'Advertising Sheet.
E I 3VE I> 13 "El I A H.
INSURANCE COMPANY, LIMITED.
1 OZZ> BROAD STREET, AND 22 P^iZ i/Jii, LONDON.
ESTABLISHED 1830.
Subscribed Capital, £1,200,000. Paid-up Capital, £300,000.
Invested Assets (Capital and Reserves), over £1,600,000.
DIRECTORS.
Gilliat, John Saunders, Esq., M. P.
Alexander, James Dalison, Esq.
Ashton, Richard James, Esq.
Barclay, Charles, Esq.
Barclay, Thomas George, Esq.
Bevan," Francis Augustus, Esq.
bosanquet. pehcival, esq.
Brand, James, Esq.
Chambers, Sir George Henry.
Farquhar, Horace B. T., Esq.
Field, George Hanbury, Esq.
Beck, B. C. Adams. Esq.
Newman, Robert Lydston, Esq
Hale, John Hampton, Esq.
Hill, John Sheriff, Esq.
Huth, Edward, Esq.
Lawrie, Alex., Esq.
Lidderdale, Francis Fredk., Esq.
Murdoch, C. Townshend, Esq., Ml'.
Newman. Thomas Holdsworth, Esq.
Smith, Martin Ridley, Esq.
Twining, Richard, Esq.
AUD.TORS.
Prescott, Henry Warner, Esq.
Rugge-Price, Charles, Esq.
GENERAL MANAGER-E. Cozens Smith.
Insurances against Fire on every Description of Property at Home, in Foreign
Countries, and in the Colonies.
Moderate Rates, Undoubted Security, Prompt and Liberal Settlement of Claims.
Loss or Damage by Gas Explosion and Lightning nmde good. No Charge for either
Policy or Stamp. The usual Commission allowed to Merchants and Brokers effecting Foreign
and Ship Insurances.
IMPERIAL LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY.
ESTABLISHED 1820.
Subscribed Capital, £750,000, Accumulated Funds, £1,646,000.
DIRECTORS.
Barclay, C, Esq., National Provincial
Bank of England.
Bevan, F. A., Esq., Barclay, Ransom &
Co.
Brand, J., Esq., Harvev, Brand * Co*
Chambers, Sir Geo. H , Tims. Daniel &
Co., Limited.
Field, Geo. H., Ehq., National Provincial
Bank of Enuland.
Hale. J. H.. Esq., 8t. Andrew's Wharf,
Blaekfriars.
Hankey, R. A., Esq., Thomson, Hanker
&Co.
Hill. J. Sheriff, Esq., Young, Ehkrs &
Co.
Lawrie, Alex., Esq., Alex. Lawrie & Co.
Marten, G. N., Esq., Smith, Marten &
Co.
Prescott, H. W., Esq., Prescott, Din.sdale
A Co.
Smith, Martin R., Esq., Smith,
Smiths.
AUDITOR8.
Percival Bohanquet, Esq. | Edward Botle, Esq.
Messrs. C. F. Kkmt, Ford A Co.
MANAGER & ACTUARY-Jamks Ciiisihu.m. AGENCY MANAGER— William Scot.
The distiiiguishin:^ fiutims ..f the fCIMpaTIJ include: —
Low Rates. Liberal Conditions. Non-forfeitable Policies.
Immediate Settlement of Claims. Free Travelling all over the World.
THK BONUS DECLARED IN 1891 WAS AT THE HIGHEST RATE
ATTAINED IN THE HISTORY OF THE COMPANY.
Existing Bonus Additions vary from £1 2s. Oil on a Policy effected just before the
last Division of Profits, to iC144 on the oldest Policies for each £100
originally assured.
P)otpectu$ pott free on application*
[B]
Advertising Slieet.
SCOTTISH PROVIDENT INSTITUTION,
Edinburgh, 6 St. Andrew Square ; London, 17 King William St., E.C.
TRUSTEES.
Sir Robert Jardixe, of Castle arilk, Bart., I A.H.Leslie Melville. Esq , Banker, Lincoln.
MI'. John A. Campbell, Esq., of Strocathro
John Cowan, Esq., of Beealack, Midlothian. I LL.D., M.P.
Bight Hon. Lord Watson, of Thankerton, one of the Lords of Appeal.
This Society differs in its Principles from other Offices.
Instead of charging rates higher than are necessary, and returning the excess in the
shape of periodical Bonuses it gives from the first as large an Assurance as the Premiums
will with safety bear — reserving the whole surplus for those (a majority of the whole
members) who live to secure the Common Fund from lou.
A Policy for £1.300 to £1.250 may thus at most ages be had for the premium usually
charged (with Profits) for £1,000 only ; while by reiercing the Surplus, lar^e additions have
been given — and may be expected— on the Policies of those who live to participate.
At last Septennial Investigation (1887), notwithstanding the moderate Premiums
chaiyt-d, the Surplus declared was £1.051.036. One-third was reserved for accumulation
and future division, and remainder (£700,690) was divided among 9,384 Policies entitled to
participate. First additions were (with few unimportant exceptions) from 18 or 20 to 34
per cent., according to age and class. Other policies were increased 50 to 80 per cent.
Bonuttt to Policiet participating, which became claiwu latt fear, averaged 49 per cent.
The system is one specially suited for Family Provisions. It secures for the Premium
paid the largest Assurance during the period when a family is most dependent, and it
returns the whole Surplus to those who have proved Good Lives.
Examples of Premium for £100 at death— with Profits.
Age 2S
During Life
21 Payments
£ i. d.
1 IS 0
30
£ $. d.
2 16*
J 12 6 i 2 15 4
35 40
£ I d. £ «. d
2 6 10 I 2 14 9t
3 0 2 ' 3 7 ."•
45 50
£ «. d. £ «. d.
S 5 9 4 17
3 17 6 I 4 12 1
[The usual non-participating rates differ very little from these Premiums.]
* Thus a person of 30 may secure £1,000 at Death by a yearly payment, during life, of
£20 15*., which would generally elsewhere secure £800 only. OR, he may secure ti.e same
sum by 21 payments of £27 13*. id. — being tkmfree of payment after age 50.
t At age 40 the Premium, eeatino at 60, is, for £1.000, £33 14*. 2d., — being about the
same as most Offices require during the whole term of life Before thete Premium* have
eeated, the Policy wiU have thared in at least one division of profit*.
THE ACCUMULATED FUNDS EXCEED £7,500,000.
Their Increase in last Septennium was greater than in any other Office in the Kingdom
— due in large measure to systematic economy of management, the ratio of expenses over
the same period having been under 10 per cent, of premiums.
The New Assurances have in each of last 18 years exceeded £1,000,000.
All Policies (not seafaring or military risks, for which special arr mgements are made)
are World-Wide after five years - provided the Assured has attained the age of 30.
The arrangements as to Surrender, Nonforfeiture, Loans ok Policies (within, their
value), Early Payment of Claims, 4c, are specially liberal.
REPORTS vith f nil information and Tables of Rates, may be, had on application.
JAMES GRAHAM WATSON, Manager.
J. MU1R LEITCH, London Secretary.
M
Advertising Sheet.
THE
LEGAL AND GENERAL
LIFE ASSURANCE SOCIETY.
The Right Hon. Lord Halsbury, the Loid
Chancellor.
The Right Hon. Lord Coleritge, the
Lord Chief Justice.
TRUSTEES.
The Hon. Mr. Justice Kekewich.
Sir James Parker Deane, Q.C., D.C.L.
Frederick John Blake, Esq.
William Williams, Esq.
DIRECTORS.
Bacon, The Right Hon. Sir James.
Blake, Fred. John, Esq.
Brooks, William, Esq. (Basingstoke).
Carlisle, William Thomas. Esq.
Deane, Sir James Parker, Q.C., D.C.L.
Dickinson. James, Esq., Q.C.
Ellis, Edmund Henry, Esq.
Frere, Bartle J. Laurie, Esq.
Garth, The Right Hon. Sir Richard, Q.C.
Gregory, George Burrow, Esq.
Harrison, Chas., Esq.
Kekewich, The Hon. Mr. Justice.
Lopes, The Right Hon. the Lord Justice.
Markby, Alfred, Esq.
Mathew, The Hon. Mr. Justice.
Meek, A. Grant, Esq. (Devizes).
Mellor, The Rt. Hon. J. W., Q.C.
Mills, Richard, Esq.
Morrell. Fredc. P., Esq. (Oxford).
Pemberton, Henry Leigh, Esq.
Pennington, Bichard, Esq.
Riddell, Sir W. Bichanan, Bart.
Rowcliffe, Edward Lee, Esq.
Saltwell, William Henry, Esq.
Win iams, C. Reynolds, Esq.
Williams, Romer, Esq.
Will^ms, William, Esq.
ESTABLISHED
OVER HALF A CENTURY.
SIMPLE.'1 UFt ,
BANKERS.
Messrs.
Child.
SECURE
SOLICITOR.
N. T.
Lawrence, Esq.
P&
FREE.
PHYSICIAN.
TnOMA8T.WHIPHAM,Esq.,M.D.
ACTUARY & MANAGER.
E. Colquhovn, Esq.
ADVANTAGES
NO CONDITIONS.
1. Policies freu from all -Restrictions and Conditions.
2. Guaranteed Surrender Villi os
8. Automatic 8yatem for Protection of Loans from Forfeiture.
4. I .urge Bonuses.
6. Simplicity.
«. 8cr.urity.
7. Immediate payment of Death Claims.
Loans made on Reversionary and Life Interests on Moderate Terms,
which are also purchased at favourable prices.
lO FLEET STREET, LONDON,
\To fact IlatftitU .}
M
E.C.
THE
STATESMAN'S YEAR BOOK
1892
TWENTY-NINTH ANNUAL PUBLICATION
s-
THE
STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK
STATISTICAL AND HISTORICAL ANM'ALOF
j THK >TATK> Cat TF1K WORLD
FOR THE YEAR
189
KIHTF.P i:v
J. SCOTT KKLTTE
I.II-.i:ai:ia\ TO JVM ROYAL OBOOBAFHK vi HOCWn
TWENTY NINTH ANNUAL PUBLICATION
llEl'ISED AFTER OFFICIAL RETURNS
1L • n iJ 0 n
M ACMILLAN AND CO.
A N P X I \V YORK*
1892
lb
/ #?*.
Man, sagt oft : Zahlen regieren die Welt.
Das al>er ist gewiss, Zahlen zeigen wie sie regiert wild.
C.OF.THK.
2.
n i G
PREFACE
The publication of the Year-Book this year has been to
some extent delayed by the fact that the results of the Censuses
of the leading countries of the world had to be incorporated ;
and other important classes of statistics came in at an un-
usually late period. The changes in the Year-Book for 1892
have been heavy and extensive, and it is hoped that the work
will be found to contain the latest available statistics on all
subjects of interest to public men. All the important changes
that have occurred during the last few weeks, it is believed
have been incorporated.
One new feature this year is the introduction of Maps.
These all relate to subjects of present interest : — the Density
of Population of the Globe on the basis of new censuses and
estimates; the Distribution of the British Empire over the
Globe ; the Partition of Africa ; and the International Frontiers
on the Pamirs. This last map relates to a subject of very great
moment. It will be found to differ in many important respects
from maps that have appeared in newspapers and elsewhere in
connection with the Pamir question. Its accuracy is guaranteed
by the fact that it has been revised by the highest authorities
on the subject, both from the political and the geographical
vi THE STATESMAN S YEAll-BOOK, 1892
standpoint. Similar maps bearing on questions of present interest
will be introduced in future years.
I have again to convey my warmest acknowledgments to
the various Governments, Government officials, Diplomatic and
Consular representatives, and private individuals, who have so
generously continued to give me their assistance. Without their
co-operation, it would be impossible to carry on the Year-Book
with efficiency. In the editorial work of the Yeae-Book I
have received much assistance from Mr. I. P. A. Ren wick, M.A.
•J. S. K.
Office of ' The Statesman's Yeau-Book,'
29 & 30 Bedford Street, Strand,
London, "W.C.
February, 1892.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTORY TABLES
I. The Population of the Earth xxv
IE The World's Money xxvi
III. The Forest Area of Europe xxvii
IV. The Partition of Africa . xxvii
V. The British Empire xxx
Additions ami Corrections ....... xxxu
MAI'S.
I. Density of Population, 1891.
II. The Extent of the British Empire, 1891.
III. Political Map of Africa, 1891.
IV. The Frontier Question on the Pamirs.
Part the First.
THE BRITISH EMPIRE.
I. Taos United K
IKGDOM OF
Gnux Britain and Ireland —
CAGE
Defence . . .
r.\or
Constitution ami Gk
vein
58
ment
6
Production ami Industry
63
Area and Population
14
Commerce
76
Religion .
28
Shipping and Navigation
84
Instruction
33
Internal Communications
87
Justice and Crime
37
Money and Credit
91
Pauperism
40
Books of Reference .
94
Finance .
41
II. India, the Coloxiej
i, Prot
ECTORATES, AND DePENDENlIE-
5 —
PAGE
PAGE
Europe —
Ceylon —
Gibraltar .
98
Constitution and Govern
Malta
99
ment
102
Asia —
Al>EN AMI PERIM
Area and Population.
103
100
Religion .
Instruction
104
104
Bahrein Islands
100
Justice and Crime
105
Borneo (British)
101
Pauperism
105
Vlll
THE STATESMAN^ YEAR-BOOK, 1892
Ceylon —
Finance ....
Defence ....
Production and Industry .
Commerce
Communications
Money and Credit
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Dependency
Books of Reference .
Cyprus ....
Hong Kong
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Area and Population
Instruction .
Justice and Crime
Finance ....
Defence ....
Commerce and Shipping .
Money and Credit
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Books of Reference .
India and Dependencies —
Government and Constitu-
tion ....
Area and Population
Religion ....
Instruction
Justice and Crime
Finance ....
Defence ....
Production and Industry .
Commerce
Shipping and Navigation .
Internal Communications .
Money and Credit
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Books of Reference .
Baluchistan .
Sikkim ....
Am.am \n and Nioobah
Islands
La< rw,w i; Islands
K \M.\l: AN l>I. AMI
Labuan .
105
106
106
106
108
108
108
108
108
109
111
111
112
112
112
113
113
114
114
115
116
118
126
127
128
129
133
135
140
145
1 17
150
151
152
If. I
156
157
157
157
158
The Straits Settlements —
Constitution and Govern-
ment
. 158
Area and Population ,
. 159
Instruction
. 160
Justice and Crime
. 161
Finance .
. 161
Defence .
. 162
Production and Industry
. 162
Commerce
. 162
Shipping and Navigation
. 164
Communications
. 164
Money and Credit
. 164
Money, Weights, and
Measures
. 164
Books of Reference .
. 165
.FRICA —
Ascension Island
. 166
Basutoland
. 166
Bechuanaland .
. 167
Cape of Good Hope—
Constitution and Govern
ment
. 168
Area and Population
. 170
Religion .
. 171
Instruction
. 171
Justice and Crime
. 172
Pauperism
. 172
Finance .
. 172
Defence .
173
Production and Industry
173
Commerce
171
Shipping and Navigation .
17;.
Internal Communications
176
Banks
176
Money, Weights, am
Measures
176
Books of Reference .
177
East Africa (British)
178
M \i i;tnr.s— ■
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
179
Area and Population.
180
Finance ....
181
1 'efence ....
181
Commerce
181
Shipping and ( 'oiniuunica-
tions
182
Money. Weights, and
Measures
182
Dependencies .
l B2
Hook t)f K'T' TrUCC .
183
CONTENTS
IX
PACE
PAGE
Natal—
America—
Constitution and Govern
Canada —
ment
. 183
Money and Credit .
. 219
Area and Population
Instruction
. 184
Money, Weights, and
. 184
Measures
Finance .
. 185
Books of Referen
. 220
Defence .
. 185
Falkland I.-i .am>.<
Industry .
. 185
Commerce
. 186
Ghana, Briti.-h
Shipping and Coniumnica
H"M'IKA>. Bbxtkb .
. 224
tions
Books of Reference .
. 187
. 187
Newkovndland and Lae
RADOR
Niger Territories .
. 188
West Indies
Oil Rivers Protectorate
. 189
St. Helena
. 190
Bahamas.
, ttS
Tristas D'Acunha .
. 192
Barbados
. 227
West African OofLOimsB -
Jamaica .
. 228
The Gnu. Coast
. 192
Leeward Islands .
. 230
Lagos .
. 192
Trinidad
. 231
GAMBIA .
. 192
Windward Island-
. 231
SlERKA Lbohk.
192
Statistics of West Indies
. 232
Zambezia (British) and
Australasia and Oceania
Hyasbaxahd
. 195
Fiji—
Zanzibar —
Constitution and < •
Sultan and Government
. 198
ment
. 235
Ana ami Population
. 199
Area and Population
. 23.-
Religion .
. 199
Religion .
. 236
Justice
. 199
Instruction
236
Finance .
199
Finance .
. 236
Army
. 200
Production and Industry
. 237
Commerce
200
Commerce
. 237
Books of Reference .
200
Shipping and Coniumnica
Zr/LULAND .
201
tions ....
238
Money, Weights. and
America —
Measures
Bermudas .
202
Books of Reference .
. 23S
Canada —
New Guinea. British
238
Books of Reference .
. 239
Constitution and Govern
ment .
203
New South Wales —
Area and Population
206
Constitution and Govern
.
Religion .
208
ment
239
Instruction
208
Area and Population
241
Justice and Crime
209
Religion .
242
Finance .
210
Instruction
243
Defence ....
212
Justice and Crime
244
Production and Industry
213 '
Finance .
244
Commerce
214
Defence
245
Shipping and Navigation
218
Production and Industry
246
Internal Communications
218 1
Commerce
249
THE STATESMAN 8 JTEAB-BOOK. 1892
New South Wales—
Shipping and Navigation
251
Internal Communications
251
Money and ( Iredit
252
Books of Reference .
253
Sew Zealand—
Government and Consti
tution .
254
Area and Population
256
Religion . . .
258
Instruction
258
Justice and Crime
259
Pauperism
259
Finance ...
260
Defence . . .
260
Production and Industry
262
Commerce
264
Shipping and Navigation
267
Internal Communications
267
Money and Credit .
268
Books of Reference .
269
Queensland —
Constitution and Govern
ment
269
Ana and Population .
270
Religion .
271
Instruction
272
Justice and Crime
272
Pauperism
272
Finance .
272
Defence .
273
Production and Industry
273
Commerce
271
Shipping and Navigation
275
Internal < tommuuicatibns
275
Banks
275
Books of Reference .
275
Sooth Australia —
Constitution and Govern
merit . . .
276
Area and Population
277
Religion .
278
Instruction
278
Justice and Crime
278
Defence .
279
Finance .
279
Production and Industry
279
Commerce
280
Shipping and Navigation
281
Communications
281
Banks
282
Bqoks of Referent e .
282
Tasmania —
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 282
Area and Population . 283
Religion . . . ; 284
Instruction . . .284
Justice and Crime
Pauperism . . . 285
Revenue and Expenditure . 286
Defence .... 286
Production and Industry . 286
Commerce . . . 287
Shipping and Navigation . 288
Internal Communications . 288
Books of Reference . . 289
Victoria —
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .289
Area and Population . . 290
Religion . . . .292
Instruction . . . 292
Justice and Crime . . 298
Finance .... 28 1
Defence . . . .295
Production and Industry . 295
Commerce . 296
Shipping and Navigation . 299
Internal Communications. 299
Money and < iredit . . 300
Books of Reference . . 300
\Yr.sTI'i:\- A l si i; \u \
Constitution and Govern*
ment .... 301
Ana and Population . . 302
Religion .... 302
Instruction . . . 303
Justice and Crime . . 303
Pauperism
Finance .... 304
Defence .... 304
Production and Industry . 804
Commerce . . . 3u.">
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 306
\lniic, and ( iredit . . 808
I '.(inks of Kcfcrclice . . 808
Australian Defence . . 307
Australasian Federation . 307
Books of Reference . . 308
PA! Illi Isl.AM's. . . 309
i ONTENTS
PaKT illK SK< OMD.
FOREIGN COtJNTRIEa
AFGHANISTAN' .
I'AOt
. 313
Tiadc
Books of Reference .
. 315
. 316
AFRICA: CENTRAL IX-
DEPEXDEXT s FATES—
Central Sudan States —
Burnt ....
WaKAI — Ka.NEM - I>A(i-
1RMI .
Egyptian Si man
Dahomey ....
A K< J B N T I X B KE PU BLIC—
< Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Area and Population
Religion ....
Instruction
Justice ....
Finance ....
Defence ....
Production and Industry .
< Sommetve
Shipping aud Navigation .
Internal Communications .
Money and Credit
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Diplomatic Representatives
Books of Reference .
AC STRIA- HUNGARY—
Reigning Sovereign
Constitution and Govern
ment
Area and population
Religion .
Instruction ' .
Justice and Crime
si;
Al -IKIA-Hl MARY —
Pauperism
Finance .... 349
Defence ....
Production and Industry . 358
Commerce . . 363
Shipping and Navigation . 36.r>
Internal Communications .
Money and Credit
Money, Weights, and
Mtasuivs . . .370
318
Diplomatic Representatives
371
319
Bosnia and Herzegovina .
371
Books of Reference .
'■>',-
320
BELGIUM
Reigning King .
■ ', t -'
Constitution and Govern-
322
ment ....
323
Area and Population .
37S
334
Religion ....
381
Instruction
380
324
Justice and Crime
32.-;
Pauperism
326
Finance ....
-
326
Defence
--
Production and Industiy .
■
330
i 'ommerce
330
Shipping and Navigation .
390
330
Internal Communications .
390
Money and Credit
391
331
Money, Weights, and
331
Measures
392
331
Diplomatic Representatives
392
Books of Reference .
393
333
BHUTAN ....
394
336
340
BOLIVIA—
344
Constitution and Govern-
346
ment ....
348
Area and Population .
386
Xll
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
Bolivia —
Religion, Instruction, and
Justice . . . .396
Finance .. . . 396
Defence . . . .396
Production and Industry . 396
Commerce . . . 396
Communications . . 397
Money, "Weights, and
Measures . . . . 397
Consular Representatives . 398
Books of Reference . . 398
BRAZIL—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 399
Area and Population . .401
Religion . . . .402
Instruction . . . 402
Justice and Crime . . 403
Finance .... 403
Defence .... 404
Production and Industry . 405
Commerce . . . 405
Shipping and Navigation . 406
Internal Communications . 407
Money and Credit . . 407
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 407
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . .108
Books of Reference . . 408
CHILE—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 410
Ires, and Population. . 411
Religion .... 112
Instruction' . . . 112
Justice and Crime . . 418
Finance .... 413
Defence . . . .418
Industry .... 414
Commerce . . . 414
Shipping and Navigation . 416
Communications . . 417
Honey and Credit . . 417
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 417
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 117
Books of Reference . . 118
CHINA—
Reigning Emperor . . 419
Government . . .419
Area and Population . . 420
Religion . . . .421
Instruction . . . 422
Finance . . . . 423
Defence . . . .423
Production and Industry . 425
Commerce . . . 425
Shipping and Navigation . 428
Internal Communications . 428
Money, "Weights, and
Measures . . . 429
Diplomatic Representatives 430
Books of Reference . . 430
COLOMBIA—
Constitution and Govern-
ment . . . .433
Area and Population . . 133
Religion and Education . 434
Finance . . . .434
Defence . . . .135
Production . . . 435
Commerce . . . 435
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 436
Money and Credit . . I-'!
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .■ 487
Diplomatic and Commer-
cial Representatives . 487
Books of Reference . . io7
CONGO FREE STATES . 439
Books of Reference . 140
COREA—
Government . . 441
Area and Population . . 441
Religion and Instruction . Ill
Finance . . . 441
Commerce . . 442
Books of Reference . 443
COSTA RICA—
Constitution and GfOVertt<
iiunt . . . .IN
Ana and Population . . 444
Instruction . . 444
Justice . . . .in
Finance . . . .445
CONTEXTS
Costa Rica—
Defence . . . .445
Industry and Commerce . 445
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 446
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .446
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 446
Books of Reference . . 447
DENMARK—
Reigning King . . 448
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 450
Area and Population . 451
Religion . . . .452
Instruction . . . 453
Crime .... 453
Finance . . . .453
Defence .... 455
Production and Industry . 456
Commerce . . . 456
Shipping and Navigation . 45S
Internal Communications 45S
Money and Credit . . 1 B s
Money, Weights, and
Measures
- Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . .459
Colonies .... 459
Books of Reference . . 460
ECUADOR—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 461
Area and Population . 461
Religion and Instruction . 462
Justice and Crime . . 462
Finance .... 462
Defence .... 463
Commerce . . . 463
Shipping and Navigation . 464
Internal Communications . 464
Money and Credit . . 464
Weights and Measures . 465
Diplomatic and Considar
Representatives . . 465
Books of Reference . . 466
FRANCE—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 467
Area and Population 471
Frakci —
Religion .... I7fl
Instruction . - 476
Justice and Crime
Pauperism . . . 17'.'
Finance .... 479
Defence . . . .484
Production and Industry . 492
Commerce . 496
Shipping and Navigation . 499
Internal Communications . 501
Money and Credit . . BOS
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Diplomatic Representatives 50::
Books of Reference . . 504
COLONIE-S AND DEPEND
ENi IK-
506
Asia-
French India .
508
French Indo-China .
508
Annam
509
Cambodia .
509
Cochin-China .
509
Tonqttin
510
Africa-
Algeria —
Government. . . . 510
Area and Population 510
Instruction . . . 510
Crime . . .510
Finance .... 510
Defence .... 512
Industry .... 512
Commerce . . .513
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 514
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 514
Books of Reference . . 514
French Congo and Gaben 515
Gold Coast Territories BIS
Madagascar —
Reigning Sovereign . B16
Government . . 816
XIV
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK. 1892
Madagascar —
Area and Population . 516
Religion and Education . 517
Justice . . . .518
Finance . . . .518
Defence . . . .518
Production and Industry . 518
Commerce . . .519
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 519
Money and Banks . . 519
Consular and other Re-
presentatives . . 519
Books of Reference . . 520
DlEGO-SlTAREZ, NoSSI-BE,
St. Marie . . . 520
Mayotte and the Comoro
Islands . . . 521
Reunion .... 521
Obook .... 521
Senegal, Rivieres duSvjd,
the Settlement on
the Guinea Coast,
the French Sudan,
and the French Sa-
BARA . . . . 522
Tunis—
Bey .... 52.1
Government . . . 5$8
Ana and Population . 52 I
Finance .... 524
Industry .... 524
Commerce . . . 525
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 526
Books of Reference . . 526
A MIRICA —
ClADEMHI']'. AND Dl.l'END-
i.NiiEs .... 527
(in ana .... 527
M LBTINIQUX . . . 527
St. I'ikkkk ami M [Ql k.i.un 5f£
i KAI.AsIA ANK OcKAMA —
\'l W I'M llMiMA ANI> 1>1 -
ITM.I Si Ms . . 52S
SnitKTV Isi.ANUS AMI
\i ii. !i i'i n i: inc. 8ROUPI 528
GERMAN EMPIRE—
Reigning Emperor and
King .
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Area and Population
Religion ....
Instruction
Justice and Crime
Pauperism
Finance ....
Defence ....
Production and Industry .
Commerce
Shipping and Navigation .
Internal Communications
Money and Credit
Money, Weights, and
Measures .
Diplomatic Representatives
Foreign Dependencies .
Togoland ....
Cameroons
German South -West
AFRICA
1 1 KiiMAN East Africa
In the Western Pacific .
States of Germany —
Alsace-Lorraine —
Constitution
Area and Population
Religion, instruction, Jus
tioe and Crime, Poor
relict' .
Finance .
Production and Industry
530
531
534
538
539
541
542
543
545
552
556
560
562
564
565
565
566
567
568
568
568
569
570
571
578
:.72
A MI ALT —
Reigning Duke
('(institution
Ana and Population
Finance .
Baden—
Ralgnlng Craml-Dukc
Constitution
Ana and Population
Religion and Education
Finance .
Production and Industry
Communications
.-i 7 I
578
574
."I
575
575
576
577
577
578
CONTEXTS
XV
JUVARIA—
Reigning Kin£
Regent ....
Constitution jand Govern-
ment .
Area and Population .
Religion ....
Instruction
Justice, Crime, and Pauper-
ism ....
Finance ....
Army
Production and Industry
Bremen -
Constitution
Area and Population .
Religion. Justice, and
Crime ....
Finance .
Commerce and Shipping .
Brunswick —
Regent ....
Constitution
Area ami Population .
Finance .
Production and Industry
Hamburg —
Constitution .
Area and Population .
Religion, Justice, Crime.
and Agriculture .
Finance .
Commexce and Shipping
Hesse —
Reigning Grand-Duke
Constitution
Area ami Population . [
Religion and Instruction ."
Finance . .
Production and Industry
Lippe —
Reigning Prince
Constitution
Area and Population .
Finance and Industry
579
580
582
582
583
583
585
585
586
586
586
■
587
588
590
590
590
592
593
698
598
594
594
594
594
595
595
Lftracs —
Constitution
Area and Population .
Religion, Instruction, Jus-
tice, and Pauperism
Revenue and Expenditure .
Commerce and Shipping .
MEfKLENBl-RG-SfHWERlX —
Reigning Grand-Duke
Constitution
Area and Population .
Religion and Instruction .
.Instico. Crime, and Pau-
perism ....
Finance ....
Production
Mk< ki.exbi'rg-Sthf.utz—
Reigning Grand-I)uke
Constitution and Finance .
Area, Population, tt.
Oldkxbcrg —
going Grand-Duke
« -institution SaKl Revenue.
Area and Population .
Religion and Instruction .
Justice and Pauperism
Production
Prussia —
Reigning King .
Constitution and Govern.
ment ....
Area and Population .
Religion ....
Instruction
Justice, Crime, and Pau-
perism ....
Finance .
Army
Production and Industry .
Commerce
Internal Communications .
Saxe-Weimar—
Reigning Oiand-Duke
Constitution and Revenue .
Area and Population .
Religion, Instruction, Jus.
tice, and Crime
Production
595
596
596
598
598
599
599
599
599
600
600
600
601
602
802
60S
603
604
606
610
618
61 3
615
615
617
618
619
620
620
620
621
691
622
XVI
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
Saxony —
Reigning King . . . 622
Constitution ami Govern-
ment . . . .623
Area and Population . . 624
Religion . . . .625
Instruction . . . 625
Justice, Crime, and Pau-
perism .... 626
Finance . . . .626
Production and Industry . 626
Communications . .627
ScHAUMBURG-LlPPE —
Reigning Prince . . 628
Constitution and Finance . 628
Area and Population . . 628
The Thuringian States —
Reuss, Elder Branch . 629
Reuss, Younger Branch 629
Saxe-Altenburg . . 630
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 631
Saxe-Mkiningen . . 632
schwarzburg - rudol -
STADT .... 633
SCHWARZBURG - SONDERS-
HATJSEN . . . 633
Statistics —
Area and Population . 634
Religion . . . 635
Crime and Pauperism . 635
Agriculture . . . 636
Waldeck —
Reigning Prince . . 636
WUUTTEMBERO —
Reigning King . . . 637
Constitution and Gorem*
ment .... 638
Area ami Population . . 639
Kdigion .... 640
Instruction . . . 640
Crime and Pauperism . 640
Finance .... 640
Army . . . .642
Industry .... 642
Books "I Hi t.n'iice . . 643
OREECE-
Rejgning King . . . 645
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 646
Area and Population . .647
Religion . . . .648
Instruction . . 649
Finance . . . . 649
Defence .... 652
Production and Industry . 053
Commerce . . . 654
Navigation and Shipping . 655
Internal Communications . 655
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 655
Diplomatic Representatives 856
Books of Reference . . 656
GUATEMALA—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 658
Area and Population . . 958
Religion . . . .658
Instruction . . . 658
Crime .... 659
Finance .... 659
Defence .... 659
Production ami Industry . 659
Commerce . . . 659
Shipping and Communica-
tions . . . .660
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 660
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 661
Books of Reference . . 661
HAITI—
Constitution and Cnwiii-
liient .... t'ltJl'
Area and Population < . 662
Religion and Instruction . 662
Finance .... 882
Defence . . . .663
( lommerce ami Communica-
tions . . . .663
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 664
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 664
Books of Reference . . 664
CONTENTS
XVll
HAWAII—
Reigning Monarch, Consti-
tution, and Government 665
Area and Population . . 666
Religion and Instruction . 666
Finance .... 666
Commerce, Shipping, and
Communications . . 667
Currency .... 667
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 667
Books of Reference . . 668
NDUK
Constitution and G
overu-
ment
669
Area and Population
.
669
Instruction
669
Finance .
669
Commerce
670
Communications
670
Money, Weights.
and
Measures
670
Diplomatic and Consular
Representative
670
Books of Reference
671
JAPAN-
ITALY—
Reigning King . . 672
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 673
Area and Population . b76
Religion . . . .68-3
Instruction . . 690
Justice and Crime . . 692
Pauperism . . . 69-t
Finance . . . .695
Defence .... 699
Production and Industry . 705
Commerce . . " . 70s
Navigation and Shipping . 710
Internal Communications . 711
Money and Credit . . 712
Money, "Weights, and
Measures . . . 713
Diplomatic Representatives 713
Foreign Dependencies . 714
Abyssinia and Shoa . 715
Pooks of Reference . ■ . 717
Reigning Sovereign .
Constitution and Ooui
ment .
Local Government
Area and Population
Religion .
Instruction
Justice and Crime
Pauperism
Finance .
Defence .
Production and Industry
Commerce
Shipping and Navigation
Internal Communications
Money and Credit
Money, Weights, and
Mtasuivs
Diplomatic Representatives
Books of Reference
LIBERIA—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ...
Area and Population .
Finance ....
Commerce
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives
Books of Reference .
LUXEMBURG
MEXICO—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .
Area and Population.
Religion and Instruction .
Justice .
Finance .
Defence .
Production and Industry .
Commerce
Shipping and Communica-
tions ....
Monev and Credit .
b
719
719
721
721
723
723
724
724
726
727
728
730
730
731
732
732
733
734
734
734
734
735
735
735
736
1 01
738
739
740
740
741
742
743
744
744
XVI 11
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
Mexico —
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 745
Diplomatic anil Consular
Representatives . . 746
Books of Reference . . 746
MONACO
748
MONTENEGRO—
Reigning Prince
749
Government
749
Area and Population
750
Religion .
750
Instruction
751
Justice, Crime, and Pan
perism .
751
Finance .
751
Defence .
751
Production and Industry
751
Commerce
752
Communications
752
Money . .
752
Books of Reference .
752
MOROCCO—
Reigning Sultan
768
Government
753
Area and Population
753
Religion .
764
Defence .
7.".i
Commerce
754
Money, Weights, an<
i
Measures
755
Diplomatic and ('(insula
•
Representatives
768
Books <>!' Reference .
756
NEPAL
<ktiiki; lands (THE)
Reigning Sovereign .
7.".!'
Qovernmenl and < kmstitu
t i< »i 1
760
ami Population
768
Religion . . ' .
765
Institution
766
Justice and Crime
767
Pauperism
767
Netherlands (The)—
Finance .... 768
Defence . . . .770
Production and Industry . 772
Commerce . . .771
Shipping and Navigation . 777
Internal Communications . 778
Money, and Credit . .780
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .781
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 782
. Colonies . . . 782
Dutch East Indies —
Government and Constitu-
tion . . . .782
Area and Population . 783
Religion . . . 7 s"'
Instruction . . . 785
Justice and Crime . . 7S6
Finance . . . .786
Defence .... 787
Production and Industry . 788
Commerce . . .790
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 791
Money and Credit . . 791
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 791
Consular Representatives . 791
Ditch Wr.sr 1 \mr>
Dutch Qt/i w \, or Sr-
niNAM .... 792
Cubaco .... 798
Books of Reference . . 7!M
NICARAGUA
• '(institution and Gnvern-
lncnt .... 797
Area and Population . . 797
Instruction . . . 797
Finance .... 797
Industry and 1 lommeroe . 798
Communications . . 798
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . 798
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 798
Books of Reference . 799
CONTENTS
XIX
OMAN
ORANGE FREE STATE—
Constitution arid Govern-
ment .
Area and Population .
Religion . . . .
Instruction
Justice and Crime
finance .
Defence .
lYoduction and Industry .
< oninierce
( 'ommunicatious
Books of Reference
PARAGUAY—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Area and Population
Religion, Instruction, and
Justice ....
Finance ....
Defence ....
Production and Industry .
Commerce
Communications
Money and Credit
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives
Books of Reference .
PERSIA-
Reigning Shah .
Government
Area and Population
Religion .
Instruction
Justice
Finance .
Defence .
Commerce
Money and Credit
Communications
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Diplomatic Representatives
Books of Reference .
l'AGE
800
801
801
802
802
802
802
803
803
803
804
804
805
805
806
806
806
806
807
807
807
807
808
808
809
810
811
811
BIS
812
812
813
813
815
816
816
817
818
PERU—
Constitution and Govern*
ment .... 819
Area and Popttlation . . 819
Religion .... 820
Instruction . . . 820
Finance .... 821
Defence ....
Industry .... 822
Commerce . 823
Shipping and Navigation . 824
Internal Communications . S24
Money, Weights. and
Measures . . . S24
Diplomatic Representatives 825
Books of Reference .
PORTUGAL—
Reigning King . .827
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 828
Area and Population. . 830
Religion .... 832
Instruction . . . 833
Justice and Crime . . 833
Finance .... 833
Defence .... 835
Production and Industry . 836
Commerce . . . 837
Shipping and Navigation . 839
Internal Communications . 839
Money and Credit . . 889
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 839
Diplomatic Representatives 840
Colonies .... 840
Books of Reference . . 842
ROUMANIA—
Reigning King . . 844
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 844
Area and Population . . 845
Religion .... 846
Instruction . . 846
Finance .... 846
Defence .... 847
Production and Industry . 848
Commerce . . . 848
Shipping and Communi-
cations .... 849
XX
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
RoUMANIA—
Money, Weights, ami
Measures
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives
Books of Reference .
RUSSIA—
Reigning Emperor .
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Area and Population
Religion .
Instruction
Justice and Crime
Finance .
Defence .
Production and Industry .
Commerce . .
Shipping and Navigation .
Internal Communications .
Money and Credit
.Money, Weights, and
Measures
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives
Finland .
Population
Instruction . .
Pauperism and Crime
Finance .
Industry .
Commerce r
Shipping and Navigation .
Interna] Communications ,
Money, Weights, i^c.
DriT.M'i.M iE8 in Asia—
BOKHARA
Khiva .
Books of Reference .
SALVADOB—
Constitution and Govern-
ment •
Area and Population ■
Instruction and Justice
Finance ..'_..«
Industries
Comni' i"
850
850
850
851
853
863
864
867
868
877
889
894
901
902
904
906
906
907
907
908
908
908
908
909
910
910
910
911
912
913
915
915
916
916
916
916
Salvador —
Shipping and Communica-
tions .... 916
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 917
Diplomatic Representatives 917
Books of Reference . . 917
SAMOA .
858 \ SANTO DOMINGO—
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
Area and Population .
Religion and Instruction .
Justice ....
Finance ....
Defence ....
Production and Industry .
Commerce
Shipping and Communi-
cations ....
Money, Weights, and
Measures
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives
Hooks of Reference .
SERYIA
918
919
919
920
920
920
920
920
92 !
921
921
921
921
Reigning Sovereign and
Family .... 928
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 928
Area and Population . 921
Religion .... W6
Instruction . . • 92. >
Justice and Crime . . 926
Pauperism
Finance, .... 028
Defence . • • W7
Production and Industry . 928
Commerce
Communications . . 930
Money and Credit . 923
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 930
Diplomatic ami Consular
Representatives . . 930
Books of Reference . . 931
CONTENTS
SUM-
SWEDEN AND NORWAY—
Reigning King.
932
Government
932
Area and Population
933
Finance :
934
Defence ....
934
Production and Industry .
935
Commerce
935
Shipping and Communica-
tions ....
936
Money, Weights, and
Measures
937
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives
937
Books of Reference .
937
SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC
Constitution and Govern-
ment ....
938
Area and Population .
939
Religion ....
939
Instruction
939
Finance ....
939
Defence ....
940
Production and Industry .
940
Commerce
940
Communications
940
Books of Reference .
941
SPAIN—
Reigning Sovereign .
942
Queen Regent .
942
Government and Constitu-
tion .... 943
Area and Population . . 946
Religion . . . .947
Instruction . . .947
Finance .... 948
Defence .... 950
Production and Industry . 953
Commerce . . . 953
Shipping ami Navigation . 955
Internal Communications . 956
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 956
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 956
Colonies. . . . 957
Cuba and Porto Rico 957
Philippine Islands . 959
Books of Reference . 959
Reigning King .
961
Sweden —
Constitution and Govern
ment
962
Area and Population.
964
Religion .
967
Instruction
967
Justice and Crime
967
Pauperism
967
Finance .
968
Defence .
969
Production and Industry
972
(Jommerce
972
Shipping and Navigation
974
Internal Communications
974
Money and Credit
Norway —
Constitution and Govern
ment .
. 976
Area and Population .
. 978
Religion .
981
Instruction
981
Justice and Crime
. 981
Pauperism
. 982
Finance .
. 982
Defence .
. 983
Production and Industry
. 985
Commerce
ro
Shipping and Navigation
MS
Internal Communications
. 989
Money and Credit
. 990
Money, Weights, an<
1
Measures
. 991
Diplomatic Representatives 991
Bioks of Reference .
. 992
SWITZERLAND—
Constitution and Govern
.
ment
. 92:1
Area and Population .
. 995
Religion .
. 997
Instruction
. 998
Justice and Crime
. 999
Finance .
. 999
Defence .
. 1001
Production and Industry
. 100:1
Commerce
. 1004
Internal Communications
. 1005
Money and Credit
1006
XXI 1
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
►Switzerland —
.Money, Weights, and
Measures • . . 1006
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 1006
Books of Reference . . 1007
TONGA 1008
TURKEY—
Reigning Sultan . . 1009
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 1011
Area and Population . .1013
Religion and Education . 1016
Finance .... 1017
Defence .... 1020
Production and Industry . 1024
Commerce . . . 1025
Shipping and Navigation . 1028
Internal Communications . 1028
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 1029
Tributary States—
Bulgaria .
1030
Constitution and Govern-
ment .
1030
Area and Population .
1031
Instruction
1032
Finance .
1032
Defence .
1032
Production and Industry .
1033
Commerce . . , .
1033
Shipping and Communica-
tions .
1033
Money -and Credit .
1034
Samos
1034
Diplomatic and Consulai
Representatives
1034
Books of Reference .
1085
Egypt—
Reigning Khedive
Ciivcninii'iil and ( 'oiistini-
tion ....
Area and I'opulat ion
Religion and Instruction .
.1 ust ice and < 'rime
Finance ....
1036
1037
103S
1040
1040
104]
Egypt —
Defence .... 1044
Production and Industry . 1044
Commerce. . ..,',. 1046
Shipping and Navigation . 1050
Suez Canal . . 1051
Internal Communications . 1053
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 1053
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 1051
Book of Reference . . 1054
UNITED STATES—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 1056
Area and Population . . 1062
Religion . . . .1068
Instruction . . . 1069
•lust ice .... 1072
Pauperism . . .1072
Finance .... 1073
Defence . . . .1077
Production and Industry . 1080
Commerce . . . 10SS
Shipping and Navigation . 1093
Internal Communications . 1094
Money and Credit . . 1095
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . .1096
Diplomatic Representatives 1097
Books of Reference . . 1097
URUGUAY—
Constitution and Govern-
ment .... 1100
Area and Populat ion. . 1100
Religion . . . .1102
Instruction . .1102
Finance .... 1102
Defence .... 1103
Production and Industry . 1103
Commerce . . . 1103
Shipping and Navigation . 1105
Internal Commiiiiicaiio'is . 1105
.Money and Credit . . 1105
Money, Weights, and
Measures . . . 1106
Diplomatic and Consular
Representatives . . 1106
Books of Reference . .1106
CONTENTS xxiii
PAOF
PAor
VENEZUELA—
YENF.zrn \ —
Constitution and Govern-
Commerce . . . 1110
ment .
1107
Shipping and Communica-
Area and Population .
1107
tions .... 1111
Religion and Instruction .
1108
Money, Weights, and
Justice and Crime
1109
Measures . . . 1112
Finance . . . .
1109
Diplomatic and Consular
Defence . . . .
1109
Representatives . .1112
Production an<l Industry .
1110
Books of Reference . . 1112
INDEX
1113
INTRODUCTORY TABLES
I. The Population* of the Earth.1
The following table, from data given in * Die Bevolkerung der Erde, '
shows the area, population, and density of population in each of the divisions
of the earth : —
-
sqn^TmUes Population
Popnlation per
square mile
Europe s . . . .
Asia3 ....
Africa4 ....
Australasia5
North America6
South America .
3,797,410 357,851,580
17,039,066 825,954,000
11,518,104 168,499,017
3,458,029 !.600
7,952,386 88,386,084
6,844,602 33,342,700
94
48
14
1*6
11
D
Polar islands
50,609,597 1.179.717,981 29
1,689,834 11,170
Total
52,299,431 1,479,729,151 28
i Compare Map Xo. I.
'-' Including Iceland, the Acores and Madeira, but not the islands in the Aid
population given is the sum of census results for the countries of Europe from 1831 to
1S91. Later'results than are given in the above table would add two millions To the popu-
lation of Europe.
■ Exclusive of the islands in the Arctic Sea.
* Including Madagascar and other islauds in the Indian Ocean, and the Canaries, tc.
in the Atlantic Ocean.
s Australia, New Zealand. Xew Guinea, and the islands in the Sonth Pacific.
<> Including Central America and the West Indies.
The following is Mr. E. G. Ravenstein's revised estimate for 1890 : —
_
Europe ....
Area, sq. miles
Population
Per sq. mile
3,555,000
360,200,000
101
Asia
14,710,000
850,000,000
...
Africa ....
11,514,000
127,000.000
11
Australasia and Pacific
3,300,000
4,750,000
1M
North America and \Y. Indies
6,446,000
89,250,000
14
South America .
6,837,000
36,420,000
0
Polar Regions beyond North
Limit of Cereals
Total .
4,888,800
51,250,800
300,000
—
1,467,920,000
29
Mr. Ravenstein also estimated the increase of the world's population in a
decade (1880-90) at 8 per cent., viz.. Europe, S'7 per cent. : Asia, 6 per rent. :
Africa. 10 per cent. ; Australasia 30 per cent. : North America, 20 per cent. ;
South America, 15 per cent.
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR BOOK, 1892
II. The World's Monet.
The following table, adapted from that prepared by the Director of the
United States Mint, shows approximately the amount of gold and silver coin
in the different countries of the world : —
-
Gold
Silver
£
£
United States .....
146,253,900
100,431,500
United Kingdom
114,583,300
20,833,300
France
187,500,000
145,833,300
Germany
104,166,700
30,208,300
Belgium .
13,541,700
11,458,800
Italy
29,166,700
12,500,000
Switzerland
3,125,000
3, V25,000
Greece
416,700
833,300
Spain
20,833,300
26,041,700
Portugal .
8,333,300
2,083,300
Austria-Hungary
8,333,300
is. 750,000
Netherlands
5,208,300
18,641,700
Scandinavian Union
6,666,700
2,083,300
Russia
39,583,300
12,500,000
Turkey .
10,416,700
l'.:,.r5,000
Australia .
20,833,300
1.158,300
I fcg.vpt
20,833,300
3,126,000
Mexico . .
1,011,700
10,416,700
1 Vutial America
—
104,200
j South America .
9,375,000
5,208,300
Japan
18, 750,000
10.116,700
India
IS 7, 500, 000
China
1 15,833,300
The Straits Settlements
—
20,888,800
( ianada
3,333,300
1,041,700
( taba. Haiti, &c
1
4,166,700
ll'i.700
Totals .
776,462.200
795,952,200
Grand total .
*1,572,4
14,400
THE PARTITION- OF AFRICA
\xv;
III. Tee Forest Area of Eteoee.
In the following table the Sunt anas of the different conn tries of Europe
are compare*! with the total areas of the respective countries : —
— . Area of Courtrr
Area of Fc
of Forest
A:t*>
a ■■
:->•:-,;• -..-.-.-
503,880,000
40
i Sweden and Norway
:v:.3?:.. "
•2,315,981
34
Austria
"- .:•■-.-:
IS.WO ,1] .
■
Germany
l:«.d-2S.9S»>
34,909,671
■-
Turkey
114,761,034
tfbMMM
:■
Italy. .
62,651,550
:*.-_--«.>:?
-.
Mntsnlan i
L9TLJM
:.r;v:i-
18
France
130,557,555
22,687,716
17
Greece
11,979,500
14
Span
116,792,223
S.523,836
.
Belgium
Holland
.
501,405
1,225
569,160
Portugal .
United Kingdom
-—.'..••-
1,165.420
"
- •.".-•
3.116,819
4
' Denmark
464.360
*->
- M.854,949
-. .685,617
30
IT. The PAKimos of Africa, January, 1892. *
The following table has been compiled for the States* ax'.* Year-Book
by Mr. EL G. Ravenstein. F.R.G.S. :—
-
Area
1
?■■•: 1 Li^ion
aSqaareXiir
British Africa :
Gambia ....
2,701
50,000
19
Sana Leone ....
::•.•>}•}
300,000
20
Gold Coast . . . .
46,600
1,905,000
41
Lagos and Tornba .
21,100
3,000,000
142
Xiger Territories and Ofl Rivers*
British Guinea
269,500
354.900
17,500,000
.000
65
'
Cape Colony (with Pondo Land
and Walvist-h Bav>
225,600
1,700,000
-
Basntoland
11,750
180,000
16
Xatal
21,150
540,000
25
Zulu and Tonga Lands .
' ■■'.
170,000
16
British Bechuanaland
71,420
46,000
0-6
Bechnanaland Protectorate
99.000
150,000
1-5
ZamWria. N'yasaland, A>.
British South Africa .
520,000
950,000
1-8
959.480
3,736,000
4
1 Compare Map Xo. III. skewing the Fotititai Division of Africa,
a laetauveof Sokoto 03.000 sqnare wife*, 9,S»,M0 mhataanfe) awl Gando ($3^M
sqaare miks, &,«»,«* iahaKtantsX witk Borgn a*.l temtorws tributary to Bokoto on tk*
XX VI 11
THE STATESMAN S YEAR BOOK, 1892
Area
British Africa— cord. —
Zanzibar and Pemba
Ibea, to 6° N. latitude .
Rest to Egyptian frontier
Northern Somal Coast
Sokotra ....
British East Africa
.Mauritius, &c.
St. Helena, Ascension, and
Tristan da Cunha
Total British Africa .
French Africa :
Tunis ....
Algeiia ....
Sahara ....
Senegambia (old possessions)
Cold and Benin Coasts .
Sudan and Guinea (remainder)
French Congo (and Gabon)
Obok (Bay of Tajura) .
Madagascar and dependencies
( 'omoros ■ .
Reunion
Total French Africa
Portuguese Africa :
Portuguese Guinea .
Angola ....
Mozambique .
Madeira.
( 'ape Verde Islands
St. Thome" and Principe .
Total Portuguese Africa
Spanish Africa :
Tri iiiui, &C. (Morocco) .
Sahara ....
Canaries
Gulf of Guinea ]
Total Spanish Africa .
< terroan Africa s
Togoland (Slave Coast) .
( lamarbns (Kamerun)
South* West Africa .
Kast Africa (with Malia)
985
468,000
745,000
40,000
1,382
1,255,367
1,053
126
2,570,926
44,800
260,000
1,550,000
51,000
7,500
531,500
220,000
7,700
228,600
760
764
2,902,624
11,600
517,200
310,000
318
1,490
417
Population
165,000
6,500,000
6,000,000
200,000
10,000
841,025
27
200,000
2,940
800
203,767
16,000
130,000
322,000
354,000
12,875,000
392,500
5,600
Inhabitants to
a Square M lie
167
14
40,764,100
1,500,000
3,870,000
1,100,000
250,000
250,000
10,500,000
2,500,000
70,000
3,520,000
63,000
inn.ooo
23,788,000
150,000
8,800,000
1,500,000 |
134,000 J
111,000
81,000
.-..lltl.OOO
16,000
100,000
288,000
33,000
487,000
650,000
2,600,000
200,000
2,500,000
10
374
45
16
33
15
0-7
5
88
20
11
9
16
M
216
a
18
7
:'i
42.1
75
50
6
592
0 •;■
08
11
2
10
20
0-6
7
Total German Africa . . | 822,000 5,950,000
i Thla inriiuifs Frniaixlo l'o. Amioiioiii, Oftrtaeo, and Car* S. .Tuan,
THF l'AiniTloX <»F AFRICA
XXIX
-
i
Area
Population
Inhabitant- to
a Square Mile
Italian Africa :
52,000
300,000
8
Abyssinia .
195,000
4,500,000
Somal, Galla, ke. .
Total Italian Africa
355,300
1,500,000
4
602,000
6,300,000
10
Summary :
British Africa
•-'..". 7 0,926
40,764,100
16
French Africa
2,902,624
23,788,000
8
Portuguese Africa .
841,025
5,416,000
6
Sjianish Africa
20:.
437,000
•j
German Africa
--!.000
5,950,000
7
Italian Africa
602,000
6,300,000
10
Congo State (Belgian) .
865,400
15,600,000
18
Boer Republics
162,640
888,000
5
Swazi Land .
6,370
61,000
10
Liberia ....
37,000
1,000,000
-7
Turkish (Egypt and Trii>oli)
836,000
7,980,000
10
Unappropriated
Great Lakes .
Total Africa
1,584,398
22,000,900 '
14
80,350
—
—
11,514,500
130,185,000
11
1 Unappropriated Africa includes Morocco (210.000 square miles, (,000,060 inhabitants).
Bornu. with Kanein (80.000 square miles, 5.100,000 inhabitants). Wadai (172,000 square
miles, 2,1)00,000 inhabitants), Baginni (71,000 square miles, 1,500,000 inhabitants). Ac.
V. THE BRITISH EMPIRE
United Kingdom .
India : —
British India 1 - .
Feudatory States
Total India .
Colonies —
Europe : —
Gibraltar
Malta ....
Total Europe
Asia : —
Aden
Ceylon '-'
Hong Kong s
Labium
gtraita Settlement? *
Total Asia .
Ajrica : —
Ascension
Basutoland .
Bechnanaland
Cape Colony
Mauritius - .
Natal .
St. Helena .
West African Colonies :-
Gambia
Gold Coast .
Lagos .
Sierra Leone
Total Africa
America : —
Bermudas .
Canada5
Falkland Islands
British Guiana .
British Honduras
Newfoundland and Labradoi
West Indies : —
Bahamas ...
Barbados
Jamaica and Turks Islands
Leeward [stands .
Windward Islands
Trinidad
i ii! i America
itmhiitiiitn : —
.
New Guinea
New South. Wales
New Zealand
Queensland
Sunl li An f rallll .
i in in
oria
W U m Lustralin
Tol i
I cii ,1 i loloi
Total i . K., India, an
ir.CTOKATEH ANI> Sill
Asia ....
I .
le .
Tut | Protectorates
British Km pin
Area.
Sq. miles
1,068,814
731,944
1,800,258
in | in
Population
37,888,153
220,529,100
64,123,230
25,755
165,602
191,417
41,910
3,008,239
221,441
6,868
506,577
26,970
35
9,720
43,000
233,430
705
21,150
47
2,700
15,000
1,071
15,000
341,858
20
8,470,267
6,500
109,000
7, US
168,800 ■
6,460
106
1,424
701
784
1 ,764
8,768,818
7,740
90,000
310,700
104,471
668,407
008,680
87,884
878,898
7,813,018
0,114,607
120,400
3,784,010
360
218,902
7 2,7 HO
1,527,334
360,847
543,913
4,116
50,000
1,905,000
100,000
180,000
4,963,062
15,884
'820,411
1,789
81,471
187,889
18,004
183,833
644,386
130,760
184,031
308,080
,. roe 049
121,1 Ml
188,000
1,184,907
393,718
816,048
1 16,667
I.I 10,111
10,789
1,416,848
Revenue
89,304,316
Expenditure
86,083,314
63,813,902 | 61,854,877
62,461
261,254
323,715
1,216,782
415,671
3,385
711,491
2,347*329
11,784
161,808*
777.477
1,422,688
8,729
] 56,449
56,341
7,158,102
8,194,505
51,904
10,875,808
•,908,090
8,980,808
758,100
8,610,160
50,048
266,900
1,162,46.".
399,031
626,326
3,181,681
3,864,014
1,328,468
89,789
117,89!«
63,056
80, 270
46,949
ii74, 67S
1,112,000 I
0,000
10,000
10,198,000 I
0,076,872
0,046,787
30,700,649
i Including Upper Burraali.
• Doll
a Itupceai la 84 :; Dollar at 4a Jrf. * Dollar at St. lrf.
i i in tri i mi Newfoundland shme la 42,900 eqaan miles.
Sta.tesm.aiis "Yeai-Book 1892
Ml i
5HT or POFULATIOlf
1891
200 to 400
■K«>
rmnkaiitrd R^ gions left White
31
Svf] oltd Amtajeti.£ Contiient
M
100 1*0
States man's Year-Book 189?.
,.,».B«nui*i
.-Bahama. ,4 f 1 /f « T
""^^Ss^ -WEST, .BUS
Trinidad
SOUtH AMERICA »*■">
fJBJSJf •■ DufitJ
£*W
jblk
THE EXTENT OF
Tiffl SMTISII SSEPIUS -C^
1891
I
l.ui|ki. idimiM 1
Mn»i«li '
Mnti^h 3pb«r»N of Inrturm-f [
ll UQ IJ."
/"
A
m H
eo ao no 1*0 mo mo
•pr y
Wilkes Land'
30 JKcrii. jf O (Trwoi* 20
GO SO KX> l.'O MO
»b-jui— n*?
Statesman's "Year -Book 1892
U n III
Statesman's "Year -Book 1892
THE FRONTIER QUI
"— : —
/■.,/,, >, mu.
[ION ON THE PAMIRS
1 Places shown thus •
Railways,
_ K<. Total
™* ! Import* i
loud
Exports 1
Imports
from U.K.
Exports
to U.K.
Tor. i. ...-e
Tonnage
entered and
deared •
open.
mm
- JOO.ooT3
£
X.
7,978,538
74,283,069
20,073
8,014,568 79,025,040
46,878,106
29,935,785
8,591
7,315,586
16,996 j
79,168 23,679,321
22.144.007
-i.i.'U*
3,981,885
—
11,488,693
9,162,094
-
79,168; 23,679,321
10,144,087
134,148
n.OM.--.
—
20,650,787
—
74 4,731,895
200,000 2,528,212
—
49,553
2,287,074
,8941660
1,225,064
34,313
1,041,031
2,489,751
1,225,064
4,180,805
14,019
17.902
9,771,741*1
■■-.>:' 4
8,641,911
191 '
2,724,174 34,017.117
—
26,075,748
101
— 3,010
106
250,000
3,010
106
—
921 10,106,41
5.000,354 4,417,08
31,958 1,905
8,535,266
709,401
19.072
8,711,830
1,203,072
3,480
1,035,999
1,8 «•
z
149,548
662,102
500,827
MMM
163,374
601,348
349,319
23,446
422.74"
336,714
116,011
20. 197
21",141
11,110,486
643,015
: 56,089
omooo
0,128
17,386,048
15,516,098
18,966,098
6,652,189
.. ..
48,808,194
770,346
308,016
25,039,365
67,1S2
1,887,118
282.045
137.. '.20
19,879,962
2.161.791
1,970,769
8,916^899
61,842
1,120,071
131,846
453,026
2,038
9,935,691
114,572
968,874
170,855
315,444
-
1,024,974
307,506
10,328,285
61,575
686,621
904,009
634,147
_
13,2.50
_H1
228,512
30,100 1.
L» 2,231,045
196,446
168,121
1,204,389
1,946,466
512,269
587,870
2,179,432
44,978
7*8,698
1,242,231
219,074
14,095
130,540
616,411
41.072
330,264
13,467,480
-
-
—
1.240.202
1.445. 934
4OT.104
1,346,107
24
-
30,451,148
13,897,039
-
28,105,684
20.401,500
6,432,800
41.:;:
206,757
13,000
22,616,604
i
5,066,700
8,262,073
1,897,512
874
19,000
9.811.72"
1,480.992
13,266,222
13,180
8,628,007
4,221.271'
2,120,071
2,483,416
680,760
9,607,193
416,149
11.229
6,623,431
7,401,350
2,365,673
4.296,647
323,239
6,8*0,014
335,162
.3,908
—
24:214
35,314
19,803
117,3-55
7.492
4,761,872
1,312,474
910,779
2,190,442
4,363,341
904,861
M68
2,142
1,756
399
2,688
18,601
209,112,613
1,117-7
68,150,633 I 65,048,107
179,590,399 161,861.03-5
697,250,670 529,586,732
28,169,046
•: ,699,838
110,477,939
96,900,741
64,612,060
94,547,851
15,519,863
87,811,932
169,411,387
11.714
04.830
-
- -
-
-
-
-
-
—
_ _
_
_
•
—
—
—
1 Including bullion and specie. "-' B\ sea only. 3 British and Irish produce, with lndlion
. duo of export* of Foreign and Colonial produce and manufactures was
£04, 721,53s. ; Exclusive of houie and coasting trade. 5 Exclusive of Chinese junks.
XXX11 THE STATESMAN S YEAR BOOK, 1892
ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS
BARBADOS, p. 227. Sir James Hay, K.C.M.G., appointed Governor,
February 10th, 1892.
Canada, p. 205. The following changes were made in the Canadian
Ministry mi January 25th, 1892 : — Minister of Public Works, Hon. J. A.
Ouimef. Minister of Customs, Hon. J. A. Chapleau. Minister of Defence,
Hon. Mackenzie Bowell. Secretary of State, Hon. J. C. Patterson. Post-
master-General Sir A. P. Goran. Minister of Railways, Hon. John G.
Saggart.
Cvj'Jtus, p. 109. Sir Walter Sendall, K.C.M.G., appointed High Com-
missioner, February 10th, 1892.
New Zealand, p. 254. The Earl of Glasgow, appointed Governor,
February 10th, 1892.
SlEBBA Leone, p. 192. Sir Francis Fleming, K.C.M.G., appointed
Governor, February 10th, 1892.
Victoria, p. 290. The following is a revised list of the New Ministry
(February 16th) :—
Premier and Treasurer. Hon. YV. Sliiels.
Chief Secretary and Minister of Lands. — Hon. Allan McLean.
Minister of Railways. — Hon. .1. II. Wheeler.
Minister if Mines and of Defence. — Hon. A. A. Outtrini.
Minister tf Agriculture and Public Works. — Hon. <;. Graham.
Minister if Education. Hon. A. .1. Peacock.
dttorney-Oeneral and Posttnaster-Gteneral, Hon. J, Gavao Duffy.
Gommiesioner qf Customs.- Hon. (!. Turner.
8olie4tor»General. lion. . I. Heath.
Minister witlwut jjortf olio. — Hon. (!. Davis.
PART THE FIRST
THE BRITISH EMPIRE
THE BRITISH EMPIRE.
The British Empire consists of : —
I. Thk I'mtki) 1\tn».d<»m ok Great Britain and Ikki.ank
II. India, the Colonies, Protectorates, and Dkikm>k\
Reigning Queen and Empress.
Victoria, Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, ami Kin;
of India, born May 24, 1819, the daughter of Edward, Duke of
Kent, fourth son of King George III., and of Princess Victoria
of Saxe Saalfeld-Coburg, widow of Prince Emich of Leiningen.
ided the throne at the death of her uncle, King "William IV.,
June 20, 1837 ; crowned at "Westminster Abl>ey, June
Married, Feb. 10, 1840, to Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha :
widow, Dee. 14. L861.
Children of the Queeii.
I. Princess Victoria (Empress Frederick), born Nov. 21,1840;
married, Jan. 25, 1858, to Prince Friedrich "Wilhelm (Friedrich 1.
of Germany), eldest son of Wilhelm I., German Emperor and
King of Prussia ; widow, June 15, 1888.
II. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, born Nov. 9, 1841 ;
married, March 10, 1863, to Princess A lexandra, eldest daughter
of King Christian IX. of Denmark. Offspring1 : — (1) George,
born June 3, 1865; (2) Louise, born Feb. 20, 1867, married to
the Duke of Fife. July "27, 1889, — offspring, Alexandra Victoria,
born May 17, 1891 ; (3) Victoria, born July 6, 1868; (4) Maud,
born Nov. 26, 1869.
III. Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, born Aug. 6, 1844 :
married, Jan. 23, 1874, to Grand Duchess Marie of Russia, only
daughter of Emperor Alexander II. Offspring : — (1) Alfred, born
Oct, 15, 1874 ; (2) Marie, born Oct. 29, 1875 ; (3) Victoria, born
Nov. 25, 1876 ; (4) Alexandra, born Sept. 1, 1878 ; (5) Beatrice,
born April 20, 1884.
IV. Princess Helena, born May 25, 1846 ; married, July 5,
1866, to Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein. Offspring : —
1 1 i Christian, born April 14, 1867 ; (2) Albert John, born Feb. 26,
1869 ; (3) Victoria, born May 3, 1870 ; (4) Louise, born Aug. 12,
1*72 ; married to Prince Aribert of Anhalt, July 6, 1891.
1 Prince Albert Victor, eldest son of the Prince of Wales, born Jan. 8, 1864, died Jan. 14,
B 2
4 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
V. Princess Louise, born March 18,1848; married March 21,
1871, to John, Marquis of Lome, eldest son of the Duke of
Argyll.
VI. Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught, born May 1, 1850;
married, March 13, 1879, to Princess Louise of Prussia, born
July 25, 1860. Offspring: — (1) Margaret Victoria, born Jan.
15, 1882; (2) Arthur, born Jan. 13, 1883; (3) Victoria, born
March 17, 1886.
VII. Princess Beatrice, born April 14, 1857 ; married, July
13, 1885; to Prince Henry, third son of Prince Alexander of Bat-
tenberg, uncle of Ludwig IV., Grand Duke of Hesse. Off-
spring : — (1) Alexander Albert, born Nov. 23, 1886 ; (2) Victoria
Eugenie, born Oct. 24, 1887 ; (3) Leopold Arthur Louis, born
May 21, 1889 ; (4) Donald, born October 3, 1891.
Cousins of the Queen.
I. Prince Ernest August, Duke of Cumberland, born Sept. 21, 1845, the
grandson of Duke Ernest August of Cumberland, fifth son of KingUeorge III. ;
mamed, Deeember21, 1878, to Princess Thyra of Denmark, born September 29.
1853. Six children.
II. Prince George, Duke of Cambridge, born March 26, 1819, the son of
Duke Adol])h of Cambridge, sixth son of King George III. ; field-marshal
conimanding-in-ehiei' the British army.
III. Princess Augusta, sister of tins preceding, born July 19, 1822 ;
married June 28, 1843, to Grand Duke Friedrh-hWilhelm of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
IV. Princess Mary, sister of the preceding, born Nov. 27. 1888 ; married,
June 12, 1866, to Prince Franz von Teck, born Aug. 27, 18157. BOD of Prince
Alexander of "VViirtemberg. Four children : — 1. Victoria Mary, bom Maj 26,
1867. 2. Albert, born Aug. 13, 1868. 8. Franz Josef, born Jan. 9,1870. 4. Alex-
ander, born April 14, 1874.
The Queen reigns in her own right, holding the Crown both by
inheritance and election. Her legal title rests on the statute of
12 & 13 Will. III. c. 3, by which the succession to the Crown of
Great Britain and Ireland was settled on the Princess Sophia of
Hanover and the 'heirs of her body, being Protestants,'
The civil list of the Queen consists in a fixed Parliamentary
grant, and amounts to much less than the incomes of previous
sovereigns. Under George I. this sum Amounted at times to
1,000,000/. sterling, but in 1777 the civil list of the King was
fixed at 900,000/., and the income over and above that sum
From the hereditary possessions of the Crown passed to the
Treasury. Under William IV. the civil list was relieved of
many hurt hens, ;ind fixed at 510,000/.
It is established by I A' '2 Vict. e. L'.that during her Majesty's
reign all the revenues of the Crown shall be a part of the Con-
solidated bund, but that a civil list shall be assigned to t he (^ueeii.
In virtue of this Act, the Queen has granted to her an annual
Till! ROYAL FAMILY •>
allowance of 386,0002. of which the Lords of the Treasury are
directed to pay yearly 60,000/., into her Majesty's Privy Parse ;
aside 231,3601 for the salaries of the royal household:
44,240/. for retiring allowances and pensions to servants; and
13, 2002. for royal bounty, alms, and special Berries*. This ie
an unappropriated surplus of 36,300/., which may be applied in
aid of the general expenditure of her I - Court. The
Queen has also paid to her the revenues of the Duchy of Lane
which in the year 1890 amounted to 87,088/., and the payment
made to her Majesty for the year was 50,000/.
On the Consolidated Fund are charged likewise the following
sums allowed to members of the royal family: — 25,000/. a year
to the Duke of Edinburgh; 25,000/. to the Duke of Connaught :
8,000/. to the Empress Victoria of Germany ; 6,000/. to Pri:
Christian of Schleswig-Holstein ; 6,000/. to Princess Louis.-.
Marchioness of Lome ; 6,000/. to Princess Henry (Beatrice) of
Battenberg; 3,000/. to the Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg
litz ; 5,000/. to Princess of Teck, formerly Princess Mary of
( aiabridge ; 12,000/. to George, Duke of Cambridge ; and 6,000/.
to Princess Helena of Waldeck, Duchess of Albany.
The heir-apparent to the Crown has, by 26 Vict. c. 1. settled
upon him an annuity of 40,000/., and by an Act passed in 1889
receives 37,000/. annually in addition for the support and main-
tenance of his children. The Prince of "Wales has besides as in-
come the revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall, which in the year
1890 were 101, 747/.. the sum paid to the Prince being 64,523/.
The Princess of Wales has settled upon her by 26 Vict. cap. 1, the
annual sum of 10,000/., to be increased to 30,000/. in case of
widowhood.
The following is a list of the sovereigns and sovereign rulers
of Great Britain, with date of their accession, from the union of
the crowns of England and Scotland : —
House of Stuart. House of 9 ige.
lam.- 1 1603 William ami Maiv . . 1689
Charles 1 162.'. William III 1694
House of Stuart.
UommomcenUh .
Anne 1702
Parliamentary Executive • . 16-19 Houac of Hum
torate .... 1658 George 1 1714
George II. .... 1727
' George III 1760
House qf Stuart. George IV. . . . 1820
•hail.- II 1660 William IV
James II. .... 1685 Victoria 1837
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
1. THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BBITA I \
AND IRELAND.
Constitution and Government.1
I. Imperial and Central.
The supreme legislative power of the British Empire is by its
Constitution given to Parliament. Parliament is summoned by
the writ of the sovereign issued out of Chancery, by advice of the
Privy Council, at least thirty-five days previous to its assembling.
On a vacancy occurring in the House of Commons whilst Parlia-
ment is sitting, a writ for the election of a new member is issued
upon motion in the House. If the vacancy occurs during the
recess, the writ is issued at the instance of the Speaker.
It has become customary of late for Parliaments to meet in
annual session extending from the middle of February to about
the end of August. Every session must end with a prorogation,
and by it all Bills which have not been passed during the session
fall to the ground. The royal proclamation which summons
Parliament in order to proceed to business must be issued Fourteen
days before the time of meeting. A dissolution is the civil death
uf Parliament ; it may occur by the will of the sovereign, or, as
is most usual, during the recess, by proclamation, or finally by
lapse of time, the statutory limit of the duration of the existence
of any Parliament being seven years. Formerly, on the demise
of the sovereign Parliament stood dissolved by the fact thereof ;
but this was altered in the reign of William III. to the effect of
postponing the dissolution till six months after the accession of
i he new sovereign, while the Reform Act of 18(>7 settled that the
Parliament 'in being at aoy future demise of the Crown shall
not be determined by such demise.'
The present form of Parliament, as divided into two Houses
of Legislat ure, the Lords and the < 'ominous, dates from the middle
of the fourteenth century.
The I 'p|ier House consists of peers who hold their seats —
1st. l'.y virtue of hereditary right;
2nd. By creation of the sovereign ; *
3rd. By virtue of offipe English bishops;
4th. By election for life Irish peers ;
5th. By election for durat ion of Parliament — Scottish peers.
1 For addition*] details st><- Ykai:-Hmok i..r l.ssti. p. -joo ,•/ .«, 7.
COKSTTTDllOS AND GOVERNMENT
Tin- Dumber of namw on the ' Roll ' was 401 in 1830 ; 457 in
: 448 in 1>.~>" : 458 in I860 : •'><•:'> in 1>77 : and 559 in (891.
t two-thirds of these hereditary peeragos were created in the
it century. Excluding tin- royal and ~tic-al peerages,
the 4 oldesl existing peerage! in the House of Lords date from
the latter part of the thirteenth century, while 5 go back to the
fourteenth and 10 to the fifteenth century. There are besides 0
of the United Kingdom in their own right) and 3 Scotch
peeresses, and 20 Scotch and 6-1 Irish peers who are not peers of
Parliament.
The Lower House of Legislature h <d, since 49 Hen.
111., of knights of the shire, or representatives of counties; of
citizens, or representatives of cities ; and of burgesses or repre-
M-ntatives of boroughs, all of whom vote togethef. To the House
of Commons, in the reign of Edward L. 37 counties and 166
boroughs each returned two representatives ; but at the accession
of Henry VIII. the total number of constituencies was only 147.
The ' additions from Edward VI. to Charles II. were almost
entirely of borough members. In the fourth Parliament of
Charles I., the number of places in England and Wales for which
returns were made, exclusive of counties, amounted to 21<» ; and
in the time of the Stuarts, the total number of members of the
House of Commons was about 500. The number of members
was not materially altered from that time until the union with
Scotland in the reign of Queen Anne, when -45 representatives of
Scotland were added ; and in 1801, 100 Irish representatives.
The number of members of the House thus averaged about 650,
till the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885 raised the total
number to 670.
By the Reform Bill of 1832, the English county constituencies
were increased from 52 to 82 ; and 56 boroughs, containing a
population of less than 2,000 each, were totally disfranchised,
while 31 other boroughs, of less than 4,000 each, were reduced to
sending one representative instead of two. On the other hand,
22 new boroughs received the franchise of returning two members,
and 24 that of returning one member. In Scotland the town
members were increased from 15 to 23 — making 53 in all ; while
the Irish representatives were increased from 100 to 105.
The next great change in the constituency of the House of
Commons, after the Act of 1832, was made by the Reform Bill
of 1867-68.1 By this Act England and Wales were allotted 493
members and Scotland 60, while the number for Ireland remained
unaltered, and household suffrage was conferred on boroughs in
1 For details see Yeak-Book for 1885.
8
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
England and Scotland. Latterly, however, a still greater measure
of Parliamentary reform has been effected by the Representation
of the People Act of 1884/and the Redistribution of Seats Act of
1 885 ; the former extending to householders and lodgers in counties
the suffrages which in 1867 had been conferred upon householders
and lodgers in boroughs, while the latter made a new division of
the United Kingdom into county and borough constituencies.
Thus a uniform household and lodger franchise was conferred on
counties and boroughs.
The Representation Act of 1884 also introduced a 'service
franchise,' and placed the three kingdoms on a footing of equality
as regards electoral qualifications.
The general results of the Redistribution Bill of 1885, with
reference to the number of M.P.s elected for counties, boroughs,
and universities respectively, are as fbllows : —
England
Scotland
Irkland
[■.
Kingdom
Co. Bor. lUniv.i
Co. Bor.
Univ.
Co. Bor.
85 1 16
64 37
Iniv.
2
2
377
283
Bor. Univ.
284 9
360 8
At present.
Formerly .
253 237 5
187 297 5
i
39 31
32 26
2
2
Hence the present total number of members is 670, against
652 who sat before the passing of the Redistribution Act. Soot-
land has twelve new seats and England six.
With regard to registered electors, the results of the saint' Act
are shown in the following comparative table : —
Counties
Boroughs U„iv,,si,i,s *ftH*«
/ England & Wales , 2,818,226
! Scotland . . 330.393
1891 \ Ireland . . j 648,672
' United Kingdom. I 3,787,290
2,009,221 i 15,634 4,838,080
247,277 16,207 :.!»:{. S77
93,704 4,335 741,711
2,350,202
I England ft Willi's
Scotland
1883 -; Ireland
966,719 1 1,651,732
99,662 210,789
166,997 68,021
United Kingdom. 1,262,868 1.920,542
36,176 j 6,178,668
Included 2,618,451
in th* :■ 10,441
boroughs 224,018
8,162,910
Thus the last Reform Hill lias added nearly three millions of
electors to the roll, and now about one-sixth of the population are
electors.
CONSTITUTION WTD GOVERNMENT !'
The number of those voting as ' Illm-rates." and tli.
recorded in 1886, were a> follows: —
— m«l Scotland Ireland (Jatted Rin^lotn
Illiterates . . 80,430 7. 70S 98.404
Total votes polled lwing 3,705,103 447,588 450,906 4,603,597
All elections for members of Parliament must be by secret
aid ballot, an Act being passed annually to this effect.
The sole qualification required to be a member of Parliament
is to be twenty-one years of age. All clergymen of the ( 'hiuvh
of England, ministers of the Church of Scotland, and Roman
Catholic clergymen are disqualified from sitting as members; all
Government contractors, and all sheriffs and returning officers for
the localities for which they act, are disqualified both from voting
and from sitting as members. No English or Scottish peer can
be elected to the House of Commons, but non-representative Irish
peers are eligible.
The following is a table of the duration of Parliaments of the
United Kingdom during the present century: —
Reign
Parliament
When met
When >lissolve«l
Eii-
George III. .
led
1796
29 Jan. 1802
Y. M. D.
5
>j
2nd
31 Aug.
1802
24 Oct. 1806
4 1 25
3rd
15 I'
1806
29 April 1807
0 4 15
4th
22 June 1807
•24 Sept. 1812
5 :; 7
5th
24 Xov.
1812
10 June 1818
5 6 16
,,
tth
4 Aug.
1818
29 Feh. 1820
1
IV. .
7th
23 April
1820
2 June 1826
6 19
8th
14 Xov.
1826
24 Julv 1830
3 8 10
William IV.
9th
26 Oct
1830
22 April 1S31
0
,,
10th
14 June
1831
3 Dec. 1832
1 5 20
,,
11th
29 Jan.
1833
30 Dec. 1834
1 11 1
,,
12th
19 Feh.
1835
18 July 1837
2 5 0
Victoria
13th
14 Nov.
1837
23 June 1841
3 7 9
14th
11 Aug.
1841
23 Julv 1847
.". 11 12
15th
21 Sept.
1847
1 July 1852
4 8 11
16th
4 Xov.
1862
20 Mar. 1857
4 4 11
17th
30 April
1857
23 April 1859
1 11 23
18th
31 May
1859
6 Julv 1865
6 1 6
19th
6 Feb.
1866
31 Julv 1868
2 5 25
20th
10 Dec.
1868
26 Jan. 1874
5 1 16
21st
:. Mar.
1S74
24 Mar. 1880
6 0 17
22nd
29 April
1880
18 Nov. 1S85
5 6 20
,,
23rd
12 Jan.
1886
26 June 1886
0 5 14
•
•24th
5 Aug.
1886
t() THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The executive government of Great Britain and Ireland is
vested nominally in the Crown ; but practically in a committee of
Ministers, commonly called the Cabinet, whose existence is de-
pendent on the possession of a majority in the House of Commons.
The member of the Cabinet who nils the position of First
Lord of the Treasury is, as a rule, the chief of the Ministry ; at
present it is the Foreign Secretary who is Prime Minister. It is
at the Premier's recommendation that his colleagues are ap-
pointed ; and he dispenses the greater portion of the patronage
of the Crown.
The present Cabinet consists of the following members :
1. Prime Minister, and Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. — Right Hon.
the Marquis of Salisbury, K.G., born 1830, younger son of the second Marquis :
educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford; M.P. for Stamford, 1853 68;
succeeded to the title, 1868 ; Secretary of State for India, July 1866 to March
1867, and again 1874 to 1878 ; Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1878 to
1880 ; Prime Minister and Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, June 1885.
Appointed Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury, August 3, 1886;
Foreign Secretary, January 14, 1887.
2. Lord High Clmnccllor. — Right Hon. Lord Halsbury, formerly Sir
Uardinge S. Giffard, born 1825 ; educated at Merton College, Oxford : called
to the Par of the Inner Temple, 1850; Solicitor-General. 1875; M.P. for
Launceston, 1877 ; Lord Chancellor, November 1885. Present appoint-
ment, August 3, 1886.
3. Lord President of the Council. — Right Hon. Viscount Ctwibrook, formerly
Mr. Gathorne Hardy, born 1814 ; educated at Shrewsbury and at Oriel College,
Oxford ; Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department, 1858- 59 : Presi-
dent of the Poor Law Board, July 1866 to March 1867; Secretary of State
for the Home Department, May 1867 to December 1868; M.P. for
Leominster, 1856-65 ; M.P. for the University of Oxford since 1866 ; Secretary
of State for War, 1874-78 ; elevated to the peerage, 187s : Secretary of State
for India, 1878; President of the Council, November 1885. Present appoint'
mint. August 3, 1886.
I. Chancellor of the Exchequer. — Right Hon. George Joachim Qosehen, son
of William Henry Goschen, born 1881 ; educated at Rugby and Oriel College,
Oxford; M.P. for City of London, 1863: M.P. for Ripon, 1880; MLP.
for P.ast Edinburgh) 1885 ; M.P. for St. George, Hanover Square, London.
1887; Vice-President of the Board of Trade, 1865 ; Chancellor of the Duchy of
Lancaster, 1866 j Presidenl of the Poor Law Board, 1868; First Lord of the
Admiralty, 1871; Special Envoy to Constantinople, issd. Presenl appoint-
ment, January 14, 1887.
5. Secretary of State for the ffome Department. Right Hon. Henry
Matthewi, Q.C., born in Ceylon, 1826 ; studied at Paris and London ; Bencher
of Lincoln's Inn: M.P. for Dungarvan, 1868 ; M.P. for Past Birmingham,
1886. Appointed Home Secretary, August :;, i ss6.
6. Secretary of State for War. Righl Hon. Edward Stanhopt, second son
of fifth Karl stanhope, born 1840; educated at Harrow and Christ Church,
Oxford: Member of the Inner Temple, 1865; M.P for Mid Lincolnshire,
1874 ; M.P. for Horacastle Division of Lincolnshire, 1885; Secretary to Board
of Trade, 1875: Vice-President of the Council, 1885; President of the Board of
Trade, 1885; Secretary of State for the Colonies, August :'.. 1886, Present
appointment, Jannarj l l. 1887.
I oNsTUITInN AND GOVERNMENT 11
7. First lard "t >/• '"t Hon. Arthur .1. Ba(femr, eon ol
James Mmtland Balfour, of Whittinghame, Haddingtonshire, bora in
educated at Bton and Trinity College, Cambridge; Prii ry te
Marquis of Salisbury, 1878-80, attending Berlin Congress ; II. P. foi Hertford,
for East Division of Manchester, 1886 : President of Local Governmeat,
without seat in the Cabinet, 1885 : appointed Secretary Cor Seotkad, Aug. :'..
idmitted to Cabinet, November 19, 1888; appointed Chi
to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, March 5, 1887. Preseut appointment,
November 1891.
8. Secret* te for the (Monies. — Right Hon. Lead Knutsford
(formerly Sir Henry Thurstau Holland), eldest bob of Sir Bonn Holland.
Dart., bora 1825 ; educated at Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge : catted
to the Bar of Inner Temple, 1849; Legal Adviser at the Colonial OrhV.
to 1870; Assistant Under-Secretary for the Colonies, 1S70-74 ; M.P. for Mid-
hurst, 1874; M.P. for Hempstead, 1885; appointed Vice-Preaadent of the
(oun.il, August 3, 1886; created Lord Knutsford, 1888. Present ■fpoint-
ment, January 14, 1S87.
9. Secreta'i-y of State for India. — Right Hon. Yiscoont Cross (formerly Sir
Richai C.B., bora 1823, son of William Cross, of Bad Scar, near
Preston : educated at Rugby and at Trinity Cottage, Cambridge ; railed to the
Bar of the Inner Temple, 1849; M.P. for Preston, 1857 : M.P. for South-
West Lancashire, 1868 ; M.P. for Newton Division, 1885 ; S ; State
for the Home Department, 1885; raised to the peerage, 188*;. !
appointment, August 3, 18i
10. First Lord of the Admiralty. — Right Hon. Lord George Hamilton.
third son of the first Duke of Abereorn, l»rn 1845 : educated at Haiiou ;
in the Rifle Brigade and Coldstream Guards : M.P. for Mid, - : for
Eating, 1885 ; First Lord of the Admiralty, 1885. Present appointment,
August 3, I
11. vllor of Ireland. — Right Hon. Lord Ashbourne, formerly
Mr. Edward Gibson, Q.C., bora 1S37 ; educated at Trinity College. Dublin;
railed to the Irish Bar, 1860 : M.P. for Dublin University. 1875-85; Attorney-
General for Ireland. 1877-80; Lord Chancellor of Ireland, 1885. I'
appointment, August 3, 1886.
12. Chief Secretary to the Lord- Lieutenant of Ireland. — Right Hon.
William Lawies Jackson, bora 1S40 : M.P. for Leeds, 1880: Financial
try to the Treasury, 1885-6, and 1886-91. Present appointment,
November 1S91.
13. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. — Right Hon. the Duke of
d (formerly Lord John Manners^ G.C.B., born 1818, second son of the
fifth Duke of Rutland: educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge;
Commissioner of Works and Buildings, March to December, 1652, again
March 1858 to June 1859, and July 1866 to December 1868 ; M.P. for
Newark, 1841-47 : for Colchester, 1850-57 ; for Leicestershire, 1S58 ;
appointed Postmaster-General, 1874, and again in 1885. Present appoint-
ment, August 3. 1885..
14. President of the Board of Trade. — Right Hon. Sir Michael //
. born 1837, eldest son of Sir Michael Hicks Hicks-Beach, Bait..
educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford ; Parliamentary Secretary to
the Poor Law Board, February to December 1868 ; M.P. for East Gloc.
shire. 1864 : M.P. for West Bristol, 1885; Chief Secretary for Ireland, 1874;
try of State for the Colonies, 1878 ; Chaucellor of the Exchequer, 1885 ;
Chief Secretary for Ireland, August 3, 1886 ; resigned March 5, 1887, but
retained seat in Cabinet ; retired January 1888, but subsequently appointed
President of the Board of Trade in succession to Lord Stanley of Preston.
12
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : —UNITED KINGDOM
15. Lord Privy Seal. — Right Hon. Earl C'adogan, born May 12, 1840 ;
educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford ; member, as Viscount Chelsea,
for Bath, 1873 ; Under-Secretary for War, 1875 ; Under-Secretary for the
Colonies, 1878. Appointed Lord Privy Seal, 1886; admitted to the Cabinet,
April 19, 1887.
16. President of the Local Government Board. — Right Hon. Charles
Thomas llitcMc, born in Dundee, 1838 ; merchant in London ; M.P. for the
Tower Hamlets Division of London, 1874 ; M.P. for the St. George's
Division of the Tower Hamlets, 1885 ; Secretary to the Admiralty, 1885.
Present appointment, August 3, 1886 ; admitted to the Cabinet, April 19,1887.
17. President of tJw Board of Agriculture (created 1889). — Right Hon.
Henry Chaplin, born December 22, 1840 ; M.P. for Mid Lincoln, 1868 ; M.P.
for Sleaford Division of Lincoln, 1886 ; Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster,
1885 ; appointed First President of the Board of Agriculture, September 5,
1889.
The following is a list of the heads of the various Administrations of Great
Britain since the accession of the House of Hanover : —
Prime
Ministers
Robert Walpole
James Stanhope
Earl of Sunderland .
Sir Robert Walpole .
Earl of Wilmington
Henry Pelham
Duke of Newcastle .
Earl of Bute .
George Grenville
Marquis of Rocking-
ham
Duke of Grafton
Lord North
Marquis of Rocking-
ham .
Earl of Shelburne .
Duke of Portland
William Pitt .
Hi in v Addington .
William Pitt .
Lord Grenville
Duke <>r Portland .
Spencer Perceval
Earl of Liverpool .
George ( 'aiming
Viscount Godench .
Dates of
Appointment
Oct. 10,
April 10,
March 16,
April 20,
Feb. 11,
Julv 26,
April 21,
May 29,
April 16,
1714
1717
1718
1720
1742
1743
1754
1762
1763
July 12, 1765
August 2, 1766
Jan. 28, 1770
.March 30,
July 3,
April 5,
Dec. 27,
March 7.
May 1 2,
Jan. 8,
March 13,
June 23,
June 8,
April 11,
August 10,
1782
1782
1783
1783
1801
1804
1806
1807
1810
1812
1827
1 827
Prime Dates of
Ministers Appointment
Duke of Wellington Jan. 11, 1828
Earl Grey . . Nov. 12, 1830
Viscount Melbourne July 14, 1834
Sir Robert Peel . Dec. 10, 1834
Viscount Melbourne April 18, 1835
Sir Robert Peel . Sept. 1, 1841
Lord John Russell . July 3, 1846
Earl of Derby . Feb. 27, 1852
Earl of Aberdeen . Dec. 28, 1852
Viscount Pabnerston Feb. 8, 1855
Earl of Derby . Feb. 26, 1858
Viscount Palmerston June 18, 1859
Earl Russell . . Nov. 6, 1865
Earl of Derby .lul\ 6, 1866
Benjamin Disraeli. Feb. 27, 1868
Wiliiam Kwart
Gladstone . . Dec. 9, 1868
Benjamin Disraeli
(E. of Beaoonafield) Feb. 21, 1874
William Kwart
Gladstone . . April 28, 1880
Marquis of Salisbury June 24, 1888
William Kwart
Gladstone . . Feb, 6, 1886
Marquis of Salisbury Augusl 3, isy,i
I I. I W. ( i»>\ KUNMENT.
England nini ii'iifrs. The system of local government is extremely compli-
cated, although it has been much simplified By the Local Qorernmenl A< i . .r
1888. In England there is in each county a lonl-lieutcnant, who represents
the Orown, bu1 whose duties are almost nominal. He recommends to the Lord
Chancellor persons to be put on the commission of the peace, There arc also
a custos rotnlorum, or keeper of the raoordi, i sheriff, a coroner, i clerk of the
and other officers. I'.ef'oiv the. Act of 1 SSS the management of
OON8T1TUTIOS ANI» QO\ I ERM M KN T 18
county business was in the hands of the justices and of a numU-r o» ' Boa
elected under various statutes for certain sp-cihc purposes. Tin- prineinsl
unit within the county is the parish, Bad of these there are in England and
Wales about 13,000 ecclesiastical parishes, about 15,000 civil parishes, and
al>out 14,775 highwav parishes. The business of the parish is transacted by a
and for poor law purposes the civil pirishes are grouped into 649
unions, each of which is administered by a board of guardians, elected by
ratepavers and owners annually (see ' Pauperism '). Rural l>oards and school
boards (aee Instruction") still transact certain jwrtions of the county
business. Supreme over all is the Local Government Board iu London, tli-
l*resident of which is a member of the Government This department wee
established in 1871, and has wide and varied powers. The County Councils.
I by the Act of 1888, are sultonlinate to the Local Government Board,
i ouncils are elective liodies, consisting of a chairman, aldermen, ami
councillors. The councillors are elected by a t>opular vote for three ;
The aldermen are elected by the councillors, and sit for six years, and one-half
of the number goes out in every third year. The chairman is elected by the
< ouncil. For the purposes of the new Act England and "Wales was divided
into 60 administrative counties, and 61 county boroughs having more than 50,000
inhabitants, so that with the County of London the number of new areas
created was 122. The administrative business transferred from the just
the j>eace to the County Councils consists of business as to il) making of
rates. c2) borrowing of money; (3) supervision of count}- treasurer; (4)
management of county halls and other buildings: (5) licensing of houses for
music and dancing, and of racecourses ; (6) maintenance and management <>f
pauj>er lunatic asylums: (7) maintenance of reformatory and industrial
schools ; (8) management of bridges ; (9) regulation of fees of ins]-
analysts, and other officers ; (10) control of officers paid out of the county
rate : (11) coroner's salary, fees, and district ; (12) Parliamentary polling
districts and registration ; (13) contagious diseases of animals, and various
other matters. The control of the police is given to the County Councils
jointly with the justices of the peace in quarter sessions, and there is a stand-
ing joint committee of the two liodies to exercise this control. The metro-
politan ]x>liee is, however, under direct Government control.
In all the great towns local business is administered by a municipal
corporation, which derives its authority from a charter granted by the Crown.
In 1835 the municipalities of the county were completely reorganised. A
municipal corporation consists of the mayor, aldermen, and burgesses, ami
acts through a Council elected by the burgesses — practically by the ratepayers,
The councillors serve for three years, one-third retiring annually : the alder-
men are elected by the Council, and the mayor, who serves for one year, also
by the Council. A municipal corporation has generally wider powers than are
conferred on the Count}- Council ; e.g., the Town Council has the entire
management of the police. As to poor law and school board administration in
lioroughs. see 'Pauperism ' and 'Instruction.'
Hand. — In 1889 a Local Government Act was passed for Scotland,
which in its main outlines followed the English Act of the previous year.
The powers of local administration in counties formerly exercised by the Com-
missioners of Supply and Road Trustees were either wholly or in ]>art trans-
ferred to the new Councils, which took over their duties and responsibilities in
1890. Municipal bodies exist in the towns of Scotland, as in those of
England, but instead of 'aldermen' there are 'bailies,' and instead of a
' mayor ' there is a 'provost.' There are in Scotland five kinds of burghs —
\l) Burghs of barony : (2) Burghs of regality (no practical distinction between
these two) ; (3) Royal Burghs, representatives of which meet together
14 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
annually in Edinburgh, as the ' Convention of Royal Burghs, ' for the trans-
action of business ; (4) Parliamentary Burghs which by an Act passed in- 1879
are enabled to send representatives to the convention ; (5) Police Burghs, in
which the local authority are the Police Commissioners.
Ireland. — In the counties local affairs are not in the hands of a popularly
elected- body. The principal county authority for local government is the
grand jury, which is appointed under the Act 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 116. Its
powers end with each of the assizes. In Ireland the towns are partly
corporate and partly governed by commissioners. There are eleven boroughs
witli a mayor, aldermen, and councillors, whose powers are regulated by 3 & 4
Vict. c. 108. The ordinary affairs of the borough, such as lighting, watching,
and cleansing, are administered by the Council, which has power to levy
rates forthese purposes. But in the majority of Irish towns, as they have no
charter of incorporation, the local affairs arc administered by a body of Com-
missioners, who have powers generally to discharge the usual municipal
functions, and are empowered to levy rates to defray the cost of administration.
Area and Population,
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The population was thus distributed over the various division*
of the United Kingdom at the last census, taken April 5, 1891 : —
Divisions
Area in
sq. miles
Males
Females
Total
Population on
April ."), 1891
1 -27.482,104
\ 1,518,914
4,033,103
4,70H. 162
55,598
92,272
England
Wales ....
Scotland
Ireland ....
Isle of Man
Channel Islands
Army, Navy, and Mer-"\
chant Seamen abroad (
Total, United Kingdom
50,823
7,363
30,417
32,583
220
75
121,481
1 14, 050, 620
1,951,461
2,317,076
14,950,398
2,081,642
2,389,086
—
37,888,153
The following table gives the population of those division- .it
each of the four decennial censuses previous to 1891 :■—-
l>i\ isinllS
1851 1861
1871
21,496,181
ISM
England ....
16,921,888
18,964, 1 1 1
24,61
Wales ....
1,005,721
1.111,780
1,817,185
1,860,513
Scotland
2.88S, 7 12
8,062,294
3,360,018
8,78
Ireland ....
6,574,271
5,798,967
5,412,277
6,174,886
[ale of Man
.-.•2. 169
54,042
Channel Islands
90,739
90,978
90,596
87,702
Army, Navy, and Mei - 1
chant Seamen abroad 1
212,194
260,868
216,080
216,874
Total, United Kingdom 27,746,942 29,821,288
31,845,379 35,241,482
AREA AND POPULATION
The decennial rate of increase or decrease ( - ) per cent, at
each of the last live censuses has been as follows : —
— 1871 1881
11-65
7 96
-91
4-7
England and Wales . 1265 1193 1320 1436
»nd. 1025 6- 11*18
Ireland . -1985 -1150 -6 65 -440
The Islands . — 0 22 0 83 2 34
8"6 10*75
If Ireland be excluded from the calculation, it will be found
that the rate of increase for the remainder of the United Kingdom
was veiy nearly uniform.
The proportion per cent, of the population living in the various
divisions of the United Kingdom was as follows at each of the
six decennial censuses from 1841 to 1891 : —
Divisions
England
"Wales ....
Scotland
Ireland ....
Isle of Man .
Channel Islands .
Army, Navy, and Merchant "I
Seamen abroad 1 . /
1841
1851
55 4
61 0
3 4
3-6
97
10 4
30-2
2
•2
•3
•3
•8
•8
1881
1871
1881
64 6
3 8
10 4
19 8
•2
•3
•9
3 8
10 6
17-0
69 8
3-8
10 6
146
■J
-3
1891
4-1
106
12 4
1
■2
The total Celtic-speaking population in the United Kingdom
in 1881 was 2,067,359 ; of these 950,000, or about 70 per cent.,
of the population of Wales and Monmouthshire speak Cymric, of
whom about a third speak Cymric only (according to unofficial
estimates, probably too high) ; 231,594, or 6 "20 per cent., of the
population of Scotland could speak Gaelic (Erse) (most, if not all,
being able also to speak English) ; and 885,765, or 18'2 per cent.,
of the population of Ireland could speak Irish Gaelic. In Ireland
in 1881, 64,167, or 1-24 per cent, of population, could speak Irish
only ; in 1871 the number was returned as 103,562, or 1*9 of the
population. The figures for Scotland and Ireland are those of
the census.
Computed on the basis of the registration of births and
deaths, the population of the United Kingdom and its divisions
was, exclusive of army, navy, and merchant seamen abroad, as
follows, at the end of June, in the ten years from 1882 to
1891 :—
1 Ni-t included in the numbers for 1801.
10
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Year
Total of
United Kingdom
England
and Wales
Scotland
Ireland
5,101.312
1882
35,207,613
26,334,776
3,771,525
1883
35,445,918
26,626,639
3,800,536
5,018,743
1884
35,717,663
26,921,737
3,829,772
4,966,154
1885
36,007,141
27,220,105
3,859,234
4,927,802
1886
36,303,660
27,521,780
3,888,922
4,892,958
1887
36,586,412
27,826,798
3,918,841
4,840,773
1888
36,865,180
28,135,197
3,948,989
4,780,994
1889
37,160,446
28,447,014
3,979,406
4,734,026
1890
37,464,051
28,762,287
4,009,986
4,691,778
1891
37,803,058
29,081,047
4,040,838
4,681,173
Subjoined is a more detailed statistical account of the popu-
lation of 1. England and Wales ; 2. Scotland ; 3. Ireland ; and 4.
Islands in the British Seas.
England and Wales.
The population of England and Wales was as follows at the ten enumera-
tions, 1801 to 1891 :—
Date of
'enumeration
Population
Density per
sq. mile
Date of
Enumeration
***!.«<» i):;;:zr
1801 .
1811 .
1821 .
1831 .
1841 .
8,892,536
10,164,256
12,000,236
13,896,797
15,914,148
153
175
207
139
274
1851 .
1861 .
1871 .
1881 .
1891 .
17,927,609 308
20,066,224 848
22,712,266 390
25,974,489 146
29,001,018
The following table shows the area in square miles, tin- total population,
and the population per square mile in 1881 and 1891. of each oi the ■ <-
counties of England and Wales, with the increase or decrease per cent, during
tlie decennial period : —
('"mil ics, or Shires
lied lord .
Berks
Buckingham
( lambridge .
< (heater
Cornwall .
I hunberland
I Miry
Devon
Dorset
Durham
Essex
Ana in
W). miles
Total
■I'll
722
746
820
1,027
1,850
1,615
1,029
2,586
980
1,012
1,542
149,567
218,868
176,165
185,706
644,040
330,686
250,647
161,746
608,664
190,969
867,576
576,434
160,729
238,446
185,190
ISN.NrW
730,052
:!22.ns<(
681,767
194,487
1,016, 149
785,399
Pop. per
BO. mile,
1 SSI
Pop. per
si|. mile,
188]
or de-
crease) )
per cut
824
3486
302
880*9
9 2
286
248*2
5-1
226
230 3
1*5
627
710-8
l.M
244
238-9
21
165
176*9
6*8
IIS
518*0
1 i •:;
244*8
4 7
194
ll»v.|
1-8
856
1,004-4
17*2
373
509 3
3t>-3
AIM A AND POPULATION
17
Counties, or Shires Arra.j"
Total
1881
s<j. mile
1881 !
-„. ___ In.-
p«VV?r orde-
^a-. e crease -
Gloucestei .
2,841
591'
467
489 7
4*8
Hampshire.
1,621
69i'
163
Hereford .
833 !
121,249
115
1 17.
Hertford .
,;:;::
20:5.140
220.12.'.
8 4
Huntingdon
59,491
165
160 9
- 29
Kent .
1,556
977
1,143
628
168
Lam-ash ire.
1,888 |
3,45;
1,829
2,079 8
1S-7
iter .
800
32 1.430
.693
401
4671
16-3
Lincoln
469.919
47-^.77-
170
1711
0-6
Middlesex .
283
2.920,485
3,251,703
10,319
11,4901
11-3
Monmouth
579
211.172
252,260
364
Norfolk . .
2,119
44;
456.474
209
•217.-4
2-7
Northampton
984
J. 558
302,184
307 1
10-9 ;
Northumberland
2,016
433,711
506,096
215
25 10
Nottingham
325
391,815
445,599
474
540-1
18-7
Oxford
756
179,559
185,938
237
36 ,
Rutland .
148
21,434
144
139 5
- 36 |
Shropshire .
1,320
248.022
1,324
187
1791
- 47
Somerset .
1,640
469,109
48;
286
295 3
Stafford
1,169
981,009
1,083,273
839
926".
104
Suffolk
1.475
356,893
369.37.1
241
250 3
35
Surrey
758
1,436,899
1.730,S71
1.895
2,283 4
20 5
.
1.45S
490,505
.442
336
12-2
Warwick .
885
7:17.339
805,070
833
909 7
9 2
Westmorland
783
64,191
66,098
81
84 3
3 0
Wiltshire .
1.354
258,970
264,969
191
1956
2-3
ster .
38
41:
515
560-6
8-8
York E. Riding)
1.173
365,011
399.412
268
340 5
9 4
.. N. fi
■2.12*
346.317
368,237
162
173 0
6 3
.. ( //'. Kidi7ig\
2,766
2.175.293
2.441.164
805
882-5
12-2
Wales.
Anglesey .
302
51,416
50,079
170
165-8
- 26
Brecon
719
57,031
80
793
- 1-2
Cardigan .
693
70.270
101
90-3
-109
Carmarthen
929
12'
130,574
134
140-5
4 6
Carnarvon .
577
119.349
llv
206
204-9
- 09
Denbigh .
664
111.957
117,950
168
177-5
5 4
Flint .
253
80,441
::. - ■
318
305 0
- 40
Glamorgan .
808
511,433
687.147
631
850 4
34 4
Merioneth .
601
51,967
49.204
86
818
- 5*8
Montgomery
774
65,710
84
74 9
-11-7
Pembroke .
611
91,824
89,125
150
145-8
- 2-9
Radnor
Total of England
Total of Wales .
Total of England \
and Wales /'
432
50,823
21.791
54
50-4
24.613,934
-2.104
484
540 7
11-7
7,363
1.360,505
i 1,518,914
184
206-3
11-6
58,186
7L439
,29,001,018
446
498 4
11-65
18
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The number of inhabited houses in England and Wales in 1891 was
5,460,976; uninhabited, 380,117; building, 38,407; against 4,831,519
inhabited ; 386,676 uninhabited ; and 46,414 building in 1881.
Assuming that the population of urban sanitary districts is urban, and the
population outside such districts rural, the following table shows the distribu-
tion of the urban and rural population of England and Wales in 1891. and
their percentage of increase during the decennium 1881-1891 : — -
K f Atr<rv»r.if Percentage of Percentage
Popnlationof Districts ^.^ 3Xte,P189] [ entire^pop. °£™*-£.
250, 000 and upwards .
.6
6,375,645
22-0
9-1
100,000—250,000
18
2,793 '625
9-6
19-1
50,000—100,000
38
2,610,976
9-0
22-9
20,000— 50,000
120
3,655,025
12-6
22-5
10,000— 20,000
176
2,391,076
8-3
18-9
3,000— 10,000
453
2,609,141
8-9
9-6
Under 3,000
Total Urban .
195
367,282
13
2 6
1,006
20,802,770
717
16-8
Rural
Total Population
8,198,248
28-3
100-0
:;-i
—
29,001,018
1 1 •.;:,
From these figures it appears that 22 per cent, of the population of
England and Wales live in six towns of upwards of 250,000 inhabitants ; 81*6
percent, (in 1881, 296 per cent.) in 24 (in 1881, 20) towns of over 100,000
inhabitants ; 40 '6 per cent, in 62 towns of over 50,000 inhabitants ; 68*8 per
cent, in 182 towns of over 20,000 inhabitants : and 17,826,347, or 61 '8 pei
cent, in 358 towns of over 10,000 inhabitants. In 1881, 14,626,181, or 66'8
per rent, of the whole population, lived in 303 towns of over 10,000
inhabitants.
In 1891, there were in England and Wales 62 towns with more than
50,000 inhabitants. The following is a list of them with their population in
1881 and 1891, and the increase per cent, during the decennial period : —
Enumerate)
Population
[ncieue
cities and Towns
per cent
1881
180]
1P81 M
London (registration)
3,815,544
4,211,056
10-4
Liverpool '
552,508
517,951
,.■::
Manchester ' ....
462,303
506,348
'.I-.".
Birmingham ....
400,774
188,171
71
Leeds .....
::i»!i,l in
367,506
18-9
Sheffield
284,5ns
884,848
1 i-o
Bristol
206,874
881,665
7-1
Bradford '
i'.M. 195
216,861
11-2
Nottingham ....
186,57:.
211,984
18*6
Wist limn ....
138,968
804,908
Kingston-upon-Hull '
165,690
199,99]
20-7
Salford
L76,
198,136
12*4
Newoastle-on-Tyne .
1 16,869
186.:!i:.
28-2
I'Oltstl til ....
127.'. 189
169,256
24*4
AREA AND POPULATION
19
Bnamemtod Population
Increase
- and T'twns
• per cent.
' 1881-91
J
1891
142,051
' ',' .
122
161
Oldham .
. • 11,348
131,463
181
Sunderland
116,542
130,921
Cardiff
82,761
128,849
Blackburn
104,014
120,064
1.V1
Brighton .
107,546
115,402
Bolton
105.414
115. 002
9 1
• ii * .
96..
107.573
114
Croydon .
78.811
102,697
30 3
Norwich .
87,842
100,964
}{*!
Birkenhead
84,006
99,184
181
Huddersfield1 .
86,502
95,422
10 3
Derby
81,168
94,146
160
.Swansea '
130
90,423
18 3
Ystradyfodwg .
-;32
88,350
58 8
Burnley ! .
63,339
.'58
37 4
ihead
-03
85,709
30 3
Plymouth
73,794
84,179
141
Halifax .
73,630
82,864
12 5
Wolverhampton
7t36
82,620
9 0
South Shields .
56.-
;3i
37-9
Middlesbrough
'34
7.'.. 516
35 0
Walsall ' .
59,402
71.791
20-9
Rochdale .
68,866
71.458
3-8 |
Tottenham
36.574
71.336
950 j
St. Helens
57,403
71.288
24-2
Stockport
..53
70,253
18 0 i
Aston Manor .
-42
68,639
York l .
61,789
66,984
84
Southampton
60,051
65,325
8 8
LeytoB ' .
2 7.026
63,106
133 5
Willesilen
•27.613
61,266
1219
Northampton .
.'.1.881
•il,016
176
Beading*.
48,861
60,054
23 1
West Bromwich
56,295
59,489
5-7
Merthyr Tydfil
48,769
58,080
18-9
Ipswich
50,546
•260
133
Bmy: .
717
206
4 5
Wigan
48,194
013
141
Banley .
48,361
54.846
13 4
Devonport
48,939
54,736
11-8
Newport l (Mon.
38,469
54,695
422
Warrington ' .
42.'
."■2. 742
23-9
Coventry '
44,831
720
176
Hasti]
42,258
52.340
23 9
Grimsby l
40,010
51,876
29 7
Bath ...
51,814
51.843
01
Barrow-in-Furness * .
47,259
51.712
9 4
Total
i 10,294,866
11.759,871
142
1 TV areas of these towns were extended in the decenninm 1881-91,bnt in every case the
20
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Mora than one-fourth of the total urban population, and nearly one-
seventh of the total population of England and Wales are concentrated in the
metropolis. The limits of the metropolis were defined hy the Registrar-
General, in the census returns of 1891, as consisting of an ' Inner Ring ' and
an ' Outer Ring, ' the former subdivided into a 'Central Area' and 'Rest of
Inner Ring.' The following table gives the results of the censuses in 18S1
and 1891 :—
Divisions of the Metropolis
Population
Rates of Increase ( + )
or Decrease ( — ) per cent.
1881
1891
1871-81
1S81-91
- 7-2
+ 17-5
Central Area .
Rest of ' Inner Ring '
Inneror Registration London
' Outer Ring ' .
' Greater London ' .
1,101,994
2,713,550
1,022,529
3,188,527
- 4-6
+ 29-3
3,815,544
951,117
4,211,056
1,422,276
+ 17-3
+ 50-5
+ 10-4
+ 49-5
4,766,661
5,633,332
+ 22-7
+ 18-2
The night population of the City of London in 1891 was 37,694 (50,652 in
1881) ; the day population in 1891 was 301,384 ; in 1881 it was 261,061.
The following is the division of the population (1881) of England accord-
ing to occupation : —
Males
Females
Total
, Professional class
Domestic ,,
I Commercial ,,
Agricultural ,,
Industrial ,,
Indefinite and non-productive
class .....
1
. Total .
450,955
258,508
960,661
1,318,344
4,975,178
4,856,256
196,120
1,545,302
19,467
64,840
1,578,189
9;930,619
847,075
1,803,810
980,128
1,383,184
6,373,367
14,786,875
12,619,902
13,334,537
25,974,439
2. Scotland.
Scotland has an area of 30,417 square miles, including its islands. 1S6 in
Dumber, with I population (including military in barracks and seamen OB
board vessels in the harbours), acoordlng to the census of 1891, of 1,088,108
souls, giving 132 inhabitants to the square mile.
The following table exhibits the numbers of the population of Scotland at
the datis of the several censuses, together with the density per square
mile : —
ARIA AND POPULATION
•J I
Dat<- of
Enumeration
Population
Density per Date of
sq. mile Enumeration
Popnlation : ^
1801
1811
1821
1831
1841
1,608,420
1,805,864
2,091,521
2,364,386
2,620,184
54 1851
60 1861
70 1871
79 1881
88 1891
2,888,742
3,062,294
3,360,018
3,735,573
4,033,103
100
113
125
132
The country is divided into 33 civil counties, grouped under eight geo-
graphical divisions. The following table gives the results of the census,
excluding the military in barracks and the seamen on board vessels in the
harbours, on April 5, 1891 : —
Divisions and Civil
Area in •
Population
Counties
sq. miles
Mal.s
Females
Total
sq. mile
— ,
1. Northern.
Shetland
j 957
12,190
16.521
28,711
618
Orkney
14,282
16,156
30,438
Caithness . .
697
17,463
19,698
37,161
53 3
Sutherland
2,105
10,435
11,505
21,940
10 4
2. North- Western.
Ross and Cromarty
3,194
36,838
40,913
24 3
Inverness .
4,232
42,666
45,696
88,362
20 9
3. North- Eastern.
Nairn
197
4,682
5,337
10,019
50 8
Elgin
482
20,358
23,090
43,448
901
Banff.
614
30,717
33,450
64,167
99 6
Aberdeen .
1,966
133,799
147,532
281,331
1431
Kincardine
385
17,602
18,045
35,647
92 6
1 4. East-Midland.
Forfar
880
125,331
152. 4 57
277,788
315-7
Perth
2,588
59,673
66,455
126,128
48 7
Fife .
494
89,112
98,208
187,320
379 2
Kinross
78
2,962
3,327
6,289
80 6
Clackmannan
49
13,678
14,755
28,433
580 2
.">. West- Midland.
Stirling .
461
63,016
62,588
125,604
2724
Dumbarton
264
46,935
47,576
94,511
357 9
Argyll
3,270
37,210
38,735
75,945
22 9
Bute .
219
8,210
10,198
IS, 408
84-0
• >V.tll- 11 '<-/<//(.
Renfrew
25]
138,186
152,604
290,790
1,158-5 !
Ayr .
1,139
110,888
113,334
224.-2-.2-2
196-8 ,
Lanark
889
522,861
522.926
1,045,787
1.176-3
22
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Divisions and Civil
Counties
Area in
sq. miles
Population
Pop. per
sq. mile
Males
Females
Total
7. South- Eastern.
Linlithgow
Edinburgh .
Haddington
Berwick
Peebles
Selkirk .
8. Southern.
Roxburgh .
Dumfries .
Kirkcudbright .
Wigtown . . |
Total Scotland .
121
363
271
463
35&
260
669
1,071
911
490
27,921
215,494
18,226
15,434
6,911
12,733
24,973
34,842
18,879
16,954
24,868
228,561
19,265
16,964
7,849
14,616
28,753
39,466
21,100
19,094
52,789
444,055
37,491
32,398
14,760
27,349
53,726
74,308
39,979
36,048
436-3
1,223-3
138-3
69-9
41-4
105-2
80-3
69-4
43 9
73 6
132-6
30,417
1,951,461
2,081,642
4,033,103
The number of inhabited houses in Scotland in 1891 was 814,444 ; un-
inhabited, 51,714 ; building, 5,378.
The population in 1891 was distributed as follows among the larger to* as,
according to parliamentary or police burghs : —
In Towns of
Towns Inhabitants
Percent. Of Total
Population
27-1
4-9
5-3
6 2
Over 100,000 ....
Between 50,000 and 100,000 .
„ 20,000 and 50,000 .
,, 10,000 and 20,000 .
Total ...
4
3
8
16
1,092,218
197,166
216,063
251,436
31
1,756,883
43-5
According to registration districts, the population of the nine principal
towns of Scotland (including shipping) was as follows in 1891 : —
Towns
Glasgow and
suburbs
Edinburgh .
Dundee
Aberdeen
Percentage of
Population Increase or
1891 Decrease ( )
1881-1891
Percentage of
Population Increase or
is;. i Decrease ( )
I SSI
792,728
261,261
155,640
121,905
i: 5 56
1146
9 '26
16-02
Greenock
Keith .
Paisley .
Perth .
Kilmarnock
63,498
89,696
66,427
80,760
27,969
1 1 •;,:.
19-89
8*87
N-10
The population of Glasgow, exclusive of the landward and suburban popu-
lation, was 666,714, and the increase (1881-1891) 10-62 per cent.
The total population of these nine towns represented two-lit'ihs of the
population of Scotland. In 1881 the total town population was 2, 591. 129 ; in
AP.K.A AND POPULATION
S3
1891, 2,898,695, showing an increase of 1187 per cent. In 1881 the main-
land rural imputation was 1,014,056, and the island rural 130,388 ; in 1891,
the mainland rural was 1,008,464, and the island rural, 125,944, showing
decrease respectively of '55 and 3 '41 per cent.
The following table shows the occupations of the people according *.
of 1881 : —
-
Professional class .
65,499
30,604
96,103
Domestic ,,
2.V.
151,5
:»65
Commercial ..
120
132,12';
(cultural .,
SIS, 215
Industrial
.964
.689
932,653
Unoccupied and non-produc-
tivc class ....
690,762
1.4:;;
-.589 \
Total ....
1,799,475
1,936,098
3,735,573
3. Ireland.
Ireland baa an area of 32,531 square miles, or 20,819,982 acres, inhabited,
in 1891, by 4,706,162 souls. The following table gives the population of
Ireland at different census periods, with the density }>er square mile : —
;;;! *>p^<- ^r
ssi **-*» ■
I 1801 5,395,456 166
: 1811 5,937,856 186
1821 6,801,827 209
1831 7,767,401 239
1841 8.175.124 251
1851 6,552,385
1861
1871 5,412,377
1881 5,174
1891 4,708,162
201
178
167
159
144
The subjoined tables give the results of the enumerations in the four
provinces of April 3. 1881, and of April 5, 1891, together with the decrease,
in numbers and rate per cent., lietween 1881 and 1891 : —
1881
1891
Decrease between 1881
and 1891
Provinces
Number
Rate pear
cent.
Leinster
Minister
Ulster
Uonnaughi
1,278,989
1,331,115
1.743,075
821. •
5,174,836
! 1,195,718
1,168,994
1,617
:>73
83,271
162,121
125,198
98,084
6 5
12-2
7-2
119
Total of Ireland
4,706,162
468,674
9-1
The area and the population of the counties of the four provinces of
Ireland at the census of April 5, 1891, are given in the following table : —
24
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Population
Provinces
_
Pop. per
and Counties
Area in
sq. miles
Males
Females
Total
sq. mile i
Province of Leinster.
CarloW County
349
20,459
20,440
40,899
117-2
Dublin
354
202,066
227,045
429,111
1,212-2
Kildare , ,
654
38,377
31,611
69,988
107-0
Kilkenny ,,
796
43,379
43,775
87,154
109-5
King's- , ,
772
33,672
31,736
65.408
84-7
Longford , ,
421
26,601
25,952
52,553
124-8
Louth ' ,,
316
35,125
35,727
70,852
224-2
Meath ,,
906
38,916
37,700
76,616
84-6
Queen's ,,
664
32,895
31,744
64,639
97 3
Westmeath , ,
708
33,864
31,164
65,028
91-8
Wexford , ,
901
54,773
56,763
111,536
123 8
Wicklow , ,
Total of Leinster .
Province of Munster.
781
30,937
30,997
61,934
79 3
7,622
591,064
604,654
1,195,718
156 8
Clare County
1,294
62,788
61,071
123,859
95-7
Cork ,,
2,890
218,596
218,045
436,641
151-1
Kerry ,,
1,853
90,834
88,085
178,919
96-5
Limerick County
1,064
78,415
80,148
158,563
1490
Tipperary ,, .
1,659
86,582
86,300
172,882
104-2
Waterford ,, .
Total of Munster .
Province of UUter.
721
47,910
50,220
98,130
136-1
9,481
585,125
583,869
1,168,994
123-3
Antrim County .
1,237
200,285
227,683
427,968
345-9
Armagh ,,
512
68,258
74,798
143,056
279-4
Cavan ,,
746
56,635
55,044
111,679
149-7
Donegal ,,
1,870
91,161
94,050
185,211
99-0
Down ,,
957
126,108
140,785
266,893
878*8
Fermanagh,,
715
37,279
36,758
74,037
103 5
Londonderry County .
816
72,894
78,772
151,666
185-8
Monaghan ,,
500
42,637
43,452
86,089
172-2
Tyrone
Total of Ulster .
Province of Oonnaught.
1,260
84,383
86,895
171,278
135 9
8,613
779,640
838,237
1,617,877
187-8
Qalway County .
2,452
107,957
106,299
214,256
87-4 1
Lcitrim ,,
619
:«».:.:. 7
3S.K22
78,379
126 6
M:i\" ,,
2,126
107,118
111.288
218,406
102-7 i
H iiiiiuii ( lounty
949
57,860
58,884
lM.I'.M
120-8
Bligo •
Total of 1 <>mi:iuu'lit
Total of Ireland .
721
48,755
19. "..S3
!>s.:;:;s
136 4
6,867
361,247
362,326
723.. '.73
10.". -3
32,583
2,317,076
2,389,086
4 706,162
144-4
AKKA AND l>< U'I'LATION
25
The number of inhabited houses at the ewm of 1891 was 872,669, again.-t
914.108 in 1881, and 961,380 in 1871. The decrease in the decennial period
1881-1891 amounted to 4-5 per cent.
Of uninhabited houses, there were 58,257 at the census of 1881, and
7 in 1891, representing an increase of 12 8 per cent in uninhabited
houses ; iu 1881 there were 1,710 houses building ; in 1891 there were
2,568.
The imputation in 1891 was distributed as follows among the larger
towns : —
In Towns of
Over 100,000 .
Between 50,000 and 100,000
20,000 and 50,000
10,000 and 20,000
Total
No. of
Towns
a
i
5
9
17
Inhabitants
510,605
75,070
143,657
113,438
842,770
Population
108
16
3 0
2 4
17*9
In Ireland, in 1891. there were only three cities with over 50,000 in-
habitants, viz.. Dublin, with 254,709, but 361, 891 within the metropolitan police
district (349,688 in 1881) ; Belfast, 255,896; Cork, 75,070; Limerick had
87,071 inhabitants ; Londonderry, 32,893 ; Waterford, 21,693.
The population was divided as follows according to occupation in 1881 : —
-
■falsi
Females
Total
Professional class
Domestic „
Commercial ,,
Agricultural ..
Industrial „
Indefinite and non
Total
-productive .
136,489
34,068
70,751
902,010
428,578
961,381 .
62,195
392.093 :
1.494
95,946
262,931
1,826,900
198,684 1
426,161 !
72,24:.
997.956
691.509
2,788,281
2,533,277
2,641.559
5.174,836
4. Islands in the British Seas.
The population of the Islands iu the British Seas was found to be as
follows at the census of April 5, 1891 : —
Islands
Aim
square miles
Isle of Man 220
Channellslauds Acres
Jersey . . 28,717
Guernsey. &c. 12,605
Population
Total
1881
53,558
13,446
35,257
1891
55,598
54,518
189,307 141,260 147,870
Population
per sq. mile
1891
252-J
Increase
per cent. I
3 8
4 0
7 0
4-7
26
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The following were the numbers of the population of the Islands at each
of the four censuses of 1861, 1871, 1881, and 1891 :—
Islands
1861
1871
1881
1891
Isle of Man
Jersey
Guernsey, Henn, and Jethou
Alderney ....
Sark and Brechon .
Total .
52,469
55,613
29,850
4,932
583
54,042
56,627
30,685
2,738
546
53,558
52,445
32,631
2,048
571
55,598
54,518
35,339
1,843
572
143,447
144,638
141,260
147,870
II. Movement of the Population.
1. Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
England and Wales.
Fear
Estimated
Population
Total Births
Illegitimate \ Deaths
Marriages
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
27,521,780
27,826,798
28,135,197
28,447,014
28,762,287
903,216
886,017
879,263
885,179
869,937
42,700 587,078
42,770 580,577
40,730 510, 600
40,627 517,968
38,412 562,248
195,806
200,17.".
208,458
213,696
223,028
The proportion of illegitimate births to the total birt lis" in
1890 was 4*6 per cent., having gradually diminished from 7 per
cent, in 1845 ; the minimum rate in 1890, 3 per cent, in Esses
and Middlesex (extra Metropolitan), and the maximum 7*6 in
Shropshire and Cumberland. The percentage for London was
8*8. The birthfl and deaths are exclusive of still-born.
Tin: proportion of male to female children born in England
during the last ten years is as 1,038 to 1,00(». lint is the former
Stdfer from a higher rate of mortality (ban the latter, the
equilibrium between the sexes is restored about the tenth year of
lite, and is finally changed, by emigration, war. and perilous male
occupations, to the extent thai there are 1,000 women, of all aires.
to 949 men in England.
AREA AND POPULATION
Scotland.
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Estimate
Population
3,949,393"
3,991.499
4,034,156
4,077,070
4,120,
Total Births Illegitimate
121,530
10,506
10,380
9,991
9,167
Dwtla
74.500
71.1*5-2
78,978
Maniagca
■24.469
24,851
25,281
26,318
The average proportion of illegitimate births in 1890 was 7 •">
per cent., the rate varying from 2*7 per cent, in Shetland to 15*7
per cent, in Wigtown.
Ireland.
Pn]V,!iaat\'m Total Births niegitimate Dart*
Marriages
1886
1888
1889
1890
4,889,498 113,927 3,076 87,292
4,837,352 112,400 8,147 88,711
4.777.545 109. 557 8,124 85,962
4,730,582 107,782 3,049 82,986
H,178 105,343 — 86,165
20,594
20,800
20,018
•21.478
20,866
The average proportion of illegitimate births in 1889 was 2 '8
per cent., the rate varying from 0-7 in Connaught to 4 4 in
Ulster.
2. Emigration and Immigration.
There was very little emigration from the United Kingdom
previous to 1815, in which year the number of emigrants was no
more than 2,081. It rose gradually from 12,510 in 1816, to
3-1,987 in 1819. In the five years 1820-24 there emigrated
95,030 individuals; in the next five years, 1825-29, the number
was 121,084 ; in 1830-34 it rose to 381,956 ; but sank again to
287,358 in 1835-39. Between 1815 and 1852 the total number
of emigrants was 3,463,592 ; between 1853 and 1860 it was
1,582,475, of whom 1,312,683 were of British or Irish origin;
between 1S61 and 1870 it was 1,967,570, of whom 1,571,829 were
of British or Irish origin ; 1871-80, 2,228,396, of whom 1,678,919
were British; and the total from 1815 to 1890 was 12,797,688.
The total emigration of persons of British or Irish origin only,
1853-1890, was 7,121,966 ; 4,739,547 went to the United States ;
of these, 2,019,743 were English, 377,959 Scotch, and 2,341,845
Irish.
The following table exhibits the number of persons, aativee
and foreigners, emigrating from the United Kingdom to British
28
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
North America, the United States, and Australasia, and the
total number — the latter figure including the comparatively small
number going to other than these three destinations (28,775 in
1891)— in each of the years from 1887 to 1891 :—
Year
To British
North America
To the United
States
To Australasia
Total
1887
1888
1889
1890"
1891
44,406
49,107
38,056
31,897
33,791
296,901
293,087
240,395
233,522
252,171
35,198
31,725
28,834
21,570
19,714
396,494
398,494
342,641
315,980
334,451
The following shows the number of British emigrants to places
out of Europe in 1890 and 1891, with the increase or decrease
Year English
Scotch
Irish
Total
United Kingdom
1890 139,979
1891 : 137,658
Increase or Decrease | —2,321
20,653
22,211
57,484
58,394
218,116
218,263
1,558
910
147
The number of persons who left Ireland in 1890 to settle in
Great Britain was 4,472. In 1890, 94,515 foreigners, including
15,807 children and infants, emigrated from the United
Kingdom.
In the year 1890 there were 155,910 immigrants, British and
foreign, which, deducted from the total of 315,980 emigrants, left
an excess of 160,070 emigrants. As regards persons of British
and Irish origin the immigrants in 1890 numbered 109,470 which
deducted from the total of 218,116 British emigrants, left, an
excess of 108,646 emigrants of British origin.
Religion.
I. England and Walks
Tin- Established Church of England is Protectant Episcopal,
tts fundamental doctrines anil tenets are embodied in the Thirty*
nine Articles, agreed upon in Convocation in 1562, and revised
and finally settled in 1571. But though the Protestant Episcopal
is (lie State religion, all others are fully tolerated, and civil dis-
abilities do not attach to any class of British subjects.
RET.IOK « 20
The Queen is by law the supreme governor of the Church,
■j. the right, regulated by the statute 36 Ken. A* 1 1 1 . e. _'< ».
to nominate to the vacant archbishoprics and bishoprics, the form
being to send to the dean and chapter of the vacant see the royal
licence, or congt- (TH%re, t<> proceed to the election, accompanied by
the Queen's letter naming the person to be elected : and afterwards
the royal assent and continuation of the appointment is signified
under the Great Seal. But this form applies only to the sees of
old foundation; the bishoprics of Manchester, St. ' Albans,
Liverpool, Truro, Newcastle, and Southwell are conferred direct
by letters patent from the Crown. The Queen, and the First
Lord of the Treasury in her name, also appoints to such deaneries,
prebendaries, and canonries as are in the gift of the Crown.
There are 2 archbishops and 31 bishops in England. The
former are the chiefs of the clergy in their provinces, and have
also each his own particular diocese, wherein they exercise epis-
copal, as in their provinces they exercise archiepiscopal. juris-
diction. Under the bishops are 30 deans, 85 archdeacons, and
613 rural deans. For the management of ecclesiastical affairs,
the provinces have each a council, or Convocation, consisting of
the bishops, archdeacons, and deans, in person, and of a certain
• number of proctors, as the representatives of the inferior clergy.
These councils are summoned by the respective archbishops, in
pursuance of the Queen's mandate. When assembled, they must
also have the Queen's licence before they can deliberate : as well
as the sanction of the Crown to their resolutions, before they are
binding on the clergy ; so that their real power is extremely
limited.
The number of civil parishes (districts for which a separate
poor rate is or can be made) at the census of 1881 was 14,926.
These, however, in many cases, do not coincide with ecclesiastical
parishes, which, during the present century, have lost their old
importance, the ancient parishes having been cut up in many
cases into districts, each of which is virtually an independent
parish ecclesiastically. Of such parishes there are about 14,000 ;
according to a return of 1882 the Church of England possessed
14,573 registered churches and chapels, in which marriages could
be solemnised. Since 1818 the Church Building and the Ecclesi-
astical Commissioners have formed upwards of 3,000 new ecclesi-
astical districts. Each parish has its church, presided over by an
incumbent or minister, who must be in priest's orders, and who
is known as rector, vicar, or perpetual curate, according to his
relation to the temporalities of his parish. Private persons pos-
sess the right of presentation to about 8,500 benefices ; the
30 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
patronage of the others belongs mainly to the Queen, the
bishops and cathedrals, the Lord Chancellor, and the universities
of Oxford and Cambridge. The total annual income of Church
property of all kinds is estimated at about 7,000,000A, most of
which is managed by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners. The
number of clergy of all grades (including assistant curates)
belonging to the Church of England actually doing duty in
churches is returned in the census of 1881 at 21,663, and if those
who fill other functions be added, the total number is probably
about 24,000.
In the theory of English law every Englishman is a member
of the Church of England, but it is estimated that the population
of England and Wales actually claiming membership with the Esta-
blished Church was about 13,500,000, leaving about 12,500,000 to
other creeds.
On the basis of the marriage registers 71 '6 per cent, of the
population belonged to the Established Church, 4*4 per cent, to the
Roman Catholic Church, and 24 '4 to other bodies.
There are many Protestant Dissenting religious bodies, the
most prominent being Methodists of various sects, the Independ-
ents or Congregationalists, the Baptists, and the English Pres-
byterians. The Methodist body, subdivided into members of the
Old and New Connexion, Primitive and Free Church Methodists,
Bible Christians, and various other sects, possess about 15,000
chapels and 800,000 members ; the Independents or Congregation-
alists 4,580 churches and stations, 2,730 ministers, and 360,000
members ; the Baptists 3,780 chapels, 1,874 ministers, and 300,000
members, besides in each case the families of members and other
adherents. There are altogether 280 religious denominations in
Great Britain, the names of which have been given in to the
Registrar-General of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, the total
number of registered chapels in 1891 being 27,253, According to
the census of-1881 there were 9,734 Protestant Dissenting minist en
in England and Wales.
The number of Roman Catholics in England and Wales | I B87 )
is estimated at 1,354,000. There are fifteen dignitaries of the
Roman Catholic Church in England and Wales, namely, one
archbishop and fourteen bishops (besides two bishops auxiliary).
as many dioceses, united in the 'Province of Westminster.' In
December 1891 there were 1,362 Roman Catholic chapels and
stations. The number of officiating Roman Catholic clergy at the
same date was 2,573 (1,620 in 1871).
The number of Jews in Great I'.ritain and Ireland was
estimated in 1883 at 70,000, of whom 40,000 reside in London.
RELIGION 51
IT. SCOTLAND.
The Church of Scotland (established in 1660 and confirmed in
is organised on the presbyterian ■ystem of government, in
which the clergy are all equal, none of them having pre-eminenre
of any kind over another. There is in each parish a parochial
tribunal, called a kirk Besmon, consisting of the minister or clergy-
man. who aets as president or moderator, and of a numl>er of laymen
called ruling elders. There are in all 84 presbyteries, meeting
frequently throughout the year, and these again are grouped in
16 synods, which meet half-yearly and can be appealed to against
the decisions of the presbyteries. The supreme court of the
Scottish Church is the General Assembly, which consists of 386
members, partly clerical and partly lay, chosen by the different
presbyteries, boroughs, and universities. It meets annually in
.May (under the presidency of a moderator appointed by the
ably, the Sovereign being represented by a nobleman known
as Lord High Commissioner), sitting for ten days, the matters
not decided during this period being left to a ( 'ommission.
The number of parishes, old and new (1801), is 1,338, and
the number of churches, chapels, and stations, 1,685 ; the total
number of clergy, with and without charges or appointm
exceeds 1,743. The parishioners are allowed, under certain
regulations, to choose their own ministers. The entire endow-
ments of the Church from all sources, including the annual value
of the manses and glebes, amount to about 350,000/. per annum.
Since 184-5 members of the Church have erected and endowed
churches for 371 new parishes, the value, with endowments, being
little short of 2,250,000*. In 1800 voluntary contributions (in-
dependently of over 200,000/. derived from the interest of inv.
contributions, grants from two trusts, and pew rents levied in 4-t<>
churches) amounted to 362.653/. Exclusive of 'adherents.' the
Established Church in 1878 had 5 15,786 members or communicants.
In 1880 the number was 503,303.
The Presbyterians not members of the Established Church of
Scotland have the same ecclesiastical organisation as the parent
Church. Of these, the largest body is the Free Church, formed
from a secession in 1843, with 1,140 ministers, 1,089 churches,
341 ".000 members or adherents, and claiming as 'population
connected with the Free Church. 1,165,000' in 1891. Its income
in 1800-01 from all sources at home was 653,694/. The
gate funds raised in Scotland for all purposes during the
forty-four years from the Disruption amount to 19,000,000/.
is the United Presbyterian Church, formed from the
32 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
amalgamation of several bodies of seceders, one dating as far
back as 1741, with 605 ministers, 570 churches, 48 home mission
stations, 184,889 members (besides adherents), and an income in
1890 of 381,622/. There are also Baptists, Independents,
Methodists, and Unitarians. The Episcopal Church in Scotland,
which includes a large portion of the nobility and gentry, has
7 bishops, 268 churches and missions, and 266 clergy, and claims
the adherence of about 80,000 of the population.
The Roman Catholics have increased largely of late years,
chiefly from the influx of Irish population. The Roman Catholic
Church had two archbishops and four bishops in Scotland in
1891, 356 priests, and 338 churches, chapels, and stations. The
number of Roman Catholics is estimated at 326,000.
III. Ireland.
The Roman Catholic Church in Ireland is under four arch-
bishops, of Armagh, Cashel, Dublin, and Tuam, and twenty-three
bishops. On the death of a bishop, the clergy of the diocese
nominate a successor to the vacancy, in whose favour they postu-
late or petition the Pope. The bishops of the province also pre-
sent the names of two or three eligible persons to the Pope. The
new bishop is generally chosen from among this latter number ;
but the appointment virtually rests with the cardinals. The
emoluments of a bishop arise from his parish, which is generally
the best in the diocese, from licences of marriage, &c, and from
the cathedraticum, a small contribution paid by incumbents of
parishes. The incomes of all classes of the Roman Catholic
clergy of Ireland arise partly from fees, but principally i'roin
Christmas and Easter dues, and other voluntary offerings. In
1891 the Roman Catholic population was returned at 3,549,856,
being 10'4 per cent, under the number returned in 1881.
The Church of Ireland (Protestant Episcopal), formerly
(1801-1870) in union with the Church of England, ceased to be
' established by law ' by Act of Parliament (1869) 32 & 33 Vict,
cap. 42. It has now (1892) two archbishops, eleven bishops, and
1,700 clergy. It possesses 1,500 churches, 602,000 members, and
received in 1890 voluntary contributions amounting to 166,000/.
Its income previous to disestablifhment was 600,000/.. and its
entire capital estimated at 14,000,000/. By the Disestablishment
Act 7,500,000£. were allotted to it by way of commutation (charged
with the payment of annuities amounting to 596,000/.), and
500,0002. in lieu of private endowments. The Church is governed
wsTBUcmoa H
by a General Synod — bishops, clergy, and laity having the right
to vote separately. There are also 23 diocesan synods.
There were in Ireland, at the census of 1891, 446,687 Pr.
terians, 55,235 Methodists, 17,017 Independents, 5,111 Bap
3,032 Quakers, 1,798 Jews.
Instruction.
The following table proves progress in the diffusion of
elementary education, by indicating the percentage of per>on>
in England and Wales who signed by mark in the marriage
register during each year specified : —
Year
Males
Females
49 0
Year
1883
HUM
F" males
184:5
32.7
U«8
i.-.-:.
30-4
43 9
1888
8 3
97
23 8
33 1
1889
9 0
1873
188
25 4
1890
7 '2
8 3
In London the proportion of men who signed with marks in
1890 was 4*2 per cent., and of women 5*6. Cher most of the
South-eastern, South Midland, Eastern, South-western, and West
Midland counties the proportion of males who signed with marks
greater than females. In the North Midland and Northern
counties and in Wales the preponderance is much in favour of
the males. The most illiterate counties for men in 1890 were
Monmouth 138, Hertfordshire 13-1, North Wales 11-8, Corn-
wall 109, Suffolk 120, and Cambridge 11 per cent. In Scot
land, the proportion in 1889 was 4*30 per cent, of men and
7*38 of women. In 1857 the proportion was 12-11 per cent.
males to 24 66 females. In Kinross-shire all males and all
females, and in Peebleshire, Selkirkshire and Roxburghshire all
males, signed their names. In all the divisions except the N.W.,
West Midland, and S.W., the proportion was comparatively low.
The two most illiterate counties by this test are Ross, 17*21 per
cent, males to 41*23 per cent, females, and Inverness with 1 3* Hi
to 25*26. In Ireland the proportion unable to sign the marriage
register in 1889 was 21*2 men and 22 women. In 1874 the pro-
portion was 30*1 men and 36*4 women. The proportions varied
in the various provinces in 1889, from 17 per cent, of the men
and 16 per cent, of the women in Leinster to 31 per cent, of the
men and 29 per cent, of the women in Connaught.
The highest education is provided for in Great Britain and
34
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — UNITED KINGDOM
Ireland by a number of universities and detached colleges. With
the exception of Oxford, Cambridge, Durham, Owens College, the
Scotch Universities, and Trinity and Queen's Colleges, Ireland,
most of the other institutions have been founded within the last
ten years. The following table gives the statistics in most cases
for the last term of 1891 : —
No. of
Teach-
Nil of
Teach-
_
Col-
ing"
Students
—
Col-
ing
Students.
leges
Staff
leges
Staff
England and
Scotland.
Wales.
Universities : —
Universities .-1 —
Aberdeen
1
35
914
Oxford .
Cambridge
Durham .
23
19
1
86
116
13
3,212
3,029
224
Edinburgh
Glasgow
St. Andrews
1
1
2
103
64
16
3,488
2,109
189
Colleges : —
Abeiystwith .
Bangor .
1
1
17
21
151
114
College : —
University,
Dundee .
1
19
1581-
Manchester
1
87
81 12
Newcastle
2
343
5053
Nottingham
Sheffield . .
1
1
40
15
1,8054
2205
Ikkland.
Birmingham .
1
25
3636
University : —
Bristol .
1
18
3727 Dublin .
l13
74 1,193
Cardiff .
1
28
250*
Colleges : —
Lampeter
1
8
117
Queen's, Belfast
1
19 150
Leeds
1
82
949" „ Cork,
1
17 245
Liverpool
1
46
350 >, Galway
1
16 in :
London :—
University .
1
56
1'
966,n Total United
King's
1
120
46511 1 Kingdom .
68
1.175 22,7>60
1 Owens College, Manchester, University College, Liverpool, and Yorkshire Colleges
Leeds, are associated together as the Victoria University. - Inclusive of 61 women;
exclusive of 870 evening students. a including is professors and 208 students a1
College of Medicine ; there Were besides Nl/, evening students. ■» Including day and
evening students. ^ 5 Not including university extension lectures. ' i; In ad-
iiiti.iii there are 274 evening students. 7 In addition there are 218 evening ate*
dente. 8 There are also 1,708 students attending evening technical classes. » In-
cluding evening st udeiits. I" Exclusive Of school. U Exclusive of school and
1,859 evening students. il Excluding 78 evening students. I:! Trinity Co
London University is only an examining body, with power to
!(r;infc degrees to all candidates who ]>mss its examinations; in
1890-91 it had 51 examiners, and in 1890 1,984 candidates
underwent ils various examinations. The Royal University of
Ireland holds a similar position in Ireland: in 1890 it bad 1* I
examiners; in L890, out of 2,846 entered For examination,
1,803 passed; 7-"> women-students mat rieulated. The CathoHc
University of Ireland includes, besides University College,
[NSTRUCnON 35
Dubliir. seven other Catholic colleges. It pants degrees in
theology and philosophy, and sends up Its student > for other
degrees to the examination of the Iloyal Cniversitv.
For medical education, bteidal the faculties attached to some
of the universities and colleges, there are medical schools attached
bo the hospitals of most of the large towns in England. In a few
of the colleges female students are admitted. There are, beside-.
4 university colleges for ladies : — ■ Xewnham College. Cambridge.
with a resident teaching staff of 13, and 44 outside Lecturers and
141 students, in 1890 ; Girton College, Cambridge, with 5 resident
lecturers and 31 outside lecturers ami llfi students in 1891 ;
and Lady Margaret and Somerville Halls, Oxford, the former
with 38 students and the latter with 48 students in 1891.
There is a similar College (Bedford) for ladies in London with
23 lecturers, and another in Edinburgh.
The City and Guilds of London Technical Institute has at its
Central and Branch Institutes (4) a teaching staff of 69, with
2,000 students, including 1,500 evening students.
Middle-class education in the United Kingdom is entirely
unorganised, and is mainly left to private enterprise; no com-
plete, trustworthy statistics are available. There are a number
of endowed public and grammar schools in England, but over the
conduct of these schools Government has no control.
According to a return for Scotland relating to 1890, there
were in that year 43 higher class public schools under Government
inspection, at which examinations were held for leaving certi-
ficates, the number of candidates being 2,528, and the number
of papers taken 11,300. For Ireland there is an Intermediate
Education Board, with a yearly income, on January 1. 1891, of
34,550/., whose functions are to examine all candidates who
present themselves. In 1890, 5,236 pupils (3,943 boys and 1,293
girls) presented themselves for examination, as compared with
3 in the previous year, and 6,952 in 1881. In 1881, there
were in Ireland about 1,500 superior schools, with about 200,000
pupils.
In connection with the Government Science and Art Depart-
ment there are. in addition to classes in ordinary schools for
science and art education, 2,063 science schools, with 133,821
pupils. The number of art schools and classes in 1890 was
1,182, and the number of students 88,833. The Parlia-
mentary vote for 1891-92 was 530,986/., against 64,675/. for
Elementary education is compulsory in the United Kingdom.
By the Act of 1870, sufficient school accommodation must be
n 2
30
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
provided in every district in England and Wales for all the
children resident in such district between the ages of five and
thirteen, and a similar Act has been applied to Scotland. In
1891, by a fee grant of ten shillings for each child between three
and fifteen years of age in average attendance, to be paid, on
certain conditions, to managers of public elementary schools
willing to receive such aid, education was rendered practically
free in England and Wales. If, after a year from the commence-
ment of the Act, the free school accommodation in any district is
insufficient, the deficiency must be supplied. In Scotland, in
1889, by a capitation grant, education was made free for the
compulsory standards ; an age limit (5-14) has now (1891) been
introduced. On April 1, 1891, there were in England and Wales
2,287 School Boards, embracing a population of 16,580,279, and
777 School Attendance Committees, embracing a population of
9,394,160.
The following table, compiled from official returns, relating to
the Primary Schools, both Board Schools and Voluntary Schools,
under inspection in Great Britain, gives a view of the progress of
education within the years 1885-1890 :—
Number of
v i i a , .>, Schools
Years ended August 31 | inspected
Number of Children ArenuM Number
who can be of Children
Accommodated ' in Attendance
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
' 1890
Knoland and Walks
18,895
19,022
19,154
19,221
19,310
19,419
4,998,718
5,145,292
5,278,992
5,356,554
5,440,441
5,539,285
3,371,325
8, 188,426
3,527,381
3,614,967
3,682,625
3,717,91?
"
Srt,TI.ANn
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
3,081
3,092
3,111
3,105
3,116
3,117
660,101
691,405
677,984
687,297
706,085
723,840
466, 666
476,890
191,786
196,289
503,100
519,788
The nniiiher (it teachers ill the schools of England Bad Wales in 1890 was
nil. -2->l (including 8,294 studying In training college*) !; in those of Scotland
13,805 (including 857 studying in training coUeoes). The total number ol
children of legal school age((i 11) in England and Wales in 1890 was 6,124,519 ;
in Scotland (5 14), 841,982 Of the schools in England and Wales, 4, 714 were
directly under school hoards in 1890; 11,922 connected with the National
.irSTIPE VXD r-RIMK
81
Society or the- Church of Englaud : HI MR £*4»J Roman Catholic.
1,365 British, undenominational, and other school- land, 2,651 were
public schools, 62 were connected with the Church of Scotland, 166 with the
Roman Catholic Church, and the rest with other bodies or undenominational :
total receiving Government grant. :i. 1 1 7. In England and Wain in 1891
there were 44 training 'colleges, with 3.310 students; and in Scotland 7
colleges, with 859 stadi
Elementarv education in Ireland is under the superintendence of a body of
OonmiaBionen of National Education in Ireland.' The following tabic will
Mow the progress of elementary schools during the past six years •
Vear ended
1885
1886
1887
Schools in
Operation
7,936
8,024
8,112
Attendance
502.454
490,484
515,388
Year ended
Dec 31
Scho. . rage
operation ' Attendance
1888
1889
1890
MM
8,251
B.2W
m,9U
507,865
489,144
In 1890 there were in Ireland 4 training colleges with 599 student.-.
Annual grants to primary schools (for examination and attendance of
holars in the case of Great Britain) for the years specified : —
— 1887
1888
1889
18P1
England
Scotland
Ireland
(it. Britain (rar. i
£
3.079,685
146 ■
886,051
419.508
£
3,110.210
47:
911.
426.004
3.245. 1 50 3.
488,686 493,354
■ :>, 902.391
433.74* 439.506
.183
968,
454,803
United Kingdom
4,831,089
4.925,765 5.070,217 5,161,471
000
In addition to the grant these schools derive an income from endowments,
school fees, local rates, voluntary suliscriptions, and other BOUtcea, ainouiiting
for England in 1890 to 4,286,154*. ; for Scotland to 627.231/.. and for Ireland
to 126.545/.
Justice and Crime.
E n 8 i. a H r> a n r> Wall -.
The principal courts having criminal jurisdiction are the petty sessional
courts, the general or quarter sessions, the courts of oyer and terminer and
gaol delivery, more popularly known as 'assizes,' and the Central Criminal
Court. Two or more justices of the peace sitting in a petty sessional court
the Lord .Mayor or any alderman of the City of London, or any metro-
politan or borough police magistrate or other stipendiary magistrate sitting in
a court house, constitute a petty sessional court. The courts of quarter ■ -
are held four times a year by the justices of the county. Similar courts i an
be held at other times, and are then called "general sessions. Two jus
constitute a court, but usually a larger number attend. Certain boroughs hove
a court of quarter sessions, with similar jurisdiction to the county justices in
quarter sessions assembled, in which the recorder of the liorough is the judge.
The assize courts are held four times a year in various towns throughout the
88 THK BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
country by 'commissioners' nominated by the Crown. These commissioners
are generally judges of the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court of Justice,
but sometimes Queen's Counsel of good standing are appointed. The trial
takes place before a single commissioner. The Central Criminal Court is the
court of oyer and terminer and gaol delivery for the City.of London and a large
surrounding district. The sessions of this court are held at least twelve time-.
a year, and more often if necessary. The Recorder and the Common Sergeant,
and, if the number of the prisoners makes it necessary, the judge of the City of
London Cowrt, sit on the first two days, after which they are joined by the
judges of the High Court on the rota, for whom the more serious cases arc
reserved. A petty sessional court deals summarily with minor offences.
Cases of a more serious nature are usually investigated by a petty sessional
court before being tried at the sessions or the assizes. To eveiy sessions,
assize, and to every sitting of the Central Criminal Court the sheriff cities 24
of the chief inhabitants of the district, of whom not less than 12 and not more
than 23 are sworn and constitute a grand jury. The grand jury examines the
bill of indictment against the accused person, hears the evidence of witnesses
for the prosecution, and if they think a prima fade case for trial is made out
they endorse the bill 'a true bill.' All criminal trials, except those which
come before a court of summary jurisdiction, take place before a judge and a
petty jury of twelve men. Except on some highly technical point of procedure
there is no appeal in criminal cases. No man can be tried again for the same
crime after a petty jury has found him ' not guilty.' On a conviction the judge
can, if he think fit, reserve a question of law (but not of fact) for the Court for
Crown Cases Reserved. This Courtis formed by five or more judges of the
High Court, and can reverse, amend, or affirm the judgment. The only other
method of securing the revision of a sentence, is by the royal prerogative
exercised on the advice of the Home Secretary, by which a sentence can be
modified or annulled: Nominally all the judges are appointed by the Queen,
1 m t in practice the Lord Chancellor (who is a ( 'abinet minister, ex-omcio president
ofthoHouseof Lords, and goes out with the ministry) and the Lord < Ihief Justice
are appointed on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, and all the other
judges on the recommendation of the Lord Chancellor.
Scotland.
The High Court of Justiciary is the supreme criminal court in Scotland.
It consists of all the judges of the Court of Session, and sits more or less fre-
quently, as the number of cases before it may require, in Edinburgh or in the
circuit towns. One judge can. and usually does, try eases, hut two or more
preside in eases of difficulty or importance. It is the only competenl court in
cases of treason, murder, robbery, rape, fire-raising, deforcement of messengers,
ami generally in all cases in which a higher punishment than imprisonment is
by statute directed to lie inflicted: and it lias raoreoveran inherent jurisdic-
tion to punish all criminal acts, both those already established by common law
oi statute, and such as have never previouslj come before th tarts and are
not within any statute.
The sheriff of inch county is the proper criminal judge in all crimes
occurring within the county which infer only an arbitrary punishment, and if
the case is tried with a jury the High Court has no power of review on the
merits. Even in cases indicted to the High Court the accused b> under the
Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act of 1887, regularly asked to plead in the
sheriff court, and minor objections to the indictment cm be wholly 01 in part
disposed of there. Borough magistrates and justices of the pence have jurisdic-
tion in petty oases occurring within the burgh or county, and iii a number of
minor offences under various statutes.
JU8TI4 i: AN1» « himi. :?!>
iRELAM'.
In Ireland persona charged with crime are first brought before the petty
•i- court, which must i two ordinary justices ofthe peace,
one af whom may b i -Tii»ii<li:uy commonly called ■ resident magistrate
I'li.-ii If the charge !*• trifling it may be disposed of, tin- prisoner, if convicted,
having a right of appeal t<> the quarter sessions or ncoroera mutt (according
i- it is in a borough or in the county), |n-ovi«lo«l he is.iiiie<l more than twenty
shillings or sentenced to a longer imprisonment than one month (Petty ft
It thi charge be oi' a more serious character it moat either l»e
dismissed or sent for trial to the quarter aeasioaa or worder's court, or to the
n England. There is this difference, however, between quartet
la in Ireland and in England : in England they are presided over by an
unpaid chairman, who need not l«e a lawyer and who is elected by his fellow
> of the j»eace for the county ; while in Ireland they are presided over
by a ]<aid official, who must be a barrister, wh a on points of law binds
the court, who is appointed by the Crown, and who is also judge of the civil
hill court of the county, which corresponds to the English county court. The
- are presided over by one of the common law judges of the High Court
of Justice. In the quarter - order's court, and assize* the trial is by
jury in all eases save apjieals from i>etty session*. Under the CftOM
witnesses and persona suspected of crime may be interrogated l*fore a
court of inquiry : but admissions then made are not evidence against the
persona making them. Prisoners may lie convicted before two resident :
ttates specially appointed to hear cases under the Crimes Act. and in
where the sentence exceeds a month, convicted persons have a right of appeal
to the county chairman at quarter imaaliniM
The numl>er of criminal offenders committed for trial and convicted, in
each of the three kingdoms, was as follows in the five years from 1886 to
1890:—
Year
Committal for Trial
Females
Total
11,768
2.211
13.974
10.- •-
1887
11.162
2.1:50
13.292
10,838
11.
2.072
13.750
10,661
10.192
1.907
12.099
1890
10.07O
1,899
11.974
9.242
Scotland.
Committed for Trial
1890
Females
Total
I oiivietal
2,062
2,487
1,838
1.990
:V>7
2,357
1,848
2.001
361
2,352
%7l
1,822
412
2.2:14
1.723
1.907
407
2,314
1,928
40
THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— UNITE!) KINGDOM
Ireland.
Year
Committed for Trial
Males
Females
Total
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
2,601
2,309
1,821
1,801
1,728
427
385
• 367
380
333
3,028 1,619
2,694 1,411
2,188 1,220
2,181 1,225
2,061 1,193
The following table shows the strength of the police force in England and
Wales, Scotland, and Ireland : —
Year
England
and Scotland
Wales :
Ireland !' Year
England
and
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
OWN ,
oo oo oo
OO OO OO
31,488 ! 3,484
36,477 : 3,824
36,912 1 3,892
12,579 1888
13,957 1889
13,977 ' 1890
37,296
37,957
39,221
3,986
4,041
4,103
13,934
13,951
13,921 !
Pauperism.
There is a Poor Law, under a variety of statutes, applicable to the Three
Kingdoms, by which paupers, under certain conditions, are to Ik? relieved in
their own houses or lodged in workhouses ox poor-houses built for the purpose.
The law is administered by the Local Government Board, through Boards of
Guardians elected for the purpose. For the administration of the law the
country is divided into a number of unions or parishes. The funds arc
obtained in the different parishes or unions by means of a poor-rate levied on
the occupiers of property of all kinds, determined by the local authorities
accordingly.
The following table shows the total amonnt expended in relief of the pool
for the live years (ended March 25 for England and Ireland, and May 11 for
Scotland) 1886-90:—
Feu
England & Wales
Scotland
Inland
ToUl U.K.
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
£
8,296,230
8,176,768
8,440,821
8,366,477
8,434,345
£
894,077
899,135
887,867
882,836
874,389
£
1,289,024
1,376,010
1,390,994
1,446,171
1,409,280
£
10,479,88]
10,461,918
10,719,682
10,695,484
10.718,014
The number of paupers, exclusive of vagrants and ' casual poor' in receipt
of relief in the several unions and parishes of England and Wales was as
follows, on January 1, for the live years from 1887 to 1891 : —
FINANCE
41
January 1
and ' Able-bodied
Parishes Pan**r»
All other
Paupers
Total
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
• 647
647
647
647
648
110,229
112,533
104,817
97,745
98,794
707,060 817,289
712,976 825,509
705,315 810,132
689,800 787.
676.111 $05
The number of registered paupers and their dependents, exclusive of casual
poor, who were in receipt of relief in parishes of Scotland during the five
years from 1886 to 1890. on May 14 in each year, is shown in the subjoined
table :—
r«a
^Parishes' P»npers Dependents Total
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
888 58,898 33,915 88,818
886 58,683 33,388 92,071
886 58,479 33,514 91,993
886 58,232 32,686 90,918
886 426 31.180 88,606
The subjoined table gives the number of indoor and outdoor paupers, ami
the total — including others in blind and deaf and dumb asylums — in receipt
of relief in unions in Ireland at the close of the first week in January in each
of the live years 1887 to 1891 :—
Y.ar
(January)
Indoor Paujirrs
Outdoor Paupers
Total
including Asylums
1887
1888
1891
47.390
48,236
16,364
44,653
42,601
65,015
64,834
62,760
62,213
63,426
113.241
113,947
109.9.".:
107,774
106,972
Finance.
I. Revenue and Expenditure.
The following tables show the total amounts of the estimated
and actual Imperial revenue and expenditure of the United
Kingdom for the year ending March 31, 1880, and the five
years 1887-88 to 1890-91 inclusive :—
42
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Revenue *
March 81
Estimated
Actual Receipts
More( +)
in the
into the
or less (-)
Budgets
Exchequer
than Estimates
1880
£
81,161,000
£
79,344,098
£
-1,816,902
1887
89,869,000
90,772,758
+ 908,758
1888
88,135,000
89,802,254
+ 1,667,254
1889
86,827,000
88,472,812
+ 1,645,812
1890
86,150,000
89,304,316
+ 3,154,316
1891
87,610,000
89,489,112
+1,879,113
Yeai* ended
Expenditure 1
Estimated
Actual Pay-
More ( + )
in the
ments out of
or less (-)
Budgets
the Exchequer
than Budget
£
£
1880
84,105,871
82,184,797
-1,921,07!
1887
90,869,282
89,996,752
- 872,530
1888
88,036,259
87,423,645
- 612,614
1889
87,024,061
87,683,8302
+ 659,769
1890
85,966,827
86,083,314
+ 116,487
1891
87,377,000
87,732,855
+ 35:.. 855
) By the system now adopted, these items exclude Army and Navy ' Ext N Receipts ' and
the contributions by India for 'Military Charges.'
-' Inclusive of special expenditure, amounting to £8,009,968 incurred in com Hon with
the conversion of debt.
The following table (derived from the two preceding) shows
the differences (surplus or deficit) between revenue and expendi-
ture in 1880 and the last five years : —
Surplus( + )
''■" or Deficit. (- )
Year
Surplus ( + )
or Deficit < - )
1880 -2,840,699
1887 + 776. i
1888 +2,378,609
1 889
1 890
1891
788,982
i 3.221,002
+ 1,756,257
The imperial revenue is derived mainly from taxation (undei
the six heads specified in the following table), which in 1890 91
produced 7.'?, 57H, ()()()/., or nearly livesixthsof the whole. Tin
maining sixth is subdivided Into five heads as below,
re-
FINAV E
r3
Year ending March Si
Bti.i.
rees of Rjctkxi f
Net Ii.
Kx.li.i|iirri
pta
mate
M
. < Instant —
£ a
£
Tobacco .
8,586,284
Tea .
Mie
Rum
'.630
Brandy
1,408,103
Other spirit*
869.537
Wine
1.318,162
( 'urrants .
118.334
( toffee
182,006
Raisina
166,898
Other articles
325,446
19,753.907
19.480,000
19.700.000
ii. Excise —
Spirits
. 15. 174,288
Beer
Licence duties
3,690,187
Railways .
824,117
Other boot
8,479
■?o r
-.000
25.300.000
£V* 1
iii. Stamps (excluding ¥t
e
stamps, -v
Probate duty
27,887
y doty
. 2,626,016
Deeds
. 2,661,724
Receipts .
. 1,111
Succession doty
. 1,209
Estate dir
Personalty
1.125,620
Realty.
68.7
Bills of exchange
75 1
Patent medicine
225.701
Licences, kc.
162.729
.Marine insurance
1 !"
Other sources
906.117
15,827,498
13,460,000
10.450.000
iv. Land Tax .
— 1,025,764
1,030,000
1,030,000
v. I louse Duty .
1,526,763
1.570,000
1,450,000
vi. Income and Proper
y
Tax .
— 13,143,932
13,250,000
13.750,000
Total Produce of Taxes
— [80,45-6,332
rs.ooo
74.680,000
\ ii. Post Ortiee .
viii. Telegraph aerriec
ix. Crown Lands
9,843,269 9,880,000 10,120,000
2.394.579 2,380,000 2,480,000
128,616 430,000 130.000
That is. revenue actually leeelved at the Exchequer up to March SI,
44
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — UNITED KINGDOM
Year ending March 31. 1801
Sources of Revenue
Budget
Estimate
Exchequer^
Receipts
Net Receipts
1891-92
£
£
£
£
x. Interest on Purchase-
money of Suez Canal
Shares, &c.
—
241,935
241,935
220.000
i xi. Miscellaneous —
Fee Stamps
809,860
Revenue Departments
129,684
Civil Departments
1,588,679
Bank of England
163,754
Post Office Savings
'
Banks .
36,050
Various
251,150
Total non-tax Revenue.
Total Revenue
2,979,177
2,979,177
2,500,000
15,887,576
15,911,112
15,750,000
96,343,908
89,489,112
90,430,000
The national expenditure falls under three categories : (1) the
Consolidated Fund Charges, 28,703,000/., mainly bestowed on the
National Debt; (2) the Army and Navy, 31,685,000/. ; and (3)
the Civil Services, including expense of collection of the revenue
27,345,000/., for 1890-91.
Branches of Expenditure
i. National Debt Services : —
Year ending March si, 1801
Budget Ksii-
mate 1881 M
£
t
£
Interest of Funded Del it .
15,998,486
Terminable Annuities
6,549,871
Interest of Unfunded Debt
988,089
Management of Debt
191,912
New Sinking Fund .
1,271,642
25,000,000
25,000.000
ii. Suez Canal Exchequer IJonds
Cape Railway Exchequer
Bonds ....
200,000
7,000
207,000
•200,000
iii. Naval Defence Fund .
1,428,571
1,430,000
iv. Other Consolidated Fund
Services : —
Civil List
410,000
Annuities and Pensions .
349,833
Salaries and Allowances .
88,377
( units of Justice Salaries
501.17:'.
FIN A
4m
Brand iiturk
Tear ending March 31, 1891
HiaceUaneotn .
Total Consolidated Fund
Services .
£
492,789
I.842.5M
Budget Esti-
mate 1891-92
1,665,000
28,478,103 28,295,000
v. Army
vi. Ordnance Factories .
vii. Navy
viii. Civil Services . . .
ix. Customs and Inland Revenue
x. Post Office
xi. Telegraph Service
xii. Packet Service .
Total Supply Servj.
AiMitional expenditure : —
Barrack construction . . j
Education .
Gold coinage
Total Additional Expenditure.
Total Expenditure
Surplus Income .
17,550,023
10,000 I
17,560,028
14.125,358
16.040,131
2,643,447
5,085
2,272,000
706,230
17.545,000
14.215.000
16,641,000
1.000
.i.000
•2.422.000
708,000
59,029,751 60,149,000
225,000
500.000
920,000
400,000
225,000
1,820,000
87,732,855
90,264,000
1.7."
166,000
The estimates for the financial year ending March 31, 1892, have for
comparison been embodied with the two preceding general tables. Some of
the original estimates have, however, been increased by sulwequent supple-
mentary votes.
Further Details of the Bunacr.
Army.— The net cost of the British army, according to the estimates for
1891-92, is 17,545,300/. Including appropriations in aid, amounting to
■2.844.207/., the gross estimate was 20.389,507/. The following table Sm
the net estimates for 1891 2, as compared with those for 1890-91 . —
Army Estimates.
I. Efkkctivf. Services : —
Regular fnri ■ and • •,■„< >i rexercc .-
General stall and regimental pay, ,v .
< 'liaplains' department .
Staff of military prison-.
Army reserve ....
Medical Establishments .
L890 n
1881-92
£
£
5,013,210
5,0]
•"•7. 870
58,034
J>.'.:J0
28,180
1!»2.:J00
294.200
46
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Auxiliary forces :
Militia
Yeomanry cavalry
Volunteer corps
Commissariat :
Transport and remounts -
Provisions, forage, &c. .
Clothing ....
Warlike and other stores
Works, buildings, &c. with superintending
Various :
Military education ....
Miscellaneous services ....
War Office
Total effective services
II. Non-Effective Services : —
Officers, &c. :
Rewards for distinguished services .
Half pay ......
Retired pay and gratuities
Widows' pensions and allowances .
Pensions for wounds ....
Retired allowances, auxiliary forces
Xoii,-a>iiiiuissioiicd officers and men, <ir. .
Ill-pCllsiolIN ......
Out-pensions. .....
Rewards for distinguished services .
Widows' pensions, kc ....
Superannuation allowances, <^c
Total non-effective services
Total effective and non-effective services
Net decrease. 1891-92
1890-91
540,070
74,460
940,470
1891
£
'.'•2
540,000
. 74,400
761,000
646,900
631,700
2,642,804
2,605,000
820,600
820,600
2,049,604
1,847,100
665,200
716,700
112,500
112,500
99,596
160,900
258,080
267,900
14,735,200
14,453,300
10.120
11,130
77. 180
7.".. 530
1,276,868
1.275,400
188,468
133.76:'.
12, 167
18,380
43,039
41,947
30,700
81,ff7
1,336,000
1,340,600
7,680
(U.s:.
2,286
2,358
162,600
160,100
3,092,200
3,092,000
17,827,400
17,545,300
—
282,100 |
Naou.— The net cosl of the Navy, according to the estimates for 1891 92,
is 11.215, loo/. Including appropriations in aiuj amounting to 995,520./, the
grow estimate was 15.210,620/. The following table shows the riot estimates
for 1891 92, as compared with thou for 1*99*91 : —
HNAN< K
1. KlTB nvK Sn;\
Officers auil Seamen ami Royal Marina
Victualling and Clothing
Medical Establishments
Martial Law
Educational Seniles
Scientific Services .
Royal Naval Bee
Shipbuilding, Repairs, &c
Nigral Armaments .
Works. Buildings, tc
iaueous Services
Admiralty Office
Total effect i ■ - » .
II. NoN-EFFECTIVF. SW
HaU-pay, Reserved, and Retired Pay
Naval raunona, fee. .....
Civil Pensions, fcc
Total non-effective services .
III. Exti:a Colonial Estimate.
Additional Annuity, for service in Australasian
1890-91
1891 '.'2
5,312,500
3,404,000
1.103,200
1,145,800
125.200
11,900
11,700
71,800
75,500
57,900
61,300
J. 100
153,100
4.630,000
4,875,300
1.463,500
1,528,700
145,800
417,600
133,400
140.400
220,500
221.100
11,727.800
12,157,200
793,500
779,200
933,400
-;.700
330, 700
319,200
2,057,600
2,023,100
waters
1.200 34,800
Grand total ....
13,786,600 14,215,100
Net Increase, 1891-92 .
-.500
i/iiil Sennet. — The following is an al>stract of the Civil Service estimates
for 1891-92. showing the more im]>ortant items of ex|>enditure : —
I. Public Works and Build- t
ings .... 2,088,712
II. Salaries, <L-c. Civil De-
partiiieatx :
K. and England . . 1,934,946
r.
Scotland
Ireland
Total
III. Imw and Just ice .
U. K. and England : —
Sup. Court of Judicature
County Courts
Police < 'ourts
l'ii><>n>. Kng. and Col.
83,677
2,297,161
366, 6M
431,100
74,633
638,490
Reformatories, Great Brit. 295,894
Other exjienses . 159,270
Scotland : —
Courts of Justice 59, 854
Law Charges . . . 62
' Prisons .... 92,700
Other expanses . - 46.42]
Ireland : —
Supreme Court of Judicature 112,132
Land Commission . . 98,182
County Court Officers, &c 119,686
Police'and Constal.ularv . 1,4*
Prisons . . 133,121
Reformatories, &c. . 113,010
Other excuses . 84,637
Total
48
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
IV. Education, Science and
Art:
United Kingdom and Eng-
land : — £
Public Education . .3,919,132
Science and Art Dept. . 530, 986
British Museum . . 155,000
National Galleries . . 16,606
London University . . 15,305
Other expenses . . 96,796
Scotland : —
Public Education . . 637,067
National" Gallery . . 3,300
Ireland : —
Public Education . . 866,539
National Gallery . . 2,501
Queen's Colleges, &c. . 5,758
V. Foreign and Colonial
Services :
£
Diplomatic and Consular 407,857
Colonial. . . . 169,616
Other services . . 73, 880
Total
651,353
VI. Non-Effective and
Charitable Services . 646,024
Total
6,248,990
VII. Miscellaneous , . 189,912
Grand Total 1891-92 . 16,516,029
Grand Total 1890-91 . 15,901,518
Net increase 1891-92 . 614,516
In addition to the ordinary expenditure above given, there were issues to
meet expenditure under the Imperial Defence Act, 1888, and the Naval
Defence Act, 1889, 1,719,0007. ; advances for purchase of bullion, and also
under Imperial Defence Act, 1888, 1,306,8347. ; issuesfor redemption of debt,
51,873,522?. ; temporary advances repaid, 5,600,000Z. The Exchequer re-
ceipts beyond the ordinary income included repayment of advances charged
on Consolidated Fund, 1,705,055?. ; money raised by creation of debt,
48,283,000/. ; and temporary advances received, 6,600,0007. ; receipts under
the Imperial Defence Act, 1888, and Naval Defence Act, 1889, 3,305,6817.
The balance in the Exchequer on March 31, 1891, was 6,370,8977., the total
receipts into and issues out of the Exchequer in 1890-91 amounted to —
Receipts, 154,603,1097. (including 5,220,261?., the balance from the previous
year) ; and Issues 1 18,232,2127 , exclusive of the balance in the Exchequer.
II. Taxation.
The revenue derived from the most important of direct taxes, that upon
incomes, was as follows since 1882 : —
Fear ending
Tax
Annual Ex-
Year ending
Tax
Annua] Eh
Marcli :il
1882
per £
chequer Receipt
March 81
pas B
chequer Reoalpt
9,945,000
1887
8rf.
i
15,900,000
1883
6K
11,900,000
1888
7d.
14,440,000
1884
:../.
10,718,000
1 SSS1
M.
12,700,000
1 885
M.
12,000,000
1890
6d.
12,770,000
1886
8d.
15,160,000
1891
6d.
:."..j;>o,ooo j
The gross amount of the annual value of property and profits assessed to
lite Income tU Ul the vear ended April .">, 1890, in the United Kingdom,
was 069,858,6132. ; in 1871 it was Hi.".. 178,6887. Of thcamount for L890
the share of England #aa 572,188,615*. : of Scotland, 60.030,5107. : of
Ireland, 87,199,5717.
FINANCE
4! »
The real property so assessed was distributed as follows
'OlllCOllIe
T:lX
1887
MM
- | England
5 Scotland
— I Ireland
Total
45,375,763 44*471,842
7,099,580 6,824,100
9,957,806 9,957,580
82,433,149 61,253,522
1.444
.',762
9,940,928
58,755,134
41,795,594
ij.4 10, 507
9,941
58,153,900
I | England . 117.183,226 118,523,832 120,513.633 121.907,494
tland 12,614,842 12,715,904 12,906,606 13.' 2
■£ I Ireland
3,467,098 3,499,934 ; 3,502,665
Total . 133,265,166 | 134,739,670 136,922,904 138,491,622
i Since 1377 only incomes of and aliove 150t are chaTgeil, with an abatement of 1201 on
thoa mate 400J.
The annual value of the mines, railways, and ironworks assessed to the
income tax was as follows in 1890 : —
England .
Scotland .
Ireland .
Total
6,365,959
1,075,793
10,138
Railways
34,957,594
1.211,581
1,431,107
Ironworks
e
1,372,088
261,910
7.451,890 40,600,282 1,633,998
The annual value of canals was assessed at 3,218,821/. ; of gasworks.
5,402,345/. : of c[iiarries. 875,9272. : of waterworks, salt springs, and alum
works. 3,880,018/.
The following statement from a Return on Financial Relations (England.
Scotland, and Ireland) shows the amount contributed in taxes by each of the
three parts of the United Kingdom, and from imperial sources in 1890-91 : —
From
— ' Imperial
i Sources
2
England
By Bv I.B.J" .
Scotland Ireland _Vmt"'
Kingdom
£
Customs . . —
Excise . . —
Stamps . . 190,000
( Land Tax .
House Dutv
: Income Tax . 150,000
£
15,221,872
17,921,724
11,525.584
995.392
1.476,899
11,256,925
£ £ £
1,963,584 2.294.744 19,480,000
3,643,836 3,222.440 24.788.000
1,162,944 581,472 13,460,000
34,608 — 1,030,000
93,101 — 1.:. 70. 000
1,281,275 : 561,800 13,250,000
Total from Taxes 340,000
58,398,196
8,179,348 6,660,456 73,578,000
Percentage . . —
Per head . . —
7974
£2 0 Z\
1117 909 10000
£2 0 6£ £1 8 3Jj£l 18 If
50
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The following table shows the net receipts of duties collected in the year
ending March 31, 1891, for local authorities by Imperial officers assigned to
the three divisions of the Kingdom as prescribed by various Acts of Parlia-
ment between 1888 and 1890, and the payments made to Local Taxation
accounts in the same year : —
-
Additional Beer MoWtyoffto-
& Spirit Duty Uceneea I, at,- Duly
Total '
I
Net receipts
Payments :
England
Scotland
Ireland
Total Payments
■£ £ £
1,300,471 3,359,737 2,413,668
7,073,876
991,673 3,024,419
130,854 310,000
113,065 —
1,931,521
260,084
212,796
5,947,613
700,938
525,861
1,235,592 3,334,419
2,404,401
8,1974,412
III. National Debt.
The expenditure on account of National Debt is now neatly
six times the amount paid in 1775, at the beginning of the War
of Independence of the United States. The total charge for
interest and management was then only a little over 4.* millions
sterling; but at the end of the war it had risen to 9] millions.
The twenty-two years' warfare with France, from 1793 to 1815,
added 23 millions sterling to the annual charge of the debt,
making it over 321 millions, decreased by slightly more than a
million in 1817, in the year of consolidation of the English ami
Irish exchequer. Since this date, the capital of the debt has on
the whole been steadily decreasing, excepting for the years of the
Russian war. The annual charge for interest. Ac, after increasing
to nearly 30 millions in 1883, is now less than in 1857. at the
close of that war, by 2,603,448^.
The following table exhibits the growth of the debt from its
origin to the year 1891 at various periods : —
Periods
National Debt at the Revolution in I6S8
Increase during William III. 'a reign
Principal
I
ii.it. ii»;:!
12,102.962
Annual Charge
t
89,855
1.175,469
FINANCE
51
Prineii«al
Annual Cliaiyo
Debt at the Accession of Queen Anno, in 1702
Increase during the War of the Spanish
Succession ......
At the accession of George I., 1711
se during his reign
At thi . of George II., 1727
ise during 12 years' {>eace, ending 1730
At the commencement of the Spanish Wav
1739
Iin-ivase during the war
At the end of the Spanish War, I
ise during 8 years' ]>eace
At the commencement of the .Seven Years
Wav, 1756 ....
Increase during the wav
At the Peace of Paris, 1763 .
Decrease during 12 years' peace
At the commencement of the American War
177'.
Increase during the war
At the end of the American War. 1781
Decrease during the peace .
At the commencement of the French Wav.
1792
Incvease during the war
At the Peace of Amiens, 1802
Increase during war with Napoleon
At the Peace of Paris. 1815 .
use dining 40 years
At commencement of Crimean Wav. 1854
Increase during the wav
Debt in 1857 . . . .
Decrease since the Crimean War .
Debt on March 31, 1891 .
12,76;
23,408
".797
-1,914
46,613,883
29,19-
J. 132
1.237.107
5,321
1,811
3,069
708,711
2.030,884
1,134,881
3,181
412,199
58,141,024 2,279,167
132,716,049
116.220.334
243.063.145
4.703.519
109,079
239,663.421
297,989,587
9.432,179
10,836,372
537,653.008
323,386,041
20,268,551
12.377,067
861,039.049
91.956.500
769,08
39,02fi.l7:i
'.,618
4.930.41.'.
27.715,203
834,836
808,108,722
124.037,763
28,550,039
3,343,039
684.070,959
7.000
i: !
52
THK BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The following statement shows the total amount of the Gross and Net
Liabilities of the State on March 31, 1891.
Funded Debt
Estimated Capital of Terminable Annuities
Unfunded Debt
Other Capital Liabilities :
Russian Dutch Loan ....
Savings Banks and Friendly Societies.
ficiency on November 20, 1890
Imperial Defence Act, 1888 .
Total Gross Liabilities.
Sundry Assets .
Dc-
£
379,472,082
68,458,798
36,140,079
519,940
565,339
797,780
Total Net Liabilities
Exchequer Balances at the Banks of England and
Ireland ........
684,070,959
1,883,059
685,954,018
5,272,437
680,681,581
6,370,897
The whole of the debt amounts to only 14,712,346/. more than
the gross annual value of property and profits assessed to income
tax, is less than half of the estimated national income, aiul
64,873,156/. less than the total value of British imports and
exports for 1890. It is about 18/. 2s. Qd. per head of the present
population, and the annual charge is 13s. 4d. per head.
IV. Local Taxation.
The total amount annually raised by local taxation was as follows in the
three divisions of the United Kingdom in the year 1888-89 : —
-
England
and Wales
Scotland
ft
3,498,608
1,116,458
li'cland
£
2,912,099
430,035
3,342,134
89,737
119,833
705,:'.:. l
218,618
1,188,687
Dtalted
Kingdom j
Local Taxes :
Direct, levied by rates,
and gas and water
undertakings .
Indirect, levied bj tolls,
dues, kr.
Total .
Other receipts :
Knits, interest, &c
Sales of property
i tovernment contribu-
tions
Loans
Miscellaneous
Total .
Total receipts
£
84,340,659
5,639,603
39,980,162
£
40,751,266
7,186,096
47,937,362 '
4,615,066
245,621
46,186
825,040
1,501,032
401,703
3,019,582
7,634,648
1,646,618
670.312
1,543,972
6,499,654
2,176,040
15,436,496
1,881,876 -
716,498
!8,845
B,706,040
2,796,356
19,689,616
1,175,671
67, 526, <> 7 7
KINANVK— ARMY
In the previous year the total receipt.- were <>7. 114,401/.. and in 18-
they were only 36,496,000/. The rates levied in 1888-89 by the Urban Sani-
tary Authorities, in England and Wales alone, amounted to 7,631,043/. : the
poor rates in England amounted to 8.355,973/. ; the School Board rr
England amounted to 2,631,3442. The expenditure for the same year was, in
England ami Wales. 54.741.275/. : in Scotland. 7.371.537'. : in Ireland.
1 04/. : total for the United Kingdom, 66,589.916/ , against - :
in the previous year. The total expenditure in connection with the relict of
the poor in the kingdom was 10,315,672/., police, sanitary, and other public
works absorbed 32,582,947/., ami School Boards, 6,774,896/.
Defence.
I. Army.
The maintenance of a standing army in time of peace, without
the consent of Parliament, is prohibited by the Bill of Kights of
1690. From that time to the present, the number of troo}
well as the cost of the different branches of the service in detail,
have been sanctioned by an annual vote of the House of Commons.
The Secretary of State for War frames the ' Army Estimates,'
which are submitted in ' votes ' for the approval of the House of
Commons.
Parliament exercises another important means of control over
the army, viz., by passing at the commencement of every session
an Act called the * Army (Annual) Bill,' investing the Crown
with large powers to make regulations for the good government
of the army, and to frame the Articles of War, which form the
military code.
According to the army estimates laid before the House of
Commons in the session of 1891, the regular army of the United
Kingdom — exclusive of India — during the year ending March 31,
1892, is to consist of 7,453 commissioned officers, 993 warrant
officers, 15,886 sergeants, 3,684 drummers, trumpeters, «fcc, and
12."i.680 rank and file, a total of 153,696 men of all ranks, being
a total increase of 213 over the previous year. This force is to
be composed of the following staff, regiments, and miscellaneous
establishments : —
54
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — UNITED KINGDOM
Branches of the Military Service
1 Nou-commis-
Officers sioned Officers,
Drummers, <fcc.
Rank and
File
General and Departmental Staff.
General staff ......
Army accountants .....
Chaplains' department ....
Medical department .....
Veterinary department . . .
Total staff
Regiments.
Cavalry, including Life and Horse Guards .
Royal Horse Artillery ....
Royal Artillery ......
Royal Engineers .....
Infantry, including Foot Guards
Colonial Corps ......
Departmental corps .....
Army Service Corps
Total regiments
Staff of Yeomanry, Militia, and Volunteers
Miscellaneous Establishments.
Instruction in gunnery and musketry
Royal Military Academy, Woolwich .
Royal Military College, Sandhurst
Staff College . . . .
Regimental schools .....
Other establishments .....
Total miscellaneous
Total regular army
317
209
86
622
67
283
451
6
3
40
1
1,301
740
44
555
71
770
578
2,790
171
123
237
1,369
146
1,673
1,165
6,643
360
839
857
11,392
1,694
18,635
5,301
78,463 !
4.701
2,653
2,660
5,295
13,052
125,502
628
6,292
10
27
19
28
6
14
135
84
22
24
8
186
160
81
5
18
1
19
229
479
124
7,453
20,563
125,680
The total number of horses for this establishment on January
1, 1891, was 14,531.
For total cost of the British army, with details of the expen-
diture, see under Finance.
The following table exhibits, after official returns, the number
of officers, rank and file, maintained for service in the I'uited
Kingdom at decennial periods since the year L800 up to L870,
and during the last two years, on the 1st of January in every
year:—
DEI I
Year
Cavalry
Artillery
Elig;
421
Infantry and
Bp sH Carpi
Total
1-1,003
6,935
49,386
70.;
1810
20.405
. 16,814
974
74.
ill
9,900
4,046
371
61.116
8,036
4,037
682
35,339
DM
7.190
■■21
50.476
1,201
50,415
vn
1860
11,389
14,045
1,707
066
89,507
1870
10,910
14.469
2,890
56,092
84,361
1890
12.470
17,584
5,370
68,682
104,116
1891
12.434
17.533
5,350
69.-
104,591
The following is the official return of the number ami distri-
luition of the effectives of the British army (exclusive of staff of
auxiliary forces) in the beginning of 1891 : —
-
(•fliers ami Men
Horses ami Mules
tUU Qua
England
ud
Ireland .
73.286
4.14:3
27.162
312
3,219
226
4
Total Lome
104,591
10.304
289
Egypt .
The i kdonies .
India
On passage
3,840
28,869
72.196
1,803
2.".:;
616
11.345
318
Total abroad
105,908
210,499
12.214
-
General total
2.'.. 518
600
There are. besides, four classes of reserve, or auxiliary foi
namely, the Militia, the Yeomanry Cavalry, the Volunteer oorps,
and the Army Reserve force. The following is the official return
of the number of men in the regimental establishments of the
various forces, with the effectives, for 1891-02 : —
56
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
-
Establishments
all Ranks, 1891-9-2
Effectives by
latest Returns
Regular Forces at Home and in\
Colonies . . . /
Army Reserve, 1st Class
2nd ,,
Militia
Yeomanry .....
Volunteers . .
Total Home and Colonial .
Regular Forces on Indian Estab-)
lishments /
Total
143,849
71.800
910
141,488
14,086
262,613
136,913
59,280
953
114,032
10,830
221,048
634,746
72,496
543,056
73,586
707,242
616,642
The following table shows the number of men in the British
Army serving in India during the years noted, according to Bud-
get estimates : —
Years
Soldiers in India
Years
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
Soldiers in India
1886-87
1887-88
1888-89
68,196
71,691
72,345
72,424
72,429
72,496
The number of men enrolled in the Volunteer corps of Great
Britain has increased from 119,146 in 1860, 193,893 (1870),
206,537 (1880), to 262,613 in 1891.
Under various laws of army organisation. Great Britain and Inland arc
partitioned into 14 military districts. For the infantry there are 102 sub- ot
regimental districts, commanded by lnR> colonels ; for the artillery there arc
12 sub-districts, commanded by artillery colonels ; and for the cavalry there
arc two districts, commanded by cavalry colonels. The brigade of an
infantry sab-district, consists, as a rule, of two line battalions, two militia
battalions, the brigade depot, rifle volunteer corps, and infantry of the army
reserve. Of the two line battalions one is generally abroad and the second at
one of the home stations. An artillery sub-district contains, in addition to
the royal artillery, the militia artillery and thai of lite volunteers and of the
army reserve : and a cavalry colonel similarly has command, not merely over
the cavalry regiments within his district, bui over the yeomanry, volunteers,
and reserve cavalry.
The (Jciieral Animal Return gives SB follows the numbers of noii-
comiiiissioncd officers and men. natives of each of the three divisions of the
l'nitcd Kingd , composing the army on January 1, 1891 : — English,
152,018: Scotch, 16,412; Irish, 27,7*<'> : horn in India and the colonics.
5,330 ; foreigners, 100 ; and 470 not reported.
1
DEHOR K •">.
The establishment* tat military educational purj)oses wjutiw the
Council of Military Education, Royal Military Academy at Woolwich,
Royal Military and Staff College at Sandhurst, Royal Militaiy Asylum
and Xormal School at Chelsea, Royal Hibernian Militaiy School at
Dublin, Dqiartment for Instruction of Artillery Officer*. Militaiy Medical
School, and a varying number of Garrison Schools and Libraries. In the
army estimates for 1891-92, the sum provided for militaiy education is 177,411/.
(including the appropriation in aid). The two principal educational estab-
lishments for officers are the Royal Militaiy Academy at Woolwich, and the
Royal Military ami Staff Colleges at Sandhurst. In the army estimates of
1891-92 the cost of the Woolwii-h Academy was set down at 36,2367., and of the
Sandhurst Colleges at 51,860/.
II. Navy.
The government of the navy, vested originally in a Lord High
Admiral, has since the reign of Queen Anne — with the exception
of a short period, April 1827 to September 1828 — been carried on
by a Board, known as the Board of Admiralty, which consists of
seven members, namely, the First Lord, who is always a member
of the Cabinet, and six assistant commissioners. The First Lord
has supreme authority, and all questions of importance are left to
his decision. The Senior Naval Lord direct* the movements of
the fleet, and is responsible for its discipline. The Second Naval
Lord is responsible for the manning and officering of the fleet and
the reserve forces. The Junior Naval Lord deals with the vic-
tualling of the fleets, and with the transport department. The
Parliamentary Civil Lord controls the civil establishments. The
Third Naval Lord, or Controller of the Navy, and the Civil Lord,
deal with questions affecting the materiel and armament of the
fleet. The Parliamentary and Financial Secretary is answerable
for purchases of stores, and all questions in which expenditure of
any kind is involved.
The navy of the United Kingdom is a perpetual establishment,
and the statutes and orders by which it is governed have been
permanently fixed with great precision by the Legislature. For
the army, the first vote sanctions the number of men to be main-
tained ; the second, the charge for their pay and maintenance.
For the navy, no vote is taken for the number of men ; the first
Vote is for the toages of the stated number of men and boys to be
maintained ; and though the result may l>e the same, this
distinction exists both in practice and principle. For details of
the navy expenditure see under Finance.
The number of seamen and marines provided for the naval
service in the estimates for 1891-92, and also for the previous
year, was as follows : —
58
THE MUTlSli EMPIRE : — UNITED KINGDOM
For the Fleet (including Indian troop shins) :
Officers and seamen ....
Boys (including 1,050 under training) .
Marines afloat and on shore .
For the Coast Guard ....
Officers for various services
Total all ranks
1890-91
68,800
1891-92
43,449
44,731
6,244
7,149
13,882
13,879
4,206
4,200
1,025
1,038
71,000
Included in the number of 44,734 seamen of the fleet, were 14
flag officers, and 2,690 commissioned officers, on active service.
Provision was also made for 21,445 officers and men of the
Royal Navy Reserves, 3,010 seamen and Marine Pensioner
Reserves, and 2,000 Naval Artillery Volunteers. Including 93
officers on salary, the total of officers and men voted was 97,584.
The number of vessels in commission is shown in the subjoined
return for 1890 and 1891 :—
In Commission
More hi less mi
November l, 1891.
Class of Ships
Nov. l,
1S90
Nov. 1,
1891
Mere Leas
Steam Ships.
1 |
Akmouh.-plated Ships :
Battle sliips, 1st class .
16
17
1 -
,, 2nd class
• i 9
8
— 1
,, 3rd class
3
3
Coast defence ships
1
2
1
Cruisers, 1st class
9
10
1 —
3 1
38
40
UNAitMuritEn Ships :
( ftruisera, 2nd and 3rd class
38
41
3 -
Torpedo rain
1 1
— i
Sloops
17 15
— 8
Gun Vessel.-
8 7
— 1
• in nl Mints
54 51
—
—
Special service vessel* .
17 17
—
—
Despatch vessels
a 2
—
Troop ships and troop rtort
ship
I
7 7
—
— 1
Indian troop ships
'l l
—
—
Royal yachts
■1 l
—
—
Surveying vessels
x 8
—
—
Torpedo Boats
18 IE
8
—
Other ships
7 B
179 184
2
8
- i
:•.
DrllV 1
.)'.!
Class of ^hii^
In Commission
Morv or Ian
lb* 1.1891.
Nov. 1. S
1890
Han
Less
Sailing Vessel*.
Tiaining brigs
SdiaoaOaneons vessels
Coast-guard tenders (late
cruisers)
revenue
rvc. nd
6
•J
18
6
2
18
—
—
Stationary .Skips.
