

307

VIII.

Oldenburg ....

2,417

319,314

132

IX.

Brunswick ....

1,526

327,493

214

Saxe-Weimar

1,421

292,933

206

XI.

Mecklenburg-Strelitz .

997

95,648

XII.

Saxe-Meiningen .

933

194,494

208

XIII.

Anhalt ....

869

213,689

245

XIV.

Saxe-Coburg

816

182,673

223

XV.

Saxe-Altenburg .

509

145,844

286

XVI.

Waldeck ....

466

54,673

117

i XVII.

Lippe ....

445

114,254

256

XVIII.

Schwarzburg-Ifcudolstadt

340

76,676

225

XIX.

Scliwarzburg-Sondershausen .

318

67,480

212

XX.

Bouss-Schleiz

297

92,375

311

XXI.

Sebaumburg-Lippe

212

32,941

155

'; XXII.

Reuss-Greiz.

148

46,985

317

: XXIII.

Hamburg ....

14S

3S8,618

2,625

; xxiv.

Liibeck ....

127

50,912

448

; xxv.

Bremen ....

106

1 12,645

1,345

Reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine
Total

.3,080

1,529,408
42,726,84 1

227

212,091

201

At the census of December 1, 1875, the number of males was
21,048,541, and the number of females 21,678,303, being an excess
of 629,762 females over males in the total population of the Empire.

The population of Germany was 23,103,211 in 1816, at the end

io8

THE STATESMAN S YEAB-BOOK, 187'

of the great wars against France, and thirty years after, in 1837, it
had risen to 80,010,711, representing an average annual increase of
nearly 1-| per cent. At the general census of 1858, the population
of Germany was found to be 35,334,538, showing an average annual
increase of little more than f per cent. ; while, the return of the
census of 18G7, the last preceding the great Avar against France, gave
a total of 38,495,926 souls, amounting to an average annual increase
of |- per cent. From the census of 1SG7 to that of 1871, the war
intervening, the increase was only at the rate of 0-58 per annum ;
but from 1871 to 1875 it rose to 1*01 per cent, per annum.

The following table exhibits the comparative census results of
the years 1871 and 1875, with the increase or decrease, both abso-
lute and per cent, per annum, in each of the 25 states of Germany,
ranked according to population in 1875, and in Alsace-Lorraine : —

Absolute 1 Increase +

States of the Empire

Population,
Dec. 1, 1871

Population,
Dee. 1, 1875

Increase +

or
Decrease —

Decrease —

p ct. p. an. j

Prussia

24,605,842

25.693,688

+ 1,087,846

+ 1-7 i

II.

Bavaria

4,863,450

5.024.832

161,382

+ 0-82 !

III.

Saxony

2.556,244

2,760,342

204,098' + 192 j

IV.

Wiirtemberg

1.818,539

1,881,505

62,9661 + 0-85

Baden .

1,461,562

1,506,531

44.969 + 0-76

VI.

Hesse .

852,894

882,349

29,455 + 0-85

VII.

Aleeklenburg-

f- 557,707

.Sehwerin .

553,734

—

3,973 - 0-18

VIII.

Hamburg

338,07t

388,618

49,644' + 341

IX.

Brunswick

312,170

327,493

15,323 + 1-20

Oldenburg .

314,591

319.314

4,723, + 035

Saxe-Weimar

286,183

292,933

+ .

6,750 + 0-58

XII.

Anhalt .

203,437

213,689

10,252 + 1-23 '

XIII.

Saxe-Meihirjgen

187,957

194.494

5,537 + 0-80 :

XIV.

Saxe-Coburg

174,339

182,673

8,334 + 1-17 J

XV.

Saxe-Altenburg

142,122

145.814

3,722 + 065 !

XVI.

Bremen

122,402

142.045

20,243 + 3-82

XVII.

Lippe

11L135

114,254

3,119 + 0-69 ;

: XVIII.

Mecklenburg

96,982
89,032

1 1

Strelitz

95.648

—

1,334 - 0-35

XIX.

Eeuss-Selileiz

92,375

3,343 + 092

XX.

S. '•] i warzbui'g-R u-

75,523

dolstadt

76,676

.1,1531 + 0-38

XXI.

Schwarzburg-Scm-

dersliausen

67,191

67.480

289 + 0-11

1 XXII.

Waldeck

j 56,224

54,673

1,551' - 0-70

1 XXIII.

Liibeck

52,158

56,912

4,7541 + 2-18

XXIV.

Reuss-Greiz .

45,094

46,985

1,891| + 1-03

j XXV.

Sehaumburg-Lippc

s 32.059

32,941

882 + 0-68

Alsace-Lorraine
Total

' 1,549,738

1,529,408

20,330 - 033

41,023,095

42,726,844

+ ]

.703.7491 + 1-01

GERMANY,

IO9

The population of Alsace-Lorraine given in the second column in
the preceding table is that of the French census of December 31,
18G6, thus making the interval brought under comparison nearly
five years, instead of four as in the rest of Germany.

It will be seen that the increase of population during the census
period was greatest in the three Free Towns, Bremen, Hamburg,
and Llibeck, and, next to them, in Saxony, while it was less in
Prussia, and that the decrease of population was largest in the
Keichsland of Alsace-Lorraine.

Emigration, which formerly assumed larger proportions in Germany
than in any other country of Europe, has been gradually declining
in recent years. In 1873, according to official returns, 103, 50G
Germans emigrated to the United States, while 27,431 emigrated
to other countries outside Europe, making a total of 130,937
emigrants. In 1874, the total number of emigrants fell to 75,502,.
of which number 54,08G went to the United States. In 1875, the
total number of emigrants sank to 56,289, those to the United
States numbering 30,505. The number of jiersons who returned to
Germany from Transatlantic countries in the year 1875 was re-
ported at 22,081, of whom 9,143 landed at Hamburg, and 22,081
at Bremen. (See Hamburg, page 176, and Bremen, page 179.)

Trade and Commerce of Germany.
See pp. 182-85.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

See pp. 18G-87.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Germany.

See pp. 187-88.

I IO

STATES OF GERMANY.
I. PRUSSIA.

(KONIGEEICH PREUSSEN.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Wilhelm L, King of Prussia, born March 22, 1797, the second
son of King Friedrich Wilhelm III. and of Princess Louise of Meek -
lenburg-Strelitz ; educated for the military career, and took part in
the campaigns of 1818 and 1814 against France; Governor of the
province of Pomerania, 18-10 ; elected member of the Consti-
tuent Assembly for Wirsitz, Posen, May 15, 1848, and took seat in
the Assembly, June 8, 1848; Commander-in-Chief of the Prussian
troops against the revolutionary army of Baden, June 1849 ; Military
Governor of the Rhine provinces, 1849-57 ; appointed Regent c f
the kingdom during the illness of his brother, Oct. 9, 1858 ;
ascended the throne of Prussia at the death of his brother, Jan.
2, 1861. Commander-in-Chief of the German armies in the war
against France, July 1870 to March 1871 : proclaimed Emperor of
Germany at Versailles, January 18, 1871 . Married June 11, 1829, to

Augusta, Queen of Prussia, born Sept. 30, 1811, the daughter of
the late Grand-Duke Karl Friedrich of Saxe-Weimar. Offspring
of the union are a son and a daughter: — 1. Prince Friedrich
Wilhelm, heir-apparent, born Oct, 18, 1831; Field-Marshal in
the German army : married Jan. 25, 1858, to Victoria, Princess
Royal of Great Britain, of which marriage there are issue seven
children, namely, Friedrich Wilhelm, born Jan. 27, 1859 ; Charlotte,
born July 24, 1860; Heinrich, born Aug. 14, 1862 ; Victoria, born
April 12, 1866; Waldemar, born Feb. 10, 1868; Sophie, born
June 14, 1870 ; and Margarethe, born April 22, 1872. 2. Princess
Louise, born Dec. 3, 1838, married Sept. 20, 1856, to Grand-Duke
Friedrich of Baden.

Brother and Sister of the King. — 1. Prince Karl, born June 29,
1801 ; Feldzeugmeister, Commander-in-chief of the Prussian
artillery; married, May 26, 1827, to Princess Marie of Saxe-
Weimar, of which union there are three children, namely,
Prince Friedrich Karl born March 20, 1828; Field-Marshal in
the German army; married, Nov. 29. 1854, to Princess Maria
of Anhalt, by Avhom he has one son and three daughters; Princess
Louise, born March 1, 1829, and married. June 27, 1854, to the
Landgrave Alexis of Hesse-Philippsthal, from whom she was di-

GERMANY — PRUSSIA. I I I

vorced March G, 1861; and Princess Anna, horn May 17, 1836,
who married. May 2G, 1853, Prince Friedrich of Hesse-CasseL
2. Princess Alexandrine, born Feb. 23, 1803 ; married, May 25,
IS 22, to Grand-Duke Paul Friedrich of Mecklenburg- Schwerin ;
■widow, March 7, 1842.

Nephew and Niece of the King. — 1. Prince A/brecht, born May
■8, 1837, son of the late Prince Albrecht, brother of the King;
Commanding General of the tenth corps d'armee ; married April 19,
1873, to Princess Marie, born August 2, 1854, daughter of Duke
Ernst of Saxe-Altenburg, by -whom he has offspring one son,
Friedrich, born July 15. 1874. 2. Princess Alexandrine, born
Feb. 1, 1842, sister of the preceding, married Dec. 9, 1865, to
Prince Wilhelm of Mecklenburg-Schwerin : offspring of the union
is a daughter, Princess Charlotte born November 7, 18G8.

Cousins of the King. — 1. Prince Alexander, born June 21,
1820, the son of the late Prince Friedrich of Prussia. 2. Prince
Georg, brother of the preceding, born February 12, 182G ; author of
' Phasdra,' a tragedy, Berlin, 18G8. 3. Princess Elisabeth, daughter
of the late Prince Wilhelm. of Prussia, born June 18, 1815;
married. October 22, 183G, to Prince Karl, eldest brother of the
Grand-Duke of Hesse. (See Hesse : p. 152.) 4. Princess Marie,
sister of the preceding, born October 15, 1825 ; married, October
12, 1842, to the Heir- Apparent, afterwards King Maximilian II. of
Bavaria ; widow, March 10, 18G4. (See Bavaria, p. 130.)

The kings of Prussia trace their origin to Count Thassilo, of
Zollern, one of the generals of Charlemagne. His successor, Count
Friedrich I., built the family-castle of Hohenzollern, near the
Danube, in the year 980. A subsequent Zollern, or Hohenzollern,
Friedrich III., was elevated to the rank of a Prince of the Holy
Roman Empire, in 1273, and received the Burgraviate of Nurem-
berg in fief; and his great grandson, Friedrich VI., was invested by
Kaiser Sigismund, in 1415, with the province of Brandenburg, and
obtained the rank of Elector in 1417. A century after, in 1511, the
Teutonic knights, owners of the large province of Prussia, on the
Baltic, elected Margrave Albrecht. a younger son of the family oi
Hohenzollern, to the post of Grand-Master, and he, after a while, de-
clared himself hereditary prince. The early extinction of the male line
of Albrecht brought the province of Prussia by marriage to the Elec-
tors of Brandenburg, who, by early adopting Protestantism, acquired
a very important position as leaders of the new faith in Northern
Germany. In the seventeenth century, the Hohenzollern territories
became greatly enlarged by the valour and wisdom of Friedrich
Wilhelm, ' the Greal Elector,' under whose fostering care arose the
first standing army in central Europe. The Great Elector, after-
a reign extending from 1640 to HI**, left a country of one

112 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

.and a half millions, a vast treasure, and 38,000 well-drilled troops,,
to his son, Friedrich I., who put the kingly crown on his head at
Konigsberg, on the 18th of January, 1701. The first king of Prussia
made few efforts to increase the territory left him by the Great
Elector; but his successor, Friedrich Wilhelm I., acquired a treasure
of nine millions of fhalers, or nearly a million and a half sterling,
bought family domains to the amount of five millions thalefs, and
raised the annual income of the country to six millions, three-fourths
of which stun, however, had to be spent on the army. After adding
part of Pomerania to the possessions of the house, he left his son
and successor, Friedrich II., called ' the Great,' a state of 47,770
square miles, with two and a half millions inhabitants. Friedrich II.
added Silesia, an area of 14,200 square miles, with one and a quarter
million of souls; and this, and the large territory gained in the-
first partition of Poland, increased Prussia to 74,340 square miles,
with more than five and a half millions of inhabitants. Under the
reign of Friedrich's successor, Friedrich Wilhelm II., the State was
enlarged by the acquisition of the principalities of Anspach and
Baireuth, as well as the vast territory acquired in another partition
of Poland, which raised its area to the extent of nearly 100,000
square miles, Avith about nine millions of souls. Under Friedrich
Wilhelm III., nearly one half of this state and population was taken
by Napoleon ; but the Congress of Vienna not only restored the
loss, but added part of the kingdom of Saxony, the Rhinelands, and
Swedish Pomerania, moulding Prussia into two separate pieces of
territory, of a total area of 107,300 square miles. This was shaped
into a compact state of 137,006 square miles, with a population of
22,769,436, by the Avar of 1866.

Up to Avithin a recent period, the kings of Prussia enjoyed the
whole income of the state domains, amounting to about a million
sterling per annum. Since the establishment of constitutional!
Government, however, this arrangement has been changed, and the
domains have become public property, in so far as the income is
paid into the public exchequer, after deduction of certain sums pro-
vided for the ' Krondotations Rente,' or civil list. The amount of
the civil list Avas fixed by Art. 50 of the constitution of January 31 r
1851 ; but in 1859 it was raised 500,000 thaler, and in 1868 a
further 1,000,000 thaler. At present the total 'Krondotations
Rente,' as far as it figures in the budgets, amounts to 4,073,099
thaler, or 615,964/. The reigning house is also in possession of a
vast amount of private property, comprising castles, forests, and
great landed estates in Ararious parts of the kingdom, known as
' Fideikomiss-und-Schatulli>iiter,' the revenue from which mainly
serves to defray the expenditure of the court and the members of
the royal family.

GERMANY — PRUSSIA. I I 3

Dating from Elector Friedrich III. of Brandenburg, -who, on
January 18, 1701, placed the royal crown upon his head, calling
himself King Friedrich I. of Prussia, there have been the following

Sovereigns of the House of Hohenzoixern.

Friedrich I. 1701

Friedrich Wilhelm I 1713

Friedrich II., called ' the Great ' 1710

Friedrich Wilhelm II 1786

Friedrich Wilhelm III 1797

Friedrich Wilhelm IV 1840

Wilhelm I. 1861

The average reign of the seven kings of the House of Hohen-
zollern, including the present monarch, amounted to 23 years.

Constitution and Government.

The present constitution of Prussia was drawn up by the govern-
ment of King Friedrich Wilhelm IV., with the co-operation of a
Constituent Assembly, sitting August -December, 1849, and was
proclaimed January 31, 1850 ; but subsequently modified by royal
decrees of April 30, 1851 ; May 21 and June 5, 1852 ; May 7 and 24,
1853; June 10, 1854; May 30, 1855; April 14 and 30, 185G;
May 18, 1857: May 17, 18G7 ; January 1, 1872; and April 5
1873. These fundamental laws vest the executive and part of the
legislative authority in a king, Avho attains his majority upon
accomplishing his eighteenth year. The crown is hereditary in
the male line, according to primogeniture. In the exercise of the
government, the king is assisted by a council of ministers, ap-
pointed by royal decree. The legislative authority the king shares
with a representative assembly, composed of two Chambers,
the first called the ' Herrenhaus,' or House of Lords, and the
second the ' Abgeordnetenhaus,' or Chamber of Deputies. The
assent of the king and both Chandlers is requisite for all laws.
Financial projects and estimates must first be submitted to the
second Chamber, and be either accepted or rejected en bloc by
the Upper House. The right of proposing laws is vested in the
government and in each of the Chambers. The first Chamber,
according to the original draft of constitution, was to consist of
princes of the royal family of age, and of the heads of Prussian
houses deriving directly from the former empire, as well as of
the heads of those families who, by royal ordinance, would be
appointed to seats 'and votes in the Chamber, according to the
rights of primogeniture and lineal descent. Besides these here-
ditary members, there were to be ninety deputies directly elected
by electoral districts, consisting of a number of electors who
pay the highest taxes to the State ; and, in addition, other thirty

114 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

inemoers elected by the members of the municipal councils of large
towns. This original composition of the ' House of Lords ' was
greatly modified by the royal decree of October 12, 1854, which
brought into life the Upper Chamber in its present form. It is
composed of, first, the princes of the royal family who are of age,
including the scions of the formerly sovereign families of Hohen-
zollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen; secondly, the
chiefs of the mediatised princely houses, recognised by the Congress
of Vienna, to the number of sixteen in Prussia ; thirdly, the heads
of the territorial nobility formed by the king, and numbering some
fifty members ; fourthly, a number of life peers, chosen by the king
among the class of rich landowners, great manufacturers, and 'national
celebrities ; ' fifthly, eight titled noblemen elected in the eight pro-
vinces of Prussia by the resident landowners of all degrees ; sixthly,
the representatives of the universities, the heads of ' chapters,' and
the burgomasters of towns with above fifty thousand inhabitants ;
and, seventhly, an unlimited number of members nominated by the
king for life, or for a more or less restricted period.

The second Chamber consists of 433 members — 352 for the old
kingdom, and the rest added in 18G7 to represent the newly-annexed
provinces. Every Prussian who has attained his twenty-fifth year,
and is qualified to vote for the municipal elections of his place of
domicile, is eligible to vote as indirect elector. Persons who are
entitled to vote for municipal elections in several parishes, can only
exercise the right of indirect elector, or ' Urwahler,' in one. One
direct elector, or ' Wahlmann,' is elected from every complete number
of 250 souls. The indirect electors are divided into three classes,
according to the respective amount of direct taxes j>aid by each ;
arranged in such manner, that each category pays one-third of the
whole amount of direct taxes levied on the whole. The first category
consist of all electors who pay the highest taxes to the amount of one-
third of the whole. The second, of those who pay the next highest
amount down to the limits of the second third. The third of all the
lowest taxed, who, together, complete the last class. Each class may
be divided into several electoral circles, none of which must, however,
exceed 500 ' Urwahler.' Direct electors may be nominated in each
division of the circle from the number of persons entitled to vote
indirectly, without regard to special divisions. The representatives
are chosen by the direct electors. The legislative period of the second
Chamber is limited to three years. Every Prussian is eligible to be a
member of the second Chamber who has accomplished his thirtieth
year, who has not forfeited the enjoyment of full civic rights through
a judicial sentence, and who has paid taxes during three years to the
stale. The Chamber must be re-elected within six months of the
expiration of their legislative period, or after being dissolved. In

GERMANY PRUSSIA. I 1 =

either case former members are re-eligible. The Chambers are to
be regularly convoked by the king during the month of November;
and in extraordinary session, as often as circumstances may require.
The opening and closing of the Chambers must take place by the
king in person, or by a minister appointed by him. Both Chambers
are to be convoked, opened, adjourned, and prorogued simultaneously.
Each Chamber has to prove the qualification of its members, and
to decide thereon. Both Chambers regulate their order of
business and discipline, and elect their own presidents, vice-pre-
sidents, and secretaries. Functionaries do not require leave of
absence to sit in the Chamber. "When a member accepts paid func-
tions, or a higher office connected with increased salary, he vacates
his seat and A-ote in the Chamber, and can only recover the same by a
new election. No one can be member of both Chambers. The sit-
tings of both Chambers are public. Each Chamber, at the propo-
sition of the president or of ten members, may proceed to secret
deliberation. Neither Chamber can adopt a resolution when the
legal majority of its members is not present. Each Chamber has a
right to present addresses to the king. No one can deliver a peti-
tion or address to the Chambers, or to either of them in person.
Each Chamber can refer documents addressed to it to the ministers,
and demand explanations relative to complaints contained therein.
Each Chamber has the right to appoint commissions of investigation
of facts for their own information. The members of both Chambers
are held to be representatives of the whole population. They vote
according to their free conviction, and are not bound by prescrip-
tions or instructions. They cannot be called to account, either for
their votes, or for opinions uttered by them in the Chambers. No
member of the Chambers can, without its assent, be submitted to
examination or arrest for any proceeding entailing penalties, unless
seized in the act, or within twenty-four hours of the same. All crimi-
nal proceedings against members of the Chambers, and all examination
or civil arrest, must be suspended during the session, should the
Chamber whom it may concern so demand. Members of the second
Chamber receive travelling expenses and diet money from the State,
according to a scale fixed by law amounting to 20 mark, or one
pound sterling, per day. Refusal of the same is not allowed.

The executive government is carried on by a Staatsministerium,
or Ministry of State, the members of which are appointed by the
King, and hold office at his pleasure. The Staatsministerium is
divided into eight departments, which are : —

1. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Prince Otto von Bismarck'
Schonhauseri, born April 1, 1815; studied jurisprudence at Berlin
and Gottingen ; elected member of the Prussian Diet, is IS; Minister
Plenipotentiary at the Diet of Frankfort, 1851-59 ; Ambassador to

Il6 THE STATESMAN'S YEAE-EOOK, 1877.

the Court of St. Petersburg, 1859-G2 ; Ambassador to the Emperor
of the French, May-July, 18G2. Appointed Minister of Foreign
Affairs, and President of the Council of Ministers of Prussia, Sep-
tember 23, 1862 ; Chancellor of the German Empire, Jan. 19r
1871 ; resigned the Presidency of the Council of Ministers, December
20, 1872; re-appointed President of the Council, Nov. 9, 1873.

2. The Ministry of Finance. — Otto Camphausen, born Oct. 21,
1812 ; studied jurisprudence, and entered the state service in 1834 ;
Councillor of Finance, 1845; member of the second Chamber of the
Prussian Diet, 1850-52 ; President of the Seehandlung Company,
1849-69 : appointed Minister of Finance, Oct. 20, 18G9 ; appointed
Vice-President of the Council of Ministers, Nov. 9, 1873.

3. The Ministry of War. — General Arnold Karl Georg VonKameker
born June 14, 1817 ; entered the army as Lieutenant in the engineers,.
1834; captain and staff officer, 1850; military envoy at Vienna,
1856-57; chief of the engineer department in the ministry of war,.
1858-61 ; major general and head of the staff of the 2nd corps
d'armee, 1865 ; lieutenant-general and chief of the corps of engineers,
1868 ; commander of the 14th division of the first corps d'armee in
the war against France, July-December, 1870; director of the
engineer operations in the siege of Paris, Dec. 1870-71 ; appointed
Minister of War, November 15, 1873.

4. The Ministry of the Interior. — Count Friedrich zu Euhnburgr
born Jan. 29, 1815 ; Chief of the Prussian Expedition to China and
Japan, and Ambassador at the Court of Pekin, 1860-62 ; appointed
Minister of the Interior, December 9, 1862.

5. The Ministry of Justice. — Dr. Gerhard Leonhardt, appointed
Minister of Justice, Dec. 6, 1867.

6. The Ministry of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs. —
Dr. Folk, born Aug. 10, 1827 ; studied jurisprudence at Breslau,
1844^47 ; deputy to the second chamber of Prussia, 1858-70 ;
member of the Eeichstag of Germany, 1870-71 ; appointed Minister
of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs, January 23, 1872.

7. The Ministry of Agriculture. — Dr. Friedenthal, born Sept. 15,.
1827, the son of a Hebrew merchant ; studied jurisprudence at
Breslau, Heidelberg and Berlin; member of the Eeichstag of the
North German Confederation, 1867-70; Vice-President of the
Chamber of Deputies of Prussia, 1871-74 ; appointed Minister of
Agriculture, September 19, 1874.

8. The Ministry of Commerce and Public Works. — Dr. Achenbach,.
formerly under-secretary of state in the Ministry of Public Instructions;
appointed Minister of Commerce and Public Works, May 14, 1873.

There are, besides the above chiefs of departments, two ministers
' without portfolio.'

Each of the provinces of the kingdom is placed under the-

GERMANY — PRUSSIA. 11'/

superintendence of an ' Oberprasident,' or governor, "\vlio has a
salary of 7,000 thalers, or 1,050/. Each province has also a military
commandant, a superior court of justice, a director of taxes, and a.
consistory, all appointed by the king. The provinces are sub-
divided into Regierungsbezirke, or counties, and these again into
' Kreise,' or circles.and the latter into ' Gemeinden,' or parishes. Each
count}- has a president and an administrative board or council; and the
further subdivisions have also their local authorities. The municipal
organisation of the towns is more complicated than that of the com-
munes. The principal functionaries are all elective ; but the elec-
tions must be confirmed by the king or the authorities. The
system of law principally in force in the eastern states of the Prus-
sian monarchy is embodied in a code entitled ' Landrecht fur die
Preussischen Staaten,' which received the royal sanction in 1791, and
became law in 1791; but it is occasionally modified by custom, and
Polish, Swedish, and German laws are still in force in certain parts
of the monarchy. Primary proceedings in judicial matters take place
before local courts established in the circles and towns ; thence they
may be carried before the provincial courts, or ' Oberlandes-
gerichte.' All judges are independent of the Government. Juries
exist in all parts of the monarchy since the year 1849.

Church and Education.
The royal family belongs to the United Evangelic faith ; but
all denominations of Christians enjoy the same privileges, and are
equally eligible to places of trust or emolument. The Protestant
religion in its two branches of Lutheran and Calvinist prepon-
derates, and is professed by 6-P87 per cent, of the Prussian people.
To the Roman Catholic Church belong 32*56 per cent, and to all
other creeds 2'57 per cent, of the population. In the provinces of
Prussia, Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Saxony, the great majority
are Protestants ; while in Posen, Silesia, Westphalia, and Rhenish
Prussia, the Roman Catholics predominate. In the new provinces,
annexed to the kingdom in 1866, the Protestants form the mass of
the population. There are a few members of the Greek Church,
mostly immigrants from Russia. Jews are to be found in all the
provinces, but principally in Posen. At the census of Dee. :;,
1804, there were in the kingdom, as then constituted, 11,736,734
Protestants, being 00*23 per cent, of the total population, and
7,201,911 Roman Catholics, equal to 36'81 per cent., besides 262,001
Jews, and about 52,000 adherents of other creeds. The annexation
of the new provinces, after the war of 1866, altered the proportion
in favour of the Protestant ascendency, the former kingdom of
Hanover adding 1,682,777 Protestants, and only 220,(10!) Roman
Catholics ; Schleswig-Holstein and Lauenburg* 990,085 Protes-

Il8 THE STATESMAN'S YEAE-BOOK, 1877.

tants and 1,953 Roman Catholics; and Electoral Hesse, Nassau,
Homburg, and Frankfort, 905,605 Protestants and 336,075 Roman
Catholics. Protestantism is otherwise gradually spreading among
the population, and Roman Catholicism decreasing. When Silesia
was acquired by Prussia, in 1763, the mass of the population
were Catholics; but at present the Protestants form the majority
in the two most important districts, Breslau and Liegnitz.

The Protestant Church is governed by ' consistories,' or boards
appointed by Government, one for each province. There are also
synods in most circles and provinces, but no general synod has yet
been held. The constitution of the Catholic Church differs in the
various provinces. In the Rhenish provinces it is fixed by the con-
cordat entered into between the Government and Pope Pius VII.
But in every other part of the monarchy, the Crown has reserved to
itself a control over the election of bishops and priests. There were,
at the census of December 3, 1867 — the last in which religious
statistics were ascertained in the fullest manner— 9,317 Protestant
ministers, and 7,690 Roman Catholic priests, including chaplains.
The Protestants at the same date had 11,365 churches, and 1,594
other religious meeting-places, while the Roman Catholics had 6,164
churches, and 2,833 chapels, besides 259 convents and monasteries.
The higher Catholic clergy are paid by the State, the archbishop of
Breslau receiving 1,700/. a year, and the other bishops about 1,135/.
The incomes of the parochial clergy, of both sects, mostly arise from en-
dowments. In general, Government does not guarantee the stipend
either of Protestant or Catholic clergymen ; but in some parishes in the
Rhenish provinces the clergy enjoy a public provision from the State.

Education in Prussia is general and compulsory. Every town, or
community in town or country, must maintain a school supported
by the taxes, and administered by the local authorities, who are
elected by the citizens, and called Aldermen or Town Councillors.
All parents are compelled to send their children to one of these ele-
mentary schools, whether they can pay the school fees or not. The
fees are one grosschen, or rather more than a penny a week in
villages, and ten grosschen, or a shilling per month in towns. The
money thus raised goes towards maintaining the schools, and any
deficiency is made up from the local taxes. No compulsion exists
in reference to a higher educational institution than elementary
schools, but parents who send more than one child to any school sup-
ported by the community have a reduction made in the charge, and a,
limited number of pupils whose parents cannot afford to pay the full
rate enjoy either this reduction or are admitted entirely free, at the
discretion of the authorities. Thus the higher schools, as the com-
mercial or colleges, are not established merely for the rich, but are
likewise open to the poorest, the fee being 6 thaler, or 18s., a

GERMANY — PRUSSIA. 1 1 9

quarter, while reductions arc made to large families or poor persons
who cannot afford to pay the full sum.

The Prussian schools are divided into eleven classes, namely,
first, elementary, embracing village or toAvn schools; second, ' Biir-
gerschulen,' or citizen schools ; third, real schools, or schools in
which languages, arts, and sciences are taught; fourth, seminaries,
or schools for training elementary schoolmasters; fifth, colleges;
sixth, industrial schools; seventh, schools of architecture ; eighth,
schools of mines; ninth, schools of agriculture; tenth, veterinary
schools ; and eleventh, the Universities.

The difference between the elementary schools of the villages and
those of towns consists in the greater variety of studied subjects.
In the former, reading and writing in German characters are taught,
with geography and history of Germany, and the four first rules
of arithmetic; in the latter, writing in Roman characters, general
geography, history of the world, fractions, rule of three, and the
chain-rule, are added. The citizen schools, adapted for the wants of
tradespeople, teach likewise mathematics, Latin, and French to a
certain extent. The real school is divided, like the colleges, into
six or seven classes, and every pupil must pass an examination
before rising to another class. No pupil can belong to one class in
one subject, and to another in a higher one, but must in all sub-
jects be in one and the same class. At the end of 1874, there
Ave re in the kingdom 84,989 elementary schools, Avith 55,585
teachers, and 3,993,323 pupils.

Prussia has ten Universities, namely, Berlin, Bonn, Breslau,
Gottingen, Greifswald, Halle, Kiel, Konigsberg, Marburg, and
Minister. The studies at the University last from three to four
years, at an expense of 15/. a year for the lectures. No student
lives in the University, which is used solely for lectures. The. Uni-
versities are maintained and administered by the Government,
Avhile all the other scholastic institutions are supported by the com-
munity, under control of the Government. (For number of professors,
teachers, and students at each of the ten Universities of Prussia in
the year 1870, see Germain/, p. G7.)

The whole of the educational establishments in Prussia are under
the control of the Minister of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical
Affairs, but there is a local supervision for every province. The
administration of each of these is vested in a President, Avho is
the head both of the Civil Government — Regierung — and of the
Consistorium, which has to manage the ecclesiastical and educa-
tional affairs of the province. Each Consistorium is subdivided
again into two sections, one for purely ecclesiastical, the other for
educational affairs. The latter section, which bears the name of
PvovinciaJ Schul-Collegium, forms the highest court of appeal in

120

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

all matters referring to schools. As a general rule, the adminis-
tration of school funds provided by the State is under the control
of the Civil Government, which likewise takes upon itself nearly
the whole management of the lower and elementary schools, while
the Schul-Collegium is responsible for the higher schools, for the
general system of instruction and discipline, the proper selection of
school books, the examination and appointment of masters, and the
examination of those who leave school for the Universities.

According to the constitution of 1850, all pers6ns are at liberty to
teach, or to form establishments for instruction, provided they can
prove to the authorities their moral, scientific, and technical qualifi-
cations. But every private as well as public establishment for
education is placed under the superintendence of the Minister of
Public Instruction, while all public teachers are considered servants
of the state.

Eevenue and Expenditure.

The estimates of public revenue and expenditure submitted by
the Government to the Chambers are always prepared to show an
even balance, without surplus or deficit ; but in recent years the
former has been almost constant, and the latter an exception The
surplus of the five years from 1870 to 1874 varied from 9,500,000
thaler, or 1,425,000/. in 1870, to 27,720,055 thaler, or 4,158,008/.
in 1872 ; but there was a slight deficit in 1875.

The budget estimates of revenue and expenditure of Prussia were
as follows during each of the six years 1&71 to 187(5 : —

Years

Revenue

Expenditure

Thaler

1 1871

172,918,937

25,937,835

172,918,937

25,937,835

1872

187,058,9-10

28,058,841

187,058.940

28,058,841

1873

210,043,467

31,5(16,520

210.043,467

31,506,520

1874

231,699,236

Murk

34,754,885

231.699.236
Mark

34,754,885

j 1875

694,489,919

34,724,945

694,498,919

34,724,245

1876

651,429,400

32,571,470

651.429,4011

32,571,470

The revenue in the financial estimates of Prussia, is divided under
seven heads, representing the various ministerial departments, with
the exceptions of the ministry of Foreign Affairs. Direct taxes form
the chief source of revenue, and, next to it, the receipts from state
railways. In recent years, the income from railways and other
state undertakings, such as mines, has been largely increasing,
showing a tendency to be in course a far more fruitful source cf
revenue than all taxation, direct or indirect.

GERMANY PRUSSIA.

121

In the budget estimates for 187G, the sources of revenue, classed
under seven ministerial departments, were given as follows: —

Sources of Revenue for the Year 1876.

1. Ministry of Finance : —

Income from crown lands
Forests

Total

Direct taxes : —

Land tax (Grnndsteuer)

House tax .....

Income tax .....

Class tax (Klassensteuer)

Trade tax (Gewerbesteuer)

Railway dues ....

Miscellaneous ....

Total

Indirect taxes: —

Share of Imperial customs and taxes
Succession tax (Erbschafsteuer)
Stamps ......

Bills of exchange ....

Bridge, harbour, river, or canal dues
Miscellaneous ...

Total

State lottery .....
Naval commercial institution (Seehandlung)
The Mint . . - .

State printing office .....

Miscellaneous ......

Total receipts of Ministry of Fina

Ministry of Commerce. Industry and Public Works
Porcelain manufactory in Berlin
Mines, produce of .

Furnaces, iron mills, forges, produce of .
Salines, produce of .....

Miscellaneous public works ....

State railways ......

Private railways ......

High roads and canals .....

Mark
28,540,650
oo,U0,000

81,950,650

39,862,000
15,761,000
29,347,000
41,505,000
17,428,000
4,388,000
405,000

148,696,000

15,194,130
4,000,000

23,000,000

89,340

2,183,000

1,743,530

46,210,000

4,035,500

3,450,006

2,304,000

Total receipts of Ministry of Commerce and
Public Works

1,434,000

43,861,671

327,823,125

557,000

68,089,520

22,650,709

5,164,890

7.270,370

163,355,278

3,978,059

1,148,778

172,212,660

3. Ministry of Justire

42,815,000

122

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Revenue — continued.

4. Ministry of the Interior

5. Ministry of Agriculture

6. Ministry of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical

Affairs .........

7. Ministry of State

Total estimated revenue .

Mark
2,963,991

3,850,240

1,281,854

482,530

651,429.400
£32,571,470

The expenditure in the financial estimates of Prussia is divided
into ordinary (fortdauernde) and extraordinary (einmalige und
ausserordentliche) disbursements. The ordinary is subdivided into
current expenditure (Betriebs-Ausgaben), administrative expendi-
ture (Staatsvenvaltungs-Ausgaben), and charges on the consolidated
fund (Dotationen). In the estimates for 1876, the branches of
expenditure were as folio ws : —

Expenditure for the Year 1876.
Current Expenditure: —

Ministry of Finance

„ „ Commerce, Industry and Public "Works

,, „ State ....

Total current expenditure .

Administrative Expenditure : —

Ministry of Finance

,, „ Commerce, Industry and Public Works

„ „ Justice ......

,, ,, The Interior .....

,, „ Agriculture .....

„ „ Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs

„ State

„ ,, Foreign Affairs

Total administrative expenditure

Charges -on Consolidated Fund: —

Addition to ' Krondotation ' of the King
Interest of public debt, inclusive railway debt
Sinking fund of debt .....
Annuities and Management ....
Chamber of Lords .....
Chamber of Deputies .....

Total charges on Consolidated Fund

Total ordinary expenditure
Extraordinary expenditure ....

Total expenditure

Mark

66,674,980-

202,566,865

507,275

269,749,120

109,908,571

19,637,335

65,615,000

35,064,552

9,836,707

44,700,647

1,770,406

411,600

286,944,818

4,500,000
38,812,280

16,058.983

1,729,737

163,110

1,362,180

62,466,180

619,100,118.
32,269,282

451,439.400

^32.571,470

GERMANY — PRUSSIA. 1 2 3

The expenditure for the army and navy is not entered into the
budget of Prussia, but forms part of the budget of the Empire.
(^Seep. 99.)

The public debt of the kingdom, inclusive of the provinces
annexed in 18Gb", was, according to an official report laid before the
House of Deputies in the session of 187G, as follows on January
1, 1870:—

1. National debt bearins interest: — Mark
Consolidated debt of May 2, 1842 (Staatssclmldsclieine) 149,163,000
Debt of provinces annexed in 1866 .... 97,559,792
Non-consolidated loans of 1850, 1852, 1853, 1862 & 1868 112,047.600
War debt of the Kurmark and Neumark . . . 2,889,942

Preference loan of 1855 27,180,000

Consolidated loan of 1870 451,303,750

State railway debt 48,065,421

Total national debt bearing interest . 889,409,505

£44,470,475

2. National debt not bearing interest: — Mark
Floating debt, called • Schatz-Anweisungen ' . . 30,000,000

Total national debt .... 919,409,505

£45,970,475

The charges for interest and management of the national debt
amounted to 39,221,420 mark, or 1,901,071/., in the year 1876.

Exclusive of the railway loans, the national debt of Prussia,
amounted in 1875 to 570,977,473 mark, or 28,848,873/., equal to
23 mark, or 1/. os. per head of population of the kingdom. —
(Official Communication.)

Army.

The military organisation of the kingdom, dating from the year
181 1, is based on the principle that every man, capable of bearing
arms, shall receive military instruction and enter the army for a
certain number of years. There are, practically, some excep-
tions from military service, though no substitution whatever is
allowed. Every Prussian subject is enrolled as a soldier as soon as
he has completed his twentieth year. lie has to be in service during
seven years, of which three years — from 20 to 23 — nr.i ; be pent in
the regular army, and the remaining four years — from 23 to27 — in
the army of reserve. At the end of this term, the soldier enters the
' Landwehr,' or miiitia, for five years, with liability to be called upon
twice lor annua] practice, and to be incorporated in the regular army in

124 TIrE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

time of war. Leaving the 'Landwehr,' the soldier is finally enrolled,
till the age of fifty, in the ' Landsturm,' which body is only called
upon for service, within the frontiers of the country, in case of
invasion. There are various exemptions from this law of military
service, in favour of the regular clergy, and some other classes of
the population. A certain amount of education and fortune consti-
tutes also a partial exemption, inasmuch as young men of twenty,
who pay for their own equipment and can pass a light examination,
have to serve only one year in the regular army, instead of three.
But in this case, the liability to service in the army of reserve — the
' Landwehr ' and the ' Landsturm ' — remains the same. Altogether,
setting aside a few exceptions, the whole male population of Prussia
may be said to be trained for arms — ready for offensive warfare,
either in the army or the ' Landwehr,' from the age of 20 to that of
32 ; and for defensive warfare, within the country, till the age
of 50 years completed.

The mass of soldiers thus raised is divided into companies, bat-
talions, regiments, and corps d'armee. The strength of an ordinary
Prussian battalion in peace is 544 men, raised in war to 1,002 by
calling in part of the reserves : it is divided into four companies, each
of which in Avar consists of 250 men. Excepted from this general
rule are the battalions of the guards, and the regiments in garrison
in the Peichsland of Alsace-Lorraine, the strength of which on the
peace footing is G8G men. During peace each regiment of infantry
consists of three battalions ; each brigade of two regiments ; each
infantry division of two brigades, to which, under the command of
the divisional general, four squadrons of cavalry, four batteries of
artillery, each of six guns, and either a battalion of riflemen, or a
battalion of pioneers are attached. The corps d'armee is con-
sidered a unit which is independent in itself, and includes not only
troops of all three arms, but a portion of all the stores and appli-
ances which are required by a whole army. Each corps d'armee
consists of two divisions of infantry, a cavalry division of four regi-
ments, with two horse-artillery batteries attached, besides the two
cavalry regiments attached to the infantry divisions, and a reserve
of artillery of six field batteries and one mounted battery. There
is, moreover, attached to each corps d'armee one battalion of pioneers
and one of train.

The corps d'armee are locally distributed through the Prussian
monarchy, with the exception of the first corps, that of the guards.
The. Prussian army being incorporated in the army of the Empire,
forming an indissoluble part of it, the corps are enumerated through
the German army. There, are seventeen corps d'armee, the first
eleven of which are named after Prussian provinces, and the remain-
ing six after States of the Empire. They are: — 1, Prussia; 2,

GERMANY PRUSSIA.

12"

Pomerania; 3, Brandenburg; 4, Saxony ; 5, Posen ; 6, Silesia,
7, Westphalia; 8, Rhine-lands; 9, Schleswig-Holstein ; 10, Ha-
nover; 11, Hesse-Nassau; 12, Saxony; 13, Wurtemberg ; 14,
Baden; 15, Alsace-Lorraine; 16 and 17, Bavaria.

The strength of the Prussian arm}' was as follows, according to
official returns, at the end of July 1876 : —

Infantry of the Line ....

Officers

Rank and File

Horses

7,020

203,760

3,255

Riflemen, or "Jager'

352

8,125

112

Infantry of the 'Landwehr'

600

4.678

Cavalry

1,898

51,396

55.810

Artillery (field and fortress)

1,930

34,760

10.037

Engineers ......

300

7.490

Military Train .....

220

4,900

1.599

Administrative and other troops
Total .

1,484

4,715

2,400

13,804

319,824

73,307

The strength here enumerated is that of the peace footing. On
the Avar footing the numbers can be raised to 900,000 men, exclusive
of field reserve troops and Landsturm. The war strength, effected
by the calling in for service, or the 'mobilisation ' of the reserve
troops, may be consummated in about ten days' time. When
entering upon the campaign of 1866, it required less than fourteen
days to bring the whole regular arm)', together with the first levy of the
'Landwehr,' into the field; and at the declaration of war by France,
July 1870, the mass of the troops was brought to the Rhine in twelve
days. In peace, the army lies distributed over 309 garrison towns, and
29 fortresses, of which latter seven are fortified places of the first rank
— see page 103 — Mayence, Koblenz, Cologne, Kbnigsberg, Magde-
burg, Spandau, and Posen. — (Official Communication.)

Area and Population

The area of Prussia extends over 6,311 German, or 137,066
English square miles. At the last census of Germany, taken
December 1, 187"). the kingdom had 25,693,688 inhabitants.
Prussia is administratively divided into eleven provinces, which
again are subdivided into thirty-five government districts (Kegie-
rungsbezirke), with the principality of Hohenzollern, cradle of the
royal family.

The following table gives the area and population, according to the
census of December 1, 1875 : —

126

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Area
Eng. sq. miles

Population

Provinces

Dec. 1,1871

Dec. 1,1875

Prussia (Preussen) ....

24,880

3.137,545

3,199,171

Brandenburg .

15,505

2.863,229

3,126,425 i

Pomerania (Pommern)

12,130

1,431,633

1,462,290

Posen

11,330

1,583,843

1.606,084

Silesia (Schlesien) .

15,666

3,707,167

3.813,699 |

Saxonv (Sachsen) .

9,729

2,103,174

2.169,031

Sehleswig-Holstein .

7,414

995,873

1,025,777

Hanover (Hannover)

14,846

1,962,928

2,017,393 I

Westphalia (Westlalen)

7,771

1.775.175

1,905 697

Hesse-Nassau .

5.943

1,400,370

1,467,898

Rhino (Rheinland) .

10,289

3,579,347

3,804,257 1

Principality of Hohenzollcrn

453

• 65,558

66,466 !

Total

137,066

24,005,842

25,693,68s '

The census returns of December 1, 1875, showed that at that date
there were in Prussia 12,657,968 males and 13,035,720 females,
being an excess of only 377,752 females, or less than in most other
European states.

The total population of the kingdom in 1819 was 10,981,934.
In December 1858 the population had augmented to 17,739,913,
showing an increase 6134 per cent, for 39 years, or of 1-57 per
cent, per annum. At the next census, taken December 3, 1861, the
population was found to have risen to 18,497,458, being an increase
of 4-27 per cent, in three years. In 1866 the limits of the kingdom
were enlarged from 107,757 to 137,066 English square miles,
and at the next following census, taken December 3, 1867, the
population amounted to 24,106,847. At the census of December 1,
1871, the population had risen to 24,689,252, showing an increase
at the rate of but 0'69 per annum, the decline being accounted for
by the losses of the Franco-German war of 1870-71. During the
four years from December 1, 1871 to December 1, 1875 the ratio
of increase amounted, as shown in a preceding table (page 108), to
1*7 per cent, per annum.

The census of 1875 gives the average density of the population
at 187 per English square mile. The variation, however, is con-
siderable, the density being highest in the manufacturing districts
of Dusseldorf, in the Rhine province, where it is nearly four times
the average, and smallest in the district of Koslin, Pomerania, where
it amounts but to three-fifths of the average. There are a great num-
ber of towns 1,289 officially enrolled as ' Stadte' — most of them of

very limited population, spread all over the kingdom. The follow-
in c; table gives the population of the ten largest towns at the enumer-

GERMANY — PRUSSIA. 1 2 7

ations of December 1871, and of December 1, 1875, in the order of
their rank at the last census : —

Towns Population

Population

±owns Dec. 1, 1871

Dec. 1, 1S7& i

Berlin .......

826,341

966,872

Breslau

207,997

239,0.30

1 Cologne. (Koln)

129,233

135,371

Magdeburg .

114.509

122,789

| Konigsberg .

112.092

122,636

Hanover

104,213

106,677

Frankfort-on-Maine

91,040

103,136

1 Danzig

90,141

97,931

i Barmen

74.449

86,504

Stettin .

76,280

80,972

As in nearly all other states of Europe, so in Prussia there is a
strong movement towards concentration of the population in the
towns. At the census of Dec. 1, 1871, the total population of the
1,289 towns of the kingdom was 7,968,545, and that of the rural
communes — Landgemeinden — 37,987 in number, 16,637,052. Com-
pared with the preceding census of Dec. 3, 1867, the increase in
the towns amounted to 466,909, or 6*22 per cent., and that in the
rural communes to but 167,951, or 1*02 per cent. Thus while the
town population increased at the rate of rather more than one
and a half per cent, per annum, the rural population grew but at
the rate of one-quarter per cent, per annum.

About one-half, or twelve millions of the population of the king-
dom, are engaged in agriculture, as sole or chief occupation, Avhile
nearly five millions possess landed property. Large estates, as a rule,
are only to be found in the eastern and least populated provinces of
the monarchy, while in the central and western portions land is
often extremely subdivided. A cadastral survey taken in 1858,
shoAved the existence of 1,099,000 landowners possessing each less
than five morgen, or 3|- acres.

Trade and Industry.

The direct trade of Prussia with foreign countries is carrh
mainly through the ports on the Baltic, and the amount of exports
and imports shipped through harbours on the North Sea is com-
paratively .unimportant. A very large portion of exports from
and imports into the kingdom pass in transit through Hamburg
and Bremen. The commercial intercourse of Prussia with the
United Kingdom is included in that of Germany. (See pp. 183-85.)

128

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

The mineral riches of Prussia are very considerable. The follow-
ing table shows the number of mines in operation, the quantities and
value of their produce in 1874, and the number of persons employed
therein at the end of the same year : —

Coal .

Lignite (Braunkohle)
Iron ore
Zinc ore
Lead ore
Copper ore .
Total of principal and "|
other mines . J

501

549

1,121

153

Centner

638,773,665

174,332,986

50,817,714

8,870,508

1,992,051

5,105.921

Thaler
112,468,174
10,489,282
6,641,651
3,646,913
6,042,095
2,083,983

161,502
18,645
23,771

8,970
17,427

6.665

2,525 , 887,955,999

143,200,842 239,841

The following table shows the number of smelting works and
foundries in Prussia, the quantities and value of their produce in
1874, and number of persons employed at the end of the year : —

Principal Smelting works
and foundries

of works

in
operation

Quantities
of produce

Value

of
produce

Number of

persons
employed

Centner

Thaler

Iron, -wrought

160

25,605,370

38,335,297

1?,001

,, cast

785

28,445,374

94,542,026

68,988 1

Steel ....

7,435,704

30,823,558

22,997

Lead ....

1,306,007

9,054,375

2,572

Silver ....

2,269

6,499,544

335 i

Arsenic

4,290

21,537

6 i

Vitriol.

74,959

352.715

Zinc .

1,403,589

9,511,589

5,845 t

Copper

125,032

3,604,87S

1,358 1

Nickel.

3,672

433,131

Sulphuric Acid .

Total of principal and!
other '.rorks . J

835,135

1,059,990

267 !

1,074

65,367,345

194,798,375

121,792

Not included in the tabular statement are salines to the number
of 32, which produced 4,305,6G4 centner of salt, of the value of
1 947,451 thaler, and employed 1,857 persons in 1874.

The production of coal in Prussia, after vastly increasing for
about thirty years, from 1840 to 1870, reached its limit at the latter
date when there came to be an apparent exhaustion of the fields.
But the year 1875 again showed a large increase in production. The

GERMANY PRUSSIA. I 29

following statement gives, after official returns, the quantities of coal
raised in the kingdom during the period from 1838 to 1875 : —

Years

Tons

Tears

Tons

1838-41, annual

average 2,901,713

1864

. 21,197,266

1842-46

„ ' 3,817,190

1865

. 25,615,968

1847-51

5,027,690

1869

. 29,775,781

1852-56

8,571,070

1871

. 32,843,288

1857-61

13,037,015

1873

. 32,347,909

1862 .

. 16,903,520

1874

. 31,938,683

1863 .

. 18,330,779

1875

. 41,759,558

The coal pits in the Ruhr-Diisseldqrf district, which extend over
more than ten miles in length, and are calculated to be able to
continue their present supply for 5,000 years, contribute nearly
one half of the total produce, while the coal pits of the river
Saar, situated in the south-western angle of the Rhenish Pro-
vinces, and which extend their strata into Bavarian and French
territory, furnish about the sixth part of the coal produce of Prussia.
The coal raised in Prussia amounts to 93 per cent, of the total coal
production of Germany. — (See Comparative Tables: 'Coal Pro-
duction of the Principal States of the World.')

Prussia has a very large and complete system of railways.
At the end of the year 1875, the length of the system was as
follows : —

Railways Length in kilometer

A. Lines open for traffic : —

1. Owned by the State 3,871

2. Owned by private companies : —

Under State administration ..... 2,430
Under private administration ..... 8,255

B. Lines in progress of construction : —

1. Owned by the State 253

2. Owned by private companies: —

Under State administration ....
Under private administration ....

Total 16,554

English miles 10,346

All the lines of the former territories of Hanover, Hesse, and
Nassau are owned by the state, and at a period not far removed
the whole of the railways of Prussia will be national property.

I3O THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

II. BAVARIA.

(KONIGREICH BAYERN.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family,

Ludwig II., King of Bavaria and Count Palatine of the Rhine,
born August 25, 1845, the son of King Maximilian II. and his
consort, Queen Marie, daughter of the late Prince Wilhelm
of Prussia ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his father,
March 10, 1864.

Brother of the King. — Prince Otto, born April 27, 1848.
Mother of the King. — Marie, Queen of Bavaria, born October 15,
1825, second daughter of the late Prince Wilhelm of Prussia, uncle
of King Wilhelm I. of Prussia, Emperor of Germany ; married to
Prince Maximilian, heir-apparent of Bavaria, Oct. 12, 1842; widow,
March 10, 1864; adopted Roman Catholicism, by confession of faith
made in the church of Wahnhofen, October 12, 1874.

Uncle of the King. — Prince I/uitpold, born March 12, 1821, General
in the Bavarian army; married April 15, 1844, to Archduchess
Augusta of Austria, who died April 26, 1864. Offspring of the
union are three sons and one daughter, namely, 1. Ludwig, born
January 7, 1845 ; married February 20, 1868, to Archduchess
Maria Therpsa of Austria-Este, of the branch of Modena, born July
5, 1849 ot which marriage there are issue three sons and two
daughters, namely, Ruprecht, born May 18, 1869; Adelgunda, born
born October 17, 1870 ; Marie, born July 6, 1872 ; Karl, April 1,
1874; and Franz, born October 10, 1875. 2. Leopold, born
February 9, 1846; married April 20, 1873, to Archduchess Gisela
of Austria-Hungary, eldest daughter of the Emperor-King Franz
Joseph I. ; offspring of the union are two daughters, namely, Eliza-
beth, born January 8, 1874; and Augusta, born April 28. 1875.
3. Theresa, born November 12, 1850. 4. Arnulph, born July 6,
1852.

Aunt of the King. — Princess Adelgunda, born March 19. 1823;
married March 30, 1842, to the Archduke of Austria-Este. late
reigning Duke of Modena, Francisco V. ; widow, October 20, 1875.
Other relations of the King. — 1. Queen Amalie of Saxony, daughter
of King Maximilian I. of Bavaria, born November 13, 1801;
married November 21, 1822, to King Johann of Saxony; widow,
October 29, 1873. 3. Queen Marie of Saxony, sister of the pre-
ceding, horn January 27, 1805, married April 24, 1833, to King
Friedrich August of Saxony ; widow, August 9, 1854. 4. Princess

GERMANY — LAVA HI A. I3I

Ludovica, sister of the preceding, born August 30,1808; married,
September 9, 1828, to Duke Maximilian in Bavaria.

United with the Royal Family of Bavaria is the branch line
of the Dukes in Bavaria, formerly Palatine princes of ZweibrLicken-
Birkenfeld. The head of this house is —

Maximilian, Duke in Bavaria, born December 4, 1808, General
of Cavalry in the Bavarian service; married September 9, 1828, to
Princess Ludovica of Bavaria. Issue of the marriage are three sons
and five daughters, namely, 1. Prince Ludwig, born June 21, 1831 ;
married, in ' morganatic' union, May 28, 1857, to Henrietta Mendel,
elevated Countess von \Yallersee, born July 31, 1833. 2. Princess
Helena, born April 4, 1834, married August 24, 1858, to Prince
Maximilian of Thurn-und-Taxis ; widow, June 2G, 1SG7. 3.
Princess Elisabeth, born December 24, 1837, married April 24,
1854, to Franz Joseph I., Emperor of Austria. 4. Prince Karl
Theodor, born August 9, 1839; married Feb. 11, 1865, to Princess
Sophie of Saxony, who died March 9, 1867 ; married in second
nuptials, April 29, 1874, to Princess Maria Josepha of Braganza,
born March 19, 1857, of which union there are offspring two
daughters. 5. Princess Marie, born October 4, 1841, married
February 3, 1859, to the heir-apparent of the Two Sicilies, Fran-
cisco of Boitrbon, subsequently Kins; Francisco II. of Naples,
in exile since 1862. 6. Princess Mathilde, born September 30,
1843, married June 5, 1861, to Louis of Bourbon, Count di Trani.
7. Princess Sophie, born February 22, 1847; married September 28,
1868, to Prince Ferdinand of Orleans, second son of the Due de
Nemours. 8. Prince Maximilian, born December 7, 1849; married
September 20, 1875, to Princess Amalia, born October 23, 1848,
daughter of Prince Augustus, uncle of the reigning duke of Saxe-
Cobourg-Gotha, and brother of King Ferdinand of Portugal.

The members of the royal house of Bavaria are descendants, in
the female line, of the ancient Counts of "Wittelsbach, who flourished
in the twelfth century. Duke Maximilian I. of Bavaria was elevated
to the rank of Elector of the Holy Roman Empire, in the Thirty-
Years' War, in recompense for his opposition to Protestantism ; and
Elector Maximilian Joseph was raised to the rank of king by
Napoleon I. in 1805. The latter title was acknowledged by all the
European Powers in 1815, at the Congress of Vienna.

The large income of the sovereigns of Bavaria, from private domains,
and other sources, has been extensively curtailed of late, under the
constitutional government. The civil list of the king, and allowances
to other members of the royal family, are fixed at present at
5,415,470 mark, or 275,773/., but the royal family is deriving
besid \ revenue from domains.

132 "THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Constitution and Government.

The present Constitution of Bavaria dates from May 25, 1818 ;
but various modifications were introduced in 1848-9. The Crown
is hereditary in the male line. To the king belongs the sole
executive power ; but his ministers are responsible for all his acts.
The legislative functions are exercised jointly by the king and Par-
liament, the latter consisting of an Upper and a Lower House. The
Upper House — Chamber of ' Reichsrathe,' or councillors of the realm
— is formed of the princes of the royal family, the crown dignitaries,
the archbishops, and the heads of certain old noble families, all these
being hereditary members ; to which are added a Roman Catholic
bishop and a Protestant clergyman nominated by the king, and an
unlimited number of other members appointed by the Crown. The
Lower House, or Chamber of Representatives, consists of deputies of
towns and universities, and various religious corporation;, chosen
indirectly, the people returning ' Wahlmanner,' or electors, who
nominate the deputies. To be a deputy, it is necessary to be past
thirty, and to be in possession of an assured income, from funds, a
trade, or profession ; to be on the electoral lists, it is required to be
twenty-five years of age, and to be rated at a minimum of 20 mark,
or 11. per annum. The representation of the country is calcu-
lated at the rate of one deputy to 7,000 families, or about 35.000
souls, of the whole population. In the session of 1875 there were
154 representatives. . •

The executive is carried on, in the name of the king, by a
' Staatsrath,' or Council of State, consisting of seven members, besides
three princes of the blood-royal ; and by the Ministry of State, divided
into five departments, namely, of the Royal House and of Foreign
Affairs, of Justice, of the Interior, of Education and Ecclesiastical
Affairs, and of Finance.

Church and Education.

Rather more than seven-tenths of the population of Bavaria are
Roman Catholics. The population varied very little, as regards the
proportion between Roman Catholics and Protestants, during the
last quarter of a century ; but during the whole of this period the
number of Jews diminished gradually, and there was also a slight
decrease in other sects, namely, members of the Greek Church. At
the census of December, 1871, the total number of Roman- Catholics
in the kingdom was 3,646,364, and of Protestants 1,342,592, the
proportion being 712 Roman- Catholics to 275 Protestants in every
1 000 of the population. At the preceding census of December,

GERMANY — BAYARI A.

133

1867, there were 3,441,029 Roman- Catholics, and 1,328,713
Protestants, the proportion being 711 Roman- Catholics to 275
Protestants in every 1,000 of the population.

The religious division of the population in each of the eight pro-
vinces of the kingdom was as follows at the census taken December
1, 1871:—

Provinces

lloman
Catholics

Protestants

Other Sects

Jews

Upper Bavaria

809,741

28,220

713

3,033

Lower Bavaria

599,436

4,084

158

111

Palatinate (Kheinpfalz)

266,534

333,122

2,913

12,466

Upper Palatinate .

455,777

40,683

180

1.221

Upper Franconia .

228,848

308,050

120

4,045

Middle Franconia

125,715

446,290

694

10,830

Lower Franconia .

469,900

101,171

488

14,573

Suabia . . .

499,378

78,461

665

4,369

Troops in France .
Total .

9.035

2,374

3,464,364

1,342,592

5,832

50,662

Included imder the head ' Other Sects ' in the above table were
3,820 ' Mennonites,' also called ' Taufgesinnte ; ' 360 Irvingians ;
246 Greek Catholics; 217 Old Catholics; 72 Anabaptists; 63
members of the Anglican Church ; and 623 adherents of ' Free
Religion.' It is stated that since the census of 1871, the Old
Catholics have largely increased in numbers.

As regards ecclesiastical administration, the kingdom is divided into
2 Roman Catholic archbishoprics, those of Munich and Bamberg ;
6 bishoprics; 171 deaneries; and 2,756 parishes. The Protestant
Church is under a General Consistory — ' Ober-Consistorium ' — and
four provincial consistories. Of the three universities of the kingdom,
two, at Munich and YVurzburg, are Roman Catholic, and one, at
Erlangen, Protestant. Among the Roman Catholics there is one clergy-
man to 464 souls ; among the Protestants, one to 1,013.

Bavaria has three universities, at Munich, Wiirzburg, and Erlan-
gen. (For number of professors and students in 1875, see Germany,
p. 97.) Elementary schools — ' Volksschulen ' — exi^t in all parishes,
and school attendance is compulsory for all children from six till
the age of fourteen.

Revenue and Expenditure

The gross public revenue of Bavaria for the financial year
ending September 30, 1875, was estimated at 212,051,868 mark,
or 10,602,593/., with an expenditure, including cost of collecting

134

THE STATESMAN S TEAK-BOOK, 1877.

the revenue, to the same amount. The sources of revenue and
branches of expenditure were given as follows in the budget : —

Sources of Revenue

Year 1874-75

Direct taxes .........

State Railways, post, telegraphs, mines, &c.

Domains ..........

Imperial contribution towards maintenance of army
Miscellaneous receipts .......

Total gross revenue ....

Mark
18,739,123

76,911,240
36.212,277
34,580,760
12,462,125

212,051,868
£10,602,593

Branches of Expend

iture Year 1874-75

Mark

27,581,400

5,415,470

104,985

Diet ....

346.006

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

671,091

,, Justice

11,764,618

,, Interior

18,209,522

,, Finance

2,359,553

Worship and education .

18,476.318

34,580,760

Pensions for widows and orphans

1,689,771

Reserve fund ....

899,409

Contribution to Imperial expenditu
Tota

re ... . 14,747,691

L 136,846,594

Charge for collection of revenue

Tota

75,205,274

L expenditure . . 212,051,868

£10,602,593

Bavaria has a considerable debt, created in part by the deficits of
former years, and in part by the construction of public works, espe-
cially railways.

The subjoined table gives the total amount of the debt of the
kingdom, distinguishing the Ordinary and the Railway Debt, the
accounts of which are kept separate, froin 1855 to 1872, on the 1st
of January of each year : —

GERMANY BAVARIA.

135

Years

Ordinary Debt

Railway Debt

Total

Florins

1855

134,045,964

72,369,700

206,415,664

17,201,305

1858

122,839,495

88,643,834

211,483,529

17,623,629

1859

123,280,680

90,913,134

316,493,364

26,374,447

1862

136,293,375

104,735,559

342,903.514

28,575,292

1867

209,874,601

146,156,600

356,031,201

29,669,267

1870

261,926,754

163,428,800

425,355,554

35,446,296

1872

181,377,265

212,609,300

393,986,565

32,832,214

JfiU'k

Mark

1874

232,399,043

398,345,143

630,744,186

31,337,209

The greater number of the railways in Bavaria, constructed at a
cost of 250 million florins, or 12,500,000/. are the property of the
State.

Area and Population.

The kingdom embraces an area of 1,3774; geographical, or
29,292 English square miles, with a population of 5,024,832 —
comprising 2,453,353 males, and 2,571,479 females — at the census
of December 1, 1875. Bavaria is divided, for administrative pur-
poses, into eight Regierungsbezirke, or government districts. The
following table gives the area, in English square miles, and the
population of each of the eight districts, according to the two
census returns of December 1, 1871, and of December 1, 1875 : —

Area

Population.

Regaerungsbezirke Eng. sq.miles.

Dec. 1871.

Dec. 1875.

Upper Franeonia (Oberfranken)
Upper Palatinate (Oberpfalz)
Lower Bavaria (Niederbayern) .
Upper Bavaria (Oberbayern)
Suabia (Sehwaben) .
Middle Franeonia (Mittelfranken)
Lower Franeonia (Unterfranken)
Palatinate (EheinPfalz) .
Bavarian troops in France
Total .

2,702
3,732
4,157
6,582
3,243
2,918
3,243
2,293

541,063
497,861
603,789
841,707
582,773
583,666
586,132
615,035
11,424

555,043
503,422
622,377
894,824
602,950
607,593
597,056
641,567

29,292

4,863,450

5,024,832

It will be seen that there was an increase of population in all the
districts, the increase being greatest in Upper Bavaria and least in
the Palatinate, from which there is a large emigration.

The increase of population in the kingdom has been comparatively
small within the last half-century, as shown in the subjoined
table : —

1 36

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Year of Census

Population

Increase or Decrease

1834

4,246,779

1837

4,315,468

Increase 68,689

1840

4,370,974

55,506

1843

4,440,327

69,353

1846

4,504,874

64,547

1849

4,520,751

15,877

1852

4,559,452

38,701

1855

4,541,556

Decrease 17,896

1858

4,615,748

Increase 74,192 '

1861

4,689,837

74,089

1864

4,807,440

117,603

1867

4,824,421

16,981

1871

4,863.450

39,029

1875

5,024,832

161,382

The great fluctuations in the rate of increase, extremely low on
the whole, are referred to emigration.

The soil of the kingdom is divided among 947,010 proprietors.
The division is greatest in the Rhenish Palatinate, namely, 228,976,
and smallest in Upper Bavaria, viz. 109,195.

The population of the three principal towns of the kingdom was
as follows at the census of Dec. 3, 1867, and of Dec. 1, 1871 : —

Munich (Miinchen)

Nurnberg

Augsburg

Dec. 3, 1867 I Dec. 1, 1871

170,688
70,492
50,067

169,693
83,214
51,220

It will be seen that in the capital of Bavaria there was a decline
of population between the years 1867 and 1871. The only con-
siderable increase was that shown by Nurnberg, the principal
manufacturing city in the kingdom.

GERMANY WURTEMBERG. I 37

III. WURTEMBERG.

(KONIGKEICH WtJRTTEMBEKG.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Karl I., King of Wiirtemberg, born March 6, 1823 ; ascended
the throne at the death of his father, King Wilhelm I., June 25,
1864. Married, July 13, 1846, to

Olga, Queen of Wiirtemberg, born Sept. 11, 1822, daughter of
the late Czar Nicholas I. of Russia.

Sisters of the King. — 1. Princess Catharine, born Aug. 24, 1821 ;
married Nov. 20, 1845, to her cousin, Prince Friedrich of Wiirtem-
berg; widow, May 9, 1870. 2. Princess Augusta, born Oct. 4, 1826,
married Juae 17, 1851, to Prince Hermann of Saxe- Weimar, lieut.-
general in the service of Wiirtemberg.

Half-Sisters of the King — Offspring of the second marriage of
King Wilhelm I. with Grand-Duchess Catharine of Russia. 1 . Princess
Marie, born Oct. 30, 1816 ; married March 19, 1840, to Count
Alfred von Neipperg, eldest son of Count Adam Neipperg, and of
Archduchess Maria Louise of Austria, former consort of the Emperor
Napoleon I.; widow Nov. 16, 1865. 2. Princess Sophie, born
June 17, 1818; married June 18, 1839, to King Willem III. of
the Netherlands.

Cousin of the King. — Prince August, born Jan. 24, 1813,
the son of Duke Paul of Wiirtemberg, uncle of the king, and of
Princess Charlotte of Saxe-Altenburg ; general of cavalry in the
service of Prussia.

Other Relatives of the King. — 1. Prince Alexander, born Sept.
9, 1804, the son of Duke Ludwig of Wiirtemberg, uncle of the
king ; married May 2, 1835, to Claudine, daughter of Count
Rheday of Transylvania, created at the marriage Countess von
Hohenstein ; widower, Oct. 1, 1841. Issue of the union are one
son and two daughters, namely, Franz, born Aug. 27, 1837, created
Prince von Teck Dec. 1, 1863, and married to Princess Mary of
Cambridge June 12, 1866 (see ' Great Britain and Ireland,' p. 190) ;
Claudine, born Feb. 11, 1836; and Amelia, born Nov. 12, 1838;
married Oct. 24, 1863, to Baron von Hiigel, captain in the Austrian

I38 THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877-

cavalry. 2. Princess Marie, born March 25, 1818, daughter of
Duke Eugene of Wiirtemberg, nephew of the king; married Oct. 9,
1845, to Landgrave Karl of Hesse-Philippsthal ; widow, Feb. 12,
1868. 3. Prince Wilhelm, brother of the preceding, born July 20,
1828; general of infantry in the service of Austria. 4. Princess
Alexandrine, sister of the preceding, born Dec. 16, 1829. 5. Prince
Nicolaus, brother of the preceding, born March 1, 1833 ; married
May 8, 1868, to his cousin, Princess Wilhelmine of Wiirtemberg,
born July 11, 1844, the daughter of Prince Eugen. 6. Princess
Louise, sister of the preceding, born Oct. 13, 1835 ; married Feb. 6,
1858, to Prince Heinrich XIV. of Reuss-Schleiz. 7. Prince Fried-
rich Wilhelm, born December 20, 1804, the son of Duke Alexander
of Wiirtemberg, commander-in-chief of the armies of Russia; mar-
ried October 17, 1837, to Princess Marie of Orleans, daughter of
Louis Philippe, King of the French ; widower, January 2, 1839.
Offspring of the union is a son, Prince Philipp, born July 30, 1838 ;
married January 18, 1865, to Archduchess Marie Theresa of Austria,
born July 15, 1845, the daughter of Archduke Albrecht of Austria.
The former duchy of Wiirtemberg was erected into a kingdom by
the Emperor Napoleon, by decree of Jan. 1, 1806, having been
enlarged previously by the annexation of the territories of a number
of small princes and ecclesiastical dignitaries. The congress of
Vienna acknowledged the change, in consideration of the timely
transference of the troops of King Friedrich I. to the army of the
Allies. Wilhelm I., the second king, soon after his accession gained
the goodwill of his subjects by the grant of a constitution, as well as
the satisfactory settlement of the question of right in the royal
domains, or property of the crown. The civil list of the king amounts
to 1,566,742 mark, or 78,337Z., with an additional grant of 271,471
mark, or 13,573?., for the other members of the royal family.

Constitution and Government.

The constitution of Wiirtemberg bears date Sept. 25, 1819. It
vests the legislative power in a Diet, or Landtag, consisting of
two Houses, called together every three years, or oftener if ne-
cessary. The Upper Chamber, or House of Standesherren, is composed
of the members of the royal family, the heads of the principal noble
families of the country, the representatives of certain territories and
estates possessing formerly a vote in the extinct German Diet, and a
number of members nominated by the king for life, which number,
however, must not exceed one-third of that of the whole House. The
second Chamber, or House of Deputies — Abgeordneten — consists of
13 members of the nobility, elected by the Ritterschaft, or landowners
of the kingdom ; 6 deputies of the Protestant clergy ; the deputies

GERMANY WURTEMBERG. 139

of the Roman Catholic clergy, comprising the bishop of the diocese
of Wurtemberg, and two other representatives of Roman Catholic
bodies; the chancellor of the university of Tubingen ; and 71 deputies
of towns and rural districts. All the members of the second Chamber
are chosen for six years, and they must be thirty years of age ; pro-
perty qualification is not necessary. To be a member of the first
Chamber it is sufficient to be of age. The president of both Houses
is appointed by the king ; for the Upper House without restriction
of person, and for the lower, from among three members elected by
the deputies. The debates of the second Chamber are public,
and have to be printed and distributed among the various consti-
tuencies. Whenever Parliament is not sitting, it is represented by a
committee of twelve persons, consisting of the presidents of both
Chambers, two members of the Upper, and eight of the Lower House.
A special court of justice, called the Staats-Gerichtshof, is appointed
guardian of the constitution and of the rights and privileges of the
Houses of Parliament. It is composed of a president and twelve
members, six of which, together with the president, are nominated
by the king, while the other six are elected by the combined
Chambers.

The executive of the kingdom is in a Privy Council, composed
of six ministerial departments, and presided over by the king, or a
member of the royal family nominated by his majesty. The heads
of the six departments are the Ministers of Justice ; of the Interior;
of Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs ; of War; of Foreign
Affairs ; and of Finance. There are besides the members of the
Ministry a number of special Privy Councillors, whom the sovereign
has the right to consult on all occasions.

Church and Education.

The census of Wurtemberg, taken Dec. 3, 1871, stated the reli-
gious creed of the inhabitants as follows : — Evangelical Protestants,
1,248,838; Roman Catholics, 553,542; Dissenters of various denomi-
nations, 3,917; and Jews, 12,244. According to the census of 1871,
the Protestants form 68 per cent, of the population, and the Roman
Catholics 30 per cent. The « Evangelical Protestant ' Church
of Wurtemberg was formed in 1823, by a union of the Lutherans
and the Calvinists, or Reformers. The administration of the
Protestant Church is in the hands of six general superinten-
dents, at Ulm, Ludwigsburg, Reutlingen, Hall, Heilbronn, and
Tubingen. In the king is vested, according to the constitution, the
supreme direction as well as the guardianship — obersthoheitliche
Schutz und Aufsichtsrecht — of the Evangelical Protestant Church,
which is considered, though not formally declared, the religion of the

I/J-O

THE .STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

State. The Roman Catholics, most numerous in the eastern part of
the kingdom, comprising the circle of the Danube, are under a
bishop, dependent of the Archbishop of Freiburg, in Baden, who
has his seat at Rottenburg, but who, in all important matters, has to
act in conjunction with a Catholic church-council — Kirchenrath —
appointed by the government. The Jews likewise are under a
special board, nominated by the minister of ecclesiastical affairs.
Most independent of the State are the small number of Christian
Dissenters, consisting chiefly of Unitarians.

Education is compulsory in Wurtemberg; every child between
the age of 6 and 14 must attend school ; and there must be a public
school in every community of 30 families. It was ascertained,
according to recent official returns, that there is not an individual
in the kingdom, above the age of ten, unable to read and write.
There are about 2,500 elementary schools, attended by 350,000
pupils; besides numerous seminaries for imparting a classical edu-
cation ; four Protestant and two Roman Catholic training establish-
ments for ministers, and seven colleges, providing a classical educa-
tion, at Stuttgart, Heilbronn, Ulm, Ellwangen, Ludwigsburg, Hall,
and Rottweil. The whole educational system is centred in the uni-
versity of Tubingen, founded in 1477, which has upwards of eighty
professors and teachers, is attended, on the average, by from eight to
nine hundred students. (For number of professors and teachers,
and of students in each of the four faculties, in 1876, see Germany,
p. 97.)

Revenue and Expenditure.

The following table gives the net amount of the public revenue of
the kingdom during each of the three financial years, ending June
30, from 1872-73 to 1874-75 :—

Sources of Revenue

1872-73

Domains and other state property |
Direct taxes . . . . .

Indirect taxes .
Other sources .

Total

Florins

10,429,500
5,437,800
4,896,086
2,105,483

Florins

10,430,200
5,438,799
4.896,086
2,938,591

Mark

18,603,129
9,740,914
9,610,113
4,249,478

22,868,869

23,705,676

42,203,634

£1,805,739 £1,975,473 j £2,110,181

The expenditure for the financial period ending June 30, 1875,
was distributed as follows : —

GERMANY — WURTEMBERG.

141

Branches of Expenditure 1874-75.
Civil list of the king .....

Allowances to other members of the royal family

Public debt

Salaries and pensions .....
Department of Foreign Affairs.

„ of Justice .....

,, of the Interior ....

„ of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs

„ of Finance .....

Parliamentary representation ....
Miscellaneous disbursements ....
Contribution to Imperial expenditure

Mark

1,566,742

271,472

14,904.905

1,763,746

160,454

2,595,926

3,864,928

6,235,970

2,327.795

62,995

2,500.128

5,948,571

Total

42,203,633
£2,110,181

The public debt of "Wurtemberg more than doubled within the
last twenty years, owing to the establishment of the railway lines
of the kingdom, the greater part of which are State property. The
capital of the public debt was as follows on the 10th May, 1874 : —

Description of Debt

Capital

Debt of 6 per cent

Debt „ 5 „

Debt „ 4i „

Debt „ 3£ „

Paper money ......

Total public debt

Mark
3,429
44,193,464

178,728,000

32,382,686
28,390,799
10,285,714

293,984,092
£14,699,204

The debt of the kingdom, here enumerated, is divided into two
portions, namely, the general debt, and the railway debt. The
latter, forming the by far largest portion of the total, amounted to
222,000,000 mark, or 11,100,000/. on May 10, 1874.

The net income of the railways, all expenses deducted, and
making allowance for wear and tear, amounts to between six
and seven per cent., and the surplus is devoted to the payment
of the interest of the public debt.

142

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Area and Population.

Wurtemberg has an area of 354 geographical, or 7,675 English
square miles, with 1,881,505 inhabitants — 907,814 males, and
974,191 females — at the enumeration of December 1, 1875. The
kingdom is divided into four Kreise, or circles, the area of which, in
English square miles, and number of inhabitants, was as follows at
the two enumerations of December 1, 1871, and December 1, 1875 : —

Kreise

Area
Eng. sq. miles.

Population

Dec. 1871. Dec. 1875. !

Jaxt (Jagst) ....
Neckar .....
Black Forest (Scliwarzwald)
Danube (Donau)

Total

1,810
1,286

1,973
2,606

384,714
548,750
448,160
436,945

390.703
587,834
454,937
448,031

7,675

1,818,539

1,881,505 |

The increase of population between the two census periods,
amounting on the whole to only 0*85 per cent, per annum, varied
greatly in the four circles of the kingdom. It was, as will be seen,
proportionately largest in the Neckar circle, and least in the Jaxt.
The total increase in the kingdom during the 35 years from 1841
to 1875 was very slight, and at one period, from 1849 to 1855,
there was a decline of population.

The kingdom has but four towns with more than fifteen thousand
inhabitants, namely Stuttgart, the capital, which had 91,623; Ulm,
fortress and principal military establishment, which had 26,290; Heil-
bronn, which had 18,955; and Esslingen. which had 17,941 inhabitants
at the census of December 1, 1871. The population, follow-
ing generally agricultural pursuits, including extensive cultivation
of the vine, is dispersed over a great many villages and small
boroughs. Emigration, chiefiy directed to the United States of
America, is drawing off large numbers of the people. In the four
years 1872 to 1875, there was an average annual emigration of
5,000 inhabitants from the kingdom.

GERMANY SAXONY. 1 43

IV. SAXONY.'

(KoNIGEEICH SACHSEN.)

Reigning- Sovereign and Family.

Albert I., King of Saxony, born April 23, 1828, eldest son of
King Johann I. of Saxony and of his consort, Queen Amalie.
E lucated for the military career, and entered the army of Saxony,
1846, and of Prussia, 1867. Commander of a German corps d'armee
in the war against France, 1870-71. Nominated Field-Marshal in
the German army, 1871. Succeeded to the throne, at the death of
his father, October 29, 1873. Married June 18, 1853, to

Caroline, Queen of Saxony, born Aug. 5, 1833, daughter of
Prince Gustav of Vasa.

Sister and Brother of the King. — 1. Princess Elisabeth, born
Feb. 4, 1830 ; married, in 1850, to Prince Ferdinand of Sardinia ;
-widow, Feb. 10. 1855: married, in second nuptials, Oct. 1856, to the
Marchese Eapallo, of Florence; 2. Prince Georg,Duke of Saxony, born
August 8, 1832; married May 11. 1859, to Infanta Maria, born
July 21, 1843, daughter of King Ferdinand of Portugal, of which
union there are issue four sons and two daughters, namely Mathilda,
born March 19, 1863 ; Friedrich August, born May 25, 1865 ; Marie,
born May 31, 1867; Johann Georg, born July 11, 1869;
Maximilian, born November 17, 1870 ; and Albert, born February
2."), 1875.

Mother of the King. — Amalie, Queen Dowager of Saxony,
born Nov. 13, 1801, daughter of the late King Maximilian I. of
Bavaria; married Nov. 21, 1822, to Prince Johann, afterwards
King Johann I. of Saxony ; widow Oct. 29, 1873.

The royal house of Saxony counts among the oldest reigning
families in Europe. It gave an emperor to Germany as early as
the beginning of the tenth century; but the house subsequently
spread into numerous branches, the elder of which, called the
Ernestine line, is represented at this moment by the ducal families
of Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Saxe-Meiningen, and Saxe-
TVeimar, while the younger, the Albertine line, lives in the rulers
of the kingdom of Saxony.

King Albert I. has a civil list of 2,940,000 mark, or 127,000/.
per annum. Exclusive of this sum are the appanages, or dotations
of the princes and princesses, amounting to 511,818 mark, or 25,590Z.
n, year. The formerly royal domains, consisting chiefly in exten-
sive forests, became, in 1830, the property of the State.

144 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Constitution and Government.

The present Constitution of Saxony dates from Sept. 4, 1831 ; but
has undergone alterations and modifications by the laws of March 31,
1849 ; May 5, 1851 ; November 27, 1860 ; and October 19, 1861.
According to the terms of the Constitution, the crown is hereditary
in the male line ; but, at the extinction of the latter, also in the
female line. The sovereign comes of age at the completed eighteenth
year, and, during his minority, the nearest heir to the throne takes
the regency. In the hands of the King is the sole executive power,
which he exercises through responsible ministers. The legislature
is jointly in the King and Parliament, the latter consisting of two
chambers. The Upper Chamber comprises the princes of the blood
royal ; the proprietors of eight baronial domains ; twelve deputies
elected by the owners of other nobiliar estates; ten noble proprietors
nominated by the King for life; the burgomasters of eight towns;
and the superintendents and deputies of five collegiate institutions,
of the university of Leipzig, and of the Roman Catholic chapter oi
St. Peter at Bautzen. The Lower Chamber is made up of twenty
deputies of landed proprietors; twenty-five of towns and city cor-
porations ; twenty-five of peasants and communes ; and ten repre-
sentatives of commerce and manufacturing industry. The qualifica-
tion for a seat in the Upper House, as well as the right of election to
the same, is the possession of a landed estate worth at least 3,000
mark a year; which qualification, however, is not required by the
ex officio deputies of chapters and universities. To be a member of
the Lower House, no fixed income is required ; and electors are all
men above twenty-five years of age who pay taxes, or contribute in
any way to the public burdens. A salary is attached to the per-
formance of the legislative functions ; the members of the Uppei
House being allowed 20 mark, or one pound a day, during the
sittings of Parliament, and the deputies to the Second Chamber
10 mark, or 105. Both Houses have the right to make proposi-
tions for new laws, the bills for which, however, must come from
the ministry. No taxes can be made, levied, or altered without the
sanction of both Chambers.

The executive is in the King and a Council of Ministers, con-
sisting of five members, namely, the President of the Council, the
Ministers of the Interior, of Justice, of Education and Ecclesiastical
Affairs, and of Finance.

Church and Education.

Although the royal family profess the Roman Catholic religion,
+he vast majority of the inhabitants are Protestants. At the census

GERMANY — SAXONY. I45

of December 1, 1871, the population of Saxony was composed
of 2,493,422 Lutherans; 53,642 Roman Catholics; 554 Greek
Catholics; 0,407 members of other Christian sects; and 3,358
Jews. The clergy are chiefly paid ont of local rates and from
endowment-, the budget contribution of the State to the depart-
ment of ecclesiastical affairs amounting to but 85,593 thalers, or
about 12,830/., chiefly spent in administrative salaries. The govern-
ment of the Protestant Church is entrusted tc the Landes-Cunsis-
toriUm, or National Consistory, presided over by the Minister of
Ecclesiastical Affairs; while the Roman Catholic congregations are
under the supervision of a Papal delegate. Public education has
reached the highest point in Saxony, every child, without exception,
partaking of its benefits. By a law of June 6, 1835, attendance at
school, or under properly qualified teachers, is made compulsory,
for Roman Catholics as well as Protestants.

The kingdom has the second largest university in Germany, that
of Leipzig, founded in 1409, and attended, on the average of recent
years, by nearly three thousand students. (For number of pro-
fessors, teachers, and students of each of the four faculties, at the
university in 1876, see Germany, p. 97.)

Revenue and Expenditure.

The public revenue of Saxony amounted to 47,402,919 mark,
or 2,374,645?., in the year 1874, and wras balanced by the ex-
penditure. The budget estimates for the year 1875 were calculated
upon a revenue of 81,982,434 mark, or 4,099,121/., and an expen-
diture of the same amount. More than one-half of the total revenue
of 1874 was derived from domains and state railways, the former
producing 8,106,957 mark, or 405,347/., and the latter 17,760,651
mark, or 888,032/. The chief branch of expenditure is that of
interest on the public debt, amounting to 13,072,359 mark, or
653,617/., for the year 1874.

The public debt amounted, at the end of 1876, to 340,888,050
mark, or 17,044,402/., the liabilities being made up as follows: —

Mark

•'•" " ! fl ' . !i ms, ci a1 i in 1830 .... 10,630,050

Q-Scheine' of 18-17.
itto of 1852-68 . . . .

tto of L855

on-Silesian Railway
•V ■ i I ted in 1867

!. .' ated in 1869
: ! 870-71
■ not bearing mien si

Total .

. 19,576,500
142;822,800
[2 136 500
. 8 679,600
. 36,000,000
. 59,700.000
. 15,042,600
. 36,0 • (00
340,888,050
£17,011 102

I46 THE STATESMAN'S TEAE-BOOK, 1877.

The debt was incurred almost entirely for the establishment
and purchase of a network of railways and telegraphs, and the
promotion of other works of public utility.

Area and Population.

Saxony has an area of 272 geographical, or 6,777 English square
miles, with a population of 2,760,342 — comprising 1,365,962 males,
and 1,394,380 females — at the census of December 1, 1875. The
kingdom is divided into four government districts, called Kreis-
Hauptmannschaften, the area of which, in English square miles, and
population, was as follows at each of the two enumerations of De-
cember 1, 1871, and December 1, 1875 : —

Kreis-Hauptmamischaften

Area: Engl,
square miles

Population

Dec. 1871 Dec. 1870

677,671 749,503
589,377 639,731
330,133 339,203
959,063 1,031,905

Dresden .

Leipzig ....
Bautzen ....
Zwickau .

Total population

2,229
1,230
1,232
2,086

6,777 2,556,244 2 760 342

At the census of December 3, 1867, the population numbered
2,426,300. The increase in the four years 1867-71 was 129,944,
being at the rate of 130 per cent, per annum. The increase of
population during the three years 1871-75 was at the rate of 1-92
per cent, per annum. The increase from 1871 to 1875 was nearly
thrice as large, in the towns as in the rural districts of the kingdom.

Saxony has a comparatively large town population. There were,
at the census of December 1, 1871, seven towns with a population of
more than 20,000, namely : —

Dresden
Leipzig
Chemnitz
Zwickau

177,089 i Plauen

106,925 Glauehau

68,229 I Freiberg

27,322

23.355
22,036
21,673

The population of Leipzig is vastly increased during the period of
the great annual fairs, at New Year, Easter, and Michaelmas, notably
that of Easter, which bring together merchants from all parts of
the civilised world. According to a report of the British Consul-
General, Baron Tauchnitz, the total quantity of goods manufac-
tured in Germany, imported into Leipzig at the fairs in the year
1875 amounted to 378,449 zentner, or cwts. Leipzig is also the
centre of the German, and to some extent European, trade in pro-
ductions of the printing press.

GERMANY — BADEN. 1 47

V. BADEN.
(Grossherzogthum Baden.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Friedrich I., Grand-duke of Baden, born September 9, 1820,
second son of Grand-duke Leopold I., and of Princess Sophie of
Sweden. Ascended the throne of Baden at the death of his father,
April 24, 1852. Married, September 20, 1850, to Grand-duchess
Louise, born December 3, 1838, the daughter of King Wilhelm I.
of Prussia. Offspring of the union are 1. Friedrich Wilhelm, heir-
apparent, born July 9, 1857. 2. Victoria, born August 7, 1862. 3.
Ludwig, born June 12, 1865.

Brothers and Sisters of the Grand-duke. — 1. Princess A lexandrine,
born December 6, 1820 ; married, May 3, 1842, to Duke Ernst ol
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 2. Prince Wilhelm, born December 18, 1829;
married, February 11, 1863, to Princess Maria Romanovska, born
October 1 6, 1841 , daughter of the late Duke Maximilian of Leuchten-
berg, offspring of which union are two children, namely, Marie, born
July 26. 1865, and Maximilian, born July 10, 1867. 3. Prince Karl,
born March 9, 1832 ; married May 17, 1871, to Rosalie von Beust,
elevated Countess von Rhena, born June 10, 1845. 4. Princess
Marie, born November 20, 1834; married, September 11, 1858, to
Prince Ernst of Leiningen. 5. Princess Cecilia, born Sept. 20,
1839 ; married, Aug, 28, 1857, to Grand-duke Michael of Russia.

The title of Grand-duke Avas given by Napoleon I. to Margrave
Karl Friedrich of Baden in 1806, on the occasion of the alliance
■of the heir-apparent of Baden with Stephanie Beauharnais.

The very extensive landed property formerly belonging to the
reigning family, and valued at about 50 million florins, or 4, 166,000/.,
has been made over to the State, and the grand-duke is in the
receipt of a civil list of 1,498,635 mark, or 74,931/., which includes
the allowances made to the princes and princesses.

Constitution and Revenue.

The Constitution of Baden vests the executive power in the
Grand-duke, and the legislative authority in a House of Parliament
composed of two Chambers. The Upper Chamber comprises the
princes of the reigning line who are of age ; the heads of ten noble
families ; the proprietors of hereditary landed estates worth 500,000
mark, or 25,000/.; the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Freiburg;
the superintendent of the Protestant Church ; two deputies of

l 2

I48 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Universities ; and eight members nominated by the Grand-duke,,
without regard to rank or birth. The Second Chamber is composed
of G3 representatives of the people, 22 of which are elected by
burgesses of towns, and 41 by the inhabitants of rural districts.
Every citizen not convicted of crime, nor receiving parish relief, has
a vote in the elections. To be a deputy, it is necessary to possess
tax-paying property to the amount of 16,000 mark, or 800/. ; or
to hold a public office with a salary of not less than 2,500 mark, or
12.")/. The elections are indirect ; the citizens nominating the Wahl-
manner, or deputy-electors, and the latter the representatives. The
members of the Second Chamber are elected for eight years. The
Chambers have to be called together at least once every two years.

The executive is composed of five departments, headed by the
' Private Cabinet of the Grand-duke,' which office is filled by the
chief of the cabinet. The departments are, of the Grand-ducal
House ; of the Interior ; of Justice ; of Finances ; and of Com-
merce. The ministers are individually and collectively responsible
for their actions, both to the legislature and to every individual
citizen who may choose to lodge complaints against them before the
' Oberhofgericht,' or Superior Tribunal of the country.

The budget accounts of revenue and expenditure were as fol-
lows in each of the three years from 1878 to 1875 : —

1873

1874

is?.",

Florins
Ordinary revenue . . 1 16,177,^39
„ expenditure . 17,335,435

Mark
29,891,177
29,550,972

5 [ark
29,89C,478
30,208,813

The budget estimates, drawn-up for biennial terms, contain, be-
sides the ordinary, extraordinary receipts, as well as disbursements.
Adding these, the total estimated revenue for the two years 1874
and 1875 amounted to 68,077,267 mark, or 3,433,863J., and the
total expenditure to the same amount. Nearly one-half of the
revenue is derived from direct taxation, a fourth from the pro-
duce of crown lands, forests, and mines, and the rest from cus-
toms and miscellaneous sources. Rather more than one-third of
the expenditure is set down under the head of ' General cost of ad-
ministration.'

Nearly all the railways of Baden are the property of the State,
giving a dividend, on the capital expended, of above 6 per cent. The
accounts of the income and expenditure of the State railways, as
well as of the Post-office and steam navigation on the Lake of
Constance, are not entered in the general budget, but form a special
fund. The estimated receipts of this fund in the two years 1874
and 1875 amounted to 129,329,80)5 mark, or 0,466,493/., and the

GERMANY BADEN.

149

disbursements to 161,292,374 mark, or 8,064,618/. The deficit was
caused by expenditure in the construction of new lines. The State
railways left a profit of 10,259,939 mark, or 512,990/., in the year
1871.

The public debt is, like the budget, divided into two parts, the
first called the General debt, and the second the Railway debt.
The General debt amounted, at the commencement of 1874, to
85,269,414 mark or 4,263,470/., and the Railway debt, at the same
-date, to 251,330,028 mark, or 12,566,501/. Nearly the whole of
the debt bears interest at the rate of four per cent.

Area and Population.

Baden has an area of 277 geographical, or 5,851 English square
miles, with a population of 1,506,531 — comprising 734,431 males
and 772,100 females — at the census of December 1, 1875. The
Grand-duchy is divided into four districts, the population of which
was as follows at the enumerations of December 1, 1871 and
December 1. 1875 : —

Districts ^ Area:

Population

Engl. sq. miles

Dec. 1871 Dec. 1875

Seekreis (Constance) . . 1,679
Upper Rhine .... 1,830
Middle Rhine. ... 993
Lower Rhine .... 1,349

276,263 276.375
434,962 441,369
365.715 387,314
384,652 401,473

Total .... 5,851

1,461,562 | 1,506,531

At the census of December 3, 1867, the population of Baden
numbered 1,434.970. The increase of population in the four years
from 1867 to 1871 was 26,592, or 1-85 per cent., being at the
rate of 0-46 per cent, per annum. In the four years from 1871
to 1875 the population increased at the rate of 0*76 per cent,
per annum. The population decreased from the year 1846
till 1855. From 1846 till 1849, the decrease amounted to 4,712 ;
from 1849 to 1852, to 8,282 : and from 1852 to 1855, to the large
number of 42,105, or 14,035 per annum. Since 1855, there has
been again a gradual but slow increase. The decline of population
-was chiefly due to emigration.

Two-thirds of the population of Baden are Roman Catholics, and
one-third Protestants. There are a great number of small towns
dispersed over the Grand-duchy, only two, Mannheim and Karlsruhe,
with .more than 35.000 inhabitants in 1875.

I50 THE STATESMAN S YEAE-BOOK, 1877.

VI. MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN.

(Grossherzogthum Mecklenburg-Schwerin.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Friedrich Franz II., Grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin,
born February 28, 1823, the son of Grand-duke Paul Friedrich and
Princess Alexandrine of Prussia. Studied philosophy and theology
at the University of Bonn, 1840-42; succeeded to the throne at the
death of his father, March 7, 1842. Married, November 3, 1849, to
Princess Augusta of Reuss-Schleiz, who died March 3, 18G2.
Married, in second nuptials, May 12, 1864, to Princess Annar
daughter of the late Grand-duke Ludwig II. of Hesse-Dannstadt,
who died April 15, 18G5. Married, in third nuptials, July 4, 1868,
to Princess Marie, born January 29, 1850, daughter of the reigning
Prince Adolph of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt. Issue of the first mar-
riage are: — 1. Friedrich Franz, heir-apparent, born March 19,
1851. 2. Paul Friedrich, born September 19, 1852. 3. Marie,
born May 14, 1854 ; married August 28, 1874, to Grand-Duke
Vladimir, second son of Alexander II., Emperor of Russia. 4.
Johann, born December 8, 1857. Issue of the second marriage
is a daughter, Anna, born April 7, 1865. Issue of the third mar-
riage are: — 1. Mathilda, born August 10, 1869; 2. Friedrich
Wilhelm, born April 5, 1871 : and 3. Adolf, born Oct. 10, 1873.

The Grand-ducal house of Mecklenburg is the only reigning
family in Europe of Slavonic origin, and claims to be the oldest
sovereign house in the Western world. In their full title, the Grand-
dukes style themselves Princes of the Vandals; and they trace their
descent to Genseric, King of the Vandals, who conquered Spain in
the fifth century, and, going over to Africa, took Carthage in 439.

Constitution, Revenue, and Population.

The political institutions of the Grand-duchy are of an entirely feudal
character. The fundamental laws are embodied in the ' Union ' of
1523, the ' Reversales' of 1572 and 1622, and the charters of 1755
and Nov. 28, 1817. The whole legislative power and part of the
executive is in the hands of the proprietors of Eittergiiter, or knight's
estates, numbering 622. Seldom more than one-fourth of these, how-
ever, exert their privileges and take their seats in the Diet. To these
representatives of their oavu property are joined forty mem-
bers, nearly all burgomasters, delegated by the municipalities and
corporate bodies of a like number of towns. The great bidk of the

GERMANY — MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIX. I : I

population is without political rights. The Diet is permanent, being
represented, if not in actual session, by a committee of twelve mem-
bers, presided over by three marshals of the nobility, whose office
is hereditary in their families. It forms every two years a joint as-
sembly with the Diet of Mecklenburg- Strelitz, for common legis-
lation.

The executive is represented in a ministry appointed by and
responsible alone to the Grand-duke. There are four departments,
called respectively the Ministry of the Grand-ducal House and of
Foreign Affairs ; the Ministry of the Interior ; the Ministry of
Justice, of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs ; and the Ministry
of Finances. There exists no general budget for the Grand-duchy.
At the commencement of 1875 the public debt was estimated at
42,000,000 mark, or 2,100,000Z., more than one-half of which sum
had been raised in loans for the construction of railways.

The population of the Grand-duchy amounted to 553,734 —
comprising 270,450 males, and 283,284 females — at the census
of Dec. 1, 1875, living on an area of 4,834 English square miles.
There is no other administrative division than that springing
from the ownership of the soil, in which respect the country is
divided into Grand-ducal Domains, embracing about one-fifth of
the total area of Mecklenburg-Schwerin ; Knight's Estates — 'Eitter-
gliter ' — comprising two-fifths ; Convent Estates — ' Klostergiiter ' —
embracing one-fifth ; and Town Estates, comprising the remaining
fifth of the land. The Domains contain rather more than one-third
of the total population of the Grand-duchy, and the Town Estates
another third.

There has been a gradual decrease of population in recent years,
although the average density is only 114 inhabitants per English
square mile, and the soil moreover very fertile. At the census of
December 3, 18G7, the population of the Grand-duchy numbered
f>f.o,i;2s, and at the next enumeration, of December 1, 1871, the
number had fallen to 557,707, being a decrease of 2,921, or one-
half per cent, of the population in the four years 1867-71. At
the census of December 1, 1875, the population was found to
have further declined to 553,734, being a loss of 3,973, or of 0*18
per cent, per annum. Emigration is carrying off large numbers
of the inhabitants.

There exists some commercial intercourse between the Grand-
duchy and the United Kingdom, but it has been steadily on the
decline during recent years.

152 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

VII. HESSE.

(Grossherzogthuji Hessen.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Llldwig III., Grand-duke of Hesse, born June 9, 1806, the
son of Grand-duke Ludwig II: and of Princess Wilhelmine of
Baden. Appointed co-Regent of Hesse, in consequence of an attempt
at insurrection, March 5, 1848 ; succeeded to the throne at the
death of his father, June 1G, 1848. Married, Dec. 26, 1833, to
Princess Mathilde, daughter of King Ludwig of Bavaria ; widower,
May 25, 1862.

Brothers and Sisters of the Grand-duJce. — 1. Prince Karl, born
April 23, 1809 ; married; Oct. 22, 1836, to Princess Elisabeth of
Prussia, born June 18, 1815. Offspring of the union are ; — 1. Prince
Ludwig, born Sept. 12, 1837 ; married, July 1, 1862, to Princess
Alice of Great Britain ; issue, five daughters and one son, namely,
Victoria, born April 5, 1863; Elizabeth, born Nov. 1, 1864; Irene,
born July 11, 1866; Ludwig, born Nov. 25, 1868 ; Alice, born
June 6, 1872, and Marie, born May 21, 1874. 2. Prince Hein-
rich, born Nov. 28, 1838. 3. Prince Wilhelm, born Nov. 16, 1845.
— 2. Prince Alexander, born July 15, 1823 ; field-marshal lieutenant
in the service of Austria ; married, Oct. 28, 1851, to Countess Julia
von Hanke, born Nov. 12, 1825, on whom the title of Princess of
Battenberg has been conferred. Offspring of the union are four sons
and one daughter, called Princes and Princess of Battenberg. — 3.
Princess Maria, born Aug. 8, 1824; married, April 28, 1841, to
Grand duke Alexander of Russia, now Czar Alexander II.

The former Landgraves of Hesse had the title of Grand-duke
given them by Napoleon I., in 1806, together with a considerable
increase of territory. At the congress of Vienna this grant was
confirmed, after some negotiations. The reigning family are not
possessed of much private property, and dependent almost entirely
upon the grant of the civil list, amounting to 1,314,857 mark, or
G5,742Z., the sum including allowances to the princes and the
maintenance of the grand-dncal court.

Constitution, Revenue, and Population.

The Constitution bears date, Dec. 17, 1820 ; but was somewhat
modified in 1848, and again in 1856. The legislative power is
vested, in part, in two Chambers, called the Upper and the Lower

GERMANY HESSE.

153

House of Representatives. The former is composed of the princes
of the reigning family, the heads of a number of noble houses, the
Roman Catholic bishop, the chief Protestant superintendent, the
Chancellor of the University of Giessen, and a number of life-
members, not exceeding ten, nominated by the Grand-duke. The
Lower House consists of 6 deputies of noble landowners ; 10 deputies
of towns ; and 34 representatives of villages and rural districts. The
members of the Lower House are chosen by an indirect mode of
election — the original voters, or ' Urwahler,' first polling the electors,
or ' Wahlmiinner,' and these, in their turn, the representatives. The
Chambers have to meet at least once every three years. On certain
occasions, both Houses vote together, as when a proposition of the
Government has been accepted by one House and refused by the
other, and a final decision is to be arrived at.

The executive is represented by a ministry divided into four de-
partments, namely, of the Grand-ducal House and Foreign Affairs ;
of the Interior ; of Justice ; and of Finance.

The budget is granted for the term of three years by the Chambers,
and the estimates seldom differ much from the actual revenue and
expenditure. The revenue for the financial period 1878—75 was
given at 12,051,470 mark, or 1,052,578/., per annum, and the ex-
penditure at 17,931,549 mark, or 869,577/., per annum, thus
leaving an annual surplus of 3,119,920 mark, or 155,996/. The.
public debt, incurred mainly in recent years for the construction of
a network of State railways, amounted to 25,382,000 mark, or
1.269,100/., at the end of 1874.

The area of Hesse embraces 2,866 English square miles, on
which lived at the last census 882,349 inhabitants. The Grand-
duchy is administratively divided into three provinces, Upper Hesse,
Rhenish Hesse, and Starkenburg, the area and population of which
was as follows at the two enumerations of December 1, 1871, and
December 1, 1875 : —

Provinces

Area
Engl. sq. miles

Population

Dec. 1871 Dec. 1875

Upper Hesse (Oberhessen)
Rhenish Hesse (Rheinhi
.Starkenburg ....

Total population .

1,270

530

1,066

2.13,042 253,763
249,951 259,164
349,901 369,422

2,866

852,894

882,349

At the census of December 3, 1867, the population numberi I
831,939. The increase of population in the four years from 1867
to 1871 was at the rate of 0*62 per cent, per annum, while in the
four years from i*71 to L875 the increase was at I he rate of 0'85
per cent, per annum.

154 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

VIII. OLDENBURG.

(Grossherzogthum Oldenburg. )

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Peter I., Grand-duke of Oldenburg, born July 8, 1827, the son
of Grand-duke August, and of Princess Ida of Anlialt-Bernburg ;
succeeded to the throne at the death of his father, Feb. 27, 1858 ;
married, Feb. 10, 1852, to Elisabeth, born March 26, 1826,
daughter of Prince Joseph of Saxe-Altenburg. Issue of the union
are: — 1. Prince August, heir-apparent, born Nov. 16, 1852. 2.
Prince Georg, born June 27, 1855.

Brother and Sister of the Grand-duke.— 1. Princess Friederike,
born June 8, 1820, married, Aug. 15, 1855, to Freiherr Max von
Washington. 2. Prince Elimar, born Jan. 23, 1844, colonel in
the service of Prussia.

Cousin of the Grand-duke. — Prince Peter, born Aug. 26, 1812,
the son of Prince Georg, brother of the late Grand-duke August
of Oldenburg, and of Princess Catharine, daughter of the late Czar
Paul of Russia ; general of infantry in the service of Russia, and
President of the department of Ecclesiastical Affairs in the Imperial
Senate ; married, April 23, 1837, to Princess Therese of Nassau ;
widower, Dec. 8, 1871. Issue of the. union are : — 1. Princess Alex-
andra, born June 2, 1838; married, Feb. 6, 1856, to Grand-duke
Nicholas, brother of Czar Alexander II. of Russia. 2. Prince
Nicolaus, born May 9, 1840, general in the service of Russia ; mar-
ried May 29, 1863, to Marie Bulazel, elevated Countess von Ostern-
burg, born July 8, 1845 ; offspring of the union are a son and a
daughter called Count and Countess von Osternburg. 3. Prince
Alexander, born June 2, 1844; general in the service of Russia ;
married Jan. 19, 1868, to Princess Eugenie, born April 1, 1845,
daughter of the late Duke Maximilian of Leuchtenberg ; offspring
of the union is a son, Peter, born Nov. 17, 1S68. 4. Prince Con-
stantine, born May 9, 1850; captain in the army of Russia. 5.
Princess Therese, born March 30, 1852.

The ancient house of Oldenburg, which has given sovereigns to
Denmark, Scandinavia, and Russia, is said to be descended from
Wittekind, the celebrated leader of the heathen Saxons against
Charlemagne. In the fifteenth century, a scion of the House of Olden-
burg, Count Christian VIII., was elected King of Denmark, Sweden,
and Norway. The main line became extinguished with Count Glinther,
in 1667, whereupon the territory of the family fell to the King of
Denmark, who made it over to Grand-duke Paul of Russia, in exchange

GERMANY— OLUENBUEG. 1 5 5

for pretended claims upon Schleswig-Holstein. The Grand-duke
then gave Oldenburg to his cousin, Prince Friedrich August of
Holstein-Gottorp, with whose descendants it remained till December
1810, when Napoleon incorporated it with the kingdom of West-
phalia. But the Congress of Vienna not only gave the country
back to its former sovereign, but, at the urgent demand of Czar
Alexander I., added to it a territory of nearly 400 square miles,.
with 50,000 inhabitants, bestowing at the same time upon the prince
the title of Grand-duke. Part of the new territory consisted of the
principality of Birkenfeld, on the left bank of the Rhine, close to
the French frontier, and some three hundred miles distant from
Oldenburg. In 1854, Grand-duke Peter sold a district of 5,000
Morgen, or 3,154 acres, on the North Sea, with the harbour of Jahde,
converted into a naval port, to Prussia, for the sum of 500,000 thaler,
or 74,800/. The Grand-duke has a civil list of 125,000 mark,
or 12,500/., besides an allowance of 125,000 mark from the public
domains, making his total income 25,000/. He draws also a revenue
of 6,000/. from private estates of the family in Holstein.

Constitution, Revenue, and Population.

A Constitution was given to the Grand-duchy Feb. 18, 1849,
which, revised by a decree of Nov. 22, 1852, grants liberty of the
press, trial by jury, and equality of all citizens in political and social
matters. The legislative power is exercised by a Landtag, or Diet,
elected for three years, by the vote of all citizens paying taxes, and not
condemned for felony by a court of justice. The mode of election is
indirect. The first electors choose a delegate, and the delegates of'
several districts appoint one deputy, the whole number being 33, or
one for every 10,000 inhabitants. The executive is vested, under
the Grand-duke, in a responsible ministry of three departments.

The budget estimates for the year 1875 were calculated upon a
total public revenue of 6,702,750 mark, or 338,137/., and an ex-
penditure of the same amount. The chief item of revenue is from
the produce of State property; while in expenditure the civil list
and the interest of the public debt, take the largest sums. The
debt amounted, at the beginning of 1875, to 34,975,340 mark,
or 1,748,767/.

The area of Oldenburg embraces 2,417 Engl, square miles, with
a population, according to the census of Dec. 1, 1875, of 319,314
inhabitants. At the census of Dec. 1, 1871, the population num-
bered 314,591, the increase of population amounting to 0*35 per
annum in the years 1871-75, while in the four preceding years,
1<S67 to 1871, the increase was only 0-05 per annum.

156 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

IX. BRUNSWICK.

(Herzogthum Braunschweig.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Wilhelm I., Duke of Brunswick, born April 25, 1806, the second
son of Duke Friedrich Wilhelm of Brunswick, and of Princess
Marie of Baden. Undertook provisionally the Government of
Brunswick in consequence of the insurrection of September 7, 1830,
and subsequent flight of his brother, the reigning Duke Karl,
October 12, 1830; ascended the throne, April 25, 1831.

The ducal house of Brunswick, now on the point of becoming
extinct, the reigning sovereign, only representative of the family,
being unmarried, was long one of the most ancient and illustrious
of the Germanic Confederation. Its ancestor, Henry the Lion,
possessed, in the twelfth century, the united duchies of Bavaria and
Saxony, with other territories in the north of Germany ; but
having refused to aid the Emperor Friedrich Barbarossa in his
■wars with the Pope, he was, by a decree of the Diet, deprived of
the whole of his territories with the sole exception of his allodial
domains, the principalities of Brunswick and Liineburg. Their pos-
sessions were, on the death of Ernest the Confessor, divided between
the two sons of the latter, who became the founders of the lines of
Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel and Brunswick-Luneburg, the former of
which is represented at present in the ducal house of Brunswick,
while the latter is merged in the royal family of Great Britain.

A law of succession to the throne of Brunswick, sanctioned by
the Diet, was promulgated in March 1873. It provides, under
guarantee of the German Emperor, that at the demise of the reign-
ing Duke, the Grand Duke of Oldenburg shall assume the regency.
If, previous to the throne becoming vacant, the regent refuses the
regency, or if the regency becomes inoperative from other causes,
the present Duke shall, jointly with the Diet of Brunswick, nominate
another regent from among the number of reigning German
Sovereigns. A new regent will be proposed to the Diet by the
Cabinet in the place of the Grand Duke of Oldenburg in case the
regency appointed after the vacation of the throne should irom any
cause whatever become inoperative.

The present Duke of Brunswick is one of the Avealthiest of German
sovereigns, being in possession of vast private estates, including the
principality of Oels, in Silesia, and large domains in the district of
Glatz, in Prussia. It is reported that the Duke has bequeathed the

GERMANY — BRUNSWICK. I 5 "J

whole of these estates to the Emperor of Austria. The Duke's
civil list, amounting on the average to 1,000,000 mark, or 50,000/.,
per annum in recent years, is not set down in the budget, but is
paid out of a special fund, the ' Kammercasse,' the revenues of which
are derived from the State domains, and from the interest of an in-
vested capital of 3,000,000 marks.

Constitution. Revenue, and Population.

The Constitution of Brunswick bears date October 12, 1882,butwas
modified by the fundamental law of November 28, 1851. The legis-
lative power is vested in one Chamber, consisting of forty-six
members. Of these, twenty-one are elected by the highest-taxed
landed proprietors; three by the Protestant clergy; ten by the inha-
bitants of towns, and twelve by those of rural districts. The
Chamber meets every three years, and the deputies hold their man-
date for two sessions. The executive is represented by a responsible
Ministry, consisting of two departments, namely, the Ministry of
State and of Foreign Affairs, and the Ministry of the Interior.

The budget is voted by the Chamber for the period of three years.
For the period 1873 to 1875 the estimates of revenue per annum were
7,429,400 mark, or 1,371,470/., with an annual expenditure of
the same amount. Not included in the budget estimates, as already
stated, is the civil list of the Grand Duke. The public debt of the
duchy, at the commencement of 1874, was 65,490,000 mark, or
3,270,000/., four-fifths of which sum was contracted for the esta-
blishment of railways.

The duchy has an area of 1,526 English square miles, with a
population of 327,493 inhabitants, according to the census of De-
cember 1, 1875. There were 312,170 inhabitants at the census of
December 1, 1871, the increase in the four years 1871-75 being at
the high rate of l-26 per cent, per annum. At the census of
December 3, 1867, the population numbered 302,801, the increase
in the four years 1867-71 being at the rate of 0-73 per cent, per
annum. Nearly the whole of the inhabitants of the duchy are
members of the Lutheran Church.

I58 THE STATESMAN'S TEAK-BOOK, 1877-

X. SAXE-WEIMAR.
(Grossiierzogthum Sachsen- Weimar.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family-
Karl Alexander, Grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar, born June 24,
1818, the son of Grand-duke Karl Friedrich and of Grand-duchess
Marie, daughter of the late Czar Paul I. of Russia. Succeeded his
father, July 8, 1853 ; married, October 8, 1842, to Sophie, born
April 8, 1824, daughter of the late King Willem II. of the Nether-
lands. Issixe of the union are: — 1. Prince Karl August, heir-
apparent, born July 31, 1844; married August 26, 1873, to Princess
Pauline, born July 25, 1852, eldest daughter of Prince Hermann
of Saxe-Weimar. 2. Princess Marie, born January 20, 1849.
3. Princess Elisabeth, born February 28, 1854.

Sisters of the Grand-duke. — 1. Princess Marie, born February 3,
1808 ; married, May 26, 1827, to Prince Karl of Prussia. 2.
Princess Augusta, born September 30, 1811 : married, June 11,
1829, to Prince Wilhelm, now Emperor Wilhelm I. of Germany.

Cousins of the Grand-duke. — 1. Prince Eduard, born October 11,
1823, the son of the late Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, brother
of Grand-duke Karl Friedrich ; entered the British army ^ as
ensign, June 1, 1841; captain, May 19, 1846; major, June 20, 1854;
lieutenant-colonel in the Grenadier Guards and aide-de-camp to the
Queen, May 18, 1855; married, November 27, 1851, to Lady
Augusta Catherine, born January 14, 1827, daughter of the late
Charles Gordon-Lennox, fifth Duke of Richmond. 2. Prince Her-
mann, born August 4, 1825, brother of the preceding ; married, June
17, 1851, to Princess Augusta, born October 4, 1826, youngest
daughter of King Wilhelm I. of Wlirtemberg. Issue of the union are
two daughters and four sons. 3. Prince Gusta v, born June 28, 1827,
brother of the preceding ; major-general in the Austrian army ;
married in 'morganatic' union, February 14, 1870, to Signora
Pierina Marcochia, elevated to the rank of Freiin (Countess) von
Neupurg.

The family of the Grand-duke stands at the head of the Ernestine
or elder line of the princely houses of Saxony, which include Saxe-
Meiningen, Saxe-Altenburg, and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, while the
younger, or Albertine line, is represented by the Kings of Saxony.
Saxe-Weimar was formed into an independent duchy towards the
end of the sixteenth century, when Elector Johann Wilhelm of
Saxony divided his territory between his two sons, Friedrich Wilhelm
and Johann, giving the former Saxe-Altenburg and the latter Saxe-

GERMAN V — SAXE-WEIMAK. I 59

Weimar. At the Congress of Vienna a considerable increase of
territory, together with the title of Grand-duke, was awarded to
Duke Karl August, patron of German literature, and friend of Gothe
and Schiller.

The Grand-duke has a large private fortune, part of which he
obtained in dowry with his consort, Princess Sophie of the Nether-
lands. He has also a civil list of 840,000 mark, or 42,000/.,
amounting to nearly one-seventh of the revenues of Saxe-Weimar.

Constitution, Revenue, and Population.

The Constitution of the Grand-duchy was granted May 5, 1816;
but slightly altered by the law of October 15, 1849. According to
this charter the legislative power is vested in a House of Parliament
represented by one Chamber. It is composed of 31 members, of
whom ten are chosen by the proprietors of nobiliar estates ; ten by
the towns ; ten others by the inhabitants of rural districts, and one
by the Senate of the University of Jena. At the general election,
which takes place every seventh year, not only the representatives
themselves are chosen, but likewise a substitute for every member,
who has to take his place in case of illness, death, or prolonged absence.
The ten members for the nobility are elected directly by all proprietors
of Piitterguter, or noble estates, even ladies being alloAved to vote.
In the representation of towns and rural districts the mode of election
is indirect. The whole body of voters choose a certain number of
delegates, in the proportion of one to every fifty houses, and these
deputies elect the member for the place. The Chamber meets
every three years, and a standing committee of nine members continues
to sit during the adjournment.

The executive, acting under the orders of the Grand-duke, but
responsible to the representatives of the country, is divided into three
departments. The budget is granted by the Chamber for a period
of three years. That from 1875 to 1877 comprised an annual in-
come of 6,319,970 mark, or 315,998/., and an annual expenditure
of 6,283,190 mark, or 314,158/., leaving a surplus of 36,780 mark,
or 1,840/., for each year. The public debt amounted to 10,636,000
mark, or 531,800/., on January 1, 1874.

The Grand-duchy has an area of 1,421 English square miles,
with a population of 292,933 at the census of December 1, 1*75.
During the four years from 1871 to 1875 the increase of population
was at the rate of 0*58 per cent, per annum, while in the preceding
four years, from 1867 to 1871, the increase was at the rate of 0-29
per cent, per annum. The great majority of the inhabitants are
Protestants.

l60 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1677.

XI. MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ.
(Grosshebzogthdm Mecklenburg-Steelitz.)

Reigning Sovereign.

Friedrieh Wilhelm I., Grand-duke of Mecklenburg- Strelitz,
born Oct. 17, 1819, the son of Grand-duke Georg and of Princess
Marie of Hesse-Cassel ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his
father, Sept. 6, 1860; married, June 24, 1843, to Augusta, born
July 19, 1822, the daughter of the late Duke Adolphus of Cam-
bridge. Offspring of the union is a son, Prince Adolf Friedrieh, heir-
apparent, born July 22, 1848, Rittmeister in the cavalry of Prussia.

The reigning house' of Mecklenburg- Strelitz was founded, in
1701, by Duke Adolf Friedrieh, youngest son of Duke Adolf
Friedrieh II. of Mecklenburg- Schwerin. There being no law
of primogeniture at the time, the Diet was unable to prevent the
division of the country, which was protested against by subsequent
Dukes of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The Congress of Vienna per-
mitted Duke Karl Friedrieh of Mecklenburg-Strelitz to adopt
the title of Grand-duke, notwithstanding the exceedingly limited
extent of his territory. He is, however, one of the wealthiest of
German sovereigns, more than one-half of the country being his own
private property.

Constitution, Revenue, and Population.

The country is divided into two separate provinces, the first of
which, Stargard, has a Diet composed of landowners, while the
second, Ratzeburg, has no representative institutions whatever. The
Stargard Diet periodically joins the legislative assembly of Meck-
lenburg-Schwerin. Only the possession of a Rittergut, or knight's
estate, gives right to a seat in the Diet, to which the ' privileged '
towns may add, if called upon, seven deputies. There are sixty-two
Rittergut proprietors in the province of Stargard, only a small
number of whom, however, choose to take their seats.

The executive is entirely in the hands of the Grand-duke, and is
exercised by him through one ' Minister of State,' which appointment,
however, has at times been vacant for several years. Accounts of
public income and expenditure are never made known, and thi
whole state revenue forms the civil list of the Grand-duke.

The population, which, according to the census of December 1,

GERMANY — SAXE-MEININGEN, l6l

1875, numbered 95,684, is decreasing steadily, through emigration,
although there is a lesser density than in any other State of the
German Empire, only 95 inhabitants living on the square mile.
Between the last census period, 1 Si! 1-75, the decrease of population
was at the rate of 0'85 per cent, per annum, while during the
previous period, 1867-71, the decrease was at the rate of 0.46 per
annum. The area of the country is 997 English square miles, the
ownership of which territory is divided between the sovereign, the
feudal proprietors, and the corporations of certain towns, in the
following manner: — 527 square miles belong to the Grand-duke ; 853
to the titled and untitled nobles, and 117 to the town corporations

XII. SAXE-MEININGEN.

(Herzogthum Sachsen-Meiningen.")
Reigning Sovereign.

Georg II,, Duke of Saxe-Meiningen, born April 2, 1826, the son
■of Duke Bernhard I. Succeeded, on the abdication of his father,
September 20, 1866. Married, May 18, 1850, to Princess Charlotte
•of Prussia, who died March 30, 1855. Offspring of this union are
a son and a daughter: — Bernhard, born April 1, 1851 ; and Marie
Elizabeth, born September 23, 1853. Married, in second nuptials,
October 23, 1858, to Princess Feodora of Hohenlohe-Langenburg,
born July 7, 1839, who died February 10, 1872. Offspring of
this second marriage are two sons, Ernst, born September 27, 1859,
and Friedrich, born October 12, 1861. Married, for the third time,
in ' morganatic ' union, March 18, 1863, to Fraulein Ellen Franz,
elevated to the rank of Freifrau (Countess) von Heldburg.

The line of Saxe-Meiningen was founded by Duke Bernhard, third
son of Ernst I. of Saxony, surnamed the Pious, the friend and com-
panion in arms of King Gustaf Adolf of Sweden. The duchy was
only one-third its present size up to the year 1826, when, by the
extinction of the ancient family of Saxe-Gotha, the territories of
Hildburghausen and Saalfeld fell to the present duke. Pie has a
civil list of 380,000 mark, or 19,000/., paid out of the produce of
the State domains.

Constitution, Revenue, and Population.

The charter of the duchy bears date August 23, 1829. It provides
for a legislative organisation, consisting of one Chamber of twenty-

1 62 THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

four representatives. Eight of these are elected by the proprietors
of nobiliar estates; eight by the inhabitants of towns, and eight by
those of rural districts. The Chamber meets every three years, and
new elections take place every six. A small property qualification
is requisite to become a member.

The ministry, which is responsible to the Chamber, consists of
four departments, namely, of the Ducal House ; of the Interior
and Finance ; of Justice ; and of Education and Ecclesiastical
Affairs.

The budget estimates tor the two financial years 1875-76 stated
the revenue at 8,800,000 mark, or 190,000Z., and the expenditure at
the same amount. Nearly one- half of the public revenue is
drawn from State domains, formerly belonging to the ducal family.
The chief items of expenditure are the interest of the public
debt, and the civil list of the duke ; which latter, however, is not
entered in the budget estimates, but paid out of the revenue of the
domains as a first charge thereon. The debt, at the end of 1874,
amounted to 10,528,320 mark, or 526,416/., exclusive of a state
guarantee on 8,000,000 mark, or 400,O00Z. employed in the
construction of a line of railway through the duchy.

The area of the duchy extends over 983 English square miles,
with a population, according to the census of Dec. 1, 1875, of
194,494 inhabitants. During the four years 1871-75 the population
increased at the rate of 0-80 per cent, per annum, while during the
preceding four years, 1867-71, the increase was at the rate of 0'88
per cent, per annum. The vast majority of the inhabitants of the
duchy are Protestants.

XIII. ANHALT.

(Herzogthuii Anhalt.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Friedrich, Duke of Anhalt, born April 29, 1831, the son of
Duke Leopold of Anhalt, and of Princess Friederike of Prussia.
Succeeded to the throne at the death of his father, May 22,
1871; married, April 22, 1854, to Princess Antoinette of Saxe-
Altenburg, born April 17, 1838. Offspring of the marriage are
four sona and two daughters ; namely, 1. Prince Leopold, born July

GERMANY ANHALT. 1 63

18, 1855; 2. Prince Friedrich, born August 10. 1856; Princess
Elisabeth, born Sept. 7, 1857; 4. Prince Eduard, born April is,
1861 ; 5. Prince Aribert, born June 18, 1861; and 6. Princess
Alexandra, born April 4, 1868.

The Dukes of Anhalt trace their origin to Bernhard, son of the
celebrated Albert the Bear. Margrave of Brandenburg, who died in
1211. The family, in the course of time, split into numerous
brandies, now reduced to the present line. At the establishment of
the Germanic Confederation, in 1815, there were three reigning Dukes
of Anhalt. namely ot Anhalt- Cothen, Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-
Dessau. The first of these lines became extinct in 1847, and the
second on August 19, 1863, leaving the former house of Anhalt-
Dessau the sole heir of the family territory. In 1806, the Princes
of Anhalt took the title of Dnkes, on joining the Confederation of
the Rhine. The Duke of Anhalt has a civil list of 580,000 mark,
or 29,000/., including the allowances to the younger members of
the house. The family has, besides, very large private estates
in Saxony. Eastern Prussia, and the Crimea, embracing an area
of more than 200 square miles.

Constitution, Revenue, and Population.

The duchy has a Constitution, proclaimed Sept. 17, 1859, and
modified by a decree of Sept. 17, 1863, which gives legislative power
to a Diet composed of 36 members, of whom 12 are representatives
of the nobility and great landowners, 12 of the towns, and 12 of the
rural districts. The executive power is entirely in the hands of the
duke, who governs through a Minister of State.

The financial accounts of the years 1874 stated the public
income at 6,765,000 mark, or 338,250/., and the expenditure at
6,829,500 mark or 311,475/. More than a third of the revenue is de-
rived from State property, and the rest chiefly from indirect taxes.
The largest item in the expenditure is the civil list of the ducal
house. The public debt amounted, on Jan. 1, 1874, to 7,445,417
mark, or 372,270Z.

The duchy comprises an area of 869 English square miles, with a
population of 213,689, according to the census of December 1, 1875.
In the four years, 1871-75, the increase of population was at the
rate of 1*23 per cent, per annum, while during the preceding four
years, 1867-71, the increase was at the rate' of 0'80 per a at. per
annum. Nearly the whole of the inhabitants beldag fc] rmed

Protestant Church.

164 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

XIV. SAXE-CGBima-GOTHA.

(Herzogthum Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha .)

Pieigning- Sovereign and Family,

Ernst II., Duke of Saxe-Goburg-Gotba, born June 21, 1818,
the son of Duke Ernst I. of Saxe- Saalfeld-Coburg and of Princess
Louise of Saxe-Altenburg. Studied philosophy and political
economy at the University of Bonn, 1834-36 ; entered into the
military service of Saxony, 1836; travelled in Spain, Portugal,
Italy, and Northern Africa, 1838-40. Succeeded to the throne, at
the death of his father, Jan. 29, 1844. Married, May 3, 1842,
to Princess Alexandrine, born Dec. 6, 1820, the daughter of the late
Grand-duke Leopold of Baden.

The Duke being childless, heir-apparent is his nephew, Prince
Alfred, duke of Edinburgh, born Aug. 6, 1844, the son of Prince
Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, and of Victoria I., Queen of Great
Britain. (See page 189.)

The immediate ancestor of the reigning family of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha, formerly called Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, and previously Saxe-
Coburg, was Prince Albrecht, second son of Duke Ernst, surnamed
the Pious, who died in 1699. A dispute about his heritage lasted
through three generations, and was only settled, towards the end of
the eighteenth century, by a re-distribution of the territories of the
Saxon princes. A new division took place in 1826, on the extinction of
the line of Saxe-Gotha, and it was then that the house of Saxe-Saalfeld-
Coburg exchanged its name for that of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. The
family is in possession of a large private fortune, accumulated chiefly
by Duke Ernst I. of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, whom the Congress of
Vienna made a present of the principality of Lichtenberg, in return for
his services as commander of the fifth corps cFarmee in the year 1813.
This principality he sold, Sept. 22, 1834, to the King of Prussia, for
a sum of two million thaler, and other advantages. Besides a
vast private income, Duke Ernst II. has a comparatively large civil
list. It is paid out of the revenue of the domains, and amounts to
100,000 thaler, or 15,000/., at a minimum, and more in case these
estates produce above 134,079 thaler, or 20,112/. a year. The
proprietorship of these domains, which, according to the decision
of the highest legal authorities in Germany, belong to the State
and not to the reigning family, gave rise for a time to ani-
mated disputes between the Government and the legislature of
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. A compromise was finally arrived at, by the
terms of which the reigning Duke has a civil list of 100,000 thalers

GERMANY — SAXE-COBURG-GOTIi A. I 6^

out of the income of the domains, and the surplus of 34,079 thalers

is paid into the public exchequer, while the rest is divided between
the Duke and the State.

Constitution, Revenue, and Population,

The Staatsgrundgesetz, or fundamental law of the duchy, pro-
claimed May 3, 1852, vests the legislative power in two separate
assemblies, one for the province of Coburg and the other for the
province of Gotha. The Coburg Chamber consists of eleven, and
that for Gotha of nineteen members, chosen in as many, electoral
divisions, by the indirect vote of all the inhabitants. Every man above
the age of twenty-five, Avho pajrs taxes, has a vote, and any citizen
above thirty may be elected a deputy. New elections take place
every four years. The two assemblies meet separately every year;
and every second year they unite into one Chamber, to which the
Coburg Diet deputes seven, and that of Gotha fourteen members.
The ' United Parliament ' meets alternately at the town of
Coburg and at Gotha, and has to decide all legislative measures
bearing upon questions affecting the whole duchy, while the
provincial assemblies occupy themselves with affairs of a more local
nature.

The budget is voted for the term of four years, and in the financial
accounts a distinction is made between Crown-revenue, derived from
the domains, and State-revenue. In recent years the Crown-revenue
produced an annual surplus of from 25,000/. to 20,000/., divided in
the proportion above mentioned between the Duke and the public
exchequer. In the budget estimates for 1873-77, the Crown-revenue
for Coburg was set down at 223,700 florins, or 18,642/., and that
for Gotha at 007,083 thaler, or 91,002/., per annum. The annual
State-revenue and expenditure for the period 1873-77 was fixed
for Coburg at -LS3.245 florins, or 40,270/., and for Gotha at 710,000
thaler, or 102,400/. The public debt, in 1874, amounted to 173,509
florins tor Coburg, and to 471.443 thaler for Gotha, being a total of
85,17.'./.

The area of the duchy is 816 English square miles, of which
230 belong to the province of Coburg, and 586 to Gotha. At
the census of December 1, 1875, the total population numbered
1<S2,073, the increase during the four years, 1871-75 amounting to
1-17 percent, per annum. In the preceding four years, 1807-71
the increase was at. the rate of 0'80 per cent, per annum. Nearly
the whole of the population are Protestants.

1 66 THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

XV. SAXE-ALTENBURG.

(Herzogthum Sachsen-Altenburg.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Ernst, Duke of Saxe-Altenburg, born September 16, 1826,
the son of Duke Georg of Saxe-Altenburg and Princess Marie of
Mecklenburg- Sell werin. Succeeded to the throne, at the death of
his father, August 3, 1853; married, April 28, 1853, to Princess
Agnes, born June 24, 1824, the daughter of Duke Leopold of
Anhalt-Dessau. Issue of the \inion is a daughter, Princess Marie,
born August 2, 1854 ; married April 19, 1873, to Prince Albrecht
of Prussia. Heir-apparent is the only brother of the Duke,
Prince Moritz, born October 24, 1829, and married, October
15, 1862, to Princess Augusta of Saxe-Meiningen, by whom he has
issue four daughters and a son, Ernst, born Aug. 31, 1871.

The reigning family of Saxe-Altenburg, formerly called Saxe-
Hildburghausen, dates its origin from the year 1482, when the
separation took place between the Ernestine and Albertine lines of
Saxony. Up to the year 1826, Saxe-Altenburg formed part of
Saxe-Gotha, and was then, by a general exchange of territories
among the Saxon princes, made over to the Hiklburghausen family.
The -Duke has a civil list of 143,000 thaler, or 21,450/., amounting
to above one-sixth of the revenue of the Avhole country. On
December 20, 1862, the Chamber raised the ducal income to this
sum — from 128,000 thaler, or 19,200Z., which it had been previously
— on condition that the whole of the domains, formerly belonging to
the reigning family, should be made over definitely to the State.

Constitution, Revenue, and Population.

The Constitution bears date April 29, 1831, but was altered at
subsequent periods. It vests the legislative authority in a Chamber
composed of twenty-four representatives, of which eight are chosen
by the Eitterschaft, or land-holding nobility, eight by the inhabi-
tants of towns, and eight by those of rural districts. The Chamber
meets every three years, and the deputies are elected for two sessions.

The executive is divided into three depai'tn tents, namely, of the
Ducal House ; the Interior ; of Justice ; and of Finance. The
budget is voted for three years, the last period of 1872-74 exhibit-
ing an annual revenue of 878,904 thaler, or 131,835/., and
an expenditure of 878,888 thaler, or 131,832/. Very nearly two-
thirds of the revenue are derived from the State domains, and the
remainder from indirect taxes. The public debt at the commence-

GERMANY WALDECK. 1 67

merit of 1872 amounted to 1,047,352 thaler, or 157,1032., a
moiety of which consisted in notes, not bearing interest.

Saxe-Altenburg has an area of 509 English square miles, with a
population, according to the census of Dec. 1, 1875, of 145,84 1
inhabitants. The increase o£ population was at the rate of 0-65 per
cent, per annum in the four years 1871-75, and at the rate of 0-12
per cent, per annum in the four years 1867-71. The inhabitants
of the duchy are of Slavonic origin, and the customs and dress of
the nationality are still prevailing in the rural districts, although
the Slavonic dialect has disappeared since the middle of the
sixteenth century. The peasants are reputed to be more wealthy
than in any other part of Germany, and the rule prevails among
them of the youngest son becoming the heir to the landed property
of the father. Estates are kept for generations in the same family,
and seldom parcelled out. The rural population, however, has been
•declining in numbers for the last thirty years.

XVI. WALDECK.

(FiJRSTENTHUM WALDECK.)

Reigning Sovereign.

Georg Victor, Prince of Waldeck, born Jan. 14, 1831, the son
of Prince Georg Friedrich and Princess Emma of Anhalt-Bern-
burg ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his father, under the
guardianship of his mother, May 14, 1845 ; married, Sept. 20,
1853, to Princess Helena, born Aug. 12, 1831, daughter of the
late Duke Wilhelm of Nassau. Offspring of the union are five
daughters and one son, namely: — 1. Pauline, born Oct. 19, 1855.
2. Marie, born May 23, 1857. 3. Emma, born Aug. 2, 1858.
4. Helena, born Feb. 17, 1861. 5. Friedrich, heir-apparent, born
Jan. 20, 1865. 6. Elizabeth, born September 6, L873.

The Prince has a civil list of 245,000 thaler, or •'!<;, 735J., being
more than one half of the total revenue of the principality.

After the war between Austria and Prussia, a1 the end of L866,
Prince Georg Victor made an offer to abdicate the throne in
favour of the King of Prussia, but the proposal was not, accepted
by the latter. Consequent upon further negotiations, a 'Treaty
of Accession' (Accessionsvertrag) was signed by the Prince on
July 10, 1867, by which he surrendered his chief sovereign
rights to King Wilhelm I., retaining merely nominal power.

1 68 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Constitution and Population.

The charter of the principality was granted Aug. 17, 1852. It
provides for a legislative assembly of forty-one members, of which
number eighteen are chosen by the nobility, thirteen by the in-
habitants of towns, and ten by the people of the rural districts.
On October 22, 1867, the assembly approved the ' Treaty of
Accession ' concluded between the reigning Prince and King
Wilhelm I., which made the administration of the country over
to Prussia, restricting the authority of the representatives to
purely local affairs.

The principality embraces an area of 466 English square miles,
with a popvdation, according to the census of December 1, 1875, of
54,673. At the preceding census, of Dec. 1, 1871, the inhabitants
numbered 56,224, so that there was a decrease of 1,551, being at the
rate of 0"70 per cent, per annum. In the four years, 1867-71, the
decrease was at the rate of 056 per annum.

XVII. LIPPE.

(FtJRSTENTHUM LlPPE.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Waldemar, Prince of Lippe, born April 18, 1824, the second
son of Prince Leopold, and of Princess Emilie of Schwarzburg-Son-
dershausen ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his brother,
Dec. 10, 1875; married, Nov. 9, 1858, to Princess Sophie, born
August 7, 1834, daughter of the late Margrave "Wilhelm of Baden.
Heir-apparent is the Prince's brother, Prince Hermann, born Jan.
16, 1831, formerly captain in the Hanoverian army.

The house of Lippe is a younger branch of the ancient family
of Lippe, formed in the latter part of the sixteenth century. The
Prince has a civil list amounting to about 10,000/., which is stated
to be insufficient for the expenses of the court. Owing to finan-
cial distress, the late Prince, on May 17, 1850, sold a part of his
territory, the Lippstadt, to Prussia, for a life-annuity of 9,000
thaler, 'or 1,350/.

Constitution, Revenue, and Population.

A charter of rights was granted to Lippe by decree of July 6,
] 836. Ii includes a representative organisation ; but nearly the whole
legislative as well as executive power remains in the hands of the

GERMANY — SGHWABZBUEG-EUDOLSTADT. 1 69

Prince. The Chamber of Deputies consists of twenty-one members,
seven of which are elected by the territorial nobility, and the other
fourteen by the inhal dtants of towns and rural districts. The discus-
sions are kept secret. To the Chamber belongs the right of voting, in
part, the supplies ; otherwise its functions are consultative. The
Prince governs through one irresponsible minister.

The public revenue for the year 1874 amounted to 664,161 mark,
or 33,208/., and the expenditure to 733,524 mark, or 36,67(1/.,
leaving a deficit of 69,363 mark or 3,408/. The public debt, on
December 31, 1874. was 1,400,000 mark, or 70,000/.

The population, at the census of December 1, 1875, numbered
114,254 souls, living on an area of 445 English square miles. At
the preceding census of Dec. 1, 1871, the inhabitants numbered
111,135, showing an increase at the rate of 0'69 per cent, per
annum.

XVIII. SCHWARZBURG--RTJDOLSTADT.

(FiJRSTENTHUM SCHWAUZBURG-RUDOLSTADT.)

Reigning Sovereign.

Georg, Prince of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, born Nov. 23, 1838;
succeeded to the throne at the death of his father, Prince Albert,
November 26, 1869. Heir-apparent of the Prince is his cousin,
Prince Gunther, born June 3, 1860.

The Sehwarzburg-Piiidolstadt line is a younger branch of the
house of Schwarzburg, being descended from Johann Gunther, who
died in the middle of the seventeenth century. The present
sovereign has a civil list of 240,000 mark, or 12,000/., exclusive of
the revenue of the State domains, property of the reigning family.

Constitution, Revenue, and Population.

The fundamental law of the principality is the constitution of
March 21, 1854, modified November 16, 1870. For all legislative
measures the Prince has to obtain the consent of a Chamber of Re-
presentatives of sixteen members, four of whom are elected by the
highest-assessed inhabitants, and the rest returned by the general
population. The de] 111 L< S meet e\ ery three years, ami their mandate
expires at the end of two sessions.

17° THE STATESMAN'S YEAK-BOOK, 1877.

There are triennial budgets. For the period 1873-75, the public
income was settled at 2,641,047 florins, or 220,087/., and the ex-
penditure for the three years was fixed by the Chamber at
2,601,536 florins, or 216,795/. Former financial periods showed
small deficits. There is a public debt of 1,848,000 florins, or
154,000/.

The population numbered 76,676 at the census of December 1,
1875, living on an area of 340 English square miles. From 1871
to 1875 the increase of population was at the rate of 0-38, and from
1867 to 1871 at the rate of 0-14 per cent, per annum.

XIX. SCHWARZBTJRG-SONDERSHAUSEN.

(Ft:R STENT HUM SCHWARZBURG-SoNDERSHAUSEX.)

Reigning Sovereign.

Giinther II., Prince of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, born Sept.
24, 1801 ; succeeded to the throne, in consequence of the abdication
of his father, Prince Giinther I., Aug. 19, 1835 ; married, in first
nuptials, in 1827, to Princess Marie of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,
who died in 1833 ; and, secondly, in 1835, to Princess Mathilda of
Hohenlohe - Oehringen, from whom he was divorced in 1852.
Issue of the first marriage are: — 1. Princess Elisabeth, born
March 22, 1829. 2. Prince Karl, born Aug. 7, 1830; colonel in
the service of Prussia ; married June 12, 1869, to Princess Marie
of Saxe-Altenburg. 3. Prince Leopold, born July 2, 1832.

The princes of the House of Schwarzburg belong to a very ancient
and wealthy family, which gave an emperor to Germany in the four-
teenth century. It was partly on account of this lineage that the
small territory of the house was left undisturbed at the Congress of
Vienna, instead of being ' mediatised,' like that of a number of other
formerly sovereign princes. The civil list of the Prince of Schwarz-
burg-Sondershausen amounts to 440,000 thalers, or 22,000/., being
nearly one-fourth of the revenue of the country. The Prince is
moreover, in possession of very large income from private estates in
Bohemia and Mecklenburg, purchased mostly by the late sovereign,
Giinther I., who carried on a monopoly as brewer in his dominions.

Constitution, Revenue, and Population.

The principality has a constitution, granted Julv 5, 1857, under
which restricted legislative rights are given to a Diet composed of

GEKMANT — EEUSS-SCHLEIZ. 1 7 1

15 members, 5 of whom are appointed by the Prince, 5 nominated
by certain highly-taxed landowners and others, and 5 elected by the
inhabitants in general. The sole executive and part of the legisla-
tive power is in the hands of the Prince, who exercises his authority
through a government divided into three departments.

The budget accounts are settled for the term of three years. In
the period 1872-75, the annual revenue amounted to 1,916,190
mark, or 95,809/., and the annual expenditure to 1,903,002 mark,
or 95,050Z. There is a public debt of 920,000 florins, or 76,660Z.

The area of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen embraces 31S English
scpiare miles, containing a population, according to the census of
Dec. 1, 1875, of 67,480 souls. The census of 1871 gave the number
of inhabitants at 67,191, showing an increase at the rate of O'll per
cent, per annum. The whole population is Protestant.

XX. EEUSS-SCHLEIZ.

(FfJRSTENTHUM ReUSS-ScHLEIz).

Reigning Sovereign.

Heinrich. XIV., Prince of Reuss-Schleiz, born May 28, 1832, the
son of Prince Heinrich LXVIL, and of Princess Adelaide ; suc-
ceeded to the throne at the death of his father, July 10, 1867 ;
married, Feb. 6, 1858, to Princess Louise of Wurtemberg. Off-
spring of the marriage are two children, Heinrich, born Nov. 10,
1858 ; and Elisabeth, born Oct. 27, 1859.

The reigning house of Reuss-Schleiz forms a younger branch of
the Reuss family. As in Reuss-Greiz (see p. 173), the greater part
of the territory of the principality is the private property of the
reigning familv.

All the princes are called Heinrich, and to distinguish them,
they have numbers attached to their names, beginning and em
in each century. Number one is given to the first prince of the
branch born in the century, and the numbers iollow in flic < nli r l'
birth until the century is finished, when they begin again with
number one. Thus the late prince, who was born in 1789 and died
in 1867, was Heinrich LXVII., and his son, the reigning prince,
born in 1832, is Heinrich XIV., being respectively the 67th and
14th prince of Reuss-Schleiz, born in the 18th and L9th centuries.

172 THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Constitution, Revenue, and Population.

The principality has a constitution, proclaimed Nov. 30, 1849,
and modified April 14, 1852, and June 20, 1856. Under it re-
stricted legislative rights are granted to a Diet of nineteen mem-
bers, of -whom four are elected by the chief landowners, and the
remainder by the inhabitants in general. The Prince has the sole
executive and part of the legislative power. In the administration
of the State a cabinet of three members acts under his direction.
The public income was 729,000 mark, or 36,480/., in the year
18'/ 4, with an expenditure of the same amount. There is a public
debt of 2,000,550 mark, or 100,027/., nearly one-half consisting of
paper money.

The census of December 1, 1875, gave a popxilation of 92,375,
on an area of 297 English square miles. On December 1, 1871,
the population numbered 89,032, showing an increase at the rate of
0-92 per cent, per annum. All the inhabitants are Protestanfes.

XXI. SCHAUMBUPG-LIPPE.

(FuRSTENTHUM SCHAUMBURG-LlPPE.)

E::gning Sovereign.

Adolf, Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, born Aug. 1, 1817, the
son of Prince Georg ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his
father, Nov. 21, 1860; married, Oct. 25, 1844, to Princess
Hermina, born Sept. 29, 1827, daughter of the late Prince Georg of
Waldeck. There are offspring: — 1. Hermina, born Oct. 5, 1845.
2. Georg, born Oct. 10, 1846. 3. Hermann, born May 19, 1848.
4. Ida, born July 28, 1852. 5. Otto, born Sept. 13, 1854. 6.
Adolf, born July 20, 1859.

The reigning house of Lippe is descended from a count of the
same name, who lived in the sixteenth century, acquiring some
small territorial possessions in Westphalia. The civil list of the
reigning Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe amounts to 25,000/., or about
three-fourths of the revenue of the whole principality.

Constitution, Revenue, and Population.

The principality has a constitution, dated November 17, 1868,
under which there is a legislative Diet of 15 members, two of whom
are appointed by the Prince, one nominated by the nobility, one by
the clergy, one by certain functionaries, and the rest elected by the
people. To the Prince belongs part of the legislative and all the
executive authority. He acts through a minister, called the Presi-
dent of the Government.

GERMANY RETTSS-GEEIZ. I "3

The financial accounts for 1874 stated the revenue at 618,659
mark, or 30,912/., and the expenditure at 489,937 mark, or 24,496Z.
There was in 1874 a public debt of 1,400,000 mark, or 70,000/.,
consisting almost entirely of paper money.

The last census, of Dec. 1, 1875, gave a population of 32,941
souls, on an area of 212 English square miles. From 1871 to 1875
the inhabitants increased at the rate of 0-G8 per cent, per annum.

XXII. REUSS-GREIZ.

(F&RSTENTBLUM ReUSS- GrEIZ. )

Reigning Sovereign.

Heinrich XXII., Prince of Reuss-Greiz, born March 28, 1846,
the son of Prince Heinrich XXI., and of Princess Caroline of Hesse-
Homburg ; succeeded to the throne at the death of his father,
November 8, 1859 ; assumed the government, on coming of age,
March 28, 1867. Married, October 8, 1872, to Princess Ida, born
July 28, 1852, daughter of the Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe.

The princely family of Reuss traces its descent to the Emperor
Heinrich I. of Germany, surnamed ' The Fowler,' who died in 936. All
the heads of the house, ever since the commencement of the eleventh
century, have been called Heinrich. At first the succeeding genera-
tions were distinguished by descriptive appellations, such as ' The
Rich', ' The Stout,' ' The Valiant,' and so forth ; but subsequently
they adopted numbers. In the year 1701 it was settled, in a family
council, that the figures should not run higher than a hundred,
beginning afterwards again at one. The present sovereign of
Reuss-Greiz has no civil list. He is very wealthy, the greater part
of the territory over which he reigns being his private property.

Constitution, Revenue, and Population.

The constitution, bearing date March 28, 1867, provides for
a legislative body of 12 members, 3 nominated by the sovereign,
2 by the nobility, 3 elected by towns, and 4 by rural districts.
The public revenue, balanced by the expenditure, amounted
to 489,894 mark, or 24,494/., in 1874. There is a public debt of
1,309,500 mark, or 65,475/.

The population of the principality amounted, at the census of
Dec. 1, 1875, to 46,985 souls, living on an area of 148 English
square miles. At the census of 1871 the population numbered
45,091, showing an increase at the rate I'd.'! per cent, per annum.

174 THE statesman's tear-book, 1877.

XXIII. HAMBURG.

(Freie Stadt Hamburg.)

Constitution and Revenue.

The present constitution ot the state and free city of Hamburg-
was published on the 28th September, 1860, and came in force on
the 1st of January, 18G1. According to the terms of this funda-
mental law, the government — Staatsgewalt — is intrusted, in common,
to two Chambers of Representatives, the Senate and the Burgerschaft,
or House of Burgesses. The Senate, which exercises chiefly, but
not entirely, the executive power, is composed of eighteen members,
one-half of which number must have studied jurisprudence, while
seven out of the remaining nine must belong to the class of merchants.
The members of the Senate are elected for life by the House of
Burgesses ; but a senator is at liberty to retire at the end of six years.
A first and second burgomaster, chosen annually in secret ballot,
preside over the meetings of the Senate. No burgomaster can be
in office longer than two years ; and no member of the Senate is
allowed to hold any public office whatever. The House of
Burgesses consists of 192 members, 84 of whom are elected in secret
ballot by the votes of all tax -paying citizens. Of the remaining 108
members, 48 are chosen, also by ballot, by the owners of house pro-
perty in the city valued at 3,000 marks, or 187/., over and above the
amount for which they are taxed ; while the other 60 members are
deputed by various guilds corporations, and courts of justice. AH
the members of the House of Burgesses are chosen for six years, in
such a manner that every three years new elections take place for
one-half the number. The House of Burgesses is represented, in
permanence, by a Burger- Ausschuss, or Committee of the House, con-
sisting of twenty depxities, of whom no more than five are allowed to
be members of the legal profession. It is the special duty of the
committee to watch the proceedings of the Senate, and the general
execution of the articles of the constitution, including the laws voted
by the House of Burgesses. In all matters of legislation, except
taxation, the Senate has a veto; and, in case of a constitutional
conflict, recourse is had to an assembly of arbitrators, chosen in
equal parts from the Senate and the House of Burgesses.

The revenue of the State is mainly derived from direct taxes,
chief among them an income-tax, the amount of which upon each
contributor is left to self- assessment. Disbursements for public

GERMANY HAMBURG. 1 7 5

works, including the maintenance of free and unobstructed naviga-
tion on the river Elbe — the jurisdiction over which belongs entirely
to Hamburg, although the river flows from the port to its mouth
through the territories of Prussia — form the principal part of the
expenditure. The following table gives, in pounds sterling, the
sources of revenue and branches of expenditure of the State during
the year 1874 : — ■

Sources of Revenue, 1874. £

Domains and State lottery .... 241,552

Stamps and taxes 685,629

Official Fees (Gebiihren) .... 107,144
Miscellaneous Receipts .... 2,200 .

Total revenue . . . 1,036,565

Branches of Expenditure, 1874. £

Seuate, Magistrates, and Municipal Council . 44.056

Interest on State debt ..... 304,117

Administration of Finance .... 69.462

Trade and Navigation 26,397

Board of Works 193.600

Education and Public Charities . . . 151,573

Justice and Police 163,074

Military and Foreign Affairs . . . 3,701

Contribution to Imperial expenditure . . 118,411

Extraordinary disbursements . . . 22,169

Total expenditure . . .1,097,014

It will be seen that the revenue being 1,036,505/., and the ex-
penditure 1,097,014, there was a deficit of 60,489/. in the year 1874.
The deficit was covered by the surplus of former years.

For the privilege of remaining a ' Free Port,' and exempt from
the customs of the Zollverein, Hamburg has to pay an annual sum,
assessed for the year 1874 at 102,300/., equal to a charge of 7s. 6(/.
per head of population.

The public debt of Hamburg on the 1st of January, 1875,
amounted to 12,838,400 mark, or 6,419,200/. The debt was in-
curred chiefly for the construction of public works.

A considerable part of this debt was incurred after the great
fire in 1842, and spent in rebuilding the city on a new plan.

Population and Commerce.

The state embraces a territory of 148 English square miles,
with a population, according to the census of December 1, 1875,
of 388,6lS inhabitants. Included in the census returns were two
battalions of Prussian soldiers, forming the garrison of Hamburg.
The state consists of three divisions, viz. the city proper with its
suburbs, the district of Geest, and the townships of Bergedorf and

I76 THE STATESMAN'S TEAK-BOOK, 1877.

Kitzebiittel, the population of each of which districts was as follows
on December 1 , 1875 : — inhabitants

City of Hamburg, with suburbs .... 345,801
Rural districts and Bergedorf .... 35,888

Cuxhaven and Eitzebiittel 6,929

Total 388,618

The increase of population has been very considerable since
the census of 1867. In the four years from 1867 to 1871 the
population of the State increased at the high rate of 2-59 per cent,
per annum, and in the subsequent four years, from 1871 to 1875,
at the still higher rate of 3-41 per cent, per annum. A large stream
of the German emigration to America — which, however, has been
rapidly declining in recent years — flows through Hamburg. The
number of emigrants was 47,294 in 1869 ; 32,556 in 1870 : 42,224
in 1871 ; 74,406 in 1872; 69,176 in 1873; 44,443 in 1874, and
31,810 in 1875. Of the emigrants of 1875, there went 18,782 to
the United States. But in the same year 9,143 persons returned to
Hamburg from Transatlantic countries. (See p. 109 ; and Bremen,
p. 179.)

The commercial intercourse of the United Kingdom with Ham-
burg is very important, embracing more than one-half of the total
commerce Avith Germany, and more than nine-tenths of that of the
three Free, or 'Hanse Towns.' (See pp. 184-86.)

The total number of vessels which entered the port of Hamburg in
the year 1875 was 5,262, with an aggregate tonnage of 2,120,438.
The vessels entering with cargoes under the British flag numbered
1,998, with a tonnage of 916,836, and cargoes valued at 22,000,000/.;
and the vessels which cleared, with cargoes, under the British flag,
numbered 1,267, with a tonnage of 576,466, and cargoes valued at
9,500,000Z.

The total number of vessels which belonged to the port of
Hamburg, was as follows on Jan. 1, 1876 : —

Ocean steamers .....
River a nd tug steamers ....
Sailing vessels .....

Total ....

— —

Number

Tonnage

102

326

89,734

1,200

129,604

444

220,538

At the commencement of 1871, the number of vessels belonging
to Hamburg was 439, with an aggregate tonnage of 184,496, so that
in the four years there was an increase of 36,042 in tonnage.
The mercantile navy of Hamburg was more than eight times
as large as that of the kingdom of Belgium, and nearly double, in
tonnage, to that of Denmark and Belgium together, in the year 1876.

GERMANY LUBECK. 1 77

XXIV. LUBECK.

(Freie Stadt Lubeck.)

Constitution, Revenue, and Population.

The free city and state of Lubeck is governed according to the
constitution of Dec. 29, 1851. The main features of this charter
are two representative bodies — -the Senate, exercising the executive,
and the Biirgerschaft, or House of Burgesses, exercising the legislative
authority. The Senate is composed of fourteen members, elected for
life, and presided over by two burgomasters, who hold office for two
years each, and retire in rotation. There are 120 members in the
House of Burgesses, chosen by all citizens who are members of any
of the twelve colleges, or guilds of the town. A committee of thirty
burgesses, presided over by a chairman elected for two years, ha
the duty of representing the legislative assembly in the intervals of
the ordinary sessions, and of carrying on all active business. The
House of Burgesses has the initiative in ail measures relative to the
public expenditure, foreign treaties, and general legislation ; while
the Senate, entrusted chiefly with the executive government, has
also to give its sanction to the passing of every new law.

The high court of appeal for the three Free Cities of Germany,
reorganised by treaty of Nov. 30, 1866, after the incorporation of
Frankfort-on-the-Main with Prussia, is established at Lubeck. It
is composed at present, under a convention signed July 2, 1872, of
a President, nominated by the Senates of the three Free Cities, and
six councillors, three of whom are chosen by Hamburg, two by
Bremen, and one by Lubeck. The supervision of the Court is in
the Senate of the three cities, passing in rotation from one to the
other en the 22nd July of every year. Hamburg has the term ending
July 22, 1875.

The public revenue for the year 1874 amounted to 2,272,214
mark, or 118,610/., and the expenditure to the same amount.
Nearly one-third of the revenues are derived from public domains,
chiefly forests; another third from excise duties; and the resl
mostly from direct taxation. Of the expenditure, one-hall" is for
the interest and reduction of the public debt, the latter amounting,
at the commencement of 1875, to 22,892,460 mark, or 1,144,623/.
Bather more than one-fifth of the public liabilities were contracted
in 1806, at the time of the French occupation; while the rest con-
sist mainly of a 4% loan of l<Sf>o. and a 3g% loan of 1863.

According to the census of December 1, 1875, the state com-

178 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

prises a territory of 127 square miles, with a population of
56,912, including a Prussian garrison. The city proper had
39,743, and the rural districts, composed of scattered portions of
territory surrounded by Prussia and Mecklenburg, 12,415 inhabi-
tants at the date of the census operation. In the four years from
1871 to 1875, the population increased at the rate of 2'18 per cent,
per annum, and in the preceding four years, from 1867 to 1871, at
the rate of 1"47 per cent, per annum.

Lubeck possessed, at the commencement of 1875, forty-six
sea-going vessels, of 8,556 tons, including twenty-four steamers,
of 4,453 tons. In the year 1875, there entered the port of Lubeck
1,923 vessels, of 329,700 tons, and there cleared 1,915 vessels, of
329,700 tons. The number of vessels arriving under the British
flag in 1875 was 39, of an aggregate tonnage of 10,500. The direct
trade of Lubeck is chiefly with Russia, Sweden and Norway, Den-
mark, and Great Britain. .Returns of the extent of commerce of
the free city with Great Britain are summed up under Germany.
(See pp. 182-85.)

XXV. BREMEN.

(Fiieie Stadt Bremen.)

Constitution and Revenue.

The free city of Bremen is governed, under a constitution pro-
claimed March 5, 1849, and revised Feb. 21, 1854, by a Senate of
eighteen members, forming the executive, and the Blirgerconvent, or
Convent of Burgesses, of 150 members, invested with the power of
legislation. The Convent is returned by the votes of all the citizens,
d'vided into classes. The citizens who have studied at a university
return 16 members; the merchants 48 members; the common traders
and shop-keepers 24 members, and the other tax-paying inhabitants
of the Free City the rest. The Convent elects the eighteen members
of the Senate, ten of whom at least must be lawyers. Two burgo-
masters, the first elected for six years and a half, and the second
for four years, direct the affairs of the Senate, through a Ministry
divided into eight departments — namely, Foreign Affairs, Church
•md Education, Justice, Finance, Police, Medical and Sanitary
Administration, Military Affairs, and Commerce and Shipping. All
the ministers are senators.

The public revenue for the year 1873 amounted to 10,910,631
mark, or 545,531/., and the expenditure to 21,884,457 mark, or
1,094,223/, thus leaving a deficit of 10,973,826 mark, or 548 692/.

GERMANY BREMEN. I 79

The deficit, covered by loans, was caused by large outlay for public
works. Very nearly one-half the revenue is raised by indirect
taxes ; while about the same amount is expended for interest and
reduction of the public debt. The latter amounted, in January,
1875, to 75,820,126 mark, ox 3,791,0062. The whole of the debt,
which bears interest at 3-^ and 4^ per cent., was incurred for con-
structing railways, harbour, and other public works.

Population and Commerce.

The population of the State amounted, on Dec. 1, 1875, to
142,645, inclusive a Prussian garrison. The increase of-population
from 1871 to 1875 was larger than in any other State of Germany,
amounting to the very high rate of 3*82 per cent, per annum. In
the four years from 1867 to 1871, the increa.se Avas at the rate of
2-59 per cent, per annum. The state embraces an area of 106
English square miles.

Bremen, with Bremerhaven, is, next to Hamburg, the chief outlet
of German emigration. The number of emigrants who left the port,
chiefly for the United States, was 63,519 in 1869 ; 61,877 in 1870 ;
60,516 in 1871; 80,418 in 1872; 63,167 in 1873 ; 30,636 in 1874;
and 24,199 in 1875. Of the emigrants of 1875, there sailed 17,356
for New York ; 5,725 for Baltimore; and 938 for New Orleans.
In the same year, 12,938 persons returned to Bremen from trans-
atlantic countries. (See German Emigration, page 109.)

The number of merchant vessels belonging to the State of Bremen
on Jan. 1, 1876, was 237, of 185,060 tons, the number including
49 steamers, of an aggregate burthen of 65,070 tons. Nearly all
the steamers sailing under the Bremen and German flag belong to
the Navigation Company called the ' North-German Lloyd,' which
has a fleet of large ships, mainly built on- the Clyde, running be-
tween Bremen and various ports in North America ; as also some
smaller steamers running between Bremerhaven and British ports.

In the year 1875 there arrived at the port of Bremen 2,801
vessels, of 845,798 tons, and there cleared 2,809 vessels,of 755,188
tons. The arrivals included 313 British Aressels, of 14,907 tons,
and the departures 313 British vessels, of 79,638 tons. Three-
fourths of the commerce of Bremen are carried on under the German
and British flags. The number of German vessels which arrived
in 1875, was 2,o30, with an aggregate tonnage of 593,945. Next
to that of Hamburg, the port of Bremen is the largest for the in-
ternational trade of Germany.

s 2

l80 THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

ALSACE-LORRAINE.

(Keichsland Elsass-Lothringen.)

Constitution and Revenue.

The fundamental laws, under which the Reichsland, or Imperial
Land, of Alsace-Lorraine is governed, were "voted by the Reichstag of
Germany June 3, 1871, June 20, 1872, and June 25, 1873. By
Art. 1 of the law of June 3, 1871, it is enacted, ' the provinces
of Alsace and Lorraine, ceded by France in the Peace preliminaries of
February 26, 1871, under limits definitely fixed in the Treaty of
Peace of May 10, 1871, shall be for ever united with the German
Empire.' The Constitution of the German Empire was introduced
in Alsace-Lorraine on the 1st of January 1874. An annual report
has to be made to the Reichstag on the general affairs of the pro-
vinces and the development of the administration. All laws must
receive the assent of the Imperial government.

The administration of Alsace-Lorraine is under a governor-general,
bearing the title of Oberprasident.

Oberprasident of Alsace-Lorraine. — Eduard von Mailer, born at
Minden, Westphalia; 1814; studied jurisprudence at Heidelberg
and Berlin ; Oberprasident of the government district of Cologne,
1848-66 ; Oberprasident of the province of Hesse-Nassau, 186G-71 ;
appointed Oberprasident of Alsace-Lorraine, Nov. 1871.

Under the Oberprasident of Alsace-Lorraine are three district
governors, bearing the title of Bezirksprasidenten, resident at Strass-
burg, Colmar, and Metz.

The revenue of Alsace-Lorraine in the year 1874, amounted to
34,228,993 mark, or 1,711,449/.; the ordinary expenditure to
27,048,422 mark, or 1,352,421/. ; and the extraordinary expendi-
ture to 7,180,570 mark, or 359,028/. Nearly one-half of the total
revenue was derived from customs, which produced 15,079,755
mark, or 753,987, while the largest item of expenditure amounting
to 0, 069,831 mark, or 333,491/., was for public education.

Area and Population.

The Reichsland has an area of 2G3-21 geographical, or 5,580
English square miles, with a population, in 1875, of 1,529,408, being

GERMAN!' ALSACE-LORRAINE,

l8l

227 individuals per English square mile. Alsace-Lorraine is adminis-
tratively divided into three Bezirke, or districts, called Ober-
Elsass, Unter-Elsass, and Lothringen, the first of which is
subdivided into seven, and the other two each into eight
Kreise, or circles. The following table gives area, in English
square miles, and the population of each of the districts at the two
last enumerations, the census of December 1, 1871, and the census
of December 1, 1875: —

Districts

Area
Eng. sqr. miles

Population

Decern. 1N71

Decern. 1875

Ober-Elsass
Unter-Elsass

Lotliringen .

Total .

1,353 458,873
1,844 600,406
2,383 490,459

452,642
597,850

478,916

5,580

1,549,738

1.529.408

The decrease of population during the four years from 1871 to
1875 amounted to 0-33 per cent, per annum. During the preceding
five years from December 1866 to December 1871, there was a
decrease of population at the rate of 0-84 per cent, per annum,
ascribed partly to the Avar and partly to emigration.

At the census ofDecember 1. 1871, there were in the Eeichsland
1,234,588 Eoman Catholics, 271,198 Frotestants, 2,863 members of
other Christian sects, and 40,938 Jews. According to an official
estimate, 200,000 of the inhabitants are of French origin (Sprach-
stamme), and 1,350,000 of German origin.

The three principal towns of the Eeichsland are Strassburg, capital
of Ober-Elsass, Muhlhausen, capital of Unter-Elsass. and Xletz,
sapital of Lothringen. At the census of 1871, Strassburg had
85,654, Miihlhausen 52,825, and Metz 51,332 inhabitants.

Trade and Commerce of Germany.

The trade and commerce of the Empire arc under the adminis-
tration and guidance of special laws and rules, emanating from
the Zollverein, or Customs' League which embraces the whole of
the states of Germany, with the exception of the two
Hamburg and Bremen. The privilege of Hamburg and Bremen to
remain ' free ports,' conceded in 1868, was ratified in the Imperial
Constitution of April 16, 1871, the 34th article of which enacts
that the two Hanse towns shall remain 'outside the common line
of customs' — ausserhalb der gemeinschaftlichen Zollgrenze — ' tmr.il
they themselves demand admittance.' The administration ol

182

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

ZoUverein, according to a treaty signed July 8, 1867, and in force
from January 1, 1868, till December 31, 1877, is at Berlin.

There was, previous to the year 1871, a twofold representation of
the ZoUverein, that of governments, in the ZoUverein Council, and
that of populations, in the ZoUverein Parliament, the members of
which latter body were elected in the same manner as the deputies
to the North German Federal diet, and met in annual session at
the beginning of the year. Under the constitution of April 16,
1871, the functions of the ZoUverein Parliament merged in the
Reichstag of the Empire. The ZoUverein Council has three com-
mittees sitting permanently, namely, for finance, for taxes and
customs, and tor trade. All the receipts of the ZoUverein are paid
into a common exchequer, and distributed, pro rata of population,
among the states of the Empire. The chief sources of revenue
are customs duties, mainly on imports, and taxes upon spirits, wine,,
sugar manufactured from beet-roots, and tobacco.

The subjoined tabular statement exhibits the growth of the com-
mercial intercourse between Germany and the United Kingdom,
giving the total value of the diiect exports f om all the states of the
Empire, including the Hanse Towns, to Great Britain and Ireland,
and the total value of the direct imports of British home produce into
them, in each of the ten years 1866 to 1875 : —

Exports from Germany

Imports of British Home

to Great Britain

Produce into Germany

1866

18,5-92,259

20,421,738

1867

18,331,725

22,674,140

1868

17,653,553

22,841,745

1869

17,927.1112

20,416,168

1870

15,404,218

27,434,520

. 1871

19,263,319

12,654,814

1872

19,231.873

31.618,749

1873

19,926,451

27,270,342

1874

19,947,195

24,799,846

1875

21,836,401

23,287,883

The annual sums here given do not represent the total value of the
commercial intercourse between Germany and Great Britain, but
only that of the direct trade. There are no returns showing the
value of the exports and imports passing in transit, chiefly by way
of the Netherlands, between Germany and the United Kingdom.
(See page 333).

The following table gives the declared value, in pounds Stirling, of
the principal articles exported direct from Germany to the United
King< on-, iu each of the two years 1874 and 1875 : —

GERMANY.

Exports from Germany to Great Britain

1S7I

IS?.".

Animals, oxen and bulls .

£
845,546

£
1,074,318

„ cows and calves

300,753

338.281

„ sheep and lambs

.177.892

662,720

„ swine and hogs

48.710

10,050

Bacon and hams .

1,128,830

1,339,024

Bristles ......

96,996

149,174

1 Jutter ......

767,191

643,906

Chemical manufactures and products

234,630

226.079

Corn, wheat . . . . .

2,02 7, -333

3,147,530

,, barley . . . . .

369,381

.349.835

„ peas and beans

272,044

290,497

,, wheatmeal and flour

681,696

647,378

Cotton, raw .....

21,409

55,696

„ manufactured

224,627

220,806

Flax, dressed or undressed

290,792

196,890

Glass, flint .

69,128

63,102

., manufactures, unenumerated .

237,499

341,148

Hides, not tanned . . . .

128,988

99,772

„ tanned, tawed, curried, or

dressed . . . .

329,726

317,775

Hops ......

248,296

446,153

Painters colours and pigments .

167,418

161,939

Paper and pasteboard

184,460

179,615

Pork, salted . . . . .

48,527

67,218

Hags and other materials for making

paper ......

75,356

100,902

Seeds, clover and grass .

224,871

237,815

,, flax and linseed

179,617

228,693

,, tares and lentils

35,297

75,898

Skins and furs of all sorts

248, 1 29

185,783

Spirits, unenumerated, not sweetened

133,403

180,930

Sugar, refine. 1 and candy

13,156

12,108

,, unrefined .

695,703

583,516

Toys .

17S.091

229,980

Wooi and timber, hewn .

1,079..",:; 1

712,340

„ ,, sawn or split

421,789

254,188

„ ,, staves

382,458

249,896

Wool, sheep and lambs .

500,323

509,131

Woollen manufactures

424,968

465,835

Woollen rags .

152,051

159,320

Yarn for weaving ....

512,974

557,080

All other articles ....
Total .

5,387,403

5,864,050

19,947,195

21,836,401

The following table gives the declared value, in pounds sterling,

of the principal articles of British and Irish produce and manu-
factures imported from the United Kingdom into Germany, in each
of the years 1871 and 1875 : —

1 84

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 18 <

Imports of British Produce into Germany

1S74

Alkali, soda .....
Apparel and haberdashery
Bags and sacks, empty .
Caoutchouc, manufactures of .
Chemical products, and preparations
Coals, cinders, and fuel .
Cotton yarn .....
., piece goods
,, hosiery and small-wares .
Earthen and china-ware
Fish, herrings ....
Hardwares and cutlery unenumerated
Leather, wrought and unwrought .
Linen yarn .....
„ piece goods . . ...
,, other sorts ....
Jute manufactures of all kinds
Machinery, steam engines
„ other sorts .

Metals:—

Iron, wrought and unwrought
Copper, wrought and unwrought
Lead, pig, pipe, and sheet
Oil, seed . .
Silk, thrown, twist, and yarn

„ manufactures
Skins and furs of all sorts
Tin, unwrought
Wool, sheep and lambs .
Woollen and worsted yarn
Woollen manufactures : —
Clothes, coating, &c.
Worsted stuffs
Flannels and carpets
Of other sorts
All other articles .

Total

349,161

91,093

115,237

139,005

338,949

1,626,665

2,721,342

1,459.276

615,656

98,288

994.126

281,189

478,867

547,011

365,529

211,214

553,341

406,414

1,003,678

1,864,825

4(18,341
46,390

473.554
64,851

183,183
99,275

105,505

311,660
2,815,910

1.279,749

1,828.925

102.573

212,100

2,606.964

1875

24,799,846 23,287.883

320.829

81,330

151,083

156,293

350.577

1,272,624

2,721.599

1,353.024

608.685

95,758

784.633

267,165

454,535

509,769

398,854

170,478

447,477

231,023

776.553

1,922,838
363,288

49,710
524,969

69,830
123,369

69,794

77,038

300,701

2,591,628

1,520,403

1,513,832

96,132

175,770
2,736,292

The Free Towns, Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck, are the chief
gatesof commercial intercourse of Germany with the United Kingdom.

The results of an agricultural census taken on the 10th of
January, 1873, showed that at that date there were in the Empire
3,35-2,231 horses; 13,315 mules and donkeys; 15,776,702 head of
cattle; 24,999,706 sheep ; 7,124,088 swine; 2,320,002 goats; and
2,333,484 beehives. The number of families possessing live stock
— Viehbesitzende Haushaltungen — was found to be 5,028,023, and

GERMANY.

185

of these there were 2,965,856 devoted, partly or wholly, to agricul-
tural pursuits.

The mercantile navy of Germany, on the 1st of January, 1875,
numbered 4.495 vessels, of an aggregate tonnage of 1, Goo, 725. Of
this total there were 253 steamers, of 167,638 tons. The following
was the distribution of the shipping belonging to the principal ports
on the 1st of January, 1875 : —

At the close of 1875 the railways of the Empire completed and
open for public traffic had a total length of 27,980 kilometer, or
17,487 English miles. Of this total, ""12,010 kilometer, or 7,506
English miles, belonged to the State.

The total number of telegraphic despatches in the year 1875 was
11.1144. i 26, of which 7,478,308 were inland, and 3,566,118 foreign.
The length of telegraph lines in the Empire at the end of 1875 was
35,708 kilometres, (or 22,317 English miles) and of telegraph wires
132,009 kilometres (or 82,506 English miles). The total receipts
of 1875 amounted to 10,258,529 mark, or 512,921)/. and the expen-
diture to 15,958.543 mark, or 797,927/. There were 4,338
telegraph stations at the end of 1875.

The Imperial post office carried 498,184,851 letters, 61,905,533
post cards, 7,370,687 patterns, 85,874,288 stamped wrappers, and
285,272,632 ne^ papers, in the year L875. The total n
the post office in 1875 amounted to 93,372,237 mark, 1 r l-,668, ill/.,
and the total expenditure to 82,974,993 mark, or 4.1 18,7
having a surplus of 10,397,244 mark, or 519,862Z.

1 86 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Or Germany in Great Britain.

Ambassador. — Count Georg von MiinSter, accredited Jan. 26. 1873.
Councillor of Embassy. — Baron Egen von der Brincken.

Secretaries. — Count Wilhelm von Redern ; L»r. V. E. R. von Bojauowski -y
Count Fritz von Donkoff.

Military Attache. —Major von Yietinghof.

Director of Chancery. — Wilhelm Adolpk Sckmettau.

2. Of Great Britain and Germany.

Ambassador. — Right Hon. Lord Odo W. Russell, G.C.B., born in 1829 ;
British Envoy to Rome, 18.58-70 ; Assistant Under Secretary of State for
Foreign Affairs, 1870-71. Appointed Ambassador to Germany, October 16,
1871.

Secretaries. — Hugh G. Macdonell; Henry Nevill Dering; Hon W. J. G.
Napier.

Military Attache.— Major-General C. P. B. Walker, C.B.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures generally in use throughout
the whole of Germany, and their British equivalents, are —

Money.
Old denominations.

The Thaler, of 30 Groschen, approximate value = 3s.

,, Gidden, or florin, of 60 Kreuzer ,, = Is. 8d.

„ Mark Current of Liibeck „ = Is. 3d.

„ Mark Banco of Hamburg ,, = Is. Gd.

„ Reicks Thaler of Bremen „ = 3s. id.

Neii' denomination.
The Mark, of 100 Pfennig, approximate value. = Is. .

On January 1, 1872, a law for the uniformity of coinage through-
out the Empire, passed by the Reichstag, was published by the
Imperial government. Under this law the standard of value is gold.
The same law ordered the substitution of the mark, as the general
coin, to commence on the 1st of January, 1875. There are gold
10-mark pieces and 20-mark pieces, the former called Krone, or
crown, and the latter Doppel-Krone, or double-crown.

Weights and Measures.

The French metrical system of weights and measures came into
force in Germany on January 1, 1872. The names of the decimal
weights and measures and the British equivalents are : —

GERMANY. 1 87

The Gramme = 15"434 grains troy.

„ Kilogramme of 2 Pfund . = 2*205 lbs. avoirdupois.

.. Centner of 5Q Kilogramme . = lit) „ ,,

„ Quintal of 2 Centner . . = 220

„ 7b»»e of 20 Centner . . = 2200 ,,

„ Liter, Mass . . = T76 Imperial pints.

., Meter, Stab . . = 3 28 feet or 3!)-37 inches.

„ Kilometer = 1093 yards, or nearly 5 furlongs.

„ Hektar = 2-47 acres.

„ Quadrat, or Squart Kilometer — 247 acres, or 21. sq. k. to 1 sq. mile.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Germany.

1. Official Publications.
Deutseher Reichs- unci Konig. Preussischer Staats-Anzeiger. Berlin, 1 875-76.
Koniglich Preussiseher Staats-Kalender fur 1876. 8. Berlin, 1876.

Preussische Statistik. herausgegeben vom Koniglich Statistischen Bureau in
Berlin, fol Berlin, 1876.

Jahrbuch tier amtlichen Statistik des Preussischen Striates. 4 vols. 8.
Berlin, 1865, 1867, 1869, and 1876.

Die Gemeinden und Gutsbezirke des Preussischen Staates unci ihre Bevolk-
erung. Nach den Urmaterialien, der allgemeinen Volkszahlung v. 1. De-
cember 1871 bearbeitet, u. zusammengestellt vom Koniglichen statistischen
Biireau. 8. Berlin, 1873.

Zeitschrift des Kb'nigl. Preussischen statistischen Bureaus, redigirt von
Dr. Engel. 4. Berlin, 1876.

Der Viehstand der Gemeinden und Gutsbezirke im Preussischen Staate. Nach
den Urmaterialien der Viehzahlung v. 10. Januar 1873, bearbeitet vom Koniglich
Preussischen statistischen Bureau. 8. Berlin, 1875.

Statistik des deutschen Reiches. Herausgegeben vom Kaiserlichen statist-
ischem Amte. 4. Berlin, 1873-76.

Staatshandbuch fiir das Konigreieh Sachsen. Dresden, 1876.

Hot- und Staats-Handbuch des Konigreichs Bayern. 8. Miinchen, 1876.

Koniglich WTirtembergisches Hof- und Staats-Handbuch, herausgeg. von

dem Konigl. Statistisch-topographischem Bureau. 8. Stuttgart, 1876.

Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Grossherz. Baden. 8. Karlsruhe 1876.

Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des GxossherzogthumsHessen. 8. Darmstadt, 1876.

Grossherz. Biecklenburg-Schwerinscher Staats-Kalender. 8. Schwerin, 1876.

Hof- and Staats-Handbuch des Grossherz. Oldenburg. 8. Oldenburg, 1876.

Hof- und Staats-Handbuch fur das Herzogthum Anhalt. 8. Dessau, 1876.

Hamburgischer Staats-Kalender aufdas Jahr 1875. 4. Hamburg, 1876.

Staats-Kalender der freien Hansestadt Bremen auf 1875. 8. Bremen, 187c

Liibeckiscber Staats-Kalen ler nut' das Jahr 1875. 4. Liibeck, 1876.

Report by Mr. George Petre, British Secretary of Legation, on Trade and
Agriculture in Southern Germany, dated Stuttgart, December 30, L874; in

• liejiorts i>\ ll..M.'s S, D'etai'ii ■.- of Kmlassy and Leg;ition.' Pari I. 1875. 8.
London, 1875.

1 88 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Report by Mr. MacDonell. British Secretary of Embassy, on the Finances,
Commerce, and Industry of the German Empire, dated Berlin, Jan. 1, 1876;
in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1876.
8. London, 1876.

Report by Mr. Dudley E. Saurin, on the Industry and Agriculture of
Wiirtemburg, dated Stuttgart, Decern. 20, 1875; in 'Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1876. S. London, 1876.

Report by Mr. Consul Hertslet, on the Trade of the Province of Silesia,
dated Konigsberg, Oct. 1875; in 'Reports by H M.'s Consuls on British
Trade abroad.' Part I. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Reports by Mr. Consul Annesley on the Commerce of Hamburg ; by Mr.
Consul Hertslet on the Trade of Konigsberg ; by Mr. Consul Ward on the
Trade of Bremen ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Meden on the Trade of Cuxhaven ; by
Mr. Consul-General Crowe on the Trade of the Rhenish Provinces; by Mr.
Vice-Consul Humbert, on the Trade of Breslau ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Kruge, on the
Commerce of Danzig ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Kruse on the Trade of Kiel ; and
by Mr. Vice-Consul Behncke. on the Trade of Liibeck ; dated January-February,
1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Reports by Mr. Consul-General Crowe, on the Commerce and Customs Tariff
of Germany ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Kruse, on the Trade of Kiel ; by Consul-
General Baron Tauchnitz, on the Trade <rf Leipzig; and by Mr. Consul
Blackwell. on the Commerce and Shipping of Stettin, dated April-May, 1876 ;
in ■ Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. IS 76. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Germany with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
for the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Crousaz (A. Von) : Kurze Geschichte der Deutschen Kriegs-Marine, nach
ihrem Ursprunge, ibrer organise!] en Entwickelung, an ihrer bisherigen
Leis;ungen. 8. Berlin, 1873.

Enqel (Dr. Ernst) : Die Verluste der Deutschen Armeen im Kriege gegen
Fr.inkreich 1870 und 1871. Fol. Berlin, 1873.

Fircks (A. Freiherr Von), Die Volkskraft Deutschland's und Frankreichs.
Statistische Skizze. 8. Berlin, 1875.

Gothaischer genealogischer Hof-Kalender auf das Jahr 1876. 32. Gotha,1876.

Kolb (G. Fr.), Handbuch der vergleiehenden Statistik, der Volkerzustands-
und Staatenkunde. 8. Leipzig, 1871.

Neumann (G.), Das Deutsche Reich in geographischer, statistischer und topo-
graphischer Bezielrung. 2 vol. 8. Berlin, 1872-71.

Nicolson (A.). A Sketch of the German Constitution, and of the Events in
Germany from 1815 to 1871. 8. London, 1875.

Petcrmann (Th.). Zeit.schrift des Koniglieh Sachsischen Statistischen Bureaus,
21 Jahrgang. 4. Leipzig, 1876.

Wagner (Dr. H.), Die Entwickelung des Deutschen Eisenbahnnetzes. In
Dr. A. Petermann's 'Mitthoihuigon.' No. VI. 1873. 4. Gotha, 1873.

Waits (Georg), Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte. 5 vols. 8. Kiel, 1871-74.

1 89

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

(United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Victoria I.. Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, and Empress of
India, born at Kensington Palace, London, May 24, 1819, the
daughter of Edward, Duke of Kent, fourth son of King George
III., and of Princess Victoria of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg, widow of
Prince Emich of Leiningen. Ascended the throne at the death of
her uncle, King William IV.. June 20, 1837; crowned at West-
minster Abbey, June 28, 1838. Married, Feb. 10, 18-10, to Prince
Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ; widow, Dec. 14, 1861.

Children of the Queen. — 1. Princess Victoria, born Nov. 21, 1840-
married, Jan. 25, 1858, to Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, eldest son of
Wilhelm I., Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia. There are
offspring three sons and four daughters (see Prussia: Reigning
Sovereign and Family). 2. Prince Albert Edward, heir-apparent5,
born Nov. 9, 1841 ; married, March 10, 1863, to Princess Alexandra,
eldest daughter of Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonder-
burg-Glucksburg, present King Christian IX. of Denmark. Issue,
two sons and three daughters: — Albert Victor, born Jan. 8, 1864;
George, born June 3, 1865 ; Louise, born Feb. 20, 1867; Alexandra,
born July 6, 1868 ; and Maud, born Nov. 26, 1869. 3. Princess
Alice, born April 25, 1843; married, July 1, 1862, to Prince
Ludwig of Hesse. (See ' Hesse,' page 154). 4. Prince Alfred, born
Aug. 6, 1844; entered the royal navy, Aug. 31, 1858; created
duke of Edinburgh. May 24, 1866 ; married Jan. 21, 1874, to Grand-
duchess Marie of Russia, only daughter of Emperor Alexander II. •
issue, a son, Alfred, born October 15, 1-S74, and two daughters,
Marie, born October 29, 1875; and Victoria, born November 25J
1876. 5. Prineess Helena, born May 25, 1846; married, July 5,
1866, to Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderbunz;-
Augustenburg, born Jan. 22, 1831, formerly captain in the Prussian

is. 1848; married, March 21, 1871, to John Douglas Sutherland,
Marquis of Lome, bora Aug. 6, 1845, eldest son of the Duke o\
Argyll. 7. Prince Arthur, born May 1, 1850; created Duke of
taught Is?!. 8. Prince Leopold, born April 7, 1853. 9,
Princess Beatrice, bora April 14, 1857.

I90 THE STATESMAN S YEAK-EOOK, 1877.

Cousins of the Queen. — 1. George V., ex-King of Hanover, born at
London, May 27, 1819, the son of Duke Ernest Augustus of Cumber-
land, fifth son of King George III. 2. Prince Georg, Duke of Cam-
bridge, born at Hanover, March 26, 1819, the son of Duke Adolphus
of Cambridge, sixth son of King George III. ; field-marshal
commanding-in-chief the British army. 3. Pi-incess Augusta, sister
of the preceding, born at Hanover, July 19, 1822; married, June
28, 1843, to Grand-duke Friedrich Wilhehn of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz. 4. Princess Man/, sister of the preceding, born at Hanover,
Nov. 27, 1833; married, June 12, 1866, to Prince Franz von
Teck, born Aug. 27, 1837, son of Prince Alexander of Wiirtemberg,
and of Claudine Rheday, Countess von Hohenstein. Issue, one
daughter, and three sons, Victoria, born May 26, 1867, Albert, born
Aug. 13, 1868, Franz Joseph, born Jan. 9, 1870, and Alexander,
born April 14, 1874.

Aunt of the Queen. — Princess Augusta, born at Cassel, July 25,
1797, the daughter of Landgrave Friedrich of Hesse- Cassel; married,
May 7, 1818, to Duke Adolphus of Cambridge, youngest son of
King George III. ; widow, July 8, 1850.

The queen reigns in her own right, holding the crown both by
inheritance and election. Her legal title rests on the statute of
12 & 13 "Will. III. c. 3, by which the succession to the crown of
Great Britain and Ireland was settled, on the death of King William
and Queen Anne, without issue, on the Princess Sophia of Hanover,
and the ' heirs of her body, being Protestants.' The inheritance
thus limited descended to George I., son and heir of Princess Sophia,
she having died before Queen Anne ; and it has ever since continued
in a regular course of descent.

The civil list of the queen consists in a fixed Parliamentary
grant, and amounts to much less than the income of previous sove-
reigns. By the Revolution of 1688, the duty of the king to bear
the expenses of government out of the State income allotted to him
was abolished, and certain portions of the income of the country
were assigned to the king to meet the expenses of the royal house-
hold. Under George I. this sum amounted at times to 1,000,000/.
sterling. If it did not reach 800,000/. the deficiency Avas covered
by Parliament. In 1777, the civil list of the king was fixed at
900,000/., and the income over and above that sum from the here-
ditary possessions of the Crown passed to the Treasury. But at this
period the king had to pay from the civil list the salaries of the
judges and ambassadors, and other government officers. Under
William IV. the civil list was relieved of many burthens, and
fixed at 510,000/. By 39-40 Geo. III. c. 88, it was settled that
the king might have a private and separate estate. It is esta-
blished by 1-2 Vic. c. 2, that as long as Queen Victoria lives, all the

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. IQI

revenues of the Crown shall be a part of the Consolidated Fund, but
that a civil list shall be assigned to the queen. In virtue 0!' this
Act, which received the royal sanction Dec. 23, 1837, the queen lias

granted to her an annual allowance >4' 085,000/. 'for the supporl of
Her Majesty's household, and of the honour and dignity of the Crown
of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.' By the same
statute, the application of this allowance is limited in a prescribed
form. The Lords of the Treasury are directed to pay yearly 60,000Z.
into Her Majesty's Privy Purse; to set aside 231,260Z. for the
salaries of the royal household , 44,240/. for retiring allowances and
pensions to servants, and 13,200/. for royal bounty, alms, and spe-
cial services. This leaves an unappropriated surplus of 36,300/.,
which may be applied in aid of the general expenditure of Her
Majesty's Court. It is provided that whenever the civil list
charges in any year exceed the total sum of 400,000/., an account
of the expenditure, with full particulars, shall be laid before Parlia-
ment within thirty days. The queen has also paid to her the
revenues of the Duchy of Lancaster, which in the year 1875 amoiinted
to 38,270/., being 1,81G/. more than in the preceding year. The
salaries, law charges, taxes, charities, and other disbursements in
1875 amounted to 24,457/., and the payment made to Her Majesty
for the year was 41,000/., or 1,000/. less than in the preceding
year. The payment to Her Majesty in 1866 and in 1867 amounted to
29,000/.; in 1868 to 27,880/.; in 1869, 1870, and 1871 to 31,000/. ;
in 1872 to 40,000/.; in 1873 to 41,000/., and in 1874 to 42,0.002.

The annual grant of 385,000/. to Her Majesty is paid out of
the Consolidated Fund, on which are charged likewise the following
sums allowed to members of the royal family : — 25,000/. a year
to the Duke of Edinburgh; 15,000/. to the Duke of Connaught ;
8,000/. to Prince Leopold ; 8,000/. to Princess Friedrich Wilhelm
of Prussia; 6,000/. to Princess Ludwig of Hesse; 6,000/. to Princess
Christian of Schleswig-Holstein ; 6,000/. to Princess Louise, Marchi-
oness of Lome ; 6,000/. to the Duchess of Cambridge ; 3,000/. to the
Grand-duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitx ; 5,000/. to Princess Teck,
formerly Princess Mary of Cambridge; and 12,000/. to Duke George
of Cambridge.