26
—
—
Flag, receiving, steam rese
store ships .
Training and drill ships .
«
15
20
—
—
35
—
—
Total in commission
285
11
1
The following table shows, according to official returns, the
actual strength of the British Navy in 1889, and also the stand-
ard which it is proposed to reach by 1894 : —
Class of Ships
Effective Ships Afloat,
January 1, 1889.
Proposed Standard
in 1894
Number Tonnage
Coal
Number Tonnage
Armoured.
Battle ships, 1st class
,, 2nd class
others
Coast defence ships
Cruisers, 1st class
,, 2nd class
,, others
Total armoured .
Protected.
< 'raisers, 1st class .
,, 2nd class
,, 3rd class
,, others
Torpedo depot ships
Torpedo ram .
Total protected .
17
165,330
10.162,985
30
333,950
15
97,010
4.499,213
17
115,010
6
55,660
2.496,358
6
55,660
121
87,330
1,596,475
11
37.230
12
76,650
4,074,225
11
76,650
62
431,880
22,829,256
77
618,500 |
11
84,150
10
39,000
1,904,757
51
169.6-2.".
18
36,900
1,975,489
•1\
46,*80
—
—
—
1
6.620
1
2,640
iiJ6.305
1
2,640
29
78,540
4,10t)..".".l
s>
309.91.".
1 Exclusive of Crrbfru*.
60
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — UNITED KINGDOM
Effective Ships Afloat,
Proposed Standard 1
January 1, 1889.
in 1894
Class of Ships
Number
Tonnage
Cost
£
Number
Tonnage
Unprotected.
. — i
Cruisers, 2nd class .
10
40,470
2,049,644
10
40,470
Corvettes
1
1,970
86,899
1
1,970
Sloops
17
17,870
960,391
19
20,210
Gun vessels
8
6,302
331,200
8
6,302
Torpedo cruisers
10
17,320
884,859
10
17,820
Torpedo gunboats
4
2,125
151,822
31
21,970
Gunboats
62
24,326
1,212,413
71
31,571
Torpedo boats, 1st class .
80
4,178
1,092,093
86
4,538
,, 2nd class .
51
612
189,973
61
732
Despatch vessels
2
3,350
167,178
2
3,350
Torpedo depot ship . ' .
1
6,400
126,517
1
6,400
Special service ships
14
9,419
402,061
14
9,419
Miscellaneous .
Total unprotected
22
34,382
168,724
679,144
1,044,862
8,699,912
22
34,382 1
282
336
198,634" I
Total
373
35,635,719
501
1,127,049
The total cost of the addition is calculated at 22,669,000^.,
while the completion of the ships building will cost 1,546,000/.
Effective ships are understood to comprise all ships afloat except
those now under construction, and others which will probably be
removed from the Navy List as obsolete before 1894.
There are 25:vessels of the Canard, P. and O. Company, Inman,
and White Star Lines, which are held at the disposition of the
Admiralty as ' Reserved Merchant Cruisers.'
The vessels on foreign service were thus distributed in 1891 : —
Mediterranean and Red Sea
30
Australia
. 15
( 'lianiit'l Squadron .
8
South-east coast of America.
■1
North America and West Indies
11
Particular Service
10
Baal [Tidies ....
9
Surviving Service
/
China .....
20
Training Squadron .
•I
< 'apr hi tiood Hope and \\ est
A (lira ....
1 1
Total at foreign stations
140
I'acific
8
The following is ;i tabulated list of the efficient ironclads, exclu-
sive of the Mugdala and the Abj/tsinia, which are stationed at
Bombay, andtheCarftartttat Melbourne. The Wivent is stationed
at Hong Kong, the Scorpion, Vi/nr, and Vixen at Bermuda.
Only the number of the large guns is given. Those ironclads
DKF1
111
marked * are not effective unless repaired ; a denotes sea-going
armour-clads. // eoast-defenee Tomwln, and <■ armoured cruisers I
= iron, S. = steel, W. = wood.
Skle Armour
Thickness ;
Inches
Gnns
Turret Ship*,
a Inflexible .
it Dr.a.lnought
a Devastation
a Thunderer .
a Colossus
a Edinburgh
i'areil
a Victoria
a Trafalgar .
n Nile .
a Agamemnon
a Ajax .
a Conqueror .
a Her<> .
a Rupert
a Hotspur
a Neptune
a Monarch .
6 Glatton
6 Cyclops
6 Gorgon
6 Hecate
6 Hydra
ft Prince Albert
6 Scorpion
ft Wlrern
Barbette Shipt.
a Collingwood
a Rodney
a Howe .
a Camperdown
a Benbow
a Anson
a Temeraire .
a Empress of India
a Royal Sovereign
Central Battery,
a Bell
a Orion .
a Superb
a Hercules
a Alexandra
a Penelope
n Audacious
a Invincible
o Iron Duke
o Swiftsure
a Triumph
6 Vixen .
ft Viper .
I. 1876
1671
1882
18S7
1887
1888
I. ,1880
S. 1881
S. 1885
I. l$7o
1S71
1871
1871
1871
1S71
1864
1863
1863
11 to 14
10 to 12
10 to IS
) 14 to is
j'st eel-faced
18 \
18 /
•20 1
--) /
| 15 to 18]
1 11 to 12
(Stfi-1-faeed
9 to IS
8 to 11
9 to 12
10 to 12
6 to 0 .
1
rito9 1
•»i
41
4
Nnmlrr and \Y
— _i =
- — =
>•
: s.
, 8. 1886
I.&W. WW
s. isoi
s. l an
1SS2
18
1-feced
8 to 11
18 to 14
'ST.. 14
I.
--
8 t.> IS
I.
1879
7 ti. IS
I.
7 to IS
I.
1868
6 to 9
I.
6 to 12
I.
18(57
5 to 6
I.&W.
1S69
I.
1869
6 to 8
I.
1870
.-, t..s
I.&W.
I.&W.
1870
.; t,, s
I.
186.'.
4J
I.&W.
41
4 80-ton
4 38-ton
4 So-ton
4 3.".- and 3S-t«.n
8,010
8,210
6,660
6,270
7,500
7,500
• 4 44-tnn ; .". 5-tmi
2 111-ton; 1 29-ton | ,.>n-
L26-ton l '"•
4 07-t.m; 8 40ewt.
4 38-t..n: -_* -a-t-.i. J
}s44-toa; 4 4j-t..n
n ; I 45-ton
n; 2 4-ton
4 38-ton; 2 12-ton
4 25-ton ; 2 12-ton ;
and 1 (4-ton
4 12-t..n
4 12-ton
4 1 2-ton
6,360
6,440
6,000 6.200
11,800
.".«_<■
0,330
»,sao
9,150
10,400
11,940
8,510
3,060
v.,„„,
7,840
,660
1,760
1.470
1,460
(1,6
1,7
1.4
4 44-t..u; 0 4}- ton
4 GS-ton ; 6 5-ton
4 66-t.m ; 6 ".-ton
4 66-ton ; 6 5-ton
2 111-ton; Mfi-toa
4 6t'-ton ; 6 4|-ton
4 J" ton ; 4 18-ton
4 r>7-ton
4 .'.7-ton
:i.l. -.o
' 11,160 9,700
11,500 9,700
, 11,500 10,000
I 11,500 I 10,000
11,500 10,000
13,000 14,160
13.000 14,160
4 25-ton
4 25-ton
16 lS-ton
, 8 1S-tou; 2 12-ton;
and 4 6J-ton
•i ; 10 lS-t<-n
8 9-ton; 3 40-pdrs.
10 12-ton
10 12-ton ; 4 64-pdrs.
10 12-ton; 4 36-cwt. !
10 13-ton
10 12-ton ; 4 36-cwt.
S 64-ton ; 2 24-pdrs.
2 61-ton ; 2 24-pdrs.
3.200
4,040
.;.-.>,,
8,610
4,700
4,S30
4,830
3.520
4.910
5.110
740
700
4,870
0.170
v.,.v,,
4.470
6,010
6,010
6,010
0,040
1.230
I.S30
13-8
140
154
154
116-7
U7-2
13-0
13-0
ii.v:.
I4-S
..440
4,010
9,310
8,320 14-9
4,910
3,480
3,480
3,480
3,480
::.-ni
2,750
1
121
10-7
11-0
10-6
10-9
110
in;.
101
16-4
10-7
1T.-7
171
1-.-7
16-7
14-6
17-:.
17-:.
13-6
110
14-0
13-0
ISO
12-7
13 2
18-8
12-5
1.5-7
13-5
8-9
9-6
62
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Names of Armoured
Ships
3
—
S
Side Armour
Thickness ;
Inches
Guns
Number and Weight
- j •-
Displace-
ment, or
Tonnage
B
■J! 3
Broadside Ships.
a Bellerophon
i.
1 886
0
10 13-ton; 4 4j-t°«
0,520
7,550
14-2
*n l?lack Prince
i.
1881
, j
4 9-1 on : 22 0A-1on ;
2 4j-ton
J5,77o
9,210
1 ::-<■.
*a Achilles
i.
1863
41
14 12-ton; 2 OJ-lon
6,780
0,820
'a Minotaur .
i.
1803
.">.'-
17 12-ton
6,700
10,000
1 :'.••_'
a Aginconrt .
r.
1886
-. 1
17 12-ton
6,870
10,090
1 4 -s
a Northumberland
i.
1866
61
7 12- ton ; 20 9-ton
6,600
10,780
14-1
Armed Cruisers.
_
c Imperieuse
s.&w.
1883
) 10
4 24-ton ; 6 4j-ton
10,180
7. MINI
10-7
c Warspite .
s.&w.
1S84
/steel-raced
4 22-ton ; 6 4|-ton
10,000
7,890
10-7
e Xelson
c Northampton
I. &w.
I.&W.
1870
isrt;
6 to 0 )
(j to 0 f
4 18- ton; 8 12- ton
fli.040
[6,070
7,630
7,«80
14-0
18-2
c Shannon
I. .feW.
1875
6 to 0
218-ton; 7 12-ton
8,870
5,390
12-3
Australia .
s.
18S7
,
is-:,
Galatea
8.
1SS7
1
18-5
Narcissus .
s.
1887
is-:.
Orlando
s.
1887
111
8 22-ton ; 10 5-ton 8,600
5.000(
is-:,
Undaunted.
8.
1886
is-:.
Immortalite
8.
1887
IS •:.
Aurora
S.
1880
is-:,
Torpedo Ham.
Polyphemus
S.
issi
:i (steel)
(quick-firing and - -0(1
machine guns only) l '
2,610
17-s
The requirements aimed at in the construction of the larger ironclads were
to carry the heaviest possible guns and armour, to be very manageable, and to
have room for a large supply of coal. The principal completed warship of
tli is class, the Inflexible, Unit at Portsmouth dockyard, is 320 feet in length,
and 75 feet in breadth, with a total weight of armour 8,275 tons. The
power and strength of the ship is concentrated in its central part, whieh
forms a citadel 15 ft. 7 in. high, of which about 9 ft. is above and 6 ft. 8 in.
below the water ; it is 75 feet broad and 110 feet long, and encloses within its
rectangular walls the engines ;ind boilers, the base of the turrets, and the
hydraulic loading gear. Its walls are 41 inches thick, and consist of
armour-plates, the total thickness of which varies from 16 inches to 24 inches,
with strong teak backing. The central part of this armonred castle is filled
by the two turrets, it feel high, with an internal diameter of 28 feet, placed to
the right and left, each holding two 80-ton pins, capable of tiring 1.700 lbs.
shot, with a charge of 450 lbs. powder. The Dreadnought, the Dotattation,
and the Thunderer have two independent screws and two sets of engines, and
cany 1,200 to 1,900 tons of coal, or sufficient to lake theni Over .listan.es of
from :?,.r)00 to 6,000 miles at 10 knots. The Colossus and the Bdin /ninth
differ from the preceding ones in being built entirely of steel, instead of iron.
They are sister ships. 320 feet in length, and 68 feet in extreme breadth, and
have two submerged ends on which are raised unarmoured structures, which
complete the form of the vessel an. I provide space for the trews of t11" officers
and men, stores, and fuel. The six barbette ships, Oottingwood, Rodney,
Howe, Campcrdoum, Benbow, and Anton, resemble the Oohttus In form under
water, but, excepting the Oollingwood, they are more heavily armed and
have higher speeds. A main feature is the multiplicity of water-tight com.
DEFENCE — PBODDCTIOM AND INDT'STHV 18
partmenta Resides the large guns given In the table, tl »s 12
6-pounderand 7 S-ponnder quick-firing shell gnus, 8 Nordenfeldt guns, ami
she will carry 12 Whitehead torpe
The Agamemnon and Ajax arc exact imitations of \\w Inflexible. The
• /«■ and the flruwi were purchased in March, 137S, by the British
mment, having been constructed in the Thames, by order of Turkey.
The Conqueror, the Rupert, and the Hotspur an ram ships, ami tl
faster ship to the Conqueror. In the Rup rt, the Conqueror, and the Hotspur
tin ramming power is made the principal object. The ram, in thaw iron-
elads, has its sharp point about audit feel Mow the water-line, ami alwit 12
feet in advance of the upright portion of the stem. The Puhfphemu* may l>e
described aa Bimply :i steel tul>e, deeply immersed, the convex deck rising
about 4 feet 6 inches above the water-line. She carries no masts and sails,
nor any heavy guns, her whole power l>eing concentrated in a powerful ram
1m>w. 8 feet long. ami. in it, a large 'torpedo tube.' which will enable White-
head torpedoes to lie ejected right ahead of the ship.
The Monarch and Scorpion are the only full-rigged turret-ships of the
ironclad navy. The Moaarrh has 10-inch armour over the turret portholes,
and 8-inch over the rest of each of the two turrets. The heptune, formerly
full-rigged, is larger, more heavily armed, and lietter protected than the
Moivreh. The Imperieusc and U'arspite are swift armoured cruisers, with
barbette armaments. The Tim&rairc embodies in its construction both the
harbette and broadside principle.
The ''wJops, the Gorgon, the Hecate, and the Hydra have each two
turrets, with two 18-ton guns in each turret ; these ships, and the €H
which has only one turret, are only intended for coast or harbour defence.
In 1890 there were launched 7 deck-protected cruisers, of 28, 480 tons total
displacement, and 8 partial deck-protected cruisers, of 27,600 tons total dis
placement, besides 1 torpedo vessel and 2 unprotected coast defence ships.
In 1891 there were launched 2 steel armour-clad barbette ships, each of
14,150 tons displacement, 3 deck-protected cruisers of 22,400 tons total dis-
placement, and S partial deck -protected cruisers, of 28,400 tons total dis
placement. In 1891 there were building 7 sea-going armour-clads of 91.7."0
tons total displacement, 5 deck -protected cruisers of 37,800 tons total dis-
placement, 8 partial deck-protected cruisers of 31,246 tons total displacement,
8 gun and torjtedo vessels, and 10 second-class torpedo boats.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
The soil of the T'nited Kingdom is in fewer hands than that of
any Other country of Europe. A series of official returns, pub-
lished in the yean 1^75 and 1876, stated the number of owners
of land in Great Britain and Ireland, exclusive of the metropolis,
as follows : —
CA
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
England and Wales exclusive of
London ....
Scotland .....
Ireland .....
(heat Britain and Ireland
Number of ! Number of
Owners below j Owners above
an acre an acre
269,547
19,225
32,614
852,408
Total Number
of Owners
972,836
132,230
68,728
321,386 1,173,794
The total number of acres accounted for in the returns num-
bered 72,119,882, being 5,515,364 acres less than the whole area
of Great Britain and Ireland. Excluded from the ownership
survey were, besides the metropolis, and the lands of all owners
possessed of less than an acre, likewise all common and waste
lands. (For additional details see the Year-Book, 1884, pp. 247,
248.)
The following table shows the distribution of the surface in
each section of Great Britain in percentages of the total acreage of
each section :--
-
England
4-8
18-2
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
7-1
1-8
26-4
Average
Cultivable and pasture area
Woods, coppice, &e.
Mountain, heath, water,
fee
Total area (in 1,000 acres)
60
3 5
36 5
100 0
25
4 -5
70T,
3-6
37 9
100 0
32,527
100 0
19,085
100-0
100 0
i
1,712
20,820
77.111
The following table shows the distribution of the cultivable
-
1874
1888
1889
1800
1801
Great Britain
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
( 'orn crops
9,431,490
8,187,768
8,078,172
8,088,188
7,924,828
Green crops
8,681,276
3,471,861
8,299,647
3,297,528
3,297,680
Max
9,394
2,208
2,375
2,455
1,801
Hops
65,805
58,494
57,724
53,961
58,1 is
Bare fallow, &c
660,206
456,858
518,820
508,119
429,040
Clover and ma-
ture grasses .
4,340,742
4,724,299
4,877,298
4,808,819
4,716,582
Permanent pas-
ture
13,178,412
15,746,197
15,865,863
16.017,492
18,488,860
PRODUCTION AND IN1>
65
-
1874 1888
1889
1890
1891
Great Britain —
COIlt.
Live stock : —
Number
Number
Number
Number Number
Horse* .
1,311,739
1,420,350
_'.389
1,432,620 1,488,403
(fettle .
6,125,491
6,129,375
6,139,555
6,508,632 : 6,852,821
P •
30,313,941
25,257,149
J. 020
28,732,558 !
p
2,422,832
2,404,344
2,510,803
2,8£-
Ireland
Acres
Acres
Acres
Arrt>
Corn crops
1,901,508
1,570,878
1,535,102
1,514,607
1,492,329
Green crops
1,353,362
1,254,069
1,219,549
1,214,396
1,190,943
Flax
106,886
113,586
113,817
96,871
Bare fallow, kv.
12,187
15,689
17,103
15,538
21,786 !
Clover, grasses,
pasture. ..
-.244
12,128,030
12,181,370
12,304,265
12,348,921
Live stock : —
Number
Number
Number
Number
Number
Horses .
468,089
507,201
515,188
523,384
592,861
< fettle .
4,118,113
4,009,241
4,093,944
4*340, i
4,448,477
Sheep .
4,437,613
3,626,780
3,789,629
4,323.S05 4.722.391
Pigs . .
1,096,494
1,397,800
1,380,548
1,570.279 l,367.77o
The following table shows the area (in acres) under each of the
heavy corn and green crops in the years named : —
Year
Wheat
Barley
Great Britain
Acres
Acres
1S74
3,030,300
2,387,981
1SSS
2,564,257
...-.-..-••1
MM
2,449,354
2,121,530
1890
2,386.330
2,111,178
1S91
-.::'.'7.277
2.112.798
Ireland
1874
188,711
- 212,230
1388
99,420
171,195
1889
91,131
186,543
1890
93.20S
182,318
ls91
81.894
178,299
<>..--
Beans
Acres I Acres
2,596,384 559,044
•-
2,888,704 i 321,220
2,902,998 358,413
2,899,129 :
1,480,186
1,380,503
1,237,135
1,330,341
1.214.47:.
9,646
5,089
3,862
3,714
4,142
Peas Potatoes Turnips
Acr.s
310,547
20,968
224.92-;
219,382
204.277
1,756
732
667
655
Aera
520,430
590,198
529,661
533,794
892,421
904^508
780,8 I
753,069
tan ■
2.133,336
1,944.178
1,980,8*1
■ 1,947,598
• 1,918,535
18,487
294~393
297,818
295,361
■ •■<:-■ I
The following table shows the total produce of each of the
principal crops in Groat Britain and Ireland in thousands of
bushels and tons for the years named : —
66
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Great Britain
Ireland
Description of Crops
1887
1888
1889
1890
1887
1888 | 1889
1890
1,000
Bushls.
1,000
Bushls.
1,000
Bushls.
1,000
Bushls.
1,000
Bushls.
1,000
Bushls.
1,000 1,000
Bushls. Bushls.
Wheat ....
Barley and Bere .
Oats ....
Beans ....
Peas ....
74,322
65,300
107,283
S,339
5,607
71,939
68,482
107,344
9,725
5,845
73,202
67,426
113,441
9,249
5,906
73,354
73,933
120,188
11,697
6,294
1,902
4,647
43,506
133
15
2,553
6,063
50,631
119
16
2,680
7,277
50,637
125
15
2,639
6,860
51,107
162
19
1,000
Tons
1,000
Tons
1,000
Tons
1,000
Tons
1,000
Tons
1,000
Tons
1,000
Tons
1,000
Tons
Potatoes
Turnips and Swedes
3,564
19,747
3,059
24,674
3,587
28,097
2,812
27,747
3,569
2,719
2,523
3,326
2,847
3,909
1,810
4,256
The following table shows the estimated average yield per acre
of the principal crops :—
Great Britain
Ireland
Description of Crops
1887
1888
1889
1890
1887
Bushls.
1888
1889
1890
Bushls.
Bushls.
Bushls.
Bushls.
Bushls.
Bushls.
Bushls.
Wheat ....
32-07
28-05
29-89
30-74
28-31
25-79
29-87
Barley and Bere
31-32
32-84
31-78
35-02
28-61
35-39
39-07
37-60
Oats
34-74
37-24
39-27
41-40
33-08
39-63
■I0-S7
H-sr,
Beans
22-49
28-68
28-81
32-65
21-08
23-47
34-05
43-61
Peas
24-43
24-21
26-28
—
23-14
22-11
88-46
—
Tims
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Taos
Tuns
Potatoes
6'87
5-18
6-19
28-71
4-48
::-li
3-62
29-80
Turnips and Swedes
10-01
12-69
14-63
5-31
9-06
11-31
13-12
2-32
For the quantities of cereals and live stock imported, see under
Commerce.
The following table shows the distribution of live stock among
the different parts of the United Kingdom in 1891 : —
-
England
Wales
150,186
759,309
3,233,936
270,082
Scotland
Inland
United
Kingdom 1
Horses .
Cattle .
Sheep .
Pigs .
1,143,050
4,870,215
17,874,722
2,461,185
195,167
1,223,297
7,623,900
157,506
628,576
4,448,477
4,722,391
1,367,776
2,026,170
11,343,986
::?,988
| 4,272, ?.; 1
i Including the Isle of Man ;uul Channel Islands.
The following table shows the dumber of holding! Ot farms of various sixes
in each of the three Idngdenu in Juuu, 1885 (latest return) :—
PRODO TI<>X AXD INDUSTRY
Xumber of Agricultural Holdings in
each Class
Proportional Xumber per
Cent of Holdings
Classification of Eng-
Holdings , land
Wall i
Soot-
land
Great
Britain
Ki._--
land
Wtt i
Great
land Britain
Na
\ .
No.
.,
7.
7. I 7.
From i ten to 1 ten
].'-:.
1,360
5-08
1-80
l-.'.;i Pa
„ 1 acre to 5 acres
11,044
186,730
u-oi
18-35
5 „ 20 „ . 109,285
njm
23,189
148,806
■J'.'.U
28-89
27-4-J
. 50 „
61,146
10,677
M.H'.'
14 74
20-48
13-23 1.V14
„ 50 „ 100 „
■ 44,893
10,044
9,778
64,715
10-82
i»;---.o
12-11 11-64
„ 100 „ 300 „
7,844
12,549
14-26
13-03
1431
„ 300 „ 500 „
11.4.-,-
389
2,034
13,875
0-65
2-50
„ 500 „ 1,000 „
4,131
63
4,826
0-99
0-10
0-78 0-87
„ 1,000
•al .
ME
8
90
663
i
0-18
o-oi
o-ii ru
60,190
80,715
555,855
100-00
100-00
100-00 100-00
ultural Hi <ldings in each Class
Average sue of Holdings
it ion of
Holdings
England Wata
Scot
land
Great
Britain
land
Wall -
Acres
Acres
Acres
A'T. I
A' .•;• - Ac:-' 1
Acres
Aon ■
From i acre to lac.
530
■n
•- 11.10%
|
ft
ft
,1
,, 1 ac to oacr.
!. 286,526
34,532
68,619
389,677
.3
H
5 „ 20 „
1,319,003
200,169
23*3.995
1,656,827
111
10?
11
„ 20 „ 50 „
490,483
33J
34
33}
331
M . 100 „
173}
781
74t
„ 100 „ 300 „
10,285,988
1,333,374
2,139,133
13,018,400
157]
170}
171}
no „ 5oo „
143,023
5,941,108
378
' 'i
378
377}
BOO „ 1,000 „
39,793
409,641
8,147,298
653
6311
1,296}
6484
1,523}
„ 1,000 .
735,138
10,373
137,104
882,615
1,301J
l,33lj
Total .
24,891,539
2,818,547
4,848,166
39,668,963
60
46}
60
A return made in 1890 gives statistics of holdings from \ acre to 50
acres, but does not deal with, those of 50 acres and upwards. The figures in
the following table which relate to 1889 allow of a partial comparison with
the return of 1885 : —
Small Holdings not exceeding 50 Acres (1889)
Classification of
Holdings
Eng- nr„i„. Scot- Great
land wales land Britain
No.
From 1 acre to lacre 25,680 1,672
„ 1 acre to 5 acres [109,538 13,996
„ 20 „ . 111,039 18,211
„ 50 „ . 62,131 12,480
X".
1.300
144,185
22.122 151,372
10,602 85,213
T.-tal
409.422 100-00 100-00 100-00 100-00
Proportional Xumber per Cent
of Holdings in each Class
Eng-
land
Wales
Scot- Great
land Britain
7.
7.
7. '
7.
S-33
2-31
7-00
35-63
27-84
39-66
85-22
36-00
40-78
37-94
36-97
20-15
27-94
21 -4«;
20-81
In the same return obtained for the Board of Agriculture it is stated that
the number of allotments under one acre detached from cottages in Great
Britain in 1889 was -155,005, and that the total number of separate
instances in which petite culture in one form or another exists in Great
Britain is estimated to l»e 1,300,000.
f -2
68
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The following table shows the number of holdings, by classes, for each
county and province of Ireland, in 1889 and 1890, and the increase or
decrease in the latter year : —
Provinces
Number and Classification of Holdings
Not
exceeding
1 acre
Above 1
and not
exceeding
5 acres
Above 5 Above 15
and nut and not
exceeding ' exceeding
15 acres j 30 acres
Above 30
and not
exceeding
50 acres ;
T . , |1889
Leinster . |lg90
at 4. (1889
Munstcr . -'{im
Ulster -,1889
uistei . . ^189Q
n i * (1889
Connaught . -! jggg
Total of Ireland - , gqQ
Increase or decrease f
in 1890 . . \
16,286
16,603
12,705
13,372
15,508
15,558
5,430
5,276
17,501
17,372
10,872
10,635
20,819
20,303
12,398
12,457
25,429
25,461
18,775
18,913
65,877
65,424
46,480
45,965
22,310
22,323
24,287
24,133
54,559
54,252
33,940
33,507
15,409
15,401
22,161
21,966
24,551
24,797
11,281
11,522
73,402
73,686
49,929
50,809
61,590
60,767
156,561
155,763
135,096
134,215
■
Increase
880
Decrease
823
Decrease Decrease
798 i 881
Increase
284 ;
Provinces
Above 60
and not
exceeding
100 acres
Above 100
and not
exceeding
200 acres
. j_
Above 900
and not Above 500
exceeding j acres
500 acres
Total
Leinster . {J889
Munster {j889
Ulster ,1889
uistei . . ^1890
Connaught . j]889
Total of Ireland j}889
Increase or decrease (
in 1890 . . "1
13,876
13,886
22,165
22,281
14,214
14,115
6,265
6,289
6,887
6,917
9,198
9,264
3,659
3,677
3,181
" :U67
2,806
2,803
2,817
2,822
1,043
1,030
1,701
1,718
400
396
385
384
274
269
526
545
120,904
121,162
123,365 !
123,770
200,504
199,425
121,202
120,446 ,
565,975
564,803
56,520
56,571
22,925
22,025
8,367
8,373
1,585
1,594
I in nase : Decrease
51 900
Increase
6
Increase
•
1
1,172
In 1886 the total number of occupier* was 521,465; in 1890 it was
524,210
II. Fisheries.
From an official report on the sea-fisheries We tabulate tin-
following results for 1890 : —
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
60
Excluding Sli.-11.Fish
—
305,032
268,106
^.9.931
Value cm
Landing
Value includ-
ing Hh.-11-Fi-h
England .....
Scotland .....
Ireland .....
1,569,619
362,804
J. 612
1. »127,461
S49
Total
613,069
6,290,968
6,743,922
These figures are exclusive of salmon caught and lauded in Scotland and
Ireland, but it is estimated that the value of the salmon caught and landed
in Scotland in 1890 was 222,000/., in Ireland 399,000/.
Of the 305,032 tons landed in England, 208,962 tons (value 3,434,000/.)
were landed on the east coast.
The number of men employed in the British fisheries is 124,787, of whom
hand 41,815 English; registered boats. 97,161. The total
value of fish (produce of the United Kingdom) exported in 1889 was
1,766,639/., besides 476,902/. re-exported, while the value of that imported
was 2,588,623/.
The following table shows the quantity of fish (in tons) conveyed inland
by railway from the ports of the United Kingdom in each of the yean from
1886 to 1890 :—
-
1886
256,002
83,089
7,524
1887
1888
264,061
83,670
6,580
•214
am
058
91,271
7,997
1890
England and
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
264,343
86,498
358,120
,344
93,680
6,363
Total
346,615
385,326
383,387
III. Mining and Metals.
The total quantities raised, and value of the coal and iron ore
of the United Kingdom, were as follows in 1878 and the last five
years : —
Coal
Iron Ore
Quantities
Value
Quantities
Value
•
! 1878
1886
< 1887
i 1888
' 1889
, 1890
Tons
132,654,887
157,518,482
162,119.812
169.935,219
176,916.721
181,614,288
£
46,429,210
38,145,930
39,092,830
42,971,276
56,175,426
74,953,997
Tons
15,726,370
14,110,013
13,098,041
14,590,713
14,546,105
13,780,767
e
5,609,507
3,513
3,501.317
3,848,268
3,926.445
70
THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— UNITED KINGDOM
The following tables give a general summary of the mineral
produce of the United Kingdom for 1890. The first table relates
to the metallic minerals : — ■
Metallic Minerals
Minerals
raised
Values
Metals con-
tained in the
Ores.
Values of
Metals
Tons
£
Tons
£
Iron ore
13,780,767
3,926,445
4,848,748
14,808,884
Lead ore.
45,651
406,164
33,590
449,826
Tin ore
14,911
782,492
9,602
937,760
Copper ore .
12,136
27,801
936
57,650
Zinc ore
22,041
109,890
8,582
203,358
Bog iron ore
14,512
7,256
—
—
Copper precipitate
345
4,670
Ounces
—
Silver.
i —
—
291,724
58,040
Gold ore
575
434
206
675
Iron pyrites
16,018
7,666
—
—
Antimony .
—
200
—
565
Value of chief metallic minerals .
5,273,018
ores
Total value of metals
.from British
16,516,758
The following table relates to the non-metallic minerals : —
-
Tons
Value
-
Tons
Value
Coal .
181,614,288
£
74,953,997
Gypsum . .
140,293
£
57,991
Stone
—
8,708,691
Arsenic ore,
Slates and
&c. .
12,490
65,141
slabs
434,352
1,027,235
Barytas
25,358
29,684
Clays
3,308,214
899,166
Other mine-
Salt .
2,146,849
1,100,014
rals .
—
39,423
Oil shale .
2,212,250
608,369
Phosphate
of lime .
18,000
29,500
Total non-metallic
minerals
Total mineral produce
87,619,211
92,794,481
This showsan increase of 9,318,48U. over 1889 in the value of
the total mineral produce, and of 2,169,912/. in that of metallic
produce.
The following table shows the British coal produce for 1890,
arranged in districts ; —
PRODI* TlnN AND INDUSTRY
71
District
Tons of Coal
District
Tons of Coal
Durham, N. and S. .
Scotland .
Yorkshire . . '
Lancashire
< ilamorgan
Staffordshire .
30,265,241
24,278,589
22,338,886
22,123,522
21,426,415
13,773,629
Derbyshire . 10,455,974
Northumberland . 9,446,035 i
Monmouthshire 6,893,410
Nottinghamshire . 6,861,976
Smaller coal-fields . 13,646,344
Ireland . . 10- .
Total, United Kingdom .... 181,614,288 |
The total production in 1889 was 176,916,724 tons.
The total number of persons employed in coal-mines in the
United Kingdom in 1890 was 613,233.
The following table shows the progress of the exports of coal,
coke, and patent fuel at intervals since 1851 : —
Year
1851
1861
1871
Quantity
Value
Year
Tons
3,347,607
7,934,832
12,747,989
1,280,341
3,652,164
6,246,133
1881
1889
1890
Quantity
Tons
-7,063
28,9.--
30,142,839
Value
£
8,785.950
14,781,990
19,020,269
Of the coal exports of 1890 the largest amount, 4,953,793 tons,
valued at 2,888,261/., went to France; the next largest amount,
3,642,883 tons, valued at 2,095,267/., to Italy ; 3,311,021 tons,
valued at 1,855,270/., to Germany ; and about a million and a
half tons each to Eussia, Sweden, Denmark, Spain, and Egypt.
The following are the principal ports for exporting coal, with
the number of tons shipped in 1890 : —
Tons
Tons
Cardiff .
. 9,424,042
Hull .
993,515
Newcastle
. 4,563,534
Swansea .
. 966,632
Newport
. 1,982,133
Grangemouth
. 896,164
N. Shields .
. 1,945,870
Glasgow .
. 767,195
Sunderland .
. 1,532,235
Grimsby .
. 66 •_
Kirkcaldy
. 1,270,682
Liverpool .
. 579,015
The following table shows the production in thousands of tons
of various forms of iron and steel in the United Kingdom in the
years named, with the imports of iron ore and manufactured iron
and steel : —
72
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Year
Pig-iron
Manufd.
Iron
Bessemer
Steel
Open-
hearth
Steel.
Iron Ore
Imports
Bar Iron
Imports
Mauf. Iron
Imports
1,000 tons
1,000 tons
1,000 tons
1,000 tons
1,000 tons
1,000 tons
1,000 tons
1868
4,970
—
110
—
114
65
16
1878
6,300
—
807
1751
1,174
102
105
1886
6,870
1,616
1,570
694
2,876
106
177
1887
7,442
1,701
2,064
981
3,762
112
199
1888
7,998
2,031
2,012
1,292
3,562
113
227
1889
8,322
2,254
2,140
1,429
4,031
111
231
1890
7,904
1,923
2,015
1,564
4,472
93
223
J 1879.
The total consumption of pig-iron in the United Kingdom
was in 1888, 7,052,433 tons; in 1889, 7,692,230; and in 1890,
7,294,684 tons. The average number of furnaces in blast in 1888
was 425 ; in 1889, 445 ; in 1890, 414. The number of puddling
furnaces for the manufacture of puddled bar iron in operation in
1883 was 4,651 ; in 1888, 3,008 ; in 1889, 3,346 ; in 1890, 3,015.
The number of Bessemer steel converters at work in 1880 was
79 ; in 1886, 78 ; in 1887 and 1888, 87 ; in 1889, 83 ; in 1890, 82.
The number of open-hearth steel furnaces at work in 1880 was
99 ; in 1886, 187 ; in 1887, 222 ; in 1888, 230 ; in 1889, 247 ; in
1890, 252.
The following table shows the quantities of the leading un-
manufactured metals and minerals imported, in tons : —
-
1880
1887
1888
1SS9
1890
Iron ore
Copper ore .
Lead
Tin
Tons
2,878,469
152,415
107,862
24,076
Tons
3,765,788
169,511
114,493
25,918
Tons
3,562,071
230,319
132,880
28,049
Tons
4,031,265
250,567
145,203
30,092
Tons
4,471,790
215,935
158,649
27,088
Of the iron ore imported, 4,028,672 tons, valued at 3,129,6562.,
came from Spain.
IV. Textile Industry.
The quantity of raw cotton imported into the United Kingdom
has been as follows : —
In 1815 .
. 99,000,000 ll.s.
In 1850 .
. 663,577,000 lbs
,, 1820 .
. 152,000,000 ,,
„ 1860 .
. 1,390,939,000 .,
,, 1825 .
. 229,000,000 „
„ 1870 .
1,888,806,000 >•
,, 1830 .
. 264,000,000 ..
» 1880
. 1.028.664.576 ..
„ 1840 .
. 592,000,000 ,,
.. 1890 .
. 1,793,495,200 ,,
PRODUCTION AND INDTSTIIV
73
The subjoined table gives the total cotton imports, exports, an<l
the home consumption in the last five years : —
War
T' >tal Imports of
Total Exports of
Retained for Home
Cotton
Cotton
Consumption
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
1886
1.715,044,800
197,858,080
1,517,186,720
1887
1,791,437.312
202,615,008
1.198,822,304
1888
1,731,755,088
I»889,1U
1,456,915,936
1889
1,937,462,240
•J 77,602,304
1.659,859,936
1890
1,793,495,200
214,641,840
1,578,853,360
The subjoined table exhibits the total quantities of wool —
sheep, lamb, and alpaca — imported, exported, and retained for
home consumption in 1874 and during the last five years : —
Total Imports of
Total Exports of
Retained far Home
Wool
Wool
Consumption
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
1S74
344,470,897
144,294,663
200,166,234
1886
596,470,995
312,006,380
284,464,615
1887
7.77.924,661
319,202.968
258,721,693
1888
639,267,975
339,075,483
300,192.492
1889
700,903.057
363,647,360
337,255.697
1890
633,028,131
340,712,303
292,315,828
Of the total quantity imported in 1890, 418,771,604 lbs. came
from Australasia.
The following tabular statement gives a summary of the
statistics of textile factories in each of the three divisions of the
United Kingdom in 1890 :—
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland
25 "S.
■S
-o
H
'-I
Children § §
working >*£
Half Time 2-
- =
6,180
263
50.211.216 722,406 35,166
2,413,735 71,471 2.915
1,016,111 28,...
Total of the United
Kingdom . . 7,190 53,641,062 822, 4S9 40,558145,941 86,9' -
- —
is
Total Number
Employed
3S.653 72,517 461,751 250,165 357,84S, 500,404 858,252
3,862 10,532 104,343 32,939 46,386 1 OS, 205 154,591
•,647| 44,514 15,724' 23,848 47,940 71,788
428,083 656,549 1,084,631
74
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
With regard to the material manufactured, the factories were
distributed as follows: — cotton 2,538, wool 1,793, shoddy 125,
worsted 753, flax 375, hemp 105, jute 116, hair 42, cocoanut fibre
24, silk 623, lace 403, hosiery 257, elastic 54.
Of the spindles, 48,409,733 were spinning or throwing spindles
and 5,321,329 doubling spindles.
Of the total number of persons employed there were 40,558 male.
45,941 female children, working half time. There were 88,696
males between thirteen and eighteen years of age, and 610,608
females, over thirteen.
Comparing the return of 1890 with that of 1885, we find a
decrease in the number of factories of 275, but an increase in the
number of spindles of 560,950, and an increase of power-looms of
48,785. There is an increase in the whole number of persons
employed of 49,720.
The following information is furnished by Mr. Thomas Ellison,
of Liverpool : —
A century ago the value of cotton, woollen, and linen yarns and piece-
goods produced in Great Britain and Ireland was about 22,000,0002. — say,
woollen 17, 000,000Z., linen 4, 000,0002., and cotton 1,000,0002. Of recent
years the value has been about 170,000,0002. — say, cotton 100,000,0002.,
woollen 50,000,0002., and linen 20,000,0002. The total amount of capital
employed is about 200,000,0002., and at least 5,000,000 people — men, women,
and children — are dependent upon these industries for their livelihood.
Moreover, one-half of the value of British and Irish products exported con-
sists of textiles. The progress made by each branch is shown in the sub-
joined statement of the weight of raw material used and the value of yarns
and goods exported : —
Average Periods
i if Three Years
1798-1800
1829-1831
1869-1861
1888-1890
Weight, comsumed in Millions
of lbs.
Value of Products exported in
Thousands of £'s
Cotton
Wool
Flax
Total
Cotton
Woollen
Linen
Total
41-8
243-2
1,022-6
1,672-0
109-0
149-4
260-4
540-0
108-6
193-8
212-0
271-0
•_Y>0 -0
:,s.;-i
1,494-0
288-8
.VOSN
18-077
49-000
72-307
6-846
4-087
16-041
24-780
1-010
2-180
6-110
i)-o:t6
12-944
26-182
70-060
103-087
The following table gives the principal variations in the movements Binco
1860, showing the in fluenco of the cotton famine incidental to the American
war, ami displaying the gradual return to the ante-war posit inn. Figures in
millions of lbs., yards, and pounds sterling.
-
I860
1868
1877
1888
1888
1890
Cotton.
Imported ....
Exported ....
Retained for consumption .
Actual consumption
mil.
ll.s.
1,391
250
mil.
lb*
1,329
828
mil.
n.s.
1,355
169
1,186
1,237
mil.
IbB.
1,734
249
1,485
1,498
mil.
lbs.
1,732
271
1,461
1,529
mil.
lbs.
1,793
215
1,678
1,658
1.111
1,006
996
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
, 5
I860 1868
Sheep, lamb, fcc, imported
From sheepskins imported
Produced at home
hair imported
Woollen rags imported
Total
Foreign wool exported .
Domestic wool exported
Total
Retained for consumption
Actual consumption
Flax and Tow.
Imported
Produced at home
Total
Exported
Retained for consumpt
Actual consumption
Piece-Goods Exported.
Cotton
Woollen
Linen ....
Total
Yarn Exported.
Cotton
Woollen
Linen .
Total
Value all Kinds Exported.
Cotton
Woollen
Linen ....
Total
mil.
lbs.
148
3
145
3
13
mil.
lbs.
253
9
166
7
36
813 471
1877
mil.
lbs.
410
15
152
8
75
:il
11
105
10
187
10
42 115
270
270
mil.
lbs.
164
53
217
6
211
211
356:
mil.
Da.
209
265
6
259
259
197
463
435
mil.
lbs.
259
49
308
3
305
305
mil. mil. mil.
yds. v.ls. v.ls.
2, 77<: 1,977 3,838
191 269 261
144 210 17S
MM
mil
lbs.
495
14
129
13
81
1888 1800
732
19
296
436
168
3,111
mil.
Iks.
197
26
31
2,456 4,277
mil. mil.
ll.s. lbs.
171 228
4:1 27
33 19
225
230
mil.
v<ls.
4,539
tffl
162
4,957
mil.
lbs.
265
33
18
mil.
lbs.
639
18
134
22
71
884
339
24
S63
521
588
mil.
lbs.
633
23
138
16
78
...
mil.
lbs.
214
M
260
9
251
:'.!1
20
361
527
500
mil.
lbs.
214
40!
I.'.
240
mil. mil.
v.ls.
5,038 5,125
271 261
177 1S4
5,484
mil.
lbs.
256
43
15
102*4
5,570
mil
lbs.
258
41
15
105-0
76
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Commerce.
The United Kingdom is a free trading country, the only im-
ports on which customs duties are levied being chicory, cocoa,
coffee, dried fruits, plate, spirits, tea, tobacco, and wine — spirits,
tobacco, tea, and wine yielding the bulk of the entire levies. In
1890 duty was levied on goods of the value of 29,671,692^ out of
a total of 420,691,997^. imports, or about 7 per cent, of the total
imports. t
The declared value of the imports and exports of merchandise
of the United Kingdom was as follows during the ten years from
1881 to 1890 :—
Year
Total
Imports
£
Exports of
British Produce
Exports of
Foreign and
Colonial Produce
Total Imports
and Exports
£
£
£
1881
397,022,489
234,022,678
63,060,097
694,105,264
1882
413,019,608
241,467,162
65,193,552
719,680,322
1883
426,891,579
239,799,473
65,637,597
732,328,649
1884
390,018,569
233,025,242
62,942,341
685,986,152
1885
370,967,955
213,081,779
58,359,194
642,408,928
1886
349,863,472
212,725,200
56,234,263
618,822,935
1887
362,227,564
221,913,910
59,348,975
643,490,449
1888
387,635,743
234,534,912
64,042,629
686,213,284
1889
427,637,595
248,935,195
66,657,484
743,230,271
1890
420,691,997
263,530,585
64,721,533
748.944.lir.
The following table exhibits the average share, per head of
population of the United Kingdom, in the imports, the exports of
British produce, and the total, during the ten years 1881 to
1890:—
Year
Imports
Exports of British
Produce
Total Imports and
i:\ports
£ «. d.
£ *. d.
£ $. d.
1881
1 1 7 1
6 14 0
19 7 ;>
1882
11 14 1
6 16 10
20 7 10
1883
11 19 9
6 14 8
20 11 8
1884
10 16 11
6 9 7
19 1 6
1885
10 4 3
5 17 S
17 18 7
inn.;
9 10 I
:. 15 8
16 16 8
1887
9 15 a
5 19 8
17 6 1
1888
10 7 1
6 1 11
is 6 2
I.XS!)
11 6 1
6 11 2
19 -2 8
1890
110 2
6 17 10
19 11 9
COMMERCE
77
The share of each] division of the United Kingdom in the trade
of the country is shown in the following table in thousands of
pounds (sterling) : —
— 1886
1887
ISM
1889
1890
Eugland and J ' ™ ' ,
Wales Exj>oit.-. . -
Total
( Import-
Scotland |ExiK)rt3 |
Total
( Imports .
Ireland ^f*** .{
Total
£1,000
315,140
193,3681
55,3802
£1,000
324,182
201,7601
68,456*
£1,000
349,182
212,1501
63,140*
£1,000
382,547
65,655*
£1,000
237.464-
563,888
27,920
18,248'
8442
594,698
624,672
673,127
20,771
18,849i
875*
11,3*1
20,821i
883*
22,310i
989*
35,165
24,750'
864*
47,012
40,495
52,925
60,070
6,802
816i
9-*
804'
17-
87li
19*
8,319
813'
132
9,100
316ij
8,795 | 8,122
9,145
9,428
1 British.
- Itawigu.
Thus it will be seen that of the total trade, 90$ percent, falls
to the share of England and Wales ; 8 per cent, to Scotland ;
li per cent, to Ireland.
The following table gives the total value of the imports of
foreign and colonial merchandise, and of the exports of British
produce and manufactures from and to foreign countries and
British possessions in the years 1889 and 1890 : —
Imports
Exports of
British and
Irish Produce
1889
Exports of i
British and
Irish Produce
1890
1889 1890
British Possessions :
India
Australasia
British North
America
South Africa
£ £
36,199,204 32,668,797
•26,804,592 29,350,844
12,191,370 12.444,489
6,117,850 8,095,612
£
31,047,892
22,879,290
8,141,586
8,998,975
£
33,641,001
23,006,004
\911
9,128,164
78
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Imports
Countries
1889
Straits Settlements
Hong Kong
British West Indies
Ceylon
British Guiana .
Channel Islands
West Africa
Malta
Mauritius .
All other Possessions
Total British Posses-
sions
Foreign Countries :
United States .
France
Germany .
Holland .
Belgium .
Russia
Spain
China
Brazil
Italy.
Egypt •
Sweden
Turkey
Argentine Republic
Denmark' .
Portugal .
Roumania
Chile and Bolivia
Japan
Norway
.lava
Greece
Foreign West Africa
Austria
Peru
( Vntral America
Uruguay .
Spanish West Indies
£
5,417,034
1,129,190
2,161,151
2,822,357
1,219,356
968,668
929,495
138,962
421,537
745,305
£
5,187,801
1,225,064
1,806,390
3,411,209
907,897
958,175
1,076,666
117,595
264,900
645,775
Exports of
British and
Irish Produce
1889
97,266,071
95,461,475
45,780,277
27,104,832
26,679,216
17,674,877
27,154,490
11,558,857
6,115,591
5,070,628
3,230,131
8,620,602
9,207,047
5,265,373
2,016,182
7,845,877
3,105,076
3,204,776
8,264,578
977,606
8,497,518
2,233,744
1,864,297
1,030,484
2,286,834
1,398,977
1,181,703
450,531
104,487
96,161,214
97,283,349
44,828,148
26,073,331
25,900,924
17,383,776
23,750,868
12,608,588 '
4,830,850 !
4,350,675 I
3,093,918 j
8,368,851
8,473,656
4,816,883
4,129,802 !
7,753,389
2,942,194
4,447,159
3,473,348
1,024,993
3,432,689
1,223,035
1,962,798
1,093,255
1,728,337
1,053,604
1,320,305
341,208
127,873
£
2,402,474
2,181,718
2,196,927
786,409
822,013
646,237
798,306
904,515
301,472
1,171,176
83,278,990
30,293,942
14,682,677
18,478,136
9,724,757
7,229,418
5,332,258
4,237,990
5,038,895
6,232,320
7,156,557
2,949,720
■J. 773,215
6,167,494
10,682,934
2,368,284
2,511,240
1,259,681
2,934,190
3.SSS.1SS
1,729,272
1,525,243
854,368
1,445,880
1,038,758
958,312
997,471
2,408,401
1,819,387
87,370,383
32,068,128
16,567,927
19,293,626
10,121,160
7,688,712
5,751,601
1,999*705
6,608,982
7,458,928
7.77.7,862
3,381,830
3,061,976
6,772,061
8,416,112
2,539,467
2,157,784
1,270,271
:;. i:;0,072
1,081,798
1,915,808
1.1(19,206
1,157,672
1,602,314
1,283,209
1,123,395
987,168
2,043,106
1,876,756
COMMERCE
n
Imports
Exports of
Exports of
British and
British and
Irish Produce
Iri.-h I*p«1uci-
1880
MM
1889
1890
£
£
£
Mexico
465,994
-.979
1,512
1,906,317
Philippine Islands
2,381,786
1,647,708
998,412
:ibia .
.290
304,261
1,159,049
1,14
Venezuela .
284,666
308,550
785.424
828,978
Algeria
658,082
890,612
287,066
329,876
CO .
956,019
668,034
-.219
638,387
lor .
72,430
72,843
266.176
29'
Havti. St. Domingo .
47.1-23
89,593
249
Tunis and Tripoli
395,401
531,293
106,780
170,483
East Africa
163,560
492,995
27;
376,785
Persia
169,751
104,475
309.334
362,669
Siam
290,566
193,146
70,299
75,802
Bulgaria .
212, 100
138,282
81,400
83,678
Madagascar
83,618
98,833
S2,667
84.7
Cochin China and
Tonquin
124,900
79,348
20,5/4
! 1,533/089
36,295
All other Countries .
559,182
650,078
1,653,702
Total Foreign Coun-
tries
330,371. "'21
324,530,783
|165,656,205
176,160,202
Grand Total
427,637,595
420,691,997
248,935,195
263,530,585
The following table shows the value of the imports and exports
of gold and silver bullion and specie in the live years 1887 to
1891 :—
Gold
Silver
Year
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
£
£
£
£
]-:
9,955,326
9,323,614
7,819,438
7,807,404
1888
15,787,588
14.944,143
6,213,940
7,615,428
i 1889
17,686,174
14,454,318
9,185,400
10,666,312
I 1890
23,568,049
14,306,688
10,385,659
10,863,384
, 1891
30,275,420
24,228,425
9,316,200
13,114,589
1891.
The following is a summary of the imports and exports of the
xhe vears ended December 31, 1890, and
United Kingdom for the years c
The figures are those of the preliminary reports : —
80
THE BKITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Imports
1890
1891
Exports of
British Produce
1890
1891
£
£
£
£
1. Animals, liv-
1, Animals, liv-
ing (for food)
11,210,333
9,240,398
ing
870,661
672,337
2. (a) Articles of
2. Articles of
food and drink
food and drink
11,235,061
10,087,139
duty free
186,422,110
14S,510,20S
3. Raw materials
21,538,385
21,842,327
(6) Articles of
4. Articles manu-
food and drink
factured and
dutiable
20,210,804
27,004,982
partly manu-
Tobacco, duti-
factured, via. :
able-
3,642,949
3,415, 400
(a) Yarns and
:;. .Metals .
23,710,901
28,040,124
textile fabrics
112,458,178
106,017,948
4. C he mica Is,
(6) Metals and
dye-stuffs ami
articles manu-
tanning sub-
factured
stances .
8,190,389
7,314,337
ther e from
6. Oils
0,991,053
7,339,994
(except ma-
0. Haw materials
chinery)
45,251,434
39,880,009
for textile
(c) Machinery
manufactures
S5,239,2S9
89,215,055
and mill work
10,413,424
15,820,310
7. Raw materials
(d) Apparel
for sundry in-'
and articles of
dustries and
personal use .
11,2S5,202
11,330,947
manufactures
41,626,166
40,035,435
(e) Chemicals,
8. Manufactured ^
V 03,218,107
and chemical
articles .
05,082,129
and medicinal
9. (a) Mis cella-
preparations.
s. 1 148,391
8,882,069
neous articles
14,007,070
14,986,648
(/) All other
(6) Parcel post
503,209
561,069
articles.either
manufactured
or partly
Total imports
i
420,885,095
435,691,279
manut'arliiiv.l
(</) Parcel post
Total British pro-
:; 1.541,171
1,000,693
82,10
1,096
duce
263,542,501'
217.272.27:;
Foreign and Co-
lonial produce
Total exports
64,84
61,798,698
:;-J7..s'.M.:.'.u
309, 0i^
The iinports of wheat (excluding flour), in quarters (1
quarter = 8 bushels) have been as follows in the years indi-
cated : —
Test
1870
1875
Quart its
Y.ar
Quarters !
Quarters
7,131,100
11,971,500
o m
00 00
00 OO
12,752,S00 | 1890
14,192,000 !| 1891
12,094,836
13,262,592
The following exhibits tho quantities of the leading food im-
ports enumerated at the dates noted : —
COMMERCE
81
Articles
1889
149,339,769
1890
1891
Cereals and flour
. Cwts.
154,335,075
150,07
Potatoes
,,
1,864,426
1,940,100
3,192,836
Rice .
,,
6,585,779
5,957,555
6,200,820
Bacon and hams
,,
4,484,108
5,000,016
4,715,012
Fish .
,,
2,014,255
2,293,439
2,363,703
Refined sugar
,,
8,978,260
9,977,375
11,322,121
Raw sugar
,,
17,550,147
15,717,486
16,217,338
Tea
I. -.
221,147,661
2-2L 054,371
240,333,327
Butter .
Cwts.
1,927,842
2,027.717
2,135,607
Margarine
,,
1,241,690
1,079,996
1,235,430
Cheese .
,,
1,907,999
2,144,074
2,041,317
Beef .
,,
1,648,220
2,129,319
2,168,089
Preserved meat
,,
641
734,811
776,961
Fresh mutton
,,
1,225,058
1,656,419
1,662,994
Sheep and lambs
Cattle .
(number)
677,958
358,458
344,504
>>
665,223
536,515
440,503
Eggs . .(grea
t hundreds)
9,432,503
10,291,246
10,681,137
Spirits .
Gallons
10,541,777
12,655,513
12.221,389
! Wine .
• »>
15,934,934
16,194,428
16,782,038
In 1891 the United Kingdom imported 3,653,060 quarters of
wheat from her own possessions, and the remainder from foreign
countries. The eight great wheat sources, in order, are (1891) : —
423,975 quarters
417,134 „
301,980 „
217,666 „
United States .
4,838,991 quarters
Chile .
Russia
2,910,581
Australasia
India
2,601,157
Turkey
Canada .
634,768
Roumania
The quantity of flour imported in 1891 was 3,349,600 quarters,
of which 2,740,607 quarters came from the United States.
The following table shows the quantities of tea imported into
the United Kingdom from different countries at different periods
in thousands of pounds : —
Country
1878
1888
1889
1890
Proportion from each
Country
1878
1888
1SS9 1S90
Holland
China, Hong Kong
India ....
Ceylon
Other countries .
Total .
1000 lbs.
3,145
165,656
35,423
1
647
1000 lbs.
2,299
103,951
90,896
-••2,510
4,102
1000 lbs.
2,490
82,718
95,403
32,673
8,863
per
1000 lbs. cent.
1,602 1 1-54
73,689 j 80-85
101,770
42,491 I —
3,941 1 -32
per
cent
1-03
46.67
40 36
10-10
1-84
per per
cent, cent
1-12 -TJ
37-24 32-97
42-95 45-53
14-71 19-01
3-98 1-77
204,872
222,147
223,495 ,100-00
100-00
100-00 100-00
82
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The subjoined tables exhibit the value of the great articles of
commerce imported for consumption and home produce exported
in each of the years 1889, 1890, and 1891 :—
The Principal Articles of Imtort.
Principal Articles Imported
1889
1R90
£
53,484,584
1891
Grain and flour
£
51,185,651
61,571,504
Cotton, raw
45,642,028
42,756,575
46,080,719
Wool, sheep and lambs
28,614,737
26,930,764
27,856,556
Dead meat
18,257,443
20.622,824
20,148,874
Sugar, raw and refined
22,453,841
18,075.607
19,855,750
Butter and margarine
13,899,697
13,682,089
15. 119,384
"Wood and timber
19,829,244
17,127,861
14,829,571
Silk manufactures .
11.789,139
11,318,883
11,017,157
Flax, hemp, and jute
11,960,215
10,723,910
10,116,591
Tea
9,987,967
9,919,666
10,776,845
Woollen manufactures
9,384,218
8.955,604
9,275.179
Animals ....
10,264,459
11,216,311
9,246,398
Oils
7,122,998
6,991,653
7,339,394
Chemicals, dye stuffs, &c.
8,635,378
8,190,389
7,314,337
Seeds ....
7,889,642
7,395,611
7.1ti5,293
Emits ....
6,184,863
7,287,566
6.910,305
Leather .
6,673,844
6,376,430
6,632,442
Wine ....
5,905,473
5,880,867
5,995,133
Cheese ....
4,490,970
4,975,134
4,815,369
Metals —
Copper, ore, &c. .
4,234,619
:!. 010,968
1,059,528
, , part wrought, &c.
2,120,564
2.s57,824
2.:; 7 2, 950
Iron ore
3,02-1. 605
8,596,066
2,458,407
,, in bars .
1,033,974
925,818
751,687
, , manufactures
2,490,499
2,681,597
8,274,801
Lead ....
1,875,287
2,099,046
2,187,674
Tin ....
2,797,274
■>:. 54 7. H6
2,665,072
Zinc and its manufac-
tures
1,491,678
L, 788,625
2,848,124
Eggs ....
Coffee ....
3,127,590
.•'..128,806
3,520.0 is
4,319,372
!. (Kit. 490
3,442. 786
Tobacco ....
3,890,484
3,508,423
3,415,400
Tiik I'lMMirw, Akthu's ,.f KxmiiT (Homk PitunrcE).
Principal ArticVs Exported
1880
1880
IS! I|
C
60,249.75'.'
12.1S9.915
72. 1 2.9.704
1 •
Cotton manufactures .
Cotton yarn ....
£
58,798,448
11,711,749
1
62,089,442
12,341,307
74,430,749
Total of cotton
70.505.197
COMMERCE
83
Principal Articles Exported
18S9
1890
1891
£
18,451,931
Woollen manufactures .
£
21.324,892
£
20,418,482
Woollen and worsted yarn
4,341,514
4,086,458
3,910,288
Total of woollen and wonted
25,666,406
'..777,465
24,504,940
22,362,219
5,031,666
Linen manufactures
5,710,168
,, yarn
849,263
866,393
898.212
Jute manufactures ....
2,730,344
2,625,835
2,552,170
., yarn
409,651
386,405
Apparel and slops ....
Metals :
4,978,513
5,035,697
Iron, pig and puddled
2,988,324
3,498,568
2,209,609
,, bar, angle, bolt, and rod .
1,624,576
1,658,800
1,461,174
,, railroad, of all sorts .
5,330,858
5,981,689
3,844,927.
,, wire .....
832,229
1,083,175
i.i ;
,, tinned plates
6,030,005
6,361,477
7.17-
,, hoops and plates
4.133,667
3,840,142
3,561
,, east and wrought, of all sorts
5,431.422
5,965,573
4,805,881
,, old, for re-manufacture
432,175
502.22:1
Steel, wrought and un wrought .
Total of iron and steel .
Hardwares and cutlery .
2,338,873
2,673,690
29,142,129
31,565,337
26,87
2,989,188
2,764,446
".542
Copper ......
3,286,810
4, of.
3,851.129
Machinery
15. 273, 910
16,410,661
15.520.316
Coals, cinders, fuel, &c.
14,781,990
19,020,269
18,894,729
Chemicals
7,932,921
8,965,849
8,882,059 !
The following table shows the quantity of the principal food
imports retained for home consumption per head of population in
1869, 1886, 1887, 1888, and 1889 :—
Articles
1869
1886
1887
1888
18S9
Bacon and
hams .
2 68 lbs.
11 95 lbs.
11-29 lbs.
10-25 lbs.
12-46 lbs.
Butter .
452 „
7-17 „
814 „
8-16 „
908 „
Cheese .
352 „
514 „
'5-39 ..
5-56 ,,
5-47 ,,
•
14-38 no.
28-12 no.
29-37 no.
30 00 no.
29-85 no.
Corn and flour
155-85 lbs.
185-76 He.
22075 lbs.
220-14 lbs.
215-28 lbs.
Sugar
42 56 ,,
65 96 „
73 20 ,,
70 04 .,
75-88 „
Tea
3 63 „
4-87 „
4-95 „
4-!'"
4-91 ,.
Rice
—
1075 „
7-69 ,,
9-78 „
1056 „
The total value of goods transhipped for transit was, in 1886
ln.706.065/. ; 1887, 9,992,778?.; 1888, 10,938,495/.; 1889
10,131,012/. : 1890, 9,772,227/.
o 2
84
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Shipping and Navigation.
The number and tonnage of registered sailing and steam (ex-
clusive of river steamers) vessels of the United Kingdom engaged
in the home trade — the expression ' home trade ' signifying the
coasts of the United Kingdom, or ' ports between the limits of
the river Elbe and Brest ' — with the men employed thereon — ex-
clusive of masters — was as follows in each of the five years from
1886 to 1890 :—
Year
Sailing Vessels
Steam Vessels
Number
Tons
Men
Number Tons
Men
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
9,626
9,572
9,199
8,985
8,894
646,679
633,602
597,145
571,438
575,147
32,696
32,165
'39,505
'38,314
'37,618
1,667 310,444
1,740 304,538
1,760 ! 289,852
1,841 289,245
2,004 325,082
17, 'His
18,631
'20,540
'21,015
'22,850
The number of sailing vessels engaged partly in the home and
partly in the foreign trade was as follows in each of the five years
from 1886 to 1890 :—
Year
Sailing Vessels
Steam Vessels
Number
Tons
59,436
51,129
55,495
66,619
50,991
Mm
Number Tons
It.
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
448
405
428
500
381
2,129
1,845
'2,420
'2,856
'2,219
235 110,091
226 i 103,622
248 1 105,712
260 i 118,107
250 133,563
3,248 ;
8,488
•8,287
'4,092
"4,386
The number and tonnage of registered sailing and steam vessels
engaged in the foreign trade alone, with the men employed — ex-
clusive of masters — was as follows during the five vears 1886 to
1890 :—
feu
Sailing Vessels
St en 111 Vessels
Number
Tooi
Men
50,590
47.1
'48,669
'46,595
,44,381
Number
Tnns
Men
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
2,923
2,717
2,665
2,484
2,295
2,526,117
2,429,699
2,401,419
2,338,289
2,267,434
3,018
3,063
8,284
3,484
3,601
3,491,330
3,601,164
3,902,265
4,257,156
4,563,119
97,602
«.•'.». is:;
'108,700
'117,391
'124,654
l Including masters.
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
85
A summary of the total shipping of the United Kingdom, sail-
ing and steam, engaged in the home and foreign trade, during
the ten years from 1881 to 1890 is given in the following
table : —
Number of
1881
19,311
1882
18,966
1883
18,912
1884
18,744
1885
18,791 S
Tons
6,490,953
6,715,030
7,026,062
7,083,944
7,209,163
Urn
12,903
15,937
200,727
199,654
198,781
Te*r
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Number of
Vem la
17,917
17,584
17,425
Tons
7,144.097
7,123,754
7,351,888
7,641,154
7,915,336
M.i.
204,470
202,543
223,673
230,263
236,108
The following table shows the total number and tonnage of
Is registered as belonging to the United Kingdom (and
Channel Islands) at the end of each year : —
_
Sailing Vessels
Steam Vessels
Total
No.
Tons
N .
Tons
Tons
[ 1886
1887
1888
L889
1890
16,179
15,473
15,025
14,640
14,181
3,397,197
3,249,907
3,114,509
3,041,278
2,936.021
6,653
6,663
6,871
7,139
7,410
3,965,302
4,085,275
4,349,658
4.717,730
5,042,517
22,832
22,136
21,896
21,779
21,591
7,362,499
7,335,182
7,464,167
'.008 1
7,978,538
Of the men employed at the last date, 27,227 were foreigners.
The total number of vessels belonging to the British Empire in
1890 was 36,214 of 9,688,088 tons.
The number and tonnage of vessels built and first registered
in the United Kingdom, from 1886 to 1890 was as follows : —
Year
Sailing Vessels
Steamers
Total
Number
Tons
Number
Tons
Number
Tons
1 1886
1888
1890
363
258
269
138,362
81,279
75.696
117,481
123,224
308
322
465
582
581
lf.4,638
140
407,445
554,024
528,789
671
580
734
859
858
293,000
306,719
483,141
671,505
652,013
The following is the tonnage of sailing and steam vessels that
entered the ports of the United Kingdom in the years 1886 to
1890:—
<SG
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Year
Entered
Cleared
Total
British
Foreign
Total
British
Foreign
Total
British
Foreign
Total
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
l.OOOtns.
22,741
23,646
24,949
25,945
26,777
l.OOOtns.
8,294
8,531
9,003
9,578
10,057
l.OOOtns.
31,035
32,177
33,952
35,524
36,835
l.OOOtns.
23,337
24,303
25,445
26,524
27,195
l.OOOtns.
8,468
8,681
9,120
9,841
10,253
l,000tns.
31,805
32,984
34,566
36,365
37,448
l.OOOtns.
46,078
47,949
50,395
52,469
53,973
l.OOOtns.
16,763
17,212
18,124
19,420
20,310
l.OOOtns.
62,841
65,161
68,519
71,889
74,283
THe total number of vessels that entered in the foreign trade
in 1890 was 62,835 (24,058 foreign), and cleared, 63,176 (24,327
foreign).
The following is the tonnage of vessels entered and cleared
with cargoes only : —
Year
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Entered
Cleared
British Foreign Total British Foreign Total British Foreign Total
l.OOOtns.
18,221
19,311
20,116
21,077
21,139
l,030tns.
6,462
6,688
6,961
7,440
7,839
l.OOOtns.
24,683
25,999
27,077
28,517
28,979
l.OOOtns.
22,065
23,115
24,127
24,766
25,267
Total
l.OOOtns.
7,042
7,055
7,537
8,282
8,590
l,O00tns. l.OOOtns.
29,107 | 40,286
30,170
31,664
33,048
33,857
42,426
44,242
45,843
46,406
l.OOOtns.
13,504
13,744
14,499
15,723
16,430
l.OOOtns.
53,790
56,170
68,741
61,566
62,836
Of the foreign tonnage for 1890 entered and cleared in British
ports, total 20,310,757 :—
Norway had
Germany „
France ,,
Denmark ,,
5,000,801
4,392,955
1,686,974
1,854,002
had
Sweden
Holland
Spain
Italy
The total tonnage entered and cleared, excluding those coast-
wise, was as follows at the ports named in 1890 : —
1,575,812
1,900,891
1,276,060
444,187
Belgium
Russia
U.S. (Am.)
Austria
had
873,109
551,123
291,933
117,831
London
Liverpool
Cardiff1 .
Newcastle
Hull .
13,480,767
10,941,801
8,815,210
5,481,458
3,653,134
N.&S. Shields 2,929,856
Glasgow 2,819,362
Newport . 2,236,990
Southampton 1,701,485
Leith .
Harwich .
Hartlepool
Bristol .
Dublin .
Belfast .
1,333,064
1,104,749
828,742
778,151
327,765
330,179
Sunderland 1,682,125
Dover 1,557,570
Middlesbro' . 1,457,529
Swansea . . 1,423,859
Grimsby. . 1,352,678
The total number of vessels that entered coastwise in 1890 was
S07,240, of 47,738,612 tons; and cleared, 276,270 vessels, of
42,317,876 tons. The total number of vessels that entered the
ports of the Kingdom in 1890 was 370,075, of 84,574,324 tons;
and cleared, 339,446, of 79,766,033 tons.
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
s:
Internal Communications.
I. Railways.
The following table shows the total length of British railways
open at the end of the years given, and the average yearly in-
crease in miles : —
Year
1850
1860
1870
Line Open
Mil.-s
6,621
10,433
15,537
Av. Yearly 1
Increase j
hum
265
381
510
lear
1880
1889
1890
Line Open
Miles
17,933
19,943
20,073
Av. Yearly
Income
MOM
240
223
214
Of the total length of lines open January 1, 1891, there
belonged to England and Wales 14,119 miles, to Scotland 3,162
miles, and to Ireland 2,792 miles.
The following table gives the length of lines open, the capital
paid up, the number of passengers conveyed, and the traffic
receipts of all the railways of the United Kingdom in 1878, and
each of the last five years : —
Length of Total Capital
UaesW (shares and
loans) at the
end of each
year
Year at the end
of each
year
X umber of
Passengers
conveyed (ex-
clusive of
season-ticket
holders)
Miles £ Xo.
1878 17,333 698,545,154 565,024,455
1886 19.332 828,344.254 725,584,390
■1887 19,578 845,971.654 733.678,531
1888 19,812 864,695,963 742,499,164
1889 19,943 876,595,166 775,183,073
1890 20,073 897.472,026 817,744,046
Receipts
Total, inclu-i
! ing Miscellr.
From From Goods
Passengers Traffic
&
26,889,614
30,244,938
30,573,287
30,984,090
32,630,724
34,327,965
£
33,564,761
36,370,439
37,341,299
38,755,780
41,086,333
42,220,382
62,862,674
69.591.953
70,943,376
72,894,665
77,025,017
79,948,702
Of the total capital in 1890 the English railways had
74<J.033,907/., Scottish 120,139,597/., and Irish 37,298,522/. In
the division of the receipts of 1889, England and Wales took
72.908/., Scotland 8,550,457/., and Ireland 3,125,337/. The
working expenditure amounted to 43,188,556/. on all the railways,
being 54 per cent, of the total receipts.
On June 30, 1890, there were in the United Kingdom 948
miles of street and road tramways opened, from which, during
the year 1889-90, 3,214,743/. had been received, and upon which
88 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
2,402,800/. had been expended. This left a balance of receipts of
811,943/. Total paid up capital 13,502,000/. The total number
of passengers who travelled during the year on the tramways
was 526,369,328.
II. Canals and Navigations.
The following table shows, for 1888 (the latest date available),
the length, traffic, revenue, and expenditure of the canals and
navigations in England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, which
do not, and of those which do, belong to railway companies : —
-
Length
Traffic
Revenue
Expenditure
Canals not belonging
to railways : —
England and Wales .
Scotland .
Ireland .
United Kingdom .
Canals belonging to
railways : —
England and Wales .
Scotland .
Ireland .
United Kingdom .
Total .
Miles
2,026
69
513
Tons
27,715,875
69,744
489,194
£
1,439,343
12,011
89,369
861,068
16,086
71,541
948,695
2,608
28,274,813
1,540,723
1,024
84
96
6,609,304
1,386,617
30,386
437,080
57,178
6,495
335,503
26,599
4,456
1,204
8,026,307
500,753
366,558
3,813
36,301,120
2,041,476
1,315,25
The paid-up capital (from all sources) of the canals, tfce., not
belonging to railway companies was, in 1888: — in England and
Wales 20,959,820/.; in Scotland 1,254,047/.; in Ireland 2,071,308/.;
total 24,285,175/.
III. Post and Telegraphs.
The number of post-offices in the United Kingdom at the end
of March, 1891, was 18,806 ; there were besides 21,837 road and
pillar letter-boxes. The staff of officers then tunning part of the
Post (Mice departnu'iil was <;:>,S(>(S (including 8,877 females),
besides about 54,000 persons (16,000 females) who do not hold
permanent positions.
The following tabular statement gives the number of Letters,
in millions, delivered in each of the three divisions of the United
tNTERNAL COMMUNICATI< »NS
89
Kingdom, and the average number for each individual of the
population, in 1879 and the last five years : —
Number of Letters delivered
Number of Letters per head of
Year
1 ending
(in Millions)
the Population
00
•3.2
5 *
5 ^
Total
5 *
Bcotlnm!
-r
1
Totel
: March 31
1 —
Boot?
Irela
U.K.
U.K.
Millions
Millions Millions
Millions
1879
922
99 76
1,097
37
27
14
32
I 1887
1,240
129 91
1,460
45
33
19
40
1888
1,287
132 93
1,512
46
34
19
41
: 1889
1,326£
136 95£
1,558
47
34
20
42
1890
1,413
140 96|
1,650
50
35
20
44
1891
1,4622
143 99f
1,705*
51
. 36
21
45
The following are the statistics of post-cards, book-packets,
newspapers, and parcels delivered in 1890-91, showing increase
per cent, on the previous year : —
-
England
A Wales
o
m
Post-cards .
Book-packets
Newspapers.
Parcels
Millions
195 0
411-9
127-9
38 2
5-7
8 9
0-9
8-1
Scotland
Inland
Millions
24 0
44 6
166
4-8
4-8
5 9
0 6
7-7
Millions
10-7
24-7
166
31
9-2
143
3-7
7-8
United
Kiiiu'1'.* 'in
Millions
229 7
481-2
161-0
46-2
5-8
8-9
10
8 0
1 Decrease.
The number and value of money orders issued by the Post
Office in 1880 (ending March 31) and during the last five years were
as follows : —
Inland Orders
Total i
— Number
Amount
Number
Amount
1880 16,774,354
1887 99,62,562
1888 9,552.777
i 1889 9,228,183
1890 9,027,750
1891 8,864,483
4
24,776,331
22,962,708
22,881,676
22,957,649
23,333,417
23,897,767
17,307,573
10,813,054
10,744,493
10,507,717
10.374,144
10,260,852
£
26,371,020
25,354,601
26,334,126
26,618,052
27,165,905
27,867,887
1 Including colonial and foreign orders.
90 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
The inland orders in 1890 were as follows : —
-
Number
Value
Number per cent, of
Population
England
Scotland
Ireland
Total, U.K.
7,268,248
1,045,048
551,187
£
20,044,082
2,546,719
1,306,966
24*9
26-4
12-0
8,864,483
23,897,767
23-5
The number and value of ' postal orders ' were as follows : —
Year ending March 31
Number
Amount
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
31,608,711
36,386,147
40,282,321
44,712,548
48,841,765
£
12,958,940
14,696,370
16,112,079
17,737,802
19,178,367
The postal revenue and expenditure (exclusive of telegraphs)
in 1880 and the last four years (ending March 31) have been as
follows : —
-
1887
1888
1889
1890
e
9,474,771
6,266,263
1891
Gross revenue
Working expenses
Net revenue
£
8,471,198
5,880,141
2,591,057
£
8,705,337
5,933,820
2,771,517
£
9,102,776
6,062,902
:5,0:$!>.s7i
£
9,851,078
6,687,089
3,208,511
:5.U»V.»S«i
The telegraphs were transferred to the State on Febriiiii v •">.
1870 ; in April, 1891, there were 31,824 miles of line and 194,312
miles of wire (including 17,211 miles of private wires, but exclud-
ing railway companies' wires).
The telegraph revenue (gross and net) was as follows for the
years (ending March 31) indicated : —
[NTEBNAL COMMUNICATIONS
91
-
1876
1888
am
1890
1881
Gross revenue
Working expenses
£
J, 276, 662
1,031,524
£ £
1,959,406: 2,094,048
1,928, 159 j 1,949,096
£
2,32"
2,179,921
£
2,416,691
2,26'
150,
Net revenue
245,138
31,247 ! 124,952
145,794
As there is an annual interest of about 300,000£ on capital
to pay, there is really a deficit on the telegraphs.
The following table gives the number of telegraphic messages
forwarded from postal telegraph stations in 1879 and in each of
the last five years 1887-91 :—
Year
ending March 31
England and
Wales
Scotland
Ireland
United Kingdom
1879
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
20,422,918
42,320,185
44,925.270
48,532,669
52,416,779
55,658,088
2,477,003
5,106,774
5,430,624
5,991,223
6,545,654
7,077,388
1,559,854
2,816,680
3,047,531
3,241,455
3,420,966
3,673,735
24,459,775
50,243,639
53,403,425
57,765,347
62,403,399 j
66,409,211 j
The total number of public telegraph offices was 7,627 in 1890-
91, including 1,715 railway offices.
The telegraph department has 28 telephone exchanges open in
various country towns, with 1,370 subscribers. There are now
over 46 miles of pneumatic tubing in London, connecting the
Central Office with others.
Money and Credit.
The following table shows the value of the money coined at the Royal
Mint in the years named, and of the imports and exports of British gold and
silver coin : —
Gold
Money
8ilver
Money
Bronze
Monev
Gold Coin
Silver Coin
Year
coined
coined
coined
Imported
Exported
Imported
Exported
£
£
£
£
£
£
£
1878
4,150,052
613,998
17,024
6,566,001
3,544,882
151,139
184,494
1886
—
417,384
51,669
5,860,515 6,754,374
116,565
166,276 ,
1887
1,907,686
861,498
45,173
4,430,706 2,374,528
123,142
299,734 !
1888
J. 900
756,378
39,499 i 7,146,22610,215,123
106,568
378,288
1889
7,500,700
2,224,926
67,573 6,511,29510,389,699 147,635
528,581 1
1890
7,680,156
1,712,161
89, 450 | 9,242,787 8,256,129 84,186
506,996 ;
92
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
There is no State bank in the United Kingdom, but the Bank of England,
the Bank of Scotland, and the Bank of Ireland have royal charters, and the
first and the last lend money to the Government. The following are some
statistics of the Bank of England for December of the years stated : —
Liabilities
Assets
Year
Notes in
Reserve
Notes in
Circulation
Deposits
Total
Securities
Bullion
Total
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
1878
8,914
30,282
30,324
60,606
38,326
25,501
63,827
1886
'10,288
24,692
27,038
51,730
33,895
19,930
53,825
1887
11,832
24,210
26,930
51,140
32,508
20,238
52,746
1888
9,990
24,405
29,281
53,686
35,978
19,455
55,433
1889
11,068
24,460
29,837
54,297
36,301
19,712
56,013
1890
15,904
24,732
35,414 [ 60,146
39,168
21,820
60,989
The following are some statistics of the joint-stock banks (including the
national banks) of England, Scotland, and Ireland for October of the years
stated : —
-
1887
1888
1889
18901
189H
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
England and Wales : —
Deposits
339,100
352,000
380,800
352,100
408,477
Cash in hand and at call
90,430
92,299
100,582
97,410
107,421
Reserve Notes in Bank
of England
12,721
12,555
14,449
8,643
14,079
Scotland : —
Deposits
Sl,020
82,403
85,023
88,264
91,610
Notes
5,670
5,682
5,845
6,207
6,467
Cash and at call .
16,740
19,077
19,846
21,412
21,427
Ireland : —
Deposits
34,160
35,183
37,186
37,843
38,520
Notes ....
5,400
5,607
6,199
6,664
6,642
Cash and at call .
7,060
7,795
8,816
9,903
9,086
i May.
There were in May, 1891, 105 joint-stock banks, making returns in
England and Wales, with 2,175 branches ; 4 in the Isle of Man and Channel
Islands with 12 branches; 10 in Scotland, 975 branches ; and !» in Ireland,
ir><; branches. There were 30 ollices in London of colonial joint stock banks,
with 1,742 branches; and 18 of foreign banks, with 103 branches. There
uric besides 248 private banks in England and Wales.
MONEY AND CREDIT
93
The following are some statistics of the joint-stock banks, mainly for
May, 1891 :—
Scotch
Irish
Colonial
Foreign
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
£1,000
Subscribed capital .
196,918
28,885
24,974
41,774
30,205
Paid-up do.
55,870
9,025
7,059
25,007
1S,470
Market value of do.
167,910
23,275
18,393
50,031
27,523 1
Reserve fund, dividend,
&c
29,748
5,703
3,315
1 -i. 908
7.713
Notes in circulation
80,82?
6,467
6,642
9,149
2,893
Deposit and current ac-
counts
408,478
91,610
38,520
67,010
| Total liabilities •
546,795 117,874
56,131
871,278
Cash in hand and at call .
107,420 21,427
9.086 41,888
20,789
Investments
108,472 j 29,349
17,114
14,873
7,946
Discounts, advances, &c. .
302,688 60,103
88,791
207,121
100, 967 !
Total assets 1 .
546,795 117,874
56,132
271. 278
132,841
l Including other items besides those preceding.
The following are statistics of the post-office savings-banks for the years
stated : —
( Received
1886 4 Paid .
(Capitol
{Received
Paid .
Capital
C Received
1888 \ Paid .
( Capital
( Received
1889-^ Paid .
I Capital
C Received
1890 J Paid.
(Capital
England and
Wal.-
Scotland
£
15,463,426
12,636,813
47,116,488 j
16,305,994
13,524,074
49,898,408 <
18,743,829
14,572,033
54,070,204 '<
19,572,041
15,494,852
58,147,808
20,769,803
16,495,202
62,421,994
£
384,935
299,952
1,054,774
414,104
326,253
1,142,625
450,057
340,214
1,252,468
500,607
375,869
1,377,206
558,307
436,429
1,499,084
Inlaad
£
1,018,081
753,178
2,703,075
1,059,908
829,951
2,933,032
1,191,178
890,488
3,233,722
1,184,845
943,546
3,475,021
1.215,937
977,229
3,713,729
Patl
Kingdom 1
16,866,442
18,080,048
50,874,337
17,780,006
14,680,278
53,974,065
20,385,064
15,802.735
58,556,394
21,257,493
16,814,267
62,999,620
22,544,047
17,909,860
67,635,807
1 Including Islands in the British Seas.
The following are statistics of trustees' savings-banks : —
94
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Received
Interest
1886 -J credited
Paid.
I Capital
/Received
Interest
1887-1 credited
| Paid .
\ Capital
/Received
Interest
1888 - credited
Paid.
V Capital
(Received
Interest
credited
Paid .
Capital
Received
Interest
1890 -' credited
Paid .
I Capital
England
£
7,041,
939,
7,712,
35,531,
6,871,
949,
7,756,
35,595,
6,685,
944,
8,827,
34,398,
6,359,
823,
8,765,
32,816,
721
996
729
195
807
142
255
889
941
355
566
619
557
470
323
323
6,234,996
788,333
8,607,
31,232,
201
451
Wales
£
187,851
24,748
361,392
951,690
122,814
24,308
183,641
915,171
117,933
23,713
166,554
890,263
112,453
21,281
ll
151,071
872,921
124,055
20,976
165,502
852,455
Scotland
£
2,397,689
215,458
2,256,758
8,331,221
2,472,590
224,576
2,340,033
8,688,354
2,584,183
236,238
2,440,034
9,068,741
2,678,340
221,705
2,596,041
9,372,745
2,824,391
227,242
2,870,407
9,553,971
Ireland
£
401,422
51,354
441,274
2,029,889
409,350
52,242
428,673
2,062,808
408,250
52,432
476,425
2,047,065
407,581
48,249
437,069
2,065,862
380,965
48,174
483,290
2,011,675
United
Kingdom :
10,028,683
1,231,556
10,772,153
46,843,995
9,876,561
1,250,268
10,708,602
47,262,222
9,796,307
1,256,738
11,910,579
46,404,688
9,557,981
1,114,705
11,949,504
45,127,820
9,564,407
1,084,725
12,126,400
43,650,552
i Including Channel Islands.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Great
Britain and Ireland.
1. Official Publications.
Accounts relating to Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom for the IS months
ended December 81, 1890. 8. London, 1891.
Agricultural Returns of Great, Britain for 1890, with Abstract Returns for the United
Kingdom, British Possessions, and Foreign Countries. 8. London, 1891.
Agricultural Statistics Ireland: 1889-90. 8. Dublin, 1890.
Annual Statement of the Navigation and Shipping of the United Kingdom in the year
1890. Imp. 4. London, 1891.
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions in the year 1890. Imp. •!. London, 1890.
Appropriation Act. lstM. London, 1890.
Army Estimates of Effective and Non-Effective Services for 1891-2. Fol. London,
1891.
Army : General Annual Return for the year 1890. London, 1891.
Army (Animal) Bill, 1891.
Uiiths, Deaths, and Marriages in England : 52nd Annual Report of the Registrar-
General. London, 1891.
Births, Deaths, and Marriages in Scotland: .'tilth Annual Report of the Registrar-
i. 8. Bdlnborgh, 1891.
Births, DeathR, and Marriages in Ireland: 87th Report of Registrar-Gcncral. Dublin,
1891.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFLKKN" K !i."
Canals and Navigations : Returns made to the Board of Trade for 1888 Fol London, 1890
Census of England and Wales, taken on April 0th, MH. Preliminary Report.
London, 1891.
Census of Scotland, 1S91. Edinburgh, 1891.
Census of Ireland for the year 1891. Preliminary Report. Dublin, 1891.
Church of England, Revenues of the. London, 1891.
Consolidated Fund : Abstract Account, 1890-91. London, 1891.
Craik (Dr. H.), Report on Highland Schools. London, 1884.
Customs : 35th Report of the Commissioners of H.M.'s. Customs. 8. London, 1891.
Debt National Sinking Fund Accounts, 1891. Return relating to Debt, 1889-90.
National Debt Bill, 188S ; and Statement illustrating the Bill.
: ibution of Seats Act, 1885. London, 1885.
Duchv of Cornwall : Accounts of Receipts and Disbursements in the year 1890. Fol.
London,
Duchy of Lancaster : Accounts of Receipts and Disbursements in the year 1890. Fol.
London, 1891.
mistical Commission : 41st Report, with Appendix. 8. London, 1890.
Education : Elementary Schools in England and Scotland. Return showing Expendi-
ture upon Grants, and Results of Inspection and Examination. 8. London, 1891.
Education.: Report of Committee of Council on-Education for 1890-91. 8. London, 1891.
Education : Report of the Committee of Council on Education in Scotland, 1890-91.
London, 1891.
Education : 37th Report of the Science and Art Department. London, 1891.
Education : Report of the Intermediate Education Board for Ireland for the year 1890.
London, 1891.
Education : Return showing number of Children of School Age, amount of School
Accommodation, 4c, In Scotland. London, 1880.
Education : 57th Report of the Commissioners of National Education in Ireland for
I lublin, 1891.
Klectoral Statistics, Return of, in County and Borough Constituencies in England and
Wales, Scotland and Ireland. London, 1891.
Electors : Return of the number of Electors on the Register of each Connty in England
and Wales, in Scotland, and in Ireland. Fol. London, 1891.
Emigration: Statistical Tables relating to Emigration anil Immigration for 1S90. Fol.
London, 1891.
Emigration : Statistics of Ireland for 1890. Dublin, 1891.
Kstimates for the year 1891-92. Fol London. 1891.
Factories and Workshops Act: Return of the Number of Factories Authorised to be
Inspected. Persons Employed, 4c, for 1891. London, 1891.
Financial Statement, 1891-92. London, 1891.
Finance Accounts of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland for tin
Financial Year ended March 31, 1891. 8. London, 1891.
Fish Conveyed Inland by Railway : Return for 1890-91. London, 1891.
Income and Property Tax : Return of the Amount of Income and Property Tax in Great
Britain and Ireland for 1814, and in each of the years 1842 to 1880. London, 1880.
Inland Revenue : Report of the Commissioners on the Duties under their Management for
the years 1856 to 1869, with some Retrospective History and complete Tables of Accounts
of the Duties from their first Imposition. 2 vols. Fol. "pp. 168 and 219. London, 1870.
Inland Revenue : 34th Report of the Commissioners. S. London, 1891.
Judicial Statistics of England and Wales for 1890. 4. London, 1891.
Judicial Statistics of Ireland for 1890. Fol. London, 1891.
Landowners in England and Wales : Return of the Owners of Land of one acre and
upwards in England and Wales. 2 vols. London, 1876.
Landowners in Ireland : Return of the Owners of Land of one acre and upwards in
Ireland. Dublin, 1876.
Landowners in Scotland : Return of the Owners of Land of one acre and upwards in
Scotland. Edinburgh. 181
Local Government Act, 1888. London, 1888.
Local Taxation Returns : England. Published annually. Fol. London, 1891.
Merchant Shipping : Tables showing the Progress of British Merchant Shipping. Fol
rmdon, 1891.
Militia : Return showing Establishment of each Regiment in 1890. London, 1891.
Mineral Statistics of Great Britain and Ireland for 1890. London, 1891
Miscellaneous Statistics of the United Kingdom. Part XII. FoL London, 1883.
Navy : Statistical Report on the Health of the Navy for 1890. S. London, 1891.
Navy List, Quarterly, for October, 1891.
Poor Law, England : 20th Report of Local Government Board, a London, 1891.
Poor Rates and Pauperism, Returns Relating to, 1890-91. London, 1S91.
Poor Relief, Scotland : 45th Report of Commissioners. 8. Edinburgh, 1891.
Poor Relief. Ireland : 19th Report of Local Government Board for Ireland. 8. Dublin
96 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — UNITED KINGDOM
Post Office : 43rd Report of the Postmaster-General on the Post Office. 8. London,
1891.
Public Accounts : Report from the Committee. Fol. London, 1890.
Public Income and Expenditure : Account for the year ended 31st March, 1891. Fol.
London, 1891.
Public Records : 46th Report of the Commissioners. 8. London, 1891.
Railway Companies of the United Kingdom : General Report to the Board of Trade for
the year 1890. Pol. London, 1891.
Railway Returns for England and Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, for the year 1890. Fol.
London, 1891.
Reformatory and Industrial Schools : 33rd Report of Commissioners. 8. London, 1891.
Representation of the People Act, 1884. London, 1884,
Roll of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal in the 26th Parliament. London, 1891.
Scotland : Report of the Educational Endowments Commission. London, 1885.
Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom, in each of the fifteen years from 1876 to
1890. 8. London, 1891.
Statistical Abstract for the Principal Foreign Countries, in each year from 1879 to
1888-89. 8. London, 1891,
Taxation in England and Wales : Return for the Financial Year 1814-15, and for each of
the Financial Years from 1842-43 to 1873-74. Fol. pp. 4. London, 1875.
Volunteer Corps : Annual Returns, 1890. London, 1891.
Woods, Forests, and Land Revenues : 68th Report of the Commissioners. Fol,
London, 1891.
Yeomanry Cavalry Training Return, 1890. London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Baxter (Dudley), The Taxation of the United Kingdom. 8. London, 1869
Bevan (G. P.), British Manufacturing Industries. 12 vols. London.
Brassey (Sir T.), The British Navy. 5 vols. London, 1882-83.
Brassey (T. A.), The Naval Annual. 1891.
Burrows (Montagu), Constitutional Progress. 8. London, 1869.
Catholic Directory for 1892. London, 1891.
Chalmers (M. D.), Local Government. London, 1883.
Clode (Charles M.), History of the Administration and Government of the British
Army, from the Revolution of 1688. 2 vols. 8. London, 1869-70.
Crea»y (Sir Edward), The Imperial and Colonial Constitutions of tho Britannic Empire,
including Indian Institutions. 8. London, 1872.
Cunningham (W.), The Growth of English Industry and Commerce. London, 1891.^]
Dilke (Sir Charles), Greater Britain. 2 vols. London, 1889.
Dowell (Stephen), A History of Taxation and Taxes in England. 4 vols. London, 18S8.
Economist, The, Banking Supplements, published May and October annuallv. London.
Ellis's Irish Education Directory for 1892. Dublin, 1891.
Fowle (J. W.), The Poor Law. London, 1881.
Freeman (E. A.), The Growth of tho English Constitution from the Earliest Times. Neiv
Ed. 8. London, 1873.
Oneist (Rudolph), Das Englische Verwaltungsrecht der Gegenwart, in Vorgloichung mit
dem Deutscher. Verwaltungssystem. 2 vols. Berlin, 1884.
Oneist (Rudolph), History of the English Constitution. New Ed. London, 1891.
Oneist (Rudolph), History of the English Parliament. Third Ed. 1891.
Green (J. R.), History of the English People. 4 vols. London, 1877-80.
Hertslet (Sir E.), Treaties of Commerce and Navigation, &c, between Great Britain ami
Foreign Countries. London.
Hearn (W. E.), The Government of England. 8. London, 1870.
"Hull (Prof. E.), The Coal Fields of Great Britain. London, 1881.
Hunt (Robert), British Mining. London, 1884.
Journal of the Statistical Society of London.
Lloyd's Begister, Particulars of the Warships of tho World. London, 1891.
Maitland(F. W.).Tnstice and Police. 8. London, 1886.
May (Thomas Erskine), Constitutional History of England, l' vols. S. London,
1861-03.
Molesworth (Rev. W. N.), History of England, 1830-74. .Mh Edition. 3 vols. 8.
London, 1874.
Noble (John), National Finance. 8. London, 1876.
Palgrave (Reginald), Tho House of Commons. 8. London, 1869.
J'algrave (R. H. Inglis), Tho Local Taxation of Great Britain and Ireland. 8. London,
1871.
Scotland, The Church of: its Position and Work, Edinburgh, 1882.
Scott (Sir 8.), The British Army. 2 vols. s. London, 1868.
Seelen (I'rof. J. R.), The Expansion of England. London, 1883.
Stephen C&'w .\ . I''.). History of tin' Criminal Law of England. 3 vols. London. ISS3.
Stephens (A. J.), New Commentaries on the Laws of England. 1 vols.
8. London, 1868.
STATISTICAL AN1> OTHBB BOOKS OF KKFK1M N< i !»,
QlLJll (1". ustitutional History of England, in its Origin and Development.
i rata, 8. London, 1877.
The English Citizen, his Rights and Responsibilities. IS vols. London, 1881-SO.
Todd (Al.), On Parliamentary Government in England. 1 vols. S. Loadoi
Walpole (Spencer), The British Pish Trade: Handbook in connection with International
Fisheries Exhibition. London, 1883.
Wright (R. S.) and Hobhoute (Henry), An Outline of Local Government awl Local
Taxation in England and Wales. London, 1884.
Young (Sir Frederick), Imperial Federation of Great Britain ami her Oolonfc
London,
II. INDIA, THE COLONIES, PROTECTORATES, AN I »
DEPENDENCIES OF THE BRITISH KM PI RE.
In the following pages the various sections of the British Km-
pire outside the United Kingdom are arranged in alphabetical
order under the divisions of the world to' which they belong : —
1. Europe; 2. Asia; 3. Africa; 4. America : -r>. Australasia and
< K eania.
The Colonies proper form three classes: — (1) The Crown
Ooloniet, which are entirely controlled by the home government ;
(2) those possessing Representative Institutions, in which the
down has no more than a veto on legislation, but the home
government retains the control of public officers; and (3) those
possessing Responsible Government, in which the home government
has no control over any public officer, though the Crown appoints
the Governor and still retains a veto on legislation.
The total expenditure of the Mother Country in connection
with the Colonies (exclusive of India) amounts to about 2
millions sterling annually, mainly for military and naval pur-
According to the Army Estimates for the year 1891-92, the
total effective strength of the British forces in the colonies, ex-
clusive of India, was 32,650 men, rank and tile. The number of
troops in the various colonies having British garrisons was as fol-
lows : — Malta, 8,809 men ; Gibraltar, 5.214 ; Cape of Good Hope
and Natal, 3,317 : Ceylon, 1,465 ; Bermuda, 2,234 : Windward ami
Leeward Islands, 1,337 ; Canada (Halifax), 1,494 ; Hong Kong,
2,998; Jamaica, 1,571 ; Straits Settlements, 1,558; Mauritius,
^80 : West Coast of Africa, 963 ; Cyprus, 554 ; St Helena. 155 ;
and the Bahamas, 111 men : besides 72,496 in India and 3,431 in
Egypt.
The contributions from colonial revenues in aid of military
expenditure for 1891-92 are estimated to amount to 252,250/.,
as follows :— Natal, 4,000/. ; Mauritius. 30,750/. ; Honir Kong,
40,000/.; Straits Settlements, 100,000/.; Ceylon, 72,500/.;
Malta, 5,000/. India contributes 750,000/ to the A inn
Estimates.
98
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — GIBRALTAR
EUROPE.
GIBRALTAR.
Governor. — -General Sir Lothian Nicholson, K.C.B. ; salary, 125,000 pesetas
(5,000/.). Colonial Secretary. — Cavendish Boyle, C.M.G.
The Rock of Gibraltar is a Crown colony, situated in 36° 6' N. latitude
and 5" 21' W. longitude, in the Province of Andalusia, in Spain, commanding
the entrance to the Mediterranean.
The Governor, who is also Commander-in-Chief, exercises all the functions
of government and legislation.
Area, 1,\ square mile ; greatest elevation, 1,439 feet. Population (1891),
25,755, including garrison of 5,896 men. Settled population mostly descend-
ants of Genoese settlers.
Average births per 1,000 of civil population, 26'8. Deaths per 1,000 of
civil population, 22 "1.
Religion of fixed population mostly Roman Catholic ; one Protestant
cathedral and three Roman Catholic churches ; annual subsidy to each com-
munion, 500Z.
Several private English schools ; elementary schools, 14 (6 Roman
Catholic). Pupils, 2,555 in 1890. Government grant, 1,4842.
One magistrate's court and a supreme court.
Chief sources of revenue : — Port dues, rent of Crown estate, excise, post-
office, &c. Branches of expenditure : — Government civil establishments,
administration of justice, public works, &c. Contribution by Home Govern-
ment, nil. Industries unimportant.
-
1880
£
52,123
50,389
1887
£
55,517
52,695
1888
£
.19,262
53,061
1889
is: in
Revenue ....
Expenditure
£
63,674
57,594
£
62,461
59,043
Military -expenditure by Imperial Government, 243,806/.
Government savings-bank, with 2,299 depositors and 123,701/. deposits
(1891).
Gibraltar is a coaling station and port of call of great importance. In
1890 the total tonnage of vessels entered was 5,756,461, of which 4,777,088
was Brit [ah.
Three miles of Ultemal telegraph under military management. Postal
ommnnioatton daily with England, Branch pottaffioes at Tangier. Laraiche,
Rabat, Casablanca, Mazagan, fcogador, and Tetuan,
There is cable lommiiniratiiin with the Continent, the Mediterranean,
Eastern ports, and England, vid Post Office and Eastern Telegraph Company's
lines.
The legal currency Is that pf Spain (the peseta = 1 franc; 25 pesetas
1/.), but British cuius are accepted in commercial transactions.
99
MALTA.
Governor. — Genera] Sir Henry Angulua Smyth, K.c.M.c. (salary 5,000/.).
An island in the Mediterranean, 58 miles from Sicily, with an excellent
harbour. Malta i> 17 miJes long: area, 95 miles; and the neighbouring
island, Gozo, 20 miles : total area (with Comino), 119 square miles. Popula-
tion estimated for 1890 at 165,662 (English 2,274, foreigners 1,149). Local
military, viz. : Royal Malta Artillery, 390, and Royal Malta Militia, 1,115.
Chief town and port, Valetta. Education — 90 public schools, with 11,224
pupils in 1890 ; Government grant, 18,163/. There are a university, 1 lyceum,
and 2 secondary schools. In 1890, 6,509 persons were committed to prison.
The government is to some extent representative. The Governor i>
assisted by an executive council and a council of government, according to
the Constitution of 1887, of 6 official and 14 elected. Both these councils
are presided over by the Governor. Those elected members having the con-
fidence of the majority are members of the Government as unofficial memKrs
of the executive.
Estimated revenue (1891), 251,297/., and expenditure, 244,133/.
Chief sources of revenue, 1890: Customs, 160,162/. ; land, 14,819/. : rent-.
24,567/. : postage, 10,452/. ; interest, 19,479/., : licences, 4,153/. Branches
of expenditure : Establishments, 97,476/. : services, fcc, 169,424/. Contri-
bution from Home Government, nil. Public debt, 79,168/. Savings-bank
with, for 1890, 5,694 depositors, deposits 467,347/.
Chief products : cotton, potatoes, oranges, figs, honey, and corn. Manu-
factures : cotton, filigree, lucifer-matches. Chief industrv, fanning ; (in
1890) horses, 6,978 ; cattle, 8,134 ; sheep, 10,930.
£££££.
Imports . . 12,10S,1S7 10,265,652 36,763,123 34,287,112 j:;.i;79,3-J1
faporta . 11,413,667 9,536,063 .144,067
The trade is mainlv transit — Imports (1890) : grain, 22,555,5S6/. : puis*',
605,612/. : wine, 133J806/.; cattle, 153,541/. : beer, 93,936/. : oil, 57/
Exports : grain, 21,527,805/. : pulse, 583,690/. British imports, 134,148/.,
export-. :;, 981,885/.
Y. nels entered (1890), 4,993, tonnage 4,574,468.
r, cleared „ 5,009, „ 4,587,626.
Of the total entered and cleared 7,581 were British.
Railway, 7i miles ; telegraph, 65 miles. The Post-office traffic iu 1890
Was : —
Received 572,549 Letters. 30,125 Postcards. 597,356 Newspapers
Despatched 708,247 „ 27.932 „ 163,435
it 2
100 THE BRITISH EMPIRE.— BAHREIN ISLANDS
ASIA,
ADEN AND PERIM.
Aden is a volcanic peninsula on the Arabian coast, about 100 miles wist of
Bab-el-Mandeb. It forms an important coaling-station on the highway to the
East, and is being strongly fortified. The settlement includes Little Aden, a
peninsula very similar to Aden itself, and the settlement and town of Shaikh
0 tinman on the mainland with the villages of Imad, Hiswa, and Bir Jabir.
It also includes the island of Perim at the entrance to the Red Sea, and is
subject .to the Bombay Government. The Government is administered by a
Political Resident, who is also commander of the troops. The only Govern-
ment revenue is from duty on liquor, arms, opium, and salt : local taxes go
to the Municipality.
Area 70 square miles, of Perim 5 square miles. Population, in 1S91, 41.910
against 34,860 in 1881. Imports (1889-90), by sea, 30,776,516 rupees'; In-
land, 2,688,773 rupees; treasure, 3,217,759 rupees. Exports (1889-90), by
sea, 25,274,678 rupees ; by land, 1,492,032 rupees ; treasure, 3,729,941 rupees.
Tonnage entered and cleared (mainly passenger steamers), 2,487,300. No
public debt.
Chief exports : Coffee, gums, hides and skins, piece goods, tobacco. Chief
imports: Cotton twist, piece goods, grain, hides and skins, tobacco. Aden
itself is non-productive, and the trade is a purely transshipment one. except
that from the interior of Arabia.
The Somali 'Coast Protectorate, opposite Aden, administered by a Political
Agent and Consul subordinate to Aden, and extending from Ras Jibuti E.
long. 43° 15' to Bender Ghazi, \\\ of Cape Guardafui. Area, 30,000 square
miles ; population 240,000. The natives are Somali Mohammedans. Cross
revenue (1889), 209,890 rupees. Expenditure, 176,530 rupees. The chief port
is Berbcra (population, 30,000), due south of Aden, whence cattle and excel-
lent sheep are obtained in great numbers, and from which port also are ex-
ported the majority of the gums, hides, ostrich feathers, coffee, 8cc. Other ports
are Bulbar, Zaila, and Karam. Exports, 1888-89, 7,839, 740 rupees, as com-
pared with 6,271,760 rupees in 1887-88. The first three ports are fortified.
The island of Socotra off the coast of Africa, and the Kuria Muria islands
off the coast of Arabia, are also attached to Aden. Area of former, 1,889
stpiare miles. Population, 10,000. It was attached to Great Britain by treaty
-with the Sultan in 1876, and formally annexed in 1886. Chief products,
aloes; sheep, cattle, and goats are plentiful The Kuria Muria Islands, live
in number, were ecded by the Sultan of Muscat for the purpose of landing th
Red Sea cable. The group is leased for the purpose of guano collection.
BAHREIN ISLANDS.
Group of islands in the Persian Gulf, 20 miles off the coa.st of El llasa. in
Arabia. Bahrein, the largest, is 27 miles long by 10 wide. Moharak, on
the north of Bahrein, 5 miles long, \ mile wide. There are aboul half-a-
dozen others, mere rocks. Maiiauich, the commercial capital, extends in
miles along the shore ; 8,000 inhabitants. The population is Mohammedan
of the Sunni and Shiitc sects. The scat of government is Moharek on the
island of that name ; population about 8,000. There are about 50 villages in
the islands.
The chief belong! to the royal house of I'.l Kalitah : the present head and
sovereign of Bahrain is Sheikh Ksau, who owes the possession of his throne
entirely to British protection, which was instituted in ls'J7. Sheikh Esaf
BRITISH BORNBO 101
g tin formally planed under British protection in WO. when his rivals
were deported to India.
The great industry u pearl fishery, in whirh 400 boats, ..I from 8
mrii each, are engaged. Hie trade of the Bahrein Islands for 1890 a
follows: Exports. 5,789,830 nrpeea— imludhig pearls, 3.876,000 ruj
^rain and poke, 805,500 rupees; coffee, 150,500 rupees; dat<
rupees: specie, 547,500 rupees. Imports, 5,481 ,990 rupees including grain
andpul-.-, 1,072,500 rupees; pearls, 1. 23.'», 000 rupees ; eotton goods, 324,000
52,000 rupees ; specie, 1,198,000 rupees. Of the total
exports in 1890. :;. l7s?"iU0 rupees wen- to British India and eokmies,
10 to Turkej ; of the import.-. 3,456,990 rupees came froin British
India and colonies, 1,0 12,700 rupees front Turkey. In 18v -els of
," Ton- entered, and t)9<3 of 57,881 tun- cleared, the port.- of Bahrain.
Polii Major A. •'. Talbot, c.l.K.
Brunei. See North Bon
BORNEO BRITISH .
British North Bit ISO (7<mii wni — Charles Vandelear < larv.
9,000 dollar-. Acting (iovernor, Leicester Paul Beaufort. Sir Rutherford
AJeoek, k.C. B.. is chairman of the Court of Directors in London.
The territory of British North Borneo is a territory occupying the northern
tht- island of Borneo, and situated nearly midway ln-tween Hong Kong
and Port Darwin in Australia. Tin- interior is mountainous, one point beiiii,'
13,700 feet high, but most of the surface is jungle.
Area, 31,106 square miles, with a coast-line of over 900 miles. Popula-
tion, 175,000, consisting mainly of Mohammedan settlers on the roust ami
aboriginal tri!>es inland, with some Chinese traders and artisans. Chief
Town. Bandakan, on the east coast.
The territory is under the jurisdiction of the British North Borneo
Company, being held under grants from the Sultans of Brunei and Sulu.
The cession was confirmed by Royal Charter in 1881, and the territory i-
administered by a Governor in Borneo and a Board of Directors in London,
appointed under the Charter. On .May 12. 1888, the Government proclaimed
a formal protectorate over the State of North Borneo. The appointment of
The Governor is subject to the approval of the Secretary of State. For
administrative purposes the whole district is divided into nine provinces.
In 1 889 the colony of Labuan was placed under the government of the
British North Borneo Company.
About 1,000,000 acres have been alienated by the Government on '.■
of 999 yea is for tobacco planting, pepper, coffee, and other jungle products.
There are 17 estates planting tobacco.
The laws are based on the Indian penal, criminal, and civil procedure
. and local proclamations and ordinances. There is an Imanm's Court
for Mohammedan law.
-
1886
1887
1S--
1889
DoUan
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Revenue proper .
I 12,687
158,462
251,802
379,587
Land sales .
12,034
14,507
80,000
256,183
219,651
Expenditure
218,061
202,220
185,922
290,189
464,385
Exj'Olt-
524,724
530,267
540,000
761,433
901,290
Imports
849,lir»
959,624
950,000
1,799,620
2,018,289
102 THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — CEYLON
The expenditure in salaries in the colony is over 100,000 dollars.
No public debt.
Sources of revenue : Opium, spirit farms, birds' -nests, Court fees, stamp
duty, licences, import duties, royalties, land sales, &c.
Most of the trade is carried on through Singapore with Great Britain
and the colonies.
The chief products are timber, sago, rice, gums, coffee, pepper, gambier,
gutta-percha, tapioca, sweet potatoes, and tobacco, which is being planted
on a large scale. Coal and gold have been found. The exports comprise
mostly jungle and sea produce, wax, birds'-nests (edible), coco-nuts, gutta-
percha, sago, tobacco, rattans, india-rubber, seed pearls, beche-de-mer, &c.
A flourishing timber trade is stated to have been opened with China. Exports
of leaf tobacco, 1886, 72,688 lbs. ; 1887, 30,800 lbs. ; 1888, 81,664 lbs. :
1889, 168,112 lbs., and estimated crop for 1890, 1,876,000 lbs.
The Government issues its own copper coinage (cents and half-cents) :
also notes of one, five, ten, and twenty-five dollars to the extent of 100,000
dollars. Accounts are kept in U.S.A. currency.
Shipping entered, 1890, 67,147 tons ; cleared, 63,312 tons ; of which
nearly all was British.
Native military force of 350 men under European officers.
There are two Missions, one Protestant and the other Roman Catholic ;
and the Protestant community has a church and school at Sandakan, with
a branch at Kudat.
Brunei and Sarawak. — In 1888 the , neighbouring territories on the
north-west coast of Borneo, Brunei and Sarawak, were placed under British
protection. The area of Brunei, which is under a Sultan, is about 3,000
square miles, and its products are of the same character as those of British
North Borneo. The district of Limbang in Brunei was annexed bv Sarawak
in 1890.
Sarawak has an area of about 45,000 square miles, with a population of
about 300,000. It was acquired by the late Sir .lames Brooke in IS III.
and he governed it as rajah. He was succeeded by his nephew, Sir Charles
Johnson Brooke, G.c.M.c., in 1868. Its produce resembles that of North
Borneo; coal exists in large quantities, as well as gold, silver, and other
metals. The revenue for 1889 was 400,900 dollars, and expenditure 853,260
dollars ; imports, 1889, 2,289,475 dollars, exports 2,430,540 dollars. There
is a trained military force of ^50 men, besides a police force.
See ■ dandboolc to BritMi Korth Borneo,' London, 1890.
Perim. Sec Apkn, supra.
CEYLON.
Constitution and Government.
The island of Ceylon was lirst settled in 1505 by the Portuguese,
who established colonics in the west and south, which were taken
from them about the middle of the next century by the Dutch.
In 1795—96 I lif British Government took possession of the
foreign settlements in the isl.-md. which were annexed to the
Presidency of Madras; hut in 1798 Ceylon was erected into
a separate colony. In 1810 war was declared againsl the native
ARKA AND POPULATION 108
(Government of the interior, and tin- whole island fell under
British rule.
Tin- present form of government (representative) of Oeylon
was established by Letters Patent of April 1831, and supple-
mentary orders of -March 1833. According to the terms of this
Constitution, the administration is in the hands of a Governor,
aided by an Executive Council of five members — viz. the Officer
commanding the Troops, the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-
General, the Treasurer, and the Auditor-Genera] ; and a Legisla-
tive Council of 17 members, including the members of the
Executive Council, four other office-holders, and eight unofficial
members, representative of different races and classes in the
community.
Governor — Hon. Sir Arthur Elihank Havelock. K.C.M.C:
President of Nevis. 1877 ; Chief Civil Commissioner Seychelles,
; Governor of West African Settlements. ISM ; Governor
of Trinidad, 1884; Governor of Natal. 1885-89. Appointed to
Ceylon, March 12, 1890.
The Governor has a salary of 80,000 rupees, and the Colonial
Secretary, 24,000 rupees.
For purposes of general administration, the islam! is divided into nine
provinces, presided over by Government Agents, who, with their assistants
and subordinate headmen, are the channel of communication between the
Government and the natives. There are three municipalities and thirteen
local boards mainly for sanitary porjMM
Area and Population.
The following table gives the area and population of the provinces of
Ceylon as constituted at the censuses of 1881 and 1891 respectivelv : —
strt&A Population. Population. P«']«Hatioi«
English *m ' peisq. mile,
square miles '°°l ' '•' isoi
Central . . 2,304
Ova - • • 3,726
} 639,361
North Central . 4.047 66,146
^V;SU1U • • J'SJ ! W,329
Sabaragamuwa . 2,08o |
NoithWestern . 3,024 293,327
Southern . . 1,980 433,520
Eastern . . 3,657 127
Northern . . 3,171 302,500
472,609 •
205
159,889
43
74,606
18
764,007
557
258,414
124
,77
106
489,667
257
149,610
41
319,663
101
25,364 2,759,738 3,008,239 118
1891
The military population (1,658 in 1881) is included in the numbers for
i
104
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CEYLON
The province of Uva was formed out of the Centra] Province in 1886,
and that of Sabaragamuwa out of the Western Province in 1889.
Of the total population enumerated at the census of 1881, there were 4,830
Europeans; 17,866 Eurasians and Burghers; 1,846,614 Singhalese; 687,248
Tamils; 184,542 Moormen (descendants of Arabs); 8,895 Malays : 2,228
Veddahs ; 7,489 others. Of the Europeans, 4,074 were British.
The census returns stated 644,284 persons, or about one-fourth of the
population, to be engaged in agriculture; 158,812 in industry; 62,332 in
commerce ; 656,757 in domestic service ; 33,302 professional ; the remainder
being indefinite and non-productive.
The Registrar-General gives the number of persons married to one thousand
persons living in 1890 as 11 '2, the number of births as 32'14 per 1,000, and
of deaths as 23 -2. The highest death-rate was in the districts of Mullaittivu
and Vavenniya, being 39 per 1,000 per annum. The lowest death-rate was
registered in Colombo, viz. 14 *8 per 1,000. The highest birth-rate for tin-
year was in the district of Anuradhapura, viz. 52 "7 per 1,000.
The immigration returns, dealing almost entirely with agricultural labourers
employed on the tea and coffee plantations, and not including the very large
number of traders and domestic servants, give, in 1890, 84,106 arrivals as
against 45,756 departures ; the numbers being in 1889, 82,587 arrivals against
55,805 departures. The figures from 1870 to 1887 inclusive give 1,440,463
arrivals as against 1,262,833 departures.
The principal towns, with population according to the census of 1891
are :— Colombo, 126,926 : Kandy, 20,252 ; Galle, 33,505 : Trincomalee, 11,411 ;
Jaffna, 43,092.
Religion.
The principal religious creeds were returned as follows at the census of
1881 :— Buddhists, 1,698,070; Hindoos, 493,630 : Mohammedans, 197,775;
Christians, 147,977.
Instruction.
Education has made considerable strides in Ceylon since it lias been
organised under a separate Government department with a director of public
instruction and a staff of inspectors, as will be seen from the following
table : —
1872
1889
1890
Expenditure by
(tOVeniincnt
•
Us. 267,577
Its. 170,292
lis. 171,387
Government
Schools
Umnt in aid ., . , . Q-t,-., ,
School* I'naided Schools
No. of
Schools
Scholars
No. of
Schools
102
93S
984
molars £**
Scholar*
200
no
1 :',f,
10,852
39,026
40,290
25,448 865
69,483 -J. ..hi
78,698 2,617
9,435
29.7s:.
32, m;i
There were thus in 1890, 116,152 scholars receiving regular instruction,
or a proportion of a little more than I in 20 of the population according to
the census of 1891. The Government expenditure is now chiefly devoted
towards vernacular education, which la unable to support itself, while English
education has obtained such I hold upon the people that it is becoming
gradually self-supporting. The only Government high English school is now
the Royal College : bu1 other high English schools receive grants in aid. The
JTJ8TICE \M> CRIME — PAUPERISM — KINAV K
Government al.->o i^iv* - a scholarship of 160£ a year for four yean to enable
promising students to proceed to an RngKali university. The Cambridge
local examinations, and the examinations of the London University are
held annually in Ceylon by arrangement. There is an agricultural school
and ten branch agricultural schools, and there are ten industrial schools an<l
orphanages.
Justice and Crime.
The hMU of the law fa the Roman-Dutch law. modified by colonial
ordinances. The criminal law lias been codified on the principle of the
Indian Penal Code. Justice is administered by the Supreme Couti
police courts and courts of requests, and the district courts, intermediate
between the latter and the Supreme Court. There are also village councils
which deal with petty offences. The number of summary conviction- in
1890 was 28,467. The number of convictions before the District Court was
tad the number of convictions in the Supreme Court IS
Pauperism.
The number of paupers in 1S86 was 1,888 ; but the statistics are uncertain,
as there is no poor law, though a few old persons receive a charitable
allowance from the Government varying from Rs. 1 to Rs. 12*50 each per
mensem.
Finance.
The public revenue and expenditure of the colony, in each of
the years 1886-90, were as follows : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
%
Rupees
Rupees
188(1
12,682,548
13,013,067
1887
13,441,688
13,313,038
188S
15,468,812
14,630,121
1889
15,299,877
14,906,281
1890
16,228,769
15,316,224
The ruling rate of exchange in 1886 was 1*. Id. the rupee, in
1887 exchange oscillated between Is. bd. and 1*. M. the rupee,
and in 1890-91 it was 16-50 pence.
The principal sources of revenue are (1890) : the customs, 3,866,927 B* :
the revenue derived from land, which includes sales of Crown land and the
tithe on grain, 1,136,674 Rs. : licences, which in effect means the revenue
from spirituous liquor, 1,879,517 Rs. ; stamps, 1,228,191 Rs. ; the proceeds
of the sale of Government timber and Government salt, 1,263,166 Rs. : and
port and harbour dues, 622,629 Rs. The receipts from the Government rail-
way were in 1890 3,842,358 Rs.
The principal items of expenditure are (1890) : civil and judicial estab-
lishments, 2,951,248 Rs. ; establishments other than civil or judicial
1.904.1 SS Rs. : contribution towards military expenditure (including cost of
volunteer force) 779,288 Rs. (of this 600,000 Rs. is paid to the Imperial
106 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CEYLON
Government) ; pensions and retired allowances, 665,433 Rs. : interest on
loans, fee., 775,819 Rs. In 1890 1,890,092 Rs. out of the general revenue was
spent on public works, inclusive of 335,010 Rs. from the same source expended
on irrigation.
On December 31, 1890, the public debt of the colony amounted to
2,492,484/. and 345,301 Rs. ; it has been incurred entirely for public works,
including 191 miles of railway, the Colombo breakwater, and tlie 'Colombo
waterworks.
In 1890 the total local revenue amounted to 1,931,595 Rs.
Defence.
The harbour of Trincomalee on the east coast of Ceylon is the head-
quarters of the British fleet in East Indian waters. It is fortified, and the
fortifications are being strengthened, at the cost of the Imperial Government,
The, harbour of Colombo on the west coast is also to be protected, the colony
bearing the cost of the erection of earthworks, and the Imperial Government
supplying the armament. Ceylon has no naval forces of its own. The
amount expended by the colony for the Colombo defence works in 1890 was
18,000 Rs., in addition to the figures mentioned below.
The British troops in Ceylon are under the command of a major-general,
and comprise a regiment of British infantry, artillery, and engineers, the
total strength being 1,306 ; there is a volunteer force numbering 805 of all
ranks. The colony pays 600,000 Rs. per annum to the Imperial Government
as the cost of the garrison. The cost of the Local Volunteer Corps was
69,403 Rs. in 1890.
Production and Industry.
The estimated area of the colony is 16,233,000 acres : 1,944,215 acres
being under cultivation. Of this, 660,669 acres were (1890) under rice and
other grains, 66,530 under coffee, 235,794 under tea, 39,587 under cinchona,
649,869 under coco nuts, 40,336 under cinnamon, 9,515 under tobacco, and
15,896 under cocoa. The live stock of the island in 1890 consisted of 4,887
horses, 996,365 horned cattle, 80,726 sheep, and 119,892 goats. Plumbago is
a valuable mining product, and in 1890 there were 71 '■'< plumbago mines.
Commerce.
The declared value of the total imports and exports of the
colony, including bullion and specie, was as follows in each <>!' the
five rears 1886 to 1890:—
Sfeuti
Imports
Exports
Rs
Ks.
1 888
17,866,786
84,899,802
1887
50,812,188
10,018,869
L888
58,524,990
B9,883,185
1889
60,686,185
16,924,606
1 890
68,091,988
51,127,889
The principal articles of export from Ceylon in 1890 were
coffee, valued at 5,741,838 EU. ; cinchona, 1,4368,497 Ra. j ten,
COMMERCE
9,759 Eta. ; plumbago, 3,935,776 Ra : coco-nut prod
5,475 Eta. ; areca nuts. 1,051,063 Eta,
The prmctpa] articled <>f import were — cotton goods valued .it
5,592,545 Ra.; aalfcnah, l,734,957Ra.j rice, pad
Ra.; eoal and coke; 6,650,8M Els.; spirits. 4c., 517,779 Eta.;
wines, 282,924 Eta.
Disease ha* in recent yean greatly reduced the produce of coffee. The
quantity exported fell from 824,509 cwt. in 1879 to 299,896 cwt in 188
14 cwt. in 1S86. to 178,490 cwt in 1887, to 139,110 in 1S8S, and t->
89,693 cwt in 1889. Including Liberian coffee the quantity exported in
1890 was 90,090 cwt. The exports of tea, which in 1884 amounted only to
•75 11.. and in 1886 to 4,372,721 11... reached 7,849,888 lb. in 1886,
1,057 lb. in 1887, 23,820,471 in 1888, 34,346,432 lb. in 1889. and
:.18 lb. in 1890.
The exports of eacao was, in 1884, 9,241 cwt. ; 1885, 7,466 cwt. ; 1886,
13,056 cwt : 1887. 17.460 cwt : 1888, 12,281 cwt : 1889, 18,849 cwt and
in 1890, 15,942 cwt
The comin.iv.- of < Vvlon i> largely with the United Kingdom and India.
Ion returns the imports from the former in 1890 amounted
to IS. and exports to33.196.t576 Rs. : imports from India 39,47
R& : exports to 7.042.083 Rs. The amount of trade with the United KtngdflSH
i- shown in the following tal>le. according to the Board of Trade returns in
each of the five vears from 1886 to 1890.—
1886
1887
1888
1889
1S<H)
Exports from
i Vvlon
Imports of
British pro-
due.' .
*
2,083,636
564,031
£ £
2,257 -J, 999
622,707 703,440
779,740
£
3.411.209
981,615
The export of coffee from Ceylon to the United Kingdom was of the
declared value of 3,001,075/. in 1879, of 579,1291. in 1886, of 578,104/.
in 1887, 434,677/. in 1888, 258,340/. in 1889, and of 347,822/. in 1890.
Besides coffee, other exports are — cinchona, 91,293/. in 1881, 655.646/.
in 1885, 431,329/. in 1887, 355,896/. in 1888, 239.160/. in 1889, and 183.996/.
iu 1*90; coco-nut oil. 125,347/. in 1885, 113,676/. in 1887, 134,349/. in
132,7731 in 1889, and 191,101/. in 1890; cinnamon, 87,788/. in 1882.
'/. in 1885, 41,998/. in 1887, 38,156/. in 1888. 47,901/. in 1889. and
39.139 in 1890 ; plumbago, 90.030/. in 1882, 69,733/. in 1885, 38,084/. in
1887, 44,267/. in 1888, 103,849/. in 1889. and 135,853/. in 1890 ; tea, 120/. in
134,304/. iu 1883,276,645/. in 1885, 448,598/. in 1886,756,018/. in
1887, 1.244.724/. in 1888, 1,682,849 in 1889, and 2,108,003 in 1890 ; cordage
and twine. 177.454/. in 1884, 63,163/. in 1885, 35,057/. in 1887, 54.265/. iu
1888, 56,976/. iu 18S9. and 58,1422. in 1890. Manufactured cotton goods, of
the valu>- of 230.587/. : iron, wrought and unwrought, 81,873/. : coals.
210,982/.. machinery, ''.-'.979/., form the staple articles of British imports
into Ceylon in 1890."
108 THE BRITISH KMPIRK: — CEYLON
Communications.
The total tonnage entering and clearing at Ceylon ports in 1890 was
.ri,117,902. In 1890, 208 vessels of 14,019 net tons were registered as belong-
ing to Ceylon.
Ceylon had 191^ miles of railway open for traffic in 1890, 39 miles are
under construction, and 246 miles have been surveyed and projected.
In 1890 there were 167 post-offices, of which 31 were telegraph Offices.
Money and Credit.
The estimated amount of paper money in circulation on the :!lst of
December 1890 was 6,294, 37.r) Rs. Five hanks have establishments in Ceylon,
I nit none issue notes. Bank deposits in 1890: — Chartered Mercantile Bank.
4,355,600 Rs. ; Bank of Madras, 6,8S2,82S Rs. ; National Bank, 1,187,916
Rs. ; the New Oriental Bank, 5,229,668 R.s. The Ceylon Savings Hank on
same date had deposits amounting to 2,340,853 Rs : ami the Post Oilier
Savings Bank to 309,746 Rs.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The weights and measures of Ceylon are the same as those of the United
Kingdom. The money of the country is the rupee of British India with cents
in place of annas and pice ; thus Ceylon has a decimal coinage. The exchange
value in 1890-91 was 16\50 pence.
Dependency.
The Maldive Islands, 500 miles west of Ceylon, are governed by an
hereditary Sultan, who resides in the island of Mali, and pays a yearly tribute
to the Ceylon Government. Next to the Sultan is the Fandiari, the head
priest or judge, and besides him 6 Wazirs or Ministers of State. The Maldives
are a group of 17 coral islets (atolls), richly clothed with cocoa-nut palms, and
yielding millet fruit, and edible nuts.
Population estimated at about 30,000 Mohammedans, The people are
civilised, and are great navigators and traders,
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Ceylon.
i. Official Publications.
Census of Ceylon, 1881. Colombo, 188'.'.
Colonial and Indian Exhibition. Official Handbook of the Ceylon Court. London. 1887
Colonial Office List, 1891.
Report on the Revenue, Tnule, .fee, of Ceylon, In 'Papon relating to n.\i.\ Colonial
Possessions.' London, 1891.
Statistics of Cevlon ; in ' Htatisi icni Abstract for the Colonial and other Possession* of the
United Kingdom." No. xxix. 8. London, 1801.
Trade ofOeylen with Great Britain; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year I8P0.' hop. t.
London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Pchlicatiovs.
Bolter (Sir 8. \\\), Bighl Years' Wandering! in Ceylon, s. London, 1S5J.
Cumming (Miss Gordon), Two Happy Years in Ceylon. .' vols. Edinburgh, ism.
Fer<iuiion (A. M. <V .T.). The Cevlon Handbook and Directory. 8. Colombo and London.
1891.
FnnuKon (John), Ceylon in the Jubilee Year. 3rd edition. London, 18ST.
Baitbtl (Dr. EL), Ceylon. London. 1888.
'I'm unit (Sir .lames Kmer.son), Ceylon : an Account Of the Island. Physical, Historical,
and Topographical. 5th edition. London, 1868
( - V I • I : - l"'-'
Christmas Island. St-e Strait* Ski ii.kments.
CYPRUS.
High Commurioner. — Sir Henry Ernest Bulwer, G.C.M.G., appointed
: salary, 4,000/.
The third largest island in the Mediterranean, 60 mill's from the coast of
Asia Minor ami 41 from the coast of Syria.
It is administered by Great Britain, under a convention concluded between
the representatives of her Majesty and the Sultan of Turkey at Constantinople.
•Tune 4, 187
The island is administered by a High Commissioner, vested with the usual
powers of a colonial governor. He is assisted by an Executive Council,
consisting of the senior officer in command of the troops, the < 'hief Secretary,
the Queen's Advocate, the Receiver-General
The Legislature consists of a Council of eighteen members, six being •
holders — the Chief Secretary, the Queen's Advocate, the Receiver-General, the
< hief Medical Officer (one official vacancy), the Director of Survey — and
twelve elected (for five years), three by Mohammedan and nine by non-Moham-
medan voters. The voters are all male Ottomans, or British subjects, or
foreigners, twenty-one years of age, who have resided live years, and are |
of any of the taxes known as ; Verghis.'
Municipal councils exist in the principal towns, elected practically by all
resident householders and ratepayers. Those eligible to the council must be
voters rated upon property of the annual value of from 10?. to 201., according
to population.
The population at the census of 1891 : — 106,887 males. 102,404 fern i
total. 209. 291, exclusive of the military : density j>er square mile, 58*4.
For administrative purposes the island is divided into six districts, as
follows, with area in square miles: — Nicosia 1,040, Larnaca 365, Limasol
"(42. Famagusta 817, Papho 574, Kyrenia 246 : total area 3,584 square
miles.
Mohammedans, 48,044 ; others, principally Greek Church, 161,247.
Birth rate computed in 1890 at 33*4 per 1,000.
Death ,, „ „ 24 ,, „
The principal towns are Nicosia (the capital and seat of government .
12,515 ; Larnaca, 7,593 ; Limasol, 7,388 (two chief ports) ; Famagusta (with
Yaroshia^, 3,367 ; Papho (including Ktima), 2,801 : Kyrenia. 1,822 in 1891.
Excepting two or three so-called 'high schools,' the schools of the island
are of an elementary character. There is a Government inspector, and the
Government contributes 3,000/. per annum to elementary education. In 1890
there were 265 Christian schools with 10,486 scholars : 97 Moslem schools,
with 3,448 scholars. Total cost (exclusive of Government grant) 6,830/. —
voluntary contributions, and endowments.
Weekly newspapers in the English (2) and Greek (6) langua.
The law courts (reformed in 1883) consist of (1) a supreme court of civil
and eriminal appeal : (2) six assize courts, having unlimited criminal jurisdic-
tion : (3) six district courts, having limited criminal jurisdiction and unlimited
civil jurisdiction ; (4) six magisterial courts with summary jurisdiction ; (5)
village judges' eourts. In all. except supreme court, native (Christian and
Mohammedan judges take part.
110
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CYPRUS
There is a large amount of crime in proportion to the population, and the
people are prone to litigation.
The police force consists of about 600 men.
There is little or no pauperism in the island.
— 1886-87 1887-88
1SS8-S9
1889-90
1890-91
£ -
194,936
107,589 !
£ jg
Revenue . 187,044 < 145,445
Expenditure. , 110,679 > 113,325
£
149,362
109,963
£
174,499
106,338
Revenue derived chiefly from tithes on the principal products of the island,
(taxes on immovable property and trade profits), military exemption tax,
sheep, goat, and pig tax, customs duties, excise, stamps, and court fees, and a
salt monoply.
No Public Debt. A sum of 92, 800/. is payable annually to the Sublime Porte
under the convention of 1878. Annual grant from imperial funds to revenue.
1884-85, 15,000/. ; 1885-86, 15,000?. ; 1886-87, 20,000/. ; 1887-88, 18,000/. :
1888-89, 55,000/. ; 1889-90, 45,000/. ; 1890-91, 35,000/.
Cyprus is essentially agricultural. Chief products — corn, cotton, carobs,
linseed, olives, silk, raisins, fruit, vegetables, cheese, wool, hides, and wine.
One-third of cultivable land under cultivation. Gypsum and terra umbra are
found in abundance. Sponge fishery yields sponges valued at between 20,000/.
and 30,000/. per annum.
-
1S80-87
1887-88 188S-89
1889-9(1
1890-91
imports
Exports
Shipping entered
and cleared (tons)
£
355,795
312,797
421,847
£ £
356,375 232,807
201,266 210,297
435,890 4 12,172
24 1,824
83 1,628
493,456
371,077
433,:.>'.
171.111
chief exports Wheat, barley, carobs, wine, cotton, raisins, silk cocoons,
bides and skins, wool, cheese, Vetches, animals, fruit ami vegetables. The
principal imports are — Cotton and woollen manufactures, tobacco, groceries.
rice, alcohol, iron, leather, petroleum, timber, sugar. Soap, and copper
manufactures.
Coins current -English, Turkish, and (Trench gold. English silver and
bronze, I '\ proa piasl res, half piastre and quarter piastre pieces (9 piastres -one
shilling).
The Imperial Ottoman Bask lias establishments in the island. Turkish
weights and measures current.
About 400 miles <>f good road, 2 10 miles of telegraph lines : cable COtllfa I -
With Alexandria and Syria.
Total number of letters delivered in Cyprus, lsnu 91, 360,500; posted,
298,500. •
.see Aiiiuml UejMprl nf II.M.'s High Coinmisaiouttr.
'Cyprus.' By Hamilton l^ang.
,u:i:a AND POP! rLATfOU 111
HONG KONG.
Constitution and Government.
I'iik frown colony of Hong Kong, formerly an integral part of China, was
ceded to Great Britain in January 1841 ; the cession was continued by the
of Xanking, in August 1842: and the charter bears date April .'•.
1843. Hong Kong is the great centre for British commerce with China and
Japan, and a military and naval station of first -class importance.
The administration of the colony is in the hands of a Governor, aided by
an Executive Council, composed of the Colonial Secretary, the Officei I
inanding the Troops, the Attorney -General, the Treasurer, and the Captain
Sui>erintendent of Police. There is also a Legislative Council, maided over
by the Governor, and composed of the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney-
funeral, the Treasurer, the Surveyor-* ieneral, the Captain-Superintendent of
Police, the Registrar-General, and five unofficial members — viz. three nominated
by the Crown (one of whom is a Chinese), one nominated by the Chamber of
Commerce, and one by the Justices of the Peace.
Gore raw of Hong Kong.— Sir William Robinson, K.<".M.C. Lieutenant-
Governor of the Bahamas, 1874; Governor, 1875; Lieutenant-Governor of
Windward Islands, 1880 ; Governor, 1881 ; Governor of Trinidad, 1885.
Appointed Coventor of Hong Kong, 1891.
The Governor has a salary of 25,000 dollars per annum, with 7,000 dollars
table allowance.
Area and Population.
Hong Kong is situated off the south-eastern coast of China, at the mouth
of the Cauton River, al>out 40 miles east of Macao, and 90 miles south of
I 'anton. The whole of Hong Kong island forms an irregular and broken ridge,
stretching nearly east and west about 11 miles, its breadth from 2 to ."> miles,
and its area rather more than 29 square miles. It is se]>arated from the main-
land of China by a narrow strait, known as the Ly-ee-moon Pass, which does
not exceed half a mile in width. The opposite ]teninsula of Kowloon, fonuing
part of the mainland of China, was ceded to Great Britain by a treaty entered
into in 1861 with the Government of China, and now forms part of Hong
Kong. The city of Victoria extends for upwards of four miles along the
southern shore of the lieautiful harbour.
The population of Hong Kong, including the military and naval establish-
ments, was as follows at the last census, taken in 1891 : —
Male
lYmale
Total
White
Coloured .....
6,463
151,122
2,082
61,774
8,546
212,896
Total ... 157,585 63,856 221,441
The total population in 1881 was 160,402 ; thus the increase in ten year-
1,039. The total white population in 1881 was 7,990, showing an
increase during the teu years of 555. Of the coloured population in 1S91,
112 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — HONG KONG
1,901 were Indians, and 210,995 Chinese, one-third of the latter being
British subjects by birth. Of the resident white population, exclusive of the
military, police, naval establishment, &c, almost one-half are Portuguese by
origin, and only one-third English. Next follow natives of Germany, the
United States, France, Spain, Italy, and Turkey, the remainder being divided
among ahout ten nationalities. A considerable proportion of the Indian
population are included in the military and police.
The births and deaths for the last five years were as follows : —
Year
1886 .
1887 .
1888 .
1889 .
1890 .
Births
1,557
1,705
1,662
1,683
1,617
Deaths
5,100
5,317
6,034
4,597
4,553
Births
per 1,000
Deaths
)>er 1,000
774
8 01
7-70
8-65
8-14
25-37
24-97
27*98
23-64
22-90
There is a constant flow of emigration from China passing through Hong
Kong. In the five years from 1885 to 1889 there passed through the colony
annually an average of 69,796 Chinese emigrants, more than three-fourths
going to the Straits Settlements. In 1890 the number of Chinese emigrants
was 12,066, and the immigrants 101,147.
Instruction.
In 1890 there were 112 schools subject to Government supervision, as com-
pared with 94 in 1887. Attending these schools in 1890 were 7,170 pupils, as
compared with 5,974 in 1887 ; the total expenditure in 1890 being 56,081
dollars, as compared with 43,070 dollars in 1887. There are also 109 private
schools, with 1,985 pupils, a police school (with 890 scholars) and a reformatory
industrial school (with 99 scholars).
Justice and Crime.
There is a supreme court, a police magistrate's court, and a marine
magistrate's court. The number of criminal convictions before the supreme
court in 1884 Was <»•', : 1885, 103 ; 1886, 59 : 1887, 82 ; 1888, 99 ; 1889, 6 I |
1890, 43. Before the police magistrate's court, 1884, 12,836; 1885, 8,800;
1886, 12,923; 1887, 10,679: 1888, 9,932; 1889, 6,89-1 : 1890, 7,710. The
total number of prisoners in gaol at, the end of 1 88S was .Mi:;, of which 31
were Europeans. There is a police force in the colony numbering 700 nun,
of whom 100 are British, 200 Sikhs, and the remainder Chinese,
Finance.
The colony lias paid its local establish nts linos 1865, Bines which yeai
it. has held generally i surplus of revenue over and above Its fixed expenditure,
The public revenue and expenditure of tin- colony ucie as follows in sad)
Of the vcars trout 1886 to 1890 (the actual local rate for the dollar in 188* <>()
was 3.v. 2d .
COMMERCE AND SHIPPING
113
Revenue UrgmdMmn
Ordinary
. Extraordinary, iu-
Premiuinsfr..in Ordinarv chiding Dafcaatff
1886
1887
1888
1889
|
1,867,977
1,427,
1,657,300
1,823,549
1,995,220
:U,731
155,288
160,688
i:. ;.
16,638
9
1,195,236
1.278,181
1,461,459
1,459,167
1.5 17, 843
$
825,624
714,820
5:10,870
374,551
397,507
The public revenue of the colony is derived chiefly from land, taxes, and
licences, and an opium monopoly, which together more than cover the exjienses
of administration. A large portkm of the expenditure has to he devoted t<>
the maintenance of a strong police tone. On defensive works alone (apart
from military expenditure) 217,901 dollars was spent in 1886,258,444 in 1887,
62,115 in 1888, 68,753 in 1S89, "..082 in 1S90. Expenditure on establish-
ments in 1890, M6,880 dollars in the colony, 23,068/. in Great Britain.
Hong Kong has a public debt, amounting to 200,000/., which was I
in 1887 for waterworks, fortifications, and sanitation. On December 31, 1890,
the surplus assets of rle- Oolony exc led its liabilities by 899,732 dollars.
Defence.
There is an Imperial garrison of about 1,300 men. There is also a
Volunteer Artillery Corps of 100 effective members. In 1889 the Colonial
contribution to Military and Volunteers was 134,261 dollars. It has now
been raised to 10,000/. Hong Kong is the headquarters of the china
Squadron, and there is usually at least one war-vessel present. The ( hina
Squadron consists of 25 vessels in all.
Commerce and Shipping.
The commercial intercourse of Hong Kong — virtually a part of the com-
merce nf China is chiefly with Great Britain, India. Australia, the United
States, and Germany, Great Britain absorbing about one-half of the total
imports and exports. There being no custom house, there are no official
returns of the value of the imports and exports of the colony from and to all
countries, but only 'mercantile estimates, according to which the former
average four, and the latter two millions sterling. Hong Kong is the centre
of trade in many kinds, of goods. Among the principal are opium, sugar and
lour, salt, earthenware, oil, amber, cotton and cotton goods, .sandal wood,
ivory, betel, vegetables, live stock, granite, kc The Chinese tea and silk
trade is largely in the hands of Hong Kong firms.
The amount of the commercial intercourse between Hong Kong and the
United Kingdom is shown in the following table for each of the five years
1886 to 1890:—
114
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — HONG KONG
-
1886
1887
1888
1889 1890
■
Exports from Hong
Kong to Great Britain
Imports of British Pro-
duce into Hong Kong
6
1,656,062
2,310,532
£
1,409,241
2,540,532
1,296,690
2,804,761
£ e
1,129,190 1,226,064
2,171,286 2,628,212
The principal exports from Hong Kong to Great Britain ami imports iron
Great Britain to Hong Kong have been as follows in five years : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1S90
Exports :
Tea
Silk : raw,
woven, &c; .
Hemp
Copper .
Imports :
Cottons .
Woollens
Iron
Lead
Copper .
£
424,785
566,909
110,982
96,481
£
342,517
409,791
125,940
4,000
£
265,309
459,563
134,998
53,409
£
203,115
546,092
156,338
37,090
£
194,323
454,319
197,725
102,661
1,389,21")
324,321
81,597
93,229
63,844
1,614,233
272,755
98,072
68,538
SI, 770
1,839,309
366,357
93,057
87,338
29,267
1,335,135
201,066
86,743
80,540
82,379
1,583,486
259,886
118,397
48,522
84,925
In 1890, 4,114 vessels of 4,893,733 tons entered at ports in Hong Kong,
being 375,119 tons over 1889. Besides these, 23,512 junks of 1,795,261 tons
arrived, compared with 1889 an increase of 586 junks and 78,339 tons. The
number of native vessels in Hong Kong — independent of several thousand
smaller boats that visit Hong Kong annually — is about 52,000, with a tonnage
of nearly 1,300,000.
Money and Credit.
The value of Bank notes in circulation in 1890 was 6,073,332 dollars, as
compared with 4,114,787 dollars in 1881 ; specie in reserve in 1890 2,775,833
dollars, as compared with 1,810,033 dollars in 1881. The approximate
amount of coin in circulation up to December 81, L880 was: Song Cong
dollars and half-dollars struck al Hong Kong Mint, L.421,487 dollars; Hong
Kong silver and oopper subsidiary coins. 5,599,125 dollars.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures in use at Bong Kong, and the British
equivalents, Bare :
Muni.v.
The Mexican Dollar = 100 Cents — Average rate of exchange, 8*. -_v.
"in 1888-90.
,, Chinese Tael = 10 Mace =
100 Cavrlareens = 1,000 Cash = ,, ,, ,, it . :„/.
INDIA AND DEPENDED IES
115
WEIGHT8 AND MKA8
m r.i'Tii i ■ a
"be Tmd
. = 1 J oz. avninlupois
„ Pint!
. = 133 Ha
,, Cattti
. . . - 1-..
,. Ohtk
. = 14$ mcti
i>'j ....
. =
- the above weights and measures of China, those of" Great Britain
in general use in tin- eolonv.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Hong Kong.
1. Official Publk ui'
Annual Report in the Blue Bonk of Hong Kong for 1890. Boag Koafc 1891.
Colonial Office List. 1891.
.Statistics of H<>ng Kong, in -Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other
Possessions of the United Kingdom in each year from 1876 to 1890.' No. xxix. London,
1891.
Trad.- of Hong Kong with Great Britain, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the rear 1890.' Imp. 4.
London, 1891.
•2. Non-Official Publication-.
Denny* (X. B.) and ilayeri (W. T-X China and Japan : a Complete Guide to the Open
Ports of those Countries ; together with Peking, Yeddo, Hong Kong, and Macao. 8. Lon-
don, U
Hong Kong Almanac. S. Hong Kong, 1691.
Topography of China and Neighbouring States, with Degrees of Longitude snd La'
8. Hong Kong, ISi'4.
WiWan* (S.' Wells). Chinese Commercial Guide. S. Hon. K
INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES.
British India, in the widest sense of the term, comprises all that
part of the great Indian peninsula which is directly or indirectly
under British rule, as well as certain countries beyond that area
which are under the control or protection of the Governor-
General. The non-British parts of India will be found included
in the second part of the Yf.ar-Book among Foreign Countries.
In a limited sense, the term British India applies to the districts
under direct British administration, thus excluding native States.
The term is so used, unless otherwise stated, in the tables. 4c,
that follow.
Government and Constitution.
The present form of government of the Indian empire is
established by the Act 21 & 22 Vict. cap. 106, called ' An Act for
the Better Government of India,' sanctioned August 2, 1858. By
this Act, all the territories heretofore under the government of
the East India Company are vested in Her Majesty, and all its
powers are exercised in her name . all territorial and other
i 2
116 THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
revenues, and all tributes and other payments, are likewise
received in her name, and disposed of for the purposes of the
government of India alone.
The Secretary of State for India is invested with all the
powers hitherto exercised by the Company or by the Board of
Control. By Act 39 & 40 Vict. cap. 10, proclaimed at Delhi,
before the princes and high dignitaries of India, January 1, 1877,
the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland assumed the additional
title of Empress of India.
The executive authority in India is vested in a Governor-
General, commonly, but not officially, styled Viceroy, appointed
by the Crown, and acting under the orders of the Secretary of
State for India. The Governor-General in Council is invested
with power to make laws for all persons, whether British or
native, foreigners or others, within the Indian territories under
the dominion of Her Majesty, and for all subjects of the Crown
within the dominions of Indian princes and States in alliance with
Her Majesty.
Governor-General of India. — The Most Hon. Henry Charles
Keith Petty Fitzmaurice, Marquis of Lansdoione, G.C.M.G., born
January 14, 1845 ; educated at Eton, and at Balliol College,
Oxford ; was a Commissioner of Exchequer of Great Britain, and
of Treasury of Ireland, 1868-72 ; Under Secretary of State for
War, 1872-74; Under Secretary for India in 1880; Governor-
General of the Dominion of Canada, 1883-88; entered on
Governor-Generalship of India, as successor to the Marquis of
Duff erin and Ava, December 11,1 888.
The salary of the Governor-General is 250,800 rupees a year.
The following is a list of the Governors-General of India, with
the dates of their appointments : —
Warren Hastings
Sir .1. Macplicrson
Earl (Marquis) Cornwallis.
Lord Teignmouth (Sir J. Shore) 1793
Earl of Momington (Marquis
Wellesley) ....
Marquis Cornwallis .
Sir ( 1. I'.arlow ....
Karl of Minto ....
Earl Moira (Marquis of lias
tings)
Earl Amherst ....
Lord W. Benttnok .
The government of the Imlmn Empire is entrusted to a Secre-
tary of State for Tndi.i. .issisted by ;i Council of not less than ten
1772
Lord Auckland
. 1835
1785
Lord Ellonborougb .
. 1842
1786
Sir H. (Lord) Hardinge .
. 1844
1793
Earl of Dalhousie
. 1847
Lord Canning .
. 1855
1798
Lord Elgin
. 1862
1805
Sir John (Lord) Lawrence
. 1863
1805
Karl of Mayo .
. L808
1807
Lord (Earl of) Northbrook
. 1872
Lord (Earl) Lytton .
. L87fl
1813
Marquis of Ripon
. 1880
1823
Marquis of Dufferin and Ava
. 1884
1828
Marquis of Lansdowne
. 1888
- GOVERNMENT AND < < »NSTI'I TTH >N 117
members, vacancies in which are now filled up by the Secretary
of State for India. But the major part of the Council must be
of persons who have served or resided ten years in India, and
have not left India more than ten years previous to the dat-e of
their appointment;' and no person not so qualified can be
appointed unless nine of the continuing members be so qualified.
The office is held for a term of ten years ; but a member may be
removed upon an address from both Houses of Parliament, and
the Secretary of State for India may for special reasons reappoint
a member of the Council for a further term of five years. No
member can sit in Parliament.
The duties of the Council, which has no initiative authority,
are, under the direction of the Secretary of State for India, to
conduct the business transacted in the United Kingdom in rela-
tion to the government of India. Moreover, by the Act of 1858,
the expenditure of the revenues of India, both in India and else-
where, are subject to the control of the Secretary of State in
Council, and no grant or appropriation of any part of such
revenues can be made without the concurrence of a majority of
votes at a meeting of the Council. In dealing, however, with
questions affecting the relations of the Government with foreign
powers, in making peace and war, in prescribing the policy of the
Government towards native States, and generally in matters
where secrecy is necessary, the Secretary of State acts on his own
authority. The Secretary has to divide the Council into com-
mittees, and to regulate the transaction of business. At least
one meeting must be held every week, at which not less than
five members shall be present.
The government in India is exercised by the ' Council of the Governor-
General,' consisting of five ordinary- members and a public works member,
whose post may be left vacant at the option of the Crown. The commander-
in-chief may be, and in practice always is, appointed an extraordinary member.
Governors and Lieutenant-Governors become extraordinary members when the
Council meets within their Provinces. The ordinary members of the Council
preside over the departments of finance and commerce, home, revenue and
agriculture, military administration, legislation, and public works. The
v usually keeps the foreign department in his own hands. The appoint-
ment of the ordinary members of the ' Council of the Governor-General, ' and
of the governors of Madras and Bombay, is made by the Crown. The mem-
bers of the Council, together with from six to twelve ' additional members for
making laws and regulations,' form a Legislative Council; these additional
members are appointed by the Viceroy. The proceedings in the Legislative
il are public. The lieutenant-governors and chief commissioners of the
other ten provinces are appointed by the Governor-General, subject to the
approbation of the Secretary of State for India.
The governors of Madras and Bombay (including Sind) have each a council
118 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
of their own, as well as each an army and a civil service of their own. The
lieutenant-governors of Bengal and of the North- West Provinces (witli Oudh)
have each a legislative council only ; the other administrators of provinces
have no councils and no legislative powers. Although the Viceroy is supreme,
the local governments of the various provinces enjoy a large measure of
administrative independence. Each province is broken into divisions under
Commissioners, and then divided into districts, which form the units of
administration. At the head of each District is an executive officer (collector-
magistrate, or deputy-commissioner), who has entire control of the district,
and is responsible to the governor of the province. Subordinate to the magis-
trate (in most Districts) there are a joint magistrate, an assistant-magistrate,
and one or more deputy-collectors and other officials. In some cases the
magistrate-collector is also judge, while in others the two functions are
separate. There are about 246 Districts in British Didia.
India is administratively divided into British territory and Native or
Feudatory States ; the former is under the direct control in all respects of
British officials. The control which the Supreme Government exercises over
the Native States varies in degree ; but they are all governed by the native
princes, ministers or councils with the help and under the advice of a resi-
dent, or agent, in political charge either of a single State or a group of States.
The chiefs have no right to make war or peace, or to send ambassadors to each
other or to external States : they are not permitted to maintain a military
force above a certain specified limit ; no European is allowed to reside at any
of their courts without special sanction ; and the Supreme Government can
exercise the right of dethronement in case of misgovernment. Within these
limits the more important chiefs possess sovereign authority in their own
territories. Some of them are required to pay an annual tribute ; with others
this is nominal, or not demanded.
Municipal Government.
There were, in March 1890, 755 municipal towns, with a population of
MJ millions. The municipal bodies have the care of the roads, water supply,
drains, markets, and sanitation ; they impose taxes, enact bye-laws, make im-
provements, and si icnd money, but the sanction of the Provincial Government
is necessary in each case before new taxes can be levied or new lye-laws can
be brought into force. By the Local Self-Government Act of 1882-84, the
elective principle has ljeen extended, in a large or small measure, all over
India. In all larger towns, and in many of the smaller towns, the majority
of members of committees are elected by the ratepayers, everywhere the
majority of town committees consists of natives, and in many committees all
the members are natives. For rural tracts, except in Burma and i>arts of the
Punjab, there are district ami local hoards, which are in charge of roads,
district schools, and hospitals.
Area and Population.
1. Progkksn and Present Position of the Population.
The following synoptical table gives the estimated population
and area in square miles for six successive decennial periods.
The population is in millions and two decimals.
Al;KA a.M> POPULATION
II!'
British
Territory
Am
'Population
\ > ;\X
Area
Population j
1841
1851
1861
626,000 •
776,000
856,000
K.S-58
178 50
196 00
1871
1881
: 1891
860,000
875,186
.108
19.r. -
19>
a3
The subjoined tables embody the leading details of the
census taken February 26, 1891, and the population obtained
at the previous census : —
Presidencies, Province*,
ami Divisions
Qsn. of India : —
Ajmere
Berars
Coorg
Total .
Li.ut.-Gov. of Bengal :—
Northern Bengal
Central Bengal
Kast.Tii Bengal
Bengal Proper .
Debar
Orissa
Chutia Nagpur .
Total Bengal .
Chief Commissioner As-
sam : —
Surma Valley .
Brahmaputra do.
Total Plains Dist.
Hill Districts .
Total Assam
jjt.Gov. N.W. Provinces
and Oudh :—
Meerut
Agra
Rohilkhand
Allahabad .
Benarvs
•thansi
Kiimaun .
taJ N.W.F. .
Area in S
square Ms-
miles tricta
2,711
17.714
1,583
22,008
7
i5,889 12
I
70,424
27
44,103
12
26,966
\
149,725
4-;
20,94]
0
27.666
40.341
Population .
Previous I"£**'
Enumera- g
tloll
17 0:.'
178,302 -3-19 172.630
7,733,775
Lfi,fi08J8M
•
35,607,628
23,127,104
3,628,832
11,319
'i
10,152
o
10,884
i
13,746
18,336
7
4,983
3
12,438
-
16,145,310
13,965,230
38, 11 4. 280
3,865,020
60.589,553 "9,260
2,258,434 —
-.111,204
4,834,064
-■..122.557
1,000,457
1,046,263
M2.72o.12s
2,441,100
164
1<M
-
461.420
-
5.424.190
117
5,324,910
5,345,740
5,942,900
10,632,190
1,060,510
1,184,310
-
419
120 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
i
Presidencies, Provinces,
Area in
No. of
Dis-
tricts
Population
Previous
Increase
Population
Density
and Divisions
square
miles
Enumera-
tion
per
cent.
1891
per. sq. m.
1891
' Oudh :—
Lucknow .
4,505
3
2,022,681
—
2,851,000
—
Sitapur
7,555
3
2,777,808
—
3,095,750
—
Faizabad .
7,805
3
3,230,393
—
3,082,900
—
Rai Bareli .
Total Oudh
Total .N.W. P. <fc Oudh
4,881
3
2,750,864
—
3,022,420
—
24,240
12
11,387,741
11-11
12,652,730
40,931,010
522
442
100,104
49
44,107,809
0-4(1
Lieut. -Gov. Punjab: —
Delhi
15,580
1
4,233,371
—
4,433,080
—
Jalandhar .
18,810
5
3,787,945
—
4,207,570
—
Lahore
—
6
4,013,242
—
4,570,420
—
Rawal Pindi
20,766
5
4,151,102
—
4,517,760
—
Derajat
23,317
4
1,476,177
—
1,160,880
—
Peshawur .
Total Punjab
—
3
1,181,289
1S,S43,1S0
10-42
1,421,210
—
111,010
30
20,S07,020
178
Chief Commissioner of
Central Provinces : —
Nagpur
24,127
5
2,75S,050
—
2,982,4*0
—
Jabalpur .
19,040
5
2,201,633
—
2.370,510
—
Narbada .
18,321
5
1,763,105
—
1,878,550
—
Chhatisgarh
Total Central Prov-s.
25,013
86,501
3
3,115,997
9,S3S,7!»I
9-51
3,537,350
m.774,890
—
IS
H
Chief Commissioner Bur-
Arakan
14,520
4
587,518
669,640
Pegu ....
9,299
4
1,109,021
—
1,441.220
—
Ira wad i
10,805
4
1,101,119
—
1,487,880
—
Tenasserim
Total Lower Burma
46,590
87,220
6
IS
819,113
—
971,660
j
3. 730,771
22-29
1,. -.09,680
52
Upper Burma
Total Burma
68,985
86
-
-
184,780
48
is
166,149
3,730,771
7,664,410
Governor of Madras
'140,702
21
30,812,745
16*61
11,440
268
Governor of Bombay : —
Gujarat .
10,108
—
2,867,781
8,097,640
—
Konkan
L8,6S9
—
2,709,127
—
2,962,820
Dcecan
88,879
—
5,829,908
—
16,280
Karmitik -.
1 1. Still
—
2,385,11 1
—
2,857,840
Bombay City .
Presidency Proper .
22
—
778,196
4-04
804,470
86,667
77,008
19
14,066,874
18-68
16,967,960
207
Bind .
Total Bombay .
Total Continental India
48,826
126,894
948,998
6
2,418,828
18-86
-..S,870
18,826
69
i ,ii
288
24
246
16,469,199
108,591,237
14-81
9*49
220,480,280
Dependencies : —
Aiiin and Perim
? 13
—
84,860
20-22
11,910
—
Quetta, &c.
? 10
—
—
—
—
&ndaniani
? 12
—
1 1,628
7-12
15, 070
7-12
Laooadivea
T80
14,473
-•44
1 1,110
—
Total Dependeuolei
~lu
—
68,901
198,666,198
_
98,870
220,629,100
-
l'.>iai Brit Territory
944,108
St-49
284
AREA AND POPULATION
121
The total population of British India is thus over one-seventh
of the estimated population of our globe. The Berars are
only provisionally under British administration. Mysore WM
restored to the Native Government in March 1881.
Besides the provinces of India under direct British administration,
there are, more or less under the control of the Indian Government. ■
member of feudatory or Native States, covering an extent of 64J
English square miles, with 66,167,860 inhabitants. They are, according to
the census of 1891 : —
States ami Agencies
Haidarabad
Baroda
Mysoi-
Kashmir .
Rajputana : —
Udaipur
Jodhpur
Bikaner
Jaipur .
Bhartpur
Dholpur
Ahvar .
Jhalawar
Tonk .
Kotah .
Other Rajput States
Total Rajputana
Area in
square miles
Population
1891
Incr> .
per cent. |
since last wile in
census. 1891
82,697
ll,4»9,2lo
re -69
139
8,569
2,414,200
1049
28S
27,406
4,914,110
17-39
199
80,900
2,511,090
—
—
12,670
1,882,420
22-6:5
145
37,000
J 4,030
4419
68
22,340
881,210
63 47
37
14,465
11-45
195
1,974
640,620
-76
325
1,200
279,880
1210
232
3,024
769,080
12-62
•J.'. 1
2,694
348,310
-•08
127
2,509
;79,330
12-22
151
3,797
526,260
1 74
139
28,077
1,349,530
—
—
129,750 12,300,150 19 79
95
Central India : —
Indore Agency
Bhopawar .
Bhopal
<T\valior
Other States
Total Central India
Bombay Feudatories : —
Gujarat
Coast States.
Forest States
Maratha Group
Khairpur
Total Bombav
75,230
50,514
1,250
1.544
9,588
6,109
..200
976,060
1,904,800
1,754,370
."..131,140
10,139,570 947 135
.490
•274,560
102,550
2,018,
131,960
69,045 8,064,240 1643 117
122 THE BRITISH EMPIfiEi — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
Increase
Density
States and Agencies
Area in
Population
per cent.
per sq.
square miles
1891
since last
mill' in
census
1891
Madras Feudatories : —
Travaneore ....
6,730
2,557,840
6 53
380
< 'oehin ....
1,361
715,870
19-26
526
Other States
1,384
419,910
—
• —
Total Madras
9,475
3,693,620
10-43
390
Central Province Feudatories .
29,435
2,157,440
26-19
73
N. W. P. Feudatories
5,125
799,160
7 74
i :»t>
Punjab Feudatories : —
Patiala ....
5,951
1,538,810
7 93
266
Jind
1,268
284,300
13-15
224
Nabha ....
936
282,760
7-99
302
Kapurthala ....
598
299,590
18-59
616
Faridkot ....
643 |
115,040
18-56
179
Maler Kotla
162
75,750
6-61
468
Bahawalpur
17,285
648,900
13-15
38
Four Small States
517
134,180
—
—
Hill States ....
10,939
832,350
—
—
Total Punjab
38,299
' 4,256,670
1027
Ill
Bengal Feudatories .
87,516
3,428,390
17-28
91
Manipur
8,000
—
—
—
Sikkim '
1,550
Shan States . . . .
40,000
—
—
—
Total Feudatory Territory
642,996
66,167,860
1.V21
Ill
Grand Total India . . . j
1,587,104
286,696,960
10-74
186
Of the population on British territory (including dependencies) i« 1891,
1 12, 196,870 were males, and 108,331,240 were females. Of the population of
the Native States 84,146,410 were males, and 31,888,020 were females.
lH. Population aooobding to Race.
In tin census results the total population of India is divided into 110
groups on the basis of language. Bui even the different native languages do
not denote separate rthnical groups, many of them being only dialects, and all
of them capable of classification into a few groups.
The following table gives all the languages or dialects which are more pre-
1 in the follow inn paragraphs ind tables the figures gives in those . >r the oeueusof ism.
except, where otherwise noted. Where ttte flgnrea are those of the sensns of isim. the] are
suhjeot i" tut mi- correction.
Alth'A AND POPULATION
1 23
Talent than English, with tin- population Un millions and two deeim
those who speak them : —
Languages
Pop.
82-50
Languages
P..p.
Languages
P..]..
Hindustani .
Kanarese
8 34
Kol
in
Bengali
38-97
I'riva .
6 82
Santali .
I'M
Telngu .
17-00
Malayalum
4-85
Qondl .
Mahrathi
.17 04
Rum i'
2 61
Pushtu .
0 92
Punjabi
15*75
Sindl .
8 "78
Karen .
Tamil
13 07
Hin.li .
1-88
Tulu
0 45
Gujrati .
9-62
Assamese
1-36
i 'achari
0 39
The English language is next in Older with a population of 202,920.
The Rritish-l>orn jiopulation in India amounted, according to the census of
1871, to 64,061 persons, and in 1881 to 89,798. In 1881 there were 77,188
males ami 12.610 female.-..
In ls>l the British-born imputation was distributed as follows : —
X. W. l'rovs
and
Central India
4,674
Kajputana .
168
Oudh
. 20,184
Haidanibad
2,956
Coorg
134
Punjab
. 18,767
< 'entral Provinces
2,774
Rerars
97
Bombay
. 12,608
Mysore
2,686
Cochin
21
Bengal
. 10,583
Ajmere
872
Burma
. 6,330
Assam
785
Total
. 89,798
Madras
. 5,892
Raroda
267
Of this population the great bulk. 72,382, were between the ages of 20 and
40. Of the total Rritish-horn male population 55,808 were returned n COB-
neeted with the army, 2,996 with the civil service, 2,448 sailors of various
grades, 2,319 connected with railways. 887 with commerce, 806 with the navy.
461 civil engineers, 541 agriculturists, 280 coffee planters, 178 missionary s.
321 surgeons and physicians. The classification, however, though taken from
an official report, is obviously incorrect. Only one person is returned as a
tea- planter.
III. Occupations of the Population".
Of the total male population in India under Rritish ride or suzerainty.
52,029,098, or 40 per cent., were returned as engaged in agricultiire ; 7,248,475,
or 5*6 per cent., were labourers: 3,027,958, or 2#33 per cent., were in the
Mtrrice of Government or members of professions ; 2,489,516, or 1 -9 percent..
Were engaged in domestic service and occupations ; 49,248,645, or 38 percent.,
were returned as ' independent and non-productive and unspecified ; ' 8,28 -
or2-5 per cent., were in commerce ; and 12,659,425, or 97 j>er cent.,
in industrial occupations. Thus less than 12A percent of the male popula-
tion were engaged in commercial and industrial pursuits; while 40 percent,
were directly engaged in agriculture, to which should be added probably the
bulk of the labourers : while, doubtless, a large pro'wrtion of those returned in
the • independent and non-productive class' were directly dependent on the
land, though not actually employed in its cultivation.
The following are the principal details of ]>opulatiou (in thousands) under
tin- head : —
124 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
Population
Population
Workers in : —
Cotton and flax
Dress
Vegetable food
Animal food
Drinks
Stone and clay
Earthenware
Gold, silver, and
precious stones
Iron and steel .
Bamboo, canes,
rushes, &c. .
Males
Females
2,608
2,082
1,446
641
709
667
569
459
455
403
2,878
733
1,720
449
204
355
260
14
19
277
Males i Females
Domestic servants
Municipal and
local officers .
Connected with
the army
Clergymen and
temple officers
Mercantile call-
ings
General dealers .
Carriers
Labourers .
2,150
791
311
601
984
886
1,123
7,248
652
18
2
94
124
286
18
,244
IV. Movement of the Population.
The registration of vital statistics among the general population is still
very imperfect. The following table shows for 1889-90 the mean ratio of
births and deaths per thousand of the population for the provinces of British
India :—
BirUis
Deaths
Bengal ......
22-76
25-03
N. W. Provinces and Oudh
36-93
31-11
Punjab ....
40-28
32-0
( Vulral Provinces .
39-30
43 79
Lower Burma .
21*18
17-7
Assam . - .
31 -20
30-70
Madras ....
.",()•'.»
23-5
lionibay ....
86*49
81 "51
Coorg ....
16-36
22-92
The average death-rate for British India has varied from 20*98 per 1,000
in 1880 to 27*98 in 1889.
The number of coolie emigrants from India in 1888 m was 17)986;
1884-85, 22,384 ; 1885-86, 7,979 : 1886 87. 7.07s ; 1887 88, 6, 151 : 1888 89,
10,388 : 1889 90.16,874. Tlic lmll< of these emigrants go to British Colonics,
mainly to Deinerara, Trinidad, and Mauritius.
AREA AND I'iUM-I.ATIOX — RELIGION
1 25
\ . Principal T«.
Then- are in India 76 'towns, with over 50,000 inhabitants, as follows, ae-
mling to the results of the census of 1891 : —
CMTM Populatiou
Calcutta (with
suburbs)1 . 840,130
Bombay . . 804,470
Madras" . . 449,950
Haidarabad
(with suburbs) 312,390
Lucknow
Benares .
Delhi
Mandalay
« awnpur
Rangoon
Bangalore
Allahabad
Lahore .
Agra
Patna
Poona (with
suburbs)
Jaipur .
Alunadabad
Amritsar
Howrah .
Bareilly .
Srinagar .
Meerut .
Xagpur .
273,090
193,580
187,910
182,310
181,210
179,670
176,870
176,720
168,710
167,510
160,460
158,890
145,990
136,500
129,800
121,870
120,340
118,760
117,910
Towns
Baroda .
Surat
Karachi .
Indore .
Trichinopoli
Madura .
Lashkar .
Jabalpur
Peshawur
Dacca . .
Mirzapur
Cava
Faizabad
Ambala .
Farukhaba>l
Shahjahanpui
Multan .
Mysore .
Rampur .
Rawal Pindi
Darbhangah
Moradabad
Bhopal .
Bhagalpur
Ajmere .
Salem
Population
116,460
108,000
104,250
90,730
87,420
84,560
83,760
82,710
9,920
9,500
9,270
8,180
7,690
4,510
3,680
3,530
3,460
3,320
2,870
0,630
68,780
67,880
67,750
Towns
Bhartpur
Jalandhai
Calicut .
Gorakhpur
Saharanpur
Jotlhpur .
Sholapur
Aligarh .
Muttra .
Bellary .
Negapatam
Haidarabad (Sind
Barrackpur
Chapra .
Monghyr
Patiala .
Bhaunagar
Bikauer .
Sialkot .
Maulmain
Tanjore .
Combaconum
Jhansi .
Alwar
Firozi»ur
Hnbli
Population
67,560
66,450
65,700
64,860
63,300
61,310
00,500
60,020
58,850
57,330
56,980
55,960
55,640
55,640
54,930
54,060
54,000
52,490
51,170
50,780
1 Excluding Howrah.
After these towns there are 91 of between 25,000 and 50,000 inhabitant-,
and 45 between 20,000 and 25,000. Of the so-called villages, as many as
348,466 in 1881, contained less than 200 inhabitants each : and 184,486 con-
tained a population varying between 200 and 500.
Religion.
The most prevalent religion in India is that of the Hindus, their number
being three-fourths of the total population ; together with the Muhammadans.
who amount to 50,000,000, they comprise 94 percent, of the whole community.
The Buddhists are mostly in Burma, as will be seen from the following table,
which also shows that the number of Christians is almost equal to that of the
Sikhs, viz., under 2, 000, 000 .—
1 26 THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
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127
Of the christians enumerated above the following are the snWirisii
riven in the official returns : —
Roman Catholic.-,
i 'huivh of England
• 'Inii'rh of Scotland
Episcopalians .
Population
Sect
983.000 Other Protestants .
Svrians. Armenian-..
20,000 Greeks
JU.OOO
in. I
Pagnlmtiam
138.000
Instruction.
The following statistics are those of the census of 1881 : —
-
Under Instruction
•2. 879.571
165,988
Not under Instruc-
tion, ami alih- to
read anil write
7,646.712
207
Xot umler Instruc-
tion ami amble to
read and write
l'nspeoitie.1
Males .
Females
105.838
111.332.927
18,577,3)1
12, 1>
3.034,839
7.923.919
217,171,284
25.161.779
In 1889-90 the total exjienditure on public instruction in India
Rx. 2,745,860, against Rx. 67,100 in 1865, and Rx. 39.400 in 1858. Of the
rani spent in 1889-90. Rx. 488.103 came from local rates and .esses:
tec 129.464 tioni munieij«l funds : Rx. 581.623 from subscriptions, endow-
ments. .\:c. : and Rx. 767, 2S9 from provincial revenues.
The following was the educational expenditure (in millions and two
decimals) at the dates quoted : —
1881
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
17 60
ruj"
2171
rapaai
23-73
rupees
24 24
rupees
25 51
rupees
26 37
At the head of the national system of education in India there are the five
Universities of Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Allahabad, and the Punjab, which,
though merely examining ladies, have numerous affiliated colleges in which a
prescribed higher education is given than at the schools. Normal schools
have been established in every province for training teachers : and a staff of
Inspecting officers visit all schools on the departmental lists. Medka] colleges
furnish a limited number of graduates and a larger number of certificate! I
practitioners who do duty at hospitals and dispensaries, or serve in the army
medical department. Engineering and other technical schools have also
increased, and there are a few art schools.
The following table shows the number of students who matriculated at the
four Universities for the years quoted : —
-
1881
1886
1887
1888
18S9
MM
Calcutta .
1,184
1,070
2,409
1.997
1.190
2,723
Madras
1,871
1,895
2.165
; 1,963
1,611
Bombav
429
837
•"'27
888
914
746
Punjab
—
—
—
212
324
389
Allahabad
—
-
—
—
623
532
1 2S THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
The following table embraces the principal statistics for 1890, as to the
number of the various classes of schools and the pupils : —
Institutions for
Scholars
.Males
; Females
Males
Females
~9
Colleges ....
131
4
14,701
General education :
Secondary .
4,509
417
440,277
32,811
Primary
83,520
4,402
2,351,295
226,836
Special education :
Technical, medical, in-
dustrial, and other
schools
560
43
19,261
1,348
Private institutions :
Advanced & elementary
Total . .
Grand total
37,968
1,096
499,571
32,971
126,688
5,962
3,325,105
294,036
132,650
3,619,141
Of the total number of educational institutions in India (viz., 182,650),
18,852 are public, 57,318 are aided, and 56,480 are private and unaided.
Since the appointment of a commission, in 1883, to investigate the whole
system of education in India, the results have been to place public instruction
on a broader and more popular basis, to encourage private enterprise in teach-
ing, to give a more adequate recognition to indigenous schools, and to provide
that the education of the people shall advance at a more equal pace along with
the instruction of the higher classes. Female education and the instruction of
certain backward classes of the community, such as Muhannnadans. received
special attention. Notwithstanding the progress of education, the proportion
of the total population able to read and write is still very small. It is esti-
mated that in British India only 20"7 per cent, of the boys of a school-going
age attend school ; the percentage in the case of girls being 1 *9.
In 1890 there were 558 vernacular newspapers published regularly in lt>
different languages. Only one daily vernacular newspaper circulates as man}
as 1,500 copies, only one weekly as many as 20,000. During the year. 9,725
books and magazines, including many translations and new editions, appealed,
about nine-tenths being in native languages.
Justice and Crime.
The Presidencies of Madras and Bombay, and the [ieutenant-Governorshipa
of Bengal and the N.W. Provinces have each a high court, supreme both in
civil ami criminal business, bu1 with an ultimate appeal to the Judicial Com-
tnittee of the Privy Council in England, Of the minor provinces, the Ponjal
has a .chief court, with five judges: the Central Provinces, Oudh and Sind,
hav B each one judicial commissioner. liunna has a judicial commissioner and
a recorder. For Assam, the high court at Calcutta is the highest judicial
authority, except in the three hill districts, when1 the chief c uissioner of
Assam is judge without appeal in civil and criminal cases, [n each district
the 'collector-magistrate' is judge both of tirst instance and appeal.
Appellate and original jurisdiction is exercised in tie superior courts by
about i60 judges. During 1889. ahout 5.500 magistrates, of whom one half
JTJSTK K ANH CRIME — FINANCE
129
were honorary, exercised jurisdiction. There were 1,700 civil judges under
the superior courts. Nearly all the civil judges, and the great majority of the
magistrates, in the courts of original jurisdiction are natives of India ; while
in Bengal. Madras, and Bombay, the proportion of natives sitting in the appel-
late courts is considerable.
The following table gives (in thousands) the numljer of persons brought to
trial and of those convicted in criminal cases for the years quoted : —
Persons
1881
1885
1886
1887
UM
1889
Tried .
Convicted .
Of whom, fined .
1,172
645
468
1,323
621
462
1,368
668
498
1,377
674
500
1,433
689
511
1,448
691
515
In 1889, 363 persons were sentenced to death, 1,646 to transportation, and
161,561 to imprisonment. There were 968 convictions for the crime of murder,
7,858 for cattle-theft, 51,927 for ordinary theft, and 15,320 for housebreaking.
The total police of that year were 149,957 in number. Out of this number
60,685 were armed with firearms and 43,508 with swords.
In 1890 there were 37 central gaols, 200 district gaols, and 511 sulwdinate
gaols and lock-ups. The following table gives the number of prisoners in gaol
at the end of the years quoted : — •
Prisoners
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1S90
Male .
Female
Total .
73,026
2,883
74,204
2,772
73,940
2,570
76,627
2,694
82,140
2,933
86,726
3,048
75,909
76,976
76,510
82,321
85,073
89,774 '
Of the total number of convicts admitted into gaol during 1890, 13,248 had
been previously convicted once, 4,005 twice, and 3,255 more than twice.
Finance.
The subjoined table gives, in tens of rupees (Rx.), the total
gross amount of the actual revenue and expenditure of India,
excluding capital expenditure on public works, and distinguishing
Indian and home expenditure, in each of the financial years
ending March 31, 1880, and 1885-90.
Years
Expenditure
ended
Revenue-
Total Expenditure
March 31
In India
In Great Britain
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
1880
68,433.085
52,174,906
17,486,072
69.660,978
1885
70,690,681
53,549,721
17.527,406
71,077,127 ,
1886
74,464,197
58,839,753
18,426,170
77,265,923
1887
77.337,134
57,329,672
19,829,035
77,158,707
1888
78,759.711
58,932,878
21.855,698
80,788,576
1889
81,696,678
59,705,003
21,954,657
81,659,660
; 1890
85,085,203
60,960,805
21,512,365
82,473,170
130 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
For many years the equivalent in sterling money of the rupee
was approximately 2s., but since 1873 the equivalent has fallen
considerably lower, and has been subject to continual variations.
In August 1891, the sterling vahie of the rupee was about
Is. 5%d. In the budget estimate for 1891-92 the rate of
exchange is taken at Is. 5'25d.
The following table shows the items of revenue and expen-
diture for 1890-91 (revised estimate) and 1891-92 (budget
estimate) : —
Revenue
Heads of Revenue
1890-91
1891-92
Land revenue
Opium .
Salt
Stamps .
Excise .
Provincial
rates .
Customs
Assessed taxes
Forest .
Registration
Tribute .
Interest .
Post Office,
Telegraph,
and Mint
Civil depart- )
ments . j
Miscellaneous
Railways
Irrigation
Buildings \
and roads I
Military de-\
partmcnts . /
Total revenue
Rx
23,914! 600i24.
7,875,000
8,453,200
4,096,100
4,923,700
Rx.
399,300
593,400
343,500
148,200
953,700
Expenditure
3,475,400! 3,530,900:
1,722,500) 1,
1,603,500 1.
1,451,200 1.
369,100|
762,200
925,800
700,900
610,300
511,100
369,900
765,000
806,400
| 2,539,500
1,607,600
920,600
17,007,600
2,171,200
637,700
857,000
2,469,700,
571, 300*
821,400
872,400
160,600;
597,100
800.200
Heads of
Expenditure
Interest
Refunds,
compensa
tions, &c.
Charges of )
collection . |
Post Office, ~|
Telegraph, -
and Mint . J
Civil salaries&c.
Miscell. Civil)
charges . /
Famine re- !
lief and in- J-
surance . J
Railway con- \
struction . /
Railway Revo- )
nue account I
Irrigation
Building! \
ami roads /
Army
Defence works
1890-91
1891-92
Total .
DeductProvin«\
I cial balances/
Rx. Rx.
4,164,700 3,867,200
1,750,100 1,753,800
7,871,500 8,281,600
2,307,800 2,368.100
13,397,200;13,976,500
4,718,800 1,972,900
600,000
9,100
18,014,400
2,762,800
5,822,000
20,897,500
523,300
82,839,200
312,800
1,043,000
210,500
19,874,100
2,883,100
6.109,100
21,051,200
847,000
St!. 738. 100
- 828,400
I Total expenditure)
85,313,500 86,025,300' eh^ed nKainet} 82,526, Km s:,, 009.700.
revenue . . )\
In addition to the above expenditure a capital expend it tire
not charged against revenue on railway and irrigation works is
set down for 1890-91 at 34,894,000 rupees, and for 1891-92
at 35,000,000 rupees.
FDCANC1 1 31
The following table exhibits the growth of the three most
important sources of the public revenue of India, namely, land,
opium, and Bait, in the financial years 188] and 1886-91 : —
led March 31
' Land
Opium
Salt
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
1881
•21.112,995
10,480,051
7,115,988
1886
_'.371
8,942,515
6,345,128
1887
23,0."
8,942,976
6,657,644
1888
23,189,292
8,515,462
6,670,728
1889
23,016,404
8,562,319
.634
1890
23,981,399
8,583,056
8,187
1891 (estimate)
23,914,600
7,875,000
8,453,200
The most important source of public income is the land.
The land re venue is levied according to an assessment on e>-
or holdings. In the greater part of Bengal, about one-fourth of
Madras, and some districts of the North- West Provinces, the
--ment was fixed permanently one hundred years ago; while
it is fixed periodically at intervals of from twelve to thirty years
over the rest of India. In the permanently settled tracts the
land revenue falls at a rate of about two-thirds of a rupee per
acre of cultivated land, and represents on an average about one-
fifth of the rental, or about one twenty-fourth of the gross value
of the produce. In the temporarily settled tracts the land
revenue averages about Ih rupee per acre of cultivated land,
represents something less than one-half of the actual or esti-
mated rental, and is probably about one-tenth or one-twelfth
of the gross value of the produce. For details as to the nature
of the different tenures of land that prevail in India see the
Year-Book for 1886, p. 799. See also under Agriculture.
The land revenue was contributed in 1889-90 as follows : —
Administrations
Rx.
Administrations
Rx.
India ....
126,436
Central Provinces
665,339
Bengal
3,888,212
Madras
. 4,569,561
Assam.
445,806
Bombay
. 4,344,001
Punjab
2.224.278
Burma
. 1,898,633
and Oudh
5,819,133
Total .
. 23,981,399
In British territory the cultivation of the poppy is only permitted in
parts of the provinces of Bengal, the Xorth-TVest Provinces and Oudh. A few-
thousand acres of opium are grown in the Punjab for local consumption. In
the monopoly districts, the cidtivator receives advances from Government to
enable him to prepare the land for the crop, and he is bound to sell the whole
of the produce at a fixed price to Government agents, by whom it is de-
Satched to the Government factories at Patna and Ghazipur to be prepared for
e market. The chests of manufactured opium are sold by auction in
Calcutta at monthly sales for export to China. A reserve is kept in hand to
supply the deficiencies of bad seasons, and a small quantity is used by the
132 THE BRITISH EMPIRE .— INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
Indian excise departments. Opium is also grown in many of the Native
States of Rajputdna and Central India. These Native States have agreed to
conform to the British system. They levy heavy duties on opium exported
from their territories for the China market, and such opium pays the Indian
Treasury a duty which has been recently reduced from Rx. 65 to Rx. 60 per
chest on exportation. The gross annual revenue derived from opium averaged
during each of the ten years 1881 to 1890 the sum of Rx. 9,176,139, and the
average net receipts during the same period, Rx. 6,815,593. In 1855-58 the
net opium revenue averaged only Rx. 4,580,000.
The largest branch of expenditure is that for the army. The maintenance
of the armed force to uphold British rule in India cost 120,000,000 rupees in
the year before the great mutiny, and subsequently rose to above 250,000,000
rupees. It was 289,324,970 rupees (including 113,827,870 rupees for Afghan-
istan) in 1880-81 ; 183,594,330 rupees (including 178,690 rupees for Afghan-
istan, and 13,086,840 rupees for Egypt) in 1882-83; 169,638,030 rupees in
1884-85 ; in 1886-87, 195,250,420 rupees ; in 1887-88, 204,179,340 rupees ;
in 1888-89, 203,018,410 rupees ; in 1889-90, 206,778,140 rupees; and in
1890-91 (revised estimate) 208,975,000 rupees. The Budget estimate for
1891-92 is 210,512,000 rupees.
The following table shows the amount (in tens of rupees) of the public
debt of British India, both that bearing and that not bearing interest ; and
distinguishing the debt in India and in Great Britain, in each of the financial
years 1881 and 1885-90 :—
1
1 Year ended
Permanent Debt
Permanent Debt
Unfunded Deb)
Total
1 March 31
in India
in England
in India
Rx.
Rx-.
Rx.
Rx
1881
85,959,746
71,429,133
10,122,611
167,511,490
1885
93,183,660
69,271,088
11,266,746
173,721. -I'M
1886
92,703,982
73,806,621
8,013,498
174,524,101
1887
92,653,636
84,228,177
8,789,343
185,671,156
1888
98,089,862
84,140,148
9,715,834
191,945,81 1
1889
100,879,742
95,033,610
10,706,207
206,619,559
1890
102,761,175
98,192,391
10,675,877
211,629,443
The following tabic shows the revenues and expenditures of each of tl
Governments for the year ending March 31, 1890 : —
Revenue
India ....
Bengal ....
Assam ....
Punjab ....
\. \V. Provinces and Oudh
( lentraJ Province! .
Madias ....
Bombay ....
Burma ....
In England
Exchange
Total .
Rx.
14,646,158
19,849,958
1,013,347
7,848,074
10,716,21 i
l.SSS.-JOf.
11,372,486
18,086,288
1,678,088
385,768
i5o.i;7;.
85,085,203
Expend! tmtc
Ets
19,888,898
8,269,156
678,548
4,820,821
4,902,220
1,264,574
8,403, 991
8,888,721
3,849,376
1 I. MS. 923
6,663,442
82,473,170
FINANCE — DEFEN< E
133
The municiiial revenues in India are derived mainly from octroi, taxes
on bourn, lands, vehicles, ami animals, tolls, and assessed taxes. The amount
of income for 1889-90 for all Indian municipalities was Rx. 2,913,599, ami
the expenditure was Rx. 5,196,312. The following table shows the am wnt
for the chief administrations ( in thousands of rupees) : —
Mnnicipalities
Bengal
Punjab
N. \Y. Provinces
Income
3,020
Kvi» .'ii-
tare
10.24.1
-
4,183
Municipalities
[MOBM
K\}» M)
tare
Madras
Bombay
Burma
3.501
2,820
Defence
The following table gives the established .-trenirth of the
European and Native army in British India — exclusive of native
artificers and followers — for the vear 1891-92 : —
Numbers
Cor j is
Enro]*an Non-Commissioned
Officers Officers and Privates
Eirhpean Army.
Royal Artillery
Cavalry .
Royal Engineers
Infantry
Invalid and Veteran Establishment
Staff Corps .
.valry .
General List, Infantry .
Unattached Officers
General Officers unemployed
Total European Army
Naovk Akmy.
490
261
286
1,687
16
813
27
88
2
38
3;557
12,288
5,418
52.164
28
Total
Euro]>ean
Oficexs
Artillery ..... 33
Cavalry" 368
Sappers and Miners ... 56
Infantry . . . . .1,119
Total Native Army . . . 1,576
Total European and Native Army 5,1-33
89,84*
Native
Officers
. Non-Com. ;
Officers t '
Privates
286
53,701
43
813
23
88
2
38
73,405
Total
26 3,731
626 22,552
66 i 3.8501
2,042 ) 110,370-
2,760 s 140, 5031
2,760 ' 210,351
3. 790
23.546
3,972 i
113,531
Includes 100 European non -commissioned officers.
Includes 1 European non-commissioned officer.
lo4 THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
Since 1856, when the Indian army consisted of 4U,UU0
European soldiers and 215,000 natives, the numbers have changed
to 73,000 European and 145,000 native soldiers; and the concen-
tration or mobilisation of troops has been greatly facilitated
within the empire or on its frontier. A regular transport service
now exists, and a method has been organised for the supply of
animal carriage, hospital servants, and other field establishments
sufficient to place a large army promptly in the field.
The health of the Indian troops has been so improved by
better barracks, by quartering a larger proportion of the European
soldiers at drill stations, and by attention to sanitary conditions,
that the death-rate, which before the Mutiny was 6 "9 per cent,
for Europeans, and 2 for natives, has been reduced to 1*6 and 1*3
per cent, respectively. There were in 1890, 21,725 volunteers of
European blood, 19,093 of whom were reported efficient.
According to the estimates for 1891-2 the strength of the
European British army in India for the year (excluding the
veteran and invalid establishment) was given as follows : —
Artillery
Bengal
Bombay
Madras
Total
7,284
3,115
2,329
12,728
Cavalry
Engineers
Infantry
Miscell.
Officer!
Total
3,786
631
1,262
200
38
48
33,441
9,117
11.143
560
154
254
45,271
13,055
15,036
5,679
286
53,701
968
73,362
Returns published in 1884 showed that the various feudatory
and dependent States of India had armies numbering 349,835
men, and 4,237 guns.
A large proportion of these forces were little better than a
badly-equipped, undisciplined rabble ; but in 1888, after the native
chiefs had loyally offered large sums of money towards the cost of
imperial defence, the Indian Government elaborated a scheme for
the training and equipment of picked contingents of troops in cer-
tain States, with a view to enabling the chiefs to bear a direct
share in the defence of the Empire. Measures are now in progress
which will enable the chiefs to furnish contingents of troops fit to
take their place in line with the regiments of the Indian army.
The special contingents, known as imperial service troops, now
number between 17,000 and 18,000 men, organised and under
instruction. Fourteen British inspecting officers have been ap-
|m tinted. The following table shows the States and contingents
with which they have to deal : —
PRODI < lit >N AND IN DUSTRY
1 35
State
t- !
-
1
-
I
a
3
I
State
>
A-
|
fc
=
1
Kashmir .
•41
3,750
300
4.:.'.'.;
Jolhpur .
1,200
—
Patiala
000
1,000.
—
1,600 !
Bhartpur .
600
800
—
1,400
Jind .
150
000
—
BikaniT .
! -
500
—
'.00
Xabha
150
000
Jaipur
-
—
—
—
i Kapurthala
150
600
—
TOO
Gwalior .
1,900
—
—
1,200
Bahawalpur
150
300
—
450
Mysore .
1. ■-•"<'
—
—
1,200
Faridkot .
50
150
—
200
Rampur .
1 300
—
300
! Sirmur
—
150
—
150
KathiawarStates
—
—
Alwar
600
1,060
—
1,660
Total .
^510
300
Arrangements are being made under which the troops of
Haidarabad, Bhopal, and Indore will come within the operation
of the scheme.
There are two armour-plated turret-ships attached to the
Government of India : — The Abyssinia, 4 guns, 2,908 tons, 949
horse-power ; and the Magdala, 4 guns, 3,344 tons, 1,436 horse-
power. In 1891 there were 9 ships of war on the East India
Station, and 20 on the China Station.
Production and Industry.
The chief industry of India has always been agriculture, but
it was not until about the year 1870 that the Indian Government
directed systematic attention to fostering and improving Indian
agriculture. Since that time there has been established in every
province of India a public department, which collects and distri-
butes early information concerning the crops, controls or advises
upon model and experimental farms, introduces new agricultural
appliances, tries new staples, and is organizing schools for teaching
the chemistry and science of agriculture. By these departments
Indian students of good education have been sent to Europe to
study at agricultural colleges. It is chiefly in respect of the use of
manures, of rotation of crops, of fodder raising and storing, of new
staples, and of such appliances as improved sugar-mills, that the
example or teaching of the agricultural departments and their
agents is likely to have useful effect. Something has also been
done towards introducing better breeds of cattle into some pro-
vinces, and great attention has been paid to the improvement of
the local breeds of horses, ponies, and mules.
The following table shows for 1890 the amount of land held direct from
Government in ten provinces of British India ; and also the number of
estates, of holders, the average area of each estate, and its average assess-
ment in rupees. Statistics for Bengal and Bombay are not available : —
136 THE BRITISH EMPIRE :-— INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
Administration
No. of
Estates
Gross Area
of Estates
No. of
Holders
Average
Area of each
Estate
Average
Assessment
Acres
Acres
rs. a. p.
Madras .
3,290,063
48,959,386
5,405,263
14-88
15 10 1
N.-W. Provs.
119,518
43,809,134
2,549,845
367
382 8 6
Oudh .
11,646
14,720,710
155,763
1,264
1,237 8 3
Punjab .
36,665
55,436,942
3,065,154
1,512
690 0 0
Central Provs.
75,124
43,097,610
132,769
574
89 0 0
Berars .
374,079
7,827,563
303,105
20-9
18 0 10
Coorg • .
30,919
156,793
17,802
5-07
9 7 6
Assam .
697,267
7,481,701
—
10-7
5 2 3
Lower Burma
908,526
5,229,608
689,685
5-76
9 4 0
Upper Burma
189,540
2,791,296
243,683
14-73
—
In provinces where the zaminddri tenure prevails (i.e. where single pro-
prietors or proprietary brotherhoods possess large estates of several hundreds
or thousands of acres), the State revenue is assessed at an aliquot part (usually
about one half) of the ascertained or assumed rental. The revenue is payable
on each estate as a whole ; the assessment remaining unchanged for the period
of settlement. In provinces where the rdyatwdri tenure prevails (i.e. where
each petty proprietor holds directly from the State, as a rule cultivates his own
land, and has no landlord between himself and the Government), the revenue
is separately assessed at an acreage rate on each petty holding, and land
revenue becomes payable at once (or after a short term of grace in the case of
uncleared lands) on all extensions of cultivation. The rdyatwdri proprietor
may throw up his holding, or any portion of it, at the beginning of any year
after reasonable notice, whereas the zamlnddr or large proprietor engages to
pay the revenue assessed upon him throughout the term of the settlement.
The following table shows the class of tenure in each province : —
!
Zainindari ami Village
Communities
Kayntwiiri, 4c.
Ana
Population
Revenue
Rupees
Area.
Populatipa
Revenue
Rupees
x.-w. Province!
Surveyed.
Acres
of Surveyed
Area
Surveyed
Acres
of Surveyed
Area
i 52, 020,063
32,308,052
i::, ]. -,().. -,:;;,
1 Oudh .
16,886, 120
11,387,741
14,161,768
—
—
—
Punjab
71,676,676
18,850,487
24,612,748
—
—
—
Central Province!
18,(505,582
1,889,608
152,044
11,766,489
B,499,888
5,978,549
Berara
—
—
—
II, ::."'.'.::. o
2,080,018
6,780,688
Coorg
—
—
—
1,018,360
178,802
•-".12,771
Assam
■l.-lli).l!i:i
—
410,331
2,417,694
—
8,897,978
Lower Burma .
167,866
—
69,688
50.10S.!I7.-)
—
8,486,786
Upper liui-ma .
Madras
2,881
—
—
47,829,559
2,074,559
27,484,181
7,901,170
5,094,874
68,676,270
22,922,370
44,686,740
Bombay
—
—
—
47,6*1,866
18,867,896
38,668,388
Bind .
—
—
—
26,091,049
2,413,823
7,7!IS,052
AJmere
734,001
218,005
318,489
—
—
—
Bengal
No
statistics
available
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
187
The following table shows, according to provinces (excepting Bengal), the
total acreage over which were grown the chief crops of British Imlia in
1889-90, the total area cultivated being 136,168,899 acres :—
Administrations
Rice
W'\r Bt
Bengal .
N.-W. Provs. .
Oudh
Grains
Ohm
Tea Cotton
oil r.„i;„
1,490
1.973
Punjab . . I
Central Prow 4,094,711 4
Ber.irs
Coorg
Assam .
Lower Burma .
Upper Burma .
| Madras .
I Bombay .
Ajmere .
ParganaManpur
Total.
10,004
74,587
6,458,668
1,361,09
na
93
27,866,44;
830,027 2. 921. 446
— 1,638
15
—
15,84Si 9S
18,902 14.
2,Sll,558|18,ft49,125
8,6391 m,sa
%On 3,070;
Statis tics not available
871,008 8,76..
•213,318 —
-
.-.•_■ m -
•2.431 —
978.912 IJ17.311 1
19,309-2.
10.4M
1,886
70,688
323
07
18,446,160,75,841,694 1,628,561
1
1,000 1
56
30
251,072 10,393,167 7,845,302 977,433 393,074
ides cotton, other fibres occupied 325,098 acres, only 6*25 of which
grow jute. Coffee plantations occupy 118,219 acres, of which 55,618 acres
were in Madras, and 62,465 acres in Coorg. Food crops, other than cereals
and pulses, cover 3,354,067 acres. In 1889-90 of the total area cultivated
(136,168,899 acres) 3,921,673 acres were cropped more than once, giving a
total area under crops of 150,090,570 acres. Reckoning twice over the land
irrigated for both harvests, 27,722.441 acres were under irrigation by canals,
tanks, wells, and otherwise. The following table shows for 1889-90 the
working of canals for which full accounts are kept : —
Capital outlay till
Area irrigated
Net receipts during
end of year
daring year
year
Rx.
Acres
Rx.
■ Bengal
7,134,353
553,934
37,642
X. ^ . Provinces
and Oudh
8,087,397
1,879,403
370,563
Punjab
6,196,927
2,797.17-2
688,964
Ajmere
164,668
35,770
7.201
Madras
6,529,664
2,529,664
368,954
' Bombay
2,428,146
85,550
17,574
1 Sind .
1,183,638
1,381,679
147,413
The Ganges Canal, which was completed in 1854, and has cost
Kx. 2,839,358, comprises 437 miles of main canal, and 3,569 miles of dis-
tributaries. During the year it supplied water to 807,574 acres. The
Sirhind Canal, in the Punjab, has cost upwards of Rx. 3,675,000, and con-
sists of 542 miles of main canal, and 4,389 miles of distributaries. In Madras
the Godavari, Kistna, and Cauvery irrigation systems together irrigate
upwards of 2,000,000 acres.
In 1889-90 there were 56,8214; square miles of forest demarcated and
reserved by the State. The work of demarcating and reserving forest tracts
has been pushed on with great vigour in recent years, and especially since
138 THE BRITISH UMPIRE : — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
1877. In that year the demarcated area was only 17,705 square miles ; in
the following year it was raised by operations in the Central Provinces to
40,425 square miles.
The following table shows the extent of reserved forests in 1890 in square
miles : —
8q. miles
Bengal . . 5,195 Assam
Madras . . 4,501
N.W.P.andOudh3,709
Sq. miles
Central Provinces 19,707
Bombay . . 10,349
Lower Burma . 5,568
Punjab
Bcrars
Sq. miles
3,473
1,694
1,059
There were 114 cotton mills at work in India in 1889-90. containing
22,078 looms and 2,934,637 spindles, employing a daily average number of
99,224 persons. The whole capital invested in this industry is quite
110,000,000 rupees.
There were 26 jute mills and one hemp mill in March, 1890, employing
a daily average number of 61,911 persons, with 8,301 looms and 161,949
spindles. The capital invested in the joint stock mills is estimated at
35,000,000 rupees.
There were two woollen mills at work at the close of 1889, with 279 looms
and 7,868 spindles.
There are eight paper mills.
The quantity of beer brewed during 1890 amounted to 5,171,726 gallons.
In March, 1891, there were 928 joint stock companies in India registered
under the Indian Companies' Act. They possessed a total nominal capital
aggregating Rx. 35,058,776, and an actual capital (paid up) of Rx. 23,611,005.
The following table shows the division of the aggregate capital among
the principal classes of joint stock companies : —
-
Number
Paid up capital
Companies :
Banking and loan ....
Insurance ......
Trading :
Merchants and traders . .
Navigation ......
Railways and tramways
Co-operative associations
Shipping, landing, and warehousing .
Total trading ....
Mills and Presses :
Cotton mills .....
Jute mills ....
Mills for cotton, jute, wool, silk, hemp,
&c. .......
Cotton and jute, screws and presses .
Other mills and presses
Total mills and presses .
Tea companies
Coffee and cinchona ....
Other planting companies
Mining and quarrying ....
In' making ......
; Sugar manufacture .....
Breweries ......
1 Others
Grand total .....
2V0
13
Rx.
3,094,298
200,664
107
7
11
18
'»
1,840,508
212,222
874,641
36,315
62,910
8,026,596
4,686,692
968,620
4,032,960
1,320,258
439,131
ii.m7.m;i
3,456,251
46,189
46,242
915,706
189,752
160,636
169,540
857,470
l 19
56
11
63
76
27
288
140
6
8
I,:'.
12
2
3
29
928
28,611,005
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
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140 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
There were 82 collieries worked in India in 1890. The annual output was
as follows : —
Tons Tons Tons
1885 . 1,294,221 1887 . 1,563,652 1889 . 1,945,354
1886 . 1,388,487 I 1888 . 1,708,903 | 1890 . 2,168,521
The total value of the output in 1890 may he estimated at 7,347,000 Rs.
The total imports of coal, coke, and patent fuel in 1890-91 amounted to
784,664 tons. The total numher of persons employed at the mines is given
as 32,971.
Commerce.
The value of the sea-borne external trade of India has risen in the 57
years, 1834-35 to 1890-91, from Rx. 14,342,290 to Rx. 196,260,382, the
increase being nearly fourteenfold, making on the average a rate of 22 "25 per
cent, annually. The average rate of increase in the trade during the last
twenty-eight years is shown below, the period being divided into four periods
of seven years each : — ■
Years
1861-62 to 1867-68
1868-69 to 1874-75
1875-76 to 1881-82
1882-83 to 1888-89
1889-90.
1890-91.
Average
Annual
Imports
Rx.
46,564,217
43,144,965
53,158,379
72,768,240
86,656,990
93,909,856
Average
Annual
Exports
Rx.
55,247,350
57,379,611
69,432,191
89,300,256
105,366,720
102,350,526
Increase
orDecreasej t f
ipercent.of * u„„„.^.0
Imports
Increase
ExiK)rts
- 7-34
23-21
36-89
19 09
-2-86
3-86
21-00
28-62
17 99
8-37
In the year ending March 31, 1891, the total foreign trade of India
(private and Government) was as follows, in tens of rupees : —
-
Imports
Exerts
Merchandise .
Treasure
Total
Rx.
71,975,370
21,934,486
Rx.
100,227,348
2,123,178
93,909,856
102,350,526
The following shows (in tens of rupees) the total imports and exports of
India, divided into merchandise and ' treasure ' (bullion specie), excluding
Government stores and Government treasure, in the fiscal years ending
March 31, 1881, and 1887-91 :—
Imports
Vein's ended
March :il
Merchandise
Treasure
Total
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
1881
50,308,834
8,988,214
59,296,048
1887
58,661,462
11,053,319
69,714,781
1888
62,384,813
13,825,856
76,210,669
1889
66,570,318
13,844,960
80,415,278
1890
66,560,120
17,459,301
84,019,421
1891
69,034,900
21,919,486
90,954,386
1
COMMERCE
141
Exports and Re-Exports
Years ended
March 31
Merchandise
Treasure
Total
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
1881
74,531,282
1,409,403
75,940,685 j
1887
88,428,660
1,684,511
90,113,171 1
1888
90,471,462
1,513,954
91,985,416 j
1889
96,978,171
1,703,497
98,681,668
1890
103,396,862
1,841,920
105,238.:
1891
100,135,722
2,071,906
102,207.'
Of the exports of merchandise in 1890-91, Rx. 95,902,193
represented the products of the country. Rx. 4,233,529 were
re-exports of foreign imports.
The imports and exports, including private treasure, but
excluding Government stores and treasure, were distributed as
follows between the four great commercial divisions of India in
1881 and 1887-91 :—
Bengal
Burma
Madras
Bombay
Sind
Imports : —
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
1881
24,099,953
3,846,346
4,210,582
25,984,917
1,155,250
1887
24,412,324
3,762,914
5,660,569
32,955,526
2,923,448
1888
24,582,141
5,719,802
5,527,175
37,653,672
2,727,879
1889
27,118,724
5,011,889
5,932,605
38,612,572
3,739,488
1890
26,314,803
5,467,752
6,437,420
42,295,457
3,503,989
1891
29,998,766
5,500,323
6,543,231
45,124,897
3,787,167
Exports : —
1881
33,508,055
6,565,236
7,317,187
27,481,660
1,068,547
1887
35,734,239
6,586,720
9,360,551
35,469,204
2,962.457
1888
37,196,306
6,633,547
9,966,665
35,526,003
2,662,895
1889
37,873,741
6,108,822
10,446,348
40,363,646
3,889,111
1890
39,806,044
7,781,542
11,608,509
40,973,741
5,068,946
1891
37,428,230
9,612,321
10,900,145
39,542,536
;.396
The amount of bullion and specie, private and Government,
imported and exported, will be seen from the following table for
the years 1881 and 1887-91 :—
Year ended
Imports of
Imports of
Exports of
Exports of
March 31
Gold
Silver
Gold
Silver
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
1881
3,672,058
5,316,156
16,859
1,423,582
1887
2,833,558
8,219,761
656,493
1,064,023
1888
3,236,053
10,589,803
243,572
1,361,052
1889
3,119,088
10,725,872
305,154
1,479,192
1890
5,071,027
12,383,474
455,724
1,450,598
1891
6,500.832
15,433,654
864,660
1 258,518
142 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
The following table shows (in tens of rupees) the
respective shares which
the leading countries with which India deals had in
the exports
and imports
(merchandise alone) of India in the years ending March 31, 1890 and 1891 : —
Countries
Exports of Indian Produce
Imports into India from
1890
1891
1890
1891
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
United Kingdom
37,950,864
31,691,796
50,291,140
52,101,868
China
13,801,477
14,295,934
2,449,501
2,420,295
France .
7,714,867
7,842,267 :
975,647
815,825 !
Italy .
4,217,755
3,627,870 i
510,508
492,711 1
Straits Settlements
4,536,746
5,499,505
2,441,400
2,300,338
United States .
3,736,324
8,968,785 i
1,729,156
1,522,865 !
Egypt .
3,869,974
4,499,097
75,898
87,306
Belgium .
5,641,048
4,648,609
873,827
976,759 j
Austria .
2,960,484
2,745,478
703,716
832,795 j
Ceylon .
2,195,241
2,525,790 :
632,119
713,383 1
Australia
1,063,489
1,219,037
391,732
249,718
Japan
1,218,998
1,210,276
28,127
57,672
Germany
2,764,657
4,387,482
563,912
1,691,649
Mauritius
1,015,581
1.093,212 i
1,735,002
1,701,695
Arabia .
825,146
734,645 |
373,570
290,707
Holland .
358,705
409,788 !
9,469
18,739
East Coast Africa
563,263
508,895 ;
419,623
447,607
Persia
497,102
420,986
803,916
710,182
Spain
407,075
439,105 !
1
9,242
9,325
The following table gives a summ
ary of the value of the different classes
of imports and of exports of Indian
produce (private merchandise only) in
the years 1890 and 18
<tl
(ending Marc
h 31) in tens of
rupees : —
-
Imports
Exports
1890
1891
1890
1891
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Animals, living
239,708
295,430
98,085
122,278
Articles of food and drink
7,867,666
8,628,852 25,354,123
27,785,219
Metals and manufactures
of:—
Hardware and cutlery .
1,096,191
1,197,614
11,055
10,258
Metals
5,705,987
5,646,147
52,126
50,268
Machinery .
2,435,386
2,063,631
92
618
Railway plant and stock
1,821,337
2,001,853
—
7,772
Chemicals, drugs, &c.
1,280,334
1,397,479
14,990,805
13,283,220
Oils ....
2,645,213
2,634,187
543,945
551,903
Raw materials
3,725,259
4,032,765
44,291,911
39,497,901
Articles manufactured or
partly so —
Yarns and textile fabrics
33,291,553
34,422,298 9,932,222
10,493,131 !
Apparel
1,296,394
1,349,898 113,318
103,429
Other articles
Total .
5,155,092
5,364,514 3,712,373
3,996,196
66,560,120
69,034,900 99,101,055
95,902,193
COMMERCE
143
The following table shows (in tens of rupees) the value of the leading
articles of private merchandise imported and exported (the produce of India
only — that is, not including re-exports of foreign goods) in the year ending
March 31, 1891 :—
femwti
Vataa
Imports
Value
Rice .
Wheat
Cotton (raw)
,, (manufactured)
Opium
Seeds (oil seeds mainly)
Hides ami skins .
Jute (raw) .
.. (manufactured)
Tea .
Indigo
Other dves and tans
Coffee
Wool (raw>
Spices
Lac (excluding lac dye)
Sugar (refined and )
unrefined) . . |
Silk (raw and cocoons).
„ (manufactured) .
Oils .
Wood.
Wool (manufactured)
Provisions .
Saltpetre .
Rx.
112,877,740
: 6,042,426
!l6,50-
7.702,640
9.261,814
, 9,294,456
' 4,695,919
7.602,010
2,481,961
5,219,233
3,078,1*6
.640
1,454,985
968,322
455,057
781.44:5
417,562
521,069
203,181
551,903
557,884
104,166
633,377
380,059
Cotton manufactures .
Metals, hardware \
and cutlery . i
Silk (raw and mamif. ).
Sugar (refined and \
unrefined) . I
Woollen goods .
Liquors
Railway plant and )
rolling-stock i
Oils .
Machinery and Mill "\
work
Coal .
Provisions .
Apparel (excluding )
hosierv) .
Salt . ' .
Spices
Glass .
Dngn
Paper .
Umbrellas .
Grain and Pulse .
Rx.
31,010,349
•
2,501,430
:*.. 399,886
1,818,213
1,423,460
2,00
4,187
2, Or;
1,543.442
1,476,070
1,349,898
779,034
813,115
650,236
632,14fj
431,436
326,092
93,483
The share of each province in some of the most important exports is
shown in the following table for 1890-91 : —
<
—
f
Bengal Bombay
Sind
Madras
Burma
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rice .
3,472,430
329,150
44,547
601,311
8,430,301
Wheat
503,802
2,720,262
2,818,044
318
—
1 Opium
5,979,926
3,281,888
—
—
—
Indigo
2,051,135
94,158
33,711
894,121
—
j Cotton
872,842
12.904,720
318,649
2,335,317
71,248
\ Seeds
3,504,777
4,598,110
412,217
826,526
1,622
The gross amount of import duty collected in 1890-91 was 32,435,346
rupees, and export duty 9,210,395 rupees. The largest import dutv is
derived from salt, 24,490,836 rupees in 1890-91 ; the export duty is entirely
on rice.
The extent of the commercial intercourse between India and the United
144 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
Kingdom, according to the Board of Trade Returns, is shown in the subjoined
table : —
-
1886
18S7
1888
1889
1890
Exports from India .
Imports of British produce
£
32,130,007
31,340,242
£
30,529,310
30,583,209
£
30,763,677
32,539,234
£
36,199,204
30,955,778
£
32,668,797
33,641,001
The following table shows the staple articles of export from India to the
United Kingdom in the years 1886-90 : —
Year
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Cotton
Wheat
Jute
Seeds
Tea
Rice
Indigo
£
3,665,120
4,815,185
3,063,002
5,223,808
4,740,232
£
3,945,033
3,102,964
3,069,808
3,405,284
3,461,071
£
2,999,261
3,670,253
3,890,315
5,403,651
4,916,509
£
3,927,444
2,843,562
3,492,640
3,618,980
2,534,959
£
4,187,672
4,211,051
4,426,506
4,566,496
4,768,340
£
2,068,015
1,467,479
1,400,952
1,774,761
1,984,121
£
1,683,206
1,447,868
1,456,740
1,612,684
1,386,196
Other articles are : leather, of the value of 1,890,821/. ; untanned hides,
569,688?. ; coffee, 676,830Z. ; wool, 969,0497. in 1890.
The chief articles of British produce imported into India are as follows : —
Year
Cotton Manu-
factures
Cotton Yarn
Iron
Copper
Machinery
Woollens
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
£
18,726,766
16,721,960
18,530,641
17,678,634
18,676,110
£
2,471,142
2,516,677
2,711,844
2,250,292
2,563,680
£
2,692,744
3,226,036
3,178,779
2,819,062
3,188,314
£
971,788
919,738
295,505
761,900
855,587
£
1,445,202
1,683,231
2,038,966
1,964,556
1,881,450
£
585,431
552,172
520,812
462,036
560,054
The commerce between India and Great Britain was divided as follows
in 1890:—
Bombay and Kind
Madras
Bengal
Burma
Imports from
£
9,491,555
4,221,322
16,615,655
2,340,265
32,668,797
Exports to
£
13,979,092
3,371,881
14,141,678
2,148,350
33,641,001
The following figures show the actual extent of the foreign trade of tlie
seven largest ports in merchandise only, imports and exports (including i<
exports), during the last live years, in thousands of rupees :—
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
1+:.
-
1886-87
1887-88
1888-89
1880-90
1890-91
Bombay
576,528
596,546
652,923
657,480
653,716
( '.ileutta
577,721
589,558
622,882
631,124
617,506
Rangoon
79,631
98,977
93,100
108,937
121,376
Madras .
85,208"
88,001
92,967
103,393
100,207
Karachi .
57,054
51,868
73,772
84,057
84,021
Tutieorin
14,266
16,139
16,551
-547
20,360
< 'luttagong .
9,695
12,570
11,351
15,126
13,211
Of the total imports of merchandise 572,870,498 rupees in value came
through the Suez Canal, and of the exports 584,078,486 rupees in value went
through the Suez Canal.
In addition to the sea-borne trade as above, there is a considerable trans-
frontier land-trade. The following table shows the value, in rupees, of the
land-trade (excluding treasure, the figures for which are untrustworthy),
during three years ending March 31 : —
1889
1890
1891
Rs. Imports Rs. Exports
37,154,000
35,614,000
37,821,000
44,801,000
50,274,000
45,293,000
Rs. Total
81,955,000
85,888,000
83,114,000
The following table shows the value of the trade (excluding treasure), in
tons of rupees, with the leading trans-frontier countries in the last three years
ending March 31, 1891 :—
-
Imports from
Exports to
1889
1890
1891
UM
1890
1891
Rx:
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Rx.
Br,
Lua Bela
44.200
32,800
48,800
24,200
29,100
•>.
Kh.lat
50,000
39,900
33,100
39,600
35,500
34,000,
: S. Afghanistan .
299,700
267,000
1,934,400
1,764,400
1. ;:<•'..•.••"
1 Sewestan
52,100
64,000
63,400
68,900
75,400
68,300
Kabul ....
187,300
325,300
208,600
1 026.800
796,500
459,900
Bajaur ....
34.200
75,700
93,400
49,100
89,700
MJMt
& Kashmir
502,300
578,700
548.M
485,600
563,800
565,200
1 Ladakh
28,600
24,500
34,200
&,900
27,600
1 Tibet ....
90,400
101,400
77.700
46,200
40,400
40,200
I Nepal ....
1,388,100
1,542,100
1,719,500
1,100,900
1,258,000
l,*BMM
' Karen ni
.V22.IJ0O
76,200
148,700
19,700
34,900
14,400
1 Shan States .
19,000
94,200
181,200
27,700
123,400
155,100
1 Zimme ....
324,300
146,800
141,400
40,000
42,600
59,000
8iam . . . .
25,900
49,900
48,700
24,300
30,100
23,400
1 W. China
1 ^
4,900
53,400
38,400
108,700
The total value of the coasting trade in 1890-91 was 65,586,390 rupees
imports and exports, apart from Government stores and Government
sasure.
Shipping and Navigation.
The following table shows for five years the number and tonnage ot
ed in the foreign trade which entered and cleared at ports in British
146 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
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INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
147
The following gives the ntunbei and tonnage of steam vessels which entered
and cleared Indian ports rid the Suez Canal during the years indicated : —
Enteral
Cleared
Total
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
X...
Tons
1880-81
1886-87
1887-88
i 1888-89
1 1889-90
1890-91
686
726
784
755
677
752
1,018,103
1,310,269
1,407,997
1,408,331
1,331,767
1,487,111
773
945
949
967
931
M8
1,115,769
1,636,381
1,637,738
1,735,626
1,723,597
1,821,405
1,459
1,671
1,733
1.7M
1,608
1,717
2,133,872
2.946,650
3,045,735
•S. 143,957
3,055,364
3,308,516
The number of vessels which entered with cargoes in the interportal trade
in 1889-90 was 115,861 of 9,259,321 tons ; and in 1890-91, 109,665 ol
10,018,596 tons; and cleared, in 1889-90, 112,477 of 9,169,343 ton* : in
1890-91, 103,809 of 9,880,766 tons.
For the year 1890-91, 80 vessels of 2,795 tonnage were built at Indian
ports ; 46 of the vessels in Bombay, and 18 in Madras. The following table
compares the number and tonnage of all the vessels built and of those first
registered at Indian ports for six years : —
1886
1887
1888 1889
* 1890
1S91
■■J n™*
nage
nage
« 1 Ton-
No. _._.
nage
No.
Ton- Vrt
nage^0-
na-
1 IgC
Ton-
nage
Built .
Registered .
. 117 4.40:.
. 165 T.71--5
143 4,311 11'. MM
1 .'. 186 10.146
1*1 1
US 4.7S1 j 106 , 3,006.1 So
il89 13,276 150 ! 8,591 124 10,005
\ \ • 1
Internal Communications.
The following table shows the length in miles of roads maintained by
public authorities throughout the country :-
-
Metalled Miles
Unmetalled Miles
Total Miles
Bengal ....
3,932
27,095
31,027
N. W. P. and Oudh
4.934
23,582
28,516
Punjab ....
2,256
21,920
24,176
Burma ....
1,092
2,680
3,772
j Central Provinces .
1,201
6,057
7,258
! Assam
120
4,759
4,879
Madras ....
11,095
10,436
21,531
j Bombay
2,461
4,517
6,978
i Haidarabad .
820
—
820
< Coorg
89
222
311
Mysore ....
1,730
3,170
4,900
Rajputana
771
1,162
1,933
Central India
1,554
—
1,554
Baluchistan .
376
889
1,265
Military works
842
440
1,282
Grand total
33,273
106,929
140,202
L 2
148 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
The Ganges, the Brahmaputra, the Indus, and the Irawadi, with some of
their branches, are largely used for inland traffic. In Southern India,
especially, canals are an important means of communication. Railways, how-
ever, are now rapidly spreading all over the Peninsula.
I. Railways.
The rate of progress in each of the last twelve years in opening out
railway communications in India will be apparent from the following
figures : —
Miles open
1875 6;519
1876 6,833
1877 7,322
1878 8,212
Miles open
1879 8,492
1880
1881
1882
9,308
9,892
10,145
Miles open
1883-84 10,780
1884-85 12,000
1885-86 12,375
1886-87 13,386
Miles open
1887-88 14,377
1888-89 15,242
1889-90 16,092
1890-91 16,996
The total capital expenditure by the State on Indian Railways up to the
end of 1890, including lines under construction and survey, amounted to
Rs. 2,224,175,436, allocated as follows :—
State Railways .
State lines leased
Companies
Guaranteed Railways
Subsidized Companies
Assisted Companies
Native States
Es.
. 1,258,770,008
to
. 267,226,547
540,656,457
2,417,052
50,536,600
80,025,145
Foreign lines .
Surveys .
Collieries . . .
Interest, Bengal & N. W. R.
Rs.
16,882,710
4,279,147
2,291,746
1,090,014
Total
Rs. 2,224,175,426
Up to the end of 1890 the total amount of capital raised by the various
Guaranteed Railway Companies was 49,488,903Z., and for State lines leased to
companies 22,469,854?., or a total amount of 71,958,757/.
Guaranteed Railways
£
Great India Peninsula . 25,145,633
Bombay, Baroda, & Cen-
tral India . . . 8,807,219
Madras .... 10,772,644
South India . . . 4,763,407
Total . . . 49,448,903
State Lines Leased to Companies
Lucknow Bareilly
Bengal Nagpur.
Indian Midland
Southern Mahnithii
Mysore
Bengal Central .
Total
6,905,781
6,886,116
6,453,957
1,224,000
1,000,000
. 22, 469, 854 j
The gross earnings on all railways during 1890 (exclusive of the West
Of India Portuguese Railway) amounted to Rs. 206,701,158, againsj
Rs. 204,920,068 during 1889. During 1890 the number of passengers carried
was 114,082,246, the coaching earnings being Rs. 70,598,929, and the passen-
ger mileage 4,779,075,224; while during 1889, 110,402,383 passengers wore
carried, the coaching earnings being Rs. 68,964,758, and passenger mileage
4,673,304,103 miles.
The aggregate tonnage of goods, material, and live stock carried during
1890 was 22,612,718 tons, which earned Rs. 129,951,712, the ton-mileagi
being 3,509,668,215. In 1889 the corresponding totals were 22,155,164 Ions.
with an earning of Rs. 130,235,243, and a ton-mileage of 3,639,462,392.
INTERNAL POMMUNICATK >KS
14! i
The total working expenses amounted in 1890 to Rs. 103,089,186, or 49 87
j>er cent, of the gross earnings; as compared with Rs. 103,773,479, or 50-64
per cent., in 1889.
The net earnings realised were Rs. 103,611,972 against Rs. 101,146,589 in
1889, giving a return on the capital expenditure on open lines, including
steamboat services and suspense account, of 4-85 per cent, against 4*93 per
cent, in the previous year.
II. Posts and Telegraphs.
In 1890 there were 19,196 post-offices and taxes, against 753 in 1856.
In the fiscal year ended March 31, 1890, the number of letters, UMtondft,
and money-orders whicb passed through the post-offices of British India was
278,118,510 ; of newspapers 23,286,544 ; of parcels 1,882,265 ; and of packets
8,700,791 ; being a total of 311,988,110. The following table gives the nuni-
l>er of letters, newspapers, &c, carried, and the number of offices and receiving
houses, together with the total revenue and expenditure (in tens of rupees) of
the Post Office in each of the five fiscal years 1886 to 1890 :—
Year ended
Number of Letters,
Post OflSces
Total
Total
March 31
Newspapers, &c.
Boxes
Revenue
Expenditure
Number
Rx.
Rx.
1886
243,083,216
15,905
1,113,086
1,302,604
1887
259,570,861 !
16,483
1,157,878
1,353,877
1888
274,398,622
16,967
1,214,196
1,375,215
1889
293,224,228
17,600
1,281,540
1,342,452
1890
311,988,110
19,196
1,301,362
1,376,594
In the fiscal year ending March 1870, the mails travelled over 50,281
miles, of which total 40,586 miles was done by boats and 'runners,' 5,460
miles by carts and on horseback, and 4,235 miles by railways. In the fiscal
year ending March 31, 1890, the mails travelled over 71,113 miles, of which
total 51,413 miles was done by boats and 'runners,' 3,980 miles by carts and
on horseback, and 15,720 miles by railways.
The following table shows the mileage of Government telegraph lines in
India, and the number of messages sent, together with the charges on and
receipts from all paid messages (including those sent by the Indo-European
Telegraph and Persian Gulf Section) : —
Year ended
Number of Number of j
Revenue
Revenue
Number of
March 31
Miles of Wire Miles of Line'
Receipts
Charges
Paid Messages
Rx.
Rx.
1886
81,480
27,510
628,484
872,761
2,289,938
1887
86,891
30,034
692,747
714,464
2,516,826
1888
93,517
31,894
763,886
786,627
2,807,617
1889
99,655
33,462
742,148
704,092
2,983,152
1890
106,140
35,279
766,865
731,355
1 3,132,571
There were 880 telegraph offices on March 31, 1890.
150 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
Money and Credit.
The great fall in the value of silver has, during the last iifteen years, made
the task of administering Indian finances more difficult than formerly.
About fifteen millions sterling has to be spent in Great Britain on account of
India, and this has to be paid in gold, while the Indian revenues are raised in
silver. Thus Rx. 22,500,000 must be paid instead of Rx. 15,000,000, wben
the rupee is worth only Is. 4d. instead of 2s.
The total value of the silver and copper coined in British India from 1859
to 1890 inclusive has been Rx. 221,918,584 ; the heaviest coinage in any one
year being Rx. 16,328,917, during 1877-78, when the last great famine
occurred.
The currency of India is chiefly silver, and the amount of money coined
annually is large. In the five financial years from 1886 to 1890, the value (in
tens of rupees) of the money coined at the two Indian mints (Calcutta and
Bombay) was as follows : —
Year ended
March 31
Gold
Silver
Copper
Total
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Rx.
22,586
22,609
23,051
Rx.
10,285,566
4,616,537
10,788,425
7,312,255
8,551,158
Rx.
81,361
117,128
170,337
101,503
204,468
Rx.
10,389,513
4,733,665
10,958,762
7,436,367
8,778,677
On July 16, 1861, an Act was passed by the Government of India pro-
viding for the issue of a paper currency through a Government department of
Public Issue, by means of promissory notes. Circles of issue were established
from time to time, as found necessary, and the notes were made legal tender.
within the circle for which they were issued, and rendered payable at the
place of issue, and also at the capital city of the Presidency. There arc now
eight circles of issue, each of which gives in exchange lor money notes ranging
from 5 rupees to 10,000 rupees in value.
In the year ending March 31, 1863, the total value of notes in circulation
was 49,260,000 rupees.
The following were the total values of notes in circulation (in tens of
rupees) on March 81 in each year, from 1886 to 1890 : —
Hx. Rx.
1885 . . 14,540,727 1888 . . 16,162,329
1886 . . . 14,710,203 1889 . . 16,131,628
1887 . . . 14,201,095 1890 . 16,151,496
More than two-thirds of the total note circulation is in the currency
circles of Calcutta and Bombay.
The following are the statistics of the various Government banks in India
for live years. These banks were divided into Presidency hanks (3), Railway
hanks (18), Tost Office hanks (6,850), and Military hanks (179) in 1889-90 :—
MONEY AND CREDIT
151
-
Banks
Native Depositors
European or Eurasian
Depositora
Total
v . Balanc- at
N [W of Year
No.
Balance at
end of Year
Balance at
eml of Year
1885-86 ; 6,197
1 1886-S7 6,229
1887-88 i 6,151
i 1888-89 | 6,236
i 1S89-90 '
207,070 3,79,46,30S
280,222
266.30S :.,09.92,721
312,722 "..'.'.'1,63,159
355,017 ! 5,93,82,763
:.:.,813
58,843
66,403
70,249
76,291
Rs.
1,25,24,886
1,86,81
1.47.84,654
1,56..
1,46,8
262,883
289,066
331,711
382,971
431,308
Rs.
...04,70,693
"•,708
7,39,68,538 |
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of India, and the British equivalents.
are nominally : —
Money
The Pic
3 ,, . . . = 1 Pice
4 Pice, or 12 Pie . = 1 Anna
16 Annas . . = 1 Rupee
16 Rupees . . = 1 Gold Mohur
= \ Farthing.
= l| Farthings.
= 1£ Pence.
= 2 Shillings.
= 1/. ISA
The relative value of the money of India and England fluctuates with the
gold price of silver ; thus, a rupee has been worth 2s. 2d., and for some years
was Is. 7d., but for the past three years (December, 1891) has averaged about
Is. zt\d. The anna is equal to about Id at present.
The sum of 100,000 rupees is called a 'lac,' and of 10,000,000 a 'crore '
of rupees.
Weights and Measures.
The Maund of Bengal of 40 seers
,, ,, Bombay
,, ,, Madras
,, Candy, of 20 maunds
„ Tola ....
,, Guz of Bengal
82| lbs. avoirdupois.
28 lbs.
25 lbs.
24-3 bushels.
180 p.
36 inches.
An Act ' to provide for the ultimate adoption of a uniform system of
weights and measures of capacity throughout British India ' was passed
by the Governor-General of India in Council in 1871. The Act orders :
Art. 2. ' The primary standard of weight shall be called a seer, and shall be
a weight of metal in the possession of the Government of India, equal, when
weighed in a vacuum, to the weight known in France as the kilogramme,'
= 2 205 lbs. avoirdupois. Art. 3. 'The units of weight and measures of
rapacity shall be, for weights, the said ser ; for measures of capacity, a mea-
sure containing one such scr of water at its maximum density, weighed in a
vacuum. ' ' Unless it be otherwise ordered, the subdivisions of all such
weights and measures of capacity shall be expressed in decimal parts.'
152 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning India.
1. Official Publications.
Accounts relating to the Trade and Navigation of British India for 1890. Calcutta. 1S91.
Administration Beport on the Bailways in India for 1890-91. Calcutta, 1S91.
Administration Reports of the various Provinces. Annual.
Aitchison (Sir Charles U.), A collection of Treaties <fcc, relating to India and neighbour-
ing Countries. 2nd edit. 7 vols. Calcutta, 1876.
Annual Statement of the Trade and Navigation of British India with Foreign Countries,
and of the Coasting Trade between the several Presidencies, together with Miscellaneous
Statistics relating to the Foreign Trade of British India, from various periods to 1890-91
Imp. 4. Calcutta, 1891.
Baden-Powell (B. H.), Land Revenue Systems and Land Tenures of India. Calcutta,
1882.
Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 1886. Special Catalogue of Exhibits. London, 1886.
East India : (1) Finance and Revenue Accounts, 1889-90, and Estimate for 1890-91 ; (2)
Financial Statement, 1890-91, 1891-92 ; (3) Home Accounts ; (4) Net Revenue and Expendi-
ture ; (5) Public Works Expenditure ; (6) Loans raised in India. London. 1S91.
Famine Commission, Report of. Calcutta, 18S:').
Finance Commission, Report of. Calcutta, 1887.
Finance and Revenue Accounts ; and Miscellaneous Statistics relating to the Finances of
British India. Part I. Revenues, Charges, and other Cash Transactions of British India.
Fol. Calcutta, 1891.
Finance and Revenue Accounts : Part II. Revenues and Charges of each Presidency
and Province. Fol. Calcutta, 1891.
Finance and Revenue Accounts : Part III. Revenues and Charges, Statistics for the
Administration of Revenue, and Miscellaneous Statistics. Fol. Calcutta, 1891.
Gazetteers, Provincial and District.
General List of the Native Chiefs of India, with Memoranda prepared for H.R.H. the
Prince of Wales. 3 vols. Calcutta, lS7.r>.
Hunter (Sir W. W.), Statistical Account of Bengal. 20 vols. London, 1877. Statistical
Account of Assam. 2 vols. London, 1879.
Hunter (Sir W. W.), The Imperial Gazetteer of India. 2nd edit. 14 vols. 1868-87.
Indian Army Commission, Report of. Calcutta, 1879.
Indian Army and Civil Service List. Issued by permission of the Secretary of State tor
India in Council. 8. London, 1891.
Mackenzie (Sir A.), The North- Eastern Frontier. Calcutta, 1884
Paget (Gen.) and Manon (Captain), Record of Expeditions against t lie Tribes of the North-
west Frontier. London, 1885.
Public Service Commission of 1SS0, Report and Proceedings. Calcutta, 18SS.
BepOrt Of the Census of British India taken on February 17, 1881. 3 vols. London, 1S83.
Beporta of the Trigonometrical Surveys of India up to 1880-00. Calcutta, 1891.
Report of the Indian Education Commission. Calcutta, 18S:i.
Returns of the Agricultural Statistics of British India, 1880-90. Calcutta, 1S91.
Ileview of the Accounts of the .sea-borne Foreign Trade of British India for the war
ending March SI, 1891. Simla, 1891.
Statement exhibiting the Moral and Material Progress and Condition of India during the
year 1882-83 (including the decade of 1874-83). Two parts. Fol. London, 1883. The same
lor 1889-90. London, 1891.
Statistical Abstract tor the several Colonial and other Possessions of the United King-
dom in each vear from 187". to 1SS9. No. XXVI. 8. London, 1800.
Statistical A list met relating to British India from 1*79-80 to 188S-S0. No. XXII. 8.
London, 1800.
Statistical Atlas of India. Calcutta, 1886.
Trade of India with Great Britain, In 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in 1889.' Imp. 4. London, 1S90.
Watt (Dr. (!.), Dictionary Of the Economic Products of India. Vols. 1. anil II. Calcutta.
1885-88.
See 'A List of the Principal Indian Government Publications on Sale.' London. lsiM.
2. Non-Okkki m. Publications.
Arnold (8irE.), The Administration Of Lord Dalhousie. London,
Hal/our (Edward), The Cyclopaedia of India. 3 vols. London. 1886.
Hinlirnuil (Sir G.), The Industrial Arts of India. London.
Carnegy (V.). Notes on the Land Tenures and Rerenoe Assessments of Upper India. 8.
London, 1874.
\ IISTK AT.' AND OTHER P.OOKS OF REFERENCE 1":;
Chetney (CoL R. E.), Indian Polity : a View of the System of Administration in India.
London, 1870.
Cunningham (H. S.), British India and its Rulers. 8. London, 1881.
Dilke. (Sir Charles Wentworth. Bart., M.P.X Greater Britain: a Record of Travel in
English-speaking Countries in 1866 and 1S67. New edit. 8. London, 1885.
DujT(GrantX The History of the Mahrattas. London, 1836.
Dufferin (Marquis ofX Speeches delivered in India. London, 1890.
Elliot (Sir H. MA History of India as told by its own Historians. The Mussulman
period. S vols. London, 1869-77.
Elphinttone (M.), History of India. London, 1866.
Fontpertui* (Ad. Front de), L'Inde britannique. 8. Paris, 1878.
Forbe* (C. .J. T.X British Burma and its People. 8. London, 1880.
Fytche (General). Burma. Past and Present. 2 vols. London, 1878.
Griffin (8ir Lepel H). The Rajas of the Punjab, being the History of the principal 8tatet>
in the Punjab. 2nd edit. S. London, 1872.
Hunter i^ir W. W.X The Indian Empire, its History, People, and Products. 2nd edit.
London, 1886.
Hunter (Sir W.), Life of the Earl of Mayo. Londoi
Jaeottiot (L.), Lois, pretres, et castes dans l'lnde. S. Paris, I
Kaye (John William), The Administration of the East India Company : a History of
Indian Progress. 8. London, 1853.
Keane (A. H.). and Temple (Sir R.X Asia. London, 1882.
Low (Charles Rathbone), The History of the Indian Navy. 2 vols. S. London.
Lyoll (Sir A. C), Asiatic Studies. London. 1S82.
Afa Aon (Lord), Rise of our Indian Empire. & London, 185S.
Markham (Clements R.), Memoir of the Indian Surveys. 8. London, 1871.
Manhman (John Clarke), The History of India, from the Earliest Period to the close of
Lord Dalhousie*s Administration. 3 vols. S. London, 1867-70.
Phayre (Sir Arthur), History of Burma. London, 1883.
Reclus (Elisee), Geographic universelle. L'Inde et I'lndo-Chine. Paris, 1883.
Roustelet (L-X India and its Native Princes. 4. London, 1876.
Saundtr* (Trelaunay), Atlas of India. London, 1889.
Scott (J. G.). Burma : as it was, as it Is, and as it will be. London, 1886.
Sherring (Rev. M. A.), History of Protestant Missions in India. S. 2nd edit. London.
Smith (Dr. G.), Short History of Christian Missions. Edinburgh, 1886.
Smith (Dr. G-X The Geography of British India, Political and Physical. London, 1S82.
Smith (R. BosworthX The Life of Lord Lawrence. London. 1883.
Stoke* (Whitley), The Indian Codes. London, 1S8S-91.
Straehey (Sir John), India. London, 1SS8.
Straehey (Sir John). The Finances and Public Works of India, from 1869 to 1881. 8-
London, 1SS2.
Temple (Sir R.), India in 1S80. London, 18S1. Men and Events of my Time in India.
Ixmdon, 1S82.
Todd (CoL J.), The Antiquities of Rajasthan. London, 1S23.
Tovntend (M-X and Smith (G.), Annals of Indian Administration, 1856J7&. 19 vols.
Serampore and Calcutta.
Trotter (Capt. L. J.), Historj- of India under Victoria. 2 vols. London, 1886.
Wallace (Prof. R.X India in 1887. Edinburgh, 1888.
WaUon (J. Forbes), and Kaye (Jn. Wm.X The People of India : a Series of Photographic
Illustrations, with descriptive letterpress, of the Races and Tribes of Hindustan. 4 vols.
Imp. 4. London, 1866-70.
IVheeler (J. Talhoys), The History of India from the Earliest Ages. 4 vols. S. London
. A Short History of India. London, 1880.
William* (Sir Monier), Modern India and the Indians. 8. London, 1879.
William* (Sir Monier), Religious Thought and Life in India. London, 1883.
Yule (Colonel H.), Narrative of the Mission to the Court of Ava London, 1858.
Yule (Sir H.X and liurnell (A. C.X A Glossarv of Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases,
umdon
154 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
DEPENDENT ST A TEH.
To some extent dependent on, or feudatory to, India, are the
two border States of Bahichistan and Sikkim.
BALUCHISTAN.
A country in Southern Central Asia, lying approximately between lat. 25°
and 32° N., and between long. 61° and 70° E. ; extreme length from E. to W.
about 550 miles ; breadth about 450. Bounded on the N. by Afghanistan,
on the E. by British India, on the S. by the Arabian Sea, on the W. by
Persia. Includes (1) Independent 'Baluchistan ; (2) Quetta and the Bolan,
administered on the Khan's behalf by the British Government ; (3) British
Baluchistan ; (4) certain Afghan and Bahlch tribes on the Indian frontier.
The reigning sovereign is Mir Khudadad Khan, Khan of Khelat, who
succeeded his brother in June, 1857 ; born 1841 ; eldest son, Mir Muhammad
Khan.
Khans of Khelat since 1700.
Abdulla Khan. i Mehrab Khan, 1819-1840.
Muhabbat Khan. [ Shah Nawaz Khan, abdicated.
Nasir Khan I., 1755-1795. j Nasir Khan II., 1840-1857.
Mahmud Khan. Khudadad Kluin, reigning.
The power of the Brahui Khans of Khelat was founded towards the end
of the seventeenth century by a hill chief named Kumbar. Called in to
protect the Hindu Raja of Khelat against marauders from the east, Kumbar
first expelled these invaders, and then overthrew the Hindu dynasty. His
successors gradually made themselves supreme from Khelat to the Arabian
Sea, and about 1740 Abdulla Khan, the fourth Brahui Khan of Klu-hit . was
acknowledged as chief of Baluchistan by Nadir Shah. The districts of
Quetta and Mastang were granted to Abdulhi's son. Nasir Khan I., by
Ahmad Shah, the Durani King of Afghanistan. Nasir Khan's grandson.
Mehrab Khan, was killed in the storming of Khelat by a British force in
1839. His son, Nasir Khan II., was acknowledged by the British Covcrn-
ment in 1841 ; and in 1854 a treaty was executed witli him, under the
terms of which he received a yearly subsidy of 50,000 rupees. Nasir Khan
was succeeded by his brother, Khudadad Khan, now reigning, with whom
a fresh treaty was concluded in December, 1876, by which the subsidy was
raised to 100,000 rupees a year. The Khan also made over the district of
Quetta to be administered by British officers, at first receiving the surplus
revenue, but since 1882 an annual quit-rent of 25,000 rupees. He also
receives 30,000 rupees per annum as compensation for his right to levy transit
dues on merchandise in the Bolan Pass.
The Khan of Khelat is at the head of a confederacy of chiefs, but his
powers cannot be precisely defined. In all important matters he is amenable
to the advice of the Agent to the Governor-General in Baluchistan, who also
arbitrates in disputes between the Khan and minor chiefs.
The area of Baluchistan is about 130,000 square miles. This includes
(1) the greater part of Baluchistan ruled by a confederation of chiefs under
the suzerainty of the Khan of Khelat ; (2) the districts of Quetta and the
Bolan administered on the Khan's behalf by British officials; (3) the As-
signed Districts of Pishi'n, Shorarud, Kachh, Kawas, Harnai, Sibi, and Thai
Chotiali, which formerly belonged to Afghanistan, and are now directly
BAI.rVHISTAX — SIKKIM 155
under British rule ; (4) the Afghan tribes between the Amir's territory and
India ; and (5) the Balueh tribes, known as Marris and Bugtis. Total popu-
lation of Baluchistan (British and Independent), about 500,000. The nomad
Baluchis are the most widely spread race, the Brahnis of the eastern plateau
being the dominant race^
During the year 1888-89 the district of Khetran was brought under
British control ; and more recently stops liave been taken to establish British
influence and authority in the country l»etween the Zhob Valley and the
Gumal Ptas
The principal towns are Khehit (the capital). Quetta, which is already
much larger than Khehit, Masting, Kozdar, Bela, Kej, Biigh, Candava.
Dadar, Sonmiani. The religion is Muhammadan. The only Hindus are
shopkeepers and those who have come to Quetta for trade, labour, \<-.
There is no standing army, with the exception of about 1,200 men kept
up by the Khan : His Highness could ]>erhaps assemble, at an emergen, v.
10,000 irregular tribal levies, indifferently armed. The fortifications recently
erected by the Indian Government lie within the territory under British
administration. The numerous forts scattered about independent Baluchis-
tan could offer no resistance against artillery.
The Khan of Khelat's revenue consists of his subsidy from the Indian
Government of 100,000 rupees a year, his qnit-rent of 25.000 nqiees for the
Quetta district, and a share in the agricultural produce taken from the
inferior cultivators in Independent Baluchistan. The last source of revenue
varies considerably. In a good year it might be worth 500,000 rupees.
The agricultural produce of Baluchistan is limited, owing to the scanty
and uncertain rainfall ; but most of the crops grown in India may lie found
in the country. Coal has also been found in several places. At Khost, on
the Sind-Pishin Railway, it has lieen successfully worked for some years
past. Baluchistan is an immense camel-grazing country. Local manufac-
tures are unimportant, being confined to a few matchlocks and other weapons.
The nomad tribes make for themselves rough blankets and rugs. The chief
exports are wood, hides, madder, dried fruit, lxlellium, tobacco, and dates.
The following table shows, as nearly as can be estimated, the imports and
exports of Baluchistan from and to British India for the past two years. The
trade over the Sind-Pishin Railway, very little of which goes beyond British
territory, is excluded : —
Imports
Exports
1890
1891
1S90
1891
Lus Bela .
Khelat
Rx.
29,112
35,504
Rx.
28,591
33,970
Rx.
32,798
39,864
Rx.
48,787
33,088
The country through which the Bolan and Sind-Pishin Railways run is
under British administration. Elsewhere camels serve as the chief "means of
transport. There is a line of telegraph to Quetta, and the submarine cable
from Karachi to the Persian Gulf touches at Gwadar.
See ' The Country of Baluchistan,' by A. W. Hughes, London, 1S77. The Annual
Reports of the Resident. ' Travels in Baluchistan and Sinde,' by Sir H. Pottinger. London
1816. 'Unexplored Baluchistan.' by E. A. Hover, London, l"s82. ; Wanderings in Balu-
chistan.' by General Sir C. MacGregor, London, 18S2. The Administration Report of the
Baluchistan Agency for 1SSS-S9, Calcutta, 1891. ' Across the Border, or Pathan and Biloch '
by E. E. Olivei, London, 1891.
15G THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — INDIA AND DEPENDENCIES
SIKKIM.
An Indian feudatory State in the Himalayas, bounded on the N. by
Tibet proper, on the E. by the Tibetan district of Chumbi, on the S. by the
British district of Darjiling, and on the "W. by Nepal. Extreme length
from N. to S., 70 miles ; extreme breadth, 50 miles.
The political relations of the English with Sikkim date from 1814, when
the Indian Government, being at war with Nepal, entered into an alliance
with the Maharaja of Sikkim. At the close of the war a grant of territory
was made to the Maharaja, and he also received a guarantee of British
protection. In 1835 he ceded Darjiling, and was given in return an allow-
ance of 6,000 rupees a year. In 1850 this allowance was forfeited as a
punishment for an outrage on two English travellers. In 1860 troops were
sent into Sikkim to demand the restitution of British subjects kidnapped
from Bengal ; and a new treaty was signed in 1861, by which the Maharaja
undertook to keep open a trade route to Tibet, to protect travellers, to reside
at least nine months in every year within his own dominions, and to allow-
no armed force belonging to another country to pass through Sikkim without
the sanction of the British Government. His allowance was at the same
time restored as an act of grace, and was increased to Rs. 9, 000 a year, being
further increased a few years later to Rs. 12,000.
In Jvdy 1886 the Maharaja allowed a party of Tibetans to enter his
dominions and to build a fort at Lingtu ; and as he furthermore contravened
the terms of the treaty by residing all the year round in Tibetan territory,
his allowance was stopped, and a British force was sent in March 1888 to
expel the Tibetan troops. The intruders were ejected, and after a time the
Maharaja returned to his allegiance. At the same time, negotiations were
entered into with the Chinese Government (to which Tibet is tributary) : and
in March 1889 a treaty was signed by the Viceroy of India and the Chinese
representative, by which the British protectorate over Sikkim is recognised by
China. The treaty (ratified by Queen Victoria on August 17, 1890) also
declares that the British Government has direct and exclusive control over the
internal administration and foreign relations of Sikkim.
A British officer has been appointed to advise the Maharaja and bis
council, and to reorganise the administration.
Estimated area, 1,550 square miles. Population, 8,000 or more. The
people are known to their Gurkha neighbours as Lcpehas, but call themselves
Rong.
l'rincipal towns, Tumlong and Gamtak.
The religion is Buddhist.
The revenues of the Maharaja are said to amount to Rs. 844 yearly over
and above bis subsidy. They consist practically of an income tax, assessed
and collected by twelve Kazis and other subordinate officials ; the collectors,
however, retaining most of the money themselves, and only handing over a
portion to the Maharaja. The Kazis exercise a limited civil and criminal
jurisdiction within their districts ; important cases being referred to the K;ij;i
and decided by his minister and the diwiins. The lamas pay no dues to the
State.
Sikkim produces rice, Indian corn, millet, oranges, tea, and two or three
kinds of cloth. There are valuable forests in the State and wide tracts of
unoccupied waste.
The principal trade route from Bengal to Tibet passes through Sikkim :
l>ut tbe through trade is. for the time being, practically extinguished. owine
to the complications on the Tibetan frontier. During the year 1890-91 the
n.ide of Sikkim (exclusive of through trade) with British India amounted to:
ANDAMAN AND NIOOHAfi tfLAHDS 157
Exerts, 100,580 rupees ; imports, 123,226 rupees. The chiefs imperii van
cotton piece goods, tobacco, and rice ; the chief exports food grains and
vegetal lies.
See 'Report on a Visit to Sikkiui in 1873,' by Sir John Edgar, Calcutta
1874; 'Report on Explorations in Sikkiin, fcc.,' by Lieut. -Col. Strahan,
Dchni Dun, 1889.
Also attached to British Iudia are the following island groups :
ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS.
The Andauians are a group consisting of the Great and Little Andaman*
on the east side of the Bay of Bengal, 600 miles from the Hugli mouth of
the Ganges. The Great Andamans comprise three large islands, the North.
Middle, and South, with several smaller ones ; the group is about 156 mike
long and 20 miles wide ; area, 1,760 square miles. The most considerable of
the Little Andamans are Interview, Outram, Henry Lawrence, and Rutland
Islands. The aboriginal population, of diminutive size and low tjpa, ia
variously estimated at from 2,000 to 10,000. The islands are mainly used as
a convict settlement for India. At the end of 1890 the convict ]>opulation
was 12,197, of whom some 3,209 held tickets as self-supporters. There is a
l>oliee force of 645 men. Port Blair, the principal harbour, is on the South
Island of the Great Andamans. The population of Port Blair (1891) is
15,670. Other ports are Port Campbell on the west of South Andaman, and
Port Cornwallis on the east coast of Xorth Andaman. About 17,700 acres
have been cleared for cultivation by the convicts, the produce mainly for local
use. The whole group was formally annexed in 1858, and is placed under a
• Chief Commissioner and Superintendent of the Andaman and Xicobar
Islands,' appointed by the Indian Government.
The Xicobar Islands are a group to the south of the Andamans, 634 square
miles. There are 8 large and 12 small islands. Great Xicobar is 30 miles
long, 12 to 15 miles wide. There used to be a convict station at Xaucowry or
Camorta Island, but in 1888 the place was abandoned as a penal settlement.
The number of aboriginal inhabitants is 6,915. The islands are said to yield
annually 15,000,000 coco-nuts — one half exported ; edible birds' nests, tortoise-
shell, ambergris, trepang are also shipped.
LACCADIVE ISLANDS.
A group of 14 islands (9 inhabited), about 200 miles off the west or Malabar
coast of the Madras Presidency. The northern portion is attached to the
collectorate of South Kanara, the remainder to the administrative district of
Malabar. Population (1891), 14,410, all Muhammadans. The staple product
is the fibre known as coir.
KAMARAN ISLAND.
Small island in the Red Sea, on the west coast of Arabia, 20 miles SSW.
of Sohera, 15 miles long, 5 miles wide. There are 7 small villages occupied
by fishermen. Affords good sheltered anchorage.
Keeling Islands. See Straits Settlements.
Kuria Muria Islands. See Aden.
58 THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
LABUAN.
Governor.— Charles Vandeleur Creagh (on leave). L. P. Beaufort acting.
Acting Resident and Treasurer.— F. G. Callaghau.
Crown colony, placed, in 1889, under the government of the British
North Borneo Company.
An island about 6 miles from the north-west coast of Borneo, in the
Malayan Archipelago. Area, 30J square miles. Population (1891), 5,853
estimated, mostly Malays from Borneo, with some Chinese traders ; 30
Europeans in 1891. Capital, Victoria, 1,500 inhabitants.
-
1886
1SS7
1S88
1889
1890
£
3,761
4,291
34,313
56,229
Revenue
Expenditure .
£
3,665
4,155
£
4,167
4,201
£
3,832
3,923
£
4,272
3,828
Exports
Imports
84,022
79,781
44,578
86,990
77,240
49,753
87,405
74,574
70,121
66,689
62,363
Tonnage, entered
and cleared
53,232
114,750
Sago, gutta-percha, india-rubber, wax, &c, are imported from Borneo and
other islands and exported to Singapore. In 1890, 9,665 tons of coal were
exported. There is no trade with the United Kingdom.
Chief sources of revenue : Retail licences, also customs on spirits, wines,
tobacco, &c. There is no public debt.
THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS.
Constitution and Government.
The Straits Settlements, a Crown colony, which comprises Singapore,
Penang (including Province Wcllesley), and Malacca, were transferred from
the control of the Indian Government to that of the Secretary of State for the
Colonies on April 1, 1867, by an Order in Council issued under the authority
of an Act of the Imperial Parliament, 29 and 30 Vict. c. 115. The Cocos
Islands were placed under the Straits Settlements by letters patent dated
February 1, 1886, and Christmas Island by letters patent dated January 8,
1889.
The administration of the colony is in the hands of a Governor, aided by
an Executive Council, composed of the general officer commanding the
troops, the Colonial Secretary, the Resident Councillors of Penang and
Malacca, the Attorney-General, the Treasurer, the Auditor-General, and the
Colonial Engineer. There is also a Legislative Council, presided over by the
Governor, and composed of ten oilicial and seven unofficial members, five
nominated by the Crown and two elected by the Chambers of Commerce of
Singapore and Penang.
Governor of the Straits Settlements. — Sir Cecil Clementi Smith, K.C.M.G.,
Student Interpreter, Hong Kong, 1862; Colonial Secretary Straits Settle-
ments, July, 1878 ; Acting-Governor, ditto, 1884-85 ; Lieutenant-Governor
of Ceylon, 1885; and Governor Straits Settlements, 1887.
There arc municipal bodies in each settlement, the members of which are
partly elected by the ratepayers, and partly appointed by the Governor.
AULA AM) population 159
Area and Population.
Singapore is an island about twenty-seven miles long by fourteen
wide, with an area of 206 square miles, situated at the .southern extremity
of the .Malay Peninsula, from which it is separated by a narrow strait about
tlm ,'t '-quarters of a mile in width. There arc a number of small islands
adjacent to it, which form part of the settlement. The seat of government
is the town of Singapore, at the south-eastern point of the island. Penang
is an island of 107 square miles, situated off the west coast of the Malayan
Peninsula, and at the northern extremity or entrance of the Straits of
Malacca. On the opposite shore of the mainland, from which the island
is separated by a strait from two to ten miles broad, is Province Wellesley,
■ .-trip of territory forming part of the Settlement of Penang, averaging
eight miles in width, and extending forty-five miles along the coast, in-
cluding ten miles of territory to the south of the Krian, the whole con-
taining an area of 270 square miles. The chief town of Penang is George
Town. Off the coast of Perak is the small island of Pulau Pangkor, which,
together with a small strip of the opposite mainland, has been acquired as
British territory, the whole being known as the Dindings. Malacca is
situated on the western coast of the peninsula between Singapore and
Penang — about 110 miles from the former and 240 from the latter — and
consists of a strip of territory about forty-two miles in length, and from
eight to twenty-four and a half miles in breadth.
In addition, the Native States of Perak, Selangor, Sungei Ujong, and
Negri Sembilan, Johor, and Pahang, which occupy a large portion of the
peninsula, are under British protection.
After the military occupation of Perak, those concerned in the murder
of Mr. Birch were captured and punished. In Perak, Selangor, and Sungei
Ujong, including Jelebu, Residents were appointed in 1874, who are
I by a staff of European officers ; and it is their duty to aid the
native rulers by advice, and to carry out executive functions. The supreme
authority in each State is vested in the State Council, consisting of the
highest native authorities and the principal British officials. The Residents
are directly under the Governor of the Straits Settlements.
In 1883 the relations of the colony were consolidated with the small
Native States on the frontier of Malacca. These States were confederated
in 1889, under the name of Negri Sembilan. A State Council has been
formed, and a Resident has been appointed. In 1887, by agreement with
the Raja of Pahang, the control of his foreign relations, &c, was sur-
rendered to the British Government. This was followed by a further
agreement in 1888 with the Raja (now styled Sultan), under which Pahang
was taken under British protection, on the same terms as the Protected
Native States on the west coast of the peninsula. Pahang is situate on the
east coast, within 200 miles by sea from Singapore. The Sultan of Johor
in 1887 placed, in the spirit of former treaties, his foreign relations in the
hands of this country, and agreed to receive a British Agent.
The areas of these States, in square miles, are : — Perak, 7,950 : Selangor
3,000 ; Sungei Ujong, 660 ; Negri Sembilan (including Jelebu), 2,000 ;
Johor, 9,000 ; Pahang, 10,000. The duty on the export of tin forms the
largest item of the revenue of these States. Gold is found in considerable
abundance in some of them. The country, however, is otherwise rich, and
offers great advantages for the cultivation of coffee and cinchona on its high
land, and of paddy in the valley-.
The following figures give the numbers in the several Settlements, incisive
100 THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
of the military, at the census, 1881, and the general results of the census of
April 6, 1891 :—
1881
Singapore
Penang
Malacca t
Totals
White :
Males ....
Females ....
Coloured :
Males ....
Females.
Totals (1881).
Totals (1891).
2,207
562
565
109
31
9
2,803
680
-
2,769
674
40
3,483
103,216
33,223
123,640
66,283
52,028
41,511
278,884
141,017
166,439
189,923
93,539
419,901
169,208
190,597
93,579
423,384
182,650
232,977
90,950
506,577
Under the heading of Penang are included Penang Island, Province
Wellesley, and the Dindings.
The following are the chief statistics of the census of 1881 : —
-
Malays
Chinese
Natives of India
Singapore
Penang, &c. .
Malacca ....
Total .
22,155
84,772
67,513
86,766
67,820
19,741
12,058
17,036
1,891
174,440
174,327
30,985
A census of the population of the native States was also taken in 1891,
the totals being as follows : Perak, 212,997 ; Sehingor, 81,421 ; Sungei 1
23,602 ; Pahaug, 52,803 ; Negri Sembilan, 41,617.
The births and deaths in 1890 were as follows : —
-
Singapore
Dindings
Penang
Wellesley
Malacca
Births .
Deaths .
2,799
6,557
97
119
1,864
4,002
2,697
2,624
2,553
3,511
In 1890, 132,674 Chinese immigrants landed in the colony, as against
150,809 in 1889. The total number of Indian immigrants in 1890 was
18,301, against 18,136 in 1889, and 5,053 in 1880. Of the total 2,960 were
under indenture. The Dumber returned to India in 1890 was 15,276.
Instruction.
Education, which is not compulsory in the colony, is partly supported by
the Government.
FINANCE
Thi- Dumber of sehook and scholars is as follows, 1891 :-
n;i
-
No. of Schools
Attendance 1
Goveniment English schools ....
Grant-in-aid English schools ....
Government vernacular boys' k girls' schools .
7
32
145
929
3,766
6,027
Total ....
184
10,7-
Justice and Crime.
The law in force is contained in local ordinances and in toch English and
Indian Acts and Orders in Council as are applicable to the colony. The
Indian Penal Code, with slight alterations, has been adopted, and then is
a Civil Procedure Code based on the English Judicature Acts. Then it a
Supreme Court which holds assizes at Singapore and Penang every two
months, and quarterly at Malacca, and which holds civil sittings monthly at
Singapore and Penang, and once or twice a quarter at Mala.
There are, besides, police and marine magistrates' courts. The total
convictions before the Supreme Court in 1890 was 302 ; before the other
courts 32,577. The police force numbered over 2,000 of all ranks in 1890, of
whom about 100 were Europeans. The daily average of criminal prisoners in
gaol in 1890 was 1,274.
Finance.
The public revenue and expenditure of the colony for each of the rive
years from 1886 to 1890 were as follows : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
Dollars
Dollars
1886
3,747,501
3,495,639
1887
3,847,653
3,511,096
1888
3,858,108
3,569,507
1889
4,410,620
3,816,194
1890
4,269,123
3,757,691
The estimated revenue for 1891 was 3,980,911 dollars. The leading items
K revenue in 1890 were — stamps, 340,300 dollars ; licences, 2,852,422 dollars :
land revenue, 249,500 dollars ; port and harbour dues, 114,146 dollars :
_c, 148,009 dollars ; and of expenditure — salaries, 1,289,161 dollars :
public works, 1,981,171 dollars ; education, 89,560 dollars ; police, 103,977
dollars ; marine department, 72,258 dollars ; transport, 87,482 dollars {military
expenditure, 292,494 dollars.
The revenue in 1890 was derived as follows: — Singapore, 2,358,448 dol-
lars : Penang, 1589,757 dollars: Malacca, 320,743 dollars.
The total assets of the colony, January 1, 1891, amounted to
8,768,136 dollars, and liabilities 1,258,167 dollars, of which the sum of
131,636 dollars was a debenture loan.
162 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS
The revenue and expenditure of the native States virtually under the
protection of the Straits Settlements are as follows for 1890 : —
-
Revenue
Expenditure
Dollars
• Dollars
Perak ......
2,504,116
2,447,929
Selangor ......
1,888,924
1,996,544
Sungei Ujong . ...
277,910
261,647
Negri Sembilan. ....
107,033
115,589
Pahang ......
62,077
297,702
Johor ......
No
returns.
Debt of Sungei Ujong, 94,000 dollars; Negri Sembilan, 180,897 dollars;
Pahang, 372,500 dollars.
Defence.
The new harbour of Singapore, comprising the coal stores, wharves, and
docks, is defended by several Forts armed with armour-piercing and medium
guns, and by a system of submarine mines. The initial cost of the forts
amounted to nearly 100,000/., and was defrayed out of the revenues of the
colony, the Imperial Government supplying the guns and ammunition only.
The garrison comprises one battalion of infantry at war strength, two batteries
of European artillery, half a company of fortress engineers, and a company
of Malay submarine miners. A further augmentation of the garrison is under
contemplation.
The colony also maintains at Singapore an armed police force consisting
of 31 officers and over 2,000 men, and a battery of volunteer artillery
consisting of 105 officers and men. The latter during time of war would be
placed under the orders of the officer commanding the troops and act as
auxiliaries to the European artillery.
Production and Industry.
The only articles produced to any considerable extent in the Straits
territory are gambier in Singapore : pepper in Singapore and Province
Wellesley ;' tapioca, chiefly in Malacca and Province Wellesley ; rice in
Malacca and Province Wellesley : and sugar in Province Wellesley. The
Perak Government baa recently grown good tea as an experiment, and it is
also grown in Johor. Pahang is rich in gold, tin, and galena.
Commerce.
The Straits ports arc wholly five from duties on imports and exports, and
their trade, centred at Singapore, is to a large extent B transit trade. The
chief exports comprise tin, sugar, pepper, nutmegs, niai/.e, sago, tapioca, rice,
buffalo tides and bonis, rattans, gutta-percha, india-rubber, gambier, gum,
coffee, ilyestuffs, tobacco, kc,
The following table shows the (Table of imports and exports for five
yean : —
COMMERCE
163
Imports
■ZMBH
Years
From
U.K.
From
Colonies
Dollars
1886 17,638,446 51,336,954
1887 22,105,485
Dollars
From
Elsewhere
Total
ToLK- Colonies
To
Km w!,.-:,
Total
Dollars
52,568,818
i 01.tVC.-o
I 1888 24.823,307 66,536,759 67,910,584
1889 .25,131.807167,355,133 63,712.121
1890 23,.}J1.5S2 41,209,476 82,536,259
Dollars Dollars. Dollars Dollars Dollars I
121,544,218 20,744,773 29.277,391 54,100,110 104.
142,322,920 26,758,508 35,090,9171 59,491,786 121,341,211
159,270,650 29,200,34936,937,895' 68,070,191 134
156,199,061 27,263,964 35,668,198 70,287,119 133 i
147,297,317 24,784,83" -.604,440 127,923,682
Tlie tables of the values of the imports into, and exports from, the
three Settlements during the years 1889-90 inclusive, give the following
results : —
-
Imports
Exports
|
1889 1890
1889
18*
Singapore .
Penang
Malacca
Dollars Dollars
110,746,590 112,633,960
43,181,397 ! 43,788,400
. ! 2,271,074 j 2,228,351
Dollars
88,683,134
41,833,488
2,702,659
Dollars
94,131,804
41,349,247
•2.244,093
The trade of the Native States was as follows in 1890
— Perak Selangor
Sungei Ujong
NVgri
Sembilan
Paliang
Dollars
Imports | 7,173,617
Exports | ■■ 9,985,713
Dollars
7,005,496
6,467,564
Dollars
1,264,696
1,148,816
H
Returns
Xo
Return-
The following table shows the value of the most important imports and
exports of the Straite Settlements : —
1889
1890
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
Dollars
10,943,254
2,443,488
185,561
18,176,842
Dollars
Spires . . . 9,512,259
Supar . . . 1,579,633
Tobacco, &c . 2,747,803
Tin . . 19,522,147
Dollars
12,273,101
2,295,638
826,884
23,180,747
■
Dollars
8,835,682
1,815,754
2,701,164
15,965,072
Among the leading imports are cotton goods, opium, rice, tea, coffee,
tobacco, hardware, copper, copra, gambier, pepper, gum, rattans, sago, cigars,
tin, tapioca ; many of these, however, being largely re-exported.
m 2
rov THE STRAITS SETT1.KM KNTS
1G4 THE BRITISH EMPlBb.-THL-l
£* "'"'" I 4 37*2 622 1 4,781,704 i 5,851,322 5,4.7,034 , 5,487,804
the Straits . l,*'*>™ \
Shipping aid Navigation ^
mMtn of M*1 «»''• *"? ,3 337, with » *o»»»«« °t •g'Sk • tonM*«
igssss^^.^*** ■
tnlage'of 364,224 tons.
Communications uer4unU>ot.
Thereare^^^
Money and Credit. Tlll. BIll(niJ
• v with BBteblishinenta n » ",„;,. 3i 1890. w
ol deposit* to 0*
126,000 dollars. Measures.
Money, Weights, ana m . ^ ^ ^
an«
ileii
th
r.t»nvi;i. •-•••■■
Cle.5 and there
LTBSTlCAl 4KB i»THKK H<»oks <>F RVBUEHCS
A : ;:: ~<:-.b\ '.•■'.li: >.:■.'. '] ■ ' v-.u;-^ l>[[\: \ v- : S :'.'■" . r;:i- ■>--•• v -
sen ting fractional puts of a dollar form legal lender of sums not exceeding
-. and copper coins, i.e. carts, half and quarter cents, for any ana
iiig one dollar.
Wsnam ami Mfwres.
.11 use in the > _ -
•li visions and multiples, and land is measured by the En_ The
native terms are, however. still in use.
HT.
16 Tahil = 1 Kati = 1 \ lb. avoirdupois.
100 Kati =1 Pieul = 133& lbs.
-10 Pieul = 1 Koyan =5,S33| „
The kati of I $ lb. is known as the Chinese kati. Another weight, known
as the Malar kati. in partial nse in Penang, is equal to the weight of
- udah doll - 4 grains. This grrea ' • . s. as the weight
of the |d,ul. Bad 5,705 '143 lbs. as the weight of the koyan. The meaaarea
of capacity throughout the colony are the gaatang or gallon, and ehupak or
quart.
Keeling or Cocos Islands, grout Ml small oral islands, about 700
mill's - Sumatra, ami 1,200 mflea SLW. of Singapore. Population
of whom 377 were born in Keeling. The islands were formally
annexed to Englaml in 1867, ami placed under the Governor of the Straits
tents by Letters Patent in 188*. They are thickly planted with coco-
nut palms. Large quantities of copra, coco-nuts, and oil are exported.
Christmas Island is '200 miles S.W. of Java, au.l 700 miles E. of K
Islands. It is 9 miles long and about the same wide. It was added to the
by Letters Patent in January 1SS9, and a settlement from the I
Islands his -in. i-- been made on it.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Straits Settlements.
I. Official Ptbi.i< mom
lioaial Office List. Lou.loi;
lot Mini Abstract for the Colonial and other Possessions of the United Kingdom in each
.i •■-.-: ■ -o ;-.".. No. XXWl. Union, MA.
IV. ■ :' • - ■• . - _■.; .v-, . > ■;
ionial Possessions
anoal Reports ea the Native States. Stngapor.
:. . --..-- - ■••' ■' ['-:' of Mi Cnited Kin«<tom witft Ko-. i-i> CanOtrla ■ •!
*h Poss»-<-'.o' , fo- •' ■ ■:v: MM l.o>:,loi;. MM.
8. > i At. Pbbucaxioks,
ecoont of Oaiiil— ii Island, by Cnytntn Wharton in Proceedings R.6.S.. 198&.
i-.t' ■■• '. i . r i ;•••' ■ • -: i.o". .oil. >.-
]60 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — AFRICA
AFRICA.
Amsterdam Island. See Mauritius.
ASCENSION ISLAND.
Ascension is a small island of volcanic origin, of 35 square miles, in the
South Atlantic, 750 miles N.W. of St. Helena. It is entirely under the
control and jurisdiction of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, and
is used as a coaling, victualling, and store depot for Her Majesty's ships on
the West Coast of Africa station. There is an excellent sanitarium up Green,
Mountain for crews of ships visiting the island, whose health is impaired from
service on the coast. There is a farm of 8 acres under cultivation. The
population, which consists entirely of officers, seamen and marines, with their
wives and families, and about 50 Kroomen, numbers in all about 360.
Garrison station, Georgetown, on northeast coast.
The island is the resort of the sea turtle, which come in thousands to
lay their eggs in the sand. Exports from Ascension to Great Britain (1890),
106/. ; imports to Ascension, 3,0107., mostly stores. Captain in Charge,
Captain Richard Evans, R.N.
BASUTOLAND.
Basutoland forms an irregular oval on the north-cast of the Gape
Colony. The Orange Free State, Natal, and the Cape Colony form its
boundaries. Its area is estimated at 9,720 square miles. The territory,
which is well watered and has a fine climate, is stated to be the best grain-
producing country in South Africa, and the abundant grass enables the Basutos
to rear immense herds of cattle. The country is really one continuous elevated
plateau, though broken and rugged.
The following statistics are derived from the 1891 census taken in Basuto-
land : — Population : European, 578 ; Native, 218,324.
As European settlement is prohibited, the white population will remain
more or less limited to the few engaged in trade, government, and missionary
work.
Maseru, the capita] and largest town, lias a population of 862, of whom 99
are Europeans.
Stock, &(\ (1891) : 81,194 horses, Battle 320,934, ploughs 10,434. waggons
808.
The productions arc wool, wheat, mealies, and Kaffir coin. There arc
Indications of iron and copper, and coal lias been found and is used in some
parte, two mines being actively worked for local supply.
Basutoland was annexed to the Cape in august 1.871 | bul it was placed
directly under the authority of the down from March IS, 1884.
The territory is now governed by a Resident Commissioner under the
direction of the High Commissioner for South Africa, the latter possessing
the legislative authority, which Is exercised by proclamation. For fiscal and
BBCHUANALAHD 1,;~
other purposes the country U tlivi.i^l into six districts, namely : Hum,
Leribe, Cornet Spruit, Berea, Matching, ami nuthing. Each of the distii i*
divided into wards, presided over by hereditary chiefs allied to the
th family. The revenue arises from the Gape iiMtiihatisa, tie
Office, native hut tax, ami the sale el Uses*
Then art- 1 If. schools (mostly missionary}, with 6,982 scholars ; grant in
.191/. There are .two small Government schools ami some industrial
schools.
There are no navigable waterways, the riven lieing low in winter ami
generally flooded in summer. The roads in the country are now in good
condition for any kind of transport.
The line of postal communication is through the Cape Colony and Orange
Free State.
The imports consist chiefly of blankets, ploughs, saddlery, clothing,
iron and tin ware, and groceries. The exports consist chiefly of grain, '-attic,
and wool, and are estimated at about 250,000/. in value. The commeicial
intercourse is almost exclusively with the Cape Colony and Orange Free
Stat.-.
The currency is exclusively British, bat exchange, and even the payment
of taxes, is still largely conducted by barter.
There is no public debt.
Resident Commissioner. — Colonel Sir Marshall James Clarke (late R.A.-.
K.C.M.G. (1,500/.)
BECHUANALAND.
The Crown colony of Bechuanaland lies lietween the South African Re-
public on the east, Cape Colony on the south, the 20th meridian of east
longitude on the west, the Molopo River on the north, while tin- protectorate
extends over the Kalahari Desert to 21" E. long, and 22' S. lat. An Order
in Council, July 4, 1890, places the parts of South Africa situate north of
British Bechuanaland, west of the South African Republic and of Matabele-
laii'l. east of the German Protectorate, and south of the Zambezi under the
jurisdiction of the Governor of British Bechuanaland. The total area is
170,000 square miles, of which 51,000 square miles form the Crown colony,
and the population (1891) (British Bechuanaland only), exclusive of natives who
pay hut tax, is 12,726. The native population is estimated at 60,000. The
Crown colony was annexed, and the protectorate declared Septeml>er 30, 1885.
It is under direct Imperial jurisdiction, through the Covernor of Cape Colony,
who is also Governor of British Bechuanaland, where he is represented by an
administrator. The country is stated to be well adapted for cattle and for
maize ; gold, lead, silver, and iron have been found. The climate is healthy.
The country is generally from 4,000 to 5,000 feet above seadevel, though
168
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CAPE OF GOOD HOPE
much of it suffers from want of water. The chief industry is agriculture, the
products being raised for local consumption. Tobacco is being cultivated ;
maize, wool, hides, cattle, and wood are exported. A telegraph extends to
Mafeking, the chief emporium in the colony, from Cape Town, and has been
continued northwards through the protectorate. There is a well-trained force
of Border police, numbering 500, of whom 400 patrol the protectorate.
-
1886-87
1887-88
1888-89
£
91,682
87,985
1889-90
£
99,043
98,594
1890-91
Revenue *
Expenditure .
£
98,702
105,650
£
77,661
75,529
£
161,303
159,545
1 Including Parliamentary Grant. 86,945Z. in 1886-87; 64,3451. in 1887-88; 76,0002. in
KSS8-89; 89,542J. in 1889-90; 115,991 1, in 1890-91.
A tax of 10s. per annum is levied on every native hut. The seat of
administration is at Vryburg, in Stellaland, a settlement originally formed by ■
the Boers on the border of the Transvaal. There are good roads and the
railway from the Cape to Kimberleyhas been extended to Vryburg. There is a
daily post to Cape Colony and a weekly post to Matabeleland. The chiefs ot
the protectorate are Khama, at Palachwe, chief of the Bamangwato ; Batwen,
at Kanya, chief of the Bangwaketsi ; Lenchwe, at Mochudi, chief of the Bak-
hatla ; Sechele, at Molopolole, chief of the Bakuenas ; Ikaneng, at Ramontsa,
chief of the Bamaliti (under Batwen), with whom is an assistant commissioner.
There are resident magistrates at Vryburg, Mafeking, Taungs, Kuruman, and
Gordonia.
Administrator, Deputy High Commissioner, and Chief Magistrate. — Sir
Sidney G. A. Shippard, K.C.M.G. (1,8002.)
Bechuanaland. Commission and Instructions to Major-General Sir Charles Wairen,
K.C.M.G., as Special Commissioner to Bechuanaland. London, 1884, and nnbsequent
Blue Books.
Berbera. See under Aden.
CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
(Cape Colony.)
Constitution and Government.
The form of government of the colony of the Cape of Good
Hope was originally established hy Order in Council of the I ltli
of March, 1853. By Act 28 Vict. c. 5, and Colonial Act III.
of 1865, which provided for the incorporation of British Kaffraria
with the colony, various changes were made, and further changes
of an important nature by the 'Constitution Ordinance Amend-
ment Act,' passed by the colonial legislature in 1872, providing
for ' the introduction of the system of executive administration
commonly called Responsible Government.' The Constitution
formed under these various Acts vests the executive in the
coNSTrrunoH and government 169
: nor and an Executive Council, composed of certain office-
holders appointed by the Crown. The legislative power
with a Legislative Council of 22 members elected for seven year-.
led over ex officio by the chief Justice ; and a Douse oi \ -
nembly of 76 member-, elected for five years, representing the
country districts and towns of the colony. The colony is divided
into seven electorate provinces each electing 3 member* to the
Legislative Council, there being an additional one for Griqualand
By a law passed in 1882, speeches may lie made both in
English and in Dutch in the Cape Parliament. The qualification
for members of the Council is possession of immovable property
of 2,000/.. or movable property worth 4,000/. Members of lw>th
Houses are elected by the same voters, who are qualified by occu-
pation of house property of the value of 25/., or receipt of a salary
of 50/., or wages of 25/. with board and lodging. The number of
registered electors in 1891 was 73.816, under the new registration
of the provisions of Act No. 14 of 1887, which provides better
provision for proper and complete registration and for the exclu-
sion of unqualified persons. All members of Parliament are
entitled to one guinea a day for their services, and those residing
more than 15 miles from Cape Town to an additional 15s. a day
for a period not exceeding 90 day-.
(lovernor. — Sir Henry Brougham Loch, K.C.B.. G.C.W
Governor of Victoria, 1884-89. Appointed to the Cape, 1889.
The Governor is by virtue of his office commander-in-chief of
the forces within the colony. He has a salary of 5,0001, a-
Governor, besides 3,000/. as ' Her Majesty's High Commissioner."
and 1,000/. personal allowance from the Imperial huids.
The administration is carried on, under the Governor, by a
Ministry of six members, namely, the Premier, the Colonial
Secretary, the Treasurer of the Colony, the Attorney-General,
the C'ommissioner of Crbwn Lands and Public Works, and the
Secretary for Native Affairs. The Prime Minister receive- an
allowance of 1,750/. a year ; each of the other Ministers receives a
salary of 1,500/. a year.
In each division there is a Civil Commissioner, who is also generally
Resident Magistrate. There is for each division a Council of at least 6
members (14 in the Cape Division) elected triennially by the registered
Parliamentary voters. These Councils look after roads, boundaries, and
beacons ; they Dominate Field Courts, return 3 members to the Licensing
Court, borrow money, and perform other local duties. There are 76 magis-
terial districts and 70 fiscal divisions in the Colony proper. There are 80
Municipalities, each governed by a Mayor or Chairman and Councillors, a
certain number of whom are elected annually by the ratepayers. There are
also 60 Village Management Boards.
170
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CAPE OF GOOD HOPE
Area and Population.
The (Jape Colony was originally founded by the Butch, under
Van Rlebeek, about the year 1652. When it was taken by the
English, in 1796, the eolony had extended east to the Great Kish
River. In 1803, at the peace of Amiens, it was given up to the
Netherlands, but was again occupied by British troops in 1806.
Since that time the boundary has been gradually enlarged by the
annexation of surrounding districts.
The colony is divided into 70 divisions, and its dependencies
into 16 districts.
At the census of 1875 the colony, as then constituted, had an
area of 191,416 square miles and a population of 720,984
(236,783 Europeans). According to the report of the census
of April 5, 1891, the population on the same area is 956,485
(336,938 Europeans), showing an increase of 32*50 per cent,
during the 16 years, or an annual increase of 2*03 per cent, of
the whole population, and an increase in the European popula-
tion of 42*32 per cent, in the 16 years, or an annual increase of
2*63 per cent.
The following table gives the area and population of the colony ami
dependencies according to the census of 1891 : —
Area, Square
Miles
Population in 1891
IVr
Square
Mile
4*99
5*47
20*09 ;
43*77
60*16
M«
v _„_ 1 Native ami
European Colourert
Total
Colony proper
Griqualand West '
East Griqualand .
Tembuland
Transkei
Wnllish Bay
Total
191,416
15,197
7,594
4,122
2,552
430
336,938 : 619,547
29,670 58,706
4,150 148,468
5,179 175,236
1,019 152,544
31 737
376,987 1,150,237
956,485
83,375
152,618
180,415
153,563
768
221,311
1... 27,224
6*89
1 Qriqtialand West is now Incorporated in the Cape and const it ud's I of the To divisions.
Pdndoland, with a resident Commissioner appointed by the Cape, lias an
estimated population of 200,000.
Of the coloured population, 13,097 arc Malays, ami 826,784 a mixture of
various races; the rest are Hottentots, Fingoes, Kafirs, and lleehuunas. Of
the white 195,966 are males, ami 181,0:51 females : and of the total population
767,327 are males and 769,897 females. The whites arc distributed as
follows : —
rih' Colon]
(iii(|iKiland Qriqualand
West tort
13,406 2,384
16,264 1,760
Tembuland
2,670
2,609
TraoBkei ^g*
Males
Females
196,966
lsl.o:',l
692
427
11
17
RELIGION — INSTRUCTION 1 i 1
The Transkeian territories are grouped under their chief magistrates, and
are subject to the ' Native Territories Penal Code.'
The eapital of the colony, Cap- Town, had a population in 1891 of 51,083.
The population of Gape Town and suburb- Port Elizabeth had
a population of 13,049 in 1875, 23,052 in 1891 : Kimberky, 28,643 in 1891 ;
Beeconafield, 10.748 in 1891 ; Graham's Town, 6,903 in 1875, 10,436 in
King William's Town. 5,195 i ndon,
: Graaff Reinet, .".,913 ; Btellenbosch, S,4(M : Paarl, 7,0*33 : Qoeeastown,
4,057 : Uitenhage, ".,297.
A large proportion of the white inhabitants are of Duteh, German, and
French origin, mostly descendants of the original
There is no general system of registration of births and deaths in the
colony. In the Colonial Office f.,968 marriages were registered in 1890. The
amount of immigration into Cape Colony is small : from 1873 to 1884 the
total number of immigrants sent by the emigration agent in England was
23.337 : the greatest number being inthe year 1882—4,64.". [n 1884 it was only
292. Government immigration was stopped in 1886. The number of adult
arrivals by sea in 1888 was 6,029, and departures 4,881 : in 1889, 12,329 and
•ively. and in 1890, 12,433 and 8,178.
Religion.
The bulk of the population of the colony, white and coloured, at the last
census, belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church, the Weslevans coming next
in 'number, though most other bodies are represented. According to an
incomplete return for 1890, the numbers belonging to the leading churches
were: — Dutch Reformed, 192.S7" : W.sbvans, 84,260: Church of England,
60,145; Independents, 42,844: Presbyterians, 30,289: Moravians. 13,578:
Rhenish Mission, 14,312 ; Roman Catholics, 10,259. There were in all 572
main stations and 1,871 out-stations, the total number of persons attached to
churches King 479,413. There is no State Church, but a certain sum is
appropriated annually for 'religious worship' (8,013/. in 1890-91) to the
Duteh Reformed, Episcopalian, Presbyterian, and Roman Catholic churches ;
in 1875 an Act was passed for the gradual withdrawal of this grant.
Instruction.
Cape Colony has a University, incorporated 1873, and granted a royal
eharter in 1877. It is an examining body, empowered to grant degrees, but
with no attached teaching institutions. There are four colleges aided by
Government grants under the Higher Education Act, each with full staff of
professors and lecturers in the departments of tthematics, and
physical sciences. Number of students in 1889-90, 152 matriculation : 57
H. A., and intermediate ; 12 for survey and other professional work ; total 221.
In the 1,595 aided schools in 1890.1 the enrolment was 100,108, with a daily
attendance averaging 57,185.
Government expenditure for 1889-90 . . . £129,029
Local „ ... 116,288
Probable expenditure by Government in 1891-99 . 127,000
Education is not compulsory. Of the European population in 1875, -34 T 3
per cent, of males and 33*28 of females could neither read nor write.
Attending the schools for aborigines in 18S7 were 11,839 scholars. Of every
100 European children of school-going age, it is estimated that 70 are on the
roll of some school.
1 Tlie vrhole year.
172
THE BRITISH EMPIRE
-CAPE OF GOOD HOPE
There were 69 public libraries in the colony in 1889, with an aggregate of
220,536 volumes. There are 72 newspapers published in the colony.
Justice and Crime.
The highest Court of Judicature in the colony is the Supreme Court,
which consists of a Chief Justice and eight puisne judges. The judges of
the Supreme Court hold sessions in Cape Town, and Circuit Courts in the
Western Districts ; the judges assigned to the Eastern Districts Court hold
sessions in Grahamstown, and Circuit Courts in the Eastern Districts and
the Transkeian Territories ; and the judges assigned to the High Courts
hold sessions at Kimberley. By Art. 3/90 the Supreme Court has been
constituted a Court of Appeal under the Africa Order in Council of 1889.
There are numerous seats of magistracy and further periodical courts held
by magistrates at outlying villages, as well as courts of special justices of the
peace. Under certain conditions appeal may be made to the Queen in
Council. The Roman-Dutch law forms the great bulk of the law of the
colony, modified by colonial statute law.
In 1890 there were convicted before the special J. P. Courts, 1,350
prisoners ;• before Magistrates' Courts, 39,572; before the Supreme Courts,
585. The prisoners in gaol, December 31, 1890, were 1,852 males and 281
Females, of whom only about 10 per cent, were whites. In 1890 the Cape
Police Force numbered 871, the Municipal Police Force, 912 : and the Gaol
Establishment, 313.
Pauperism.
In the various charitable institutions in the colony at the end of 1890.
there were 2,128 inmates. In 1890, 671 persons received indoor relief,
and an average of 339 monthly received outdoor relief.
Finance.
The income and expenditure of the. colony, the former including loans,
the latter including expenditure under Act of Parliament, were as follows
dining eaeli of the five years from 1886 to 1890 (ending June 30) : —
Revenue.
Taxation
Services
Colonial
Estate
£
288,608
264,086
267,801
811,329
:!1P,1PS
Pines,
Stores
issued, Ac.
Doam
1
128,200
192,174
926
502,000
1,141,867
Total
L888
issv
1886
1889
1890
t
£
1,485,286
1,897,761
l.u.s.oos
1,695,468
1,774,862
£
1,300,539
1,478,602
1,885,026
1,886,498
2,291,876
£
91,580
80,209
25,860
48,884
£
3,224,042
3,862,882
3,427,610
1,388,114
5,571,907
Expenditure.
Public
Debt
[,188,068
1,152,621
1,049,296
Railways Defence
60 1,909
046,284
716,810
889,794
171,766
119, .78
188,904
I
286,866
196,616
187,781
194,898
civil Beta
blislllllellt
121,802
ii >,m
122,881
117,981
Under Aet
Of I'ar
liameni
104,484
184,784
200,467
1,002,780 l,ois,o05 142,771 215,809 128,824 11,048,671 5,827,4M
Total,
including;
other heada
C
8,804,141
3,621,019
DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 173
The total expenditure for 1890 included £400,000 repayment of loans.
The estimated expenditure (under votes) for 1891-92 is put down at
4,216,883/., and the revenue at 4,285,650/.
The colony had a public debt of 22,114,159/. on January 1, 1891, l»
1,634,762/. raised for corporate bodies, harbour boards, but guaranteed in
the general revenue. Nearly the whole of the loans have been spent in
public works — upwards of thirteen millions sterling on railways alone.
The total value of assessed property in the colony, excluding the ' Trans-
keian Territories,' in 1890 was returned at 34,957,879/. The value of !
in the same area in 1888 is put at 16,152,590/.
The total revenue of the Divisional Councils in 1890 was 139,529/., and
expenditure 123,275/. The total Municipal revenue in 1890 was 332,171/.,
and expenditure, 350,353/. The total debt of the Divisional Councils,
December 31, 1890, was 50,044/., and of the Municipalities 904,394/.
Defence.
The whole of the Cape Peninsula, in which is the great naval station of
Simon's Bay, is fortified against foreign attack by- a series of forts and
batteries. Here is maintained a contingent of the imperial army, the im-
perial military expenditure in 1890 amounting to 126,473/.
For the defence of the colony a military force is maintained — the I
Mounted Riflemen, 819 officers and men. By a law passed in 1878, every
able-bodied man in the colony between 18 and 50 is subject to military
service beyond as well as within the colonial limits. There was beside*
a body of 4,798 volunteers in 1890. Probable expenditure in 1891-92 on
colonial defence, 124,000/. The Cape Police, which consists of 41 officer-
and 830 men, with 609 horses, is available for defence purposes in case of
emergency. On the Cape and West African station, a squadron of 12 of Her
Majesty's ships is maintained.
Production and Industry.
In 1890, 1,139 titles were issued, alienating 3,177,591 acres of land. Up
to 1 tec. 31, 1890, the total area disposed of was 90,583,280 acres, the quantity
undisposed of being 44,662,503 ac
The total area under cultivation in 1875 (there are no later statistic-)
was 580,000 acres ; the chief crops being wheat, oats, maize, rye, and
barley. Vines occupied 18,000 acres, and yielded 4,484,665 gallons of wine.
In 1890 about 4,680,323 gallons of wine and 1,115,306 of brandy and spirits
were made. The number of vine-stocks was 88,084,027.
The total yield of wheat in the Cape and dependencies in 1890 \va-
1,983,108 bushels; barlev, 520,205 bushels: oats, 942,006 bushels: maize.
3,107,552 bushels : oat-hay, 96,986,132 lbs. ; also 406,259 busheLs of rye and
1,186,795 millet, 844,395 potatoes, 1,371,025 lbs. of dried fruit, and 4,080,376
lbs. of tobacco : 13,523,948 oranges.
There were in 1890 in the colony approximately 1,524,113 head of
cattle, 13,202,779 sheep, 4,567,921 goats, 313,747 horses, 65,631 mules ami
asses, and 114,411 ostriches. The sheep-faruis of the colony are often
of very great extent, from 3,000 to 15,000 acres and upwards : those in
tillage are comparatively small. The glaziers are, for the most part, pro-
prietors of the farms which they occupy. At the date of the last census
(1875) the total number of holdings in the colony was 16,166, comprising
83,900,000 acres ; of these 10,766, comprising upwards of 60 million acres,
were held on (juit-rent.
174
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CAPE OF GOOD HOPE
Commerce.
Customs duties are levied at the Cape on a large proportion of imports,
to the amount of about one-fifth of the total value.
The values of the total imports and exports, including specie, of Cape
Colony and dependencies, in each of the five years from 1886 to 1890. were as
follows : —
Year
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Imports
Imported
Merchandise
Exports lEx^S°nial
£
3,970,811
5,771,543
7,013,885
10,841,454
10,106,466
£
3,665,009
4,906,576
5,458,774
7,942,506
. 8,470,550
£ £
7,306,538 ', 6,974,746
7,922,957 7,719,385
8,964,449 > 8,732,601
9,829,900 [ 9,405,955
10,152,979 9,969,165
The following table shows the value of the leading exports of Colonial
produce in the five years 1886-90, according to the official Cape Returns : — ■
i
188(5
1887
1888
1889
1890
£
£
£
£
£
Wool .
1,580,432
1,674,931
2,181,510
2,251,375
2,196,040
Ostrich feathers
546,230
365,587
347,792
365,884
563,948
Hides and skins
397,091
366,660
373,827
430,025
448,781 ;
Copper ore
559,328
577,053
856,803
696,918
694,356
Hair (Angora).
232,134
268,446
305,362
351,544
337,239
Wine .
23,426
18,928
19,477
23,120
19,537
Crain, &c.
7,960
18,256
19,599
10,042
12,835
Diamonds
3,504,756
4,242,470
4,022,379
4,325,137
4,162,010 |
The total value of diamonds exported from 1867 to 1890 was 52,518,987/.
The principal imports are textile fabrics, dress, &c, 3,269,576/. ; and food,
drinks, &c, 1,801,700/. in 1890.
The trade of the Cape (excluding specie) was distributed as follows during
the four years 1887 to 1890 :—
-
188"
1888
1889
1890
£
C
£
e
United King- / Imports from
dona \ Exports to .
4,277,309
■J, 730,798
7,098,463
7,825,266 1
7,460,106
8,409,006
9,169,559
9,707,416
British 1'os- { Imports from
sessions \ Exports to .
315,966
110,948
442,659
636,430
S1.N11
109,443
86,891
82,667
Foreign \ Imports from
1 12,860
536,591
904,943
904,750
Countries ( Exports to .
317,057
358,208
334,869
362,896
The value of the Imports (of merchandise) and exports (eolonial), ex-
clmling diamonds sent through by post offloe, at the leading ports has been
as follows : —
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
175
Cape Town
Port Port Eliza-
Xolloth l*th
•udoii \ MosselBay
1888JJrmP°'? •
( Exports .
1889 | 'j,mP°*s •
1 hxports .
. sqf) f Imports .
18B°1 Exports .
1,900,564
1,047,980
2,625,600
1,407,166
2,738,566
2,064,005
i
21,467
B56, I.V1
25,337
696,951
15,565
694,355
.7.781
1,881,057
3,958,883
1,970,096
3,995,858
1,998,125
£
777,844 85,415
859,767 61,339
1,129,751 136,660
942,948 58,337
1,502,046 150,909
991,093 53,893
The value of the trade (excluding diamonds and specie) with Great
Britain and Ireland, during each of the five years 1886 to 1890, is returned
by the Board of Trade as follows : —
_
1887
1888
1889
1S90
Exports from
Colony
Imports of British
produce
£ £
3,985,427 4,182,753
2. 127,538 3,399,505
£
1,552,533
3,889,820
t
5,155,680
5,888,145
t
4,970,572
6,2PC
In the five years from 1886 to 1890 the exports of wool — sheep's as
well as goats' — from the Cape Colony to the United Kingdom were as
follows : —
1886
1887
1888
L8M
Quantities
Value
lbs.
52,775,653
£
2.138,513
lbs.
55,164,383
£
2,565,475
lbs.
69,696,717
£
3,011,616
lbs. lbs.
78,737,162 72,832,937
*
3,514,031 3,198,879 1
Among the minor exports from the colony to Great Britain are copper
ore, of the value of 373,334/. ; feathers, chiefly ostrich, of the value of
551,074/. ; and skins and hides, of the value of 764,709/. in 1890. The
imports of British produce into the colony comprise mainly apparel and
haberdashery, of the value of 1,125,769/. ; cotton manufactures, of the value
of 628,622/. ; iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value of 982,886/., and
leather and saddlery, 519,851/. in 1890.
Shipping and Navigation.
The number of vessels which entered inwards in 1890 was 828, of
1,455,560 tons (601, of 1,281,169 tons British), and coastwise 1,421, of
2,551,450 tons : the number cleared outwards was 868, of 1,501,817 tons
(620 of 1,317,958 tons British), and coastwise 1,407, of 2,511,088 tons.
Belonging to the ports of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, and East London, on
January 1, 1891, were 30 vessels of 3,480 tons.
170
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — (JAPE OF GOOD HOPE
Internal Communications.
There are over 8,000 miles of road in the colony. There were lines of
Government railway of a total length of 1,890 miles in the colony in
December 1890. In 1873 there were 63 miles ; in 1880, 882 miles ; 1883,
1,089 miles ; 1884, 1,344 miles. There are also 177 miles of private railways
in the colony, and 14 of private tramways in Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, and
Kimberley. The Government lines open for traffic at this date belonged to
three systems — the Western, from Cape Town ; the Midland, starting from
Port Elizabeth (these systems now meet) ; and the Eastern system, from
East London. The capital expended on Government railways to the end
of 1890 has been 16,261,846/., showing a cost per mile of 8,604/. The
gross earnings in 1890 were 1,896,545/., and expenses 1,047,420. The
number of passengers conveyed in 1890 was 3,950,613, and tonnage of goods,
620, 2861.
The number of postal receptacles in the colony at the end of 1890 Was
797 ; the revenue in 1890 amounting to 250,806/., and the expenditure on
whole postal telegraph service to 273,003/. The total number of letters
posted in 1890 was 16,703,308, newspapers 6,898,460, post cards 267,878,
books and sample packets 3,431,220, parcels, 609,973.
The telegraphs in the colony comprised 4,640 miles of line, with 268
offices, at the end of 1890. The number of messages sent was 1,291,984 in
1890. The telegraphs were constructed at the expense of the Government,
781 miles of line having been taken over from the company in 1873. The
revenue in 1890 was 72,746/. (exclusive of 64,262/., the value of Government
messages), and expenditure 80,968/.
Banks.
The following are the statistics of the seven banks under trust laws in
the colony :—
Slat Dec.
Capital
Paid-up
Reserve
Circulation
£
162,982
662,107
1,034,849
740,210
Assets and
Liabilities
£
9,724,223
10,558,736 i
11,992,205 ,
9,221,661 i
1887
1888
1889
1890
£
5,745,380
6,001,640
6,583,700
5,780,610
£
1,585,992
1,710,051
1,762,964
1,558,612
£
480,652
640,939
804,531
850,489
Money, Weights, and Measures.
MONKY.
The coins in circulation within the colony are exclusively British. All
accounts are kept in pounds, shillings, and pence.
Weights and Measures.
The standard weights am I measures are British, with the exception of the
land measure.
The genera] surface measure is the old Amsterdam Hforgen, reckoned
ripial to 2'11654 acres. Some difference of opinion existed formerly as to
the exact equivalents of the shortest land measure, the foot, but it Was in
L858 officially settled that 1,000 Cape feet were equal to 1,088 British
imperial feet.
Aqent-Ormrni of Cape Goloni/ in Great Britain. — Sir Charles Mills,
K.C.M.G., C.B., appointed in 1882.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS <»F REFERENCE 177
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Cape Colony.
l. Official Pdbucatiobs.
Blue-book on Native Affairs. 1n9<>. Cai>e Town, 1691.
Tin- various Blue-looks andC orresp. mdence relating to the Gape and Sonth Africa
generally, published at intervals by the Home Government.
of Good Hope Statistical Register for 1889. Cape Town, 1890.
The Cape of Good Hope Civil Service List. Cape Town, 1891.
Census of the Colony of the Cai>e of G-kxI Hope. 1891. Preliminary Rej.ort of Director.
Cape Town, I •
Colonial Office List. London, 1891.
Educational Statistics to illustrate the Progress of the Aided School System. Cape
Town.
Financial Statement for 1891-92. Cape Town, 1891.
Official Handl>ook. History, Productions, and Resources of the Cape of Good Hope.
Cape Town, 1887.
Reports of the various Government Departments foi 1890. Cape Town, 1891.
Report of Select Committee on Colonial Agriculture and Industries. Cape Town, 1883.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonies and other Possessions of the United King-
dom. No. XXVH1. 8. London, 1891.
Trade Of the Cape of Good Hope with the United Kingdom, in 'Animal Statement of
the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the
Year 1800.' Imp. 4. London. 1891.
2. NOX-OFFIOIAL PlBLKATI'
Andersen (C. J.), Notes of Travel in South Africa. Edited by L. Lloyd. S. London,
1875.
Argus Annual and South African Directory for 1891. Cape Town, 1891.
Chase (Hon. John Centlivres) and Wilmot (A.). History of the Colony of the Cape of
Good Hope. 8. London, 1S70.
Chesson (F. W.), The Dutch Republics of South Africa. S. London, 1871.
Fritsch (Dr. Gust), Die Eingeborenen Siid-Afrika's ethnographisch nnd anatt.misch
hesenrieben. 4. Breslau, 1S72.
Froudi (.). A.), Oceana. London, 1886.
art swell (Vf.\ Our South African Empire. S vols. London, 18S5.
Hall(H.), Manual of South African Geography. 2nd ed. 8. Cape Town, 1866.
Holub (Dr. Emil). Seven Years in South Africa. London, 1881.
Johnston (Keith), Africa. London. 1878.
Mackenzie (John), Austral Africa ; Losing it or Ruling it. 2 vols. London, 1887.
Meidinger (H.), Die siidafrikanischen Colonien Englands, und die Freistaaten der
hoTliindischen Boeren in ihren jetzigen Zustanden. 8. Frankfurt, 1861.
Xoble (John), South Africa. Past and Present. Cape Town, 1878.
NoUe (John), The Cape and South Africa. Cape Town, 1878.
Silver (S. W.), Handl>ook to South Africa, including the Cape Colony, Natal, the
Diamond Fields, &c. 8. London, 1880.
Silver (S. W.), Handbook to the Transvaal. 8. London, 1877.
Statham (F. R.). Blacks, Boers, and British. London, 1881. •
Theal (G. MA History of the Boers in South Africa. London. 1887.
Theal (G. M.). South African History and Geography. London, 1878.
Trollope (Anthony), South Africa. 2 vols. 8. London, 1878.
Wilmot (G.). An historical and descriptive Account of the Colony of the Caj*- of Good
Hoi>e. & London, 1863.
Gambia. See West African Colonies.
Gold Coast. See West African Colonies.
Lagos. See West African Colonies.
Matabeleland. See Zambezia, British.
178 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — EAST AFRICA
EAST AFRICA, BRITISH (I.B.E.A.).
The strip of the Zanzibar coast extending from the northern limit of German
influence on the right bank of the Unibe to the Ozi River, including Kau and
Kipini, was in 1888 ceded by the Sultan for fifty years to the Imperial
British East Africa Company, the initials of which form the name Ibcu, used
to designate the territory. By a second concession, granted in 1889, the
Sultan ceded to the Company all his towns and possessions north of Kipini,
all the islands on the coast and in Manda Bay, and the ports of Kismayu,
Brava, Merka, Magadisho, "Warsheik, and Maroti.
An agreement was made in 1889 by the Company with the Italian Govern-
ment for the transfer to the latter of the ports north of Kismayu, ami the
Sultan lias (1891) granted all his territory from the Unibe to. the Juba,
including the port of Kismayu, to the British East Africa Company in per-
petuity, for an annual payment of 80,000 dollars. The total length of roast
subject to the. Company is about 400 miles.
By the Anglo-German Agreements of November 1, 1886, and July 1,
1890, the southern boundary of British East Africa extends in a north-
west direction from the north bank of the mouth of the River Umbe,
going round by the north of Kilimanjaro, to where the 1st parallel of N.
latitude reaches Lake Victoria. Thence across the lake and westwards on the
same parallel to the boundary of the Congo Free State, deflecting southwards
to include Mount Mfumbiro. To the north, the British sphere is bounded by
the River Juba ; it ascends that river to 6° N. latitude, following that parallel
as far as 35" E. longitude, this meridian forming the boundary between the
British and Italian spheres of influence up to the Blue Nile, ami is conter-
minous with the sphere of Italian influence in Gallaland and Abyssinia as lav
as the confines of Egypt. To the west it is bounded by the Congo Free State
and the western watershed of the basin of the Upper Nile. This includes
Witu and all the German claims on the coast to the north (ceded by German}
in 1890), and the islands of Patta and Manda. It includes Uganda, Usoga,
Unyoro, Ankori, Mpororo, Koko, part of Ruanda, the Equatorial Province
(Emit) Pasha's), part of Kordofan and Darfur, and a large part of Somalilaml.
The total area thus embraced probably extends to over 1,000,000 square miles.
.Treaties have been made with the native chiefs between the coast and the
lake, and also with the King of Uganda and chiefs on the west side of the lake.
and quite recently with the Somali tribes occupying the interior between the
Juba and Tana, whereby commercial access to the (ialla country is for the firsl
time opened.
The Company holds a royal charter, dated September 3, 1888, and it
lias now organised the administration of its territory on the lines of the Mast
India Company. The Company's capital is 2,000.000/. sterling, of which
1,000,000/. was offered to the public.
The chief ports are Wanga, Mombasa, Malimli. .Mainluui, Lamu, and
Kismayu.
The customs revenue realised in 1888 $36,000 ; in 1889 it was $.r>6,000, a
gain of over 50 per cent, for the first year of the British Company adminis-
tration. In 1890 it increased 25 per cent, over preceding year. The revenue
of the northern ports is also increasing.
The principal exports are cloves, sesame seed, ivory, india-rubber, gum.
copra, coir, orchella weed* hides, &c The imports are Manchester goods, iron
and copper wire, beads, bo, Trade is at present principally in the hands of
Kast Indian merchants (Banians).
The line harbour of Mombasa is being much improved by the construction
of piers and jetties, beacons, mooring buoys, and lights. A new town is being
HAU1UT1UH . 1 , 9
built at Mombasa, and the appearance of the place has been greatly improved.
A large body of Inilian Happen and miners assist in earning out these
improveni'
The Eastern Telegraph Company has recently connected Mombasa by
-uliinaiiiic cable with Zanzibar, and the East Africa Company has. constructed
a telegraph line connecting the Company's eoa&t j>orts with Momltasa. This
line is in>',\ being continued to Lamn rid Goltanti (Tana River1 and Witn.
A survey is being made for the construction of a line of railway over 500
inil<*s long from the coast at Mombasa to Victoria Xyanza, which it
Her Majesty's Covernment will assist to construct in pursuance of their
declarations at the recent Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference, and by means
of which the resources of the densely populated interior will at the same
rime )>e opened up to trade. The coastal section of the railway has already
been constructed by the Company, and materials and rolling stock are on the
ground for an additional fifty miles.
The Comjtany has a large armed force, consisting of 200 Soudanese, many
of whom served with Emin Pasha, 200 Indian Sikhs, and a large body of
local levies, all officered by English army officers. A line of forts is being
Constructed along the route to be followed by the railway, at which supplies
will be stored. Roads are also being cleared along the principal trade routes.
Slavery is being gradually abolished, and the native chiefs and people are
settling down to husbandry ami other peaceful pursuits under the Company".-,
rule. They now recognise the Company as their lawful ruler.
The country is being peaceably opened op by exploring caravans earning
trade goods. An expedition has penetrated recently to tie Victoria Xyanza
and Uganda, where it has met with a very friendly reception from the natives
and made treaties with them. The most advanced pennanent posts occupied
by Europeans are situated at Machakos, 250 miles inland, on a healthy
salubrious plateau, at an elevation of 7,000 feet, and Mengo, the capital of
the kingdom of Uganda. The River Tana has been navigated by the Company's
-tern-wheel steamer ' Kenia " for a distance of 300 miles, as far as Baza.
The seat of government is at Mombasa. The administrator of the Govern-
ment is Ernest J. L. Berkeley, Esq., late Her Majesty's Viee-Consul at Zanzibar.
President of the Company. — Sir William Mackinnon, Bart.. CLE.
References.
Travels of Speke and Grant, Sir Samuel Baker and Stanley.
Thomson (J.), Masailand.
Rectus, Universal Geographv, English Edition, vols. x. and xii.
Rev. R. P. Ashe, Two Kings of Uganda. 1889.
Rev. R. F. Clarke. Cardinal Lavigcrie and the African Slave Trade. 1889.
The Annual Reports of the Company.
White (A. SilvaX The Development of Africa. London. 1890.
MAURITIUS.
Constitution and Government.
The government of the British Colony of Mauritius, with its dependencies,
Rodrigues, Diego Garcia, and the Seychelles Islands, i< vested in a Governor.
aided by an Executive Council, of which the officer in command of Her
. *s troops, the Colonial Secretary, the Procnreur-General, the Receiver-
N 2
180
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — MAURITIUS
General, and the Auditor-General, and two elected members of the Council of
Government are ex-officio members. There is also a Council of Government,
consisting of the Governor and twenty-seven members, ten being elected, eight
ex-officio, and nine nominated by the Governor. The official councillors
comprise the five Executive members, the Collector of Customs, the Protector
of Immigrants, and the Surveyor-General. The constitution was altered by
letters patent dated September 16, 1885, which introduced an elective element
into the Legislature. Under a moderate franchise ten members are now
elected, one for each of the following districts : — Moka, Plaines Wilhems,
Grand Port, Flacq, Savanne, Riviere Noire, Pampleniousses, Riviere du
Rempart ; and two for Port Louis.
Governor of Mauritius. — Sir Charles Cameron Lees, K.C.M.G., appointed
1889. The Governor has a salary of 50,000 rupees, and the Colonial Secre-
tary 13,500 rupees per annum.
Area and Population.
The island of Mauritius, lying in the Indian Ocean, 500 miles east of
Madagascar, comprises an area of 705 English square miles.
The Seychelles group, Rodrigues, and the Chagos Islands are the principal
dependencies of Mauritius. Total area of dependencies, 172 square miles.
Mahe, the most important of the Seychelles group, is situated at a distance of
940 miles from Mauritius.
The following were the numbers of the population of Mauritius, according
to the census taken in 1881 : —
Population 1881
Male
208,655
380
525
Female
Total
Total of resident population
Military in Port Louis and elsewhere .
Crews of mercantile shipping
Total of population
151,219
56
12
359,874
436
537
209,560
151,287
360,847
The population on the 1st of January, 1891, was: — Males, 211,865;
females, 166,621 ; total, 377,986. Of this number, 258,98$ belonged to the
Indian population, the remainder, 119,001, form what is termed the general
population, which includes natives of African race, Chinese, mixed races, and
whites. No official figures exist as to the numerical proportions of these
different groups of the general population, except as to the Chinese, the
number of whom was estimated at 4,084 on January 1, 1891. The birth-rate
of 1890 was 35-2 per 1,000, and death-rate 33'8. The total Dumber of
immigrants, including women and children who landed in the colony in 1800,
was 2,925, and the total number of departures in the same class was 1,064,
The capital of the colony, Port Louis, had, with its suburbs, an estimated
population of 60,296 (32,455 males, 27,841 females) in 1890.
According to the census of 1881 the returns as to the religions showed
that there Were then over 200,000 Hindoos, 108,000 Roman Catholics, 35,000
Mahometans, and 8,000 Protestants. State aid is granted to both Churches,
the i; an Catholics receiving 8-1,096 rupees in 1890, and the Protestants
43,559 rupees : the Indians arc mostly Hindoos.
FINAM K— COMMF.K' K 181
Primary education is conducted partly in government, and partly in State-
aided schools, 148 in 1890. The total government expenditure on education
in 1890, including the Royal College, was 422,299 rupees. In 1890 the
average number of pupils on the roll in primary schools was 15,743, and the
average attendance 9,636. At the Royal College in 1890 the attendance was
187, and at the Royal College schools, 288.
The total number of convictions at the inferior courts in 1890 was 16,173,
and at the Supreme Court, 101.
Finance.
The revenue and expenditure of the colony in each of the years from 1886
to 1890 were as follows : —
— 1886 1887
1888
Rupees
8,574,058
7.771,579
1889
UN
Rupees Rupees
Revenue. . 7,229,973 6,858,919
Expenditure . 8,390,054 7,985,909
Rupees
8,744,802
8,55v _
Rupees
.774
7,705,311
The principal sources of revenue are as follows : —
-
1886
1887 1888
im
MM
Rupees
2,670,420
2.112,917
1,575,888
Rupees
< ustoms dues . • 2; 325,094
Licences and permits 1,958,288
Railway traffic . jl,477,448
Rupees . Rupees
2,088,452 2,558,677
1,913,466 11,869,415
1,434,849 il, 533,770
ptapaM
2,412,876
2,140,176
1,801,213
The whole debenture debt of the colony in 1890 was : — Government
Debenture Debt, 776,149/. ; Poor Law Commission, 5,000/.
The municipal debt of Port Louis was 153,420/.
Defence.
The harbour of St. Louis is defended by Fort Adelaide ami Fort George.
The troops in the colony at the beginning of 1891 numbered 626 (37 officers
and 589 men). The total military expenditure for 1890 was 50,769/., of
which about one-half was paid by the colony.
Commerce.
The declared value of the total imports and exports of the colony (ex-
clusive of specie and bullion) was as follows in each of the rive years from
1886 to 1890 :—
Year
Total Imports
Total Exports
Rupees
Rui
1886
23,946,967
32,383,399
1887
23,434,100
35,998,056
1888
15,341,202
►1,978
1889
15,612,056
32,806,315
1890
16,375,377
26,962,930
182
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — MAURITIUS
Tlie exports from the colony comprise, as staple article, unrefined sugar
23,630,809 rupees in 1890, and, besides, rum, 313,509 rupees ; vanilla,
235,536 rupees ; aloe fibre, 623,725 rupees ; coco-nut oil, 314,850 rupees. A large
portion of the trade is with the British colonies of South Africa, Australia,
and India.
The commercial intercourse of Mauritius with the United Kingdom is
shown in the subjoined table, according to the Board of Trade Returns,
for each of the five years from 1886 to 1890 :—
-
1886
£
309,571
260,867
1887
1888
1889
1890
Exports from Mauritius
Imports of British Produce .
£
165,082
284,970
£
275,546
253,928
£
421,537
300,698
£
264,900
320,320
The staple article of export from Mauritius to the United Kingdom is
unrefined sugar, the value being 57,498/. in 1887 ; 173,372/. in 1888 ;
294,311/. in 1889 ; and 157,687/. in 1890. The other exports comprise drugs
of the value of 15,426/. ; hemp and other fibres, 58,173/. ; coco-nut oil,
2,060/. ; caoutchouc, 4,728/. The British imports in 1890 consisted princi-
pally of cotton goods, value 75,943/. ; coals, 36,934/. ; machinery, 18,846/. ;
iron, 42,847/. ; manure, 17,166/. ; apparel and haberdashery, 14,700/. ; beer
and ale, 8,166/.
Shipping and Communications.
The number of vessels entered in 1890 was 456 of 343,302 tons, and
cleared 463 of 346,320 tons.
The colony has two lines of railways with two branches, of a total length
of 92 miles, the revenue from which in 1890 was 1,575,889 rupees, and
expenditure 1,106,304 rupees.
There exists a complete system of telegraphs throughout the island of
Mauritius. The number of letters, postcards, and newspapers which passed
through the post office in 1889 was 2,312,086.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The standard coin of Mauritius is the Indian rupee, with its subdivisions.
All accounts are kept in rupees.
The metric system decreed by the Government of India in 1871 came
into force in Mauritius on May 1, 1878.
Dependencies.
SBTOHBLMB.- -Population, January 1890, 16,162 (8,198 males, 7,964
females). Revenue 1889, 200,096 rupees ; expenditure, 169,083 raj
imports, 570,990 rupees; exports, 653,102 rupees. Principal exports:
coco-nut oil, soap, vanilla, tortoise-shell. Ships entered ISSM, ,si, including
17 men-of-war. There are 21 Qovernmenl schools, with 1,724 pupils.
Revenue in 1890, 9,187 rupees ; expenditure, 81,414 rupees.
KoDBiouxfl (under a civil Commissioner). — 18 miles long, 7 broad.
Population, January 1890, 1,978 (1,10(> males, 872 females); revenue,
11,285 rupees ; expenditure, 38,314 rupees j imports, 89,187 rupees ; exports,
88,204 rupees.
NATAL 183
Other dependencies are the St. Brandon or Cargados Islands, between
16' 50' and 16° 20' S. lat., and 56' 26' and 58* 41' E. long., mostly sand-
banks : the Oil Wands, including the Chagos Islands, the Trois Freres, or
Eagle Islands, and the Cosmoledo Islands, between 6° 40' and 9* 40' S. lat.,
and 72" 22' and 47 4S' E. long. There ten beridra the detached islands of
Assumption, Aldabra, Glorioso, St. Paul, and Amsterdam, none of them
permanently uninhabited.
Diego (iania. the largest of the Chagos group, in 7° S. lat., /8r-7JT E.
long., i-s 12! mues lomI' *i miles "***• witn 70° inhabitants, a ^"g8 Pro-
portion negro labourers from Mauritius. It is an important coaling station.
50,000 gallons of coco-nut oil exported annually.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Mauritius.
1. OFFICIAL lYliI.lt ATI'
Annual Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and
British Possessions in the Tear 1889. Imp. 4. London, 1890.
Colonial Office List. 1690.
Correspondence on ecclesiastical and educational questions in Mauritius. London, 18S4.
Correspondence relating to the Constitution of the Council of Government of Mauritius.
London, 1884.
Des]atch of Governor Sir John Poi>e Hennessy enclosing Report of Mr. H. >. D. Beyts,
.'. in • Papers relating to H.M.'s Colonial Possessions.' London, 1885.
Report on Blue Book for 1889.
Statistical Attract for the several colonial and other possessions of the United King-loin
in each year from 1874 to 1889. No. XXY1I. London, 1890.
■l. N«>N -Official Publication-.
Deeotter (N.) Geographic de Maurice et de ses Dependances. Mauritius, 1891.
Fleming (M.), Mauritius, or the Isle of France. 8. London, 1862.
Martin (R. Montgomery). The British Possessions in Africa. Vol. tar. History of the
British Colonies. S. London, 1834.
The Mauritius Almanac for 1890. Mauritius, 1890.
The Mauritius Civil List for 1S90. Mauritius, 1890.
NATAL.
Constitution and Government.
The colony of Natal, formerly an integral part of the Gape of
Good Hope settlement, was erected in 1856 into a separate colony
under the British Crown, represented first by a Lieutenant-
Governor, and since 1882 by a Governor. Under the charter of
constitution granted in 1856, and modified in 1875 and 1879, the
Governor is assisted in the administration of the colony by an
Executive and a Legislative Council. The Executive Council is
composed of the Chief Justice, the senior officer in command of
the troops, the Colonial Secretary, the Treasurer, the Attorney-
General, the Secretary for Native Affairs, the Colonial Engineer,
the General Manager, Natal Government Railways (who does not
hold a seat in the Legislative Council), and two members nomi-
nated by the Governor from among the Deputies elected to the
Legislative Council. The Legislative Council, under an Act which
received the Royal Assent in 1883, consists of thirty (increased
to thirty-one by the addition of one member by Law No. 5 of
184
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NATAL
1889) members, seven of whom are nominated by the Crown, and
the others elected by the counties and boroughs, electors being
qualified by the possession of immovable property of the value of
501., or renting such property of the annual value of 10/., or who
(having resided three years in the colony) have an income of 96/.
per annum, imclusive of allowances. Electors (1889), 8,834.
Governor of Natal. — Sir Charles B. H. Mitchell, K.C.M.G. : Colonial
Secretary of Natal, 1877 ; acted as Governor in 1881, 1882, and 1885-6 ;
Governor of Fiji, 1886 ; of Leeward Islands, 1888. Appointed to Natal,
1889. He is also Governor of Zululand.
The Governor has a salary of 4,000?. per annum.
Area and Population.
The colony has an estimated area of about 20,460 square miles, with ;i
seaboard of about 200 miles. But the extent of some of the districts is all but
unknown. The colony is divided into 19 Magisterial Districts.
The European population has more than doubled since 1879. The returns
of the total population (1879 and 1891) were : —
Europeans .
Indians
Kaffirs
Grand total .
1891
1879
46,788
41,142
455,983
22,654
16,999
319,934
543,913
361,587
Population of the borough of Durban, July 31, 1891, 25,512 ; and of
Pietermaritzburg, July 31, 1891, 17,500.
Between the years 1878 and 1890, 6,616 persons were introduced into the
colony by assisted emigration ; of these 1,022 were sent out during the latter year,
Both "Free" and "Assisted" passages are granted by the Government
through its " Land and Immigration Board,'' the former to domestic Servants
and farmers taking up selected lands, and the latter to artisans and other*
nominated by resident employers.
Instruction.
There are 15 Government primary, 2 Government high schools, and a large
number of private schools in the colony. Of the private schools 40 come
under Government inspection, and receive grants in aid. The aggregate
munber of pupils in regular attendance at the Government and inspected
schools was 5,793 (1890 91) ; the average daily attendance 85 per cent, of the
number on (he registers, At the high schools there is an average daily
attendance of 19 1 pupils. About 650 children attend private unaided schools,
ami it is estimated that only 200 white children arc receiving no education.
About 96 per cent, of the whole number of white children in the colony are
being educated ; the number of those receiving gratuitous education (1890 91)
being .r>02. The direct Governmenl expenditure on schools for (1890 91)
29,71:!/. Fees paid by pupils in inspected schools (1890 91) 4,8791 Si\
bursaries of the annual value of 20*. each, tenable for three years, are
established by the Government.
FIN AM K — INDISTRY I B5
There are 77 schools for natives, with a total attendam e of 4,026. which
reeahrttl in 1890 grants in aid : and 26 schools for the children of Indians,
with a total attendance of 2,141 in 1890, and for which a grant of 1,616/.
was voted.
Finance.
The ordinary revenue and expenditure of the colony in the years from 1886
to 1890 were as follows : —
1 Exclusive of exj>en<liture from Loan Fumls £-37,Ulu
- Kxeiusive of following exj>.n<liture : —
Conversion of loans ti
Exr<ii<litnre fn>m Loan Kunds ... 7.
Railway receipts and ordinary expenditure ait- included in the foregoing
statement.
The following are the principal items of ordinary revenue. 1890: — Rail-
ways, 686,119/. : customs, 336,821/. : excise, 21,93f>/. ; land sales, 41,777/. :
mails, 45,9572. : telegraphs, 17,572/. : -tamps and licences, 25,965/. ; native
hut tax, 76,610/.
The principal items of expenditure (1890) are : Railways, 622, 173/. :
education, 40,952/. ; puhlic works, 86,274/. : defence, 53,801/. Total loan
expenditure, 1,166,315/.
The Public Debt on December 31, 1890, was 5,060,354/.
Defence.
There is a body of mounted pobee Hiuubnittg 269, ami of volunteers 1,745,
including 89 naval defence corps. The cost of the mounted police force for
the year ended 30th June, 1891, was 40,915/., and the colony contributed
18,747/. to the expense of the volunteers during the same period.
Industry.
Of the total area of the colony 2,250,000 acres have been set apart for
Native occupation, 8,250,000 acres have been acquired by grant from the
Crown by Europeans, 750,000 acres have been sold on deferred payments,
700,000 acres are held on lease for grazing purposes, and about 1,000,000 acres
remain unalienated from the Crown. Of the total area in 1890 83,826 were
under cultivation by Europeans, the leading crop for export being sugar
(produce, 1890, 11,652 tons), though large quantities of maize, wheat, cast,
and other cereal and green crops are grown. Tea-planting has been recently
introduced, 1,765 acres being under tea in 1890, the yield for the year ended
30th June, 1890, l*dng about 281,710 lbs. Estimated total number of aores
under cultivation by Natives, 325,339.
180
THE BRITISH EMPIRE
-NATAL
Of live stock owned by Europeans in 1890 there were 141,615 honied
cattle, 65,801 angora goats, 575,655 sheep, and 27,784 horses ; and in pos-
session of the Native population in 1890, there were 543,084 horned cattle,
268,369 goats, 33,292 sheep, not wool-bearing, and 32,142 horses.
The coal-fields of the Colony, which are of large extent, are now in direct
communication with the seaport of Durban. The output for the year ended
30th June, 1891, was 93,551 tons. The advantages accruing to the Colony
from the permanent establishment of this industry will be considerable, but
they depend in great measure on the establishment of an export trade. Some
attempts have been made to utilise the rich beds of iron ore which have been
found in many parts of the Colony.
Commerce.
The total value of imports and exports by sea has been as follows
Year
Imports
Exports
£
£
1850
111,015
17,109
1860
354,987
139,698
1870
429,527
382,779
1880
2,336,584
890,874
1886
1,331,115
960,290
1887
2,263,920
1,056,959
1888
2,890,468
1,417,871
1889
4,527,015
1,656,318
1890
4,417,085
1,379,657
About 72 per cent of the imports are from Great Britain, and 89 per cent.
of the exports to Great Britain, according to the Natal returns. Amongst the
particulars of imports during 1890 were : apparel and slops, 369,828/. ; haber*
dashcry, 345,643/. ; flour and grain, 180,054/. ; woollens, 132,045/. ; cottons,
92,243/. ; machinery, 215,015/. ; iron and iron goods, 374,811/. ; leather goods
and saddlery, 235,511/. ; ale and beer, wines and spirits, 205,541/.
The principal items of export 1890 were : arrowroot, 66/. ; angora hair,
18,357/. ; hides, 59,956/. ; skins, 13,246/. ; unrefined sugar, 18,491/. ; Bheep's
wool, 725,118/. ; maize, 1,054/. ; spirits (rum) 2,297/. ; gold in dust and bars,
1890, 358,661/.
Of the total value of exports, 872,870/. represented the produce of tli<
Colony.
The following is the value of the trade between Great Britain and Natal
i< i ording to the Board of Trade Hot urns • —
-
issl
1885
628,720
1880
1887
1888
1880
£
962,170
IS'.MI
Exports iv Natal
Imports Of British
produce. .
('. II. '.177
686,888
S70.&94
L
902,188
1. 100, IM
1,087,128
2,024,30:1
L
1,126,040
STATISTICAL AND OTfiEB BOOKS 01 RKFKRKN< I Is,
The wool exports to Great Britain amounted in value to 949,631/. in 1890 ;
hides, 85,895/. ; raw sugar, 40,688/. in 1881, 40,307/. in 1885, 22,563/. in
1887, 32,370/. in 1889, 7,189/. in 1890. Many of the exports of the Colony,
particularly wool, come from the neighbouring Dutch Republics, which also
absorb one-third of the imports.
The chief articles of British import into Natal in 1890 were apparel and
haberdashery, 475,831/. ; cottons, 144,797/. ; iron, wrought and uuwrought,
370,096/. ; leather and saddlery, 218,389/. ; machinery, 222,788/. ; woollens,
1/. ; iron and steel wares, 55,726/. ; spirits, 33,343/. : )>eer and ale,
46,470/.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1890, 538 vessels of 514,252 tons entered, and 661 of .".21,747 tons
eleared. Of the former, 71 of 57,326 tons were from the United Kingdom,
and 240 of 326,834 tons from Cape Colony. Of the latter, 29 of 82,867 tana
were for the United Kingdom, and 210 of 271,997 tons for the Gape Uolouy.
There are 339.\ miles of railway open, all constructed and worked l>y the
Government with the exception of the Dundee Branch (7h miles in length)
which was constructed by the Dundee (Natal) Coal Company, but is worked by
the Natal Government and will ultimately be absorbed into the Natal Govern-
ment Railway System.
The main line extends from the Port of Durban to Pieteniiaritzburg (the
capital of the Colony, 73 miles inland), and from thence to Charlestown, on
the border of the South African Republic 306 miles distant from the Port. A
branch line extends northwards from Durban to Yerulam, 19J miles, and
another from South Coast Junction to Isipingo, 6J miles. A branch to Har-
rismith from the main line at the 190J mile post is in course of construction,
and the first section to Van Reenen's, the border of the Orange Free State
will, it is expected, be opened for passenger traffic about the end of the year
1891. The total nstruction of the railways was, up to the end
of the year 1890, 3,650,950/. The receipts in 1889* were 535,260/., and the
expenditure 303,247/., and for the financial year ending 30th June, 1891, the
reeeipta were 555,790/. 4* 1(/., and the expenditure 386,727/. 17* 10</. The
net receipts for the latter period were equal to 4/. 12s. Id. per cent, upon the
capital expended upon open lines.
Statistical and other Books of Reference.
1. Official Publication-.
Annals «>f Natal. 14;».~> t<. 1840, by John Bird, late ..f Civil Service of Natal. Published
t>v sanction of the Colonial Government. Pietennaritzburg, 1888-90. "
Colonial Office List. 1891.
Corresjiomlence relating to the ]>roi«snl to establish responsible government in Natal.
. Folio. London, 1891.
Xatal Blue-book for 1890-91. Pietennaritzburg, 1891.
Natal Official Handbook to the Colonial and Indian Exhibition. London,
Peace (Walter), Our Colony of Natal. Published by permission of the Natal Govern-
ment London, 1S84.
Ruuell (R.). Natal, the Land and its Story.
Statistics of Natal, in ' Statistical Abstract for tteseveraj colonial ami stteMHaiM
of the United Kingdom in each year from 1S70 to 189V Ho. XXVIII. s. London, 1891.
Trade of Natal with Greet Britain, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the vtar 1S90.' Imp. 4. Loudon
1S91.
188 THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— NIGER TERRITORIES
2. Non-Official Publications.
Brooks (Henry), Natal : a History anil Description of the Colony. S. London, 1887.
Dutm(K J.), Notes on the Diamond Fields. S. Cape Town, 1871.
Elton (Capt.), Special lieports upon the Gold Field at Marabastadt and upon the Trans-
vaal Republic. 8. Durban, 1872.
Fritsch (Dr. Gust.), Die Eingeborenem Siid-Afrika\s ethnographisch und anatomisch be-
schrieben. 4. Breslau, 1872.
Gillmore (Parker), The Great Thirst Land. A Ride through Natal, Orange Free State,
Transvaal, and Kalahari Desert. 8. London, 1878.
Hall (H.), Manual of South African Geography. 8. Capetown, 1800.
Natal Almanack, Directory and Yearly Register. Pietermaritzburg, 1891.
Pay ton (Ch. A.), The Diamond Diggings of South Africa. 8. London, 1372.
Robinson (John), Notes on Natal. 8. Durban, 1872.
Silver (S. W.), Handbook to South Africa, including the Cape Colonv, Natal, the Diamond
Fields, &c. 8. London, 1891.
Statham (F. R.), Blacks, Boers, and British. London, 1882.
Trollope (Anthony), South Africa. 2 vols. 9. London, 187S.
NIGER TERRITORIES.
These are governed by the Royal Niger Company, under a charter issued
on July 10, 1886. Its nominal capital of 1,000,000^. is fully subscribed, and
it has powers to increase indefinitely. Its foundation dates from 1882, when
it was formed under the name of The National African Company, Limited,
with the object of obtaining these regions for Great Britain. This was effected
in 1884, 1885, and 1886 by means of about 300 treaties with native States and
tribes, including the territories of Sokoto and Borgu.
According to the Anglo-French Agreement of August 5, 1890, the limit
between the British and French spheres on the Niger is a line from Say, on
the Niger, to Barrawa on Lake Chad, ' drawn in such a manner as to comprise
in the sphere of the Niger Company all that fairly belongs to the Kingdom of
Sokoto, the line to be determined by Commissioners to be appointed,' and by
the Anglo-German agreement of July and August 1886, the limit between the
British and German spheres of influence is a line drawn from the point on the
Cross River, "about 9° 8' of longitude east of Greenwich, marked ' Rapids ' on
the English admiralty chart," to such a point on the river Benue to the east
of Yola, as may be found on examination to be practically suited for the
demarcation of a boundary. Total area of Niger Territories and the regions
secured to the Company's influence by the above Anglo-French Agreement
is estimated at 500,000 square miles; population variously estimated from
20,000,000 to 35,000,000.
At present the empire of Sokoto (attached by treaty to the Royal Niger
Company) is the largest, the most populous, ami extensive in the whole of the
Sudan. The king of Gando, in the middle Niger Valley, as well as all the
other Fulah chiefs, recognise the suzerainty of the Emperor of Sokoto. The
reigning sovereign7 has irrevocably conferred on the Royal Niger Company full
sovereign power throughout a large part of his dominions, ami complete juris-
diction, civil, criminal, and fiscal^ over non-natives throughout the remainder.
Sokoto and Gando together cover an area of 219,500 square miles, with a
population of 15,000,000. The empire, which is conterminous on the east
with Bornu, on the west with the BorgU ami Mossi countries, and stretches from
the Sahara southwards to the unexplored legions beyond A i la maw a. is especially
rirli in agricultural resources, exporting considerable quantities of nee (tile
chief cereal) and other grains, besides onions of excellent flavour, the fruit of
the butter tree, the parched seeds of the doria, dates, and honey. Cotton is
hugely grown, and manufactured into a durable material, coloured with indigo
oil rivkh-s mioTKf t«)i:atk 189
and other natives dyes. Much leather ware shoes, mndala, pouchta, harness)
is also exported in exchange tor salt from the Sahara and European goods. -
The Emperor of Sokoto exercises direct jurisdiction over only a comparatively
small portion of his dominions, most of which are ruled by vassal kin-
rhiefs enjoying royal prerogatives, and attached to the central government only
by paymenl of the animal tribute. The Niger Company has forestalled any
questions as to title or sovereignty by making alternative treaties with these
vassal kings. Wurno is the present capital, on the river Camli. population
15,000. There arc a great many other large oentres of population and busy
market towns, such as Gartdo, capital of the Kingdom of Gaudo ; Vola,
capital of Adamawa. population 12,000 : Kano, 35,000 ; I'.ida. 90,000 ;
Gorki, 15,000 ; Kehhi, -22.000 : Yakoba, 50,000 ; Tessawa. 12,000 ; Katsena,
: Gnrin, 12,000 ; Duku, 15,000. Islam is the religion of the dominant
but paganism still prevails largely throughout the empire.
BoRor, which is attached to the Company by treaty similar to that with
Sokoto, occupies a considerable portion of the right bank of the middle Niger
to the south of Gaudo anil north of Illorin, two of the provinces of the Sokoto
empire. Borgu, which is also known under the name of Bussang. extends
westward to the meridian of Greenwich, and thus forms the northern boundary
of Dahomey. Its military power must l>e considerable, as it has throughout
this century successfully resisted the attacks of the Fulah ampin
trustworthy statistics of this country arc available.
The present capita] of the Nigei' Territories is at Asaha, where the chief
justice of the supreme court resides, and where are also the central prison, civil
and military hospitals, and other public buildings. The headquarters of the
company's military force are at Lokoja. The other princijial settlements are
at Akassa (port of entry), Abo. Abutshi. Ataui, Bakundi, Donga, Egga, Ibi,
Mali, Leaba, Loko, Odeui, and Ribago, the last being only about 200 miles
from Lake Chad. The trade in these inland territories is as vet in its infancy,
the exports having been 225,000/. in 1887, 230,000/. in 1888, 260,000/. in
1889, and 285,000/. in 1890. The principal exports are gums, hides, india-
rubber, ivory, kernels, jtalm oil. and vegetable butter, but a great variety of
minor products are also exported. Considerable plantations of coffee and
cocoa have been started, and a botanic garden created. The imports are verv
varied, the principal items l>eiug cottons, silks, woollens, earthenware, hard-
ware, beads, tobacco, and Bait. Heavy duties have l*?en imposed by the
company on spirits and gunpowder the trade in both of which has greatly
diminished in consequence since the charter. The importation of spirits into
regions north of latitude 7" N. (stated to form nineteen-twentieths of the
Territories) is now prohibited. Tobacco and salt are also taxed. All other
imports are free. The revenue is principally raised by export duties.
The government is conducted by lie Council in London, of which the
president is Lord Alierdare, the vice-president, Sir George Taubman Go]dje
K.C.M.G.
Nyassaland. See Zambezia, British.
OIL RIVERS PROTECTORATE.
This important region occupies the whole of the coast line between Lagos
and Cameroons, excepting that between the Forcados ami Brass Rivers, which
falls within the Niger Territories. Fully nineteen-twentieths of the extensive
trade arc in the hands of British merchants, who have Wen established there
for a great Dumber of years. The following are the limits towards the interior :
North-westward, the boundary of Lagos Colony and Yoruba : northward, a
line starting about 50 miles north of the Warri Creek and running towards
190 THE BRITISH EMPIRE:- — ST. HELENA
Yoruba so as to leave the entire Benin Region to this protectorate, and another
line starting midway between the Nun and Brass months of the Niger, passing
through the town of Idn on the Aegeuni River, and thence north-eastward
to the German boundary of Cameroons, leaving the Cross River within the
protectorate;
The average of the exports for the three years preceding 1889 was
1,032,800/. per annum, and the import trade 786,500/., much of both amounts
being with Hamburg, Rotterdam, and other Continental ports. The chief
products exported are palm oil, palm kernels, india-rubber, ivory, ebony, cam-
wood, indigo, gums, barwood, hides, and a little cacao ; and the imports con-
sist of cloth, calico, hardware, spirits, tobacco, gunpowder, guns, rice, bread,
salt, pickled meat, matchets, soap, potteiy, and fancy articles. The leading
trade stations in the Oil Rivers District are Old Calabar (Duke Town anil
Creek Town), Qua Eboe, Opobo (town) and Azumeri, Ohumbela, Ogogo,
Essene, &c. (interior Opobo) ; New Calabar — including Degama, Bakaiia,
Bugttma, Okrika, &c. — Bonny, Brass, Warri, Benin. No trustworthy estimate
can lie formed of the population of this district.
The majority of the merchants trading in the Oil Rivers amalgamated in
1889 into the African Association, Limited, of Liverpool, with a nominal
capital of 2,000,000/., with power to increase as far as 5,000,000/. The
subscribed capital is stated as 425,000/.
Messrs. Alexander Miller, Brother k Co. of Glasgow, have also a large stake
in the Oil Rivers trade.
The District was placed under British protectorate by treaties made in 1884
by Edward Hyde Hewett, Esq., C.M.G. The ' Oil Rivers ' has (1891) been
placed under the government of an Imperial Commissioner and Consul -
Genera], with administrative and judicial powers, and the power of imposing
taxation. Under the Commissioner are six Vice-Consuls, who are stationed
on the several rivers.
Imperial Commissioner and Consul- General for the Oil Rivers Protectorate.
— Major Claude Maxwell MacDonald.
Books of Reference on Niger Territories and On, Riyxbb.
Annual Reports of the River Niger Company.
Travels of Clapperton, R. Lander, Richardson, Barth, Rohlfs.
Joseph Thomson, 'Mungo Park,' ami Proc. R. Geographical Soc. (1SS0).
Flegel, Mittheilungen der Afrikanischen Gesellscbaft in Deutschland, vol. iii. 1881-83,
Hutchinson, Narrative of the Niger, Tshadda, and Binue Exploration.
Johnston (H. H.), Paper in Proceedings R. G. 8., 1888.
MacDonald, Major C. M., Paper in Proceedings R. G. S., 1891.
Rev. Hugh Goldie: Old Calabar and its Mission. 1890.
Pondoland. See Cape of Good Hope.
ST. HELENA.
Governor. — Win. Grey-Wilson, Esq., C.M.G. (500/.), assisted by a council of
live.
St. Helena, of volcanic origin, is about 800 miles from Ascension [aland,
the nearest land, and 1,200 from the west coast of Africa. Its Importance
as B port of Call was greatly lessened by the opening of the overland route to
India, and also by the Suez ('anal. Area, 17 square miles. Population in
1891, 4,116, inclusive of 179 garrison and 60 shipping. Births, 1890, 122:
deaths, <•:'.; marriages, 26. Emigrants aboul 200 annually to the Cape and
United States, four Episcopal, •"> Baptist, l Roman Catholic chapels. Educa-
ST. HKI.KN.-Y l!»l
tion, 11 schools, with 795 pupils : 4 of the schools receiving a Government
pant of 36'./. in 1890.
The following tables gire statistics for St. Helena : —
— ]--:
I I I £
Revenue . 12.186 10.043 11.
Expenditure . 11,209 11. 1". 9,032
Exports . . ;-j;< 886 13 ' 1,905 -
lnijKJits . . • 40,5 88,1 ! ".1.
1 Including .V2M'/. s]»ci.\ - Indndh
These figures <lo not include the produce of the whale-fishery, amounting
to 18,4382. in 1890.
Savings-bank deposita 10,393/. Total estimated value of island wealth,
200,000/.
Public debt, 1,250/.
The exports to Great Britain in 1890 were 1.90">/. ; imports from ■ ■
Britain. 19,(
There is a valuable wbale-nahei 3 Selena, under American manage-
in. nt, the resulta varying from 13,000/. to 30,000/. yearly. There are no
industrial products; island mainly pasture.
The tonnage of all vessels entered ami cleared, and of British vessel*
entered ami cleared :
Ton- 1887 MM 1889
Total . . 127,559 12.r.,S06 127,163 94. ■ '.66
British . . 115,488 115,488 114,469 '97 66.L'7-'
The Post Office trafie from St. Helena in 1S90: 20.230 letter-. '.,401
Looks ami papers, 807 parcels. There are 13 miles of telegraph wire,
St. Helena is largely used as ■ leeruiting station for the West African
Squadron. Detachment of Koyal Artillery. 1 company of infantry : 4 heavy
guns on height over port.
Books of Rkfxkkki
Brooke's History of St. Helena.
M .Hiss's Physical ami Toi>ogra)>hical Description of St. Helena.
Agricultural Resources of St. Helena. Bv D. Morris.
Colonial Ottice PajK-rs. Africa, No. 375.
Annual Rr]>ortsof the Governor.
St. Paul and Amsterdam. Bee Mauritius.
Sierra Leone. See Wan Afki< w OoLONtn,
Socotra. Bee Adsn.
Somali Coast. See Ai>kn.
192 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WEST AFRICAN COLONIES!
TRISTAN D'ACUNHA.
A small group of islands in the Atlantic, half-way between the Cape an<l
8. America, in 37° 6' S. lat. Until the death of Napoleon I. they were occu-
pied by a garrison. Besides Tristan d'Acunha and Cough's Island, there are
Inaccessible and Nightingale Islands, the former two and the latter one mile
long, and a number of rocks. The population, mainly the families of ship-
wrecked sailors and wives from St. Helena, numbered about 100 in 1889.
They have sheep and cattle, potatoes are cultivated, and provisions sent at
intervals by the British Government.
WEST AFRICAN COLONIES.
These are four in number, all Crown colonies : Gold Coast, Laoos,
Gambia, and Sierra Leone.
The Gold Coast stretches for 350 miles along the Gulf of Guinea, between
5° W. long., and 2° E. long. Governor, Sir W. B. Griffith, K.C.M.G. (3,500/. ).
There are an Executive and Legislative Council, both nominated, witli two
unofficial members in latter. Area estimated at 15,000 scpiare miles, including
protectorate, 46,600. Estimated population, 1,905,000 ; of whom about 150
are Europeans. Chief towns : Accra, 20,000 ; Ada, 7,000 ; Elmina, 6,000 :
(.'ape Coast Castle, 25,000 ; Kwitta, Saltford, and Winneba. Government
elementary schools at Accra and Cape Coast, but education mainly in the
hands of the various religious bodies, Wesleyan, Roman Catholic, and German
Missions ; about 5,000 Protestant scholars ; Government contributed 1,423/.
in 1890. Staple products and exports, palm oil and palm kernels ; india-
rubber abounds, and its export, together with that of valuable native woods, is
increasing. Gold found in many parts and now being worked. Telegrapbs
171 miles.
Lagos, an island on the Slave Coast to the cast of the Gold Coast, the pro-
tectorate extending along the coast between 2" and 6" E. long., and for sonic
distance inland. Governor, Gilbert Thomas Carter, C.M.G. (2,250/. ).
Executive and Legislative Councils, nominated. Area, including protectorate,
1,071 square miles; estimated population, 100,000, including about 110
whites. Including Yoruba, area 20,070 square miles ; population, 3,000,000 :
Christiana, 6,000; Mohammedans, 12,000 ; the rest Pagans. 34 schools ;
2,500 pupils; exclusive of Mohammedan schools. Principal products ami
exports : palm oil and kernels, ivory, gum copal, and cotton. Chief imports :
spirits, tobacco, cotton goods, hardware. Trade mainly with Great Britain,
Brazil, and Germany.
Gambia, at the mouth of the river Gambia, formerly formed pari of the
Weft African Settlements, but in December 1888 was erected into an
independent colony. Administrator, R. B. Llewelyn vl>300/. ). Legis-
lative Council nominated. 2,700 square miles, population, 50,000. A km
oi settlement proper, 69 scpiare miles ; population (1891), 14,266, including 64
whites, 5,300 Mohammedans, 2,385 Christians (Protestants and Roman
Catholics); 12 schools, with 1,200 pupils ; Government grant, proportionate
to results (1890, 252/.). Births (1890), 348 ; deaths, 719 ; but the registration
of births is very imperfect. There were 10S summary convictions in 1890,
and 18 cases committed to superior courts. Chief town, Bathurst, on the
island of St. Mary, 6,000 inhabitants. Chief products and exports: ground
nuts, hides, bees wax, rice, cotton, coin, india-rubber.
Sierra Leone includes the island of Sherbro, and much adjoining territory.
Governor, Sir James Shaw Hay. K.C.M.G. (2,500/.): assisted by Executive
and Legislative Councils, nominated. It extends from the Scarcies Kivei to
STATIST I < S
198
the north, to the border of Liberia in the south, 180 miles. Area, 15,000
square miles ; population, 180,000. Sierra Leone proper, 400 square miles ;
population (1890), 75,000, of whom 270 are whites. Protestants (1881),
39,048 ; Catholics, 369 ; Mohammedans, 5,178 ; the rest Pagans. In 1890,
81 elementary and 6 high schools, with 10,498 pupils ; grant in aid, 8912.
Fourah Bay College is affiliated to the University of Durham. Chief town,
Freetown, 30,000 inhabitants — headquarters of H.M.'s forces in West Africa,
800 men of the West India Regiment, besides engineers and artillery. Armed
constabulary force of 400 men chiefly for frontier defence. Freetown is a
second-class coaling station, with an excellent harbour fortified with several
1 latteries of heavy guns. There is a supreme court, and police and petty debt
courts in each district ; offences in 1890, 1,753. Chief products and exports :
palm oil and kernels, benni seed, ground nuts, kola nuts, india-rubber, copal,
hides. Many skilled workers in gold and silver. Trade considerably
diminished owing to activity of the French in their neighbouring colonies.
Government savings banks with 16,485/. deposited in 1890. The West
African Bank is established in the colony. There are good roads, and much
traffic on the many lagoons and canals.
The following are the statistics of the four colonies : —
Revenue
1886
1887
LflH
tan
vm
56,341
156,449
73,708
30. 573
Lagoa
Gold Coast
Sierra Leone .
Gambia .
. 53,405
. 122,531
. 62,935
14.271
1
51,346
60,637
13. 4. '.3
57,058
97,807
63,035
20.986
£
111,388
70,836
26,281
Total .
-.3,142
247,787
238, 88t
266 138
317,071
Leading item of revenue : Customs (1890), Lagos, 47,0137. : Gold Coast,
133,348/. ; Sierra Leone, 60,317/. : Gambia. 19.' '
Expenditure
18M
Lagos
Gold Coast
Sierra Leone .
Gambia .
Total .
55,383
133.294
63,482
1887
1888
1880
m
£
78,610 60,840 57,488 63.701
139,443 133,468 125,003
58,334 63,288 66,771 63,056
23.353 23,922 21,359 21,566 22.75S
275,512 300,309 278,955 270,828 267,414
The public debt of Sierra Leone (1890) is 58,454/. The others have no
public debt.
Export*
1886
1887
1889
1890
Lagos
Gold Coat,t
Sierra Leone
Gambia .
1
538,980
406,539
325,352
79. :.10
£
491,469
372,446
333,517
86,933
£ £
508,2:
381,619 41 '..926
339,043 319.719
118,188
I
595,193
601,348
349.319
163,374
Total .
1,350,387
1,284,365
1,347,088 1,360,893
1,709.234
194 THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — WEST AFRICAN COLONIES
Chief exports from Lagos (1890) : palm kernels (319,276/.), palm-oil
(190,6570- Gold Coast: india-rubber (231, 282?.), palm oil (137,223/.).
Sierra Leone : palm kernels (107,827/.), rubber and kola nuts. Gambia:
ground nuts (130,000/.), rubber (10,000/.).
Imports
1886 1887 1888
1889
1890
Lagos
Gold Coast
Sierra Leone .
Gambia .
Total .
£
357,831
376,530
264,866
69,243
£ £ £ £
415,343 i 442,063 ; 464,260 500,827
363,716! 432,112: 440,868 562,102
308,039 I 250,147 277,781 389,908
80,800 103,067 ' 140,818 ! 149,548
1,068,470
1,167,8*8 1,227,389 1,323,727 1,602,385 l
The chief imports of Lagos (1890) are : cotton goods (199,932), spirits
(87,108/.), tobacco (23,753/.). Gold Coast: cotton goods (135,748). Sierra
Leone : cotton goods (120,175/.), spirits, tobacco, and haberdashery. Gambia :
cotton goods, tobacco, spirits, hardware, gunpowder, gums. Total imports
(1890) from Great Britain to British West Africa, 852,302/. ; and exports to
Great Britain, 1,075,572/.
Tonnage of all the vessels entered and cleared at the West African
Colonies, and of Britisli vessels entered and cleared, for five years to
1890 :—
-
1886 * 1887
1888 1889
1890
<o f Lagos
| 1 Gold Coast
§ 1 Sierra Leone .
^ V. Gambia .
H Total
448,392 518,643
605,057 554,656
436,070 360,637
136,296 117,436
525,857 , 505,517
560,025 569,046
517,681 , 589,171
193,511 198,911
555,862
643,015
679,509
221,686
1,625,815 1,551,372
1,797,074 !1, 862,645 2,100,072
8> ( Lagos
| 1 Gold Coast .
g "1 Sierra Leone .
ja \ Gambia .
a Total
368,987 375,667
501,830 ' 407,587
389,258 i 327,034
108,377 ! 78,900
372,774
420,186
450,380
119,133
368,632
430,278
496,899
128,014
385,746
455,158
548, 9l0
149, W8
1,368,452 11,189,188
1
1,362,478
1,423,823-
1,534,782
The currency, weights, and measures are the same as those used in Great
Britain.
Books ok Rkkkuknck.
The Annual Blue Books of the various Colonics, and Reports thereon by the Colonial
Office.
The Colonial Omco List. Annual.
Statistical Abstract for the Colonics. Annual.
Sir A. Mul y's Forestry of West Africa.
Blbthorpe'fl History of Stem Leone.
Dr. Blydcn, Christianity, Islam, ami the Negro liace.
Hi-. lilyden, Sierra Leone and Liberia
Dr. Morton, Climatology and Meteorology of West Africa.
liev. Mr. lirown, Among the I'alms.
A. IS. BlliS, Sketches of West Africa.
G. A. Banbury, Sierra Leone; or, The White Man's Crave.
ZAMBEZIA AND NY ASS A LAND 105
ZAMBEZIA BRITISH AND NYASSALAND.
UNDEB the unofficial title of British Zambezia is included the whole of the
region lying between the north of the South African Republic and the
degree of south latitude and the southern boundaries of the Congo Free State,
and having as its eastern and western boundaries the Portuguese and German
spheres. The River Zamliezi divides it into two portions, which may be
described as Southern Zambezia and Northern Zambem resj>ectivelv.
Of Southern Zamliezia the precise western boundary i* thus defined in the
Anglo-German Agreement of 1890 : —
• In South- West Africa, the sphere in which the exercise of tnfluen
• I to Germany is bounded — (1) To the south by a line commencing at
the mouth of the Orange River, and ascending the north bank of that river to
the point of its intersection by the 20th degree of east longitude. (2) To the
east by a line commencing at the above-named {mint, and following the 20th
degree of east longitude to the i»oiut of its intersection by the 22ml parallel of
south latitude. It runs eastward along that parallel to the point of its inter-
section by the 21st degree of east longitude ; thence it follows that degree
northward to the point of its intersection by the 18th parallel of south
latitude : it ran* eastward along that parallel rill it reaches the River Chobe,
and descends the centre of the main channel of that river to its junction with
mhea, where it terminates."
A large section of the territory thus delimited is iucluded in British
Bechuanaland and the Bechuanaland Protectorate.
Its eastern boundary is defined in the Anglo- Portuguese Agreement of the
11th of June, 1891, as follows : —
" By a line which, starting from a point opposite the mouth of the River
Aroangwa or Loaugwa, runs directly southwards as far as the 16th parallel of
south latitude, follows that parallel to its intersection with the 31st degree of
longitude east of Greenwich, thence running eastward direct to the point
where the River Mazoe is intersected by the 33rd degree of longitude east of
Greenwich : it follows that degree southward to its intersection by the 18° 30'
l«arallcl of south latitude : thence it follows the upjter jart of theeastern slope
of the Manica plateau southwards to the centre of the main channel of the
Said, follows that channel to its confluence with the Lunte. whence it strike-
direct to the north-eastern jwint of the frontier of the South African Republic,
and follows the eastern frontier of the Republic, and the frontier of Swaziland.
to the River Maputo.
" It is understood that, in tracing the frontier along the slope of the
plateau, no territory west of longitude 32° 30' east of Greenwich shall be com-
prised in the Portuguese sphere, and no territory east of longitude 33; east ol
Greenwich shall lie comprised in the British sphere. The line shall, however,
if necessary, be deflected so as to leave Mutassa in the British sphere, and
Mx—i-kessi in the Portuguese sphere."
In 1888 the portion of the Southern region included in Matabeleland and
Mashonaland was declared to be within the British sphere of influence, and on
the 29th of October, 1889, a Royal Charter was granted to the British South
Africa Com J any. conferring uj)ou it large powers of administration to carry out
the objects for which it was formed, the principal being to extend northwards
the railway and telegraph systems of the Cape Colony and Bechuanaland, to
encourage emigration and colonization, to promote trade and commerce, and
to develop and work mineral and other concessions.
The most important i>art of this territory is Matalxdeland. ruled by King
Lobengtua, and including the country around, inhabited by the Mashonast
n 9.
196 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — ZAMBEZIA AND NYASSALAND
Makalakas, and other tribes, who pay tribute to him. Matabeleland and
Mashonaland are reported to be rich in gold reefs and other minerals, and
the Mashona plateaus are stated to be well adapted for culture and European
settlement. Area of Matabeleland and dependencies about 100,000 square
miles. The population of Matabeleland proper is estimated at 200,000 ; there
is an army of 15,000,. divided into regiments or kraals, and presided over
by Indunas. •
The British South Africa Company is further empowered to take over the
administration of other districts in Africa, subject to the approval of the
Government ; including the region to the north and west of the Bechuanaland
Protectorate, which embraces Khama's territoiy and the region between that
and the German boundary. The country, though desert in parts, is well
adapted both for cultivation and agriculture, being situated principally on the
high, healthy plateavi of Central South Africa. Patrols of the Bechuanaland
Border Police visit the various districts outside Matabeleland.
Since the grant of the Royal Charter the British South Africa Company
has extended the Cape Government railway system from Kimberley to Vryburg,
a distance of 126 miles, and this section has since been taken over from the
Company by the Cape Government. The Company has also undertaken the
extension of the line from Vryburg to Mafeking, a distance of 98 miles. It
is also extending the telegraph system from Mafeking into Matabeleland, 631
miles of which have already been constructed, and are being used for messages.
Stations have been opened at the following places : Mafeking, Ramoutsa,
Gaberones, Mochuli, Palla, Palapye, Macloutsie, Tuli, Nuanetsi, and Victoria ;
and the Company is pushing forward the line as far as Fort Salisbury, which
it is hoped may be reached by January, 1892. A police force of Europeans
was raised and equipped in June, 1890. Alter obtaining the necessary
permission from King Lobengula, a pioneer expedition on a large scale was
organized to cut a road from a point on the Macloutsie River, a tributary of the
Limpopo, through the south-eastern part of Matabeleland into Mashonaland.
the objective point of the expedition being Mount Hampden (31° 20' E. long.,
17° 40' S. lat), near which large belts of gold-bearing quartz were known to
exist. This point was reached on September 12th, 1890. The pioneers were then
disbanded, and, in accordance with the agreement made with them, they were
allowed to peg off auriferous claims. Forts were established along the newly
cut road, for the protection of settlers, and of the convoys of supplies sent up
to them. Regular postal services have also been inaugurated between Fori
Salisbury and the limit of the Imperial postal service through Bechuanaland,
which terminates at Fort Tuli, placing London within eight weeks' communi-
cation with Fort Salisbury. Negotiations are in progress which it is hoped will
result in the rapid construction of the railway, provided for in the Anglo- Port u-
guese Agreement, between Bcira on the East Coast and Mashonaland. At
the end of the first year (12th of September, 1891) of the Company's occupa-
tion of Mashonaland there were 11,261 mining claims, each 150 feel along
the reef and 400 feet across it, had been located, on several of which shafts,
varying from 30 to 90 feet in depth, had been sunk, in older to prove
the richness and continuity of the gold deposits. In addition to gold, other
minerals had also been discovered, and several claims had been marked out on
reefs showing silver, copper, blende, tin, antimony, arsenic, and lead.
Townships at Fort Salisbury, Hartley Hill, and Umtali were being sur-
veyed ami marked out The white population is estimated at 3,000 (Dec. 1891 1.
The Company has from time to time equipped and despatched expeditions
into various parts of I Vntra! Africa, as the result of which it has secured mining
and administrative concessions from many chiefs. The capital of the Com-
pany is £1,000,000, nearly the whole of which is represented by cast) sub-
ZAMBEZI* AND NYA--\I.ANI> 197
si-riptinns. The Company is already in receipt of a small revenue from
mining and trading licenses, stand holdings, and postal and telegraph - :
The lwundaries of Northern Zambezia are thus denned by the Anglo-
Portr._ raent : —
On i line starting from the eastern shore of Lake Nyassa at
the point of the parallel of the confluence of the Rivers Rnvuma and M'Sinje,
following the shore southwards as far as the i>arallel of latitude 18* 30' south,
whence it runs in a south-easterly direction to tin eastern shore of Lake
Chiuta, which it follows : thence it runs in a direct line to the eastern shore
of Lake Kilwa or Shirwa, which it follows to its south-easternmost print :
thenee in a direct line to the easternmost affluent of the River Ruo. and thence
follows that affluent, and subsequently the centre of the channel of the Rim t->
it- eonflneace with the River Shin'.
From the confluence of the Ruo and Shire the boundary will follow the
centre of the channel of the latter liver to a point just l>elow Chiwauga :
thence it runs due westward until it reaches the watershed between the
Zambezi and the Shire, and follows the watershed between those rivers, ami
afterwards l>etween the former river and Lake Nyassa, until it reaches parallel
14° of south latitude. From theme it runs in a south-westerly direction to
the point where *outh latitude l.V meets the River Aroaugwa or Loangwa.
and follows the mid-channel of that river to its junction with the Zaml>ezi.
On the west by a line following the centre of the channel of the Upper
Zamliezi, starting from the Katima Rapids up to the point where it roaches the
territory of the Barotse kingdom. That territory to remain within the British
sphere ; its limits to the westward, which will constitute the l>oundary
l>etween the British and Portuguese spheres of influence, to l>e decided by a
joint Anglo-Portuguese Commission.
In the early part of 1891, Her Majesl aroenl extended the
field of operations of the Charte include the whole of the British
sphere north of the Zambezi, except Nyassaland, under which name are
included certain districts in the Lake Nyassa region where British mission-
aries had been settled for over fifteen years and the African Lakes Company
had l>eeu at work for the same j>eriod. and which in 1S89 were declared to
In- within the British sphere of influence. On the 14th of May, 1891, the
iland districts were proclaimed as being under the protectorate of
Great Britain, their lwundaries being thus defined: — On the east ami
south by the Portuguese dominions, and to the west by a frontier which,
starting on the south from the point where the boundary of the Portu-
guese dominions is intersected by the l>oundary of the Conventional Free
Trade Zone defined in the first article of the Berlin Act, follows that line
northwards to the point where it meets the line of the geographical Congo
basin defined in the same article, and thence follows the latter line to the
point where it touches the boundaiy between the British and German spheres,
defined in the second paragraph of the first article of the Agreement of the 1st
of July, 1890. The African Lakes Company hare steamers running on Lake
i and on the Lower Shire between Katunga and Quilimane or the
Chinde mouth of the Zambezi. It has established twelve trading stations,
and has a large staff of Europeans. In the Shire Highlands and on l>oth sides
of Lake Nyassa are mission settlements with schools. A private company has
also lieen established there with an estate of some 50,000 acres, consisting of
coffee, sugar, and cinchona plantations. For the administration of justice
and the maintenance, of peace and good order in the Nyassaland district. Her
-Majesty's Government have appointed Mr. H. H. Johnston. C.B., a.- the
Imperial Commissioner, and have also permitted him to act as the representa-
tive of the Rritish South Africa Company in the administration of the
198 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — ZANZIBAR
territories north of the Zamhezi over which its field of operations has been
extended. Mr. Johnston has fixed his seat of administration at Zomba in the
Shire Highlands. He has raised and equipped a small native police force, has
established regular postal services, and is further providing for the develop-
ment of the resources of the territories under his administration, from which a
small revenue is already accruing.
Negotiations have been completed for the absorption of the African Lakes
Company of Scotland, by which the development of the districts around Lakes
Nyassa and Tanganyika will in future be carried on under the direction of the
British South Africa Company.
The total area of the sphere, actual and prospective, of the British South
Africa Company, south and north of the Zambezi, exceeds 500,000 square
miles.
References.
Mathers (E. P.), Zambesia. London, 1S91.
.Murray (R. W.), South Africa. London, 1S91.
White (A. Silva), The Development of Africa. London, 1800,
ZANZIBAR.
Sultan and Government.
The Sultan, or, more correctly, the Seyyid, AH bin Said bin Sultan, brother
of the late Sultans Khalifa and Burghash, succeeded to the Sultanate on the
death of the former in February 1890. He was born in 1855. The Sultan's
only surviving brother is Abdul Aziz, who lives at Muscat.
Zanzibar dominions were gradually acquired by the Imams of Muscat at
various dates between the years 1698 and 1807, partly by conquest from the
Portuguese and partly from native chiefs. They were held as an appanage of
Muscat until the death of Seyyid Said, when, on a dispute as to the succession
arising between Seyyid Thowaynee, of Muscat, and Seyyid Majid, of Zanzibar
(both being sons of Seyyid Said), the dominions in Africa were made inde-
pendent of the present State and confirmed under Majid, brother of the present
ruler, by an arbitration of Lord Canning (dated 1861), then Governor-General
of India. Besides the islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, and smaller islands, the
Sultan's authority nominally extended along the coasts of the mainland, from
Warsheikh, in 3° N. lat, to Tunghi Bay, in 10° 42' S. lat. Until 1886 (see
British East Africa, p. 178 ; and German East Africa, p. 178) the Sultan's
dominions were of indefinite extent inland, his influence, however, extending
but a little way from the coast, except along a few trade routes. In 1886 the
Sultan's dominions were delimited. Zanzibar was WCOgnised as holding a
continuous strip of coast, ten miles in depth, reaching from Cape Delgado to
Kipini on the Ozi River. England and Germany agreed to confine their
action in the parts not recognised as belonging to Zanzibar as follows;
Germany was to bave as a sphere of Influence the countrj stretching inland
from the river Hovnina northwards to the Umba River : England's sphere ol
influence extending northward from the Umba. Northwards of Kipini the
Sultan of Zanzibar retained several .poinds where he had hitherto kept garrisons.
These places are— Lamn, Kisinavu. Brava. Merka. MogadoXO, Warsheikh.
The German Basl African Association, in virtue of a concession signed in May
AREA AND POPULATION — COMMERCE 199
1888, acquired the right to administer the Mrima or mainland (including the
customs of the Sultan's ports) from the Rovuma to the Umha River on the
north. The Imperial British East Africa Company acquired the right to
administer the coast from the Umha to Kipini for fifty years, on condition of
an annual payment to the Sultan ; and in 1889 further acquired the ports and
islands (including Lamu. Manda, and Patta) mentioned above to the north of
the Tana. A further settlement of all territorial questions was entered into by
England and Germany in the summer of 1890, confirming the general lines of
the above agreement, but conferring on England the protectorate of Zanzilar.
including the island of Pemba, and the continuous dominion of England from
the Umba north to the Jub River, including the territory of Witu. Germany
also acquired all the rights of the Sultan to the portion of the mainland under
German protection for the sum of 4,000,000 marks.
Under an arrangement made with England in October 1891, a regular
Government has been formed, composed as follows : — General Ma:
I'resiilent ; Mr. Hugh Robertson, Revenue ; Captain Hatch. Army and
Police ; Captain Hardinge, Harbour and Lights : Bomanji. Public Works :
Mahomed Bin Saif, Treasurer. Henceforth all accounts will Ik? kept in
English and Arabic, and will be always open to the inspection of the Consul-
General, and no new undertakings or additional expenditure will l>e incurred
without the consent of the Consul-General.
Area and Population.
The island of Zanzibar has an area of 625 square miles, and Pemba 360
square miles. The population of the island is estimated at 125,000. and that
of the island of Pemba 40,000. There is a considerable foreign population,
mostly engaged in trading. Of British-born subjects in 1884 there were 90.
There were also 35 French, 12 German, and 9 American subjects, besides 700
Goanese. Since then the number of Germans has greatly increased. The
town of Zanzibar has a population estimated at 100,000.
Religion.
Mohammedanism is the religion of the country, the natives of the coast
and islands being Sunnis of the Shaft school, while the Sultan and his
relatives are schismatics of the Ibadhi sect. There are Christian missions
(Church of England, Wesleyan, Independent, and Roman Catholic) on the
island and far into the mainland.
There are French and German hospitals at Zanzibar, which are attended
by French sisters of mercy and ladies of the German Red Cross respectively.
Justice.
Justice among the Sultan's subjects is administered by various ' Kazis,'
with an appeal to H. H. ; among Europeans by their consuls in all cases in
which they are the accused or defendants. Into the English Consular Court
the greater part of all civil cases are brought, inasmuch as the trade is almost
completely in the hands of British subjects ; there is an appeal to the Bombay
High Court. To it also pertains admiralty jurisdiction with reference to the
slave trade, and it is a naval prize court, bv virtue of the Zanzibar (Prize)
Order in Council, 1888.
Finance.
The revenue of the Sultan is mainly derived from customs dues and taxes
on produce, besides a considerable private income. Under the new arrange-
ment with England, the Sultan's privy purse has been fixed at three lakhs of
200 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — ZANZIBAR
rupees annually, and the remainder of the revenue will be devoted to the
charges for police, harbour improvements, and public works. All the public
expenditure must receive the sanction of the Sultan and the British Agent and
Consul-General.
Army.
There is a regular army of about 1,200 men, which, with the police, is
under the command of a British officer.
Commerce.
The value of the imports in 1880 is stated in a consular report to have been
709, 900?., and exports 870,3502. In 1882 the imports were estimated at
800,000/., the exports at 1,000,000/. ; in 1883 the former at 1,220,000/., and the
latter at 800, 000/. The principal imports in 1 883 were raw and bleached cotton,
46,338/., and manufactured goods, 84,628/. ; chief exports — ivory, 215,130/. ;
caoutchouc, 153,100/. ; skins, 10,641/. ; sesame seed, 13,332/. ; cloves,
10,632/. ; orchilla, 9,644/. These include the mainland now administered by
Germany and England. The largest trade is with Great Britain, India,
Germany, America, France, and Arabia. British trade with Zanzibar is
included in the returns for East African Native States, and as Abyssinia is
excluded, these refer almost entirely to Zanzibar and the mainland formerly
belonging to it. The exports from these States in 1890 to Great Britain
amounted to 443, 185/., and the imports from Great Britain to 195,850/. In
1888, 145 vessels entered the port, of which 56 were British, 10 German, 17
French, 4 American, 58 Zanzibar!. ,In the year ending September 30, 1891,
the tonnage entering Zanzibar was 203,000.
There is a special coinage issued under the Sultan's authority, of which the
Maria Theresa dollar is the unit ; but the British Indian rupee is the coin
now universally current, though in all business transactions the dollar is the
standard of value. The dollar has a fixed value of 2 rupees 2 annas.
British Agent and Consul-General. — Gerald H. Portal, C.B.
Consul for Zanzibar. — Lieut. C. S. Smith, R.N.
Vice-Consuls. — Capt. Salmon, R. T. Simons.
Judge and Consul. — W. B. Cracknall.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Zanzibar
and the neighbouring Mainland.
1. Official Puklications.
Correspondence respecting Sir Battle Frere's Mission to the East Coast of Africa. I BT8 78,
London, J 873.
Ilertslct's Treaties.
Correspondence relating to Zanzibar. London, 1880.
Further Correspondence relating 1o Zanzibar. London. ISS7 and 1888.
Reports on the Slave Trade of the Last Coast, of Africa (Africa, No. 7). iss;
Correspondence respecting Qennan] and Zanzibar. 1888 and 1 880.
Correspondence respecting the Anglo-German agreemenl relating to Africa and Heligo-
land. London, 1890.
The Qennan White Hooks.
Report on the Trade of Zanzibar in ' Reports of the Consuls of the United tstatcs.' No i .
Washington, 1884.
'Report by Oonsul-Qeneral Kirk on the Trade and Commcn f Zanihar for issi, in
Reports of li.M.'s Consuls,' Part XIII. London, 1882.
Animal Statement of the Linani f the United Kingdom with foreign Countries and
lh'it ish Possessions, for 1880. London, 1800.
Last Africa Pilot.
ZTLFLAXD
2. NV>n-Offi< ial Publications.
Bttrton (R. F.). The Lake Regions of Ontial Afi-ica. London, 1860. Zanzibar. 2 vols.
London, 1862.
Deeken (Baron C. C. von der), Reisen in Ost-Afrika. Leipzig. 1869-70.
Deuttche KolonialZcituna. 1888-90.
Fischer (G. A.). M.hr Licht iiu dunkein Weltteil. Hamburg, 1885.
Johntton (Keith), Africa. London. 1878.
Johiuton (H. H.). Kilimanjaro. London, 1885.
Krapf(J. L.X Travels during an Eighteen Years' Residence in East Africa. London. 1S60.
Owen (Capt. W. F. W.). Narrative of Voyage to Explore the Shores of Africa, Ac
1 vols. London, 1833.
Schmidt (K. W.), Sansibar. Leipzig, 1888.
Stanley (H. M.), Through the Dark Continent. .' v.-K London. 1878.
Thornton (Joseph), To the Central African Lakes ami Back. I vols. London, 1881.
Thornton (Joseph), Through Masai IjuuI. London, 1885.
IT*ifc(A. Silva). Th.- Development of Africa. London, 1890.
Wilton (Rev. C. T.) and Felkin (R. W.\ Ugauda and the E^vptian Soudan.
London. 1882.
ZTJLTJLAND.
A British protectorate administered by the Governor of Natal. It I
the north of Xatal, from which it is divided by the river Tugela. It goes down
to the Indian Ocean, and includes St. Lucia Bay. It comprises the territory
formerly known as the Zulu Reserve, and almost two-thirds of the territory
restored to Cetewayo and Usibebu in 1883. It was formally declared British
territory in May 1887. Area, 8,900 square miles, including the neighbouring
Tnngalaml, 14.220 square miles : estimated population (1891) 142,038 blade
and 648 white : including Tongaland 180,000. The black population of
Zulnland is probably much under-estimated. The territory is admin: -
through a Resident Commissioner residing at Eshowe, under the Governor of
Xatal, who is also Governor of Zululand, but native law exists as between
natives. There are seven magisterial districts, 17 mission stations, 17 schools,
with 603 pupils on the roll. A hut tax of 14s. per annum is levied on the
natives. Agriculture and cattle-raising are largely carried on, oxen and maize
being exported for cotton goods and hardware. A telegraph line joins Eshowe
to Xatal, and there is a dailv post. There is a main road through the
territorv, with branch roads. Revenue (1889), 38,541/., (1890). 41.fi 7 4'. :
expen.liture (1889), 33,7667., (1890), 29,732/.
Resident Commissioner and Chiff Magist-rtti*. — M. Osbora, C.M.Q.
202
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — BERMUDAS
AMERICA.
Antigua. See West Indies.
Bahamas. See under West Indies.
Barbados. See under West Indies.
BERMUDAS.
Governor. — Lieut. -Gen. E. Newdigate-Newdcgate, C.B. (2,946/.), assisted
by an Executive Council of 6 members appointed by the Crown, a Legis-
lative Council of 9 members, also appointed by the Crown, and a repre-
sentative House of Assembly of 36 members ; 1,152 electors.
A Colony, with representative government, consisting of a group of 360
small islands (18 to 20 inhabited), 580 miles east of Xorth Carolina, and
677 miles from New York, noted for their climate and sceneiy ; favourite
winter resort for Americans.
Area, 20 square miles (12,000 acres, 4,000 under cultivation). Popula-
tion for 1891, 15,884 (including 6,293 whites) ; 12,000 belong to Church of
England. In 1890 534 births (81 illegitimate), 103 marriages, 393 deaths.
Education : 47 schools, with 1,400 pupils, 23 of the schools receiving
Government grants, 1,650/. annually. In 1890 242 persons summarily
convicted, and 13 sentenced by superior court.
Chief town Hamilton, 8,000 population.
Average strength of Imperial troops, 1,546.
Revenue
Expenditure .
1886 1887 1888
1880
ISM
£ £ £
25,162 27,401 29,372
26,781 | 28,731 30,147
£
29,938
30,089
£
32,394
30,270
For 1891-92 the estimated revenue is 35,475/., and expenditure 30,:>«>."'/.
Chief source of revenue : customs, 26,3502. in 1891-92. Chief items of
expenditure : salaries, public works, ecclesiastical, education. Contribution
by Home Government, 2,200/. Public debt (1890), 7,620/.
Savings bank deposits, 15,064/.
Exports .
Imports .
18M 1887
£ ! £
75,037 1 88,919
279,190 | 264,920
I sss
£
99,650
299,990
1880 L8*B
£ £
64,976 137,526
272,603 308,016
Imports from Great Britain, according to the Colonial Pine Book, In 1890,
92,739/., and exports to the same, 2,038/.
RERMTPAS — CANADA -' '3
Food mpplitt are mostly imported from the United States ami Canada,
ami nearly all the export produce of Bermuda goes to those two countries, fa
1890 onions exported, S-2,087/. : lily bulbs, 8,507/. : petatoea, 34,117/.
In 1890 the total tonnage of vessels entered and cleared was 307,506. o|
which 285,944 were British. There are 32 mil. a of telegraph wire, ami 15 of
■ able ; in 1890 the number of messages sent was 21,053. There is also a
private telephone company, which has about 200 subscri>>ers and OpWl
300 miles of wire in line. A telegraph cable connecting the islands with
Halifax, Xova Scotia, was successfully laid in July 1890.
The currency, weights, and measures are British.
CANADA.
(Dominion of Canada.)
Constitution and Government.
A - originally constitute*! the Dominion of Canada was com-
posed of the Provinces of Canada — Upper and Lower — Nova
Scotia, and New Brunswick. They were united under the pro-
visions of an Act of the Imperial Parliament passed in March
1867, known as * The British North America Act 1867,' which
came into operation on the 1st July, 1867, by royal proclamation.
The Act provides that the Constitution of the Dominion shall be
• similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom:' that the
executive authority shall be vested in the Sovereign of Great
Britain and Ireland, and carried on in her name by a Governor-
General and Privy Council ; and that the legislative power shall
be exercised by a Parliament ol* two Houses, called the ' Senate '
and the ' House of Commons.' Provision was made in the Act
for the admission of British Columbia, Prince Edward Island,
the North- West Territories, and Newfoundland into the Do-
minion ; Newfoundland alone has not avaded itself of such
provision, being still a self-governing Crown colony. In 1869
the extensive region known as the North- West Territories mi
added to the Dominion by purchase from the Hudson's Bay
Company ; the province of Manitoba was set apart out of a
portion of it. and admitted into the confederation of 15th July.
1870. On 20th July, 1871, the province of British Columbia,
and on the 1st July, 1873, the province of Prince Edward Tsland,
respectively entered the confederation.
The members of the Senate of the Parliament of the Do-
minion are nominated for life, by summons of the Governor-
Geneca] under the Great Seal of Canada. By the terms of the
204 THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— CANADA
Constitution, there are 80 senators — namely, 24 from the Pro-
vince of Ontario, 24 from Quebec, 10 from Nova Scotia, 10 from
New Brunswick, 3 from Manitoba, 3 from British Columbia,
4 from Prince Edward Island, and 2 from the Territories. Each
senator must be 30 years of age, a born or naturalised subject, and
reside in and be possessed of property, real or personal, of the value
of 4,000 dollars, in the province for which he is appointed. The
House of Commons of the Dominion is elected by the people, for
five years, unless sooner dissolved, at the rate at present of one
representative for every 20,000, the arrangement being that the
province of Quebec shall always have 65 members, and the
other provinces proportionally, according to their populations at
each decennial census. At present on the basis of the census
returns for Manitoba of 1886, for the North-West Territories of
1885, and. for the rest of the Dominion of 1881, the Hxmse of
Commons consists of 215 members — namely, 92 for Ontario, 65
for Quebec, 21 for Nova Scotia, 16 for New Brunswick, 5 for
Manitoba, 6 for British Columbia, 6 for Prince Edward Island.
and 4 for the North- West Territories. The ratio of members to
population is 1 in 20,276.
The members of the House of Commons are elected by con-
stituencies, with a uniform franchise for the whole Dominion,
except in the North-West Territories, where every male resident
for 12 months, 21 years of age, and not an alien or Indian, is
entitled to vote. In the rest of the Dominion, a vote is given to
every male subject of the full age of 21 years, being the owner,
tenant, or occupier of real property of the actual value in cities
of 300 dollars, in towns of 200 dollars, and elsewhere of 150
dollars; or of the yearly value, wherever situate, of not less than
2 dollars per month, 6 dollars per quarter, 12 dollars half-yearly,
or 20 dollars per annum ; or is resident in any electoral district
with an income from earnings or investments of not less than
300 dollars per annum ; or is the son of a farmer or any other
owner of real property which is of sufficient value to qualify both
father and such son ; or is a fisherman, and owner of real pro-
perty, which, with boats, nets, and fishing tackle, amounts to
150 dollars actual value. The qualifications for voting at pro-
vincial elections vary in the several provinces. Voting is by
ballot.
The Speaker of the House of Commons has B salary of 4,000
dollars per annum, and each member an allowance of 10 dollars
per diem, up to the end of 30 days, and for a session lasting
longer than this period the sum of 1,000 dollars, with, in every
case, 10 cents per mile for travelling expenses. The sum of
LEGISLATURE 206
8 dollars per diem is deducted for every day's absence of a mem-
ber, unless the same Ls caused by illness. There is the same
allowance for the meml>ers of the Senate of the Dominion.
r-General. — The Right Honourable Frederick Arthur
Stanley, Baron Stanley of Preston, G.C.B., born 1841 ; educated
ai Eton; entered the Grenadier Guar<l>. 1868 Lieutenant and
Captain. 1862; left the army anil entered Parliament, 1865; a
Lord of the Admiralty, 1868; Financial Secretary for War.
-77; Financial Secretary to the Treasury, 1877; Secretary
of State for War, 1878-80; Secretary of State for the Colonies,
886-86 : President of the Board of Trade, 1886. Appointed
i-nor-General of the Dominion of Canada, May 1, 1888;
iiied the government thereof, June 11. 1888.
The Governor-General has a salary of 10,000/. per annum.
He is assisted in his functions, under the provision* (,t' the Act
of 1867, by a Council, composed of 13 heads of departments.
Queen's Privy Council. — The present Council, formed June 16,
,1891, after the death of the then Premier, the Rt. Hon Sir John
A. Macdonald, G.C.B., P.O., consists of the following members: —
1. Prime Minister, and President of the Council. Hon. John
Joseph Caldwell Abbott, Q.C., D.C.L.
2. Minister of Public Works. - Hon. Sir Hector Louis
Langevin, K.C.M.G., C.B., LX..D., Q.C.
3. Minister of Customs. — Hon. Mackenzie Botcell.
i. Minister of Militia and Defence. — Hon. Sir Adolphe P.
Caron, K.C.M.G., Q.C.
5. Minister of Agriculture. — Hon. John Carling.
6. Minister of Inland Revenue. — Hon. John Costigan.
7. (without portfolio). — Hon. Frank Smith.
8. Secretary of State. — Hon. Joseph Adolphe Chapleau, Q.< '..
LL.D.
9. Minister of Justice. — Hon. Sir J. S. D. Thompson.
K.C.M.G., Q.C.
10. Minister of Finance. — Hon. George E. Foster.
11. Minister of Marine and Fisheries. — Hon. Charles Hibbert
Tupper, LL.B.
12. Minister of the Interior. — Hon. Edgar Dewdney.
13. Postmaster-General. — Hon. John Graham Haggart.
14. Minister of Railways and Canals. — Vacant.
Each of the ministers has a salary, fixed by statute, of 7,000
dollars, or 1,400/. a year, with the exception of the recognised
Prime Minister, who has 8,000 dollars, or 1,600/. per annum.
The body of ministers is officially known as the • Queen's Privy
Council for the Dominion of Canada.'
20G
THE BRITISH EMPIRE .'—CANADA
Provincial Government.
The seven provinces forming the Dominion have each a separate parlia-
ment and administration, with a Lieutenant-Governor at the head of the
executive. They have full powers to regulate their own local affairs and
dispose of their revenues, provided only they do not interfere with the action
and policy of the central administration. The Lieutenant-Governors arc
appointed by the Governor-General. Quebec, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick,
and Prince Edward Island have each two Chambers (a Legislative Council
and a Legislative Assembly) and a responsible Ministry. In Ontario, Mani-
toba, and British Columbia there is only one Chamber (the Legislative
Assembly) and a responsible Ministry. The members of the Legislative Council
of Prince Edward Island number 13, Nova Scotia 17, New Brunswick 17,
Quebec 24. The membership of the Legislative Assemblies are — Prince
Edward Island 30, Nova Scotia 38, New Brunswick 41, Quebec 65, Ontario
90, Manitoba 35, British Columbia and the North-West Territories each 25.
The North-West Territories are presided over by a Lieutenant-Governor and a
Legislative Assembly, consisting of 22 elected members and 3 legal experts
appointed by the Governor in Council. The Advisory Council (or Executive)
consists of the Lieutenant-Governor and 4 members appointed by him.
Area and Population.
The population of Canada in the year 1800 was estimated at 240,000 ; it
has increased as follows : —
Year
1
Population
Year Population
1825
1851
1861
581,920
1,842,265
3,090,561
1871 1 3,635,024
1881 4,324,810
1891 4,829,411
The following are the areas of tlic provinces with the population
■censuses of 1881 and 1891 :—
it the
Total Total
Density
Increase
Increase
Province
Square
Miles
Popula- Popula-
percent.
per cent.
tion, 18S1 tion. 1S01
1801
1871-81
1881 n
Prince Edward Island .
2,000
108,891 109,088
M
15-8
n-ls
Nova Scotia .
20,550
440,572 ; 450,523
22
13-0
2-2-.
New Brunswick
28,100
831,398 321,294
12
12-1
11-0(1
Quebec . . . .
227,500
1,359,027 1,188,580
7
ltd
P-48
Ontario . . . .
219,650
1,923,228 2,112,989
19
18-0
0'84
Manitoba
64,000
05,954 154,442
2-1
247-2
184-18
British Columbia .
382,300
49,459 ; 92,707
02I
80*4
Territories and Arctic
Islands . - .
Total .
| 2,371,481
50.446 | 99,722
0-04
70-7.)
3,315,047
4,824,810 | 4,829,411
1 ■■!:.
IS -!i7
\s for lakt
11-00
To the above area
should be
added 140,736 sip
tare mil
IB, rivets,
ftc., giving a total area of 3,456,383 square miles.
In 1881 there were 2,188,779 males and 2,136,031 females.
A portion of the North-Western Territories was in 1882 divided into lout-
districts -Assiniboia, 89.535 square miles ; Saskatchewan, 107,092 eq. m. ;
Alberta, 106,000 sq. m. ; and Athabasca, 104,500 sq. m. A census of the
AREA AND POPULATION 1
first three districts was taken in 1891, when there were found to be a total
Imputation of 67,554.
The district of Keewatiu, between Manitoba and Ontario, and stretching
north to Hudson's Bay, was created in 1876 out of the Territories, and erected
into a separate government under the Lieutenant-Governor of Manitoba ; a
{>ortion of Manitoba was added in October 1883, and it has now an area of
about 267,000 square miles. ■
The population of the Dominion consisted at the census of 1881 to the ex-
tent of more than four-fifths of natives of British North America. These num-
bered 3,715,492, of whom 1,467,988 were natives of Ontario ; 1,327,809 of
20,088 of Nova Scotia; 288,265 of New Brunswick; 19,590 of
Manitoba; 32,275 of British Columbia; 101,047 natives of Prince Edward
Islau'l : and 58,430 of the Territories. Of alien-born inhabitants of the
Dominion the most numerous at the census of 1881 were 470,092 natives of
the United Kingdom ; next came 77,753 from the United States, 25,328
German*;, 6,376 natives of Russia, 4,389 French. On the basis of origin the
population was classed as follows : — 1,298,929 of French origin, 881,301
English, 957,403 Irish, 699,863 Scotch, 254,319 German, 30,412 Dutch,
108,547 Indian, 21,394 African, 4,383 Chinese, and the remainder u
among Danish, Icelandic, Italian, Russian, Scandinavian, W.-l>h, Swiss,
Spanish, Portuguese, and Jews. According to an official report for 1890 there
were 122,.r>S5 Indians in Cauada at that date. Of the total population,
464,025 were returned as occupiers of land, representing with their families
nearly one-half the population.