The heir-apparent of the Crown has, by 26 Vict. c. 1, settled
upon him an annuity of 40,000/. The Prince of Wales has besides
as income the revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall. ]Ye\ ious to the
year 1840, these revenues amounted to between 1 I ,<)<)()/. and L6,000/.
per annum; but since that period they have greatly risen. The
income of the Duchy of Cornwall in the year 1875 was 101,328/.,
the salaries and other expenses came to 20,839/., and the sum of
07,141/. was paid over for the use of the Prince of Wales. In L866,
the sum paid over amounted to 53, lu;;/. ; in 1867 to 51,927/. ; in

192

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1S77-

1866 to 55,252/. ; in 1370 to 62,574Z. ; in 1871 to 62,484/. ; in
1872 to 62,348/. ; in 1873 to 62,515/. ; and in 1874 to 65,901/.
The Princess of Wales has settled upon her by 26 Vict. cap. 1,
the annual sum of 10,000/., to be increased to 30,000/. in case ot
widowhood. Both the parliamentary grants of the Prince and
Princess of Wales are paid out of the Consolidated Fund, which
bears a total yearly charge of 142,000/. for annuities to members
of the Royal Family.

The following is a list of the sovereigns and sovereign rulers of
Great Britain, with date of their accession, from the union of the
crowns of England and Scotland : —

House of Stuart-Orange.
William and Mary .

William III

House of Stuart.
Anne .....

House of Hanover.
George I.
George II. .
George III.

House of Stuart.

James I.
Charles I

Commonwt alth.

Parli amentary Executive
Protectorate .

1603
1625

1649
16.53

1689
1694

1702

Ho us" of Stuart.

Charles II.

James II.

1660
16 80

George IV.
William IV.
Victoria

1714
1727
1760
1820
1830
1837

The average duration of the reigns of these rulers of Great

Britain exclusive of the period of the Commonwealth, but including

the actual reign of her present Majesty — amounting in the aggregate
to two and three quarter centuries, has been twenty years.

Constitution and Government.

The supreme legislative power of the British empire is by its
constitution given "to Parliament. ' The power and jurisdiction of
Parliament,' says Sir Edward Coke, ' is so transcendent and absolute,
that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within
any bounds.' And, repeating the words, Sir William Blackstone
adds that it is ' the place where that absolute despotic power, which
must in all governments reside somewhere, is entrusted by the con-
stitution of "these kingdoms.' The sovereign is not only the head,
but also the beginning and the end — caput, principium, et finis— of
Parliament; he alone can summon Parliament: and no Parliament,
save on the demise of a sovereign, can assemble of its own accord.
Parliament is summoned by the writ of the sovereign issued out of
Chancery, by advice of the privy council, at least thirty-five days
previous to its assembling. On a vacancy occurring whilst Parlia-
ment is sitting, a writ for the election of a new member is issued
upon motion^n the House. If the vacancy occurs during the
recess the writ is issued at the instance of the Speaker. By

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. I93

4 Edw. III. c. 14, it was enacted, ' It is accorded that Parlia-
ment shall be holden every year once or more often if need be.'
Also by 36 Edw. III. c. 10, it was directed, ' that a Parliament
be holden every year if need be.' By 16 Chas. I. c. 1, if was
enacted, that if the king neglected to call a Parliament for three
years, the chancellor or keeper of the great seal might issue writs
for summoning the peers and for the election of the commons ;
that if the chancellor or keeper should neglect to do it, any twelve
of the peers might summon the Parliament ; that if the peers should
neglect to issue the necessary summons, the sheriffs of the counties
and other magistrates respectively might proceed to the election ;
and should they refuse, then that the freeholders of each county
might elect their members, and that the members so chosen should
be obliged, under severe penalties, to attend. This Act was deemed
such an invasion of the prerogative, that it Avas repealed on the
Restoration by 16 Chas. II. c. 1. But the latter Act contains a
provision that Parliament shall not in future be intermitted for above
three years at the most. By 1 Will, and Mary, sess. 2, c. 2, it was
enacted, ' that Parliaments .shall be holden frecaiently.' As, how-
ever, the Mutiny Act and the Budget are only granted for a
year, the Crown, since the Revolution, is compelled to summon a
Parliament annually. By ancient right and usage, lying at the
foundation of the constitution, the House of Commons has the
exclusive control over taxation, and at its will may grant or re-
fuse supplies to the Crown.

It has become customary of late for Parliaments to meet in annual
session extending over the first six months of the year. Every
session must end with a prorogation, and by it all bills which have
not been brought to a conclusion fall to the ground. Both Houses
of legislature must be prorogued at the same time. The pro-
rogation takes place either by the sovereign in person, or by
commission from the Crown, or by proclamation. The Lower
House appears at the bar, and if the sovereign be present, the
speaker reports upon the labours of the session; the royal assenl
is then given to bills of the closing session, and a speech from the
sovereign is read; whereupon the chancellor prorogues the Parlia-
ment to a certain day. Parliament resumes business, however, as
soon as it is summoned by royal proclamation on a certain day,
which may be at a date earlier than the original date of prorogation
appointed. Should the term of prorogation elapse, and no procla-
mation be issued, Parliament cannot assemble <>t' its own accord.
The royal proclamation which summons Parliament in order to
proceed to business must lie issued six days before the time of
meeting. A dissolution is the civil death of Parliament ; it may
occur by the will of the sovereign, expressed in person or by com-

194 the statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

missioners, or, as is most usual during the recess, by proclama-
tion, or, finally, by lapse of time. Formerly, on the demise of the
sovereign, Parliament stood dissolved by the fact thereof; but
this was altered in the reign of William III. to the effect of post-
poning the dissolution till six months after the accession of the new
sovereign, while the Reform Act of 1867 settled that the Parlia-
ment ' in being at any future demise of the Crown shall not be
determined by such demise, but shall continue as long as it would
otherwise have continued unless dissolved by the Crown.' Other
statutes enact that if, at the time of the demise, the Parliament
be adjourned or prorogued, it shall immediately assemble; and that,
in the case of the demise of the sovereign between the dissolution
of a Parliament and the day appointed by the writs of summons for
the meeting of a new one, the last preceding Parliament shall
meet again, but for not longer than six months.

The present form of Parliament, as divided into two Houses of
legislature, the Lords and the Commons, dates from the time of
Edward II., and it has been, except during the period of the Com-
monwealth, a fundamental principle of the constitution, that every
Parliament shall consist of an Upper and a Lower House of legislature.

The Upper House consists of peers who hold their seats —

1st. By virtue of hereditary right;

2nd. By creation of the Sovereign ;

3rd. By virtue of office — English bishops

4th. By election for life — Irish peers;

5th. By election for duration of Parliament — Scottish peers.

In early times the summons of peers to attend Parliament de-
pended in a great measure, if not entirely, on the royal will; and
according to Camden, after the battle of Evesham every baron
was expressly forbidden to appear in Parliament without special
writ. However, it has long since been held that every hereditary
peerage confers the right of a seat in the Upper House. Any
person °-iving proof that his ancestor was called by ' writ of sum -
mons' may claim to sit as hereditary peer. New peerages are
created by royal patent, the peer being summoned by the writ
issued in pursuance thereof 'ad consulendum et defendendum
regem ■ ' and the peerage rights are acquired whether the individual
summoned takes his seat in the Upper House or not. Should a
question arise as to the legal capacity of a peer to be admitted
to the sittings of the Upper House, the sovereign is prayed for
a writ through a secretary of state; the attorney-general supports
the petition, and, if willing to allow it, it is ordinarily complied with.
If the matter is doubtful, he recommends it to be referred to the

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1 95

Upper House, which resolves itself into a committee, o. privilege,
Upon a report to the House the latter declares its opinion by way of
address. Hereditary peers may, by a 'standing order' of the Upper
House, take their seat without further preliminary ; peers newly
created or summoned have to be ' introduced.' The privilege of
the members of the Upper House, including the bishops, of voting
by proxy, was suspended by a ' standing Order ' — number XXXII.
— passed on the 31st of March, 1868.

The Crown is unrestricted in its power of creating jieers, and the
privilege has been largely used by modern governments to fill the
House of Lords. In consecmence of certain terms in the Act
of Union — 5 Anne, c. 8 — limiting the right of election of the
Scottish representative peers to the then existing peers of Scotland,
it is understood that the sovereign cannot create a new Scottish
peerage ; and such peerages are in fact never created except in the
case of the younger branches of the royal family, though extinct
peerages may be revived or forfeited peerages restored. By the Irish
Act of Union — 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 67 — the sovereign is restricted
to the creation of one new Irish peerage on the extinction of three
of the existing peerages ; but when the Irish peers are reduced to
100, then on the extinction of one peerage another may be
created.

The House of Lords, in the session of 1876, consisted of 497
members, of whom 5 were peers of the Blood Royal, 2 arch-
bishops, 21 dukes, 18 marquesses, 111 earls, 24 viscounts, 24
bishops, 248 barons, 16 Scottish representative peers, and 28 Irish
representative peers. The list included a number of minors, and
several peers whose names appear in double on the ' Roll of the
House of Lords ' as representatives of official together with hereditary
dignities. The number of names on the ' Roll' was 393 in 1830;
457 in 1840; 448 in 1850; 458 in 1860; and 492 in 1874.
More than two-thirds of these hereditary peerages were created :u
the present century. The three oldest existing peerages date from
the latter part of the thirteenth century ; while four go back to the
fourteenth, and seven to the fifteenth century. Of peerages of lit;
sixteenth century, there exist 12; of the seventeenth, 35; of 'lie
eighteenth, 95 ; and of the present nineteenth century, 341. Jn
the thirty-nine years from the accession of Queen Victoria till ihe
end of June 1876, there were issued 138 patents of peerage, so
that, Avith the addition of the spiritual lords, 2 archbishops and 24
bishops, all of whom were appointed during the period, 164 members
of the House of Lords, or very nearly one-third of the whole
number, owe their seats to nominations under Her Majesty.

The Lower House of legislature, representing, in constitutional
theory, all the ' Commons of England,' has consisted, since 49 Hen.

I96 THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877-

III., of knights of the shire, or representatives of counties ; of
citizens, or representatives of cities; and of burgesses, or repre-
sentatives of boroughs, all of whom indistinctly vote together.
At the accession of Henry VIII., the total number of constitu-
encies in England and Wales was 147. In this reign the number
was considerably increased, chiefly by the addition of representatives
for Wales; and in all the following reigns, up to the Restoration, large
additions to the borough franchises were made. Previous to this
period, members of Parliament had to be paid by their consti-
tuencies ; but the practice growing up of members bearing their
own expenses, many ancient boroughs, which had formerly been
exempted from the returns on account of their poverty, became
desirous of resuming their franchises. The additions from Edward
VI. to Charles I. were almost entirely of borough members. In the
fourth Parliament of Charles I., the number of places in England
and Wales for which returns were made, exclusive of counties,
amounted to 210; and in. the time of the Stuarts, the total number
of members of the House of Commons was about 500. The number
of members was not materially altered from that time until the union
with Scotland, in the reign of Queen Anne, when 45 representatives
of Scotland were added. The next considerable change was at the
union with Ireland, at the commencement of the present century,
when the House of Commons was increased by 100 Irish represen-
tatives. The number of members of the House since that period
has remained nearly the same, fluctuating around the figure 650,
with a slight tendency to gradual increase, through the extension ot
the suffrage and the formation of new classes of constituencies, such
as universities. (See pp. 198-200.)

By the statute of 2 Will. IV. c. 45, commonly called the Reform
Bill of 1832, the English county constituencies were increased from
52 to 82, by dividing several counties into separate electoral divi-
sions, and the number of county members was augmented from 94
to 159. In Scotland and Ireland, the county representation remained
the same as before. By the Reform Act, 5G English boroughs, con-
taining a population, in 1881, of less than 2,000 each, and return-
ing together 111 members, were totally disfranchised, while 30
other boroughs, containing a population of less than 4,000 each,
were reduced to sending one representative instead of two. On
the other hand, 22 new boroughs, containing each 25,000 inhabit-
ants, received the franchise of returning two members, and 20 other
new boroughs, containing each 12,000 inhabitants and upwards,
that of returning one member. In Scotland, the town members
were increased from fifteen to twenty-three, so that the number of
representatives became eight more than the number assigned to
Scotland at the Union.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1 97

The next great change in the constituency of the House of Com-
mons, after the Act of 1832, was made by the Reform Bill of
1867-68. The most important provisions of the new Act as regards
England are clauses 3 and 4, the first establishing household suffrage
in boroughs, and the second occupation franchise in counties. Clause
3 enacts that ' Every man shall be entitled to be registered as a
voter, and, when registered, to vote for a member or members to serve
in Parliament for a borough, who is qualified as follows : — (1) Is of
full age, and not subject to any legal incapacity ; (2) Is on the last day
of July in any year, and has during the whole of the preceding 12
calendar months, been an inhabitant occupier, as owner or tenant, of
any dwelling-house within the borough; (3) Has during the time
of such occupation been rated as an ordinary occupier in respect of
the premises so occupied by him within the borough to all rates made
for the relief of the poor in respect of such premises ; (4 ) Has
before the 20th day of July in the same year bona fide paid an equal
amount in the pound to that payable by other ordinary occupiers in
respect of all poor-rates that have become payable by him in respect
of the. said premises up to the preceding 5th day of January, and
which have been demanded of him in manner hereinafter mentioned ;
or as a lodger has occupied in the same borough separately, and as
sole tenant for the twelve months preceding the last day of July in
any year the same lodgings, such lodgings being part of one and the
same dwelling-house, and of a clear yearly value, if let unfurnished,
of 10/. or upwards, and has resided in such lodgings during the twelve
months immediately preceding the last day of July, and has claimed
to be registered as a voter at the next ensuing registration of voters :
provided, that no man shall, under this section, be entitled to be
registered as a voter by reason of his being a joint occupier of any
dwelling-house.' Clause 4 enacts that ' Every man shall be entitled
to be registered as a voter, and, when registered, to vote for a member
or members to serve in Parliament for a county who is qualified as
follows : — (1) Is of full age, and not subject to any legal incapacity ;
and who shall be seised at law or in equity of any lands or tenements
of copyhold or any other tenure whatever, except freehold, for his
own life, or for the life of another, or for any lives whatsoever, or for
any larger estate of the clear yearly value of not less than five pounds
over and above all rents and charges payable out of or in respect of
the same, or who shall be entitled either as lessee or assignee to any
lands or tenements of freehold or of any other tenure whal . r. for
the unexpired residue, whatever it may be, of any U cm originally
created for a period of not less than 60 years of the clear yearly
value of not less than live pounds over and above all rents and charges
payable out of or in respect of the same ; (2) Is on tin: la-! day of
July in any year, and has during the twelve months immediately

I98 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

preceding, been the occupier, as owner, or tenant, of lands or tene-
ments within the county of the ratable value of 121. or upwards;
(3) Has during the time of such occupation been rated in respect to
the premises so occupied by him to all rates made for the relief oi
the poor in respect of the said premises ; and (4) Has before the
20th day of July in the same year paid all poor rates that have be-
come payable by him in respect of the said premises up to the pre-
ceding 5th day of January.'

The Reform Acts for Scotland and Ireland, passed in the session
of 1868, differ in some important respects from that of England. By
the Act for Scotland, the franchise in burghs is conferred upon
every male person of full age, and subject to no legal incapacity,
who has been for twelve months an occupier, as owner or tenant, of
any dwelling, unless at any time during that period he shall have
been exempted from poor-rates on the ground of poverty, or shall
have failed to pay his poor-rates, or shall have been in the receipt
of parochial relief within twelve months. The lodger franchise in
Scotland consists in the permission of any lodger to vote who has
occupied in the same burgh separately, and as sole tenant, for twelve
months, a lodging of the clear annual value, if let unfurnished, of ten
pounds or upwards, and has claimed to be registered as a voter. In
Scottish counties, the ownership frnnchise is five pounds, clear of
any deduction in the shape of burdens, with a residential qualifi-
cation of not less than six months. The Reform Act for Ireland
made no alteration in the county franchise, but reduced that of
boroughs to a 4/. rating occupation, qualified as in England.

It appears from the last annual return made by order of the
House of Commons, that in June 1876, the total constituency in
England and Wales numbered 2,304,763, of which 843,803 were
electors in counties, 1,484,844, in boroughs, and 12,116 in Univer-
sities. In Ireland the Parliamentary electors numbered 230,773,
namelv, 173.860 in counties, 53,590 in boroughs, and 3,323 in
Trinity College, Dublin. In Scotland there were 295,420 electors,
of which 86,412 in counties, 198,725 in burghs, and 10/283 in Uni-
versities. The annual returns of the number of electors show the
great progress of towns. The total number of the county voters of
the United Kingdom, which in June 1876 was 1,104,075, is but
46 per cent, more than the number on the registers in June 1871 :
but the borough voters, 1,737,159 in 1876, increased since 1871 by
above a quarter of a million, or more than 18 per cent., that is to
say, four times as fast as the county constituencies. The borough
electors of England and Wales increased from 1,250,019 in 1871 to
1,484,844 in 1876; in 1871 they were less than half the entire
constituency of the United Kingdom, but in 1876 the borough
voters of England and Wales were more by 51,366 than half the
entire constituency of the United Kingdom.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 1 99

Under an Act passed in the session of 1872, and which is to con-
tinue in force till December 31, 1880, all elections for members of
Parliament must be by secret vote and ballot. The law enacts that
the ballot-paper must show the names of the candidates for election,
with a number printed on the back, and a counterfoil attached having
the same number ; and that ' at the time of voting the ballot-paper
shall be marked on both sides with an official mark and delivered
to the voter within the polling place; and the number of such voter
on the register of voters shall be marked on the counterfoil, and the
voter having secretly marked his vote on the paper, and folded it
up so as to conceal his vote, shall place it in a closed box in the
presence of the officer presiding at the polling station after having
shown to him the official mark at the back.' The first election
under the Ballot Act took place in August 1872.

The sole qualifications required to be a member of Parliament
are to be a native of the United Kingdom and to have attained the
age of twenty-one. ' Naturalised ' foreigners are not eligible, except
when the privilege has been conferred by Act of Parliament. All
the judges of the United Kingdom, except the Master of the Polls in
England; all priests and deacons of the Church of England, ministers
of the Church of Scotland, and Roman Catholic clergymen ; all
government contractors ; and all sheriffs and returning officers for
the localities for which they act, are disqualified both from voting
and from sitting as members. No English or Scottish peer can be
elected to the House of Commons, but Irish peers are eligible. No
per>i>us convicted of treason or felony can sit in Parliament.

To preserve the independence of members of the House of Com-
mons, it was enacted, by statute 6 Anne, that, if any member shall
accept any office of profit from the Crown, his election shall be void,
and a new writ issue ; but he is eligible for re-election if the place
accepted be not a new office, created since 1705. This provision
has been made the means of relieving a member from his trust,
which he cannot resign, by his acceptance of the Stewardship of the
Chiltern Hundreds, a nominal office in the gift of the Government.

In the session of 1876, the House of Commons numbered 652
members, returned as follows by the three divisions of the United
Kingdom : —

.si) and Wales: Members,;

52 counties and Isle of Wight .... 187
200 cities and boroughs 295

3 universities ........ 5

Total of England and Wales . . 487
Scotland:

33 counties 32

22 cities and burgh districts ..... 26

4 universities ........ 2

Total of Scotland .... 60

200

THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1877.

Ireland :

32 counties .......

33 cities and boroughs .....
1 university .......

Total of Ireland .... 105

Total of United Kingdom . . .652
It is stated in a Parliamentary paper issued in the session of 1872,
that whereas the existing distribution of representation prescribes
England and Wales to return 493 members, Scotland GO members,
and Ireland 105 members, the numbers, if regulated by population,
would be 476 for England and Wales, 70 for Scotland, and 112 for
Ireland: if regulated by contributions to revenue, 514 for England
and Wales, 79 for Scotland, and 65 for Ireland ; and if regulated
~oy the mean of the two numbers, 494 for England and Wales, 75
for Scotland, and 89 for Ireland.

The following is a table of the duration. of Parliaments of the
United Kingdom, from the period of the Union : —

Reign

Parliament

When met

When dissolved

Existed

m. r>.

George III. .

1st

27 Sept. 1796

29 Jan. 1802

11 18

2nd

31 Aug. 1802

24 Oct, 1806

1 25

»>

3rd

15 Dec. 1806

29 Apr. 1807

4 15

4th

22 June 1807

24 Sept. 1812

3 7

5th

24 Nov. 1812

10 June 1818

6 16

6th

4 Aug. 1818

29 Feb. 1820

6 25

George IV.

7th

23 Apr. 1820

2 June 1826

1 9

8th

14 Nov. 1826

24 July 1830

8 10

William IV.

9th

26 Oct. 1830

22 Apr. 1831

5 28

10th

14 June 1831

3 Dec. 1832

5 20

11th

29 Jan. 1833

30 Dec. 1834

11 1

12th

19 Feb. 1835

18 July 1837

5 0

Victoria

13th

14 Nov. 1837

23 June 1841

7 9

14th

11 Aug. 1841

23 July 1847

11 6

15th

21 Sept. 1847

1 July 1852

11 9

16th

4 Nov. 1852

20 Mar. 1857

4 16

17th

30 Apr. 1857

23 Apr. 1S59

11 23

18th

31 May 1859

6 July 1865

1 6

19tb

6 Feb. 1866

31 July 1868

5 25

20th

10 Dec. 186S

24 Jan. 1874

1 14

21st

5 Mar. 1874

—

The union of Ireland with England was carried into effect January
1, 1800, and the Parliament which sat the same month, and which
included the members from Ireland, is styled the first Imperial
Parliament. The Parliament which assembled January 29, 1833,
is generally styled the first Keformed Parliament.

The poAvers of Parliament are politically omnipotent within the
United Kingdom and its colonies and dependencies. Parliament
can make new laws, and enlarge, alter, or repeal those existing.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 201

The parliamentary authority extends to all ecclesiastical, temporal,
civil, or military matters, as well as to altering or changing the
constitution of the realm. Parliament is the highest Court of law,
over which no other has jurisdiction.

The executive government of Great Britain and Ireland is vested
nominally in the Crown ; but practically in a committee of ministers,
commonly called the Cabinet, which has come to absorb the
function of the ancient Pi ivy Council, or 'the King in Council,'
the members of which, bearing the title of Right Honourable, are
sworn ' to advise the King according to the best of their cunning
and discretion,' and ' to help and strengthen the execution of
what shall be resolved.' Though not the offspring of any formal
election, the Cabinet is virtually appointed by Parliament, and
more especially by the House of Commons, its existence being
dependent on the possession of a majority in the latter assembly.
As its acts are liable to be questioned in Parliament, and require
prompt explanation, it is essential that the members of the Cabinet
should have seats in either the Upper or the Lower House, where
they become identified with the general policy and acts of the
Government.

The member of the Cabinet who fills the position of First Lord of
the Treasury, and combined with it sometimes that of Chancellor of
the Exchequer, is the chief of the ministry, and therefore of the
Cabinet. It is at his recommendation that his colleagues are
appointed ; and he dispenses, with hardly an exception, the pa-
tronage of the Crown. Every Cabinet includes the following nine
members of the administration : the First Lord of the Treasury,
the Lord Chancellor, the Lord President of the Council, the Chan-
cellor of the Exchequer, and the five Secretaries of State. A
number of other ministerial functionaries, varying from two to eight,
have usually seats in the Cabinet, those most frequently admitted
being the Chief Commissioner of Works and Buildings, the Chancellor
of the Duchy of Lancaster, the First Lord of the Admiralty, the
President of the Board of Trade, Vice-President of Privy Council,
the Postmaster- General, the Chief Secretary for Ireland, and the Pre-
sident of the Local Government Board. The selection usually fallsupon
those amongst the last-mentioned functionaries whose rank, taleir.s,
reputation, and political weight, render them the most useful an
liaries, or whose services, while in opposition, may have created the
strongest claims to become members of the Cabinet. It has occasion
ally happened thai a statesman possessing high character and influence
accepted a seal in the Cabinet without undertaking the labours and
responsibilil ies of any particular office. Although the Cabinethas be i
regarded during several generations as an essential pan of the institu-
tions of Great Britain, yel it continues to be unknown to the law.
The names of the members who compose it are never officially

20 2 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

announced ; no record is kept of its resolutions or meetings, nor
has its existence been recognised by any Act of Parliament.

The present Cabinet, appointed February 21, 1874, consists of
twelve members. It was temporarily reduced to eleven by the
resignation, August 12, 1876, of the Earl of Malmesbury, who held
the office of Lord Privy Seal, which was not filled, its functions
being assumed by the First Lord of the Treasury. The Cabinet was
brought back to the original number by the admission, November
6, 1876, of the Chief Secretary for Ireland. The following is a list
of the members of the Cabinet : —

1. First Lord of the Treasury. — Benjamin Earl of Beaconsfield,
born December 31, 1805, eldest son of Isaac Disraeli, Esq., D.C.L.,
author of ' Curiosities of Literature,' and other works ; educated at
private schools for the profession of literature, and published
numerous works of fiction ; M.P. for Maidstone, 1837-41 ; M.P.
for Shrewsbury, 1841-47 ; M.P. for Buckinghamshire since 1847.
Chancellor of the Exchequer, March to December 1852 ; again
March 1858 to June 1859 ; and again July 1866 to February 1868.
First Lord of the Treasury, February 25 to December 2, 1868 ;
appointed again First Lord, February 21, 1874 ; elevated to the
Peerage, under the title of Earl of Beaconsfield, August 15, 1876.

2. Lord High, Chancellor. — Lord Cairns, formerly Sir Hugh
McCalmont Cairns, born 1819, son of the late William Cairns, Esq.,
of C ultra, Co. Down, Ireh.nd ; educated at Trinity College, Dublin,
and graduated LL.D. 1842 ; called to the Bar at the Middle Temple,
London, 1844; M.P. for Belfast, 185--66; Solicitor-General,
1858—59 ; Attorney-General and Lord Justice of Appeal, 1866-68 ;
Lord High Chancellor, February 28 to December 2, 1868.

3. Lord President of the Council. — Charles Henry Gordon-
Lennox, Duke of Richmond, born February 27, 1818, eldest son of
the fifth Duke of Richmond; educated at Westminster and Christ
Church, Oxford, and graduated B.A. 1839 ; entered the army in
the Royal Horse Guards, 1840; M.P. for West-Sussex, 1841-60;
President of the Poor Law Board, March to June 1859 ; succeeded
to the dukedom, October 1860 ; President of the Board of Trade,
March 1867 to December 1868.

4. Chancellor of the Exchequer. — Right Hon. Sir Stafford Henry
Northcote, Bart., C.B., born 1818, eldest son of Henry Stafford North-
cote, Esq.; educated at Balliol College, Oxford, and graduated M.A.
1842 ; called to the Bar of the Inner Temple, London, 1847 ; private
secretary to the Right Hon. Win. Ewart Gladstone, January to
June, 1859 ; President of the Board of Trade, July 1866 to March

1867 ; Secretary of State for India, March 1867 to December

1868 ; Member of the High Joint Commission under the Treaty of
Washington, September — October 1871 ; M P. for Dudley, 1855-57 ;
M.P. for Stamford, 1858-66; M.P. for North Devon since 1866.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 203

5. Secretary of State for the Home Department. — Eight. Hon.
Richard Assheton Cross, born 1823, son of William Cross, Esq., of
Bed Sear, near Preston ; educated at Rugby and at Trinity College,
Cambridge ; called to the Bar of the Inner Temple, 1849 ; M.P. for
Preston, 1857—62 ; M.P. for South- West Lancashire since 1868.

6. Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. — Right Hon. Edward
Henry Smith- Stanley, Earl of Derby, bom 1826, eldest son of the
fourteenth Earl ; educated at Rugby and Trinity College, Cambridge,
and graduated M.A. 1848 ; Under Secretary of State for Foreign
Affairs, February to December 1852 ; Secretary of State for the
Colonies, February to May, 1858 ; Secretary of State for India, May
1858 to June 1859 ; Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, July 6,
1866 to December 2, 1868; succeeded to the earldom, 1869.

7. Secretary of State for the Colonies. — Right Hon. Henry Howard
Molyneux Herbert, Earl of Carnarvon, born 1831, eldest son of the
third Earl ; educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford ; Under
Secretary of State for the Colonies, Feb. 1858 to June 1859 ;
Secretary of State for the Colonies, July 1866 to March 1867.

8. Secretary of State for India. — Right Hon. Robert Arthur
Talbot Gascoigne-Cecil, Marquis of Salisbury, born 1830, eldest son
of the second Earl ; educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford ;
M.P. for Stamford, 1853-68 ; succeeded to the earldom, 1868 ;
Secretary of State for India, July 1866 to March 1867.

9. Secretary of State for War. — Right Hon. Gathorne Hardy,
born 1814, son of John Hardy, Esq., of Bradford ; educated at
Shrewsbury and at Oriel College, Oxford ; Under Secretary of
State for the Home Department, 1858-59 ; President of the Poor
Law Board, July 1866 to March 1867; Secretary of State for the
Home Department, May 1867 to December 1868 ; M.P. for Leo-
minster, 1856-65 ; M.P. for the University of Oxford since 1865.

10. First Lord of the Admiralty. — Eight Hon. George Ward
Hunt, born 1825, son of the Rev. George Hunt, of Buckhurst,
Berkshire ; educated at Eton and at Christ Church, Oxford ;
Financial Secretary to the Treasury, 1866-68 ; Chancellor of the
Exchequer, February to December, 1868 ; M.P. for Northampton-
shire, North, since 1857.

11. Postmaster- General. — Right Hon. Lord John James Robert
Manners, born 1818, younger son of the fifth Duke of Rutland;
educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge ; Commissioner
ofWorks and Buildings, March to December 1852, again March
1858 to June 1859, and July 1866 to December 1868; M.P. for
Newark, 1841-47 ; M.P. for Colchester, 1850-57 ; M.P. for
Leicestershire, North, since 1857.

12. Chief Secretary for Ireland. — Right Hon. Sir Michael
Edward Hicks-Beach, born 1837, eldest son of Sir Michael Hicks

204

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Hicks-Beach, Bart., educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford ;
Parliamentary Secretary to the Poor Law Board, February to
December 1868 ; M.P. for East Gloucestershire since 18G4.

The following is a list of the heads of the various administrations
of Great Britain since the accession of the House of Hanover: —

First Lords of the Treasury

Dates of Appointment

Eobert Walpole

. October 10,

1714

James Stanhope

. April 10,

1717

Earl of Sunderland

. March 16,

1718

Sir Robert Walpole

. April 20,

1720

Earl of Wilmington

February 11,

1742

Henry Pelham

. July 26,

1743

Duke of Newcastle

. April 21.

1754

Earl of Bute .

. 3iay 29,

1762

George Grenville

. April 16,

1763

Marquis of Rockingham

. July 12,

1765

Duke of Grafton

. Angus! 2,

1766

Lord North

. January 28,

1770

Marquis of Rockingham

. March 30,

1782

Earl of Shelburne .

. July 3,

1782

Duke of Portland .

. April 5,

1783

William Pitt .

. December 27,

1783

Henry Addington .

. March 7,

1801

William Pitt .

. May 12,

1804

Lord Grenville

. January 8,

1806

Duke of Portland .

. March 13,

1807

Spencer Perceval

. June 23,

1810

Earl of Liverpool .

. June 8,

1812

George Canning

. April 11,

1827

Viscount Goderieh .

. August 10,

1827

'Duke of Wellington

. January 11,

L828

Earl Grey

. November 12,

1830

Viscount Melbourne

. July 14,

1834

Sir Robert Peel

. December 10,

1834

Viscount Melbourne

. April 18,

1835

Sir Robert Peel

. September 1,

1841

Lord John Russell .

• July 3,

1846

Earl of Derby

. February 27.

1852

Earl of Aberdeen .

. December 2<s,

1852

Viscount Palmerston

. February 8,

1855

Earl of Derby

. February 26,

1858

Viscount Palmerston

. June 18,

1859

Earl Russell .

. November 6,

1865

Earl of Derby .

. July 6,

1866

Benjamin Disraeli .

. February 27,

1868

William Ewart Gladstone

. December 9,

1868

Benjamin Disraeli .

. February 21,

1874

The above list shows the average duration of each Ministry to be ot
three years and eight months, or about the same as the average dura-
tion of Parliaments.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 205

Church and Education

The Established Church of England is Protestant Episcopal. Its
fundamental doctrines and tenets are embodied in the Thirty-nine
Articles, agreed upon in Convocation in 1562, and revised and finally
settled in 1571. But though the Episcopal is the State religion, all
others are fully tolerated, and civil disabilities do not attach to any
class of British subjects.

The Queen is by law the supreme governor of the Church, possess-
ing the right, regulated by the 4th section of the statute 25 Hen. VIII.
c. 20, to nominate to the vacant archbishoprics and bishoprics, the
form being to send to the dean and chapter of the vacant see the
royal licence, or conge d'elire, to proceed to the election, accompanied
by the Queen's letter naming the person to be elected ; and after-
wards the royal assent and confirmation of the appointment is
signified under the Great Seal. But this form applies only to the
sees of old foundation ; the bishoprics of Gloucester and Bristol,
Chester, Peterborough, Oxford, Eipon. and Manchester, are conferred
direct by letters patent from the Crown. The Queen, and the First
Lord of the Treasury in her name, also appoints to such deaneries,
prebendaries, and canonries as are in the gift of the Crown.

There are 2 archbishops and 26 bishops in England. The former
are the chiefs of the clergy in their provinces, and have within them the
inspection of the bishops, as well as of the inferior clergy, for which
purpose they undertake visitations, which are now, however, practi-
cally episcopal, not archiepiscopal, and made only as bishops within
their own dioceses. They have, assisted by at least two other
bishops, the confirmation and consecration of the bishops. They
have also each his own particular diocese, wherein they exercise
episcopal, as in their provinces they exercise archiepiscopal, jurisdic-
tion. For the management of ecclesiastical affairs, the provinces have
each a council, or convocation, consisting of the bishops, archdeacons,
and deans, in person, and of a certain number of proctors, as the
representatives of the inferior clergy, each chapter, in both provinces,
sending one, and the parochial clergy of each diocese in the province
of Canterbury, and of each archdeaconry in the province of York,
sending two. These councils are summoned by the respective arch-
bishops, in pursuance of the Queen's mandate. When assembled,
they must also have the Queen's licence before they can deliberate;
as well as the sanction of the Crown to their resolutions, before they
are binding on the clergy. In the province of Canterbury, the Con-
vocation forms two Houses; the archbishop and bishops sitting
together in the Upper House, and the inferior clergy in the Lower.
In the province of York, all sit together in one House.

206 THE STATESMAN'S YEAE-BOOK, 1877.

England is distributed into 200 extra-parochial places, and
about 12,000 parishes. Tn every parish there is a parish church,
presided over by a rector, who holds the living. Whoever is in full
possession of all the rights of such parish church is called ' parson ' —
persona ecclesia? — and constitutes a jural person. During his life he
has the freehold of the parsonage, the glebe-lands, the tithes, and
other dues. Occasionally these dues are 'appropriated,' that is,
the benefice is perpetually annexed to some spiritual corporation,
which, either sole or aggregate, is the patron of the living. Such cor-
poration appoints a vicar, to whom the spiritual duty belongs, in the
same manner as, in parsonages not appropriated, to the rector. The
patronage — advocatio, advowson — is ranked under the head of real
property. Advowsons are either appendant or in gross ; appendant
when annexed to the possession of a manor, and passing by a grant
of the manor only, without any other authority. But when the
advowson has been once separated from the property of the manor,
it is called advowson in gross. The owner of the advowson is
invested Avith the same privileges as in landed property. When an
alien purchases a right of presentation, the Crown has to present ; if a
Catholic, it is exercised by either university in turn. Since 1835
the right of presentation of corporate towns has been abolished.
Besides the right of presentation pertaining to the Queen, the Lord
Chancellor, the Prince of Wales, the higher clergy, the chapters, and
the universities, there are about 3,850 lords, gentlemen and ladies
in the enjoyment of private patronage.

No information regarding the number of persons belonging to the
Episcopal Church and those adhering to other religious creeds in
England is given in the last official census. It is estimated that
in the middle of the year 1871 the population of England and
Wales claiming membership with the Established Church was
about 12,700,000, leaving about 11,000,000 to other creeds.
Among the Protestant dissenters the most prominent bodies and
religious organisations are the Wesleyans, or so-called Methodists,
the Independents, or Congregationalists, and the Baptists. The
Wesleyan Body, subdivided into members of the Old and New
Connexion, Primitive and Free Church Methodists, Bible Christians,
and various other sects, is stated to possess above 9,000 places
of worship ; the Independents 3,500 ; and the Baptists 2,000. Of
more or less importance, among the other Protestant dissenters,
are the Unitarians, the Moravians, and the members of the
Society of Friends. There are altogether 14G religious denomina-
tions in Great Britain, the names of which have been given in to
the Registrar- General of Births, Deaths, and Marriages.

The number of Roman Catholics in England is estimated at
2,000,000. There are seventeen high dignitaries of the Roman Catholic

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 207

Church in England and Wales, namely, one archbishop and sixteen
bishops, presiding over as many ' dioceses,' united in the so-called
' Province of Westminster.' In Scotland, the Roman Catholic Church
has three ' Apostolic Vicariates,' in three ' districts,' the Eastern, the
Western, and the Northern. In June 1876, there were 1,035
Roman Catholic chapels in England and Wales, and 228 in Scotland.
The number oi officiating Roman Catholic clergy at the same date
was 1,697 in England and Wales, and 248 in Scotland.

The Church of Scotland differs in many and important respects
from the Episcopal Church of England. The Scottish Church is a
perfect democracy, all the members being equal, none of them having
power or pre-eminence of any kind over another. There is in each
parish a parochial tribunal, called a kirk session, consisting of the
minister, who is always resident, and of a greater or smaller number
of individuals, of whom, however, there must always be two selected
as elders. The principal duty of the latter is to superintend the
affairs of the poor, and to assist in visiting the sick. The session
interferes in certain cases of scandal, calls parties before it, and
inflicts ecclesiastical penalties. But parties who consider themselves
aggrieved may appeal from the decisions of the kirk session to the
presbytery in which it is situated, the next highest tribunal in the
church. The General Assembly, which consists partly of clerical
and partly of lay members, chosen by the different presbyteries,
boroughs, and universities, comprises 386 members, and meets
annually in May, sitting for ten days, the matters not decided
during this period being left to a commission.

The dissenters from the Church of Scotland are very numerous,
being estimated as comprising from one-half to two-thirds of the
entire population. The largest body is the Free Church formed from
a secession in 1843. Next is the United Presbyterian Church, re-
cently formed from the amalgamation of several bodies of seceders,
some dating as far back as 1741. There are also bodies of
Baptists, Independents, Methodists, and Unitarians. The Roman
Catholics have increased largely of late years, chiefly from the
influx of Irish population. There is an Episcopal Church which
includes a large portion of the nobility and gentry, and is said to
be growing. Its members were estimated, in 1871, at 6.">, 000.

The number of Jews in Great Britain was estimated, in June
1876, at 51,250, of which number 39,883 resided in London.

The census of Ireland, taken on the 3rd April 1871, stated that
there were 4,141,933 Roman Catholics, 683,295 persons returning
themselves as belonging to the ' Church of Ireland,' or as ' Pre-

»_ testant Episcopalians,' 558,238 Presbyterians, 41,815 Methodists,

t'u*L485 Independents, 4,643 Baptists, 3,834 Quakers, 258 Jews, and

whob035 individuals of other persuasions.

their ec*

2o8 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

The Roman Catholic Chilrch is under four archbishops, of Armagh,
Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam, and twenty-three bishops. Eight of the
bishops, viz. Ardagh, Clogher, Derry, Down and Connor, Dromore,
Kilmore, Meath, and Raphoe, are suffragan to Armagh. Dublin
has but three suffragans, viz. Kildare and Leighlin united, Ferns, and
Ossory. Six are suffragan to Cashel, namely Ardfert and Aghadoe

usually called the Bishop of Kerry, Cloyne, and Enss — Cork,

Killaloe," Limerick, Waterford, and Lismore. Tuam has four suffra-
gans, viz. Achonry, Clonfert, Killala, and Gal way. The bishop of the
united dioceses of Kilmacduagh and Kilfenora is alternately suffragan
to the archbishops of Tuam and Cashel. The wardenship of Galway,
formerly an exempt jurisdiction, subject only to the triennial visita-
tion of the archbishop of Tuam, has been lately erected into a
bishopric, under its former archiepiscopal jurisdiction. On the
death of a bishop, the clergy of the diocese elect a vicar-capitular,
who exercises spiritual jurisdiction during the vacancy. They
also nominate one of their own body, or sometimes a stranger, as
successor to the vacancy, in whose favour they postulate or petition
the Pope. The bishops of the province also present the names of
two or three eligible persons to the Pope. The new bishop is
Generally chosen from among this latter number ; but the appoint-
ment virtually rests with the cardinals, who constitute the congregation
de propaganda fide. Their nomination is submitted to the Pope, by
whom it is usually confirmed. In cases of old age or infirmity, the
bishop nominates a coadjutor, to discharge the episcopal duties in his
stead ; and his recommendation is almost invariably attended to.
The emoluments of a bishop arise from his parish, which is generally
the best in the diocese, from licences of marriage, &c, and from the
cathedraticum. The last is an annual sum, varying from 21. to
10£., according to the value of the parish, paid by the incumbent, in
aid -of the maintenance of the episcopal dignity. The parochial
clergy are nominated exclusively by the bishop. The incomes of
all descriptions of the Roman Catholic clergy of Ireland arise partly
from fees on the celebration of births, marriages, and masses ; and
partly, and principally, from Christmas and Easter dues, and other
voluntary offerings. All places of worship are built by subscription.

The established Protestant Church of Ireland, formerly in union
with the Church of England, under two archbishops, and ten bishops,
ceased to be a state establishment by Act of Parliament, 32 and 33
Vict., cap. 42, which decreed that 'on and after January 1. 1871,
the Church of Ireland shall cease to be established by law.' .

Public education has made vast progress in Great Britain within
the last quarter of a century, though, according to the test of educa-
tion supplied by grown-up persons signing their names or having
to make their mark, a great difference exists in the prevalence of

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 209

elementary knowledge in different counties of England. The last
returns, issued in September 1872, and referring to 1870, show
that in the latter year nearly 20 per cent, of the males and more
than 27 per cent, of the females who were married — the number of
marriages in England and Wales being 181,655 (see p. 2-46) — made
marks instead of signing their names to the marriage register. On
the average of every 100 marriages in 18-41 the proportion of men
who signed the register with their names was 33, and the proportion
of women was 49 ; but in 1869 the proportion of men was 20, and
the proportion of women was 28. In some parts of England and
South Wales, however, scarcely more than one half of the women
who Avere married in 1869 and 1870 could write or sign their names.
In South Wales more than half the women had to make their ' marks';
and in Staffordshire, Monmouthshire, Lancashire, and North Wales
the illiterate condition of the people was no better. The counties in
which the highest proportion of women wrote their names were
Surrey, Sussex, Rutland, Middlesex, Westmoreland, Hants, Kent,
and Berks — the counties taking rank in the order here given. The
percentages of men who could write their names to the marriage
register in the year 1870 were highest in Westmoreland, Rutland,
Northumberland, Middlesex, Surrey, the North Riding of Yorkshire
and the East Riding of Yorkshire. In London the percentage was
as high as 91, while among the women the percentage was 85. A
full comparison of the lists shows that the uneducated are found in
greater numbers among mining and manufacturing populations than
in the agricultural portions of the kingdom. The returns are not
quite so favourable as regards Ireland. It is stated by the Registrar-
General in his report for 1869, issued in 1872, that in that year 36
per cent, of the men and 46 per cent, of the women whose marriages
were registered in Ireland, signed the register by making their
marks, instead of writing their names, or 41 per cent., ""-eckoning
men and women together. In England, in the same year, as above
slated, the ratios were only 20 per cent, of the men and 28 per cent,
of the women.

An important measure towards the further spread of education in
England was passed by Parliament in the session of 1870. By 33
Victoria, cap. 75, entitled 'An Act to provide for Public Elemen-
tary Education in England and Wales,' it is ordered that 'there
shall be provided for every school district a sufficient amount of
accommodation in public elementary schools available tor all the
children resident in such district, for whose elementary education
efficient and suitable provision is not otherwise made.' it is enacted
further that all children attending these 'public elementary schools,'
whose parents are unable, from poverty, to pay anything towards
their education, shall be admitted free, and the expenses so incurred

2IO

THE STATESMANS YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

be discharged from local rates. The new schools are placed in each
district under ' School boards,' invested with great powers, among
others that of making it compulsory upon parents to give all children
between the ages of five and thirteen the advantages of education.

The following table, compiled from official returns, relating to the
Primary Schools in Great Britain, gives a view of the progress of
education within the years 1867 to 1875 : —

Number of

Number of Chil-

Average number

Years ended 31st August

Schools

dren who can be

of Children in

inspected

accommodated

attendance

England and Wales (including Isle of Man and

1867 .

Roman Catholic Schools for Great Britain)

7,601

1,605,409

978,332

1868

8,051

1,724,569

1,060,082

1869

8,592

1,838,416

1,153,572

1870

8,986

1,950,641

1,255,083

1871

9,521

2,092,984

1,345,802

1872

10,751

2,397,745

1,445,326

1873

11,911

2,683,467

1,570,741

1874

13,084

2,952,479

1,710,806

1875

14,067

3,229,112

1,863,176

1867 .

Scotland, exclusive of Roman Catholic Schools

1,739

231,898

169,131

1868

1,843

246,041

181,698

1869

1,745

237,928

179,214

1870

1,963

264,594

198,448

1871

1,944

264,041

201,393

1872

1,962

267,412

206,099

1873

2,043

279,719

212,989

1874

2,587

391,592

274,588

1875

2,890

407,002

312,346

1867 .

Total for Great Britain

9,340

1,837,307

1,147,463

1868

9,894

1,970,610

1,241,780

1869

10,337

2,076,344

1,332,786

1870

10,949

2,215,235

1,453,531

1871

11.465

2,357,025

1.547,195

1872

12,713

2,665,157

1,651,425

1873

13,954

2,963,186

1,783,730

1874

15,671

3,344,071

1,985,394

1875

16,957

3,636,114

2,175,522

The annual parliamentary grants to primary schools in Great
Britain, which amounted to 30,000Z. in 1840, rose to 180,110/.
in 1850; to 668,873/. in 1858; and to 774,743/. in 1862.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

211

In 1803, the grant was reduced to 721,3861.] in 18G4, to
655,036/.; in 1865, to 636,306/.; in 1866 to 649,006/.; in
1867, to 682,201/.; and in 1868 to 680,429/.; while in 1869
it was raised again to 840,711/.; in 1870 to 914,721/.; in 1871 to
1.038,624/.; in 1872 to 1,268,350/. ; in 1873 to 1,313,078/.; in
1874 to 1,424,878/.; in 1875 to 1,566,271/.; and in 1876 to
1,881,728/.

In the financial year ending the 31st of March, 1875, the actual
expenditure in England and Wales from the Parliamentary grant
for elementary education amounted to 1,356,746/., which included
126,141/., for cost of administration. The greater part of the
expenditure of 1874-75 was for schools connected with the Church
of England, the total amounting to 882,565/., being an increase of
58,337/. over the previous year. It appears from a parliamentary
return, issued in the session of 1876, that altogether, since 1839, the
time when the system of public instruction began to take definite
shape, the Church of England received in the form of parliamentary
grants the sum of 10,463,441/., while during the same period the
sum of 2,669,894/. was granted to British, Wesleyan, and other
elementary schools.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The following statement gives the official account of the gross
public revenue of the United" Kingdom for the financial year ending
March 31, 1876 :—

Sources of Revenue
Customs ....
Excise ....

Stamps ....
Land Tax and House Duty
Property and Income Tax .
Post Office ....
Telegraph Service
Crown Lands (Net)
Miscellaneous : —

Military and Naval extra Receipts .
Amount received from the Revenues 1
of India on accountof Charges for J-
British Troops . . . .J
Interest on Public Loans
Allowance out of Profits of Issue }
received from Bank of England >
Savins; on votes of credit for AbysO
sinian and Ashantee wars . .J
Other Miscellaneous Receipts

20,020,000

27,626,000

11,002,000

2,496,000

4,109,000

5,950.000

1,245,000

395,000

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

d.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

805,493

835,000

542,569

138,578

391,992

1,575,059

4,288,693

Total Revenue

77,131,693 5 2

p 2

212

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The following statement exhibits the official account of the gross
expenditure of the United Kingdom for the financial year ending
March 31, 1876 :—

Branches of Expenditure

Debt:

Gross Expenditure

Interest and Management of the Perma-

£ 5.

nent Debt ....

. 21,623,312 14

Terminable Annuities .

5,364,4S7 5

Interest of Exchequer Bills

132.049 10

New Sinking Fund

280.150 10

27,400,000

Interest on Loans for Local Purposes

43,750

Charges on Consolidated Fund :

Civil List .....

406,841 4

Annuities and Pensions

328,109 16

Salaries and Allowances

97,930 3

Courts of Justice .

629,652 7

Miscellaneous Charges

94,556 11

Localisation of the Military Forces

200,000 0

1,757,090

Supply Services :

Army .....

14,577. U38 6

Charges for troops in India

500,000 0

Army Purchase Commission

501,638 5

Navy .....

11,063,449 4

Miscellaneous Civil Services

13,119,364 14

Customs and Inland Eevenue

2,694,393 1

Post Office ....

2,982,000 0

Telegraph Service

1,022,000 0

Packet Service ....

884,054 3

—

47,344,367

Total Ordinary Expenditure

Purchase of Shares in the Suez Canal .

Expenses provided for by Annuities :
Constructing certain Fortifications

Total Expenditure .

76,545,207 17 8
4,076,565 5 8

250,000 0 0

80,871,7

3 4

It will be seen that the total gross revenue of the United Kingdom
in the year ended March 31, 1876, amounted to 77,131,693/. 5s. 2d.
The total expenditure was 80,871,773/. 3s. 4rZ., showing an excess
of expenditure of 3,740,079/. 18s. 2d. The balance in the
Exchequer was 5,119,587/. 2s. on March 31, 1876.

The budget estimates for the financial year ending March 31r
1877 — laid by the Chancellor of the Exchequer before the House
of Commons on April ] 3, 1876 — were as follows : —

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

213

Estimated Expenditure

, 1876-77.

Estimated Revenue,

1876-77.
£
20,250,000

Interest on Debt

£
27.700.000

Customs .

Interest on Local Loans .

160,000

Excise

27,650,000

Charge of Suez Canal Loan

1, "(0,000

Stamps

11,000,000

Consolidated Fund Charges

1,590,000

Land Tax and House Duty

2,50().(io(i

Army ....

15,282,000

Income Tax

4,10().<H)ii

Purchase ....

•164,000

Post Office

5,950,000

Navy ....

11.289,000

Telegraphs

l,325,ooo

Civil Service

13,309,000

Crown Lands .

395,000

Post Office

3,120,000

Miscellaneous .

4,100,000

Collection of Eevenue

2,730,000

Telegraphs

1,280,000

Total Revenue

77,270.ooo

Packet Service

"O i. A* T 1* / 11 -. _~^

852,000

Total Expenditure .

78,044,000

.Repayment ot Indian Charges

Manchester Post Office

100,000

Total Estimated Deficit

774,000

Total Expenditure . 78,044,000

The deficit for the period 1876-77 was to be covered by raising
the income tax (see page 218) which was calculated to raise the
revenue of the year to 78,412,000/., leaving a surplus of 308,000/.

The following table shows the total amounts of the estimated and
.actual gross public revenue for the sixteen years from 1801 to 1876,
together with the proportion of actual receipts per head of popu-
lation of the United Kingdom : —

Revenue

Proportion

of receipts

Years ended

Estimated

Actual receipts

More ( + )

per head

in the

at the

or less (— )

Budgets

Exchequer

than Budget

population

£ s. d.

March 31, 1861 .

72.248,000

70,283.674

-1,964,326

2 8 11

1862 .

70.283,000

69,674,479

- 608,521

2 8 3

1863 .

70.050,000

70,603,561

+ 553,561

2 8 4

1864 .

68.171,000

70.208,964

+ 2.037,964

2 7 9

1865 .

67,128.000

70,313,436

+ 3,185,436

2 7 7

1866 .

66,392,000

67,812,292

+ 1,420,292

2 5 7

1867 .

67,013,000

69,434,568

+ 2.421,508

2 6 5

1868 .

69,970,000

69,600,218

- 369,782

2 6 2

1869 .

73,150,000

72.591,991

- 558,009

2 7 9

1860 .

73,515,000

75,434,252

+ 1.919,252

2 9 3

„

1871 .

67,634,000

69,945,220

+ 2,311,220

2 5 4

1872 .

72,315.0(10

74,708,314

+ 2,393.314

2 7 3

1873 .

71,846,000

76,608,770

+ 4,762,770

2 8 2

1874 .

73,762.000

77,335,657

+ 3.573,657

2 S 3

1875 .

74,-125,000

74,921,873

+ 496,873

2 6 3

1876 .

76,625.000

77.131,693

+ 1,500,693

2 7 1

The following table shows the total amount of the estimated and
actual gross public expenditure for the sixteen years from 1861 to

214

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK. I&T7-

1870, with the difference between the calculated and real expenses,
and the proportion of actual payments per head of population of the
United Kingdom : —

Proportion

ExpEsrrruiiK

expem

Years ended

per '■■ ■:
popolation !

fnited
Kin.:

Estimated

Actual pay-

More ( + )

in the

ments

ss -

Budgets

the Exchequer

than E

M.ird

" "'U.OOO

". " 2.0J9

- 896

2 li i

1862

71,487,000

71,11 •

- S7%51a

- 9 11

1863

70.loS.ooo

I -

- - :

2 a .

1864

-I.-:. •

186-5

' .

66.4 :. .

-786,7

1866

67,249,000

6o,914..V>7

-1.4

. t 8

1867

67.' '

SfiJSOyS&fi

- 250*604

2 4 0

1868

n J87

71.2o6.242

- >0,758

1869

•■ 3 3

74.971,816

-2,88 •

. 5 -

68. 498,000

fcfi " -

+ 8 : " .

. t 0

1871

69,48

69,548

„

- . ! ;:;,otio

71.490,020

- 942 -

. 5 0

187

71,6

- -

- 948

U,8lo

'■;.5io

- " "

183

■ 17

■ J8

- 1 >

. i 10

1876

- -u.ooo

- . "-

- II

2 6 '

The expenditure tor the seven years endiug March SI, IS
irrespective of the amount paid tor fortitLv.
annuities under the \ - ~ _ : •.,.'-'

in the budgets. The expenditure for the financial periods I 3 3
and 1869 included supplemental votes for the Abyssinian expedition
to the amount of "vtJOO.000/.. and the expenditure for the ;
I >_ '-74 was inclusive of the sum of S,20O,00W. paid for ;
Claims ' uuder the Treaty of Was by, the ea

for the year 1875—76 included disbursements not covered by v

- i, to the amount of $ ' . 'br the army and for arrangements

for the purchas. ^ shares

It will be seen from the above tables that, as regards the (fifteen

'•. of the two years ending March 31, IS81
' 3 . -cspectively, there was a deficiency of revenue, the amount
Sttcil detici, ■ - -' • > I :.44l\i\v

18 .. and that in the five subsequent

surplus — vb. i.- ■ 18 1,678 a 18

351,89 L865; 1,897,9 18 immlS

But in the year ending March 5 I, 1868, there was
siderab'e : : - - -

in the year end . 1869, the detb

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

due entirely to the expenditure of the expedition to Abyssinia. The
financial year 1869-70 showed a surplus of 6.569,500/. ; the year
1870-71 a surplus of 396.681/.: the year 1871—2 a surplus of
3,218,294/.; the year 1872-73 a surplus of 5.894.322/. : the year
1873-74 a surplus of 869.147/. ; > 74-75 a surplus of

593,833/.; and the year 1875-76 a surplus of 509,920/.

During the greater part of the period, there "was an almost un-
interrupted reduction of taxation. The changes made in taxation in
the fifteen years, from 1861-62 to 1875-76, were as follows : —

Years.

Taxo -

reducai

Est:*
Amount

Taxes imposed

: - mated

ATI'

- — z.

■.<: —

Rep;. . .

raw or "J
J

15,000

Hats cr bonnets 1
of straw .

- : —

74S
j

- .

■ -
|

.244,153

5,000

•

rits in !■. 1

\- - ' -

met!
-

- . .
- : —

60.

. -

- "00

<: —

s n

Br-.

- '00

Stamps . .

- 1

,671

J :?: ■ — < —

s : —

- . . J

- : —

_ -

- .

! "-

•

- 2

11.'

1 900

Uxne-i

. 1,64

,811

214

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

187G, with the difference between the calculated and real expenses,
and the proportion of actual payments per head of population of the
United Kingdom : —

Proportion

Expenditure

of
expenditure I

Years ended

per head of
population 1

Estimated

Actual pay-

More (+)

in the

ments out of

or less (— )

United
Kingdom 1

Budgets

the Exchequer

than Budget

£ s. (1.

March31, 1861

73,534,000

72,792,059

- 898.941

2 10 8

1862

! 71,487,000

71,116,485

- 370,515

2 9 11

1863

j 70,108,000

69,302,008

- 805,992

2 8 2

1864

| 68,283,000

67,056,286

-1,226,714

2 6 2

1865

1 67,249,000

66,462,206

_ 786,794

2 5 4

1866

| 67,249,000

65,914,357

-1,434,643

2 4 8

1867

67,031,000

66,780,396

- 250,604

2 4 0

1868

71,287,000

71,236.242

— 50,758

2 6 7

1869

77,858,000

74,971,816

-2,885,184

2 8 8

1860

68,498,000

68,864,752

+ 366,752

2 4 0 !

1871

1 69,486,000

69,548,539

+ 62,539

2 4 3

1872

I 72,433,000

71,490,020

- 942,980

2 5 0

1873

! 71,663.000

70,714,448

- 948,552

2 4 5

1874

■ 75,511,815

76,466.510

+ 954,695

2 7 7

1875

; 74,527,000

74,328.040

- 198,960

2 5 10

1876

1 76,741,000

76,621,773

- 119,227

2 6 10

The expenditure for the seven years ending March 31, 18G7, wasr
irrespective of the amount paid for fortifications, provided for by
annuities under the Acts 23, 24, 25, and 2G Vict., and not estimated
in the budgets. The expenditure for the financial periods 18G8
and 18G9 included supplemental votes for the Abyssinian expedition
to the amount of 5,000.0007., and the expenditure for the year
1873-74 was inclusive of the sum of 3,200,000/. paid for 'Alabama
Claims ' under the Treaty of Washington. Finally, the expenditure
for the year 1875-76 included disbursements not covered by money
raised, to the amount of 276, 56G/., for the army and for arrangements
for the purchase of Suez Canal shares.

It will be seen from the above tables that, as regards the fifteen last
financial periods, in each of the two years ending March 31, 1861
and 1862 respectively, there was a deficiency of revenue, the amount
of such deficiency being 2,508,385/. in 1861, and 1,442,006/. in
1862, and that in each of the five subsequent years there was a
large surplus— viz. 1,301,553/. in 1863; 3,152,678/. in 1864;
3,851,230/. in 1865; 1,897,935/. in 1866; and 2,654,172/. in 1867.
But in the year ending March 31, 1868, there was again a con-
siderable deficit, namely, 1,636,024/., which increased to 2,380,825/.
in the year ending March 31, 1869, the deficit of both periods being

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

215

due entirely to the expenditure of the expedition to Abyssinia. The
financial year 1869-70 showed a surplus of 6,569,500/. ; the year
1870-71 a surplus of 396,681/.; the year 1871-2 a surplus of
3,218,29-1/.; the year 1872-73 a surplus of 5,894,322/. ; the year
1873-74 a surplus of 869,147/. ; the year 1874-75 a surplus of
593,833/. ; and the year 1875-76 a surplus of 509,920/.

During the greater part of the period, there was an almost un-
interrupted reduction of taxation. The changes made in taxation in
the fifteen years, from 1861-62 to 1875-76, were as follows : —

1 oars, Taxes repealed or

ZuhnZ reduced
Mar.ol

Estimated
Amount

Taxes imposed

. Estimated
Amount

1 Customs : —

Customs : —

Repealed :
Hats or bonnets

}

2S5

Chicory, raw or "
kiln-dried .

15,000

of straw .

Excise : —

Paper, books
and prints .

} ! 29,743

j Duty on chicory -
increased from

Reduced :

5s. Qd, to 8s. 6d.

Hops .

5,372

per cwt. ; licen-

1862

Wine .
Excise :

244,158

ces to retail spi-
rits in bottles,

5,000

Paper duty repea

led

1,350.000

table beer, and

Property tax re
duced

■1
J

1,060,000

methylated

spirits . . J

Stamps : — imposed
Total .

60,000

Total .

2,689,558

80,000

Customs : —

Excise : —

Hop duty repealed .

98,671

j Brewers' licences : "

230,000

Excise :

— increased . J

Hop duty repealed

250,000

Victuallers' oeca- !

: Stamps .

5,000

sional licences

2 000

1863

1 Duty on chicory :
increased . J

Stamps: — increa-"]
sed or imposed . J

Total .

20,500

. 252,500

Total .

353,671

Customs : —

Duties reduced :

Duty on chicory : 1

6,811

Tea .

1,641,541

— increased . J

Tobacco

74,055

Excise : —

Charges on bills

)

Chicory :-increasei

1 1,000

1864 of la,lill« ri'

1- ] 180,723

Stage carriages

11,000

pealed

Beer dealers :-ad-~]

2,000

Property tax re

I '2,750,000
. |4,646,319

ditional licence J

duced

Total .

Beer retailers
Total .

Kl.OOO

. , 3Q,811

2l6

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Years,
ending
Mar.SJ

1865

1SG6

1SG7

1868

1869

1870

Taxes repealed or
reduced

Estimated
Amount

Customs : —
Reduced :
Sugar & molasses
Confectionery

Excise:- —

Tea licences reduced

Stamps : —
Various reductions
Property tax red.

Total .

1,741,272
3,112

15,000

36.3,000

1,230,000

3,354,384

Customs : —
Tea duty reduced . j 2, 224,981

Stamps : —
Fire ins. duty red. . 520,000
Property tax red. . !2. 600,000

Total

. 5,344,981

Customs & Excise :-
Various reductions 601,462

Stamps : —

Marine Insu-"l
ranees reduced . J
Assessed Taxes: —

Dog duty reduced .

Total .

210,000

105,000
315,000

Nil

Customs & Excise :
Various reductions [1,231,687

Stamps : —

Fire Ins. repealed [1,000,000
Various taxes rep. . 166,983

Income-tax reduced .
Total .

1,450.000
4,848,670

Taxes imposed

Excise : —
Occasional licen- ~)
ces to retailers J

Sugar used in ]
brewing:— Duty V
iucreased . j

Licences : — vari- ^
ous trade, imp. /'

Chicory duty in- ^
creased . )

Customs : —
Sugar-cane juice "^
duty increased J

Nil

Excise : —
Dog licences .

Taxes:—
Income-tax incr.

Total .

Estimated
Amount

1,000

6,000

110,000

2,000

119,000

1,576

Taxes :- —
Income-tax incr.

Customs : —

Beer, spruce: in-~\
creased . j

Excise: —
Licences imposed in
lieu of Assessed
Taxes repealed .

Total

150,000

1,450,000
1,600,000

1,450,000

114

1,112,886

1,113,000

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

217

Years,
ending
Mar.31

Tuxes repealed or
reduced

Estimated
Amount

1871

Customs : —
Sugar reduced

Excise : —

Licences repealed .

Stamps . —
Stamp upon News- 1
papers repealed J
Stamps reduced
Income-tax reduced .
Total .

2,783,281

40,000

120,000

201,400
l,o00,000"

4,644,681

1S72

Customs : —
Various small re- "\
ductions . J

Total

Taxes imposed

Estimated
Amount

Customs : —
Spirits, perfumed, "1
increased . ./

Excise :• —

Licence to carry £

Guns imposed i
Sugar

Brewin

creased

used in "j
ring, in- [
sed . J

^,661

75,000
70,000

Total

Customs : —

Duties imposed
Taxes : —

Income-tax inc.

Total

1873

1874

Customs : —
Chicory reduced .
Coffee „

Total Customs .

Excise : —

Chicory reduced .

Income Tax reduced
Total

61,868
191,301

243,169

10,000
3,642,000
3,895,169"

Customs : —

Sugar Duty red. . i 1,61 7,380

Excise : — ■

Duty repealed
Income Tax reduced
Total .

Customs : —
Sugar Duties re-^ •> 9«2 903
pealed /

30,000
TjbQ,000
3~403~,"389

Customs : —
Chloroform, duty ^
increased . J

Total .

147,338

131
3,050,000

3,050,131

Excise : —

Sugar used in
Brewing duty
increased

Total .

1875

i 1876

Excise : —
Duties repealed
Income tax reduced
Total .

Excise : —

Lriwers" Duty red.

489,000
1,840,000

4,611,000

60,000

Excise : —
Sugar i:sed in
brewing, duty
increased

Total

30,000
30,000

57,000

2lS

THE STATESMAN'S YEAK-BOOK, 1877.

The subjoined table gives an abstract of total alterations of taxes
in the fifteen financial years ending March 31, from 1861 to 1876 : —

Customs .

Excise .....
Property and Income Tax
Other Taxes ....
Stamps (incl. Succession Duty)

Total ....

Repealed or
Reduced

Imposed

Actual

Diminution

14,542,840
2,705,000

17,828,000
1,271,983
2,421,400

£
26,034
1,875,000
5,950,000

80,500

14,516,806
830,000

11,878,000
1,271,983
2,340,900

38,769,223

7,931,534

30,837,689

The most important of direct taxes, that upon incomes, under-
went nineteen alterations from the time it was established in its
present form, in 1842, till the year 1876. On its introduction, the
income-tax was fixed at Id. in the pound, which rate was
maintained until 1854, when it was doubled in consequence of the
war with Russia, and in 1855 it was further raised to 16c/. The
rate was reduced again to Id. in 1857, and to od. in 1858. In
1859 it was raised to 9d., and in 1860 to 10c/., while in 1861 it
was again reduced to 9c/., in 1863 to Id., in 1864 to 6a"., and in
1865 to Ad. In 1867 the duty was raised to od., in 1868 to 6cL
and in 1869 reduced to 5c/. In 1870, it was once more reduced
to 4(7., in 1871 once more brought up to 6c/., in 1872 again reduced
to Ad., in 1873 to 3d., and in 1874 to 2d. in the pound. In 1876 it
was again raised to 3d. in the pound, but limited to incomes of over
150/. per annum, with deduction of 120/. for all incomes between
150/. and 400/.

The total amount annually raised by local taxation and other local
revenue to provide for expenditure connected with the relief of the
poor, county and borough police, roads and bridges, drainage and
lighting of towns, &c, was as follows in the three divisions of the
United Kingdom in the year ending March 31, 1874: —

Divisions

Receipts from
Taxes

Raised by Loans

Total local

Revenue

from all sources

England and Wales

Scotland (partly estimated) .

Ireland .....

Total for United Kingdom

23,897,029

2,372,557

2,996,009

£
8,201,499
149,494
129,493

8,480,486

37,731,193

3,202,714

4,599,908

45,533,815

29,247,595

The following table exhibits the amount of the various branches

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

219

of local expenditure in each of the three divisions of the United King-
doni in the year ending March 31, 1874:: —

Local Expenditure

England and Wales
In the Metropolis : —

Poor Relief, including Workhouse Loans repaid
All other Parochial Expenditure payable out of Poor!
Bates ........ J

Local Management by Vestries, &c. (exclusive of"|

Metropolitan Board of Works), Maintenance of j*

Roads, &c, Watering, Lighting, Sewerage, &c. . J

Metropolitan Board of Works : Local Public Works, )

Sewerage, &c ....... J

City of)
• /

Corporation and Commissioners of Sewers of
London, Local Public Works, Sewerage, &c
Metropolitan Police ....

School Boards .....
Burial Boards, &c. .....

Total Local Expenditure in Metropolis

Country Districts : —

Poor Relief, including Workhouse Loans repaid
All other Parochial Expenditure payable out of Poor)
Rates ......... J

County purposes : Police, Prisons, Lunatic Asylums, &c. .
Municipal Boroughs for Public Works, Police, &c. .
Urban Sanitary Authorities ......

Rural „ „ ......

For Maintenance of Public Roads, by —

Highway Boards ......

Turnpike Trusts .......

School Boards ........

Burial Boards for Public Cemeterios ....

Other purposes ........

Total Local Expenditure in Country Districts

Coast Districts : —

For Kreetion, Maintenance, and Repairs of Commercial ~\
Harbours ........ J

For Erection, Maintenance, and Repairs of Lighthouses, \
&c, and for Pilotage and saving Life at Sea . /

Total England and Wales

&
1,636,541

136,507

1,773,048
1,516,964

1,385,015

1,136,371

1,041,601

743,448

56,710

7,653,157

6,053,998

583,154

6,637,152

2,780,165

3,573,433

7,958,208

159,419

1,575,608
671,099

1,214,617
341,971
422,465

25,334,137

3,082,571
680,689

36,750,554

220

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Local Expend iture

Amount j

* !

SCOTLAND

Parochial Boards for Relief of the Poor .

851,365 1

1,176,000 j

County Assessments : Police, Prisons, Roads, &c. .

258,000 1

180,158 '

327,847

Total Scotland

Ireland

364,172

3.157,512

1,000,880 ;

Town Authorities .....

663,776

Grand Jury Cess : Roads, Bridges, Prisons, &c.

1.139,583

1.214,183 j

477,861

Total United Kingdom. .....

119,341

4,615,624

44,523,720 '
.. ..

According to a return issued in the Parliamentary session of 1876,
the total amount of taxes actually received at the Exchequer amounted
to 65,353,000/. in the financial year ending March 31, 1871. Adding
this sum to the 29,247,595/. raised in the same period by local
taxes — exclusive of loans — the total taxation of the United
Kingdom in the year was 94,600,595/., or 2/. 18s. lie?, per head of
the population.

The largest branch of national expenditure, amounting to three-
fourths of the receipts from local taxation in the United Kingdom,
is that for the interest and management of the National Debt. The
expenditure on this account more than quintupled in the course of
the last hundred years, since the war of independence of the United
States. At the commencement of the American struggle, in 1775,
the total charge for interest and management was less than 4-^
millions sterling ; but at the end of the war it had risen to 9§
millions. The twenty years warfare with France, from 1793 to
1814, added nearly 23 millions sterling to the annual charge of the
debt, which had risen to 32 millions in 1817, year of consolidation
of the English and Irish exchequer. Since this date, the capital
of the debt went on decreasing, the total decrease to the present
time, amounting to 56 millions sterling, bringing with it a decline
of the annual charge for interest and management to the amount of
xvpwards of five millions.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

221

The following table exhibits the growth of the debt from its
origin to the year 1876, in historical periods : —

Historical Periods

Capital

Debt

Interest
nnd Manage-
ment

Debt at the Revolution, in 1689
Excess of debt contracted during the reign
of William III. above debt paid off .

Debt atthe accession of Queen Anne, in 1702
Debt contracted during Queen Anne's reign

Debt at the accession of George I., in 1714
Debt paid off during the reign of George
I., above debt contracted

Debt at tlie accession of George II., in 1727

Debtcontractedfrom the accession of George

II. till the peace of Paris in 1763, three

years after the accession of George III.

Debt in 1763

Paid during peace; from 1763 to 1775

Debt at the commencement of the Ameincan

war, in 1775 .....

Debt contracted during the American war

Debt at the conclusion of the American war.

in 1784

Paid dtiring peace from 1784 to 1793

Debt at the commencement of the French
war, in 1793 ......

Debt contracted during the French war

Total funded and unfunded debt on the 1st
{ of February, 1817, when the English and
Irish Exchequers were consolidated

Debt cancelled from the 1st of February,
1817, to 5th of January, 1836

Debt, and charge thereon 5th of January,
1836

Debt, including terminable annuities, and
charge thereon, 31st of March, 1876 .

664,263

15,730,439

16,394.702

37,750,661

39.855

1,271,087

1.310,942
2.040,416

54,145,363
2,053,125

3,351,358
1.133,807

52,092,238
86,773,192

2,217.551
2,634,500

138.865.430
10,281,795

4,852,051
380,480

128,583,635
121,267,993

4,471,571
4,980,201

249,851,628
10,501,380

9.451,772
243,277

239,350,148
601,500,343

9.208,495
22,829,696

840,850,491

32,038,191

53,211,675

•_'.S94,674

787,638,S16

29,143,517

776,970,544

27,400,000

The capital of the national debt varied
vears from 1862 to 1870 : — ■

is follows during the fifteen

224

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

in the session of 1876, the total force of the United Kingdom, during
the year ending March 31, 1877, is to consist of 7,117 commissioned
officers, If), 086 non-commissioned officers, trumpeters, and drum-
mers, and 109,381 rank and file, being a total of 132,884 men of all
ranks. This force is to be composed of the following staff, regiments,
depots, and miscellaneous establishments : —

Non-commis-
Isioned officers

Branches of the Military Service

Officers

I trumpeters,

Bank and I

and

file

drummers

Officers on the General and Departmental

Staff:—

General staff .....

—

Paymaster's department .

201

—

Chaplain's department .

—

■ —

Medical department

561

—

Control department

448

—

Total Staff

1,379

—

Regiments :

Royal horse artillery ....

112

208

2,591

Life guards and horse guards

192

1,029

Cavalry of the line

558

1,178

9,907

Royal artillery

735

1,652

17,168

Riding establishment

205

Royal engineers

392

721

4,162

Army Service Corps

500

2,506

Foot guards

240

460

5,250

Infantry of the line

3,345

7,247

63,040

Army hospital corps

262

1,288

West India regiments

102

150

1,580

Colonial corps

566

Total Regiments
Brigade Depots (In formation) :

5,626

12,644

109,292

All arms ......

Total Brigade Depots

Miscellaneous Establishments :

—

3,191

""—

3, HO

Cavalry Depot .....

—

Instruction in gunnery and engineering .

Royal military academy, Woolwich .

Royal military college, Sandhurst .

Staff College

Regimental schools ....

174

— I

Manufacturing establishments

— 1

Various ditto

138

—

Total Miscell

aneoi

112

461

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

--':>

Year 187G-77.

Officers

Non-commis-
sioned officers,
trumpeters,

and
drummers

Rank and
file

Recapitulation' :
Total, general and departmental staff"
,, regiments .....
., brigade depots ill formation .
,, miscellaneous ditto

Total force, officers and men, the cost of~(
which is defrayed from Army Grants j

1,379
5,626

112

12,644

3,191

461

16,386

10o,722
89

7,117

109,381

The following table exhibits, after official returns, the number of
men, rank and file, maintained for service in the United Kingdom,
since the year 1800, at quinquennial periods up to 1870, and from
that date to 187G annually, on the 1st of January in every year : — •

Tear

Cavalry

Artillery

Engineers

Infantry

Total

1800

1 1.003

6,935

421

49,386

70,745

1S05

17.839

13.692

786

74,014

106,331

1810

20,405

16,814

974

74,325

112,518

1815

14,913

9,617

1.322

54,879

80,731

1820

9,900

4,046

371

46.799

61,116

1825

7,710

3,463

452

34.639

46,264

1830

8,036

4,037

682

35,339

48.094

1835

7.389

4,017

566

35,242

47,214

1840

7,190

4.118

544

38.624

50,476

1845

7,507

4,183

647

47,533

59,870

1850

8,108

7, 353

1,201

50.415

67,077

1855

7,105

8,569

885

32,783

49,342

1860

11,389

14,045

1,707

62,366

89.507

1865

11,015

13,338

2.624

51.433

78,410

1870

10,910

14,463

2,890

56,092

84,361

1871

10,792

13,529

2,632

55.519

82,472

1872

11.765

14,334

3,356

64,947

94,402

1873

12.745

16,892

3,662

07.846

101,145

1874

13,051

19,205

3.646

62,817

98,719

187.5

13,358

19,418

4,020

55,590

92,386

1876

13,375

17,856

4.007

01,037

96,275

The distribution of the army in the United Kingdom on the 1st
of January, 187G, was as follows : 68,253 men in England, 3,895 in
Scotland, 22,414 in Ireland, and 1,713 in the Channel Islands;
total, 96,275 men.

The total force; of the British army in India was stated to
amount to 62,849 men of all ranks in the estimates of 1 <s 7 1 ! - 7 7 .
The number in the year 1870-71 amounted to 62,96.'), in 1871-72 to

226

THE STATESMAN S TEAK-BOOK, 1877.

62,864, in 1872-73 to 62,957, in 1873-74 to 62,924, in 1874-75 to
62,840, and in 1875-76 to G2,850 men.

The troops here enumerated do not constitute the whole armed
force of the United Kingdom ; but the army estimates for the year
ending March 31, 1877, as well as former years, contained votes of
money for four classes of reserve, or auxiliary forces, namely, the
militia, the yeomanry cavalry, the volunteer corps, and the enrolled
pensioners and army reserve force. The total number of militia
provided for in the army estimates of 1876-77, is 139,619, com-
prising a permanent staff of 5,0G3 — to be gradually absorbed in
the Brigade Depots in course of formation — and 134,556 men
in training service. The total number of yeomanry cavalry pro-
vided for was 15,078, comprising a permanent staff of 287, and
14,791 yeomen. The total number of volunteers provided for was
168,750, comprising 31,823 artillery volunteers, and 136,927 light
horse, engineers, and rille volunteers. Finally, the number of enrolled
pensioners and army reserve force provided for in the army esti-
mates of 1876-77, was 31,000, divided into two classes, 10,000 men
forming the first, and 21,000 the second class.

The total cost of the British army, provided for by Parliament in
the army estimates for 1876-77, was calculated at 15,281,600/.; but
from this amount there Avas deducted the sum of 1,292,100/. for
' estimated exchequer extra receipts,' leaving the net charge as
army services for the year ending March 31, 1877, at 13,989,500/.
The following is an abstract of the votes of the army estimates for
the year 1876-77, with the corresponding sums of the financial
year 1875-76 : —

Army Estimates.
I. Regular Forces :
General staff and regimental pay, allowances, and

charges .......

Divine service ......

Administration of Martial law .
Medical establishment and services .

II. Reserve Forces:
Militia pay and allowances
Yeomanry cavalry .....

Volunteer corps .....

Enrolled pensioners and army reserve force

III. Control Establishments and Services
Control establishments and wages
Provisions, transport, and other services .
Clothing establishments and supplies.
Manufacture and repair of war stores

IV. Works and Buildings:
Superintending establishment and expenditure

for works, buildings, and repairs, at home and

abroad 799,700 840,100

1875-76

1876-77

4,543,000

4,722,200

51,100

49,200

26.700

27,900

248,700

262,400

685,300

672,700

78,900

74,400

437,200

458,000

121,700

132,000

368,700

370,400

2,950,000

2,997,000

758,100

800,600

986,000

1,229,000

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

227

1875-76

1876-77

HI, 800

144,100

42,200

36,600

210.900

214,700

12,4.30,000

13,036,300

35,300

35,500

88,500

89,000

514,600

505,800

146,900

144,690

16,400

16,500

34,300

35,400

1,201.500

1,220,000

167.500

164,200

22,700

34,300

2,227,700

2,245,300

12.450,000

13,036,300

2.227,700

2.245.300

14,677,700

15,281,600

V. Various Services :

"Military education _

.Miscellaneous services

. Administration of the army ....

Total effective services ....
VI. Non-effective Services:
Eewards for military service ....

Pay of general officers

.Pay of reduced and retired officers
Widows' pensions and compassionate allowances
Pensions for wounds .....

In-pensions .....••
'Out-pensions . ...

Superannuation allowances ....

Militia and volunteer corps ....
Total non-effective services .
Recapitulation :

Effective services

Non-effective services .....

Total effective and non-effective services .

It will be seen that the estimates for 187G-77 showed a net increase
of 603,900/. as compared with the previous year's vote; the amount
of the vote in 1875-76 having been 14,677,700/., and the amount
of the estimate for 1876-77 being 15,281,600/. The approximate
amount to be paid into the exchequer as extra receipts, during the
year 1876-77, is 1,292,100/., as compared with 1,189,500/. paid
in during 1875-76. The Exchequer Extra Receipts are derived
from supplies voted in the army estimates of previous years and
not expended, and include contributions from Colonial revenues in
;aid of the military expenditure of the United Kingdom.

Under various laws of army organisation, completed in 1876,
Great Britain and Ireland are partitioned into ten military districts
•or general officers' commands. These are further divided into
sub-districts, the division varying with the arms of the service.
For the infantry there are QG sub-districts, commanded by line
colonels; for the artillery there are 12 sub-districts, commanded
by artillery colonels ; and for the cavalry there are two districts,
commanded by cavalry colonels. The authority of the Commander-
in-Chief is distributed, in the first instance, to the general officers
■ commanding districts, and passes downward from them to the
infantry colonels, the artillery colonels, and the cavalry colonels.
'The brigade of an infantry sub- district consists, as a rule, of two
line battalions, two militia battalions, the brigade depot, rifle volun-
teer corps, and infantry of the army reserve. Of the two line
•battalions one is generally abroad and the second at one of the home

228 THE STATESMAN'S YEAB-BOOK, 1877-

stations. An artillery sub-district contains in addition to the royal
artillery, the militia artillery, and that of the volunteers and of the
army reserve; and a cavalry colonel similarly has command, not
merely over the cavalry regiments within his district, but over the
yeomanry, volunteers, and reserve cavalry. The colonel of each
district is responsible, for the training, inspection, recruiting, and
instruction of all the forces under his command.

The number of recruits enlisted for the arm}' and finally ap-
proved and the number of deserters during the years 18(>2 to 1874
were as follows : — In 1862, 4,G42 recruits were approved, and
there were 2,895 desertions; in 1863, 6,924 recruits and 2,971
desertions; in 18G4, 11,234 recruits and 3,097 desertions ; in 1865
the recruits numbered 10,444 and the desertions 3,519; in 1866 tin-
numbers were 10,663 and 3,583 respectively; in 1867 there were
13,941 recruits and 3,449 desertions; in 1868, 10.782 recruits and
3,011 desertions; in 1869, 8,183 recruits and 3,341 desertions: in
1870, 14,927 recruits and 3,1 71 desertions; in 1871, 17,791 recruits
and 5,861 desertion.':. In 1873, there were 17,194 recruits enlisted,.
and 5,702 desertions; and in the year 1874, there were 20,640 re-
cruits, and 5,572 desertions. Of the recruits of 1874, the number
of 7,7<S4 enlisted to long service; and 12,856 on short service.

It appears from a report of the Director-General of Military
Education, issued as a Parliamentary paper in 1874, that, on the
1st of January, 1S74, out of regiments and corps amounting to
178,356 men, 10,724 could neither read in r write. 9,543 could read
but not write, 99,910 could read and write, and 58,179 were better
educated. There exists compulsory education in the army, the rule
laid down in the Queen's Regulations being that every recruit is
obliged tn attend school until he is in possession of a ibirrth class
certificate of education.

The establishments for military educational purposescomj rise the-
Council of Military Education, Royal Military Academy at Wool-
wich, Royal Military and Staff College at Sandhurst. Royal Military
Asylum and Normal School at Chelsea, Royal Hibernian Military
School at Dublin, Department for Instruction of Artillery Officers,
Military Medical School, and a varying number of Garrison. Schools
and Libraries. In the army estimates for 1876-77, the sum pro-
vided for military education was 144.100/., representing an increase
of 2 300Z. over the previous year. The two principal educational
establishments for oilicers are the Royal Military Academy at.
Woolwich, and the Royal Military and Staif College at Sandhurst.
In the army estimates of 1S76-77, the cost of the Woolwich Academy
was set down at 30,S2."i/.. and of the Sandhurst Colleges at 31,486/.
At Sandhurst, 20 ' Queen's cadets ' are educated for the Indian army-,
for which 3,000/. per annum is paid out of the revenues of India.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 229

2. Navy.

The government of the navy, vested originally in a Lord High
Admiral, lias been carried on since the reign of Queen Anne — with
the exception ofa short period, April 1827 to September 1828, when
the Duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV., revived the ancient
title— by a Board, known as the Board of Admiralty, and the mem-
bers of which are styled 'Lords Commissioners for executing the
office of Lord High Admiral.' The Board consists of five members,
namely, the First Lord, who is always a member of the Cabinet, and
four assistant commissioners, styled, respectively, Senior Naval Lord,
Third Lord, Junior Naval Lord, and Civil Lord. Under the Board
is a Financial Secretary, changing, like, the five Lords, with the
Government in power; while the fixed administration, independent
of the state of political parties, consists of two Permanent Secretaries,
and a number of heads of departments, the Controller of the Navy,
the Accountant- General, Director-General of theMedical Department,
Director of Engineering and Architectural Works, Director of
Transports, Director of Contracts, Director of Naval Construction,
Director of Naval Ordnance, and the Superintendents of Victualling
and Stores. The First Lord has supreme authority, and all
questions of importance are left to his decision. The Senior
Naval Lord directs the movements of the fleet, and is responsible for
its discipline. The Third Lord has the management of the dock-
yards, and superintends the building of the ships. The Junior
Naval Lord deals with the victualling of the fleets, and with the
transport department. The Civil Lord is answerable for the accounts,
and the Financial Secretary for all purchases of stores.

The navy of the United Kingdom is a perpetual establishment,
and the statutes and orders by which it is governed and its discipline
maintained — unlike the military laws, which the Sovereign has
absolute power to frame under the authority of an Act of Parlia-
ment— have been permanently established and defined with great
precision by the legislature. The distinction also prevails in the
mode of voting the charge for these two forces. For the army, the
first vote sanctions the number of men to be maintained ; the see. mil,
the charge for their pay and maintenance. For the navy, no vote is
taken for the number of men; the first vote is for the wages of the stated
number of men and boys to be maintained; and though the result
may be the same, this distinction exists both in practice- and principle.

According to the naval estimates granted by Parliament in the
session of 1876, the expenditure for the navy, for the year ending
March 81, 1877, will be 11.2SS.S72/. as compared with 10,825,194Z.
voted for the year 1875-76, or an increase of 463,678/. The fol-
lowing is an abstract of the estimates for 1870-77 as compared with
the votes tor 1875-76 : —

2^0

THE statesman's YEAIi-BOOK, 1877.

Navy Estimates.

Wages to seamen and marines ....

Victuals and clothing fox* ditto ....

Admiralty office ......

Coastguard sendee, royal naval coast volunteers,
and royal naval reserve .....

Scientific branch ......

Dockyards and naval yards at home and abroad

Victualling yards and transport establishments at-
home and abroad ......

Medical establishments at home and abroad

Marine divisions ......

Naval stores, and ships built by contract :

Naval stores ......

Ships &c. built by contract

New works, building, machinery, and repairs

Medicines and medical stores ....

Martial law and charges . .

Miscellaneous services .....

Total for the effective service
Half-pay, reserved half-pay, and retired pay to

officers of the navy and royal marines
Military pensions and allowances
Civil pensions and allowances ....

Total for the naval service ....

For the Service of other Departments of Government.

Army department (conveyance of troops) . . 172,090 197,480

1875-76

1S76-77

2.644.062

2,634,904

1,107,781

1,153,367

183,916

189,820

188.505

210,230

107.324

109,194

1,326,649

1.323,750

75,548

76,4CO

64.644

65,830

1S,868

20,053

1,285.770

1,261,320

903,608

1,353,600

644.751

569,249'

73,530

76,230

15,904

15,114.

156,423

135,547

_8^797^283

9,194,608

889,511

888,472

681.781

726,136

284,529

282,176-

10,653,104

11,091,392

Grand total

10,825.194 11,288,872

The number of seamen and marines provided for the naval ser-
vice in the estimates for 1876-77 war; as follows: —

For. thw J^et :

Seamen .... 33,400
Boys, including 3,000 for
U-aining ....

.01111

Marines, afloat .
,, on shore

7,000
7,000

Total

40,400

14,000
54,000

For the CoASTca'Ar.D :

Afloat (included with fleet)

On shore, officers and men . . -4.300

Indian Service :
Officers and men .... 1,300-

Grand Total . 60,000

Included in the number of 33,400 seamen of the fleet, provided
for in the estimates of 187G-77 were 149 flag officers ; 30 officers
superintending dockyards and naval establishments; and 2,880
other commissioned officers, on active service.

The efficient strength of the navy of the United Kingdom is shown
in the subjoined official return, annexed to the navy estimates for

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

2«

1876-77 giving a. comparative statement of the number of steam
ships and sailing vessels — classified under the two heads of sea-
going steamers, and reserve steamers and sailing vessels — in com-
mission on the 1st December, 1874, and on the 1st December
1875:—

Ships in Commission

Dec. 1, 1S74

Dec. 1, 1875

Sea-going steamers : — .

Ii'on-elad line-of -battle ships ....

Other „ „ . . . .

—

Iron-clad frigates and corvettes

Other „ „

Sloops and small vessels .....
Total sea-going steamers

109 •

111

Reserve steamers and sailing vessels : —

First reserve steamers .....

Receiving and depot steamers ....

„ ,, „ sailing vessels .

Surveying steamers ......

Troop ships, steamers .....

Store ships, steamers ......

Tenders, steamers ....

„ sailing vessels .....

Coast-guard cruisers, steamers

,, „ sailing vessels

Gunnery training vessels, and sloops, sailing .

Drill ships for the Naval Reserve .

Total reserve steamers and sailing vessels .

133

130

242

241

The most important division of the navy, the ironclad fleet of
war, consisted at the end of 187G of 58 ships, of which number 47
were described as efficient, while 3 were not strictly British, being
built solely for the defence of the Colonies, and 8 had become in-
efficient for naval warfare. The following is a tabulated list of the
47 efficient ironclads, divided into five classes, according to strength
of armour and armament, and mode of construction. The columns
of the table exhibit, after the name of each ship, first, the minimum
and maximum thickness of armour ; secondly, the number and
weight of guns ; thirdly, the indicated horse-power of engines ; and
fourthly, the tonnage, that is displacement in tons. Those ironclads
marked with an asterisk before their names were launched, but not
completed, at the end of 1870 : —

232

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Names of ironclads

Armour

Guns

Indicated

Displace-

thickness;
inches.

Numbe

Weight

Horse-
power

ment or
tonnage

First Class :

"^Inflexible

16 to 24

81 -ton

8.000

11,105

Dreadnought

38-ton

8,000

1(1.950

Devastation .

12 to 14

35-ton

6,650

9,190

Thunderer .

12 to 14

/ 2

I 2

38-ton "\
35-ton j

5,600

9,190

Second Class :

Glatton

12 to 14

25-ton

2,868

4,912

Rupert ....

9 to 14

25-ton

4,200

5,358

Hotspur

8 to 12

25-ton

3,497

4,010

Thikd Class.
Monarch

8 to 10

1 S

25-ton "\
Gi-tonj'
18-ton"]
12-ton K
6^-tonJ

7,842

8,322

Hercules

6 to 9

i 2

8,000

8,677

I 4

Sultan

6 to 9

/ S
I 4

1 8-ton \
12-ton J

8,629

9,286

Alexandra

8 to 12

f 2

25-ton \

18-ton /

8,000

9.492

*Temeraire

8 to 11

,{!

25-ton 1
18-ton J

7,000

8,415

*Nelson ....

.c to 10

f 4
I 3

18-ton \
12-ton f

6,000

7,323

•"Northampton

8 to 10

f 4
i 8

1 8-ton ^
12- ton J

6,000

7,323

"Shannon

8 to 10

1 8-ton 1

12-ton /'

3,500

5,103

Fourth Class :

Cyclops

6 to 10

18-ton

1,660

3,430

Gorgon

6 to 10

18-ton

1.670

3,430

Hecate

' 6 to 10

18-ton

1.7 55

3,430

Hydra ....

6 to 10

18 ton

1,472

3,430

Bellerophon .

4 to 9

I 4

12-ton \
6-J-tonJ

6,521

7,551

Audacious

6 to 8

12- ton

4,021

0.034

Invincible

6 to 8

12-ton

4,832

6,034

Iron Duke

6 to 8

12-ton

4,268

6.034

Swiftsure

6 to 8

12-ton

4,913

6,333

Triumph

6 to 8

12-ton

4.892

6,660

Penelope

5 to 6

12-ton

4,703

4,394

Repulse

5 to 6

12-ton

3,347

6,190

Fifth Class :

Warrior

\l6

12-ton"|
6i-ton /

5,469

9.137

Black Prince

{»

12-ton 1

Oi-ton/

5,772

9,137

Minotaur

I1?

12-ton "(
6l-ton /

6,702

10,627

Achilles . .

1 6

1 2-ton 1
6i-tonJ

5,722

9,137

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

233

Armour

Guns

Indicated

Displace-

Armour-clad ships.

thickness ;

Horse-

ment or

inches.

\ umber

Weight

power

tonnage

Fifth Class — continued:

Agincourt

<r-h

flu
1 16

12-ton \
G.'.-tonj'

6,8G7

10.627

Northumberland .

f 10

116

12-ton I
64-ton i"

6,.55S

10,627

Lord Clyde .

4} to 51

6^-ton

6,064

7.S42

Lord Warden

4.', to •V,

6|-ton

6,706

7,842

Caledonia

fti-tou

4,538

6,832

Ocean ....

±1

Oi-ton

4,244

6.832

Koyal Alfred

•H

6j-ton

3,434 '

0,707

Prince Consort

Gj-ton

1,244

6.S32

Eoyal Oak .

GA-ton

3,704

6,366

Zealous

6|-toii

:j,448

6,069

Hector ....

6A-ton

3,256

6,713

Valiant

6l-ton

3,256

6,713

Defence

65-ton

2,537

6,070

Resistance

62-ton

2,537

6,070

Pallas ....

9-ton

3,581

3,787

Favourite

9-ton

1,773

3,232 |

The following is a succinct description of the most notable
ironclads, under their division, as in the preceding tabular list,
into five classes : —

First class — Four turret-ships for great naval warfare at home
and abroad : the Inflexible, the Dreadnought, the Devastation, and
the Thunderer. The requirements aimed at in the construction
of this class of iron-clads were to carry the heaviest possible guns and
armour, to be very manageable, and to have room for a large supply 01
■coal. The first war-ship of this class, the Inflexible, built at
Portsmouth dockyard, and launched April 27, 1876, was designed
to embody the latest improvements in ironclads, exceeding those of
any other country except Italy (see page 314) both in offensive and
defensive power. The Inflexible is 320 feet in length, and 75 feet
in breadth at the water line, with a displacement of 11,165 tons,
the total weight of armour, inclusive of deck, being 3,155 tons.
The power and strength of the ship is concentrated in its central
part, which forms a citadel 12 feet high, one half above and half
below the water, is 75 feet broad and 110 feet long, and encloses
within its rectangular walls the engines and boilers, the base of the
turrets, the hydraulic loading gear, the magazines, and all those
parts of the ship which are most vulnerable. Its walls are 41
inches thick, and consist of armour-plates varying in thickness from
16 inches to 24 inches, with strong teak backing between and
behind the plates, The ship extends 18 feet below the citadel and
105 feet before and behind it, and the office of these extramural

234 THB STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

portions, which are in the main unarrnoured, is to float the citadel1,,
described by the designer as ' a rectangular armoured castle.' The
central part of this armoured castle is tilled by the two turrets, 12
feet high, with an internal diameter of 28 feet, placed side by side — -
unlike all other double turret ships, where both stand on the
middle line — each holding two 81-ton guns, capable of firing 1,6501b-
shot, with a charge of 300 lbs. powder. The Inflexible was
originally designed to be a mastless turret-ship, but when already
far advanced in construction, it was decided by the Admiralty that
there should be two iron masts, 96 feet and 83 feet high, with
brig-rigged sails 18,470 square feet in area. — The three other
war-ships of the first class, the Dreadnought, the Devastation, and the
Thunderer, are mastless, and dependent, therefore, solely on steam-
power. Their speed, like that of the Inflexible, averages thirteen
knots an hour ; they have two independent screws and two sets of
engines, and they carry 1,600 tons of coal, or sufficient to take
them over a distance of 6,000 miles. The deck is given up in
heavy weather to the waves ; but a narrow deck-house, running
between the two turrets, is so spread out at the top as to form a
spacious hurricane or flying-deck, 24 feet above water, on which
the boats are stowed, and to which all openings from the hold
are carried. The Dreadnought — originally named the Fury — was
launched March 8, 1875, and is 1,760 tons larger than the other
two mastless turret-ships ; every discovered improvement is embo-
died in her construction, and she is inferior in power only to the'
Inflexible, which is believed to stand at present almost, if not
quite, unrivalled in strength among the ironclads of the world.

Second class — Three rams : the Glatton, the Kupert, and the-
Hotspur. Nearly all British ironclads are fitted to act occasionally
as rams, but in the Glatton, the Eupert, and the Hotspur, built in
1870-72, the ramming power is made the principal object. These
rams are designed to act in concert with ships of the first class,,
which they somewhat resemble in form. Though comparatively
small vessels, their armour is very thick in proportion to their size,
being 12 inches on the breastwork, and from 12 to 14 inches on the-
turret, the armament of which consists of two 25-ton guns. The
ram — main feature of these ironclads, to which their whole power is
made subordinate — has its sharp point about eight feet below the
water-line, and twelve feet in advance of the upright portion of
the stern. In destructive power, the rams are held to be inferior
to no other iron-clads but the turret-ships of the Inflexible type.

Third class — Eight first-rate rigged ships for cruising : the Monarch,
the Hercules, the Sultan, the Alexandra, the Temeraire, the Nelson,
the Northampton, and the Shannon. The Monarch, sole rigged
turret-ship of the iron-clad navy, launched in 1869, has 8-inch

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 235

armour only at the water-line, hut in compensation of strength carries
four 25-ton guns, with 10-inch armour over the port-holes, and
8-inch over the rest of each of the two turrets. Both the Hercules
and the Sultan, completed in 1870, carry 18- ton guns, with 9-inch
armour at the water-line, and 6-inch and 8-inch over the turrets.
Similar in design to the last two vessels, hut rather stronger, and
with improvements in construction, are the Alexandra, launched
April 7, 1875 ; the Temeraire, floated out of dock from Chatham
dockyard, May 9, 1870, which embodies in its construction both the
turret and broadside principle ; the twin ships Nelson and North-
ampton, built at the private shipyards of Messrs. Elder and of
Messrs. Napier, Glasgow ; and the Shannon, all launched in 1876.
The vessels of this class are distinguished for great size and power,
but still more for speed under full steam, found to average fif-
teen knots an hour. No other country has at present similar iron-
clads, except Germany (see page 102), and Turkey (see page 455),
all the ships of the latter state having been built in England, after
models of the British navy.

Fourth class — A number of armoured vessels, originally deemed
powerful, but at present only fitted for coast defence. The chief of
them are the four mastless turret ships, the Cyclops, the Gorgon, the
Hecate, and the Hydra, built during the years 1870 and 1871.
Each of these vessels has two turrets, with two 18-ton guns in
each turret, a hull 225 feet long and 45 feet beam, covered by a
belt of armour seven feet wide in two strakes, the ripper one eight
inches thick and the lower one six inches thick amidships, tapering
fore and aft. Above the hull is raised a breastwork, 117 feet by
34 feet, plated with 6 ft. 6 in. of armour, varying in thickness from
eight to nine inches. This breastwork protects the engines and
machinery for working the turrets, which are built at either end of
it, and are plated with 9-inch armour, thickened to 10-inch in the
way of the ports. There is also a pilot tower, 17 feet in height,
plated with 8-inch and 9-inch armour, for the protection of the
commanding officer. — A subdivision of this class of vessels is formed
by the Hercules, the Bellerophon, the Audacious, the Invincible, the
Iron Duke, the Swiftsure, and the Triumph, in the first list, and
the Penelope, and the liepulse in the second. The vessels of the
latter class carry each 12-ton guns, behind 6-inch armour, and
8-inch armour at the water-line. Their size, with the exception of
the largest, Bellerophon, is nearly equal, and their speed from 13 to
14 knots an hour. The Bellerophon, besides being of greater size,
varies from the rest in being without the 8-inch armour at the
water-line; but its speed, on the other hand, is fully 15 knots an
hour. The whole of the vessels of this class are broadsides, very
powerful for their size, and especially adapted for foreign service.

236 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Fifth class — A number of partly antiquated rigged ships for
cruising: the Warrior, the Minotaur, the Achilles, the Black Prince,
the Agincourt, the Northumberland, the Lord Clyde, the Lord
Warden, the Caledonia, the Ocean, the Prince Consoit, the Royal
Oak, and the Zealous, in the first list, and the Hector, the Valiant,
the Defence, and the Resistance in the second. The vessels
of this class vary greatly in size, but their armament, strength,
and, to some extent, speed, are very similar. They are mainly
armed with guns weighing less than 12 tons, and protected
in general by less than 6-inch armour. This division includes
the old ironclads, the Warrior, launched in 1860, and the
Minotaur, launched in 18G6, the former with 4-5-inch, and the
latter with 5^-inch armour over all parts. The Warrior, Black
Prince, and Achilles, are each 380 feet long, and of 9,137 tons,
while the partly sister-ships. Minotaur, Agincourt, and Northum-
berland, are 400 feet in length, and of 10,627 tons. All these ships
are of considerable speed, varying from 14 to 15 knots an hour;
nevertheless their great length and consequent ' unhandiness,'
together with limited fighting power, render them unfit for anything
beyond the protection, or destruction, of mercantile fleets. Next in
rank to the Warrior and Minotaur, of lesser power as well as speed,
come the Lord Clyde and Lord Warden, both wooden ships; and
then follow the Caledonia, Ocean, Royal Alfred, Prince Consort,
Royal Oak, and Zealous, five converted line-of-battle ships. A
subdivision of the class, imperfectly armed and protected, are the
old iron-ciads, Hector, Valiant, Defence, Resistance, Pallas, and
Favourite, constructed in the years 18G1 to 18G3.

The iron-clads not included in the preceding list are three small
vessels for colonial defence: the Abyssinia and the Magdala, sta-
tioned permanently at Bombay, and the Cerberus, stationed perma-
nently at Melbourne. Their armour thickness varies from 6 to 10
inches, and each carries lour 18-ton guns. There are, besides, eight
iron-clads held to be non- efficient, namely, the iron turret-ship
Prince Albert, and the wooden sloops Research and Enterprise, all
launched in 1864; the gun-vessels Viper, Vixen, and Waterwitch,
the last on the hydimdic principle of propulsion ; and the floating
batteries Erebus and Terror, built during the Russian war. The
whole of these vessels are of antiquated construction, and pronounced
to be useless for modern warfare.

Among the unarmoured ships of the British navy, the chief are
three iron-built frigates, the Shah, carrying 16 twelve-ton guns;
the Inconstant, with 2(3 sixty-four pounders; and the Raleigh, with
22 sixty-four pounders. The Shah, launched in Sept. 1873, an iron
screw frigate, cased with wood, of 5,700 tons burthen and 7,500 horse-
power, and carrying 20 guns, is reported the swiftest vessel in the navy.

GREAT 15IUT.YIN AND IRELAND.

Area and Population.
The population was thus distributed over the various divisions of
the United Kingdom at the census of April 3, L871 : —

Area in Inhabitated
statute acres Houses

England . . . . 32,597,39S 4,009,783
Wales fc,721,823 249,334

England and Wales . . 37,319,221 4. 259. 117

Scotland .... 19,496,132 412,185
Ireland .... 20,819,829 961,229

Population

21.495.131
1,217,135

22,712,200

-3.300,018
5.411,416

31,483,700

54,042

56.627
33,969

Great Britain and Ireland 77,035.182 5,632,530

Isle of Man. . . . 145,325 9,413
i Chanuel Islands —

Jersey . j 28,717 8,738
Guernsey and others . ' 19,605 5,831

United Kingdom . . j 77,828.829 5.050.513

31.028,338

The numbers here given are exclusive of men in the army, navy,
and the merchant service abroad, estimated at 229,000 in total.

A series of official returns, published in the years 1<S75 and
[876 — issued in compliance -with a motion made in the House of
Lords, February L9, L872 — stated the number of owners of land in
Great Britain and Ireland, exclusive of the metropolis, as follows : —

Number of Number of

owners below an owners above an

aei'e acre .

England. and Wales exclusive

of Lo >don
Scotland ....
Ireland . . . .

Great Britain and Ireland

703. 2S9

113,005

36.1 14

852,438

209,547
19,225

32,014

321,386

Total number
of owners

972,836

132,230

68.758

1,173,824

The toial number of acres accounted for in the returns number* d
72,1 19,882, being 5,515,300 acres less than the whole area of Greal
Britain and Ireland. Excluded from the ownership survey were,,
besides the metropolis and the lands of all owners possessed of less
than an acre, and likewise all common and waste lands.

The following table gives an abstract of the same returns, showing
the percentage of owners below an acre, the proportion of owners to
population, and the proportion of owners to inhabited houses in
Gr at Britain and Ireland: —

2*8

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Percentage of

owners below an

acre

Proportion of
owners to
population

Proportion of

owners to

inhabited houses

England and Wales
Scotland ....
Ireland ....

Great Britain and Ireland

72-3
85-5
52-6-

1 in 20
1 in 25
1 in 79

1 in 4
1 in 3
1 in 14 j

72-6

1 in 24

1 in 4

In the subjoined table an abstract is given, after the same returns,
of the average estimated rental per acre, the average extent of land
held by each owner, and the average estimated rental of each
owner in Great Britain and Ireland : —

Average Average extent
estimated rental of land held
per acre by each owner

Average

estimated rental

of each owner

England and Wales
Scotland ....
Ireland ....

Great Britain and Ireland

£ s. «7.
3 0 2
0 19 9
0 13 4

ac. r. p.

33 3 30
143 1 6
293 0 32

£ *. <?.
102 3 0
141 8 0
195 3 0

1 16 5

61 1 30 j 112 0 0

It is officially admitted that these returns cannot be altogether
relied on, and have to be looked upon in general as understatements,
seeing that the machinery by which they were obtained — namely,
the valuation lists of parishes — was in many cases extremely defec-
tive. Still the figures must be held of considerable value as indi-
cating approximately, and in the absence of all other information,
the ownership and division of the soil of the United Kingdom.

The division of the sexes in the United Kingdom was as follows,
at the census of April 3, 1871 : —

Males

Females

Excess of females
over males

England ....
Wales ....

England and Wales

Scotland ....

Ireland ....

Isle of Man .

Channel Islands-
Jersey
Guernsey and others .

United Kingdom

10,454,334
604,600

11,040,797
612,535

586,463

7,935

11,058,934

1,603,143

2,639,826

25,914

24,875
15,433

11,653,332

1.756,875

2,771,590

28,128

31,752
18,536

594,398

153,732

131,764

2,214

6,S77
3.103

15,368,125

16,260,213

892,088

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

239

The enumerated population of the United Kingdom is variously-
defined for fiscal, statistical, and administrative purposes, as shown
in the following table : —

Population, 1S71
United Kingdom: including Islands in British Seas, and Army,

Navy, and Merchant Seamen abroad . . 31,857,338

United Kingdom : including Islands in British Seas, but excluding

Army, Navy, and Merchant Seamen abroad 31,628,338

United Kingdom: excluding Islands in British Seas, and Army,

Navy, and Merchant Seamen abroad . . 31,483,700

The population of the United Kingdom increased at the rate of
8 *8 per cent, in the ten years between the census of 1861 and that
of 1871. The numerical increase during the decennial period
amounted to 2,557,400, representing a daily addition of 500 to the
population.

Computed on the basis of the registration of births and deaths,
the population of the United Kingdom and its divisions was, ex-
clusive of army, navy, and merchant seamen abroad, as follows,
■at the end of June, in the ten years from 1867 to 1876: —

Years

Total of
United

Kingdom

England
and Wales

Scotland

Ireland

1867

30,334,999

21,608,286

3,244,254

5.482,459

1868

30,617,718

21.882,059

3,274,360

5,461,299

1869

30,913,513

22,164,847

3,304,747

5,443,919

1870

31,205,444

22,457,366

3,335,418

5,412,660

1871

31,513,442

22,760,359

3,366,375

5,386.708

1872

31,835,757

23,067,835

3,399,226

5.368,690

1873

32,124.598

23.356,414

3,430,923

5,337,261

1874

32,426.369

23,648,609

3,462,916

5,314,844

1875

32,749,167

23,944,459

3,495,214

5,309,494

1876

33,089,237

24,244,010

3,527,811

5,317,416

The estimated population of the principal towns of the United
Kingdom was as follows, according to the returns of the Registrar-
General, at the end of June 1876 : — London, 3,489,428 ; Glasgow
545,144 ; Liverpool, 521,544 ; Manchester, with Salford, 496,342 ;
Birmingham, 371,839; Dublin, 314,666; Leeds, 291,580; Shef-
field, 274,914 ; Edinburgh, 215,146 ; Bristol, 199,539; Bradford
173,723 ; Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 139,929 ; Hull, 136,933 ; PortsI
mouth, 124,867; Leicester, 113,581; Sunderland, 108,343-
Brighton, 100,032; Nottingham, 93,627 ; Oldharn, 88,609; Norwich'
83,430 ; Wolverhampton, 72,549 ; Plymouth, 72,230.

The Registrar-General of England states that the population of
the United Kingdom is increasing at the rate of 1,173 a day. But

240

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

emigration takes away 468 of that number, leaving 705 a day to
swell the population at home.

Subjoined is a more detailed account of the population of
1. England and "Wales ; 2. Scotland; 3. Ireland; and 4. Islands in
the British Seas.

1. England and Wales.

England and Wales, taken by themselves, are more densely popu-
lated than any other country in Europe, except Belgium. On an
area of 58,320 square miles, or 37,324,883 acres, there lived, on the
3rd of April 1871, according to the census, 22,712,266 inhabitants,
or 389 individuals per square mile. The population of England and
Wales was as follows at the eight enumerations, 1801 to 1871 : —

Population

Males

Females

Total

1801, March 10th
1811, Mav 27th
1821, May 28th
1831. May 29th
1841, June 7th
1851, March 31st
1861, April Sth
1871. April 3rd

4,254,735
4,873,605
5,850,319
6,771,196
7,777,586
8,781,225
9,776,259
11,058,934

4.637,801
5.290,651
6,149,917
7,125,601
8,136,562
9,146,384
10,289,965
11,653,332

8,892,536
10,164,256
12,000,236
13,896,797
15,914,148
17.927,609
20,066.224
22,712,266

The following table shows the area, in statute acres, number of
inhabited houses, and population of each of the 52 counties of Eng-
land and Wales, at the date of the census of 1871 : —

Area in

Inhabited houses,

Population,

Counties or Shires statute acres

April a, 1871

April 3, 1871

England.

Bedford .

295,582

30,506

140,257

Berks

451.210

39.638

196.475

Buckingham

466.932

37.257

175.879

Cambridge .

525,182

40,272

186,906

Chester

707.078

110,149

661.201

( Cornwall

873,600

73.950

362,343

Cumberland

1,001.273

44,061

220.253

Derby
Devon

658,803

78309

379,394

1,657.1 So

105,200

601,374

Dorset

632.025

39,410

195.537

Durham

622,476

114,705

685.089

Essex

\ 1,060,549

92,356

466.436 1

Gloucester .

805,102

101.407

534,640 I

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

24I

Counties or Shires

Area in
statute acres

Inhabited houses,
April 3, 1871

Population,
April :). 187]

England — continued.

Hereford .

534,823

26,371

125.370

Hertford

391,141

39,056

192,226

Huntingdon

229,544

14,032

63.708

Kent .

1,039,419

151,344

848,294

Lancaster .

1,219,221

530,490

2,819.495

Leicester

514,164

58,606

269,311

Lincoln

1,775,457

94,212

436,599

Middlesex .

180,136

321,229

2,539,765

Monmouth .

368,399

36,169

195,448

Norfolk

1,354,301

99,428

438,656

Northampton

630,358

52,539

243,891

Northumberland

1,249,299

62,436

386,646

Nottingham

526,076

68,419

319,758

Oxford

472,717

37,849

177,975

Rutland

95,805

4,766

22.073

Salop .

826,055

50,804

248,111

Somerset .

1,047,220

92.205

463,483

Southampton

1,070,216

98,283

544,684

Stafford

728,468

167,614

858,326

Suffolk

947.681

76,501

348,869

Surrey

478,792

168,443

1,090,635

Sussex

936,911

75,385

417,456

Warwick .

563,946

131,412

634,189

Westmoreland .

485,432

12,671

65,010

Wilts .

865,092

54,874

257,177

Worcester .

472,165

69,988

338,837

York {East Biding) .
„ {City] . .

768,419

50,838

241,672

2,720

13,006

64,908

„ (Nortn Riding) .

1,350,121

48,549

234,817

,, (West Riding) .
Total of England

1.709,307

388,004

1,854,172

32,590,397

4,009,783

21,495,131

Wales.

Anglesey .

193,453

12,170

51,040

Brecon

460,158

12,647

59,901

Cardigan .

443,387

16,420

73,441

Carmarthen

606,331

24,333

116,710

Carnarvon .

370,273

23,298

106,121

Denbigh

386,052

22,500

105,102

Flint .

184,905

16,636

76,312

Glamorgan .

547,494

72,905

397,859

Merioneth .

385,291

10,006

46,598

Montgomery

483,323

13,911

67,623

Pembroke .

401,691

19,583

91.998 ;

Radnor

272. 128

1.925

25,430

Total of Wales

4,734,486

249,334

1,217,135

Total of England 1 1 „„„,„„„
and Wales J 37,324,883

4,259,117

22,712,266

242

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

One-fourth of the total urban population of England and Wales
is in London. The limits of the metropolis are variously denned by
the Registrar-General and the corporate and other bodies exercising
administrative functions, and under these definitions the population
was found to number, at the census of 1871, from 3,024,006 to
3,885,641 souls. The following table gives the results of both the
census of 1861 and of 1871 : —

Population,
1861

Population,
1871

London within theKegistrar-General's tables 1
of mortality . . . . . . f

London within the limits of the Metropolis }
Local Management Act . . . . \

London Postal District ....

Metropolitan and City of London Police \
District . . ... . . /

Metropolitan Parliamentary Boroughs

2,803,989

2,808,862

2,967,956
3,222,720
2,640,253

3,254,260

3,266,987
3,536,129
3,885,641
3,024,066

Eighteen cities and towns have been selected by the Registrar-
General for the publication of weekly rates of mortality in compari-
son with those of the metropolis and of other British and foreign
cities. Those eighteen cities and towns comprise a total population
of 6,270,275, being less than a third, but more than a fourth, part
of the entire population of England and Wales. Within their
municipal limits, the population enumerated in 1861 and 1871,
with the decennial rates of increase, was as follows : —

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

243

Subjoined is the birth, dusrh, and marriage rate of the population
of England and Wales, for the fifteen years from 1861 to 1875, with
the estimated population for the middle of each year : —

Years

Estimated

population

Births

Deaths

Marriages

1861

20.119,496

696,406

435.114

163,706

1862

20,336,614

711,691

436,573

163,830

1863

20,590,356

729,399

473,837

173,510

1S64

20,834,496

740.275

495,531

180,387

1865

21,085,139

747,870

490,909

185,474

1866

21,342,864

753,870

500,689

187,776

1867

21,608,286

768,349

471,073

179,154

1868

21,882,059

786,156

480,622

176,962

1869

22,164,847

772,877

495,086

175,629

1870

22,457,366

792,129

515.544

181,655

1871

22,760,359

797.428

514,879

190,112

1872

23,067,385

825,907

492,065

201,267

1873

23,356.414

829,778

492,520

205,615

1874

23,648,609

854,956

526,632

202,010

1875

23,944,459

850,187

546,317

200,980

The proportion of male to female children born in England is as
104,811 to 100,000. But as the former suffer from a higher rate
of mortality than the latter, the equilibrium between the sexes is
restored about the tenth year of life, and is finally changed, by
emigration, Avar, and perilous male occupations, to the extent that
there are 100,000 women, of all ages, to 94,900 men in England.

The number of paupers, exclusive of vagrants and ' casual poor,'
in receipt of relief in the several unions and parishes, constituted
under boards of guardians in England and Wales, was as follows, on
the first of January, for the fifteen years from 1862 to 1876 : —

January 1

Number
of unions

and
parishes

Adult

able-bodied

paupers

All other
paupers

Total

1862 .

649

167,646

778,520

890,423

1863

653

253,499

889,125

946,166

1864

655

186,750

822,539

1,142,624

1865

655

170,136

801,297

1,009,289

1866

655

149,320

771,024

971,433

1867

655

158,308

800,516

920,344

1868

655

185,630

849,193

958,824

1869

655

183,162

856,387

1.034,823

1870

649

194,089

885,302

1,039,549

1871

648

189,839

892,087

1,079,391

1872

647

153,753

823,911

1,081,926

1873

647

127,697

762,675

'.)77,664

1874

647

114,324

714,957

890,372

1875

647

115,209

700,378

829,281

1876

649

97,065

652,528

749,593

244

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

The number of criminal offenders committed for trial, and con-
victed, in England and Wales, was as follows in the fifteen years,
1861-75:—

Committed for trial

Convicted

— 1

Years

Men

Women

Total

1861 .

14,349

3,977

18,326

13,879

1862 .

15,896

4,105

20,001

15,312

1863.

16,461

4,357

20,818

15,799

1864 .

15,398

4,108

19,506

14,726

1865 .

15,411

4,203

19,614

14,740

1866 .

14,880

3,969

18,849

14.254

1867 •

15,208

3,763

18.971

14,207

1868 .

16.197

3,894

20,091

15,033

1869 .

15,722

3,596

19.318

14,340

1870 .

14,010

3,568

17,578

12.953

1871 .

12,640

3,629

16,269

11,946

1872 .

11,467

3,334

14,809

10,862 ;

1873 .

11,490

3,403

14,893

11,089

1874 .

11,912

3,283

15,195

11,509

1875 .

11,662

3,052

14,714

10,954

In 1842, the number of criminal offenders committed for trial
was 31,809, and of those convicted 22,733, and the number con-
tinued increasing till 1854. Subsequently there was a decrease
both in the number of persons committed for trial and convicted,
attributed in part to the Criminal Justice Act of 1855, which
authorised Magistrates to pass sentences for short periods, with the
consent of the prisoners.

2. Scotland.

Scotland has an area of 30,685 square miles, including its
islands, 186 in number, with a population, according to the census
of 1871, of 3,360,018 souls, giving 109 inhabitants to the square
mile. More than three-fourths of the surface of the country is
sterile consisting of mountains, morasses, and other waste lands.
Out of the total, computed at 19,496,132 acres, only 4,640,803 acres
were cultivated in 1876.

The country is divided into 33 civil counties, grouped under
eight geographical divisions. The following table gives the results
of the census of 1871, the numbers of population including the
military in barracks and the seamen on board vessels in the har-
bours on the 3rd of April 1871 : —

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

245

Divisions

and

civil counties

Inhabited
houses

1 Population

Males

Females

Total

1. Northern : —

Shetland

5,740

13,080

18,525

31,605

Orkney .

6,301

14,346

16,926

31.272

Caithness

7,476

18,939

21,050

39,989

Sutherland .

4,798

11,127

12,559

23,686

2. North-Western : —

Ross and Cromarty

15,932

38,029

42,880

80,909

Inverness

16,659

40,798

46,682

87,480

3. North-Eastern :—

Nairn .

2,046

4.771

5,442

10,213

Elgin .

8,564

20,278

23,320

43,598

Banff .

11,663

29,345

32,665

62,010

Aberdeen

34,691

115,891

128,716

244,607

Kincardine .

6,681

16,790

17,861

34,651

4. East-Midland:—

Forfar .

25,859

106,223

131,305

237,528 ;

Perth .

22,387

60,592

07,149

127,741

Fife .

27,340

74,700

85,610

160,310

Kinross .

1,669

3,387

3,821

7,208

Clackmannan

3,447

11,543

12,199

23,742

5. West-Midland:—

Stirling .

14,315

48,160

50,019

98,179

Dumbarton .

8,043

28,817

30,022

58,839

Argyll . .1

14,367

36,898

38,737

75,635

Bute . . .

2,434

7,624

9,353

16,977

6. South-Western :—

Renfrew

13,606

103,612

113,307

216,919

Ayr

27,132

98,110

102,635

200,745

Lanark .

49,080

377,739

387,540

765,279

7. South- Eastern : —

Linlithgow . ,

6,507

21,074

20,117

41,191

Edinburgh

28,437

153,821

174,514

328,335

Haddington .

7,322

18,060

19,710

37,770

Berwick

6,534

17,406

19,068

36,474

Peebles

2,246

5,946

6,368

12,314

Selkirk .

1,752

6,730

7,271

14,001

8. Southern : —

Roxburgh

7,869 1

25,703

28,262

53,965

Dumfries

13,833

34,782

40,012

74,794

Kirkcudbright

7,705

19,479

22,373

41,852

Wigtown

6,930

17,833

20,962

38,795

Scotland .

412,185 '

1,603,143

1,756,875

3,360,018

The following tabic exhibits the numbers of the population of

246

THE STATESMAN S TEAK-BOOK, 1877.

Scotland at the dates of the several enumerations, together with the
increase between each census, and the percentage of increase: —

Percentage

Dates of enumeration

Population

Increase

of decennial [

increase

March 10, 1801

1,608,420

. —

May 17, 1811

1,805,864

197,444

12-27

May 28, 1821

2,091,521

285,657

15-82

May 29, 1831

2,364,386

272,865

13-04

June 7. 1841

2,620,184

255,798

10-82

March 31, 1851

2,888,742

268,558

10-25

April 8, 1861

3,062,294

173,552

600

April 3, 1871

3,360,018

297,724

9-80

Increase in seventy years

1,750,596

100-12

The Registrar-General Of Scotland reported the following as the
estimated population of the eight principal towns in the middle of
the year 187G : Glasgow, 545,144 ; Edinburgh, 215,146 ; Dundee,
139,125 ; Aberdeen, 9G,499 ; Greenock, 70,192 ; Leith, 52,919 ;
Paisley, 48,679 ; Perth, 26,535. The total represented 1,194,239,
or more by about 18,000 than a third of the population of Scotland.
The tendency of the population to agglomerate in towns is greater
in Scotland than in England.

The following table gives the number of births, deaths, and mar-
riages in Scotland, in each of the ten years 1866 to 1875, with the
estimated population for the middle of each year, according to the
returns of the lleoristrar-General : —

Years

Estimated
population

Births

Deaths

Marriages

1866

3,153,413

113,639

71,273

23,629

1867

3,170,769

114,115

69,024

22,521

1868

3,188,125

115,673

69.386

21,853

1869

3,205,481

113,395

75,789

22,083

1870

3,222.837

115,423

74,067

23,788

1871

3,366,375

116,127

74,644

23,966

1872

3,399.226

118,873

75,741

25,580

1873

3,430,923

119,738

76,857

26,730

1874

3,462,916

123,795

80,676

26,247

1875

3,495,214

123,693

81,785

25,921

The division of the soil in Scotland is greater than in England
and Wales, but less than in Ireland. In the returns of the ' Modern
Domesday Book ' of 1875-76 the number of landowners possessing
more than an acre is given at 19,225, and of those possessing less
than an acre at 113,005. (See pages 237-38.)

The number of registered paupers and their dependents, exclusive
of casual poor, who were in receipt of relief in parishes of Scotland,

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

247

during the years 18G6 to 1875, on the 14th of May in each year,
is shown in the subjoined table : —

Year

Number of
parishes

Paupers

Dependents

Total

1866

885

76.229

43,379

119,608

1867

885

76.737

44,432

121,169

1868

887

80,032

48,944

128,976

1869

887

80,334

48,005

128.339

1870

887

79,290

46,897

126,187

1871

887

77.759

45,811

123.570

1872

887

74,752

42,859

117,611

1873

886

71.537

40.459

111,996

1874

886

68,428

37,467

105.8r>5

1875

886

65,661

35,930

101,591

The number of criminal offenders, distinguishing men and women,
committed for trial, and convicted, in Scotland, was as follows in
each of the ten years 1866 to 1875 : —

Committed for trial

Convicted

Years

Men

Women

Total

1866 .

1867 .

1868 .

1869 .

1870 .

1871 .

1872 .

1873 .

1874 .

1875 .

2,202
2,497
2,622
2,752
2.430
1 2,253
I 2,358
2,118
2,279

2,296

801
808
762
758
616
695
686
637
601
576

3,003
3,305
3,384
3,510
3,046
2.948
3,044
2,755
2,880
2,872

2,292
2,510
2,490
2.592
2,400
2,184
2,259
2,110
2,231
2,143

It will be seen from the above table that, notwithstanding a large
increase of population, there was a gradual diminution of crime in
Scotland during the decennial period.

3. Ireland.

Ireland has an area of 31,874 square miles, or 20,322,641 acres,
inhabited, in 1871, by 5,411,416 souls. This gives a density 1 f
population of 169 inhabitants per square mile, or considerably less
than one-half of that of England.

The movement of the population of Ireland since the beginning
of the century was very different from that of England and Scotland.
There was an increase, slow at first, and then rapid, from 1801 to
1841, and a decrease, more rapid than the previous increase, from
1841 to 1871. At the census of L801 the population of Ireland

248

TIIE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

was 5,395,456; in 1811 it had risen to 5,937,856; in 1821 to
6,801,827 ; in 1831 to 7,767,401 ; and in 1841 to 8,175,124. At
the next census, that of 1851, the population was found to have sunk
to 6,552,385, representing a decline of nearly twenty per cent., while
the following two census returns showed another decline of above
eighteen per cent. The decline during the last decennial periods was
spread unequally over the four provinces of Ireland, as illustrated
in the subjoined table, which gives the results of the enumerations of
April 8, 1861, and of April 3, 1871, together with the decrease, in
numbers and rate per cent., between 1861 and 1871 : —

Provinces

1S61

1871

Decrease bet-n
and 18'

een 1861

Number

Rate per
cent.

Leinster
Munster .

Ulster
Connaught

Total of Ireland

1,457,635

1,513,558

1,914,236

913,135

1,335,966

1,390,402

1,830,398

845,993

121,669

123,156

83,838

67,142

8-35
8-14
4-38
7-35

5,798,564

5,411,416

387,148

6-80

The numbers of the population of the counties, cities, and towns
of the four provinces of Ireland were found to be as follows at the
census of April 3, 1871 : —

Provinces,

counties, cities,

and towns

Population

Males

Females

Total

Province of Leinster.

Carlow County

25,356

26,116

51.472

Drogheda Town .

6,661

7,728

14,389

Dublin City, Municipal

115,363

130,359

245,722

„ Suburban townships

21,573

28,546

50,119

„ County

51,256

58,528

109,784

Kildare „

45,646

38,552

84,198

Kilkenny City

6,007

6,657

12.664

,, County

46,892

49,746

96,638

King's ,,

38,192

37,589

75,781

Longford „

32,418

31.990

64,408

Louth ,,

34,423

35,386

69,809

Meath

47,934

46,546

94,480

Queen's .,

38,518

38,553

77,071

Westmeath „

39,768

38,648

78,416

Wexford ,,

64,125

68,381

132.506

Wicklow ,,

39,376

39,133

78,509

Tot ;il of Leins

;er

653,508

682,458

1.335,966

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

249

The number of inhabited houses at the census of 1871 was
961,229, against 1,046,223 in 1861, and 1,328,839 in 1851, the
decrease amounting to \\ per cent, in the decennial period 1861—71.

250

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Of uninhabited houses there were 28,322 at the census of 1871, the
number representing a decrease of 30-85 per cent, in the decennial
period 1861-71.

The subjoined table gives the number of births, deaths, and
marriages, in each of the eight years 1867 to 1874, together with
the estimated population of Ireland in the middle of the year : —

Years

Estimated
population

Births

Deaths

Marriages

1868

5,543,285

146,108

86,803

27,753

1869

5,546,343

145,912

90,039

27,364

1870

5,412,660

150,151

90,695

28,835

1871

5,386,708

151,665

88,720

28,960

1872

5,368,696

149,292

97,577

27,114

1873

5,337,261

144,377

97,537

26,270

1874

5,314,844

141,288

91,961

24,481

1875

5,309,494

138,382

98,243

24,259

The total emigration from Ireland in each year from the 1st of
May, 1851, to the 31st of December, 1875, is stated by the Irish
Registrar-General to have been as follows: — 1851, 152,060 ; 1852,
190,322; 1853, 173,148; 1854, 140.555; 1855, 91,914;
1857, 95,081; 1858, 64,337; 1859, 80,599;
1861, 64,292; 1862, 70,117; 1863, 117,229;
1865, 101,497; 1866, 99,467; 1867, 80,624;
1869, 66,568; 1870, 74,855; 1871, 71,240;

1856,
1860,
1864,

1868,
1872,

90,781 ;

84,621 ;

114,169

61,018;

78,102; 1873, 90,149; 1874, 73,184; 1875, 51,462. The total

number of emigrants from Ireland within the quarter of a century

was 2,377,391."

The Agricultural Statistics of Ireland, issued from the General
Register Office in 1876, show that the number of separate holdings
of land in that country in 1875 was 585,483, being 204 less than
in the preceding year. The returns show 51,459 holdings not ex-
ceeding an acre in extent, being an increase of 1,192 over the
number in the preceding year. There were 69,093 holdings above
one and not exceeding five acres in 1875, being a decrease of 927
as compared with 1874, and a decrease of no less than 241,338, or
77*7 «per cent., compared with the number in 1841. The farms
above five and not exceeding 15 acres were 106,959 in 1875, a
number less by 491 than in 1874, and only equal to two-thirds o£
the number in 1841. On the other hand, to set against these large
decreases, the farms above 15 and not exceeding 30 acres, were
137,669 in number in 1875, though they were 287 fewer than in
1874, were more than in 1841 by no less than 73-5 per cent. The
farms above 30 acres were 160,298 in 1875, showing an increase of
309 over 1874, and of 111,673, or 2297 per cent, over 1841. Of
these larger holdings there were in 1875 as many as 73,045

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

251

between 30 and 50 acres, 55,618 between 50 and 100, 21,909 be-
tween 100 and 200, 8,197 between 200 and 500, and 1,529 above
500 acres. The total number of holdings in Ireland above one
acre were 691,202 in 1811, but only 531,024 in 1875, being a de-
crease of 22-7 per cent. ; and of these there were, in 1841, 042,577
not exceeding 30 acres, and only 48,625 over that acreage ; but in
1875 there were only 373,726 not exceeding 30 acres, and 160,298
above 30 acres.

The subjoined table gives the number of paupers in receipt of
relief in unions in Ireland at the close of the first week of January
in each of the ten years 1867 to 1876 : —

Years

Indoor paupers

Outdoor p.iupers

Total

1867

54,930

13,291

68,650

1868

56,663

15,830

72,925

1869

56,934

17,320

74,743

1870

53,687

19,729

73,921

1871

50,815

23,877

74,692

1872

48,738

26.056

75,743

1873

49,856

29,232

79,649

1874

49,193

29,857

79,633

1875

50,362

30,631

80,993

1876

46,835

31,078

77,913

The number of criminal offenders, distinguishing men and women,
committed for trial, and convicted, in Ireland, Avas as follows during
each of the ten years 1866 to 1875 : —

Years

Committed for trial

Convicted

Men

Women

Total

1866 .

3,461

1,093

4,326

2,418

1867 .

3.665

865

4,561

2,733

1868 .

3,298

896

4,127

2,394

1869 .

3,340

829

4,151

2,452

1870 .

4,077

811

4,936

3,048

1871 .

3,647

838

4,485

2,257

1872 .

3,662

814

4,476

2,565

1873 .

3,724

820

4,544

2,512

1874 .

3,293

837

4,130

2,367

1875 .

3,392

856

4,248

2,484

The gradual decrease in the number of criminal offenders in
Ireland, falling to aether with a perceptible increase of pauperism,
is ascribed to the improvement of the police and judicial organisation,

together with more extended administrative machinery for the relief
of the poor in Ireland.

252

THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 18?

t 1 1

4. Islands in the British Seas.

The population of the Islands in the British Seas was found to be
as follows, at the census of April 3, 1871 : —

Islands

Area

in statute

acres

Inhabited
houses

Population

Males

Females j

Total

Isle of Man .
Channel Islands

Jersey .

Guernsey, &c.

180,000

28,717
17,967

9,413

8,738
5,831

25,914

24,875
15,433

28,128

31,752
18,536

54,042

56,627
33,969

Total

226,684

23,982

66,422

78,416

144,638

The following were the numbers of the population of the Islands
at each of the four censuses of 1841, 1851, 1861, and 1871 : —

Islands

1841

1851

1861

1871

Isle of Man .

Jersey

Guernsey, Herm, &c.

Alderney

Sark ....

47,975

47,544

26,698

1,038

785

52,387

57,020

29,806

3,333

580

52,469

55,613

29,850

4,932

583

54,042

56,627

34,061

2,738

546

Total

124,040

143,126

143,447

144,638

It will be seen that since the census of 1851, there has been but
a slight increase in the total population of the Islands.

Emigration from the United Kingdom.

There was very little emigration from the United Kingdom pre-
vious to 1815, in which year the number of emigrants was no more
than 2,081. It rose to 12,510 in 1816; to 20,634 in 1817; to
27,787 in 1818 ; and to 34,987 in 1819. In the five years 1820-24
there emigrated 95,030 individuals; in the next five years 1825-29
the number was 121,084; in 1830-34 it rose to 381,956 ; but sank
again to 287,358 in 1835-39. Up to the year 1834, the main
stream of emigration from the United Kingdom was directed towards
the North American Colonies, but a change occurred in 1835, from
which year the chief current set in towards the United States, and
kept on gradually increasing in force, far distancing that to any other
country. In the twenty-five years from 1815 till 1839, 499,899

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

253

emigrants had gone to the American Colonies, and 417, 7G5 to the
United States ; but in the next thirty-three years from 1840 till 1872,
there went to the North American Colonies 95 G, 748, and to the
United States 4,487,497 individuals.

The following table exhibits the number of persons, natives and
foreigners, emigrating from the United Kingdom to the North
American Colonies, the United States, and the Australasian Colonies,
and the total number — the latter figure including the comparatively
small number going to other than these three destinations — in each
of the thirty years from 1846 to 1875 : —

Tears

To the North

To the United

To the Australasian

Total

American Colonies

States

Colonies

1846

43,439

82,239

2,347

129,851

1847

109,680

142,154

4,949

258,270

1848

131.065

188,233

23,904

248,089

1849

41.367

219,450

32,191

299,498

1850

32,961

223,078

16,037

280,849

1851

42,605

267,357

21,532

335,966

1852

32,873

244,261

87,881

368,764

1853

34,522

230,885

61,401

329,937

1854

43,761

193,065

83,237

323,429

1855

17.966

103,414

52,309

176,807

1856

16,378

111,837

44,584

176,554

1857

21,001

126,905

61.248

212,875

185S

9,704

59,716

39,295

113,972

1859

6,689

70,303

31,013

120,432

1860

9,786

87,500

24,302

128,469

1861

12.707

49.764

23,738

91,770

1862

15,522

58.706

41,843

121,214

1863

18.083

146,813

53,054

223,758

1864

12,721

147,042

40.942

208,900

1865

17,211

147,258

37.283

209,801

1866

13,255

161,000

24,097

204,882

1867

15,503

159.275

14,466

195,953

1868

21,062

155,532

12,809

196,325

1869

33.891

203,001

14,901

258,027

1870

35.295

196,075

17,065

256,940

1871

32,671

198,843

12,227

252,435

1872

32,205

233,747

15,876

295,213

1873

37,208

233,073

26,428

310,612

1874

25,450

148,161

53,958

241,014

1875

17,378

105.046

35,525

173,809

The emigrants who left the United Kingdom in 1875 comprised
140,675 persons of British origin, namely, 84,540 English, 14,686
Scotch, and 41,449 Irish. The remainder consisted of 83,347
foreigners, and 1,787 persons not distinguished. As regards ports
of departure, 135,306 sailed from England and Wales; 15,109
from Scotland ; and 28,349 from England.

254

THE STATESMAN'S TEAK-BOOK, 1877.

Commerce and Industry.

1. Imports and Exports.

The declared value of the imports and exports of the United King-
dom was as follows during the ten years 1866 to 1875 : —

Years

Total
Imports

Exports of
British produce

Exports of

Foreign and

Colonial produce

Total Imports
and Exports

1866

295,290,274

188,917536

49,988,146

534,185,956

1867

275,183,137

180,961,923

44,840,606

500.985 666

1868

294,693,608

179,677,812

48,100.642

522,472,062

1869

295,460,214

1S9,953.957

47,061,095

532,475,266

1870

303,257,493

199,586,822

44,493,755

547,338 070

1871

331,015,380

223,066,162

60,508,538

614,590,180

1872

354,693,624

' 256,257,347

58,331,487

669.282.458

1873

371,287,372

255,164,603

55.840,162

682.292,137

1874

370,082,701

239,558,121

58,092,343

667,733,165

1875

373,939,577

223,465,963

58,146,360

655,551.900

The following table exhibits the average share, per head of popu-
lation of the United Kingdom, in the imports, the exports of British
produce, and the total during the ten years 1866 to 1875 : —

Tears

Imports

Exports of British
produce

Total Imports and
Exports

£ s. d.

1866

9 17 2

6 6 2

17 16 10

1867

9 2 6

6 0 0

16 12 3

1868

9 14 0

5 18 2

17 4 0

1869

9 12 1

6 3 7

17 4 6

1870

9 16 9

6 9 6

17 10 2

1871

10 10 1

7 1 7

19 10 1

1872

11 2 6

8 1 0

21 0 6

1873

11 11 2

7 18 10

21 4 9

1874

11 8 3

7 7 9

20 11 10

1875

118 5

6 16 6

20 0 4

The' following table shows the relative division of the imports
from the chief British Colonies and the principal foreign countries
into the United Kingdom in 1875, compared with the previous year.
Only countries the imports from which were of the declared value
of upwards of one million sterling are given, each being placed in
the order in which it ranks according to the magnitude of the sup-
plies it sent to the United Kingdom in the year 1875 : —

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

255

Imports.

Year 1^74

Year is::,

From British Possessions : —

India .....

31,198.446

30,137 -'95

Australasia ....

18,547,710

20,559,154

British North America .

11,858,909

10.212,624

"West Indies

4,338,276

5.414,059

Cape of Good Hope and Natal

4,297,285

4,478,960

Ceylon ....

3,600,492

4,380,821

Straits Settlements

2,604,854

3,149,310

Guiana ....

1,850,473

1,911,981

Mauritius ....

1,044,233

824,411

All other Possessions .

2,822,161

3,335.356

Total from British Possessions

82,162,839

84,423,971

From Foreign Countries : —

United States

73,897,400

69.590.054

France ....

46,518,571

46.720,101

Germany ....

19,947,195

21.836,401

Russia ....

20.933,391

20,708,901

Netherlands

14,464,158

14.830,648

Belgium ....

15.048.856

14,822.240

China ....

11.145.909

13,607.582

Egypt ....

10,514,708

10,895.043

Sweden and Norway .

11,393,547

8,918,638

Spain .....

8,641,639

8,660.953

Brazil

7,003,131

7,418.605

Peru .....

4,501,213

4.884.181

Italy

3,634,360

4,632.619

Portugal ....

4,265,032

4,444,071

Denmark ....

3,890,492

4,241,671

Chili

4.700,510

4,196,096

Turkey in Europe

3,579,836

3,924,341

Spanish "West Indies .

3,764,587

3,668,776

Asiatic Turkey .

2,263,010

2,631,373

Greece ....

1,536,805

1,762,301

Philippine Islands

1.417,989

1,559,500

Java .....

1,311,939

1,442,607

Argentine Confederation

1,271.445

1,359,783

Uruguay ....

1.437,288

1,208.590

All Other Countries

10,836,752

11,541,531

Total from Foreign Countries

287,919,862

289,515^606

Total Imports

370,082,701

373,939,577

The following table shows the relative division of the exports of
home produce from the United Kingdom to the chief British Colonies,
and the principal foreign countries, under like limitation, and arranged
in the same manner as in the preceding table, the countries ranking
according to the value of the exports which they received in 1875 :

256

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Exports of Home Produce.

To British Possessions : —
India .
Australasia .
British North America
Cape and Natal .
Hong Kong.
West Indies
Straits Settlements
Ceylon
Gibraltar .
Giiiana
All other Possessions

Total to British Possessions

To Foreign Countries: —
Germany
United States
France
Netherlands
Russia
Brazil
Italy .
Belgium
China

Sweden and Norway
Turkey in Europe
Spain .

Egypt . .
Spanish West Indies
Portugal
Japan .

Argentine Confederation
Denmark .
Asiatic Turkey .
Chili .
Peru .
Java .
Eoumania .
Greece
Colombia
Austria
Mexico
Uruguay
All other Countries

Total to Foreign Countries
Total Exports of home produce

Year 1874

24,080,693
19,062,920
9,332,119
4,301,761
3,650,963
2,209,533
2,701,526
1,158,283
1,135,179
1,018,846
3,628.269

72,280,092

24.799.846
28,241,809
16,370,274
14,427,113
8,776,468
7,678,453
6,369,609
5,828,092
4,751,103
5,400,939
4.633.024
4,064,231
3,585,106
1,857,768
2.706,990
1,282,899
3,128,142
2,519.522
2,404.683
2.751,094
1,593,261
1,208,734
1,244,871
1,010.313
2,570,952
1,063.649
1,124,613
1,224,038
4,660.433

167,278,029
239,558,121

24,246,406

19,491,241

9,036,583

4,909,856

3,599,811

2.186,527

1.961,634

1,076,752

969,222

748,705

2,865,426

71,092.163

23,287,883

21,868,279

15,357,127

13,118,691

8,059,524

6.869,491

6,766,698

5,781,938

4,928,500

4,538,455

3,630.365

3,430,340

2,945,846

2,630,634

2,563,067

2,460,227

2,386,002

2,323,707

2,259,540

2,207,418

1,594,499

1,577.980

1.054,744

938,456

919,143

897,069

884,901

713,830

6,378,446

152,373,800

223.465,963

It will be seen from the above tables that while the commerce of
the United Kingdom extends all over the globe, the bulk of com-

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

257

mercial transactions lies with hut a few countries. More than one-
half of the total imports in 1875 came from six countries — the
United States, France, India, Germany, Russia, and Australasia —
and more than one-half of the total exports of British produce and
manufacture also went to six countries — India, Germany, the United
States, Australasia, France, and the Netherlands. The commerce
with these principal import and export markets is increasing to a
greater extent than that with the remaining countries.

The value of the imports and of the exports of British produce
in the first nine months of 1876, compared with the same period
in the preceding year, is given under Comparative Tables, Nos.
VIII. and IX., in the Introductory Part of the Statesman's Year
Book.

The six principal articles imported into the United Kingdom
are corn, cotton, wool, sugar, wood and timber, and tea. The six
chief articles of home produce exported are cotton fabrics, woollens,
iron, linen, coals, and machinery. In the subjoined tables the
declared real value of these twelve great articles of British commerce,
imported and exported in the years 1873, 1874, and 1875, is
exhibited: —

The Six principal Articles of Import.

Principal articles imported

1873

1874

1875

1. Corn and flour

£
51,737,811

51,070,202

£
53,086,691

2. Cotton, raw .

54,704,847

50,696,496

46,259,822

3. Wool, sheep and other .

19,541,678

21,116,184

23,437,413

4. Sugar, raw and refined .

20,913,297

20,009,730

21,548,303

5. Wood and timber .

19,110,997

21,968,138

15,424,498

6. Tea

11,372,595

11,532,896

13,766,961

The Six principal Articles of Export.

Principal articles exported

1873

1874

1875

1. Cotton manufactures:

Piece goods, white or plain .

„ printed or dyed .

„ of other kinds .

Cotton yarn ....

Total of cotton manufactures

34,283,471

21,580,770

5,603,931

15,895,440

34,741,084

19,602,706

5,386,400

14,517,425

33,255,013

19,900,918

5,442,922

13,172,860

77,363,615

74,247,618

71,771,713

258

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

The Six principal Articles of Export— continued.

Articles exported

1873

1874

1S75

2. "Woollen and worsted manufac-

tures :

Cloths, coatings, &c.

6,599,635

6,642,222

6,850,203

Flannels, blankets, and baizes

1,089,864

1,318,007

1.239,637

Worsted stuffs

14,277,382

11,888,072

11,159,914

Carpets and druggets .

1,597,383

1,480,892

1,159,979

. Of all other sorts .

1,785,614

1,471,759

1,249,592

Woollen and worsted yarn .

Total of woollen and "|

worsted manufactures J

3. Iron and steel :

5,393,493

5,558,560

5,099,307

30,743,371

28,359,512

26,758,632

Iron, pig and puddled .

bar, angle, bolt, and rod .

7,118,037

3,673,734

3,449,916

3,755,980

3,054,547

2.725,907

railroad, of all sorts . .

10,418,852

9,638,236

5.453,836

690,470

769,927

780,037

„ tinned plates

3,953,042

3,714,810

3,686,607

„ hoops and plates .

3,722.889

2,975,409

3,304,148

, wrought, of all sorts

5,478,759

5,122,588

4,342,492

, old. for re-manufacture .

399,522

245,381

102,837

Steel, wrought and unwrought
Total of iron and steel
4. Linen manufactures :

2,191,688

1,995,624

1,901,491

37,731 239

31,190,256

25,747,271

White or plain, damask, &c. .

7,981.743

5,876,864

5,904,958

Printed, checked, or dyed

659,438

287,75-1

470,295

Of other sorts

935,164

951,684

897,667

Linen yarn ....
Total of linen manufactures

5. Coals, cinders, and fuel

6. Machinery ....

2,374,132

1,716,231

1,855,684

11,950,377
13,188,511
10,019,929

8,832,533

9,128,604

11,984,621

9,658,088

9,790,914

9,058,647

In the principal articles both of imports and exports, corn and
flour, there was an immense increase in the thirty years from 1845
to 1875. In 1845 the imports of corn and flour amounted to 17
pounds weight per head of population ; in 1855, they had risen to
70 pounds per head; and in 1865, to 93 pounds weight per head
of population. Finally, in 1875, the imports of corn and flour
amounted to 197 pounds weight per head of population of the
United Kingdom.

Subjoined is a statement of the customs receipts for the two years
1874 and 1875, showing the increase or decrease of the gross pro-
duce in the year 1875, as compared with 1874 : —

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

259

Increase or decrease

Gross produce of Customs

of the gross produce in

duties

1875, as compared with |

Articles

1874

1S75

Increase

Decrease

Chicory ....

65,265

62,473

—

2,792

Cocoa, cocoa husks, and

chocolate

38,722

43,268

4,546

—

Coffee ....

199,205

203,371

4,166

—

Fruit, dried : Currants

322,151

308,720

—

13,431

„ Figs* plums,

■ —

and prunes

34,077

43,195

9,118

,, Raisins

134,030

131,965

—

2.065

Spirits : Rum .

2,640,243

2,725,282

85/>39

—

„ Brandy

2,243,861

2,328.739

84,878

—

„ Geneva and other

sorts

625,815

1,054,530

428,715

—

Sugar (Duty ceased May 1,

1874) ....

502,607

—

502.607

., Molasses do.

1,927

—

1,927

Tea ....

3,435,586

3,636,460

200,874

—

Tobacco and snuff .

7,522,207

7,720,557

198,350

Wine .

1,724,927

1,736,022

11,095

—

Other articles .

Total gross receipts

13,320

10.8.51

—

2,432

19,503,943

20,005,433

501,527

Deduct drawbacks and

repayments
Total net receipts

161,500

101,501

—

59.999

19,342,443

19,903,932

561 526

—

The tendency of modern legislation is towards concentration of
customs' duties on a few articles. At present there are, virtually,
but four great articles of customs' produce, namely tobacco, spirits,
tea, and wine.

The gross receipts of customs were collected as follows in the
years 1874 and 1875 at the chief ports of England, in Scotland, and
in Ireland : —

Ports

1874

1870

Increase

Decrease

London

Liverpool

Other Ports of England

Scotland

Total .
Increase

£
9,506.721
2,966,24]
3,002,081
1,666,215
1,752,736

9.940,139
2.919,419
2,904.108
1,597,863
1,755,487

433,418
2,751

46,822
97,973
68,352

18,893,994

19,117,016

436,109
223,022

213,147

s 2

260

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

It will be seen that the amount of customs receipts collected in
London in each of the years 1874 and 1875 was more than that of
all the other ports of Great Britain taken together, and five times-
that of the whole of Irelnnd. Besides London and Liverpool, there
is only one port in England, Bristol, the customs receipts of which
approach a million a-year. It appears from the customs returns of
the last thirty years, that there is an ever-increasing tendency of
concentration of trade within a few great centres of commerce.

2. Shipping.
The number and tonnage of registered sailing vessels of the United
Kingdom engaged in the home trade, with the men employed thereon

exclusive of masters — was as follows in each of the fourteen

from 1862 till 1875 :—

Home

Trade

Sailing Vessels

Home
Trade

Sailing Vessels

Years

Number

Tons

Men

Years
1869

Number

Tons

Men
39,481

1862

10,481

771,326

36,514

11,576

776,683

1863

10.677

752,589

36,720

1870

11,598

766,742

40,265

1864

11.003

789,108

37.748

1871

11,838

777,185

41.828

1865

11,160

795,434

37,631

1872

12,240

794,162

42,095

1866

11,212

813,909

37.440

1873

11,546

749,345

39,590

1867

11,498

839,523

38,526

I 1874

10,827

693,599

36,951

1868

11.787

804.749

39.448

1875

10,563

715,950

37,401

The number of steam vessels — exclusive of river steamers — em-
ployed in the home trade during each of the fourteen years, from
1862 to 1875, was as follows : —

Home
Trade

Steam Vessel

Men

, Home
Trade

1 Years

Steam Vessels

Years
1862

Number

Tons

Number

Tons

Men

434

104,020

6.892

1 1869

751

161,984

10,049

1863

456

107,003

7,095

i 1870

1,071

170,746

11,445

1864

510

125.808

7,858

' 1871

1,191

195,125

12,613

1865

552

134,776

8,189

j 1872

1,237

208,490

13,238

1866

612

147,194

9.005

! 1873

1,096

215.263

13,243

1867

657

154,244

9.451

1874

1,128

219,550

13.323

1868

729

153.265

9,755

1875

1,183

231,722

13,479

The number of sailing vessels engaged partly in the home and
partly in the foreign trade — the expression 'home trade' signifying
the coasts of the United Kingdom, or ' ports between the limits of
the river Elbe and Brest' — was as follows in each of the fourteen
years, from 1862 to 1875: —

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

>6i

Partly Home

Partly home

and partly

Sailing Vessels

and partly

Sailing Vessels

Foreign Trade

ForeignTrade

Years

Number

Tons

Men

Years

Number

Tons

Men

1862

1,483

246,479

9,388

1869

1,617

288,849

10,265

1863

1,720

284,413

10.831

1870

1,585

283,682

9,988 1

1864

1,624

268,125

10,039

1871

1,610

286,803

10,060

1865

1,663

282,295

10,457

1872

1,378

245,563

8,580

1866

1,546

278,167

10,055

1873

1,341

204,667

7,521

1867

1,196

199,846

7,339

1874

1,486

251,235

9,089

1868

1,432

240,921

8,688

1875

1,331

205,352

7,510

The number of steam vessels — exclusive of river steamers — em-
ployed alternately in home and foreign trade, during the years 1862
to 1875, was as follows: —

Partly Home

j Partly Home

and partly

Steam Vesssels

' and partly

3team Vessels

Foreign Trade

ForeignTrade

Years

Number Tons

Men

Years

Number

Tons

Men

1862

29,463

1,664

1869

164

73,964

3,048

1863

33,547

1,693

1870

234

108,813

4,221

1864

36,944

1,787

1871

300

157,964

5,767

1865

111

43,225

2,005

1872

244

121,337

4,605

1866

110

, 47,194

2,050 .

1873

221

97,445

3,817

1867

125

! 50,201

2,249 1

1874

221

94,264

3,727

1868

134

52,150

2,339 i

1875

322

145,308

5,582

The number and tonnage of registered sailing vessels engaged in
the foreign trade alone, with the men employed — exclusive of masters
— was as follows during the fourteen years 1862 to 1875 : —

Employed in the
Foreign Trade

Sailing Vessels

Years

Number

Tons Men

1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875

7,095
7,360
7,557
7,384
7,454
7,467
7,306
6,963
6,757
6,202
6,091
5,898
5,613
5,327

2,993,696 100,145
3,246,526 106,100
3,532,242 { 110,489
3,629,023 110,501
3,612,973 t 109,073
3,641,662 107,364
3,646,150 105,704
3,611,743 1 102,440
3,468,717 96,954 !
3,279,570 89,147
3,206,179 86,426 j
3,113,132 83,766
3,092,730 82,693
3,123,202 | 81,329

262

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The number of steamers employed in the foreign trade during the
same period was as follows : —

Employed in the
Foreign Trade

Steam Vessels

Years

Number

Tons

Men

1862

510

328,310

19,260

1863

574

371,201

22,288

1864

7 "J 7

456,241

27,835

I860

756

523,698

28,860

1866

784

553,425

28,748

1867

834

608,232

31.411

1868

862

619.199

31,568

1869

810

644,080

30,207

1870

935

760,410

33,089

1871

1,066

936,914

40,323

1872

■ 1,364

1,185,877

48,776

1873

1,479

1,368,245

54.302

1874

1.597

1,513,210

57,823

1876

1465

1,470 158

54,366

It will be seen from the preceding six tables that the merchant
navy is being gradually converted from sailing to steam.

A summary of the total shipping of the United Kingdom, sailing
and steam, and for both home and foreign trade, during the fourteen
years 1862 to 1875 is given in the following table : —

Tears

Vessels

Tons

Men

1862

20,092

4,473,294

173,863

1863

20,877

4,795,279

184,727

1864

21,513

5,208,468

195,756

1865

21,626

5.408,451

197,643

1866

21.718

5.452,862

196.371

1867

21,777

5,493,708

196,340

1868

22,250

5,516,434

197,502

1869

21,-881

5,557,303

195,490

1870

22,180

5,559,110

195,962

1871

22,207

5,633,561

199,732

1872

22,554

5,761,608

203,720

1873

21,581

5,748,097

202,239

1S74

20,872

5,864,588

203,606

1875

20,191

5,891,692

199,667

The above numbers include vessels of the Channel Islands, but
not those of the British possessions.

The total tonnage of British and foreign vessels, both sailing and
steam, which entered and cleared at ports of the United Kingdom,
either with cargoes or in ballast, during the fourteen years 1862 to
1875, is shown in the following table: —

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

263

Tears

British

Foreign

Total

tons

1862

15,946,860

0,588,579

26,535,439

1863

17,019,392

9,719,341

26,738,733

1864

18,201,675

9,002,834

27,204,509

1865

19,358,955

19,538,137

28,897,092

1866

21,255,726

10,006,724

31,262,450

1867

22,370,070

10,3S6,042

32,750,112

1868

22,660,424

11,020,555

33,680,979

1869

23,789,167

11,121,114

34,910,281

1870

25.072,180

11,568,002

36,640,182

1871

28,034,748

13,513,130

41,457,878

1872

28,719,090

13,781,935

42,501,025

1873

29,647,344

14,792,642

44,439,986

1874

30,089,683

15,339,274

45,428,957

1870

30,944,744

15,332,094

46,276,838

The number and tonnage of vessels built and first registered in
the United Kingdom, from 1862 to 1875, was as follows: —

Years

Sailing Vessels

Steamers

Number

Tons

Number

Tons

1862

827

164.061

221

77,338

1863

881

253,036

279

107,951

1864

867

272,499

374

159,374

1865

922

235,555

382

179,649

1866

969

207,678

354

133,511

1867

915

185,771

295

97,219

1868

879

300,477

232

79,096

1869

731

245,373

281

123,203

1870

609

136,286

434

226,591

1871

485

60,260

537

330,798

1872

427

58,757

635

415,961

1873

422

89,626

509

363,917

1874

499

187.313

482

333,890

1875

566

241,646

357

178,905

At the end of the year 1875 there were registered as belonging
to the United Kingdom, including the Channel Islands, 21,291
sailing vessels of 4,206,897 tons, and 4,170 steam vessels, ol
1,945,570 tons, making in the whole 25,461 vessels of 6,152,467
tons, being 173,636 tons more than at the end of the year 1874.
The numbers for 1875, compared with those for 1861, show in the
14 years a decline of 4,614 in the number of sailing vessels, but of
only 93,621 tons in the tonnage; and in steam vessels, an increase
of 2,037 in the number and of 1,439,262 tons in the tonnage. The
total shipping, sailing and steam, showed, in the 14 years, a decline
of 2,677 in the number of vessels, but an increase of 1,345,641 tons
in the tonnage.

364

THE STATESMAN'S TEAK-BOOK, 1877.

3. Textile Industry.
The quantity of raw cotton imported into the United Kingdom in
1815 amounted to only 99,000,000 pounds; it rose to 152,000,000
in 1820; to 229,000,000 in 1825; to 264,000,000 in 1830; to
364,000,000 in 1835; to 592,000,000 in 1840; to 663,576,861
pounds in 1850; to 1,390,938,752 pounds in 1860; and to
1,256,984,736 pounds in 1861. The subsequent trade fluctuations
are exhibited in the subjoined table, giving the total cotton im-
ports, exports, and the home consumption in the fourteen years
1862 to 1875 :—

Year

Total imports of

Total exports of

Retained for home

cotton

consumption

lbs.

1862

523,973,296

214,714,528

309,258,768

1863

669,583,264

241,352,496

428,230,768

1864

893,304,720

244,702,304

648,602,416

1865

977,978,288

302,908,928

675,069,360

1866

1,377,129,936

388,952,368

988,177,568

1867

[1,262,536,912

350,626,416

911,910,496

1868

1,328,084,016

322,620,480

1,005,463,536

1869

1,220,809,856

272,928,544

947,881,312

1870

1,338,305,584

236,630,576

1,101,675,008

1871

1,778,139,776

362,234,160

1,409,905,616

1872

1,408,837,472

273,005,040

1,135,832,382

1873

1,527.596,224

220.000,256

1,307,595,968

1874

1,566,864,432

258,967,632

1,307,896,800

1875

1,492,351,168

262,853,808

1,229,497,360

The subjoined table exhibits the total quantities of wool — sheep,
lamb, and alpaca — imported, exported, and retained for home con-
sumption during each of the years 1862 to 1875 : —

Total imports

Total exports

Retained for horns

of wool

consumption

lbs.

1862

171,943,472

48,076,499

123,866,973

1863

177,377,664

63,927,961

113,449,703

1864

206,473,045

55,933,739

150,539,306

1865

212,206,747

82,444,930

129,761,817

1866

239,358,689

66,573,488

172,785.201

1867

233,703.184

90,832,584

142,870,600

1868

252,744,155

105,070,311

147,673,844

1869

258,461,689

116,608,305

141,853,384

1870

263,250,499

92,542,384

170,708,115

1871

323,036,299

135,089,794

187,946,505

1872

306,379,664

137,511,247

168,868,417

1873

318,036,779

123,246,172

194,790,607

1874

344,470,897

144,294,663

200,176,234

1875

365,065,578

172,075,439

192,990,139

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

265

The following tabular statement gives the number of textile fac-
tories, and the number of workmen and workwomen employed in
them in each of the three divisions of the United Kingdom, on the
31st of October, 1874. The statement is drawn up from official
returns under the Factories and Workshops Inspection Act, laid
before the House of Commons in the session of 1875 : —

Cotton Factories —
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....

United Kingdom .

Number of
Factories

Persons employed

2,542

105

Males

180,607
5,830
1,183

Females

259,729

30,274

1,892

Total

440,336

36,104

3,075

2,655

187,620

291,895

479,515

Woollen Factories —
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....

United Kingdom . / .

1,483

257

54,119

11,816

782

51,252

15,912

724

105,371

27,728

1,506

1,800

66,717

67,888

135,605

Shoddy Factories —
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....

United Kingdom .

123

1,568
3

1,856
4

3,424

125

1,571

1,860

3,431

Worsted Factories —
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....

United Kingdom .

648

53,995

3,052

77,835

7,203

131,830

10,255

692

57,050

85,047

142,097

Flax Factories —
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....

United Kingdom .

141
159
149

6,856
12,752
18,323

15,471
33,064
41,993

22,327
45,816
60,316

449

37,931

90,528

128,459

Hemp Factories —
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....

United Kingdom .

45
12

1,465
581
221

1,574

1,250
120

3,039

1,831

341

2,267

2,944

5,211

266

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877-

The following is a summary of the total number of textile fac-
tories in each of the three divisions of the United Kingdom, and of
the total number of persons, male and female, employed therein on
the 31st of October, 1874 :—

Textile Factories —
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland ....

United Kingdom .

Number of
Factories

Persons employed

6,379
680
235

Males

328,494
44,269
21,281

Females

454,528

110,650

46,463

Total

783,022

154,919

67,744

7,294

394,044

611,641

1,005,685

While the total number of textile factories in the United Kingdom
on the 31st of October, 1874, was 7,294 ; that of spinning spindles

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

267

was 45,79.']. 107 ; of doubling spindles, 5,284,136; and of power
looms, 667,71 1. Of the total number of persons employed, 1,005,685,
there were 61,209 male, and 64,677 female, children under thirteen
years of age; so that the total numbers of 'half-timers' employed
was 125,886. There were 84,486 males between thirteen and
eighteen years of age ; 248,349 adult male workers ; and 2,546,964
girls over thirteen and adult female operatives, forming a total of
394,044 males and 611,641 females. Of the whole 1,005,685
persons employed in the three kingdoms, the proportion of men was
39 per cent., and of women 61 per cent. In England alone it Avas,
men, 42 per cent. ; women, 58 per cent. In Scotland — men, 28g
per cent. ; women, 711 per cent. In Ireland— men, 32^ per cent. ;
women, 68f per cent.

4. Minerals and Metals.

The total quantities and value of the two most important mineral
and metal products of the United Kingdom, namely, coal and pig
iron, were as follows in each of the twelve years 1864 to 1875 : —

Years

1864
186.5
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875

Coal

Pig iron

Quantities

Value Quantities

Value

tons
92,787,873
98,150,587
101,630,544
104,500,480
103,141,157
107,427,557
110,431,192
117,439,251
123,497,316
127,016,747
125,043,257
131,867.105

£
23,197,968
24.537,646
25,407,635
26,125.120
25,785,289
26,856,882
27,607,798
35,121,347
46,311,216
47,631,280
46,849,194
46,163.486

tons
4,767,951
4,819,254
4,523,987
4,761,023
4,970,206
5,445,757
5,963,515
6,627,179
6,741,929
6,566,451
4,985,084
6,365,420

11,919,877
12,048,133
11,309,742
11,902,557
12,381,280
13,614,397
14,908,787
16,667,947
18.540,304
18,057,739
14,844,936
15,645.774

The total value of the minerals and metals obtained from the
mines &c. of the United Kingdom in 1875 was 67,487,688/., under
the three heads of metals, 18,476,746/. ; coal, 46,163,486/. ; minerals
not reduced, earthy, &c. 2,847,456/. The total value of the metals,
coal, and other minerals in 1874 was 67,834,313/. There was thus
a falling off in value in 1875 to the extent of 346,625/. The
minerals which, besides iron and coal, were produced most largely
in 1875, were copper, tin, lead, zinc, iron pyrites, arsenic, manga-
nese, ochre and umber, wolfram and tungstate, plumbago, iluorspar,
clays, oil, shales, salt, barytes, coprolites, and phosphorite. Gold to
the value of 2,105/., and silver to the value of 115,747/, were

268 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

among the metals obtained in 1875 from the ores produced. After
coal and iron the largest mining produce was lead, the ore being
worth 1,202,148/., and next to this came salt, rock salt, and white
salt, to the value of 1,158,322/. More than half the salt came from
Cheshire, and more than half of all the salt in value, but less than
half in quantity, was exported in 1875, chiefly to British India.

The United Kingdom is divided by the Mining Record Office into
14 coal fields, of which the most important are Yorkshire, which is
returned with 423 pits ; Staffordshire and Worcestershire, with 422
pits; Scotland, with 420; Lancashire, with 376; Durham and
Northumberland, with 304; South Wales, with 299; a group com-
prising Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, Leicestershire, Warwickshire,
with 187 pits; and Gloucestershire and Somerset, with 101 pits.
Ireland has a comparatively large number of pits, but a small output,
averaging, in recent years, from 145,000 to 165,000 tons.

The exports of coal from the United Kingdom to foreign countries
more than quintupled within the last twenty-five years. They
amounted to 3,468,545 tons in 1851 ; to 5,789,779 tons in 1856;
to 7,855,115 tons in 1861; to 8,800,420 tons in 1864; to
9,616,244 tons in 1866 ; to 10,967,062 tons in 1868 ; to 11,702,649
tons in 1870; to 12,712,231 tons in 1872; to 12,077,507 tons
in 1873; to 13,927,205 tons in 1874; and to 14,544,916 tons in
1875. The declared value of these exports was 1,302,473/. in
1851 ; 2,826,582/. in 1856 ; 3,604,790/. in 1861 ; 4,165,773/. in
1864; 5,102,805/. in 1866; 5,352,525/. in 1868; 5,067,790/. in
1869; 5,506,890/. in 1870 ; 9,858,418/. in 1872; 12,370,638/. in
1873; 11,984,621/. in 1874; and 9,658,088/. in 1875. Of the
coal exports of 1875, the largest amount, 2,370,661 tons, valued
1,617,038/., went to France, and the next largest amount, 2,057,029
tons, valued 1,272,624/., to Germany. The rest was distributed,
mostly in quantities not exceeding 100,000 tons, to about sixty
foreign countries and British Colonial Possessions.

5. Railways.

From the opening of the first railway, in 1825, till the end of
1850, a period of a quarter of a century, 6,621 miles of lines were
constructed in the United Kingdom, being at the rate of 265 miles
per annum. At the end of 1860, the length of lines opened for
traffic was 10,433, showing an increase of construction at the rate of
381 miles per annum. At the end of 1875 there were 16,664 miles
open for traffic, the increase presenting an average of 415 miles per
annum of the total length. Of the total length of lines open at the
end of 1875, there belonged to England and Wales 11,795 miles, to
Scotland 2,721 miles, and to Ireland 2,148 miles.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

269

The following table gives the length of lines open, the capital
paid-up, the number of passengers conveyed, and the traffic receipts
of all the railways of the United Kingdom in each of the ten years
from 1866 to 1875 :—

LeDgth of

Total capital

Number of passengers

lines open

paid-np (shares

conveyed (exclusive

Traffic receipts

Years

at the end
of each

and loans) at

of season-ticket holders)

the end of each

year

Total

Per mile

Total

Per mile 1

miles

No.

£ 1

1866

13,854

481,872,184

274,403,895

19,734

38,164,354

2,754 1

1867

14,247

502,262,887

287,807,904

20,201

39,479,999

2,771 1

1868

14,628

511,680,855

304,136,334

21,961

40,912,534

2,875

1869

15.145

518,779,761

305,664,285

20.189

42,695,321

2,712

1870

15,537

529.908.673

330,004,398

21,518

45,078,143

2,794

1871

15,756

552.680,107

375,220,754

24,025

48,892,780

3,063

1872

15.814

569,047,346

422.874,822

26.740

51,304,114

3,244

1873

16,082

588,320,308

455,320.288

28,332

55.675,421

3,462

1874

16,449

609,895,919

! 478,316,701

29.081

56,901,281

3,459

1875

16,664

630,226.942

J 507,532,187

30,457

58.977,518

3.539

To the total capital in 1875 England and Wales contributed
527,094,115/., Scotland 72,886,052/., and Ireland 30,246,175/. In
the division of the traffic receipts of 1875, England and Wales took
49,766,684/., Scotland 6,577,731/., and Ireland 2,633,103/. The
working expenditure amounted to 33,211,031/. on all the railways
in 1875, being 56 per cent, of the total traffic receipts.

The following tabular statement gives the total length of railways,
open for traffic in the British Empire on the 31st December, 1875 :—

United Kingdom

India

Ceylon

Dominion of Canada .

Jamaica .

British Guiana .

i New South Wales

Victoria

, . , • J South Australia
Australasia i -. , ,

I Queensland .

Tasmania

^New Zealand

Total, Australasia
Cape Colony and Natal
Mauritius ....

Total of Colonial Empire of Great Britain
Total in British Empire

Miles

6,461
92

4,443
25
21

Miles
16,664

258

263

167

542

2,285

154
66

13,547
30,211

270

THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

There were upwards of 5,000 miles of railways in construction
within the British Empire at the end of 1875.

6. Post and Telegraphs.

The following tabular statement gives, the number of letters, in
millions, delivered in each of the three divisions of the United King-
dom, and the average number for each individual of the population,
in the ten years from .1866 to 1875 : —

Number of Letters delivered (in
Millions)

Average number of Letter- for each
individual of the Population

Years

England

and

Wales

Scotland

Ireland

England

and

Wales

Scotland

Ireland

Millions

1866

623

1867

640

1868

670

1869

683

1870

704

1871

721

1872

737

1373

756

1874

802

1875

847

The number of post-cards delivered in the year 1875 was 66
millions in England and Wales, 9 millions in Scotland, and 4
millions in Ireland, or a total of 79 millions for the United Kingdom.

The number of newspapers and book packets delivered in the year
1875 was 227 millions in England and Wales, 30 millions in Scot-
land, and 23 millions in Ireland, or a total of 280 millions for the
United Kingdom. In 1865, the total was 97 millions.

The number of money orders issued by the Post Office during the
year 1875, in the whole of the United Kingdom, was 16,485,661, of
the aggregate value of 26,493,090/.. being at the rate of one order
to every two persons. In England and Wales, the number was
14,043,014, and of the value of 22,397,716/., being at the rate of
four orders to every seven persons ; in Scotland the number was
1,367,754, of the value of 2,309,819/., being at the rate of three
orders to every eight persons, and in Ireland the number was
1,074,893, of the value of 1,785, 555/., being at the rate of one order
to every five persons.

The Post Office Savings Banks received, during the year 1875, in
the whole of the United Kingdom, 3,132,433 deposits, of the aggre-

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

271

gate amount of 8,783,852/., the average amount of deposit being
21. 16s. Id. At the end of the year 1875, the total amount of de-
posits held by the Post Office Savings Banks was 26,127,967/., the
average amount standing to the credit of each depositor being
14/. 3s. 5$d.

The Post Office Life Insurance and Annuity department granted,
during the year 1875, life insurance policies to the number of 370,
amounting to 32,022/. ; immediate annuities to the number of 582,
amounting to 7,926/. ; and deferred annuities to the number of 34,
amounting to 768/. The number and amount of life insurances
granted has been greatly on the decrease since 1872.

The following table gives the number of telegraphic messages (ex-
clusive of Press and Service messages) forwarded from Postal Tele-
graph Stations in each of the five years 1871 to 1875 : —

1871
1872
1873
1874
1875

England and
Wales

Scotland

9,654.594
12,062,725
14,070,993
15,612,409

17,058 sir,
^7

1,305,596
1,677,203
1,942,610
2,141,030
2,272,465

800 328
1,118,092
1,280,731
1,363,195
1,434,996

United Kingdom

11,760,518
14,858,020
17,294,334
19,116,634
20,766,277

The following table shows the annual gross revenue, the working
expenses, and the net revenue of the postal telegraph department
since the transfer of the telegraph to the State: —

Years
ended March 31

Gross Revenue

Working
Expenses

Net Revenue

1871

1872
1873
1874
1875
1876

697,934

751,611

989,921

1,083,466

1,137,079

1,031,546

£
394,477
591,776
874,946
907,790
1 077,347
1,031,546

£
303.457
159 835
114.975
115,676
59,732
245,116

The number of Post Offices in the United Kingdom at the end
of 1875 was 13,226 ; there were besides 10,186 road and pillar letter
boxes, 1,744 of them in the London district alone. The staff of
officers forming part of the Post Office department, exclusive of
those engaged solely in telegraph duties, was 28,429 at the end of
1870, and 44,644 at the end of 1875.

The total number of telegraph offices open on the 5th of February
1870, when the business was taken over by the State, was 2,932,

272 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

and at the end of the year 1875, it was 5,602, including 1,872
railway telegraph offices. The total length of the postal telegraph
wires at the end of 1875 was 107,400 miles, of which 5,846 miles
were rented by private persons.

The gross revenue of the Post Office of the United Kingdom
in the year 1875 was 5,815,032/., and the cost of management
3,920,891/. leaving a net revenue of 1,894,141/. In the year 1840,
when the ' penny postage ' was introduced, the gross revenue was
1,359,466/., while the net receipts amounted to 500,789/., so that
since this period the net revenue of the Post Office quadrupled, while
the correspondence showed a more than tenfold increase.

Colonial Possessions.

The Colonies and Dependencies of Great Britain embrace about
one-third of the surface of the globe, and nearly a fourth of its
population. The total area of these possessions is estimated at
7,647,000 English square miles, or more than sixty times the ex-
tent of the United Kingdom. Of this vast dominion, three millions
square miles are in America, a million in Africa, a million in Asia,,
and more than two millions and a-half in Australasia.

The whole of the Colonial Possessions are, under the latest
arrangements, existing at the end of 1876, grouped in thirty-nine
administrative divisions, some of them embracing a number of for-
merly separate colonies. Of these thirty-nine colonies, and groups
of colonies, three are in Europe, eleven in or near America, ten in
or near Africa, seven in Asia, and eight in Australasia. In Europe,
the Possessions are, in alphabetical order, first, Gibraltar ; second,.
Heligoland ; and, third, Malta. In America, and adjoining the
American continent, the colonial possessions are, first, the Bahamas,
a group of more than 800 islands and islets, of which twenty are
inhabited ; second, the Bermudas, a group of about 300 islands, of
which fifteen are inhabited ; third, the Dominion of Canada, com-
prising the Provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova
Scotia, Manitoba, British Columbia, and (since June 26, 1873,)
Prince Edward Island ; fourth, the Falkland Islands, a group of
large area, with very few inhabitants ; fifth, Guinea, on the conti-
nent of South America ; sixth, the Honduras, on the continent of
Central America ; seventh, Jamaica, to which are annexed, by an
Act of Parliament, passed in 1873, the Turks and Caicos Islands;
eighth, the Leeward Islands, comprising the formerly separate
colonies of Antigua, with Barbados, Montserrat, St. Christopher.
Nevis, Anguilla, the Virgin Islands, and Dominica, the whole united1
under an Act of Parliament, passed in 1871 ; ninth, Newfoundland,

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 273

not yet included in the Dominion of Canada,; tenth, the Island of
Trinidad ; and, eleventh, the Windward Islands, comprising the
formerly separate colonies of Barbadoes, St. Lucia, St. Vincent,
Grenada, and Tobago. In Africa, and nearest to the African conti-
nent, the colonial possessions are, first, the Island of Ascension, in
the South Atlantic Ocean ; second, the Cape of Good Hope, includ-
ing, British KailVaria, and other annexations made from 1866 to
1875 ; third, the Gambia settlement, on the west coast; fourth, the
vaguely limited Gold Coast territory, enlarged in 1872, by a cession
of old Dutch settlements ; fifth, the South African settlement of
Griqualand West, proclaimed British territory October 27, 1871 ;
sixth, the Island of Lagos, and territories on the mainland, ceded
under treaty of August 6, 1861 ; seventh, the Island of Mauritius,
and its dependencies, in the Indian Ocean ; eighth, Natal, separated
from the Cape of Good Hope in 1856 ; ninth, the Island of St.
Helena, in the South Atlantic ; and, tenth, the territory of Sierra
Leone, on the West Coast of Africa. In Asia, the colonial posses-
sions are, first, the town and port of Aden, in Arabia, at the entrance
of the Red Sea; second, the Island of Ceylon ; third, the Island of
Hong Kong ; fourth, the Empire of India ; fifth, the Island of
Labuan, on the coast of Borneo ; sixth, the Island of Perim, in the
Red Sea ; and, seventh, the Straits Settlements, comprising the
Islands of Singapore and Penang, with the territory of Malacca, in
tiie Indian Archipelago. Finally, in Australasia, the colonial pos-
sessions embrace, besides the Fiji Islands east to the mainland of
Australia, ceded to Great Britain in 1874, the seven, at present sepa-
rated but in all probability to be united, colonies of New South Wales,
New Zealand, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and
Western Australia.

The following table exhibits the date of acquisition, the area, and
the form of government, of the whole of the Colonial Possessions of
Great Britain at the end of 1876. The form of government is stated
after the definition given in the ' Colonial Office List,' under which
the colonies are divided into three classes, namely, first, Crown
Colonies, in which the Crown has the entire control of legislation,
while the administration is carried on by public officers under the
control of the Home Government ; secondly, colonics possessing
Representative Institutions, in which the Crown has no more than a
veto on legislation, but the Home Government retains the control of
public officers; and, thirdly, colonies possessing Responsible Govern-
ment in which the Crown has only a veto on legislation, and the
Home Government has no control over any public officer, except its
own representative. The title of this representative, Governor,
President, or Administrator, is added to the description of the form
of government in the last column of the table: —

274

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Colonial Possessions

In Europe : —

Gibraltar .

Heligoland

Malta
In America : —

Bahamas .

Bermudas .

Canada, Dominion of

Falkland Islands

Guiana

Honduras .

Jamaica and Turks
Islands .

Leeward Islands

Newfoundland .

Trinidad .

Windward Islands
In Africa: —

Ascension .

Cape of Good Hope

Gambia

Gold Coast

Griqualand West

Lagos

Mauritius .

Natal

St. Helena

Sierra Leone
In Asia: —

Aden

Ceylon

Hong Kong

India

Labuan

Perim

Straits Settlements
In Australasia: —

Fiji Islands

New South Wales

New Zealand

Queensland

South Australia

Tasmania .

Victoria

Western Australia

Date of

Area: Eng-

Acquisition

lish square
miles

1704

1814

1800

115

1629

3,021

1609

1623-1760

352,361

1833

6,500

1803

76.000

1670

13,500

1629-55

6,900

1626-1763

738

1583

40,200

1797

1,755

1605-1803

775

1815

1806

201,000

1631

1660

6,000

1871

17,800

1661

5,000

1810

708

1843

11,172

1650

1788

468

1838

1796

24,454

1843

1625-1849

904,049

1846

1855

1785-1819

1,350

1874

7,403

1787

323.437

1814

106,259

1859

678,600

1836

760,000

1803

26,215

1787

88,198

1829

978,000

Form of Government, and title of
chief executive officer

Crown ; Governor.
Crown : Governor.
Crown ; Governor.

Representative Inst.; Gov.
Representative Inst. ; Gov.
Responsible Gov.; Governor-
General.
Crown ; Governor.
Crown ; Governor.
Crown ; Lieut. -Governor.

Crown ; Captain-General.
Representative Inst. ; Gov.
Responsible Gov. ; Governor.
Crown ; Governor.
Representative Inst.; Gov.

Crown ; Governor.
Responsible Gov.; Governor.
Crown ; Administrator.
Crown; Administrator.
Crown ; Governor.
Crown; Administrator.
Crown ; Governor.
Representative Inst. ; Gov.
Crown ; Governor.
Crown ; Governor.

Crown ; Governor.
Representative Inst.; Gov.

Crown ; Governor.

Crown ; Governor-General.

Crown ; Governor.

Crown ; Gov. of Aden.

Crown ; Governor.

Crown ; Governor.
Responsible Gov. ;
Responsible Gov.;
Responsible Gov.;
Responsible Gov.;
Responsible Gov.;
Responsible Gov.;
Responsible Gov.;

Governor.
Governor
Governor,
Governor
Governor
Governor
Governor,

The following table gives the numbers of the. population, distin-

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

275

guishing the sexes, of the whole of the colonial possessions, according
to the latest census returns : —

Year of

Population

Colonial possessions

census

Males

Females

Total

In Europe: —

Gibraltar ....

1871

7,111

7,653

14,764

Heligoland

1871

874

1,039

1,913

Malta ....

1871

76,016

73,068

149,084

In America • —

Bahamas ....

1871

19,349

19,813

39,162

Bermudas ....

1871

5,402

6,719

12,121

Canada, Dominion of

1871

1,817,432

1,768,350

3,579.782

Falkland Islands

1871

519

284

803

Guiana ....

1871

108,791

84,700

193,491

Honduras ....

1870

12,603

12,107

24,710

Jamaica and Turks Islands

1871

248,655

261,699

510,354

Leeward Islands

1871

56,297

64,194

120,491

Newfoundland .

1869

75.547

70,989

146,536

Trinidad ....

1871

60.405

49,233

109,638

Windward Islands

1871

132,391

151,687

284,078

In Africa : —

Ascension . J

1871

Cape of Good Hope .

1871

290,966

275,192

566,158

Gambia ....

1871

7.306

6,884

14,190

Gold Coast

1871

—

408,070

Griqualand West

1871

—

25,477

Lagos ....

1871

28,963

33,058

02,021

Mauritius ....

1871

193,575

122,467

316,042

Natal ....

1871

148,815

145,017

293.832

St. Helena

1871

2,999

3,242

6,241

Sierra Leone

1871

19,445

19,491

38,936

In Asia : —

Aden ....

1871

—

22,507

Ceylon . . . .

1871

1,284,524

1,119,542

2,401,066

Hong Kong

1871

79.164

23,573

124,198

India . . . .

1872

98,054,403

92,501,565

190,501.048

Labuan ....

1871

3,027

1,871

4,898

Perim .

1871

—

211

Straits Settlements .

1871

200,433

107,664

308.097

In Australasia: —

Fiji Islands

—

142,000

New South Wales

1 1871

275.551

228,430

503.981

New Zealand

1 1871

150,267

105,993

25(1. 260

Queensland

l 1871

71,767

48.337

120,104

South Australia

1 1871

95.408

90.218

IS,".. (126

Tasmania .

1871

53,911

47,874

101.785

Victoria . . . .

! 1871

401,050

330,478

731.528

Western Australia

1 1870

15.375

9,410

24,785

The cost of the Colonial Possessions to Great Britain has been

276

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

gradually declining for a number of year and does not amount at
present to quite 2 millions sterling per annum, more than one-
half of which amount is paid on account ot nine of the Possessions,
classed as general military and naval stations, namely, Gibraltar,
Malta, the Cape of Good Hope, the Mauritius, Bermuda, St. Helena,
Heligoland, the Falkland Islands, and Hong Kong.

The following table gives the abstract of a parliamentary return
issued in the session of 1875, showing the cost of the Colonial Pos-
sessions of the Empire falling to the charge of the British Exchequer, in
each of the three financial years, ending March 31, from 1870-71 to
1872-73:—

Colonial Possessions 1870-71

1871-72

1872-73

Military or Maritime Stations :

Gibraltar ....

316,431

341,577

306,433

Malta .

353,494

431,312

378,520

Cape of Good Hope

180,517

154,672

162,827

Mauritius

49,708

43,759

33.575

Bermuda

205,585

180,946

193,015

St. Helena .

35,790

32,127

27,659

Heligoland .

1,556

3,529

1,560

Falkland Islands .

5,951

5,180

5,447

Hong Kong .

182,135

133,985

112,389

Australasian Colonies :

Western Australia

68,758

53,645

44,548

South Australia

1,649

Queensland .

—

800

Victoria

44,402

11,857

10,740

New South Wales .

8,955

2,708

248

Tasmania

8,319

907

1.335

New Zealand

4,812

1,911

1,226

Other Colonies :

Jamaica

106,547

76,295

80,779

Bahamas

28,373

20,733

23,308

Honduras

12.039

15,180

10,684

West Indies .

142,656

125,654

152,106

Canada .

219,834

59,117

3,552

Nova Scotia .

150,437

140,569

149,616

New Brunswick

727

119

Prince Edward Island

300

Newfoundland

9,937

561

560

Vancouver Island and

Co- '

lumbia

980

1,520

796

West Coast of Africa

46.404

41,694

66,110

Ceylon ....

5,688

17,865

Labuan.

1.050

Straits Settlements

37,646

31,357

68,250

Total .

2,229,680

1,912,821

1,853,201

GEE AT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 277

According to official returns, the total effective strength of the
British army in the colonies, exclusive of India, at the end of the year
1875, was 23,063 men, rank and file. The number of troops in the
various colonies having British garrisons was as follows : — Malta,
5,143 men ; Gibraltar, 4,918; Cape of Good Hope, 2,248 ; Ceylon
and Labuan, 1,176; Bermuda, 2,014 ; Nova Scotia, 1,674; Hong
Kong, 1,117; Jamaica, 907; Straits Settlements, 994; Mauritius,
470; Barbadoes, 777 ; West Coast of Africa, 587; Guiana, 275;
Honduras, 210; St. Helena, 192 ; the Bahamas, 142; and Trini-
dad, 124 men.

For further details concerning the Constitution and Government,
Revenue and Expenditure, Population, and Trade and Commerce of
the principal Colonies and Dependencies of the United Kingdom,
see Part II. of the Statesman's Year-book.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Great
Britain and Ireland.

I. Official Publications.

Accounts of the net Public Income and Expenditure of Great Britain, in each
financial year from 1688, the Period of the Revolution, to 5th January 1801,
the Period of the Union between Great Britain and Ireland ; and similar
accounts of the gross Public Income and Expenditure of the United Kingdom,
for each financial year from oth January 1801 to the present time. In two
Parts. Part I. — Great Britain and Ireland separately. Part II. — United
Kingdom. 2 vols., fol. pp. 1212. London, 1871.

Accounts relating to Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom for
the twelve months ended 31st December 1875. Fol. pp. 74. London, 1876.

Accounts relating to Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom for the
nine months ended 30th Sept. 1876. 8. pp. 66. London, November, 1876.

Agricultural Returns of Great Britain for 1875, with abstract tables for the
United Kingdom, British Possessions, and Foreign Countries. 8. pp. 100.
London, 1876.

Agricultural Statistics of Ireland : Tables for 1875. Fol. pp. 308. Dublin,
1876.

Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign
Countries and British Possessions in the year 1875. Imp. 4. pp. 279. London,
1876.

Army Estimates of Effective and Non-Effective Services for 1876-77. Fol.
pp. 181. London, 1876.

Births. Deaths, and Marriages in England: 37th Annual Report of
Registrar-General. 8. pp. 288. London, 1875.

Births, Deaths, and Marriages 'n England: Table for 1875. Fol. pp. 8.
London, 1876.

Births, Deaths, and Marriages in Scotland: 21st Reporl of Registrar-
General. 8. pp. 82. Edinburgh, 1876.

2^8 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Births, Deaths, and Marriages in Ireland : 1 1th Eeport of Begistrar-General.
8. pp. 142. Dublin, 1876.

Census of England and Wales, taken on the 3rd April 1871. Fol. pp.
107. London, 1871.

Census for Ireland for the year 1871. Parts 1-3. Fol. pp. 700. Dublin,
1874-76.

Census of Scotland, 1871. Fol. pp. 366. Edinburgh, 1872.

Civil Service Estimates for the year 1876-77. Fol. pp. 576. London,
1876.

Colonies : Eeturn of the Cost of the several Colonies of the British Empire
at the expense of the British Exchequer. Fol. pp. 12. London, 1875.

Colonies : See ' Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial Possessions. '
8. London, 1876.

Customs : 20th Eeport of the Commissioners of H.M.'s Customs. 8. pp.
148. London, 1876.

Duchy of Cornwall : Accounts of Eeceipts and Disbursements in the year
1875. Fol. pp. 8. London, 1876.

Duchy of Lancaster: Accounts of Eeceipts and Disbursements in the year
1875. Fol. pp. 8. London, 1876.

Ecclesiastical Commission: 28th Eeport, with Appendix. 8. pp. 114. Lon-
don, 1876.

Education : Elementary Schools in England and Scotland. Eeturn showing
expenditure upon grants, and results of inspection and examination. 8. pp.
52. London, 1876.