The population of the principal cities of the Dominion was as follows in
1890 :—
('Toronto 181,220 . ( Montreal i 216,650
Ontario ' Hamilton 48,990 'UeUtc ' " ( Quebec 70,090
* "| Ottawa 44,150 Nova Scotia . Halifax 38,556
I London 31,980 New Brunswick St. John 39,179
Manitoba . Winnipeg 25,642
British Columbia . . (HSS JJ'SX
I Vancouver 14,000
There are no vital statistics for the Dominion as a whole, mortuarv >ta-
tistks being collected at only a few places ; it is therefore impossible I
what is the rate of natural increase of the population. The death rate per
1,000 was as follows in 1889 in the towns named : — Montreal, 29'56 : Toronto,
13*SS : Quebec, 31 13 : Hamilton, 16'84 ; Halifax, 1923 ; Ottawa, 21 "38 :
St. John, N.B., 15-46 ; Winnipeg, 2085.
The following table shows the total number of immigrants, and the
number who actually settled in the Dominion of Canada in the years stated : —
1879-83 (Av.)
75,000
—
1886
122,581
69,152
1887
175,579
84,526
1888
174,474
88,766
1889
176,462
91,600
1890
178,921
75,067
; URL
208
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CANADA
The number of immigrants, as well as of settlers, is inclusive of those
arrived from the United States.
The number of immigrants to the United States through Canada in 1883 is
returned as 72,274 ; 1884, 62,772 ; 1885, 25,927 ; 1886, 53,429 ; 1887,
91,053 ; 1888, 85,708 ; 1889, 84,862 ; and 1890, 103,854. The number of
immigrants arriving at Quebec in 1890 was 21,165, of whom 11,564 were
English, 2,094 Scotch, and 1,170 Irish ; the rest foreigners. In 1889 it was
22,091, of whom 11,663 were English, 2,417 Scotch, and 1,582 Irish. The
arrivals at Halifax in 1890 were 9,437, of whom 5,952 were English, 259 Irish,
and 588 Scotch.
Religion.
There is no State Church in the whole of British North America. The
Church of England is governed by nineteen bishops, with about 1,000 clergy,
the Roman Catholic Church by one cardinal, five archbishops, eighteen
bishops, and about 1,200 clergy ; and the Presbyterian Church in Canada,
with 991 ministers — formed in 1875 by the union of two formerly distinct
bodies — by presbyteries, synods, and an annual assembly as in the Scotch
Church, with 2,358 churches and stations. The Methodists have 1,748 and
the Baptists about 500 ministers. All these bodies have one or more divinity
schools. The number of members of each religious creed in the Dominion was
as follows at the census of April 3, 1881 : —
Roman Catholics .
. 1,791,982
Congregationalists
. 26,900
Presbyterians
. 676,165
Miscellaneous creeds .
79,686
Anglicans
. 574,818
Of ' no religion '
2,634
Methodists .
. 742,981
No creed stated .
86,769
Baptists
. 296,525
Lutherans
46,350
Total
4,324,810
*The following shows the numbers of the leading denominations in the
several provinces according to the latest censuses : — .
Province
Roman
Catholic
Church of
England
Presby-
terian
Methodist
Baptist
106,680
Ontario l . .
320,839
366,539
417,749
591,503
Quebec 1
1,170,718
68,797
50,287
39,221
8,853
Nova Scotia '
117,487
60,255
112,488
50,811
88,761
New Brunswick 1
109,091
46,768
42,888
34,514
81,092
Manitoba3 .
14,651
23,206
28,406
18,648
3,296
British Columbia x
10,043
7,804
4,095
3,516
434
Prince Edward Island '
47,115
7,192
33,835
13,485
6,236
The Territories 3 .
9,301
9,976
7,712
6,910
778 !
1 Census 1881.
Census 1880.
•'■ Census ins:,.
Instruction.
Excepl in British Columbia, all the provinces of the Dominion nave on.'
or more universities, and several colleges which prepare for university degrees.
There arc in all about 16 degree-granting bodies in the Dominion, with about
2! colleges, including denominational, medical, and other special institutions.
From special official statistics of these institutions it may 1 stfaneted thai
,lie\ are attended by about 7,000 student.-, and their total annual expenditure
JUSTICE AND < HIMK
209
is upwards of 655,000 dollars, while the estimated value of their endowments,
building land, fee., is over 10,000,000 dollars.
The following table gives some information respecting the public, high,
and superior schools in the Dominion and the pupils attending them in 1838,
1889, and 1890, and the amounts both of Government grants and of total
expenditure for education : —
Pro\ .
Year Ended
Number
of Pupils
Araran
ATT.-n.l-
uiic.
Number
of
Teach-
ers
Ex]h n.Ii-
ture
.-. ::-a_--
of
AJtSB*.
ance
49-82 i
70-41
66-66
47 til
6260
54-16
5714
69-00
Ontario .
Quebec .
Nova Scotia .
New Brunswick .
Manitoba
British Columbia .
P. E. Island .
The Territories
Total .
Dec. 31, 1888
June 30, 1888
Oct. 11, 1889
Dec 31, 1889
Dec. 31, 1889
June 30, 1889
June 30, 1889
Jnne 30, 1890
-.14,304
166,686
21,588
(5,796
22,905
195,557
-•».»:::
BM8S1
13,513
3,681
18,089
UP
8,135
-J.1--J
1,668
666>
139
509
224
•
4,496,420
6,613*666
404,145
167,166
146,961
73,733
-
•"-.-•_•::
569,136
21.771
8,970,847
56-98
Not including Normal students. * Protestant schools only.
The total number of public schools was 15,145, and of high and superior
schools 965. If the number of those attending the universities and private
schools were added to the shore figures, the total number of pupils would be
consici.nil.lv over one million. The expenditure for the year on public and
high schools, including Government grants, was 9,000,000 dollars. The
supervision of education is under the control of the Governments of the
several provinces, and the systems in use vary somewhat, but are all based on
the principle of free education, the funds being supplied by Government
grants and local taxation. In British Columbia and the North- West Terri-
tories the schools are supported whollv bv Government. Education is more
or less compulsory in all the provinces, except New Brunswick, but the law is
not very strictly enforced. In Ontario, Quebec, and the North-West Terri-
tories there arc separate schools for Roman Catholics : in the other provinces
the schools arc anantarian. Separate schools in Manitoba were abolished b\
a Provincial Act passed in 1890.
Justice and Crime.
Theiv is a Supreme Court in Ottawa, having appellate, civil, and criminal
jurisdiction in and throughout Canada. There is also a Superior Court in
each province r; county courts, with limited jurisdiction, in most of the
provinces : all the judges in these courts being appointed bv the Governor-
General. 1 ohce magistrates and justices of the peace an appointed bv the
ftovmcial Governments. Then are also Yice-Admiraltv Courts in Quebec,
Nova Scotia New Brunswick, and Prime Edward Maid, and a Maritime
< ourt ot Ontario.
■ J" 1SS9- 6'3:4 P/rawttwen charged with indictable offences: of these
ti'a,v WT* ,,onvi'tl',U 8 lTg 8en*enced to ^ath, 443 sent to the peniten-
tiary, and the rest sentenced to various terms of imprisonment : and 34 223
-re summarily convicted, 31.217 with the option of a fine. At the end of
1888, the number ot prisoners ot all classes in conlinennnt was 3.199.
P
210
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CANADA
Finance.
The financial accounts of the Dominion of Canada are made up under
three different headings — namely, first, ' Consolidated Fund, ' comprising
the general sources of revenue and branches of expenditure ; secondly,
' Loans ' in revenue, and ' Redemption ' with ' Premiums and Discounts ' in
expenditure ; and thirdly, ' Open Accounts. ' The headings ' Loans ' and
' Redemption ' include the deposits in and withdrawals from the Post Office
and Government Savings Banks, the amount on deposit forming part of the
Moating or unfunded debt of the country. Under the head of ' Open
Accounts' are included investments, trust funds, Province accounts, and
expenditure on capital account on public works.
Revenue and Expenditure, Consolidated Fund, 1886-90 : —
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Dollars
Dollars
1886
33,177,040
39,011, 6121
1887
35,754,993
35,657,860
1888
35,908,463
36,718,495
1889
38,782,870
36,917,835
1890
39,879,925
35,994,031
1 Expenses of outbreak in N.W.T.
The total actual receipts and expenditure, under these three divisions,
were as follows in the financial year ending June 30, 1890 : —
Receipts.
Consolidated Fund
Loans .
Open Accounts .
Total .
Dollars
39,879,925
11,329,625
11,571,816
62,781,366
Expenditure.
Dollars
Consolidated Fund . 35,994,031
Redemption . . 15,735,770
Open Accounts . . 11,051,565
Total
62,781,366
The actual sources of revenue and branches of expenditure comprised
under the division called Consolidated Fund were as follows in the Imam ial
year ending June 30, 1890 : —
Consolidated Fund, 1889-90.
Rev i'\i B.
Expenditure.
Dollars
Dollars
Customs ...
23,968,954
Interest on Public Debt
9,656,841
Excise
7,618,118
Charges of Manage-
Lands
250,063
ment, and Premium,
Public Works
3,800,114
Discount, and Ex-
Post Office .
2,357,389
change
230,409
Fees, Fines, and Forfei-
Sinking Fund
1,887,237
tures (including Sei-
Subsidies to Provinces .
3,904,922
zures)
88,275
Legislation and Civil
Government
Militia
22,094
2,241,034
Weights ami Measures .
10,439
Public Works
2,186,691
fin;
211
Bjcvjbhujl
Daflan
Premium, Discount,aml
Exchange .
118,503
Interest on Investments
1,082,271
Fisheries
69,643
Penitentiaries
14,568
Superannuation
61,513
Dominion Steamers and
Lighthouse and Coast
Service
13,634
Marine Hospitals and
Mariners' Fund
48,237
Harbour Police .
17,817
Steamboat Inspection .
19,930
Various
288,363
Expenditure.
Penitentiaries
Administration of Justice
Geological Survey and
Observatories
Arts, Agriculture, and
Statistics .
Ocean and River Steam
Service (including
Mail Subsidies, kc.) .
Militia and Defence
Mounted Police N.W.T.
Superannuation and
Pensions.
Lighthouses and Coast
bervice
Fisheries
Indians (Leg. Grants) .
Immigration and Qua-
rantine
Charges on Revenue
Experimental Farm
Miscellaneous
Dollars
349,839
709,784
120,548
71,683
Total
39,879,925 Total
450,362
1,287,014
;,094
349,156
466,116
328,894
1,107,824
182,337
9,182,941
79,148
448,157
35,994,031
It will be seen that more than half the revenue is derived from Custom-.
duties, the tariffs on imports extending to a great many articles, and in many
cases being very high.
The anticipated surplus of 3,500,000 dollars in 1890 amounted actually to
a surplus of 3,885,894 dollars. The estimated expenditure for 1891 has been
placed at 36,213,753 dollars, and the revenue at 38,858,701 dollars, showing a
surplus of 2,644,948 dollars.
The estimates of expenditure under the Consolidated Fund for the financial
year ending June 30, 1892, amounted to 36,931,000 dollars, and of total
expenditure to 43,158,000 dollars. The ordinary revenue was estimated
at 37,500,000 dollars. Of the total expenditure in 1891-92, 23,960,511 dollars
had to be voted by Parliament, and 19,467,444 dollars were authorised by
statute.
The public debt of the Dominion, incurred chiefly on account of public
works, and the interest of which forms the largest branch of the expenditure,
was as follows on July 1, 1890 : —
Dollars
Without Interest
At 3 per cent. ,,
„ 3* „ „
„ 4 „ „
„ 5 „ „
„ 6 „ „
Total Debt
. 19,466,667
65,345,798
. 156,809,440
. 25,712,232
2,187,669
. 286,112,295
The total debt on June 30, 1891, was 285,950,250 dollars. There are assets
which make the net debt 233,530,222 dollars. The following shows the gross
and net debts, 1886-91 :—
y 2
212
THE I
JRITISH EMPIRE:
— CANADA
Gross
Net.
Dollars
Dollars
1886
273,164,341
223,159,107
1887
273,187,626
227,314,775
1888
284,513,842
234,531,358
1889
287,722,063
237,530,042
1890
286,112,295
237,533,212
1891
285,950,250
233,530,222
The total burden of the debt, after deducting assets, is 91. 8s. S\d. per
head, and of the annual charge for interest 6s. 9|d. The total exports per head
in 1890 amounted to 31. 16s. 8^d., and the proceeds of little more than three
year's exports would pay off the debt. The expenditure on canals and railways
alone by the Government amounted to over 29 millions sterling up to 1890.
At the census of 1881 it was found that the value of the capital invested in
manufacturing industries of various kinds was 33 millions sterling, and the
annual value of the products 62 millions.
Provincial Revenues, Expenditures, and Debts, 1889.
Defence.
The Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence form a barrier between Centra]
Canada and the United States, but the eastern provinces ami Western Canada
have neither natural barriers nor fortifications. With the exception of Halifax,
and a small fort at St. John, New Brunswick, there are practically no fortifi-
cations in Canada. Arrangements, however, are in contemplation between tin
Imperial and Canadian Governments for the erection of fortifications on the
Pacific coast.
In addition to the troops maintained by the Imperial Government — the
strength of which was reduced, in the year 1871, to 2,000 men, forming
the garrison of the fortress of Halifax, considered an ' Imperial Station ' —
Canada has a large volunteer militia force. By the terms of the Act passed
in March 1868 the militia consists of all male British subjects between 18 and
60, who may be called out to serve in four classes — namely Aral class, 18 to
30, unmarried ; 2nd, from 30 to 45, unmarried ; 3rd, 18 to 45, married : 1th,
45 to 60. The militia is divided into an active and a reserve force. The
active includes the volunteer and the marine militia. The active militia con-
sists of those who voluntarily enlist to Bervs in the same, or men balloted, or
in past of both. The marine militia is made up of persons whose usual occu-
pation is on sailing or steam craft navigating the waters of the Dominion.
DEFHNCi — I'RoDIt TIOX AM) INDUSTRY 218
The active militia serve for three years. The city corps are trained for 12
'lays annually at their headquarters, an<l the rural corps for the same period
biennially in ramps of exercise in their respective districts. Efforts are being
made to induce the Government to have the whole force drilled annually.
The reserve militia consists of the whole of the men between the ages of 18
and 60 not serving in the active militia of the time being, with eertain ex-
emptions. The number of men to lie drilled annually is limited to 45,000,
and the period of drill to 16 days every year. On December 31, 1890, the
active militia consisted of 37,619 officers and men, comprising i'i troops
<it cavalry. 18 batteries of field artillery, 43 of garrison artillery, 3 companies
of engineers, and 639 companies of infantry and rifles. There are
permanent corps and schools of instruction, the strength of which is limited
to 1,000 men -viz. one school of cavalry, three artillery, four infantry, and one
mounted infantry. There is also a Royal Military College at Kingston,
founded in 1875, since which time 77 cadets have been gazetted to commie
in the Imperial army. The officer commanding the militia is appointed for
five years, and daring appointment holds the rank of major-gen. in the militia :
he must be on the active service list of the Imperial army, and of not lower
rank than colonel in the same. The Dominion is divided into twelve military
districts, as follows — viz. Ontario into four, Quebec three. Nova B
New Brunswick one. Manitoba, the Territories, and Keewatin one. Prince
Edward Island one. and British Columbia one, each district being commanded
hy a Deputy Adjutant-! ieneral, whose appointment is permanent. A amall-
anus ammunition factory is in operation in Quebec. Then- is at present no
active marine militia, the naval defences of the country Wing the care of the
Imperial authorities. According to the Navy List eleven ships are on
the North America and West India Stations, besides eight others on the
Pacific Station.
Production and Industry.
Ayrii-ultui' . —Of the total area of Canada in 1881, 45,358,141 acres (about
a fiftieth of the whole ana) was occupied. The occupied land is being rapidly
increased. In 1S90, 471,040 acres of Dominion lands were disposed of as
homesteads, 57,600 under the Pre-emption Act, and 139,030 acres were sold
687,670 acres altogether. Of the various holdings in 1881, the bulk, 258,915.
were between 50 and 200 acres. Of the occupied lands in 1881, 21,199,181
were returned as improved, of which 15,112,284 acres were under
crops, 6,385,562 under pasture. There are no complete annual agricultural
returns for the whole of Canada. It is estimated that the total wheat crop
of Canada in 1889 was 30,871,656 bushels, and in 1S90 about 40,687,663
bushels. In 1889 the total wheat crop of Manitoba was, owing to tin
dry season, not much over 7 million bushels, in 1890 it was more than
double, viz. 14,665,769, while the present prospects for a large crop in
1891 are remarkably good. The only complete agricultural returns are from
Ontario, and the average produce per acre for the last nine years is : fall
wheat 194 bushels, spring wheat 152, barley 25 '8, oats 344, rye 16'2, peas
20 3, maize 64 5, potatoes 117 '9. Cheese is becoming a more and more import-
ant farm produce, the export being 292 per cent, more in 1890 than in 1874.
Great Britain now imports more cheese from Canada than from any other
country. There is a central experimental farm near Ottawa, and other experi-
mental farms in several of the provinces. In 1881 there were 3,514,989 oxen,
ind calves, 3,048,678 sheep, and 1,207,619 swine. In 1890 there were
126 ranches in the N.-W. Territories, comprising 2,288,347 acres.
214
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CANADA
In 1881 the forests of Canada produced 110 million cubic feet of timber,
08 million logs (= 544 million cubic feet of timber), and 192,241 masts, &c.
According to Government returns the production in 1889 amounted to
1,608,890,647 feet B.M., and 5,743,868 cubic feet of timber, without taking
any account of boom timber, ties, telegraph poles, cord wood, shingles, &c. ,
&c. The dues on the above quantity amounted to over 2,200,000 dollars.
The actual production was of course much larger, as only the quantity is given
on which dues were paid.
Fisheries. — The total value of the produce of the fisheries of Canada in
1887 was 18,836,105 dollars ; in 1888, 17,418,510 dollars ; in 1889, 17,655,256
dollars ; and in 1890, 17,714,902 dollars, of which last amount 8,461,906
dollars worth was exported. The values of the principal catches in 1890 were
cod, 3,433,580 dollars ; salmon, 3,036,569 dollars ; herring, 1,958,492 dollars ;
lobsters, 1,648,344 dollars, and mackerel, 1,524,976 dollars. The value of tbe
total yield in 1890 was divided among the several provinces as follows : —
Nova Scotia, 6,636,445 dollars ; New Brunswick, 2,699,055 dollars ; Quebec,
1,615,120 dollars ; Prince Edward Island, 1,041,109 dollars ; British Columbia,
3,481,432 dollars ; Ontario, 2,009,637 dollars, and Manitoba and the North
West Territories, 232,104 dollars.
Mmmg.'—Nova, Scotia, British Columbia, Quebec, N. and W. Ontario,
and part of the N. W. Territories, are the chief mining districts of Canada.
The total value of the mineral produce of Canada in 1889 was 19,500,000
dollars. The principal product is coal, of which 2,658,134 tons, valued at
5,259,832 dollars, were raised in 1888, and 2,719,478 tons, valued at
5,584,182 dollars, in 1888. Coal of the value of 2,447,936 dollars was ex-
ported in 1890. Among the other minerals produced in 1889 were gold,
1,295,159 dollars ; iron, 2,763,062 dollars ; petroleum, 612,101 dollars ; bricks,
1,273,884 dollars; building stone, 913,691 dollars; copper, 885,424 dollars;
silver, 348,848 dollars ; lime, 362,848 dollars ; asbestos, 426,554 dollars.
The total value of minerals and their manufactures imported in 1889 was
over 25 million dollars. It is estimated that the coal-bearing area of the
N.-W. Territories extends over 65,000 square miles. The discovery of an
apparently inexhaustible supply of nickel at Sudbury, Ontario, is likely to add
very largely to the mineral wealth of Canada, over 1,000,000 dollars worth of
nickel matte was exported in 1890, and the quantity will be very much
larger in 1891.
Commerce.
The following statement gives the total value of exports and of imports,
and the total value of imports entered for home consumption in the Dominion,
in each of the years named : —
Vear ended
June 80
Total Exports
Total Imports
Imports for
Home Consumption
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
1879
71,491,225
81,964,427
80,341,608
1886
85,251,314
104,424,561
99,602,694
1887
89,515,811
112,892,236
105,639,428
1888
90,203,000
110,894,630
102,847,100
1889
89,189,167
115,224,931
109,673,447
1890
96,749,149
121,858,241
112,765,584
i OM MERGE
215
The following talde shows th>- share of th- leading countries in the com-
merce of Canada in 1889 and 1890 in thousands of dollars : —
Exports to
1889
1890
Imports entered for
Consumption
im
um
1,000 Dols.
1,000 Dols.
i 1,000 Dols. 1,000 Dols.
Great Britain
38,105
48,354
United States .
j 50,537 | 52,292
United State-
40,523
Great Britain .
42,317 1 43,390
West Indies
2,718 '
Germany .
3,693 ' 3,779
Newfoundland .
1,309
1,186 '
France
8,239 2,616
South America .
1,241
1,346 !
China k Jajaii .
1,965 2,099
Xo other countr
y over a million
Weal Indies
3,282 3.022
Brazil
1,131 764
Other countries each under a million
The following table shows the value of the leading imports and exports
in 1890 :—
Imports, 1890
Dollars
Exports of Canadian
produce, 1890
Dollars
Wool, manufactures of
11,083,125
Lumber and other
Iron, steel, and manu-
forest products
26,179,136
factures of
13,302,930
.
9,372,212
Coal and Coke .
3,983,665
Horned cattle .
6,949,417
Bread-stuffs
8,678,039
Horses
1,936,073
Cotton, and manufac-
Sheep
1.274,347
tures of .
3,991,795
fan
1,795,214 ;
Tea and coffee .
3,686,549
Other animal produc ts
:',732 !
Sugar of all kinds
5,601,676
Wheat and wheat flour
910,244 !
Cotton wool and waste
3,761,776
Barley
4,600,409
Drugs and chemicals .
2,788,037
Other agricultural
Silk, and manufac-
products
4,987,331
tures of.
2,851,292
Codfish .
3,028,515
Provisions
3,456,552
Fish of other kinds1 .
5,433,391
Wool, raw
1,729,056
Coal.
2,447,936
Hides, raw
1,703,093
Gold-bearing quartz
Leather, and manu-
and nuggets, ice. .
.022
factures of
1,174,646
Other mineral articles
1.750,799 •
Tobacco, unmanufac-
Wood, and manufac-
tured
1,424,231
tures of.
870,466
Wood, and manufac-
Iron, steel, and manu-
tures of.
1,632,979
factures of
294,728
Animals, living
1,161,863
; Leather, and manu-
Flax, hemp, and
factures of
879,401
manufactures of
1,429,276
All other articles
8,111,208
Spirits and wine-
1,681,151
Foreign produce
9,051,781 [
Coin and bullion
1,083,011
All other articles
45,653,499
i
Total
121,858,241
1
Total
96,749,149
Including tish-oils, furs ami skins of fisli, and other products of the fisheries.
210
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CANADA
Of the total value of imports in 1890, 86,258,633 dollars were subject to
duty, leaving only 35 millions free of duty. The total duty levied amounted
to 24,014,908 dollars.
The following table shows the progress of the leading classes of domestic
exports, in thousands of dollars : —
1870
1880
188"
1888
...
1889
1890
Produce of the Mines .
2,487
2,877
3,805
4,111 4,419
4,855
, , , , Fisheries
3,608
6,579
6,875
7,793 i 7,212
8,462
,, ,, Forest .
20,940
16,854
20,485
21,303 : 23,043
26,179
Animals & their produce
12,138
17,607
24,247
24,719 ' 23,895
25,107
Agricultural produce .
13,676
22,294
18,826
15,436 13,414
11,908
Manufactures
2,133
3,242
3,080
4,161 1 4,435
5,741
Miscellaneous
1,096
640
644
774 784
82
The share of the leading ports in the trade of 1890 was as follows in
dollars : — .
Montreal Toronto Halifax ; Quebec BtjjJ^n' Ottawa
Victoria
B.C.
Imports
Exports
45,034,406 20,519,797 (5,669,858 .'{,858,103 4,35-2,018 1,823,234 3,163,226
31,660,216 2,945,390 5,292,498 7,503,216 3,595,877 3,289,884 3,143.289
The following figures give the value of exports of Canadian produce to
Great Britain, according to Canadian returns, in 1879 and in each of the years
ended 30th June, 1886 to 1890. (Conversions made at 4 '861.)
1879
1886
1887
£6,039,744.
7,539,917.
7,955,000.
1888
18S9
1890
£6,914,031
6,884,441
8,527,222
Canadian returns of imports from Great Britain do not distinguish
between British and foreign produce.
The chief exports of domestic produce from Canada to Great Britain in
1887 to 1890 were:—
Articles
1887
1SSS
1889
1890
£
£
£
£
Wheat .
879,126
255,734
90,383
78,060
Wheat Flour . . , .
325,099
219,481
79,803
79,584
Pease ....
416,439
232,406
224,191
264, •_'-><;
Wood, and Manufactures
of ...
1,946,867
1,856,657
2,128,051
2,950,822
Cheese
1,451,914
1,815,410
1,822,850
1,921,178
Cattle ....
1,098,159
847,371
1,025,786
1,349,037 i
Sheep ....
116,801
43,537
62,262
99,924 1
Fish ....
334,942
289,045
227,083
520,460
Apples ....
133,414
107,004
262,516
171,687
Bacon and Hams .
185,744
135,081
77,822
129,167
Skins and Furs
344,122
393,866
312,849
273,220
Leather, and manufae*
tares of
B4.7W
69,490
133,778
145,337 I
< OMMKR< K
•21 ■
The chief imports into Canada from Great Britain
Articles
1887
£
MM
IMi
1890
*
£
£
Iron and Steel, and
manufactures of .
1,653,588
1,406,835
1,687
1,810,662
Woollens
2,171,460
1,702,945
1,651,814
1,71
Cottons ....
8:>:
658,402
690,958 {
603,603
Silk, anil manufactures of
189,681
461,960
.".61,350
01,541
Wearing apparel, all
kinds ....
390,153
401,868
531,
Fancv goods .
316,338
.318
266,748
Flax, hemp, and jute,
and manufactures of .
.047
267,286
28v.
281,492
The following table exhibits the commercial intercoms- of the Dominion
of ( 'anada with the United Kingdom, according to the Board of Trade Returns.
in 1879, and in each of the years ending Dec. 31, 1886 to 1890 :—
urn
MM
188S
£ I £ £ £ £
K\-] arts from Canada. 9,834,236 10,M1,213 10.266.990 8,915,498 11.785,838 12,02
Imports of British
produce . . ..,926,908 7,546.902 i 7,745,750 7,138,877 7,702,898
The chief exports from Canada to Great Britain in
1886 to 1890 wen- :—
1886
1S87
IM
1889
ISM
£
£
£
£
£
Wheat .
1,182,477
1,511,643
434,656
467,868
463,080
,, flour .
421,825
532,462
452,252
622,191
- ,108
Maize
464,885
144,417
350,286
668,165
51:
Pease
348,605
310,634
157,940
187,778
265,069
Wood & timber
3,050,884
2. 726. 744
3,074,605
4,447,354
3,806,261
Cheese
1,11'
1,555,352
1,526,884
1,564,904
1,91;
Oxen
1,208,678
1,134,822
1,076,623
1,464,073
1,892,5
Fish
259,395
■-77.699
249,169
•243.251
432,649
Apples
135,229
123,379
258,921
200,942
210,634
Bacon & Hams
609,233
641,351
371,108
631,671
770,012
Skins & Furs .
252,078
334,781
218,423
329,360
363,150
The chief imports into Canada from Great Britain were :-
—
1886
£
1887
18SS
1889
1890
£
£
£
£
Iron, wrought
k un wrought
1,453,575
1,488,260
1,451,614
1.7.47,104
1,552,359
Woollens
1,669,105
1,705,759
1,412,329
1,579,522
1,211,138
Cottons .
1,021,921
1,018,493
720,121
809,424
644,765
Apparel, &c.
670,878
690,137
649,526
685,058
623,135
21<S THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CANADA
Shipping and Navigation.
The tonnage of shipping registered in each of the provinces of the Dominion
on December 31, 1890, was as follows : —
Vessels Tons
New Brunswick .... 981 209,460
Nova Scotia 2,793 464,194
Quebec 1,399 164,003
Ontario 1,312 138,738
Prince Edward Island ... 231 26,080
British Colombia .... 196 16,024
Manitoba 79 6,475
Total .... 6,991 1,024,974
The total enumerated in the preceding table comprised 1,364 steamers,
of 206,855 tons. During the year 1890 there were 285 new vessels, of 52,378
tons, built in the Dominion, valued at 2,357,010 dollars. The total value of
the shipping of the Dominion in 1890 was estimated at 30,749,220 dollars.
Canada holds the fourth (or, including the licensed and enrolled vessels of the
United States the fifth) place in the registered tonnage of the world, and out-
side; of the United Kingdom has a larger shipping trade than any other British
possession. The number of sea-going vessels that entered and cleared at
Canadian ports in 1890 was 31,124 of 10,328,285 tons, of which 3,671 of
3,617,013 tons were British, and 13,695 of 1,708,939 were Canadian. The
total number of vessels, both sea-going and inland, that arrived and departed
at Canadian ports in 1890 was 72,425 of 18,446,100 tons.
Internal Communications.
Canada has a system of canal, river, and lake navigation over 2,700 miles
in length ; it is possible for a vessel to sail the whole way from Liverpool to
Chicago, and this was done in 1888. In 1891 a steamer sailed from Duluth
with a cargo of 95,000 bushels of wheat, and delivered the same at Liverpool
without breaking bulk. Up to 1890 55^ million dollars had been spent on
canals for construction alone. In 1889 23,935 vessels, of 3,826,230 tons,
[lassed through the Canadian canals, carrying 81,362 passengers and 3,166,368
tons of freight, chiefly grain, timber, and coal.
The Dominion of Canada had a network of railways of a total length of
14,004 miles completed at the end of June 1890, being an increase of 679 miles
over that of 1889. The number of miles in operation was 13,256. A con-
siderable extent of railway is in course of construction, and concessions have
been granted by Government for upwards of 4,000 miles more. The Canadian
Pacific Railway mainline from Montreal to Vancouver is 2,906 miles in length.
By this line Great Britain is brought 925 miles in distance and more than four
days in time nearer to Yokohama, and proportionably to Hong Kong and the
East. The Imperial and Dominion Governments recently decided to subsidise
a line of steamers from Vancouver to Hong Kong and Japan, and establish a
regular mail service over this road to the East. The Canadian Pacific Railway
( '(iinjiany accordingly had three steamers specially built for the Pacific service,
the first of which arrived at Vancouver on April 28, 1891, having left Liver-
pool on the preceding February 7 ; and having made the passage from
Yokohama in two days less than the previous record, her passengers reached
Montreal in three days seventeen hours from Vancouver, and Liverpool in
si-vi-n days more, so that Liverpool and Yokohama have thus been brought
within twenty-one days of one another.
MONET AMD CREDIT
The traffic on Canadian railways in 1889 and 1890 was
219
Miles | Pta5^CI*
Freight
Tons
Dollars
F.x]
Dollars
■"'* k£
1889
1890
12,151,051
13,256 12,s_
17.928,626
20,>
42,14
46,843,826
31,038.045
32,913,350
11,111,570 ' 760,..:
In 1890, of the capital paid up, 164,794,476 dollars represented Govern-
ment aid.
On Juno 30, 1890, there were 7,913 post-offices in the Dominion. During
the year ended on the foregoing date the number of letters sent through the
post-office was 94,100,000, of postcards 19,480,000, of newspapers 10,950,000,
of books, &c. 16,897,000, and of parcels 371,500. Newspapers sent from tin-
office of publication an- carried free. Their number in 1890 was estimated at
upwards of 60,000,000. The letters and postcards posted amounted to 18'15
per head, ami the other articles to 17'02 per head. Revenue, 3,228,616
dollars ; expenditure, 3,940,696 dollars. A uniform rate of postage of three
cents has been established over the whole Dominion. The number of niouey
order offices in Canada in 1890 was 1,027, and of orders issued 780,503, their
value having been 11,997,862 dollars. Since confederation in 1887 the
number of offices has doubled and the number of orders sent is more than
eight times as many.
There were 30,014 miles (2,619 being Government) of telegraph lin
Canada in 1890, and 66,453 miles of wire, with 2,545 offices, and the uumWr
of messages sent, as nearly as could be ascertained, 4,231,958. There were in
1890, 21,380 miles of telephone wire, with 363 offices, and 21,299 sets of
instruments.
Money and Credit.
The Bank Acts of Canada impose stringent conditions as to capital,
in circulation, limit of dividend, returns to the Dominion Government, and
other points in all chartered and incorjwrated banks. In making payments
every bank is compelled if required to pay a certain proportion in Dominion
Government notes, and must hold not less than 40 per cent, of its cash reserve
in Dominion Government notes. In 1890 there were 39 incorporated banks
making returns to the Government, with numerous branches all over the
Dominion. The following are some particulars of the Dominion banks, the
number in 1868 being 27, or 12 less than in 1890 : —
Percentage
Tear ended
Capital
Xotes in
Total on
Liabilities
Assets
of Liabili-
, June 30 '
Paid up
Circulation
Deposit
ties to
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
1S68
30,289,048
8,307,079
32,808,103
43,722,647
56-15
1878
63,387,034
19,351,109
71,900,195
95,641,008
175.473,086
54-50
1885
61,821,158
29,692,803
104,656,566
138,510,300
. 4,655
63 75
1886
61,841,395
29,200,627
112,991.764
147,547,682
228,422,353
64-59
."7
60,815,356
90,438,160
114,433,190
149,413,632
229,241.464
6618
1888
60,168,010
m,4HjUM
166,344,852
244,^7
■ >7-9>>
1889
60,236,451
:i.J"9.i'7-J
136,293,978
175,c
255,765.631
68-44
1890
::-J.'t-.CU7S
136,187.515
174.501.422
254.628.694
68-53
220
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — CANADA
Post-office savings-banks have been in operation in Canada since 1867 ;
there are also Government savings-banks, under the management of the
Finance Department, in the Maritime Provinces, Manitoba, and British
Columbia. In 1890 there were 494 offices of the former and 41 of the latter.
In 1890 the post-office savings-banks had 112,231 depositors and 21,990,653
dollars on deposit, the figures being rather smaller than those for 1889, owing
to the rate of interest having been reduced from 4 to 3£ per cent. The
following is a statement of the transactions of the post-office and Government
savings-banks for 1889 and 1890 in dollars :—
Balances,
July 1
Cash De- interest
posited 1'itwest
Total
With-
drawals
Balances,
June 30
188P I 41,371,058
1890 ' 42,950,357
12,657,802 1,019,221
9,854,333 1,475,292
55,648,082
54,285,983
12,691,724
13,273,518
42,950,:!;-,:
41,912,466
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The moitey, weights, and measures of Canada are —
Money.
The Dollar of 100 cents. Average rate of exchange = 4s.
The value of the money of the United Kingdom is fixed by law as
follows : — The sovereign, four dollars and eighty-six and two-third cents ; the
crown piece, one dollar and twenty cents ; the half-crown piece, sixty cents ;
the florin, forty-eight cents ; the shilling, twenty-four cents ; the sixpence,
twelve cents.
The coins in circulation in Canada are all struck in England. Canada
has no gold coinage of its own, but the English sovereign and the United
States gold eagle of 10 dollars, with its multiples and halves, are legal.
Notes are issued exclusively by the Government for 4, 2, and 1 dollar, 50
and 25 cents ; no bank being allowed to issue notes for a less sum than
5 dollars.
Weights and Mkasiisek.
The legal weights and measures are the Imperial yard, Imperial pound
avoirdupois, Imperial gallon, and the Imperial bushel.
By Act 42 Vict. cap. 16, the British hundredweight of 112 pounds, and
the ton of 2,240 pounds, were abolished, and the hundredweight was declared
to be 100 pounds and the ton 2,000 pounds avoirdupois, thus assimilating the
weights of ( Janada and the United States.
High Commissioner for the Dominion of Canada in Great Britain.— Hon.
Sir Charles Tupper, Bart., C.C.M.G., C.B.
Secretary. — Joseph G. Colmer, C.M.G.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Canada
and British North America.
1. Official Publications.
Annual Reports of the various Government Departments for the year ending JffiM 80,
1800. 8. Ottawa, 1891.
Census of Canada, 1880-81. 14 vols. Ottawa. 188
Correspondence relating to the Flatteries Question, iss5-nt. Ottawa, 1887.
Correspondence relative to the Mtsnre of British Lnurioan Towria in BehringVcflea bj
Hi. United States Authorities in L8S6. Ottawa, 1887.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS Off REFERENCE 221
Estimates of Canada for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1391. 8. Ottawa, 1890.
Finances of Canada : Budget Speech delivered in the House of Commons of Canada by
Hon. G. F,. fmtm, Minister of Finance. 8. Ottawa, 1891.
Fisheries Statements for the vear 1890. Ottawa, 1891.
Public Accounts of Canada, for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1890. Printed by order
of Parliament. 8. Ottawa, 1891.
General Report of the Minister of Public Works from June 30, 1867, to July 1, 1880
With Maps. Ottawa, 1887.
Railway Statistics of Canada, 1SS8-S9. 8. Ottawa, 1890.
Report on the State of the Militia for the year 1889. 8. Ottawa, 1890.
Reports (Annual) of the Geological Survey of Canada.
Report, Returns, and Statistics of the Inland Revenues of the Dominion of Canada, for
the fiscal vear ending June 30, 1890. 8. Ottawa, 1891.
Special Report on the Fisheries Protection Service of Canada, 1886. Ottawa, 1887.
Statistical Year Book of Canada for the year 1890. Ottawa, 1891.
Tables of the Trade and Navigation of the Dominion of Canada, for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1890. Ottawa, 1891.
Report of the Auditor-General on Appropriation Accounts for the vear ending June 30,
1890. Ottawa, 1891.
Sessional Papers relating to the Canadian Pacific Railway, 18S6-S7. Ottawa. 1888.
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the United
Kingdom. >*o. XXVI. 8. London, 1890.
Trade of the Dominion of Canada with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year
1890.' Imp. 4. London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publicatii
Adam (G. M.), The Canadian North- West: its History and its Troubles, with the
Narrative of Three Insurrections. Toronto, 1885.
Adam (G. M.), Life of the Right Hon. 8ir John A. Macdonald, G.C.R Toronto, 1891.
Bell (Robt.. M.D., LL.D.), The Northern Limits of the Principal Forest Trees of Canada.
With a Map. Ottawa, 1882.
Brgee (Rev. Prof.), Manitoba : its Infancy, Growth, and Present Position. London,
1S8-2.
Canadian Almanack for 1891. 8. Toronto, 1890.
ChapaU (J. C), Guide Illustre du Sylviculture Canadien. Montreal, 1883.
Chapltau (Hon. J. A.). Report on the Constitution of the Dominion of Canada. Ottawa,
1891.
Collins (J. E.). Life and Times of Rt. Hon. Sir John A. Macdonald, K.C.B. Toronto,
um.
Colmer (J. G.), Recent Developments in Canada. London, 1887.
Cumberland (Stuart), The Queen's Highway. 2nd ed., London, 1888.
Dent (J. Chas.), The Last Forty Years, or Canada since the Union of 1841. Toronto,
1883.
Dilke (8ir Charles), Problems of Greater Britain. London, 1890.
Faillion (Abbe), Histoire de la Colonie franeaise en Canada. I vols. Fol. Montreal
1MB.
Fleming (Sandford, C.M.G.). England and Canada, a summer tour between Old and New
Westminster. London, 1884.
Garneau (F. X.), Histoire du Canada depuis sa decouverte jusqu'.i nos jours. Montreal
1S82.
Grant (Very Rev. Principal), Picturesque Canada. 2 vols. Toronto, 1884.
Gunn (Hon. D.). Historv of Manitoba. Ottawa, 1880.
Hayden (Prof. F. V.), and Selwyn (Prof. A. R. C), North America. London, 1883.
Hurlburt (Dr. J. B.), The Food Zones of Canada. Montreal, 1884.
Lovell (John) Gazetteer of British North America. Montreal, 1881.
Macoun (Prof.), Manitoba and Canada. London, 1SS2.
Morgan (Henry J.), The Canadian Parliamentary Companion for 1890. Ottawa, 1890.
Morgan (Henry J.), Dominion Annual Register and Review, 187S-90. Ottawa.
Morgan (Henry J.), Bibliotheca Canadensis, or a Historv of Canadian Literature
Ottawa, 1867.
Morgan (Henry J.), The Relations of the Industrv of Canada with the Mother Countrv
and the United States. Montreal, 1864.
MorrU (Hon. Alex.), Nova Britannia ; or. Our New Canadian Dominion Foreshadowed
Toronto, 1884.
Roe (W. Fraser), Columbia and Canada. Notes on the Great Republic and t
Dominion. S. London. 1*7*.
Be (W. F.). Newfoundland to Manitola. London. 1881.
222
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — FALKLAND ISLANDS
Ryeraon (Rev. E., D.D., LL.D.), The Loyalists of America and their Times. 2 vols.
Toronto, 1880.
Selwyn (A. R. C.) anil Dawson (G. M.), Descriptive Sketch of rim Physical Geography
and Geology of the Dominion of Canada. Montreal, 1884.
Silver and Co.'s Handbook to Canada. London, 1881.
Todd (Dr. Alpheus, C.M.G.), Parliamentary Government in the British Colonics.
Boston, 1880.
Tupper (Sir Charles), The Canadian Confederation defended. London, 1868.
Tuttle (C. R.), Our North Land : being a full account of the Canadian North-West and
Hudson's Bay Route. Toronto, 1885.
FALKLAND ISLANDS.
Governor. — Sir Roger Tuckfield Golds worthy, K.C.M.G., appointed March
1891. Salary 1,2007. per annum.
Crown colony situated in South Atlantic, 300 miles E. of Magellan Straits.
East Falkland, 3,000 square miles ; West Falkland, 2,300 square miles ; about
100 small islands, 1,200 square miles: total, 6,500 square miles; besides
South Georgia, 1,000 square miles. Population : (census 1891) 1,789 ; males
1,086, females 703, foreigners 123. No religious census taken. Chief town,
Stanley, 694 inhabitants.
Education : 2 Government schools, with 100 on the roll, in 1890 ; 1 Roman
Catholic school, with 60 on the roll ; 1 private school in Stanley, with 20 on
the roll ; and 1 school at Darwin, with 22 on the roll.
The government is administered by the Governor, assisted by an Execu-
tive Council and a Legislative Council.
No naval or military forces.
1886
1SS7
1888
1889
1890
Revenue .
Expenditure .
Imports .
Exports .
£
9,295
7,951
73,602
108,946
£
8,963
9,128
66,785
107,995
£
8,951
8,818
54,008
88,743
£
8,628
9,720
55,716
116,102
£
9,492
9,389
67,182
115,865
Chief sources of revenue 1890 : Customs, 3,2687., and rents of crown lands,
4,3757. Chief branches of expenditure : Official salaries, 4,8987. ; mails, 2,1121. :
public works, 1,1 007. Contribution by Home Government, nil.
Leading exports (1890) : Wool, 102,4602. ; frozen mutton, 5,0787. : live
sheep to S. America, 1,1337. ; hides and skins, 3.410Z. ; tallow, 2,8007.
Chief imports : Provisions, wearing apparel, timber and building materials,
machinery and ironmongery.
1889 1890
Imports from
Exports to Imports from
£ £
112,342 61,842
\ - 3,470
j 3>'60 1,000
— 870
Exports to
£
114,592 I
} 1,273
£
United Kingdom . . ' 49,789
Chile .... 3,734
Uruguay . . . 1,771
Other Countries . . 422
Chief industry, sheep-farming ; 2,325,154 acres pasturage. Horses 3,700,
cattle 7,200, sheep 676,000,
GUIANA, BRITISH
223
In 1890 the total tonnage of vessels that entered and cleared was 61
of which 15,185 tons were British.
About 1,200 letters and postcards pass through Post Office monthly :
m. of newspapers received monthly.
Money, H'eiqhts, and Measures. — Same as in Great Britain.
GUIANA, BRITISH.
Governor. — Rt. Hon. Viscount Gormanston, K.CLM.G. (5,000/.).
'manl Governor. — Hon. Sir Charles Bruce, K.CM.6.
Includes the settlements of Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, named
from the three rivers. Extends from 9° to 1° N. latitude, and 57° to 52° W.
longitude. The governor is assisted by a Court of Policy (9 members, 5
elected), and a Combined Court, containing, in addition to those 9, 6 Finan-
cial Representatives. The colony is divided into 5 electoral districts, each
represented by a member in the Court of Electors, who select the 5 repiv
sentative members in the Court of Policy, and also by one or more financial
representatives. There are 1,596 registered electors. The Roman-Dutch Law
is in force in civil cases, modified by orders in Council: the criminal law is
based on that of Great Britain.
Area, 109,000 square miles. Population (1891), 284,887. At the i
of 1881, there were 1,617 born in Europe; 5,077 Africans; 65,161 East
Indians, mainly coolies ; 4,393 Chinese. Births (1889) 10,183 ; deaths 7,937.
Capital, Georgetown, 55,299 (1881). Living on sugar estates 84,234 ; in vil-
lages and settlements 112,653. Of the total in 1881, 108,125 were agricul-
tural labourers. Immigrants from India (1890), 4,574 ; return emigrants,
2,125. 177 schools received Government grant (25,4807. in 1890), with 21,384
pupils ; besides private schools with 6,500 pupils.
Paupers (1889) receiving out-door relief, 2,310. In 1889 there were
11,273 summary convictions ; 483 before the superior courts.
-
1885
1886
1887
1888
1888-M
10 months
£
580,762
605,535
L889-M
£
522,767
508,108
Revenue .
Expenditure
£
434,813
463,943
£
446,025
476,964
£
463,870
489,214
£
461,941
490,556
For 1890-91 estimated revenue 525,000.., expenditure 518,720/. Chief
items of revenue (1889-90) : customs 342,812/., spirit licences 81,160/.
Expenditure on establishment, 201,473/., public works 29,315/. Public debt
(1890) 737,399/. Two banks, with note circulation of 143,000/. in 1889.
Savings bank, 15,872 depositors (Dec. 31, 1890), credited with 251,364/.
Under cultivation (1890), 81,486 acres ; sugar, 79,243 acres ; village acres,
12,833 ; 92 cattle farms.
— 1886
1887 1S88
£ £
2,190,592 2,024,733
1,603,175 1,586,055
18S9
1890
Exports .
Imports .
£
1,842,585
1,436,297
£
2,310,141
1,803,776
£
2,161,791
1,887,118
The chief exports in 1890 : Sugar, 1,437,217/. ; rum, 220,835/. : molasses.
78,783/. ; timber, 23,771/. ; gold, 62,615 oz., valued at 234,324/. Chief im-
224 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — HONDURAS, BRITISH
ports: Flour, 134,971?. ; rice, 130,661?. ; pork, 43,307?. ; butter, 22,860?. ;
lumber, 42,160?.
Exports to Great Britain in 1890, 958,873?. (sugar, 461,194?.); British
colonies, 88,060?. ; foreign countries, 1,114,854?. Imports from Great Britain,
1,129,071?. ; British colonies, 284,752?. ; foreign countries, 473,291?.
In 1890 the total tonnage entered and cleared was 686,621.
Railways, 23 miles ; 275 miles river navigation ; good roads. There are
60 post-offices, of which 37 are telegraph offices, 25 money order offices,
and 9 savings banks. There are 275 miles of post-office telegraphs and a
telephone exchange in George Town, of 182 miles, with 200 subscribers.
Currency : British gold and silver coin with a small circulation of
'guilders,' ' half -guilders,' and 'bits,' local coins.
HONDURAS, BEITISH.
Governor. — Sir C. Alfred Moloney, K.C.M.G. (12,000 dollars), assisted by
a Legislative Council, consisting of five official and five unofficial members.
A Crown colony on the Caribbean Sea, south of Yucatan, and 660 miles
west from Jamaica, noted for its production of mahogany and logwood. Area,
7,560 square miles. Population (1891), 31,471, viz. 16,268 males and 15,203
females. Capital, Belize; 5,767 inhabitants. Births (1887), 1,269; deaths,
1,232 ; marriages, 264. Schools (1890), 34 ; Government grant, $11,023.
Detachments of the 2nd West India Regiment are stationed in the colony.
1880 1887 1S88
£ £ £
Revenue . 54,361 43,187 43,511
Expenditure. ! 62,555 ! 45,370 j 41,587
Exports. . 280,047 I 208,080 213,020
Imports . | 235,962 ! 169,232 206,450
18S9 1890
£ £
49,985 \ 51,204
44,228 | 45,249
300,879 287,690
260,089 i 282,045
Chief sources of revenue : Customs duties (30,258 in 1890) ; excise,
licenses, land-tax, &c. ; also sale and letting of Crown lands. Expenditure
mainly administrative and the various services. Debt (17,595?. in 1890).
Savings banks at Belize with two branches — deposits, 7,047?. in 1889.
Chief exports, mahogany (5£ million cubic feet in 1890), logwood, fruit
(chiefly to New Orleans), sugar. The transit trade greatly increases the traffic
of the ports, especially in India-rubber, sarsaparilla, coffee, &c. Besides the
staple products, mahogany and logwood, there are coffee, bananas, plantains.
coco-nuts, &c. The higher parts afford good pasturage for cattle. Bxportq to
(heat Britain in 1890, 275,293?. ; imports from Great Britain, 101,223?.
In 1890, tonnage of vessels entered and cleared, 364,067, of which
187,872 was British.
Number of letters, newspapers, &c, passed tli rough the Post Office, I88J :
international, -97, 355 ; inland, 22,697.
( 'iiiTciicy, chiefly Central American silver dollars.
Jamaica. Sep West Indies.
Leeward Islands. Bee Wws Indies.
Montserrat. See West Indies.
Nevis. See Whbt Indies.
NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR
NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR.
,<©/•.— Sir J. Terence N. O'Brien, K.C.M.G. ; salary 2,500/.
t'oundland Ls an island at the mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawi
between 46' 37' and 51 39' X.. d Labrador, its
dependency, is the most easterly part of the continent of North Am
The coast of Newfoundland is ragged, especially on the south-west, where
the coast range reaches an elevation of nearly 2,000 feet. The hills attain
then summit within a few miles of the salt water, and then spread out into
an undulating country, consisting largely of barrens and marshes, and iuter-
by numerous rivers and lakes. On the borders of the lakes and water-
courses good land is generally found, and in some cases, as about the Exploits,
the Gander and the Humber, it is heavilv timbered. Ana. 42,200 square
miles. Population in 1884 : island, 193,124 ; Labrador, 4,211 ; total 197,335.
Of the total population 187,136 were natives of Newfoundland ; 802 were
Indians, of whom 609 wen- in Labrador. Of the total ]>opulation 60,419 were
engaged in the fisheries, 1,685 were farmers, 3,628 mechanics, 3,360 miners.
Capital, St. John's, 28,610 inhabitants in 1884 ; other towns I irbour
Grace, 7,054 ; Carbonear, 3,756 ; Twillingate, 3,694 ; Bouavista, 3,463.
The government Ls administered by a Govemo; . stive
Council not exceeding 7 members), a Legislative Council not exceeding 15
members), and a House of Assembly consisting of 36 representatives. For
electoral purposes the whole colony is divided into lv dntrictl or constitu-
encies, 7 of which elect 3 members. 4 return 2 members, and 7 return 1 each.
Of the population, 69,000 belong to the Church of England, 75,254 are
Roman Catholics, 4S,7>7 Warieyaaa, 1,495 Presbyterians, 1,470 other denomi-
nations. The total number of aided schools in 1890 ma 54 s. with 31,822
pupils : Government grant 126,931 dollars.
i Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollar*
. Revenue (incl. Kms) . 1,098,776 J,<M«J,J00 1*437,115 ilUi»93 1,831,336
Expenditure ., . 1,736,105 1,738,301 1,801
Of the Revenue for 1890, no less than 1,342.100 dollars is from Custom*.
The public debt was 4,138,627 dollars in 1890, against 4,133,202 in 1889,
and 1,258,710 dollars in 187."'.
The total exports and imports of Newfoundland are as follow
1886 — 1888 1S90
Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars
Exports . . 4,833,735 5,397,408 6,860,515 6,122,985 6,099,686
imports . 6,020,035 5,176,780 7,813,845 6,607,065 6,368,855
There are five leading classes of exports, of the following values in
1890 :—
1> .liars Dollars
Fish (chiefly cod) . . 4,221,463 Sealskins . . . 220,741
Ood and seal oil . 584,912 Copi»er ore and iron
ved lobsters . . 520,078 pyrites . . . 300,207
The leading imports, with their value (1890), are : —
•1M
THE
BRITISH EMPIRE :— rWEST INDIES
Dollars
Dollars
Flour
1,266,628
Leather and leatherware .
237,976
Woollens,
cottons, canvas,
Salt beef ....
199,524
&c.
1,225,518
Sugars ....
71,854
Salt pork
384,982
Live stock
100,351
Butter
254,393
Wines and spirits
166,155
Molasses
350,593
Cordage, fishing tackle, kc.
240,334
Salt
139,888
Iron and machinery.
124,958
Tea.
137,834
Hardware and cutlery
266,249
Coal
218,945
The export trade of Newfoundland is chiefly with Great Britain, 1,514,131
dollars (in 1890) ; British West Indies, 435,210 dollars ; Canada, 631,104
dollars; Portugal, 967,720 dollars ; Brazil, 984,748 dollars; Spain, 444,387
dollars ; United States, 452,100 dollars, and Italy, 291,465 dollars. The
imports are chiefly from Great Britain, 2,174,524 dollars ; Canada and British
Colonies, 2,785,537 dollars ; and United States, 1,247,754 dollars. Total
tonnage of vessels entered and cleared in 1890, 634,147, of which 590,006 was
British. The total number of vessels registered at St. John's on December
31, 1890,- was 2,207, of 98,619 tons. Fishing is the principal occupation of
the population, the value of the fish caught being over one million sterling
annually.
The following table shows the increase in farm-stock since 1869 according
to the latest return : —
-
Horses
Cattle
Sheep
1885
1869
5,436
3,764
19,884
14,726
40,326
23,044
In 1885 there were 21,555 swine.
The agricultural products are unimportant, farming being mainly adopted
as an auxiliary to the fisheries, but the encouragement afforded by recent
legislation is tending to induce wider attention to cultivation. Some fine pine
forests exist to the north, and large saw mills have been established. In 1885
there were 46,996 acres of cultivated land. The chief products are potatoes,
turnips, and other root crops, hay, barley, oats.
In 1887, 86 miles of railway had been laid down between St. John's and
Harbour Grace, and 25 miles in 1888, a branch line to Plaecntia. A line of
railway to Hall's Bay is in course of construction, 60 miles having been built
in 1890-1. This line will be finished in five years.
(See 'Newfoundland, the Oldest British Colony.' By Joseph Hatton and
the Rev. M. Harvey.)
St. Christopher, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Sombrero, Tobago,
Trinidad, Virgin Islands. See West Indies.
WEST INDIES.
The British West Indian possessions fall into six groups,
which are noticed separately, while the statistical results are ex-
hibited in general tables for convenience of comparison. The
groups are (1) Kalian ms, (2) Barbados, (3) .l.un.iic.i with Turks
Islands, (4) Leeward Islands, (5) Trinidad with Tobago, (6) Wind
ward Islands.
BAHAMAS — BARBA1'"- '2'2',
BAHAMAS.
. — Sir Ambrose Shea, El.CK.Gi (2,0001.), assisted byanBxeeu-
"iincilof 9, a Legislative Council of 9, ami a representative Assembly
of 29 members, electors requiring to have a small property qualification.
A group of twenty inhabited and many uninhabited islands and rocks off
the S.E. coast of Florida.
Area, 5,450 square miles. Principal islands — New Providence (containing
capita] Nassau), Abaco, Harlour Island. Great Bahama. St. Salvador, Long
Island, Mayaguana, Eleuthera, Great Inagua, Andros Island. Total popula-
tion (1881)" 43,521 (11,000 whitest ; in 1888, 48,000. Births (1890), I
deaths, 889. Population of Nassau, 5,000. There are (1890) 38 Govern-
ment schools with 5,352 pupils : Government grant, 3,500/. : 30 Church
of England schools with 1.471 pupils; 37 private schools with 923 pupils.
In 1890, 1,569 persons were convicted summarily, and 30 in superior courts.
Sponge-fishing produced 63,099/. in 1890 ; shells, }>earls, and ambergris
were also obtained. Fruit culture is on the increase : in 1890, 476,090
dozen pineapples were exported, valued at 49,795/., besidea 26.789 cases of
preserved pineapples, valued at 6,126/. The orange crop was valued at
3,961/. Fibre cultivation is rapidly spreading. In January 1891, over
4,200 acres had been planted out with sisil plants. In 1890, 78,637 lbs. of
cotton were exported, rained at 1,593/. The total land granted in the colony
amounts to 330,574 acres.
A joint stock hank came into operation on June 1, 1889. The Post Office
Savings Bank receipts iri 1890 amounted to 2,469/. : and in that year, 127,901
letters and 83,269 papers passed through the Post Office.
BARBADOS.
Lies on the E. of the Windward Islands.
Governor.— Sir Walter J. Sendall, K.C.M.C (3,000/. and 600/. table
allowanced, with Executive Committee, Legislative Council, and House of
Assembly of 24 members, elected annually by the people : in 18S9, there were
2,340 registered electors.
Area, 166 square miles ; population U891), 182,322. Capital, Bridgetown,
the principal town : population, 21,000 ; Speightstown. 1.500. Births (1890),
7,419 ; deaths, 5,000. Church of England, 151,048 : Wesleyans, 13,060 ;
Moravians, 7,000 ; Roman Catholics, 600: Jews, fcfc, 152, according to the
census of 1881. The legislature grants to the Church of England, 10,493/. :
Wesleyan, 700/. ; Moravian, 400/. : Roman Catholic. 50/. — per annum,
11,643/. Education is under the care of the Government. In 1890. then-
were 201 primary schools, and 14.284 pupils in average attendance : Govern-
ment grant 9,340/. ; 4 second-grade schools, 186 pupils ; 2 first-grade schools
for boys, with an attendance of 147 and 42 respectively, and 1 first-grade
school for girls with 107 pupils ; Codrington College, affiliated to Durham
University, 17 students. Two monthly, one fortnightly, one weekly, and
five bi-weekly newspapers.
There is a Supreme Court ; Grand Sessions once in every 4 months : 7
]>olice magistrates. In 1890, 7,781 summary convictions." 94 in superior
courts : 425 prisoners in gaol. In 1890, 33,635/. was spent in jwor-rclicf.
&e. Police, 316 officers and men.
Barbados is the headquarters for European troops in the West Indies. The
garrison consists of 47 officers and 844 non-commissioned officers and men.
228 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WEST INDIES
Charles Fort, an irregular redoubt to the south-west of the island, is mounted
with 2 7-inch R. M. L. guns of 7 tons, and 2 64-pounders R. M. L. guns of
64 cwt. each, and is the only fortification in the colony.
The area of the colony in acres is about 106,470, of which about 100,000 are
under cultivation. The staple produce of the island is sugar. About 30,000
acres are annually planted with the sugar-cane, which yielded in 1871, 53,800
tons ; 1876, 37,846 tons ; 1888, 68, 743 tons ; 1890, 85,261 hhds. In the fishing
industry, 370 boats employed, and about 1,500 persons. Value offish caught
annually, 17,000/. There are 466 sugar works, 23 rum distilleries.
The Colonial Bank has a paid-up capital of 600,000/. ; estimated amount of
coin in circulation, 50,000/. ; paper-money (five-dollar notes), 60,000/. :
Government Savings Bank (December 31, 1889), 9,716 depositors, and deposits
134,5213.
There are 482 miles of roads in the island ; railway 24 miles. The colony
pays an annual subsidy to company of 6,000Z. Revenue (1890), 12,864/. ;
expenditure, 11,672?. There are 58 miles of line for telephonic communica-
tion in the island.
Grenada. See WINDWARD Islands.
JAMAICA.
Largest of the British West India Islands, 100 miles west of Hayti and 90
mile's south of Cuba.
Governor. — Sir Henry Arthur Blake, K.C.M.G.. (6,000/.), assisted by a
Privy Council and a Legislative Assembly, partly elected and partly nomi-
nated. There are boards elected in each parish (14) for administration of
local affairs.
Attached to it are Turks and Caicos Islands, Cayman Islands. Morant
Cays, and Pedro Cays. Area of Jamaica, 4,200 square miles ; Turks and
Caicos Islands, 224 square miles. Total, 4,424 square miles. Population
(1881) : Jamaica, 580,804 (whites, 14,432 ; coloured or half-breeds, 109,946 ;
blacks, 444,186 ; remainder Chinese and coolies). Turks and Caicos Islands.
4,778. Total, 585,582. Population after census 1891. 639,491 (males, 305,948 ;
females, 333,543). Capital, Kingston, 40,000. Other towns (1881)— Spanish
Town, 5,689 ; Montego Bay, 4,651 ; Port Maria, 6,741. Births (1889),
22,044 ; deaths, 13,874 ; marriages, 3,223. Total East India immigrants in
colony in 1889, 13,041, of whom 461 were under indentures. Immigration
suspended in 1886. Emigration (1889) of Jamaica — natives, 3,184, while
11,671 returned.
There is no Established Church. Belonging to Church of England (1891),
40,288 ; Church of Scotland, 1,500 members ; Roman Catholics, 9,292 members :
Methodists, 22,999 members ; Baptists, 35,428 members ; Presbyterian Church,
9,914 members ; members of other Christian Churches, 16,000, besides then
families and adherents.
Iii 1890 there were 867 elementary schools, 75.61:: pupils enrolled.
Governmenl grant, 26,859/. There is a Government training college for
female teachers in which there are 28 females ; and 45 male students are also
being trained at a local Educational institution in Kingston a< Governmenl
expense. High school near to Kingston with 19 pupils in 1890. There are
besides a Dumber of free schools, denominational high schools and industrial
schools.
There is a high eourt of justice, circuit courts, and a resident magistrate in
each palish. Total summary convictions (1890), 8,858 ; before superior
JAMAICA
marts, 2.^.0. Priaonen in gaol on. I of 1890, 890. There are 70.'. polks
officers and men, and in addition 773 members of rural jiolice.
Total number of acres under cultivation and can- in 1890, 628,035, showing
increase of 13.134 acres compared with previous year. Under sugar-cane,
32,486 am Hi in 1889) : coffee, 21.376 : corn, 649 : cacao, 1,280 :
ground provisions. 122,356 : Guinea gi common pasture, 309,401 ;
common pasture and rumen: Fruit i< extensively cultivated, ami
there is a cinchona plantation.
The holdings are classified as follows (1890) :— Leas than
5-10, 8.159 ; 10-20, 4.479 : 0-100, 836 : 100-200. 528 ; 200-
500. 590: 500-800, 265; 800-1.000, 139: 1.000 1.500. 199: above 1.500.
On December 31, 1890, the Colonial Bank had a circulation of
other liabilities, 4,420,932/. « Total liabilities, 4,824,010/.; aa ". H5/.
In 1889 there were 18,496 depositors in the Government Savings Bank,
the deposits amoonting to 427,5981 The legal coinage is that of I
Britain ; but various American coins are also current. Notes ot the Colonial
Rank are current : its average total circulation in 1890. was 16 4.514/.
The strength of the West India Regiments in Jamaica is 1,434 officers and
men : there is besides a Volunteer Militia, numliering 618 on Sept. 30.
with 106 also on the SuperuuUMiaiV List. There are fortifications ami batteries
at Port Roval. Rocky Point. Anosties' Battery, Fort clarence. Fort Aug
Rock Fort." Salt Pond's Hill. There are 12 ship- of the Royal Navy on the
North American and West India ntatifrnn
Jamaica has 64 miles of railway open (receipts, 1889, 60,819/. : exp>
32,321/. : jiassengers carried, 264,853) ; 608 miles of telegraph, and 51 under
construction (1890): messages, 1889, 86,604 : receipts. 4,7951. ; ex]
1.441/. Letter- pas-ed through the Post Office (1889), 1,451,718
TCTIUU am> CAIQOa Islands, under the government of Jamaica, are
geographically a portion of the Bahamas, of which they form the two south-
eastern groups. The government is administered by a Conni:
i >y a Legislative Board of five members appointed by the ( rown. The < Jovernor of
Jamaica has a supervising power over the local government. There are upwards
of thirty small cays : area 169 miles. Only six inhabited : the largest. Grand
( aieos. 20 miles long by 6 broad. Seat of government at Grand Turk. 7 mile-
long by 2 broad, the town having 2.300 inhabitants. Population, 1891, 4.744.
Education free : Government grant 600/. : 7 elementary schools. 800
pupils. Public library and reading-room at Grand Turk : a weekly new-
paper.
Only ini]iortant industry, salt raking. About two million bushels are
raked annually and exported to the United States. Canada, and to Newfound-
land. There is also a small sponge fishery. 46 vessels registered, of 6,080
Commissioner.— Captain Henry Higgins (salary 500/.): residence. Grand
Turk.
Cayman Islands, attached to Jamaica, consist of Grand Cayman, Little
Cayman, and Cayman Brae. Grand Cayman. 17 miles long, 4* to 7 broad :
total population 4,000. Good pasturage. Coco-nuts and turtle exported.
Affairs managed by a body styled the -Justices and Ve-trv." comprised of
magistrates appointed by the Governor of Jamaica, and elected ve-trvmen.
The MoBANT Cays and PXDBO Cays are also attached to Jamaica.
See 'Handliook to Jamaica.' 1891-92.
230 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WEST INDIES
LEEWARD ISLANDS
Comprise Antigua (with Barbuda and Redonda), St. Kitts-Nevis (with
Anguilla), Dominica, Montserrat, and the Virgin Islands, and lie to the
north of the Windward group, and south-east of Porto Rico.
Governor and Commander-in-Chief. — Sir William Frederick Haynes
Smith, K.C.M.G. (3,000/.). Colonial Secretary.-— Frederick Evans, C.M.G.
The group is divided into 5 Presidencies, viz., Antigua (with Barbuda and
Redonda), | St. Kitts (with Nevis and Anguilla), Dominica, Montserrat, and
the Virgin Islands. There is one Federal Executive Council nominated by
the Crown, and one Federal Legislative Council, 10 nominated and 10
elective members. Of latter, 4 chosen by the elective members of the
Local Legislative Council of Antigua, 2 by those of Dominica, and 4 by the
non-official members of the Local Legislative Council of St. Kitts-Nevis.
The Federal Legislative Council meets once a year.
The following table shows the area and population of the Leeward
Islands : —
I
Area :
Population
Population
Square miles
1881
1891
36,700
Antigna . ^ .
Barbuda and Redonda f .
108
62
} 34,964
Virgin Islands ....
58
5,287
4,640
Dominica .....
291
28,211
29,000
St. Kitts ^
Nevis y .
Anguilla J
65
24,137 s)
11,864 [
9,000 j
50
47,660
35
Montserrat .....
Total
32
10,083
11,760
129,760
701
128,646
In 1881, 5,000 white, 23,000 coloured, and 94,000 black ; 33,000 were
Anglicans, 29,000 Roman Catholics, 30,000 Wesleyans, and 17,000 Moravians.
Education is denominational. In 1888, 104 aided schools ; average daily
attendance between 6,000 and 9,000 ; Government grant, 3,100/. Also
private schools. Grants of 200/. per annum are made to two schools in
Antigua, and it is now intended to establish grammar schools in St. Kitts
and in Dominica. Sugar and molasses are the staple products in most of
the islands. Fruit-growing is increasing in some of the islands.
Antigua. Islands of Barbuda and Redonda are dependencies, with an
area of 62 square miles, situated 61° 45' W. long., 17° 6' N. lat., 54 miles
in circumference, with an area of 108 square miles. Antigua is the seal
of government of the Colony. Chief town, St. John, 10,000. Chief products
sugar and pineapples. 16,220 tons of sugar, valued at 180,701/., exported
in 1889. In Government savings hanks 1,466 depositors, 15,185/. deposits.
There is steam communication direct with the United Kingdom, New York,
and Canada, and the island is connected with the West India and Panama
Telegraph Company's cable.
Montserrat. Nominated Legislative Council. Chief town, Plymouth,
1,400. Chief products sugar, and lime juice from fruit of lime trees ; 1,000
acres under lime trees.
St. Christopher and Nevis have one Executive Council nominated,
and a Legislative Council of 10 official and 10 nominated unofficial members.
Capital of St. Kitts. Masseteric, 7,000 : of Nevis, Charlestown, 1,600. Sugar
TRINIDAD -WINDWARD ISLANDS -31
chief product of l>oth islands. Produce of Anguilla, cattle, pines, garden
stock, phosphate of lime, ami salt.
VmiMN Islands consist of all the group not occupied by Denmark,
("rail Island, which is Spanish. Nominated Executive ami Legislative
Councils. Chief town, Roadtown in Tortola Island, 400. Mostly ]•■
proprietors : sugar and cotton cultivated in small j>ati •:.
Dominica. Nominated Executive Council, and Legislative Council of 7
nominated and 7 elected members. Chief product sugar, with truit,
and timber.
BpMBBXRO is a small island in the Virgin group, but unattached adminis-
tratively to any group. Phosphate of lime is shipped, and there is a i
of Trade lighthouse.
TRINIDAD.
Immediately north of the mouth of the Orinoco, includes Tobago adminis-
tratively.
Governor. — Sir F. Napier Broome, K.C.M.G. 5,000/.), with Executive
Coumil of 4 official members ami a Legislative Council of 8 official and 10
unofficial members, all nominated. Tobago has a subordinates commissioner
with a Financial Board of not less than S nominated members,
Area : Trinidad, 1,754 square miles; Tobago 114. Population : Trinidad
(1890) 208,030 ; Tobago (1890) 20,727. Capital, Trinidad, Port of Spain,
33,782. Births (1890; 6,657, deaths 5,612, marriages, 986. Immigrants
(1890) 4,921, chiefly Indian coolies. Education : 209 schools, 19,685 pupils,
Government grant 28,138/. There are many private schools, and a Queen's
Royal College, with 70 students, and an attached Roman Catholic- College
with 209 students. Of the total area 1,120,000 acres, about 194,000 acres are
cultivated. Under sugar-cane, 52,160 acres: cacao ami coffee, 43,360:
ground provisions, 18,053 : coco-nuts, 2,767 ; pasture, 6,242. There is a large
pitch lake in the island, which is worked to some extent. Railway 54 miles ;
receipts (1890), 51,912/. 717 miles of telegraph. There is a Colonial Bank
with note circulation of 130.000/. Government savings-bank, dejtositors
(1890), 6,769 ; deposit- Dec -11,144.555/. Volunteer corps 657. Police
force 531.
TOBAGO was annexed to Trinidad, Jan. 1, 1889. In 1890 there were 433
summary convictions, and 1 before the Supreme Courts. The culture of
cotton and tobacco has l>een introduced.
Virgin Islands. See LXKWA&D Im.am>>.
WINDWARD ISLANDS
( onsist of Grenada, St. Vincent, the Grenadines (half under St. Vincent,
half under Grenada), and St. Lucia, and form the eastern barrier to the
Caribbean Sea between Martinique and Trinidad.
Governor and Commandcr-in-Chirf. — Sir W. F. Hely-Hutchinson (2,5007.
—resident at St. George's, Grenada). Each island has its own institutions :
there is no common legislature, laws, revenue, or tariff; there is a Common
Court of Appeal, and the colonies unite for other common purposes. Legal
currency, British sterling, doubloons, and United States gold coins. The
Colonial Bank issues 5-dollar notes to the extent of 9,800/. in St. Lucia,
11,700/. in Grenada, 8,000/. in St. Vincent.
Git ex ah a. There is a Legislative Council of 6 official members nomi-
nated by the Governor, and 7 unofficial members nominated by the Crown.
Bach parish has a Board (partly elected) for local affairs. Area 120 square
miles ; population (1890) 51,427 (including 1,960 coolies) ; births. 2,321:
232
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WEST INDIES
deaths, 1,287 : marriages, 305. There are (1890) 31 Government ami Govern-
ment-aided schools, with 5,809 pupils ; Government grant 3,545/.; and ;t
grammar school with 45 pupils ; Government grant, 365/. In 1890 there
were 836 summary convictions, and 26 in superior courts. There were (1890)
20,418 acres under cultivation : sugar-cane, 911 acres; cocoa, 11,115 acres :
cotton, 1,812 acres; spices, 1,343 acres; coffee 58 acres. Culture of sugar-
cane is decreasing, of cocoa and cotton increasing. In 1889, 583 depositors
in savings-banks; balance (Dec 81) 6,295/.
The largest of the Grenadines attached to Grenada is Carriacou ; ana.
6,913 acres ; population, 6,000.
St. Vincent. Administrator and Colonial Secretary, Captain I. ' '.
Maling, with Legislative Council of 4 official and 4 nominated unofficial
members. Area, 132 square miles ; population (1891), 41,054 (in 1881,
English, 233; other whites, 2,460; coolies, 1,402; half-breeds, 5,774:
blacks, 30,679). Capital, Kingstown, 4,547 population. Education: 41
schools; Government grant, 1,393/.' Sugar, rum, cocoa, spices, and arrow-
root are produced ; good timber from the forests. Most of the cultivated land
belongs to three firms. About 13,000 acres (one-sixth of area) under cultiva-
tion. Letters passed through the Post Office in 1890, 104,387.
St. Lucia. Administrator and Colonial Secretary, Brigade-Surgeon Y.
S. Gouldsbury, M.D., C.M.G., with a nominated Executive and Legislative
Council. Area, 245 square miles ; population (1891), 41,713. Chief town.
Castries, 6,686. Births (1890), 1,704 ; deaths, 1,143. Education (1890) : 28
schools (15 Protestant, 14 Roman Catholic), 3,669 pupils; Government
grant, 1,432/. In 1890 there were 761 summary convictions, and 25 at
superior courts. Sugar, cocoa, and logwood are chief products. Savings-
banks (end 1890), 681 depositors, 9,492/. deposits. Letters and postcards
despatched, 37,530 ; books and papers, 4,643.
Statistics of West Indies.
•-
188S
Revenue
Sxpendrtara
1889
1800
1888
1880
1800
£
£
£
£
£
Bahamas
4.0,578
46,230
54,826
44,430
48,006
18,688
Barbados .
108,714
174,71!)
186,170
110,710
146,105
181,685
Jamaica
601,248
604,066
788,8881
617,662
646,906
666,4161
Turks Island
6,468
8,373
8,001
7,180
7,079
8,908
Windward Islands :-r
St, Lucia.
46,343
47,010
50,288
10,409
40,086
46,480
St Vincent .
23,021
27,522
27,047
24,002
21,830
26,041
Grenada ■
01,378
50,441
40,967
47,422
51,080
Leeward Islands : —
Virgin Islands .
1. :.:;:,
1,883
1,762
1,004
1,061
1,961
(St. Christopher
)
{Nevis
40,077
40,032
\ 42,007
44,084
37,600
(AnguiUa .
)
Antigua .
40,723
43,400
16,884
46,161
06.142
Montserrat
0,854
6,496
6,789
6,144
6,798
Unminira
17,288
30,602
■-'1,071
18,026
20,866
28,607
Trinidad
480,523
468,274
4(iS,00!t
168,846
468,291
Tobago .
Total .
10,480
1,688,698
8,800
1,624,086
8,155
10,428
i. M'.'.r.r,
1,680,778
1,761,013
1,686,002
i i',.i- rear ended Harcli Bl, 1801,
STATISTICS
233
Customs revenue (1890) :— 15ah.ini.is, -Hi. '.71/. : Uarl «.!.». 115,7112.;
Jamaica, 878,5422.; Turks [aland, 6,4792.; 8t Lucia, 23.442/.: St Vincent,
17,298/.; Granada, 24,7592.; Virgin Island- 3 urn* Nevis,
24,710/.; Antigua, 34,0171; Ifo >282. : Dominica, 9.070/. : Trini-
dad, 286,1342.; Tobago, :>..:-77/.
The chief branches of expenditure are the Establishments—Trinidad,
151,711/.; Jamaica (1889), 400,200/.: Baxhadoa (1889), 85,2062.; St. Lucia,
22. : St. Vincent, 12,4082. ; St. Kitt- 0889), 10,044/. : Grenada,
12. Immigration— Trinidad, 17.097/. ; St. Lucia, Public
Works— Trinidad, 71.810/.: Jamaica (1889), 47.042/.
In 1891 the Public Debt of Jamaica waa 1,548,1202 W. for rail-
ways) ; of Bahamas. 81,4262.; of Barbados, 30,100/.: Bermuda, 7.620/.: of
Trinidad, 532,3202. : of St. Vincent, 12,2702. ; of Grenada, 44,4762.; of
Tobago, '.,000/. : of ■fontserrat, 3,8002. : of St. Kits and rTavia, 20,900/. ;
St Lucia. 138,7002.; Antigua, 26,2712.; Dominica. 41.190/.
-
Bxports i
Iuijiortsi
188S
1888
c
t
t
Bahamas
131,680
l:;o..M2
180,406
17.-...M-.
Barbados .
1,811,370
1,103,733
Jamaica
1,614,884
Turks Islands
84,486
48,061
48,100
Windward Islands : —
s-. Lucia
128,89
loi.om
107.-I--.2
140.85S
172.04S
206,693
St. Vincent
104,744
07,800
Grenada .
1 ward Islands : —
Virgin Islands
8,478
4,341
4.m
/sr. i Ihristopher
(Nevis
287,090
848,178
1 73.91 f.
177.7M
Antigua .
196,001
157,798
Ifontatnat
87,878
28,765
81,360
J».s4::
Dominica
48,281
#7,385
41,009
49,161
57,848
Trinidad .
•J.1.S2.701
2,308,832 J 1 !
2,093.932
Tobago .
Total value
38,900
M 19.371
28,848
45,011,932
6,846,710
6,165,349
6,880,061
"
1 Including bullion and specie.
-' For year ended March 31, 1891.
Trinidad alone, in 1890, exported sugar valued at 630,8152. ; CMOS,
603,506/. : molasses, 62,929/. Jamaica exported sugar, 236,188/. : rum.
199,198/.; coffee, 283,800/.: fruit, 444,368/. Barbados : sugar, 818,680/.;
molasses. 162,200/.: flour, 25.297/.: salt fish, 34.073/. St. Vincent: sugar.
53,062/. ; arrowroot, 31,270/. Granada : cocoa, 228.S89/. ; spice, 15,955/.
St. Lucia : sugar, 83,578/. ; cocoa, 26,864/. : logwood, 9,438/. Leeward
Islands (1888): 396,914/.; molasses, 49,304/.
Total exports to Great Britain from the West Indies (1890), 1,806.390/.
(sugar, 505,431/. in 1887, 733,593/. in 1888, 785.974/. in 1889. 427,421/. in
1890 ; rum, 213,082/.; cocoa, 426,574/.; and dyes, 166,931/.).
The principal imports are food products, cotton goods. halierdashery
and hardware, fcc Thus, in 1890, Jamaica imported cotton goods worth
326,057/. ; fish (salted), 122,512/.; flour (wheat), 188,026/. : rice, 41,916/.
Trinidad imported flour, 122.024/.: rice. 125.222/.: cotton and other cloths.
234
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WEST INDIES
846,517/. ; meat (pickled, &c.), 64,555/. Barbados : linens and cottons.
198,645/. ; flour, 90,620/.; rice, 49,621/. St. Lucia: cottons, 32,098/. ; fish
(salted), 8,678/.; flour, 10,887/.; haberdashery, 7,030/.; machinery, 11,814*.;
timber, 3,847/. St. Vincent (1890): flour, "8,680*. ; fish, 7,81l7. ; timber.
3,888/.; meat, 3,853Z. St. Kitts and Nevis (1889): breadstuff's, 33,279/.:
textiles, 36,580/. Grenada (1890): flour, 18,037/.; fish, 13,166/.; prewired
meat, 7,249/.
Imports from Great Britain (1890), 2,624,472/. (cotton, 701,139/.; apparel.
303,051/.; leather and saddlery, 153,742/.; iron, 156,173/.: manure, 114,094/.:
machinery, 111,879/.).
The total tonnage entered and cleared in 1890 was as follows : —
Bahamas . 270,874 j Grenada . 477,028
Barbados . 1,246,262 | Virgin Islands 8,902
Jamaica . 1,230,506 , St. Kitts and
Turks Island 215,428 '■■ Nevis . 488,262
St. Lucia . 878,315 , Antigua . —
St. Vincent . 300,222 ! Montserrat .
Dominica
Trinidad
Tobago
1,276,870
69,237
Total . 6,461,906
Of the total tonnage returned 4,832,978 was British.
Currency, weights and measures throughout the islands are those of Great
Britain, though in several of them various American coins are current.
235
AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA.
FIJI.
Constitution and Government.
Kin was ceiled to the Queen by the chiefs ami people of Fiji, and the British
flag hoisted by Sir Hercules Rohiuson, on October 10, 1874. The government
i- administered by a Governor appointed by the Crown, ■anted by an Execu-
tive Council consisting of the Colonial Secretary, the Attorney -General, ami
the Receiver-General. Laws are passed by a Legislative Council, of which the
Governor is president. It comprises six official HMmbera, and six unofficial
members nominated by the Crown. The official members are the Chief Justice.
the Attorney-General, the Receiver-General, the Commissioner of Lands, and
the chief medical officer.
Governor of Fiji and High Commissioner for the Western Pacific — Sir John
Hates Thurston, K.C.M.G., F.L.S., F.R.G.S.
The Governor also exercises the functions of Hei Majesty's High Com-
missioner and Consul-General for the Western Pacific. He has a salary of
2,000/. per annum, paid from colonial funds.
There is no military establishment in the colony, but there is a foi
armed native constabulary numbering 75.
For the purposes of native government the colony is divided into 16
provinces, in 12 of which a superior native chief exercises, under the title of
Roko Tui of his province, a form of rule which recognises to a large degree the
customs and the system of administration by which the people governed them-
selves prior to the establishment amongst them of a European form of govern-
ment. In three of the provinces there are resident European officers as com-
missioners. About 160 native chiefs of inferior degree are employed by the
Crown in subordinate administrative capacities, and receive salaries from the
Government. There are also 32 native stipendiary magistral i with
12 European magistrates in the administration of justice. A European
commissioner resides in Rotumah.
Area and Population.
Fiji comprises a group of islands tying between 15" and 20° south latitude,
and 17 7°. east and 178° west longitude. The islands exceed 200 in number,
about 80 of which are inhabited. The largest is Viti Levu, with an area of
about 4,250 square miles (about the same size as Jamaica) : the next largest is
Vanua Levu, with an area of about 2,600 square miles. The total area of the
group is alwut 7,740 square miles. The island of Rotumah, lying between
12 and 15° of south latitude, and 175" and 177° of east longitude, was
added to the colony of Fiji by authority of Letters Patent in December 1880.
At the census of April 5, 1891, the population of the colony consisted of —
Europeans . . . 2,036 j Fijians .... 105,800
Half castes . . . 1,076 Natives of Rotumah . . 2.219
Indian immigrant labourers 7,468 Others 314
Polynesian immigrant
labourers . . . 2,267 Total . . . 121.1^0
236
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — EI.TI
AmOng Europeans in 1890 the births were 69 and deaths 85 ; Fijians in 1889?
births 4,035, deaths 4,503 ; indentured Indians in 1890, births 125, deaths
181 (registered). Suva, the capital, is on the south coast of Yiti Levu ;
European population, 850.
Religion.
The number of persons attending worship in the native churches of the
Wesleyan Mission in 1890 was 103,829 ; attending the churches of the Roman
Catholic Mission, 10,402. The Wesleyan Mission establishment comprises 10
European missionaries, 69 native ministers, 51 cateehists, 1,126 teachers, and
1,825 local preachers, 3,433 class leaders, with 934 churches, and 396 other
preaching places. The Roman Catholic Mission has 18 European ministers
and 160 native teachers, 19 European sisters, 3 European brothers, with 76
churches and chapels, and 3 European and 6 native training institutions.
Instruction.
Two public schools receive State aid to the extent of about 410/. a year,
one in Suva and one in Levuka. The number of scholars attending these two
schools in 1890 was 156. The education of the native Fijians is almost entirely
conducted by the Wesleyan Mission, in whose schools 40,574 children were
taught in 1890. A number of schools are also conducted by the Roman
Catholic Mission, the number of day-scholars being in 1889 — European 120,
Fijian 2,300, Rotuman 166, total 2,586. These mission schools receive no
State aid, but an industrial and technical school is carried on by the. Govern-
ment, in which 60 native youths are being trained in elementary branches of
nailing, writing, and arithmetic, in boat-building, house-building, and cattle-
tending.
Finance.
The following table shows the revenue and expenditure of Fiji since
annexation : —
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
e
£
£
£
j 1875
16,433
41,522
1886
64,574l
78,133'
: 1880
80,678
91,102
1887
64,916'
73,151'
1882
111,314
109.986
1888
65,oi9'
58.9931
1884
91,522'
98,467'
1889
63.7221
57,710'
1885
76,669'
92,299'
1890
66.8171
60,826'
i Revenue and expenditure on aooottnl of Polynesian Immigration not included.
Estimated revenue, 1891, 65,376/. ; expenditure, 63,7162.
The principal sources of revenue in 1890 were : — Customs, 26,158/. ;
warehouse, wharfage, and shipping dues, 2,829/. ; general licenses, 8,6892. :
native taxes (this is paid in native produce prepared by the natives, and sold
by the Government on their behalf by annual contract), 20,770/. ; postal dues
and stamps, 3,547/. The expenditure on establishments was 25, !!'!>/. ; on
services exclusive of establishments, 85, 627/. ; total, 00,8262,
The public debt Of the colony consists of loans amounting to 133,600/. ;
and advances from the Imperial Government of 115,389/., making a total
indebtedness of 248,989/.
COMMERCE
237
Production and Industry.
There on 11 sugar mills in the Colony. The rainfall at Suva i"i the year
L 890 was 119*20 inches. The mean minimum temperature lor tl.
72 Fahr. ; the moan maximiini 88" Fahr. Tin- absolute miniiiiuin tempen-
tore was 61" Fahr. on July 25 ; the absolute maximum 91 Falir. on January 1.
April 8, 9, and 29, ami May I.
In 1890 there was under cultivation by European eettkn : — Baa
•J. 407 aeres; cotton, "271 aeres; coconuts, 18,519 teres; maize. 515 i
sugar-cane, 12, 952 tns, fltc., 748 acres; tobacco, If ■
There were in the colony, at the census of 1891, 868 horses ami Drake :
S,549 cattle ; 6,208 sheep ; ami 4,687 Angora goats.
Commerce.
The value of die total foreign trade during the ti\ •
1890 inclusive was as follows : —
War
Total Foreign Trade
Imjiurte
Kxi-.i-t.,
c
|
1886
514,126
230,629
283,496
1887
469,151
188,071
281,080
18S8
560,200
188,2
.978
1889
553,674
189,393
364,281
1890
571,290
808,75!
364,533
The total amount of imports from and exports to British possessions and
other countries respectively, for each year, has been : — ■
Year
From British
From other
To British
To other
Possessions
Countries
■atom
Countries
£
e
t
£
1886
206,183
24,48b1
238,923
44,578
1887
174,547
13,524
268,554
12.526
1888
174,244
8,977
541,448
35,531
1889
186,419
2,974
335,857
— .424
1890
194,173
12,585
332,322
32,210
The principal imports during 1890 were — hardware, 15,293/. : drapery,
37,940/. ; meats, 9,169/. : rice, 10,193/. : hreadstufls and biscuits, 11.
bass and sugar mats, 5,879/. ; coal, 9,736/. ; timber, 4,094 ; manure, 10,983/.
Of these items, meats, breadstuff's, coal, and manure are free of import duties.
The principal exports in 1889 wen — sugar, 15.291 tons, valued at 844,8552. :
Copra, 4,657 tons, valued at 42,901/. : green fruit consisting principally of
bananas), 57,563/. : colonial distilled spirit, 1,419 gillons, valued at 77:V. :
desiccated coeoanut, 25$ tons, valued at 1.428/. ; pea-nuts, 243 tons, valued
at t,.">:S:j/. ; and cotton, 52 tons 7 cwt., valued at 2,443/.
The following table gives the trade of Fiji with the United Kingdom
according to the Board of Trade Returns : —
238
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW GUINEA
Year
Exports from Fiji
to Great Britain
Imports of British
Produce into Fiji
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
£
39,249
23,817
14,694
11,229
£
25,925
21,049
14,783
21,028
13,180
The principal imports in 1890 were — cotton manufactures 6,602Z., and the
principal export to Great Britain 9,3661. It has to he remarked that the
imports from Great Britain reach the colony hy way of Australia and New
Zealand, and that exports destined for Great Britain are also forwarded through
other countries. The figures given ahove do not, therefore, represent the total
trade with Great Britain.
Shipping and Communications.
During the year 1890 the total number of merchant vessels entered at the
ports of entry as arriving in the colony was 60 steamers of 49,306 tons, and
19 sailing vessels of 7,405 tons. Of these vessels 75 were British, 1 German,
1 American, and 2 Norwegian.
There is regular steam communication between Fiji and New Zealand once
a month, between Fiji and Victoria every five weeks, and between Fiji and
New South Wales twice a month.
At the end of 1889 there were 383 local vessels holding sea-going certifi-
cates from the Marine Board, with a total tonnage of 3,908 ; 137 of these
vessels were owned by Europeans (tonnage 2,221) and 246 by natives (tonnage
1,687). There is also a subsidised inter-island steamer trading regularly in
the Group.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Moneys, weights, and measures are the same as in the United Kingdom.
Books of Reference.
Annual Blue Book and Colonial Office Report
Calvert and William*, Fiji and the Fijians.
Cooper (II. Stonehewer), Coral Islands of the Paeilie. 2 Vols. London. I860.
Cuviming (Miss Gordon), At Home in Fiji. London, 1882.
Gordon # Ootch, Australian Handbook for 1891. Melbourne, 1801.
Herman (Berthold), Government Mission to the Fijian Islands. London, 18M
Smythe (Mva.), Ten Months in the h'ijian Islands. ' London, 1804.
Waterhouse, Fiji : its King and People.
NEW GUINEA, BRITISH.
This possession is the south-eastern part of the island of New Guinea.
Aiva , of British New Guinea, 90,000 square miles; population, unknown ;
white |M)|iulation, mostly officials, missionaries, and miners, about lf>0. The
colony <>l New Guinea includes the islands of the D'Entrecasteaus and Louisiade
Archipelagoes, and all islands between 8' and 12 S. latitude, and 111 and
155" K. longitude.
By the New Guinea Act of> November 1887, the administration of New
Guinea is placed <»n a new basis, a sum not exceeding 15,000/. per annum
NKW SOUTH WAVES
for ten years being secured for administration. New South Wales, Yi< toria,
and Queensland each contribute equally towards this payment ; the colony >>t
Queensland Wing primarily responsible for the whole amount. On a
tember 4, 1888, the sovereign ty of the Queen was proclaimed over British
New Guinea, the government being placed under an administrator. Sir William
Macirregor. K.C.M.G., formerly Acting Colonial Secretary and Administrator
of Fiji (salary 1.5007.).
There is a missionary settlement, with store and other buildings at
Port Moresby, but little has yet been done to develop the resources of
the island. Population of Port Moresby, about 1,000 nativ. ->.
The territory is divided into a Western, Central, and Eastern Div
each in charge of a Resident Magistrate. Revenue from the colony in
1890-91 about 3,000/., mostly from Customs. Valuable timl>er atounds,
the coco and sago palm are plentiful, with other natural prodnet.s, and
it is stated that much of the country is suitable for sugar and other tropi.-al
cultures ; in the high grounds in the interior suitable localities may Ik-
found for European settlement, and for cultivation of various pr<
Gold is found in the Louisiade Islands, and 400 miners were at work in 1889.
In the fourteen years 1875-88, 360 vessels of 21,434 tons have entered
Guinea porta Bon Qneenaand, and 373 of 30,692 tons cleared. In 1889,
entered 47 of 4,108 tons, cleared 38 of 3,284 tons. The exjiorts an
mer, copra, birdskins, gum, pearl-shells, and rattans, fcc Iui[iort.s from
Queensland (1875-88), 49,589/. ; exports to Queensland, 30,337/. In 1890-91
the exports were about 19,000/. in value, and the imports 13,000/. There
is good water communication to some parts of the interior.
Books of Reference.
Annual Report of Administrator.
British New Guinea (Queensland) Act of 1887. Brisbane, 1888.
NYw Guinea, Further Corresi>ondence respecting. Loudon, 1883 and 1890.
< halmert (J .), and Gt'U(W. Wyatt), Work and Adventure in New Guinea. London. 1885.
Stone (O. CA A Few Months in New Guinea. London, 1880.
Romilly (H. H.), The Western Pacific and New Guinea. Londoi
Romilly (H. H.). From my Verandah in New Guinea. Loudon, 1889.
Moresby (Capt. J.), Discoveries in New Guinea.
NEW SOUTH WALES.
Constitution and Government.
The constitution of Xew South Wales, the oldest of the
Australasian colonies, is embodied in the Act 18 it 19 Vict.
cap. 54, proclaimed in 1855, which established a 'responsible
government.' The constitution vests the legislative power in a
Parliament of two Houses, the first called the Legislative Council.
and the second the Legislative Assembly. The Legislative Council
consists of not less than twenty-one members (67 in 1891).
appointed by the Crown for life, and the Assembly of 141 mem-
bers, elected by seventy-four constituencies. The duration of a
parliament is not more than three years. By an Act of
September 21, 188(J. each member of the Legislative Assembly is
240 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALES
paid 3001. per annum. To be eligible, or entitled to vote, a man
must be of age, a natural-born or naturalised subject of the Queen,
and have resided in the constituency for six months before an
election. There is also property qualification, which enables the
holder of real property in any constituency to vote. The voting
is taken by secret ballot. In 1891 there were 305,456 electors
enrolled, or 27'72 of the population. At the last general elections
in 1891, 60-27 per cent, of the electors on the roll voted. The
executive is in the hands of a Governor, appointed by the Imperial
Government.
Governor. — Rt. Hon. the Earl of Jersey, G.C.M.G. ; appointed
October 1890.
The Governor, by the terms of his commission, is commander-
in-chief of all the troops in the colony. He has a salary of
7,000^. ;. private secretary, aide-de-camp, and orderlies paid for
by the State. In the exercise of the executive he is assisted by
a Cabinet of ten ministers, consisting of the following members
(Dec. 1891) :—
Premier and Colonial Secretary. — Hon. G. R. Dibbs.
Colonial Treasurer. — Hon. Jobn See.
Attorney-General. — Hon. E. Barton, Q.C.
Secretary for Lands. — Hon. H. Copeland.
Secretary for Public Works. — Hon. W. J. Lyne.
Minister of Public Instruction. — Hon. F. B. Sutter.
Minister of Justice. — Hon. R. E. O'Connor.
Postmaster-General. — Hon. Jobn Kidd.
Secretary for Mines and Agriculture. — Hon. T. M. Slattery.
Vice-President of the Executive Council and Representative of the Guccm.
ment in the Legislative Council (without portfolio). — Hon. Sir J. E. Salomons.
Q.C.
The Colonial Secretary and Attorney-Central have salaries of 2,000/. , and
the other ministers of 1,500/.
Local Qoi kknmknt.
Under the ' Municipalities Act of 1867 ' local government is extended to
I'M) districts, 66 being designated ' boroughs ' and 90 ' municipal districts,"
in addition to the City of Sydney. A borough must contain a minimum
population of 1,000, and an area not larger than !' square miles ; a municipal
district a population of .r>00, and an area not larger than 50 Square miles.
The estimated capital value of property within municipal boundaries was
iitiuiieil lor 1890 at 134,009,7582. (this figure includes Sydney, the amount of
which is 51,287,600*.), 118,542,286/. productive lands and houses, and
16,467,4722, waste and unimproved lands. The portion of the colony in.
Corporated is small, amounting to only •2,-">ir> square miles, or the one hundred
and thirty-fourth part of its area. The population residing within the
municipal area is probably not less than 688,000.
The State grants an endowment in everj municipality for a period of 1"'
years after its incorporation as follows: For the first 5 years a sum equal to
AREA AND POPULATION
241
the local revenue raised, the aeemd 6 years a moiety, ami the third ."> f<
fourth of the amount raised hy rates and subscriptions. All petaOM WkKng
household, leasehold, or freehold estate in any municipality, and paying
rates, are entitled to from 1 to 4 votes for the election of aldermen and auditors,
according to annual value .of property. There were 138.507 municipal voters
in 1890.
Area and Population.
The area of the colony is estimated at 310,700 square miles.
The colony is divided into 13 pastoral districts, and also into 141
counties.
The following statistics give the population at four SOOCeaBaVe
census periods : —
Year
1861
1871
1881
1891
Males Females
198,488 152,372
275,551 228,430
411,149 340,319
616,008 518,199
Total
Density per
square mile
1-13
162
2 42
3-65
Annual liatin
of increase ■
per mat.
350,860
503,981
751,468
1,134,207
3 69
4-07
4 23
According to race or origin the percentages were as follows at the census of
1881: — New South Wales, 61 '95; other Australasian colon
Aborigines, 022 ; English, 14 32 ; Irish, 9"21 ; Scotch, 334 : Welsh. 041 :
other British subjects, 0 69 ; total British subjects, 96 09. Chinese, 1-36 ;
German, 100 ; other foreigners, 1*66 ; total foreigners, 3 "91.
In 1889 there was in the colony a population of full blacks comprising
1,997 men, 1,431 women, and 1,224 children, and of half-castes 644 men,
605 women, and 1,628 children— total 7,529.
According to occupation the numl»er of actual workers was distributed
thus 1889-90 :—
In agricultural
In transport
In professions
13,100
pursuits
80,000
by Tail or
In State em-
In pastoral
water
18,100
ployment, not
pursuits and
In building or
including
slaughtering
construction,
teachers
10,100
for food
26,200
skilled and
In military ami
In mining
27,700
unskilled la-
police .
2,150
In manufac-
bour .
63,300
In other callings
42,200
tures .
56,200
In domestic
In trade and
work and at-
Total
439,650
commerce
33,800
tendance
61,800
The census population of Sydney in 1891 was 386,400, including suburbs ;
Newcastle, 12,913 ; Bathurst, 9,069 ; Goulbum, 10,902 : Parramatta 11,680 :
Broken Hill, 19.792 : Maitland, 9,907 ; and Albury 5,452.
R
242
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — NEW SOUTH WALES
The following table shows the births,
years : —
deaths, and marriages for five
Year
Marriages
Total
Birtlis
Illegitimate
Total
Deaths
Excess of
Birtlis
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
7,811
7,590
7,844
7,530
7,876
26,284
37,236
38,525
37,295
38,964
1,687
1,711
1,958
1,987
2,051
14,587
13,448
14,408
14,796
14,217
21,697
23,788
24,117
22,499
24,747
The average annual rate of increase for the last 18 years by reason of the
excess of births over deaths is 2 '28 per cent.
The following are the statistics of the arrivals and departures by sea for
five years : —
-
1886
1887
1888 1889
1890
Immigrants
Emigrants
Excess of immigrants
71,996
50,913
67,854
56,993
62,361 61,151
56,941 51,762
67,799
54,807
21,083
10,861
5,420 I 9,389
12,992
Assisted immigration, which became the policy of New South Wales in
1832, ceased in 1887. The total number of assisted immigrants between
1860 and 1889 has been 79,792. Of these, 78,071 persons were British-bom,
37,688 being from England and Wales, 31,823 from Ireland, and 8,560 from
Scotland.
In 1881 a poll-tax of 10Z. was imposed on Chinese immigrants, and in-
creased to 100Z. in 1888 in all the Australian colonies, with the exception of
Western Australia.
The arrivals and departures of Chinese have been as follows in live years : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Arrivals . . | 3,092
Departures . 1,883
4,436
2,773
1,848
1,562
i
it 11
15
637
Religion.
An Act abolishing State aid to religion was passed in 1863. Those clergy
(of all denominations) who received aid before that still nveive the same
amount.
The Church of England in the colony is governed by a Metropolitan who
is also Primate of Australia and Tasmania. He is nominated by the Pishops
in Australia and consecrated by the Archbishop of Canterbury. There were
in 1890 six dioceses. The a Hairs of the Church of Rome are administered by
seven Pishops under the Cardinal Archbishop of Sydney, who is also Primate
of Australasia.
INSTRUCTION 243
Tlie following are statistics of different religions for 1890 : —
Denomination
Clergy 1
318
Adherents
Denomination
UttkanM .
1 !• r,-v
Ailln
Chinch nf Knglaml .
7,2*4
Roman Catholic
280
Unitarian*
1
■ ':>Tian
156
Hebrew
4,938
an ami otli.r
Others
•_>7
-list
107
national.
a,4a*
.
Total' .
1.040
1.1 -"J
Instruction.
Education is under State control, though many private schools and col-
xist. In 1880 State aid to denominational schools was abolished, and
instruction made compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14 years ; the children
of the poor are educated free. There are not only primary public schools, but
also high schools for both sexes.
There were in 1890, 2,423 State schools, classified as follows :— High
schools 5 ; primary schools 1,680 ; provisional schools 333 ; half-time schools
289 ; house-to-house 95 ; evening schools 21 ; total 2,423.
During 1890 there were 195,241 children enrolled, and an average at-
tendance of 116,665, with 4,181 teaci
The following table details the expenses incurred by the State on education
1881 : —
Xum" Knrol-
Year ..f meat of Distinct v ,,*! School Fees ! ,
Sci, p„riis fependtam ^ ra Wuwmww
1881 1,546 .106 480,000 46,317 488
2,170 179,990 654,411 63,165 591,246
1887 2,236 184,060 624,983 63,896 561,087
1888 2,271 186,692 597,102 69,554 527,548
1889 2,373 191,21." 635,509 72,318 563,191
1890 2,423 205,241 704,260 71.287 632,433
In addition to State schools there are several educational institutions which
receive subsidies from Government.
Of private schools there are 697, with 42,612 pupils, of which 244 schools,
1,112 teachers, and 28,552 pupils are Roman Catholics. .
The University of Sydney was founded in 1858, and its degrees in art,
law, and medicine are recognised as on an equality with those of the United
Kingdom. Government grants a yearly subsidy of 12, 000 J. The total re-
venue for 1890 was 24.312Z. There were 409 "matriculated, and 447 non-
matriculated students attending lectures during 1890. There are 43 professors
and lecturers.
There is a technical college, comprising classes in agriculture, physics,
applied mechanics, arts, elocution, chemistry, architecture, geology, "com-
mercial economy, mathematics, pharmacy, and domestic economv. Tne daily
attendance averaged 1,885 for 1890. Branch schools are established in the
country.
There is a free public library at Sydney, with 86,284 volumes in 1890.
lne library was visited by 155,822 persons during 1890.
244
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALES
Justice and Crime.
There is a Supreme Court, with a chief justice and six puisne judges. All
prisoners charged with capital crimes are tried by a jury of twelve persons.
Circuit courts are held at the principal towns in the colony twice a year.
District courts are established for the trial of civil causes in which the
amount claimed does not exceed 200/. They are presided over by judges
specially appointed, who also perform the duties of chairmen at quarter
sessions, at which prisoners chai'ged with other offences than capital crimes
are tried. In the metropolitan district police courts are presided over by
stipendiary magistrates ; in the country districts police magistrates and
justices of the peace adjudicate. The licensing of houses for the sale of
spirituous and fermented liquors is transacted by magistrates specially
appointed for that purpose.
In 1890, 48,102 persons were summarily convicted by magistrates, and
1,476 sent for trial to a higher court.
The police force of the colony is 1,651 strong.
There are in all 59 gaols. On December 31, 1890, there were 2,425 prisoners
in confinement.
Finance.
The following are statistics of revenue for five years : —
From Mis-
Year
Total Revenue
•From Taxation
Land Revenue
From Services
cellaneous
Sources
£
£
£
£
£
1886
7,594,300
2,611,835
1,643,954
3,089,235
249,276
1887
8,582,811
2,664,548
2,378,995
3,245,907
293,361
1888
8,886,360
2,681,883
2,268,253
3,664,100
272,124
1889
9,063,397
2,677,170
2,137,561
3,924,955
323,710
1890
9,498,620
2,748,339
2,434,039
4,174,937
332,305
Under the heading " Services " is included revenue from rail-
ways, tramways, posts, and telegraphs, &c.
The bulk of taxation is obtained indirectly through the Customs
House, as may be seen from the accompanying summary for the
year 1890 :—
Customs, 1,888,321?. ; Excise, 265,887?. ; Stamp Duties,
460,975?. ; Licences, 133,156?. : total, 2,748,339?.
The following table shows the public expenditure, exclusive of
expenditure from loans, for five years : —
Fett
Railways
Post and
Tele-
graphs
Other
Public
Works
1880
1887
1888
1889
1890
t
1,710,406
1,696,718
1,824,291
1,782,630
2,037,108
1
810,861
684,077
816,871
638,183
04S,!»'.t:t
£
1,248,877
1,179,031
1,040,740
1,235,887
Interest on |
Debt and Immi- Instrnr-
Extinction gratios felon
of Loan
Other
Services
1,679,889
1,092,421
1,746,696
1,806,770
£
35,397
83,281
7,864
8,073
£
741,13]
738,008
683,336
607,334
£
8,161,417
8,264,693
8,861,669
8,368,968
Total
Bxpendi-
tuiv
£
9,077,047
9,316,193
8,778,861
1,895,050 r,,910 720,984 3,008,968 9,553,562
i>EFEX< E
245
At the dose of 1890 the total debt outstanding was 48,425,333/. : ami
the amount authorised, still to be raised, was 20,555,715/.
The appropriation of loans to the end of 1890 has l>een as follows : — Rail-
ways and tramways, 32,486,007/. ; electric telegraphs, 735,493/. ; harbours
and rivers navigation, 2,796,764/. ; roads and bridges, 625,955/. ; immigra-
tion, 569,930/. ; water supply and sewerage works, 4,574,848/. ; repayment
of old loans, 3,441,430/. ; miscellaneous public works, 3,003,298/. ; total,
47,607,770/. In 1884 the nominal rate of interest was fixed at 3i per
at which rate -23,500,000/. has been raised.
The financial statistics of the incorporated boroughs and municipal dis-
tricts are as follows : —
Total Annual
Value of all
Property in
Municii>alities
Estimated
Capital Value of
all Property in
MuniciiMilities
exclusive
of Loans
Kx]*ridi-
ture
Loans Out-
standing
£
Citv of Sydney. 2,710,488
Suburbs . . 2,627,767
I
51,237,600
47,987,210
-
205,502 193,008
276,364 362,624
1
710,000
58'.'.
Metropolis . 5,83*
Country . . 2,24.". 176
99,224,810
34,784,948
481,866 555,632
302,187 380,335
1,299,450
451.
Total . 7,583,430
134,009,758
784,053 935,967
1,751,296
At the census of 1891 the estimated public wealth of the colonv
179,295,000/., represented in the items hereunder : —
£
Valur of railways, tramways, waterworks, sewerage, and other revenue-yield-
ing works . 44,958,000
Value of works and buildings not directly revenue bearing .... 20,313,000
Amount due to lands purchased from the State 13.:
Public lands leased but not sold
Municii>al property 6,400,000
Total public wealth £179,295,000
Land 173,352,000
Houses and improvements 129,800,000
Other forms of wealth 104,253,000
Total private wealth £407,405,000
Total wealth £586,700,000
Defence.
In 1S90 the land force of the colonv comprised 9,285 men, of whom 538
formed the regular military force, 4,146 volunteers, who were partially paid,
and 1,601 reserves. The naval force is composed of 633 men. These forces
are divided as follows : —
General, Permanent, Honorary, and Naval Defence Force Stall, '.'2 :
Cavalry, 352 : Artillery, 1,009; Engineers, 113; Submarine Miners. 133;
24(5
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALES
Mounted Infantry, 304 ; Infantry, 2,619 ; Rifle Companies, 4,500 ; Reserves,
101 ; Medical Staif Corps, 65 ; Naval Brigade, 338 ; Naval Artillery Volun-
teers, 276 ; torpedo boats, &c, 16 ; total, 9,918. The cost of the defence of
the colony during the year 1890 was 228,0437.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
In 1891 there were 1,238,208 acres, or a little over one-half per cent, of
the area of the colony, under cultivation. The cultivated land is principally
to he found in small holdings of less than 500 acres. The colony is divided
legally, in accordance with its natural apportionment, into three parts, viz.,
the Eastern, Central, and Western divisions, and land is obtainable under the
following conditions : — 1st, by free selection before survey in the two first-
mentioned divisions, at the rate of 11. per acre, payable under a system of
deferred payments. In the Eastern division the minimum area to be selected
is 40 acres, and the maximum 640 acres ; in the Central the maximum is
2,560 acres. 2nd, by additional purchases of the same areas and under like
conditions after the completion of the condition of residence upon the original
selection. 3rd, by purchasing at double the price above mentioned, without
the condition of residence, the maximum area being 320 acres. 4th, Govern-
ment land is also sold at auction, the upset prices being 81. for town, 21. 10a-.
for suburban, and 11. 5s. per acre for country lots. The area sold is not to
exceed 200,000 acres annually, and the maximum area for purchasers is 640
acres.
In the Western division the land is leased by the State to pastoral tenants
under various forms. The total land alienated or in process of alienation at
end of 1890 was 44,758,151 acres. The total land occupied under leases of
various kinds is 148,122,194. The total land area of the colony is 195,882,150
acres. The total proceeds of sales during 1862-90 was 45,938,579Z. The
following table gives the statistics of holdings of various sizes for the past
ten years : —
Acreage
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1S91
1 to 15 acres.
10 to 200
201 to 400 .
401 to 1,000 .
1,001 to 2,001 >
2.001 to 10,00(1 .
10,001 and upwards
5,180
20,301
5,753
4,959
1,470
1,176
449
5,124
20,007
5,700
5,559
1,550
1,297
403
5,154
30,16]
5,909
0,031
1,067
1,350
461
5,409
20,998
8,863
6,497
1,880
1,413
513
5,877
21,107
6,386
0,017
1,81 1
l,M6
0,512
21,28s
6,882
0,7H2
1,948
1,458
552
7,038
31,661
6,481
0,77s
2,010
1,818
566
0,889
31,608
6,612
6,760
2,089
1,774
580
7,900
22,048
6,774
6,848
2,191
1,810
47,620
74060
6,906
2,888
1,994
866
Total .
39,354
39,700
40,793
i::.7i'..
40,142
46,197
10,960
The area under cultivation in New South Wales during the last lour yeart
and the crops produced were as follows : —
I'RODII TION AND INDUSTRY
•2V,
vm
Am under
Cultivation
Ai-r. |
;."4v:>
An. .-
*". r. '. _". ' *
1,164,47;
A cr> s
Principal Crops Area Produce Area Produce Area Produce Area Produce
Wheat
Maize
Barley
/Graii
Wy
|Graii
l Grain
\ Hay
Potatoes .
Lucerne and
sown grasses .
Tuliacc" .
Ac
AfflM
:.i«4.m.::
T"ii>
70,392 102,83S
Bush.
171,662
84,533
i'.n.::4n
1,990
tajau
•20,915
81,548
•J.:<71
3,641
Bush.
sMJtj
•8,1 tt
'■•1.4 V.
M4M
Cwts.
166,101
3,318
3,416
I m
15,419
17*888
4,833
Bsak
42,i>41
Bush.
1,919,404
Tons
1,898
Baak
109,881
Tons
mjm
\«-r- —
419,758
82,880
173,836
5,440
2,160
17.V.1
Acres
H"-li.
t^TMH
■ -
Toh>
140,848
96,014
Bush.
Bush.
5,354,827
191,152
113,109
81,383
MM
938{ 1.17'.'
Ku>h.
I4>MM
14,102
156,930
50,096
19,406
-
Cwts. , Cwts.
1,148 14,011
— Sugar-cane
Vftaei
Area T""*
Total
Area
Brandy Table Fruit
1887 15,117 167,959
1888 15,287 273,928
1889 15,281 110,218
1890 18,730 168,862
1891 20.446 275
5,840
6,745
7,072
7,867
8,044
Gallons
601,897
666,382
805,813
688,685
842,181
Gallons | Tons
763 1,945
3,606
2,601
3,702 2,951
6,704 3,355
The principal fruit-culture of the colony is that of the orange. Them
wore in 1890-91, 11,288 acres under oranges, with an estimated production of
11,562,000 dozen.
On January 1, 1891, the colony had 55,986,431 sheep, 1,909,009 hornet!
cattle, 441,163 horses, 284,223 pigs.
There were 124.41S persons engaged in agricultural and pastoral pursuits
during the year 1889-90.
In 18S7 a Forest Conservation Department was created and attached to one
Of the principal State departments. These are 21 Stat'' forests, OOVeriag
?7,724 acres. The timber reserves number 945, and cover an area of
9k The following are the general statistics for tive years : —
248
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALES
Timber cut in
Reserves subject
to Royalty
Sup. ft.
8,021,266
8,745,821
19,679,069
16,225,207
10,978,967
Revenue from
Royalties
Quantity of
Timber Sawn
£
13,934
13,629
19,019
16,521
15,437
Sq. ft.
110,000,000
125,000,000
185,000,000
185,021,000
Value of
Timber Sawn
&
366,666
416,666
616,666
617,000
201,505,000 670,050
II. Mines and Minerals.
Gold is found in all parts of the territory. The total value raised to the
dose of the year 1890 was 38,075,172?.
The following table shows the quantity and value of the gold, the produce
of New South Wales, coined or exported during each period of five years since
its discovery in 1851 : —
Quinquennial Periods
Weight
Value
Oz.
£
1851-55
1,918,982
6,296,811
1856-60
1,331,146
5,048,452
1861-65
2,250,683
8,619,310
1866-70
1,308,247
5,033,740
1871-75
1,606,515
6,176,861
1876-80
620,164
2,301,831
1881-85
603,622
2,250,933
1886-90
538,080
1,940,783
Total .
10,177,439
37,668,721
Most of the gold produced in the colony is received at the Mint for coinage,
and only about ten per cent, is exported without passing through that in-
stitution.
The value of silver and silver-lead ore exported to the end of 1890 was
7,682,506/. In 1890, 496,553 ounces of silver were raised, valued at 95,410/.,
and 89,719 tons of silver-lead ore, and metal, 41,320 tons, altogether valued :it
2,762,554/.
The value of copper raised in 1890 was 84,107/. The estimated value
of copper raised from its discovery in 1858 until the end of 1890 amounted to
3,362,728/.
The value of the tin produced in 1882 was 838,461/., in 1885 415,626/.,
in 1887 525,420/., in 1890 179,057/. The total value of the output of tin
since the mines were opened in 1872 lias been 5,541,7007.
In 1890 then were 91 coal mines, employing 10,469 men ; the quantity
Of COS] raised ill 1890 was 3,060,876 tons, valued at 1,279,0692. The estimated
value of coal raised bo tlie .lose of 1890 amounted to 28*891,6891
There are 21 smelting furnaces in the colony, principally for the smelting
of silver, tin, and copper ores. It is estimated that there were 32,338 persons
employed in mining and smelting during 1890.
(OMMKHCK
249
III. M AM KA< HRB8.
The following . dassitication of manufactories, numWr of hands «■£*
ami capital invested is compile*! from the returns of 1889 : —
Classification
MarlU
Bands
Capital
Treating raw material, the product
of pastoral pursuits . . . 175
Connected with food and drink or the
preparation thereof. . . . . 639
Clothing and textile fabrics . . 114
Building materials .... 688
Metal works, implements, machinery
and engineering, railway carriages . 313
Docks, slips, ship-building, and sail- ,
making 61
Furniture, bedding, &c. . . . ] 124
Paper, printing, binding, engraving.
&c 227
Vehicles, harness, saddlery . . • 285
Light, fuel, and heat ... 45
Other works ..... 255
Total . ... 2,926
No.
8,244
5,518
6,982
1,225
1.424
4,688
2,475
1,414
2,386
I
415,293
3,109,967
321,587
1,688,347
8,211 1,820,731
:.174
290,108
1,088,073
458,355
3,302,609
1,021,515
44,989 14,060,759
Commerce.
The following table shows the value of the total trade of the
colony for five years : —
Year
Total Imports
Total Exports
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
£
21,313,127
19,171,317
21,229.277
22,863,057
22,615,004
15,717,937
18,521,750
20,920,130
23.294,934
22.045,937
The total customs revenue in 1890 amounted to 1,888,321/..
<>r >s35 per cent, of the total value of the imports.
The following table gives the values of the total ex}K>rts,
home and foreign produce, for the last rive years : —
250
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALKS
Year
Hume Produce
Exported
Foreign Produce
Exported
Total Exports
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
■
£
11,583,229
14,240,362
15,544,875
17,423,311
17,232,725
£
4,134,708
4,281,438
5,375,255
5,871,623
4,813,212
15,717,937
18,521,750
20,920,130
23,294,934
22,045,937
Wool is the staple export of the colony. The following is a
table of the total quantities and values of wool exported since
1881 :—
Year
Weight
Value
Year
Weight
Value
Lbs.
£
Lbs.
£
1881 .
147,183,687
7,530,792
1886
178,650,611
7,201,976
1882
153,351,344
7,773,704
1887
224,295,209
9,200,071
1883
197,040,132
10,136,244
1888
243,256,253
9,358,515
1884
183,016,518
9,382,500
1889
! 266,229,029
10,785,070
1885
173,373,425
7,678,247
1890
1 243,738,266
9,232,672
The direct commercial intercourse (exclusive of gold) of the colony with
the United Kingdom is shown in the following tabular statement, according
to the Board of Trade Returns, for each of the six years from 1885 to 1890 : —
-
1880
1880
1887
1888
1S89
1890
Exports from N.S.W. .
Imports of British pro-
duce ....
£
7,155,87©
9,100,784
£
7,000,428
7,005,889
£
7,177,91 ■>
0,845,817
£
8,708,250
8,078,811
£
8,702,048
7,014,827
£
8,791, 280
7,884.000
The staple article of export from New South Wales to the United Kingdom
is wool, the quantities and values of which were as follows in each of the live
years 1886 to 1890 :—
Next to wool, tlir most important articles <>f export to Greal Britain are
tin, of the value in 1 s;to <>f .", 1 1 , 188*. : silver, of the value of 128,7402. (Includ-
ing silver-lead and ore): copper, of the value of 184,585/. | tallow, ol the
value of 214,831/. ; leather, of the value of 118,161/. The imports from
Greal Britain consist of all the principal articles of British manufacturing
industry, chief among tliem iron ami steel of the value of 824,280/., apparel
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
25 I
and haberdashery of the value of 842.915Z., and drapery of the value of
.8832. in 1890.
The following table shows the direction of the sea-borne trade of New South
Wales in 1890 :—
— •Imports from
Kxiorts to
United Kingdom
Australasian colonies .
Other British possessions .
United States .
Other foreign oountrii
Total
£
8,628,007
1.380
663.
859,102
1,482,849
§
_ ;.43i
%364
201
1,30'
2,163,190
17,907,663
14,019,561
The overland trade was as follows for the last tiv.- yean : —
Im)'
Exports
Total
a
1886
2,03'.'
■ >.966
1887
3,16-
8,39v
1888
3,040,010
'.681
8,599,691
1889
3,1;.
6,919.491
10,060,189
1890
4,707.341
8,026.376
12.733,717
Shipping and Navigation.
Number and tonnage of British and foreign vessels entered and cleared,
with cargoes and in ballast, during the yean 1887 to 1890 : —
Year
Bri'
Foreign
Total
Ti ill In
Tonnage
220
217
273
249
28
306
234
221
Tonnage
\Y,,.-ls
Tonnage
(Cleared .
1888r Entered .
\ Cleared .
loco f Entered .
1889 (Cleared .
2,595
2,680
2.723
2.971
2,655
1,898,699
1.937,828
2,088.717
2,052,647
2.344,7.41
2,101,930
•033
243,758
242.
S46
298,022
316,124
334.
311.317
2,815
2,906
2,955
2,972
3,229
2,888
2.777
2.14.
2,180,301
2,414,750
2,350,669
.081
2,689,098
2.113.247
Of the total cleared in 1890, 1,183 of 1,356,632 tons were from Sydney,
and 916 of 842,189 tons were from Newcastle.
Internal Communications.
At the end of 1890 there were 7,000 miles of Government roads formed,
metalled, and gravelled ; 4,500 formed and properly drained : also 6,011 miles
of roads in munieipali:
The following are particulars of the railways in the colony on December
31, 1890 : — Lines open for traffic, 2.1S2 miles. The total amount of money
252
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW SOUTH WALES
expended on railway construction to June 30, 1891, was 31,768,617/. The
gross earnings for 1890-91 amounted to 2,974,421/., working expenses
1,831,371?., and percentage of working expenses to the gross earnings, 61 "57.
There were also, at the close of 1890, 81 miles of private railways, which had
a capital expenditure of 389,727/.
The tramways are the property of the Government. There were, on June
30, 1890, 33^ miles open for traffic within the city and suburbs of Sydney.
In 1890 there were 1,338 post-offices ; number of letters carried, 57,707,900 ;
newspapers, 40,597,200 ; packets, &c, 8,939,600 ; revenue, 427,330/. ; expen-
diture, 435,545/.
- At the end of December 1890 there were in the colony 23,698 miles of
telegraph wire in operation, the cost of constructing which amounted to
743,698/. In 1890 there were 628 stations ; number of telegrams, 3,592,519 ;
total receipts, 222,307/. ; net revenue, 193,707/.
Money and Credit.
Statistics of money and bills in circulation within the colony are given
below for the years 1886-90 :—
Year
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Notes
Bills
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
£
7,258,012
8,315,133
8,459,450
8,487,854
9,153,210
£
516,345
512,401
509,623
517,462
541,518
£
27,289
27,442
28,275
29,753
31,100
£
1,621,090
1,526,096
1,591,500
1,489,153
1,503,404
£
60,827
64,146
84,111
96,459
119,938
Value of gold, silver, and bronze coin issued at the Royal Branch Mint,
Sydney, during the years 1886-90 : —
Year
Gold
Silver
Bronze
Total
£
£
c
£
1886
1,708,000
17,400
1,095
1,726,495
1887
2,069,000
6,115
SOO
2,075,915
1888
2,187,000
11,285
1,630
2,199,915
1889
3,294,000
22,375
1,560
3,317,935
1890
2,808,000
35,175
1,460
■J. 8 14,635
Assets of banks trading in New South Wales, average of each year from
1886 to 1890 :—
'
Notes and
[BalanoM
Notes and
Bills dis-
Year
Coin
Bullion
Mills of
other
Banks
due from
other
Banks
counted and
all other
Debts due to
the Banks
Landed
Property
Total
&saeti
t
£
t
e
i
£
L8M
00,948
1 86,078
2,080,946
32,527,481
1,107,877
89,806,808
1887
4,870,816 |
06,187
116,288
2,080,848
88,363,179
1,184,468
1 sss
5,461,898
69,008
2,066,667 8 1,870,488
1,887,671
14,971,067
188!»
4,997,089
70,688
288,770
8,110,788
89,966,081
1,4*1, 196
18,91 1,994
i 1890
5,676,001
B8,«K)
279,142
8,610,968
41,688,049
i,t'.(ii.;.sn
11,679,79b
BOOKS OF REFERENCE
Liabilities of same banks : —
253
Notes in Bills in
Ctreohv- Circula-
Balan>
lllle tn n< It
other
Banks
beuiag
Interest
lwaring In-
Ti-tal
Total
Liability-
l.,.jl.,,;.„ 60,827 1,366,202 18,974,984 27,330,239
1887 1,526,096 64,146 1,208,727 -"0,162, 493 -1.499
1. .'.'1,500 84,111 539,901 J0,382,990 30,819,549 33,035,061
1,489,153 .1,948 9,830,056 22,925.
1890 1.503.404 119.93S 158,854 9.932.310 25,114,127 35,046,437 S*,8S8,{
Of the Savings Bank of New South Wales, established in 1832, the
Governor is president, ami by him the trustees are appointed. Resides the
head office in Sydney there are fifteen branches in the country districts.
Then- are besides post-office Barings-Banks, Statistics arc given l*>lo\v of l»oth
branches of savings-banks : —
Year Number of D Aiinmnt on IVo. SI Average per Depositor
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
* t. J.
111,994 :;. .'.04,803 31 6 1
118,875 3,675,893 30 18 3
128,297 4,037 31 9 5
134,914 4,280,083 31 14 6
143,826 4,730.469 SS 17 10
There are also savings-banks in connection with Land, Building, and
Investment companies.
Agent-General in London. — Hon. Sir Said Samuel, K.c. M.<;.. C.B.;
Secretary, Samuel Yardley.
Under the supervision of the Governor of New South Wales are NoBFOUE
Island, 29° S. latitude, 168° E. longitude, area 10 square miles, population
about 750 ; Pitcaikn Island, 25° S., 130° W., area 3 square miles, popula-
tion 120 ; and Lord Howx Island, 31° SO* S., 1593 E., population 60.
Books of Reference.
1. Official Publication-.
Annual Statistics of New South Wales. By T. A. Coghlan, A.M.Inst. C.E.. Government
Statistician. Sydney, 1890.
Census of New South Wales, taken April 3, 1881. Fol. Sydney, 1882.
New South Wales Blue Bo<ik for the Year 1890. Fol. Sydney, 1S9I.
New South Wales Government Gazette, January- 1891.
Railways of New Bootib Wales. Report of their Construction and Working annually.
Report' on the Vital Statistics of Sydney and Suburbs. Published monthly by T. A.
Coghlan. A.M. Inst. C.E.. Government Statistician.
Statistical Register of New South Wales for the Year 1890. Fol. Sydney. 1890.
The Wealth and Progress of New South Wales. Published annually byT. A. Coghlan
A-M.Inst.C.E., Government Statistician. Sydney. 1S90.
Tregarthen (Greville), Chief Clerk Government Statistician's Depart uk : \ N.S.W. New
South Wales. 1880-1880. A Statistical Sketch.
Seven Colonies of Australasia. Published annually by T A. C-lilan. A M.Inst. C.E..
'iient Statistician.
254 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
2. Non-Official Publications.
Lang (John Punmore, D.D.), Historical ami Statistical Account of New South Wales.
4th edit. 2 vols. 8. London, 1874.
TAversidge (A., M.A., F.R.S.), Minerals of New South Wales, &c. London, 1888.
Maiden (.1. IL, F.L.S., F.C.S., &c), Useful Native Plants of Australia. Sydney and
London.
Heid (G. IL), An Essay on New South Wales. 8. Sydney, 1877
Wood* (Rev. J. E. Tenison), Fish and Fisheries of New South Wales. 8. Bydney, 1882
NEW ZEALAND.
Government and Constitution.
The present form of government for New Zealand was estab-
lished by statute 15 & 16 Vict., cap. 72, passed in 1852. By
this Act the colony was divided into six provinces, afterwards
increased, to nine, each governed by a Superintendent and
Provincial Council, elected by the inhabitants according to a
franchise practically amounting to household suffrage. By a sub-
sequent Act of the Colonial Legislature, 39 Vict., No. xxi., passed
in 1875, the provincial system of government was abolished, and
the powers previously exercised by superintendents and provincial
officers were ordered to be exercised by the Governor or by local
boards. By the terms of this and other amending statutes, the
legislative power is vested in the Governor and a • General
Assembly' consisting of two Chambers — the first called the
Legislative Council, and the second the House of Representatives.
The Governor has the power of assenting to or withholding con-
sent from bills, or can reserve them for Her Majesty's pleasure.
He summons, prorogues, and dissolves the Parliament. He can
send drafts of bills to either House for consideration, but in ease
of appropriations of public money must first recommend the House
of Representatives to make provision accordingly before any appro-
priations can become law. He can return bills for amendment to
either House.
The Legislative Council consists of forty-one members, nomi-
nated by the Crown for life. By an Act passed in 1887, the
number of members to be elected to the House of Representatives
was reduced to seventy-four, including four Maoris, elected by
the people for three years. The qualifications of electors are as
follows: — (a) Residence in the colony and electoral district tor
six months immediately preceding registration, in ease of Euro-
pean males 21 years of age and upwards; (b) possessors of a free-
hold estate of the value of 25/.; (c) every male Maori l* I years
of age or over, whose name is on a ratepayers' roll, or who has a
freehold estate of the value of 25/.
LOCAL GOVEHNMENT
-) .">.">
At the general election in 1890 there were 183.171 electors on
the rolls for the electoral districts, which returned 70 Boropean
members to the House of Representatives : and at the election of
the four Maori members for the districts under the Maori Repre-
sentation Act, 7.086 votes of natives were recorded.
The proportion of representation to population was in I"
one European member in the House of Representative- to every
W persons, and one Maori member to every 10,381 nati
The proportion of electors to population in the year 1890 was
one to every 3*4 persons.
Governor. — The Right Honourable the Earl .of Onslow,
G.C.M.G. ; Parliamentary Under-Secretary for the Colonies.
1887; Vice-President of the Colonial Conference, 1887; ft
tarv of the Board of Trade, 1888; appointed Governor of Ne«
Zealand, November 1888.
The Governor, who is by virtue of his office Commander-in-
Chief of the forces, has a salary of 5,000/., which is to cover all
expenses of his establishment and for travelling.
The general administration rots with a responsible Ministry
consisting of about seven member-.
The following is the list of the Ministry, constituted January 24,
1891 :—
Premier, Colonial Treasurer, Commissioner of Trade and Customs,
Commissioner of Stamps. — Hon. J. Ballance.
rney -General and Colonial Secretary. — Hon. P. A. Buckley.
Minister of Agriculture awl Lands and Immigration. — Hon. J.
Mackenzie.
Minister of Mines and Defence, and Minister for Public Works. — Hon. R.
J. Seddon.
Minister of Education and Justice. — Hon. W. P. Reeves.
Minister of Native Affairs. — Hon. A. .1. Ca<huan.
Postmaster-General and Telegraph Commissioner. — Hon. J; G. Ward.
Speaker of the House of Representatives. — Major W. -T. Steward.
The control of native affairs, and the entire responsibility of dealing with
questions of native government, were transferred in 1863 from the Imperial
to the Colonial Government. In 1S64 the seat of the general Government
was removed from Auckland to Wellington on account of the central position
of the latter city.
Local GoTHRMKNT.
New Zealand is divided into counties and boroughs for purposes of local
government. The counties are subdivided into ridings. County councils are
empowered to constitute road districts on petition being made. Besides the
road districts, which are very numerous, there are town districts and river
and harbour boards.
The ratepayers in the road districts of a county are qualified as electors for
the purposes of the county council, and the members of each road board are
elected by the ratepayers of the district.
256
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
Area and Population.
There are two principal islands, known as the North and
Middle Islands, besides the South or Stewart's Island, and small
oittlying islands. The group is nearly 1,000 miles long, and 200
miles across at the broadest part. Its coast line extends over
3,000 miles. New Zealand is situated 1,200 miles to the east of
the Australian continent. It was firi«jt visited by Tasman in
1642, afterwards by Captain Cook in 1769.
The area of New Zealand is estimated at 104,471 square
miles. The North Island is estimated to embrace an area of
44,467 square miles, the Middle Island 58,525, while Stewart's
Island has an area of 665 square miles. New Zealand was
officially established as a colony in 1840. The total acreage of
the colony is 66,861,440, and up to the end of 1890, 19,666,916
acres had been alienated from the Crown. The following table
gives the population of New Zealand, exclusive of aborigines, at
various dates, according to census returns : —
Years
.Males
Females
Total
Increase per cent.
per annum
1858
33,679
25,734
59,413
1864
106,580
65,578
172,158
19
1871
150,267
105,993
256,260
6 3
1878
230,998
183,414
414,412
8
1881
269,605
220,328
489,933
6
1886
312,221
266,261
578,482
3-6
1891
333,175
293,655
626,830
1-6
The population of each provincial district and its area, with the popu-
lation per square mile, is shown in the succeeding table as at last census
(1891):—
Provincial District
Square Miles
Population
Persons to a
square mile
Auckland
25,746
133,267
.VI 7
Taranaki
3,308
22,169
6-70
Wellington .
11,003
97,876
8-90
i Hawke's Bay .
4,410
28,391
6-44
Marlborough .
4,753
12,774
2-69
Nelson .
10,269
34,705
3-38
Westland
4,641
15,882
3-42
Canterbury ' .
14,040
128,471
PM
Otago .
.25,487
153,005
6-00
In April 1891 the population of the North Island was 281,703 ; of the
South Island, including Stewart's Island, 344,837. In 1876, New Zealand.
previously divided into ten provinces, was divided into counties and boroughs.
The census of 1891 gave the total population u 968,858, including 41,523
Maoris. The total included 4,292 Chinese, of whoa only 85 were females,
KENT OF THE POPULATION
Of the Maoris, 22,633 were males, and 18,890 females. The total uuiu-
ber includes about. 2, 500 half-castes, living as members of Maori tribes, and
219 Maori wives of European husbands. In 1857 the number of Maoris was
estimated at 56,049, but this statement is not closely reliable.
Of the total population, excluding Maoris, in 1886, 560,598 persons, or
9691 per cent., were British-born subjects. Of thaw, 300,190, or 5189 per
were born in New Zealand, and 233,856, or 40 43 per cent., born in the
United Kingdom (125,657 in England, 1,981 in Wales, 54,810 in Scotland,
and 51,408 in Ireland).
The foreign subjects numbered 17,884, or 309 of the ]>opulation.
Excluding the Chinese, 67*48 per cent, of the population was found to
be unmarried ; 29 45 per cent, married ; and 2 79 widowers or widows.
Of the population, enumerated in April 1891, 351,927 lived in the rural dis-
tricts : 1*71,019, or 43*2 per cent., lived in boroughs; 910 lived on adjacent
islands, and 2,974 were on board ship.
Of the total population in 1886, 6443 per cent. WBW returned as don
(wives, children, servants, &c.) ; 11 '27 as agricultural ; 13 21, industrial ; 470,
commercial ; 2 16, professional.
At the census of 1891 there were four towns with over 10,000 inhabit-
ants in New Zealand — namely, Auckland, 28,773, or with suburbs, 51,287 :
Wellington (the seat of Government), 31,021, or with suburbs, 33,224 :
Christchurch, 16,223, or with suburbs, 47,846 ; and Dunedin, 22,376, or with
suburbs, 45,865 inhabitants.
Movement or the Population.
Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
Years
Total
Births
Illegitimate i ^^
Births
Marriages
Excess of
Births over
De:,
1 1886
1887
1 1888
1889
1890
19,299
19,135
18,902
18,457
18,278
602 6,135
617 6,137
577 5,708
612
603 5,994
3,488
3,563
3,617
3,632
3,797
13,164
12.998
13,194
12,685
The birth rate for the year 1890 was 29"41 per 1,000 persons living : the
death rate was 9-64 per 1,000 ; and the marriage rate, 6 "11.
Immigration and Emigration.
Years
Immigrants
Emigrants
Excess of Immigration
over Emigration
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
16,101
13,689
13,606
15,392
15,028
15,037
12.712
22,781
15,178
16,810
1,064
977
-9.1751
214
-1,782-
i Decrease, excess of emigration.
258
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
Eeligion.
There is no State Church, and no State aid is given to any form of
religion. "When the settlements of Canterbury and Otago were originally
founded, the bodies in connection with the Church of England and the Free
Church of Scotland respectively obtained endowments from the Societies by
which the settlements were organised, which they still retain. For purposes
of the Church of England the colony is divided into six dioceses — Auckland,
Waiapu, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, and Dunedin. The Bishop of
Wellington is now the Primate. The Roman Catholic Church has four
dioceses. The Archbishop resides at Wellington. The list of officiating
clergy under the Marriage Act shows the numbers given below. The
churches and chapels are given from the census of 1886 : —
Number
1
Number
Denomination
Number
of
clergy
of
churches
and
cliapels,
&c.
Denomination
Number
of
clergy
Of
churches
and
chapels,
Ac.
Church of England
269
469
Baptist .
19
27
Presbyterian
184
367
Other Christian
Roman Catholic .
122
173
bodies .
33
81
Methodist bodies .
130
282
Hebrew .
7
4
Congregational
19
20
According to the census of 1886, 40 "17 per cent, of the population (ex-
clusive of Maoris) belonged to the Church of England, 22*59 were Presby-
terians, 9 '55 per cent. Methodists, other Protestant sects represented being
Baptists, Independents, Lutherans, Friends, and Unitarians. The total
Protestants numbered 461,340, and Roman Catholics, 79,020, or 1,366 per
cent, of the population. There were 1,595 Jews, 4,472 Pagans, and 19,889
objected to state their religion.
Instruction.
The University of New Zealand is solely an examining body, ami grants
degrees by virtue of a royal charter. It receives an annual grant of 3,000/.
It awards scholarships to be held by students at affiliated colleges. The num-
ber of graduates admitted after examination is 279, and the number of under*
graduates 1,161. There are three affiliated colleges — the Otago University
at Dunedin, with 9 professors and 12 lecturers; the Canterbury College
at Christchurch, with 5 professors and 3 lecturers : ami the Auckland
University College, with 4 professors and 1 lecturer. They arc all endowed
with lands. Total students (1890) 596, of whom 345 were matriculated.
At the end of 1890 there were in operation 22 incorporated or endowed
secondary schools, with 115 teachers and 2,117 pupils. Seven endowed
schools were not in operation. The income of all the schools tor 1890 was
65,000/., of which 24,890/. was from endowments, and 18,3802. from fees. The
colonial primary school system is administered by an Education Department.
under a Minister, 13 Education Boards, and 1,081 School Committees. Then
are 1,200 public primary schools, with 2,978 teachers, ami 117,912 scholars
on the rolls; average attendance, 94,632. School age is from 5 to 15.
Education is compulsory between the ages of 7 and 13 in those districts in
JUSTICE AND CRIME— PAUPERISM
259
which the school committees bring the compulsory clauses of the Act into
operation. The instruction given at the public schools is secular only, and for
the ordinary standard course entirely free. Where there are no secondary
schools classes may be formed in the public school for extra subjects, for which
fees may be charged. The system is maintained by a statutory allowance
of 3/. 15*. per annum to the boards for flash avu-age attendance ; by special
votes of about 10,500/. per annum for inspection and scholarships ; and by
further special votes for school buildings, of which the amounts vary according
to circumstances.
There are 68 native village schools, with 94 teachers, 2,259 scholars on the
rolls, and average attendance of 1,877 ; and 4 boarding schools for native
children, at which 79 Government scholars are under instruction. Total net
expenditure by Government on native schools in 1890 was 17,376/.
Total Government expenditure in 1890-91 upon education of all kinds
403,657/., including 8,460/. for industrial schools.
There are 297 private schools, 737 teachers, and 13,609 scholars.
There is a medical school, and a school of mines ; a school of agriculture,
2 normal schools, 3 schools of art.
In 1886 there were 303 public libraries, mechanics' institutes, and other
literary and scientific institutions, with 13,684 members, 292,108 volumes.
There are now (1891)51 daily papers, 90 weekly and bi-weekly, 17 tri-weekly,
1 fortnightly, and 25 monthly.
Justice and Crime.
The administration of justice is in the hands of six supreme court judges,
rive judges of district courts, and twenty-eight resident magistrates, with
forty-four resident magistrates' districts. There are numerous justices of
the peace.
The convictions for the last five years in the superior and inferior courts
—
1886
1887
1MB
1889
1890
1 Europeans summarily con-
victed ....
Europeans convicted be-
fore supreme or district
courts ....
16,428
259
15,258
334
14,259
255
13,861
224
14,128
192
There are 11 principal gaols and 28 minor gaols. At the end of 1890
_• ioIs contained 562 prisoners. The police force consists of 486 officers
ind men.
Pauperism.
The Government does not deal directly with pauperism. The colon v is
divided into hospital and charitable aid districts. The boards rate the local
bodies within their boundaries, and receive Government subsidy equal to
what is raised. There are, besides, what are called ' separate institutions,' or
' incorporated hospitals and benevolent societies,' which receive from Govern-
ment 24*. a pound on private subscriptions. The total sum paid in 1890 out
of the Consolidated Fund was 72.183/.
The number of indoor pauper cases was 565.
s 2
260
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
1,454 children (828 boys and 626 girls) were wholly or in part maintained
by the Government in industrial schools and other institutions, or were
boarded out.
Finance.
The ordinary and territorial revenue and expenditure for five
calendar years are given below. The figures exclude all advances,
refunds, and cross entries of all kinds.
Revenue.
Years
ended
31st
Dec.
1886
1887
1889
1890
Ordinary Revenue
From Taxation
Direct Indirect Total1
£ £
498,382 1,369,153
330,904 1,326,649
819,792 1,440,991
557,137i 1,528,856
578,996, 1,593,903
£
1,867,5351
1,657,5531
2,260,7831
2,085,9931
2,172,8991
Railways
£
1,001,113
990,396
1,019,791
1,018,212
1,143,989
Postal
and
Tele-
graph
£
312,667
319,902
318.558
329,440
338,315
Other Total
Sources Ordinary,
Terri-
torial
Reve-
nue
£ £ £
168,576 3,349,891 338,125
173,722 ! 3,141,573' 321,922
180,449 | 3,779,581, 330,234
202,123 ! 3,635,7681 356,151
1SS,659 3,843,862i 364,166
Total
Revenue
£
3,688,016
3,463,495
4,109,815
3,991,919
4,208,028
i The amounts stated above as the revenue received from taxation sources do not repre-
sent the true taxation for each year, on account of the property tax being collected in the
latter part of any one year and the beginning of the next. The true taxation per head of
population was 31. 5*. 9d. in 1884, 31. 8s. Id. in 1889, and 31. 9«. lid. in 1890.
a Not including revenue from telephone. The amount was 17,6131. in 1888-89, 18,582/.
in 1889-90, and 19,252/. in 1890-91.
Expenditure.
Years
ended
31st
Dec.
Charges
of the
Public
Debt
Rail-
ways
£
692,039
653,363
675,S!»5
626,939
725,932
Public
Instruc-
tion
Postal
and
Tele-
graphs
Consta-
bulary,
Militia,
and
Volun-
teers
Other
Ordi-
nary
Expen-
diture
Total
Ordinary
Expendi-
ture
Terri-
torial
Expen-
diture
Total
Expen-
diture
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
£
1,612,8331
1,499,7851
l,569.5.-.7'
l,616f5011
1,640,2891
£
376,920
383,989
377,234
377,716
397. SS5
£
287,095
270,997
262,882
278,76*
257,684
£ /
178,539
200,036
iss,:t:,s
167,119
His. IH2
£
780,509
708,327
671,317
702,262
680.157
£
8,927,086
8,716,497
8,786,198
8,764,291
3.S69.S39
£
242,680
237,793
227,719
227,480
211,726
£
4,170,466
s|981J21
8,962,911
4,081,6*1
1 The charges of the sinking fund met by debentures issued under the Consolidation
Stock Act, 1884, are not included. The amount of debentures issued was, in 1884, 247,700/.;
in 1885, 237,000/. ; in 1886, 140,410/. ; in 1887, 258,184/. ; in 1888, 263,200/.; in 1889, 275,200/.;
and in 1890, 288,000/.
The expenditure out of loan money for the same periods was
as follows (advances to or refunds from the Consolidated Fund
EXPENDITURE
261
have been omitted, and the expenditure given is that on services
only) : —
Years ended
December 31
On Construction
of Railways
On Roads
Other Services Totel Expenditure
Otlier services QUt of Loang
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
£
504,422
820,289
284,392
244,906
187,229
£
284,011
230,629
151,109
92,333
71,371
£
795,290 1,583,723
436,932 1,487,850
304,173 739,674
119,393 456,632
140,217 398,817
The direct taxation consists of a property tax of one penny in the pound
on all assessed real and personal property, with exemption of 500/., and the
stamp duties. The indirect taxation is by way of customs duty and excise
duty on beer made in the colony. The average per head of taxation in 1890
was 3/. 9s. lid., excluding Maoris.
For the year ended March 31, 1891, the total ordinary revenue, exlusivc.
of receipts from sales of lands, was 3,994,504/., of which the customs dutit>.
including 25,889/. primage duty to September 30 1890, constituted
1,527,207/; stamps, with post and telegraph cash receipts, 631,191/. ; pro-
perty tax, 357,348/. ; and railways, 1,123,322/. The revenue, together with
the proceeds of debentures issued uuder ' The Consolidated Stock Act, 1884,'
for the accretions of sinking fund for the year (2S8,000Z. ) amounted to
4,282,504/. At the beginning of the year a surplus was shown of 36,569/.,
after paying off the balance of the deficit at March, 31 1888 (78,605/.),
making a total of 4,319,073/. available for expenditure during the year.
The total ordinary expenditure was 4,175,108/., thus leaving a surplus of
143,965/. on March 31, 1891. The chief items of expenditure wen :
interest and sinking fund, 1,858,253/. ; railways, 709,389/. ; education,
360,873/. ; postal and telegraph, 261,285/. ; defence and constabulary.
174,227/.
The receipts from land sales amounted to 164,270/.
The estimated expenditure out of ordinary revenue for 1891-92 amounts
to 4,155,105/., and the revenue, including the surplus of 143,965/. brought
forward, to 4,412,765/., leaving an anticipated surplus of 257,660/.
The total expenditure in public works from 1870 to March 31, 1891, was
26,979,2S2/. , including discount and charges for raising loans.
The public debt for five years is shown in the following table : —
Years
ended
31st
Decem-
ber
Amount of
Debentures
and Stock
in Circula-
tion
Amount
of Sinking Net lu-
Pund debtedness
Accrued
Net Iii- An
debtee!-
per head of
European
Population i Interest
nual Cha
Sinking
Fund
rge
Total
1886
1887
1888
1889
March
31st.
1891
£
37,587. 77i.i
38,225,537
88,325,550
38,483.250
38,8."'
£ £
3,469,264 i 34,118,512
8,271,502 1 34.954,035
1.353.779 3.i. 071. 771
1,320,359, 37,162,891
7 37,343,923
£ *. d. £
57 17 9 1,609,975
57 IS 8 1,
60 17 6 1,750,571
59 18 3 1,772,596
59 11 ('. 1.7.vj,d4.i
£
116,623
119,022
117,540
117,540
112,540
£
1,724,997
1,745,444
1.868,111
1,890.116
1,864,575
262
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
The provisions of ' The Consolidated Stock Act, 1884,' prevent any further
decrease of the colonial indebtedness through the increase of the sinking
fund, as the Government is empowered to issue debentures in every year
equivalent to the annual increase of the sinking fund, the proceeds to be
paid to the consolidated revenue. By the conversion of some of the loans
into consolidated stock, the sinking funds relating to such converted loans
have been set free.
Local Finance.
For the purposes of local government the colony is divided into 87
boroughs and 78 counties, the latter being subdivided into 264 road districts
and 48 town districts.
The following table shows receipts from rates and other sources, and the
expenditure and outstanding loans, of the local governing bodies (counties,
boroughs, town, road, river, drainage, and harbour boards), for each of the
financial years from 1885-86 to 1889-90 :—
Year -
Receipts
Expenditure
Outstanding
Loans
From Government
Prom Rates
and other Sources,
including Loans
£
£
£
£
1886
410,639
1,397,345
1,644,706
4,943,270
1887
434,236
1,782,696
1,885,000
5,620,747
1888
433,831
1,306,661
1,819,787
5,812,803
1889
445,928
992,567
1,560,604
5,892,050
1890
460,303
914,413
1,476,540
5,978,059
In October 1888 the assessment of the property tax showed the real
estate in the colony, exclusive of all native lands, to have been valued at
105,347,3482. ; personal property, 85,530,2102. ; reproductive public works,
15,962,7842. ; total of assets and wealth, 206,840,3422., as representing what
was available either for sale or taxing purposes.
Defence.
The first consideration has been to provide sufficient means of protection
for the principal ports of the colony. The approaches thereto are defended
by batteries of heavy ordnance, supplemented by torpedo-boats and submarine
mines.
The Volunteer force has a strength of 8,812 of all ranks. There is be-
sides a permanent militia, consisting of an artillery branch of 149 officers and
men. Torpedo branch 55. The police force numbers 486. All males from
17 to 55 years of age are liable to serve in the Militia. It has been estimated
that in 1887 there would have been 153,386 persons at ages liable to be called
upon for this service.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
It is estimated that two-thirds of the surface of New Zealand is suitable
for agriculture and grazing. Of the total area, sixty-seven millions of acres,
nine millions are barren mountain tops, lakes, ami worthless country. The
total acreage under crop (including 6,966 218 acres in sown grasses and
PRODUCTION AM) INDUSTRY
263
210,509 acres broken up but not under crop) in 1891 was 8,462,495 acres.
Of thirtv-four millions of acres of Crown lands remaining for disposal, fifteen
millions are open grass or fern country and ten millions forest.
The rural lands of the colony can be bought from the Crown for
They can also be held on deferred payment or perpetual leases (with re-
striction of area) or in some parts on pastoral leases. The largest freehold
estates are held in the Middle Island. The total extent of occupied holdings
over one acre in 1880 was 27,848,690 acres, of which 11,728,286 acres
freehold of the occupier, 5,348,838 leased from private individuals or cor-
porations, and 10.771,616 acres rented from the Crown for pastoral purposes.
The following table shows the number of holdings of various sizes, and num-
ber of acres held in freehold and leasehold, exclusive of Crown lands held for
pastoral purposes in 1886 : —
Number
of
Acreage
Sizes of Holdings
Holdings
Freehold
LSMS-
holdi
Total
Over . . 1 to . 10 acres inclusive
9,172
24,406
18,160
4'_\ .-.-■.
. 10 „ . 50 „
7,507
140,870
rg,M8
319
. 50 „ . 100
5,014
Mt,m
138,444
880,7
. 100 ., . 200
.'. !>•_''''
604,752
904,350
. 200 „ . 820
8.161
mjm
ma,mt
836,516
. 320 „ . 640
2,804
m,an
376,140
.021
M
. 640 „ 1,000 „
977
239.159
787,335
„
1,000 „ 5,000
1,886
1,980.719
084,874
5,000 „ 10,000
l.i:
438,318
1.617,885
,,
10,000 „ 20,000
17"
1,861
653,961
'.168
20,000 „ 50,000
106
•••,064
".560
..
50,000 „ 100,000
26
1.120,836
718,131
1,885,957
Upwards of 100,000 acres
4
320,460
291,000
611,460
Total
36,485
11,72S,236
£,868*888
17.u77.074
1 Leased by occupiers from others than the Crown.
At the census of 1886 there were in New Zealand 65,17S persons engaged
in agricultural and pastoral pursuits, of whom 22,699 were fani
relatives assisting on farms, 13,996 farm labourers, 828 runholders, and 4,577
station hands.
The acreage and produce for each of the principal crops are given as
follows : —
Wheat Oats
1
Barley
Hay
a
I
z
<
X
fs
la
- -
■
<
= -
S —
a a
X
I
B
<
X
O -
o "x
- a
- .-
it
T.
a
X
- -
-- .
< —
898,636
24-89
11,973
88-88
21,535
558
-
Sr,868
79. la1?
357,359
8,484
:".474 10,512
3124
701
1-4S
24 22 867,225 10.977
46,037
1,403
31-15
71.296
1-41
1890
$.44*
25-15 426,071 13,673
32-10
1,842 31-67
143
isyi
301,460
5.724
IS -99 346,234 9,947
32.74"
758 2:-ris
44.045
62,901
1-43
264
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
The production of butter for the year 1885 amounted to 12,170,964 lbs.,
and that of cheese to 4,594,795 lbs, since which time there has been a great
increase.
The live stock of the colony consisted in March 1886 of 187,382 horses,
853,358 cattle, 16,580,388 sheep, 278,669 pigs, and 1,679,021 head of poultry.
The greatest increase of live stock in recent years has been in sheep. They
numbered in 1858, 1,523,324 ; 1864, 4,937,273 ; 18.71, 9,700,629 ; 1874,
11,704,853 ; 1886, 16,580,388.
The following table shows the statistics of the leading manufactories and
works in the colony : —
Years
Number of Number of | Estimated Value of | Estimated Value of
each kind Hands employed . Capital Produce
1885
1881
1878
2,268
1,643
1,271
25,655
17,938
14,177
&
5,697,117
3,605,471
3,051,072
£
7,436,649
Not obtained
Not obtained
The woollen mill industry is of considerable importance. The quantity
of wool purchased for use in the mills was 2,979,293 lbs. in 1890, 3,556,004
lbs. in 1889, 4,079,563 lbs. in 1888, and 2,001,155 lbs. in the previous year.
The meat freezing has largely developed (see Exports).
II. Mines and Minerals.
The following table shows the quantity and value of minerals
produced for ten years ending December 31, 1890.
Silver
Antimony
Ore
Manganese
Ore
Coal
Kauri Gum
Gold
8
=rt
<ti
<*
«
H
«tf
£
;-
a
a
05
a
01
a
a
9
o
1
<o
a
©
a
s
i
«
o
a
V
0
3
H
a
H
0
H
H
a
a
O
a
O
"3
3
3
>
>
>
>
>
>
1881
18,885
4,362
2
24
1,271
3,283
337,262
168,631
5,461
253,788
270,561
1,080,790
1882
5,694
1,286
30
900
2,181
6,963
378,272
189,188
5,533
260,369
251,204
1,002,720
1883
16,826
3,785
31
804
384
1,155
421,704
210,882
6,518
336,606
248,374
1884
24,914
5,125
—
—
818
809
480,831
240,416
6. :;:>::
342,151
229,946
921,797
1885
16,624
3,169
666
5,289
602
1,716
511,063
255,531
5.S76
299,770
237,371
948,615
1886
12,108
2,946
62
1,784
328
1,316
534,353
267,176
4,920
867,858
•-".•7,07(1
903,569
1887
20,809
3,453
134
3,999 305
S95
558,620
279,310
6,791
362,449
208,869
811,100
1888
403
71
376
6,246 1,085
2,404
c.iri.S'.i:,
.•(06.947
8,482
3S9,933
201,219
801,066
1889
24,105
4,043
493
5,319 1,080
■J. :.('.'.»
586,445
293,222
7,519
203,211
808,549
1890
.32,637
6,162
516
11,121 482
1,004
587,897
849,936
7,438
378,663
193,198
773,438
Commerce.
Only a small proportion of the imports are admitted duty
free. Nearly all classes of imports are taxed. Luxuries, such as
spirits, wine, and tobacco, arc highly rated. For a very large
number of dutiable articles (including clothing) other than these
the rates of duty are 25, 20, and 15 per cent.
COMMERCE
265
The value of the trade is shown in the accompanying table : —
Tears
Total Imports
Exports of Colonial
Produce
Exports of other
Produce
Total Exports
1886
1887
1888
1889
1891
£
6,759,013
6,245,515
5,941,900
6,308,863
6,260,525
£
6,386,682
6,551,081
7,255,128
9,042,008
9,428,761
£
286,109
315,088
512,197
299,856
382,959
£
6,672,791
6,866,169
7,767,325
9,341,864
9,811,720
The values of the principal imports and exports in 1890 are shown in the
following table : —
Articles of Import
Value
Articles of Export 1
Value
Clothing, and materials
£
Wool ....
£
4,150,599
for .
1,572,740
Gold ....
751,360
Iron and steel goods,
Grain, pulse, and flour
1,074,354
machinery, &c.
915,429
Frozen meat
1,087,617
Sugar ....
383,610
Kauri gum .
378,563
Tea .
154,057
Tallow
162,471
Spirits, wines, and beer
249,513
Timber
189,694
Tobacco and cigars
103,064
Elides, akins, >v leather
226,662
Paper, printed books,
Live stock .
40,052
and stationarv
284,033
Butter and cheese
207,687
Coal ....
102,166
Bacon and hams .
32,128
Bags and sacks .
59,892
Preserved meats .
136,182
Fruit ....
108,610
Grass seed .
24,605
Oils .
111,720
Other exports, exclud-
Fancv goods
59,745
ing specie
1,107,342
Other imports, exclud-
Specie
242,404
ing specie
1,824,316
Specie
Total .
331,630
Total .
6,260,525
9,811,720
1 The produce or manufacture of the colony
The expansion of the export trade in wool, grain, frozen meat, kauri gum,
and timber, in the last four decennial periods, and in 1890, for the first three
items, has been very considerable, as shown in the following table : —
Years
Wool Grain
Frozen Meat i ^,auri
Gum
Timber,
Sawn & Hewn
1859
1869
1879
1889
1890
Lbs. Bushels
5,096,751 118,740
27,765,636 ! 520,556
62,220,810 1 3,470,344
102,227,354 ' 6,027,201
102,817,077 ' 7,999,139
CwtS.
656,822
898,894
Tons
2,010
2,850
3,228
7,519
r,488
Feet
877,379
2,889,448
7,611,576
42,568,600
42,098,863
In 1S57 the export of gold was 10,436 oz., valued at 40,4427. It rose
to 628,450 oz., value 2,431,7232., in 1863. In 1881 the export had fallen
26G
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
to 250,683 oz., value 996,867^. ; and in 1890 to 187,641 oz., value 751,360/.
The total value of gold entered for export from the colony to December
31, 1889, was 46,425,629/. Most of the mining is done on Government
land.
The following table shows the value of trade with the leading countries,
1887-90 :—
The commercial intercourse between New Zealand and the United Kingdom
is shown in the following table according to the Board of Trade Returns for
each of the five years 1886-90 : —
-
1886 1887 1888
1889
1890
£
£ £ £
£
Exports from
New Zealand
4,717,465 | 5,737,364 ! 5,920,774
6,752,260
8,347,430
Imports of
British pro-
1 I
duce .
3,306,806 3,054,849 2,992,006
3,194,587
3,314,482
The principal exports to the United Kingdom in 1890 were : wheat
713,507/., fresh mutton 1,626,075/., wool 4,275,086/., gum 131,225/., hemp
277,170/. ; the chief imports from the United Kingdom were apparel anil
haberdashery 373,989/., cottons 395,525/., iron (wrought and unwrought)
428,519/., woollens 276,639/.
The value of the total trade (imports and exports) for five years at each of
the principal ports is given as follows : —
Years
•Auckland
Wellington
£
£
1886
2,551,663
2,650,184
1887
2,388,091
2,358,202
1888
2,337,622
2,256,691
1889
2,405,218
2,548,902
1890
2,623,559
2,739,567
Lyttolton
£
2,972,113
2,951,385
8,280,922
3,289,881
3,425,782
Dunnlin
£
2,937,613
2,848,199
2,607,017
2,967,089
2,779,640
IXTEKN A I. < < ».M MINK ATI* >XS
267
Shipping and Navigation.
The following statistics show the shipping inwards and outwards for five
- : —
Y.ars
Vessels Inwards
Vessels Outwaids
With Cargoes
Total, including
in Ballast
With Cargoes
Total, including
in Ballast
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
No.
673
597
570
574
Tons
485,478
467,387
456,237
501,004
503,036
No,
725
653
683
781
744
Tons
502,572
489,754
526,435
602,634 :
662,769 ;
No.
629
605
687
734
729
T.^ii~
442,401
455,787
524,874
577,087
644,032
No.
707
675
701
:•_
Tons
488,331
493,583
531,478
593._
649,705
Of the vessels entered inwards in 1890, 101 of 158,064 tons were British :
541 of 440,768 tons colonial ; and 102 of 63,937 tons foreign. Of vessels out-
wards, 210 of 301,880 tons were British : 433 of 290,851 tons colonial, and
102 of 56,974 tons foreign.
For the year 1890, the shipping at five principal ports was as under : —
Port
Vessels Inwards
Vessels Outwards
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
Auckland .
262
185,444
274
176,660
Wellington
. 1 107
141,890
99
14_,
Lvttelton .
75
85,503
98
140,511
Dunedin .
. 1 67
76,945
20
23,026
Bluff Harbour .
• 91
90,306
85
77.295
In 1890 the registered vessels of the colony engaged in both foreign
and toasting trade numbered 398 of 65,956 tons, manned by 3,431 nun
and boj&
Internal Communications.
Railways.
On March 31, 1891, there were 699 miles of Government railways open
for traffic in the North Island, and 1,143 in the Middle Island, besides 114
miles of private lines — 1,958 miles in all. For that year the revenue from
Government railways was 1,121,7017., and the expenditure 700,7037., surplu-
420,9987., the expenditure being 62*47 per cent, of revenue. The total ex-
l>enditure on construction of all the Government lines open, and unopen,
to March 31, 1891, had amounted to 15,344,2237. In 1890-91 the ton-
nage of goods carried amounted to 2,086,011, and the passengers numbered
3,433,629.
The private line of the "Wellington and Manawatu Railway Company is
84 miles long. The capital cost of construction and equipment to February
1891 was 750,5097. The gross earnings from traffic for the last financial year
were 71, S01 7. . and the working expenses 25,8407.
All the chief towns of the colony are provided with tramway systems
worked by horses, steam-motors, or cables.
268
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — NEW ZEALAND
Posts and Telegraphs.
In the last five years the Post Office received and despatched the following
correspondence : —
Years
Letters
Post Cards
Books and t.t
Parcets Newspapers
Money Orders
Nos.
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
No.
38,084,592
39,377,774
40,398,020
^42,301,233
No.
1,433.887
1,607,693
1,654,097
1,850,160
No. No.
3,467,695 ' 14,324,047
4,319,705 1 15,381,323
4,728,308 16,202,849
5,381,493 ! 16,721,016
Issued
155,680
159,579
162,387
172,076
Paid
129,242
133,910
144,450
150,500
151,286
43,069,051
7;546,966 18,684,242
176,427
The receipts of the Post Office Department, including commission on money
orders, was 199,735/. for the year 1890, and the working expenses 85,006/.
The officials numbered 2,110 in the combined Post and Telegraph Depart-
ment.
The telegraph system is entirely in the hands of the Government. On
December 31, 1890, the colony had 5,060 miles of line and 12,771 of wire.
In the year 1866 there were 699 miles of line and 1,390 of wire.
The number of telegrams despatched was, in 1890, 1,961,161, of which
1,734,381 were private messages. The total receipts from telegrams and
incidental sources amounted to 110,697/. The working expense was 104,391/.
for maintenance of lines and stations, but excluding the Australian cable
subsidy.
The telephone is very generally used, and is in charge of the Telegraph
Department. In March 1891 there were 2,036 miles of wire laid, 2,587
subscribers, and a revenue of 19,252/. per annum.
Money and Credit.1
There were, in the year 1890, six banks of issue doing business in New
Zealand. Three of these were wholly New Zealand institutions, having i
paid-up capital amounting to 1,478,714/., and reserves amounting to about
119,295/. The total average liabilities for the year of all six banks in respect
of New Zealand transactions were 13,356,598/., and the average assets
17,735,258/. The average amount on deposit was 12,368,610/. The value of
the notes in circulation of these banks was 902,988/.
The post-office and private savings-bank business has been progressive
during the last five years : —
Years
No. of
Savings
Banks
No. of
Depositors
Amounts
Deposited
Amounts
Withdrawn
Amounts on !
Deposit at Bud
of Year
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
278
290
295
302
303
91,296
97,496
103,046
110,566
118,344
£
1,653,250
1,728,059
1,974,043
1,883,034
2,047,840
£
1,750,307
1,545,194
1,794,832
1,829,478
1,891,478
£
2,133,780
2,407,77.;
2,691,693
2,858,644
3,137,023
i See iilso under Finance,
QUEENSLAND 269
Agent-General in London. — Westley Brook Perceval; Secretary, Walter
Kennaway, C.M.G.
Attached to New Zealand are the following islands :
Chatham Islands, 43° 50' S., 177° W., 600 miles E. of New Zealand. Area
375 square miles : population (1886) 394 ; 64,000 sheep, 670 cattle.
Auckland Islands, 51 S., 166' E., 300 milea S. of Stewart Island. Area
of largest about 400 square miles. Uninhabited.
Zermadec Islands, 36° S., 178° 3C W., 500 miles XNK. of New Zealand.
Area 20 square miles.
Books of Reference.
Annual Statistical Register, Blue Book.
Annual Reports in Mining.
Registrar-General's Report on Statistics of New Zealand. 8. Wellington, 1890.
Bradshaw (John), New Zealand of To-dav. London, 1888.
Census of New Zealand, taken on the 28th of March, 1886. Fol. Wellington, 1887.
Handbook for New Zealand. Br James Hector, C.M.G., F.R.8., 4th edition. Wellington.
1886.
Official Handbook of New Zealand. London, 1883.
Bramall (H.), The Mineral Resources of New Zealand. London, 1883.
Hay (W. D.), Brighter Britain ; or, Settler and Maori in Northern New Zealand. 2 vols.
London, 1882.
Hoehttetter (Fr. ron.), New Zealand : its Physical Geography, Geology, and Natural
History. 1 vols. 4. London, 1868.
Nie'hcl* (J. Kerry), The King Countrv : Explorations in New Zealand. London. 1884.
Riuden (G. W.), The History of New Zealand. London, 1885.
Stout (Hon. Sir Robert), Notes on the Progress of New Zealand, 1864-84. Wellington,
1886.
Wakefield (E.), New Zealand after Fifty Years. 1 vol. 1889.
QUEENSLAND.
Constitution and Government.
The form of government of the colony of Queensland was
established December 10, 1859, on its separation from New South
Wales. The power of making laws and imposing taxes is vested
in a Parliament of two Houses — the Legislative Council and the
Legislative Assembly. The former consists of 40 members,
nominated by the Crown for life. The Legislative Assembly com-
prises 72 members, returned from 60 electoral districts, for five
years (three years on dissolution of existing Parliament), elected by
ballot, a six months' residence qualifying every adult male for the
franchise. Owners of freehold estate of the clear value of 1001. ,
or of house property of 101. annual value, or leasehold of 10/.
annual rent, or holders of pastoral lease or license from the Crown,
have the right of a vote in any district in which such property
may be situated. At the end of 1890 there were 84,530
registered electors.
The executive is vested in a Governor appointed by the
Crown.
Governor of Queensland. — General Sir Henry Wylie Norman,
G.C.B., G.C.M.G., C.I., &c. ■ 1862, Military Secretary to the
270
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — QUEENSLAND
Government of India ; 1870, Member of the Viceroy's Council;
1878, Member of Council of India in London ; 1883-88,
Governor of Jamaica ; appointed Governor of Queensland
December 1888.
The Governor is commander-in-chief of the troops, and also
bears the title of vice-admiral. He has a salary of 5,0001. per
annum. In the exercise of the executive authority he is assisted
by an Executive Council of eight ministers, consisting of the
following members : —
Premier, Chief Secretary, Attorney-General, and Vice-President Executive
Council— Sir Samuel W. Griffith, Q.C., K.C.M.G.
Minister for Lands and Agriculture. — Hon. S. Cowley.
Minister for RaMicays and Postmaster-General. — Hon. T. Unmack.
Secretary for Mines and Minister for Picblic Instruction. — Hon. W. 0.
Hodgkinson.
Colonial Secretary and Secretary for Public Works. — Hon. H. Tozer.
Solicitor- General. — Hon. T. J. Byrnes.
Without Portfolio.— Ron. W. H. Wilson, M.L.C.
Colonial Treasurer. — Sir T. Mcllwraith, K.C.M.G.
Each of the ministers who holds a portfolio has a salary of 1,000Z. per
annum. The Vice-President of the Executive Council receives 300Z. per an-
num in addition. They are jointly and individually responsible for their acts.
Queensland is divided into 29 municipalities, 7 shires, and 114 divisions.
The municipalities (often of considerable area) have local government somewhat
similar to that which prevails in England. The most populous municipality
is Brisbane.
Area and Population.
Queensland comprises the whole north-eastern portion of the
Australian continent, including the adjacent islands in the
Pacific Ocean and in the Gulf of Carpentaria. The territory is
of an estimated area of 668,497 English square miles, with a
seaboard of 2,250 miles. The colony formed, under the name of
Moreton Bay, a part of New South Wales until it was erected
into a separate colony, with the name of Queensland, by an order
of Her Majesty in Council, which took effect on December 10,
1859, upon the arrival of the first Governor, Sir G. Bowen.
The first settlement of the Colony was by convicts sent from Great Britain,
the earliest of them arriving in 1825. In 1842 the country was thrown open
to free settlers. The growth of the population has been as follows : —
Years
1846
1856
1861
1871
Population
2,257
18,544
:»1,:«!7
125,146
Increase per
Mat. per iuu
Wars
72
17
26
1SS1
1886 i
1891 j
213,625
322,853
393,718
Increase per
cent, per annum
7-0
100
4-39
AREA AND P« >PII.ATI< >N— KKI.HiH >X
271
In 1891 there were 228,779 males, 169,939 females. The total numbers
in 1891 included 8,574 Chinese (of whom only 47 were females), principally
engaged in the gold mines ; and 9,428 ' Polynesians,' 826 of whom were
females ; and 1,844 persons of other alien races. No return is made of the
aborigines, but police reports estimate their number at about 12,000.
The population in 1891 was distributed as follows : — Northern District,
78,077 ; Central District, 46,857 ; Southern District, 268,7-
Aa to occupation the population was classified as follows in 1891 : — Pro-
lal class, 10,448; don. .103: commercial, 31,138; industrial,
jricultural, pastoral, manual, &c, 68,285 ; indefinite, 2,535 ;
dependent 'hiss wives, children, scholars, students, dej>endent rel
213.736.
Of the total population in 1891 176,971 persons were born in t!
) in England : 43,036 in Ireland ; 22,400 in Scotland ; 17,023 ii,
62 in Victoria ; 3,851 in the other Australian Colonies ; 14,910 in
Germany.
The following table shows the births, deaths, and marriages for 1886-90 : —
i Tears \ Total Births
Illegitimate
Deaths
Marriages
Excess of Births
1 1886 j 12,582
I 1887 j 13,513
j 1888 14,247
1889 ; 14,401
1890 , 15,407
500
607
588
674
748
5,575
5,166
5,529
6,132
5,838
2,785
2,914
3,254
3,123
3,195
9,797
10,599
10,993
8,269
9,769
The immigration and emigration have been as follows during the five years
1886-90 :—
Immigration
Emigration
Total
t :.::.. M
Polynesian
Total
Chinese
Polynesian
1886
34,101
501
1,595
20,911
1,223
2,783
1887
32,393
307
2,079
16,414
821
2,120
L888
34,864
45
2,328
23,059
873
1,385
1889
35,606
282
2,039
24,680
695
1,228 j
1890
33,005
263
2,464
26,656
570
1,437 1
Brisbane, the capital of the colony, is divided into two municipalities —
Brisbane North and Brisbane South, with, respectively, on April 5, 1891, a
population of 25,889 and 22.S49. At the same date, within a five-mile
radius, there was a population of 93,657, and within a ten-mile radius a popu-
lation of 101,554. The next largest towns are Rockhampton, 11,629 ; Towns-
Wile. 8,564 : Maryborough, 8,700 ; Gyrapie, 8,449 ; Ipswich, 7,825,
Religion.
There is no State Church. Previous to 1861 valuable grants of land had
been made to the principal religious denominations, which they still retain,
free of taxation. The following are the numbers belonging to the various
religious denominations at the census taken in 1891 : — Church of England,
55 : Church of Rome, 92.765 ; Presbyterians, 45,639 ; Wesleyau, 20,917 ;
272
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — QUEENSLAND
Lutheran, 23,383 ; Baptist, 10,256 ; other Christian sects, 28,841 ; Jews, 809 ;
Mohammedan and Pagans, 17,434 ; no religion, 5,329 ; other religion, un-
specified, &c, 5,890.
Instruction.
Education is by statute compulsory, but no steps have been taken to
enforce the law. There were eight grammar or middle-class schools, with 42
teachers and 707 pupils, in 1890. These receive Government grants under
certain conditions. In 1890 there were 621 public elementary schools, with
1,539 teachers, and an average daily attendance of 40,836 pupils. There were
besides 128 private schools, with 457 teachers, and an average daily attend-
ance of 8,015 in 1890. Education in the State schools is free, the expenditure
of the Department of Public Instruction for the year 1890 being 202,4317. At
the census of 1891, 102,127 persons could not read nor write, and 14,529 could
read only.
Justice and Crime.
Justice is administered by a Supreme Court, district Courts, and police
magistrates assisted by Justices of the Peace. The total number of persons
convicted of serious offences in 1890 was 275. At the penal establishment, St.
Helena, there were 274 persons in December 1890. There are 16 gaols, with
306 male and 55 female prisoners at the same date. The total police force,
including native troopers, averages about 900 men.
Pauperism.
There are many charitable institutions in the colony, partly supported by
Government. There is a board of outdoor relief in Brisbane, which assisted
8,651 persons in 1890 with an expenditure of 1,7442.
Finance.
The following table shows the revenue and expenditure of
Queensland during each of the five years from 1886 to 1891 : — 1
-
188G-87
1887-88
1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
Revenue .
Expenditure
£
2,807,699
3,263,584
£
3,177,518
3,368,883
£
3,614,652
3,497,806
£
3,211,795
3,695,775
£
3,350,223
3,684,655
' Financial years ending 30th June.
The following were the chief sources from which revenue was
received during 1890-91: — Customs, 1,261,757/. ; excise and
export, 40,714/. ; stamp duty, 138,533/. ; licenses, 54,901/. ;
dividend duty, 32,735/. From land — Rent, pastoral occupations,
321,975/. ; other rents and sale of land, 212,367/. From railways,
882,762/. From posts and telegraphs, 218,801/.
The chief items of expenditure during 1890-91 were as
under: — Interest on public debt, 1,139,034/.; endowments to
municipalities and divisional boards, 195,687/. ; public instruc-
tion, 266,304/. ; colonial treasurer's department, 165,394/. ;
secretary of public lands department, 112,068/. ; cost of working
PRODUCTION AND INDL'STKV 2ff3
railways, 639,597/. ; posts and telegraphs department, 333,048/.
The total exj>enditure from loams resulting on public works was
1,555,998/., of which the following are the principal items : — On
immigration, 34,780/.; on electric telegraphs, 19,892/.; on rail-
ways, 1,081,835/. ; on harbours and rivers, 137,248/.
The estimated revenue for 1891-92 is 3,675,200/., and the estimated expen-
diture 3,647,6981 The estimated value of the landed property of the colony
in 1890, as taken for purposes of assessment under the several Acts for provid-
ing Locah Government, was 54,382,349/. This does not include lands leased
from the Crown for pastoral purposes, the lessees' interest in which has been
capitalised for assessment purposes at 4,237,823/., nor unoccupied frown
lands, nor lands the property of local bodies, churches, or reserves for public
pur]"-
The public debt of the eolony amounted, on December 31, 1890, to the
sum of 28,105,684/.
Defence.
The defence of the colony was provided for by an Act passed in 1884, by
which, in addition to fully paid militia and volunteer corps to be maintainrd
and assisted by the Government, every man (with a very few exceptions)
between the ages of 18 and 60 is liable for military service under this Act
The Government have organist .1 a drilled force of 4,500 men, about 140 of
whom are fully paid regulars ; some 2,500 militia, paid for each day's drill ;
the rest volunteers, assisted with uniform, See. Xaval defences are pro-
vided for with two gunboats, a torpedo boat, and a picket-boat and six corps
of naval reserve and naval artillery. In addition, some of the tugs built for
the harbour service are fitted with a bow gun for service if required.
Production and Industry.
Of the total area of the colony, 10,258,657 acres, or but little more than
2 per cent., have been alienated by the Government up to December 31, 1890,
yielding a return of 6,566,346/. Under a Land Act passed in 1884, a maximum
of 1,280 acres of agricultural land can be selected on a lease for 50 years, and a
maximum of 20,000 acres of pastoral land for 30 years. The agricultural land
can afterwards be secured in fee simple under certain conditions and in return
■ for certain payments. In both cases there are numerous conditions and re-
strictions contained in the Act, ami in the rules framed in accordance with its
provisions.
About one-half the area of the colony is natural forest, though little has
been done hitherto to develop the forestry of the colony. A large proportion
of the area is leased in squatting runs for pastoral purposes, amounting to
285,703,333 acres in 1890 ; the number of runs was 5,530. The live stock in 1890
numbered 365,812 horses, 5,558,264 cattle, 18,007,234 sheep, and 96,836 pigs.
The total area under cultivation in 1890 was 239,618 acres, and of this 224,993
acres were under crop, besides which 22,252 acres have been laid clown with
permanent artificial pasture. The leading grain crop is maize, of which
99,400 acres yielded 2,373,803 quarters in 1890. The growth of sugar-cane has
in recent years been successful, though the want of labour hinders its develop-
ment : in 1890 there were 50,922 acres under this crop ; of this the produce of
40,208 acres yielded 68,924 tons of sugar.
There are several eoal mines in the colony, the produce of which amounted
to 338,344 tons in 1890, valued at 157,077/. Gold-fields were discovered so
T
274
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — QUEENSLAND
long ago as 1858, the produce of which for the year 1883 amounted to 212,783
ounces, 307,804 for 1884, 310,941 for 1885, 340,998 for 1886, 425,923 for 1887,
481,643 for 1888, 739,103 for 1889, 610,587 for 1890, making a total of
7,438,475 ounces to the end of the latter year, which at 3/. 10s. per oz. =
26,034,663/. Tin, copper, and lead are also mined to some extent, the quan-
tity and value of these minerals raised in the year 1890 being —
Tin .
2,970 tons .
. 154,963/
Copper
185 „
3,000/.
Silver and lead .
1,913 „
56,639/
Commerce.
A very large number of articles are subject to tariffs ; the
total customs duties collected in 1890 amounted to 1,243,046?.,
being nearly 25 per cent, of the total value of imports.
The total value of the imports and exports of Queensland, in
the five years from 1886 to 1891, is given in the following
table :—
Years
Imports
Exports
Years
Imports
Exports
1886
1887
1888
£
6,103,227
5,821,611
6,646,738
£
4,933,970
6,453,945
6,126,362
1889
1890
£
6,052,562
5,066,700
£
7,736,309
8,554,512
The commercial intercourse of Queensland is chiefly with the
other Australasian colonies, and, next to them, with the United
Kingdom. The leading exports are gold, 2,265,408?. ; wool,
2,524,742?. ; sugar, 699,532?. ; hides and skins, 116,714?. ; tin,
199,084?. ; and preserved meat, 122,566?. in 1890. The leading
imports are textiles and apparel, 986,750?. ; metal goods, 420,646?. ;
liquors, 265,075?. ; provisions, grain, and flour, 1,086,900?. in
1890.
The following table gives, according to the Board of Trade return*, Mm
value of the trade, exclusive of gold, with United Kingdom in each of the
five years 1886 to 1890 :—
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
£
£ £
£
n
Exports from
Queensland
1,279,517
1,489,460
1,698,026
1,889,217
2,417,937
Imports of
British pro-
duce .
2,219,660
2,096,278
2,745,264
2,362,408
2,128,216
The principal articles of export from Queensland to the United Kingdom
aw wool, the value of which was 1,077,701/. in 1886, 1,214,044/. in 1887,
1,447,849/. in 1888, 1,575,029/. in 1889, 1,947,163/. in 1890 ; preserved im.it
of the value of 40,679/. in 1885, only 8/. in 1886, 24,465/. in 1887, 154/. in
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION — BANK* 87fl
1888, and 4,568/. in 1889, 42,746/. in 1890; shell, 69,208/. ; tii..
tallow, 79,072/. in 1890. Among the imports of British produce into Queens-
land in the year 1890, the chid were apparel and haberdadwy, of the value
of 227,315//: iron, wrought and unwrought, of the value of 457.477
of the value of 204,254/. ; and woollens, of the value of 111,813/.
Shipping and Navigation.
In 1890, 616 vessels of 468,607 tons entered, and 606 of 442.172 tons
cleared the ports of the colony ; of the former, 61 of 82,557 tons were from Um
United Kingdom, and 507 of" 330,094 tons from the Australian colonies : and
of the latter, 24 of 52,885 tons, were to the United Kingdom, and \3
319,043 tons to the Australian colonies. Vessels entering and clearing more
than one port on the same voyage are only counted at one port of arrival and
departure. There were registered in the colony 28 ocean steamers of 1
tons, 37 harbour steamers of 3,102 tons, and 59 river steamers of 1,856 tons.
Internal Communications.
At the end of 1890 there were 2,142 miles of railway open for traffic in the
colony, and 601 miles more in course of construction or authorised. The railways
are all in the hands of the Government, and the cost of construction on
opened lines up to the 30th June, 1891, has been 14,226,070/. The revenue
from railways during 1890 was 821,226/., and the expenditure in working
them 631,749/. The total expenditure to December 31, 1890, has
16,401,085/.
The Post Office of the colony in the year 1890 carried 14,709,504 letters.
11,463,726 newspapers, and 2,047,446 packets. There were 892 post and
receiving offices in the colony at the close of 1890. The post-office revenue
was 130,984/., and the expenditure 203,046/.
At the end of 1890 there were in the colony 9,830 miles of telegraph I
and 17,437 miles of wire, with 351 stations. The number of messages sent
was 1,197,620 in the year 1890, and 132,305 received from places outside the
colony, besides 221,157 official letters. The receipts of the Department
during that year were 91,780/., and the working expenses 120,556/.
Banks.
There are twelve banks established in Queensland, of which the following are
the statistics for the end of 1890 : — Notes in circulation, 683,897/. ; deposits,
10,365,960/; total liabilities, 11,183,750/.; coin and bullion, 2,437,388/.;
advances, 17,384,998/. ; landed property, 700,041/. ; total assets, 20,670,619/.
There is a Government savings bank with 125 branches ; on January 1, 1891,
there were 45,885 depositors, with 1,666,855/. to their credit.
Agent-General for Queensland in Great Britain. — Sir James Garrick,
K.C.M.G., Q.C. Secretary.— Charles Shortt Dicken.
Books of Reference.
Census of the Colony of Queensland, taken on the 3rd April, 1891. Fol. Brisbane, 189L
Queensland : Twenty-seventh Annual Report from the Registrar-General on Vital Statistics.
Fol. Brisbane, 1«91.
Bonicick (Jaraesl. The Resources of Queensland. London, lS^O.
Lumho In (Carl). Among Cannibals. London.
Pugh't Queensland Almanac, Court Guide, Gazetteer, <fcc. Annual. Brisbane.
Both (Henry Ling), A Report on the Sugar Industry of Queensland. Brisbane, 1880.
Statistical Register of Queensland. Annual. Brisbane.
Report on Agricultural and Live Stock Returns. Annual. Brisbane.
Report of the Department of Agriculture. Annual. Brisbane.
The Year-Book of Queensland. Brisbane. 181 1 .
T 2
276 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — SOUTH AUSTRALIA
SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
Constitution and Government.
Founded in 1836 (Act 95 Will. IV.) the present Constitution
of South Australia bears date October 27, 1856. It vests the
legislative power in a Parliament elected by the people. The Parlia-
ment consists of a Legislative Council and a House of Assembly.
The former is composed of twenty-four members. Every three years
the eight members whose names are first on the roll retire, and
their places are supplied by two new members elected from each
of the four districts into which the colony is divided for this
purpose. The executive has no power to dissolve this body.
The qualifications of an elector to the Legislative Council are that
he must be twenty-one years of age, a natural born or naturalised
subject of Her Majesty, and have been on the electoral roll six
months, besides having a freehold of 50Z. value, or a leasehold of
201. annual value, or occupying a dwelling-house of 251. annual
value. The qualification for a member of Council is merely that
he must be thirty years of age, a natural born or naturalized
subject, and a resident in the province for three years. The
President of the Council is elected by the members.
The House of Assembly consists of fifty-four members, elected
for three years. The qualifications for an elector are that of
having been on the electoral roll for six months, and of having
arrived at twenty-one years of age ; and the qualifications for a
member are the same. There were 69,921 registered electors in
1890. Judges and ministers of religion are ineligible for election
as members. The election of members of both houses takes place
by ballot.
The executive is vested in a Governor appointed by the
Crown and an Executive Council, consisting of six responsible
ministers.
Governor of South Australia. — Right Hon. the Karl of Kintoro, I'.C.
G.O.M.G. Appointed December, 1888. Assumed the Government April 11,
1889.
The Governor, who is at the same time commander-in-chief of the forces,
marine and military, lias a salary of 5,000/. per annum. The ministn is
divided into six departments, presided over by I he following members : —
Premier and Commissioner of Crown Lands. — Hon. T. Playfordi
Chief Secretary. — Hon. C. C. Kingston.
Attorney-General. Hon. Ft. Homhurg.
Treasurer. — Hon. W. V>. Rounsewell.
<'<i,,i missiontr of Public 11'orLs. lion. .1. (i. Jenkins.
Minister of Agriculture and Education, lion. W. Copley,
AREA AND POPULATION
277
The Ministers have a salary of 1,000/. per annum each. Th«-v are jointly
and individually responsible to the Legislature for all their official acts, as in
the United Kingdom.
Local Government.
The settled part of the colony is divided into counties, hundreds, niuni-
cipilities, and district councils, the last being the most important, as it
gives the powers of a municipality, the ratepayers having the power of levying
rates, &c, and applying the funds for road-making purposes. There are 41
counties, blocks of country thrown open for agricultural purposes. There are
4 extensive pastoral districts — the eastern, western, northern, and north-
eastern. There are 33 municipalities and 140 district councils. The northern
territory is presided over by a resident, assisted by a small staff.
Area and Population.
The original boundaries of the colony, according to the statute of 4 & 5 Will.
IV. tap. 95, were fixed between 132 and 141 E. long, for the eastern and
rn boundaries, the 26° of S. lat. for the northern limit, and for the South
the Southern Ocean. The boundaries of the colony were subsequently
led, under the authority of Royal Letters Patent, dated July 6, 1863,
so as to embrace all the territory lying northward of 26° S. latitude and
between the 129th and 138th degrees of East longitude. The total area of the
colony is calculated to amount to 903,690 English square miles.
South Australia was first colonised in 1836 by emigrants from Great
Britain, sent out under the auspices of a company called the South Australian
Colonisation Association, which in 1835 obtained a grant from the Imperial
Oovc-rnment of the lands of the colony. The conditions were that the land
should not be sold at less than 1/. per acre ; that the revenue arising from the
sale of such lands should be appropriated to the immigration of agricul-
tural labourers, and the construction of roads, bridges, and other public
works (which provisions have been strictly observed) ; that the control
of the company's affairs should be vested in a body of commissioners approved
by the Secretary of State for the Colonies, and the Governor be nominated by
the Crown.
The population at various censuses has been : —
Population
Yearly
Increase
percent
I 1 Yearly
— Population Increase
1 percent.
1 1844
1855
1866
17,366
85,821
163,452
—
7-0
1871 ! 185,626
1881 279,865
1891 , 315,048
2-7
4 4
1 -25
Of the total population in 1891, 4,895 belonged to the northern territorv.
There were April 5, 1891, 161,759 males, 153,289 females. There is only
one person to about 3 square miles. The population of Adelaide, the capital
of the colony, and suburbs is about 133,220.
The enumerations here given, except the three last, did not include the
aboriginal population. The number of aborigines living in settled districts
was found to be 3,369. namely. 1,833 males ami 1,536 females, at the census
of March 26, 1876. In 1881 tbe number of aborigines was stated to be 6,346
—3,478 males, 2,868 females, and in 103, 1,387 males and 1.21'*
females. Of the population in 1891, 4,151 were Chinese (adult ma]
27fc THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — SOUTH AUSTRALIA
The following are the statistics of births, deaths, and marriages for five
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Births
11,177
10,831
10,510
10,318
10,364
Marriages
1,976
1,977
2,084
2,062
2,235
Deaths
4,234
3,944
3,759
3,501
3,923
Excess of
Births
6,943
6,887
6,751
6,817
6,441
The following are the statistics of immigrants and emigrants by sea only for
five years, and the excess of immigrants over emigrants : —
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Immigrants
Emigrants
17,623
25,231
15,468
17,667
12,637
12,750
9,230
8,736
7,432
5,060
-7,608
-2,199
- 113
+ 494
+ 2,372 ]
Religion.
The aggregate number of churches and chapels in the colony in 1889 was
1,032. At the census of 1881 the number belonging to the leading denomina-
tions were as follows : — Church of England, 76,000 ; Roman Catholic, 42,928 ;
Wesleyans, 42,103 ; Lutherans, 19,617 ; Presbyterians, 17,917 ; Baptists,
14,000 ; Methodists, 10,790 ; Bible Christians, '10,500 ; Congregationalists,
9,908 ; Jews, 702. No aid from the State is given for religious purposes.
Instruction.
Public instruction is under charge of the Educational Department.
Teachers are paid partly by fees and partly by Government grants, public-
lands being set apart for educational purposes. Education is compulsory
up to a certain standard. Government grants exhibitions and scholarships,
carrying the holders to higher schools and universities. In 1890 there wen
253 public schools and 298 provisional schools ; the number of children
under instruction during 1890 being 44,804. There is a training college for
teachers. The University of Adelaide was founded in 1872. The university
is authorised to grant degrees in arts, law, music, medicines, and science. Its
endowment amounts to 50,000Z. and 50,000 acres of land. There are several
denominational colleges. There were 362 private schools, with 15,255 pupils,
in 1890.
Justice and Crime.
There is One supreme court, a court of vice-admiralty, a court of insolvency,
68 local courts and police magistrates' courts. There are circuit courts
held at several places. In 1886 there were 121 convictions for felooJM ami
misdemeanours, 102 in 1887, 91 in 1888, and 82 in 1890. The total number
of white persons in prison for felony at the end of 1890 was 112 males and :i
females,
FINANCE— PRODI** TlnX AND INDUSTRY
279
Defence.