Education: Eeport of Committee of Council on Education for 1875-76. 8.
pp. 828. London, 1876.

Electors : Eeturn of the number of Electors on the register of each county
in England and Wales, in Scotland, and in Ireland. Fol. pp. 8. London
1876.

Emigration: 36th Eeport of the Commissioners of Emigration. 8. pp.
180. London, 1876.

Finance Accounts of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland for
the financial year ended 31st March 1876. Fol. pp. 74. London, 1876.

Income and Property Tax : Eeturn of the Amount of Income and Property
Tax under Schedules A, B, C, D, and E, in England and Wales, Ireland, and
Scotland for the year 1814, and in each of the years 1842 to 1873. Fol. pp. 4.
London, 1875.

Inland Eevenue : Eeport of Commissioners on the Duties under their
Management for the years 1856 to 1869, with some Eetrospective History and
complete Tables of Accounts of the duties from their first imposition. 2 vols.
Fol. pp. 168 and 219. London, 1870.

Judicial Statistics of England and Wales for 1875. 4. pp. 258. London, 1876.

Judicial Statistics of Ireland for 1875. Parts I. and II. Fol. pp. 236.
London, 1876.

Landowners in England and Wales : Eeturn of the Owners of Land of one
acre and upwards in England and Wales, exclusive of the Metropolis, with
their names, addresses, extent of lands, and estimated gross rental. 2 vols.
Tm] . 4, pp. 1600. London, 1876.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 279

Landowners in Ireland : Return of the Owners of Land of one aero and
upwards, in Ireland, with their names, addresses, extent of lands, and valua-
tion. Fol. pp. 325. Dublin, 1876.

Landowners in Scotland : Return of the Owners of Land of one acre and
upwards.Jn Scotland, with their names, addresses, extent of lands, and esti-
mated gross rental. Fol. pp. 212. Edinburgh, 1875.

Merchant Shipping: Tables showing the Progress of British Merchant
Shipping. Fol. pp. 48. London, 1875.

Miscellaneous Statistics of the United Kingdom. Part VIII. Fol. pp. 438.
London, 1873.

Navy Estimates for the year 1876-77, with Appendix. Fol. pp. 223. London,
1876.

Navy: Statistical Report on the Health of the Navy for 1874. 8. pp. 622.
London, 1876.

Poor Law, England : oth Report of I^ocal Government Board. 8. pp. 592.
Loudon, 1876.

Poor Relief, Scotland : 30th Report of Commissioners. 8. pp. 320. Edin-
burgh, 1876.

Poor Relief, Ireland : 4th Report of Local Government Board for Ireland.
8. pp. 216. Dublin, 1876.

Post Office: 22nd Report of the Postmaster-General. 8. pp. 47. London,
1876.

Public Accounts : Report from the Committee. Fol. pp. 242. London,
1874.

Public Income and Expenditure: Account for year ended 31st March 1876.
Fol. pp. 4. London, 1876.

Public Records ; 37th Report of the Commissioners, 8. pp. 558. London,
1876.

Railway Companies of the United Kingdom ; General Report by Captain
Tyler in regard to the share and loan capital, the traffic, &c, for the year

1874. Fol. pp. 17. London, 1875.

Railway Returns for England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland,for the year

1875. Fol. pp. 91. London, 1876.

Reformatory and Industrial Schools : 19th Report of Commissioners. 8.
pp. 328. London, 1876.

Reports by H.M. s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation on the manufac-
tures, commerce, &c. of the countries in which they reside. 3 Parts, 1876.
pp. 441. 8. London, 1876.

Reports from H.M.'s Consuls on the manufactures, commerce, &c. of their
Consular Districts. 4 Parts, 1876. pp.1101. 8. London, 1876.

Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom in each of the fifteen years
from 1861 to 1875. No. 25. 8. pp. 133. London, 1876.

Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom in each year from 1860 to 1874. No. 12. 8. pp. 104. London,
1876.

Statistical Abstract lor I lie Principal Foreign Countries, in each year from
1860 to 1873. No. 2. 8. pp. 99. London, 197").

Taxation in England and Wales; Return for the financial year 1814-15, and
for each of the financial years from 1842-43 to 1873 74. Fol. pp. 4. London,
1875.

280 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Woods, Forests, and Land Revenues : 54th Report of the Commissioners.
Fol. pp. 206. London, 1876.

2. Non-Officiai Publications.

Baxter (Dudley), The Taxation of the United Kingdom. 8. London, 1869.

Burrows (Montagu), Constitutional Progress. 8. London, 1869.

Clode (Charles M.), History of the Administration and Government of the
British Army, from the Revolution of 1688. 2 vols. 8. London, 1869-70.

Creasy (Sir Edward), The Imperial and Colonial Constitutions of the Bri-
tannic Empire, including Indian Institutions. 8. London, 1872.

Fairfield (Edward), Colonial Office List for 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Freeman (E. A.), The Growth of the English Constitution from the Earliest
Times. New Ed. 8. London, 1873.

Heam (W. E.), The Government of England. 8. London, 1870.

Holms (John), The British Army in 1875. 8. London, 1876.

Journal of the Statistical Society of London. Vol. XXXIX. 8. London,
1876.

May (Thomas Erskine), Constitutional History of England. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1861-63.

Molesworth (Rev. W. N.), History of England, 1830-74. 5th edit. 3 vols.
8. London, 1874.

Noble (John), National Finance. 8. London, 1875.

Paget (John C.) Naval Powers and their Policy, with tabular statements of
British and Foreign Navies. 8. London, 1876.

Pale/rave (Reginald), The House of Commons. 8. London, 1869.

Palgrave (R. H. Inglis), The Local Taxation of Great Britain and Ireland.
8. London, 1871.

Ravcnstein (E. G.), Denominational Statistics of England and Wales, 8.
London, 1870.

Reed (Edward J.), Our Iron-clad Ships. 8. London, 1869.

Scott (Sir S.), The British Army. 2 vols. 8. London, 1868.

Stephens (A.. J.), New Commentaries on the Laws of England. 4 vols. 8.
London, 1868.

Todd (Al.), On Parliamentary Government in England. 2 vols. 8. London,
1867-69.

28l

GREECE.

(Kingdom of the Hellenes.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Georgios I., King of the Hellenes, born Dec. 24, 1845, the second son
(Wilhelni) of Prince Christian of ScHeswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
Glucksburg, present King of Denmark ; elected King of the Hellenes
by the National Assembly at Athens, March 18 (30), 1863 ; accepted
the crown, through his father and the King of Denmark, acting
as his guardians, June 4, 1863 ; declared of age by decree of the
National Assembly, June 27, 1863; landed in Greece, Nov. 2, 1863.
Married, October 27, 1867, to

Olga, Queen of the Hellenes, born Aug. 22 (Sept. 3), 1851, the
eldest daughter of Grand-duke Constantine of Russia, brother of the
Emperor Alexander II. Issue of the union are three sons and two
daughters, namely, Konstantinos, Duke of Sparta, heir-apparent,
born Aug. 2, 1868; Georgios, born June 25, 1869; Alexandra,
born Aug. 30, 1870 ; Mcolass, born Feb. 2, 1872 ; and Marie, born
March 4, 1876.

By decision of the Greek National Assembly of May 15, 1863, a
civil list of 1,125,000 drachmas, or 40,178/., was settled on King
Georgios I., to which the Governments of Great Britain, France, and
Russia added 4,000/. each, making the total income of the sove-
reign of Greece 52,178/. per annum.

Greece, a province of the Turkish empire since the commence-
ment of the 16th century, gained its independence in the insurrection
of 1821-9, and by the Protocol of London, of Feb. 3, 1830, was
declared a kingdom, under the protection of Great Britain, France,
and Russia. Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg having declined the
crown of Greece, it was offered to, and accepted by, Prince Otto of
Bavaria, who ascended the throne Jan. 25, 1833, being under the
age of eighteen. He was expelled the kingdom after a reign of 2'.'
years, in October 1862, which event was followed by the eled
under the directing guidance of the three prot?cting Powers, of the
present sovereign.

The King, according to Art. 49 of the Constitution of 1864,
attains his majority upon completing his eighteenth year. Before
he ascends the throne, he must take the oath to the constitution in
the presence of the ministers, the sacred synod, tin' deputies then in
the metropolis, and the higher officials of the realm. Within two
months at the most, the King must convoke the Legislature. If the
successor to the throne is either a minor or absent at the time ol the

282 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

King's decease, and no Regent has been appointed, the Legislative
Chamber has to assemble of its own accord within ten days after
the occurrence of that event. The constitutional royal authority
in this case has to be exercised by the ministerial council until the
choice of a Regent, or the arrival of the successor to the throne.
The present sovereign is allowed, by special exception, to adhere to
the religion in which he was educated, the Protestant Lutheran
faith, but his heirs and successors must be members of the Greek
Orthodox Church.

Constitution and Government.

The present Constitution of Greece was elaborated by a Constituent
Assembly, elected in December 1863, and adopted Oct. 29, 1864.
It vests the whole legislative power in a single chamber of repre-
sentatives, called the Boule, elected by manhood suffrage for the
term of four years. The elections take place by ballot, and each
candidate must be put in nomination by the requisition of at least
one-thirtieth of the voters of an electoral district. The voting takes
place by means of ballot-boxes, into which balls are dropped,
there being one box for each candidate, and every voter being at
liberty to give his vote either for or against each, so that the voter has
as many votes as there are candidates in his district. The Boule
must meet annually for not less than three, nor more than six
months. No sitting is valid unless at least one-half of the members
of the Assembly are present, and no bill can pass into law without
an absolute majority of members. Every measure, before being
adopted, must be discussed and voted, article by article, thrice,
and on three separate days. But the Legislative Assembly has no
power to alter the Constitution itself; particular provisions may
be reviewed after the lapse of ten years, with the exception of
' fundamental principles.' The Chamber of Deputies, unless spe-
cially convoked at an earlier date, for extraordinary occasions, must
meet on the 1st of November (old style) of every year. The number
of members, dependent upon the number of population, was 188 in
the session of 1875.

The executive is vested in the King and his responsible Ministers,
the heads of seven departments. They are the Ministry of the In-
terior, the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry
of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, the Ministry of War, the
Ministry of Marine, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Since the
accession of the present sovereign, in 1863, ministerial changes have
been very frequent, occurring, on the average, three times a year.

At the side of the executive Council of Ministers stands, by the
terms of the constitution, a deliberative Council of State. To the
Council of State all Bills must be referred from the Chamber of

GKEECE. 283

Deputies, and returned with observations or amendments within 10
days ; but this term may be prolonged by resolution of the Chamber
to 15 days more. In case the Council of State make no report at
the expiry of the time fixed, the Chamber of Deputies may vote
the law and send it up to the king. The Council of State must
consist of not less than 15 nor more than 25 members. They are
named by the Crown at the recommendation of the ministers, and
hold office for ten years.

The number of public functionaries in Greece is extraordinarily
large. According to a report of the British secretary of Embassy at
Athens, dated March 27, 1875, there are 18,860 officials in the
Government service ; and, supposing these 18,800 persons to have
families amounting in the average to 5 persons, Ave find that they
maintain 94,300 souls or one-twelfth of the population of Greece.
It is stated in the same report that the annual pay of these 18,860
public functionaries amounted at the time to 16,414 207 drachmas,
or 586,221/,, being more than one-half of the total revenue of
Greece.

Church and Education.

The majority of the inhabitants of the kingdom are adherents of
the Greek Orthodox Church, the only dissenters from it consisting of
about 24,000 Roman Catholics, dispersed over the seaport towns.
By the terms of the constitution of 1864, the Greek Orthodox Church
is declared the religion of the state, but complete toleration and
liberty of worship is guaranteed to all other sects, of whatever form
of belief. Nominally, the Greek clergy owe allegiance to the Patri-
arch of Constantinople, who is elected by the votes of the bishops
and optimates subject to the Sultan, and whose jurisdiction extends
over Thrace and other countries, including Walkchia and Moldavia,
as well as the greater part of Asia Minor. But the jurisdiction of
the Patriarch, existing in theory, has frequently been challenged,
while the real ecclesiastical authority, formerly exercised by him,
was annulled by the resolutions of a National Synod, held at Nauplia,
in 1833, which vested the government of the Orthodox Church, with-
in the limits of the kingdom, in a permanent council, called the
Holy Synod, consisting of the Metropolitan of Athens, and four arch-
bishops and bishops, who must reside at the seat of the executive.
The Orthodox Church has four archbishops and six bishops, on the
continent of Greece ; six archbishops and six bishops in the Pelopon-
nesus; and five archbishops, and as many bishops, besides the
Metropolitan of Corfu, in the Ionian Islands.

The Orthodox Greek Church differs from the Church of Rome as
to the honour given to the later General Councils, the number of
sacraments, the use of both kinds by the laity in the eucharist, the

284

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

time of observing Easter, the doctrine of Purgatory, the mode of
making the sign of the Cross, the celibacy of the clergy, and the use
of the Scriptures by the laity. While differing from the Church of
Some on all these points, the Greek Church agrees with it in the
doctrine of Transubstantiation, in praying to the Virgin and saints,
in the worship of pictures, and in priestly absolution.

Public instruction has been nominally much attended to in recent
years, but the educational state of the people is nevertheless very
low. Communal schools were established by law in 188-4 on the
German system, that is, on the system of compulsory education. By
the 6th article of the law, all children between the ages of five and
twelve years must attend the communal school. Parents are liable
to a fine for each hour that the child is absent, but the penalty has
fallen into disuse. Children are supposed to be taught catechism,
grammar, reading, writing, and arithmetic, and other branches of
education of a higher class ; but the latter are piratically ignored, as
it ajjpears that the ability of the teachers is not up to the standard
required by the law. It was found at the census of 1870, that but
38 per cent, of grown-up men, and but 7 per cent, of the grown-up
women, were able to read and write. There were 55 communes in
which, at the census, not a single woman was able to read or write.
In the army the proportion of totally illiterate men was 48^- per
cent., and in the navy it was 58^ per cent, at the census of 1870.

Public schools in Greece are divided into four classes. The
communal schools form the first class, the ancient Greek schools the
second class, the gymnasium the third class, and the university the
fourth class. The last educational returns give the total number of
professors and teachers in the public and private schools at about 500,
with 6-1,061 pupils, 6,250 of them females.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The public revenue and expenditure of the kingdom were as
follows in the five years from 1872 to 1876, according to official
returns, the first four years giving the actual receipts and disburse-
ments, andthe last y ear the budget estimates voted by the Chamber: — ■

Kevenue

Expenditure

Drachmas

1872

35,695,357

1,274,834

37,889,853

1,353,209

1873

35,757,000

1,277,035

35,929,035

1,283,180

1874

37,399,992

1.335,714

41,722,408

1,490,086

1875

39,644,000

1,415,857

39,791,512

1,421,125

1876

38,826,800

1,386,671

39,063,841

1,395,137

GREECE.

285

The sources of revenue and branches of expenditure of the
kingdom, according to the official budget estimates, were as follows
in the year 1876 : —
Sources of Revenue
Direct taxes —
Land
Bees
Pastures
Cattle .
Patents .
Houses, .

Indirect taxes —
Customs
Stamps .
Various .

Public Establishments-
Post

Telegraph .....
Printing Office ....

Public domains, such as mines, woods
Produce of sale of public property
Miscellaneous .....
Ecclesiastical revenues
Eeceipts for inclosed official accounts
Arrears from Budgets of 1853 and Budget
of 1854-58 .
Total .

Branches ff Expenditure —
Interest on foreign debt
Interest on internal debt
Pensions ....
Civil list ....
Salaries of deputies .
Ministry of foreign affairs .

,, justice

,, interior

„ worship and public instructi

„ war .

,, marine

,, finance

Administration and collection of
Repayments
Indemnities
Payments to persons who served

Independence
Expenses of committee connected
Refunding road debt .
Expenses of the ZNI int
Total .

in War of

v itfc ■■' OTI

Drachmas

10,000,000

45,000

40,000

1,200,000

800,000

650,000

12,735,000

454,821

11,500,000

4.200,000

505,000

16,205,000

578,750

700,000

400.000

4,800

1,104,800

39.457

2,788,300

99,582

3,085,000

110,179

1,095,700

39,132

303,000

10,822

1,500,000

53,571

10,000

357

38,826,800 1,386,671

drachmas

1,258,000

6,435,499

3,070,820

1,125,000

450,000
1,152,973
3,091,782
4,777,477
2,106,410
7,469,300
1,959,890
1,334,240
2,847,450
50,000

325,000

100,000

10,000

1,500.111111

44,929

229,839

109,672

40,179

16,071

41.17S

110,421

170,624

75,229

266,761

69,996

47,651

101.695

1.786

11,607

3,571

357

53,571

39,063,841 1,395,137

286

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK. 1877.

Since the establishment of Greece as an independent kingdom,
there have been few financial terms without a deficit. The
constantly recurring excess of expenditure is due in great part to the
excessive number of government officials, the total, as before stated,
being ' one-twelfth of the popvdation of Greece.'

Greece has a very large public debt, consisting in part of unpaid
arrears of old loans. In the budget estimates for the year 1876,
the interest payable on the foreign debt was set down, as will be
seen in the preceding table, at 1,258,000 drachmas, or 44,929/., and
that on the internal debt at 6,435,499 drachmas, or 229,839/.,
being a total of 7,693,499 drachmas, or 274,768/. Interest
is paid on but a small portion of the foreign debt. The total
debt, foreign and internal, was stated as follows in a report of the
minister of finance, accompanying the budget estimates of 1876 : —

Drachmas
33,5,513,422

Foreign debt
Internal debt

94,569,480

Total

. 430,082,902
£15,360,103
The following are the divisions of the debt, according to the offi-
cial report of the budget estimates of 1876 : —

Foreign loans of 1824 and 1825 . . . .
Unpaid interest on foreign loans of 1824 and 1825,

at 5 per cent, for 50 years
Loan of 1 862 guaranteed by the three Powers

Indemnity to Islands

Old claims

Loan of 6,000,000 dr. of 1862, reduced to .
Exchequer bills ......

Ionian debt .......

Loan of 28,000,000 dr. of 1867-68, reduced to
Debt to King Otto's heirs ....

Loan of 900.900 fr. of 1870, reduced to

Loan of 1871

Loans of 1872 and 1873 ....
Temporary loans .....

National creditors • . . . .

Loan of 29,000,000 of 1874, deducting amount

taken to convert loans ....
Total

Drachmas
64,676,000

161,690,000

105,033,054

18,000,000

7,000,000

5,012,600

6,000,000

3,800,000

25,225.280

4,114,368

6,608,000

4,331,600

1,657,000

8,150,000

3,350,000

5,435,000
430,082,902
£15,360,103

The principal portion of the foreign debt of Greece consists of
a five per cent, loan taken in 1824 by Messrs. Andrew Loughnan
and Co. at 59, and of another of 2,000,000/. taken in the fol-
lowing year by Messrs. J. and S. Bicardo and Co. at 56i. On
the former the dividends have been wholly unpaid since July 1826,
and on the latter since January 1827, a period of nearly fifty
years. The loan guaranteed by England, France, and Russia upon
the elevation of Prince Otto of Bavaria to the throne was for

GREECE.

287

2,343,750Z., and was contracted through Messrs. Rothschild. Upon
this the dividends have been regularly paid, but only from reserved
funds of the loan itself in the first instance, and since then chiefly from
the treasuries of the guaranteeing Powers, who are now, therefore,
in each case heavy claimants upon the Greek Government. The
guarantee is not by the Powers jointly, but is distinct in each case
for a third of the loan. By the terms of a convention signed in 1866,
it is arranged that the Government of Greece, instead of fulfilling
its original engagement to provide half-yearly for the interest and
sinking fund of the above loan, should pay to the three guaranteeing
Powers not less than 36,000/. a year — British portion 12,000/. ; and
by the Act 27 and 28 Vict. c. 40, passed in 1864, a sum of 4,000/.
sterling a year, out of the amount thus repayable in respect of the
British portion, was relinquished in favour of the present King of
the Hellenes, during his reign.

Besides its funded debt, Greece has a floating debt, which, accord-
ing to official returns, amounted to 50,000,000 drachmas on the 1st
of January 1876. But according to other statements, from Greek
sources, the floating debt, at the same period, was above 166 millions
of drachmas, or near six millions sterling.

Army and Navy.

The army of the kingdom is raised by conscription, with the
general privilege to procure substitutes, which is made use of to a
very large extent. The term of service is four years. A consider-
able number of the men actually under arms are veteran soldiers,
including many Albanians, and a few Frenchmen, Germans, and
other foreigners.

The nominal strength of the army was reported as follows, in a
statement of the minister of war, accompanying the budget estimates
for the year 1876 : —

Non-

Officers

commissioned

Rank and file

Total

Staff ....

officers

Engineers .

—

Artillery

172

515

736

Cavalry

233

340

Infantry

380

1,557

8,414

10,351

Pioneers

400

492

Miscellaneous

149

Military School .

Gendarmes .

266

1,250

1,606

Supernumeraries .

—

184

—

184

Unattached .

Total

—

749

1.981

1 10,820

14,061

288

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-LOOK, 1877.

The cost of the army in the year 187G was given in the budget
estimates at 7,830,500 drachmas, or 279,600/., showing an increase
of 5,793 drachmas, or 207/. over the previous year.

The navy consisted, at the commencement of 1876, of fourteen
vessels, namely one ironclad, the Basileus Georgios ; six screw
steamers, the Paralos, Salaminia, Plexaura, Suros, Nauplion, and
Afroessa ; four shooners, the Methone, Saffo, Aura, and Kuthnos ;
two cutters, the Glaukos and Poludeukes; and the Boyal yacht,
Amphitrite. The navy was manned at the same date by 71 officers,
198 non-commissioned officers, and 384 sailors. The cost of the
navy in the year 1875 was given in the budget estimates at
1,800,348 drachmas, or 64,298/., showing a decrease of 106,228
drachmas, or 3,794/. over the previous year. At the end of 1874,
the navy was officered and manned by 71 commissioned officers, 198
non-commissioned officers, and 384 sailors. The navy is manned by
conscription from the inhabitants of the sea-coast ; but volunteering
is greatly encouraged by the Government.

Population.

Gi'eece, at the last census, taken May 2-16, 1870, had a total
population of 1,457,894 — of whom 754,176 were males and 703,718
females— living on an area of 19,941 English square miles. The
kingdom is divided into 13 Nomos or Nomarchies, and subdivided
into 59 Eparchies. By the return of the census of May 2, 1870, the
area and population of each of the 13 Nomarchies was as follows :-—

Nomarchies

Area English

Population, llav

square miles.

1870

Northern Greece : —

Attica and Boeotia

2,472

136,804

Phoeis and Phthiotis

2,044

108,421

Acarnia and iEtolia

3,013

12L693

Peloponnesus : —

Argolis and Corinth

1,442

127,820 '

Aehaia and Elis ....

1,901

149,561

Arcadia .....

2,020

131.740

Messenia .....

1,221

130,417

Laconia .....

1.679

105,851

Islands : —

Eubcea and Sporades

2,216

82,541

Cyclades .....

923

123,299

Corfu

431

96,940

Zante (Zakynthos)

277

44,557

Cephalonia .....

302

77,382

Soldiers and Seamen

Total .

—

20,868

19,941

1,457,864

GREECE. 289

The census of 1870 gives an average density of population of
73 per square mile, being less than that of European Turkey.
Previous to the year 1864, there were only 58 inhabitants to the
square mile, but the annexation of the Ionian Islands, with a dense
population — '226 per square mile — served to raise the figure, con-
tributing far more to the population than to the area of the kingdom.

The census of 1870. as well as the previous one of 1861, exhi-
bited the existence of a considerably larger male than female
population, the former outnumbering the latter by 54,035 in-
dividuals in 1861, and by 50,468 in 1870.

About one-half of the total population of Greece is agricultural,
living dispersed in villages. The principal towns are Athens, with
a population of 46,000, or 52,000 including the Pirams ; Syra, with
25,000 ; and Patras with 25,000.

At the liberation of the country, there were only nine towns
which had partly escaped the total devastation of the rest; the
principal of them being Lamia, Vonitza, Nauplia, and Chalcis. All
the other towns and villages were in ruins, so that the first neces-
sity of the inhabitants of the new State was to get housed. Since
that time ten new cities have been founded, and twenty-three old
towns, including Athens, Thebes, and Argos, have been rebuilt,
besides many villages.

The nationality of the inhabitants of the kingdom is very mixed.
The Albanian race occupies a considerable portion of the soil of
ancient Greece, both within, as well as without, the frontiers of the
new kingdom. With the exception of the two towns of Athens
and Megara, it monopolises the whole of Attica and Messenia, and is
in possession of the greater part of Boeotia, and a small part of
Laconia. The south of Eubcea, the north of Achaia, part of Elis,
and the whole of Salamis, are also peopled by Albanians. In the
Peloponnesus the Albanian element occupies the whole of Corinth
and Argolis, the north of Arcadia, the east of Achaia ; and stretching
into Laconia, down the slopes of Taygetus towards the plain of
Helos, it crosses the Eurotas, and holds possession of a large district
round Monemvasia. HoAvever, in the kingdom its numerical
strength, amounting to about 250,000 souls, is less notable than its
social and industrial activity. The Albanian race furnishes to the
Greek soil the greatest number of cultivators, and to the maritime
population of Greece its most enterprising element.

Only one-seventh of the area of Greece is under cultivation ; the
rest, though in greater pari good for agricultural purposes, lies
waste. The whole superficies of Greece has been estimated at
45,699,248 stremmas, or about 15 millions of acres. Of these
45,699,248 stremmas, which comprise in extent the whole soil of
the kingdom, with the exception of the Ionian Islands, 11,748,000

290

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

stremmas are said to be unfit for cultivation ; 18,599,240 stremmas
consist of rock and mountain ; 5,419,660 stremmas consist of forest;
833,448 of marsh; and 1,653,000 of rivers, roads, cities, and vil-
lages. In all, therefore, there are 38,253,000 stremmas of un-
cultivated land, leaving 7,435,900 stremmas of land in cultivation.
The ground is chiefly in the hands of a few proprietors ; but
many of the peasants hold small patches of land of their own.
Others cultivate farms on the metayer system, the owner of the
land providing the farm-house, agricultural implements, and seed ;
the produce, after deducting the seed, is divided in certain propor-
tions between the cultivator and the owner of the land. A great part
of the ground is national property, and the cultivator of it pays to the
Government as rent 15 per cent, of the produce. By Article 101
of the Constitution of 1864, provision is made for the disposal and
distribution of the national lands.

Trade and Industry.

The commerce of Greece averaged six and a half millions
sterling per annum in the five years 1871-75, the imports
amounting to upwards of three millions and a half, and the exports
to nearly three millions. About one-half of the imports come
from, and three-fifths, in value, of the exports go to the United
Kingdom. The principal other countries with which commercial
intercourse is carried on are, in order of importance, France, Turkey,
Austria, Italy, and liussia. But the value of the imports and exports
interchanged with these States is comparatively unimportant.

The commercial intercourse of Greece with the United Kingdom
is exhibited in the subjoined tabular statement, showing the value of
the total exports from Greece to Great Britain and Ireland, and of
the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures into
Greece, in the five years 1871 to 1875 : —

Years

Exports from Greece
to Great Britain

Imports of British Home
Produce into Greece

1871
1872
1873
1874
1875

2,030,970
1,998,153
1.736,643
1,536,805
1,762,301

£
776,093
923,649
993,571
1,010,313
938,456

1 The staple article of export from Greece to Great Britain is
currants, the value of which, in the year 1875, amounted to

GREECE.

29I

1,410,678/. At the head of the other articles of export stand olive oil,
shipped to the value of 178,612/. in 1875, and valonia, of the value
of 40,200/., the former exported solely from the Ionian Islands. Of
the imports from the United Kingdom into Greece, about one-half
are manufactured cotton goods. The declared value of cotton goods,
imported in the year 1875 amounted to 588,923/., against 019,835/.
in 1874. It will be seen from the preceding table that the commerce
of Greece with Great Britain has been stationary since the year 1872.

Greece is mainly an agricultural country, and the existing manu-
factures are few and unimportant. Corn is not produced, however,
in sufficient cpiantities to serve for the subsistence of the inhabitants,
and a certain amount has to be imported every year, chiefly from
Southern Russia. The most favoured and best- cultivated of crops
is that of the currant, or the ' papolina.' Immense districts are
planted with currants in various parts of the kingdom, particularly
along the shores of the Gulf of Corinth, between the towns of Corinth
and Patras, and on the islands of Zante and Cephalonia. Almost all
trade is carried on by sea, and there is very little inland traffic, owing
to want of roads. In 1868 the first, and as yet only, railway, a
line of seven miles, connecting Athens with the port of Pirants, was
opened in the kingdom.

The telegraphic lines were of a total length of 1,235 English
miles, at the end of 1875. They carried 203,500 telegrams in 1875.

Of post offices there existed 131 at the end of 1875. During the
year the number of private letters carried was 2,413,000, of official
letters 725,000, and of newspapers 1,562,000. The total revenue
of the post-office was for several years less than the expenditure,
the annual deficit averaging 1,500/.

The merchant navy of Greece numbered 5,001 vessels, of an
aggregate burthen of 239,135 tons, at the end of 1875. The mer-
cantile navy is officially divided into three classes, namely, first,
sailing vessels under sixty tons ; secondly, sailing vessels over sixty
tons ; and, thirdly, steamers. The following was the number of the
vessels of each of these classes in 1875 : —

Classes

Number of
vessels

Aggregate
tonnage

1st class (under 60 tons)
2nd class (above GO tons)
Steamers ....

Total

3.908

1,077

41,076

192,(111

6,018

5,001

239,134

A considerable amount of the carrying trade of the Black Sea
and the eastern parts of the Mediterranean is carried on under the
Greek flag.

2Q2 THE STATESMAN'S TEAK-BOOK, 1877-

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Of Greece in Great Britain.
Charge cV A ff aires. —John Gennadius, appointed July 1876.
Attache. — Alexander Kalli.

2. Of Great Britain in Greece.

Envoy and Minister.— Ron. William Stuart, C.B., born in 1825 ; Envoy to
the Argentine Confederation, 1861-71, and appointed Envoy to Greece,
July 29, 1872.

Secretaries- George H. Wyndham ; Wm. N. Beauclerk.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Greece, and their English

equivalents, are : —

Money.

„.«-,. \ Average rate of exchange, 8i«., or

The Drachma, of 100 lepta . ={ 28 drachmas =£1 sterling

Weights and

'Measures.

The Olce

. =

2-80 lbs. avoirdupois.

., Cantar .

123-20 „

,, Lit>re

. =

1-05 „

„ Baril (wine)

. =

16-33 Imperial gallons.

„ Kilo .

0-114 Imperial quarter.

„ Pike

. =

f of an English yard.

Strew/ma

■| „ „ aero.

Greece entered, in 1875, the Monetary League of the Continental
States (see page 39), and by a decree of the Government, dated
Ausrust 11, I87fi, all foreign silver coins with the exception of those
of the League ceased to be legal tender in the kingdom.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Greece.

1. Official Publications.

riAjti&uo-jubs ttjs "EWdbos Kara t-ros 1870. (Census of Greece in 1870.) 8.
Athens, 1871.

Eeport by Mr. K. G. Watson, Secretary of Legation, on the Financial Position
Mid the Public Debt of Greece, dated Athens, July 31, 1870; in 'Reports of
H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. I. 1871. 8. London,
1871.

Eeport by Mr. E. G. Watson, Secretary of Legation, on the state of educa-
tion and the obstacles of material progress in Greece, dated Athens, Jan. 20,
1S72 ; in ' Reports of H. M.'s Spcretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. I.
1872.' 8. London, 1872.

GREECE. 293

Report by Mr. Edward B. Malet, Secretary of Legation, on the finance .
population, and trade of Greece, dated Athens, March 27, 1875 ; in 'Reports
of Her Majesty's Secretary of Embassy and Legation.' Part III. 8. London,
1875.

Report by Mr. Hugh Wyndham, Secretary of Legation, on the Finances and
Foreign Trade of Greece, dated Athens, January 19, 1876; in 'Reports by
H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1876. 8. London,
1876.

Report by Mr. Consul Merlin, on the trade of continental Greece, dated the
Piraeus, Oct. 31, 1872; in 'Reports of II. M.'s Consuls.' No. I. 1872. 8.
London, 1872.

Report by Mr. Consul Ongley, on the trade of the Morea for the year 1871,
dated Patras, May 6, 1872; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' No. 111.

1872, 8. London, 1872

Reports by Consul Sir C. Sebright, on the trade of Corfu ; by Mr. Consul
Ongley, on the trade of the Morea ; by Mr. Consul Merlin, on the trade of the
Piraeus ; by Mr. Consul Raby, on the trade of Syra : and by Mr. Vice-Consul
Cohen, on the trade of Cephalonia, dated Sept.-Oct., 1872, to Jan., 1873 ; in
' Reports by H. M.'s Consuls on British Trade abroad.' Part I. 8. Loudon,
1873.

Report by Mr. Consul Raby on the commerce of the Cyclades ; by Mr. Consul
Ongley on the trade of Patras ; and by Mr. Vice-Consul Blakeney on the com-
merce, of . Missolonghi, dated January 10-28, 1874; in -Reports from H. M.'s
Consuls on the manufactures, commerce, &c, of their consular districts.'
Part II. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Report by Mr. Consul Raby on the trade and commerce of Syra for the year

1873, dated .Syra, March 7, 1874; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls on the
manufactures, commerce, &c, of their consular districts.' Part III. 1874. 8.
London, 1874.

Report by Mr. Consul Binney on the trade and commerce of Syra and the
Cyclades, dated Syra, December 16, 1874; in 'Reports from H. M's Consuls.'
Parti. 1875. 8. London, 1875

Report by Mr. Consul Wood on the trade of the Peloponnesus for The year

1874, dated Patras, January 13, 1875; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part II. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. Consul Merlin on the trade of continental Greece during the
year 1874, dated the Piraeus, March 20, 1875; in 'Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part V. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Consul Sir Charles Sebright on the trade and commerce of Corfu,
Dec. 9, 1875: in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1876. 8.
London, 1876.

Reports by Mr. Consul Wood, on the trade and commerce of the Morea, and
by Mr. Cocsul Binney, on the commerce and shipping of the Cyclades, dated
January L i, and January 1 1, 1876: in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part
V. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Greece with foreign countries: total imports and exports from 1869
to 1871 ; in ' Statistical Abstract for the Principal Foreign Countries.' No. II. 8.
London, 1875.

Trade of Greece with the United Kingdom ; in 'Annual Statemenl of the
trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions,
for the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1S76.

2. N0N-< Ml M I \l. l'i l.i [( \TloNs.

Bernardakw ; A. >*.) Lc present el I'aTenir de la Grece. 8. Paris, 1870.

294 THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Bikelas (Demetrius) Statistics of the Kingdom of Greece. In ' Journal of
the Statistical Society of London.' Vol. XXI. 8. London, 1868.

Brockhaus (Hermann) Griechenland geographisch, geschichtlich und kultur-
historisch von den altesten Zeiten bis auf die Gegenwart dargestellt. 4.
Leipzig, 1870.

Carnarvon (Earl of) Keminiscences of Athens and the Morea. 8. London,
1870.

Cusani (F.) Memorie storico-statistique sulla Dalmazia, sulle isole Ionie e
sulla Grecia. 2 vols. 8. Milano, 1862.

Dora cl'Istria (Mme.) Excursions en Eoumelie et en Moree. 2 vols. 8.
Paris, 1865.

Kirkwall (Viscount) Four Years in the Ionian Islands : their Political and
Social Condition, with a History of the British Protectorate. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1864.

Leeonte (C.) Etude economique de la Grece. 8. Paris, 1849.

Mansolas (Alex.) Eapport sur l'etat de la statistique en Grece present* au
Congres International de Statistique de St. -Petersbourg en 1872. 8. Athenes,
1872.

Maurer (G. L. von) Das Griechische Volk in offentlicher und privatrecht-
licher Bezielmng. 3 vols. 8. Heidelberg, 1835.

Schmidt (Dr. Julius) Beitrage zur physicalischen Geographie von Griechen-
land. 3 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1864-70.

Strickland (Edw.) Greece, its Condition and Besources. London, 1863.
Puckerman (Charles K.), The Greeks of to-day. 8. London, 1873.

Wyre (Sir Thomas) Impressions of Greece. 8. London. 1871.

295

ITALY.

(Regno d' Italia.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Vittorio Emanuele II., King of Italy, bora March 1 4, 1820, the
eldest son of King Carlo Alberto of Sardinia and Archduchess
Theresia of Austria. Succeeded to the throne of Sardinia on the
abdication of his father, March 23, 1819 ; proclaimed King of Italy,
by vote of the Italian Parliament, March 17, 1861. Married, April 12,
18 12, to Archduchess Adelaide of Austria; widower, Jan. 20, 1855 ;
married a second time, in ' morganatic ' union, September 1872, to
Eosa VerceUana, created Countess de Mirafiore.

Children of the Jung: — 1. Princess C/otilde, born March 2,
1813; married, January 30, 1859, to Prince Napoleon Jerome
Bonaparte, born September y, 1822 ; offspring of the union are
Napoleon Jerome, born July 18, 1862, Louis Jerome, born July 16,
1861, and Marie, born December 20, 1866. 2. Prince Umberto,
heir-apparent and Prince of Piedmont, born March 14, 1844 :
major-general in the Italian army; married, April 22, 1868, to
his cousin, Princess Margarita of Genoa; offspring of the union
is a son, Vittorio Emanuele, born Nov. 11, 1869. 3. Prince Amadeo,
DukeofAosta, born May 30, 1845; elected King of Spain by the
Cortes Constituyentes Nov. 16, 1870 ; abdicated the crown Feb-
ruary 11, 1873; married May 30, 1867, to Maria, daughter of
Prince Carlo Emanuele del Pozzo della Cisterna, born August 9,
1847 ; widower, Nov. 7, 1876. Offspring of the union are three
sons: — Emanuele, born Jan. 13, i860; Vittorio, born Nov. 24,
1870; and Ludovico, born Jan. 31, 1873. 4. Princess Pict, born
Oct. 16, 1847; married, Oct 6, 1862, to King Luis I. of Portugal.

Sister-in-law of the King. — Princess Elisabeita, born Feb. 4, 1830,
the daughter of King Johann of Saxony; married, April 22, 1850,
tn Prince Ferdinando of Piedmont, Duke of Genoa, second son ot
King Carlo Alberto of Sardinia; widow, Feb. 10, L855 ; re-married,
in 1856, to the Marquis of Eapallo. Issue of the first union are: —
1. Princess Margarita, born Nov. 20, 1851 ; married, April 22,
1868, tc Prince Umberto, heir-apparent of the crown. 2. Prince
To?nma80, Duke of Genoa, born Feb, 6, L854.

The origin of the House of Savoy is not historically established ;
but most genealogists trace it to a German Count Berthold, who,
in the eleventh century, established himself on the western slope of
the Alps, between Mont Blanc and Lake Lilian. In 111! his
descendants were enrolled among the ( founts of the Holy Eoman Em-

296 the statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

pire. Count Amaderis, in 1383, founded a law of primogeniture which
greatly strengthened the family, leading to the immediate acquisi-
tion of the territory of Nice. In 1416, the Counts of Savoy adopted
the title of Duke; in 1418, they acquired the principality of Pied-
mont ; and, in 1713, they obtained the island of Sicily, with the title
of King. Sicily had to be exchanged, in 1720, for the isle of Sar-
dinia, to which henceforth the royal dignity remained attached.
Genoa and the surrounding territory were added to the Sardinian
Crown at the peace of 1815. The direct male line of the House of
Savoy died out with King Carlo Felix, in 1831, and the exist-
ing Salic law prohibiting the accession of females, the crown fell
to Prince Carlo Alberto, of the House of Savoy - Carignano, a
branch founded by Tommaso Francesco, born in 1596, younger
son of Duke Carlo Emanuele I. of Savoy. King Carlo Alberto
the first of the house of Savoy- Carignano, abdicated the throne
March 23, 1849, in favour of his son, the present king. By the
Treaty of Villafranca, July 11, 1859, and the Peace of Zurich, Nov.
10, 1859, King Vittorio Emanuele II. obtained western Lombardy,
part of the Papal States, and the Duchies of Parma and Modena,
while the remaining districts of Lombardy with Venetia were added
to his dominions by the Peace of Prague, of Aug. 23, 1866. Finally,
the Papal States, having been taken possession of by an Italian
army, after the retreat of the French garrison, were annexed to the
kingdom by royal decree of Oct. 9, 1870.

The ' Dotazione della Corona,' or civil list of the King, has been
settled at 16,250,000 lire, or 650,000/. The heir-apparent has
an annual allowance of 1,200,000 lire, or 48,000/., granted to him
at the time of his marriage, in April 1868. The cousin of the
King, Prince Alberto Vittorio, Duke of Genoa, has an ' Appannaggio,'
or State allowance, of 300.000 lire, or 12,000/.; and Prince Eugenio
of Savoy-Carignano, an allowance of 200,000 lire, or 8,000/. To
the latter sum are added 100,000 lire, or 4,000/., ;is ' Spese di
rappresentanza.' Extraordinary expenses of the Court, such as
the journeys of the King into the different provinces of Italy,
are paid out of the public exchequer, the same as the cost of
building and repairing the royal residences. The large private
domains of the reigning family were given up to the State in 1848.

Constitution and Government.

The present constitution of Italy is an expansion of the ' Statute
fbndamentale del Regno,' granted on March 4, 1848, by King
Charles Albert to his Sardinian subjects. According to this charter,
the executive power of the State belongs exclusively to the sove-
reign, and is exercised by him through responsible ministers ; while
the legislative authority rests conjointly in the King and Parliament,

ITALY. 297

the latter consisting of two Chambers, an upper one, the Senato, and
a lower one, called the ' Camera de' Deputati.' The Senate is com-
posed of the princes of the royal house who are of age, and of an
unlimited number of members, above forty years old, who are
nominated by the King for life ; a condition of the nomination being
that the person should either fill a high office, or have acquired
fame in science, literature, or any other pursuit tending to the benefit
of the nation, or, finally, should pay taxes to the annual amount of
3,000 lire, or 1201. The number of senators, in the session of 1876,
was 270. The deputies of the lower house are elected by a majority
of all citizens who are twenty-five years of age, and pay taxes to
the amount of 40 lire, or 1/. 12s. For this purpose the whole of the
population is divided into electoral colleges, or districts. No deputy
can be returned to Parliament unless at least one-third of the
inscribed electors appear at the poll. At the last general election,
in 1874, there were 571,939 electors on the lists, and the
number that voted was 329,933. A deputy must be thirty
years old, and have the requisites demanded by the electoral law,
among them a slight property qualification. Incapable of being-
elected are aU salaried government officials below a certain rank, as
well as all persons ordained for the priesthood and filling clerical
charges, or receiving pay from the state. Officers in the army and
navy, ministers, under-secretaries of state, and various other classes
of functionaries high in office, may be elected, but their number
must never be above one-fifth that of the total number of members
of the chamber of deputies. Neither senators nor deputies receive
any salary or other indemnity.

The duration of Parliaments is five years ; but the King
has the power to dissolve the lower house at any time, being
bound only to order new elections, and convoke a new meeting
within four months. It is incumbent upon the executive to call the
Parliament together annually. Each of the Chambers has the right
of introducing new bills, the same as the Government ; but all money
bills must originate in the House of Deputies. The ministers have
the right to attend the debates of both the upper and the lower
house ; but they have no vote unless they are members. The sitting 3
of both Chambers are public; and no sitting is valid unless an
absolute majority of the members are present. The Camera de'
Deputati, in the session of 1876, numbered 508 members, being the
prescribed rate of one deputy to 40,000 souls. There were 528,932
electors inscribed on the rolls at the last general election.

The executive power is exercised, under the king, by a ministry
divided into the following nine departments: —

1. The .Ministry of Finance. — Agostino Depretis, born at Stradella,
province Pavia, in 1825 ; deputy of Stradella to the .Sardinian Par-

298 THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

liament, 1848 ; Governor of Brescia, 1859-60 ; Commissary Extraor-
dinary and Pro-Dictator in Sicily, 1860-61 ; Minister of Public
Works, 1862-63; Minister of Finance, 1867; appointed Minister
of Finance and President of the Council of Ministers, Marcli 25, 1876.

2. The Ministry of Public Instruction. — Michele Coppino, born
at Alba, Piedmont, 1822 ; studied at the University of Turin, and
appointed professor of rhetoric at Belmonte, 1844 ; returned de-
puty for Alba, 1860; Minister of Public Instruction, 1867; re-
appointed Minister of Public Instruction, March 25, 1876.

3. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Luigi Melagari, born at
Castelnuovo, Brescia, 1807 ; studied at the University of Parma, and
appointed Professor of Political Economy at Turin, ] 848 ; Secre-
taiy-General of the Foreign Office, 1867 ; appointed Minister of
Foreign Affairs, March 25, 1876.

4. The Ministry of Public Works. — Giuseppe Zanardelli, born
at Brescia in 1827 ; studied law at the University of Pavia, and
entered the bar 1850 ; Commissary of the Government, 1866-67 ;
appointed Minister of Public Works, March 25, 1876.

5. The Ministry of War. — Lieutenant-General Mezzacapo, born
at Naples in 1818 ; appointed Minister of War, March 25, 1876.

6. The Ministry of Marine — Commendatore Benedetto Brin, ap-
pointed Minister of Marine, March 26, 1876.

7. The Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture. — Salvatore
Majorana Calatabiano, born at Militello, Sicily, 1825 ; Professor of
Political Economy at the University of Messina, 1865-68 ; ap-
pointed Minister of Commerce and Agriculture, September 25, 1876.

8. Ministry of the Interior. — Baron Giovanni Nicotera, born at
Naples in 1828 ; took part under Garibaldi in the defence of Rorne,
1849, and in the expedition of Capri, 1857 ; condemned to
death by the Neapolitan Government, 1859, but liberated 1860;
appointed Minister of the Interior, March 25, 1876.

9. The Ministry of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — PasqualeSta-
nislao Mancini, born at Castel Baronia, Naples, 1817; studied law and
entered the bar 1840; Minister of Public Instruction, 1862; ap-
pointed Minister of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs, March 25, 1876.

In each of the 69 provinces into which the kingdom of Italy
is divided, the executive power of the Government is intrusted to a
prefect appointed by the ministry.

Church of Eome.

The ' Statuto fondamentale del Regno ' enacts, in its first article,
that ' the Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion is the sole religion
of the State.' By the terms of the royal decree of Oct. 9, 1870,
which declared that 'Rome and the Roman Provinces shall con-

ITALY. 1'99

stitute an integral part of the Kingdom of Italy,' the Pope, or
Pontiff, was constituted supreme head of the Church, preserving
his former dignities as a reigning prince, and all other prerogatives
of absolute and independent sovereignty. Officially the Pope bears
the title : 'Bishop of Rome and Vicar of Jesus Christ, Successor of St.
Peter Prince of the Apostles, SupremePontiff of the Universal Church.'

Supreme- Pontiff. — Pio IX., born at Sinigaglia, May 13, 1792,
the son of Count Mastai Ferretti. Appointed bishop, in petto,
December 23, 1837 ; Archbishop of Imola, December 14, 1838 ;
created cardinal, December 24, 1839 ; elected Supreme-Pontiff, as
successor of Gregorio XVI., June 1 6, 1846 ; crowned June 21, 1846.

The Pontiff was originally elected by the priests and people of the
diocese of Rome; but subsequently by the cardinals. In the eleventh
century Nicola II. conferred on the cardinals the right of directing
the election, and, in accordance with his statutes, the cardinals, who
had figured as a body since the eighth century, were bound to demand
of the" Roman people and the Roman clergy the ratification of their
choice. To legalise the election it was indispensable that the same
name should obtain two-thirds at least of the votes of the Conclave,
together with the suffrages of the people and the clergy of Rome.
This mode of proceeding, however, was found to give rise to dissen-
sions, and the consequence was that both the clergy and the people
were excluded from all participation in the election. This reform
took place in 1227, on the accession of Gregorio IX.

The election of a Pontiff is by scrutiny or ballot. Each cardinal
writes his own name with that of the candidate he proposes on a
ticket. These tickets are deposited in the consecrated chalice which
stands on the altar of the chapel where they sit; and each one
approaching and leaving the altar kneels and repeats a prayer. After
a pause the tickets are taken from the sacred cup by officers named
ail hoc from their own body; the tickets are compared with the
number of cardinals present, and when it is found that any one of
them has two-thirds of the votes in his favour he is declared elected.
If no one can show the requisite number of votes another proceeding
is gone through. This proceeding is the election by access — so
called because any cardinal has the right to accede to the vote of
another by altering his ticket according to a prescribed form. The
moment the election is declared the tickets are burnt. The present
Pontiff Pio IX. was elected by unanimity. He is the 257th Pope.

The rise of the Pontificate of Rome, as a temporal power, dates from
the year 755, when Pepin,kingof the Franks, granted to Pope Stefano
III. the exarchate of Ravenna., to which Charlemagne added the pro-
vinces of Perugia and Spoleto. Kaiser Heinrich III., in 1053, increased
these possessions of the head of the Church by the city of Benevento,
with the surrounding territory ; and not long after, in 1 L02, the Mar-

300

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

chioness Matilda of Tuscany bequeathed to the Holy See the pro-
vinces known as the ' Patrimony of St. Peter.' In 1297, Forli and
the rest of the Eomagna, and, in 13G1, Bologna, became portions of
the Papal dominions ; and, towards the end of the fourteenth century,
the Pontiff acquired full jurisdiction over Rome and Sabina.
From the accession of Stefano III., first temporal sovereign, and 95th
in the official list of Pontiffs, to Pio IX., last temporal sovereign,
and 257th in the list, there were 1G3 Popes, as follows : —

No. in
the list

Name of Pontiff Nationality Ejection

No. in
the list

Name of Pontiff

.Nationality

Year of
Election

Stefano III.

Italian 752

137

Donato II.

Italian

974

Paolo I.

„ ! 757

138

Benedetto VII.

„

975

Stefano IV.

768

139

Giovanni XIV.

983

Adriano I.

„ ' 772

140

Giovanni XV.

995

Leo III.

795

141

Gregorio V.

German

996

100

Stefano V.

j»

816

142

Silvestro II.

Ere n eh

101

Pasquale

817

143

Giovanni XVI.

Italian

1003

102

Eugenio II.

824

144

Giovanni XVII.

1 003

103

Valentino

827

145

Sergius IV.

1009

104

Gregorio IV.

827

146

Benedetto VIII.

1012

105

Seraius II.

844

147

Giovanni XVIII.

1024

106

Leo IV.

, 847

148

Benedetto IX.

1033

107

Benedetto III.

856

149

Gregorio VI.

„

1044

108

Nicola I.

858

150

Clemente II.

German

1046

109

Adriano II.

867

151

Damaso II.

1048

110

Giovanni VIII.

S72

152

Leo VIII.

1049

111

Martino I.

882

153

Vittore II.

1055

112

Adriano III.

884

154

Stefano X.

„

1056

113

Stefano VI.

885

155

Nicola II.

French

105S

114

Formosus

891

156

Alessandro II.

Italian

1061

115

Stefano VII.

"„ 896

157

Gregorio VII.

1073

116

i Romano

„ 1 897

158

Vittore III.

1086

117

i Teodoro II.

897

159

Urbano II.

French

1088

118

Giovanni IX.

898

160

Pasquale II.

Italian

1099

119

Benedetto IV.

i 900

161

Gelasius II.

1118

120

Leo V.

903

162

Callisto II.

French

1119

121

1 Cristofo

903

163

Onorato II.

Italian

1124

122

Sergius III.

904

164

Innocent e II.

1130

123

1 Anastasio III.

911

165

Celestino II.

1143

124

Lando

913

166

Lucio II.

„

1144

125

Giovanni X.

913

167

Eugenio III.

1145

126

Leo VI.

928

168

Anastasio IV.

1153

127

Stefano VIII.

928

169

Adriano IV.

English

1154

128

Giovanni XL

931

170

Alessandro III.

Italian

1159

129

Leo VII.

936

171

Lucio III.

1181

130

Stefano IX.

German

939

172

Urbano III.

1185

131

Martino II.

Italian

913

173

Gregorio VIII.

„

1187

132

Agapito II.

946

174

Clemente III.

1187

133

1 iiovanni XII.

„ 956

175

Celestino III.

1191

134

Benedetto V.

964

176

Innocente III.

1198

135

Giovanni XIII.

965

177

Onorato III.

1216

136

j Benedetto VI.

Q-70

178

Gregorio IX.

1227

ITALY.

?OI

Note Name of Pontiff Nationality *£*£ thelS Name of Pontiff Nationality^™*

i?y

ISO

181

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

196

197

198

199

200

201

202

203

204

205

206

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

Celestino IV.

Innocente IV.
Alessandro IV.
Urbano IV.
Clemente IV.
Gregorio X.
Innocente V.
Adriano V.
Giovanni XIX
Nicola ILL
Martino IV.
Onorato IV.
Nicola IV.
Celestino V.
Bonifacio VIII.
Benedetto X.
Clemente V.
Giovanni XX.
Benedetto XL
Clemente VI.
Innocente VI.
Urbano V.
Gregorio XL
Urbano VI.
Bonifacio IX.
Innocente VII.
Gregorio XII.
Alessandro V.
Giovanni XXI.
Martino V.
Eugenio IV.
Nicola V.

Call isto III.
Pio II.

Paolo II.
Sisto IV.
Innocente VIII
Alessandro VI.

pio in.

Giulio II.

Italian

French

Italian
French
Italian
Prtguese
Italian

French

Italian

Greek

Italian

1241

1243

1254

1261

12G5

1271

1276

1277

1281

1285

1292

1294

1303

1305

1316

1334

1342

1352

1362

1370

1378

1389

1404

1406

1409

1410

1417

1431 '•

1447

Spaniard

1455

Italian

1458

1464

1471

1484

Spaniard

1492

Italian

1503

219

220

221

222

223

224

225

226

227

228

229

230

231

232

233

234

235

236

237

238

239

240

241

242

243

244

245

246

247

248

249

250

251

252

253

254

255

256

257

Leo X.

Adriano VI.
Clemente VII.
Paolo III.
Giulio III.
Marcello II.
Paolo IV.
Pio IV.
Pio V.

Gregorio XIII.
Sisto V.
Urbano VII.
Gregorio XIV.
Innocente IX.
Clemente VIII

Leo XL

Paolo V.

Gregorio XV.

Urbano VIII.

Innocente X.

Alessandro VII.

Clemente IX.

Clemente X.

Innocente XL
AlessandroVIII

Innocente XII.

Clemente XL

Innocente XIII

Benedetto XIII

Clemente XII.

Benedetto XIV

Clemente XIII

Clemente XIV.

Pio VI.

Pio VII.

Leo XII.

Pio VIII.

Gregorio XVI.

Pio IX.

Italian
Dutch
Italian

1513

1522

1523

1534

1550

1555

1559

1566

1572

1585

1590

1591

1592

1605

1621

1623

1644

1655

1667

1670

1676

1689

1691

1 700

1721

1724

1730

1740

1758

1769

1775

1800

1823

1829

1831

1846

The Supreme-Pontiff is the absolute and irresponsible ruler of
the Roman Catholic Church. His judgments are held to be infal-
lible, and there is no appeal against his decrees. The Pontiff may
seek advice from the Sacred College of Cardinals, consisting, when
complete, of seventy members, namely, six cardinal-bishops, fifty
cardinal-priests, and fourteen cardinal- deacons, but of late not com-
prising the full number. On December 25, 187 0, the Sacred College
consisted of five cardinal-bishops, forty-five cardinal-priests, and

S02

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

seven cardinal-deacons. The following list gives the names of these
fifty-seven cardinals, together with their office, or dignity, if any,
their nationality, year of birth, and year of nomination : —

Names

Office or dignity

Nationality

Year of
birth

Yearoi

Nomi-
nation

Cardinal-Bishops :■ — ■

Luigi di S. Filippo

Bp. of Porto

Italian

1796

1837

Camilla di Pietro

,, Albano

1806

1853

Carlo Sacconi

„ Palestrina

);

1808

1861

Filippo Guidi

,, Frascali

1815

1863

Luigi Bilio .

,, Sabina

1826

1866

Cardinal-Priests : —

Filippo deAngelis

Arehbp. of Fermo

1792

1838

Luigi Vannicelli Casoni

„ Ferrara

1801

1839

F. von Schwarzenberg .

„ Prague

German

1809

1842

Fabio Asquini .

Prft. of Congregation

Italian

1802

1844

Dom. Carafa di Traetto

Arehbp. of Benevento

1805

1844

Sixto Riario Sforza

,, Naples

1810

1846

Francois Donnet.

,, Bordeaux

French

1795

1852

• Carlo Morichini .

„ Bologna

Italian

1805

1852

Gioachino Pecci .

. , Perugia

1810

1853

Antonio Anton ucci

Arehbp. of Aneona

1798

1S58

Antonio Pancbianco .

Grand Penitentiary

1808

1861

Giuseppe Trevisanato .

Patriarch of Venice

1801

1S63

Antonio de Luca

Preft. of Congregation

1805

1863

Giuseppe Bizzarri

,, ,,

1802

1863

L. de laLastray Cuesta

Arehbp. of Sevilla

1803

1863

Jean Pitra .

French

1812

1863

Gaston de Bonnechose

Arehbp. of Rouen

„

1800

1863

Paul Cullen

Dublin

English

1803

1866

Gustav von Hohenlohe

German

1823

1866

Lucien Bonaparte

Italian

1828

1868

Innocente Ferrieri

1810

1868

Giuseppe Berardi

1810

1868

Giovanni Moreno

Arehbp. of Valladolid

Spanish

1817

1868

Rafaele La Valletta .

Italian

1837

1868

FlaviodeiPrineipi Chigi

Ap. Nuncio in France

1810

1873

Rene Francois Regnier

Arehbp. of Cambrai .

French

1794

1873

Joliann Simor

Primate of Hungary .

Hungarian

1813

1873

Alessandro Franchi .

Archb.ofThessalonica

Italian

1819

1873

Jos. Hippolyte Guibert

Arehbp. of Paris

French

1802

1873

Max. Von Tarnoezy .

Arehbp. of Salzburg .

Austrian

1806

1873

Luigi 0. di SantaStefano

Ap. Nuncio in Portugal

Italian

1828

1873

M. Barrio y Fernandez

Arehbp. of Valencia .

Spaniard

1805

1873

I. deN.Moraes Cardoso

Primate of Portugal .

Portgse.

1811

1873

Tommaso Martinelli .

Monk of St. Augustin

Italian

1827

1873

Henry Edw. Manning .

Arehbp. of Westminst.

English

1808

1873

John M'Closkey .

„ New York

American

1810

1875

Mieceslas Ledochowsky

„ Posen

German

1822

1875

ITALY.

303

Year of

Name
Victor A. J. Dechamps.

Office or dignity

Nationality

Year of
Birth

1810

Nomina-
tion

1875

Archbp.ofMalines .

Belgian

Pietro Giannelli .

„ Sardis

Italian

1 8 07

1875

R.LuigiE.Anteci-Mattei

Pat. of Constantinople

1811

1875

Giovanni Simeoni

Ap. Nuncio in Spain .

„

180.3

1875

GodfroiBrossais Si . Ma re

Archbp. of Rennes .

French

1803

1875

Dominico Bartolini

Seer, of Congregation

Italian

1813

1S75

Bartolomeo di Avanzo

Bp. of Calvi .

1876

Giambattista Franzalin

Order of Jesuits

1876

Cardinal Deacons : —

Prospero Caterini

Preft. of Congregation

1795

1853

Teodulo Mertel .

Pres.Council of Pontiff

1806

1858

Domenico Consolini .

Preft. of Propaganda

1806

1866

Edoardo Borromeo

1822

1868

Annibale Capalti

1811

1868

Lorenzo Randi .

Ap. Vice Chamberlain

;»

1818

1875

Bartolomeo Pacca

Ap. Maggiordomo

1817

1875

During the Pontificate of Pio IX., to the end of December 1876,
there were 99 cardinals created, of whom 57 were natives of Italy,
13 of France, 3 of Great Britain, 9 of Spain, 3 of Portugal, 7 of
Germany, or Austria, 3 of Hungary, 2 of Poland, 1 of Belgium,
and 1 of the United States of America. Of these 99 cardinals 50
died before the end of December 1876. Eight out of 61 cardinals
who saw Pio IX. mount the Papal Throne were still living at the
same date.

The cardinals are Princes of the Church, with an annual allow-
ance of 30,000 lire, or 1,200/., besides the income from their respec-
tive offices, or dignities. In the early ages the cardinals were the
principal priests of the churches in Rome, or deacons of districts.
In the eleventh century they numbered but twenty- eight ; and
it was in modern times that the number was raised to seventy.
When assembled the cardinals form the Sacred College, compose
the Council of the Pope, preside at special and general congre-
gations, and govern the Church so long as the Pontifical throne is
vacant. They received the distinction of the red hat under Inno-
cente III., during the Council of Lyons, in 1245; and the purple
from Bonifacio VIIL, in 1294. The great Catholic Powers pr<
a certain number of prelates to be named by the Pope, and these are
known as Cardinals of the Crown.

The upper Catholic Hierarchy throughout the world comprises
7 Patriarchs of the Latin Rite, and 5 of the Oriental Rite, with
Patriarchal Jurisdiction; 138 Archbishoprics of the Latin Rite, and
26 of the Oriental Rite ; and 657 Bish< the Latin and 50 of

the Oriental Rite. The list i i as follows: —

304

THE STATESMAN S YEAIt-BOOK, 1877.

I. Patriarchates.
Of the Latin Rite:—

1. Constantinople, 2. Alexandria, 3. Antioch, 4. Jerusalem, 5. Venice, 6. West
Indies, 7. Lisbon.
Of the Oriented Bite, with Patriarchal Jurisdiction : — -

1. Antioch, of the Melehite Greeks (Antiochcn, Melchitarum) ; 2. Antioch, of
the Maronites {Antiochcn, Maronitarmn) ; 3. Antioch, of the Syrians (Antiochcn,
Syrorum) ; 4. Babylon, of the Chaldeans (Babylonen, Chalclcsorum); 5. Cilicia,
of the Armenians (Oilicice, Armenorum).

II. Archbishoprics.
Latin Fife: —

Immediately subject to the Holy See .
With Ecclesiastical Provinces
Oriental Bite: —

With Ecclesiastical Provinces :

Armenian ......

Greco-Eoumaic .....

Greco-Euthenian ....

Under Oriental Patriarchs :

Armenian ......

Greco-Melchite .....

Syriac, Syro-Maronite, and Syro-Chaldaic

III. Bishoprics.
Latin Bite: —

Suburban Sees ....

Immediately subject to the Holy See

Suffragan, in Ecclesiastical Provinces
Oriental Bite : —

Armenian .

Greco-Melchite .

Greco-Eoumaic .

Greco-Euthenian

Greco-Bulgari an

Syriac

Syro-Chaldaic

Syro-Maronite .

Tota

12
127

1
1
1

165

Besides the above, there are a number of titular dignitaries occu-
pying sees ' in Partibus Infideliurn,' as follows : —

Archbishoprics ......... 36

Bishoprics . . . . . . . . .128

164
The siimmary stands as follows : —

Patriarchates . . . . . . . . .12

Archbishoprics . . . . . . . . .165

Bishoprics and Sees ' in Partibus Infideliurn.' . ... 883

Total . . . 1,048

ITALY.

305

The central administration of the Roman Catholic Church is
carried on by a number of permanent ecclesiastical committees
called Sacred Congregations, presided over by cardinals. There
were eighteen regular or fixed Congregations at the commencement
of November 1876, and besides three special Congregations. At the
head of all the Congregations, embracing large and varied functions,
is a department bearing the title of ' Holy Roman and Universal
Inquisition,' also called ' The Holy Office,' under the immediate
presidency of the Supreme Pontiff.

The apostolical vicariates, the delegations, and prefectures in all
parts of the world stand under the Congregatio de Propaganda fide
at Rome. The number of vicariates is one hundred and seven, of
delegations five, and of prefectures twenty-three, ten of which were
first founded by the; present Pope Piq IX., who also raised 15 sees
to metropolitan churches, and created five new archbishoprics and
•one hundred and eleven new bishoprics, chiefly in Great Britain
and the United States of America.

Church, and Education.

The Roman Catholic Church is, nominally, the ruling State reli-
gion of Italy ; but many Acts of the Legislature, passed since the
establishment of the Kingdom, and, more especially, since the sup-
pression of the temporal government of the Supreme Pontiff, have
subordinated the power of the Church and clergy entirely to the
authority of the civil government, and secured perfect religious
freedom to the adherents of all creeds without exception. How-
ever, scarcely any other creeds as yet exist but Roman Catholicism.
At the census of 1871, the total population of the kingdom of Italy
amounted to 26,796,253. Of this number, 99f per cent, were
returned as Catholics, while the small remainder was made up,
chiefly, of Protestants and Jews, , the former representing but 0'15,
and the latter 0*11 per cent, of the total population.

The Roman Catholic hierarchy in Italy consists of 45 archbishops
and 198 bishops. All these dignitaries of the Church are ap-
pointed by the Pope, on the advice of a council of Cardinals, the
congregation ' De Propaganda fide.' But the royal consent is neces-
sary to the installation of a bishop or archbishop, and this having
been frequently withheld of late years, there were constantly a large
number of vacant sees. On the death or removal of a bishop, the
clergy of the diocese elect a vicar-capitular, who exercises spiritual
jurisdiction during the vacancy. In case of old age or infirmity,
the bishop nominates a coadjutor to discharge the episcopal duties
in his stead. His recommendation is almost invariably attended to
by the Pope, and the bishop-coadjutor is appointed and consecrated,
.and takes his title from some oriental diocese not actually existing,

306 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

which he relinquishes on succeeding to a bishopric. As long as he-
retains the oriental title, he is styled a bishop ' in partibus infidelium/
or, as usually abridged, a bishop ' in partibus.' Each diocese has
its own independent administration, consisting of the bishop, as pre-
sident, and two canons, who are elected by the chapter of the diocese.
The immense wealth of the Italian clergy has been greatly re-
duced since the year 1850, when the bill of Siccardi, annihilating
ecclesiastical jurisdiction and the privileges of the clergy, passed the
Sardinian chambers. This law was extended, in 1861, over the
whole of the kingdom, and had the effect of rapidly diminishing the
numbers as well as the incomes of the clergy. But it was stated in
the Italian Chamber of Deputies, in May, 1869, that at that period
the proportion of priests to the general population was still as high
as seven per thousand, ' the average proportion in all the rest of the
Catholic world being four and a half per thousand.

It appears from an official return laid before the Chamber of
Deputies in the session of 1865, that there were in that year
2,382 religious houses in Italy, of which 1,506 were for men, and
876 for women. The number of religious persons was 28,991, of whom
14,807 were men, and 14,184 women. The Mendicant order num-
bered 8,229 persons, comprised in the above mentioned total. A
project of law, brought in by the Government, for the entire suppres-
sion of all religious houses throughout the kingdom, was adopted
by the Chamber of Representatives in the session of 1866. Art. 1
of this law provides that all religious corporations shall cease to exist
from the moment of the prornvdgation of the law, and their property
devolve to the State. Art. 2 grants civil and political rights to all
the members of the corporations thus dissolved. By Art. 3, all
monks and nuns having taken regular vows before the 18th of Janu-
ary 1864, are entitled to a pension of 500 lire, or 20/. each ; lay-
brethren and sisters to 250 lire, or 10/. each ; and servants 60 years,
old and upwards, having served at least 10 years in a monastery,,
may receive a pension of 120 lire, or a little less than 5/. By Art.
5, several monasteries are set aside for the reception of such monks
or nuns as may wish to continue their monastic life ; but there must
not be fewer than six in one monastery. Mendicant friars may
continue to ask alms under certain restrictions. By Art. 6, all
chapters of collegiate churches, abbeys, ecclesiastical benefices not
attached to parishes, lay benefices, and all brotherhoods and founda-
tions to which an ecclesiastical service is annexed, are suppressed..
Arts. 7 and 8 regulate the interests of present holders of such bene-
fices. Art. 9 regulates the transfer of ecclesiastical property to the
State. Art. 10 excepts from this transfer all property. liable to re-
version *o third parties ; also that of lay or ecclesiastical benefices-
in the gift of lay patrons, the property of which reverts to the patron
on condition of his paying the holder of the benefice the annua!

ITALY.

307

revenue of the property, leaving one-third of the same for the
execution of the ecclesiastical duties attached to the benefice.

Under the new Italian Government, a great part of the propertv
confiscated from the monastic establishments has been devoted to
the cause of public education, for which, besides, an annual credit
of 15,000,000 lire, or 600,000/., is voted by the Parliament. Since
the commencement of the year 1860, there were opened, through-
out the kingdom, thirty-three great model schools, of which ten in the
Sardinian states, six in Lombardy, four in the Emilia, six in the
Marches and Umbria, two in Tuscany, and five in the Southern
Provinces. But notwithstanding these great aids to instruction,
education stands still very low in the kingdom. According to the
census of 1864, out of a total population of 21,703,710 souls,
there were 16,999,701 who coidd neither read nor write — 7,889,238
men and 9,110,463 women. Piedmont and Sicily occupied the first
and last place on the register of knowledge. In the Basilicata,
Calabria, and Sicily, more than nine-tenths of the inhabitants con Id
neither read nor write.

An official return issued by the Italian Government March, 1870,
furnishes detailed tabular information regarding the amount of
education received by the conscripts born in 1847, and called
up for military service in 1868. According to this return, the
per-centage of ' analfabeti,' or totally illiterate men of the age of
twenty-one was as follows, in progressive ratio, in the various
provinces of the kingdom: — Vicenza, 20.37; Sondrio, 25.17;
Turin, 26.18 ; Novara, 29.39 ; Bergamo, 33.13 ; Leghorn, 35.40 ;
Cuneo, 35.99; Como, 37.23; Alessandria, 39.61; Pavia, 41.04;
Brescia, 41.18; Porto Maurizio, 43.27; Cremona, 44.25; Milan,
49.93 ; Belluno, 50.92 ; Verona, 53.54 ; Genoa, 54.61 ; Lucca,
55.34; Treviso, 55.34; Pisa, 56.72; Mantua, 58.06; Udine, 59.96;
Eeggio (Emilia), 61.34; Padua, 62.66; Venice, 63.84; Florence,
64.13; Rovigo, 64.90; Grosseto, 66.16; Modena, 66.61; Massa
Carrara, 66.67; Bologna, 67.03; Piacenza, 68.24; Ferrara, 68.80;
Abruzzo Ulteriore II., 70.43; Parma, 70.66; Siena, 70.91;
Macerata, 71.19; Molise, 71.36; Capitanata, 71.86; Principato
Citeriore, 72.25; Naples, 73.58; Arizzo, 76.45; Terra d'Otranto,
76.67; Ravenna, 77.49; Forli, 77.69; Aniona, 77.71; Sassari,
77.91 ; Umbria, 78.19; Terra di Bari, 78.56; Abruzzo Citeriore,
78.80; Syracuse, 78.91; Messina, 79.12; Abruzzo Ult. I., 79.60 •
Cagliari, 79.74; Terra di Lavoro, 80.00; Calabria Ult. II., 80.04;
Caltanisetta, 80.34; Principato Ult., 80.55; Pesaro, 81.41;
Catania. 81.59; Palermo, 81.91; Calabria Cit., 82.16; Basilicata,
82.23; Benevento, 82.36; Ascoli Piceno, 82.49; Calabria Cit.
82.99 ; Trapani, 83.58 ; Girgenti, 85.82. These statistics show a
general average of 64.27 persons without the rudiments of education

x 2

3oS

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

in every hundred members of the adult male population of
Italy.

There are twenty-two universities in Italy, many of them of
ancient foundation. The oldest are Bologna, founded in the year
1119; Naples, founded in 1244; Padua, in 1228; Rome, in 1244;
Perugia, in 1320; Pisa, in 1329; Siena, in 1349; Pavia, in 1390;
Turin, in 1412 ; Parma, in 1422 ; and Florence, in 1443. The
other universities are, in alphabetical order, Cagliari, Camerino,
Catanea, Ferrara, Genoa, Macerata, Messina, Modena, Palermo,
Sassari, and Urbino. The number of students at all the universities
was returned at 10,524 in 1871 ; nine years previous, in 1862, the
number given was 15,688, of whom 9,459 were reported to be at
the university of Naples ; 1,173 at Pavia ; and 889 at Turin. By
a decree of the Minister of Public Instruction, issued in 1871, six
high school? — Naples, Pavia, Turin, Bologna, Florence, and Parma
— were declared first-class universities of the kingdom.

Revenue and Expenditure.

Since the establishment of the kingdom, in 1861, there have been
annual deficits, varying from 44 millions to 617 millions lire, or
from 1,743,000/. to 24,680,000/. During the same time, the public
revenue more than doubled, but the expenditure did not increase to
the same amount, while during the latter half of the period, the annual
deficits showed a tendency to decrease. The following table exhibits
the total revenue and expenditure of the kingdom, together with the
annual deficits, in each of the sixteen years from 1861 to 1876, the
first thirteen years, up to 1873 inclusive, representing actual receipts
and disbursements, and the last three years, from 1874 to 1876. the
budget estimates voted by the Italian Parliament : —

Total Revenue

Total Expenditure

Deficits

Lire

1861

458,322,688

812,272,476

353.949,788

1862

471,241,264

921,016,396

449,775,132

1863

511,827,129

897,745,262

385,918,133

1864

565,310,610

1,033,139,152

467,828,542

1865

637,176,089

1,066,459,285

429,283,196

1866

639,612,269

1,256,822,008

617,209,739

1867

784,250,797

1,117,588,023

333,337,226

1868

726,486,545

1,187,351,948

460,865,403

1869

901.573,731

1,151,480,294

249,907,563

1870

800,649,014

1,021,925,930

221,276,916

1871

1,046,003,551

1,277,780,785

261,777,234

1872

1,295,336,212

1,548,335,022

252,998,810

1873

1,317,286,731

1,552,060,918

234,774,186

1874

1,314,147,325

1,540,862,261

229,714,936

1875

1,336,307,886

1,494,152,530

157.844,644

1876

1,345,132,190

1,472,941,860

79,474,766

ITALY. 309

In the financial estimates of recent years the total revenue calcu-
lated upon invariably showed a deficiency in the actual receipts,
while the estimated expenditure was exceeded by the actual dis-
bursements. In the budget estimates for the year 1876 the total
revenue, including extraordinary receipts, or loans, was calculated
at 1,345,132,190 lire, or 53,766,564/., and the expenditure at
1,575,487,190 lire, or 63,019,484/., leaving a deficit of 231,323,032
lire, or 9,252,920/.

The following table gives an abstract of the official budget for
the year ending December 31, 1876 : —

Estimates of Keventje for 1876.
Sources of revenue Lire

Property tax 179,596,655

Income tax 175,965,946

Grist tax 79,000,000

Stamp and registration duties 144,181,400

Building tax 3,200,000

Customs 106,000,000

Internal tax on articles of consumption . . . 69,634,757

Monopolies 167,500,000

Lotteries 75,100,000

Post Office, telegraphs, &c 74,276,884

State patrimony 69,903,196

Sundries 7,410,000

Eeimbursements 89,850,146

Extraordinary receipts (loans) 65,822,206

Afise Ecclesiastica 37,269,000

Total revenue 1,345,132,190

£53,805,284

Estimates of Expenditure for 1876.
Branches of expenditure.

Finance 957,151,958

Grace and Justice 31,875,000

Foreign Affairs 6,502,081

Public Instruction 23,087,506

Interior 62,905,885

Public Works 127,834,213

War . 203,710,207

Navy 47,823,674

Agriculture and Commerce ...... 12,051,336

Total expenditure 1,472,941,860

£58,917,672

The interest of the national debt, and its management, as well as
the civil list, and pensions, are summarized under the heading of
Ministry of Finance. Included in this great branch of expenditure
is likewise the annual dotation of the Supreme Pontiff, amounting
to 3,225,000 lire, or £129,000. The present Pontiff has never con-
sented, however, to accept this annual allowance, which is, therefore,
paid over to the ' Asse Ecclesiastica.'

3io

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The ever-recurring deficits of recent years necessitated large
loans, foreign and internal, in consequence of which the public debt
of Italy, which stood at 2,439 millions of lire, or 97,480,000/., in
1860, the year before the establishment of the kingdom, had in-
creased to 9,750 millions of lire, or 390,000,000/. at the end of
1873. The following table exhibits the total amount of the capital
of the public debt, and the interest paid, in each of the fourteen
years from 1860 to 1873:—

Years, Dec. 31

Capital

Interest

Lire

1860

2,439,351,650 67

115,764,606 24

1861

3,131,053,610 50

150,821,920 20

1862

3,336,915,886 12

159,993,256 27

1863

3,948,252,334 40

192,309,200 80

1864

4,797,211,053 62

237,939,513 18

1865

5,533,475,570 25

269,851,363 20

1866 ■

6,929,975,782 91

335,641,861 98

1867

7,415,040,316 11

348,165,975 19

1868

7,678,766,985 53

360,787,733 41

1869

8,081,333,454 97

369,157,983 42

1870

8,815,281,277 56

387,454,193 14

1871

8,950,724,322 23

379,733,899 25

1872

9,622,195,879 74

382,274,447 47

1873

9,757,613,267 29

383,528,744 37

The total debt of 9,757,613,267 lire, or 390,304,528/., existing at
the end of 1873, was made up of the following liabilities: —

Funded debt inscribed in the ' Libro
Grande' .....
Redeemable debt in the ' Rentes ' of 3
and 5 per cent. ....
Treasury Bonds ....
Paper Currency ....

Total ....

Lire

7,091,829,661

1,642,773,107
183,010,500
840,000,000

283,673,184

65,710,924
7,320,420
3,360,000

9,757,613,267

390,304,528

At the end of 1875 the total debt was calculated to have in-
creased to close upon 10,000 millions lire, or 400 millions sterling.

As a guarantee for the issued Treasury Bonds and forced paper
currency the Government has deposits of certificates of the funded
debt, bearing no interest, in the National Bank of Italy. The total
amount of these deposits was calculated at 1,150,000,000 lire, or
46,000,000/., at the end of 1875.

ITALY.

311

Army and Navy.

The German law of universal liability to arms forms the basis of
the present military organisation of the Kingdom of Italy. Accord-
ing to it, a certain portion of all the young men of the age of twenty-
one, the number varying from 65,000 to 75,000, is levied annually
for the standing army, while the rest are entered in the army of
reserve, in which they have to practise annually for forty days, and
are then sent on illimited furlough, but can be called permanently
under arms at the outbreak of a war.

By the law of military organisation passed September 30, 1873,
the standing army of Italy is divided into seven general command-
ments, or corps d'armee, each consisting of three divisions, and each
division of two brigades; four or six battalions of ' bersaglieri,' or
riflemen, two regiments of cavalry, and from six to nine companies
of artillery. The actual strength of the rank and file of the army,
at the end of December 1876, was as follows, according to official
returns : —

| Number of Men
Description of Troops 1 under arms
i (Peace-footing)

Number of Men

on illimited

furlough

Total

(War-footing)

Infantry of the Line . . 118,850
Bersaglieri . . . . 14.727
Cavalry .... 16,165
Artillery . . . 17,202
Corp of Engineers . . 3,104
Military Train . . . 2,454
Carabinieri . . . . 19,628
Administrative troops . . 4,463
Military Instruction . . 2,964

184,272

21.44S

9,604

18,162

563

7,151

3,752

303,122

36.175

25,769

35,364

3,667

K),605

19,628

8,215

2,964

1
Total . . 199,557 244,952

445.509

The army was commanded, in 1876, by 15,110 officers, not
included in the above returns. Of these, 870 formed the staff,
while 8,000 were attached to the Infantry of the Line, 995 to the
Bersaglieri, 1,080 to the Cavalry, and 1,150 to the Artillery.

The organisation of the Italian army, under the law of 1873,
which came into operation in 1874, prescribes the division of the king-
dom into sixteen territorial military districts, each under the command
of a general. The formation of the standing army is to comprise,
besides infantry, cavalry, and artillery, sanitary, commissariat, and
educational departments, the latter organised to raise the educational
standard of the armed forces of the kingdom higher than that of the
.general population. The militia is to be composed of 232 battalions
•of infantry, each of four companies; of fifteen battalions of ' ber-
saglieri ' cavalry ; of sixty batteries of artillery ; and of ten com-
panies of engineers.

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The formation of the standing

army of the kingdom is as follows : —

Infantry of the line (80 regi-

Peace Footing

War Footing

ments, 8 of which are grena-

Men

Horses

Men

Horses '

diers) .....

128,020

245,680

Bersaglieri (40 battalions)

16,165

—

26,495

—

Cavalry (4 regiments of the

line, 7 of lancers, 7 light

horse, and 1 of guides =115

squadrons) ....

18,167

13,569

19,000

11,102

Artillery (1 regiment of ponton-

nires, 3 foot, 5 mounted, with

80 batteries)

9,646

4,260

16,086

11,234

Six artisan companies, also at-

tached to the artillery

1,174

—

1,589

—

Two regiments of sappers of

the engineers (36 companies) .

4,132

6,793

396

Three regiments of train corps

(24 companies)

2,460

960

9,240

11,340

One administrative corps (7 com-

panirs ) ....
Total

3,173

189,541

19,027

335,870

37,562 1

The time of service in the standing army is three years in the in-
limtry and five years in the cavalry. A certain number, distinguished
as ' soldati d'ordinanza,' to which class belong the Carabinieri and
some of the Administrative troops, have the option to serve eight
years complete, and are then liberated without further liability
to arms. In the army of reserve, the time of service is nine years.
Every native of the kingdom is liable to the military service, to be
enrolled either in the standing army or the reserve. An exemption
in favour of young men able to pass an examination is allowed, as
regards the service, the same as in Germany. (See page 124.)

The distribution of the standing army over the kingdom was as-
follows in the middle of 1876. There were 8 battalions of infantry
at and near the capital, 5 at Genoa, 5 at Turin, 9 at Alessandra,.
12 in Tuscany, and 120 in the valley of the Po, from Milan to
Ancona. The troops in the valley of the Po were supported by 24
squadrons of heavy and 86 squadrons of light cavalry, and 248
pieces of artillery. At Naples there were 18 battalions of the line,
2 of marines, and 3 of bersaglieri ; in the Neapolitan provinces, 39
battalions of the line, 20 of bersaglieri, and 32 squadrons of cavalry.
There were, finally, 32 battalions of the line in Sicily.

The navy of the kingdom of Italy consisted, at the end of De-
cember 1876, of 81 steamers, afloat or building, armed with 671
guns. They were classed as follows : —

ITALY.

313

Steamers : —
Ironclad ships
Frigates ....
Corvettes of the 1st class
Corvettes of the 2nd class
Corvettes of the 3rd class
Gunboats
Transports

Total .

Total horse-power

Ironclads

Screw steamers

Paddle steamers

Number

Guns

Number

Guns

Number

Guns '

127

9
5
3

280

74
18

47
20

3
5

30
30

38
113

127

439

22,150

12,256

6,810

The following table gives the names, the horse-power, number of
guns, and the tonnage, of all the ironclads, completed and building,
and other principal ships of the Italian fleet of war : —

Names of Ships

Horse-
power

Guns

Tonnage

Ironclads : —

Duiiio .

7,500

10,600

Dandolo

7,500

10,600

Venezia

900

6,500

Palestro

900

6,500

Principe Amedeo

900

6,500

Roma

900

5,700

Ancona

700

4,250

Regina Maria Pia

700

4,250

Castelfidardo

700

4,250

San Martino

700

4,250

Aff'ondatore

750

1,000

Unarmcured vessels : Frigates

;

Maria Adelaide .

600

3,459

Duca di Genova .

600

3,515

Carlo Alberto

400

3,200

Vittorio Emanuele

500

3,680

Garibaldi .

450

3,501

Principe Umberto

600

3,415 i

Gaeta ....

450

3,980

Corvettes : —

S. Giovanni ....

220

1,780

Governolo ....

450

1,700

Guiscardo ....

300

1,400

Ettorc Ficramosca

300

1,400

Principe Carignano

700

4,086

Terribile ....

400

2,000

Formidabile

400

2,700

Varese

300

2,000

Esploratore

350

1,000

Sirena ....

120

354

314 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The two most remarkable ironclads of the Italian navy — reputed
also to be the most powerful types of men-of-war yet constructed —
are the double-turret ships, the Duilio, launched at Castellamare on
the 8th of May, 1876, and the sister ship, the Dandolo, on the stocks
at La Spezzia, at the end of 1876. The length of the Duilio is 339
feet, the breadth 65 feet, and the displacement 10,600. The armour
of the Duilio is of the unparalleled thickness of 22 inches throughout,
of plates rolled by C. Cammell & Co., Sheffield. As unsurpassed
in size as the armour, is the armament of the Duilio, which consists
of four 100-ton Armstrong guns, 33 feet long, firing projectiles
2,500 lbs. in weight, with powder charges of 350 lbs. The hull of
the Duilio is altogether of iron and steel. It consists of a central
ironclad compartment, 167 feet in length and 54 feet in breadth,
which descends to 5 feet under the water-line, encloses the machinery
and boilers, the powder magazines, and a portion of the mechanism
used in working the turrets and the cannon. At the bow and stern
of this compartment the deck passage, which lies about 4^ feet
below the water-line, is defended by horizontal armour, so that
neither a projectile nor water can enter it. The part of the hull
above this ironclad deck is constructed in a peculiar way, in con-
sideration of the probability of its being seriously damaged in a
fight. A second central ironclad compartment is built over the
first, and encloses the bases of the turrets and the remaining portion
of the mechanism employed in loading and working the cannon.
Above this second compartment rise the two turrets, which have
each two 100-ton Armstrong guns, and are arranged with their
centres at the distance of 8 feet from the longitudinal plane of the
vessel, which renders it possible to discharge three cannon contempora-
neously in a parallel direction with the keel. Besides its gigantic
armament, the Duilio has a powerful ram, and at the stern, in a tunnel
closed by a grated door, a very rapid torpedo boat, which can be
launched forth from its resting-place to carry its torpedoes. _ As
means of propulsion, the Duilio has two screws, driven by engines
of 7,500 horse-power, and is calculated to run at least 14 miles
an hour. The ship will carry 1,200 tons of coal, being sufficient
for a run of 1,000 miles with full force, and 4,000 miles at a moderate
rate. The Dandolo is absolutely similar in construction to the
Duilio, and the two, when completed, will represent the power of
whole navies of old construction.

It was the design of the Italian Government, at the end of 1876,
to construct two ironclad ships even more powerful than the Duilio
and Dandolo. They were to be called the Italia and the Vittoria
Emanuele, each of 14,000 tons, and covered throughout with armour
of the enormous thickness of 36 inches, or three feet.

The other ironclads of the Italian navy are of old construction,

ITALY.

315

and comparatively small power. The Venezia was built in England,
in 1871, and the Palestro and Principe Amedeo, sister ships, at the
dockyard of Castellamare, near Naples, where they were launched
in 1872. All three carry armour 9^ inches in thickness, and are
armed each with six cannons of 18 tons and one of 25 tons. The
remaining ironclads are similar in design and construction.

The navy was manned, in 1876, by 11,200 sailors, and 660
engineers and working men, with 1,271 officers, of whom were 1
admiral, 1 vice-admiral, 10 rear-admirals, and 83 captains. The
marines consisted of two regiments, comprising 205 officers and
2,700 soldiers.

Area and Population.

The first general census of the kingdom of Italy, inclusive of the
Pontifical States, annexed by Koyal decree of October 9, 1870, was
taken by the government on the' 31st December, 1871. On this
date, the population numbered 26,801,154 souls, living on an area
of 296,013 square chilos, or 114,296 English square miles, being
235 per square mile.

The Kingdom of Italy is administratively divided into sixty-nine
provinces, the names of which, in alphabetical order, area in
English square miles, and number of population on the 31st De-
cember 1871, are given in the subjoined table :^—

Alessandria

Aucona ....

Aquila (Abruzzo Ulteriore II.)

Arezzo ....

Ascoli Piceno .

Avellino (Principato Ulteriore)

Bari (Terra di Bari) .

Belluno .

Benevento

Bergamo .

Bologna .

Brescia

Cagliari .

Caltanisetta

Campobasso (Molise)

Caserta (Terra di Lavoro)

Catania ....

Catanzaro (Calabria Ulteriore

Chieti (Abruzzo Citeriore)

Como ....

Cosenza (Calabria Citeriore)

Cremona ....

Area
I Eng. square miles

Population
Dec. 31, 1S71

II.)

1,952

740
2,509
1,276

809
1,409
2,293
1,263

676
1,027
1,392
1,784
5,224
1,455
1,778
2,307
1,970
2,307
1,105
1,049
2,841

670

683,361
262,349
332,784
234,645
203,004
375,691
604,540
175,282
232,008
368,152
439,232
456,023
393,208
230,066
364,208
697,403
195.415
412.226
339,986
477,642
440,468
300,595

3i6

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Provinces

Area

Population

Eng. square miles

Dec. 31, 1871

Cuneo

2,756

618,232

Ferrara ....

1,010

215,369

Firenze ....

2,263

766,824

Foggia (Capitanata) .

2,955

322,758

Forli ....

716

234,090

Genova ....

1,588

716,759

; Girgenti ....

1,491

289,018

Grosseto ....

1,712

107,457

Lecce (Terra d'Otranto) .

3,293

493.594

Livorno (including Elba) .

126

118,851

Lucca '.

577

280,399

Macerata ....

1,057

236,994

Mantua ....

856

288,942

Massa Carrara .

680

161,944

. Messina ....

1,768

420,649

Milano ....

1,155

1,009,794

Modena ....

966

273,231

Napoli ....

429

907,752

Novara ....

2,527

624,985

Padova ....

805

364,430

Palermo ....

1,964

617,678

Parma ....

1,251

264,381

Pavia ....

1,286

448,435

Perugia ....

3.719

549,601

Pesaro Urbino .

1,145

213,072

Pisa .....

1,180

265,959

Piacenza ....

965

225,775

Porto Maurizio .

467

127,053

Potenza ....

4,122

501,543

Ravenna .....

742

221,115

Reggio Calabria (Calabria Ult.

i.) :

1,515

353,608

Eeggio Emilia ....

884

240,635

Roma (Latia) ....

4,553

836,704

Rovigo .....

652

200,835

Salerno (Principato Citeriore) .

2,116

541,738

Sassari ....

4,139

243,452

Siena ....

1,465

206,446

Siracusa

1,428

294,885

Sondrio .....

1,259

111,241

Teramo (Abruzzo Ulteriore I.) .

1,284

246,004

Trapani ....

1,214

236,388

Treviso

939

352.538

Torino ....

3,965

972,986

Udine

2,483

481,786

Venezia ....

850

337,538

Verona ....

1,102

367,437

Vicenza .......'

1,041
114,296

363,161

Total .

26,801,154

ITALY.

3*7

It is calculated that only two-thirds of the area of the kingdom
capable of production are cultivated, and that the rest lies waste.

The great mass of the people of Italy are devoted to agricultural
pursuits, and the town population is comparatively small. The
number of inhabitants of the principal towns was as follows, at the
census of December, 1871 : —

Towns

Population

Towns

Population
130,269

Naples

448,743

Genoa

Milan

261,976

Venice . .

128,901

Rome

244,484

: Bologna

115,957

Palermo

219,938

Messina

111,854

Turin

207,770

Leghorn

97,096

Florence

167,093

Catania

84,397

The city of Rome at Easter, 1872, numbered 256,022 souls.
In 1869 the population was returned at 204,678. The latter total
comprised 105,569 men and 99,109 women; 7,480 clergy and 'reli-
gious,' and 197,198 belonging to the Civil State. The births in
the year 1869 were 5,276, or 23'9 per 1,000 of the population; the
deaths 5,874, or 26-6 per 1,000; the marriages 1,564, or 7"1 per
1,000. The returns of 1869 stated that there were in the city of
Rome 22 seminaries and ecclesiastical colleges, containing 841
persons; 61 religious institutions for men, containing 2,959, and
72 for women, containing 2,256 persons; nine lay colleges, con-
taining 298 persons ; 68 conservatoires, nunneries, &c, containing
1,738 persons; seven charity institutions for men, containing 878,
and 12 for women, containing 1,216 persons.

The number of emigrants from Italy, very small previous to the
establishment of the kingdom, has been assuming some proportions
in recent years. In 1869, the number was 23,040, and it rose to
81,500 in 1870, to 100,170 in 1871, and to 115,272 in 1872. In
1873 the number of emigrants fell to 80,716; in 1874 to 51,200;
and in 1875 to 26,872. The emigration is chiefly directed to
the Argentine Confederation, Brazil, and other South American
states. Rather more than three-fourths of the emigrants in recent
years were natives of Northern Italy.

Trade and Industry.

The commercial intercourse of Italy is chiefly with four countries,
France, the United Kingdom, Austria, and Switzerland. The im-
ports from France average eight millions sterling per annum, and
the exports very nearly the same. Next in order of importance are
the commercial transactions with the United Kingdom, and after that,
but far below, those of Austria and Switzerland.

318

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The following table shows the total imports and exports of the
kingdom in each of the seven years from 1869 to 1875 : —

It will be seen that while there has been a marked increase in
the value of both imports and exports in the course of the seven years^
the exports augmented in far more considerable proportion than the
imports. However, there was a large falling off, for the first time, in
the exports of 1875, caused by a deficiency in the harvest produce.

Corn and cotton manufactures form the chief imports into Italy.
The principal exports are silk, raw and manufactured, and spirits
and oils, the first of which averages 7,000,000Z. and the second
4,000,000/. sterling per annum. The gi eater portion of these exports,
representing the chief productions of the kingdom, is sent to France.

The value of the commercial intercourse of Italy with the United
Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives
the value of the exports from Italy to Great Britain and Ireland,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into Italy, in each of the ten years from 1866 to 1875 : —

Years

Exports from Italy , Imports of British |
to Great Britah/ j home induce into

•

1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875

£
3,820,744
3,105,709
4,018,034
3,997,965
3.843,605
4,624,278
4,159,161
3,831,091
3,634,360
4,632,619

£
5,821,530
4,881,244
4,980.216
6,164,350
5,272,074
6,294,737
6,557,538
7,444,195
6,369,609
6,766,698

ITALY.

319

The two principal articles of export from Italy to Great Britain in
the year 1875 were olive oil, of the value of 955,9617., and hemp, of
the value of 585,472/, The next important articles shipped to
Great Britain were brimstone, of the value of 373,733/.'; chemical
products, of the value of 294,567/. ; and oranges and lemons, of
the value of 268,422/. No other articles exported to Great Britain
in 1875 reached the value of 200,000/. The staple articles of
British produce imported into Italy are cotton fabrics, iron, coals,
and woollen manufactures. The value of the most important article,
cotton manufactures, impoi'ted from Great Britain in the year
1875, amounted to 2,707,347/. Next in importance to cotton
manufactures stood iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value of
801,260/.; coals, of the value of 647,956/.; and woollen manu-
factures, of the value of 742,771/., imported in the year 1875 from
the United Kingdom.

The number and tonnage of merchant vessels belonging to the-
kingdom. on January 1, 1876, was as follows : —

On the 1st of January, 1876, the total number of sailing vessels
making long voyages was 10,951, of 993,666 tons, and the number
of steamers 118, of 37,810 tons. There were, at the same date,
8,560 vessels engaged in the coasting trade, of an aggregate of
120,580 tons, and 12,357 fishing boats of 36,029 tons. Accord-
ing to an official return, the kingdom of Italy had a seafaring
population of 187,832 grown-up male individuals at the com-
mencement of 1876.

The total length of railways opened for traffic on the 1st of
January, 1876, was 7,709 chilometri, or 4,<S17 English miles, of
which 1,625 chilometri, or 1,016 Enalish miles, belonged to the
State, and 6,084 chilometri, or 3,082 English miles, to private com-
panies. The whole of the lines are divided into five systems, of
the following extent in January, 1876 : —

320 THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Railways

Length

Chilometri

English miles

Alta Italia ....
Roman (Romane) .
Southern (Meridionaii) .
Sardinian (Sarde) .
Sicilian (Calabro-Sicule)
Various lines ....

Total .

3,379

1,673

1,454

198

949

2,112

1,045

908

124

593

7,709

4.817

The first line of railway was opened in 1839, and the progress of
construction was slow till 1861, from the beginning of which year
till the end of 1866 the length opened for traffic rose to 2,902
chilometri, or 1,814 English miles. In the following six years, till
the end of 1872, the length opened for traffic was 1,663 chilometri,
or 1,039 English miles, and in the next three years, till the end of
1875, it was 932 chilometri, or 583 English miles. The construc-
tion of railways by the State was begun in recent years, in order to
extend, more rapidly than private enterprise was willing to do, the
existing network of lines. In October 1875, the government pur-
chased from the South-Austrian and Lombardo-Venetian railway
company the Italian portion of the system, or the ' Alta Italia '
lines, of a length of 1,444 chilometri, or 915 English miles.

The number of post-offices in the kingdom at the commencement
of 1876, was 2,826. In the year 1875 the Post conveyed 105,500,000
letters, and 96,000,000 printed parcels. The total revenue of the
Post Office in 1875 amounted to 23,800,000 lire, or 952,000/., and
did not fully cover the expenditure.

The length of telegraph lines, at the commencement of 1876, was
20,395 chilometri, or 12,622 English miles, nearly two-thirds of
the whole belonging to the government. There were, at the same
date, 1,698 telegraph offices. The number of private telegrams for-
warded in the year 1875 throughout the kingdom was 5,036,890,
and of official telegrams" 17 1,9 52. The total revenue from telegraphs,
in 1875, was 7,518,594 lire, or 300,740/., and the expenditure
6,219,847 lire, or 248,792/. In preceding years the revenue did
not cover the cost of management of the telegraphs.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Of Italy in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — Lieut.-General Count Menabrea, Marquis of Val Dora,
accredited May 8, 1876.

Councillor of Embassy. — Chevalier Rene de Martino.

ITALY. 321

Secretaries. — Chevalier Conelli dei Prosper! ; Chevalier Tomaso Catalani;
Count Giovanni degli Alessandri.
Military Attache. — Capt. Leitniky.
Naval Attache. — Col. Labrano.

2. Of Great Britain in Italy.

Ambassador. — Sir Augustus Berkeley Paget, born in 1821 ; envoy to the
Netherlands, 1854-56; to Portugal, 1857-58; to Prussia, 1858-59; to Den-
mark, 1859-66 ; and to Portugal, 1866-67. Appointed envoy and minister to
Italy, July 6, 1867 ; raised to the rank of ambassador March 24, 1876.

Secretaries. — Edward B. Malet, C.B. ; John C-. Kennedy ; Christian W.
Lawrence ; W. G. S. Compton.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Italy are the same as those
of France, the names only being altered, the Franc changing into
the Lira, divided into 100 centisimi, the Kilogramme into the
Chilogramma, the Metre into the Metro, the Hectare into the Ellara,
and so on. The British equivalents are : —

Money.
The Lira, of 100 Centisimi = Average rate of exchange, 25 to 1?. sterling.
Weights and Measures.
The Gramma . . . . = 15-434 grains troy.

„ Chilogramma = 2*20 lbs. avoirdupois.

„ Quintal Met rici . . . . = 220

„ Tonnelata = 2200

,, Litro, Liquid Measure . . = 0'22 Imperial gallon.

„„ ,., f Liquid Measure = 22 ,, „

\ Dry Measure . . = 275 Imperial bushels.

„ Metro = 328 feet or 3937 inches.

The Chilometro .....= 1093 yards.

35-31 cubic feet.

Metro Cube "1
„ Stero J

,, Ellara, or Hectare . . = 2-47 acres.

,, Square Chilo, or Kilometre Carre = 0-386 square mile.

(2-59 kil. carres — 1 sq. mile).

The common currency of the kingdom in recent years h;is been
paper money of various denomination, gold standing at a premium
of from 112 to 118 percent.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Italy.
1. Official Publications.

Annali del Ministero di Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio, 1874. 8.
Rorna, 1876.

Annuario Generale d< 11' Industria e Commercio del Kegno d'ltalia pel
l'Anno 1875. 8. Firenze, 1876.

322 THE STATESMAN'S YEAlt-BOOK, 1877-

Annuario del Ministero delle Finanze del Regno d'ltalia pel 1875. Anno
XIII. 8. Roma, 1875.

Annuario della Instruzione Publica del Eegno d'ltalia. pel 1874-75. 8.
Roma, 1876.

Annuario Pontificio. 8. Roma, 1873.

L'ltalia economiea nel 1875. Piiblicazione nfficiale. 8. Roma. 1876.

Movimento della Navigazione nei Porti del Regno d'ltalia. Pesca del pesce
e del eorallo ; Marineria mercantile; Costruzioni navali ; Infortuni marittimi.
Anno 1874. 4. Firenze, 1876.

Statistica Amministrativa del Regno d'ltalia. Riveduta edampliata per cura
del Ministero dell' interne 4. Roma, 1876.

Statistica dei bilanci communali per gli anni 1873-74. 8. Roma, 1876.

Statistica della Popolazione. Censimento generale (31 die. 1871) per cura
della direzione della statistica generale del Regno. 8. Firenze, 1872.

Statistica elettorale politica. Elezione generali degli anni 1861, 1865-66,
1867. 1870 e 1874. 8. Roma, 1876.

Report by Mr. Hemes, Secretary of Legation, on the Social and Financial
Condition, the state of Agriculture, &c. of Italy ; in ' Reports of H.M.'s
Representatives respecting the Tenure of Land in the several countries of
Europe.' Part IV. Fol. London, 1871.

Report by Mr. Edw. Hemes, Secretary of Legation, on the Financial con-
dition of Italy, dated Eome, February 3, 1875; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secre-
taries of Embassy and Legation.' Part II.. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. Edw. Herries, Secretary of Legation, on the Foreign Trade of
Italy in 1874. dated Rome, March 1875 ; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' Part III., 1875. 8. London. 1875.

Reports by Mr. Consul Lowe on the trade of Civita Vecchia ; by Mr. Consul
Calvert on the trade of Galipoli and Naples ; by Mr. Consul Brown on the trade
of Genoa ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Richard on the trade of Messina ; by Mr. ATice-
Consul Valentine on the trade of Venice, dated Januaryl874 ; in ' Reports from
H.M.'s Consuls on the manufactures, commerce, &c, of their consular districts.'
Part II. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Report by Mr. Consul Grant on the trade of Brindisi, dated Jan. 31, 1874,
in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls on the manufactures, eomirerce, &c, of their
consular districts.' Part III. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Reports by Mr. Consul Gaggiotti on the trade of Ancona : by Mr. Consul
Calvert on the commerce of the district of Naples ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Va-
lentine on the trade and commerce of Venice ; and by Mr. Consul Colnaghi, at
Florence, on the silk manufactures of Italy, dated June-September, 1874 ; in
' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I., 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Reports by Mr. Consul Brown on the commerce of Genoa, and by Mr. Vice-
Consul Rickards on the trade of Messina, dated December 1874, and January
1875 : in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II., 1875. 8. London, 1875.
Reports by Mr. Consul Grant on the commerce of Brindisi ; by Mr. Consul
Colnaghi on the trade and industry of Florence and of Parma ; by Mr. Consul
Dennis on the commerce of Palermo and of Sicily ; and by Mr. Consul Small-
wood on the commerce of Venice, dated January-March, 1875; in 'Reports
from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part III., 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Reports by Mr. Consul Grant on the trade of Brindisi ; by Mr. Consul Lowe
on the trade of Civita Vecchia ; and by Mr. Consul Colnaghi on the commerce
of Piacenza, dated March-April, 1875; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part V., 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. Vice-Consul Tomassini on the trade of Ancona. dated An-
cona, October 15, 1875; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1876.
8. London, 1876.

ITALY. 323

Reports by Mr. Consul Grant on the trade of Brindisi ; by Mr. Consul
Lowe, on the trade of Civita Vecchia ; by Mr. Consul Colnaghi, on the industry
of Florence and the province of Regiri<> : by Mr. Consul Brown, on the trade
of Genoa ; by Mr. Vice- Consul Richards, on the trade of Messina ; and by Mr.
Consul Smallwood, on the commerce of Venice, dated January 1876 : in ' Re-
ports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Reports by Mr. Consul Calvert, on the trade and commerce of Naples; by
Mr. Consul Grant on the trade of Brindisi ; by Mr. Consul Pernis, on the trade
of Cagliari; and by Mr. Consul Smallwood on the commerce and shipping of
Venice, dated March -June, 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part
V. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Italy with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
for the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1874.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Annuario industriale italiano pel 1876, ossia Dizionario statistico-storico-
commerciale dTtalia. 8. Napoli, 1S76.

Bodio (Luigi) Sui documenti statistiei del Regno dTtalia, cenni bibliografici,
presentati al VI Congresso internazionale di statistica. 8. Firenze, 1868.

Cesar& (Carlo de) II Passato, il Presente e l'Avvenire della Pubblica Am-
ministrazione nel Regno dTtalia. 8. Firenze, I860.

Correnti e Maestri (N.) Annuario Statistico Italiano. 8. Torino, 1876.

Fornelli (Marchese Giov.) Miscellanea geografieo-storico-politica su l'ltalia.
8. Napoli, 1869.

GaUenga (A.) Italy revisited. 2 vols. 8. London. 1876.

Giugni (Ferdinando) Dizionario dei Comuni del Regno dTtalia. 2 vols. 8.
Firenze, 1870-72.

Gfuida Generale del Commercio e dell' Industria Italiana per il 1875. 4.
Milano, 1876.

Lossct (Augusto) Annuario del commercio ed industria del Regno dTtalia.
8. Firenze, 1876.

Morpurgo (Emilio) La Finanza Italiana della Fondazione del Regno fino a
questi Giorni. 8. Roma, 1874.

Mu~zi (Prof. S.) Vocabolario geografico-storico-statistico dell' Italia. 2 vols.
Bologna, 1873-74.

Stivieri (N.~> Geografia e statistica commereiale del Regno d'ltalia. 4. Venezia,
1872.

T 2

324

MONTENEGRO.

(TCHERNAGORA — KaRA-DAGH.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Nicholas I., Petrovic Njegos, Hospodar of Montenegro, born Sep-
tember 13 (September 25) 1841; educated at Paris; proclaimed
Hospodar of Montenegro, as successor of his uncle, Danilo I.,
August 13, 1860. Married November 8, 1860, to Milena Petrovna
Vucoticova, born April 22, 1847, daughter of Peter Vucotic,
senator, and commander of the lifeguard. Offspring of the union are
three daughters and one son : — 1. Sophia, born in 1866 ; 2. Militza,
born in 1868 ; 3. Makie, born in 1869; 4. Danilo Alexander,
heir-apparent, born June 30, 1871.

The reigning prince is descended from Petrovic Njegos, pro-
claimed Vladika, or prince-bishop of Montenegro, in 1697, who
liberated the country from the Turks, and, having established him-
self as both spiritual and temporal ruler, entered into a religious and
political alliance wilh Russia. His successors retained the theocratic
power till the death of Peter Petrovic, October 31, 1851, last
Vladika of Montenegro, a ruler of great wisdom, as well as a widely
celebrated poet. He was succeeded by his nephew, Danilo I., who
abandoned the title of Vladika, together with the spiritual functions
attached to it, and substituted that of Hospodar, or Prince. At the
same time Danilo I., to throw off a remnant of nominal dependency
from Turkey, acknowledged by his predecessors, obtained the in-
vestiture and formal sanction of his new title from Russia. Danilo
I., assassinated August 13, 1860, was succeeded by his nephew,
second Hospodar of Montenegro.

Former rulers of Montenegro possessed the whole of the revenues
of the country, but a general assembly of representatives of the
inhabitants of the principality, which met April 10, 1868, decided
to separate from the public the private income of the Hospodar,
granting him an annual civil list of 2,000 ducats, or 350/. To this
small allowance the Emperor of Russia added 8,000 ducats, or 1 ,400/.,
and the French Government 50,000 francs, or 2,000/., raising the
annual income of the Hospodar to 3,750/.

MONTENEGRO. 325

Government and Population.

The constitution of the country, dating from 1 852, with changes
effected in 1855 and 1868, is that of a limited monarchy, resting on
a patriarchal foundation. The executive authority rests with the
Hospodar, while the legislative power is vested in a Senate of 16 mem-
bers, elected annually by all the male inhabitants bearing, or having
borne, arms. The Senate is likewise invested with administrative
functions, and also acts as a court of justice. Eligible to the Senate
are nominally all Montenegrins, but the members are always chosen
from among a number of the principal families in the country. The
inhabitants are divided into 40 tribes, each governed by elected
* elders,' and a chief called Knjas, who acts as magistrate in peace
and as commander in Avar. For decision of important questions
affecting the whole country, all the Knjas form an assembly, the
Skoupschina, the decisions of which overrule both those of the
Hospodar and the Senate.

The popidation of the country was estimated in 1871 at 195,585
souls, living on an area of 1,770 English square miles, and distributed
over 810 villages. The number of men capable of bearing arms, be-
tween the ages of 20 and 50, is calculated at 21,850. There exists no
standing army, except a lifeguard of the Hospodar, numbering 100
men ; but all the inhabitants, not physically unfitted, are trained as
soldiers, and liable to be called under arms. The Montenegrins
belong entirely to the Servian branch of the Slavonian race, and in
religion adhere to the Geeek Church, governed, since 1852, by a
bishop nominated by the Holy Synod of Russia.

Montenegro has no foreign trade, being devoid of internal roads,
and shut off from the sea by a narrow strip of territory belonging to
Austria-Hungary.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Montenegro

Non-Official Publications.
Andrk- (31.) Geschichte des Fiirstenthums Montenegro. 8. Wien, 1853.
Jhlarue (II.) Le Montenegro. 8. Paris, 1862.
Mel (F.) Zwolf Tage in Montenegro. 8. Konigsberg, 1842.
Kohl (J. Geo.) Peis.- naeh Montenegro, &c. 2 vols. 8. Dresden, 1 851.
Neigebaur (H.) Die SiidslaweD und deren Lander. 8. Leipzig, 1851.
Pau- (M.) and Scherh (B.) Cernagora. 8. Agram, 1851.
Strxngford (Viscountess) The Eastern Shores of the Adriatic in 1863, with
i risit to Montenegro. 8. London, 1864.
Wilkinson (Sir J. G-.) Dalmatia and Montenegro, 2 vols. 8. Louden, IS IS.

326

NETHERLANDS.

(KONINGRYK DER NEDERLANDEN.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Willem III., King of the Netherlands, born February 10, 1817r
the eldest son of King Willem II., and of Princess Anna Paulowna,
daughter of Czar Paul I. of Russia ; educated by private tutors, and
at the University of Leyden ; succeeded to the throne, at the death of
his father, March 17, 1849. Married, June 18, 1839, to

Sophie, Queen of the Netherlands, born June 17, 1818, the second
daughter of King Wilhelm I. of Wiirtemberg. Offspring of the union
are two sons: — 1. Willem, Prince of Orange, heir-apparent, born
September 4, 1840; admiral-lieutenant in the navy. 2. Prince
Alexander, born August 25, 1851 : captain in the navy.

Brother and Sister of the King. — 1. Prince Hendrik, born
June 13, 1820; Commander-in-chief of the navy and Governor of
the Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg ; married. May 19, 1853, to
Princess Amalia of Saxe-Weimar; widower, May 1, 1872. 2.
Princess Sophie, born April 8, 1824 ; married, October 8, 1842r
to Grand-Duke Karl Alexander of Saxe-Weimar.

Uncle and Aunt of the King. — 1. Prince Frederik, born February
28, 1797_, second son of King Willem I. of the Netherlands ; field-
marshal in the Dutch army ; married, May 21, 1825, to Princess
Louise, daughter of King Friedrich Wilhelm III. of Prussia;
widower, Dec. 6, 1870. Surviving issue of the union is a daughter,.
Marie, born July 5, 1841, married July 18, 1871, to Prince Wilhelm
Von Wied, born August 22, 1845, Lieut.- Colonel in the army of
Prussia. 2. Princess Marianne, horn May 9, 1810, sister of the
preceding ; married, September 14, 1830, to Prince Albert of Prussia ;
divorced March 28, 1849.

The royal family of the Netherlands, known as the House of
Orange, descend from a German Count Walram, who lived in the
eleventh century. Through the marriage of Count Engelbrecht, of
the branch of Otto of Walram, with Joan of Polanen, in 1404, the
family acqirired the barony of Breda, and thereby became settled
in the Netherlands. The alliance with another heiress, only sister
of the childless Prince of Orange and Coirnt of Chalon, brought to
the house a rich province in the south of France ; and a third
matrimonial union, that of Prince Willem III. of Orange with a
daughter of King James II., transferred the crown of Great Britain

NETHERLANDS. 327

for a time to the family. Previous to this period, the members Lad
acquired great influence in the Republic of the Netherlands, am:,
under the name of ' stockholders,' or governors, become the sovereign
rulers of the State. The dignity was formally declared to be heredi-
tary in 1747, in Willem IV. ; but his successor, Willem V., had to
fly to England, in 1795, at the invasion of the French republican
army, The family did not return till November 1813, when the
fate of the republic, released from French supremacy, was under
discussion at the Congress of Vienna. After various diplomatic
negotiations, the Belgian provinces, subject before the French revo-
lution to the House of Austria, were ordered by the Congress to be
annexed to the territory of the republic, and the whole to be erected
into a kingdom with the son of the last Stadtholder, Willem V., as
hereditary sovereign. In consequence, the latter was proclaimed
King of the Netherlands at the Hague on the 16th of March, 1815,
and recognised as sovereign by all the powers of Europe. The
established union between the northern and southern provinces of
the Netherlands was dissolved by the Belgian revolution of 1880,
and their political relations were not readjusted until the signing of
the Treaty of London, April 19, 1839, Avhich constituted Belgium
an independent kingdom. King Willem I. abdicated in 1840.
making over the crown to his son Willem II., who, alter a reign of
nine years, left it to his heir, the present sovereign of the Nether-
lands.

King Willem II. had a civil list of 1,000,000 guilders, or 83,333Z.;
but the amount was reduced to 600,000 guilders, or 50,000Z., at the
commencement of the reign of the present king. There is in addi-
tion an allowance of 150,000 guilders, or 12,500/., for the members
of the royal family and the maintenance of the Court. The latter
sum is divided at present in the manner that the heir-apparent has
100,000 guilders, or 8,333/. ; and the remaining 50,000 guilders, or
4,166/., are given as a subsidy for the maintenance of the royal
palaces. The family of Orange are, besides, in the possession of a
very large private fortune, acquired, in greater part by King Willem
I., in the prosecution of vast enterprises, tending to raise the com-
merce of the Netherlands.

The House of Orange has given the following Sovereigns to the
N stherlands, since its reconstruction as a kingdom by the Congress
of Vienna : —

Willem 1 1815

Willem II '. 1840

Willem III 1849

The average reign of the three Sovereigns, inclusive of that of
the present king, amounted i>> 19 ysars."

528 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Constitution and Government.

The present constitution — grondwet — of the Netherlands received
the royal sanction October 14, 1848, and was solemnly proclaimed
Nov. 3, 1848. It vests the whole legislative authority in a Parlia-
ment composed of two Chambers, called the States-General. The
Upper House, or first Chamber, consists of 39 members, elected by
the provincial States from among the most highly assessed inhabitants
of the various coiinties. The second Chamber of the States-General,
elected by ballot, at the rate of one deputy to every 45,000 souls,
numbered 80 members in 1875. All citizens, natives of the
Netherlands, not deprived of civil rights, and paying assessed taxes
to the amount of not less than 20 guilders, or 11. 13s., are voters.
Clergymen, judges of the Hooge Kaad, or High Court of Justice,
and Governors of Provinces are debarred from being elected. The
members of the. second Chamber receive an annual allowance of 2,000
guilders, or 166/., besides travelling expenses. Every two years one-
half of the members of the second Chamber, and every three years
one-third of the members of the Upper House retire by rotation. The
Sovereign has the right to dissolve either of the Chambers separately,
or both together, at any time, but new elections must take place
within forty clays. The second Chamber alone has the initiative of
new laws, together with the government, and the functions of the
Upper House are restricted to either approving or rejecting them,
without the right of inserting amendments. The constitutional
advisers of the King, having a seat in the Cabinet, must attend at
the meetings of both Houses, and have a deliberative voice, but
they cannot take an active part in the debate. The King has full
veto power, but it is seldom, if ever, brought into practice. Altera-
tions in the Constitution can only be made by the vote of two-thirds
of the members of both Houses, followed by a general election, and
a second confirmation, by two-third vote, of the new States-General.

The executive authority is, under the Sovereign, exercised by
a responsible Council of Ministers. There are seven heads of depart-
ments in the Ministerial Council, namely : —

1. The Minister of the Interior. — Dr. J. Heemskerk, Minister of
the Interior, from May 28, 1866, to June 2, 1868; appointed for
the second time Minister of the Interior August 26, 1874.

2. The Minister of Finance. — Dr. H. J. Van der Helm ; appointed
August 26, 1874.

3. The Minister of Justice. — Baron R. W. van L//ndea de
Sandenburg; appointed August 26, 1874.

4. The Minister of the Colonies. — Dr. F. Alting 3Iees; appointed
September 11, 1876.

NETHERLANDS. 329

5. The Minister of Foreign Affairs. — Dr. P. J. A. M. van tier Does
de Willebois; appointed August 26, 1874.

6. The Minister of Marine. — Commander Van Erp Taalman Kip ;
appointed May 9, 1874.

7. The Minister of War. — Major-General Beyen, appointed Sep-
tember 27, 1876.

Each of the above ministers has a salary of 12,000 guilders, or
1,000/. per annum. Whenever the sovereign presides over the
deliberations of the ministry, the meeting is called a Cabinet
Council, and the privilege to be present at it is given to princes
of the royal family nominated for the purpose. There is also a
State Council — Raad van State — of 14 members, nominated by the
Government, which the sovereign may consult on extraordinary
occasions.

Church and Education.

According to the terms of the Constitution, entire liberty of con-
science and complete social equality is granted to the members of all
religious confessions. The royal family, and a majority of the inhabi-
tants, belong to the Reformed Church ; but the Roman Catholics are not
far inferior in numbers. In the census returns of 1870 the number of
Calvinists, or members of the Reformed Church, is given as 2,074,734 ;
of Lutherans, 68,067; of Roman Catholics, 1,313,052; of Greek
Catholics, 32 ; of divers other Christian denominations, 55,725 ; and
of Jews, 68,003. The government of the Reformed Church is Presby-
terian ; while the Roman Catholics are under an archbishop, ot
Utrecht, and four bishops, of Harlem, Breda, Roermond, and Herzo-
genbosh. The salaries of several British Presbyterian ministers,
settled in the Netherlands, and whose churches are incorporated with
the Dutch Reformed Church, are paid out of the public funds.

Education is spreading throughout the kingdom, though as yet it
has not reached the lower classes of the population. Official returns
state that in 25,137 marriages that took place in North Holland —
province containing the capital — between the years 1868-72, there
were 609 in which the man, 2,021 in which the woman, and 503 in
which neither the man nor the woman could write. It is calculated
that among the strictly rural population of the kingdom, one-fourth
of the grown-up men, and one-third of the women, can neither
read nor write However, the education of the rising generation
is provided for by a non-denominational Primary Instruction Law,
passed in 1857. Under its working, there were, in January, 1871,
according to government returns, 2,608 public schools, with 6,538
schoolmasters, and 177 schoolmistresses, and 1,119 private schools,
with 2,332 schoolmasters, and 1,565 schoolmistresses. At the same

OO1

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

date, the pupils in the public schools numbered 390,129, among
them 217,827 boys, and the pupils in the private schools lll,7G2r
among them 50,388 boys. The teachers, appointed under the law
of 1857, are superintended by 94 district school-inspectors, who
act under 11 provincial superintendents. It is the duty of the
inspectors to grant licenses for the establishment of schools, and to
present to the Government three times a year an account of the
state of public instruction. A fuller education than the schools for
jn-imary instruction impart 81 schools of middle instruction, with
7,047 pupils, and 55 additional 'Latin schools,' with 1,128 pupils
in 1871. There are three universities at Leyden, Groningen, and
Utrecht, with 1,339 students in January 1871, and a polytechni-
cal institution at Delft, with 171 pupils. The ecclesiastical training
schools comprise five Roman Catholic and three Protestant semi-
naries. The proportion of attendance in the schools for primary
instruction is one in eight of the entire population of the kingdom.
— (Official Communication.)

Revenue and Expenditure.

The national revenue, derived mainly from indirect taxation,
averaged 96 million guilders, or 8 millions sterling, in recent years,
while the expenditure was nearly always within the income. The
following tables exhibit the actual revenue and expenditure of the
kingdom, in guilders and pounds sterling, in each of the six years
1870 to 1875, and the estimated expenditure for the year 1*7") : —

Tears

Rev

enue

Guilders

1870

94,444.872

7,870,406

1871

94,001,483

7,833,457

1872

107,342,560

8,94y,213

1873

109,-307,189

9,125,599

1874

105,269,637

8.772,470

1875

98 693.607

8,224,467

Years

Expenditure

Guilders

1870 99,107,750

1871 94,460,038

1872 108.932,182

1873 108,033,523
1S74 99.3.J2,355
1875 106,970,169

£
8,258,979

7,871,670
9,077,682
9,002,794
8,279,36-3
8,914,181

NETHERLANDS.

331

The budget estimates for the year 1875, passed by the States-
General, were as follows : —

Estimates of Revenue fob

Direct taxes .

Excise duties

Indirect taxes

Customs duties

Tax on gold and silver wares

Crown lands

Post Office .

Telegraph service

State lottery

Shooting and fishing licenses

Pilot dues .

Dues on mines

Government railways

Miscellaneous receipts .

Total estimated ordinary revenue
Contribution from Indian surplus fund

Total estimated revenue .

1875.

Guilders
22,790,838
30.925,000
17,457,000

.,.: 1:;. 210

351,200

1,570,000

2,750,000

705.000

410,000

125,00(1

960,000

6,520

1,580,000

3,238,154

88.581,922
10,111,685

98,693,607 or £8,224,46

Estimates of Exfexditube foe 1875.

Civil list

Legislative body and council of state
Department for foreign affairs
Department of justice .
Department of the interior
Department of marine .
Public debt .
Department of finance .
Department of war
Department for the colonies
Unforeseen expenses

Total estimated expenditure

Guilders

750,000

598,806

605,745

3,587,039

21,052,587

13.089,972

27,163,350

20,366,583

18,502,913

1,203,174

50,000

106,970,169 or £8,914,181

Summary of Budget fok

Estimated total expenditure.
Estimated total revenue

Estimated deficit

1875.

Guilders

106,970,169

98,693,607

8,276,562

£
8,914,181
8,224,467

689,714

The financial estimates are always framed with great moderation,
ii; tly exhibiting a deficit, which in the final account becomes a
surplus.

332 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The expenditure of the ' Department for the Colonies,' entered in
the budget estimates, only refers to the West Indies and Surinam.
There is a separate budget for the great colonial possessions in the
East Indies, voted as such by the States-General. In the following
statement the summary is given of the Netherlands East India
estimates for the year 1875 : —

Guilders £

Revenue from receipts in the Netherlands . . 48,842,662 4,070,221

Revenue from receipts in India .... 78,630,613 6,528,384

Total estimated revenue .... 127,183,275 10,598,605

Expenditure in the Netherlands .... 18,291.472 1,524,289

Expenditure in India 98,780,118 9,231,676

Total estimated ordinary expenditure . 117,071,590 10,755,965

Contribution in aid of the Home Government )
for 1874 >

10,111,685 84,2840

Total estimated expenditure . . .127,183,275 11,598,805

The details of the revenue and expenditure, and budget for the East
India possessions, are given under Java, in Part II. of the Statesman's
Year-Booh.

It will be seen from the preceding budget estimates for the king-
dom that the largest source of revenue is that derived from excise
duties, producing about one-fourth of the total receipts, while the
largest branch of expenditure is that for the national debt.

At the commencement of the year 1875, the national debt was
represented by a capital of 927,320,076 guilders, or 77,276,673/.,
divided as follows : —

Division of Debt : — Guilders £

2| per cent. Stock 638,987,902 53,248,992

3 per cent, stock 92,632,474 7,719,373

4 per cent stock 183,278,700 15,273.225

3| per cent. Redeemable Inscriptions . . 12,421,000 1,035.083

Total 927,320,076 77,276,673

In the session of 1873, the States-General passed an Act to
increase the annual sum set aside as a sinking fund for the redemp-
tion of the debt, namely, 1,900,000 florins, by 7,000,000 florins,
and thus redeem a total amount of 8,900,000 florins, or 741,666/.
Another Act, passed in the session of 1875 by the States General,
in creased the sum to 10,000,000 guilders, or 833,333/., to be set aside
for the redemption of the national debt. — (Official Communication.)

NETHERLANDS.

333

Army and Navy.

The army of the Netherlands is formed partly by conscription and
partly by enlistment, in such a manner that the volunteers form the
.stock, but not the majority of the troops The men drawn by con-
scription, at the age of twenty have to serve, nominally, five years ;
but practically, all that is required of them is to drill for twelve
months, and, returning home on furlough, meet for six weeks
annually for practice, during a period of four years. Besides the
regular army, there exists a militia — ' schuttery ' — divided, into two
classes. To the first, the ' active militia,' belong all men from the
twenty-fifth to the thirty-fourth year of age ; and to the second, the
' resting (rustende) militia,' all persons from thirty-five to fifty-
five. The first class, numbering about 40,000 men, is again
subdivided into two distinct parts, the one comprising the unmarried
men and widowers without children, and the other the remaining
married soldiers. The 'resting militia,' to the number of 71,000
men, is organised in fifty-four full and nine half battalions. About
one-third of the militia is made up of men who have previously
served in the regular army.

The regular army stationed in the Netherlands was composed as
follows on the 1st July 1876 : —

General Staff and Military Administration .
Infantry : —

Staff

1 regiment of guards ....

8 regiments of the line .

1 battalion of instruction

Depot of discipline ....

Hospital corps .....
Cavalry : —

Staff

4 regiments of hussars ....
Engineers : — ......

Staff

1 battalion of sappers and miners .
Artillery : —

Staff

1 regiment of field artillery, with train .

3 regiments of heavy (fortress) artillery .

1 regiment of light-norse artillery .

2 companies of pontonniers

Total

Officers

Rank and File

172

108

848

7
94

77
26

63
58
221
32
12

4,232

38,504

625

240

4,318

40
1,013

2,030

6,378

636

317

1,854 60,093

334

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The colonial army of the Netherlands on the 1st January 187 G
numbered 35,412 men, composed of the following rank and file : —

Colonial Army

January 1, 1876

Officers

Rank and file j Total

Staffs and special services

Infantry

Cavalry

Artillery

Sappers and miners

Total

492

800

2,816

26,861

920

3,041

358

3,308
27,661

959
3,121

363

1,416

33,996

35,412

Of the rank and file 14,461 were Europeans, 365 Africans, and
19,170 natives.

The navy of the Netherlands was composed, at the beginning
of November 1876, of 67 steamers, the names of which, horse-power,
number of guns, and strength of crews, are given in the following
tabular statement after official returns : —

Names of Men-of-War

Horse-
power

N umbei
of Guns

Crews

Ironclads : —

Koninsx der Nederlanden ....

600

450

Prins Hendrik der Nederlanden

400

230

Stier .....

400

130

Buffel ...

400

152

Schorpioen .

Guinea ....

400
400

2
6

130
152

Draak .

162

120

Krokodil

140

113

Heiligerlee .

140

113

Tyger . .
Cerberus

140
140

2
2

113
113

Bloedkond .

140

113

Panter

140

113

Hyena .
Haai .

140

2
2

113
113

Wesp .

Luipaard

Adder

140
140

140

2
2
2

113
113

113

No. I.

120

Pahalis

Rhenus

Isala ....

Frigates : —

Admiraal van Wassenaer

300

450

Evertsen ....

400

500

Zeeland .....

400

500

Adolph van Nassau

1 450

500 j

NETHERLANDS.

5 j5

Names of Men-of-War

Horse-
power

Number
of G-uns

l Crew

Frigates continued —

Anna Paulowna ......

600

325

Atjeh ....

450

200

Tromp ....

450

200

Corvettes: —

Zilveren Kruis

250

225

Leeu warden .

250

225

Metalen Kruis

250

225

Curasao

250

225

Van Galen .

250

" 225

Citadel van Antwerpen

250

180

Vice-Admiraal Koopman

250

175

Watergeus .

280

130

Marnix

280

130

Avisos and Gunboats : —

Prinses Maria

119

100

Cornelis Dirks

119

100

Alkmaar

140

100

Bali ....

100

Aruba

Surinam

Batavia

Samarang

Bommelerwaard .

Bonaire

Sambas

Aart van Nes

Pontianae ....

Amboina

Bandjermassing .

Banda ....

Deli ....

Riouw ....

Palembang .

Paddle Steamers : —

DeValk

300

100

Sumatra

200

Borneo ....

200

4 ;

Timor ....

200

Banca ....

200

Suriname ....

110

Celebes ....

150

Madura ....

100

Admiraal van Kinsbergen .

Onrust ....

3 :

The only large ironclad of the navy,. the Koning derNederlanden,
was built at the Government dockyard at Amsterdam, and launched

in August 1870. It is a double-turret ship, 245 feet in length, and
48 feet in breadth, and armed with four 35-ton Armstrong guns.

336

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

The navy was officered, at the commencement of August 187G, by
1 admiral, 1 'admiral-lieutenant,' 2 vice-admirals, 4 rear-admirals
('schouten-bij-nacht'), 20 captains, 43 commanders, 312 first and
second lieutenants, 52 midshipmen ('adelborsten '), 123 adminis-
trative and 69 medical officers. The marine infantry, at the same
date, consisted of 42 officers and 2,121 non-commissioned officers
and privates. Both sailors and marines are recruited by enlistment,
conscription being allowed, but not actually in force. — (Official
Communication.)

Area and Population.

The Netherlands, since the separation of Belgium, consists of
eleven provinces, namely, North Brabant, Guelderland, North and
South Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Friesland, Overyssel, Groningen,
Drenthe, and Limburg. Connected with the kingdom in the person
of the sovereign, though possessed of a separate administration, is the
Grand-duchy of Luxemburg, included from 1815 to 1866 in the
dissolved Germanic Confederation.

A census of the Netherlands is taken every ten years; the last
was effected on the 1st of December, 1869. The following table
shows the area and population of the kingdom at the census of 1869,
and the official estimate of the population, based on the returns of
births and deaths, on the 31st of December, 1875 : —

Area

Population

English
square miles

Dec. 1, 1869.

Dec. 31, 1875

North Brabant

3,205

428,872

451,095

Guelderland .

3,154

i:;2.693

448,820

South Holland

1,869

688,2n l

748,162

North Holland

1,706

■ >77. 136

629,345

Zealand

i 1,101

177,569

185,628

Utrecht

i 865

173.556

184,084

Friesland

i 2,047

292,354

313,804

Overyssel

2.076

2.14,051

265,144

Groningen

1,432

225,336

238,662

Drenthe

1.689

1 0-5.637

112,221

Limburg .

1,353

223,821

232,562

Total . . . ! 20,527

3,579,529

3,809.527

The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg had a population of 197,528 at
the last census, taken December 1, 1871. The area of Luxemburg
embraces 1,592 English square miles, so that there are 124 inhabi-
tants per square mile, while in the Netherlands the density of
population is 179 per square mile. By the Treaty of London, of
May 11, 1867, the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg was declared a
neutral country, under the protection of the Great European Powers,
in case of war.

NETHERLANDS.

33^

The Netherlands possess a comparatively larger town population
than any other country in Europe. At the end of December 1*7."),
there were eighteen towns in the kingdom with a population of above
20,000 inhabitants. They were — H elder, with 21,328 ; Schiedam,
with 21,532; Zwolle, with 21,443 ; Delft, with 23,804; Nymegen,
with 23,198 ; Tilburg, with 25,397 ; 's Hertogenbosh, with 24,298 ;
Dordrecht, with 26,157 ; Leeuwarden, with 27,108 ; Maestricht, with
28,891; Haarlem, with 34.133 ; Arnhem, with 3G, 755 ; Groningen,
witli 340,165 ; Leiden, with 40,721; Utrecht, with 65,052; The
Hague ('s Gravenhage), with 100,254 ; Rotterdam, with 132,054 ;
and Amsterdam, with 289,982 inhabitants. The population of
Amsterdam was 935,000 in 1785, but had fallen to 180,000 in
1814, since which time there was a gradual increase. In the pro-
vinces of North and South Holland the population of the eleven prin-
cipal towns is considerably larger than that of the country districts.

Trade and Industry.

The foreign commerce of the Netherlands, classified, like that of
Belgium and France, into ' general and special,' is chiefly carried
on with two countries, Germany and Great Britain, the former
standing first in the list as export, and the latter first as import
market. No returns are kept of the value of the general commerce,
but only of the weight of the goods. The following tabular state-
ment gives the weight of the merchandise forming the general com-
merce, and the value of the special exports and imports in each of
the years 1874 and 1875 : —

General exports ....
General imports ....

Exports of home produce
Imports for home consumption

1874

1875

Kilograms

3,168,195,610

6,313,182,738

Guilders

508,222,407

671,537,563

Kilograms
3,252,283.504
6,624,793,866

Guilders
538,970.909
718,846,242

To the imports for home consumption of 1875, Great Britain
contributed 35, and Germany 23 per cent. From Java came 12,
from Belgium 10, from Russia 5, from America 1, and from France
3 per cent, of the imports of the same year. Of the exports of
home produce of 1875, there went 44 per cent, to Germany, and
26 per cent, to Great Britain, while Belgium had 1<», -Java 6,
France 2, and Russia 1 per cent. The trade with both Germany
and Great Britain has largely increased in recent years.

The total value of the exports from the Netherlands to Great
Britain, and of the imports of British and Irish produce into the
Netherlands, in each of the ten years 1866 to 1875, is shown in the
subjoined table : —

333

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Years

Exports from the Netherlands

Imports of British Home Produce

to Great Britain

into the Netherlands

1866

11,768,913

£
8,999,713

1867

10,822,238

9,422,742

1868

11,390,924

10,395,098

1869

12,739,207

10,759,819

1870

14,315,717

11,220,784

1871

13,970,036

14,104,157

1872

13,108,473

16,211,775

1873

13.272,444

16,745,850

1874

14,464,158

14,427,113

1875

14,836,336

13,118,691

The principal articles of export from the Netherlands to the United
Kingdom in the year 1875 were butter, of the value of 1,917, 9107.;
live animals, principally cows and sheep, of the value of 2,124,935/. ;
and cheese, of the value of 1,078,594/. The principal articles of
British home produce imported into the Netherlands in the year
1875 were cotton goods, including yarn, of the value of 3,656,916/. ;
iron, Avronght and unwrought, of the value of 1,563,831/. ; and
woollen manufactures, of the value of 2,750,068/. A consider-
able amount of both the exports to Great Britain and of the Bri-
tish imports, here enumerated, are not for consumption in the
Netherlands,. but pass in transit from and to Germany.

The following table shows the number and tonnage of the vessels
belonging to the mercantile navy on December 31, 1875 : —

Description of Vessels

Number

Tons

Ships (Fregatten) ....

Barques (Barken)

Brigs (Brikken) ....

Schooner-brigs (Schoener Brikken)

Schooners (Schoeners) .

Galliots (Galjooten)

Koff boats (Koffen)

Flogs (Fjalken) ....

Smacks (Smakken)

All other vessels (anclere Zeilschepen)

Steamboats (Stoomschepen) .

179
206
79
170
310
203
275
221
8
158
. 86

152,497

119,509

22,997

27,010

50,915

23,265

32,272

14,044

627

6,561

76,827

Total .

1,835

526,527

At the close of 1858 the aggregate tonnage of the trading fleet
amounted to 310,653 lasts, or 528,420 tons, and after a lapse of seven
years, at the end of 1865, the total had fallen to 269,338 lasts, or

NETHERLANDS.

339

457,674 tons. At the end of 1870 there were 1,985 vessels of 264,289
lasts, or 449,291 tons; and, at the end of 1874 the mercantile navy
numbered 1,827 vessels, of 511,982 tons. In the year 1875, as will
be seen from the preceding table, there was a considerable increase.
The following table gives total length of railways opened for
traffic at the commencement of 187G, and the amount of capital
spent in the construction of some of the private lines, and of the
whole of the State railways : —

Railways

Length

Capital

Private companies: —

Dutch-Rheuiseh ......

Rotterdam-Antwerp ...
Maestricht-Aachen .....

Amsterdam-Rotterdam ....

Utrecht-Kampen. .....

Maestricht-Luttieh .....

Almelo-Salzbergen .....

Eindlioven-Hasselt .....

Tilburg-Turnhout

Nymegen-Kleef ......

Neuzen-Gent ......

Xeuzen-Mechelen .....

Kilometers
210
118

37
102
101

Guilders
38,687,596

4,413,580

Total, private companies ....
State railways ......

853
815

113,710,161

Total

1,668

—

The following table gives the number of letters, inland and
foreign, conveyed by the Post Office in each of the five }'ears, from
1871 to 1875:—

Tears

Inland letters

Foreign letters

Total

1871
1872
1873
1874
! 1875

28,834,542
30,595,609
32,810,221
34,607,250
35,881,594

7,845,439
8,374,170
9,394,350
9,789,080
10,345,846

36,679,981
38,969,779
42,204,:171
44,396,330
46,225,440

The number of Post Offices at the commencement of 1876 was
1,462. The total income of the Post Office in the year 1875
amounted to 2,956,491 guilders, or 246,375/., and the expenditure
to 2,079,806 guilders, or 173,317/.

The length of telegraph lines on the 1st January, 1876, was •'!, I in
kilometers, or 2,150 English miles, the length of wires 12,333 kilo-

340

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

meters, or 7,708 English miles, and the number of offices 330. In
the year 1875, there were 2,196,959 telegrams carried, including
71,471 in transit through the kingdom.

Colonies.

The colonial possessions of the Netherlands embrace an area of
31,752 geographical square miles, or 666,750 English square miles.
The total population, according to the last returns, was 24,386,991,
or more than six times as large as that of the mother country.

The following table gives the area and population of the various
colonial possessions, divided into three groups ; first, the possessions
in Asia or the East Indies; secondly, the West India islands; and
thirdly, the colony of Surinam, in South America.

Area,

Colonial Possessions

Geographical
Square Miles

Population

1. East Indies (1874): —

Java and Madura ....

2,444-6

18,125,269

Sumatra, West Coast

2,200-6

961,187

Benkulen .....

4556

135,482

Lampongs .....

475

117,370

Palembang .....

2,912

508,668

Eiau '

825

61,060

Banea ......

237

64,257

Billiton

119

27,297

Borneo, West Coast

2,806

365,630

Borneo, South and East Districts

6,568

898.875

Celebes ......

2,149-9

360,627

Menado

1.267-2

217.377

Molucca Islands ....

2,019-9

198,011

Timor and Sumba ....

1,042-6

900,000

Bali and Lombok ....

190

69,148

New Guinea .....

Total, East Indies .
2. West India Islands (187-5) : —

3,210

200,000

28,922-4

24,276,638

Curacao ......

7-71

23,972

Aruba ......

3-63

5,670

St. Martin

065

3,101

Bonaire ......

4-50

4,470

St. Eustache

0-52

1,809

Saba ......

Total, West Indies .

3. Surinam (1875)

Total Possessions .

0-30

2,002

17-31

41,024

2,812-6

69,329

31,752-3

24,386,991

NETHERLANDS. 34 1

The population of the West India Islands is after a census taken
ut the end of 1874, and that of the other colonial possessions — with
the exception of Timor and Sumba, Bali and Lombok, and New
Guinea, which are only estimates — after enumerations of 1872—75.

Of the colonial possessions of the Netherlands, the East Indian
island of Java, with the adjoining Madura, is by far the most im-
portant. Administered as dependencies of Java, are the whole of
the other possessions of the Netherlands in the East Indies.

The kingdom derives a considerable revenue from its colonia*
possessions, arising from the sale of colonial produce, chiefly coffee,
and tin. The sales are effected on what is called the Consignation
system, carried out through the medium of the ' Netherlands Trading
Company,' acting as agents of the Government.

Slavery ceased in the West Indian colonies on July 1, 1863.
There were at this period 44,615 slaves, for ail of whom the
owners received compensation, the same amounting to 300 guilders, or
251. , per individual, in Surinam, and to 200 guilders, or 16/. 13s.,
in the rest of the colonies.

For a detailed account of the principal colonial possession, Java
with Madura, see Part II. of the Statesman s Year-book.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Of the Netherlands in Great Britain.

Envoi/ and Minister — Count C. M. E. George de Bylandt, accredited June 23,

1871.

Councillor of negation — Chevalier A. de Steurs.

2. Of Great Britain in the Netherlands.

Envoy and Minister — Admiral Hon. Sir Edward Alfred J. Harris, K.C.B.,
born in 1805; entered the British navy 1821 ; envoy to Switzerland 1858—59 ;
appointed envoy and minister to the Netherlands December 16, 1859.

Secretaries — Henry Philip Fenton ; Henry Howard, C.B. ; W. C. P.

Bentinck.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of the Netherlands, and (he
British equivalents, are : —

Money.
The Guilder, or Florin, of 100 Cents = Is. 8d., or 12 guilders to £ 1 sterling.

The money in general circulation is chiefly silver ; but a bill which
passed the States-General in the session of 1875, ordered an unre-
stricted coinage often guilder pieces in gold.

"Weights and Meastjbes.

The Netherlands adopted the French metric system of weights and

342 the statesman's TEAK-BOOK, 1877.

measures in 1820, retaining, however, old designations for the same.
Much confusion having arisen therefrom, an Act was passed April 7,
18G9, establishing from January 1, 1870, a series of new inter-
national names of weights and measures, with facultative use, during
the first ten years, of the old denominations. The principal new
names, aside with the old, are : —
The Kilogram (Pond) . . . = 2-205 lbs. avoirdupois.

„ Meter (El) . = 3-281 imperial feet.

„ Kilometer (Myl) . . = 1093 yards, or nearly 5 furlongs.

„ A re (Vierkante Eoede) . . = 119-6 sq. yards, or 024-6 SCJ. acre.

„ Hektare t Bunder) . . = 2-47 acres.

;, Stere (Wisse) . . . . = 35-31 cubic feet.

„ Liter (Kan) . . . . '= 1-76 imperial pints.

„ Hektoliter (Vat) . . = 22 imperial gallons.

All the other French metric denominations are adopted with
trifling changes in the new code of names.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Netherlands.

1. Official Publications.

Staats-Almanak voor het Koningrijk der Nederlanden. 1876. Met magtiging
van de regering nit officiele opgaven zamengesteld. 8. 'S Gravenhage, 1876.

Statist iek van den Handel en de Scheepvaart van het Koningrijk der Neder-
landen. Uitg. d. h. departement van Financien. Pol. \S Gravenhage, 1876.

Verzameling van Consulaire en andere Berigten en VerslagenoverNijverheid,
Handel en Scheepvaart. Uitgegeven door het Ministerie van Buitenlandsche
Zaken. Jaargang 1876. 1" Afi. 4. 'S Gravenhage, 1876.

Verslag van den Staat der Nederlandsehe Zeevisscherijen over 1874. 4.
'S Gravenhage, 1875.

Verslag van den Landbouw in Nederland over 1873, opgemaakt op last van
den Minister van BinnenkuxLche Zasen. 8. 'S Gravenhage, 1875.

Nederlandsch Meteorologisch Jaarboek voor 1874. Uitgegeven door het
Koninkl. Nederl. Meteorologisch. Instituut. 2Ce Jaargang. 4. Utrecht, 1875.

Bijdragen tot de geneeskundiae plaatsbeschrijvinar van Nederland. Uitge-
geven door het departement van Binnenlandsche Zaken. le Stuk. Natuur-
kundige plaatsbeschrijving van de provincie Zeeland. 8. 'S Gravenhage,
1870. Idem van Friesland. 2° Stuk. 8. 1872. 3e Stuk. Geneeskundige
plaatsbeschrijving van Gooiland. 1875. 4e Stuk. Natuurk. plaatsbeschrij-
ving van Overijssel. 8. 'S Gravenhage, 1875.

Verslag aan den Koning van de bevindingen en handelingen van het
veeartsenijkundig Staatstoezigt in 1875. 4. 'S Gravenhage, 1876.

Verslag over de verrigtingen aangaande het Armbestuur in het Koningrijk
der Nederlanden over 1872.

Verslag aan den Koning van de bevindingen en .handelingen van het
geneeskundig Staatstoezigt in 1S74. 4. 'S Gravenhage. 1875.

Geregtelijke Statistiek van het Koningrijk der Nederlanden, 1873. 4.
'S Gravenhage, 1875.

Eeport by Mr. Sidney Locock, Secretary of Legation, on Land Laws and
Landed Property, dated The Hague, December 20, 1869; in 'Keports from
H.M.'s Representatives respecting the Tenure of Land in the several
countries of Europe.' Part I. Fol. London, 1870.

NETHERLANDS. 343

Report by Mr. Sidney Locock, Secretary of Legation, on the trade of
the Netherlands with Great Britain, during the live years ending December
31, 1871, dated the Hague, July. 1K72 : in ' Keports of H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' No. III. 1872. 8. London, 1872.

Report by Mr. H. P. Fenton, Secretary of Legation, on the commerce and
shipping and on the finances of the Netherlands, dated The Hague, February
1874 ; in ' Eeports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. III.
1871. 8. London, 1874.

Report by Mr. H. P. Fenton, Secretary of Legation, on the imports and ex-
ports of the Nethprlands during the year 1874, dated The Hague, January
1876 ; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I.
1876. 8. London, 1876.

Report by Mr. Consul Turing on the trade and commerce of Rotterdam, dated
December 31, 1873 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls on the manufactures, com-
merce, &c, of their consular districts.' Part III. 1874. 8. London. 1874.

Reports by Mr. Vice-Consul Cohen on the trade of Surinam, dated Surinam,
December 3." 1874; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I., 1875. 8.
London, 1875.

Trade of the United Kingdom with the Netherlands; in 'Annual Statement
of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British
Possessions in the year 1875. 4. Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications

Allgemeene Statistiek van Nederland. Uitgegeven door de Yereeniging voor
de statistiek in Nederland. 8. Leiden, 1869-76.

Beerstecher (L. H.) De staatsinrigting in Nederland. 8. Kampen, 1871.

Hcusden (A. Van), Handboek der aardrykskunde, staatsinrigting, staatshuis-
houding en statistiek van het koningrijk der Nederlanden. 8. Harlem, 1876.

Staatkundig en staathuishoudkimdig, Jaarboekje voor 1875. Uitgegeven door
de vereeniging voor de statistiek in Nederland. 8. Amsterdam, 1876.

Verslag van den handel, scheepvaart en nijrerheid van Amsterdam, over het
jaar 1875. 8. Amsterdam, 1876.

344

PORTUGAL.

(Reino de Portugal e Algarves.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Luis I., King of Portugal, born Oct. 31, 1838, the son of
Queen Maria II. and of Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg ; suc-
ceeded his brother, King Pedro V., Nov. 11, 1861 ; married Oct. 6,
1862, to

Pia, Queen of Portugal, born Oct. 16, 1847, the youngest
daughter of King Vittorio Emanuele of Italy. Issue of the union are
two sons, Carlos, born Sept. 28, 1863, and Alfonso, born July 31,
1865.

Sisters and Brother of the King. — 1. Princess Maria, born July
21, 1843; married, May 11, 1859, to Prince Georg, second son of
the King of Saxony. 2. Princess Antonia, born Feb. 17, 1845 ;
married, Sept. 12, 1861, to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sig-
maringen, born Sept. 22, 1835 ; offspring of the union are three
sons, Wilhelm, born March 7, 1864, Ferdinand, born Aug. 24, 1865,
and Karl, born Sept. 1, 1868. 3. Prince Augustus, born Nov. 4,
1847.

Father of the King. — Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, titular
King of Portugal, born Oct. 29, 1816, the eldest son of the late
Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg ; married, April 9, 1836, to Queen
Maria II. of Portugal ; obtained the title 'King,' Sept. 16, 1837;
widower, Nov. 15, 1853 ; Regent of Portugal during the minority
of his son, the late King Pedro V., Nov. 15, 1853, to Sept. 16,
1855; married, in 'morganatic' union, June 10, 1869, to Madame
Hensler, elevated Countess Edla.

Aunt of the King. — 1. Princess Adelaide, born April 3, 1831 ;
married Sept. 21, 1851, to Don Miguel, son of King Joao VI.
of Portugal and of Princess Charlotte of Spain; widow, Nov. 14,
1866. Offspring of the union are one son and six daughters.

The reigning dynasty of Portugal belongs to the House of
Braganza, which dates from the commencement of the fifteenth
century, at which period Affonso, an illegitimate son of King Joao
or John L, was created by his father Duke of Braganza and Lord of
Guimaraens. When the old line of Portuguese kings, of the Hoiise
of Avis, became extinct by the death of King Sebastian, and of his
nominal successor, Henrique ' the Cardinal,' Philip II. of Spain took
possession of the covmtry, claiming it in virtue of his descent from a
Portuguese princess; but in disregard of the fundamental law of the

PORTUGAL.

345

kingdom, passed by the Cortes of Lam ego in 1139, which excluded
all foreign princes from the succession. After bearing the Spanish
rule for more than half a century, the people of Portugal revolted,
and proclaimed Don Joao, the then Duke of Braganza, as their king,
he being the nearest heir to the throne, though of an illegitimate
issue. The Duke thereupon assumed the name of Joao P7., to
which Portuguese historians appended the title ' the Fortunate.'
From this Joao, through many vicissitudes of family, the present
rulers of Portugal are descended. For two centuries the members
of the line of Braganza kept up the ancient blood alliances with the
reigning house of Spain ; but the custom was broken through by the
late Queen Maria II., who, by a union with a Prince of Coburg,
entered the great family of Teutonic Sovereigns. Luis I. is the
second Sovereign of Portugal of the line of Braganza- Coburg.

Luis I. has a civil list of 365,000 milreis, or about 82,000/. ; but
His Majesty returns annually 55,000 milreis to the public exchequer,
to be employed for general purposes. The expenses of the whole
Court, including the allowance to King Ferdinand and the other
princes, amount to 612,000 milreis, or nearly 136,000/. King Luis
has settled upon his consort, Queen Pia, sixty contos of reis, or
14,000^.. from his own civil list, declining a proffered grant from
the funds of the nation.

Sovereigns of Portugal since its

The following is a list of the
conquest from the Moors : —

I. House of Burgundy.

A.D.

Henri of Burgundy . . 1095

Affonso I. ' the Conqueror ' . 1112

Sancho I. ' the Dexterous ' . 1185

Affonso II., 'the Fat' . . 1211

Sancho II., ' Capel' . . 1223

Affonso III 1248

Diniz, ' the Farmer ' . . 1279

Affonso IV. ' the Brave ' . . 1325

Pedro, 'the Severe' . . 1357

Eerdinando I. ' the Handsome ' 1367

II. House of Avis.

Joan I., 'the Great' . . 1385
Eduardo . . . .1433

Affonso V., 'the African' . 1438

Joan II., ' the Perfect ' . . 1481

Manoel 1495

Joan III 1521

Sebastian ' the Desired' . . 1557

Enrique ' the Cardinal ' . . 1578

III. Interval of Submission to Spain.
Philip IT 1580

Philip III.
Philip IV.

IV. House of Braganza

Joan IV., 'the Fork

Affonso VI.

Pedro II.

Joan V. .

Jose

Maria I. and Pedro

Maria I.

Joan Jose, Regent

Joan VI.

Pedro IV.

Maria II.

Miguel I.

Maria J J., restored

nate

III.

A.D.

1590
1623

1640
1650
1683
1706
1750
1777
1786
1796
1816
1826
1826
1828
1831

V. EOUSE OF BliAGAXZA.-Coni R<;.

Pedro V.
Luis I. ,

L853

1 8 1 1

34-6 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-HOOK, 1877.

The average reign of the thirty-five sovereigns of Portugal, from
the ascension of the House of Burgundy, was twenty-two years.

Constitution and Government.

The fundamental law of the kingdom is the ' Carta constitutional '
granted by King Pedro IV., April 29, 1826, and altered by an
additional act, dated July 5, 1852. The crown is hereditary in the
female as well as male line ; but with preference of the male in case
of equal birthright. The constitution recognises four powers in
the State, the legislative, the executive, the judicial, and the
'moderating' authority, the last of which is vested in the Sovereign.
There are two legislative Chambers, the '.Camara dos Pares,' or
House of Peers, and the ' Gimara dos Deputados,' or House of
Commons, which are conjunctively called the Cortes Geraes. The
peers, unlimited in number, but actually comprising 133, are named
for life by the Sovereign, by whom also the president and vice-
president of the first Chamber are nominated. The peerage was for-
merly hereditary in certain families; but on May 27, 1864, the
Cortes passed a law partly abolishing hereditary succession, it
being made dependent on the possession of an annual income of
5001., together with an academical degree. The members ol
the second Chamber are chosen in direct election, by all citizens
possessing a clear annual income of 133 milreis, or 22/. The deputies
must have an income of at least 390 milreis, or 89Z. per annum ;
but lawyers, professors, physicians, or the graduates of any of the
learned professions, need no property qualification. Continental
Portugal is divided into ninety-four electoral districts, returning
as many deputies, to which Madeira and the Azores add five.
Each deputy has a remuneration of about 10s. a day during the
session. The annual session lasts three months, and fresh elections
must take place at the end of every four years. In case of dissolu-
tion, a new Parliament must be called together immediately. The
General Cortes meet and separate at specified periods, without
the intervention of the Sovereign, and the latter has no veto on a law
passed twice by both Houses. All laws relating to the army and
general taxation must originate in the Chamber of Deputies.

The executive authority rests, under the Sovereign, in a respon-
sible Cabinet, divided into seven departments, namely : —

1. The Ministry of War. — A. M. de Pontes Pereira de Mello;
appointed Minister of War and President of the Council of
Ministers, September 13, 1871.

2. The Ministry of the Interior. — Antonio Rodrigues Sampaio ;
appointed September 13, 1871.

3. The Ministry of Justice and of Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Cordoso
Avelino, formerly Minister of Public Works ; appointed Nov. 10, 1876.

PORTUGAL. 347

4. The Ministry of Public Works. — Lorenco Carvalha ; appointed
November 10, 187G.

5. The Ministry of Marine and of the Colonies. — Constantino
Fieitas Jfonez; appointed September 13, 1871.

6. The Ministry of Finance. — E. de Serpa Pimentel; appointed
October 12, 1872.

7. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — J. d'Andrade Corvo ; ap-
pointed September 15, 1871.

The Sovereign is permitted, in important cases, to take the advice
of a Council of State, or Privy Council, consisting, when full,
of thirteen ordinary and three extraordinary members, nominated
for life. The leading ministers, past and present, generally form
part of the Privy Council, which in 1876 numbered eleven members,
including three former Presidents of the Council of Ministers.

Church and Education.

The Roman Catholic faith is the State religion; but all other
forms of worship are tolerated. The Portuguese Church is under
the special jurisdiction of a ' Patriarch,' with extensive powers, two
archbishops, and fourteen bishops. The Patriarch of Lisbon is
always a cardinal, and, to some extent, independent of the Holy See
of Rome. Under the Patriarch are five continental and five colonial
bishops; under the Archbishop of Braga, who has the title ot
Primate, are six ; and under the Archbishop of Evora three bishops.
The total income of the upper hierarchy of the Church is calculated
to amount to 300,000 milreis, or 67,500/. There are 3,769 parishes,
each under the charge of a presbitero, or incumbent. All the
conventual establishments of Portugal were suppressed by decree of
May 28, 1834, and their property confiscated for the benefit of the
State. At that period there existed in the country 632 monasterie-
and 118 nunneries, with above 18.000 monks and nuns, and an
annual income of nearly a million sterling. This revenue was
applied to the redemption of the national debt; while a library of
30,000 volumes was set up at the former convent of San Francisco,
at Lisbon, from the collections of books and manuscripts at the
various monasteries. A few religious establishments are still per-
mitted to exist; but their inmates are in a state of great poverty,
and the buildings are gradually falling to ruin. The lower ranks of
the priesthood are poorly educated, and their 'income scarcely
removes them from the social sphere of the peasants and labouring
classes. The number of Protestants in Portugal, mostly foreigners,
does not exceed 500. They have chapels at Lisbon and Oporto.

The superintendence of public instruction is under the manage-
ment of a superior council of education, at the head of which is tie
Minister of the Interior. Public education is entirely free from the

34§

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

supervision and control of the Church. By a law enacted in 1844,
it is compulsory on parents to send their children to a place of
public instruction ; but this prescription is far from being enforced,
and only a very small fraction of the children of the middle and
lower classes really attend school In 1854 there were 1.186 schools
devoted to primary instruction, attended by 33,500 pupils of both
sexes, of whom, however, only 1,570 were females. From the year
1854 to 1862 the Government founded 588 new schools, of which for
boys 452, for girls 136. Portugal had in 1854, 1,200 public schools,
with 55,192 scholars. At the close of 1861 there were 1,788 public
schools, with 79,172 scholars, showing an increase of 23,980 scholars.
In 1862, there was one scholar to every 36 inhabitants. There is
only one university in the kingdom, that of Coimbra, founded in
1290. It has five faculties, and 46 professors and lecturers, who are
attended by between 800 and 900 students. The lyceums, which
impart secondary instruction, number 182, with, on the average,
3,000 scholars. The clergy are educated in six seminaries and
eight training schools, where most of them receive gratuitous in-
struction. In the building of the extinct monastery at Belem,
about 900 orphan and abandoned children of both sexes are sup-
ported, educated, and taught various useful trades.

The expenditure on public education by the government aver-
aged 9,000 milreis, or 2,000/., in the years 1872-76.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The annual revenue of Portugal amounted, on the average of the
last ten years, to nearly 5,000,000/. sterling, while the average expen-
diture during the same period was about 750,000/. more. The budget
estimates of revenue for the year 1876-77 amounted to 24,059,981
milreis or 5,346,661/. and the estimates of expenditure for the same
period to 24,795,906 milreis, or 5,510,200/., leaving a deficit of
735,925 milreis, or 163,539/.

The following were the sources of revenue and branches of ex-
penditure of the budget, approved by the General Cortes, for the
financial year ending June 30, 1877 : —

Branches of Revenue for 1876-77.

Milreis

Direct taxes ......

Stamp and Register duties
Indirect taxes and customs
National domains & miscellaneous receipts
Interest on bonds of the public debt held
by the Treasury .....

Total estimated revenue

' 6.206,720

2.111,200

12.609.850

2,689,935

442,276

1,379,271
469,155

2,802,188
597,764

98.283

24,059,981

5,346,661

tortugal. 349

Branches or Expenditure for 1876-77.

Hilreis

Ordinary expenditure : —

Interest and management of home debt .

5,990,839

1,331,298

„ foreign debt

4,137,617

919,470

„ on bonds of the public debt held

by the Treasury

442,276

98,284

General charges of the State .

2,131,596

473,688

Finance department

1,672,718

371,715

florae department .

1,969.263

437,614

Ecclesiastical affairs and justice

525,360

116,747

"War departmeut

3,527,486

783,885

Navy and colonies .

1,295.339

287,853 j

Foreign department

252,529

56,117

Department of public works, commerce.

and industry

1,372,485

304,996

Extraordinary expenditure : —

Department of justice ....

2,400

533

,, of the navy and the colonies

90,000

20,000

,, of public works, commerce,

and industry .....

1,386,000
24,795,906

308,000

Total estimated expenditure

5,510,200

There has been no budget for the last thirty years without a
deficit. The expenditure amounted, in 1834, to 14,911,314 milreis ;
in 1844, to 11,158,214; and in 1854, to 11,784,472 milreis. In
the financial year 1858-59 the public expenditure was 12,947,001
milreis, or 2,913,088/., in 1860-61 it rose to 13,987,859 milreis,
or 3,147,268/. ; in 1862-63, to 22,329,239 milreis, or 4,962,053/. ;
and in 1867-68 to 22,695,979 milreis, or 5,044,662/. The deficit
for the year 1867-68 amounted to 5,811,560 milreis, or 1,292,596/.,
and it rose to 6,133,027 milreis, or 1,363,028/. in 1868-69, but
fell, as will be seen from the preceding statement, to 735,925 milreis,
or 103,539/, in the estimates of 1876-77. The revenue of the
kingdom during the thirty years 1846-76 increased by about sixty
per cent.

The public debt of Portugal dates from the year 1796, when the
first loan of 4,000,000 milreis, or about 900,000/., was raised. In-
creasing very slowly at first, it was not till the year 1*26 that
another large sum was raised, namely, 35 millions of milreis, or
7,770,000/." The total debt rose gradually in the next thirty years,
and at the end of 1856 had come to amount to 20,974,000/., requir-
ing an annual interest ot 629,000/. The debt more than doubled
in the next ten years, and at the end of 1866 amounted to
43,255,000/., the annual interest being 1,297,000/. At the end of

350 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

1871 the debt had risen to 64,333,000Z., the annual interest
amounting to 1,927,000/. ; and at the end of 1873 the debt was
72,833,000/., the annual interest being 2,216,000/. The total
amount of both the consolidated and the floating debt was, accord-
ing to official returns, as follows, on the 30th June, 1876 : —

Milreis

Consolidated debt .....
Total

350,428,014
5,350,000

77.872,892
1,188,888

355,778,014

79,061,780 :

The floating debt is in course of being paid off since the year
1873, when the Government raised a loan for this special object.
The loan issued in September 1873 was in bonds for the nominal
amount of 8,500,000/. at 3 per cent,, the whole taken in Portugal,
at the issue-price of 43^ per cent. A previous foreign loan, at 3
per cent., issued in 1869, was offered by the London financial
agents of the Government at 32/. 10s. for every 100/. stock.

About two-fifths of the total liabilities of Portugal rank as an ex-
ternal debt, contracted for mainly in Great Britain, the rest being
a home debt. As will be seen from the budget accounts of the
financial year ending June 30, 1877, the interest and management
of the home debt for the period was set down at 1,331,298/., and
of the foreign debt at 919,470/.

The interest on the public debt has remained frequently unpaid.
Portions of the national debt have also been repudiated at various
periods ; among others the loan contracted by Don Miguel in 1832.
At times, as in the year 1837, the interest on the home debt has been
paid, but not that on the foreign debt. By a royal decree of Dec. 18,
1852, the interest on the whole funded debt, internal and foreign,
was reduced to 3 per cent. Many of the creditors protested against
this act, but without effect. On the 19th of June, 1867, the Chamber
of Deputies approved a bill presented by the government for raising
37,000,000 milreis to fund the floating debt and to negotiate 3 per
Cent. External Bonds at such a price that the interest shall not
exceed f per cent, above the rate of the actual stock, calculated upon
the market price. It was under the provisions of this Bill that
there were raised the loans, before referred to, of 1869 and 1873.

Army and Navy.

The army of the kingdom is formed partly by conscription, and
partly by voluntary enlistment. Freedom from conscription may
be purchased by a fixed sum, amounting to about 80/., payable to

Officers

Men

. 683

9,218

. 314

3.468

244

2,253

. 107

1,278

317

194

106

rORTUGAL 35 1

the Government. The time of service is eight years, of which five
have to be spent in the regular army, and three in the militia. More
than one-half of the standing army consists of men procured by en-
listment, or who have made the military service their profession.

By a law of military organisation passed June 23, 1864, the
strength of the army was fixed at 30,128 men on the peace-footing,
and 68,450 on the war-footing. The state of the finances of the
kingdom, however, has hitherto prevented the carrying out of the
plan of organisation, and scarcely more than half the number of men
fixed by law are kept under arms. The actual strength of the
army in 1876 was reported as follows: —

IS regiments of infantry of the line
9 battalions of riflemen
8 regiments of lancers and dragoons
3 ,, of artillery

1 battalion of engineers
Staff and sanitary troops

Total . . 1,545 16,640

The number of troops in the Portuguese colonies amount to
8,500 infantry and artillery, besides a reserve of 9,500 men.

The navy of Portugal was composed, at the end of 1875, of 24
steamers and 18 sailing vessels, most of the latter laid up in
harbour. The steamers comprise —

9 corvettes, with a total of 114 guns and of 3,606 horse-power.
8 sloops, „ „ 35 „ „ 960

7 gun-boats, „ „ 21 „ „ 340

Total 24 steamers, . . with 170 guns and of 4,906 horse-power.

The largest war ship of the Portuguese navy is the ironclad cor-
vette Vasco do Gama, built at the Thames Ironworks,. Blackball,
and launched in January 1876. The Vasco do Gama has an un-
usually sharp prow for ' ramming,' with engines of 450 horse- power,
although her burden is only 1,497 tons. The ship is plated with
armour to the depth of 10 inches, and carries two 18-ton guns, one
6i-ton, and two 40-pounder guns. The length of the Vasco do
Gama is 200 feet, the depth, 25 feet, and the breadth, 40 feet. The
only other two notable vessels of the navy are the screw-corvettes
Rainha de Portugal and Mindello, both built at Blackball, and
launched in October 1875. They are sister vessels, 170 feet long,
and 36 feet in breadth, with engines of 900 horse-power, each
having an armament of 8 guns, two of 90 cwt. and six 40-pound
Armstrong cannon.

The navy is officered by 1 vice-admiral, •'> rear admirals, and 31
captains; and manned by 3, 1 ! and marines.

352

THE STATESMAN "S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Area and Population.

Portugal is divided into six provinces, the area of which and
population, according to the last census, taken at the end of 1868,
is given in the subjoined table: —

Provinces

Engl. sq. aules Population

Minho

Tras-os-Montes .....

Beira .......

Estremadura .....

Alemtejo ......

Alagarve ......

Total

2,671
4.065
8.586
8.834
10,255
2,099

988,985
370,144
1,288,994
837,451
332,237
177,342

36,510

3,995,152

To the kingdom belong likewise the Azores, or Western Islands,
containing an area of 966 Engl, square miles, with a population, in
1868, of 252,480 inhabitants ; and Madeira and Porto Santo, with
317 square miles and a population of 115,804 at the end of 1869.

Portugal had in 1868 two towns with a population of above 50,000
— Oporto, with 89,321; and Lisbon, with 275,286 inhabitants.

Trade and Industry.

The commercial relations of Portugal are chiefly with Great
Britain, and there is very little trade, either by land or sea, with
other countries. Next to Great Britain, but far below, stand
Brazil and France. The subjoined table gives the total value of the
exports from Portugal to Great Britain, and of the imports of
British produce into Portugal in the ten years 1866 to 1875 : —

Years

Exports from Portugal to

Imports of British Home

Great Britain

Produce into Portugal

1866

2,517,828

1,992,902

1867

2,324,541

1,823,382

1868

2,253,095

1.554,649

1869

2,664,257

1.638,313

1870

3,022,508

1,931,786

1871

3,840,869

1,750,555

1872

4,119,363

2,310,202

1873

4,329,806

2,934,393

1874

4,265,032

2,706,990

1875

4,444,071

2,563,067

Wine is the chief article of export from Portugal to the United
Kingdom, the annual value amounting to over 1,000,000^. per annum

PORTUGAL.

353

(see below). The imports of British home produce into Portugal
embrace cotton goods, of the value of 1,026,455/. in 1875 ; iron,
wrought and unwrought, valued at 286,595/. ; and woollen fabrics,
of the value of 176,596/. in 1875.

The subjoined table shows the quantity and declared value of
wine exported from Portugal to the United Kingdom in each of the
five years 1871 to 1875 :—

Tears

Quantities

Value

Gallons

1871

3,645,385

1,296,746

1872

4,043,195

1,429,642

1873

4,037,594

1,358,241

1874

3,747,815

1,258,508

1875

4,478,097

1,487,518

The total imports of wine, from all countries, into the
United Kingdom, amounted to 18,224,900 gallons in 1871, to
19,660,127 gallons in 1872, to 21,682,356 gallons in 1873, to
18,234,972 gallons in 1874, and to 18,429,305 gallons in 1875. Con-
sequently, the average amount contributed by Portugal was about
one-fifth of the total quantity. It was, however, less than one-sixth
of the average value of the total imports, which latter amounted
to 7,072,099/. in 1871, to 7,718,848/. in 1872, to 8,267,326/. in
1873, to 6,863,465/. in 1874, and to 6,801,015/. in 1875.

The single article wine constitutes more than two-thirds of the
value of Portuguese exports to all countries. The other exports are
cattle, cork, olive oil, oranges and lemons, pyrites of iron or copper,
elephants' teeth, and sheep's wool.

The commercial navy of Portugal consisted, on the 1st of January,
1876, of 810 vessels, including 39 steamers of a total burthen of
88,200 tons.

The total length of railways in Portugal at the commencement
of 1876, was 966 kilometres, or 604 English miles, with 246 kilo-
metres, or 154 English miles more, in course of construction. The
two principal lines are from Lisbon to Badajoz, and from Lisbon to
Oporto. All the railways receive subventions from the state.

The number of post-offices in the kingdom at the beginning of
1876 was 559, and the number of telegraph offices 144. There
were, at the same date, 3,530 kilometres, or 2,206 English miles
of telegraph lines and 7,656 kilometres or 4,785 English miles, of
telegraph wires. The number of telegrams despatched in the year
1875 was 1,173,200, nearly one-fifth for foreign countries. An in-
ternational service, by submarine cables, was opened June 11, 1870.

A A

354

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Colonies.

The colonial possessions of Portugal, situated in Africa and Asia,
embrace a total area of 709,469 English square miles. The total
population, according to the last official returns, referring to 1866-73,
numbered 3,258,141. These returns state the area and population
of the various possessions as follows : —

Colonial Possessions,

Area :

English square

miles

Population

1. Possessions in Africa :

Cape Verde Islands (1872) .
In Senegambia Bissao, &e. .
Prince's and St. Thomas' Islands (1873)

Ajuda

Angola, Ambriz, Benguela, and Mos-
samedes ......

Mozambique and dependency-
Total, Africa .

2. Possessions in Asia :

In India — Goa, Salsette, Bardes, &c.

(1866)

Daman, Diu .....
Indian Archipelago ....
China: Macao (1871)

Total, Asia
Total Colonies

1,650

454

312,509
382.683

76,003

8,500

23,681

700

2,000,000
300,000

697,335 | 2,408,884

1,447
158

5,527
28

474,234
53,283

250,000
71,739

7,134

849,257

709,469

3,258,141

The statements of the area and population of the possessions in
Angola, &c, in Mozambique, and in the Indian Archipelago, are
drawn from estimates.

Although of small extent, the Cape Verde Islands are estimated
the most important colonial possession of Portugal, politically and
commercially. There are nine principal or inhabited islands that
form the Archipelago of the Cape de Verdes. Five of these islands,
viz., St. Nicholas, Bona Vista, San Antonio, St. Vincent, and Sal,
compose the windward, and the four remaining islands, St. Jago,
Fogo, Brava, and Maio, the leeward group. Placed as these islands
are, in the direct route of steamers bound to the coast of Brazil, the
liiver Plate, and the west coast of South America, they are of great
value as affording a convenient resting-place for coaling and renew-
ing provisions and water. The island of St. Vincent, 70 English
square miles in extent, but with not more than 1,700 inhabitants,
is possessed of a deep and excellent harbour, affording a secure
anchorage at all seasons for vessels of the largest size.

By the terms of a law passed by the Cortes Geraes of Portugal

PORTUGAL. 355

in 1858, on the proposition of the Government of the Marquis Sa da
Bandeira, domestic slavery is to come to an end in all the Portuguese
colonies and settlements on the 29th of April, 1878.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Of Portugal in Great Britain.

Envoy and Minister — Don Joao Carlos D'Antas, Envoy and Minister of
Portugal at the Court, of Spain from 1874 to 1876. Accredited Envoy and
Minister to Groat Britain, December 9, 1870.

Secretaries — Eduardo T. de Sampayo ; H. Teixeira de Sampayo ; Luiz de
■Quillinan ; Chevalier de Costa Kicci.

2. Of Great Britain in Portugal.

Envoy and Minister — Hon. Eobert Burnett David Morier, C.B., born in
1830; British Charge d'Affaires in Wiirtemberg, 1871-72; and in Bavaria,
1872-76. Appointed Envoy and Minister to Portugal, March 1, 1876.

Secretaries — Gerard Francis Gould, appointed Oct. 26, 1876 ; H. S. C.
Jervoise ; Sir George F. Bonham, Bart.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Portugal, with the British

equivalents, are as follows : —

Money.

The Milreis, or 1,000 Eeis /Average rate of exchange 5MA, or, roughly,
l_ 4± milreis equal to ±1 sterling.

Weights and Measures.
The French metric system of weights and measures was introduced
in Portugal between the years 1860 and 1863, measures of length
being first adopted, and weights afterwards, and it became com-
pulsory from the 1st of October, 1868. The chief old measures
still in use are : —

The Libra = 1-012 lbs. avoirdupois.

„ Almude (°f^8b™ = 3-7 imperial gallons.

{ „ Oporto = 5'6 „ „

,, Alqitierc = 0-36 imperial bushel.

„ Moio = 2-78 imperial quarters.

Statistical and other Books of Reference relating to Portugal.
1. Official Publications.

Eeport by Mr. R. G. Watson, British Secretary of Legation, on the finan-
cial condition of Portugal, dated Lisbon, April 27, 1876 ; in 'Reports by E.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. III. 1876. 8. London, 1*876.

Report by Mr. Hay ward, Consul at Madeira, on the Trade and Navigation
of the Island, dated May 16, 1872; in 'Report from H.M.'s Consuls.' No. III.
1872. 8. London, 1872.

Report by Mr. Consul Crawford on the trade and commerce of Oporto,
dated Oct. 13, 1873; in 'Reports from II. M.'e Consuls in the manufactures,
commerce, &c., of their consular districts.' Parti. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

a A 2

356 the statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Keport by Mr. Consul Brackenbury on the trade and commerce of Lisbon,
dated Jan. 31, 1875 : in 'Keports from H. M.'s Consuls.' Part III., 1875. 8.
London, 1875.

Trade of Portugal -with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
for the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Aldama-Ayala (G. de), Compendio Geographico-estadistico de Portugal e sus-
Posesiones Ultramarinas. 8. Madrid, 1870.

Bcdbi (A.),Essai statistiquesurleKoyaumede Portugal. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1862.

Barms e Gunha (J. G. de), Historia da Liberdade em Portugal. Vol. I. 8.
Lisboa, 1869.

Barros e Cunha (J. G. de), Hoje: on the Present Situation, financial and
political, of the Kingdom of Portugal. 8. London, 1868. -—--»»

Block (Moritz), Die Bevolkerang Spaniens und Portugals, nach den Original-
quellen. statistiseh dargestellt. 8. Gotha, 1861.

Brand ao c Albuquerque (J. da C), Censo de 1865. 8. Lisboa, 1866.

Diceionario Abreviado de chorographia, topographia etc. de Portugal. 3 vols.
S. Lisboa, 1867.

Eschwege (Wilhelm L. von), Portugal : ein Staats und Sittengemalde, nach
dreissigjahrigen Beobachtungen und Erfahrungen. 8. Hamburg, 1837.

Lavigne (Germond de), L'Espagne et le Portugal. 8. Paris, 1867.

La Teillais (C. de) Etude historique, economique et politique sur les colonies
portugaises, leur passe, leur avenir. 8. Paris, 1872.

Bebello da Silva (L. A.), Compendio de Economia Industrial. 8. Lisboa, 1868.

Vogel (Oh.), Le Portugal et ses Colonies ; Tableau politique et commercial de
la monarchic portugaise. 8. Paris, 1866.

357

RUSSIA.

(Empire of all the Russias.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Alexander II., Emperor of Russia, born April 17 (April 29 new-
style), 1818, the eldest son of Emperor Nicholas I. and of Princess
Charlotte of Prussia ; educated, under the supervision of his father, by
General Moerder, a learned German, and the Russian poet Joukowski ;
entered the army, 1831 ; nominated colonel in the regiment of grena •
diers, 1835 ; chancellor of the university of Helsingfors, Finland,
1837 -; travelled in Germany, 1840-41 ; superintendent of the
military schools of the empire, 1849 ; appointed to a command in
the Caucasian army, 1850. Succeeded to the throne, at the death
•of his father, February 18 (March 2), 1855 ; crowned at Moscow,
August 26 (September 7), 1856. Married, April 16 (April 28),
1841, to

Maria, Empress of Russia, born August 8, 1824, the daughter of
the late Grand-duke Ludwig II., of Hesse-Darmstadt. Offspring of
the union are: — 1. Grand-duke Alexander, heir-apparent, born
February 26 (March 10), 1845; married, Nov. 9, 1866, to Maria
Dagmar, born Nov. 26, 1847, daughter of King Christian IX. of
Denmark; offspring of the union are two sons and one daughter,
namely, Nicholas, born May 6 (May 18), 1868, George, born April
28 (May 10), 1871, and Xenia, born April 6 (April 18), 1875. 2.
Grand-duke Vladimir, born April 10 (April 22), 1847 ; married
August 16 (August 28), 1874, to Princess Marie of Mecklenburg-
Schwerin. Offspring of the union is a son, Alexander, born
September 7 (September 19), 1875. 3. Grand-duke Alexis, born
January 2 (January 14), 1850. 4. Grand-duchess Marie, bora
October 5 (October 17), 1853 ; married January 21, 1874, to
Prince Alfred of Great Britain, Duke of Edinburgh. (See page
189.) 5. Grand-duke Sergius, bow April 29 (May 11), 1857. 6.
Grand-duke Paul, born September 21 (October 3), 1860.

Brothers and Sisters of the Emperor. — 1. Grand-duchess Olga,
born August 30 (September 11), 1822 ; married July 1 (July 13),
1846, to Prince Karl, then heir-apparent, now king, of Wiirtemberg.
2. Grand-duke Constantine, born September 9 (September 21),
1827 ; high-admiral of the Russian navy ; married, August 30

35 # THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

(September 11), 1848, to Princess Alexandra of Saxe-Altenburg,
of which union there are issue four sons and two daughters,
Nicholas, born February 2 (February 14), 1850 ; Olga, born August
22 (September 3), 1851, and married October 27, 1867, to
Georgios I., King of the Hellenes ; Vera (Wjera), born February 4
(February 1G), 1854, and married May 8, 1874, to Prince Eugen
of Wurtemberg ; Constantine, born August 10 (August 22), 1858;
Dimitri, born June 1 (June 13), 18G0 ; and Viatseheslav, born July 1
(July 13), 1862. 3. Grand-Duke Nicholas, born July 27 (August 8),
1831 ; general in the Russian army ; married, January 25 (February
6), 1856, to Princess Alexandra of Oldenburg, of which marriage
there are two sons, Nicholas, born November 6 (November 18), 1856,
and Peter, born Jan. 10 (Jan. 22), 1864. 4. Grand-duke Michael,
born October 13 (October 25), 1832 ; married, August 16 (August
28), 1857, to Princess Cecilia of Baden, of which union there are
issue five sons and one daughter, namely, Nicholas, born April 14
(April 26), 1859; Anastasia, born July 16 (July 28), 1860;
Michael, born October 4 (October 16), 1861 ; George, born August
1 1 (August 23), 1863; Alexander, born April 1 (April 13), 1866 ; and
Sergius, born October 7, 1869.

The reigning family of Russia descend, in the female line, from
Michael Romanof, elected Tsar in 1613, after the extinction of
the House of Rurik; and in the male line from the duke Karl
Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp, born in 1701, scion of a younger
branch of the princely family of Oldenburg. The union of his daughter
Anne with Duke Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp formed part
of the great reform projects of Peter I., destined to bring Russia
into closer contact with the western states of Europe. Peter I. was
succeeded by his second wife, Catherine, the daughter of a Livonian
peasant, and she by the grandson of Peter's elder brother, with
whom the male line of the Romanofs terminated, in the year 1730.
The reign of the next three sovereigns of Russia, Anne, Ivan III., and
Elizabeth, of the female line of Romanof, formed a transition period,
which came to an end with the accession of Peter III., of the house
of Holstein-Gottorp. All the subsequent emperors, without excep-
tion, connected themselves by marriage with German families. The
wife and successor of Peter III., daughter of the Prince of Anhalt
Zerbst, general in the Prussian army, left the crown to her only son,
Paid, who became the father of two emperors, Alexander I. and
Nicholas, and the grandfather of a third, the present Alexander II.
All these sovereigns married German princesses of the Protestant
faith, creating intimate family alliances, among others, with the
reigning houses of Wurtemberg, Baden, and Prussia.

The emperor is in possession of the revenue from the Crown
domains, consisting of more than a million of square miles of culti-

Russia. 359

vated land and forests, besides gold and other mines in Siberia, and
producing a vast revenue, the actual amount of which is, however,
unknown, as no reference to the subject is made in the budgets or
finance accounts, the Crown domains being considered the private
property of the imperial family. The sum total of the income of the
imperial family is estimated, in a British Consular report of 1867, at
2,450,000/. sterling, it being added that ' about 450,000/. are spent
in charities, schools, theatres, &c.,' leaving a net revenue of 2,000, 000/.,
Or more than the aggregate of the civil lists of all the other sove-
reigns of Europe.

The following have been the Tsars and Emperors of Russia, from
the time of election of Michael Romanof. Tsar Peter I. was the
first rider who adopted, in the year 1721, the title of Emperor.

House of Romanof-— Male Line. Ivan III. . . . 1740

Michael . . . 1613

Alexei . . . 164.5

Feodor . . . 1676

Ivan and Peter I. . 1682

Peter I. 1689 Catherine II. . . 1762

Elizabeth . . . 1741

House of Romanof •Holstebi.
Peter III. . . . 1762

Catherine I. . . 1725

Peter II. . . . 1727

House of Romanof — Female Line.

Anne .... 1730

Paul .... 1796

Alexander I. . . 1801

Nicholas . . . 1825

Alexander II. . . 1855

The above list shows that, notwithstanding many vicissitudes in
the succession of the crown, the average reign of the sovereigns of
Russia, for two centuries and a half, has been fifteen years.

Constitution and Government.

The Government of Russia is an absolute hereditary monarchy.
The whole legislative, executive, and judicial power is united in the
emperor, whose will alone is law. There are, however, certain
rides of government which the sovereigns of the present reigning
house have acknowledged as binding. The chief of these is the
law of succession to the throne, which, according to a decree of the
Emperor Paul, of the year 1797, is to be that of regular descent, by
the right of primogeniture, with preference of male over female
heirs. This decree annulled a previous one, issued by Peter I.,
February 5, 1722, which ordered each sovereign to select hia
successor to the throne from among the members of the imperial
family, irrespective of the claims of primogeniture. Another funda-
mental law of the realm proclaimed by Peter I., is that every
sovereign of Russia, with his consort and children, must be a mem-
ber of the orthodox Greek Church. The princes and princesses of the

360 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

imperial house, according to a decree of Alexander I., must obtain
the consent of the emperor to any marriage they may contract;
otherwise the issue of such union cannot inherit the throne. By
an ancient law of Russia, the heir-apparent is held to be of age at
the end of the sixteenth year, and the other members of the reigning
family with the completed eighteenth year.

The administration of the empire is entrusted to four great boards,
or councils, possessing separate functions, but centering in the
1 Private Cabinet of the Emperor.' The first of these boards is the
Council of the Empire, established in its present form by Alexander
L, in the year 1810. It consists of a president, and an unlimited
number of members appointed by the emperor. On July 1, 1875,
the council consisted of forty -two members, exclusive of the minis-
ters, who have a seat ex officio, and of the princes of the Imperial
House, who can claim the right to be present at the deliberations.
The Council is divided into three departments, namely, of Legisla-
tion, of Civil Administration, and of Finance. Each department
has its own President, and a separate sphere of duties ; but there
are collective meetings of the three sections. The chief function of
the Council of the Empire is that of superintending the action of
the general administration, of watching over the. due execution of
the laws of the realm, and of proposing alterations and modifications
of the same whenever necessary. The Council stands in direct
communication with the ' Private Cabinet of the Emperor.'

The second of the great colleges, or boards of government, is the
Directing Senate or ' Prawitelstwujuschtschi Senat,' established by
Peter I., in the year 1711. The functions of the senate are. partly
of a deliberative and partly of an executive character. It is the high
court of justice for the empire, controlling all the inferior tribunals.
The senate is divided into eight committees or sections, of which
five sit at Petersburg and three at Moscow. Each committee is
authorised to decide in the last resort upon certain descriptions of
cases, brought either immediately before it, or by appeal from the
inferior courts. In a few cases, however, parties dissatisfied with its
decisions may petition the emperor. The senators are mostly per-
sons of high rank, or who fill high stations ; but a lawyer of eminence
presides over each department, who represents the emperor, and with-
out whose signature its decisions would have no force. In the plenum,
or general meeting of the sections, the minister of justice takes the
chair, as high procurator for his majesty. Besides its superinten-
dence over the court of law, the senate examines into the state of
the public revenue and expenditure, and has power to appoint to a
great variety of offices, and to make remonstrances to the emperor.

The third college, established by Peter I., in the year 1721, is
tho Holy Synod, and to it is committed the superintendence of the

RUSSIA. 361

religious affairs of the empire. It is composed of the principal dig-
nitaries of the Church. All its decisions run in the emperor's name,
and have no force till approved by him. The President of the Holy-
Synod is the Metropolitan of Novgorod.

The fourth board of government is the Council of Ministers. It
is divided into eleven departments. They are —

1. The Ministry of the Imperial House. — Count Alex. Adlerberg,
general and aide-de-camp of the emperor : appointed Minister of
the Imperial House, in succession to his father Count W. Adlerberg,
April 29, 1870.

2. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Prince Alexander Michael
Gortschalioff, born 1798; entered the diplomatic service, 1818;
Secretary of Embassy at London, 1824; Minister at Florence, 1830;
Plenipotentiary at Vienna, 1832 ; Ambassador Extraordinary at
Stuttgart, 1841 ; Ambassador at Vienna, 1854 ; appointed Minister
of Foreign Affairs, April 17, 1856.

3. The Ministry of War. — General Count Milutin, Assistant-
Minister of War, July I860 to June 1862 ; appointed minister,
June 20, 1862.

4. The Ministry of the Navy. — Vice- Admiral S. Lessovslcy, ap-
pointed January 15, 1876.

5. The Ministry of the Interior. — General Timascheff, appointed
March 21, 1868.

6. The Ministry of Public Instruction. — Count Tolstoy, Procura-
tor-General of the Holy Synod, appointed April 27, 1866.

7. The Ministry of Finance. — Privy Councillor M. von Reutern,
appointed Nov. 9, 1862.

8. The Ministry of Justice. — Count PaJilen, appointed Jan. 10,
1868.

9. The Ministry of the Imperial Domains. — Privy Councillor P. A.
Valouieiv, appointed Aug. 25, 1872.

10. The Ministry of Public Works and Railways. — Vice- Admiral
JPossiet, appointed July 23, 1874.

11. The Department of General Comptrol. — Vice- Admiral C.
Greig appointed Comptroller-General, October 1875.

Most of the above heads of departments have assistant ministers,
who supply their place on certain occasions. They all communicate
directly with the sovereign, or with the ' Private Cabinet of the
Emperor,' in which body centres the whole executive authority of
the empire. The Private Cabinet is divided into four sections, the
first of which has the presidency and superintendence of the other two,

362 the statesman's yeak-book, 1877.

and is in immediate communication with the emperor. The second
is the legislative department ; the third is specially devoted to the
comptrol of the army and secret police ; and the fourth to public
instruction and ecclesiastical affairs.

The local administration of the empire differs in different pro-
vinces ; Government having always allowed conquered or annexed
countries to preserve their own laws and institutions, except in so
far as they were hostile to the general constitution of the empire.
The Grand- duchy of Finland has a special and partially inde-
pendent form of government ; and the provinces wrested from
Sweden by Peter the Great, Courland, and those formerly belonging
to Poland, have peculiar institutions and privileges, which, however,
have latterly been much modified.

The empire is divided iuto general governments, or vice-royalties,,
governments, and districts. There are, at present, 14 of the first,
51 of the second, and above 320 of the last. There are, besides,
extensive districts which from the thinness of the population are not
organised into regular governments, which are called provinces, or
1 oblasts.'1 At the head of each general government is a viceroy, or
general-governor, the representative of the emperor, who as such com-
mands the forces, and has the supreme control and direction of all
affairs, whether civil or military. All the functionaries within their
jurisdiction are subordinate to, and make their reports to the general-
governors. They sanction or suspend the judgments of the courts,
and exercise the right of pardon in a limited degree. A civil-
governor, representing the general-governor, assisted by a council of
regency, to which all measures must be submitted, is established in
each government or province. In case of dissent, the opinion of the
governor is provisionally adopted till the pleasure of the emperor
with respect to the matter be ascertained. A vice-governor is
appointed to fill the place of the civil-governor when the latter is
absent or unwell. There is also, in each government, a council of
finance under the presidency of the vice-governor.

The government of the parish, and part of the local administra-
tion, is intrusted to the people, to the extent of leaving them free
in matters of social interest. For this purpose, the whole country
is divided into communes denominated ' Mir ' — which means both
' the village ' and ' the world ' — and these again are united into dis-
tricts or ' Voloste,' embracing a population of about two thousand
souls. Each of the latter divisions is presided over by an Elder,
or ' Starshina,' who, in case the district consists of several villages,
has above him a ' Starosta,' or head of a commune, as also a
tax-collector or superintendent of public stores. All these officers
are elected by ballot at annual assemblies by the peasants, and
from among themselves. The offices are more or less honorary,.

RUSSIA. 363

the emoluments connected with some of them being so small as
to be scarcely more than, nominal. The annual assemblies for
electing these local representatives are constituted in a very
peculiar manner. Every five houses have the election of one
deputy for the communal assembly, and these again choose a dele-
gate for the district assemblies, in the proportion of one man to
every ten houses. These representatives elect their own parish
officers and discuss and decide all parish affairs, such as the
division of the fields, the arrangement of the tenancies, the proper
distribution of the taxes, the audit of accounts, the supervision of
the recruiting business, the admittance of new members into the
commune, petitions and complaints to the Tsar and the ministry, and
similar matters. As a ride, these communal assemblies take place
regularly three times a year ; but they may be called more fre-
quently if business of importance requires it. In conjunction with
these assemblies are village tribunals, consisting of two elected
members of the commune called ' conscience people.' Injuries and
offences of eveiy kind, as well as disputes relating to property, not
involving more than five roubles, come under the jurisdiction of
these popular tribunals.

The grand-duchy of Finland, ceded to the Emperor of Russia by
the treaty of Frederickshamm, September 17, 1809, has preserved,
by special grant of Alexander I. (renewed by the decrees of the
Emperor Nicholas, of December 24, 1825, and of Alexander II., of
March 3, 1855), its ancient constitution, dating from the year 1772,
and reformed in 1789. This charter provides for a national parlia-
ment, consisting of four estates, the nobles, the clergy, the burghers,
and the peasants. The right of legislation and of general taxation
is nominally in the hands of this assembly, though in reality it is
exercised by a senate appointed by the ' Emperor Grand-duke.'
This senate was created by an ordinance of Alexander I., of October
25, 1811, and consisted first of three members, called the 'Com-
mittee for the Affairs of Finland.' Another ukase, of February 12,
1812, created a Governor-general of Finland, in whom was vested
the whole executive power, as representative of the sovereign. In
1816, a consultative body, called the 'Imperial Senate of Finland,'
was placed at the side of the ministerial council, as the ' Committee for
the Affairs of Finland,' and denominated, after a while, ' the Senate.'
The ' Imperial Senate,' originally consisting of fourteen members, then
of sixteen, and finally, up to the present time, of eighteen, is nominated
by the sovereign for three years, and chosen the one-half from the
nobility of Finland, and the other half from among the classes of
citizens and peasants. The organ of their communication with the
emperor is a secretary of state for the grand-duchy of Finland,
residing at St. Petersburg.

364 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Poland, which had a constitution of its own from 1815 to 1830,
and a separate government till 1864, was deprived at the latter date
of the last remnant of its administrative independence. By im-
perial decree of September 1, 1864, following in the wake of the
suppression of the great revolt of the two preceding years, the
kingdom was placed under the rule of eight military governors
depending from a ' Council of State. ' established at "Warsaw ; and
this form of government again was superseded by a decree of March
22, 1867, which, abolishing the Council of State, transferred the
entire administration of the country to a ' Commission for the
interior affairs of Poland,' sitting at St. Petersburg. Finally, by
ukase of the Emperor dated Feb. 23, 1868, the Commission was
dissolved, and the government of Poland absolutely incorporated
with that of Russia.

Church and Education.

The established religion of the empire is the Greco-Russian,
officially called the Orthodox-Catholic Faith. The Russian Church
separated from the See of Rome in 1054, and from the Byzantine
patriarchate in 1589. It has its own independent synod, but main-
tains the relations of a sister Church with the four patriarchates of
Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. The sacred
synod, the board of government of the Church, was established with
the concurrence of the Russian clergy and the four Eastern patriarchs.

There have been three epochs in the government of the Russian
Church. At first it had a foreign head, the patriarch in Constanti-
nople, who appointed the Metropolitan of Kief, and afterwards of
Moscow ; during the second period, commencing in 1589, it was
governed by a patriarch appointed by the Tsar, but nearly indepen-
dent ; lastly, the direction of the Church was transferred to the
emperor. He is however not the head of the Church in the same
sense as the Pope of Rome. The emperor exercises the external
functions in a still greater degree than the pontiff; he appoints to
every office in the Church, and is restricted only so far as to leave to
the bishops and prelates the privilege of proposing candidates ; and
he transfers and dismisses persons from their offices in certain cases.
But he has never claimed the right of deciding theological and
dogmatic questions. In the case of any new heresy springing up in
Russia, requiring a judgment, the emperor cannot pronounce a
decision, but this duty appertains to the synod, and, if the ques-
tion is critical, the opinion of the four Eastern patriarchs must be
consulted, and finally a council has to be convened. The judg-
ment of the Church being once given, the emperor must command

RUSSIA. 365

its execution. In official documents the emperor is not called the
Head, but the Protector, or Defender, of the Church.

The points in which the Greco-Russian Church differs from the
Roman Catholic faith, are, its denying the spiritual supremacy of
the Pope, its prohibiting the celibacy of the clergy, and its autho-
rising all individuals to read and study the Scriptures in the
vernacular tongue. The prohibition of celibacy is carried to such
an extent, that no priest can perform any spiritual function before
he is married, nor after he becomes a widower ; and as, by the rules
of the Church, he is not allowed to remarry, the death of his wife
occasions the cessation of his clerical functions. The priests may,
however, on the death of their wives, enter into a convent, and
enjoy the privilege of becoming eligible to be dignitaries of the
Church. There are in Russia nearly 500 cathedrals and about
29,000 churches attached to the established faith, the latter employ-
ing about 70,000 secular or parochial clergymen. There are also
about 550 convents, of which 480 are for men and 70 for women.
The clergy are either secular or regular — the former consisting of
the parochial clergy, and the latter of the higher dignitaries, monks,
and priests. The hierarchy is composed of bishops, archbishops,
and metropolitans. There are in all 38 dioceses.

The Russian Church formerly possessed immense wealth, but
it was partly confiscated by Peter I. and partly by Catherine II.
The latter sovereign appropriated the whole movable property of
the Church for the use of the State, assigning, in compensation,
pensions to the chief ecclesiastical dignitaries. But, with the
exception of a few benefices in Petersburg, Moscow, and other
principal cities, the stipends of the clergy, even when increased
by the offerings of the people, and by the fees on occasion of
births, marriages, and funerals, are almost inadequate to provide
for their subsistence. The total number of established clergy, of all
ranks and orders, is stated at 254,000.

With the exception of the restraints laid on the Jews, who are
not allowed to settle in Russia Proper, all religions may be freely
professed in the empire. No member of the Russo-Greek Church
is, however, permitted to renounce his creed ; and when a marriage
takes place between one of its members and a person belonging to
another faith, the children must all be brought up in the established
church. Roman Catholics are most numerous in the formerly Polish
provinces, Lutherans in those of the Baltic, and Mohammedans in
Southern Russia, while the Jews are almost entirely settled in the
towns and larger villages of the western and south-western frontier
districts.

The number of members of the principal religious creeds in
European Russia was returned as follows at an enumeration taken
in 18G7:—

366

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1S77-

Oeeds.

Russia, ex- Poland.

Poland.

Total.
European Russia.

Orthodox Greek Catholics
United Greeks and Ar-

Roman Catholics . . .
Mahometans ....

54,061,326
37,136

2,882,991
2,234.112
1,829,100
2,358,766
255.503

32,484
229,260

4,326,473
331,233

783,079
606
472

54,093,810
266,396

7,209,464
2,565,345
2,612,179
2,359,372
255,975

Th following table shows, after official returns, the number of
Educational Establishments in Russia, maintained, either wholly or
in part, by the government, and placed under the Minister of Public
Instruction, at the end of the year 1870 : —

Number

Pupils

Universities ......

7,275

Lyceums . .....

262

Veterinary schools ....

154

Gymnasiums and progymnasiums —

For males .....
For females .....

153
173

1 58,478

Training schools for teachers

1,274

District schools .....

419

27,508

Primary schools

Total

22,827

831,402

23,623

924,353

In the budget for the year 1876, a sum of 14,416, 543 roubles, or
2,059,506Z. was set down for public education. Of this total the
allowance made to universities and lyceums was 321,739Z. ; to
gymnasiums 586,650/. ; to district, parochial, and primary schools,
349,3 17Z. ; and to training colleges for teachers, and for building ex-
penses, 177,261/. The rest was for the cost of general administration.

The mass of the population of Russia is as yet without education.
In 1860 only two out of every hundred recruits levied for the army
were able to read and write, but the proportion had largely increased
in 1870, when eleven out of every hundred were found to be pos-
sessed of these elements of knowledge. In the Grand- duchy of
Finland, which has a system of public instruction separate from that
of the rest of the empire, education is all but universal, the whole
of the inhabitants being able at least to read, if not to write.

The empire, Finland excepted, is divided into educational districts,
each of which has a university, with a number of lyceums, at which
the young men intended to fill civil offices are mostly instructed,
besides gymnasiums, high schools, and elementary schools, varying

RUSSIA.

367

according to area and population. The chief districts are those of
Petersburg, Moscow, Kharkof, Kasan, Dorpat, Kief, Odessa, Wilna,
and Warsaw.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The public revenue of the empire is derived to the extent of two-
thirds from direct and indirect taxes, while nearly two-thirds of the
total expenditure are for the army and navy, and interest on the
public debt. There are annual budget estimates published by the
government, and also, since 1866, accounts of the actual receipts and
disbursements of the State, which, entering into minute details,
cannot be issued till after the lapse of a number of years.

The following table gives, in pounds sterling, the total actual
revenue and expenditure of the imperial government for each of the
six years from 1868 to 1873, and the budget estimates of the total
revenue and expenditure for each of the three years 1874 to 1876: —

Tears

Revenue

Expenditure

Years

Revenue

Expenditure

1868

60,506,301

63,040,428

1873

73,907,119

73,903,166

1869

65,356,620

66,971,129

1874

72,950,686

72,928,806

1870

68,651,261

69,354,583

1875

79,908,742

81,436,019

1871

70,153,452

71,403,797

1876

81,448,329

79,443,630

1872

71,914,926

73,933,519

The financial estimates of Russia are framed on the model of the
former Imperial French budgets. The estimates of revenue are
subdivided under the three heads of, first, ordinary receipts;
secondly, ' recettes d'ordre ;' and thirdly, extraordinary receipts.
The estimates of expenditure are subdivided into four heads, namely,
first, ordinary, expenditure ; secondly, anticipated deficits in receipts
(' non valeurs dans les recettes'); thirdly, ' depenses d'ordre;' and
fourthly, temporary disbursements, the latter chiefly incurred for the
construction of railways. The ordinary revenue includes all the
direct and indirect taxes raised for the purpose of meeting the ordinary
cost of the administration, while the 'recettes d'ordre' represent the
estimated receipts from the sale of volumes of laws printed by the
government, of the produce of State mines, and of other miscellaneous
sources. These receipts are balanced by sums of a similar amount
placed on the estimates of expenditure under the heading of 'depenses
d'ordre.' The extraordinary receipts consist mainly of sums bor-
rowed for the purpose of subsidizing railways and for promoting
other works of public utility. They are entered in the same manner
as the ' recettes d'ordre' on the expenditure side of the Budgets
The following two tables show the principal sources of revenue and

368

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

the chief branches of expenditure of the Government according to
the budget estimates for each of the two years 1875 and 1876:

Sources of Revenue

1. Ordinary Eevenue :
Indirect taxes .
Mint, post, and telegraphs
State domains .
Miscellaneous receipts
Revenue of Transcaucasus

Total ordinary revenue

2. ' Eecettes d'Ordre '

3. Extraordinary receipts

Total revenue <

Year

1875

Roubles

131,476,861

289,884,226

22,905,506

29,028,780

52,062,109

6,948,727

Tear

1876

532,306,209

Roubles

130,651,255

300,944,898

21,455,018

28,778,908

45,854,958

7,106,253

534,791,290

18,864.204

8,190,780

559,361,193
79,908,742

24,453,229

10,893,789

570,138,308
81,448,329

Branches of Expenditure

1. Ordinary Expenditure :

Interest and sinking fund of the national debt
Imperial Chancery ....
Holy Synod .....
Ministry of the Imperial House

Foreign Affairs.

War

the Navy .

Finance .

Imperial Domains .

the Interior

Eublic Instruction .

Public Works and Railways

Justice
Department of General Control
Civil administration of the Transcaucasus

Total ordinary expenditure

2. Anticip. deficits in receipts

3. ' Depenses d'Ordre ' .

4. Temporary disbursements .

Total expenditure < _,

Year
1875

Roubles

108,417,987

1,982,643

9,784,962

9,029,099

2,927,243

180.267,019

25,038,381

66,266,446

19,042,177

53,468,391

15,153,507

17,018,350

14,340,226

2,942,786

7,025,903

Year
1876

532,705,120

2,000,000

24,453,229

Roubles

106,910,946

1,963,070

9,615,425

8,888,976

2,674,243

178,049,492

25,106,017

66,031,867

19,726,966

51,649,085

14,416.543

17,598,871

12,844,547

2,847,253

6,727,125

525,050,426

4.000,000

18,864.204

10,893,789

8,190,780

570,052,138 556,105,410
81,436,019 79,443,630

RUSSIA. 369

The direct taxes of the empire consist chiefly of imposts on land
— ' impots redevances foncieres ' — which produce nine-tenths of the
whole poll-tax, levied from the peasantry, and raised, as will be seen
front the first of the two preceding tables, at very little expense.
Customs and excise duties, the former of a protective nature, and the
latter laid principally on spirits, beer, salt, and tobacco, form the
bulk of the revenue from indirect taxation. In the budget for 1876,
the customs duties were estimated to produce GO, -173, 000 roubles,
or 8,638,571/., and the duties on spirits and malt liquors together
191,787,700 roubles, or 27,312,528/. The spirit duties were
largely raised in 1871, and again in 1873, notwithstanding which the
consumption is increasing, forming an ever-growing source of revenue.

It will be seen from the table showing the budgets of expenditure
for 1875 and 1876 that, next to the disbursements for the army the
largest branch of expenditure is that for the public debt. In the
budget estimates for the year 1876, the total amount required for
interest and sinking fund, but not cost of management — the latter
going to the charge of the Ministry of Finance — was calculated
at 106,910,946 roubles, or 15,272,992/., divided as follows :—

Interest and Sinking Fund of Public Debentures, 1S76:—

Roubles

Foreign loans (terminable) ...... 13,864,759

Foreign ditto (perpetual) 20,154,487

Interior loans (terminable) —

a. Debt to sundry departments .... 907,677

b. Debt to state bank, metallic .... 3,000,00(1

c. Five per cent, bank bills ..... 1,450,000

d. Treasury bills 9,435,520

e. Five per cent, lottery loans ..... 13,286,750
/. Debt of former Kingdom of Poland . . . 2,911,168
g. Debt for ' feuilles de liquidation,' and certificates

of Kingdom of Poland 3,272,413

Interior loans (perpetual) —

a. Ordinary and inalienable ..... 3,946,164

b. Four per cent, consolidated bills .... 6,169,028
Interest and sinking fund of five per cent, consolidated

bills, issued for construction of railways . . . 21,076,611

Interest and sinking fund of debentures of the Nicholas

Kailway 7.200,000

T . , 106,910,946

i0UU £15,272,992

To cover a series of annual deficits and, at the same time, to
procure the capital for the construction of a network of railways
throughout the Empire, a number of foreign loans were raised during
the twenty-six years from 1850 to 1875. The most important of
them were, first, a loan of 6,400,000/., issued in 1850, to meet the
expenditure for the railway from St. Petersburg to Moscow;

37°

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

secondly, a loan of 12 millions sterling, issued in 1859 ; thirdly, a
loan of 8 millions, issued in 1860 ; and fourthly, a loan of 15 mil-
lions sterling, issued in 1802, the latter three contracted, partly for
the covering of financial deficits and partly for the construction of
railways. The subsequent foreign loans were one for 2,600,000/.,
issued in 1863, and two for 6.000,000/. each, issued respectively in
1864 and 1866. The next was a foreign loan of 12,000,000/.,
brought out in January 1870 ; followed by another loan of
12,000,000/., issued in 1871 ; and by two loans, each of 15,000,000/.,
the first brought out in September 1872, and the second raised in
December 1873. The two foreign loans of 1850 and of 1864
were contracted for by Messrs. Baring, and the four foreign loans
of 1870, 1871, 1872, and 1873 were issued by Messrs. Rothschild,
of London and Paris. The total nominal capital of the foreign loans
of Russia raised in the years 1822 to 1875 amounted to 135,370,000/.
The following table gives the year of issue, nominal capital,
interest per cent., and price of issue, of the foreign loans of Russia,
fourteen in number — including early liabilities dating back to 1822
— contracted up to the end of the year 1876 : —

Foreign Loans of Russia.

Year of issue

Nominal capital

Interest

Price of issue

per cent.

1822

6,400,000

1850

5,500,000

1859

12,000,000

1860

8.000,000

1862

15,000,000

.1863

2,60(),i)oi)

1864

6,000,000

1866

6,000.000

1870

12,000,000

1871

12,000,000

1872

15.ooo.ooo

89 £

1873

15,000,000

1874

1,480,000

87A

1875

15,000,000

87i

135,370,000

Not included in the above list are several loans for railways, gua-
ranteed by the Imperial government. The earlier of the foreign
loans of Russia have become largely reduced at present, throujh the
operation of sinking funds. Of the 1822 loan, issued by Messrs.
Rothschild, more than one-half had been repaid at the end of 1875 ;
of the 1850 loan, contracted for by Baring Brothers, the outstanding
sum was 2,950,000/. ; of the 1859 loan, issued by Thomson, Bonar,

RUSSIA. 37I

and Co.. the amount was 5, 1 00,0002. ; and of the 1860 loan, issued
by Barimi Brothers, it was 6,600,Q00Z. at the same date. But the
1862 loan of 15 millions sterling, contracted through Messrs. Roth-
schild, remained the same amount at the end of 1875, and the re-
payments, through sinking funds, were very small of the subsequent
loans, issued from 1863 to 1875.

The estimated amount of the entire public debt of Russia <>n the
1st of January, 1876, was 250,962,000/, of which 183,091,000/.
was bearing interest, and 77,871,000Z. was not bearing interest.

Not included in this total was a very large quantity of paper
money with forced currency. According to official reports, the
total amount of bank notes in circulation on the 1st of January,
1876, was 797,313,480 roubles, or 113,044,783/. The note circu-
lation of Russia increased very rapidly of late years, while the specie
diminished at the same time, and the guarantee fund of the note
circulation not amounting to more than one-tenth, it was found
necessary to give them a forced currency. Notwithstanding this
measure, gold and silver have been for many years at a premium,
varying from 10 to 15 per cent.

The destruction of public credit, through an illimited issue of
paper money, is of old standing. In the reign of Catherine II., the.
first attempt, on a large scale, was made to cover the annual deficits
1 V a very liberal supply of paper roubles, the sum total of which at
the death of the Empress, 179G, amounted to 200,000,000. During
the subsequent wars with France and Turkey, new emissions of paper
followed, with the consequence that in 1815 the notes had fallen to
418, that is, one silver rouble was worth four roubles eighteen conecs
in paper. Great efforts were now made by the Government to im-
prove this state of things, by withdrawing a portion of the paper in m
circidation. After ten years of improved financial management,
there remained, however, still 000,000,000 of notes, circulating at the
rate of three paper roubles to one silver rouble. As a final remedy,
the Imperial Government withdrew, in 1843. the whole of the old
paper money, introducing, in its stead, a new form of bank notes,
with forced currency. By these and other means, particularly the
establishment, in 1859, of a State bank — the Bank <>:' Russia,
under the control of the Minister of Finance, the non al
value of the paper money was considerably raised, so as 1 1 stand
only at from 10 to 15 per cent, discount, with a prospect of the
resumption of specie payments in the course of a number of

The finances of the Grand-duchy of Finland, represented brj an
average annual revenue and expenditure of 3,000,000 roubles, or

about 129, /., and a public debt of 45,000,000 roubles or

6,435,000/., are administered separately from the imperial ex-

u b 2

372 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

chequer ; but the special budgets of Poland ceased in 1867, on the
final incorporation of the kingdom with Russia.

Army and Navy.

1. Army.

The armed forces of Russia were draAvn, previous to the year 1871,.
from the classes of peasants and artisans, partly and principally by
means of a conscription, partly by the adoption of the sons of soldiers,
and partly by voluntary enlistment. In January 1871, a law ol
military re-organisation was sanctioned by the Emperor, which came
into force in 1872. The new law orders an annual conscription, to
which all men who have completed their twenty-first year, and are
not physically incapacitated, are liable. Immunity from service by
the purchase of substitutes is prohibited under the new regulations.
They fix the period of service in the army at fifteen years, six of them
in active .service, and nine years in the reserve. The men remain
with the colours only as long as will be required to keep up the
force at its full complement, and during the remaining period they
are sent on furlough. After acquitting themselves of their six
years' service the soldiers pass over into ' the Reserve ' for another
period of nine years, during which they are liable to serve onlv in
time of war. If called out during these nine years the younger men
of the reserve are employed in active operations, the older ones
being set apart to form a reserve and reinforce the garrisons of
fortresses. In time of peace, the men of the reserve are called out
only for short periods of drill, undergone near their ordinary places
of residence. To enable the educated classes to free themselves from
compulsory conscription, and also to provide the requisite number
of officers and persons fit to serve in the supplementary branches,
young men possessed of a certain degree of education are permitted
to enter from their 17th year as volunteers for a short period of
service. After acquitting themselves of service in the Line, the
volunteers either .undergo a military examination of an inferior
degree, and pass over to the reserve, or they may pass an officer's
examination and become either army officers or reserve officers.
Volunteers passing into the reserve, as officers or as privates, remain
in the reserve till their 36th year. All other officers leaving the
regular army before their 36th year are likewise liable to serve in
the reserve to that age. Soldiers belonging to the reserve are
exempt from service only in case of illness, or if serving in some
other public capacity. All able-bodied men not entering the army,
or navy, can in time of war be called out to serve in a militia, to be
organised in accordance with the rules announced in an Imperial

Russia.. 373

manifesto. It is enacted by the law of 1871, that ' now as formerly,
military service will be performed under special laws by the
Cossacks, the non-Russian inhabitants of certain portions of the
Empire, and the population of the Grand Duchy of Finland.' The
levies furnished by the Cossacks are regulated by particular treaties ;
and many half-savage tribes are excused, partly on account of their
diminutive size, and partly because of their great aversion to a mili-
tary life. Generally, it is found that a levy of two on every 500 males
produces a supply of about 90,000 or 100,000 men.

Under the new law of army organisation the land forces of Russia
consist in time of peace of field troops and garrison troops. In
addition to these, reserve forces are organised during the
continuance of peace, and independently of the army being placed on
a war footing. A militia is also formed for extraordinary con-
tingencies, if the safety of the country requires it. The garrison
troops are organised to answer the following purposes. Firstly, in
time of peace they are employed to do ordinary garrison service, and,
secondly, they instruct recruits, and, in the cavalry, break in horses ;
they also drill the men on furlough and in the reserve called
out for exercise. In time of war, the garrison troops continue the
garrison duty, drill recruits, and supply the ' cadres ' for the
formation of the infantry and foot artillery reserves, as also for the
formation of ' troupes de marche ' of all arms of the service. The
reserve forces are only formed in time of war. The ' cadres ' are
supplied by the local garrisons and filled up by the reserves. The
reserve forces have a double destination, namely, first to act as a
field force in separate infantry regiments and divisions with their
own foot artillery and train, and, secondly, to garrison fortresses
and supply fortress artillery. One company of the garrison troops
is regarded as a sufficient ' cadre ' for a battalion of reserve, and
one garrison gun as a ' cadre ' for a reserve battery. The ' troupes
de marche' are formed upon 'cadres' supplied by the garrison
troops of all arms. They consist of all men on furlough and in
reserve, in excess of the numbers required for raising the field tbrces
to the war standard. They are also employed to fill up the gaps
occasioned by losses in the field forces. To keep the Guards always
at their full complement, special reserve forces are attached to them,
at the rate of one battalion per regiment of infantry and rifle
brigade, and one battery per artillery brigade. The reserve and
garrison battalions are stationed in the districts whence they draw
their reserves at the rate of two reserve battalions per garrison
battalion. The organisation of the reserve forces is not ai firsl to
be fully carried out under the new law in any bur thoBe provinces of
European Russia densely enough inhabited to admit of it. In
those outlying or little inhabited portions in which the formation of

374

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

reserve ^ troops would be inexpedient, the reserve men are to be
formed into ' troupes de marclie ' and despatched to the seat of war
to reinforce the reserve corps ; or they are to be sent to
garrison neighbouring fortresses, or do garrison duty in the interior.
The following was the composition of the Russian arrny in 1876 : —

War Footing.

Peace Footing
Battalions .
Squadrons .
Guns .
Officers
Hank and file

Total of men

65,872

Officers .
Rank and file .

Total of men

39,380
1,173,879

1,213,259

The nominal strength of the various divisions of the Russian
army, according to tliG returns of the ministry of war, was as

follows in 1874 : —

1. Regular army.

On the peace
footing

On the war
footing

Infantry

Cavalry .....
Artillery . . ,-
Engineers .....

364,422
38,306
41,731
13,413

694,511
49,183
48,773
16,203

Total.

2. Army of 1st reserve.
Troops of the line .
Garrison troops in regiments .

,, ,, in battalions .

457,872

80,455
80,455
19,830

808,670

74,561
23,470
29,892

Total.

3. Army of 2nd reserve.
Troops of all arms ....

180,740
207,812

127,923
276,664

General total

846,424 1,213,257

Finland has a military system of its own, being obliged, at the
demand of the Grand Duke, that is the Emperor, to bring into the
field a certain number of men, on the Swedish ' Indelta ' principle.
This principle (see page 416) is that every district is bound to supply
a certain number of soldiers, and to pay them, while the State pro-
vides for their material wants.

Among the irregular troops of Russia, the most important are the
Cossacks. The country of the Don Cossacks contains from 600,000
to 700,000 inhabitants. In case of necessity, every Cossack, from
fifteen to sixty years of age, is bound to render military service.

RUSSIA.

375

The usual regular military force, however, consists of fifty-four
cavalry regiments, each numbering 1,044 men, making a total
of 56,376. The number of Cossacks is computed as follows : —

On the Black Sea

Great Bussian Cossacks on the Caucasian Line
Don Cossacks ......

Ural Cossacks ......

Orenburg Cossacks .....

Siberian Cossacks ......

Total . ...

Heads

In military
service

125,000
150,000
440,000

50,000
60,000
50,000

18,000
18,000
66,000

8,000
10,000

9,000

875,000

129,000

The military organisation of the Cossacks is in eight districts,
called Woisskos. Each Woissko furnishes a certain number of regi-
ments, fully armed and equipped, and undergoing constant military
exercise, so as to be prepared to enter the field, on being summoned,
in the course of ten days. The two larger districts are the Woissko
of Kuban, which has the privilege of furnishing a squadron of picked
men for an Imperial escort in time of war, and the second the
Woissko of Terak, which furnishes a like escort in time of peace.

The Cossacks are a race of free men ; neither serfage nor any
other dependence upon the land exists among them. The entire
territory belongs to the Cossack commune, and every individual has
an equal right to the use of the land, together with the pastures,
hunting-grounds, and fisheries. The Cossacks pay no taxes to the
Government, but in lieu of this they are boimd to perform military
service. They are divided into three .classes : — first, the minors or
' Maloletniye,' up to their sixteenth year ; secondly, those on actual
service, the ' Sluzhiliye,' for a period of twenty-five years, therefore
until their forty-second year ; thirdly, those released from service,
the ' Otstavniye,' who remain for five years, or until their forty-
seventh year, in the reserve ; after that period they are regarded as
wholly released from service and invalided. Every Cossack is
obliged to equip, clothe, and arm himself at his own expense, and to
i his horse. Whilst on service beyond the frontiers of his own
country, he receives rations of food and provender, ami a small
amount of pay. The artillery ami train are at the charge of the
Government. Instead of imposing taxes on the Qon Cossacks, the
Russian Government pays them an annual tribute of 21,310 roubles,
besides 20 roubles as a gilt to be distributed among the widows
and orphans of those who have fallen in battle. Besides the Cos-
sacks of the Don, there; are, on the Orenburg and Siberian lines, the
Bashkir Cossacks, numbering some 200,000 men.

\j6 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

2. Navy.

The Russian navy consists of two great divisions, the fleet of the
Baltic, and that of the Black Sea. Each of these two fleets is again
subdivided into sections, of which three are in or near the Baltic,
and two in or near the Black Sea. The divisions, like the English,
carry the white, blue, and red flag — an arrangement originating
with the Dutch — but without the rank of the admirals being con-
nected with the colour of the flag.

At the end of March 1876, the strength of the various divisions of
the Russian navy was returned officially as follows: — 1, the Bailie
Fleet, consisting of 77 men-of-war, with six Admirals, 911 officers,
110 midshipmen, 1,250 seamen, 400 apprentices, and 107 agents of
various kinds; 2, the Black Sea Fleet, consisting of nine men-of-
war, 320 officers, 3,000 seamen ; 3, the Caspian Sea Fleet, consist-
ing of five paddlewheel steamers, three despatch-boats, three brigs,
some prison hulks, 90 officers, and 1,150 seamen ; 4, the Siberian
Fleet, consisting of 11 ships, 140 officers, and 1,200 seamen. The
total comprises 108 men-of-war, 1,477 officers, and 7,217 seamen,
exclusive of the White Sea squadron, composed of three ships, and
the Sea of Aral Flotilla, which counts five steamers, one steam sloop,
20 large sloops, a floating dock, and two pontoons, and is manned
by 12 officers and 416 men.

The iron-clad fleet of war of Russia comprised, in March 1876,
the following vessels:--

Ironclads

Number

Guns ' Horse-power

Tonnage

Mastless turret-ship
Frigates ....
Corvettes ....
'' Turret monitors
Floating batteries .

Total .

1
8
3
14
3

4 1,300
76 4,600
10 600
20 1,6.00
74 1,110

9,662
36,185

5.161
13,500
10.285

29 184 9,210

74,793

The following is a classified list of the twenty-four ironclad vessels
of the Russian navy, with specification of thickness of armour,
minimum and maximum ; number and weight of guns, indicated
horse-power of engines, and tonnage, or displacement in tons.
Those ironclads marked by an asterisk before their names were not
completed at the end of 1876 : —

RUSSIA.

377

Armour

Guns

Indicated

Displace-

Names of ironclads

thickness ;

horse-

ment or

inches

Number

Weight

power

tonnage

■ Mastiess turret-ships: —

Peter the Great .

35-ton

2,200

10,000

Frigates : —

Sevastopol .

12-ton

1,800

9,000

Kniaz-Pojarski .

12-ton

1,000

9,000

*Duke of Edinburgh .

40 -ton

480

2.000

Smaller turret-skips : —
Alexander Nefski

General- Admiral

9-ton "\
6i-ton/

9-ton \
6^- ton J

1,000
1,000

4,500

4,500
2,000

Admiral Tchitehagoff .

5 to 6

35-ton

600

2,200

Admiral Spiridoff

5 to 6

35- ton

600

2,200

Smertch

4^ to 6

1 2-ton

400

1,500

Koldoun

4 to 6

12 ton

400

1,500

*Latnik

4 to 6

1 2-ton

400

1,500

*Lava .

4 to 6

12-ton

400

1,500

Perm .

4 to 6

12-ton

400

1,500

Streletz

4 to 6

12-ton

350

1,200

*Tiphon

4 to 6

12-ton

350

1,200

Ouragan

4 to 6

12 -ton

350

1,200

Veshtchoun

4 to 6

12-ton

350

1,200

Tcharodeika

9 -ton

300

1,000

Koussalka .

9-ton

300

1,000

Admiral Greig .

41 to 5

25-ton

300

950

Admiral Lazaroff

4^-to 5

25-ton

300

950

Pervenetz .

2- ton

180

800

Circular monitors : —

Novgorod .

40-ton

480

2,000

*Admiral Popoff .

40- ton

550

3,000

The most powerful vessel of the Russian iron-clad navy is the
mastiess turret-ship Peter the Great, constructed in the harbour of
Kronstadt, and launched in 1874. The Peter the Great resembles
in design and construction the three great mastiess turret-shi]>< of
the British navy, more especially the Dreadnought (see page 23 i ).
though of larger size, its length being 321 feet, and its extreme
breadth G4 feet. The Peter the Great carries, like the Dreadnoughl
and her sister-ships, the Devastation and the Thunderer, two turrets,
with an armament of four 35-ton guns, made of Krupp steel.

Next to tin- Peter the Great, the largest of the twenty-four
ironclad- of the Russian navy are the three armoured frigates, the
Sevastopol and Kniaz-Pojarski, and the Duke of Edinburgh, the last in
course of construction in 1870. The first of these, the oldest ironclad

378 the statesman's tear-book, 1877.

of the "Russian navy, was launched at Cronstadt, August 24, 1864.
The Sevastopol nearly equals the British iron-clads Black Prince and
Warrior in her dimensions, and exceeds those of the French Gloire
and Normandie. At the line of flotation the Sevastopol measures
300 feet in length, and her greatest breadth is 52 feet 3 inches.
The ship draws 26 feet at the poop and 24 at the chains. Her
plates are 44/ inches thick, fastened to a double coating of teak from 6
to 9 inches thick. Her prow has a beak of a formidable kind at-
tached to it. The other ironclad frigate, the Kniaz-Pojarski, was
built by English engineers at the naval yard of St. Petersburg, and
launched in September 1866. The Kniaz-Pojarski is 280 feet long,
49 feet beam, and about 31 feet deep. The armour-plating is 44/
inches thick, and extends the entire length of the vessel from the
depth of 5 feet below and 6 feet above the line of flotation : the
armour is laid on a backing of East India teak 18 inches thick.
The Kniaz-Pojarski's armament is placed in a central battery occu-
pying about 80 feet on the length of gun deck, both sides and
ends being completely armour-clad : the armament consists of
eight 12-ton steel guns, four on each broadside. The iron hull
is of great strength, being constructed on the cellular tubular
principle. The entire bottom of the vessel is built with double iron
skin for the purpose of giving great additional safety as well as
strength. The smaller ironclads of the Russian navy, all of them
turret- ships, are only partly covered with armour, not thicker than
from 4fy to 6 inches, and merely serviceable for coast defence.

The iron-clad navy of Russia is being completed by the con-
struction of several vessels of a new description, called 'circular
monitors,' designed by Admiral Popoff, builder of the Peter the
Great. The first of these new ships, named the Novgorod, of 2,000
tons burthen, and 480 horse-power, was launched in June 1873, at
the docks of Nicholaieff, near Sevastopol ; a second, named the
Duke of Edinburgh, was launched, in September 1875, from the Im-
perial dockyards at Cronstadt, at the mouth of the Neva ; and a
third, named the Admiral PopofF, was launched in October 1875
from the dockyard of Nicholaieff. The Admiral Popoff is reported
to embrace all the latest improvements in this class of vessels, being
120 feet in diameter against 100 feet of the Novgorod, and of greater
speed, with lesser draught of water, namely, 124/ feet. However,
as the mean speed of the circular monitors is not calculated to be
more than from from eight to nine miles an hour, they must be held
to be chiefly fitted for defensive purposes, serving as ' floating
fortresses.'

The Imperial navy was commanded, at the end of March 1876,
by 1 9 admirals, 30 vice-admirals, 32 rear admirals,205 first class cap-
tains, 97 second class captains, 303 captain lieutenants, 443 lieute-

eussia. 379

nants, and 125 midshipmen of the special corps attached to the navy.
The navigation detachment contained five generals and 508 staff
officers, the naval artillery four generals and 197 staff officers, the
naval engineers six generals and 189 staff officers, the naval mecha-
nicians two generals and 543 staff officers, the naval architect corps
eight generals, and 48 staff officers. The organisation of the
navy is after the model of that of France, but so far different that
the government of naval affairs is divided between the High Ad-
miral of the Fleet and the minister of the navy, the latter having
sole charge of the administrative departments.

The sailors of the Imperial navy are levied, like the army, by
recruitment ; many of them, however, are enlisted voluntarily, and
the crews furnished by Finland are obtained altogether in this
manner. The period of service in the navy was formerly twenty-
two years, but it was reduced, in 1873, to nine years, seven of
which must be spent in active service, and two in the reserve.

Area and Population.

The Russian empire comprises one-seventh of the territorial part
of the globe, and about one-twenty-sixth part of its entire surface.
Owing to the vast extent of the Empire, and its social condition, no
surveys that can lay claim to accuracy have yet been made, and
the area is obtained in greater part from estimates. There has been
likewise no general census of the population, but various enumera-
tions, made by the government during "the years 1870 to 1873,
mainly undertaken for purposes of finance or war, serve to furnish an
approximately correct return of the numbers of the people. Ac-
cording to them, the total area of the Empire embraces 8,444,766
English square miles, while the total population numbers 85,685,945,
being, on the average, 10 individuals to the square mile. The
density of' population of European Eussia is considerably greater
than that of the Asiatic part of the Empire. Eussia in Europe,
comprising an area of 2,261,657 English square miles, with
78,281,447 inhabitants, has, on the average, 34 individuals to the
square mile, while Asiatic Eussia, extending over 6,170,882 English
square miles, with 7,229,495 inhabitants, has barely more than a
single individual to the square mile.

The following table exhibits the details of these official statements,
— referring to the year 1870, as regards the whole of European
Eussia, and to various dates, mostly later, in respect to the Asiatic
portion of the Empire — concerning the area and population of the
various political and geographical divisions of the Empire of
Eussia : —

3So

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877,

Governments

Area: English
square miles

Population

1. Russia in Europe: —

Archangel ......

331,490

281.112 1

Jaroslavi

13,750

1,000,748

Kaluga .

11,939

996,252

Kostroma

32,701

1,176,097

Koursk .

17,936

1,945,807

Moscow .

12,858

1,772,624

Nijni Novgoro

19.796

1,271,564

Novgorod

47,234

1,011,445

Olonetz

57,437

296,392

Orel

18,041

1.596,881

Pskov .

17.069

775,701

Riazan .

16,254

1,477,433

Smolensk

21,638

1,140,015

Tambov .

25,683

2,150,971

Tula

11,956

1,167,878

Tver

25,223

1,528,881

Vladimir

18,863

1,2.39,923

Vologda .

155,492

1,003,039

Voronej .

25,438

2,152,696

Great Russia
Kharkov ......

880,798

23,814,559

21,040

1,698,015

Kiev .......

19,689

2,175.132

Poltava .......

19,265

2,102,614

Tchernigov ......

Little Russia

Astrakhan ......

20,232

1,659,600

80,226

7,635,361

86,668

601,514

Kazan .

24.600

1,704,624

Orenburg

73,886

900,547

Penza

14,996

1,173,186

Perm

128,245

2,198,666

Samara .

60,198

1,837,081

Sara tow .

32,622

1,751,268

Simbirsk

19,109

1,205,881

Ufa

47,032

1,364,925

Viatka ....

59,114

2,406,024

Eastern Russia
Bessarabia ......

546,464

15,143.716

14,046

1,078,932

Cossacks of the Don ....

61.911

1,086,264

Ekaterinoslaf ......

26.147

1,352,300

Kherson .

27,522

1,596,809

RUSSIA.

381

Governments

Area : English
square miles

Population

Sea of Azov ......

14,217

Taurida

South Kussia

Grodno .......

24,538

704,997

168,381

5,819,302

14,965

1,008,521

Kovno .

15,691

1,156,041

Minsk .

35,273

1,182,230

Moghilev

18,158

947.625

Podolia .

16,223

1,933.188

Vilna

16,412

1.001,909

Vitebsk .

17,439

888,727

Volhynia

27,736

1,704,018

Western Kussia
Courland .....

161,897

9,822,259

10,535

619,154

Esthonia . . ....

7,817

323,961

Livonia .......

18,158

1,000,876

St. Petersburg

Baltic Provinces
Total, Kussia Proper

Kalisz .......

20,759

1,325,471

57,269

3,269,462

1,895,441

65,504,659

4,391

669,261

Kielce

3,897

518,730

Lomsha .

4,667

489,699

Lulilin .

6.500

707,098

Piotrkow

4,729

682,495

Plotzk .

4,200

471,938

Eadom .

4,769

532.466

Siedlce .

5,536

504,606

Suwalki .

4,846

524,489

Warsaw .

5,622

925.639

Poland
Abo-Bjorneborg .....

49,159

6,026,421

9,332

310,159

Kuopio .

16,499

230,692

Nyland .

4,584

175,558

St. Michael

8,818

10(1.694

Te vast eh us

8,333

197,140

Uleaborg

63,954

189,(11 1

Viborg .

16,623

278,754

Wasa

1.1,(178

314,994

Finland
Kuban .......

1 11,222

1,857,035

36,782

672,224

Stavropol ......

27,020

437,118

Ter

Cis-Caucasia

23,267

485, 23 7

87,069

1,594,579

382

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Governments

Baku .
Daghestan
Elizabethpol
Erivan .
Kutais .
Suklmm .
Tchernoiemore
Tiflis .
Sakhatali

Trans-Caucasia

Caucasus

Total, European Eussia

Russia in Asia : —
Amoorskaya .
Irkutsk . .

Primorsk, or Maritime Eegion
Tobolsk .
Tomsk .
Trans-Baikal .
Yakutsk.
Yeniseisk

Siberia

Akmolinsk

Zarafshan

Semipalatinsk

Semiretehinsk

Svr-Daria

Turgai .

Ural

Kulilja .

Amu-Daria

Central Asia

Total, Asiatic Eussia
Grand total, Eussian Empire

Area: English
square miles

15,151
11,521

17,114
10,670
7,995
3,331
2.741
15,613
1,620

85,766

172,835

2,261,657

173,552
309.177
731,910
531.959
329,024
240,770
1,517,063
992,832

4,826,287

210.556

19.625

188,291

155,290

165.996

202,183

141,468

27.457

39,974

1,344,595
6,170,882

8,444,766

Population

513,560

448,299

529,412

452.001

605,691

70,701

15.703

606,584

56.S02

3,298,753

4,898,332

78,281,447

44,400
378,244

45.000
1,086,848
838,756
430.780
231,977
372,862

3.428,867

381,200
271,000
510,163
543,094
848,489
289,930
346,715
114,337
220,000

3,800,628
7.229,495

85,685,945

Only one-seventh part of European Russia is well-peopled, con-
taining four-ninths of the entire population of the European pro-

RUSSIA.

333

vinces of Russia proper. One-third part, with half the number of
the total population, is tolerably populous; and one-half of European
Russia, with one-ninth part of the total population, is sparsely in-
habited. The central, or 'great 'and 'little' Russian provinces,
which constitute the heart of Russia, are the most densely populated.
These are the richest agricultural provinces, and they form the centre
of the manufacturing industries of the Empire. To the north and
north-east of these provinces there is a great diminution in the pro-
portion of inhabitants to area, attributable to the increasing sterility
of the soil, and to climatic conditions. The sparseness of the popu-
lation in the southern regions, is due partly to historical causes, such
as inroads of nomadic hordes, and partly to the woodless character
of the vast plains, which are very deficient in water.

The vast majority of the population of Russia are devoted to
agricultural occupations, and dwell in villages, spread thinly over the
vast area of the empire. According to local enumerations made by order
of the Ministry of the Interior at various periods there are but fifteen
towns containing more than 50,000 inhabitants. The list is as
follows: —

Towns

Population

Towns

Population

St. Petersburg (1869)

. 667.926

Kasan

. 78,602

Moscow (1871) .

. 611,970

Kieff.

70,591

Warsaw

. 251.584

NicolaiefF .

67,972

Odessa (1873) ,

. 162,814

Tiflis

60,937

Kicheneff (Bessarabia)

. 103,998

Kharkoff .

59,968

-Riga ....

. 102,043

Tula .

58,150

Saratoff

93,218

Berditcheff"

52,786

Vilna

. 79,265

In the larger towns a considerable proportion of the trading and
industrial population are either aliens, or of foreign extraction.

The population of Russia Proper is composed of three groups : Great
Russians, or Veliko-Russ ; Little Russians, or Malo-Russ; and White
Russians, or Belo-Russ. The first, numbering 35,000,000, all
belonging to the Slavonian race, occupy the central provinces ; the
second, numbering about 11,000,000, compose the bulk of the popu-
lation of Poltava, Kharkof, Chemigof, Kief, Volhynia, Podolsk,
Ekaterinoslaf, and the Taurida; the White Russians, about
3,000,000, inhabit the provinces of MonUef, Minsk, Vitebsk, and
Grodno. Besides these three groups of Russians proper, there is a
great variety of national elements in the general population of the
Russian Empire: among them, Finns, 3,038,000 in number, who
are divided into two groups, western and eastern. The western
p is composed of Esthonians, Livonians, Karelians, and
Laparis; th rn group is composed of the tribes of Mordva

Cheremisses, Zyrians, Penriiaks, Votiaks, Chuvashes, and Voguls.
Next follow Lithuanians, 2,343,000; -lews, 1,631,000; Tartars,

384 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

2,500,000. Of other races, the most important are the Slavonians
of Poland and Lithuania, numbering some 7,000,000 ; and the Arme-
nians, to the number of about 2,000,000. These figures, however,
are mere estimates, for there exist no official returns regarding the
various nationalities inhabiting the empire.

Previous to the year 18G1, the greater portion of the inhabitants
of the empire were serfs, belonging either to the Crown or to private
individuals. The number of the latter class was estimated in 1861
at 22,000,000, who were the property of 109,340 nobles and other
private persons. By an imperial decree of March 3, 1861, coming
into final execution on March 3, 1863, serfdom was abolished,
under certain conditions, within the whole of Eussia. The owners
of the serfs were compensated for their land on a scale of payment
by which the previous labour of the serf was estimated at a yearly
rental of 6 per cent., so that for every six roubles which the labourer
earned annually, he had to pay 100 roubles to his master as his
capital value to become a freeholder. Of this sum, the serfs had to
give immediately 20 per cent., while the remaining 80 per cent,
were disbursed as an advance by the Government to the owners, to
be repaid, at intervals extending over forty-nine years, by the freed
peasants. According to an official report, the whole of these arrange-
ments were completed at the end of July, 1865, so that, from this
date, serfdom ceased to exist in Russia.

Besides the 22,000,000 of serfs belonging to private owners,
there were, according to a census taken at the time, 22,225,075
Crown peasants — that is, 10,583,638 men, and 11,641,437 wo-
men. The emancipation of this class began previous to that of
the private serfs, and was all but accomplished on September 1,
1863. By an imperial decree of July 8, 1863, land was granted to
the peasants on the private and appanage estates of the Crown, and
to the peasants who belonged to the imperial palaces, which they are
to pay for in forty-nine years in instalments, each equal in amount to
the ' obrok,' or poll-tax formerly yielded by them. The peasants on
these Crown estates, about 2,000,000 in number, were thereby elevated
to the rank of rent-paying peasants, a situation in which they will
remain for forty-nine years, when they become freehold landowners.

Since the Emancipation Act of 1861 the cultivable lands of Russia
proper in Europe have been approximately distributed as follows : —

Per cent.

Town lands, about 0-4

Crown „ 3*-6

Lands attached to mines 3.5

„ held by peasants: 1. Crown peasants 156 per cent. } 90.~
,, „ 2. Former serfs 50 „ j

Lands held by landed gentry and nobility . . . 19*7

„ other proprietors, or not surveyed . . 20-4

RUSSIA.

385

It will be seen that about one-third of the cultivable land in
Russia proper is held by the State ; one-fifth by landed proprietors ;
and one-fifth by the peasantry.

Trade and Industry.

The commerce of Russia with foreign countries is officially divided
into trade with Europe, and trade with Asia, the former being sub-
divided into trade through the Baltic ports, through the White Sea
ports, through the Southern ports, and over the European land
frontier. The immense extent of the Empire, and its everchanging
limits eastward make it difficult to obtain exact returns of the
aggregate amount of its foreign commerce, •which must be partly
estimated. According to official and other statements, the total
value of imports in the three years 1873 to 1875 averaged, in round
numbers, 60 millions sterling, while the value of the imports during
the same triennial period averaged 52 millions sterling per annum.
The four principal articles of import during the period were raw
cotton, iron and other unwrought metals, tea, and machinery of all
kinds, while the staple article of export was grain and other agricul-
tural produce.

The two principal countries trading with Russia are Germany
and Great Britain. Of the imports, about 40 per cent, annually
came from German}7, and 32 per cent, from Great Britain ; and of the
exports 50 per cent, went to Great Britain, and 22 per cent, to Ger-
many, on the average of the three years 1872 to 1875.

The commercial intercourse of Russia with the United Kingdom
is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the value
of the total exports from Russia to Great Britain and Ireland, and
of the imports of British and Irish produce into Russia, in each of
the ten years 1866 to 1875 : —

Exports from Russia to Great

Imports of British Home

Britain and Ireland

Produce into Russia

1866

19.636,129

3,093.231

1867

22,286,926

3,944,035

i868

2u.iiol,757

4,240,395

1869

16,674,516

6,465,412

1870

20,561,127

6,991,761

1871

23,721.375

6,583,948

1872

24,320,333

6,609,224

1873

21,189,231

8,997,721

1874

20,933,391

8,776,468

1875

20,708,901

8,059,52 1

The commerce between Russia and the United Kingdom was

c c

386

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

divide! as follows between the Northern and the Southern ports of
the empire, in each of the three years 1873 to 1875 : —

Exports from Russia
to Great Britain

1873

1874

1S75

Northern Ports
Southern .,

Total . . .

13.660,041

7,529.290

15,094,381

5,839,010

13,068,833

7,640.018

21,189,231

20,933,391

20,703,901

Imports of British home
produce into Russia

1S73

1S74

1875

Northern Ports
Southern ., . .

Total . . .

£
6,787.636
2)210,085

6.936,366
1.840,102

£
6,786,123
1,273,401

8,997,721

8,776,468

8,059,524

The chief article of export from Russia to the United Kingdom
is grain, mainlv wheat. The grain exports were of an annual average
value of nearly 10 millions sterling during the five years 1871 to
1875. (See table below.) The principal other articles of export to
Great Britain in the year 1875 were flax, exported to the value of
2,629,359/. ; wood and timber, the exports of which amounted to
3,100,586/.; flax seed and linseed, exported to the value of
2,755,639/. ; and hemp, exported to the value of 594,617/. Minor
articles cf export to Great Britain are tallow and stearine ; bristles;
wool ; fox, hare, and squirrel skins ; cordage and twine ; isinglass and
tar. The principal British imports into Russia in the year 1875 were
iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value of 2,329,782/. ; cotton
stuffs and yarn, of the value of 717,950/. ; and woollens, of the value
of 710,505/.

The quantities of wliea* and other kinds of grain and of
Avheatmeal and flour, exported from Russia to the United Kingdom
in each of the five years 187 1 to 1875, from both the northern and
southern ports of the empire, were as follows : —

Exports

1871

1872

1873

Northern Ports
Southern „

Total

1874

Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. Cwts

I 9,583,591 4,373,484 | 6,937.640 6.607,843

[16,289,637-18,206,939 |10,141,368 I 7,158,885

25,873,228 22,580,423 'l7,079,008 13,766,728

1875

Cwts.

8,333,408

11,547,965

19,881,373

The declared value of the exports of grain from the northern
ports in the year 1875 was 3,660,201/., and from the southern ports
it was 5,515,802/. Thus, the total value of the grain exports of

RUSSIA. 387

Russia to the United Kingdom amounted to 9,176,003/. in the year
L875. In 1874, the total value was 6,707,306/.; in 1873. it was
8,990,238/. ; in 1872. it was 12,332,127/.; and in 1871, it was
12,470,285/.

The commercial navy of Russia consisted, at the end of the year

1874, of 2,5 12 sea-going vessels, of an aggregate burthen of 260,504
ship last, or 521,008 tons. The total comprised 621 ships engaged
in trading to foreign countries, and 1,672 coasting vessels, many of
them belonging to Greeks, sailing under the Russian flag. Not
included in the return were 385 trading steamers on the rivers and
lakes of the empire, very nearly two-thirds of the number on the
river Volga and its affluents.

The internal commerce of the empire, as well as its foreign trade,
has been greatly extended by the establishment, in recent years, of
a comprehensive network of railways. During the latter part of
the reign of Nicolas, three lines were constructed by the initiative
of the Emperor, being the short line from St. Petersburg to Zarskoje-
Selo and Pawlosk, first of Russian railways, opened in 1838, the
more important one from Warsaw to the Austrian frontier and
Cracow, and finally, the line from St. Petersburg to Moscow,
called the Nicolas railway, commenced in 1842, and opened Nov. 1,
1851. Under the successor of Nicolas, the present Emperor,
the construction of railways, both directly by the state, and by
private companies — the latter, in every case, receiving considerable
Government aid — was continued more actively than before, and on
the 1st of January 1874, the total length of the railways of Russia
open for traffic was returned officially at 15,842 versts. or 10,560
English miles. Semi-official returns state that on the 1st of January

1875, the total length of railway open for traffic had increased to
11,576 English miles. At the same date 1,740 versts more of lines
were in progress of construction, and 2,500 versts were, projected.

On the proposition of the Minister of Public Works, the Emperor
sanctioned, in June 1875, the extension of the existing system by
6,500 versts, which, added to the 2,500 versts previously sanctioned,
raised the total to 9,000 versts. The new network is to be divided
into four classes, according to different degrees of urgency, and the
first of these classes will include the Siberian Railway and the se\ en
projected lines in the coal basin of the Don ; 2,600 versts are assigi ed
to this class, at the head of which has been placed the immense Si-
berian line, reported as ' most urgent' by a Special Commission on
Railways summoned in 1870. It is from a station on this line,
probably Tioumen, that the Central Asian line to Tashkend is to
take its rise, the continuation of the Orenburg line in thai direc-
tion having been condemned as impraticable, owing to the inhos-
pitable nature of the country it would have to traverse. The

* cc 2

38S

THE STATESMAN'S YEAll-BOOK, 1877.

importance of the seven lines about to be sanctioned for the coalfields
of the South is great, as the new railways will traverse this field
in every direction, and connect it on one side Avith the Black
Sea and the Sea of Azov, and on the other with the existing
trunk lines of the Empire.

On the 1st of January 1875 there were 50 railway companies exist-
ing in the empire. Of this number, 10 had constructed their lines alto-
gether without Government assistance ; while the remaining 40 were
guaranteed — 20 to the full amount of their capital, and the other 20
only to a partial extent. The entire sum guaranteed in 1874 by
the State in the shape of interest and repayment of capital amounted
to 51,177,627 roubles, or 7,311,089/. In the year 1873 the sum of
14,592,172 roubles, or 2,084,596/., being 78*52 pe cent, of the sum
total, was paid out of the exchequer to the railway companies. The
charters granted to railway companies are for the most part ter-
minable after between 75 and 85 years ; but some small companies
have charters only for 37 years.

The following tabular statement shows the amount of guarantee,
the sums paid under guarantee, and the percentage of sums paid
to amount guaranteed in all the railways at various periods from
1861 to 1873:—

Years

Amount of
Guarantee

Sums paid
under

Guarantee

Percentage of
Sums paid
to Amount
Guaranteed

1S61 ....

132,447

115,629

87-03

1862 .

841,107

763,659

90-79

1863

910,317

837,804

92-04

1864

920,212

812,417

88-20

1865

938,817

814,990

68-81

1866

1.034,011

655,686

63-41

1867

1,223,780

641,851

52-85

1868

1,871,224

520.585

3091

1869

2,S02,816

829,024

29-50

1870

3,185,412

932,051

29-00

1873

7,311,089

2,084,596

78-52

It appears from official returns referring to the end of the year
1874, that at that date the capital of all the railway companies
amounted to 1,506,792,921 roubles, or 207,184,028/. The total
length of line represented by this capital was 19,837 versts, or
13,227 English miles. This would make the cost about 15,600/.
per mile. At the time of the construction of most of these lines,
however, it must be borne in mind that the obligations and shares,
instead of being nearly at par, as they are now, stood at about 70t
the real amount expended in cash, therefore, probably did not

RUSSIA. 389

exceed 11,000/. a mile. The above capital consisted of 135,446, 153/.
in bonds and 71,737,875/. in shares. No less than 92,101,850/. of
the bonds and 9,055,750/. of the shares were held by the Govern-
ment themselves; 48 8-10 per cent, ofthe whole railway property of
the country was, therefore, held by the Government.

The Post-office in the year 1875 conveyed 63,244,156 ordinary
letters, 8,638,084 registered letters, 1,419,094 post cards, 3,636,508
wrappers, 1,771.2;).") parcels, and 42,77<i,220 newspapers. There
were 3,415 post-offices in the empire at the commencement of 1876.
The total receipts of the General Post in the year 1875 did not
cover the expenditure.

The length of telegraph lines in Russia, on the 1st of January
1870", was 68,617 versts, or 31,459 English miles, and the length
of wire 133,661 versts, or 58,675 English miles. Of the total,
55,644 versts of line, representing 105,591 versts of wire, belonged
to the State, and 12,973 versts of line, with 28,070 versts of wire,
was the property of private companies, inclusive railways. There
were at the .-ante date 3,51(1 telegraph offices. The total number of
telegrams carried in 1874, was 3,512,003. The total receipts from
telegrams in the year 1874 amounted to 4,630,029 roubles, or
740,804/., and the expenditure to 3,613,820 roubles, or 578,21 1/.,
leaving a surplus of 1,016,209 roubles, or 162,593/. The annual
surplus is, by Imperial decree, always devoted 10 the extension of
the telegraphic system.

The manufactures of Russia are at present of considerable im-
portance, a great impulse having been given to many of them since
the end of the Crimean war. The mining and metallurgic industries
ofthe empire are among those which have made the greatest progress.

During the year 1874, according to official returns, the Stats
foundries smelted 1,225,000 Russian pouds of bronze, 557,000 poude
of iron, and 1,000 pouds of steel; 89,000 pouds weight of articles
in bronze were cast, and 508, 000 pouds weight of ammunition,
9,000 pouds weight of steel cannon, and 15,000 pouds weight of iron
cannon, besides which 15,000 pouds of lead and 6, GOO pouds of zine
were smelted. There were also made 7,800 pouds weight of iron
articles, 10,000 ponds weight of sheet iron, and 7,500 roubles worth
of iron Cor use in shipbuilding; and 46,700 side arms, 20,000 blades,
•and 5,725 gun barrels. The amount of metal passing through pri-
vate factories is approximately given in the same official returns.
They statr that the productions ofthe smelting establishments ofthe
Ural are estimated at 13,200,000 ponds of bronze, 1,017,000 ponds
of iron. 69,000 pouds of steel, and 100,01 id pouds of copper- Those
around Moscow are supposed to have produced 3,360,000 pouds of
bronze and 1,830,000 pouds of iron. South Russian produce is
estimated at 430,000 pouds of bronze and 440,000 ponds of iron

390 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

that of the Polish provinces at 1,370,000 pouds of bronze, 800,000
of iron, and 120,000 pouds of zinc. Lastly, 44,000 pouds of copper
is calculated as the return from the Caucasus. Gold to the amount
of 1,806 pouds has been extracted during 1874, without reckoning
the districts of Altai and Nerchinsk, which yield an annual average
of 165 pouds. The total amount of coal and anthracite raised in
1874 was 83,575,000 pouds, the largest portion coming from the
government of Catherinoslaw, the district of the Don Cossacks, and
the neighbourhood of Moscow, from private mines, and the extrac-
tion of mineral oils in the Caucasus shows a great increase, and oil
wells have lately been discovered in the government of Kielce,Poland.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Of Eussia in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — General Count de Schouwalow, accredited October 10, 1874.
Councillor of Embassy. — H. de Bartolomei.
Secretaries. — A. Davydow ; Count N. Alderberg.
Military Attache. — Major-(reneral Gorlow.
Naval Attache. — Vice-Admiral J. Likhatchew.

2. Of Great Britain in Eussia.

Ambassador. — Et. Hon. Lord Augustus W. F. S. Loftus, born in ISIS;
Envoy and Minister to Austria, 1858-60 ; to Prussia, 1860-02 ; and to Bavaria,
1862-66 ; Ambassador to Prussia and the North German Confederation,
1866-71. Appointed Ambassador to Eussia, October 16, 1871.

Secretaries.- -William Doria ; Charles Stewart Scott ; Edwin H. Egerton ; Le
Marchant IT. Gosselin.

Military Attache.— Lt.-Col Hon. F. A. Wellesley.

Money, Weights, and Measures of Eussia.
The money, weights, and measures of Russia, and the British
equivalents, are ae> follows : —

MoNETf.

The Silver Rouble, of 100 copecks . = Approximate value 2s. \0d., or about

7 roubles to the pound sterling.

The silver rouble is the legal unit of money in Russia, and must
contain as such 278 grains, or 4 Zolotnicks and 21 JJolis, of fine
silver. In actual circulation there is little else but paper money,
disc united at from 10 to 20 per cent, below its nominal value.

"Weights and Measures.

I'lic Berkowitz

,. Pood .

,, Chetvert

„ Oxhuft .

Anker

J'edro

= 360 lbs. avoirdupois.
- 36

*?- •>•"! imperial bushels
= 5 Si wine gallons.

= 2| imperial gallons.

Russia. 39 1

28 inches.

The Arshien ....

„ Dessiatine . . = 2 • 702 English acres.

Ship Last . . . . = 2 tons.

1 Pound . . . . . = ~ of a pound English.

1 Pood, or 40lbs. Russian . . = 361bs. English.

63 Poods = 1 ton.

1 Tcketvert . . . . = ^ of imperial quarter.

100 Tchetverts . . . . . = 70 quarters.

1 Verst * =3,500 ft., or 5 furlongs. 12 poles, 2 ft.

Since 1831, the English foot of 12 inches, each inch often parts,
has been used as the ordinary standard of length measures.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Russia.

1. Official Publications

Annuaire des finances misses : budget, credit, commerce, chemins de fer. Par
A. Vesselovsky, attache au ministere des finances. (juatrieme annee. 8. St.
Petersbourg, 1876.

Materials for a Statistick of the Empire of Russia. Published, under the
sanction of His Majesty, by the Statistical Department of the Ministry of the
Interior (Russian). 8. St. Petersburg, 1863-76.

Receuil de Donnees statistiqu.es sur les Chemins de Per en Russie au ler
septembre 1871. Public par le comte de Sollohub. St. Peters bourg, 1871.

Sbornick : Military-statistical Cyclopaedia, issued under the direction of the
Imp. Ministry of War (Russian), i. St, Petersburgh, 1873.

Tableau ilu commerce exterieur de la Russie de 1856 a 1871. Publie par la
commission Imperiale Russe de 1 exposition universelle de Yienne. 8. St.
lourg, 1873.

Report by Mr. Lumley, British Secretary of Embassy, on the Railways of
Russia, dated August 25, 1869; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation. No. I. 1870. London, 1870.

Reports by Mr. T. Michell, Consul at St. Petersburg, Mr. W. Campbell,
Consul at Helsingfors, and Mr. J. Grignon, Consul at Riga, on the population,
State of agriculture, and land laws of Russia, dated December 1869
and January 1870 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Representatives on the Tenure
of Land in the Several Countries of Europe.' Part II. Eol. London. 1870.

Report by Mr. Horace Rumbold, British Secretary of Embassy, on the
Revenue and Expenditure of Russia, and the -Progress made in Railway Con-
struction, dated St. Petersburg. April 30, 1870: in 'Reports by IT. M.'s
,ries of Embassy and Legation.' No. I. 1871. 8. London, 1871.

Report by Mr. Francis Clan- Ford, Secretary of Embassy, on the Financial
and Commercial Condition of the Russian Empire, dated Si Petersburg, Jin
1, 1872; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No.
III. 1872. 8. London, 1872.

Report by Mr. W. Doria, Secretary of Embassy, on the Finances and Com-
merce of ihe Russian Empire, dated St. Petersburg, Dec. 20, 1875, with
annexes of January 22, 1876 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy
and Legation.' Parti., 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Report by Mr. Consul-General Mansfield, on the Trade and Commerce of
Poland during the year 1872, dated Warsaw, September 10, 1873; in ' Reports
from H.M.'s Consuls. No I. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Report by Mr. Consul Zohrab • □ the coalfii L ol El o I l\i ; by Mr.

Consul Cicognani on the trade of Nicolaieff; and by Mr. Consul Grignon on

392 TUB STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

the trade and commerce, of Riga, dated September-October 1873 : in 'Reports
from H.M.'s Consuls on the manufactures, commerce, &c, of their consular
districts.' Part I. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Report by Mr. Consul Stevens on the trade of NicolaiefF, and on commerce
and navigation in Southern Russia, dated January 12, 1874 ; in ' Reports from
H.M.'s Consuls on the manufactures, commerce, &c, of their consular districts.'
Part II. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Reports by Mr. Consul Carruthers on the trade and commerce of Taganrog,
and by Mr. Consul Zohrab on the trade of Berdiansk, dated January-February
1874; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls on the manufactures, commerce, &c, of
their consular districts.' Part III. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Report by Mr. Consul-General Mansfield, on the Trade and Commerce of
Poland, during the year 1873. dated Warsaw, September 9, 1874; in 'Reports
from H.M.'s Consuls.' No. I. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report byMr. Consul Guignon on the commerce of Riga, dated Riga, November
12, 1875 ; in ' Reports from~H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Report byMr. Consul-General Stanley, on the Trade and Commerce of
Odessa, dated Odessa, March 4, 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part II. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Russia with the United Kingdom ; in 'Annual Statement of the
trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
for the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Bax (Capt B. W., R.N.) Russian Tartary, Eastern Siberia. 8. London,
1876.

Bar (K. E. von), and Helmersen (Gr. von), Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Rus-
sischen Reichs. 25 vols. 8. St. Petersburg, 1852-72.

Barry (Herbert), Russia in 1870. 8. London, 1871.

Bernhardt (T. von), Geschichte Russland's. 2 vols. Leipzig, 1874.

Besobrasof (W.), Etudes sur les revenus publics. 1, partie. Memoires de
l'acad. des sciences de St. Petersbourg. 4. St. Petersbourg, 1870.

Braschc (Otto). Beitrag zur Methode der Sterblichkeitsberechnung und zur
Mortalitiitsstatistik Russlands. 8. Wiirzburg, 1870.

Buschen (A. von), Apertj'u statistique des forces produetives de la Russie. 8.
Paris, 1868.

Eckardt (Dr. Julius), Russland's landliche Zustiinde seit Aufhebung der
Leibeigenschaft. 8. Leipzig, 1870.

Erman (Georg Adolf), Arc-hiv fur die wissenschaftliehe Kunde Russlands.
25 vols. 8. Berlin, 1841-68.

Flerofski (N.), The Condition of the Labouring Classes in Russia. (Russian.,
8. St. Petersburg, 1869.

Golovine (Ivan), Etudes et Essais: Richesse de la Russie, Economie privee,
Economie hospitaliere. 8. Paris, 1864.

Haxthausen (A. von), Studien liber die innern Zustande, das Volksleben u. s. w.
Russlands. 3 vols. 8. Berlin, 1847-52.

Ignatius (K. E. T.) Statistisk Handbok for Finland. 8. Helsingfors, 1872.

Jourdier (L.), Des forces produetives, destructives, et improductives de la
Russia. 8. 2nd ed. Leipzig. 1861.

Koppen (Dr. P. von), Statistisehe Reise in Russland. 8. St. Petersburg, 1864.

Martin (Henri), La Russie d'Europe. 8. Paris, 1865.

Michell (Robert), Summary of Statistics of the Russian Empire, in ' Journal
of the Statistical Society of London.' Vol. 35, part 3. 8. London, 1872.

Olberg (If. |, Statistisehe Tabellen des russi&chen Reichs. 8. Berlin, 1859.

Russia. 393

Pairfy (J. N.), Description ethnographique des peuples de la Russie. 8.
St. Petersbourg, 1862.

Petzhuldt (Alex.), Eeise im Westlichen mid Siidlichen Europiiischen Euss-
land. 8. Leipzig. 1860.

Porochine (Vict, de), Les Eessources Materielles de la Eussie. 8. Paris, 1865.

Raven stein (E. G.), The Russians on the Amur; its Discovery, Conquest, and
Colonisation. 8. London, 1861.

Reed (E. J.) Letters from Russia in 1875. 8. London, 1876.

Rbttger (Carl), Eussische Revue. Monatsschrift fur die Kunde Russlands.
8. .St. Petersburg, 1876.

Sarauw (Christian von) Die Russische Heeresmacht auf G-rund offiizieller
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Sarauw (Chrn. Hon), Russland's Kommerzielle Mission in Mittelasien. S.
Leipzig, 1871.

Schuyler (Eugene), Turkestan. Notes of a Journey in Russian Turkestan,
Khokand, Bukhara, and Kuldja. 2 volumes. 8. London. 1876.

Schnitzler (Jean Henri), L'Empire des Tsars. 3 vols. 8. Paris and
St. Petersburg, 1856-69.

Schnitzler (Jean Henri), Les Institutions de la Russie, depnis les reformes
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Statistische Mittheilungen aus Russland (Reprinted from the ' St. Peters-
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394

SPAIN.

(Las Espanas.)

Reigning- Sovereign and Family.

Alfonso XII., King of Spain, born November 28, 1857, the son of
Queen Isabel and of the Infante Francisco ; proclaimed King of
Spain at Madrid, December 31, 1874 ; landed at Barcelona and
assumed the government, January 9, 1875.

Parents of the King. — Queen Isabel, born October 10, 1830;
the eldest daughter of King Fernando VII. ; ascended the throne at
the death of her father, Sept. 29, 1833 ; assumed the government on
being declared of age by the Cortes, November, 8, 18-13; exiled
September 30, 1868; abdicated in favour of her son, June 25, 1870.
Married Oct. 10, 1846, to her cousin. Infante Francisco, born May
13, 1822.

Sisters of the King. — 1. Infanta Isabel, Princess of the Asturias,
burn December 20, 1851 ; married May 13, 1868, to Gaetan, Count
de Girgenti ; widow, November 26, 1871. 2. Infanta Marie del
Pilar, born June 4, 1861. 3. Infanta Marie della Paz, born June
23, 1862. 4. Infanta Eulalia, born February 12, 1864.

Aunt of the King. — Infanta Louise, born January 30, 1832, the
second daughter of King Fernando VII. ; married October 10, 1846,
to Prince Antoine of Orleans, due de Montpensier, sixth son of King
Louis Philippe of the French. Offspring of the union are three
daughters and one son, namely, 1. Princess Isabelle, born September
21, 1848; married May 30, 1864, to Prince Louis Philippe, Comte
de Paris, born August 24, 1838, eldest son of Prince Ferdinand,
Duke of Orleans. There are issue a daughter, Amelie, born
September 28, 1865, and a son, Louis Philippe, born February 6,
1869. 2. Princess Christine, born October 29, 1852. 3. Princess
Marie, born June 24, 1860. 4. Prince Antoine, born Feb. 23, 1866.

Cousin of the King. — Infante Don Carlos Marie-de-los-Dolores,
claimant to the throne of Spain, born March 30, 1848, the eldest
son of Infante Don Carlos Antoine, born May 15, 1822, who resigned
in his favour his claims to the crown, October 3, 1868. Married
February 4, 1867, to Princess Marguerite of Bourbon, daughter of
Duke Carlos III. of Parma. Offspring of the union are two daughters
and a son, namely, Blanche, born Sept. 7, 1868 ; Joaquiin, born
June 27, 1870; and Elvira, born April 26, 1871.

SPAIN.

395

King Alfonso XII. has a civil list, fixed by the Cortes in June
187G, of 7,000,000 pesetas, or 280,000/., exclusive of allowances to
members of the royal family. The parents of the King, ex-queen
Isabel and her husband, have an allowance of 1,050,000 pesetas, or
42,000/., and the four infantas, his sisters, of 800,000 pesetas, or
32,000/. The total amount of the civil list and allowances to the
relatives of the King was fixed by the Cortes in 1876 at 10,000,000
pesetas, or 400,000/.

The following is a list of the sovereigns and sovereign rulers of
Spain, with dates of their accession, since the foundation of the Spanish
monarchy by the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile: —

House of Aragon.

House of Bourbon.

Fernando V., '

The Catholic '

. 1512

Fernando VII., restored .
Isabel ....

. 1814
. 1833

House of Hahshunj.

Carlos I.

. 1516

Republic.

Felipe II.
F.-lipe III. .
Felipe IV.

1556

Provisional Government .

. 1868

. 1598
1621

Marshal Serrano, Regent

. 1869

Carlos II.

1665

House of Savoy.

House of Bourbon.

Amadeo ....

. 1870

Felipe V.

1700

Fernando VI.

1746

Republic.

Carlos III. .
Carlos IV.

1759

Executive of the Cortes .

. 1873

1788

Marshal Serrano, President

. 1874

Fernando VII.

1808

Hulls'

of Bonaparte.

House of Bourbon.

Joseph Bonaparte .

1808

Alfonso XII. .

. 1875

The average reign of the thirteen monarchs of Spain, from King
Fernando V. to King Alfonso XII., filling a period of three centuries
and a hall', was twenty-seven years.

Government and Constitution.

The present constitution of Spain, drawn up by the government
and laid before a Cortes Constituyentes, elected for its ratification,
March 27, L876, was proclaimed June 30, 1876. It consists of 7:»
articles or clauses. The first of them enacts that Spain shall be a
constitutional monarchy, the executive resting in the King, and
the power to make the laws 'in the Cortes with the King.' The
Cortes are composed of a Senate and Congress, o<|ua I in authority.
There are three classes of Senators — first, Senators by their own
right, or Senadores de derec Jio proprio; secondly, 100 life Senators
nominated by the Crown; and thirdly, 130 Senators elected by the
Corporations of State, and by the largesl payers of contributions.
Senators in their own right are the sons, if any, of the King and of

39^ THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

the immediate heir to the throne, who have attained their majority ;
Grandees who are so in their own right and who can prove an
annual renta of 60,000 pesetas, or 2,400/.; captain-generals of the
army ; admirals of the navy; the patriarch of the Indias and the arch-
bishops ; the presidents of the Council of State, of the Supreme
Tribunal, and of the Tribunal of Cuentas del Keino. The elective-
Senators must be renewed by one-half every five years, and by totality
every time the King dissolves that part of the Cortes. The Congress
is formed by deputies ' named in the electoral Juntas in the form the
law determines,' in the proportion of one to every 50,000 souls of
the population Members of Congress must be 25 years of age; they
are re-eligible indefinitely, the elections being for five years. The
deputies cannot take State office, pensions, and salaries ; but the
ministers are exempted from this law. Both Congress and Senate
meet every year. The King has the power of convoking them,
suspending them, or dissolving them ; but in the latter case a new
Cortes must sit within three months. The King appoints the
president and vice-president of the Senate from members of the
Senate only. The King and each of the legislative chambers can
tahe the initiative in the laws.

The constitution of June 30, 1876, further enacts that the King is
inviolable, but his ministers are responsible, and that all Ins decrees
must be countersigned by one of them. The Cortes must approve
his marriage before he can contract it, and the King cannot marry
any one excluded by law from the succession to the crown. The
succession follows the regular order of primogeniture! Should the
lines of the legitimate descendants of Alfonso XII. become extinct
the succession shall be in this order — first, to his sisters; next to his
aunt and her legitimate descendants; and next to his uncles, the
brothers of Ferdinando VII., ' unless they have been excluded.' If
all the lines become extinct ' the nation will elect its monarch.'

The executive is vested, under the King, in a Council of Ministers
of nine members, as follows : —

President of the Council. — Don Antonio Canovas del Castillo,
appointed December 3, 1875.

Minister of Foreign Affairs. — Don Calderon y Collantes, appointed
December 3, 1875.

Minister of Finance. — Don Jose Barzanallana, appointed July 25,
1876.

Minister of the Interior. — Don Francisco Romero y Robledo, ap-
pointed December 3, 1875.

Minister <d' Justice. — Don Martin de Herrera, appointed December
3, 1875.

Minister of Commerce and Public Works. — Don Borja Queipo de
Llano, Count de Toreno, appointed December 3, 1*75.

spain. 397

Minister of War. — Lieut.-General Caballos y Vargas, appointed
December 3, 1875.

Minister of Marine. — Vice- Admiral Juan Bautista Antequera,
appointed April 2. 1876.

Miniver of the Colonies. — Don Adelardo Lopez de Ayala, appointed
December 3, 1875.

The various provinces of Spain, districts and communes, are
governed by their own municipal laws, with strongly pronounced
local administration. In the Constitution of 1869, the municipal
liberties of the people are guaranteed by Section 99 — ' La organi-
zacion y atribuciones de las Diputaciones provinciales y Ayunta-
mientos se regirau por sus respectivas leyes.' Every commune of
at least sixty members has its own elected Ayuntamiento, consisting
of from four to twenty-eight Regidores, or Consejales, and presided
over by the Alcalde, at whose side stand, in the larger towns, several
Alcaldes tenientes. The entire municipal government, with power
of taxation, and authority for preserving the pubbc peace, is vested
in the Ayuntamientos, re-elected every two years, the members
appointing annually the Alcalde, executive functionary, from their
own body. From the communal representation flows that of the
provinces of Spain, each of which has its own Parliament, the
Diputacio provincial, the members of which are elected by the
Ayuntamientos. The Diputaciones provinciales, which are in-
vested with large political powers, and in many respects independent
of the national government and legislature, meet in annual session,
and are permanently represented by the Consejo provincial, a com-
mittee of from three to six members, re-elected every year. The
Constitution of 1869 specially secures to the Diputaciones provin-
ciales and the Ayuntamientos the government and administration
of the respective provinces and communes — ' gobierno y direccion
de los intereses peculiares de la provincia 6 del pueblo por las re-
spectivas corporaciones.' Neither the national executive nor the
Cortes have the right to interfere in the established municipal and
provincial self-government, except in the case of the action of the
Diputaciones provinciales and Ayuntamientos going beyond the
locally limited sphere to the injury of general and permanent in-
terests— ' se extralimiten de sus atribuciones en perjuicio de los in-
tereses generales y permanentes.'

Church and Education.

The national Church of Spain is the Roman Catholic, and the
whole population of the kingdom, with the exception of about
(50,000 persons, adhere to the same faith. According to Article 1_
of the Constitution of 1876,a restricted liberty of worship is allowed

598 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

to Protestants, but it has to be entirely in private, all public an-
nouncements of the same being strictly forbidden. The Constitution
likewise enacts that ' the nation binds itself to maintain the worship
and ministers of the Roman Catholic religion.' Resolutions of former
legislative bodies, not repealed in the Constitution of 1876, settled that
the clergy of the established Church are to be maintained by the State.
On the other hand, by two decrees of the Cortes, passed July 23, 1835,
and March 9, 1836, all conventual establishments were suppressed,
and their property confiscated for the benefit of the nation. These
decrees gave rise to a long dispute with the head of the Roman
Catholic Church, which ended in the sovereign pontiff conceding
the principle of the measure. By a concordat with Rome, concluded
m August, 1859, the Spanish Government was authorised to sell the
whole ecclesiastical property, except churches and parsonages, in
return for an equal amount of untransferable public debt certificates,
bearing interest at the rate of 3 per cent.

In 1862 there were in Spain 2,806 prelates and priests of
cathedrals and colleges ; 33,881 incumbents, or priests with paro-
chial cures; and 3,198 assistant priests, without cure of souls.
The numbers show an immense decline over previous periods.
According to the official returns of the census of 1787, the ecclesi-
astics of all descriptions, including 61,617 monks, 32,500 nuns, and
2,705 inquisitors, amounted to 188,625 individuals. Haifa century
later, in 1833, the class still comprised 175,574 individuals, of whom
61,727 were monks, and 24,007 nuns. The total number of secu-
larised religious persons or ' regulares exclaustrados,' amounted to
6,822 in 1858, to 6,323 in 1859, and to 6,072 in 1862. Of this
number about 3,000 assist the secular clergy, and the rest make up the
3,072 assistant priests without cure of souls. The upper hierarchy
comprises, since the year 1851, when a Concordat, settling the
administration of ecclesiastical affairs, was concluded with the Pontiff
of Rome, 43 bishops, and 9 archbishops, the latter of Toledo, Burgos,
Granada, Santiago di Compostela, Saragossa, Sevilla, Tarragona,
Valencia, and Valladolid. At the head of the Church stands the
Archbishop of Toledo, Primate of Spain.

Up to a very recent period, the great mass of the population of
Spain was in a state of extreme ignorance. It was rare, in the latter
part of the eighteenth century, and at the beginning of the present,
to find a peasant, or an ordinary workman, who was able to read,
which accomplishment, among women, was even held to be immoral.
Until the year 1808, public education was entirely in the hands
of the clergy ; but subsequent enactments, giving the instruction of
the people in charge of the Government, have made a radical change
in this respect. The State, however, pays but a very small
sum towards public education, which is left mainly to the charge

spain. 399

of the communes and the parents themselves: but the super-
intendence of the Government over educational matters has led
to vast progress. In 1797 only 393,120 children attended the
primary schools, which were very imperfect. In 1812, the Cortes
tried to introduce some modifications, but failed, on account of
the war, in making a radical reform in popular education. Fresh
efforts were made in 1820 and 1825, but still without much success.
The law of July 21, 1838, enjoining the expenditure of considerable
sums by the communes for the purpose of public instruction,. proved
a great step in advance. Since that time the laws have been several
times amended, especially in 1847 and 1857, when the masters were
subjected to examination, schoolrooms built, and different scholastic
institutions founded. The result was, that in 1848 there were
663,711 pupils, and on January 1, 1861, 1,046,558 pupils, of both
sexes, divided between the public and private schools.

It was found at the last general census, of 1860, that of the total
population of the kingdom there were 2,414,015 men, and 715,906
women, able to read and write; 316,557 men, and 389,211 women,
able to read but not to write; and that all the rest, upwards of 5,000,000
men, and 6,800,000 women, could neither read nor write. At the
preceding census, of 1846, the total number of persons, of both sexes,
able to write, was found to be no more than 1,221,00], while the
total number able to read was only 1,898,288, or considerably less
than one-fifth of the population.

According to official returns laid before the Cortes in July 1876,
the number of places of worship and schools of Spanish Protestants
were as follows: 53 places of worship; 90 schools, enrolled mem-
bers 2,500, and 8,000 attendants at service on Sundays at the various
chapels; 3,000 children. The poorest receive Protestant education.

Middle-class education is given in fifty-eight public colleges by
757 professors to 13,881 pupils. In first-class education, the most
remarkable feature is the large number of law-students, namely,
3,755 in 1859-60, divided among ten faculties. There were, a1 thai
date, ten faculties of literature and philosophy, with 224 students ;
seven faculties of sciences, with 141 students; four faculties
of pharmacy, with 544; seven faculties of medicine, with 1,178; and
six faculties of theology, with 339 students — in all 6, LSI studenl .
The expenditure for public education by the government amounted,
on the average of the last years, to rather less than 25<>,<i<n>/.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The revenue of the kingdom is raised by a system of direct and
indirect taxation, stamp duties, Government monopolies, and income
from state property. The direct taxes are impost d on landed pr< -

400

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

perty, houses, live stock, industry, commerce, registration acts,
titles of nobility, mortgages, and mineral produce. The indirect
taxes are derived from foreign imports, articles of consumption,
tolls, bridge and ferry dues.

There have been no accounts of the actual public revenue and
expenditure of the kingdom published since the year 1868, but only
budget estimates. These differ to an extent such as to allow not
even an approximate judgment of the real receipts and disburse-
ments. According to the budgets of recent years, both the revenue
and expenditure are greatly on the decrease, as Avill be seen from
the following tabular statement, giving the official budget for the
financial year, ending June 30, 1871, together with the budget for
the financial year ending June 30, 1875 : —
Sources of Kevenue.

Direct taxes .
Indirect taxes
Sale of national property
State monopolies
Colonial revenue
Exemption from military
Miscellaneous receipts

Total

Year 1870-71

Year 1874-75

7,932,450

6,047,000

4,851,210

4,333,000

9,120,371

2,317,000

4,312,715

5,308,000

1,135,000

119.000

2,545,000

550,000

1,023,000

27,901,746 21,792,000

Branches of Expenditure.

Civil list

Cortes .......

Public debt

Compensations for abolished privileges .
Pensions ......

Ministry of President of the Council

,, Foreign Affairs .

„ Grace and Justice

War

,, Marine ....

,, Interior ....

,, Public Works

,, Finance ....

„ Colonies ....

Expenses on account of sale of national
property ......

Total

Year 1870-71

312,000

33,122

10.451.200

223,450

1,931,221

69.834

142,340

2,521,713

4,730,321

965,210

992,752

1,721.356

5,782,427

16,240

2,926,238

Year 1874-75
£
120,000

1,956,000

400,000

1,260,000

20,000

12,000

41,000

9.840,000

1,320,000

739,000

78,500

4,100,000

200,000

721,500

32,819,424 | 20,821,000

According to the budget estimates for the financial year 1870-71,
there was to have been a deficit of 4,917,G78Z. The actual deficit,
as reported by the Minister of Finance to the Cortes, amounted
in July 1871 to 9,730,895/., being a difference of 4,813,217/. in

SPAIN.

40i

excess of the estimates. The financial estimates for the next fol-
lowing year 1871-72 were calculated upon a revenue of 27,247,620/.,
and an expenditure of 28,917,231/., and the estimates for 1872-73
on a revenue of 22,354,231/. and an expenditure to the same
amount. The Minister of Finance declared, in presenting the budget
for 1871-72, that the State was 'on the verge of bankruptcy,' from
which it could be saved only ' by the most strenuous exertions,
devoted both to raise the revenue, by the imposition of new taxes
and otherwise, and to depress the expenditure to the lowest pos-
sible point.' The latter recommendation has in recent years become
ever more impossible of execution on account of the huge expendi-
ture connected with the civil war. It will be seen from the pre-
ceding statement, giving the budgets for 1870-71 and 1874-75, that
while in the former financial year the cost of the Avar department
was estimated at 4,730,321/., it was set down in 1874-75 at
9,840,000/., being about one-half of the total revenue which it was
expected would be raised. But even this sum but inadequately
represents the cost of the civil war, which, according to the most
reliable accounts, requires, at the lowest estimate, a daily outlay of
50,000/., being 18,250,000/. a year.

The large and constantly increasing annual deficits, dating from
the reign of Queen Isabel, were covered, partly, by loans, partly by
extraordinary taxation — such as that ' exemptions from military ser-
vice,' figuring in the budget of 1874-75, — and partly by the sale of
national property, formerly belonging to churches, convents, and
monasteries. The national and church property of Spain was and is
still of immense value, but there was a reluctance in some persons to
buy the latter on account of religious scruples, till 1858, when a con-
cordat was concluded with the Pope and sanction obtained for the
sales, which Avere then actively continued, the Government giving
great facilities to the purchasers. The payments are made one-
tenth in cash, and the remainder in promissory notes from 1 to 10,
and, in some cases, to 19 years, the property remaining mortgaged
to the final instalment, OAving to which the biddings at times have
been for even more than double the amount of its value. The
Cortes, in 1859, 1861, and 1863, authorised the Government to
apply 28,000,000/. for extraordinary expenses in constructing roads
and railways, and of this sum about 18,000,000/. had been spent
in 1869, the money being obtained out of the funds placed at in-
terest by capitalists, corporations, and the public in the ' Caja de
Depositos,' or Deposit Bank, under the direction of the Government.

The constant and ever-increasing excess of Government expendi-
ture over public revenue created a national debt of very large
amount. According to a notice published by the Government in
the ' Guia official de Espaila ' of 1875, the debt and its annual

D D

402

THE STATESMAN S TEAK-BOOK, 1877-

interest were as follows at the two dates of December 31, 1871, and
June 30, 1874 :—

Dec. 30, 1871 .
June 30, 1874 .

Capital of Debt

Interest

Reales.
29,734,586,152
40,481,140,882

£
297,345,861
404,811,408

Reales £
810,211,213 8,102,112:
1,023,122,8041 10,231,228

A report published in the ' Imparcial,' a paper of Madrid, stated
that at the end of June 1875 the national indebtedness had risen to
53,000,000,000 reales, or 530,000,000?. Since the end of the year
1871, the wants of the Government have been supplied mainly by
temporary loans, raised at very high rates, and the nominal amount
of which served to swell the national liabilities to its present
enormous dimensions.

The following statement gives the various items of the debt as
existing on the 1st of November 1871, distinguishing the loans
contracted previous to October 1868, and those contracted from
October 18G8 to October 1871.

Loans Contracted previous to October 1868.
Description
Debt consolidated, viz. : —

Due to the United States, 5% debt
External, 3 % .
Internal ,,

favour of

Bonds inscribed, not convertible, in
porations
„ In favour of the Clergy .

Debt external, deferred 3 %
,, internal, „ ,,

,, redeemable, of the 1st class
,, external „ 2nd „

,, internal ,, 2nd ,,

English reclamations

Debts redeemable : —

Bonds of public, roads

„ ancient, of railways

,, for public works

„ new, of railways
Debt for materials
Arrears of salary due to public employes
Shares of the Canal of Isabel II
Later issues
Debt not converted .
Redemption of Sound dues

Total

Civil Cor

Escudos
of 10 reales.

1,200,000
200,481,200
579,053,337
244,257,800

112,324,586

133,598,837

229,822,400

261,801,792

5,846,737

27,591,200

21,023,000

1,000

13,170,300

16,900

6,454,200

141,204,400

416,236

43,233,246

1,048,400

74,265,230

112,820,117

1,300,000

f2,210,930,917
\ £221,093,092

SPAIN. 403

Description Escudos of 10 rentes
Loans contracted from October 1S68 to December 1871 : —

Loan contracted with the house of Rothschild . . 40,000,000

National Loan of 1869 200,000,000

ForcedLoanof March 1869 100,000,000

„ May 1871 63,750,000

October 1871 358,708,610

m* 1 er> w T» ^* ■ iq-i f 2,973,458,615
Total of Public Debt in 18/ 1 < i2Q7 345 861

In 1851, on account of the inability of the Government to meet
its engagements in full, a portion of the debt of Spain was converted
into Passive Stock, that is, a stock not bearing interest, and which
was to be liquidated by an annual sinking fund. The law closed
the London market, and subsequently that of Paris, against Spanish
loans. It was admitted by successive ministers of finance in recent
years that Spain was absolutely unable to pay interest on its debt
in the existing state of things, ruined both by a costly and wasteful
civil war, and desperate and equally costly efforts to suppress the
insurrection in Cuba. In a report of the Government of the King
Alfonso XII., dated July 1875, it was stated that not any of the
national creditors could hope to be satisfied ' without having recourse
to credit operations at an enormous rate of interest, which in a
short time doubles the original debt.'

Army and Navy.

The army of Spain was re-organised in 1868, after the model of
that of France. Under the new military law, the armed forces of the
kingdom consist of — 1. A permanent army ; 2. A first or active re-
serve ; 3. A second or sedentary reserve. All Spaniards past the
age of 20 are liable to be drawn for the permanent army, in which
they have to serve four years. The first or active reserve is com-
posed of all young men who, without reckoning four years of
active service, have exceeded the number of years fixed by law for
the permanent force. The position of these young men is that of
soldiers upon six months' furlough without any pay. The second
reserve consists of all those men who, proceeding from the re-
cruits, shall have had four years' effective service, only excepting
those who at their own request or for the convenience of the service
may be allowed to remain on the active list. It is arranged that until
the new organisation shall have come into full effect, — which was
not the case at the end of 1876, — and in order to preserve a proper
proportion between the active army and the reserve, the government
may anticipate the period of passing into the second reserve, even
before the completion of the four years of active service, in the case

404

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

of any number who, between the permanent army and the first
reserve, may exceed 100,000 men. Every soldier must be liberated
after having served eight years either in the active or in the reserve
army. The nominal strength of the armed forces of Spain, in-
cluding those serving in the Isle of Cuba, was stated at 180,000
men in 1876.

For military purposes the kingdom is divided into five districts,
or ' capitanias generales,' at the head of each of which stands a
' captain-general,' with the rank of field-marshal. Official returns
of the year 1876 state the actual strength of the army, including the
' provinciales ' or provincial militia, and the ' guardia civil ' or
national guard, as follows : —

Infantry .

Staff

Officers

Rank and file

Total

278

2,647

57.258

60,183

Artillery ....

369

9,486

9,899

Engineers ....

2,288

2,368

Cavalry .

107

829

10,904

11,840

' Provinciales'

173

1,510

43,243

44,926

' Carabineros '

470

11,549

12,062

' Guardia civil '

Total .

401

9,965

10,390

677

6,298

144,693

151,668

The general staff of the Spanish army comprises five captains-
general on the active list, besides titular dignitaries, 60 lieutenants-
general, 131 majors-general, and 238 brigadiers-general.

The navy consisted, according to official returns, of the following
vessels, at the end of June 1875 : —

Screw Steamers : —

7 iron-clad frigates, of from 16 to 40 guns
19 frigates, of from 26 to 51 guns .
26 corvettes, of from 2 to 5 guns
18 gun-boats, each with 1 gun

63 steamers ....

Paddle Steamers : —
3 frigates, of 14, 16, and 18 guns
5 corvettes, of from 2 to 10 guns

10 avisos, 2 of 1, and 8 of 2 guns

Guns

187

413

686

48
40
18

18 paddle steamers .....
3. Sailing Vessels : —

1 corvette, of 15 guns .

4 naval-school ships, of from 18 to 30 guns

3 coast-guard vessels, of 2 guns each

106

15
106

122

SPAIN. 405

The seven iron-clads of the Spanish navy were, with one exception,
built in England. The largest of them, called the Victoria, launched
early in 1868, was constructed by the Thames Ironworks Company.
The dimensions of the ship are : — Length, 316 ft. ; breadth, 57 ft. ;
depth, 38 ft. ; burden, 4,862 tons. The Victoria carries 24 guns,
and is armoured from stem to stern with 5-^-in. plates and 10 in.
teak; the engines, of 1,000-horse power, nominal, are of the same
type as those of the Warrior and Minotaur. Next to the Victoria
in size is the Numancia, built in the floating docks of Cartagena —
the latter, 324 feet in length, of 105 feet outside, and 78 feet inside
breadth, the erection of Sir John Rennie — under the supervision of
English engineers. The Numancia is built entirely of iron, with the
exception of the teak backing for the armour plating, and is 316
feet long, and 57 feet broad at the beam, with a draught of Avater of
27 feet 4 inches. The Numancia is completely encased by 5 -in.
armour of 1,500 tons weight, and pierced for forty 68-pounders.
The port cills, with provisions for 600 men and 1,000 tons of coal on
board, are 7 ft. 6 in. out of water ; her full speed is 13 knots, and her
engines are of 1,000 nominal horse power. Next in rank after the
Numancia is the Arapiles, oldest of Spanish iron-clads, built at
Blackwall, and launched October 17, 1864. The Arapiles, con-
structed after French models, is of wood, covered with plates A\
inches thick, and carries 34 guns in broadside battery, with engines
of 800 horse-power. The other four iron-clads are smaller vessels,
carrying six and ten guns, with engines of 500 horse-power.

For the defence of the colonies, and mainly of Cuba and Porto
Rico, Spain maintains a small fleet of gun-boats, constructed in the
United States during the year 1870. The gunboats, thirty-five in
number, are all of the same size, 107ft. long, 22^ft. beam, 8ft.
depth of hold, and draw about 5ft. water. They are screw steamers, .
and each one carries a 100-pounder pivot gun at the bow.

The navy of Spain was manned, in 1875, by 9,750 sailors, and
5,500 marines, and commanded by one ' captain -general of the fleet,'
20 admirals, and 378 commissioned officers of various grades. The
navy, like the army, is recruited by conscription, naval districts for
this purpose being formed along the coast, among the seafaring popu-
lation. The number inscribed on these naval conscription lists in
the year 1870 amounted to 66,000 men between 18 and 30 years
of age, and was reported to be 72,000 at the end of June 1875.

Population.

There has been no general enumeration of the population since
the year 1860, although at various times preparations for a census
were made by the government. The last general census, taken at

406

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

the end of May 1860, stated the area and total population of the
kingdom as folloAvs : —

Continent of Spain .
Balearic Islands
Canary Islands

Total

Area:
English sq. miles

Population

177,781
1,757
3,220

15,807,753
266,952
227,146

182,758

16,301,851

The estimated population of Spain, at the end of 1870, calculated
by the 'Direccion general de Estadistica' after the returns of births
and deaths, was 16,885,506, showing an increase of not more than
533,655 since the census of 1860.

The kingdom, inclusive of the adjacent islands, is divided into
forty-nine provinces, the area and population of which, and of the
twelve ancient divisions, were as follows, in 1846 and 1860 : —

Provinces

lArea: English
sq. miles

Population,
1846

Population,
1860

New Castille— Madrid

1 1,315

369,126

475,785

Cuadalaxara

i 1,946

159,044

199,088

Toledo

! 8,774

276,952

328,755

Cuenca

11,304

234,582

229,959

Ciudad Eeal
Total

7,543

277,788

244,328

. 1 30,882

1,317,492

1,477,915

Old Castille— Burgos

)

f 224.407

333,356

Logrono

}\ 7,674

\ 147,718

173,812

Santander

L 166,730

214,441

Oviedo .

3,686

434,635

524,529

Soria .

4,076

115,619

147,468

Segovia

3,466

134,854

146,839

Avila .

2,569

137,903

164,039

Leon

5,894

267,438

348,756

Palencia

1,733

148,491

185,970

Valladolid .

3,279

184,647

244,023

Salamanca

5,626

210,314

263,516

Zamora

Total

3,562

159,425

249,162

72,447

3.649,673

5,473,826

Galicia — Corunna
Lugo .

f 435,670

551,989

15,897

I 357,272

424,186

Orense
Pontevedra .

Total

1 319,038

371,818

1 360,002

428,886
6,250,705

88,344

5,121,655

Estremadura — Badajos

14 329 j

/ 316,622

404,981

Caceres
Total

I 102,673 |

V 231,398

302,134

5,669,675

6,957,820

SPAIN.

407

Area and Population — continued.

Provinces

Area: English
sq. miles

Brought /one
Andalusia — Seville
Hnelva
Cadiz
Jaen
Cordova

Tota
Grenada — Grenada
Almeria

Malaga

Tota
Valencia — Valencia
Alicant
Castellon-deda

Plana
Murcia
Albacete

Total
Catalonia — Barcelona .
Tarragona
Lerida
Gerona

Total
Aragon — Zaragoza
Huesca
Teruel .

Total
Navaasre

Total
Guipnscoa — Alva
Biscay
Guipuscoa

Total
Islands — Balearic Islands
Canary Islands

Total

Population,
1846

102,673

8,989

4,451
4,159

120,272
9,622

129,894

7,683

7,877

145,454
12,180

157,634

14,726

5,699,675
367,303
133,470
324,703
266,919
315,459

7,077,529

376,974
234,739
338,442

172,360
2,450

174,810
1,082
1,267

622

8,027,734
f 451,685
J 318,444

[ 199,022
/ 280,694
^ 180,763

97458,342

{442,473
233,477
151,322
214,150

10,490. 7 64
f 304,823
<{ 214,874
I 214,988

11,234,449

221,728

11,456,177

67,523

111,436

104,491

Population,
I860

6,957,820
463,486
174,391
383,078
345,879
351,536

9,676,190
441,917
315,664
451,406

10,885,177

606,608
378,958

260,919
380,969
201,118

12,563,927
713,734
320,593
306,994
310,970

14,216, 218
384,176
257,839
238,628

177,781 11,739,627 15,807,753

1,757 229,197 266,952

3,220 199,950 227,145

182,738 I 12,168,774 ! 16,301,851

15,096,861
297,422

15,394,283

06,398
160,579
156,493

The progress of population did not amount to more than seventy-
five per cent, in the course of the last hundred years. In 1708, the
population was calculated to number 9,307,800 souls; in 1789 it
had risen to 10,061,480; and in 1797 it exceeded 12,000,000
souls. In 1820 it had fallen to 11,000,000, but in 1 823 it had again
risen to 12,000,000, and in 1828 to 13,098,029. Nevertheless, the
official return of 1837 only registered 12,222,872 souls, and a new
tendency to decrease commenced. In 1842 the population was found

408

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

not to exceed 12,054,000 souls. It rose again, as shown in the
preceding table, to 12,108,774 in 184G, and to 16,301,851 in 1860,
giving a density of population, at the latter period, of 90 per English
square mile, or considerably less than half that of Italy, and less
than one-third that of the Netherlands.

Subjoined is the population of the principal towns of Spain,
inclusive of their suburbs, according to an enumeration made on
the 31st of December 1864: —

Towns

Madrid
Barcelona .
Sevilla
Valencia .
Malaga

Population

Towns

Population

475,785
252,015
152,000
145,512
113,050

Murcia
Granada .
Saragossa .
Cadiz
Valladolid

109,446

100,678

82,189

71,914

50,017

The report of an enumeration made in June 1871 stated the
number of inhabitants of Madrid to be 332,024, so that, this being
correct, there was a decline of the population of the capital, amount-
ing to 143,761 souls, in the years 1864 to 1872.

Nearly 46 per cent, of the whole surface of the kingdom is still un-
cultivated. The soil is subdivided among a very large number of
proprietors. Of 3,426,083 recorded assessments to the property-tax,
there are 624,920 properties which pay from 1 to 10 reales ; 511,666
from 10 to 20 reales; 642,377 from 20 to 40 reales; 788,184 from
40 to 100 reales; 416,546 from 100 to 200 reales; 165,202 from
200 to 500 reales ; while the rest, to the number of 279,188, are
larger estates charged from 500 to 10,000 reales and upwards.
The subdivision of the soil is partly the work of recent years, for
in 1800 the number of farms amounted only to 677,520, in the
hands of 273,760 proprietors and 403,760 farmers.

Trade and Industry.

The total imports of Spain, including bullion and specie, averaged
19 millions sterling per annum, within the seven years 1868-74, while
the exports, within the same period, averaged 12 millions sterling.
The commercial movement during the year 1874 exhibited a total
value of 31,403,330/., of which ^15,280,000/. was represented by
imports, and 16,123,330/. by exports. This was a decrease of
13,710,000/. compared with the total commercial movement of the
year 1873, the value of which was 45,113,330/., the imports having
increased during the year 1874 by over 2,730,000/. — entirely spent
upon war materials, furnished by foreign contractors — while the
exports showed a decrease of 16,440,000/. Among the importing

SPAIN.

409

countries, France stands first, and the United Kingdom second ; but
in exports, the latter holds the first rank.

The commercial intercourse between Spain and the United King-
dom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the
total value of the exports of Spain to Great Britain and Ireland,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce into Spain, in each
of the ten years 1866 to 1875 : —

Exports from Spain to

Imports of British Home

Great Britain

Produce into Spain

1866

5,553,132

2,336,903

1867

6,088,318

2,237,962

1868

6,591,021

2,208,892

1869

6,346,741

2,204,115

1870

6,067,018

2,513,177

1871

7,759,441

3,143,419

1872

9,316,820

3,614.448

1873

10,973,231

3.736,620

1874

8,641,639

4,064,231

1875

8,660,953

3,430,343

Both the exports and imports of the preceding table include those
of the Balearic Islands, but not of the Canary Islands.

The principal article of export from Spain to the United
Kingdom is wine. The quantities and value of wine exported to
the United Kingdom were as follows in each of the five years from
1871 to 1875 :—

Tears

Quantities

Value

Gallons

1871

7,706,908

2,699,433

1872

8,357,193

2,748,599

1873

9,389,367

3,033,113

1874

7,496,590

2,276,783

1875

6,891,738

2,122,127

The total imports of wine, from all countries, into the United
Kingdom amounted to 18,224,900 gaUons in 1871 ; to 19,660,127
gallons in 1872; to 21,682,356 gallons in 1873; to 18,234,972
gallons in 1874 ; and to 18,429,305 gallons in 1875. Thus the average
amount contributed by Spain during the five years was about two-
fifths of the total quantity. It was also about two-fifths of the total
value of the wine imports into the United Kingdom, which amounted
to 5,205,600/. in 1869; to 4,817,294/. in 1870; to 7,072,099/. in
1871 ; to 7,718,848/. in 1872; to 8,267,326 in 1873; to 6,863,465/.
in 1874; and to 6,801,015/. in 1875. (See Portugal, page 353.)

410 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Besides wine, the chief articles of export from Spain to the United
Kingdom are fruit, lead, pyrites of iron and copper, esparto grass,
and live animals. In 1875 the exports of fruit, chiefly oranges,
raisins, and nuts, amounted in value to 1,695,567/.; of lead, to
1,586,738/.; of pyrites to 862,702/.; of esparto grass to 531,942/. ;
and of live animals, oxen, and bulls to 440,060/.

The chief British imports into Spain are linen yarn and linens, of
the value of 608,802/. in 1875 ; iron, wrought and unwrought, of
the value of 512,872/., and coals, of the value of 530,904/. in 1875.

The merchant navy of the kingdom consisted, on January 1,
1872 of 4,326 vessels of a total burthen of 359,765 tons. The
commercial navy has been declining in recent years, both in number
of vessels and tonnage. At the commencement of 1860, there were
6,715 vessels, of 449,436 tons burthen, and at the commencement
of 1868 the number of vessels had fallen to 4,840, and the total ton-
nage to 367,790, showing a decrease in the eight years of 1,976
vessels, of an aggregate burthen of 102,400 tons. There was a
further decrease of 514 vessels, of a total burthen of 7,965 tons in
the four years from 1868 to 1872.

The length of railways in Spain on the 1st January 1875, was
5,457 kilometros, or 3,810 English miles; and 2,000 kilometros, or
1,264 English miles, Avere in course of construction.

The whole of the Spanish railways belong to private compa-
nies, but nearly all have obtained guarantees, or subventions,
from the Government. All the principal lines have been con-
ceded to private individuals, or companies, with large subventions.
The concessions, when a ' subvention ' is attached to them, are
given by public adjudication. Any one who has made the stipu-
lated deposit of ' caution money ' may apply for a concession in
sealed tenders, which are opened and read in public on the day of
adjudication, and whoever offers to make the railway with the
lowest subvention becomes legally entitled to the concession.

The Post Office carried 75,300,000 letters in the year 1874.
There were 2,365 post offices on the 1st of January 1875.

The length of lines of telegraphs of Spain on the 1st January
1875, was 12,020 kilometros, or 7,510 English miles, and the length
of wire 27,114 kilometros, or 16,950 English miles. In the year
1874, the total number of telegraph messages was 937,845, one-
tenth of the whole foreign, and one-third of the remaining number
administrative despatches.

Colonies.

The colonial possessions of Spain, formerly embracing nearly the
whole of America, are reduced at present to Cuba, Porto Rico, and
the Philippine Islands, with scattered settlements in the Atlantic and

SPAIN.

411

Indian archipelago, and a small strip of territory in Northern
Africa. The total area of these possessions is 1 J 3,678 English
square miles. The total population, according to the latest official
returns, numbered 6,419,339. These returns state the area and
population of the various possessions as follows :-

Colonial Possessions

Area:

English square 1
miles

Population

1. Possessions in America :

Cuba

Porto Eico .....

Total, America

2. Possessions in Asia:

Philippine Islands ....

Caroline Island and Palaos

Marian Islands ....

Total, Asia .

3. Possessions in Africa :

Fernado do Po and Annsbon .

Total Possessions

43,220 j
3,550

1,414,508
646,362

46,770 ]

2,060,870

65,100
905 j
420

4,319,269

28,000

5,610

66,425

4,352,879

483

5,590

113,678

6,419,339

The statement of the population of Cuba, given in the above
table, is from an enumeration taken in 1867, that of Porto Rico
from one taken in 1866, and that of the possessions in Asia and
Africa from returns of the years 1864 and 1865. Some of these
are only based on estimates.

Spain is the only European state which still permits the existence
of slavery in its colonies. In 1872, the number of slaves in Cuba
was 269,000, and in Porto Rico the year before the slaves numbered
290,000. A bill for the abolition of slavery in Porto Rico was
passed by the National Assembly on the 23rd of March, 1873. The
existence of slavery and the very oppressive rule of the mother
country led to a rebellion in Cuba, which broke out on the 10th of
October, 1868, and continued uninterruptedly during the years
1869-76. In the Asiatic possessions of Spain the slaves form, as in
Cuba, about one-fourth of the population.

Cuba, the principal colonial possession of Spain, is divided into
three provinces, the SE. and central being the richest and most
populous, containing 22 cities and towns, and 204 villages and
hamlets. The commercial prosperity of Cuba has been of late years
greatly on the decline, and an insurrection, which broke out
September 1868, and was not subdued at the end of 1875, put an
increased check upon trade and industry.

412

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

The value of the commercial intercourse between the Spanish
West India Islands, that is Cuba and Porto Eico, and the United
Kingdom, is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives
the value of the total exports of the two possessions to the United
Kingdom, and the total imports into these of British produce in the
five years 1871 to 1875 : —

Exports from Cuba

Imports of British

Years

and Porto-Rico to

produce into Cuba

Great Britain

and Porto-Rico

1871

2,632,095

2,887,926

1872

5,231,543

3,042,257

1873

5,109,259

2,751,927

1874

3,764,587

1,857,768

1875

3,668,776

2,630,634

The staple article of export from Cuba and Porto-Rico to the
United Kingdom is unrefined sugar, the value of which was
1,927,610*. in 1871; 4,275,111*. in 1872; 4,023,329/. in 1873;
2,591,035/. in 1874; and 2,616,416/. in 1875. Next to sugar, the
most important article of export to the United Kingdom is tobacco,
inch cigars, the value amounting to 869,496/. in 1875. The British
imports mainly comprise cotton and linen manufactures, the former
of the value of 940,003/., and the latter of 786,034/. in 1875.

The chief articles of produce of the Philippine Islands are sugar,
hemp, and tobacco. The total exports to Great Britain in 1875
were of the value of 1,559,500/., and the imports of British produce
of 930,230/. The chief article of exports to Great Britian in 1875
was unrefined sugar, of the value of 766,152/. Of the British imports
in 1875 the valueof 715, 073/., or considerably more than three-fourths,
was represented by cotton manufactures. The commercial inter-
course between the Philippine Islands, as well as the rest of the
Colonial Possessions of Spain, and the United Kingdom, has been
in a depressed condition for a number of years.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Of Spain in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Marquis de Casa Laiglesia, accredited March 31, 1875.
Secretaries. — Lorenzo Castellanos ; Jose Delevat ; Pedro Juan de Zulueta.

2. Of Great Britain in Spain.

Envoy and Minister. — Kt. Hon. Austen Henry Layard, D.C.L., born March 5,
1817; Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs in 1852 and 1861-66;
First Commissioner of Works and Buildings, 1868-9. Appointed Envoy and
Minister to Spain, October 23, 1869.

Secretaries,— Sir John Walsham, Bart.; Edmund C. H. Phipps; Frederick M.
Sartoris.

SPAIN.

413

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Spain, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —

Money.
The Seal — 100 Centimes = Average rate of exchange, 100 = £l sterling.
„ Peseta = 4 Eeales = „ „ „ 25 = £l „

„ Escudo = 10 Redes = „ „ „ 10 = £l „

Weights and Measures.
Since January 1, 1859, the French metric system of weights and
measures has been introduced in Spain, with no other change than a
slight one of names, the metre becoming the metro, the litre the litro,
the gramme the gramo, and the are the area. But, beside these, the
old weights and measures are still largely used. They are : —
The Quintal . . . = 101 -4 lbs. avoirdupois.

Libra
. , 1 for wine

I „ oil
Square Vara .
Fanega .

1-014

3i imperial gallons.

At ,, ,,

1-09 Vara = 1 yard.

1^ imperial bushel.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Spain.

1. Official Publications.

Auuario Estadistico de Espana, publicado por la Direccion general de Esta-
distica, 4. Madrid, 1876.

Censo de la Poblaeion de Espana, segun el recuento verificado en 25 de
diciembre de 1860 por la Junta General de Estadistica. Publicase de orden de
S. M. Fol. Madrid, 1863.

Estado General de la Armada para el ano de 1875. 4. Madrid, 1876.

Guia official de Espana. 1876. 8. Madrid, 1876.

Nomenclator de los Pueblos de Espana, formado por la Comision de Estadis-
tica General del Reino. Publicase de orden de S. M. Fol. Madrid, 1868.

Report by Mr. E. C. H. Phipps, British Secretary of Legation, on the im-
ports and exports of Spain in 1874, dated Madrid, March 24, 1875; in
' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part III. 1875.
8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. Consul Prat on the trade of Barcelona; by Mr. Consul
Young on the trade of the consular district of Biscay ; by Mr. Consul Rcade on
the trade of Cadiz; by Mr. Vice-Consul Diaz on the trade of Huelva; by Mr.
Consul Wilson on the trade of Malaga and Granada ; and by Mr. Vice-Consul
Suter on the wine production of the district of Xeros, dated July-December
1873 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls on the manufactures, commerce, &c,
of their consular districts.' Parti. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Report by Mr. Consul Bidwell on the commerce of the Balearic Islands ; by
Mr. Consul Turner on the trade of Corunna; and by Mr. Consul Wilkinson
on the trade of Malaga, dated January 1874 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls
on the manufactures, commerce, &c., of their consular districts.' Part II.
1874. 8. London, 1874.

Report by Mr. Consul Barrie on the trade of Alicante ; by Mr. Consul Prat

414 THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

on the trade and commerce of Barcelona ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Penlington on
the trade of Gijon ; and by Mr. Consul Cooper on the trade, commerce, and
industry of Porto Rico, dated January-March 1874 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls on the manufactures, commerce, &c, of their consular districts.'
Part III. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Report by Mr. Consul Young on the trade of the consular district of Biscay
and the results of the Carlist insurrection, dated Bilbao, September 30, 1874;
in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' No. I. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Reports by Mr. Consul Turner on the trade of Corunna, and by Mr. Vice-
Consul March on the trade of Santander, dated November 1874 and January
1875 : in • Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. Consul Ricketts, on the Trade of Manila, dated Manila, Sept.
2, 1875 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Reports by Mr. Consul Barrie, on the Trade of Alicante ; by Mr. Consul
Prat, on the Trade and Commerce of Barcelona ; by Mr. Consul Young, on the
Trade and Industry of Bilbao and Biscay; by Mr. Consul Turner, on the
Trade and Commerce of Corunna : by Mr. Consul Wilkinson, on the Commeree
and Shipping of Malaga ; by Mr. Consul Ricketts, on the Commerce of
Manila ; by Mr. Acting-Consul Constant, on the Trade of Palma and the
Balearic Islands ; and by Mr. Consul Pauli, on the Commerce and Population
of Porte Rico, dated January-May, 1876; in 'Commercial Reports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Spain with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Coello (Fr. de Lujan), Resena Geografica, Geologica y Agricola de Espana.
8. Madrid, 1864.

Davillier (Baron Ch.), L'Espagne. 4. Paris. 1873.

Figuerola (D. Laureano), Memoria relativa al estado general de la hacienda.
8. Madrid, 1870.

Garrido (Fernando), La Espana Contemporanea. 8. Barcelona, 1865.

Jager (F.), Reisen in den Philippines 8. Berlin, 1873.

Jaybert (Leon), Situation financiere de l'Espagne. 8. 47 pp. Paris, 1865.

Lavigne (Germond de) L'Espagne et le Portugal. 8. Paris, 1867.

Ltfitgarens (J.), La Situation econoniique et industridle de l'Espagne en
1860. Bruxelles, 1861.

Madoz (Pascal), Diccionario Geografico, Estadistico, y Historieo de Espana
y sus provincias de iiltramar. 16 vols. 4. Madrid, 1846-50.

Masade (Ch. de), Les revolutions de l'Espagne. S. Paris, 1869.

Polin (D. Jose Lopez), Diccionario Estadistico Municipal de Espana. 4..
Madrid, 1863.

Segoillot (H.) Lettres sur l'Espagne. 18., Paris, 1870.

Vidal (J. L.), L'Espagne en 1860. Etat politique, administratif, legis-
latif; Institutions economiques ; Statistique generale de ce Royaume. 8.
Paris, 1861.

Villa- Atardi (Baron de), Consideraciones sobre el Estado Administrativo y
Eeonomieo de Espana. 4. Madrid, 1865.

Willkomm (Heinrich Moritz), Das pyrenaische Halbinselland. 8. Leipzig..
1866.

4i5

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

(SVERIGE OCH NORGE.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Oscar II., King of Sweden and Norway, bom January 21, 1829.
the third son of King Oscar I. and of Queen Josephine, daughter of
Prince Eugene of Leuchtenberg. Succeeded to the throne at the
death of his brother, King Carl XV., September 18, 1872. Married
June 6, 1857, to

Sophia, Queen of Sweden and Norway, born July 9, 183G,
daughter of the late Duke Wilhelm of Nassau. Offspring of the
union are four sons ; namely, Gustaf, heir-apparent, Duke of Werm-
land, born June 16, 1858; Oscar, Duke of Gotland, born Nov. 15,
1859; Carl, Duke of Westergbtland, born Feb. 27, 1861; and
Eugene, Duke of Nerike, born Aug. 1, 1865.

Sister of the King. — 1. Eugenia, Princess of Sweden and Norway,
born April 24, 1830.

Niece of the King — Princess Eourisa, only child of King Carl XV.,
born Oct". 31, 1851 ; married July 28, 1869, to Prince Frederik,
eldest son of the King of Denmark. Offspring of the union are two
sons and one daughter. (See Denmark, page 41.)

King Oscar II. is the fourth sovereign of the House of Ponte
Corvo, and grandson of Marshal Bernadotte, Prince de Ponte Corvo,
who was elected heir-apparent of the crown of Sweden by the
Parliament of the kingdom, Aug. 21, 1810, and ascended the throne
Feb. 5, 1818, under the name of Carl XIV. Johan. He was suc-
ceeded at his death, March 8, 1844, by his only son, Oscar. The
latter died July 8,1859, and was succeeded by his eldest son Carl XV.,
distinguished in Swedish literature as a poet of high genius, at
whose premature death, without male children, the crown fell to
his next surviving brother, tin: present King.

The royal family of Sweden and Norway have a civil list of
1,266,<)()(> riksdaler, or 70,3:53/., from Sweden, and 340,000 kroner-
daler, or 18,889Z., from Norway. The sovereign, besides, has an
annuity of 300,000 riksdaler, or 16,666Z., voted to King Carl XIV.
and his successors on the throne of Sweden.

The following is a list of the kings and queens of Sweden, with

4l6 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

the dates of their accession, from the accession of the House

Vasa : —

House of Vasa.

House of Hesse.

Gustaf I.

1523

Fredrik . . . .1720

Eric XIV.
Johan III.

1560
1568

House of Holstein-Gottorp.
Adolf Fredrik . . . 1751

Sigismund

1592

Gustaf III. . . .1771

Carl IX

Gustaf II. Adolf .

1604
1611

Gustaf IV. Adolf . . 1792
Carl XIII. . . .1809

Christina

1632

House of Pfaltz.

House of Pont e Corvo.

CarlX. . .

1654

Carl XIV. . . . 1818

Carl XI

1660

Oscar 1 1844

Carl XII.

1697

Carl XV. . . . 1859

Ulrika Eleonora

1719

Oscar II. ... 1872

The average reign of the nineteen rulers who occupied the throne
of Sweden from the accession of Gustaf I. to that of Oscar II.,
amounted to eighteen years.

By the Treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, Norway was ceded to the
King of Sweden by the King of Denmark, but the Norwegian people
did not recognise this cession, and declared themselves independent.
A Constituent Assembly met at Eidsvold, and having adopted, on May
17, a Constitution, elected the Danish Prince Christian Fredrik King
of Norway. The Swedish troops , however, entered Norway without
serious resistance, and the foreign powers refusing to recognise
the newly-elected king, the Norwegians were obliged to conclude,
August 14, the Convention of Moss, by which the independency of
Norway in the union with Sweden was solemnly proclaimed. An
extraordinary Storthing was then convoked, which adopted the
modifications in the constitution made necessary by the union with
Sweden, and then elected King Carl XIII., King of Norway, Nov. 4,
1814. The following year was promulgated a Charter, the Elks-
act, establishing new fundamental laws on the terms that the union
of the two kingdoms be indissoluble and irrevocable, without
prejudice, however, to the separate government, constitution, and
code of laws of either Sweden or Norway.

The law of succession is the same in Sweden and Norway. In
case of absolute vacancy of the throne, the two Diets assemble for
the election of the future sovereign, and should they not be able to
agree upon one person, an equal number of Swedish and Norwegian
deputies have to meet at the city of Carlstad, in Sweden, for the
appointment of the king, this nomination to be absolute. The com-
mon affairs are decided upon in a Council of State composed of
Swedes and Norwegians. In case of minority of the king, the
Council of State exercises the sovereign power until a Eegent or
Council of Eegency is appointed by the united .action of the Diets of
Sweden and Norway.

SWEDEN. 417

I. SWEDEN.

Constitution and Government.

The fundamental laws of the kingdom of Sweden are — 1. The
Constitution or Regerings-Formcn of June 6, 1809 ; 2. the amended
regulations for the formation of the Diet, of June 22, 1866 ; 3. the
law of royal succession of September 26, 1810; and 4. the law
on the liberty of the press, of July 16, 1812. According to these
statutes, the king must be a member of the Lutheran Church, and
have sworn fealty to the laws of the land. His person is inviolable.
He has the right to declare war and make peace, and to grant pardon
to condemned criminals. He nominates to all appointments, both
military and civil ; concludes foreign treaties, and has a right to
preside in the supreme Court of Justice. The princes of the
blood royal, however, are excluded from all civil employments.
The king has an absolute veto against any decrees of the Diet, and
possesses legislative power in matters of political administration.
In all other respects, the fountain of law is in the Diet. This Diet,
or Parliament of the realm, consists of two chambers, both elected
by the people. The First Chamber consists of 131 members, or
one deputy for every 30,000 of the population. The election of
the members takes place by the ' landstings,' or provincial represen-
tations, 25 in number, and the municipal corporations of the towns,
not already represented in the ' landstings,' Stockholm, Goteborg,
Norrkoping, and Malmo. All members of the First Chamber must
be above 35 years of age, and must have possessed for at least
three years previous to the election either real property to the
taxed value of 80,000 riksdalers, or 4,450Z., or an annual income
of 4,000 riksdalers, or 223Z. They are elected for the term of
nine years, and obtain no payment for their services. The Second
Chamber consists of 198 members, of whom 58 are elected by the
towns and 140 by the rural districts, one representative being
returned for every 10,000 of the population of towns, one for every
' domsaga,' or rural district, of under 40,000 inhabitants, and two
for rural districts of over 40,000 inhabitants. All natives of
Sweden, aged 21, possessing real property to the taxed value
of 1,000 riksdalers, or 56/., or farming, for a period of not
less than five years, landed property to the taxed value of
6,000 riksdalers, or 333Z., or paying income tax on an annual
income of 800 riksdalers, or 45Z., are electors ; and all natives
aged 25, possessing, and having possessed at least one year
previous to the election, the same qualifications, may be elected
members of the Second Chamber. The election is for the term of
three years, and the members obtain salaries for their services, at

E E

41 3 the statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

the rate of 1,200 riksdalers, or 67Z., for each session of four months,
besides travelling expenses. The salaries and travelling expenses
of the deputies are paid out of the public purse. The vote is by-
ballot, both in town and country.

The two Chambers of the Diet assemble every year, voting the
budget for the next j'ear. All the legislative measures are pre-
pared in committees, appointed every session, immediately after
meeting. The committees are five in number, namely, 1. The
Constitutional Committee, which consists of ten members of each
of the two Chambers ; 2. The Budget Committee, consisting of
twelve members of each Chamber; 3. The Committee for Taxes,
consisting of ten members of each Chamber ; 4. The Legislative
Committee, consisting of eight members ; and 5. The Bank Com-
mittee, consisting of eight members of each Chamber. The Constitu-
tional Committee lias power to indict the ministers and chief ser-
vants of the crown, for any acts contrary to the fundamental laws
of the kingdom which they may have committed.

The Diet of the two Chambers constitutes the chief legislative power
in the kingdom. The executive is in the hands of the king, who
acts under the advice of a Council of State, composed of ten mem-
bers, seven of which are ministerial heads of departments, namely : —

1. The Minister of State and Justice. — Baron Louis De Geer;
appointed May 11, 1875.

2. The Minister of Foreign Affairs. — Major-General Oscar M. de
Bjomstjerna ; appointed December 17, 1872.

3. The Minister of War. — Major-General Erik Oscar Weiden-
hielm, appointed December 5, 1871.

4. The Minister of Marine. — Baron Fredrik Wilhelm Von
Otter, appointed December 23, 1874.

5. The Minister of the Interior. — Carl Johan Tlujselms, appointed
May 11, 1875.

6. The Minister of Finance. — Hans Ludvig Forsell, appointed
May 11, 1875.

7. The Minister of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Fredrik
Ferdinand Carlson, appointed May 11, 1875.

The members of the Council of State without a department are : —

1. Henrik Gerhard Lagerstrale, appointed May 11, 1875.

2. Baron Carl Jonas Oscar Alstromer, appointed June 15, 1870.

3. Johan Henrik Loven, appointed June 5, 1874.

All the members of the Council of State are responsible for the
acts of the Government.

The administration of justice is entirely independent of the
Government. Two functionaries, the Justitie-Kansler, or Chancellor
of Justice, and the Justitie Ombudsman, or Attorney-General,
exercise a control over the administration. The former, appointed

SWEDEN.

419

by the king, acts also as counsel for the crown, while the latter,
who is appointed by the Diet, has to extend a general supervision
over all the courts of law.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The national income is derived to the extent of one-third from
direct taxes and national property, including railways, and the rest
mainly from indirect taxation, customs and excise duties, and an
impost on spirits. The expenditure is mainly for the army and
navy, and public works. The sources of revenue and branches of
expenditure of the kingdom for the year 1877 were established as
follows, in the budget estimates passed in the session of 187G by the
Diet of Sweden : —

Sources of Revenue for 1877 : —

Surplus of revenue of former year
Ordinary revenue :

Domains, railway land taxes, &c.
Extraordinary revenue :
Customs
Post .
Stamps

Import on spirits, &c.
„ ,, Income

Net profit of the State Bank .

Branches of Expenditure for 1877 : —
(a) Ordinary :

Royal Hoiisehold
Justice

Foreign Affairs
Army .
Navy .
Interior
Finance
Pensions

21,000,000
4,300,000
2,200,000

13,500,000
3,000,000

Total I

1,260,000

3,712,000

609,000

12,785,700

4,831,400
13,991,400
11,720,800

2,005,000

5,350,000
27,600,000

44,000,000
1,300,000

78,258,000
t'4. 347,667

59,

(b) Extraordinary . . . . . . . .10,

Paying of loans .... 8,234,000

Miscellaneous (Diet, &c.) . . 582,000

176,949
265,051

Total

8,816,000

f 78,258,00(1
\ £4,347,667

Exclusive of the budget, the Diet voted, in 1876, 6,000,000
kronor for the construction of new railways, and 8,942,000 kronor

El3

420

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

to complete the rolling stock of the lines alrpady opened for traffic,
while a loan of 2,000,000 kronor was granted to private railway
companies for the year 1877. These expenses are to be covered
by loans.

The expenditure for the army, church, and for certain civil
offices, is in part defrayed out of the revenue of landed estates be-
longing to the Crown, and the amounts do not appear in the
budget estimates. To the expenditure for foreign affairs Norway
contributes annually 302,000 riksdaler not entered in the estimates.

The surplus of expenditure shown by the foregoing tables is
annually covered by the ' Riksgaldskontor,' the supervision of which
is exclusively exercised by the Diet. It belongs to this institution
to administrate the public debt — exclusively incurred by the
construction of railways — and to contract for any loans which the
Diet may vote. The ' Riksgaldskontor ' disposes of any surplus of
economies in expenditure, and of the yearly profit of the State Bank.

On the 1st of January, 1876, the public liabilities of the kingdom
were as follows, according to official reports : —

Railway loan of 1855 at 3| and 4 per cent.
„ 1858 „ 41 per cent.

1860

■ H

1861

. H

1864

. 4

1866

, 5

1868

, 5

1869

, 5

1870

, 5

1872

. 4

1875

. 4*

Total

Riksdaler.

169.900

16,402,133

23,590,444

2,432,100

9,345,136

25,774,667

20,459,056

4,000,000

16,170,000

13,364,700

7,200,000

(140,146,936
I £7,785,936

The railway loans of 1864, 1868, and 1875, were negotiated in
England, at the respective rates of 92, 90, and 96 per cent. All
the loans are paid off" gradually by means of sinking funds. — (Official
Communication . )

Army and Navy.

The Swedish army is composed of four distinct classes of troops.
They are —

1. The Vdrfoade, or enlisted troops, to which belong the royal
lifeguards, one regiment of hussars, the artillery, and the engineers.

2. The Indelta. or national militia, paid and kept, not by the
Government, but by the landowners, and, to some extent, from the
income of State domains expressly reserved for this purpose. Every
soldier cf the Indelta has, besides a small annual pav his to?'/), or

SWEDEN.

421

cottage, with a piece of ground attached, which remains his own
during the whole period of service, often extending over thirty years,
or even longer. In time of peace, the infantry of the Indelta are
called up for a month's annual practice, and the cavalry for forty-
sis days. In time of war, an extraordinary Indelta has to be raised
by landowners, who, on this account, enjoy certain privileges, includ-
ing non-contribution to the cost of the peace establishment.

3. The militia of Gothland, consisting of thirty companies of
infantry, and three batteries of artillery. They are not compelled
by law to serve beyond the confines of the Isle of Gothland, and
have a separate command.

4. The Bevdring, or conscription troops, drawn by annual levy,
from the male population between the age of 20 and 25 years.
The law of conscription, was introduced into Sweden in 1812,
but the right of purchasing substitutes, which formerly existed, was
abolished by the Diet in 1872.

The total strength of the armed forces of Sweden was as follows
at the end of September, 1875 : —

Guards

Line

Bevaring

Total

Infantry ....
Militia of Gothland
Cavalry ....
Artillery (234 guns)
Engineers
Military train .

1,800
440

25,200

4,740

4,673

972

72.578
8,511
3,974
3,311
1,052
5,524

99,578
8,511
9,154
7,984
2,024
5,524

Total .

2,240

35,585

94,950

132,775

There are also Volunteers, first organised in the year 1861, by
the spontaneous desire of the population of the kingdom. In time
of peace the volunteers are individually free, and bound by no other
but their own rules and regulations ; but in time of war they may
be compelled to place themselves under the command of the military
authorities. At the end of September 1876, the volunteers numbered
13,166 men.

In the parliamentary session of 1862, and again in the sessions
of 1865, 1869, 1871, and 1875 the Government brought bills before
the Diet for a reorganisation of the whole of the army, but neither
of these were adopted by the representatives of the people.

The navy of tin- kingdom is divided into three classes, namely,
first, the Royal Navy; secondly, the Royal Naval Reserve, and
thirdly, the Naval Bevdring. The fleet consisted, at the end of
September 1876, of the following vessels : —

422

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Horse-power

Guns

Number of Crew

Ironclads : —

4 monitors .

610

330

10 gunboats .

403

411

Unarmoured steamers : —

1 ship-of-the-line

350

735

1 frigate

400

316

3 corvettes .

1,100

565

12 gunboats .

950

532

3 transports, &c.

370

189

Sailing vessels : —

1 frigate

—

340

5 corvettes .

—

998

1 brig

—

249

1 schooner .

. —

Galleys : —

5 mortar boats .

—

34 gun vessels

—

48 floating batteries

—

2 transports, &c.

—

Total 131 .

3,183

394

4,693

The largest ironclad of the Swedish navy is the monitor Loke, ot
1,500 tons burthen, and 450 horse-power, built in 1870. The other
three monitors, called John Ericsson, Thordbn, and Tirfmg, of earler
construction, are nearly the same size. At the end of September
1876 the Royal Navy was officered by 2 flag-officers, 6 commodores,
20 captains, 43 commanders, 43 lieutenants, and 26 sublieutenants,
while the Royal Naval Reserve was commanded by 76 commissioned
officers. The naval Bevaring at the same date numbered 40,000
men. — (Official Communication.)

Area and Population.

Sweden was one of the first countries of Europe in which a regu-
lar census was taken. The first enumeration took place in 1748, at
the suggestion of the Academy of Stockholm, and it was repeated,
at first every third year, and subsequently, after 1775, every fifth
year. At present, a general census is taken every ten years, besides
which there are annual numerations of the people.

The population of Sweden amounted on December 31, 1867,
according to the official numerations of that date, to 4,195,681, of
whom 2,040,589 were men and 2,155,092 women. On the 31st
of December, 1869, the total population was 4,158,757, of whom
2,014,530 were men and 2,144,227 women. The decrease of
population in the two years from December 31, 1867, to December
31, 1869, arose through emigration. On the 31st of December
1875, the population had risen to 4,383.291 souls.

SWEDEN.

4-j

The area and population of Sweden, on the 31st of Decern' ht
1875, are shown in the following table : —

Governments (Lan.)

Area: English
square miles

Population,
Dec. 31, 1875

Stockholm (City)

152,582

Stockholm (Rural district)

2,835

136,582

Upsala

1 1,995

104,371

Sodermanland

| 2,562

140,922

Ostergotland

4,095

264,689

Jonkoping .

4,242

188,665

Kronoberg .

3,801

165,531

Kalmar

4,389

239,847

Gotland

1,197

54,649

Blekinge

1,155

131,812

Khristianstad

2,478

229,170

Malmohus .

333,924

Hallaud

1,869

131,710

Guteborg and Bohus

1,932

244,010

Elfsborg

4,893

285,8i0

Skaraborg .

3,276

252,724

Vcrmland

6,447

287,081

(jrebro

3,465

178,951

Vestmanland

2,520

123,057

Kopparberg .

11,109

186,612

Gen eb org

7,371

163,197

Yesternorrland

9,408

150,234

Jemtland

19.341

75,756

Vesterbotten

23,583

98.043

Norrbotten .

40.572

83,356

Lakes of Venern, Vettern, &c.

3,235

—

Total

168,042

4,383,291

The population of Sweden is mainly rural, and the kingdom had,
at the enumeration of 1875, but two towns with more than 50,000
inhabitants, namely, Stockholm, the capital, with 152,582, and
Goteboig, with 65,858. The number of persons devoted to agricul-
tural pursuit?, and of their families, amounts to nearly three
millions. About a quarter of a million individuals are owners of
the land which they are cultivating. The nobility, comprising
940 heads of families, enjoyed formerly considerable privileges; but
they have nearly all been annulled.

Emigration from the country, commencing in recent years, showed
at first a tendency to assume considerable proportions, but is now
decreasing In 1460, the number of emigrants was 348 ; in L865
it rose to 6,691 ; in 1866 to 7,206; in 1867 to 9,334 ; in L868 to
27,024 ; and in 1869 to 39,064 ; but it fell to 20,003 in 1870, to
17,450 in 1871, to 15,915 in 1872, to 13,580 in 1873, and to 7,791
in 1874.

424

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Education is well advanced in Sweden. Public instruction is
gratuitous and compulsory, and children not attending schools under
the supervision of the Government must furnish proofs of having
been privately educated. In the year 1871, nearly 97 per cent,
of all the children between eight and fifteen years visited the
public schools. There were 5,039 male and 2,776 female teacher3
in the primary schools in 1871. The vast majority of the popula-
tion are Protestants, the enumeration of 1872 showing but 2,409
dissenters, including 573 Roman Catholics, and 1,836 Jews.

Trade and Industry.

The commercial intercourse of Sweden is chiefly with Great Britain,
as regards exports, and, next to it, with France and Denmark. As
regards imports, the commercial intercouse is largest with Great
Britain, Germany, Denmark, Norway, and Russia, in the order here
indicated. The imports consist mainly of textile manufactures, coal,
machinery, and colonial merchandise, while the staple exports are
timber, bar iron, and corn. The value of the total imports and exports
of Sweden, in each of the six years 1869 to 1874, was as follows : —

Years

Total Imports

Total Exports

Riksdaler

1869

136.61o.000

7,589,722

125,883.000

6.990,722

1870

141,686,000

7,872,010

152,502,000

8,472,332

1871

169,179,000

9,398,833

161,023,000

8,945,722

1872

216,366,000

12,020,312

199,815,000

11.100.857

1873

271,440,000

15,080,000

221,904,000

12,322,444

1874

306,810,000

18,111,670

233,332,000

12,962,914

The commerce of Sweden with Great Britain is twice as great
as that with any other country. Subjoined is a tabular statement
giving the total value of the exports from Sweden to Great Britain
and Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish produce into
Sweden, in each of the six years 1870 to 1875 : —

Exports from Sweden to

Imports of British Home

Great Britain

Produce into Sweden

1870

6,399,435

1,025,716

1871

5,438,992

1,102,993

1872

6,724.005

1,985.848

1873

7,739,744

3,150,323

1874

8,483,552

3,390,850

1875

6,762,538

2,801,003

The principal articles of export from Sweden to the United

SWEDEN. 425

Kingdom are wood and timber, oats, iron in bars, unwrought, and
pig iron. The total exports to Great Britain of Avood and timber
amounted to 2,398,418/. in 1871, to 2,777,322/. in 1872, to
3,899,075/. in 1873, to 4,330,756/. in 1874, and to 2,808,124/. in
1875. Of oats, the exports were to the amount of 1,408,675/., of
bar iron, unwrought, 1,236,966/.; and of pig iron 239,413/. in the
year 1875. The imports of British home produce are of a miscel-
laneous nature; the most notable were iron, wrought and unwrought,
of the value of 624,406/.; and coals, of the value of 507,832/.; and
cotton manufactures, valued 348,816/. in 1875.

The commercial navy of Sweden numbered 1,968 vessels regis-
tered for foreign trade, of a total burthen of 401,163 tons, at the end
of the year 1874. At the end of 1867, the number of vessels regis-
tered for foreign trade was 1,296, of a total burthen of 237,800 tons,
while at the end of 1864 the number of vessels was 1,238, of
193,611 tons burthen. The port of Goteborg had the largest
shipping in 1873, namely, 202 vessels, of 69,230 tons, and next to
it came Stockholm, possessing 62 vessels, of a total burthen of 20,220
tons. In 1864, Stockholm had 117 vessels, of 29,100 tons, regis-
tered for foreign trade, and Goteborg 137, of 36,216 tons; so
that while the shipping of the former port suffered a great decrease,
that of the latter showed a more than corresponding increase.

Mining is one of the most important departments of Swedish indus-
try, and the working of the iron mines in particular is making constant
progress by the introduction of new machinery. There were raised
in the year 1873, throughout the kingdom, 1 9,458,33 9 cwt. of iron
ore from mines, besides 126,147 cwt. from lake and bog. The pig-
iron produced amounted to 7,987,646 cwt. ; the cast goods to
501,350 cwt.; thebariron to 4,125,915 cwt., andthe sieei to 1^290,907
cwt. There were also raised in the same year 1,660 lbs. of silver ;
26,152 cwt. of copper, and 6-15,631 cwt. of zinc ore. There are
large veins of coal in various parts of Sweden, but no systematic
working of them Las as yet taken place.

Within recent years a network of railways, very important for
the trade and industry of Sweden, has been constructed in the
country, partly at the cost of the State. The State railways include
all the main or trunk lines, the chief of which are the North
Western, connecting the capitals of Sweden and of Norway ; the
Western, between Stockholm and Goteborg; the Southern, termi-
nating at Malmo, opposite Copenhagen ; the Eastern, from Stock-
holm to Malmo; and the Northern, passing through Stockholm, and
connecting the capital with the north of the kingdom. The fol-
lowing table gives particulars concerning the length and cost of con-
struction of all the Swedish railways open for traffic on the 1st of
January, 1875, distinguishing the railways belonging to the State,

426

THE STATESMAN'S YEAE-BOOK, 1877.

the private railways connected with the State, and the private
railways not connected with the State : —

Lines of Railway-

Length

Cost per 1
English mile

Engl, miles

State Railways ......

Private railways connected with the State : —

899

7,750

KSping — Hult and Nora Ervalla

6,553

,, Ultersberg ....

2,536

Bors — Herrljunga .....

4,691

Uddevalla — -Wenersborg — Herrljunga

4,952

Wexio — AlfVesta .....

3,928

Kristianstad — Hessleholm

4,912

Landskrona — Helsingborg — Eslof .

4,823

Ystad— Eslof

4,645

Swedish Central Railway

Total

Other private lines : —

4,714

321

—

7,078

4,828

Wessman — Barken

4.251

Soderhamn

5.223

Manna — Sandarme .

5,901

Kristinehamn — Sjoandan

3,559

Hudiksvall

3,940

1,492

Total .

111

At the end of the year 1875, the total length of the railways of
Sweden, opened for traffic, had increased to 2,237 English miles, of
which 938 miles belonged to the States.

All the telegraphs in Sweden, with the exception of those of private
railway companies, belong to the State. The total length of telegraph
lines at the end of 1875 was 7,959 kilometres, or 4,991 English miles,
and the total length of telegraph wires 19,377 kilometres, or 11,180
English miles. The number of telegraphic despatches sent in the vear
1875 was 1,009,539, of which number 645,913 were from and for
Sweden, 296,429 from and for other countries, and 67,197 in transit.

The Swedish Post Office carried 16,250,000 letters, of which
3,650,000 were for and from foreign countries, in the year 1875. The
number of post offices at the end of the year was 644. The total
receipts of the Post Office in 1875 amounted to 3,650,000 riksdaler,
or 202,777?., and the total expenditure to 3,701,500 riksdaler, or
205,638/., leaving a deficit of 51,500 riksdaler, or 2,861/.

427

II. NORWAY.

Constitution and Government.

The constitution of Norway, called the Grandlov, bears date
November 4, 1814. It vests the whole legislative power of the realm
in the Storthing, or Great Court, the representative of the sove-
reign people. The king has the command of the land and sea
forces, and makes all appointments, but, except in a few cases, is not
allowed to nominate any but Norwegians to public offices under the
crown. The king possesses the right of veto over laws passed by the
Storthing, but, except in constitutional matters, only for a limited
period. The royal veto may be exercised twice ; but if the same
bill pass three successive times it becomes the law of the land
without the assent of the sovereign.

The Storthing formerly assembled every three years; but by a
modification of the constitution, adopted in April 18G9, it was
resolved to bold annual sittings. The meetings take place suo jure,
and not by any writ from the king or the executive. Every Nor-
wegian citizen of twenty -five years of age, who is, or has been, a
public functionary, or possesses property in land, or has been tenant
of such property for five years at least, or is a burgess of any
town, or possesses real property to the value of 60 kroner or 33Z.
sterling, is entitled to elect ; and, under the same conditions, if
thirty years of age, and settled in Norway for at least ten years, to
be elected. The mode of election is indirect, the people first nomi-
nating a number of deputies, to whom devolves the task of appointing
the representatives in the Storthing. Towards the end of every
third year the people meet in the parish church, and choose their
deputies at the rate of one to fifty voters in towns, and one to a
hundred in rural sub-districts. The deputies afterwards meet at
some public place, and there elect among themselves, or from among
the other qualified voters of the district, the Storthing representa-
tive-. No new election takes place for vacancies, which are filled by
persons who received the second Largesl number of votes.

The Storthing, when assembled, divides itself into two houses, the
'Lagthing' and the ' Odelsthing.' The former is. composed of one-
fourth of the members of the ' Storthing,' and the other of the
remaining three-fourths. Each ' Thing' nominates its own president,
vice-president, and secretaries. All now bills, whether presented
by the government, or a member of the Storthing, must originate

428 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

in the ' Odelsthing,' from which they pass into the ' Lagthing,' to be
either accepted, in which case they become law, or rejected. In
the latter case, should the ' Odelsthing' demand it, after having twice
passed the bill, the two Houses assemble in common sitting to
deliberate on the measure, and the final decision is given by a
majority of two-thirds of the voters. The ordinary business of the
Storthing is to settle the taxes for each financial period of three
years, to supervise the administration of the revenue, and to enact,
repeal, or alter any laws of the country. But the Storthing can also
form itself into a high court of justice, for the impeachment and trial
of ministers, members of the chief court of justice, and members of
the Storthing for delicts they may have committed. The bill of
accusation must always come from the ' Odelsthing ' and be brought
from thence before the ' Lagthing,' sitting for the occasion, together
with the Chief Court of Justice, as ' Higsretten,' or supreme tribunal
of the realm. Before pronouncing its own dissolution, every
Storthing elects five delegates, whose duty it is to revise the public
accounts. While in session, every member of the Storthing has
an allowance of three specie-daler, or thirteen shillings and four-
pence a day, besides travelling expenses.

The executive is represented by the king, who exercises his
authority through a Council of State, composed of two Ministers of
State and nine Councillors. Two of the Councillors, who change
every year, together with one of the Ministers, form a delegation of
the Council of State, residing at Stockholm, near the king. The
following are the members of the Council of State : —

I. Council of State at Christiania.

Minister of State. — Fredrik Stang, appointed July 21, 1873.

Department of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs.— Jens Hohnboe,
appointed January 8, 1874.

Department of Justice. — John Collett Falsen, appointed Nov. 26,
1869.

Department of the Interior. — Nils Vogt, appointed May 13, 1871.

Department of Finance and Customs. — Henrik Laurentius
Ilelliesen, appointed June 22, 1863.

Army Department. — Lorentz Henrik Muller Segelcke, appointed
July 1, 1872.

Department of the Navy and of Postal Communication. — Jacob
Lerche Johansen, appointed June 17, 1872.

Eevision Public Accounts Department. — Jacob Aall, Secretary of
State, ad interim.

II. Delegation of the Council at Stockholm.

Otto Kichard Kjerulf, Minister of State, appointed Nov. 1, 1871.
Christian August Selmer, appointed July 29, 1874.
Rasmus Tonder JVissen, appointed January 1, 1875.

NORWAY.

429

Revenue and Expenditure.

The -financial estimates are voted by the Storthing for the term
of one year. The budget for the period commencing July 1,
1876, and ending June 30, 1877, provided for an annual revenue
of 39,200,000 kroner, or 2,177,700/., and an expenditure of the
same amount, distributed as follows : —

Sources of Revenue

Branches of Expenditure

Kroner

Customs .

16,800,000

Civil list

506,844

Excise on spirits

2,320,000

Storthing

335,200

,, malt.

1,720,000

General administration

911,644

Stamps

540,000

Church and education .

2,0,54,250

Mines

776,000

Justice

1,694,101

Post office

1,360,000

Interior

6,175,489

Telegraphs

920,000

Finance and Customs .

7,455,729

Judicial fees

480,000

Army

5,600,000

Income on State pro-

Navy ....

2,320,000

perty . . .

2,042,800

Post, lighthouses, &c. .

4,704,569

Income on State rail-

Foreign affairs

526,328

ways

2,764,000

Construction of rail-

Loan and private con-

ways

6,200,000

tributions for con-

Miscellaneous

715,846

struction of rail-

ways

6,200,000

Surplus from former

years .

2,922,000

Miscellaneous re-

ceipts .

Total | £

355,200

Total S£

39,200,000
2,177,700

The actual revenue of Norway, in recent years, generally was
above the expenditure. There exists, nevertheless, a small public
debt contracted for the construction of public works, mainly railways.
It amounted, at the end of December 1875, to 48,307,600 kroner, or
2,683,755/. — (Official Communication.)

Army and Navy.

The troops of the kingdom are raised mainly by conscription, and
to a small extent by enlistment. By the terms of two laws voted
by the Storthing in 1866 and in 1876, the land forces are divided
into the troops of the line, the military train, the Landvacm, or
militia, the civic guards, and, in time of war, the Landstorm, or final
levy. All young men, past the twenty- first year of age, are liable to
the conscription, with the exception of the inhabitants of the three
northern Amts of the kingdom, who are lree from military land

430

THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877*

service. The young men raised by conscription have but to go
through a first training in the school of recruits, extending over
50 days in the infantry, and 90 days other arms, and are then sent
on furlough, with obligation to meet for annual practice. The no-
minal term of service is ten years, divided between seven years
in the line and three years in the Landvaern, or militia. The
Landvaern is only liable to service within the frontiers of the
kingdom.

On the 1st of January, 1876, the troops of the line numbered
12,000 men, with 7.50 officers. The number of troops can never
exceed, even in war, 18,000 men without the consent of the Stor-
thing. The king has permission to keep a guard of Norwegian
volunteers at Stockholm, and to transfer, for the purpose of common
military exercises, 3,000 men annually from Norway to Sweden, and
from Sweden to Norway.

The naval force of Norway comprised, at the commencement of
1876, thirty-two steamers and 91 sailing vessels, the latter, with
the exception of five, forming a flotilla of row-boats for coast
defence. The following was the composition of the fleet of
steamers : —

Steamers

Horse-power

Guns

4 iron-clad monitors .

2 frigates .....

3 corvettes and sloops

1 schooner ....

5 gunboats ....
15 small gunboats

2 tugboats ....

20 men-of-war ....

600
900
530
20
300
240
160

8
78
36

9
15

2,750

156

The navy was manned, in 1876, by 2,051 sailors, the greater
number of them volunteers, with 104 commissioned, and 238 non-
commissioned officers. All seafaring men and inhabitants of sea-
ports, between the ages of twenty-two and thirty- five, are enrolled
on the lists of either the active fleet or the naval militia, and
liable, by a law passed in 1866, to the maritime conscription.
The numbers on the register amounted, in 1876, to above 62,000
men.

Area and Population.

A census of the population of Norway is taken every ten years.
The kingdom is divided into twenty provinces, or Amts, the area
and poptdation of which were as follows at the two last census enu-
merations, taken December 31, 1865, and December 31, 1875: —

NORWAY.

43 *

Area : English

ropulation,

Population,

square miles

Dec. 31, 1865

Dec. 31, 1875

Chi'istiania (town) .

57,382

77,041

Akershus ....

1,986

107,416

114,778

Smaaleneue ....

1,548

98,849

107,629

Hedemarken ....

l(i,034

120,411

119,774

Christians ....

9.670

124,968

115,988

Budskerud ....

5.659

99,275

101,867

Jarlsberg ....

861

85,423

89,-320

Bratsberg ....

5,707

81,929

83,986

Nedenas ....

3,855

68,033

75,979

Lister and Mandal

2,423

73,757

77,309

Stavanger ....

3,421

104,849

114,164

Sondre Bergenhus

5,854

113,386

121,527

Bergen (tcwn)

27,703

34,384

Nordre Bergenhus

7,045

86,784

86,205

Eomsdal ....

5,650

104,337

116,838

Sondre Trondhjem

7,084

109,043

116,814

Nordre Trondhjem

8,794

82,489

81,889

Nordland ....

14,660

89,668

103,579

Tromso ....

9,720

45,334

53,937

Finmark ....
Total .

18,306

20,329

24,232

122,280

1,701,365

1,817,237

The inhabitants of the kingdom are homogeneous in race and reli-
gion. There exists no privilege of birth, that of hereditary nobility
having been abolished by a law which passed the Storthing August 1,
1821. With the exception of 5,100 dissenters, enumerated in the
census of 18G5, the population adhere to the Lutheran Church. All
denominations and sects of Christian and other creeds, the order of
the Jesuits excepted, are tolerated, but only the members of the
Lutheran Church are regularly admitted to public offices.

Education is compulsory in the kingdom, parents being bound to
let their children, between the ages of seven and fourteen, receive
public instruction. Schoolmasters are settled in each parish, who
live either in fixed residences, or move at stated intervals from one
place to another, and who frequently attend different schools, devoting
their time in turn to each. They are paid by a tax levied in every
parish, in addition to State grants. Almost every town supports a
superior school ; and in thirteen of the principal towns is a ' lasrd
skole,' or college, maintained partly by subsidies from the govern-
ment. Chi'istiania has a university, founded by the Danish Govern-
ment, in 1811, which is attended by about 400 students.

Norway is essentially an agricultural and pastoral country. At
the census of 1865, tin; Inhabitants of towns numbered 206,265, and
at the end of 1875 they were 332,938, showing an increase of

432

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

22 per cent., against an increase of the rural population of only 4 per
cent. The two largest towns are Christiania, with a population of
77,041, and Bergen, with 34,384, on the 31st December, 1875.

In recent years, emigration carried off, chiefly to the United
States, from 10,000 to 13,000 individuals annually. In 1871 the
number of emigrants was 12,341; in 1872 it was 14,560; in 1873
it declined to 10,890; in 1874 to 4,601; and in 1875 to 3,944.
The emigration is almost entirely to the United States.

Trade and Industry.

The average value of the total imports into Norway, in the six
years 1870-75, was 31,500,000, and of the exports 24,400,000
specie-daler. Of the imports of 1875, 35 per cent, came from Great
Britain, 23 from Germany, 14 from Russia, 13 from Denmark, and
8 per cent, from Sweden. About 35 per cent of the total exports
were shipped to Great Britain, 16 to Germany, 10 to Denmark, and
8 per cent, to Sweden.

The commercial intercourse between Norway and the United
Kingdom is shown in the subjoined table, which gives the value of
the exports from Norway to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the
imports of British and Irish produce into Norway, in each of the six
years 1870 to 1875 : —

Exports from Norway to

Imports of British Home

Great Britain

Produce into Norway

1870

1,855,161

981,998

1871

2,191,458

1,058,113

1872

2,367,302

1,425,432

1873

2,947,033

1,880,852

1874

2,999,995

2,010,089

187o

2,156,100

1,737,452

About three-fourths of the exports from Norway to the United
Kingdom consist of wood and timber. In 1875 the exports of tim-
ber, sawn or split, amounted to 935,784/., and of other wood to
455,078/., making a total of 1,390,862/. The remaining exports to
Great Britain comprise fish, ice, and small quantities of bar iron and
copper ore. Iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value of 383,324/. ;
cotton manufactures, of the value of 216,940/. ; coals, of the value of
241,522/. ; and woollens, of the value of 155,843/., in 1875, form
the chief British imports into Norway.

The shipping belonging to Norway numbered 7,664 vessels, of a
total burthen of 1,338,860 tons, manned by 58,554 sailors, at the end
of 1875. Norway has, in proportion to population, the largest
commercial navy in the world.

NORWAY.

433

At the end of September 1876 there were in Norway 339 miles
of railway open for traffic, comprising the following lines : —

Railways

Length

Christiania to Eidsvold ....
„ Drammen and Bandsfjord,
■with branches to Kongsberg and Kroderen
Lillestommen to the Swedish frontier .
Throndhjem to Singsaas ....
Hamar to Koppang .....

Total railways open for traffic

English Miles
43

93
72
49

339

The following lines of railway were in course of construction, or
voted by the Storthing, at the end of September 1876 : —

Lines in Construction.
Koppang to Singsaas. connecting Christiania and Throndhjem
Stavanger to Egersund .......

Christiania to 1'rederikshald

Throndhjem to Meraker .......

Bergen to Voss .........

Eidsvold to Hamar

In construction
Lines voted by the Storthing.

Drammen to Laurvig and Skien

Frederikshald to Swedish frontier

Length

English Miles

140

141

502

97
23

Totxl railways in construction and voted . . 622

There were at the end of 1875 telegraph lines of the length of
4,050 English miles, and wires of the length of 7,200 miles. The
number of telegrams in the year 1875 was 717,490, of which 469,034
were inland, 115,654 sent to, and 130,223 received from foreign
countries. The number of telegraph offices at the end of 1875 was
109. The number of post-offices at the same date was 596. The
number of letters forwarded through the post in 1875 was 8,764,000.

Colony.

Sweden — exclusive of Norway — possesses a small colony, the
Island of St. Bartholomew, in the West Indies, 30 miles west of St.
Christopher. The area of the island is 35 English square miles,
with a population, in 1860, of 2,802 inhabitants. It produces sugar,
tobacco, cotton, and cocoa. The colony was ceded to Sweden by
France in 1784, and is administered by a governoi, at an annual
cost of 25,000 riksdaler, or 1,390/., to the mother country. Slavery
was abolished in the island in 1848.

434 THE statesman's teak-book, 1877.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Of Sweden and Norway in Great Britain.

Charge d' 'Affaires. — Count Otto Steenbock, accredited Charge d'Affaires July
1876.

2. Of Great Britain in Sweden and Norway.

Envoy and Minister. — Hon. Edward Morris Erskine, C.B. ; born in 1818;
Envoy to Greece, 1864-72 ; and appointed Envoy and Minister to Sweden and
Norway, July 24, 1872.

Secretaries. — Robert Grant Watson, appointed October 26, 1876 ; George
T. B. Jenner.

Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Sweden and Norway, and
the British equivalents, are as follows : —

Money.

The Swedish Krona, or Eiksdaler = 100 ore — approximate value Is. \\d.,
or about 18 Riksdaler to the pound sterling.
,, Norwegian Krone =100 ore — approximate value 4s. 6d.
By a law passed April 17, 1875, the Norwegian Krone was made
the unit of the monetary system, in lieu of the old Specie-claler.
Weights and Measures.
The Swedish Skalpund = 100 ort = 0'937 lbs. avoirdupois.

Norwegian Pund — 128 kvintin = 1*1 ,, .,

Swedish Fot = 10 turn = 117 English inches.

Norwegian Fod = 12 tommer = 12-02 „ „

Swedish Kanna = 100 kubiktum = 4-6 Imperial pints.
Norwegian Kande — 2 pod = 33 „ „

Swedish Mil = 360 ref = 6"64 English miles.

Norwegian Miil =2,000 rode = 7 "01 „ „

In virtue of a law passed April 17, 1875, the French metric system
of weights and measures will be introduced into Sweden and Norway
at the commencement of 1878.

Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning
Sweden and Norway.

1. Official Publications.

Bidrag till Sveriges officiela statistik : A. Befolknings-statistik. B. Ratts-
vasendet. C. Bergshandtering. D. Fabriker och manufakturer. F. Utrikes
handelochsjofart. G. Fangvarden. H. Befallningshafvandes Femarsberattelser.
J. Telegrafviisendet. K. Sundhets-kollegii berattelse. L. Statens jernviigs-
trafik. M. Postverket. N. Jordbruk och Boskapsskotsol. O. Landtmateriet.
P. Folkundervisningen. Q. Skogsvasendet. E. Valstatistik. S. Allmanna
arbeten. T. Lots-och Fyrviisendet. 4. Stockholm, 1857-1876.

Norges officielle Statistik: A. 1. Skolevsesenet ; A. 2. Fattigstatistik ;
B. 1. Criminalstatistik ; B. 2. Skiftevsesenet ; C. 1. Folketelling, Folke-
msengdens BevEegelse ; C. 3. Consulatberetninger, Handol, Skibsfart ; C. 4.
Beretninger om Sundhedstilstanden og Medicinalforholdene ; C. 8. De Offent-
lige Jernbaner ; C. 9. Norges Fiskerier ; C. 10. Kommunale Forhelde ; C. 12.
Borgvarksdrift ; C. 13. Industrielle Forholde. D. 1. Norges Indtsegter og
Udgifter. F. 1. Telegrafstatistik, &c. ccc. 4. Christiania, 1870-76.

SWEDEN AND NORWAT. 435

Sveriges och Norges Stats-kalender for 3r 1876. Utgifven efter kongL maj.
nadigste forordnande, af dess vetenskaps-akademi. 8. Stockholm, 1876.

Statistisk Tidskrift, utgifven af KongL Statistiska Central-Byran. Stockholm,
1860-1876.

Report by Mr. Audley Gosling, Secretary of Legation, on Agriculture and
the Tenure of Land in Sweden, dated Stockholm, February 14, 1870; in
' Reports from H. M.'s Representatives respecting the Tenure of Land in the
several Countries of Europe.' Part II. Fol. London, 1870.

Report by Mr. G. F. Gould, Secretary of Legation, on the Finances
of Sweden, dated Stockholm, November 16, 1874, in 'Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part 1. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. G. F. Gould, Secretary of Legation, on the shipping
and the iron industry of Sweden, dated Stockholm, February 8, 1875 ; in
' Reports by H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part II. 1875.
8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. G. F. Gould, Secretary of Legation, on the Revenue,
Expenditure, and Public Debt of Sweden, dated Stockholm, March 27, 1876 ;
in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation. Part II. 1876.
8. London, 1876.

Report by Consul-General Sir John Rice Crowe on the trade and commerce
of Norway for the year 1873, dated Christiania, November 26, 1874 ; in ' Re-
ports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part. I. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Reports by Mr. Consul-General Jones, on the Trade and Commerce of Nor-
way in 1875, and by Mr. Consul Duff, on the Shipping and Exports of Gotten-
burg (Goteborg), dated Feb.-May 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part IV. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of the United Kingdom with Sweden and Norway; in 'Annual
Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions in the Year 1875.' Imp. 4. Lendon, 1876.

2. Nox-Official Publications.

Broch (Dr. 0. J.), Statistisk Arbog for Kong. Norge. 8. Christiania, 1876.

Brock (Dr. 0. J.) Kongeriget Norge og det Norske Folk. 8. Christiania,
1876.

Bull (N. R.), Norges Statskalender for Aaret 1876. 8. Christiania, 1876.

Carlson (F. F.), Geschichte Schweden's. 5 vols. 8. Gotha, 1875.

Geelmuyden (J.) Kortfattet statistisk Haandbog over Kongeriget Norges
Inddelinger i administratis retslig og geistlig Henseende m. m., efter officielle
Kilder udarbeidet. 8. Bergen, 1870.

Hammar (A.), Historiskt, geografiskt och statistiskt, Lexicon ofver Sverige
8 vols. 8. Stockholm, 1859-70.

Kiaer (A. N.), Statistisk Handbog for Kongeriget Norge. 8. Christiania,
1871.

bjungberg (C. E.), La Suede: son developpement moral, industrial, et com-
merciel, d'apres des documents offlciels. Traduit par L. de Lilliehook. 8.
Paris, 1867.

Rudbeck (J. G.), Beskrifning ofver Sveriges Stader i Historisk, topographiskt
och statistiskt hiinseende. 3 vols. 8. Stockholm, 1855-61.

Sidenbladh (E. and K.), Sveriges officiela statistik i Sammandrag. 6 vols. 8.
Stockholm, 1870-75.

Sidenbladh (Dr. Elis), Schweden. Statistische Mittheilungon. Stockholm,
1873.

Tonsbcrg (Chr.). Norway: Handbook for Travellers. 12. London, 1875.

ri2

436

SWITZERLAND.

(Schweiz. — Suisse.)

Constitution and Government.
The republic of Switzerland, formerly a league of semi-indepen-
dent states, or ' Staatenbund,' has become a united confederacy, or
' Bundesstaat,' since the year 1848. The present constitution,
based on fundamental laws passed in 1848, came into force
May 29, 1874, having received the national sanction by a
general vote of the people, given April 19, 1874. It vests the
supreme legislative and executive authority in a parliament of two
chambers, a ' Stiinderath,' or State Council, and a ' Nationalrath,' or
National Council. The first is composed of forty-four members,
chosen by the twenty-two cantons of the Confederation, two for
each canton. The ' Nationalrath ' consists of 135 representatives of
the Swiss people, chosen in direct election, at the rate of one deputy
for every 20,000 souls. On the basis of the general census of
1870, which governed the last elections, the cantons are repre-
sented as follows in the National Council : —

Number of

Cantons

Represen-

Cantons

Represen-

tatives

Bern ....

Solothurn

Zurich

Appenzell — Exterior

and

Vaud (Waadt) .

Interior

Aargau .

■

Glarus

St. Gallen

Schaffhausen .

Luzem

Schwyz .

Ticino (Tessin)

Unterwald — ■ Upper

and

Fribourg (Freiburg)

Lower .

Graubiinden (Grison

0 •

Uri.

Wallis (Valais)

Zug . . .

Thurgau .

Basel — Town and Country

Total of representatives in 1
the National Council J

135

Neuchatel (Neuenburg) .

Geneve (Genf)

A general election of representatives takes place every three years.
Every citizen of the republic who has attained the age of twenty
years is entitled to a vote ; and any voter, not a clergyman, may be
elected a deputy. Both chambers united are called the ' Bundes-
Versammlung,' or Federal Assembly, and as such represent the
supreme Government of the republic. The chief executive authority
is deputed to a ' Bundesrath,' or Federal Council, consisting of seven
members, elected for three years by the Federal Assembly. Every

SWITZERLAND. 437

citizen who lias a vote for the National Council is eligible for be-
coming a member of the executive.

The president and vice-president of the Federal Council are the
first magistrates of the republic. Both are elected by the Federal
Assembly for the term of one year, and are not re-eligible till after
the expiration of another year. The election takes place at a united
meeting of the State Council and the National Council. The Federal
Assembly alone has the right to declare war, to make peace, and to
conclude alliances and treaties with other nations.

Independent of the Federal Assembly, though issuing from the
same, is the ' Bundes-Gericht,' or Federal Tribunal. It consists of
eleven members, elected for six years by the Federal Assembly. The
Federal Tribunal decides, in the last instance, on all matters in dispute
between the various cantons of the republic, as well as between the
cantons and the Federal Government, and acts in general as high
court of appeal. The Tribunal is divided into three sections, the
' Anklagekammer,' or chamber of accusation ; the ' Kriminalkammer,'
•or jury department ; and the ' Cassations-Gericht,' or council of
appeal. Each section consists of three members, and the remaining
two members, elected specially by the Federal Assembly, fill the
post of president and vice-president. The seat of the Federal
Tribunal is at Lausanne.

The seven members of the Federal Council — each of whom has a
salary of 480/. per annum, while the president has 600Z. — act as
ministers, or chiefs of the seven administrative departments of the
republic. The president and vice-president of the council, by the
terms of the Constitution, hold office for only one year, from
January 1 to December 31. The city of Bern is the seat of the
Federal Council and the central administrative authorities.

Each of the cantons and demi-cantons of Switzerland has its local
government, different in organisation in most instances, but all based
on the principle of absolute sovereignty of the people. In a few of
the smallest cantons, the people exercise their powers direct, without
the intervention of any parliamentary machinery, all male citizens
of full age assembling together in the open air, at stated periods,
making laws and appointing their administrators. Such assemblies,
known as the Landesgemeinde, exist in Appenzell, G-larus, Onterwald,
and Uri. The same system is carried out, somewhat less directly,
in several other ol'tlie thinly populated cantons, which possess legis-
lative bodies, but limited so fox that they must submit their acts to
the people for confirmation or refusal. In all the larger cantons, the
people delegates its sovereignty to a body chosen by universal
suffrage, called the Grosse Rath, which exercises all the functions of
the Landesgemeinde. The members of these bodies, as well as
most of the magistrates, are either honorary servants of their fellow

438 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

citizens, or receive a merely nominal salary. There is no clas3 of
paid permanent officials existing, either in connection with the can-
tonal administrations, or the general government.

The constitution of 1874 abolishes the penalty of death, together
•with all corporal punishments, throughout the territory of the
confederation.

Church and Education.

The population of Switzerland is divided between Protestantism
and Roman Catholicism, about 59 per cent, of the inhabitants ad-
hering to the former, and 41 per cent, to the latter. According
to the census of December 1, 1870, the number of Protestants
amounted to 1,566,347; of Roman Catholics to 1,084,369; of
various Christian sects to 11,435; and of Jews to 6,996. The
Roman Catholic priests are much more numerous than the Protestant
clergy, the former comprising more than 6,000 regular and secular
priests. They are under five bishops, of Basel, Chur, St. Gall,
Lausanne, and Sion. The government of the Protestant Church,
Calvinistic in principle and Presbyterian in form, is under the
supervision of the magistrates of the various cantons, to whom is
also entrusted, in the Protestant districts, the superintendence of
public instruction.

The constitution of 1874 has the folic wing enactments concerning
the exercise of religion : — ' There shall be complete and absolute
liberty of conscience and of creed. No one can incur any penalties
whatsoever on account of his religious opinions. The person who
exercises the paternal authority or that of guardian has the right to
dispose of the religious education of children up to the age of six-
teen years. No one is bound to pay taxes specially appropriated to
defraying the expenses of a creed to which he does not belong.
The free exercise of worship is guaranteed within the limits com-
patible with public order and proper behaviour. The cantons can
take the necessary measures for the maintenance of the public order
and peace between the members of the different religious commu-
nities, as well as against the encroachments of the ecclesiastical
authorities on the rights of the citizens of the state. All disputes
arising from the creation of new religious communities or schisms
in existing bodies shall be referred to the Federal authorities. No
bishoprics can be created on Swiss territory without the approbation
of the Confederation. The order of Jesuits and its affiliated societies
cannot be received in any part of Switzerland ; all functions clerical
and scholastic are forbidden to its members, and the interdiction can
be extended to any other religious orders whose action is dangerous
to the state, or interferes with the peace of different creeds. The
foundation of new convents or religious orders is forbidden.'

Education is very widely diffused through Switzerland, particu-

SWITZERLAND. 439

larly in the north-eastern cantons, where the vast majority of inha-
bitants are Protestants. In these cantons, the proportion of school-
attending children to the whole population is as one to five ; while
in the half Protestant and half Roman-Catholic cantons it is as one
to seven ; and in the entire Roman-Catholic cantons as one to nine.
Parents are by law compelled to send their children to school, or
have them privately taught, from the age of six to that of twelve
years ; and neglect may be punished by fine, and, in some cases, by
imprisonment. The law has hitherto not always been enforced
in the Roman-Catholic cantons, but is rigidly carried out in
those where the Protestants form the majority of inhabitants. In
every district there are primary schools, in which the elements
of education, with geography and history, are taught; and secondary
schools, for youths of from twelve to fifteen, in which instruction is
given in modern languages, geometry, natural history, the fine arts,
and music. In both these schools the rich and the poor are edu-
cated together, the latter being admitted gratuitously. There are
normal schools in all the cantons for training schoolmasters.

There are four universities in Switzerland. Basel has a
university, founded in 1460, and since 1832 universities have been
established in Bern, Zurich, and Geneva. The universities are or-
ganised on the model of the high schools of Germany, governed by
a Rector and a Senate, and divided into four ' faculties,' of theology,
of jurisprudence, of philosophy, and of medicine. In all the univer-
sities the theological faculty is Protestant. The Polytechnic School at
Zurich, founded in 1855, which possesses a philosophic faculty and 40
teachers, some of them professors of the university, and a military
academy at Thun (see p. 437), are maintained by the Federal Govern-
ment, at an average annual expense of 1,000,000 francs, or 40,000/.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The public revenue of the Confederation is derived chiefly from
customs. By the constitution of May 29, 1874, customs dues
are levied only on the frontiers of the republic, instead of, as before,
on the limits of each canton. A considerable income is also de-
rived from the postal system, as well as from the telegraph estab-
lishment, conducted by the Federal Government on the prin-
ciple of uniformity of rates. The sums raised under these heads
are not left entirely for Government expenditure, but a groat part
of the postal revenue, as well as a portion of the customs dues, have
to be paid over to the cantonal administrations, in compensation for
the loss of such sources of former income. In extraordinary cases,
the Federal Government is empowered to levy a rate upon the
various cantons after a scale settled for twenty years. A branch
of revenue proportionately important is derived from the profits of

440

THE STATESMAN^ TEAE-BOOK, 1877.

various Federal manufactories, and from the military school and
laboratory at Thun, near Bern.

The following table gives the total revenue and expenditure of the
Confederation in each of the three years 187 4 to 1876, the year 1874
showing actual receipts and disbursements, and the other two giving
budget estimates : —

1874
1875
1876

Revenue

Expenditure

Francs
46,844,809
39,516,000
41,487,400

£
1,873,792
1,580,640
1,659,496

Francs
24,782,366
39,266,000
42,622,000

£
991,295
1,570,640
1,704,880

The accounts of actual receipts and disbursements of the Con-
federation have shown a regular surplus for many years, except 1871,
when there was a deficit, caused by the expenses of a military occu-
pation of the frontier necessitated by the Franco-German War.

The following table gives the various sources of revenue ac-
cording to the budget estimates for the year 1875 and 187G : —

Sources of revenue

1875

1876

Produce of real property and invested
tal:—
Keal property ....
Invested capital ....

Total

Interest on sums advanced to Cantons

capi- Francs

83,543
298,125

Francs

104,392
189,000

381,668

293,392

86,417

105,307

Receipts of Administrations : —
Customs ....
Posts ....
Telegraphs

Manufacture of gunpowder
Mint ....
Government stud
Military Academy at Thun
Laboratory at Thun .

. 14,500,000

. 15,341,640

1,959.000

858,000

3,032,000

109,025

1,037,300

1,461,044

16,500,000

15,676,000

2,225,000

700,000

2,652,000

121,500

917,835

1,249,386

Tota
Receipts of Departments : —
Department of Chancery .
., War .
,, ,, Justice

Miscellaneous receipts .

L . 39,033,209

41,068,121

9,000

735,200

5,000

749,200

9,000
1,026,400

8,900

1,044,300

706

11,680

Total rev

enue

f 39,516,000
1 £ 1,580,640

41,487,400
1,659,496

SWITZERLAND.

441

The following table gives the various branches of expenditure
according to the budget estimates for the years 1875 and 187G: —

Branches of expenditure

1875

1876

Interest and Sinking Fund of National Debt .

Expenses of General Administration : —

National council

State „

Federal ,, .....
Federal chancery .....
Federal tribunal .....

Total

Departments : —

Political .....••

Interior . . . .

Army .......

Finance and Customs .....

Trade and railways

Justice and police .....
Post and telegraphs

Total

Miscellaneous expenses

Total expenditure j «

Francs

1,779,300

Francs
1,695,150

191,000

13,000

85,500

230,350

139,000

191,000

13,000

85,500

255,150

151,700

658,850

696,350

252,000

2,582,143

11,953,969

5.370,369

130,800

40,000

16,490,140

275,000

2,822,893

14,655,975

5,019,800

351,700

40.000

17,057,100

36,819,421

40,222,468

8,429

8,032

39,260,000
1,570,640

42,622,000
1,704,880

The public debt of the republic amounted, at the commencement
of 1876, to 27,600,000 francs, or 1,104,000/. It consists of two
loans, the first of 12,000,000 francs, or 480,000/., raised in 1867,
and the second of 15,600,000 francs, or 624,000/., raised in 1871.
The whole bears 4i per cent, interest. As a set-off against the
debt there exists a so-called ' federal fortune,' or property belonging
to the State, valued at 31,783,303 francs, or 1,271,332/.

The various cantons of Switzerland have, as their own local
administrations, so their own budgets of revenue and expenditure.
Most of them have also public debts, but not of a large amount, and
abundantly covered, in every instance, by cantonal property, chiefly
in land. The chief income of the cantonal administrations is derived
from a single direct tax on income, amounting, in most cantons, to H
per cent, on every 1,000 francs property. In some cantons the local
revenue is raised, in part, by the sale of excise licenses. In Bern
they form one-fifth of the total receipts ; in Luzern, one-seventh ; in

442

THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Uri, one-tenth ; in Unterwald, one-eighth ; in Solothurn, one-sixth ;
and in the canton of Ticino one-fourteenth of the total revenue.

Army.

The fundamental laws of the republic forbid the maintenance of
a standing army within the limits of the Confederation. The
18th article of the Constitution of 1874 enacts that ' Every Swiss
is liable to serve in the defence of his country.' Article 19 enacts :
' The Federal army consists of all men liable to military service,
and both the army and the war material are at the disposal of the
Confederation. In cases of emergency the Confederation has also
the exclusive and undivided right of disposing of the men who do
not belong to the Federal army, and of all the other military forces
of the cantons. The cantons dispose of the defensive force of their
respective territories in so far as their power to do so is not limited
by the constitutional or legal regulations of the Confederation.'
According to article 20, ' The Confederation enacts all laws relative
to the army, and watches over their due execution ; it also provides
for the education of the troops, and bears the cost of all military
expenditure which is not provided for by the Legislatures of
the cantons. To provide for the defence of the country, every
citizen has to bear arms, in the management of which the children
are instructed at school, from the age of eight, passing through
annual exercises and reviews. Such military instruction is volun-
tary on the part of the children, but is participated in by the greater
number of pitpils at the upper and middle-class schools.

The troops of the republic are divided into two classes, namely : —

1. The ' Bundes-auszug,' or Federal army, consisting of all men
able to bear arms, from the age of 20 to 32. All cantons are obliged,
by the terms of the constitution, to furnish at least 3 per cent, of
their population to the ' Bundesauszug.'

2. The ' Landwehr,' or militia, comprising all men from the 33rd
to the completed 44th year.

The strength and organization of the armed forces of Switzerland
was as follows at the end of September 1874 : —

Staff ....

Bundes-auszug

Reserve.

Landwehr

Total

841

Infantry

66,649

39.07S

54,334

160,061

Riflemen (Seharfschiitzen)

6,001

3,364

4,616

13,918

Cavalry

1.913

1,086

1.571

4,570

Artillery

8,262

5,350

4,643

18,255

Engineers

1,245

1,059

474

3,047

Administrative troops .
Total .

299

129

502

84,369

50,069

65,981

201,257

SWITZERLAND. 443

The staff of the army comprises one general, 76 colonels, 98
lieut.-colonels, 130 majors, 226 captains, 74 upper-lieutenants, 143
under-lieutenants, and 77 ' staff- secretaries.'

Every citizen of the republic not disabled by bodily defects, or ill
health, is liable to military service at the age of 20. Before being
placed on the rolls of the Bundesauszug, he has to undergo a train-
ing of from 28 to 35 days, according to his entering the ranks of
either the infantry, the Scharfschlitzen, or picked riflemen, the
cavalry, or the artillery. Both the men of the Bundesauszug and
the reserve are called together in their respective cantons for annual
exercises, extending over a week for the infantry, and over two weeks
for the cavalry and artillery, while periodically, once or twice a year,
the troops of a number of cantons assemble for a general muster.

The military instruction of the Federal army is given to officers
not permanently appointed or paid, but who must have undergone a
course of education, and passed an examination at one of the training
establishments erected for the purpose. The centre of these is the
Military Academy at Thun, near Bern, maintained by the Federal
government, and which supplies the army both with the highest class
of officers, and with teachers to instruct the lower grades. Besides
this Academy, or ' Centralmilitarschule,' there are special training
schools for the various branches of the service, especially the artillery
and the Scharfschlitzen. The nomination of the officers, up to the
rank of captain, is made by the cantonal governments, and above
that rank by the Federal Council. The general staff was composed,
at the end of June 1875, of 54 commissioned officers, namely, 3 colo-
nels, 16 lieutenant-colonels, and 35 captains. At the head of the whole
military organisation is a general commanding-in-chief, appointed, to-
gether with the chief of the staff of the army, by the Federal Assembly.

The total expenditure on account of the army was set down in
the budget estimates for 1875 at 11,953,969 francs, or 478,149/.,
and in the budget for 1876 at 14,655,975 francs, or 586,237/., the
increase being due to improvements in the administrative service, to
which are devoted four- fifths of the total disbursements. Not included
in the army expenditure is the maintenance of the Military School
at Thun, referred to above, which has a fund of its own, the annual
income from which is larger than the expenditure.

Area and Population.

The Swiss Confederation was founded on the 1st January, 1308, by
the 3 cantons of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwald. In 1353 it numbered
8 cantons, and in 1513 it was composed of 13 cantons. This old
Confederation, of 13 cantons, was increased by the adherence of
several subject territories, and existed till 1798, when it, was re-
placed by the Helvetic Republic, which lasted four years. In 1803,

444

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Napoleon I. organised a new Confederation, composed of 19 cantons,
by the addition of St. Gall, Graubunden, Aargau, Thurgau, Tessin,
andVand. This confederation was modified in 1815, when the number
of cantons was increased to 22 by the admission of Wallis, Neuchfttel,
and Geneve. Three of the cantons are politically divided — Basel
into Stadt and Land, or Town and Country ; Appenzell into Ausser
Ehoden and Inner Rhoden, or Exterior and Interior ; and Unterwald
into Obwald and Nidwald, or Upper and Lower ; but their union is
preserved by each of the moieties sending one member to the State
Council, so that there are two members to the divided as well as
the undivided cantons.

A general census of the population of Switzerland is taken every
ten years. At the last, of Dec. 1, 1870, the people numbered
2,669,147 souls, of whom 1,304,833 were males and 1,364,314
females. At the preceding census, taken December 10, 1860, the
population numbered 2,507,170, showing an increase of only 161,977
inhabitants during the ten years. The areaof the republic at the census
of 1870 was 41,418 square kilometres, or 15,233 English square miles,
giving an average density of population of 175 per English square mile.

The folloAving table gives the area and population of each of the
22 cantons, in the order of their extent of area, according to the
census returns of 1860 and of 1870 : —

Ccintous

Area:

Population

Eng. sq. miles

Dec. 10, 1SC0

Dec. 1, 1870

Graubunden (Grisons) .

2,968-0

89,775

91,782

Bern

2,561-5

466,811

506,465

Wallis (Valais)

1,661-6

90,456

96,887

Vaud (Waadt)

1,181-9

212,528

231,700

Ticino (Tessin)

1,034-7

115,781

119,619

St. Gallen

747-7

180,624

191,015

Zurich .

685-3

266,557

284,786

Luzern .

587-4

130,592

132,338

Fribcurg (Freiburg

563-9

105,260

110,832

Aargau .

502-4

194,062

198,873

Uri

420-8

14,691

16,107

Schwyz .

338-3

45,007

47,705

Neuchatel (Neuenbi

irg)

2S0-2

87,362

97.284

Glarus .

279-8

33,313

35,150

Thurgau .

268-3

90,133

93,300

■ Unterwalden .

2628

24,534

26,116

Solothurn

254-6

69,195

74,713

Basel

184-6

92,634

101,887

Appenzell

152-8

60,365

60,635

Schaffkausen .

119-7

35,571

37,721

Geneve (Genf )

91-3

82.323

93,239

Zug

85-4

19,596

20,993

Total

15,2330

2,507,170

2,669,147

SWITZERLAND.

445

The population of the republic is formed by three nationalities
distinct by their language as German, French, and Italian, but the
first constituting the great majority. The German language is
spoken by the majority of inhabitants in sixteen cantons, the French
in four, and the Italian in two. It is reported in the census returns
of 1870, that 384, 5G1 families speak German, 134,183 French, and
30,293 Italian.

The population is dwelling chiefly in small towns, hamlets, and
villages. At the census of 1870 there were but five towns in
Switzerland with more than 20,000 inhabitants, namely, Geneva,
seat of the watch and jewelry industry, with 46,783 ; Basel, centre of
the silk industry, with 44,834 ; Bern, political capital, with 36,001 ;
Lausanne, with 26,520 ; and Zurich, with 21,199 inhabitants.

The soil of the country is very equally divided among the popu-
lation, it being estimated that of the two millions and a half inhabit-
ants of Switzerland, there are but half a million having no landed
possession. Of every 100 square miles of land, 20 are pasture, 17
forest, 11 arable, 20 meadow, 1 vineyard, and 30 uncultivated, or
occupied by lakes, rivers, and mountains.

Trade and Industry.

The Federal custom-house returns classify all imports and exports
under three chief headings, namely, ' live stock,' ' ad valorem
goods,' and ' goods taxed per quintal.' No returns are published
of the value of either the imports or exports, but only the quantities
are given ; and, these, too, are not made regularly known by the cus-
toms authorities. The last returns, for each of the two years 1874
and 1 875, give the quantities of imports and exports as follows : —

Imports

1S74

1875

Live stock head

Agricultural instruments, carts and railway
carriages for travellers, and merchandise,
ad valorem ..... francs
Goods taxed per quintal, including loads re-
duced to quintals . . . quintals

Exports
Live stock .... head
Wood and coal, ad valor i m . francs
Goods, per load and quintal . . quintals

217,579

3,397,909
38,417,315

263,852

3,168,311
40,330,160

114,624
5,752,070
4,053,594

116,921

5,375,513
4,051,724

Being an inland country, Switzerland has only direct commercial
intercourse with the four surrounding states — Austria, Italy, France,
and Germany. The trade with Austria is very inconsiderable, not

446 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

amounting, imports and exports combined, to more than 25,000
francs, or 1,000/. per annum, on the average. From Italy the annual
imports average 30,000 francs, or 1,200/. in value, while the exports
to it amount to 1,500,000 francs, or 60,000Z. The imports from
France average 500,000 francs, or 20,000/., and the exports to it
5,500,000 francs, or 220,000/. In the intercourse with Germany,
imports and exports are nearly equal, averaging each 500,000 francs,
or 20,000/. per annum.

The imports of goods into Switzerland from Great Britain are
believed to have declined in recent years. In a report of Mr. Jenner,
British Secretary of Legation, elated Bern, December 6, 1873, are
the following remarks on this subject : — ' In the absence of any
special statistics with regard to the commercial relations of Switzer-
land with Great Britain, it is absolutely impossible to state positively
whether there be any actual increase or decrease in the total
amount of imports into Switzerland from Great Britain or of
exports from Switzerland destined for the English market. The
ignorance on this subject is so complete that although most persons
are agreed as to their being, at all events, a relative decrease in the
total trade, I cannot confidently affirm that such is the case. It is,
however, generally admitted that many of the most important com-
modities formerly drawn from Great Britain are now, to a con-
siderable extent, supplied to Switzerland by Germany and France,
or are produced at home.'

Switzerland is in the main an agricultural country, though with
a strong tendency to manufacturing industry. According to the
census of 1870, there are 1,095,447 individuals supported by agricul-
ture, either wholly or in part. The manufactories employed, at the
same date, 216,468 persons, the handicrafts 241,425. In the canton
of Basel, the manufacture of silk ribbons, to the annual value of
1,400,000/., occupies 6,000 persons; and in the canton of Zurich silk
stuffs to the value of 1,600,000/. are made by 12,000 operatives.
The manufacture of watches and jewellery in the cantons of Neu-
chatel, Geneva, Vaud, Bern, and Solothurn occupies 36,000 work-
men, who produce annually 500,000 watches — three-sevenths of the
quantity of gold, and four-sevenths of silver — valued at 1,800,000/.
In the cantons of St. Gall andAppenzell, 6,000 workers make 400,000/.
of embroidery annually. The printing and dyeing factories of Glarus
turn out goods to the value of 6,000/. per annum. The manufacture
of cotton goods occupies upwards of 1,000,000 spindles, 4,000 looms,
and 20,000 operatives, besides 38,000 hand-loom weavers.