The colonv possesses an efficient militia and volunteer force, the former
consisting of* 1,373 men of all ranks, and the latter of 777, or a total
military force, including the head-quarter staff and a permanent force o
artillery 52 strong— of 2,202 men. For purposes of naval defence a war-vessel
of the latest design and construction is stationed off the chief port of the colony,
which is defended hy two well-armed forts.
Finance.
The total annual revenue and the total annual expenditure of the colony
of South Australia for each of the five financial years ending June 30, from
1887 to 1891, were as follows —
Years
ending June 30
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
Revenue
£
1,869,942
2,354,743
2,302,494
2,478,981
2,732,222
Expenditure
£
2,165,245
2,345,931
2,273,203
2,404,179
2,603,498
The revenue for 1891-92 is estimated at 2,812,302'., and expenditure
2,775,372".
The greater part of the revenue of the colony is derived from customs
duties, inland revenue, posts and telegraphs, railways, and territorial receipts,
while the main portion of the expenditure is on account of public works,
railways, and interest on public debt. The total revenue averages 7*. 16s.
per head, of which customs and other sources of taxation contribute 21. Is.
About one-third of the expenditure is for administrative charges, compris-
ing salaries of judges, kc. , civil establishments, defences, police, gaols, and
prisons.
The public debt of the colony, dating from 1852, amounted, on Decem-
ber 31, 1890, to 20,401,500*. Three-fourths of the public debt has been
spent oti railways, water-works, and telegraphs, the net earnings of which
exceed the interest payable. The railways show a profit of five per cent, per
annum.
The real property of the colony in 1891 was valued at 51,072,000/., and
personal property at 32,581,300/.
Production and Industry.
Of the total area (578,361,600 acres), 9,010,033 acres were alienated at
the end of 1890. The total land enclosed amounts to 28,797,829 acres, of
which 2,649,098 acres were under cultivation in 1S90-91. Of this 1,673,573
acres were under wheat, 345,150 under hay, 8,736 under orchards, 9,535
vineyards, and 534,152 fallow. The gross produce of wheat in 1879-80 was
14,260,964 bushels, in 1884-85, 14,621,755 bushels, and in 1890-91, 9,399,389
bushels. In 1884, 473,535 gallons of wine were produced, of which 50,080
gallons were exported; in 1890-91, 762,776 gallons were made, and $21,885
280
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — SOUTH AUSTRALIA
gallons exported. The live stock in 1891 numbered— horses, 187,686 :
cattle, 359,938 ; sheep, 7,004,642. In 1890, of the total area 156,820 square
miles were held under pastoral leases, and the number of leases was 1,135.
The mineral wealth as yet discovered consists chiefly in copper and silver.
The value of the copper ore produced in 1890 was 71,575?., and of copper,
155,417?.; and the total value of all minerals produced, 284,893?.; in 1887 it
was 319,954?. ; 1886, 275,280?. ; 1885, 344,451?. ; 1884, 491,950?.
In 1890 there were 870 factories in the colony, employing 12,554 people.
There were 26 iron and brass furnaces, employing 1,384 people, and 52 manu-
facturers of agricultural implements to 518 people.
Commerce.
The total value of South Australian imports and exports, in-
clusive of bullion and specie, from and to various countries, in
each of the six years 1885 to 1890, was as follows : —
Years
Imports
Exports
Years
Imports
Exports
1885
1886
1887
£
5,289,014
4,852,750
5,096,293
£
5,417,145
'4,489,008
5,330,780
1888
1889
1890
£
5,413,638
6,804,451
8,262,673
£
6,984,098
7,259,365
8,827,378
The imports into the colony consist of numerous articles of
general consumption, textile manufactures, and British colonial
produce, the principal article being drapery goods. Imports are
231. 4s. 4td. per head, and exports 251. 14s. per head.
The principal exports have been as follows for five years : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Wool
Wheat .
,, flour
Copper ore
£
1,447,971
82,134\
544, 476 J
58,538
£
1,955,207
626,610
53,709
£
1,610,456
/ 1,492,145
( 663,701
72,600
a
2,194,701
236,898
691,777
82,355
£
1,871,277
1,382,418
613,823
281,073 tons of bread stuff were exported in 1890.
Only about 5 per cent, of the trade is with foreign countries.
Of the remainder, on an average, about one-half of the imports
arc from the United Kingdom, and the other halt' from (lie other
Australian colonies. Of the exports about two-thirds go to the
United Kingdom, and the hulk of the remainder t o the Australian
colonies.
The subjoined table shows the commercial intercourse of South Australia
with the United Kingdom, according to the Board bfTrade Returns, exclusive
of gold, for the six years from 1884 to 1889 : —
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION— «•<»>!>! CNICATIOXS
283
Exports from
I n 1 1 *< >rts of British
Exports from
f Britisl
Years
South Australia
inane produce
V. ur^
South Australia
niduce
to the United
into South
to the United
into South
Kingdom.
Australia
Kingdom.
Australia
£
£
£
1885
3,459,412
2,237,626
1888
3,096,982
1,902,714
1886
2,487,032
1,518,152
1889
3,231. :57i
1,61 v
1887
2,809,316
1,488,220
1890
2,937,873
2,040,559
The following were the values of the principal exports to and imports from
the United Kingdom, the values being shown from the Board of Trade
returns: —
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Exports
£
£
£
£
£
Wool .
;.osi
1,517,941
1,442,202
1,624,288
1,410,728
Wheat k flour.
69,669
209,138
558,188
214,763
476,259
Copper and
copper ore .
882,887
156,139
45,081
69,835
176,331
Imports
Iron
286,273
231,210
305,678
211,564
359,355
Apparel, fcc .
185,072
170,631
258,956
242,537
264,600
Cottons .
163.7 5.'.
192,486
240,902
184,979
241,542
Woollens
131,301
128,359
197,088
165,985
184,695 ,
Machinery
85,049
66,614
74,617
70,202
60.
Shipping and Navigation.
In 1890, 1,041 vessels of 1,075,133 tons entered, and 1,081 vessels of
1,115,309 tons cleared the ports of the colony. The total shipping belonging
to the colony is 304 vessels of 35,314 tons.
Communications.
The colony possesses 4,500 miles of made roads. It had 1,756 miles of rail
way open for traffic in December 1890 (1,610 miles in South Australia and 14t*>
in the Northern territory), and 54 miles of lines in course of construction. The
railways pay 5 per cent, profit to the Government.
There were 5,623 miles of telegraph and telephone in operation at the end
of 1890, with 12,1 7S miles of wire. Inclusive of the total is an overland
line running fioin Adelaide to Port Darwin, a distance of 2,000 miles in
connection with the British Australian cable. The receipts exceed the cost
of the department after paying interest on moneys borrowed for construction.
Attached to the telegraph department, telephone exchanges have been
established.
In 1890 there were 609 post offices in the colony ; and during 1890 there
passed through them 16,794,679 letters, 1,251.414 packets, and 9,460,975
newspapers.
282 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — TASMANIA
Banks.
There are 10 banking associations. In 1890 their total liabilities were
7,759,926Z., and assets 11,489,842Z. The average note circulation was 480,425Z.,
and deposits 7,198,636?.
The Savings Bank is managed by a board of trustees appointed by the
Government, and has 128 branches. At the end of 1890 there were 70,873
depositors, with a total balance of 2,078,575Z.
Agent-General of South Australia in London. — Sir John Cox Bray, K. C. M. G .
Assistant Agent-General. — Samuel Deering.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
South Australia.
Annual Statistical Register and Blue Book.
Census of South Australia, taken on the 3rd April, 1881. Summary Tables. Fol. Ade-
laide, 1881.
South Australia: its History, Productions, and Natural Resources, by J. P. Stow.
Adelaide, 1863.
Boothby (Josiah), Statistical Sketch of South Australia. London, 1876.
Finniss (B. T.), The Constitutional History of South Australia during twenty-one years,
from the foundation of the Settlement in 1836 to the inauguration of Responsible Govern-
ment in 1857. London, 1886.
Harcus (William), South Australia : its History, Resources, Productions, and Statistics.
London, 1876.
Newland (S.). The Far North Country. Adelaide, 1887.
Handbooks for Exhibitions : —
Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London, 18S6, by J. F. Conigrave. Adelaide, 1886.
Adelaide Jubilee International Exhibition, 1887, by H. J. Scott. Adelaide, 1887.
Centennial International Exhibition, Melbourne, 1S88, by H. J. Scott. Adelaide, 1888.
TASMANIA.
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of Tasmania was established by Act 18 Vict.
No. 17, supplemented by Act 34 Vict. No. 42, passed in 1871, and
by Act 49 Vict. No. 12, passed in 1885. By these Acts a
Legislative Council and a House of Assembly are constituted,
called the Parliament of Tasmania. The Legislative Council is
composed of eighteen members, elected by all natural-barn or
naturalised subjects of the Crown who possess either a freehold
worth 20/. a year, or a leasehold of 80/., or are barristers or
solicitors on roll of Supreme Court, medical practitioners duly
qualified, and all subjects holding a commission or possessing a
degree. Each member is elected for six years. The House of
Assembly consists of thirty-six members, elected by all whose
names appear on valuation rolls as owners or occupiers of pro-
perty, or who are in receipt of income of 60/. per annum (of
which SOI. must have Keen received during last six months before
claim to vote is sent in), and who have continuously resided in
Tasmania for over 12 months. The Assembly Is elected for three
AREA AND POPULATION
years. The number of electors for the Legislative Council at date
1891 was 6,750 or 4'60 of the total population, and for the
House of Assembly 30,817 or 21 01 of the total population. The
legislative authority vests in both Houses, while the executive
is vested in a Governor appointed by the Crown.
Governor. — Sir Robert G. C. Hamilton, K.C.B. Appointed
January 1887.
The Governor is, by virtue of his office, commander-in-chief of the troops
in the colony ; he has a salary of 5,000/. per annum. He is aided in the
exercise of the executive by a "cabinet of responsible ministers, consisting of
four members, as follows : —
Premier and Chief Secretary.— Ron. Philip Oakley Fysh.
Treasurer. — Hon. Bolton Stafford Bird.
Attorney-General. — Hon. Andrew Inglis Clark.
Minister of Lands and ll'orks. — Hon. Alfred Pillinger.
Each of the ministers has a salary of 900/. per annum. The position of
Premier has a salary of 200/. per annum attached in addition. The ministers
must have a seat in either of the two Houses.
Area and Population.
The first penal settlement was formed in Tasmania in
1804 ; and till 1813 it was merely a place of transportation from
Great Britain and from New South Wales, of which colony
it was a dependency until 1825. Transportation ceased in
1853.
The area of the colony is estimated at 26,215 square miles or
about 16,778,000 acres, of which 15,571,500 acres form the area
of Tasmania Proper, the rest constituting that of a number of
small islands, in two main groups, the north-east and north-west.
The colony is divided into eighteen counties.
The population has increased as follows : —
1 Population.
Increase per Ct
per Annum.
_ ! Population. to™$£?-
1841 50,216
i 1851 70,130
1 1861 \ 89,977
3 96
2-8
1871 99,328 115
1881 115,705 143
1891 146,667 3 84
l-l 1
At the census of 1891 there were 77,560 males and 69,107 females. On
the basis of this population, the average density is 5 "6 persons to a square
mile. Of the total population in 1891, 107,901 were natives of Tasmania.
26,975 natives of the United Kingdom, 7,328 natives of other Australasian
colonies, 943 Chinese, 917 German. In 1891 there were 22,313 males and
21,399 females married, 52,195 males and 43.736 females unmarried, 2,423
males and 3,945 females widowed, 25 males and 6 females divorced, and 604
males and 21 females unspecified. The aborigines of Tasmania are entirely
extinct.
284
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — TASMANIA
Of the population in 1881, 2,320 were returned as professional. 68,962
domestic (including wives, children and dependents), 3,884 commercial,
19,408 agricultural, 14,484 industrial.
The births, deaths, and marriages for five years have been as follows : —
Births.
Marriages.
Deaths.
Excess of Births.
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
4,627
4,736
4,777
4,757
4,813
985
939
951
967
954
1,976
2,161
2,036
2,098
2,118
2,651
2,575
2,741
2,659
2,695
-
Of the total births in 1890, 195, or 4-05 per cent., were illegitimate.
The number of immigrants and emigrants was as follows in each of the
six years from 1885 to 1890 : —
-'
1885
1886
1887
14,980
12,288
1888
1889
1890
Immigrants
Emigrants
14,822
14,173
15,399
14,630
18,866
17,936
23,443
20,771
29,517
27,0701
1 It is estimated that the departures are understated by about 7 per cent.
The direct movement of population is mainly between the Australian
colonies (chiefly Victoria) and Tasmania.
The population of the capital, Hobart, on 6th April, 1891, was 24,905, and
of Launceston 17,108.
Religion.
The Government contributes 1,286Z. annually for various religious pur-
poses. On 5th April, 1891, the census showed belonging to the Church of
England 76,082 of the population ; Roman Catholics, 25,805 ; Weslevan
Methodists, 17,050 ; Presbyterians, 9,756 ; Independents, 4,501 ; .lews, til ;
Baptists, 3,285; Friends, 176; other sects, 9,828.
Instruction.
There are 16 superior schools or colleges in the colony, with (1891) an
average attendance of 1,500; 240 public elementary schools, witli L8>156
scholars on roll ; and 101 private schools, with 4,4:20 scholars. Education is
compulsory. There were also about 600 children attending ragged schools. Two
technical schools were started in 1888 at Hobart and Launceston. The
higher education is under a university, who hold examinations and giant
degrees, being at present merely an examining body. Elementary education
is under the control of a director working under a ministerial head. There
Mre several valuable scholarships from the lower bo the higher schools. At
the census Of L881 the number of persons returned as unable to read and
write was 31,080, or 27 per cent of the population.
The total cost to ( loveriinient of education in ISN'.i !>() was -1 l.N:!f>/. There
are 87 public libraries and mechanics' institutes, with about 67,000 volumes.
There are 4 daily, 4 weekly, 2 tri-weekly, 1 hi -weekly, and ;> monthly
journals.
JUSTICE AND CRIME— REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE 28 5
Justice and Crime.
There is a Supreme Court, courts of petty, general, and quarter sessions,
the latter presided over by a stipendiary magistrate, assisted by justices of
the peace. The total number of prisoners that came before all the criminal
courts in 1S90 was 5,502 males and 909 females; of these, 4,210 males and
7.">2 females were summarily convicted, mostly for fraud : and 105 males and
12 females committed for trial. Before the Supreme Courts and ■
courts 46 persons were convicted. The total police force is 305. There were
2 gaols, with 149 male and 25 female inmates, at the end of 1890.
Pauperism.
Besides hospitals and benevolent institutions, then are two establish-
ments for paupers, with 584 male and 203 female inmates at the end of the
year 1890, the daily average number of persons maintained during tl
being 597 males and 205 females. The total expenditure during the year
was 11,417/.. mainly contributed by the colonial Government. During the
year outdoor relief was administered to 1,139 people.
Reveue and Expenditure.
Of the total yearly revenue for 1890, 60 per cent, was derived
from taxation, chiefly customs : 26 per cent, from railway.-, postal,
telegraph, and other public services : and the remainder principally
from the rental and sale of Crown lands. Of the expenditure
36 per cent, is for special public works, 31 per cent, for
interest, 10 per cent, for general purposes, and 6 per cent, for
religion, science, and education. In 1890 12,699/. was spent in
defence. The subjoined statement shows the total general
revenue and expenditure during each of the live years from 1886
to 1890 :—
1S86
1887 1888
1889 1890
Revenue . .
Expenditure .
£
568,924
584,756
£ £
594,976 640.068
668,759 , 709,486
£ £
678,909 ! 758,100
681,674 ; 722,746
Not included in the above receipts and disbursements are
certain sums raised and expended for * redemption of loans.' under
the name of ' Territorial Revenue.'
The revenue for 1891 is estimated at 808,346/., and
expenditure 793,206?.
The total imperial expenditure in 1890 was 20,352/ mainly by
the War Office.
The public debt of Tasmania amounted December 31, 1890, to 6,432,800/. :
the debt, except 1,000,000/. at 3£ per cent., consists principally of 4 percent
debentures, redeemable from 1876 to 1920, and the whole was raised for the
286
THE BRITISH EMPIRE : — TASMANIA
construction of public works. The interest on the amount realised on the
last 4 per cent, loan floated was equivalent to 3 '5 percent, at par. The
following is an abstract of loans expenditure up to December 31, 1890 : — ■
Public works: railways, 3,254,4092., or 52 '67 percent. ; telegraphs, 101,5492.,
or l-64 per cent. ; roads, bridges, jetties, &c, 1,506,3332., or 24-33 per
cent. ; public buildings, 553,4192., or 8'93 percent. ; defences, 116,5912., or
1'88 per cent. ; other public works, 138,7992., or 2 '24 per cent. — total public
works, 5,671, 100Z., or 91-60 per cent. ; other public services, 519,591?., or
8 '40 per cent. — total, 6,190,6912., or 100 percent. ; balance of loans, raised
chiefly for railways now being constructed, 286,4622.
The total local revenue for 1890 was 178,9952., and the expenditure
182,8052.
Defence.
The volunteer defence force of the colony numbers some 2,106 officers and
men, and is composed of two rifle regiments, engineers, artillery, cadets
corps, and auxiliary force, all under jurisdiction of commandants stationed
at Hobart and Launceston. Included in the above is a small permanent
force, stationed at Hobart, of 25 men for the purpose of keeping barracks and
batteries in order, and to form the nucleus of a larger force. There is a staff
for the instruction of the other branches of the volunteer system, including
the country rifle clubs scattered throughout the Island.
There are four batteries on the river Derwent, and one on the Tamar.
Production and Industry.
The total area of the colony is 16,778,000 acres. In 1891 19,408
persons were directly engaged in agriculture. In 1890 there were 517,174
acres under cultivation. Of the total area, 4,695,022 acres have been
sold or granted to settlers by the Crown up to the end of 1890 ; while
666,193 acres have been leased as sheep runs. The total area under crops in
1890-91 was 157,376 acres; under grasses, 201,060 acres; fallow, 21,467 ;
10,345 acres were devoted to horticulture. The following table shows the
acreage and produce of the chief crops for five years : —
-
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
Wheat, acres
35,322
40,498
40,657
49,055
39,452
,, bushels .
632,573
675,069
819,497
756,639
642,980
, , bushels per acre
17-91
16-42
20-15
15 43
16 29
Oats, acres .
21,607
21,169
33,834
40,169
20,740
,, bushels
560,622
385,195
946,354
1,148,935
519,395
,, bushels per acre .
25-94
18-19
27-97
28-60
25 04
Potatoes, acres .
16,084
16,394
13,653
17,015
20,133
,, tons
75,773
42,526
66,721
72.275
73,158
,, tons per acre.
4-71
2-59
4-88
4-25
3 63
Hay, acres .
47,269
44,562
52,521
50,913
16,881
,, tons .
50,178
50,901
58,290
73,859
52,021
,, tons per acre
1-06
1-14
111
1-45
114
Under the head of horticulture 373 acres were sown with hops in 1890,
yielding 432,630 lbs of hops. The yield of apples Was 368,986 bushels,
Fruit culture is of great importance : large quantities of fruit nre exported.
COMMERCE
287
There were in the colony 31,165 horses, 162,440 head of cattle, 1,619,256
sheep and lambs, and 81.716 pigs, on March 31. 1891.
The soil of the colony is rich in iron ore, tin, and galena, and there are
large beds of coal. The total number of gold-mining leases in force at the end
of 1890 was 334 : of tin-mining leases, 757 ; coal, 44 ; silver, 370. Gold to
the amount of 23,107 oz., valued at 87,085/., was exported in 1890. Owing
to cessation of alluvial working, the total number of persons employed in
gold-mining has decreased from 2,060 in 1879 to 1,009 in 1890. The total
value of tin exports in 1890 was 296,7617. The total value of the tin
exported np to the end of 1890 was 5,008,185/. The total number of men
emploved in coal-mining in 1890 was 191, output 53,812 tons, valued at
. >/.
Commerce.
There are heavy customs duties, those levied in 1890 amount-
ing to 329,068/., or over 17 percent, of the total value of imj
The total imports and exports of Tasmania, including bullion
and specie, were as follows in each of the five vears 1886 to
1890:—
— MM mi im
:-•
MW
£ £
Total impor 1,610,664
Total expor 1.449.371 1,333,865
1.611.035
1,459,857
J
1,486,992
The exports are chiefly wool, gold, tin, timber, fruit and jam,
hops, grain, hides and skins, bark. The following are the values
of the more important of these for the five vears from 1886 to
1890 :-
W •>!
£
310,934
415,425
306.930
■.-■ ... :
419.173
OqM
£
104,402
140,584
:.:.'•■-
123,486
Tis
£
363.364
407,857
12 -
1
TimN?r»n<l
Bark
£
116,959
n,: :.•
133,027
150,409
Fruit,
■ Pi
Bmb bbM
Preserved
£
£
14,557
148,596
13,696
129.901
:-.v ■'-
120.494
23.115
121 ---
31.348
136,502
The imports are mainly textiles — 493. 722/. in 1890, art and mechanical
productions, 376,954/. ; food and drinks, 396,534/.
Of the total imports those at the port of Launceston, and Northern Sub-
ports in 1890 were valued at 901,624/., and Hobart. and Southern Sub-ports,
995,888/. Exports from Launceston, 950,653/. : from Hobart, 414,967/.
The following gives, according to Tasmanian returns, a synopsis of the
gvneral direction of trade during the years 1888, 1889 and 1890:—
288
THE BRITISH EMPIRE
-TASMANIA
Country
Imports from
Exports to
1888
1889
1890
1888
1889
1890
£
£
£
£
£
£
United Kingdom .
485,391
517,681
680,760
221,347
251,835
323,239
Victoria
834,200
773,917
829,167
596,321
717,290
633,362
New South Wales
166,410
192,759
250,832
459,853
431,741
433,235
Other British colonies .
103,485
90,857
100,828
56,344
58,975
96,606
Foreign countries
Total .
21,178
35,821
35,925
—
16
560
1,610,664
1,611,035
1,897,512
1,333.865
1,459,857
1,486,992
It is difficult to ascertain the exact value of the trade in respect of any
one country, the custom still prevailing to refer all exports to the port to
which the vessel has cleared for, and imports to the last port of clearance.
It is estimated that the true extent of inter-colonial trade in itself does not
greatly exceed 25 per cent, of the whole, the balance being principally trade
with England.
The total value of the exports from Tasmania to the United Kingdom, and
of the imports of British produce into Tasmania direct, in 1885-90 was as
follows, according to the Board of Trade returns : —
-
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889 I 1890
Exports from Tasmania .
Imports of British pro-
duce ....
£
304,493
455,480
1 £
248,409
559,661
£ £
296,795 239,272
425,338 482,330
£ £
319,792 345,863
490,530J609,32^
The staple articles of export from Tasmania to the United Kingdom arc
minerals and wool. The value amounted to 214,215/. in 1886, to 274,649/.
in 1887, to 201,431/. in 1888, to 280,048/. in 1889, to 296,478/. in 1890. In
1886 tin of the value of 3,747/. was exported to Great Britain : in 1887
1,015/,; in 1888, 11,252/.; in 1889, 10,587/; in 1890, 6,114/. The,
principal imports from Great Britain are apparel and haberdashery, of the
value of 90,053/. in 1890 ; iron, wrought and unwrought, 62,358/. ; cottons,
45,077/. ; woollens, 46,420/.
Shipping and Navigation.
In 1890 746 vessels of 475,618 tons entered (44 of 97, 46] belonging to the
United Kingdom), and 763 of 475,629 tons (34 of 87,641 tons belonging to
the United Kingdom) cleared Tasmanian porta. Of the former 280 of 272,863
tons cleared, and of the latter 292 of 273,494 tons entered Hobart ; the
remainder falling to Launceston. The number of registered vessels belonging
to Tasmania in 1890 was 224 of 19,803 tons, 51 of which were Steamers of
7,900 tons.
Internal Communications.
At the end of 1890 there were open for traffic Ml miles of railway com-
pleted, consisting of a main line connecting the two principal portB, Hobart
and Launceston, and a line connecting Launceston and Kormby : and lines 7!
miles in length were in course of construction in 1890.
Tasmania has a telegraph system, belonging to the Government, through
all the settled parts of the colony. At the end of {890 the number of miles
VICTOBIA
oi' line in one-ration was 2,004, an.l 2,701 miles of number oi
stations 178. The number of telegraphic d 548 in the
year 1890. On May 1, 1869, telegraphic communication
"with the continent of Australia by a sul.niarinc cable, which carried 9
in 1890. There art alto 382 miles of telephone wire, with
exehai a Norfolk. nd Launceston. The revenue of thy
jcaph and ; 19,075/., an<l the expendi-
ture 18,783/., in the year 1890.
The number ■
i, 963,170 ; of n 571 : and ]-»:
•7. The l'ost Office ivy.hu. in 18 ., and the expenditure
iu 1890, . .3,100 miles of
post roads, lied.
nt-Oeneralin London, !!<>". K- N. C. Braddon.
Books of Reference.
ana
i. Hotwrt,
Tasmania : Pi HO. Holai
Fenton (James), History of Tasmania. Hobart, 1884.
Jutt (T. C), Tasmaniana : a Description <>f tlie Island and its Resources. Launceston,
1ST9.
Lloyd Go... Thomas). Thirtv-i Tasmania and Victoria. 8. London, 1802.
VICTORIA.
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of Victoria was established by an Act |
by the Legislature of the colony in 1854. to which the assent of
the Crown was given, in pursuance of the power granted by the
Act of the Imperial Parliament of 18 k 19 Vict. cap. 66. The
legislative authority is vested in a Parliament of two Chambers :
the Legislative Council, composed of forty-eight members, and the
Legislative Assembly, composed of ninety-five members (1889).
rding to an Act which came into force in 1881 members of
the former must be in possession of an estate of the annual value
of 100/. ; and electors must be in the possession or occupancy of
property of the rateable value of 10/. per annum if derived from
freehold, or of 25/. if derived from leasehold or the occupation of
rented property. No electoral property qualification is required
for graduates of British universities, matriculated students of the
Melbourne University, ministers of religion of any denomination,
certificated schoolmasters, lawyers, medical practitioners, and
officers of the army and navy. About one-third of the members
of the Legislative Council must retire every two years. The
members of the Legislative Assembly require no property qualifi-
cation, and are elected by universal manhood suffrage, for the
term of three years. Clergymen of any religious denomination
D
290 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — VICTORIA
are not allowed to hold seats in either the Legislative Council or
the Legislative Assembly.
In 1890-91 the number of electors on the roll of the Legisla-
tive Council was 156,894; the number of electors on the roll of
the Legislative Assembly was 258,576. Of the former all but
724, and of the latter all but 29,469, are ratepayers.
The executive is vested in a Governor appointed by the
Crown.
Governor. — The Right Hon. the Earl of Hopetoun. Appointed
Governor of Victoria 1889 ; assumed the government February
3, 1892.
The Governor, who is likewise commander-in-chief of all the colonial
troops, has a salary of 10,000Z. a year. In the exercise of the executive he is
assisted by a Cabinet of ten ministers, composed as follows : —
Premier and Treasurer. — Hon. William Shiels.
Chief Secretary, President of the Board of Land and Works, and Com-
missioner of Grown Lands and Survey. — Hon. Allan McLean.
Minister of Mines and Education. — Hon. A. R. Outtrim.
Minister of Public Instruction.— Hon. Lieut. -Colonel Sir F. T. Sargood,
K.C.M.G.
Minister of Customs and Justice. — Hon. George Turner.
Minister of Railways. — Hon. James Wheeler.
Minister of Defence and Representative of the Legislative Council. — Hon.
George Davis.
Postmaster-General and Attorney- General. — Hon. J. Gavan Duffy.
Minister of Water Supply and Agriculture. — Hon. George Graham.
Commissioner of Public Worki.-" Hon. A. Peacock.
Portfolios ivithout Office. — Hon. Simon Fraser, M.L.C. ; Hon. C. J. Ham,
M.L.C. ; Hon. A. J. Peacock, M.L.A.
The Premier has a salary of 2,000Z., and the other ministers from 1,400Z.
to 1,825£. At least four out of the ten ministers must be members of either
the Legislative Council or the Assembly.
Local Government.
For purposes of local administration the colony is divided into urban and
t-ural municipalities. The former, called cities, towns, and boroughs, ought
not to be of a greater area than nine square miles, and in being constituted
must contain at least 300 householders. The latter, called shires, are portions
of country, of undefined extent, containing rateable property capable ot
yielding a revenue of 5001. In 1891 there were 50 urban and LS3 rural muni-
cipalities, all but a very small portion of the whole area of the colony being
included within their limits. Every ratepayer has one or mote votes,
according to the amount of his rates.
Area and Population.
The colony, first settled in 1835, formed For a bime a portion
of New South Wales, bearing the name of the Port Phillip dis-
trict. It was erected in 1851— by Imperial Act of Parliament
AREA AND POPULATION -'I
13 ft 1-i Vict. cap. 59 — into a separate colony, and called Victoria.
The colony has an area of 87,884 square miles, or 56,245,760
-. about jkr part of the whole area of Australia. The colony
is divided into 37 counties, varying in area from 920 to 5,933
square miles.
The growth of the population, as shown by the censuses of
successive periods, is exhibited in the following table. The
figures for 1891 are liable to slight future revision : —
Annual rate
Date of Enumeration
Httai
Total
of Increase
224
, per cent.
November 8, 1836 .
186
38
March 2, 1846 .
90,184
12,695
14 57
March 29, 1857
.334
146,432
410,766
115-
April 7, 1861 .
328,651
211,671
540,322
/ a
April 2, 1871 .
401,050
330,478
73". .
31
April 3, 1881 .
452,083
410,263
862,346
17
April 5, 1891 »
599,174
541,237
1,140,411
2-8
1 Census figures not final.
The average density of the population is about 13 persons to the square
mile, or one person to every 50 M
The following table gives a summary, subject to revision, of the population
of Victoria, according to tin- census taken OB April 5, 1891 : —
-
m >;■ ■
Females
Total
Population, exclusive of Chinese and
aborigines .....
( 'hinese ......
591,061
7,761
352
540,629
376
- -
1,131,690
8,137 '
584
Total ....
599,174
541,237
1,140,411
During the last decide there has Wen a large decrease in the number of
the Chinese and aborigines.
At the date of the census of 18S1, 96 j>er cent, of the population were
British subjects by birth ; native Victorians numbered 499,199, or 58 percent
of the population : natives of the Australian colonies, 39,861 : of England
and Wales. 147.453 : of Ireland, 86,733 ; of Scotland, 48,153.
Of the total population in 1881, 108,919 were directly engaged in agricul-
ture : in pastoral pursuits, 13,731 ; commercial, 23,559 : mining, 36,066 : iu
'entertaining or clothing," 41,712: contractors, artisans, and mechaui'-s,
46,883 ; domestic servants, 24,723 : 'public business,' 9,901.
About three-fifths of the total population of Victoria live in towns. At
the census of 1891 it was ascertained that the town population numbered
684,260, out of a total population of 1,140,400.
Inclusive of the suburbs the populations, according to the census of 1891,
of the principal towns were as follows :— Melbourne, 491,378, or over two-
fifths of the population of the colony ; Ballarat, 46,033 : Sandhurst, 37.23S ;
Geelong, 24,210 : ( 'a-tlemaine, 6.082.
V 2
292
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — VICTORIA
The following an: the births, deaths, and marriages in the colony for eaeh
of the five years from 1886 to 1S9G.
Year
Total
Births
Illegitimate
Deaths
14,952
16,005
16,287
19,392
18.012
**•■- B!sffirf
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
30,824
33,043
34,503
36,359
37,578
1,465
1,580
1,658
1,809
1,913
7,737 15,872
7,768 17,038
8,946 18,216
9,194 16,967
9,187 19,566
In the 37 years from 1838 to the end of 1874, more than 167,000 immi-
grants received assistance from the public funds for defraying their passage to
the colony ; but since 1874 State-assisted immigration has ceased. No account
is taken of migration overland across the borders, but the recorded immigration
into and emigration from the colony of Victoria by sea were as follows in each
of the five years from 1886 to 1890 :—
Fear
1886
Immigration (by sea)
Kniigratic.ii (by sea)
93,404
68,102
1887
90,147
68,121
1888
102,032
60,229
1889
84,582
68,418
1890
79,777
63,820
Of the immigrants in 1890, 52,171 were males and 27,60»i were females :
and of the emigrants 42,740 were males and 21,080 females. The excess of
immigrants over emigrants in 1890 was 15,957 of which S,502 was due to
immigration from the United Kingdom, 10,859 from the neighbouring colonies,
and 1,596 from foreign countries.
Religion.
There is no State Church in Victoria, and no State assistance lias been
giyen to religion since 1875. Prior to that period a sum of 50,000/. had been
set apart annually out of the general revenue lor the advancement of the
Christian religion in Victoria, and this amount had been distributed propor-
tionately amongst the "various deBoaainations. At the date of the census of
1881 about 7'-> percent, of the population were Protestants, 24 percent were
Roman Catholics, andahalfpv cent wert .lews. The following were the
e timated numbers of each of the principal divisions in 1 889 : Episcopalians,
398,761: Presbyterians, 169,714; Methodists, 188,748 ; other Protest
84,592 : Roman Catholic-;, 260,404 ; .lews. 5,642 ; Buddhists, Confucians, \...
10,710 : others (including unspecified), 85,839.
U
Instruction.
Educational establishments in victoria arc of lour kinds, viz., .
diversity with its three affiliated colleges, state Bchools (primary), techni
ihools or colleges, and private schools. The Melbourne University w
established under a special A.ct of the Victorian Legislature, and the buil
ing was opened on October 8, 1855. The Act, which was amended in
ism), provides foi its endowment by the payment of 9,0001. annually out ol
'he general revenue ; hut, besides this sum, an additional endowment oi
the
ieal
as
Id
JUSTICE AND CMMI 893
7,500'. is now annually voted by Parliament, making a total endowment of
th an examining and a teaching body, ami in 1854) received
J chaitet empowerii . all FacnH
Divinity.
Affiliated to the University are three rinity, Onuon<l, an<l
Queen's in connection with the Ghnreh of England, Presbyterian, and
van Chnrcl lively. From the opening of the Unii
to the end of 1S90, 3,062 students matriculated,
conferred. In 1890 the students who matriculated numbered 164,
the direct graduates numbered 90, and there w< tiding
lectures.
Public instruction is strictly secular : it is compulsory for children
of 6 and 13, with certain exceptions, and free for the sul
comprised in the ordinary course of instruction. In 1890 then- were
Star.- schools, with 4,73 total enrolment of 249,051 sen
and average attendance 132,979, or aliout 53 per cent, of the numb
cent <>f the children of school age living in the colony
are being educated, 7s percent, at the State schools. Amoi
rs and upwards at the census of 1881. 92A per cent, were able t<> read
and write, and only 3i per cent, were entirely illiterate. In 1889-90 th
if public (primary) instruction, exclusive of expenditure on buil
was 687,651?. — all paid by the State. Although the education giv.
the State is strictly primary, eleven exhibitions — of the yearly v i
rod tenable for six years, and 200 scholarships — of the annual value
of 10/., tenahle for three yean — are awarded to the ablest schol-
enable them to complete their education at the private grammar schools
and at the University. Secondary education is entirely under the control
either of private persons or proprietary bodies, usually connected with some
religious denomination. There were in 1889-90 782 private schools in
Victoria, with 1.967 teachers, and attended I scholars. These
numbers include 195 schools, 633 teachers, an __ scholars in com
with the Roman Catholic denomination, the members of which do not as a
rule avail themselves of the free education afforded by the State.
The technical schools and other educational establishments embrace two
Technical College s, - >ols of Mines, several Schools of Art and Design,
and an Agricultural College.
The public library of Mellioume has about 120,000 volumes, and nearly
135,000 pamphlets and parts. The leading towns have either a public library
or a Mechanics' Institute. On Jan. 1, 1890, they numbered 378. The total
number of volumes in the libraries, exclusive of Melbourne, was about 436,000.
Justice and Crime.
There is a Supreme Court with a Chief Justice and four puisne judges.
There are courts of general and petty sessions, count}- courts, courts of insol-
vency, courts of mines, and courts of licensing. The following are the criminal
statistics for five years : —
1887
Taken into custody . . 32,011 34,473
Summarily convicted . 20,202 21,622
37,309 37,321 38,465
,807 23,298 24,494
Committed for trial . . 756 I 820 ! 873 1,023 1,000
Sentenced ... 492 , 506 557 680 605
294
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — VICTORIA
There are 10 prisons in Victoria, besides police gaols. At the end 01 1890
there were confined in these prisons 1,546 males and 316 females, of whom 905
males and 55 females had been convicted of felony.
Finance.
The revenue and expenditure of the colony in each of the
five financial years ended June 30, from 1887 to 1891, the
figures for the latest year being only approximate, were as
follow : — -
Year ended J une 30
Kevenue
Expenditure
£
£
1887
6,733,826
6,561,251
1888
7,607,598
7,287,151
1889
8,675,990
7,919,202
1890
8,519,159
9,645,737
1891
8,340,813
9,228,693
The following table shows the approximate amounts of
revenue and expenditure under the principal heads during
1890-91 :—
i Estimated.
The revenue for 1891-2 is estimated al 8,681,9952., and expenditure .it
8,982,898/.
The amount raised by taxation, ms shown iii the hist table, via. 8,252,6892.,
Wa« equivalent to a proportion of 2/. 17*. M. DOT bead of population.
DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
295
Victoria has a debt, incurred in the construction of public works, whii h
amounted, at June 30, 1891, to 43,610,265/. Of this sum. 33,949,606/. was
borrowed for the construction of railways, 6,754,133/. for waterwoiks.
1,105,5671. for State school buildings, and l,v800,969/., for other public works.
The rate of interest on the public debt varied from 3$ to 5 per cent., and
averages 1 pet cent.
Th-- estimated total value of the rateable property of the colony in 1890
was 194,813,646/., and the animal value 13,265,5482. '
Defence.
The land forces of Victoria at the end of 1889 comprised an establishment
571 nan of all arms, of whom 345 were officers, 280 non-commissioned
officers, and 4,946 rank and file. The naval force consists of a permanent
force of 236, and the Naval Brigade, of 379 officers and men.
The Naval flotilla consists of eight ships and torpedo boats, viz., the
armoured turret-ship Cerberus, two steel gun-boats, and four torpedo
In addition to these, three vessels belonging to the Melbourne Harbour Trust
are armed with breech-loading guns as auxiliaries.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
Of the total area of Victoria about 22,359,050 acres are either alienated or
in process of alienation. Of the remainder about 10,828,000 acres are at
present suitable for agriculture ; 13,540,000 acres for pastoral purposes ; State
forests, timber and water reserves, over 2,368,000 acres ; auriferous land,
1,090,000 acres ; and roads, 1,320,000.
The total number of cultivated holdings in 1889-90 was 36,497.
The following table shows the areas under the principal crops and the
produce of each for five years : —
, Total
Years Area Cul-
tivated
1888
1889
1890
1,000
•2.417
2,576
8,837
Wheat
1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000
Acres Bushels Acres Bushels
1,052
1.233
1.217
1.179
1,145
12,100
13.328 199
S,t>47 19
11,496 236
19,003 ISO
••>
4,689
2,804
5,645
4,894
Barley
PotatoM
Hay
1,000
37
41
83 4
90-7
1,000
Bushels
828
956
1.131
1,831
1,575
1,000
1,000
1,000
Tons
50
170-6
44.".
48
198
4418
43
131
411
47
107
461 -5
54
204
4U,
1,000
4-::
m
The produce per acre of the principal crops has been :-
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
Bushels
Bashels
1149
22 91
10 81
28-92
710
14-20
9 75
23-87
1135
22-21
Barley
Malting
Bushels
Other
Hay
Bushels
29-78
28-99
1355
20 18
16 59 I 23 99
Tons
341
411
3 04
3 33
378
Ti >ns
109
1-41
075
1-48
1-37
296
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — VICTORIA
In addition to these, green forage and permanent artificial grasses covered
155,596 acres, vines covered 15,662 acres, and gardens' and orchards occupied
an extent of about 29,243 acres in 1890.
' According to the census of 1891 there were in the colony 436,459 horses,
1,780,978 head of cattle, 12,736,143 sheep, and 282,457 piss.'
II. Mining.
The subjoined statement gives, from official returns, the estimated quantities
of gold, with value, obtained in Victoria in each of the five years from 1886 to
1890 :—
Years
Number of
Ounces
Approximate v Number of
Value lials ; Ounces
Approximate
Value
1886
1887
1888 -
665,396
617,751
625,026
&
2,661,584 : 1889
2,471,004 I 1890
2,500,104 i
614,839
588,561
■
2,459,356
%, 854,244
The total quantity of gold raised from 1851 to 1890 is estimated at
56,839,359 oz., of an aggregate value of 227,357,436/. The estimated Dumber
of miners at work on the gold-fields at the end of 1890 was 2'-',, 712, or about
3,357 less than the estimate of the previous year, of whom 3,164 were
Chinese.
III. Manufactures.
The total number of manufactories, works, &c. in March 1890, was 3,305, of
which about 1,743 used steam or gas engines, with an aggregate horse-power of
28,547 ; the number of bands employed was 50.1 SI ; and the lands, buildings.
machinery, and plant were valued at 15,793,810/. The manufactures arc
almost entirely for home consumption.
Commerce.
There are heavy tariffs on most of the important articles of
import, the total customs duties collected in 1890 amounting to
2,704,380^., equal to about 12 per cent, of the total value of
imports.
The total value of the imports and exports of Victoria, includ-
ing bullion and specie, in each of the five years from 1886 to 1890,
was as follows : —
Tears Total Imports
Total E
fears
Total Emports
Total Exports
6
1886 18,530,575
1887 19,022,151
1888 23,972,134
£
11,795,821
11,351,145
13,853,763
1889
1890
e
24,402.760
22.054,015
12,734,734
13,266,229
The value of the trade during 1889-90 between Victoria and
the principal IJritisli and foreign countries is shown in the follow-
ing tabic according to Victorian returns; —
COMMERCE
itrj
[up
■:
BriHs) - • —
therefrom
therefrom tli.
£ £
United Kingdom
11.41 ;.
0,607,193 6,850,014
Australian colonies .
8,605,643 4,039,484 8,525, :4,106 |
India ....
404,288 519,043
.ii
77,818 MO 100,m>* 157,
la ....
21,9 — 60 i
Other British possessions .
Total .
- : —
815,884 107,901 760,068 141,270
58,871
11,781
Belgian) ....
111.
,641 121,
France ....
181,
452
Germany ....
682,166
Sweden and Norway .
612
— ".501
—
Javaand Philippine Islands
18,862
11,078
China ....
8 1 ■'•
Unite.l States .
991,009
158,568 1,069,297 15J
Others ....
Total .
10,152 85,613 |
8,169
1,131,891 3,500,144
;,398 i
AH countries
24,402,760 12,784,734 22,954,015
13,26-
The following are the values of the principal articles imported
and exported in 1890.
Imparts
■
Articles
Value
Wool
Woollen ami woollen
piece goods
Cottons
Sugar
Tea .
Live stock .
Tinilier
Iron and steel (exclu
rive of railway rails
telegraph wire, &c. )
Coal
All other articles
Total .
£
3,190,298
"..961
958,266
1,908,
666,
1,997,051
1,288,982
1,034.112
".589
11,078,720
122,954,015
Articles
Gold (inclusive ot
2,739,503
Wool ....
5,933,699 I
Live stock .
476,717
Leather, leatherware,
and leathern cloth .
212,910
Breadstuff's
507,482
Tea (re-export) .
367,865
Sugar (refined in Vic-
toria)
131,988
Apparel and slops
1*37,682
Tallow
156,851
All other articles.
2,571,525
Total .
6,222
298
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — VICTORIA
The values of the principal articles of import and export have
been as follows in the five years 1886-90 :— •
-
1886
1887
1888
£
1889
1890
Imports
£
£
£
£
Coal
510,768
533,577
617,325
753,048
745,589
Cottons .
962,126
825,883
1,129,334
952,262
958,266
Iron and steel .
818,799
726,636
977,928
1,002,840
1,034,112
Live stock
928,505
1,362,591
2,040,213
1,081,348
1,997,051
Sugar and molasses .
853,419
1,127,556
945,978
992,761
1,208,797
Timber .
1,170,539
760,553
1,420,349
1,390,036
1,288,982
Wool
2,331,599
2,778,927
2,704,060
3,595,449
3,190,298
Woollens
892,868
724,436
923,549
969,412
785,961
Exports
Gold, mostly specie .
1,947,703
1,254,546
3,690,519
2,280,326
2,739,503
Wheat
166,916
416,487
515,016
84,064
114,357
Live stock
393,889
529,782
406,777
538,973
476,717
Wool .
4,999,662
5,073,491
5,170,930
5,928,932
5,933,699
The quantity of wool exported in 1890 amounted to 132,149,027
lbs., valued at 5,933,699^., of which, however, less than half was
the produce of Victoria.
Of the total imports those arriving at the port of Melbourne were valued
at 18,102,266Z., and of the exports those shipped from Melbourne were
valued at 11,956,35U in 1890.
The commercial intercourse of Victoria with the United Kingdom (ex-
clusive of gold) is shown in the subjoined table, according to the ' Board of
Trade Returns,' for each of the five years from 1886 to 1890 : —
1886
1887
1888
£
1889 1890
£
£
£
£
Exports from
Victoria
4,853,667
5,515,129
5,844,201
5,500,105
3,968,662
Imports of
British pro-
duce .
6,766,784
5,959,984
8,877,069
7,721,118
7,101,848
The staple articles of export from Victoria to the United Kingdom an
wool and gold ; most of the latter exported goes to tin- United Kingdom. The
exports of wool to Great Britain wan as follows in each of the live yean from
1886 to 1890 :—
Years
Quantities
Value
Lbs.
£
1886
93,889,887
4,047,388
1887
«»C..2SS.<t:VJ
4,697,152
1888
106,587,076
4,971,504
1889
91,367,360
4,418,382
1890
98,300,002
4,930,739
IXTERXAL COMMUNICATIONS
299
Among the minor articles of merchandise exported to the United Kingdom
in 1890 were wheat and flour, of the value of 138,0607. : tallow. 14J.:
leather, 174,4882. : piosciiod and frozen meat, 17,482/. : hark, 92,128/. ;
sheep skins aii'l furs, 178,8152.
The British imports into Victoria embrace nearly all articles of home
maiiufai tim\ chief among them iron, wrought and unwrought (not including
railway rails ami telegraph wire), 1,157,8562. : hard wan and cutlery,
147,684/. ; woollen goods, 648,629/. : apparel and halienlashery.
cotton goods, 852,268/. : machinery, 310,822/. ; paper, 280,36*6/. ; beer and
ale, 183,601/., in 1890.
Shipping and Navigation.
The shipping inwanls and outwards has been as follows for fire years
Years
Entered
Cluawi
v. --..;>
Tons
v. -~. ;-
VSM
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
2,307
2.714
2,855
1,848,058
1,220,580
2,182,071
2,270,827
2,178,551
8,418
2,630
2,886
8,458
1,887.329
1,398,065
1.1 2;'., 81 2
2,328,351
.790
Of the vessels entered in 1890, 435 of 827,122 tons, and of those cleared
435 of 825,769 tons were British ; 1,855 of 1,076,710 tons entered, and
1,835 of 1,079,164 tons cleared, were colonial Of the total entered 1.967
of 2,051,826 tons, and cleared 1,954 of 2,045,156 tons, were at the port,
Melbourne.
The vessels on the register of the colony at the end of 1890 numbered 137
steamers of 43,39S tons, and sailing vessels 259 of 42,772 tons.
Internal Communications.
The railways in Victoria all lielong to the State. There were 2,688 miles
of railway completed at the end of 1890. Besides these 215 miles were in
course of construction.
The total cost of the lines open to June 30, 1890, was 34,370,031/. — of
which all but about 2,996,000/. was derived from loans — being about an
average of 13,915/. per mile for the miles open. The gross receipts in the vear
1889-90 amounted to 3,131,866/. : and the expenditure to 2,132,1582., or
68 "08 per cent, of the receipts : which latter proportion, however, was higher
than usual. The profit on working was thus 999, 708/. , being equivalent to
2 91 per cent, of the mean capital cost, or 3*18 of the borrowed capital, which
bears interest at the average rate of 4 14 per cent. The number of passengers
conveyed in the year 1889-90 was 71 millions, and the weight of goods and
live stock carried was 4,170,000 tons. The train mileage in 1889-90 was
11,773,152 miles. The proportions of receipts from passengers and good?
traffic to the total receipts were 54 and 46 per cent, respectively.
300 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — VICTORIA
The Post-Offiee of the Colony forwarded 62,526,448 letters, 7,491,316
packets, and 22,729,005 newspapers in the year 1890. Then were 1,671 post-
offices on December 81, 1890. The total postal revenue, including the receipts
from telegraphs, was approximately 526,400/. in the year 1890, and the
expenditure was 637,784/.
There were 6,958 miles of telegraph lines, comprising 13,499 miles of
wire, open at the end of 1890. The number of telegraphic despatches in
the year 1890 was 3,114,783. The revenue from telegraphs was 138,969/.
KB the year 1890. At the end of the year 1890 there were 748 telegraph
stations.
The telephone system included 395 miles of poles, 7,104 miles of wire, 66
miles of aerial cable, and 10 miles of underground cable.
Money and Credit
A branch of the Royal Mint was opened at Melbourne on June 12, 1872.
Up to Dec. 31, 1890, 12,024,524 oz. of gold, valued at 48,144,468/., was
received -at the mint, and gold coin and bullion issued of the value of
48,140,291/. No silver or bronze coin is Struck at the Melbourne Mint.
In 1890 there were 343 post-office savings-banks. At the end of the vear
there were 104,320 depositors, with a total balance of 1,996,093/.
At the end of 1890 Victoria had 16 banks, with 545 branches and agencies,
with notes in circulation, 1,543,340/., deposits 40,292,065/., the total
liabilities being 42,224,084/. ; gold and silver, coined and in bars, 7,183,319/. ;
landed property, 1,824,564/. ; advances, &c, 51,930,072/. ; total assets,
60,937,955/. Total paid-up capital, 13,389,662/.
Government Statist. — Henry Heylyn Hayter, C.M.G.
Agent- General of Victoria in Great Britain. — The Hon. James Monro,
appointed January 12, 1892.
Books of Reference.
Annual Statistical Register and Blue Book.
Report on Census of Victoria, 1881. By H. H. Hayter, C.M.G. Pol. Melbourne, 1883.
Handbook to the Colony of Victoria. By H. H. Hayter, C.M.G. (pamphlet). Fresh
editions issued from time to time.
Mineral Statistics of Victoria for the year 1890. Fol. Melbourne, i -
Report on the Vital Statistics of Melbourne and Suburbs. Bj ll. II. Hayter, C.M.G.
Published annually. Melbourne, 1891. '
Statistics of Friendly Societies in Victoria, with a Report by H. H. Hayter, C.M.G.
Published annually. Melbourne, 1S!M.
Statistics of Trades Unions in Victoria, with a Report bj ll. ll. Hayter, c.M.c;. Pub-
lished annually. Melbourne, 1891.
Victoria: Defence Reorganization Scheme. Melbourne, 1888.
Victorian fear Book, 1890-91. By H. ll. Hayter, C.M.G. Melbourne, ism.
i-'iun (Kdinund), Chronicles of Karly Melbourne, i vols, illustrated. Melbourne, 1889.
labttlitrs (Francis Peter), Karly Histon oJ the Colony of Victoria, from its Discovery to
its Establishment as a Self-governing Province of the British Empire. - vols. s. London.
[878.
llus,ini((i. W.). The Discovery, Survey, and Settlement of Port Phillip. 8. London. 18T8.
Wertgartk (Win.), The Colony of Victoria: its History. Commerce, and Gold-mining; its
Social and Political Institutions, s. London, 1864,
301
WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
Constitution and Government.
tern Australia was the last of the colonics on Ik
tinent to obtain responsible government. By an Act entitled
the "Western Australia Constitution Act, 1890." the adminis-
tration, which had before been vested in the Governor, as.-
by a Legislative Council, partly composed of nominated and
partly of elected members, was vested in the Governor and a
Legislative Council and Assembly, the Council to consist of 15
members, nominated in the first place by the Governor, and the
mhiy of .'50 elected members. The qualification for electors
is thi n of a freehold estate of the clear value of loo/. ;
of a leasehold estate of the value of 10/. per annum ; of a licence
from the Crown to depasture, occupy, cultivate or mine on Crown
lands on payment of 10/. annually ; the occupation of a dwelling
house of the clear value of 10/. per annum, or of a lodging which,
unfurnished, is of that value. There are 30 electoral
The duration of the Assembly is fixed at 4 years. The qnalifica-
t ion for membership of either House is a freehold estate of the
value of 500/. or of the annual value of 50/. Provision is made
that the members of the Legislative Council shall eventually be
elected, and not nominated by the Governor ; and power i
served to the Crown to divide the colony as may from time to
time be thought fit. The entire management and control of the
wa?-te lands of the Crown in Western Australia is vested in the
Legislature of the colony.
Governor. — Sir Wilham C. F. Robinson. K.C.M.G. ; entered
the service 1855 ; President of Montaerrat, 1862 ; administered
the Government of Dominica 1865 : Governor of Falkland Islands,
1866 ; Governor Prince Edward Island, 1870 ; Governor-in-Chief
Leeward Islands, 1874 ; Governor of Western Australia,
and again 1880; Governor Straits Settlements, 1877; special
mission to King of Siam, 1878; Governor South Australia, 1882
Acting Governor Victoria, 1889 ; again appointed Governor of
Western Australia, 1889.
The Governor has a salary of 3,000/. j«er annum. He is assisted in his
functions by a cabinet of responsible ministers, as follows : —
,nier and Treasurer. — Hon. Sir John Forrest, K.C.M.G. Chiej
Secretary.— Hon. Mr. Shenton. Attorney-General.— Hon. Mr. Butt.
missioncr of Lands. — Hon. Mr. Mamiion. Minister of Public Works.— Hon
Mr. Venn,
302
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Area and Population.
As defined by Royal Commission, Western Australia includes
all that portion of the continent situated to the westward of 129°
E. longitude. The greatest length of this territory is 1,480 miles
from north to south, and the greatest breadth 1,000 miles from
east to west, while the occupied portion of the colony is about 600
miles in length from north to south, by about 150 miles in average
breadth. The total estimated area of the colony is 1,060,000
English square miles, including islands. It is divided into 20
districts. •
Western Australia was first settled in 1829, and for many years the
population was small. In 1850 the colony had not more than 6,000 in-
habitants, but at the census of December 1859 the population had risen to
14,837— namely, 9,522 males and 5,315 females. On December 31, 1867,
the population numbered 21,713, comprising 13,934 males and 7,779 females.
At the census taken on March 31, 1870, the total population was 25,353, of
whom 15,565 were males and 9,788 females. Included in these numbers
were 1,790 male prisoners, either in prisons or at working depots in various
parts of the colony.
At the census of 1881 the population of the colony was 29,708 ; and the
results of the census of April 5, 1891, gave a total population of 49,782 —
29,807 males and 19,975 females. This shows an increase since 1881 of
20,074, or 67 '57 per cent, being at the rate of 6-75 per cent, per annum.
These figures do not include the aborigines, of whose numbers it is difficult to
give even an approximate estimate, scattered as they are over an extensive
territory, much of which is yet entirely unknown. There were 5,670 aborigines
in service in the colony in 1891. Of the total population in 1891, 27,825
were returned as being natives of Western Australia, and 34,271 as being
unmarried. Of the unmarried population, 21,577 were males and 12,694
females, while of the unmarried population over 21 years of age, 10,126
were males and 1,990 were females. Perth, the capital, had 9,617 inhabitants
in 1891 ; Frenrantle, 7,077. In 1890 there were 1,561 births and 540 deaths,
giving a surplus of 1,021 ; there were 3,567 arrivals and 1,996 departures —
excess of arrivals over departures 1571. The total estimated population on
December 31, 1890, was 46,290—26,794 males and 19,496 females. During
1889 there were 300 marriages in the colony.
Religion.
The religious division ot the population was as follows at the census of
1891 :—
Religious Divisions
Number
Per cent. !
Religious Divisions
Number
Pear cent.
3-16
4-01
8 '88
Church of Eng-
land
Roman Catholics
Wesleyans
24,769
12,464
l,55«
4975
■2 .VDI
9 15
Independents . 1,573
Presbyterians . 1,996
Other religions
not specified . 4,420
[N8TBUCTION — PAUPERISM
S03
Instruction.
Of the total white population above 15 years in 1891 1320 per cent, could
neither read nor write. Education is compulsory.
The following table shows the average cost per head and attendance in
Government schools and in assisted schools in 1876, 1880, and 1890.
No.of Schools Xo. of Scholars Av. Attendance i Cost per Head
58
67
>2
2,475
2,719
3,352
2,004
2,102
2,535
d.
3
Hi
1H
Schools
1876
1880
1890
Assisted Schools
1876
1880
1890
The total sum paid in salaries to teachers and other school officials in 1890
was 10,302/. 10*. 3d.
Justice and Crime.
The following table gxrei the number of offences, apprehensions, and
convictions for the four years 1887-90 : —
22
1,389
1,097
1
10
1
19
1,327
1,006
1
11
.
19
1,662
1,283
1
/
74
-
1887
1889
1890
Offences reported to police .
Apprehended by }>oliee or sum-
moned .....
Summary convictions .
Convictions in superior courts
5,816 | 5,064
5,363 ' 4,651
3,562 • 3,144
75 64
4,752
4,378
2,979
62
5,122
4,690
3,201
41
On December 31, 1890, there were 148 convicts in the colony, 66 employed
on the public works, 3 in hospital, 2 in a lunatic asylum, 39 * ticket-ofdeave
holders in private service, and 38 conditional release holders. The total
number of persons committed to prison in 1890 was 1,201—1,063 men, 122
women, and 16 juveniles.
Paupsrism.
There are two poordiouses— both situated in Perth — supported by public
funds, with 168 inmates on December 31, 1890. Thirteen hospitals and one
lunatic asylum are also supported by public funds, and there are two Protestant
ami two Roman Catholic orphanages partly supported bv private subscriptions
and partly ont of public money. There are also three "native and half-caste
institutions supported in a similar manner. There is a daily average (1890)
of 408 paupers in the colony. The number of friendly societies in the colony
•ml connected with them are about 3,000 persons.
304 THE BRITISH EMPIRE :— WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Finance.
The revenue and expenditure of the colony in 1880, 1885 and
the last four years were as follows : —
Years
Revenue
Expenditure
£
£
1880
180,049
204,337
1885
323,213
308,848
1887
377,903
456,897
1888
357,003
385,129
1889
*442,725
386,000
1890
414,313
401,737
* Including £60,512 recouped from loan.
The expenditure for 1891 was estimated at 346,684?.
Rather more than one-third of the public income is derived
from customs duties, and the rest mainly from licences and leases
of Crown lands, mining and other licences, land sales, and rail-
way receipts. Western Australia had a public debt of 1,367,444?.
at the end of 1890. The rate of interest varies from 6 per cent,
on a small loan of 35,000?. raised in 1872, to 4 per cent, on the
four loans raised since 1881. The annual charge for interest is
57,614?., and there is a further suin of 14,161/. set apart annually
as a sinking fund. The sinking fund on December 31, 1890,
amounted to 73,194?.
Defence.
There are no regular forces in Western Australia, and no military works
in the colony. There is a force of volunteers consisting of two divisions of a
battery of artillery and eight companies of infantry armed with t ho Martini-
Henry rifle. The total number of officers is 30, ami of men (558. There is a
capitation grant of 11. 10s. per efficient, and the total expenditure of the
volunteer department for 1890 was 4,013/.
Production and Industry.
The agricultural prosperity of the colony has greatly increased in re. nit
years ; still there were only 122,032 acres of land under cultivation at the
end of 1890, out of a total of 678,400,22:! acres. The live stock consisted, in
1890, of 44,384 horses, 130,970 cattle, and 3,524,918 sheep. At the census
of 1891, 8,746 persons were returned as directly engaged in agricultural
pursuits- exclusive of their families : 6,880 persons were engaged in industrial
pursuits.
In 1890, of the cultivated area, ;'.:(, 820 acres were under wheat, 5.322
under barley, 1,934 under oats, and 28,4.88 under hay. The total area
alienated in the colony tip to the end of 1890 was fc, 1(4,678 acres, of which
1,888,768 acres were alienated during 1890, The average produce pet acre
u:i wheal i-"»:'t bushels, barley Mi.1, bushel] bushels, maize (only
80 acres) 15 bushels, and hay one ton to the aire. Then- were in 1890
COMMERCE
305
1,023| acres under vines, producing an average of 190 gallons of wine to
the acre, which sold at prices varying from 5*. to 8«. the gallon. There
are gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, and coal mines in the colony. Gold
exported during 1890, 22,806 oz., valued at 86,664/. There are few manu-
factures.
Along the river-courses of the north and north-east of the colony are
about 20,000,000 acres of fairly well-watered country, affording good
pasturage.
Commerce.
The total value of the imports and exports, including bullion and specie, of
Western Australia, in the hve years from 1886 to 1890, is shown in the sub-
joined statement : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1889 1S90
Imports .
Exports .
£
758,012
630,393
832,213
604,656
786,250
680,345
£ £
818,127 874,447
761,391 i 671,813 |
The following table shows the character of the duties levied on the imports
for 1889 and 1890 :—
Value of goods imported subject to specific duti
duty free
20 % doty
12J%duty
5 % dutv
1889.
1890.
£
390,196
365,645
15,608
20,914
293,152
70,664
45,435
291,898
73,736
125,326
Total
818,127 874.447
The chief exports are :— Gold, value in 1886, 1,207/. : in 1889, 58,871/. ;
in 1890, 86,664/. ; pearls, value in 1889, 30,000/. ; in 1890, 40,000/. ; pearl-
shell, value in 1889, 88,555/. ; in 1890, 86,292/. ; sandal-wood, value in 1889,
57,465/., in 1890, 51,355/. ; timber, value in 1889, 63,080/., in 1890, 82,052/. ;
wool, value in 1889, 395,903/., in 1890, 360,934/.
The value of the commercial intercourse of Western Australia with Great
Britain, according to the Board of Trade returns, is shown in the following
table, which gives the total exports of the colony to Great Britain, and the
total imports of British home produce, in each of the five years from 1886 to
1890 :—
1886
1887
1888
1889
1S90
Exports from Wes-
tern Australia
Imports of British
produce . ,
£
268,673
380,417
£
295,053
345,045
i
367,549 I 394,504
318,621 | 347,918
£
530,591
464,209
The exports of the colony to Great Britain consist almost entirely of wool
Bud shells. The value of the wool exports was 146,202/. in 1878, 233,345/.
in 1885, 210,465/. in 1886, 229,069/. in 1887, 265,180/. in 1888, 309,587/. in
1889, 449,756/. in 1890. The local export returns give the entire wool
exports in 1890 as 9,625,632 lbs., while tbe Board of Trade returns give the
306
THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WESTERN AUSTRALIA
wool exports to Great Britain in 1890 as 11,328,780 lbs. The shells exported
tiith-eat Britain in 1890 were valued at 62,735/. The chief imports from
Great Britain in 1890 were iron, value 140,031/. ; apparel, 64,354/. ; beer and
ale, 29,790; cotton; 19,140/. ; machinery, 17,889/.; leather, 20,087/.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1890, 281 vessels of 184,534 tons entered, and 267 of 420,327 tons
cleared, the ports of the colony.
There were 589 miles of railway open for traffic at the end of 1890, and 12
miles under construction, as well as 295 partly under construction, and 369
miles under survey.
In 1890 there were 2,921 miles of telegraph line within the colony, 3,469
miles of wire, and 516 miles under construction. From Albany the wire
extends to South Australia. The number of stations is 42. The number of
messages sent was 196,536, the gross charges amounted to 18,358/., and the
net revenue to 10,890/.
In 1890 there passed through the Post Office 3,175,651 letters and post-
cards, 2",135,906 newspapers, anil 329,871 packets.
Money and Credit.
There are five banks in Western Australia besides the Post Office Savings
Bank. The following table gives the principal figures relating to them : —
Name
Capital
pairl up
Notes in
Circula-
tion
Deposits
£
253,866
308,905
354,319
46,840
47,545
Total
Liabilities
£
279,012
326,457
381,108
48,429
49,835
Total
Assets
Reserve
Fund at end
of Decem-
ber 1890
Western Aus-
tralian Bank .
National Bank
of Australasia
Union Bank of
i Australasia .
Bank of New
; South Wales .
1 lotnmercial
Bank of Aus-
tralia .
70,000
1,000,000
1,500,000
1,250,000
1,200,000
£
14,817
17,277
23,063
1,589
2,193
£
418,757
674,432
339,278
129,781
148,657
£
83,258
701,090
1,120,378
960,000
1,000,000
At the end of 1889 the Post Office Savings Bank had 31,062/. on deposit,
on which l.oxi/. interest was allowed, During 1890 deposits of the value o\
21,5582. were made, and interest 1,115/. was allowed. The amount with-
drawn during the year was 20,1991, leaving a balance of 84,6151. on deposit
on Decemher 81, 1890.
Books of Reference.
Annual Fear-Book.
Amim a! Blue Honk.
Censxwof the Ckuony of Western Australia, taken on the 6th April, 1881. Pol. Perth
Vavtne (Ernest), Western Australia: it- Pasl History, Present Trade and Resources
and its Future Position In the Australian Group. Sydney. 1887.
Vfeotay (Rev. C OA Handbook ofWestern Australia. P«rth(W. A.), 1880.
The year-Book of Western Australia. Perth, 1891.
AUSTRALASIAN PKDKBATfOH ••>(»,
Australian Defence.
Sydney is a first-class naval station, the head-quarters of the
British fleet in Australasia. In 1891 there were 15 imperial war
- on the station. By the " Australasian Naval Fame Act."
which was assented to on December 20, 1887, a fleet of five fast
cruisers, each of 2,575 tons displacement and 7,500 horse-power,
and two torpedo boats on the most improved modem build, each
<>t 7.1") tons and 4,500 horse-power, are to be equipped for the
Australian seas. An agreement which has been entered into for
a period of ten years, afterwards terminable by two years' notice.
provides that the vessels shall be built by the British Govern-
ment, and that those of the Australian colonies who are parties
to the agreement shall pay interest at the rate of 5 per cent, on
the original cost, and all costs of maintenance. Upon the termi-
nation of the agreement the vessels will remain the property of
the British Government. These vessels have now been completed,
and are stationed at Sydney.
Australasian Federation.
The question of the Federation of the Australian Colonics, which has
recently assumed so prominent a jtosition, is by no means a new idea. Among
tlie proposals made when the scheme for granting responsible government to
Australia was originally itiwyHnod. about the year 1852, was one for the
establishment of a General Assembly to make laws in relation to intercolonial
(piestions. The proposition was, however, involved with others of a more
questionable nature, ami consequently sank out of sight, so that the subject of
Federation for many years attracted little or no attention from the public at
large, until in various ways, especially in regard to postal matters and
questions of defence, the lienefits of united action among the Colonies of the
Australasian group became more apparent. Some years ago the movement
took such shape that, as the result of an Intercolonial Conference, the matter
< aim- lief ore the Imperial Parliament, and a measure was passed permitting
the formation of a Federal Council, to which any Colony that felt inclined
could send delegates. The first meeting of the Federal Council was held at
Hobart, in January, 1886. The Colonies represented were Victoria, Queens-
land. Tasmania, Western Australia, and Fiji New South Wales, South
Australia, and New Zealand, declined to join, but South Australia sent repre-
sentatives to a subsequent meeting. The Federal Council met four times in
all, and discussed several matters of intercolonial interest ; but as it was
purely a deliberative body, without means or authority to take legislative
action, its proceedings failed to satisfy those who advocated the estab-
lishment of Federation as an active political principle, and agitation was
instituted with a view of bringing about a change. The first important step
in this direction was taken in February, 1890, when a Conference, consisting
of representatives of each of the seven Colonies of Australasia, was held in the
Parliament House, Melbourne. An address to the Queen was adopted by the
Conference, expressing their loyalty and attachment, and inclosing certain
resolutions to which they had agreed. These resolutions affirmed the desir-
ableness of an early union of the Australian Colonies ; that the remoter
Australasian Colonies should be entitled to future admission to the union :
X 2
308 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — WESTERN AUSTRALIA
and that steps should he taken towards the appointment of delegates from
each of the Colonies to a National Australasian Convention, empowered to
consider and report upon an adequate scheme for a Federal Constitution. On
Monday, March 2nd, 1891, the National Australasian Convention met at the
Parliament House, Sydney, New South Wales, and was attended hy seven
representatives from each Colony, except New Zealand, which only sent three.
Sir Henry Parkes (New South Wales) was elected President of the Convention,
and Sir Samuel Griffith (Queensland), Vice-President. A series of resolutions,
moved by Sir Henry Parkes, occupied the attention of the Convention for
several days. These resolutions set forth the principles upon which Federal
Government should be established, which were to the effect that the powers
and privileges of existing Colonies should be kept intact, except in cases
where surrender would be necessary in order to form a Federal Government ;
that intercolonial trade and intercourse should be free ; that power to im-
pose Customs duties should rest with the Federal Government and Parlia-
ment ; and that the naval and military defence of Australia should be
entrusted to the Federal Forces, under one command. The resolutions then
went on to approve of a Federal Constitution which should establish a Federal
Parliament to consist of a Senate a and House of Representatives ; that a
Judiciary, to consist of a Federal Supreme Court, to be a High Court of
Appeal for Australia, should be established ; and that a Federal Executive,
consisting of a Governor-General, with responsible advisers, should be con-
stituted. These resolutions were discussed at great length, and eventually
were adopted. The resolutions were then referred to three Committees
chosen from the delegates, one to consider Constitutional Machinery and the
distribution of powers and functions ; one to deal with matters relating to
Finance, Taxation, and Trade Regulations ; and the other to consider the
question of the establishment of a Federal Judiciary. A draft Bill, to con-
stitute the "Commonwealth of Australia," was brought up by the first-
mentioned of these Committees, and after full consideration was adopted by
the Convention, and it was agreed that the Bill should be presented to each of
the Australian Parliaments for approval and adoption. On Thursday, April
9th, the Convention closed its proceedings.
The Bill to provide for the Federation of the Australasian colonies entitled
'A Bill to constitute a Commonwealth of Australia, ' which was drafted by the
National Australasian Convention, has been introduced into the Parliaiiirnis
of most of the colonies of the group, and is now (September, 1891) under con-
sideration. In Victoria it has passed the Lower House with some amendments.
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning
Australasia generally.
1. Official Publications.
Each of the colonies publishes an Annual Blue Hook ami .statistical Register, containing
Annual Reports of the various administrative, industrial, criminal, educational, and other
departments.
Australasia: Despatch on the subject Of a Draft. Bill In constitute a Federal Council of
Australasia. London, 1884.
Australasian Statistics, published annually, with Report, by II. II. Ilaxtcr, C.M.G.,
Covernment Statist of Victoria. Melbourne.
Australasian Statistics, published annually, by T. A. Coghlan, A.M.Inst.C.E., Govern-
ment Statistician of New South Wales. Sydney.
Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 1888. Handbooks to the various Australian Colonies,
New Zealand, and Fiji.
Colonial Office Test. Published annually.
Federal Council of Australasia, Session IR86. Official Record of Debates. Hobart, 1886.
PACIFIC ISLANDS
Statistical Abstract for the several Colonial and other Possessions of the United Kingdom
in each year from 1876 to 1880. X.. XXVIII. s. London, 18BL
Official Record of the Proceedings and Delates of th.- National Australasian Convention,
held in the Parliament House. Svdnev, New 8outh Wales, March and April. 1891. London,
tan.
The Year-Book of Australia, 1892. Edited by Edward Greville, Published annually.
Loudon. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner * Co., Limited.
Trade of Great Britain with Australasia ; in ' Annnal Statement of the Trade and Navi-
gation of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year
1890.' Imp. 4. London, 1891.
. 2. Non-Official Publicati
Bate/ (H. W.) and Eden (C. H.), Colonel Warburton's Journey across Australia. 8.
London, 1875.
Blair's Cyclopsedia of Australasia. Melbourne, 1881.
Cotton (J. 8.) and Payne (E. J.), Colonies and Dependencies, in ' English Citizen Series.
London, 1888.
Curr (E. M.), The Australian Race. Melbourne, 1887.
Dilke (Sir Charles Went worth, Bart., M.P.), Greater Britain: a Record of Travel in
English-Speaking Countries in 1866 and 1867. New edit. 8. London.
Dilke (8ir C. W.), Problems of Greater Britain. 2 vols. Londoi
Favrnc (Ernest). The History of Australian Exploration. Sydney. 1888.
Finch-Hatton (Hon. H.), Advance, Australia : an Account of Eight Years' Work, Wander-
ing, and Amusement in Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria. London, 1885.
Forrett (John), Explorations in Australia. 8. London, 1875.
Froude(3. A.), Oceana; or, England and her Colonies. London, 1886k
OiUt (E.), Australia Twice Traversed. 2 vols. London, 1890.
Gordon Sf Gotch't Australian Handbook for 1889. Melbourne and London, 1888.
Hardman (Win.), John M'Douall Stuart's Journals of Explorations in Australia from
1858 to 1862. 8. London, 1866.
Heaton (J. H.), Australian Dictionary of Dates and Men of the Time. 8. London and
Sydney, 1879.
Bowitt(W.), History of Discovery in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand.
8. London, 1865.
Inglit (James), Our Australian Cousins. 8. London, 1880.
Powell (G. S. B), New Homes for the Old Country. A personal apattnaa of the ]olitical
and domestic life, the industries, and the national history of Australia and New Zealand. 8.
London, I'-Tl'.
Beelu»(E.), Geographie Universelle. Vol. XIV. Paris, 1889.
Rutden (G. W.), The History of Australia. 3 vols. London, l
Silver (8. W.). Handlxxik for Australia and New Zealand. 8. London, 1880.
Todd (A.), Parliamentary Government in the British Colonies. 8. London, 1880.
Topinard (Dr. P.), F-tude sur les races indigenes de l'Australie. Instructions presentees
a la Societe d'Anthropologie. 8. Paris. 1874
Trollope (Anthony), Australasia and New Zealand. 8. London, 1873. New edit 1875.
Wallace (A. R.), Australia. London, 1879.
Wettgarth (William), Haifa Century of Australian Progress. London, 1889.
Wood* (Rev. J. E. Tenison), History of the Discovery and Exploration of Australia.
2 vols. 8. London, 1866.
PACIFIC ISLANDS.
Lying all round Australia anil New Zealand are many small island
groups, islets, and reefs which may be regarded as integral parts of these
colonies. Others at a considerable distance to the south are unattached
and mostly uninhabited. Among them, south from Australia and Nt m
Zealand, are Royal Company Island, Maequarie Island, Emerald Island,
Campbell Island, Antipodes, and Bounty Islands.
Scattered over the Pacific are several small groups and detached islets,
many of which have been annexed to Great Britain or placed under British
protection. The principal of them are the following, beginning at the east,
south of the equator : —
DuctE Island, 24° 40' S. lat,, 124° 48' W. long.
310 THE BRITISH EMPIRE: — PACIFIC ISLANDS
Cook's, or Hbetbt Islands, between 18° and 22° S. lat., 157 J and 163°
W. long. There are six islands and about nine islets and reefs. The largest,
Raratonga, is 53 miles in circumference, with a population of 3,000.
Mangaia lias 2,000 inhabitants; Vatui, or Atui, 20 miles in circumference,
1,200 inhabitants ; Hervey Islands, three small islets. Aitutaki, 18 miles in
circumference, 2,000 inhabitants. Palmerston Islands, group of islets. Other
islets are Takutea, Mitiero, and Mauki.
Savage, or Niue Island, 21° S. lat., 171° W. long.
Manihiki Gj loup, including Reirson or Rakoango, Manihiki or Humphry,
Penrhyn or Tongarewa,Vostok and Flint Islands, lying around 10° S. lat. and
between 150° and 160° W. long.
Suvakof Islands, 13° 14' S. lat., 163° W. long.
Dudoza Island, 7° 40' S. lat., 161° W. long.
Union, or Tokelatj Group, between 8° 30' and 11° S. lat., audi 71° and
172° W. long. Three clusters of islets, the principal of which are Fakaafo or
Bowditch, Nukunono or Duke of Clarence, Oatafu or Duke of York.
Phoenix Group, between 2° 30' and 4° 30' S. lat, and 171° and 174° 30'
W. long. Eight islands : Mary, Enderbury, Phoenix, Birney, Gardner,
McKean, Hall, Sydney.
Maldkn Island, 4° S. lat., 155° W. long.
Starbuck Island, 5° 30' S. lat, 155° W. long.
Penrhyn, or Tongarewa Island, 9° S. lat, 158° W. long.
Caroline Island, 10° S. lat, 150° 30' W. long.
Lagoon, or Ellice Islands, between 5° 30' and 11" 20' S. lat., and 176°
and 180° E. long. Nine islands and islet groups. The principal arc Sophia
or Rocky Island, Nukulaelae or Mitchell Group, Ellice, Nukufetau, Vaitupu,
Netherland, Lynx.
Christmas Island, 1° 57' N. lat, 157° 27' W. long.
Fanning Island, 3° 50' N. lat., 159° W. long.
Washington Island, 4° 40' N. lat., 160° 20' W. long.
Jarvis Island, on the equator, 159° W. long.
These islands are mostly of coral formation ; many of them are uninhabited,
or only temporarily inhabited ; most of them grow coco-nut trees in luge
quantities, and some of them are valuable for their guano. They are of im-
portance as being stages in the proposed telegraph route from British Columbia
to Australia and New Zealand, ami also as coaling stations for steamers along
that route, and between the Isthmus of Panama and Australia and Ra
Asia. For further details concerning these islands see Finlav's ' Pacific Direc-
tories,' Meinecke's 'Die Inseln des Stillen Oceans,' Wallace's 'Australasia, '
Reclus' 'Geographic Universelle,' vol. xiv.
The High Commissioner of the Western Pacific, who is Governor of Fiji,
has jurisdiction, in accordance with an Order in Council of 1877, for the
purpose of carrying out the provisions of the Pacific Islanders' Protection Acts
of 1872 and 1875, and to settle disputes between British subjects living in
these islands. The jurisdiction of the High Commissioner extends oyer all the
Western Pacific not within the limits of Fiji, Queensland, orNe* South Wales,
or the jurisdiction of any civilised Power, and includes the Southern Solomon
Islands, New Hebrides, Samoa Islands, Tonga Islands, and the various small
groups in Melanesia.
PART THE SECOND
FOREIGN COUNTRIKS.
313
AFGHANISTAN.
Ak(,ha.m>tan is a country of Asia lying between parallels 30" and 38° 20'
of north latitude, and 60' 30' and" 74J 30' of east longitude. On the
north it is bounded, roughly sp .-.iking, by the river Oxus, from the
Pamir to Khamiab, whence the line, as drawn by the Afghan Boundary
Commission, runs in a south-westerly direction to Zulfikar, on the river
Hari-Rud, and theme south to Kuh Malik-i-Siyah, a caiMfifflMWH peak
south-east of the Helmand river. Here the Ixmndary turns round and runs
generally eastwardly to the Kwiija Amran range. The eastern boundary of
Afghanistan is difficult, if not imjwssible, to define exactly, for though
geographically it may be said to march with the north-western boundary of
British India, from a jiolitical point of view there are a number of tribes
inhabiting the Zhob Valley and the Waziri country, besides the region
between the Hindu Rush and the western confines of Kashmir, embracing
Kafiristan, Chitral, Swat, and part of the Indus basin, who own little or no
allegiance to the Amir. Extreme breadth from north to south is about 500
miles ; its length from the Herat frontier to the Khaibar Pass, about
600 miles. The surrounding countries are, on the north, the Central Asian
States, under the influence of Bokhara and Russia ; on the west, Persia ;
on the south, British Baluchistan ; and on the east, as already mentioned, the
mountain tribes scattered along the north-western frontier of India.
Abdur Rahman Khan. G.C.S.I., the reigning sovereign or Amir, is son of
Afzul Khan, and grandson of Dost Muhammad Khan. He was recognized as
Amir by the British Government in July 1880, after the events following on
the massacre of Sir L. Cavagnari
The origin of the Afghans is involved in obscurity. The Pathan
dynasties of Delhi form part of Indian history. The whole of Afghanistan
was conquered by Timur, Kabul remaining in the hands of his descendants,
and Kandahar being added to it by Sultan Bahar in 1522. For the next
two centuries Kabul was held by the Mughal Emperors of Delhi, and
Herat by Persia, while Kandahar repeatedly changed hands between the
two. Nadir Shah, the Persian, held the Afghan provinces till his assassina-
tion in 1747, after which the different provinces were formed into a single
empire under Ahmad Shah Durani, including the Punjab and Kashmir on
the east, and extending to the Oxus on the north. The restoration of Shah
Shuja by the British forces under Sir John Keane in 1838 led to continued
insurrections against the new ruler, culminating in the terrible revolt
of 1841. In 1878 war was declared by England, and her troops eventually
captured Kabul. Sher Ali fled and died in Afghan Turkistau, his son
Yakub Khan being acknowledged as Amir, while a British envoy and
escort was installed in the citadel of Kabul. On September 3, 1879, a
serious riot developed into a massacre of the envoy and his followers, and
a fresh invasion of the country took place. In 1880 the British forces were
withdrawn from the Khaibar and the Kxirani, and from Kandahar to Quetta.
Abdur Rahman has since successfully maintained his position.
The government of Afghanistan is monarchical under one hereditary
prince, whose ]>ower varies with his own character and fortune. The domi-
nions are politically divided nto the four provinces of Kabul, Turkistau, Herat,
and Kandahar, to which may be added the district of Badakshan with its
314 AFGHANISTAN
dependencies. Each province is under a hakim or governor (called Naib
in Slier All's time), under whom nobles dispense justice after a feudal fashion.
Spoliation, exaction, and embezzlement are almost universal.
The Amir's subjects number about four millions, the most numerous tribe
being the Ghilzais, who must amount to at least a million ; then follow the
Tajiks, Duriinis, Hazaras, and Aimaks, and Uzbegs. The Tajiks, who are
found scattered all over the country, are presumably of Arab or Persian descent,
and though they are found intermingled with Afghans, they are more settled,
and prefer agricultural or industrial occupations. The Ghilzais occupy the
country south-east of Kabul, while the Duranis inhabit the country north and
south of the road between Herat and Kandahar ; north of these lie the
Paropamisus Mountains, inhabited by the Aimaks and Hazaras, who are said
to be the descendants of Tartar colonies left by Ghinghis Khan, arid who have
undoubted Tartar lineaments. With the exception of the Kizilbashis and
most of the Hazaras, who are Shias, the inhabitants are Muhammadans of the
Suni sect.
Justice in ordinary cases is supposed to be administered by a kazi, or chief
magistrate, assisted by muftis, or mutaassibs (the latter a species of detective
officers), and regulated by laws, which, if rightly acted on, would be tolerably
equitable.
The revenue of Afghanistan is subject to considerable fluctuations. One of
the late Amir Sher All's ministers estimated the average annual revenue of the
five years 1872-76 at 712,968/., but subsequent events have made it im-
possible to estimate the present revenues. The Government share of the
produce recoverable is said to vary from one-third to one-tenth, according to
the advantages of irrigation.
Abdur Rahman is said to have re-introduced the regular army, which had
been originally founded on a European model by Sher AH on his return from
India in 1869. In addition to his regular army the Amir's military forces arc
largely supplemented by local levies of horse and foot. The mounted levies
are simply the retainers of great chiefs, or of the latter's wealthier vassals.
The foot levies are now, under Abdur Rahman, permanently embodied, and as
irregulars form a valuable auxiliary to the regular infantry. Tfce artillery
branch is very weak, as there are few trained gunners, the force being made
up by infantry drafts when required. There are no engineers, but a few
regiments have a company equipped with spades and axes. No trust-
worthy statistics regarding the strength of the Afghan army are available.
It was said at the beginning of 1890 to number 50,000. In July 1890,
there were said to be 20,000 troops in and about Kabul, inducting six
mule batteries of artillery, two field batteries, an elephant batteiy, 40
squadrons of cavalry, and 8,000 infantry. Ammunition is manufactured at
the Kabul arsenal, under the superintendence of Englishmen in the Amir's
service. According to Russian reports, the troops in Afghan-Turkistan com-
prised, in 1887, 7,700 regular infantry with 76 guns, besides cavalry and
irregulars.
There are five classes of cultivators — 1st, proprietors, who cultivate their
own land ; 2nd, tenants, who hire it for a rent in money or for a tixed
proportion of the produce : 3rd, buzgurt, who are the same as the mt'fi':- n ill
Frame ; 4th, hired labourers : and, ;">th. villeins, who cultivate their lord's
land without wages i.r. slaves. There are two harvests in the year
in most parts of Afghanistan. One of these is sown in the end of autumn
and reaped in summer, and consists of wheat, barley, Ercitm /,<•>«, and
Giccr arietinurn, with some peas and beans. The other harvest is sown in the
end of spring and leaped in autumn. It consists of rice, millet, arzun
(Panicitm itaiieum), Indian corn, ice. The castor-oil plant, madder, and the
TRADE
315
tad* plant abound. Vast quantities ot ■suafaitida are exported to
India.
The fruits, viz. the apple, pear, almoin!, psaeh, quhMe, apricot, plum,
cherry, pomegranate, grape, tig, niulU-rry, are produced in pvofuM abundance.
They form the principal food of a lai_ the ]«-oplr throughout the
year, both in the fresh ami preserved state, and in the latter condition are
exported in gnat quantities.
Northern Afghanistan is reputed to be tolerably rieh in capper, and
lead is found in many parte. Ism of excellent qua!: from Bajaur
and the Fanniili district, and gold in small quantities is brought from Kanda-
har, the Laghman Hills, aud Kunar. Badakshan was famous for its precious
stones.
The production of silks and the manufacture of felts, poslins, carpets, and
rosaries are some of the principal industries. Silk is largely produ.
Kandahar, as well as felts, which are distributed throughout the country, and
exported to the Punjab and Persia. The sheepskin postin manufacture is one
of the most important industries.
The trade routes of Afghanistan are as follows : —
From Persia by Mashad to Herat.
Bokhara by Merv to Herat.
,, by Karchi, Balkh, and Khulm to Kabul.
East Turkistan by Chitral to Jalalabad.
India by the Khaibar and Abkhana roads to Kabul.
,, by the Gumal Pass to Ghazni.
,, by the Bolan Pass and Sind-Pishin Railway to Kandahar.
Trade.
Xo accurate registration of the trade between Afghanistan and India has
yet l>eeu obtained. Of the trade carried by the Sind-Pishin Railway, amount-
ing in value to Rx. 2,500,000 in 1889-90, probably only one-sixth can lie
classed as imports and exports between the two countries. The trade between
Northern Afghanistan (Kabul) and India, during the past five years ending
March 31, has been registered as follows : —
Imports from India
Exports to India .
1887. Rx.
636,300
257,400
L88& Etc
574,900
BT.6O0
1889. Rx. 1890. Rx.
526,800
187,300
796,600
325,300
1S91. Rx.
168,870
MS,
Of the above imports, the chief items are cotton goods, indigo, sugar, and
tea, mostly the China leaf. The exports include horses, spices, assafoetida,
fruits, and nuts. The heavy transit duties levied by the Amir prohibit
transit trade between India and the country' north of the Oxus. A duty of
106 rupees is levied on every camel load (about 4501bs.) of Indian tea passing
through Kabul to Bokhara.
The trade between Kandahar and British India amounted in the latter year
to Rs. 56,914 imports from, and Rs. 169,330 exports to British India.
The value of the trade between Russian Central Asia and Afghanistan is
indeterminable, but it is stated that in 1890, 3,944,568 roubles' worth of
Russian merchandise was imported into Afghanistan from Bokhara ; while the
exports to Bokhara were valued at 3,983,270 roubles.
316 AFGHANISTAN
The rupee appears to be the visual currency, though Government demands
are often paid in kind. But little gold coinage is now current in Afghanistan.
The common gold currency is either Russian or Bokharan, with a limited
number of 6-rupee pieces struck by the late Amir.
The Khaibar and Bolan roads are excellent, and fit for wheeled traffic as
far as Kabul and Kandahar respectively. There is, however, no wheeled
carriage, except artillery, proper to the country, and merchandise is transported
on camel or pony back. There are practically no navigable rivers in Afghan-
istan, and timber is the only article of commerce conveyed by water, floated
down stream in rafts.
Books of Eeference.
Bellew, Afghanistan and the Afghans, London, 1879 ; and The Races of Afghanistan, ,1880.
Burnes, Cabool. 1843.
Kaye, History of the War in Afghanistan. 4th edition. 1878.
Malleson, History of Afghanistan. 2nd edition. 1879.
Hensman, The Afghan War of 1879-80. London, 1881.
Major C. E. Yate, Northern Afghanistan. London, 1888.
Oliver, Across the Border, or Pathan ami Biluch. London, 1890.
31"
AFRICA: CENTRAL INDEPENDENT
STATES.
Tiiere still remain certain independent States in Central and
South Africa about which it may be useful to give here such infor-
mation as 18 obtainable with respect to their political, religions, in-
dustrial, and commercial condition. These are the < 'kntkai. Si dan
States Bornu and Wadai (on which Kaium and Bagirmi are
dependent) : Dahomey, in the Gold Coast interior. Under this
head may also be included the old Egyptian Sudan. In 1890,
Uganda, Unyoro, the northern half of Ruanda, and a small part
of Karagwe, were included in the sphere of the Imperial British
East African Company; while the south half of Ruanda and the
rest of Karagwe were included in the German East African Pro-
tectorate. In 1891 Lands (the Muata Yanvo's Kingdom) was
divided between Portugal and the Congo Free State. The region
lying between the eastern boundary of the Fiench sphere in the
Sahara, the western hnutfl of Egypt, the country of Fezzan in the
north, and the Central Sudan in the south, is still unanne.xed. It
contains the mountainous inhabited region of Tibesti.
CENTRAL SUDAN STATES.1
BORNU.
Bornu, that is. Bar-noa, or ' Laud of Noah,' if not the largest, is the most
populous Mohammedan State in Central Sudan. It occupies the western and
southern sides of Lake Chad, being conterminous on the south-east with
Bagirmi, from which it is separated by the Shari River, and stretching thence
westwards to the Empire of Sokoto. Approximate area, 50,000 square miles ;
population estimated at over 5,000.000. The bulk of the inhabitants, who
call themselves Ka-nuri, that is, ' People of Light, ' are of mixed Negro and
Dasa (southern Tibu) descent, and speak a Tibu dialect that has been reduced
to written term by the Protestant missionaries. The other chief elements of
the population are the Tuareg Berbers in the north ; the Arabs mainly in the
south-east : the Makari and Margin Negroes in the south : the Wauga, Bedde,
and other j>agan tribes in the east : and in the centre the Magonii, who claim
kinship with the royal dynasty which for many centuries ruled over the
united Bornu and Kanem States. These and the Kanuri are regarded as the
most cultured people in Central Africa, and their woven fabrics, potter, and
metal ware are highly prized throughout the Sudan.
The Sid tan, whose official title is Mai, but who is more commonly spoken
of as the Sheikh, is in principle an absolute monarch. He is assisted in the
For Sokoto, see Niger Territories, under the British Empire.
318 AFRICA: CENTRAL INDEPENDENT STATES
administration by a Council comprising the Kokenawa, or military chiefs, the
official delegates of the various subject races, and several members of the
reigning family. The standing army of about 30,000 men is partly armed
with rifles, ami the cavalry still wear armour, either imported from Eastern
Sudan or manufactured in the country. There is also some artillery, and a
few companies even wear European uniforms. In lieu of pay the men receive
allotments of land.
Kuka (Kukawa), capital of Bornu, lies on the west side of Lake Chad
It has a population of from 50,000 to 60,000, and is one of the great centres
of trade in the Sudan. Wares of all kinds reach this mart from Europe,
Egypt, and Turkey, chiefly by the caravan route from Tripoli and Fezzan,
the shortest crossing the Sahara. By the same route are sent northwards con-
voys of 1,000, 2,000, and even 4,000 slaves, besides ivory, ostrich feathers,
and other local produce. The legal currency are the Maria Theresa mown, the
Spanish douro, and cowries, at the rate of 4,000 to the crown.
Besides Kuka, there are several other towns with over 10,000 inhabitants,
such as Birni, Bundi, Gummel, Mashena, Borsari, Surrikolo, Logon- Karnah,
capital of the Logon territory, and Doloo, capital of the tributary Mandara
State. The coast lands continue to be exposed to the incursions of the Kuri
and Yedina pirates, who inhabit the archipelagoes in Lake Chad.
WADAI— KANEM — BAGIBXI.
The Sultanate of Wadai, at present the most powerful State in Central
Sudan, occupies with the tributary States the whole region between Dar-Fur
and Lake Chad, and extends from tbe southern verge of the Sahara southwards
nearly to the divide between the Chad and Congo basins. Total area nearly
172,000 square miles ; population estimated by Nachtigal at 2,600,000. The
Arabs, here collectively called Aramka, have been settled in the country for
over 500 years. Their traders (Jellaba) send caravans south to Dar-Bunda and
Bagirmi, and west to Bornu, bartering salt and manufactured goods for ivory,
slaves, ostrich feathers, and copper. But the political power belongs to the
Mohammedan Mabas, a Negro people who occupy the north-eastern parts of
Wadai proper, and whose language forms the chief medium of intercourse
throughout the State. Like the Arabs, the Mabas. who have lately joined the
Senusiya 'revivalists,' are fanatical followers of the Prophet.
The Maba Sultan Sheikh Aly, whose capital was removed in ISfiO from
Wara to Abeshr (Abesheh), 24 miles further north, has absolute power, limited
by custom and the precepts of the Koran. But he rales directlj only over
the north-east of Wadai proper, which is divided into provinces named from
the cardinal points and administered by Kaniakels (viceroys), who have the
power of life and death. The Sultan himself is assisted by a Fasher or
Council, while the law, that is, the Koran, is interpreted by the College of
Fakihs or Ulemas. The army, about 7,000 strong, Is chiefly employed in
levying tribute in kind (slaves, horses, cattle, honey, corn) from the provinces
ami vassal States.
Of these yassal States, the most important are Kaiiem. between Wadai
ami bake Chad, and Bagirmi <>n the south-western frontier. Kanem, which
is about 30,000 square miles in extent, occupies the eastern and northern
shores of bake Chad, and stretches north to the verge of the Sahara. Popula-
tion about 100,000, chiefly Kanem-bu that is, people of Kanem, akin to the
Dasas (southern Tibus). and held in subjection by the Aulad Sliman Arabs.
Although they can now muster no more than 1,000 armed men. the Aulad-
Slinuin are perhaps the fiercest marauders in the whole of North Africa, Mao.
EGYPTIAN sn>AX 310
residence of the political ageut of Wadai, lies in the centre of Kanem, about a
day's march south-east of N jimi, the capital of the State.
The Sultanate of Bagirmi, comprising the low-lying marshy region between
Lake Chad, the Lower Shari river, and the Sokoro hills west of Lake Fitri, has
an area of about 20,000 square miles, or 71,000 including the southern lands
inhabited by tributary pagan peoples, or to which slave-hunting expeditions are
regular! v sent, The Bannaghe, as the natives of Bagirmi call themselves, are
all Mohammedan who nuinVred 1,500,000 aliout the middle of the
cental S hen they have ! reduced by the wars with Wadai.
famines, and epidemic-,. Since 1871 the Sultan, who resides al
rife), near the left bank of the Lower Shari. has acknowledged the
suzerainty of the ruler of Wadai, from whom he receives his investiture.
Orer his own subjects his power is absolute, the administration being carried
on chiefly by bands of eunuchs and other officials, who levy the taxes and
plunder the people with impunity. Organised slave-hunting razzias ai
periodically sent to the southern regions of the Upper Shari basin, occupied
by the Kimre, Sokoro, and many other pagan tribes.
References.
Barth, Travels in Sudan.
Nachtigal, Sudan and Sahara. Vol. II. Berlin, 1881.
Reehu, Universal Geofrraphy. Vol. XII.
White (A. 8ilvaX The Development of Africa. London, 1890.
EGYPTIAN SUDAN.
Before the revolt of the liahdi in 1882. the Khedival possessions beyond
Egypt proj)er comprised the whole of East Sudan and Nubia between Wadai
on the west and the Red Sea on the east (2S°-40" E.), together with the north-
west section of Somaliland and the coast lands betw> ia and the
Gulf of Aden. This t« iritory extended from the frontier of Upper Egypt for
a distance of nearly 1,400 miles southwards to Lake Albert Nyanza (3 29 X. >.
and had a total area of nearly 1,000,000 square miles, with a imputation
roughly estimated at from ten to twelve millions. It included the geo-
graphical regions of Darfur, on the Wadai frontier, reduced by Ziber Pasha
in 1874 ; Kordefan, between Darfur and the Upper Nile, reduced by Mehemet
AH in 1821 ; Lower Nubia, which had always been politically dependent on
Egypt ; Upper Nubia with Senaar, reduced by Ismail Pasha in 1822 ; the
Zeriba lands of the White Nile basin, organised and administered by the
Euroi>ean lieutenants of the Khedival Government during the decade ending
1882, and partly held by Emin Pasha till the Stanley Relief Expedition of
1889 ; lastly, the Danakil (Afar), Adal, and Somali lands round about the
Strait of Bab-el -Mandeb, where the Egyptian authority was established only
in the immediate vicinity of the seaboard.
The Egyptian Sudan was placed under a Governor-General, whose official
residence was Khartum (population in 1882, 70,000), at the confluence of the
White and Blue Niles, and the territory was divided for administrative
purposes into twelve provinces,1 with area, population, and chief towns as
follows : —
1 MS. note hy the late General Gordon.
320
AFRICA, CENTRAL AND SOUTH
Province
Estimated area
in square miles
Estimated
Population
Capital
/New Dongola
\ Khartum
Massawah
El-Obeid
El-Fasher
I Senaar
| Lado
\ Mehemet Ali
Uhekka
( Zeilah
- Harrar
1 Berberah
Dongola . . . ~l
Khartum . . . /
Sawakin-Massawah
Kordofan .
Darfur
Senaar . . . "j
Equatorial Province . 1
Fazocli . . . T
Bahr-el-Gazal . . J
Zeilah . . . \
Harrar . . . V
Berbera . . . 1
Total Egyptian Sudan
100,000
80,000
100,000
200,000
450,000
20,000
1,000,000
350,000
300,000
1,500,000
7,000,000
250,000
950,000
10,400,000
—
It is estimated that three-fifths of the population of the Sudan have, during
the last ten years, perished through war, famine, and slave-trading.
Since the Mahdi's revolt, Sawakin, Zeilah, and Berbera have been occupied
by the English, Massawah by the Italians, and the northern part of Dongola
by Egypt. Darfur appears to have reasserted its independence, the Equa-
torial Province has lapsed into barbarism. The greater part of the Equatorial
Province and of Darfur is included within the sphere of influence of the
British East African Company.
Before the war a considerable trade was carried on witli Egypt, the chief
exports being gold-dust, ostrich feathers, gums, hides, and skins ; the imports,
European and Oriental wares of all kinds. For Kordofan alone the total
exports were valued in 1881 at nearly 150,000/. Besides the great artery of
the Nile, the chief trade routes ran from Obeid to Khartum, from Berber t<>
Sawakin, from Sawakin up the Baraka Valley to Kassala, from Kassala to
Senaar, and thence down the Blue Nile to Khartum.
DAHOMEY.
The Kingdom of Dahomey, formerly tin' most powerful on the Slave Coast,
Upper Guinea, has in recent years been greatly reduced in size and strength,
especially by the long and disastrous wars waged against Alvokuta and other
petty Yoniha States OD its eastern frontier. It now comprises an area of
about 4,000 square miles, with an estimated population of 250,000, extending
from Yoruba westwards to the river Volta, separating it from Aslianti, and
bordering northwards on the Wangera territory. It lias an outlet on the
coast at Whydah. According to the recent treaty of delimitation between
British and French West African possessions. Dahomey is the Hinterland of
the French possession of Porto Novo.
The King exercises unlimited power. Besides ordinary troops, he main-
tains a body-guard of about 4,000 ' Amazons,' who are noted lor their courage
DAHoMKY 321
and discipline. The natives, who are of pure Negro stock ami fetish-wor-
shippers, belong to the Fon branch of the Ewe family, but have called them-
selves Dauma or Dahome since the foundation of the kingdom early in tin-
seventeenth century. Tiny are industrious agriculturists. exporting through
Whydah the finest ]ialm-oil produced in Upj>er Guinea. Maize, cattle, ivory,
and india-rubber also abound. Abomey, capital of the kingdom, lies seventy
milts north of Whydah, and about ten miles north-west of Kana (Kalmina),
the royal summer residence.
Early in 1890 complications arose with France respecting the disputed
stations of Porto Xovo and Kotonu on the south coast ; but after a brief
of hostilities j>eace was concluded in October 1890, Dahomey recognising the
French claims to those places, on condition of being paid an annuity of
20,000 ban
Rkfkkks
JSkertchley, Dahomey as it is.
Duncan's Travels.
K. Eteetas, Universal Geography. VoL XII.
M. Foa, A Voyage up the Wheni River, ' Proc. Koy. Geog. Soc' Feb. 1889.
Burton's Mission to Dahomey.
White (A. Silva), The Development of Africa. London, 189a
325
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
(Republioa Argentina.)
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of the Argentine Republic, formerly known
by the name of ' Provincias Unidas del Rio de la Plata,' bears
date May 15, 1853, with modifications in 1860, when Buenos
Ayres joined the confederacy. By its provisions, the executive
power is left to a President, elected for six years by representa-
tives of the fourteen provinces, equal to double the number of
senators and deputies combined ; while the legislative authority
is vested in a National Congress, consisting of a Senate and a
House of Deputies, the former numbering 30, two from the
capital and from each province, elected by a special body of
electors in the capital, and by the legislatures in the provinces ;
and the latter 86 members elected by the people. By the Con-
stitution there should be one deputy for every 20,000 inhabit-
ants. A deputy must be 25 years of age, and have been a
citizen for four years. The deputies are elected for four years,
but one-half of the House must retire every two years.
Senators must be 30 years of age, have been citizens for six
years, and have an annual income of $2,000. One-third of the
Senate is renewed every three years. The two chambers meet
annually from May 1 to September 30. The members of both
the Senate and the House of Deputies are paid for their services,
each receiving $8,400 per annum. A Vice-President, elected in
the same manner and at the same time as the President, fills
the office of Chairman of the Senate, but has otherwise no
political power. The President is commander-in-chief of the
troops, and appoints to all civil, military, and judicial offices, and
has the right of presentation to bishoprics ; he is responsible with
the Ministry for the acts of the executive ; both President and
Vice-President must be Roman Catholics, Argentine by birth, and
cannot be re-elected.
President of the Republic. — On the resignation of tin- President, Juarei
Celman (August 6, 1890), the Vice-President, Dr. (Yuios Pellegrini, assumed,
in accordance with the Constitution, the office of President until the com-
pletion of the term for which Dr. Celman bad been elected (October 12, 1892).
The Ministry, appointed by and acting under the orders of the President,
consists of five Secretaries of State — namely, of the Interior, Foreign Affairs,
Finance, War, and Justice. Foreign Affairs, Dr. K. S. Zeballoa.
The President has a salary of 86,000 dollars, the Vice-President of is, 000
dollars, and each of the five ministers of 10,800 dollars uer annum.
ITl'TION AND GOVERNMENT — AREA, ETC.
Local Government.
The Constitution, with certain small exceptions, is identical with that of
the United States. Such matters as affect the Republic as a whole are under
the superintendence of the Central Government. The governors of the
various provinces are invested with very extensive powers, and in their con-
stitutional functions are independent of the central executive. They are not
appointed by the President of the Republic, but elected by the people of each
province for a term of three years and four years. The provinces elect their
own legislatures, and have complete control over their own affairs ; they
gu contract loans (internal and external) under their sole and exclusive
responsibility.
Area and Population.
At the census of 1869 the population of the provinces
amounted to 1,736,922, exclusive of the national territo:
The following table contains a list of the fourteen provinces
and nine territories actually composing the Argentine Republic,
their estimated area, and the number of inhabitants, mainly ac-
cording to an official estimate for 1887 : —
Provinces
Area:
Engl. sq. miles
Population
Population
per sq. mile
1 Littoral : Buenos Ayres (1890) .
—
561,160
—
Buenos Ayres(province)
63,000
850,000
13
Santa Fe "(census 1887)
18,000
240,332
13
Entre Kios
45,000
300,000
6 6
Corrientes .
54,000
290,000
5 3
, Andes : Bioja
31,500
100,000
3
Catamarca .
31,500
130,000
4
San Juan .
29,700
125,000
4
Mendoza .
54,000
160,000
3
Central : Cordova
54,000
380,000
7
San Luis .
18,000
100,000
5 5
Santiago del Estero .
31,500
160,000
5
Tucuman .
13,500
210,000
16
Northern : Salta
45,000
200,000
4 4
Jujuy
Total
'00
90,000
3 3
515,700
3,916,492
7 5
Territories
Misiones .
23,932
50,000
2 1
Formosa ~\
Chaco /
125,612
50,000
0-4
Pampa
191,842
40,000
0-2
Rio Negro
Neuquen /
•
Chubut > .
268,000
30,000
011
Santa Cruz \
Tierra del Fuego J
Grand total .
1,125 086
4,086,492
3 6
T 2
824 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC
By a treaty concluded between the Argentine Republic and Chile in 1881
the latter recognises the right of the former to all the country east of the crest
of the eastern ridge of the Andes, including all Patagonia and the eastern part
of Tierra del Fuego.
The capital of the Republic, Buenos Ayres, had a population of 177,790
in 1869, 295,000 in 1882, and 561,160, including suburbs, in July 1891, of
whom over 150,000 are foreigners. Other towns, with populations for 1888,
are Cordoba, 66,600 ; Rosario, 55,000 ; Tucuman, 25,000 ; Mendoza, 18,000 ;
Parana, 18,000 ; Salta, 20,000 ; Corrientes, 14,000 inhabitants; La Tlata, the
new capital of the province of Buenos Ayres (founded 1884), 65,000. It is
about 40 miles SE. of the city of Buenos Ayres.
The increase of population has been due greatly to immigration. The
arrivals in the last nine years have been as follows : — 1882, 51,503 ; 1883, 63,243 ;
1884, 77,805 ; 1885, 108,722 ; 1886, 93,116 ; 1887, 136„842 ; 1888, 180,993 ;
1889, 289,014; 1890, 138,407. Most immigrants are from the south of Europe.
Of the immigrants who landed at Buenos Ayres in 1890, 39,122 were Italians,
17,104 French, and 13,560 Spaniards. In 1880-87 the Italians formed 70
per cent, of the total, Spaniards 10 "25 per cent., French 7 "75 per cent., and
all others but 12 per cent. The emigration in 1888 was 12,796; in 1889,
40,649 ; in 1890, 82,981. The excess of immigration over emigration in the
years 1871-90 was 1,113,789.
In 1887 the number of foreigners in the Republic was 600,000, including
280,000 Italians, 150.0.00 French, 100,000 Spaniards, 40,000 English, and
20,000 Germans.
Religion.
Although the Constitution recognises the Roman Catholic religion as that
of the State, all other creeds are tolerated. In 1891, 272,880 dollars were set
down in the budget for public worship. There are 1 archbishop and 5
suffragan bishops. For the instruction of the clergy there are 5 seminaries.
By law No. 2393 of November 12, 1888, modified by law No. 2681 of Nov-
ember 12, 1889, civil marriage was established in the Republic.
Instruction.
The primary instruction in the capital and the 9 territories is under the
charge of a council of education, appointed by the general Government ; and
in the 14 provinces under their respective governments. The elementary
schools are supported in the capital and each province by the taxes established
in their Education Acts. In 1890 the sums contributed by the general Govern-
ment and the 14 provinces to the support of the elementary education in the
Republic amounted to 10,415,789 dollars. In 1890 there were 3,233 element-
ary schools, with 7,054 teachers and 260,695 pupils. Secondary or preparatory
education is controlled by the general Government, which maintains ldlvceuma
(one in each province and the capital), with 450 professors and 3,127 pupils in
1890. There are 2 universities, comprising (1890) faculties of law, medicine,
and engineering, with a total of 1,007 students ; a school of mines (20 students),
2 colleges of agriculture, a naval, and a military school. There are 34 normal
schools, with 12,154 students. There is a well-equipped national observatory
at Cordoba, and another at La Plata, museums at Buenos Ayres and La Plata,
and a meteorological bureau. The observatory of Cordoba has published a
catalogue of stars of the southern hemisphere.
Justice.
Justice is exercised by a Supreme Court of five judges and an attorney-
general, which is also a court of appeal, and by a number of inferior and local
courts, trial by jury 1 icing established by the Constitution for criminal cases.
Each State has its own judicial system.
FINANCE
328
Finance.
The ordinary revenue and expenditure have been as follows for
four years : —
— 1887 1888 1889
1890
Dollar- Dollars Dollars
Revenue . 58,135,000 57,651,711 74,676,706
Expenditure . 54,098,227 50,801,631 50,687,544
Dollars
73,407,670
92,853,846
The deficit in 1890 arose from special votes not included in
the budget.
The estimates of revenue and expenditure for 1891 are as
follows in paper : —
Revenue
1891
Expenditure
1891
Dollars
Dollars
Import duties .
47,546,785
Interior .
16,237,406
Direct taxes .
4,246,266
Finance .
25,989,893.28
Stamps .
4,010,240
Instruction
9,517,026
Post Office
2,185,809
War
9,507,838.60
Trade licences .
1,593,000
Marine .
4,029,440.12
Shares in National
Foreign Affairs
2,600,280
Bank .
1,000,000
Exchange
2,877.750
Other receipts .
9,691,005
73,150,855
Total .
Total .
67,881,884
The expenditure for 1891 was reduced to 58,252,362 dollars.
The official estimates for 1892 are not yet published.
On March 31, 1891, the debt of the Republic was, according
to official statement : — Internal, 5 per cent, bonds quoted in the
Buenos Ayres Stock Exchange, 1,225,631 dollars; 4i per cent,
bonds deposited by the national banks in the National Treasury
to guarantee their bank notes, 161,766,600 dollars ; internal loan,
created in consequence of the crisis brought about by the difficulties
of the banks, 42,000,000 dollars ; Foreign, 157,100,000 dollars.
During three years the interest on the foreign debt will be
funded in bonds bearing 6 per cent, payable in gold of the loan
of May 1891 created to that effect; Floating Debt, 700,961
dollars gold and 10,174,548 paper dollars.
The following statement is from an unofficial source in Buenos
Ayres: — When General Boca retired from power in 1886 the
financial condition of the Argentine Republic was as follows: —
Currency, 70,000,000 dollars ; debt, 117,200,000 dollars ; revenue
(gold), 37,200,000 dollars. The value of the currency dollar was
then 80c. (gold). In August 1890:— Currency, 200,000,000
326 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC
dollars; debt, 355,800,000 dollars; revenue (gold), 29,200,000
dollars. The value of the paper dollar was 40c. (gold). In
November 1891 the position was as follows: — Currency,
300,000,000 dollars; debt, 475,000,000 dollars; revenue (gold),
22,500,000 dollars. Value of paper dollar, 27£c. (gold).
The inventory of property belonging to the National Government, prepared
in accordance with the decree of March 28, 1888, already amounts to
703,793,172 dollars. The total value of the land of the 14 provinces is esti-
mated at 2,720,000,000 dollars.
Each province and municipality has, besides, its own budget, the total
national and provincial expenditure amounting to about SI. per head. The
budget of Buenos Ayres province for 1890 was 24,995,600 dollars revenue, and
24,314,609 dollars expenditure. The estimates of revenue of all the provinces
for 1890 were 48,481,819 dollars, and expenditure 47,639,466 dollars.
The estimated revenue of all the municipalities for 1889 was 19,823,980
dollars, and expenditure 19,218,593 dollars.
Defence.
The army comprises 11 generals, 238 field officers, and 880 subalterns, with
238 engineers, 789 artillery, 2,227 horse, and 2,331 foot, in all 5,585
combatants. The militia comprises 236,000 men, between 17 and 45 years,
and 68,000 reserve, between 45 and 60 years.
There is a military school, with 125 cadets, and a school for non-com-
missioned officers. The naval school has 60 cadets, and the school of
gunners 80.
In 1891 the navy of the Republic included 1 sea-going armour-clad, 2
coast-defence armour-clads (monitors), 2 deck-protected cruisers, 7 gunboats,
2 transports, 3 screw and 4 paddle despatch boats, 1 torpedo school ship, 4
torj>edo-boats, 4 spar torpedo-boats, and one sailing corvette. There are in
all about 58 guns. 'The sea-going armour-clad Almirantc Brown is of 4,200 tons
displacement, 5,380 horse-power, and is protected by 9-inch steel-faced
armour. In her central battery she carries 6 11^-ton breech-loading guns of
the Armstrong type, and has 2 other guns of the same calibre, mounted at the
bow and stern respectively. She is also equipped with Whitehead torpedoes
and the electric light. Her design was prepared by Mr. W. H. White, now
Assistant-Controller and Director of Naval Construction, H.M. Navy, ami she
was built in 1880 by Messrs. Samuda. The navy is manned by 1,530 officers
and men, of whom 445 are officers and 849 marines.
Production and Industry.
The area of land under cultivation in 1888, in the 14 provinces and 5
national territories, was 2,359,958 hectares, say 9,200 square miles. In other
words, the figures barely represent one per cent, of the total area of the
country, which is set down at 289,420,341 hectares.
The total area under wheat in 1S89 was 1,035,000 hectares; maize,
850,000 hectares ; flax, 140,000 hectares.
The value of the agricultural products exported in 1889 was 16,935,547
dollars ; for the first six months of 1890, 31,863,605 dollars. The value of the
agricultural yield in 1890 in the Republic is estimated in a British Consul's
report at 20,051,000/.
Oattle ami sheep breeding is an important industry in the Argentine
i ;<■ i >u i >] i<-.
PRODUCTION AND INDCSTRY
327
Lank cndbb
Cultivation — in
Hk< fares.
Provinces and
Territories
III
H
B
a
5
|
3.
m
r I
Z 9
1 :
-
1
U
--
Buenos Ayres .
236,600 82,909
17,630
40,033
2,899
18,521
MM*
Cordoba
78,999 56,777 77,686
—
488
—
13,881
Entre B
07,319 6,307
4.1V.'
705
—
1 30. l'.l
-
i 60,901 401,652
4,033
73,009
2,666
2,676
14,459
M8,Ma
Jujuy.
8,844 4,094
499
—
764
2,480
18,881
Catamarca .
1,334 10,023
—
—
1,854
•_■>.-. l'.»
M M
San Luis .
9.066 3,623
420
—
0
19,839
San Juan .
8,816 12,246
698
—
7,119
—
Sdta .
13.840 6.840 14,202
1.747
—
302
991
38,517
Mendoza .
593
—
—
1.390
«.>
Tucuman .
1,994 2,783
Ml
—
10,594
2,714
Corrienti
1,585
127
209
2,018
15,645
46,631
La Rioja .
9,021 8,03
24
34
1,084
21,617
Santiago .
J 60,000 30,000
15,178
—
—
4.949
2.02".
10,348
Territories :
Formosa
232 —
—
—
—
—
189
219
m
Pampa
4.630 163
880
98
—
—
—
6,064
ro .
827 317
207
368
—
—
—
1,291
i Misiones .
2,806 7
9
5
—
1
m
1,445
4,658
! Chaco
Totals .
2,696 41
133
3
—
537
3,623
833,101 824,061
380,116
36,661
29.341
»jm
The following table will give an idea of the cattle industrv in the Republic
in 1888 :—
Number of Head
Provinces and
Territories
Horned Cattle
Horses
Sheep
Dollars
Buenos Avres
9,602.274
1,855,426
55,397,881
194,862.993
Cordoba
2,110,513
403,879
2,355,030
28,868,717
Entre Rios
4,120,068
719,510
4,901.123
54,3
Santa Fe .
2,328,443
527,536
"7.382
31,978,791
Jujuy
89,855
22,896
617,803
2,008
Catamarca .
239,834
56,054
152,438
3,075,429
San Luis .
478,904
113,554
241
6,060,212
Salta .
164.944
34,174
164,414
2.169. l.V!
San Juan .
54,539
25,848
72,672
846,182
Santiago
588,396
110,368
781,951
7.939,830
La Rioja .
160,169
24,998
.".7.926
1,881
< 'orrientes .
1,841,366
258,696
611,085
21,480,785
Tucuman .
198,835
42,939
43,390
2,396,947
Mendoza .
180,009
44,849
122.298
2.343,329
Territories :
Formosa
14,403
691
143
149,
Pampa
469,987
110,104
1,670,388
8,084.291
Rio Negro .
77.434
16,620
287,940
1,339,210
Misiones .
41,967
17,541
4,218
565,325
Ghaco
17,551
1,597
1,751
195,012
Totals .
22,779,491
4,387,280
70,461,665 !
370,061.717
328
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC
Commerce.
The following table shows the official values in thousands of
dollars (for exports in 1890, gold dollars) of the imports and
exports (exclusive of coin and bullion) for each of the five years
1886-90, including re-exports: —
-
1886
1887 1888
1889
1890
Imports
Exports
95,408
69,835
117,352 127,507
84,421 99,556
164,570
122,815
142,241
100,819
The imports and exports of coin and bullion have been as
follows in 1886-90: —
•
Years
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Import
Total
Export
Total
Gold
19,408,809
9,808,939
44,613,897
11,576,906
6.946,812
Silver
1,226.853
659,657
196,253
172,853
204,439
Gold
Silver
20,635,662
9,748,096
44,810,150
11,749,759
7,151,251
7,832,816
9,471,988
8,492,374
27,815,546
5,009,358
585,903
405,202
242,126
61 '..700
274,542
8,358,018 i
9,S77,185
8,734,500
28,481,261
5,283,900
The following are the principal articles of import and export,
with their value, for 1889 and 1890 : —
Imports
1889
1890
Paper Dlrs.
Exports
1889 1890
Paper Dlrs.
Gold Dlrs. j Gold Dlrs.
Textiles and apparel
32,229,422
30,024,966
Animals & their
Food substances .
18,350,904
16,411,458
produce
89,282,71;.
61,306,597
Iron & manufactures
24,727,113
9,566,752
Agricultural
Drinks .
15,801,607
12,790,340
produce
16,935,547
96,591,491
Wood and manufac-
Manufactured
tures .
12,106,858
7,399,412
produce
11,946,366
8,999,236
Railway, telegraph,
Forest produce
Mineral ,,
793,257
1,413,324
& other material
24,173,749
36,273,503
1,629,160
678,690
Pottery, glass, Ac.
6,658,646
4,185,523
Various ,,
2,228,012
Chemical substances
4,756,797
8,876,542
Coal, coke, oil, &c.
7,593,810
6,250,011
Various (not includ-
ing coin &. bullion)
18,670,978
15,518,805
Total .
164,509,884
142,240,812
Total .
122,815,057
100,818,993
There was besides a transit trade in 1890 valued at 2,086,061
dollars for imports, and ?f 086,061 dollars for export*,
COMMERCE
329
Among the more important exports were the following (in
gold dollars) :- —
-
Wool
Hides and Skins Wheat
Maize
-
1889
1890
Dollars
56,709.77!
35,521,681
Dollars Dollars
27,352,949 1,596,444
20,097,656 9,83*
Dollars
12.977. 7"21
14 1 :
The quantities were : —
— W....1
Mi. Irs
Skins fa. at
M:i: I
1889 .
1890 .
Kilos
141,774,435
118,405,604
Number
3,638,467
4,647,085
Kilos
37,896,100 22,806,373
29.542,450 327,894,151
Kilos
432,590,679
The foreign trade in the Argentine Republic in 1889 and 1890
was mainly with the following countries, to the following values:-
Imports from
Exports t<>
1889
1890
1889
Gold Dollars
1890
Paper Dollars
Paper Dollars
Gold Dollars
Great Britain
56,820,169
57.816,510
14,931,394
19.299.09",
France
30.237,407
19,875,877
38,264,414
26. 6>
Germany .
15,477,754
12,301.472
17,120,472
11,566,441
' Belgium
13,958,247
10,986,710
16,826,428
12,003,086
: United States .
' 16, 801,7".0
9,301,541
'.,691
6,066,958
Uruguay .
7,206.317.
5,885,758
5,393,960
6,676
j Italy -
10,188,189
8,663,027
3.930,134
3.194.802
Spain
4,565,470
4.302,284
5,382,116
2,083,817
Brazil
2,607,017
■
7.7,22,835
8,442,563
I Paraguay .
1,377,543
1.724,050
855,292
336,566
Chile.
19,509
51,114
2,504,727
2,188.951
The commercial intercourse between the Argentine Republic
and the United Kingdom is shown in the subjoined tabular
statement, according to the Board of Trade returns : —
MM
Exports to Great
Britain . . ! 1,646,336
Imports of British
produce . . . 5,190,577
a
2,176,758 2,658,659 2,016,182 4,129,802
6,229,666 7,656,708 'l0,681,879 I 8,416,112
The staple Argentine exports to the United Kingdom are as follows •
Tallow and stearine, 27,8827. in 1887, 105,744/. in 1888, 165,035/. in 1889-
54,688/. in 1890: fresh mutton, 10,000/. in 1883, 442,597/. in 1887'
625,548/. in 1888, 750.310/. in 1889. 822,486/. in 1890, skins, mainly
sheep, 129,877/. in 1888, 125,242/. in 1889, 127,366/. in 1890 • bones,
40,031/. in 1889, 50,913/. in 1890 ; hides, 61,866/. in 1888, 75,854/ in 1889
330
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC
86,791?. in 1890; wool, 213,807?. in 1886, 50,214?. in 1888, 175,772?. in
1889, 69,813?. in 1890 ; wheat, 13,690?. in 1889, 1,050,829?. in 1890 ; other
sorts of grain, 372,158?. in 1889, 1,531,917?. in 1890. The imports of
British produce consist chiefly of cottons, 1,591,002?. in 1889, 977,891?. in
1890; woollens, 842,059?. in 1889, 441,859?. in 1890; iron, 2,752,955?. in
1889, 2,463,858?. in 1890 ; and machinery, 1,020,513?. in 1889, 1,000,612?. in
1890.
Of the total imports in 1890, 103,175,961 dols., and of the exports
57,742.342 dols., were by the port of Buenos Ayres.
Shipping and Navigation.
The following are the statistics of the vessels entered and cleared in the
foreign trade at the ports of the Republic in 1888-90 : —
-
Vessels
entered
Tonnage entered
Vessels
cleared
Tonnage cleared
1889
1890
1889
1890
1889
1890
1889
1890
Sailing vessels
with cargoes
Sailing vessels in
ballast
Steamers with
cargoes
Steamers in bal-
last .
7,641
581
3,751
2,472
6,070
756
•3,966
3,081
1,642,863
32,482
3,511,593
1,524,748
1,238,066
50,174
3,431,436
1,621,279
1,666
3,814
3,003
2,987
1,588
2,088
3,171
2,862
309,393
955,362
3,007,538
1,570,679
402,675
576,148
2,801,500
1,726. 146
Total .
14,445
13,873
6,711,686
6,340,955
11,469
9,709 5,842,972
5,506,469
Of the total, 38 per cent, of the tonnage was British, and about 30
national, 9 French, 7 Italian, and 6 German. The home or river navigation
in 1890 comprised 22,494 vessels of 3,324,849 tons entered, and 24,029 of
2,878,600 tons cleared.
Internal Communications.
The length of railway open for traffic in 1891 was 6,855 miles, which
connect the principal cities of the Republic with the capital. There were in
addition 4,840 miles in construction. The total cost of construction of the
lines open for traffic at the end of 1890 was 346,493,054 dollars. The receipts
for 1890 amounted to 41,157,486 dollars, and the expenses 23,310,000 dollars.
In 1890 there were 12,000 miles of Government telegraph lines in operation,
besides about 7,000 miles belonging to private companies. The total length
of telegraph wires in 1888 was 28,550 miles. The number of telegraphic de-
spatches was 3,511,420 in the year 1889. A concession was granted Nov. 1889
to lay a direct cable from Buenos Ayres to Europe, which must be ready within
thirty months.
The Post Office in the year 1890 earned 60,844,963 letters, 860,716 postal
cards, and 43,974,107 newspapers, fee. There are 946 offices (post and telegraph).
Money and Credit.
By a law passed in 1890 the Government was authorised to issue 60 million
dollars of Treasury Kills, willi force of legal currency.
The new Government, which was inaugurated on August 6, 1890, has,
according to official statement, presented to Congress a series of hills Introduc-
ing important reforms in the financial policy pursued by the last Government
One of these hills already approved declares null and void all the guaranteed
MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES 331
granted for the construction of railways, when the terms of the contracts hare
not been complied with by concessionnaires.
By law of October 16, 1891, the old National Bank was placed in liquida-
tion, and a new bank, called ' Banco de la Nacion Argentina,' was created
with a capital of fifty million dollars. The new Banco de la Nacion provides
(December 1891) for a new issue of 80,000,000 dollars of inconvertible notes, of
which 45,000,000 dollars go to the new bank, 5, 000, 000 dollars to the National
Mortgage Bank, and 30,000,000 dollars to redeem the Patriotic Loan of 1891.
The events of July 1890, which caused the resignation of President Juarez
Celman and a severe crisis, greatly disturbed the resources at the disposal of
the Government during last year.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of the Argentine Republic, and the
British equivalents, are as follows : —
M"NEY.
The Silver PesofuerU, or Silver Dollar, of 100 eentesimos. — Average rate
of exchange, 4*. The forced paper currency since the beginning of 1885 has
caused a great depreciation. In 1891, 100 dollars gold were equal to about 370
dollars in paper.
Weights and Mea.-
The Quintal = 101 "40 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Arroba = 2535 „
,, Fanega = l£ imperial bushel.
Since January 1, 1887, the use of the French metric system is compulsory.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of the Argentine Republic in Great Britain.
Envoy Extraordinary/ and Minister Plenipotentiary. — Don Luis L.
Dominguez. Accredited May 8, 1886.
Secretary. — Florencio L. Dominguez.
There are Consular representatives at Belfast, Birmingham, Cardiff, Dublin,
Dundee, Falmouth, Glasgow (C.G.), Hull, Leeds, Leith, London (C.G. ), Liver-
pool, Manchester, Newj>ort, Southampton ; Gibraltar, Canada (C.G.), Sydney,
Montreal.
2. Of Great Britain in the Argentine Republic.
Envoy and Minister. — Hon. Francis J. Pakenham. Appointed February
1885.
Secretary. —
Consul. — Ronald Bridge tt.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Argentine Republic.
1. Official Publications.
Censo municipal de la ciudad de Buenos Aires. 2 v. 1887.
Censo de la provincia de Santa Fe. 1887.
Censo de la provincia de Buenos Aires. 1881.
Datos trimestrales del comercio exterior de la Republica Argentina. Ano 9°. Buenos
Aires, 1891.
Estadistica general del comercio exterior de la Republica Argentina. 1890. Buenos
1891.
Informe presentado a la Oticina de Estadistica de Buenos Aires. Buenos Aires, 1891.
:os apuntes sobre el clima de la Republica Argentina, por el Director de la oflcina
meteorologica Gualterio G. Davis. Buenos Aires, 1889.
La Republica Argentina en la Exi>osicion Universal de Paris, 1889.
332 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC
Informes del Delegado Argentina. 2 vols. Paris, 1890.
Informe sobre el estadode laeducacion comun, durante el Ano de 1890. By Dr. Benjamin
Zorrilla. Buenos Aires, 1891.
Ley de educacion. Buenos Aires. 8 de Julio de 1884.
Ley de inmigracion y colonizacion de la Repiiblica Argentina sancionada por elCongreso
nacional de 1876. Buenos Aires, 1882.
Los presupuestos, los recursos y las leyes de impuestos de la nacion, las 14 provincias
y las principales munieipalidades. Ano de 1890. Buenos Aires, 1891.
Boletin mensual de estadistica municipal de la ciudad de Buenos Aires.
Informe sobre deuda piiblica, bancos, &c, por P. Agote. Afio v. Buenos Aires, 1891.
Memoria del Ministerio del Interior de la Republica Argentina, presentada al Congreso
nacional de 1891. 4. Buenos Aires, 1891.
Memoria presentada por el Ministro de Estado en el departamento de Hacienda al Congreso
nacional de 1891. 4. Buenos Aires, 1891.
Registro estadistico de la Provincia de Buenos Aires. Fol. Buenos Aires, 1890.
Map of the Argentine Republic. With a short description of the country. Published by
the Argentine Government Information Office.
Message of the President of the Republic in opening the Session of the Argentine
Congress, May 1891. Buenos Ayres, 1891.
Mission of Viscount San Januario to the Republics of South America, 1878 and 1879.
Published by order of the Argentine Government. Buenos Ayres, 1881.
Report by Mr. Egerton on the Products and Industries of the Argentine Republic, in
' Reports from H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation,' 1882.
Report, by Mr. Jenner for 1887 on the Financial Condition of the Argentine Republic,
and remarks on the President's Message in No. 389 of ' Diplomatic and Consular Reports,'
1888.
Report by Mr. Jenner on the Trade and General Condition of the Argentine Republic, in
No. 572, and on the Finances of the Republic in No. 554 of ' Diplomatic and Consular
Reports,' 1889.
Report on Emigration to the Argentine Republic in No. 172 of ' Reports on Subjects of
General Interest.' London, 1890.
Report for 1889-90 on the Agricultural Condition of the Argentine Republic in No. 660
of ' Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' London, 1890.
The Argentine Republic as a Field for Emigration. By Francis Latzina, Chief of the
Argentine National Statistical Bureau. Buenos Ayres, 1883.
The Treaty of the Boundaries between the Argentine Republic and that of Chili.
London, 1881.
Trade of the Argentine Republic with Great Britain ; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade
of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year 1S90."
Imp. 4. London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Ptjblu'ations.
Arco* (Santiago), La Plata. Etude historique. Paris, 1865.
Bates (H. W.), South America. London, 1882.
Beck-Bernard (Charles), La Republique Argentine. Berne, 1872.
Child (Theodore), The Spanish American Republics. London, 1891.
Crawford (A.), Across the Pampas and the Andes. London, 18S4.
Diareaux (Emile), Buenos Aires, la Pampa et la Patagonie. Paris, 1878.
Dominquez (L. L.), Historia Argentina. 4th edit. Buenos Ayrrs. 1870.
Guilaine (Louis), La Republique Argentine physique et economique. Paris.
Hadfield (William), Brazil and the River Plate, 1870-76. London, 1877.
Jordan (Wm. Leighton), The Argentine Republic : a descriptive and historical sketch.
Edinburgh, 1878.
Latham (Wilfrid), The States of the River Plate, their Industries and Commerce. 2nd ed.
London, 186S.
Martinez (Alberto B.), El Presupuesto Nacional, Buenos Aires, 1890.
Mitre (Bartolome), Historia de Belgnmo. 4th 80. Buenos Ayres, 1887.
Moumy (M. de), Descripcion geographique et statistique do la Confederation Argentine.
:! vols, and atlas. Paris, 1861.
Mulhall (M. G. and E. T.), Handbook of the River Plate. London, 1885.
Mulhall (Mrs. M. G.), Between the Amazon and the Andes. London, 1884.
Napp (R.). The Argentine Republic. Buenos Ayres, 1876.
Paz (Ez. N.), and Mendonea (Manuel), Compte-Rendu de l'Exposition continentale de la
R('publi(|iie Argentine. Buenos Ayres, 1882.
Paz Soldan (Mariano Felipe), Geogrnfla Argentina. Buenos Ayres, 1885.
Rumbold (Sir H.), The Great Silver Kiver. London, 1888.
Sarmiento (Domingo Faust ino), Life in the Argentine Republic in the Days of the
Tyrants. Translated by Mrs. H. Mann. 8. London, 1868.
Turner (T. A.), Argentina and the Argentines. London, 1892.
Vincent (F.), Round and About South America. New York. IS90.
%e\>a\lot (E. S.), Descripcion amena de la Republica Argentina. 2 v.
833
AUSTRIA HUNGARY.
(Oesterrekhisch-Ungarische Monarchies
Reigning Sovereign.
Franz Josef I., Emperor of Austria, ami Kim: of Hungary ;
born August 18, 1830; the son of Archduke Franz Karl, second
son of the late Emperor Franz I. of Austria, ami of Archdu
Sophie, Princess of Bavaria. Proclaimed Emperor of Austria
after the abdication of his uncle, Ferdinand I., and the renuncia-
tion of the crown by his father, December 2, L84fl : crowned King
of Hungary, and took the oath on the Hungarian Constitution,
June 8, 1867. Married April 24. L854, to Empress Elisabeth,
born December 24, 1837, the daughter of Duke Maximilian of
Bavaria.
Heir Presumptive. — Archduke Karl Ludwig. See below.
Children of the Emperor.
I. Archduchess Gisela, born July 12, 1856 ; married April
20, 1.^73, to Prince Leopold, second son of Prince Luitpold of
Bavaria, born February 9, 1846.
II. Archduchess Maria Valeria, born April 22, 1868 ; married,
July 31, 1890, to Franz Salvator, Archduke of Austria-Tuscany ;
widow, January 17, 1892.
Grandchild of the Emperor.
Archduchess Elisabeth, born September 2, 1883, only child of
the late Archduke Rudolph. Crown Prince, and Princess Stephanie,
second daughter of King Leopold II. of Belgium.
Brothers of the Emperor.
I. Archduke Karl Ludwig, cavalry general in the imperial
army; born July 30, 1833; married (1) November 4, 1856, to
Princess Margaret, daughter of the late King Johann of Saxony :
widower September 15, 1858 ; married (2) October 21, 1862, to
Princess Annunciata, born March 24, 1843, daughter of the late
King Ferdinando II. of Naples; widower May 4, 1871 ; married
(3) July 23, 1873, to Princess Maria, bora August -i. 1855,
daughter of the late Prince Miguel of Braganza, Regent of
Portugal. Offspring of the second and third unions are six
children : — 1. Franz, born December 18, 1863. 2. Otto, born
April 21, 1865 ; married October 2, 1886, to Primes Maria
Josepha, born May 31, 1867, the daughter of the Prince Georg
of Saxony; offspring, Karl, born August 17., 18S7. 3. Ferdi-
nand Karl Ludwig, born December 27, 1868. 4. Margaret,
334
AUSTRI A-H UNG ARY
born May 13, 1870. 5. Maria, born July 31, 1876. 6. Elisabeth,
born July 7, 1878.
II. Archduke Ludwig Victor, field-marshal-lieutenant in the
imperial army ; born May 15, 1842.
The imperial family of Austria descend from Rudolf von Habsburg, a
German count, born 1218, who was elected Kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire
in 1276. The male line died out in 1740 with Emperor Karl VI., whose only
daughter, Maria Theresa, gave her hand (1736) to Duke Franz of Lorraine and
Tuscany, afterwards Kaiser Franz I. of Germany, of the House of Lorraine,
who thereby became the founder of the new line of Habsburg- Lorraine.
Maria Theresa was succeeded, in 1780, by her son Joseph II., who, dying in
1790, left the crown to his brother Leopold II., at whose death, in 1792, his
son Franz I. ascended the throne, who reigned till 1835, and, having been
married four times, left a large family, the members of which and their
descendants form the present Imperial House. Franz was the first sovereign
who assumed the title of Emperor, or ' Kaiser, ' of Austria, after having been
compelled by Napoleon to renounce the imperial crown of Germany, for more
than five centuries in the Habsburg family. The assumption of the title of
Emperor of Austria took place on August 1, 1804. Franz I. was succeeded
by his son, the Emperor Ferdinand I. (V. as King of Hungary), on whose
abdication, Dec. 2, 1848, the crown fell to his nephew the present Emperor-
King Franz Josef I.
The present Emperor- King has a civil list of 9,300,000 florins : one moiety
of this sum, 4, 650, 000 florins, is paid to him as Emperor of Austria, out of
the revenues of Austria, and the other moiety as King of Hungary, out of the
revenues of Hungary.
The following is a list (for the first centuries not complete) of the sove-
reigns of Austria (Dukes and Archdukes of Austria, from 1526 also Kings of
Hungary and Bohemia, from 1804 Emperors of Austria), from the date of the
feoffment of Dukes Albert I. and his brother Rudolf II. with the Duchy
of Austria by his father, Emperor of Germany, Rudolf of Habsburg, founder
of the dynasty : —
House of Habsburg .
Albert I
1282
Maximilian II. . . . 1564
•Rudolf II
1282
Rudolf V. (Rudolf II. of Gar.
•Rudolf III
1293
many) .... 1576
Friedrich (III. of Germany) .
1307
Matthias . . . .1611
•Leopold I
1314
Ferdinand II. 1619
•Albert II
1314
Ferdinand III. . . . 1637
•Rudolf IV
1358
Leopold 1 1657
•Albert III
1365
Joseph 1 1705
•Albert IV
1395
Karl II. (VI. of Germany) . 1711
Albert V. (Albert II. of Ger-
•Maria Theresa . . .1740
many, King of Hungaiy and
of Bohemia)
•Ladislaus (King of Hungary
1404
House of Habsburg -Lorraine.
and of Bohemia)
1439
Joseph II 1780
Friedrich V. (Friedrich IV.
Leopold II 1790
of Germany)
1457
Franz I. (Franz II. of Ger-
Maximilian I.
1493
many) .... 1792
Kail I. (Karl V. of Germany)
1519
•Ferdinand I. 1835
Ferdinand I.
1520
•Franz Josef I. . . . 1848
All except those marked with an asterisk likewise filled the throne of the
Holy Roman Empire.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMKNT 335
Constitution and Government.
H'HOL E M< UK, / R<:il It '.
Since 1867 the provinces of the monarchy have been united as
two States, politically, under the same dynasty, and having cer-
tain interests defined as common; but otherwise each has its own
constitution, which is a limited monarchy.
Affairs common to the two parts of the monarchy are : —
(1) Foreign affairs; (2) military and naval affairs, but
eluding legislation concerning the army ; (3) (finance. Certain
other affairs are treated on similar principles : (1) Commercial
affairs ; (2) indirect taxation ; (3) the coinage ; (4) railways
which concern the interests of both ; (5) defence.
Transylvania has entered into legislative and administrative
union with Hungary. Croatia-Slavonia possesses an autonomy
as regards the internal administration of religion, instruction,
justice and police.
The common head in the Austro-Hungarian monarchy is the
Emperor (Kaiser) of Austria and King of Hungary. The crown
is hereditary in the Habsburg-Lothringen dynasty, passing by
right of primogeniture and lineal succession to males and (on
failure of males) to females. The monarch must be a member of
the Roman Catholic Church. He is styled ' His Imperial and
Royal Apostolic Majesty, 'having a threefold title,' Emperor of
Austria. King of Bohemia, «tc, and King of Hungary.'
The monarch exercises his legislative authority only with the
co-operation and consent of the representative bodies, i.e. the
Reichsrath, Reichstag, and the provincial Parliaments (Land-
tage). Legislation in affairs common to the Reichsrath and
Reichstag is accomplished by means of Delegations (Delegation en).
Of these there are two, each consisting of 60 members, of whom
20 are from each of the Upper Houses (the Austrian Herren-
haus and the Hungarian Magnatentafel), and 40 from each of the
Lower Houses (the Austrian Abgeordnetenhaus and the Hun-
garian Repraesentantentafel). The members are appointed for
one year. The Delegations are summoned annually by the
Emperor, alternately at Vienna and Budapest. Their decisions
are communicated reciprocally in writing ; and if, after three such
interchanges, they do not agree, then the 120 delegates meet
together, and, -without discussion, settle the matter by vote.
The common Ministry is responsible to the Delegations, and
Ministers maybe impeached by them. Subject to the Delegations
are the three executive departments for common affairs. These
are : —
336 AUSTRIA- HUNGARY
1. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and of the Imperial House for the
Whole Monarchy. — Count G Kdlnoky dc Korospatak, Privy Councillor ; born
at Letowitz, in Moravia, December 29, 1832 ; entered the diplomatic service
1854 ; Secretary of Legation at Berlin 1857, and at London 1860-70 :
Ambassador at St. Petersburg 1880-81. Appointed Minister of Foreign
Affairs and of the Imperial House for the Whole Monarchy November 21,
1881.
2. The Ministry of War for the Whole Monarchy. — Field-Marshal Baron
Ferdiiut-nd Bauer, Privy Councillor; born at Lemberg, 1823; entered the
army 1841 ; appointed Minister of War for the Whole Monarchy March
16, 1888.
3. The Ministry of Finance for the Whole Monarchy. — Benjamin de Kdllay,
Privy Councillor, born December 22, 1839. Appointed Minister of Finance
for the Whole Monarchy June 4, 1882.
The above Ministers are responsible for the discharge of their official
functions to the Delegations.
AUSTRIA PROPER.
I. Central Government.
The political representation is two-fold — (1) for all the Austrian provinces
(Reichsrath) ; (2) for each separate province (Landtage).
The Reichsrath, or Parliament of the western part of the Monarchy,
consists of an Upper and a Lower House. The Upper House (Herrenhaus)
is formed, 1st, of the princes of the Imperial family who are of age, 19 in
number in 1892 ; 2nd, of a number of nobles — 68 in the present Reichsrath
— possessing large landed property, in whose families by nomination of
the Emperor the dignity is hereditary; 3rd, of the archbishops, ten in
number, and bishops, seven in number, who are of princely title inherent
to their episcopal seat ; and 4th, of any other life-members nominated by
the Emperor, on account of being distinguished in art or science, or who
have rendered signal services to Church or State — 125 in 1892. The Lower
House (Abgeordnetenhaus) consists at present, under a law passed A] nil •_'.
1873, of 353 members, elected, partly directly and partly indirectly, by the
vote of all citizens who are 24 years of age and possessed of a small property
or particular 'individual qualification ; of these, 85 represenl the landed
proprietors, 118 represent the towns, 21 the chambers of tirade and commerce,
129 the rural districts. The constituencies which under that law elect the
representatives for the Austrian Lower House are divided inJ;o four classes
These are, first, the rural districts, where the peasantry and small Landholders
are the electors ; they choose a voter for every 500 inhabitants, these voters
electing the representatives ; secondly, the towns ; thirdly, the chambers of
commerce in the cities and large towns ; and fourthly, the large landed
proprietors, payers of from 50 to 250 florins taxes, according to the province*
in which their estates are situated. In this last class females in possession
of their own property are entitled to vote. Under a law passed in 1882, the
franchise was extended to all male persons in towns and rural districts paying
direct taxes to the amount of 5 florins per annum : but there are voters who
pay lees taxes and some who pay none ; in the latter ease they must have a
particular individual qualification. Bohemia sends 92 representatives to the
Reichsrath, being! representative to 68,612 inhabitants; Galicis 68, or 1 to
104,884 inhabitants ; Lower Austria 37, or 1 to 71,940 inhabitants ; Moravia
HHUTU'IION AND GOVERNMENT — AUSTRIA PROPER 93?l
36, or 1 to 63,246 inhabitants; Styria 23, or 1 to 55,769 ; Tyrol 18, and
Upper Austria 17, being 1 to 45,149 and 45,624 ; Coastland 12, or 1 to
57,948 ; Krain (Carniola) 10, or 1 to 49,896 ; Schlesien (Silesia) 10, or 1 to
60,565 ; Karnthen (Carinthia) 9, or 1 to 40,112 ; Bnkowina 9, or 1 to 71,843 ;
Dalmatia 9, or 1 to 58,603 inhabitants. The smallest number of representa-
ia from Yorarlterg. which sends 3, or 1 to 38,691 inhabitants. The
most highly represented province is Salzburg, which sends 5 members, or 1 to
54,709 inhabitants. The duration of the Lower House of the Reichsrath is
for the term of six years. In case of dissolution new elections must take
place within six months. The Emperor nominates the president and vice-
pivsi.lent of the Upper House of the Reichsrath, while those of the Lower
House are elected by the members. It is incumbent upon the head of the
State to assemble the Reichsrath annually. The rights which, in consequence
of the diploma of Oct. 20,1860, and the*' Patent' of Feb. 26, 1861, have been
conferred upon the Reichsrath, are as follows : — 1st, Content to all laws
relating to military duty : 2nd. ''o-opcration in the legislation on trade and
commerce, customs, banking, postins, telegraph, and railway matters : 3rd.
Examination of the estimates of the income and expenditure of the State ; of
the bills on taxation, public loans, and conversion of the funds ; and general
control of the public debt. At present the rights of the Reichsrath are fixed
by the law of December 21, 1867. To give validity to bills passed by the
Reichsrath, the consent of both Chambers is required, as well as the sanction
of the head of the State. The members of both the Upper and the Lower
House have the right to propose new laws on subjects within the competence
of the Reichsrath.
The executive of Austria Proper consists of the following eight depart-
ments : —
1. The Ministry of the Interior. — Count Edward Taaffe, Privy Councillor.
Appointed Minister of the Interior and President of the Austrian Council of
Ministers, August 19, 1879.
The Ministry of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs — Dr.
Paul Gautsch Baron von Frankrnthuni, Privy Councillor. Appointed Novem-
ber 6, 1885.
S. The Ministry of Finance. — Privy Councillor, Dr. E. Steinbaeh. Ap-
pointed February 2, 1891.
4. The Ministry of Agriculture. — Count Julius FaU-enkayn, Privy Coun-
cillor. Appointed August 19, 1879.
5. The Ministry of Commerce and National Economy. — Privy Councillor,
iris von Bacquehem. Appointed July 28, 1886.
6. The Ministry of National Defence (Landesvertheidigung). — Field-
marshal, Privy Councillor Count Zeno von Welserskeimb. Appointed June
25, 1880.
7. — Ministry of Justice. — Count Friedrich von Schoenbom. Appointed
October 13, 1888.
Besides the seven Ministers, heads of departments, there are three
' Ministers without portfolio,' Baron ron Prazak (appointed October 11, 1888),
Sitter von Zalcski (October 11, 1888), and Count Dr. Gandolf Khuenburg
(appointed December 23, 1891), taking part in the deliberations of the Cabinet,
but not exercising special functions.
The responsibility of Ministers for acts committed in the discharge of
their official functions was established by a bill which received the sanction of
the Emperor on July 25, 1867-
338
AUSTRIA- HUNGARY
II. Provincial Government.
The Provincial Diets are competent to legislate in all matters not expressly
reserved for the Reichsrath. They have control over local representative
bodies, and the regulation of affairs affecting taxation, the cultivation of the
soil, educational, ecclesiastical, and charitable institutions and public works.
In Tyrol and Vorarlberg they have the regulation of the defence of the
province, and consent to the employment of the local militia (Landeschiitzen)
beyond the province. Each Provincial Diet consists of one assembly, com-
posed (1) of the archbishop and bishops of the Roman Catholic and Oriental
Greek Churches ; (2) the rectors of Universities ; (3) the representatives of
great estates, elected by all landowners paying land taxes of not less than
50, 100, 200, or 250 florins, according to the provinces in which their estates
are situated ; (4) the representatives of towns, elected by those citizens who
pQaaess municipal rights or pay a certain amount of direct taxation ; (5) the
representatives of boards of commerce or trade guilds, chosen by the respective
members ; (6) representatives of the rural communes, elected by deputies
called ' Wahlmanner,' returned by all inhabitants who pay a small amount of
direct taxation.
The strength of the sixteen separate Diets is shown in the following
table : — >
No. of
No. of
Members
Members
Lower Austria
. 72
Tyrol .
. 68
Upper Austria
. 50
Vorarlberg .
. 21
Salzburg
. 26
Bohemia
. 242
Steiermark (Styria)
. 63
Moravia
. 100
Carinthia
. 37
Silesia
31
Carniola
. 37
Galicia
. 151
Gbrz and Gradiska
. 22
Bukowina .
. 31
Istria .
. 33
Dalmatia .
. 43
The deputies to the Provincial Diets are elected for six years. The Diets
are summoned annually.
The Provincial Council is an executive body composed of the president of
the Diet and other members elected.
III. Local Government.
Each commune has a council to deliberate and decide, and a committee to
administer all its affairs. The members of the council are elected for three
(in Galicia for six) years. All who have a vote are eligible if of age. In the
towns with special statutes a corporation takes the place of the communal
committee
District representative bodies are, in Styria (Steiermark), Bohemia, and
Galicia, interposed between the communal bodies and Provincial Diets. They
deliberate and decide on all affairs affecting the interests of the district
(Bezirk). They consist of the representatives (1) of great estates, (2) of the
most highly taxed industries and trades, (3) of the towns and markets, (4)
of the rural communes (Landgemeinden). Members are elected for three years,
in Galicia for six. A committee of this body (called the Bezirks-aussrlmss)
administers the affair* <>f the district.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT — HTJNOABT 339
EUX'iARY.
I. Central and Provincial Govern. mi
The Constitution of the eastern part of the monarchy, or the kingdom
of Hungary, including Hungary Proper, Croatia-Slavonia, and Transylvania,
•lates from the foundation of the kingdom, about 891. The first charter or
rutional code is the 'Bulla Aurea' of King Andrew II., granted in
whieh defined the form of government as an aristocratic monarchy.
The Hungarian Constitution has been repeatedly suspended and j>artially
disregarded, until, at the end of the armed struggle of 1849, it was decreed to
be forfeited by the nation. This decree was repealed in 1860 : and the present
sovereign, on June 8, 1867, swore to maintain the Constitution, and was
crowned King of Hungary.
The Hungarian Reichstag (Orszaggyules) has legislative authority for Hun-
gary, and for Croatia and Slavonia in matters which concern these provinces
in common with Hungary. It consists of an Upper House ( Magna tentafel)
and a Lower House (Repraesentanteutafel).
The House of Magnates, reformed by an Act passed in 1885, now includes
all hereditary peers who pay 3,000 fl. a year land tax ; 40 archbishops, bishops,
and other dignitaries of the" Roman Catholic and Greek Churches ; 11 ecclesi-
astical and lay representatives of the Protestant Confessions ; 82 life peers
appointed by the Crown (a first batch of 50 was elected once for all by the
House itself) ; 17 members ex officio, being State dignitaries and high judges ;
3 delegates of Croatia- Slavonia ; and lastly, the archdukes who have attained
their majority. In the session of 1889-90 the number of archdukes was 20,
and there .vert- 286 hereditary peers holding the property qualification.
The Lower House or House of Representatives of Hungary is composed of
representatives of the nation, elected by the vote of all male citizens, of 20
years of age, who pay a small direct tax on house property or land, or on an
income varying with occupation ; but in all cases very low. Certain large
classes — professional, scientific, learned, and others — are entitled to vote with-
out other qualifications. The number of the electorate, according to the last
returns, was 821,241, or 1 in 18 of the population. New elections must take
place even- five years. By the electoral law in force in the session of 1889, the
House of Representatives consisted of 453 members, of whom 413 were depu-
ties of Hungarian towns and districts, and 40 delegates of Croatia and Slavonia.
The Reichstag is summoned annually by the King at Budapest. The
language of the Reichstag is Hungarian ; but the representatives of Croatia
and Slavonia may speak their own language.
The executive of the kingdom is in a responsible ministry, consisting
(January 1892) of a president and nine departments, namely : —
The Presidency of the Council — Count Julius Szdpdry ; appointed Presi-
dent of the Council of Ministers, March 7, 1890
1. The Ministry of Finance. — Dr. Alexander Wekerle ; appointed April
9, 1889.
2. The Ministry of National Defence (Honved).— Baron Geza Fejirvdry ;
appointed October 28, 1884.
3. The Ministry near the King's person (adlatus). — Ladislausde Szogyeny-
marich ; appointed December 1890.
4. The Ministry of the Interior. — Count Szdpdry; appointed April 1890.
5. The Ministry of Education and of Public Worship. — Count Albin
Csdky ; appointed September 1888.
6. The Ministry of Justice. — Desiderius de Szil&gyi ; appointed April 9,
1889
z 2
340 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
7. The Ministry of Industry and Commerce.' — Gabriel Von Baross ; ap-
pointed December 21, 1886.
8. The Ministry of Agriculture, Count Andreas Bethlen ; appointed April
1890.
9. The Minister for Croatia and Slavonia. — Emerich de Josipovich ; ap-
pointed August 23, 1889.
The Croatian -Slavonian Provincial Diet, meeting annually at Agram
(Landtag), consists of 90 members, elected for five years, representing 21 town
districts and 69 rural districts,and of members (not more than one-third) with
Virilstimmcn The electors must have a low property qualification, be of
certain professions, or pay a small tax. Members with Virilstimmcn are
certain ecclesiastical and political dignitaries, and the members of certain noble
families (Magnaten) possessing the right by inheritance or by royal nomination.
They must pay at least 1,000 fl. of land or property tax.
II. Local Government.
In Hungary a distinction is observed between communes (Gemeinde),
which are large or small, or may be townships with regular magistrates, and
municipalities (Munizipien), which are regarded as communes of a higher order.
The communal electoral right is possessed by every inhabitant over twenty
years of age who for two years has paid the State tax. The representative
body is composed half of members elected for six years, and half of persons
who pay the highest taxes. The committee consists of members appointed, in
the towns for six years, in the rural communes for three years, with officials
appointed for life. The counties and towns invested with similar rights are
independent municipalities. Each has its council constituted similarly to the
representative body of the communes ; but members are elected for ten years.
All electors for the Reichstag are qualified to vote. In Budapest they must he
able to read and write. The executive is in the hands of the official body of
the municipality, who sit and vote with the council (Ausschuss).
In Croatia and Slavonia each county has an assembly (Komitats-Skuptsch inn)
similar to the Hungarian local representative bodies. The electoral qualifica-
tion is the same as for the Diet (Landtag). The municipalities within the
county (except Agram and Essek) 'send delegates, and the higher county
officials also sit and vote. In the rural communes the representative body U
the council, elected for three years; in the towns for tour years. In the
former the executive is in the hands of the magistrates ; in the latter, of the
municipal council.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The Austrian dominions — exclusive of the Turkish provinces
of Bosnia and Herzegovina, which have been under the adminis-
tration of Austria-Hungary since 1878, but have not as yet been
formally incorporated with it — have an area of 622,310 square
kilometres, or 240,942 English square miles, with a population
at the census of December 31, 1890, of 41,231,342, or 171 per
square mile.
AREA AND POPULATION
341
The following is the civil population of Austria-Hungary at
the three last censuses : —
Population Absolute lucre** Te^^T"e
Austria
1869 20,217,531
1880 21,981,821
1890 23,895,624
1,993,031 0 86
1,744,290 076
1,913,803 076
Hungary i
1869 15,417,327
1880 15,642,102
1890 17,335,929
-.814 091
,775 013
1,693,827 108
1 Including Croatia aii'l Slavonia.
The following table gives the area, and total number of in-
habitants (civil and military), of the various provinces of the
Monarchy, after the returns of the censuses of December 31,
1880 and 1890 :—
Area :
Population, Dec 31, 1890
Popula-
English
square
Dec 31,
1880
tion per
sq. mile,
[ miles
Male
Female
Total
1890
Austria Proper :
Lower Austria .
2,330,621
1,307,913
1,353,886
2,661,799
34.
Upper Austria .
4,631
759,620
388,762
397,069
785,831
169
Salzburg
163,570
85,948
87,562
173,510
62
Styria .
8,670
1.213..-.97
635,907
640,741
1,282,708
148
Carinthia
' 4,005
176,473
184.535
361,008
91
Carniola
, 3,856
4-1. -J4::
238,011
260.947
108,961
129
land .
. 3,084
647,934
351,844
343,540
695,384
228
Tyrol and Vorarlberg
11,324
912,549
474. '"Mi
92S.769
82
Bohemia .
i 20,060
5,560,819
2,821,989
3,021,105
5,843,094
291
M "ii via
8,583
2.153.407
1,087,340
1,189,530
264
3
j 1,987
288,91 -
316,741
605,649
305
Galicia
30,307
£,968,90}
3,260,433
3.347,383
6,607,816
218
Bukowina .
4.035
571,671
SS4,46fi
322.122
646,591
160
Dalmatia .
Total, Austria
Kingdom of Hungary ;
4.940
!
476,101
266,303
261,123
527,426
106
! 115,903
22,144,244
11,689,129
12,206,284
23,895,413
206
| Hungary (including
Transylvania) .
108,258
13,812,446
15. 122.514
139
Croatia and Slavouia
16,773
1,905,295
2,184,414
130
Town of Fiume .
Total, Hungary
Total, Austria
8
21,634
%
29,001
3,625
| 125,039
15,739,375
17,335,929
139
1
Hungary .
240,942
37,883,619
41,231,342
171
342
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
To this should be added military population, 113,776.
The ethnical elements of the population are as follow (1890
for Austria *and 1880 for Hungary) on the basis of language : —
Austria
Hungary
Austria
Hungary
1890
1880
1890
1880
German
8,462,372
1,972,115
Servian and
Bohemian,
Croatian .
644,769
2,359,708
Moravian &
Latin
674,701
—
Slovak
5,473,203
1,892,806
Roumanian
209,026
2,423,387
Polish
3,721,106
—
Magyar
8,139
6,478,711
Ruthenian .
3,107,218
360,051
Gipsies
—
82,256
Slovene
1,176,535
86,401
Others
—
83,940
There were 155,471 foreign residents in Austria at the com-
mencement of 1880, of whom 93,472 were Germans, 40,152
Italians, 11,654 Russians, 2,347 Turks, 2,287 Swiss, 1,947 British,
977 Greeks, 1 ,206 Americans. These are exclusive of Hungarians,
of whom there were 1,83,422.
Profession, Occupation,
fcO., ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF
1880.
Austria
Hungary
Profession, &c.
Males
Females
Total
Males
Females
Total
16,658
Ecclesiastics
80,459
0,812
40,271
15,664
1.1 !M
Government officials
4.1,68(5
501
46,190
30,931
210
81,141
Active military
102,423
—
162,423
96,866
—
96,866
Teachers
41,120
14,809
66,929
26,301
6,971
88,828
Professors, authors, art-
ists, Ac.
862,609
2l»...,S!I
78,096
86,810
!Ut',:,
44,975
Lower Government ser-
vants, gendarmerie, A*c.
52,487
388
52,825
38,812
937
84,746
Agriculture, forestry, sea
fisheries
3,488,873
2,728,974
6,161,246
3,547,206
978,466
4,680,671
Mining and smelting
108,221
9,649
117,870
86,646
445
86,991
Manufactures
1,682,422
684,676
2,167,098
713,777
7;->.l!l3
788,970
Commerce
861,891
83,935
485,326
166,911
19,680
186,691
Proprietors, annuitants,
pensioners .
149,666
128,018
277,684
86,988
86,996
68,916
House servants
245,485
644,722
890,207
384,050
480,480
Day labourers
454,227
428,372
888,699
442,594
946,269
Members of families
4,042,671
6,708,616
10,746,187
8,618,718
(,889,880
8,868,098
Others, with those of un-
known occupation
18,745
27,646
46,291
22,144,244
741,084
7,800,067
- 19,834
178,918
Total .
10,819,7,87
11,324,607
7,939,192
In Hungary in 1880 there were 1,1 51,707 farm proprietors,
23,393 tenant farmers, and 1,373,768 farm labourers, or over
2,720,000 people directly engaged in agriculture ; 173 mining
AREA AND POPULATION
343
proprietors and 25,732 miners ; 380,786 engaged in manufactures,
with 385,630 workers; 97,300 engaged in trade, with 79,995
assistants
Practically belonging to the A ustro- Hungarian monarchy, though not
incorporated "with it by any treaty, is the small principality of Liechtenstein,
enclosed in the Austrian province of Tyrol and Vorarlberg, with an area of 70
English square miles and a population in 1886 of 9,593 (4.S97 males and 4,696
females), nearly all Roman Catholics. The inhabitants of the principality pay
no taxes, nor are they liable to military service. The public debt amounts to
35,000 Austrian florins.
II. Movement of Population.
I. Birtlis, Deaths, Marriages.
The following table exhibits, for the civil population, the
number of births, deaths, and marriages, with the surplus of births,
in both Austria Proper and the lands of the Hungarian Crown, for
a quinquennial period, according to the latest official returns : —
Austria Proper.
Year
Total
Births
Stillborn "J*}"* Marriages Deaths i
Suri>iu»of
Living Births
197,605
,176
203,328
.: 7.903
171,593
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
901,003
915,555
915,702
924.690
894,356
24,940 133,643 180,191 678,458
26,077 136,298 182,088 502
25,801 135,761 185,991 686.
26.340 137,5S:3 177.771 620,447
25,421 128,702 178,906 696,342
The rate of illegitimacy varies from 44 per cent, in Carinthia,
'11 in Salzburg, 26 in Lower Austria, 25 in Styria, 19 in Upper
Austria, to 3 A per cent, in Dalmatia.
Hungary?
i Year
iK stulborn
Illegiti- Marriages Deaths i Births over
Deaths
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
750,450
773,508
758,231
759,662
767,884
13,092
13,643
13,151
14,026
12,904
61,030 165,299 536,496 200,852
62.445 160,793 540.371 219,494
61,819 151,511 568,533 175,947
61,911 158,881 544,478 215,184
61,468 140,524 512,852 255,032
The percentage of stillborn to total births in Hungary is about
1*7. The rate of illegitimacy is 8 per cent, of the whole — con-
siderably less than in Austria.
Excluding stillborn.
- Including Croatia-S avonia and Fiuine.
344
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Emigration.
The following are the emigration statistics of Austria-Hungary
for five years : —
Year
Total Emigrants
To N. America
To Argentine
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
34,511
45,808
44,394
48,567
55,794
25,637
40,116
39,087
41,665
26,424
1,982
1,015
2,498
2,333
4,225
According to United States statistics in 1887, 24,786
Austrians and 14,301 Hungarians arrived there ; in 1888 the
numbers were Austrians 28,809, Hungarians 12,856 ; in 1889,
26,424 Austrians and 15,746 Hungarians.
III. Principal Towns.
The following were the populations of the principal
towns on
December 31, 1890:-
Austkia : —
Briinn
95,342
Pryemysl
35,619
Vienna . 1,364,548
Krakau
76,025
Reichenberg
Prague . 184,109
i Czernowitz
57,403
Laibach
30,691
Trieste . 158,344
Pilsen
50,693
Kolomea
30,160
Lemberg . 128,419
Linz .
47,560
Budweis
28,730
Gratz 113,540
I Pola .
39,273
Salzburg
27,741
Hungary : —
Budapest
506,384
Klausenburg
32,729
Szegedin
87,210
Mako .
32,725
Maria-Theresiopol
72,683
Bekes-Csaba
32,244
Debreczin
56,996
Szertes
30,758
Hod-Mezo-Vasarhely .
55,483
Kronstadt .
30,724
Pressburg
52,444
Miskolez
30,444
Kecskemet . . .
48,234
Felegyliaza .
30,406
Arad ....
41,945
Kaschau
29,196
Temesvar
39,850
Fiume .
29,001
Grosswardein
38,219
Tarnopol
26,097
Agram
37,369
Wiener-Neustadt
25,324
Fiinfkirchen
33,780
Aussig
24,083
Religion.
In Austria the relation of the State to the religious bodies is
regulated by the statutes of December 21, 1867, and of May 25,
1868. In these the leading principle is religious liberty, the
independence of the Church as regards the State, saving the rights
of the sovereign arising from ecclesiastical dignity. Full liberty
of faith and conscience is secured, and the enjoyment of civil
and political rights is independent of religious profession. Every
religious body legally recognised has the right of ordinary public
worship, the management of its own affairs, and the undisturbed
RELIGION
345
possession of its premises, endowments, and funds for the purposes
of worship, instruction, or charity. Recognised religious bodies
in Austria are : — The Roman Catholic, Old Catholic, Greek-
Oriental, Evangelical (Augsburg or Lutheran, and Helvetian or
Reformed), the Evangelical Brotherhood, the Gregorian- Armenian,
and the Jewish. The Minister for Ecelesia>tical Affairs will
grant legal recognition to any religious bodies if their doctrine,
worship, constitution, and designation contain nothing illegal or
immoral (Statute of May 20, 1874).
In Hungary there is perfect equality among all legally recog-
nised religions. These are : — The Roman Catholic, the Evan-
gelical (Augsburg and Helvetian), the Greek-Oriental, the
Gregorian- Armenian, the Unitarian, and the Jewish. Each has
the independent administration of its own affairs.
The following figures relate to 1885 and 1889 :—
Austria, 1885 Hungary, 1889
Priests, regular and secular : —
Roman Catholic Church
Greek Catholic Church
Greek Oriental Church
Members of orders : —
Male
Female ....
Protestant clergy .
Jewish clergy
15,732
2.332
543
6.565
10,281
230
5,464
2,463
•_'. IM
2,029
3,722
769
The following table gives the division of the population
;u-eording to religion on the basis of the census of 1890 for
Austria, and 1880 for Hungary.
Austria, 1890 Hungary, 1880
H» 1,000 ^Jif,nt- In 1,000 P« «nt. of
of pop. pop.
Roman Catholics .
Greek Catholics
Armenian Catholics
Old Catholics
Greek Oriental
Armenian Oriental
Evangelical .
Unitarian
Other Christian sects
Jews . .
Others ....
Total .
, 18,934
2,814
3
8
545
1
436
6
1,143
5
79-2 7,850 50 1
11-8 1,497 95
— 3 —
■
2 4 2,435 15 6
18 3,155 20 1
— 56 04
— 5 —
4 8 638 4 3
4
23,895
100 0 15,643 100 0
346
AUSTRIA -HUNGARY
Instruction.
The educational organisation of Austria-Hungary comprises : —
(1) Elementary schools ; (2) Gymnasia and Eealschulen ; (3)
Universities and colleges ; (4) Technical high schools ; and
(5) Schools for special subjects.
The progress of elementary education in Austria between the
census of 1880 and that of 1890 is shown in the following state-
ment : —
Population
1880
1890
Able to read and write
Able only to read
Able neither to read nor write .
•
10,930,099
1,345,781
9,858,364
13,258,452
1,031,624
9,605,337
22,134,244
23,895,413
The erection of elementary schools is incumbent on the school
districts. In both Austria and Hungary compulsory attendance
begins with the completion of the sixth year ; in Croatia and
Slavonia, of the seventh ; and continues in Austria generally, till
the completion of the fourteenth ; but in Istria, Galicia, Buko-
wina, and Dalmatia, as also in Hungary, till the completion of
the twelfth year. Of these schools there are in Austria two
grades ; in Hungary, three.
In the elementary schools in Austria the subjects taught are religion, read-
ing, writing, language (Unterrichts-Sprache), arithmetic with elementary
geometry, some branches of natural history and physics, geography, history,
drawing, singing ; to boys, gymnastics ; to girls, domestic duties. The cost of
erecting and maintaining elementary and burgh schools, and the payment of
the teaching staff, are defrayed in different ways in different places ; but the
expense always falls ultimately on the communes or the land. In only a few
special cases are elementary schools supported by the State.
The following figures show the latest statistics of school attendance, and
the number of training colleges : —
-
Elemen-
tary
Schools
Teachers
64,222
24,622
Pupils
2,872,929
2,013,539
Children of
School Age
Training
Colleges
Austria (1890) .
Hungary (1889)
18,598
16,737
3,478,015
2,470,923
69
71
In Hungary there were besides,729 institutions for the care of young children,
89 ' humanistic' schools.and 30 prison schools with a total attendance of 70,283.
The Gymnasia and Realsehulen are schools whose practical purpose consists
especially in the preparation they supply for the universities and technical high
schools. The curriculum of the former extends ovtt eight years ; of the latter,
over seven. Tins are, so far as they arc public, maintained by the State, by
separate provinces, by the larger communes, or (in the case of confessional
schools) by ecclesiastical foundations, &c, eventually with a subvention from
INSTRUCTION
347
the State. Private middle schools are included in the following table ; these
are under the same regulations as public schools : —
MB
Gvmnasii
Realschulen
No. ; Teachers
No.
Teachers Pupils
Austria
Hungary .
Monarchy .
172 j 3,484
158 2,366
330 5,850
52,911
33,358
n
30
1,383 18,384
571 6,650
M\*M
108
1,954 25,034
In Austria- Hungary there are eleven universities maintained by the State,
each comprising four faculties — viz. theology, law, medicine, philosophy. In
some of the smaller, however, the faculty of medicine, and in some that
of theology, isabsent. The following statement refers to the winter of 1890-91: —
Austria :
Vienna
(German
Bohe-
mian
Gratz
Cracow
Leinberg .
374
161
134
135
114
68
4,985
1,328
2,167
1,193
1,125
1,170
Universities
Innsbruck
Czernowitz
Hungary :
Budapest .
Klausenburg
Agram
217
3,679
87 535
49 413
1,477 17,680
In addition to the universities then are in Austria 47 theological colleges,
viz. : — 45 Catholic, 1 Greek Oriental, and 1 Protestant, with a total ot
students : in Hungary 49 theological colleges, viz. : — 35 Catholic, 4 Greek
Oriental, 9 Protestant, and 1 Jewish, with a total of 1,761 students. In
Hungary there are 11 law sehoolsnvith ri" students.
There are seven Government technical high schools for various branches of
engineering and technical chemistry. In 1890-91 the numbers were : —
Teachers
93
61
65
48
Students
Teachers
Students
147
157
144
Vienna
Budapest
n^,m,„ f Bohemian
^^XGerman .
724
602
316
162
Gratz
Lemberg
Briinn .
49
50
42
408
2,252
There are besides about 1,500 special technical institutes in Austria and
449 in Hungary, training in agriculture, industries of all kinds, art, music,
mining, commerce, &c, with 150,000 students.
Included in these were 70 commercial schools in Austria and 98 in Hun-
gary : 619 industrial schools in Austria and 265 in Hungary ; 99 agricultural
schools in Austria and 39 in Hungary : 99 forestry schools, 5 schools of
mining, 5 nautical schools, and 6 veterinary schools in Austria ; 9 art schools
in Hungary, and 277 music schools in Austria.
In Hungary, by the Trade Law of 1884, every commune, where there are
50 or more apprentices, is Iwund to provide special instruction. The first
schools were established in Budapest in 1887, and numbered 12, with 125
348
AUSTRIA- HUNGARY
teachers and 5,173 pupils. In 1888 the numbers were 16 schools, 151 teachers,
and 6, 459 pupils. In the other towns and countries of Hungary there were
229 schools for apprentices, with 1,237 teachers and 38,081 pupils.
In 1889, 1,674 periodicals of various kinds were published in Austria,
and 834 in Hungary. Of the former, 98 were daily papers.
In Hungary Proper 81 "49 per cent, of the children were at elementary
schools in 1889. In the Hungarian elementary schools the language of
1,037,399 children was Magyar, 308,538 German, 242,257 Roumanian, 270,396
Slovenian, 154,949 Servian, Croatian, Ruthenian, or other language. There
were 100,099 Jewish children.
In 7,251 of the public elementary schools in Austria the language used was
German ; in 4,490 Czech (mainly in Bohemia and Moravia) ; and in 4,442,
other Slav dialects ; 823 Italian, 91 Roumanian, 3 Magyar ; and in 519 more
than one language. According to official statistics, 87 per cent, of the chil-
dren of school age were attending school in Austria in 1889.
Justice and Crime.
In Austria the ordinary judicial authorities are : —
(1) The Supreme Court of Justice and Court of Cassation (Oberste
Gerichts-und Kassationshof) in Vienna. (2) The higher provincial courts
(Oberlandesgerichte). (3) The provincial and district courts (Landes- and
Kreisgerichte), and, in connection with these, the jury courts (Gesehwo-
renengerichte). (4) The county courts (Bezirksgerichte). Of these, the
third and fourth groups are courts of first instance ; the second group consists
of courts of second instance. Courts of first instance act as courts of inquiry
and have summary jurisdiction. Courts of second instance are courts of
appeal from the lower courts, and have the supervision of the criminal courts
in their jurisdiction. The jury courts try certain cases where severe penalties
are involved, political offences, and press offences. The county courts exercise
criminal jurisdiction in the counties, and co-operate in preliminary proceedings
regarding crime.
There are in all for Austria 68 provincial and 916 county or district courts.
There exist also special courts for commercial, revenue, military, and other
matters.
In case of conflict between different authorities; the Imperial Court
(Reichsgericht) in Vienna has power to decide.
For Hungary with Fiume the judicial authorities are :— The Royal Court
(Kuria) in Budapest, of the highest instance in all civil and criminal matters ;
11 Royal Courts of Justice, of second instance. As courts of first instance, ti"»
courts (Gerichtshofe), with collegiate judgeships : 384 county courts
(Bezirksgerichte), with single judges ; 10 jury courts (Geschworenengerichte),
for press offences, besides an army special court.
Convictions
Of less serious otlences
Of misdemeanours
Number of prisoners in confine-
ment, at end of year :
Austria
Hungary
1886
29,706
5,400
9,788
1,439
1887
28,745
l.'.'s:.
656,298
9,602
1,478
1888
1886
11,948
oT.'.'Tl
202,838
i,«78
600
1887
1888
314,700
1661
682
28,112
4,830
586,1 i"
•->..:<. i
1,475
II. ONI
73,886
881.2U
...:;r.
578
There are 15 penal establishments in Austria for males, and 6 for femah
PAUPERISM — KIN \ N 349
Pauperism.
The right to poor relief is defined by an imperial statute, but the regula-
tions tor the apportionment of the cost are made by the separate provinces,
and are consequently very various. The funds first available are those of the
public institutions for the poor (Armeninstitutionen), derived from endow-
ments, voluntary contributions, the poors' third of the property left by in-
ir priests, and certain percentages on the proceeds of voluntary
Bales. In some provinces the poors' funds are augmented from other sources,
«.g. tin-am- money (Spectakelgabler), hunting licences, dog certificates, and in
aome larg>- towns j«er<entages on legacies over a fixed amount. When, in any
given ease, these funds are exhausted, the commune of origin (Heimatsgemeinde)
must make provision. Those who are wholly or partially unfit for work may
lie provided for in such manner as the commune judges propose. Besides
poors' houses and money relief, there exists in many provinces, by custom or
:.stitutional ride, the practice of assigning the poor — in respect of board
and lodging — to each of the resident householders in fixed succession.
In some provinces unions (Verbiinde) have been formed by statute to
undertake certain burdens as to poor relief. By the erection of houses for
forwarding vagrants to their proper communes (Schubstationen) a great step
was taken towards the suppression of begging and vagrancy.
The following table shows the number of offices for the poor < Anuenin-
stituteiO in Austria during the five wars 1884-88, the number of persons
relieved by them, and the amount distributed : —
Year
Institutes
1 Persons relieved j
Distribute*!
Florins
1884
10,702
270,324
4,033,911
1885
10,538
274.307
4.195,848
1886
10,645
288,951
7.159
1887
10,488
290.
4,517,2
1888
10,940
288,742
Besides these there were, in 1887, houses for the children of the ]>oor,
Orphan asylums, Kindergartens, fcc, to the number of 1,079 and
]>oor houses (Versorgungsanstalten). In these, 38,539 persons were relievo!,
2,860,214 fl. being spent upon them, the average being 039 fl. for one days
maintenance for each person.
Finance.
There are three distinct budgets : the first, that of the Dele
•rations, for the whole monarchy ; the second, that of the
Reichsrath, for Austria ; and the third, that of the Hungarian
Diet, for the Kingdom of Hungary.
I. Whole Monarchy.
The cost of the administration of common affairs is borne by
both halves of the monarchy in a proportion agreed on from time
to time by the Reichsrath and Reichstag, and sanctioned by the
350
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Emperor. By the agreement in force, the net proceeds of the
common customs are deducted from the amount required ; then
2 per cent, of the remainder is debited to Hungary ; and, lastly,
of this remainder 70 per cent, is paid by Austria, and 30 per cent,
by Hungary. A common loan may be taken, and the floating
debt, consisting of bills, is guaranteed jointly by both. The other
debts are not regarded as common ; but Hungary pays, on account
of ordinary debt contracted before 1868, a yearly sum of 30,312,920
florins.
The following table shows the expenditure, and the sources
from which the revenue was obtained, in thousands of florins,
for the years indicated, those for 1890 and 1891 being the
sanctioned estimates and for 1892 the estimates : —
-
Years
1870
1880
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
139,143
Expenditure
109,119
115,760
125,716
135,910 ! 147,844
132,224
135 634
Revenue from cus-
toms .
12,551
4,908
18,642
41,510 39,782
39,734
40,492
40,155
Proportional con-
tribution of both
parts of the mon-
archy : —
Contribution of
Austria
67,598
76,044
73,453
64,758 ; 71,799
61,478
63,410
66,072
Hungary .
28,970
34,808
33,621
29,642 j 32,864
28,140
29,024
30,243
The budget estimates for the ' common affairs of the monarchy '
were as follows for the year 1892 : —
Sources of Revenue Florins
Ministry of Foreign
Affairs . . . 111,500
Ministry of War . . 2,555,224
Ministry of Finance . 6, 434
Board of Control . __ 350
Surplus from customs 40,155,180
Sources of Revenue
Hungary's 2 per cent.
Austria's quota .
Hungary's quota
Total
Florins
1,926,284
66,071,540
28,316,374
139,142,886
Branches of Expenditure Ordinal. \
Extraordinary
Florins
57,700
14,627,243
2,143,100
6,138
16,834,181
Total
Florins
3,637,400
121,720,490
11,627,714
2,029,022
128,260
139,142,886
Florins
Ministry of Foreign Affairs . 3,579,700
™- tJ. f w / Army . . |107,093,247
Ministry of War | Mar/e 1 9)484)614
Ministry of Finance . . . j 2,022,884
Board of Control . . . 128,260
Total . . . 122,308,705
FINANCE
851
For the administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina for 1892
the expenditure is estimated at 10,136,149 florins, and revenue
10,187,450 florins. There was besides an extraordinary estimate
of 4,335,000 florins for the expenses of the army in Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
II. Austria and Hungary.
The following table shows the expenditure and revenue of
Austria and Hungary, in 1880, and 1886-90, in thousands of
florins : —
V. in
1880
432,075
41,303
1886
1887
1888
tarn
' ' 1
UN
AU8TRIA.
Expenditure : —
Total in cash .
,, in bills .
Total .
Revenue : —
Total in cash .
,, in bills .
Total .
Hungary.
Expenditure : —
Ordinary
Transitory
Investments .
Extraordinary
expenditure
Total .
Bevenue: —
Ordinary
Transitory
F.xtraordinary
Total .
521,931
142,970
566,903
182,685
567,310
115,975
551,254
89,134
559,598
88,457
473,378
664,901 '
749,588
683,285
640,388
648,055
445.935
37,428
532,750
143,287
5S0.946
170,569
535,841
129,072
565,019
89,134
582,163
88,457
670,620
483,363
676,037
751,615
664,913
654,153
272,981
7,551
6,508
2,609
320,264
3.453
20,991
3,638
325,954
2.43:.
17,743
4,151
321.776
4,954
16,210
19,104
330,657
126,147
330,821
24,994
, 289,649
548,848
350,283
362,043
356,804
355,815
214,822
17,529
84
311,619
41,296
321,646
BB.6S7
, 335,027
52,933
340,690
| 6,562
348,135
262.43')
352,915
350,283
187,908
347,252
355,307 |
352
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Austria Proper.
The revenue and expenditure were given as follows in the
sanctioned financial estimates for the year 1892 : —
Revenue
Florins
Ordinary
Council of Ministers
Ministry of Interior
Ministry of Defence
Ministry of Worship
and Education
Ministry of Finance
Administration
Direct taxes :
Land tax
House tax
Industry tax .
Income tax .
Total direct taxes
Customs
Indirect taxes :
Excise .
Salt
Tobacco
Stamps .
Judicial fees .
Lottery .
Various .
Total indirect taxes
State properties
Ministry of Commerce :
Posts and telegraphs
Railways
Various .
.Ministry of Agriculture
Forests and domains
Mines .
Various .
Ministry of Justice .
Various
Total ordinary revenue
Extraordinary revenue
Total revenue
741,800
1,026,168
312,497
5,947,659
3,268,194
36,052,000
32,056,000
11,284,000
26,442,000
Expenditure
105,834,000
37,943,800
100,935,980
20,909,706
84,151,300
19,350,000
35,300,000
19,401,000
3,400,860
283,448,846
2,753,892
32,674,000
76,325,450
2,776,670
4,370,020
8,181,975
602,592
1,009,448
657,142
567,874,153
18,079,973
585,954,126
Ordinary
Imperial household
Imperial Cabinet Chan-
cery
Reichsrath
Supreme Court .
Council of Ministers .
Ministry of the Interior
Ministry of National
Defence
Ministry of Public
Worship and Edu-
cation :
Central Establish-
ments .
Public Worship
Education
Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Finance .
Ministry of Justice .
Ministiy of Commerce
Board of Control
Interest and sinking
fund of public debt
Management of ditto
Pensions and grants .
Subventions
Cisleithan portion of
the common expen-
diture of the
Empire, including
War and Foreign
Affairs .
Total ordinary expen-
diture .
Extraordinary expen-
diture .
Total expenditure
Florins
4,650,000
73,097
726,054
23,000
1,064,318
17,183,355
15,054,756
1,625,735
6,999,500
13,168,990
13,305,227
83,823,553
20,664,000
93,939,400
171,300
144,257,560
962,790
17,877,240
6,581,400
101,500,540
543,651,815
40,295,738
r.s:l.!> 17.553
Hungary.
The budget estimates for the year 1892 give the sources of
revenue and branches of expenditure as follows : —
FIX ANTE — PUBLIC DEBT
353
Revest e.
Ordinary reven . Florins
State debts . 3,811,573
Ministry of Justice .
Accountant-General's nlfiV.' 1,895
,, ,, National
Ministry nd labia 700
Defence .
«>t the Interior 1.145,970
.. Finance . 276,865,468
Total of ordinary
.. i ommeice 91,872,417
revenue
„ „ Agriculture 13,835,125
Transitory revenue
,, ., Instruction
and Public Worship 1,080,014
Grand total
Florins
578,358
337,461
$89,528,981
5,824,955
395,353,936
Expenditure.
Ordinary expenditure :
Florins
Florins
( -is-il list .
4,650,000
Ministry for Croatia .
1,080
Cabinet chancery
73,097
of the Interior
12,074,528
Diet
1,246,931
,, of Finance
-.152
Quota of common ex-
„ of Commerce
.740
penditure
24. 95-
,, of Agriculture
13,832,395 '
Pensions chargeable on
,, of Instruction
the common exchequer 46, 132
and Public Worship
7,607
>ns Hungary) .
7,095,799
Ministry of Justice .
13,167,933
National debt .
118,632,863
,, of National
Debts of guaranteed
Defence .
11,990,711 !
over by the State .
20,683,710
Total of ordinary
< Juaranteed railway
expenses .
368,100,562
interests
1,029,976
Transitory expenditure
"•,728
Administration of
Investments, total of .
13,317,528
Croatia .
6,923,116
Extraordinary common
Accountant-General's
expenditure .
6,647,123
110,900
337,580
Minister-Presidency .
Total .
395,340,941
Ministry ad lotus
58,990
This shows a surplus of 12,995 florins. The estimates of the
previous vear were : — Revenue, 369, < 08,583 florins ; expenditure,
369,004,543 florins : surplus, 4,040 florins.
III. Public Debt.
The following table shows the growth of the debt of the
monarchy in thousands of florins : —
1875
r«K
General debt .
Austria's special debt
Hungary's ,, ,,
Total .
3,008,461 3,110,838 3,129,010 2,776,129
332,244 681,099 1,128,483 1,109,871
719,544 1,347,904 1,582,259 1,734,185
4,060,249 5,139,841 5,829,752 5,620,185
354 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
In addition to Hungary's special debt, her share in the common
debt of the monarchy amounts to about 248 million florins.
The total debt of Austria, after deducting Hungary's share,
amounts to 152 florins per head ; and of Hungary to 84 florins
per head. There is besides a common floating debt amounting to
351,945,099 florins.
Defence.
I. Frontier.
Austria-Hungary lies in the heart of Europe. The total
length of frontier is 5,396 miles. In the S. the frontier line
towards the Adriatic Sea is 1,050 miles. The land frontier
is formed in the W. by Bavaria, the canton of St. Gallen,
Lichtenstein, the Canton Graubunden, and Italy ; in the S. by
Italy, Montenegro, Herzegovina, and Bosnia, Servia, and
Boumania ; in the E. by Boumania ; in the N.E. and N. by
Bussia; in the N. by Prussia, and in the N.W. by Saxony.
Natural frontiers are the Fichtel Mountains, the Bohmerwald,
the Inn, and the Salzach towards Bavaria; the Saale, the Alps,
and the Bhine towards St. Gall ; the High Alps towards
Graubunden and Italy ; the Lago di Garda and Carnic Alps also
towards Italy ; towards Herzegovina and Bosnia, the Dinoric
Alps, the Unna and Save ; towards Servia, Save and Danube ;
towards Boumania, the Banat, Siebenburgen, and Bucovinian
Carpathians ; towards Bussia, the Dniester and Vistula; towards
Prussia, the Biesen and Iser Gebirge ; towards Saxony, the Erz-
Gebirge.
The following are the chief territorial defences : — In Bohemia :
Josephstadt and Theresienstadt, fortified towns ; in Galicia :
Cracow, fortified and entrenched camp at Przemysl. Hungary
and Transylvania : on the left of the Theiss, Karlsburg,
Arad, and Temesvar ; on the Danube, Komorn, Peter-
wardein, and Orsova ; on the Drave, Essegg. Croatia : Brod,
Gradiska, K arista dt on the right of the Save. In Dalmatia are
the coast fortifications of Zara, Ragusa, Cattaro, Sebenico,
Budua, and Lissa island ; in Istria, Pola, fortified naval harbour.
The Alpine frontiers in Tyrol have numerous defences on all
the routes, and also between Tyrol and the Adriatic. In Bosnia
and Herzegovina are numerous old fortifications. The Austrian
capital, Vienna, is undefended. Pola, the chief naval port,
is strongly fortified, both towards sea and land, and has been
recently enlarged, so as to be able to accommodate the entire
DEFENCE — Alt.MY •>•>•>
fleet. The arsenal of the imperial navy i> aba in Pola ; Trieste
is the great storehouse, and there i- -- * 1 — « » an arsenal of the
imperial navy.
II. Army.
The system of defence is. in Austria and Hungary alike,
founded on the principle of universal military service ( Austr.
Statute 11 Ap. 1880, and Hung. art. vi. 1889).' The armed force
ganised into the Army. Navy, Landwehr, and Landsturm.
The army and Landwehr have each, as an essential part, an
/. (or supplementary) Reserve. Military service begin*
at the age of 21, hut for the bmdsturni. at 19. The dir
service continues : — (1) In the army : Three yean in the line and
7 is in the reserve ; 10 years for those enrolled at once in the
Ersatz Reserve. (2) In the navy : Four years in the marii:
years in the reserve, and 3 years in the Seewehr. (3) In the
Landwehr, i.e. in its Ersatz Reserve : Two years for those who
have been transferred to the Landwehr for the army, and 12
a for. those at once enrolled. Then follow 10 years in the
Landsturm. The marines and the Seewehr can (apart
from periodical drill) only be called out by command of the
Emperor.
The Landwehr, unlike the army and marines, which are common to the
whole monarchy, is a special national institution in each separate part. In
taace it is called out only tor instruction and drill. The command of the
Emperor is required for its mobilisation. (In Tyrol and Vorarlberg it
cannot be ordered out of the province save in accordance with constitutional
law. ) From the Ersatz Reserve men are drafted into the army and
Landwehr in time of war. It includes many who are exempt from other
compulsory service. Only one year's service in the army and Landwehr is
required of those who have reached a certain standard in certain schools.
The Landsturm is organised by statutes of 6 June, 1886, and Hung. art. xx.
1886. All citizens from the l>eginning of their 19th to the end of their 42ml
year, who do not serve in the army, navy, Ersatz Reserve, or Landwehr,
belong to the Landsturm, as well as those transferred from the Landwehr.
The Landsturm may lie used for filling up gaps in the army and Landwehr,
and is called out by command of the Emperor, and can be ordered beyond its
own territory only in pursuance of a statute ; Tyrol and Vorarlberg have in
this respect special regulations. With certain modifications the Austrian
military organisation has been applied to Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The yearly contingent of recruits for the army amounts to 103,100 ; from
Austria 60,389 ; from Hungary 42,711 ; besides these is a yearly con-
tingent of 2,740 for the Ersatz Reserve, and 2,250 for the Landwehr or
Honved, the Austrian Landwehr contingent being 10,000, the Honved
12,500 (yearly) (Wehrgesetz Bill of Army of 1889).