From official returns laid before the Swiss Federal Government by
the Minister of the Interior, it appears that the railways open for
public traffic in Switzerland had, at the end of 1874, a total length oi
1,638 kilometres, or 1,024 English miles, distributed among thirteen

SWITZERLAND. 447

companies, the largest of which are, the Amalgamated Swiss Kail-
way, the Swiss North Eastern, the Swiss Central, the Canton of Berne
State Railway, the Swiss "Western, the Fribourg Railway, and the
Franco- Swiss Railway. There is one kilometre of railway to every
ten square kilometres of superficial area.

The post office in Switzerland forwarded 63,252,884 letters in the
year 1874, the number comprising 48,519,764 inland letters, and
14,733,122 international letters. The number of packets carried by
the post office in 1874 was 19,925,200, and of newspapers 45,651,344.
The receipts of the post office in the year 1874 amounted to 14,465,622
francs, or 578,624/., and the expenditure to 13,932,545 francs, or
557,290/.

Switzerland has a very complete system of telegraphs, which,
excepting wires for railway service, is wholly under the control of
the state. At the end of September 1875 there were 5,978 kilo-
metres of lines, and 15,260 kilometres of wire belonging to the State.
The number of telegraph messages sent in the year 1874 was
2,625,104, comprising 1,846,899 inland messages; 562,205 inter-
national messages, and 216,001 messages in transit. On the 1st of
January 1875, there were 815 telegraph offices belonging to the
State. The receipts amounted to 1,855,813 francs, or 74,232/., and
the expenditure to exactly the same sum in the year 1874. An uni-
form charge of one franc is made for every inland telegram of 20
words.

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of Switzerland ih Great Bbitain.

Agent and, Consul-General. — Albert Streekeisen, accredited July 6, 1S69.
Vice- Consul. — John U. Triininger.

2. Of Great Britain in Switzerland.

Minister. — Edwin Corbett, formerly Minister and Consul-General to the
Central American Bepublics ; appointed May 23, 1874.
Secretary of Legation — William G. Sandford.

Money, "Weights, and Measures.

The French metric system of money, weights, and measures has
been generally adopted in Switzerland, with some changes of names,
and of subdivisions. These, and their British equivalents, are : —

Money.

The Franc, of 10 Bat -en, and 100 Happen or Centimes.

Average rate of exchange, 25 Francs =£1 sterling.

Weights and Measubbs.

The Centner, of 50 Kilogrammes and 100 Pfund=\\0 lbs. avoirdupois. The
Arpent (Land) = 8-9ths of an acre.

The P/und, or pound, chief unit of weight, is legally divided into decimal
G routines, but the people generally prefer the use of the old halves and quarters,
uamed Halb-pfund, and Vieriel-pfund.

448 the statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Switzerland.

1. Official Publications
Eidgenossische Volkszahlung vom 1 December, 1870. 4. Bern, 1872.

Geschaftsberiehte des schweizerischen Bundesraths an die Bundesversamm-
lung. 8. Bern. 1875-76.

Message du Conseil federal a la haute Assemblee federale concernaut le
recensement federal du 1 decembre 1870. Le 12 juillet £871. 8. Bern, 1871.

Resultats du compte d'etat de la Confederation Suisse pour l'annee 1874.
4. Bern, 1875.

Voranschlag der Schweizerischen Eidgenossensehaft fur das Jahr 1876.
Fol. Bern, 1876.

Uebersichts-Tabelle der Ein-,Aus-undDurchfuhrim Jahr 1875,mit Angabe der
Grenzstrecken uber welcbe dieser Verkehr stattgefnnden hat. Fol. Bern, 1876.

Sckweizerisehe Statistik. Herausgegeben vom Statistischen Bureau des
Eidsenoss. Departements des Innern. 4. Bern, 1870-6.

Report by Mr. G. T. Gould, British Secretary of Legation, on the Financial
Position of the Swiss Confederation, dated Geneva, Dec. 24, 1871 ; in 'Reports
by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. I. 1872. 8. London, 1872.

Beport by Mr. Horace Rublee, Minister Resident of the United States, on
the Revision of the Constitution of Switzerland, dated Berne, July 3, 1871 ; in
' Papers relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States.' 8. Wash-
ington, 1871.

Statement of International Telegraph Intercourse between the Confederacy of
Switzerland and other Countries in the years 1871 and 1872; in 'Monthly
Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department.' 4.
Washington, 1872.

Report by Mr. Consul Mackenzie ' on the Trade and Commerce of the
Cantons of Switzerland,' dated Geneva. July 21, 1868 ; in 'Commercial Reports
received at the Foreign Office.' No. XL 1868. London, 1868.

Report by Mr. Consul Mackenzie on the Tenure, of Land in the Canton of
Geneva, dated October 1, 1869: in 'Reports from H. M.'s Representatives
respecting the Tenure of Land.' Part II. Fol. London, 1870.

Report by Mr. G. Jenner, Secretary of Legation, on the general condition of
British trade with Switzerland, dated Berne, December 6, 1873 ; in ' Reports by
H.M.'s vSecretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. III. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Statistics of Switzerland ; in ' Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries.'
Part XII. Fol. London, 1870.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Garstcr (J.) Atlas der Heimathskunde der Schweiz. 8. Bern, 1872.

Gisi (Dr. Wilh.), Zeitschrift fiir schweizerische Statistik. Herausgegeben
von der Schweizerischen Statistischen Gesellschaft, mit Mitwirkung des eidge-
nossischen Statistischen Bureaus. Jahrg. 1-12. 4. Bern, 1865-76.

Grote (George) Letters on the Politics of Switzerland. 8. London, 1876.

Kolb (G. Fi'.), Beitriige zur Statistik der Industrie und des Handels der
Schweiz. 8. Zurich, 1869.

Lombard (Dr. H. C), Repartitions mensuelles des deces dans quelques cantons
de la Suisse. 4. Bern, 1868.

Stoessel (Dr. J.), DieAusgaben des schweizerischen Bundes und der Kantone
im Jahr 1864. 8. Bern, 1865.

Wirth (Max.), Allgemeine Beschreibung und Statistik der Schweiz. Im
"Verein mit gegen 60 Schweizerischen Gelehrten und Staatsm&nnern heraus-
gegeben. 3 Vols. 8. Zurich, 1871-75.

449

TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES.

(Ottoman Empire.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Abdul-Hamid II., Sultan of Turkey, born September 5, 1842,
(15 Shaban 1245), the second son of Sultan Abdul Medjid; suc-
ceeded to the throne on the deposition of his elder brother, Sultan
Murad V., August 31, 1876.

Brothers and Sisters of the Sultan. — 1. Mohammed Murad
Effendi, born Sept. 21, 1840 ; proclaimed Sultan of Turkey on the
deposition of his uncle, Sultan Abdul- Aziz, May 30, 1876; declared
by the Council of Ministers to be suffering from mental alienation,
and deposed from the throne, August 31, 1876. 2. Fa-time Sidtana,
born Nov. 1, 1840; married, Aug. 11, 1854, to Ali-Ghalib Pasha,
third son of Rescind Pasha; widow, Oct. 30, 1858; remarried, March
24, 1859, to Mehemed Noury Pasha. 3. Rejige Sultana, born Feb.
6, 1842; married, July 21, 1857, to Etham Pasha, son of Mehemed
Ali Pasha. 4. Djemile Sultana, born Aug. 18, 1843 ; married,
June 3, 1858, to Mahmoud-Djelal-Eddin Pasha, son of Ahmet Feti
Pasha. 5. Mohammed-Reschad Effendi, born Nov. 3, 1844. 6.
Ahmet- Kemaledd in Effendi, born Dec. 3, 1847. 7. Behige Sultana,
born July 16, 1848; married, Oct. 11, 1859, to Husni Pasha, son
of Mustapha Pasha. 8. Mohammed-Buhran-Uddin Effendi, born
May 23, 1849. 9. Nur-Eddin Effendi, born April 14, 1851.
10. Seniche Sultana, born Nov. 21, 1851. 11. Fehime Sultana,
born Jan. 26, 1855. 12. Chehime Sultana, born March 1, 1855.
13. Soli/man Effendi, born Jan. 12, 1861.

Nephews and Nieces of the Sidtan. — 1. Yussuf Izzeddin Effendi,
born Oct. 9, 1857, the eldest son of Sultan Abdul Aziz. 2. Salihe
Sultana, born Aug. 10, 1862. 3. Mahmoud Djemil Eddin Effendi,
born Nov. 20, 1862. 4. Mehmed Selim Effendi, bora Oct. 8, 1866.
5. Abdul-Medjid, bom June 27, 1868.

The present sovereign of Turkey is the thirty-fifth, in male
descent, of the house of Othman, the founder of the empire, and the
twenty-eighth sultan since the conquest of Constantinople. By the
law of succession obeyed in the reigning family, the crown is
inherited according to seniority by the male descendants of Othman,
sprung from the Imperial Harem. The Harem is considered a
permanent state institution. All children born in the Harem,
whether offspring of free women or of slaves, are legitimate and of

G G

450 THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

equal lineage, but the Sultan is succeeded by his eldest son only in
case there are no uncles or cousins of greater age. Thus the late
Sultan Abdul-Medjid, who left fourteen children, six sons and
eight daughters, was succeeded, not by his eldest son, twenty-one
years of age at the date of his death, but by his brother, the present
sovereign. The female children born in the Harem have the
title of Imperial Princesses, which however does not descend to
their offspring, while the male children, not called to the throne,
must either remain unmarried or abdicate their rank.

It has not been the custom of the Sultans of Turkey for some
centuries to contract regular marriages. The inmates of the Harem
come, by purchase or free will, mostly from districts beyond the
limits of the empire, the majority from Circassia. From among
these inmates the Sultan designates a certain number, generally
seven, to be 'Kadyn,' or Ladies of the Palace, the rest, called
' Odalik,' remaining under them as servants. The superintendent
of the Harem, always an aged Lady of the Palace, and bearing the
title of 'Haznadar-Kadyn,' has to keep up intercourse with the
outer world through the Guard of Eunuchs, whose chief, called
' Kyzlar- Agassi,' has the same rank as the Grand Vizier.

The civil list of the Sultan is variously reported. In the budget
for the financial year 1868-69, the civil list was stated to be 911,516/. ;
in that for 1869-70 it was set down at 920,821/. ; in the budget for
1874-75 it was given at 1,809.090/. ; and, finally, in that for 1875-76
at 1 ,594,736/. Included in the latter amount in the budget forl875-76
was the sum of 524,532/. for Imperial pensions and charities, thus
reducing to 1,070,204/. the nominal allowance paid out of the public
exchequer to the Sultan. The actual expenditure of the Imperial
Court is not officially reported ; but it is calculated on good authority
to have been 4,500,000/. annually in the latter years of the reign
of Abdul- Aziz. To the reigning family belong a great number
of crown domains, the income from which, as well as customary
presents of tributary princes and high state functionaries, contribute
to the private revenue of the Sultan. The whole income, public and
private, is nevertheless reported to be altogether insufficient to cover
the expenditure of the Imperial Court.

The following is a list of the names, with date of accession, of
the thirty-three sovereigns who ruled Turkey since the foundation
of the empire and of the reigning house.
House of Othman.

Ottoman ....

1299

Mohammed I. ,

1413

Orctoan .

1326

Murad II.

1421

Murad I. ...

1360

Motoammed II., Conqueror

BajazetL, ' The Ttounder-

of Constantinople

1451

bolt' .

1389

Bajazet II.

1481

Solvman I.

1402

Selim I

1512

TURKEY.

Solyman II., 'The Magni-

Mustapha II. .

. 1695

ficent ' ...

1-520

Ahmet III.

. 1703

Selim II

1566

Mahmoud I.

. 1730

Muradlll. .

1574

Osman II.

. 1754

Mohammed III.

1595

Mustapha III.

. 1757

Ahmet I. ...

1603

Abdul Hamid .

. 1774

Mustapha I. .

1617

Selim III.

. 1788

Osman I. .

1618

Mustapha IV. .

. 1807

Mirrad IV., 'The Intre-

Mahmoud II. .

. 1808

pid' . . . .

1623

Abdul-Medjid .

. 1839

Ibrahim ....

1640

Abdul-Aziz

. 1861

Mohammed IV.

1649

Murad V.

Solyman III. .

1687

May 30— Aug. 31 1876

Ahmet II.

1691

Abdul-Hamid II.

. 1876

The average reign of the above thirty-five rulers of the Turkish
empire, during a period of more than five centuries and a half,
amounted to sixteen years.

Constitution and Government.

The fundamental laws of the empire are based on the precepts of
the Koran. The will of the Sultan is absolute, in so far as it is not
in opposition to the accepted truths of the Mahometan religion, as
laid down in the sacred book of the Prophet. Next to the Koran,
the laws of the ' Multeka,' a code formed of the supposed sayings
and opinions of Mahomet, and the sentences and decisions of his
immediate successors, are binding upon the sovereign as well as his
subjects. Another code of laws, the ' Canon nameh,' formed by
Sultan Solyman the Magnificent, from a collection of ' hatti-sheriffs,'
or decrees, issued by him and his predecessors, is held in general
obedience, but merely as an emanation of human authority. The
Koran and the ' Multeka ' alone, both believed to be of divine
origin, embody the fundamental laws of the state, and prescribe the
action of the theocratic government.

The legislative and executive authority is exercised, under the
supreme direction of the Sultan, by two high dignitaries, the 'Sadr-
azara,' or Grand Vizier, the head of the temporal Government, and the
' Sheik-ul-Islam,' the head of the Church. Both are appointed by
the sovereign, the latter with the nominal concurrence of the
' Ulema,' a body comprising the clergy and chief functionaries of
the law, over which the ' Sheik-ul-Islam' presides, although he
himself exercises neither priestly nor judicial functions. Connected
with tlic 'Ulema' are the 'Mufti,' the interpreters of the Koran.
The Koran is still the only unquestionable recognised source of
civil and religious law; and the -Multi, its interpreter, is the
supreme authority with regard to the legality of all religious, civil,
and political acts. Hi lates, the Sheik-ul-Islam Kiayazi,

1 . _•

452 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

and separate Muftis for daily affairs, for legal and ecclesiastical
decrees, form his council. To them even the Sultan himself refers
in every act of importance. He does not declare war nor conclude
peace till he has asked the Mufti and his Ulema, or ' wise men,'
whether ' it is conformable to the law,' and the Mufti decides by a
decree (fetiva). A similar process must be gone through by the
successful leaders of a rebellion to justify the deposition of a Sultan.
The Ulema comprise all the great judges, theologians and jurists, all
the great teachers of literature and science who may be summoned
by the Mufti. The temporal administration comprises three classes
of 'Dignities of the Pen:' — 1. The Sublime Porte of the Grand
Vizier, Avho presides over the State Council with three Ministers — ■
for home and for foreign affairs, and for executive acts — with six
under-secretaries, the most important of whom is Kanunji, or
Minister for revision of decrees, who is supposed to be answerable
that all acts of the Ministers are conformable to the law of the
Koran. 2. The Porte of the Defterdar, or Minister of Finance,
comprising sundry Ministers in various branches of finance, Keepers
of the Seal, who are styled Viziers, and whose Council is known as
the Diwan. o. The Agha, which used to comprise a large number
of civil and military officers of State of a special dignity, or in
close relation to the Sultan's person, such as the Commander of the
Guard, Guard of the Gardens, the Commandant of Artillery, the
Bearer of the Standard of the Prophet, the Prefect of Markets, the
Grand Chamberlain, and many others, some of whose offices have
fallen into disuse, and whose numbers and duties have been much
altered by recent changes. The ' Dignities of the Sword' comprise
vice-regal and provincial Governors in three classes : Pashas and
Beys. The Pashas are at once military and civil commanders,
judges and receivers of taxes, the latter being accounted for in an
infinite variety of fashions ; sometimes the Pasha is only Receiver-
General, sometimes Farmer-General; the only invariable feature of
the system being the endless variety of openings it affords for
corruption, oppression, and maladministration.

Forms of constitution, after the model of the West European
States, were drawn tip at various periods by successive Ottoman
Governments, the first of them embodied in the ' Hatti-Hunniyoun '
of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, proclaimed February 18, 1856, and the
most recent in a decree of Sultan Abdul-Hamid II., of November
1876. But the carrying out of these projects of reform appears
entirely impossible in the present condition of the Ottoman Empire.

The Grand Vizier, as head of the Government and representative
of the Sovereign, is President of the ' Divan,' or Ministerial Council,
and, by virtue of his office, is Minister of the Interior. The Divan
is divided into eight ministerial departments, namely : — 1, the

TUEKET.

453

Ministry of War ; 2, the Ministry of Finance ; 3, the Ministry of
Marine ; 4, the Ministry of Commerce ; 5, the Ministry of Public
Works; G, the Ministry of Police; 7, the Ministry of Justice ; and
8, the Ministry of Public Instruction. There were constant minis-
terial changes in recent years, the average term of service of the
members of the Divan not amounting to more than four months.
Changes in the post of Grand Vizier occurred eleven times during
the years 1874 to 1876.

The whole of the empire is divided into Vilayets, or govern-
ments, and subdivided into Sandjaks, or provinces, and Kazas,
or districts. A Vali, or general governor, who is held to represent
the Sultan, and is assisted by a council, is placed at the head of each
government. The provinces and districts are subjected to inferior
authorities, under the superintendence of the principal governor.
All subjects, however humble their origin, are eligible to, and may
fill, the highest offices in the state. Birth confers no privilege, as all
true believers are equal in the eye of the law.

Religion and Education.

The adherents of the various religious creeds of Turkey, ex-
clusive of Tributary States, are estimated to consist of fifteen
millions of Mahometans, and thirteen millions of non-Mahometans.
The Mahometans form the majority in Asia and Africa, but they
are in the minority in Europe. The following table gives the
numbers of the Mahometan and non-Mahometan population in
each of the eight vilayets, or provinces, of European Turkey, exclu-
sive of the Tributary States, after the most authentic estimates,
referring to the middle of the year 1876 : —

Vilayets

Constantinople
Edirnc (Adrianople)
Tuna (Danube)
Selanik (Salonica) .
Jania (Janina)
Prisren (Eoumclia) .
Bosna (Bosnia)
Kirid (Crete) .
Army

Total

Mahometans

183,540
523,009
819,220
429,410
250,649
617,479
493,148
38,000
82,539

Non-Maho-
metans

3,527,000

144,210
831,558
1,175,527
598,731
460,601
550,537
864,836
162,000

4,788,000

Total
Population

327,750
1,354,567
1,994,821
1.028,141

711,250
1,168,016
1,357,984

200,000
82,539

8,315,000

Although forming the majority in European Turkey, and not far
from one-half of the whole population of the Empire, the non-
Mahometans are legally without any religious rights, and meet with
the barest toleration, obtained under strong pressure from foreign

454 THE statesman's teak-book, 1877.

States. The power thus exercised resulted in certain privileges
being granted by the Turkish Government to the adherents of five
non-Mahometan creeds, namely: — 1. Latins, or Catholics, who use
the Koman Liturgy, consisting of Greeks, Armenians, Bulgarians,
and Croats : 2. United Greeks ; 3. United Armenians ; 4. Syrians
and United Chaldeans ; 5. Maronites, under a Patriarch at Kanobin
in Mount Lebanon. The five religious denominations, together with
the Protestants and Jews, are recognised by the Government as
independent religious communities, with the privilege of possessing
their own ecclesiastical rule. The bishops and patriarchs of the Greeks
and Armenians, and the ' Chacham-Baschi,' or high-rabbi of the Jews,
possess, in consequence of those functions, considerable influence.

Throughout Turkey, the Mahometan clergy are subordinate to
the civil authorities, who exercise over them a power of control.
Magistrates may supersede and remove clergymen who misconduct
themselves, or who are unequal to the proper discharge of the duties
of their office. The magistrates themselves may also, whenever
they think proper, perform all the sacerdotal functions. Owing to
the fact that the Koran constitutes the code of law and charter
of rights, as well as the religious guide of the followers of Mahomet,
there is a close connection between the ministers of religion and the
professors and interpreters of the law. Both together form the class
of ' Ulema,' governed by the ' Sheik -ul-Islam,' the former being
called ' Mollahs,' and the latter ' Muftis.' The members of the
1 Ulema ' go through the same course of education, based on the
thorough knowledge of the Koran and the ' Multeka;' but though
they all study together, the lawyers and judges are quite distinct
from the clergy, it being left to every young man brought up in one
of the colleges of the order to determine for himself, when he has
attained a proper age and acquired a sufficient stock of learning,
whether he will become a priest, or a doctor of law, or a judge.

The members of the Ulema constitute a form of aristocracy.
They pay no taxes or public imposts, and, by a peculiar privilege,
their property is hereditary in their families, and is not liable to
arbitrary confiscations. Their persons are sacred ; their blood may
on no account be shed ; nor can they be legally punished in any way
but by imprisonment and exile. However, the power and dignity
of the ulemas are not hereditary in individuals, but in the order.
Formerly they held their offices for life ; but about the end of the
seventeenth century they were made removable at pleasure, like
other public functionaries. But each individual enjoys all the pri-
vileges of the order, independently of his holding any office, or
exercising any public employment. There is another semi-priestly
class limited to the descendants of Mahomet by his daughter Fatima,
the members of which are called ' oomra ,' or emiers, and are

TURKEY. 455

authorised to wear green turbans. They are very numerous, and
are found in all the ranks of life.

The Koran and Multeka encourage public education, and, as a
consequence, public schools have been long established in most
considerable Turkish towns, while ' medresses,' or colleges, with
public libraries, are attached to the greater number of the prin-
cipal mosques. But the instruction afforded by these establish-
ments is rather limited. The pupils are chiefly taught to read and
write the first elements of the Turkish language ; the class-books
being the Koran, and some commentaries upon it. In the ' me-
dresses,' which are the colleges or schools of the ulemas, the pupils
are instructed in Arabic and Persian, and learn to decipher and
write the different sorts of Turkish characters. The instruction
comprises philosophy, logic, rhetoric, and morals founded on the
Koran ; and these, with theology, Turkish law, and a few lessons on
history and geography, complete the course of study. Among recent
improvements in public instruction are the foundation of a new
university in 1845 ; and the subsequent organisation of a plan of
primary and secondary instruction. In 1870, Constantinople had
415 public schools, which were attended by 24,000 pupils.

A new law of public instruction, designed to spread education
over the empire, was issued by the Government in October 18G9.
By its provisions there were to be five classes of public schools —
namely, primary, superior primary, preparatory schools, lyceums, and
special schools — and each quarter in a city and each village were to
maintain a primary school. But there had been no attempt of any
kind to execute the law up to the end of the year 187G.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The budget estimates published by the Government, divide both
the revenue and expenditure into 'ordinary' and 'extraordinary,'
the receipts under the latter head including loans. In the estimates
for the year of the Hegira, 1291, corresponding with the financial
year beginning the 18th February 1874, and ending February C,
1875, total revenue was set down at 22,552,300/., and the total ex-
penditure at 22,849,610/., leaving a deficit of 297,410/. Previous
to the year 1873, it was the custom of the Government of the empire
to draw up the budgets so as to exhibit either a surplus, or an even
balance between receipts and disbursements. The actual revenue
and expenditure, as far as known, differed entirely from the budget
estimates of every year, there being no surplus, but immense deficits.

The following table gives an abstract of the budget estimates for
each of the Turkish years 1290 and 12'J1 — the first commencing
March 22, 1874, and ending March 11, 1875, and the second
commencing March 12, 1875, and ending March 1, 187G — ac-
cording to official returns: —

456

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Branches of Revenue

1290 (1871-75) |

1291 (1875-76)

Property tax .......

£
2,963,370

2,540,000

Patent taxes .

681,820

128,800

Exemptions from militai

y service .

757,170

640,000

Tithes .

j 7,954,545

6,960,000

Tax on sheep .

1,977,270

1,615,840

Tax on swine.

29,440

25,720

Customs

1,886,365

1,660,000

Tobacco

1,363,635

1,320,000

Silk

49,180

44,000

Spirits .

227,270

320,000

Tapou (transfer duty)

681,820

772,000

Stamps .

454,545

240,000

Contracts

90,910

40,000

Judicial taxes

113,635

116,552

Miscellaneous taxes

413,635

381,200

Divers receipts

2,164,205

1,654,064

Tributes — Egypt .

681,820

Wallachia

22,730

Moldavia

13,635

Servia .

20,910

Samos .

3,635

Mount Athos

655

Total revenue

22,552,200

19,106,352

Branches of Expenditure

Foreign debt, interest, and sinking fund

5,738,495

5,762,560

Charges on general debt ....

1,781,820

3,065,508

Local annuities

610,655

916,716

Interest on floating debt

448,660

1,108,340

Interest on various advances .

—

989,272

Civil list and dotations .

1,809,090

1,594,736

Restitutions ....

4,850

5,600

Deficiency in receipts

113,635

—

Ministry of Finance

885,740

738,584

Administration of customs

409,090

664,936

Administration of forests

159,090

161,564

Ministry of the interior .

2,449,635

2,206,196

Prefecture of police

135,495

140,824

Judicial salaries

420,465

383,176

Ministry of Foreign Affairs .

159,090

140,000

War department .

3,775,370

3,122,328

Ordnance ....

818,180

640,000

Ministry of Marine

909,090

640,000

,, Commerce .

80,630

21,392

,, Public instruction

113,635

101,644

Sanitary administration .

—

68,312

Ministry of Public Works

103,620

89,480

Telegraphs and posts

590,365

341,920

Guarantee of interests to railways

1,332,910

197,188

Total expenditure

22,849,610

23,143,276

»ficit .

297,410

4,036,924

TURKEY.

457

According to the most reliable estimates, the actual expenditure
of the government exceeded the actual revenue in recent years in
amounts varying from seven to eight millions. It is calculated that
the actual revenue for the financial year 1875-76 will not be more
than 15,300,000/., while the expenditure for the same period, risen
to unusual dimensions on account of the insurrection in Bosnia and
Herzegovina, will reach at least 32,400,000/., thus leaving a deficit
of 17,000,000/. The annual deficits date back to 1850, since which
year loans, at first contracted at home, but before long, after the
outbreak of the Crimean war, abroad, on a much larger scale, had
to cover the constantly increasing wants of the Treasury. In 1873,
the government made great exertions, consequent upon the failure
of the issue of a loan of 28,000,000/., to reform the financial dis-
order, and the budgets for 1874-75 and 1875-76 were verified by
a special commission of eight members, including five Turkish high
functionaries, and the manager of the Imperial Ottoman bank.

Thepublic liabilities of the Ottoman Empire are divided officially into
two categories, namely, the foreign or hypothecated Debts, contracted,
as their designation implies, abroad, and secured on special sources
of revenue ; and the Internal Debts, known under a variety of
names, issued at Constantinople alone, and therefore dependent only
on a compact between the Porte and its subjects, and secured on
the general credit and resources of the empire. The nominal
amount of the foreign debts, contracted in the course of twenty
years, had reached, inclusive of a partly subscribed loan issued
September 1874, the sum of 184,981,783/. at the end of 1875. The
following table gives the year of issue, nominal capital — part repaid
by sinking funds — the interest, per cent., and the issue price, of the
foreign loans of Turkey : —

Yeax of issue

Nominal capital

Interest

Issue price

per cent.

1854

3,000,000

1855

5,000,000

102.}

18.38

5,000,000

18G0

2,070,000

62. «

1862

8,000,000

1863

8,000,000

186.)

36,363,363

47i

186.5

6,000,000

65 j

1867

2,500,000

1869

22,222 220

601

1871

5joo'.ooo

73'

1872

11,126,200

98.1

1873

28,00O.ui hi

58|

1874

40,000,000

43^

Total .

184,981,783

458 THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877-

The first foreign loan of Turkey, of 1854, issued to meet the ex-
penses of the war with Eussia, was contracted with Messrs. Dent,
Palmer, & Co., London, on the security of the tribute of Egypt, with
stipulation to be repaid by annual drawings in or before the year
1889. The second loan, of 1855, was brought out under the
guarantee of Great Britain and France. It is to be paid off at par
by annual drawings, the last of which will be in August, 1900, audit
is charged on the balance of the Egyptian tribute and on the customs
duties of Syria. The third loan, of 1858, was contracted with
Messrs. Dent, Palmer, & Co., and the Ottoman Bank, on the secu-
rity of the customs duties and octrois of Constantinople, and of the
general revenues of the empire. It was issued in two portions —
3,000,000/. in 1858, and 2,000,000/. in 1859— and is to be repaid, at
par, by annual drawings before the year 1893. The fourth loan, of
1860, contracted with M. Mires, Paris, on the security of the customs
and other revenuesof the empire, was intended to be for 16,000,000/.,
but only 2,070,000/. could be issued, at the price of G2£. The fifth
loan, of 1862, contracted with the Ottoman Bank and Messrs. Devaux,
Paris, was secured on the tobacco, salt, stamp, and license
duties, and the general revenues of the empire; while the sixth
loan, of 1868, contracted also by the Ottoman Bank, was issued on the
security of the Imperial customs and tithes. The seventh loan of
1864, to the amount of 40 millions Turkish lire, or 36,363,363/.
was raised with the professed object of attaining at a ' Conversion
and Unification of the Internal Debts of the Ottoman Empire.' The
contract for issuing this loan was made with Mr. Laing, represent
ing a financial combination of the General Credit Company of
London, the Societe Generale of Paris, and a number of other banks.
The next, the eighth loan, of 1865, contracted through the Otto
man Bank, was charged on the security of the sheep-tax of Eoumelia
and the Archipelagus, and the produce of the mines of Tokat.
The ninth, tenth, and eleventh loans of 1867, 1869, and 1871
■contracted through the Societe Generale of Paris, Messrs
Louis Cohen and Son, Paris, and Messrs. Dent, Palmer, & Co.
London, were placed on the security of a variety of special taxes
imposts, and tithes, as well as on the general revenues, ' present
and future,' of Turkey. The twelfth loan, issued in August
1872, through Messrs. E. Eaphael and. Sons, London, was secured
on taxes already hypothecated, with the ' special privilege ' for th(
bondholders to exchange their securities, at the rate of 550/. pay-
able for 1000/., for the 5 per cent, bonds of the ' General Debt o
the Ottoman Empire.' The thirteenth loan, issued in Sep
tember 1873, for a nominal amount of 28,000,000/., proved j
failure for the time, the subscription not reaching one-sixth of th
required amount. But the fourteenth and last loan, the first in

TURKEY. 459

stalment of which, to the amount of 15,900,000/., was issued in
September 1874, found numerous subscribers.

The amount of the internal and floating debt of Turkey is stated
variously. In the report of the special budget commission certify-
ing the estimates for 1874-75, it was announced, on authority, that
the total amount of this debt did not exceed 14,725,000 Turkish
pounds, or 13,000,000/., while the special commission for the verifi-
cation of the budget, for 1875-7G returned the total amount at
10,309,521 Turkish pounds, or 8,935,000/. Other reports estimate
the total of these liabilities at over 30,000,000/.

By a decree of the Government, dated October G, 1875, the in-
terest upon the debt was reduced for a time to one-half of the
stipulated amount. It was stated in the preamble to the decree that
' in order to pay regularly the coupons of the various loans, the
Government has hitherto been in the habit of obtaining fresh loans,
thus paying one debt by contracting another ; and not being able to
continue in this course, the Government enacts as follows : —
" Firstly. On and after this day the interest and sinking fund of the
Interior and Exterior Debts are reduced by one-half for the space
of five years. Secondly. The payment of coupons will be made as
follows : — The first half wholly in cash, the second half in fresh
securities bearing interest at 5 per cent., such interest being likewise
payable in cash simultaneously with the first half of the original
coupon falling due. Thirdly. If at the expiration of the five years
the above-mentioned second half of the coupon, which has been
transformed into capital bearing interest at the rate of 5 per cent.
shall not have been reimbursed, the payment thereof will be further
delayed until the complete extinction of the foreign loan following
next in rotation for redemption. The guarantees of the extinguished
loans then being free, will be applied to the reimbursement in full
of the said 5 per cent, interest and sinking fund." ' The moiety of
the interest on the debt promised by this decree was not paid at
the dates indicated, and by another order of the government, issued
July 9, l<s7ti, it was openly announced that no payments would be
made ' until the internal [affairs of the Empire have become more
settled.' To raise new funds in the existing bankruptcy of the
State, a decree for the issue of paper money was issued by the
Government July 27, 187G. The first issue, in notes of five, ten,
fifty, and hundred piastres, was fixed at 3,000,000 Turkish lire, but
it was reported that more than twice the amount had been already
issued at the end of November 1876.

Army and Navy.

The military forces of Turkey comprise, under regulations issued
in 1871, but not carried fully into effect, fckcee classes of troops,

460

THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

namely, first, the active army ; secondly, the reserve ; and thirdly,
the ' sedentary army.' It is enacted that after four years' service
in the active army soldiers may return to their homes and occupa-
tions, and are likewise tree to many ; but they are bound to join
their regiments at a moment's notice, to serve, if required, for two
years longer. At the expiration of the sixth year the soldiers of the
active force pass to the reserve, and have to serve three years in the
first reserve class, and three years in the second reserve class. The
soldiers of the two classes, though free to marry and attend to
their own business, are called out to drill for one month every
year, for which they receive pay. This reserve is calculated at
240 battalions, or 192,000 men, ready to take the field in a fort-
night's time. Upon the completion of six years' service in the
active army, and another six years in the reserve, a soldier is
attached for eight years longer to the ' sedentary ' army, and is
liable to be called out only in case of Avar. The sedentary force
is calculated to supply 300,000 men, while the reserve is estimated
to contain 148,680 men.

The total of the military forces of Turkey, exclusive of the ' seden-
tary ' army, were officially estimated as follows in 1876 : —

Infantry .....
Cavaby .....
Field artillery
Ai'tillery in fortresses
Engineers ....

fin Candia .
Detached corps < Tripoli

[ Tunis

Regimen. s

War-footing

Peace-footing

36
24
6
4
2
4
2
2

117,360
22,416
7,800
5,200
1,600
8,000
4,000
4,000

100,800
17,280
7,800
5,200
1,600
8,000
4,000
4,000

170.376

148,680

75,000

87,000

Total of fo

rces .

459,360

Formerly a considerable portion of the troops were furnished by
the spahis and other holders of estates on condition of military service.
But the system was changed in 1843, since which time the army is
recruited by conscription, which, however, falls only upon the
Mussulman population. Non-Mussulmans are not liable to service
in the army, but have to pay a military exemption tax, known as
the Bedel, amounting to about Is. 2d. per head of population, and
producing altogether 580,000/. per annum. The capital is totally
exempt both from conscription and the Bedel. It is calculated by
Mr. H. P. T. Barron that < of the 27,000,000 souls which are estimated

TURKEY.

46l

as the population of Turkey Proper, that is, of the provinces under
the immediate government of the Sultan, 16,000,000 may be set
down as Mahometans. Of these, about 3,000,000 are nomad
tribes not amenable to the conscription. Another 1,000,000 has
to be deducted for the citizens of Constantinople, and of other
towns who manage to evade it. This would leave about 12,000,000
to bear the whole burden of the conscription for army and navy.'

Only a portion of the troops is raised by conscription, and the rest
is procured by enlistment, which is productive of many recruits, as
the pay in the Turkish army is comparatively high. The Govern-
ment undertakes the procuring of substitutes at a fixed price.

The fleet of war of Turkey consisted, at the end of the year 1875,
of twenty ironclad ships and seventy other steamers. The ironclads
afloat comprised seven frigates, eight corvettes, and five gunboats,
while the steam fleet was made up of five ships of the line, five
frigates, fifteen corvettes, and fifty-five despatch and gunboats. In
addition to these there were four steam transports, and a number
of old sailing vessels, not fit for service.

The following is a list of the principal ships of the ironclad fleet: —

Name of ship and description 1

No. of

guns

Weight of shot
lb.

Horse-
power

Mesondive, frigate . <

Mendoiihiye, frigate . <

Azizieh, frigate . <
Orkaniyeh, frigate . -j
Osmanieh, frigate . <

Maumoudieh, frigate. -j

Athar-Tevfik, frigate
Fethi-Boulend, corvette .

Avni-Illah, corvette .
Muin-Zaffer, corvette

Athar-Shefket, corvette {
Negim-Shefket, corvette -|
Idjla-Lieh, corvette .

Lutf-Gelil, corvette . -.

6
12

6
15

I
15

1
15

*l
2

400
150

20
400
150

20
150
300
150
300
150
300
150
300
250
300
250
250
250
120
250
120
250
120
150

1 1,250

i 1,250

\ 900
I 900
\ 900

I 900

700
500

400
400

| loo

\ 400
J. 4oo

I 200

462

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Name of ship and description

No. of

guns

Weight of shot ; Horse-
lb. ' power

Hufz-Rakman, corvette \

Fethi-Jslam, gunboat
Beksor-Selim. gunboat
Semendirah, gunboat
Ishkodrah, gunboat .
Bonkoriteha, gunboat

2
1
1
2
2
2
2
2

150 pi
40 , } 200
32 J
9-in. bore . 150
9-in. bore ; 150
9-in. bore 160
9-in. bore ': 150
9-in. bore 150

The greater number of the ironclads of Turkey were built in
Great Britain. The two largest ironclads are the sister-ships
' Mesondive ' and ' Mendouhije,' launched in 1874. They were
built, after the design of Ahmed Pasha, chief constructor of the
Ottoman navy, by the Thames Ironwork and Shipbuilding Com-
pany at Blackwall. These two ironclads are each of a burthen
of displacement of 9,000 tons, and 332 feet long, with extreme
breadth of 59 feet. They are built on the broadside principle,
and have on the main deck a battery, 148 feet long, containing
12 18-ton guns, throwing 4001b. shot. Each of the four corner
ports are placed at an angle, capable of firing ahead, astern, or
on the broadside, while the other broadside guns have 35 degrees
of training each. The armour-plates of this battery, before and
aft of which is a shell-proof deck, are 12 inches thick at, and
ten inches thick above the water-line, and the whole ship is further
protected throughout with a 12-inch armour belt. The bow,
also, is strongly fortified, and fitted with a ram of great strength,
adapted to pierce an opponent below the armour in the most
vulnerable part. Forward, a forecastle gives housing for two
six-ton guns, firing ahead, while a poop aft affords shelter for
one gun of the same calibre. Finally, there are six 20-pounders
on the upper deck. Among the other ironclads, the largest is
the frigate ' Osmanieh,' built by Napier and Sons, Glasgow, and
launched September 2, 18G4. The ' Osmanieh ? is a ram, armour-
plated from stem to stern, 309 feet long, 56 feet broad, and of
a burthen of 4,200 tons. The stem of the vessel projects about
4 feet beyond the upper deck at the water line. Two other
notable ironclads are the twin screw-steamers ' Avni Illah,' or
* Help of God,' and the ' Muin Zaffer,' or ' Aid to Victory,' the first
built at the Thames ironworks, and the second by Samuda Brothers,
Poplar, and both launched in June 18G9. Each of these vessels is
230 feet long, and 3G feet broad, of a burthen of 1,400 tons, and
with engines of GOO horse-power. Both are clad in heavy armour,

an average thickness of 5^- inches, and carry four 12-ton rifle

TURKEY.

463

Armstrong guns in a central battery, the construction of which
admits of the guns being fired ahead and astern without the aid of
a turret. These two ironclads are stated to possess the highest speed
of any vessels of war of the same tonnage.

The navy of Turkey was manned, in 1875, by 30,000 sailors
and 4,000 marine troops. The crews are raised in the same manner
as the land forces, partly by conscription, and partly by voluntary
enlistment. The time of service in the navy is eight years.

In the budget estimates for 1874-75, the expenditure for the
army was set down at 3,775,370/., and for the navy at 909,090/.,
making a total of 4,684,460/. for both services. The actual expendi-
ture for naval purposes, including the uninterrupted construction
of ironclads, is reported to have amounted to at least three millions
sterling in recent years. Mr. Horace Rumbold, British Secretary
of Embassy at Constantinople, in a report dated May 28, 1872,
remarks on this expenditure : — ' It would be difficult to justify an
addition to the formidable squadron of ironclads that all the year
round lies at anchor in idle state in sight of the Imperial palace.'

Area and Population.

The area and population of Turkey are known only by estimates,
and not as the result of exact measurement and of a general
census. Official estimates of the extent of the empire and the
numbers of the population were published in 1844 and in 1856,
but it is generally admitted that they cannot lay claim to any
degree of exactness. According to these official statements the
population of Turkey in Europe numbered 15,500,000 ; but recent
researches, notably those of M. Vladimir Jakschitj, Director of the
Statistical Department of Servia, have shown that this estimate was
greatly exaggerated, the population being barely 8,400,000, in
Turkey Proper, exclusive of the Tributary States, and not much
above 13,000,000 inclusive of the latter countries, which do not
really form part of the Ottoman Empire.

The following estimate of the area and population of the Empire,
in Europe, Asia, and Africa, embodies the latest and most generally
accepted statistical researches : —

Geographical Divisions

Ann:
Engl. sq. miles

Population

Average
pop. persq. mil"

Turkey in Europe .
Turkey in As i it
Turkey in Africa

Total .

138,264

660,870
943,740

8,315,000

16,05o.(Miii
:;,soo.(M)(i

60
24

1,742,874

2s.ir,.-,.o(io

The following table gives, alter the estimates of M. Vladimir

464

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Jakschitj, the area and population of each of the eight vilayets, or
provinces of European Turkey, exclusive of the Tributary States,
with the average population per square mile : —

Vilayets

Area : English
square miles

Population ^llfZF*
c square mile

Constantinople
Edirne (Adrianople)
Tuna (Danube)
Selanik (Salonica) .
Jania (Janina)
Prisren (Roumelia)
Bosna (Bosnia)
Kirid (Crete) .

| 25,788

32,655
19,698
13,692
20,055
23,100
3,276

1,682,517

1,994,827
1,028,141

711,260
1,340,471
1,357,984

200,000

52
51
66
58
61

Total

138,261 ! 8,315,000 60

Turkey in Asia is divided into 14 vilayets, but the extent and
population of these administrative divisions are entirely unknown.
The total population of 10,050,000, assigned in official estimates to
Asiatic Turkey, is probably also a large overstatement. Equally
unreliable are the estimates of the area and population of Turkey
in Africa.

The various races of which the population of the empire in
Europe, Asia, and Africa is composed, are thus classified in the
most recent statistical estimates : —

In Europe

In Asia

In Africa

Total

Turks, or Ottomans .

1,000,000

10,700,000

—

11,700,000

Greeks

900,000

1,000,000

—

1,900,000

Armenians .

200,000

2,000,000

—

2,200,000

Jews ....

70.000

80,000

—

150,000

Slavonians .

4,000,000

—

4,000,000

Albanians .

820,000

—

820,000

Tartars

11,000

20,000

—

31,000

Arabs

—

885,000

3,800,000

4,685,000

Syrians and Chaldeans

—

200,000

—

200.000

Druses

—

80,000

—

80,000

Kurds

—

100,000

—

1,000,000

Turkomans

■ —

85,000

—

85.000

Gipsies

Total .

214,000

—

214,000

8,315,000

16,050,000

3,800,000

28,165,000

It will be seen that among the races of European Turkey the
Slavonians are the most numerous ; but the term comprises various
nationalities which have nothing more in common than a dialect of
the same language. Among them are the Bulgarians, a Turanian
race, who came to the river Volira — which gave them their modern

TURKEY. 465

name — from the Altai mountains. They entered Bulgaria in the
ninth century as Pagans, and were converted to Christianity by the
Empress Theodora, of the Lower Empire. The Christians and
Mussulmans of Bulgaria are of the same race, the latter having been
converted to Mahommedanisrn after the Osmanli conquest of Euro-
pean Turkey. The Bulgarians have no connections with the
Slavonians beyond their language, which they adopted from the
church services on their conversion. The majority of the other
Slavonians inhabiting European Turkey are of the same race as the
Sei*vians,and claim near connection also with the Slavonians of Bussia.

Land in Turkey is held under four different forms of tenure, namely,
1st, as 'Miri,' or Crown lands; 2nd, as ' Vacouf,' or pious founda-
tions ; 3rd, as ' Malikaneh,' or Crown grants ; and 4th, as ' Mulkh,'
or freehold property. The first description the ' rniri,' or Crown
lands, which form the largest portion of the territory of the
Sultan, are held direct from the Crown. The Government grants the
right to cultivate an unoccupied tract on the payment of certain fees,
but continues to exercise the rights of seignioiy over the land in
question, as is implied in the condition that if the owner neglects to
cultivate it for a period of three years, it is forfeited to the Crown.
The second form of tenure, the ' vacouf,' was instituted originally
to provide for the religion of the State and the education of the
people, by the erection of mosques and schools, besides eleemosy-
nary institutions. This object has been set aside, or neglected, for
several generations, and the lands assigned under it have mostly
been seized by members of the Ulema, or other government offi-
cials. The third class of landed property, the ' malikaneh,' was
originally granted to the spahis, the old feudal troops, in recom-
pense for the military service required of them, and for the safe
conduct of the caravans of pilgrims on their way to Mecca. This'
property is hereditary, and exempt from tithes. The fourth form
of tenure, the ' mulkh,' or freehold property, does not exist to a
great extent. Some house property in the towns, and of the land
in the neighbourhood of villages is ' mulkh,' which the peasants
purchase from time to time from the Government.

All consular and other reports agree in stating that the native
population of every part of the Turkish empire is fast declining, in
many provinces at such a rate that the formerly cultivated lands are
falling into the condition of deserts. "Want of security for life and
property, an anarchical yet extortionate administration, and a general
absence of all moral and material progress, are given as the principal
reason, for the rapid decline of the population, and the lapse of almost
all the territories ruled over, nominally, by the Sultan, into a
of barbarism.

EI II

466

THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Trade and Commerce.

There are no official returns regarding the foreign commerce of
the Turkish Empire. The average annual value of the imports of
Turkey in Europe is estimated at 18,500,000/. ; and of the exports
at 10,000,000/., representing a total trade of 88,500,000/.; but no
reliable data exist to verify these statements. The commercial
intercourse of the European portion of the empire is mainly with
five countries, namely, Italy, Great Britain, Austria, Greece, and
Kussia; and it centres at Constantinople. Consular reports show
that on the average of the three years 1872 to 1875 the shipping of
Constantinople was made up to the extent of 22 per cent, of British,
of 18 per cent, of Italian, of 17 per cent, of Austrian, of 16 per
cent, of French, and of 13 per cent, of Greek vessels, the rest sailing
under the flags of Turkey, Russia, and a number of other countries.

The value of the commercial intercourse between the Turkish
Empire — exclusive of the tributary states of Egypt and Roumania
— and the United Kingdom during each of the five years 1871 to
1875 is shown in the following table : —

Years

Exports from Turkey

Imports of British Home

to Great Britain

Produce into Turkey

1871

7,038,510

5,996,634

1872

5,540,529

7,639.143

1873

6,068,925

7,733,487

1874

5,842,846

7,037,707

1875

6,555,714

5,889,905

The following table gives the value of the trade between Turkey
in Europe — exclusive of Roumania — and the United Kingdom
in each of the five years 1871 to 1875 : —

v Exports from Turkey in
1 earB Europe to Great Britain

Imports of British Home

Produce into Turkey in

Europe

1871
1872
1873
1874
1875

£
4,819,518
2,894,998
3,469,777
3,579,836
3,924,341

4,253,710
5,134,252
4,969,341
4,633,024
3,630,365

The following table gives the value of the trade between Asiatic
Turkey and the United Kingdom during each of the five years
1871 to 1875:—

TURKEY.

467

Years

Exports from Asiatic
Turkey to Great Britain

Imports of British Home

Produce into Asiatic

Turkey

1871
1872
1873
1874
1875

£
2,218,992
2,545,531
2,599,148
2,263,010
2,631,373

1,742,924
2,504,891
2,764,146
2,404,683
2,259,540

The staple article of exports of the Turkish Empire to the
United Kingdom, in recent years, has been corn. The corn exports
of 1875 were of the total value of 2,909,014/., of which amount
448,040/. was for wheat; 939,733/. for barley; 1,494,570/. for
maize, and 31,665/. for other kinds of corn and grain. The exports
of com and grain of all descriptions from the Turkish Empire to
Great Britain amounted to 2,505,276/. in 1871 ; to 1,445,476/. in
1872, to 2,319,480/. in 1873; and to 2,305,375/. in 1874. Next
to corn, in value, stand goat's hair, valonia, and opium. Of goat's
hair, the exports to the United Kingdom, in the year 1875,
amounted to 753,907/.; of valonia to 562,518/.; and of opium
to 428,072/. There was another article of export in former years,
more important than any of these, in raw cotton, but it has almost
ceased. The exports of raw cotton, which amounted in value to
1,560,968/. in 1804, had fallen to 27,067/ in the year 1875.

The most important article of British imports into Turkey is
manufactured cotton. The imports of cotton and cotton yarn
amounted to 4,452,433/. in 1871; to 5,870,078/. in 1872; to
5,828,869/. in 1873, to 5,229,038/. in 1874 ; and to 4,646,343/. in
1875. Besides cotton goods, the only notable articles of British
exports are woollens, of the value of 204,406/., and iron, wrought
and unwrought, of the value of 210,178/. in the year 1875.

The mercantile navy of the Turkish Empire is comparatively
small, at the end of June 1876, its total tonnage was estimated at
181,500 tons, but this included coasting and other vessels. The
shipping ' de long cours ' was reported at the same date to embrace
220 sailing vessels, of a total burthen of 34,500 tons, and 11
steamers, of a burthen of 3,350 tons.

The foundation of a railway system constructed at the cost of the
State, was laid in 1865, at the end of which year there were 46
English miles of railway open for traffic. At the end of 1869, the
number of miles "pen for traffic was 113, and at the end of June
1873 it had increased to 562. The total length of railways open
for traffic on January 1, 1876, was 1,137 miles, of which 965
miles were in Europe, and 172 miles in Asiatic Turkev. The

H H 2

468

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

following is a list of the various lines in Europe and Asia open for
traffic on January 1, 1S7G : —

Lines of Railway

Length :
English miles

European Turkey : —
Constantinople to Adrianople
Adrianople to Saremby .
Salonica to Uskub .
Rustchouk to Varna
Uskub to Mitrovitza
Kulleli to Degeaghatch .
Trenova to Jamboli
Banjalouke to Novi
Tchernavoda to Kustendje

210

152

150

140

Total, European Turkey ....

Asiatic Turkey : —
Smyrna to Aidin .......

Total, Asiatic Turkey . . .

965

145
27

172

Total, Turkish Empire

1,137

* The line from Smyrna to Aidin, in Asia Minor, known as
the Ottoman railway, 145 miles long, was constructed by an
English company, under guarantee from Turkey. New lines, of the
length of 174 miles were ordered, in 1875, to be built at the expense
of the government, but their construction was not proceeded with
for want of funds.

The length of telegraph lines in Turkey on the 1st of January
1870, was 17,018 miles, and the length of wires, 31,230 miles.
The total number of despatches carried in the year 1874, was
910,130, of which 102,987 were international messages. The
number of telegraph offices was 401 on the 1st of January 1870.

The Post Office of Turkey is almost entirely managed by
foreigners, and the service mainly international. There are no
returns respecting the work of the Post Office, though it is known
that the number of letters, newspapers, &c, forwarded is very small
in comparison with other countries. There were only 430 Post
Offices throughout the whole Empire — exclusive of the Tributary
States — on the 1st of January 1870. The principal of these offices,
at Constantinople, belonged to Austria-Hungary, Egypt, France,
Germany, Great Britain, Greece, and Russia.

469

TRIBUTARY STATES OF TURKEY.

I. EGYPT.

See Part II. — Africa.

II. KOUMANIA.

Constitution and Government.

The union of the two principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia
was granted by a firman of the Sultan, dated November 12, 1861,
and was publicly proclaimed at Bucharest and Jassy, on December
23, 1861, the name ' Roumania' being given to the imited provinces.
The first ruler of Roumania was Colonel Couza, who had been
elected ' Hospodar,' or Lord, of Wallachia and Moldavia in 1859,
and who assumed the government under the title of Prince
Alexander John I. A revolution which broke out at Bucharest,
February 23, 1866, forced Prince Alexander John to abdicate,
after which the representatives of the people assembled to elect a
second ruler of Roumania, when the choice fell upon —

Karl I., Prince (Domnu) of Roumania, born April 20, 1839, son
of the late Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ; formerly lieu-
tenant in the second regiment of Prussian dragoons ; accepted his
election as Prince of Roumania, May 10, 1866 ; arrived at Bucharest,
May 21, 1866; recognised by the Turkish Government, July 11,
1866. Married November 15, 1869, to Elizabeth von Neuwied,
born December 29, 1813, daughter of the late Fiirst Hermann von
Neuwied.

The constitution now in force in Roumania was voted by a
Constituent Assembly, elected by universal suffrage, in the summer
of 1866. The charter vests the legislative power in a parliament
of two houses, a Senate, and a Chamber of Deputies. The Senate
consists of 76 members, and the other house of 157 deputies, of
whom 82 are for Wallachia and 75 for Moldavia. The members
of both houses are chosen by indirect election, the 6rst voters
nominating electors, and these, in their turn, the deputies.
Voters are all citizens, aged twenty-live years, who can read and
write; and eligible as deputies are all Roumans aged thirty, possess-
ing a small yearly income. The Prince has a suspensive veto over
all laws passed by the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The
executive is in the hands of the reigning Prince, assisted by a

470 THB STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

council of five ministers, heads of the departments of the Interior,
of Foreign Affairs, of War, of Finance, and of Justice.

The Roumanians are the only remains of the ancient Dacian race,
mixed with the descendants of the Roman penal colonists of the
Emperor Trajan. Their present language is a corrupt Latin, nearer
the language of Rome than any other modern tongue. They sub-
mitted to the Osmanlis in the fifteenth century, on the condition
that by paying tribute they should be free from Turkish rule.
Until 1720 they were governed by their native rulers, when, owing
to internal feuds, the Porte sent Greek princes to govern them. The
Greek War of Independence ended the sway of these princes,
the last being Soutzo, who was put to death by the Turks as a
fomentor of the Greek Revolution. Natives were again placed on
the throne; and the last, Couza, chief of the army, and a complete
dependent of the Porte, being deposed, Prince Karl of Hohenzollern,
the present ruler, was elected. There never was a Turkish governor
in the country, nor a Turkish resident, except on certain occasions
when there was a Russian occupation, and when Turkey sent with
its troops a commissioner, who, however, took no part in the
administration.

Wallachia is divided into eighteen, and Moldavia into thirteen
districts, each of which has a prefect or governor, a receiver-general
of taxes, and a civil tribunal, consisting of a president and two
other judges. Moldavia has a director of police and a town-council
in each municipality. Judges are removable at the pleasure of the
superior authorities. The legal codes are founded upon the civil
law and the customs of the principalities ; but though the system of
jurisprudence has been much amended, many reforms remain to be
effected, especially in the administration of the laws, which is said
to be most corrupt. Nearly the whole population belongs to the
Greek Church, and every village has a small church or chapel, with
one or more priests, who act as curates. The ecclesiastics of this
order are chosen from among the people, from whom they are little
distinguished in appearance, and whose avocations they follow when

Revenue and Army.

The chief source of revenue is a capitation-tax of thirty piastres,
or seven shillings per head on the rural population, with a higher
scale for tradesmen and merchants. Direct taxes, the profit from
State property, and the tobacco monopoly, produce about one-half
of the national income. The sources of revenue and branches of
expenditure were as follows in the budget estimates for the year
1875:—

HOUMAN'IA.

471

SOURCES OF EeVENUH.

Direct taxes —
Personal tax
Eoads
Licences

Ditto for sale of spirits
Land tax .
Tax on inheritance

Total
Indirect taxes —
Customs
Salt mines .
On spirits .
Judicial fines
Tobacco monopoly
Stamps and registrations

Total
National domains —
Eent from estates
Forests, fisheries, &c.

Total

SOURCES OF BeVENUE.

'Miscellaneous —

Post Office

Telegraphs ......

State Railways

Miscellaneous receipts ....

Extraordinary ......

Eepayment of advances ....

Total

Total estimated Eevenue in 1 875 .

Branches of Expenditure.
Council of Ministers
Ministry of Interior

Foreign affairs

Justice

Education and worship

Public works, trade, and agriculture

Finance, incl. service of debt
Supplemental credits .....

Total estimated Expenditure in 1875

Lei, or Francs
10,097,849
3,399,416
1,462,435
7,700,000
6,059,316
363,000

32,201,000

9,980,000
5,000,000
3,911,000
300,000
8,010,000
5,000,000

32,201,000

17,875,132
1,200,000

19,075,132

Lei, or Francs
1,300,000
1,200,000
1,000,000
4,833,454
812,500
1,937,313

11,083,267

91,441,418
£3,657,656

44,049
7,749,149
7'-' 1,017
3,896,832
8,329,929
5,100,356
52,029,544
1,000,000

97,1 19,552

£3,885,980

According to these estimates, there was a calculated deficit of
5,708,134 lei, or 228.324Z. in the year 1875. The preliminary budget

472

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 187'

estimates for 1876 were ba>ed upon a revenue of 9-4, 236,884 lei,
or 3,769,472/., and an expenditure of 101,236,386 lei, or 4,049,452/.,
leaving a deficit of 6,9-99,502 lei, or, 279,-980/.

The public debt of Roumania amounted, according to an official
report of the minister of finance, to 532,250,698 lei, or 21,290,024/.,
on the 1st of December 1875. The following tabular statement con-
tains the particulars of the debt, after the ministerial report: —

Year of issue

Nominal Capital

Interest

Amount outstanding on
the 1st of December,! 874

1864
1864
1865
1865
1866
1S68
1868
1871
1872
1872
1875

Lei, or francs
22,889,437
12 027,285

106,616,629
10,975,122
31,610,500

248,130,000
51,750.000

' 78,000,000
3,770,215
9,985,320

• 44,600,000

Per cent.

7
9

10
7
8

7*
■

' 2

8
8

Lei, or francs
16,575,000

5,956.341
55,693,710

1,909,192

25.127,500

247,492.269

51.666,715

70,070,000

3.174.650

9.985.320
44,600.000

Total

620,354,508

532,250,697

The loan of 1864 was contracted with the Imperial Ottoman
Bank and Messrs. Stern Brothers, of London ; and the loan of
1866, with Messrs. Oppenheim and Co. The loan of 1868 consists
of annuities due for the construction of the Bucharest and Giurgevo
State Railway to Messrs. Staniforth and Barkley of London; while
other liabilities are due for the construction of twenty-three iron
bridges contracted for by Messrs. Staniforth and Barkley in 1864,
and of Bonds issued in London for the balance by Messrs. Devaux
and Co. bearing 7 per cent, interest. The loan of 1871 was issued
and subscribed for at Bucharest, and is known as the Domeniali,
being guaranteed on State property specially assigned to that
purpose. An internal loan of 58,500 lei, or 2,340,000/., of which
42,500,000 lei, or 1,700.000/., for railway construction was added
to the existing debt in March 1876.

The military forces of Roumania are divided into four classes,
namely, the permanent army with its reserves ; the territorial army
and its reserves; the militia; and the national guard in the towns,
and the masses in the rural districts. The permanent army consists
of 8 regiments of infantry, 4 battalions of riflemen, 1 battalion of
pompiers for the capital, 2 companies of pompiers for Jassy, 2 com-
panies of foot gendarmes, and 1 company of discipline. The
cavalry includes 2 regiments of hussars, 1 squadron of instruction,

ROUMANIA. 473

and 5 squadrons of horse gendarmes. The artillery consists of
2 regiments of 7 batteries, 1 company of pontoniers, 1 company of
armourers, and 1 section of transport service. The staff corps is
formed of 1 battalion of 4 companies of engineers ; and the adminis-
trative corps of 1 company of workmen, 1 company of hospital
attendants, and 1 squadron of transport corps. The territorial
army consists of 8 regiments of infantry, called ' Dorobanzi,' 8 regi-
ments of cavalry, called ' Calarashi,' and 1 battery of artillery for
each of the 33 districts into which the Principalities are divided.
The effective force of the territorial army in 1876 was 22,463
infantry, and 12,184 cavalry with 12,192 horses. The territorial
troops localised in their respective districts are divided into four
series, one of which is under arms weekly, by which arrangement
the men are on service for one week, and off service for three weeks.
The conscription for the standing army and the territorial army
takes place simultaneously, the smaller numbers drawn being taken
for the permanent army, but those who are willing to find their own
horses pass into the ' Calarashi,' whatever number they may have
drawn. The territorial is subject to be mobilised, and concentrated
for manoeuvres or other service. The militia is composed of two
classes. The first class consists of all those from 21 to 29 years of
age who have not been drawn for the permanent or territorial
armies ; and the second class consists of all those from 29 to 37 years
of age who have served in either the permanent or territorial armies.
They are exercised every Sunday in their own districts. The
masses and national guard include all men from 37 to 46 years of
age, are organised, and may be called out for garrison service in
time of war, or to maintain order in time of peace.

Area and Population.

Xo detailed census of the population of Wallachia has been pub-
lished since 1860. The population was then stated to be 2,400,921
souls. There is no official return of the population of Moldavia, but
in a report of the Bucharest Boaid of Health dated January 1, 1864,
it was stated to be 1,463,927 souls. The following table gives the
area of each of the principalities, after the most reliable estimates,
and the numbers of the population on the basis of the returns of
1860 and 1864.

Wallachia

Moldavia and NewBessarabian Provinces

Total ....

Area : Eng. gq. m.

Population

27,500

18.1 rj

45,642

2,400,921

1,403,927

3,804,848

474

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Other estimates of the year 1873, give the numbers of the popu-
lation at 5,073,000, comprising 2,618,136 males, and 2,454,864
females. The census of 1860 grouped the popidation into 1,101,000
families, of which 209,000 lived in towns, and 892,000 in rural
districts. About four-fifths of the population are employed in
agricultural pursuits.

The last returns published by the government show a steady
annual decay in the ratio of increase of population. In 1869 the
excess of births over deaths was 41,371 ; it sank to 35,559 in
1870; and to 30,434—145,010 births, and 114,576 deaths— in
1871. The deaths exceeded the births in the year 1866, when the
cholera broke out, by 27,500. It is stated in a consular report that
the decay of population is owing mainly to ' a vegetable diet diluted
with strong spirit.'

The capital of the principalities and seat of the Government,
Bucharest, had 221,150 inhabitants in 1872.

Trade and Commerce.

The commercial intercourse between Roumania and the United
Kingdom is shown in the subjoined statement, which gives the value
of the exports from Roumania to Great Britain and of the British
imports into Roumania, in the five years 1871 to 1875 : —

Years

Exports from Roumania

Imports of British Home

to Great Britain

Produce into Bouniania

1871

1,151,291

705,769

1S72

1,044,406

814,675

1873

1,024,334

1,079,473

1874

611,745

1,244,871

1875

594,158

1,054,754

The staple article of Roumanian exports to the United Kingdom
is corn, the value of which was 569,990/. in 1875, comprising
167,133*. for wheat; 157,435/. for barley; 243,107/. for maize,
and 2,315/. for other kinds of corn. The British imports into
Roumania consist of miscellaneous articles of British manufacture,
chief among them cotton goods, of the value of 677,489/. in 1875.

The commerce and industry of Roumania largely profited by
the construction, in recent years, of several lines of railway. In
1869, the first line, 42 English miles in length, was opened from
Bucharest to Giurgevo on the Danube — facing Rustchuk and thp
Turkish railway to Varna — and in subsequent years, to 1876, a
network of railways was completed connecting the capital with
Western Europe through the towns of Ploesti, Buzeo, Ibraila,
Tekutch, Roman, and Suceava, and from thence to Lemberg in

8ERVIA. 47 S

Austria. A connection with the Russian lines at Ungheni, on the
Pruth, was in course of construction in 1876. The whole of the
railways of Roumania are state property.

III. SERVIA.

Government.

The principality of Servia, since 1815 under the rule of native
princes, was placed under the protection of the great European
powers, as a semi-independent state, by the Treaty of Paris, of
March 30, 1856. The twenty-eighth article of the treaty orders
that, ' The Principality of Servia shall continue to hold of the
Sublime Porte, in conformity with the imperial decrees which fix
and determine its rights and immunities, placed henceforward under
the collective guarantee of the Contracting Powers. In conse-
quence, the said principality shall preserve its independent and
national administration, as well as full liberty of worship, of legis-
lation, of commerce, and of navigation.' The election of its rulers is
left to the Servian nation, under the nominal sanction of the Sultan.
Prince of Servia. — Milan Obrenovic IV., born 1855, the son of
Milos Obrenovic. Succeeded to the throne, by the election of the
Servian national assembly, after the assassination of his uncle,
Prince Michael Obrenovic III., June 30, 1868. Crowned at Bel-
grade, and assumed the government, Aug. 22, 1872 ; married Oc-
tober 10, 1875, to Friiulein Natalie von Keschko, born 1859.
Offspring of the union is a son, Nicholas, born Aug. 14, 1876.

The present ruler of Servia is the fourth of his dynasty, which
was founded by Milos Todorovitsch Obrenovic, leader of the
Servians in the war of insurrection to throw off the joke of Turkey.
The war lasted from 1815 to 1829, when the Turkish Government
was compelled to grant virtual independence to Servia. By the
terms of the treaty, signed September 14, 1829, Milos T. Obre-
novic was acknowledged Prince of Servia, and by a subsequent
Firman of the Sultan, dated August 15, 1830, the dignity was made
hereditary in his family. In consequence of a revolt of the troops,
Milos was forced, June 13, 1839, to abdicate in favour of his eldest
son, Milan I. The latter died July 8, 1 839, whereupon his brother,
Michael, was proclaimed prince. Another revolt drove Michael
from the country, in 1842, and his family remained banished till
1858, when Milos T. Obrenovic was recalled to the throne. He
died Sept 26, 1860, and was succeeded by his son, Michael, former
ruler of Servia, who was assassinated June 10, 1868.

By the constitution of Servia, the executive power is vested
in the prince, assisted by a council of five ministers, who are

47^ THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

responsible to the nation. The legislative authority is exer-
cised by two independent bodies, the Senate and the ' Skoup-
schina,' or House of Representatives. The Senate consists of
seventeen members, nominated by the prince, one for each of
the seventeen departments into which the country is divided.
This body is always sitting. Formerly all vacancies in the Senate
were filled up by the rest of the members, but for some time past
the prince has exercised the power of appointing the senators. The
' Skoupschina ' is composed of deputies chosen by the people, at the
rate of one deputy to every 2,000 electors. The electors are the
males of the country above the age of twenty-one years, paying
direct taxes, and not being either domestic servants or gipsies.
These two classes are excluded from the right of suffrage. Every
elector is eligible to become a member of the ' Skoupschina,' except
the holders of Government offices and the clergy. The ' Skoup-
schina' assembles in annual session. On extraordinary occasions,
such as the election of a new prince, or the nomination of his suc-
cessor, a ' Grand Skoupschina,' four times as numerous as the
ordinary assembly, may be summoned by the government.

Hevenue, Army, and Population.

The revenue of Servia is derived chiefly from a general capitation
tax, producing about 10,000,000 ' tax-piastres,' or 320,000/. per
annum. The impost is minutely classified as to rank, occupation,
and income of each individual, a distinction being also made be-
tween married and unmarried persons, and is assessed, in the first
instance, on the different communes, or parishes, which have to dis-
tribute it among the heads of families. The total public revenue
of the year 1875-70 was given in the budget estimates at 85,250,092
'tax-piastres,' or 705,134/., and the expenditure at 34,800,884
' tax- piastres,' or 090,137/. The finances of Servia have been for
some years in a well-regulated condition, and there existed no public
debt until the year 1870, when the Avar with Turkey gave rise to
the issue of a small internal loan.

The standing army, reorganised in 1807, consists of 4,000 men,
actually under arms. The troops comprise a small artillery corps
and 200 cavalry ; the remainder are infantry. Beyond these there
is in existence a militia service, the strength of Avhich is estimated
at 70,000 men. The militia furnished by two departments of the
country, those of Belgrade and of Kragujewatz, are artillerymen; the
rest are infantry. There is also a newly organised volunteer service.

The area of Servia is computed at 1G,000 square miles, with a
population, according to a census taken December 31, 1874, of
1,352,522, comprising 094,750 males and 057,700 females. At a

TURKEY. 477

previous census, taken in I860, the inhabitants were found to number
1,216,346, divided, as regards race, into 1,058,189 Servian
Slavonians; 127,545 Roumanians ; 24,607 gypsies; 2,589 Germans ;
and 3,256 members of other nationalities.

Belgrade, the capital of Servia, had a population of 27,605 at a
census taken on the 31st December 1874.

Trade.

The chief trade of Servia is Avith Austria. Resides with this
country, commercial intercourse is only carried on with Turkey
and Roumania. The trade of the principality is represented by
imports from Austria and Turkey of the annual value of 900,000Z.,
and exports, to the same countries, of 1,100,000/. The chief article
of export is live animals, particularly pigs. The latter, which
are kept in countless herds, feeding on the acorns which cover the
"round for miles, are driven in large quantities into Hungary and
adjoining parts of Austria. The commercial resources of Servia
are as yet wholly undeveloped, chiefly for want of roads.

Diplomatic Representativas.

1. Of Turkey in Great Britain.

Ambassador.- Musurus Pasha, accredited Jan. 30, 1856.

Secretaries. — Etienne Musurus Bey : Paul Musurus Bey ; All Mouhsin Bey.

Military Attach!:. — Major Abdul Rahman Effendi.

Naval Attache. — Colonel Ahmet Bey.

2. Of Great Britain in Turkey.

Ambassador. — Rt. Hon. Sir Henry George Elliot; horn 1815; Charge
d' Affaires in the Netherlands, 1851-53, and in Austria, 1853-55; Envoy and
Minister in Denmark, 1858-59 : in the Tavo Sicilies, 1859-60 ; in Greece,
1860-62 ; and in Italy, 1862-63. Appointed Ambassador to Turkey Muly 6,
1867.

Secretaries. — Hon. W. N. Jocelyn ; Lionel Moore ; \Vm. B. Smyth ; Walter
Baring ; Hon. John AshLurton; Francis E. H. Elliot.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of the Turkish Empire, and
the British equivalents, are : —

Money. £ s. (J.

The Turkish Lira, or gold Medjidie . . . 0 18 0-64

Piastre, the gold official, 100 to the Lira . .00 2-16

., becklik, 105 to the Lira . . .00 2-06

„ „ copper, 110 to the Lira . . .00 1-97

Large accounts are frequently, as in the official budget estimates, set
down in ' purses' of 500 Medjidie piastres, or 5 Turkish liras. There
exists a large amount of debased silver currency, to which were
added, in 1*70, vast quantities of paper money — (see page 159) —

478 the statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

the effect being to raise gold to a high discount, and driving coin of
standard weight entirely out of circulation.

The present monetary system of Turkey was established in the
reign of the late Sultan Abdul-Medjid, on which account the name
of Medjidie is frequently given to the Lira, the unit of the system.

The currency of Roumania consists of two denominations, lei and
iani, being exact equivalents of the franc and centime of France.

Weights and Measures.

The Oke, of 400 drams .

,, Almud ....

„ Killow ....
44 Ohcs = 1 Cantor or Kintal
■39-44 Okes ....
180 Okes = 1 Tcheke .

1 Kilo = 20 Okes .
816 Kilos ....
The Andase (cloth measure)

„ Archin (land measure)

„ Donum (land measure)

2 '83 2 6 lbs avoirdupois.

1*151 imperial gallon.

0-9120 imperial bushel.

125 lb. avoirdupois.

1 cwt.

511-380 pounds.

0-36 imperial quarter.

100 imperial quarters.

27 inches.

30 inches.

40 square paces.

The killow is the chief measure for grain, the lower measures
being definite weights rather than measures. 100 killows are
equal to 12*128 British imperial quartevs, or 35*266 hectolitres.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning- Turkey
and Tributary States.

1. Official Publications.

Salname 1292. Official Almanac for the Turkish Empire. 8. Constanti-
nople, 1876.

Risale-Nameh. Turkish Almanac for 1292 Hedjra. 12. Constantinople, 1876.

Tableau General des Kecettes et des Depenses de l'Exercise 1291 (du 1/13
Mars 1875 au 29/12 Mars 1876). Publie par le Ministere des Finances. Sup-
plement au No. 156 de La Turquie. Fol. Constantinople, 1875.

Report by Mr. Horace Rumbold, Secretary of Embassy, on the Financial
Condition of Turkey, dated Constantinople, May 28, 1872; in 'Reports of
H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. III. 1872. 8. London, 1S72.

Report by Mr. Sidney Locock on British trade in Turkey during recent years,
dated Constantinople, December 31, 1873; in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy and Legation.' No. ILL 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Report by Mr. C. Vivian on the Finances, Trade, and Industry of Roumania,
dated Bucharest, October 30, 1875 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of
Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Report by Mr. Consul-General Green, C.B., on the Finances, Railways, &c,
of Roumania, dated Bucharest, January 1, 1873: in 'Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls on the Manufactures, Commerce, &c, of their Consular Districts.'
No. II. 1873. 8. London, 1873.

TURKEY. 479

Reports by Messrs. Moore, Blunt, Ceecaldi, Wrench, Stuart, Calvert,
Wilkinson, Palgrave, and Sir R. Dalyell, on Agriculture and the Tenure of
Land in the Turkish dominions of Europe and Asia, dated October — December
1869 and January 1870; in 'Reports from H. M.'s Eepresentatives respecting
the Tenure of Laud in the several countries of Europe.' Part II. Fol.
London, 1870.

Report by Mr. Consul-General Watson, on the Trade of the Principality of
Servia, dated Belgrade, March 2, 1872; in ' Reports from H. M.'s Consuls.'
No. II. 1872. 8. London, 1872.

Reports by Mr. Consul Lang, on the Trade of Cyprus ; by Mr. Consul Stuart,
on the Trade of Epirus ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Odoni, on the Trade of Gallipoli;
by Mr. Consul Moore, on the Trade of Jerusalem ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Sankey,
on the Trade of Kustendji ; by Mr. Consul Reade, on the Trade of Scutari ;
and by Mr. Vice-Consul Jago, on the Trade, Industry, and Population of
Syria; dated Jan.-April, 1872; in 'Reports from H. M.'s Consuls.' No. III.
1872. 8. London, 1872.

Reports by Mr. Consul-General Longworth on the trade and commerce of
Servia ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Jago on the trade of Beyrout ; by Mr. Vice-Consul
St. John on the trade of Jassy ; by Mr. Consul Moore on the trade of Jerusalem ;
and by Mr. Consul Blunt on the trade of Salonica, dated October to November
1873 ; in ' Reports from H. M.'s Consuls on the manufactures, commerce, &c,
of their consular districts.' Part I. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Report by Mr. Consul-General Green on the financial position of Roumania,
dated Bucharest, January 15, 1874; in 'Reports from H. M.'s Consuls on the
manufactures, commerce, &c, of their consular districts.' Part II. 1874. 8.
Loudon, 1874.

Reports by Mr. Consul Henderson on the trade of Beyrout and the con-
of Syria ; by Mr. Consul Holmes on the trade and commerce of Bosnia;
by Mr. Consul Sandwith on the trade of Crete; by Mr. Vice-Consul
Kirby Green on the commerce and population of Damascus ; and by Mr. Vice-
Consul St. John on the trade of Jassy, and the commerce and population of
Moldavia, dated December L874 and January 1875; in -Reports from H.M.'a
Consuls.' Part II. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. Vice-Consul Odoni on the Trade and general condition of
the Consular District of Galipoli, dated Galipoli, March 31, 1875; in ' Con-
sular Reports.' Part I. 1876. 8. London. 1876.

Reports by Mr. Vice-Consul Dupuis. on the Trade of Adrianople; by Mr.
Consul Skene, on the Trade of Aleppo ; by Mr. Consular-Agent Gatheral, on
the Trade of Angora; by Mr. Consul-General Nixon, on the Trade and Com-
merce of Bagdad; by Mr. Vice Consul Jago, on the Trade and Agriculture of
the vilayet of Syria; 1 _. Mr. icting-Consul Freeman, on the Trade and
general condition i f Bosi a ierai ; by Mr. Consul Sandwith, on the Trade of
Crete; by Mr. Acting Consul Riddell, on the Commerce of Cyprus ; by Mr.
Acting-Consul Br «wn, on the Trade ofGalatz; by Mr. Consular- Agent Amzalak,
on the Trade of Jaffa; by Mr. Vice-Consul Blakeney, on the Trade of
Prevesa ; by Mr. Consular- Agent Dussi, on the Trade of Rodosto; by Mr.
Consul Man on the Tr aos; and by Mr. Consul C'imberbatch, on the

Commerce of Smyrna, dated Jan.-April 1876; in 'Keporta from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part IV. 1876. 8. London. 1876.

Trade of Turkey with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions, for the
year 1875.' Imp. 4. Lon Ion, 1876.

48O THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

2. Non-Official Publications.

Boleszny (A.), Kezikonyv az Al-Dunan, Szerb- es Bolgaror-szagban utazok
szannira. 8. Pest, 1870.

Bout (Ami), La Turquie d'Europe. 4 vols. 8. Paris, 1840.

Bratiano (J. C), Memoire sur la situation de la Molclo-Valachie depuis le
traite de Paris. 8. Paris, 1863.

Bropfc/ (C. A.), and St. Clair (Capt.), The Ottoman Empire. 8. London, 1869.

Clarke (Hyde), The supposed extinction of the Turks and increase of
Christians in Turkey. In ' Journal of the Statistical Society of London.
Vol. XXVIII. 8. London, I860.

Farley (J. Lewis), The Decline of Turkey. 8. London, 1876.

Farley (J. Lewis). Turks and Christians.. 8. London. 1876.

Forsyth (William, LLD.. M.P.), The Slavonic Provinces South of the
Danube: a Sketch of their History and Present State in Eelation to the
Ottoman Porte. 8. London, 1876.

Forsyth (William), The Slavonic Provinces South of the Danube: a Sketch
of their History and Present State in Eelation to the Ottoman Porte. 8.
London, 1876.

Goehlert ( J. V.), Die Bevolkerung der europaischen Turkey. 8. Wien, 1866.

Hafiz Husseyn (Effendi), Hadikat-ul-dschevami. Description of theMosks,
High Schools, and Convents. 2 vols. 8. Constantinople, 1864-66.

Hammer (Jos. von), Staatsverfassung und Staatsverwaltung des Osmanischen
Reichs. 2 vols. 8. Wien, 1815.

Heuschling (P. P. X. T.), L'Empire de Turquie d'apres ses derniers traites
8. Bruxelles, 1859.

Islcender (0.), La dette ottomane. 8. Constantinople, 1872.

Kaniiz (R), Serbien. Historisch-ethnographische Eeisestudien aus den
Jahren 1859-68. Gt. 8, pp. 744. Leipzig, 1868.

Lejean (G.), La Turquie d'Europe. 8. Paris, 1862.

Millingen (Fred.), La Turquie sous le regne d' Abdul Aziz. 8. Paris, 1868.

Paoli (Sim.), La Turquie devant l'Europe. 8. Paris, 1868.

Rosen (G.), Geschiehte der Tiirkei neuester Zeit. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig.
1866-67.

Thiers (Henri), La Serbie: son passe et son avenir. 8. Paris, 1862.

Tschihatschef (M.), Lettres sur la Turquie. 8. Bruxelles, 1859.

Ubicini (A.), Lettres sur la Turquie. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1853.

Ulncini (A.), La Turquie actuelle. 8. Paris, 1855.

ZinJkeisen (J. W.), Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs in Europa. 7 vols.
8. Gotha, 1840-63.

PAET II.

THE STATES OF

1. AMERICA,

2. AFRICA,

3. ASIA,

AND

4. AUSTRALASIA

1 1

482

I. AMERICA.

ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION.

(CONFEDEEACION ARGENTINA.)

Constitution and Government.

The constitution of the Argentine Confederation, a group of states for-
merly known by the name of ' Provincias Unidas del Rio de la Plata,'
bears date May 15, 1855. By its provisions, the executive poAver is
left to a president, elected for six years by representatives of the
fourteen provinces, 133 in number; while the legislative authority is
vested in a National Congress, consisting of a Senate and a House of
Deputies, the former numbering 28, two from each province, and the
latter 50 members. The members of both the Senate and the House
of Deputies are paid for their services, each receiving 700/. per annum.
A vice-president, elected in the same manner, and at the same time
as the president, fills the office of chairman of the Senate, but has
otherwise no political power. The president is commander-in-chief
of the troops, and appoints to all civil, military, and judicial offices;
but he and his ministers are responsible for their acts, and liable
to impeachment before the Senate, by accusation of the House of
Representatives.

President of the Confederation — Dr. Nicolas Avellaneda, born
1838 ; studied jurisprudence, and practised as advocate from 1860
to 1868 ; minister of Education and Public Worship in the govern-
ment of President Sarmiento, 1868-74 ; elected President of the
Confederation, by 146 votes against 79 — given for General Mitre —
April 12, 1874; proclaimed President by the National Congress,
August 6, and installed in office October 12, 1874.

The Ministry, appointed by and acting under the orders of the
President, is divided into five departments, namely, of the Interior,
of Foreign Affairs, of Finance, of War and Marine, and of
Education and Public Worship.

The president of the Confederation has a salary of 4,000/., the
vice-president of 2,000/., and each of the five ministers of 1,800/.
each per annum.

The governors of the various provinces are invested with very

ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION.

483

extensive powers, and to a certain degree independent of the central
executive. They are not appointed by the president of the
Confederation, but elected by the people for a terra of three years.

Revenue and Public Debts.

The public revenue assigned to the central government is derived
almost entirely from customs duties, which are very heavy, and all
other sources furnish comparatively little to cover the public expen-
diture. The latter is made up chiefly of the cost of army and navy,
and the service of the national debt.

The actual revenue and expenditure of the Argentine Confede-
ration for each of the seven financial years, ending March 31, from
1868 to 187-4, were as follows : —

Years
ending March 31

Revenue

Expenditure

1868

2,497,981

2,841,155

1869

2,592.735

2,927,358

1870

2,637,324

2.877,529

1871 i

2,966,780

3,887,993

1872

3,634,476

4,798,595

1873

4,043,446

6,205,014

187!

4,398,265

4,580,782

The budget estimates of revenue and expenditure for the financial
year ending March 31,- 1875, adopted by the National Congress,
were as follows : —

Sources of Revenue

1S74-75

Import duties ....

Additional 5 per cent, ditto (war) .

Export duties ....

Additional 2 per cent, ditto (war) .

Storage ......

Stamp duty

Post Office

Interest at 7 per cent, on 17,000
shares of Central Argentine Kail-
way . . .

Interest on public works loan

Sundries

Pesos

14,900,000

3,596.(ino

2,300.110(1

1,200,000

600,000

430,000

200,000

130,ooi)
230,893
410,000

2,980,000

719,200

460,0(io

240, )

120,000
86,000
40,000

26,000
46,178

82,0oo

Total estimated revenue .

23,996,893

4,799,178

4§4

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Branches of Expenditure

1874-75

Ministry of the Interior
„ Foreign Affairs
,, Finance ....
„ Justice, &c.
„ Army and Navy

Total estimated expenditure .

Pesos

3,119,329

165,864

10,178,249

2,130,115

5,754,809

623,866

33,173

2,035,649

426,02 3

1,150,961

21,348,366

4,269,672

The public debt of the Argentine Confederation, divided into
an external and an internal debt, was as follows, at the end of June
1875, according to official returns: —

External. £

Old Buenos Ayres debt .' 1,840,200

6 per cent, loan of 1868 2,500,000

6 per cent, „ 1870 6,122,400

6 per cent. „ 1871 3,623,184

Total external debt . . 14,085,748

Internal.
Consolidated 6 per cent, Argentine Stock
Buenos Ayres Public Stock (in paper currency)
Parana Debt, 1858, including interest
Obligations to roads and bridges .

Total internal debt .

4,025,957

345,120

368,126

125,400

4,864,603

The greatei part of the foreign loan of 1868, to the amount of
1,950,000/., was. issued by Messrs. Baring Brothers, London, at the
price of 72-^- for 100. It is to be repaid in 21 years, and at the
end of June 1875 the original amount had been reduced to
2,006,900Z. The loan of 1870, amounting to 6,122,400/., granted
by Congress for the construction of railways and other public works,
was issued at the London Exchange at the price of 88-g-, under
promise to be redeemed by an accumulative sinking fund of 2^- pet-
cent, before the end of 1892.

Besides the liabilities above enumerated, there was a floating debt
in treasury bills, to the amount of 7,500,000 pesos, or 1,500,000/.,
at the end of June 1875.

The above statement of the revenue, expenditure and debt of
the Argentine Confederation refers to the national or general govern-
ment, called upon to defray the expenses of the army and navy, of
the Foreign Department, and to meet other obligations imposed

ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION.

485

upon it by the constitution. Each of the fourteen provinces, or
states, of the Confederation has a revenue of its own which is
derived by the imposition of local taxes. Buenos Ayres, the most
important state of the Confederation, requires annually above
1,000,000/. to meet the expenses of its government, law courts,
chambers, militia, country schools, and other public institutions.
The total revenue of Buenos Ayres in the year 1874 was returned
at 139,450,287 pesos, paper currency, or 1,162,086/., and the total
expenditure at 159,482, 223pesos, paper currency, or 1,329,018/. The
liabilities of all the states are internal, with the exception of Buenos
Ayres, which contracted a foreign loan of 1,034,700/. in June 1870
in England. The loan, issued at 88, with interest of 6 per cent., is
to be redeemed at par in 33 years.

Army and Navy.

The army of the Confederation, now in course of reorganisation,
consisted, in June 1875, of 6,183 men, comprising 2,G12 infantry,
3,189 cavalry, and 409 artillery. There were besides a militia and
national guard, numbering 19,867 men. The army was commanded
at the same date, by 3 generals, 138 colonels, 140 majors, and 674
other officers, being a total of 955 commissioned officers, or one to
every 7 men, rank and file.

The navy of the Confederation consisted, at the end of June 1875,
of 26 steamers, as follows : —

Steamers

Number

Guns I Horse-power

Tonnage

Ironclads ....
Gunboats ....
Torpedos ....

Brigs

Transports ....

2
6
3
12
3

12
16

1,500
1,950

440
3,020

600

3,400
2,400

700
1,700

300

Total .

78 7,.") ID

11,700

The navy was commanded, at the end of June 1875, by two ad-
mirals, and 74 other officers, and manned by 2,900 sailors and
mariners.

Population.

The following table contains a list of the fourteen provinces
actually composing the Argentine Confederation, their estimated
area, and the number of inhabitants, according to the last census,
taken in 1869: —

4^6

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Provinces

Area

Engl. sq. miles

Population

Littoral or Riverine :

Buenos Ayres ....

63,000

495,107

Santa Fe

18,000

89,218

Entre Rios ....

45,000

134,235

Corrientes .....

54,000

129,023 '

Provinces contiguous to the Andes :

Rioja .....

31,500

48,746

Catamarea .....

31,500

79,962

San Juan .....

29.700

60,319

Mendoza

54,000

65,413

Central provinces :

Cordova . . . .

54,000

210,508

San Luis .....

18,000

53,294

Santiago del Estero .

31,500

1 32,898

Tucuman .....

13,500

108,904

Northern provinces :

Salta ......

45.000

S8,933

Jujuy

27,000

40,362

Total .

i ■

515,700

1,736,922

The increase of population of recent years has been due chiefly to
immigration. In 1863, the number of immigrants was 10,408 ; in
1864, it rose to 11,682; in 1865, to 11,767; in 1866, to 13,960; in
1867, to 17,046 ; in 1868, to 29,384 ; in 1869, to 37,934 ; in 1870,
to 39,667; in 1871 to 45,390 ; in 1872 to 37,037; in 1873 to
79,712 ; in 1874 to 68,277 ; and in 1875 to 42,066. The immigrants
of 1875 comprised 9,130 natives of Italy; 4,036 of Spain; 32,383
of France ; 10,709 of Great Britain ; 5,860 of Switzerland ; and
4,997 of Germany, the remainder belonging to other nationalities.

Trade and Industry.

The commerce of the Argentine Confederation has greatly in-
creased in recent years, the increase falling, however, mainly on
the imports. In the five years from 1871 to 1875, the value of the
imports rose from 9^ to 11 millions sterling, and that of the exports
from 7 to 9 millions" The imports into the Confederation consist
chiefly of manufactured cotton and woollen goods, machinery, coal,
and iron, while the exports are made up to the amount of more
than one-half by wool and tallow. Among the minor exports are
ox and cow hides, sheep skins, jerked beef, horse-hair, and ostrich
feathers. The foreign trade of the Confederation is chiefly with
Great Britain and France, and passes in greater part through
Buenos Ayres.

ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION.

487

The commercial intercourse between the Argentine Confederation
and the United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement,
which gives the total value of the exports of the Confederation to
Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports ot British and Irish
produce and manufactures into the Confederation in each of the
five years from 1371 to 1875 : —

Years

Exports from the Argentine

Confederation to Great

Britain

Imports of British Home

Produce into the Argentine

Republic

1871
1872
1873
1874
1875

&
1.988,679
1,902,889
2,604,043
1,271.445
1,359,783

£
2,463,661
3,911.419
3,729,090
3,128.142
2,386,002

The three staple articles of Argentine exports to theUnited Kingdom
are skins, tallow, and un tanned hides. The value of the skins,
mainly sheep, amounted to 442, 38G/., of the tallow to 239,503/., and
of the hides to 367,732/. in 1875. The imports of British produce
into the Argentine Confederation consist chiefly of cotton and
woollen manufactures, and of iron. The value of the British
cotton manufactures imported in the year 1875 was G31,440/.,
that of the woollens 202,903/., and that of iron, wrought and
unwrought, 579,915/.

A network of railways, constructed mainly at the expense of the
State, has been in progress for several years. The following state-
ment gives the length, in kilometres, of the various lines opened
for traffic, and in course of construction, at the end of June 187G : —

Length.

Railways Open- for Traffic:— English miles.

From Buenos Ayres to Flores and Dolores . 198

„ „ Lobos . . .144

„ ,, Ensenada . . . 35

Tigra . . .18

From Eosario to Cordoba .... 256

Gualeguai to Puerto Ruiz .... 9

Concordia to -Monte Gaseros .... 97

Cordova- Tucuman . . . . .17**

Ville Maria to Rio Cuarto (State property) . 63

Total .... . 991

Railways m Course of Construction :

Rio Cuarto to Villa Merced* - (Si it< property) 76

Recreo to Tucuman (' Centra] del Norte') . 169

Buenos Ayres to Campany .... 48

Gran Chaco, fir.-t section .... 18

Total 311

•4.88 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

There were besides, at the end of June 1876, railways of a total
length of 1,568 miles sanctioned by the government, including an
international line from Buenos Ayres to Chili, 89-4 miles in length.

At the end of June 1876, there were 4,820 miles of telegraph lines
in operation, 3,346 miles belonging to the state, and 1,474 miles to
private companies. The total length of telegraph wires at the same
date was 9,830 miles. The number of telegraphic despatches was
180,120 in the year 1875.

The post office, in the year 1875, carried 1,816,486 parcels and
packets, and 4,605,354 letters.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Of the Argentine Confederation in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Don Diego de Alvear, accredited May 13, 1875.
Secretaries. — Carlos Maria de Alvear ; Camilo Pardo.

2. Of Great Britain in the Argentine Confederation.
Envoy and Minister.— Ron. Lionel S. S. West, appointed September 17, 1872.
Secretary. — Frederick E. St. John.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of the Argentine Confederation,,
and the British equivalents, are as follows : —

Money.
The Silver Peso f iter to, or Silver Dollar, of 100 ccntcsimos. — Average rate of
exchange, 4s.

The Peso, paper currency. — Average rate of exchange, 2d.

Weights and Measures.
The Quintal .„....= 101-40 lbs. avoirdupois.

„ Arroba = 25'35 , „

„ Fanega = 11 imperial bushel.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the

Argentine Confederation.

1. Official Publications.

Estadistica General del comercio esterior de la Eepublica Argentina. Fob
Buenos Aires, 1876.

Memoria del Ministerio del interior de la Eepublica Argentina presentada al
Congreso nacional de 1876. 4. Buenos Aires. 1876.

Memoria presentada por el Ministro de estado en cl departamento de hacienda
al Congreso nacional de 1876. 4. Buenos Aires, 1876.

Mensage del poder ejeeutivo presentado al Congreso nacional, 1876. 8.
Buenos Aires, 1876.

Eeport by Mr. Macdonell, British Secretary of Legation, on the Financial
Condition of the Argentine Eepublie, dated Buenos Ayres, August 1, 1871; in
'Eeports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. I. 1872. 8.
London, 1872.

Eeport by Mr. F. E. St. John, British Secretary of Legation, on the Financial
and Commercial Position of the Argentine Eepublie, dated Buenos Ayres, De-

ARGENTINE CON FEDERATION. 489

comber 15. 1874; in 'Reports byH. M.'a Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.'
Parti. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. F. R. St. John, on the Commerce and Finances of the
Argentine Republic for the year 1874, dated Buenos Ayres, March 15, 1876;
in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part II. 1870.
S. London, 1876.

Report by Mr. Consul Joel, on the Trade of Rosario, and the Railways and
Steam Navigation of the Argentine Confederation, dated Rosario, November 19,
1872 ; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Consuls on British Trade abroad.' Part I. 8.
London, 1873.

Report by Mr. Consul Joel on the trade and commerce of the consular dis-
trict of Rosario, dated Rosario, February 1, 1875: in ' Reports from H. M.'.s
Consuls.' Part V. 1S75. 8. London, 1875.

Trade of the Argentine Confederation; in ' Statistical Tables relating to
Foreign Countries.' Part XII. Fol. London, 1870.

Reports by Mr. Consul Cooper, on the Trade, Commerce, and Population of
Buenos Ayres ; and by Mr. Consul Joel, on the Trade of Rosario, dated Jan.-
March 1876 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1876. 8. London,
1876.

Trade of the Argentine Confederation with Great Britain ; in ' Annual
Statement of the Trade of the "United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions for the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Almanaque agricola, pastoril e industrial de la Republica Argentina y de
Buenos Ayres. 4. Buenos Ayres, 1876.

Arcos (Santiago), La Plata. Etude historique. 8. Paris. 1865.

Beck-Bernard (Charles), La Republique Argentine. 8. Berne, 1872.

Burmeister (Hermann), Reise dureh die La-Plata Staaten. 2 vols. 8.
Halle, 1861.

Dominguez (L.), Historia Argentina. 8. 1th edit. Buenos Ayres, 1870.

Hudson (Damian), Registro estadistico de la Republica Argentina. 2 vols.
8. Buenos Aires, 1867.

Latham (Wilfrid), The States of the River Plate, their Industries and Com-
merce. 2nd ed. 8. London, 1868.

MaacJc (L.), Die La Plata Staaten ; in ' Aus alien TVelttheilen.' 8. Leipzig,
1871.

Mitre (Bartolome), Estudios historicos sobre la Revolucion Argentina. 4.
Buenos Ayres, 1864.

Moussy (H. de), Description geographique et statistique de la Confederation
Argentine. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1861.

Midhall (M. G. and E. T.), Handbook of the River Plate Republics. 8.
London, 1875.

Eickard | Major F. Ignacio\ The mineral and other resources of t lie Argentine
Republic in 1869. Published by special authority of the national government.
8. ' pp. 324. London, 1870.

Sarmiento (Domingo Faustino), Life in the Argentine Republic in the Days of
the Tyrants. ' Translated by .Mr-. E. Mann. 8. L868.

Yircjilio (Jacopo), Delle migrazi 1 tri 1 itlantiche. degli italiani e in especie
di quelle dei Liguri alle regioni de! Plata, cenni economico-statisticL 8.
Genova. 1868.

Wild (C), Die Ackerbaucolonien in der Argentinischen Republik. In ' Air.
alien Welttheilen.' 8. Leipzig, 1870.

490

BOLIVIA.

(Rep^blica Boliviana.)
Constitution and Government.

The constitution of the republic of Bolivia, drawn up by Simon
Bolivar, liberator of the country from the Spanish rule, bears date
August 25, 1826 ; but important modifications of it were added in
1828, 1831, and 1863. By its provisions, the executive power
is vested in a President, elected for a term of four years ; Avhile the
legislative authority rests with a Congress of two chambers, called
the Senate, and the House of Representatives, both elected by univer-
sal suffrage. The President is assisted in his executive functions by
a President of the Council, or Vice-president, appointed by himself,
and a ministry, divided into four departments, of the Interior and
Foreign Affairs ; of Finance and Industry ; of War ; and of Justice
and Public Worship.

President of the Republic — General Daza, nominated President
May 4, 1876, as successor to Dr. Tomas Frias, deposed by the troops.

The fundamental law of the republic, ordering the regular election
of the chief of the executive every four years, has seldom been carried
out since the presidency of Grand-Marshal Santa-Cruz, who ruled
Bolivia from May 1828, till his death, January 20, 1839. Subse-
quently the supreme power was almost invariably seized by some
successful commander, who, proclaimed by the troops, instead of
chosen by the people, was compelled to protect his office by armed
force against military rivals. From 1867 to 1870 there was an
almost uninterrupted civil war, which reached its height in 1869,
when General Melgarejo for a time assumed the government, after
an unsuccessful attempt at insurrection by a rival candidate to
the presidency, General Belzu, head of the government from March
22 to his execution, March 27, 1869. The next President was
General Ballivian, avIio died February 14, 1874, succeeded by Dr.
Thomas Frias, head of the government till the outbreak of a new
insurrection, May 4, 1876.

The seat of the government, formerly at the city of La Paz,
capital of the republic, was transferred in 1869 to the fortified town
of Oruro.

Revenue, Public Debt, and Army.

There have been no official reports of the actual revenue and
expenditure of the republic for several years. In the budget for
the financial year 1873-74 the receipts from all sources were

BOLIVIA.

491

calculated at 2,929,574 pesos, or 585,915/., and the expenditure
at 4,505,504 pesos, or 901,101/., leaving a deficit of 1,575,930 pesos,
or 815,186/. The actual revenue for 1872-3 was estimated at
5,500,000/., and the expenditure for the same year at 1,000,000/.
About one-half of the public revenue is derived from a land-tax,
Avhich the aboriginal, or Indian, population is forced to pay, and the
rest from import and export duties, and the proceeds of mines and
other State property. Direct taxes do not exist.

The public debt, consisting of an internal and a foreign debt,
amounted, in June 1875, to 3,400,000/. The internal liabilities,
contracted at various periods by the government of the republic,
comprise a total of about 4,800,000 pesos, or 1,600,000/. The
foreign debt consists of a six per cent, loan of 1,700,000/. nominal
capital — issued at the price of 68 — contracted in England at the
commencement of 1872. It was raised with the object of constructing
a line of railway to enable the National Bolivian Navigation Company
to open communication between the republic and the Atlantic
Ocean. This object, however, was not carried out, and the greater
part of the proceeds remained in England to furnish means for law-
suits extending over years.

Bolivia has a standing army reported to number 2,000 men,
and commanded, in June 1875, by 8 generals, and 1,013 other
officers, being one officer to every two men. The annual cost of the
army amounts to upwards of two thirds of the total public revenue.

Population, Trade, and Industry.

The area of Bolivia is estimated at 842,729 English square miles,
with a population of close upon two millions. The following table
gives, after official returns of the year 1861, the area of each of the
then existing nine provinces, with their estimated population : —

La Faz de Ayacucho

Potosi .

Oruro .

Chuquisaca, or Sucre

Cochabamba .

Beni .

•Santa-Cruz de la Sierra

Tarija . . . .

Atacama

Area : English
square miles

Total

43,0.52

54,300

21,601

72,796

26,810

295,417

144,083

114,489

70,181

842,729

Population

447.822
281,229
110,931
273,668
352,392
153,973
193,164
138,900
6,273

1,9*7,3.32

492

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK,

In 1866 a portion of the department of Cochabamba was separated
to form a new province named Malgareja, and a decree of 1867
ordered the formation of a province of Mexillones. No authentic
reports have been published concerning the area and population of
these newly-formed provinces.

The aboriginal, or Indian population of Bolivia, is variously esti-
mated at from 24,000 to 700,000 souls. A small number of them
have been gained to Christianity and civilised habits by the efforts
of Roman Catholic missionaries.

The total imports into Bolivia in 1875, were valued at 1,100,000/.,
and the exports at 900,000/. Nearly one-half of the imports are
calculated to come from the United Kingdom, partly direct, through
the port of Cobija, and partly, to a greater extent, through the port
of Arica in Peru. The exports comprise silver, Peruvian bark,
cocoa and coffee, and copper, tin, and other ores.

The direct commerce of Bolivia with the United Kingdom
is comparatively small, as, owing to the short extent of sea coast
possessed by the Republic, the imports and exports have to pass
in transit either through Peru, or by the recently opened route of
the National Bolivian Navigation Company, up the Amazon river
and its tributaries, through Brazil. The total value of the mer-
chandise sent to and received direct from Great Britain, in each of
the five years 1871 to 1875, is shown in the subjoined table : —

Years

Exports from Bolivia
to Great Bi'itain

Imports of British Home
Produce into Bolivia

1871
1872
1873
1874
1875

£
269,352
981,573
771,843
342,637
461.979

£
23,397
29,798
75.520
54,381
96,288

The principal exports of Bolivia to Great Britain are copper,
cubic nitre, and silver ore. In the year 1875 the value of the exports
of copper, both ore and regulus, amounted to 90,540/. ; of nitre to
181,912/., and of silver ore to 117,745/. The British imports into
the republic consist chiefly of cotton goods, of the value of 23,084/.,
and of woollens, of the value of 29,121/. in 1875.

The republic has but one seaport, the town of Cobija, or Cobija-
Puerto, on the Pacific. Till within the last few years, the vast agri-
cultural and mineral resources of the country were entirely dormant
for want of means of communication, nearly all internal trade being
carried on by packhorses and mules ; but more recently an attempt
has been made to construct roads, and railways. A line of railway
connecting La Paz, capital of the republic, with the port of Aygacha,

Bolivia. 493

on the lake Titicaca, was opened for traffic in 1872, and a second line,
from Autofagasta to Salar, was completed in September 1874. Several
other lines were in course of construction at the end of June 187G.

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of Bolivia in Great Britain.

Envoy and Minister. — Don Antonio Quizarro, accredited February 12, 1876.

Secretary of Legation. — Ramon Ovando.

Consul. — Henry John Broughton Kendall, accredited September 27, 1869.

2. Of Great Britain in Bolivia.
Vice-Consul. — Hugh R. Steavenson, appointed April 15, 1873.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Bolivia, and the British
equivalents, are —

Money.
The Peso, or Dollar, of 100 Centomas . = Approximate value 3s.

The Bolivian dollar is theoretically worth 4s. 2d., hut, for a number
of years, the coins issued from the Government mint at Potosi have
been 25 per cent., and more, below the standard.

Weights and Measures.

The Libra .....= 1-014 lbs. avoirdupois.

„ Quintal = 101-4-1 „

. , f of 25 pounds . . = 25-36 ,, „

\of wine or spirits . = 6-70 Imperial gallons.

„ Gallon = 0-7-1 ,, „

„ Vara = 0-927 yards.

„ Sqiiare Vara . . . . = 0-859 square yards.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Bolivia.

1. Official Publication.

Trade of Bolivia with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries in the year 1875.' Imp. 4.
London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Bosch-Spencer (J.), Statistique commereiale du Chili et de la Bolivie. 8.
Bruxelles, 1849.

Church (Col. Geo. Earl), Papers and Documents relating to the Bolivian
Loan, tlie National Bolivian Navigation Company, &c. 8. London, 1873.

Cortes (Manuel Jose-), Ensayo sobre la historiade Bolivia. 8. Sucre, 1861.

Dalence (M.), Bosquejo estadistico de Bolivia. 8. Chuquisaca, 1851.

Grandidier (P.), Voyage dans l'Amerique du Sud. 8. Paris, 1861.

Orhigny (A. D. d), Descripeion geografica, historica v estadistica de Bolivia.
S. Paris, 1845.

Rech (Hugo), Geographie und Statistik der Republik Bolivia. In Dr.
Petermann's 'Mittheilungen,' parts VII. and VIII. 4. Gotha, 1805.

Tschudi (J. J. von), Reisen durch Siidamerika. 1 vols. 8. Leipzig 1856.

494

BRAZIL.

(Tmperio do Brazil.')

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Pedro II., Emperor of Brazil, born December 2, 1825, the son of
Emperor Pedro I. and of Archduchess Leopoldina of Austria ; suc-
ceeded to the throne on the abdication of his father, April 7, 1831 ;
declared of age, July 23, 1840; crowned July 18, 1841. Married.
September 4, 1843, to

Theresa, Empress of Brazil, born March 14, 1822, the daughter of
the late King Francis I. of the Two Sicilies. Offspring of the union
is a daughter, Princess Izabel, born July 29, 184(3 ; married, Oct. 15,
1864, to Prince Louis of Orleans, Conite d'Eu, born April 28,
1842, eldest son of the Due de Nemours, of the ex-royal house of
Bourbon-Orleans. Offspring of the union is a son, Pedro, born
October 15, 1875. A second daughter of the Emperor, Princess
Leopoldina, born July 13, 1847, and married Dec. 15, 1864, to Prince
August of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, died Feb. 7, 1871, leaving four sons,
namely, Pedro, born March 18, 1866, Augusto, born Dec. 5, 1867,
Jose, born May 21, 1869, and Luis, born Sept. 15, 1870.

Sisters of the Emperor. — 1. Princess Januaria, born March 11,
1822 ; married, April 28, 1844, to Prince Louis of Bourbon, son of
the late King Francisco I. of the Two Sicilies. Offspring of the union
are two sons, Luis, bom July 18, 1845, and Felippe, born August
12, 1847. 2. Princess Francisca, born August 2, 1824; married
May 1, 1843, to Francois, Prince de Joinville, bom Aug. 14, 1818,
son of the late King Louis Philippe of the French. Offspring of the
union are a daughter and a son, namely Princess Francoise, born
August 4, 1844, and married June 11, 1863, to her cousin Robert
d'Orleans, due de Chartres, born Nov. 9, 1840 ; and Pierre due de
Penthievre, born Nov. 4, 1845, lieutenant in the Navy of France.

The Emperor is a scion, in the direct male line, of the House of
Braganza, the female line of which is ruling over Portugal. In
1807, the royal family of Portugal fled to Brazil ; in 1815, the colony
was declared a 'kingdom; ' and, the Portuguese Court having re-
turned to Europe in 1821," a national congress assembled at Rio de
Janeiro, and on May 13, 1822, Don Pedro, eldest son of King
Joao VI. of Portugal, was chosen ' Perpetual Protector ' of Brazil.
He proclaimed the independence of the country on Sep. 7, 1822,
and was chosen ' Constitutional Emneror and Perpetual Protector '

BRAZIL. 495

on the 12 th October following. Having decided to abdicate in
1831, he left the crown to his only son, the present Emperor
Pedro II.

The Brazilian empire derives from Portugal the principles of
hereditary succession to the crown, which exclude the Salic law,
and allow females to occupy the throne.

Constitution and Government.

The constitution of Brazil bears date March 25, 1824. Ii
establishes four powers in the State — the legislative, the executive,
the judicial, and the 'moderating' power, or the royal prerogative.
The legislative power is vested, for the affairs of the empire, in a
general legislative assembly, and fir provincial affairs in the provincial
assemblies. The general legislative assembly consists of two Houses,
the Senate and the Congress. The members of both Houses an
elected by the people, but under different fonns. Senators are chosen
for life at electoral meetings expressly convened, each of which has
vo nominate three candidates, leaving the choice between them to the
sovereign or his ministers. A senator must be forty years of age, a
native-born Brazilian, and possessing a clear annual income of 1,600
milreis, or 100/. Senators receive a salary of 3,600 milreis, or
360Z., each session. The Senate numbers 58 members.

The members of the House of Congress are chosen by indirect
election, for the term of four years. For this purpose, the coimtry
is divided into electoral districts, where every 30 voters appoint
one elector, and a number of the latter, varying according to popu-
lation, nominate the deputy. The qualification for a voter is an
annual income, of any sort, of 200 milreis, or 20/. The electors
must have an income of 400 milreis, or 40/. a year, as a qualifica-
tion ; and the deputies must have an income of 800 milreis each,
or ■so/, per annum. All voters, inscribed on the lists, are bound to
give their votes, under a penalty. Minors, monks, and servants are
not allowed a vote ; and naturalised foreigners, as well as persons
not professing the Roman Catholic religion, are incapable of being
ii. ted deputies. The latter receive a salary of 2,400 milreis, or
240Z., each session, besides travelling expenses. The House of
Congress numbers 122 members.

The annual session of the legislative assembly has to roiuiuence on
May •'!. and ordinarily extends over four months. Each House nomi-
nates itsown officers. The two Houses sit in general assembly at the
opening and close of the session for the deliberation of important
measures; and on these occasions the presidenl of the Senate takes
the chair, and the senators and deputies sit in mixed order. The
two Houses sit apart during the rest of the session, in the execution
of the ordinary duties of legislation. The ("handier of Deputies has

496 tub statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

the initiative in. the assessment of taxes, in matters concerning the
army and navy, and in the choice of the sovereign of the realm,
should the latter act become necessary. The Senate has the exclu-
sive privilege of taking cognisance of offences committed by members
of the Imperial family, and by senators and deputies, if committed
during the session. It is also invested with the right of convoking
the legislative assembly, should the Emperor fail to do so, within two
months after the period fixed by law.

The executive power is vested in the sovereign, assisted by his
ministers and a council of state. The ministers are responsible for
treason, corruption, abuse of power, and all acts contrary to the con-
stitution, or the liberty, security, and property of the citizens. From
this responsibility they cannot escape upon the plea of orders from
the sovereign. The executive functions consist in the convocation
of the ordinary meetings of the legislative assembly ; the nomination
of bishops, governors of provinces, and magistrates; the declaration
of peace or war ; and the general execution and superintendence of all
measures voted by the legislature. The 'moderating' power, like-
wise vested in the sovereign, gives him the authority, not only to
select ministers and senators, but to temporarily withhold his sanction
from legislative measures, to convoke extraordinary legislative as-
semblies, to dissolve the Chamber of Deputies, and to grant amnes-
ties and pardons. The ministry is divided into seven departments,
namely : —

1. The Ministry of War.. — Duca de Caxias, appointed minister <x
war and president of the council of ministers. June 25, 1875.

2. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs. — Barao de Cotegipe, Minister
of Foreign Affairs 18G8-70: re-appointed June, 25, 1875.

3. The Ministry of the Interior. — Jose B. da Cunha Figueircdo,
appointed June 25, 1875.

4. The Ministry of Marine. — Luis A. Pereira Franco, appointed
June 25, 1875.

5. The Ministry of Finance. — Barao de Cotegipe, Minister of
Foreign Affairs, appointed Minister- of Finance, ad interim, June
1875.

G. The Ministry of Justice. — Diego Velho, appointed June 25,
1875.

7. The Ministry of Public Works, Agriculture, and Commerce. —
Jose Coelho de Almeida, appointed June 25, 1875.

The ministers are assisted by a Council of State, consisting of
twelve ordinary and twelve extraordinary members, all named by
the Emperor for life. The twelve ordinaiy members are constantly
consulted on matters of administration and international questions,
but the wholp twenty-four are convened only on special occasions.
The councillors of state, ordinary and extraordinary, are mostly

BRAZIL

497

ex-ministers. The heir to the throne, if of age, is by right a coun-
cillor of state.

At the head of each province is a president appointed by the central
Government, Each province lias also its local parliament or Provin-
cial Chamber, and a general council, called the Legislative Assembly
of the province. The members of the latter are nominated by the
same electors who choose the deputies and senators to the general
iegislative assembly, while the members of the Provincial Chambers
are elected directly by the voters. The election of members of the
Provincial Chambers is for two years. The Legislative Assemblies of
the provinces exercise, with some restrictions, as to political matters,
the same power within their districts as the Congress for the whole
empire.

Church and Education.

The established religion of the empire is the Roman Catholic,
but according to Article 5 of the constitution, all other religions are
tolerated, ' with their domestic or private form of worship, in build-
ings destined for this purpose, but without the exterior form of
temples.' No person can be persecuted for religious acts or motives.

The Roman Catholic clergy is maintained by the State ; funds,
however, are voted for the construction of chapels and for the sub-
sistence of ministers of different religions.

The bishops, and all other ecclesiastical officers are, depending
the confirmation of the Apostolic See, appointed by the Emperor,
and no Decree of Council, nor letters apostolic, nor any other
ecclesiastical statutes, can be executed in the empire without the
consent or placit of the Emperor, or of the General Assembly.
Marriages of Protestants celebrated in foreign countries or in the
empire, according to its civil law. are respected in all their legal
offects.

Brazil constitutes an ecclesiastical province, with a metropolitan
archbishopric, the seat of which is at Bahia, 1 1 suffragan bishops,
12 vicars-general, and 1,297 curates. For the private instruction of
the clergy there are JL 1 seminaries, in general subsidised by the State.

Public education is divided into three distinct forms, or classes,
namely, primary ; secondary, or preparatory ; and scientific, or
superior. The primary instruction in the capital is under the charge
of the General Assembly, and in the provinces under the Provincial
Assemblies. According to the constitution primary education is
gratuitous, and it 'will become compulsory as soon as the Govern-
ment considers it opportune.' Notwithstanding the efforts of the
legislature in recent years for the spread of education, it is still in a
very backward state, and the public schools were frequented in
1874 by only 1-40,000 pupils.

K K

498

THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1877.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The revenue of the empire is raised to the extent of more than
one-half by customs' duties, laid on exports as well as imports. The
direct taxes, which contribute about one-fifth to the total ordinary-
receipts, are principally imposed on land, house-rent, trades and
occupations, and transfer of property. To cover deficits, common in
recent years through vastly increased expenditure for military pur-
poses, the Government raised loans and issued bonds and paper
money entered in the finance accounts as extraordinary receipts.

The following tables give an abstract of the sources of actual
revenue, and the branches of actual expenditure in the financial
year ending on the 80th June 1873 : —

Sources of Revenue 1872-73

Import Duties .....
Export Duties .....

Shipping Dues

Railways, Posts, and Telegraphs

Stamps and Licenses

Land tax ......

Mines, Lotteries, and State establishments
Miscellaneous receipts
Extraordinary . ...

Total revenue

Milreis

60,281,045

19,337,652

568,770

7.933,893

11,163,921

2,758,122

2,679,972

3,211.133

3,591,274

112,131.104
£12,614,749

Branches of Expenditure 1872-73

Milreis

Ministry of War ....

„ Foreign Affairs

,, the Interior .

„ Marine ....

„ Finance

„ Justice ....

„ Public Works, Agriculture, &c

Total expenditure

24,147,585
1,047,684
7,214,859

17,895,444

42,222,156
3,994,662

25,352,072

121,874.462
£13,710,877

In the budget estimates laid before the House of Congress the
public revenue and expenditure are usually made to balance. The
budget for the year ending June 80, 1875, was calculated upon equal
receipts and disbursements of 83,570,376 milreis, or 9,401,667/.,
while the budget for the year ending June 30, 1876, stated the
receipts at 107,133,070 milreis, or 11,891,452/., and the expenditure
at 102,634,053 milreis, or 11,403,784/. In the budget estimates for
the year ending June 30, 1877, both the revenue and expenditure

BRAZIL.

499

were calculated at 105,378,914 milreis, or 11,855,127/. The
branches of expenditure in the budget estimates of the year 1876-77
were as follows : —

Brandies of Expenditure

Ministry of the Interior .
„ of Justice .
„ of Foreign Affairs
„ of Marine .
of War .
„ of Finance
„ of Agriculture, Commerce,
"Works .

and Public 1

Total

187C-77

Milreis

7,645,467

6.245.036

1.096, 353

11,320,323

15,655,075

46,165,765

17,250,896

105,378,914
£11,855,127

There were large deficits during recent financial years, caused
mainly by the war against Paraguay, terminated in 1870, the cost
of which, calculated at upwards of 50,000,000/., was covered partly
by increased taxation and partly by loans contracted at home and
abroad.

Old charges of the colonial times, the Avar of independence and
Avith Uruguay, payments of indemnities to foreign nations, loans
for public improvements, and loans to fill up deficits, have laid the
foundation of a national debt, Avhich amounted to 42,883,869/. on
the 31st December, 1866, and to 68,398,866/. at the end of 1871.
The folloAving table gives the amount of each description of the public
debt, according to returns issued in the years 1873 to 1875 : —

Description of Debt

Amount

Foreign Debt on June 30, 1870

Internal Funded Debt (4, 5, and 6 per cent.) on ~|

31st March, 1870 J

Paper Money and Government Notes in Circulation i

at the end of April 1870 /
Treasury Acceptances on 30th April, 1870
Debt due to Orphan Fund ......

Deposits of Saving Banks, and other liabilities

Total Debt, on June 30, 1870 . . \

Loan contracted in England, February 1871 . . £
„ „ March 1875 . . £

Milreis
113,606,445

240,246,800

150,397,628

53,863,800
10,776,495
12,432,262

581,323,430

65,398,886
3,460,000

.■.,11(1(1,111)0

Total Debt, on June 30, 1875

73,858,886

S K 2

50O THE STATESMAN^ YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The foreign loan contracted in England in February 1871 was at
5 per cent, interest, and issued at the rate of 89 per cent. The
redemption of this loan is to be effected by a sinking fund of 1 per
cent, per annum, to be applied by purchase of bonds in the market
when the price is under par, and when at or above par by drawings
by lots. The loan of March 1875, also at 5 per cent., was issued at the
price of 96^, on the same conditions as regards the sinking fund as
the loan of 1871. The whole of the foreign loans of Brazil were
contracted through the banking house of Rothschild & Co., and on
the security of ' all the resources of the Empire.'

The internal debt is increasing, in consequence of the liabilities
incurred in the six years' Avar in Paraguay. On the 30th June, 1875,
the internal funded debt had risen from 19,107,650/., at which it
stood December 31, 1869, to 32,129,1227. The debt is represented
by bonds, called Apoliccs, inscribed to the holder, and the payment of
its capital and interest, which is provided for by an annual vote of
Congress, is under the charge of the sinking fund department (Caixa
da Amortisacao), independent of the Government, directed by a
committee, presided over by the Minister of Finance, and composed
of a general inspector and five large Brazilian bondholders.

Besides the funded home and foreign debt, Brazil has a floating
debt, consisting mainly of Treasury bills. They increased during
the Paraguayan war to the amount of 8,300,000/., and the out-
standing total, at the end of June 1875, was estimated at 42,000,000/.

Army and Navy.

The army is formed partly by enlistment and partly by conscription.
In extreme cases impressment is resorted to. Liberal bounties and
grants of land, at the end of fourteen years of service, are held out as
inducements to enlist, and procure large numbers of soldiers. Ex-
emption from military service may be obtained by either personal
substitution, or on payment of the sum of 120/. to the Government.
The nominal strength of the standing army is fixed at 20,000 on
the peace-footing, and at 32,000 on the war-footing. There were
actually under arms, according to official reports, at the end of June
1875: —

Men

Infantry, 21 battalions 9,864

Cavalry, 5 regiments and 2 battalions . . . 2,481

Artillery, 3 4 ... 3,280

Staff and special corps ...... 427

Total . . 16,055

There was formerly also a national guard, but it was dissolved in
1873 to undergo reorganisation.

BRAZIL. 50 r

The navy of Brazil consisted, at the end of June 1875, of 59
steamers, as follows : —

The largest of the ironclads of the Imperial navy is the ' Inde-
peudenzia,' built in the Thames Shipbuilding Works, and launched
in October 187G. The ' Independenzia ' is of 5,200 tons burden,
with engines of 1,200 indicated horse-power, working up to 8,000
horse-power. She has a prominent gun-metal stem forming a ram,
and is 300 ft. in length between perpendiculars, has 63 ft. of extreme
breadth, with 50 ft. of extreme height. The armour plating of the
' Independenzia ' is 9 inches thick, and her armament, which is
partly in two turrets and partly in bow and stern batteries, consists
of 35-ton Whitworth guns. The other ironclads of the fleet are
smaller vessels, constructed chiefly for coast defence.

The navy was commanded, at the end of June 1876, by 15
admirals and commanders, and 384 officers of the first class.
By a vote of the House of Congress passed May 17, 1869, the
standing naval force was fixed at 4,000 men, power being given to
Government to raise it to 8,000 men in case of war. The navy is
manned by enlistment, both from among foreigners, who may be
willing to serve, and natives. In case of necessity, impressment is
resorted to, the same as in the army.

Area and Population.

The area of the empire is estimated at 8,515,848 geographical
square kilometres, or 3,287,961 English square miles, with a popu-
lation of 9,448,233, in 1872, giving on the average, about three
inhabitants to the square mile. A partial census of the population
of the Empire, embracing eleven out of the twenty provinces, was taken
in 1872. The subjoined table gives the area and population of each
of the twenty provinces of the empire, according to the official
returns of the census of 1872, the eleven provinces in which actual
enumeration was made being marked by an asterisk (*), with the
numbers of population of the other nine provinces filled in after
government estimate-.

502

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1377.

Provinces

Area
Eng. square miles

Population

Amazonas (*) .

753,439

57,610

Para

412,441

280,000

Maranhao

141,645

380,000

Piauhy .

81,776

219,000

Ceara (*)

50,260

721,680

Eio Grande do Norte (*)

20,129

233,979

Parahyba

20,341

365,000

Pernambuco (*)

46,255

841,539

Alagoas (*) .

11,641

348,009

Sergipe .

12,038

280,000

Bahia ,

204,794

1,450,000

Espirito Santo (*) .

17,029

82,137

Bio de Janeiro

18,489

1,050,000

Santa Catharina (*)

18,923

159,802

Bio Grande do Sul .

110,211

455,000

Minas Geraes .

237,472

1,500,000

Matto Grosso (*) .

668,625

60,417

Goyaz (*)

263,362

160,395

Parana (*)

108,556

126,722

San Paulo (*) .

90,537

837,354

tal .

3,287,964

9,448,233

In addition to the above there is a wandering population of
aborigines, officially estimated to number about a million souls.

The three largest towns in the Empire are Eio de Janeiro, the
capital, Bahia, and Pernambuco. At the end of 1872, the popu-
lation of Eio de Janeiro was 274,972; of Bahia, 129,100; and of
Pernambuco, 116,671.

Brazil is the only country in America where slavery legally
exists. But the number of slaves has greatly decreased since the
year 1850, when they were estimated at two millions and a half.
According to an official return published in May 1874, the number
of slaves at that date was 1,016,262, distributed as follows : — -

Number of

Districts and Provinces.

Slaves.

Districts and provinces.

Slaves.

Municipality of Bio de Janei

ro 47,260

Maranhao

45,121

Provinces : —

Para .

15,683

Bio de Janeiro .

207,709

Amazonas

996

Espirito Santo .

18,126

S. Paulo .

82,843

Bahia

103,095

Parana

8,012

Sergipe

25,351

Santa Catharina

10,641

Alagoas

33,242

Bio Grande do Sul .

83,760

Pernambuco

66,499

Minas Geraes .

208.103

Parahyba .

14,172

Goyaz

1,819

Bio Grande do Norte .

6,087

Matto Grosso .

2,253

Pp„ '

17,899
17,591

Piauhy

Total .

. 1,016,262

BRAZIL. 503

A law for the gradual emancipation of the vast slave population
passed the Senate and Congress in the session of 1871. The law,
which received the Imperial sanction on the 28th of September, 1871,
taking effect from this date, enacts that children henceforth born of
slave women shall be ' considered of free condition ' — considcrados
de condiqao livre. Such children are not to be actually free, how-
ever, but are bound to serve the owners of their mothers for the
term of twenty-one years under the name of apprentices. The
apprentices must work, under severe penalties, for their hereditary
masters, but if the latter inflict on them excessive bodily punish-
ments— castigos excessivos — they are allowed to bring suit in a
criminal court, which may declare their freedom. A final provision
of the Act emancipates the slaves who are state property, to the
number of 1,G00, with the proviso that ' the slaves liberated by
virtue of this law remain for five years under the inspection of the
Government.' They are bound to hire themselves out — Elles sao
obrigados a contractar seus serviqos — under penalty of being com-
pelled, if living in vagrancy, to labour in the public establishments.

The population of Brazil is made up of an agglomeration of
many races. While Brazil remained a colony of Portugal, but
few women accompanied the emigrants to South America. The
earliest European settlers intermarried and mixed with Indian
women ; and afterwards an extensive intermixture of race occurred
with the Africans who were bought for slavery. In the northern
provinces the Indian element preponderates, while in Pernambuco,
Bahia, Bio de Janeiro, and Minas the negroes are numerous. At
the seaports, the chief part of the population is of European descent.

Trade and Commerce.

The total value of the imports into Brazil, including bullion and
specie, averaged 19,000,000/. in the five years from 1871 to 1875,
and that of the exports during the same period, likewise including
bullion and specie, 22,500,000Z. More than one-third of the total
imports into Brazil come from the United Kingdom, nearly one-
fourth from France, and the rest chiefly from the Argentine Con-
federation, Portugal, and Germany. The exports of Brazil go to
the extent of upwards of one-third to Great Britain and of about
one-fourth to the United States, the remainder being divided chiefly
among France, the Argentine Confederation, Germany, and Portugal.

The amount of the commercial intercourse of Brazil with the
United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined table, which gives the
value of the exports of the Brazilian Empire to Great Britain and
Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish produce into
Brazil during each of the years from bsCO to 167 "> : —

504

THE STATESMAN S X EAR-BOOK, 1877.

lears

Exports from Brazil to

Imports of British Home

Great Britain

Produce into Brazil

1866

7,237,793

7,224,794

1867

5,902,011

5,694,557

1868

7,455,803

6,351,989

1869

7,312,487

6,964,808

1870

6,127,448

5,366,834

1871

6,693,426

6,274,105

1872

9,450,249

7,519,719

1873

7,399,974

7,544,669

1874

7,003,131

7,678,453

1875

7,418,605

6,869,491

The two great staple articles of Brazilian exports to the United
Kingdom are raw cotton and unrefined sugar. The value of the
cotton exports to Great Britain was 4,806,065/. in 1866 ; 3,341,206/.
in 1867; 4,483,822/. in 1868; 4,093,727/. in 1869; 2,793,101/.
in 1870; 2,980,644/. in 1871; 4,729,913/. in 1872; 2,851,733/.
in 1873; 2,761,837/. in 1874; and 2,343,995/. in 1875. The
quantity in 1875 was 641,603 cwts. Of sugar, exported in an unre-
fined state, the value was 1,221,719/. in 1866; 1,083,475/. in 1867;
1,402,438/. in 1868; 1,541,581/. in 1869; 1,468,181/. in 1870;
1,416,020/. in 1871; 2,269,605/., in 1872; 2,082,569/. in 1873;
1,742,242/. in 1874; and 2,305,652/. in 187.5. The quantity in
1875 was 2,343,646 cwts.

The most important article of British imports into Brazil is manu-
factured cotton, the value of which was 4,219,468/. in 1866 ;
3,016,613/. in 1867; 2,831,064/. in 1868; 4.109,757/. in 1869;
2,787,633/. in 187rJ; 3,072,569/. in 1871; 3,919,297/. in 1872;
3,057,873/. in 1873 ; 3,115,321/. in 1874 ; and 3,489,823/. in 1875.
Wrought and unwronght iron, of the value of 503,152/. ; linens, of
the value of 207,309/. ; and woollen manufactures, of the value of
491,097/. in 1875, form the other principal articles of British im-
ports into Brazil. Exceptionally, there figured among the chief Bri-
tish imports of 1874 another article, telegraphic wire and apparatus,
of the value of 835,655/. It sank to 67,601/. in 1875.

The customs duties upon all articles of British manufacture are
very heavy, averaging from 40 to 50 per cent. In a British Consu-
lar report from Rio de Janeiro, dated December 19, 1874, it is stated
that ' the practice of sucking the marrow out of the agricultural or-
ganization, by the imposition of enormous export duties, has rendered
the accumulation of capital an impossibility.'

The empire possessed, at the commencement of 1876, railways
of a total length of 1,038 English miles, open for traffic. The prin-
cipal railways are, the Pedro Segundo, 138 miles; the San Paulo,

BRAZIL. 505

85; the Bahia, 75; the Pernambuco, 76; the Cantagallo, 21;
and the Maud, 15 miles. There were railways of an aggregate length
of 852 miles in course of construction at the end of June 187G.

A commencement has been made, in recent years, to establish a
system of telegraphs. There were, at the beginning of the year
1876, lines to the extent of 3,510 miles in the Empire. The num-
ber of telegraph offices was 89 at the same date.

The post office carried 13,715,000 letters in the year 1875, of
which number about one half came from or to Rio de Janeiro, the
capital.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Of Brazil in Great Britain.

Envoy and Minister. — Baron de Penedo, accredited June 26, 1873.

Secretary. — Chevalier Joao Arthur de Souza Correa.

2. Of Great Britain in Brazil.

Envoy and Minister. — George Buckley Mathew, C.B. ; served in the English
army, 1825-41 ; M.P. for Athlone, 1835-37 ; M.P. for Shaftesbury, 1837-41 ;
successively Governor of the Bahama Islands, Consul in the United States,
and Charge d'Affaires to various Central and South American States ; appointed
Envoy and Minister to Brazil, September 19, 1867.

Secretaries.-— Victor A. W. Drnmmond ; Nicholas K. O'Conor ; Hon. Hugh
Gough.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Brazil, and the British
equivalents, are : —

Money.
The Milreis of 1,000 Eeis . Average rate of exchange, 2s. Zd.

The standard of value is the gold Octavo, of 22 carats, equal to
4 milreis. English sovereigns are legal tender to the amount of
8,890 reis since the year 1857. Gold and silver coins have almost
disappeared in recent years in Brazil, and the only circulating
medium is an inconvertible paper currency, consisting of Treasury
notes, called ' sedulas ' of a milreis and upwards, depreciated in
value — specie bearing a premium of 60 to 75 per cent — together
with copper and bronze coins.

Weights and Measures
The French metric system, which became compulsory in 1872,
was adopted in 1862, and has been used since in all official
departments. But the ancient weights and measures are still partly
employed. They are : —

The Libra . . . — 1*012 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Arroba. . . = 32-38 „

, Quintal . . = 12«J-51 „

506 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The Alqueire (of Eio) . == 1 imperial bushel.'
„ Oitava . = 05'34 grains.

Besides the above, the weights and measures of Portugal are also
in use in some parts of the empire.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning- Brazil.
1. Official Publications.

Almanak do Ministerio da Marinha, 1876. 8. Eio de Janeiro, 1876.

Almanak Militar para o Anno de 1876. 8. Eio de Janeiro 1876.

CollecCj-ao das Leis do Imperio do Brazil e Colleccjao das Deeisaoes do Governo
do Imperio do Brazil. 8. Eio de Janeiro, 1864-76.

Empire of Brazil at the Universal Exhibition of 1S76, at Philadelphia. 8.
Eio de Janeiro, 1876.

Eeports by Mr. Victor A. W. Drummond, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on
the Finances and the Commerce of Brazil, dated Eiode Janeiro, June 1, 1875 ;
in 'Eeports by H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part IV.
1875. 8. London, 1875.

Eeport by Mr. Victor A. Drummond, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on
the trade of Eio de Janeiro and the public debt of Brazil in 1874, dated Eio de
Janeiro, March 9, 1875; in 'Eeports by H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and
Legation.' Part III. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Eeport by Mr. Consul Lennon Hunt on the Trade and Commerce of Eio de
Janeiro, dated October 1873; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls on the Manu-
factures, Commerce, &c, of their Consular Districts.' Part I. 1874. 8.
London, 1874.

Eeport by Mr. Consul Morgan on the Trade of Bahia for 1874 dated Feb.
26, 1875; in 'Eeports from H. M.'s Consuls on the Manufactures and Com-
merce of their Consular Districts.' No. III. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Eeport by Mr. Consul Lennon-Hunt on the Trade of Eio de Janeiro and the
commerce and finances of Brazil, dated Eio de Janeiro, Dec. 19, 1874; in
' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Eeports by Mr. Consul Morgan, on the Trade and Commerce of Bahia; by
Mr. Consul Morgan, on the Trade of the Province of Sergipe ; and by Mr.
Acting-Consul Austin, on the Commerce of Eio de Janeiro, and the Finances
and Population of Brazil, dated Jan.-Feb. 1876 ; in ' Eeports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part IV. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Eeports by Mr. Vice- Consul Wucherer, on the Trade of Maceio ; by Mr.
Consul Green, on the Commerce and Shipping of the Provinces of Para and
Amazones ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Shalders, on the Trade of Paraiba ; and by
Mr. Consul Corfield, on the Commerce and Shipping of Pernambuco, dated
Jan.-April 1876; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1876. 8.
London, 1876.

Trade of Brazil with Great Britain ; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the
Year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.
Agassiz (Louis), Journey in Brazil. 8. London, 1868.
Ave-Lallemant (Dr. Eobert), Eeise durch Siid-Brasilien und Nord-Brasilien,
1858 und 1859. 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1865.
Bimneister (Hermann), Eeise nach Brasilien. 8. Berlin, 1853.

BRAZIL. 507

Burton (Capt. E. F.), Exploration of the Highlands of Brazil. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1869.

Candido (Mendes de Almeida), Atlas do Imperio do Brazil. Fol. Eio de
Janeiro, 1868.

Codman (J.), Ten Months in Brazil. With Notes on the Paragaayas War.
8. Edinburgh, 1870.

Hinchliff (Thomas W.), South American Sketches; or, a Visit to Rio
Janeiro, the Organ Mountains, La Plata, and the Parana. 8. London, 1864.

Keller (Franz), The Amazon and Madeira Eivers. Fol. London, 1874.

Kidder (J.) and Fletcher (F.), Brazil and the Brazilians. 8. Philadelphia,
1857.

Laemmert (Eduardo von), Almanak Administrativo, mercantil 0 industria
da corte e provincia do Rio de Janeiro para 0 anno de 1873. Eio de Janeiro,
1873.

Lahure (N. de), L'Empire du Bresil. 8. Paris, 1862.

Moraes (Dr. Mello), Chorographia historica, chronographica, genealogica,
nobiliaria e politica do Imperio do Brazil. Eio de Janeiro, 1865.

Mulhall (Michael G.), Eio Grande de Sul and its German Colonies. 8.
London, 1873.

Orton (James), The Andes and the Amazon ; or, Across the Continent of
South America. 8. London, 1870.

Pereira (Da Silva), Situation sociale, politiqtie et. economique de l'empire du
Bresil. 18. Paris, 1865.

Pereira (Pinto), Colleccjio de Tratados. 4. Eio de Janeiro, 1868.

Pimento, (Bueno), Direito publico brazileiro. 4. Eio de Janeiro, 1872.

Ribas (Antonio Joaquin), Direito administrativo brasileiro. 4. Eio de
Janeiro, 1874.

Rodriguez (Jose Carlos), Constituicao Politica do Imperio do Brasil, seguida
do acto addicional, da lei da sua interpreta(;ao e de outras analysada. 8. Eio
de Janeiro, 1868.

Saint-Adolphe (Milliet de), Diccionario Geografico do Brazil. 2 vols. 8.
Paris, 1870.

Selys-Longchamjps (W. de) Notes d'un Voyage au Bresil. 8. Bruxelles
1875.

Scully (William), Brazil, its Provinces and Chief Cities ; the Manners and
Customs of the People : Agricultural, Commercial, and other Statistics ; taken
from the latest Official Documents. New ed. 8. London, 1868.

Uruguay (Ve de), Direito administrativo. 4. Eio de Janeiro, 1868.

Wallace (Alfred E.), Travels on the Amazon and Eio Negro. 8. London,
1870.

Wappaeus (Dr. Johann Eduard), Handbueh der Geographie und Statistik
von Brasilien. 8. Leipzig, 1871.

508

CANADA.

(Dominion of Canada.)

Constitution and Government.

The Dominion of Canada consists of the provinces of Ontario,
Quebec — formerly Upper and Lower Canada — Nova Scotia, New
Brunswick, Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island.
They were united under the provisions of an Act of the Imperial
Parliament passed in March 1867, known as ' The British North
America Act, 1867,' which came into operation on the 1st July, 1867,
by royal proclamation. The Act orders that the constitution of the
Dominion shall be ' similar in principle to that of the United King-
dom;' that the executive authority shall be vested in the Sovereign
of Great Britain and Ireland, and carried on in her name by a
Governor-General and Privy Council ; and that the legislative
power shall be exercised by a Parliament of two Houses, called
the ' Senate,' and ' the House of Commons.' Provision is made in
the Act for the admission of Newfoundland, still independent pro-
vince of British North America, into the Dominion of Canada.

The members of the Senate of the Parliament of the Dominion
are nominated for life, by summons of the Governor-General under
the Great Seal of Canada. By the terms of the constitution, there
are 78 senators, namely, 24 from the Province of Ontario, 22 from
Quebec, 12 from Nova Scotia, 12 from New Brunswick, 2 from
Manitoba, 3 from British Columbia, and 3 from Prince Edward
Island. Each senator must be 30 years of age, a born or naturalised
subject, and possessed of property, real or personal, of the value
of 4,000 dollars in the province for which he is appointed. The
House of Commons of the Dominion is elected by the people, for five
years, at the rate of one representative for every 17,000 souls. At
present, on the basis of the census returns of 1871, the House of
Commons consists of 206 members, namely, 92 for Ontario, 65
for Quebec, 18 for Nova Scotia, 4 for New Brunswick, 5 for
Manitoba, 6 for British Columbia, and 6 for Prince Edward Island.

The members of the House of Commons are elected by consti-
tuencies, varying in the different provinces. In Ontario and
Quebec a vote is given to every male subject being the owner or
occupier or tenant of real property of the assessed value of 300

CANADA.

509

dollars, or of the yearly value of -'50 dollars, if within cities or
towns, or of the assessed value of 200 dollars, or the yearly value
of 20 dollars, if not so situate. In New Brunswick a vote is given
to every male subject of the nge of 21 years, assessed m respect of
real estate to the amount of 100 dollars, or of personal property, or
personal and real, amounting' together to 400 dollars, or 400 dollars
annual income. In Nova Scotia the franchise is with all subjects
of the age of 21 years, asse.-sed in respect of real estate to the value
of 150 dollars, or in respect of personal estate, or of real and personal
together, to the value of 400 dollars. Voting in Quebec, Ontario,
Nova Scotia, Manitoba, British Columbia, and Prince Edward Island,
is open ; but in New Brunswick votes are taken by ballot.

The Speaker of the House of Commons has a salary of 4,000
dollars per annum, and each member an allowance of 10 dollars per
diem, up to the end of 30 days, and for a session lasting longer
than this period, the sum of 1,000 dollars, with, in every case, 10
cents per mile for travelling expenses. The sum of 8 dollars per
diem is deducted for every day's absence of a member, unless the
same is caused by illness. There is the same allowance for the
members of the Senate of the Dominion.

The seven provinces forming the Dominion have each a separate
parliament and administration, with a Lieutenant-Governor at the
head of the executive. They have full powers to regulate their
own local affairs, dispose of their revenues, and enact such laws as
they may deem best for their own internal welfare, provided only
they do not interfere with, or are adverse to, the action and policy
of the central administration under the Governor-General.

Governor- General. — Rt. Hon. Frederick Temple Blackwood, Earl
of Dufferin, born June 21, 182G, son of fourth Lord Dufferin ; edu-
cated at Eton, and Christ Church, Oxford ; succeeded his father
July, 1841 ; British Commissioner in Syria, 1860 ; Under-Secre-
tary of State for India, 18G4-G6; and for War, 186G-67; Chancellor
of the Duchy of Lancaster, 18G8-72 ; created Earl of Dufferin,
October, 1870 ; appointed Governor-General of the Dominion of
Canada and of British North America, May 22, 1872; assumed the
Government, June 22, 1872.

The Governor-General has a salary of 10,000/. per annum. He
is assisted in his functions, under the provisions of the Act of 1867,
by a Council, composed of thirteen heads of departments. The
present Council, formed November 7, 1*73, with some changes in
1874 and 1875, consists of the following members: —

1. Prime Minister, and Minister of Public Works. — Hon. Alex-
ander MacJcenzie,born at Dunkeld, Perthshire, N. B., 1815, editor for
some time o£ the 'Lambton Shield ' ; member of the House of Com-
mons for Lambton since 1867.

510 TIIE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1 877.

2. President of the Council. — Lient.-Colonel Hon. Joseph
Edouard Cauchon, born at St. Rochs, Quebec, Dec. 31, 1816 ; editor
of Le Canadien,' newspaper, 1811-42 ; editor and proprietor of the
'Journal of Quebec,' since 1842; appointed President of the
Council, December 1875.

3. Minister of Justice and Attorney-General. — Hon. Edward
Blake, Q.C., born at Adelaide, Ontario, October 13, 1833 ; ap-
pointed June 1, 1875.

4. Minister of Militia and Defence. — Lieut.-Col. Hon. William
Berrian Vail, born at Sussex Vale, New Brunswick, Dec. 23, 1823.

5. Minister of Customs. — Hon. Isaac Burpee, born at Sheffield,
New Brunswick, November 28, 1825.

6. Minister of Finance. — Hon. Eichard John Cartwright, born
at Kingston, December 4, 1835.

7. Minister of Inland Revenue. — Hon. Toussaint Antoine R.
Laflamme, Q.C., D.C.L., bornat Montreal May 15, 1827 ; appointed
October 24, 1876.

8. Minister of the Interior. — Hon. David Mills, LL.B., born at
Oxford, Ontario, March 18, 1831; appointed October 24, 1876.

9. Minister of Marine and Fisheries. — Hon. Albert James Smith,
Q.C., born at Westmoreland, 1822.

10. Postmaster-General. — Hon. Lucius Seth Huntington, Q.C. ;
President of the Council, 1874-75; appointed Postmaster- General,
December 1875.

11. Secretary of State. — Hon. Richard William Scott, Q.C, born
at Prescott, Ontario, Feb. 24, 1825 ; appointed January 9, 1874.

12. Minister of Agriculture. • — Hon. Luc Letellier De St. Just,
born at River Ouelle, Quebec, 1820.

13. Receiver-General. — Hon. Thomas Coffin, born at Barrington,
Nova Scotia, 1817.

Each of the ministers has a salary, fixed by statute, of 7,000
dollars, or 1,400/. a year, with the exception of the recognised Prime
Minister, who has 8,000 dollars, or 1,600Z. per annum. The body of
ministers is officially known as the ' Queen's Privy Council for the
Dominion of Canada.'

Church and Education.

There is no State Church in the Dominion, and in the whole of
British North America. The Church of England is governed by
nine bishops ; the Roman Catholic Church by four archbishops, and
fourteen bishops ; and the Presbyterian Church in Canada — formed in
1857 by the union of two formerly distinct bodies — by presby-
teries, synods, and an annual assembly presided over by moderators.
The number of members of each religious creed in the Dominion was
as follows at the census of Am-il 3, 1871 : —

CANADA. 5 1 1

Roman Catholics . . 1,492,029
Presbyterians . . 544,998

Anglicans . . . 494,049

Wesleyans and Methodists 567,091
Baptists . . . 239,343

Lutherans . . . 37,935

Congregationalists . . 21,829

Miscellaneous creeds . . 65,857

Of 'no religion' . . 5,575

No creed stated . . . 17,055

Total . 3,4S5,761

The census returns, besides the broad religious divisions here
given, signalise a multitude of sectarian creeds, including ' Second
Adventists,' 'Disciples,' 'Bible Christians,' 'Junkers,' ' Hedonists/
' Universalists,' and ' Mormons.' Roman Catholicism prevails most
extensively in the province of Quebec, formerly Lower Canada, the
number of its adherents there, in 1871, amounting to 1,019,850, or
nearly 85 per cent, of the total of the Dominion. In the province
of Ontario, formerly Upper Canada, the number of Roman Catholics,
in 1871, was 274,162 ; while the Church of England numbered
830,965, and the Presbyterians 356,442 adherents.

The provinces of Quebec and Ontario have separate school laws,
adapted to the religious elements prevailing in either. Each township
in Ontario is divided into several school sections, according to the
requirements of its inhabitants. The common schools are supported
partly by government, and partly by local self-imposed taxation, and
occasionally by the payment of a small fee for each scholar. All
teachers must pass an examination before a county board of educa-
tion, or receive a license from the provincial Normal School, em-
powering them to teach, before they can claim the government
allowance. — (Official Communication.)

Revenue and Expenditure.

The financial accounts of the Dominion of Canada are made up
under three different headings, namely, first ' Consolidated Fund,'
comprising the general sources of revenue and branches of expendi-
ture ; secondly, ' Loans ' in revenue, and ' Redemption ' in expen-
diture, and ' Open Accounts.' The total revenue, under these three
divisions, was as follows in the financial year ending June 30,
1875:—

Dollar Cents

Consolidated Fund 24,648,715 04

Loans 23,889,525 23

Open Accounts 3,498,377 1 1

Total .... 52,036,617 38
£10,840,962

The general sources of revenue, comprised under the division

;i2

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

called Consolidated Fund, embracing all the ordinary receipts, were
as follows in the financial year ending June 30, 1875 : —

Sources of Revenue, Consolidated Fund.

Customs .....

Excise

Post Office, including Ocean Postage
Public Works, including Railways
Bill Stamps ....

Interest on Investments
Ordnance Lands ....

Casual ......

Premium and Discount

Bank Imposts ....

.Fines, Forfeitures, and Seizures .
Tonnage Dues (River Police)

„ (Mariner's Fund)

Passenger Duties (Emigration)
Steamboat Inspection .
Fisheries .....

Cullers' Fees ....

Militia

Penitentiaries ....
Sundry Special Receipts
Superannuation ....
North-West Territory. Transportation Service
Dominion Lands, Manitoba .
Dominion Steamers, British Columbia

Total Revenue Consolidated Fund

Dollars

Centa

15,351.011

5,069,687

1,155,332

1.432,359

214,180

840,886

45,016

63,286

13,415

3,806

20,422

25,620

37,658

5,092

16,144

14,764

78,966

12,137

97,072

50,907

36,678

3,651

27,641

2,975

24,648.715

£5,135,149

The total expenditure, under the three divisions before named,
brought in as ' Premium and Discount Loan Account,' was as follows
in the financial year ending June 30, 1875 : —

Consolidated Fund . . . .
Redemption . . . . .
Premium and Discount Loan Account
Open Accounts . . . . .

Total

Dollars Cent3

23,713,071 01

14,324,731 22

2,212,796 80

11,100,245 14

51,350,844 20
£10,698,093

The general branches of expenditure comprised under the division
oalled Consolidated "Fund, embracing all the ordinary disburse-
ments, were as follows in the financial year ending June 30,
1875:—

CANADA.

51.

Branches of Expenditure

Dollars

Cents

Interest on Public Debt ....

6,590,790

Charges of Management ....

197,839

Sinking Fund ......

555,773

Premium, Discount and Exchange

29,361

Civil Government .....

909,265

Administration of Justice ....

497,405

Police ........

54,563

Penitentiaries and Prison Inspectors

337,593

Legislation .......

572,273

Geological Survey and Observatories .

93,829

Arts, Agriculture, and Statistics .

11,935

Census .......

18,392

Emigration and Quarantine ....

302,770

Marine Hospital and Mariners' Fund .

59,021

Pensions .......'

63,656

Superannuation ......

'.77,298

Militia and Defence .....

1,013,943

Public Works ......

1,757,075

Ocean and River Steam Service .

453,472

Lighthouses and Coast Service ,

490,256

Fisheries .......

66,584

Culling Timber ......

81,956

Steamboat Inspection .....

12,199

Subsidies to Provinces ....

3,750,961

Miscellaneous, including Indian grants

277,676

Charges on Revenue, Customs

682,673

„ „ Excise

199,253

,, „ "Weights and Measures,

69,969

., ,, Inspection of Staples .

1,499

Post Office .

1,520,861

,, ,, Public Works

2,139,573

„ ,, Minor Revenues .

23,867

Dominion Lands, &c. .....

185,218

Dominion Forces, Manitoba

133,227

Mounted Police, Manitoba ....

333,583

Nbrth-West Territory Organization

25,702

Boundary Survey, United States .

121,741

Total Expenditure Consolidated Fund

23,713,071
£4,940,223

The estimates of expenditure under the Consolidated Fund for
the financial year ending June 30, 1876, amounted to 25,353,588
dollars, or 5,281,998/., and of total expenditure to 39,409,463
dollars, or 8,210,310/. For the financial year ending June 30,
1877, the provisional estimates of expenditure on the Consolidated
Fund were 22,882,819 dollars, or 4,767,251/., and of total expendi-
ture 33,540,306 dollars, or 6,987,563*.

The public debt of the Dominion, incurred chiefly on account of
public works, and the interest of which forms the largest branch of
the expenditure, was as follows on July 1, 1876 : —

L L

THE STATESMAN'S YEAK-BOOK, 187'

Funded Debt.
Payable in London.

Imperial Guarantee, 4 per cent. .

Intercolonial Loan, 5 per cent.

Consolidated Canadian Loan Bonds, 5 per cent.
,, ,, „ Stock, 5 per cent.

Canadian Bonds (old) 5 per cent.
,, ,, 6 per cent.

Nova Scotia Bonds, 6 per cent.

New Brunswick Bonds, 6 per cent.

British Columbia Bonds, 6 per cent.

Prince Edward Island Bonds, 6 per cent.

Pacific Eailway Loan of 187-1, 4 per cent. .
Payable in Canada.

Canada Bonds (old) 5 per cent. .

Canadian Bonds (old) 6 per cent.

Nova Scotia, 6 per cent. ....

New Brunswick, 6 per cent.

Prince Edward Island, 6 per cent.
,, 5 per cent.

Bonds convertible into Stock, 6 per cent.

Dominion Stock, 6 per cent.
,, 5 per cent.

Savings Banks, Post Office, 4 per cent.
,, ,, 5 per cent.

„ Toronto, 4 per cent.

„ Winnipeg, 4 per cent. .

,, Nova Scotia, 4 per cent.

,, „ 4 percent.

„ British Columbia, 5 per cent.

„ Nova Scotia Suspense Account

„ „ Interest Account

„ New Brunswick Suspense Account

„ „ Interest Account

,, Prince Edward Island, 4 per cent

Indemnity to Seigneurs and Townships, 6 per cent

Notes, Canada . .....

,, Nova Scotia .....

Unpaid Warrants, Prince Edward Island .

Overdue Debentures, Province of Canada .

Total Funded Debt

Dollars
16,060,000

2,433,333
22,789,048

8,586,040

21,900

23,020,793

1,076,020

4,491,446
924,666

1,091,106
19,466,666

Cents
00
34
54
63
05
39
02
67
67
54
67

160.

132,

970

189,

308

135

539

4,158.

1,803

2,525

400

158

1,604

1,193

889

858 33

690 00

900 00

300 00

977 79

455 57

000 00

143 83

583 69

390 48

70O 00

540 77

,191 27

673 92

444 02

869 39

088 09

492 30

,578
681

1,157
),614

122,651,152
£25,552,323

84
56

,530 56
),477 88

346,

825,

10,778,873 00

44.665 38

81
39

The interest and sinking fund on the debt in the financial year
ending June 30, 1876, amounted to 6,^-00,730 dollars, and the
charges of management to 173,168 dollars, being a total charge
for the year of 6,973,848 dollars, or 1,432,982/.

Army and Navy.

In addition to the troops maintained by the Imperial Government —
the strength of which was reduced, in 1871, to 2,000 men, form-
ing the garrison of the fortress of Halifax, considered an ' Imperial

CANADA.

515

station' — Canada has a large volunteer force, and a newly -
organised militia, brought into existence by a statute of the first
Federal Parliament, passed in March 1868, 'to provide for the
defence of the Dominion.' By the terms of the Act, the militia con-
sists of all male British subjects between 18 and GO, who are called
out to serve in four classes, namely : — 1st class, 18 to 30, unmar-
ried ; 2nd, from 30 to 45, unmarried ; 3rd, 18 to 45, married ;
4th, 45 to 60. Widowers without children rank as unmarried, but
with them, as married. The militia is divided into an active and a
reserve force. The active includes the volunteer, the regular, and the
marine militia. The regular militia are those who voluntarily enlist
to serve in the same, or men balloted, or in part of both. The
marine militia is made up of persons whose usual occupation is on
sailing or steam craft navigating the waters of the Dominion.
Volunteers have to serve for three years; and the regular
and marine militia for two years. A general order from the Militia
department, issued in 1874, reduced the active militia force, for the
purposes of drill and pay, for the years 1874 and 1875, to 30,000
officers and men. A large number of companies, gazetted, but not
equipped, were removed by this order from the active Militia.

Under the Act of 1868, amended in 1871, Canada is divided into
eleven military districts, four of which are formed by Ontario, three
by Quebec, one by Nova Scotia, one by New Brunswick, one by
Manitoba, and one by British Columbia. Two schools of military
instruction for infantry are established in each of the provinces of
Ontario and Quebec, and one in each of the provinces of New
Brunswick and Nova Scotia.

The naval forces of Canada consisted, in 1876, of the following
armed screw steamers, maintained on the great lakes and the river
St. Lawrence, and furnished in part by the British Government
and in part by that of the Dominion.

Name

1 Horse-power

Guns

Tonnage

Prince Alfred

456

Rescue . . .

275

Britomart

226

Cherub .

226

Hi ron .

226

Minstrel

226

Napoleon III.

300

211

Lady Head .

158

168

Besides the above, the Government of ihe Dominion owned the
'Daring 'and the 'Druid,' two fast steamers, employed on coast
service, not fitted with guns, but available as gunboats. (Official
Communication. )

5«5

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Area and Population.

The population of Canada in the year 1800 was estimated at
240,000; in 1825 it amounted to 581,920; in 1851 to 1,842,265;
and in 1861 to 3,090,561. The last census, taken April 3, 1871,
stated the total population of the Dominion of Canada to amount to
3,657,887, divided as follows :—

Population, 1871

Provinces

Area :

Eng. sq. miles

Males.

Females.

Total.

Ontario

121.260

828,590

792,261

1,620,851

Quebec

210,020

596,041

595,475

1,191,516

Nova Scotia .

18.660

193,792

194,008

387,800

New Brunswick .

27,105

145,888

139,706

285,594

Manitoba

2,891,734

—

■ —

11,953

British Columbia .

213,000

—

10,586

Prince Edward Island .
Total

2,173

47,121

46,900

94,021

3,483,952

—

3,602,321

Not included at present in the Dominion of Canada, but attracted
towards the confederation, while forming part, of British North
America, is the colony of Newfoundland. The last census of
Newfoundland, taken at the end of 1869, stated the total population
at 146,536 — comprising 75,547 males, and 70,989 females — living
on an area of 40,200 English square miles.

The population of the Dominion consisted at the census of 1871
to the extent of more than four-fifths of natives of British North
America, These numbered 2,900,531, of whom 1,138,794 were
natives of Ontario ; 1,147,664 of Quebec ; 360,832 of Nova Scotia ;
245,068 of New Brunswick ; 405 of Manitoba and British Columbia ;
and 7,768 natives of Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland.
Of alien-born inhabitants of the Dominion the most numerous
at the census of 1871 were 219,451 natives of Ireland ; 144,999
of England and Wales ; 121,074 of Scotland; 64,447 natives of the
United States, and 24,162 natives of Germany.

The population of the principal cities of the Dominion and of
British North America was as follows at the census of 1871 : —

Ontario

("Toronto
J Hamiltoi
"j Ottawa
i London

Newfoundland

Dominion of Canada.

46,092
26,716
21,545
15,826

Beitish North America.

. St. John's .

Quebec

Nova Scotia .
New Brunswick

f Montreal
I Quebec

Halifax

St. John

22,583

107,225
59,695
29,582

28,988

CANADA.

51/

The increase of population in recent years has been chiefly
through immigration from the United Kingdom. The following
table shows the total number of immigrants, and the number who
actually settled in the Dominion of Canada, in each of the ten
years from 1866 to 1875. (For immigration from the United
Kingdom see page 254.)

Years

Total Number K rf

of In"f»- Settlers

grants

Total Number
Years of Immi-
grants

Number of
Settlers

1866
1867
1868
1869
1870

41.704 Ki.091
47.212 14,666
58,683 12>70o

.".7,202 18,630
44,313 24,706

1871 37,949

1872 1 52,608

1873 99,059

1874 80,022

1875 . 43,458

27,773
36,578
50,050
39,373
l>7,382

The number of immigrants, as well as of settlers, is inclusive of
those arrived from the United States.

Trade and Industry.

The trade of the Dominion of Canada is chiefly with the United
States and Great Britain, the greater part of the imports being
derived from Great Britain, and the greater part of the exports
going to the United States. The following statement gives the
total value of exports, including bullion and specie, the total value
of imports, and the total value of imports entered for home con-
sumption in the Dominion in each of the six fiscal years, ending
June 30, from 1871 to 1876 :—

Years ended
June 30

Total Exix>rts

Total Imports

Imports for
1 Home Consumption

Dollars

1S71

74,173,618

96,092,971

86,947,482

1872

82,639.663

111,430,527

j 107,709,116

1873

89,789,922

128,011,282

127.514,524

1874

89,851,928

128,213,582

127,404,169

1875

77,886,979

123,070,283

119,618,657

1876

80,966,435

93,210,346

94,733,218

The subjoined tabular statement exhibits the commercial inter-
course of the Dominion of Canada with the United Kingdom, giving
the total value of the exports to Great Britain and Ireland, and of
the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures into the
Dominion, in each of the ten 3 cars ! 866 to 1875 : —

5i8

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Years

Exports from the Dominion of
Canada to Great Britain

Imports of British Home Produce'

into the Dominion of

Canada

1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875

£
6,867,563
6,003,538
6,037.090
6,997,188
7,855,518
8,623,115
8,652,238
11,117,122
11,336.812
9,615,927

£
6,862,402
5,311,197
4,404,119
4,571,920
6,260,613
7,766,559
9,637,133
8,112.751
8,849,747
8,414,099

The two staple articles of exports from the Dominion of Canada
to the United Kingdom are breadstuff's and wood. In the year
1875, the total exports of corn and flour amounted to 3,124,056/.,
of which 1,975,640/. was for wheat; 351,122/. for peas; 331,566/.
for maize, or Indian corn ; and 267,365/. for wheat meal and flour,
the remainder comprising oats, oatmeal, and other kinds of bread-
stuffs. The value of the exports of wood and timber to Great
Britain in 1875 was 4,215,044/.. made up chiefly of hewn timber,
of the value of 1,414,180/., and of sawn wood, of the value of
2,708,501/. The principal articles of British produce imported
into the Dominion in the year 1875 were iron, wrought and un-
wrought, of the value of 1,856,651/.; apparel and haberdashery,
of the value of 1,263,865/.; woollen manufactures, of the value of
1,524,537/. ; and cotton goods, of the value of 1,182,701/.

Not included in the above returns is the trade with the province
of Newfoundland and the coast of Labrador, as yet not included
within the Dominion. The exports from Newfoundland and La-
brador to Great Britain, chiefly fish and train oil, amounted to
596,697/., and the imports of British produce to 622,484/. in the
year 1875. The principal articles of British imports into Newfound-
land and Labrador in 1875, were apparel and haberdashery, of the
value of 90,386/. ; and cotton manufactures, of the value of 55,074/.

The tonnage of shipping registered in each of the Provinces of
the Dominion on December 31, 1875, was as follows: —

Vessels

Tons

Nova Scotia ....

. 2,786

505,144

New Brunswick ....

. 1,133

307,926

222,965

Ontario .....

825

114.990

Prince Edward Island .

335

50,677

British Columbia and Manitoba .

3,863

Total

6,952

1,205,565

CANADA. 519

The total comprised G35 steamers, measuring 76,590 tons. During
the year 1875, there were 480 new vessels, of 151,012 tons, built in
the Dominion.

The Dominion of Canada had a network of railways of a total
length of 6,412 miles at the end of June 1876. There were at the
same period lines of a total length of 1,027 miles in course of construc-
tion, and 3,000 miles more had been surveyed, and concessions granted
by the Government. Partly included in the latter class is a rail-
way crossing the whole of the Dominion, from the Atlantic to the
Pacific, to the construction of which the British Government con-
tributes a grant, in the form of a guaranteed loan o 2,500,000^.

On June 30, 1876, there were in the Dominion 4,893 post-
offices. The number of letters and post-cards sent through the post-
office during the year 1875 was 34,510,000; and of newspapers,
23,500,000. A uniform rate of postage of three cents has been es-
tablished over the whole Dominion.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Canada and British North
America are : —

Money.
The Dollar of 100 cents . . = is; 2d.

The decimal system of currency was introduced into the dominion
of Canada and British North America by Act 34 Vict. cap. 5. It
is ordered by the Act that the unit of account shall be the dollar of
100 cents, the value of which dollar shall be on the basis of 486
cents and two -thirds of a cent to the pound of British sterling
money. The value of the money of the United Kingdom is fixed
by law as follows : — The sovereign, of the weight and fineness now
established, four dollars and eighty-six and two-third cents ; the
crown piece, one dollar and twenty cents ; the half-crown piece,
sixty cents ; the florin, forty-eight cents ; the shilling, twenty-four
cents ; the sixpence, twelve cents.

Weights and Measures.
A new and uniform system of weights and measures was intro-
duced into the Dominion of Canada by Act 36 Vict. cap. 48, assented
to May 23,1873, entitled' an Act respecting AVeights and Measures.'
The Act orders that ' the Imperial yard shall be the standard measure
of length ; ' that ' the Imperial pound Avoirdupois shall be the stan-
dard measure of weight ; ' that ' the gallon known as the " Imperial
gallon" shall be the standard measure of capacity for liquids; ' that
the standard or unit of measure for the sale of gas by meter, the
cubic foot containing 62 ,: '„-„'„ lbs. avoirdupois weight of distilled
water weighed in the air at the temperature oi' 62 deg. Fab. ; the

520 THE STATESMAN S TEAK-BOOK, 1877-

barometer being at 30 inches ; ' and that ' the bushel measure known
as the "Imperial bushel" shall be the standard measure of capacity
for commodities sold by dry measure/ Of old weights and measures
usually employed, the chief are : —

Wine gallon . . = 0-83333 gallon.

Ale gallon ...=-- 1-01695 „

Bushel . = 0-9692 imperial bushel.

By Act of 22nd Vict. cap. 21, the weights of many articles held
eonal to the Winchester bushel were prescribed, as follows : —

Potatoes, turnips, carrots, parsnips, beets, and onions . 60 lbs.

Flax seed 50 lbs.

Hemp seed ......... 44 lbs.

Blue grass seed 14 lbs.

Castor beans . . . . . . . .40 lbs.

Salt 56 lbs.

Dried apples 22 lbs.

Malt 36 lbs.

By the same Act the British hundredweight of 112 pounds, and
the ton of 2,240 pounds, were abolished, and the hundredweight was
declared to be 100 pounds and the ton 2,000 pounds avoirdupois,
thus assimilating the weights of Canada and the United States.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning- Canada

and British North America.

1. Official Publications.

Estimates of Canada for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1877. 8 pp. 88.
Ottawa, 1876.

Finances of Canada: Budget Speech delivered in the House of Commons of
Canada, Feb. 25, 1876, by the Hon. Richard J. Cartwright, Minister of
Finance. 8. pp. 42. Ottawa, 1876.

Public Accounts of Canada, for the fiscal year ended 30th June, 1876.
Printed by order of Parliament. 8. pp. 410. Ottawa, 1876.

Report of the Department of Marine and Fisheries for the year ended the
30th June, 1876. 8. Ottawa, 1876.

Report, Returns, and Statistics of the Inland Revenues of the Dominion of
Canada, for the fiscal year ending 30th June, 1876. 8. Ottawa, 1876.

Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. No. XL 8. London, 1876.

Tables of the Trade and Navigation of the Dominion of Canada, for the
fiscal year ending 30th June, 1876. 8. Ottawa, 1876.

Statistics of Canada; in 'Statistical Tables relating to the Colonial and
other Possessions of the United Kingdom.' Part XIY. Fol. London, 1870.

Reports on the Trade and Commerce, the Militia Establishment, Immigra-
tion, and Taxation of the Dominion of Canada; in 'Papers relating to H.M.'s
Colonial Possessions.' Parts I. and II. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Trade of the Dominion of Canada, of Newfoundland, and of Prince Edward
Island, with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year 1875.'
Imp. 4. London, 1876.

CANADA. 521

2. Non-Officiai Publications.

Faitton (Abbe). Histoire de la Colonic franchise en Canada. 2 vols. FoL
Montreal, 1865.

Howe (Hon. Joseph), Confederation considered in relation to the interests of
the Empire. 8. London, 1866.

Macjic (Matthew), Vancouver Island and British Columbia ; their History,
Eesourees, and Prospects. 8. London, 186.").

Marshall (Charles), The Canadian Dominion. 8. London, 1871.

Martindale (Lieut.-Col., C.B.), Eecollections of Canada. With Illustrations
by Lieutenant Carlile, E.A. 4. London, 1873.

Monro (Alex.), History, Geography, and Statistics of British North America.
12. Montreal, 1864.

Morgan (Henry J.), The Canadian Parliamentary Companion for 1876.
Ilth edition. 32. Ottawa, 1876.

Philpot (Harvey J.), Guide Book to the Canadian Dominion. 16. London,
1871.

Bowlings (Thomas), The Confederation of the British North American Pro-
vinces : their Past History and Future Prospects. 8. London, 1866.

Russell (Wm. Henry), Canada : its Defences, Condition, and Eesourees. 8.
London, I860.

Year- Book (The) and Almanac of Canada for 1876. 8. Montreal and
Ottawa, 1876.

522

CHILI.

(Repijelica de Chile.)

Constitution and Government.

The republic of Chili threw off the allegiance to the Crown of
Spain by the declaration of independence of September 18, 1810.
The constitution, voted by the representatives of the nation in 1838,
establishes three authorities in the State — the legislative, the execu-
tive, and the judicial. The legislative power is vested in two assem-
blies, called the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies. The Senate
is composed of twenty members, elected for the term of nine years ;
while the Chamber of Deputies, chosen for a period of three years,
consists of one representative for every 20,000 of the population. The
executive is exercised by a president, elected for a term of five years.

President of the Republic. — Don Federico Errazuriz; elected
President of the Republic, as successor of Don Jose Joaquin Perez,
September 17, 1871.

The president of the republic is chosen by indirect election. The
people, in the first instance, nominate their delegates by ballot, and
the latter, in their turn, appoint the chief of the State. The salary of
the President is fixed at 22,500 pesos, or 4,500Z.

The president is assisted in his executive functions by a Council of
State, and a ministry, divided into five departments, namely, of
the Interior ; of Foreign Affairs ; of Finance ; of Justice and
Ecclesiastical Affairs ; and of War and Marine.

The Council of State, appointed by the president of the republic,
consists of the ministers for the time being, two judges, one eccle-
siastical dignitary, one general or admiral, and five other members.

Revenue, Army and Navy.

The public revenue is mainly derived from customs duties, while
the chief branches of expenditure are for the national debt and
public works. The following table shows the total actual revenue
for the year 1874, and the estimates of revenue and expenditure for
the year 1875 : —

Revenue .
Expenditure

1874

1875

Pesos
15,661,724
22,508,864

£
3,132,344
4,501,772

Pesos £
16,000,000 1 3,220,000 1
21,720,075 1 4,344,015

CHILI.

52;

The actual deficit for the year 1874 amounted to 0,847,140 pesos,
or 1,369,428/., and the estimated deficit of the year 1875 to
5,620,075 pesos, or 1,120,015/.

The following table gives the sources of actual revenue and
the various branches of expenditure in the year 1874 : —

Sources of Revenue

Branches of Expenditure

Customs

State monopolies
Land taxes .
Licenses
Stamps
Guano sales
Post .
Telegraphs .
State railways
Other Receipts

Total revenue <

Pesos

7,690,314

1,796,265

646,929

408,824

416,280

90,509

33,701

46,486

3,187,012

1,245,404

15,661,724
£3,132,344

Ordinary Expenditure: —
Ministry of the Interior
,, Foreign Affairs

Justice and Pub- '
lie Worship
„ Finance

War .
„ Marine

Extraordinary Expenditure :
Public Works and Navy

Pesos

4,895,089
305,893

2,123,193

6,080,561
2,171,310
1,033,137

5,899,681

m x--| ,•, / 22,508,864

iotal expenditure < |jfj. =^1 7"">

The public debt of the republic consisted, at the end of September
1876, of the following home and foreign liabilities: —

Internal Debt —
3 per cent, debt of 1865 .
8
6 ,, Meigg's loan .

6 „ Garland „ . .

3 and 6 per cent, loans, various dates

Total internal debt . <T
Foreign Debt —
3 per cent loan of 1842 .
41 „ „ 1858 .

7 „ ., 1866 .
6 „ '„ 1867 .

5 ., Railway loan of 1870
5 „ „ „ 1873
5 „ „ „ 1875

Total foreign debt . <
1

Total debt . . /

Capital

Interest

Pesos
3,150,775
2,323,000
1,472,000
1,288,000
8,682,247

Pesos

94,523
196,784

93,840

78,540
345,219

16,916.022
£3,383,204

1,704,000
6,122,000
4,785,000
8,872,500

4,797,5<Mi

10,700,000

9,500,000

808,906
£161,781

54,360
275.535
346,220
547,500
245,400
749,000
610,000

46,48J,Oiin
£9,296,200

2,156,500
£431,300

63,397,022
L'l 2,679,404

2,966,406

£593,081

The whole of the foreign loans of Chili were contracted in En<r-

524 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

land, the loans of 1842 and 1858 through the house of Baring
Brothers, and the loans of I860 and 18G7 through the house of
Morgan & Co. The railway loan of 1870, was contracted at the
price of 83 ; that of 1873, at the price of 94, and that of 1875, at
the price of 884; per cent. The whole of these three loans are to be
redeemed at par by a sinking fund of 2 per cent.

The army of Chili, raised by conscription, was reported to number
3,516 men at the end of September 1876, the forces comprising
2,000 infantry, 712 cavalry, and 804 artillery.

The navy of Chili consisted, at the end of September 187G often
small steamers, of from 120 to 300 horse-power, and two large and
powerful ironclads, called ' Almirante Cochrane ' and ' Valparaiso.'
The two ironclads are sister ships, of the same design and dimen-
sions, and were constructed at Earl's Shipbuilding Company's works,
Hull, England, after the designs of Mr. E. J. Reed, former chief
constructor to the British Admiralty, the ' Almirante Cochrane ' being
launched in January 1874, and the 'Valparaiso' in May 1875.
Each of these ironclads is 210 feet long, and 45 feet in breadth, of
2,200 tons measurement, and of 2,500 horse power. Each ship is
protected throughout its whole length in the neighbourhood of
the water-line by a stout belt of armour and teak backing 8 feet
wide. The armour-plates are 9 inches thick at the water-line.
The battery is amidships, and it is armed with six 124; ton rifled
guns. The teak backing is of an average thickness of 10 inches,
and the whole of the armour and backing is fastened to a double
thickness of skin plating, supported by massive angle iron frames
on the inside, and longitudinal angle iron girders on the outside,
which are combined with the teak backing and give a further sup-
port to the armour. The range of fire in both the ' Almirante Coch-
rane ' and the Valparaiso ' is very remarkable, for, although they
have the same appearance as ordinary broadside ships, they are able
with the three guns on each side to fire over all the points of the
compass. This advantage Avas obtained by placing each of the fore
and aft guns at the corners of the battery, and recessing the side of
the ship so as to enable the foremost guns to fire right forward and
in a line with the keel, and in like manner the aft guns fire right
aft. The corners of the batteries are made of an octagonal shape, so
that the same guns which fire right forward and aft can be brought
into the broadside position and command any angle between that
and the line of the keel. The midship guns on each side are made to
fire on the broadside, and also to support the fire of the forward
guns, up to within 20 degrees of the line of the keel. The very
powerful fire the ships are thus able to command all round the
horizon is held to be the most notable feature in their construc-
tion.

CHILI.

5^5

Population, Trade, and Industry.

The area of therepublic is estimated to embrace 132,006 English
square miles, with a population numbering 2,008,447 souls in 187").
The republic is divided into sixteen provinces, of the following
area and population, according to the returns of an enumeration
made in 1875 : —

Provinces

Area : English

Population

square miles

1875

Ckiloe

2,400

64,536

Llanquihue

8,108

48,492

Valdivia

10,039

37,481

Arauco

13,714

140,896

Concepcion

3,861

151,365

Nuble .

4,247

136,880

ilaule .

4,285

f 118,457

Linares

Talca .

■J

3,185

\ 118,880
110,359

Curico .

2,947

92,110

Colehagua

3,516

146,889

Santiago

9,272

362,712

Valparaiso

1,426

176,682

Aconcagua

5,374

132,799

Coquimbo

19,112

157,463

Atacama

41,120

72,446

rotal

132,606

2,068,447

Not included in the above table is the land of the Araucanians, a
vast district on the southern frontier, nominally annexed to the
republic in 1862. It is calculated to embrace 120,000 English
square miles, on which live about 70,000 warlike aborigines.

The two largest towns of Chili are Santiago, the capital, and
Valparaiso, its port; the first of which had 148,264, and the second
97,575 inhabitants at the census of 1875.

The total exports of the republic in the 3'ears 1871-5 averaged
seven millions sterling, with imports of the same amount. The
foreign commerce of Chili is carried on mainly with Great Britain,
while Erance stands next in the list, followed by Germany, the
United States, and Peru.

The commercial intercourse between Chili and the United King-
dom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the
value of the total exports to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the
total imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures into
Chili, in each of the five years from 1871 to 1875 : —

526

THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1877.

Years

Exports from Chili

Great Britain

Imports of

British Home Produce

into Chili

1871
1872
1873
1874
1875

£
3,798,361
5,591,783
4,764,195
4,700,510
4,196,096

£
2,010,060
3,147,843
3,165,104
2,751,094
2,207,418

The staple article of export from Chili to the United Kingdom
is copper. In the year 1875 the value of the total exports of copper
to Great Britain amounted to 3,216,660/. Of this total, the copper
ore was valued at 170,023/., regulus at 949,490/., and unwrought or
partly wrought copper at 2,088,147/. Next to copper, the most
important articles exported to Great Britain are Avheat, of the value
of 497,359/. ; and wool of the value of 79,999/., in the year 1875.

The principal articles of British produce imported into Chili are
cotton and woollen manufactures, and iron. In 1875, the total imports
of cotton fabrics were of the value of 1,923,753/. ; of woollens
258,288/.; and of iron, wrought and unwrought, 465,596/.

The commercial navy of Chili consisted, end of Sej^tember 1876,
of 87 vessels, of 22,434 tons, including 22 steamers, of 9,641 tons.

Chili was among the first States in South America in the construc-
tion of railways. At the end of 1875, the total length of lines open for
traffic was 820 English miles, while 209 miles more were in course
of construction, some nearly completed. The two most important
railways open for traffic are the lines from Valparaiso to Santiago
— Ferro-carril del Norte — 115 miles in length, and from Santiago
to Curico — Ferro-carril del Sur — 116 miles long, both state pro-
perty. The principal railways in course of construction in 1876
comprised lines from Curico to Chilian, and from San Rosendo to
Angol, of a total length of 192 English miles.

The length of telegraph lines was reported, at the end of
1875, at 2,650 miles, the whole of them, with the exception of a
short line from Santiago to Valparaiso, belonging to the state. The
number of telegraph offices at the same date was 55, of which 53
belonged to the state. In the year 1875 the telegraph carried
271,500 messages.

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of Chili in Great Britain.

Envoy and Minister. — Don Alberto Blest Gana, accredited ilarch 6, 1868.
Secretaries. — Carlos Maria Vicuna ; Carlos Zanartu.

2. Of Great Britain in Chili.

Minister and Consid- General.— Horace Ruinbold, appointed October 24, 1872.

1-014 lb.
= 101-44 „
= 0-927 yard.
= 0-859 square yard.

CHILI. 527

Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Chili are : —

Money.
The Pesos, or Dollar =100 Centavos . Average rate of exchange, 4*.
Weights and Measures.
The Ounce. . . . . = 1-014 ounce avoirdupois.
„ Libra ....
,, Quintal

„ Vara ....
„ Square Vara

The metric system of France has been legally established in Chili,
but the old weights and measures are still in general use.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Chili.

1. Official Publications.

Anuario Estadistico. 8. Santiago de Chile, 1876.

Memoria que el Ministro de Estado en el departamento del Interior presenta
al Congreso nacional de 1876. 8. Santiago de Chile, 1876.

Menioria que el Ministro de Estadoen el departamento de Hacienda presenta
al Congreso nacional de 1875. 8. Santiago de Chile, 1875.

Estadistica de la Eepublica de Chile. 8. Santiago de Chile, 1875.

Report by Mr. Consul Drummond-Hay on the commerce of Valparaiso, dated
December 5, 1873; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls on the manufactures,
commerce, &c, of their consular districts.' Part II. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Reports by Mr. Vice-Consul Peters on the trade and commerce of Chanaral,
dated May 31, 1875; in -Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Parti. 1876. 8.
London, 1876.

Report by Mr. Horace Rumbold, British Minister, on the progress and
general condition of Chili, dated Santiago de Chile, December 1875 ; in ' Reports
by H.M.'s Secretaries of Legation.' Part III. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Reports by Mr. Consul Grierson, on the trade of Coquiinbo ; and by Mr.
Consul Drummond-Hay, on the trade and commerce of Valparaiso and of
Chili, dated Jan.-Mareh 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV.
1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Chili with Great Britain ; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade
of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Asta-Buruaga (Francisco S.), Diccionario geografico de la Republica de
Chile. 8. New York, 1868.

Fonck (Dr. Fr.), Chile in der Gegenwart. 8. Berlin, 1870.

Lines (G.Rose). The progress and actual condition of Chile. 8. London, 1875.

.V' nadier (J.), Estadistica comercial comparativa de la Eepublica de Chile. 4.
Valparaiso, 1873.

Scherzer (Karl von), Reise der osterreichischen Fregatte Novara um die Erde
in den Jahren 1857-59. 8. Vienna, 1864.

Wappaus (Prof. J. C), Die Republikon von Siid-Amerika, geograpliiVch-
stiisch, mit besonderer Berucksichtigung ihrer Production und ilires Han-
delsverkehrs. 8. Gottingen, 1866.

528
COLOMBIA.

(ESTADOS TjNIDOS DE COLOMBIA.)

Constitution and Government.

The federative republic of Colombia^- officially styled the United
States of Colombia, was formed by the Convention of Bogota, con-
cluded Sept. 20, 1861, by the representatives of nine states previously
apart of New Granada. A constitution, bearing date May 8, 1863,
vests the executive authority in a president elected for two years,
while the legislative power rests with a Congress of two Houses,
called the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate,
numbering 27 members, is composed of representatives of the nine
states, each deputing three senators ; the House of Representatives,
numbering 66 members, is elected by universal suffrage, each state
forming a constituency and returning one member for 50,000
inhabitants, and a second for every additional 20,000. Besides the
central government thus created, each of the nine states has its own
legislature and chief executive officer, the latter called Governor in
all except Panama, which gives him the title of President.

The President of Colombia has at his side a Vice-President,
acting as chairman of the Senate, and his executive functions must
be exercised through four ministers, or secretaries, responsible to
Congress. His biennial term of office begins on the 1st of April,
ending the last of March.

President of the Republic. — Don Aquileo Parra, elected for the
biennial term commencing April 1, 1876.

The first head of the executive government of Colombia, after
its establishment as a federative republic, was General Thomas
Mosquera, who acted as Dictator from Sept. 20, 1861, till the pro-
clamation of the constitution of 1863, under which Don Manuel
Murillo Toro was elected President for two years, commencing April
1, 1864. General Mosquera was chosen his successor, but before
his term of office had expired he came into conflict with the Con-
gress of the republic, and on the 23rd of May was deposed and
imprisoned, his place being filled provisionally by the Vice-Presi-
dent, General Santos Gutierrez, who was subsequently elected Presi-
dent for the next term. From 1872 to 1875 the Executive under-
went constant changes in consequence of uninterrupted civil
warfare.

Seat of the central government is the federal city of Bogota.

COLOMBIA.

529

Revenue, Public Debt, and Army.

The revenue of the central government amounted, on the average
of recent years, to less than 500,000/. per annum. The following
table eives the revenue and expenditure in the financial year ending
July 31, 1673 :—

Receipts.

Pesos.

Expenditure.

Pesos.

Customs .

Salt monopoly .

Domains .

Post and telegraphs .

Miscellaneous .

2,775,450

799,213

72,595

78,236

268,000

Public Debt .
Army and Navy
Public Works .
Home Department .
Miscellaneous .

Total

1,060,700
651,527

739.000
518,775
180,000

Total

3,993,494
£798,699

3,150,000 I
£630,000 '

The public debt was reported to amount to 53,085,644 pesos, or
10,617,129/., at the end of 1875, three-fourths of which sum was
due to British creditors, who hold as security on mortgage the
chief source of revenue of the Eepublic, that derived from the
customs. The interior debt was estimated to amount to 20,500,000
pesos, or 4,100,000/. at the end of 1875.

The federal army, by the terms of the constitution, is to number
2,000 men on the peace-footing. In case of war, each of the states
is bound to furnish a contingent of one per cent, of the population,
raising the total strength of the army to about 27,000 men.

Population and Trade.

The area of the republic is estimated to embrace 504,773 English
square miles, of which 330,750 square miles are north of the equator,
and the remainder south of the equator. According to a rough
enumeration taken in 1871, the population at that date was
2,913,343, divided as follows, between the nine states of the
Confederacy : —

Antioquia
Bolivar
Boyaca .
Cauca .
Cundinamarca
Magdalena
Panama
Santander
Tylimu .

Total

Area : English
square miles

22,316
21,345
33,351
257,462
79,810
24,440
31,571
L6.409
18,069

504,773

Population

365,974
247,100
482,874
435,078
409,602
85,255
220,542
425,427
230,891

2,913,343

53o

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

The most important of the nine states of Colombia, the state of
Panama, comprises the whole isthmus of that name, known histori-
cally as the Isthmus of Darien. The extreme length of the state
from east to west is about 360 geographical miles, but the sinuosities
of the coast give about 400 miles on the Atlantic and 600 on the
Pacific Ocean. Less than one-tenth of the total area of Colombia is
under cultivation.

The foreign trade of Colombia is carried on mainly through the
two ports of Panama and of Colon, or Aspinwall, and is of consi-
derable importance, owing to the geographical situation of these
places, which, united by railway, connect the Atlantic with the
Pacific Ocean. The transit trade across the Isthmus of Panama is
of the estimated value of 17,000,000Z. per annum, about two-thirds
representing the trade from the Pacific to the Atlantic, and one-
third that in the opposite direction. The foreign commerce of the
Republic itself is very small, but its amount cannot be ascertained,
as no official accounts of it are kept, and it is mixed up entirely with
the transit trade.

The following table gives the total value of the exports sent from
Colombia to Great Britain, and of the imports of British home
produce entered into Colombia, in each of the five years from
1871 to 1875:—

Exports from

Imports of British

Years

Colombia

Home Produce into

to Great Britain

Colombia

1871

1,042,339

2,643,074

1872

1,019,235

3,150,337

1873

1,077,233

3,074,972

1874

995,600

2,570,952

1875

962,205

919,143

Of the exports from Colombia to Great Britain the two most im-
portant articles in 1875 were raw cotton, of the value of 138,110/.,
and Peruvian bark, of the value of 235,066Z. At the head of the
articles of British home produce imported into Colombia in 1875
were manufactured cotton goods, of the value of 593,549Z. The
other principal articles imported from Great Britain in 1875 were
linen manufactures, of the value of 65,032L ; and woollens, of the
value of 60,962Z.

In the year 1869 a treaty was concluded between the govern-
ment of the Republic and that of the United States of America,
which gave to the latter the exclusive right to construct an inter-
oceanic canal across the Isthmus of Darien, at any point which
may be selected by the United States. The Colombian Govern-

COLOMBIA. 53I

ment cede six miles of land on each side of the canal, and are to
receive 10 per cent, of the net income for the first 10 years, and, after
the canal is paid for, 25 per cent, of the net profits. The surveys
are to be made within two years after the ratification of the treaty,
and the canal begun within five years and finished within fifteen
years after the ratification, otherwise the charter fails. The charter
runs for 100 years. The canal is to be under the control of the
United States, and navigation is to be open to all nations in time
of peace, but closed to belligerents.

Diplomatic and Commercial Representatives.

1. Of Colombia in Great Britain.

Envoy and Minister. — Don Felipe Zapata, accredited November 28, 1874.
Secretary. — Cesar C. Guzman.

2. Of Great Britain in Colombia.

Minister -and Consul General. — Robert Bunch, appointed December 12, 1872.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Colombia, and the British
equivalents, are : —

Money.

The Peso, or dollar, of 10 reals: approximate value, is.
The currency is almost entirely imported, the gold coins consisting
of doubloons of Spain, equal to 16 dollars, of British sovereigns,
condors, and half condors, and the silver of pesos, reals, half reals,
and quarter reals. There are no home-struck copper coins. In
foreign mercantile transactions, the French five-franc piece, equal
to one peso, is most generally in use.

Weights and Measures.

The metric system of France was introduced into the Republic in
1857, and the only weights and measures recognised by the
Government are the French. In custom-house business the
kilogramme, equal to 2,205 pounds avoirdupois, is the standard.
In ordinary commerce, flic arroba, of 25 pounds, the quintal, of
100 pounds, and the carga, of 250 pounds, are generally used.
The Colombian libra is equal to 1*102 pounds avoirdupois. As
regards measures of length, the English yard is mostly employed,
but in liquid measure the French litre is the legal standard.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Colombia.
1. Oi ri' m. Publications.
Report by M r. Roberl Bunch, British Minister resident, on the trade, popu-
lation, and general condition of the United Statee of Colombia; dated Bogota,

M M 2

532 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 187".

April 8, 187o ; in 'Keports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.'
Part IV. 1875. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. Eobert Lunch, British Minister Resident, on the finance,
commerce, and navigation of the United States of Colombia in the year 1872-73,
dated Bogota, March 21, 1874 ; in 'Reports of H.M. s Secretaries of Embassy
and Legation' Part III. 187-4. 8. London, 1874.

Eeport by Mr. Robert Bunch, British Minister Resident, on the financial
condition of the United States of Colombia, dated Bogota, February 12, 1875 ;
in ' Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part III.
1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. Crompton, acting-Consul, on the Trade of the Isthmus of
Panama, dated Panama, December 26, 1872; in 'Reports by H M.'s Consuls
on British Trade abroad.' Part I. 8. London, 1873.

Reports by Mr. Consul Mallet on the trade of Carthagena, and by Mr. Consul
Crompton on the trade of Panama, dated December 31, 1873, and January 31,
1874; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls on the manufactures, commerce, &c,
of their consular districts.' Part III. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Report by Mr. Crompton, aeting-Consid, on the condition of British trade
in the district of Panama, dated Panama, January 1, 1875 ; in 'Reports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. acting-Consul Stacey, on the trade of Carthagena, by Mr.
acting-Consul de Mier on the commerce of Santa Martha, and by Mr. Vice-
Consul Constantine on the trade of Savanilla, dated February, March 1875 ;
in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Reports by Mi*. Vice-Consul Treffry, on mining industry in the State of
Tolima ; and by Mr. Vice-Consul White on the gold mines of the State of
Antioquia, dated March 10-30, 1876; in ' RepDrts from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part V. 1S76. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Colombia with Great Britain; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Hall (Col. F.), Columbia; its Present State in respect of Climate, Soil, &c.
8. Philadelphia, 1871.

Hassaurek (F.), Four Years among Spanish Americans. 12. New York,

1867.

Marr (N.), Reise nach Centralamerika. 2 vols. 8. Hamtui'g, 1863.

Mosquera (General), Compendio de geografia general, politico, fisica y special
dos Statos Unidos de Colombia. 8. London, 1866.

Poivles (J.), New Granada: its internal resources. 8. London, 1863.

Samper (M.), Ensayo sobre las revoluciones politicas y la condicion de las
republicas Colombianas. 8. Paris, 1861.

Zeltner (A. de), La ville et le port de Panama. 8. Paris, 1868.

'00

COSTA RICA.

(Eep^blica de Costa Eica.)

Constitution and Government.

The Republic of Costa Eica, an independent state since the year
1821, and forming part from 182-1 to 1839 of the Confederation of
Central America, is governed under a constitution bearing date
December 22, 1871. By its terms the legislative power is vested
in a congress of one chamber, called the Congreso Constitucional,
chosen in electorial assemblies, the members of which are returned
by universal suffrage. The members of the Congreso Constitucional
are elected for the term of four years, one half retiring every two
Years. The executive authority is in the hands of a President,
elected in the same manner as the Congress for the term of four
years. He is assisted in his functions by two Vice-Presidents,
elected annually in May, for the term of one year, by the Congress.

President of the Republic. — Dr. Aniceto Esquivel, elected May
1876.

There have been constant changes in the executive in recent
years, owing to civil Avars and insurrections, which did not allow
many Presidents to serve the lull term of office.

The administration is carried on, under the President, by four
ministers, viz. of the interior and justice; of public instruction
and foreign affairs; of finance and commerce; and of public works.

Revenue and Public Debt.

The public revenue of Costa Eica for the year ending April 30,
1875, amounted, according to government returns, to 2,588,027
dollars, or 517,015/.. and the expenditure to 2,781,106 dollars, or
556,221Z., leaving a deficit of 193,079 dollars, or 38,616/. In the
budget estimates for the year ending April 1876, voted by Congress,
the revenue was estimated at 2,541,000. dollars, or 508,200/., and
the expenditure at 2,481,626 dollars, or 490,325/. The revenue is
drawn mainly from three sources, namely customs, the spirit
monopoly, and the tobacco monopoly, the first of which produced
783,309 dollars, or 156,601*., the second 912.184 dollars, or
1S2.137/., and the third 386,528 dollars, or 77,306Z., in the finan-
cial year ending April 30, l's7.">.

Costa Eica has no internal debt. The foreign debt of the republic
consists of a six percent, loan, of the nominal amount of 1,000,000/.,
contracted in England in L871, and a seven per cent, loan, of the
nominal amount of 2,400,000Z.^issued al 82 — contracted in 1872.
The government of the republic tyment, both of interest

and sinking fund, upon the first loan in 1872, and as regards the
second loan, the Parliamentary Committee on Foreign Loan

534

THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

ported in 1875 that ' except the sums retained in England out of
the proceeds, the bondholders never received anything whatever in
respect of the principal or interest of the debt.'

The area of the republic is calculated to embrace 26,040 English
square miles, including some disputed territories on the northern
frontier. There exist only vague estimates as regards the population,
calculated to number from 180,000 to 190,000 souls, but stated at
twice the amount in government returns. Nearly one-third of the
inhabitants are aborigines, or ' Indians.' The population of European
descent, many of them pure Spanish blood, dwell mostly in a small
district on the Rio Grande, around the capital, the city of San Jose.

The following table gives the estimated value, in pounds sterling,
of the total exports and the total imports of Costa Rica in each of the
four years from 1872 to 1875: —

Years.

Exports.

Imports.

1871

720,000

343,000

1872

550,000

561,500

1873

1,200,000

753,000

187-1

912,800

570,000

1875

911,210

572,300

The exports consist almost exclusively of coffee, the quantity ex-
ported in the year 1875 amounting to 11,500 tons, being 2,000 tons
more than in the year 1874. In both years considerably more than
one half of the total exports of coffee went to Great Britain.

The commercial intercourse of Costa Rica is chiefly with the
United Kingdom, but it is not reported on in the ' Annual State-
ment ' published by the Board of Trade, which throws the statistics
of the republic together with other states, under the general head-
ing of ' Central America.' For the value of the imports and exports
thus given, see Guatemala, page 541.

An important line of railway, from Alajuela to Limon, 114
miles in length, destined to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans,
was in progress in Costa Rica during the years 1873 and 1874. The
first portion of the line, between Alajuela and Cartago, 42 miles
long, was opened for traffic in March 1873, but the works came to a
partial standstill in 1874, owing to want of funds. It is estimated
that another million sterling is requisite for the completion of the
interoceanic railway.

At the end of June 187G, there were telegraph lines of a total length
of 320 kilometres, or 200 English miles, with 1G telegraph offices.

Diplomatic and Commercial Representatives.

1. Of Costa Kica in Great Britain.
Charr/r $ Affaires.— Don Manuel M. Peralta, accredited February 5. 1876.
Consul- General. — John A. Le Lacheur.

costa rica. 535

2. Of Ghkat Britain in Costa Rica.
Minister and Consul- General. — Sidney Locock, appointed May 23, 1874.

Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Costa Eica, and the British
equivalents, are : —

Money.
The Dollar, of 100 Centavas . . approximate value, 4s.

Weights and Measures.
The Libra . . . . = T014 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Quintal = 101-40

„ Arroba — 25-35 „

„ Fanega . . . = H Imperial bushel.

The old weights and measures of Spain are in general use, but
the introduction of the French metric system is contemplated.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Costa Rica.
1. Official Publications.

Informe presentado por el seeretario de estado en los despackos de hacienda
y eommereio al Cbngreso constitucional, 6 mai, 1875. 4. San Jose, 1875.

Report by Mr. Consul Meugens, on the Commerce of Costa Eica, for the
years 1868-71, dated San Jose, October 17, 1872; in ' Eeports by H.M.'s
Consuls on British Trade abroad.' Parti. 8. London, 1873.

Eeport by Mr. Consul Meugens on the Trade and Commerce of Costa Eica
for the year 1873; dated San Jose, December 31, 1873; in 'Eeports from
H.M.'s Consuls on the Manufactures, Commerce, &c, of their consular districts.'
Part III. 1873. S. London, 1873.

Eeport by Mr. Consul Meugens on the trade and commerce of Costa Eica for
the year 1874, dated San Jose, March 28, 1875; in 'Eeports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' PartV. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Trade of Central America with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual Statement
of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British
Possessions in the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.
2. Non-Official Publications.

Belly (Felix), A travers l'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1872.

Bogie (Frederick), Eide across a Continent : a personal narrative of Wander
.rough Nicaragua and Costa Eica. 2 vols. 8. London, 1868.

Frb'bel (Julius), Aus Amerika. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1857-58.

Marr (N.), Eeise nach Centralamerika. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.

Morelot (L.), Voyage dans l'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1S59.

Pcralta (Manuel 151.), La Republique de Costa Eica. In ' Le Globe, journal
graphie.' 8. Geneve, 1871.

Peralta (Manuel M.), Costa Rica; its climate, constitution and resources.
With a survey of its presenl rmanrijl position 8. London, 1873,

Seherzer (Karl, Ritter von), Wanderungen (lurch die mittelamerikanischen
Freistaaten. 8. Braunschweig, 1857.

Scherzer (Karl, Ritter von), Statistisch-commerzielle Ergebnisse einer Eeise
um die Erde. 8. Leipzig, 1867.

Wagner (Moritz), Lie Republik Costa Rica in Centralamerika. 8. Leipzig,
1856

ECUADOR.

(Republica del Ecuador.)

Constitution and Government.

The Republic of Ecuador was constituted May 11, 1830, in con-
sequence of a civil war which separated the members of the Central
American Free-state founded by Simon Bolivar on the ruins of the
Spanish colony and kingdom of New Granada. By its constitution,
dating March 31, 1843, the executive is vested in a President,
elected for the term of four years, Avhile the legislative power is
given to a Congress of two Houses, the first consisting of 18 senators
and the second of 30 deputies, both elected by universal suffrage.
The Congress has to assemble on the 15th September of every year
at Quito, the capital and seat of the government, without being
summoned by the government. The nomination of the President
takes place, in an indirect manner, by 900 electors, returned by the
people for the purpose. The electors appoint, together with the
head of the executive, a Vice-President, who, in certain cases, may
be called upon by Congress to succeed him before his term of
office has come to an end. The Vice-President also fills the func-
tions of Minister of the Interior.

President of the. Republic. — Don Jose de VeintimiUa, elected
President September 8, 1876.

The President exercises his functions through a cabinet of three
ministers who, together with himself and the Vice-President, are
responsible, individually and collectively, to the Congress. There
is no power of veto with the President, nor can he dissolve, shorten,
or prorogue the sittings of Congress. By the terms of the consti-
tution no citizen can enjoy titular or other distinctions, nor are
hereditary rights or privileges of rank and race allowed to exist
within the territory of the republic.

Revenue, Population, and Trade.

The public revenue in the year 1873 was reported to have
amounted to 3.050,510 dollars, or 730,102/. ; and the expenditure
to 3,985,560 dollars, or 787,112/. About one-half of the revenue is
derived from customs duties on imports, which produced 1,672.557
dollars, or 334,513/ in 1873. At the commencement of 1875 the
liabilities cf the republic amounted, according to returns of that date.

ECUADOR.

537

to 3,274,000/., made up of a foreign debt of 1,824,000*., contracted
in England in 1855, and internal liabilities amounting to 1,450,000/.

The standing army is reported to number 1,200 men, while the
navy consisted in 1876 of three small steamers.

The extent and population of the republic are only known by
estimates. The following table gives the estimated area and popula-
tion of each of the ten provinces.

Provinces

Area : English ' PopulatiCm
square miles F

Chimborazo

Cuenca .

Esmeraldas

Guayas .

Imbabura

Leon

Loja

Manavi.

Oriente

Pichineha

•

5,544

11,310

7,439
11.502
11,623

7,378
10,320

5,761
168,460

9,035

197,105

171,300

9,183

92,696

130,494

221,828

72,159

39,851

19,385

154,081

Indians, unsettled ....

—

200,000

Ecuador ......

248,372 1,308,082

Not included in the above statement are the Galapagos, or Tor-
toise Islands, with an area of 2,950 English square miles, but nearly
deserted, which belong to Ecuador.

The foreign commerce of Ecuador is mainly with the United
Kingdom, and centers in Guayaquil. The total value of the exports
of Ecuador to Great Britain, and of the imports of British produce
into Ecuador, was as follows in the five years 1871 to 1875 : —

Years

Exports from Ecuador
to Great Britain

Imports of British

Home Produce into

Ecuador

1871
1872
1873
1874
1875

277,766
243,840
318,161
297,406
233,980

61,167
82,282

101,640
65,153

130,205

The chief articles of export from Ecuador to Great Britain in the
year 1875 consisted of cocoa, of the value of 125,585/. ; Peruvian
bark of the value of 35,824/.; and caoutchouc, of the value of
29,380/. Of tin- i' !' British produce into Ecuador, cotton

goods, to the value of 96,285/., formed the principal article in 1875.

538 the statesman's YEAK-BOOK, 1877.

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of Ecuador in Great Britain.

Minister. — General Salazar, accredited May 24, 1873.
Secretary.- — William Lavino.

2. Of Great Britain in Ecuador.

Minister and Consul- General. — Frederic Douglas-Hamilton, appointed
December 12, 1872.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The chief coin is the dollar, also called piaster, of the approxi-
mate value of 4s. ; but the money in circulation is chiefly that of
France, Great Britain, and the United States. By a law of
December 6, 1856, which came into effect the 1st of January, 1858,
the French metrical system of weights and measures was made the
legal standard of the republic.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Ecuador.

1. Official Publications.

Keport by Mr. Vice-Consul Smith on the Commerce of the State of Ecuador,
through the port of Guayaquil, during the year 1870, dated Guayaquil, Feb. 18,
1871 ; in 'Commercial Reports received at the Foreign Office.' No. 4, 1871.
8. London, 1871.

Report of Mr. Vice-Consul Smith, on the Commerce of Ecuador through the
Port of Guayaquil during the year 1871, dated Guayaquil, April 18, 1872 ; in
' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' No. III. 1872. 8. London, 1872.

Report by Mr. Vice-Consul Smith, on the Trade and Shipping of Ecuador,
dated Guayaquil, Nov. 14, 1872 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Consuls on British
Trade abroad.' Part I. 8. London, 1873.

Trade of Ecuador with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade
of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the
year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Fhmminq (B.), Wanderungen in Ecuador. In ' Globus.' 8. Leipzig,
1872-3.

Gerst'deJccr (Friedrich), Achtzehn Monate in Siid-Amerika. 3 vols. 8.
Leipzig, 1863.

Schwarda (T.), Reise urn die Erde. Vol. III. 8. Braunschweig, 1861.

Temaux-Compans (L.), Histoire du royaume de Quito. Traduite de l'espagnol.
(Velasco: Hi storia del reino de Quito.) 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1840.

Viilavicencio (D.), Geografia de la Republica del Ecuador. 8. New York,
1858.

Wagner (Moritz Friedrich), Reisen in Ecuador; in 'Zcitschrift fiir allge-
meine Erdkunde.' Vol. XVI. Berlin, 1864.

539

GUATEMALA.

(Repijblica de Guatemala.)

Constitution and Government.

The Republic of Guatemala, established on April 17, 1839,
after having formed part for eighteen years of the Confederation of
Central America, is governed under a constitution proclaimed
October 2, 1859. By its terms the legislative power is vested in a
congress of two chambers, called the Council of State and the House
of Representatives, the first consisting of 24 and the second of 52
members. Both chambers are elected for four years, the House of
Representatives by the people, and the Council of State by the
House. The executive is vested in a President, also elected for four
years. Since the year 1871, when the priestly party was driven
from power, there have been repeated Presidential elections.

President of the Republic. — General Rufino Barrios, elected
May 1874.

The administration is carried on, under the President, by the
heads of three departments, of Foreign Affairs, of Interior and
Justice, and of War and Finance.

Revenue, Population, and Trade.

The public revenue in the year 1874 amounted, according to
official returns, to 2,001,000 dollars, or 520,200/., and the total ex-
penditure at 2,542,600 dollars, or 508,520/., leaving a surplus of
58,400 dollars, or 11,080/. The sources of revenue and branches
of expenditure were as follows in the year 1874 : —

Sources of Revenue, 187-1.

Import Duties ......

Exporl Duties .

Domains and Monopolies

Tax on sugar-cane plantations .

Extraordinary and Miscellaneous Receipts

Surplus of 1873

I lollars.
959,100

816,900
54,100

674,100
12,200

Total Eti n mio . . 2,601,000
£520,200

540

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Branches of Expenditure, 1874.

Government and Administration

Pensions ....

Municipality and Police .

Public Works .

Foreign Affairs .

Army ....

Expenses of Mint, Post, &c.

Church and Education

Premiums on Exports and Indemnities

Subsidy to Panama Steamers

Interest and Management of Public Debt

Miscellaneous and extraordinary Disbursements

Total Expenditure

Dollars.

280,500

14,000

35,200

85,800

19,300

1,008.300

77.800

99.100

8,400

16.400

525,100

372,700

2,542,600
£508,520

The total debt of Guatemala on January 1, 1875, was returned at
4,363,227 dollars, or 872, 645^. The liabilities consist of the
remnant of an English loan contracted in 1828 ; of an English loan
of 500,000/., raised in 1869, and of several interior loans. There
is besides a floating debt of unknown amount.

The area of Guatemala is estimated at 41,830 English square
miles. According to a rough enumeration taken in September
1865, there were at that period 1,180,000 inhabitants. Guatemala,
is administratively divided into seventeen provinces, of which three,
Escuintla, Solola, and Suchitepeguez, are on the Pacific ocean, one
Yzabal, borders the Atlantic, and the rest are inland. Capital of
the republic and seat of the government is Santiago de Guatemala, or
Guatemala la Nueva, with 45,000 inhabitants, a tenth of them of
European origin. The former capital, Santiago de Caballeros, or
Guatemala la Antigua, which had once a population of 60,000, was
partly destroyed by fire and earthquakes in 1773, and has now only
20,000 inhabitants. The bulk of the population of the republic
consists of aborigines, or so-called Indians.

The commercial intercourse of Guatemala is chiefly with Great
Britain and the United States, the exports consisting of indigo,
cochineal, coffee, and various other articles of agricultural produce.
The value of the total imports from, and exports to all countries,
was as follows in each of the five years 1870 to 1874 : —

Years

Total Imports

Total Exports

1870

334.568

489,385

1871

402,112

531,544

1872

453,841

537,362

1873

472,853

672,612

1874

610,801

657,744

GUATEMALA.

541

The value of the commercial intercourse of the republic with the
United Kingdom is not reported in the ' Annual Statement ' pub-
lished by the Board of Trade, which summarizes, under the heading
' Central America,' the commerce of the five states of Costa Rica,
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and San Salvador, with Great
Britain. It is stated in consular reports that of the aggregate trade
of Guatemala, combining exports and imports, about 40 per cent,
is with Great Britain. The commercial intercourse of the whole
of ' Central America ' with the United Kingdom is shown- in the
following table, which gives the value of the exports from ' Central
America ' to Great Britain, and that of the imports of British produce
into ' Central America' in each of the five years 1871 to 1875 : —

Years

Exports from Central America
to Great Britain

Imports of British Produce
into Central America

1871
1872
1873
1874
1875

1,061,611
1,126,117
1,363,999
1,120,874
1,308,889

£
291,501
290,557
330,887
157,078
846,653

The principal articles exported from Central America to Great
Britain in the year 1875 were coffee, of the value of 939,394/., and
indigo, of the value of 187,525Z. The staple article of British
produce imported into Central America consists of cotton manu-
factures, the value of these imports amounting to 521,586Z. in 1875.

The staple place of foreign commerce is the capital, Santiago de
Guatemala. The chief ports of the republic are Izabal on the
Atlantic, and San Jose on the Pacific coast.

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of Guatemala in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — General Pedro Bomulo Xegrete, accredited June 21,

1872

Consul- General. — Benjamin Isaac, appointed November 9, 1864.

2. Of Great Britain in Guatemala.
Minister and Consul- General — Sidney Locock, appointed May 23, 1874.

Honey, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Guatemala, and the British
equivalents, are : —

M( INKY.

The Dollar or Piaster, of 100 Centavas

. approximate value, 4.s.

542 THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Weights and Measures.

The Libra . . . . . = T014 lbs. avoirdupois.

„ Quintal = 101-10

„ Arroba .....= 25*35 „

„ Fanega . . . . . = \\ imperial bushel.

The old weights and measures of Spain are in general use.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Guatemala.

1. Official Publications.

Mensage dirigido por el exmo. SeSor Presidente de la Pep. de Guatemala
a la camara de representantes. 4. Guatemala, 1873.

Report by Mr. Edwin Corbett, British Charge d' Affaires, on the Financial
Position of the Republic of Guatemala, dated Guatemala. January 12, 1870;
in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. I. 1871.
London, 1871-

Report by Mr. Consul Magee on the Trade, Manufactures, and Navigation of
the Republic of Guatemala, dated November 4, 1873, in ' Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls on the Manufactures, Commerce, &c, of their consular districts.'
Parti. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Report by Mr. Sidney Loeock, British Charge d' Affaires, on the imports
and exports of Guatemala in 1874, dated Guatemala, July 7, 1875; in
' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy an 1 Legation. ' Part IV. 1875. 8.
London, 1875.

Tables of Imports and Exports of Guatemala ; in ' Statistical Tables relating
to Eoreign Countries.' Part XII. Fol. London, 1870.

Trade of Central America with Great Britain ; in 'Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom for the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Bailv (J.), Central America 8. London, 1850.

Bernouilli (Dr. Gustav) Briefe aus Guatemala. In Dr. A. Petermann's
'Mittheilungen.' 4. Gotha, 1868-69.

Bernouilli (Dr. Gustav), Reise in der Republic, Guatemale. In Dr. A. Peter-
man's 'Mittheilungen.' 4. Gotha, 1873.

Frbbel (Julius), Aus America, 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1857-58.

Marr (Wilhelm), Reise nach Central-America. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.

Morelot (L.), Voyage dans l'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris. 1859.

Scherzer (Karl, Ritter von), Wanderungen durch die mittelamerikanischen
Ereistaaten. 8. Braunschweig, 1857.

Squier (E. G.), The States of Central America. 8. London, 1868.

543

HAITI.

(Republique de Haiti.)

Constitution and Government.

The republic of Haiti, formerly a French colony, is governed
under a constitution proclaimed June 14, 1867. By its terms the
legislative power rests in a National Assembly, divided into two
chambers, respectively called the Senate and the House of
Commons. The latter is elected by the direct vote of all male
citizens for the term of three years, while the members of the
Senate are nominated for two years by the House of Commons from
a list presented by the electoral colleges. The executive power
is in the hands of a President, who, according to the Constitution,
must be elected by the people, but in recent years has generally
been chosen by the united Senate and House of Commons, sitting
in National Assembly, and in some instances by the troops, and
by delegates of parties acting as representatives of the people. The
nominal term of office of the President is four years ; however, it
is generally cut short by insurrections.

President of the Republic. — General Boisrond- Canal, elected
July 17, 1876, by 69 against 31 votes of a Constituent Assembly,
as successor to General Michel Domingue, elected in 1874 ; sworn
into office, July 19, 1876.

The administration of the republic is carried on, under the
President, by four heads of departments : the ministers of Finance
and Foreign Affairs ; of Justice and Public Instruction ; of the
Interior; and of War.

Revenue, Population, and Trade.

The public revenue and expenditure are known only by estimates,
long-continued civil war having brought extreme disorder into the
finances of the Republic. It was reported that the receipts from
customs, chief source of revenue, amounted to 4,273,043 piastres,
or 960,934/., in the year 1873, and to 3,970,684 piastres, or
893,353/. in 1871. The total public revenue is calculated to have
amounted in recent years to about 1,100,< M M */., and the expenditure to
1,700,000/.

There is a large floating; debt, consisting chiefly of paper money
issued by successive governments, the greater mass enormously depre-

544

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

ciated by frequent repudiation, and by forgery on a vast scale. There
is also a foreign debt, consisting of a loan of 11,949,840 francs, or
477,994/., contracted at Paris in 1825, and of other liabilities
incurred towards France, the total amounting to 82,049,840 francs,
or 1,281,994/. No interest has for years been paid on this debt.
Nevertheless, the government issued, in June 1875, with partial
success, a new foreign loan of 83,453,000 francs, or 3,338,120/,
through the house of Marcuard & Co., Paris, the avowed object
being to extinguish the old debt, both home and foreign, and to
employ the remainder for the construction of two lines of railway.

The area of the republic, which embraces the western portion of
the Island of Haiti — the larger but less populated eastern division
forming the republic of San Domingo (see pp. 656-57) — is estimated
at 10,204 English square miles. A census of the population does
not exist ; the inhabitants, the moiety of whom are negroes and
the rest French-speaking mulattoes, with very few of European
descent, are calculated by the best authorities to number about
572,000, while official estimates give them at 800,000. Capital
of the republic is Port-au-Prince, with 22,000 inhabitants, situated
on a large bay, and possessed of an excellent harbour.

The commercial intercourse of the republic is chiefly with the
United States and Great Britain, the former contributing about 45
per cent, and the latter 40 per cent, to the aggregate imports and
exports. The total imports in the three years 1873 to 1875
averaged 1,250,000/., and the exports 1,820,000/. Among the
principal articles exported are coffee, raw cotton, mahogany, log-
wood, and guano.

There is no report of the exact value of the commercial intercourse
of the republic with the United Kingdom in the 'Annual Statement,'
published by the Board of Trade, which throws Haiti together with
San Domingo. But as the population of the latter state is only
about one-fourth of that of Haiti, an estimate may be made of the
respective distribution of exports and imports during the five years
1871 to 1875, given in the following table : —

Years

Exports from Haiti and San Do-

Imports of British Produce into

mingo to the United Kingdom.

Haiti and San Domingo.

1871

218,559

339,877

1872

389,661

617,560

1873

339,002

548,023

187-1

344,461

441,952

1875

443,837

693,290

The chief articles of exports to the United Kingdom in
1875 were coffee, of the value of 298,472/., and mahogany, of the
value of 36,806/. In previous years, raw cotton was also exported

haiti. 545

in considerable quantities, but the value of these exports sank from
76,7861. in 1872, to 25,493/. in 1873, and to 17,224/. in 1874. It
rose again to 35,781/. in 1875. The staple articles of British
produce imported into Haiti and San Domingo in 1875 were cotton
manufactures, valued at 440,366/., and linens, of the value; of
130,248/.

Chief port of Haiti is the capital. Port-au-Prince, through
which pass more than two-thirds of the total exports and imports
of the republic.

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of Haiti in Great Britain.

Charge d 'Affaires. — Charles Seguy Villevaleix, accredited May 1876.

2. Of Great Britain in Haiti.

Minister and Consul- General. — Major Robert Stuart, appointed Oct. 28, 1874.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Haiti, and the British
equivalents, are :

Monet.

The Piastre . . . approximate value, 4s. Qd.
French gold and silver coins are in current use.

Weights and Measures.
The weights and measures in use are those of France.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Haiti.

1. Official Publications.

Beport by Mr. Consul-general St.-John on the Commerce ; and Shipping of
Haiti, dated Port-au-Prince, December 22, 1872; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Con-
suls on British Trade abroad.' Part I. 8. London, 1873.

Beport by Major Robert Stuart, British Minister, on the Commerce and
Shipping of Haiti, dated Port-au-Prince, Feb. 5, 1876 ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation. Part II. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Hayti and San Domingo with the United Kingdom, in ; Annual
Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions in the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-official Publications.

Ardouin (Beaubrun), Etudes sur L'hietoire de Haiti. 10 vols.^Paris, 1853-61.
Bonneau (Alex.), Haiti, ses progres, son avenir. 8. Paris, L862.
Hand' Luii mi i, J.), Geschichte vmi Haiti. 8. Kiel, 1856.
Hazard (Samuel), Santo Domingo, Past and Present ; with a Glance at,
Hayti. 8. pp. 511. London, 1873.

.1/, ,,';.,,!< s. i. Hi-: one do Haiti. 3 vols. 8. Port-au-Prince, 1847.
Nan (K. ), Histoire des Caziques de Haiti. 8. Port-au-Prince, 1855.

a n

546

HONDURAS.

(Republica del Honduras.)

Constitution and Government.

The Republic of Honduras, established in 1839, on the dissolu-
tion of the Confederation of Central America, is governed under a
charter proclaimed in November 1865. It gives the legislative
power to a congress of two houses, called the Senate and the
Chamber of Deputies. The Senate consists of seven members,
three of whom are elected annually, and the Chamber of Deputies
of fourteen members, one-half of whom are elected annually. The
executive authority rests with a President, elected for four years.

President of the Republic. — Don Crecencio Go?nez, elected Provi-
sional President June 16, 1876, as successor of Don Ponciano Leiva,
President from 1874 to 1876.

There have been no regular elections of Presidents in recent
years, and none served the full term of office. The last President,
Don Ponciano Leiva, succeeded Don Celeo Arias, elected 1872, who
fled from the capital and was driven from power in February 187-4, in
consequence of an invasion of the republic by the troops of San
Salvador. The same troops deposed, in a preceding invasion, May
1872, General Medina, predecessor of Don Celeo Arias, elected
President in 1870.

The administration of the republic is carried on by a Council of
State, composed of two ministers, appointed by the President, one
senator elected by both Houses of Congress, and the Judge of the
Supreme Court.

Revenue, Population, and Trade.

The finances of the republic are in great disorder owing to
prolonged civil strife, aggravated in 1872 by wars with Guate-
mala and San Salvador, which continued, with short interruptions,
till the end of June 1876, when exhaustion on all sides brought
about a peace. Semi-official reports state the total public revenue in
recent years at 388,000 dollars, or 97,000Z., about one-third derived
from customs duties, and another third from the government mono-
poly of sale of aguardiente, or native rum. The expenditure for
several years exceeded the revenue, and the deficits were covered by
loans.

HONDUKAS. 547

The foreign debt of Honduras amounted to a total of 5,990,108/.
at the end of 1876. It consists of three loans: the first contracted
at the London Stock Exchange in 1867, for the nominal amount of
1,000,000/.; the second issued in London and Paris in 1868, for the
nominal amount of 2,490,108/.: and the third, negociated at the
London Stock Exchange in 1870, for the nominal amount of
2,500,000Z. The first and third loans were at 10 per cent., and
issued at the price of 80, and the second loan was at 6 per cent.,
and issued at 75. All the loans were raised for the professed, object of
constructing an interoceanic railway from Port Cortez, or Puerto
Caballos, on the Atlantic, to the Bay of Fonseca, on the Pacific,
232 miles in length. But only a short section of the line, on the
Atlantic side, 53 miles in length, was constructed in 1875, and then
lying abandoned — the contractors having received on account of
the workft 689,745/., being but apart of the amount due — and there
was no further attempt at the time to open the railway. The in-
terest in arrear on the three loans amounted, at the end of 1875, to
1,230,164, bringing the total indebtedness, in respect tc principal
and interest, to 7,220,272/. If paid, the interest and sinking fund
on the three loans woidd amount to an annual charge of 695,700/.
on the public revenue of Honduras — 130,000/. in respect of the first ;
240,700Z. in respect of the second ; and 325,000/. in respect of the
third loan — or more than seven times the estimated total receipts of
the government of the republic.

In May 1872 the government of Honduras issued at the London
Stock Exchange the prospectus of a ' ten per cent, ship railway loan '
of 15,000,000/., 'for the purpose of adapting the present inter-
oceanic railway, now in course of construction, to a ship railway
across the republic of Honduras,' that is ' a railway capable of
conveying ships of large tonnage, without disturbing the cargo,
between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, to and from Puerto
Caballos on the former, and the Bay of Fonseca on the latter.' The
loan was to be in 150,000 bonds of 100/. each, issued at the price
of 80, and repayable in fifteen years. It met Avith no subscribers.

The area of the republic, divided administratively into seven depart-
ments, is calculated to embrace 39,600 English square miles, with a
population of 250,000 souls, or nine inhabitants to the square mile.
Both area and population are only known through estimates, no
enumeration having as yet taken place. The bulk of the inhabitants
consists of aboriginal 'Indians,' and the sparse European-descended
population, mainly of Spanish origin, is in the small ports on the Pacific
coast and in the town of Santa Rosas, in the tobacco districts of
Gracias. Capitalofthe republic is the ancient town of Comayagua, with
9,000 inhabitants, situated nearly in the centre of the state, and
chief station on the planned interoceanic railway.

x n 2

54S the statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The exports of Honduras consist chiefly of mahogany, hides,
tobacco, cattle, and indigo, the total value estimated at, about
1,000,000 dollars, or 200,000/. per annum, Avhile the imports com-
prise cotton goods, silks, and hardware. The resources of the
country are at present wholly undeveloped. There are no official
returns of the value of either the imports or exports, owing partly
to the customs at the principal ports being farmed out to individuals
whose interest it is to conceal all facts concerning their revenue.
The commercial intercourse is mainly with Great Britain, but the
amount is not given in the 'Annual Statement' of the Board of
Trade, -which merges Honduras into ' Central America.' (See
page 541.)

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of Honduras in Great Britain.
Consul-Genera/.— G. Kattengell, accredited April 24, 1869.

2. Of Great Britain in Honduras.

Minister and Consul-General. — Sidney Locock, appointed May 23. 1874.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Honduras and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —

Monet.

The Dollar, of 100 cents : approximate value, 4.s.

Weights and Measures.

„, . , ("for wine . . = 3^ imperial gallons.
The Arroba< ■■, _ 05 1

L » ou • • - -+ ti >;

„ Square Vara . . = 1-09 vara = 1 yard.

,, Fanega . . . = 1' imperial bushel.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Honduras.

1. Official Publications.

Gaceta Official de Honduras. Comayagua, 1875-76.

Trade of Central America with Great Britain ; in 'Annual Statement of the
trade of the United Kingdom in the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-official Publications.

Frobel (Julius), Seven Years' Travel in Central America. 8. London, 1853.

Marr (Wilhelm), Beise nach Central-America. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.

Pellctier (Consul E.), Honduras et ses ports. Documents officiels sur le
chemin de fer interoceanique. 8. Paris, 1869.

Reichardt (M.), Centro- America. 8. Braunschweig, 1851.

Seherzcr (Karl, Bitter von), Wanderungen durch die niittelamerikanischen
Freistaaten Nicaragua, Honduras und San Salvador. 8. Braunschweig, 1857.

Squier (E. G.\ Honduras: descriptive, historical, and statistical. 8. London,
1870.

549

MEXICO.

(Repijblica Mexicana )

Constitution and Government.

- The present constitution of Mexico bears date February 5,
1857. By the terms of it Mexico is declared a federative republic,
divided into States — 19 at the outset, but at present 27 in num-
ber, with 2 territories — each of which is permitted to manage its
own local affairs, while the whole are bound together in one
body politic by fundamental and constitutional laws. The powers of
the supreme government are divided into three branches, the legisla-
tive, executive, and judiciary. The legislative power is vested in a
Congress consisting of a House of Representatives and a Senate, and
the executive in a President. Representatives, elected by each State,
at the rate of one member for 80,000 inhabitants, hold their places
for two years. The qualifications requisite are, twenty-five years' age,
and eight years' residence in the State. The Senate consists of two
members for each State, of at least thirty years of age, who are
elected by a plurality of votes in the State Congress. The members
of both Houses receive salaries of 2,000 dollars a year. The Presi-
dent and Vice-President are elected by the Congress of the States,
and hold office for four years. Congress has to meet annually from
January 1 to April 15, and a council of Government, consisting of
the Vice-President and half the Senate, sits during the recesses.
The city of Mexico is the seat of government.

President of the Republic. — Don Carlos Jose M. Iglesias, formerly
President of the Supreme Court of Justice ; elected Provisional
President of the republic, as successor of Don Sebastian Lerdo de
Tejada, November 28, 1876.

The Provisional President was installed in power in consequence
of a revolution which overthrew, by a battle fought November 16,
TS76, his predecessor, elected in 1872, and re-elected in July 1876.

The administration is carried on, under the direction of the
President, by a council of six ministers, heads of the departments
of Justice, Finance, the Interior, Army and Navy, Foreign Affairs,
and Public Works.

Revenue and Expenditure.
The public revenue is derived to the extent of more than two-
thirds from customs' duties, laid both on exports and imports, while
nearly one half of the total expenditure is for the maintenance of the
army. The finances of the State have been for many years in great
disorder, the expenditure exceeding constantly th The

following ts the budget estimates of revenue and

expenditure' for the financial year ending .June 30, 1875 : —

55o

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Sources of Revenue.
Customs and harbour duties .
Taxes .....
Stamps .....
Sale of national lands .
Post offices and mint
Miscellaneous receipts .

Total revenue

Branches of Expenditure.
Congress and executive power
Supreme Court of Justice
Ministry of the Interior
Ministry of Finance
Ministry of War .
Ministry of Foreign Affairs .
Justice and education .
Public Works

Dollars

11,567,582

2,805,691

2,531,220

362,565

926,154

513,825

f 18,707,0
\ £3,741,4

,037

,407

Dollars

1,107.782

315,310

1,997,345

4,219,363

10,691,967

208,760

912.395

5,496,853

f 24,949,775

I £4,985,955

Total expenditure

According to these estimates, the financial year 1874-75 would
show a deficit of 6,212,738 dollars, or 1,244,548?. The actual
deficit of former years varied from 5,500,000 dollars, or 1,100,000/.
to 8,000,000 dollars, or 1,600,000/.

The public debt of Mexico, both internal and external, was esti-
mated, in 1876, at 395,500,000 dollars, or 79,100,000/. But no
official returns regarding it have been published since the reign of the
Emperor Maximilian L, in 1865, when the total debt was stated to
be 63,471,450/., bearing an annual interest of 3,945,094/. In the
subjoined statement an abstract is given of the returns published
under the government of Maximilian I., showing the state of the
Mexican debt, both as regards capital and annual interest, in pounds
sterling, on August 1, 1865 : —

Old English Three per Cent. Loan, as per settlement
of 1851

Three per Cent. Stock, created 1864, for settlement of
overdue coupons of old loan .

Six per Cent. Anglo-French Loan of 1864

Six per Cent. Lottery Loan of 1865 . . . .

Interesl £600,000, Lottery Prizes £120,000, Sinking
Fund £250,000

Six per Cent. Internal Mexican Debt, eirea

Admitted Claims of Foreigners bearing interest at
6 per cent. ........

Amount due to French Government for war expenses
at 31st March, 1865

Annual Payment to France on account of War Ex-
penses, as per Paris Convention of 1864

Total

Capital

Annual
interest

&
10,241,650

307,205

4,864,800

12,365.(11)0
l(i.i)ii(),()00

145,944
741,900

7,000,000

970,000
420,000

6,000,000

360,000

13,000,000

—

1,000,000

63,471,450 3.945,049

MEXICO.

551

The actual government of the republic does not recognise any
portion of the above liabilities, except the Six per cent. Internal
Mexican debt, the interest of which has not been paid for a great
number of years.

Area and Population.

The area of Mexico and number of inhabitants are chiefly known
through estimates. The most reliable of these, based on partial
enumerations made by the Government of the republic in 1874,
state the area of Mexico to embrace a territory of 743,948 En-
glish square miles, with a total population of 9,343,470. The fol-
lowing table, drawn up after a report published in the 'Diario Ofi-
cial' of Mexico, June 7, 1875, gives the area and population of
each of the 27 states composing the republic, with addition of the
territory of Lower California, and the Federal district of Mexico, seat
of the central troA*ernment : —

State Area: English
square miles

Population 1873

Stales: — Aguascali entes . 2,895

89,715

Campeche

25,832

80,366

Chiapas

16,04S

193,987

' Chihuahua .

83,746

180,668

Coahuila

50,890

98,397

Colima .

3,743

65,827

Durango

42,510

185,077

Guanajuato .

11,411

900,000

Guerrero

24,550

320,069

Hiil a] 20

8,163

404,207

Jalisco .

39,168

966,689

Mexico .

7,838

663,557

Miehoacan

25,689

618,240

Morelos

1,776

150,384

Nuovo-Leon .

23,635

178,872

Oaxaca .

33,591

648.77'.)

Puebla .

12.021

697,788

Queretaro

3,207

153,286

27,500

460.322

Sinaloa .

36.198

168,031

ra .

7!». o21

109,388

SCO

11,851

83.7i'7

lulipas .

30,225

140,000

Tlaxcala

1,620

121,663

1 'ru/:

26,232

504,950

Yucatan

567

122,365

Zaeal

22,998

397,945

/- ories : — Lower Californii

61,502

23,195

Federal Dis ! xico

46]

315,996

Total

71.; 1

9,343,470

552

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

It is calculated that five millions, or rather more than one-half,
of the population of the republic of Mexico, are pure ' Indians,' the
rest comprising a mixture of various races, the white, or European-
descended inhabitants, numbering from about 500,000 souls. For-
merly existing distinctions of colour and race were abolished by the
constitution of 1824, which admits persons of all colours to the
equal enjoyment of civil and political rights.

Trade and Industry.

The total imports of Mexico in the year 1874 were of the
estimated value of 28,485,000 dollars, or 5,697,000/., and the value
of the exports 25,435,000 dollars, or 5,087,000/. The chief article
of export was silver, of the estimated value of 15,000,000 dollars,
or 3,000,000/., the remainder comprising copper ores, cochineal,
indisio, hides, and mahogany and other woods. The staple imports
are cotton and linen manufactures, wrought iron, and machinery.
More than two-thirds of the total trade of Mexico is carried on with
the United States. In 1874 the movement of shipping in the ports
of the republic comprised 332 vessels of the United States; 162
British vessels; 115 French vessels; 112 German vessels; and
2,410 other vessels, including 2,227 vessels, chiefly coasters, under
the Mexican flag. The total shipping of Mexico at the end of 1874
consisted of 672 coasters, and 357 vessels in the foreign trade.

The subjoined tabular statement shows the total value of the
exports from Mexico to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the
imports of British and Irish produce into Mexico, in each of the
eight years from 1868 to 1875 : —

Exports from Mexico

Imports of

Years

British Home Produce

Great Britain

into Mexico

1868

350,664

848,588

1869

350,570

631,724

1870

299,813

910,882

1871

397,334

1,049,013

1872

443,524

843,186

1873

499,532

1,194,124

1874

546.651

1,124,613

1875

721.907

884.901

The principal articles of export from Mexico to Great Britain in
the year 1875 were mahogany, of the value of 430,822/. ; co-
chineal, valued at 38,949/.; and dye-woods of various kinds, of the
value of 52,820/. Cotton manufactures, of the value of 586,935/.;
linens, of the value of 77,377/., and iron, wrought and unwrought,

Mexico. 553

of the value of 45,404/., formed the chief imports of the United
Kingdom into Mexico in 1875.

The formerly valuable silver mines of Mexico, neglected for a
long time, were partly reopened in 18G4. The richest of all the
mines now worked are those of Real del Monte and Pachuca, situated
about sixty miles from the city of Mexico, and belonging to an
Anglo-Mexican company. The total exports of silver ore from
Mexico to the United Kingdom amounted in value to 261. in 1868,
to 80/. in 1869, to 3,340/. in 1870, to 29,774/. in 1871. to 25,643/.
in 1872, to 16,019/. in 1873, to 2,254/. in 1874, and to 7,919/. in
1875.

Mexico had 372 miles of railway open for traffic at the end of
June 1876. The principal line, called the 'National Mexican,' 300
miles long, from Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico, with branch to
Puebla, was commenced, under state aid, in 1864, and completed
in 1869. There were 300 miles of railway under construction at the
end of June 1876.

The total length of telegraph lines, at the end of June 18 76, was
5,760 English miles. There were, at the same date, 205 telegraph
offices, of which number 132 belonged to private companies, and 73
to the State.

The post office carried 1,802,000 letters in the year 1875-76. At
the end of June 1876 there were 765 post offices in the republic.

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

Mexico has no representatives in Great Britain, and the only representatives
of Great Britain in Mexico are commercial agents at some of the outports.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Mexico and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —

Money.

The Dollar, of 100 cents: approximate value, 4s.

Weights and Measures.

The Arroba (for ™?e ' ■ l\ imPerial SalloDS-

I „ oil . . = 2f „ „

„ Square Vara . = 1*09 vara = 1 yard.

„ Fanega . . . = l£ imperial bushel.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Mexico.

1. Official Publications.

Anal is del Mir -: erio de fom nto, colonizacion, industria y comercio. 8.
Mexico, 1870-76.

554 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Comercio exterior de Mexico. Fol. Mexico. 1876.

Memoria del Secretario del despacho de hacienda. Fol. Mexico, 1876.

Eeport by Mr. E. T. C. Middleton, H.M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the
Trade, Industry, Finances, and Population of the Mexican Empire, dated
Aug. 12, 1865; in ' Eeports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy.' No. XI.
London, 1866.

Eeport by E. T. C. Middleton, on the Financial Position of Mexico, dated
February 25. 1867 ; in 'Eeports by H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Lega-
tion.' No. V. 1867. London, 1867.

Eeports by Mr. E. T. C. Middleton, on the Mines and Mineral Districts, and
on the Sulphur Deposits of Mexico, dated July 10 and December 31, 1866; in
'Eeports by H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Nos. I. and II.
1867. London, 1867.

Eeport by Mr. E. T. C. Middleton, on the Silver Mines of Guanaxuato, dated
November 29, 1867; in 'Eeports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Lega-
tion.' No. I. 1868. London, 1868.

Eeports by Mr. C. Moye, U. S. Consul at Chihuahua, dated June 3, 1867,
Mr. F. B. Elmer, U. S. Consul at La Paz, dated Sept. 30, 1867, and of Mr.
F. Chase, U. S. Consul-Cleneral at Tampico, dated June 30, 1867, on the Com-
merce, Agrierdture, and Mining Industry of Mexico; in ' Commercial Eelations
of the United States with Foreign Nations.' 8. Washington, 1868.

Eeports by Mr. Thomas N. Nelson, Minister-Eesident of the United States,
on the Political and Social Condition of the Eepublic of Mexico, dated Mexico,
February-May, 1871; in 'Papers relating to the Foreign Eelations of the
United States.' 8. Washington. 1871.

Trade of the United Kingdom with Mexico ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
in the year 1875.' Imp. 4, London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Chevalier (Michel), Le Mexique ancien et moderne. 18. Paris, 1866.

Cubas (A. Garcia), Atlas metodico de la geographia de la republica Mexi-
cana. 8. Mexico, 1874.

Domenech (Emmanuel), Le Mexique tel qu'il est. La verite sur son climat,
ses habitants et son gouvernement. 12. Paris, 1866.

Flint (H. M.), Mexico under Maximilian. 12. Philadelphia, 1867.

Garcia y Cubas (A.), Apuntes relativos a la poblacion de la Bepublica
Mexicana. 8. Mexico, 1871.

Geigcr (John Lewis), A Peep at Mexico : Narrative of a journey across the
Eepublic from the Eacific to the Gulf. 8. London, 187-4.

LaBedolliere (Emile G. de), Histoire de la guerre du Mexique. 4. Paris,
1866.

Maillefert (Eugenio), Directorio del comercio del imperio mexicano para el
ano de 1866, primer ano. 8. Paris, 1866.

Mutter (J. W.), Eeisen in den Vereinigten Staaten, Canada und Mexico, 3
vols. 8. Leipzig, 1865.

Peres (J. E.), L'Almanaque de las officinas y Guia de forasteros para el ano
de 1876. 8. Mexico, 1876.

555

NICARAGUA.

(Republica de Nicaragua.;

Constitution and Government.

The constitution of the republic of Nicaragua was proclaimed on
August 19, 1858. It vests the legislative power in a Congress
of two houses, the upper called the Senate, comprising ten mem-
bers, and the lower, called the House of Representatives, eleven
members. Both branches of the legislature are elected by universal
suffrage, the members of the House of Representatives for the term
of four, and those of the Senate for the term of six years. The
executive power is with a President elected for four years.

President of the Republic. — Don Pedro Chamorro, formerly
President of the Senate ; elected Provisional President of the Re-
public, Nov. 10, 1875, as successor of Don Vicente Cuadra, Presi-
dent from 1871 to 1875.

The President exercises his functions through a council of re-
sponsible ministers, composed of the four departments of Finance,
Foreign Affairs, Public Instruction, and War and Marine.

Revenue, Population, and Trade.

The revenue of the republic in the year 1874 was estimated at
595,100 dollars, or 119,020/., and the expenditure at 758,550
dollars, or 151,710/., leaving a deficit of 168,450 dollars, or 32,690/.
There were annual deficits, increasing in amount, since the year 1865.
Two-thirds of the total annual revenue are derived from government
monopolies on spirits, tobacco, and gunpowder, and the remainder
chiefly from import duties and a tax on slaughtered cattle. The
expenditure is principally for the maintenance ol* an army of two
thousand men, and the payment of interest of the public :lebt.

The total amount of the public debt at the end of 1874 was

estimated at 9,500,000 dollars, or 1,900,000/. Therear ifficial

returns of the debt, estimated to amount to 8,200,000 dollars, or
1,640,000/., at the end of 1876. The public liabilities of Nicaragua
were wholly contracted within the country.

The area of the Republic is estimated al 19,500 English square
miles, and the population at 350,000 souls, giving an average of
nearly seven inhabitants to the square mile. There are no census
returns. The great mass of the population consist of aboriginal
'Indians,' Mulattocs, Negroes, and mixed race-, and the number of

556 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Europeans and their descendants is very small and on the decrease.
There are few towns, and the chief occupation of the inhabitants is
the rearing of cattle, carried on in a rude fashion. Old capital of
the republic is the city of Leon, ten miles from the Pacific, sur-
rounded by five active volcanoes, and partly in ruins. At present
the seat of the government is the town of Managua, situated on the
southern border of the great lake of the same name, with 8,000
inhabitants. The capital is provisional, being built on the slope of
an active volcano, and liable therefore to instant destruction.

The commerce of Nicaragua is very small, and. in the absence of
official returns, little of it is known. In the annual ' Statement of
the Board of Trade,' the commercial intercourse of Great Britain
with the Republic is merged into ' Central America.' (See page 541.)

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of Nicaragua in Great Britain.

Envoy and Minister. — Commander de Marcoleta, accredited March 1876.
Consul- General. — James L. Hart, accredited Nov. 30, 1866.

2. Of Great Britain in Nicaragua.

Minister and Consul- General. — Sidney Locock, appointed May 23, 1874.

Money, Weights, and Measures.
The same as in Honduras. See p. 541.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Nicaragua.

1. Official Publications.
Report by Mr. Edwin Corbett, British Charge d' Affaires, ' on the Financial
Condition of Nicaragua, dated Guatemala, May 29, 1869; in ' Reports by
H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. IV. 1869. 8. London, 1869.
Report by Mr. Consul Gollan, on the Commerce of Greytown, and the
Construction of an Interoceanic Canal through Nicaragua, dated Greytown,
January 1876 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1876. 8. London,
1876.

2. Non- Official Publications.

Belly (N.), Percement de l'isthme de Panama par le canal de Nicaragua. 8.
Paris, 1858.

Belt (Thomas), The Naturalist in Nicaragua : a Narrative of a Residence at
the Gold Mines of Chontales, Journeys in the Savannahs and Forests. 8.
London, 1873.

Biilow (A. von), Der Freistaat Nicaragua in Mittelamerika. 8. Berlin, 1849.

Keller (J.), Le canal de Nicaragua. 8. Paris, 1859.

Marr (Wilhelm), Reise nach Centralamorika. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.

Scherzer (Karl, Ritter von), Wanderungen dm'ch die mittelamerikanischen
Freistaaten Nicaragua, Honduras und San Salvador. 8. Braunschweig, 1857.

Squier (E. G.), Sketches of Travel in Nicaragua. 8. New York, 1851.

Squier (E. G.), Nicaragua, its People, Scenery, Monuments, and the proposed
Interoceanic Canal. 2 vols. 8. London, 1852.

557

PARAGUAY.

(Republica del Paraguay.)

Constitution and Government.

The Republic of Paraguay gained its independence from Spanish
rule in 1811, and after a short government by two consuls, the
supreme power was seized, in 1815, by Dr. Jose Gaspar Rodriguez
Francia, who exercised autocratic sway as Dictator, till his death, Sept.
20, 1840. Dr. Francia' s reign was followed by a state of anarchy,
which lasted till 1842, when a National Congress, meeting at the
capital of Asuncion, elected two nephews of the Dictator, Don
Alonso and Don Carlos Antonio Lopez, joint consuls of the Republic.
Another Congress voted, March 13, 1844, a new constitution, and,
March 14, elected Don Carlos Antonio Lopez sole President, with
dictatorial powers, which were continued by another election,
March 14, 1857. At the death of Don Carlos, September 10, 1862,
his son, Don Francisco Solano Lopez, born 1827, succeeded to the
supreme power, by testamentary order, without opposition. Presi-
dent Lopez, in 1865, began a dispute with the government of Brazil,
the consequence of which was the entry of a Brazilian army, united
with forces of the Argentine Confederation and Uruguay, into the
Republic, June 1865. After a struggle of five years, Lopez was
defeated and killed in the battle of Aquidaban, March 1, 1870.

A Congress, meeting at Asuncion in June 1870, voted a new
constitution for Paraguay, which was publicly proclaimed on the
25th of November 1870. The constitution is modelled closely on
that of the Argentine Confederation, the legislative authority being
vested in a Congress of two Houses, a Senate and a House of
Deputies, and the executive being entrusted to a President, elected
for the term of six years, with a non-active Vice-President at his
side.

President of the Republic. — Don Joao Bautista Gill, installed
November 25, 1874.

The President exercises his functions through a cabinet of re-
sponsible ministers, five in number, presiding over the departments
of the Interior, of Finance, of Worship and Public Instruction, of
War and Navy, and of Foreign Affairs.

Revenue, Public Debt, and Army.

The public revenue of Paraguay is derived to the extent of about
two-thirds from state property and monopolies, and the remainder
from customs duties. According to the budget of the Minister of

558 THE STATESMAN'S TEAK-BOOK, 1877.

finance, laid before Congress in the session of 1875, the public
revenue for the year ending the 31st of December 1874 was esti-
mated at 550,000 pesos, or 110,000/., and the expenditure at
455,750 pesos, or 91,150/., leaving a surplus of 94,250 pesos, or
18,850/. The revenue is mainly derived from customs duties and
the sale of public lands, while the expenditure is devoted princi-
pally to civil government.

The republic had no debt until the war of 1865-70, which led to the
raising of large internal loans. In 1871 and 1872, the Government
contracted two foreign loans, the first of the nominal amount of
1,000,000/., and the second of 2,000,000/., each bearing 8 per cent,
interest, through Messrs. Eobinson, Fleming & Co., London. The
loans, issued at the price of 80, were hypothecated on the public
lands of Paraguay, valued at 19,380,000/. Payment of both interest
and sinking funds on the two loans ceased in 1874. No part of the
previous payments, according to the report of the select Parliamen-
tary Committee on Foreign Loans, 1875, ' was provided by the govern-
ment of Paraguay, but the whole was derived from the proceeds of the
loans themselves. Since these funds so set apart have been exhausted,
no payment on account of interest or sinking fund has been made
by the government of Paraguay.' According to treaty stipula-
tions arising out of the war of 1865-70, Paraguay is indebted
to Brazil to the amount of 200,000,000 pesos, or 40,000,000/. ; to
the Argentine Confederation to the amount of 35,000,000 pesos, or
7,000,000/., and to Uruguay to the amount of 1,000,000 pesos, or
200,000/., being a total war debt of 236,000,000 pesos, or 47,200,000/.

The military force formerly numbered about 3,000 men, prin-
cipally cavalry ; but in the war against the united forces of Brazil,
Uruguay, and the Argentine Eepublic, carried on during the years
1865-70, the President raised an army of 60,000 men, including
10,000 cavalry, and 5,000 artillery. These troops were divided
for a time into four corps-d'armee of frorn 10,000 to 20,000 men,
and had with them 400 field pieces and battery guns. In 1871 the
total strength of the army was reduced to two battalions of infantry
and two regiments of cavalry.

Area, Population, and Trade.

The frontiers of the republic, not well defined previous to the
war of 1865-70, large territories considered to form part of it being
claimed by Brazil, Bolivia, and the Argentine Confederation, were
fixed by a secret Treaty of Alliance between Brazil, the Argentine
Confederation, and Uruguay, signed on the 1st of May 1865, to be
within the 22 to 27 degrees latitude south, and the 57 to 60
degrees longitude west, of the meridian of Paris. Under its old
limits, the territory was estimated to embrace 29,470 square leagues,

PARAGUAY.

559

or 103,145 Eng. square miles ; but the new boundaries imposed by
the conquerors in the Avar reduced the area to 16,590 square leagues,
or 57,308 Eng. square miles.

An enumeration made by the government in 1857 showed the
population to number 1,337,439 souls. At the beginning of 1873
the number of inhabitants, according to an official return, was
reduced to 221,079 souls, comprising 28,740 men and 106,254
women over fifteen years of age, with 86,079 children, the enormous
disproportion -between the sexes, as well as the vast decrease of the
popidation, telling the results of the war. About one-third of the
inhabitants were living at the date of the census in the central
province, containing the capital, the rest being spread thinly as
settlers over the remaining portion of cultivated country. Nearly
three-fourths of the entire territory are national property, consisting
of pasturage lands and forests, which have never been granted to
individuals, the estates of the Jesuit missions and other religious cor-
porations, and a great number of government farming establishments.

The chief article of foreign commerce of Paraguay is the yarba
mate, a species of cabbage, the leaves of which are dried and reduced
to powder. It is exported in considerable quantities, being exten-
sively used in South America as a kind of tea. However, the total
commerce of the republic is very small, the aggregate of imports and
exports not amounting, on the average to more than half a million
sterling per annum. The imports are derived to the extent of three-
fourths from Great Britain, and one-fourth from France and Germany.
The British imports are passing entirely through the territories of Brazil
and the Argentine Confederation, and since the year 1862, when a
few articles of machinery and furniture, valued at 1,764/., arrived from
England, there has been no direct intercourse between Paraguay and
the United Kingdom.

The only railway in Paraguay is a short line of 45 Engl, miles,
from Asuncion, the capital, to Paraguary. There are no lines of
telegraph but one at the side of this railway.

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of Paraguay in Great Britain.
Consul. — Juan Fleming, accredited Aug. 20, 1872.
There are no British representatives of any description in Paraguay,

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Paraguay, and the British

equivalents, are : —

.Mt i NET.

The Peso, or Dollar = 100 Centenas . Average rate of exchange, is.

560 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Weights and Measuees.

The Quintal. . . . = 101-40 lbs. avoirdupois.

„ Arroba . . . . = 25'35 „ „

,, Fanega . . . . = H imperial bushel.

„ Lino (land measure) . = 69^ Engl. sq. yards.

„ Legua inadra . . = 12f Engl. sq. miles.

Since the end of the war of 1865-70, an extensive paper currency
has been introduced into the Republic. By a decree of the govern-
ment dated January 14, 1871, the value of the English sovereign
was fixed at five pesos. Besides the above, the weights and measures
of the Argentine Confederation and the currency of Brazil are in
general use.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Paraguay.

1. Official Publications.

Mensage del Presidente de la Republica, preseutado al Congreso Legisla-
tive de la Nacion. 4. Asuncion, 1876.

Memoria del Ministerio de Hacienda, presentada a los H. Senadores y
Diputados en 1875. 4. Asuncion, 1876.

Sobre la cautidad de leguas de terrenos publieos aproximadamente, la calidad
de ellos, sus produciones, &c. : Informe per orden de S. E. el Senor Presidente
de la Republica del Paraguay. 4. Asuncion, 1871.

2. Non- Official Publications.

Demersay (L. A.), Histoire physique, economique et politique du Paraguay et
des etablissements des Jesuites. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1865.

Du Graty (Alfred), La Republique de Paraguay. 8. Bruxelles, 1865.

Johnston (K.), Paraguay. In 'Geographical Magazine,' July 1875. London,
1875.

Kennedy (A. J.) La Plata, Brazil, and Paraguay, during the War. 8.
London, 1869.

Mansfield (Charles), Paraguay, Brazil, and the Plate. New edition. By the
Rev. Charles Kingsley. 8. London, 1866.

Masterman (G-. F.), Seven Eventful Years in Paraguay. 8. London, 1869,

Mulhall (M. G. and E. T.), Handbook to the River Plate Republics, &c, and
the Republics of Uruguay amd Paraguay. 8. London, 1875.

Page (Commander Thomas G.), La Plata, the Argentine Confederation, and
Paraguay. Narrative of the Exploration of the Tributaries of the River La
Plata and adjacent countries during the years 1853, 1854, 1855, and 1856,
under the orders of the United States Government. 8. New York, 1867.

Quentin (Charles), Le Paraguay. 8. Paris, 1866.

Thompson (George), The Paraguayan War ; with sketches of the history of
Paraguay, and of the manners and customs of the people. 8. London, 1869.

Tschudi (Job. Jak. v.), Reisen durch Siidamerika. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1866.

Washburn (Charles A.), The History of Paraguay. With notes of personal
observations. 2 vols. 8. Boston and New York, 1871.

56i

PERU.

(Rep^blica del Peru\)

Constitution and Government.

The republic of Peru, one of the oldest of Spanish colonies in
America, issued its declaration of independence July 28, 1821, but
it was not till after a war, protracted till 1824, that the country
gained its actual freedom from Spanish rule. The present constitu-
tion, proclaimed Aug. 31, 1867, is modelled on that of the United
States, the legislative power being vested in a Senate and a House of
Representatives, the former composed of deputies of the provinces,
two for each, and the latter of representatives nominated by the
electoral colleges of provinces and parishes, at the rate of one
member for every 20,000 inhabitants. The parochial electoral
colleges choose deputies to the provincial colleges, who in turn send
representatives to Congress. In the session of 1876, the Senate
was composed of 44 members, and the House of Representatives of
110 members.

The executive power is entrusted to a president, assisted by a
vice-president, both elected by the people for the term of four years

President of the Republic. — General Mariano Ignacio Prado,
elected May 7, 1876 ; installed in office August 2, 1876, as successor
of Don Manuel Pardo, President from 1 872 to 1876.

The President has to exercise his executive functions through a
cabinet of five ministers, holding office at his pleasure. The depart-
ments are those of Foreign Affairs, of the Interior, of Justice, of
Finance and Commerce, and of War and the Navy.

By the terms of the constitution of 1867, there exists absolute
political, but not religious freedom, the charter prohibiting the pub-
lic exercise of any other religion than the Roman Catholic, which is
declared the religion of the state.

Revenue, Army, and Navy.

The public revenue is mainly derived from the sale of guano, and
to a small extent from customs. Direct taxation does not exist.
Of the actual revenue and expenditure of the government in recent
years there are no official returns, but it is known that there were
large annual deficits, the profits from the sale of guano not proving
.sufficiently large to cover the cost of immense public works, in-

o o

562 THE STATESMAN'8 TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

eluding a railway to the summit of the Andes, and the construction
of an ironclad fleet, besides the payment of interest of a large debt.
It is estimated that the total expenditure of the year 1875 amounted
to 12,500,000/., and the revenue to 10,220,000/., leaving a deficit
of 2,280,000/.

Peru has a considerable public debt, divided into an internal and
external. The internal liabilities are estimated at 2,500,000/., ex-
clusive of a floating debt of an unknown amount. The foreign is
made up of three loans contracted in England from 1869 to 1872 : —

Foreign Loan. Nominal Amount of Issue.

£
Pisco to Yea railway 5 per cent, loan, of 1869 . „ 290,000

Railway 6 per cent, loan of 1870 .... 11,920,000
„ 5 per cent, loan of 1872 .... 36,800,000

Total . . . 49,010,000

The 5 per cent. Pisco- Yea railway loan of 1869 was issued at the
price of 71, and the 6 per cent, loan of 1870 at the price of 82 J.
The loan of 1872, for the nominal amount of 36,800,000/., was
issued partly, to the amount of 15,000,000/., for the construction of
railways and other public works, and partly, to the amount of
21,800,000/., for the extinction of former debts. The two loans of
1870 and 1872 are secured on the guano deposits and the general
resources of Peru, and are repayable in 20 years through sinking
funds.

The army of the republic was composed as follows in 1876 : —

Men
Infantry, 8 battalions .... 5,600
Cavalry, 3 regiments .... 1,200
Artillery, 2 brigades .... 1,000
Gendarmerie ..... 5,400

Total . . . 13,200

The Peruvian navy consisted, in the summer of 1876, of 6 iron-
clads, the ' Independencia,' frigate, 14 guns; the ' Atahualpa,'
turret ship, 3 guns ; the ' Manco Capac,' turret, 3 guns ; the ' Union,'
14 guns; the 'Victoria,' 2 guns, and the ' Loa,' 2 guns; and of
six other steamers, the ' Callao,' 30 guns, the 'America,' 14 guns,
the ' Chalaco,' 4 guns, the ' Tumbez,' 4 guns, the ' Chanchamaya,' 2
guns, and the ' Colon,' 2 guns. The most important of these ships,
the ironclad frigate ' Independencia,' built at Poplar, London, in
1865, has a stem constructed as a ram, and the armament con-
sists entirely of Armstrong guns on the shunt principle — viz. 12
70-pounders of 4 tons each on the main deck, and 2 pivot guns,
150-pounders, weighing 7 tons each, on the upper deck. These latter

TERU.

563

gxms can be fired on a line even with the keel. The two next largest
ironclads in the list, the 'Atahualpa,' and the 'Manco Capac,' are
so-called Monitors, and Avere purchased in March, 1869, from the
United States. Each of these ships carries, on revolving turrets,
three guns, throwing shots of 500 pounds weight. They are thickly
armoured from stem to stern, and when in action only six inches
above the sea-level, with the further defence of being able to hurl
streams of boiling water on an enemy attempting to get on board.
The fleet i? usually lying at the port of Callao near Lima.

Population, Trade, and Industry.

The area of Peru is estimated to extend over 503,364 English
square miles, while the population, according to a rough official
enumeration made in 1871, amounts to 3,199,000. It is probable
that this is an overstatement, and that the actual population does not
comprise 2,500.000 souls. The Bepublic is divided into eighteen
departments, the area and popvdation of which was reported as
follows in 1871 :—

Departments

Area : English
square miles

Population

Piura .......

13,931

172,000

Caxamarca .

14,188

273,000

Amazonas

14,129

44,000

Loreto .

132,727

58,000

Libertad

15,649

56,000

Ancachs

17,405

317,000

Lima

}

14,760

f 350.000

Callao .

\ 40,000

Huancavelica

10,814

160,000

Huanuco
Junin .

l'
J

33,822

C 90,000
I 282,000

Ica

6,295

68,000

Ayacuehc

24,213

210,000

Cuzco .

95,547

464,000

Puno

39,743

305,000

Arequipa

27,744

200,000

Moquegua
Tarapaca

}

42,387

/ 85,000
\ 25,000

total

503,364

3,199,000

It is estimated that 57 per cent, of the population of Peru are
aborigines, or ' Indians,' and that 23 per cent, belong to mixed
races, ' Cholos ' and ' Zambos.' The remaining 20 per cent, are
divided among descendants of Spaniards, Negroes, Chinese, and
Europeans, the latter forming barely 2 per cent, of the total popula-

564

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

tion, comprising chiefly Italians and Germans. Immigration into
the Republic has not taken place to any extent in recent years. At
the enumeration of 1871 the population of the capital, Lima, was
returned at 160,056.

The total imports of the republic averaged five millions sterling
in the years 1872-75, and the total exports rather more than six
millions. The foreign trade of Peru is chiefly with Great Britain
and the United States, and it centres in the port of Callao, suburb
of Lima, the capital.

The commercial intercourse between Peru and the United King-
dom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the
total value of the exports from Peru to Great Britain and Ireland,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into Peru in each of the six years from 1870 to 1875 : —

Exports from Peru

Imports of

Years

British Home Produce

Great Britain

into Peru

1870

4,881,075

1,761,173

1871

3,971,968

2,159,770

1872

4,211,723

2,870,238

1873

5,219,572

2,524,622

1874

4,501,213

1,593,261

1875

4,884,181

1.594.499

The two principal articles of export from Peru to the United
Kingdom are guano and cubic nitre, the former of which, how-
ever, was shipped in gradually declining quantities in recent years.
During the six years from 1870 to 1875, the quantities and value
of the exports of guano from Peru to Great Britain were as fol-
lows : —

Years

Quantities

Value

Tons

1870

43,434

3,248,293

1871

242,365

1,711,176

1872

174,401

875,882

1873

35,895

1,722,854

1874

l'.,4,346

1,207,679

1875

86,042

1,068,570

Guano was first brought to Europe by Alexander von Humboldt
in 1802, but did not become an article of commerce till 1840. It
came to be exported in considerable quantities after the year 1852,
when a difference with the United States as to the right of posses-
sion of the Lobos Islands was settled, through the mediation of

PERU.

565

Great Britain and France, in favour of Peru. The shipments of
guano, entirely free before, were then taken in hand by the govern-
ment, being made a state monopoly, and unauthorized exports for-
bidden under heavy penalties. The guano exports to Great Britain
reached their highest in the year 1870, and, as will be seen from
the preceding table, had fallen, in 1875 to little more than one-
third the amount.

Equal in importance to guano, and surpassing it in recent years,
as an article of export to Great Britain, is cubic nitre. The exports
of nitre — a government monopoly, like guano — were as follows in
each of the six years from 1870 to 1875 : —

Years

Quantities

Value

Tons

1870

1,068,972

829,358

1871

1,298,905

1,015,415

1872

1,365,195

1,045,383

1873

2,176,239

1,604,040

1874

1,894,013

1.134,008

1875

2,979,876

1,793,110

Among the other articles of export to Great Britain are sheep and
alpaca wool, of the value of 574,589/. in 1874, and of 619,292/.
in 1875 ; and unrefined sugar, of the value of 512, 112/. in 1874,
and of 928,765/. in 1875. The imports of British produce into
Peru comprise mainly cotton and woollen manufactures, iron, and
coals. In 1874, the imports of cotton goods amounted to 411,769/.,
and of 423,570/. in 1875. Of woollens the imports were of the
value of 209,861/. in 1874, and of 168,594/. in 1875; of iron,
wrought and unwrought, of the value of 320,369/. in 1874, and of
210,961/. in 1875 ; and of coals of the value of 122,029/. in 1874,
and of 97,472/. in 1875.

A system of railways, designed to develop the exploitation of the
mineral wealth of the country, has been in course of construction
since the year L852, mainly at the expense of the state. At the
end of 1876 there were open for traffic, or in course of construct
tion, eleven lines belonging to the state, 1,281 English miles in
total length, and costing 128,354,000 soles, or 25,670,800/. ;
eight lines belonging to private persons, 496 miles in length, and
costing 24,420,000 soles, or 4,884,000/.; and two lines, belong-
ing in part to the state and in part to individuals, 253 miles,
costing 27,200,000 soles, or 5,440,000*., being a total of twenty-
two lines, 2,030 miles in length, and representing a cost of
179,974,600 soles, or 35,994,920/. The following is a list of these
railways : —

566

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Railways

Length

Cost of construction

English
miles.

Soles.

State Lines : —

Payta to Piura .

1,945.600

389,120

Paeasmayo and Magdalena

5,850,000

1,170,000

Salaverry to Trujillo

3,400,000

680,000

Chimbote to Huaraz .

172

24,000,000

4,800,000

Lima to Chaneay

2,600,000

520,000

Lima to La Oroya

145

21,804,000

4,360,800

Cuzeo to Puno .

230

25,000,000

5,000,000

Pisco to lea

1,450,000

290,000

Arequipa to Puno

232

25,280,000

5,056,000

Mejia to Arequipa

107

12,000,000

2,400,000

Do to Moquegua

5,025,000

1,005,000

Total .
Private Lines : —

1.281

128,354,000

25,670,800

Pimental to Chiclayo

1,000,000

200,000

Ferrenafe to Eten

2,600,000

520,000

Malabriga to Aseopea , ,

1,600,000

320,000

Cerro de Pasco

1,300.000

260,000

Lima to Callao and Chorillos .

1,000,000

200,000

Lima to Magdalena .

320,000

64,000

Arica to Tacna ....

1,600,000

320,000

Tarapaca Lines

Total .

Mixed Proprietorship : —

180

15,000,000

3,000,000

496

24,420,000

4,884,000

Lima to Pisco ....

145

9,200,000

1.840,000

Tacna to Bolivian frontier

Total . ;

108

253

2,030

18,000,000

3,600,000

27,200,000

5.440,000

Grand Tc

tal .

179,974,600

35,994,920

The construction of the lines of railway belonging to the state
was undertaken solely for purposes of public utility, remunerative
results not being calculated upon in a country so sparsely populated
as Peru. Of the railways belonging to private individuals, only the
double line from Lima to Callao, eight miles, from Lima to Chorales,
nine miles in length, the property of an English company, is reported
to be a commercial success.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Of Peru in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Don Pedro Galvez, accredited August 9, 1870.

PERU. 56/

2. Of Great Biutain in Peru.
Minister and Consul- General.— Spencer St. John, appointed Dec. 12, 1872.

Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Peru, and the British equi-
valents, are : —

Monet.

The Sole = 100 ccntesimos . Average rate of exchange, 4s.
"Weights and Measures.

The Ounce
,, Libra
Quintal

1-014 ounce avoirdupois.
1-014 lb.
101-44 „

1 { of 25 pounds . = 25-36 „ „

„ rro a | Q* ^.^g or Sp£rits = 6-70 imperial gallons.

,, Gallon . . . . = 074 „ „

„ Vara . = 0-927 yard.

„ Square Vara . . . = 0-859 square yard.

The French metric system of weights and measures was established
by law in 1860, but has not yet come into general use.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Peru.
1. Official Publications.

Reports by Mr. Consul Hutchinson on the Trade of Callao ; and by Mr.
Consul Vines on the Trade of Islay, and the General Condition of Southern
Peru, dated Nov. 1871 and Jan. 1872; in 'Reports from H.M.'S Consuls.'
No. I. 1872. 8. London, 1872.

Report by Mr. Consul Hutchinson on the Trade of Callao and the Guano Depo-
sits, Railways, &c, of Peru, dated Callao, Dec. 21, 1872 ; in ' Reports from
H.M.'s Consuls on the Manufacture, Commerce, &c, of their Consular Districts.
No. II. 1873. 8. London, 1873.

Reports by Mr. Consul Nugent on the trade of Arica, and by Mr. Consul
Graham on the commerce and navigation of Islay, dated May- July 1874; in
'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Parti. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. Consul Graham on the trade of Islay, dated Islay, January 15,
1875 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part III. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Reports by Mr. Consul Nugent on the Trade of Arica; by Mr. Consul
March on the Trade of Callao: and by Mr. Consul Graham on the Trade and
Commerce of Islay, dated Feb. 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part VI. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Peru with Great Britain: in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the
year 1875.' Imp. 4. London. 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Cabello (Pedro M.), Guia politica eelesiastica y militar del Peru. 12. Lima,
1869.

Ckerot (A.), Le Perou : Productions, Guano, Commerce, Finances, &c. 8.

Paris, 1876. '

568 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Fuentes (Manuel A.), Lima, or Sketches of the Capital of Peru : Historical,
Statistical, Administrative, Commercial, and Moral. 8. London, 1866.

Grandidier (E.), Voyage dans l'Amerique du Sud, Perou et Bolivie. 8. Paris,
1863.

Hill (S. S.), Travels in Peru and Mexico. 2 vols. 8. London, 1860.

Hutchinson (T. J.), Two Years in Peru. 2 vols. 8. London, 1874.

Markham (Clements R.), Travels in Peru and India, while superintending
the collection of Cinchona plants and seeds in South America, and their Intro-
duction into India. 8. London, 1862.

Mencndez (D. Baldomero), Manuel de geografia y estadistica del Peril. 12.
Paris, 1862.

Paz-Soldan (D. Mateo) Geografia del Peru. 8. Paris, 1863.

The Railways of Peru in 1873. 8. London, 1874.

Tschndi (Joh. Jakob von), Reisen durch SMamerika. 5 vols. 8. Leinzig,
1866-68.

Wappaeus ( Joh. Eduard), Die Republic Peru; m Stein's 'Handbuch der
Geographie unci Statistik.' Part III. 8. Leipzig. 1864.

569

SAN DOMINGO.

(Rep(jblica Dominica.)

Constitution and Government.

The Republic of San Domingo, founded in 1844, is governed
under a constitution bearing date November 18, 1844, re-pro-
claimed, with changes, November 14, 1865, after a revolution which
expelled the troops of Spain, who held possession of the country for
the two previous years. By the terms of the constitution the
legislative power of the Republic is vested in a National Congress of
two Houses, called the Consego conservador, and the Tribunado. the
first consisting of five, and the second of fifteen members. The
members of both Houses are chosen in indirect election, with re-
stricted suffrage, for the term of six years. But the powers of the
National Congress only embrace the general affairs of the Republic ;
and the individual states, five in number, have separate legislatures.

The executive of the Republic is vested in a President, chosen in
inO>ect election for the term of four years.

President of the Republic. — Don Bonaventura Baez, elected De-
cember 10, 1876, as successor of Don Ignacio Gonzales.

The administrative affairs of the Republic are in charge of a
ministry appointed by the President, with the approval of the
Consego conservador. The ministry is composed of the heads of the
departments of finance, justice, war, and foreign affairs.

Revenue, Population, and Trade.

The general revenue of the Republic is estimated at 1,200,000
dollars, or 240,000/., per annum, and the expenditure is believed
to be largely in excess of this amount. There are no recent official
returns regarding the receipts and disbursements of the central
government. The revenue is mainly derived from customs duties,
which average 40 per cent., while a large part of the annual ex-
penditure is for the maintenance of a standing army. Besides a
large internal debt, of unknown amount, San Domingo has a foi
debt contracted at the London Stock Exchange in 1869. The debt,
to the nominal amount of 757,700Z., at 6 per cent., was issued at
the price of 80; but it was stated officially that the government had
actually received only between 38,000Z. and 50,000j. from the con-
tractors for the loan. (Report of the select Committee on Loans to
Foreign States, 1875.)

570 the statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The area of San Domingo, which embraces the eastern portion of
the Island of Haiti — the western division forming the Republic of
Haiti (see pp. 531-33) — is estimated at 18,045 English square miles,
with a population of 250,000 inhabitants, or 14 to the square mile.

The Republic is divided into the five provinces, or states,
mutually independent, of San Domingo, Azua de Compostela, Santa
Cruz del Seybo, Santiago de los Caballeros, and Concepsion de la
Vega. The population, like that of the neighbouring Haiti, is
composed mainly of negroes and mulattoes, but the whites, or
European-descended inhabitants, are comparatively numerous, and
owing to their influence the Spanish language is the prevailing
dialect. Capital of the Republic is the city of San Domingo, founded
1494, at the mouth of the river Ozama, with 15,000 inhabitants.

The commerce of the Republic is small, owing in part to customs
duties of a prohibitory character. The principal articles of export
are tobacco, coffee, dyewoods, and sugar. In 1875, the value of the
imports amounted to 359,410/., and of the exports to 318,470/., the
foreign commerce being shared by the ports of San Domingo and
Porto Plata. The commerce of the Republic is mainly with the
United States and Great Britain. In the 'Annual Statement of the
Board of Trade ' the exports to and imports from Great Britain are
added to those of Haiti. (See p. 544.)

The Bay of Samana, on the north-east coast of San Domingo, one
of the greatest natural harbours in the world, 30 miles long and
10 miles broad, was ceded, with the surrounding country, to a com-
pany formed in the United States, by a treaty signed by the President
of the Republic, January 10, 1873. Under another decree, passed
March 25, 1874, the rights of the company were confiscated, on the
ground of non-payment of a stipulated annual rent.

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of 8an Domingo in Great Britain.
Consul. — Miguel Ventura, appointed January 1876.

2. Of Great Britain in San Domingo.

Charge d Affaire?. — Major Robert Stuart, appointed October 28, 1874.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of San Domingo are those
of Spain, but the French metrical system is coming into use.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning San Domingo.

1. Official Publications.
Report by Major Robert Stuart, British Minister, on the commerce and
shipping of the Dominican Republic for the year lS7o, dated Port-au-Prince,

SAN DOMINGO. 571

March 1876; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.
Part III. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Report by Mr. Vice-Consul Coen, on the imports and exports of San
Domingo in 1875, dated San Domingo, December 31, 1875; in 'Reports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Haiti and San Domingo with Great Britain ; in ' Annual
Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom.' Imp. i. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Delmonte y Tegada (M.), Historia de Santo-Domingo. 8. Havana, 1853.

Hazard (Samuel), Santo Domingo, Past and Present; with a Glance at
Hayti, 8 pp. 511. London, 1873.

Jordan (Wilhelm), Geschichte der Insel Haiti. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1849.

Keim (D. B. Randolph), Santo Domingo. Pen Pictures and Leaves of
Travel. 12. Philadelphia, 1871.

572

SAN SALVADOR.

(Rep^blica de San Salvador.)
Constitution and Government.

The Republic of San Salvador, and independent state since 1853,
when it dissolved its federative union with Honduras and Nicaragua,
is governed nominally under a constitution proclaimed in March
1864, but undergoing frequent alterations through internecine war.
The constitution vests the legislative power in a Congress of two
Houses, the Senate, composed of 12, and the House of Represent-
atives, composed of 24 members. The executive is in the hands of
a President, originally elected for six years, but whose tenure of
office was in 1867 limited to four years.

President of the Republic. — Don Rafael Zaldivar, elected Provi-
sional President by a junta, April 30, 1876, as successor of Don
Andres Valle, President from February 1 to April 25, 1876.

The regular election of the President has in recent years been
constantly superseded by ' pronunciamentos ' and military nomina-
tions.

The administrative affairs of the Republic are carried on, under
the President, by a ministry of two members, the first head of the
united departments of the interior, war, and finance, and the second
of the departments of foreign affairs and public instruction.

Revenue, Population, and Trade.

The budget estimates of revenue for the year 1876 amounted
to 1,958,350 dollars, or 391,670/., and the estimates of expenditure
to 1,760,850 dollars, or, 352,170/., thus leaving a calculated surplus
of 197,550 dollars, or 39,500/. The sources of estimated revenue
and branches of expenditure in the year 1876 were as follows: —

Sources of

Revenue :

Branches of Expenditure.

Dollars.

Customs .

591.000

General administration

559,000

Excise .

50,000

Church .

8,500

Tax on spirits

309,000

Army

818,000

„ indigo

44,000

Internal debt .

150,400

Stamps .

27,000

Courts of Justice .

47,000

Land sales

11,000

Public instruction .

41,000

Powder monopoly

136,000

Pensions

17,200

Post office

12,500

Public works .

97,300

Telegraphs

6,850

Telegraph

23,000

Miscellaneous receipts

771,000

Export bounties
Total .

9,450

Total .

1,958,350

1,760,850

£391,670

£352,170

SAN SALVADOR. 573

San Salvador had in 1871 but a small public debt, amounting to
705,800 dollars, or 141,160/., represented chiefly by ' libranzas,' or
treasury bills. The debt was largely increased during the years
1872 and 1873, when the republic raised at various periods troops
to invade Honduras. At the commencement of 1875, the total debt
amounted, according to an official return, to 4,363,227 dollars, or
872,645/. There exists besides a floating debt of an unknown
amount.

Official returns state the area of the Republic to embrace 9,594
English square miles. The population was estimated in 1870 at
434,520 souls, giving an average of 45 inhabitants to the square
mile, being fom- times that of the aggregate of the other states of
Central America. Aboriginal and mixed races constitute the bulk
of the population, among whom live about 10,000 whites, or de-
scendants of Europeans. The native population of San Salvador,
more inclined to civilised pursuits than that of any neighbouiing
state, is largely engaged in agriculture, as well as various branches
of manufacture, and in recent years the working of iron mines has
been undertaken. The principal articles of agricultural produce
are indigo, coffee, and balsam, the latter known as Balm of Peru
being grown along a great part of the Pacific coast, from the Rio
Acajutla to the Guameca, the district bearing the name of Costa de
Balsamo. Capital of the Republic is the city of San Salvador,
founded by George Alvarado in 1528, with 16,000 inhabitants.
The city was repeatedly destroyed by earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions, the last time on April 16, 1854, when it was over-
whelmed by almost total ruin, in consequence of which most of the
inhabitants erected new dwellings on a neighbouring site, at present
called Nueva San Salvador. The new capital again was partly
destroyed by a series of earthquakes, and simultaneous eruptions
of the neighbouring Tzalco volcano, which began March 4, and
ended March 19, 1873. The capital is connected by a good road
with the fifteen miles distant port of La Libertad, principal har-
bour of the Republic.

The commercial intercourse of San Salvador is chiefly with the
United States and Great Britain. In the year 1874, the value of
the total imports was 2,150,560 dollars, or 430,112/., and that of
the exports 3,396,105 dollars, or 67'.), 221/. Among the exports
indigo forms the staple article. The statistics of the commercial
intercourse of San Salvador with the United Kingdom are not
given in the annual statement of the Board of Trade, in which
the trade of the Republic is thrown together with that of the
states of Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, under
the general designation of ' Central America.' (See p. 541.)

574 THE statesman's yeae-book, 1877.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Of San Salvador in Great Britain.
Minister. — Don Jose Francisco Medina, accredited May 12, 1876.

2. Of Great Britain in San Salvador.

Minister and Consul- General. — Sidney Locock, appointed May 23, 1874.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of San Salvador, and the
British equivalents, are : —

Money.
The Peso or Piaster, of 8 realcs . approximate value. 4s. §\d.

„ Dollar, of 100 centavas . „ „ 4s.

Weights and Measures.

The Libra = 1-014 lbs. avoirdupois.

„ Quintal = 101-40 „

Arroba .....= 25-35 ,,

„ Fanega = ]i imperial bushel.

The weights and measures of the United States are, besides the
above, in general use.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning San

Salvador.

1. Official Publications.

Keport by Mr. Edwin Corbett, British Charge d' Affairs in the Central
American Republics, on the Financial Position of San Salvador, dated
Guatemala, January 31, 1869; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Em-
bassy and Legation.' No. III. 1869. 8. London, 1869.

Report by Mr. Edwin Corbett on the public revenue, expenditure, and debt
of San Salvador ; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Lega-
tion.' No. I. 1871. 8. London, 1871.

Report by Mr. Edward Corbett on the Financial Position of San Salvador,
dated Guatemala, October 22, 1872 ; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Em-
bassy and Legation.' No. I. 1873. 8. London, 1873.

Trade of San Salvador ; in ' Statistical Tables relating to Foreign Countries.'
Part XII. Fol. London, 1870.

Non-Official Publications.
Frobel (Julius), Aus America. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1857-58.
Man- (Wilhelm), Reise nach Central-America. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863,
Morelot (L.), Voyage dans l'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1859.
Scherzer (Karl Ritter von), AVanderungen durcli die mittelamerikanischen
Freistaaten Nicaragua Honduras und San Salvador. 8. Braunschweig, 1857.
Squier (E.G.), The States of Central America. 8. London, 1868

57;

UNITED STATES.

(United States of America.)

Constitution and Government.

The form of government of the United States is based on the
constitution of September 17, 1787, to which ten amendments were
added, December 15, 1791 ; an eleventh amendment, January 8,
1798; a twelfth amendment, September 25, 1804; a thirteenth
amendment, December 18, 1865 ; a fourteenth amendment, July
28, 1868 ; and a fifteenth amendment, March 30, 1870.

By the constitution, the government of the nation is entrusted to
three separate authorities, the executive, the legislative, and the
judicial. The executive power is vested in a president. It is
enacted by section 1, article II. of the constitution, that the pre-
sident ' shall hold his office during the term of four years,' and be
elected, together with a vice-president, chosen for the same term,
in the mode here prescribed. 'Each State shall appoint, in such
manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors,
equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to which
the State may be entitled in the Congress : but no senator or repre-
sentative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the
United States, shall be appointed an elector.' The same section of
the constitution enacts that 'the Congress may determine the time
of choosing the electors, and the day on Avhich they shall give their
votes, which clay shall be the same throughout the United States ; '
and further that 'no person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen
of the United States at the time of the adoption of this constitution,
shall be eligible to the office of president ; neither shall any person
be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of
thirty -five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the
United States.'

The president is commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and
of the militia in the service of the Union. He has the power of a
veto on all laws passed by Congress ; but notwithstanding his veto,
any bill may become a law on its afterwards being passed by two-
thirds of both Houses of Congress. The vice-president is ex-officio
president of the Senate; and in case of the death or resignation of
the president, he becomes the presidenl for the remainder of the
term, and his jlace is filled by the vice-president, or the temporary
president of the Senate. The elections for president and vice-
president, are a1 present held in ;ill the States en the first Tuesday in
November, every four years; and on the 4th of March following
the new president elect is inaugurated.

576

THE STATESMAN S YEAH-BOOK, 1877.

President of the United States. — Ulysses S. Grant, born at Point
Pleasant, Ohio, 1822; studied military science at the college of
Westpoint, 1839-44; entered the army as lieutenant, 1845 ; promoted
captain, 1853 ; resigned his commission and settled as a farmer in
Missouri, 1854 ; re-entered the army at the outbreak of the civil
war, and appointed brigadier-general of volunteers, July 1861;
nominated lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief of the armies
of the United States, March 1862; elected president of the United
States, by 214 against 80 votes of the Electoral College, Nov. 3,
1868; re-elected, for a second term of four years, Nov. 5, 1872.

Vice-President of the United States. — Thomas W. Ferry, born at
Mackinaw, Michigan, June 1, 1827 ; engaged in commercial pur-
suits : member of the House of Representatives of the State of
Michigan, 1850-56 ; member of the Senate of the State of Michigan.
1856-65 ; elected member of the House of Congress of the United
States, 1865, 1867, and 1869 ; elected member of the Senate of the
United States, 1S71 ; assumed the office of vice-president of the
United States — being vice-president of the Senate — at the death
of vice-president Henry Wilson, November 23, 1875.

The president of the United States has, under an act of Congress
passed in the session of 1873, an annual salary of 50,000 dollars,
or 10,000/., and the vice-president of 10,000 dollars currency, or
2,000/. A bill was passed in Congress, March 15, 1876, reducing
the salary of the President to 25,000 dollars, or 5,000/. but it was
vetoed by President Grant.

Since the adoption of the constitution the offices of president and
vice-president have been occupied as follows : —

Presidents of the United States.

Name

George Washington .
John Adams
Thomas Jefferson
James Madison
James Monroe
John Quincy Adams
Andrew Jackson
Martin Van Bnren .
William H. Harrison
John Tyler
James Knox Polk
Zachary Taylor
Millard Fillmore
Franklin Pierce
James Buchanan
Abraham Lincoln
Andrew Johnson
Ulysses S. Grant

From State

Virginia .
Massachusetts
Virginia .
Virginia .
Virginia .
Massachusetts
Tennessee .
New York .
Ohio

Virginia .
Tennessee .
Louisiana .
New York .
New Hampshire
Pennsylvania
Illinois
Tennessee
Illinois

Term of Service

Born

Died

1789-1797

1732

1799

1797-1801

1735

1826

1801-1809

1743

1826

1809-1817

1751

1837

1817-1825

1759

1831

1825-1829

1767

1848

1829-1837

1767

1845

1837-1841

1782

1862

1841-1841

1773

1841

1841-1845

1790

1862

1845-1849

1795

1840

1849-1850

1784

1850

1850-1853

1800

1874

1853-1857

1804

1869 1

1857-1861

1791

1868 ,

1861-1865

1809

1865

1865-1869 j

1808

1875

1869 —

1822

—

UNITED STATES.

577

Vice-Presidents of the United States.

Name

From State

John Adams .
Thomas Jefferson
Aaron Burr
George Clinton
Elbridge Gerry
Daniel D. Tomkins
John C. Calhoun
Martin Van Buren
Richard M. Johnson
John Tyler .
George M. Dallas
Millard Fillmore
William R. King
John C. Breckinridge
Hannibal Hamlin
Andrew Johnson
Lafayette S. Foster
Schuyler Colfax
Henry Wilson .
Thomas W. Ferry

Massachusetts
Virginia .
New York .
New York .
Massachusetts
New York .
South Carolina
New York .
Kentucky .
Virginia .
Pennsylvania
New York .
Alabama .
Kentucky .
Maine
Tennessee
Connecticut
Indiana
Massachusetts
Michigan .

1789-
1797-
1801-
1805-
1813-
1817-
1825-
1833-
1837-
1841-
1845-
1849-
1853-
1857-
1861-
1865-
1865-
1869-
1873-
1875

■1797
■1801
1805
1812
1814
1825
1832
■1837
1841
■1841
1849
1850
1853
1861
1865
1865
1869
1873
1875

1 Born

Died

1735

1826

1743

1826

1756

1836

1739

1812

1744

1814

1744

1825

1782

1850

1782

1862

1780

1850

1790

1862

1792

1S65

1800

1874

1786

1853

1821

1875

1809

—

1808

1875

1806

—

1823

—

1812

1875

1827

—

The administrative business of the nation is conducted by seven
chief officers, or heads of departments, who form what is called the
' Cabinet.' They are chosen by the president, but must be approved
of by the Senate. Each of them presides over a separate depart-
ment, and has to act under the immediate authority of the presi-
dent. The heads of departments are : —

1. The Secretary of State and of Foreign Affairs. — Hon. Hamilton
Fish, born in the city of New York, 1809 ; studied for the bar, and
graduated at Columbia College, 1831 ; successively member of
Congress, Lieut. -governor and governor of the State of New York ;
elected Senator to the Congress of the United States from New York,
18G1 ; appointed Secretary of State, March 11, 1869.

2. Secretary of the Treasury. — Hon. Lot M. Morrill, born at
Belgrade, Maine, May 3, 1815; studied and practised law; member
of the State Legislature of Maine, 1854-56 ; governor of Maine,
ly 58-60 ; Senator for Maine in the Senate of the United States,
1861-65 and 1871-76. Appointed Secretary of the Treasury, June
21, 1876.

3. Secretary of War. — Hon. James Donaldson Cameron, bom in
the State of Pennsylvania, 1829 ; studied engineering, and exe-
cuted numerous works as a railway contractor. Appointed Secre-
tary of War, May 22, 1876.

578 the statesman's YEAK-BOOK, 1877.

4. Secretary of the Navy. — Hon. George M. Robeson, born in the
State of New Jersey, 1824; studied for the bar and graduated at
Princeton College; was Attorney-General of New Jersey, 1866-69.
Appointed Secretary of the Navy, June 25, 1869.

5. Secretary of the Interior. — Hon. Zachariah Chandler, born at
Bedford, New Hampshire, December 10, 1813 ; received an academic
education, and engaged subsequently in mercantile pursuits ; mayor
of Detroit, 1851 ;. elected member of the United States Senate from
Michigan, 1857 ; re-elected 1863 and 1869. Appointed Secretary
of the Interior, October 1875.

6. Postmaster- General. — Hon. James N. Tyner, born at Brook-
ville, in the State of Indiana, January 17, 1826 ; studied and prac-
tised law; nominated Presidential Elector in 1860 ; member of the
House of Representatives in the United States Congress 1869-76.
Appointed Postmaster-General, July 11, 1876.

7. Attorney-General. — Hon. Alfonso Toft, born in the State of
Vermont, 1811 ; studied law, and graduated at Yale College, 1832 ;
admitted to the bar, 1834; Secretary of War, March 7 to May 22,
1876. Appointed Attorney-General, May 22, 1876.

Each of the above ministers has an annual salary of 10,000 dollars
currency, or 2,000/. All hold office under the will of the presi-
dent, who appoints them ; but each appointment must be confirmed
by the Senate of the United States.

The whole legislative power is vested by the constitution in a
Congress, consisting of a Senate and House of Representatives.
The Senate, or Upper House, consists of two members from each
State, chosen by the State legislatures for six years. Senators
must be not less than thirty years of age ; must have been citizens
of the United States for nine years; and be residents in the State
for which they are chosen. Besides its legislative capacity, the
Senate is invested with certain judicial functions, and its members
constitute a High Court of Impeachment. The judgment only
extends to removal from office and disqualification. Representa-
tives have the sole power of impeachment.

The House of Representatives, or Lower House, is composed of
members elected every second year by the vote of all male citizens
over the age of 21 of the several States of the Union. The number
of members to which each State is entitled is determined by the
census taken every ten years. By laws passed in 1872, after the
results of the ninth census of the United States, taken June 1870,
had been ascertained, it was provided that from and after March
3, 1873, the House of Representatives should be composed of 292.
members, to be apportioned as follows among the States :

UNITED STATES.

579

Maine

. 5

South Carolina

. 5

Florida .

New Hampshire

i . 3

Georgia .

. 9

Texas

. 0

Vermont .

. 3

Alabama

. 8

Iowa

. 9

Massachusetts

. 11

Mississippi

. 6

Wisconsin

. 8

Ehode Island

. 2

Louisiana

. 6

California

. 4

Connecticut

. 4

Ohio

. 20

Minnesota

. 3

New York

. 33

Kentucky

. 10

Oregon .

. 1

New Jersey

. 7

Tennessee

. 10

Kansas .

Pennsylvania

. 27

Indiana .

. 13

West Virginia

. 3

Delaware .

. 1

Illinois .

. 19

Nevada .

. i

Maryland .

. 6

Missouri

. 13

Nebraska " .

. I

Virginia .

. 9

Arkansas

. 4

—

North Carolina

. 8

Michigan

. 9

Total

, 292

According to the terms of the constitution, representatives must
not be less than twenty-five years of age, must have been citizens of
the United States for seven years, and be residents in the States from
Avhich they are chosen. In addition to the representatives from the
States, the House admits a ' delegate ' from each organised territory,
who has the right to debate 'on subjects in which his territory is-
interested, but is not entitled to vote. The delegates are elected,
like the representatives, by the vote of all male citizens over 21,
with this difference, that in one territory, Wyoming, the franchise
is also accorded to women. There were eight delegates in 1876.

Every bill which has passed the House of Representatives and
the Senate must, before it becomes a law, be presented to the Pre-
sident of the United States ; if not approved, he may return it,
with his objections, to the House in which it originated. If aitLT
reconsideration two-thirds of that House agree to pass the bill, it
must be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by
which it must likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-
thirds of that House, it becomes a law. But in all such cases the
votes of both Houses are determined by yeas and nays, and the
names of the persons voting for and against the bill are entered
on the journal of each House.

Each of the two Houses of Congress is made by the constitution
the 'judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own
members ; ' and each of the Houses may, ' with the concurrence of
two- thirds, expel a member.'

The Congress of the United States has the power to alter the
Constitution, by the 5th article of the same. The article orders
that the Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it
necessary to propose amendments to the Constitution, or on the ap-
plication of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall
call a convention for proposing the amendments, which in either
case shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of the Con-
stitution when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the
several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the
one or other mode of ratification may be proposed by Congress.

580 THE STATESMAN'S YEAB-BOOK, 1877.

Under an Act of Congress, approved Jan. 20, 1874, the salary
of a senator, representative, or delegate in Congress is 5,000 dollars,
or 1,000/., per annum with travelling expenses. These expenses are
calculated by the most direct route of usual travel, and similar return,
once for each session of Congress. The salary of the Vice-President
of the Senate, and of the Speaker of the House of Eepresentatives,
is 8,000 dollars, or 1,G00Z., per annum, under the same law.

The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators
and representatives are prescribed in each State by the Legislature
thereof; but Congress may at any time by law alter such regu-
lations, or make new ones, except as to the places of choosing
senators. No senator or representative can, during the time for
which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under
authority of the United States, which shall have been created or
■the emoluments of which shall have been increased during such
time ; and no person holding any office under the United States can
be a member of either House during his continuance in office.

According to the sixth article of the Constitution, ' the senators
and representatives, and the members of the several State Legislatures,
and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and
of the several States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to
support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required
as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United
States.'

The period usually termed ' a Congress,' in legislative language,
continues for two years; as, for example, from noon March 4, 1873,
until noon March 4, 1875, at which latter time the term of the
representatives to ihe Forty-third Congress expired, and the term of
the new House of Eepresentatives commenced. Congresses always
commence and expire in years terminating with odd numbers.
The term of the First Congress was from 1789 to 1791, and the
term of the Forty-fourth Congress will be from 1875 to 1877.

By the tenth amendment of the Constitution of the United States,
passed December 15, 1791, the powers not delegated to Congress are
reserved to the individual States. Therefore the powers to enact
municipal laws, that is, all laws which concern only the States
directly and immediately, are among the reserved rights of the
States, and as such vested in the State Legislatures.

The constitutions of the several States all agree in their main fea-
uires, and the modes of administration are virtually alike. In all
there is the same form, and the same principles lie at the foundation.
The executive in every State is vested in a governor. The duties of
the governors are in general analogous to those of the president, as far
as the several State governments are analogous to that of the Union.
The governors have the nomination, and, in conjunction with the

UNITED STATES. 58 I

Senate, the appointment of many important officers. Like the presi-
dent, they make recommendations to the Legislature, and take
care that the laws are executed. Like the president, they may
be impeached and removed for treason, bribery, or other crimes.

Slavery was abolished throughout the whole of the United States
by the thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution, passed Dec. 18,
1865 : — ' Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a
punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly con-
victed, shall exist within the United States or any place subject to their
jurisdiction.' The vast change in the political and social organisation
of the republic made by this new fundamental law was completed by
the fourteenth and fifteenth Amendments of the Constitution, passed
in 18G8 and 1870, which gave to the former slaves all the rights and
privileges of citizenship. The fourteenth Amendment declares that
' all persons born or naturalised in the United States are citizens
thereof and of the States in which they reside, and no State shall
deny such citizens due and equal protection by laws, nor deprive
them of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.' It
orders farther ' that representation shall be apportioned among the
several States, according to their respective numbers, counting the
whole number of persons in each State.' Finally, the fifteenth
Amendment, ratified March 30, 1870, enacts that ' The right of
citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged
by the United States or by any state on account of race, colour, or
previous condition of servitude.' Under this last Amendment to
the Constitution, all the citizens of the United States, except un-
taxed Indians, are admitted to the franchise.

Church and Education.

The Constitution of the United States grants perfect equality to
all creeds and religions. Nearly all the sects and religious denomi-
nations existing in Europe are represented in the United States, the
most numerous being the three dissenting creeds from the Church
of England, the Methodists, the Baptists, and the Congregationalists,
or Independents, the first, the Methodists, comprising about one-
third of the total population.

It was found at the ninth census of the United States, taken June
1, 1870, that there were at that date 72,-159 distinct congregations,
or so-called 'organisations,' they possessing 03,082 religious edifices,
with a total of 21,665,062 sittings, being four sittings to every seven
of the population. The following table shows the divisions of the
various creeds enumerated, according to the official returns of the
census of 1870 : —

582

THE STATESMAN,"? YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Creeds

1 Congrega-
tions

Religious
edifices

[ Sittings

Baptist, regular

14,474

12,857

3,997,116

,, other .....

1,355

1,105

363,019

' Christian '.....

3,578

2,822

865,602

Congregational .....

2,887

2,715

1,117,212

Episcopal, Protestant

2,835

2,601

991,051

Evangelical Association

815

641

193,796

Friends ......

692

662

224,664

Jews .......

189

152

73,265

Lutheran ......

3,032

2,776

977,332

3Iethodist

25,278

21,337

6,528,209

Moravian (Unitas Fratrum)

25,700

Mormon . . . . .

189

171

87,838 ,

New Jerusalem (Swedenborgian)

18,755 |

Presbyterian, regular

6,262

5,683

2,198,900

,, other

1,562

1,388

499,344

Reformed Church in America (late

Dutch Reformed) ....

471

468

227,228

Reformed Church in the United States

(late German Reformed)

1,256

1,145

431,700

Roman Catholic ....

4,127

3,806

1,990,514

' Second Advent' ....

225

140

34,555

' Shaker ' . . . . .

8,850

' Spiritualist

6,970

Unitarian . . . . . . |

331

310

155,471

' United Brethren in Christ '

1,445

937

265,025

' Universalis^ ' .

719

602

210,884

' Unknown,' Local Missions

11,925

„ Union ....

409

552

153,202

Miscellaneous creeds . . . . |

6,935

Total .

72,459

63,082 1

21.665,062

The aggregate value of the property belonging to the religious
denominations in the United States was returned at 354,483,581
dollars at the census of June 1, 1870.

Education is general in the United States, every effort being
made, both by the government and individuals to aid in its pro-
gress. Nevertheless, owing partly to the former existence of slavery,
and partly to the constant influx of numbers of uneducated immi-
grants, there exists a large mass still totally ignorant of the first
principles of knowledge. It was found at the last census, taken
June 1, 1870, that there were at that date in the United States
4,528,084 individuals over ten years of age unable to read, and
5,058,144 individuals over ten years unable to write. The follow-
ing gives the divisions, among the states and territories, of the
number of persons unable to read, and those unable to write, in
each class, above ten years of age, according to the official returns
of the census of 1870:—

UNITED STATES.

5«3

States : —
Alabama
Arkansas
California
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa .
Kansas '
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland .
Massachusetts
Michigan .
Minnesota .
Mississippi
Missouri .
Nebraska .
Nevada

New Hampshii-'
New Jersey
New York .
North Carolina
Ohio .
Oregon
Pennsylvania

Unable tc I Unable to
read ' write

349.771

111,799

24,877

19,680

19,356

66,238

418,553

86,368

76,634

24,115

16,369

249,567

257,184|

13,486

114,100

74,935

34,613:

12,747!

291,718^

146,771:

2,365

727

7,618}

37,057

163,501

339,789

92,720

2,609

131,728

383,012

133,339

31,716

29,616

23,100

71,803

468,593

133,584

127.124

45,671

24,550

332,176

276,158

19,052

135,499

97,742

53,127

24,413

313.310

222,4 11

4,861

872

9,926

54,687

239,271

397,690

173.172

4,427

222,356

States — cant.
Rhode Island
South Carolina
Tennessee .
Texas
Vermont .
Virginia
West Virginia
Wisconsin .

Total States

Territories: —
Arizona
Colorado .
Dakota
District of
lumbia .
Idaho

Montana .
New Mexico
Utah .
Washington
Wyoming .

Total territories

Total United")
States J

Unable to

read

write

15,416

21,921

265,892

290.379

290,549

364.697

189,423

221,703

15,185

17,706

390,913

445.893

48,802

81,490

35,031

55,441

4,438,206

5,552,488

2,690

2,753

2.697

6,823

1,249

1,563

' 22,845

28,719

3,293

3,388

667

918

48,836

52,220

2,515

7,363

1,018

1,307

468

602,

89,878

105,656

4,528,084

5,658,144

At the date of the census of 1870, the total number of children
attending school in the United States was 7,209,938, comprising
3,021,996 males and 3,587,942 females. The total number of
schools was 141,629, and the number of teachers 221,042, compris-
ing 93,329 males and 127,713 females. The aggregate income of
all the schools in the year ending Jan. 1, 1870, amounted to
95,402,726 dollars, of which 3,663,785 dollars came from endow-
ments; 61,746,039 dollars from taxation and public funds; and
29,992,902 dollars from other sources, including tuition.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The national income of the United States is mainly derived from
two sources, namely, customs duties, and indirect taxes upon pro-
perty, manufactures, and natural produce, the whole of them classed
under the name of 'Internal Revenue.' The national expenditure,
too, is mainly on account of two branches the maintenance of an

584

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

armed force by land and sea, and payment of interest of the public
debt, incurred by the civil war of 18G1-6G. Roughly stated, the
produce of the customs discharges the cost of the civil service, army
and navy, and that of internal revenue pays the interest and sinking
fund of the public debt, together with all other disbursements.
The largest branch of expenditure is the interest on the public debt,
while the cost of the general administration, including the expenses
of the executive and legislature, provided for under the head of
' Civil List,' is comparatively small, amounting to about one -fourth
of the total expenditure.

The following table exhibits, in dollars and pounds sterling the
total gross revenue and the total expenditure of the United States in
each of the six fiscal vears, ending June 30, from 1871 to 187G : —

Revenue

Expenditure

ing June 30

D ollars

£
67,820,246

Dollars

1871

339,101,231

290,062,920

58,012,584 j

1872

374,106,867

74,821,373

277,517,962

55,503,592 !

1873

333,738,204

66,747,640

290,345,245

58,069,049

1874

289,478,756

57,895,751

287,133,873

57,426,775

1875

288,000,051

57,600,010

274,623,392

54,924.678

1876

297,456,145

59,451,029

268,447,543 53,689.508

The following table gives the actual sources of revenue and
branches of expenditure for the financial year ending June 30, 1875,
the partly actual and partly estimated sources of revenue and
branches of expenditure for the financial year ending June 30r
187G, and the budget estimates of revenue and expenditure for the
financial year ending June 30, 1877 : —

Financial Years ending June 30

1875

1876

1877

Sources of Revemie.

Dollars

Customs ....

157,167,722

156,233,626

127.000,000

Inland Revenue

110,007,493

120,199,723

120,324,990

Land Sales

1,413,640

1,408,641

1,052,005

Bank Taxes

7,268,379

7,276,033

7,134,708

Pacific Railroads

882,274

012,212

397,902

Fines and Penalties

228,870

128,521

92,695

Consular and other Fees .

1,818,884

1,810,427

1,625,685

Public Property sold

1,278,693

704,273

421,875

Miscellaneous sources
Total Revenue

7,934,092

9,082,684

6,242,589

288,000,051

297,456,145

264,292,449

UNITED STATES.

58S.

Financial Years ending June 30

Branches of Expenditure.

187,-)

1876

1877

Dollars

Civil List and AdminisO
tration . . J

71,070,702 98

j 68,178,072 68

54,937,203

Indians ....

8,384,656 82

I 7,060,474 38

5,434,766

Pensions ....

29,456,216 22

29,845,927 64

28,382,358

Army, Rivers, & Harbonrs

41,120,645 98

41,391,476 26

36,215,661

Navy ....

21,197,626 27

19,959,037 99

13,674,354

Interest on Public Debt .
Total Expenditure .

103,093,544 57

102,017,554 81

98,984,411

274,623,392 26

268,447,543 76

237,628,753

Surplus .

13,376,659 26

| 29,008,601 38

26,663,696

Since the year 1865-6G the revenue of the United States every
year largely exceeded the expenditure; in consequence of which
there was a gradual reduction of taxes. In the second session
of the forty-second Congress there were passed a series of laws
which abolished nearly the whole of the stamp duties. The
customs duties, however, continue to bear heavily on all imports,
while the Inland Eevenue at present is collected mainly from
whisky, tobacco, and malt liquors. The surplus of every year
has to be devoted, in conformity with several enactments of
Congress, to the gradual redemption of the national debt.

The following table shows the total amount of the national debt,
on the 1st of September of each of the years 1862, 18GG, 1869,
1871, 1873, 1875, and 1876 :—

Years

Capital

of Debt

Dollars

1862

514,211,372

102,842,274

1866

2,783,425,879

556,685,175

1869

2,380,094,127

476,018,825

1871

2,292,030,835

458,406,167

1873

2,234.482,993

446,896,598

1875

2,237,813,048

447,562,609

1876

2,176,947,758

435,389,551

In the preceding table, the value of the dollar is calculated at tin
average exchange of As. 2d. from 1862 to 1869, and subsequently
at the average exchange of 4».

According to the official statement of the secretary of the trea-
sury, the various liabilities incurred successively by the govern-
ment, under the sanction of Congress, which form the national debl
of the United States, were as follows on the 1st of September, 1876 : —

536

THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1877.

Title of Loan

Loan of 1858.
Loan of February 1861 ('
Oregon War Debt
Loan of July & Aug.' Gl (
Loan of 1863 ('81's) .
Ten-forties of 1864
Five-twenties of 1865 .
Consols of 1865 .
Consols of 1867 .
Consols of 1868 .
Funded Loan of 1S81 .
Funded Loan of 1891 .
Funded Loan of 1901 .

Authorizing Act

%'SZ When payable

Debt bearing Interest in Coin.

81's)
Si's)

5, '61

IJune 14, 1858
Februarys, 1861
'March 2, 1861
July 17 and Aug
March 3, 1863
March 3, 1864
March 3, 1865
: March 3, 1865
March 3. 1865
March 3, 1865
J'yl4,'70&Jan.20,'71
J'vl4,'70&Jan.20,'71
J'yl4,'70&Jan.20,'71

December 31, 18S0
July 1,1881

March 1, 1904
November 1, 1885
July 1, 1885
July 1, 1887
July 1, 18S8

Total

outstanding

Amount

Dollars
260,000

18,415,000

945,000

189,321,350

75,000,000
194,566,300
150,558,650
202,663,100
310,622,750

37,473,800
517,494,150

Aggregate of Debt bearing interest in Coin

Debt bearing Interest in Lawful Money.
! Navy Pension Fund . . | July 23, 1868 . . | 3 | Payable on demand
Aggregate of Debt bearing Interest in Lawful Mpney
Debt on which Interest has Ceased since Maturity.

1,697,320,100

14,000,000

Old Debt .

Mexican Indemnity Stock .

Loan of 1847 .

Bounty Land Scrip

Texan Indemnity Stock

Loan of 1858.

Loan of 1860 . . . .

Five-twenties of lS62(called)

Five-twenties of June '64 ,, .

Five-twenties of 1S65 ,, .

Various, urior to 1837 :4to6
August 10, 1846 . . 5
January 28, 1847 . 6
Februarvll, 1847 '6

September 9, 1850 . '5
June 14, 1858 . . 5
June 22, 1860 . . |5
Februarv 25, 1862 . 16
June 30, 1864 . . ;6
March 3, 1865 . . !6
Treasury Notes prior to 1846 Various, prior to 1846 1-I0to6
Treasury Notes of 1846 . Ijuly 22, 1846 . . '1-iotoB
January 2S, 1847 .6 . |
December 23, 1857 . 13 to 6
March 2, 1861 . . 6
July 17, 1S61 . . 7 3-10
March 3, 1863 .
March 3, 1863 .
Mar.3,'63; June 30, '64

Treasury Notes of 1847
Treasury Notes of 1857
Treasury Notes of 1861
Seven-thirties of 1861 .
One- year Notes of 1863.
Two-year Notes of 1863
Compound Interest Notes

Seven-thirties of 1864 & 1S65 June 30. '64; Mar.3,'65

Certificates of Indebtedness . Mar.l ,17,'62; Mar.3,'63

Temporary Loan . . . June 30, 1864 .

Three per cent.certif 's(call'd) Mar. 2, '67 ; July 25, '68

7 3-10

4 to 6

Aggregate of Debt on which Interest has ceased since maturity

Old Demand Notes
Legal Tender Notes

Certificates of Deposit
Fractional Currency .

Debt bearing no Interest
July 17, 1S61 .
iFebruary 12, 1862
'February 25, 1862
July 11, 1862 .
March 3, 1863 .

June 8, 1872 .
July 17, 1862 .
March 3, 1863 .
June 30, 1864 .

,355,311

' ' [ Fourth Issue . J

! March 3, 1863 . . — 29,969,800

Aggregate of Debt bearing no Interest 462,606,447

Coin Certificates .
Unclaimed Interest

( Issues prior to

\ 1869 .

I. Series of 1869 .

I First Issue
Second Issue .
Third Issue .
Fourth Issue .

14,000,000

57,665

1,105

1,250

3,400

21,000

8,000

10,000

884.650

1,165,900

134,700

82,575

6,000

950

1,900

3,100

17,050

60,025

43,200

323,380

182,300

5,000

3,060

5,000

3,021,210

6,732
,334,604
,880,000

UNITED STATES.

5S7

The following table contains the summary of the various classes
of the public debt, and the interest thereon, on September 1, 1876 : —

Debt bearing interest in coin —
Bonds at 6 per cent. .
Bonds at 5 per cent. .
Bonds at 4| per cent. .
Bonds at 4 per cent. .

Debt bearing interest in lawful
money —
Navy Pension Fund at 3 per
cent. ....

Debt on which interest has

ceased since maturity
Debt bearing no interest-
Old demand and legal-tender
notes ....
Certificates of deposit
Fractional currency .
Coin certificates .

Dollars
984,999,650
712,320,4.50

Unclaimed interest

Total debt on the 1st Septem-
ber 1876 .

Principal

369,401,336
31,880,000
31,355,311
29,969,800

1,697,320,100

14,000,000
3,021,210

462.606,448

Dollars

24,007,464

70,000
193,776

21,704

2,176,947,758 i 24,292,944

An Act of Congress, approved by the President June 22, 1874,
fixed the aggregate of legal tender circulation at a maximum of
382,000,000 dollars, prohibiting any new issues, under whatever
pretence, for the future.

It is ordered, by Act of Congress, that a sinking fund shall be
provided for the payment of the debt. The Act requires that the
surplus gold remaining after the payment of the interest shall be
devoted ' to the purchase or payment of 1 per cent, of the entire
debt of the United States, to be made within each fiscal year after
July 1, 1 862, which is to be set apart as a sinking fund, and the in-
terest of which shall in like manner be applied to the purchase or
payment of the public debt, as the Secretary of the Treasury shall
from time to time direct.' By the terms of an Act of Congress
passed March 18, 1869, entitled ' An Act to strengthen the public
credit,' it is declared that ' the faith of the United States is solemnly
pledged to the payment in coin or its equivalent of all obligations of
the United States not bearing interest, known as United States'
notes. The same Act further affirms that ' the United States
solemnly pledges its faith to make provision at the earliest prac-
ticable period for the redemption of the United States' notes in coin.'

588 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The State debts of all the States and Territories were estimated in
June 1876, at 350,000,000 dollars, or 70,000,000/. It was stated
by Governor Tilden, of New York, in his message to the State
Legislature of New York, January 187G, that in 1870 the taxes,
Federal, State, and local, of the whole country, amounted to
730,000,000 dollars, or 146,000,000/., against 154,000,000 dollars,
or 30,800,000/., in 1860 ; and 83,000,000 dollars, or 16,600,000/.,
in 1850. Or, reducing these figures to a per capita comparison, the
taxes were 3^ dollars, or 14s., per head in 1850; 5 dollars, or 11. f
per head in 1860 ; and 19 dollars, or 3/. 16s. per head in 1870.

Army and Navy.

1. Army.

By the eighth section of the first article of the constitution of the
United States, Congress is empowered in general ' to raise and sup-
port armies;' and by the second section of the second article, the
president is appointed commander-in-chief of the army and navyr
and of the militia when called into the service of the United States.
On August 7, 1789, Congress established a Department of War
as the instrument of the president in carrying out the provisions of
the constitution for military affairs.

By Acts of Congress, approved July 28, 1866, March 3, 1869, and
July 15, 1870, the number of land forces constituting the standing
army of the United States was strictly limited. Section 2 of the
Act of July 15, 1870, provides that on or before the 1st day of
July, 1871, the number of enlisted men in the army shall be re-
duced to 30,000. It Avas subsecmently enacted that from the year
1875 there shall be no more than 25,000 enlisted men at any one
time. Exceptionally, 2,500 cavalry, for Indian warfare, were added
to this force by a vote of Congress, passed August 15, 1876. The
army of the United States is scattered in small detachments all
over the country, but chiefly along the borders of the districts in-
habited by the aborigines, or Indians.

The term of service in the army is five years. As now organised,
the army is composed of 10 regiments of cavalry, consisting each of
12 troops, or companies ; 25 regiments of infantry, of 10 companies
each ; 5 regiments of artillery ; and 1 engineer battalion ; besides
the cadets of the military academy. The 9 th and 10th regi-
ments of cavalry, and the 24th and 25th regiments of infantry, are
composed of negro soldiers, but are commanded by white officers.

The army was commanded on July 1, 1875, by 1 general,
1 lieutenant-general, 3 major-generals, 6 brigadier-generals, 70
colonels, 83 lieutenant-colonels, 271 majors, 32 aides-de-camp, 610
captains, and 1,055 first and second lieutenants.

UNITED STATES. 589

In April 1873, the territory of the United States was divided
for military purposes into eleven departments, and these grouped
into four military divisions, namely, Division of the South, com-
posed of the Departments of the South and the Gulf; Division of
the Missouri, composed of the Departments of Dakota, the Platte,
the Missouri, and Texas ; Division of the Pacific, composed of the
Departments of Columbia, California, and Arizona; and, Division
of the Atlantic, composed of the Departments of the East and the
Lakes. — (Official Communication.)

2. Navy.

The naval forces of the United States consisted on July 22, 1875,
of 27 iron-clads, 70 other steamers, and 25 sailing vessels. On the
1st July, 1872, there were 51 iron-clads, 69 other steamers, and 30
sailing vessels, so that there was a decrease within]the three years of
24 ironclads, and of one sailing vessel, while there was one addi-
tional steamer, not ironclad. From July 1874 to July 1875, the
number of ironclads decreased by twenty-one, all of them small
monitors, constructed during the civil war, twenty of them of 483
tons burthen each, with from one to two guns, and one of 540 tons,
with four guns. The building of new ironclads is proceeding very
slowly, three of a burthen of 2,127 tons each, and one of a
burthen of 2,125 tons, having been on the stocks for several
years. A large reduction in the strength of the enlisted force of the
Navy (see page 593) was ordered by the Congress of the United
States in the session of 187G, as inserted in the Naval Appropria-
tion Bill, in consequence of which it became necessary to withdraw
a number of the vessels from active service.

The United States possess ten navy-yards and stations,
namely, Portsmouth, Charlestown, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, League
Island, New London, Washington, Norfolk, Pensacola, and Mare
Island. Portsmouth, New Hampshire, has an area of 63 acres ;
Charlestown, near Boston, of 80 acres ; Brooklyn, of 80 ; Phila-
delphia, of 15, and Washington of 42 acres. Norfolk, Pensacola and
Mare Island, are used only for temporary repairs.

There are four 'rates' in the official classification of ships of war.
First-rates are all vessels of 4,600 tons and upwards ; Second-rates,
vessels of 2,000 to 4,600; Third-rates, vessels of 900 to 2,000;
and Fourth-rates, all vessels under 9(»0 tons.

The following table gives a list, in alphabetical order of names,
of the 27 iron-clads, and of all the First, Second, and Third-rate
steamers of the navy in 1875. The list is drawn up from the ' Navy-
register of the United States,' issued by the Secretary of the Navy,
corrected to July 22, 1875 : —

590

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-
Iron-clad Screw Steamers.

Name

Guns

Tonnage

Station or Condition

Ajax

550

Pensacola

Amphitrite

874

Repairing at Wilmi ngton

Canonicus

550

In commission at New Orleans

Camanehe

496

Laid up at Mare Island

Cat-skill .

496

Annapolis

Colossus .

2,127

On the stocks at New York

Dictator .

1,750

North Atlantic

Jason

496

League Island

Lehigh

496

League Island

Mahopac .

550

Pensacola

Manhattan

550

Pensacola

Massachusetts

2,127

On the stocks, Portsmouth

Miantonomah

1,225

Repairing at Chester

Monadnock

1,091

Laid up at Mare Island

Montauk .

S 2

496

New York

Nahant .

496

Laid up at League Island

Nantucket

496

Laid up at League Island

Nebraska .

2,125

On the stocks, Philadelphia

Oregon

2,127

On the stocks at Boston

Passaic .

496

Laid up at League Island

Puritan .

1,870

Laid up at League Island

Roanoke .

2,260

Flag-ship at New York

Saugus

550

Pensacola

Shawnee .

483

Laid up at Boston

Terror

1,085

In Ordinary at Philadelphia

Wassuc .

483

Laid up at Boston

Wyandotte

550

Laid up at League Island

Steamers not

Iron-clad.

Name

Propulsion Guns

Tonnage

First Rates —

Colorado ....

Screw

4,700

Pranklin

Screw

5,170

Minnesota

Screw

4,700

Niagara .

Screw

5,440 !

Wabash .

Screw

4,650

Second Rates

—

Alaska .

Screw

2,400

Antietam

Screw

4,000

Benicia .

Screw

2,400

Brooklyn

Screw

3,000

Canandaigua .

Screw

2,130

Congress

Screw

3,050

Connecticut .

. I Screw

4,450

Delaware

. | Screw

4,000

I Florida .

Screw

4,220

| Hartford

. | Screw

2,900

| Iowa

1 Screw

1,000

UNITED STATES.

Name

Propulsion

Guns

Tonnage

Java .....

Screw ....

4,000

Lackawanna .

Screw .

2,220

Lancaster

Screw .

3,250

Monongahela .

Screw .

2,100

New York

Screw .

4,070

Omaha .

Screw .

2,400

Pennsylvania .

Screw .

4,000

Pensacola

Screw .

3,000

Plymouth

Screw .

2,400

Powhatan

Paddle-wheel

3,980

Eichmond

Screw .

2,700

Saranae .

Paddle-wheel

2,150

Severn .

Screw .

3,050

Shenandoah

Screw .

2,100

Susquehanna

Screw .

3,980

Tennessee

Screw .

4,220

Ticonderoga

Screw .

2,220

Worcester

Screw .

3,050

Third

Rates

Adams .

Screw .

1,450

Alert

Screw .

685

Alliance .

Screw .

685

Ashuelot

Paddle-wheel

1,370

Enterprise

Screw .

1,450

Essex

Screw .

1,450

Galena .

Screw .

1,840

Huron .

Screw .

1,450

Iroquois

Screw .

1 ,575

Juniata .

Screw .

1,900

Kansas .

Screw .

900

Kearsarge

Screw .

1,550

Marion .

Screw .

1,840

Michigan

Paddle-wheel

1,685

Mohican

Screw .

1,550

Monocacy

Paddle-wheel

1,370

Nantasket

Screw .

1,165

Narragansett

Screw .

1,235

Nipsic .

Screw .

900

Nyack .

Screw .

900

Ossipee .

Screw .

1,900

Quinncbaug

Screw .

1,840

Kanger .

Screw .

685

Saco

Screw .

900

Shawmut

Screw .

900

Swatara .

Screw .

1,850

Tuscarora

Screw .

1,560

Vandalia

Screw .

1,840

Waehusett

Screw .

1,675

Wyoming

Scr w .

L,560

Yantic .

Screw .

900

The navy of the United States was commanded, on the 22nd

59^

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

July, 1875, by 1 admiral, 1 vice-admiral, 12 rear-admirals, 26
commodores, 50 captains, 90 commanders, and 100 lieutenant-
commanders. The body of commissioned officers comprised besides,
at the same date, 273 lieutenants, 98 masters, 22 ensigns, and 109
midshipmen. By the terms of the Naval Appropriation Bill passed
by the Congress of the United States in the session of 1876, the
enlisted force of the navy was reduced from 8,500 to 7,500 men.

Area and Population.

The total area of the United States was reported at the census of
1870 to embrace 3,603,844 square miles, inclusive of the territory
long known as ' Russian America,' purchased from the Russian Go-
vernment by treaty of June 20, 1867, and annexed to the Re-
public Oct. 18, 1867, under the name of 'Alaska.' The area of the
United States, excluding Alaska, is equal to 1,942 millions of acres,
about one-half of which are public lands. At the census of 1870,
the arable land under cultivation was found to be 189 millions of
acres, or less than one-tenth of the total area.

The population of the United States has been ascertained at all
times with great accuracy. The census is taken in the States in
obedience to Article 1, section 2, of the Constitution, which pro-
vides that ' Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned
among the several States which may be included in this Union ac-
cording to their respective numbers ; ' and the same section directs
that ' the actual enumeration shall be made within three years after
the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within
every subsequent term of ten years.' Under these provisions, and
the laws passed in pursuance of them, the census of the United
States has been taken nine times, viz., in 1790, in 1800, in 1810,
in 1820, in 1830, in 1840, in 1850, in 1860, and in 1870.

The following table gives the total population of the United
States, at each of the nine enumerations from 1790 to 1870 :

Years

White

Free coloured

Slave

Total

1790

3,231,631

—

697,697

3,929,328

1800

4,304,489

108,395

893,041

5,305,925

1810

5,862,004

186,446

1,191,364

7,239,814

1820

7,861,937

233,524

1,538,038

9,638,131

1830

10.537,378

319,599

2,009,043

12,866,020

1840

14,195,695

386,303

2,487,455

17,069,453

1850

19,553,114

434,449

3,204,313

23,191,876

1860

26,975,575

488,005

3,979,741

31,443,321

1870

33,589,377

4,968,994

—

38,558,371

The subjoined table gives the population of the various States and

UNITED STATES.

593

Territories of the Union at the two enumerations of June 18G0,
and of June 1870, the latter after the revised census returns pub-
lished by the government in 1872. In regard to the census of June
1870 it is stated that, ' Indians are not included in the numbers.'
The last column of the table shows the rank of each of the 37 States,
and of each of the 10 Territories composing the Union in 1870, ac-
cording to the number of population of 1870.

Ninth Census of the United States,

Population in

Rank in

June 1870

1860

1870

States : —

Alabama .....

964,201

996,992

Arkansas .

435,450

484,471

California .

379,994

560,247

Connecticut

460,147

537,454

Delaware .

112,216

125,015

Florida

140,424

187,748

Georgia

1,057,286

1,184,109

Illinois

1,711,951

2,539,891

Indiana

1,350,428

1,680,637

Iowa .

674,913

1,194,020

Kansas

107,206

364,399

Kentucky .

1,155,684

1,321,011

Louisiana .

708,002

726,915

Maine

628,279

626,915

Maryland .

687.049

780,894

Massachusetts .

1,231,066

1,457,351

Michigan .

749,113

1,184,059

Minnesota .

172,023

439,706

Mississippi

791,305

827,922

Missouri

1,182,012

1,721,295

Nebraska .

28,841

122,993

Nevada

6,857

42,491

New Hampshire

326,073

318,300

New Jersey

672,035

906,096

New York .

3,880,735

4,382,759

North Carolina

992,622

1.071.361

Ohio .

2,339..")]]

2,665,260

Oregon

52,465

90,923

Pennsylvania

2,906,215

3,521,951

Rhode Island

174,620

217,353

South Carolina

703,708

705,606

Tennessee .

1,109,801

1,258,520

Texas

604,215

818,579

Vermont

315,098

330,551

Virginia

1,596,318

1,225,163

WeBt Virginia

—

442,oi i

Wisconsin .

Total, St

775,881
! 31,183,744

1.054.67C
38,115,641

Q W

594

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 187".

Ninth Census of the United States,

Population in

Rank in

June 1870

1860

1870

Tereitokies :—

Arizona .....

9,658

Colorado

34,277

39.864

Columbia District

7.5,080

131,700

Dakota .....

4,837

14,181

Idaho .....

—

14,999

Montana

—

20,595

New Mexico ....

93,516

91.874

Utah

40.273

86.786

Washington ....

11,594

23.955

Wyoming .....

—

9.118

Total, Territories .

259,577

442.730

Total Unite 1 States

31,443,321

38,558,371

As regards sex, the total population of the United States at the
census of 1870 comprised 19,493,565 males and 19,004,806 females.
In 16 states and the district of Columbia there was a preponderance
of males over females, the greatest in the north-eastern states of
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Now York. In
the Mormon territory of Utah there were 44,121 males and 42,665
females at the census of 1870.

At the first census of the Union, in 1790, there existed only 17
States, the largest of which was Virginia, with a pojoulation of
747.610, and the smallest, Tennessee, with a population of 35,691.
At the second census, in 1800, there were 20 States, the largest,
Virginia, with a population of 880,200, and the smallest, Indiana,
with 5.641 inhabitants Virginia still took the lead at the third
census in 1810, with a population of 974,601 ; the smallest State,
number 24, being Michigan, with 4,762 inhabitants. At the fourth
census, in 1820, there were 27 States, New York standing first with
1,372,111, and Michigan last with 8,765 inhabitants. All the
succeeding enumerations gave the State of New York the first place.
At the fifth census, in 1830, the State of New York had a population
of 1,918,608, and the 27th and last State, Arkansas, 30,388. The
sixth census, of 1840, included 29 States, that of New Yoi-k with
2,428,921, and the least populated, Wisconsin, with 30,945 in-
habitants. Hitherto, the Union was only composed of States,
besides the neutral District of Columbia, but the seventh census,
of 1850, added 2 Territories, New Mexico and Utah, to 33 existing
States, the first, New York, having a population of 3,097,394, and
the last, Minnesota, of 6,077. At the eighth census, of 1860, there
were 36 States and 6 Territories, the State of New York heading
the list with 3,880,735 inhabitants. The ninth and last census

UNITED STATES.

595

included 87 States and 10 Territories. Since the taking of the
census of 1870, the territories of Colorado and New Mexico -were
admitted as States into the Union.

The enumerated aboriginal or Indian population of the United
States amounted to 25,731 at the census of 1870, against 44,021
in 1860. The number of the former slave population, described
as ' free-coloured ' at the last census, will be seen on reference to the
table on page 578, giving the total results of the nine enumerations.

The following table gives the numbers of the native and of the
foreign-born population at the census of June, 1870 : —

tes and Territories

Native
Population

Foreign-born
Population

Total

States : —

Alabama ....

987,030

9,962

996,992

Arkansas

479,445

5,026

484,471

California .

350,416

209,831

560,247

Connecticut

423,815

113.639

537,454

Delaware

115,879

9,136

125,015

Florida

182,781

4,967

187.748

Georgia

1,172,982

11.127

1,184,109

Illinois

2,024,693

515,198

2,539,891

Indiana

1,539.163

141.474

1,680,637

Iowa .

987,735

204,057

1,191,792

Kansas

316,007

48.392

364,399

Kentucky

1,257,613

63,398

1,321,011

Louisiana

665,088

61,827

726,915 '

Maine

578,034

48,881

626.915

Maryland

697,482

83,412

780,894

Massachusetts

1,104,032

353,319

1,457,351

Michigan

916,049

268,010

1,184,059

Minnesota .

279,009

160,697

139.706

Mississippi .

816,731

11,191

827,922

Missouri

1,499,028

-'22,267

1.721.295 J

Nebraska

92,245

30,748

122,993 1

Nevada

23,690

18,801

42,491 !

New Hampshire

288,689

29,611

318,300

New Jersey

717,15:;

188,943

906,096

New York .

3,244,406

1,138,353

4.382.759

North Car 1

1,068,332

3,029

1,071,361

Ohio .

1 2,292,767

372,493

2,665,260

Oregon

79,323

11,600

90,923

Pennsylvania

2,976,530

5 15.261

3,521,791

Rhode Island

161,957

55.396

217,353

South Carolina

697,532

8,074

705,606

Tenni --■ ■

i,204

19,316

1,258,520

Texas

756,168

62,411

818,579

Vermont

283,396

17.155

330,551

Virginia

1,211,409

13,75 1

1.225,163

West Virginia

1 2 1.923

17,091

1 12.01 1

Wisconsin .

690,171

364,499

1,054,670

Total, States .

J 32,640,907

5,174.734

38,115,641

Q Q 2

596

THE STATESMAN S YEAtt-BOOK, 1877.

States and Territories

Native
Population

Foreign-born
Population

Total

Territories : —
Arizona
Colorado
Dakota

District of Columbia
Idaho .
Montana
New Mexico
Utah .
Washington
Wyoming .

Total, Territories

3,849
33,265

9,366
115,446

7,114
12,616
86,254
56,084
18,931

5,605

348,530

5,809
6,599
4,815

16,254
7,885
7,979
5,620

30,702
5,024
3,513

94,200

9,658

39,864
• 14.181
131,700

14,999

20,595

91,874

86,786

23,955
9,118 j

442,730 |

Total, United State

32,989,437

! 5,568,934 J 38,558,371

There were at the census of 1870 fourteen towns in the United
States with upwards of 100,000 inhabitants. The following table
gives the population of each of these towns in 1860 and in 1870,
showing the growth within the decenial period : —

Population

Towns

States

1860

1870

New York

805,651

942,292

Philadelphia

Pennsylvania

562,529

674.022

Brooklyn

New York

266,661

396,099

St. Louis

Missouri

160,733

310,864

Chicago

Illinois .

109,260

298,977

Baltimore

Maryland

212,418

267,354

Boston .

Massachusetts

177,812

250,526

Cincinnati

Ohio .

161,044

216,239

New Orleans

Louisiana

168,675

191,418

San Francisco

California

56,802

149,473

Buffalo .

, New York

81.130

117,714 |

Washington .

Dis. Columbia

61,122

109,199

Newark

New Jersey .

71,914

105,059

Louisville.

Kentucky

68,033

100.753

The immense extent of land forming part of the United States, as
yet uninhabited and uncultivated, is held to be national property, at
the disposal of Congress and the executive of the Republic. The
whole public domain is surveyed and divided by parallel lines into
' townships' of six miles square or thirty-six square miles, and these
are again divided by parallel lines exactly one mile apart. The
smaller squares are called ' sections,' and contain (!40 acres, which
are again divided into half and quarter sections, and also eighths.
These lands are offered for sale at the several land offices in the

UNITED STATES.

597

districts to be sold, the price being fixed at one dollar and a quarter
per acre. The purchaser comes in as the assignee of the United
States, and receives a patent from the President. There are some
fifty different land offices, and from two to three million acres are
sold annually. It is provided by law that two sections, of 640 acres
of land in each ' township,' are reserved for common schools, so that
the spread of education may go together with colonisation.

The power of Congress over the public territory is exclusive and
universal, except so far as restrained by stipidations in the original
cessions- This is not the case, however, with what is called
* national property,' such as forts and arsenals, where the States have
not ceded the jurisdiction. In such cases, the administration of the
State continues, subject, however, to the exercise of the legal powers
of the national government.

The United States acquired their actual power and greatness
mainly through immigration. From 1775 to 1815 immigration into
the country was very small, on account of the American Revolution
and the European wars, not over 3,000 or 4,000 a year arriving
during this period. When peace between England and America
was re-established, in 1815, immigration took a fresh start. The
famine of 1816 and 1817 gave the first powerful impulse to a larger
immigration from Germany, and after the year 1820 a never-inter-
rupted stream of population kept flowing into the United States,
the following statement shows the numbers of immigrants in the
fifty years 1820 to 1870, spread over equal decennial periods : —

Four census periods

Immigrants

In the 10 years previous to December 31, 1830 .

151,824

„ 10 years previous to ,, ,, 1840 .

5._)9,125

,, 10 years previous to ,, „ 1850 .

1,713,251

„ 10 years previous to ,, „ 1860 .

2,598,216

„ 10 years previous to „ ,, 1870 .

4,491,451

The native countries of all the immigrants who arrived in the United
States from 1820 to 1870 are shown in the subjoined statement : —

Native countries

Number

England and Wales

Scotland ........

Great Britain, not specified .....
Total Great Britain and Ireland ....

Spain .... ....

528,627

2,700,493

84,623

544,107

3,857,850

245,812

23,214

! 695

598

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877

Native countries

Belgium

Prussia

Germany, ex Prussia

Netherlands .

Denmark

Norway and Sweden

Poland .

Russia .

Malt

Turkey and Greece

Switzerland .

Central Italy

Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica

Iceland

Egypt .

British America

South America

Central America and Mexico

West Indies . . .

China ....

East Indies .

Persia ....

Other parts of Asia

Liberia, Morocco, Algiers, and

Cape of Good Hope

Africa ....

Azores, Canary, Madeira, and Cap

Sandwich and Society Islands

Australia ....

St. Helena ....

Japan .....

South Sea Islands and New Zealand

Not stated

Barb

Total aliens .

Natives of the United States

Total

*ry St

Verd

ttes

Island

Number

17,27S

100,983

2,267,500

31,118

23,42.".

153,928

4,038

4,045

505

61,572

23,998

2,905

284,491

8,644

21,216

50,187

109,502

208

475

7,570

162

247

259

119

248,213

7,553,865
716,469

8,270,334

The total number of immigrants who arrived in the United States
during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1876, was, according to the
statement of the Bureau of Statistics 169,986, being a decrease of
57,512 compared with the previous fiscal year, when the number
of immigrants was 227,498. Of the total of 1875-76, England
sent 24,373, Ireland 19,575, Scotland 4,582, Wales 324, Germany
31,937, and Canada and the other British North American Pro-
vinces 22,471. The total immigration for the fiscal year 1875-76
was barely one-third that of 1872-73, but the decrease in numbers
was to some extent compensated by an increase in quality, the im-
migrants of recent years belonging to a decidedly better class. In
r 'cent years there has been a large immigration of Chinese. During

UMTED STATE

599

the year 1875 there were 13,163 Chinese arrivals, and 6,4^2 depar-
tures, being a surplus of 6,737 arrivals. It was stated in an
official report, issued in 1876, that at the end of 1.S75 the total
number of Chinese in the United States was 148,300, of whom
60,000 lived in the State of California.

It is stated, through a calculation based upon the census returns
from 1800 to 1870, that on June 1, 1874, the population of the
United States was 43,167,000, being an increase of over four and a
half millions since the census of 1870. The estimate for June 1,
1875, on the same authority, was 44,384,000 ; and for June 1, 1876,
it was 45,627,000. However, the decrease of immigration within
these years makes these estimates, probably, too high. Nevertheless,
it is calculated that in 1880, year of the next decennial census, the
United States will have about 50,000,000 inhabitants.

Trade and Industry.

The subjoined table gives the total value, in dollars and pounds
sterling, of the imports and exports of merchandise in each of the
six fiscal years, ending June, from 1871 to 1876 : —

Yc-ar>
ended June 30

Imports of merchandise

Exports of merchandise

Dollars

1871

541,493,774

108,298,755

590,978,550

118,195,710

1872

572,510,304

114,502,161

561,808,381

112,361,676

1873

642,030,539

128,406,108

626,595,077

125,319,015

1874

.->67.406,342

113,481,268

586,283,040

117,256.608

1875

533,004,526

106,600,905

545,069.027

109,013,805

1876

460,640,190

92,128,038

580,114,291

116,022,858

The following table gives the total value of the gold and silver
bullion and specie imported and exported from the United States, in
each of the six fiscal years ended 30th June, from 1871 to 1876 : —

Years
(ended June 30)

Imports of bullion &c.

Export-; of

a Sic.
&

Dollars

1871

21,270,024

4,254,015

Ms. iil.9s:)

19,889,198

1872

13,743,689

2,748,738

79,877... :il

1.3,9 75,507

L873

21,480,937

4,296,187

84,608,574

16,921,715

1874

28,454,906

5,690,981

66,630,405

13,326,081

1875

20,894,217

4,178,843

92,132,1 12

18,426,428

1876

15,936,681

3,187,336

56,506,302

11,301,260

The exports of the United States consist in the main of agri-

6oo

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

cultural produce. Foremost, as regards value, in the list of articles,
stand wheat and flour, and then follow cotton, tobacco, pickled pork
and hams, and butter and cheese. Considerably more than two-
thirds of the exports go to Great Britain and Ireland, the rest being
taken chiefly by Canada, the British West Indies, and Germany.

The commercial intercourse of the United States with Great
Britain and Ireland is shown in the subjoined tabular statement,
which gives the total value of the exports of merchandise — exclusive
of bullion and gold and silver specie — from the United States to
Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish
produce and manufactures into the United States, in each of the ten
years from 1866 to 1875 :—

Exports

Imports of British Home

Years

from the United States

Produce into the United

to Great Britain

States

1866

46,854,518

28,499,514

1867

41,046,034

21.825,703

1868

43.062,383

21,431,032

1869

42,573,047

24.624,311

1870

49,804,835

28,335.394

1871

61,134.463

34.227,701

1872

54,663,948

4(1,736,597

1873

71,471,493

33,574,664

1874

73,897,400

28,241,809

1875

69,590,054

21,868,279

The great fluctuations in exports shown in the preceding table
were caused chiefly by the supply of the single article, cotton. In
1854, the United States sent 722,156,346 pounds of cotton to the
British market, and in 1860 the amount had risen to 1,115,890,608
pounds. The supply fell as low as 6,394,080 pounds in 1863 ; but
rose to 14,148,064 pounds in 1864; to 135,832,480 pounds in 1865;
and to 720,057,440 pounds in 1866 ; falling again to 574,444,752
pounds in 1868; to 457,358,944 pounds in 1869; and rising again
to 716,248,848 pounds in 1870; and to 1,038,677,920 pounds in
1871. It fell once more to 625,600,080 pounds in 1872, but rose
to 832,573,016 pounds in 1873, and to 874,926,864 pounds in 1874,
falling again to 841,333,472 pounds in 1875. Next to cotton,
the most valuable export article of the United States, for the above
period, was wheat and wheaten flour, the supply of which also was
subject to great fluctuations.

The following table gives the real or declared value of all the
principal articles — exclusive of bullion and specie — exported from
the United States to Great Britain and Ireland in each of the three
years 1873, 1874, and 1875:—

UNITED STATES.

60 1

Exports to Great Britain and Ireland.

1873.

1874.

1875.

Bacon and hams

5.191,901

4,477,911

5,469,662

Beef, salted .

378,412

408,441

345,469

Butter .

199,639

188,769

2 (.5,900

Caoutchouc

100,731

56,283

99,722

Cheese .

, 2,353,181

2,589,776

2,786,027

Clocks .

92,023

101,524

107,029

Corn, wheat .

12,938,848

14,201,450

12,469,664

,, maize or Indian corn

3,814,125

5,659,080

4,803,955

,, wheat meal and riour

1,382,304

2,918,566

1,738.445

Cotton, raw ....

, 31,544,933

29,309,963

27,075,283

Fruit, raw ....

112,393

86,547

85,874

Hops

46,740

131,063

201,874

Iron and steel, wrought or ma- "\
nufactured . .J

180,632

156,610

216,751

Lard

1,222,492

790,932

1,507,468

Naphtha (crude)

153,281

161,193

87,570

Oil, spermaceti, or head matter

194,780

241,713

347,634

„ of turpentine .

366,750

326,576

321,700

„ seed cake ....

946,244

1,101,238

1.242,985

Petroleum ....

987,591

982,939

770,488

Pork, salted ....

467,126

456,223

369,272

Rosin .....

435,085

401,773

335,835

Skins and furs of all sorts

531,754

604,037

604,888 i

Tallow and stearin e

1,012,102

896.477

768,317

Tobacco, unmanufactured

1,779,969

1,816,669

987,356

,, manufactured, and 1 ,„„»„„
> 108, / 32
cigars . . . • J \

151,696

84,929

Wood and timber : —

Hewn 693,128

1,243,242

531,689

Sawn or split . . . 284,609

503,622

426,659

All other articles .

3,951,988

3,933,057

5.597,602

Total .

71,471,493

73,897.40(1

69,590,054

The following table gives the value of the principal articles of
British and Irish produce and manufactures imported into the United
States in each of the three years 1873 to 1875 : —

Imports of British Home Produce into the
United States.

Alkali, soda ....
Anns, ammunition, and military stores

Fire-arms

Gunpowder .

All other kinds
Beer and ale
Coals, cinders, and fuel
Cotton piece goods

,, thread for sewing .
Earthen and China-ware
Haberdashery and millinery
Hardware and cutlery unenumerated
Linen, piece goods

,, thread

1873.

1874.

1875.

. 1,392,138

1,166,952

981,687

68,053

59,381

79,875

—

720

48,082

37,835

50,354

237-013

241,320

211,098

112,528

104,298

81,883

. 2,715.601

2.501.712

1,900,243

491,168

189,903

564,421

692,607

591,466

620,288

. 1,292,746

1,098,522

511,663

797,145

648,764

552,501

. 2,948,253

2,996,752

2,725,873

155,485

141,647

142.499

602

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Imports of British Home Produce into the

1873.

1874.

187?.

United States.

Metals :—

Iron, old .....

200,368

49,932

38,872

-Pig

693,694

213,979

195,319

,, bar, bolt, and rod .

308,226

74,064

55,798

,, railroad, of all kinds

2,434.135

1,290,072

228,904

,, hoops, sheets, and boiler plates

303,584

131,388

138,603

,, wire .....

64.514

31,765

34,952

„ tin plates ....

2,745 916

2,741,126

2,541,004

„ cast or wrought, of all kinds

443,387

352,022

143,638

,, steel, unwrought .

707,635

503,058

382,652

„ sttel, manufactures of .

101 067

59,533

46,025

Copper, wrought and unwrought .

269,787

61,311

23,102

Lead, pig, pipe, and sheet

69,244

63,899

6,466

Oil seed ....

3 308

16,562

3,186

Salt

248.933

164,144

177,471

Silk manufactures : —

Stuffs, handkerchiefs, and ribbons .

137 748

151,607

104,994

Other articles of silk only

102,632

127,756

60,690

Mixed with other materials .

81,678

61,342

33,711

Spirits, British

20,765

11,639

22,842

Wool, sheep and lambs'

62,421

82,052

82,791

Woollen manufactures : —

Cloths, coatings ....

1,197,438

1,011.657

767,118

Worsted stuffs ....

3,941,476

3,012,133

2,276,166

Carpets and druggets .

806,904

673,336

357,777

All other articles ....
Total

7,679,138
33,574,664

7,218,880

5,723,093

28,241,809"

21,868,279

It will be seen from the two preceding tables that there was a
general increase in the value of the exports of the United States
to Great Britain in 1873 and 1874, with a falling off in 1875 ; the
imports from Great Britain and Ireland into the United States
greatly decreased during the whole triennial period.

The international commerce of the United States is at present
mainly carried on in foreign bottoms, which took over 70 per cent,
of the aggregate imports and exports of the fiscal year 1874-75.
Previous to the year 18G0, from 75 to 80 per cent, of the total com-
merce was carried by vessels belonging to the United States.
However, the strength of the commercial navy of the United States
after decreasing for a number of years, underwent a considerable in-
crease from 1872 to 1874. On the 30th June, 1872, the total
number of vessels was 29,848, of an aggregate burthen of 4,150,003
tons, and on the 30th June, 1873, the total was 31,684 vessels, with
4,468,046 tonnage. The number included 3,709 steamers with
1,079,178 tonnage, and 10,739 unrigged vessels with 1,222,393

UNITED STATES.

603

tonnase. It appears from the last report of the Register of the Trea-
sury, issued in December 1875, that the total tonnage of vessels of
the United States amounted to 4,595,883 tons on the 30th June,
1875, classified as follows : —

Sailing-vessels .
Steam vessels .
Unrigged vessels
Canal boats. &c.

Total

Number

Tonnage

■

17,226
3,958
7,803
2,936

2,257,154-23

1,116,425-42

890,858-07

331,445-74

31,923

4,595,883-46

The following table shows the distribution of the commercial navy
of the United States among the states and coasts on the 30th June,
1875 —

States and Coasts

Vessels

Tons

Maine

3,221

565,842-59

New Hampshire

11.370-18

Massachusetts .

2,563

458,373-10

Rhode Island .

274

36,265 55

Connecticut

836

96,317-44

New Jersey

1,124

94,689-34

New York

5,051

1,026.023-56

Pennsylvania .

2,935

363,542-18

Delaware .

197

13,533-88

Maryland .

1,993

142,267-65

District of Columbia

472

28,l»6-50

Virginia .

892

22,623-54

North Carolina

279

7,408-91

South Carolina

195

8,142-43

Georgia .

9,291-84

Florida

237

9,588 76

Alabama .

7.01)9-41

Mississippi

3,368-56

Louisiana

572

50,961-71

Texas

306

] 1,998-27

Tola! on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts

21,465

2.967.715-30

Total on the Western rivers

1,564

:;;:; :

Total on the Northern lakes

4,833

758,838-84

Total on the Pacific coasl

1,125

164,418-99

28,987

4,264,437-72

■ aal boats, &c. .....

2,936

331,410 00

Grand total

•

31,923

4,595,883-72

604 the statesman's TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

At the close of June 1876 the total tonnage had risen to 4,853,752
tons.

At the census of the United States taken in 1870, there were
in the country 8,090,219 horses, 28,074,582 cattle, 28,477,951
sheep, and 25,184,540 hogs. The report of the Department of
Agriculture gives the following general summary of the number of
acres planted and quantities raised of the principal crops of the
United States in the year 1871 : — Indian corn, 34,091,137 acres,
yielding 991,898,000 bushels. Wheat, 19,943,893 acres, yielding
230,732,400 bushels. Oats, 8,365,800 acres, yielding 255,743,000
bushels. Potatoes, 1,220,912 acres, yielding 120,461,700 bushels.
Barley, 1,177,666 acres, yielding 26,718,500 bushels. Rye,
1,069,531 acres, yielding 15,355,500 bushels. Buckwheat,
413,015 acres, yielding 8,328,700 bushels. These seven crops
furnished a total of 66,282,863 acres, yielding 1,642,237,800
bushels. There were 356,762 acres planted in tobacco, which
yielded 263,196,100 lbs. The hay crop was cut from 10,009,052
acres, and yielded 22,239,400 tons. The cotton crop amounted to
3,100,000 bales. During the year 1871-2 there were exported to
Europe and elsewhere 1,957,314 bales of cotton of the American
crop, and 1,097,540 bales were consumed in American mills.

At the census of 1870 there were in the United States 956 cotton
manufacturing establishments. The States having the largest
numbers were Massachusetts, 191 establishments; Rhode Island,
139; Pennsylvania, 138; Connecticut, 111; New York, 81; New
Hampshire, 36 ; North Carolina, 33 ; Georgia 34; Tennessee, 28 ;
New Jersey, 27 ; Maine, 23 ; and Maryland, 22. The cotton mills
employed 448 steam— engines, aggregating 47,117-horse— power and
1,250 water-wheels of 102,409-horse-power. There were 157,310
looms, 3,694,477 frame spindles, and 3,437,938 mule spindles. The
hands employed were 47,790 males above 16 years of age, 69,637
females above 15, and 22,942 children and youths.

At the census of 1870 there were 2,891 woollen factories in the
country. Of these Pennsylvania had 457 ; New York, 252 ; Ohio,
223; Massachusetts, 185; Indiana, 175; Missouri, 156; Delaware,
148; Kentucky, 125; Illinois, 109; Connecticut, 108; Maine, 107;
Iowa, 85 ; New Hampshire, 77 ; West Virginia, 74 ; Virginia, 68 ;
Rhode Island, 65; Vermont, 64; Wisconsin, 64; Michigan, 54;
North Carolima, 52 Georgia, 46; Maryland, 31 : New Jersey, 29;
and other States smaller numbers. The woollen factories had 1,050
steam-engines, with 35,900-horse-power, and 1,092 water-wheels
with 59,333-horse-power. They contained 8,363 sets of cards, with
a daily capacity of 857,392 lbs. of carded wool ; 14,039 broad looms;
26,044 narrow looms ; and 1,845,496 spindles. The average

UNITED STATES. 605

number of hands employed was 427,728 males over 16 years of age;
27,681 females above 15; and 9,643 children.

The statistics of the American iron manufacture, obtained at the
census of 1870, showed that there Avei-e in the country 386 es-
tablishments which made pig iron. They worked 574 blast
furnaces with a daily capacity of 8,357 tons of molten metal,
employed 27,554 hands during the year ending June 30, 1870, and
in that year made 2,052,821 tons of pig iron. The foundries num-
bered 2,653, employing 51,297 hands; the forges numbered 102,
with 3,561 hands; and the bar, rod, railway iron, plate, and other
kindred establishments numbered 309, employing 44,643 hands.
Pennsylvania had the largest share in the iron manufacture.

It was ascertained at the census of 1870 that sixteen states pro-
duced iron ore, of which the entire annual yield was 3,395,718
tons, cne-third produced in Pennsylvania. Outside of Pennsylvania
the largest yield was :— Michigan, 690,000 tons; New York,
625,000; New Jersey, 362,000; Ohio, 316,000; and Missouri,
177,000. No other state produced over 100,000 tons, Maryland,
the next, having 98,000. The copper production was chiefly in the
Lake Superior region, four-fifths of the yield being from Michigan.
Nine states produced copper, the largest after Michigan being Ver-
mont, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Maryland. Petroleum at the
census of 1 870 was found in four states, Pennsylvania producing
171^ millions of gallons; West Virginia, eight millions; Ohio, two
millions, and Kentucky, 4,000, the aggregate yield amounting to
181,263,502 gallons.

The yield of the precious metals in the United States in the year
1875 was returned at 80,889,037 dollars, or 16,177,807/. in value.
Nevada produced the largest amount, namely, 40,478,369 dollars,
or 8,095,674/. in value, mainly silver, and after it came California,
which produced 16,326,211 dollars, or 3,265,240/. in value, chiefly
gold. Montana, Idaho, Colorado, Oregon, Washington, Utah, New
Mexico, and Arizona produced smaller amounts.

There were 45,413,340 tons of coal raised in the fiscal year
1873-74 the amount exceeding by 2,564,099 tons that of the pre-
vious year. The great coal region of the United States is Pennsyl-
vania, which produces three-fourths of the entire yield of the country.
In 1874, the coal mines of Pennsylvania employed 44,000 men,
mostly natives of Wales, England, and Ireland.

The growth of the railway system of the United States dates from
1827, when the first line was opened for traffic at Quincey, Massa-
chusetts. The extent of railways in operation in lS.'JO was 23 miles;
it rose to 2,818 miles in 1840; to 9,021 miles in 1850; to 30,635
miles in I860; and to 53,399 miles in 1870. The following table
gives the length of lines opened for traffic in the states and territories
at the commencement of each of the years 1873, 1874, and 1X75: —

6o6

THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

States and Territories

January 1,
1873

January 1.
1874

| January 1.
1875

Miles

Alabama ......

1,828

1,838

1.856

Arkansas .

545

792

810

California .

1,491

1,576

1.681

Colorado .

551

662

685

Connecticut

898

927

Dakota territory

223

304

Delaware .

219

235

251

Florida

478

496 !

Georgia

2.180

2,279

2.279

Illinois

6,277

6,530

6,742

Indiana

3,705

3,770

3,976

Indian territory

310

Iowa .

3,640

3,733

3,767 )

Kansas

1,901

1,977

2.(140

Kentucky .

1,199

1,329

1.360

Louisiana .

569

589

Maine

871

927

964

Massachusetts .

1,625

1,738

1,765

Maryland and distric

; of Colum

}ia

931

965

967

Michigan .

2,973

3.155

3.203

Minnesota

1,860

1,904

1,940

Mississipi .

985

992

1,019

Missouri .

2.769

3,005

3.036

Nebraska .

1,170

1,120

Nevada

569

587

627

New Hampshire

822

870

915

New Jersey

1,343

1,384

1,323

New York

5,175

5,417

5.442

North Carolina .

1,263

1,278

1,346

Ohio

4,108

4,239

4,482

Oregon

297

307

Pennsylvania

5,533

5,724

5,908

Rhode Island .

134

156

170

South Carolina .

1,290

1,378

1,370

Tennessee

1,522

1,686

1,636

Texas

877

1.560

1,635

Utah territory .

376

461

501

Vermont .

741

794

799

Virginia

1,537

1,573

1.643

Washington territory

105

111

West Virginia .

561

597

Wisconsin

1,903

2,223

2,316

Wyoming territory .

459

450

Total

67,976

73.969

73,888

The amount of capital expended upon all the railwaj's to the close
of 1875 was estimated at 4,658,208,000 dollars, or 9o3,lG4,160/.
The number of telegraph offices in the United States on the 1st

UNITED STATES. 607

■July, 1876, was 6,852, the total length of lines, 79,000 miles, and
the length of wires 172,000 miles. There were transmitted
18,729,567 messages in the year ending June 30, 1876.

The post office carried 610,000,000 letters, 119,000.000 stamped
-wrappers, 16,000,000 newspapers, and 33,000,000 postcards in the
fiscal vear ending June 30, 1876. The number of post offices was
36,515 on the 30th of June, 1876.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Of the United States in Great Britain.

Envoy and Minister. — Hon. Edwards Pierrepont, born in the State of Con-
necticut, 1817 ; studied law and graduated at Yale College, 1837 ; admitted to
the Bar, 1811. Attorney- General of the United States, May 1875 to May
1876 ; accredited Envoy and Minister to Great Britain, June 0, 1876.

Secretaries. — William J. Hoppin ; James Day.

2. Of Great Britain to the United States.

Envoy and Minister. — Bight Hon. Sir Edward Thornton, horn in 1820;
Charge d'Affai-es in Uruguay 1854-59; Envoy to the Argentine Confederation,
1859-63, and to Paraguay, 1863-65; Envoy and Minister to Brazil, 1865-67 ;
appointed Envoy and Minister to the United States, December 6, 1867.

Secretaries.— Hon. F. R. Plunket; Hon. P. H. L. Trench; Frank C.
Lascelles; Francis C. E. Denjs ; Charles F. F. Adam.

Saval Attache. — Capt. W. G. Jones, R.N.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of the United States are : —

Money.
The Dollar, of 100 cents . . Approximate value, 4s.

There are practically two denominations of value employed in the
United States, the first the gold dollar, worth about 4s. British money,
and the second the paper dollar, principal currency since the civil war,
worth from 3s. 10rf. to 3s. 6tZ., according to the rates of exchange.
Legal enactments have settled that customs duties must be paid in
coin, as well as the interest on the national debt of the United
States, and any disbursements which the Government may have to
make in the intercourse with foreign countries. All other money
transactions may be, and mostly are, in paper currency.

In the session of 1873, the Congress of the United Slates passed
an Act to regulate the value of the RwglUli sovereign in American
coin, and to fix the " par of exchange." The Act requires that in
all payments by or to the Treasury, the sovereign, or pound sterling
shall be computed as equal t<> 1 'lol!ars86c. 6-^m. This value is also
to be applied in appraising merchandise imported and in the con-
struction of contracts.

6o8 THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Weights and Measures.

British weights and measures are usually employed, but the old Winchester
gallon and bushel are used instead of the new or imperial standards. They
are: —

Wine gallon = 0-83333 gallon.

Ale gallon . = 1-01695

Bushel . = 0-9692 imperial bushel.

Instead of the British cwt. a quintal, or Centner, of 100 pounds is used.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the United

States.

1. Official Publications.

Acts of Congress relating to Loans and the Currency from 1846 to 1876 in-
clusive. 8. New York, 1876.

Agriculture: Ninth Census of the United States. 4. Washington, 1872.

Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy, made to the President of the
United States. 8. Washington, 1876.

Census of the United States. Ninth Census. Vol. I. Statistics of Popula-
tion, pp. 804 ; Vol. II. Vital Statistics, pp. 679 ; Vol. III. Statistics of Wealth
and Industry, pp. 843. Washington, 1872.

Commerce of the United States. Statistics of the Foreign and Domestic
Commerce of the United States. 8. Washington, 1875.

Compendium of the Ninth Census. Compiled, under the direction of the
Secretary of the Interior, by Francis A. Walker, Superintendent of Census. 8.
Washington, 1872.

Manufactures of the United States in 1870. Compiled from the returns
of the ninth census. 4. Washington, 1873.

Monthly Reports of the Commerce and Navigation of the United States, by
the Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1876.
Fol. Washington, 1876.

Mortality of the United States, at the Census of 1870, 1860, and 1850. 4.
Philadelphia, 1872.

Navy Register of the United States to July 22, 1875. Printed by order of
the Secretary of the Navy. Washington, 1875.

Papers relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, transmitted to
Congress. 8. Washington, 1876.

Report of the Special Commissioner of the Revenue xipon the industry, trade,
&c. of the United States, for the year 1870. 8. Washington, 1871.

Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1876. 8. Washington, 1876.

Report of the Secretary of the Navy, with an Appendix containing Reports
from officers. 8. Washington, 1876.

Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the state of the Finances for the
year ended June 30, 1876. Washington, 1876.

Report of the Secretary of War upon the operation of the War department
for theyear 1875. 8. Washington, 1876.

Report of the Commissioner of the General Land Office to the Secretary of
the Interior for the year 1875. 8. Washington, 1876.

Statement of the Public Debt of the United States, September 1, 1876.
Fol. Washington. 1876.

Statistics of Population. Ninth Census of the United States. 4. Wash-
ington, 1872.

UNITED STATES. 609

Statistics of the "Wealth and Industry of the United States. 4. Washington,
1872.

The Statutes at large, and Treaties of the United States of America. Collated
with the originals at Washington. By authority. Published annually. 8.
Boston, 1876.

Keport by Mr. Pakenham, British Secretory of Legation, on the Finances,
Trade, and Navigation of the United States during the year 1871, dated
Washington, April 22, 1872; in 'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy
and Legation.' No. II. 1872. 8. London. 1872.

Keport by Mr. Pakenham, British Secretary of Legation, on the commerce
of the United States during the year 1873, dated Washington, June 12, 1874;
in 'Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. 1875.
8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. R. G. Watson, British Secretary of Legation, on the finances
of the United States, dated "Washington, January 5, 1875 ; in ' Reports by
H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Parti. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. R. G. Watson, Secretary of Legation, on the Trade and Com-
merce of the United States in 1874, dated Washington, March 15, 1875 ; in
'Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part III. 1875.
London, 1875.

Report by Mr. R. G. Watson, British Secretary of Legation, on the Trade
and Industry of the United States for 1875, dated March 22, 1876 ; in ' Reports
by HJVI.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part II. 1876. 8. London,
1876.

Report by Mr. Vice-Consul Cox on the commerce of Key West, Florida,
dated December 6, 1874; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1875.
8. London, 1875.

Reports by Mr. Constil Donohoe on the Trade and Commerce of Baltimore ;
by Mr. Consul Cridland on the Trade of Mobile, and the Commerce, Agricul-
ture, and Mining Industry of the State of Alabama ; by Mr. Consul de Fon-
blanque on the Commerce of New Orleans ; and by Mr. Consul-General Archi-
bald on the Trade, Navigation, and Commerce of New York, dated January-
February 1875; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part II. 1875. 8.
London, 1875.

Reports by Mr. Consul Donohoe on the Trade of Baltimore ; by Mr. Consul
Henderson on the Commerce of Boston ; by Mr. Consul Walker on the Trade
of Charleston ; by Mr. Consul Lynn on the Trade of Galveston ; by Mr.
Consul Cridland on the Trade of Mobile ; by Mr. Consul de Fonblanque on
the Commerce of New Orleans; by Mr. Consul-General Archibald on tho
Trade and Commerce of New York ; by Mr. Consul Murray on the Commerce
and Industry of Maine ; by Mr. Consul Booker on the Trade and Commerce
of California and of Oregon; by Mr. Consul Elmore on the Trade and In-
dustry of Savannah; and by Mr. Consular- A gent Drury on tho Trade and
Commerce of Savannah, dated Jan.-Feb. 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part III. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Reports by Mr. Consul Walker on the Commerce of Charleston, and by Mr.
Consul-General Archibald on the Exports of New York, dated May 1876; in
• Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of the United States with Great Britain and Ireland ; in ' Annual
Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries in the
year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.
Barrot (Geo. Odillon), La situation financiere ct le budget des Etata-unis
depuis la guerre civile. 8. Paris, 1871.

R 1:

6lO THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Bell (A.), New Tracks in North America. 2 vols. 8. London, 1870.

Ball (W. H.), Alaska and its Resources. 8. Boston, 1870.

Bilke (Sir Charles Wentworth, Bart. , M.P.) Great Britain : a record of
travel in English-speaking countries in 1866 and 1867. 3rd ed. 8. London,
1869.

Front de Fontpcrtuis (Adalbert), Les Etats-Unis de l'Amerique Septentrionale;
leurs origines, leur emancipation et leurs progres. 8. Paris. 1875.

Gillet (Ransom H.), Federal Government ; its officers and their duties. 8.
New York, 1871.

Homans (B.), The Banker's Almanac and Register for 1877. 8. New
York, 1876.

Homans (J. Smith), The Banker's Magazine and Statistical Register. Pub-
lished monthly. 8. New York, 1876.

King (Edward), The Southern States of America. 8. London, 1875.

Lanman (Charles), Biographical Annals of the Civil Government of the
United Stages during its First Centurv. 8. London, 1876.

Macpherson (E.), The Political History of the United States of America
during the Great Rebellion from 1860 to 1864. 8. Washington, 1864.
' Norman (George Warde), The Future of the United States ; in ' Journal of
the Statistical Society.' Vol. 38. Part I. 8. London, 1875.

Paschal (George W), The Constitution of the United States. 8. Washington,
1868.

Poor (Henry V.) Manual of the Railroads of the United States. 8. New
York, 1876.

Poore (B. Perley), Congressional Directory. Compiled for the use of Con-
gress. 8. Washington, 1876.

Seaman (Ezra C), The American System of Government, its Character and
Workings. 12. New York, 1871.

Richardson (Wm.A.), Practical Information concerning the Public Debt of the
United States. 8. Washington, 1873.

Vernon (Edward), American Railroad Manual for the United States and the
Dominion. Imp. 8. New York and Philadelphia, 1876.

URUGUAY.

6ll

URUGUAY.

(Rep^blica Oriental del Uruguay.)

Constitution and Government.

The republic of Uruguay,formerly a Brazilian province, declared its
independence, August 25, 1825, which was recognised by the Treaty
of Montevideo, signed August 27, 1828. The constitution of the
republic was proclaimed July 18, 1831. By the terms of this charter,
the legislative power is in a Parliament composed of two Houses, the
Senate and the Chamber of Representatives, which meet in annual
session, extending from February 15 to the end of June. In the
interval of the session, a permanent committee of two senators and
five members of the Lower House assume the legislative power, as
well as the general control of the administration.

The executive is given by the constitution to the President of the
Republic, elected for the term of four years. A vice-president, also
elected for four years, is at the head of the senate, but has no other
political power.

President of the Republic. — Colonel L. Latorre, formerly Minister
of "War and Marine ; elected President of the Republic, with dicta-
torial powers, March 18, 1876, as successor of Don Pedro Varela,
elected January 15, 1875, and who resigned March 10, 1876.

The President is assisted in his executive functions by a council of
ministers divided into four departments, namely, the ' ministerio de
gobierno,' or ministry of the interior ; the ' ministerio de relaciones
exteriores,' or department of foreign affairs ; the ' ministerio de haci-
enda,' or department of finance ; and the ' ministerio de la guerra,'
or department of war and marine.

Revenue, Public Debt, and Army.

The actual revenue of the Republic is mainly derived from im-
port and export duties, both very largely increased in recent years.
The following tabular statement gives the totals of the budget esti-
mates of revenue and expenditure for each of the three years 1873
to 1875:—

Years

Revenue

Expenditure

1873
1874
1875

Dollars 1 £
3,814,159 1 762,831
5,947,400 1,189,480
7,442,000 1,488,400

Dollars

6,730,826

8,690,512

12,645,482

£
1,341,165
1,738,102
2,529,092

B It 2

6l2 THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

According to these estimates, there was a calculated deficit of
2,916,667 dollars, or 583,334/. in 1873, and a deficit of 2,473,112
dollars, or 548,622/. in 1874.

More than four-fifths of the total revenue are derived from customs,
and more than one-half of the total expenditure is on account of the
charges connected with the public debt.

The republic owed at the end of March 1875 a foreign debt
of 42,357,695 pesos, or 8,471, 539?., contracted at rates of interest
from 6 to 12 per cent. There are, besides, unsettled foreign claims
against Uruguay to the amount of 6,000,000 pesos, or 1,200,000/.
The amount of the internal debt is estimated at 18,000,000 pesos,
or 3,600,000/., exclusive of a floating debt of about 19,000,000
pesos, or 3,800,000/. It was decreed by the government in June
1869, in consequence of suspension of payments by the chief banks,
that the notes of all of them should be under state guarantee, with
forced currency. The amount of paper money is constantly in-
creasing. In September 1876, the government added notes of the
nominal value of 2,000,000/. to the already existing amount.

The armed forces of Uruguay were officially reported of the
following strength at the end of March 1875: —

Number of Men.

Infantry, 6 battalions 2,049

Cavalry, 3 squadrons ...... 430

Artillery, 1 regiment 318

Total . . . 2,797
The army was commanded at the end of March 1875, according
to official returns, by 17 generals, 20 colonels, 30 heut. -colonels, and
505 captains, lieutenants, and ensigns, being a total of 573 officers,
or more than one commissioned officer to every five men.

Population, Trade, and Industry.

The area of Uruguay is estimated at 73,538 English square miles,
with a population, according to a government estimate published in
1860, of 221,243, but numbering 450,000, after a calculation of
M. Vaillant, Registrar-General, published in 1873. The country is
divided into 13 provinces. The capital, Montevideo, had, according
to a rough enumeration of the year 1872, a population of 105,295, of
whom about one-third were foreigners. There is a considerable
flow of immigration, numbering 21,148 individuals in 1870 ; 15,319
in 1871 ; 11,516 in 1872; 24,539 in 1873; and 13,764 in 1874.

Uruguay carries on an active commerce with foreign countries,
but which has been declining recently. In the year 1874 the
exports were valued at 15,240,000 pesos, or 3,048,000/., and in
1875 the estimate was 14,300,000 pesos, or 2,860,000/. The im-
ports, which were of the declared value of 16,320,000 pesos, or
3,264,000/. in 1874, fell to 14,320,000 pesos, or 2,864,000/. in 1875.

URUGUAY.

613

Nearly the whole of the exports and imports of the republic pass
through Montevideo, the capital, at the mouth of the Rio de la Plata.

About one-half of the exports of Uruguay are shipped to Great
Britain, and the rest to France, the United States, Brazil, Spain,
and Italy. The articles exported consist chiefly of salted hides,
tallow, cows' and mares' grease, bones and bone ash, wool, and sheep-
skins. There is a considerable export trade also of extract, or
essence, of meat prepared on Liebig's system.

The commercial intercourse of Uruguay with the United King-
dom is exhibited in the following tabular statement which shows
the value of the exports from Uruguay to Great Britain and Ireland,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into Uruguay in each of the five years 1871 to 1875 : —

Exports from Uruguay

Imports of

Tears

British Home Produce

Great Britain

into Uruguay

1871

1,231,993

1,044,797

1872

1,416,933

1,817,783

1873

1,270,723

1,762,012

1874

1,437,288

1,224,038

1875

1,208,590

713,830

The chief articles of export from Uruguay to the United King-
dom are hides and tallow, the first of the value of 547,081/. and the
second of 222,871/., in 1875. The British imports into Uruguay
consist chiefly of manufactured cotton goods, and of iron, the first of
the value of 218,617/., and the second of the value of 116,749/., in
the year 1875.

There were railways of a total length of 268 English miles oj>en
for traffic at the end of June 1876. The lines represented two sys-
tems, the first known as the Central of Uruguay, and the second as
the Alto Uruguay. Of the first system, there were completed, at
the above date, lines from Montevideo to Florida and Durayno, of
a total length of 82 miles, with a branch line to the port of
Higueritas, on the river Uruguay, opened in February 1876. On
the second system, the chief lines were from Salto Oriental to
Santo Rosa, 113 miles in length, and from Montevideo to Pando,
29 miles long. There were other lines of a total length of 220
miles in course of construction at the end of June 1875.

The telegraphic lines in operation at the end of June 1876 were
of a total length of 986 Engl, miles, belonging to three companies,
the ' Compania telegraphica Platina,' the ' Linea Oriental,' and
the ' River Plate Telegraph Company (limited),1 the last owning
rather more than half of the lines.

6 14 the statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

The Post Office carried 1,296,350 letters and 1,355,000 news-
papers in the year 1875. The receipts of the Post Office in 1874
and 1875 were insufficient to cover the expenditure.

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of Uruguay in Great Britain.

Consul- General. — Don Carlos Ernesto Soto, accredited Nov. 29, 1872.

2. Of Great Britain in Uruguay.

Consul.— Major J. St. J. Munro, appointed Sept. 24, 1869.
Vice-Consul. — Theodore Lemm, appointed April 1, 1875.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Uruguay, and the British
equivalents, are : —

Money.
The Peso, or Dollar, of 100 eentenas . Approximate value, 4s.
Weights and Measures.
The Quintal = 101'40 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Arroha = 25'35 „
,, Fanega = 1A imperial bushel.
The money, weights, and measures of the Brazilian empire are
also in general use.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Uruguay.

1. Official Publications.

Eeport by Mr. Consul Munro on the Trade and Commerce of Montevideo
for the year 1874, dated Montevideo, December 31, 1875; in ' Reports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Reports by Mr. Vice-Consul Wilson on the Trade of Colonia, and by Mr.
Consul Munro on the Trade aiid Commmerce and Industries of Montevideo,
for the year 1875, dated December 31, 1875 ; in ' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part III. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Uruguay with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade
of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
in the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Gardner (Gilbert J.), The Financial Position of Uruguay. 8. London. 1874.

Maria (Isid. de) Compendio de la historia de la Republica Oriental del
Uruguay. 8. Montevideo, 1864.

Murray (Rev. J. H.), Travels in Uruguay, S. America. 8. London, 1871.

Mulhall (M. G. and E. T.), Handbook to the River Plate Republics, &c, and
the Republics of Uruguay and Paraguay. 8. London, 1875.

Reyes (M.), Descripcion geografica del territorio de la Republica Oriental del
Uruguay. 8. Montevideo, 1859.

Somwer-Geiser (H.), Lebensbilder aus dein Stapt Uruguay. 8. Basel, 1861.

Vaillant (A.), La Republica Oriental del Uruguay. 8. Montevideo, 1873.

VENEZUELA. 6l$

VENEZUELA.

(Republica de Venezuela.)

Constitution and Government.

The republic of Venezuela was formed in 1830, by secession
from the other members of the Free- state founded by Simon Bolivar
within the limits of the Spanish colony of New Granada. The
charter of fundamental laws actually in force, dating from 1830,
and re-proclaimed, with alterations, on the 28th March, 1864, is
designed on the model of the constitution of the United States
of America, but with considerably more independence secured to
provincial and local government. The provinces, or States, of the
republic, twenty-one in number, have each their own legislature and
executive, as well as their own budgets, and judiciary officers, and
the main purpose of their alliance is that of common defence. At
the head of the central executive government stands a President,
elected for the term of two years, with a Vice-President at his side,
and exercising his functions through six ministers. The President
has no veto power. The legislation for the whole republic is
vested in a Congress of two Houses, called the Senate and the
House of Representatives, both composed of members deputed
by the same bodies in the individual states. The President, Vice-
President, and Congresses of States are elected by universal suffrage.

President of the Republic. — General Antonio Guzman Blanco,
elected President April 15, 1873 ; re-elected 1875.

Since the year 1847, the republic has suffered greatly from
intestine dissensions, leading to an almost continuous civil war,
through the struggles of the rival parties of the Federalists and
Confederalists, the former desiring a strong central government, and
the latter the greatest possible independence of the separate States.

Revenue, Public Debt, and Army.

The chief source of public revenue at the disposal of the central
government is that of customs duties, which produced 3,450,000 pesos,
or 690,000/., in the year ending June 30, 1875. The total revenue
in the same year amounted to 6,702,080 venezolanos, or 1,340,416/.,
and the expenditure to 6,143,134 venezolanos, or 1,228,626/. The
principal branch of expenditure is for the maintenance of the army.

The public debt of Venezuela, internal and foreign, was estimated
at 20,000,000/. at the end of 1876. The exact iamount of the
interior and floating debt is unknown. The foreign debt, contracted
chiefly in England, comprises a nominal capital of 6,694,350/., made
up as follows : —

6i6

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

3 per cent, stock

. 2,812,000

l£ per cent, stock or ' deferred debt '

. 1,382,350

6 per cent, loan of 1862

. 900,000

6 per cent, stock, issued for arrears

. 200,000

6 per cent, loan of 1864

. 1,400,000

Total .

. 6,694,350

With the exception of the dividends on the 6 per cent, loan of
1863, no regular interest has been paid by the government on any
of the liabilities here enumerated since the year 1865.

The army of the republic numbered 5,000 men, nominally, in
1876. Besides the regular troops, there is a national militia in
which every citizen, from the 18th to the 45th year inclusive, must be
enrolled. Eecent intestine wars were chiefly carried on by the militia.

Population, Trade, and Industry.

The area of Venezuela is estimated to embrace 403,261 English
square miles, and to contain a population of 1,784,194 souls. The
following table gives the area and population of the twenty-one states
— three of them with territories attached — into which the republic
is divided, as reported in census returns of September, 1873: —

States

Area: English
square miles

Population

1. Caracas (Federal District) . ")

f 60,010

2. Guarico ....

• I

33,986

I 191,000

3. Bolivar .

. f

1 129,143

4. Guzman Blanco

• J

1 94,151

5. Carabobo

6. Cojedes .

: }

8,119

/ 117,605
\ 85,678

7. Barquisimeto .

: }

9,352

f 143.818

8. Yaracui

\ 71,689

9. Falcon .

10,253

99,920

10. Portugueza

11. Zamora .

}

23,845

/ 79,934
\ 59,449

12. NaevaEsparta

442

30,983

13. Barcelona

, .

13,812

101,396

14. Cumana,

f 55,476

15. Maturin

• }

17,494

{ 47,863

Territory of Marino

I 6,705

16. Trujillo .

4,328

108,672 |

17. Guzman (Merida)

18. Tachira .

}

10,848

f 67,849 i
)_ 68,619

19. Zulia

Territory of Goajiro

}

28,934

/ 59,235
\ 29,263

20. Apure

18,896

18,635 I

21. Guayana.

208,369

34,053 |

Terr, of Amazonas .

•

13,583

23,048

Tota

1 .

•

403,261

1,784,194

VENEZUELA.

617

The trade of Venezuela is not very considerable, although the
country possesses vast agricultural and mineral resources. During
the year 1875, the total imports were of the value of 4,607,179
venezolanos, or 885,995/., and the total exports of the value of
5,230,288 venezolanos, or 1,005,824/. The imports of 1875 were
218,612/. more in value than those of 1874, and the exports
136,280/. more than those of the preceding year. The foreign
commerce of Venezuela is chiefly with Germany and Great Britain.

The total value of the exports of Venezuela to Great Britain, and
of the imports of British produce and manufactures, was as follows
in each of the five years 1871 to 1875 : —

Exports from Vene-

Imports of British

Years

zuela to Great

Home Produce into

Britain

Venezuela

1871

59,515

310,918

1872

122,621

530,800

1873

97,772

527,605

1874

50,545

506,443

1875

37,136

733,403

The chief articles of export from Venezuela to Great Britain in
1875 were coffee and raw cotton. The exports of coffee in 1875
were of the value of 10,014/., while the exports of raw cotton were
valued at 8,248/. The imports from Great Britain comprise mainly
cotton and linen manufactures, the former of the value of 493,326/.,
and the latter of 91,746/., in the year 1875.

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of Venezuela in Great Britain.
Consul. — F. H. Hemming, appointed Nov. 11, 1874.

2. Of Great Britain in Venezuela.

Minister and Consul- General. — Eobert Thos. Charles Middleton, appointed
Dec. 12, 1872.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Venezuela, and the British
equivalents, are : —

Monet.
The Venezolano, of 100 Centavas . . approximate value, 4s.

Weights and Measures.

The Libra = T014 lbs. avoirdupois.

„ Quintal = 101-40

„ Arroba = 25-35 „

The above are the old weights and measures in general use, but
the legal ones are those of the French metric system.

618 THE statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Venezuela.

I. Official Publications.

Estadistica Mercantil. 8. Caracas, 1876.

Report by Mr. Consul-General Middleton on the Commerce of Venezuela,
dated Caracas September 23, 1873 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls on the
Manufactures, Commerce, &c , of their consular districts.' Part I. 1874. 8.
London, 1874.

Report by Mr. Consul-General Middleton on the Commerce of Venezuela
during the year 1874, dated Caracas, December 8, 1874 ; in 'Reports by H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Parti. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. Consul-General Middleton on the Commerce of Venezuela for
the year 1875, dated Caracas Dec. 6, 1875; in ' Reports by H.M.'s Secretaries
of Embassy and Legation.' Part L 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Report by Mr. Vice-Consul Conn, on the Trade of Puerto Caballo, dated
Puerto Caballo, Jan. 29, 1876 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part III.
1876. 8. London, 1876.

Report by Mr. Vice-Consul Mathison on the Commerce of Ciudad Bolivar ;
by Mr. Vice-Consul Akers Cage, on the Commerce of La Guaira ; and by Mr.
Vice-Consul Conn on the Commerce of Puerto Caballo, dated May-June 1876 ;
in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' No. VI. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Venezuela with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade
of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries for the year 1875.' 4.
London, 1876.

II. Non-official Publications.

Appun (C. F.), Unter den Tropen. Wanderungen durch Venezuela, am
Orinoco, durch Britisch-Guyana und am Amazonenstrom, in den Jahren 1849-
1868. Vol. I. Venezuela. 8. Jena, 1871.

Dance (C. D.), Four Years in Venezuela. 8. London, 1876.

Eastwick (Edward), Venezuela, or Sketches of Life in a South American
Republic; with a history of the Loan of 1864. 8. London, 1868.

Ernst (Dr. A.), Les produits de Venezuela a 1' exposition internationale a
Breme en 1874. 8. Bremen, 1874.

Meulemans (Auguste), La r^publique de Venezuela. 8. Bruxelles, 1872.

Thirion (C), Les etats-unis de Venezuela. 8. Paris, 1867.

Tejera (Miguel), Venezuela pintoresca e illustrada. Tomo I. 8. Paris,
1875.

619

II. AFRICA.

ALGERIA.

(L'Algeeie.)
Government, Revenue, and Army.

Algeria, the largest and most important of the colonial possessions
of France, was entirely under military rule till the year 1871, when,
after the extinction of a widespread rebellion among the natives,
various reforms, tending to organised civil administration, were
introduced by the French government. In place of the former
military governor, a civil Governor-General at present administers
the government of the colony, directing the action of both the civil and
military authorities. But the new civil government extends only over
the settled districts, and the territory of the Sahara and adjoining dis-
tricts, inhabited chiefly by nomade tribes, remain under exclusively
military rule. The country under civil government is divided into
three provinces, Algiers, Constantine, and Oran, which are sub-
divided into twelve departments, at the head of which is a Prefect.

Governor-General of Algeria. — General Auguste Chancy, born
1822, entered the army 1839, and served in Africa till 1870 ; com-
mander of the Army of the Loire in the war against Germany,
1870-71 ; appointed Governor- General of Algeria March 1873.

The Governor-General is invested with legislative powers in civil
affairs. In all important cases he has to take advice from a
Colonial Council, appointed by the French Government.

The financial progress of Algeria is shown in the following table,
giving the revenue and expenditure at five decennial periods and in
1875 :—

Tears

Revenue

Expenditure

Francs

1830

250,059

18,000

1840

5,610,706

7,206,372

1850

19,632,271

27,959.358

1860

38,908,906

39.471,372

1870

45,360,859

51,762,316

1875

52,386,955

57,110,872

The revenue of Algeria is derived chiefly from indirect taxes,
licences, and customs duties on imports. The cost of maintenance
of the army, the expenditure for public works, and other large sums

620

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

disbursed by the Government are not included in the expenditure,
being provided out of the French budget. In the French financial
estimates for 1877, the home expenditure for Algeria, forming part
of the budget of the Minister of the Interior, was set down at
25,111,472 francs, or 1,004,456^., and the revenue derived from
the colony at 24,483,400 francs, or 979,336Z.— (See Budget of
France for the years 1876 and 1877, pp. 61-2.)

The French troops in Algeria consist of one ' corps d'armee,' the
7th, numbering about 60,000 men. The troops in Algeria are
divided into two classes, namely, French corps, which remain there
in garrison for a certain number of years and then return to France,
and the so-called native troops, which never quit the colony except
on extraordinary occasions, as in the war against Germany, at the
outset of which, in July 1870, a division of them was incorporated
with the French army, forming part of the vanguard in Alsace.
The native troops consist of three regiments of Zouaves, three of
Turcos, or ' Tirailleurs algeriens,' three of ' Chasseurs dAfrique,' and
three of ' Spahis.' Only a moiety of these troops is composed of na-
tives of Africa, the rest consisting of natives of Europe of all nations.

Population, Trade, and Industry.

The boundaries of Algeria are not very well defined, large por-
tions of the territory in the outlying districts being claimed both
by the French Government and the nomade tribes who inhabit it,
and hold themselves unconquered. According to official returns
issued in 1876, the area of the colony embraces 669,015 square
kilometres, or 258,306 English square miles, being about one-sixth
larger than France. The following table gives the area, in English
square miles, of each of the three departments into which Algeria is
divided, and the population, including that of the wandering tribes,
at the last census, taken, together with that of France, in May
1872 :—

Departments

^KieW ] ******

Algiers .....
Constantine ....
Oran .....
Wandering Arab tribes .

Total

39,118 1 872,951

107,362 1 1,029,782

111,826 513,492

2,434,974

258,306

4,851,199

It will be seen that the bulk of the inhabitants of Algeria consists
of wandering Arab tribes. The French settlers form only five per
cent, of the total population.

ALGERIA.

621

In 1872 there were 5,139,136 acres of land under cultivation in
Algeria, of ■which 413,112 acres, or on an average 8 per cent., were
cultivated by the European colonists, and -4,726,024 acres, or 92 per
cent., were cultivated by the natives.

The total commerce of Algeria was as follows in each of the five
years 1870 to 1875 :—

Years

Total Imports

Total Exports

1868

7,706,584

4,122,762

1869

7,332,192

4,438,045

1870

6,907,628

4,978,250

1872

7.881,251

6,563,123

1873

8,268,685

6,088,256

1874

7,852,173

5,976,280

1875

7,696,562

5,756,317

About four-fifths of the total commerce of Algeria is with France.
Besides with the mother-country, the colony has commercial inter-
course chiefly with Spain, Turkey, and Great Britain. The sub-
joined tabular statement shows the total value of the exports from
Algeria to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports of British
and Irish produce and manufactures into Algeria, in each of the
five years 1871 to 1875 : —

Exports from Algeria

Imports of

Years

British Home Produce

Great Britain

into Algeria

1871

443,807

119,884

1872

858,618

89,347

1873

438,784

64,409

1874

517,144

47,953

1875

500,185

155,676

The most important article of export to Great Britain in 1875 was
' Esparto grass,' for making paper, of the value of 281,504/., the
quantity shipped being 36,580 tons. Among the other exports of
1875 were corn, of the value of 99,519/., and iron ore, of the value
of 61,808/. The British imports consist principally of cotton fabrics
and coals, the former of the value of 89,358/., and the latter of
42,563/. in the year 1875.