The whole monarchy is divided into 106 recruiting districts, 102
corresponding to the 102 regiments of infantry, one district (Tyrol and
Vorarlberg) for the Tyrolean Chasseurs, and 3 in the Adriatic littoral for
A A 2
356
AUSTRIA- HUNGARY
the marine. There are. besides 4 recruiting districts in Bosnia and Herze-
govina. The two Landwehrs have 184 battalions and 16 cavalry regiments
in Austria and Hungary, under separate administrations from the army,
for which, however, the recruits are taken out of the districts named
before. Each infantry regiment has five battalions, so that the infantry
has 510 battalions. There are besides 30 battalions of ordinary chasseurs,
and one regiment forming 12 battalions of Tyrolean Chasseurs. There are
21 brigades, forming 42 regiments of cavalry, sub-divided into squadrons ;
14 regiments of corps-artillery, consisting in peace of 153 heavy, 28 light,
16 riding, and 12 mountain batteries ; 12 battalions forming 72 companies
of fortress artillery, with 3 mountain batteries ; two regiments forming in
war 52 companies of engineers proper, besides one regiment of 25 com-
panies of pioneers and one regiment of 8 companies for constructing
railway and telegraph. The Hungarian Landwehr (Honved) has 94 bat-
talions of infantry forming 28 regiments, and 10 regiments of cavalry, each
consisting of 6 squadrons. The following table shows the actual strength of
the Austro-Hungarian army in 1891-92 : —
Peace Footing
War Footing
-
Army
Land-
wehr
Total
A,.™,r Land-
er wehr
Land-
sturm
Total
Infantry
Cavalry
Artillery
Technical troops .
Sanitary
Higher officers, &c.
Establishment, &c.
188,655 , 15,580
48,846 ! 12,892
33,132 —
10,148 —
3,851 ' —
4,698 | —
4,116 | —
15,501 —
204,235
61,738
33,132
10,148
3,851
4,698
4,116
15,501
647,553 ! 407,684
74,055 26,645
114,394 —
47,609 i —
46,662 1 —
20,482 —
6,154 —
39,818 j —
441,122
z
1,496,359
100,700
114,394
47,000
46,602
20,483
0,154
39,81S
Total .
308,947 28,472
337,419
996,727 434,329 441,122
1,872,178
In case of wax* the number of men who could be obliged to
serve in the Landsturm is over 4,000,000. In peace the number
of guns, exclusive of fortress artillery, is 912, in war 1,864. In
peace there are 56,930 horses, in war 279,886.
III. Navy.
The navy of Austria in all its branches is under the supreme
command of the head of the Naval Department of the Ministry
of War. The material afloat in 1891 consisted as follows : —
DEFENCE — NAVY
Matekiai. Afloat.
Plated haul.. ( Tllrret shil'S
Ilate.ll.attU- Ctaemate ahine
■"** I Platan frigate
j Kain cruisers
i mix m. . -J Torpedo shij>s
I T"i].. <]•<
Torpedo boats
-
Training ■hips .
River monitors .
Station and service ships .
Fleet .
Harbour and i< -e .
School ami barrack snipe
Hulks ....
Total .
Guns
Machine
Qnaa
•>
•21
s
1-24
1
20
•)
40
7
18
4
10
4
131
110
4
129
8
, 36
411
S58
366
Indicated
H na
Power
16,500 1
88
28,500
9
3,500 ;
12,800
200 ;
47
10,800 |
90
J10
—
3.900
4
3,300
4
400
14
19.-
1.620
10,400
3,500
The table below gives the list of the 11 armour-dad ships, in
similar arrangement to that describing the British ironclad navy,
only the large guns being given, all of the vessels being supplied
with machine and small guns : —
S. = steel ; I. = iron ; \V. = wood.
Gnus
Armour
thick
at water-
line
amidships Xo. Weight
-
power
Tonnage
-
knots
per
hour
Barbette Ships:
IlK'lleS
Tons
Btephanie ; S.
9
•>
48-ton
6,500
5,060
15-7
Kronprinz Rudolf: s. .
ia
4S-ton
0,500
14
Central Batterv Ships :
m ; I. .
<»
-
as-ton
4.41X1
7,060
14
Don Juan d'Austria ; I..
-
-
10-ton
13-6
Rrshenog Albrecht ; I..
-
S
15)-ton
3.600
13
r : W. .
1871
10
l-2-t..n
ia
Kaiser Max : 1. .
8
s
It-ton
•2. 7<>o
13
: W.
1S69
«H
ia
151-ton
13
Pnnz Eugen ; I. .
-
8
10-ton
is
TegetthotT ; I. and s .
14
0
-27-ton
5,000
jjm
14
Broadside :
Habsborg ; w.
1S65
.">
14
0*-t«n
3,500
'..14i>
1-2
Ram Crt
Kaiser Franz ; S. .
1SS9
—
8
15|-ton
9,800
4,331
-
- r 11 Elizalietli ; S. .
—
—
10
44-ton
6,400
4.311
18-5
River \ •
Leitha : I. and s>. .
1*71
11
•'
41 -ton
tat
310
8
Maros ; I. and S. .
1871
»l
8
4j-ton
320
310
8
358
A USTRI A-H UNG ARY
Personnel. — The peace footing is as follows: — Officers and cadets, 623;
sailors, 7,500 ; auditors, doctors, chaplains, &c, 617. Total 8,740.
A Seewehr, corresponding to the Landwehr, was created in 1888, and the
term of service in army and navy are now alike.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
The interests of agriculture fall to the care of the ministry of
that department, under which are numerous local organisations
for the direction and encouragement of the industry, besides many
private societies.
The cultivation of the soil is at the head of the industries of
the monarchy, since (if we include the forests) it furnishes employ-
ment to nearly three-tenths of the population ; and if family and
house servants be included, the proportion rises to more than half
the population in Austria, and still higher in Hungary. The
census of December 31, 1880, gave the following figures for the
land and forest cultivation : —
-
Austria
Hungary
Landowners and tenants .
Persons employed
All employed, including children
and servants
2,365,153
6,156,665
12,188,998
Per cent.
10-7
27-8
55-0
1,475,100
1,520,671
Per cent.
9'4
28*9
According to an official report of 1889 the laud in Hungary is
divided as follows (joch = 1'48 acre) : —
MfSJ1*8 rTmnber of
in Hungary proprietor8 I
in joelis
Under 80
■M) ,
200 ,
1000 .
Over
200
1,000
10,000
10,0(10,
2,848,107
118,981
18,767
281
Total
number of
jochs
16,027,899
0,741,000
14,240,000
li,f.C)0,000
:;.ii::o.ooo
Distribution of
property in Hungary
Crown lands
Foundation .
Municipal property
Hcclesiastioal property
Fidei comis.si (entail)
Private
.loclis
Per
nul . of
total
2,928,012
4-7
886,987
o-l
20-9
i.iss.r.o-j
2-0
168,862
0-2
85,812,2*
66 1
PROIHTTIOX AND INDUSTRY — AGRICULTURE
The proi>erties are thus distributed
Joel
zr cent, of
total
Crown lands
1 . .012
Foundation
.
01
MuniiiiKil property
.
il property
1,188
2 0
Ficlei eomnuaai
46:3.
0-2
Private
1
35,81S,S
66 1
The following tables show, lor Austria in 1889 and for Hungary in 1889,
the ana in thousands <>!' h. of the leading oops, the total
produce in thooaands of hectoh' - gallons liquid
measure., or of metre-cent ncrs (,1"96, or nearly 2 cwt,), and also the produce
]>er hei-tare in hectolitres or metre-centners : excluding grasses of all kinds
(for which see table, j.. 360).
Austria, 1890
Hungary, 1889
Area in Produce Produce Area in
1,000 -in 1,000 [ ]«r 1,000
hectares hectolitres hectare hectares
Produce Produce
in 1,000 per
hectolitres hectare
Wheat
Barlt-v
Oats
Rve
Pulse
Buckwheat
Maize
Other cereals
Total cereals
Potatoes
Snpir Vet
other)
Vineyards
Tobacco .
Hops
Hemp .
Rape
1,147
1.116
1.874
2,000
19S
100
7,084
19.188
36,731
28.418
2,983
1,578
d,~4
1,655
113,866
1S-5
19-6
14 "2
10-8
8-0
18-2
2,901
1,006
1,018
1,082
45
14
1,938
Mi
S.216
BS.969
12,163
15.378
12.996
606
168
: ■ M
2,609
112.702
Hectobtres
11-3
12-0
151
11-9
111
12-3
18-6
1,079
76-31
40,101
•.•1-2
24.'.
11,0911
20281
170
26,4871
155 -9'-
114
9, 21321
-j-.Ti.l
M
15-4
336
11-3
-•7
4221
15-71
46
.-.071
12-41
147
56-33
3-81
—
—
—
«-l
263-51
5-71
74
Mil
6-61
43-8
504-61
11-51
434
7 "6
i Metre-centners.
As to the distribution of the soil, we have the following results taken
from the latest official figures : —
300
A USTHI A-HUNGAR Y
Arable and garden land .
Vineyard .....
Pastures and meadows
Woodlands ....
Lakes and fishponds .
Total area subject to taxation .
Exempt from taxes .
Percentage of total area
Austria
36-7
0-8
23-8
32-6
0-4
40-9 38-9
1-3 1-1
23-9 23-9
28-1 30-2
0-3 0-3
94-3 94-5 94-4
5-7 5-5 5'6
Totals ....
100-0 100-0 100-0
i
The proportion of productive land is greatest in Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia,
Lower Austria, and Galicia ; least in Salzburg and Tyrol.
The following table shows the average produce of the leading crops in
hectolitres per hectare for the ten years 1880-89.
Wheat
Rye
1,
Barley
Oats Maize
Pulse
1
Potatoes
Wine
Sugar
i Beet
Austria
Hungary
14-28
12-89
13-89
12-71
10-49
10-90
18-96 16-85
19-29 17-50
10-24
12-04
100T>7
S9-2S
10 -05
11-91
1 04 T.<> 1
185*88^
1
Metre-centners.
Barley and wine are most largely exported, though in sonic years con-
siderable quantities of wheat are also exported.
The following table shows the statistics of live stock in 1880 of Austria,
and 1884 for Hungary (including Croatia and Slavonia) : —
-
Horses
Cattle
Shee])
Pigs
Goats
Austria .
Hungary
. 1 1,463,282
. | 1,748,859
8,584,077
4,879,038
3,841,340
10,594,831
2,721,541
4,803,639
1,006,675
270,192
The total value of the Austrian live stock was estimated at 487 million
florins. Both in Austria and Hungary the export of horses, cattle, ami sheep
far exceeds the imports.
Silk-culture, by the law of 1885, is exclusively in the hands of the
Government. In Hungary, in 1888, 40,423 families were engaged in silk-
eulture, as compared with 1,059 in 1879. In 1888 the produee ,.f (. »•«>.. us
was 703,488 kilogrammes, valued at 724,260 florins compared with
2.507 kilogrammes, at 2,808 florins, in 1879. The produce f»f COCOOA8 in
Austria in 1886 was 791,290 kilogramme*
There are (1890) 103 agricultural institutions in Austria, with 3,075
pupils ; 89 in Hungary, with 1,996 pupils.
FORESTRY — MINING
301
II. Fork-
The administration of the forests and domains belonging to the State is
in the hands of (a) the Administrators of Forests and Domains (the heads of
husbandry) ; (b) the Direction of Forests ami Domains : <e> the Mini-
Agriculture. Uii'ler the" Administration of Domains and Forests is an
extensive association of forestry officials, and schools of various grades for
practical training in forestry.
The total area under forest in Austria is 9.771,414 hectares, and of this
.000 hectares are under pines, and 1,417,000 hectares under other trees.
In Hungary- the total area is 9,183,000 hectares, of which 1,745,500 hectares
are under pines, and 4,824,300 hectares under other trees. The forests are
mostly situated in the Carpathians and the Alps, as also the central mountains
of Austria-Hungary. There is a large export of timber of various kinds : in
1888, 21,447,000 "metre-centners, as compared with an import of 1,398,000
metre-centners.
III. Mining.
Mines are worked for common coal chiefly in Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia,
and Galicia : for brown coal in Bohemia, Styria, 1"]>jht Austria, Carniola,
and Moravia. Iron ore is worked in Styria, Bohemia, Carinthia, Moravia,
and Galkas : silver ore in Bohemia : quicksilver in C'aniiola : copper ore
in Salzburg : lead ore in Styria, Galicia, Bohemia : zinc in Galicia,
Carinthia, Tyrol, and Yorarlberg : sulphur in Bohemia, Tyrol, and Yorarl-
l>erg : manganese in Styria and Carniola : alum in Bohemia : graphite
in Bohemia ; ]>etroleum and ozokerit in Galicia : while the largest production
of salt is from Galicia, Upper Austria, and the Coast Land.
In mining and metal works there were employed in Austria in 1889, 100,497
]»ersous, in smelting works 13,461, in salt works 10.005. In Hungary (1889)
there were employed 48,173 persons in mining and smelting works ; in salt
works, 2,264.
The following table shows the value of the chief mineral and furnace
products in various years in thousands of florins : —
-
Common
Coal
Brown
Coal
K M
Iron
Lead 2Uy5- Zi"c Silver
Copjier
Total
including
others
Austria :
1876 .
1S,44S
14.726
15,158
1,863
1.092 94:-
1880
19,336
15,875
1,739
713 2.696
382
1887
1S.791
1,690
1.291 639 3.101
538
188S
20,741
21,841
1.7'l". 869
721
1889
26.648
23.?.77
1.402
1,587 l.ioi 8,157
5S,940
1S90
30,401
27,639
27.311
1,399
1.596 1.467 3,197
—
Hungary :
3,240
i
39 130 8,651
903
1880
4.16S
_
30 99 l.:7'>
602
m
4.34".
4.667
8,055
15 — 1.443
213
1887
3.78S
4,99S
6,563
220
21 —
1S4
1888 .
5,156
7.129
279
239
21.091
1889
5,814
8,768
376
— 1,533
182
24,994
362
AUSTltlA-HUNGAKV
The total value of mining and furnace products in five years was as
follows in Austria in florins : —
188G
1887
1888
1890
Mining products 53,577,410 50,567,355 53, 968, 781 j 58,939,809 68,166,825]
Furnace. . 27,577,905; 27,204,556^ 30,579,407 32,748,497! 36,894,80-1
The following table shows the quantities and value of the leadi
minerals and of the furnace products of Austria in 1890 : —
Minerals
Metre-
eentners
3,034,807
Florins
23,040,406
Products
Florins
Halt of all kinds
Pig iron .
27,310,617
( 'ominon coal .
89,310.649
30,401,078
Silver
3,197,585
Brown ,,
153,290,565
•27,639,115
Lead
1,399,495
: Silver ore .
144,941
3,167,179
Zinc
1,467,382
Iron ,, .
13,615,478
3,105,765
Quicksilver
1,596,563 ;
Lead ,, .
112,736
969,622
Sulphur .
2,642 ;
Zinc. ,, .
326,422
568,812
Sulphuric acid
441,947
Quicksilver ore
707,299
891,687
Alum
101,633 j
Graphite .
237,283
726,036
Mineral colours
22,137 !
Various minerals
Total minerals .
1,822,240
5,881,533
96,391,233
Other products
Total products .
1,354,353 [
36,894,804
The total production of pig-iron in Austria- Hungary in 1889 was 855,813
metric tons ; in 1890, 925,308 metric tons.
IV. Sea Fisheries.
Years
No. Of Boats
Value caught
No. of Fishers
Summer
Winter
Bummer
Winter
Summer
Winter
1889-90
1888-9
1887-8
1886-7
1885-6
3,103
3,036
3,041
3,022
2,986
2,917
2,682
2,669
2,780
2,679
Florins
1,528,591
1,359.837
1,320,653
1,313,307
1,439,610
Florins
985,792
967,400
996,187
1,009,248
937,763
11,912
11,311
11,114
11,176
11,415
10,855
10,082
9,647
9,750
'.i.s:;;,
V. Manufactures.
In the various manufacturing industries 2,946,068 persons were directly
employed at the date of the census of 1880, and of these 2,157,098 were
in Austria ; including families and dependents those connected with
manufacture in Austria numbered 4,710,047, or21-3 per cent, of the popu-
lation. In the various manufacturing industries there were in 1885 348
COMMERCE
363
works, employing 30,000 people. The glass industi y is of great importance
in Bohemia, there being 5,423 works of various kinds with 29,168 work-
people. In the woollen industry, 2,000 industrial establishment*, are
engaged, besides 707 spinning and weaving lactones, with 58,500 work-
The total spindles in 1885 were 650,835, and of looms 39,367, of
which 17,460 were machine looms. The cotton industry occupied 1,900
Works— -of which 633 were on a large scale — with 96,000 workers, and in
1889 2,350,000 spindles and 42,000 power looms. There were iu 1887
1,962 beer breweries, producing 293i million gallons of l>eer ; the export
of beer is ten times the import There arc 147,577 distilleries, mainly for
brandy, of which the export greatly exceeds the import. There are 40
manufactories of tobacco in the monarehy, but they do not supply the
demand, so that the imports exceed the exports.
Commerce.
The general commerce of the whole monarchy of Austria-
Hungary, including Bosnia and Herzegovina, comprising imports
and exports of merchandise, but not bullion, was as follows in the
yean indicated : —
Years
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
Florins
Florins
Florins
Florins
; 1870
439 9
395 4
1887
568 6
1880
6135
676 0
1888
5*31
728-8
! 1885
557 9
672-1
1889 '
589 2
766-2
1886
:.39 -2
698 6
1890
6107
771 4
The following tables show the values of the leading articles of
import and export in 1883 and 1888-90 in millions of florins : —
Imports
tm
tan
1889
1890
Cotton
53 2
52 3
63 5
Wool
38 5
37 9
49 9
397
Coffee
32-8
38 0
Silk
18-5
158
20 7
21-1
Tobacco, leaf.
1 1 •:;
15 1
14*8
i :. <i
Furs and hides, raw
21-6
1 4 •:.
11-8
101
Tobacco, manufactured .
6 7
14-1
111
8 4
Woollen yarn ....
13 0
16-5
198
17-9
Cotton yarn .....
196
141
159
15-2
Leather .....
i;.-7
135
13-7
12-6
Coal and coke ....
10-8
170
183
25-7
5-2
5-2
11-2
Silk goods .....
15-1
10 4
127
12-2
Woollen goods ....
19 3
• 99
101
9 6
Pigments and tanning materials
12 7
10 0
12 4
11-4
Machinery . . .
160
14-2
20*8
181
Hardware and clocks
107
101
10 1
114
Cattle
20-9
8-6
9-7
116
Books and newspapers .
9-7
10-2
12-2
12-4
364
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Exports
1883
1888
1889
1890
Grain .......
79-7
95-5
82-0
799
Timber ....
62-4
58
3
62-9
617
Sugar
70-0
50
7
64 1
65-4
Hardware ....
91-8
30
9
27-9
27-5
Cattle ....
531
19
3
307
35-8
Woollen goods .
26-2
24
9
25-3
22-5
Flour
31-4
29
5
27-8
21-6
Glass and glassware
21-5
17
0
14-8
15-4
Coal and coke
15-1
23
9
29 3
32-5
Wood wares
17-6
15
4
167
18-0
Wool
24-8
18
9
29-7
20-0
Wine .....
9-5
21
6
18-5
15-5
Iron and iron wares
n-s-
11
5
138
20-6
Paper and paper wares
8%5
14
1
14-5
14-3
Minerals ....
12-1
8
9
11-3
14-3
Gloves ....
7-0
11
9
14-0
14-0
Eggs
6-8
12
1
14-5
16-2
Feathers ....
8-3
12
3
12-3
12-4
Linen yarn
8-7
8
0
7-4
6-4
Leather wares (excluding gloves)
9-9
10
5
9-6
8-2
Silk wares .....
4-6
9-1
8-2
6-1
The value of gold, silver, and bullion exported in 1889 was
8,749,069 florins, the imports being 26,183,144 florins; in 1890
the corresponding values were 4,303,000 florins and 43,472,000
florins.
Value in Millions Of Florins op Gqodh (excludes© Bullion ami
Specie) crossing the different Frontiers.
Imports
Ka\
Export s
-
lliiw material
Manufactured
• mate
rial
1889
It INT,
Manufactured
1883
1888
1889
1888
1888
1889
inn:;
INNN
Ins::
1888
1889
S. German}
38-2
27 -7
33-1
100-3
81 -1
94*6
12TI
L06-8
76.,2
46*0
Saxony . 62"8
70-0
78*1
I0.VI
83-7
sen
7H-2
81*8
N'.i-t
100*8
132-7
1 WO
Prussia . ">t)-o
49-4
54-4
81 1
27 -S
86*9
58*8
ii. -.1
64*8
28*8
81*0
Russia . 28*8
16*0
20-7
T7
1-8
2*8
9-0
7*8
10*0
19*8
•.I-.",
Ki-i
lioiimania
:;7-i)
1-8
|-!l
\-.i
1-0
l-o
9*8
7M
8-1
89*6
18-6
10*8
Scrvia
ll-n
1. '!"_>
irii
0*8
l-l
vo
2-1
1-6
2-5
16*1
12-1
16*8
Turkey
o-i
0-8
0-5
(1-2
0-2
0*2
o-o
0*0
o-o
(i-::
0*8
(1-3
Montenegro
0-5
0-1
0-2
o-o
00
o-o
o-o
o-o
o-o
ll-l)
o-o
0*0
Italy.
HIT,
0-8
00.
161
KIT.
12-.)
■j.;-i
18-0
-.'1-1
88*1
17 1)
20-8
Switzerland
Ml
L-9
2-1
::■]
1 2-S
17*8
l-'.l
:;::•!»
3V8
l-l
L6-8
16*0
Trieste .
86-2
90*2
I'.I'S
,.,.,
12-1
27-0
20*6
22 T.
7i)-l
til • I
Other port*
9*8
9*8
10H.
20-0
17*8
20*8
32-0
27 -N
17-4
84*2
-
In 1889 the imports Into Hungary amounted to 469,478,000 florins, and
the exports to 460,563,000 florins. In 1890 the imports amounted to
COMMERCE — SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
7,000 florins, an>l the exports to 530,123,000 florins. Of cereals,
pulse, &c, the imports in 1880 were 12,279,000 florins, and exports, 180, 909, 000
florins: of cattle, imports 15,143,000 florins, exports 101,662,000 florins;
leverages imports 21,152,000 florins, exports 30,660,000 florins: wool an«l
woollen goods, imports 49,468,000 florins, exports 20,024,000 fit
leather "and leather goods, imports 27,763,000 floii
florins : clocks, scientific instruments, fee., imports 33,484,000 florins, ex-
ports 2,950,000 florins. Of the imports 17 6 per rent, in value wen raw
material and 82'4 per cent were manufactured.
The imports from Austria wen- 412,125.000 florins, or - nt. :
the exports to Austria were 385,980,000 florins or 72 '8 per cent, of the
whole. The imports from Germany were 18,870,000 florins, or 3 9 per
cent. : and the exports to Germany were 65,863,000 florins, or 12-4 per
cent of the whole. The imports from Great Britain (mostly cotton goods.
and tobacco) were 4,195,000 florins, or 09 per cent. ; and the exports to
Great Britain (mostly flour) were 14,993,000 florins, or 2-8 per cent of the
whole. Other countries having considerable trade with Hungary are
Servia, France, Switzerland, Italy.
From the Board of Trade returns the direct trade of Austria-Hungary
with Great Britain is shown in the following table : —
nsa
IBM
Exports from Austria-
Hungary . . . 1,631,616 l. •"•$•>. l~-
Importsof British pro-
duce . . M6,M6 875,086 929,953
C
2,286,834 1,728,337
1.019.842 1.283.209
The staple articles exported to the United Kingdom by Austria are
wheat flour, the total value of which in the year 1890 amounted to
969,5127., and wood 81,961/. The principal imports of British produce
into Austria are cotton manufactures (including vain), 511,741/. : iron,
82,444/. ; machinery, 83,942/. : oil-seed, 56,440/. ; coals, 69,819/. ; woollen
goods, 127,031/. : copper, 21,067/. : leather, 13,675/. : hardware, 14,7332., in
1890.
Shipping and Navigation.
The following table shows the growth of the Austro-Huugarian mer-
cantile service, including coasting vessels, since 1877 : —
Year
Steamers
Sailing Vessels
Number
Tonnage
Number Tonnage
7,509 268,033
8,079 267,468
9,583 213,110
9,851 160,799
10,207 152,716
1877
1880
1886
1889
1890
99
113
153
171
173
56,865
63,970
92,296
96,392
97,852
The following tabular statement shows the strength of the commercial
nine of Austria-Hungary on Jan. 1, 1891 : —
36G
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Number
of vessels i
Tonnage
Sea-going steamers . . . . . > 71 83,371
Coasting steamers i 102 j 14,481
Sailing vess., incl. coasters and fishing smacks j 10,207 I 152,716
Crews
2,296
924
26,552
Total
10,380 ' 250,568 ! 29,772
The progress of navigation is shown as follows for the whole monarchy :-
Year
Entered
Cleared
No. Tonnage
Xo. Tonnage
1877
1880
1888
1889
1890
52,766 : 5,003,195
47,045 5,911,885
68,749 j 8,364,526
68,512 i 8,442,990
66,271 ! 8,773,713
52,954
46,907
68,634
68,492
66,527
4,989,981
5,913,720
8.357,598 i
8,432,631
8,759,632
Of the vessels entered, an average of 83 per cent, and 80 per cent, of
the tonnage, and of the vessels cleared 83 per cent, and 84 per cent, of the
tonnage were Austrian, Italy coming next, and Great Britain third.
For the port of Trieste alone in 1890, 7,873 vessels of 1,471,464 tons
entered, and 7,856 vessels of 1,457,174 tons cleared.
Internal Communications.
I. Rivers and Canals.
In 1888 the total length of navigable rivers and canals in Austria was :
for rafts only, 2,428 miles; for vessels and rafts, 1,700 miles; total, 4,128
miles, of which 376 miles were navigable for steamers.
The total length of navigable rivers and canals in Hungary is 3,050
miles (for Danube navigation see under Roumania).
The river traffic of the monarchy during five years was as follows : —
Year
Danube Bteam Navigation Company
Austr. Xorth-\Yesl Strain
Navigation Company (Elbe);
Number of
Through
Passen-
ger*
Goods
and
Luggage
shipped,
in metre-
centners
Head
of
Stock
Cattle
shipped
Number of
(iOOtls
oarried,
Steam-
boats
Tow-
boats
Steam-
boats
Tow.
DOCti
in metre-
eentnen
4,004,965
8,862,468
4,040,213
4,951,001
5,307,483
1885
1886
1887
1888
1880
189
189
100
190
189
74.',
737
729
749
766
1,763,080
1,766,093
1,661,312
1,612,680
i,r,K..s:,o
10,936,882
16,946,760
17,095,9SO
18,661,060
10,860,480
2,243
3,632
6,488
r,i«a
,,717
80
88
36
38
40
154
162
166
166
166
IXTERXAL rOMMUXICATIOXS
'MY,
II. Railways.
The following are some railway statistics of Austria-Hungary for
January 1891 : —
lines worked by companies
Compuuss' linos tranced by the SI
Companies' lines worked by oompooiea
Total
Austria
-Hungary
Total
Kilometres
6,021
-
15,193
Kilometres
3,909
1,876
Kilometres
li.;
9,409
11,541
26,73 1
9,496
In Bosnia ami Herzegovina there were, in 1889, 342 miles of railway.
The following table shows the growth in miles of Austro-Huugariau
railways since 1877, and the total cost of .construction up to 1888 in thousands
of florins.
18S0
1884 1885
isn
Mileage . 11,206
Capital expenditure in
1.000 florins . _\7r,u.vj
3,035,574
■ 14.499
■
15. 17 2
3,660,501
10,711
The following table shows the traffic for five years : —
I BM
1885
I8M
isn
1888
Passengers (in 1,000's)
Goods carried (in 1,000 tons) .
Receipts (1,000 florins)
Working expenses (1,000 florins)
00.431 64,484
71,890
246,709 M0.168
118.820 125
242,151
llft.727
16,4*
78,585 86,
249,881 269
117.311 124
III. Posts and Telegraphs.
There were, in 1889, 4,650 post offices in Austria, and 4,235 in Hungary.
The work of the Post Office in Austria (1890) and Hungary (1881
as follows
— Austria, 1890"
Hangar}", 1889
Number
Letters and post-cards . . 444,134,380
Samples and printed packets . . 60,198,560
Newspapers 68,985,020
Number
168,801
14,762
Florins
Florins
Receipts (posts and telegraphs)
Expenses
29,530,836
25,187,836
12,268,000
9,297,000
368
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
The following are the telegraph statistics of Austria and Hungary for
1890: —
Austria ....
Hungary ....
Bosnia and Herzegovina .
Offices
Line
Wire
Messages
No.
3,751
1,701
107
Miles
27,674
12,340
1,732
Miles
71,376
45,581
3,157
No.
8,777,048
4,211,131
22, -2 7 7
Money and Credit.
The following table shows the issues from the Austro- Hungarian mint
and the value of coin now in circulation : —
-
1886
1887
1S88
1889
1890
Florins
Florins
■Florins
Florins
Florins
Four - ducat
j pieces .
151,782
517,882
685,871
598,771
907,949
Gold ; Single-ducat .
1,395,384
1,070,664
1,482,571
1,606,982
1,794,528
Franz - Josefs
d'or
1,181,239
1,411,139
936,291
1,706,447
301,458
r Levantine
thalers .
034,857
3,175,9-28
2,340,150
1,522,003
965; 166
Two - gulden
Silver <
pieces .
185,97(5
234.99S
146,900
293,886
207,360
Single-gulden .
6,709,584
5,692,232
0,572,045
■..052,537
4,163,886
Twenty - kreu-
zeri
—
—
—
—
iTen-kreuzer .
400,032
50S.162
551,006
024,116
[Tour - kreuzer
<*>»** loSSier ."
390,000
1S5.200
183.S00
241,990
91,010
lHalf-kreuzer1 .
10,000
14,800
16,200
10.000
—
State notes in circula-
tion ....
344,177,000
327,394,000
336,800,000
357,231 630
—
Austro-Hungarian bank-
notes in circulation .
371,139,000
391,139,000
125,074,000
434,079,000
445,934,000 I
Private banks
52
53
;,.»
50
Share capital (in 1,000
florins)
213,049
914,558
213,973
205,883
~
J There was no issue of those pieces in these years.
The only State bank is the Austro-Hungarian, formerly the National
Bank. To secure a free loan, originally of eighty million florins, to the
State, the bank, during the continuance of its privilege, has the exclusive
right to issue bank-notes. This privilege lasts to December 31, 1897 : and
by that time the debt of eighty millions must be cleared off. Of the sum
total of ba&k-notes in circulation, at least two-fifths must be covered by
the supply of metal, silver or gold, coined or in bullion. The State, under
certain conditions, takes a portion of the clear profits of the hank. In mi
HONEY AND CRKDIT
profits, firs! 5 per cent on th« share capital is j«ai-l to the shareholders ;
of the reminder - is transferred to the reserve fund, and 2 per cent.
to the pension fund, and the dividend to the shareholders may be made up to
7 per tvnt. Whatever still remains is divided into two portions, one of which
reholders and the other to the State, 70 per cent, to
Austria and 30 per cent, to Hungary. These last sums, however, are only
applied to the reduction of the debt of eighty millions mentioned al
The following are the statistics of the Au.>tro-Hungariau lfcnik for live
. in thousand > of llorins : —
Capital
Reserve
Fnn.l
Note
Circnla-
tion
Mort-
Total in-
cluding
others
rk,1 Total in-
Cash counted **** t°^ d«Uat
Bills,*c Lo*u IjOW,s otlwre
90,000 18,089 371,687 90,538 583,664 2IS."C1 14,.e-.
1S,4S5 391,139 9U,43S 010.4.
425,674 100,678 657,752 23
90,000 18,965 4.54. "179 104,469 682,349 241,445
90,000 18,967* 445.5*34 107.366 687,399 244,490
The following are statistics for December 31, 1889, of the 50 Austrian and
;ngarian joint-stock and private hanks, in thousands of florins : —
Liabii
-
Nominal
Capital
Paid-up
Reserve
Bills, 4c,
in cir-
culation
Credit
Accounts
current
Total, in- '
Austria
Hungary .
49.272
44,578
(1,799
152,530
9,996
368,868
a\M
264,631
-
Bank
and Credit
Notes
Mortmure Debit Total,
j-Ji!^ Acconnts Cash in hand including
current others
' ' ia
Hangar}"
150,229
70.412
4.7. 376,27.1 1.2.
59,600 59,902 7,311 031
There are, besides, 1,366 alliance banks in Austria, and 547 in Hungary.
The following are the savings-bank statistics of Austria-Hungary : —
370
A USTRI A-H UNG Alt Y
Austria
Hungary
1889
1SSS
im
1S89
1S8S
1887
No. of banks
Depositors at end of
year ....
Amount deposited at
end of year (1,000 ns.)
414
2,299,002
1,986,489
403
2,183,488
1,163,758
397
2,089,196
1,091,202
436
400,315
424
386,122
302,010
The following are the statistics of the post-office savings-hanks : —
Austria
Hungary
1889
1890
1886
1887
I No.' of hanks. . 4,548
Depositors at rnd
of year . 735,177
Value of deposits at
end of year, in,
florins . . 50,235,531
4,657
801,011
2,000
85,517
1,419,566
3,000
110,939
2,141,319
Money, Weights, and Measures.
According to the Austrian standard 45 single Gulden pieces are struck
from half a kilogramme ( = l-11iflh.) of fine silver.
Gold coins arc : —
The single ducat .
The four-ducat piece
The Franz-Josef d'or
The half Franz- Josef d'er
Silver coins are : —
The double gulden
The single gulden
The quarter-gulden
The Maria Theresa dollar
The twenty-kreuzer piece
The ten-kreuzer piece
I f. ^0 kreuzer
19 „ 20
S ,, 10
1 „ 05
2 f. 00 kreuser
1 >. oo
0 ,, 25
2 ,, 10i „
0 „ 20 ,, (Austr. Bt)
0 „ 10 „
Copper coins are the 1, 1, and the 1 krenaer.
Stale imies aiv issued for 1, .'>, and 50 llotiiis ; bank notes for 10, 100,
and !,000 florins.
The money, weights, and measures of Austria-Hungary, and the British
equivalents, are as follows: —
MnM'.V.
The Florin, or Gulden, of 100 Krevaer, nominal value 2s., present
(1890) real value, l.v. &d., or 12 florins =U
The 8 Florin [dece: 16*., or 8 H. 10 kr. in gold.
BOSNIA AND H BXfifiOVINA .N . I
The legal standard in the kingdom is silver, and the florin, divided into
100 kreuzer, the unit of money. Practically the chief medium of exchange
is a paper currency, consisting of hank and state note-s of all denomination*,
from 1,000 florins down to 1 florin, convertible only at a large discount
into gold.
Old Weights ani> Mfami:f.>.
Th. '<<//(/ = 100 Pfund = 5606 kg. = 123| lbs. avoirdupois.
,, Eimcr . . . =5650 litre = 14 94 wine gallons.
,, Joch =5,754(54 square metre = 1 "43 acre.
,, Metzen . . =61*49 litre = 1 ~ material l.ushel.
(The KJafter of wood — 3 "4 1 cubic metre = 120 cubic feet)
,, J/<i/e = 24,000 A us- "I - ,B. t. . (8,> r about 43
, r* > =7,58o ti metres =
tnan teet . . / ' I i
The metrical system of weights and measures is in>w legal and obligatory
in Austria-Hungary.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Ok ArsTKiA-Hi ngaky in Gjlbat Bkitain.
Ambassador. — Count Francis Deym, accredited November 96, 1888.
Councillor. — Count Christoph Wydenbnick.
ount Albert Mensdorff Pouilly-Dietrichstein and Count
Charles Kinsley.
Military and Naval Atiache. — Captain Chevalier de Jedma.
Military Attach*. — Colonel Prince Louis Esterhazy.
nereial Attachi. — Chevalier de Krapf-Liverhoff.
Chancellor.— Baron Peter von Paumgartten.
There are Consular representatives at London (CO.), Cardiff, Dublin,
Edinburgh, Glasgow, Hull, Liverpool, (C.6. A k Bombay (<
Calcutta, Cape Town, Colombo, Durban, Hong Kong (C.G.), Melbourne,
Montreal, Rangoon, Singapore, Sydney.
2. Of Gkf.at Britain in AUBTKIA-HuKGAJLY.
Ambassador. — Rt. Hon. Sir Augustus Berkelev Paget, G.C.B., twni in
1821 : Envoy to the Netherlands, 1854-56 : to Portugal, 1857-58 ; to Prussia,
1858 59 : to* Denmark, 1859-66; to Portugal, 1866-67: to Italy, 1867-83.
Apjiointed Ambassador to Austria-Hungarv, December 1883 ; accredited
January 24, 1884.
< . — Hon. W. A. C. Barrington.
Military Attache. — Major D. F. R. Dawson.
There are Consular representatives at Vienna (C.G.), Buda-Pest (<
Fituue, Trieste.
BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA.
The Ottoman Provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina were, by the Treaty
of Berlin (July 13, 1878), handed over to the Austro-Hungarian Govern-
ment for administration and military occupation. The direction of the
administration of the two occupied provinces is exercised by the Bosnian
Bureau, entrusted to the Imperial Finance Minister in Vienna in the name
of the Emperor- King. The chief authority in the province itself, with its
in Sarajevo, is the provincial government (Landesregierung), in three
departments, for internal affairs, finance, and justice. For administration
purposes there are 6 district (Kreis) and 48 county (Bezirk) authorities.
B B 2
372 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
The provincial government is provided with an advising body, composed
of the ecclesiastical dignitaries of Sarajevo and 12 representatives of the
populace. Similar councils are also provided for the district and county
authorities. (For Finance sec the common Budget of Austria-Hungary.)
Bosnia and Herzegovina contain six districts (Kreise), with an area of
23,262 square miles. The Sanjak of Novi-Bazar is occupied by an- Austrian
military force, though administered civilly by Turkey. In 1885 the popu-
lation (without military) numbered 1,336,091 (705,025 males and 631,066
females) ; with military 1,360,000. Greek Oriental Christians, 571,250 ;
Mohammedans, 492,710 ; Roman Catholics, 265,788 ; Jews, 5,805 ; others,
538.
On January 1, 1888, population was estimated at 1,404,000. The
nationality is Servian,.only in the southern districts are Arnauts, and here
and there gipsies. The most populous towns are the capital, Sarajevo, with
(in 1885) 26,286 ; Mostar, 12,665 ; and Banjaluka, 11,357.
There is 1 higher gymnasium, 2 gymnasia, 4 commercial schools, 943
elementary schools, with 1 Greek-Oriental, and 1 Roman Catholic seminary
for priests, and 1 training college for teachers.
There is an upper court of justice in Sarajevo, the 6 district (Kreis)
courts and the county (Bezirk) authorities as courts of first instance.
In the budget of 1890 the revenue was estimated at 10,187,650 florins,
and the expenditure at 10,136,149 florins.
Agriculture is in a very low state of development, though the soil is
very fertile. Maize, wheat, barley, oats, rye, millet and buckwheat, potatoes,
flax, hem]), and tobacco are cultivated.
Both provinces have a superabundance of fruit, principally plums.
Dried plums are the chief article of export. Cattle-grazing is important.
In 1879 there were, it is estimated, 158,034 horses, 3,134 asses and mules,
761,302 head of cattle, 775 buffaloes, 839,988 sheep, 522,123 goats, and
430,354 swine. Forest land occupies 45 per cent, of the whole area.
Minerals are abundant; mining is now carried on for iron and copper,
manganese, chromium, antimony. There are salt-pits at Dolnja Tuzla.
Bosnia and Herzegovina belong to the Austro-Hungai ian customs
territory. There are 342 miles of railway, and 1,743 miles of telegraph lines
In 1890 there were transmitted 6,793,000 letters and postcards, ami
1,217,800 packets of printed matter and samples.
Military service is compulsory over 20 years of age. The native troop'
comprise 8 infantry battalions (cadi of I companies), with a total of 2,800 men,
on peace footing. The Austro- Hungarian troops of occupation have
present a strength of 23,860 men.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Austria-
Hungary.
1. OkI'ICIAI. PUHUCATIONS.
Alniaiiac.li fur die k. k. Krie-'.s-M.miie. IS'.H. l'ola, lsol.
Animario Alarittiino per 1'aiino 1S01. Trieste, 1891. •
Austria. Arehiv fttr Conaularwcaen, Volkswirthschafl und Statist ik. XLIII. Jalugang,
1891. Wieii, 1891.
Bericht ttber die TSttekeit 'lis k. k. Ackerbnu-Ministeriuiiis in dor Zeit voin 1. Jonuar
issi Ms .".I. Deoemher 1886. Wiin. L888.
Berichi UberTrieata Handel una Schiffahrl In Jaoit 1890. Triest, isoi.
Uoiimieicio ili Trieste ml 1890. Dal I'llieio Statistieo. Trieste. 1891.
Das Bauweaen In Boanien on der Heroegovlna, vom Baudepartemenl der LandeNrcgier* •
ung in Sarajevo, 1887.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER ROOKS OF REFERENCE 573
Pngaifaebe Onterrichteweeen in <len Studienjahrt : IMMO. Ai -
J5t l-lclit (1 " _ „ r, .,
Das Handetaniisiium. Hgg. vom. k. k. Handelsimisaum. Wien, 1891. Beflage: <o>n-
Berichte der k. u. k. Consular-Aemter.
ebtrisM tier in den Ltadern der i Krone ini Autauga dM nan
volkszahlung. Budapest,
Hof- und Staatshandbnch des K tiserth
Jahrbuch. M ol11- k- *- Rriegsminiatertam. ■
1891.
Jahrbuch, 81 der sn.lt Wien fur das Jain beitel von P
BedUhoaek, l/.wv. Wien. 1891.
Mittheilungendcs K. Ung. Miniateriums fllr Ackerbau. Industrie and Handel. Monats-
heft Badi i
N ichriohtea alter Industrie, Handel und Verkehr
rium. Wien, 1891.
Ni\ igaskme e crtmmereio in porti Austriaci nel 188'. i.
:. Bearlieitet von der k. k. SI entral-Comin
B80-91.
■ buch. Statistische Ber
ter Mitwirknng des Prasidenten der k. k. 81
mission. Dr. Karl Tlieodor In una voii Sterne.'-, von Pr.)f. Mischle-. I\
Jahrgang.
reichisches 81 dial sen - Handbuch. 9««<- Jahrgang, 1891. Wien
attaches Handbuch der Oaterr.-Ung. Monarch' 8 Wien. MM.
Ortachafts- und Bevrilkernngastatistik von Bosnien und I Amiliche
-Matt. Jahrj
- ■ ■hiffahrt Bad des Seehandelsrin den Oesterreichiachen Hafeu in Jahre
I in Auftrage des Handelsininisteriunis hgg. von der Bone- Deputation in I
-Mk iiber den Zustand und di jkeit der Finauzwache iui Jalire 1889.
Vom k. k. Finauzuiinisteriuin. Wien. 1890.
-tisehe IfittheilungeD iilx-r die Verhiiltnis.se Galiziens. Hgg. voni Statist. Bureau des
Qalizischen Landeaansschusses. Redigirt von Pilar. XII. Bind. beinhwg, 1890.
attache afonataachrift. Herauigegeben von der k. k. Statistischen Centr.il-Cnu-
mission. XVII. Jahrgang. Wien, 1891.
bes Jalu-buch des k. k. Ackerbau-Ministerinins tor 1800. Wien, 1891.
isches Jahrbuch fiir Ungarn. 19««r Jahrgang, 1889. Budapest. 1S90-91.
Qngarns Waaren- Verkehr. . . . fUrdasJahr. '.890. Budapest. 1891.
Hertslet (Sir Edward), Foreign Office List. Published annually. London. 189i
Protocols of Conferences held in London respecting the Navigation of the Danul>c
London, 1SS3.
Reports from the British Consular and other Officers in Anstria-Hungary for 1890, in
J Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' London. 1891.
Trade of Austria-Hungary with Great Britain, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1S90.' Imp. 4.
London, 1S91.
Brgebnisse der Yerzehrnngssteneniin Jalire IS89. Zusaniuiengestellet vom Finanziuinis-
teriuin. Wien.
Publikacije Statistickoga ureda kr. hrv. Dalni. zemaljske vlade. I. -XV. 0 Zagrehti.
2. Xox-Official PUBLICATIONS.
Beer, Per St<iatshaushalt OesteiTeich-Ungarns seit 1868. Prag, 1881.
Beer, Die Finanzen Oesterreichs iui 19. Jahrhundert. Prag, 187".
SracAetit(H. F.). Statistische Skizze der Oeeterreichisch-Urtfariaehen Monarehie. 11
Aullage. 8. Leipzig, 1889.
Chavanne (Dr.), Physikalisch-statistischcr Handatlas der Oeeterr.-Ungar. Monarchic
Wien, 1S82-8S.
Chronik, Volkswirtlischaftliche, von Oesterreisch-Uugarn, 1887. Hgg. von Blau. Wien,
1888.
Clarke (Ernest), Agricultural Administration in Austria-Hungary, 'Journal of the R.
Agricultural Society.' January, 1S91.
Compass, Unanzielles Jahrbuch. Oegriindet von Leonhardt, 1889. Hgg. von Heller.
\V itn, 1890.
Czo/ring (Freiherr von), Ethnographie der Oesterreichischen Monarehie, 3 vols. Wien
1855-o7.
Entwicklung von Industrie uud Gewerbe m Oestorreich, 1848-88. Hgg. von der Com-
mission der Gewerbe-Ausstellung. Wien, 1888.
374 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Export-Compass, 1890. Hgg. von Dorn. Wien, 1890.
Fieker (A.), Die Volkerstamme dcr Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchic. 8. Wien,
1869.
Ftthrer durch Ungarn nnd seine Nebenliinder. Buda-Pesth.
Gerrard (E.), Transylvania : The Land beyond the Forest. London, 1S8S.
Jackson (T. G.), Dalinatia, the Quarnero and Istria. 3 vols. 8. London.
Hock, Statistisches Handbuch fur Karnten. Jahrgang I. Klagenfurt, 1880.
Honig. Die ist. ung. Lebensversicherungsgesellschaften, 1S8S. Wien, 18S9.
Hunfalvi (Dr. J.), A magyar-osztrak birodalom folodajza. 8. Pesth, 188(5.
Kay (David), Austria-Hungary. London, 1880.
Konta (Ignaz), Eisenbahn-Jahrbuch der Oesterreichisch-Ungarischen Monarchic. 21.
Jahrgang. Wien, 1890.
Lang, Statistik der BevGlkerung Ungarns. Budapest, 1885.
Laveleye, The Balkan Peninsula. London, 1887.
Leger (L.), Histoire de I'Autriche-Hongrie, depuis les origines jusqu'a l'annee 187S. 18.
Paris, 1S79.
Levy (Daniel), L'Autriche-Hongrie, ses institutions, &c. Paris, 1872.
Loher (F. von), Die Magyaren und andere Ungarn. S. Leipzig, 1874.
Lorenz(,l. R. v.), Atlas der Urproduction Oesterreiclis. Wien, 1878.
Lorenz (J. R. v.), Die Bodencultur Oesterreichs. Wien, 1873.
Magyarland. By a Fellow of the Carpathian Society. 2 vols. London, 1881.
Mandello (Dr. Karl), Riickblicke auf die Entwickelung der Ungarischen Volkswirthschaft.
Budapest, 1888.
Marbeau (Edouard), Slaves et Teutons. Paris, 18S2.
Monarchic Die ost. ung. in Wort und Bild auf Anreu'ung del Kronprinzen Rudolf.
Wien, 18S6-90. Lieferung 1-116.
Nemenyi (A.), Das inoderne Ungarn. Berlin, 1880.
Oesterreichisch-Ungarische Revue. Jahrgang 1801. Redigirt von .1. 1!. Merer. Wien,
1891.
Patterson (Arthur J.), The Magyars; their Country and its Institutions. 2 vols. S.
London, 1870.
Peez (Dr. Alexander), Oesterreich und der Orient, 8. Wien, 1 875.
Pollack), Die Bohinische Braunkolde in den letzten 25 Jahren, chronologisch-statistiscln
Tafel. Voin Jahre 1861 bis 1S85. Tcplitz (s.a.).
Prigl, Ortslexicon fur die Konigreiche Kroatien und Slavonien. Nach amtliehen Quclleii.
Essek, 1S88.
Jleclus (Elisee), Nouvelle Geographie Universelle. Vol. III. S. Paris, 1S7S.
Romstorf er nml Wiolitzky, Vergleichende graphische Statistik in ilirer Anwendnng auf
das Herzogtum Bukovvina. Wien, 1886.
Statistik d. ost. ung. Aktiengosellschaften. Aus deni ' Aktioniir,' 1887-88. Frankfurt,
1S89.
Strigl, Statistische Notizen fiir Oesterreich. II. Wien, isss
Sturm (Albert), Culturbilder aus Budapest Leipzig, 1S75-76.
Sturm (Albert), Uj Orszaggyiilesi Ahnanach. Budapest, 1887.
Ulbrich. Handbuch der bsterreichischen Verwaltung. Wien, I887-80,
Vdmbiry (A.), Der Ursprung der Magyaren. Leipzig, 18S2.
Wtrkowitsch, Das Land Vorarlberg, Denkschrift. Innsbruck, 1887.
Wirth (Max), Ungarn und seine Bodensehiitze. Frankfort-on-Maine, 1785.
Worms (Baron Henry de), The Austro-Hungarian Empire. S. London, 1877.
Zoricic, Statistische Skizze der Kiinigreichc Kroatien und Slavonien. Airr.nn. L83S
375
BELGIUM.
(RoYUME DE BeLGIOJ
Reigning King.
Leopold II., born April '.». 1835, the son of King Leopold J.,
former Prince of Saxe-Co burg-Got ha, and of Princess Louise,
daughter of the late King Louis Philippe of the French :
ascended the throne at the death of his father, Dec. 10, 1865 ;
married, Aug. 22. 1853, to Queen Marie //enriette, born
the daughter of the late Archduke Joseph of Austria.
children of the King.
I. Princess Louise, born Feb. 18, 1858; married, February 4.
. to Prince Philip of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, born March 28,
1844, eldest son of Prince August, cousin of the reigning duke,
and of Princess Clementine of Orleans, daughter of the late King
Louis Philippe of the French.
II. Princess Stephanie, born May 21. 1864 \ married to the
late Archduke Diede Rudolf, only son of the Emperor of Aus-
tria and King of Hungary. May 10, 1881 ; widow January 30,
III. Princess Clementine, born July 30, 1
Brotiur and Sister of the King.
I. Philippe, Count of Flanders, born March 24, 1S37 ; lieutenant-general
in the service of Belgium : married, April 25, 1867, to Princess Marie of
Hoheuzollern-Siginaringen, born November 17, 1845. Offspring of the union
are three children living: — 1. Princess Henriette, torn November 30, 1870.
2. Princess Josephine, born October 18, 1872. 3. Prince Allwrt, born April 8,
II. Princess Charlotte, born June 7, 1840 ; married, July 27, 1857, to Arch-
duke Maximilian of Austria, elected Emperor of Mexico Julv 10, 1863 : widow
June 19, 1867.
King Leopold II. has a civil list of 3,300,000 francs.
The Kingdom of Belgium formed itself into an independent
State in 1830, having previously been a part of the Netherlands.
The secession was decreed on October 4, 1830, by a Provisional
Government, established in consequence of a revolution which
broke out at Brussels on August 25, 1 830. A National Congress
376 BELGIUM
elected Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg King of the Belgians on
June 4, 1831 ; the prince accepted the dignity July 12, and
ascended the throne July 21, 1831. By the Treaty of London,
Nov. 15, 1831, the neutrality of Belgium was guaranteed by
Austria, Russia, Great Britain, and Prussia. It was not until
after the signing of the Treaty of London, April 19, 1839, which
established peace between King Leopold I. and the sovereign of
the Netherlands, that all the States of Europe recognised the
Kingdom of Belgium.
Constitution and Government.
According to the Constitution of 1831, Belgium is 'a consti-
tutional, representative, and hereditary monarchy.' The legisla-
tive power is vested in the King, the Chamber of Representatives,
and the Senate. The royal succession is in the direct male line
in the order of primogeniture. The King's person is declared
sacred ; and his ministers are held responsible for the acts of the
Government. No act of the King can have effect unless counter-
signed by one of his ministers, who thus becomes responsible for
it. The King convokes, prorogues, and dissolves the Chambers.
In default of male heirs, the King may nominate his successor
with the consent of the Chambers. If the successor be under
eighteen years of age, which is declared to be the age of majority,
the two Chambers meet together for the purpose of nominating a
regent during the minority.
The power of making laws is vested in the Chamber of Repre-
sentatives and the Senate, the members of both Houses being
chosen by the people. The Chambers meet annually in the month
of November, and must sit for at least forty days ; but the King
has the power of convoking them on extraordinary occasions, and
of dissolving them either simultaneously or separately. In the
latter case a new election must take place within forty days, and
a meeting of the Chambers within two months. An adjournment
cannot be made for a period exceeding one month without the
consent of the Chambers.
The Chamber of Representatives is composed of deputies chosen directly by
all citizens, twenty-one years of age, paying direct taxes to the annua] amount
of 40 francs. Under this qualification, tho electoral lists, in the year 1889-90,
contained the names of 133,039 electors, the right of suffrage being with 21 "83
in every thousand of the population. The number of deputies is fixed accord'
ing to the population, ami cannot exceed one member for everv 40,000 inhabit-
ants. In the year 1889 they amounted to 138, elected in 1 1 electoral districts.
To be eligible as a member, it is necessary to be a Belgian by birth ot
naturalisation ; to have attained the ago of twenty-live years, and to lie
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
resident in Belgium. The members not residing in the town where the
Chamber sits receive, during the session, an allowance of 429 tana each jht
month. The members are elected for four years, one-naif going on*
except in the case of a dissolution, when a general election takes jilace.
The Chamber has the parliamentary initiative and the preliminary vote in all
elating to the receipts and expens State and the contingent of
the army.
The Senate is compos ily one-half the number of members
prising the Chamber of Representatives, and the senators are elected by the
state citizens who appoint the deputies. The senators are chosen for eighf
: they retire in one moiety every four years, but in case of dissolution
the election must comprise the whole number of which the Senate is com ;
The qualifications >se for a deputy, that
lie is at least lorry years of age, and faying in direct taxes not less than 8,110
franca. In those provinces where the list of citizens who possess thi-
mentioned qualification does not reach to the proi>ortion of one in 6,000 of the
population, that lis: is enlarged by the admission into it of those citizens who
pay the greatest amount of >V -o that the list shall always contain at
•ne person who is eligible to the .Senate for every 6,000 inhabitants of
the province. The senators do not receive any pay. The presumptive heir to
the throne is of right a senator at the age of eighteen, but he has no voice in
the proceedings until twenty -live years of age. All the proceedings of the
during the time the Chamber of Representatives is not
without f<
The Executive Government seven departments, under the
following Ministers, appointed OctoW-r 26, 1884, viz. : —
1. President of the Council and Minister of Finance. — If. ./. Beet
2. Minister of Justice. — M. J. Lejeune.
:'.. Minister of the Interior and of Instruction. — M. J. de Burltt.
4. Minister of War. — General C. Ponlu*.
Minister of Railways. Poets, and Telegraphs. — M. J. H. P. Vanden-
peereboom.
ri. Minister for Foreign Affairs. — Prince de Chimay.
7. Minister of Agriculture, Industry, and Public Works. — M. L. Dfbruyn.
I! sides the above responsible heads of departments, there are a number of
' Ministres d'Etat,' without portfolio, who form a Privy Council called together
on special occasions by the sovereign. The acting ministers, as such, do not
form part of the Privy Council.
Local Government. ,
The provinces and communes of Belgium have a large amount of auto-
nomous government. Provincial and communal electors must lie twenty-one
years of age, and pay direct taxes of 20 francs for the provinces and 10 for the
communes. A certain degree of education, and the occupation of certain
positions, entitle to vote without having to pay taxes. In the year 1890 there
were 408,092 provincial and 534,421 communal electors. To be eligible to the
Provincial or Communal Council, ]>ersons must be twenty-five years of age and
domiciled in the province or commune. Half the Provincial Council is renewed
every two years, and it meets fifteen days each year. There is a permanent
deputation of six members elected, which is presided over by the Governor of
the province. All provincial and communal interests, including local finances,
are under the care of the Council, as far as they are not provided for in the
general administration. The Communal Councils are elected for six years,
378
BELGIUM
half being renewed every three years. In each commune there is a college
composed of the burgomaster, president, and a certain number of aldermen,
corresponding to the permanent deputation of the Provincial Council, and both
are the organs of the central administration.
Area and Population.
Belgium has an area of 29,455 square kilometres, or 11,373
English square miles. The following table shows the population
in the various census years since 1846, with the absolute in-
crease and the rate per cent, of increase between each of these
years :—
Census
Years
1846
1856
1866
Population
Tntnl Increase
Increase i *** cent-
mciease ,K.,. annum
Census
Years
1876
1880
1890
Population T ^jf'
1 Increase
Increase
per cent.
per annum
4,337,196
4,529,461
4,827,833
192,265 ! -44
298,372 \ -65
5,336,185 508,352
5,520,009 183,824
6,147,041 627,032
1-05
•85
1-02 |
The kingdom is divided into nine provinces, the area and
population of which were as follows at the censuses of December
31, 1880, and December 31, 1890, with population per square
mile at the latter date :—
Provinces
Area :
Population
Population per
so,, mill'. IS'.K)
Dec. 81, 1880
Dec. 81, 1890
Antwerp (Anvers)
1,093
577,232
699,571
640 0
Brabant
1,268
985,274
1,128,728
890-2
Flanders ( ^f
1,249
1,158
691,764
881,816
746,923
958,752
598-0
827-9
Hainaut
1,437
977,565
1,068,815
743-8
Liege .
1,117
663,735
762,196
682-3
Limbourg .
931
210,851
224,604
241-2
Luxembourg <
1,706
209,118
216,380
126-8
Namur
Total .
1,414
322,654
341,072
241-2
11,373
5,520,009
6,147,041
540-5
In 1890 there were 3,062,656 males and 3,084,385 females.
According to the census returns of 1880 there are 2,230,316
Belgians who speak French only ; 2,485,384 who speak Blemish
only ; 39,550, German only ; 423,752, French and Flemish ;
35,250, French and German; 2,956, Flemish and German j
13,331 who speak all three languages j and 6.412 who do not
speak any of the three.
AREA AXD POPFLATIOX
r>:o
The eaaeoB returns for 1880 according to occupation are
tabulated as follows
Mining ami metal industries .
Industries connected with vegetable
products .....
Industries connected with animal
products .....
Mixed indnstriea ....
< oinnienc ...
Professions and official occupations .
Various occupations and independent
Total
Without profession or statue ■
C rami total
199,333
244.308
40,401
170,840
406,899
141
io:
7.042
-.114
649,158
504,
40:-
961,290
1.798.901
>,191
1,010,072
1,884,918
2,83
2,808,973 2,786,208
The difference between the above total and that of the popu-
lation of 1880 is no doubt accounted for by the fact that many
persons are entered under more than one head. It is estimated
that about 800,000 people are directly engaged in agricultural
pursuits.
The following table gives the number of births, deaths, and
marriages in each of the rive yean from 1886 to 1890 : —
Total
Illegiti-
Illegiti-
Surplus of
Births over
Tear
Living
Still-lioni
mate
mate per
Deaths
M irr: i_e-
Births
(Living)
100 Births
Deaths
1886
175,091
8,640
15,178
8 67
124,904
39,642
50,187
1887
175,466
8,717
15,449
8-80
115,296
42.491
60,170
.1888
177,586
8,482
15,336
121,097
42.427
1889
177,542
8,410
15,603
8-77
119,726
43.759
57,816
1890
176,595
8,224
15,246
8 63
126,545
44,596
50,050
The following table shows the immigration and emigration of
1886-90:—
1SS6
1887
1S8S
>v
1890
Immigration .
Emigration .
Excess of immigration .
19,804
17,029
19,286
21,213
23,041
22,150
23,190
21,458
21,675
2,775
1.758
- 1,828
-1,040
-217
380
BELGIUM
The following are the populations of the most important towns
January 1, 1891 :-—
Brussels and Mechlin . . 50,9*52
suburbs . 482,268 Venders . . 50,223
Antwerp . 227,225 Louvain . . 39,948
Ghent . . 153,740 Tournai . . 35,403
Liege . . 149,789 Seraing . . 33,912
Bruges . . 47,331 Courtrai . . 30.908
Namur
. 29,749
St. Nicolas
. 27,975
Mons
. 26,370
Alost
24,478
Ostend
. 24,712
Charleroi .
. -22.^1
Religion.
The Roman Catholic religion is professed by nearly the entire
population of Belgium. The Protestants number only 10,000,
while the Jews number about 4,000. The State does not interfere
in any way with the internal affairs of either Catholic or Protes-
tant Churches. Full religious liberty is granted by the Constitu-
tion, and part of the income of the ministers of all denominations
is paid from the national treasury. The amount annually granted
in the budget is about 4,800,000 francs to Roman Catholics ; 85,000
francs to Protestants ;' and 16,300 francs to Jews : besides 60,000
francs for various ecclesiastical expenses. There are few endow-
ments, and the clergy derive their maintenance chiefly from fees
and voluntary gifts.
The kingdom is divided into six Roman Catholic dioceses and
185 deaneries; there are 5,428 Catholic churches and chapels of
all kinds. In each diocese is an ecclesiastical seminary, and there
are besides 11 smaller seminaries. At the census of 1880 there
were 1,559 convents in Belgium, of which number 213, with
4,027 inmates, were for men, and 1,346, with 20,645 inmates, for
women.
The Protestant Evangelical Church, to which belong the
greater number of the Protestants in the kingdom, is under a
synod composed of the clergymen of the body, and a representa-
tive from each of the congregations.
Instruction.
In the budget of 1891 the sum allotted for education is as
follows :— Superior education, 1,685,400 francs ; middle-class
schools, 3,781,428 francs; primary education, 10,764,301 francs.
There are four universities in the kingdom, three of them with
four 'facultes,' or branches of study, and one, Louvain, nursery
of the clergy, with five ; Ghent and Liege are State universities,
Brussels and Louvain free. The following table gives the number
of students attending the various ' facultes ' in each of the four
universities in the academical year 1890-91 : —
INSTRUCTION
381
Students of
Unh ■
Tlu-ology
Jurispru-
dence
Philoso-
l'l'V
Medicine
Brussels .
Ghent
•
Louvain .
1 1 IS
396
184
305
391
147
210
185
145
477
ltj.'.
SI)
609
1,148
1.363
Attached to the universities are various special schools of en-
gineering, arts, manufactures, mining, «fcc, with a combined at-
tendance of 935 students in 1889-90. Other special schooll
the Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp, with 1,337 stu-
dents in 1890: schools of design, 14,365 student.-: royal con-
servatoires and other schools of music. 14,869.
The following are the statistics for the end of 1890 of the
various classes of public schools : —
-
No.
Pupils
No.
Pupils
Royal Athe-
M i d d 1 e-c 1 a 8 s
naeums and
normal schools
4
138
colleges .
M idol e-c lass
35
7,121
Primary normal
schools
47
2,516
schools (attic .
88
14,287
Primary schools .
5,673
616,091
M i d d 1 e-c 1 a s s
Infant ,,
1,146
113,172
schools (female)
39
6,958
Adult „ .
1,745
67,675
Besides the above public schools there are many private or free
schools — about 80 colleges, 65 middle-class schools for boys, 150
institutions for girls, besides many infant, primary, and adult
schools, mostly under ecclesiastical care.
Every commune is bound to maintain at least one school for
elementary education, the Government paying one-sixth, the pro-
vince one-sixth, and the commune four-sixths of the expenditure.
The total sum spent on elementary education in 1 889 was 27.711,132
francs by State, provinces, and communes, and including fee-
There were in the school year 1888-89, 56 industrial schools,
with 15,171 pupils; they are subsidised by the State, provinces,
and communes.
The proportion of the population above fifteen years who could
not read or write at the census of 1880 was 42 per cent., and
between seven and fifteen yean 29 "4 per cent. In the year 1890
there were 56,174 young men called out for military service, and
of this number 7,289 could neither read nor write ; 1,605 could
read only; 28,692 could simply read and write; 18,282 possessed
a superior education, and 556 for whom there is no return.
382
BELGIUM
Justice and Crime.
Judges are appointed for life by the King from lists prepared by the Senate
and by the Court. There is one Court of Cassation for the whole kingdom.
There are three Courts of Ajipeal, and there are Assize Courts for criminal
cases. The country is divided into 26 judicial arrondissements or districts, in
each of which is a Court of first instance. In each canton there is a justice of
the peace, a police court, and a judge of the peace ; there are 212 such cantons.
There are, besides, special military, commercial, and other tribunals, repre-
sented by law. There is trial by jury in all criminal and political cases. The
Gendarmerie (2,385) and the Garde Civkpie are utilised for the maintenance of
internal order.
The following table shows the number of criminals sentenced at the Assize
Courts and Correctional Tribunals in the years stated : —
1880
Assize Courts . \
| Correctional!
Tribunals
105
137
22,255 I 34,108
1880
1SS7
1888
184 127 ! 130
39,977 39,996 40,273
1889
127
40,753
The mean number of inmates of the various classes of prisons was as follows
in the years named :—
-
1870
issd
1SS0
1887
1888
1889
Central prisons .
Secondary ,,
Reformatories
2,029
2,672
550
824
! 2,881
1,005
872
3,774
1,0-10
870
3,801
1,040
865
3,549
1,000
845
: 3,789
923
Paup
erism.
Apart from private charitable associations, which arc numerous, public
charity is administered under precise regulations. The only public charitable
establishments are refuges, <Up6ts de mendiciU; or alms-houses, hospitals, and
the bureaux de bienfaisance, the administrators of which arc appointed by the
Communal Councils, while the provinces of the State contribute to maintain
certain classes of hospitals, refuges, or alms-houses, and asylums. It is the
duty of the commune to furnish assistance to its paupers. The bureaux de
bienfaisancc received in donations and legacies 3,765,690 francs in 1882;
1,492,754 francs in 1885 ; 1,499,538 francs in 1887 ; 1,479,030 francs in 1888 :
1,125,421 francs in 1889. Outdoor relief is provided under certain conditions.
The statistics of the d&pdts de mrndicite for the reception of beggars and vaga-
bonds (adults) in 1884 89 were as follows: —
Yen Tol!il
>'" Entries
Flotation KxpcM.innv
... Total
01 Entries
Mian
Population
Expenditure
1884 11,188
1885 12,207
1886 13,659
francs
3,425 , 930,968
3,614 : 976,972
3,933 1,060,401
1887 14,587
1888 15,858
1889 ! 16,795
4,092
4,399
1,740
francR
1,107,869
1,190,705
1,277, 90JJ
KIXAM I
Finance.
The ordinary and extraordinary revenue and expenditure ot
Belgium for the yean 1870 to 1890 — actual for the iirst seven
and estimated for 1890 — are shown in the following table in
thousands of francs : —
K'.-vi-uue
Kx|- ::'iitur>-
War*
Ordinary
l,00Vfr.
Extra-
ordinary
l,000fr.
Total
Ordinary
l.OOOfr.
Total
l.UWifr.
l.i»«>fr.
l.owfr.
190,537
14,905
!42
191,844
25,064
. ;»08
1880
291,921
102.294
394,215
•i09
W,899
•08
1885
313,170
19,915
333,085
313,916
851,251
1886
315,942
55,349
371,291
313.7
349.
1887
-.16
17,648
341.164
309,216
.
346,138
1888
- 017
7,040
314,761
52,101
366.
1889
333,052
13,615
o67
314.-
41,309
1890
332,716
—
—
321,092
61,091
382,183
The following table gives the details of the amended budget
for the year 1892 :—
Ordinary Revenue
Taxes, direct : —
Property taxes
Personal taxes
Trade licences
Mines .
Taxes, indirect : —
Customs
Bnbe .
Succession duties .
Registration d'
&c. .
Stamps . . '
Various
Toils :—
Railway s
Telegraphs
Post Office .
Navigation and
pilotage dnes
< ipitalsi revenues: —
Domains and forests
Unused amortisation
fund, securities, •
national bank.
Repayments
Total ordinary
revenue .
Fr.i:..>
24,496,000
18,915,000
6,680,000
1,600,000
23,483,056
41.420.235
24,400,000
18,510,000
6,000,000
1,481,000
138,000,000
4,100,000
10,620,200
2,605,000
1, 280, 000
15,415,200
3,540,499
342,546,190
Ordinary Expenditure
Interest on public
debt and sinking
fund
Civil list and dota-
tions .
Ministry of Justice .
,, Foreign
Affairs .
Ministry of Interior
and Public Instruc-
tion
Ministry of Public
Works .
Ministry of Railways,
Posti and Tele-
graphs
Ministry of War
,, Finance .
Gendarmerie
Reiayments, &c.
Total ordinary
penditure
haaea
103,221.797
4,576,100
17,293,135
2,496,363
23,216,997
17,088,428
103,317.028
46,960,582
15,539.2."..'.
4.264,500
28,500
339,5 -
384 BELGIUM
The following table shows the total amount of the national
liabilities of the kingdom in 1891-92 : —
Francs
Consolidated debt contracted before 1830 . . 208,615,702
,, ,, „ .since 1830 . . 1,844,944,208
Total 2,053,560,000
Floating Debt 20,000,000
Total 2,073,560,000
In addition to the above, there are various annuities to be
met, amounting to 30,000,000 francs, and if the Avhole were capi-
talised the total debt of Belgium would amount to close on 100
millions sterling. The bulk of the debt bears interest ol per cent.,
the rest at 3 and 2^.
Almost the entire debt of Belgium was raised for and devoted
to works of public utility, particularly the construction of State
railways. There is a sinking fund attached to all descriptions of
the debt, with the exception of the 2^ per cent, old debt.
The total debt amounts to about 1QL per head of population,
and the annual charge to 13s. 4cZ. ; but the interest is more than
covered by the revenue from x'ailways alone. The total exports
of home produce average 101. per head. The provincial budgets
for the year 1889 show a total revenue for all the provinces of
13,296,371 francs, and a total expenditure of 11,614,907 francs,
thus leaving a surplus of 1,681,364 francs.
Defence.
The maritime frontier of Belgium is 42 miles in length : the
Dutch frontier, north and east, 282 miles; the German frontier,
in the east, 60 miles; the Luxembourg frontier, in the east,
80 miles; and the French frontier, south and west, 384 miles.
The chief military arsenal of the kingdom is Antwerp, where also
are the fortified towns of Dendermonde and Diest. There are
fortifications at Liege, Huy, and Nainur on the Meuse, and at
Mons, Tournai, and Ypres on the French frontier, and in 1887 an
extensive scheme for the further fortification of the Meuse was
resolved upon and is being carried out.
The standing army is formed by conscription, to which every
able man who has completed his nineteenth year is liable, and
also voluntary enlistment. Substitution is permitted. The an-
nual contingent required is about 13,300 men. The legal period
of service is eight years, of which, however, two-thirds are
allowed, as a rule, on furlough. The country is divided into two
military circumscriptions or districts; the first comprising the
province of Anvers and the two Flanders', and the second the rest
DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 385
of the country. There are military schools of various grades,
and several establishments for special military education.
The following is the compoaiiian of the Belgian army, apart from tin-
general staff and the administrative and sanitary services : — Infantry : 1 regi-
ment of carabineers, of 4 active and three reserve battalions, each of 4 companies
and 1 depot : 1 regiment of grenadiers, 3 regiments chasseiirs-a-pied, 14 regi-
ments of the line, each of these three bodies of 3 active and 2 reserve battalions
each of 4 com}>anies and 1 depot ; 2 sedentary companies ; a corps of discipline and
correction of 14 companies : a school for army cadets. Cavalry : 2 regiments of
chasseurs, 4 regiments of lancers, 2 regiments of guides, each of 5 active
squadrons and 1 depot. Artillery : A special staff ; 4 field regiments, 2 of 8
mounted batteries and 2 batteries of reserve, and 2 of 2 horse batteries, 7
mounted batteries, and 2 reserve mounted latteries ; 1 reserve munition
battery and 1 depot : each field battery consists of 6 guns ; 4 regiments of
fortress artillery, 3 of 14 active batteries each, 2 reserve batteries, and 1 dejwjt,
and 1 regiment of 16 active latteries, 2 reserve, and 1 depot battery ; 4 S]
companies — pontooners, artificers, mechanics, and armourers. Train, consist-
ing of a stafl and 7 companies. Engineers: A special staff; 1 regiment of 3
battalions each and 4 companies of sappers and miners, 1 battalion of reserve
of 4 companies and a depot : 5 social companies, telegraphists, railway corps,
kc. The following is the peace-strength of the Belgian army : —
Officers Rank and File Total
Infantry ....
Cavalry ....
Artillerj- ....
Engineers ....
Gendarmerie
Others1 ....
1,880 '.15 27,295
348 5,309 5,657
•147 7.507 7,954
96 1.449 1,545
61 2,385 2,446
556 2,158 2,714
Total ....
3,388 44,323 47,711
1 General staff, train, administrative, military school, Ac.
For the army there are 7,200 horses and 200 guns, and for the gendarmerie
1,636 horses. In time of war the total strength is 154,780 men, 14,000
horses, and 240 guns.
Besides the standing army, there is a 'Garde Civique,' numbering,
March 31, 1890, 44,339 men, organised as far as possible in the communes,
and part of whose duties is to maintain the integrity and independence of
the territory : it is only active in communes of over 10,000 inhabitants and in
fortified places.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
In each province of Belgium there is an Agricultural Commission appointed
by the King ; delegates from which, along with specialists, form a supreme
council of agriculture. There are six special services connected with the
386
BELGIUM
department of agriculture, dealing with forestry, clearing and planting, irriga-
tion, veterinary affairs, cultivation, and agricultural laboratories.
The tendency in Belgium is to a great subdivision of holdings ; these
increased from 572,550 in 1846, to 910,396 in 1880, the date of the latest
statistics. At that date the holdings of various sizes were as follows : — -Less
than 1 hectare (2 '47 acres) 594,376 ; from 1 to 5 hectares 226,088 ; from 5 to
10 hectares 48,390 ; from 10 to 20 hectares 25,893 ; from 23 to 50 hectares
12,186 ; above 50 hectares 3,403.
The area worked by owners increased by 94,650 hectares between 1866
and 1880. In 1880, 713,019 hectares were worked by owners, and 1,270,512
by farmers.
Of the 2,945,715 hectares which compose the area of Belgium, 67 '34 per
cent, are under cultivation, and 16 61 per cent, under forest, 7 "88 per cent,
uncultivated, the rest roads, marshes, rivers, &c. The population connected
with agriculture in 1880 numbered 1,199,319, or 21 "77 of the whole.
The soil is distributed as follows (in hectares) among various cultures (1880
the latest statistics) : — Cereals, 934,663 ; peas, beans, &c, 33,093 ; sugar-beet,
32,627 ; flax, 40,078; other ornamental plants, 24,070; root plants, 36,153 :
potatoes, 199,357 ; grasses, 536,000 ; heaths, brushwood, land not regularly
cultivated, &c, 231,964 ; fallow, groves, orchards, &c, 146,592 ; forests,
489,423. The principal cereals were wheat, 275,931 hectares ; oats, 249,486 :
rye, 277,640. The mean product per acre of these cereals was in hectolitres
per hectare, and of sugar-beet in kilogrammes per hectare : —
1885
1886
1887
25-40
1888
1880
Wheat (winter) .
23-65
23-27
19-52
24-70
,, (summer) .
20-22
20-41
18-10
19-82
2012
Oats .
36-37
41-38
34-40
40-69
39-57
Rye .
22-53
19-58
23-08
19-10
23-05
i Sugar-beet (kilos.)
26,728
34,052
30,500
22,977
39,456
The total value of agricultural products of every kind in 1880 was
1,412,224,000 franca; and of animal produce. 238,752,380 francs. The net
revenue from forests alone in 1889 was 4,619,776 francs.
In 1880 there were 271,974 horses, 1,382,815 homed cattle. 365,400 sheep,
and 646,375 pig8.
II. Mining and Metals and other Industkiks
There is a special department of the Ministry of Public Works for the
administration of industry. There are a superior Council of Industry, i
Council of Mines, and a Council of Prud*hommea <>r specialists for advising
ihr Siatc as to the interests of various industries,
The number of quarries in Belgium in 1889 was 1,812, workmen 80,392.
The Dumber of workmen engaged in metallic mines in 1SS9 was 1.601. The
quantity of iron ore produced in 1889 was 181,526 tons, valued at 1,115,000
francs. There were 256 coal mines in Belgium in 1889. of which 132 were
worked. The number of work-people in 1889 was 108,882, of whom 8,238
were women. 9,888 hoys, and 960 ydrls, working underground. The produc-
lion of coal, and its value, were as follows: —
PRODUCTION
A.ND INDUSTRY
— OOMMSB '>N
1870
1880 1887
16,886 18,378
169,680 1 ;
1889 1890
Tons (1000^ 13,697
Value in 1000 frs. 148,635
M,218 19.870 20,366
162,018 18) -.503
In 1889, 4.279,700 tons, and in 1890, 4,533, 785 tons of coal were exported ;
in 1889, 1,005,969 tons, and in 1890, 1,721,238 tons were imported.
The quantity of iron ore imported in 1886 was 1,367,700 tons, in 1887
1. 185,782 tons, in 1888 1,742,864 tons, in 1889 1,805,213 tons, mostly from
Luxemburg.
The quantity and value of pig iron and manufactured iron produced were
as follows : —
1886
1887
1888
um
1800
Pig iron
Tons
Value (1.000 fr.)
701.
30,851
755,781
34.080
44.49*
832.226
14.491
787,836
50,073
Manufactured iron
Tons
1,000 fr. .
470
56.227
534,056
63,968
.818
70.057
80,819
.'•14,311
82,989
Steel ingots
Tons
Million fr.
i 55, 169
10,831
216,186
18,798
231.847
19,194
254,397
25,000
221.296
24,989
Steel rails, fee.
Tons
1,000 fr. .
137.771
16,012
191,145
21,761
185,417
22,605
214.561
29,178
201.817
31,278
In 1890 there were 19 pig-iron works in activity and 8 unemployed : 36
blast furnaces active and 1 4 inactive ; number of workmen, 2, 784.
For the manufacture of iron there were 550 works active and 200 inactive
in 1890 : the number of workmen employed being 17. 142. There were 28 steel
troika active and 11 inactive : with 3,144 workmen.
The value of the zinc produced in 1889 was 38,401,000 francs, and the
workmen employed 3,623 : value of lead, 2,933,000 francs : of silver from
lead, 3,844,000 francs : number of workmen, 440.
The total number of persons directly employed in manufacturing industries
of all kinds at the census of 1880 was 952.947. and the total annual value of
the produce was 2. 175,437,896 francs.
In 1890 there were 349 vessels of 11,265 tons engaged in deep-sea fishery,
and the value of the fish caught was 3,272,699 francs.
Commerce.
The value of the general commerce in the vear 1889 was
for imports 3.106.843,078 francs, and in 1890 3,189,160,016
francs, and exports in 1889 3.013,026,216 francs, and in 1890
2,948,151,841 francs. Of the general imports in 1890, those by
sea were valued at 1,504,775,060 francs, and bv land and river
at 1,684,384,956 francs ; of the exports, those bv sea were valued
at 1,288,151,012 francs, by land and river 1.660.000,829 francs.
388
BELGIUM
The following table shows the value of the imports for home con-
sumption, the exports of Belgian produce and manufactures, and
the transit trade, in millions of francs : —
Imports
Exports
Transit
1870
Million frs
920-8
690-1
831-7
1886
1887
1888
18S9
Million frs Million frs Million frs
1,680-9 | 1,335 j 1,431-9
1,216-7 1,181-9 1,240-6
1,008-4 ! 1,330-1 1,474-6
1890
Million frs Million frs Million frs
1,534-8 : 1,556-4 I 1,672-1
1,243-7 1-458-5 1,437-0
1,556-3 1,554-5 I 1,511-1
The leading articles of special commerce were as follows in the
year 1890:—
' Imports
1,000 francs
Export
1,000 francs
Cereals
302,698
Yarns
135,119
Raw textiles
204,524
Coal and coke
113,706
Vegetable substances .
93,372
Machinery, &c. .
104,601
Various mineral matters
76,415
Raw textiles
95,090
Timber
70,363
Cereals
90,014
Hides and skins .
69,259
Tissues
69,370
Metals
61,086
Iron, wrought and on-
Resins and bitumen
59,895
wrought .
67,925
Chemical products
59,641
Hides and skins .
60,386
Tissues
57,339
Sugar ....
53,197
Living animals .
54,713
Glass ....
45,134
Coffee
52,534
Vegetable matters
43,523
Butter and eggs .
41,780
Various animal matters
36,4:")1
Various animal matters
37,458
Chemicals .
56,179
Coal ....
30,127
Various mineral matten
82,696
Yarns
28,506
Zinc ....
•"■1.841
Meat ....
28,138
Meat ....
80,604
Manures
26,764
Steel ....
29,000
Vegetable oils
26,252
1 Living animals .
28, U6
Wines
. 24,406
Stone
22,78]
Rice ....
| 17,664
Arms ....
16,68?
Fish ....
13,287
Paper.
14,441
The commercial intercourse of Belgium with (ireat Britain
according to the Board of Trade returns is shown in the subjoined
tabular statement in each of the five years 1886 to 1890 : —
-
1886
1887
1888
£
1889
1890
£
£
£
Exports to
Great Britain
14,248,151
14,732,663
15,635,228
17,674,877
17,383,776
Imports of
British pro-
duce . . 7,126,635
6,830,520
6,789,688
7,160,182
7,688,712
COMMEft E
389
Principal export! from Belgium to Great Britain, and import*
of British home produce into Belgium : —
KxpcH
lien \iirii
Silk, sniffs, rib
bona
Flax .
Sugar .
Bar iron k niaiiu
(actum .
Egg* •
Poultry ami Game
Imports :
< Sottona
ron yams
Woollens
Machinery .
Iron
is..'.
ian
t £.
1,610,359 !,S7l,S68 1. 88 -12,399
1.460.07b' 1,726,572 1,831,855 1,983,821 1,1
484,174 485,0 7 '59. 184 759,812
546.S7 "77,180 9
''••"7 .7 ft
378,750
869,214
-•.9.803
29 477.-JJ'i
1,107.197 1.359,882 1.211.742 1,121,542 1.
744.244 678,439 587,061 846,150 -
1,142,9! " 922,047
S34 571.479 641.105 660.959 -
203,061 251,059 359,990 370,527 441,044
Of foreign and colonial produce sent from Great Britain to
Belgium in 1890, raw cotton was valued at 1,015,342/., and wool
at 2,681,208/.
The following table shows the respective shares of the loading
countries in the special commerce of Belgium in 1890 : —
Imports from
Francs
Exerts to
France .
Francs
Frame ^
316,389,000
. 358,691,000
Great Britain .
212,942,000
Great Britain
. 267,840,000
Netherlands .
206,389,000
Germany
. 265.116,000
Germany
182,189,000
Netherlands
. 208,336,000
United States .
167,022,000
United EM
50.684,000
Russia
114.334,000
Spain
38,749,000
Roumania
101,629,000
Italy
34,860,000
British India .
76, -il5.000
Switzerland
28. 642. 000
_ mine Republic.
"8,000
Portugal .
16,044,000
len and Norway
46,393,000
Brazil
15.626,000
Brazil
30,503,000
Turkey .
14,033,000
Spain
21.319,000
Sweden and X
or way 11.190,000
Peru
20,965,000
Russia
9,664,000
Italy
19,904,000
British India
9.564,000
Australia
I*!. 923,000
china .
8,507,000
Chile .
14.360,000
Chile
8.186,000
Uruguay .
12. 200,000
Australia
5,577,000
390
JiKLGlUM
Shipping and Navigation.
The condition of the merchant marine of Belgium is shown as
follows on December 31 : —
Sailing Vessels
Steamers
Total
1870
1880
1888
|
1889
1890
No. Tons
No. ! Tons
No.
Tons
No. Tons
No. Tons
55
12
20,648
9,501
24 i 10,442
42 05,224
9
60
4,271
7:3,384
9
42
4,271
05,951
In $,393
46 71,553
07
30,149
66 75,006
59
77,055
51
70,222
56 j 75,946
The navigation at Belgian ports is shown as follows :
Vessels —
Entered
Cleai ed
Total.
1870
1880 1888 1889
l
1890
No. j Tons
No. Tons ; No. Tons j No.
Tons
No. | Tons
5,658,1,575,293
5,4001,534,013
6,667 3,571,182
6,615 3,544,964
0,930 4,912,001 7,010 5,158,486 7,357 5,785,980
6,915 4,907,498! 6,994 5,146,00l! 7,381 5,803,168
11,064J3,109,306
13,282 7,116,146 13,845 9,820,099|!14,004 10,304,437 14,738 11,589,148
Of the total in 1890, 3,984 vessels of 2,269,105 tons entered
from, and 1,159 of 630,987 tons cleared to England; the United
States coming next with 297 of 562,392 tons entered, and 109 of
313,400 tons cleared.
Internal Communications.
The length of public roads in Belgium was 9,039 kilometres in 1890, and
of navigable water (rivers and canals) 1,642 kilometres in 1890.
The subjoined tabular statement shows the length of railways open in
Belgium on January 1, 1891 : —
llometree
Lines worked by the State
Lines worked by companies
Total Lines opes
Kiloin.
Miles
The total number of passengers conveyed bj the State railways in 1890
was 04,228,892, and by the companies 18,160,376. The gross receipts in
1890 amounted for the State to 141,251,314 francs, of which 44,989,857
francs were for passengers : and for the companies 40,966.925 francs, of
which 11,444,184 francs were for passengers ; expenses for the State
83,657,947 francs; for the companies 21,054,885 francs. Up to the end of
1890 the Stale had spent 1,328,926,679 francs on the first cosl of its railways.
The total receipts of its railways from 1835 to 1890 amounted to 2,887,171,990
francs, and the beta] expense of working its railways during the same period
was 1,692,776,329 francs.
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONB— MONEY AND CREDIT
The work ol the lost Office in Belgium was as follows in the j
1889, and 1890 :—
UH
Private letters
Official letters
Post-cards
Printed matter
Newspapers .
90,940,333
15,977,216
27,484,548
59,960,862
95,837.;::.
95,467,361
I7.'r2l,382
.674
68,4:.;
91,546,377
MM
95,484.491
16,5*.;
36, 8».
.',461
94,639,558
On January 1, 1891, there were 819 post offices in Belgium. The total
revenue of the Post Office in the year 1890 amounted to 16,455,630 francs.
and the expenditure to 9,527,694 francs.
The telegraphs in Belgium carried 8,062,837 despatches, private and
official, in the year 1890. At the end of 1890 the total length of publi
graph lines was 4,265 miles, and the length of wires 20,315 miles. There
were at the same date 942 telegraph stations. Receipts (1890), 3,465,049
francs ; expenses, 4,169,222 francs.
Money and Credit.
The following is the nominal value of money minted and circulated in
Belgium : —
leu
Gold
Francs
598,642,745
Silver Copper 4 Nickel Total
1832-86
1887
1888
1889
1890
Francs Francs Francs
553,318,745 15,223,826 1,167,185,316
3,024,000 50,000 3,074,000
Total .
598,642,745
556,342,745 15,273,826 1,170,259,316
There is only one bank of emission in Belgium, the National Bank,
instituted by the law of May 5, 1850. Its capital, entirely paid up, 550
million francs. It is the cashier of the State. It is authorised to cairy on
the usual banking operations. The following are the statistics of the bank in
thousands of francs : —
Year
lash Bills. Ac.
Loans in
Public
Funds
Public
Funds
Hotel in
Circulation
Credit ]
Current J
Accounts I
Reserve
1860
1880
1888
1889
62,023 155,958
88,78?
283,878
103,636 I 302,385
103,413 312,671
4,469
7,787
13,020
11,278
7,588
33,166
49,852
49,852
49,852
117,900 81,825
339,909 72,142
875,670 66,283
401,766 66.233
404.722 67
10,312
14,730
20,868
21,649
22,410
392
BELGIUM
The following are the statistics of private banks (30) and joint-stock banks
(23) for 1888, in thousands of francs : —
-
Paid-up
Capital
Reserve
Cash
26,523
7,527
Liabilities
Bills
Debit
Accounts
Current
Loans ic.
Private Banks .
Joint-stock
152,556
37,598
75,730
4,272
555,378
124,985
352,008
61,480
231,992
94,267
198,992
5,549
There are besides agricultural banks, credit unions, and popular banks.
The following are the statistics of the State savings-banks, of which in 1890
there were 609 : —
Year Depos,to,-s Jf-J-*
Reserve
Fund
Year
1889
1890
ty __i*__ Deposits at Reserve '
Depositors en<jofyear Flllld
Francs
1880 ' 200,565 125,098,287
1885 444,087 180,001,089
Francs
3,774,740
7,580,401
Francs Francs
657,307 282,588,099 , 8,069,180
731,057 325,415,412 9,001,336
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Belgium, and the British equiva-
lents, are as follows : —
Money.
The .franc . . . Intrinsic rate of exchange 25*22^ to £1 sterling.
Weights and Measures.
The Kilogramme .
,, Tonne ....
Tfrctolitrr / Dry measure
^ Liquid measure
,, Metre ....
,, Metre Cube
,, Kilometre . . .
,, Hectare
,, Square Kilmneti e .
= 2*20 lbs. avoirdupois.
= 2,200,,
= 275 imperial bushels.
= 22 imperial gallons.
= 3-28 feet.
= 35 "31 cubic feet.
= 1,093 yards.
= 2 '47 English icm,
= 247'11 English acres,
or 0*386 square mile.
Belgium was one of the five Continental States — comprising, besides,
France, Italy, Greece, and Switzerland — which formed a Monetary League in
1865. The five States entered into a convention by which they agreed upon
the decimal system, establishing perfect reciprocity in the currency of the four
countries.
Diplomatic Representatives.
l. Ok Belgium in Gbxat Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Baron Solvyns. appointed Februa* y 21, 1873.
Councillor. — Count de Lalaing.
Secretary of Legation. — M. Toostens.
Conml-Gencralin London. — F. H. Lenders.
STATIST!* AI. AND <»THER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 393
There are Consular representatives of Belgium in the following towns
Aberdeen,
Belfast,
Berwick,
Birmingham,
Bradford,
Bristol,
Cardiff,
Devon,
Dublin,
Dundee,
Falmouth,
Glasgow,
Hull,
Leith,
Liverpool,
Manes
Newcastle,
Portsmouth,
Queenstown,
Sheffield,
Southampton,
Adelaide,
Bombay,
Brisbane,
Calcutta,
Cape Town,
• Vvlon,
Dunedin,
Hong Kong,
Melbourne,
Quebec,
Singapore,
Sydney,
Wellington.
2. Of Great Britain in Belgii m.
Envoy a/id Minister. — Hon. Sir Edward J. Monsou. K.C.M.G., '
Envoy to Greece 1888 to 1892, appointed Envoy to Belgium January 26, 1892.
Secretary. — Martin Le M.H. Cosselin, C.B.
There is a Consul-General at Antwerp, and Vice-Consuls at Ghent, Liege,
Louvain, and Ostend.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Belgium.
1. Official Publications.
Uinanach Royal Offlciel de Belgique, conteiiant les attributions et le personnel de tou»
rieea publics do royauine. Annee 1891. Bruxelles, 1891.
Annuaiiv statistique de la Belgique. Bruxelles, 1891.
Documents statistiques, publies par It.- depart, de l'lnterieur, avec leconcours de la com-
mission centrale de statistique. Bruxelles, 1857-69.
Mouiteur beige.
Budgets provinciaux. Exercice 1891. Bruxelles, 1890.
Budgets des recettes et des depenses |>our l'exercice 1891. Bruxelles, 1890.
Releve du chiffre officiel de la population en 1890. Bruxelles, 1891.
Kapport triennal sur la situation de 1 'instruction primaire en Belgique. Treirieme
Periode Triennale, 1885-87. Bruxelles, 1889.
situation generate du tresor public au \<* Janvier, 1891. Bruxelles. 1891.
Expose de la situation du royauine, periode 1841-50. 1 voL Periode 1851-60. 3 vols.
Periode 1661-75. - vols. Public par le Ministre de l'lnterieur. 8. Bruxelles, 1861-85.
Statistique de la Belgique. Population. Recensement general (31 Decern bre, 1880).
Bruxelles, 1884.
Statistique de la Belgique. Agriculture. Recensement general de 1880. Bruxelles,
Statistique de la Belgique. Industrie. Recensement des principales industries en 1880.
Bruxelles, 1887.
Statistique de la Belgique. Apercu de la situation de royauine dresse en Avril 1889
par les soins de la commission centrale de statistique de Belgique. Bruxelles, 1889.
Statistique generale des recettes et depenses du royauine, 1840-85. Bruxelles, 1889.
' Tableau general du commerce avec les pays etrangers. pendant l'annee 1890, public par le
Ministre des Finances. Bruxelles, 1891.
Compte-rendu des chemins de fer, postes, telegraphes et marine. Bruxelles, 1891.
British Consular and Diplomatic Reports for 1891.
Trade of Belgium with the United Kingdom, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries for the year 1890.' Imp. 4. London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Barary (Ch. Victor de), Histoire de Li revolution beige de 1830. 8. Bruxelles, 1876.
Brialmont (A. H.), Situation militaire de la Belgique. Brussels, 1882.
Garcia de la Vega (D. de). Royaume de la Belgique. Brussels, 1883.
Meulemant (Aug.), La Belgique, ses ressources agricoles. industrielles et commerciales.
8. Bruxelles, 1866.
Mouel (H. G.), Histoire de la Belgique. Brussels, 1881.
Sicola'i (E.), Les chemins de fer de l'etat en Belgique 1834-84. Etude historique, econo-
mique et statistique. Bruxelles, 1S85.
Poullet (E.), Histoire politique interne de la Belgique. Louvain, 1879.
Beelus (Elis- e). Xouvelle geographic universelle. Tome IV. L'Europe du Nord-Ouest-
Paris, 1879.
394
BHUTAN.
An independent State in the Eastern Himalayas, between 26° 45' and 28° N.
latitude, and between 89° and 92° E. longitude, bordered on the north-east
and west by Tibet and on the south by British India. Extreme length from
east to west 160 miles ; extreme breadth 90 miles.
The original inhabitants of Bhutan, the Tephiis, were subjugated about
two centuries ago by a band of military colonists from Tibet. In 1774 the
East India Company concluded a treaty with the ruler of Bhutan, but since
then repeated outrages on British subjects committed by the Bhutan hill men
have led from time to time to punitive measures, usually ending in the
temporary or permanent annexation of various dwdrs or submontane tracts
with passes leading to the hills. In November 1864 the eleven western or
Bengal dwars were thus annexed. The Bhutias at first acquiesced in the
annexation, but in January 1865 attacked an English outpost, and it was
found necessary to send an expedition into their country. Peace being
restored,- a treaty was signed (November 1865) by which the rulers of
Bhutan receive a subsidy of Rs. 50,000, on condition of their good
behaviour. This gives the Indian Government an effective control over
them, while the occupation of two strong positions at Baxa and Diwangiri,
within a few miles of their frontier, serves as a material guarantee against
further aggression.
The government of Bhutan resembles that of Tibet, the chief authority
being nominally divided between the Deb Raja, or secular head, on the one
hand, and the Dharm Raja, or spiritual head of the State, on the other.
Practically, the Deb Raja is a mere instrument in the hands of powerful
barons (penlops and jungpens), while the Dharm Raja is only supposed to
be concerned with the spiritual welfare of his people. In theory the Deb
Raja is elected by the penlops and jongpens, but he is usually the
nominee of the most powerful chieftain for the time being. The Dharm
Raja is supposed to be the incarnation of his predecessor, and is chosen in
infancy. The most powerful chieftains of Bhutan are the penlops of
Toungso, Paro, and Taka, and the jongpens of Thimbu, Punakha, and
Angdaphorang.
Area about 16,800 square miles ; population about 20,000 in 1864, hut now
much larger.
The chief towns of Bhutan arc Punakha, the capital, a place of great
natural strength ; Tasichozong, Paro, Angdaphorang, Togsa, Taka. and
Biaka.
The people arc nominally Buddhists, hut their religious exercises consist
chiefly in the propitiation of evil spirits and the recitation of sentences from
the Tibetan Scriptures. Tasichozong, the chief monastery in Bhutan,
contains 300 priests.
The military resources of the country are insignificant. Beyond the guards
for the defence of the various castles, were is nothing like a .standing army.
The chief productions of Bhutan are lire. Indian corn, millet, two kinds of
cloth, musk, ponies, ohowries, and silk. Muzzle-loading guns and swords of
highly-tempered steel are manufactured.
The trade between British India and Bhutan amounted in 1890-9] to Rs.
207,018 imports from and Ks. 208, 946 exports to India. The eluel' imports are
tobacco, European cotton goods, betel-nuts, and rice : the chief exports, wool,
musk, ponies, and caoutchouc.
See Report on Explorations in Sikkim, Bhutan, and Tibet, 1856-86.
Edited by Lieut. -Colonel G. Stralian. Dehra Dun, 1889.
395
BOLIVIA.
(RnrfBUCA BoLTI ia.na).
Constitution and Government.
THB Constitution of the Republic of Bolivia U-ars date October 28, I860. By
its provisions the executive power is rested in a President, sleeted for a term
of four years by direct universal suffrage ; while the legislative authority rests
with a Congress of two chambers, called the Senate, and the Chamber of
Deputies, both elected by universal suffrage. There are 16 Senators and 64
Deputies. The President is assisted in his executive functions by two Yi..-
Presidents and a ministry, divided into five departments — of Foreign Relations
and Worship ; Finance and Industry ; Government and Colonisation ; Justice
and Public Instruction ; War.
J*) lieuT id of the Bepublic. — Senor Don AnieetoArcc, nominated President
August 6, 1888.
The supreme political, administrative, and military authority in each
department is vested in a prefect. The Republic is divided into nine
departments, 52 provinces and 374 cantons, administered respectively by
prefects, sub-prefects, and corregidores. The capital of each province has its
municipal council.
~ Area and Population.
The area of Bolivia was estimated in 1869 at 842,729 English equate
miles, with a population of close upon two millions. The following table
ghree after official returns of 1880-88, the area of each of the existing
provinces, with- their estimated population excluding aboriginal Indians, : —
Departments
La Paz de Ayacucho
Potosi .
Oruro
Chuuuisaca, or Sucre
Cochabamba .
Beni
Santa-Cruz de la Siena
Tarija
Area : English
square miles
171. 0S1
52,084
21.331
39, -
21.417
100,551
126,305
34,599
Population
Total
346,139
111.372
l-2:>..347
196,766
16,744
97,185
62,854
1,192,162
As a result of the war with Chile, 1879-80, Bolivia mortgaged to that
country all her coast territory. The aboriginal or Indian population
of Bolivia is estimated at a million : the mestizos or mixed laces at
500,000, and the whites about 500,000. They are all regarded as at least
nominally Christian. The present population mav be estimated at about
2,300,000.
396 BOLIVIA
The population of La Paz is estimated at 45,000 ; Cochabamba 20,000 ;
Sucre (the capital), 20,000 ; Potosi, 12,000 ; Santa Cruz, 10,288 ; Oruro
10,000. The seat of Government changes; in 1891 it was at Oruro; in
1893 it will be at Sucre.
Religion, Instruction, and Justice.
The Roman Catholic is the recognised religion of the State ; the
exercise of other forms of worship is permitted in the settlements.
Primary instruction is free and obligatory. The following figures
are given for 1890 : — Primary schools 493, with 649 teachers and
24,244 pupils (of whom 6,840 girls) ; secondary schools and colleges
16, with 2,126 pupils, and 91 professors. There are five universities
with 1,384 students and 83 professors of law, medicine, and theology. There
is also a military school with 30 pupils and 9 professors. The Government
contribution to public primary schools in 1888 was 43,900 bolivianos.
The judicial power resides in the Supreme Court, 7 district courts, and the
courts of local justices.
Finance.
In the budget for the financial year 1890-91 the revenue from all sources
was calculated at 3,321,280 bolivianos, and the expenditure at 3,613,698
bolivianos.
According to Bradstreet, for August 29, 1891, the internal debt in 1890
was 4,450,000 dollars, and the foreign, 622,121 dollars, giving a total of
5,072,121 dollars. The foreign debt is rapidly being paid off.
Defence.
Bolivia has a standing army of 1,112 men and 140 officers in actual
service. There is also a national guard, in which all citizens are
bound to serve. The annual cost of the army amounts to 1,828,158
bolivianos.
Production and Industry.
Till within the last few years, the vast agricultural and mineral resources
of the country were entirely dormant for want of means of communication,
but more recently an attempt has been made to construct roads and railways.
The silver mines of Potosi alone are estimated to have produced 600 millions
sterling from their discovery in 1545 down to 1864. The country contains
also gold, copper, tin, and lead. The india-rubber supply of Bolivia is of
the finest quality, and almost inexhaustible. Coca is one of the most
important products of Bolivia; in 1884-85 the quantity derived was valued
at 343,666Z. Cinchona is another important culture ; a report of the
United States Consul referring to 1884-85 estimates the number of trci s at
5 millions, and the quantity of bark produced in the year at 200,000 lbs. ; but
the trees are being destroyed within practicable distance of the coast. Coffee
culture is rising into importance.
Commerce.
The average value (if the imports is estimated at 1 ,200,0002. . and exports
1,800,000/. Two-thirds of the exports consist of silver. In L889 1 lie total
Bolivian exports l>\ Baenoa Aytet was 8,837,640 Argentine dollars, in 1890
828,192 dollars, (north silver and cold. In the lirst' half of 1890 the exports
bom Bolivia by Arci]uipaaiiiountedto 536,229 Peruvian soles, that of copper in
bars to 312,915 soles. The total imports by Buenos Ay res in 18S9 amounted to
< < >MM KRCE— < « IMMUNK ATIOXS
397
106,487 dollars, in 1890, 3,283 dollars ; about one-half was for Export
of silver bar and ore in 1888, 17,064,218 bolivianos; in 1889, 12,145,545
bolivianos. Nearly one-half of the imports are calculated to come from the
United Kingdom, mainly through the port of Arica in Peru. Considerable
trade is also done with France and Germany. The exports comprise, besides
silver, Peruvian lark, india-rubber, gum, cocoa and coffee, and copper, tin,
and other ores.
The total value of the merchandise sent to and received direct from Great
Britain, in each of the four years 1885 to 1888, according to the Board of
Trade Returns, is shown in the subjoined table. No returns are given for
1889 and 1890 :—
-
1885
1881 1MB
Exports to Great Britain .
Imports of British produce
£ i * «
200,046 190,619
44,276 53,594
145,947
84,615
£
142,548
111,018
The principal exports of Bolivia to Great Britian are copper ore and
regains, and cubic nitre. In the year 1888 the value of the exports
ut copper, l>oth ore and regulus, ■mounted to 49,948/. : and of nitre to
71.530/. The British imports into the Republic consist • -hierly of cotton
goods, of the value of 3,008/. ; of iron, wrought and unwrought, of
the value of 51,424/. : machinery, 13,210/. ; coals, 7,642/. : carriages,
18,758*., in 1888.
Communications.
Bolivia has no sea-coast. There are .-everal projects for the construction
of railways in Bolivia. A railway connects the Chilian port of Antofsf
with the Bolivian frontier at Ascotan. and it thence ptoeeeoV yumi
in Bolivian territory : from Uyumi there is a branch to Huanehaca where
there is one of the most important silver mines in the world. The railway is
l>eing continued to Oruro, and was expected to be completed in 1891. About
300 miles of this railway are built in Bolivian territory. Besides this,
-ions have been given for other lines which are being studied and will,
ited, soon begin to lie built — namely, from the city of La Paz to the
Peruvian frontier, to join the line from Mollendo on the Pacific coast to
Puno on Lake Titicses : from the River Paraguay, in the east of Bolivia,
to the city of Santa Cruz. New roads are (1891) being constructed in many
parts of the country.
There is a line of telegraph between Chililaga, on Lake Titicaea, La Paz,
and Oruro to Sucre, 180 miles ; another between the capital and Potosi and
the Argentine frontier on the one hand and the Pacific coast on the other.
There are, in all, over 1,300 miles of telegraph lines. Bolivia belongs to the
postal union.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
M'>NEY.
The money, weights, and measures of Bolivia, and the British equivalents
are : —
The Boliviano or Dollar, of 100 centavos, was struck on the basis of the
5-franc piece; present value (Aug. 1891) about 2s. 6d. The gold ounce is
nominally equal to 17^ silver pesos.
The Potosi mint now coins only half bolivianos and 20-cent pieces, 8 per
cent lighter than the old boliviano.
398 BOLIVIA
Wrights and Measures.
The metric system of weights and measures is used by the administration,
and prescribed by law, but the old Spanish system is also employed as
follows : —
The Libra = 1 "01 4 lbs. avoirdupois
,, Quintal = 101*44 ,,
. , J of 25 pounds . . = 25;3fl ,,
" ■* rro a J of wine or spirits . = 6 "70 imperial gallons.
,, Gallon = 0 74 ,, gallon
,, Vara = 0*927 yard.
,, Square Vara = 0*859 square yard.
Consular Representative.
Of Bolivia in Grf.at Britain'.
Consul-General , — Francisco Suarez, 12 Fenchurch Street, E.C.
Great Britain has no representative in Bolivia.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Bolivia
1. Official Publications.
Report, on the Trade, &c, of Bolivia in 1884-8'., in ' Reports from the Consul of the United
States,' January, 1886. Washington, 1886.
Report on the Trade of Bolivia in 1887, in 'Deutsches Handels-Archiv,' August, and on a
Projected Railway, October, 1888. Berlin, 1888.
Trade of Bolivia with Great Britain, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries in the year 1890.' Imp. 4. London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bolivia, a paper in the ' Deutsche Kolonial-Zeitung,' Heft 18, 1886, p. 548. Berlin, 1886.
BaUinan (Manuel V.) and hliaguez (Edwardo), Hiecionario Oeographico de la Repuhlica
de Bolivia. La Paz, 1890.
Itonrlli (L. 11. 'I'). Travels in Bolivia. -2 vols. London, ls.vt.
Clmrch (Col. Geo. Earl), Papers and Documents relating to the Bolivian Loan, the National
Bolivian Navigation Company, *c. 8. London, 1873.
Dalenee (M.), Bosquejo estadistico de Bolivia. 8. Chuquisaca, 1878.
D'Orhiiimi. Description geografica, histories, y eatadiatica de Bolivia. 1844.
D'Orhirmii (A.), Voyage dans l'Aiiicrique Mi ridionale. 9 vols. Paris, 183:") 47.
GranM&Ur (P.), Voyage dans FAmerique du Sud. 8. Paris, 1861.
Mathews (Edward t).), Up the Amazon and Madeira Bivers. through Bolivia and Bern.
s. London, 1879.
Moreno (J. L.), Nociones de geogratia de Bolivia. Sucre. 1889.
Reck (Hugo), Geographic und Statist ikder Republik Bolivia. In Peternianti's ' Mittheiliin-
gen,' Parts VII. and VIII. 4. Gotha, 1865.
Ttchudi (J. J. von), Beiscn (lurch Sudamerika. 4 \ ..Is. S. Leipzig, 1866.
Uraai (Comte C. d),Snd Amerique: Sejonrs el voyages an Bralll, en Bolivie. ata. !•.'.
Paris, 1879.
HV././W/ (II. A.), Voyage dans le Nord de la Bolivie. Paris, 1853.
Wirmr (Charles), Benin et Bolivie. Paris. IS80.
3UU
BRAZIL.
(ESTADOS UnIDOS DO BRAZIL.)
Constitution and Government.
In 1807 the royal family of Portugal fled to Brazil . in 1815 the
colony was declared ' a kingdom ' ; and the Portuguese Court
having returned to Europe in 1821, a national congress assembled
at Rio de Janeiro, and on May 13, 1822, Dom Pedro, eldest son
of King Joao VI. of Portugal, was chosen ■ Perpetual Defender '
of Brazil. He proclaimed the independence of the country on
September 7, 1822, and was chosen 'Constitutional Emperor and
Perpetual Defender ' on October 12 following. In 1831 he abdi-
cated the crown in favour of his only son. Dom Pedro II.. who
reigned as Emperor until November 15, 1889, when by a revolu-
tion he was dethroned, and he and his family exiled, and Brazil
declared a Republic under the title of the United States of
Brazil. Dom Pedro died in 1891.
President bf the Republic. — General Floriano Peixoto, formerly
Vice-President. By the resignation of Marshal da Fonooca, he
became President, November 23, 1891.
By a decree of June 22. 1890, the Provisional Government convoked a
National Congress, which, in February, 1891. established a new Constitution.
A' i ording to this, the Brazilian nation, adopting the federative ■WwHiqai
form of government, constitutes itself as the United States of Brazil. Each
of the old Provinces, and also the Federal District (to be reserved in the
central plateau of Brazil), forms a State, administered at its own expense
without interference from the Federal Government save for defence, for the
maintenance of order, and for the execution of the Federal laws. Fiscal
arrangements in such matters as customs, stamps, rates of postage, and bank-
note circulation belong to the Union exclusively.
The legislative authority is exercised by the National Congress with the
sanction of the President of the Republic. Congress consists of the Chamber
of Deputies and the Senate. It will meet annually on the 3rd of May. without
being convoked, unless another day be fixed by law. and will sit four months, but
may be prorogued or convoked extraordinarily No member of Congress, after
his election, can contract with the executive power or accept any commission or
paid office, except such as are diplomatic or military or imposed by law. If,
in ordinary circumstances, the acceptance of diplomatic or military office
would cause the loss of the legislative services of a member, the permission
of the Chamber is required. Nor can any member of Congress take part in
the administration of any company which is employed by the Federal
Government Deputies and Senators will l>e paid, and neither can be
Ministers of State. Deputies must have been Brazilian citizens for four years
400
BRAZIL
Senators must be over thirty-five years of age and must have been citizens for
six years.
The Chamber of Deputies consists of representatives from the States
elected for three years by direct vote (providing for the representation of the
minority), in a proportion not greater than one to every 70,000 of population
as shown by a decennial census, but so that no State will have less than four
representatives. It lias the initiative in legislation relating to taxation.
Senators are chosen by the State Legislatures, three for each State,
for nine years, and the Senate is renewed to the extent of one-third every
three years. The Vice-President of the Republic is President of the Senate.
The executive authority is exercised by the President of the Republic.
He must be a native of Brazil, over thirty-five years of age. His term of
office is four years, and he is not eligible for the succeeding term. The
election of the President and the Vice-President is by the people directly, by
an absolute majority of votes. It will be held on the 1st of March in the last
year of each presidential period in accordance with forms prescribed by an
ordinary law. The votes taken in the separate districts shall be counted in
the capitals of the respective States. Congress, in its first session of the same
year, shall scrutinise the votes ; if no one has an absolute majority, the
Congress, by a majority of its members present, shall elect one from those
who have obtained the greatest number of direct votes. In case of equality
of votes, the eldest candidate shall be considered elected. No candidate must
lie related by blood or marriage, in the first or second degree, to the actual
president or vice-president, or to either who has ceased to be so within six
months.
The President has the nomination and dismissal of ministers, supreme
command of the army and navy, and, within certain limits, the power to
declare war and make peace. He (with the consent of Congress) appoints
the members of the Supreme Federal Tribunal and the diplomatic ministers.
No minister can appear in Congress, but must communicate by letter, or in
conference with commissions of the Chambers. Ministers are not responsible
to Congress or the Tribunals for advice given to the President of the
Republic.
The franchise extends to all citizens not under twenty-one years of age,
duly enrolled, except beggars, ' illiterates, ' soldiers actually serving, and
members of monastic orders, &c. , under vows of obedience.
The following table shows the number of Deputies from the different
States and from the Federal district, which is the district of the Capital : —
Deputies
Deputies
Deputies
Amazonas
2
Alagoas .
6
Para
7
Sergipe .
4
Maranhao
7
I'.aliia .
22
I'iauhy .
4
Espirito Santo
2
Ceara
10
Rio de Janeiro
17
Rio Grande do Norte
4
San Paulo
22
I'arahyba
5
Parana .
4
Pernambuco .
17
Santa Catharina
4
Rio Grande do Sul
.Minas Ccnies .
Goyaz
Matto Grosso .
Federal District
Totals .
16
37
3
2
10
202
I. Local Government.
According to the new Constitution cadi state must be organised under
the republican Bonn of government, and must have to administrative, legisla-
tive, and judicial authorities distinct and Independent The governors and
members of the legislatures must he elective ; the magistrates must not he
AREA AST) POPULATION*
4<>1
elective nor removable from office save by judicial sentence. The Federal
District will be governed directly by the Federal authorities. There are 892
municipalities and 1,886 paii-
Area and Population.
The census taken in 1872 was only a partial one, and its
results are not regarded us trustworthy. The total population is
given as 9,930,478— males, 5,123,869 ; females, 4,806,609. The
subjoined table gives the area and population of each of the
provinces of the Empire in 1872, and according to an orhYi;i:
mate of 1888: —
State or Province
S<|. III.
Population,
Population,
1888
l>er
■«> hi., 1888
inunw
.460
-.10
80,654
011
Pari
448,
407,350
0 91
Maranh*k>
177
.040
488,443
2 7
Piauhy
116. 218
988
< Vara
10,263
y52.'J2.'.
28 "6
Rio Grande do Norte
22,195
808,
1 3 '.<
Parahylw
878,5
.618
170
Peniainbuc
7.39
1.110,831
22 o
Alagoas .
- 009
459,371
20 0
Sergipe .
176.243
_640
310
Bahia
164.64!'
1,379,613
1,821,089
11 0
Espirito Santo
17.312
82,137
121.562
7 0
', Rio de Janeiro
7-24
1.164,468
43 7
Municipio Neutro
(('ity of Rio)
:;.M
406,
756 0
! Santa Cathaiina
27. 136
.S02
346
8-6
i Rio Grande do Sol .
91,335
184,816
■'•27
618
Miuas Geraes .
222.160
2,03!'. :
3,018,807
13 58
Matto tin'--. .
:.;;■_
60,417
7'.'. 750
0149
( royaz
288,546
160,935
211.721
"■77
Parana
1-26. 7-22
18?
2 19
San l'aulo
Total .
11 -J.
.242
12-34
3,209,878
9,93"
14,002
4 36
This shows an apparent increase of 41 per cent, in sixteen vears, or at the
rate of 2-56 per cent, per annum.
In 1S90 the population of Rio de Janeiro was estimated at 500,000 ■ of
Bahia, 80,000 : of Peniambuco, 190,000 : Belem, 65,000 ; San Paulo, '35,000 :
Dears, 35,000 ; Maranhao, 38,000 ; Porto Alegre, 45,000 ; Parahvba| 40000 •
Ouro Preto. 22.000.
Brazil was the last country in America to abolish slavery. On Mav 18,
1888, the Crown Princess, as regent, gave the royal assent to "a short measure
of two clauses, the Hist declaring that slavery was abolished in Brazil from
the day of the promulgation of the law, and the second rcjiealing all former
:i the subject. Both Chambers refused to consider the claTm for com-
pensation made by the slave-owners.
402 BRAZIL
At the Census of 1872 there were 3,787,289 whites, 3,801,787 metis,
1,954,452 negroes, and 386,955 Indians. In the northern provinces the
Indian element preponderates, while in Pernambnco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro,
and Minas the negroes are numerous. At the seaports the chief part of the
population is of European descent.
Movement of the Population.
The returns of births, deaths and marriages are incomplete, statistics being
available for only 803 out of 1,805 parishes, or 60 "80 of the whole republic ;
moreover, only those are recorded which have taken place in connection with
ecclesiastical rites. On this basis we have the following return for 1884 : —
Marriages, 51,792; births (only of children baptised), 292,199 (67,275 ille-
gitimate, 653 deserted); deaths, 113,954; excess of births, 178,245. The
above do not include 698 still-born.
Between 1871 and 1890 587,524 immigrants are stated to have entered the
ports of Rio and Santos. The annual rate through Rio, Santos, and Victoria
during six years has been : 1884, 30,087 ; 1885, 30,135 ; 1886, 25,741 ; 1887,
54,990 ; 1888, 131,745 ; 1889, 65,187 ; 1890, 107,100. In 1889 immigration
was checked by yellow fever and complaints by immigrants of hardship
pending settlement. Amended regulations on immigration were published
in June 1890. Of the immigrants in 1890, 31,275 were Italian, 27,125 Russian
and Polish, 25,177 Portuguese, 12,008 Spanish, 11,515 Germans and others.
Religion.
The established religion under the Empire was the Roman Catholic, but
under the Republic the connection between Church and State has been
abolished, and absolute equality declared among all forms of religion. The
Federal Government continues to provide for the salaries and maintenance of
the existing functionaries of the Catholic Church.
Brazil constitutes an ecclesiastical province, with a metropolitan arch-
bishopric, the seat of which is at Bahia, 11 suffragan bishops, 12 vicars-
general, and 2,000 curates. For the private instruction of the clergy there
are 11 seminaries.
Instruction.
Public education is divided into three distinct forms or classes — namely,
primary; secondary, or preparatory ; and .scientific, or superior. The higher
education is controlled by the central Government, which maintains two
schools of medicine, two of law, four military and one naval school, a school of
mines, and a polytechnic. In 1890 these schools had. in all. 2,916 pupils.
There are, besides, the Lyceum of Arts and Trades with -_\:i77 pupils, and
five other special schools with 575 pupils. Connected with the observatory at
Rio is a school tor astronomy and engineering. Secondary instruction is under
the charge of the provincial governments i ixcej A in the capital. In most of the
chief towns of the Btates there is a middle-class school and a normal school,
besides many private middle-class schools. Primary instruction in the capital is
underthe charge of the Government, and in the States under the municipal and
state authorities. According to the Constitution education is. a; all stages,
under lay management, and primary education is gratuitous. Compulsor)
education now exists in Several States. In 1889 there were, it was official!}
stated, 7,50D public and private primary schools, attended by 300,000 pupils
in all. In 1881, of the total population 1,902,455 were of school age (6 to
15). The number of illiterates is returned at 8,365,997, or 84 per cent, ol
the population.
Jl'STU K AND » HIMK — FINAM Y.
Justice and Crime.
Here k a supreme tribunal of Justice at Rio de Janeiro: 11 courts of
appeal throughout the country, which are courts of first and second instance,
both in civil and criminal cases. Judges are appointed for life. There are
also municipal magistrates and justices of the peace, who are elected, and
whose chief function is to settle cases by arbitration.
Finance.
Since 1887 the fiscal year corresponds with the calendar year.
The following table shows the actual revenue and expenditure
(excluding emancipation fund and deposits) for 1870-71, and for
85 to 1888; the expected revenue for 1889 and the esti-
mates for 1890 and 1891 :—
Revetiue Expenditure
Milreis Milreis
94,847,000 100,074,000
118,764,000 15(5,173,000
'.000 149,774,000
209,825,989
144,96'. 146.047,490
160,060.744 184,565.'.
139,340,000 153,147,844
142,989,500 151,219,720
1870-71 .
1884-85 .
1885-86 .
1886-87 (18 mouths)
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891 .
The proposed budget for 1892 was as follows
Revenue
Expenditure
Import dues
Port ,,
Export ,,
Interior .
Extraordinarv
Total .
Milreis
-0,000
500,000
25,020,000
51,984,000
4,120,000
180,444,000
Home
Foreign Affairs
Justice
Navy .
War .
Public Works
Finance
Education .
Total
Milreis
7,790,072
1,809,725
5,031,197
15,131,351
- .1,478
99,100,875
62,661,315
15,968,545
240,724,558
This was subsequently modified so as to show an expected
ordinarv revenue of 207,902.000 milreis, and an expenditure of
205,948,000 milreis.
The total debt of Brazil is officially given as follows for May
31, 1891:—
Milreis
Floating debt 138,415,128
Funded debt, foreign . . . 267.097.778
„ internal . . . 536,844,800
Total
942,357,706
d d 2
404 BRAZIL
The rate of exchange in December 1889, was 2ld. per milreis ; in
December 1890, 22d. ; and in September 1891, 14frZ. per milreis.
The following, according to official statement, is the state of the foreign
loans of Brazil on May 31, 1891 :—
£
Loan of 1883, \\ per cent. . . 4,179,400
,, 1888, „ . . 6,151,800
,, 1890, 4 ,, . . 19,717,300
Total .... 30,048,500
The redemption of the foreign loans is to be effected by a sinking fund
of 1 per cent, per annum, to be applied by purchase of bonds in the market
when the price is under par, and when at or above par by drawings
by lots.
The internal debt is chiefly represented by 5 per cent, bonds, called
Apolices, inscribed to the holder, and the payment of its capital and
interest, winch is provided for by an annual vote of Congress, is under the
charge of the sinking fund department (Caixa da Amortisayw), independent
of the Government, directed by a committee, presided over by the Minister
of Finance, and composed of a general inspector and five large Brazilian
bondholders.
The total revenue oi all the provinces of Brazil in 1886-88 was 34,469,000
milreis, and expenditure 39,643,000 milreis. The total provincial debt in
1888 amounted to 53,030,000 milreis, of which 10,986,000 milreis was
floating debt.
Defence.
Obligatory service in the army was introduced in 1875. The duration 01
service is 6 years in the active army and 3 in the reserve. There an M
battalions of infantry, with 1 transport company and 1 dep6t company : 12
regiments of cavalry, each of 4 squadrons, 2 cavalry corps of 4 companies.
5 garrison companies and 1 garrison squadron, 5 regiments of field artillery
and 5 battalions of fort artillery ; 2 pioneer battalions of engineers. In 1891
there were 1,600 officers and 28,877 men, besides 15,000 gendarmerie.
The Brazilian navy includes (1891) 4 sea-going and t> roust defence
armour-clads, 5 first-class, 6 second-class, and 3 third-class torpedo boats,
besides a torpedo school -ship ; of Unprotected vessels there are 3 first-class
and 2 second-class cruisers, 2 training corvettes, !• screw gunboats, 8 paddle
gunboats, 2 transports, 4 training tenders, besides 6 auxiliary steamers. Two
powerful sea-going turret-ships, the Riachuclo (5,700 tons displacement), and
a smaller vessel, the Aquidaban, have been built in England, the former
launched in 1883 and completed in 1884, and the latter launched and eoin-
f)leted in 1885. Both vessels are protected by a bell of armour (steel-faced)
laving a maximum thickness of 11 inches, and each lias two turrets protected
by 10-inch armour. The principal armament consists of four 20-ton breech-
loading guns carried in the turrets, and there is an auxiliary armament of six
in one ship, and in the other four 70-poundeis ami machine-guns. Both
vessels are built of steel, sheathed with wood and metal, rigged With B good
sail-spread, and made capable of keeping the sea for long periods. Both
vessels contain all modern improvements in construction and equipment. The
Solitnois and Jiirnri, both built in Prance in 1875, arc two powerful double-
turreted ships of Hgh1 draught, suitable for coast defence or river service!
they arc of about 3.500 tons displacement, and 2,200 horse power, with
12-inch armour and four 10-inch Whitwoitli guns.
PRODUCTION AND INIU'STHY — COMMO
Two coast-defence armour-clads are Wing l>uilt in Brazil.
The navy is manned by 8,900 officers ami men. including marines.
There are five naval de Janeiro Para, Peruambuco, Bahia,
and Ladario de Matto Grosso.
Production and Industry.
Brazil is an agricultural country, though only a small fraction of its soil
has lieen brought under culture. the atrial product cultivated, and
after that, sugar. There are numerous central sugar factories with Govern-
ment guarantee of interest at 6 or 7 per cent. In April 1889 24 concessions
were ib force, capital guaranteed 17,950,000 milreis. During 1890, up to
ncessions were granted for 80 such factories with Govern-
ment guarantee of interest on capital of 58,650,000 milreis. Both the forests
id mines of Brazil are of value, but little has been done to make
them. Vast quantities of iron are known to exist, but they cannot be worked
from want of fuel. There are 17 million head of cattle. Cotton mills are on
the increase ; there were 90 in 1888.
Commerce.
In the five years from 1885-86 to 1890 the imports and ex-
ports were as follow
Import*
Milreis
Exports
Milreis
1885-
J6 .
197,501,500
194,961.620
1886-
37 (18 months)
310,850,000
365,592,000
L888.
260,999,000
212,592,000
1889.
221,621,000
309,000,000
1890.
260,100,000
317,822,000
The chief exports are coffee, .sugar, rubber, and hides. In
1889-90, 4,526,906 bags (each of 60 kilos.) of coffee were ex-
ported from Rio, Santos, and Victoria ; 104,536 tons of sugar
from Peruambuco ; in 1889, 18,682 tons of rubber from Para
and Manaos, and 749,301 hides from Rio Grande do Sul.
The Government levies on most national products an export
duty, while the import duties are very high.
The exports of Brazil go mainly to the United States and Great Britain,
to the extent of about one-third each, Germany and France coming after with
about one-tenth each. In the imports into Brazil, Great Britain leads all
countries, her share being 45 per cent., France coming next with 17 per cent.
The principal articles imported are, in the order of their value : cotton goods,
wines and spirits, preserved meat and fish, woollen goods, farinaceous food,
coals, linen goods, iron and steel.
The most important port is that of Rio de Janeiro. In the year 1888 the
total official value of the exports from Rio was 95,752,919 milreis. and that of
the imports over 100 million milreis, of which Great Britain contributed
47,061,810 milreis, France 16,969,942 milreis, and Germany 13,254,683
milreis. Of the exports the share of the United States was 58,488,132
milreis. Germany 10.485,739 milreis, Great Britain 7,182,531 mill
The total export from Rio in 1889 was valued at 104.611,321 milreis ;
the value of the coffee exported was 97:000.000 milreis.
406
BRAZIL
The amount of the commercial intercourse of Brazil with the United
Kingdom, according to the Board of Trade returns, is shown in the subjoined
table, for each of the five years from 1886 to 1890 : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Exports to Great Britain
Imports of British pro-
duce ....
£
3,461,135
6,069,429
£
5,379,073
5,824,408
£
5,206,899
6,256,297
£
5,070,628
6,232,316
£
4,350,675
7,458,628
The following are the values of the principal exports from Brazil to Great
Britain.:— Raw cotton, 705,394?. in 1886, 1,605,1152. in 1887, 1,103,5342. in
1888, 707,1282. in 1889, 671,9902. in 1890; unrefined sugar, 378,3612. in
1886, 480,0602. in 1887, 1,427,2472. in 1888, 517,1152. in 1889, 259,3692.
in 1890; caoutchouc, in 1886 1,330,8542., in 1887 1,605,1152., in 1888
1,604,1082., in 1889 1,755,7182., in 1890 1,908,0622. ; coffee, in 1886
493,4852., in 1887 1,096,3952., in 1888 491,6222., in 1889 1,481,0312., in
1890 852,1582.
The most important article of British import into Brazil is manufactured
cotton, the value of which was 3,065,0322. in 1886; 2,861,1562. in 1887;
2,912,3502. in 1888 ; -2,568,4322. in 1889 ; 2,975,9972. in 1890 ; wrought and
unwrought iron, of the value of 1,048,6302. ; woollen manufactures, of the
value of 341,5452. ; coals, of the value of 495,0952. ; and machinery, of the
value of 637,9302., in 1890, form the other principal articles of British import
into Brazil.
The customs duties upon all articles of British manufacture are very heavy,
averaging 45 per cent.
Shipping and Navigation.
In 1888, 3,243 vessels of 2,391,022 tons entered, and 2,390 of 2,416,785
tons cleared Brazilian ports, besides 4,824 vessels entered ami 4,632 cleared
coastwise. In 1889 1,375 vessels, of 1,759,911 tons, entered, and 1.181
vessels, of 1,587,011 tons, cleared the port of Rio Janeiro. The merchant
navy in 1890 consisted of 506 vessels, of 149,066 tons, of which 121, of t>7. 707
tons, were steamers.
Internal Communications.
Brazil possessed in 1890 railways of a total length of 5,900 English miles
open for traffic, besides 984 miles in process of construction, ami 4,988 pro-
jected. Between November 24, 1888, ami May 15, 1890, 16 concessions were
granted for construction or extension of railways. The State owns 14 lines,
with 2,091 miles already open. The railways arc mostly of a single line, ami
of one-metre gauge. Of the lines actually opened belonging to companies]
1,748 miles are guaranteed by the State, and 1,754 by the provincial govern-
ments. The total cost of all the lines up to 1888 has heen 188.148,327
milreis, of which 195,636,000 milreis are for State lines. The total Dumber of
passengers conveyed in 1887 was 7,315,486 ; the total weight of goods.
1,820,106 tons. The total receipts in 1 887 amounted to 38,202,450 milreis,
and expenses 254,445,695 milreis. The total receipts of the State railways
alone in 1890 amounted to 16,834,981 milreis, ami expenses to 12, 760, 88 J
niilreis.
■CONST, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 407
it of the Brazilian railways have been built with the guarantee of the
interest (mostly 6 and 7 per cent.) on the capital by the Government. In
1890 such Government guarantees were granted for 125 miles of railway.
The total guarantee capital in 1888
The telegraph system of the country is under control of the Government.
In 1890 then ware 7,765 miles of line and 12,467 miles of wire. Then
were 197 telegraph offices*. In 1890 there were 750,621 messages. Re-
2,042,755 milreis : expenses and cost of construction, 2,883,950 milreis.
The Post Office carried of letters 18,822,148 of journals and other printed
matter 19,280,135, in the vear 1890. There \\ lost-offices. Receipts,
1890, 8,348,431 milreis: expenses, 9,323,108 mil:
Money and Credit.
In 1890 the money coined at the Mint wee :— gold, 157,680 mi',
silver, 1,805,488 milreis ; niekel,
The circulation in Brazil is almost entirely paj>er money. On June 3rd,
1891, the Government paper money in circulation amounted to 171,081,414
milreis, and the bank-note circulation I i60 milreis. The 10 tanks
nt issue have deposited in the Treasury as a guarantee 75,005,000 milreis in
bonds and 66,050,613 milreis in gold. In virtue of a decree of 1 1
1890, and a contract dated July 2$. 1891. two-thirds <«1 the Government
paper money in circulation should be gratuitously redeemed by the Banco da
Republica, in annual instalments, before the end of 1 895. The note issue of
the Banco da Republica (in consideration of this redemption, authorised up to
450,000,000 milreis) will take the place of the redeemed notes : when ex-
change reaches pir the Bank will convert one-third of its paper issue into
metallic currency, and if exchange remains at par for a year, this conversion
must extend to its whole paper issue.
In 1889 the savings-banks of the country held 22,851,000 milreis.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Brazil, and the British equivalents,
are : —
Money.
The Milreis of 1,000 Re is. Par value, 2s. 3d. ; but the rate of exchange
varies greatly — 27<f. in January 1890 ; 14jrf. September 1891.
English sovereigns are legal tender. At the end of 1888 the English
sovereign was worth 8 7 milreis. Gold and silver coins have almost dis-
appeared in recent years in Brazil, and the only circulating medium is an in-
convertible paper currency, consisting of Treasury notes, depreciated in value,
together with nickel and bronze coins.
Weights ud Measurbs.
The French metric system, which became compulsory in
adopted in 1862, and has been used since in all official departments. But the
ancient weights and measures are still partly employed. They are ; —
The Libra . = 1-012 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Arroba . . . = 32 "38 „
„ Quintal . = 129 "
: Rio) . = 1 imperial bushel.
,. ftifnra . = ."..".:','. grains.
408 BRAZIL
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Brazil in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Councillor J. A. de Souza Correa, appointed 1890.
Secretary. — Alfredo de Moraes Gomes Ferreira.
Consul-General. — Manoel da Silva Pontes (London).
There are Consular representatives at Belfast, Birmingham, Cardiff, Cork.
Dublin, Dundee, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Hull, Liverpool (C.G.), Manchester,
Newcastle, Southampton, Adelaide, Bombay, Canada (C.G.), Cape Town,
Hong Kong, Melbourne, Sydney.
2. Of Great Britain in Brazil.
Envoy and Minister. — G. Hugh Wyndham, C.B., appointed envoy to
Brazil, Feb. 1, 1888.
Secretary. — C. F. F. Adam.
There are Consular representatives at Rio de Janeiro (C.G.), Bahia. Para,
Pernambuco, Rio Grande do Sul, Santos.
Statistical and other Books of Reference.
1. Official Publications.
Boletim da alfandega do Rio de Janeiro (weekly).
Collecs&o das leis do Imperio do Brazil e collee<;ao das decisbes do Governo do Imperio
do Brazil. 8. Hio de Janeiro, 1S64-S7.
Relatario apresentado a Assemblea Geral Legislativa pelo Ministro de Estadodos Xegocios
do liniierio. Ditto, da Agricultura, Connnercio e Obras Publicas. Rio de Janeiro, 1S90.
, Empire of Brazil at the Universal Exhibition of 1876 at Philadelphia. 8. Rio de
Janeiro, 1876.
Reports on the Finances of Brazil in 1890-91, in No. 952, 'Diplomatic and Consular
Reports,' 1891 ; on the Trade and General Industries of Brazil for 1888-89-90 in No. S07 ; on
the Trade of Santos in No. 00:} ; of Rio Grande do Sul in No. 70'J ; of Bahia in No. 70.:,
' Diplomatic and Consular Reports,' 1890.
Trade of Brazil with Great Britain; in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the Year I860.' tap, 4.
London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Abreu and Cabral. Brazil geografieo-historico. Rio de Janeiro, 18S4.
Agastiz (Louis), Journey in Brazil. 8. London, 1868.
Bates (H. WA South America. London, 1882.
Jiate*(U. W.), The Naturalist on the River Amazon. London, 18C4.
Bigg-Wither (Thomas P.), Pioneering in South Brazil. 8. London, 1878.
Brown (C. B./, and LUMone (W.), Fifteen Thousand Miles on the Amazon and its Tribu-
taries. London, 1878.
Burton (Capt. R. F.), Exploration of the Highlands of Brazil. S vols. 8. London, 1869.
Constitution des Etats-l'iiis du BivmI. l'aris. [891,
Dent (J. H.), A Vear in Brazil. London, 1886.
Fletcher <r\e\. Jas. C.) and Kidder (Rev. I). P.). Brazil and the Brazilians. 9th ed. 8
Loudon, 1879.
Gallenga (A.), South America. London, 1880.
Hadfiflil (William). Brazil and the River Plate. 1870-76. 8. London. 1S77.
Jlarlt (Charles F.), (ieology and Physical Geography Of Brazil. Boston, IS70.
Keller (Franz), The Amazon and Madeira Rivers. Pol. London, 1874,
Laevimert (Eduardo von), Alinanak adiuinislrativo, inereantil e industrial, dt OOrte t
]U'OVincia do Rio de Janeiro. Rio de Janeiro.
i,m rut (K. !•'. ran Delden), Brazil and Java. Report on Coffee Culture. London, 1885,
Le Britll. Paris (published weekly).
Le Bresil eu L889, Ouvrage puhlie par les soins du Svndieat du Connie Franco Bivsilicn
pour l'Kxposit ion Universelli -de Paris. Paris. 1889,
BOOK* Of BKFEREN4 K 4n(.t
Lrratteur (E.), Lc Bresil. Extract da Li Grande Encyolopcdie. -"me edition accom-
- iln Bresil. Pans, 1889.
Mitlh'ill (Michael O.), Kin Grande do Sul and its German Colon i. a & London.
■>r/on (Janee), The Andes and tlte Amazon ; or, Across tin- Oontteenl of South toato
B. Kew York
Oa*n» f FieMBte 4^X Hot - :v de 1888. Paris. 1889 —
I til to sur ■ Benton de 1889, et sur la Proclamation de la RepiiMiqne F«d>'ral«.
ian.
Ourem (Baron a" ), Etude snr la Representation Pro port ionalc an Bresil. Paris, 1887.
Ourem {Baron d ), Notice sur les Institutions de Prevoyance au Bresil. Paris, 1883.
Ourem (Baron d'), Quel.; -• .tistique au Bresil. Pan-
Pereira da Stlra. Situation sociale. politiqre et economique de l'empire d>:
Paris.
Rodriguts (Jose Carlos). *'on.stituii,-io politica do Imperio do Brasil. seguida do acto
addicioual, <la lei da sa inter retaciio e de ontras. analysada. 8. Rio de Janeiro. 1881.
Sainte-Adolphe (Milliet ile), Piccionario geografico de imperio do Brazil, i vols. 8.
Paris, 1870.
Scully (William). Brazil, its I^vinces and Chief Cities ; the Manners and Customs of
tin People ; Agricultural, Commercial, and other Statistics. New ed. 8. London
Selyt-Longehampt (W. de). Notes dun voyage au Bresil. 8. BnixcII. -
MA (H. H.). Brazil, the Amazon, and the Coast. London. 1S80.
.South American Journal London, 1888 (put dished weekly).
Vincent (Frank), Round and Aliout South America. New York, 1890.
Wallace (Alfred R.). Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro. 8. London, 1870.
Wappaeut (Dr. Johann Eduard). Handbuch der Geographie und Statistik \on Br -
8. Leipzig, Is71.
WV«*(J. W.). Three Thousand Miles through Brazil. London. 1886,
410
CHILE.
(Republica be Chile.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Chile threw off allegiance to the Crown of
Spain by the declaration of independence of September 18, 1810,
finally freeing itself from the yoke of Spain in 1818. The Con-
stitution, voted by the representatives of the nation in 1833,
with a few subsequent amendments, establishes three powers in
the State— the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. The
legislative power is vested in the National Congress, consisting
of two assemblies, called the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies.
The Senate is composed of members, elected for the term of six
years, in the proportion of one Senator for every three Deputies ;
while the Chamber of Deputies, composed of members chosen for
a period of three years, consists of one representative for every
30,000 of the population, or a fraction not inferior to 15,000
(raised by law of August 9, 1888) ; both bodies are chosen by
the same electors — the Chamber directly by departments, and
the Senate directly by provinces. Electors must be 21 years of
age, and can read and write. Deputies must have an income of
1001. a year, and Senators 4=001. The executive is exercised by
a President, elected for a term of five years.
President of the Republic. — Jorge Montt, inaugurated President
of the Republic, as successor of Jose Manuel Balmaceda, October
18, 1891.
The President of the Republic is chosen by indirect election,
and is not re-eligible. The people, in the first instance, nominate
their delegates by ballot, and the latter, in their turn, appoint
the chief of the State. The salary of the President is fixed :i1
18,000 pesos.
The President is assisted in his executive functions by n
Council of State, and a Cabinet or Ministry, divided into seven
departments, under six Ministers, viz. : — Of the Interior : Foreign
Affairs and Worship ; Justice and Public Instruction ; Finance :
Departments of War and Marine ; Industry, Public Works, and
Colonisation. The Council of State consists of five members
nominated by the President, and six members chosen by the
Congress.
GOVERNMENT — AREA AND POPULATION
411
LOCAL <4n\ KKNMKNT.
For the purposes of local government the Republic is divided into
Provinces, presided over by Intendents ; and the Provinces into Depart -
with Gobernadores as chief officers. The Departments nmiiieijialities,
which are popularly elected, the number of members varying with the
Dumber of the inhabitants, and their tenure of office being for three year-.
Area and Population.
The Republic is divided (according to rearrangement of 188") ml
provinces, subdivided into 68 depart incuts end 1 territory. Depertmenti
territories are subdivided into 856 sab-delegationa and 8,068 dktri
The following are the area and itopulation of me provinces and territ
according to the census of Nbvembe? 88, 1885, going from Booth to north,
and the estimated population for 1891. together with the popolstion per
square mile : —
Provinces and Territories
■■ rritory. Tk-rra del
Fu«
far north u 47
Chiloe
Llanquihne
Valdivia
Arauco
Cautin l
Mallecol .
Bio- Bio
Concepcion
Noble
Linares
Talca .
i Curie"
hagua
O'P.
Santiago
Valparaiso .
I Aconcagua
| Coquiiubo .
Atacama .
: Antot
I Tarapaca .
; Tacna
Capitals
Punta Arenas
Ancud .
Puerto-Montt
Valdivia
Lata .
Temuco
Aogol .
Angel< -
Concepcion .
Chilian
Cauqnenes .
Linare>
Talca .
Curled.
San Fernando
Rancagna .
go, cap.
of the Hep.
Valparaiso .
Baa Felipe .
Copiaj
Antofagasta
Iquiqile
I Tacna .
. , Popula-
Popula-
tion
Estimated
Pop.
per 8q.
Mile
1891 |
75,308
3,086
S3 809
8,315
io,on
4,248 |
3,126 |
33,291
4,158
3.535
3,556 1
149.871
2,930
124.145
3,488
3,678
138,478
100,008
156,687
(7,1 U
MB
203,320
5,840
144.12.-.
12,905
176,344
43,180 •
:■■,. -..,-.
00,968
81,813
19,300
8,685 1
Grand Total
293,07
2,873
_
78,522
19-5
9-2
70,064
8'4
18-3
36,982
11-8
63.329
22-1
218,815
61-9
157,349
44 2
127,650
437
115,646
33-1
37-9
104,182
160,123
87-0
h m
41-2
378.781
218.990
138-7
189 524
14-6
1-5
86,317
0-6
47.818
24
30,998
1 Created by Law of March 12. 1887.
'- Created a province by law of July 12, 1888.
The territory of Antofagasta was taken from Bolivia during the last war,
and Tarapaca ceded by Peru in terms of the peace of Oct. 20, 1883. The
1 2 CHILE
Peruvian province of Tacna is to continue in the possession of Chile for ten
years, at the end of which time a pUMscitv is to decide to which country it
shall belong.
Chile claims possession of Easter Island, in the Pacific.
In 1885 there were in Chile 1,263,640 males and 1,263,680 females. At
the last census (1885) the foreign population amounted to 87,077 persons, ot
whom 34,901 were Peruvians, 13,146 Bolivians, 9,835 Argentines, 6,808
German, 5,303 English, 4,198 French, 4,114 Italian, 2,508 Spanish, 1,275
Swiss, 1,164 Chinese, 924 Anglo-American, 674 Austrian, 434 Swedish and
Norwegian, and the rest from other countries of Europe and of America.
In 1886 there were 82,623 births and 82,529 deaths, giving a surplus of only
94. By the treaty (1881) with the Argentine Republic, the latter retains
all Patagonia, except a small strip on the west coast and Magellan Straits,
ceding to that country all except the eastern part of Tierra del Fuego.
The returns are, however, admittedly incomplete, and it is officially
estimated that the population of Chile is much larger than appears from
the foregoing table ; including 50,000 Indians it probably amounts to about
3,200,000.
The two largest towns of Chile are Santiago, the capital, and Valparaiso,
the first of which had 200,000, and the second 105,000 inhabitants in 1885 ;
other towns are Talca, 24,000 ; Concepcion, 24,000 ; Chilian, 21,000 ; Serena,
17,000; Iquique, 16,000; Tacna, 14,000; San Felipe, 12,000; Copiapo,
10,000; Curico, 11,000: Angeles, 9,000; Quillota, 9,000; Linares, 8,000;
Cauquenes, 7,000 ; Angol, 7,000 ; Valdivia, 6,000.
Religion.
The Roman Catholic is the religion of the State, but according to the
Constitution all religions are respected and protected. The clergy in charge
of dioceses and parishes are subsidised by the State. There is one arch-
bishop and three bishops. Civil marriage is the only form acknowledged
by law.
Instruction.
Education is gratuitous and at the cost of the State. It is divided into
superior or professional, medium or secondary, and primary or elementary
instruction. Professional and secondary instruction is provided in the
University and the National Institute of Santiago, and in the tycenma and
colleges established in the capitals of provinces, and in sonic departments.
The branches included are law, mathematics, medicine, and line arts. Tlie
number of students inscribed for the study of these branches at the begin-
ning of 1888 was 1,074. The total number of students under superior and
secondary instruction in 1888, including those of the University section and
tbc provincial lyceums, was 4,877. There are besides normal, agricultural,
and other special schools. There were 950 public primary schools in the
country, with 81,362 pupils in 1887, and an average attendance of 55,813;
and 501 private schools, with an inscription of 26,912. At the census of 1885
there were 600,634 children between (i and 15 years of age. At the census of
1885, '634,627 people could read and write, and 96.636 could only read. Tbc
National Library contains 70,000 volumes of printed books, and numerous
manuscripts.
JUSTICE AND CRIME — FINANCE — DEFENCE 413
Justice and Crime.
There are, in addition to a High Court of Justice in the capital. Iiv.
Courts of Appeal, Courts of First Instance in the departmental capita N
subordinate courtB in the districts. The cost of the administration of justice
in Chile is 810,065 p»sos a year. At the end of 1887 there were 565 convicts
in the Penitentiary at Santiago, and during 1888, 96 persons were sem
to penal servitude. 73 for offences against the jterson, 11 against pro;
and 12 ■gainst the State.
Finance.
The public revenue u mainly derived from customs duties,
while the chief branches of exj>enditure are for the national debt
and public works and salaries.
The following, according to official statement, shows the income
and expenditure of Chile, from 1880 to 1889 : -
Year
Revenue
Exi<enditur*
IfcM
ttam
1880
44,410,418
29,134,527
1881
39. 111. 2.".
18, 5' ;
1882
4i. so;
18,516,358
1883
44.M7.ll:;
'.'6,974
1884
38,418,012
"-1,800
1885
24,890,237
1886
49.272.570
181,757
1887
'is. 149,414
42.258.205
1888
71.135,501
46.:
1889
90, 6 i
59. -
The customs revenue in 1889 amounted to 41,102,402 pesos ; the rev
includes in many cases loans.
The estimated income for 1890 was 58,000,000 pesos, in addition to the
balance of 31,257,526 pesos for 1889 ; and the estimated ordinary expenditure
67,069,809 pesos. It is estimated that the exj»endirure of 1891* amounted t<>
100 million dollars (paper currency ).
The following table shows the public debt of Chile on January 1, 1890 : —
P.so-
Extemal debt 47,116,460
Internal debt 24,013,579
Paper money 22,487,916
93,61 ;
The government proposed to raise an internal loan of 30 million dollars in
1892.
Defence.
By the law of December 30, 1887, the strength of the army must not
exceed 5,835 men, distributed between 2 regiments of artillery, 1 battalion
of coast artillery, 1 of sappers, 8 of infantry, and 3 regiments of cavalry.
414
CHILE
There are 5 generals of division, 7 of brigade, 29 colonels, 76 lieut. -colonels,
and 824 inferior officers. Besides the regular army there is a National
Guard, composed of citizens, the strength of which at the same date was
48,530 men.
In January 1891 the Chilian war fleet included 3 ironclads, 1 deck pro-
tected cruiser, 10 first-class, 2 second-class torpedo-boats, 2 corvettes (built
1864-66), 3 rams (1866-74), 2 despatch vessels (1874-76), 2 transports
(1873-75), 4 gunboats (1881-84), 4 sailing vessels. Two of the ironclads, the
Almirante Cochrane and Blanco Encalada — the latter of which was sunk in
the late civil war — were built at Hull in 1874-75 from the designs of Sir E. J.
Reed, each 3,500 tons displacement, 2,900 horse-power, 9-inch armour at
Water-line, one with four 18-ton and two 7^-ton, the other with six 12^-ton
guns carried in a central battery ; speed 12 knots. The third ironclad, the
Huascar, was captured from the Peruvians in 1879 ; built 1865 ; 2,000 tons
displacement, 1,050 horse-power, has 44-inch armour at the water-line, and
5^-inch and 8-inch on the turret, and is armed with two 12-ton Armstrong
guns carried in a single turret, and two 40-pounders. The protected cruiser,
Esmeralda, was launched in June 1883, at the works of Sir W. G. Armstrong
& Co. : 2,810 tons displacement, armour 1 inch thick, engines 6,500 horse-
power ; two 25-ton breech -loading guns, six 4 -ton guns besides machine-
guns ; 18 knots an hour. One ironclad of 6,000 tons, built of steel, and to
steam 17 knots, is being constructed ; as are three deck-protected cruisers,
one of 4,500 tons, and two of 2,000 tons each — all are of steel ; also two
torpedo gunboats. In 1890 there were 5 rear-admirals, 59 captains of various
grades, 27 lieutenants, and 160 other officers, with 1,609 sailors. There is a
naval college at Valparaiso, with 90 cadets.
Industry.
About \\ million of the population are engaged in agriculture. Chile
produces annually about 21 million bushels of wheat, and about 24 million
gallons of wine. Of mineral produce the annual yield averages about
40,000 tons of copper, 335,000 lbs. of silver, 1,000 lbs. of gold, 10 million
tons of coal.
The total produce of nitrate during the last five years is stated to have
been 550,000 tons in 1884 ; 350,000 in 1885 ; 450,000 in 1886 ; 700,000 in
1887 ; and 800,000 in 1888. In 1889 the quantity exported was 20,606,454
Spanish centners (46 kilograms = l Spanish centner); in 1890, 23,158,199
Spanish centners. In each of those years about two-thirds came t" Greal
Britain. A large amount of British capital has recently been employed in
developing the nitrate industry of Chile.
Commerce.
The following table shows the value of the Imports and exports of Chile
!<>i live years : —
Imports
Exports -
1885
Pesos
40,096,629
51,259,623
1886
1887
• 1888
1880
Pesos
44,170,147
51,240,149
48,630,862
59,549,958
1'. 0
60,717,698
73,089,934
Pesos
65,090,013
65,963,100
COMMERCE
415
The following table shows the leading ini[>orts and exports for 1888 and
—
Imports
LM8
Exports
1
tan
Pesos
PfcM
Pmm
Textiles .
,10,781,852
10,887,636
Mining products, 63, 2< i
.1.089
( 'attle .
3,954,490
5,083,715
Agricultural . .
! 8,7>
II
5,932,240
6,766,985
Manufaet;;
48,812
Coal
3,387,633
2,992,905
Various .
110,031
Sacks
I 1,617,814
1,415,246
Bpwae
30'
794,017
Wine
681,769
793,425
Re-exports
638,924
1.127,097
Tea
716.356
817,940
Iron good
J 2,766,047
2,895,630
Timber
360,269
870,194
The following table shows the value of the principal arti' I art far
hve years : —
-
Xitre
Copper in Bars
Silver
Wheal
Pesos
PtsO-
Pesos
tan
1885
20,652,122
9,424,174
6,768,902
3,97
1886
19,230,047
8,186,426
6,56-
4,884,360
1887
28,690,970
6,993,137
8,291,920
5,663,333
1888
33,866,196
13,878,439
-957
4,54-
1889
36,387,210
5,689,329
4,906,791
2,915,215
The trade of the leading ports was as follows in 1888 and 1889 : —
1888
1889
Imports
ExjHJrts
Imports
BXpntl
Pesos
l\ m
Valparaiso
43,509,940
12,355,081
2.290
9,691.920
Iquique .
5,555,368
19,810,219
."■."'21
•6,805
Pisagua .
1,117,195
14,5;;
1,155,566
15,536,174
Talcahuauo
4,143,619
4,479,782
4,974.425
2,924,458
\ Coquimbo
2/201,578
7,686,107
2,119,600
4,184,531
Antofagasta
1,068,633
1,47
1,378,041
,347
1 Coronel .
935,649
5,698,663
838,371
2,903,971
416
CHILE
The trade of Chile was divided among the leading countries as follows in
1887 and 1888 :—
Imports from
Imports from
Exports to
Exports to
(1887)
(1888)
(1887)
(1888)
.
Pesos
Pesos
Pesos
Pesos
Great Britain
20,463,584
26,351,141
44,977,972
56,898,407
Germany
11,631,891
14,046,577
5,071,232
4,751,990
France
5,500,949
6,181,513
3,312,223
4,295,055
United States
3,242,314
3,133,173
2,611,384
2,070,694
Peru .
2,670,548
4,345,497
1,050,786
2,071,304
| Argentine Republic
2,217,147
682,557
49,040
23,600
1 Brazil .
747,290
680,546
4,400
115,862
Italy .
509,664
—
415,558
111,811
The commercial intercourse between Chile and the United Kingdom is
shown in the subjoined tabular statement in each of the five years from 1886
to 1890 according to the Board of Trade returns : —
1886 1887
1888
1889 1890
Exports from
Chile .
Imports of
British pro-
duce .
£
2,277,437
1,608,395
£
2,208,353
1,980,978
£
3,089,381
2,204,540
£
3,264,573
2,933,708
£
3,473,348
3,130,072 !
The staple articles of export from Chile to the United Kingdom are copper
and nitre. In the year 1890 the value of the total exports of copper to ureal
Britain amounted to 1,247,145/. ; nitre, 896,686/. ; wheat and barley, 33,174/. :
silver ore, 411,076/.: sugar of the value of 36,95]/. ; chemical products,
131,091/. ; and wool, 102,173/.
The principal articles of British produce imported into Chile are cotton
and woollen manufactures Mini iron. In 1890 the total imports of cotton
fabrics were of the value of 798,6212. ; of woollens, 323,312/. ; o? iron, wronghl
and unwrougbt, 670,835/. : coal, kc, 237,948/. : hardware. 12.572/. : ma-
chinery, 308,811/.
Shipping and Navigation.
The commercial navy of < 'bile consisted, on .human I, 1890, of 152 vessels
(of 100 tons and above).' of 102,391 tons, of which 29 were steamers, of 30,931
tons. In 1889 there entered the ports of t be Republic, Including coasters,
11,109 vessel* oi' 0,728.998 tons, and cleared 11,286, of 10,174,178 ions ; of
these about fluree-tent lis in number and tonnage were British, four-tenths
Chilian, and two-tenths of other nationalities. There ore English, German,
and French lines of steamers from the coasts of Chile to Europe, through the
Straits of Magellan, and English and Chilian lines to I'eru ami Panama.
MONEY. WEIGHTS, AND MKASIKKS 417
Communications.
Chile was the first Suite in South America in the construction of railways.
In 1890 the total length of lines open for traffic was 1,700 English miles, of
which 670 ljelonged to the State. The cost of the State lines to the end of
1887 was 48,247,398 pesos.
The post-office in 1889 transmitted 17,606,056 letters and 24,715,629
papers and printed matter. There were 506 post-offices oj»en in 1890.
The Length of telegraph lines was reported, at the beginning of 1890, at
0 miles, of which 8,000 belonged to the State. The number of telegraph
it the same date was 411 (304 belonging to the State) ; the telegraph
carried 603, 628 messages, besides those of the private lines.
Money and Credit.
The number of banks <>t bene in Chile was 19 in 1890. Their joint capital
amounted to 23,111. >>7 pesos, and i issue of 16,679,790 pesos. There
are also a number of land banks which issue scrip payable to bearer and bearing
Interest, ami lend money seemed as a first charge on landed property and
repayable at fixed periods. In ation of these banks was
•.600 pesos, and in 1888 it a "i00 jk?sos.
The events of 1891 disorganised the finances of Chile, and 67| million
dollars paper money and small coin formed the principal cun-
Money. Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Chile are : —
Money.
The silver Peso— 100 Centaros, nominally equal to a dollar, but actually
coined on the basis of the 5-franc piece = 3*. id. ; actual value, 3s. 2d.
Ten-dollar (condor), five dollar (medio-condor, or doblon), two-dollar
( es. udo), and one dollar (peso) gold pieces are coined, but the currency i-
practieally a silver one. There are also half, fifth, tenth, and twentieth parts
of a dollar in silver. The paper dollar in 1891 was worth only 23rf.
Weights and Mea-:
The Ounce = 1*014 ounce avoirdupois.
„ Libra . . . = 1014 1b.
„ Quintal . . . . = 10144 „
„ Vara = 0927 yard.
,, Square Vara . . = 0-859 square yard.
The metric system has been legally established in Chile, but the old
weights and measures are still in use to some extent.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Chile in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister.— Seiior Don Agustin Ross.
Secretary.— Sehor Don Luis Izquierdo.
There are Consular representatives at Cardiff, Dublin, Dundee, Edinburgh,
Glasgow, Hull, Leith, Liverpool. Newcastle, Southampton ; Adelaide, Auck-
land. Cape Town, Hong Kong, Melbourne, Montreal, Sydney.
i: E
418 CHILE
2. Of Great Britain in Chile.
Minister and Consul-General.— John Gordon Kennedy, appointed Oct. 1,
1888.
There are Consular representatives at Cocpiimbo, Valparaiso, Antofagasta,
Arica, Iquique, Punta Arenas, Talcahuano.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Chile.
1. Official Publications.
Memorias presentandas al Congreso nacional por los Ministros de Estado en los departa-
mentos de Relaciones Exteriores, Hacienda, &c. Santiago, 1891.
Estadistica comercial de la Repiiblica de Chile. 8. Valparaiso, 1890.
Synopsis estadistica y geografica de Chile 1888. Santiago, 1889.
Reports on Means of developing British Trade in Chile, in No. 34; on Native Woollen
Manufactures, in No. 60 ; on Condition of British Trade in Chile, in No. 01 ; on Trade of Val-
paraiso, in Nos. 120 and 227 ; of Coquinibo, in No. 145, of ' Diplomatic and Consular Re-
ports,' 1887.
Reports by Mr. Thomas on the Agricultural Condition of Chile, in Nos. :irt) and 407 ; on
Foreign Trade of Chile, in No. 385 ; on the President's Message, in No. 409, of ' Diplomatic
and Consular Reports,' 1888.
Reports on the Nitrate Industry of Chile, in Nos. 122 and 142 of 'Reports on Subjects
of General and Commercial Interests, and on the Trade of Chile in No. 034 of ' Diplomatic
and Consular Reports,' 1889.
Report on the Export of Nitre from Chile in 1890. ' Deutsches Handels-Archiv,' June
1891. Berlin.
Trade of Chile with Great Britain, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1890.' Imp. 4. London,
1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Arana (Diego Barros), La guerre du Pacffique. Paris, 1882; and Historia general de
Chile.
Afta-Buruaga (Francisco S.), Diccionario geograflao de la Repiiblioa de Chile. 8. New
York, 1S07.
Ball (John), Notes of a Naturalist in South America. London, 1887.
Bates (II. W.), South America. Londo n, 1882.
Child (Theodore), The Spanish American Republics. London, 1891.
Fonck (Dr. Fr.), Chile in der Gegenwart. 8. Berlin, 1870.
Gay (Claudio), Historia general de Chile.
Guerre entrc le Chili, le Perou et Bolivie en 1879. Paris, 1879.
Jnnes (G. Rose-), The Progress and Actual Condition of Chile. 8. London, 1875.
Mackenna (Vienna), Obras hist6ricas sobre Chile.
Markham (C. R.), The War between Chile and Peru, 1879-81. London, (888.
Pisnit (A.), Gcogratia fisica de la Rep. de Chile. 8. Paris, 1875.
Honales (B. P. Diego de), Historia general del Reyno de Chile. 3 vols. 8. Valparate,
1877-78.
Vincent (Frank), Round and about South America. New York, 1S90.
Wappdus (Prof. J. C), Die Republiken von SUd-Amerika, geographisch and statistisch.
8. Gottingen, 1300.
411)
CHINA.
(Chung Kwoh. -Tin: .Middle KUBBOM.')
Reigning Emperor
Tsait'ien, Emperor — Hivangti — of China; born 1871 ; the son of
Prince Ck kth brother of the Einperor Hien-Feng ; suc-
ceeded to the throne by proclamation, at the death of Emperor
I-uniM-hi. January 22." I
The present sovereign, reigning under the style of Kwangsii,
is the ninth Emperor of China of the Manchu dynasty of Ts'ing,
which overthrew the native dynasty of Ming, in the year 1644.
There exists m> law of hereditary succession to the throne, but it
is left to each sovereign to appoint hi- r from among the
members of his family of a younger generation than his own.
The late Emperor, dying suddenly in the eighteenth year of his
age, did not designate a successor, and it was in consequence of
arrangements directed by the Empress Dowager, widow of the
Emperor Hien-Feng, predecessor and father of T'ung-chi, in con-
cert with Prince Ch'un, that the infant son of the latter was
made the nominal occupant of the throne. There were two
dowager Empresses concerned in the arrangements— the ' Eastern,'
the Empress widow of Hien-Feng, and the 'Western,' the mother
of the T'ung-chi Emperor. The ' Western ' still lives, and has
lately withdrawn from power. Having become of age the young
Emperor nominally assumed government in March 1887. The
Emperor did not assume full control of the government till
February 1889, when the Empress Dowager withdrew. He was
married on February 26, 1889.
Government.
The laws of the Empire are laid down in the Ta-ts'ing-hwei-tien,
or • Collected Regulations of the Ts'ing dynasty,' which prescribe
the government of the State to be based upon the government of
the family.
The supreme direction of the Empire is vested in the Chiin
Chi Ch'u, the Privy Council, or Grand Council. The adminis-
tration is under the supreme direction of the Nei-ko or Cabinet,
comprising four members, two of Manchu and two of Chinese
origin, besides two assistants from the Han-lin, or Great College,
420
CHINA
who have to see that nothing is done contrary to the civil and
religious laws of the Empire, contained in the Ta-ts'ing-hwei-tien
and in the sacred books of Confucius. These members are
denominated ' Ta-hsio-shih,' or Ministers of State. Under their
orders are the Ch'i-pu, or seven boards of government, each of
which is presided over by a Manchu and a Chinese. Formerly
there were only Liu-pu or six boards, but towards the end of 1885
the seventh, or admiralty board (Hai-pu), was created by imperial
decree. These boards are : — (1) the board of civil appointments,
which takes cognisance of the conduct and administration of all
civil officers ; (2) the board of revenues, regulating all financial
affairs ; (3) the board of rites and ceremonies, which enforces
the laws and customs to be observed by the people ; (4) the military
board '; (5) the board of public works ; (6) the high tribunal of
criminal jurisdiction ; and (7) the admiralty board.
Independent of the Government, and theoretically above the central
administration, is the Tu-eh'a-yuen, or board of public censors. It consists
of from 40 to 50 members, under two presidents, the one of Manchu and
the other of Chinese birth. By the ancient custom of the Empire, all the
members of this board are privileged to present any remonstrance to the
sovereign. One censor must be present at the meetings of each of the
Government boards.
Area and Population
Hitherto the population of China, it is believed, has been
much over-estimated ; a recent estimate of the population of
China Proper will be found below. The following table gives a
statement of the area and population of the whole of the Chinese
Empire according to the latest estimates : —
-
Area
Population
Kng. tq. miles
China Proper
1,336,841
386,000,000
Dependencies : —
Manchuria
862,310
7,500,000
Mongolia
1,288,000
2,000,000
Tibet
651,500
6,000,000
Jxmgaria
147,950
600,000
Hast Turkestan .....
Total
431,800
580,000
4,218,401
402,680,000
The territory of Oorea is sometimes added to this total
According to official data referring to 1842 the population <»f
the L9 provinces of China Proper was 113,000,000; other,
estimates gave 350,000,000; and the most recent unofficial
AREA AND POPULATION — RELIGION
421
calculation reduces the population to 282,000,000. In the
following table the figures with an * are from Chinese official data,
for 1882 ; those with a t have the population of 1879 ; Fukien is
estimated on the basis of the census of 1844.
Provinces
I : English
square miles
Population
Papulation per
square mile
Chilit .
58,949
17,937,000
304
Shangtung * .
65,104
36,247,835
557
Shansi
56,268
12,21
Honan * .
65,104
22,11!
340
Kiaugsu * . . .
44,500
20,90f..l71
470
Xganhwei
48,461
20,596,288
Kiangsi t
72.176
340
Chehkiang * .
39,150
11,583,692
296
Fukien with Formosa
53,480
25,790,556
482
Hupeh * .
70,450
33,365,005
473
Hunan * .
74,320
21,002,604
282
Shensi t .
67,400
8,432,193
126
Kansut
125,450
9,285,377
Szechuen * . . .
166,800
2,897
106
Kwangtung with Hainan *
79,456
29,706,249
Kwangsi t
78,250
5,151,327
65
Kweichow t
64.:
7,669,181
118
Yunnan t
Total .
107,969
11,721,576
108
1,336,841
386,853,029
289
After the settlement of the hostilities with France, Formosa
was separated from Fukien and made an independent (19th)
province under a governor.
According to a return of the Imperial Customs authorities,
the total number of foreigners resident in the open ports of China
was 8,107 at the end of 1890. Among them were 3,317 British
subjects, 1,153 Americans, 883 Japanese, 648 Germans, 589
Frenchmen, and 304 Spaniards, all other nationalities being
represented by very few members. About one-half of the total
number of foreigners resided at Shanghai.
Religion.
Three religions are acknowledged by the Chinese as indigenous and
adopted, viz. Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism.
The Emperor is considered the sole high priest of the Empire, and can
alone, with his immediate representatives and ministers, perform the great
religious ceremonies. No ecclesiastical hierarchy is maintained at the
public expense, nor any priesthood attached to the Confucian religion.
The Confucian is the State religion, if the respect paid to the memory of
the great teacher can be called religion at all. But distinct and totally
separate from the stated periodic observances of respect offered to the memory
422 CHINA
of Confucius as the Holy Man of old, and totally unconnected therewith,
there is "the distinct worship of Heaven (t'ien), in which the Emperor,
as the ' sole high priest,' worships and sacrifices to ' Heaven ' every
year at the time of the winter solstice, at the Altar of Heaven, in
Peking.
With the exception of the practice of ancestral worship, which is every-
where observed throughout,! the Empire, and was fully commended by Con-
fucius, Confucianism has little outward ceremonial. The study and con-
templation and attempted performance of the moral precepts of the ancients
constitute the duties of a Confucianist.
Buddhism and Taoism present a very gorgeous and elaborate ritual in
China, Taoism — originally a pure philosophy — having abjectly copied Buddhist
ceremonial on the arrival of Buddhism 1,800 years ago.
Large numbers of the Chinese in Middle and Southern China profess and
practise all three religions. The bulk of the people, however, are Buddhist.
There are probably about 30 million Mahometans, chiefly in the north-east
and south-west. Roman Catholicism has long had a footing in China, and
is estimated to have about 1,000,000 adherents, with 25 bishoprics besides
those of Manchuria, Tibet, Mongolia, and Corea. Other Christian societies
have stations in many parts of the country, the number of Protestant ad-
herents being estimated at 50,000.
Most of the aboriginal hill-tribes are still nature-worshippers, and ethnically
are distinct from the prevailing Mongoloid population.
Instruction.
Education of a certain type is very general, but still there are vast
masses of adult countrymen in China who can neither read nor write.
There is a special literary or lettered class who alone know the literature
of their country, to the study of which they devote their lives. Yearly ex-
aminations are held for literary degrees and honours, which arc necessary
as a passport to the public service ; and in 1887, for the first time, mathe-
matics were admitted with the Chinese classics among the subjects of the
examinations. Recently, Western literature, and especially works of science,
have been introduced in translations, and schools for the propagation of
Western science and literature are continually on the increase. The prin-
cipal educational institution for this purpose is the 'Tunc Wen Kwan,' or
College of Foreign Knowledge, at Peking, a Government institution, where
the English, French, German, and Russian languages, and mathematics,
astronomy, meteorology, chemistry, natural history, physiology, anatomy,
and Western literature are taught by European and American professors,
while the Chinese education of the pupils is entrusted to Chinese
teachers. There arc besides several colleges under the control of some ot
the numerous Roman Catholic and Protestant missionary bodies at Shanghai ;
and a number of smaller or elementary schools at Shanghai and other ports,
where the English language and lower branches of Western science only
form the subjects of study. The Chinese Government has of late years
established naval and military colleges and torpedo schools in connection
with the different .arsenals at Tientsin. Nanking, Shanghai, and Foochow, in
which foreign instructors are engaged to teach such young Chinese as intend
to make their career in the army or navy of (heir country Western modes ot
warfare, besides Wcilern languages and literature. Two Chinese news-
papen have for several years llonrished at Shanghai, and the BUOOStt they
have achieved has led to the establishment Of others at some of the other
treaty ports
FINANCE— DEFENCE #29
Finance.
The amount of the public revenue of China is not known. According
to one estimate the total receipts of the Government in recent years
averaged 25,000,000/., derived from taxes on land, grain, salt, and customs
duties. The land tax in the north does not exceed 3*. per acre yearly,
and the highest rate in the south is 13s.
The following is an estimate of the ordinary revenue of the Chinese
Government : —
Haikwan taels
Land tax, portion payable in silver . . . . 20,000,000
Bice tribute 2,800,000
Salt taxes and levies . . . . . . ' 9,600,000
Maritime customs under foreign supervision (including Likin
on opium) 23,200,000
Native customs, maritime and inland 6,000,000
Transit lew on miscellaneous goods and opium, foreign and
native' 11,000,000
Licences 2,000,000
Total normal revenue .... 74,600,000
Other two sources resorted to in times of necessity are sale of office and
forced contributions among the wealthy ; the former was abolished by imperial
decree in 1878. The sale of brevet rank is, however, still in vogue.
The receipts from the foreign customs alone are made public. They
amounted to 7,872,257 haikwan taels, or 2,361, 677*. (ex. 6*.), in 1864, and
gradually increasing, had risen to 14,472,766 haikwan taels, or 3,829,253/.
(ex. 5s. 3£rf.), in 1885, to 15,144,678 haikwan taels, or 3, 794,0" 'Hd.),
in 1886, to 20, 541, 399ihaik wan taels (including 4,645,842 taels, oj.ium Likin),
or 4,985,569/. (ex. 4*. 10Jd.), in 1887, to 23,167,892 haikwan taels (including
6,622,406 taels, opium Likin), or 5,442,041/. (ex. 4*. 8|rf.), in 1888, to
1,762 haikwan taels (including 6,085,290 taels, opium Likin), or
5,160,4107. (ex. 4a 8|(/.), in 1889, and to 21,996,226 haikwan taels (including
6,129,071 taels, opium Likin), or 5,705,271/. (ex. S*. 2\d), in 1890.
The expenditure of the Government is mainly for the army, the mainten-
ance of which is estimated to cost 15,000,000/. per annum on the average.
China had no foreign debt till the end of 1874. In December 1874, the
Oov.rnment contracted a loan of 627,675/., bearing S per cent, iai
secured by the customs revenue. A second 8 per cent, foreign loan, like-
wise secured on the customs, to the amount of 1,604,276/., was issued in
July 1878. Two silver loans have since been contracted, a loan of 1,505,000/.
584, and loans amounting to about 2,250,000/. in 1886. In February
1887 a loan of 250,000/. was arranged in Germany. Various small silver
loans, generally for local viceroys, have also been floated in Shanghai and
Hong Kong. The total external debt is estimated at about 5,000,000/.
Defence.
Army.
According to Chinese official statistics the army is composed
ilows : —
1. The Eight Banners, including Manchus, Mongols, and the
Chinese who joined the invaders under the Emperor Shunchih in
424 CHINA
a.d. 1644— total 323,800. Of these 100,000 are supposed to be
reviewed by the Emperor at Peking once a year. The number of
guards in the Forbidden City, each of whom holds military rank,
is given as 717.
2. Tlie Ying Ping, or National Army, having 6,459 officers
and 650,000 privates. The pay of the infantry is from 5s. to 10s.
a month, and the cavalry receive about 11., out of which each
man must feed his horse, and replace it if the one originally
supplied by the Government is not forthcoming.
It is impossible to obtain any very reliable information about
the Chinese army, but it is stated that great improvements have
taken place since the last occasion upon which Chinese troops
were opposed to Europeans. Large quantities of foreign-made
arms have been purchased, and the arsenals in China, under
foreign supervision, are said to be daily turning out both arms
and ammunition. Captain Norman, in his book, ' Tonquin,'
divides the army as follows :- —
I. The Active Army, comprising : —
1. The Army of Manchuria;
2. The Army of the Centre ; and
3. The Army of Turkestan.
II. The Territorial Army.
He gives the number of the Army of Manchuria as 70,000 men, divided
into two army corps, the head-quarters of the one being at Tsitsihar the
capital, and of the other at Moukden. Many of these troops are armed with
the Mauser rifle, and possess a liberal supply of Krupp 8 centimetre field
cannon. The Army of the Centre, having its headquarters at Ralgan, BO
important town to the N.W. of Peking, is numbered at 50,000 men in time of
peace. This number, however, can be doubled in case of war. The men arc
a hardy race, and are armed with Remington rifles. The Army of Turkestan
is employed in keeping order in the extreme western territories, and could not,
in all probability, be moved eastward in the event of war with a European
foe. The Territorial Army, or 'Braves,' is a kind of local militia, capable of
being raised to a strength of probably (100,000 men. The numbers are kept
down in time of peace to 200,000. The Tartar cavalry of the north are
mounted on undersized but sturdy ponies. The small size of their horses, and
their wretched equipment, render them no match for European cavalry.
Permanent Mane.hu garrisons under Manchu officers are established in a few
of the great cities on the coast and along the frontier.
Navy.
China has lately acquired a considerable navy ; the ships arc many of
them of an advanced type. The fleel is divided Into the North Coaal
Squadron, the Fouohow Squadron, the Shanghai Flotilla, and the Canton
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMERCE
425
Flotilla. The North - madron consists of 4 barbette sea-going
armour-clads, 2 i : turret
ship of 2,320 ton«, 5 deck-protected cruisers, each of about 2,200 tons ; 4 torpedo
cruisers, SS first-class and 4 smaller torpedo-boats, and 11 gunboats, from
325 to 4 10 tons. The Foochow Squadron consists of nine cruisers of from
1,300 to 2,480 tons ; 3 gunboats, 9 despatch boats, and 3 revenue cruisers ;
the Shanghai Flotilla, of an armoured frigate, 2,630 tons, a gunboat, 6
floating batteries (wood), and 3 transports ; and the Canton Flotilla, of 13
gunboats.
Production and Industry.
China is essentially an agricultural country, though no is to
areas or crops exist. Wheat, barley, maize, and millet and other cereals are
chiefly cultivated in the north, and rice in the south. Sugar is cultivated in
Formosa and the south provinces. Opium has become a crop of increasing
importance. Tea is cultivated exclusively in the west and south, in Fu-
Chien, Hu-pei, Hu-Nan, Chiang-kd, Cheh-Chiang, An-hui, Kuangtung, and
Sze-ch'wan. The culture of silk is equally important with that of tea. The
mulberry tree grows everywhere, but the best and the most silk comes from
Kuangtung, Sze-ch'wan, and Cheh-Chiang.
All the 19 provinces contain coal, and China may be regarded as one of
the first coal countries of the world. The coal mines at Kai-p'ing, Northern
Chihli, under foreign supervision, have been very productive : at Keelung,
in Formosa, and at Hankow, coal mines have also been worked. There are
also considerable stores of iron and copper remaining to be worked, and in
Yunnan Japanese mining engineers have been employed to teach the people
how to apply modern methods to copper mining, which is an industry of some
antiquity in that province.
Commerce.
The commercial intercourse of China is mainly with the
United Kingdom and the British colonies. The following table
shows the value of the foreign trade of China for the five years
1886-90 in haikwan taels : —
-
1SS6
1887 1888 1889
18901
Imports .
Exports .
" tfiU
102^83,660 124,7S2,S03 110,884,355
85,860,208 | 92,401,067 96,947
127,093,481
87,144,480
1 These values are the actual market prices of the goods (imports and exports) in the ports
of China ; bat for the purposes of comparison it is the value of the imports at the moment
of landing, anil of the exports at the moment of shipping, that should be taken. For this
purpose from the imports there have to be dtdueted the costs incurred after landing,
namely, the expenses of landing, storing, and selling, and the duty paid ; and to the exports
there have to l>e addtd the' importer's commission, the expenses of packing, storing, and
dripping, and the export duty. So dealt with, the value of the inputs for 1889 comes to
•', haikwan taels. ami that of the exports to 111,092,703 haikwan taels; and the
uports for 1890 comes to 109,547,087 haikwan taels, and that of the exi
ikwan taels. the value of the imports regarded from this standpoint being
9,200,000 haikwan taels in excess of that of the exj"
426
CHINA
During 1890 the principal countries participated in the trade
of China as shown in the following table : —
Imports from
Exports to
Total Trade
—
(value in haikwan
(value in haikwan
(value in haikwan
taels)
taels)
taels.)
Great Britain
24,607,989
13,095,284
37,703,273
Hong Kong
72,057,314
32,930,551
104,987,865
India ....
10,300,101
1,055,877
11,355,978
United States of America
3,676,057
8,164,748
11,840,805
Continent of Europe
(without Russia)
2,471,075
11,629,886
14,100,961
Japan ....
7,388,685
4,832,437
12,221,122
Russia (in Europe and
Asia)
897,826
8,856,582
9,754,408
The imports from Hong Kong come originally from, and the exports to
that colony are further earned on to, Great Britain, Germany, France,
America, Australia, India, the Straits, and other countries.
The figures given above include the statistics of imports and exports at
the treaty ports for the whole year ; and also the like statistics of the junk
trade of Hong Kong and Macao with the south of China (by the Kowloon and
Lappa custom houses).
The chief imports and exports are as follows (1890) : —
Imports
Haikwan taels
Exports
Haikwan tads
Opium
28,956,329
Tea ...
26,663,450
Cotton goods .
45,020,302
Silk, raw & manufd
30,255,905
Raw cotton
1,577,018
Sugar
2,664,864
Woollen goods
3,642,782
Straw 1 »raid
2,088,775
Metals
6,872,084
Hides, iwv it buffalo
714,853
Coal
1,973,173
Paper
1,369,915
Oil, kerosene .
4,092,874
Clothing
1,428,210
Seaweed, fishery pro-
Chinaware and pot-
ducts, &c.
4,857,452
tery .
617,491
Of the tea in 1890, 433,964 piculs (each 133,| lbs.) went to Great Britain,
585,349 piculs to Russia, 268,141 piculs to the United States, 135,470 pieulfl
to Hong Kong, 109,155 piculs to Australia, out of a total of 1,665,396 piculs.
The total export of tea lias been u fallows to foreign countries in 1880-90,
iii piculs:— 1880, 2,097,118; 1885, 2,128,751; 1886, 2,217,295; 1887,
2,153,037 ; 1888, 2,167,552; 1889, 1,877,331 ; 1890, 1,665,396.
China has besides an extensive coasting trade, largely carried on by
British and other foreign as well as Chinese vessels, both junks and foreign-
built vessels. A considerable fleet of steamers belonging to a Chinese
company is engaged in this, and occasionally participates in the foreign trade.
Creat, Britain lias, in virtue of various treaties with the Chinese Govern-
ment, the .light of access to twenty-three ports of the Empire. The following
COMM !
4^7
is a list of these twenty-three ports, known a.s treaty ports, with the name of
the province* in which they an situated, and the value of their direct foteigl
imports and exports for 1890 : —
Names of Porte
Provinces
Population
Imports
Kxjorts
Haikwan taels
Haikwan taels
Newchwang .
Shengking
60,000
366,131
179,090
Tii-nt-sin
Chihli
950,000
l,8r,;
4,601,511
Chefoo .
Shantung
29,000
890,993
400,129
Chung-king .
Szechuan
—
—
—
Iehang .
Hupeh
34,000
—
—
Hankow
»»
800,000
148,839
5,669,650
; Kiukiang
Kiangsi
53,000
6,500
13,705
Wuhu .
Anhwei
80,000
3,206
—
Nanking
Kiangsu
150,000
—
—
Chinkiang
>»
135,000
18,503
—
Shanghai
,,
380,000
66,251,344
Xingpo
Chehkiang
250,000
372,951
3,651
| Wenchow
>t
80,000
—
—
| Foochow
Fukien
636,000
2,64;-.. 471
4,645,597
Tanisui
Taiwan (For-
mosa) .
100,000
1,551,463
131,324
K elung
,,
70,000
—
—
Taiwan
M
135,000
—
—
Takow .
,,
100,000
1,844,943
975,352
Amoy .
Fukien
96,000
6,121,468
3,515,619
Swatow
Kwangtung
32,000
8,928,740
1,656,374
Canton .
>>
1,600,000
11,007,879
14,864,366
Kiungchow .
,,
40,000
982,140
.944
Pakhoi
»i
25,000
3,450,423
413,366
Since April 1887 the customs stations in the vicinity of Hong Kong and
Macao have been placed under the management of the foreign customs.
Kowloon imports 17,960,229 haikwan taels, exports 14,840,669 haikwan
and Lappa imports 4,270,970 haikwan taels and exports 1,843,598 haikwan
taels. The same service has also been charged with the collection of the
so-called Likin (inland) tax on foreign opium imported, which is likely to
result in a considerable increase of the foreign maritime customs receipts.
In 1889 two new custom houses were opened on the Tungking frontier, one
at Lungehow, Kwangsi, the other at Mengtsz, Yunnan.
The value of their direct foreign imports and exports for 1890 was (in
haikwan taels) : —
Lunchow — imports 22,162,
Mengtsz — imports 466,089,
exiKjrts 11,200
exports 461,193
The port of Nanking, which the Chinese Government consented to throw
open by a treaty made with France in 1858, in which England participated
under the 'most favoured nation ' clause, had not been opened at the end o\
1891.
The value of the total exports from China to the United Kingdom, and of
tlie imports of British and Irish produce and manufactures into China
428
CHINA
(excluding Hong Kong and Macao), was as follows in each of the five years
from 1886 to 1890 according to the Board of Trade returns : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Exports to Great Britain
Imports of British produce
£
8,040,938
5,249,056
£
6,667,043
6,243,002
£
6,457,673
6, 203., 590
£
6,115,591
5,038,895
£
4,830,850
6,608,982
The exports from China to Great Britain and Ireland are made up, to
the amount of more than two-thirds, of tea. During the five years from 1886
to 1890, the quantities and value of the exports of tea from China to the
United Kingdom were as follows : —
Year
Quantities
Value
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
lbs.
135,960,209
110,506,951
98,097,843
" 82,718,606
68,551,201
£
5,960,224
4,261,471
4,016,626
3,285,001
2,616,741
Besides tea, the only other important article of export from China to Groat
Britain is raw silk, the value of which amounted to 760,629*. in 1886, to
899,975*. in 1887, to 928,225Z. in 1888, to 1,131,642*. in 1889, to 710,712*.
in 1890. Manufactured cotton and woollen goods, the former of the value of
4,829,215*., and the latter of 583,304*., in the year 1890, constitute the hulk
of the imports of British produce into the Chinese Empire, exclusive of the
goods passing in transit through the colony of Hong Kong.
The collection of the revenue on the Chinese foreign trade and the
administration of the lights on the coast of China are under the management
of the Imperial Customs Department, the head of which is a foreigner (British),
under whom is a large stall' of European, American, and Chinese subordinates,
the department being organized somewhat similarly to the English Civil
Service. It has an agency in London.
Shipping and Navigation.
During the year 1890, 31,133 vessels, of 24,876,459 tons (25,838 being
steamers of 23,928.557 tons), entered and 'cleared Chinese ports. Of these
16,897, of 16,087,895 tons, were British ; 10,603, of 6,334,956 Ions, Chinese ;
2,140, of 1,343,964 tons, German; 629, of 505,181 tons, Japanese; 165, of
82,946 tons, American ; 174, of 239,700 tons, French.
Internal Communications.
China is Ira versed in all directions by numerous road.-, and, though none
are paved or metalled, and all are badly Kepi, a vast internal trade is carried
on partly over them, bui chiefly by means of numerous canals and navigable
rivers. 'A first attempt to introduce railways into the country was made by
money, weights, and measures 429
the construction, without the sanction of tin- Government of China, of a short
line from Shanghai to Woosung, twelve miles in length. It was opened for
traffic June t, 1878, but closed agon in 1877, and taken up alia banns
purchased by the Chinese authorities. A small railw.i u< Aed from
the K'ai-p'ing mines for conveyance of coal to Hokou, situated on the 1'
a river ten niil.-s north of the Peiho, and was subsequently extended to deep
water on the Petang. A continuation has been completed from Fetang
Taku, to Tientsin and Lin-si. ami is being carried on to Shanghai In the
summer of 1889 the Emperor ordered the construction of a line across the
north-west of China from Peking to Hankow on the Yangtze Kiver. and com-
mitted the task to the two Viceroys of the provinces through which the
projected railway i- to run, Li Hung Chang and Chang Chih-tung, the latter
official having heen transferred to Hankow from the Viceroyalty of Canton
for the purpose. But up to the present moment no decided stops have been
taken to carry out the scheme. There are a few miles of railway in the island
of Formosa. The imperial Chinese telegraphs are being rapidly extended all
over the Empire. There is a line between Peking and Tientsin, one which
connects the capital with the principal places in Mauehuria up to the Russian
frontier on the Amour and the [Jason ; while Newchwang, Chefoo, Shanghai,
Yangchow, Soochow, all the seven treaty ports on the Yangtze. Canton
Patahan, Woochow, Lungchow, and all the principal erties in the Empire are
now connected with each other and with the capital. The line from Canton,
westerly has penetrated to Yunnan -fu, the capital of Yunnan province, ami
beyond it to Manwyne, near the holders of Burmah. Shanghai is also in
communication with Foochow, Amoy, Hashing, Shaoshing, Xingpo, fee. Lines
have been constructed between Foochow and Canton, and between Taku, Port
Arthur, and Soul, the capital of < Soma : and the line along the Yangtze
Valley has l>een extended to Chungking in Saechuen province. By an arrange-
ment recently made with the Russian telegraph authorities the Chinese and
Siberian lines in the Amour Valley are to be joined, so that there will be
direct overland communication between Peking and Europe.
The postal work of the Empire is carried on, under the Minister of War,
by means of post-carts and runners. In the eighteen provinces are 8,000
offices for post-carts, and scattered over the whole of the Chinese territories
are -^.040 offices for runners. There are also numerous private postal couriers,
and during the winter a service between the office of the Foreign Customs in
Peking and the outports.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures in ordinary use at the treaty ports and
in the intercourse with foreigners are as follows : —
Money.
The sole official coinage of China is the copper cash, of which about
1,600 — 1,700 — 1 haikwan tael, and about 22 = 1 penny. Large payments
are made by weight of silver bullion, the standard Wing the Liang or tael.
The haikwan (or customs) tael, being one tael weight of pure silver, was
equal in 1SS9 to is. 8ijrf., or 4 "23 haikwan tael to a pound sterling.
By an Imperial decree, issued during 1890, the silver dollar coined at the
new Canton mint is made current all over the Empire. It is of the same
value as tlie Mexican and United States silver dollars, and as the Jap
silver pen. Foreign coins are looked upon but as bullion, and usually taken
by weight, except at the treaty ports.
430 CHINA
Weight.
10 Sze . . = 1 Hu.
10 Hu . . = 1 Hao.
10 Hao . . = 1 Li (nominal cash).
10 Li . . = 1 Fun (Candaren).
10 Fun . . — 1 Tsien (Mace).
10 Tsien . . = 1 Liang (Tael) = 1^ oz. avoirdupois by treaty.
16 Liang . . — 1 Kin (Catty) = lg lbs. ,, ,,
100 Kin . . = 1 Tan (Picul) = 1333 lbs.
Capacity.
10 Ko . . = 1 ,S7tc?i#.
10 Shcng . . = 1 Tou (holding from 6£ to 10 Kin of rice and mea-
suring from 1"13 to 1*63 gallon). Commodities,
even liquids, such as oil, spirits, &c, are com-
monly bought and sold by weight.
Length.
10 Fun . . = 1 Tsun (inch).
10 Tsun . . = 1 Chih (foot) = 14 "1 English inches by treaty.
10 Chih . . = 1 Chang = 2 fathoms.
1 Li . . = approximately 3 cables.
In the tariff settled by treaty between Great Britain and China, the Chih
of 14TV English inches has been adopted as the legal standard. The
standards of weight and length vary all over the Empire, the Chih, for
example, ranging from 9 to 16 English inches, and the Chang ( = 10 Chih)
in proportion ; but at the treaty ports the use of the foreign treaty standard
of Chih and Chang is becoming common.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of China in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Sieh Fu-eh'eng.
English Secretary. — Sir Halliday Macartney, K.C.M.G.
Secretary of Legation. — Hsii Kioh.
2. Of Great Britain in China.
Envoy, Minister, and Chief Superintendent of British Trade. — Sir John
Walsham, Bart. Appointed Nov. 24, 1885.
Secretary. — W. N. Beauclerk.
There are British Consular representatives at Peking, Amoy, Canton
(C.G.), Chefoo, Chinkiang, Chung-king, Poo-chow, Hankow, Irhang,
Kiukiang, Kiting chow, Newchwang, Ningpo, Pakhoi, Shanghai (C.G.),
Swatow, Tainan, Tamsui, Tientsin, Wenchow, Wuhu.
Statistical and other Sooks of Reference concerning China.
1. Official Publications.
Catalogue of tlir Chinese Customs Collection at, the Austro-Huugariuii Universal Kxhil'i-
1 ton. Shanghai, 1878.
Catalogue of the Chinese Collection al tin1 Paris Exhibition. Shanghai, 1878.
Catalogue of the Chinese i !ol lection ;ct the London Kisherios Exhibition. Shanghai, 1883.
And He' tnten ational Health Exhibition. London, ism
Custo.ua Gazette, Shanghai ; published quarterly.
STATISTICAL AND OTHKR BOOKS OF REFERENCE 431
Reports and Statistics relating to Oi'iuiu in China. Shanghai, 1881.