At the end of the year 1875 there were 543 kilom6tres, or 340
English miles, of railways open for traffic in Algeria. The railways
consisted of three lines, namely, from the town of Algiers to Oran,
426 kilometres, or 226 miles, in length ; from Philippe villc to Con-

622 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

stantine, 87 kilometres, or 55 miles long ; and from Bone to the
mines of Ain Mokra, with branches, 95 kilometres, or 59 miles, in
length.

The telegraph of Algeria, including branches into Tunis, con-
sisted, at the end of 1875, of 5,850 miles of line, and 9,860 miles
of wire. The ' reseau algero-tunesien ' of telegraphs is worked by
a private company subventioned by the French government and the
Bey of Tunis.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Algeria, and the British
equivalents, are : —

Money.

The Gold Sequin . . . Average rate of exchange, 8s. 6hd.
„ Monzonnah ... „ „ „ ^d.

Weights and Measures.

The Onguyah . . . = 4 grammes.

„ Hollah (liquid) . = 16-66 litres, or about 17 pints.

„ Pm (dry) • • = 48 litres, or about 51 £ joints.

The money, weights, and measures of France are in general use
among the settled population in the towns.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Algeria.

1. Official Publications.
Annuaire general de l'Algerie, sur des documents officiels. 8. Paris, 1 876.

Etat actuel de l'Algerie, publie d'apres les documents officiels sous
direction du direct, general des services civils. 8. Paris, 1873.

Statistique generale de l'Algerie, 1868-74. 8. Paris, 1876.

Tableau de la situation des etablissements francais. 4. Paris, 1874.

Report by Consul-G-eneral Lieut-Colonel E. L. Playfair, on the Trade and
Agrieidture of Algeria, for the years 1868-69 ; in ' Commercial Reports
received at the Foreign Office.' No. III. 1870. 8. London, 1870.

Report by Consul-General Lieut.-Colonel R. L. Playfair, on the General
Condition and Trade of Algeria, in the years 1869, 1870, and 1871; dated
Algiers, Feb. 1, 1872; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' No. I. 1872.
London, 1872.

Reports by Consul-General Lieut.-Colonel Playfair, on the Trade and Com-
merce of Algeria for the years 1874 and 1875, dated Algiers, Oct 22 and
Dec. 3, 1875; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part 1. 1876. 8. London,
1876.

Report of a Consular Tour made by Consul-General Lieut.-Col. Playfair,

ALOEKIA. 623

during March and April 1876; in 'Keports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V.
1S76. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Algeria with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year 1875. Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Beynet (Leon), Les Colons algeriens. 8. Alger, 1866.

Boudin (Dr. N.), Histoire statistique de la colonisation et de la population
en Algerie. 8. Paris, 1853.

Clamageran (I. J.), L'Algerie: Impressions de Voyage en 1873. 8. Paris,
1874.

Bareste (Kodolphe), De la propriete en Algerie. Loi du 16 juin 1851 et
Senatus-consulte du 22 avril 1863. 2e edit. 18. Paris, 1866.

Banmas (General M. J. E.), Expose de l'etat actuel de la societe arabe, du
gouvernement, et de la legislation qui la regit. 8. Alger, 1845.

Buval (J.), Tableaux de la situation des etablissements francais dans l'Algerie.
Kapport. 8. Paris, 1865.

Faidherbe (General), L'Avenir du Sahara et du Soudan. 8. Paris, 1866.

Fregier (C), Chevesick, ou du Commerce en Algerie. 8. Constantine.
1871.

Gaskell (George), Algeria as it is. 8. London, 1875.

Gueydon (Vice-amiral Comte de), Expose de la Situation de l'Algerie. In
'Revue maritime et coloniale.' 8. Paris, 1873.

Lavigne (Albert), Questions algeriennes. 8. Paris, 1872.

Lv.cet (Marcel), Colonisation europeenne de l'Algerie. 8. Paris, 1866

Maltzan (Heinr. Freiherr von), Drei Jahre im Nordwesten von Afrika :
Eeisen in Algerien und Marokko. 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1869.

Murray (John), Handbook of Algeria. 12. London, 1874.

Quinemav.t (N.), Du peuplement et de la vrai colonisation de l'Algerie. 8.
Constautine, 1871.

Bobiou de la Trehonnais (M.), L'Algerie en 1871. 8. Paris, 1872.
Trumelet (M.), Les Francais dans le desert. 8. Paris, 1863.

Villot (Capitaine), Mceurs, coutumes, et institutions des indigenes d'Algerie.
12. Paris, 1872.

624 THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877-

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.

(Cape Colony.)

Constitution and Government.

The present form of government of the colony of the Cape of Good
Hope was originally established by order in Council of the 11th of
March, 1853. By Act 28 Vict. cap. 5, and Colonial Act III. of
1865, which provided for the incorporation of British Kaffraria with
the colony, various changes were made, and further changes of an
important nature by the ' Constitution Ordinance Amendment Act,'
passed by the colonial legislature in 1872, providing for ' the in-
troduction of the system of executive administration commonly
called Responsible Government.' The constitution formed under
these various acts vests the executive in the Governor and an Ex-
ecutive Council, composed of certain office-holders appointed by
the Crown. The legislative power rests with a Legislative Council
of 21 members, 10 of whom are elected for 10 years, and 11 for 5
years, presided over ex officio by the Chief-justice; and a House
of Assembly of 66 members, elected for 5 years, representing the
country districts and towns of the colony. The qualification for
members of the Council is possession of immovable property of
2,000Z., or movable property worth 4,000Z. Members of both Houses
are elected by the same voters, who are qualified by possession of
property, or receipt of salary or wages, ranging between 251. and
50/. per annum.

Governor of the Cape of Good Hope. — Right Hon. Sir Henry
Bartle Edward Frere, G.C.S.L, K.C.B. ; born in 1815 ; educated at
Haileybury, and entered the Indian Civil Service 1833 ; British
Resident in Scinde, 1856-62; Governor of Bombay, 1862;
member of the Council of India, 1866. Appointed Governor of
the Cape of Good Hope, December 1876.

The governor is, by virtue of his office, commander-in-chief of
the forces within the colony. He has a salary of 5,000Z. as governor,
besides 1,000Z. as 'Her Majesty's High Commissioner,' and an ad-
ditional 300Z. as ' allowance for country residence.'

The administration is carried on, under the Governor, by a
ministry of five members, called the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-
General, the Treasurer-General, the Commissioner of Crown Lands
and Public Works, and the Secretary for Native Affairs.

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.

62 £

Revenue and Expenditure.

The revenue of the colony is derived mainly from import duties,
which produced, on the average of the five years from 1869 to 1873,
rather more than a quarter of a million sterling per annum. Com-
paratively little is derived from rent or sales of public lands, although
vast districts are waiting to be cultivated. A large portion of the
expenditure is for police, gaols, and convicts. The actual income
and expenditure of the colony were as follows during each of the
ten years from 1866 to 1875 :—

Years

Eevenue

Expenditure

1866

536,347

540,384

1867

609,476

670,571

1868

565,556

656.172

1869

593,245

648,732

1870

831,211

795,695

1871

836,174

764,414

1872

1,161,548

922,567

1873

2,078,220

2,159,658

1874

1,907,951

1,357,455

1875

2,246,179

2,272,275

The increased revenue of the years 1873 to 1875 was due to the
raising of loans, included in the receipts, while the increased ex-
penditure was caused by outlay upon public works.

The colony had a public debt of 3,475,144/. on the 31st December,
1875. The debt dates from the year 1859, when it amounted to
80,000/. It rose to 368,400/. in 1860; to 565,050/. in 1861- to
715,050/. in 1863; to 851,650/. in 1865 ; and to 1,101,650/. in
1867. The debt bears interest at the rate of 6 per cent., with
the exception of the sum of 255,400/. at 5 per cent., and the whole
is under promise of repayment by instalments extending to the
year 1900. — (Official Communication.)

Area and Population.

The Cape Colony was originally founded by the Dutch, under
Van Riebeek, about the year 1652, the Portuguese having before
made an attempt at a settlement. It was at first but a very small
territory, between the Liesbeek River and Table Mountain,
but when it was taken by the English, in 171)0, it had extended
east to the Great Fish River, and north along the great mountain
range of the Roggeveld to the Sneeuwberg and Bainboosberg.

626

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

In 1803, at the peace of Amiens, it was given up to the Netherlands,
but was again occupied by British troops in 1806. Since that time
the boundary has been gradually enlarged by the annexation of sur-
rounding districts. The most important of these annexations were
that of British Kaffraria, in 1866 ; of Basutoland at the head of the
basin of the Orange river, in 1868, and of two vast but partly un-
explored districts called Fingoland and Nomansland, or Griqualand
East, in 1875.

The total area and estimated population of the colony of the
Cape of Good Hope are given as follows in Government returns
published in 1875 and 1876:—

Area : English Population
square miles

Cape Colony, proper
British Kaffraria .
Basutoland ....
Fingoland and Nomansland .

Total

181,592 496,381
3,463 86,201
8,450 75,000
5,000 140,000

198,505 797,582

The Cape Colony proper is divided, politically and administra-
tively, into a Western and Eastern division, the former with 26
districts and the latter with 22 districts. The following gives the
European and the total population of each of these 48 districts of
the Cape Colony : —

European

Total

Population

Western Division : —

Beaufort .....

2,623

3,828

Bredasdorp .

2,020

4,169

Caledon

4,517

9,900

Calvinia

2,232

8,521

Cape .

9,748

20,241

Clanwilliam

2,231

7,041

Frasersburg .

2,940

8,293

George

4,988

10,658

Knysha

1,479

2,471

Malmesbury

6.514

24,572

Mossel bay .

2,158

4,276

Namaqua Land

1,882

10,071

Oudtshoorn .

6,091

12,077

Paarl .

6,304

15,583

Pieketberg .

3,174

6,037

Prince Albert

3,336

5,983

Eiversdale .

5,974

10,665

Kobertson .

3,741

6,155

CAfE OF GOOD HOPE.

627

European

Total

j Population

Population

Western Division — continued :

Stellenbosch . | 2,712

8,917

Swellendam .

. I 4,757

9,964

Tulbagh

. 1 3,259

8,695

Victoria West

. | 3,387

8,656

Worcester .

3,159

7,704

Cape Town .

15,118

28,457

Green Point.

729

908

Robben Island

266

458

Total

Eastern Division : —

105,348

236,300

j Albany .....

8,086

16,264

Albert . _ .

4,911

9,802

Alexandria .

1,931

6,655

Aliwal, North

3,953

22,200

Bathurst

1,526

4,867

Bedford

1,952

8,350

Colesberg

3,485

8,115

Cradock

5,924

12,228

Fort Beaufort

2,767

13,341

Graaffreinet .

6,013

14,695

Hope Town .

2,223

4,349

Humansdorp

2,398

7,876

Middleburg .

1,976

4,645

Murraysburg

987

2,940

Peddie.

996

18,796

Port Elizabeth

7.131

11,633

Queen's Town

3,650

44,555

Richmond .

2,685

6,090

Somerset

3,977

10,593

Stockenstrom

1,326

5,647

Uitenhage .

7,206

18,148

Victoria, East

1,141

8,292

Total

76,244

260,081

Cape Colony

•

181,592

496,381

The European inhabitants consist in part of the English authorities
and English settlers ; but the majority are of Dutch, German, and
French origin, mostly descendants of the original settlers. The
coloured people are chiefly Hottentots and Kaffirs ; the remaining
portion of the population consists of Malays, and so-called
Africanders, the latter the offspring of black women and Dutch
lathers. Very little communication takes place between the Kaffirs,
Africanders, and Malays, each race holding the others in contempt.

6 s 2

628

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Trade and Commerce.

The values of the total imports and exports of the Cape Colony,,
including British Kaffraria, in each of the five years from 1871 to
1875, were as follows : —

Years

Imports

Exports

1871

2,585,298

3,408,635

1872

4,388,728

4,366,071

1873

5,451,927

[4,011,327

1874

5,725,412

4,468,747

1875

5,762,743

4,393,325

The commercial intercourse of the colony is mainly with the
United Kingdom. The value of the trade with Great Britain and
Ireland, during each of the five years 1871 to 1875, is exhibited
in the subjoined table : —

Exports from the

Imports of British

Years

Cape Colony to Great

Home Produce into the

Britain

Cape Colony

1871

£
2,439,889

£
1,852,152

1872

3,190,256

3,035,178

.1873

3,577,812

3,589,578

1874

3,636,747

3,528,828

1875

3,724,662

4,037,475

Among the articles of export from the Cape to Great Britain, wool
is the most important, the value shipped annually constituting nearly
nine-tenths of the total exports. In the years 1871 to 1875 the
exports of wool from the Cape Colony to the United Kingdom were
as follows: —

Years

Quantities

Value

Lbs.

1871

28,440,133

1,550,630

1872

30,832,151

2,094,346

1873

36,408,117

2,549,959

1874

34,833,422

2,559,761

1875

35,783,689

2,492,736

Among the minor exports from the colony to Great Britain are
copper ore, of the value of 228,269/. in 1N75 ; feathers, chiefly
ostrich, of the value of 293,866/.; and sheepskins, of the value of
214.901/. in 1875. The imports of British produce into the colony
comprise mainly apparel and haberdashery, of the value of 757,304/. ;

. - . • ^ - - • "

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r-. ■ : : -;-i -.-. _ .__ ' - V . j - --. - _* n : - ■. -. ~ . .-_ __.■'■-:.. :■: -

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■:vz . f * :'.

63O THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Census of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope. 1871. Pol. Capetown,
1872.

Correspondence regarding the establishment of responsible government at
the Cape of Good Hope, and the withdrawal of troops from that Colony.
Presented to the House of Commons. Fol. London, 1870.

Eeport from Governor Sir H. Barkly, K.C.B., dated Cape Town, July 23,
1871 ; in 'Beports showing the Present State of Her Majesty's Colonial Pos-
sessions.' Part III. 8. London, 1872.

Eeport from Governor Sir H. Barkly, dated Cape Town, July 26, 1873,
in ' Papers relating to Her Majesty's Colonial Possessions.' Parti. 1874. 8.
London, 1874.

Statistical Tables relating to the Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. Part XII. Fol. London, 1870.

Statistical Abstract for the several Colonies and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom. No. XL 8. London, 1875.

Trade of the Cape of Good Hope with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual
Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions for the year 1874.' Imp. 4. London, 1875.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Anderson (C. J.) Notes of Travel in South Africa. Edited by L. Lloyd. 8
London, 1875.

Blore (W. L.), Statistics of the Cape Colony. Eeprinted from the ' Cape
Argus,' 1870-1871. 8. Cape Town, 1871.

Chase (Hon. John Centlivres) and Wilmot (A.), History of the Colony of the
Cape of Good Hope, from its discovery to the year 1868. 8. London,.
1870.

Chesson (F. W.), The Dutch Eepublics of South Africa. 8. London, 1871.

Fleming (J.), Southern Africa : geography, &c. of the colonies and inhabi-
tants. 8. London, 1856.

Fritsch (Dr. Gust.), Drei Jahre in Sud-Afrika. 8. Breslau, 1868.

Fritsch (Dr. Gust.), Die Eingeborenen Siid-Afrika's ethnographisch und ana-
tomisch beschrieben. 4. Breslau, 1872.

Hall (H), Manual of South African Geography. 2nded. 8. Capetown, 1866.

Meidinger (H), Die siidafrikanischen Colonien Englands, und die Freistaaten
der holliindischen Boeren in ihren jetzigen Zustanden. 8. Frankfurt A. M.,
1861.

Nevett (C), Eepublique de l'Afrique m£ridionale, ou de Trans-Vaal-Boers.
In ' Eevue maritime et coloniale. 8. Paris. 1872,

Pos (Nicolaas), Eene stem uit Zuid-Afrika, Mededeelingen betreffende den
maatschappelijken en godsdienstigen toestand der Kaap-Kolonie. 8. Breda,
1868.

Wilmot (G), An historical and descriptive account of the Colony of the Cape
of Good Hope. 8. London, 1863.

631

EGYPT.

(Kemi. MlSR.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family,

Ismail I., Khedive of Egypt, born December 31, 1830, the son of
Ibrahim, second ruler of Egypt of the dynasty of Mehemet Ali ;
succeeded to the throne at the death of his uncle, Said, son of
Mehemet Ali, January 18, 1863.

Children of the Khedive. — 1. Princess Tefideh, born 1850;
married, in 1868, to Mansour Pasha, Minister of Public Instruction.
2. Prince Mohamed Tewfik, heir-apparent of the throne, born Nov.
19, 1852 ; married, January 10, 1873, to Princess Eniirteh, daughter
of El Hamy Pasha. Offspring of the union is a son, Prince Abbasr
born July 14, 1874. 3. Prince Hussein, born 1853 ; married, January
1873, to Princess Ain-el-Hayiit, daughter of the late Achmet Pasha,
brother of the Khedive. 4. Prince Hassan, born 1853 ; lieutenant in
the first regiment of dragoons of the Prussian army; married,
January 1873, to Princess Khadidjah, daughter of the late Mehemet
Ali Pas ha, youngest son of the first ruler of Egypt. 5. Princess
Fatima, born 1853 ; married, January 1873, to Toussoum Pasha,
Minister of Marine. 6. Prince Ibrahim, born April 1860. 7. Prince
Mahmud, born in 1863. 8. Prince Fuad, born May 1867. 9.
Princess Djamileh, born July 1869. 10. Princess Emineh, born
June 1874. 11. Prince Djemal-ed-din, born April 1875.

The present sovereign of Egypt is the fifth ruler of the dynasty of
Mehemet Ali, appointed Governor of Egypt in 1806, who made
himself, in 1811, absolute master of the country by force of arms.
His position was recognised by the Imperial Hatti-Sheriff of
February 13, 1841, issued under the guarantee of the five great
European Powers, which established the hereditary succession to the
throne of Egypt, under the same rules and regulations as those to
the throne of Turkey. The title given to Mehemet Ali and his
immediate successors was the Turkish one of ' Vali,' or Viceroy ; but
this was changed by an Imperial firman of May 21, 1866, into the
Persian-Arabic of ' Khidiv-el-Misr,' or King of Egypt, and the
present ruler has since been known as the Khidiv, or, as more
commonly called, Khedive. By the same firman of May 27, 1866,
obtained on the condition of the sovereign of Egypt raising his
annual tribute to the Sultan's civil list from 80,000 purses, or
376,000/., to 150,000 purses, or 705,000/., the succession to the

€32 THE .STATESMAN^ YEAK-BOOK, 1877.

throne of Egypt was made direct, from father to son, instead of
descending, after the Turkish law, to the eldest heir. By a last
firman, issued June 8, 1873, the Sultan granted to Ismail I. the
hitherto withheld rights of concluding treaties with foreign powers,
and of maintaining armies, since which date he has held the rank of
absolute sovereign and king.

By a firman dated July 1, 187G, the Sultan of Turkey ceded to
the Khedive the port and district of Zeyha, in the Gulf of Aden,
on condition of the annual tribute being increased by 15,000/., the
total thus amounting to 720,000/.

The predecessors of the present sovereign of Egypt were : —

Born Died Reigned

Mehemet Ali, founder of the dynasty 1769 1849 1811-48

Ibrahim, son of Mehemet . . 1789 1848 June— Nov. 1848

Abbas, grandson of Mehemet . 1813 1854 1848-54

Said, son of Mehemet . . . 1822 1863 1854-63

The average term of reign of the rulers of Egypt, including the
present sovereign, was thirteen j'ears.

Government, Revenue, and Army.

The administration of Egypt is carried on by a Council of State
of four military and four civil dignitaries, appointed by the Khedive.
An attempt to form representative institutions was made in 1867,
when the Khedive created a body called the Chamber of Delegates,
chosen from among the most prominent persons in the country,
to advise, when called upon, in the conduct of public affairs.

The revenue of Egypt is variously estimated at from nine to
eleven millions sterling per annum. In the budget estimates for the
year ending September 12, 1875 — Coptic year 1591 — the total
revenue was given at 10,812,787/., and the total expenditure at
10,796,385/., but subsequent investigations did not prove the cor-
rectness of these figures, as far at least as regarded the expenditure.
The Right Hon. Stephen Cave, sent to Egypt by the British Govern-
ment in 1875 to assist the Khedive in establishing an equilibrium
in the finances of his country, reported the annual income for 1875
as follows: —

Land Tax 4,305,131

Moukabala (special Land Tax) . . 1,531,118

Other sources of revenue . . . 4,852,821

10,689,070
According to Mr. Cave, this revenue was insufficient to meet
both the cost of the general administration of the country, estimated

EGYPT. 633

at from five to six millions sterling, and the charges of a debt
variously reported to amount to from 86 to 91 millions sterling,
including the personal liabilities of the Khedive, nominally secured
on his private estates, known as the Daira. In order to prevent
unavoidable insolvency, Mr. Cave recommended a conversion of the
debt, to be effected with the assent of the bondholders.

The same recommendation was repeated by the Et. Hon. George
J. Goschen and M. Joubert, representatives of the British and
Fiench bondholders of the Egyptian debt, who went to Egypt in
the autumn of 187G to confer with the Khedive on the finances of
Egypt. From the information furnished to them, they arrived at
the conclusion that the annual revenue for 1876 and the following
years would amount to 10,922,000Z., and that a balance might be
established with the expenditure, if the public liabilities of Egypt
and the private debt of the Khedive were separated, and reduced by
conversion. The plans submitted by Messrs. Goschen and Joubert
were adopted November 18, 1876, by the Khedive, who decreed that
the ' Unified Debt of Egypt ' should be reduced to 59,000,000Z. by
conversion, and be separated entirely from the Daira and floating
debt, fixed at 27,000,000/. The interest on the ' Unified Debt ' was
fixed at the same time at seven per cent., of which one per cent, was
to be retained as a sinking fund during nine years, to provide for the
extinction of revenue from the Moukabala tax, ceasing at the end of
this term.

Previous to the arrangements come to between the Khedive and
the representatives of the British and French bondholders, the debt
of Egypt, including the private liabilities of the sovereign, secured
on the Daira, were reported as follows : —

1. Funded debt : — &

Seven per cent. Loan of 1862, unred. balance . 2,640,000

1864, „ „ . 2,579,400

Mustapha .,„... 1,298,800

Loan of 1868 .... 10,915,000

1873 .... 31,837,180

Total funded debt . . . 49,270,380 49,270,380

"2. Floating debt : — Details unknown. The total

amount was estimated March 1874, to be . 24,000,000 24,000,000

Total state debt . . .73,270,380

3. /'< r.^onai Debt of the KJiedivc: —

Khedive loan of 1866 . . . . 1,907,480

1870 . . 6,266,880

Floating debt of Khedive, estimated . . 5,000,000

Total personal debt of Khedive . . .13,174,360 13,174,360

Aggregate debt .... 86,444,740

634

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The control both of the debt of Egypt, and the general revenue
and expenditure, was ordered, under the stipulations agreed to by
the Khedive in November 1876, to be given over to a financial
commission, consisting chiefly of Europeans. A Controller-General
of Revenue and a Controller-General of the Public Debt and Audit
are to be appointed, with the fullest powers of control. An English
Commissioner is to be added to the Commission of the Public Debt,
which is made permanent, with a right to remit the revenues paid
to it to the Banks of England and France. The revenues of Egypt
will be pledged to the Unified Debt, to be paid direct to the Com-
mission.

The army of Egypt is raised by conscription. It consisted, in
January 1876, of four regiments of infantry, of 3,000 men each ; of a
battalion of chasseurs, of 1,000 men; of 3,500 cavalry; 1,500
artillery ; and two battalions of engineers, of 1,500 each. There are,
besides, two regiments of black troops, of Sudan, numbering 5,000
men.

The Egyptian navy comprised, at the end of June 1876, two
frigates, two corvettes, three large yachts for the use of the Khedive
— one of them, the Mahroussa, of 4,000 tons, with 800 horse-power
— and four gunboats, the whole of an aggregate burthen of 16,476
tons.

Area and Population.

The territories under the rule of the sovereign of Egypt, in-
cluding those on the Upper Nile and Central Africa, conquered
in 1874-75, are vaguely estimated to embrace an area of 1,406,250
English square miles, and to be inhabited by a population
of 16,952,000, of whom about one-third are in Egypt proper.
The following tabular statement gives the area and population of
the various divisions of the kingdom, and its recent annexations,
according to government estimates of the year 1875 : —

Divisions

Area : English
square miles

Population

Former Kingdom of Ethiopia

Darfur, and other annexed territories .

Total ....

175,130
431,210
588,530
211,380

5,252,000
1,000,000
5,000,000
5,700.000

1,406,250

16,952,000

Egypt proper is divided from of old into three great districts,.
namely, ' Masr-el-Bahri,' or Lower Egypt; ' El- Wustani,' or Middle
Egypt; and 'El-Said,' or Upper Egypt — designations drawn from
the course of the river Nile, on which depends the existence of the

EGYPT.

635

country. These three geographical districts, subdivided into eleven
administrative provinces, had, according to an enmneration made by
the government, in March 1872, a rural population of 4,603, 6G0,
and an urban population of 648,340, dispersed over six towns. The
population of the six towns of Egypt was as follows, according to
the enumeration made March 1872 : —

Towns

Population

Towns

Population

Cairo

349,883

Tanta

28,500

Alexandria

212,054

Rosetta

15,002

Damietta

29,383

Suez

13,498

At the census of 1872, there were in Egypt proper 79,696
foreigners. The foreign population consisted of 34,000 Greeks;
17,000 Frenchmen; 13,906 Italians; 6,300 Austrians; 6,000 Eng-
lishmen; 1,100 Germans; and 1,390 natives of other countries.

Trade and Commerce.

The commerce of Egypt is very large, but consists to some extent
of goods carried in transit. To the total value of imports and
exports, averaging 30,000,000?. per annum, Great Britain contri-
butes about 70 per cent., and the rest is divided between Turkey.
France, Austria, Italy, and Greece, in descending proportions.

The subjoined tabular statement shows the total value of the ex-
ports from Egypt to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports
of British and Irish produce and manufactures into Egypt, in each
of the ten years 1866 to 1875 : —

Exports from Egypt to

Imports of British Home

Years

Great Britain

Produce into Egypt

1866

15,368,824

7,556,185

1867

14,498,292

8,198,111

1868

17,584,616

6,056,404

1869

16,796.233

6,056,404

1870

14,116,820

8,726,602

1871

16,387,424

7,038,795

1872

16,455,731

7,213,063

1873

14,155,913

6,222,013

1874

10,514,798

3,585,106

, 1875

10,895,043

2,945,846

The considerable amount of the exports from Egypt to the
United Kingdom is owing, partly to large shipments of raw cotton,
and partly to the transit trade llowing from India and other parts
of Asia through Egypt, which latter, however, has greatly declined
in recent years, owing to the opening of the Suez Canal. The ex-

636

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877-

ports of raw cotton from Egypt to Great Britain were of the following
quantities and value in each of the ten years from 1866 to 1875 :—

Years

Quantities

Value

Lbs.

1866

118.260,800

9,20(1,580

1867

126,284,592

7,200,291

1868

129,182,928

6,303,206

1869

160,450,280

8,568,782

1870

143,710,448

6,460,686

1871

176,166,480

■6,416,729

1872

177,581,712

7,492,513

1873

204,977,136

8,628,733

1874

172,317,488

7.269.342

1875

163,912,336

6,668,340

Next to cotton the largest article of export from Egypt to the
United Kingdom in the years I860 to 1874 was raw silk ; but this
being entirely a transit trade, it is declining to very small propor-
tions. The shipments of raAv silk to Great Britain, which were of
the average value of nearly five millions sterling in the years 1866
to 1871, fell in 1872 to 2,732,102/., in 1873 to 977,171/., in 1874
to 130,971/., and in 1875 to 48,572/., the fast decreasing figures of
value denoting the influence exercised by the Suez Canal.

The imports from the United Kingdom into Egypt comprise the
chief articles of British produce and manufacture, foremost among
them cotton goods, of the value of 4,739,827/. in 1869, of 5,376,438/.
in 1870, of 4,124,241 /. in 1871, of 4,290,953/. in 1872, of 3,666,942/.
in 1873, of 1,922,505/. in 1874, and of the value of 1,558,839/.
in 1875. The greater part of these imports from the United Kingdom
pass in transit through Egypt.

The Suez Canal.

The commerce of the world has derived great advantages from
the construction of the Suez Canal of Egypt, connecting the Mediter-
ranean with the Red Sea, opened for navigation November 17, 1869.
The number and tonnage of vessels which passed through the Canal
in each of the six years 1870 to 1875 was as follows : —

Years

Vessels

Number

Tonnage

1870

491

436.618

1871

761

761,875

1872

1.082

1,439.169

1873

1,171

2,085,270

1874

1,264

2,423,672

1875

1,496

2,940,708

EGYPT. 637

Very nearly three-fourths of the shipping that passed through the
Suez Canal in the six years 1870-75 belonged to Great Britain.
The proportion of vessels under the British flag during the period
was 74*10 per cent. ; while under the flag of France passed 9*21 per
cent.; under that of the Netherlands 4-35 percent.; under that of
Austria 3'47 per cent. ; under that of Italy 2*63 per cent. ; under
that of Spain 2-9 per cent. ; and under that of Germany 1-64 per
cent. The remainder was distributed among eleven other nationalities.
The Suez Canal, connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea,
starts from Port Said, 40 miles east of the Damietta mouth of
the Nile, and runs across the isthmus and through Lakes Menzaleh,
El Ballah, and Timsah, on the shores of -which latter stands the new
town of Ismailia, and through the Bitter Lakes, to Suez. Its total
length is 92 miles. Its actual width, over the greater part of its
length, does not permit of two vessels passing or crossing each other
in the Canal itself; but there are numerous sidings, by which vessels
are enabled to cross one another, and the passage is quickened.
Vessels measuring 430 feet in length and drawing 25 feet 9 inches
of water have passed safely through the Canal. The company pos-
sess a vast domain, which it is gradually selling and leasing, on the
banks of the Canal and about Ismailia. The actual cost of the
Canal, according to a report of the year 1875, was 17,518,729/.,
exclusive of 1,360,000/. bonds issued to pay for coupons on shares
in arrear during part of the period of construction.

The state of the capital account was as follows at the end of June
187G:—

400,000 shares of 500 francs, or 20/ 8,000,000

333,333 obligations of 500 francs, or 20/. each, issued at
V1L. bearing interest at 5 per cent., on par, and re-
deemable at par 6,666,660

200,000 ' bons trentenaires,' or 30-year bonds, issued at
100 francs, or 4/. each, redeemable at
bl. each, bearing interest at 8 percent.

on 4/ £1,000,000

Less 80,000 still unissued . . . 400,000

600,000'

400,000 ' bons de coupons,' or bonds of Si. Ss. each, bear-
ing interest at 5 per cent., issued for the consolidation
of unpaid coupons on shares, redeemable at par . . 1,360,000

Of the above 400,000 shares, 176,002 belonged formerly to tih<
Khedive of Egypt, and were purchased from him by the Brit is];
Government in November 1875. But the Khedive, by a conven-
tion passed in 1869 between himself and Suez Canal Company, for
the settlement of disputed claims and accounts, had alienated all
dividends on his 176,602 shares up to 1894, and placed them at tin
disposal of the company. Against these dividends the eompanj

6vS

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

issued 120,000 'Delegations,' which are entitled to all sums accruing
on the above 176,602 shares up to 1894; the dividends which the
' Delegations ' receive are, however, lessened by an annual sum
laid aside to provide a sinking fund, sufficient to extinguish them all
by 1894. At the end of that year, therefore, the last ' Delegation'
will have been drawn and paid off, and the 176,602 shares will be
entirely free, and will enjoy whatever dividends the company is then
in a position to declare.

The total receipts, from all sources, of the Suez Canal Company
amounted to 30,827,194 francs, or 1,233,088Z., and the total ex-
penditure to 17,798,408 francs, or 711,936/., in the year 1875. In
the year 1874, the total receipts were 26.383,515 francs, or
1 ,055,340/., and the expenses 17,752,806 francs, or 710,112?. The
increase in the receipts of 1875 amounted to 17 per cent.

The statutes of the Suez Canal Company provide that all net
earnings in excess of the 5 per cent, interest on the shares shall be
divided as follows : —

1. 15 per cent, to the Egyptian Government.

2. 10 ,, to the founders' shares.

3. 2 „ to form an invalid fund for the employes of the company.

4. 71 „ as dividend on the 400,000 shares.

5. 2 „ to the Managing Directors.

The receipts of the company from tolls alone since its opening
Avere as follows : —

Years

Francs

1870

5,159,327

206,372

1871

8,993,732

359,748

1872

16,407,591

656,304

1873

22,897,319

915.892

1874

24.859,383

994,374

1875

28,886,302

1,155,452

During the first nine months of 1876, the receipts from tolls were
at the rate of 30,500,000 francs, or 1,220,000/. per annum.

Railways and Telegraphs.

Egypt had, on the 1st January 1876, a railway system of a total
length of 1,528 kilometres, or 955 Engl, miles, open for traffic,
with 805 kilometres, or 502 Engl, miles, in course of construction.
The whole of the railways are state property, with the exception of
a short line of 8 kilometres, or 5 Engl, miles.

The telegraphs of Egypt were, at the commencement of 1876, of
a total length of 6,550 kilometres, or 4,094 Engl, miles, the length of
wires being 13,900 kilometres, or 8,690 Engl, miles. The whole of
the telegraphs are state property

EGYPT. 639

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of Egypt in Great Britain.

Egypt had no representative in Great Britain at the end of 1876, after the
departure of Ed-ward Thomas Rogers, agent from 1874 to 1876, and appointed
Minister of Public Instruction of Egypt, October 1876.

2. Of Great Britain in Egypt.

Agent and Consul-General. — Hon. Hussey Crespigny Vivian, appointed
May 10, 1876.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Egypt, are : —

Monet.
The Piastre, of 40 paras . . = Average rate of exchange, 2^d.
,, Kees, or Purse, of 500 piastres = „ „ £5 2s. ~6d.

The currency of Egypt being insufficient for its vast commerce,
coins of nearly all the nations of Europe, as well as of the United
States, have become legal tender. Those most in use are French
twenty-francs gold pieces and British sovereigns.

Weights and Measures.
The Killow . . . . = 0-9120 imperial bushel.

1-151 imperial gallon.

Almud .
Oke, of 400 drams
Gasab, oj 4 diraas
Feddan al risach

2-8326 lbs. avoirdupois.

3 yards.

3,208 square yards.

By a decree of the Khedive dated August 1, 1875, the metrical
system of weights and measures was ordered to be introduced into
Egypt on the 1st of January, 1876, but compulsory only at first in
all public and administrative transactions.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Egypt.

1. Official Publications.

Statistique de l'Egypte. Par E. de Regny-Bey. Annee 1876. Le Caire,
1876.

Report by Mr. Consul Stanley, on the Commerce, Agriculture, and Popula-
tion of Egypt and the Trade of Alexandria, dated Alexandria, March 28, 1872;
in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' No. II. 1872. 8. London, 1872.

Report by Mr. Vice-Consul Barker on tho Commerce of Port Said and of
the Suez Canal, dated Port Said, March 21, 1872; in 'Commercial Reports
from H.M.'s Consuls.' No. II. 1872. 8. London, 1872.

Reports by Mr. Consul Stanley on the Commerce of Alexandria and of Egypt,
and by Mr. Consul Weston the trade of Suez, dated Doc. 16-19, 1872; in
'Reports by H.M.'s Consuls on British Trade abroad.' Parti. 8. London, 1873.

Report by Mr. Consul Rogers on the Trade of Cairo, dated Jan. 22, 1874 •
in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls on the Manufactures, Commerce, &c, of their
consular districts.' Part II. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

64O THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Reports by Mr. Consul Stanley on the Trade and Commerce of Alexandria,
and of Egypt ; by Mr. Consul West on the Trade of Suez ; and by Mr. Vice-
Consul Perceval on the Trade and Navigation of Port Said, dated January-Fe-
bruary, 1874; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls on the Manufactures. Com-
merce, &c, of their consular districts.' Part III. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Report by Mr. Consul Perceval on the Trade and Navigation of Port Said
for the year 1874, dated March 21, 1875; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Part V. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. Consul West, on the trade, commerce and shipping of Suez,
dated Suez, Marcli 3, 1876 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1876.
8. London, 1876.

Trade of Egypt with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the
year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Adams ( W. H. D.), The Land of the Nile ; or, Egypt Past and Present. 8.
London, 1871.

Ave Lallenumt (Dr. R.), Fata Morgana aus Egypten. 8. Altona, 1872.

Bardon y Gomes (L.), Viaje a Egipto. 8. Madrid, 1871.

Borde (Paul), L'Isthme de Suez. 8. Paris, 1871.

Brugsch-Bcy (Henri), Histoire d'Egypte. lrepartie. 2ndedid. 8. Leipzig,
1875.

Covmo (Prof. A.), L'Istmo di Suez, ossia il passaggio alle Indie a traverso
i'Egitto. 8. Torino, 1870.

Duff-Gordon (Lady), Last Letters from Egypt. 8. London, 1875.

Gallion-Danglar (Eugene), Lettres sur l'Egypte contemporaine. 1865-1875.
8. Paris, 1876.

Lesseps (Ferdinand de), Le Canal de Suez. 8. Paris, 1875.

Lihttke (Moritz), Aegypten und seine Stellungim Orient. In ' Unsere Zeit.'
8. Leipzig, 1876.

Muhlbach (L.), Reisebnefe aus Aegypten. 2 vols. 8. Jena, 1871.

Begny (M. de), Statistique de l'Egypte d'apres des documents officiels.
3 vols. Alexandrie, 1870-72.

Stephan (H), Das heutige Aegypten. 8. Leipzig, 1872.

Zincke (F.B.), Egypt of the Pharaohs and the Khedive. 8. London, 1872.

641

LIBERIA.

(United States of Liberia.)

Constitution and Government.

The constitution of the republic of Liberia is on the model of
that of the United States of America. The executive is vested in a
president and a non-active vice-president, and the legislative power
is exercised by a parliament of two houses, called the Senate and the
House of Representatives. The president and vice-president are
elected for two years ; the House of Representatives also for two years,
and the senate for four years. There are 13 members of the Lower
House, and 8 of the Upper House ; each county sending 2 members
to the senate. It is provided that, on the increase of the population,
each 10,000 persons will be entitled to an additional representative.
Both the president and the vice-president must be thirty-five years
of age, and have real property to the value of 600 dollars, or 120/ .
In case of the absence or death of the president, his post is filled by
the vice-president. The latter is also President of the Senate, which,
in addition to being one of the branches of the legislature, is a
Council for the President of the Republic, he being required to
submit treaties and appointments for ratification.

President of Liberia. — James Sprigg Payne, assumed office June
3, 1876.

The President may be re-elected any number of times. Since
the foundation of the republic, the office was filled by —

Presidents

Terms

Joseph Jenkins Roberts . . . .

1848-56

Stephen Allen Benson .

1856-64

Daniel Basil Warner

1864-68

James Spriggs Payne

1868-70

James Roye .....

1870-71

Joseph Jackson ....

1871-75

Joseph Jenkins Roberts .

1875-76

The President is assisted in his executive function by four minis-
ters, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the
Attorney- General, and the Postmaster-General.

For political and judicial purposes, the republic is divided into
states, or counties, which are subdivided into townships. The states,

T T

642 THE STATESMAN'S TEAK-BOOK, 1877.

four in number, are called Montserrado, Grand Bassa, Sinoe, and
Maryland. The townships are commonly about eight miles in
extent. Each town is a corporation, its affairs being managed by
officers chosen by the inhabitants. Courts of monthly and quarter
sessions are held in each county. The civil business of the county
is administered by four superintendents appointed by the president
with the advice and consent of the senate.

Population, Revenue, and Trade.

The settlement of Liberia, founded in 1822, was, on August 24,
1847, proclaimed a free and independent state, as the Kepublic of
Liberia. The state was first acknowledged by England, after-
wards by France, Belgium, Prussia, Brazil, Denmark, and Portugal,
and, in 1861, by the United States. The republic has about
600 miles of coast line, and extends back 100 miles on an average,
but with the probability of vast extension into the interior. Pro-
visionally, the river Shebar has been adopted as north-western, and
the San Pedro as eastern frontier. It was the chief aim of the
founders of the republic to purchase the line of seacoast, so as to
connect the different settlements under one government, and to
exclude the slave trade, which formerly was most extensively
carried on at Cape Mesurado, Tradetown, Little Bassa, Digby, New
Sesters, Gallinas, and other places at present within the republic.
The town of Monrovia, at the mouth of the river Mesurado, and
near the foot of Cape Mesurado, was selected in 1822 as capital of
the state, and seat of the government.

The public revenue in the year 1875 was estimated to amount to
21,500/., and the expenditure to 23,100/. The principal part of the
revenue is derived from customs' duties, while the expenditure em-
braces chiefly the cost of the general administration.

In August 1871, the republic laid the foundation of a public
debt by contracting a loan of 500,000 dollars, or 100,000/., at 7 per
cent, interest, to be redeemed in 15 years. The loan was issued in
England, at the price of 85 per cent.

The total poprdation is estimated to number 720,000, all of the
African race, and of which number 19,000 are Americo-Liberians,
and the remaining 701,000 aboriginal inhabitants. Monrovia, the
capital, has an estimated population of 13,000.

There are no statistics regarding the extent of the commercial
relations of the republic with the United Kingdom, the 'Annual
Statement of Trade and Navigation' issued by the Board of Trade
not mentioning Liberia, but only ' Western Coast of Africa.' The
value of the exports and the British imports thus designated was as
follows in the five years from 1871 to 1875 : —

LIBERIA.

643

.Years.

Hxports from Western Africa

Imports of British produce

to Great Britain.

into "Western Africa .

1871

1,816,419

896,360

1872

1,895,656

941,132

1873

1,760,508

953,176

1874

1,824,367

761,932

1875

1,651,071

692,418

The chief article of exports from Western Africa to Great Britain
in 1875 was palm oil, of the value of 1,225,834/. The British
imports consist mainly of cotton manufactures, of the value of
286,071/. in 1875.

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of Liberia in Great Britain.
Consul- General. — James Jackson, accredited May 20, 1872.
Consul. — George Offor, accredited March 2, 1876.
There are no representatives of Great Britain in Liberia.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money chiefly used is that of Great Britain, but accounts are
kept generally in American dollars and cents. In the traffic with
natives on the west coast of Africa, gold is bought and sold by
Usanos, each of 1 6 Aids. A Usano of Gold is reckoned equal in
value to 16,000 ' Cowries.' It contains 314*76 English troy grains,
or 20-396 Grammes.

Weights and measures are mostly British. In the trade with the
interior of Africa, the Ardeb is the chief measure of capacity for
dry goods. The Gondar Ardeb contains 10 Madegas, or 120
Uckieh, or 1,440 Dirhems, and is equal to about 7*7473 British
imperial pints. The Massuah Ardeb contains 24 Madegas, and is
equal to 2*3242 British imperial gallons. The Kuba is the chief
liquid measure; it is equal to 1*7887 British imperial pint.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Liberia.

Official Publication.
Trade and Commerce of Great Britain with Western Africa ; in ' Annual
Statement of the trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions for the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

Non-Official Publications.

Die Negerrepublic Liberia. In ' Unsere Zeit.' Vol. III. 8. Leipzig, 1858.

Hutchinson (E.) Impressions of Western Africa. 8. London, 1858.

Eitter (Karl) Begriindung und gegenwartige Zustande der Republic Liberia.
In ' Zeitschrift fur allgemeine Erdkunde.' Vol.1. 8. Leipzig, 1853.

Stockwell (G. S.),The Republic of Liberia: its geography, climate, soil, and
productions. With a history of its early settlement. 12. New York, 1868.

Wilson (J.), Western Africa. 8. London, 1856.

t t 2

644

MOROCCO.

(Maghrib-el- Aksa. — El Gharb.)

Reigning Sovereign,

Muley-Hassan, Sultan of Morocco, born 1831, eldest son of Sultan
Sidi-Muley-Mohamed ; ascended the throne at the death of his
father, September 17, 1873.

The present Sultan of Morocco — known to his subjects under
the title of 'Emir-al-Mumenin,' or Absolute Euler of True Be-
lievers— is the fourteenth of the dynasty of the Alides, or Fileli,
founded by Muley-Achmet, and the thirty-fifth lineal descendant of
AH, uncle and son-in-law of the Prophet. The most distinguished
member of the dynasty was Sultan Muley-Sidi-Mohamed, during
whose reign, from 1757 to 1789, the country rose to a high degree
of internal prosperity. At his death, in 1789, a struggle for the
throne gave rise to five years' war and anarchy, ending in the
accession of Muley-Soliman, great-grandfather of the present? Sultan.
His three predecessors were : —

Sultans. Reign.

Muley-Soliman . . 1794-1822.
Muley-Abderrahman . 1822-1859.

Sultan. Reign.

Sidi-Muley-Mohamed . 1859-1873.

The crown is hereditary in the family of the Sharifs of Fileli,
or Tafilet. Each Sultan has the right to choose his own successor
among the members of his family, and, if not exercising this pri-
vilege, the custom of succession is that obeyed in the Ottoman
empire (see p. 446), under which the crown falls, at the demise of
the sovereign, to the surviving eldest member of the reigning
family.

Government and Religion.

The form of government of the Sultanate, or empire of Morocco,
is that of an absolute despotism, unrestricted by any laws civil or
religious. The Sultan is chief of the state as well as head of the
religion, and master of the lives and of the property of all his sub-
jects. As spiritual ruler, the Sultan stands quite alone, his authority
, not being limited, as in Turkey and other countries following the
religion of Mahomet, by the expounders of the Koran, the class of
' Ulema,' under the ' She'ik-ul-Islam.' The Sultan has no regular
ministers, but receives advice from and carries on the executive
usually through special favourites near nis person, the principal of
whom is generally invested with the title of ' Mula-el-tesserad,' or
steward ofthe Imperial household. The Sultan's orders are carried

MOKOCCO. 645

out, and lie raises his revenue, estimated at 500,000/. per annum,
by an armed force of 8,000 men, of whom 5,000 constitute the
Imperial body-guard, one half infantry and the other half cavalry.
For civil and military purposes, Morocco is divided into twenty -
eight provinces, some of them extending over vast tracts of country,
and others confined to a single town. Each province is nded by a
Kaid, or governor, absolute within his district, and commander of
all the military forces within, but liable to instant dismissal or
death at the Sultan's will. Morocco has 24 fortified and garrison
towns, the principal of which are Azamer, Mazegan, and Tangier.

The Sultan of Morocco and his subjects differ as a sectarian
body from the followers of Mahomet in Turkey, Persia, and other
countries by adopting as their text-book of faith the commentary
upon the Koran by Sidi Beccari, the original of which is kept at
the Imperial palace, and deposited in time of war in a tent within
the centre of the army, around which the soldiers rally as a religious
and national standard. The bulk of the population, strongly im-
bued with religious fanaticism, is still in a state of the deepest
ignorance, and even printing is almost unknown among them, the
Koran and its sacred Commentary existing only in written copies,
the production of which occupies the lower class of teachers of
religion all over the country.

Area, Population, and Trade.

The area of Morocco can only be vaguely estimated, as the
southern frontiers, towards the Sahara, are unsettled, and claimed
alternately by the Sultan and a number of wandering tribes not in
any manner under his authority. According to the most recent
investigation, the area of the Sultan's dominions is about 219,000
English square miles, inclusive of a conquered portion of the
Sahara. The estimates of the population of Morocco vary from
2,500,000 to 8,000,000 ; and, taking the known density of popula-
tion of the neighbouring Algeria as measure, it may be fixed, with
probably some approximation to truth, at 2,750,000 souls. More
than two-thirds of the population belong to the race commonly
known as Moors, the remaining third consisting mainly of Bedouin
Arabs, Jews, estimated at 340,000, and negroes. The number of
Christians is very small, not exceeding 500. A large part of the
interior of Morocco is entirely unknown to Europeans.

The trade with foreign countries is not very considerable ; still it
has increased greatly since the year 1856, Avhen a treaty of com-
merce was concluded between Great Britain and Morocco. In the
year 1873 the total imports amounted to 834,478/., and the total
exports to 1,555,466/. In the year 1875 the imports were of the
total value of 1,011,588/., and the exports of 1,561,312/. The

646

THE STATESMAN S TEAK-BOOK, 1877.

foreign trade of Morocco is chiefly with Great Britain, Spain, and
France, and it passes mainly through the port of Tangier. There
are, besides Tangier, seven other ports open to foreign commerce.

The following table gives the value of the exports from Morocco
to Great Britain, and of the imports of British home produce into
Morocco, in each of the five years from 1871 to 1875 : —

Exports from Morocco to

Imports of British Home

Great Britain.

produce into Morocco.

1871

419,357

199,603

1872

685,940

255,386

1873

970,206

313,791

1874

699,163

443,416

1875

711,294

342,420

The chief articles of export from Morocco to Great Britain in
the year 1875 were corn, chiefly beans and maize, of the value of
371,668/., and olive oil, of the value of 42,125/. The staple article
of British imports into Morocco consists of cotton manufactures, of
the value of 290,406/., in 1875. It is stated in a recent Consular
report from Tangier that 'owing to an unfortunate prejudice on
the p art of the Sultan of Morocco a prohibition is imposed upon
the exportation of wheat and barley.'

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of Moeocco in Geeat Britain.
Consul. — Hadj Said Guesus, accredited Dec. 31, 1863.

2. Of Geeat Britain in Morocco.

Minister and Consul- General. — Sir John Hay Drummond Hay, appointed
Minister Kesident June 9, 1860, and Minister Plenipotentiary Sept. 1, 1872.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Morocco, and the British
equivalents, are : —

Money.

The Blanked «* 24 Mues Approximate English value = ~yi.

The Ounce => 4 Blankeels „ „ „ = 3^.

The Mitkul = 10 Ounces „ „ „ = 3s. Id.

54 blankeels are considered equal to 1 Spanish dollar or 4s. The
gold coins generally in use are doubloons, worth 3/. 4s., with half
and quarter doubloons, and two-dollar pieces.

Weights and Measuees.

The Kintar
The Bhra'a
The Sad

= 100 Botales
= 8 Tomin .

= 4 Muhds

lb.av.
= 112

inches.
= 22.482
Imperial Gallons.
= 12.32541

MOROCCO. 647

Oil is sold by the kula, which weighs 22 rotal (of Morocco), and
is equal to about 3-335565 British imperial gallons, or 15" 155
litres, but all other liquids are sold by weight.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Morocco.

1. Official Publications.

Report by Mr. Consul "White on the Commerce and Government of Morocco,
dated Tangier, Nov. 19, 1872 : in ' Reports by H.M.'s Consuls on British
Trade abroad.' Part. I. 8. London, 1873.

Reports by Mr. Vice-Consul Lapeen on the Trade of Dar-el-Baida ; by Mr.
Vice-Consul Imossi on the Trade of Laraiche ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Redman on
the Trade of Mazagan ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Puente on the Trade of Rabat ; by
Mr. Vice-Consul Hunot on the Trade of Sam ; and by Mr. Consul White on the
Trade and Commerce of Tangier; dated December 1873 to February 1874; in
'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls on the Manufactures, Commerce, &c, of their
consular districts.' Part III. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Report by Mr. Consul White on the Trade and Commerce of Morocco in the
year 1873, dated Tangier, August 3, 1874; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.'
Parti. 1875. 8. London, 187-3.

Reports by Mr. Vice-Consul Lapeen on the Trade of Dar-al-Baida ; by Mr.
Vice-Consul Imossi on the Trade of Laraiche ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Redman on
the Trade of Mazagan ; by Mr. Vice-Consul Beaumier on the Trade of Moga-
dor; by Mr. Vice-Consul Frost on the Trade of Rabat; and by Mr. Consul
"White on the Trade of Tangier, dated December 1874 to January 1875; in
' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part III. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Report by Mr. Vice-Consul Hunot on the Commerce of the port of Saffi,
dated March 28, 1875 ; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part V. 1875. 8.
Londou, 1875.

Report by Mr. Consul White on the Trade and Commerce of Morocco for
the year 1875, dated Tangier, March 28, 1876; in 'Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Part VI. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Morocco with the United Kingdom; in 'Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
in the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Augustin (C), Marokko in seinen geographischen, historischen, religiosen,
politischen, militarisehen und gesellschaftlichen Zustanden. 8. Pesth, 1845.

Calderon (S.E.), Cuadro geografico, estadistico, historico, politico, del imperio
tie Marrueccos. 8. Madrid, 1844.

Lcared (Arthur), Morocco and the Moors ; being an Account of Travels, with
a General Description of the Country and its People. 8. London, 1876.

Maltzan (Heinrich, Freiherr von). Drei Jahre im Nordwesten von Afrika :
Reisen in Algerien und Marokko. 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1869.

Benou (C). Description geographique de l'empirede Maroc. 8. Paris, 1846.

IioMfs (Gerhard), Land und Volk in Afrika. 8. Bremen, 1870.

Eohlfs (Gerhard), Mein erster Aufenthalt in Marokko. 8. Bremen, 1873.

648

NATAL.

Constitution and Government.

The colony of Natal, formerly an integral part of the Cape of Good
Hope settlement, was erected in 1856 into a separate colony under
the British crown, represented by a Lieutenant-Governor. Under
the charter of constitution granted in 1856, and modified in 1875,
the Lieutenant-Governor is assisted in the administration of the
colony by an Executive and a Legislative Council. The Executive
Council is composed of the Chief-justice, the senior officer in
command of the troops, the Colonial Secretary, the Treasurer, the
Attorney-General, the Secretary for Native Affairs, and two mem-
bers nominated by the Governor from among the Deputies elected
to the Legislative Council. The Legislative Council is composed of
thirteen official members, the members including the Colonial Secre-
tary, the Treasurer, the Attorney- General, and the Secretary for
Native Affairs, and of fifteen members elected by the counties and
boroughs.

Lieutenant-Governor of Natal. — Sir Henry Ernest Bu liver, K.C.
M.G., born 1837 ; educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and gra-
duated B.A. 1859; British Resident at Paxo, Ionian Islands, 1860-64;
Receiver- General at Trinidad, 1866-67; Administrator of Dominica,
1867—68; Governor of Trinidad, 1868-70; Governor of Labuan,
1871-75; appointed Lieutenant-Governor of Natal, July 3, 1875.

The Lieutenant-Governor has a salary of 2,5001. per annum.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The public revenue and expenditure of the colony in the six
years from 1870 to 1875 were as follows : —

Years

Revenue

Expenditure

1870

111,231

108,406

1871

126,293

121,352

1872

180,498

132,978

1873

207,361

182,278

1874

247,259

306,365

1875

260,271

306,414

About one-fourth of the revenue is derived from customs, and the
rest from miscellaneous sources of income, among them a 'hut-
tax on natives.' The chief branch of expenditure is for police and
the administration of justice. The public debt consists of five loans,
all at six per cent., three of them contracted for harbour works, and

NATAL.

649

two for coolie immigration. The total of these loans, amounting to
263,000/., was converted in 1873 into a five per cent ' Natal Con-
solidated Loan,' which had been increased to 331,600/. at the end of
1875.

Natal is an almost solitary instance of a colony having been es-
tablished by Great Britain without cost to imperial funds. In its
early days it had a loan of ten thousand pounds, which has long since
been repaid. Its military expenditure is, however, still paid by
Great Britain, with the exception of a sum of 4,000Z. given as a
contribution by the colony. — (Official Communication.)

Population.

The colony has an estimated area of about 18,000 English square
miles, with a seaboard of 150 miles. But the extent of some of the
districts is all but unknown. The following table gives the area of
the best explored counties and divisions, and the population of each,
according to Government returns of June 1869 : —

Area :

Counties and divisions Engl.sq.miles

Population

County of Pietermaritzburg .....

38,831

Borough of ,,

—

6,192

County of Durban

3,774

23,179

Borough of ,,

—

5,708

County of Klip River

—

3,578

Ladysmith Division

—

46,379

Newcastle „

2,232

9,600

County of Victoria

—

870

Inanda Division

482

24,451

Tugela „

1,000

25,837

County of Umvoti

2,000

37,542

County of Weenen

—

34,379

Division of the Upper Umkomanzi

1,440

12,661

,, Lower „

1,600

18,905

County of Alfred .

—

1,562

Coast district

—

6,572

Midland ,, ....

—

6,446

Northern „ ....

—

4,540

Total

•

—

315,250

Another return, dated 1874, stated the total popidation of the
colony at 307,241. Only about one-seventh of the population are of
European origin. In the two towns of Pietermaritzburg and Dur-
ban, the European and native population are about equal in numbers.
Comparatively few emigrants arrived in recent years, the former
govemmpnt aid to this effect having come to an and

650

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Trade and Commerce.

The value of the total imports and exports of the colony, in the
six years 1870 to 1875, was as follows: —

Years

Imports

Exports

1870

429,527

482,979

1871

472,444

562,109

1872

825,252

717,851

1873

1,011,965

871,028

1874

1,121,948

936,821

1875

1,268,926

985,695

The commerce of Natal is almost entirely with Great Britain.
The subjoined table gives the value of the total exports from Natal
to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the total imports of British
produce in each of the six years 1870 to 1875 : —

Total Exports from Natal

Total Imports of

to Great Britain

British Produce into Natal

£ 1

1870

440,213

311,480

1871

418,598

345,804

1872

527,209

670,676

1873

543,103

745,883

1874

660,538

772,933

1875

754,298

872,381

The staple article of export from Natal is sheep's wool ; next to
which in importance stand sugar, ivory, and hides. The wool
exports to Great Britain amounted in value to 250,235/. in 1870, to
219,961/. in 1871, to 283,771/. in 1872, to 313,291/. in 1873, to
•400,672/. in 1874, and to 514,310/., representing 8,328,524 pounds
weight, in 1875. Next in importance to wool stand hides, the
exports of which were of the value of 189,739/. in 1875, and raw
sugar, of the value of 27,660/. in the same year. Many of the
exports of the colony, particularly wool, come from the neigh-
bouring Dutch republics, which also absorb more than one-third of
the imports.

Since the year 1866 cotton has been grown in the colony. The
oxports of raw cotton to Great Britain were of the value of 18,559/.
in 1870; and rose to 29,432/. in 1871 ; but fell to 9,791/. in 1872,
to 5,438/. in 1873 ; to 1,922/. in 1874 ; and to 309/. in 1875.

Natal as yet has no line of railway ; but a convention for the
construction of a railway system in the colony was signed by the
Government in 1875. The work is to comprise 345 miles of single

NATAL. 65 1

line, and to execute it the colony makes a land grant of two-and-a-
half million acres, with a further right to certain coal fields, and
gives a subvention of 40,000Z. per annum.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Natal.

1. Official Publications.

Report from Lieutenant-Governor Keate, on the Trade and General Condi-
tion of Natal, dated Natal, March 8, 1872 ; in ' Reports on the Present State
of Her Majesty's Colonial Possessions.' Part III. 8. London, 1872.

Statistics of Natal ; in ' Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and
other Possessions of the United Kingdom in each year from 1859 to 1873.'
No. XL 8. London, 1875.

Trade of Natal with Great Britain; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Dunn (E. J.), Notes on the Diamond Fields. 8. Cape Town, 1871.

Elton (Capt.), Special Reports upon the Gold Field at Marabastadt and upon
the Transvaal Republic, with full Description of RouteB. 8. Durban, 1872.

Fritsch (Dr. G.), Drei Jahre in Siid-Afrika, 8. Breslau, 1868.

Fritsch (Dr. Gust.), Die Eingeborenen Sud-Afrika's ethnographisch und ana-
tomisch beschrieben. 4. Breslau, 1872.

Hall (H.), Manual of South African Geography. 8. Capetown, 1866.

Mann (Dr. H.), Statistical Notes regarding the Colony of Natal. In ' Journal
of the Statistical Society of London.' Vol. XXX. 1. London, 1869.

Meidinger (E-.), Die sudafrikanisehen Colonien Englands und die Freistaaten
der hollandischen Boeren in ihren jetzigen Zustanden. 8. Frankfurt a. M.
1861.

Fayton (Ch. A.), The Diamond Diggings of South Africa. 8. London, 1872.

Natal Almanack, Directory, and Yearly Register. Pietermaritzburg, 1876.

Robinson (John F.R.G.S.), Notes on Natal. 8. Durban, 1872.

Steinbank (H. E.), Coffee in Natal. 12. London, 1874.

652

TUNIS.

(Afrikija.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Sidi Mohamed-el-Sadok, Bey of Tunis, born October 3, 1813,
eldest son of Bey Sidy Ahsin ; succeeded his brother, Mohamed,
September 23, 1859.

Brother of the Bey. — Sidy Ali, second surviving son of Bey Sidy
Ahsin, heir presumptive to the throne, born October 5, 1817.

The reigning family of Tunis, occupants of the throne since 1691,
descend from Ben Ali Tourki, a native of the Isle of Crete, who, by
force of arms, made himself master of the country, acknowledging,
however, the suzerainty of the Sultan of Turkey, in existence since
1575. This suzerainty remained in force, with short interrup-
tions, till the reign of the present Bey, who succeeded in obtaining
an Imperial firman, dated October 25, 1871, which liberated him
from the payment of the tribute paid by his predecessors and made
him virtually independent. Besides formalities of investiture, the sole
actual connection of Tunis with the Ottoman Empire exists in the
treaty obligation of the Bey to furnish the Sultan with a certain
number of troops in time of war.

Government, Revenue, and Army.

The Government of Tunis was a pure despotism till the accession
of the present sovereign, who issued, immediately after assuming the
government, an ' Organic Law,' establishing courts o£ justice, and
guaranteeing individual and religious liberty. By the terms of this
law the general administration of the country was vested, under the
Bey, in a Ministerial Council, composed of six members, presiding
over the departments of Foreign Affairs, held by the Prime Minister, of
the Interior, of Justice, of War, of Marine, and of Public Works.
There was likewise established, as a consulting body, a ' Conseil d e
la regence,' composed of all the foreign consuls, various governmen t
officials, and the members of the municipality of the capital.

The total revenue of the Government in the financial year ending
the 30th June, 1875, amounted to 273,292/., and the total expendi-
ture to 251,864/. The principal sources of revenue and chief
branches of expenditure were as follows, in the year 1874-75 : —

TUNIS.

653

Sources of Kevenue, 1874-1875.

Customs duties on exports ....
Taxes and tithes on olive trees ....
Tobacco and salt monopolies ....
Customs duties on imports ....
Miscellaneous receipts, including stamp duties .

Total Kevenue .

£
117,623
35,459
18,172
17,557
84,481

273,292

Branches of Expenditure, 1874-75.

Cost of General Administration

Interest and management of public debt .

Payment of arrear coupons of the debt .

Total Expenditure

£
6,053
223,105
22,716

251,864

It will be seen that, besides the general administration of the
country, carried on at a very small cost, the bulk of the expenditure
was for the public debt. The public liabilities were mainly contracted
between the years 1856 and 1868, and at the latter date amounted,
exclusive of a floating debt, to 182,000,000 francs, or 7,280,000/.,
a portion of it contracted in Tunis, but the greater part in foreign
countries, mainly France. No interest being paid to the creditors,
the French and other governments made reclamations, in pursuance
of which the Bey consented to establish an International Finance
Commission, to provide for the settlement and gradual extinction
of the public debt. Called into existence in 1869, the Commission
has been working since that time, with highly satisfactory results to
both the Government of Tunis and its creditors. The International
Finance Commission is divided into two departments, namely, the
Administrative Section, composed of the Prime Minister of Tunis
as president, of a French Inspector of finance, and another Tunisian
functionary representing the Government ; and the Section of Con-
trol, comprising six delegates elected by the English, French, and
Italian creditors respectively. The Acts of the Administrative
Section, having a reference directly or indirectly to financial matters
connected with the interests of the foreign creditors, have no executive
force unless they are approved by the Section of Control, particu-
larly in respect of any new loans or financial operations, which may
in any way affect the public revenue. There is a sub-committee
known as the ; Council of Administration of the Conceded Revenues,'
composed of five members, namely, one English, one French, one
Tunisian, an Italian, and one taken indiscriminately from among

654 THE statesman's tear-book, 1877.

the most respectable residents of any other nationality. They
are named by the Finance Commission for three years, at the
expiration of which period any of them may be re-elected for
another year. A member of the Board of Control assists at its
deliberations, besides which it submits its half-yearly accounts to
the Finance Commission, which, after being audited and approved
by it, are published for the information of the public.

Each foreign delegate of the Finance Commission receives yearly
240Z. to meet his extra expenses, while the members of the sub-
committee, who are expected to give up all their time to the
performance of their several duties, receive a salary of 400/., and
their president 480/. The total amount of the annual expenditure
incurred by the sub-committee is 6,000/., inclusive of 2,238/., being
the commission charged by the bankers for the payment of the
coupons in Europe and other outlays.

Under the arrangements made by the International Finance Com-
mission, the total public debt of Tunis stands fixed at present at
125,000,000 francs, or 5,000,000/., the whole bearing interest at
five per cent. The annual surplus of revenue over expenditure is
devoted to the gradual extinction of the debt.

The army of Tunis is divided into two distinct parts, the first
consisting of regular, and the second of irregular troops. The first
comprises seven regiments of infantry, of 3,900 men ; four battalions
of artillery, of 600 men ; and a cavalry troop of 100 men. The
irregular army is computed to amount to 11,500 men, about one-
fourth of them horsemen.

Tunis possessed two small armed steamers, an aviso of 500 tons,
with 8 guns, and engines of 160 horse-power, and a transport of
400 tons, with 2 guns, and of 140 horse-power, at the end of June
1876. It was reported at the same date that two ironclad monitors
were being constructed in France by order of the government.

Area, Population, and Trade.

The kingdom or ' Regency ' of Tunis, formerly one of the so-called
Barbary States, comprises the tract of country included in the ancient
Roman provinces of Zeugitana and Byzacium. It takes its present
name from its modern capital Tunis, the Roman Tunes, the Xevtcot)
Tvvrira of Diodorus of Sicily. The present boundaries are on the
north and east the Mediterranean Sea, on the west the Franco-
Algerian province of Constantine, and on the south the great
desert of the Sahara and the Turkish Pachalik of Tripoli ; and
reckoning its average, breadth from west to east to be 100 miles, it
covers an area of about 42,000 English square miles, including that
portion of the Sahara which is to the east of the Beled Djerid,
extending towards Gadames.

TUNIS.

655

The number of inhabitants is only known by estimates, no
attempt of enumeration having ever been made. Formerly most
populous, the country is now very thinly inhabited. In the time of
its highest prosperity vast quantities of grain were exported from
its shores, and its own population — reported to have been from
17,000,000 to 18,000,000— fed from its abundant produce. The
early Christian Church numbered 182 episcopal sees within its
limits, and in the eighteenth century its population was estimated at
5,000,000. The great plagues of 1785 and 1829 carried off more
than half the inhabitants, and the diminished population was again
decimated by the famine and typhus of 18G7. The present popula-
tion maybe roughly estimated at 1,500,000. The majority of the
population is formed of Bedouin Arabs and Kabyles, the former
divided into 23 tribes.

The capital, the city of Tunis, is situated 10 miles south-
east of the site of ancient Carthage, built on the western side of a
lake, some 20 miles in circumference, which separates it from its
port Goletta.. The city walls measure five miles in circumference,
and the inhabitants are variously estimated from 100,000 to 120,000,
comprising Moors, Arabs, the descendants of Turks, Negroes,
Christians, and Jews.

There are twelve ports open to foreign trade, but the bulk of the
commerce passes through Tunis-Goletta. In the year 1874, the
total imports into the country were returned, officially, at 1,014,673/.,
and the total exports at 1,1 43,327/. The principal articles imported
in 1874 were cotton manufactures, valued 218,444/., and iron and
other metals, valued 69,0G2/. The principal articles exported in
1874 were wheat, of the value of 399,682/. ; olive oil, of the value
of 229,178/.; and barley, of the value of 205,560/. The foreign
trade is carried on mainly with Italy, France, and Great Britain.

In the returns of the Board of Trade the commerce of Great Britain
with Tunis is thrown together with that of Tripolis. The following
table shows the exports from Tunis and Tripolis to Great Britain,
and the imports of British home produce into Tunis and Tripolis, i;i
each of the five years from 1871 to 1875 : —

Exports from Tunis and

Imports of British home

Tears.

Tripolis to the United

produce into Tunis

Kingdom.

and Tripolis.

1871

140,827

39,120

1872

142,086

74.489

1873

152,527

64,604

1871

238,2/-, 7

101,993

1875

416,9s:,

122,557

The principal article of exrort from Tunis and Tripolis to Great

656 THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Britain in the year 1875 was Esparto grass, for making paper, of
the value of 268,417Z., while the principal article of import of Britiih
produce consisted in cotton manufactures, of the value of 98,877Z.

Diplomatic Representatives.

Of Great Britain in Tunis.
Political Agent and Consul- General. — Robert Wood.
Tunis has at present no representative in Great Britain.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Tunis, and the British equivalents, are
as follows : —

Monet.
The Piastre, of 16 karubs . . . . average value 6d.
The gold and silver coins of France and Italy are in general use.

Weights and Measures.

The Cantar, of 1 00 rottolos = 109-15 pounds.

,, Kaffis, of 16 whibas, each of 12 sahs = 16 bushels.

The pic, or principal long measure, is of three lengths, viz., 07359 of a
yard for cloth ; C51729 of a yard for linen ; 0-68975 of a yard for silk.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning' Tunis.

1. Official Publications.

Report by Mr. Consul-General Wood, on the trade, industry, and finances
of Tunis, dated Tunis, September 27, 1875; in 'Reports from H.M.'s
Consuls.' Parti. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Report by Mr. Vice-Consul Lupuis, on the trade and commerce of Susa in

1875, dated Susa, January 1876 ; in 'Reports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV.

1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Tunis and Tripoli with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual State-
ment of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British
Possessions, for the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-official Publications.
Be Manx (M.), La Regence de Tunis. 8. Paris, 1866.
Dilhan (Ch.), Histoire abregee de la Regence de Tunis. 8. Paris, 1867.
Eousseau (F.), Annales Tunisiennes. 8. Paris, 1864.
Temple (Sir G.), Excursions in the Mediterranean. 2 vols. 8. London,
1856.

657

III. ASIA.

CEYLON.

Constitution and Government.

The present form of government of Ceylon was established by
Letters Patent of April 1831, and supplementary orders of March
1833. According to the terms of this constitution, the administra-
tion is in the hands of a Governor, aided by an Executive Council
•of five members ; viz. the Officer Commanding the Troops, the
Colonial Secretary, the Queen's Advocate, the Treasurer, and the
Auditor-General; and a Legislative Council of 15 members, in-
cluding the members of the Executive Council, four other office-
holders, and six unofficial members.

Governor of Ceylon. — Hon. James E. Longden, C.M.G., born
1825 ; President of the Virgin Islands, 1861-65 ; Lieut. -Governor
of Dominica, 1865-67 ; Lieut.-Governor of British Honduras,
1867-70 ; Governor of Trinidad, 1870-74 ; Governor of British
Guiana, 1874-76. Appointed Governor of Ceylon, November 20,
1876.

The Governor has a salary of 7,000/., and the Colonial Secretary
2,000/.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The public revenue and expenditure of the colony, in each of the
eight years 1868 to 1875, were as follows : —

Years

Revenue

Expenditure

1867

969,936

927,932

1868

925,265

974,950

1869

946,495

881,373

1870

1,091,606

1,026,870

1871

1,121,679

1,064,184

1872

1,174,698

1,062,994

1873

1,290,918

1,176,258

1874

1,324,328

1,184,192

1875

1,354,123

1,241,519

The principal sources of revenue are the customs, of an average
produce of 286,000/. ; licences, including the arrack monopoly

u u

658

TIIE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

returning 150,000/. ; and sales, with rents of public lands, pro-
ducing together about 230,000/. per annum. The civil and judicial
establishments of the colony cost nearly 300,000/., and the con-
tribution to military expenditure amounts to 160,000/. annually.
For public works, from 200,000/. to 250,000/. have been expended
in recent years, and about 20,000/. for education.

To aid in the establishment of a line of railway, a public debt, to
the amount of 800,000/., was raised in 1861-67, of which 100,000/.
was paid off in 1868. There is a sinking fund provided for the
gradual extinction of the debt, which had been reduced, at the end
of 1874, to 640,000/. The Colony has a railway, 75 miles in
length, constructed at the expense of the Government, the annual
profits of which go to the sinking fund of the debt.

Population.

The island of Ceylon was first settled in 1505 by the Portuguese,,
who estabbshed colonies in the west and south, which were
taken from them early in the next century by the Dutch. In
1795-96, the British Government took possession of the foreign
settlements in the island, which were annexed to the Presidency
of Madras; but two years after, in 1798, Ceylon was erected into a
separate colony. In 1815 war was declared against the native Go-
vernment of the interior : the Kandyan King was taken prisoner,
and the whole island fell under British rule.

The extreme length of the colony from north to south, that is,
from Point Palmyra to Dondera Head, is 266 miles ; its greatest
width, 140^ miles from Colombo on the west coast to Sangeman-
kande on the east ; its area is 24,454 miles, or 15,678,900 acres.

The following table gives the area and population of the six
provinces of Ceylon, according to an official return of the year
1870 :—

Provinces

Area : English
square miles

Population Population per
^ square mile

Western .....

North-western

Southern ....

Eastern .....

Northern ....

Central .....

Total
Military ....

Total (including military) .

3,345
2,805
1,927
4,545
6,062
5,770

662,658 198-11
214,699 76-54
353,989 183-69
96,601 21-25
426,597 70-36
371,466 64-37

24,454

2,126,037 86-94
2,847 -11

2,128,884 87-05

CETLON.

659

Of the total population here enumerated 4,732 were British ;
14,201 other whites of European descent, and the rest coloured.
At a census taken March 26. 1871, the total population of Ceylon
was found to be 2,405,287. The religious creeds were returned as
follows: — Buddhists, 1,520,575; Sivites, 464,414 ; Eoman Catho-
lics, 182,613; Mahomedan, 171,542; Protestants, 24,756; Wes-
leyans, 6,071 ; Presbyterians, 3,101 ; and Baptists, 1,478. The
whole of the Christians belonged to the European-descended popu-
lation.

Trade and Industry.

The declared value of the total imports and exports of the colony,
including bullion and specie, was as follows in each of the five years
1871 to 1875:—

Years

Imports

Exports

1871

4,797,592

3,634,853

1872

5,169,524

3,139,060

1873

5.574,358

5,439,591

1874

5,691,860

4,687,388

1875

5,983,787

5,360,580

The commercial intercourse of Ceylon is mainly with the United
Kingdom and India. The amount of trade with the United King-
dom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement, which gives the
total value of the exports from Ceylon to Great Britain and Ireland,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into Ceylon, in each of the five years 1871 to 1875 : —

Tears

Exports from Ceylon to
the United Kingdom

Imports of British Home
Produce into QeyloGQ

1871
1872
1873
1874
1875

£
3,167,673
3,163,153
4,331,006
3,600,492
4,380,821

£
928,807
1,017,753
1,052,072
1,158,283
1,076,752

The staple article of exports from Ceylon to the United King-
dom is coffee, of the declared value of 2,623,263/. in 1871; of
2,341,601/. in 1872 ; of 3,692,333/. in 1873 ; of 2,870,051/. in 1874 ;
and of 3,743,505/. in 1875. Besides coffee, the only other exports
of note are cocoa-nut oil, and cinnamon, the former amounting in
value to 210,113/., and the latter to 130,815J. in the year 1875.
Manufactured cotton goods, of the value of 554,814/. in 1875
form the staple articles of British imports into Ceylon.

66o the statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The weights and measures of Ceylon are the same as those of
the United Kingdom. The money of the country is the rupee of
British India. Accounts are kept in rupees and cents. For value
see page 699.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Ceylon.

1. Official Publications.

Report of Governor Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson, dated Colombo, Septem-
ber 14, 1867 ; in ' Reports, showing the present state of H. M.'s Colonial
Possessions.' Part III. Eastern Colonies. Fol. London, 1868.

Report of Governor Sir Hercules Robinson, dated Colombo, September 14,
1871 ; in 'Reports on the Past and Present State of H.M.'s Colonial Posses-
sions. Part II. London, 1872.

Report of Governor the Right Hon. W. H. Gregory on the Revenue, Trade,
&c, of Ceylon, dated Colombo, October 13, 1873 ; in ' Papers relating to H.M.'s
Colonial Possessions.' Part I. 1874. 8. London, 1874.

Statistics of Ceylon ; in ' Statistical Abstract for the Colonial and other Pos-
sessions of the United Kingdom.' No. XII. S. London, 1876.

Trade of Ceylon with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year 187V Imp- 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Baker (S. W.), Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon. 8. London, 1855.

Ceylon : being a general description of the island, historical, physical,
statistical, containing the most recent information. By an Officer, late of the
Ceylon Rifles. 2 vols. 8. London, 1876.

Duncan (George), Geography of India. Part II. Ceylon. 8 Madras,
1865.

Mouat (Frederic J.), Rough Notes of a Trip to Reunion, the Mauritius, and
Ceylon. 8. Calcutta, 1852.

Pridham (C), Historical, Political, and Statistical Account of Ceylon. 2 vols.
8. London, 1849.

Bansonnet- Villes (Baron E. von), Ceylon: Skizzen seiner Bewohner, seines
Thier- und Pflanzenlebens. Fol. Brunswick, 1868.

Schmarda (L. K.), Reise um die Erde : Zeilon. Vol. i. 8. Braunschweig,
1861.

&Vr(H. C), Ceylon and the Cingalese. 2 vols. 8. London, 1851.

Tennent (Sir James Emerson), Ceylon : an Account of the Island, Physical
Historical, and Topographical. 5th ed. London, 1860.

66 1

CHINA.

(Tsin. — KatAi.)

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Tsai-Tien, surnatued Hwangti — 'The Supreme, who nourishes all
creatures' — Emperor of China, born 1871, the son of Prince Ch'un,
seventh son of Emperor Hien-fung; succeeded to the throne by-
proclamation, at the death of Emperor T'oung-che, February 2,
1875.

The proclamation, announcing the accession of the present sove-
reign, was as follows: — 'Whereas His Majesty the Emperor has
ascended upon the Dragon to be a guest on high, without offspring
born to his inheritance, no course has been open but that of causing
Tsai-Tien, son of the Prince of Ch'un, to become adopted as the
son of the Emperor Wen Tsung Hien (Hienfung), and to enter upon
the inheritance of the great dynastic line as Emperor by succession.
Therefore, let Tsai-Tien, son of Yih Hwan, the Prince of Ch'un,
become adopted as the son of the Emperor Wen Tsung Hien, and
enter upon the inheritance of the great dynastic line as Emperor by
succession.'

The present sovereign is the ninth Emperor of China of the Tartar
dynasty of Ta-tsing, ' The Sublimely Pure,' which succeeded the
native dynasty of Ming in the year 1644. There exists no law of
hereditary succession to the throne, but it is left to each sovereign
to appoint his successor from among the members of his family.
The late Emperor, dying suddenly, in the eighteenth year of age,
did not designate a successor, and it was in consequence of a palace
intrigue, directed by the Empress Dowager, widow of the Emperor
Hienfung, predecessor of T'oung-che, in concert with Prince Ch'un,
that the inlant son of the latter was made the nominal occupant of
the throne.

Government, Revenue, and Army.

The fundamental laws of the empire are laid down in the Ta-tsing-
hwei-tien, or ' Collected Kegulations of the Great Pure dynasty,'
which prescribe the government of the state to be based upon the
government of the family. The Emperor is spiritual as well as tem-
poral sovereign, and, as high priest of the empire, can alone, with
his immediate representatives and ministers, perform the great
religious ceremonies. No ecclesiastical hierarchy is maintained at
the public expense, nor any priesthood attached to the Confucian or
Suite religion.

662 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The administration of the empire is under the supreme direction
of the ' Interior Council Chamber,' comprising four members,
two of Tartar and two of Chinese origin, besides two assistants
from the Han-lin, or Great College, who have to see that nothing
is done contrary to the civil and religious aws of the empire, con-
tained in the Ta-tsing-hwei-tien, and in the sacred books of Con-
fucius. These members are denominated ' Ta-hyo-si,' or Ministers
of State. Under their orders are the Li-poo, or six boards of
government, each of which is presided over by a Tartar and a
Chinese. They are : — 1. The board of civil appointments, which
takes cognisance of the conduct and administration of all civil
officers; 2. The board of revenues, regulating all financial affairs ;
3. The board of rites and ceremonies, which enforces the laws and
customs to be observed by the people ; 4. The military board,
superintending the administration of the army ; 5. The board of
public works ; and 6. The high tribunal of criminal jurisdiction.

Independent of the Government, and theoretically above the
central administration, is the Tu-chah-yuen, or board of public
censers. It consists of from 40 to 50 members, under two presidents,
the one of Tartar and the other of Chinese birth. By the ancient
custom of the empire, all the members of this board are privileged
to present any remonstrance to the sovereign. One censor must be
present at the meetings of each of the six government boards.

The estimates of the public revenue of China vary greatly, and
while they are stated by some to exceed 100 millions sterling, are
held by others not to come up to half that amount. Official returns
of the Chinese Government, published in 1844, stated the annual
revenue at that time at 191,804,139 taels, or 63,934,713/. From
missionary reports, as well as the accounts published in the ' Peking
Gazette,' it would appear that there are almost constant deficits,
which the governors and high officers of provinces must cover by
extraordinary taxation.

The public revenue is mainly derived from three sources, namely,
customs duties, licenses, and a tax upon land, but the receipts from
customs alone are made known. They amounted in the six years
from 1870 to 1875 to an average of 11,678,000 taels, or 3,892,700/.
per annum. The customs duties fall more upon exports than
imports.

China had no foreign debt till the end of 1874. It was announced
on December 30, 1874, that the government had contracted a loan
of 627,675/., bearing 8 per cent, interest. The loan was issued at
95 per cent, through the Hong-Kong and Shanghai Bank, under
Imperial authority and secured by the customs revenue. It is not
known whether the Government has raised, or is responsible, for
loans contracted at home.

CHINA. 66$

The standing military force of China consists of two great divi-
sions, the first formed by the more immediate subjects of the ruling
dynasty, the Tartars, and the second by the Chinese and other
subject races. Under the first are included the Manchu, Mongol,
and Chinese Bannermen, distributed in permanent garrisons over
the great cities of the empire, while the second is made up of purely
Chinese troops. The Manchu Tartars, founders of the present
dynasty, when they conquered China, in 1644, divided their army
into four corps, distinguished as being under white, blue, red, and
yellow banners. Four bordered banners of the same colours were
subsequently added, and in course of time there were added to these
eight similar corps of Mongols and eight of Chinese, who had cast
in their lot with the invaders. The chief command of these corps
— which are of a mixed civil and military organisation, all being
liable to bear arms, but not all being paid as soldiers — is vested in
high officers of the three nationalities, the Manchu, on the whole,
predominating. The Governors General and Governors have each
a small force at their disposal, but they do not command the mili-
tary or naval forces of the province. Permanent Manchu garrisons
under Manchu officers are established in the great cities on the
coast and along the frontier. The purely Chinese army is alto-
gether distinct from this force, and is mainly composed of natives of
China. It is not known how far this army may be considered
effective, and what may be its numerical strength. For political
purposes, the Central Government has it broken up into a multitude
of camps widely distributed over the empire, each province having
probably from 20,000 to 100,000 men during time of war. But
the standing Chinese army is seldom much larger than what is re-
quired to act as a sort of constabulary, resident in guard stations
and camps in the various departments of the empire.

Population, Trade, and Industry.

The population of China is very dense, but nothing accurate is
known respecting the number of inhabitants, although official
enumerations of the same are stated to have taken place at intervals
since the year 703, or for more than eleven centuries. One of the
causes of uncertainty regarding the population of the empire is that
its limits are undefined, the imperial government claiming the
allegiance of the inhabitants of many of the neighbouring territories,
which appear to be more or less independent. According to the
most reliable estimates, based upon Chinese official returns, the
area of the empire and its dependencies, embraces 180,887 geo-
graphical, or 3,924,627 English square miles, with a population of
425 millions, distributed as follows: —

664

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

•

Cliina proper
Dependencies : —

Mandchuria

Mongolia.

Thibet ....

Corea ....

Lieukhieu Islands .
Liaotong ....

Total

Area Population

Engl. sq. miles
1,534,953

362,313

1,288,035

643,734

90,300

2,310

2,982

105,213,152

3,000,000
2,000,000
6,000,000
8,000,000

I 1,000,000

3,924,627

425,213,152

China proper, extending over 73,093 geographical, or 1,534,953
English square miles, is divided into eighteen provinces, the area
and population of "which are given as follows in the most recent
estimates, partly based on official returns : —

Provinces

Provincial capital

Area:

English square

miles

Population 1

1 Chih-le .
Shan-tung
Shan-se .
Honan
Keang-soo
Gan-hwuy
Keang-si .
Foo-Keen .
Che-Keang
Hoo-Pih .
Hunan
Shen-se
Kan-suh .
Sze-Chuen
Kwang-tuii^.or
Kwang-si .
Yun-Xau .
Kwci-Choo

I'.! lit Oil

Peking .
Tse-nan-foo .
Tae-yuen-foo .
Kae-fung-foo .
Nanking
Gan-king-foo .
Nan-chang-foo
Fuh-choo-foo .
Hang-choo-foo
Woo-chang-foo
Chang-cha-foo
Se-gan-foo
Lan-choo-foo .
Ching-too-foo .
Kwang-choo-foo
Kwe-lin-foo .
Yun-nan-foo .
Kwei-yang-foo

Total .

58.949
65,104

55,268
65,104

[ 92,061 |

72.170
53,480
39,150

I 381,724 J

| 151,008 j

166.800
79,456
78,250

107,869
64,554

28,114,023 j
28,958,764
27,260,281
23,037,171

37,843,501

34.168,059

30,426,999

38,888,432

26,256,784 1

37,370,098 j

18,652,507 I

10,207,256. j

15,193,135

21,435,678

19,147,030

7,313,895 ;

5,561,320 !

5,288,219 !

1,534,953

405,213,152 i

The above population, giving 263 souls per square mile throughout
China proper appears to be excessive, considering that some of the
outlying portions of the immense territory are by no means densely
inhabited. Nevertheless, other returns than those of the above tables
said to be official, give still higher figures. It is stated that in a
census taken in 1842, the population of China was ascertained to
number 414,686,994, or 320 per English square mile, and that in
1852 it had risen to 450,000,000, or 347 inhabitants per square
mile. But there is, probably, less accuracy in the given results of
he latter enumerations than in the preceding estimate, as the power and

CHINA.

665

authority of the government have been on the decline for more than
half a century, and disturbed by constant insurrections, mostly
spreading over large portions of the empire.

According to a return of the Imperial customs authorities, the
total number of foreigners in China was 3,661 at the end of 1872.
Among them were 1,771 natives of Great Britain and Ireland, 541
of the United States; 481 of Germany, and 239 of France, all
other nationalities being represented by very few members. More
than one half of the total number of foreigners, namely, 2,047 re-
sided at Shanghai, and 308 at Canton, the remainder being scat-
tered in small numbers over the ports open to foreign commerce.^

The commercial intercourse of China is mainly with the United
Kingdom and the British colonies. To the aggregate imports and
exports of China, in the five years 1871 to 1875, Great Britain
contributed 52 per cent., the colony of Hong Kong 25 per cent.,
and India 10 per cent., leaving only 13 per cent, for all other
foreign nations, chief among which stand the United States.

Great Britain has, in virtue of various treaties with the Chinese
government — the first and most important signed August 29, 1842
— the right of access to twenty-one ports of the Empire, in addition
to the colony of Hong Kong, geographically a part of China. The
twenty-one ports, known as Treaty ports, are divided into eleven
primary, or consular ports, and ten secondary ports, the first-class
comprising Canton, Amoy, Foo-chow, Ningpo, Shanghae, Swatow,
Tientsin, Che-foo, Hankow, Kiu-kiang, and Newchwang. By
an additional convention, made in 1876, the Chinese government
consented to open, on the 1st of February, 1877, three more towns
to foreign trade, namely, "Wenchow, a seaport, between Foo-chow
and Ningpo ; Woo-hoo, on the lower Yang-tse, beyond Nankin ;
and Ichang, on the Upper Yang-tse, 360 miles further inland than
Hankow, and nearly in the centre of the Empire.

The value of the total exports from China to the United Kingdom,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures into
China, was as follows in each of the ten years from 1866 to 1875 •

Tears

Exports from China to
Great Britain

Import? of

British Home Produce

into China

£
5,090,074
4,996,469
6,312,175
6,842,840
6,139,633
6,628,236
6,624,511
4,882,701
4,751,103

•I.D'JS,.'

1866 .

1867 .

1868 .

1869 .

1870 •

1871 .

1872 .

1873 .

1874 .

1875 .

10,846,388

9,340,402

11,217,450

9,621,358

9,481,737

11,830,388

13,246,042

12,154,234

11,146,909

13,61)7.582

666

THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877-

The exports from China to Great Britain and Ireland are made up,
to the amount of more than two-thirds, of one article of merchandise,
namely, tea. During the ten years from 1866 to 1875, the quanti-
ties and value of the exports of tea from China to the United
Kingdom were as follows : —

Years

Quantities

Value

lbs.

1866 ....

127,486,120

10,178,070

1867 .

114,511,388

8,951,954

1868 .

137,042,375

10,945,530

1869 .

123,299,115

9,007,598

1870 .

122,197,167

8,556,761

1871 .

148,118,667

9,763,276

1872 .

152,283,847

10,290,365

1873 .

130,493,426

8,806,786

1874 .

127,345,285

8,678,418

187-5 ....

158,060,126

10,642,052

Besides tea, the only other important article of export from China
to Great Britain is raw silk, the value of which amounted to 49,807/.
in 1867 ; to 82,847/. in 1868 ; to 296,292/. in 1869 ; to 650,298/. in
1870; to 1,713,286/. in 1871 ; to 2,035,454/. in 1872; to 3,088,624/.
in 1873; to 1,939,748/. in 1874; and to 2,333,779/ in 1875.
From 1863 to 1865, the exports to Great Britain included large
quantities of raw cotton, but the supply ceased in 1868, while sub-
sequently the cotton exports were of the value of 16/. in 1869, of
97/. in 1870, of 487/. in 1871, of 4,119/. in 1872, of 21,041/., in
1873, of 9,791/. in 1874, and of 14,176/. in 1875.

Manufactured cotton and woollen goods, the former of the value of
3,422,614/., and the latter of 798,091/. in the year 1875, constitute
the bulk of the imports of British produce into the Chinese empire,
a part passing in transit through the colony of Hong Kong. (See
page 673.)

China is traversed in all directions by 20,000 imperial roads, and
though most of them are badly kept, a vast internal trade is carried
on over them, and by means of numerous canals and navigable rivers.
It is stated that the most populous part of China is singularly well
adapted for the establishment of a network of railways, and a first
attempt to introduce them into the country was made by the con-
struction of a short line from Shanghai to Woosung, forty miles in
length. One-half of this line, from Shanghai to Kangwang, was
opened for traffic June 3, 1876.

CHINA. 667

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of China in Great Buitain.

Envoy and Minister. — Kuo-Sung-T'au, appointed October 15, 1870.
Secretary. — Liu-Hsi--Hung.

2. Of Geeat Britain in China.

Envoy, Minister Plenipotentiary, and Chief Superintendent of British Trade.
Sir Thomas Francis Wade, appointed July 22, 1871.
Secretaries. — Hugh Fraser ; Hon. T. G. Grosvenor ; Arthur Nieolson.
Chinese Secretary. — -William S. F. Mayers.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures, in ordinary use at the treaty
ports, and in the intercourse with foreigners, are as follows : —

Monet.
The Tael=10 Mace=100 Candarecns = 1,000 Cash =

Average rate of exchange, 6s. 8d., or 3 Taels to ll. sterling.
„ Mexican Dollar „ „ „ = is. 2d.

There are no national gold and silver coins in China, and foreign
coins are looked upon but as bullion. The chief medium of pay-
ment in commercial transactions consists of whole and broken
dollars by weight. In accounts between foreigners and Chinese
merchants, Mexican dollars are mostly converted into taels, at the
rate of 1,000 dollars for 720 taels. But payments in cash are
usually weighed at 717 taels for 1,000 dollars.

Weights and Measures.

The Leang, or Tad
„ Field

. = lioz. avoirdupois.
= 133 lbs.

„ Catty
„ Chih

= If „

= 1 4i inches.

„ Chang
„ Lys, or Li

= 11* feet.

= 194 to a degree, or about £ English mile

In the tariff settled by treaty between Great Britain and China,
the Chih of 14-^ English inches has been adopted as the legal stan-
dard. It is the only authorised measure of length at all the ports of
trade, and its use is gradually spreading all over the empire.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning China.
1. Official Publications.

Abstract of Trade and Customs Revenue Statistics from 18G4 to 1868, pub-
lished by the Imperial Maritime Customs. Presented to both Houses of Par-
liament. Fol. London, 1869.

Commercial Reports from H.M.'s Consuls in China and Siam. 8. pp. 103.
London, 1870.

668 the statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Correspondence respecting the Revision of the Treaty of Tientsin. Pre-
sented to the House of Commons. 4. London, 1871. *

Reports of Journeys in China and Japan performed by Mr. Alabaster, Mr.
Oxenham, Mr. Markham, and Dr. Willis, of H. M.'s Consular Service. Pre-
sented to both Houses of Parliament. Fol. London, 1869.

Reports by Consul Swinhoe of his Special Mission up the river Yang-tsze-
kiang. Presented to both Houses of Parliament. Fol. London, 1870.

Report of Mr. Frederick F. Low, Minister-Resident of the United States, on

China : its Social and Political Organisation ; its Relation with the People

and Governments of other Nations, and its possible Future ;' dated Peking,

Jan. 10, 1871; in 'Papers relating to the Foreign Relations of the United

States.' 8. Washington, 1871.

Report of Mr. George F. Seward, Consul-General of the United States, on
the Religious, Educational, and Moral State of the Chinese People,' dated
Shanghai, August 22, 1871 ; in 'Papers relating to the Foreign Relations of
the United States.' 8. Washington, 1872.

Report of the Delegates of the Shanghae Chamber of Commerce on the
Trade of the Upper Yangtsze river. Presented to Parliament. Fol. LondoD,
1870.

Report by Mr. Mallet. H.M.'s Secretary of Legation, upon the Fluctuations
of the Foreign Trade of China between the years 186-1 and 1 S71. Presented to
Parliament. 8. London, 1873.

Returns relative to Trade with China. (Reports from British Consuls at
thirteen of the Treaty Ports.) 8. London, 1873.

Trade of Great Britain with China ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Nox-Official Publications.

Anderson (John), Mandalay to Momien : a Narrative of the two expeditions
to Western China of 1868 and 1875 with Colonels E. B. Sladen and Horace
Browne. 8. London, 1876.

Bastian (Dr. A.), DieVolker des Oestlichen Asiens. 6 vols. 8. Jena, 1866-71.

Came (L. de), Voyage en Indo-Chine et dans l'empire chinois. 18. Paris,
1872.

Chinese Topography, being an Alphabetical List of the Provinces, Depart-
ing nts, and Districts in the Chinese Empire, with their Latitudes and Longi-
tudes. Canton, 1844. Reprinted in 1864.

Courcy (Marquis de), L'Empire du milieu ; description geographique, precis
historique, institutions sociales, religieuses, politiques, notions sur les sciences,
les arts, l'industrie et le commerce. 8. Paris, 1867.

David (Abbe A.), Journal de mon troisieme voyage d'exploration dans Tempire
chinois. 2 vols. 18. Paris, 1875.

Davis (Sir John F.), Description of China and its Inhabitants. 2 vols. 8.
London, 1857.

Dennys (N. B.) and Mayers (W. T.), China and Japan: a Complete Guide to
the Open Ports of those Countries; together with Peking, Yeddo, Hongkong,
and Macao. 8. London, 1867.

Dudgeon (Dr. J.), Historical Sketch of the Ecclesiastical, Political, and Com-
mercial Relations of Russia with China. 8. Peking, 1872.

Ferrari (Joseph), La Chine et l'Europe. 8. Paris, 1867.

G'titdaff(C. F. A.), China Opened ; or, a Display of the Topography, History,
Arts, Commerce, &c. of the Chinese Empire. 2 vols. 8. London, 183 S.

CHINA. 669

Hanspach (Rev. A.), Report for the Years 1863 and 1864 of the Chinese
Vernacular Schools, established in the Sinon, Kiushen, Fayuen, and Chonglok
districts of the Quangtung province. 8. Hongkong, 1865.

Hue (L'Abbe E. R,), I/Empire chinois. 2 vols. 8. 4th ed. Paris, 1862.
Lauture (Comte d Eseayrac de), Memoires sur la Chine: Gouvernement. 4.
Paris, 1864. .

Loch (Hy. Brougham), A Personal Narrative of Occurrences during Lord
Elgin's Second Embassy to China in 1860. 8. London, 1870.
Macdonald (James), The China Question. 8. London, 1870.
Martin (Dr.), Sur la statistique relative au denombrement de la population en
Chine. In 'Bulletin de la Societe de geographic de Paris.' 8. Paris, 1872.
Martin (D.\ L'Opium en Chine; etude statistique et morale. 8. Paris, 1872.
Medhurst (W. H.), The Foreigner in Far Cathay. 8. London, 1872.
Oliphant (Oscar), China ; a popular history. 8. London, 1857.
Osborn (Capt. Sherard), Past and Future of British Relations in China. 8.
London, 1860.

Pallu (Lieutenant Leopold), Relation de l'Expedition de Chine en 1860,
redi^ee d'apres les documents ofnciels, avec l'autorisation de 31. le comte de
Chasseloup-Laubat, Ministre de la Marine. 4. Paris, 1864.

Plath (N), Ueber die lange Dauer und Entwicklung des Chinesischen Reichs.
8. Miinchen, 1861.

Biehthofen (Baron F. von), Letters on the Provinces of Chekiang and
Nganhwei ; and on Nanking and Chinkiang. 4. Shanghai, 1871.

Sacharoff (T.), The Numerical Relations of the Population of China during
the Four Thousand Years of its Historical Existence ; or, the Rise and Fall of
the Chinese Population. Translated into English by the Rev. W. Lobscheid.
Also, the Chronology of the Chinese. 8. Hongkong, 1865.

Scherzer (Dr. K. von), Die wirthschaftlichen Zustande im Siiden und
Osten Asien's. 8. Stuttgart, 1871.

Simon (Consul E.), L'agriculture de la Chine. 6. Paris, 1872.
Sladen (Major E. B.), Official Narrative of the Expedition to explore the
Trade Routes to China via Bhamo. 8. Calcutta, 1870.

Speer (W.), The Oldest and the Newest Empire : China and the United
States. 8. Hartford, U.S. 1870.

Sykes (Col. W. H.), Speech in the House of Commons in moving for papers
relating to China, pp. 8. 8. London, 1869.

Thomson (J.), The Straits of Malacca, Indo-China, and China. 8. London,
1875.

Wells (S. Williams), The Chinese Commercial Guide. 8. Hongkong, 1863.
Werner (Reinhold), Die preussische Expedition nach China, Japan und
Siam. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig. 1863.

Williams (Dr. S. Wells), The Middle Kingdom: a survey of the geography,
government, &c, of the Chinese Empire. 2 vols. 8. New York 1848.

Williamson (Rev. A.), Journeys in North China, Manchuria, and Eastern
Mongolia. With some account of Corea. 2 vols. 8. London, 1870.

670

HONG KONG.

Constitution and Government.

The colony of Hong Kong, formerly an integral part of China, was
ceded to Great Britain in January 1841 ; the cession was con-
firmed by the treaty of Nankin, in August 1842 ; and the charter
bears date April 5, 1843. Hong Kong is mainly a factory for
British commerce with China, and a military and naval station.

The administration of the colony is in the hands of a Governor,
aided by an Executive Council, composed of the Colonial Secretary,
the officer commanding the troops, and the Attorney-General.
There is also a Legislative Council, presided over by the Governor,
and composed of the Chief Justice, the Colonial Secretary, the
Attorney-General, the Treasurer, the Auditor- General, and four
unofficial members nominated by the Crown.

Governor of Hong Kong. — John Pope Hennessy, C.M.G. ; born
1830 ; studied law, and was called to the bar of the Inner Temple,
London ; M.P. for King's County, Ireland, 1859-65 ; Governor of
Labuan, 1868-71 ; Governor of the Bahamas, 1871-75 ; Governor
of the Windward Islands, 1875-76. Appointed Governor of Hong
Kong, November 10, 1876.

The Governor has a salary of 5,000£. per annum.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The occupation of Hong Kong at its outset was effected at con-
siderable cost to Imperial funds, the vote from Parliament in the year
1845 being nearly 50,000Z. in addition to military expenditure. The
colony may be considered to have paid its local establishments in
1855, since which year it has held generally a surplus of revenue
over and above its fixed expenditure. Hong Kong at present pays
20,000Z. a-year to the British Government as military contribution.

The public revenue and expenditure of the colony were as follow s
in each of the five years from 1871 to 1875 :—

Years

Revenue

Expenditure

1871

175,962

186,675

1872

192,714

174,681

1873

176,580

165,101

1871 ■

178,108

192,398

1875

186,813

181,337

HONG KONG.

67I

Above one-half of the public revenue of the colony is derived
from land, taxes, and licences, and an opium monopoly, which to-
gether more than cover the expenses of administration. A large
portion of the expenditure has to be devoted to the maintenance of
a strong police force.

Hong Kong formerly had a small public debt, amounting to 15,625/.
in 1867, but which became extinct in 1868.

Area and Population.

Hong Kong is one of a number of islands called by the Portuguese
' Ladrones,' or thieves, from the notorious habits of the old inhabi-
tants. It is situated off the south-eastern coast of China, at the
mouth of the Canton river, about 40 miles east of Macao. The whole
of Hong Kong island forms an irregular and broken ridge, stretching
nearly east and west ; its abrupt peaks rising to the height of 1,800
feet above the sea level. The length of the island is about 1 1 miles,
its breadth from 2 to 5 miles, and its area rather more than 29 square
miles. It is separated from the mainland of China by a narrow
strait, known as the Ly-ee-moon Pass, which does not exceed half a
mile in width. The opposite peninsula of Koo-loon was ceded to
Great Britain by a treaty entered into in 1861 with the Govern-
ment of China, and now forms part of Hong Kong.

The population of Hong Kong, including the military and naval
establishments, was as follows at the last census, taken April 2, 187 ! :

Total,
Women including
Children

Resident Europeans and Americans

British, military

,, naval establishment
Europeans, police ......

„ and Americans, mercantile, ship- \

ping in the harbour .... J

Europeans and Americans, temporary residents
„ „ prisoners

Total Europeans and Americans .

Goa, Manila, Indian, and others of mixed "\
blood, resident ..... J

Goa, Manila, Indian, and others of mixed\
blood,erews of mercantile vessels in harbour J

Indians, military ......

„ police .... . .

Goa, Manila Indian, and others of mixed \
blood, prisoners ...._/

Total Indians, &c

1,381
709

1,022
109

1,080

57
60

684
36

8
29

2,736
821

1,022
126

1,109

57
60

4,418 , 757

470

697

1,094

285

]:> —

0,931

2",561 121

G85

703

1,122
298

1.-,

672

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877,

Chinese in employ of Europeans, resident
., ,. ,, in harbour .
,, police ......

,, employed by naval and military!
establishmeuts ..... J

Chinese residing in Victoria ....

., ,, villages and Kowloon
Boat population in Victoria ....

,, „ other than in Victoria
Prisoners .......

Total Chinese .....

Total

l£en

Women

Total,
including
children

5,436
54S
223

458

47,647

6,325

6,021

5,136

391

808
0

14,269
2,051
2,542
3,010

0,609
550
223

45S

72,984
10,507
12,309
11,400
104

72,185 j 22,695

115,444

79,164

23,573

124,198

The resident population of Hong Kong was composed of the
following nationalities at the census of April 2. 1871 : —

Native Countries

Men

Women

Boys

Girls

Total

Great Britain .

524

160

102

869

Portugal .

447

467

290

163

1,367

Germany .

152

—

170

United States

133

Prance

Denmark .

—

Italy

—

Spain

—

Switzerland

—

Austria

Norway .

—

Sweden

—

Russia

—

Belgium .

• 1 4

—

Mexico

—

Netherlands

—

Turkey .

■

, Hungary .

—

Greece

—

1,381

684

407

264

2,736

There is a constant flow of emigration from China passing through
Hong Kong. In the five years from 1871 to 1875 there passed
through the colony annually upwards of 12,000 Chinese emigrants,
the majority going to the United States.

HONG KONG.

673

Trade and Commerce.

The commercial intercourse of Hong Kong' — virtually a part of
the commerce of China — is chiefly with Great Britain, the United
States, and Germany, Great Britain absorbing about one-half of the
total imports and exports. There are no official returns of the value
of the imports and exports of the colony, from and to all countries,
but only mercantile estimates, according to which the former average
four, and the latter two, millions sterling.

The amount of the commercial intercourse between Hong Kong
and the United Kingdom is shown in the following table, which gives
the value of the total exports from Hong Kong to Great Britain and
Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manu-
factures into Hong Kong, in each of the five years 1871 to 1875 : —

Exports from Hong Kong

Imports of British Produce

to Great Britain

into Hong Kong

1871

367,944

2,787,714

1872

833,764

2,872,673

1873

783,475

3,411,968

1874

747,291

3,650,963

1875

1,154,910

3,599,811

The chief article of exports from Hong Kong to Great Britain in
the year 1875 was tea, of the value of 766,001/. The British
imports into Hong Kong consist almost entirely of manufactured
textile fabrics, mainly cotton goods, in transit for China.

The subjoined table gives the value of the imports of British
and Irish produce and manufactures from 1866 to 1875, exhibiting
separately the imports into China and into Hong Kong, and jointly to
both, so as to show the share of Hong Kong in Chinese commerce
during the period of ten years : —

Imports of

Import* of

Tear*

British Produce

Total into

into China

into Hong Kong

China and Hong Kong

1866

5,090,074

2,387,017

7,477,091

1867

4,996.469

2,471,809

7,468,278

1868

6,312,175

2,185,972

S,498,147

1869

6,842.840

2,130,837

8,973,677

1870

6,139,633

3,407,930

9,547,563

1871

6,628,236

2,787,714

9,415,950

1872

6.624,511

2,872,673

9,497,184

1873

4,882,701

3,411,968

8,294,669

1874

4.751.103

3,650,963

8,402,066

1875

4,928,5'")

3,599,811

8 528,311

X X

674 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

It will be seen that the British trade with Hong Kong underwent
considerable fluctuations in the ten years from 1866 to. 1875, but
which corresponded throughout with the general Chinese commerce,
differing only in so far as showing but a slight increase in the value
of the British imports coming direct to China during this period, and
a much larger one in those arriving by way of Hong Kong.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures in use at Hong Kong, and the
British equivalents, are : —

Money.
The Mexican Dollar = 100 Cents = Average rate of exchange, is. 2d.
„ Chinese Tad = 10 Mace =

100 Candarcens = 1,000 Cash = „ „ „ 6s. 8d.

The Mexican dollar is the only legal tender of payment for sums
above two hundred cents, but silver dollars, bearing the effigy of the
British sovereign, are issued from the Hong Kong mint.
Weights and Measures.
The Tael . . . . . . . = lg- oz. avoirdupois.

„ Picul = 133 lbs.

„ Catty = if ,,

,, Chih . . . . . . . = Hy1^ inches.

„ Chang ..,....= 1 If feet.

Besides the above weights and measures of China, those of Great
Britain are in general use in the colony.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Hong Kong.

1. Official Publications.

Report of Governor Sir Arthur Kennedy, dated Hong Kong, July 15,
1873; in ' Papers relnting to H. M.'s Colonial Possessions.' Parti. 1874.
London, 1874-

Report of Lieutenant-Governor Major-General Whitfield, on the Trade,
Commerce, and Population of Hong Kong; in 'Reports on the Present State
of Her Majesty's Colonial Possessions.' Part II. 8. London, 1872.

Statistics of Hong Kong; in 'Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial
and other Possessions of the United Kingdom in each year from 1861 to 1875.
No. XII. London, 1876.

Trade of Hong Kong with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions
in the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Lennys (N. B.) and Mayers (W. T.), China and Japan : a Complete Guide to
the Open Ports of those Countries ; together with Peking, Yeddo, Hong Kong
and Macao. 8. London, 18.67._

Topography of China and Neighbouring States, with Degrees of Longitude
and Latitude. 8. Hong Kong, 1864.

Wells (S. Williams), Chinese Commercial Guide. 8. Hong Kong, 1863.

675

INDIA.

Constitution and Government.

The present form of government of the Indian empire is esta-
blished by the Act 21 and 22 Victorias, cap. 106, called ' An Act for
the better Government of India,' sanctioned August 2, 1858. By
the terms of this Act, all the territories heretofore under the
government of the East India Company are vested in Her Majesty,
and all its powers are exercised in her name ; all territorial and
other revenues and all tributes and other payments are likewise
received in her name, and disposed of for the purposes of the
government of India alone, subject to the provisions of this Act.
One of Her Majesty's principal Secretaries of State, called the
Secretary of State for India, is invested with all the powers hitherto
exercised by the Company or by the Board of Control. By Act 39
& 40 Victorias, cap. 10, proclaimed at Delhi, before all the princes
and high dignitaries of India, January 1, 1877, the Queen of Great
Britain and Ireland assumed the additional title of Indian Imperatrix,
or Empress of India.

The executive authority in India is vested in a Governor-General
or Viceroy, appointed by the Crown, and acting under the orders of the
Secretary of State for India. By Act 24 and 25 Victoria?, cap. 67,
amended by Acts 28 Victorias, cap. 17, and 32 and 33 Victoria;, cap.
98, the Governor- General in Council has power to make laws lor all
persons, whether British or native, foreigners or others, within the
Indian territories under the dominion of Her Majesty, and for all
subjects of the Crown within the dominions of Indian princes and
states in alliance with Her Majesty

Governor-General of India. — Right Hon. Edward Robert Lord
Lytton, born November 8, 1831, only son of Edward first Lord
Lytton, previously Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer, statesman and author.
Educated at Harrow, and at the University of Bonn, Germany, and
entered the diplomatic career in 1849. Attache at Washington,
United States, 1849-51 ; at Florence, 1852-54; at Paris, 1854-5G ;
at the Hague, 1856-58 ; at St. Petersburg, 1858-59 ; and at Vienna,
1859-60. Consul at Belgrade, 1860-62 ; Secretary of Embassy at
Vienna, 1862-63 ; at Copenhagen, 1863-64 ; at Athens, 1864-65 ;
at Lisbon, 1865-68; charge d' Affaires at Vienna, 1868-69; at
Madrid, 1870-72 ; and at Paris, 1872-74. Envoy extraordinary to
Portugal, 1874, and to France 1875. Appointed Governor-General
of India, as successor to Lord Northbrook, February 12, 1876;
assumed the government at Calcutta, April 12, 1876.

x x 2

6y6

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Earl Amherst .

. 182$

Lord W. Bentinck

. 182&

Lord Auckland

. 1835

Lord Ellenborough .

. 1842

Sir H. (Lord) Hardinge

. 1844

Earl Dalhousie

. 1847

Lord Canning .

. 1855

Lord Elgin

. 1862"

Sir John Lawrence .

. 1863

Earl of Mayo .

. 1868

Lord Northbrook

. 1872

Lord Lyttou

. 1876

The salary of the Governor-General is 25,000/. a year, exclusive
of allowances, which are estimated at 12,000/.

The following is a list of the Governors- General of India with
the dates of their appointments : —

Warren Hastings (first Governor-
General under Act passed in
1773) 1772

Sir J. M'Pherson . . .1785

Earl (Marquis) Coruwallis . 1786

Lord Teignmouth (Sir J. Shore) 1793

Earl of Mornington (Marquis
Wellesley) . . . .1798

Marquis Cornwallis . . . 1805

Sir G. Barlow .... 1805

EarlofMinto .... 1807

EarlMoira(Marquie of Hastings) 1813

The average term of office of the Governors-General during the
century from 1772 to 1876, was five years.

The government of the Indian empire is entrusted by Act 21 and
22 Victoria?, cap. 106, amended by 32 and 33 Victoria?, cap. 97r
to a Secretary of State for India, aided by a Council of fifteen mem-
bers, of whom at first seven were elected by the Court of Directors
from their own body, and eight were nominated by the Crown. In
future, vacancies in the Council will be filled up by the Secretary
of State for India. But the major part of the Council must be of
persons who have served or resided ten years in India, and not have
left India more than ten years previous to the date of their appoint-
ment ; and no person not so qualified can be appointed unless nine
of the continuing members be so qualified. The office is held for a
term of ten years ; but a member may be removed upon an address
from both Houses of Parliament, and the Secretary of State for
India may for special reasons re-appoint a member of the Council
for a further term of five years. No member can sit in Parliament.

The duties of the Council of State are, under the direction of the
Secretary of State, to conduct the business transacted in the United
Kingdom in relation to the government of and the correspondence
with India ; but every order sent to India must be signed by the
Secretary, and all despatches from governments and presidencies in
India must be addressed to the Secretary. The secretary has to
divide the Council into committees, to direct what departments
shall be under such committees respectively, and to regulate the
transaction of business. The Secretary is to be president of the
Council, and has to appoint from time to time a vice-president,
The meetings of the Council are to be held when and as the
secretary shall direct ; but at least one meeting must be held every
week, at which not less than five members shall be present.

INDIA.

677

The Government in India is exercised by the ' Council of the
Governor-General,' consisting of five ordinary members, and one
extraordinary member, the latter the commander-in-chief. The
ordinary members of the Council preside over the departments of
foreign affairs, finances, the interior, military administration, and
public works, but do not form part, as such, of what is designated
in European governments a ' Cabinet.' The appointment of the
ordinary members of the ' Council of the Governor-General,' the
governors of Presidencies, and of the governors of provinces is made
by the Crown. The lieutenant-governors of the various provinces
are appointed by the Governor-General, subject to the approbation
of the Secretary of State for India.

Revenue and Expenditure

According to the Act of 1858, the revenue and expenditure of
the Indian empire are subjected to the control of the Secretary in
Council, and no grant or appropriation of any part of the revenue
can be made without the concurrence of a majority of the Coun-
cil. Such parts of the revenues of India as may be remitted to
England, and moneys arising in Great Britain, must be paid into
the Bank of England ; and paid out on drafts or orders signed by
three members of the Council, and countersigned by the secretary
or one of his under-secretaries.

The subjoined table gives the total gross amount of the actual
revenue and expenditure of India, in each of the ten fiscal years
186G to 1875— the year ending April 30, in 1866, and March 31
from 1867 to 1875. The termination of the financial year was
changed in 1867 from the 30th of April to the 31st of March, so
that the accounts of the year ending March 31, 1867, embrace a
period of only eleven months : —

1 Years end-
ed April 50

and
Marcb 31

Kevenue

Expenditure

Total

In India

In Great Britain

Expenditure

| 1866
1 1867
1868
1869
I870
1S71
1872
1873
1874
1875

&
48,935,220
42,122,433
48.534.412
49.262,691
511,901,081
51,413,685
50,110,215
50,219,489

98,253
50,570,171

£
41,120,924
37,094,406

41,640,9 17
13,225,587
42,791,013
41,015,502
38,763,600
40,086,234
93,671
13,895,551

6,211,178

7,545,518

8,497,622

10,181,717

10,591,0115

10,083,004

9,860,912

10,552,152

10,265,557

10,604,994

e
47,332,102
l 1,639,924
50,1 ! 1,569
53,407,334
53,382,026
51,098,506
48,61 1,512
50,638,386
54,959,228
54,500,545

6y8

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The following table shows the distribution of the revenue and
expenditure over the various presidencies and provinces in each of
the linancial years, ending March 31, 1S74 and 1875 : —

Revenue

Presidencies and Provinces

India under the Governor-General
Bengal ....
North West Provinces
Oude . . . • .
Punjab ....
Central Provinces
British Burmah
Madras ....
Bombay including Sind

Revenue in India
Revenue in Great Britain

Total Revenue

1S71

£
2,406,014
15,337,129
5,833,963
1,549,873
3.782,032
1,058,515
1,502,382
8,210,547
9,679,687

49,360,142
238,111

49,598,253

1875

2,568.299
15,639,395
5,879,317
1,587,004
3,747,682
956,212
1,488.148
8,373,826
9,986,805

50,226.688
343,483

50,570,171

EXPENDITURE

India under the Governor-General .

Bengal .

North West Provinces

Oude

Punjab ......

Central Provinces ....

British Burmah ....

Madras ......

Bombay including Sind

Expenditure in India
Expenditure in Great Britain

Total expenditure

14,942,856

9,953,925

2,596,786

577,825

1,925,996

714,917

716,709

6,184.279

7,080,378

15,346,876

8,888.423

2,630,325

57y.648

1,960,639

693,8S3

771,218

5,970,136

7,058,403

44,693,671
10,265,557

54,959,228

43.895,551
10,604,994

54,500,545

The revenue for the fiscal year ending March 187G was calcu-
lated, on the basis ten months' actual receipts, at 49,820,000/., and
the expenditure, on the same basis, at 40,088,000/., leaving a sur-
plus of 732,000/.

In the budget estimates for 1876-77, the revenue was assessed at
50,480,000/., the ordinary expenditure at 50,336,000/., and the ex-
traordinary expenditure at 3,759,000/. The cash balances in India
at the end of 1875-76 were 16,243,214/., and at the end of 1876-77
were calculated to be 13,552,614/.

INDIA.

679

The following table, compiled from official documents, exhibits
the growth of the three most important sources of the public
revenue of India, namely, land, opium, and salt, in the ten years
from I860 to 1875 :—

Years ended

Land

Opium

Salt

30 Apr 1866

20,473,897

8,518,264

5,342,149

fl867

19,136,449

6,803,413

5,345,910

1868

19.986,640

8,923,568

5,726,093

1869

19,926,171

8,453,365

5,588,240

1870

21,088.019

7,953,098

5,888,707

31 1

1871

20.622,823

8,045,459

6,106,280

March

1872

20,520,337

9,253,859

5,996,59.-)

1873

21,348,669

8,684,691

6,165,630

1874

21,037,912

8,324,879

6,150,662

L1875

21,296,793

8,556,629

6,227,301

The following table shows the distribution of the three great
sources of revenue over the different presidencies and provinces in
the financial year ending March 31, 1875 : —

Presidencies and Provinces

Land

Opium

Salt

India under the Governor-Ge-

neral .....

64,655

—

76.321

Bengal .....

3,946,800

5.582,984

2,621,891

Madras

4,451,489

—

1,295,180

Bombay .....

3,683,401

2,741,895

734,777

Punjab .....

1,989,963

—

807,275

North West Provinces

■1, 209,704

—

422,406

Oude

1.330-.-778

—

2.200

Central Provinces .

608,728 .

118,038

British Bnrmah

752,334

—

12.571

21,037,912

8,324,879

6,150.662

The most important source of public revenue to which rulers in
India have, in all ages, looked for obtaining their income is the land,
the revenue from which, in the year before the Mutiny, furnished
more than one-half of the total receipts of the East India Company's
Treasury. At present, when the necessities of the Endian exchequer
require that Government should resort, more largely to the aid of
duties levied on the continually increasing trade of the country, the
revenue from land produces not quite so much in proportion, but it
still forms two-fifths of the total receipts of the empire.

680 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The land revenue of India, as of all Eastern countries, is generally-
regarded less as a tax on the landowners than as the result of a joint
proprietorship in the soil, under which the produce is divided, in
unequal and generally uncertain proportions, between the ostensible
proprietors and the State. * It would seem a matter of justice,
therefore, as well as of security for the landowner, that the respective
shares should, at a given period, or for specified terms, be strictly
defined and limited. Nevertheless, the proportion Avhich the
assessment bears to the full value of the land varies greatly in the
several provinces and districts of India. Under the old native
system, a fixed proportion of the gross produce was taken ; but the
British system ordinarily deals with the surplus or net produce which
the land may }deld after deducting the expenses of cultivation.

In Bengal, a permanent settlement was made by Lord Cornwallis,
by which measure the Government was debarred from any further
direct participation in the agricultural improvement of the country.
The division of Benares was also permanently settled about the same
time. In the north-western provinces, a general settlement of the
revenue was completed in 1840, fixing the amount to be paid by
each village for a period of thirty years ; and a similar course was
adopted in the Punjab. Some of the districts of the Punjab were
inadequately assessed at former settlements, and these have therefore
been confirmed for a term of ten years only. In many cases these
expired in 1874 and 1875, and the revised settlements which were
subsequently made were generally for thirty years. It is estimated
that in most cases the assessment is about two-thirds of the yearly
value — that is, the surplus after deducting expenses of cultivation,
profits of stock, and wages of labour. In the revised settlements,
more recently made, it was reduced to one-half of the yearly value.

In the Madras Presidency there are three different revenue
systems. The zemindary tenure exists in some districts, principally
in the northern Circars ; the proprietors, of whom some possess old
ancestral estates, and others were created landholders in 1802, hold
the land direct from the Government, on payment of a fixed annual
sum. In the second, the village-renting system, the villagers stand
in the position of the zemindar, and hold the land jointly from the
Government, allotting the different portions for cultivation among
themselves. Under the third, the ryotwar system, every registered
holder of land is recognised as its proprietor, and pays direct to the
Government. He can sublet, transfer, sell, or mortgage it; he cannot be
ejected by the Government, and, so long as he pays the fixed assess-
ment, he has the option of annually increasing or diminishing the
cultivation on his holding, or he may entirely abandon it. In
unfavourable seasons remissions of assessment are granted for loss of
produce. The assessment is fixed in money, and does not vary from

INDIA. 68 1

}rear to year, except when water is obtained from a Government
• source of irrigation ; nor is any addition made to the rent for
improvements effected at the ryot's own expense. He has, therefore,
all the benefit of a perpetual lease without its responsibilities, as he
•can at any time throw up his lands, but cannot be ejected so long as
he pays his dues, and receives assistance in difficult seasons. An
annual settlement is made, not to re-assess the land, but to determine
upon how much of his holding the ryot shall pay ; when no change
occurs in a holding, the ryot is not affected by the annual settlement,
and is not required to attend it. The ryotwar system may be said
essentially to prevail throughout the Presidency of Madras, as the
zemindar and village renter equally deal with their tenants on this
principle.

In Bombay and the Berars the revenue management is generally
ryotwar ; that is, as a rule, the occupants of Government lands settle,
for their land revenue, or rent, with the Government officers direct,
and not through the intervention of a middle-man. Instances,
however, occasionally occur in which the Government revenues of
entire villages are settled by individual superior holders, under
various denominations, or by a co-partnership of superior holders.
The survey and assessment of the Bombay Presidency has been
almost completed on a system introduced and carefully elaborated
about twenty years ago. The whole country is surveyed and mapped,
and the fields distinguished by permanent boundary marks which it
is penal to remove ; the soil of each field is classed according to its
intrinsic qualities and to the climate ; and the rate of assessment to
be paid on fields of each class in each subdivision of a district is fixed
on a careful consideration of the value of the crops they are capable
of producing, as affected by the proximity to market towns, roads,
canals, railways, and similar external incidents, but not by improve-
ments made by the ryot himself. This rate was probably about
one-half of the yearly value of the land, when fixed; but, owing to
the general improvement of the country, it is not more than from a
fourth to an eighth in the districts which have not been settled quite
recently. The measurement and classification of the soil are made
once for all ; but the rate of assessment is open to revision at the end of
every thirty years, in order that the ryot, on the one band, may have
the certainty of the long period as an inducement to lay out capital,
and the State, on the other, may secure that participation in the advan-
tages accruing from the general progress of society to which its joint
proprietorship in the land entitles it. In the thirty years' revision,
moreover, only public improvements and a general change of prices,
but not improvements effected by the ryots themselves, are con-
sidered as grounds for enhancing the assessment. The ryot's tenure
is permanent, provided he pays the assessment.

682 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

The important questions of the expediency of settling in per-
petuity the amount of revenue to be paid to the Government by land-
holders, of permitting this revenue to be redeemed for ever by the
payment of a capital sum of money, and of selling the fee simple of
waste lands not under assessment, have been within the last few
years fully considered by the Government of India. The expediency
of allowing owners of land to redeem the revenue has long been
advocated as likely to promote the settlement of European colonists;
but experience seems to show that advantage is very rarely taken of
the power which already exists in certain cases to redeem the rent by
a quit payment; and it appears unlikely that such a permission
Avould be acted upon to any great extent, while the rate of interest
afforded by an investment in the purchase of the land assessment is
as low as at present in India.

Next in importance to the land-revenue, as a great source of Indian
receipts, is the income derived from the opium monopoly. The
cultivation of the poppy is prohibited in Bengal, except for the
purpose of selling the juice to the officers of the Government at a
certain fixed price. It is manufactured into opium at the Govern-
ment factories at Patna and Ghazipore, and then sent to Calcutta, and
sold by auction to merchants who export it to China. In the
Bombay Presidency, the revenue is derived froin the ojuum which is
manufactured in the native states of Malwa and Guzerat, on which
passes are given, at the price of 60t. per chest, weighing 140 lbs. net,
to merchants who wish to send opium to the port of Bombay. The
poppy is not cultivated in the Presidency of Madras. The gross
revenue derived from opium averaged during the ten years 1866 to
1875 the sum of eight millions sterling.

The largest branch of expenditure is that for the army, equal to
the aggregate annual revenue irom salt and opium. The mainte-
nance of the armed force to uphold British rule in India cost
12,000,000/. the year before the great mutiny, and subsequently
rose to above 25,000,000/. ; but after the year 1861 sank, for a
short period, to less than 15,000,000/. It was 16,793,306/. in the
financial year 1865-66 ; 16,329,739/. in 1869-70 ; 15,503,612/. in
1872-73; 15,228,429/. in 1873-74; and 15,375,159/. in the
financial year 1874—75.

The amount of the public debt of India, including that incurred in
Great Britain, was 59,943,814/., on April 30, 1857. In the course
of the next five years the debt was very largely increased, and on
April 30, 1862, it had risen to 99,652,053/. From 1862 to 1868,
the Government were enabled to pay off some portion, and at
the end of the financial year 1868, the total had been reduced to
95,054,858/. In the course of the fiscal year 1868-72, there was
again an increase of upwards of a million in the total debt.

INDIA.

683

The subjoined table shows the amount of the public debt, of
British India, interest and no-interest bearing, distinguishing the
debt in India and in Great Britain, in each of the ten years 1866 to
1875:—

In India

In Great Britain

Years ended

Bearing

Not bearing

Bearing Not bearing

Interest

Interest Interest

SO April —

1866

03,564,999

26,946,400

/1S67

64,043,186

29,538,000

186S

64,786,308

30,697,000

1869

64,449,175

31,697,900

1870

66,553,731

35,196.700

£ 1871

66,573,347 125,421

37,606,700

20,917

1872

66,499,704 ! 1,356,981

38,991,700

20,917

1873

66,168,427 ! 289,941

39,991.700

20,917

1874

66,273,249 | 144,041

41,095,700

21,917

vl875

69,757,678 i 92,280

48,576,116

20,917

The total debt in India and Great Britain amounted to 00,735,726/.
on the 30th April, 1865, and had increased to 118,446,9917. on the
31st March, 1875. Not included in this total were 'obligations' —
including treasury notes and bills, service funds, and saving bank
balances — to the amount of 12,046,293/., bringing the entire
liabilities up to 130,493,284?. The total interest on debt and
obligations amounted to 5,412,055/. in the financial year 1874-75.

The currency of India is chiefly silver, and the amount of money
coined annually is large. In the seven financial years ending the
31st March, from 1869 to 1875, the value of the new coinage was
as follows:—

Tears
Ending March 31

Gold

Silver

Copper

Total

1869

25,156

5,3 11,708

90,219

5,157,083

1870

78.510

\ 7,473,560

5,432

7,552,070

1871

4,143

1,718,197

0,121

1,728,161

1872

15.113

1,690,:!:).".

25,049

1,730,857

1873

31,705

:;.'.>.si, i:;i,

10,500

4,023,731

1871

15.198

| 2,370,013

14,40 1

2,309,972

1875

14,034

| 4,896,884

111,334

5,022,252

On July 16, 1861, an Act was passed by the Government of India,
providing for the issue of a paper currency through a Government
department of Public Issue, by means of promissory notes. Circles

684

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

of issue wore established from time to time, as found necessary, and
the notes were made legal tender within the circle in which they
were issued, and rendered payable at the place of issue, and also at
the capital city of the Presidency within which that place was
situated. Under the provisions of further laws, consolidated by a
statute known as Act III. of 1871, the issue was regulated in seven
descriptions of notes, namely, for 10,000 rupees, or 1,000/. ; for
1,000 rupees, or 100/. ; for 500 rupees, or 50/. ; for 100 rupees, or
10/. ; for 50 rupees, or 5/. ; for 20 rupees, or 21. ; for 10 rupees, or
1/., and for five rupees, or 10s. There are ten currency circles,
the head-quarters of which are at Calcutta, Allahabad, Lahore,
Nagpore, Madras, Calicut, Cocanada, Bombay, Kurrachee, and
Akola. (Official Communication.)

The following were the total amounts of notes in circulation —
calculated at 2s. the rupee — on March 31 in each year since the
introduction of the State paper currency in 1861 : —

March 31,

1862

3,690,000

1869

. 9,959,296

1863

4,926,000

1870

. 10,472,883

1864

5,350,000

1871

. 10,437,291

1865

7,427,327

1872

. 13,167,917

1866

6,898,481

1873

. 12,864,037

1867

8,090,868

1874

. 11,145,191

1868

9,069,569

1875

. 10,670,407

Nearlv two-thirds of the total note circulation are in the currency
circles of Calcutta and Bombay. The circulation in Calcutta was
to the amount of 4,843,862/., and in Bombay to the amount of
5,049,534/. on the 31st of March 1875,

Army.

The Act of Parliament which transferred the Government of India
to the Crown, in 1858, directed that the military forces of the East
India Company should be deemed to be Indian Military Forces of
Her Majesty, and should be ' entitled to the like pay, pensions,
allowances, and privileges, and the like advantages as regards pro-
motion and otherwise, as if they had continued in the service of the
said Company.' It was at the same time provided, that the Secretary
of State for India should have ' all such or the like powers over all
officers appointed or continued under this Act as might or should
have been exercised or performed by the East India Company.'

The following table gives the established strength of the European
and native army in British India — exclusive of native artificers and
followers — on the 31st of March 1875 : —

INDIA.

685

Corp*

European Army.
Royal Artillery .
Cavalry ....
Eoyal Engineers .
Infantry ....
Invalid and Veteran Establishment
Staff Corps ....
General List, Cavalry .
General List, Infantry. .
Unattached Officers
General Officers unemployed

Total European Army

Native Army.
Artillery

Body Guard
Cavalry

Sappers and Miners
Infantry . .

Total Native Army

Officers

Total

Non-Oommissioned
Officers and Privates

652
252
354

1,650
59

2,357

148

445

151

6,086

11,653
4,095

44,312
167

60,227

f European 1

795

European 2

163

18,395

„ fj European 205

I 3,011

136 lol.llo

Total

12,305

4,347

354

45,962

226

2,357

148

445

151

66,313

180

123,682

Total, European and Native Army 6,266

183,909

796

166

18,435

3,219

101,246

123,862

190,175

In the army estimates laid before Parliament in the session of 187Gr
the strength of Her Majesty's British Forces in India for the year
1876-77 was given as follows : —

Troops

Officers

Non-com-
missioned
officers

Rank and
File

Total
Strength

Royal horse artillery
Cavalry of the line .
Royal artillery & engineers

Infantry of the line .

Total

117

234

911

l,fi40

190

424

742

3,312

2,190

3,672

8,518

'41,000

2,497

4,330

10,171

45,852

2,802

4,668

55,380

62,850

Returns of the year 1875 reported the combined armies of the
native chiefs of India to number 315,000 men, with an artillery of
5,300 large guns. Hyderabad Lad 36,890 infantry, 8,203 cavalry,

and 725 guns; Bundlecund 22,1G-'J infantry, 2,077 cavalry, and li-L

686

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

guns; Cashmere 18,436 infantry, 1,393 cavalry, and 96 guns; Gwalior
16,050 infantry, 6,000 cavalry, and 210 guns; Kattywar 15,30^-
infantry, 4,000 cavalry, and 504 guns; and Oodeypore, 15,000 in-
fantry, and 6,240 cavalry. None of the other states exceeded 11,000
men.

Area and Population.
The first general census of British India was taken during the
months of November 1871 to July 1872. According to the revised
returns of this census, the total population numbered 189,613,238,
living on an area of 897,004 English square miles, being an average
of 211 inhabitants to the square mile. The following table shows
the area, the numbers of the population, and the average popula-
tion per square mile, of each of the presidencies and provinces of
India under direct British administration : —

Presidencies and Provinces under the
Administration of

Area :
square miles

Population

Density of

Popul. to

sq. mile

The Governor-General of India :

Ajmere ......

2,754

316,590

115

Berar ......

17,624

2,231,565

127

Mysore ......

29,32,5

5,055,412

172

Coorg ......

2,000

168,312

Governors :

Madras ......

124,499

30,203,009

243

Bombay (including Sind) .

124,462

16,349,206

131

Lieutenant-Governors :

Bengal ......

158,595

60,595,524

382

North-West Provinces

81,403

30,781,204

378

Punjab ......

104,975

17,611,498

168

Chief Commissioners :

Oudh

23,992

11.220,232

468

Central Provinces ....

84,963

8,201,519

British Burmah ....

88,556

2,747,148

Assam ......

Total British Administration

53,856

4,132,019

897,004

189,613,238

211

Besides the provinces of India under direct British administration,
there are more or less under the control of the Indian Government, a
number of feudatory, or Native States, covering an extent of 589,315
English square miles, with 50,325,457 inhabitants. They are : —

Native States under—

Governor-General of India
Lieut.-Governor of Bengal

„ ,, North-West Provinces

,, ,, Punjab

„ „ Central Provinces.

Governor „ Madras

„ ,, Bombay .

Total Native States

Area : Engl,
sq. miles

Population

. 304,448

26,758,178

. 38,936

2,271,943

6,311

1,091,810

. 115,287

5,567, 47S

. 28,834

1,049,710

. 23.290

4,756,235

. 72,209

8,840,103

. 589,315

50,325,457

INDIA.

687

According to the last official reports, the native States exceed 450
in number. Some frontier countries, like Nepaul, merely acknow-
ledge British supremacy ; while others pay tribute, or provide mi-
litary contingents. Some have powers of life and death, but most
of them are obliged to refer capital cases to English Courts. Nearly
all the native rulers are allowed to adopt on failure of heirs, and
their continual existence is secured by treaties.

Including the Feudatory states, the total area and population of
British India are as follows, according to the enumeration of' 1871-72,

and the latest official estimates : — Area- „ , ..

Eng.sq. miles Fopnlafaoa

Provinces under direct British administration . 897,004 189,613,238
Feudatory or Native States .... 589,315 50.325.457

Total, British India . . . 1,486,319 239,938,695
The following table gives the administrative divisions, and of
executive districts, and the number of villages and of inhabited
houses of each of the presidencies and provinces of India under
British administration, at the census of 1871-72 : —

0 a.

Provinces

Divisions of
missionera

Executive
Districts

Number of
Villages

Number of

Inhabited

Houses

Provinces under the Governor-

General of India: —

Province of Ajmere

936

86,117

„ „ Coorg

510

20,288

„ ,, Mysore

35,218

1,049,138

,, .. ft rar or Hyder-

abad

5,694

495,760

Bengal Presidency: —

Province of Lower Bengal

100,189

6,405,470

_,, „ Behar

48,285

3,252,036

„ „ Orissa

22,119

817,547

,, ., (.'hot a Nagporo .

25,766

752,287

„ ,. Assam and adja-

cent hills

4)787

346,173

North-west IV vince: —

177-

91,226

>>. 1 25,578

Province of Oude

24,760

L.774,355

„ „ Punjab

132

34,466

1,015,476

Central Province .

■">"

34J272

1,785,304

Province of Uurmah

129

] :;, ] 5 1

528,107

,, .. Madras

156

27,802

—

Bombay Presidency: —

Province of Bombay

152

1 7.930

,. Sind .

Total .

—

1.114

487,061

27,453,936

688

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The following table gives the population of each of the fifty-three
divisions, or commissionerships, of British India, distinguishing males
and females, at the census of 1871-72 : —

Population

Provinces

Division or Commis-
sionerships

Persons

Hales

Females

Ajmere .

Ajmere

426,268

269,482

156,786

Coorg .

168,312

94,454

73,858

Mysore .

Nandidroog .

2,079,547

1,039,668

1,039,879

Ashtagram .

1,611,604

795,886

815,718

Nagar .

1,364,261

700,370

663,891

Berar .

East Berar .

1,188,590

608,396

580,194

West Berar .

1,042,975

544,801

498,174

Bengal, Lower

Burdwan

7,286,957

3,572,108

3,714,849

Presidency Division

6,545,464

3,383,867

3,161,597

Eajshahye .

8,893,738

4,448,843

4,444,895

Cooch Behar

1,045,942

548,535

497,407

Dacca .

9,517,498

4,786,531

4,730,967

Chittagong .

3,480,136

1,739,595

1,740,541

Behar .

Patna .

13,122,743

6,477.356

6,645,387

Bhaugulpore

6,613,358

3,320,293

3,293,065

Orissa .

4,317,999

2,140,061

2,177,938

Chota Nagpore

3,825,571

1,933,380

1,892,191

Assam .

Cooch Behar

524,761

270,654

254,107

Assam .

1,682,692

872,419

810,273

North - west

Meerut

4,973,190

2,684,509

2,288,681

Province

Kumaon

743,170

386,891

356,279

Eohilkund .

5,435,550

2.916,412

2.519,138

Agra

5,038,136

2,749,528

2,288,608.

Jhansie

934,747

495,751

438,996

Allahabad

5,466,116

2,861,422

2,604,694

Benares

8,178,147

4,312,320

3,865,827

Oude .

Lucknow

2,583,019

1,341,068

1,241,951

Seetapore

2,603,426

1,398,321

1,205,105

Faizabad

3,384,130

1,751,612

1,632,518

■

Rai Bareli .

2,650,172

1,331,662

1,318,510

Punjab .

Delhi .

1,920,912

1,029,757

891,155

Hissar .

1,226,703

669,185

557,518

Ambala

1,652.728

908.891

743,837

Jullundhur .

2,464,019

1,327,734

1,136,285

Amritsur

2,743,880

1,512,480

1,231,400

Lahore

1,889,495

1,048,120

841,375

Rawalpindi .

2,197,401

1,177,668

1,019,733

■

Mooltan

1,474,574

817,164

657,410

Deerajat

991,255

533,541

457,714

Peshawur

1,035,785

556,743

479,042

Central Pro-

Nagpoor

2,299.535

1,169,458

1,130,077

vince .

Jubbulpore .

2,446,116

1,267,627

1,178,491

Nerbudda

1,080.510

576,669

503,841

Chutteesghur

3,239,877

1,637.391

1,602.486

INDIA.

689

Provinces

Division or Commis-
sionerships

Population

Persons

Males

Females
220,461

British Burmah

Arrakan

461,136 j

240,675

Pegu .

1,524,422 !

781,459

742,963

Tenasserin

576,765 j

298,796

277,969

Madras .

Northern Range .

6,794.912 !

Central Range

10,436,821 1

16,156,549

15,154,593

Southern Range .

14,079,409

Bombay

Northern Division "1
including Bombay /

5,269,262

2,786,142

2,483,120

Southern Division

7,043,011 1

3,634,194

3,408,817

Sind .

1,730,323 I

892,847

837,476

Enumerations to ascertain the religious creed of the inhabitants of
India were taken in the various provinces during the years 1867 to
1872 — in Berar 1867, in the Punjab 1868, in Oude 18*69, in Ajmere
and Coorg; 1871, and in the remaining provinces in 1872. A verifi-
cation of all these returns with the results of the general census of
India furnished the following classification of the leading creeds in
the provinces under British administration : —

Creeds. Numbers.

Hindoos 139,248,568

Mahomedans 40,882,537

Buddhists
Sikhs .
Christians
Other Creeds .
'Religion not known'

2,832,851
1,174,436

897,216
5,102,823

525,193

Total .... 189,613,238

The following table shows the number of Hindoos, Mahomedans,
Buddhists, and Christians, in each of the provinces of India under
British administration : —

Provinces

Hindoos

Mahomedans

Bhuddists

Christians

1 Bengal

38,975,418

19,553,831

84,974

90,763

Assam

2,679,507

1,104,601

1,521

1,947

i North-west Provinces .

26,568,071

4,189,348

—

22,196

Ajmere

252,996

62,722

. —

807

1 Oude ....

10,003,323

1,197,704

—

7,761

J Punjab

0,125,460

9,337,685

36,190

22,154

Central Provinces

5.879,772

233,247

36,509

10,177

Berar ....

1,912,155

15 1,951

—

903

Mysore

4,807,425

208 991

13.263

25,676

Coorg ....

154,476

11,304

112

2,410

British Burmah .

36,658

99,846

2,447.831

52,299

Madras

28,863,978

L,857,857

2 1 ,25 1

533,700

Bombay

Total

12,989,329

2,870,450

191,137

126,063

139,248.568

40,882,537

2,832,851

897,210

V Y

690

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The British-born population in India, exclusive of the army (for
number of which see p. 685), amounted according to a census taken
June 15, 1871, to 64,061persons. Of these, there were 38,946 of
the male, and 25,115 of the female sex. The largest number, at
the date of the census, was in the province of Lower Bengal,
namely 16,402, comprising 10,625 males and 5,777 females; the
next largest number in the province of Bombay, namely 10,921, com-
prising 6,786 males and 4,185 females ; and the next largest number
in the North West Provinces, namely 6,910, comprising 3,843 males
and 3,067 females. In the Central Provinces there were, at the date
of the census, only 276 British-born subjects, namely 173 males and
108 females. In the three capital cities of India the number of
British subjects was as follows at the census of June 15, 1871:

British-bom population

Males

Females

Total

Calcutta
Bombay

Madras

5,536
2,996

778

2,784

1,800

528

8,320
4,796
1,306

The ages and conjugal condition of the British-born subjects in
India were as follows at the census of June 15, 1871 :

Under twenty
years

All ages

TT • , f Males
Unmarried -! T, ,

L 1' emales .

Married (Husbands .
t Wives

w 1 i f Widowers
Widowed -: ,,T. ,

(_ W idows .

Total .

13,227

12,030

781

26,355

13,604

11,320

9,690

1,271

1,821

26,108

64,061

The occupations of the British-born subjects in India were as
follows at the census of 1871, under the six classes adopted by the
English Reojstrar-General : —

Classes

Number 1

14,822
12,708

7,993
614

2,595

25,329

I. Professional class, incl. civil service
II. Domestic class ....

III. Commercial class ....

IV. Agricultural class ....
V. Industrial class ....

VI. Indefinite and non-productive class,
including women and children

Total

64,061

INDIA.

69I

At the census of 1871-72 there were in British India 44 towns
with over 50,000 inhabitants, as follows : —

Towns

Population

Towns

Population

Calcutta (with suburbs)

794,645

Bhaugulpoor

69,678

Bombay

644,405

Dacca .

69,212

Madras

397,552

Mirzapoor

67,274

Lucknow

284,779

Gya .

66,843

Benares

175,188

Moradabad

62,417

Patna .

158,900

Monghyr

59,698

Delhi .

154,417

Muttra

59,281

Agra .

149,008

Peshawur

58,555

Allahabad

143,693

Allyghur

58,539

Bangalore

142,513

Mysore

57,815

Umritsur

135,813

Mooltan

56,826

Cawnpoor

122,770

Jubbulpoor

55,188

Poona .

118,886

Kurrachee

53,526

Ahmedabad

116,873

Sholapoor

53,403

Surat .

107,149

Tanjore

52,175

Bareilly

102,982

Madura

51,987

Lahore

98,924

Bellary

51,766

Rangoon

98,745

Goruckpoor

51,117

Howrah

97,784

Cuttack

50,878

Nagpoor

84,441

Salem .

50,012

Meerut

81,386

Furruckabad

79,204

Total popidation of the "1
44 largest towns .J

5,594,913

Trichinopoly

76,530

Shahjehanpoor

72,136

The occupations of the adult male population of British India,
calculated to number 57,508,150, were classified as follows at the
census of 1871-72:—

Classes

Number of adult
males

Government service and professions .
Domestic occupations .....

Agriculture ......

Commerce .......

Industrial occupations ....

Labourers .......

Independent and non-productive persons .

Total adult male population .

2,404,855
4,137,429
37,462,220
3,440,951
8,746,503
8,174,600
2,264,858

57,508,150

In the North-Western Provinces and Madras the foundation has
been laid of a national system of education ; while the general position

692

THE STATESMAN S TEAK-BOOK, 1877.

for the whole of India is, that the Government has succeeded in
establishing a system of public instruction for the upper and middle
classes, but has, as yet, made little or no impression upon the great
body of the population.

Trade and Commerce.

The total value of the imports and exports of the Indian empire,
including treasure, was as follows, in each of the ten fiscal years
ending April 30 and March 31, from 1866 to 1875 :—

Years ended

Total Imports

Total Exports

1866 (30 April)

£
56,156,529

£
67,656,475

"1867 (11 months

42,275,620

44,291,497

1868 .

47,481,157

52,446,002

1869 .

51,146,096

54,457,745

1870 .

46,882,327

53,513,729

* 1

1871 .

39,913,942

57,556,951

1872 .

43,665,663

64,685,374

1873 .

36,431,210

56,540,042

1874 .

39,628,562

56,940,073

L1875 .

44,363,134

57,984,539

Divided into merchandise and treasure, the imports in each of the
ten fiscal years 1865 to 1871 were as follows: —

Imports

Years ended

Merchandise

Treasure

1866 (30 April) .

£
29,599,228

£
26,557,301

1867 .

29,038,715

13,236,905

1868

35,705,783

11,775,374

1869

35,990,142

15,155,954

1870

32,927,520

13,954,807

1871

34.469,119

5,444,823

1872

32,091,850

11,573,813

1873

31,874,625

4,556,585

1874

33,836,028

5,792,534

J875 .

36,222,087

8,141,047

Similarly, the exports in the same ten years were as follows: —

INDIA.

693

Exports

Merchandise

Treasure

1866 (30 April) .

65,491,123

2,165,352

("1867 .

41,859,99-1

2,431,503

1868 .

50,874,056

1,571,946

1869 .

53,062,165

1,395,580

1870 .

52,471,376

1,042,353

£<u

55,336,186

2,220,765

1872 .

63,189,732

1,495,642

1873 .

55,231,463

1,308,579

1874 .

54,981,561

1,958,512

L1875 .

56,359,230

1,625,309

The imports, including treasure, were distributed as follows
between tbe four great commercial divisions of India : —

Years ended ! ^gjg1*0

Imports into

British Burmah

Madras

Bombay

3Q April— £

1866 . . i 20,700,324

875,798

4,494,265

30,086,142

fl867

1 18,976,850

781,084

3,144.730

19,372,955

1868

21,840,163

1,130,213

3,681,869

20,476,046

1869

21,321,371

1,388,814

4,104,692

24,128,314

-T,

1870

19,496,082

1,067,391

4,086,478

22,232,435

£ i

1871

18,588,706

1,128,744

4,032,341

15,108,938

f^i

1872

19,741,420

1,439,656

3,792,232

17,684,252

1873

16,492,741

1,753,345

3,894,058

13,676,002

1874

17,169,310

1,852,459

3,861,057

15,054,121

J875

20,257,175

2,215,258

3,812,848

16,501,002

Tbe exports, including treasure, were divided as follows : —

Tears ended

Exports from

Bengal

British Burmah

Madras

Bombay

30 April—

1866 .

20,196,481

2,825,522

7,769,015

36,865,457

'1867 .

17,797,428

1,271,002

3,339,121

21,883,946

1868 .

20,066,698

1,629,508

4,302,763

25,528,619

1869 .

21,367,819

2,454,663

6,114,041

23,770,307

1870 .

20,971,121

1,779,412

6,072,375

24,690,819

1871 .

23,455,045

2,452,659

5,150,725

26,494,161

1872 .

27,849,329

2,807,136

7,297,324

26,708,152

1873 .

24,694,519

3,795,580

6,460,646

21,573,829

1874 .

23,201,820

3,480,407

7,258,147

21,694,571

[1875 .

22,772,218

3,042,820

6,794,938

25,294,992

694

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The extent of the commercial intercourse between India and the
United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined table which gives the
total value of the exports from India to Great Britain and Ireland,
and of the imports of British produce and manufactures into India
in each of the ten years from 1666 to 1875 : —

Years

Exports from India to
Great Britain and Ireland

Imports of

British Home Produce

into India

1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875

£
36,901,997
25,487,786
30,071,871
33,245,442
25,090,163
30,737,385
33,682,156
29,890,802
31,198,446
30,137,295

20,009,490
21,805,127
21,251,773
17,559,865
19,303,920
18,053,478
18,471,394
21,354,205
24,080,693
24.246,406

The staple article of export from India to the United Kingdom is
raw cotton. The following table exhibits the quantities and value
of the exports of raw cotton from India to Great Britain in each of
the ten years from 1866 to 1875 : —

Years

Quantities

Value

Cwts.

1866

5,493,770

16,478,064

1867

4,443,148

13,956,947

1868

4,398,119

15,975,569

1869

4,284,334

18,342,887

1870

3,041,165

9,434,674

1871

3,843,491

11,711,349

1872

3,934,546

12,862,300

1873

3,278,986

9,812,086

1874

3,668,928

10,325,630

1875

3,413,546

9,173,275

Next to cotton, the most important articles of export from India
to the United Kingdom in the year 1875 were jute, 3,405,580 cwts.,
of the value of 2,570,565/. ; rice, 6,466,070 cwts., of the value of
2,854,581/.; indigo, 46,791 cwts., of the value of 1,342,401/.; tea,
25,427,767 lbs., of the value of 2,191,892/.; and hides, 305,687 cwts.,
of the value of 1,550,139/.

The chief articles of British produce imported into India are cotton
goods and iron. The imports of cotton manufactures, averaging two-
thirds of the total British imports into India, were of the value of

INDIA.

605

12,519,786/. in 1867; of 13,896,486/. in 1868; of 10,850,509/. in
in 1869; of 12,835,744/. in 1870; of 13,101,645/. in 1871, of
13,078,831/. in 1872; of 15,020,646/. in 1873; of 16,216,491/. in
1874; and of 15,699,713/. in 1875. Of iron the imports amounted
to 1,179,093/. in 1873, to 1,772,898/. in 1874, and to 1,638,506/. in
1875.

Next to the United Kingdom, the countries having the largest
trade with India are China and Japan, the imports from which
average 8,500,000/. per annum, while the exports to them are of
the average value of 12,000,000/. Exports of the average annual
value of 5,000,000/. are also sent to Egypt in transit for the United
Kingdom.

The following table shows the number and tonnage of all
vessels, including native craft, which entered and cleared in each
of the ten fiscal years — ending April 30 in 1866, and March 31
from 1866 — with only eleven months — to 1875 : —

Tears ended

April 30 and

March 31

Entered

Cleared

Vessels

Tons

Vessels

Tons

1866

24,870

3,695,364

23,531

3,926,020

1867

16,862

3,142,517

15,457

3,225,244

1868

11,734

4,423,605

16,966

2,648,921

1869

15,906

3,813,480

15,528

3,287,233

1870

14,346

3,100,763

14,677

3,173,787

1871

19,074

3,750,611

18,593

3,977,445

1872

21,209

4,072,916

20,676

4,260,722

1873

22,053

4,337,426

21.582

4,473,413

1874

20,436

4,425,324

19,629

4,588,428

1875

19,875

4,903,827

19,094

4,982,673

The number and tonnage of vessels under the British flag which
entered and cleared at ports in India during each of the ten fiscal
years from 1866 to 1875 were as follows : —

Years ended j

Entered

Cleared

Maroh 31 |

Vessels

Tons

Vessels

Tons

1866

5,180

2,568,397

5,401

2,780,443

1867

4,353

1,517,760

4.634

1,523,763

1868

5,159

1,862,814

5,329

1,962,519

1869

3,435

1,581,906

4,378

1,740,296

1870

7,207

2,895,244

7,384

2,982,416

1871

7,339

2,953,647

7,496

3,130,979

1872

7,329

3,155,562

7,682

3,371,332

1873

6,984

3,290,459

6,434

3,419,469

1874

6,267

2,301,996

6,479

2,346,616

1875

6,347

2,442,561

6,057

2,392,955

696 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The internal commerce of India has been vastly developed of
late years by the construction of several great lines of railways,
made under the guarantee of the Government. In the year 1845
two great private associations, were formed for the purpose of
constructing lines of railroad in India; but the projectors found it
impossible to raise the necessary funds for their proposed schemes
without the assistance of the State. It was, therefore, determined
by the Indian Government to guarantee to the railway companies,
for a term of 99 years, a rate of interest of 5 per cent, upon the capital
subscribed for their undertakings ; and, in order to guard against the
evil effects of failure on the part of the companies, power was
reserved by the Government to supervise and control their proceed-
ings by means of an official director. The lands are given, by the
Government free of expense, and the stipulated rate of in-
terest is guaranteed to the shareholders in every case, except
that of the traffic receipts of the line being insufficient to cover
the working expenses, in which event the deficiency is charge-
able against the guaranteed interest. Should the net receipts be in
excess of the sum required to pay the guaranty, the surplus is divided
in equal parts between the Government and the shareholders, until the
charge to the Government for interest in previous years, with simple
interest thereon, has been repaid, after which time the whole of the
receipts are distributed among the shareholders. The Government has
the power, at the expiration of a period of 25 or 50 years from the
date of the contracts, of purchasing the railways at the mean value of
the shares for the three previous years, or of paying a proportionate
annuity until the end of the 99 years, when the whole of the lands
and works will revert from the companies to the Government. In
1869 the Government of India decided on carrying out all the new
railway extensions by means of direct State agency, that is without
the intervention of guaranteed companies.

The progress of the .railway system in India since 1853 is ex-
hibited in the following table, which gives the length of lines open
for traffic at various periods at the end of each year : —

On 31st December —

1853

1859

1866 1869 1871

1874

1875

624

3,567 4,166 | 5,077

6,190

6,497

The following table shows the decennial progress of the railway
system of India, giving the length of the various lines of railway,,
divided into Guaranteed and State railways, at the end of each of
the years 18 G 6 and 1875 : —

INDIA.

697

Railways

Guaranteed.
East Indian, including Jubbulpoor branch

Eastern Bengal

Oude and Rohilkund ....

Sincl

Punjab ......

Great Indian Peninsula

Bombay, Baroda, and Central India

Madras ......

South Indian : Great Southern of India
„ Carnatic

State.
Calcutta and South-eastern .
Nulhattee . . . . .

Khamgaon ......

Oomrawuttee .....

Rajpootana ......

Patree branch of Bombay and Baroda line

Holkar

Wurda Valley

Nizam's ......

Tirhoot

Punjab Northern

Muttra and Hattras ....

Total ....

1866
December 31

Miles

1.129

110

109
253
815
305
645
127
19

28
27

1875
December 31

3,567

Miles

1,504

158

543

664

1,278
408
857

283

27
8
5

380
22
57
18

121
44
62
30

6,497

The net receipts of all the railways during the year 1875, after
paying all expenses, amounted to 3,647,868/., being 320,593/. less
than in the previous year. The gross receipts in 1875 were
7,412,079/., compared with 7,809,987/. in 1874, and the expenses
3,764,311/., compared with 3,841,526/. in 1874.

According to an official report for the fiscal year 1874-75 the
capital estimated, authorised, received, and expended, for the rail-
ways of India, up to the 31st March, 1875, was as follows : —

Cost of lines opened for traffic

Authorised to be raised (shares, 84,476,211/.; loans, &c,
13,364,258/.)

97,700,000
97,840,46a

Received : Share capital ....
T. , . /Convertible . £511,940

Debentures (Inconvertible . G, 11 2,200

Debenture stock ....
Capital not bearing interest
Capital received in India .

Total expended up to 31st March, 1875

£81,538,432

6,624,140

5,129,878

541,908

1,284,761

95,119,119
92,786,426

6q8

THE STATESMAN'S TEAR- BOOK, 1877.

The proprietors of Indian railway securities numbered 62,318
on January 1, 1875. Of these, 56,597 were shareholders regis-
tered in England, and 4,821 were holders of debenture bonds or
stock. Only 900 shareholders resided in India, of whom 421, or
•67 per cent, of the whole were natives.

The construction of railways, besides fostering trade and com-
merce, has produced social and moral effects indicated, to some
extent, by a vastly increased postal intercourse. In the fiscal year
ending March 31, 1875, the number of letters which passed through
the Post Office of British India was 104,353,076 ; of newspapers
9,365,586 ; of parcels 792,462, and of books and patterns 1,608,107,
being a total of 116,119,231. The following table gives the number
of letters, newspapers, etc., carried, and the number of offices and
receiving houses, together with the total revenue and expenditure
of the post-office — including that of the non-postal branches — in
each of the ten fiscal years 1866 to 1875 : —

Post offices

Years

Number of letters,

and letter

Total

ended

newspapers, &c.

boxes

revenue

expenditure

30 April—

Number

1866

60,913,136

2,070

406,466

433,304

[1867

59,849.215

2,558

496,439

466,642

1868

69,154,847

3,159

659,679

548,439

1869

75,987,617

3,710

707,792

693,316

1870

84,534,578

4,051

711,698

688,483

March ^1871

85,689,823

4,340

805,235

752,940

-1"'1" " . i 0*79

89,561.685

4,769

820.894

657,200

1 1873

93,157,314

5,174

677,047

704,193

1 1'74

109,235,503

6,805

676,645

725,357

US75

116,119,231

7,344

719,587

721,191

The number of letters, newspapers, &c, carried by the Post
Office more than doubled in Bengal during the ten years 1866 to
1875, and nearly doubled in Madras, but did not increase in any-
thing like the same proportion in the other provinces of India.

In the fiscal year 1860-61, the mails travelled over 43,570 miles,
of which total 36,784 miles was done by boats and 'runners;'
5,740 miles by carts and on horseback; and only 1,046 miles by
railways. Fourteen years after, in the fiscal year ending March 31,
1875 the mails travelled over 55,899 miles, of which total 45,534
miles was done by boats and ' runners;' 4,226 miles by carts and
on horseback, and 6,139 miles by railways.

The following table gives the number of miles of lines, the total
receipts, and the working expenditure of all the telegraphs in India,
in each of the ten fiscal years from 1866 to 1875:—

INDIA.

699

Number of miles

Number of

Total

Working Ex-

Years ended

of 'wire

miles of line

Receipts

penditure

30 April—

1866

15,399

13,390

112,944

253,191

fl867

15,866

13,371

105,587

253,191

1868

18,067

13,705

114,499

213,583

1869

20,597

14,014

120,887

234,431

31 ,
March

1870

21,378

14,489

121,064

235,567

1871

22,834

15,102

126,953

229,562

1872

28,893

15,336

153,962

228,997

1873

30,681

15,705

183,216

254,610

1874

32,556

15,980

196,820

255,711

J.875

33,79S

16,649

203,881

266,823

The total number of messages despatched on the telegraph lines
of India in the fiscal year ending March 31, 1875, was 883,727. Of
these, 758,860 were private messages ; 78,531 on the public service ;
and 38,531 on the news and telegraph service. There were 225 tele-
graph offices on March 31, 1875.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of India, and the British
equivalents, are : —

Money.

The Mohur of Bengal, average rate of exchange
Mohur of Bombay ,, ,,

Rupee of Bombay „ „

Rupee of Madras of 15 Silver Rupees „
Star Pagoda of Madras „

Madras or Company's Rupee of 16 Annas or 192 Pice
Sicca Rupee: 16-15ths of Company's Rupee . . . .01 llj

In 1835 the Government remodelled the currency of India,

establishing a more uniform system, in conformity with which

accounts are mostly kept at present in Rupees, reckoned of the value

of 2 shillings, subdivided into Annas, worth 1^ pence, of Pice, of £

of a penny. Silver is the only legal tender and standard of value.

Weights and Measures.

The Maund of Bengal, of 40 seers

„ ,, Bombay .

,, ,, Madras .

„ Candy, of 20 maunds

„ Tola ....

,, Guz of Bengal

2-054 lbs. avoirdupois.

28 lbs.

25 lbs.

24-3 bushels.

180 gr.

36 inches.

An Act ' to provide for the ultimate adoption of an uniform system
of weights and measures of capacity throughout British India ' was
passed by the Governor-General of India in Council in 1871,
receiving the assent of the Governor-General on October 31, 1871.
The Act orders : Art. 2. ' The primary standard of weight shall be

700 THE STATESMAN S YEAK-B00K, 1877.

called a ser, and shall be a weight of metal in the possession of the
Government of India, equal, when weighed in a vacuum, to the
weight known in France as the kilogramme.' Art. 3. ' The units
of weight and measures of capacity shall be, for weights, the said
ser ; for measures of capacity, a measure containing one such ser of
water at its maximum density, weighed in a vacuum.' Art. 4. ' The
Governor-General in Council may, from time to time, by notification
in the " Gazette of India," declare the magnitude and denominations
of the weights and measures of capacity, other than the said units,
to be authorised under this Act : provided that every such weight or
measure of capacity shall be an integral multiple or integral sub-
multiple of one of the units aforesaid. The Governor-General in
Council may, in like manner, revoke such notification. Unless it
be otherwise ordered in any such notification, the sub-divisions of
all such weights and measures of capacity shall be expressed in
decimal parts.'

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning India.

1. Official Publications.

Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of British India with
Foreign Countries, and of the Coasting Trade between the several Presidencies,
together with Miscellaneous Statistics relating to the Foreign Trade of British
India, from various periods to 1874-75. Imp. 4. Calcutta, 1876.
- Finance and Revenue Accounts ; and Miscellaneous Statistics relating to
the Finances of British India. Part I. Revenues, Charges, and other Cash
Transactions of British India. Fol. Calcutta, 1876.

Finance and Revenue Accounts : Part II. Revenues and Charges of each
Presidency and Province. Fol. Calcutta, 1876.

Finance and Revenue Accounts : Part III. Revenues and Charges, Statis-
tics for the Administration of Revenue, and Miscellaneous Statistics. Fol.
Calcutta, 1876.

Indian Army and Civil Service List. Issued by permission of the
Secretary of State for India in Council. 8. London, 1876.

Memorandum on the Census of British India of 1871-72. Fol. London, 1875.

Report to the Secretary of State for India in Council on the Railways in
India for the year 1875-76. By Julian Danvers, Government Director of
Indian Railway Companies. Fol. London, 1876.

Statement of the Moral and Material Progress and Condition of India during
the year 1874-75. Fol. London, 1876.

Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom in each year froml858 to 1872. No. XII. 8. London, 1876.

Statistical Abstract relating to British India from 1864 to 1873. No. X.
8. London, 1876.

Trade of India with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Blair (Charles) Indian Famines ; their historical, financial, and other
aspects. 12. London, 1874.

Carnegy (P.) Notes on the Land Tenures and Revenue Assessments of
Upper India. 8. London, 1874.

INDIA. 701

Chesney (George), Indian Polity : a view of the system of Administration in
India. 8. London, 1868.

Dilke (Sir Charles Wentworth, Bart., M.P.), Greater Britain : a record of travel
in English-speaking countries in 1866 and 1867. 3rd ed. 8. London, 1869.

Elliot (Sir H. M. ), History of India. 6 vols. 8. London, 1 869-76,

Fitzgerald (W. F. Vesey), Egypt, India, and the Colonies. 8. London, 1870.

Gamier (Lieut. Fr.), Voyage d' exploration en Indo-Chine, effeetue pendant
les annees 1866, 1867, et 1868. 2 vols. 4. Paris, 1873.

Gleig (Kev. G. K.), History of British India. 4 vols. 16. London, 1830.

Gordon (Lieut.-Col. T. E.), The Roof of the World, being a narrative of a
journey over the high plateau of Tibet to the Russian frontier and the Oxus
sources in Pamir. 8. Edinburgh, 1876.

Grant Buff (II. E., M.P.). Notes of an Indian Journey. 8. London, 1876.

Griffin (Lepel H.), The Rajas of the Punjab, being the history of the prin-
cipal states in the Punjab, and their political relations with the British Govern-
ment. 2d edit. 8. London, 1872.

Hunter (Dr. W. W.), The Annals of Rural Bengal. 5th ed. 8. London, 1870.

Hunter (Dr. W. W.), The Indian Musulmans. 2nded. 8. London, 1871.

Kaye (John William), The Administration of the East India Company : a his-
tory of Indian progress. 8. London, 1853.

Knight (Robert), The Indian Empire and our financial relations therewith. 8.
London, 1866.

Latham (R. G.), Ethnology of India. 8. London, 1859.

Mahon (Lord), Rise of our Indian Empire. 8. London, 1858.

Markham (Clements R.), Memoir of the Indian Surveys. 8. LondoD, 1871.

Marshman (John Clark), The History of India, from the earliest period to the
close of Lord Dalhousie's administration. 3 vols. 8. London, 1867-70.

Martin (R. Montgomery), The Progress and Present State of British India.
S. London, 1862.

Martineau (Rev. A.), British Rule in India. 12. London, 1857.

Morlcy (W. H.), Administration of Justice in India. 8. London, 1858.

Owen (Sidney), The Mussulman, the Maratha, and the European. 8.
London, 1870.

Prichard (J. T.), The Administration of India from 1859 to 1868. 2 vols.
8. London, 1869.

Baikes (C), The Englishman in India. 8. London, 1867.

St. John (Horace), History of the British Conquests in India. 8. London,
1858.

Sherring (Rev. M. A.), History of Protestant Missions in India. 8. Be-
nares, 1875.

Thornton (W. T.), Indian Public Works and cognate Indian Topics. 8.
London, 1875.

Thurlow (Hon. T. J.), The Company and the Crown. 8. London, 1866.

Torrens ( Wm. T. M'Cullagh), Empire in Asia: How we came by it. 8.
London, 1872.

Tyrrell (Lieut.-Col. P.). Waterways or Railways, or the Future of India. 8.
Loin Ion, 187 I-

Wa'son (J.Forbes), and Kaye (Jn. Wm.), The People of India : a Series of
Photographic Illustrations, with descriptive letterpress, of the Races and
Tribes of Hindustan. 4 vols. Imp. 4. London. 1866-70.

Wheeler (J. Talboys), The History of India from the earliest ages. 4 vols.
8. London, 1874-76.

702

JAPAN.

(Sho Koku. — Nippon.)

Constitution and Government.

The system of government of the Japanese empire is that of an
absolute monarchy. It was adopted in the year 1869, when the now
ruling soverign overthrew, after a short war, the power of the
formerly independent Daimios, or feudal nobles, reducing them to
the position of simple tenants of the vast estates in their hereditary
possessions. The sovereign bears the name of Supreme Lord, or
Emperor ; but the appellation by which he is generally known in
foreign countries is the ancient title of Mikado, or ' The Venerable.'

Mikado of Japan. — Mutsu Hito, born at Yedo, Sept. 22, 1852 ;
succeeded his father, Komei Tenno, 1867; married, Dec. 28, 1868,
to Princess Haru-ko, born April 17, 1850, daughter of Prince
Itchidgo.

The power of the Mikado is absolute and unlimited, in temporal
as well as spiritual affairs. He acts through an executive ministry,
divided, in imitation of that of France under Napoleon III., into
eight departments, of the Imperial House, of Foreign Affairs, War,
Navy, Finances and the Interior, Justice, Public Instruction, and
Ecclesiastical Affairs. At the side of the Ministry stands the 'Sain,'
or Senate, composed of thirty members, and the ' Shorn,' or Council
of State, of an unlimited number of members, both nominated by
the Mikado, and consulted by him at his pleasure.

There exists no regular law of succession to the throne, but in case
of the death or abdication of the Mikado, the croAvn devolves generally,
not on his son, but on either the eldest or the most distinguished
member of his house. It is not uncommon that palace intrigues
settle the choice, the only condition of legality of which is that the
elect should be member of the Shi Shinno, the ' Four Imperial
Relatives,' or Royal Families of Japan. The throne can be, and
has frequently been, occupied by a female, who, however, is not
allowed to remain single, but must seek a consort within the limits
of the Shi Shinno.

The government is at present organised on a basis which is
partly European. The Mikado is, theoretically an absolute Sove-

JAPAN. 703

reign, who reigns and governs ; but the work of government is
carried on by the Great Council, which is divided into three sections
denominated Centre, Right, and Left. The Centre is composed of
the Prime Minister, Vice-Prime Minister, and five advisers. The
Left is made up exclusively of the Council of State, the functions of
which are analogous to those of the French Conseil d'Etat, so far
as the preparation and discussion of laws is concerned. The Right
includes all the Ministers and Vice-Ministers of the eight depart-
ments into which the administration is divided. The Ministers,
either individually or united in a Cabinet, decide all ordinary
questions ; but points of real importance are reserved for the Great
Council, presided over by the Mikado. A Parliament was formed
in 1869, with deputies selected by the provincial Governments, but
it was soon dissolved, its deliberations taking no effect. The local
administration in the provinces is in the hands of prefects, one of
them residing in each of the 75 districts into which Japan is
divided. The powers and the attributes of these prefects are far
more extensive than those of any similar functionaries in Europe.
There is, however, a limit to their judicial action, for they cannot
carry into execution sentences involving banishment or death until
they have been confirmed by the Minister of Justice.

Previous to the last change of government, which placed all power
in the hands of the Mikado, a large share of administrative authority
rested with the Daimios, the feudal proprietors of the soil, an official
list of whose names was published periodically at Yedo, the
capital. The list gave the family name and genealogy of each, as
well as the fullest particulars of his family, the number of his
residences, the extent and value of his territorial and other property,
the uniform of his retainers, the design of his coat of arms, and the
flag carried on his ships. A list of Daimios, published at Yedo in
1862, stated their number at 266, with incomes varying from 10,000
to 610,500 koban, or from about 15,000/. to 915,500/. The terri-
tory of each Daimio formed a sovereignty within itself, governed,
in the case of the more powerful magnates, by a Secretary of State,
called Karu, and a number of assistant ministers, and many of them
were possessed of large bodies of troops. All these, with their
fortified castles, and every attribute of authority, the Daimios
surrendered, after more or less resistance, to the hereditary Emperor.

Revenue, Public Debt, and Army.

The total revenue of Japan for the year 1874 wis given, in
official returns, at 9,750,000/., and the total expenditure at 9,320,0O0J.,
leaving a surplus of 430,000/. The sources of revenue and 1 (ranches
of expenditure were as follows : —

704

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Sources of Revenue.

£
8,053,000

Ground rent, licences to trade, and other taxes in the

three cities of Yedo, Kioto, and Ozaka . . . 62,000

Various license tickets ....

67,000

Ship tax .....

7,000

Servants', carriage, and horse tax

13,000

Stamps .....

260,000

Alcoholic liquors .

155,000

Oil pressing ....

11,000

Sugar .....

57,000

Miscellaneous

204,000

Maritime and Customs' duties

364,000

Post Office .

40,000

Railways and Telegraphs

40,000

Revenue of the Hokaido

71,000

Incidental Receipts

346.000

Total Revenue

9,750,000

Branches of Expenditure.

Redemption of public debt 102.000

Public debt bearing interest 221,000

Internal debt to be repaid 50,000

Foreign debt interest .... . . 115.000

Pensions 2,523,000

Buildings . * 800,000

Foreign relations ........ 20,000

Council of State 66,000

Government Departments, including War (1,600,000/.)

and Navy (360,000/.) 4,271,000

Police 170,000

Foreign Legations and Consulates 22,000

Incidental expenses ....... 911,000

Total expenditure . . 9,320,000

In published budget estimates for the financial year 1875-76,
approved by the Great Council December 22, 1875, the total
revenue was calculated at 68,588,266 Yen, or 13,717,653/., and the
total expenditure at 68,498,506 Yen, or 13,699,701/.

The public debt of Japan was stated in 1875, to consist of
5,143,000/. internal, about half of which bears no interest, and of
1,102,000/. foreign liabilities, comprising a 9 per cent, loan of
1,000,000/. issued in 1870, and a 7 per cent, loan of 2,400,000/.
contracted in London, at the price of 92^, in January 1875.

The armed force of Japan is composed, since 1869, of a single
element, the troops kept by the Mikado, who constitute the imjDerial
army. By a decree of the Mikado, dated December 28, 1872, the

JAPAN. 705

liability to arms is made universal, but it was reported in 1876 that
this order had not found execution. At present the Imperial army,
under the command of the Mikado, is very small. Its exact strength
is not known, but it probably does not exceed 80,000 men, comprising
all arms. A number of Japanese officers and sub-officers were in
recent years instructed by French military men at Yokohama.

The navy of Japan consisted at the end of June, 1876, of two iron-
clad corvettes ; two wooden corvettes ; three schooners ; one gun-
boat; one transport, and one yacht. There were in course of
construction in England, at the same date, three ironclads, one of
them a frigate of 2,500 tons, and the other two corvettes of 1,700
tons each. The navy was manned by 1,200 sailors, including 67
artillerymen, and 260 marines. Naval instruction is^ given to the
personnel of the Japanese navy by 8 commissioned and twenty-three
non-commissioned English officers, who arrived in the country in 1873.

Population, Trade, and Industry.

The total area of Japan is estimated at 156,604 square miles,
with a population of 32,794,897, namely, 16,733,698 males, and
16,061,199 females, according to official reports of the year 1875.
The empire is geographically divided into the three islands of Nippon,
the central and most important territory ; Kiushiu, ' the nine pro-
vinces,' the south-western island ; and Shikoku, ' the four states,' the
southern island. Administratively, there exists a division into seven
large districts, called ' Do,' or roads, which are subdivided into
twenty-five provinces.

Education is very general in Japan, and is making greater progress
than before since the recent change, which made Japan a monarchy.
In 1871, the Mikado appointed a Board of Public Instruction, which
is reported to be very active. Public primary schools are increasing
rapidly, especially in towns ; but the movement is far more marked
in the western provinces and on the coast than in the interior.
Private schools are more abundant still ; and any person being at
liberty to establish them — subject to a permission which is always
given — they spring up with facility wherever they are wanted.
In order to facilitate the acquirement of foreign languages, the
government of the Mikado engaged many European professors, and
also sent, at the public expense, a large number of students to
America and Europe.

The total value of the foreign trade of Japan was, according to
consular reports, as follows in each of the three years 1872 to 1874 : —

z z

706

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Years

Imports Exports

1872
1873
1874

Dollars
26,188,441
27,444,068
24,223,629

Dollars
24,294,532
20,660,994
20,001,637

The following ports of Japan divided between them the imports
and exports of the year 1874 : —

Ports

1874

Imports

Exports

Kanagawa (Yokohama)
Hiogo-Osaka .
Nagasaki
Hakodate

Total .

Dollars

16,716,298

5,649,521

1,840,019

17,791

Dollars

12,578,573

4,962,897

2,179,154

281,013

24,223,629 20,001,637

The two staple articles of import mto Japan, in the year 1874,
were cotton and woollen fabrics, the former of the value of 9,793,488
dollars, and the latter of the value of 4,879,140 dollars. The two
staple articles of export in the year 1874 were raw silk, of the value
of 7,165,481 dollars, and tea, of the value of 4,398,711 dollars.

The commercial intercourse of Japan is carried on mainly with
two countries, namely, Great Britain, and the United States of Ame-
rica, the former absorbing more than two-thirds of the whole.
The extent of trade with the United Kingdom is shown in the sub-
joined table, which gives the value of the total exports from Japan
to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the total imports of British and
Irish produce and manufactures into Japan in each of the five years
1871 to 1875 :—

v..„, , Exports from Japan to
leari> Great Britain

Imports of

British Home Produce

into Japan

1871 109,224

1872 184,342

1873 561,390

1874 537,136

1875 377,791

£
1,584,517
1,961,327
1,680,017
1,282,899
2,460,227

The principal articles of export from Japan to Great Britain in
the year 1875, were raw silk of the value of 190,559/.; and tobacco,
of the value of 63,495/. In 1874 the principal article of exports to

JAPAN. 707

Great Britain was rice, of the value of 233,899/. but this ceased
entirely in 1875. The staple article of British imports into Japan
consists of cotton goods, the value of which was 1,292,015/. in 1875.
Besides cotton manufactures, the British imports consisted chiefly
of woollen fabrics, of the value of 438,715/., and of arms and
ammunition of the value of 221,815/., in the year 1875.

By treaties made with a number of foreign Governments —
with the United States in March 1854 ; with Great Britain in
October 1854 ; with Russia and the Netherlands in 1855 ; with
France in 1859 ; with Portugal in 1860 ; with Prussia and the
Zollverein in 1861 ; with Switzerland in 1864 ; with Italy in 1866 ;
and with Denmark in 1867 — the Japanese ports of Kanagawa
(Yokohama,) Nagasaki, Hiogo-Osaka, Hakodate, and the city of
Yedo — containing a population of 780,621, according to an enumera-
tion taken in 1875 — were thrown open to foreign commerce.

The first line of railway, from Hiogo to Osaka, 25 miles long, was
opened for traffic on the 12th of June, 1875, and a prolongation of
the line to Kioto was in progress in 1876.

The ports of Hiogo-Osaka, Nagasaki, and Hakodate, are con-
nected with each other, and with Europe, by lines of telegraphs.

The post office carried 17,095,842 letters in the year 1874. There
were 3,244 post offices in Japan at the end of 1874.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Of Japan in Great Britain.

Envoy and Minister. — Shogoi Wooyeno Kagenori, accredited March 3, 1875.
Secretaries. — Motono Morimichi ; Suzuki Kinso.

2. Of Great Britain in Japan.

Envoy, Minister Plenipotentiary, and Consul- General. — Sir Harry Smith
Parkes," K.C.B., appointed March 28, 1865.

Secretaries. — Augustus H. Mcmnsey ; Hon. J. St. V. Saumarez.
Japanese Secretary. — Ernest M. Satow.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures in common use at the three
open ports of Japan, and the British equivalents, are : —

Money.
The Ichibu (silver), average rate of exchange . . Is. 4id.
„ Yen, or Dollar „ . 4*.

The gold yen, the unit of account, differs, as to the quantity of
gold contained in it, from the quantity of gold contained in the
standard gold dollar of the United States by a reduction of only
about three-tenths of one per cent. The yen contains of fine gold
precisely one gramme and a half, and being of nine-tenths fineness,

z /, 2

708 the statesman's YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

weighs just one gramme and two-thirds. Consequently, a deca-
gramme of gold of the ordinary standard of nine-tenths fineness is
equivalent in value exactly to dx yens.

The Chinese system of taking money only for its strict metal
value, and using it indiscriminately, either whole or in pieces,
obtains also in Japan ; but, unlike the Chinese, the Japanese have
national coins. These coins were made out of the country until
the latter part of 1870, when the government purchased at Hong
Kong the complete machinery of a mint, manufactured in England,
and set it up at Osaka, in a building constructed for the purpose.
The new coinage issued from this mint consists of gold 10, 5, and 2-g-
dollar pieces, equal to Mexican dollars in shape, weight, and fineness ;
of. silver dollars, and 50, 20, and 5 cents; besides copper 1 and -^
cents and 1 mil, the latter said to be the smallest modern coin.
They are made of iron, copper, silver and gold, and an alloy of gold
and silver, and are of different shapes — rectangular, square, circular,
and oval. According to a report of the Master of the Mint, ad-
dressed to the Minister of Finance, there were imported into Japan,
during the year ending July 31, 1872, for the use of the mint
858,226 oz. of gold for coinage, or about 3,000,000/., and 4,767,175
oz. of silver, or about 1,192,000Z. The total number of gold pieces
struck during the same year was 2,190,256, valued at 14,488,981
dollars ; and that of silver pieces 13,313,722, valued at 5,689,685
dollars, being a total of 15,503,978 pieces, valued at 20,178,666
dollars. There is also a paper currency, consisting of banknotes of
one-quarter, one-half, and one Rio.

Weights and Measures.

The Picul, or ton . . . . = 133 lbs. avoirdupois.

„ Kin = 160 momma . . . = li „ „

„ Shaku = 10 sun . . . . = llf inches.

„ Bi = 36 cho . . . . = 2£ miles.

It is stated to be the intention of the Government to introduce
into Japan at an early period a new system of weights and measures,
based on the decimal system of France.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Japan.

1. Official Publications.

Eeport by Mr. Sidney Locoek, H. M.'s Secretary of Legation, on the Weights,
Measures, and Currency of Japan, dated Yokohama, Jan. 10, 1867 ; in ' Reports
by H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. V. 1867. London, 1867.

Commercial Reports from H. M.'s Consuls in China and Japan. 1864. 8.
London, 1866.

Commercial Reports from H. M.'s Consuls in Japan. 1871. 8. London,
1872.

Commercial Reports by H. M.'s Consuls in Japan. 1874. London, 1875.

Reports of Journeys in China and Japan performed by Mr. Alabaster, Mr.

JAPAN. 709

Oxenham, Mr. Markham, and Dr. Willis, of H. M.'s Consular Service. Pre-
sented to both Houses of Parliament. Pol. London, 1869.

Trade of Japan -with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions for the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.
2. Non-Official Publications.

Adams (P. 0.), History of Japan, from the earliest period to the present
time. 2 vols. 8. London, 1875.

Alcock (Sir Eutherford), The Capital of the Tycoon ; a narrative of a three
years' residence in Japan. 2 vols. 8. London, 1863.

Bousquet (George), Le Japon contemporain. Situation eeonomique et finan-
ciere. In ' Revue des deux Mondes.' Vol. 17. 8. Paris, 1876.

Curnwallis (Kinahan), Two Journeys to Japan, 1856-57. 8. London, 1859.

Dickson (Walter), Japan, being a sketch of the history, government, and
officers of the Empire. 8. London, 1869.

Du Pin (M.), Le Japon : Mceurs, coutumes, rapports avec les Europeens.
8. Paris, 1868.

Fisscher (J. F. Van Overmeer), Bijdrage tot de kennis van het japansche
rijk. 4. Amsterdam, 1833.

Fraissinct (Ed.), Le Japon, histoire et description, mceurs, coutumes et
religion. Nouvelle edition, augmentee de trois chapitres nouveaux, rapports et
traites avec les Europeens. 2 vols. 12. Paris, 1866.

Griffis (Wm. Elliot), The Mikado's Empire. 8. New York, 1876.

Helliwald (Friedrich von), Das Moderne Japan. In ' Unsere Zeit.' 8.
Leipzig, 1876.

Heine (W.), Japan : Beitriige zur Kenntniss des Landes und seiner Bewohner.
Fol. Leipzig, 1873.

Humbert (Aime), Le Japon illustre. Paris, 1870.

Jephson (R. M.) and Elmhirst (E. P.), Our Life in Japan. 8. London, 1869.

Humbert (Aime), Le Japon illustre. Paris, 1870.

Leupe(P. A.), Reise van Maarten Gerritz-Uries in 1643 naar het Noorden en
Oosten van Japan. 8. Amsterdam, 1858.

Luhdorf (J. A.), Acht Monate in Japan. 8. Bremen, 1857.

Mossman (Samuel), New Japan, the land of the rising sun. 8. London, 1 875.

Osbnrn (Capt. S.), A Cruise in Japanese Waters. 8. London, 1859.

Pompe de Meerdervoort (J. L. C), Vijf Jaren in Japan, 1857-63. Bij-
dragen tot de kennis van het japansche keizerrijk en zijne Bevolking. 2 vols.
8. Leyden, 1867.

Siebold (Ph. Franz von), Nippon : Archiv zur Beschreibung von Japan. 8.
Leyden, 1834-7.

Siebold (Pr. Franz von), Urkundliche Darstellung der Bestrebungen Nieder-
lands und Russlands zur Eroffnung Japans. 8. Leyden, 1854.

Spiess (Gust.), Die preussische Expedition nach Ostasien wahrend der Jahre
1860-62. Reise-Skizzen aus Japan, China, Siam und der Indischen Inselwelt.
8. Berlin, 1865.

Taylor (B.), Japan in our day. 8. New York, 1871.

Titsingh (Isaac), Nipon o Dai Itsi Ran, ou Annales des empereurs du Japon.
Ouvr. corr. sur l'original japonais-chinois par M.J. Klaproth. 4. Paris, 1834.

WiMerstorf-Urbair (Baron tKm),Beise der Oesterreichischen Fregatte Novara
um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859. Beschreibend°r Tlieil von Dr.
Karl v. Scherzer. 2 vols. 8. Vienna, 1865.

710

JAVA.

(Nederlandsch-Indie.)

Constitution and Government.

Java, the most important of the colonial possessions of the Nether-
lands, is administered, politically and socially, on a system esta-
blished by General Van den Bosch, in 1832, and known as the
' culture system.' It is based in principle on the officially superin-
tended labour of the natives, directed so as to produce not only a
sufficiency of food for themselves, but the largest quantity of colonial
produce best suited for the European market. To carry out the
' culture system,' there exists a complicate machinery of govern-
ment, the functions of which descend into the minutest details of
administration.

The whole of Java — including the neigbouring island of Madura
— is divided into twenty-three provinces, or residencies, each
governed by a Resident, who has under him several Assistant-
Residents and a number of inspectors, called Controleurs. All
these functionaries must be citizens of the Netherlands, and must
have gone through an examination previous to their appointment
by the Government. The Resident and his assistants exercise ab-
solute control over the province in their charge; not, however,
directly, but by means of a vast hierarchy of native officials.
There is a regular and unceasing personal intercourse between the
native chiefs and the Controleurs, who act as the immediate agents
of the Resident. The native officials receive either salaries or per-
centages on the amount of the taxes gathered from the natives, and
of the quantities of coffee delivered by them into the Government
stores. Formerly, the ' culture system ' comprised the forced labour
of the natives, employed in the cultivation of coffee, sugar, indigo,
pepper, tea, tobacco, and several other articles. At present, the
labour of the natives is only required for the produce of coffee and
sugar. By the terms of a bill which passed the legislature of the
Netherlands in 1870, the forced cultivation of the sugar cane will
be totally abolished in 1890. (Official Communication.)

The superior administration of Java, and executive, is in the
hands of a Governor-General, who is at the same time governor of
all the Netherland possessions in the East Indies. He is assisted by
a Council of five members, who, however, have no share in the
executive, and can act only as a Court of Advice.

Governor- General. — Baron Van Lansberge, formerly Envoy of
the Netherlands to Belgium ; appointed Governor- General Decem-
ber 19, 1874.

JAVA.

711

The Governor-General represents not only the executive power
of government, but he has the right of passing laws and regulations
for the administration of the colony, so far as the authority is not
reserved to the legislature of the mother-country. He is also com-
mander-in-chief of the army and navy stationed in the Netherlands'
possessions. But he is bound to adhere to the constitutional prin-
ciples on which Java and its dependencies are governed, and which
are laid down in the ' Regulations for the Government of Nether-
lands' India,' passed by the King and States General of the mother-
oountry in 1854-.

Revenue and Expenditure.

Java produces, for the benefit of the Netherlands, a large surplus
revenue, after paying for its own government. The local revenue
is derived from taxes on houses and estates, from licences, customs
duties, personal imports, the income of crown lands, the Government
monopolies of salt and opium, and a number of indirect taxes. But
the chief portion of the large profits derived from Java is indirect,
being obtained by the sale of a vast amount of colonial produce,
grown under the ' culture system,' and disposed of in India and
Europe at a price far above that of the cost of production.