Returns of Trade at the Treaty Ports in China. Part I. Abstracts of Trade and Customs
>ties. Purr II. Statistics of each Port. Shanghai, published yearly.
Cor: Log the State of Affairs in China. London, 1885.
Report .'ii the Culture, Production, and Manufacture of Silk in China. Shanghai, 1SS1. 4.
Tea. 188a Shanghai, 188a 4.
Tariff Returns : a set of tables showing the bearing of the Chinese Customs Tariff of
1858 on the Trad.- of 1886. Shanghai, 1888. 4. 2 vols.
Silk . 1879-88. Shanghai, 1S89. 4.
Opium : Historical Note, or the Poppy in China. Shanghai, 181
. 1889. 4.
spondence respecting the Revision of the Treaty of Tientsin. Presented to thi I
of Commons. 4. London
Report of the Delegates of the Shanghai Chamber of Commerce on the Trade of the Upper
Yangtsze River. Presented to Parliament. Fol. London, 187a
anereJal Report! from ELM. Consols in China for 1890. 8. London, 1881.
Report by Mr. Arthur Nicolson, British Secretary of Legation, on the Opium Trade in
China, dated Peking, February 25, lsT.s. in 'Reports by ELM. a Beeretai ^sy and
Hon." Part 111 187a s. London, U
Report by Mr. Hosie of a Journey through the Provinces of Ssu-Ch'uan, Yunnan, and
; and through Central Ssu-Ch'uan in 1884. London, 1885.
Report by Mr. L. *'. Hopkins on the Island of Formosa. London, II
Rejiort by Mr. II. K. Fulford on a Journey in Manchuria, China. No. 2. London, 1887.
Report by Mr. Bourne of a Journey in South-Western China. Iondon, 1888.
Trade of Great Britain with China, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1890.' Imp. 4.
London, 1891.
2. Noh-OkmciaX Pl'BLICATI' '
Aruierton (John), Maadalay to Momein : a Narrative of the two Exj-editions to Western
China of 1868 and 1875 with Colonels F. B. Siaden an.l Horace Brown. 8. It
Baber (F. Colborne), Travels and Researches in Western China : in Supplementary Papers
of the Royal Geographical Society. London, 1883.
Battian (Dr. A.), Die Volker dee i.stlichen Asiens. 6 vols. 8. Jena, 1866-71.
Boulger (Demetrius), History of China. 3 vols. London, 1882-84.
Came (L. de), Voyage en Indo-Chine et dans l'empire chinois. Paris, 1872. English
version, London, i -
China. Population of. Discussion of Data in Behm and Wagner's 'Bevulkerung der
Erde,' vii. C.otha. 1882.
China Review. Hong Kong.
China Recorder. Shanghai.
Chinese Army, the. In Blackicood's Magazine. May 18S4.
Colquhoun (A. R.), Across Chryse : from Canton to Mandalay. 2 vols. London, 1883.
Darid(Abb6 A.), Journal de inon troisieuie voyage d 'exploration dans l'empire chinois.
18. Paris, 1875.
DavU (Sir John F.). Description of China and its Inhabitants. 2 vols. 8. London,
1867.
DolitUe (J.), Social Life of the Chinese. London, 1S87.
Douglat (Prof. R. K.), China. London, 1887.
Dudgeon (Dr. J.), Historical Sketch of the Ecclesiastical, Political, and Commercial Re-
lations of Russia with China. 8. Peking, 1S72.
Edkinx (Joseph, D.D.), Religion in China, containing an Account of the three Religions
of the Chinese. S. London, lb77.
F.xner (A. H.), Die Einnahmequellen und der Credit Chinas. Berlin, 1887.
Gill (Captain), The River of Golden Sand. 2 vols. London. 18S0.
Gray (Ven. John Henry), China : a History of the Laws, Manners, and Customs of the
People. 2 vols. 8. London, 1877.
Hosie (A.), Three Years in Western China. London, 1890.
Hue (L'Abbe E. R.), L'empire chinois. 2 vols. 8. 4th ed. Paris, 1862.
James (H. E. M.), The Long White Mountain, or a Journey in Manchuria. London,
lb—.
Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Shanghai.
Journal of the Pekin Oriental Society. Pekin.
Keane (Prof. A. H.), and Temple (Sir R.). Asia. London, 1882.
Kreiner (G.), Im fernen Osten. Vienna
Little (A.), Through the Yangtse Gorges, or Trade and Travel in Western China. London.
1888.
Loeh (Hy. Brougham), A Personal Narrative of Occurrences during Lord Elgin's Second
Embassy to China in I860. 8. London, 1S70.
■ njtrs (\X. Y.), The Chinese Government New edition by G. M. H. Playfair. Shanghai,
1SS6.
432 CHINA
Medhurst (W. H.), The Foreigner in Far Cathay. 8. London, 1872.
Neuere Nachrichten tiber die Chinesische Armee. ' Internationale Revue iiber die ges-
amniten Armeen und Flotten.' Mai 1888. Cassel.
Osborn (Capt. Sherard), Fast and Future of British Relations in China. 8. London,
I860.
Pallu (Lieut. Leopold), Relation de l'expedition de Chine en 1860, redigee d'apres les
documents offlcielB. 4. Paris, 1864.
Playfair (G. M. H.), Cities and Towns of China. Hong Kong, 1879.
Rectus (Elisee), Nouvelle geographic universclle. Tonic VII. Paris, 18S2.
Revenue of China, the. Hong Kong, 18S5.
liichthofen (Fenl. Freiherr von), China: Ergebnissc cigcncr Reisen und darauf gegriin-
deter Stud'ien. Vols. I., II. and IV., and Atlas. 4. Berlin, 1877-85.
Itichthofen (Fenl. Freiherr von), Letters on the Provinces of Chckiang and Nganhwei ;
ami mi Nanking and Chinkiang. 4. Shanghai, 1871.
Eochcr (E.), La province chinoise de Yunnan. Paris, 1880.
Rockhill (W. W.), The Land of the Lamas. London, 1891.
Ross (Rev. J.), The Manchus ; or the Reigning Dynasty of China, their Rise and Progress.
London, 1880.
Sacharoff (J .), Historische Uebersicht der Bevolkerung.sverhaltnisso Chinas, in Arbeiten
der K. Russ. Gesandtschaft zu Pekln. iiber China. 2 vols. Berlin, 1858.
Scherzer (Dr. K. von), Die wirthschaftlichen Zustande im Siiden und Osten Asien's. 8.
Stuttgart, 1871.
Simon (Consul E.), L'agriculture de la Chine. Paris, 1872.
Simon (E.), China : Religious, Political, and Social. London, 1887.
Slarlen (Major E. B.), Official Narrative of the Expedition to explore the Trade Routes to
China via Bhamo. 8. Calcutta, 1870.
Temple (Sir R.), Population Statistics of China, in Journal of the Statist. Soc, vol. 48
1885, p. 1.
Williams (Dr. S. Wells), The Middle Kingdom : a Survey of the Geography, Government
&c. of the Chinese Empire. New ed. 2 vols. London, 1883.
Williamson (Rev. A.), Journeys in North China, Manchuria, and Eastern Mongolia. With
some Account of Corea. 2 vols. 8. London, 1870.
Wilson (J. II.), Travels and Investigations in the Middle Kingdom. New York, 1S8S.
433
COLOMBIA.
(La Replblica de Colombia.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Colombia gained its independence of Spain in 1819, and
was officially constituted December 27, 1819. This vast Republic split up into
Venezuela, Ecuador, and the Republic of New Granada, Febnuu
The Constitution of April 1, 1858, changed the Republic into a confederation
of eight States, under the name of Confederation Granadina. On September
20, 1861, the convention of Bogota brought out the confederation under the
new name of United States of New Granada, with nine States. On May 8,
in improved Constitution was formed, and the St I to the" old
name Colombia — United States of Colombia. The revolution of 1885 brought
about another change, and the National Council of Bogota, composed of three
delegates from each State, promulgated the Constitution of August 4, 1886.
The sovereignty of the nine States was abolished, and they l>ecatne simple
departments, their presidents, elected by 1 allot, l>eing reduced to governors
under the direct nomination of the President of the Republic, whose term of
office has been prolonged from two to six years, and of course the name was
changed : the country is now known as the Republic of Colombia.
The legislative power rests with a Congress of two Houses, called the
Senate and the House of Representatives. The Senate, numbering 27
meml^ers, is composed of representatives of the nine departments.
deputing three senators ; the House of Representatives, numbering 66
(subject to change) members, is elected by universal suffrage, each depart-
ment forming a constituency and returning one member for 50,000 in-
habitants.
The President of Colombia exercises his executive functions through seven
ministers, or secretaries, responsible to Congress. Congress elects three sub-
stitutes, one of whom fills the presidency in case of a vacancy during a
president's term of office.
President of the Republic. — Senor Dr. Don Rafael Nunez; assumed office
June 4, 1887.
The departments have retained some of the prerogatives of their old
sovereignty, such as the entire management of their finances, &c. ; each is
presided over by a governor.
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic is estimated to embrace 504.773 English square
miles, of which 330,756 square miles are north of the equator, and the
remainder south of the equator. According to a census taken in 1870, the
population at that date was 2,951,323, and an official estimate of 1881 gives it
as follow- : —
434
COLOMBIA
Departments
Area :
English
square miles
Population
1881
Densii y
per square
mile
Capital
Population
1886
Antioquia.
Bolivar . .
Boyaca . .
Cauca . . .
Cundinamarca
Magdalena .
Panama .
Santander
Tolinia . .
Total . .
22,316
21,345
33,351
257,462
79,810
24,440
31,571
16,409
18,069
470,000
280,000
702,000
621,000
569,000
90,000
285,000
555,600
306,000
21
' 13
21
2-4
7
3-7
9
35
17
Medellin . .
Cartagena
Tunja . . .
Popayan .
Bogota . .
Santa Malta .
Panama .
Bucaramanga
Ibague . .
40,000
20,000
8,000
10,000
120,000
6,000
30,000
20,000
12,000
504,773
3,878,600
9-9
This includes 220,000 uncivilised Indians, and the population, 80,000, of the
extensive territories attached to each State. There were 1,434,129 males and
1,517,194 females in 1870.
The capital, Bogota, lies 9, 000 feet above the sea. The chief commercial
towns are Barranquilla (population 20, 000) on a canon of the Magdalena and
connected with the coast by 20 miles of railway ; Cartagena (20,000) :
Medellin (40,000) in an important mining region ; Bucaramanga (20,000) ;
Cucuta (10,000), the last two being large coffee centres in Santander.
Religion and Education.
The religion of the nation is Roman Catholicism, other forms of religion
being permitted, so long as their exercise is ' not contrary to Christian morals
nor to the law.' There are two universities, and numerous colleges and special
technical schools in the Republic. In 1889 there were 14 normal schools with
393 students, and 1,734 primary schools with 92,794 pupils. Primary educa-
tion is gratuitous but not compulsory.
Finance.
The following are the official estimates of revenue and expenditure for the
biennial years indicated : —
-
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
Revenue
Expenditure
Pesos
18,173,700
23,852,806
lVsus
19,540,700
24,513,232
Pesos
20,351,100
23,911,515
The revenue is mainly derived from customs duties. According to official
statement the internal debt amounts to 29,605,551 pesos, of which 5,037,310
is consolidated, 24,568,241 pesos floating; besides 7,500,000 pesos -due from
the last war, and another (in September 1889) 11,932,780 pesos, Government
paper-mOBBY, or within 67,220 dollars of tlie maximum allowed by law.
The external debt with eleven years' accrued interest amounts (1891) to
2,949,094/., mostly due to British creditors. Negotiations for a settlement of
the external debt have been in progress since .lunc 1891, but a satisfactory
arrangement has not yet (January 1892) been arrived at.
DEFENCE — PRODUCTION — COMMERCE
435
Defence.
The strength of the national army is determined by Act of Congress each
year. The peace footing is 5,500. In case of war the Executive can raise the
army to the strength which circumstances may require. Every able-bodied
Colombian is liable to military service.
Production.
Gold is found in all the departments. From Antioquia alone gold valued
at 40.000Z. is exported annually. Tolima is rich in silver. It is estimated that
gold to the value of 125 millions sterling and silver to the value of 7 millions
have been exported since the sixteenth century.
Only a small section of the country is under cultivation. It is believed to
be rich in minerals. Much of the soil is fertile, but of no present value, from
want of means of communication and transport. Agriculture is in a backward
condition. Coffee is most largely cultivated. In the central districts European
cattle and horses nourish. According to the latest official returns there were
(1883) 949,072 cattle in the country, 140,735 horses, 41,520 mules, 13,090
58,280 additional horses, mules, and asses reported together, 41,696
sheep, 610,147 goats, and 343,542 pigs.
Commerce.
The value of the foreign commerce of Colombia for the last four years has
been as follows : —
-
1887
1888
1889 1890
Imports
1 Exports
IV....S PtaaM
8,714,143 10,657,521
14,128,162 17,607,368
11,811,997 j 13,345,792
16,241,147 20,457,855
The principal imports are food-stuffs and textiles, and the chief exports are
coffee, cinchona (the export of which has rapidly declined), earth-nuts, corn,
silver ore, cacao, cotton dye-stuffs, live.' animals, tobacco. In the imports of
1890 Great Britain was represented by 4,990,198 pesos; France, 2,713,046
pesos ; the United States, 1,218,466 pesos ; Germany, 1,636,019 pesos. Of the
exports in 1890, 4,789,918 pesos went to Great Britain ; 4,384,867 pesos to the
United States ; 2,474,188 pesos to Germany ; 1,365,709 pesos to France. The
value of coffee exported in 1890 was 4,262,030 pesos ; hides 1,023.231 :
gold in bars and powder 2,259,726; minerals of all other kinds 2,205,024
pesos ; tobacco 1,820,757 pesos.
Far more important than the direct commerce is the transit trade, passing
through the two ports of Panama and of Colon, or Aspinwall, which, united
by railway, connect the Atlantic with the Pacific Ocean. In 1889 the through
traffic was 192,845 tons, showing a falling off of 2,564 tons as compared with
the traffic of 1888, due to decrease in the New York trade. The traffic from
the Pacific is about two-thirds of that from the Atlantic.
The following table gives the total value of the exports sent from Colombia
to Great Britain, and of the imports of British home produce entered into
Colombia, according to the Board of Trade returns, in each of the five years
from 1886 to 1890 :—
Exjorts to Great Britain
Imports of British produce
18S6
1887
1888
18S9
1890
£
-■'•-... H
939,509
£
188,009
1,165,832
£
372.445
1,126,441
£
245,290
1 1,157,296
£
VHjm
1,144,346
F F 2
436 COLOMBIA
Of the exports from Colombia to Great Britain the most important articles
in 1890 were silver ore, of the value of 35,909?. ; cinchona, of the value of
2932. (53,9822. in 1886) ; coffee, of the value of 116,2597. ; caoutchouc,
28,3492. At the head of the articles of British home produce imported into
Colombia in 1890 were manufactured cotton goods, of the value of 707,7662.
The other principal articles imported from Great Britain in 1890 were linen
manufactures, of the value of 63,0732. ; woollens, of the value of 83,2992. ;
iron, wrought and un wrought, of the value of 42,7932. ; apparel and haber-
dashery, 29,9772.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1890 1,022 vessels of 801,858 tons (373 of 414,517 tons British) entered
the ports of Colombia, of which 626 of 775,783 tons were steamers (355 of
409, 860 tons British) ; of the total tonnage 51 per cent, was British, 18 per
cent. French, 13 per cent. Spanish, and 12 per cent. German. Of the tonnage
entered, 365,509 tons entered at Barranrmilla and 309,622 tons at Cartagena.
The total length of railways in Colombia in 1890 was 218 miles. Three
railways are complete and in working order, and five others are partly con-
structed and in use. The roads of Colombia are simple mule tracks, but the
Government is employing soldiers to improve the main roads. Thirty-two
regular steamers visit Colombian ports every month ; of these 15 ai-e English,
9 American, 4 German, 3 French, and 1 Spanish.
The Post Office of Colombia carried 1,044,486 letters and post-cards, 397,134
samples, printed matter, &c, 10,379 registered letters and packets in the year
1889.
There were 5, 000 miles of telegraph in 1890, with 230 stations; in 1889
504,720 messages were carried.
Under the superintendence of M. de Lessens, a company was formed in
1881 for the construction of a ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama, mainly
following the line of the railway. The capital received up to June 30, 1886,
amounted to 772,545,412 francs ; and it was expected that before the under-
taking was completed this would have to lie nearly doubled. It was attempted
to raise a loan of 600 million francs in December 1888 ; but only a small por-
tion of the sum was taken up. It was sought to form a new company, but
without success, so that the company was compelled to go into liquidation
and suspend payment and all operations on the canal (from March 15. 1889)
Provisional administrators wire appointed by the Civil Tribunal for the
Department of the Seino. The total length of the canal will be 16 miles.
Money and Credit.
The amount of gold and silver coinage issued from the mints of Bogota and
Medellin (the only ones now open), from March 1 SS"> to September 1889, has
heen :— Gold (0-666 tine) 117,881 pesos; silver (0-835 fine) 726,849 ; silver
(0-500 fine) 3,364,407 ; total 4,209,140 pesos. The whole amount of money
now (September 1889) current in the country is reported as follows :— - National
Bank notes, 11,932,780 pesos; notes of banks for which Government is
responsible, 789, 526 pesos; private and joint stork hank notes 3,356,000
nickel coinage, 3,120,000 ; silver and gold coins (0'886 and 0-900 tine)
locked "|> <" banks, 3,055,000 : silver ana --old coin (mostlysilver Q*6Q0 Bnej
in general circulation, 2,889,474 ; total 25,000,000 petes,
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFEKKM B 4o7
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Colombia, and the British equivalents
are : —
Money.
The pesos, or dollar, of 10 reals — 5 francs = 3*. id. actual price ; nominal
value, 4s. The pesos or dollar of 10 reals is the legal tender, although the country
people and retail trade generally adopt the old dollar of 8 r., wind) is usually
meant unless peso fuerte or peso de lei is stipulated. Its nominal value is 4s.,
or 5 fr., but owing to the new coinage law reducing the fineness from 835
to 500 decimas, the Colombian dollar is really worth little alx>ve 2s., or
half its former value, except, of course, at Panama or Colon, where paper
has not yet been introduced. There the sol or Peruvian dollar is the legal
tender.
Coined money : —
Nickel. — li c, 2^ c, 5 c, common in every-day use, and often at a premium
of 5 to 10 per cent.
', r., 1 r., 2 r., not coined at present.
All the foreign coins have long since disappeared, and any that arrive are
bought up at the ports at 90 to 100 per cent, premium.
Weights AM) 3Ikasur.es.
The metric system was introduced into the Republic in 1857, and the only
weights and measures recognised by the Government are these : — In custom-
house business the kilogramme, equal to 2,205 pounds avoirdupois, is the
standard. In ordinary commerce the arrola, of 25 pounds Spanish, or 124
kilos : the quintal, of 100 pounds: Spanish, or 50 kilos : and the cargo, of 250
pounds Spanish, or 125 kilos, are generally used. The Colombian libra is
equal to 1-102 pound avoirdupois. As regards measures of length, the
Colombian vara, or 80 cm., is used for retailing purposes, although the English
yard is mostly employed, but in liquid measure the French litre is the legal
standard.
Diplomatic and Commercial Representatives.
1. Of Colombia in Gbeat Britain.
Envoi/ and Minister. — Dr. Felipe Angulo.
Secretary. — Dr. Daniel Reyes.
2. Of Gbeat Britain in Colombia.
Minister and Consul-General.—G. F. B. Jenner, appointed January 9, 1892
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Colombia.
1, Official Publications.
Circulaire <lu Ministry des Affaires Etrangeres sur les mines dor et d'argent de la Repub-
lique de Colombia. Bogota, 1SS6.
Bulletin <lu canal interoceanique. Paris, 1888.
ipcion histories, geographica y i>olitica de la Repuhlica de Colombia. Bogota, 1887.
Constitution of the Republic of Colombia (August V, ISSt}). Bogota.
Diario Official. Bogota, 1S91.
438 COLOMBIA
Informe de Ministro de Fomento— del Ministro de Guerra ; del Ministro de Instruction
Publica ; Ministro de Relacunes Exteriores ; Ministro de Gobierno ; Ministro del Tesoro ; del
Ministro del Hacienda. Bogota, 1890.
Report by Mr. Scruggs, U.S. Minister at Bogota, on Colombia and its People, in ' Reports
of the United States Consuls,' Nos. 30, 31, and 32, 1883. Washington, 1883.
Report on the National Mining Code, in No. 103 of ' Reports on Subjects of General and
Commercial Interest.' London 1888.
Report on the Agricultural Condition of Colombia, in No. 446 of ' Diplomatic and Consu-
lar Reports,' 1885.
Report on the Trade of Colombia, for 1888, in No. 804 of ' Diplomatic and Consular Re-
ports,' 1890.
Reports on the trade of Colombia in ' Deutsches Handels Archiv,' for April, May, July
and October, 1891.
Trade of Colombia with Great Britain, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1890.' Imp. 4. London,
1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bates (H. W.), Central and South America. New edition. London, 1882.
Bruycker (P. de), Les mines d'or et d'argent de la Colombie. Extrait du Bull, de la Soc.
R. de la G6ographie d'Anvers. Antwerp, 1888.
Cade'na (P. J.), Anales diplomaticos de Colombia. Bogota, 1878.
Columbien, Articles inj' Export' for April 1886. Berlin.
Esguerra, Dicciouario geogratico de los Estados Unidos de Colombia. Bogota, 1879.
Etienne (C. P.), Nouvelle-Grenadc, apercu general sur la Colombie. Geneve, 18S7.
HaH (Col. F.), Colombia; its Present State in respect of Climate, Soil, &c. 8. Philadelphia,
1871.
Hassaurek (F.), Four Years among Spanish Americans. 12. New York, 1867.
Holton, Twenty Months in the Andes. New York.
Marr (N.), Reise nach Centralamerika. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Mosquera (General), Compendio de geografia, general, politica, fisica y special de los
Estados Unidos de Colombia. 8. London, 1866.
Pereira (R. S.), Les Etats-Unis de Colombie. Paris, 1883.
Perez (Felipe), Geografia general, fisica y politica de los Estados Unidos de Colombia.
Bogota, 1883.
Potvles (J.), New Granada : its internal Resources. 8. London, 1863.
Rectus (Armand), Panama et Darien. Paris, 1881.
Rodrigues (J. C), The Panama Canal. London, 1885.
Samper (M.), Ensayo sobre-'las revoluciones politicas y la condition do las repubUoU
Colombianas. 8. Paris, 1861.
Simons (F. A. A.), Goajira Peninsula. Proceedings of Royal Geographical Society, Decem-
ber 1885. t ,
Simons (F. A. A.), Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Proceedings of Royal Geographical
Society, 1881.
White (R. B.), Notes on the Central Provinces of Colombiu. Proceedings of Royal Qeo
graphical Society for 1883. London, 1883.
439
CONGO FREE STATE.
The Congo Free State was constituted and defined by the General Act of
the International Congo Conference, signed at Berlin February 26, 1885, by
which it was declared neutral and free to the trade of all nations, in conjunc-
tion with the rest of the basin of the River Congo. The Powers reserved to
themselves, until the end of a period of twenty years, the right of deciding if
freedom of entry shall be maintained or not. But an International Con-
ference, which met at Brussels in 1890, authorised the Government of the
Free State to levy certain duties on imports. The Congo Free State was
placed under the sovereignty of the King of the Belgians individually ; but by
will dated August 2, 1889, the King bequeathed to Belgium all his sovereign
rights in the State. On July 31, 1890, the territories of the State were
declared inalienable, and a Convention of July 3, 1890, between Belgium and
the Free State, reserved to the former the right of annexing the latter after
a period of ten years.
Governor-General. —
The Central Government at Brussels consists of the King of the Belgians,
and three heads of departments, Foreign Affairs and Justice, Finance, and the
Interior. There is a local Government, consisting of the Governor-General,
.overnor-General, State Inspector, General Secretary, Director of Justice,
Director of Finance, and Commander of the Forces. The seat of Government
is at Bonia.
The precise boundaries of the Free State were defined by convention
between the International Association of the Congo and Germany, November
8, 1884 ; Great Britain, December 16, 1884 ; the Netherlands, Decern!
1884 ; France, February 5, 1885 ; and Portugal, February 14, 1885. The
State includes a small section on the north bank of the river from its mouth
to ilanyanga ; French territory intervening between this last station and the
mouth of the Mobangi, whence the State extends northwards to 4 H. ht.,
eastwards to 30' E. long. , southwards to Lake Bangweolo (12° S. ), westwards (by
arrangement with Portugal 1891) to 24° K, the source of the Kassai river,
northwards along that river to ~t" S., then westwards to about 19° E., south
to 8° S., west to the Kwango river, which it follows to 5D 50' S., and then
west to the south as far as the Congo at Nokki. The area of the Free State is
estimated at 900,000 square miles, with a population of 17,000,000. The
capital is at Bonia, on the Lower river.
The Congo is navigable for 450 miles from its mouth to VivL Above this,
for over 200 miles, are numerous rapids, which render the river unnavigable
as far as Stanley Pool (Leopold ville). Above this there are about 1,000 miles
of navigable water, as far as Stanley Falls, while several of the great tribu-
taries are navigable over a considerable extent of their course. In 1888, a
survey, with the view to a construction of a railway 250 miles long, was com-
pleted between Vivi and Leopoldville at an average distance of 30 miles S. of
the river, and the railway is now (December 1891) under construction.
The budget of expenditure of the Free State for 1891 was estimated at
4,554,930 francs ; the revenue is derived from a subsidy of two million francs
annually granted by the King of the Belgians, from an advance of money by
the Belgian Government, July 3, 1890, for a term of ten years at the rate of
two million francs a year, from taxes, and from the sale and letting of public
lands.
440 CONGO FREE STATE
The principal articles of export are palm-oil, rubber, ivory, orchilla
weed, glim copal, ground nuts, cam-wood. The chief imports are textiles,
guns, powder, spirits, tobacco. In 1888 the general exports were valued
at 7,392,348 francs ; in 1889 at 8,572,519 francs ; in 1890 at 14,109,781
francs ; the exports of the Free State proper in 1888 were valued at 2,609,300
francs, and in 1889 at 4,297,544 francs. The chief articles exported (in the
general commerce) in 1890 were : — Coffee, 1,685,604 francs ; ivory, 5,070,851
francs; nuts, 2,464,619 francs; palm-oil, 1,563,766 francs; caoutchouc,
3,080,358 francs ; copal, 96,484 francs.
In 1890, 985 vessels of 268,408 tons entered the ports of the State.
Under the governor are a large number of white subordinates, chiefs oi
provinces, which extend as far as Stanley Falls, and other officials. There
are twelve administrative divisions or provinces : — Banana, Boma, Matadi,
the Falls, Stanley Pool, Kassai, Equator, Ubanji, Welle, Stanley Falls,
Aruwimi-Welle, Lualaba, and Kwango Oriental. The principal statious
occupied are : — Banana, Boma, Matadi, Lukunga, Leopoldville, Equator,
Bangala, Stanley Falls, and Luluaburg.
There is an armed force of 3,792 native Africans, divided into 8 com-
panies, commanded by white officers, 11 captains, and 33 lieutenants. There
are 4 camps of instruction. There are seven vessels on the Lower and eleven
in the Upper Congo,, besides a flotilla of sailing and row boats. There is a
regular steamer service with Europe, and the State is included in the postal
union.
British Consul. — G. F. N. B. Annesley.
Books of Reference concerning the Congo State.
1. Official.
Bulletin officiel de l'Etat Independant du Congo.
Convention between Her Majesty and the King of the Belgians in the name of the
International Association of the Congo. London, 1885.
Correspondence with Her Majesty's Ambassador at Berlin respecting West African
Conference. London, 1885.
Protocols and General Act of the West African Conference. London, 1885.
2. Unofficial.
AUxis(M. G.), Le Congo Beige, Brussels, 1888.
Bentley (Rev. W. II.), Life on the Congo. London, 1887.
Coquilhat (C), Stir le llaut-Congo. Paris, 1888.
Dupont (E.), Le Congo. Brussels, 1889.
Jeannent, Quatre annees au Congo. Brussels, 1889.
Le Moiivi-im-iit Geographlqne. Brussels, 1SS9.
Pechiiel-Loenche (Dr.), Kongoland. Jena, L88T.
Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, L88B 90.
Reclu* (R.), NouveUe geographic aniveneUe. Vol. XIII. Paris, isss.
Report on tin' Congo Country, by Mr. w. P. Tisdel, in ' Reports of Consuls of the United
siatcs.' Nos. 64 and 66. Washington, 1686,
Stanley (!!. M.), The Congo and the Pounding of its Free Btate. 9 vols. London, 1885.
Stanley (H. M.), Through the Park Continent. •_' vols. London, 1878.
Thys (Capt.), Au Congo et an Kas.sasi. Brussels, 1888.
Vim Moenrl, de Ktusur la legislature de 1'Ktat lndependant du Congo.
Ward(i\), Rive Years with the Congo Cannibals. London. 1S90.
Warutes (A. J.), Le Congo, Brussels, 1886.
White (\. silva). The Development of Africa. London, 1890.
Wissmann(\l.), Im Innern AlriUas Berlin, 1888,
441
COREA.
(Ch'ao-hsien, or Kaoli.)
Government.
Tiik reigning monarch, named Li-Hi in Chinese, succeeded King Shoal Siring
1864, and is the twenty-ninth in succession since the founding of the present
dynasty in 1392. His only son is seventeen years of age. The Monarchy is
hereditary and of an absolute type, modelled on that of China, as is also the
penal code. There is an hereditary aristocracy. There is a standing army of
about 2,000 men, armed principally with breechloading ri :uting
a royal guard and police force for the city of Seoul. Besides which there is
a numerous military class, of ancient origin, whose members, uniformed after
■ peculiar fashion, and armed, upon occasion, with matchlocks or spears, are
attached as retainers to the various official establishments throughout the
land.
Since the seventeenth century Corea has acknowledged the suzerainty of
China by sending an annual embassy, and announcing the succession of a new'
ign, and the dependent relation is plainly recognised and clearly
in the Chinese-* orean Frontier Trade Regulations. The influence of China is
paramount in the kingdom, and no important step in the relations of Corea
with other countries is taken without China's consent. The government is
carried on through the Ministers of the Nei Wu Fu, or Home Office. There
~ix Departments of Ceremonies, War, Civil Affairs, Justice, Public
Works, and Finance, and a Foreign Office.
There are about 7,000 troops.
Area and Population.
Estimated area, 82,000 square miles ; jwpulation estimated at from
8,000,000 to 16,000,000. Recent statist] ".,267 families and 10,52
inhabitants — 5,312.323 males and .">. 216,614 females. The capital, Seoul,
has about 250,000 inhabitants Besides Japanese (Jaj 55 in 1890)
and Chinese (1,057 in 1S90), there were about 150 foreign residents in Corea
in 1890, mainly German (32), American (48), British (21). French (88). The
language of the people is intermediate between Mongojo-Tartar and Japanese,
and an alphabetical system of writing is used to some extent : but in all
official writing, and in the correspondence of the upper classes, the Chinese
characters are used exclusively.
Religion and Instruction.
The worship of ancestors is observed with as much punctiliousness as in
China, but, aside from this, religion holds a low place in the kingdom.
Neither temples nor priests are allowed in the city of Seoul : but in the
country', and especially in the many hills which cover the length and breadth
of the land, are numerous Buddhist monasteries. Confucianism is held in
highest esteem by the upper classes, and a knowledge of the classics of China
442
COREA
is the all-important aim of the Corean literati and aspirants for official station.
There are about 15,000 Catholics and 300 Protestants. In 1890 an English
Church mission was established, with a bishop and ten other members. In
1891 there were in all 32 Protestant missionaries (British and American),
20 Roman Catholics.
A government school for the teaching of English is conducted by two
American professors, and a government military school is under the charge of
two ex-officers of the United States army.
Finance.
The revenue is principally paid in grain, and depends upon the state of
the harvests. There are besides the proceeds of the ginseng monopoly, of
gold-mining privileges, of various irregular and ill-defined taxation, and the
customs revenue. The last-named amounted in 1888 to 267,214 dollars, in
1889 to 280,000 dollars, and in 1890 to 514,600 dollars.
Commerce.
In 1876 Corea concluded a treaty with Japan ; in 1882 China (Trade and
Frontier Regulations) and the United States ; in 1883 Germany and Great
Britain ; in 1884 Italy and Russia ; and in 1886 France. An overland Trade
Convention has been concluded with Russia, whose frontier is separated from
that of Corea by the Tiumen River.
In these treaties Corea was treated with as an independent State. By
virtue of these treaties the three ports of Jenchuan, Fusan, and Yuensan are
open to foreign commerce.
The total value of the trade at the three ports has been as follows : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Imports .
Exports .
Dollars
2,474,185
504,225
Dollars
2,815,441
804,996
Dollars
3,046,443
867,058
Dollars
3,317,815
1,233,841
Dollars
4,727,839
3,550,478
The imports in 1890 were : cotton goods, chiefly shirtings and muslins,
value 2,640,179 dollars ; woollen goods, 54,857 dollars ; miscellaneous piece
goods, 5,229 dollars ; metals 637,460 dollars ; sundries, 1,390,240 dollars.
The chief exports were: beans, value 1,005,156 dollars; cow-hides, 147,463
dollars ; rice, 2,037,868 dollars.
These trade statistics refer only to the three open ports, at which a customs
service has been established conducted by foreigners detached from the Chinese
customs service. Government has a monopoly of the important product
ginseng, which is fanned out to a company and exported overland to China to
the value of about 40,000^. annually. The shares taken by different countries
in the import trade are : — British 57 per cent. ; Japanese 19 per cent. ;
Chinese 12 per cent. ; German 8 per cent. ; American 3 per cent. ; Russia,
France and Austria together 1 per cent. Gold is found in considerable
quantities in the country, but is not well worked. The export for 1890 as
declared at the customs was 749,699 dollars.
The number of vessels entering from foreign countries in 1890 was 1,621
(mostly junks) of 313,847 tons. The shipping is nearly all in Japanese hands :
no British vessels called at any of the ports in 1890, while 31 German steamers
of 12,298 tons, and 7 Norwegian of 3,108 tons entered.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE CONCERNING COREA
The number and tonnage of the vessels entered was : —
443
-
Number
Tonnage
Steamers
Sailing vessels
Junks .
Total ...
378
159
1,084
276,390
12,604
24,853
1,621
313,847
Transport in the interior is by horses and oxen. A telegraph line runs
from Seoul north to the Chinese frontier, connecting with the line to Tientsin,
and another line runs south to Fusan, connecting with the cable to Japan ; a
third line from Seoul to Grusan has just been completed, and will probably
be connected eventually with the Russian telegraph system at Novokievsk.
Much of the country is mountainous, and there is a great deal of unculti-
vated land. The principal crops are rice, millet, beans, and jute, while coal
is found in several parts.
British Consul General at Seoul. — Walter C. Hillier.
British Vice-Consul at Chemulpo (Jen-Chuan). — James Scott (Acting).
Books of Reference concerning Corea.
Annual Reports and Returns on the Trade in Foreign Vessels. Shanghai, 1891.
Campbell (C. W.), Report of a Journey in North Corea. Blue Book. China No. 2. 1691.
Carles (W. R.) Life in Corea. London, 1888.
Dallet, Histoire de l'eglise de Coree. Paris, 1S74. [This work contains much accurate
information concerning the political and social life, geography, and language of Corea, with
th. history and progress of the introduction of Roman Catholicism into Corea, and its
progress from 1784 to 1866.]
Dictionnaire Coreen-Francais, par les missionaires de Coree de la Societe des Missions
Etrangeres de Paris. Yokohama, 1880. Grammaire Coreenne (by the same). Yokohama,
1881. [These two books contain much useful information concerning Corea. They treat of
the language, geography (natural and political), administration, system of weights and
measures, time measurement, royal genealogy, &c.]
Oriffi* (W. E.), Corea : the Hermit Nation. London, 1882.
Hall (J. C.X A Visit to Corea in 18S2, in Proceedings of Royal Geographical Society, 1883.
Lowell (Perceval), Choson, the Land of the Morning Calm. A Sketch of Korea. London,
188*.
Oppert (Ernst), Corea : a Forbidden Land.
Report for the Year 1890 on the Trade of Corea, No. 918, 'Diplomatic and Consular
Reports.' London, 1891.
Reports by Vice-Consul Carles on Journeys in Corea. London, 1885.
Ecri(Rev. J.), History of Coiea. Paisley, n.d.
Scott (James), A Corean Manual. Shanghai, 1887.
Scott (James), English-Corean Dictionary, 1891. (Kelly ft Walsh, Shanghai.)
Underwood (H.), Concise Dictionary of the Corean Language, 1890. (Kelly ft Walsh,
Shanghai).
Underwood (H.), Grammar of Corean Language. (Kelly ft Walsh, Shanghai.)
444
COSTA RICA.
(Republica de Costa Rica.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Costa Rica, an independent State since the year 1821, and
forming part from 1824 to 1830 of the Confederation of Central America, is
governed under a Constitution first promulgated in 1859, but modified very
frequently since that date. Practically there was no constitution between
1870 and 1882. The legislative power is vested in a Chamber of Representa-
tives— one representative to every 10,000 inhabitants — chosen in electoral
assemblies, the members of which are returned by the suffrage of all who are
able to live 'respectably.' There were 537 electors in 1889, and 26 deputies.
The members of the Chamber are elected for the term of four years, one-half
retiring eveiy two years. The executive authority is in the hands of a presi-
dent, elected, in the same manner as the Congress, for the term of four years.
President of the Republic. — Jose Joaquin Rodriguez was popularly elected
President on May 8, 1890.
The adminstration is carried on, under the President, by four ministers —
— viz. of the Interior ; of Foreign Affairs, Justice, and Worship ; of Commerce
and Finance ; and of War and Marine.
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic is estimated at 20,000 English square miles. A
census was taken in November 1883, and the official results show the popula-
tion to number 182,073 — 89,789 males and 92,284 females — besides an ad-
ditional 18,207 estimated or unenumerated, and 3,500 aborigines — giving a total
of 203,780. In 1891 (Jan. 1) the population was estimated at 238,782 ; there
were in 1889 1, 228 marriages, 9,151 births (19 7 per cent, illegitimate), and 5, 238
deaths, giving a surplus of 3,913. In the same year 6,330 persons entered ami
3,706 left Costa Rica. The population of European descent, many of them
pure Spanish blood, dwell mostly around the capital, the city of San Jose (popu-
lation 24,000), and in the towns of Alajuela, Cartago, lleredia, Guanacaste,
l'untiirenas, and Limon. There are numerous settlements — English, French,
German, Italian — of from 200 to 1,500 inhabitants, and the government en-
courages immigration by the sale of land on easy terms. In certain cases
small lots may gratuitously become the property of the first occupier.
Instruction.
Education is compulsory and free. In 1890 there were 300 primary schools
with 15,000 pupils, besides 90 private schools with 2,500 pupils. In 1884 the
number of children between 7 and 14 years of age was 27,245. In 1890-91,
495,224 pesos were devoted to education.
Justice.
Justice is administered by the Supreme Court of Justice, two Appeal Courts,
and the. Court of Cassation. There are also subordinate courts in the separate
provinces, and local justices throughout the Republic,
FINANCE — INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE
44.")
Finance.
The revenue for the fire jean ending March 31. 1890, was, in pesos : 1885-86,
2,387,290; 1886-87, 2,43*5,189; 1887-88, 3,094,153; 1888-89, 4,145,582;
1889-90, 4,928,872 (customs, 1,807,101 pesos). The expenditure for 1888-89
was, in pesos, 3,939,998 ; for 1889-90, 4,995,343 pesos. For 1890-91 the
revenue was 5,100,929 pesos; exj>enditure, 5,483,430 pesos. The principal
items of revenue were, in pesos: — Customs, 2,154,308; spirits and tobacco,
2,143,088; of expenditure— public works, 590,250; education, 49."
interior, 376,855 ; nuance and trade, 364,747 ; am : police, 214,662.
The foreign debt of the Republic consisted of a six per cent, loan of the
nominal amount of 1,000,000/., contracted in England in 1871 and a 7 per
cent, loan, of the nominal amount of -2,400,000/. — issued at S2 — contracted in
1872. The amount outstanding in January 1887 was 2,691,300/., and the
accumulated interest amounted to 2.110,512/. This debt has been converted
into a total amount of 2,000,000/. sterling at 5 per cent, 'from January 1. 1888,
and has been taken over by Lies Railway Company. The total debt,
external and internal, in 1S91 amounted to 21.774,649 pesos, of which
18,864,541 external.
To facilitate agricultural operations and immigration, a concession has been
granted for an agricultural bank with a capital of 1,000,000/. The bank will
not only make advances on the security of lands and produce, but will bring
out colonists and settle them on lands which will be ceded to the company.
Defence.
Costa Rica has an army of 600 men, and on a war footing can command
31,824 militia, as ever)- male between IS and 50 is bound to serve.
Industry and Commerce.
Almost anything can be grown in Costa Rica, but in 1889 the principal
agricultural products were coffee and bananas. Maize, rice, wheat, potatoes,
are commonly cultivated. In 1888 the agricultural produce was valued at
16,523,014 pesos. Gold and silver mines are worked ; the value of the pro-
duce in 1888 being 37,496 pesos. In 1889 the live stock consisted of 292,808
cattle, 59,742 horses, and 2,382 sheep, valued at, in all, 5,429,231 pesos.
The following is the value in pesos of the imports and exports for
1886-90 :—
-
1SS6
1887
1888
18S9 1890
Imports .
Exports .
3,537,651
3,225,807
5,601,225
6,236,563
5,201,922
5,713,792
6,306,408
6,965,371
6,337,500 !
10,290,760
The imports in 1889 included railway materials to the value of 425,892
pesos.
The most important export is coffee, the quantity exported in the year
1890 amounting to 334,666 quintals valued at 9,196,202 pesos. Other exports
were bananas, 622,671 pesos: hides and skins, 95,188 pesos; wood, T
pesos : caoutchouc, 8,644 pesos ; cocoa, 13,267 pesos ; metal and coin 256,726
pesos. Of the coffee exported, over three-fifths went to Great Britain, and
about one-fifth to the United States. The value of the imports from Great
Britain in 1890 was 1,426,317 pesos ; from the United States, 2, 255, 138 pesos ;
446 COSTA KICA
Germany, 1,255,572 pesos. Coffee fluctuates so much in yield that efforts are
being made to develop other cultures, as bananas, tobacco, sugar-cane, &c.
The commercial intercourse of Costa Rica is largely with the United King-
dom, but it is not reported on in the ' Annual Statement ' published by the Board
of Trade, which throws the statistics of the Republic, together with other
States, under the general heading of ' Central America. ' (For the value of
the imports and exports thus given see Guatemala.)
Shipping and Communications.
In 1889 the number of vessels which entered the ports of Limon and
Puntarenas was 309 of 367,052 tons (136 of 149,062 tons British). In 1890 the
number entered was 319 of 344,695 tons (106 of 128,140 tons British) ; and
cleared 319 of 341,883 tons (104 of 125,874 tons, British).
In 1890 Costa Rica had railways of a total length of 180 miles on the
Atlantic Coast and San Jose, and between Limon and Reventazon ; a further
extension to Cartago, 51 miles, is nearly completed (April, 1891) ; and a con-
tract has been entered into (June, 1891) for the construction and working of a
railway from Puntarenas on the Pacific coast to San Jose in the interior, the
government guaranteeing a minimum profit of 5 per cent, for 25 years on the
cost of construction.
In 1889 932,812 letters circulated through the post-offices.
There are (1890) telegraph lines of a total length of 630 English miles,
with 43 telegraph offices. The number of messages in 1889 was 163,967,
the receipts being 31,176 pesos.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Costa Rica, and the British equiva-
lents, are —
Money.
The Dollar, of 100 Centavas : normal value, 4s. ; approximate value, 3s. Id.
6dol. 50 c. *tt (1888).
Weights and Measures.
The metric system is now in use ; the following are the old weights and
measures : —
The Libra .... =1 "014 lb. avoirdupois.
„ Quintal .... =101-40 lbs.
,, Arroba .... =25'35 ,,
,, Fancga .... = 11 imperial bushel.
The old weights and measures of Spain are in general use, but the intro-
duction of the French metric system is contemplated.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Costa Rica in Great Britain.
Minister. — Manuel M. Peralta.
Consul-Gcncral. — John A. Lc Lacheur.
2. Of Great Britain in Costa Rioa.
Minister and Consul-Gencml.—Amttey C Gosling, resident at Guatemala.
Consul. — Cecil Sharpe.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 447
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Costa Rica.
1. Official Publication.
Anuario estadistico de la Republics de Costa Rica. San Jose, 1891.
Calvu«(J. B.), Republics de Costa Rica. Apnntamientos geograflcos, estadisticos e histo-
ricos. San Jose, 1887.
Estadistica del comercio exterior de la Republics de Costa Rica. San Jose, 1891.
Memoria de la secretaria de gobernacion, policia y fomento. San Jose, 1891.
Memoria de la secretaria de guerra y marina. San Jose, 1891.
Memoria de la secretaria de hacienda y comercio. 5. San Jose, 1891.
Villavicencio (Enrique), Director of Statistical Bureau. Republica de Costa Rica. Alio
de 1886. San Jose, 1886.
Report by Consul Sbarpe on the Trade and Commerce of Costa Rica in 1890, in No. 861
' Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' 1891.
Trade of Central America with the United Kingdom, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade
of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1890.'
Imp. 4. London, 1891.
2. Non-Official PUBLICATIi IB
Jiatet (H. W.X Central and South America. New edition. London, 1882.
Belly (Felix), A travers l'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris.
Biollty (Paul), Costa Rica and her Future. Washington, 1889.
Boyle (Frederick), Ride across a Continent : a Personal Narrative of Wanderings through
Nicaragua and Costa Rica. 2 vols. 8. London, 1868.
Caeeret (J. M.), Geografia de Centro-America. Paris, 1882.
Frbbel (Julius), Aus Amerika. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1857-58.
Marr (N.), Reise nach Centralamerika. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Morelot (L.), Voyage dans l'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1859.
Peralta (Manuel M.), Costa Rica : its Climate, Constitution, and Resources. With a
survey of its present financial position. 8. London, 1873.
Scherzer (Karl, Ritter von), 8tatistisch-commerzielle Ergebnisse einer Reise um die
Erde. 8. Leipzig, 1867.
Scherzer (Karl, Ritter von), Wanderungen durch die mittelamerikanischen Freistaaten.
S. Braunschweig, 1857.
Wagner (Moritz), Die Republik Costa Rica in Centralamerika. 8. Leipzig, 1856.
448
DENMARK.
(KONGERIGET DaNMARK.)
Reigning1 King
Christian IX.> born April 8, 1818, the fourth son of the late
Duke Wilhelm of Schleswig-Holstein-SonderburgGliicksburg, and
of Princess Louise of Hesse-Cassel. Appointed to the succession
of the crown of Denmark by the treaty of London of May 8,
1852, and by the Danish law of succession of July 31, 1853.
Succeeded to the throne on the death of King Frederik VII. ,
November 15, 1863. Married, May 26, 1842, to Queen Louise,
born September 7, 1817, the daughter of Landgrave Wilhelm of
Hesse-Cassel.
Children of the King.
I. Prince Frederik, heir apparent, born June 3, 1843 ; married
July 28, 1869, to Princess Lowisa, daughter of King Carl XV.
of Sweden and Norway. Offspring of the union are : — 1. Pz-ince
Christian, born September 26, 1870. 2. Prince Karl, born
August 3, 1872. 3. Princess Lowisa, born February 17, 1875.
4. Prince Hai-ald, born October 8, 1876. 5. Prince Ingeborg,
born August 2, 1878. 6. Princess Thyra, born March 14, 1880.
7. Prince Gustav, born March 4, 1887. 8. Princess Dagmar,
born May 23, 1890.
II. Princess Alexandra, born December 1, 1844; married,
March 10, 1863, to Albert Edward, Prince of Wales.
III. Prince Wilhelm, born December 24, 1 845 ; admiral in
the Danish navy ; elected King of the Hellenes, under the title
of Georgios I., by the Greek National Assembly, March 31, 1863 ;
married, October 27, 1867, to Olga Constantinowna, Grand-
Duchess of Russia.
IV. Princess Marie Dagmar (Empress Maria- Feodorovna),
born November 26, 1847 ; married, November 9, 1866, to Alex-
ander III., Emperor of Russia.
V. Princess Thyra, born September 29, 1853; married,
December 21, 1878, to Prince Ernest August, Duke of Cumber
land.
VI. Prince Waldemar, born October 27, 1858; married,
October 22, 1885, to Princess Marie d'Orleans, eldest daughter
BROTHERS AND SISTERS OF THE KING
449
of the Due de Chartres, born January 13, 1865 ; offspring, Prince
Aage, born June 10, 1887 ; Prince Axel, born August 12, 1888;
Prince Erich, born November 8, 1890.
Brothers and Sisters of the King.
I. Princess Frederica, born October 9, 1811 ; married, October 30, 1834, to
Duke Alexander of Anhalt- Bern burg ; widow August 19, 1863.
II. Prince Wilhelm, born April 10, 1816 ; field-marshal-lieutenant in the
service of Austria.
III. Princess Louise, born November 18, 1820 ; nominated abbess of the
convent of Itzehoe, Holstein, August 3, 1860.
IV. Prince Julius, born October 14, 1824 ; general in the Danish army.
V. Prince Hans, born December 5, 1825 ; general in the Danish army.
The crown of Denmark was elective from the earliest times. In 1448,
after the death of the last male scion of the Princely House of Svend Estridsen
the Danish Diet elected to the throne Christian I., Count of Oldenburg, in
whose family the royal dignity remained for more than four centuries, although
the crown was not rendered hereditary by right till the year 1660. The direct
male line of the house of Oldenburg became extinct with the sixteenth king,
Frederik VII., on November 15, 1863. In view of the death of the king
without direct heirs, the Great Powers of Europe, ' taking into consideration
that the maintenance of the integrity of the Danish Monarchy, as connected
with the general interests of the balance of power in Europe, is of high im-
portance to the preservation of peace,' signed a treaty at London on May 8,
1852, by the terms of which the succession to the crown of Denmark was
made over to Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg,
and to the direct male descendants of his union with the Princess Louise of
Hesse Cassel, niece of King Christian Till, of Denmark. In accordance with
this treaty, a law concerning the succession to the Danish crown was adopted
by the Diet, and obtained the royal sanction July 31, 1853.
King Christian IX. has a civil list of 500,000 rigsdalers settled upon him
by vote of the Rigsdag, approved December 17, 1863. The heir apparent of
the crown has, in addition, an allowance of 60,000 rigsdalers, settled bv lajr
of March 20, 1868. *
Subjoined is a list of the Kings of Denmark, with the dates of their
accession, from the time of election of Christian I. of Oldenburg : —
House of Oldenburg.
A.D.
A.D.
Christian I. .
. 1448
Christian V. .
. 1670
Hans
. 1481
Frederik IV. .
. 1699
Christian II. .
. 1513
Christian VI.
. 1730
Frederik I.
. 1523
Frederik V. .
. 1746
Christian III.
. 1533
Christian VII.
. 1766
Frederik II. .
. 1559
Frederik VI. .
. 1808
Christian IV. .
. 1588
Christian VIII.
. 1839
Frederik III. .
. 1648
Frederik VII.
. 1848
House of Sehleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Olueksburg.
Christian IX., 1863.
450 DENMARK
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Denmark is embodied in the
charter of June 5, 1849, which was modified in some important
respects in 1855 and 1863, but again restored, with various
alterations, by a statute which obtained the royal sanction on
July 28, 1866. According to this charter, the executive power
is in the king and his responsible ministers, and the right of
making and amending laws in the Bigsdag, or Diet, acting in
conjunction with the sovereign. The king must be a member of
the Evangelical Lutheran Church, which is declared to be the
religion of the State. The Rigsdag comprises the Landsthing
and the Folkething, the former being a Senate or Upper House,
and the latter a House of Commons. The Landsthing consists of
66 members. Of these, 12 are nominated for life by the Crown,
from among actual or former representatives of the Kingdom, and
the rest are elected indirectly by the people for the terms of eight
years. The choice of the latter 54 members of the Upper House
is given to electoral bodies composed partly of the largest tax-
payers in the country districts, partly of deputies of the largest
taxpayer's in the cities, and partly of deputies from the totality
of citizens possessing the franchise. Eligible to the Landsthing
is every citizen who has passed his twenty-fifth year and is a
resident of the district. The Folkething, or Lower House of i
Parliament, consists of 102 members, returned in direct election,
by universal suffrage, for the term of three years. According to
the Constitution there should be one member for every 16,000
inhabitants. The franchise belongs to every male citizen who
has reached his thirtieth year, Avho is not in the actual receipt of
public charity, or who, if he has at any former time been in re-
ceipt of it, has repaid the sums so received, who is not in private
service without having his own household, and who has resided
at least one year in the electoral circle on the lists of which his
name is inscribed. Eligible for the Folkething are all men of
good reputation past the age of twenty-five. Both the member!
of the Landsthing and of the Folkething receive payment foi
their services at the same rate.
The Rigsdag must meet every year on the tirst Monday ill October. To
the Folkething all money bills must in the first instance l>e submitted bj tin*
Goveriiiiirnt. The Landsthing. besides its legislative functions, has the duty I
of appointing bom its midst every lour years the assistant judges of the !
Itigsret, who, together with the ordinary members of the Ildiesteret, form the
highest tribunal of the Kingdom (Itigsret), and can alone try parliamentary
impeachments. The ministers have tnt access to both of the legislative
assemblies, but can only vote in thai chamber of which they are members.
AREA AND POIT I.ATK >.\
451
The executive, acting under the king as president, and called the State
Council— Statsraadet — consists of the following seven departments : —
1. The Presidency of the Council and Ministry of Finance.— Jacob
Brcennuin Scavenius Estrup, appointed President of the Council of Ministers,
and Minister of Finance, June 11, 1875.
2. Ministry of the Interior. — H. G. higerslcr, appointed August 7, 1885.
3. Ministry of Justice and for Iceland. — J. M. V. NelUmann, appointed
June 11, 1875.
4. Ministry of Foreign Affairs.— Otto Ditlev, Baron £ose7uern-L<hn,
appointed October 11, 1875.
5. Ministry of War. — Colonel J. J. Bahnsen, appointed September 13,
1884.
6. Ministry of Marine. — Commander X. F. Bam*, appointed January 4,
1879.
7. Ministry of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — A. H. Ooos,
appointed July 11, 1891.
The ministers are individually and collectively responsible for their acts,
and in case of impeachment, and Ming found guilty, cannot be pardoned
without the consent of the Folkething.
The chief of the dependencies of the Crown of Denmark, Iceland, has its
own constitution and administration, under a charter dated January 5. 1874,
and which came into force August 1, 1874. By the terms of this charter, the
legislative power is vested in the Althing, consisting of 36 members, 30 elected
by popular suffrage, and 6 nominated by the king. A minister for Iceland,
nominated by the king, is at the head of the administration ; while the highest
local authority is vested in the governor, who resides at Reikjavik. P.-
him there are two Amtmands for the western and the northern districts of
Iceland.
Area and Population.
The following table gives the area and population of Den-
mark, according to the last decennial census, taken February 1,
1890:—
Divisions w„„ii^i!ef„ „,
hnglisn sq. m.
Population
1890
Population
per sq. m.
City of Copenhagen (Kjbbenhavn)\ _.„
without suburbs ... 1 -
Islands in the Baltic . . . 5,024
Peninsula of Jutland . . . 9,743
Faeroe Islands (17 inhabited) . . 514
312,387
917.4."
942,361
12,954
40,569
183
96
25
Total ...... 1 15,289
2,185,159
143
The population (excluding the Faeroes) consisted of 1,059,322
males and 1,112,983 females. The total population at the census
g o 2
452
DENMARK
of 1870 Avas 1,794,723, and of 1880 1,980,259, showing ai
increase during each of the two decennial periods of nearly K
per cent., or 1 per cent, per annum. In Denmark proper th
town population has increased from 515,758 in 1880 to 663,121
in 1890, or at the rate of 28*7 per cent. ; while the rural popula
tion has increased from 1,453,281 in 1880 to 1,509,084 in 1890
or at the rate of 3*77 per cent. The population is almost entirely
Scandinavian ; detailed results of the recent census are not ye
published, but in 1880, of the foreign-born population 33,152 wen
Germans (including 22,007 born in Schleswig), 24,148 Swedes
2,823 Norwegians, 454 English.
It was found in 1880 that out of every 1,000 people, 469 live exclusively
by agriculture, 229 by manufacturing industries, 68 by trade, and 27 by sea
faring and fishing.
The population of the capital, Copenhagen (Kjbbenhavn), in 1890, wai
312,387, or with suburbs, 375,251 ; Aarhaus, 33,308; Odense, 30,277 ; Aal
borg, 19,503; Horsens, 17,290; Randers, 16,617.
The following table gives the total number of births, deaths, and marriages,
with the surplus of births over deaths, in each of the five years from 1885 t(
1889 :—
Years
Marriages
Births
Deaths
Surplus of Births
over Deaths
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
15,645
14,834
14,726
15,091
15,233
69,517
70,030
69,417
69,220
69,237
39,053
40,044
40,645
43,661
41,856
30,464
29,986
28,772
25,559
27,381
There were on an average 2*6 per cent, of the total births stillborn; 1(
per cent, of the births were illegitimate.
Emigration carried off, chiefly to the United States, 2,972 persons in L83
3,118 in 1879; 5,667 in 1880; 7,985 in 1881 ; 11,614 in 1882; 8,375 ii
1883 ; 6,307 in 1884 ; 4,346 in 1885 ; 6,263 in 1886 ; 8,801 in 1887 : 8,65'
in 1888 ; 8,967 in 1889 ; 10,298 in 1890.
Religion.
The established religion of Denmark is the Lutheran, which was hit
duced as early as 1536, the Church revenue being at that time seized by 1
Crown, to be delivered up to the university and other religious and education
establishments. The affairs of the National Church are under the superi
tendence of seven bishops. The bishops have no political character. Con
plete religious toleration is extended to every sen. and no civil disabilil
attach to Dissenters. In 1885 there were 1,353 clergymen.
According to the census of 1880. there were only 17,526 persons, or le
th.ui one pet oeufc of the population, not belonging to the Lutheran Chn
Of this number 3,946, or nearly one-third, were .lews; the remainder <oi
prised 2,985 Roman Catholics; l,8<& members of the Reformed church,
INSTRUCTION — CRIME — FINANCE 4o3
Calvinists : 1,722 Mormons; 3,687 Baptists; 1,036 Irvingites ; 1,919 other
sects ; and 1,241 without creed or unknown.
Instruction.
Elementary education is widely diffused in Denmark, the attendance at
school being obligatory from the age of seven to fourteen. Education is afforded
gratuitously in the public schools to children whose parents cannot afford
to pay for their teaching. The University of Copenhagen has about 1,300
students. Connected with the university is a polytechnic institution, with
20 teachers, and about 200 students. Between the university and the ele-
mentary schools there are 13 public gymnasia, or colleges, in the principal
towns of the kingdom, which afford a 'classical' education, and 27 Real-
schulen. There are 5 training colleges for teachers. Instruction at the
public expense is given in parochial schools, spread all over the country, to
the number, according to the latest official statistics, of 2,940, namely, 28
in Copenhagen, 132 in the towns of Denmark, and 2.780 in the rural dis-
tricts ; with 231,940 pupils in all, or 123 per thousand of population.
Crime.
In 1885, 2,653 males and 872 females were convicted of crime. Before
the police-courts 1,888 persons were convicted of mendicity and vagrancy.
Finance.
By the terms of the Constitution of Denmark the annual
financial budget, called the ' Finantslovforslag,' must be laid on
the table of the Folkething at the beginning of each session. As
to the annual financial accounts, called ' Statsregnskab,' the Con-
stitutional Charter prescribes them to be examined by four paid
revisers, two of whom are elected by the Folkething and two by
the Landsthing. Their report is submitted to both Chambers,
which, after due consideration, pass their resolution generally to
the effect that they have no remarks to make on the balance-
sheet.
The following shows the actual revenue and expenditure for
the five years ending March 31, 1890 : —
Tear
Revenue
Expenditure
Kroner
Kroner
1886
53,667,607
50, 03."
1887
54,769,601
58,091,289
1888
54.333,290
59, 8»
1889
55,934,903
60,162,412
1890
57,392,986
62,329,181
The estimate of revenue for 1890-91 was 54,680,727 kroner,
and expenditure 62,300,803 kroner. The following is an abstract
of the budget for 1892-93 :—
454
DENMARK
Revenue
Kroner
Expenditure
Kroner
Balance of domain
Civil list and appa-
revenues
856,400
nages .
1,155,200
Interest on State as-
Rigsdag and Council
sets
' 4,305,470
of State
306,616
Direct taxes
9,671,200
Interest and expenses
Indirect taxes, mainly
on State debt
6,795,680
customs and excise.
35,981,000
Pensions, including
Balance of lotteries .
1,025,000
military invalids .
3,414,390
Revenue from Faeroe
Ministry of Foreign
Islands .
63,556
Affairs .
393,364
Separate revenues
767,630
Ministry of Interior .
4,681,578
Revenue from employ-
Ministry of Justice .
3,874,794
ment of property
Ministry of Public
and funding of debt
1,352,680
Worship k Instruction
3,463,464
Various
660,791
Ministry of "War
10,767,167
Ministry of Marine .
6,802,809
Ministry of Finance .
3,339,395
Iceland
92,164
Extraordinary State
expenditure .
9,615,602 '
Improvement of State
property and re-
Total revenue
duction of debt
Total expenditure
3,876,116
58,578,341
54,683,727
An important feature in the administration of the finances of the kingdom
is the maintenance of a reserve fund of a comparatively large amount. On
the 31st of March, 1890, the fund stood at 17,823,139 kroner. The oWed of
the reserve fund is to provide means at the disposal of the Government in the
event of sudden occurrences.
The public debt of Denmark has been incurred in part by large annual
deficits in former years, before the establishment of parliamentary govern-
ment, and in part by railway undertakings and the construction of harbours,
lighthouses, and other works of public importance. The following table gives
the national liabilities at different periods, from 1870 to 1890 : —
Year
ending March 81
1870
1880
1883
Capital of Debt
Kroner
234,740,700
173,838,612
200,855,227
Year
ending March .SI
Capital of Debt
1885
1889
1890
Kroner
197,197,824
190,331,149
188,148,541
The debt is divided into an internal and a foreign. The total foreign debt
amounted in 1890 to 10,605,700 kroner. The external debt is mostly at
4 per cent., and the internal mostly at 3£ per cent.
The entire charge of the debt for 1889-90 was set down as 9,696,158
kroner; after deducting productive investments, &c, the charge per head >>t
population would be about 2s'. 9</. The investments of the State, excluding
the reserve fund, amount to about 60,000,000 kroner.
DEFEN< K
I-:.:,
Defence.
Copenhagen is the only fortress of importance
The army of Denmark consists of all the ahle-l>odied young men of the
kingdom who have reached the age of 22 years. They are liable to service
for eight years in the regular army ami its reserve, constituting tlte first line,
and for eight years subsequent in the extra reserve. The drilling is divided
into two periods : the first lasts six months for the infantry ; five months fat
the field artillery and the engineers ; nine months and two weeks for the
cavalry ; and four months for the siege artillery and the tadnuo corps. Tin-
second period of drill, which is for only a portion of the recruits of each
branch of arms, notably those who have profited the least by the first course,
lasts nine months for the infantry, eleven months for the cavalry, and one
year for the artillery and the engineers. Besides, every corps has to drill
each year during thirty to forty-five days. The kingdom is divided into two
divisions or commands, the eastern ami the western, the former suMivided
into two and the latter into three brigades, and each brigade into two l>at-
talions. Every brigade furnishes the contingent of a brigade of infantry and
one regiment of cavalry. The artillery contingent is furnished one-half by
the two first territorial brigades, and the second half by the three other ones.
The contingent of the engineers is furnished by the whole brL
The forces of the kingdom comprise 31 battalions of infantry of the line
with 13 of second reserve ; 5 regiments of cavalry, each with 3 squadrons
active and a depot ; 2 regiments of artillery, in 12 latteries, and 4 of
reserve, and 2 battalions with 6 companies, and 5 companies of reserve ; and
1 regiment of engineers. The total war strength of the army (1891) is
1,200 officers and 41,750 men. Including the Citizen Coqw of CopemJ
and Bornholm Island, the total war strength is about 60,000 men. This u
exclusive of the extra reserve, only called out in emergencies, and numlwring
1 6, "i00 officers and men.
The navy of Denmark consisted, in 1891, of 1 sea-going armour-clad, 8
coast-defence armour-clads : I protected cruisers ; 1 torpedo ship : 4 sea-
going torpedo-boats ; 5 first-class torpedo-boats and 10 second-class ; 20
unprotected vessels ; 16 troop-boats, and a few other vessels. There are
building : 2 protected cruisers, and 1 sea-going torpedo-boat. The following
is a list of the ironclads completed or afloat : —
Names
-
3
Armour
Thickness at
water-line
Gang
ment or
K: ..'>
per
hour
Weight
Danmark * .
Conn - .
Lindormen - .
Rolf Krake 2 .
Iver Hvitfeldt3
1864
1870
1868
1863
1886
Inches
H
7
5
44
ll|
12
2
2
2
2
9 -ton
18 -ton
13 -ton
7 -ton
28 -ton
' Tons i
1,000 4,700
1,600 2,350
1,500 2,050
700 1,340
5,100 3,260
8 1
12-:1.
12 0
8 0
15 6
Tordenskjold 3
1880
| Xo side)
\ armour /
1
52 -ton
2,500 2,400
13 3
Helgoland4 .
1878
12
fl
36 -ton\
22 -ton/
4,000 5,300
134
Odin* .
1872
8
4
18 -ton 2,200 3,050
12-4
Fyen3 .
Valkyrie 5
1882
1888
1|«
24/
i 4
116
u
?:£!} 2>54° 2'600 ;
l$S) 5>300 2>850;
133
17-5
1 Broadside ship.
Turret ships.
3 Barbette ships.
■* Central batten'.
456
DENMARK
The Danish navy is recruited, by naval conscription, from the coast
population. The budget of 1889-90 provides for 1 vice-admiral, 2 rear-
admirals, 15 commanders, 36 captains, 81 lieutenants, and sub-lieutenants,
145 ensigns, and 1,137 men.
Production and Industry.
The soil of Denmark is greatly subdivided, owing partly to the state of
the law, which interdicts the union of small farms into larger estates, but
encourages, in various ways, the parcelling out of landed preperty, and
leaves the tenant entire control of his land so long as the rent is paid.
Of the total area of Denmark 80 per cent, is productive ; about one-sixth
of the unproductive area is peat bogs. Of the productive area 6 per cent, is
forest, and of the remainder less than one-half is arable, and the remainder
pasture and meadows. The total area under corn crops, according to latest
returns, was 2,917,680 acres ; potatoes, 110,306 acres ; clover, 396,418 acres ;
bare fallow, 638,116 acres; grass, meads, &c, 3,163,020 acres. The leading
crops in 1889 were oats, 25,758,591 bushels; barley, 19,187,287 bushels;
rye, 16,680,111 bushels ; wheat, 4,791,268 bushels; potatoes, 16,794,503
bushels ; other roots, 28,662,067 bushels ; besides vegetables, hay and clover.
The total value of the produce in 1889 was 274,396,459 kroner; in 1888,
253,920,580 kroner ; and in 1887, 243,483,000 kroner.
On July 16, 1888, there were in Denmark proper, 375,533 horses,
1,459,527 head of cattle, 1,225,196 sheep, 13,405 goats, and 770,785 swine.
(In 1881 there were 1,470,078 cattle, and in 1871, 1,238,898.)
In 1890 there were exported 16,217 horses, 139,522 head of cattle, 72,171
sheep and goats, and 111,028 swine.
In 1890 there were in Denmark 113 distilleries (Copenhagen 35), whose
output of brandy, reduced to 8°, was 6,544,780 gallons (30,784,571 potter).
In the same year 22,282 tons of beet sugar were produced at 6 sugar
factories.
Commerce.
The following table shows the value, according to official
returns, of the imports and the exports of home produce (in-
cluding precious metal) for each of the six years from 1885 to
1890 :—
Years Imports
Exports 1 Years
Imports
Exports
Kroner
1885 , 249,223,711
1886 , 211,613,697
1887 250,698,077
Kroner
162,261,370 i, 1888
166,746,742 , 1889
183,103,840 1 1890
Kroner
274,363,759
304,327,851
307,031,194
"
Kroner
186,596,793
209,319,456 '
233,837,937
The commerce of Denmark was divided among the following
classes in 1889 and 1890 :—
COMMERCE
457
I:ni>.>r>.
1889
Imports,
1890
Foods ....
Manufactured articles
Raw products .
Means of production
(machinery, &c.) .
Total
110,100
66,900
107,100
20,200
110,300
68,400
106,200
22,100
Kxr" r*>.
Exports,
1890
1,000 kroner 1,000 kroner 1,000 kroner 1,000 kroner
160,500
10,900
25,000
179,500
12,000
28,406
12,900 13,900
304,300 307,000 209,300 233,800
The principal articles of import and export in 1889 and 1890,
with their respective values, were as follows : —
-
Imports, 1889
Imports, 1890
Exports, 1889 Exports, 1890
Kroner
Kroner Kroner Kroner
Colonial goods .
28,897,203
25,570,582
450 7,103,152
Beverages .
4,170,407
4,224,100
1,647,912 1,590,886
Textile manufactures
38,116,178
38,483,498
4,873.426 4,947,643
Metals and hardware .
27,215,892
28,795,142
3,361,587 ! 5,139,271
Wood k manufactures
15,902,105
18,741,076
3,545,556 2,999,187
Coal.
23,499,138
22,510,725
2,360,121 2,235,225
i Animals .
4,712,863
5,355,738
35,259,765 44,167,905
Pork, butter, eggs, lard
19,328,824
23,868,272
100,997,462 112,313,238
Cereals
31,599,929
31,135,428
12,783.117 14.538,204
The following table shows the distribution of Danish trade
among the leading foreign countries with which she deals : —
18S9 1890
Imports from Imports from
1889
Exports to
18M
Exports to
Germany .
United Kingdom
Sweden and Norway
United States .
Rest of America
Russia
Holland .
Belgium .
France
Danish Colonies
Kroner
100,304,327
73,031,161
47,645.237
13,864,406
791,047
26,302,322
8,708,871
7,734,206
8,096,622
3,777,460
Kroner
99,509.299
67,561,373
48,534,173
21,345,727
972.154
27.116,367
7,138,574
8,497,664
6,949,740
3,885,536
Kroner
41,480,058
126,419,552
26,269,611
1,871,104
94,422
2,734,448
689,279
853,430
2.075,942
4,050,470
Kroner
58,589,573
129,477,205
29,238,848
2.175,566
12.105
2.734,448
931,718
1,115,761
2,137,204
3,959,921
The commercial intercourse between Denmark (including Iceland, the
Faeroe Islands, and Greenland) and the United Kingdom is shown in the
subjoined table in each of the fire years 1886 to 1890, according to the
Board of Trade Returns : —
458
DENMARK
Expi irts to Great Britain
Imports of British pro-
duce . . . .
1886
1887
£
4,936,992
1,729,589
£
5,197,758
1,845,390
£
7,061,396
£
7,845,877
2,082,626 2,364,409
£
7,753,389
2,539,467
The exports of butter to Great Britain rose from 767,190?. in 1870 to
4,422,257?. in 1890. The exports of live animals amounted to the value of
908,028?., comprising 245,578?. for oxen and bulls; 436,892?. for cows and
calves; 203,449?. for sheep; 16,438?. for horses; 5,671?. for swine. The
export of eggs has risen from 67,654?. in 1878 to 359,759?. in 1890. The
export of lard was 6,845?. in 1883, 62,041?. in 1885, 141,503?. in 1886, and
2,242?. in 1890. Of British imports into Denmark, cotton manufactures
and yarn amounted to 442,722?., coals to 767,273?., iron, wrought and un-
wrought, to 214,302?., sugar, 82,144?., and woollens, including yarn, 252,485?.
in 1890.
Shipping and Navigation.
On January 1, 1891, Denmark and colonies possessed 3,543 vessels of
302,194 registered tons in her merchant marine, of which 330 of 112,788
tons were steamers. In 1890, 28,414 vessels of 2,040,535 tons cargo (723 of
360,308 tons cargo British) entered the Danish ports, and 28,998 vessels of
584,469 tons cargo (696 of 42,676 tons cargo British) cleared, besides 30,414
coasting vessels entered, and 31,386 cleared.
Internal Communications.
There are (1891) railways of a total length of 1,247 English miles Open
for traffic in the kingdom. Of this total, about 1,000 English miles belong
to the State, the total cost of which up to March 31, 1890, was 164,141,474
kroner.
The Post Office in the year 1889 carried 49,015,000 letters and post-eaids,
and 4,284,000 samples and printed matter. There are 781 post-offices. The
State Telegraphs in 1890 carried 1,548,493 messages, of which 567,224 were
internal, 948,399 international, 32,870 official. The total length of telegraph
lines at the end of 1890 was 3,674 English miles (2,790 belonging to the
State), and the length of wire 10,280 Fnglish miles. At the same date then'
were 364 telegraph offices, of which 162 belonged to the State, and 202 to
railway companies.
Money and Credit.
In 1886 there were 523 savings-banks ; value of deposits, 377,647,960
kroner; number of depositors, 696,578. In 1888 (July 31) the National
Hank at Copenhagen had total assets valued at 132,052,245 kroner, including
bullion 22,589,170, specie 33,726,314 ; and liabilities 122,515,060 kroner,
including notes 80 millions : capital 27 millions, current accounts 15,282,137.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Denmark, and the British equiva-
lents, are as follows : —
Monijy.
Under a law which came into force on January I. 1S75, the decimal
system of currency was introduced in Denmark, the unit being the Krone,
or crown, divided into 100 ore.
TOLONIKS
459
The Krone ( = 04032 gramme of fine gold) = i Danish Jiigsdaler = 100
= Is. lid., or about 18 Kroner to 1/. sterling.
Weights and Measures.
The Pund = 1000 Kvint = 1000 Ort = 1 1023 lb. avoirdupois. The Centner
100 Pund - 110-23 lb. avoirdupois.
The Tonde of grain
= 3*827 English
bushels.
nil
= 28-9189
gallons.
butter
= 246-9179 11
oirdupois.
coal
— 4-677f» English bushels.
.. P..t ....
= 0-21 20
pdloMi
rrkl
1-7011
,,
<hip Last
-
„ Alen(=2Fod) .
0 6864
\ard.
,, Kubikfod .
= 10918
cubic ft.
,, Begister-Ton for sailing ships
= 1 English ton
register.
,, ,, steamers ,
= 089 „
,,
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Denmark in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister.— F. E. De Bille, accredited 1890.
:>ion. — ( ount Ahlefeld-Laurwig.
Atinchi. — Christian August Gosch.
There are Consuls at London (C.G.i, rk-Ifast, Edinburgh (<'.<;.), Hull
(C.G-), Liverpool. Auckland (N.Z. >. Bombay. Brishane. Calcutta. Cape
Town, Halifax (X.S.). Hong Kong. Kingston (Jamais). Madeira. Malta.
Melbourne. Montreal, Singapore, Sydney, Wellington (N.7.
8. Of Great Britain in Denmark.
Envoy <md Minister. — Hugh Guion MacDonell, C.B.. < '. M.<i. . ap]>oiiited
Envoy Feb. 1. 1888.
Secretary.— Sir F. C. E. Denys, Bart.
There are Consuls at Copenhagen, Reikjavik (Iceland). St. Thomas (V
Indies).
Colonies.
The colonial possessions of Denmark consist of territories in Europe and
America, of area and population as follows : —
Colonies
Area
English sq. m.
Population
Iceland (1888)
Greenland (1888)
(St. Croix
West Indies (1880) -{ St. Thomas .
(.St. John
Total
39,756
46,740
74
23
21
69,224
10,221
18,430
14,389
944
86,614 113,208
460 DENMARK
The possessions in the West Indies alone are of any commercial import-
ance. The inhabitants, mostly free negroes, are engaged in the cultivation
of the sugar cane, exporting annually from 12 to 16 million pounds of raw
sugar, besides 1 million gallons of rum. The value of the total exports from
St. Croix, St. Thomas, and St. John to Denmark was 1,584,832 kroner in
1883, and 534,085 kroner in 1890 ; imports from Denmark 365,557 kroner in
1883, 168,882 kroner in 1890. Exports from the Danish West Indies to the
United Kingdom amounted to 38,399/. in 1884 ; 14,051/. in 1886 ; 24,660/.
in 1887 ; 5,029/. in 1889 ; 2,384/. in 1890 ; and that of the imports of
British produce into these islands to 156,123/. in 1884; 96,024/. in 1886 ;
98,996/. in 1887 ; 80,926/. in 1889 ; 114,508/. in 1890. The chief article of
export is unrefined sugar, valued at 98,755/. in 1882; 4,802/. in 1886;
13,570/. in 1888; 3,400/. in 1889; 1,403/. in 1890; while the British
imports are mainly cotton goods, to the value of 45,446/., and coals, 14,532/.
in 1890. The imports from Greenland to Denmark amounted to 490,748
kroner in 1890, and exports to Denmark to 358,068 kroner.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Denmark.
1. Official Publications.
Apercu preliminaire des principaux resultats do recensement du ler fevrier 1890 en
Danemark. Copenhague, 1890.
Kongelig Dansk Hof og Statscalender. Kjobenhavn, 1891.
Sammendrag af statistiske Oplysninger. No. 10. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1889.
Statistisk Tabelvaerk. Fjerde Raekke. Litra D. Nr. 16. Kongerigets Vare-Indforsel
og Udforsel saint den indenlandske Frembringelse af Braendeviin og Roesakker i Aaret
1889. Udgivet af det Statistiske Bureau. — Litra D. Nr. 8, o. Kongerigets Handels-Flaade
og Skibsfart i Aaret 1890. 4. Kjobenhavn, 1891.
Folkemaengden i Kongeriget Danmark den lste Februar, 1880. Kjobenhavn, 1883.
Report on the Trade of Denmark, in No. 471 ; on the Agriculture of Denmark, in No
of 'Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' London, 1889.
Report on the Trade of Denmark, in No. 639, and on Agriculture in No. 774 of Diplo-
matic and Consular Reports. London, 1890.
Trade of Denmark with the United Kingdom, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the vear 1890.' Imp. 4.
London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Andersen (L.), Copenhagen and its Environs. London.
Baggesen (A.), Den Danske Stat i Aaret 1860. Fremstillet geographisk og statistisk,
tillige fra et militairt standpunkt. 2 vols. 8. Kjobenhavn, 1860-63.
Both, Kongeriget Danmark, en historisk-topographisk Beskrivelse. 2 vols. Copen-
hagen, 1882-85.
Dahlman (F. C), Geschichte von Diinemark. 3 vols. S. Gotha, 1S40-1843.
Handbook for Denmark — Murray's. 8. London.
National okiinomisk Tidsskrift, 1881. Kjobenhavn, 1881.
Ott4(E. C), Denmark and Iceland. 8vo. London, 1881.
Petersen (C. P. N.), Love og andre ofTentlige Kundgjorelscr, <Szc, vedkommende Landvae-
senet i Kongeriget Danmark. 8. Kjobeiinavn, 1865.
Trap (J. P.), statisiisk-topographisk BeskriveLse af Kongeriget Danmark. bided, i vols.
s. Kjul>cnhavn, 1872-78.
Weitemeyer (IL), Danemark ; Geseliielite and liesehreilmng. 12. (Of this than laaa
Knglish translation.)
i
461
ECUADOR-
(Republic a del Ecuador.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Ecuador was constituted May 11, 1830, in consequence of
a civil war which separated the members of the original Republic of Colombia,
founded by Simon Bolivar, by uniting the Presidency of Quito to the Vice-
Royalty of Xew Grenada, and the Captaincy -General of Venezuela, when th< y
threw off the Spanish yoke. A Boundary Treaty was concluded betwet m
Peru and Ecuador on the 2nd of May, 1890, and sanctioned by the Ecuadorian
Congress, but it still lacks ratification by Peru (September 10, 1891). By
its Constitution, dating 1884, with modifications in 1887, the executive u
vested in a President, elected for the term of four years, while the legislative
power is given to a Congress of two Houses ; the first consisting of two
senators for each province (chosen for four years, one-half retiring every t wi i
years), and the second of deputies, on the basis of one deputy for every 30,000
inhabitants, chosen for two years ; both elected by adults who can read and
write and are Roman Catholics. The Congress meets on the 10th of June of
every other year at Quito, the capital and seat of the Government, without
being summoned by the Government. The election of the President takes
place in a direct manner by the people, and that of the Vice-President, whose
term of office is also four years, by the same procedure, but two years alter
that of the President, so that he is a member of two distinct administrations.
The Vice-President in certain eases may be called upon to occupy the
Presidential chair. He also discharges the duties of President of the Council
of State.
President of the Republic. — Senor Don Antonio Flores, elected June 30,
1888.
The President, who receives a salary of 12,000 sucres a year, theoretically
exercises his functions through a Cabinet of four ministers, who, together with
himself, may be impeached by Congress, and who, with other seven
members, form a Council of State. Each minister receives a salary of 2,880
sucres a year. The President has the power of veto, but if Congress insist on
a vetoed bill becoming law, he has no alternative but to give his assent to it.
He may summon an Extraordinary Congress for a specified purpose, but he
cannot dissolve the Chambers or shorten their sittings. By the terms of the
Constitution privileges of rank and race are not allowed to exist within the
Republic, but most of the Indians are virtually in bondage.
Area and Population.
The area of Ecuador is about 120,000 square miles, divided into sixteen
provinces and one territory, with about 1,270,000 inhabitants — whites
100,000, mixed 300,000, Indians 870,000. Included in the above statement
are the Galapagos or Tortoise Islands, with an area of 2,400 square miles, and
a population of about 200.
462
ECUADOR
The population of the Republic is distributed as follows :-
Provinces
Carchi
Imbabura
Pichincha
Leon
Tungurahua
Chimborazo
Pop.
36,000
67,940
205,000
109,600
103,033
122,300
Provinces
Canar
Azuay
Loja .
Bolivar
Rios
Oro
Pop.
64,014
132,400
66,456
43,000
32,800
32,600
Provinces
Guayas
Manabi
Esmeraldas
Oriente
Pop.
98,042
64,123
14,553
80,000
1,271,861
The chief towns are the capital, Quito (50,000), Guayaquil (45,000),
Cuenca (25,000), Riobamba (12,000), Ambato, Loja, and Latacunga (each
10,000).
Religion and Instruction.
The religion of the Republic, according to the Constitution, is the Roman
Catholic, to the exclusion of every other. Primary education is gratuitous
and obligatory. There is a University in Quito with 24 professors and 116
students, and University bodies in Cuenca and Guayaquil. There are 9 schools
for higher education, 35 secondary, and f 856 primary schools; the total
number of teachers is 1,498, and of pupils 58,192.
There are commercial and technical schools in Quito and Guayaquil.
Justice and Crime.
The appellate courts are the Supreme Court in Quito, and six superior
courts at different centres. The inferior courts deal with criminal, civil,
and commercial cases. In the Republic there are 33 cantonal and 359 parochial
justices, and 85 solicitors admitted to practice. There is a consular court in
Quito and one in Guayaquil.
In the one penitentiary of the Republic, which is in Qviito, there were on
the 1st of September, 1891, 126 men and women convicted of serious crimes.
Finance.
The revenue for 1890 was 4,182,591 sucres = 606,172/. (3,175,120 sucres =
460,162/. from customs, mostly at Guayaquil), and the expenditure 3,820,600
sueres=553,710/. The surplus is only apparent, as payments which should
have been made in 1890 have been deferred. Tithes have been abolished, and
a fixed income for the Church has been substituted for them.
Tbe foreign liabilities of the Republic are made up of a debt of 1,824,000/.,
which amount formed the part of the debt assigned to Ecuador on its secession
from Colombia in 1830. In 1854 an arrangement was made with the bond-
holders, under which this debt was recognised by Ecuador, but in 1867 service
Of this debt ceased. The arrears of interest amount (May 1, 1891) to 428,640/.
By an arrangement made in August 1890 with the foreign bondholders, the
capital of the debt and arrears of interest thereon were to be converted into a
debt of 750,000/., bearing interest at I .'. percent, I'ortive years, -t^ percent, for
tbe next five years, and 5 percent, afterwards, with A per cent, sinking fund
during tbe first five years, ami 1 per cent, afterwards. Tliis arrangement was
accepted by the bondholders subject to the condition thai their rights should
revive in ease any one coupon should remain unpaid more than twelve months.
This condition was rejected by the Ecuadorian uavtRUBMt, and the negotia-
tions were broken off.
Tbe internal debt amounts to about 5,000,000 suercs. Its service is in-
differently attended to.
DEFENCE — COMMER4 I
463
Defence.
The Ecuadorian army numbers 3,341 officers and men. This force is com-
posed of 1 brigade of fortress and 1 of field artillery, 4 battalions of infantry,
2 columns of light infantry, and a regiment of cavalry.
The navy consists of a cruiser, which cannot be classified, two small gun-
boats for river service, and a transport, which vessels are manned by about
120 men. The national guard is said to consist of 30,000 men.
Commerce.
The exports from Ecuador were valued at 4,915,120 sucres in 1885 ;
6,565,000 sucres in 1886 ; 10,119,488 sucres in 1887 ; 9,100,000 sucres in 1888 ;
7,910,205 sucres in 1889 ; 9,761,634 sucres in 1890. The chief exports (1890)
were cocoa, 7,404,140 sucres; coffee, 654,320 sucres; straw hats, 3:
sucres ; hides, 226,874 sucres«; India rubber, 153,730 sucres ; ivory nuts,
130,800 sucres; sugar, 87,356 sucres; specie, gold, &c, 1,042,573 >
The imports into Ecuador in 1889 were valued at 9,681,450 sucres ; in 1890,
10,016,352 sucres.
The following table shows the value of the trade of Ecuador in 1889 and
1890, with the leading countries with which it does business : —
Countries
Imports into Ecuador Exports from Ecuador
1889
1890 MM
MM
Chili .
• Colombia
Fiance
Germany
Great Britain
Peru .
Spain .
; United States
8ucres
945,277
423,679
1,989,426
i 1,331,248
2,350,500
740,331
273,270
1,377,592
Sucres
365,101
107,370
2,464,064
1,318,932
2,671,566
930.
2-21,944
1,607,461
Sucres
349,096
351,063
1,944,534
1.222,069
1,275,145
173,074
1,671,829
731,097
Sucres
459,130
334,255
2,280,218
1,403,891
1,729,914
'.74,251
1,842,350
930,560
The total value of the exports of Ecuador to Great Britain, and of the im-
ports of British produce into Ecuador, was as follows in the five years 1886 to
1890, according to the Board of Trade returns : —
-
1886
1887
1888
18S9
1890
: Exports to Great Britain .
Imports of British pro-
duce
£
225,754
254,962
£
219,062
378,633
£
132,360
365,622
£
72,430
266,176
£
72,843
290,743
The chief articles of export from Ecuador to Great Britain consist of cocoa,
of the value of 98,561?. in 1885, 193,975/. in 1886, 155,209/. in 1887,
93,715/. in 1888, 28,621/. in 1889, 44,544/. in 1890 ; Peruvian bark has declined
from 100,346?. in 1882 to 7,434/. in 1890. Of the imports of British produce
into Ecuador, cotton goods, to the value of 155,527/ , and iron, wrought and
unwrought, 36,531/., formed the principal articles in 1890.
464
ECUADOR
Shipping and Navigation.
The following is the movement of national and foreign shipping at the port
of Guayaquil in 1890, which may be considered to include about the whole of
the national vessels engaged in trade, except river craft and very small coast-
ing vessels, which are not entered in the register of the Captain of the Port : —
-
Entered
Cleared
Sailing
Steamers
Total
Sailing
Steamers
Total
British
National .
Foreign . .
Total .
No.
108
33
Tons
5,070
11,912
No.
Ill
87
Tons
126,600
112,612
No.
Ill
108
120
Tons
126,600
5,070
124,524
No.
1
86
32
Tons
679
4,517
11,944
No.
Ill
87
Tons
126,600
112,612
No.
112
86
119
Tons
127,339
4,517
124,556
141
16,982
198
239,212
339
256,194
119
17,140
198
239,272
317
256,412
Internal Communications.
The roads of the country are mostly bridle-roads only. The one highway
is from Quito towards Guayaquil, for a distance of 115 miles, but the work
of thus connecting the capital and the port has long been discontinued.
There is river communication throughout the principal agricultural districts
on the low grounds to the west of the Cordillera by the rivers Guayas, Daule,
and Vinces (navigable for 200 miles by river steamers in the rainy season), and
other small affluents thereof. Navigation of these inland waters is carried on
by about 17 American and Ecuadorian-built side-wheel and screw steamers,
and a large fleet of canoes and other small craft.
Only one railway is in course of construction, going from Duran (opposite
Guayaquil) to Chimbo, 57 miles. The company held a privilege from the State
and had the salt monopoly, which yields about 100,000 sucres net yearly.
This privilege has expired, the State has resumed possession of the salt mines,
litigation is proceeding between the Government and the contractors, and work
is suspended. Last year a French syndicate obtained a concession to continue
the line from Chimbo eventually to Quito ; but as yet the necessary funds
have not been raised.
The total length of telegraphs is about 1,074 miles, Quito being connected
with Guayaquil and the coast, with the Republic of Colombia, and by cable
with the rest of the world. A telephonic system with 400 subscribers is
established at Guayaquil.
Money and Credit.
By a coinage law of March 1884 the unit of the monetary system is the
sucre = a five-franc piece, although the average rate on exchange is only S5d.
per sucre (33-Jd. in 1889-90). There is no gold in circulation in the country ;
sueh us is introduced or brought down from the interior is bought up only for
exchange purposes.
Silver is generally in circulation, but there are no statistics to show the
amount. The two Guayaquil hanks had deposited in their vaults on December
DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR REPRESENTATIVES 496
31, 1890, the sum of 1,406,370 sucres, or 200,000*., and the amount in actual
circulation throughout the whole country may be estimated at about 1,500,000
sucres, or 220,000/.
No gold, silver, or copper money is minted in the country. The minting
of Ecuadorian coin has been done "in England (Birmingham), Chili, and Peru ;
the amount coined for the four years ending with 1889 being about 1,835,000
sueivs (262,0002.) silver, and 40,000 sucres (6,0002.) nickel (nominal l
The amount coined in 1890 was 77,0002. silver, and 7,000/. nickel.
There are three bunks authorised to issue notes for circulation, viz., the
Banco del Ecuador, capital 2,000,000 sucres (285,0002.) ; Banco Internacional,
capital 800,000 sucres (114,0002.) ; Banco de la Union, capital 240,000 sucres
(40,0002.). Its notes only circulate in Quito. During 1885, 6, 7, 8 and 9
-:ie was exactly 246,658 sucres (49,3312. 6s.) in each year. They are in
no way related to the State, except that they have to present a nionthh
of lalances of silver in deposit and notes in circulation. The banks constantly
make loans for general or specific objects to the Government, and the debt due
on this account to the Bank of Ecuador on December 31, 1890, was 1,115,569
sucres (160,0002.). and to the Banco Internacional 409,872 sucres (60,0002.).
The cash deposited in the two banks on June 30, 1891, was : —
Banco del Ecuador, 1,521,157 so
Banco Internacional, 424,729 m
The authorised issue of notes depends on the stock of silver in the vaults
of the bank, and the banks are bound by law to hold one-thinl of the value
of their circulation in coin, silver or gold.
There are no private hanks.
There are two newly-started savings banks in Guayaquil, not related in
any way to the Government.
The amount of notes in circulation for the past six years has been as
follows : —
Years
Bank of Ecuador
Banco Internacional
Sucres £
Sucres £
1885
1,807,517 = 260,000
176,593= 25,000
1886
2,128,254 = 304,000
465,599= 66,500
1887
2,141,716 = 320,000
.757 = 108,000
1888
2,084,504 = 297,900
859,176 = 122,700
1889
1,685,866 = 241,000
853,264 = 121,900
1890
2,132,560 = 328,090
860,148 = 132,330
Weights and Measures.
By a law of December 6, 1856, the French metrical system of weights and
measures was made the legal standard of the Republic ; but is not adopted by
commerce.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Ecuador in Great Britain.
Consul-General. — Pedro A. Merino, accredited July 9, 1885.
There are also Consuls at London,-Birmingham, Liverpool, Manchester, and
Southampton.
2. Of Great Britain in Ecuador.
Minister and Consul -General. — William H. D. Haggard.
Consul at Guayaquil. — Geo. Chambers.
H H
466 ECUADOR,
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Ecuador.
1. Official Publications.
Report by Consul Chambers on the Trade and Commerce of Guayaquil in 1890, in No. 832
of ' Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' London, 1891.
Report on the Finances of Ecuador, No. 811, and Report on the Trade and General Con-
dition of Bucador, No. 951 of ' Diplomatic and Consular Reports.'
Trade of Ecuador with Great Britain, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year 1890.' Imp. 4. Lon-
don, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bates (H. W.), Central and South America. London, 18S2.
Campos, Galeria de Ecuatorianos celebres. Guayaquil, 1881.
Cevallos, Compendio del resumen de la historia del Ecuador. Guayaquil, 1S85.
Cevallos, Resumen de la historia del Ecuador. Guayaquil, 1880. 5 v.
Ecuador in 1881. Report of Mr. G. E. Church to the United States Government. Re-
printed in South American Journal. London, 1883.
Flemming (B.), Wanderungen in Ecuador. 8. Leipzig, 1872.
Gerstacker (Friedrio.h), Achtzehn Monate in Stid-Amerika. 3 vols. S. Leipzig, 1803.
Gonzalez Sdurez, Historia ecclesiastics del Ecuador. Quito, 1881.
Hassaurek (F.), Four Years among Spanish Americans. 3rd edition. Cincinnati, 1881.
Herrera (P.), Apuntes para la historia de Quito. Quito, 1874.
Herrera, Decadas de Indias. Madrid, 1830. 8 t.
Orton (James), The Andes and the Amazon. New York, 1876.
Oviedo y Valdes, Historia de las Indias. Madrid, 1885. 4 v.
Schwarda (T.), Reise um die Erde. Vol. III. 8. Braunschweig, 1801.
Simson (Alired), Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador. London, 1887.
Ternaux-Compans(h.), Histoire du royaume de Quito. Traduite de l'Espagnol. (Velnsco :
Historia del reino de Quito.) 2 vols. 8." Paris, 1840.
Villavicencio (D.), Geografia de la Republica del Ecuador. 8. New York, 1858.
Wa0ner"(Moritz Friedrich), Reisen in Eucador; in ' Zeitschrift fiir allgemeine ErdkumU.'
Vol. xvi. Berlin, 1804.
467
FRANCE.
Constitution and Government.
I. Central.
Since the overthrow of Napoleon III. on September 4, L870,
France has been under a Republican form of government, con-
firmed on February 25, and June 16, 1875, by an organic law
(Constitution Wallon), which has been partially modified in June
1879, August 1884, June 1885, and July 1889. It vests the
legislative power in the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate,
and the executive in the President of the Republic and the
Ministry.
The President is elected for seven years, by a majority of
votes, by the Senate and Chamber of Deputies united in a
National Assembly, or Congress. He promulgates the laws voted
by both Chambers, and ensures their execution. He select- ■
Ministry from the Chamber, appoints to all civil and military
posts, has the right of individual pardon, and is responsible only
in case of high treason. The President concludes treaties with
foreign Powers, but cannot declare war without the previous
assent of both Chambers. Every act of the President has to be
countersigned by a Minister. With the consent of the Senate
he can dissolve the Chamber of Deputies. In case of vacancy,
the two Chambers united immediately elect a new President.
President of the Republic — Marie Francois Sadi Carnot, born
at Limoges, 1837; studied at the Ecole Polytechnique and the.
Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees ; Under-Secretary of Public Works,
1887 ; Minister of Public Works, 1880-82 ; Minister of Finance,
1882, and again 1886. Elected President of the Republic,
December 3, 1887.
The present Ministry, appointed by the President of the
Republic March 17, 1890, consists of the following members : —
1. President of the Council and Minister of War — M. Be
Freycinet.
2. Minister of Foreign Affairs — M. Ribot.
3. Minister of Finance. — M. Rouvier.
4. Minister of Public Instruction and the Fine Arts. — M.
Bourgeois.
5. Minister of Justice and Public Worship.—^l. Fallieres.
h h 2
468
FRANCE
6. Minister of Marine. — Vice-Admiral Barbey.
7. Minister of Public Works. — M. Ives Guyot.
8. Minister of Agriculture. — M. Develle.
9. Minister of Commerce. — M. Jules Roche.
10. Minister of the Interior. — M. Gonstans.
The following is a list of the Sovereigns and Governments of
France, from the accession of the House of Bourbon : —
House of Bourbon.
Henri IV. . . . 1589-1810
Louis XIII., ' le Juste ' . 1610-1843
Louis XIV., 'le Grand' . 1643-1715
Louis XV. ' ... . . 1715-1774
Louis XVI. ( + 1793) . 1774-1792
House of Bourbon-Orleans.
Louis Philippe (+ 1850) 1830-1848
Second Republic.
Pro visional Government,
Feb.— Dec. . . 1848
Louis Napoleon . . 1848-1852
Empire restored.
Napoleon III. (died 1873) 1852-1870
Third llepublic.
Government of National
Defence . . 1870-1871
Louis A. Thiers, President 1871-1873
Marshal MacMahon ,, 1873-1879
F. J. P. Jules Grevy ,, 1879-1887
M F. Sadi Carnot „ 1887
' First Republic.
Convention . . . 1792-1795
Directoire . . . 1795-1799
Consulate . . . 1799-1804
Empire.
Napoleon I. (+ 1821) . 1804-1814
House of Bourbon restored.
Louis XVIII. . , 1814-1824
Charles X. ( + 1836) .1824-1830
The Chamber of Deputies is elected for four years, by uni-
versal suffrage, and each citizen 21 years old, who can prove a
six months' residence in any one town or commune, and not
otherwise disqualified, has the right of vote. The only requisite
for being a Deputy is to be a citizen and 25 years of age. The
manner of election of Deputies has been modified several times
since 1871. The scrutin de liste, under which each elector votes
for as many Deputies as the entire department has to elect, was
introduced in 1871. In 1876 it was replaced by the scrutin
d' arrondissement, under which each department is divided into a
number of arrondissements, each elector voting for one Deputy
only ; in 1 885 there was a return to the scrutin de liste, and
in 1889 the uni-nominal vote was reintroduced. In 1889 it
was enacted that each candidate is bound to make, within the
fortnight which precedes the elections, a declaration as to his
being a candidate for a given constituency, and for one con-
stituency only — all votes which eventually may lie given for him
in other constituencies being reckoned as void. Multiple elections
and elections of persons previously condemned by the law courts
are thus rendered impossible. The task of annulling illegal elec-
tions, which formerly belonged to the Chamber, has been vested
in special electoral committees, partly nominated ad hoc by the
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 469
Prefect of the Department, and partly composed of Municipal
Councillors .
The Chamber is now composed of 584 Deputies ; each ■ arron-
dissement ' elects one Deputy, and if its population is in excess of
100,000, it is divided into two constituencies. There were
10,387,330 inscribed electors in 1889, and 7,953,382 voted.^
The Senate is composed of 300 members, elected for nine
years from citizens 40 years old, one-third retiring every three
wars. The election of the Senators is indirect, and is made by
an electoral body composed (1) of delegates chosen by the Muni-
cipal Council of each commune in proportion to the population ;
and (2) of the Deputies, Councillors-General, and District Coun-
cillors of the department. Besides the 225 Departmental
Senators elected in this way, there were, according to the law of
1875, 75 Senators elected for life by the united two Chambers ;
but by the Senate Bill of 1884 it was enacted that vacancies
arising among the Life Senatorships would be filled by the elec-
tion of ordinary nine-years Senators. The Princes of deposed
dynasties are precluded from sitting in the Upper House.
The Senate and Chamber of Deputies assemble every year on
the second Tuesday in January, unless a previous summons is
made by the President of the Republic, and they must remain in
session at least five months out of the twelve. The President is
bound to convoke them if the demand is made by one-half of the
number of members composing each Chamber. The President
can adjourn the Chambers, but the adjournment cannot exceed
the term of a month, nor occur more than twice in the same
■n. The Senate has, conjointly with the Chamber of
Deputies, the right of initiating and framing laws. Neverth-
financial laws must be first presented to and voted by the Chamber
of Deputies.
All bills, before being introduced either into the Senate or
Chamber, are submitted to special bureaux or committees, which
report to the Chambers. Bills may be introduced either by the
Ministry or the President (through the Ministry), or by private
members. The Chamber can.be dissolved by the President upon
advice of the Senate. The President and the Ministers may be
impeached by the Chamber of high treason, in which case the
Senate acts as a High Court of Justice. The same function is
I in the Senate for all other cases of high treason.
The Deputies are paid 9,000 francs, and the Senators 15,000
francs a year. The President's dotation is 600,000 francs, with
a further allowance of 600,000 francs for his expenses.
France has, besides, a special institution under the name of
470 FRANCE
Conseil d'Etat, which was introduced by Napoleon I., and has
been maintained since. It is presided over by the Minister of
Justice, and is composed of Councillors, Masters of Requests
(Maitres de Requetes), and Auditors, all appointed by the Presi-
dent of the Republic. Its duty is to give opinion upon such
questions, chiefly those connected with administration, as may
be submitted to it by the Government.
II. Local Government.
For administrative purposes France is divided into 86 departments, or 87
if the ' territory of Belfort ' (a remnant of the department of Haut-Rhin) be
considered as a separate department. Since 1889 the three departments of
Algeria-are also treated, for most purposes, as part of France proper. The
department has representatives of all the Ministries, and is placed under a
Prefeet, nominated by Government, and having wide and undefined functions.
He is Assisted by a Prefectorial Council, whose advice he may take without
being bound to follow it. The Prefect is a representative of the Executive,
and, as such, supervises the execution of the laws, issues police regulations,
nominates subordinate officials, and has under his control all officials of the
State. In most arrondissements there is a Sub-prefect.
The unit of local government is the commune, the size and population of
which vary very much. There are 36,131 communes, and new ones cannot
be created otherwise than by law. Most of them (31,488) have less than
1,500 inhabitants, and 17,181 have even less than 500 ; while 99 communes
only have more than 20, 000 inhabitants. The local affairs of the commune
are under a Municipal Council, composed of from 10 to 36 members, elected
by universal suffrage, and by the scrutin de liste ; but each act of the Council
must receive the approval of the Prefect, while many must be submitted to the
Council General, or even to the President of the Republic, before becoming
lawful. Even the Commune's quota of direct taxation is settled by persons
chosen by the Prefect from among the lists of candidates drawn up by the
Municipal Council.
Each Municipal Council elects a Mayor, who is simply considered as an
intermediary between the Prefect and the commune. The Mayor is the head
of the local police under the orders of the Prefect.
In Paris the Municipal Council is composed of 80 members ; each of the
20 arrondissements into which the city is subdivided lias its own Mayor.
The place of the Mayor of Paris is taken by the Prefect of Police. Lyons lias
an elected Mayor, but the control of the police is vested in the Prefect of the
department of the Rhone.
The next unit is the canton (2,871 in France), which is composed of an
average of Lfi communes, although the larger communes are, on the contrary,
divided into several cantons. It is a seat of a justice ul' the peace.
The district, or arrondisscmcnt (362 in France), has an elected consril
d'arrondwuemm/, whose chief (unction is to allot among the communes their
respective parts in the direct taxes assigned to each arromlisxcmcnt by
the Council General. That body stands under the control of the Sub-
prefect. A varying number Of (U/TOtuHnscments form a department, which
has its conseil gfyufraU renewed by universal suffrage to the extent of one-
half every three years. These eonseila may deliberate upon all economical
affairs of the department, bttl their financial resources are mostly insignifi-
AREA AND POPULATION'
471
cant, and besides the repartition of the direct taxes among the arrondisse-
ments, their activity is confined to the roads, normal schools, and a few
undertakings for the relief of the poor. Their decisions are controlled by the
Prefect, and may be annulled by the President of the Republic.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The area of France has changed but little since the treaties
of 1815. In 1860, after the Italian War, it was increased by
the annexation of Savoie and Nice from Italy ; and by the
treaty of May 10, 1871, France lost the entire department of the
Bas-Rhin, two arrondissements, with a fraction of a third, of the
Haut-Rhin, and the greater portion of the department of M<>-
selle, making altogether an area of 5,590 square miles and
1,600,000 inhabitants, pari of whom emigrated into France during
the next few years.
The following table gives the area, in English square miles,
and the legal population (including those present and absent) of
the 87 departments of France according to the census returns of
May 31, 1886, and April 12, 1891 :—
Area :
Population
Population per
Departments
Engl. sq.
square mile,
miles
M>> ;;. ISM
April 12, 1891
1891
Ain
2,239
364,408
356,907
1590
Aisne .
2,839
555,925
545,493
192
1
Allier .
2,822
424,582
424,382
150
4
Alpes (Basses-)
2,685
129,494
124,285
46
2
Alpes (Hautes-)
2,158
122,924
115.522
53
3
Alpes-Maritinu-
1,482
238,057
258,571
174
2
Ardeche
2,136
375.472
371,269
173
5
Ardennes
2,020
332,759
324,923
160
8
Ariege .
1,890
237,619
227.491
120
3
Anbe
2,317
257,374
255,548
110
2
Aude
2,438
332,080
Zll.ill
130
2
Aveyron
3,376
415,826
400,467
118
2
Belfort (territ. de) .
235
79,758
83,670
356
0
Bouches-du-Rhone
1.971
604,857
630,022
322
6
Calvados
2,132
437,267
428,945
201
1
Cantal .
2,217
241,742
239,601
108
1
durante
2,294
366,408
360,259
156
1
Charente-Inferieure
2,635
462,803
456,202
173
2
Cher .
2,780
355,349
35!'
129
3
Correze .
2,265
326,494
328,119
145
o
Corse
3,377
278,501
288,596
85
6
C6te-d'Or
3,889
381,574
376,866
111
3
472
PRANCE
Area :
Population
Population per
Departments
Engl. sq.
square mile,
miles
May 31, 1886
April 12, 1891
1891
C6tes-du-Nord
2,659
628,256
618,652
232-4
Creuse .
2,150
284,942
284,660
132-3
Dordogne
3,546
492,205
478,471
134-9
Doubs .
2,018
310,963
303,081
150-2
Drome .
2,518
314,615
306,419
121-7
Eure
2,300
358,829
349,471
152-0
Eure-et-Loir .
2,268
283,719
284,683
125-2
Finistere
2,595
707,820
727,012
280-0
Gard .
2,253
417,099
419,388
186-1
Garonne (Haute-) .
2,429
481,169
472,383
194-4
Gers
2,425
274,391
261,084
107-7
Gironde
3,761
775,845
793,528
211-0
Herault
2,393
439,044
461,651
193-0
Ille-et-Vilaine
2,597
621,384
626,875
241-3
Indre
2,624
296,147
292,868
111-6
Indre-et-Loire
2,361
340,921
337,298
1435
Isere
3,201
581,680
572,145
178-5
Jura
1,928
281,292
273,028
141-8
Landes .
3,599
302,266
297,842
82-7
Loir-et-Cher .
2,452
279,214
280,358
1142
Loire
1,838
603,384
616,227
335 2
Loire (Haute-)
1,916
320,063
316,735
164-8
Loire-Inferieure
2,654
643,884
645,263
243-0
Loiret .
2,614
374,875
377,718
144-5
Lot
2,012
271,514
253,885
126-1
Lot-et-Garonne
2,067
307,437
295,360
142-8
Lozere .
1,996
141,264
135,527
62-0
Maine-et-Loire
2,749
527,680
518,589
188-3
■ Manche .
2,289
520,865
513,815
224-5
Marne .
3,159
429,494
434,692
137-5
Marne (Haute-)
2,402
247,781
243,533
101-3
Mayenne
1,996
340,063
332,387
1665
Meurthe-et-Moselle
2,025
431,693
444,150
219-2
Meuse .
2,405
291,971
292,253
121-4
Morbihan
2,625
535,256
544,470
210-8
Nievre .
2,632
347,645
343,581
130-5
Nord .
2,193
1,670,184
1,736,341
791-0
Oise
2,261
403,146
401,835
l77-(i
Orne
2,354
367,248
354,387
150-5
I'as-dc-Calais
2,551
853,.r^ti
874,::<;i
843 a
l'uy-du-Dome
3,070
570,964
564,266
!>;;;>
ryn'necs (Bta»
2,943
432,999
425,027
144-2
Pyrenees (Hautes-)
1,749
284,825
225,861
122-5
Pyrenees-Oriental, s
Rhone .
1,592
211,187
210,125
131-7
1,077
772,912
806,737
► 748'8
Sa6ne (Haute-)
2,063
290,954
280,856
136-1
Sa6ne-et-Loire
3,302
625,885
619,523
L87-8
Snrthe .
2,396
436,111
429,7:'-7
17:»-:?
Savoie .
2,224
i
267,428
263,297
118-8
AREA AXD POPn.ATIoN
473
Area ;
Population
Population per
Departments
English sq.
sq. mile,
miles
May 31, 1888
April 12, 1891
1891
Savoie (Haute-)
1,667
.018
26 v
161-0
Seine
183 6
2,961,089
3,141,595
17,108-9
Seine- Inferieure
2,330
833,386
839,876
360 5
Seine-et-Marne
2,215
355,136
356,709
161-0
Seine-et-Oise
2,164
618,089
628,590
290 5
Sevres (Deux)
2..: 17
353,766
152-9
Somme
2,379
548,982
546,495
Tarn .
2.217
358
346,739
Tarn-et-Garonne .
1,436
214.046
206,596
143-7
Var
2,349
283,689
288,336
123-0
Vaucluse
1,370
241
111
171-8
Vendee
2,58€
434,808
442,355
171-0
Vienne
2,691
J. 785
344,355
Yienne (Haute-)
2,130
363
372,878
175-0
Vosges .
2,266
413,707
410,196
181-0
Yonne .
Total
2,868
355,364
344,688
120-2
1 204,092
38,218,903
38,343,192
187-8
The population actually present at the date of the Census in 1886 was
37,886,566, and in 1891, 38,095,156.
It will be seen that between 1886 and 1891 there has been a decrease of
Imputation in 55 departments, and an increase in 32. In 1891 there were
:362 arrondissements, 2,881 cantons, and 36,144 communes.
Notwithstanding a moderate death-rate, the population of France increases
more slowly than in most States of Western Europe, owing to the low rate of
births, as seen from the following table, which gives the average annual
numbers of marriages, births, and deaths for decennial periods : —
Per 1.000 Inhabitants
--
j -
If
= i
2*
-r =
.= c
= T.
_ —
■ c
.
s
X
1
•
I
n
|
i
x £-
r -
E
Number o
<
r.
-'-
1811-20
29-7
•- -;
942
773
7-9
31-7
■V7
4-0
1821-30
31-8
247
974
790
7-8
30-«
5-8
-
s-7
1831-40
33-6
266
967
--
7-9
.....
4-2
-
s-s
1841-50
35-3
279
962
817
7-9
27-3
4-1
1851-60
365
287
953
866
7-9
26-6
23-7
2-9
74
«
3-0
1861-70
38-2
301
932
...
7-9
•-'4-4
23-2
1-2
4.5
3-0
1871-80
36-7
295
935
871
8-0
25 4
23-7
1-7
72
46
1881-85
37-8
284
935
841
24-9
22-3
1-6
,8
3-0
1 Not including still-birtbs.
The changes of area and population since! 1801 (date of the first census
taken) are seen from the following table The third, fourth, and fifth
columns give [in brackets] for the first five censuses the population, its
density, and its average annual increase on the present territory of France,
and are thus comparable with the data for the censuses posterior to the lass of
and Lorraine.
474
FRANCE
Dates
Area : sq. miles
Population
Inhabitants
per sq. mile
Annual Increase j
per 10,000 inhabits.!
1801
204,765
27,349,003
134
[26,930,756]
[132]
—
1821
—
30,461,875
149
57
[29,871,176]
[146]
[55]
1841
—
34,230,178
167
62
[33,406,864]
[164]
[58]
1861
209,625
37,446,313
178
37
[35,844,902]
[176]
[36]
1866
—
38,192,064
182
40
[36,495,489]
[17S]
[36]
1872
204,092
36,102,921
177
-961
[-17]1
1876
—
36,905,788
181
54
1881 ■
37,672,048
184
41
1886
38,218,903
187
29
1891
—
38,343,192
187-8
6-5
1 Decrease.
The foreigners residing in France make no less than 3 per cent, of the
aggregate population. The items for 1886 appeared as follow
Belgians .... 482,261 | Austro-Hungarian
Italians
Germans
Spaniards
Swiss
Dutch
English
264,568
100,114
79,550
78,584
37,149
36,134
12,090
Russians . ; . . 11,980
Miscellaneous . . . 73,230
Total (1886) . . 1,126,531
„ (1851) . . 379,289
„ (1891) . . 1,101,728
Occupations of Population. — According to the results of the census of
1886, it appears that of the total population the number engaged in agricul-
ture amounted to 17,698,402 ; in industry, 9,289,206 ; transport, 1,020,721 ;
trade, 4,247,764; public forces, 613,362; public administration, 711,027;
liberal professions, 1,094,233 ; independent persons, 2,295,966 ; without
profession, 237,899 ; not classed, 490,374 ; of unknown professions, 231,805,
II. Movement of the Population.
Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
Year
Marriages
1
Total Illegitimate n.-dlis
Births Children «*■«■
Surplus of
Births Still-born
over Deaths
1
1870
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
223,705
283,193
277,060
276,848
272,934
a269,332
943,515
912,782
899,333
882,639
880,579
838,059
70,415
74,552
73,854
74,919
73,571
71,086
1,046,909
860,222
842,797
837,867
794,933 j
876,505
-103,394
52.560
5.;.5:;<;
44,772
85,520
-38,446
43,581
42,930
42,070
42,449
40,535
The movement of the population is very unequal over France, and from
mmi to year the deaths an.' in excess of the births in from 32 to 60 depart-
ments out of 87.
AREA AND POPULATION'
47'
In 1890 the excess of deaths over births was l'O per 1,000 inhabitants.
In France, as a whole, there were 95 "6 births for every hundred deaths, the
proportion of births for even- 100 deaths varying from 132 in Pas-de-Calais
and 125 in Nord to 65 in Lot-et-Garonne, and 62 in Gers. The births ex-
ceeded the deaths in only 17 out of the 87 departments of France. In
Corsica there were 114 births for every 100 deaths. The birth-rate for all France
was 21 8 per 1,000 inhabitants, and the death-rate 22 7 per 1,000 inhabitants.
Illegitimate births formed 8 '5 per cent, of all births, as against 7 "5 per cent,
in 1881 ; it reached as much as 24 per cent in the department of the Seine
(Paris), from 14 per cent, in the North, and in Brittany it was from 2 to 4 per
cent, of all births. The average with foreigners in France was 13 5 per 100 births.
The number of divorces is rapidly increasing; it was 3,636 in 1887, 4,708
in 1888, 4,786 in 1889, and 5,457 (7 per 10,000 households) in 1890, the
aggregate number of 27,471 divorces having been registered since the new law
was voted in 1884.
Emigration.
The total number of emigrants from French ports to countries beyond
Europe during the three years 1886-88 was 209,726, of whom, however, only
41,823 were French. In 18S5 the number of emigrants was 6,063, in 1886
7.314. in 1887 11,170, and in 1888 23,339. The majority of the emigrants go
to the United States and the Argentine Republic. At the census of 1881 it was
found that of the total population 22,702,356 were born within their communes.
As in other countries of Europe, there is a steady movement from the
country towards the cities. In 1846 the rural population constituted :
percent, of the total, and the urban 24 "42 per cent. ; while in 1886 the
former was 64*05,. and the latter 35 95. In 1881, of the total increase of
766.260, more than two-thirds, or 561,869, belonged to the 47 towns of more
than 30,000 inhabitants.
III. Principal Town<.
The following, according to the census of 1891, are the towns with a com-
munal population over 30,000 : —
Paris .
•2.447,957
Montpellier
. 69,258
Avignon
43,453
Lyon .
416,029
Rennes
. 69,232
Lorient
42.116
Marseille
403.749
Tourcoing
65.4 77
Levallois-Perret
39,857
Bordeaux
•2~. 2, 415
Dijon
. 65,428
Dunquerque .
39,498
Lille .
. 201,211
Orleans
63,705
Cherbourg
38,554
Toulouse
149,791
Grenoble
60,439
Poitiers
37,497
St. Etieune
133,443
Tours .
60.335
Angouleme .
36,690
Nantes
122,750
Le Mans
7.412
Cette .
36,541
Le Havre
116,369
Calais .
56,867
Perpignan
Roubaix
114.917
Besancon
56,055
Rochefort
33,334
Rouen
112,352
Versailles
51,679
Boulogne-sur-
Reims
104,186
St. Denis
50,992
Seine
32,569
Nice .
88,273
Troves
50,330
Pau .
32,111
Nancy
87,110
Clermont-Fe
rrand
Perigueux
31,439
Amiens
83,654
50,119
Roanne
31,380
Toulon
77.747
St. Quintin
47,551
St. Nazaire .
30,935
Brest .
75.854
Beziers
45,475
Clichy
30,608
Limo-
72.697
BourL
45.342
Laval
30,374
Angers
72,669
Boulogne
45,205
Nimes
71,623
Caen .
45,201
The aggregate population of these 56 towns is 6,862,822, and the increase
during 1886-91, 340,396. Of the 36,141 communes in France, onlv 232 have
a population over 10,000.
476 FRANCE
Religion.
The population of France, at the census of December 1881,
consisted of 29,201,703 "Roman Catholics, being 78-50 per cent,
of the total population ; 692,800 Protestants, or 1-8 per cent, of
the population, as compared with 584,757 in 1872 ; of 53,436
Jews, and 7,684,906 persons ' who declined to make any declara-
tion of religious belief.' This was the first census at which ' non-
prof essants ' were registered as such. On former occasions it had
been customary to class all who had refused to state what their
religion was, or who had denied having any religion, as Roman
Catholic. The number of persons set down as belonging to
' various creeds ' was 33,042.
All religions are equal by law, and any sect which numbers
100,000 adherents is entitled to a grant ; but at present only the
Roman Catholics, Protestants, Jews, and Mussulmans (Algeria,
&c.) have State allowances. In the Budget for 1892 these grants
were as follows : Francs
Administration, &c. .... . 259,500
Roman Catholic worship, and places of worship . 41,835,817
Protestant worship, &c. ...... 1,551,600
Jewish worship, &c 180,900
Protestant and Jewish places of worship ... 40, 000
Mussulman worship . . . . ... . 216,340
Various 13,000
Total 45,057,157
There are 17 archbishops and 67 bishops; and of the Roman
Catholic Church on January 1, 1890, the secular clergy numbered
in all 50,420, besides 4,376 teachers and 9,526 pupils in the
ecclesiastical seminaries. The value of the total gifts and legacies
made to the Church during the present century up to 1882 is
23,976,733 francs. The Protestants of the Augsburg Confession,
or Lutherans, are, in their religious affairs, governed by a General
Consistory ; while the members of the Reformed Church, or
Calvinists, are under a Council of Administration, the seat of
which is at Paris. In 1890 there were 700 Protestant pastors,
and 57 Jewish rabbis and assistants. In the Protestant Then
logical Faculte there were 915 students in 1891.
Instruction.
Public education in France is entirely under the supervision
of the Government. The highest schools, or universities, go by
the name of i facultes de l'etat.' There are 15 ' facultes des lettres,'
at Paris, Aix, Besanepn, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Lille,
Grenoble, Lyon, Montpellier, Nancy, Poitiers, Rennes, and
Toulouse. At all of these, except Aix, are also ' facultes dos
INSTRUCTION 477
sciences,' besides one at Marseilles. There are also 9 ' facultes '
of Protestant theology, 15 'facultes de droit,' and 6 'facultes de
medicine.' In 1890 there were 4,570 students of law; 6,590
students of medicine; 2,214 students of pharmacy. To the
support of the facultes the sum of 11,600,370 franc-
down in the budget of 1891. The Roman Catholic theological
' facultes ' were suppressed in 1885, but the Catholic univer>ities
exist still on certain conditions. (See under Relic
Among the 295,707 young men examined on the con>cription
list of L890, 9*5 per cent, could neither read nor write.
The law of June 16, 1881, rendered primary instruction
obligatory ; that of March 28, 1882, rendered it gratuitous ; that
of October 30, 1886, reorganised education, and ordained that
within a certain period all public schools should be under the
charge of laymen. In 1890 there were only 59 communes which
had no primary school, public or private. The public funds,
communal, departmental, and State, devoted to primary instruc-
tion in France amounted in 1857 to 16,523,969 francs, in 1878
to 59,216.440 francs, and in 1889 to 155,000,000 francs (in-
cluding Algeria). In 1890 the total number of children between
the ages of 6 and 13 years was found to be 4,729,511. In 1890,
4,579,461 children of school age were enrolled in primary and
infant schools, besides 70,900 in Algeria. About 78,000 are
taught in higher schools, and nearly 10,000 at home, while many
children between 11 and 13 years of age discontinue attendance
at school, having received certificates of primary instruction.
The number of untaught children is thus very small. The
following table shows the number of the various classes of
schools and the number of pupils in France for the school vear
1888-9 :—
_
Public
Schools
Private
Schools
Total
80,874
Pupils
Elementary : —
Infant schools
Primary schools .
2,530
66,494
2,626
14,380
68,208
5,521,220
Total elementary
69,024
17,006
86,030
| 5,589,428
Secondary public : —
Lvives ....
Communal colleges
For girls
105
238
50
—
50,992 |
7,043
Total secondary .
393
—
—
90,908
478 FRANCE
The total number of elementary pupils includes 39,350
receiving higher primary instruction.
There was, it will be seen, one elementary school for every
445 inhabitants, and one pupil in every 6 of the population. The
number of public schools directed by clericals was, in 1890 re-
duced to 595 for boys, 6,501 for girls, and 615 mixed. In private
education the number of lay schools was 788 for boys, 2,311 for
girls, 512 mixed ; and of clerical schools 1,999 for boys, 8,521
for girls, 249 mixed. The total number of teachers in lay
primary schools was 94,326, in clerical schools 46,932, in 1890.
In the budget of 1889-1 the sum of 108,300,840 francs was
set down for primary education, and 16,826,750 francs for
secondary education. There were in 1890 86 normal schools for
males, and 84 for females. In 6,485 communes education is
provided for adult males, and in 994 for adult females, the total
number of pupils in 1888-9 being 152,162 males and 25,080
females. There are besides numerous technical, industrial, and
other special schools.
Justice and Crime.
The Courts of First Instance in France are those of the
Justices of Peace and the Police Court, where all petty offences
are disposed of. The Police Correctional Courts pronounce upon
all graver cases of misdemeanour (delits), including cases involv-
ing several years' imprisonment. They have no jury, and con-
sist of 3 judges. In all general cases, the preliminary inquiry
is made in secresy by an examining magistrate (juge d' instruction),
who may dismiss the case or send it for trial. The Court of
Assizes is assisted by 12 jurors, who decide by simple majority.
The highest courts are the 26 Courts of Appeal, composed each of
one President and 4 Councillors for all criminal cases which have
been tried without a jury, and by one Court of Cassation which
sits at Paris, and is composed of a First President, 3 Presidents
of Sections, and 45 Councillors, for all criminal cases tried by
jury.
All Judges are nominated by the President of the Republic,
and can be dismissed by him.
The agencies for the prosecution of misdemeanours and crimes in 1SSS
appeared as follows: — Gendarmes, 20,919; commissaires do police, 1,087;
agents de police, 14,111 ; gardes champetres, 31,522 ; private sworn 'gardes,'
38,751 ; forest gardes, 7,649; fishing police, .r>.0Kf> : customs officials, 21,648;
total, 140,772.
The following table shows the n u nil mi- of persons convicted heforc the
various courts in the years given : —
PAUPERISM — FINANCE 479
Year Assize Courts ' Correctional Tribunals
:
Police Courts
1884 3,082 19f>. J
1885 3,028 211,797
1886 3,128 210,805
1887 3,179 216,461
1888 3,034 215. PW
470,904
450.773
451,369
443.763
429,988
The French penal institutions consist, lirst, of Houses of Arrest (3,094
dtambrcs dc surete and 35 depdts de sHrde). next come 380 Departmental
Prisons, also styled maisons d'arrlt, de justice and de correction, where Ixith
persons awaiting trial and those condemned to less than one year's imprison-
ment are kept, as also a number of boys and girls transferred from, or going to
W transferred to, reformatories. The reformatories are 11 for boys and 3 for
girls, belonging to the State, and 21 for boys and 9 for girls rented to private
I»ersons and institutions. The Central Prisons (maisons deforce et de corree-
where all prisoners condemned to more than one year's imprisonment
are kept, provided with large industrial establishments for the work of
prisoners, are 16 for men and 5 for women. To the same category belong the
agricultural penitentiaries recently introduced in Corsica.
All persons condemned to hard labour and many condemned to ' reclusion '
are sent to New Caledonia or Guiana (military and rccidivistes) ; the depdt dc
forrats of St. Martin-de-Re is a depot for transferred hard-labour convicts.
The prison population in France on January 1, 1888 (last figures published),
was 44,248, of whom 6,461 were females; 24,967 were in Departmental
Prisons : 13,182 in Central Prisons ; 6,099 (1887) in reformatories. There are
about 13,000 in Caledonia and Guiana.
Pauperism.
There is no Government system of poor relief in France. The poor are
agisted partly through public ' bureaux de bienfaisance ' and partlv bv
private and ecclesiastical charity. They are partly under the care of the
communes and partly of the departments, both of which contribute, and
ultimately under the supervision of Government. The funds of the ' bureaux
de bienfaisance ' are partly derived from endowments, partly from communal
contributions, and partly from public and private charity. In 1888 then
were 15,138 of such bureaux, with a total revenue of 38,359,101 francs, the
expenditure amounting to 35,893,331 francs. The number of poor relieved
was 1,647,720. Public assistance is also rendered to poor or destitute
children. At the end of 1888 there were 2,068 sick children in hospital,
59,535 domiciled in the country, and 44,598 who were being assisted at theii
homes. The total expenditure amounted to 17,159,681 francs. There are
also public establishments for the sick and for aged persons and imbeciles.
Finance.
I. State of Finance.
The revenues of the State consist of : (1) four chief direct
taxes, forming J 5 per cent, of the revenue : (a) the land tax ;
(b) the ' personnelle mobiliere,' consisting of a capitation tax of
480
FRANCE
from 1 fr. 50 c. to 4 fr. 50 c, levied upon each person, not a
pauper, and of a house tax ; (c) the door and window tax ; and
(d) trade-licenses. There are also the ' additional centimes ' (so
many centimes per franc levied, intended for local budgets) ; (2)
indirect taxes (about 62 per cent, of the revenue) ; (3) State
monopolies : tobacco, gunpowder, post and telegraphs (about 20
per cent, of revenue) ; (4) the income from national land ;
and (5) various sources, such as a few State manufactures, State
railways, and so on. The average taxation per head amounts to
86 fr., of which about 69 fr. go to the State, and the remainder
to the local budgets. To the above must be added, the extra-
ordinary receipts — chiefly loans — the revenue inscribed ' pour
ordre,' being transferences from one branch of the Administration
to another.
The following table shows the budget estimates for the
revenue for 1892 and the rectified budget estimates of the
revenue for 1891 : —
-
1892
1891
Land tax :—
Francs
Francs
Land . . . . . . .
111,658,768
111,657,686
Buildings ......
71,899,800
71,851,080
Personal property .....
82,328,960
81,640,800
Doors and windows .
53,781,280
53,285,600
Trade licences .....
113,666,600
111,648,000
Tax ' de ler avertissement ' . . .
622,500
688,500 '
Carriages, horses, and other special taxes
29,963,100
29,662,700
Direct taxes, Algeria ....
Total, direct taxes .
Registration ......
8,808,700
9,114,300
472,729,708
468, 888, 868
538,224,600
505,502,711
Stamps .......
169,678,300
163,969,011
Customs
415,341,700
875,881,68]
Excise, and other indirect taxes
590,572,600
617,-::.. l 18
Sugar
181,000,000
175,570,000
Indirect taxes, Algeria ....
Total, indirect taxes ....
Stale monopolies .....
20,067,900
19,363,048
1,982,618,400
1,922,854.:
619,523,820
615,059,894
Domains and forests ....
44,714,780
43,937,449 j
Various revenues
Total, ordinary revenue . . , 1
26,030,930
26,441,597
3,145,617,638 1
3,077,182,185 |
FINANCE
481
—
1891
Fr.i
Exceptional resources .... 1-2.176,945
ipts d'ordrc 60,609,550
Francs
74,981
60,940,461
Total, general budget . 4.133
M«
Special resources
Budget ' pour ordre '
Grand total
1,426
447,700,191
100,387,936
3,780.': ^5,754
The following table shows the budget estimate* of the ex-
penditure for 1802 and the rectified estimates of the expenditure
for 1891 :—
Public debt .
President, Chamber, ami Senate
Ministries :
Justice ....
Religion ....
Foreign Affairs .
Interior, Frame .
Algeria .
Finance ....
utd Telegraphs .
War, ordinary .
,, extraordinary
Marine ....
Colonies ....
Public Instruction
Fine Arts ....
Commerce and Industry
Agricxdture
Public Works, ordinary
,, ,, extraordinary
Expenses of collecting tax-
Repayments, &c. .
Total, general budget
Special resources .
Expenditure 'pour ordre '
Grand total
Frsnrcs
M.:;:t
13: 094,440
37,505,
45,057,
69.634,
7,441,
19.967.
212.903,
8,140.
19.599.
36.072,
110.647,
183,154,
13,025,
157
800
702
295
490
074
197
500
414
914
650
000 ~l
000 /
944
700
1891
Fraucs
7 15,358
13,051,940
<»7,003
14.741,800
69,!
19.!'
146.:
•59,040
1 OS. 060, 000
o3,7$l
7.0,553
19.725,286
36,0
167.460,480
183,387,909
13,028,700
3,217,825,525
454,351,426
107,322,133
3,164,881,549
447,700,191
100,387,936
3,779,499,0S4 3.712.969,676
The following figures, published by the Direction Gent-rale de
la Comptabilite Publique in February 1891, do not include the
482
FRANCE
' budget sur ressources speciales,' and represent the actual verified
i-e venue (inclusive of loans) and expenditure for 12 years : —
Revenue
Years
Total
Expenditure
Ordinary
! Extraordinary
Total
Francs
Francs
Francs
Francs
1878
2,852,546,365
574,876,461
3,427,422,826
3,347,810,957
1879
2,965,551,890
524,790,497
3,490,342,387
3,322,621,928
1880
2,956,923,947
573,899,336
3,530,823,283
3,364,577,722'J
1881
2,988,374,978
797,069,391
3,785,444,369
3,616,401,846
1882
2,980,477,689
663,624,875
3,644,102,564
3,686,650,040
1883
3,037,973,018
614,965,704
3,652,938,722
3,715,366,615
1884
3,032,014,444
416,781,288
3,448,795,732
3,538,714,027
1885
3,056,635,831
263,626,782
3,320,262,613
3,466,923,058
1886
2,940,291,981
229,133,507
3,169,425,488
3,293,561,815
1887
2,968,477,833
275,405,732
3,243,883,565
3,260,964,639
1888
3,107,534,722
160,256,078
3,267,790,800
3,220,594,184
1889
Total .
3,108,072,541
163,253,131
3,271,325,672
3,247,131,879
35,994,875,239
5,257,682,782
41,252,558,021
41,081,318,710
Borrowed
Net to
from preceding
tals
judgets .
469,986,447
—
40,782,571,574
•
41,081,318,710
Since 1869 the budget has nearly doubled. To the budget of 1892 is
annexed a statement, showing the deficits of the ordinary budgets from the
period anterior to 1814 down to the end of 1889, as follows : —
Period
Before 1815
1815 to 1829
1830 ,, 1847
1848 „ 1851
1852,, 1869
1870 ,, 1889
Government.
Deficit
Napoleon I. and previously
Loins XVIII. and Charles X.
Louis Philippe .
The Second Republic
Napoleon III. .
Total .
The Third Republic, surplus
Total deficits
Francs
99,678,480
269,801,915
519,067,077
29,399.1 10
93,921,998
1,011,868,611
180,908,005
830,960,606
These figures, however, do not represent the actual deficits arising from
the difference between the ordinary revenue and the total expenditure, nor
even those arising from the differences between the total revenue and total
expenditure. Moreover, almost uninterruptedly, so as to make it the rule and
not the exception, the budgets voted by the representatives of the nation have
shown a small surplus, while the ' compte delinitif,' published a numliei of
years afterwards, has exhibited a large deficit.
FIX AN' E
483
The following table show.- the pmgreae .luring the cen tun.- of the French
national debt and its yearly charge : —
Date
Peri. ..1
Nominal Capital
Interest
Millions of
Millions of \
Francs
Francs
. 23, 1800
First Republic
714
36
Jan. 1, 1815
Napoleon I. .
64
Aug. 1, 1830
Louis XVIII, and Chai
199
Feb. 24, 1848
Louis Philippe
5,913
244
Jan. 1, 1852
Second Republic
Napoleon III.
Third Republic
5,516
239
Jan. 1, 1871
12,464
386
Jan. 1, 1889
21,251
739
The following table shows the interest and annuities to be paid under the
various heads of the public debt, according to the budget estimates of
1891-92:—
Consolidated debt :
Francs
3 per cent 456,135.244
44 305,54'
Redeemable debt :
Annuities 297,126,924
Life interests (pensions, kc.) . . .784
1,284,191,374
< 'apitatiug the consolidated debt, it would amount to 21,241,621,710
Cranes ; the floating debt amounts to 90S. 724.600 francs bearing interest, and
71,476,000 francs nm 'tearing int-
The total capita: of the French national debt cannot be exactly deter-
mined, but the most usual estimate is about 32 thousand millions of francs
(1,280,000,000/.). M. Leroy Beaulieu's calculation gives 31.718 millions.
M. i amille Peiletan, repcrting to the Budget Committee on the financial
situation in November 1890, estimates the French debt ac 30,300,813,594
nominal capital and 22,S24,043,690 actual capital, the nominal rate of
interest being 3 48 per cent, and the actual rate 4 62.
According to other authorities, the total debt amounts to nearly 36,000
millions of francs (1,440,000,000/.), or about 38/. per head of population.
II. Local Fjnax< k.
The total revenue of all the communes reached 486,553,939 francs in
1889, while che total communal debt was 3,020,450,528 francs in 1886. The
share of Paris in the revenue was 233.090,652 francs: the revenue of Lyons
Was 11,773,686 francs; Marseilles. 13,041,035 francs; Bordeaux, 9,065,733
francs. As to the departments, their aggregate revenues reached in 1888
francs, the expenditure 259,149,740 francs, while their aggregate
debts amounted to 523,091,575 francs.
The yearly expenditure of the city of Paris is given, in francs, in the
subjoined table, the budget figures being given for 1891 : —
I I 2
484
FRANCE
Year
Total ordinary
Expenditure
For
Public Debt ■
Year
Total ordinary
Expenditure
For
Public Debt
1886
1887
1888
Francs
247,373,015
251,356,639
260,300,691
Francs
99,759,667
104,366,801
106,139,058
1889
1890
1891
Francs
263,763,352
263,462,872
264,691,174
Francs
106,879,750
106,750,999
106,324,695 |
For 1891 the extraordinary expenditure is estimated at 604,400 francs.
III. Public Property.
Apart from a very few railways, the State is owner of but a few forests and
other properties, the yearly income of which is insignificant, as is seen from
the following table : —
The capitalised value of private property has been fin' SUbjecl of many
calculations, which, however, differ too greatly to be considered as reliable
The best estimates, by M. de Fovillc, put down the aggregate private fortunes
at: land, 3,200,000,000/.: buildings, 1,600,000,000?.; State funds,
1,200, 000, 000/. ; other securities, 2,000,000,000?. ; total, 8,000,000,000/. : while
M. Leroy Beaulieu estimates that the total yearly income of the nation
reaches about 1,000,000,000/., of which three-fifths is the product of personal
labour.
Defence.
I. Land Defences.
France has a coast line of 1760 miles, 1,304 on the Atlantic
and 456 on the Mediterranean. Its land frontier extends over
1,575 miles, of which 1,156 miles are along the Belgian, German,
Swiss, and Italian frontiers, and 419 along the Spanish frontier.
The whole of France is divided into 18 military regions, each
tinder a general of division, and subdivided into districts, of the
same area as the departments, under a general of brigade ; Paris
and Lyon have each a separate military government. The
fortified places are specially administered by a 'service des forti-
fications. Paris, which is considered as the centre of defence, is
surrounded by a wall which has 97 bastions, 17 old forts, and 38
new advance forts or batteries, the whole forming two entrenched
camps at St. Denis and Versailles.
DEFENCE 4v<
The following are the strong places on the various frontiers : —
On the German frontier: first class fort: I fort, Verdun,
Briancon; second class, Langres; third class, Toul. Auxonne ;
aud 9 fourth class places. Belgian frontier : first (lass. Lille.
Dunkirk, Arras, Douai: second class, ('ambrai. Valenciennes,
Givet, St. Omer, Meseres, Sedan, Longny, - • ; third i
Gravelines, (\mde, Landrecies, Rocroi. liontmedy, Peronne ; and
6 fourth-class places. Italian frontier : first class, Lyon, Grenoble,
Besancon : and 11 detached forts. Mediterranean eoaot, first
class, Toulon (naval harbour); second class, Antibes : and 21
fourth-class forts. Spanish frontier : first class, Perpignan,
Bayonne ; third class, St. Jean, Pied-de-Port ; and 10 fourth-
class forts. Atlantic coast : first class, Kochef ort, Lorient, Brest ;
second class, Oleron, La Rochelle, Belle Isle ; third class, He de
Rhe, Fort Louis ; and 17 fourth-class forts. The Channel o
first class, t'herbourg; second class, St. Malo. Havre: and 16
fourth-clas> forts.
II. Army.
The military forces of France are organised on the basis of
laws voted by the National Assembly in ls7i», supplemented by
further organisation' laws, passed in 1873, 1875, 1882, 1887, ana
1889. These laws enact universal liability to arms. Substitu-
tion and enlistment for money are forbidden, and it is ordered
that every Frenchman not declared unfit for military service may
be called up, from the age of twenty to that of forty-five years, to
enter the active army or the reserves. By the law of 1882, sup-
plemented by that of 1888, the yearly contingent must serve 3
years in the Active Army, 6 in the Reserve, 6 in the Territorial
Army, and 10 in the Territorial Reserve. The Active Army is
composed of all the young men, not otherwise exempted, who
have reached the age of twenty, and the Reserves of those who
have passed through the Active Army. Neither the Active
Army nor its Reserves are in any way localised, but drawn from
and distributed over the whole of France. On the other hand,
the Territorial Army and its Reserves are confined to fixed regions,
determined from time to time by administrative enactments.
In 1887 all privileges of exemption were abolished, including
those of pupils in clerical seminaries. All soldiers in the Active
Army who have learnt their duties, and who can read and write,
may be sent on furlough, at the end of a year, for an indefinite
time.
The present organisation of the active French army is as
follows : —
486 FRANCE
Infantry.
144 divisional regiments of the line, each of 3 battalions of 4 companies, each
regiment of 62 officers and 1,591 men.
18 regional regiments of the line, each of 3 battalions of 4 companies, each
regiment of 51 officers and 1,560 men, the latter located in the
various fortresses of France.
30 battalions of chasseurs-a-pied, each of 4 or 6 companies, each company
having 19 officers and 552 men.
4 regiments of zouaves, each of 4 battalions of 4 companies, with 2 depot
companies, one of which is in France, each regiment of 73 officers
and 2,551 men.
4 regiments of Tirailleurs Algeriens, each of 4 battalions of 4 companies,
with 1 depot company, each regiment of 103 officers and 2,632
men.
2 regiments etrangers, of 4 battalions of 4 companies, with 1 depot
. company.
1 regiment of Tonkin tirailleurs, of 3 battalions : 4 battalions of Annamite
chasseurs.
3 battalions of African Light Infantry of 10, 8, and 6 companies.
4 companies of 'fusiliers de discipline' (Algeria), one being in Tunis.
1 company of ' pionniers de discipline.'
Cavalry.
12 regiments of cuirassiers, 30 of dragoons, 21 of chasseurs, 14 of hussars,
6 of Chasseurs d'Afrique, each regiment having :". squadrons, with 37
officers, 792 men, and 722 horses.
4 regiments of Spahis, having 6 squadrons ; 1 regiment of Tunisian
Spahis.
8 companies ' cavaliers de remonte,' 299 men each.
Artillery.
38 regiments of field artillery, one-half with 12 mounted batteries, tin' other
half with 8 mounted batteries and 3 horse batteries*
10 companies of artillery workmen.
3 companies of artificers.
16 battalions of fortress artillery, each of 6 battalions.
3 batteries of fortress artillery, 3 of mounted, and 6 of mountain artillery
in Africa.
2 regiments of artillery pontouniers. each of II companies
Total artillery, 446 field battalions, witli 1,856 guns and W fortress
batteries.
Engines rs.
4 regiments of sappers and miners, each of 5 battalions of I companies, with
l depot company : I company of workmen, l oompany of Bapper-
conductors, and l detachment of these in Africa.
Ti: w\.
20 squadrons of train, each of 3 companies: 12 companies in Algeria and I
in Tunis.
PEF1
487
According to the budget for 1892, the peace strength of the whole French
army (including vacancies, furloughs, kc.) is composed of 570,603 men (of
whom 28,107 are officers), and 138,990 horses, the increase for the year being
7,927 men and 1,229 horses. The various subdivisions of the army and
their relative strength are seer from the following table, the number of men
including that of the officers, the number of officers being given separately in
brackets : —
France
Algeria
Tunis
Total
,^
^
I-N
-
— u
X
E
2
t.
-
*i
-
- =
z
—
z -
-* •
"-*
General Stall .
4,010
8,604
m\
368
79
3,951
(3,295)
(271)
(52)
Military Schools .
3,861 !
(659)
2,346
—
-
Unclassed amidst
:he Troops .
2,350 i
114
810
308
109
8B
3.269 487
(2,088)
(562)
(107)
Arm* Corpt :
Infantry
293,260
6,526
37,130
367
8,318
231
888,7081
(11,971)
7,124
(10,904)
(827)
(340)
Administrative .
11,026
(-)
3,454
(-)
—
(-)
—
15,901
(-)
—
Cavalry
i i,«a
57,810
8,259
8,134
1,847
(96)
1,707
75,789
67,651
(3,337)
(371)
(3,804)
Artillery
76,110
(8,648)
33,352
(58)
1,420
703
(13)
342
79.584
(3,719)
85,120
Engineers .
11.021
(418)
892
747
(12)
300
(4)
140
12,093
(434)
1,382
Traiu .
7,591
5,195
3,134
2,678
1,034
919
11,759
$.79-2
Total Armv Corps
(356 !
(40)
(13)
(412)
4655,91
103,775
55,44'.
12,905
12,748
3,339
633,784 ! 120,019
1 Total Active Army
(18,663)
(1,311)
(366)
(20,340)
475,302
109,738
56,616
13,581
12.925
3,483
.=44.843 ! 126,802
(24,705)
(2,144)
(27,374)
Gendarmerie .
21,501
10,542
1,058
814
153
94
C-2.71J 11.450
(621),
(28)
(2)
(651)
i Garde Republicaine
3,048
738
—
—
3.04S 738
Grand Total
(82)
499,351
121,018
14.395
13,078
3,577
570,603 . 138,990
(25,408):
(2,172)
(527)
(2S.107)
Deducting vacancies, sick and absent, the total effective for 1892 is
499,483 for the Active Army, and 25,501 for the Gendarmerie and Garde
Republicaine.
In addition to this, the Territorial Army numbers 37,000 officers and
579,000 men. Taking into account the various classes of reserves, France
has a war force of about 2J millions of men at her disposal ; and taking
account of the various classes of able-bodied men whose services have been
dispensed with, the total number amounts to 3,750,000.
488
FRANCE
Navy.
The following are the statistics of the entire French navy,
exclusive of ships building in April, 1891 : —
Classes of Vessels
Number
Classes of Vessels
Number
Sea-going Armour-clads : — l
Unprotected Vessels : — 5
Barbette ships l
14
Battery cruisers
5
Central battery ships
7
Cruisers, 1st and 2nd class
22
Turret ships
4
,, 3rd class
9
Barbette cruisers
5
Screw despatch vessels, 1st
Broadside ships
2
class ....
12
Coast Defence Armour-
clads : — -
Barbette ships .
Turret ships
Armoured gun-vessels
Barbettes
2
8
2
4
Screw despatch vessels, 2nd
class ....
i Paddle despatch vessels .
Gunboats
,, paddle
Transports
8
22
29
12
22
Floating batteries
2
Despatch transports .
Small gunboats
15
8
Deck- Protected Cruisers3
Frigates ....
3
Partial deck-protected
6
Sailing, training ships, &c.
18
Torpedo Flotilla : — 4
Torpedo cruisers
4
Total .
393
,, despatch vessels .
8
Sea-going torpedo boats .
4
1st class ,,
12
2nd class ,,
67
3rd -class „
43
Small boats
7
Submarine boat
1 i
1 Seventeen steel, or iron and steel, the rest mostly iron and wood.
2 Fourteen steel, or iron and steel. :i Six steel, or iron and steel.
•* All steel. 6 Seventy-two iron or steel, the others constructed of Wood.
Of the sea-going armour-clads, 1 was launched in 1889 ; 13
between 1880 and 1887; 12 between 1870 and 1879; and the
others in 1864-63. Of the coast-defence armour-clads 7 were
launched in 1880-6 ; 7 in 1870-79 ; the others in 1863-65 ; the
sea-service deck-protected cruisers in 1884-89 ; the torpedo
flotilla in 1885-89 ; of the unprotected vessels 75 were launched
in 1880-89; 37 in 1870-79; the others from 1842 downwards.
There were building in 1891, 11 sea-going armour-clads ; 2
coast-defence armour-clads ; 2 sea-service deck-protected vessels ;
3 torpedo cruisers ; 5 torpedo despatch vessels ; 54 torpedo
boats ; three transports. Of the gunboats 16 are stationed at
various colonies.
The following is a tabular list of the ironclads and protected
vessels of the navy of France, exclusive of floating batteries, at
the end of 1891. All the vessels are supplied with machine guns.
DEFENCE
469
I. = Iron : 8. = Steel ; W. = Wood.
= ^
* i.
o =
- -
: — ~_ : - - . —
s — = ~ /.
Ska-going Armour-clads
Barbette Skips ;—
Amiral Baudin
Formidable
Amiral Duperre
Caiman .
IndomjitaMc .
Terrible .
Reqnin .
Ocean
Saffren .
Marengo .
Bayard .
Turenne .
Vauban .
Duguesclin
Central Battery Ship$
Courbet .
Devastation .
Friedland
Trident .
Redoubtable
Colbert .
Richelieu .
Inche:
LAS. 1883 21}
S. 1885 H
Lft& 1879 21 i
I. AS. 1885 19}
I. ft S. 1883 19}
I. ft 8. 1881
W.ftL
I.&S.
W.ftL
11,200
|S
11,380
10,900
I.ftS. 1885
W.4I. 1868
W.tl. 1S70
W.ftL 1869
W.ftL 1880
W.ftl.
S. IS?
S. IS-
I.&S.
i. ft a
i.
W.ftL
15*
1879
15
1873
»f
1876
8}
1876
U
1875
8}
1873
«..|
490
FRANCE
1
1
1
m
M
a
[ Armour
thickness at
waterline
amidships
Guns
£ 9
e t
7,000
Displace-
ment,orTon-
nage (Eng-
lish tons)
O i.
a a
W 9
|*
go
Nnmc
Xo
Cal.
Turret Skips : —
Hoche ....
T.&S.
1886
Inches
18
120
Inch
IS*)
10}
oil
10,580
17
Marceau ....
I.&S.
1887
IS
18J\
oil
7,000
10,580
16*
Neptune ....
I. &.S.
1887
18
h
19ft
5*/
7,000
10,580
16*
Magenta ....
I. &S.
1889
18
u
13J\
5*/
7,000
10,580
. 16
Barbette Cruiser* : —
La Galissonniere
W.&I.
1872
6
U
$
2,250
4,000
13
Victorieuse * .
W.&I.
1875
0
•2,214
4,530
13
Triomphante .
W.&I.
1877
6
731
4||
2,400
4,600
12
U
Thetis ....
W.&I.
1867
6
{!
7fi|
m
6«/
i,«ro
8,668
1L>
Montcalm
W.&I.
1868
6
it
1,830
3,870
11-3
Broadside Ships : —
l 8
9ft
T.
1863
0
{»
7|
5*j
5*7
3,318
5,900
13
Revanche
Coast Defence Armour-
W.
1865
6
3,187
5,700
13
clads.
Barbette Ships : —
Furieux ....
I. &S.
I.&S.
1883
1880
nf
17}
2
2
13|
13|
4,530
1,945
5,560
4,630
M
11
Turret Ships : —
Fulminant
Tonnerre
Tempfite .
Vengeur .
Belier
Boule-Dogue
Tigre
Onondaga
I. &S.
I.AS.
I. &S.
W.*I.
W.&I.
W.&I.
I.
1877
1875
1876
1878
1870
1872
1871
1863
18
13
13
13
H
8|
8I
2
I
2
2
2
1
4
104
108
lOg
138
H
li
4,680
4,160
2,000
2,070
2,260
1,830
2,120
613
.'.,500
5,580
4,450
4,520
3,600
3,600
8,600
8,600
u
14
u
10-9
12
12
18
0
Turret Gun Vessels : —
8.
1885
S
{5
'?}
1,700
1,610
13
8.
1886
8
J
T)
1,700
1,610 18
Barbettes : —
Flamme ....
l.&S.
1885
8-6
/ 1
{ 1
i
/
1,500
1,030
18
Fusee ....
I. AS.
1884
| ..;
/ 1
\ 1
8
1,480
1,030
If
Mitraille ....
I.&S.
1886
8-6
/ 1
\ 1
g
3
J
1,500
1,030
12
Grenade .
I.* 8.
(888
S.li
(1
9
B
!
1,500
1,080
„
DEFENCE
491
_.
"a
-
- *.= ■=
£ It.-
- - ~ —
Guns
1 S SO-
1
Name
2
2 •
Cal. :
- ?
— c
1 -
-
—
X
Drc K-l'ROTE<TEI> CRUISERS.
Indies
Inch
Ct-cile ....
i.4 8.
1887
do-
S\
8,888
80
Jean Hart
B.
1888
-
ts
:!} 1
5,080
4,000
19
Alurr ....
s.
1889
-
[i
a)
5,000
4,000
-
Sfax
9. AW.
1884
-
l£
3]
4,940
4,420
10
Tag.' . . . . .
Davoiist ....
8.
1886
_
\ 10
li
10,330
19
a
1889
—
8
N
3,000
20
Forbin
£
Ivss
—
|
:X
6,000
1,840
198
Lalandc
s.
1888
—
1
u
6,000
1,860
19-5
Troude ....
s.
lsss
—
->
5J
6000
i,ar>o
19-5
Coetlogon
8.
1888
—
~2
''-
6.000
1,850
1!'-.
Cosmao ....
s.
lS^S
—
2
'H
8,000
1,850
195
Surcouf ....
ft.
1888
"
5}
6,000
1,840
■«
Weight of guns, 14£ inches = 74£ tons ; 13g = 48 tons ; 10| = 28, 23,
and 24£ tons ; 9£ = 15£ tons ; 7| = 7f tons ; 6£ = 5 tons ; 5J = 2J tons ;
4| = l£ tons ; 4 = li tons.
The Neptune, launched in 1887, and the Magenta, launched in 1889, are
still unfinished. On the stocks in Government yards are the first-class iron-
dads Brt nnus, 9,780 tons displacement ; Trehouart, 6,500 tons displacement ;
Dupuy de L6me, 6,300 tons ; and the Charner and Brutr, each of 4,670 tons
displacement ; while the Bouviites, Jnnniapes, and Valmy, each of 6,500 tons
displacement, are heing built by contract. In course of construction are
also one first class deck-protected cruiser, Jsly, of 4,000 tons ; one of the
second class, Suchet, of 3,000 tons; one torpedo cniiser, one despatch trans-
port, one despatch torpedo boat.
The more powerful of the completed ironclads of the French navy are
the Amiral Duperre, the Indomptable, the Caiman, the Terrible, the
Courbet, and the Devastation. The last two were designed on the same
lines, are 312 feet in length, and are constructed mainly of steel. Still more
powerful are the Redoubtable, Trident, Fricdland, the Colbert, &c, and the
turret ships Hochc, Magenta, &c. In the whole of the later ironclads hori-
zontal steel armour is used, with the view to render the decks bomb-proof,
and guns are mounted en barbette, capable of being used in nearly all direc-
tions.
Among the unarmoured vessels of the French navy the most notable are
the frigates Duquesne and Tourrilh', both constructed for high speed, cal-
eulated at seventeen knots. They are practically sister ships : the first
launched at Rochefort, and the second at La Seyne, in 1876. They are each
alxmt 329 feet long and 51 feet broad, with engines of about 8,000 horse-
power, and a displacement of 5,700 tons. Each of these ships is armed with
21 guns, of which 14 are of a bore of 5£ inches, and 7 of 7^ inches and
6| inches respectively. Of the remainder of the unarmoured screw
steamers of the French navy, more than one-half are not in active service.
The French navy is manned partly by conscription and partly by volun-
tary enlistment. The marine conscription was introduced as early as the
year 1683. There is an 'Inscription maritime,' on the lists of which are
492 FRANCE
the names of all male individuals of the ' maritime population ' — that is, men
and youths devoted to a seafaring life, from the 18th to the 50th year of age.
The number of men thus inscribed fluctuates from 150,000 to 180,000. The
time of service in the navy is the same as that in the army, with similar
conditions as to reserve duties, furloughs, and leave of absence for lengthened
periods. It is enacted by the law of 1872 that a certain number of young
men liable to service in the Active Army may select instead the navy service
if recognised fit for the duties, even if not enrolled in the ' Inscription
maritime. '
For administrative purposes, France is divided into five ' divisions mari-
times,' and subdivided into twelve ' arrondissements maritimes,' as follows : — •
Divisions Arrondissements
1. Cherbourg Dunkerque — Le Havre.
2. Brest Brest — Saint Servan.
3. Lorient Lorient — -Nantes.
4. Rochefort Rochefort — Bordeaux — Bayonne.
5. Toulon Marseilles — Toulon — Ajaccio.
At the head of the administrative government of each maritime division
is a vice-admiral bearing the title of ' Prefet maritime. '
According to the budget estimates for 1892, the French navy, in all its
departments, had 15 vice-admirals ; 30 rear-admirals ; 115 captains of first-
class men-of-war ; 215 captains of frigates ; 720 lieutenants ; 400 ensigns ;
310 cadets ; and 29,920 warrant officers and men, besides naval engineers,
constructors, surgeons, dockyard police, &c. ; in all 38,671. The cadres
include 9 vice-admirals, 3 rear-admirals, 2 captains, and 20 lieutenants.
Including officeis, there are 13,727 men in the marine infantry, and 4,381 in
the marine artillery.
The total sum allotted in the budget of 1892 for the navy (exclusive of the
colonies) is 212,903,414 francs. The total value of the French fleet on
January 1, 1888, is estimated in the budget at 502,000,000 francs.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
Of the total area of France (52,857,199 hectares) 8,397,131
hectares are under forests and 36,977,098 hectares under all kinds
of crops, fallow, and grasses. The following tables show the
area under the leading crops and the production, 1887-90 : —
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
493
© 00 *■- o o
I- C — — r->
?i ?i oo oo ©
I- .-" e
M3 rc l- i- -
>- %X — ' -.' /•"
— 5 ti
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Tit- I- !~ "£ — j 71 5 X
;i — r^ -
- i- - ** ~r
£K0 =r
-
a £
§ a s
33
-r i- fB
— - —
_■ — - r - -
© ^" r"' —
— I- 00 CO
3 7
2
o
=
: 2 S
H
= 5
r~ ^- 00
O ^t£
-
c I
5 « - - -
V £-
5
- _ /. —
« -
£
I - -i O --
- ,"-
1 §
i i
00 * 3
3 3
— —
- * a
— 00 —
B J
:
•r
s
**-
—
S
a
I
00
00
a
'--;
a
I-
-
©
a
«
©
©
2
1
a
H
r.
00
■C
00
00
r:
^
r
; -
r.
■-;
yf
,~*
—
cc
'©
to
B
3>
to
o
00
8
00
rt
X
©
©
•*
1^
8
X
s
CD
-.
i-
;
■
8
eo
-"
a
:-
O
o
DC
©
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©
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J*-
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•*
494
FRANCE
The annual production of wine and cider appears as follows for the last
10 years (the wine compared with 1875) : —
Year
Hectares
under
Vines
Wine
thousands of
hectolitres
Wine Import,
hectolitres
Wine Export,
hectolitres
Cider,
thousands of
hectolitres
1875
2,246,963
82,727
272,730
3,717,590
1882
2,135,349
30,886
7,536,739
2,618,276
8,921 ;
1883
2,095,927
36,029
8,980,793
2,541,172
23,492 '
1884
2,040,759
34,781
8,129,874
2,471,765
11,907
1885
1,990,586
28,536
8,183,666
2,602,773
19,955
1886
1,959,102
25,063
11,042,091
2,601,565
8,301
1887
1,944,150
24,333
12,282,286
2,401,918
13,437
1888
1,843,580
30,102
12,064,000
2,118,000
9,767 -
1889
1,817,787
23,224
10,470,000
2,166,000
3,701
1890 "
1,816,544
27,416
9,532,000
1,943,000
11,095
1891
1,786,640
28,039
11,074,090
1,912,700
9,500
The value of the crop of chestnuts, walnuts, olives, and plums in 1890
was estimated at 101,980,668 francs.
During the last ten years the number of farm animals in France has
varied little, with the exception of sheep, which have decreased 34 per cent. ,
and pigs, which have increased 13 per cent. On December 31, 1890, the
numbers were : Horses, 2,862,273; cattle, 13,562,685; sheep, 21,658,416;
pigs, 6,017,238 ; goats, 1,505,090.
Silk culture is carried on in 24 departments of France — most extensively
in Drome, Gard, Ardeche, and Vaucluse. In 1891 the production of cocoons
was 6,883,587 kilogrammes ; in 1890, 242,823 kilogrammes of cocoons were
exported, valued at 2,913,876 francs, and 64,486 kilogrammes of .silkworms'
ggs, valued at 5, 803, 809 francs.
II. Mining and Metals.
In 1889, 465 mines (out of 1,372 conceded mines) were in work, with
131,388 workers, and steam engines to the amount of 93,238 bane-power.
The annual yield was estimated at 28,757,203 tons, valued at 292.297,158
francs, as against 243,775,185 francs in 1888, the net revenue being
37,521,363 francs surplus over the expenses. The quarries employed same
time 110,906 workers, and their annual yield was 164,000,000 francs.
The following are statistics of the loading mineral and metal products : —
Year
Coal
Iron Ore
Pig Iron
Finished Iron
Steel
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Tons
19,910,000
20,288,000
22,952,000
23,851,912
25,836,953
Tons
2,285,648
2,579,000
2,842,000
3,070,389
Tons
1,507,850
1,610,851
1,683,349
1,733,964
1,970,160
Tons
767,214
771.260
816,973
808,724
823,360
Tons
466,913
525,646
517,294
529,302
666,197
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
195
III. Manufactures.
Textile Industries.— The culture of flax and hemp being on the decrease,
France imports them to the amount of nearly 1,700,000 quintals even- year,
to which 400,000 quintals of jute must be added. The three iMUMtriM
taken together employed in 1886, 365 establishments (spindles, machine
looms, and hand looms).
For the woollen, cotton, and silk industries the official figures for 1887
are as follows : —
-
Woollens
Cottons
Silks
Works ....
1.256
Number of mills
1,987
895
1.016
Operatives
109,372
121,543
103,819
Horse-j>ower .
40,466
63,112
8S, i 7 <
Spindles
3,151,871
5,039,263
1.109,466
Power looin> .
44,682
72,784
."■1.399
Hand looms .
25,399
28,213
44,257
The value ot imports and exports of cotton in millions of francs appears
as follows : —
Imports
Exports
Years
Yarn
Cloth
Yarn
Cloth
1867-76
•24-4
47 2
4-r.
66 6
1877-86
38-0
67 9
2 4
83-8
1887
31"1
50-2
2 5
1178
1888
25-8
410
2 7
106 2
1889
29-0
413
31
116-2
1890
31-2
410 |
3-0
1103
The annual production of cocoons has been as follows in kilogrammes :
In 1886, 8,269.862; 1887, 8,575,673 ; 1888, 9,549,906; 1889, 7,409,830;
1890, 8,600,034.
The values of the yearly imports and exports of woollens and silks in
millions of francs are seen from the subjoined table : —
Years
Woollens
Silks
Imports
Exports
Imports Exports
Yarn
Cloth
Yarn
Cloth
Cloth Cloth
1867-76 | 13-8
1877-86 ! 17-0
1887 12-4
1888 J 14-1
1889 . 12-9
1890 10-1
•
67 6
77 3
63-9
65 2
67-8
66 9
32-7
38-1
39 6
37 2
55 5
347
286-1
349-0
350-4
323 4
364 4
361-3
30-9
40-9
53 3
50-5
58-1
34 7
429 6
251-0
209-8
223-2
260-8
361-3
49G
FRANCE
Sugar. — In 1889-90 there were 373 sugar works (including two distil-
leries), employing altogether 47,920 operatives (3,366 children), and 44,311
horse-power. The yield of unrefined sugar during the last 10 years was (in
metrical tons) :—
Years
Tons
Years
Tons
Years
Tons
Years
Tons
1878-79 433,000
1879-80 278,000
1880-81 331,000
1 '
1881-82
1882-83
1883-84
393,000
423,000
474,000
i 1884-85
j 1885-86
! 1886-87
318,000
309,000
506,000
1887-88
1888-89
1889-90
400,000
415,729.
693,735!
It is estimated that the total annual yield of all. French industries
amounts to 12,800,000,000 francs.
IV. Fisheries.
In 1888 the number of 'boats engaged in the French fishing was 25,443 ol
193,162 tons. The number of fishermen on board was 88,528, and of those
on shore 54,797. The total value of the fish caught was 86,973,317 francs.
Commerce.
Internal. — The total value of the internal interchange is
estimated by French economists at not less than 100,000,0002.
net profits to French merchants and manufacturers. Every year
land is sold to the average amount of about 120,000,0002.,
and personal property (shares, State funds, bonds, «Xrc.) to
the amount of 40,000,000Z.
External. — In its registration of external trade, the French
administration distinguishes between General Trade, which in-
cludes all goods entering or leaving France (from and to foreign
countries and colonies), and the Special Trade, which includes
only those imported goods which are intended, or are supposed to
be intended, for home use and those exported goods which are of
French origin. The value of each appears as follows : —
General Commerce
Special Commerce
Imports
Y,\ porta
Imports
Exports
Million francs
Million francs
698
Million francs
Million francs
( 1827-36
667
480
628
A vci
age \ 1837-46
1,088
1,024
776
713
[1847-56
1,508
1,672
1.077 .
1,224
1886
5,116
4,246
4,208
8,848
1887
1.9 43
4,288
4,026
8,848
1888
5,187
4,298
4,107
3,246
1889
5,320
4,803
4,317
3,704
1890
5,452
4,840
4,437
3,753
COMMERCE
497
The chief subdivisions of the special trade during the last five
years are seen from the following table, in millions of francs : —
-
Import* Exports
Foci product
Raw
Manufactured goods
Total .
1886 1887 1888 1886 j 1887 ! 1888 [ 1889 1890
1,641 1.423 1,:.07 1.441 1,445 731 703 727 837
2,082 2,014 2,021 2,262 2,342 941
580
857.
899
1,999
3,249 4,026 4,107 4,317 4,437 3,249 ; 3,246 8,247
3,753
The chief articles of import for home use and exports of home
produce for the same years are seen from the following in millions
of francs : —
-
1886
1887
1S88
18S9
L8M
Imports : —
Wine ....
518
444
438
384
350
RUw wool
387
326
329
371
337
Cereals
262
289
375
366
364
Raw silk
293
275
192
292
240
Raw cotton .
161
203
158
203
206
Timber and wood .
143
158
166
173
158
Hides and furs
17a
153
135
180
211
Oil seeds
165
134
146
155
192
Coffee ....
103
132
131
145
156
Coal and coke
125
126
143
212
248
Fruits ....
128
74
64
64
83
Cattle ....
115
78
78
86
69
Sugar, foreign and colonial
53
51
78
65
46
Textiles, woollen .
71
64
65
68
67
,, silks
43
53
50
58
64
,, cotton .
57
50
41
41
41
Flax ....
54
52
69
57
58
Exports : —
Textiles, woollen .
376
350
323
364
361
,, silk
242
210
223
261
274
,, cotton .
107
118
106
116
110
Wine ....
260
234
242
251
269
Raw silk and yarn
147
141
117
139
125 !
Raw wool and yarn
132
120
131
169
121
Small ware .
125
128
129
145
155 :
Leather goods
133
126
135
135
146
Leather
97
94
92
108
112
Linen and cloth .
78
90
87
103
125
Metal goods, tools
62
74
71
85
89 !
Cheese and butter
89
65
91
112
118 j
Spirits ....
74
67
65
67
71
Sugar, refined
47
57
48
68
62
Skins and furs
60
57
63
68
76
Chemical produce .
48
48
46
49
50 |
498
FRANCE
The chief imports for home use and exports of home goods are to and from
the following countries, in millions of francs : —
Imports from :
United Kingdom
Belgium.
Spain
United States
Germany
Italy .
British India.
Argentine Republic
Russia .
Algeria .
1887
1888
1889 j
476
529
538
414
419
475
357
378
355
325
248
307
322
333
338
308
181
134 <
182
188
186 1
182
189
219
178
248
210
133
158
201
1S90
626
500
354
317
851
122
210
210
195
208
Exports to :
United Kingdom .
Belgium.
Germany
United States
Switzerland .
Italy .
Spain
Argentine Republic
Algeria .
1887
1888
1889
1890
820
864
996
1,026
481
472
571
538
816
308
342
342
271
256
273
329
•J17
209
230
243
192
119
144
150
149
172
194
153
144
134
170
103
153
176
179
195
According to value of the general imports and exports, their distribution
appears from the following, in millions of francs : —
-
18S7
1888
1889
1890
1,576
2,246
Imports : —
By sea : French ships .
,, Foreign .
Total by sea
,, land .
Exports : —
By sea : French ships .
,, Foreign .
Total by sea
,, land .
1,333
2,022
1,396
2,233
1,606
2,064
3,355
1,589
1,505
1,338
2,843
1,395
3,629
1,558
3,670
1,650
3,822
1,631
1,636
1,319
•2, 956
1,343
1,780
1,466
1,794
1,513
3,246
1,557
3,307
1,534
The share of the principal French ports and Customs House in the genera]
trade of 1890 was as follows — imports and exports combined — in millions of
francs : —
Dunkerque . .514
Boulogne .424
Rouen . .245
Cette . . . 225
The transit trade in 1890 reached the value of 600 million francs.
The subjoined statement shows, according to the Board of Trade returns,
the value of the commcrrr between France and Great Britain and Ireland in
the years Indicated : —
Havre
. 1,924
Marseilles .
. 1,844
Paris .
. 751
Bordeaux .
. 743
Dieppe
. 196
Calais .
. 191
St. Nazaire .
. 166
Tourcoing .
. 162
-
1881
£
39,984,187
10,970,025
1880 1887
1888 1889
1890
Ofta from
France .
I in ports of British
produce .
£ £
36,599,450 37,122,188
!
13,014,282 ! 13,059,434
1 £
38,855,296' 45,780,227
14,810,598, 14,551,294
£
44,828,148
i6,6er,MT
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION*
490
The total im}K)rts into France from the United Kingdom amounted to
20.319.010/. in 1886 ; 20,495,730/. in 1887 : 24,129.529/. in 1888 ; 22.10"
in 1889 : and 24,710,803 in 1890.
The following table gives the declared value, in pounds sterling, of the
eight staple articles exported from France to the United Kingdom in each of
the four years 1887, 1888, 1889, and 1890 :—
Staple Ex]K>rts to U. K.
. 1887
£
1888
1890
£
£
£
Silk manufactures
5.888,827
6,067,387
7.178.021
7.147,067
Woollen .
4.912.892
5,589,599
6,418,345
■.578
Butter ....
2,265.797
-.869
3,073,473 2,847.144
Wine ....
2,787.7(54
2,969,999
8,122,076 :;.2t0,167
Sugar, refined .
1,186,933
1,368,954
2,489,278 2,185,822
Leather and manufactures
1,796,802
1,782,702
1,893,270 1.790.724
Eggs ....
1,255,118
1,063,663
1,181,34:. 1.270,092
Brandy ....
1,294,462
1,190,068
1,276,674 1,340,684
These eight articles constitute about two-thirds of the total exports from
France to the United Kingdom. The total quantity of wine exported from
France to Great Britain in 1890 was 6,262,738 gallons, being 38 '6 per cent, of
the total quantity of wine imported into the United Kingdom.
The following table exhibits the value of the principal articles of British
produce imported from the United Kingdom into France in 1887, 1888, 1889,
and 1890 :—
Staple Imports from U. K.
1887
1888
£
1889
1890
Woollen manufactures and
t
£
£
yarn ....
Metals (chiefly iron and
copper)
Coals ....
Cotton manufactures and
2,965,636
1,063.532
1,649,626
3,086,574
2,031,859
1,630,073
3,326,462
946,894
1,896,210
3,037,176
1,764,931
2,987,664
yarn .... 1,390,168
Machinery . . . 811,379
Chemicals . . . 388,407
1,335.472
796,984
440,475
1,213,215
1,011,560
525,029
1,321,126
1,295,708
723,710
Shipping and Navigation.
On January 1, 1891, the French mercantile navy consisted of
14,001 sailing vessels, of 444,092 tons, and with crews 68,625,
1,110 steamers of 499,921 tons, and crews numbering 13,799.
Of the sailing vessels 270 of 31,093 tons were engaged in the
European seas, and 392 of 163,901 tons in ocean navigation; of
the steamers 243 of 153,317 tons were engaged in European seas,
and 189 of 308,851 tons in ocean navigation. The rest were
employed in the coasting trade, in port service, or in the fisheries.
k k 2
500
FRANCE
Of the sailing vessels and steamers 12,720 were not over 50
tons.
The following table shows the navigation at French ports in
1889 and 1890 :—
Entered
With Cargoes
In Ballast
Total
Vessels
Tonnage
Vessels Tonnage
Vessels Tonnage
1839
French : —
Coasting trade
Foreign trade l
Total French .
Foreign vessels .
Total .
1890
French : —
Coasting trade
Foreign trade ]
Total French .
Foreign vessels .
Total .
54,716
8,457
5,266,949
4,645,355
13,175' 855,888
496 114,393
67,891
8,953
6,122,837
4,759,748
63,173
18,455
81,628
9,912,304
8,190,494
13,67l' 970,281 ! 76,844
2,354 474,054 j 20,809
10,822,585
8,664,548
18,102,798
16,0251,444,335 97,653
19,547,133
54,552
8,344
5,049,929
4,344,642
15,097
490
15,587
2,400
957,844 69,649
137,731 8,834
6,007,778
4,482,373
62,896
19,355
9,394,571
9,295,966
1,095,575
505,837
78,483
21,755
10,490,146
9,801,803
82,251
18,690,537
17,987
1,601,412
100,238
20,291,949
Cleared
1889
French : —
Coasting trade
Foreign trade *
Total French .
Foreign vessels .
Total .
1890
French : —
Coasting traile
Foreign trade '
Total French
Foreign vessels .
Tatal .
54,716
7,883
5,266,949
4,530,636
13,175
1,730
855,888
595,809
67,891
9,613
6,122,837
5,126,445
62,599
13,824
76,423
54,552
7,823
62,375
13,786
9,797,585
4,866,603
14,664,188
5,049,929
4,266,514
14,905
7,477
1,451,697
2,959,951
77,504
21,301
11,249,282
8,826,554
22,382
5,411,648
98,805
20,075,836
15,097
1,533
957,844
505,992
69,649
9,356
6,007,773
4,772,506
9,316,443
5,352,819
16,6301,463,836
8,246 4,558,347
79,005
22,032
10,780,279
9,911,166
76,161
14,669,262
21,8766, 022,1 S3
101,037
20,691,445
Inclusive of colonies and maritime fishing.
501
Internal Communications.
I. Rivers, Railways, I
Navigable rivers, 8,877 kilometres : actually navigated (1891), 7,656
kilometres: canals. 1.809 kilomi-
The navigation on the rivers and canals is on a steady u
from the following figures of yearly traffic (in millions of metric tana
Year
Canals
Rivers
Total
1879
1,104
919
1884
1,326
1,128
1885
1,330
1.12:5
1886
1,548
1,251
1887
1,707
1,366
3,073
1888
1,751
3. ISO
1889
1,789
1,448
3,238
By a law passed June 11, 1842. the work of constructing railways was left
mainly to private eomjMinies, superintended, and if ne< • ited in their
operations, by the State : which, moreover, also constructs and partly works
railwavs on its own account.
The French railways grew from 9,086 kilometres in 1860 1 kilo-
metres in 1891, of which 2.62S kilometres belonged to the State. !
3,150 of local interest.
The gross receipts, expenditure, and net revenue of the French railway.-
are given in the following table, in millions of francs : —
Year
Receipts
Expenditure
Net Revenue
1875
848-1
425 9
422-2
1880
1,034 9
515 6
5190
1885
1,044-3
568 5
475 8
1886
1,022-7
543 3
4794
1887'
1.046-0
540 4
505 6
1888
1,059-9
550 3
509 6
1889
1,144 -4
588-8
555 6
1890
1,127 6
—
—
The number of passengers in 1889 was 244,164,701 ; the weight of the
goods carried was 87,043.706 tons (89,100,000 tons in 1883).
Tramways worked, January, 1890, 979 kilometres ; in construction, 545
kilometres.
II. Posts and Telegraphs.
On January 1, 1889, France had 6,932 j>ost-offices (oue for each 5,500
inhabitants), besides 88 movable offices, and 58,464 letter-boxes. The
number of letters, &c, carried in 1889 was : —
502 FRANCE
Letters
Registered letters
Post-cards ....
Journals ....
Samples ...
Printed matter and manuscripts
Total ....
Money orders
Value in million francs
Telegrams ....
Internal
International
Total
(in millions)
(in millions)
588-9
121-7
710-6
18-8
3-2
22-0
41-5
3-8
46-3
399-8
72-6
472-4
27-4
7 '5
34-9
432-5
25-9
458-4
1,508-9
234-6
1,743-5
24-5
1-6
26-1
678-9
77-6
756-5
28-9
6-5
35-4
The total length of the telegraphic lines on January 1, 1890, was 96,632
kilometres, with 305, 160 kilometres of wires, and 237 kilometres of pneumatic
tubes at Paris. The number of subscribers to the telephonic systems was
11,439, and 152,538 inter-urban conversations were held.
Money and Credit.
The total amount of coin put into circulation by France from 1795 till
January 1, 1891, has been 8,720,965,570 francs gold, and 5,313,000,000
francs silver. The French money coined in 1890 amounted to 20,802,800
francs, of which 200,000 francs was bronze. About 11 per cent. (1891) of the
gold coin, and about 81 per cent, of the silver rain, which circulate in the
country are of foreign origin. It is estimated that about 6,000,000,000
francs worth of coin, of which one-third is silver, is in actual circulation iu
the country.
The statistics of private banking are too unsatisfactory to be given.
The private savings-banks numbered 543 (with 1,028 branch offices) in
January, 1890 ; and on December 31, 1890, the number of depositors was
5,759,856, to the value of 2,906,230,296 francs, thus giving an average of 504
franca for each account. The postal savings-banks, introduced in 1881, had, in
1890, 1,502,870 accounts, to the value of 413,450,000 francs, thus showing an
average of 275 francs per account.
The Bank of France, founded in 1806, has the monopoly of emitting hank
notes, and in December, 1889, it had in circulation bank notes to the nominal
Value of 3, 003,100,000 francs. The capital of the bank is estimated at
182,500,000 francs. The operations of the Bank in 1890 were as follows : —
l-'ranes
Discount of trade bills 9,534,590,600
Loan to Bank of England 76, 197,400
Mills lor cash 552,939,900
Advances on security ..... 811,534,300
Advances on bullion 38,698,100
Notes to order, &c 2,397,870,300
Various 39,305,200
I:!. 450. 135. son
Gross proceeds to Bank .... 44,053,613
Its operations in 1889 amounted to 12,803,360,100 francs, and the
proceeds to 46,947,147 francs.
MONEY, WEIGHTS. AND MEASl
503
The following table gives, in millions of francs, the average note circulation
ami metallic reserves of the Bank of France for the last ten years : —
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, ami measures of France ami the British equivalents
are : —
Money.
The Franc, of 100 centimes . . Approximate value 9W., or 25*22)
francs to 1/. sterling.
Weights ash Mea-
The Gramme . . . . . = 15*43 grains troy, or about 30
grammes equal to an ounce.
K . = 2*205 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Quintal Mitriquc . . . = 220A
,, Tomuau = 2.205 lbs. = 197 cwt
.. Litre, Liquid Measure . . = 1 76 imperial pint.
Hectolitre ' Li,lui(l Measure . = 29 .. gallons.
I Dry Measure . . = 2"7"> .. bushels.
■ ■ M . . . . = 3*28 feet or 39*37 in
• • A"/' <•' s= 1,094 yards (-621 mile), or nearly
"> furlongs or £ mile.
■ . . . . = 85*3] COOTl
Hectare . . . . . — 2*47 m -
A . . . = 247 acres, or 2| k.c to 1 square
mile.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of France in Great Britain.
AfMbassador — M. William Henry Waddington : accredited Ambassador to
Britain July 80, 1883.
■illor of Embassy. — Baron d'Estournelles de Constant.
•tar it. — Comte de Florian.
Military AUaehi. — Count Dupontariee de Heussev.
Naval Attache — Captain Le CI-
e- Archivist*. — J. Kneeht.
There are French Consular representatives at—
London, C.G. Southampton, V.C, Mandalav
Cardiff, C. Bombav. Melbourne,
Dwblin. C. Calcutta, I Mauritius. C.
Edinburgh. C. Cape Town. C. (Quebec, C.G.
Glasgow, C. Cvprus. C. Singapore. C.
Liverpool, C. Gibraltar. C. Sydney, C.
Manchester, V.C. Hong Kong, C. Wdlin*srton(X.Z. <.Y.c.
Newcastle, C. Malta, C.
504 FRANCE
2. Of Great Britain in France.
Ambassador. — Right Hon. the Marquis of Dufferin and Ava, G.C.B., K.P.,
G.C.S. I., &c. ; Governor-General of Canada 1872-78 ; Ambassador to Russia
1879-81 ; to Turkey 1881-84 ; Governor-General of India 1884-88 '; Ambassador
to Italy 1888-92. Appointed Ambassador to France, December 15, 1891.
Secretary. — E. Constantine Phipps.
Military Attache. — Colonel the Hon. Reginald A. J. Talbot, C.B.
Naval Attache— Capt, W. H. May, R.N.
Commercial Attache for Europe [except Russia). — Sir Joseph A. Crowe,
K.C.M.G., C.B.
There are British Consular representatives at —
Paris, C. Cayenne, C. New Caledonia, C.
Ajaccio, C. Cherbourg, C. Nice, C.
Algiers, C.G. Havre, C.G. Reunion, C.
Bordeaux, C. Marseilles, C. Saigon, C.
Brest, C. Martinique, C. Tahiti, C.
Calais, C. Nantes, C.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning France.
1. Official Publications.
Almanach national. Annuaire officiel de la republique franyai.se. Paris, 1891.
Annuaire de la marine et des colonies. 8. Paris, 1891.
Annuaire statistique de la France. 8. Paris, 1891.
Budget general de l'exercice, 1892. Paris, 1891.
Bulletin de statistique du Ministere des Finances.
Bulletin des lois de la republique franchise.
Bulletin du Ministere des Travaux Publics.
Bulletin officiel du Ministere de l'lntericur.
Corapte general de radniinistration de la justice civile et coinmerciale en France pendant
l'annee 1889. 4. Paris, 1891.
Compte general de radniinistration de la justice eriiiiinelle en France, par le Garde des
Sceaux, Ministie de la Justice. 4. Paris, 1891.
Correspondence respecting the West African Agreement between Great Britain and
France of August 10, 1889. London, 1890.
Declarations exchanged between the Government of Her Britannic Majesty and the
Government of the French Republic with respect to territories in Iceland. London, 1890.
Denombrenient de la population, 1886. Paris, 1887.
Documents statistiques reunis par radniinistration des douanes sur le commerce de la
France. 4. Paris, 1891.
Enquete sur la marine marchande. 4. Paris, 1878.
Journal officiel.
La situation tinanciere des communes de France etd'Algeric, precedee dun tableau indi-
quant la situation tinanciere des depart ements. 9me publication. Paris, 188(5.
Les colonies tVaneaises. Notices illustrees, puhliccs par onlre du Sous-Secretaire d'Etat
des Colonies, sous la direction de M. Louis Henrique. ."> vols. I'aris, 1889-90.
Ministere des Finances : Coinptes generani de radniinistration des tlnauc.es. Paris, 1890.
Ministere de 1' Agriculture : Bulletin, Paris, 1891.
New Hebrides. Agreement between Hritisli and French (Jovcrnmeiits. London, 1888.
Notices coloniales publiees a l'occasiou de l'exposition universelle d'Anvers en 1885.
8 vols. I'aris, 1885.
Rapporl fait an noni de la commission de la reorganisation de l'annee, par M. le General
Chareton. i. Versailles, 1875.
Resume des etats de situation do l'enseigncinent primairc pour l'annee seolaire 18S8-S9.
et 1889-90. Paris, 1891.
Situation ecououiique el coinnierciale de la France. BxpOSS comparatif pour les (|iiinze
annees de la periodc 1866-79. Paris, 1881.
Stmistiipies coloniales pour l'linncc 18S9. Paris, 1891.
Tableau du commerce general de la France, avecses colonies et les puissances straagena,
pendant l'annee 1890. i. Paris, 1891.
Tableau general des niouvements ilu cabotage pendant l'annee 1890. Direction geiierale
des douanes el des cunt rilmt ions indirectes. I. I'aris. 1891.
Tableaux de population, de culture, de commerce, et de navigation, sur les colonies
franchises. Paris, lsi'l.
BOOKS OF REFERENCE — ANDORRA 505
Hertslet (Sir Edward, C.B.), The Foreign Office List. Published annually. London, 1890.
Report bv Mr. L. S. Sackville West on the Tenure of Land in France, dated Paris, Nov.
19, 1869; in • Reports from H.M.'s Representatives respecting the Tenure of Land in the
several Countries of Europe.' Part I. Fol. Loudon, 1870.
Foreign.Offlce, Diplomatic and Consular Reports for 1890.
Report by Mr. Egerton on Personal Taxation in France in ' Papers respecting the Taxa-
tion of Personal Property in Fiance, Germany, and the L'nited States.' 'Miscellaneous.'
No. 2. Folio. London." 1886.
Trade of France with the United Kingdom, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year 1891.' Imp. 4.
London, 1891.
2. Ni>N-OFFICIAL PUBLICATI"
Annuaire de l'economie sociale. 8. Paris, 1891.
Audifret (Manpiis d'Y, Etat de la fortune nationale et du credit public de 1789 a 1873. 8.
Paris 1875.
Block (Maurice), Annuaire de l'economie i>olitique et de la statistique. 1891. 16. Paris,
1890.
Carnet de l'officier <Ie marine. 1891. Paris, 1891.
Colle (E.), La France et ses colonies au lOme siecle. S. Paris, 1878.
CrUenoy {De), Memoire de l'inscription maritime. 8. Paris, 1872.
Cueheral-Clarigny (M.), Instruction publiqne en France. 8. Paris, 1883.
David (J.), he credit national. S. Paris, 1872.
Delarbre (J.), La marine militaire de la France. 8. Paris, 1881.
Deschumps (L.), Histoire de la Question Coloniale en France. Paris, 1891.
Dupont (P.), Annuaire de la marine pour 1891. 8. Paris, 1891.
Foville (A. de), La France actuelle. Paris, 1889.
Oafteral (Paul), Les colonies franchises. 4th edition. Paris, 1888.
Hrlie (F. A.), Les constitutions de la Fiance. 8. Paris, 1878.
Ingou/(J.), L'avenir de la marine et du commerce exterieur de la France. S. Paris,
1S77.
Journal de la Societe de Statistique de Paris. Paris, 1891.
Kaufmann (R F.), Die Finanzen Frankreiehs. Leipzig, 1882.
Kleine (E.). Les richesses de la France. 12. Paris, 1872.
Laugel (Auguste), La France politique et sociale. 8. Paris, 1878.
Lavergne (Leonce de), Economie rurale de la France. 4me ed. 18. Paris, 1878.
Lebon (A.) and Pelet (P.). France as it is. London, 1888.
I, 'economist e francais. Paris, 1891.
Leon (M.), De l'accroissement de la population en France et de la doctrine de Malthus.
8. Paris, 1866.
Loitrne (C. de), Histoire politique de France. Paris, 1886.
Levatuur (E.), La France et ses colonies. 2 vols. Paris, 1890-91.
Lera»»eur (E.), La Production Brute Agricole de la France. Paris, 1891.
Loua (Toussaint), La France sociale et eeonomique. Paris. 1SSS.
. Mousty (X.), Tableaux des finances de la France. 8. Paris, 1879.
Prat (Th. de), Annuaire protestant : Statistique general des diverses branches du pro-
testantisme francais. 8. Paris, 1891.
Reelut (Elisee), La France. Vol. II. of 'Xouvelle geographe universelle.' 8. Paris,
1S77.
Statistique de la production de la soie en France et a l'etranger. Recoltedel891. Lvons.
1891.
Vignon (L.), Les colonies franchises, leur commerce, leur situation eeonomique. leui
utilite pour la metropole, leur avenir. Paris, 1885.
Vignon (L.), L'Expansion de la France. Paris, 1891.
Viihrer (M. A.). Histoire de la dette publique en France. Paris. 1886.
Vuitry (Adolphe), Etude sur le regime financier de la France. S. Paris, 1879.
ANDORRA.
The republic of Andorra, which is under the joint suzerainty of France
ami the Spanish Bishop of Urgel, has an area of 175 square miles and a
population of about 6,000. It is governed by a council of twenty-four
members elected for four years by four heads of families in each parish. The
council elect a first and second syndic to preside ; the executive power is
vested in the first syndic, while the judicial jiower is exercised by a civil
judge and two vicars or priests. France and the Bishop of Urgel appoint
each a vicar and a civil judge alternately. A permanent delegate, moreover,
has charge of the interests of France in the republic.
500
FRANCE : — COLONIES AND DEPENDENCIES
Colonies and Dependencies.
The colonial possessions and protectorates of France (includ-
ing Algeria), dispersed over Asia, Africa, America, and PSlynesia,
embrace, inclusive of countries under protection and spheres of
influence, a total area of 3,064,000 square miles. Not reckoned
as a colony is Algeria, which has a government and laws distinct
from the other colonial possessions, being looked upon as a part
of France. Algeria, as well as all the colonies proper, are
represented in the Senate and Chamber of Deputies, and con-
sidered to form, politically, a part of France. The estimated
area and population (in some cases, especially Senegal, Rivieres
du Sud, and Soudan, exclusive of natives) 1887-91 of the various
colonies and countries under protection, together with the date of
their first settlement or acquisition, is shown in the subjoined
table (on page 507), compiled from the latest official returns :
The trade of all the French colonies (excluding the dependency ol' Mada-
gascar) in 1889 appears as follows, in thousands of francs : —
-
Trade with France
Trade with French Trade with Foreign
Colonies Countries
Indo - Chinese
Import*
Exports
Imparts
Exports Imparts
Exjioris
Custom Union
16,238
1,448
264
347 43,899
56,>064
French India .
736
14,637
17
668 6,091
10,707
Mayotte .
348
1,098
59
59 281
116
Nossi-Bc .
141
108
75
93 1,722
1,248
Ste. Marie
13
8
7
i 26
17 .
Reunion .
9,170
12,626
860
408 11,224
868
New Caledonia.
4,025
2,067
—
5, L52
1,192
Pacific Ocean .
841
2
—
— 3.003
3,088
Cull' of Guinea .
1,496
237
2
2,194
2,606
Senegal (1887) .
12,268
11,743
308
11 18,28)8
•j. is:
Rivieres du Sud
(Senegal)('87) .