The subjoined tabular statement gives the total revenue and
expenditure of the colony, with the annual surplus, during each ot
the twelve years from 1S64 to 1875, the first ten actual, and the
last two budget estimates : —

Years

Eevenue

Expenditure

Surplus

Guilders

1864

118,654,424

83,734,714

34,919,710

1865

119,824,869

88,693,505

31,131,364

1866

118,674,418

96,498,079

22,176,339

1867

110,858,015

81,751,725

29,106,290

1868

100,652,553

88,305,231

17,347,322

1869

107,487,338

93.269,033

14,218,305

1870

115,508,064

97,451,247

18,056,817 I

L871

123.367,914

97,678,963

25,688,951 |

1872

121.258,300

108,164,690

13,093,610

1873

129,510,542

119,848,052

9,662,490

1874

121,178,199

110,633,620

10,544,579

1875

125,204,275

115.061,498

10,142,777

To the sum total of the revenue here enumerated, the direct
receipts from all sources obtained in Java contributed about
one-third, and the remaining two-thirds were obtained in India and
the Netherlands from the sale of colonial produce. — (Official Com-
munication.)

712 THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Army and Navy.

The peculiar system of government of Java necessitates a com-
paratively large army, numbering, on the average, about 30,000
rank and file, commanded by 1,200 commissioned officers. More
than one-half of the troops are natives, and the rest Europeans of
all countries, the whole of them recruited by voluntary enlistment.
No portion of the regular army of the Netherlands is allowed to
be sent on colonial service ; but individual soldiers are at liberty
to enlist, by the permission of their commanding officers, and
they form the nucleus of the garrison of Java. The native and
European soldiers are not divided into separate corps, but generally
mixed together in the same battalions. The artillery is composed of
European gunners, with native riders, while the cavalry are at present
Europeans.

The infantry, Avhich is the most important branch of the army in
Java, is divided into field and garrison battalions. In the former
there is a greater proportion of Europeans than in the latter. Each
company is composed separately either of Europeans or of natives,
but the European and native companies are mixed in the same
battalion, in the proportion of one-third to two-thirds. Each bat-
talion is composed of six companies, the two flank companies con-
sisting of European soldiers, and the four centre companies of natives.
The companies often contain ' half-castes,' negroes, and Christianised
natives of India, all on a footing of perfect equality with the
Europeans. The native companies are composed of the different
Mahometan and heathen tribes of Netherlands' India, mixed together
so as not to allow of any great preponderance of race or religion.
The whole of the commissioned officers are Europeans, with the
exception of a few natives of high rank — to the number of seven
in July, 1876 — and in each of the companies composed of natives
at least one-half of the non-commissioned officers must also be
Europeans. A great number of the soldiers, both Europeans and
natives, are married, and are allowed to be always accompanied by
their families, except when on active service in the field. Every
married man, when not actually quartered in a town, has a small
plot of land which he may cultivate, and on which his family may
live. Schools, both for adults and children, are attached to every
battalion.

Unlike the Java army, which is purely colonial, the fleet of war
in Netherlands' India forms a part of the royal navy, and its expenses
are borne partly by the mother-country and partly by the colony.
The fleet consisted, in the summer of 1876, of one screw frigate,
two corvettes, and twenty -six smaller steamers. — (Official Com-
munication.)

JAVA.

713

Area and Population.

The area of Java, including Madura, embraces 51,336 English
square miles, with a population, according tothe last census taken at
the end of 1873, of 17,855,840, or 347 per square mile. The
population, as will be seen from the subjoined table, nearly quad-
rupled since the year 1816, when the British Government, after
a temporary occupation extending over five yeai-s, restored the
colony to the Netherlands.

Arabs and

Years

Europeans

Chinese

other foreign
Orientals

Natives

Total

1816

4,615,270 !

1826

—

5,403,786

1836

—

7,861,551

1849

16,409

119,481

27,687

9,420,553

9,584,130

1853

17,417

130,940

27,554

10,114,134

10,290,045

1854

18,471

129,262

29,209

10,404,948

10,581,890

1855

18,858

133,655

26,099

10,737,516

10,916,158

1856

19,431

135,649

24,903

11,110,467

11,290,450

1857

20,331

138,356

24,615

11,410,856

11,594,158

1861

20,523

139,960

24,451

12,834,174

13,019,108

1871

27,585

174,540

16,943

16,233,100

16,452,168

1872

28,926

185,758

22,032

17,061,484

17,298,200

1873

27,009

190,603

22,958

17,545,550

17,855,840

Slavery was abolished in Java by a law of the States-General
of the Netherlands, passed in 1856, which took effect on January 1,
1860. There were at this date 5,265 slaves in the colony, for
each of whom, without regard to age or sex, the owner received
400 florins, or about 33/., in compensation.

The greater part of the soil of Java is claimed as Government
property, and it is only in the residencies in the north-western part
of Java that there are private estates, chiefly owned by natives of
the Netherlands. The bulk of the people are agricultural labourers.
The landlords, whether under Government or private landowners,
enforce one day's gratuitous work out of seven from all the labourers
on their estates ; they were formerly also entitled to as much work
as they choose to claim, on the sole condition of paying each man
the wages of the district, but this was abolished in 1872. Great
power is vested in the liesident and his European and native officials
to enforce a strict adherence to all the laws regulating labour.

The whole population of Java is legally divided into Europeans
and persons assimilated with them, and natives and persons assimi-
lated with them. The former are generally under the laws of the

THE STATESMAN S YEAH-BOOK, 1877-

mother-country, while in the jurisdiction of the latter their own
customs and institutions are considered. The division of the whole
population into two classes is a fundamental principle in the policy
of the administration, and enacted in the code specifying the limits
and conditions for future legislation in Netherlands' India. It is there-
by withdrawn from the competence of the Governor-General and all
other local legislative powers, and entirely preserved from alteration,
except by the paramount legislative authority of the King and States
General of the Netherlands. — (Official Communication.)

Trade and Commerce.

Almost the entire trade of Java is with the Netherlands, and there
is comparatively little commercial intercourse with other countries.

The subjoined table gives the total value of merchandise and
specie imported and exported at the Islands of Java and Madura, in
each of the four years from 1870 to 1873 : —

The principal articles of export from Java are sugar, coffee, rice, in-
digo, and tobacco. With the exception of rice, about one-half of
which is shipped for Borneo and China, nearly four-fifths of these
exports go to the Netherlands.

The subjoined table shows the value of the trade of Java with
the United Kingdom in each of the five years 1871 to 1875: —

Exports from Java to

Imports of British Home

Great Britain

Produce into Java

1871

470,234

826,476

1872

733,281

743,428

1873

436,163

727,365

1874

1,311,939

1,208,734

1875

1,442,607

1,577,980

JAVA. 715

The chief and almost sole article of export from Java to the
United Kingdom is sugar in an unrefined state. In the year 1873,
the exports of sugar were of the value of 425,271/.; in 1874 they
rose to 1,209,610/.; and in 1875 to 1,425,918/. The chief article
of British home produce imported into Java in the year 1875
was manufactured cotton, including cotton yarns, of the value of
1,171,459/.

The whole of the exports from Java to the Netherlands, on accouut
of the government, are carried by the ' Nederlandsche Handel Maats-
chappij .' This trading society was established at Amsterdam in 1824,
with a capital of 37,000,000 guilders, or upwards of three millions
sterling, but which was subsequently reduced to 24,000,000 guilders,
or 2,000,000/. The King of the Netherlands, Willem I., was one
of the principal shareholders, and to create confidence in the com-
pany, he promised a guarantee of 4^ per cent, per annum to his asso-
ciates. His Majesty had to pay this interest from his own purse up
to the year 1832, when the introduction of the ' culture system '
in Java laid the foundation for the prosperity of the company, which
has since been uninterrupted. The capital to start and work the
* culture system ' was advanced by the ' Nederlandsche Handel
Maatschappij,' on an interest of 4^- per cent, guaranteed by the State ;
and the company, at the same time, was appointed sole agent in
buying and importing into Java all Government supplies, and in ex-
porting the produce of the colony and selling it in Europe. — ■(Official
Communication.)

The railways of Java consist of two lines, constructed under Go-
vernment concessions, by the ' Netherlands Indian Railway Com-
pany,' formed in 1863. At the end of 1875, the total length of
railways opened for traffic was 257 kilometres, or 160 Engl, miles,
the total comprising a main line, 165 kilometres long, from the port
of Samarang, on the northern coast of the Island, to Djokdjokarta,
and a local railway, 55 kilometres in length, connecting Batavia, the
capital, with Buitenzorg, the country seat of the Governor- General.
A bill for the construction of a network of railways at the cost of the
government was adopted in the session of 1875 by the States-
General of the Netherlands.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Java, and the British
equivalents, are : —

Money.

The Guilder, or Florin = 100 Ccnten = Is. 8d.

Jl6 THE STATESMAN'S TEAK-BOOK, 1877.

"Weights and Measubes.

The Amsterdam Pond . = 1-09 lbs. avoirdupois.

,, Pecul . . . = 133 lbs. „

„ Catty . . . = 1$ „

„ Chang . . . = 4 yards.

The only legal coins, as well as weights and measures, of Java
are those of the Netherlands.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Java.

1. Official Publications.
Koloniaal Verslag van 1875. 8. Batavia, 1875.

Jaarboek van het mijnwezen in Nederlandsch Oost-Indie. Uitgegeven op
last van Z. Exc. den Minister van Kolonien. 1875. 8. Amsterdam, 1875.

Jaarboek van Naamregister van Nederlandsch-Indie voor 1875. Batavia,
1875.

Eegerings Almanak voor Nederlandsch-Indie. 1875. 8. Gravenhage, 1874.
Statistick van den Handel, de Scheepvaart en de inkomende en uitgaande
Kegten op Java en Madura, over het jaar 1873. Batavia, 1875.

Verslag van den staat van het schoolwezen in Nederlandsch-Indie, afgesloten
onder ultimo 1869. 8. Batavia, 1870.

Verslag over het jaar 1872, zamengesteld door de Kamer van koophandel
en nijverheid te Batavia. 8. Batavia, 1873.

Eeport by Mr. Ward, British Secretary of Legation, on the Progress of the
Netherlands' East India possessions since 1857, dated January 17, 1863; in
' Reports of H. M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No, VI. London,
1863.

Eeport by Mr. T. J. Hovel Thurlow, British Secretary of Legation, ' on Java
and its Dependencies,' dated the Hague, July 1, 1868 ; in ' Reports of H. M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legatiou.' Nos. V. and VI. 1868. London,
1869.

Eeport by H. P. Fenton, British Secretary of Legation, on the railways of
Netherlands India, dated The Hague, January 1875 ; in ' Eeports by H. M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Parti. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Eeport by Mr. Consul M'Lean, on the trade, commerce, shipping, and popu-
lation of Java, for the year 1873 : in ' Eeports from H. M.'s Consuls.' Part I.
1875. 8. London, 1875.

Trade of Java with Great Britain ; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom for the year 1875.' Imp. 5. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

BleeTcer (P.), Nieuwe bijdragen tot de kennis der bevolkingstatistiek van Java.
Uitgegeven door het koninklijk institiiut voor taal-, land- en volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch Indie. 8. s' Gravenhage, 1870.

JAVA. 717

Be Tonge (Thr. M. T. K. T.), De Opkomst van het Nederlandsch gezag over
Java. II.— VII. The Hague, 1869-75.

Beventer (JSz., S. van), Bijdragen tot de kermis van het Landelijk Stelsel op
Java, op last van Z. Exc. den Minister van Kolonien J. D Fransen van de
Putte, bijeenverzameld. 8. Zalt-Bommel, 1865.

Goeverneur (J. J. A.), Nederlandsch Indie of de bewoners dezer streken, ge-
schetst in tafereelen uit hun dagelijks leven, zeden en gebruiken. 8. Leiden,
1870.

Hcllwald (Fr. Von), Das Colonialsystem der Niederlander in Ostindien. 8.
Leipzig, 1873.

Money (J. W. B.), Java, or, How to Manage a Colony; showing a practical
solution of the questions now affecting British India. 2 vols. 8. London,
1861.

Mutter (Joh.), Beschreibuug der Insel Java. 8. Berlin, 1860.

Butte (J. M. C. E. le), Moko-Moko. Eene bijdrage tot de land en volken-
kunde van Neerlandsch Indie. 8. Gravenhage, 1870.

Jliet (L. van Woudrichem van), Over Grondeigendom en heeredienstpligtigheid
op Java. 8. Amsterdam, 1864.

Wallace (Alfred Eussel), The Malay Archipelago. 8. London, 1869.

Wenzelburger (Theodor), Niederliindisch-Ostindien. In ' Unsere Zeit.' Vol
IX. 8. Leipzig, 1873.

Wuttings (H. E.), Neerlandsch Indie, met een kort overzicht onzer be-
zittingen in andere werelddeelen. 8. Zalt-Bommel, 1870.

7i8

PERSIA.

(Arjana. — EraiO

Reigning Sovereign and Family.

Nassr-ed-Din, Shah of Persia, born September 4, 1829, eldest
son of Shah Mohammed; succeeded to the throne at the death of his
father, Sept. 10, 1848.

Children of the Shah. — 1. Muzaffer- ed-Din, heir-apparent, born
in 1850. 2. D/i'ZaZ-ed-Dauleh, born in 1853.

The Shah of Persia — by his official title, 'Shah-in-shah,' or king of
kings — is absolute ruler within his dominions, and master of the
lives and goods of all his subjects. The Shah has, moreover, the
right of designating his successor to the throne.

The whole revenue of the country being at their disposal, recent
sovereigns of Persia have been able to amass a large private fortune.
That of the present occupant of the throne is reported to amount to
four millions sterling, one-half represented by diamonds — the largest
the Derya-i-Noor, of 178 carats — and other precious stones, forming
the crown jewels.

The present sovereign of Persia is the fourth of the dynasty of
the Kadjars, which took possession of the crown after a civil war
extending over fifteen years, from 1779 to 1794. The date of
accession of each of the four members of the reigning dynasty
was : —

Aga-Mohammed . . 1794 I Mohammed . . . 1835
Feth-Ali . . 1797 | Nassr-ed-Din . . . 1848

It is within the power of the Persian monarchs to alter or to over-
rule the existing law of succession, and to leave the crown, with
disregard of the natural heir, to any member of their family.

Government, Religion, and Education.

The form of government of Persia is in its most important features
similar to that of Turkey. All the laws are based on the precepts

PERSIA. 719

of the Koran, and though the power of the Shah is absolute, it is
only in so far as it is not opposed to the accepted doctrines of the
Mahometan religion, as laid down in the sacred book of the Prophet,
his oral commentaries and sayings, and the interpretation of the
same by his successors and the high priesthood. The Shah is
regarded as vice-regent of the Prophet, and it is as such that he
claims implicit obedience. Under him, the executive government
is carried on by a ministry, formerly consisting of but two high
functionaries, the Vizier-i-Azem, or grand vizier, and the Ameen-ed-
Doulah, or lord treasurer, but in more recent times divided into seven
departments, after the European fashion. However, the grand vizier
and the lord treasurer are still by far the most important members of
the executive, the vizier directing the whole foreign policy of the
government, and acting as commander-in-chief of the army in the
absence of or as substitute of the sovereign, and the treasurer superin-
tending the home administration and the collection of the revenue.

The country is divided for administrative and other purposes into
twenty provinces, each under the rule of a Beglerbeg, or civil and
military governor, usually a member of the royal family. The pro-
vinces again are subdivided into districts, superintended by a Hakim,
orgovernor-lieutenant,whose chief duty is the collection of the revenue.
There is a certain amount of self-government in towns and villages,
the citizens of the former electing, at fixed times, a Ketkhodah, or
magistrate, and of the latter a Mulraleh, who administer justice, and
also serve as organs of intercommunication between the people and
the government.

The vast majority of the inhabitants of Persia are Mahometans, the
total number of dissenters not amounting to more than about 74,000.
The latter consist of Armenians, Nestorians, Jews, and Guebres, or
Parsees. The Armenian population is estimated at 4,660 families,
or 26,035 souls; the Nestorians — including both Protestants and
persons who have joined the Roman Catholic Church, about 3,500
and 600 families respectively — at 4,100 families, or 25,000 souls;
the Jews at 16,000 souls; and the Guebres at 1,200 families, or
7,190 souls.

The Mahometans of Persia are of the sect called Shiites or Sheahs,
differing to some extent in religious doctrine, and more in historical
belief, from the inhabitants of the Turkish empire, who are called
Sunnites. The Persian priesthood consist of many orders, the chid
of them at the present time being that of Mooshtehed, of whom
there are but five in number in the whole country. Vacancies in
this post arc filled nominally by the members of the order, but in
reality l>y the public voice, and the Shall himself is excluded from
all power of appointment. Next in rank to the Mooshtehed is the
Sheik-vd-Islam, or ruler of the faith, of whom there is one in every

720 THE STATESMAN'S YEAK-BOOK, 1877.

large town, nominated by, and receiving his salary from, the go-
vernment. Under these dignitaries there are three classes of
ministers of religion, the Mooturelle, one for each mosque or place
of pilgrimage ; the Muezzin, or sayer of prayers, and the Mollah, or
conductor of rites. The Armenians are under two bishops, one of
them Roman Catholic, and both residing at Ispahan. There is wide
tolerance exercised toAvards Armenians and Nestorians, but the Jews
and Guebres suffer under great oppression.

Education is in a comparatively advanced state, at least as far
as the upper classes are concerned. There are a great number of
colleges, supported by public funds, in which students are instructed
in religion and Persian and Arabian literature, as well as in a certain
amount of scientific knowledge, while private tutors are very com-
mon, being employed by all families who have the means. A larger
portion of the population of Persia are possessed of the rudiments
of education than of any other country in Asia, except China.

Revenue and Army.

The revenue and expenditure of the Government are known only
from estimates, as no budgets, or other official accounts have ever
been published. According to the most recent estimates, based on
consular reports, the total receipts of the Government amounted, on
the average of the years 1872 to 1875, to 1,900,000/. per annum, while
the expenditure during the same period was at the rate of 1,756,000/.
per annum. The receipts of the year 1875 amounted to 4,361,660
tomans, or 1,744,664/. in money, besides payments in kind, con-
sisting of barley, wheat, rice, and silk, valued at 550,840 tomans, or
220,336/., making the total revenue equal to 4,912,500 tomans, or
1,965,000/. The bulk of the public expenditure is for the main-
tenance of troops, and salaries, with pensions, to the Persian priest-
hood, while each annual surplus is paid into the Shah's treasury.

About one-fourth of the receipts are constituted by payments
in kind, mostly reserved for the use of the army and the Shan's own
household. The whole revenue is raised by assessments upon
towns, villages, and districts, each of which has to contribute a fixed
sum, the amount of which is changed from time to time by tax-
assessors appointed by the government. Almost the entire burthen
of taxation lies upon the labouring classes, and, among these,
upon the Mahometan subjects of the Shah. The amount of revenue
collected from the Christian population, the Jews, and the Guebres,
is reported to be very small.

The Government has no public debt. A balance due for many
years by the Shah to Russia on account of the expenses of the war

PEBSIA. 721

concluded in 1828, amounting to about 200,000Z., was cancelled in
1856.

The Persian army, according to official returns of the Minister of
War, numbers 105,500 men, of whom 5,000 form the artillery,
70,000 the infantry, and 30,500 the cavalry, regular and irregular.
Of the total of these troops, however,- only one-third are employed
on active service, the standing army of Persia consisting, on the
peace footing, of : —

Artillery, 5 batteries ....... 1,500

Infantry, 70 battalions 18,000

Irregular cavalry ........ 10,000

Eegular cavalry ........ 500

Total 30,000

The remainder of the 105,500 troops enumerated in the govern-
ment returns form the reserve. The soldiers composing it are
allowed to reside in their own villages and districts, where they may
engage in agricultural and other pursuits, subject to no drill or
military discipline, the infantry and artillery being usually disarmed
when placed on this footing. They, as well as the irregular cavalry,
are liable, however, to be called out at any moment, on the requi-
sition of the Minister for War. By a decree of the Shah, issued in
July 1875, it was ordered that the army should for the future be
raised by conscription, instead of by irregular levies, and that a
term of service of twelve years should be substituted for the old
system, under which the mass of the soldiers were retained for life.

The organisation of the army is by provinces, tribes, and districts.
A province furnishes several regiments; a tribe gives one, and
sometimes two, and a district contributes one battalion to the army.
The commanding officers are almost invariably selected from the
chiefs of the tribe or district from which the regiment is raised.
The Christians, Jews, and Guebres in Persia are exempt from all
military service.

Area, Population, and Trade.

The area and population of Persia are known only by estimates.
According to the latest and most trustworthy of these, the country
— extending for about 700 miles from north to south, and for 900
miles from east to west — contains an area of 048,000 square miles.
A vast portion of this area is, however, an absolute desert, and the
population is everywhere so canty as not to exceed, on the average,
seven inhabitants t<> tin' square mile. According to a carefully
made estimate, furnished by the British secretary of legation, in May
18G8, the population of Persia at that period numbered : —

3 a

^22 THE STATESMAN'S YEAE-BOOK, 1877-

Inhabitants of cities . ... . . 1,000,000

Population belonging to wandering tribes . . 1,700,000

Inhabitants of villages and country districts . . 1,700,000

Total population . . 4,400,000

The population of Persia is believed to be steadily declining in
numbers, owing to the ravages of the plague, the general absence of
sanitary laws, the results of polygamy, and various other not well
ascertained causes. Estimates of the middle of the year 1875 report
the total population of Persia, at that date, as under three millions.
The largest cities of Persia are — Tauris, or Tabreez, with 120,000 :
Tehran, with 85,000 ; Meshed, with 70,000 ; Ispahan, with 60,000 ;
and Yezd, with 40,000 inhabitants. The one million of inhabitants
of towns constitute the pure Persian race, and more than half of the
remaining population belongs to the Turkish, Lek, Koordish, and
Arab tribes, which are spread over the whole of the Shah's terri-
tory. In some provinces, such as Khorassan, and in the districts
contiguous to the Turkish and Eussian frontiers, nearly the entire
population belongs to one or other of these tribes.

The whole external trade of Persia may be roughly valued at
4,000,000/. sterling annually, of which 2,500,000/. may be taken as
the value of the imports, and ] ,500,000/. as that of the exports. A
diminution in the latter to the extent of nearly 1,000,000/. sterling
has taken place within the last three years, owing to the failure of
the most important industry of the country, the silk production.
The imports from Europe and India into Persia consist of cotton
manufactures, cloths, silks, and cotton yarns, and the exports, of
raw silk, raw cotton, tobacco, opium, and coarse calico for the Rus-
sian and Turkish markets.

The greater part of the commerce of Persia centres at Tabreez,
which is the chief emporium for the productions of Northern India,
Samarcand, Bokhara, Cabul, and Beloochistan. There are no
official returns of the value of the total imports and exports, the
former of which are estimated to have averaged 1,100,000/., and
the latter 550,000/. per annum in the years 1873 to 1875. The
principal article of import into Tabreez during the three years
consisted of cotton goods of British manufacture, of the average
annual value of 800,000/. ; while the chief article of export was
silk, shipped for France and Great Britain, of the average annual
value of 110,000/. All the European merchandise that reaches
Tabreez passes by Constantinople to Trebizonde, whence it is for-
warded by caravans.

The direct trade of Persia with the United Kingdom is very
small. In each of the five years 1871 to 1875, the value of the
exports of Persia to Great Britain and of the imports of British
produce and manufactures into Persia was as follows : —

PERSIA.

723

Exports from Persia

Imports of British home

to Great Britain

produce into Persia

1871

40,863

8,848

1872

6,767

23,811

1873

10,991

46,853

1874

102,043

37,094

187-5

44,331

45,723

The direct exports from Persia to Great Britain in 1875 consisted
mainly of opium, valued at 24,930/. Cotton goods, of the value of
37,895/., was the staple article of British imports in 1875.

Persia has a system of telegraphs, established by Europeans. At
the end of July 187G, there were 2,490 miles of telegraph lines,
and 4,782 miles of telegraph wire in operation. The number of
telegraph offices was 46 at the same date. The number of despatches
forwarded in the year 1875 was 675,000, the revenue of the year
from telegraphs amounting to 14,000/.

Diplomatic Representatives.

1. Of Persia in Great Britain.

Envoi/ and Minister. — Prince Nazem Malcolm Khan, accredited April 1, 1873.
Secretaries. — Mirza Mickael Khan ; Mirza Mohamed Aly ; Mirza Aly.

2. Of Great Britain in Persia.

Envoy, Minister, and Consul- General. — "William Taylour Thomson, C.B. ;
appointed Envoy and Minister, July 15, 1872, and Consul- General, Feb. 6,
1873.

Secretaries. — Konald F. Thomson ; Arthur Larcom.

Oriental Secretary. — W. J. Dickson.

Money, Weights, and Measures.

The money, weights, and measures of Persia, and the British
equivalents, are : —

The Keran

,, Toman

Money.
= 1,000 Dinars, or 20 Shahis

l\\d.
= 10 Kerans . . = 9s. 3|rf.

The gold coins of Persia, consisting of Tomans, five-Keran and
two-Keran pieces, contain no alloy.

Weights and Measures.

The Batman = 40 Sihrs, or 640 Miscals . ■

„ Collothun — 3^ Cepichas, or 6j Chenicas-

,, Art at a = 8 Collothun . . . ;

,, Zer = 16 Gerehs .

Fcrsakh, or Parasang

1 3£ lbs. avoirdupois.

1-809 Imperial gallon.

1'809 Imperial bushel.
38 inches.

4^ miles.

3 a 2

724 THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Besides the weights and measures here enumerated there exist
a great variety of local standards. In foreign commerce, Russian
weights and measures are largely used.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Persia.

1. Official Publications.

Eeport, by Mr. Bonald F. Thomson, British Secretary of Legation, on the
Population, Eevenne, Military Force, and Trade of Persia, dated Tehran,
April 20, 1868; in 'Eeports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.'
8. No. 4. 1868.

Eeport by Mr. W. J. Dickson, British Secretary of Legation, on the Trade
and Industry of Persia, dated Gulahek, July 3, 1865 ; in 'Eeports of H.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No. XL 8. London, 1866.

Eeport by Mr. W. J. Dickson on the Trade of Persia, dated Tehran, February
21, 1871 ; in 'Eeports of H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' No.
II. 1872. 8. London, 1872.

Eeports by Mr. Abbott, British Consul at Eesht, and Consul-General at
Tabreez, dated March 31, 1865, and April 30, 1866, on the Imports and
Exports of Persia ; in ' Commercial Eeports received at the Foreign Office,
1865-66.' 8. London, 1866.

Eeport by Mr. Consul-General Jones, on the trade and commerce of Tabreez
and the industries of Persia, dated Tabreez, March 31, 1874 ; in 'Eeports from
H.M.'s Consuls.' Part I. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Eastern Persia : an Account of the Journeys of the Persian Boundary Com-
mission, 1870-72. 2 vols. 8. 1876.

Eeports by Lieut.-Col. Eoss and Major S. B. Miles, Political Agents, and of
Mr. Consul Churchill, on the Trade and Industry of Persia, dated 1875 ; in
' Eeports from H.M.'s Consuls.' Parti. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Eeport by Mr. Consul Churchill, on the Trade and Commerce of the Pro-
vinces of Ghilan and Asteral.ad, dated Eesht, Jan. 10, 1876; in 'Eeports
from H.M.'s Consuls.' Part IV. 1876. 8. London, 1876.

Trade of Persia with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom in the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Blaramberg (General), Statistical Survey of Persia, made in [the years
1837-40. (In Kussian.) 8. St. Petersburg, 1853.

Blau (Dr. Otto), Commerzielle Zustande Persiens. 8. Berlin, 1858.

Brugsch (Dr. Heinr.), Beise der k. preussischen Gesandtschaft nach Persien,
1860 und 1861. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1864.

Eastwick (E. B.), Journal of a Diplomate's Three Years' Eesidence in
Persia. 2 vols. 8. London, 1864.

Kinneir (J. M.), Geographical Memoir of the Persian Empire. 4. London,
1813.

MarMam (Clements E.), A General Sketch of the History of Persia. 8.
ondon, 1874.

Molon (Ch. de), De la Perse, Etudes sur la Geographie, le Commerce, la
Politique, l'lndustrie, 1' Administration, &c. 8. Versailles, 1875.

Mounscy (Augustus), A Journey through the Caucasus and the Interior of
Persia. 8. London, 1872.

PERSIA. 725

Polak (Dr. Jak. Ed.), Persien. Das Land und seine Bewohner. Ethno-
graphische Schilderungen. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1865.

Sheil (Lady), Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia. 8. London, 1856.

Spiegel (Friedrieh), Eran : das Land zwischen Indus und Tigris. 8. Berlin,
1863.

Thielmann (Baron), Travels in tlio Caucasus, Persia, and Turkey in Asia.
2 vols. 8. London, 1876.

Thomson (J.) La Perse: sa population, ses revemis, son armee, son com-
merce. Avec notes par N. de Khanikof. In 'Bulletin de la Societe de
geographic' Juillet, 1869. 8. Paris, 1869.

Ussher (John), Journey from London to Persepolis, including Wanderings
in Daghestan, Georgia, Armenia, Kurdistan, Mesopotamia, and Persia. 8.
London, 1866.

Watson (Kobert Grant), A History of Persia, from the beginning of the
nineteenth century to the year 1858. 8. London, 1873.

726

SIAM.

(Thai.)

Government, Revenue, and Army.

The form of government of Siam is feudal in character, the poli-
tical power resting with a number of hereditary chieftains, owners
of the land, while the general legislative and executive authority
is vested in two kings, residing at Bangkok, the first of whom is the
real occupant of the throne. In recent times, the two dignities have
been frequently filled by father and son.

First King of Siam. — Phrabat Somdetja Phra Paraminihara,
born 1823, eldest son of the late First King, Somdel Phra Paramanda;
succeeded to the throne at the death of his father, October 1, 1868.

Second King of Siam. — Kroma Phraratscha born 1842, eldest
son of the present First King ; succeeded as Second King on the
elevation of his father to the throne, October 1, 1868.

The Second King has a court, ministers, and also an army of his
own, and royal honours are paid to him on all occasions. He is also
exempt from the customary prostration before the First King, instead
of which he salutes him by raising hands in the air. But he cannot
draAV from the royal treasury without permission of his colleague,
and, on the whole, is regarded as the chief subject of the First King.

The authority of both kings is but nominally acknowledged in a
great part of the country, and many of the provinces, more particu-
larly those of the north and north east, comprising the Laos States
of Chiengmai, Lamphoon, Lakhon, Prii, Nan, Hluang Prabang, are
under independent rulers, whose only token of allegiance to their
feudal superiors, consists in the presentation of gold and silver trees,
which have to be forwarded to Bangkok every three years.

The public revenue is estimated at about 3,145,000/. sterling a
year ; of which sum, the poll-tax and fines for non-service in the
army produce 2,500,000/. ; the land-tax, 287,000/. ; tax on fruit
trees, &c, 65,000/. ; on pepper, 50,000/. ; on spirits and gambling,
about 57,000/. each; and the customs, 33,000/. The tax collectors
receive no salary, being remunerated by a tithe of the revenue
realised. The expenditure is stated to keep within the receipts.

There is no standing army, but a general armament of the people,
in the form of a militia. Every male inhabitant, from the age
of 21 upwards, is obliged to serve the State for four months
a year. The folloAving individuals are, however, exempted : — mem-
bers of the priesthood, the Chinebe settlers, who pay a commu-
tation tax, slaves, public functionaries, the fathers of three sons liable
to service, and those who purchase exemption by a fine of from six

siXm. 727

to eight ticals a month, or by furnishing a slave or some other
person not subject to the conscription, as a substitute. It is stated
that the Government possesses upwards of 80,000 stand of arms,
besides a considerable stock of cannon.

The fleet of war consists of numerous junks, galleys, and other
small vessels, built on the Chinese model, and mounting heavy guns,
manned by Chinese and other foreigners.

Population and Trade.

The limits of the kingdom of Siam have varied much at different
periods of its history ; and even now, with the exception of the
Western frontier, the lines of demarcation cannot be exactly traced,
most of the border lands being occupied by tribes more or less inde-
pendent. As nearly as can be calculated, the country extends, at
present, from the 4th to the 20th degree of north latitude, and from
the 96th to the 102nd degree of east longitude, being a total area of
about 250,000 square miles. The numbers of the population are
still more imperfectly known than the extent of territory, and the
difficulty of any correct result is the greater on account of the
Oriental custom of numbering only the men. The last native
registers state the male population of the kingdom as follows, in
round numbers:— 2,000,000 Siamese; 1,500,000 Chinese; 1,000,000
Laotians; 1,000,000 Malays; 350,000 Cambodians; and 50,000
Peguans. Doubling these figures, to include the female sex, this
would give a total population for the kingdom of 11,800,000 inhabi-
tants, or 47 to the square mile.

The Siamese dominions are divided into 41 provinces, each pre-
sided over by a phaja, or governor. The native historians distinguish
two natural divisions of the country, called Monang-Nona, the region
of the north, and Monang-Tai, the southern region. Previous to
the fifteenth century, the former was the more populous part of the
country, but since the establishment of Bangkok as capital — with
from 300,000 to 400,000 inhabitants — the south has taken the
lead in population. Siam is called by its inhabitants Thai', or
Monang-Thai, which means ' free,' or 'the kingdom of the free.'
The word Siam — quite unknown to the natives — is Malay, from
sajam, ' the brown race.'

There is comparatively little trade and industry in the country,
mainly owing to the state of serfdom in which the population is
kept by the feudal owners of the land. Throughout the whole of
Siam, the natives are kept to forced labour for a certain period of
the year, varying from three to four months, in consequence oi which
the land, rich in many parts, is so badly cultivated as barely to pro-
duce sufficient food for its tli in population. Nearly the whole of the
trade is in the hands of foreigners, and in recent years many Chinese,
not subject like the natives to forced labour, have settled in the country.

728

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The foreign trade of Siam centres in Bangkok, the capital. The
value of the total exports from Bangkok in 1874 was 1,225,864/.,
the staple article of export being rice shipped to the amount of
1,967,505 piculs, valued 604,569/. The minor exports of 1874
embraced a great variety of articles, chief among them teel-seed
valued 64,011/., and sugar, valued 53,928/. The total imports into
Bangkok, in the year 1874, were of the value of 964,128/., the im-
ports comprising mainly textile goods, hardware, and opium, all
brought from India. Of the exports of 1874, the amount brought
in vessels under the British flag, was 511,373/., while of the imports
the amount was 540,911/. In the year 1874 the entries inwards at
the port of Bangkok included 103 British vessels of 45,214 tons, and
the clearances included 106 British vessels of 45,092 tons.

The direct commercial intercourse of Siam with the United King-
dom is inconsiderable, and of a very fluctuating character. In the five
years 1871 to 1875 the value of the exports from Siam to Great
Britain, and of the imports of British produce into Siam, was as
follows : —

Years

Exports from Siam

Imports of British

to Great Britain

Produce into Siam

1871

—

43,935

1872

66,714

26,399

1873

31,496

30,895

1874

—

27,541

1875

43,095

13,504

The chief article of exports from Siam to Great Britain in the year
1875 was rice, of the declared value of 40,095/. There were no
exports in 1871, nor again in 1874, while in 1872 and 1873 the
principal article was unrefined sugar, of the value of 51,502/. in
1872, and of 26,963/. in 1873. Among the imports of British pro-
duce into Siam, the chief article in 1875 was iron, of the value of
6,339/.

Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Siam, and the British
equivalents, are : —

Money.
The Tical, ov Bat — 12,800 cowries, average rate of exchange, 2s. 6d.
„ Spanish Dollar ... „ „ 4s. 2a!.

The legal money of Siam is the Tical, a silver coin, with the
device of an elephant impressed, weighing 236 grains troy. Spanish
dollars, largely in use, are accepted in payment at the rate of 3
dollars for 5 Ticals. In 1875, the government ordered a large quan-
tity of bronze coinage from England, which is reported to get into
extensive use among the people, taking the place of small paper notes

SIAM. 729

of the value of 200 cowries, or one-halfpenny, previously in circu-
lation.

Weights and Measubes

The Tael = 1^ oz. avoirdupois.

„ Picul = 133 lbs.

„ Catty = 13-,,

„ Chang = 4 yards.

The basis of all measures of weights in Siam is the Niu, equal to
8 grains of husked rice ; Avhile the measures of length are taken
from the Kup, or Keub, that is, the length of the thumb to the
middle finger of a grown-up man, and the Sok, the length of the lower
part of the arm, from the end of the middle finger to the elbow.

Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.

1. Of Siam in Great Bbitain.
Consul. — David King Mason, accredited April 27, 1868.

2. Of Gbeat .Britain in Siam.

Agent and Consul- General. — Thomas George Knox, appointed Feb. 8, 1875.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Siam.
1. Official Publications.

Commercial Keport from H. M.'s Consul-General in Siam for the year 1870.
8. London, 1871.

Keports of Mr. Thos. Geo. Knox, Consul-General, on the Trade of Siam,
dated Bangkok, February 12, 1870 ; in 'Commercial Reports from H. M.'s
Consuls in China and Siam.' 8. London, 1870.

Reports by Mr. W. H. Newman, on the trade of the port of Bangkok, dated
June 30, 1875; and by Mr. D. J. Edwardes, on the state of Chiengmai and
other Teak districts of Siam, dated June 17, 1875 ; in ' Commercial Reports
by H. M.'s Consular Officers in Siam.' No. I. 1875. 8. London, 1875.

Trade of Siam with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of
the United Kingdom with foreign countries and British possessions, for the
year 1875.' 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Alabaster (Henry), The Modern Buddhist; being the Views of a Siamese
Minister of State on His Own and other Religions. Translated. 8. London,
1870.

Bastian (Adolf), Die Volker des bstlichen Asiens. 3 vols. 8. Leipzig and
Jena, 1866-67.

Bowring (John), The Kingdom andPeople of Siam. 2 vols. 8. London, 1857.

Grehan (A.) Le royaumc do Siam. 8. Paris, 1868.

Mouhot (Henry), Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China (Siam), Cam-
bodia and Laos, during the years 1858-1860. 2 vols. 8. London, 1864.

Pallcqoix (D. J.), Description du royaume Thai ou Siam. 2 vols. 8.
Paris, 1854.

Scherzer (Dr. K. von), Die wirth.schaftlichcn Zustande im Siiden und Osten
Asiens. Berichte der fachmannischen Begleiter der k. k. Expedition nach
Siam, China und Japan. 8. Stuttgart, 1871.

73o

IY. AUSTRALASIA.

NEW SOUTH WALES.

Constitution and Government.

The constitution of New South Wales, oldest of the Australasian
colonies, is embodied in the Act 18 & 19 Vict. cap. 54, pro-
claimed in 1855. It vests the legislative power in a Parlia-
ment of two Houses, the first called the Legislative Council,
and the second the Legislative Assembly. The Legislative Coimcil
consists of not less than twenty-one members nominated by the
Crown, and the Assembly of seventy-two members, elected by
sixty constituencies. To be eligible, a man must be of age,
a natural-bom subject of the Queen, or, if an alien, then he must
have been naturalised for five years, and resident for two years
before election. There is no property qualification for electors, and
the votes are taken by secret ballot. The executive is in the hands
of a governor nominated by the Crown.

Governor of New South Wales. — Sir Hercules George Eobert
Robinson, G.C.M.G-., born 1824; served in the 87th Fusiliers;
member of the Irish Poor-laAV Board, 1846-53 ; President of
Montserrat, 1854-55 ; Lieutenant-Governor of St. Christopher,
1855-59; Governor of Hong-Kong, 1859-64 ; Governor of Ceylon,
1864-71; appointed Governor of New South Wales, February 23,
1872 ; assumed the government, June 3, 1872.

The governor, by the terms of his commission, is commander-in-
chief of all the troops in the colony. He has a salary of 7,000Z.
In the exercise of the executive he is assisted by a Cabinet of seven
ministers, the last, appointed February 9, 1875, with changes
effected in 1876, containing the following members : —

Colonial Secretary and Premier. — Hon. John liobertson.

Colonial Treasurer. — Hon. Alexander Stuart.

Minister of Justice and Public Instruction. — Hon. Joseph Docker.

Attorney- General. — Hon. William Bede Dalley.

Minister of Works. — Hon. John Lackey.

Minister of Lands. — Hon. Thomas Garrett.

Postmaster-General. — Hon. John Fitz Gerald Burns.

Minister of Mines. — Hon. John Lucas.

NEW SOUTH WALES.

731

The Colonial Secretary lias a salary of 2,000/., and the other
ministers of 1,500/. The Cabinet is responsible for its acts to
the Legislative Assembly.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The principal part of the public revenue, to the amount of nearly
one-half, is derived from customs duties, chief among them the
import duties on spirits. The other sources of income consist of
miscellaneous receipts, the most important of which are from land
sales and rents of land. Direct taxation does not exist.

The revenue and expenditure of the colony, including under the
first head loans, and under the latter sums disbursed for public
works, was as follows in each of the six years 1870 to 1875 : —

Years

Eevenue

Expenditure

1870

2,575,309

2,298,353

1871

4,288,862

3,602,499

1872

4,161,415

3,638,023

1873

3,324.713

2,918,725

1874

4,200,827

3,506,780

1875

4,121,996

3,399,024

It will be seen that there was a surplus of revenue over ex-
penditure in each of the six years, that of 1875 amounting to
722,972/. The surplus of each year was to be devoted to a reduc-
tion of customs duties.

The public debt of the colony amounted to 3,830,230/. in 1860,
to 6,418,030/. in 1866, to 6,917,630/. in 1867, to 8,564,830/. in
1868, to 9,546,030/. in 1869, to 9,681,130/. in 1870, and to
11,470,637/. at the end of 1875. The debt was chiefly incurred for
railways and other public works. — (Official Communication.)

Area and Population.

New South Wales, discovered by Captain Cook in 1770, was first
colonised by convicts in 1788, the British government having sent
thither 565 male and 192 female prisoners condemned to trans-
portation for life. The colony originally embraced all the territory
from Cape York in the parallel of 10° 37' south latitude, to South
Cape in latitude 43° 29' south, including the islands in the Pacific
within this latitude, and inland to the westward as far as the 135th
meridian of east longitude. The erection into separate colonies of
South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, and Queensland in 1859,
greatly reduced its area. It now contains an area of 323,437 square

732

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877-

miles, being enclosed within the parallels of 28° and 37° south
latitude, and 141° and 154° of east longitude. Its greatest length
is 900 miles, but averaging only 500. The greatest breadth is
about 850 miles, but the average does not exceed 500 miles. Its
boundaries are, on the north, the colony of Queensland ; on the
east, the Pacific Ocean ; on the south, the colony of Victoria ; on
the west, South Australia. The 141st meridian is the dividing line
from South Australia ; and the 29th parallel, with an irregular line
to Point Danger, from Queensland.

In 1788 the total population of the colony, including the Govern-
ment establishment and convicts, amounted to 1,030, and in 1810
the population, free and felon, had risen to 8,293. In 1821 the
inhabitants of New South Wales had increased to 29,783, and in
1828 to 36,598. Of this number, 14,156 were male, and 1,513
female convicts; and 5,302 males, and 1,342 females, free by servi-
tude. The number of free immigrants who arrived in the colony in
the twelve years 1829 to 1840 amounted to 41,794. The colony
was relieved from the transportation of criminals in 1840.

According to the returns of the last census, taken April 2,
1871, the total population of the colony, exclusive of aborigines,
was 503,981, comprising 275,551 males and 228,430 females.
The preceding census, taken April 7, 1861, showed a total popu-
lation of 350,860, of whom 198,488 were males and 152,372
females. The estimated population on the 31st of December, 1875,
was 600,525.

The population of Sydney, capital of New South Wales, numbered
134,755 at the census of April 2, 1871, the total comprising 75,945
inhabitants within the city, and 58,810 in the suburbs. The in-
crease of population in the decennial period 1861-71 was 19,105,
or 33^ per cent, in the city, and 21,967, or 59^- per cent, in the
suburban districts.

The religious division of the inhabitants was as follows, accord-
ing to the enumerations of 1861 and 1871 : —

Denominations

Numbers

Proportion

per 1,000

1861

1871

1861

1871

Church of England

159,958

229,243

456

Presbyterians ....

34,692

49,122

Wesleyans .....

23,682

36,277

Congregationalists

5,411

9,253

Other Protestants

9,863

15,499

Roman Catholics

99,193

147,627

283

293

Hebrews .....

1,759

2,395

Mahometans and Asiatic creeds .

12,909

7,455

All others .....

3,393

7,112

NEW SOUTH WALES.

733

In January, 1873, there were in the colony 976 churches and
chapels, and 503 ministers of religion. The average attendance at
public worship was 179,345 during the year 1872.

Trade and Industry.

The trade of New South Wales more than quadrupled in the
fifteen years from 1850 to 1864. The total value of the imports in
1850 amounted to 2,078,338Z., and in 1864 had risen to 10,135,708/.
The exports in 1850 were valued at 2,399,580/., and in 1864 at
9,037,832/. From 1864 till 1870 there was a decline in both
imports and exports, but a new rise took place in 1871, continuing,
with interruptions, till 1875.

The value of the total imports and exports, including bullion
and specie, in each of the six years 1870 to 1875, was as follows : —

Bather more than one-third of the total imports into New South
Wales come from the United Kingdom, and about one- third of the
exports are shipped to it. The rest of the trade is chiefly with
British Possessions. The commercial intercourse of the colony with
the United Kingdom is shown in the following tabular statement,
which gives the total value of the exports from New South Wales
to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports of British produce
and manufactures into New South Wales in each of the six years
from 1870 to 1875: —

Exports from New South

Imports of

Years

Wales to

British Home Produce into

Great Britain

New South Wales

1870

3,712,330

2,595,260

1871

3,659.100

2.541.126

1872

3,7lo.oi7

3,569,559

1873

3,696,019

4,333.719

1874

3,900.0 1 |

1,376,356

1875

4.142,680

5,684,638

The staple article of exports from New South Wales to the United
Kingdom is avooI, of the value m|' 2. sol, •_».",:;/. in 1X70; of 2.570,063/
in 1871; of 2,399,670*. in 1872; of 2,503,381/. in 1873; of the
value of 2,616,458/., in 1874 ; and of the value of 3,072,784/. in

734 THE statesman's tear-book, 1877.

1875. The imports consist of all the chief articles of British
manufacturing industry, notably textile fabrics and iron.

In June 1876, New South Wales had 24,382,536 sheep;
3,134,086 horned cattle; 357,696 horses; and 190,950 pigs.
The total area of land under cultivation embraced 297,575 acres,
of which there was under wheat 154,030 acres ; under barley, 3,462
acres; under oats, 13,795; under rye, 1,342; under maize, 119,956;
and under other kinds of grain 254 acres ; making a total of 292,839
acres of land under corn crops. At the same date, freeholders under
conditional purchase numbered 14,028; other freeholders, 9,471;
leaseholders of land conditionally purchased, 1,102 ; other lease-
holders, 6,671, being a total of 31,272.

New South Wales is believed to be richer in coal than the other
territories of Australasia. In 1875, there were 26 mines worked,
producing in the year 1,192,861 tons of coal, valued at 665,746/.

The gold mines of New South Wales cover a vast area, extending
chiefly over the districts called the Western Fields, the Northern
Fields, and the Southern Fields. Of these three districts, the
Western Fields are the most important, furnishing three-fourths of
the total supply. The gold exported in gold-dust and bars, produce
of the colony, in 1872 was 117,944 oz., value 454,468/. ; and of
387 boxes, value 1,655,831/. of coin. The gold exports of 1875
consisted of 200,134 ounces, value 773,439/. of gold dust and bar,
and of 490 boxes, value 2,151,168/. of gold coin.

New South Wales likewise possesses valuable copper mines, the
yield from which in 1875 was 6,027 tons.

New South Wales has three lines of railway, the Southern, 310
miles, the Northern, 186 miles, and the Western, 195 miles in
length. Of this total of 691 miles, 437 miles were open for traffic
in January 1876, and 254 miles in course of construction. The
Avhole of the lines were built by the government, at a cost of
7,831,787/. up to the 31st of December 1875. The total receipts
in the year 1875 amounted to 614,648/., and the working expenses
to 296,174/., or 48-18 per cent. The average earnings per train
mile amounted to 8s. 4c/., and the average expenditure to 4s. in the
year 1874.

Of electric telegraphs there were in the colony 8,014 miles of
wire, at the end of 1875, constructed at a cost of 212,255/. The
paid messages transmitted, in 1875 numbered 385,000. There were
105 telegraph stations at the end of 1874.

The Post Office of the colony transmitted 9,300,000 letters,
4,720,100 newspapers, and 235,000 packets in the year 1875.

Agent-General of New South Wales in Great Britain. — Hon.
William Forster, formerly Colonial Treasurer, appointed Feb. 1876.

/35

NEW ZEALAND.

Constitution and Government.

The present form of government for New Zealand was established
by statute 15 & 16 Vict. cap. 72. By the terms of this charter, the
legislative power is vested in the Governor and a Parliament of
two Chambers, the first called the Legislative Council, and the
second the House of Representatives. The Legislative Council
consists at present of forty -five members, nominated by the Crown
for life, and the House of Rejtresentatives of seventy-eight members,
elected by the people for five years. Members of both branches of
the legislature receive payment at the rate of 11. for each day's
personal attendance. Every owner of a freehold worth 50/., or
tenant householder, in the country at 51., in the towns at 10Z. a
year rent, is qualified both to vote for, or to be a member of, the
House of Representatives. In June 1876 there were 58,744 electors
on the rolls. The executive is vested in a governor, appointed by
the Crown.

Governor of New Zealand. — Rt. Hon. George Augustus Constan-
tine Phipps, Marquis of Nomrianby, born 1819, only son of the first
marquis ; Member of Parliament for Scarborough, 1847-58 ;
Treasurer of the Queen's Household, 1853-57; Lieutenant-
Governor of Nova Scotia, 1858-63; succeeded his father, 1863;
Governor of Queensland, 1871-74 ; appointed Governor of New
Zealand, September 5, 1874.

The governor, who is, by virtue of his office, commander-in-chief
of all the troops in the colony, has a salary of 4,500/. and certain
allowances. The general administration rests with a responsible
ministry, of which the last, appointed September 13, 1876, consisted
of the following members : —

Colonial Treasurer and Premier. — Hon. H. A. Atkinson.

Colonial Secretary. — Hon. Daniel Pollen.

Postmaster-General and Telegraph Commissioner. — Hon. Frederick
Whitaker.

Minister for Native Affairs. — Hon. Sir Donald M'Lean, K.C.M.G.

Minister for Public Works. — Hon. Edward Richardson.

Commissioner of Customs. — Hon. George .M'Lean.

Minister of Justice. — Hon. Charles C. Bowen.

Besides the above ministers, there are two native members of the
Executive Council, but not in charge i i afiy department.

Each of the Ministers has a salary < !' l.ooo/. per annum,

736

THE STATESMAN S YEAK-BOOK, 1877.

The colony is divided into nine provinces, four in the North
Island, and five in the Middle Island. Each of these provinces is
o-overned by an elected Superintendent and a Provincial Council.
In the session of 1874, the House of Eepresentatives passed reso-
lutions declaring that the provincial form of sub-government had
ceased to be necessary in the North Island, and should be supplanted,
as far as required, by the establishment of local boards without
legislative powers.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The revenue of the colony is divided into Ordinary and Terri-
torial revenue. The chief source of ordinary revenue is from
customs receipts on imports, which produce more than three-fourths
of the total receipts. Separately treated in the financial accounts of
the government is the territorial revenue, derived partly from the
sale of crown lands, depasturing licenses and assessments, and partly
from export duties on gold and gold-mining licenses. The following
table exhibits the ordinary and the territorial revenue, together-
with the total in each of the ten years ending Dec. 31, from 1866
to 1875 :—

Years

Ordinary Revenue

Territorial Revenue

Total Revenue

1866

1.086,293

776,429

1,862,722

1867

1,225,584

561.730

1.787,314

1868

1,195,512

425,323

1,620,835

1869

1,025,516

382,070

1,407,586

1870

960,368

327,589

1,287,957

1871

921,672

377,699

1.299,371

1872

1,005,942

618,772

1,624,714

1873

1,487,393

1,265.788

2,753,181

1874

1,873,448

1,150,900

3,024,348

1875

2,047,234

688,722

2,735,956

The largest branch of expenditure is on account of the colonial
debt, which, incurred to promote public works, including a com-
prehensive system of railways, on a vast scale, is comparatively
o-reat. In the year 1875, the interest of the general debt — exclu-
sive of territorial liabilities — amounted to 657,527/., and the charge
on the sinking fund to 74,518/., being a total annual charge of
732,045/.

The public debt of the colony, dating from 1856, amounted to
77,174/. in that year, and rose to 594,044/. in 1860, to 1,289,750/.
in 1863, to 2,219,450/. in 1864, to 4,368,682/. in 1865, to 5,435,729/.
in 1866, to 7,579,000/. in 1867, to 7,178,143/. in 1868, to
7,360,616/. in 1869, to 7,841,891/. in 1870, to 8,496,016/. in 1871,

NEW ZEALAND. 737

to 9,985,386/. in 1873, and to 13,897,185/. on the 31st of December
1875. The liabilities of New Zealand, here enumerated, constitute
the debt of the General Government, and do not include the debts
of the Provincial Governments, the latter contracted for local pur-
poses. The aggregate liabilities of the nine Provincial Govern-
ments amounted, on the 31st of December 1875, to 3,502,843Z., the
largest debt being that of the Province of Otago, 1,349,020/., and
the next largest that of Auckland, 695,925/.

The following tabular statement gives the amount of the various
liabilities of the General Government, incurred under successive
legislative acts, on the 31st of December, 1875 : —

Overdue Debentures £311

New Zealand Loan Act, 1856— £500,000 . . 120,000

Interest and Sinking Fund on 1856 Loan . . 36,000

New Zealand Loan Act, 1860— £150,000 . . 93,100

New Zealand Loan Act, 1863— £3,000,000 . . 1,519,400

Debentures Act, 1864, and Amendment Act, 1865 . 50

Treasury Bills Extended Currency Act, 1873 . 400,000

Consolidated Loan Act, 1867 .... 2,062,400

Defence and other Purposes Loan Act, 1870 . . 656,900
Immigration and Public Works Loan Acts, 1870,

1873, and 1874 8,664,424

General Purposes Loan Act, 1873 . . . . 294,600

Westland Loan Act, 1873 50,000

Total .... 13,897,185

Of the Immigration and Public Works Loan of 1870, the sum of
1,000,000/. was guaranteed by the Imperial Parliament, under Act
33 & 34 Vict. cap. 40. The loan was issued in England, at the
price of 84 per cent., bearing interest at the rate of 4-g- per cent,
per annum. The loan is secured on the consolidated revenues of
New Zealand, and the object of it, besides immigration &c, was
the construction of railways.

Area and Population.

The colony of New Zealand, first visited by the Dutch navigator,
Tasman, in 1642, and surveyed by Captain Cook in 1769, consists
of three principal islands, known as the North, the Middle, and the
South, or Stewart's Island. The whole group is nearly 1,000 miles
long, and 200 miles broad ; its coast line extends over 40,000 miles.
The area of the country is estimated at 102,000 square miles, two-
thirds of which are fitted for agriculture and grazing. The North
Island contains about 44,000 square miles, and the Middle Island
57,000, while Stewart's Island, uninhabited as yet, and partly unex-
plored, has an area of about 1,000 square miles.

The population of New Zealand, in 1851, when the first census
was taken, numbered 26,707, exclusive of aborigines. In 1858, the

3 B

733

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

number had risen to 59,413, of whom 33,679 were males, and 25,734
females, being an increase, in the seven years, of 122 per cent. In
1861, the total was 99,022, comprising 61,063 males, and 37,959
females, or an increase of 40 per cent, in three years. The next
triennial census of 1864 showed a population of 172,158, of whom
106,580 were males, and 65,578 females, while at the following
enumeration, made December 19, 1867, the total number of inhabi-
tants was found to be 218,668, comprising 131,806 males, and 86,678
females ; and at the next following enumeration, of February 27,
1871, the population had increased to 256,260, comprising 150,267
males, and 105,993 females. Finally, a census taken March 1, 1874,
showed the population, exclusive of Maories, to number 299,514 souls,
of whom 170,981 Avere males, and 128,533 females.

The following table shows the population of European descent,
distinguishing the sexes, of each of the 9 provinces of New Zealand,
and of the outlying Chatham Islands, according to the last census,
taken March 1, 1874 : —

Provinces

Males

Females

Total

North Island : —

Auckland .

37,106

30,345

67,451

Taranaki ....

3,043

2,424

5,465

Wellington .

• 16,246

13,544

27,790

Hawke's Bay

5,416

3,812

9,228

Middle Island :—

Nelson ....

13,545

9,013

22,558

Marlborough

3,259

2,486

6,145

Canterbury ....

32,294

26,481

58.775

Otago with Southland .

50,121

34,992

85,113

Westland ....

9,473

5,387

14,860

Chatham Islands .
Total

129
299,514

170,981

128,533

The estimated population on the 31st December, 1875, was
375,856, comprising 213,294 males, and 162,562 females.

The total number of inhabited houses and other dwellings found
at the census of March 1, 1874, in the colony was 65,858, or nearly
five individuals to one dwelling. Of these, 54,523 were described
as constructed of wood ; 2,042 of stone, or brick ; 572 of 'Kaupo' ;
and 2,546 of ' cob, sod,' &c. ; while 1,967 were simple tents.

At the census of 1874, there Avere four towns with upwards of
1 0,000 inhabitants in New Zealand, namely, Dunedin, in Otago,
18,499 ; Auckland, 12,775; Wellington, 10,547; and Christchurch,
in Canterbury, 10,294 inhabitants. With the exception of Auck-

NEW ZEALAND.

739

land, which decreased in population, the towns largely increased in
number of inhabitants between the enumerations of 1871 and 1874.

The number of aborigines, or so-called Maories, in New Zealand,
is only known through official estimates, which, however, are believed
to be tolerably accurate. From these it appears that, at the enume-
ration of March 1, 1874, there were in the North Island, 43,538,
and in the South Island 1,932 Maories, or a total of 45,-470 in the
whole colony. The native population of North Island in 1874 com-
prised 23,308 males, and 19,458 females; and that of South Island
1,055 males and 877 females, while of 772 Maories the sex was not
stated. According to all accounts, the Maories, like the aborigines
of other countries settled by Europeans, are declining in numbers
from year to year. The result of a native census taken all over the
colony between September 1857 and 1858, was the enumeration of
55,970 Maories — 31,667 males, and 24,303 females — so that from
1858 to 1874, the decline amounted to 10,500 souls.

Included in the census returns of 1874 as forming part of the
non-aboriginal population were 4,816 Chinese, comprising 4,814
males, and 2 females. The great bulk of these immigrants from
Asia were engaged in gold mining. The total population of the
gold-fields, at the date of the census, was 49,152, comprising 32,865
males and 16,287 females.

The total number of immigrants and of emigrants, and the
surplus of immigrants over emigrants into the colony, was as follows
in each of the ten years from 1866 to 1875 : —

Surplus of Immi-

j Years

Immigrants.

Emigrants.

grant-; over immi-

N umber

Xumber

grants.

Number

1866

14,893

7,294

7.599

1 1867

11.126

6.267

1868

8,723

7,863

860

: 1869

8,903

5,262

3 64]

1870

9,124

5,547

3,577

; 1871

10,083

■>. -2 9 7

4,786

1872

10,72.3

5,752

1,973

1873

13,572

4,761

8,811

1874

4.3,965

5,859

38,106

1875

31,737

6,467

2o,27<>

The 31,737 immigrants of 1875 comprised 19,558 males and
12,179 females. The number of immigrants the cost of whose
introduction was paid by the Government in the year 1875 was
20,370, viz. 11,435 males, and 8,935 females. Of the total oumber
of Government immigrants introduced during the year 1875 into
the colony, 9,667 were English, t,896 Irish, and 3,761 Scotch
making a total of 18,324 from the United Kingdom.

3 B 2

74Q

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Trade and Industry.

The commerce of New Zealand increased nearly twenty-fold in the
twenty years from 1856 to 1875, the imports rising from less than
half a million to more than eight millions, and the exports from a
quarter of a million to upwards of five millions.

The following table exhibits the value of the total imports and
exports of the colony in each of the six years 1870 to 1875 : —

Tears

Total Imports

Total Exports

1870

4,639,015

4.822,756

1871

4,078,193

5,282,084

1872

5,142,951

5,190,665

1873

6,241,062

5,521,800

1874

8,121,812

5,152,143

1875

8,029,172

5,475,844

The commercial intercourse between New Zealand and the
United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular statement,
which gives the total value of the exports of merchandise — exclusive
of gold and specie — from New Zealand to the United Kingdom,
and of the imports of British and Irich produce and manufactures
into New Zealand, in each of the six years 1870 to 1875 : —

Y Exports from New Zealand
iears 1 to the United Kingdom

Imports of

British Home Produce

into New Zealand

1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875

2,131,980
2,529,297
2,664,752
3,149,978
3,542,099
3,489,138

£
1,537,500
1,370,75s

2,300,143
3,361,562
4,408,400
3,854,090

The staple article of export from New Zealand to the United
Kingdom is wool, the quantities and value of which were as follows
in each of the six years from 1870 to 1875 : —

Years

Quantity

Value

lbs.

1870

30,747,585

1,761,614

1871

34,394,703

1,986,996

1872

33,719,756

2,069,980

1873

39,239,206

2,445,235

1874

48,209,802

2,888,074

1875

49,548,472

3,079,115

NEW ZEALAND. 74 1

Xext to wool, the two most important articles of export from New
Zealand to Great Britain in 1875 were corn, of the value of 133,084/..
and gum of the value of 67,267/. There were in former years also
large exports of preserved meat, amounting to 185,590/. in 1872,
but falling to 167,579/. in 1873; to 114,708/. in 1874; and to
19,801/. in 1875. The British imports comprise mainly iron, textile
fabrics and apparel, and haberdashery.

The live stock of the colony consisted, at the census of March 1,
1874, of 99,859 horses; 494,917 cattle; 11,704,853 sheep; 123,921
pigs; and 1,058,198 heads of poultry. The greatest increase of live
stock in recent years was in sheep. They numbered 1,523,324 in
1858; 2,761,383 in 1861; 4,937,273 in 1864 ; 8,418,579 in 1867;
and 9,700,629 in 1871, and 11,704,853 in March 1874.

Large gold fields were discovered in the spring of 1857. In the
year 1875 there were 355,322 ounces of gold, of the declared value
of 1,407,770/., exported from New Zealand. The amount exported
from April 1, 1857, to the end of 1874 was 7,599,973 ounces, of
the declared value of 29,577,016/.

The construction of a comprehensive system of railways con-
necting the chief towns of the colony, was commenced, at the expense
of the government, in the autumn of 1872. At the end of June,
1876, the length of miles open for traffic was 549, Avhile 382
miles were in course of construction, under contract, and about 230
miles authorised were waiting to be commenced. The total expen-
diture on railways, up to the 30th of June, 1876, was 5,215,018/.,
while the estimated further expenditure till the end of June 1877
was 1,054,600/.

On the 31st December 1875, the colony had 3,156 miles of
telegraph lines, and 7,065 miles of wire. The number of telegrams
despatched in the year 1875 was 993,323, of which total 849,919
were private, and 143,404 government messages. The total receipts
from telegrams in the year 1875 amounted to 74,420/., of which
59,678/. came from private, and 14,742/. from government messages.
The post-office in the year 1875 received 5,053,403 letters, of
which number 4,731,873 came from places within, and 642,575
from places without the colony. The total number of newspapers
received in 1875 was 4,026,457, of which number 2,775,669 came
from places within, and 1,250,788 from places without the colony.
Money orders to the number of 73,027, and the amount of 293,4812.,
were issued in 1874. The total revenue of the post-office amounted
to 104,371/. in 1874. and to 122,496/. in Ls;:..

Agent-General of Neiv Zealand in Great Britain. — Hon. Sir
Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G., formerly Premier of New Zealand ; ap-
pointed September 1876.

742

QUEENSLAND.

Constitution and Government.

The form of government of the colony of Queensland was estab-
lished December 10,1859, on its separation from New South Wales.
The power of making laws, and imposing taxes, is vested in a Parlia-
ment of two Houses, the Legislative Council, and the Legislative
Assembly. The former consists of twenty-one members, nominated
by the Crown for life. The House of Assembly comprises forty-two
deputies, returned from as many electoral districts, for five years, by
the ballot vote of all taxpayers. The executive is vested in a gover-
nor appointed by the Crown.

Governor of Queensland. — Sir Arthur Edward Kennedy, JLC.M.Gr.,
C.B., born 1*810; educated at Trinity College, Dublin ; entered the
army as ensign 1827, and retired as captain 1848; Inspector of
Irish poor laws, 1849-51; Governor of Sierra Leone, 1851-54;
Governor of Western Australia, 1854-62; Governor of Vancouver's
Island, 1863-67 ; Governor of the West African Settlements,
1867-72 ; Governor of Hong Kong, 1872-76 ; appointed Governor
of Queensland, November 10, 1876.

The governor is commander-in-chief of the troops, and also bears
the title of vice-admiral. He has a salary of 5,000Z. per annum.
In the exercise of the executive authority he is assisted by an Exe-
cutive Council of six ministers, consisting of the following members :

Colonial Secretary and Premier. — Hon. Robert M. Stewart.

Secretary for Public Lands. — Hon. John Douglas.

Colonial Treasurer. — Hon. John R. Dickson.

Attorney-General .—'Row. Samuel Walker Griffith.

Secretary for Public Works and Mines.— Ron. George Thorn, jun.

Postmaster-General. — Hon. Charles S. Mein.
Each of the ministers has a salary of 1,000/. per annum. They
are jointly and individually responsible for their acts.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The public income of the colony nearly trebled in the decennial
period 1866 to 1875, while the disbursements increased at the same
rate. The following table shows the revenue and expenditure of
Queensland during each of the ten years from 1866 to 1875 : —

QUEENSLAND.

743

Years

Revenue

Expenditure

1866 .

490,270

594,130

1867 .

669,041

719,967

1868 .

780,117

797,470

1869 .

772,888

761,235

1870 .

743,0,58

764,491

1871 .

823,169

787,555

1872 .

996,323

865,7*3

1873 .

1,120,034

948,750

1874 .

1,160,947

1,121,710

1S75 .

1,261,464

1,404,198

The greater part of the revenue of Queensland is derived from
customs duties, land sales, and rents of public lands ; while the
chief expenditure is for works of general utility, and for government
aid to immigration.

The public debt of the colony amounted, on December 31, 1875,
to the sum of 5,253,286/., of which sum 3,070,800/. was created by
debenture loans, and the rest under ' The Treasury Bills Act of
1866,' viz., 30 Victoria, No. 8, and 30 Victoria, No. 10. At the
end of the year 186-4 the total debt amounted to 548,000/., and
gradually increased from that period.

Area and Population.

Queensland comprises the whole north-eastern portion of the
Australian continent, including, in the terms of the Letters Patent
establishing the colony, ' all and eveiy the adjacent islands, their
members and appurtenances, in the Pacific Ocean and in the Gulf
of Carpentaria.' The boundaries of Queensland are, on the north
the Gulf of Carpentaria, on the east the Pacific Ocean, on the south
the colony of New South Wales, on the west the 141st meridian of
longitude from the 29th to the 26th parallel, and thence to the 138th
meridian north to the Gulf of Carpentaria. The vast territory thus
defined is of an estimated area of 678,600 English square miles —
equal in size to one-fifth of the whole of Europe — with a seaboard
of 2,250 miles. The colony formed, under the name of Moreton
Bay, a part of New South Wales until it was erected into a separate
colony, with the name of Queensland, by an order of Her Majesty
in Council, which took effect on December 10, 1859, upon the
arrival of the first governor.

The first settlement of the colony was by convicts sent from Great
Britain, the earliest of them arriving in 1825. In 1842 the country
was thrown open to free settlers, and an enumeration taken in 11S46
showed the total population, free and felon, to number 2,257. In
1851, the total population had increased to 8,575, and in 1856 to

744

THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

17,082. The population amounted to 24,870 on December 31,
1859 ; to 29,074 on December 31, 1860 ; to 34,367 at the same
date in 1861 ; to 45,077 on December 31, 1862 ; and to 107,427
on December 31, 1868. On September 1, 1871, the population had
increased to 120,104, while at the last enumeration, taken May 31,
1876, there was a total population of European descent, numbering
173,180 souls. The census returns state that there is no reliable
information to be obtained regarding the number of aborigines livino-
within the boundaries of the colony.

Queensland is divided into seventeen municipalities, the largest of
which, as regards population, is Brisbane. It contains the city of
Brisbane, the capital of the colony, and the seat of government, with
a population of 19,413 at the end of 1872. The two next largest
towns of the colony are Iiockhampton, with 5,497, and Ipswich, with
5,091 inhabitants.

The immigrants into the colony in former years chiefly from the
United Kingdom, have more recently consisted to a great extent of
natives of China and the South Sea Islands. In 1873 the immi-
grants numbered 15,141, and the emigrants 5,474, giving an excess
of 9,667 arrivals, while in the year 1874 the excess of arrivals over
departures was 13,238. The excess of arrivals over departures in
the year 1875 was 15,169 ; but according to the report of the
Registrar General of the colony, ' the excess of increase was from
the coloured races only, the arrivals of Europeans showing 3,710
less, and those of Chinese and South Sea Islanders 8,935 more in
1875 than in 1874.

Trade and Industry.

The total value of the imports and exports of Queensland, in the
five years 1870 to 1875, is given in the following table: —

Years

Imports

Exports

1871

1872
1873
1874
1875

£
1,562,665
2,218,717
2,781,726
2,833,814
3,328,009

2,760,045
2,998,934
3,542,513
3,750.048
3,857,575

The commercial intercourse of Queensland is chiefly with the
other Australian colonies, and next to them with the United King-
dom. The subjoined tabular statement gives the value of the
exports, exclusive of gold, from Queensland to the United Kingdom,
and of the imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures
into Queensland in each of the five years 1871 to 1675 : —

QUEENSLAND.

745

Years

Exports from Queensland
to the United Kingdom

Imports of

British Home Produce

into Queensland

1871

1872
1873
1874
1875

£
693,744
690,749
871,235
898,831
930,106

£
343,618
575,388
815,638
868,865
1,123,214

The staple article of exports from Queensland to the United
Kingdom is -wool, the value of which was 517,315/. in 1871 ;
497,252*. in 1872; 534,935Z.inl873; 633,687/. in 1874; and769,889/.
in 1875. The only other notable article of export to Great Britain
is tin in blocks, exported to the value of 88,224/. in 1875. Among
the imports of British produce into Queensland in the year 1875, the
chief were apparel and haberdashery, of the value of 215,472/., and
iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value of 179,148/.

The growth of cotton and of the sugar-cane have been attempted
in recent years, and both industries are reported to be rapidly
growing. At the end of 1875, there were 13,495 acres under sugar-
cane, out of a total of 77,347 acres under cultivation. The live
stock at the end of 1875 numbered 120,7G1 horses, 1,805,210
cattle, 7,209,313 sheep, and 46,167 pigs.

There are several coal mines in the colony, the produce of which
amounted to 33,500 tons, in 1875. Gold-fields were discovered in
1867, the principal of them at Gympie Creek.

At the end of 1875 there were 263 miles of railway open for
traffic in the colony, and 152 miles more in course of construction.
There were two main lines, the Southern and Western, 188 miles
long, running from the town of Ipswich to Warwick, and the Northern
Railway, 30 miles long, from Eockhampton to Westwood, in the
direction of the Dawson river.

The post-office of the colony in the year 1875 earned 2,850,000
letters, 1,794,000 newspapers, and 'J9, 000 packets.

At the end of 1875 there were in the colony 4,609 miles of tele-
graph lines, and 6,058 miles of wire, with OS stations. The number
of messages sent was 133,000 in 1875. Thereceipts of the telegraph
department in 1875 did not cover the expenditure.

Agent-General of Queensland in Great Britain. — Arthur
Macalister, C.M.G.

746

SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

Constitution and Government,

The constitution of South Australia bears date October 27, 1856.
It vests the legislative power in a Parliament elected by the people.
The Parliament consists of a Legislative Council and a House of
Assembly. The former is composed of eighteen members, six of
whom retire every four years, their successors being then elected
for twelve years. The executive has no power to dissolve this
body. It is elected by the whole colony voting as one district.
The qualifications of an elector to the Legislative Council are
that he must be twenty-one years of age, a natural-born or
naturalised subject of Her Majesty, and have been on the
electoral roll six months, besides having a freehold of 501. value, or
a leasehold of 20Z. annual value, or occupying a dwelling-house of
251. annual value. The qualification for a member of Council is
merely that he must be thirty years of age, a natural-born or natural-
ised subject, and a resident in the province for three years. The
President of the Council is elected by the members.

The House of Assembly consists of thirty-six members, elected
for three years by eighteen districts, but liable to dissolution by the
governor. The sole qualification for an elector is that of having
been on the electoral roll for six months, and of having arrived at
twenty-one years of age ; and the qualification for a member is the
same. The Speaker of the House of Assembly is chosen by the mem-
bers of a new House on its first meeting. Judges and ministers of
religion are ineligible for election as members, as well as aliens who
have not resided five years in the colony. The elections of members
of both Houses take place by ballot.

The executive is vested in a governor appointed by the Crown
and an Executive Council, consisting of the responsible ministers,
and specially appointed members.

Governor of South Australia. — William Wellington Cairns, C.M.G.
born 1828; Writer in the Civil Service of Ceylon, 1852-53;
Assistant Government Agent at Point de Galle, 1853-55 ; Assistant
Government Agent in various parts of India, 1855-66 ; Lieutenant-
Governor of Malacca, 1867-68 ; Lieutenant-Governor of St. Kitta,
1868-70; Lieutenant-Governor of Honduras, 1870-72; Governor
of Trinidad, 1872-74 ; Governor of Queensland, 1874-76 ; appointed
Governor of South Australia, November 10, 1876.

The governor, who is at the same time commander-in-chief of
the troops, has a salary of 5,000Z. per annum. The ministry, of

SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

747

which he is the president, is divided into six departments. The last
ministry, appointed April 5, 1876, consists of the following
members : —

Chief Secretary. — Hon. George Hawker.

Attorney -General. — Hon. Charles Mann.

Treasurer. — Hon. Arthur Blyth.

Commissioner of Crown Lands. — Hon. William Playford.

Commissioner of Public Works.— Hon. Henry Boucaut.

Minister of Justice and Education. — Hon. "William Everard.

The Chief Secretary has a salary of 1,300/. per annum, the At-
torney-General has 1,000/., the Treasurer 900/., and each of the
other members of the cabinet 800/. The ministers are jointly and
individually responsible to the Legislature for all their official acts.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The total annual revenue and the total annual expenditure of the
colony of South Australia for each of the ten financial years, ending
June 30, from 1867 to 187G were as follows: —

Years
ending June 30

Bevenue

Expenditure

1867

716,294

1,003,271

1868

716,004

1,852,689

1869

777,351

802,251

1870

6-57,576

736,817

1871

778,094

759,477

1872

697,442

700,200

1873

937,648

914.121

1874

974,628

943,807

1875

1,055,936

1,167,050

1876

1,316,794

1,183,655

The greater part of the revenue of the colony is derived from
customs duties, and the sale of Crown lands, while the main portion
of the expenditure is on account of public works. The customs
duties and the sale of Crown lands produce together about one-
half of the total revenue, the rest being derived from a great number
of sources, including railways, telegraphs, post-office, Adelaide water
rates, and port and harbour dues. About one-third of the expen-
diture is for administrative charges, comprising salaries of judges &c,
civil establishments and police, gaols, and prisons. The disbursements
for public Avorks amounted in recent years to about one-third of
the total expenditure.

The public debt of the colony, dating from 1852, amounted, to
the 30th June 1876, to 2,937,350/. The debt consists in bonds,
issued to the amount of .'!,599,ni)()/.? but of which 661,650/., had

748

THE STATESMAN S YEAE-BOOK, 1877.

been redeemed at the end of June 187G. The whole of the proceeds
of the debt were spent in reproductive public works, mainly
railways, telegraphs, and harbour improvements. — (Official commu-
nication.)

Area and Population.

The original boundaries of the colony, according to the statutes
of 4 and 5 Wm. IV. cap. 95, were fixed between 132° and 141° E.
long, for the eastern and western boundaries, the 26° of S. lat. for
the northern limit, and for the south the Southern Ocean. The
boundaries of the colony were subsequently extended, under the
authority of Royal Letters Patent, dated July 6, 1863, so as to
embrace all the territory lying northward of 26° S. latitude and
between the 129th and 138th degrees of East longitude. The total
area of the colony at present is calculated to be 914,730 English
square miles.

South Australia wyas first colonised in 1836 by emigrants from Great
Britain, sent out under the auspices of a company called the
South Australian Colonisation Association, which in 1835 obtained a
grant from the Imperial Government of the lands of the colony.
The conditions were that the land should not be sold at less than 11.
per acre ; that the revenue arising from the sale of such lands should
be appropriated to the immigration of agricultural labourers ;
that the control of the company's affairs should be vested in a
body of commissioners approved by the Secretary of State for
the colonies, and the governor be nominated by the Crown.

The total population of each sex, according to enumerations taken
in the years 1844, 1846, 1851, 1855, 1861, 1866, and 1871,
was as follows : —

Date of census

Males

Females

Total

February 26, 1844 .

. ! 9,526

7,840

17,366

26, 1846 .

. | 12,670

9,720

22,390

January 1, 1851

. | 35,302

28,398

63,700

March 31, 1855

43,720

42,101

85,821

April 8, 1861 .

65,048

61,782

126,830

March 25, 1866

85,334

78,118

163,452

April 2, 1871 .

95,408

90,218

185,626

The enumerations here given did not include the aboriginal
population, the total of which cannot be ascertained. The number
of aborigines living in settled districts was found to be 3,369,
namely, 1,833 males and 1,536 females, at The census of April 2,
1871. The estimated population of the colony, exclusive of abo-
rigines, was reported, by the Registrar-General, to be 206,476 at
the end of 1875.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

749

As regards religion, the census returns of 1871 stated the most
numerous body that of the Church of England, counting 50,849
members, next to it coming 28,668 Roman Catholics, and 27,075
Wesleyan Methodists.

The population was distributed as follows over the counties and
pastoral districts of the colony, at the census of April 2, 1871 : —

Counties and Pastoral Districts. Males

Females

Total

Counties : —

Adelaide ....

41,454

44,139

85,593

Gawler

4,715

3,945

8,660

Light .

10,329

9,690

20,019

Stanley

5,301

4,484

9,785

Victoria

515

303

818

Daly .

6,510

5,843

12,353

Fergusson

377

199

576

Frome

939

900

1,839

Hindmarsh

6,857

6,705

13,562

Start .

2,942

2,788

5,730

Eyre .

1,275

1,057

2,332

Burra .

1,750

1,651

3,401

Young

Hamley

Albert

Alfred

Bussell

457

336

793

Cardwell

109

Buckingham

122

106

228

MacDonnell

460

319

779

Bobe

1,371

1,036

2,407

Grey

5.037

4,408

9,445

Flinders

> .

823

728

1,551

Total Counties

91,488

88,791

180,279

Pastoral Districts : —

Western District.

693

362

1 ,055

Northern District

1,604

595

2,199

North-Eastern District

776

267

1,043

South-Eastern District.

—

Yorke's Peninsula

—

Kangaroo Island .

Total Pastoral Districts

115

142

287

3,218

1,366

1,584

Shipping ....

530

502

Northern Territory

Total

L72

201

95,408

90,218

185,626

75o

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The following table shows the agricultural progress of the colony,
giving the number of acres under cultivation in each of the electoral
districts at the commencement of 1861 and of 1871 : —

Land under Cultivation

1861

1871

Increase

Decrease

Acres.

East Adelaide

—

West Adelaide

—

Port Adelaide

3,642

21,430

17,788

—

West Torrens

10,749

10,106

—

643

Yatala

47,119

63,840

16.721

—

Griimeracka .

32,816

30,072

—

2,744

East Torrens

6,671

8,660

1.989

—

The Sturt .

12,449

15,372

2,923

—

Noarlunga .

36,104

34,538

—

1,566

Mount Barker

47,725

59,183

11,458

—

Onkaparinga

20,586

19.789

—

797

Encounter Bay

25,897

34,051

8,154

—

Barossa

38,427

53,986

15,559

—

Light .

77,426

171,631

94,205

—

Victoria

7,734

58,538

50,804

—

The Burra .

15,856

65,215

49,359

— ■

Stanley

43,430

286,125

242,695

—

Flinders

2,185

26,470

24,285

—

Total

428,816

959,006

530,190

The area un<

ler t

iliac

in the mi

ddle of 1

875 was ]

,330,484

acres. There is no land under cultivation in the northern territory.
Trade and Industry.

The total value of South Australian imports and exports, inclu-
sive of bullion and specie, from and to various countries, in each
of the five years 1871 to 1875 was as follows : —

Years

Imports

Exports

1871

2,158,022

3,582,397

1872

2,801,571

3,738,623

1873

3,829,830

4,587,859

1874

3,973,455

3.868,276

1875

4,203,802

4,805,051

The imports into the colony consist of numerous articles of general
consumption, textile manufactures, and British colonial produce, the
principal article being drapery goods. The three staple articles
of export are wool, wheat and flour, and copper ore. The exports
of wool amounted to 8,617,589/. in 1873; to 1,762,987/. in 1874, and
to 1,833,519/. in 1875; the exports of wheat and flour to 1,692,738/.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

751

in 1873, to 1,212,243Z. in 1874, and to 1,680,976/. in 1875 ; and the
exports of copper ore to 768,522/. in 1873; to 693,836/. in 1874,
and to 762,386/. in 1875.

There were 107,164 horses; 219,240 horned cattle, and 6,179,395
sheep in the colony at the end of 1875.

The subjoined table shows the commercial intercourse of South
Australia with the United Kingdom, giving the value of the total
exports, exclusive of gold, from the colony to Great Britain, and
of the imports of British produce into South Australia, in each of
the five years 1871 to 1875 : —

Exports from South Aus-

Imports of British Home

Years

tralia to the United

Produce into South

Kingdom

Australia

1871

1,808,201

1,324,446

1872

2,050,067

1,413,542

1873

3,214,869

2,016.843

1874

2,592,463

1,908,732

1875

2,955,759

1,984,579

The chief export article to the United Kingdom is wool, of the
value of 1,198,831/. in 1871, of 1,186,745/. in 1872; of 1,412,079/.
in 1873 ; of 1,652,344/., in 1874 ; and of 1,864,302/., representing
34,596,855 lbs., in 1875. The next most important articles of export
to Great Britain are corn and copper. The corn exports in the
year 1875 were of the value of 509,139/., comprising wheat of the
value of 480,463/., and wheat meal and flour, valued 28,676/. The
exports of copper amounted to 451,492/. in 1875. The British
imports are mainly textile fabrics and iron.

Mining operations are pursued on a very extensive scale in the
colony. The mineral wealth as yet discovered consists chiefly in
copper, besides which there exist iron ores of great richness.

The colony had 252 miles of railway open for traffic at the end of
1875. There are two principal lines of railway, namely, the Port
Line, extending from Adelaide to Port Adelaide, and the North
Line, 128 miles in length, connecting Adelaide with the chief copper
mines. A bill for the construction of a railway extending 214 miles
north of Port Augusta passed the legislature in July 1876.

A complete system of electric telegraphs, nearlv 4,000 miles in
length, is in operation in South Australia. An overland line, opened
in 1872, constructed at the expense of the South Australian govern-
ment, runs from Adelaide to Port Darwin, across the centre of
the continent of Australia, a distance of 2,000 miles, in connection
with the British Australian cable, forming telegraphic communication
with all parts of the world.

Agent-General of South Australia in London. — F. S. Dutton.

752

TASMANIA.

Constitution and Government.

The constitution of Tasmania was established by Act 18 Yict.
No. 17, supplemented by Act 34 Vict. No. 42, passed in 1871. By
these Acts a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly are
constituted, called the Parliament of Tasmania. The Legislative
Council is composed of sixteen members, elected by all natural born
or naturalised subjects of the Crown who possess either a freehold
worth 30/. a year, or a leasehold of 200/., or have a commission in
the army or navy, or a degree of some university, or are in holy
orders. The House of Assembly consists of thirty-two members,
elected by householders of 11. per annum, or freeholders of property
50/. in value, and all subjects holding a commission, or possessing
a degree. The legislative authority rests in both Houses ; while
the executive is vested in a governor appointed by the Crown.

Governor of Tasmania. — Frederick Aloysius Weld, born 1823,
son of H. Weld, Esq., of Chideock Manor, Dorset ; educated at
Stonyhurst and in Switzerland; emigrated to New Zealand, 1843 ;
Minister for Native Affairs of New Zealand, 1860-61, and Colonial
Secretary, 1864-65 ; Governor of Western Australia, 1869-74 ;
appointed Governor of Tasmania, August 27, 1874.

The governor is, by virtue of his office, commander-in-chief of
the troops in the colony ; he has a salary of 4,000/. per annum. He
is aided in the exercise of the executive by a cabinet of responsible
ministers, consisting of five members, as follows, at the end of Sep-
tember 1876 : —

Premier and Colonial Secretary. — Hon. Thomas Eeibey.

Colonial Treasurer. — Hon. Charles Meredith.

Attorney-General. — Hon. Charles H. Bromby.

Minister of Lands and Works. — Hon. William Moore.

Each of the ministers has a salary of 700/. per annum. The
members of the cabinet must have a seat in either of the two
Houses.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The public revenue is chiefly derived from customs, including
bonding rents and excise duties. The subjoined statement shows the
total general revenue and expenditure during each of the five years
from 1871 to 1875:—

TASMANIA.

753

Years

Revenue

Expenditure

1871

270,421

285,420

1872

271,994

289,002

1873

320,894

301,382

1874

329,686

322,271

1875

343,676

385,731

Not included in the above receipts and disbursements are certain
sums raised and expended for 'redemption of loans,' under the name
of ' Territorial Eevenue.'

The public debt of Tasmania, on Dec. 31, 1875, amounted to
1,489,400/. The debt, which is chiefly in 6 per cent, debentures,
redeemable from 1876 to 1902, was raised for the construction of
public works.

Area and Population

Tasmania, once known as Van Diemen's Land — in honour of a
governor of the Dutch East Indies — was discovered by the navigator
Tasnian in 1642 ; and afterwards partially explored by Captain
Cook. The first penal settlement formed here was in 1803; and
till 1813 it was merely a place of transportation from Great Britain
and from New South Wales, of which colony it was a dependency.
Transportation to New South "Wales having ceased in the year 1841,
Tasmania, to which had been annexed Norfolk Island, became the
only colony to which criminals from Great Britain were sent ; but
this ceased in 1853, when transportation to Tasmania was abolished.

The area of the colony is estimated at 26,215 square miles, or
16,778,000 acres, of which 15,571,500 acres form the area of Tas-
mania Proper, the rest constituting that of a number of small
islands, in two main groups, the north-east and north-west. The
total number of acres granted, or sold, up to the end of the year 1874,
was 3,892,003, but not quite one million of acres were under cul-
tivation. At the end of 1853, the number of acres of land leased
from the Crown was 2,314,414, the yearly rental being 29,569/.,
but this had fallen off to 545,848 acres, and a yearly rent of 5,095/.,
at the end of 1874.

The census of February 7, 1870, showed the population of
Tasmania as follows : —

Males
Females .

Total .

Married

Single

Total

15,665
15,498

37,188
30,977

52,853

46,-17o

31,163

68,165

99,328

3 C

754

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Per cent.

5341

Independents

. 3-96

22-24

Wesleyan Methodists

7-23

6-69

Jews ....

. 0-23

2-43
\~l_ tli p.

Other Sects .

. 3-84

The population of Tasmania at the preceding census, taken April
7, 1861, was 89,977. Comparing the census of 1870 with that of
1861, there was an increase of 9,351 souls, or 10*39 per cent. On
the 31st December, 1875, the estimated population was 103,663,
consisting of 54,643 males, and 49,020 females.

Distributed according to religious tenets, the population stood as
follows at the census of 1870 : —

Church of England
Church of Eome .
Church of Scotland
Free Church ditto .

At the census of
belonging to the Church of England was 54*72 per cent, of the whole
population ; to the Church of Home 21*60 per cent.

The state of Education among the population was as follows
at the census of 1870 : —

Per cent.
Persons able to read and write ..... 56*32
Persons able to read only . . . . . 14*04
Persons not able to read 29*64

At the date of the previous census, in 1861, it was found that
only 42*62 per cent, could read and write ; that 14*60 per cent,
could read only; and that 31*75 per cent, were totally uneducated.

In the year 1868 there, arrived 5,043 persons in the colony, and
there departed 4,320 ; in 1869 the arrivals were 6,521, and the
departures 7,159 ; in 1870, the arrivals numbered 5,982, and
the departures 5,888; in 1871, there arrived 4,648 persons,
and departed 5,326 ; in 1872 there arrived 5,665, and departed
6,127 ; in 1873 there arrived in the colony 6,787, and there departed
7,039 persons ; in 1874 the arrivals numbered 6,265, and the
departures 7,714; and in 1875 the arrivals were 6,535, and the
departures 8,075. Thus in each of the eight years 1868 to 1875,
the stream of emigration was larger than that of immigration.

Trade and Industry.

The total imports and exports of Tasmania, including bullion and
specie, were as follows, in each of the five years 1871 to 1875 :—

Years.

Total Imports

Total Exports

1871

778,087

740,638

1872

807,182

910,663

1873

1,107,167

893,556

1874

1,257,785

925,325

1875

1,185,942

1,085.976

TASMANIA.

755

The commerce of Tasmania is almost entirely with the United King-
dom and the neighbouring colonies of Victoria and New South Wales.

The total value of the exports from Tasmania to the United
Kingdom, and of the imports of British produce into Tasmania, in
each of the five years 1871 to 1875, was as follows: —

1871

1872

1873

1874

1875

Exports from Tasmania
to Great Britain

Imports of

British Home Produce

into Tasmania

370,772

157,607

376,537

188,205

425,379

271,478

439,359

359,432

477,289

244,044

The staple article of exports from Tasmania to the United
Kingdom is wool. The value amounted to 279,194/. in 1872; to
322,442/. in 1873 ; to 351,604/. in 1874; and to 388,892/. in 1875.

There were in the colony 23,174 horses, 113,109 heads of cattle,
1,614,645 sheep and lambs, and 47,664 pigs, on March 31, 1876.

The soil of the colony is rich in iron ore, and there are large
beds of coal, which yielded 7,719 tons, derived from four fields,
in the year 1875. Gold has also been found. The produce of the
gold fields in the year 1873 amounted to 3,081 ounces, valued
12,170/.; in the year 1874 to 4,650 ounces, valued 18,491/.; and
in the year 1875 to 3,010 ounces, valued 11,982/.

The first line of railway in Tasmania was opened in February
1871. The line, called the Launceston and Western Railway, 45
miles in length, connects the town and port of Launceston witli the
township of Deloraine, and was built at a cost of 427,946/. There
was in progress at the end of 1875 a main line of railway, 120 miles
in length, to connect the two principal ports, Hobart Town and
Launceston, and a branch line from the Mersey river to Deloraine.

Tasmania has a telegraph system, belonging to the government,
through the settled part of the colony. At the commencement
of 1876 the number of miles of line in operation was 396 ; the
miles of wire 468, and the number of stations 32. The number
of telegraphic messages sent was 49,62(1 in the year 1875. On
May 1, 1869, telegraphic communication was established with the
continent of Australia by a submarine cable, which carried 11,087
messages in 1875. The revenue of the government telegraph
system was 2.244/. and the expenditure 2,6771. in the year l.S7.">.

The number of letters carried by the Post Office in the year 1875
was 1,695,27)6; of packets, 71,998 ; and of newspapers l,35i,440.
The Post Office revenue in 1875 was 13,500/., and the expen-
diture 20,002/. There were 170 post-offices at the end of 1875.

3 c -4

756

VICTORIA.

Constitution and Government.

The constitution of Victoria was established by an Act, passed by
the Legislature of the colony, in 1854, to which the assent of the
Crown was given, in pursuance of the power granted by the Act of
the Imperial Parliament of 18 & 19 Vict. cap. 55. The legis-
lative authority is vested in a Parliament of two Chambers ;
the Legislative Council, composed of thirty members, and the
Legislative Assembly, composed of ninety members. A pro-
perty qualification is required both for members and electors of
the Legislative Council. Members must be in the possession of an
estate of the value of 2,500/. or of the annual value of 250/. ; and
electors must be in the possession or occupancy of property of the rate-
able value of 50Z. per annum within municipal districts, or of the
clear value of 1,000/. or 100/. per annum beyond these districts. No
electoral property qualification is required for graduates of British
universities, matriculated students of the Melbourne university,
ministers of religion of all denominations, certificated schoolmasters,
lawyers, medical practitioners, and officers of the army and navy.
Six members, or a fifth of the Legislative Council, must retire every
two years, so that a total change is effected in ten years. The
members of the Legislative Assembly are elected by universal
suffrage, for the term of three years. Clergymen of any religious
denomination, and persons convicted of felony, are excluded from
both the Legislative Council and the Assembly.

The number of electors on the roll of the Legislative Council was
23,736, and the number of electors for the Legislative Assembly
28,725 on January 1, 1876. In the last election, 54 per cent, of
the electors for the Legislative Council, and 65 per cent, of the
electors for the Legislative Assembly recorded their votes.

The executive is vested in a Governor appointed by the Crown.
Governor of Victoria. — Sir George Ferguson fioiven, G.C.M.G.
born 1821 ; educated at the Charterhouse and at Trinity College
Oxford, and graduated 1st class in classics 1844 ; Fellow of Brasenose
College, Oxford, 1844 ; admitted at Lincoln's Inn, 1844 ; Chief
Secretary to the Government of the Ionian Islands, 1854-59
First Governor of Queensland, 1859-68 ; Governor of New Zea
land, 1868-73 ; appointed Governor of Victoria, Jan. 23, 1873
assumed the government, March 31, 1873.

The Governor, who is likewise commander-in-chief of all the
colonial troops, has a salary of 10,000/. a year. In the exercise of

VICTORIA.

757

the executive he is assisted by a cabinet of nine ministers, composed
as follows at the end of October 187G : —

Premier and Treasurer. — Hon. Sir James M'Culloch, K.C.M.G.

Chief Secretary. — Hon. John Alexander Macpherson.

Attorney- General. — Hon. G. Briscoe Kerferd.

Minister of Justice. — Hon. Dr. John Madden.

Minister of Education. — Hon. Robert Ramsay.

Minister of Mines. — Hon. William M'Lellan.

Commissioner of Customs. — Hon. R. Sterling Anderson.

Commissioner of Railways. — Hon. Joseph Jones.

At least four out of the nine ministers must be members of either
the Legislative Council or the Assembly.

Revenue. Expenditure, and Debt.

The total amount of the actual public revenue and expenditure
of the colony, in each of the ten financial years, ending June 30,
from 18 G7 to 1876, was as follows : —

Years

Revenue

Expenditure

Ending June 30

1867

3,079,160

3,222,025

1868

3,216,317

3,241,818

1869

3,230,754

3,189,321

1860

3,383,984

3,226,165

1861

3,261,883

3,428,082

1872

3,734,422

3,659,534

1873

3,644,135

3,504,952

1874

4,064,924

4,177,262

1875

4,406,906

4,325,277

1876

4,528,605

4,488,658

The public revenue of the colony is derived to the amount of
about two-fifths from customs duties, chieily on wines, spirits, and
tobacco. The largest branch of expenditure is on account of public
works.

Victoria has a debt, incurred in the construction of public works,
mainly railways, which amounted to 14,250,000/. on June 30, 1876.
Of this sum, 10,669,193/. was borrowed for the construction of
railways, and 1,776,529/. for water supply, docks, and other
public works. The amount originally borrowed was L3, 948,100/..
part of which was for the purpose of supplying water to Melbourne
and its suburbs, and the amount of 1,5<>2,37<S/. was paid off from
the total debt through a sinking fund.

The payment of both principal and interest of the public debt of
Victoria are made primary charges upon the revenues of the colony.

758

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Area and Population.

The colony, first settled in 1835, formed for a time a portion of
New South "Wales, bearing the name of the Port Phillip district.
It -was erected in 1851 — by Imperial Act of Parliament, 13 and 14
Victoria, cap. 59— into a separate colony, and called Victoria. The
colony has an area of 88,198 square miles.

The growth of the population, as shown by the census of ten
successive periods, is exhibited in the following table : —

•

Number of

Dates of enumeration

Males

Females

Total

females to

every 100

males

November 8, 1836 .

186

224

20-4

September 12, 1838

3,080

431

3,511

14-0

March 2, 1841

8,274

3,464

11,738

41-9

„ 2. 1846

20,184

12.695

32,879

G2-9 :

„ 2, 1851

46,202

31,143

77,345

67-4

April 26, 1854

155,887

80,911

236,798

519

March 29, 1857

264,234

146,432

410,766

55-4

April 7, 1861 .

328,651

211,671

540,322

64-4

April 2, 1871 .

401,050

330,478

731,528

82-4

June 30, 1874 (estim.)

432,928

364,121

797,049

85-3

The estimated population on the 31st of March, 1876, was re-
turned at 829,824 by the Registrar- General.

The following table gives a summary of the population of Victoria,
according to the census taken on the 2nd April 1871 : —

Population, exclusive of Chinese and
Aborigines .....

Chinese ......

Aborigines .....

Total

Males Females

Total

382,367 329,896

17,899 36

784 546

712,263 i
17,935
1,330 !

401,050

330,478

731,528

As regards religion, the census of 1871 showed that there were
257,835 Episcopalians — including 5,997 ' Protestants ' not other-
wise defined— 112,983 Presbyterians, 94,220 Methodists, 18,191
Independents, 16,311 Baptists, 10,559 Lutherans, 3,540 members
of ' Church of Christ,' 333 members of the Society of Friends,
1,016 Unitarians, 170,620 Roman Catholicsfc3571 Jews, and 20,412
described as of 'no religion ' and 'religion unknown.'

The colony is divided, for administrative purposes, into thirty-
seven counties, the population of each of which, including the
shipping in the various harbours, as well as Chinese and aborigines,
was as follows on April 2, 1871 : —

VICTORIA.

759

Counties.

Males

Females

Total

Anglesey ......

3,389

2,103

5,492

Benambra .

862

366

1,228

Bendigo

26,059

20,050

46,109

Bogong .

15,325

10,472

25,797

Borung

6,448

4,692

11,140

Bourke

120,147

116,631

236,778

Buln-buln .

2,468

1,648

4,116

Croajingolong

257

115

372

Dalhousie .

14,737

11,734

26,471

Dargo

1,630

592

2,222

Delatite .

7,495

4,408

11,903

Dundas

3,727

3,161

6,888

Evelyn

3,517

2,480

5,997

Follett

683

557

1,240

Gladstone .

10,239

6,449

16,688

Grant

38,293

35,535

73,828

Grenville .

32,865

28,052

60,917

Gunbcwer .

412

202

614

Hampden .

4,048

3,124

7,172

i Heytesbury

1,643

1,416

3,059

: Kara-kara .

6,082

3.529

9,611

: Karkarooc.

261

349

Lowan

1,154

729

1,883

Millevra .

109

Moira

2,104

1,248

3,352

Mornington

4,140

3,257

7,397

i Normanby .

5,600

5,150

10,750

Pol wart h .

2,102

1,735

3,837

Ripon

8,204

5,806

14,010

Rodney

4,475

2,915

7,390

Tachera

388

175

563

1 Talbot

49,067

35,695

84,762

Tambo

296

190

486

Tangil

6,336

4,665

11,001

Villiers

11,422

9,609

21,031

Weeah

—

Wonnangatta

2,508

1,464

3,972

Persons in Ships

2,197

2,252

Migratory Population

407

335

742

Tot

ilof

rictoi

■ia .

401,050

330,478

731,528

It will be seen that some of the counties had but a very small
population in 1871, and that one, the county of "Weeah, was as yet
unsettled and without any inhabitants.

At the census of 1871, there were in the colony 150,618 inhabited
and 6,997 uninhabited houses, with 866 more building, making
a total of 158,481 dwellings, or one to nearly every five of the
population. At the census of 1841, the number of houses was no
more than 1,490, of which 1,465 were inhabited and 25 uninhabited.

760

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

About one-half of the total population of Victoria live in towns.
The following table gives the population, male and female, of all
the cities, towns and boroughs at the census of April 2, 1871 :

Cities, Towns and Boroughs

Males

Females

Total

Amherst ....

1,577

1,301

2,878

Ararat ....

1,272

1,098

2,370

Ballarat ....

12,224

12,084

24,308

BallaratEast .

8,537

7,860

16,397

Beechworth .

1,516

1,350

2,866

Belfast .

1,211

1,274

2,485

Brighton

1,441

1,618

3,059

Browns and Scarsdale

1,174

947

2,121

Brunswick

2,266

2,122

4,388

Buninyong

1,021

960

1,981

Carisbrook

552

389

941

Castlemain

3,709

3,226

6,935

Chewton

1,382

1,005

2,387

Chiltern

617

595

1,212

Clunes .

3,180

2,888

6,068

Collingwood East .

9,006

9,592

18,598

Cragie .

982

752

1,734

Creswick

2,444

1,525

3,969

Daylesford

2,608

2,088

4,696

, Dunolly .

866

687

1,553

: Eaglehawk

3,569

3,021

6,590

Echnca .

870

779

1,649

Emerald Hill .

8,447

8,654

17,101

Essendon and Flemingto

1,231

1,225

2,456

Fitzroy .

7,557

7,990

15,547

Footscray

1,334

1,139

2,473

Geelong .

7,012

8,014

15,026

Graytown

854

568

1,422

Guilford

687

469

1.156

Hamilton

1,182

1,167

2,349

Hawthorn

1,587

1,742

3,329

Heathcote

840

714

1,554

Hotham .

6,783

6,708

13,491

Ingle wood

618

571

1,189

Jamieson

220

169

389

Kew

1,146

1,284

2,430

Kilmore

775

780

1,555

Koroit .

913

759

1,672

Malmesbury .

676

681

1,357

Maryborough .

1,654

1,281

2,935

Melbourne

28,137

26,856

54,993

Newton and Chilwell

2,190

2,559

4,749

Portland

1,110

1,262

2,372

Prahran

6,679

7,417

14,096

Queenscliff

463

491

954

Raywood

303

225

528

Richmond

8,383

8,506

16,889

Rutherglen

329

287

616

VICTORIA.

76l

Cities, Towns, and Boroughs Males

Females

Total

Sale

1,032

1,073

2,105

Sandhurst

11,867

10,120

21,987

Sandridge

3,301

3,087

6,388

Sebastopol

3,403

3,093

6,496

Smythesdale

568

435

1,003

South Barwon

833

821

1,684

St. Arnaud

582

519

1,101

Stawell .

2,781

2,385

5,166

Steiglitz .

572

486

1,058

St. Kilda

3,971

5,114

9,085

Tarnagulla

730

629

1,359

Wangaratta

796

673

1,469

Warrnambool

1,963

1,836

3,799

"Williamstown

3,519

3,607

7,126

Woodend

764

688

1,452

Wood's Point .

579

480

1,059

Total

190,425

183,725

374,150

The progress of population of the colony since its establishment
was greatly aided by immigration, which, however, declined in recent
years, on the nearly complete withdrawal of the system of ' assisted '
immigration, which reached its highest point in 1863, when 8,622
persons — 3,213 males and 5,409 females — were brought into the
colony at the expense, partly or wholly of the State. In the 37
years from 1838 to the end of 1874, more than 167,000 immigrants
received assistance from the public funds for defraying their passage
to the colony. The total immigration into and emigration from
the colony of Victoria was as follows in each of the fifteen years
from 1861 to 1875 :—

Years

Immigration

Emigration

1861

26,912

35,898

1862

37,836

38,203

1863

38,983

34,800

1864

36,156

21,779

1865

30,976

25,292

1866

32,178

27,629

1867

27,242

25,142

1868

32,805

25,552

1869

33,570

22,418

1870

32,554

21,087

1871

28,333

19,951

1872

27,047

25,295

1873

29,460

26,294

1874

30,732

27,365

1875

29,851

27,153

762

THE STATESMAN'S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

It will be seen that the surplus of immigrants over emigrants
was 3,367 in 1874, and 2,698 in 1875. Among the immigrants of
1874 and 1875 were several hundred Chinese, nearly all males.
The only ' assisted ' immigration into the colony in 1875 was that
of 70 male and 82 female ' warrant passengers.'

Trade and Commerce.

The total value of the imports and exports of Victoria, including
bullion and specie, in each of the ten years from 1866 to 1875, was
as follows : —

Years

Total Imports

Total Exports

1866

&
14,771,711

12,889,546

1867

11,674,080

12,724,427

1868

13,320,662

15,593,990

1869

13,908,990

13,464,354

1870

12,455,757

12,470,014

1871

12,341,995

14,557,820

1872

13,691,322

13,871,195

1873

16,533,856

15,302,454

1874

16,953,985

15,441,109

1875

16,685.874

14,766,974

The most important, in value, of the imports into the colony are
woollen manufactures, live stock, sugar, cottons, apparel and haber-
dashery, and tea. Besides these chief articles the colony also im-
ports grain in varying quantities.

The two staple articles of export from the colony are wool
and gold. The total exports of wool amounted to 54,431,367 lbs.,
of the value of 3,363,075/. in 1869; to 52,123,451 lbs., of the
value of 3,205,106/. in 1870 ; to 76,334,480 lbs., of the value of
4,702,164/. in 1871 ; to 58,648,977 lbs., of the value of 4,651,665/.
in 1872 ; to 74,893,882 lbs., of the value of 5,738,638/. in 1873 ; to
88,662,311 lbs., of the value of 6,373,641/. in 1874; and to
89,763,852 lbs., of the value of 6.580,192/., in 1875. The total
quantities and value of the exports of gold are given below. Among
the minor articles of exports from the colony are tallow and pre-
served and salted provisions.

The trade of Victoria is mainly with Great Britain and the
British colonies in Australasia. The commercial intercourse of
Victoria with the United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined table,
which gives the value of the total exports, exclusive of gold and
bullion, to Great Britain, and of the British imports, in each of the
ten years 1866 to 1875 :—

VICTORIA.

7G3

Exports from Victoria to

Imports of British Home

Great Britain.

Produce into Victoria

1866

4,983,541

6,203,857

1867

5,233,914

4,555,413

1868

5,674,720

5,598,618

1869

5,372.208

6,233,603

1870

5,781,911

4,309,048

1871

5,344,015

4.244,006

1872

5,982.874

5,941,379

1873

5,743,141

6,643,544

1874

6,993,052

6,939,260

1875

8,042,858

6.538,795

The staple article of exports from Victoria to the United Kingdom
is wool. The exports of wool to Great Britain were as follows in
each of the ten vears from I860 to 1875 : —

Years

Quantities

Value

. &

1866

46,627,993

4,584,816

1867

51,177,842

4,726,067

1868

63,776,567

4,979,320

1869

64,031,242

4,632,537

1870

64,220,935

4.705.557

1871

67,466,312

4,190,289

1872

64,178,711

4,269,161

1873

67.435,425

4,509,883

1874

86,216,596

5,649,842

1875

91,284,769

6,706,709

Among the minor articles of merchandise exported to the United
Kingdom are tallow, of the value of 281,962/. ; copper, of the
value of 227,027/. ; hides, tanned and untanned, of the value of
201,473/.; and preserved meat, of the value of 131,219/., in 1875.

The British imports into Victoria embrace nearly all articles of
home manufacture, chief among them iron, wrought and unwrought,
of the value of 1,174,374/. ; woollen goods, of the value of 741,702/. ;
apparel and haberdashery, of the value of 781,019/. ; and cotton
goods, of the value of {505,857/., in the year 1875.

Since the discovery of gold mines, in 1851, large quantities of
gold have been exported from Victoria. In the ten years from 1852
to 18G1 the exports of gold amounted to upwards of two millions of
ounces in weight per annum, but subsequently there was a gradual
decline, till the year 18G7, when the exports fell to under a million
and a half ounces. The subjoined statement gives, after official
returns, the exports of gold, exclusive of specie, from Victoria in
each of the seven years from 18G9 to 1875 : —

764

THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877-

Number of

Declared

ounces

Value

1869

1,700,973

6,804,179 1

1870

1,529,821

6,119,782

1871

1,647,389

6,590,962

1872

1,298,839

5,197,340

1873

1,291,014

5,168,614

1874

1,012,153

4,053,288

1875

1,195,256

4,137,685

The number of miners at work in the gold-fields on Dec. 31,
1875, was 45,000, of whom about one-fourth were Chinese. The
number of persons engaged in gold mining steadily decreased dur-
ing the seven years from 1868 to 1875.

There were 1,126,831 acres of land under cultivation in the
colony at the end of 1875. In recent years there was a slowly
increasing cultivation of the vine, the number of gallons produced
amounting to 755,320 gallons. An agricultural census, taken in
the middle of 1875, showed that there were, at that date, 196,184
horses, 1,054,598 heads of cattle, 11,749,532 sheep, and 140,765
pigs in the colony.

Victoria has a more extensive system of railways than any other
of the Australasian colonies. The following statement gives the
length and cost of construction of the several lines on the 1st of
January 1875 : —

Length of Line

Name of Railway

Total Cost
of construction

Proposed

Extent

Total Length

opened

Government Lines.

miles

Melbourne, Sandhurst, and Echuca

156+

156J

Melbourne, Geelong, and Ballarat

oi±

"Williamstown Branch

J- 10,294,420

Melbourne and North-Eastern

187

Ballarat and Ararat

— ,

Castlemaine and Dunolly

—

)> 405,951

Ballarat and Maryborough

42^

—

Others ....

380

—

10,777

Private Lines.

Melbourne, Sandridge, and St, Kild<

1 1

Melbourne, Windsor, and Brighter.

> !7

862,304

Melbourne and Hawthorn
Total

• IJ

984»-

457^

11,573,452

VICTORIA.

765

At the end of 1875 the total length of lines of railway opened for
traffic had increased to 586 miles, while 374 miles more were in
course of construction. The total cost of the railways was
12,411,672/., up to the 31st December, 1875.

The total receipts of the Victoria railways, in the year 1875,
amounted to 1,016,926/., of which 851,042/. were taken by the
government lines, and 165,884/. by the private lines. The working
expenses in the year 1875 were 466,516/., of which 374,715/. fell to
the shares of the government lines, and 91,801/. to that of the pri-
vate lines. The working expenses on the government lines amounted
to 44 per cent., and on the private lines to 55 per cent, of the receipts
in the year 1874.

The following table shows the extent and work of the telegraphs
of Victoria, in each of the two years 1874 and 1875 : —

Tear

Number

of
Stations

Number
of Miles
of Wire

Number of Telegrams

Amount 1
received

Paid

Unpaid

Total

1874
1875

148
164

4,464
4,981

579,795
596,221

121,285 ! 701,080
122,103 i 718,324

£
42,825
46,995

There were 500 miles of telegraphs in course of construction at
the end of 1875.

In 1870, a uniform rate of one shilling for telegrams not ex-
ceeding ten words, and of one penny for each additional word, was
established.

The Post Office of the Colony forwarded 16,200,000 letters,
1,531,000 packets, and 6,985,000 newspapers in the year 1875.
There were 823 post offices on the 31st December, 1875. In each
of the three years from 1873 to 1875 the revenue of the Post Office
was insufficient to cover the expenditure.

Agent- General of Victoria in Great Britain. — Hon. Alfred Michic

?66

WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

Constitution and Government.

The form of colonial administration, known as Responsible Go-
vernment, was introduced into Western Australia in March 1875.
There is a Legislative Council, composed of seven appointed and
fourteen elected members, the latter returned by the votes of all
male inhabitants, of full age, assessed in a rental of at least 10/.
The qualification for elected members is the possession of landed
property of 2,000/., free from all incumbrance.

Governor of Western Australia. — William Cleaver Francis
Robinson, C.M.G. ; President of the colony of Montserrat, 1862-
65 ; Administrator of Dominica, 1865-66 ; Governor of theFalkland
Islands, 1866-70; Governor of Prince Edward Island, 1870-74;
appointed Governor of Western Australia, October 7, 1874.

The Governor has a salary of 2,500/. per annum. He is assisted
in his functions by an Executive Council, consisting of the following
four members at the end of September 1876 : —

Colonial Secretary. — Hon. Frederick P. Barlee.

Attorney-General. — Hon. Henry Hicks Hocking.

Surveyor-General. — Hon. M. Fraser.

Treasurer and Collector of Revenue. — Hon. A. O'Lefroy.

The Colonial Secretary has a salary of 900/., and each of the
other ministers of 700/. per annum.

Revenue and Expenditure.

The revenue and expenditure of the colony during the seven years
from 1869 to 1875 were as follows : —

Years

Revenue

Expenditure

1869

03,661

103,124

1870

198,132

113,046

1871

97,605

107.147

1872

105,301

98,248

1873

134,832

104,270

1874

148,073

143,266

1875

157,775

169,230

Rather more than one-third of the public income is derived from
customs duties, and the rest mainly from licenses and leases of
crown lands, mining and other licenses, and 'land sales. The
colony has an imperial grant in aid, amounting to 15,324/. per

WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

767

annum. Western Australia is the only one of the Australasian
colonies that has no public debt.

Population and Trade.

As defined by Royal Commission, Western Australia includes all
that portion of New Holland situated to the westward of 190° E.
longitude. The greatest length of this territory is 1,280 miles from
north to south, and 800 miles from east to west, while the occupied
portion of the colony is about 600 miles in length from north to
south, by about 150 miles in average breadth. The total estimated
area of the colony is 978,000 Eng. square miles.

Western Australia was first settled in 1829, and for many years
the population was small. In 1850, the colony had not more than
6,000 inhabitants, but at the census of December 1859, the popula-
tion had risen to 14,837, namely, 9,522 males and 5,315 females.
On the 31st December 1867, the population numbered 21,713,
comprising 13,934 males and 7,779 females. Finally, at the last
census, taken on the 31st March 1871, the total population was
25,353, of whom 15,565 were males and 9,788 females. Included
in these numbers were 1,790 male prisoners, either in prisons or at
working depots in various parts of the colony, as also 1,244 prisoners
having tickets-of-leave, and 1,240 having conditional pardons or
releases, either in the service of settlers, or gaining a living on their
own account.

The following table gives the number of the population, and also
those of inhabited houses, in each of the twelve districts in which
the colony is divided, at the census of March 31, 1870 : —

Population.

Districts.

Inhabited

Males

Females

Total

Houses

Albany ....

998

587

1,585

253

Champion Bay

803

494

1,297

208

Fremantle

1,758

1,455

3,213

536

Greenough and Irwin

970

587

1,557

223

Murray ....

452

242

694

107

Perth ....

2,770

2,237

5,007

796

Koebourne

143

172

Sussex

615

365

980

100

Swan ....

978

696

1,674

272

Todyay ....

1,542

930

2.172

327

Wellington

1,345

826

2,171

291

York ....

1,531

962

2,493

356

13,905

9,410

23,315

3,500

Prisoners

Total .

l 170

1,470

15,375

9,410

24 785

768

THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1877.

The religious division of the population was as follows, at the
census of March 31, 1870 : —

Religious divisions
Church of England .
Wesleyans
Independents
Presbyterians .
Baptists ....

Total Protestants
Poman Catholics
Jews .....

No Denomination

Total

Number

Per cent.

14,619

58-98

1,374

5-54

882

355

529

2-13

0-21

17,458

70-41

7,118

28-72

62 |

147 J

0-86

24,785

100-00

The agricultural prosperity of the colony has been greatly on the
rise in recent years, the numbers of the live stock having increased
fourfold in the ten years 1863 to 1872. On the 31st December
1872, there were 25,263 horses, 44,550 cattle, and 688,292 sheep.

The total value of the imports and exports, including bullion and
specie, of Western Australia, in the five years from 1871 to 1875, is
shown in the subjoined statement : —

Years

Imports

Exports

1871

198,010

199,280

1872

226,656

509,196

1873

297,328

265,217

1874

367,418

398,901

1875

349,840

391,217

The value of the commercial intercourse of "Western Australia with
Great Britain and Ireland is shown in the following table, which
gives the total exports of the colony to Great Britain, and the total
imports of British home produce, in each of the five years from
1871 to 1875:—

Exports from Western

Imports of British Home

Australia to Great Britain

Australia

1871

115,014

70,430

1872

150,840

153,457

1873

162,085

167,368

1874

181,862

202,896

1875

221,324

161,881

The exports of the colony to Great Britain consist almost entirely
of wool, and lead ore. The wool exports were of the value of

WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 769

102,485/. in 1871, of 120,796/. in 1872, of 123,149/. in 1873,
of 118,862/. in 1874, and of 132,680/. in 1875. Of lead ore the
exports to Great Britain amounted to 17,615/. in 1875. Recent
scientific researches prove the colony to be rich in mineral ore,
principally copper, and coal has been found in small cmantities.
There have also been discoveries of gold.

Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Australasia.

1. Official Publications.

Agricultural Statistics of the Colony of New Zealand, in February 1876.
Fol. Wellington, 1876.

Census of New South Wales, taken on the 2nd April 1871. Fol. Sydney,
1872.

Census of Victoria, taken on the 2nd April 1871. Fol. Melbourne, 1872.

Census of the Colony of Queensland, taken on the 1st September 1871. Fol.
Brisbane, 1872.

Census of South Australia, taken on the 2nd April 1871. Summary tables.
Fol. Adelaide, 1871.

Census of the Colony of Western Australia, taken on the 31st March 1870.
Fol. Perth, 1870.

Official Handbook of New Zealand. Edited by the Hon. Julius Vogel,
C.M.G. 8. London, printed for the Government of New Zealand. 8. 1875.

Queensland: Blue Book for the year 1875. Fol. Brisbane, 1876.

Queensland : Report from the Audi tor- General on Public Accounts for the
year 1875. Fol. Brisbane, 1876.

Queensland : Fifteenth annual Report from the Registrar General on Vital
Statistics. Fol. Brisbane, 1876.

Railways of New South Wales. Report of their construction and working,
from 1872 to 1875 inclusive, by John Rue, A.M., Commissioner for Railways.
Fol. Sydney, 1876.

Reports by the Governors of Victoria, Tasmania, and Western Australia,
dated July — October 1873, on the General Condition of these Colonies ; in
4 Papers relating to H.M.'s Colonial Possessions.' Parti. 1874. 8. London,
1874.

Reports by the Governors of Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia, and
New Zealand, dated April— June 1874, on the Population, Trade, &c, of these
Colonies; in 'Papers relating to H.M.'s Colonial Possessions.' Part II.
1874. 8. London, 1874.

Results of a Census of the colony of New Zealand, taken on the 1st of March
1874. Fol. Wellington, 1875.

Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the
United Kingdom in each year, from 186(1 to 1874. No. X. 8. London, 1876.

3 D

770 THE STATESMAN S TEAR-BOOK, 1877.

Statistical Notes on the Progress of Victoria, from the foundation of the
Colony. By W. H. Archer, Register-General of Victoria. 4. Melbourne.
1862-74.

Statistics of New Zealand for 1874. Compiled from Official Eecords. FoL
Wellington, 1876.

Statistical Register of New South "Wales for the year 1876. Fol. Sydney,
1876.
Statistical Register of South Australia for 1875. Fol. Adelaide, 1876.

Statistical Tables of New Zealand for the year 1871. Part A, Population ;
B, Trade and Interchange ; C, Finance. Fol. Wellington, 1872.

Statistics of the Colony of Queensland for the year 1874. Fol. Brisbane, 1876.

Statistics of the Colony of Tasmania for the year 1875. Fol. Hobart
Town, 1876.

Statistics of the Colony of Victoria for the year 1875. Fol. Melbourne, 1876.

Western Australia: Blue Book for the year 1875. Fol. Perth, 1876.

Trade of Great Britain with Australasia ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade
and Navigation of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British
Possessions in the year 1875.' Imp. 4. London, 1876.

2. Non-Official Publications.

Bates (H. W.) and Eden (C. H.), Colonel Warburton's Journey across-
Australia, 8. London, 1875.

Boothby (J.), The relative positions and aggregate importance of the Austra-
lasian colonies at the end of 1873. In 'Almanack of the Statistical Society
for 1875.' 8. London, 1875.

Braim (Th. N.), New Homes. The rise, progress, present position and
future prospects of each of the Australian Colonies and New Zealand. 8-
London, 1870.

Christmann (Fr.), Australien. Geschichte der Entdeckungsreisen und der
Kolonisation ; Bilder aus dem Leben in der Wildniss und den Statten der
Kultur der neuesten Welt. 8. Leipzig, 1870.

Clarice (Rev. W. B.), On the Progress of Gold Discovery in Australasia, from
1860 to 1871. 8. Sydney, 1871.

BilJce (Sir Charles Wentworth, Bart,, M.P,), Greater Britain: a record of
travel in English-speaking countries in 1866 and 1867. 3rd edit, 8. Lon-
don, 1869.

Forrest (John), Explorations in Australia. 8. London, 1875.

Gorst (J. E.), The Maori King; or, the Story of our Quarrel with the Natives-
of New Zealand. 8. London, 1865.

Hardman (Wm.), John M'Douall Stuart's Journals of Explorations in
Australia from 1858 to 1862. 8. London, 1866.

Harcus (William), South Australia : its history, resources, productions, and
statistics. 8. London, 18"6.

Hai/tcr (Henry Heylin), Victorian Yearbook for the year 1875. 8. Mel-
bourne, 1876.

Hill (Rosamond and Florence), What we saw in Australia. 8. London,.
1875.

WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 77 I

Hochstetter (Fr. von), New Zealand : its Physical Geography, Geology, and
Natural History. 2 vols. 4. London, 18G8.

Howitt (W.), History of Discovery in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand.
2 vols. 8. London, 1865.

Industrial Progress of New South Wales, being Report of the Inter-colonial
Exhibition of 1870, at Sydney; together with papers illustrative of tho in-
dustrial resources of the colony. Sydney, 1871.

Kennedy (Alexander), New Zealand. 8. London, 1873.

Kennedy (E. B.), Four Years in Queensland. 8. London, 1870.

Lang (John Dunmore, D.D.) Historical and Statistical Account of New
South Wales. 4th edit. 2 vols. 8. London, 1874.

Lloyd (Geo. Thomas), Thirty-three years in Tasmania and Victoria. 8.
London, 1862.

Petermann (Dr. A.), Australien in 1871. Mit geographisch-statistischem
Compendium von C. E. Meinicke. In ' Mittheilungen.' 4. Gotha, 1871.

Powell (G.S.B.), New Homes for the Old Country. A personal experience of
the political and domestic life, the industries and the national history of
Australia and New Zealand. 8. London, 1872.

Robiquet (A.), Renseignements sur la nouvelle Zedande. Publie avec l'autori-
sation de S. Exc. M. le ministre de la marine et des colonies. 8. Paris, 1867.

Rusden (G.W.), The Discovery, Survey, and Settlement of Port Philip. 8.
London, 1872.

Smyth (R. Brough), Inter-Colonial Exhibition, 1866. Mining and Mineral
Statistics of Australia. 8. Melbourne, 1866.

Taylor (Rev. R.), The Past and Present of New Zealand. 8. London, 1868.

Toptnard (Dr. P.), Etude sur les races indigenes de l'Australie. Instructions
presentees a la Societe d' Anthropologic 8. Paris, 1872.

Trollope (Anthony), Australia and New Zealand. 8. London, 1873. New
Ed. 1875.

Wcstgarth (Wni.), The Colony of Victoria: its History, Commerce, and Gold-
mining; its Social and Political Institutions. 8. London, 1864.

Wilkins (W.), The Geography of New South Wales : Physical, Industrial,
and Political. 18. Sydney, 1863.

Woods (Rev. J. E. Tenison), History of the Discovery and Exploration of
Australia. 2 vols. 8. London, 1866.

3d2

INDEX.

774

INDEX

ADEN, area and government, 274
Abdul-Hamid, Sultan, 449
Alexander II., Emperor, 357
Alexandria, population, 635
Algeria, area and population, 619

— exports and imports, 621

— government and revenue, 619
Alsace-Lorraine, area and population,

180

— constitution and government, 180
Anhalt, population, 163

— reigning family, 162
Antigua (see Leeward Islands)
Argentine Confederation, area, 488

— ■ — army, 485

— — commerce, 487

— — government, 482

population, 486

railways, 487

Ascension, area, 274

— population, 275
Augsburg, population of, 136
Austria-Hungary, area of, 21

— army, strength and organisation, 17

— budget for 1876, 14

— church organisation, 10

— commerce, 22

— - commercial marine, 24

— constitution, 6

— debt, 15 _

— ecclesiastical hierarchy, 11

— education of the people, 12
- — Emperors, list of, 5

— exports, value of, 22

■ to United Kingdom, 23

— government, 6

— imperial family, 3

— imports, value of, 22

BEL

Austria-Hungary, imports from United
Kingdom, 23

— iron-clads list, 18

— nationalities in, 22

— navy, strength and organisation,
18

— population at last census, 21

— railways, 23

— religious division, 11

— revenue and expenditure, 12

— shipping, 24

— universities, 12

Azores, or Western Islands, area and
population, 352

BADEN, constitution, 147
— debt, public, 149

— government, 147

— population, 149

— reigning family, 147

— revenue and expenditure, 148

— state railways, 149
Bahamas, area, 274

— population, 275
Baltic fleet, Bussian, 376
Baltimore, population, 596
Barbadoes (see Windward Islands)
Bavaria, area, 135

— constitution, 132

— debt, public, 134

— education, popular, 133

— population, 135

— railways, 135

— religious division, 132

— revenue and expenditure, 133

— royal family, 130
Belgium, area, 35

INDEX.

775

BEL

CHI

Belgium, army, strength and organisa-
tion, 3-1

— budgets for 1876 and 1877, 33

— church organisation, 31

— constitution, 28

— debt, 34

— deputies, number of, 29

— education of the people, 31

— exports, 36

— government, 30

— imports, 36

— increase of population, 36

— nationalities, 36

— population, 35

— railways, 38

— revenue and expenditure, 32

— royal family, 27

— trade and commerce, 36
Berlin, population, 127
Bermudas, area, 274

— population, 275
Bismarck, Prince, 96
Bohemia, diet, 7

— population, 21

— races, 22
Bolivia, area, 491

— constitution, 490

— exports and imports, 492

— population, 491

Bombay, British population in, 690
Bordeaux, population, 80
Boston, population, 596
Braganza, House of, 344
Brazil, area, 501

— army, 500

— church and education, 497

— commerce, 503

— constitution, 495

— debt, 499

— government, 495

— imperial family, 494

— navy, 501

— population, 502

— railways, 504

— revenue and expenditure, 498

— slaves, 502
Bremen, constitution, 174

— population, 175

— trade and commerce, 176
British Colonies, area and govern-
ment, 274

date of acquisition, 274

population, 275

British Columbia, area, 516

— — shipping, 518
British Guiana, area, 274

population, 275

Brunswick, government, 156

— population, 157

— sovereign, 156

Brunswick, New (see New Brunswick )
Brussels, population, 36
Buffalo, population, 596
Bukowina, diet, 7

— population, 21

CAIRO, population, 635
Calcutta, British population in,
690
Canada, area, 516

— army, 514

— church organisation, 510

— commerce, 517

— constitution, 508

— debt, 513

— education, 511

— exports and imports, 517

— government, 50S

— immigration, 517

— population, 516

— revenue and expenditure, 511
Cape of Good Hope, area, 625

— — — commerce, 627

— — — government, 624
revenue, 625

Cape Verde Islands, area and popula-
tion, 354
Cardinals, list of, 302

— origin, 303
Carinthia, diet, 7

— population, 21
Carniola, diet, 7

— population, 21

Ceylon, area and population, 658

— constitution and government, 657

— exports and imports, 659

— revenue and expenditure, 657
Channel Islands, population, 252
Chicago, population, 596

Chili, area and population, 525

— army and navy, 524

— commerce, 525

— government, 522

— railways, 524

— revenue and expenditure, 522

776

INDEX.

CHI

China, area, 663

— army, 663

— commerce, 665

— constitution, 661

— exports to United Kingdom, 665

— government, 662

— imperial family, 661

— imports and exports, 665

— population, 663
Cochin-China, area and population, 88
Cologne, population, 127
Colombia, area, 529

— constitution, 528

— exports and imports, 530

— population, 529

— railway, 530
Costa Rica, area, 534
— i constitution, 533

— exports and imports, 534

— revenue and expenditure, 533
Croatia and Slavonia, diet, 7

— population, 21

Cuba, area and population, 411

— commerce with Great Britain, 412

DANZIG, population, 127
Denmark, area and population, 50

— army, 47

— budget for 1876-7, 46

— church organisation, 44

— colonies, 52

— commerce, 51

— constitution, 43

— debt, 47

— education of the people, 45

— government, 43

— imports and exports, 51

— land, division, 51

— population, 50

— railways, 52

— revenue and expenditure, 4-5

— royal family, 41

— shipping, 52

"I^CUADOR, area, 537
Hi — constitution, 536

— exports and imports, 537

— revenue and expenditure, 536
Egypt, area and population, 634

— army and navy, 634

— government, 632

FRA

Egypt, revenue and expenditure, 63'2

— public debt, 633

— railways and telegraphs, 638

— Suez Canal, traffic on, 637

— trade and commerce, 635
England, area, 240

— births and deaths, 243

— church organisation, 205

— criminal statistics, 244

— education, 210

— ■ electors, pari., number of, 200

— emigration, 253

— landowners, number, 241

— militia establishment, 228

— pauperism, 243

— parliamentary representation, 199

— population, 240
of metropolis, 242

— religious denominations, 206

— volunteer army, 226

— (see also Great Britain and Ireland)

FALKLAND Islands, area, 274
population, 275

Finland, area, 381

— constitution, 363

— population, 381
Florence, population, 317
France, area, 75

— army, organisation, 67

— — strength, 70

— births, deaths, and marriages, 79>
_ budgets for 1876 and 1877, 61

— church organisation, 58

— colonies, 87

— commerce, 81

— commercial marine, 85

— constitution, 55

— debt, national, 65

— departments, 76

— division of land, 80

— education of the people, 59

— exports, value of, 81

— exports to Great Britain, 82

— government, 55

— illegitimate births, 79

— imports, value of. 81

— imports from Great Britain, 82

— iron-clad navy, 71

— mortality, 79

— national debt, growth of, 65

— navy, 70

INDEX.

777

FRA

France, population, 75

— — of principal towns, 80

— railways, 85

— religious denominations, 58

— revenue and expenditure, 61

— shipping, 85

— war with Germany, cost of, 63
Frankfort, population, 127
Franz Joseph I., Emperor, 3

G ALICIA, diet, 7
— population, 21
Gambia, area, 274
■ — population, 275
Georgios I., King, 281
Germany, area, 107

— armv, 100

— budget for 1876, 98

— commerce of, 183

— constitution, 94

— Emperor, 93

- Emperors, list of, since 800, 94

— ironclads, 104

— navy, 104

— population, 107

— railways, 185

— revenue, 98

— States of, 107

— telegraphs, 185

— Zollverein of, 181
Gibraltar, area, 274

— population, 275
Gold Coast, area, 274

— population, 275
Greenland, population, 50
Guadaloupe, area and population, 88
Guiana, British (see British Guiana)

— French, area and pop., 88
Great Britain and Ireland, area, 237
— army, 223

budget for 1876-7, 211

— cabinet, 202

church organisation, 205

civil list of sovereign, 190

coal production, 267

colonies, 273

commerce, 254

— commercial marine, 260

Commons, House of, 195

constitution, 192

cotton trade, 264

. — customs revenue, 259

GRE

Great Britain and Ireland, debt,

national, 220
education of the people, 208

— — — elective franchise, 196

— emigration, 252

established church, 205

expenditure, national, from

1861 to 1876, 214
exports, from 1866 to 1875,

255
division of, among various

nations in 1874 and 1875,

256
government, members of,

202
imports, from 186610 1875,

255
distribution of, among

various nations in 1874

and 1875, 255

iron-clad navy, 231

legislature, 192

Lords, House of, 194

ministers in 1876, 202

ministries since the year

1714, 204

navy, 229

parliaments, list of, 200

parliamentary government,

192

population, 237

post and telegraphs, 270

privy council, 201

railways, 268

reform bill, 197

religious denominations,

206

revenue, 211

Roman Catholics, 206

— royal family, 189

— — — shipping, 260

— — — sovereigns, list of, 192

taxation, 218

textile industry, 264

volunteer army, 226

(see also England, Ireland,

and Scotland)
Greece, area, 288

— army, 287

— church organisation, 283

— commerce, 290

— constitution, 282

— debt, 286

Jj8 INDEX.

ITA

Greece, education of the people, 284

— exports and imports, 290

— government, 282

— land, division of, 290

— navy, 288

— population, 288

revenue and expenditure, 285

— sovereign, 281
Guatemala, area, 540
■ — constitution, 539

— debt, 540

— revenue, 539

— trade, 541

HAITI, area, 544
— constitution, 543

— debt, 543

— population, 544

— trade, 544
Hamburg, area, 175

— commerce, 176

— constitution, 174

— debt, 175

— exports and imports, 176

— population, 176

— revenue and expenditure, 175

— shipping, 176

Hanover, Prussian province- of, popu-
lation, 126
Hanse Towns, commerce, 182

— — judicial organisation, 177
Habsburg, House of, 5

Hesse, area, 153

— constitution, 152

— population, 153

— revenue and expenditure, 153

— reigning family, 152
Hohenzollern, House of, 111

— principality of, area, 126
Holland (see Netherlands)
Holstein province, area, 126
Hoist ein- Got torp, family of, 358
Honduras, Republic of, area, 547

— constitution, 546

— debt, 547

— revenue, 546

— trade, 548

Honduras, British, area, 274

— population, 275

Hongkong, .area and population, 671

— constitution and government, 670

Hongkong, exports and imports, 67!

— revenue and expenditure, 670
Hungary, budget for 1875, 16

— constitution, 9

— government, 10

— population, 21

— races of inhabitants, 22

ICELAND, government of, 44
— population, 53
India, British, area, 686

— army, 684

— budgets from 1866 to 1875, 677

— constitution, 675

— currency, 684

— debt, 683

— government, 675

— governors-general, list of, 676

— imports and exports, 692

— land-tax, assessment of and reve-

nue from, 679

— money, weights, and measures, 699

— opium monopoly, 679

— population, 686

— postal communication, 698

— races and creeds, 689

— railways, 696

— religious divisions, 689

— revenue and expenditure, 677

— telegraphs, 699

Ionian Islands, population, 288
Ireland, area, 247

— agricultural statistics, 250

— births and deaths, 250

— church organisation, 208

— clergy, income of, 208

— criminal statistics, 251

— decrease of population, 248

— education, 210

— emigration, 253

— land, division of, 237

— parliamentary representation, 200

— pauperism, 251

— population, 250

— railways, 270

— religious denominations, 207

— union of, with England, 200

— (see also Great Britain and Ire-

land)
Italy, area, 315

— army, 311

— budgets, 309

INDEX.

779

ITA

Italy, church of Home, 298

— ehurch organisation, 305

— clergy, 303

— commerce, 317

— commercial marine, 319

— constitution, 297

— debt, national, 310

— education of the people. 307

— electors, number of, 297

— exports and imports, 318

— government, 298

— iron-clad navy, 312

— land, division of, 317

— monasteries, 306

— navy, 312

— pontiff, 299

— population, 314

— railways, 319

— revenue arid expenditure, 308

— royal family, 295

— shipping, 319

— telegraphs, 320

— universities, 308

JAMAICA, area, 274
population, 275
Japan, area and population, 705

— army, 704

— constitution, 702

— education, 705

— government, 702

— imports and exports, 706

— sovereign, 702

— trade with Great Britain, 706
Java, area and population, 713

— army and navy, 712

— commerce, 714

— culture system, 710

— government, 710

— railways, 715

- revenue and expenditure, 711

— trade with Great Britain, 714
Jews, Austrian, number of, 11

— English „ 207

— French „ 58

— German ,, 96

— Prussian „ 117

— Russian „ 366

LABTTAN, area, 274
— population, 275

MON

Lagos, area, 274

— population, 275
Landowners, number, United King-
dom, 241

Leeward Islands, area, 274

— number of, 272

— population, 275

Leipzig, population and trade, 146
Liberia, area and population, 642

— government, 641

— revenue and trade, 642
Lippe, population, 169

reigning family, 168

Lisbon, population, 352
Liverpool, customs of, 259
Lloyd, Austrian, shipping of, 25
London, commerce of, 259

— population, in municipal and other

divisions, 242
Liibeck, constitution, 177

— population, 178

— trade, 178

Luxemburg, area and population, 336
Lyon, population, 80

MADRAS, British population in, 690
Madrid, population, 408
Malta, area, 274

— population, 275
Marseille, population, 80
Martinique, area and population, 88
Mauritius, area, 274

— population, 275
Mecklenburg-Schwerin. area, 151

— — constitution, 150

— — reigning family, 150

revenue ami expenditure, 151

Mecklenburg-Strelitz. population, 161

reigning family, 160

Messina, population, 317
Mexico, area and population, 551

— commerce, 552

— constitution, 549

— debt, 550

— government, 549

— mining industry, 553

— revenue and expenditure, 549
Milan, population, 317
Moldavia (see Roumania)
Montenegro, area, 325

— government, 325

— population, 325

780

INDEX.

MON

PHI

Montenegro, sovereign, 324
Montserrat (see Leeward Islands)
Morocco, area and population, 645

— commerce, 646

— sovereign, 644

— trade with Great Britain, 646
Munich, population, 136

NAPLES, population, 317
Natal, area and population, 649

— government, 648

— imports and exports, 650

— revenue and expenditure, 648
Netherlands, area, 336

— army, 333

— budgets, 331

— church organisation, 329

— colonies, 340

— commerce, 337

— constitution, 328

— debt, 332

— exports and imports, 337

— government, 328

— education of the people, 329

— navy, 334

— population, 336

— religious denominations, 329

— revenue and expenditure, 330

— royal family, 326

— shipping, 338

— States-general, 328

— trade and commerce, 337

New Brunswick, area and pop., 516
Newfoundland, area and pop., 516

— imports and exports, 518
New Granada (see Colombia)
New Orleans, population, 596
New South Wales, area, 731

— commerce, 733

government, 730

immigration, 732

mines and minerals, 734

railways, 734

religious creeds, 732

— — — revenue and exp., 731
New York, population, 596
New Zealand, area, 737

— — commerce, 740

government, 735

population, 738

railways, 741

revenue and expenditure, 736

New Zealand, wool exports, 741
Norway, area, 430

— army, 429

— budget for 1876-77, 429

— commerce, 432

— constitution, 427

— debt, 429

— exports and imports, 432

— government, 428

— navy, 430

— population, 431

— railways, 433

— Storthing, 427

Nova Scotia, area and population, 516

OLDENBURG, area and pop., 155
— constitution, 154

— reigning family, 154

— revenue and expenditure, 155
Ontario (see Canada)

Oporto, population, 352
Orange, family of, 326

PANAMA, population, 529
— trade, 530
Paraguay, area and population, 558

— debt, 558

— government, 557

— railway, 559

— revenue, 557

Paris, population at various periods, 80
Patriarch of Constantinople, jurisdic-
tion of, 283
Patriarchates, of Rome, number of, 303
Pennsylvania, iron industry, 606

— textile manufactures, 605
Perim, area, 274

— population, 275

Persia, area and population, 721

— commerce, 722

— government and religion, 718

— revenue, 720

— sovereign, 718

Peru, area and population, 563

— commerce, 564

— debt, 562

— government, 561

— guano produce, 564

— railways, 565

— revenue and expenditure, 561
Philadelphia, population, 596

INDEX.

78l

RUS

Philippine Islands, commerce, 412

— population, 411

Pio IX., Sovereign-Pontiff, 299
Poland, area, 381

— constitution, 364

— population, 381
Pomerania, population, 126
Pontiffs of Rome, list of, 300

— mode of election of, 299

Porto Eico, area and population, 411

— commerce, 412
Portugal, area, 352

— army, 350

— budget for 1876-77, 348

— church organisation, 347

— colonies, 353
— commerce, 352

— constitution, 346

— debt, 348

— education of the people, 347

— exports and imports, 352

— government, 346

— money, weights, and measures, 355

— navy, 351

— population, 352

— revenue and expenditure, 348

— royal family, 344

— trade and commerce, 352
Prince Edward Island, area and popu-
lation, 516

— shipping, 518
Prussia, area, 126

— army, 123

— budget for 1876, 121

— chamber of deputies, 114

— church organisation, 117

— coal production, 128

— commerce, 127

— constitution, 113

— council of ministers, 115

— debt, public, 123

— division of land, 127

— education of the people, 118

— exports and imports, 128

— government, 115

— industries, 128
- landwehr, 123

— landsturm, 125

— legislative body, 113

— military organisation, 123

— mines and minerals, 128

— ministry, 115

— population, 126

Prussia, ports of war, 103

— railways, 129

— religious denominations, 117

— revenue and expenditure, 120

— royal family, 110

— sovereigns, list of, 113

— universities, 97
Puerto-Rico (see Porto Rico)

QUEBEC, population, 516
— shipping, 518
Queensland, area and pop., 743

— government, 742

— immigration, 744

— imports and exports, 744

— railways, 745

— revenue and expenditure, 743

REUNION, area and population, 88
Reuss-Greiz, population, 173

reigning family, 173

Reuss-Schleiz, population, 172

reigning family, 171

Rome, population, 317

— Pontificate of, 299

— university, 308
Rostock, university, 97
Rotterdam, population, 337
Roumania, area and population, 473

— constitution, 469

— commerce, 474

— government, 469

— revenue, 470
Russia, area, 379

— army, 372

— budget, 368

— church organisation, 364

— commerce, 385

— commercial marine, 387

— conscription, 372

— constitution, 359

— Cossacks, 375

— council of the empire, 360

— council of ministers, 361

— debt, national, 369

— education of the people, 366

— fleet of war, 376

— foreign loans, 370

— government, 358

— holy synod, 3G0

782

INDEX.

Russia, imperial family, 356

— imports and exports, 385

— iron-clad navy, 377

— land, agricultural, 384

— local administration, 362

— manufactures, 389

— money, weights, and measures, 390

— navy, 376

— population, 380

— races, 383

— religious denominations, 365

— railways, 387

— revenue and expenditure, 367

— senate, 360

— serfs, emancipation, 384

— shipping, 387

— sovereigns, list of, 359

— telegraphs, 389

— town population, 383

— universities, 366

SAN FRANCISCO, population, 596
Saxe-Altenburg, area and popula-
tion, 167

— — reigning family, 166

Saxe Coburg-Gotha, constitution, 165
population, 165

— — — reigning family, 164
Saxe-Meiningen, population, 162

— — reigning family, 161

Saxe- Weimar, area and population, 159

reigning family, 158

revenue and expenditure, 159

Saxony, area, 146

— constitution, 144

— debt, 145

— education, 145

— population, 146

revenue and expenditure, 145

— royal family, 143
Schaumbiirg-Lippe, population, 173

reigning family, 172

Schleswig-Holstein, province, area,

and population, 126
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, area and
population, 170

— — reigning family, 169
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, area and

population, 171

reigning family, 170

Scotland, area, 244

— births and deaths, 246

Scotland, church organisation, 207

— criminal statistics, 247

— education, 210

— emigration, 254

— factories, 265

— landowners, number, 238

— parliamentary representation, 199

— pauperism, 247

— population, 245

— railways, 270

— religious denominations, 207

— trade at ports, 259

— (see also Great Britain and Ireland)
Senega], area and population, 88
Serfs, Russian, emancipation of, 384
Servia, area and population, 476

— commerce, 477

— government, 475
Sheffield, population, 242
Siam, area, 727

— government, 726

— trade, 727

Sicily, education of population, 307
Sierra Leone, area, 274

— population, 275
Silesia, Austrian, diet, 7

— population, 21

South Australia, area and pop., 748

— — commerce, 750

— ■ — ■ government, 746

— — mines, 751
railways, 751

revenue and expenditure, 747

telegraphs, 751

Spain, area, 406

— army, 403

— Ayuntamientos, 397

— budget, 400

— church organisation, 397

— colonies, 410

— commerce, 408

— commercial navy, 410

— constitution, 395

— Cortes, 395

— council of ministers, 396

— debt, public, 401

— ecclesiastics, number, 398

— education of the people, 399

— exports and imports, 409

— government, 395

— iron-clad navy, 405

— landed property, division of, 408

— municipal laws, 397

INDEX.

783

SPA

Spain, navy, 404

— population, 406

— railways, 410

— revenue and expenditure, 400

— shipping, 410

— telegraphs, 410

— town popidation, 408
Straits Settlements, area, 274

— — population, 275
Strassburg, population, 181

— university, 97
Styria, diet, 7

— population. 21

Suabia, area and population, 13-5
Suez canal, revenue of, 638

— traffic on, 636
Sweden, area, 418

— army, 420

— budget for 1877,419

— commerce, 420

— commercial marine, 421

— constitution, 417

— council of ministers, 418

— debt, 420

— exports and imports, 424

— government, 417

— mines and minerals, 425

— navy, 421

— population, 422

— railways, 426

— revenue and expenditure, 419

— royal family. 415

— sovereigns, list of, 416
Switzerland, area, 444

— army, 442

— budgets, 441

— church organisation, 438

— commerce, 445

— constitution, 436

— debt, 441

— education, 438

— exports and imports, 445

— federal assembly, 437

— local government, 437

— national council, 436

— occupations of the people, 446

— population, 444

— railways, 446

— revenue and expenditure, 439

— telegraphs. 447

TASMANIA, area and pop., 753
— commerce, !'>■>

Tasmania, government, 752

— immigration, 754

— revenue and expenditure, 752
Tabreez, or Tauris, population and

trade, 722
Tobago (see Windward Islands)
Toronto, population, 516
Transylvania, diet, 7

— population, 21
Trinidad, area, 274

— population, 275
Tubingen, university, 97
Tunis, area and population, 654

— financial administration, 653

— government, 652

— revenue and expenditure, 653

— sovereign, 652
Turin, population, 317
— ■ university, 308
Turkey, area, 463

— army, 459

— constitution, 451

— commerce, 46G

— debt, national, 457

— education, 455

— exports and imports, 466

— foreign loans, 457

— government, 451

— iron-clad vessels, 461

— land, division of, 465

— nationalities, 464

— navy, 461

— population, 463

— railways, 467

— religious divisions, 453

— revenue and expenditure, 455

— sovereigns, list of, 450
Tuscany, education, 307
Tyrol, diet, 7

— population, 21

UNIVERSITIES, of Austria, 12
— of Gormanv, 97

— of Italy, 307

— of Switzerland, 439

United Kingdom (see Great Britain
and Inland)

United States, area, 592

army, /)88

budgets, 584

cciiMisof 1870, 593

1 — — commerce, 599

;84

INDEX.

UNI

ZUR

United States, commercial marine, 603

congress, 578

constitution, 575

cotton, exports of, 600

debt, national, 585

education of the people, 582

exports and imports, 599

gold and silver production, 605

government, 575

immigration, 597

iron-clad navy, 590

lands, public, 596

— — manufactures, 604

mines and minerals, 605

navy, 589

origin of immigrants, 597

pop. of principal towns, 596

at various periods, 592

presidents of the republic, list

of, 576

progress of pop., 599

railways, 605

religious divisions, 582

revenue and expenditure, 583

senate, 578

shipping, 603

slavery, at eight census periods,

592
abolition of, by constitu-
tional amendment, 581

telegraphs, 606

textile manufactures, 604

vice-presidents, list of, 577

woollen factories, 604

Uruguay, area and population, 612

— commerce, 613

— debt, 612

— government, 611

— revenue and expenditure, 611

YASA, House of, 416
Venice, population, 317
Vienna, university, 12
Venezuela, area, 616

— constitution, 615

— debt, 615

— exports and imports, 617

Venezuela, revenue & expenditure, 615

Victoria I., Queen, 189

Victoria, area and population, 758

— commerce, 762

— debt, 757

— gold mines, 763
Victoria, government, 756

— immigration, 761

— railways, 764

— revenue and expenditure, 757

— telegraphs, 765

Virgin Islands (see Leeward Islands)
Vittorio Emmanuele II., King, 295

WALDECK, population, 168
— reigning family ; 167
Wallachia (see Roumania)
War indemnity, French-German, 100
Western Australia, area and pop., 767

commerce. 768

convicts, 767

government, 766

revenue and expenditure, 766

Wilhelm I., Emperor andKing, 93, 110
Wilhelmshaven, war port, 106
Willem III., King, 326
Windward Islands, area, 274

— number of, 273

— population, 275
Wiirzburg, university, 97
Wurtemberg, area, 142

— constitution, 138

— debt, 141

— education, 140

— emigration, 141

— population, 142

— revenue and expenditure, 140

— royal family, 137

ZEALAND, province, area, and
population, 336
Zealand, New (see New Zealand)
Zollverein, administration, 182

— members of, 181
Zurich, population, 445

— university, 439

Spottisuoode Jc Co., Printers, Nev-ttrett Square, London.

Advertising Sheet.

SCOTTISH PROVIDENT INSTITUTION.

EDIMBUR6H-6 ST. ANDREW SQUARE LONDON— 18 KING WILLIAM ST., E.C.

TRUSTEES.

ALEXANDER MATHESON, Esq., of [ The Honourable LouDGIFFORD.Granton
Ardross, M.P. House. Edinburgh,

CHARLES COWAX, Esq., of Logan House, | JAMES A. CAMPBELL, Esq., Younger,
Edinburgh. | of Stracathro. Glasgow.

Right Hoxourarle Lord GORDON, of Druruearn.

THIS SOCIETY differs in its phinciFies from other Offices. Instead
of charging rates admittedly higher than are necessary, and afterwards
returning the excess in the shape of Periodical Bonuses, it gives from the first
as large an Assurance as the Premiums will with safety bear — reserving the
Whole Surplus for those who live long enough to secure the Common Fund
from loss.

A Policy for £1200 to £1250 may thus at most ages he had for the Pre-
mium usually charged for £1000 only ; while by reserving the Surplus,
large additions may be looked for on the Policies of those who participate.
At last Investigation a Surplus was declared of £376,500 ; of which
£125,000 was reserved, and £251,500 divided among 4599 Policies entitled.
The result was that Policies for £1,000 sharing a first time were increased to
sums ranging from £1170 to £1300. In some eases Policies which shared at
the whole four Divisions have now been doubled.

The New Business in each of last two years has averaged £1,100,000.
The Accumulated Funds (increased last year by £230,000) now exceed
£2,750,000. The growth of the Funds is, after all, the best practical test of
prosperity. On this point the Chairman of last year states that ' the ratio
in which, for several years past, our Fluids have increased in proportion to our
Income, has greatly exceeded that of any other Office in the Kingdom.

SPECIMEN OP TABLES.

Annual Premiums for Assurance of i?100 at Death (with Profits).

Payable

Limited

Payable

Limited

Payment

1 Limited

during

to 21

during

to 21

during

to 21

Life

Payments

Life

Payments

Life

1 Payments

£1 18 6

£2 13 0

3fi £2 8 2

£3 1 5

£3 8 5

'£400

1 19 2

2 13 6

2 9 8

3 2 9

3 11 5

4 2 8

1 19 11

2 14 1 i

2 11 3

3 4 3

3 14 8

4 5 8

2 0 8

2 14 8

2 12 11

3 S 9

3 18 1

4 8 9

30*

2 1 6*

2 15 4

4Ut

2 14 9

3 7 5t

4 17

4 12 1

2 2 r,

2 Hi 2

2 16 8

3 9 2

4 5 0

1 15 5

2 3 5

2 17 1

2 18 8

3 11 1

4 9 5

4 18 10

2 4 (J

2 18 0 1

3 0 11

3 13 1

4 13 5

.-. 2 5

2 5 7

2 19 0

44 I 3 3 3

3 15 3

4 17 8

6 i; :i

2 6 10

3 0 2

45 3 5 9

8 17 6

5 1 11

5 10 2

■ A Person of 30 may thus secure £1000 at death for £20. 15*. yearly during life. This
Premium, if paid to anv of the other Scottish Mutual Offices, would secure a Policy tor
£800 only instead of £1000-

t At age 40 the Annual Premium, eeating <n age 60, is for £1000, £33. 11.!. 2d. J being
about the same as these Offices require during the whole term at life.

J. MUTB LEITCH, London Secretary. JAMES WATSON, Manager*

Advertising Sheet.

LEGAL AND GENERAL

IDItETE ^SSTTDE^^HSrCIE SOCIETY,
FLEET STREET, near TEMPLE BAR.

FOUNDED 1836.

TRUSTEES.

The Right Hon. the Lord Chancellor. I Robert Bayly Follett, Esq., Taxing

The Right Hon. Lord Hatherley. Master in Chancery.

The Right Hon. Lord Coleridge, Lord George Burrow Guegouy, Esq., M.P.

Chief Justice. I William Williams, Esq.

Sir Thomas Tilson.

DIRECTORS.

Bacon, The Hon. Sir James, Deane, James Parker, Esq., Markby, Alfred, Esq.

Vice-Chancellor. j Q.C., D.C.L. . Mills, Richard, Esq.

Baggallay, The Right Hon. De G-ex, John P., Esq., Q.C. Pemberton, E. Leigh, Esq.

Sir Richard, Lord Justice. ( Dickinson, James, Esq., Q.C. Riddell, Sir W. Buchanan,
Beaumont. James, E.-q. Follett, Robert Bayly, Esq. Bart.

Blake, Fredk. John, Esq. | Taxing Master in Chancery. | Smith, The Right Hon. Sir
Carlisle, William Thomas, ' Frere, Bartle J. Laurie,! Montague E.

Esq. Esq. Tilson, Sir Thomas.

Chichester, J. H. R., Esq. ■ Gregory, George Burrow, | Williams, C. Reynolds, Esq.
Cookson.W. STMCKLAND.Esq. | Esq., M.P. Williams, William, Esq.

Dart, Joseph Henry, Esq. i Harrison, Chas., Jtin., Esq. | Young, Henry Thomas, Esq.

AUDITORS.

For the Proprietors. For the Assured.

Arthur Kekewioh, Esq. Kenyon C. S. Parker, Esq.

William Hill Dawson, Esq. James Bip.ch Kelly, Esq.

Solicitors. — Messrs. Domville, Lawrence, & Graham.
Actuary and Manager.— Edward Algernon Newton, Esq., M.A.

The Becominenclations laid down by the Officials of the Board of Trade (July
1874) had all been anticipated in their strictest form in the. principles adopted
at the Bonus Investigation, at 31st December, 1871, of this Society. Thus: —

1. The 'SeA'enteen Offices ' Tables of Mortality was employed thoughout.

2. The future rate of Interest obtainable was estimated at 3 per cent. only.

3. The whole ' loading ' "was reserved for future expenses and profits.

(See Government Schedule).
The resulting Reserves yielded the highest known protection to Policies. The
Bonus was the behest yet declared.

The next Bonus Investigation will be made at 31st December, 1876.

Nine-tenths of the Profits belong to the Assured.

The guaranteeing Capital of One Million is held by nearly 300 Members
of the Legal Profession. The Policies are ' indisputable.'

Advances made upon Life Interests or Reversions in sums of not less than
£.500. Under a special system the Reversionary payments to the Society are
reduced to one-half if falling in within a limited number of years.

Explanatory Reports and Parliamentary Returns will be forwarded.

E. A. Newton, Actuary and Manager.

Advertising Sheet.

THE LIVERPOOL AND LONDON AND GLOBE
INSURANCE COMPANY.

ESTABLISHED 1836.

OFFICES :

1 DALE STREET, LIVERPOOL; CORNHILl, AND CHARING CROSS, LONDON.

Empoivcred specially hj Parliament.

TRUSTEES OF COMPANY.
T. Brocklebank, Esq. I J. Hubback, Esq. I J. A. Tobin, Esq., Liverpool.

SirCharles Nicholson, Bart.,D.C.L. | Wm. Macnaughten, Esq. | Wm. Mcol, Esq., London.

TRUSTEES OF GLOBE MILLION FUND.

Sir Chas. Nicholson, Bart., D.C.L. Wra. Newniarch, Esq., P.R.S.

"Wm. Nicol, Esq. I Jolin William Robins, Esq.

Captain Henry Wbatley Tyler, R.E.

DIRECTORS-LIVERPOOL BOARD.

Chairman— J. Hubback, Esq.
Deputy-Chairmen — H. B. G-ilmour, Esq., and A. Castellain, Esq.

Charles T. Bowring, Esq
T. Brocklebank. Esq.
C. J. Corballv, Esq.
Alfred Fletcher, Esq.

Arthur P. Fletcher, Esq. G. Mellv, Esq.

W. D. Holt, Esq. H. H. Nicholson, Esq.

H. Littledale, Esq. William Paton, Esq.

G. H. Loxdale, Esq. James Rome, Esq.

J. A. Tobin, Esq.
.Secretary of the Company — J. M. Dove, Esq.
Assistant-Secretary — A. Duncan, Esq.
Auditors — Peter S. Bonlt, Esq., and Isaac Kitchen, Esq.
Medical Referees— J. R. W. Vose, Esq., M.D., and E. R. Bickersteth, Esq.
Bankers— Bank of Liverpool ; Union Bank of London.
Solicitors — Messrs. Laces, Bird, Newton, and Richardson.

DIRECTORS-LONDON BOARD.

Chairman — Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart., D.C.L.

Deputy-Chairman— W . Nicol, Esq.

William Dent, Esq. W. Macnaughtan, Esq.

Hon. E. Drummond. Ross D. Mangles, Esq.

R. W. Gaussen, Esq, James Morley, Esq.

Hon. S. Carr Glyn. G. D. "Whatman, Esq.

Actuary of the Company and Resident Secretary — Aug. Hendriks, Esq.

Fire Superintendent — T. Septimus Marks, Esq.

Auditor — H. H. Caiman, Esq.

Medical Referees— J. R. Bennett, Esq., M.D. ; A. Anderson, Esq., F.R.C.S.

Consulting Surgeon— Sir James Paget, Bart.

Bankers — The London and County Bank and Messrs. Glyn, Mills, Currie, & Co.

Solicitors— Messrs. Palmer, Bull, & Fry.

Surveyors — E. N. Clifton, Esq.. and William Thompson, Esq.

18 7 5.

FIRE PREMIUMS £1,040,568.

LIFE PREMIUMS £255,259.

THE INVESTED FUNDS £5,168,210.

Agencies are established for effecting both Fire and Life Insurances and facilitating the
payment of Premiums in all parts of the world.

A 2

Advertising Sheet.

THE ECONOMIC

LIFE ASSURANCE SOCIETY,

No. 6 NEW BRIDGE STREET, BLACKFRIARS, LONDON, E.C.

ESTABLISHED 1823.

Empowered by Act of Parliament, 3 William IV.

Jlirtctors.

HENRY BARNETT, Esq., Chairman.

Tee Right Hon. E. PLEYDELL BOTJVERIE, Deputy-Chairman.

C. H. "W. aCourt Repington, Esq.
George Kettilby Rickards, Esq.
Alfred Sartoris, Esq.
Augustus Kjsppel Stephenson, Esq.
Richard Taylor, Esq.

Charles Arthur Barclay, Esq.
Michael Biddulph, Esq., M.P.
Edward Charrlngton, Esq.
Hon. Chas. D. R. Hanbury-Tkacy, M.P
John Harman, Esq.

^.ubittrrs.
Alfred Buckley, Esq. John Howell, Esq.

Hugh Mackay Gordon, Esq. | John Gilliam Stilwell, Esq.

Physician.— ¥m. R. Basham, Esq., M.D., 17 Chester Street, Belgrave Square.

Surgeon.— Geo. D. Pollock, Esq., F.R.C.S., 36 Grosvenor Street, "W.

Solicitor.— Charles Waring Young, Esq., 12 Essex Street, Strand.

Secretary.— John Ralph Grimes, Esq.

Actuary.— Richard Charles Fisher, Esq.

ADVANTAGES OFFERED BY THE SOCIETY.

The lowest rates of Premium on the Mutual System for young and middle-aged
lives, with early participation in Profits.

Security— Accumulated Fund £3,148,533

Annual Income •• 354,969

Claims paid, with Bonus Additions 5,040,186

Bonuses declared .. .. .. .. .. •• 2,858,415

Bonus.— The Society being on the Mutual principle, the Assured share the whole
of the profits. Policies effected before 31st December of each year receive a full year's
Bonus for the year of entry on their first participating.

Table of Annual Premiums required for an Assurance of £100 for the Wiole Term of Life,
with Participation in Profits.

£ s. d.
20 1 14 7

25 1 19 0

£ s. d.
30 2 4 3

35 2 10 11

£ s. d.
40 2 19 9

45 3 11 9

Assurances granted to the extent of £10,000 on a single life.
Prospectuses, Statement of Accounts, and full particulars may be obtained on application to

JOHN RALPH GRIMES, Secretary.

Advertising Sheet.

ALLIANCE

BRITISH AND FOREIGN LIFE AND FIRE
ASSURANCE COMPANY,

BARTHOLOMEW T-.A.TsTE, TLOlSTlDOlSr, E.G.
Established 1824. Capital £5,000.000.

BOARD OF DIRECTION.

Sir MOSES MONTEFIORE, Bart., F.R.S., President.
James Alexander, Esq. \ Sir Curtis M. Lampson, Bart.

Charles G-eorge Bahxett, Esq. Sampson Lucas, Esq.

James Fletcher, Esq. I Elliot Macnaghtex, Esq.

Right Hon. G-. J. Goschen, M.P. Thomas Mastermax. Esq.

Right Hon. Lord Richard Grosvexor, M.P. i Joseph M. Montefiore, Esq.
Samuel Gurnet, Esq. I Baron Lionel N. Dk Rothschild.

James Helme, Esq. j Sir N. II. De Rothschild, Bart., M.P.

Richard Hoare, Esq. Hugh Colin Smith, Esq.

AUDITORS.
Francis William Buxton, Esq. Francis Alfred Lucas, Esq.

Lord Edward Cavendish. Charles Rivers Wilson, Esq.

WEST-EXD BRANCH:— 1 GREAT GEORGE STREET, WESTMINSTER.
Granville R. Ryder, Esq., M.P., Superintendent of the West-End Branch.

LIFE DEPARTMENT.

In a Life Assurance Contract, security should lie the paramount consideration, and next
to security in importance are the terms and conditions on which a policy of assurance may
be obtained. The conditions of the Alliance have been recently revised, and placed on a
footing eminently favourable to the assured, and the rates of premium for policies that do
not participate in profits have been materially reduced. Persons are thus enabled to effect
assurances with the office, free from unnecessary restrictions, and at a minimum cost in
premium, while the security afforded by the large capital and reserves of the Company is
of the highest character.

Participating policy-holders receive 80sper cent, of the declared divisible profit from all
life assurances.

Important concessions have been made to the assured as regards foreign residence and
travel.

Under favourable circumstances whole world policies are granted free of extra premium.

Policies acquire a surrender value after two annual premiums have been paid.

The reduced premiums for non-participating policies take effect from 1st January 187C,
and the following are specimen charges for the whole of life : —

£1. 12.n. Id. per cent, per annum for life aged 20 next birthday.
£2. Is. Sd. per cent, per annum for life aged 30 next birthday.
£2. lGs. id. per cent, per annum for life aged 40 next birthday.
£4. 2.?. Od. per cent, per annum for life aged 50 next birthday.

Premiums for policies payable during the lifetime of the assured, and for other classes
of non-participating policies, are equally favourable.

FIRE DEPARTMENT.

Fire policies are granted on the usual terms.

The Directors are open to entertain applications for agencies from parties who are in a
position to introduce business of a high i-la

The Company have branch offices at Edinburgh, Liverpool, Manchester, Sheffield, Bir-
mingham) Ipswich, Bury St. Edmunds, Newcastle-on-Tyne, and Wrexham (fire branch only).

Life and fire proposal forms, detailed prospectuses, and statements of accounts may be
hadon application to the Head Office of the Company, or to any of the Branch Office

ROBERT LEWIS, Sec.

Advertising Sheet.

ITY AND

LIFE -^SSTTZR^HsTCIE SOCIETY.
18 LINCOLN'S INN FIELDS, LONDON, W.C.

Established 1844.

CAPITAL, ONE MILLION, FULLY SUBSCRIBED.

TRUSTEES.

The Right Hon. Viscount Cardwell. j Thomas Glover Kensit, Esq.

The Right Hon. Sir William Erie. John M. Clabon, Esq.

The Hon. The Vice-Chancellor Sir R. Malms. | Robert John Porcher Broughton, Esq.

DIRECTORS.

Chairman— George Lake Russell, Esq. | Deputy-Chairman— John M. Clabon, Esq.

Henry William Birch, Esq.
Henry Fox Bristowe, Esq., Q.C,
R. J. P. Broughton, Esq.
The Hon. Mr. Baron Cleasby.
The Hon. Mr. Justice Penman.
Charles J. Pimond, Esq.
Simon Panning, Esq.

Wm. Hilliard Punster, Esq.
Alexr. Staveley Hill, Esq.,

Q.C, P.C.L., M.P.
William E. Hilliard, Esq.
John Iliffp, Esq.
Thomas Glover Kensit, Esq.
Frederick Peake, Esq.
W. B. S. Rackham, Esq.

The Right Hon. Sir Robert

J. Phillimore.
Henry Cecil Raikes, Esq., M.P.
George Robins, Esq.
Alfred H. Shadwell, Esq.
Horace W. Smith, Esq., M.A.
Richard Smith, Esq.

Elected by the Proprietors— AUDITORS.
John Boodle, Esq.
George Thompson Powell, Esq.

Elected by the Assured —
A. H. Bailey, Esq.
Leonard Rowe Valpy, Esq.

SOLICITOR.— George Rooper, Esq., 17 Lincoln's Inn Fields.

MEDICAL OFFICER— R. P. Cotton, M.P., 33 Cavendish Square.

ACTUARY" and SECRETARY.— G. W. Berridge, Esq.

Policies are indisputable, except on the ground of fraud.

Lapsed Policies are revived within the period of three months, upon payment of the over-
due premium and a small fine, without evidence of health.

Whole- world Licences will be granted in most cases without payment of extra premium.

Nine-tenths of the Profits are divided among the assured every Five Years.

At an Extraordinary General Meeting held on June 9, 1875, the sum of £844,379 was set
aside as the value of the Society's liabilities under its Assurance and Annuity Contracts,
and £173,180 was ordered to be divided as Bonus ; leaving a balance of undivided profit of
£20,033.

The Society's Liabilities were valued according to the Tables of the Institute of Actuaries.

TABLE of the TOTAL ADDITIONS made up to December 31, 1874, to
POLICIES of £1,000 each.

Age

at
Entry

NUMBER OF PREMIUMS PALP.

Thirty

Twenty-five

Twenty

Fifteen

Ten

Five

30
45

£ s. d.
685 10 0
841 0 0

£ s. d.
549 0 0
678 10 0

£ s. d.
434 10 0
533 0 0
787 10 0

£ s. d.
290 10 0
353 10 0

517 0 0

£ s. d.
175 0 0
211 0 0
310 10 0

£ s. d.\
78 10 0
93 0 0 !
137 10 0 j

Advertising Sheet.

lUi

Incorporated by Hova! Charter A.D. 1720.

No. 7 ROYAL EXCHANGE, LONDON, E.C,

EDWARD BUDD, Esq.. Governor.

MARK WILKS COLLET, Esq., Sub- Governor.

WILLIAM RENNIE, Esq., Deputy-Governor.

DIRECTORS.
H. G. \RBUTHNOT, Esq. i ROB. GILLESPIE, Esq. i Capt. R. W. PELLY, R.N.
ROB. BURNBLYTH, Esq. HOWARD GILLIAT, Esq. DAVID POWELL, Esq.
WM. THOS. BRAND. Esq. HENRY GOSCHEN, Esq. P. F. ROBERTSON, Esq.
Majou-Gen.H. P. BURN. KDWJN GOWER, Esq. ROBERT RYRIE, Esq.
G. W. CAMPBELL. Esq. A. C. GUTHRIE, Esq. DAVID P. SELLAR, Esq.

G. B. DEWHURSr, Esq. LOUIS HUTH. Esq. Col. LEOP. SEYMOUR,

ROB1'. B. DOBREE, Esq. H. J. B. KENDALL, Esq LEWIS A.WALLACE, Esq.
GEO. L. M. GIBBS, Esq. ! CHARLES LYALL, Esq. I WM. B. WATSON, Esq.

Secretary— JOHN P. LAURENCE, Esq. I Actuary— ARTHUR H. BAILEY, Esq.

Underwriter-JOHN ANTHONY RUCKER, Esq.

Manager of the Fire Department— THOMAS B. BATE MAN, Esq.

Physician— EDWARD CLAPTON, M.D., St. Thomas's Street, Southwark.

Solicitors.

Messes. JOHNSON, UPTON, & BUDD, 20 Austinfriars.
Messes. COLLYER-BRISTOW, WITHERS, & RUSSELL, 4 Bedford Row.

"West End Agents— Messes. GUINDLAY k CO., 55 Parliament Street, S.W.

This Corporation has granted Fire, Life, and Marine Assurances for moro
than a century and a half.

The Share Capital is £896,550, of which one-half, or £448,275, has heen
paid up. The total Funds on the 31st December 1875 exceeded £2,998,000.

ZGIIFIE! IDIE^^IRTIIVLIEZCTT.

Life Assurances may be effected either with or without Participation in
Profits.

Copies of the Actuary's Report on the quinquennial valuation to 31st
December 1875, also cf the Accounts pursuant to ' The Life Assurance
Companies Act, 1870,' may be obtained on application.

FIEE IDIEIP^ZRTIlVIIIEILNrT.
Fire Insurances can be effected with the Corporation at moderate rates
of Premium.

Policies of Marine Insurance arc issued at the Head Office, and at Calcutta,
Madras, Bombay, Mauritius, Hong Kong, and Shanghai.

JOHN P. LAURENCE Secretary.

Advertising Sheet.

^> SOCIETY, "%A

°V& 21 FLEET STEEET, LONDON. *#

Chairman— HENRY SHEPHARD LAW, Esq., 2.{ Bush Lane.
Deputy-Chairman— ROWLAND NEV1TT BENNETT, Esq., Lincoln's Inn.

DIRECTORS.

Abbott, Chakles James, Esq., 8 New Inn. [ Lake, George. Esq., Lincoln's Inn.
Bloxam, Charles John, Esq., 1 Lin- Lefeoy, Geoege- Bentinck, Esq.,
coin's Inn Fields. 5 Robert Street, Adelphi.

Buene, Heney H., Esq., Bath.

Cueling, Robeet, Esq., Old Jewry.

Eele, Right Hon. Petee, Q.C., Park
Crescent.

Fane, William Dashwood, Esq., Mel-
bourne Hall, Derby.

Gaselee, Mr. Serjeant, Temple.

Gwinnett, William H., Esq., Chelten-
ham.

Hedges, John Kiebt, Esq., Wallingford
Castle.

Helps, Aethue S., Esq., Gloucester.

Locke, John, Esq., Q.C., M.P., Temple.

Longbouene, John V., Esq., 7 Lincoln's
lun Fields.

Lucas, Chaeles Rose, Esq., Lincoln's
Inn.

Peake, Henet, Esq., Sleaford.

Rowcliffe, Edwaed Lee, Esq., 1 Bed-
ford Row.

Waetkk, Heket de Geey, Esq., Long-
don Manor, near Shrewsbury.

White, John Thomas, Esq., 11 Bedford
Row.

Hoopee, A. Catchmayd, Esq., Worcester. | Woodeooffe, Geo. Thos., Esq., Lincoln's
Jay, Samuel, Esq., Lincoln's Inn. I Inn.

Auditors.
Philip Robeets, Esq., 2 South Square, I Steeling Westhoep, Esq., Ipswich.
Gray's Inn. I H. S. Faiefoot, Esq., Clement's Inn.

Aechibald Day, Esq., London.
Physician— H. Pitman, M.D., 28 Gordon Square.
Solicitor— R. H. Buene, Esq., 1 Lincoln's Inn Fields.
Bankers— Union Bank of London, Chancery Lane.
Actuary and Secretary— Ralph Peice Haedy, Esq.

HIGH ORDER OF SECURITY OFFERED.

1. — Valuation reserves based upon the strictest known principles.

The table of mortality used is that known as the ' Institute of Actuaries' Experience,'
which is founded on and represents the mortality of assured lives, an additional
reserve being made for policies of five years' standing and upwards.

The rate of interest assumed has been 3 per cent. only.

The whole of the ' loading ' on the premiums has been reserved for future expenses
and profits.

The safely of these principles of valuation, will be seen on reference to Messrs. Malcolm and
Hamilton's Report to the Board of Trade, dated 10th July 1874.

2.— An accumulated Fund exceeding THREE QUARTERS OF A

MILLION".
3.— A subscribed Capital cf ONE MILLION, guaranteed by members
solely of the legal profession.
Copies of the Accounts and of the full Statements rendered to the Board
of Trade, and all other information, may be had on application to

RALPH P. HARDY, Actuary and Secretary.

Advertising Sheet.

fhitimml Jftfe %immit %u\t\%

FOR MUTUAL ASSURANCE & ENDOWMENTS,
2 KING WILLIAM STREET, LONDON, E.C.

Established in 1SSO.

DIRECTORS.

President— GEORGE BURNAND, Esq.

Vice-President — THOMAS CURTIS, Esq.

JOHN BLLNPELL, Esq.
HARRY CHUBB. Esq.
JOSEPH COLLING, Esq.
FREDERICK LOCK. Esq.
GEORGE NICHOLAS, Esq.

LORD WM. B. PHIPPS.
HENRY POLLOCK, Esq.
JOHN CHARLES SALT, Esq.
The Hon. G. TALBOT.
Capt. H. W. TYLER, late R.E.

Actuary— CHARLES ANSELL, Jun., Esq.

The quinquennial valuation made at the end of 1875 enabled the Directors
to declare a Reduction of Sixty per Cent, upon the original premiums
on all Policies in Class A for the five years ending with 1SS0.

In Class B Policies hare a reduction of Premium for the whole term of
Life; which, in the cases of those effected in 1871 varies from 3| percent,
to 24 per cent., according to the age of the life assured.

VALUATION BALANCE SHEET, 31st December, 1875 :

Assurance Fund (accumulated solely from Premiums) £675,883 3 8

Net Liability under Assurance and Annuity transactions ... 337,366 16 O

Surplus available for future Bonus and Expenses £338,516 7 8

All the Profits belong to the Assured, and are applied to the gradual
reduction and ultimate extinction of their premiums, a result which may be
expected to occur, in the average of cases, in about 20 years from the date of
the Policy.

Funds for the Education of Children, and for their Establish-
ment in Life may bo provided od unusually favourable terms, on a w rw
system introduced by this Society, based upon Tables of Mortality specially
constructed for the purpose.

This Society employs NO -AG FONTS and pays NO COMMISSION, Persons
desiring to effect assurances on Lives in any part of the country are invited
to APPLY DIRECT to-

HENRY JOHN PUCKLE, Secretary.

Advertising Sheet.

OPPOSITE THE MANSION HOUSE. LONDON.

Founded A.D. 1762.
The Oldest Life Office on the Mutual Principle in the world.

BONUS TABLE FOR 1877.

Table showing the Amount payable under a Policy for £1000 (with its
additions), in the event of its becoming a claim after payment of the
premium due in the year 1877.

Policy No.

Policies effected since December 31, 1816

Sum payable

with

Additions

1 to 164 ....

165 to 660 ... .

G61 to 1019 ....

1021 to 1413 ....

1415 to 185G

1857 to 2245 ....

2247 to 2699

2700 to 3082

3083 to 3349

3350 to 3792 ....

3794 to 4207

4210 to 4617

4618 to 4973

4974 to 5328

5329 to 5678

5679 to 6024

6025 to 6360

6363 to 6727

6730 to 7044

7045 to 7446

7448 to 7740

7741 to 7997

7993 to 8272

8273 to 8586

8587 to 8835

8836 to 8974

8975 to 9102

9103 to 9221

9222 to 9359

9360 to 9463

9464 to 9586

9587 to 9720

9721 to 9819

9820 to 9.953

9954 to 10.065

10,066 to 10,154

10,155 to 10,250

10,251 to 10,320

10,321 to 10.154

10,455 to 10,699

10,700 to 10,891

From 1st Jan. 1817 to
„ 24th April 1817 to
„ 18th April 1818 to
5th Feb. 1819 to
„ 7th Jan. 1820 to
,', 23rd Dec. 1820 to
„ 1st Dec. 1821 to
„ 7th Mar. 1823 to
„ 25th May 1824 to
9th Mar. 1825 to
„ 7th Nov. 1826 to
„ 21st July 1828 to
„ 3rd Mar. 1830 to
24th Nov. 1831 to
„ 1st Aug. 1833 to
„ 19th June 1835 to
21st July 1837 to
„ 24th Jan. 1839 to
„ 15th Dec. 1840 to
„ 12th Nov. 1842 to
„ 19th June 1845 to
„ 3rd Mar. 1847 to
„ 14th Nov. 1848 to
„ 19th Nov. 1850 to
„ 26th July 1853 to
„ 1st Jan. 1856 to
„ 1st Jan. 1857 to
„ 1st Jan. 1858 to
„ 1st Jan. 1859 to

1st Jan. 1860 to
„ 1st Jan. 1861 to
„ 1st Jan. 1862 to
„ 1st Jan. 1863 to
„ 1st Jan. 1864 to

1st Jan. 1865 to
„ 1st Jan. 1866 to
,, 1st Jan. 1867 to
„ 1st Jan. 1868 to

1st Jan. 1869 to
„ 1st Jan. 1870 to
„ 1st Jan. 18.71 to

4th Feb. 1819

2695

0
10

0
10
10
10
10
10

10* !

10 1

3rd Jan. 1820

22nd Dec. 1820

.... 2615
2535

30th Nov. 1 821

7th Mar. 1823

.... 2455
...? 2375

24th May 1824

2295

8th Mar. 1825

3rd Nov. 1826

2215

2160

15th July 1828

2105

1st Mar. IS30

2050

24th Nov. 1831

1st Aue. 1833

.... 199S
1940

21st July 1837

1830

22nd Jan. 1839

2nd Mar. 1847

14th Nov. 1848

.... 1775

1595

.... 1560

19th Nov. 1850

31st Dec. 1856

31st Dec. 1857

31st Dec. 1858

31st Dec. I860

31st Dec. 1861

3lst Dec. 1SU2

1525

.... 1420
.... 1385
.... 1350

1297

1280

1262

31st Deo. 1863

.... 1245

31st Dec. 18ii4

1227

31st Dec. 1865

1192

31st Dec. 1866

31st Dec. 1867

.... 1157
1122

31st Dec. 1868

1087

.... 1017

The Equitable does NOT allow COMMISSION".

J. WARE STEPHENSON, Actuary.

Advertising Sheet.

THE

PROVIDENT LIFE OFFICE

50 REGENT STREET, LONDON, W.

FOUNDED 1806.

BRANCH OFFICES.

CITY

EDINBURGH

DUBLIN

LIVERPOOL

MANCHESTER

BIRMINGHAM

LEEDS

BRISTOL

EXPJTER

CANTERBURY

14 Cornhill, E.C.

75 George Street.

113 Grafton Street.

3 Whitechapel, Lord Street.

68 Fountain Street.

20 Colmore Row.

9 East Parade.

38 College Green

Queen Street.

St. George's Road.

Existing Assurances -
Invested Eunds
Annual Income
Claims Paid

£5,526,706

1,878,819

244,230

5,602,592

Policies effected before the 1st January 1878 will be entitled to
share in the next Division of Profits, in May 1878.

In the Provident, a Bonus, immediately it is declared, becomes
absolute property, and may at any time be surrendered for a Cash
Payment — applied to the Reduction of the Annual Premium — or
allowed to remain an addition to the Sum Assured.

Bonuses
declared.

to the amount of £2,012,155 have already been

A.dvertising Sheet.

THE CLERGY MUTUAL ASSURANCE SOCIETY.

ESTABLISHED IN 1829.

Office : 2 Broad Sanctuary, Westminster.

Trustees.
His Grace the Archbishop of Canterbury.

His Grace the: Archbishop of Dublin. I The archdeacon of Maidstone.

Treasurers.
Edmund Codlthcust, Esq. ' The Archdeacon of Westminster.

Directors.
Chairman'— The Archdeacon of Westminster. | Deputy-Chairman -Robert Few, Esq.

Charles John Baker. Esq.
The Archdeacon of Bath
Rev. Canon Biomfield. M.A.
The Dean of Bristol
The Archdeacon of Buckingham
Rev. J. Lovett Cameron, M.A.
Rev. C. B. Dalton, M.A.
Rev. W. H. Dickinson. M.A.
The Hon. Edward W. Douglas
Rev. George Eller, M.A.
Consulting Actuary— Frederick Ilendriks, Esq.
Actuary— Stewart Helder, Esq.

Rev. Canon Ellison, MA.
Hon. & Rev. Canon Grey, M.A.
Rev. W. Gilson Humphry, B.D.
The Archdeacon of London.
Rev. Canon Lonsdale, M.A.
The Archdeacon of Maidstone.
The Dean of Manchester.
Rev. Charles Marshall, M.A.
Kev. Canon Millar. D.D.
Rev. J. M. Burn-Murdoch, M.A.

The Bishop Suffragan of Not-
tingham

William Rivinjrton, Esq.

Rev. Canon Stone, M.A.

W. H. Stone, Esq., M.D.

John Charles Tliynne, Esq.,
M.A.

Rev. Henry Wace.M.A.

Rev. Canon Williams, M.A.

Physician— Dr. Stone, H Dean's Yard.
Secretary— Matthew Hodgson, Esq.

Total Funds

Total Annual Income ..
Total Claims Faid

£2,352,257

277,512

1,365,023

The Whole of the Profits are divided amongst the Assured. £343,140 was divided amongst Life Assur-
ances at the Declaration of Bonus on 1st June last.

Assurances may be effected on LIVES, SURVIVORSHIPS, &e. &". as stated in the
Society's Prospectuses, to any amount not exceeding £7,500.

Forms of Proposal, Prospectuses, &c, may be had on application to the Office, personally or by letter.

2 BROAD SANCTUARY, WESTMINSTER.

EAGLE INSURANCE COMPANY

IFOR LIVES ONLY),

79 PALL MALL, LONDON, S.W.

EST-A-ZBULISHEID 1807-

DIRECTORS

GEOEGE RUSSELL, Esq., Chairman.
CHARLES JELLICOE, Esq., F.R.G.S., Deputy -Chairman.

THOMAS ALLEN, Esq.
CHARLES BTSCHOFF, Esq.
THOMAS BODDIXGTON, Esq.
CHARLES CHATFIELD, Esq.
Sir J. BULLER-EAST, Bart., D.C.L.

ROBERT ALEX. GRAY, Esq.
WILLIAM A. GUY, M.D., F.R.S.
RALPH LUDLOW LOPES, Esq.
JAS. MURRAY, Esq., C.B., F.R.G.S.
Sir PHILIP ROSE, Bart.

ACTUARY AND SECRETARY.
GEORGE HUMPHREYS, Esq., M.A.

Premiums and Interest £456,176

Accumulated Funds £3,056,035

Also a Subscribed Capital of more than £1,500,000
Expenses of Management barely exceed Three per cent, of the
Gross Income.

Annual Reports, Prospectuses, and Forms, may be had, or will be sent, Post-free, on
application at the Office, or to any of the Company's Agents.

Advertising sheet. 13

THE BIRKBECK

ESTABLISHED 1851.

& 30 SOUTHAMPTON BUILDINGS, CHANCERY LANE.

THE BIRKBECK BANK opens Drawing and Deposit Accounts with trading
firms and private individuals upon the plan usually adopted by other Bankers,
but with the important exception that it allows interest on the balances in its
hands, however small.

On Current or Drawing Accounts Interest is allowed on the minimum
monthly balances. Deposits received at Interest repayable on demand, or as
may be arranged.

The Bank undertakes the custody of securities of customers, and the collec-
tion of Bills of Exchange, Dividends, and Coupons. Stocks and .Shares
purchased and sold, and advances made thereon.

Letters of Credit and Circidar Notes procured for all parts of Europe and
elsewhere.

The utmost facilities are afforded to those keeping accounts with the Bank
for the payment of Annuities and for the transmission of money to the Colonies,
the Continent, and America. The Bank acts also as agents for receiving the
pay of Officers of the Army and Navy at home and abroad.

Office Hours from 10 to 4, excepting on Saturdays, when the Bank closes at 2 o'clock. On
Mondays the Bank is open until S o'clock in the evening.

A Pamphlet containing full particulars may be obtained on application.

FBANCIS EAVENSCEOFT, Manager.

THE YORKSHIRE

FIRE AND LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY,

Established at York 1824, ami Empowered by Act of Parliament.

Capital— £500,000. Accumulated Fund, £072,580. Annual Income, £137,407.

TBITSTEES.

LEONARD THOMPSON, Esq., W. H. HARRTSON-BROADLEY, Esq., M.P.

The Right Hon. Lord WENLOCK.

This Company has been established more than Fifty-two years. Ample time has therefore
elapsed to test the soundness of the principles upon which it has been conducted.

LIFE IDEJP-A-I^TDVrEITT.
This Office combines every substantial advantage offered by any Assurance Company.
The Rates of Premium, with and WITHOUT PROFITS, are moderate. The Bonuses granted
are unusally large. Eighty per cent, of the profits divided anions the insured, who are
under no liability for partnership. No charge made for Stamps or Medical Pi e .

FIRE DEPARTMEITT,
The Rate of Premium for Private Swelling Houses, built of Brick or Stone, and Tiled
or Slated, is Is. 6rf. per Cent. Insurances are taken on the mosi moderate terms, in accord-
ance with the nature of the risk. Losses caused by the Explosion of Gafi are covered by
this Company.

Prospectuses, Tables of Rates, Forms of Proposal, and every information on the subject
of Fire and Life Insurance business can be obtained on application at the Head Office, York,
or to any of its Agents throughout the United Kingdom,

secretary ami Genera] Manager- v. L. ma\vi»i:si.,i:y. ksii.

Actuary- YV. I,. .YEYV.n.lY, Bsq.

14 Advertising Sheet.

THE DAILY NEWS.

NOTICE TO ADVERTISERS.

DUKING the year 1876, the circulation of the 'DAILY NEWS' received an
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Advertising Sheet. 15

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16 Advertising Sheet.

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Advertising Sheet. 17

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Advertising Sheet.

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assured by such paid-up Policy will be in proportion to the number of Premiums paid;— for
instance, supposing £500 to have been the amount originally assured, and that five Annual
Premiums out of a series of ten have been paid, then a paid-up policy for £250 (or five- tenths
of a £500) would be granted.

Prospectuses, Reports, and Proposal Forms, can be obtained on application to the Society's Agents
and Branch Offices, or to —

F. ALLAN CURTIS, Actuary and Secretary.
Application for Agencies from Gentlemen in a position to introduce Business may be
addressed to the Actuary and Secretary, at the Head Office.

Advertising Sheet.

LCfSUI H« 11/(1* / I UjJUtU

id Branch Offices, or to —

• oc/cieiy ! Agents

F. ALLAN CURTIS, Actuary and Secretary.

on for Agencies from Gentlemen in a position to introduce Business may be
addressed to the Actuary and Secretary, at the Head Office.

I 9

51
S?

cop. 3

The Statesman's year-bo^k

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Full text of "The Statesman's year-book; statistical and historical annual of the states of the world. Rev. after official returns"

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