247
—
—
— 1,930
2,604
( i oiana
5,878
4,115
80
2 2,993
155
Martinique ('88)
7,959
22,249
664
106 14,293
1,100
Guadeloupe
10,919
24,691
1,192
438 - 12,581
722
St. Pierre, Mi-
quelon .
Total .
Algeria .
3,707
73,924
178,700
9,811
70
2,46:; L0,W8
5,846
91,894
104,840
3,598
4,638 ' 129,603
201,900
7,200
2,900 60,800
35,300
Tunis (1889-90)
Grand Total
15,600
11,200
700
8,600 11,700
10,800
268,294
317,940
11,498
16,138 ; 202,103
137,494
COLONIES AND DKPENDKN
507
I. Cotos
id : —
FitiK-li India
hin-China
Toncptin ....
Total of Ada .
/;' \frirn : —
Algeria ....
\bA KiviiTis da Sad
Fundi Soadan (annexed region
Gaboon and Guinea < !oaat .
• 'ongo Region
Reunion
Mayottc
81 Marie .
OWk .
Total of Africa
In A merica : —
Guiana, or Cayenne
Guadeloupe and Dependentaea
Martiwpie ....
St. Pierre and IliqaeJon
Total of America .
In Oceania: —
New Caledonia .
Marquesas Islands
Tahiti and Moorea
Raiatea ....
Tuluiai and Raivavae .
Tuamotu and Garabier Islands
Wallis Islands
Total of Oceania
Total of colonics with Algeria
II. I'iU'TEi i kh OotTNTBian
ani> Spherkb at Inkukn. i
Year of
Ana in
Acquisition Squa'
1679
1861
1884
203
23,000
34,700
Population
280,303
l.ill
12.000,000
: '.'03
14, 1M
1830
257.450
3,910,399
1637
140,000
1880-90
50,000
283,660
1843
1884
"900
/ 186,500
( 500,000
1649
970 '
165,009
1843
143
1841
113
7.803
1643
2,300 ,
. 370
718
.".770
1626
46,850
796
1634
720 '
108,154
1635
380
175,863
163".
90
5,983
48,040
372.796
1854
1841
1880
1888
1881
1881
1887
5,145
11,181
881
6,536
3,500
92,995
834,048 19,938,293
7,700
480
455
80
390
60
9,165
Tunis
45,000
1,500,000
Madagascar
1887
-.500
1,500,000
Annain ......
1884
106,
5,000,900
Cambodia .....
1862
32,390
1,500,000
Comoro Isles ....
1880
800
47,000
Sahara, Soudan and Niger Region .
1890-91
1,568,000
1,120,000
Total, protected countries
1,980,940
10,667,000
Total, colonies and protected
countries ....
2,814,988 !
30,520,293
508 FRANCE : — INDIA — INDOCHINA
The 1892 budget estimates 55,125,467 francs for the colonial service. In
addition, the Marine Budget has to bear certain colonial expenses, while each
colony has a large budget of its own, insufficient to meet the colonial
expenses. Algeria and Cambodia are not included in that estimate.
The only possessions possessing commercial importance, besides Algeria
and Tunis, are Cochin-China, the islands of Reunion and Madagascar on the
coast of Africa, and Martinique and Guadeloupe in the West Indies. The
exports from and imports to French colonies are seen from the table on
page 506 ; details about the more important colonies are given under
separate heads.
The total exports from French colonies and dependencies to Great Britain
amounted in 1890 to 927, 0861., and the exports from Great Britain to these
possessions to 761,883?.
The following are more detailed notices of the colonies, dependencies, and
spheres of influence, arranged under Asia, Africa, America, and Aus-
tralasia and Oceania.
ASIA.
FRENCH INDIA.
The French possessions in India, as established by the treaties of 1814
and 1815, consist of five separate towns, which cover an aggregate of 50,803
hectares (about 200 square miles), and had on December 31, 1888, the follow-
ing estimated populations : —
Pondichery
. 41,253
Nedounkadou . 33,487
La Grande Aldee 23, 260
Karical .
. 34,719
*Shandernagar . 25,395
*Mahe . . 8,349
Oulgaret
. 46,529
Bahour . . 27,129
*Yanaon . . 4,199
Villenour
. 35,983
Total, 280,303.
Of this total less than 1,000 are Europeans. The colonies are divided
into five cUpcndances, the chief towns of which are marked with an asterisk
in the above table, and ten communes, having municipal institutions. The
Governor of the colony resides at Pondichery. The colony is represented by
one senator and one deputy. Estimated budget (1890) 1,989,483 francs ;
expenditure of France (budget of 1892), 307,218 francs ; debt 300,000 francs.
The chief exports from Pondichery are oil seeds. The imports in 1890
amounted to 6,844,099 francs (735,854 francs from France), and total
exports, 25,996,708 francs (14,637,238 francs to France). The port of Pondi-
chery was visited in 1888 by 316 vessels.
FRENCH INDOCHINA.
Under this designation the French dependencies of Cochin-China, Ton-
quin, Annam, and Cambodia have, to a certain extent, been incorporated.
There is a Superior Council of Indo-China, which fixes the budget of Cochin-
China, and advises as to the budgets of Annam, Tonquin, and Cambodia.
In 1887 the French possessions in Indo-China, including Annam ami
Cambodia, were united into a Customs Union ; the external trade of the
Union reached in 1890 60,248,460 francs for imports, and 56,995,119 francs
for exports ; Customs receipts, 25,294,497 francs.
Exports of native produce to France in 1889, 2,022,37'.' trams ; imports of
French produce, 11,286,781 francs.
ANNAM — CAMBODIA — COCHIN-CHINA 509
ANN AM.
French intervention in the affairs of Annam, which began as early as
1787, was terminated by a treaty, signed on June 6, 1884, and ratified at
Hue on February 23, 1886, by which a French protectorate has been estab-
lished over Annam. The young Prince Bun Can was proclaimed Kiug on
January 31, 1889. The ports of Turane, Qui-Xhon, and Xuan Day are
opened to European commerce, and the former has been conceded to France ;
French troops occupy \ait of the citadel of Hue. Annamite functionaries
administer all the internal affairs of Annam. The area of Annam proi*-r is
about 27, 020 square miles, and of the territory more or less dependent, about
19,300 square miles. Population estimated at 2,000,000 by some, and at
5,000,000 by others ; the latter being considered the more probable. It is
Annamite in the towns and along the coast, and consists of various tribes of
Mois in the hilly tracts. There are 420,000 Roman Catholics. There are
23,230 soldiers, of whom 11,830 are natives. A French company has (1891)
been formed for working coal mines at Turane. Chief productions besides
cereals are cinnamon bark (export 2,000,000 francs), cotton (export from 400
to 1,000 tons), sugar (export from 200,000 to 1,000,000 francs), tea, coffee,
tobacco, and seeds (export, 610,000 francs). The trade statistics are included
in those of Indo-China The chief imports are rice, cotton, yarn, cottons,
opium, and paper ; all from China and Japan.
CAMBODIA.
Area, 38,600 square miles; population from 1,500,000 to 1,800,000, con-
sisting of several indigenous races, 30,000 Malays, 100,000 Chinese and
Annamites. The country is under King Norodom, who recognised the
French protectorate in 1863, and it is divided into 32 arrondissements. The
two chief towns are Pnom-Penh, the capital of the territory, and Kampot, its
only seaport, 3,000 inhabitants. Revenue, 1888, 3,275,000 francs; expendi-
ture. 3,059,236 francs. French troops, 300. The chief culture is rice, betel,
totacco, indigo, sugar tree, and silk tree. The exports of home produce are
salt fish, raw cotton, haricot beans, cardamum, and sugar. The trade statis-
tics are included in those of Indo-China. The imports comprise salt, wine,
tea, textiles, arms, and pottery.
COCHIN-CHINA.
The area of French Cochin-China is estimated at 23,082 square miles.
The whole is divided into 4 provinces, Saigon, Mytho, Vinh-Long, and
Bassac ; and these into 21 arrondissements The colony is represented by
one deputy. The total population in 1888 was estimated at 1,991,500 ; of
these 2,537 were French, 1,679,000 Annamites, 153,000 Cambodians, 56,000
Chinese, and 9.600 savages, besides Malays and Malabarians. There were
628 schools, with 115 European and 1,183 native teachers, and 25,397 pupils.
The Catholic population numbered 5,800, and the Buddhists, 1,688,270.
There were 1,830 French troops, and about 2,800 Annamite soldiers. Of the
total area about one-sixth (or 995, 933 hectares) is cultivated. The chief crop
is rice, the exports of which, mostly to Coina, in 1890 amounted to 1,718,900/.
Coco-nuts, sugar-cane, tobacco are also grown. In 1887 the colony had
143,270 oxen and buffaloes. At Saigon are a military arsenal, a floating
dock, and a marine observatory. The colony has 51 miles of railway, and
1,840 miles of telegraph line. Its trade statistics are included in those of
French Indo-China. At Saigon in 1890 there cleared 357 vessels of 375,324
510 FRA NCE : — ALGERIA
tons (152 of 184,709 tons British, and 164 of 154,715 tons German), exclusive
of the Messageries Maritimes. In the local budget of 1890 the annual
revenue and expenditure balanced at 30,056,947 francs. Expenditure of
France (budget 1892) 3,355,912 francs. The French budget for 1892 requires
the sum of 8,000,000 francs to be paid by Cochin-China towards the military
expenditure of Annam and Tonquin.
TONQUIN.
This territory, annexed to France in 1884, has an area of 34,740 square
miles, and is divided into fourteen provinces,* with 8, 000 villages and a popu-
lation estimated at 9,000,000. There are 400,000 Roman Catholics. Chief
town Hanoi', an agglomeration of many villages, with a population of 150^000.
Revenue (1888) of Tonquin and Annam 17,321,000 francs, expenditure,
17,034,620 francs. There were 11,475 French troops in 1889, besides 6,500
native soldiers. The chief cultures are rice, sugar-cane, silk tree, cotton, and
various fruit trees, and tobacco. There are copper and iron mines of good
quality. French companies have (1891) been formed for working coal mines
at Hongay, near Haiphong, and at Kebao. . The chief industries are silk,
cotton, sugar, pepper, and oils. The imports were valued in 1890 at
27,734,212 francs (7,306,064 francs from France), and the exports at
13,324,720 francs (694,980 francs to France), re-export and transit trade
7,481,556 francs. At Haiphong in 1890 there entered 763 vessels of 111,939
tons (50 of 40,271 tons French). The expenditure of France for Annam and
Tonquin in the budget of 1892 was 10,450,000 francs, of which 450,000 franca
were for the Tonquin submarine telegraph cable.
AFRICA.
ALGERIA.
(L' A LQEBIE.)
Government.
A civil Governor-General at present administers the government of
Algeria, which is now regarded as a detached part of France rather than as a
colony. A small extent of territory in the Sahara is still administered by
the military authorities, represented by the Commandant of the 19th Army
Corps.
Governor- General of Algeria. — M. Jules Cambon, appointed April, 1891.
The French Chambers have alone the right of legislating for Algeria,
while such matters as do not come within the legislative power are regulated
by decree of the Picsident of the Republic. The Governor-General is assisted
by a council, whose 1 miction is purely consultative. A Superior Council,
meeting once a year, to which delegates are sent by each of the provincial
general councils, is charged with the duty of discussing and voting the
colonial budget. Each department sends one senator and two deputies to the
National Assembly.
Area and Population.
The boundaries of Algeria are not very well defined, large portions of the
territory in the outlying districts being claimed both by the trench Govern-
ment and the nomad tribes who inhabit it and hold themselves unconqm iijed,
INSTRUCTION — CRIME — FINANCE
511
The colony is divided officially into three departments, consisting as a whole
of the 'Territoire civil,' and a ' Territoire de commandement. ' The follow-
ing table gives the ana of each of the three dejiartments of Algeria, according
to the Census of 1891 :—
-
An:,
miles
Population
Pop.
-
mile
Civil Dept.
HffltB
Total
Algiers .
Oran
Constantine .
Total
65,929
44,616
73,929
1,275,650
817,450
1,543,867
192.477
124,616
170,672
1,468,127
'.' I2.066
1.714,539
22
21
23
184,471
3,636,967
1.12:
The total population in 1884 was 3,817,306. The Civil territory is
constantly increased in area by taking in sections of the Military Territory.
Of the population in 1886, 2,014,013 were males and 1,791,671 females. In
1884 the marriages among whites were 3,543, the births 15,618, and deaths
13,123, showing an excess of 2,495 births over deaths. In 1891, of the total
population, there were 272,662 of French origin or naturalisation, 47,667
naturalised Jews, 3,567.223 French indigenous subjects, besides Tunisians.
Moroccans, and Spaniards, Italians, Anglo-Maltese, Germans.
The population of the city of Algiers was 74,792 in 1886 ; Oran, 67,681 ;
Constantine, 44,960 ; Bone, 29,640 ; Tlemcen, 28,204 ; Philippeville, 22.177 :
Blidah, 24,304 ; Sidibel- Abbes, 21,595.
Instruction.
At the Academy of Algiers in 1888 were 223 students. In 1888-89 there
were 1,876 pupils at the 4 lycees of Algiers, Oran, and Constantine ; 8 com
munal colleges with 1,015 pupils, and one college for girls at Oran with 9S
pupils ; in 1889, 958 (113 private, mostly clerical) primary schools, with
78,001 pupils; and 154 infant schools, with 24,354 pupils. There are 76
public primary schools for the natives with 8,963 pupils (910 girls). Of the
total children of school age (6-13), 611,720 receive no instruction ; of these
535,389 were Mussulmans.
Crime.
Before the Assize Courts in 1888, 498 persons were convicted of crime ;
before the correctional tribunals, 12,109 (4,236 to fines) ; before the police
courts, 52,494 (45,263 to fines). For the maintenance of order there are
1,271 gendarmes, 74 police commissaires, 814 police agents, 329 maires, 2,603
police officials of various kinds, and 1,061 custom-house officers.
Finance.
The receipts of the Government are derived chiefly from indirect taxes
licences, and customs duties on imports. The natives pay only direct taxes.
512
FRANCE : — ALGERIA
The cost of maintenance of the army is not included in the budget ; a propor-
tion of the sums spent on public works also is paid by the State. The budget
for 1892 estimated the expenditure at 44,928,731 francs and revenue at
46,330,898 francs. The corresponding figures for 1891 were : expenditure,
44,162,960 francs, and revenue, 45,170,013. A special return shows that in
the period 1830-88 the total expenditure in Algeria has been 5,018,066,462
francs, and the total receipts 1,256,041,004 francs, showing an excess of
expenditure of 3,785,684,255 francs, or over 151 millions sterling, this excess
being almost entirely for military services. The total expenditure on coloni-
sation has been 144,205,504 francs.
Defence.
The military force in Algeria constitutes the 19th Army Corps ; in time of
war it can be divided into two. It consists of 53 battalions of infantry, 52
squadrons of cavalry, 16 batteries of artillery, and a due proportion of other
subsidiary branches — in all about 54,000 men and 15,000 horses. The strictly
local forces consist of 4 regiments of ' Zouaves, ' 3 regiments of ' Tirailleurs
indigenes,' 3 battalions of 'Infanterie legere d'Afrique,' and 2 foreign legions ;
of these the Tirailleurs or Turcos only are native. There are also 3 regiments
of Spahis, corresponding closely to the Indian irregular cavalry.
Industry.
The population engaged in agriculture in 1890 was 3,228,522, about
187,000 being Europeans. About 20,000,000 hectares are occupied by the
agricultural population. The principal crops and the area cultivated in 1889
are shown in the following table : —
Crop
Quantity
Area,
hectares
Wheat (metric quintals)
Barley
Other cereals .....
Vines (hectolitres) . . .
Tobacco (kilogr.) ....
Alfa (metric quintals)
Total area cultivated
5,246,052
8,263,633
661,031
2,579,639
3,846,757
741,420
1,113,309
1,361,292
99,957
106,351
9,841
1,582,612
4,273,362
In 1891 vineyards covered 150,000 hectares.
There are 3,247,692 hectares under forest, but the value of the produco is
small. In 1889 there were in Algeria 329,783 horses and mules, 271,547
camels, 1,217,143 cattle, 9,475,287 sheep, and 4,213,922 goats. The total
animal stock amounted to 15,885,899, of which 15,198,033 belonged to
natives. In 1891 it was estimated at 17 millions.
In 1889, 2,710 persons were employed in mines ; 351,800 tons of iron ore
were produced, worth 2,457,190 francs; 22,336 tons of other ores (blende,
galena, copper, silver), to the value of 1,426,475 fanes.
513
Commerce.
The commerce "i Algeria, like that of Frame, is divided iiito general
(total imjtorts ami exports), ami sjiecial (imports for home use and exports of
home produce). The former was as follows, 1890 (in fraues) : —
Foreign countries ami French colt
Imports from
209.1-
'2,991
Exj orts to
209, 9'. •
Total
-.012 261,62
The total special commeree was as follows for the five years 1886-90 (in
ft) : —
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Total
Kon-i;-'ii Countries and French Colonies
Imports
■>rts
Imports from
Exjiorts to
242.274.279
21 1
234.908.120
"00
260,090,131
5,128
197. ''.
-9,000
260,099,131
50. 0M
1.000
28,082
7.741
...008
1.943
:'.000
--.500
The following table shows the trade of Algeria (special) with various
ountries for 1890 (in francs) : —
France
Tunis .
Russia
Great Britain
Spain .
Italy .
Imports
from
Expo i'
194,8' ;
10,39.!
10,307
7 4;- •
l.UT
-208,472, 8.«
1,732,421
1,720,755
Morocco .
Turkey
Belgium
Unite
Austria
Imports
from
725,718
Exports to
; ... ,;.v,,7
1,444,104
The principal exports to France in 1890 were : cereals, 58,067,440 francs :
wines, 58,895,130 Bancs; animals, 44,012,935 francs; wool, 12,0-
francs. The chief imports from France were: cotton goods, 29,902,499
francs; leather goods, 15,971,102 francs: metal goods, 7,584.275 francs;
haberdashery, 10,330,672 francs. The subjoined statement shows the com-
merce of Algeria with Great Britain and Ireland in each of the five vears 1886
to 1890 ;—
1887
1880
Exports to Great Britain 701,398 , 575,955 636,371 658,082
Imports of British produce 271.142 29: JS6,418
1S90
£
S90,612
329,876 I
I. L
514 FRANCE :— ALGERIA
The most important articles of export to Great Britain in 1890 were : —
esparto and other fibres, for making paper, of the value of 361,572£. (including
rags) ; iron ore, of the value of 190,940Z. ; barley, 234,847^. ; copper ore,
648^. (19,6572. in 1887) ; lead ore, 15,255Z. The British imports consist
principally of cotton fabrics and coal, the former of the value of 170, 241 1.,
and the latter of 127, 8452., in the year 1890.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1890,' 4,136 vessels, of 2,298,951 tons, entered Algerian ports from
abroad, and 3,924, of 2,246,790 tons, cleared; of the vessels entered, 2,213,
of 1,382,887 tons, belonged to France, and 568, of 577,294 tons, belonged to
Great Britain. There is also a very large coasting trade. On January 1,
1891, the mercantile marine of Algiers consisted of 505 vessels, of 7,638 tons,
mostly coasters, besides many small fishing-vessels.
In 1891 there were 1,910 English miles of railway open for traffic in
Algeria, including the Tunisian extension of 140 miles. The total receipts
in 1889 amounted to 21,908,225 francs.
The telegraph of Algeria, including branches into Tunis, consisted in 1 890
of 4,310 miles of line and 10,000 miles of wire, with 356 offices. The ' reseau
algero-tunisien ' of telegraphs is worked by a private company subventioned
by the French Government.
In the savings-banks of Algeria on December 31, 1889, there were 16,971
depositors ; the amount due to whom was 4,865,593 francs, or an average of
286 francs to each.
British Consul- General for Algeria and Tunis. — Lieut. -Col. Sir R. Lam-
bert Playfair, K. 0. M. G. , residing at Algiers.
Vice-Consul at Algiers. — E. G. B. Maxse.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of France only are used.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Algeria.
1. Official Publication >.
Annuaire admiuistratif de l'Algerie. 1(5. Alger, 1891.
Annuaire gent ml de l'Algerie, sur rles documents ofticiels. 8.
Annuaire stul ist iijiif de la France, 1891. Paris, 1891.
Journal ofliciel.
Bxpose de la situal Ion generals de l'Algerie. 1889.
Tableau de la situation dee etabUesementa francaises. IS vols., Mo, from 1888 to 18W : the
continuation bears the title ' .Statist iqin I generate de P Algeria, ' published i very two or three
years.
The following Consular Reports by Consul-General Sir 11. Lambert Playfair, in ' Report!
from H.M.'s Consuls' : —
Narrative Of a Consular Tour in the Aures Mountains. 1ST'..
Report of a Consular Tour during March ami April 1 S7(">. 1 S7<>.
Report on the Cultivation of Kucalypt us in Algeria. 1S77.
Report on the Com roe, Railways, and General Progress of Algeria. L8T8.
Report on the Commerce and Agriculture of Algeria for 1884. London, 1880.
Report on the Progress of Colonisation in Algiers, In No. M of ' Reports on Subjects of
Qeneral and Commercial Interest.' London, 1888.
Reports on the Commerce and Agriculture of Algeria, Xos. 868 and 804 of 'Diplomatic
and Consular Reports.' London, istii.
Trade of Algeria with I ireat Britain, In 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the Tinted
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year isim.' imp. i. Lon-
don, 1801.
CONGO AND GABUH — GOLD COAST TKRRITORIES 515
2. Non-Official Publications.
Beynet (Leon), Les colons algeriens. S. Alger, 1866.
Boudin (\)v. >'.), Histoire statistique tie la colonisation et de la population en Algerie.
8. Paris
Clamageran (I. J.), L'Algerie : Impressions «le voyage. 8. Paris, 1-
Darette (Rodolphe). D.- ia pro] rie. Loi ilu lOjuin 1S01 et Stnatus-consultf
.In -2_' avril 1 ^ 18. Paris, 1800.
Dural (Jules), L'Algerie et les colonies flnsncaises. 8. Paris 1*77.
Faidhrrbt (General), L'avenir dn Bahara el an Soudan. 8. Paris, i860.
FiWa* (\.). L'Algerie andeane «t mederne. \l.
Gafarel(P.), L'Algerie: hktoire, omrneta cotoatsatton. Paris, 1883.
Oa*yto« (Vioe-amiral ComtedeX Bxposede la situation de l'Al. . i ue maritime
et coloniale. ' 8. Paris. , -
Lateleye (Emile de), L'Algerie et Tunisie. Paris. 1887.
Lavirinr (Alto ines. 8. Pari*
Lueet (Marcel), Colonisation europeenne de X Paris, 1866.
Mult:an (Heinr. Freiherr von). Drei .Tahrcim Xordwesten von Afrika : ReiSen in Algerieti
und Marokko. 4 vols. S. Leipzig, 1869.
Playj'air (.Sir R. L.), Handliook (Murray's) of Algeria and Tunis. London, 1S87.
Play/air (Sir R. Lambert), Bibliography of Algeria, published by the Royal Geographical
ondon, 1888.
Qainemaut (X.), Du peuplemeut et de la vrai colonisation de 1'Algerie. 8. Constantine,
1871.
Beclu* (Elisee). Geographic universelle. Tonic XI. L'At'rique septentrionale. Paris, 1886.
Sabatier (C), Touat. Sahara et Soudan. Puis. I •
Sautayra (E.), Hague* (H.). et Lnpra (P ), Legislation de 1'Algerie. 2 vols. Paris, 1883-84.
Segnin (L. O.), Walks in Algeria. S. London. 11
Shaw (THouia.s. D.D., &c), Travels or Observations relating to several Parts of Barbarv
and the Levant. Oxford, :-
TehihateheffOl.). L'Algerie et Tunis. Paris, 1880.
Villot (Capitaine). Mceurs, coutumes et institutions des indigenes d' Alee rie. 12. Paris,
•
FRENCH CONGO AND GABTJN.
The French Congo and Gabon region i> one continuous and connected
territory. The right bank of the Congo freaa Brazzaville to the month of the
Ifobangi is French, and north to l N. along the Ifobangi, and an almost
straight line to the roast along the second degree embraces the Gabon. The
total area is 250,000 square miles. There are twenty-seven stations established
in this region, on the coast, the Congo, and other places, eleven of them being
on the Ogove. The number of the native population is estimated at 6.900,000 :
there are 300 Europeans besides the garrison. The only exports ate the natural
products of the country — ivory, ebony, caoutchouc, and palm-oil. Experi-
ments in growing sugar-cane, vanilla, coffee, cotton, and tobacco have been
made. The country is covered with extensive forests. The total commerce of
the Gahun. imports and exports, amounted to (5,600,000 francs in 1888: im-
ports from France, 1,817,680 francs: from other colonies. 640 francs: from
foreign countries, -2.3r-2.260 francs: exports to Frame. 173.-271 frai.
other colonies, 837 francs: to foreign countries. 2.718,190 franca In 1887
134 vessels of 92.132 tons entered. 12.r> of the vessels l>cing foreign. The
only roads are native footpaths. Then- are eight schools for boys and two for
girls, with 400 pupils. There is neither a postal nor telegraphic service in the
colony. Local budget, 1890. 1.701.079 trams : expenditure of Prance (budget
of 1892), 1,454,397 francs.
Gold Coast Territories. See Bkkbqal, Arc. p. .">:.>•_>.
i. I 2
516 FRANCE: — MADAGASCAR
MADAGASCAR.
Reigning Sovereign.
Queen Ranavalona (or Ranavalona) III., born about 1861 ; appointed suc-
cessor by the late Queen Ranavalona II., succeeded to the throne on her death,
July 13, 1883 ; shortly after married the Prime Minister, Rainilaiarivony, and
was crowned November 22.
Government.
Madagascar began to be of commercial importance to Europe about the
year 1810, when Radama I. succeeded in reducing a large part of the island
to the sway of the sovereigns of the Hova, the most advanced, though probably
not the most numerous, of the various Malagasy races. His widow, Qneen
Ranavalona I., obtained the sovereign power in 1829, and until her death, in
1861, intercourse with foreigners was discouraged. She was succeeded by
Radama II., and he by his wife Rasoherina, on whose death, in 1868, Ranava-
lona II. obtained the throne. The present queen is great-grand-daughter of
Rahety, sister of King Andriananipoinimerina (1787-1810). At various
periods, 1820, 1861, 1865, and 1868, treaties have been concluded with Great
Britain, the United States, and France. By a treaty signed at Tamatave.
December 12, 1885, a French Resident-General, with a small military escort,
resides at the capital, and the foreign relations of the country are regtdated by
France, which occupies a district around the Bay of Diego-Suarez as a colony
(seep. 520). By the Anglo-French Agreement of August 5, 1890, the pro-
tectorate of France over Madagascar was recognised by Great Britain. The
native Government retains absolute independence in all domestic legislation
and control of the other tribes of the country.
The government is an absolute monarchy, modified and tempered by
customs and usages having the force of law ; and during the last quarter of a
century the power of the Sovereign has been gradually limited and controlled.
The Sovereign is advised by her Prime Minister, who is the real source of all
political power ; he is assisted by a number of ministers, who act as heads of
departments — Education, Justice, the Interior, Foreign Affairs, ka. — but
these are only deputies of the Prime Minister, and can originate nothing
without his permission. The succession to the Crown is hereditary in tin-
royal house, but not necessarily in direct succession ; the reigning Sovereign
may designate his or her successor.
At a large number of the chief towns of the interior, and at all the ports,
governors are placed by the central Government, and these are all directly
responsible to the Prime Minister. The number ot these governors has \<>-r]\
greatly increased dining the last two or three years. With regard to local
matters, these are still much under the control of the heads of tribes, and on
any important occasion public assemblies of the whole people are called
together to consult. Although these have no defined authority, the opinion
of the majority has a distinct weight and influence. Among the lietsilco and
other subject tribes, the representatives of the old chiefs are still held in much
honour, in almost idolatrous reverence, by the people.
Area and Population.
Madagascar, the third largest island in the world (reckoning Australia as
a continent). Is situated on the south-eastern side of Africa, from which it la
separated by the Mozambique Channel, the least distance between island and
RELIGION AND EDUCATION "17
continent being 230 miles : total length, 975 miles : breadth at the broadest
point, 358 miles.
The area of the island, with its adjacent islan
square miles, and the j>opulation. according to the most trnstwortlr.
mates, at 3.500.000 ; other vary from 2.500,000 to 5,000,000.
Xo census has ever been undertaken by the native Government, and it
resents any attempt to do so by foreigners. It is therefore only by va^ue and
uncertain estimates that any idea caa be fonned of the population, either of
the island as a whole or of that of particular districts. Then- are reasons for
thinking that the population of Imerina was decreasing during tic
guinary reign of Queen Ranavalona I. (1828-1861) : it is. however, believed
that the jiojmlation is now slowly increasing in <■•■■ id of
education, civilisation, and Christian teaching. The female j>opulation
seems in excess of the male. A number of foreign residents live on the
coasts, chiefly Creoles from Mauritius and Reunion, mostly Enghab ml
The most powerful, intelligent, and enterprising tribe ■ the Horn, whose
language, allied to the Malayan and Oceanic tongues, ia understood over a
large part of the island, and who have been dominant for the last fifty
The only unsubdued territories are in the south and south-west, bul
have l>een taken to bring them into subjection. The jieople are divided into
a great many clans, who seldom intermarry. The Hovas are estimated t>>
number 1,000,000 : the other races, more or less mixed, are tin Sakalavas in
the west. 1,000,000 : the Betsileos 600,000 : Bavas, 200.000 : Het>imi
Sakaraa, 400.000: Antatiavas. 200.000. In the coast towns are many Arab
traders, and there are besides many negroes from Africa introduced aa slaves.
The capital, Antananarivo, in the interior, is estimated to have, with
suburbs, a ]>opulation of 100,000. The principal port is Tamatave. on the
east coast, with a population of 10,000. Mojanga, the chief ]>ort on the
north-west coast, has about 14.000 inhabitants. Slavery exists in a patri-
archal form.
Religion and Education.
A large portion of the Hova and of the other tribes in the central districts
have been Christianised, and Christianity is acknowledged and protected by
tlie Government. There is no State Church, although the Queen and princi-
pal officers of government are connected with the churches formed by the
London Missionary Society, which comprise the vast majority ol the i
ing Christians of the country. These are not dependent on Government
except to a small extent. The system of Church polity, which has slowlv
developed itself, is rather a combination of Independency, Presbyterianism.
and Episcopacy Xo State aid is given to religion or to education, except in
freeing recognised, pastors and teachers from compulsory Government service.
An Anglican mission works chiefly on the east coast, with a bishop and
cathedral at Antananarivo. A Roman Catholic bishop is also stationed at
the capital. There are about 28 missionaries of the L.M.S. in Madagascar,
10 of the Friends' Mission, 10 of the Anglican Mission, 26 of the Norwegian
Lutherans, and about 40 priests and brothers of the R.C. Mission, as well as
several sisters of mercy. The L.M.S. Mission has about 750 native pastors,
and about 100 evangelists or native missionaries stationed in various jiarts of
the country, many of them in quite heathen districts. There are about
350,000 Protestants, and about 35,000 Roman Catholics. Five-sixths of the
Malagasy are still {>agans.
3 hools have been established, and education is compulsory wherever the
influence of the central Government is effective. All the Missionarv Societies
518 FRANCE : — MADAGASCAR
at work in Madagascar have colleges and high schools, the latter both for
boys and girls, in all of which education is given freely, with but nominal
charges for books, &c. Almost every congregation, except the smallest and
weakest, has its school. The L. M. S. has also an industrial school for teach-
ing handicrafts. Hospitals and medical schools are connected with the
L.M.S., Friends', Lutheran, and Anglican Missions, and there are now a
number of trained native doctors and surgeons. It is estimated that there
are about 1,800 schools, and about 170,000 children under instruction, but it
is difficult to get the statistics of the Roman Catholic Mission.
The production of books is as yet almost entirely confined to the minting
offices of the different Missionary Societies at work in the island. Each of
these has a press, from which works chiefly educational and religious arc
constantly being issued. Excluding pamphlets and lesser publications, about
400 separate works have been issued from the various presses, with an aggre-
gate number of 48,000 pp. Half of these are L. M.S., and a fourth Friends'
publications. Six monthly magazines, a quarterly, three weekly newspapers,
and a Government gazette at irregular intervals, comprise the periodica]
literature of Madagascar. The yearly issues of the L. M.S. press from 1870 to
1880 averaged 150,000 copies of various publications, and those of the Friends'
press 67,000 copies generally.
Justice.
Judges are appointed by the Sovereign, and a code of laws was printed
in 1881. Justice is dispensed in a simple form by local authorities, but
there are no statistics available showing crime. Owing to the increaing pres-
sure of forced Government service and the levies of soldiers, there has of late
been an alarming increase in crimes of violence, and an increasing number of
banditti in large armed bands, who have desolated some parts of the country.
A Bill establishing French tribunals in Madagascar, with jurisdiction in
all cases affecting Europeans, was passed by the French Chamber on
March 12, 1891.
Finance.
The chief source of revenue is the customs, and a small poll tax is paid :
but the personal service which every Malagasy has to render is the mainstay
of the Government. The only fixed payments are those made to the Oneen.
the Prime Minister, and the Army. In 1886 the Malagasy Government
borrowed from the Paris Comptoir d'Eseompte a sum of 15 million francs, oi
which 10 million went to pay the indemnity to France. No statistics of
public revenue are obtainable.
Defence.
The standing army is estimated to consist of 20.000 men, most of whom
arc now armed with modern rifles. Two English officers are employed to
train cadets— one of these is an artillery officer. A number of rilled Ann-
strong cannon of small calibre hare been purchased. There is no cavalry
force. During the present year two gunboats have Ween purchased from the
French Government. During the French invasion the number of men
mobilised exceeded 50,000 : they wen trained by English officers.
Production and Industry.
Of minerals, gold, copper, iron, lead (galena), sulphur, graphite, and a
lignite have been found. The yield of gold has increased very considerably
within the last few years, and so also lias that of copper. It seems probable
that many parti of the island are very rich in valuable ores. Cattle breeding
COMMERCE — MONEY AND BANKS 519
and agriculture are the chief occupations of the people ; rice, sugar, coffee,
cotton, and sweet potatoes being cultivated. The forests abound with many
valuable woods, while tropical and sub-tropical products are plentiful. Con-
cessions of forest land on the north-east coast have been made to European
companies, who are now felling the valuable timber and planting on the cleared
ground. Silk and cotton weaving are carried on, and the manufactuie of
textures from the rofia palm fibre, and of metal-work. At present, however,
no machinery is used for the making of textile fabrics. All are literally mmiu-
faotures, and earned on by the simple spindle and torse in use from a very
remote period. And so with the manufacture and working of iron ami other
metals.
Commerce.
The chief exports are cattle, india-rubber, hides, horns, coffee, lard, sugar,
vanilla, wax, gum, copal, rice, and seeds. The chief imports are cotton g
rum, crockery, ami metal goods. The trade is chiefly with Mauritius.
Reunion, Great Britain, and France ; there has also been recently consider-
able and increasing trade with the United States. A French return gives the
exports for 1888 at 174,1707., including skins, 70,4307. ; caoutchouc, 54,648/.:
rofia, 16,043/. ; wax, 11,200/. ; oxen, 9,760/. ; the imports at 162,030/.,
including cotton, 71,540/. In 1884 the value of the exports to Great Britain
was 15,229/.; in 1888, 43,089/.; in 1889, 83,618/.; in 1890, 98,833/.: and
imports from Great Britain, 1,412/. in 1884 ; 41,058/. in 1887 : 101.435/. in
1888 ; 82,961/. in 1889 ; 84,733/. in 1890. The exports were, in 1890,
caoutchouc, 58,049/.; hemp, 7,066/. ; sugar, 4,843/.: the imports, cottons,
58,154/. in 1890.
Shipping and Communications.
There are as yet no roads in Madagascar in the Euroj>ean sense of the
word — only rough paths from one part of the country to the other — and no
beasts or wheeled vehicles aie employed. All passengers and goods are
carried on the shoulders of mAromlta or bearers, except where the rivers or
coast lagoons allow the use of canoes made of the hollowed -out trunk of a
large tree. On the coast outrigged canoes are employed, and also built boats
with the planks tied together (on the south-east coast). A considerable
traffic is carried on on the west coast by Aral) dhows. Turtle fishing is
practised by the Sakolaon.
Xo Government post-office exists, but postal communication is kept up
by the consular officers of the English and French Governments. An electric
telegraph, made by a French company, connects Tamatave and the capital.
and this is to be taken over by the native Government after a certain period.
It is about 180 miles in length.
Money and Banks.
The Comptoir National d'Escompte de Paris has an agency at Antanana •
rivo and Tamatave, and so also has the New Oriental Bank Corporation
(Limited).
The only legal coin is the silver 5-franc piece, but the Italian 5-lire piece
and Belgian, Greek, and other coins of equal value are also in circulation.
For smaller sums the coin is cut up into fractional parts, and weighed n^
required.
Consular and other Representatives.
1. Of Madagascar ix Great Britain.
There is a Consul in London.
520 FRANCE: — MADAGASCAR
2. Of Great Britain in Madagascar.
Consul at Tamatave. — Anatole Sauzier (acting).
Vice-Consul at Antan&narlw. — W. C. Pickersgill.
3. Of France in Madagascar.
Resident- General at Antananarivo. — -Vice-Residents at Mojanga and
Tolia on the West Coast ; at Fianarantsoa, in the Retsileo country : and at
Tamatave ; and agents at all important points.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Madagascar.
1. Official Publications.
Annual. Statement of the Trade of the United Kingdom witli Foreign Countries and
British Possessions for the year 1890. London, 1891.
Correspondence respecting Treaty of December 17, 1885, between France and Madagascar.
London, 1886.
Report bv Vice-Consul Pickersgill on the Trade and Commerce of Antananarivo in 1884,
in ' Report of H.M.'s Consuls,' Part IX. London, 1885.
Report of Rear-Admiral W. Gore Jones, C.B., on a visit to the Queen of Madagascar.
London, 1883.
Report on the Trade of Madagascar, in ' Reports from the Consuls of the United States.'
April, 1888.
Treaty concluded between France and Madagascar, August S, 1868. London. [883.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Antananarivo Annual (yearly), 1875-91.
Barbie du Boeage, Madagascar Possession Franchise depuis 1842. Paris, 1809.
Beitrage zur Kenntniss Madagaskars. Berlin, 18S3.
Combette (M.), Madagascar, etude geographique et commercials ' Annates de 1'Extrenie
Orient,' October, 1889.
Ellis (Rev. W.), History of Madagascar, 2 vols. London, 1838. Tlnve Visits to
Madagascar. London, 1858. Madagascar Rovisited. Loudon. 1867.
Gi-andidier (A.), llistoire physique, naturelle et politique de Madagascar. Paris, 1876.
(In 28 -tto. volumes, with many hundred plates, still in progress.)
Guillain (Captain), Documents snr l'histoire, la geographic et le Commerce de la partis
occidentale de Madagascar. Paris, 1845.
Leroy (L.), Les Franyais a Madagascar. Paris, 1883.
McLeod(J. L.). Madagascar and its People. London, 1866.
Mullens (Rev. Dr. J.), Twelve Months in Madagascar. London, 1ST"..
Oliver (S. P.), Madagascar anil the Malagasy. London, 1866.
Oliver (H. P.), Madagascar. -J vols. London. ISsti.
Pfeiffcr (Ma), Visit to Madagascar. London, 1861.
Pollen and Van Dam, Reoherches sur la Faune de Madagascar, .".vols. tto. i.eyden, isos.
Shaw (Rev. G. A.) Madagascar ami France. London. 1886.
8ibree (Rev. James), Madagascar and its People. London, 1870. The Great African
Island. London, 1880.
Vaissiire (Fere), llistoire de Madagascar: ses habitants et sea missionaiivs. g vols.
Paris, 1884.
The following possessions in, or in the neighbourhood of, Madagascar
belong to France : —
DIEGO-SUAREZ, NOSSI-BE, ST. MARIE.
Diego-Suarez, a territory of still undefined extent, mi a bay of the same
name at. the northern extremity Of Madagascar, is held by the French ill
accordance with a treaty of December 17, 1885. At the census of 1887 the
population (including the garriion) was 1,607. Tkt native population is
MATOTTE AN'D THF. COMORO EBLAKDfl — REUNION 521
stated to have increased from 3,000 in 1887 to about 8,000 in 1889. The
ehief town of the colour is Antsirame. The commerce is unimportant. Im-
ranca ; exporte, 63,109 francs. Local budget (1890) :
income and expenditure. 172.365 francs. Expenditure of France (budget of
francs. In 1888 the colonies of Xossi-Be and Ste. Marie
were, for administrative purposes, made dependencies of Diego-Suarez.
Nossi-Be Island. >■],,«- to west '-oust of Madagascar, with an area of 113
square mil- - 3 inhabitants, chiefly Malgashes and Africans,
productions, sugar-cane, coffee, ami rice. Imports (1889), 1,937.749 francs
(140,649 francs from France): exports. 1,450,085 francs (108,363 frai
t). Local budget (1891). 221.612 francs ; expenditure of France (budget
. . 74,598 fi
St. Marie, on the north coast of Madagascar, was taken by France as
earlv as 1643. It overs 64 square miles ■ population. 7.6'»7 : chief export,
cloves. Imports (188 • franca; raparta, 109.492 francs. Local
budget (1890). 90.000 franca : ex]>enditure of Frame (budget of 1S92). 35,000
MAY0TTE AND THE C0M0E0 ISLANDS.
The island of Mayotte (149 square miles) has a imputation (1889) of
■ inhabitants The chief production is cane-sugar; it has 11 sugar
works and distilleries (3,000 tons sugar in 1887 ; 18,000 gallons of rum).
The imports (1889), 687.903 frai 'in France) : exports,
chiefly of sugar, rum. and vanilla. 1,271,568 francs (1,098,376 to France).
The Comoro Islands, situated half-way between Madagascar and the
African coast, consist of 4 larger and a number of smaller islands. They
were taken under French protection in 1886. The population is estimated at
47,000, chiefly Mussulmans.
The local budget of Mayotte (1890) amounted to 232,150 francs ; expendi-
ture of France budget of 1892). 101,607 francs, besides 16,600 francs for the
Comoros.
REUNION.
Reunion, about 420 miles east of Madagascar, has belonged to France since
1764. It is represented by a senator and two deputies. It has an area of
965 square miles and population (1889) of 165,915, mostly Creoles. The
Hindus number about 25,000 : Africans, 9,000 : Malagashes, 6,000. In 1888,
23,883 Hindu coolies and 14.731 Africans were imported. The towns are
under the French municipal law. The chief port, Pointe-des-Galets, is con-
nected by a railway of 125 kilometres with St. Benoit and St. Pierre. The
chief productions are sugar cane (30,420,792 kilogrammes of sugar exported in
— coffee, cacao, vanilla, spices. In 1887 the live stock on the island was
2.511 horses, 7,552 mules, 8,402 oxen, 15,580 sheep, and 12,392 goats. The
total imports in 1889 amounted to 21.262,367 francs (9,178,610 francs from
France) : and exports, 13,901,601 francs (12,625,867 francs to France). The
local budget for 1890 showed income 3,764,150 francs : expendjtui
francs. The expenditure of France (budget 1892) was 4,447,405 francs.
0B0CK
Is a French colony on the Red Sea coast of Africa, on the Gulf of Aden, and
including the Bay of Tajurah. The territory embraces 3.860 square miles,
with a imputation of 22,370. There is a trade with Shoa and other countries
in the interior. The expenditure of France for Obock in the budget of 1892
amounts to 477,142 francs
522 FRANCE : — SENEGAL, ETC.
SENEGAL, RIVIERES DU SUD, THE SETTLEMENT ON THE GUINEA
COAST, THE FRENCH SOUDAN, AND THE FRENCH SAHARA.
With the exception of the British colonies of Gambia, Sierra Leone, and the
Gold Coast, Portuguese Guinea, and Liberia, France claims the whole of West
Africa from Cape Blanco to Togo Land, and inland to the Upper and Middle
Niger, and considerable areas to the east of the Upper Niger, including the
Kingdom of Kong and neighbouring territories. By the Anglo-French
arrangement of August 5, 1890, Great Britain recognises as within the French
sphere of influence the whole region to the south of Tunis and Algeria north
of a line from Say, on the Middle Niger, to Barrawa, on Lake Chad, including
all the territories which belong to Sokoto. The line dividing French territory
from British in the region included in the bend of the Niger has not been
agreed upon. The French Sahara may embrace about one million square
miles, mostly desert. Several railway projects from Algeria to the Niger are
under consideration. The total area claimed by France in West Africa is
about 550,000 square miles. It is divided into Senegal, Rivieres du Sud,
French Soudan and the protectorates attached thereto, the Guinea Coast
territories.
Senegal and Rivieres du Sud are divided into (1) countries occupied, (2)
countries annexed, (3} countries protected. The first are divided into com-
munes and territories, the former being St. Louis, Dakar, Rufisque, and
the island of Goree, and the latter being various stations and ports in the
coast region and up the Senegal, and the districts around within range of
cannon-shot. The annexed countries are Walo, Northern Cayor, Toro, Dimar,
and Damga.
Senegal proper (the colony) includes several stations on the river as far as
Matam, with a certain area of land around each, and the coast from the north
of Cape Verd to Gambia in the south. These, with the settled portion of
Rivieres du Sud, embrace over 14,700 square miles, with a population of
174,000, of whom 135,000 are in Senegal. But included in Senegal and
Rivieres du Sud are various protected states, which give a total area of 54,000
square miles, with a population in 1891 of 1,100,000. There is a Governor-
General in Senegal, assisted by a Colonial Council. The chief town of Senegal
is St. Louis ; population, 20,000. Dakar (population, 2,000) is an important
centre. The colony is represented by one deputy. At high water the Senegal
is navigable for small vessels into the interior. There are 164 miles of coast
railways. Gum, ground nuts, india-rubber, woods, and skins arc the chief
exports; foods, drinks, and textiles arc the chief imports. The total value of
the imports in 1889 was 29,000,000 francs : and of exports 10,500,000 trams.
Local budget for 1891, 3,018,646 francs ; expenditure of Fiance < budget
for 1892), 6,044,999 francs ; debt, 517,657 francs.
Rivieres du Bud.— From January 1, 1890, the territory on the coast front
11° to nearly 9" N. (except the Los islands, which belong to Great Britain),
and Inland along and between the rivers as tar as the Fouta Djallon, has been
detached from Senegal and formed into a separate colony under the name of
Rivieres du Sud, with Conakry for its capital. The population of the colon;
proper (the coast region) is given as 17,541. With it are united (January 1892)
tOT administrative purposes the blench settlements on the Cold Coast and on
the Bight of Benin, the whole being knows officially as French Guinea and
Dependencies. The products are similar to those of Senegal. The imports
and exports are included in those of Senegal. A telegraph cable connects
Oonakvy, on the Isle of Tombo, with Sierra Leone and Senegal. The cost to
France of the colony (budget for 1892) is 33,000 francs,
TUNIS o23
Gold Coast and Bight of Benin Settlements. — From January 1, 1890
the French settlements on the Gulf of Guinea have been divided into two
colonies, consisting of the Gold Cowl Settlements — Grand-Bassam, Assinie.
Grand- Lahou, and Jackeville ; and the Bight of Benin Settlements — Porto-
Novo, Kotonu, Qrand-Popo, and Agoue. For Kotonu and Porto-Novo
France pays an annuity of 2, 000 francs to the King of Dahomey. For ad-
ministrative purposes each of these colonies forms a dependency of Rivieres du
Sud aud heme the name of French Guinea. They are administered i since January
1892) by a Governor, who has also command over the protectorate of Fouta
Jallon. The total area of the Gold Coast and Benin Settlements is given at
25,000 square miles (which includes protectorates, as only a few stations are in
actual possession), and the united colonial population at 772. The imports of
the Gold ( ioast Settlements in 1890 amounted to 2,801,000 francs ; and of the
Bight of Benin Settlements to 3,489,894 francs. Of the two colonies, in 1889,
cportH were valued at 2,742,378 francs, end the imjiortsat 3,692,510 fram-s
0,496,052 francs from France). In 1S91 Frame took possession of the strip
of coast (about 100 miles) below her Gold Coast Settlements and Liberia,
Tbe French SDudan includes the Upj»er Senegal, and all the countries in
the Upper and Middle Niger, and the states which extend inland from Senegal
and the Rivieres da Sud. It is divided into annexed territories and j
torates. The annexed territories, mostly in the Upper Senegal, embrace an area
of 54,000 square miles, and a population of 360,000 ; the protectorat
mated to have an area of 230,000 square miles, and a population of 2A millions.
The administration of the French Soudan is entrusted to a Boperior Military
Commandant, who resides at Kayes, in the Senegal, under the authority of
the Governor of Senegal There is a railway from Kayes to Bafoulai
miles, which it was originally intended to carry on to the Niger. The local
revenues amount to about 400,000 francs yearly. According to the budget for
1892, the annual cost to France of the occujtttion of the French Soudan is
4.502.728 franca
TUNIS.
( Afrikija. I
Bey.
Sidi Ali, son of Bey Sidy Ahsin : lorn Oetol>er 5. IS] 7 : succeeded his
In-other, Sidi Mohamed-es-Sadok, October 28, 1882.
The reigning family of Tunis, occupants of the throne since 1691, descend
from Ben Ali Turki. a native of the Isle of Crete, who made himself master of
the country, acknowledging, however, the suzerainty of the Sultan of Turkev.
in existence since 1575. Sidy Ahsin obtained an imperial firman, dated
October 25, 1871, which lil>erated him from the payment of tribute, but
clearly established his position as a vassal of the Sublime Porte.
Government.
After the French invasion of the country in the spring of 1881, the treaty
of Kasr-es-Said (May 12, 1881). confirmed by decrees of April 22, 1882, placed
Tunis under the protectorate of France. The French representative is called
Minister Resident, and with two secretaries practically administers the govern-
ment of the country under the direction of the French Foreign Office, which
has a special 'Bureau des Affaires Tunisienues.' From January, 1884, French
judges superseded the Consular Courts.
French Resident General — M. Massicault.
The corps of occupation numbers about 10,000 men. The cost of main-
taining this force is liorne by the budget of the Republic.
524 FRANCE : — TUNIS
Area and Population.
The present boundaries are : on the north and east the Mediterranean Sea,
on the west the Franco-Algerian province of Constantine, and on- the south
the great desert of the Sahara and the Turkish Pachalik of Tripoli ; and,
reckoning its average breadth from west to east to be 100 miles, it covers an
area of about 45,000 English square miles, including that portion of the Sahara
which is to the east of the Beled Djerid, extending towards Gadames. Popu-
lation estimated, at 1,500,000. The French population is stated (1891) at
10,030.
The majority of the population is formed of Bedouin Arabs and Kabyles.
The capital, the city of Tunis, has a population of from 100,000 to 145,000,
comprising Moors, Arabs, Negroes, and Jews, with 20,000 Europeans. Across
the shallow lake which separates Tunis from its port, Goletta, a distance of
about 7 miles, a canal is being constructed 44 metres wide and 8 metres deep,
to be open for traffic in July, 1894.
There are (1888) 47 primary schools, with 7,300 pupils (of whom 2,450
are girls) ; budget expenditure (1889-90), 934,076 piastres.
Since the occupation, Carthage has been erected into a Roman Catholic
See, to which has been accorded the Primacy of all Africa. The Regency is
administered ecclesiastically by the .Archbishop of Algiers. The bulk of the
population is Mohammedan; 45,000 Jews, 35,000 Roman Catholics. 400
Greek Catholics, 250 Protestants.
Finance.
Up to 1890, the financial year of Tunis ended on October 12. By a decree
of December 16, 1890, the current financial period (ami future financial years)
will end on December 31. The estimated revenue for the period ending with
1891 is 47,627,500 piastres (33,721,500 + 13,906,000), and expenditure
47,627,199 piastres (36,942,433 + 10,684,766). The ordinary revenue for the
year ending October 12, 1890, was 33,887,986 piastres; the expenditure was
32,495,179, leaving a balance of 1,392,807 piastres, which, added to previous
surplus of 6,476,232 piastres, gave a total balance of 7,869,040 piastres. The
revenue was mostly derived from direct taxes (14,887,247 piastres), customs
(4,121,556 piastres), and monopolies (5,718,232 piastres). Among the ex-
penses (1889) were the Ministry of Finance, 20,801,109 piastres, including
10,512,534 piastres for interest on debt; the general administration costs
5,228,149 piastres; on public works the expenditure is 7,275,000 piastres;
Ministry or War, 980,098 piastres.
By a decree of the President of the French Republic of May 28, 1884, and
a similar decree of the Bey of Tunis of May 27, the Tunisian debt was con-
solidated into a total of 5,702,000/. The loan was emitted as a perpetual
4 per cent, rente of 6,307,520 francs, or 252,300/., divided into 315,.!7ti
obligations of a nominal capita] of 500 francs. On December 17, 1888, the
loan was converted into a 3 A per cent, loan, to be paid by annuities during
99 years, by means of the emission of 348,815 obligations at a nominal value
of 500 francs.
Industry.
The chief industry is agriculture. In 1890, wheat and barley occupied
over 1,000,000 hectares, or one-sixth of the cultivated land : vineyards, 4,063
hectares, yielding 52,977 hectolitres, mostly I'm- local consumption. On
December 31, 1889, the farm animals numbered 1,860,364, \ iz. : horses.
31,185; asses and mules. 79,740; cattle, 156,852) sheep. 761,094 : goats,
127,450 : camels, 86, 61 7 : swine, 1,726.
Commerce.
The l>ulk of the commerce passes through Goletta In 1890 there eul
the twelve ports of Tunis 8,737 vessels of 1,645,304 tuns: and cleared
Is, of 1,640,231 tons. Of the vessels entered. 1.21!'. of 88;
were French : Italian, 1,612 Ltiah, 153, of 84,178 tona.
For the yen ending October 12, 1*90. the total value of imports was
29,134,600 francs, and of the exports 30,599,200 franca, the part taken by
various countries in the foreign trade being ■
-
Imports
orts
Pr;i
Francs
Frame .....
15,607,080
11.230,368
Algeria
740
.064
Malta
6.296,930
720
Italy
2,693,050
3,105,690
Russia
233,509
684
Austria
859,140
'.80
it Britain .
582,009
4,807
Other countries
2,158,140
2,206,480
Total .
29,134,600
30,599,200
The chief imports were : — flour, 3,235,140 franca : cereals, 395,780 fram i :
cotton and linen goods, 6,179.950 francs: cotton and silk, raw and tv.
1,488,540 francs ; colonial wares. 2,642,380 francs : wines and spirits, 1,592,910'
francs. The chief exports were : — wheat, 9,416,640 francs ; barley, 5,030,680
francs ; olive oil, 4,273,300 francs ; alfa, 2,064,880 Cranes : tail. 1,611,660
francs; sponges, 654,000 francs : dried vegetables, 1.1S4.060 francs; woollen
goods, 676,570 francs : wine (exclusively to France), 236,130 francs. Regula-
tions have Wen made in favour of the importation of Tunisian wine into
France, and the value imjwrted in 1890 was nearly six times that of 1889.
The commerce of Tunis with Great Britain has been as follows, according
to the Board of Trade returns for the live years 1886-90 : —
-
1886
1887
1888 1889 MM
Exports from Tunis .
Imports of British
produce
97,108
78,148
£
92,916
76,382
£ £ £
137,395 115,491 246,718
55,605 88,231 164,617
The principal exports to Great Britain in 1890 were : barley, to the value
of 136,619/. : and esparto grass and other materials for making {»aper, of the
value of 99,570/. The principal British import consisted in cotton manufac-
tures, of the value of 138,780.
Length of railways, 260 miles.
There are over 2,000 miles of telegraphs ; 46 post and telegraph offices.
British Consul -General for Algeria and Tunis. — Lieut. -Colonel Sir R
Lambert Playfair. K.C.M.G., residing at Algiers.
Consul at Tunis. — R. Drummond Hay.
526 FRANCE : — TUNIS
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Tunis, and the British equivalents,
are as follows : —
Money.
The Piastre, of 16 karubs .... average value, 6d.
The gold and silver coins of France and Italy are in general use.
A new Tunisian coinage, similar to the French, has been put in circulation.
The old coinage, now being withdrawn, will cease to be legal, the gold and
silver on March 15, 1892, and the copper on September 15, 1892.
Weights and Measures,
The Caviar, of 100 rottolos . . . . = 109 '15 pounds.
,, Kajjis (of 16 whibas, each of 12 sahs) . = 16 bushels.
The pic, or principal long measure, is of three lengths, viz., 07359 of a
yard for cloth ; 0 '51729 of a yard for linen ; 0 "68975 of a yard for silk.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Tunis.
1. Official Publications.
Correspondence respecting the Establishment of French Tribunals, and the Abrogation
of Foreign Consular Jurisdiction in Tunis. London, 188 1.
Journal Offlciel of Tunis.
Report for 1S90 on the Trade of Tunis, in No. 932 of ' Diplomatic and Consular Reports,'
1891.
Report on the Forests of Tunis, in No. ti.'S ; and on a Consular Tour in Tunis, bj Sir
Lambert Playfair, in No. 85 of ' Report on Subjects of General Interest,' 1887.
Report by Sir R. L. Playfair on the Progress of Tunis since the date of the French Pro-
tectorate, in No. 97 of 'Reports on Subjects of General and Commercial interest. ' 1S88.
Trade of Tunis with the United Kingdom : in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions, for the year 1890.' Imp. I.
London. 1891.
Trade of Tunis in 1890. in ' Deutsche* llandels-Archiv ' for May, 1891, and the Shipping
of Tunis in 1890 in the June part, 1891. Berlin, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Broadley (A. MA Tunis, Past and Present. London, 1888.
Charmes (Gabriel), La Timisie et la Tripolitaine. Paris, 1888.
De Flaux (MA La regence de Tunis. S. Paris, ISiiti.
Uilhan (Ch.), llistoire abregee de la regence de Tunis. 8. Paris, 1887.
Heme- Wartegg (Chevali'cr de), Tunis, the Land and the People. London, 1888.
Leroy-Beaulieu (Paul), L'Algeric et la Tunisie. Paris. 1887.
Michel (Leon), Tunis. 2nd edition. Paris. 1888.
Play/atr (Lielit.-Colonel Sir II. Lambert), Handbook (Murray'*) for Algeria and Tunis
London, 1887.
Playfair (Lieut. -Colonel Sir R. L.), Travels in the Footsteps of Hruee in Algeria ami
Tunis. London. 1877.
jteciuH (Kiisee), Qoographle univereelle. Vol. xi. L'Afriqne septentrionale. Paris. 1885.
lloumeauO''.), Annates Tunisiennes. 8. Paris, 1864.
Tchihatchejl (M.), Algerie el Tunis. Paris, 1880.
Temple (Sir Q.), Kxeursions in tile Mediterranean. -J vols. 8. London, Is. e.
Timot (Charles), Exploration sclentlfiqne de la Tnntsie. •.* vol*. Paris. [884-87.
527
AMERICA.
GUADELOUPE AND DEPENDENCIES.
(uuulelouiHJ, situated in the Lesser Antilles, hit an area of 94,600 ha
(360 sq. m.) ; it is surrounded by a number of smaller islands — Marie Galante.
^ mites, Desirade, kc. — the total area being 723 square miles. The total
population in 1889 was 165,899. It is under a governor and an elected
council, and is under French Law : represented by a senator and two deputies.
There are 49 primary scbools, with 5,575 lx>ys and 4,178 girls. The colony is
divided into arrondissements, cantons, and communes : its chief town is
Pointe-a-1'itie. Revenue and expenditure balanced* at 5,940,024 francs in
the local budget of 1890 ; debt, 1,000,000 francs : expenditure of Fiance
(budget of 1892), 1,552,314 francs. Chief cultures : sugar-cane (65,512,168
kilogrammes of sugar, 1888), coffee, cacao, vanilla, spices, manioc b ananas.
sweet potatoes, rice, indian corn, and vegetables ; cotton, the ramie fibre,
tobacco, and india-rubber to a very limited extent : forest ricb in excellent
timber. There were, in 1887, 7,306 horses, 19,578 horned cattle, 9,819
sheep, and 18,365 swine. Railways, 60 miles. Trade in 1889 : imports,
24,732,258 francs (10,959,420 francs from France) ; and exports, 25,850,875
francs (24,691,120 francs to France).
GUIANA.
Population estimated at 10,600 inhabitants at Cayenne, and about 15,000
in the interior, in addition to a few mountain tribes Population of the
penitentiaries and the liberated convicts about 4,400. The colony is under
a governor, and is represented by one deputy. It is poorly cultivated, and its
trade insignificant Imports in 1889, 8,950,485 francs (5,877,648 francs from
France); exports, 4.271,924 francs (4, 115.125 francs to France). Local
budget, 1,839,817 francs in 1891, the expenditure of France (budget for 1892)
being 1,326,497 francs.
MARTINIQUE.
The colony is under a governor and municipal councils with elected
General Council ; divided into 32 communes. Represented by a senator and
two deputies. Area 381 square miles ; population in 18S8. 175.391 (84,138
males and 91,253 females), with floating population of 2,456 ; only 652
were born in France. Birth rate, 34 per 1,000, and death rate, 29. Several
primary schools and lyceums for boys and girls, with 4,350 male and 3,970
female pupils. Chief commercial town, St. Pierre (20,000 inhabitants).
Bugar-cane (49,548 hectares in 1889), manioc, sweet potatoes, and bananas
are the chief culture, 13,453 hectares being under the food -producing crops.
Coffee, cacao, and tobacco also grown to a limited extent. Imports in 1888
Were valued at 22,896,449 francs (7,939,420 from France) (textiles, flour,
manure, salt fish, rice, cotton being the chief items) ; and the exports.
28,454,900 francs, mainly dried or fresh cod, sent mostly to Paris. The
local budget for 1891 was 3,992,564 francs ; expenditure of France (budget of
1892), 2,814,014 francs; civil and judicial services, 338,705 trains ; the rest
of the expenditure was almost entirely for military purposes ; debt, 135,000
francs.
528 FRANCE:— AUSTRALASIA AM) OCEANIA
ST. PIERRE AND MIQUELON.
Two small islands close to the south coast of Newfoundland. Area, 87
square miles ; population in 1889, 5,929 ; chief business cod fishing, chiefly
in ships from France ; total value in 1887, 13,439,532 francs. In 1889 value
of exports 17,120,336 francs (9,811,000 to France), and imports, 14,354,975
francs (3,707,000 from France). The exports included 29,586,000 kilo-
grammes of cod, and 405,000 kilogrammes of cod-liver oil. Estimated local
revenue (1890), 439,586 francs ; expenditure the same ; expenditure of
France (budget 1892), 319,627 francs.
AUSTRALASIA AND OCEANIA.
NEW CALEDONIA AND DEPENDENCIES.
New Caledonia is a French penal colony, and the government is entirely
in the hands of the Governor. Area, 6,000 square miles. Population (1889):
colonists, 5,585 ; officials and soldiers, 3,476 ; natives, 41,874 ; imported
labourers, 1,825 ; freed convicts, 2,515 ; convicts, 7,477 ; total, 62,752.
Capital, Noumea, 4,000 inhabitants. The expenditure of the mother country
in the budget of 1892 amounts to 2,976,237 francs ; the local budget for 1890
was 2,746,798 francs ; the expenditure for military services, 1,315,366 francs.
Coal, and other minerals are worked, rough ore, nickel, chrome, and cobalt
being largely exported to Europe and Australia. About 1,900 square miles
are appropriated to natives and colonists ; 600 square miles of land suited for
agriculture or pasturage remain uncultivated ; the rest is mostly forest or
mountain. Wheat, maize, and other cereals are cultivated, as also pine-
apples, coffee, sugar, coco-nuts, cotton, manioc, vanilla, vines, and other
sub-tropical cultures. There are 120,000 head of cattle. In 1890 the imports
were valued at 11,091,500 francs (4,776,650 francs from France). The chief
articles were : — wines and spirits, 1,879,920 francs ; flour and dried vegetables,
1,205,300 francs ; ironmongery, 1,067,820 francs. Exports, 7,140,550 francs
(1,348,900 to France). Chief exports : — nickel, 3,595, 100 francs; preserved
meat (to France), 1.098,900 francs ; silver lead ore, 653,625 trains. In 1890,
89 vessels of 70,474 tons (63 of 45,600 tons British) entered, and 64 of 74,888
tons (39 of 31,659 tons British) cleared at the port of Noumea,
Dependencies of New Caledonia are : — The Isle of Pines, area 58 square
miles, 44 miles to the south-east; the Loyalty Archipelago, three principal
and many smaller islands, total area 75ii square miles, 100 miles to the east ;
the Huon Islands, 150 miles to the north-east, and the Chesterfield
Islands, 500 miles to the north-west, both groups uninhabited and covered
with guano; the Wallis Archipelago, north-east of Fiji, placed under the
protectorate of France definitively in 1887.
SOCIETY ISLANDS AND NEIGHBOURING GROUPS.
These are officially known as the French Establishments in Oceania.
They consist of the Society Islands Tahiti. Moorea. the Tehama Islands,
:ind Meetia -and Haiatca and Tuhuai-Moru, lluahine. Mora -Bora, and other
islands to the north-west.
The Marquesas. Tuainntu. (Jamhier. and Tiihuai groups, and the island of
Bapa,
SOCIETY ISLANDS AN!) NEIGHBOURING GROUPS :>'2U
Tahiti, the principal of these islands, lias an area of 412 square miles, and
Moorea, 50 square miles. Population of Tahiti, 11,200 ; Moorea, 1.600.
There is a Commandant-General for all the establishments in Oceania, with ■
council for consultation. There is also a general council elected by universal
suffrage. The chief town and j>ort of Tahiti is Papeete. The expenditure
of France (budget for 1892) is 805,052 francs. The local budget foi
amounted to 1,203,500 francs, and the military expenditure was 411,389
francs. The total exerts in 1890 amounted to 126,724/., and imports
to 134,144/. The chief exports were :— motlu r-of-pcarl. 58,513/. : copra,
44,495/. ; cotton, 10,150/. ; pearls, 2,800/. ; while cottons, we— tied meat, flour,
and wines are imported. The ex]>orts to the United States were valued at
52,492/.: to Portugal. 32.359/.; to Great Britain, 24,695/.: to Fran
to Australia and New Zealand, 7.574/. The imports from the United -
were valued at 80,105/.; from Australia and New Zealand. 24,753/.; from
France, 18,818/.; from Germany, 5,113/.; from other countries, 5.
In Tahiti and Moorea 7,000 acres are under cultivation, the chief crops
l>eing cotton, sugar, and coffee.
In 1890, 272 vessels of 27,855 tons (15 of 8,650 tons British) entered, and
264 of 27,246 tons (Ifi of 8,650 tons British | cleared at the port of Papeete.
530
GERMAN EMPIRE.
(Deutsches Reich.)
Reigning1 Emperor and King.
Wilhelm II., German Emperor, and King of Prussia, born
January 27, 1859, became German Emperor June 15, 1888 (see
Prussia).
Heir Apparent.
Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, born May 6, 1882, eldest son of
the Emperor-King (see Prussia).
The imperial throne, after the extinction of the Carlovingian
line, was filled by election, though with a tendency towards the
hereditary principle of succession. At first the Emperor was
chosen by the vote of all the Princes and Peers of the Reich;
but the mode came to be changed in the fourteenth century
when a limited number of Princes, fixed at seven for a time, and
afterwards enlarged to eight (nine from 1692 to 1777), assumed
the privilege of disposing of the crown, and, their right being
acknowledged, were called Electors. With the overthrow of the
old Empire by the Emperor Napoleon, in 1806, the Electoral
dignity virtually ceased, although the title of Elector was re-
tained sixty years longer by the sovereigns of Hesse-Cassel, the
last of them dethroned in 1866 by Prussia. The election of
Wilhelm I., King of Prussia, as the German Emperor (1871) was
by vote of the Reichstag of the North German Confederation,
on the initiative of all the reigning Princes of Germany. The
imperial dignity is now hereditary in the House of Hohenzollern,
and follows the law of primogeniture. An essential difference
between the old and the new German Empire consists in the
exclusion of Austria from the latter.
Since Charlemagne was crowned ' Kaiser ' at Rome, on
Christmas Day in the year 800, there have been the following
Emperors : —
House of Charlemagne.
Karl I., 'Der Grouse' . 800-814
Liulwig I., ' Der Frommc ' 814-840
LlKhvitf II., 'Dei' Drlllsrlir ' MIS S7<i
Earl IT., 'Der Kahk'
Karl, 'Dot Dicke' .
Anmlt' .
Lndwig III., 'Daa Kind'
881 887
887 899
900-911
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
531
House of Franconia.
Konrad I. 911-918
House of Saxony.
Heinrich I., ' Der Vogel-
steller' . . 919-936
Otto I., « Der Grosse ' 936-973
Otto II. ... 973-983
Otto III. . . . 983-1002
Heinrich II. . . . 1002-1024
House of Franconia.
Konrad II., 'DcrSalier'. 1024-1039
Heinrich III. . . . 1039-1056
Heinrich IV. . . 1056-1106
Heinrich V. . . . 1106-1125
House of Saxony.
Lothar II., ' Der Sachse ' 1125-1137
House of Hohenstaufen.
Konrad III. . . . 1138-1152
Friedrich I., 'Barbarossa' 1152-1190
Heinrich VI. . . . 1190-1197
Philipp .... 1198-1208
Otto IV., 'von Witteb-
bach' .... 1208-1212
Friedrich II. . . . 1212-1250
Konrad IV. . . . 1250-1 25 4
First Interregnum.
Wilhelm of Holland . 1254-1256
Richard of Cornwall . 1256-1272
House of Habsburg.
Rudolf I. . . . 1273-1291
House of Nassau.
Adolt
1292-1298
House of Habsburg.
Albrecht I. 1298-1308
Houses of Luxemburg and Bavaria.
Heinrich VII. . 1308-1313
| LudwiglV., 'DerBaier'. 1313 1317
| Karl IV. . . . 1348-1378
Second lnterreg,
Wcin -cslaus of Bohemia . 1378-1400
Ruprecht 'Von der Pfalz' 1400-1410
Sigmund of Brandenburg. 1 4 1 0- 1 4 3 7
House of
Albrecht II. . *
Friedrich III.
Maximilian I.
Karl V. .
Ferdinand I.
Maximilian II,
Rudolf II.
Matthias
Ferdinand II.
Ferdinand III.
Leopold I.
Joseph I.
Karl VI.
Habsburg.
. 1438-1439
. U 40-1493
. 1493-1519
. 1519-1556
-.-1564
. 1564-1574
. 1576-1612
. 1612-1619
. 1619-1637
. 1637-1657
. 1657-1705
. 1705-1711
. 1711-1740
House of Bavaria.
Karl VII. . 1742-1745
House of Habsburg-Lorraine.
Franz 1 1745-1765
Joseph II. 1765-1790
Leopold II. . . . 1790-1792
Franz II. ... 1792-1806
Third Interregnum.
Confederation of the Rhine 1806-1815
German 'Bund' . . 1815-1866
North German Confedera-
tion .... 1866-1871
House of Hohenzolhm.
Wilhelm I. . . . 1871-1888
Friedrich . 1888 (Mtireh-.Tune
Wilhelm II. . . 1888 (June)
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of the Empire bears date April 16, 1871.
By its terms, all the States of Germany ' form an eternal union
for the protection of the realm and the care of the welfare of
the German people.' The supreme direction of the military and
political affairs of the Empire is vested in the King of Prussia,
who, in this capacity, bears the title of Deutscher Kaiser.
M M 2
532
GERMAN EMPIRE
According to Art. II. of the Constitution, ' the Emperor repre-
sents the Empire internationally,' and can declare war, if
defensive, and make peace, as well as enter into treaties with
other nations, and appoint and receive ambassadors. To declare
war, if not merely defensive, the Kaiser must have the consent
of the Bundesrath, or Federal Council, in which body, together
with the Reichstag, or Diet of the Realm, are vested the
legislative functions of the Empire. The Emperor has no veto
on laws passed by these bodies. The Bundesrath represents the
individual States of Germany, and ,the Reichstag the German
nation. The 58 members of the Bundesrath are appointed by
the Governments of the individual States for each session, while
the members of the Reichstag, 397 in number (about one for
every 118,000 inhabitants), are elected by imiversal suffrage and
ballot, for the term of three years. By the law of March 19,
1888, which came into force in 1890, the duration of the legis-
lative period is five years. The various States of Germany are
represented as follows in the Bundesrath and the Reichstag : —
Number of
Number of !
States of the Empire
Members In
Deputies In
Bundesrath
Reiehstag
236
Kingdom of Prussia ......
17
,, ,, Bavaria
6'
48
,, ,, Wiirttemberg
4
17
,, ,, Saxony ....
4
23
Grand-Duchy of Baden
3
14
,, ,, Mecklenburg-Scbwerin
2
6
,, ,, Hesse
3
9
,, ,, Oldenburg
3
,, ,, Saxe- Weimar .
3
,, ,, Meeklenburg-Strelitz
1
Duchy of Brunswick
2
3
,, ,, Saxe-Meiningen
2
,, ,, Anhalt ....
2
,, ,, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha .
2
,, ,, Saxe-Altenburg
1
Principality of Waldeck .
1
,, ,, Lippe
,, „ Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
1
1
,, ,, Schwarzburg-Sondcisli;iiisr
i
1
„ ,, Reuss-Sohleiz .
1
„ ,, Schaumburg-Lippc
1
,, ,, Reuss-Greiz
1
free town of Hamburg
3
,, ,, ,, Lubeck
1
,, „ ,, Bremen
1
Rricllslaml (if Alsiiri'-EoiTililir .
—
15
Total
58
397
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 533
Alsace-Lorraine is represented in the Buudesrath by four commissioners
(Kommissdrc) without votes, who are nominated by the Statthalter.
The total number of electors to the Reichstag inscribed on the listl
10,145,877, or 217 pet teak, of the population, at the general election of
1890, while the number of actual voters was 7,261,659 at the same election,
or 71 '6 per cent, of the total electors. Of the 397 electoral districts, 21 con-
sist solely of towns, 107 of districts, each containing a town of at least
20,000 inhabitants, and 269 of districts without any large towns. In 262
districts Protestantism is predominant, and in the remainder Roman
Catholicism claims the majority. Of electoral districts with 60,000 of a
population and under, there were "> in 1887 ; between 60,000 and 80,000, 26 ;
between 80,000 and 100,000, 74 ; between 100,000 and 120,000, 130 ; between
120,000 and 140,000, 105 ; between 140,000 and 160,000, 21 ; and above
160,000, 36. Of electoral districts with 12,000 voters or less, there were J in
1887 ; 12,000-16,000, 26 ; 16,000-20,000, 60 ; 20,000-24,000, 121 ; 24,000-
21,000, 103 ; 28,000-32,000, 41 ; above 32,000 voters 42.
Both the Bundesrath and the Reichstag meet in annual teaman, <onvnk<d
by the Emperor. The Emperor has the right to prorogue and di>-
after a vote by the Bundesrath, the Reichstag. Without consent of the
Reichstag the prorogation may not exceed thirty days : while in case of disso-
lution new elections must take place within sixty days, and a new session
must open within ninety days. All laws for the Empire must receive the
votes of an absolute majority of the Bundesrath ami the Reichstag. The
Bundesrath is presided over by the Reichskanzler, or Chancellor of the Empire,
and the President of the Reichstag is elected by the deputies.
The laws of the Empire, passed by the Bundesrath and the Reichstag, to
take effect must receive the assent of the Emperor, and be countersigned
when promidgated by the Chancellor of the Empire. All the members of
the Bundesrath have the right to be present at the deliberations of the
Reichstag.
The following are the imperial authorities or Secretaries of State : they do
not form a Ministry or Cabinet, but act independently of each other, under
the general supervision of the Chancellor.
1. Chancellor of the Empire. — General Count George von Caprivi. — General
George von Caprivi de Caprera de Montecucculi, born 1831 ; entered the army
1849 ; Field-Officer of the General Staff of the 1st Army, 1866 ; Chief of Stafi
to the 10th Corps, 1870 ; Commander of 30th Division at Metz, 1883 : ap-
pointed head of the Admiralty, 1884 ; appointed Chancellor of the Empire,
and President of the Prussian Council of Ministers, March 20, 1890.
2. Ministrij for Foreign Affairs. — Herr Freiherr Marschall Bieberstein.
3. Imperial Home Office and ' Representative of the Chancellor.' — Hen- Dr.
von Bocttichcr.
4. Imperial Admiralty. — Herr Hollmann. Admiral Command in g-in-
Chief — Herr Freiherr von der Goltz.
5. Imperial Ministry of Justice. — Herr Dr. Bosse.
6. Imperial Treasury. — Freiherr von Maltzahn.
And, in addition, the following presidents of imperial bureaus : —
7. Imperial Pout- Office. — Herr Dr. von Stephan.
8. Imperial Railways. — Herr Thislen.
9. Imperial Exchequer. — Herr von Stunzner.
10. Imperial Invalid Fund. — Dr. Rosing.
11. Imperial Bank. — President, Herr Dr. Koch.
12. Imperial Debt Commission. — President, Herr Mein-ecke.
Acting under the direction of the Chancellor of the Empire, the Bundes-
rath represents also a supreme administrative and consultative board, and as
.34
GERMAN EMPIRE
such has twelve standing committees — namely, for army and fortifications ; for
naval matters ; tariff, excise, and taxes ; trade and commerce ; railways, posts,
and telegraphs ; civil and criminal law ; financial accounts ; foreign affairs ;
for Alsace-Lorraine ; for the Constitution ; for the Standing orders ; and for
railway tariffs. Each committee consists of representatives of at least four
States of the Empire ; but the foreign affairs committee includes only the
representatives of Bavaria, Saxony, Wurttemberg, and two other represen-
tatives to be elected every year.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The following table gives the area and population of the
twenty-five States of Germany in the order of their magnitude,
and of the Reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine, as returned at the two
census-periods of 1885 and 1890 : —
States of the Empire
Area
English
sq. miles
Population
Dec. 1, 1885
Population
Dec. 1, 1890 1
Density
per sq. :
mile 1890
Prussia (with Heligoland)
134,463
28,318,470
29,955,281
222-8
Bavaria ....
29,282
5,420,199
5,589,382
190
8
Wurttemberg
7,528
1,995,185
2,035,443
270
4
Baden .....
5,821
1,601,255
1,656,817
284
6
Saxony .....
5,787
3,182,003
3,500,513
604
7
Mecklenburg-Schwerin .
5,135
575,152
578,565
112
6
Hesse .....
2,965
956,611
993,659
335
1
Oldenburg ....
2,479
341,525
354,968
143
2
Brunswick ....
1,424
372,452
403,029
283
0
Saxe- Weimar
1,388
313,946
326,091
234
8
Mecklenburg-Strelitz
1,131
98,371
97,978
86
6
Saxe-Meiningen
953
214,884
223,832
234
8
Anhalt
906
248,166
271,759
299
9
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
755
198,829
206,513
273
5
Saxe-Altenburg
511
161,460
170,864
332
•1
Lippe . .
Waldeck ....
469
123,212
128,414
273
8
433
56,575
57,283
132
1
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
363
S3. 836
85,863
236
5
Schwarzburg-Sondi rsliausi'ii .
333
73,606
75,510
226
7
Reuss-Schleiz
319
110,598
119,811
375
6
Schauin berg- Lippe
131
37,204
39,183
299
1
Reuss-Greiz ....
122
55,904
62,754
514
3
Hamburg ....
158
518,620
622,530
3,949
1
Liibeck .
115
67,658
76,485
665
1
Bremen ....
99
165,628
180,443
1,822
6
Alsace-Lorraine
Total ....
5,668
1,564,355
1,603,987
282-9
208,738
1 6,855, 70-1
49,416,476
2367 1
1 For most of the States the results of the census are provisional.
AREA AND POPULATION
535
The population of the lands now included in the German
Empire (without Heligoland) was 24,831,396 in 1816, and
31,589,547 in 1837, showing an average annual increase of
nearly 1*3 per cent. The following table shows the actual
increase in population at various periods, with the annual rate of
increase per cent. The small increase in 1867-71 is explained by
the intervention of the war with France.
Year
Increase
Annual Rate "/.
Year
Increase
Annual Rate */. j
1858
1867
1871
1875
n,i95
3,220,083
970,171
1,668,388
0 7')
0 97
0 61
1
1880*1 2,506,701
1885 1,621,643
1890 2,558,686
114
0 7
I'M
The increase of population during 1885-90 was greatest in
Hamburg, Liibeck, Reuss Elder Branch, Sach-.-n. Anlialt.
Bremen, Reuss Younger Branch, and Brunswick. In Mecklen-
burg Strelitz there was a decrease.
The number of inhabited houses in 1885 was 5,630,304, and
of households 9,999,558. Of the total population (in 1885) 4.1 7
per cent, lived in towns of 2,000 inhabitants and above ; in 1880,
41 per cent. Of every 100 inhabitants there lived in —
-
No.ofTowns
1875
Xo.ofTo'wns
1880
N'.'..ifTowns
1885
Large towns 1 .
Medium „
12
6-24
14
7-24
21
9 5
88
816
102
8-90
116
8-9
Small „
591
1199
641
1254
683
129
Country ,,
1,837
12 59
1,950
12-71
1,951
12-4
Other places
—
6102
—
58-61
—
56 3 i
1 Fur the official signification of these names see p. 538.
Of the total population in 1SS5, 22,933,664 were males and 23,922,040
were females. Boys under 10 years of age numbered 5,798,288 ; girls,
5,778,674 ; men over 80 years of age numbered 88,516 ; women, 113,939.
Of the total population in 1890, 24,231,832 were males, and 25,1*
were females.
With respect to conjugal condition, the following was the distribution in
1885 :—
— Males
Females
Total
Unmarried . . . . ! 14,249,297
Married . . . . . j 7,910,620
Widowed ' 750,884
Divorced and separated . . | 22,863
13,895,459
7,944,444
2,037,206
44,931
28.144,756
15,855,064
2,788,090
67,794
536
GERMAN EMPIRE
According to the occupation-census of June 5, 1882, the population of
Germany was divided as in the table below. Of the total, 18,986,494 were
actually engaged in the various occupations.
The bulk of the German population is (on the basis of language) Teutonic ;
but in the Prussian provinces of Posen, Silesia, West and East Prussia are
2,513,500 Slavs (Poles), who, with 280,000 Walloons and French, 150,000
Lithuanians, 140,000 Danes, and about the same number of Wends, Moravians,
and Bohemians, make up 3,223,500 non-Germanic inhabitants, or nearly 7
pel cent, of the total population.
On December 1, 1885, Germany contained 434,525 persons born elsewhere,
t lie birthplaces of whom were as follows : —
Austria .
155,331
Great Britain and Ireland.
14,889
Russia .
48,853
Sweden and Norway
13,174
Netherlands .
45,270
Luxemburg
11,607
Switzerland .
36,902
Other European Lands
26,611
France .
36,708
United States .
15,017
Denmark
20,848
Elsewhere
8,628
Besides 111 bom at sea, and 1,116 of unknown nationality. In 1880 the
number of foreign-born residents was 425,616, of whom 276,057 were subjects
of foreign powers,
AREA AND POPULATION
537
II. Movement of the Population.
The following table shows the ' movement. ' of the population of the
"Empire during each of the six years from 1885 to 1889 : —
Year Marriages
Total
Births
Stillborn
Illegitimate
Total
Deaths
Surplns of
Births
1885 | 368,619
1886 ' 372,326
1887 ! 370,659
1888 ! 376,654
1889 ! 389,339
1,798,637
1,814,499
1,825,561
1,828,379
1,838,439
68,710
68,366
68,482
66,972
65,869
170,257
171,818
172,118
169,645
170,572
1,268,452
1,302,103
1,220,406
1,209,798
1,218,956
530,185
512,396 ;
605,155 1
618,581 1
619,483 !
Of the children horn in 1889, 945,269 were boys, and 893,168 girls.
Emigration, which in recent yean assumed larger proportions in Germany
than in any other country in Europe, after declining for some time received
a new impetus in 1880 and 1881. The number of emigrants in 1881, viz..
220,902, is the highest total yet reached in any one year. The following
table shows the annual number of German emigrants for the five years
1886-90:—
Total
Destination
Years
Average
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
United
States
Brazil
Other
American
Countries
Africa
Aaia
Australia
83,225
104,787
103,951
96,070
97,103
• 78,941
101,051
99,800
90,235
89,962
2,045
1,152
1,129
■2AV2
4,117
1,398
1,555
1.922
2,243
1,914
191
302
331
422
471
116
227
230
m
165
5S4
500
539
496
474
The great majority of the emigrants sail from German ports and Antwerp.
In 1885-90, 21,519 embarked at Rotterdam or Amsterdam ; and in 1885-90,
a yearly average of 4,622 at French ports, notably Havre and Bordeaux.
The emigrants of 1890 by way of German ports, Antwerp, Rotterdam and
Amsterdam, comprised 50,019 males, 41,906 females. The number of
families was 13,024, including 40,874 persons. During the seventy years
from 1820 to 1890 the total emigration to the United States, which absorbs
the best classes of emigrants, numbered over four and a half million in-
dividuals, and during the last twelve years nearly a million and a half. It
is calculated that each represented, on the average, a money value of 200
marks, or 1QL, so that the total loss by this emigration amounted to over
45,000,000/. The number of emigrants to Brazil during the last twenty yean
1871-90) has been 39,972.
Of the emigrants in 1890 (not including those who sailed from French
(ports) the principal States sent as follows : —
538
GERMAN EMPIRE
Saxony . . 2,577 Oldenburg . 1,001
Hesse . . 2,122 Bremen . . 938
Meek. -Schwerin 1,133 Alsace-Lorraine. 923
Hamburg . . 1,862
In 1890, 168,471 emigrants other than Germans embarked at German
ports.
Prussia
. 59,702
Bavaria
. 9,725
Wurttemberg
. 5,987
Baden
. 3,546
III. Principal Towns.
German towns are officially distinguished as large towns (with 100,000
inhabitants and upwards) ; medium towns (20,000-100,000 inhabitants) :
small towns (5,000-20,000 inhabitants), and country towns (2,000-5,000 in-
habitants). In 1890, only 1 town ha*l over 1,000,000 inhabitants ; 6 others
over 250,000 ; 19 others over 100,000 ; 21 between 50,000 and 100,000 ; and
103 between 20,000 and 50,000. The 26 'large towns' with the States to
which they belong, are : —
Town
State
Pop.
Town
State
Pop.
Berlin .
Prussia .
1,579,244
Stuttgart
"Wurttem-
Munich.
Bavaria .
348,317
berg .
139,659
Breslau .
Prussia .
335,174
Chemnitz
Saxony .
138,955
Hamburg
Hamburg
323,923'
Elberfeld
Prussia .
125,830
Leipzig .
Saxony .
293,525-
Bremen
Bremen .
124,887'
Cologne
Prussia .
281,273
Strassburg
Alsace-
Dresden
Saxony .
276,085
Lorraine
123,545
Magdeburg .
Prussia .
202,235'
Danzig .
Prussia .
120,459
Frankfurt-on-
Barmen.
19
116,248
Main .
ii
179,850
Stettin .
116,239
Hanover
•
165,499
Crefeld .
105,371
Kbnigsberg .
>>
161,528
Aachen .
103,491
Diisseldorf .
,,
144,682
Hall-a.-S. .
,,
101,401
Altona .
143,249
Brunswick
Brunswick
100,288
Nuremberg .
Bavaria .
142,403
1 Definitive census results ; for the other towns t lie results are provisional.
- With suburbs, incorporated January 1, 1891, Leipzig had in 1890, 863,273 Inhabitant!
For further details see under the separate States.
Religion.
The Constitution provides for entire liberty of conscience and
for complete social equality among all religious confessions. The
relation between Church and Slate varies in different parts of
the Empire. The order of the Jesuits is interdicted in all parte
of (iermany, and all convents and religions orders, except those
engaged in nursing the sick and purely contemplative orders,
have Keen suppressed. There are five lioinun Catholic arch-
bishops', and twenty bishoprics. The 'Old Catholics' have a
bishop at Bonn.
RELIGi< >\" — 1XSTRK TI» >\
The following are the results of the last three complete
religious censuses : —
Ol 1 1871
PerCt.
of Pop.
1880
of Pop.
PerCt.
of Pop.
Protmtairte
25,581,685
6*3
,152
62 6
29,369,847
Roman Catholics
14,869,292
36 1
16,232,651
35 9
16.7.S"
Other Christians
82,158
0 2
78,031
0 2
125,673
■27
Jews .
512,153
124
561,612
1-2
563,172
1-2
Others ami un-
classified
17,156
0-04 30,615
01
11,278
02
Adherents of the Greek Church are included in ' Roman Catholics ; ' hut
the OKI Catholics are reckoned among 'Other Christians.' Certain changes
were introduced in 1885 in the grouping of ' Other Christians ' and 'Others,'
which explain the differences between the returns for these groups for 1880
and 1885.
Roman Catholics are in the majority in only three of the Geiman States,
and form more than 20 per cent, of the population in only four others, as
follows : —
A. States with 20 per Cent, of Roman Catholics.
States
Prot. p. Ct.
Rom. Cath. Other Chris-
p. Ct. tians
Jews p. Ct.
Others p. Ct.
Oldenburg
77-39
2177 35
•48
•008
Wiirttemberg .
69 08
29 99 27
•66
007
Hesse
67 31
29 11 -84
2 73
017
Prussia
6443
33 98 -29
129
013
B. Predo
minantly Roman Catho
ic.
Alsace-Lorraine.
20 01
77-37 -24 |
2 36
028
Bavaria .
28-06
70 84 -11
•99
004
Baden
35 37
62 73 -21
1-69
•007
1
In all the other States the Roman Catholics form less than 3 6 per cent.
of the population. (For further particulars, see the various States.)
Instruction.
Education is general and compulsory throughout Germany.
The laws of Prussia, which provide for the establishment of
elementary schools (Volksschu/en), supported from the local rates,
in every town and village, and compel all parents to send their
children to these or other schools, have been adopted, with slight
modifications, in all the States of the Empire. The school age is
from six to fourteen. The system of secondary education is also
practically homogeneous. Above the elementary schools rank
the middle schools of the towns, the Biirgersdiulen and Hohere
540
GERMAN EMPIRE
Biirgerschulen, which fit their pupils for business life. Children
of the working classes may continue their education at the
Fortbildungs-Schulen or continuation schools, which are open in
the evening or other convenient time. The Gymnasia are the
most fully developed classical schools, preparing pupils in a nine
years' course for the universities and the learned professions.
The Progymnasia differ from these only in not having the highest
classes. In the Realgymnasia, Latin, but not Greek, is taught,
and what are usually termed ' modern subjects ' have more time
devoted to them. Realprogymnasia have a similar course, but
have no class corresponding to the highest class in the preceding.
In the Oberrealschulen and Realschulen Latin is wholly displaced
in favour of modern languages. In 1889, 973 secondary schools,
including 53 private schools, possessed the right of granting cer-
tificates to pupils, entitling them to serve in the army as one-year
volunteers. The teachers in German schools are required to hold
a Government certificate, and to have undergone a year's pro-
bation. Higher schools for girls are called Hohere Tochterschuhn.
Besides these there are numerous Gewerbeschulen or technical
schools, Polytechnica, normal schools, seminaries, and the uni-
versities. The total number of children of school age in 1885
was 8,609,198.
No official statistics of the number of schools, pupils, teachers, &c, are
issued for the entire Empire ; tmt particulars on these heads will be found
under some of the separate States. The number of elementary schools was
estimated in 1887 at 58,000, of pupils attending them 7,100,000, and of
teachers 120,000. In 1890 the number of secondary schools was as fol-
lows : —
Gymnasia
. 427
Realprogymnasia
. Ill
Progymnasia .
Realgymnasia .
. 58
Oberrealschulen
14
. 132
Realschulen
. 65
Among the more important special and technical schools in 1890 were 11
technical high-schools and polytechnics ; 31 middle schools of agriculture ; 12
schools of mining ; 15 schools of architecture and building ; 5 academies of
forestry ; 23 schools of art and art-industry {Kund and Kunstyeiccrbc Schulen) :
and 7 public music-schools. There are also numerous smaller as well as
private agricultural, music, &c, schools, and a large number of artisan*' <>i
trade schools. There is a naval academy and school at Kiel, and military
academies at Berlin and Munich ; besides 32 schools of navigation, 9 military
schools, and 9 cadet institutions.
It appears, from statistical returns relating to the formation of the united
German army, that of all recruits of the yen 1889-90 only 051 per cent.
could neither read nor write. In East and West Prussia and in Posen the
f>ercentage ranged from 2-49 to 3-0 ; in all the other States the number was
ess than 1 per cent. In Alsace-Lorraine it was only 1*29 per cent, in
1882-83, and 0"26 in 1888-89.
There are 21 universities in the German Empire, besides the Lyceum
INSTRUCTION — JUSTICE AND CRIME
541
Ilo>iummat Bvaunsberg (9 teachers and alxnrt thirty students), which has
onlv faculties of theology (Roman Catholic) and philosophy.
The following table gives the number of teachers for the summer semester
1891, and the number of students for the winter semester 1890-91.
-sities
Berlin
Bonn
Breslau .
Erlangen
Freiburg
Giessen .
Gottingen
Greifswald
Halle
Heidelberg
Jena
Kiel
Konigsberg
Leipzig .
Marburg .
Munich .
Minister .
Rostock .
Strassburg
Tubingen
"Wiirzburg
Professors
and
T.aih.r>
335
124
141
60
101
64
123
82
133
123
89
93
101
189
93
165
43
45
118
Students
Theology Jurisprudence
268
333
285
203
94
250
692
77
100
91
178
565
169
158
227
56
121
495
148
1,630
271
2:33
212
120
161
185
69
128
236
95
50
135
1,090
140
1,360
55
203
406
306
Medicine
Philosophy
ToUl
1,397
5,527
281
399
1,219
303
1,246
389
168
1,054
351
931
175
119
549
214
265
890
371
83
269
496
1,585 '
299
358
970
214
195
604
237
111
489
235
134
682
944
859
3,458
242
304
855
1,348
516
3,382
—
158
385
136
124
371
329
294
947
234
113
1,250
963
127
1,544
There were besides a certain number of non-matriculated students — the
majority, 2,567, at the University of Berlin.
In four universities, namely, Freiburg, Munich, Munster, and Wurzburg,
the faculties of theology are Roman Catholic ; three are mixed, both Pro-
testant and Roman Catholic — Bonn, Breslau, and Tubingen : and the remain-
ing fourteen are Protestant.
Justice and Crime.
In terms of Judicature Acts in 1877 and 1879 a uniform
system of law courts was adopted throughout the Empire not
later than January 1, 1879, though, with the exception of the
Reichsgericht, all courts are directly subject to the Government
of the special State in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not
to the Imperial Government. The appointment of the judges is
also a State and not an Imperial function. The Empire enjoys
uniform codes of commercial and criminal law, though no uniform
code of civil law has yet been adopted.
The lowest courts of first instance are the Amtsgerichk, each with a
single judge, competent to try petty civil and criminal cases. There are 1,915
542
GERMAN EMPIRE
Amtsgerichte in the Empire, or one for every 25,808 inhabitants. The
Landgerickte exercise a revising jurisdiction over the Amtsgerichte, and also
a more extensive original jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases, divorce
cases, &c. In the criminal chamber five judges sit, and a majority of four
votes is required for a conviction. Jury courts (Schicurgerichte) are also
held periodically, in which three judges preside ; the jury are twelve in num-
ber. There are 171 Landgerichtc in the Empire, or one for eveiy 289,023 of
the population. The first court of second instance is the Oberlandcsgcriclii .
In its criminal senate, which also has an original jurisdiction in serious
cases, the number of the judges is seven. There are twenty-eight such courts
in the Empire. The total number of judges on the bench in all the courts
above mentioned is 7,159. In Bavaria alone there is an Oberste Landcs-
gericht, with eighteen judges, with a revising jurisdiction over the Bavarian
Oberlandesgerichte The supreme court is the llcichsgcricht, which sits at
Leipzig. The judges, seventy-nine in number, are appointed by the Emperor
on the advice of the Bundesrath. The court exercises an appellate jurisdiction
over all inferior courts, and also an original jurisdiction in cases of treason.
It has four criminal and six civil senates.
The following table shows the number of criminal cases tried before the
courts of first instance, with the number and sex of convicted persons, and
the number of the latter per 10,000 of the civil population over twelve years
of age : —
Year
Cases tried
Persons convicted
Total
Conviction
per 10,000
inhabitants
Amtsger.
Landger.
Males
Females
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1,037,799
1,032,367
1,004,642
1,002,601
1,032,880
70,816
70,382
70,265
70,044
73,857
281,728
291,434
294,642
288,481
303,195
61,359
61,566
61,715
62,184
66,449
343,087
353,000
356,357
350,665
369,644
106-0
108-2
108-4
105-6
110-2
Of the persons convicted in 1889, 36,790 were under eighteen years of
) ; and 115,684 had been previously convicted.
Pauperism.
The relief of the poor is not an imperial function ; but all the States ex-
cept two have adopted the law of settlement passed by the Reichstag in June
1870. Bavaria and Alsace-Lorraine have independent poor-law legislation.
According to the law of 1870 each commune (Gemeindc) or poor law-district
(Armenvcrband) is bound to provide for its own poor, much as is the case
in English parishes ; and a settlement for purposes of poor-relief is generally
obtained by a residence of two years in any one commune, Paupers who
from any cause have no local settlement are looked alter by the Government
of the State to which they belong, and are called Landarmcn, or national
paupen. By" all imperial law passed in 1874, any German entitled to poor
relief may apply for it to the commune in which he happens at the time td lie,
but that commune in empowered to recover expenses from the commune in
which the pauper has a settlement. In 1885 the number of paupers receiving
public relief was as follows: —
1
FINANCE
543
Heads of Fami-
lies and Single Dependant* Total
Paupers
Pert
of
Population
Kavaria .
Alsace-Lorraine
Other states
Total .
86,098 65,452
39,047 34,442
761, ISfl 605,921
151,550
73,489
1,367,347
4 70
3 43
886,^71 705,815
1,592,386
3 40
As preventive measures under this head must be mentioned the imperial
laws introducing the compulsory insurance of workmen against ri
and insurance against accidents by employers (1883), and the compul-
sory insurance of workmen by the workmen themselves ;»f.rai:
(1888).
Finance.
The common expenditure of the Empire is defrayed from tin-
revenues arising from customs, certain branches of the ex< i>r,
and the profits of the posts, telegraphs, and State railways. The
individual States are assessed to make up any deficit in proportion
to population.
The following tables exhibit the revenue and expenditure (in
thousands of marks) for each of the years from 1887-88 to 1891-
92, and the annual average of the two previous quinquennial
periods. The figures for the last two years are taken from the
budget estimates : —
Revf.kve
Expend rrrBE
Years Ordinary
Extraord. rr,>t«i
leans, 4c.) Total
Extraord.
Ordinary (military,
Ac.)"
Total
1887-88
1888-89
1889-90
1 1890-91
1891-92
69S.240
8»,767
956,259
963,030
1,013,041
•
1,000 M. 1,000 M.
251,023 1 949,263
174,922 | 995,679
250,142 1 1,206,401
317,086 I 1,280,116
91,831 ' 1,104,872
1,000 M. 1,000 M.
697,036 179,898
809,391 210,830
1 928,006 182,669
i 942,831 317,087
1 1,015,561 91,831
1,000 M.
876,934
1,020,221
1,11"
l.-j.M'.!<i>
1,107,392
The amounts raised by customs, excise, and stamps in the year 1887-88
to 1891-2 were as follows (in thousands of marks) : —
— ; 1887-88
1888-89
1889-90
Estimated
1890-91 1891-92
j Customs and excise .
i Stamps . . .
390,138 471,839 586,912 537,399
27,151 , 35,546 42,454 30,279
578,754
34,506
Total ....
417,289 i 507,385 j 629,366 567,678
613,260
1
544
GERMAN EMPIRE
The sums paid in lieu of customs and excise by the parts of the Empire
not included in the Zollgebiet are included in the above figures. The share
of this direct imperial taxation is about 10s. 6d. per head.
The distribution of the expenditure (in thousands of - marks) is as
follows : —
Years
Defence
Debt
General
Ordinary Extraordinary
1887-88
1888-89
1889-90
1890-91
1891-92
416,615
413,642
439,118
484,089
517,526
164,341
187,942
156,891
279,246
47,171
21,176
29,035
34,647
56,865
53,862
274,802
389,602
480,019
439,718
491,833
The following table gives the estimated total revenue and expenditure
(including supplements for the financial year ending March 31, 1892 : —
Expenditure
1,000 Marks
Revenue
!
1,000 Marks
Reichstag
422-3
Customs and Excise
Chancellery
148-6
Duties .
578,753-6
Foreign Office .
9,195-9
Stamps .
34,506-0
Home Office .
16,432-2
Posts and Telegraphs
23,776-1
Imperial Army
413,117-9-
Printing Office
1,185-3
, , Navy
42,818-1
Railways .
20,194-9
Ministiy of Justice
1,964-2
Imperial Bank
2,691-7
Imperial Treasury
336,222-7
Various departmental
Railways
306-6
receipts
8,830-5
Debt of Empire
53,861-5
Interest of Invalid
Audit Office
608-6
Fund .
25,453 3
Pension Funel .
40,905-6
Interest of Imperial
Invalid Fund .
25,453-8
Funds .
4416
Increase of Salaries
540-0
Various .
609 2
Total ordinary recur- \
ring expenditure J
Total non-recuM
ring and extra- (_
ordinary expen- j
diture . . J
Extraordinary re- \
ceipts . . /
91,830-8
941,998-0
Federal contribu- \
tions . . /
316,599 3
165,394 1
1,107,392 -1
Grand total .
Grand total
1,104, 872-:!
For 1891-92 the Federal contributions (Matricitlar Beitrtgt) amount to
316,599,300 marks, to wbidi the principal States contribute as follows : —
1,000 M. 1.000 M. 1,000 M.
Prussia . 184,678-1 liaden . . 11,637-0 Saxe-Weimar . 2,047-4
Bavaria . 41,6076 Alsace-LoTT. . 11,385-6 Oldenburg . 2,227"2
Wiirttemberg 15,409'8 Hesse . . 6,238-8 linmswick . 2,428-9
Saxony . 20,745-9 Meckl.-Schwer. 3,750-8 Hamburg . 3,382-2
DEFENCE •">4.t>
For the end of 1890-91 the total faded debt amounted to 117,981,800
marks, ami to meet the extraordinary expenditure a loan of 255,696,053 marks
inted. The debt bears interest at 4 percent., and some of it 3£ per
rent. Besides the funded there exists an unfunded debt, represented by
4 Reiehs-Kassenscheine,' or imperial treasure lulls, outstanding on March 81,
1890, to the amount of 122,908,940 marks.
A- a • t off against the debt of the Empire there exists a variety of in-
funds. These eomi»rise (end of 1890-91) the fund for invalids,
475,999,024 marks, besides 3,459,450 Frankfort florins and 329,582 silver :
and a fund for Parliament buildings, 15,704,753 marks. The war treasure
fund, 120,000,000 marks is not invested, but preserve*! in gold at Spandau.
Defence.
I. Frontier.
Germany has a total frontier length of 4,570 miles. < »n the
north it is hounded by the Nortl . Denmark (47
miles), and the Baltic (927 miles) ; on the south well-defined
mountain-ranges and the Lake of Constance separate it from
Austria (1,403 miles) and Switzerland (256 miles). On the re-
maining sides, however, the boundaries are chiefly conventional,
except in the south-west, where the Yosges Mountains separate
Germany and France. On the east Germany is bounded by
Russia for 843 miles ; on the west by France (242 miles), Luxem-
burg (111 miles), Belgium (70 miles), and Holland (377 miles).
Some of the coast defences and batteries have been placed
under the jurisdiction of the admiralty. The Empire is at
present divided into ten ' fortress districts ' (Festungs-Inspec-
tionen), each including a certain area with fortified places. The
folio wing is a list of these districts, and the names of the forti •
in each, the fortified places of the first class, serving as camps,
being distinguished by italics, while those specially designed for
railway protection or obstruction are marked by asterisks (*), and
coast fortresses by a dagger (t) : —
1. Konigsberg : Konigsberg, Danzig,\ Pillau,+ Memel,t Boyen. 2
PoSKH: Po-icn, Glogau,* Ncisse, Glatz. 3. Berlin: Spandau, Magdeburg,
Torgau,* Kiiztrin. 4. Mainz : Mainz, Vim, Eastatt. 5. Metz : Met:, Dieden-
hofen,* Bitsch.* 6. Cologne (Koln) : Cologne, Koblenz, Wesel,* Saarlouis.*
7. Kiel : Kiel, Friedrichsort,+ Cuxhaveu,t Geestemiinde,+ Wilhclmshaven,t
Swinemunde.-r 8. Thorn : Thorn, Graudenz, Vistula Passages ( Weichseluber-
ginge), Dirschau. 9. Strassburg : Stra*sburg : New Breisach. 10. Munich
(Miinelien) : Ingolstadt, Germershehn. *
It will be seen that the Empire has 17 fortified places of the
first class, serving as fortified camps, and 19 other fortress -
These fortresses are all connected with each other by means
of underground telegraphs, while strategical railway lines lead
from the principal military centres towards the frontiers.
N N
546 GERMAN EMPIRE
II. Army.
The 63rd Article of the Constitution of 1871 enacts that 'the
whole of the land forces of the Empire shall form a united army
in war and peace, under the orders of the Kaiser.' The Prussian
War Office discharges also the functions of an Imperial War Office,
but Bavaria, Saxony, and Wiirttemberg have War Ministers of
their own. The military budgets of the two last named are, how-
ever, prepared in Berlin, and Bavaria is obliged to vote military
supplies in a fixed proportion to the other budgets. The
Sovereigns of these three Kingdoms have the right to select the
lower grades of officers, and the King of Bavaria, by a
convention signed November 23, 1870, reserved to himself the
special privilege of superintending the general administration of
the Bavarian contingent to the German army. But the approval
of the Kaiser must be obtained to all appointments, and nothing
affecting the superior direction of the troops of any State of the
Empire can be done without his consent. All German troops are
bound by the Constitution to obey unconditionally the orders of
the Kaiser, and must swear accordingly the oath of fidelity. But
this oath to the Kaiser is not imposed upon the Bavarian troops
in time of peace. Art. 65 of the Constitution gives the Emperor
the right of ordering the erection of fortresses in any part of
the Empire ; and Art. 68 invests him with the power, in case of
threatened disturbance of order, to declare any country or district
in a state of siege. The constitution of the army is regulated by
various military laws passed between 1867 and 1888 ; the Prussian
military legislation before 1871 being extended to the Empire.
By the Constitution of April 16, 1871, it is enacted that 'every German
is liable to service — and no substitution is allowed.' Every German capable
of bearing anus lias to be in the standing army (or navy) for seven years, as a
rule from the finished twentieth till the commencing twenty-eighth year of
his age, though liability to service begins on the completion of the seven-
teenth year. Of the seven years, three must be spent in active service and
the remaining four in the army of reserve. Conscripts, whose conduct or pro-
ficiency earns them the privilege, are sometimes discharged from active service
at the end of two years, though liable to recall. They are familiarly known
as ' Conigs Urlauber.' Alter (putting the army of reserve, the conscript has
to form part of the Landwehr for another five years in the first class or 'ban,'
and up to his thirty-ninth year in the second 'ban.'
About 400,000 young men reach the age of twenty every year, and when
the numbers Of those morally or physically unlit to serve, of volunteers, and
of emigrants, are deducted, about 1300,000 are left liable for service. Of these,
however, owing to the legal limitation of the peace strength, only a certain
number (chosen by lot) join the army, the remainder are drafted into the
DEFENCE
547
ErwtztrupjKn, a kind of reserve, where the period of service is twelve years.
Men in the Ersatztruppen are liable to three periods of drill (of ten, six, and
four weeks respectively) ; but as financial considerations allow of only a cer-
tain number being so drilled, many receive no military training at all. At the
end of twelve yean the trained members of the Ersatz pass into the first ban
of the Landstumi, the untrained into the second ban.
One-year volunteers, of whom about 8,000 join annually, serve at their own
charges, and are not reckoned in the legal peace strength. Xon-conuuissioued
officers are generally appointed from men desiring to make the army their
profession.
All able-bodied men between the age of seventeen and forty-five, who are
neither in the standing army nor the reserves, must belong to the Landstumi,
which is only called out in the event of an invasion of Germany. The Land-
stumi is divided into two classes or ' bans ;' to the first ban belong those be-
tween the ages of seventeen and thirty-nine ; to the second those between
thirty-nine and forty-five.
The following table shows the strength and organisation of the imperial
army on peace the footing in 1891-92 : —
Peace Footing.
Officers
Rank and File
Horses
Infantry, 173 regiments
10,573
317,534
Rifles, 19 battalions .
410
11,179
Bezirkskommandos, 277
530
5,211
Surgeons, Instructors, &c. .
Total Infantry .
—
2,191
11,513
336,11',
Cavalry, 93 regiments
2,351
65,347
63,790
, , special services (in-
cluding officers)
—
834
—
Field Artillery, 43 regiments
2,363
48,397
26,092
,, special ser-
vices (including officers) .
—
:■>:>
—
Foot Artillery, 14 regiments
and 3 battalions
728
17,169
30
Foot Artillery special ser-
vices (including officers) .
—
97
—
Pioneers, 20 battalions, 2
railway regiments, includ-
ing 1 balloon detachment,
1 railway battalion, and 2
railway companies .
588
12,724
Special Pioneer services
—
102
Train, 21 battalions .
299
6,842
3,996
i Special train services .
—
69
j Sjiecial formations
430
2,568
Non-regimental officers, &c.
Total .
2,168
228
—
20,440
491,217
93,908
By the law of July 15, 1890, to continue in force to March 31, 1894, the
gth of the imperial army is 486,983 men, besides officers, surgeons,
paymasters, &c.
K N 2
548
GERMAN EMPIRE
No official returns of the war-strength of the German army are published
nor are experimental mobilisations on a war-footing ever made. The fol
lowing approximate estimates are from a report by military experts preparec
for the Intelligence Division of the British War Office in 1888. The tota
war forces of the Empire would, according to this report, consist of 19 arm)
corps, 9 cavalry divisions and 18 reserve (Landwehr) divisions, which or
mobilisation would be divided into a Feld Armcc.ov active army and a Besa/z-
u/igs Armec or garrison army. The following table shows the suggested com-
position of these two armies : —
-
Field Army
Garrison
Army
Grand
Total
Active
Troops
Reserve
Troops
Total
Officers . . 1 22,377
Surgeons. . 4,247
Other officials . ! 7,928
Rank and file . ' 942,408
Horses . . 280,472
Field guns . | 2,028
Other carriages 40,081
9,536
1,300
1,933
354,915
72,963
648
9,872
31,913
5,547
9,861
1,297,323
353,435
2,676
49,953
16,209
2,055
3,096
868,627
86,324
882
8,763
48,122
7,602
12,957
2,165,950
439,759
3,558
58,716
As compared with this total of 2,234,631 men, 3,358 guns, and 439,759
horses in 1888, the effective mobilised strength of Germany in 1870 was
1,183,389 men, 2,046 guns, and 250,373 horses. According to the recruiting
statistics for 1888, the number of fully trained men was 1,986,277 on
April 1.
To this fall to be added the railway staff and other special services, and
in case of invasion the Landsturm, estimated at about 700,000 men ; so that
in the last extremity Germany on her present organisation would have ;i war-
strength not far short of 3,000,000 trained men.
The mass of soldiers thus raised is divided into companies, battalions,
regiments, and corps d'armee. The strength of an ordinary battalion in peace is
544 men, raised in war to 1,002 by calling in part of the reserves ; it is
divided into four companies, each of which in war consists of 250 men.
Exceptions to this general rule are the battalions of the guards and the
regiments in garrison in the Reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine, the strength of
which on the peace footing is 686 men. During peace each regiment of in-
fant ry consists of three battalions, each brigade of two regiments : each in-
fantry division of two brigades, to which, under the command of the divisional
general, four squadrons of cavalry, four batteries of artillery, each of six
guns, and either a battalion of riflemen or a battalion of pioneers are attached.
Bach field-artillery regiment is divided into three detachments, each of two,
three or lour batteries. In all there arc l.'M field batteries, of which -17 are
mounted. Bach battery numbers, at a rule, in peace four, in war six, fully
mounted guns. In war the strength can he raised to 455 batteries. The
corps d'arme'e is considered a unit which is Independent in itself, and Includes
not only troops of all three arms, hut a portion of all the stores and ap-
pliances which aie required by a whole army. Each corps d'armee consists
of two di visions of infantry, a cavalry division of four regiments, with two
horse-artillery batteries attached, besides the two cavalry regiments attached
to the infantry divisions, and a reserve of artillery of six field batteries audi
DEFENCE
549
one mounted battery. There is, moreover, attached to each corps d'armee one
battalion of pioneers and one of train.
Tin- corps d'armee, with the exception of the corps of the guards, are
locally distributed through the Empire. There are (besides the Prussian corjw
of the guards) 19 army corps districts and one divisional district for the 25th
(Grand Ducal Hessian) division, 12 of which are named after Prussian
provinces, and the remaining seven ■iter States of the Empire. They are : —
I, East Prussia ; 2, Pomerania ; 3, Brandenburg : 4, Saxony ; 5, Posen ; 6,
Sili .-sici ; 7, Westphalia ; 8, Rhinelaud ; 9, Schleswig-Holstein ; 10, Hanover ;
II, Hesse-Nassau ; 12, Saxony ; 13, Wiirttemberg ; 14, Baden ; 15, Alsace ;
16, Lorraine ; 17, West Prussia ; and the 1st and 2nd Royal Bavarian Army
Two of these army corps were added in 1890 ; so that on the lim-s
of the above-mentioned report the total war-forces would embrace 21 corps,
the guards corps forming the twentieth, the Hessian division being strengthen>-d
to form the twenty-first.
The infantry ami rifles are armed with Mauser's breech-loading repeating
rifle (1871-84), carrying eight cartridges in the magazine and one in the
chamber, with an extreme range of 3,300 yards j weight, 10 lbs. 1 oz., with
bayonet, 11 lbs. 13 oz. The cavalry have lames, swords, and carbines.
III. Navy.
The following table gives the strength of the German navy
on April 1, 1891, completed and building, not including torpedo-
boats : —
Kind of Vessel Number Guns .Displacement Indicated
in metric tons i , Horse-jiower
Ironclad ships
Do. (coast defence
Frigate cruisers
Corvette ,,
Cruisers
Gunboats
Avisos .
School ships and boats
Boats for other purposes
12
16-
4
10
5
3
8
11
8
Crewi
Total
77
145
23
62
116
34
12
22
92
5
85,024
19,140
12,997
26,058
5,697
1,467
9,589
21,095
4,307
69,400
16,700
12,800
32,900
7,000
1,020
26,850
17,860
5,060
6,064
1,371
1,759
2,813
640
255
970
3,453
735
511 j 185,373 189,590 18,051
i 1 metric ton = -9842 English tons.
2 This includes the Brummer and Bremse, with deck armour and no side armour.
The following is a tabulated list of the 29 ironclads, includ-
ing the Prinzessin WilheJm and the Irene. (Mtl. = material of
hull : I = iron j S = steel ; W = wood ; a = turret ships ; b = barbette
ships ; c = central battery ships j d = broadside ships ; e = armoured
gun-boats) : —
550
GERMAN EMPIRE
rg
Armour
Guns
Indi-
Dis-
Armour-clad Ships
Mtl.
Thick-
ness at
Water-
.
cated
Horse-
place-
ment,
or Ton-
h3
line
Number
Weight
power
nage
Inches
Sea-going Ironclads : l
c Kaiser .
I
1874
10
{1
23-ton \
4-ton/
8,000
7,676
c Deutschland .
I
»
10
{?
(18
23-ton \
4-ton/
14^-toni
8,000
7,676
d Konig Wilhelm
1868
12
l*
12-ton V
4-tonJ
8,000
9,757
a Friedrich der Grosse
1874
9
h
1 8-ton \
6-ton J
5,400
6,770
a Preussen
1873
9
i\
18-ton \
6-tonJ
5,400
6,770
d Friedrich Karl
1867
5
16
9 -ton
3,500
6,007
d Kronprinz
,,
5
16
9-ton
4,800
5,568
b Sachsen
1877
10
8
19-ton
5,600
7,400
b Bayern .
1878
10
8
19-ton
5,600
7,400
b Wiirttemberg
,,
10
8
19-ton
5,600
7,400
b Baden .
1880
10
8
19-ton
5,600
7,400
b Oldenburg .
I& s
1884
Hf
10
19-ton
3,900
—
Coast-defence
Armour-clads : 2
e Siegfried
1889
—
3
—
4,800
3,600
a Beowulf
1890
—
3
—
—
—
a Arminius
1864
H
4
9 -ton
1,200
1,609
e Wespe .
1876
8
36-ton
700
1,109
e Viper .
,,
8
36-ton
700
1,109
e Biene .
8
36-ton
700
1,109
e Skorpion
1877
8 1
36 -ton
700
1,109
e Miieke .
,,
8
36-ton
700
1,109
e Basilisk
1878
8
36 -ton
700
1,109
e Camaeleon
,
8
36 -ton
700
1,109
e Crocodil
1879
8
36-ton
700
1,109
e Salamander
1880
8
,
36-ton
700
1,109
e Natter .
.,
8
36-ton
700
1,109
c Hummel
1881
8
36-ton
700
1,109
Deck -protected
Cruisers : 3
Bremse .
Brummcr
s
s
1884
}-
1
12J-ton
1,500
866
Irene
I'rinzcssin Willnliii .
s&w
s&w
1887
>>
}-
14
6-ton
8,000
4,400
. Speed from 18 in w knots.
'-' Spied !l knots, excepl Arminius, 11, liremtte an
I Bpeed of 18 knots.
llrummer I4"fl knots.
DEFENCE 551
Nearly all the ship are armed with torpedo gear. The following table
shows the strength of the torpedo flotilla : —
Class
-*
Launched
Tons
Horse-power Speed — knots
Gunboats .
Despatch vessels
Torpedo ship
Tender .
Torpeilo boats .
6
8
1
1
63
49
1887-89
1876-88
1877
1876
1883-87
1883-86
225 to 320
960 to 1,970
2,810
370
7" to 85
50
2,000 to 3,600
2,350 to 5,400
2,500
800
1,000
500
21 t
16 to 19
13 9
20 to 22
185 to 19
ii i> •
1
—
—
60
—
There are thus in all 132 torpedo vessels.
The followiug ships wen in construction in January 1890 : — 4 belted
cruisers of from 9,000 to 10,000 tons ; 9 coast-defence armourclads, of 3,800
tons each : 1 deck-protected crniser of 4,230 tons and 7,000 horse-po\v
torpedo guid>oat of 2,000 tons and 5,400 horse-power, speed 19 kii
toqK'do despatch vessel, 1,240 tons, 4,000 horse-power, 19 knots.
Excepting the Koniy Wilfi'lm, the two most powerful ships of the navy
are the ironclads KaLicr and Ikutschland, launched at Poplar in 1874. They
are sister ships, 280 feet long, constructed after the designs of Sir Edward
J. Reed. Each is protected with an armour belt extending all fore and aft,
from 5 feet six incnes below the water-line to the main deck, and has an
armour-plated battery, fitted with eight 18-ton steel breech -loading Krupp
guns arranged to fire broadside. In addition to these eight guns there are
seven other guns of 4 tons weight placed on the upper deck. The thickness
of armour-plates on the vital parts of the licit and battery is 10 inches, else-
where it is eight inches. The upper and main deck beams of each ironclad are
completely covered with light steel plating, and the fore part of the lower deck
is covered with plating 2 inches and H inch thick.
The turret-ships, Fricdrich der Grosse and Preusscn, were built at German
dockyards, after the same model, during the years 1873 and 1874. Each
of them has two turrets, with armour of the thickness of 9 and 10 inches
round them, 9 inches on the side at the water line and 7 inches fore and
aft, while the armament consists of four 22-ton guns in the turrets and two
5|-ton guns placed fore ami aft. The Konig Wilhelm, built at the Thames
Ironworks, Blaekwall, was designed by Sir E. J. Reed, and carries 29 guns
made of Krupp's hammered steel. The armour is 12 inches thick amidships
at the water-line, tapering gradually downwards to a thickness of 7 inches
at 7 feet below the water-line. Behind the bowsprit, and midway between
the main and the mizen masts, are two bulkheads each of 6 -inch armour
and 18 inches of teak ; the forward one continues from the lower deck up
through the main deck, and rises to the height of 7 feet above the spar deck,
where it is curved into the form of a semicircular shield, pierced with port-
holes for cannon and loopholes for musketry. Within this shield are two
10-ton guns, which can be used to fire straight fore and aft, or as broadside
guns.
The German navy was commanded, according to the budget of 1891-92,
by 12 admirals, who had under them 921 officers of all kinds, including
engineers and surgeons, and 16,150 non-commissioned officers, men and boys,
marines and sailors. The sailors of the fleet and marines are raised by con-
scription from among the seafaring population which is exempt on this
account from service in the army. Great inducements are held out for able
552
GERMAN EMPIRE
seamen to volunteer in the navy, and the number of these in recent yeai-s has
been very large. The total seafaring population of Germany is estimated at
80,000, of whom 48,000 are serving in the merchant navy at home, and
about 6,000 in foreign navies.
Germany has two ports of war, at Kiel, on the Baltic and Wilhelmshaven
in the Bay of Jade, on the North Sea. The port of Wilhelmshaven is a vast
artificial construction of granite, and comprises five separate harbours, with
canals, sluices to regulate the tide, and an array of diy docks for ordinary and
ironclad vessels.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
In Prussia, by a series of ordinances from 1807 to 1850,
complete free trade in land has been established, and all personal
and material burdens removed that would stand in the way of
this. With the exception of the Mecklenburgs, similar legisla-
tion has been applied to the land in other parts of Germany.
Generally speaking, small estates and peasant proprietorship pre-
vail in the West German States, while large estates prevail in
the north-east. In Prussia, large estates, with an area of 250
acres and more, prevail in Pomerania, Posen, East and West
Prussia ; while the districts of Koblenz, Wiesbaden, Treves,
Baden, and Wurttemburg are parcelled out into small estates.
Of the whole area of Germany, 94 per cent, is classed as
productive, and only 6 unproductive. The subdivision of the
soil, according to the latest official returns (1883), was as follows
(in hectares; 1 hectare = 2*47 acres): — Arable land, vineyards,
and other cultivated lands, 26,311,968; grass, meadows, perma-
nent pasture and waste lands, 10,944,570 ; woods and forests.
13,908,398; all other, 2,860,149.
On June 5, 1882, the total number of agricultural enclosures
(including arable land, meadows, cultivated pastures, orchards,
and vineyards) each cultivated by one household, was as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
Between l and
10 Hectares
Between 10 and
100 Hectares
Above 100
Hectares
Total
2,323,316
2,274,096
653,941
24,991
5,276,344 !
These farms supported 18,840,818 persons, of whom 8,120,518
were actually working upon them.
The areas under the principal crops, in licet. 'ires, were as
follows ;—
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
553
1887-88
1888-8S
180040
180041
^Vheat
Baric v
Oats .
Buckwheat
Potatoes
Hay .
Beetroot (sugar)
(fodder)
Vines
Tobacco
Hops .
1,919,682
1,933,3:17
1,956,441
1,96"
5,842,280
5,814,253
5,801,889
5,82'
1,731,121
.11.'
1,685,000
7.188
3,810,244
3,832,488
3,886,627
3,904,020
212,603
208,976
201,991
194,576
2,913,147
2,920,330
2,917,720
2,905,870
5,911,461
5,902,693
5,909,
5,909,543
383,984
389,024
396,779
398,896
120,210
120,588
120,93")
120,300
21,466
18,032
17,397
—
46,952
46,448
45,797
44,505
The total yield of their products in the years indicated, in metric tons (1
metric ton = 2,200 lbs. or 984 an English ton), or hectolitres (hectolitre =
22 gallons), and in tons or hectolitres per hectare, was as follows : —
Whe»t .
Rye .
Barlev .
Oats .
Buckwheat
PotatofS
; Hay .
Beetiivit (sugar)
(fodder)
Tobacco
Hops .
I Wine .
1887-88
Tons
IBM,804
4,301,407
26,073,998
■
6,963.961
r.,691,362
40,866
Hectolitre
2,392,042
Per
Hect
1-47
1-09
1-27
113
0-48
8-55
U-S2
1-90
0-68
1880-00
1800-91
Tons
I Per
Hect
Sou
1^00,842 1-31
740 0-95
2,260,590 l-.il
lll.S
21,910,8
15,449,981
7,896,1$
6,165,(1
Per
Hect
COM
Per
Hect
t, fri/tia
5,363,426
1,938,419
4.197.124
10,007
08,800,009
18,423,230
9,82.5,039
39,012!
35,783'
1-21
0-92
115
1-08
0-61
9 12
3-12
18-62
224
0-78
19-90 2,859,99S 237 i 2,021,569 167
2,831,011 144
5.867,931 1-01
2,283,432 137
4,913,544 1-26
23,320,9831 8-03 .
18,859,888 319
10,623,319
7,706,001
24,731
19-37
2,974,593 24"7
In 1889 the produce of sugar-beet produced 944,505 tons of raw and refined
sugar.
The following are the statistics of domestic animals according to the census
of January- 1883 :—
-
Number
Value in l,000i
marks
-
Number
Value in 1,000:
marks
J Horses
Mules and
asses
, Cattle
Sheep
3,522,545
9,795
15,786,764
19,189,715
1,678,662
990
3,074,264
306,583
Swine
Goats
Beehives .
Total value
9,206,195
2,640,994
1,911,797
476,699
39,660
368.206
—
o,945,064 !
Of the above numbers there belong to Prussia 2,417,367 horses, 8,737,641
cattle, 14,752,328 sheep, 5,819,136 swine, 1,679,686 goats, and 1,238,040
beehives ; to Bavaria, 356,316 horses, 3,037,098 cattle, 1,178,270 sheep.
1,038,344 swine.
554
GERMAN EMPIRE
II. Forestry.
Forestry in Germany is an industry of great importance, conducted under
the care of the State on scientific methods. About 34,347,000 acres or 257
per cent, of the area of the empire, were estimated to be occupied by
forests in 1889. In South and Central Germany from 30 to 38 per cent, of the
surface is covered with forests : and in paits of Prussia 20 per cent. From
forests and domains alone Prussia receives a revenue of about 4 millions
sterling.
III. Mining.
The great bulk of the minerals raised in Germany is produced in Prussia,
where the chief mining districts are "Westphalia, Rhenish Prussia, and Silesia,
for coal and iron, the Harz for silver and copper, and Silesia for zinc. Saxony
has coal, iron, and silver mines ; and Alsace rich coal-fields.
The annual cpiantities of the principal minerals raised (1885-90) are
shown in the following table, the returns for 1890 being provisional only : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Coal .
58,056,600
60,334,000
65,386,100
67,342,200
70,194,100
Lignite .
15,626,000
15,898,600
16,574,000
17,631,100
19,042,100 !
Iron Ore
8,485,800
9,351,100
10,664,300
11,002,200
11,409,600
Zinc ore
705,200
900,700
667,800
708,800
059,400
Lead ore
158,500
157,600
161,800
169,600
168,200
Copper ore .
495,700
507,600
530,900
573,300
596,100
Rock Salt .
444,400
405,400
414,600
544,600
557,100
Potassic salt .
945,300
1,080,100
1,235,300
1,185,700
1.175,100
Other products
236,300
237,900
231,400
256,600
271,400 |
The total value of the minerals raised in Germany and Luxemburg in 18S9
was over 555 million marks ; in 1890 over 725 million marks.
The following table shows particulars of the production of the foundries
in Germany and Luxemburg in 1889 and the number of foundries engaged
principally or partly with each metal in 1889 : —
_
Quantity in
metric tuns
1889
Valm- in 1,000
marks
1889
Foundries engaged
1889
Average No.
Hand*
1889
Chiefly
Partly
Pig iron .
Zhao
Lead
Copper .
Silver
Tin.
Sulphur and siilph.
acid
4,524, 558
135,974
100,601
21.597
403
63
432,183
217,371
42,335
25, 190
28,109
50,813
120
14,378
102
29
14
8
7
3
65
6
3
11
5
16
18
88,985
s. <>»>:{
2,976
8,271
2,451
12
4,469
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
555
In addition to the above, about 1,958 kilograms of gold, valued at
5,465,508 marks were produced. Nickel, bismuth, vitriol, and other chemical
manufactures were produced to a total weight of 26,145 tons, and to a total
value of 9,570,037 marks.
The total value of the productions of the foundries of all kinds in 1889
was 400,650,958 marks. The total quantity of finished iron produced in
Germany in 1889 was 4,835,063 metric- tons, and its value 685,926,000
marks. In 1889 there were in Germany and Luxemburg 1,491 work-
ducing finished iron, including steel-works. Over 185,329 men are employed
in connection with the various stages of iron, besides 37,761 iron-miners.
In connection with coal and lignite mining alone the average number of
hands engaged was 271,094 in 1889.
IV. Fisheries.
The German fisheries are not important. In 1875 the fishing population
was 19,623 : in 1882 it was 13,392. In 1890 (January 1) 44.'. boats (]
tons), with an aggregate crew of 1,716, were engaged in deep-on fishing in the
North Sea for cod and herrings. The Baltic fisheries are more developed. In
1889 fresh fish to the value of 5,256,000 marks were exported, while the im-
ports of fresh fish were valued at 17,047,000 marks, of salted herrings at
31,963,000 marks, of other salted and dried fish at 4,826,000 marks, and of
- and other marine shell-fish at 1,782,000 marks.
V. Manufactures.
The chief seats of the German iron manufacture are in Prussia, Alsace-
Lorraine, Bavaria, and Saxony. Steel is made in Rhenish Prussia. Saxony
is the leading State in the production of textiles, but "Westphalia and
Silesia also produce linen : Alsace-Lorraine AVurttemberg, and Baden produce
cotton goods. "Woollens are manufactured in several Prussian provinces ; silk
in Rhenish Prussia, Alsace, ami Baden Beetroot sugar is an important
manufacture in Prussia, Brunswick, and Anhalt ; glass, porcelain, and earthen-
ware in Silesia, Thuringia, and Saxony ; clocks "and wooden ware in "Wiirt-
temburg and Bavaria ; and beer in Bavaria and Prussia.
The following table shows the number per 10,000 inhabitants of some of
the leading German States engaged in the principal manufactures according
to the census of occupation in 1882. Additional information should be looked
for under the various States : —
-
Iron Manu-
facture
Machi-
nery, In-
struments
Leather w^^,„„
Textile Paper and India-, «<*««»
robber w*re
Prussia .
Bavaria .
Wurttemberg .
Saxony .
Baden
Alsace-Lorraine
German Empire
89 3
69 4
88-9
91 1
68 5
83 5
718
55 5
87-2
138-9
94-4
100-5
156-9 , 179 1 24 6 910
114-7 16-6 J 20-5 1070
171-6 27-8 ! 32-6 ; 12-
781-8 610 i 31-9 1
1522 258 307 1196
4636 : 204 , 203 1101
85-4 78-7
2013 i 22 2 | 26-9
103-9 :
556
GERMAN EMPIRE
The following are the statistics of the beetroot sugar manufacture in the
Zollgebiet : —
Years
Number of
Factories
•Beetroot used
in Metric Tons
Production in Metric Tons
No. of Kgs.
Beetroot to
produce 1
Kg. of Sugar
Raw Sugar | Molasses
1885-86
1886-87
1887-88
1888-89
1889-90
399
401
391
396
401
7,070,317
8,306,671
6,963,961
7,896,183
9,822,635
808,105 i 180,178
985,628 ■ 215,887
910,698 i 183,037
944,505 ' 201,189
1,213,689 240,797
8-75
8-43
7-65
8-36
8-09
The total amount of refined sugar produced in 1889-90 was 679,213 tons,
in 1888-89, 560,148 tons; in 1887-88, 564,990 tons; in 1886-87, 539,247
tons.
In 1889-80 there were 30 manufactories of sugar from starch which
yielded 17,580 tons of dry sugar, 34,684 tons of syrup, and 2,748 tons of
colour.
The following table shows the quantity of beer brewed within the customs
district at various periods. The Beer-excise district {BraustcucrgcMet) includes
all the States of the Zollegebiet, with the exception of Bavaria, Wurttemburg,
Baden, and Alsace-Lorraine, in each of which the excise is separately
collected. The amounts are given in thousands of hectolitres (1 hectolitre — 22
gallons).
Years
Beer
Excise Dist.
1885-86
1886-87
1887-88
1888-89
1889-90
24,291
26,566
27,476
28,656
32,189
Bavaria
12,665
13,096
13,705
13,526
14,284
Wurttem-
Baden
Alsace-
berg
Lorraine
2,879
1,244
691
3,306
1,301
719
3,558
1,485
778
3,153
1,509
759
3,419
1,631
798
Total
41,770
44,988
47,002
47,603
52,321
The total number of active breweries in the Beer-excise district was in
1889-90, 9,275; in 1888-89, 9,556; in 1887-88, 9,639; in 1886-87, 9,708;
on the annual average of 1881 to 1885, 10,755. The amount brewed per
head of the population in 1888-89 was in litres (1 litre = 176 imperial
pint) : — the Excise district 77 (Prussia 69, Saxony 117), Bavaria 245,
Wiirttemberg 156, Baden 93, Alsace-Lorraine 48. The average animal con-
sumption per head of the population of the entire Zollgebiet for the .sixteen
years 1872-89, was 89 '4 litres or 19$ gallons. In 1888-89, there were 65,652
distilleries in operation, which produced 2,727,000 hectolitres of alcohol.
Commerce.
The commerce of the Empire is under the administration and
guidance of special laws and rules, emanating from the Zollverein,
or Customs League, which, since October 15, 1888, embraces
practically the whole of the States of (icniiany, the two free
ports of Hamburg and Bremen, with unit or two other small
COMMERCE
557
places, having been then incorporated. A few districts in Baden,
with a population of 3,902, and a small part of the port of
Hamburg (152 inhabitants) remain still unincluded. Included
in the Zollverein is the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg, and also
the Austrian commune of Jungholz.
The following table shows (in thousands of marks) the com-
merce for the five years 1886-90 : —
Special Trade
General Trade
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
;.854
3,188,798
'■,877
4,087,060
4.272.910
3,051,371
3,190.147
J. 602
3,256,421
3,409,584
4,365,855
4,669,003
5,094,216
5,844,690
.484
4,682,396
4,863,081
4,811,600
4,93-
Germany had besides a direct transit-trade, valued in 1889 at
1,280,955,000 marks.
The following are the principal details of the special commerce
for 1889 and 1890:—
1889
1890
Imports in
Exports in
Imports in
iCx]» r*s fa
1,000 marks
1,000 marks
1,000 marks 1,000 marks
Living animals
183,493
31,904
229,586
29,845
Animal products
95,328
19,778
10:
22,069
Articles of consumption .
1,045,926
369,393
1,167
441,046
Seeds and plants
36,647
21.437
40,560
26.797
Fuel
95,029
116,757
101,529
146,509
Fats and oils ....
238,063
25,764
.050
27,554
Raw and manufactured ma-
terials : —
Chemicals, diugs, kc.
267,451
259,203
2f.\
274,692
Stone, clay, and glass
59,150
102,703
62,157
118,009
Metals and metal wu
285,562
482,713
338,038
430,704
Wooden wares .
116.331
217.990
120,054
Paper goods
13,841
89,057
15,4671
89,879
Leather, kc.
183,985
237,175
190,244
237,154
Textiles ....
1,211,163
1,084,833
1,119,040
1,072,136
Caoutchouc, kc.
26,667
39,657!
30,135
Machinery, instrument -
66,240
156,694
92,883'
164,390
Hardware, Ice.
85,081
28,6M
88,312
Literature, art. . .
84,779
79,097
27,820i
88,682
Various
Total . . . .
—
1,834
1,617
4,087,060
3,256,421
4,272,910 3,409,584
558
GERMAN EMPIRE
All the receipts of the Zollverein are paid into a common
exchequer, and distributed, pro rata of population, among the
States of the Empire. The chief sources of revenue are customs
duties, only on imports, and taxes upon spirits, beer (malt), salt,
sugar manufactured from beetroot, and tobacco, &c. Since 1879
Germany has been protectionist in her commercial policy. The
gross produce of the customs in 1887-89 was 312,532,000 marks;
in 1889-90 was 379,605,000 marks; or 8-8 per cent, of the total
value of imports.
The combined imports of gold and silver (included in the
above) amount to 71,988,000 marks, and exports 89,766,000
marks for 1889; and 110,790,000 and 81,436,000 for 1890.
Some of the leading imports and exports under the above
heads were, in thousands of marks value, as follows in 1890 : —
The commerce of the Zollverein (all but a fractional area of
Hamburg and Bremen were included October 1888) was divided
as follows in 1889 and 1890 :—
Countries
1889
1890
Imports
from
Exports to
Imi>orts-
IVoin
Exports to
1,000 Marks
1000 Marks
1000 Marks
1,000 Martm
German Free Ports .
52,700
105,038
19,993
104,833
< treat Britain .
674,945
652,338
640,484
705,265
Austria-Hungary
537,249
340,762
598,505
351,040 ,
Russia ....
551,79T
196,899
541,887
206,457 !
Switzerland
181,074
177,402
174,165
179,629
Belffium ....
337,203
137,211
.".Mi, 908
166,808
Netherlands
286,180
258,189
309,217
258,020
Prance and Algeria .
285,435
210,166
267,065
231,159 |
Italy ....
148,796
103,377
140,394
94,700
Norway and Sweden
70,837
106,834
68,453
131,328
Denmark.
42,716
72,250
61,899
76,383
Spain ....
32,091
44,615
34,068
53,071
COMMERCE
559
Countries
1889
1890
Imports
from
Exports to
Imports
from
Exports to
1.000 Marks
1,000 Marks
1,000 Marks
1.000 Marks
Balkan Peninsula (includ-
ing Greece, Montenegro,
and Turkey in Asia)
28,999
85,599
45.
J 49
Portugal ....
9,851
18,991
11,269
91,]
British India .
95,275
26,502
128,704
32,165
Rest of Asia
57,803
36,446
64,060
Africa (except Algeria)
39,576
22,145
51,459
21.
North and Central America
340,471
432,287
418,254
445,948
South America and West
Indies ....
29;
181,294
338,195
15 1,288
Australia ....
35,067
23,538
50,302
Other countries
Total
8,851
4,087,060
3,181
3,256,421
16,888
11,178
-.910
3,409,584
The following table shows the amount of the commercial
intercourse between Germany and the United Kingdom in each
of the live years 1886 to 1890, according to the Board of Trade
Returns : —
UN
un un
1880
MM
Exports from £ i £ £
Germany . 21,422,342 24,563,536 26,724,347 27,104,532 26,073,331
Imports of
British pro-
duce . 15,676,320 15,617,212 15,731,788 18,343,243, 19,293,626
Including foreign and colonial produce, the total imports from
Great Britain in 1889 amounted to 31,148,731/.
The following tables give the declared value of the principal articles
exported to and imported from Great Britain in each of the years 1886-90 : —
Staple ExjHirts from Gei
many to Great Britain
1886
1887
MM
1889
1890
£
1
£
£
Cereals and flour
1,652,176
1,646,655
3,244,459
2,445,758
1,811
Sugar
5,183,163
7,020,702
6,539,015
8,773,220
8,503,237
Animals, live .
820,806
758,306
839,454
396,835
136,899
Bacon and hams
1,036,658
1,034,129
652,833
186,552
4,937
Eggs and butter
1,370,144
1,772,223
2,073,532
1,484,620
1,412,930
Timber .
753,946
1,138.777
1,078,847
1,387,824
1,309,243
Zinc
392,822
410,708
554,010
613,661
562,213
Woollen nianufactur
es 561,128
J. 550
691,378
574,472
670,444
560
GERMAN EMPIRE
Principal articles of British
Produce imported into
Germany
1886
1887
1888
1
1889 1890
Cotton manufactures
£
&
£
£
and yarn
Woollen manufac-
3,097,929
2,914,464
2,477,229
2,874,967, 2,808,715'
tures and yarn
Iron, wrought and
2,783,728
2,801,806
2,757,267
3,012,764' 2,769,392
unwrought .
Herrings .
Machinery
Coals, cinders, &c. .
645,144
928,424
1,184,683
1,009,560
671,196
715,562
1,284,756
998,412
871,245
757,531
1,699,457
1,070,582
1,291,520 1,532,169
822,230 906,342
1,731,774 1,851,890
1,403,855 1,888,320
Other imports of British produce in 1890 are alkali, 39,1932. ; chemicals,
329,6492. ; hardwares, 141,4462. ; leather, 335,9182. ; linen and linen goods,
475,9132. ; oils, 588,4002. ; wool, 982,2562.
Germany imported from Great Britain foreign and colonial cotton valued at
877,4612. ; wool at 3,786,2632. in 1890. Tea imported from Great Britain
declined from 1,082,9502. in 1884 to 458,4682. in 1890.
The ports of Hamburg and Bremen are the chief gates of commercial
intercourse of Germany with the United Kingdom.
Shipping and Navigation.
The following was the distribution of the mercantile navy of Germany on
January 1, 1889, 1890, and 1891.
-
Baltic Ports
North Sea Ports
Total Shipping
Number
Tonnage
Number
Tonnage
Number
Tonnage
1889 :—
Sailing vessels
Steamers
Totals .
1890 :—
Sailing vessels
Steamers
Totals .
1891 :—
Sailing vessels
Steamers
Totals .
921
342
205,575
120,102
1,964
408
525,740
382,477
2,885
750
731,315
502.;.::'
1,263
325,677 2,372
908,217 3,635
1,233,894
890
355
191,814
137,908
1,889
460
510,996
480,003
2,779
815
702,810
617,911
1,245
329,722
2,349
990,999
3,594
1,320,724
863
378
1,241
186,032
119,130
1,894
518
523,729
574,522
2,757
896
709,761
723,652
335,162
2,412
1,098,251
1,483,413
Of the total shipping in 1888, 2,386 of 377,390 tons; in 1889, 2,255 of
354,213 tons; in 1890, 2,216 of 351,059 tons; in 1891, 2,227 of 362,114
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
561
belonged to Prussian ports. The total number of sailors in the merchant
navy in 1891 was 40,449.
The size of the various ships in 1891 was as follows :—
Under 100
Tons
100-600
Tons
500-1,000
Tons
1.000-2,000
Tons
204
203
2,000 Tons
and over
Sailing vessels
Steamers
1,585
175
750
225
206
214
12
79
Of the sailing vessels 331 were totally of iron or steel ; of the steamers
882 were of iron or steel.
The following table shows the shipping at all Gennan ports : —
With Cargoes
In Ballast
Total
Number
Tonnage
10,713,470
8,723,212
Number Tonnage
10,361 1.--
15,987 3,299,407
Number ' Tonnage
1888 : —
Entered .
Cleared .
52,121
46,618
62,482
62,006
11,940,980
12,022,619
1889 :—
Entered .
Cleared .
57,161
48,740
11,822,040
8,843,750
10,296 1,083,405
18,651 4,119,752
67,457
67,391
12,905,445
12,963,502
1890 :—
Entered .
Cleared .
56,653
48,219
12,210,950
9,277,525
10,368 ' 1,109,702
18,719 1 4,071,811
67,021
66,938
13,320,652
13,349,336
The number and tonnage of foreign shipping of the German Empire
entered and eleared as compared with national shipping were as follows
in 1890 :—
Foreign ships
Entered
Cleared
With Cargoes
In Ballast
With Cargoes
In Ballast
No.
Tonnage
N .
Tonnage
N .
Tonnage
N
Tonnage '■
British
Danish
, Swedish
Dutch
Norwegian .
Russian
Total, includ-
ing other
foreign
Gennan ships
4,883
4,926
2,911
1,285
1,060
508
3,583 399
709,718
589.546
194,527
393,835
136,572
296
1,293
1S2
183
92
a
272,849
106,073
38,119
17,008
6,403
3,099
3,668
1,592
995
747
234
2,060,846
633,836
391,315
180,140
275,870
70,862
|;0tt
2,570
1,500
433
420
284
1,777,830
188,193
236,387
31,351
155,606
70.704
15,855
38,979
5,809,325
6,206,555
2,078
7,963
4>. ••-•.•
M6,MN
10,571
35,941
3,780,707
•
7,335
11,071
2,516,817
1,500,947
The shipping at the seven principal ports of Germany was as follows in
1890 :—
562
GERMAN EMPIRE
Hamburg :l —
Entered
Cleared
Stettin : —
Entered
Cleared
Bremen : 2 —
Entered
Cleared
Kiel :—
Entered
Cleared
Liibeck : 3 —
Entered
Cleared
Neufahrwasser
(Dantzig) : —
Entered
Cleared
Kbnigsberg : —
Entered
Cleared
With Cargoes
Number Tonnage
8,114
6,928
3,939
3,038
2,327
1,910
4,478
2,066
2,340
1,770
1,477
1,807
1,174
1,455
Including Cuxhaven.
4,928,148
3,928,460
1,264,388
973,879
1,304,607
1,138,421
558,741
295,325
487,885
370,586
438,817
507,218
304,993
390,248
In Ballast
Number Tonnage
723
2,075
102
895
202
625
120
2,509
83
652
486
145
245
56
331,768
1,388,847
38,094
341,674
51,406
311,214
15,100
272,078
25,488
146,315
140,772
67,058
79,988
18,313
Total
Number Tonnage
8,837
9,003
4,041
3,933
2,529
2,535
4,598
4,575
2,423
2,422
1,963
1,952
1,419
1,511
5,259,916
5,317,307
1,302,482
1,315,553
1,356,013
1,449,635
573,841
567,403
513,373
516,901
579,589
574,276
384,981
408,561
2 Including Bremerhaven and Vegesack.
3 Including Travemiinde.
The vessels engaged in the coasting trade and inland navigation (not in-
cluded in the above tables) on January 1, 1888, numbered 20,390, of which
19,989 had an aggregate burden of 2,100,705 tons.
Internal Communications.
I. Railways.
The great majority of the German railways are now owned by the Imperial
or State Governments. Out of 25,958 miles of railway completed and open
for traffic, only 3,613 miles belonged to private companies, and of these 617
were worked by Government. Narrow-gauge lines measured 542 miles
(Government lines 246 miles) in 1889-90.
The mileage and financial condition of German railways (including narrow-
gauge lines)
are shown as
follows, for the five years <
nding 1889-9(
):—
Years
Total Length,
in English
miles
Total Capital,
in 1,000 marks
Bxpenditurc
(1,000 marks)
Receipts
(1,000 marks)
Percentage
on Capital
of Surplus
4 42
4 66
517
5-30
5 50
1885-86
1886-87
1887-88
1888-89
1889-90
23,337
23,928
24,711
25,358
25,958
9,742,606
9,843,708
9,938,253
10,116,246
10,304,442
574,795
574,935
587,973
635,813
703,916
998,693
1,026,361
1,094,442
1,172,188
1,271,086
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
5G3
The total length in August 1891 was 27,000 miles.
Certain lines not open to public traffic, which in 1889-90 measured 1,475
miles, are not included in the above figures. In 1889-90 212,093,000 metric
tons of goods, including live cattle, were carried by German railways, and
paid 848,808,000 marks. The number of passengers conveyed in 1889-90 was
376,825,000, yielding 323,204,000 marks. In these numbers narrow-gauge
lines are not included.
II. Posts and Telegraphs.
The postal and telegraphic services in Bavaria and Wurttemberg are re-
tained in the hands of their respective Governments ; but all other parts of
the Empire are united to form an imperial postal district (Reichspostgebiet).
The following table shows the number of employes and offices of the post and
telegraph services for the year 1890 : —
-
Employes
No. of Post
Offices
:' Tele-
graph Offices
Reicbspostgebiet
Bavaria ....
Wurttemberg .
Total in Empire .
114,110
9,838
5,142
22,667
1,698
605
72,222
8,687
8,747
15,382
1,535
537
129,090
24,970
84,656
17,454 '
The amount of business transacted by the post-offices is illustrated by the
following statistics of articles transmitted by post, and the value of post-office
orders, in marks, for the year 1890 : —
-
Reichspostgebiet
Bavaria
Wurttemberg
Total
Letters
Post Cards
Printed matter .
Samples .
Journals .
994,331,670j 104,501,930
320,348,510; 19,916,400
394,564,300 27,216,260
22,992,930 2,167,020
679,938,445 97,282,280
34,883,690
11,194,750
16,141,340
648,890
41,171,325
1,073,717,290
351,459,660
437,921,908
25,808,840
818,392,050
Total, includ-
ing other de-
spatches
Money sent
(marks)
2,541,537,199 269,259,916
19,577,726,000 1,546,307,000
114,243,973 2;925,041,088
749,135,000 21,873,168,000
The financial condition of the united postal
1889-90 was as follows :—
and telegraphic services in
-
Reichspostgebiet j
Bavaria
■Wurttemberg
Empire
Receipts .
Expenditure .
Surplus
224,722.296
207,003,681 i
l
19,206,979
16,445,066
10,011,978
8,437,505
253,941,253
231,886,252
17,718,615 |
2,761,913
1,574,473
22,055,001
o o 2
564 GERMAN EMPIRE
The following are the telegraph statistics for the year 1890 : —
Telegraph
Lines, English
miles
Telegraph
Wires, English
miles
Inland
Telegrams, No.
Foreign
Telegrams
Reiehspostgehiet .
Bavaria
Wiirttemberg
Total in Empire
44,167
5,780
2,120
197,313
17,321
5,277
16,412,582
1,471,047
896,220
7,701,844
389,505
151,776
52,067
219,911
18,779,849
8,243,125
Money and Credit.
The following table shows the value (in thousands of marks) of the money
coined since the foundation of the present Empire : —
Year
Gold
Silver
Nickel
Copper
Total
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Total (since
1872) .
Withdrawn
Surplus
35,740-4
118,215-4
144,2887
202,379-2
99,349 2
4,848-6
3,005-6
4,156-0
744-0
1,001-0
4,300-8
3,115-5
2,595-5
231-8
337-3
293-0
452 6
372-8
40,820-8
122,559-3
153,038-5
206,691-3
102,317-5
2,530,138-2
2,610-0
465,263-6
13,0297
46,173-0
1-4
11,3702
01
3,052,945-3
15,641-2
2,527,521-5
452,233-9
46,171-6
11,3701
3,037,304-1
The amount of the above total removed from circulation through export,
melting, or loss cannot be estimated. Certain coins previously in circulation
are still legal tender, though they are gradually being withdrawn from circu-
lation. Their total value is estimated (1889) at between 410,000,000 and
500,000,000 marks (1881) in ' Vereinsthaler, ' coined in Austria before the end
of 1867.
The following table shows the financial position of the 16 note-issuing
banks (18 in 1886) {Notcnbanken), in thousands of marks at the end of eacS
year : —
Year
Liabilities
Assets
Capital
Reserve
Fund
Notes in
Circula-
tion
Total
including
other Lia-
bilities
Coin and
Bullion
Notes of
State and
other
Banks
Total
Hills including
Ullls other
Assets
1880
1887
1888
1889
1890
-us.:!:!-
862,988
262,932
260,325
231j325
41,925
41,046
42,862
43,930
43,076
1,215,498
1,808,002
1,288,325
1,361,845
1,294,817
1,904,917
1,986,086
1,982,035
2,105,913
1,983,683
753,602
840,220
938,079
SI 5, 137
840,726
62,462
49,115
47,043
52,686
64,751
814,231 1,914,268
834,067 1,945,710
705,273 I,<IS!I..M',1
878,344 2,120,009
819,041 2,006,479
DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES
' Reichskassenscheinc,' small paper notes for 5, 20 an<l 50 marks, were in
circulation at the en.l of March 1890 to (he value of 122,908,940 marks.
Owing to the establishment of a tax upon bank-notes issued in excess of a
certain proportion to the reserve fond, the number of note-issuing lanks is
only 13 (1889). At the end of 1889 the notes of these banks in circulation
represented a value of 1,293,036,400 marks.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures generally in use throughout the whole
of Germany, and their British equivalents, are : —
M"XBY.
The Mark, of 100 P/ennige, approximate value = 1a : 20 43 marks = £1.
The Thaler = 3 marks.
On July 9, 1873, a law for the uniformity of coinage throughout the
Empire, passed by the Reichstag, was published by the Imperial Government
Under this law the standard of value is gold. The same law ordered the
adoption of the mark as the general coin. There are gold 5-mark, 10-mark,
and 20-mark pieces, the first called halbe-krone, or half-crown, the second,
krone or crown, and the third, doppel-krone or double-crown.
Weights and Measures.
The metrical system of weights and measures came into force in Germany
on January 1, 1872. The names of the metrical weights and measures and the
British equivalents are : —
The Gram = 15 "43 grains troy.
,, Kilogram . = 2*205 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Tonne, 1,000 Kg. . . = 2,200 lbs. = 197 cwt.
,, Liter, Mass . . . = 1 76 imperial pint.
,, Meter, Stab . . = 3 28 feet or 39 37 inches.
,, Kilometer . = 1,094 yards (621 mile), or nearly 5 fur-
longs.
,, Hcktar . . = 247 acres.
,, Quadrat, or Square, Kilometer= 247 acres, or 2| sq. kil. to 1 sq. mile.
Diplomatic Representatives.
l. Ok Gkkmany in Ghat Britain.
Ambassador. — Count Paid Hatzfeldt-Wildenburg, accredited Nov. 23,
1885.
Secretary. — Count Wolff v. Metternich.
Military and Naval Attache'. — Korvetten-Kapitan Haseuclever.
Director of Chancery.— Wilhelm Adolph Schmettau.
56G
GERMAN EMPIRE: — FOREIGN DEPENDENCIES
Germany has also Consular representatives at the following among other
places in the British Empire : —
Hong Kong
Halifax (N.S.)
Kingston (Jamaica)
Madras
Melbourne
Montreal
Quebec
Rangoon
Singapore
Sydney
Wellington (N.Z.)
Aberdeen
Plymoiith
Belfast
Southampton
Bradford
Sunderland
Cardiff
Accra
Dublin
Adelaide
Dundee
Auckland
Glasgow
Bombay
Hull
Brisbane
Leith
Calcutta
Liverpool
Cape Town
Manchester
Ceylon
Newcastle
D'Urban
Peterhead
Gibraltar
2. Of Great Britain in Germany.
Ambassador. — Sir Edward Baldwin Malct, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., Secretary
of Legation at Pekin, 1871-73 ; Athens, 1873-75 ; Rome, 1875-78 ; Constan-
tinople, 1878-79 ; Agent and Consul-General in Egypt, 1879-83 ; appointed
Minister Plenipotentiary in the Diplomatic Service, October 10, 1879 ; Envoy
and Minister to Belgium, August 29, 1883 ; appointed to Berlin, September
20, 1884.
Secretary. — Hon. P. Le Poer Trench.
Military Attache. — Col. Sir Frank S. Russell.
Naval Attache. — Captain William H. May, R.N.
Commercial Attache. — Sir J. A. Crowe, K.C.M.G., C.B.
Consul -General. — Herr G. von Bleichroder.
There are also Consular representatives of the United Kingdom at the
following places : —
Dusseldorf
Frankfort-on-Main (C.G.)
Hamburg (C.G.)
Bremen
Bremerhaven
Kiel .
Leipsic (C.G.)
Lubeck
Breslau
Danzig
Wiamar
Stettin
Mannheim
Husum
Swint'inuiule
Foreign Dependencies.
In 1884 Germany began to extend her empire beyond the bounds of Europe.
Of colonies in the proper sense of the term she has none ; but she has de-
clared her protection over various areas or spheres of influence in Africa and
in the Western Pacific, within which a few factories and trading posts, and
in some cases some plantations, have been established by Germans and other
Europeans. The following is a list of the various foreign regions at present
(December 1891) under the protection or influence of Germany, the estimates
given being necessarily vague : —
TOGOLAND
567
DaU-"f Method of
Acquisition Government
Estimated Estimated
Area Population
In Africa : —
Togoland . . 1884
Cameroons . . | 1884
German Booth- W< -•
Africa . 1884-90
Genitan East Africa . 1885-90
TotalAfric&nPossessions 1SS4-90
/» the Pacific .—
Kais< r Wilhelm's Land 1885-86
Bismarck Archipelago i 1885
Solomon Islands. 1886
Marshall Islands . j 1886
Total Pacific Possessions 1884-86
Imperial Commissioner
Imperial Governor
Imperial Coma
East Africa Ompany
and Commissi >n.r
1 liii|x'rial Commis- 1
l sioners. . . 1
Imperial Conunissioiier.
16,000
130,000
342,000
345,000
500,000
2,600,000
250,000
1,760,000
833,000
5,110,000
72,000
19,000
P.. MM.
150
110,000
190,000
90,000
10,000
100,150
390,000
Total Foreign Depen-
dencies
1884-90
933,150
5,500,000
The Colonial Budget for the three West African dependencies alone for
1891-92 showed an expenditure of 2,131,100 marks, and an income of 504,550
marks.
Togoland.
Togoland, with Little Popo and Porto Seguro, situated on the Slave Coast,
in Upper Guinea, has an estimated area of 16,000 square miles, and an
estimated population of 500,000 It extends from long. O^O'E. to long.
1" 41' E., and from the Atlantic coast to about lat. 71 20' X., though the
boundary towards the interior is by no means definitely fixed. Declared a
German protectorate in 1884, it is placed under an imperial commissioner,
assisted by a secretary, an inspector of customs, and a local council of repre-
sentatives of the merchants. Little Popo is regarded as the capital ; Lome
is the chief port, aud Porto Seguro and Bagida are also on the coast. Togo,
the principal native town, which has given name to the region, is situated on
Lake Togo, and is said to have 3,000 inhabitants. Maize, yams, tapioca,
ginger, and bananas are cultivated to some extent by the natives, most of
whom are Ewe negroes ; and cocoa, oil-palms, caoutchouc, and dye-woods
grow in the forests ; but the country is still entirely unexploited, and the only
commerce is the barter trade for palm-oil and ivory, carried on by a few fac-
tories on the coast. On August 1, 1887, an import tax was imposed upon
European goods. An armed police force of thirty negroes has been organised.
The imports in 1889-90 were of the value of 1,630,000 marks. The chief
articles imported were cottons, spirits, tobacco, salt, gunpowder. In 1890,
131 vessels of 136,615 tons (58 of 69,262 tons German, and 42 of 47,890 tons
British) entered the port of Little Popo.
568 GERMAN EMPIRE: — SOUTH-WEST AFRICA
Cameroons.
The Cameroon region, with a coast line of 120 miles on the Bight of Biafra,
hetween the Campo River and the Rio del Rey, is hounded on the north-east
by a treaty-line running north-east to the east of Yola on the Upper Benue,
and on the south by a line running inland due east from the mouth of the
Campo River to about the meridian of long. 15° E., which may be regarded
as the eastern or inland limit of tbe protectorate. The area is estimated at
130,000 square miles ; the population at 2,600,000. In August 1890 there
were 105 whites, of whom 65 German, 23 English. It became a German
protectorate in 1884, and is placed under an imperial governor, assisted by a
chancellor, two secretaries, and a local council of three representative mer-
chants. The country is fertile, and numerous valuable African vegetable
productions grow in profusion. Plantations of cacao and tobacco have
been formed by the Deutsche Plantagen-Gesellschaft (1886), and numerous
factories carry on an active trade in ivory and palm-oil. On January 1, 1888,
an import duty was imposed on European goods, and from this the revenue
is mainly derived. The revenue in 1888 was 222,359 marks ; in 1889,
232,781 marks; in 1890, 289,007 marks. The chief town is Cameroons,
and in the south Batanga. Bimbia and Bakundu-town are other important
trading stations, and Aqua-town and Bell-town are the principal native settle-
ments. In 1890, 43 German vessels of 40,268 tons and 40 British vessels of
51,855 tons entered the ports of Cameroons.
The whole value of the trade of German West Africa (including Togoland
and German South-West Africa) with Germany in 1890 was : exports to
Germany 5,189,000 marks ; imports from Germany 3,243,000 marks.
German South-West Africa.
This region extends along the coast for about 930 miles, exclusive of
Walfisch Bay, which is British. The Orange River forms the .south
boundary to long. 20° E. ; the east boundary goes north along the 20" till
it meets the 22nd parallel of S. lat. ; it then turns east till it meets long. 21°
E., which it follows north to the 18th parallel ; it then goes east to the Chohe
River, which it follows to the Zambesi. The northern boundary is formed by
the Cunene River as far as the Humbe cataracts ; then east to the Cubango
and the Katima rapids of the Zambesi. The total area is estimated at 342,000
Square miles and the population' at 250,000. The whole southern part ami
much of the east is barren and desert. Tho coast lands are under the
jurisdiction of the 'Deutsche Kolonial Gesellschaft fur Sudwest Africa,'
which has given the special names of Deutseh-Namaland to the southern part
of its territories, and Deutsch-Damaraland to the northern. The two chief
harbours in German possession are Sandwich Harbour and Angra Pequena, or
Liideritz Bay. Damaraland is well adapted for cattle-rearing. Copper has
been found, though the expense of working it has hitherto rendered the
discoveiy almost useless. Rumours of the discovery of gold at darted
numerous immigrants, and feraoee of oilier minerals have been dbserveoL
But the mineral, agricultural, and commercial development of this region lies
still in the future. An imperial commissioner exercises a nominal authority
in the protectorate.
German East Africa.
The German sphere of influence in E£as1 Africa, with an estimated area oi
345,000 square miles, and an estimated population of 1,760,000, is bounded
on the north by a treaty line, defined in 1886 and 1890, running north-west
WKSTKRN I'.U'IFK 169
from the Um1>e River, bv the north of Kilinia-Njaro, to the east shore of the
Victoria Xvanza, and to the W. of this lake, following the parallel of 1° S.
lat.. to the'txmndarv of tin- 1 -.re, making a loop, however, so as to
pass S. of Mount Mfumhiro. On the West it is Injunded by Lake Tan-
ganyika, au<l on the S. bv a line (defined 1890) joining the S. end of that
Take with the N. end of Lake Xyassa and ninning to the X. of the
Stevenson Road, and by the Rovnma River. The narrow strip of territory
on the coast was leased by the Sidtan of Zanzibar to the Germans for fifty
years, from April 1888, with its harbours and customs, but the Sultan's rights
were acquired bv Germany in 1890 for a payment of 4,000,000 marks. Most
of the interior of this vast region is quite unexploited « Arab dealers
in slaves and ivory. The German East Africa Company, founded in 1885,
had established fifteen stations, but most of them were ruined and abandoned
on the outbreak of the natives in 1889 ; peace being restored in 1890, com-
mercial enterprise has again begun, the German Government granting subsidies
for railways and steamers, and in other ways supporting the operations of
the eoiiipanv. The German Empire is represented in this region by an
Imiierial Commissioner. The chief seajiorts are Dar-es-Salaam, Bagamoyo,
Saadani, Pangani, Kiloa, Lindi, Mikindani, and Tanga. The total value of
the trade of German East Africa (exports and imports) in the year August 18,
1888, to August 17, 1889, was 5,000,000 rupees, of which 2,847,100 rupees
stood for exports. The most important exports are ivory, 1,197,251 rupees ;
copal gum, 364,289 rupees : caoutchouc, 306,805 rupees ; sesame seed, 250,679
rupees. The exports from Bagamoyo amounted to 856 394 rupees. For the
half-year August 1889 to February 1890 the total trade amounted to 4,000,000
marks, over one-half exports. In 1890 the value of the exports to Germany
was 489,000 marks, and imports from Germany 320,000 marks.
Karagwe, one of the large Central African States formed after the dissolu-
tion of the former Empire of Kitwara, lies mainly within the German Sphere
of Influence as delimited northwards by the Anglo-German Agreement of July
1, 1890. Near the capital the Arabs have founded the trading station of
Kufro (Kafuro), where they take ivory, coffee, and other produce in exchange
for salt, textiles, and European wares.
In the Western Pacific.
1. Kaiser Wilhelm's Land.
Kaiser 'Wilhelui's Land, the northern section of south-east New Guinea,
was declared a German protectorate in 1884. Including Long Island, Dam-
pier Island, and some other small islands, it has an estimated area of 72,000
square miles, and a population of about 110,000. Its development has been
entrusted to the German New Guinea Company, which has extended its
operations also to other German possessions in this ocean. The chief execu-
tive official is the Imperial Commissioner, under whom are several magistrates,
and sago palms, bamboos, ebony, and other woods are among the
natural riches of the protectorate. Tobacco has hitherto been the most suc-
cessful cultivated crop. Horses, cattle, and goats flourish on the island,
which seems less adapted for sheep. Three steamers and several sailing ships
are engaged in the trade of the Xew Guinea Company. The chief harltoui*
are Finschhafen, Konstantinhafeu, and Hatzfeldhafen. In 1889 these three
ports were entered by 60 vessels of 17,193 tons, nearly all German.
570 GERMAN EMPIRE: — ALSACE-LORRAINE
2. Bismarck Archipelago.
In November 1884 a German Protectorate was declared over the New
Britain Archipelago and several adjacent groups of islands, which were then
renamed together the Bismarck Archipelago. The aggregate area is estimated
at 19,000 square miles, and the population at 190,000. The chief islands of
this archipelago are Neu Pommern (formerly New Britain), Nen Meck-
lenburg (New Ireland), Neu Lauenbuig (Duke of York Islands), and Vischer,
Gerrit Denys, Admiralty, Anchorite, Commerson, Hermit, and other islands.
The New Guinea Company has a trading station at Mioko in New Lauenburg.
The chief exports are copra and cocoa-nut fibre. In 1889 the ports of the
archipelago were entered by 59 vessels of 11,161 tons, nearly all German.
3. Solomon Islands.
Germany owns the more northerly part of this group, including the
islands of Bougainville, Choiseul, Isabel or Mahaga, and various smaller
islands. .The aggregate area under the German flag is estimated at 9,000
square miles, and the population at 80,000. Sandal wood and tortoiseshell
are the chief commercial products. The islands are placed under the officials
of Kaiser Wilhelm's Land.
4. Marshall Islands.
The Marshall Islands, consisting of two chains or rows of lagoon islands,
known respectively as Ratack (with thirteen islands) and Ralick (with eleven
islands), have belonged to Germany since 1885. The aggregate area is
estimated at 150 square miles, and the population at 10,000. The chief island
and seat of the German imperial commissioner is Jaluit. Copra is the chief
article of trade. In 1890, 91 vessels of 11,437 tons entered the port of
Jaluit.
STATES OF GERMANY.
ALSACE-LORRAINE.
(Reichsland Elsass-Lothringen.)
Constitution.
The fundamental laws under which the Reichsland, or Impi rial Land,
of Alsace-Lorraine is governed were voted by the German Reichstag June 9,
1871, June 20, 1872, June 25, 1873, May 2, 1877, July 4, 1879, and
September 28, 1885. By the law of June 9, 1871, it is enacted, 'The pro-
vinces of Alsace ami Lorraine, ceded by France in the peace preliminaries
6f February 26, 1871, under limits definitely fixed in the Treaty of Peace
of May 10, 1871, shall be for ever united with the German Empire.1 The
Constitution of the German Empire was introduced in Alsace-Lorraine on
January 1, 1874.
The administration of Alsace-Lorraine is under a Governor-General,
bearing the title of ' Statthalter. '
StaUhtilter of Alsace- Lorraine. — Prince Hohenlolie-Schilliwjsfilrst, born
March 31, 1819 ; Doctor in Law ; Ambassador from the German Empire to
the French Republic, 1874-85. Appointed Governor of Alsace-Lorraine
July 22, 1885 ; assumed office November 1885.
ALSACE-LORRAINE
►71
According to the constitutional law of July 4, 1879, the Emperor appoints
the Statthalter, who exercises power as the representative of the Imperial
Government, having his residence at Strassburg. A Ministry composed
of three departments, with a responsible Secretary of State at its head, acts
under the Statthalter, who also is assisted by a Council of State, comprising
31 itthalter as President, the Secretary of State at the head of the
Ministry, the chief provincial officials, ami eight to twelve other members
appointed by the Emperor, of whom three are presented by the Landesausschuss,
or Provincial Coniniittee. Thi- Committee, which attends to local legislation,
consists of 58 members.
Area and Population.
The Reichslaud has an area of 14,509 scpiare kilometers or 5,600 English
square miles. It is administratively divided into three Bezirke, or districts,
called Ober-Elsass, Unter-Elsass, and Lothringen, the first of which is sub-
divided into six, and the other two each into eight Kreise, or circles. The
following table shows the area, ]K>pulation, and the inhabitants per square
mile of each of the districts and of the whole : —
Districts
Area, English
s.|'>i;i]i llli'.s
Population
Density jt-r
sq. mile
1890
lSivi
1890
Ober-Elsass
Unter-Elsass
Lothringen
Total .
1,370
1,866
2,431
462.
612,077
489,729
471,609
621,505
510,392
344 2
333 1
2100
5,668
1,564,355
1,603,506
The annual increase of population from 1875 to 1880 amounted to 045
per cent., while from 1880 to 1885 there was a yearly decrease of 0 03 per
cent., and from 1885 to 1890 of 0'5 per cent. Of the population in 1890,
805,986 were males and 797,520 (or 98 9 per 100 males) were females.
According to an official estimate (1890), 210,000 are of French origin
(Sprachstamme), and 1,393,000 of German origin. Foreigners numbered
46,463 in 1890, a larger number in proportion to population than any of
the other States of the Empire. The garrison consisted of 67,354 men.
In 1890, 431 per cent, of the population resided in towns of 2,000 in-
habitants and upwards ; 56*9 per cent, in rural communes. The three
largest towns are Strassburg (123,500 inhabitants in 1890), the capital of
Alsace-Lorraine ; Miilhausen (76,892 inhabitants), in Ober-Elsass : and Hetz
(60,186 inhabitants), in Lothringen. Marriages, 1890, 10,718 ; births, 47,811 ;
deaths, 39,146 ; surplus of births, 8,665. Of the births, 1,607 (34 per cent.)
were still-born, and 3,846 (8 0 per cent.) were illegitimate. The emigration
via German and Dutch ports to extra-European countries was as follows
in 1 SS3-90 :—
1883
1884
1885
IflH
1887
1888
1889
1890
872
:
750
738
602
883
937
934
923
572 GERMAN EMPIRE: — ANHALT
Religion, Instruction, Justice and Crime, Poor-relief.
At the census of December 1, 1885, there were in the Reichsland
1,210,297 Roman Catholics, 312,941 Protestants, 3,799 members of other
Christian sects, 36,876 Jews ; other religions, 6, and 436 unclassified. (See
also German Empire, pp. 538-42. )
In 1891 the Reichsland contained a university (at Strassburg, see German
Empire, p. 541), 17 Gymnasia, 5 Progymnasia, 8 Realschulen, 2 high schools,
1 Gewerbeschule, 9 normal schools, 21 state high schools for girls, and several
other higher educational institutions.
Alsace-Lorraine has an Oberlandesgericht at Colmar, and six Land-
gerichte. In 1888, 11,047 persons, i.e. 100'3 per 10,000 inhabitants above
the age of 12 years, were convicted of crime. In 1885, 39,047 persons, with
34,442 dependents (in all 4 '7 per cent, of the population), received public
poor-relief.
Finance.
The budget estimates of public revenue of Alsace-Lorraine in the year
ending March 31, 1892, amounted to 49,898,732 marks, and the estimates of
expenditure to 47,122,650 marks. There was also an extraordinary revenue
of 92,000 marks, and an expenditure of 2,868,082 marks. More than half
of the total revenue is derived from customs and indirect taxes, while one of
the largest branches of expenditure is for public instruction.
Alsace-Lorraine has a debt consisting of 3 per cent, rentes in circulation
to the amount of 773,982 marks, equivalent, if capitalised, to a debt of
25,799,400 marks.
ProductioD and Industry.
On June 5, 1882, the number of separate farms was as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
1-10 Hectares
10-100 Hectares
Above 100 Hectares
Total
98,310
122,488
12,674
394
233,866
These farms supported a population of 627,800, of whom 302,593 were
actively engaged in agriculture. Alsace-Lorraine yields the usual cereals,
and it is also a great wine-producing country. Of the 1,698 communes,
1,042 have vineyards. In 1889-90, 1,744 hectares were planted with
tobacco, and yielded 4, 566 metric tons of dried tobacco.
The cotton manufacture in Alsace-Lorraine is the most important in
Germany ; woollens are produced on a smaller scale. In 1890 minerals to the
value of 15,595,241 marks (exceeded only in Prussia and Saxony) were
raised in the Reichsland.
There were 824 miles of railway in Alsace-Lorraine in 1891, of which
813 belonged to the State.
ANHALT.
(Herzogthum Anhalt.)
Reigning Duke.
Friedrich, born April 29, 1831, the son of Duke Leopold <>t Aulmlt
and of PrinceM Friederike of Prussia. Boeoodded to the throne at the
death of his father, May 22, 1871 ; married, April 22, 1854, to Priueew
Antoinette 6t Saae-Altenoorg, bora April 17, 1838. Children of tlie l>ukc .- —
I. Prince Friedrich, bom August 19, 1856 ; married, July 2, 1889, to
ANHALT
573
Princess Mary of Baden, born July 26, 1865. II. Princess Elisabeth, born
September 7, 1857 ; married, April 17, 1877, to the Hereditary Grand-duke
of Mtvklenburg-Strelitz. III. Prince Edward, born April 18, 1861. IV.
Prince Aribert, bora June 8, 1864 ; married, July 6, 1891, to Princess Louise of
Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Augustenburg, born August 12. 1878. V.
Princess Alexandra, born April 4, 1868. Grandchild of the Luke : — Princess
ictte, born March 3, 1885, daughter of the late Prince Leopuld, the Duke's
eldest sou, and Elizabeth, daughter of the Landgrave of Hesse.
The Dukes of Anhalt trace their origin to Bernhard, son of the celebrated
Albert the Bear, Margrave of Brandenburg, who died in 1211. The family,
in the course of time, split into numerous branches, now reduced to the
present line. At the establishment of the Germanic Confederation, in 1815,
there were three reigning Dukes of Anhalt — namely, of Anhalt-Cothen,
Anhalt-Bernburg, and Anhalt-Dessau. The first of these lines became
extinct in 1847, and the second on August 19, 1863, leaving the former
house of Anhalt-Dessau the sole heir of the family territory. In 1806 the
Princes of Anhalt took the title of Dukes, on joining the Confederation of
the Rhine. The Duke of Anhalt separated his property from that of the
State by decree of June 28, 1869. The entailed property belonging to the
ducal family is the sole resource of the Duke. Part of it, called ' the select
entail,' yielding about 600,000 marks, cannot be sold by the Duke without
the approbation of the Diet. To the entailed property belong very large pri-
vate estates in Prussia and Hungary, embracing an area of 280 square miles.
Constitution.
The Duchy has a Constitution, proclaimed September 17, 1859, and
modified by decrees of September 17, 1863, and February 13, 1872, which
give legislative power to a Diet composed of 36 members, of whom two are
appointed by the Duke, eight are representatives of landowners who pay
the highest taxes, two of the highest taxed inhabitants belonging to the
mercantile and industrial classes, fourteen of the other inhabitants of
towns, and ten of the rural districts. The executive power is entirely in the
hands of the Duke, who governs through a Minister of State.
Area and Population.
The Duchy comprises an area of 906 English square miles, with a popu-
lation of 271,956 at the census of December 1890. In 1880 the population was
232,592, and in 1885 it was 248,166. From 1880 to 1885 the increase was at
the rate of 134 per cent, per annum, and from 1885 to 1890 at the rate of
1 92 per cent, per annum. Of the population in 1890, 134,052 were males,
and 137,904 (or 102*9 per 100 males) were females. Marriages (1890) 2,364 ;
births, 9,980 ; deaths, 5,981 ; surplus of births, 3,999. Among the births are
306 (3 07 per cent.) still-born, and 850 (8 "52 per cent.) illegitimate.
The following are the emigration statistics : —
1S83 1884
1885
1886
1887
18SS
1889 1890
270 187
113
82
92
101
67 96
The capital, Dessau, had 34,658 inhabitants in 1890. Nearly the whole of
the inhabitants belong to the Reformed Protestant Church, there being (1885)
5,492 Catholics and 1,601 Jews.
574 GERMAN EMPIRE: — BADEN
The number of separate farms in 1882 was as follows : —
1 Under 1 Hectare
1-10 Hectares
10-100 Hectares Over 100 Hectares
Total
19,489
7,817
2,320 174
29,800
These farms supported a population of 75,937, of whom 32,932 were
actively engaged in agriculture.
There were 153 miles of railway in June 1890.
Finance.
The budget estimates for the financial year 1891-92 stated the income of
the State at 11,082,000 marks, of which 6,721,174 marks are derived
from State property, and the rest chiefly from indirect taxes. The amount of
the direct taxes is about 528,000 marks. The expenditure of the State is
11,082,000 marks. The income for the German Empire is 6,771,000 marks,
the expenditure the same. The public debt amounted, on June 30, 1890, to
2,683,187 marks, largely covered by productive investments.
British Minister Plenipotentiary. — Sir Edward Malet, G.C.B.,G.C.M.G.
BADEN.
(Grossherzogthum Baden.)
Reigning Grand-duke.
Friedrich I., born September 9, 1826, second son of Grand-duke
Leopold I. and of Princess Sophie of Sweden. Regent, April 24, 1852 ;
ascended the throne of Baden at the death of his father, September 5, 1856.
Married, September 20, 1856, to Grand-duchess Luise, born December 3, 1838,
the daughter of King Wilhelm I. of Prussia. Offspring: — I. Friedrich
Wilhelm, born July 9, 1857 ; married, September 20, 1885, to Hilda, daughter
of the Duke of Nassau. II. Victoria, born August 7, 1862 ; married,
September 20, 1881, to Crown Prince Gustaf of Sweden.
Brothers and Sisters of the Grand-dukc.
I. Princess Alexandrine, born December 6, 1820 ; married, May 3, 1842,
to Duke Ernst of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. II. Prince Wilhelm, born December
18, 1829 ; married, February 11, 1863, to Princess Maria Romano vska, born
October 16, 1841, daughter of the late .Duke Maximilian of Leuchtenberg.
Offspring of the union are two children : — I. Princess Marie, born July 26,
1865 ; married, July 2, 1889, to Friedrich, Hereditary Prince of Anhalt.
II. Prince Maximilian, born July 10, 1867. III. Prince Karl, born March 9,
1832 ; married, May 17, 1871, to Rosalie von Beust, elevated Countess von
Rhena, born June 10, 1845. IV. Princess Marie, ,born Nov. 20, 1834 ;
married, Sept. 11, 1858, to Prince Ernst of Leiningoii.
The Grand-dukes of Baden are descendants of the Dukes of Zaehriugen,
who flourished in the 11th and 12th centuries. Till the end of last century,
Baden was a Margraviate divided into two or more lines ; since then it has been
united, and in the changes which preceded and followed the dissolution of the
Empire its territory received various additions, and its ruler took the title of
Elector in 1803, and of Grand-duke in 1806. Baden was a member of the
Confederation of the Rhine, and, from 1815 to 1866, of the German
Confederation. In 1866 Baden sided with Austria, but soon made peace with
BADEN
Prussia. The predecessors of the present Grand-duke during the last tvro
centimes are as follows : —
Karl Wilhelm . 1679-1738 I Karl . 1811-1818 1 Leopold I. . 183^
Friedrich Karl . 1738-1811 | Ludwig 1818-1830 | Leopold II. 1852-1856
The Grand-duke is in the receipt of a civil list of 1,897,698 marks, whi> h
includes the allowances made to the princes and princesses.
Constitution.
The Constitution of Baden rests the executive power in the Grand-duke,
ami the legislative authority in a House of Parliament composed of two
Chambers. The Upper Chamber comprises the princes of the reigning line
who are of age ; the heads of the mediatised families ; eight members t
by the nobility ; the Roman Catholic Archbishop of Freiburg ; the head
(Pralat) of the Protestant Church ; two deputies of Universities ; and eight
members nominated by the Grand-duke, without regard to rank or birth.
The Second Chamber is composed of 63 representatives of the people, 22
of whom are elected by towns, and 41 by rural districts. Ever}- citizen not
convicted of crime, nor receiving parish relief, has a vote in the elections.
The elections are indirect : the citizens nominating the Wahlmanner, or
deputy-electors, and the latter the representatives. The members of the
Second Chamber are elected for four years, one-half of the number retiring at
the end of every two years. The Chambers must be called together at least
once every two years.
The executive is composed of four departments — the ' Staats Ministerium '
(Ministry of State), and the Ministries of the Interior, Finance, and of
Justice, Worship, and Education. The ministers are individually and
collectively responsible for their actions.
For general administrative purposes the Grand-duchy is divided into 52
' Amtsbezirke,' superintended by four general commissioners (Landes-
Kommissare). For purposes of local government it contains 11 circles (Kreise),
and 1,579 communes (Gemeinden).
Area and Population.
The following table shows the area and population of the whole, and of
the four commissioners' districts : —
Area:
Square miles
Population
Pop. per
square mile 1890
1885
1S90
Konstanz
Freiburg
Karlsruhe
Mannheim .
Total .
1,609
1,830
993
1,389
281,036
460,384
421,784
438,051
281,637
469,136
444,834
461,210
175 0
256 3
447 9
332 0
5,821
1,601,255
1,656,817
284-6
Adding the Baden part of the Lake of Constance, the total area is 5,962
square miles.
In four years from 1871 to 1875 the population increased from 1,461,562 to
1,507,179, or at the rate of 077 per cent, per annum ; in the five years from
1875-80 it was 0 84 per cent, per annum ; and between 1880 and 1885 at the
rate of 0 39 per cent, per annum. Of the population in 1890, 42*57 per cent.
576
GERMAN EMPIRE: — BADEN
lived in communes with 2,000 inhabitants and upwards, 57 "43 in smaller
communes ; 810,318 were males, and 846,499 females — i.e. 104'4 females per
100 males.
There were ten towns with a population of over 10,000 at the census
of 1890 :—
Mannheim . 79,044 Pforzheim . 29,987 Baden . 13,889
Karlsruhe . 73,496 Heidelberg . 31,737 Bruchsal 11,902
Freiburg . 48,788 Konstanz . 16,233 Rastatt . 11,570
Lahr . 10,809
The number of marriages in Baden in 1890 was 11,970, births, 53,152,
deaths, 39,651, excess of births over deaths, 13,501. Included in the births
were 1,446, or 272 per cent., still-born, and 4,399, or 8"09 per cent., illegiti-
mate children.
Emigration from Baden to extra-European countries is estimated as
follows :—
1884 .
1885
1886
1S87
1888
1889 1890
7,500
5,000
4,500
5,400
6,000
6,000
5,500
Religion and Education.
Two-thirds of the population are Catholic, one-third Protestant. At the
census of 1890 there were 1,028,472 Catholics, 597,157 Protestants, 4,520 of
other Christian sects, and 26,668 Jews.
The Grand-duke is Protestant, and head of the Protestant Church, which
is governed by a synod (with 57 members), and whose affairs are administered
by a board (Oberkirchenrath). The Roman Catholic Church has an Arch-
bishop (at Freiburg). The Protestant Church has 365 parishes, the Roman
Catholic Church 772 ; the former are divided among 24 deaneries, the latter
among 35. The State maintains the Archbishop and his chapter (89,858
marks), and contributes 400,000 marks to the income of the Catholic clergy,
500,000 to those of the Protestant clergy. There are a certain number of
' Old Catholic ' parishes, to which the State contributes 24,000 marks. The
Jews have 11 rabbinates, and receive for their worship 16,800 marks from the
State.
Education is general and compulsory. Every commune has an elementary
school, supported by the commune and administered by local authorities under
the inspection of the Government. The following table shows the public
schools in Baden for 1889-90 :—
-
Number
Teachers
Students id
Pupils
Universities
2
191
2,449
Gymnasia and Progymnasia
16
313
4,769
Realgymnasia and Realschulen .
9
197
3,674
Other middle schools (hohere Biirger-
schulen)
30
330
4,628
Elementary schools ....
1,616
5,408
318,235
Technical academy ....
1
68
496
Technical, agricultural, and. other
special schools ....
134
464
11,458 .
FINANCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
• >, ,
Besides 28 private middle schools, with 234 teachers and 3,138 pupils, and
4 private common schools, with 8 teachers and 490 pupils.
Finance.
The Budget is voted for a period of two years. The estimate of the
revenue for the year 1890 amounts to 50,145,456 marks, besides the share in
an extraordinary revenue of 1,803,308 marks (for 1890 and 1891); while
the expenditure is estimated at 49,150,612 with the addition of the share
in 9,118,000 marks (for 1890 and 1891). The sources of revenue and branches
of expenditure were estimated for 1891 as follows : —
land)
Revenue
Direct taxes .
Indirect taxes
Domains (Crown
and saltworks
Justice and Police .
Railways (net)
Ministry of Justice.
,, ,, Interior
,, ,, Finance
Share in Customs of the
German Empire .
Total revenue
Marks
12,251,000
8,790,000
7,894,000
3,970,000
14,905,000
1,669,000
2,996,000
3,285,000
10,192,000
65,952,000
Expenditure
{ interest
General debt J and
Railway debt | amorti-
{. sation
Civil list and appanages
Ministry of State
,, ,, Justice, Wor-
ship, and Education .
Ministry of Interior
„ ,, Finance
Charges of collection of
revenue
Pensions
Contribution to German
Empire
Various
Total expenditure .
M*rkj
17,655,000
1,898,000
283,000
11,052,000
!,000
3,672,000
8,577,000
2,666,000
9,673,000
93,000
68,120,000
It was intended to spend a sum of 7,740,000 marks, to be furnished by
loan, on railway construction in 1891.
The direct taxes are a land tax, house tax, trade tax, rent tax, and
income tax ; the indirect taxes are chiefly excise on wine, beer, and meat,
registry, duties on succession.
The public debt consists of the general debt and the railway debt. The
former has been paid up to a trifling amount. The railwav debt at the
beginning of 1891 amounted to 328,733,363 marks.
Production and Industry.
About 56 per cent, of the area is under cultivation, 36 per cent, forests,
8 per cent, uncultivated (houses, roads, water, kc). Arable land occupies
568,000 hectares, vineyards 20,890, meadows 200,300, pastures 36,080, and
forests 547,327 hectares (of which 96,178 belong to the State, 250,985 to the
communities, 18,692 to other bodies, and 181,472 to private persons).
On June 5, 1882, the total number of agricultural tenements, each
cultivated by one household, was as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
80,153
Between 1 and 10
Hectares
139,179
Between 10 and
100 Hectares
12,872
Above 100
Hectares
83
Total
282,287
578 GERMAN EMPIRE: — BAVARIA
These farms supported 752,489 persons, of whom 328,091 were actually
engaged in agriculture. The chief crops, with the number of hectares under
each, in 1890-91, were : —
Crops
Hectares
Crops
Hectares
Wheat . . . 41,800
Rye . . . | 44,200
Pulse . '. . 66,500
Barley
Oats ...
Potatoes .
59,180
64,500
86,500
In the same year 200,300 hectares were under hay crops, and 7,880 hectares
under tobacco ; turnips, hemp, hops, and chicory are also grown. The
mineral produce consists almost solely of salt and building-stone.
The principal manufactures are silk ribbons, felt and straw hats, brushes,
leather, paper and cardboard, clocks, musical instruments, machinery,
chemicals, and cigars.
Communications.
Mannheim is situated at the head of regular navigation on the Rhine, and
has a large river port ; 1890, arrival 2,035,440 tons, departure 426,410 tons.
At the end of 1890 the total length of railways was 907 miles, of which 836
miles belonged to the State, besides 108 miles of railway on neighbouring
territories. The receipts of the whole of the State railways in the year 1891
were estimated at 52,605,130 marks, and the disbursements at 37,808,830,
leaving a surplus of 14,796,300 marks. This surplus serves specially to cover
the interest and sinking fund of the railway debt. The total amount invested
in railways up to the end of 1889 was 441,600,871 marks.
British Charge d' Affaires.— Hon. W. Nassau Jocelyn, C.B.
Consul-General. — Charles Oppenheimer (Frankfort-on-Maiu)
Vice-Consul. — Herr Ladenburg (Mannheim).
BAVARIA.
(KONIGBEICH BAYERN.)
Reigning King.
Otto Wilhelm Luitpold, born April 27, 18-18 : succeeded his brother,
Ludwig II., on June 13, 1886.
Regent.
Prince Luitpold. (See below.)
Uncle and Cousin* of the King.
Prince Luitpold, born March 12, 1821 ; appointed Regent June 10, 1886 :
married, April 15, 1844, to Archduchess Augusta of Austria, Princess of
Tuscany, who died April 26, 1864. Offspring of the union are four i liil-
dren : —
I. Prince Ludwig, born January 7, 1845 ; married February 20, 1868, to
Archduchess Haifa Theresa of A list lia-Kste. of tile branch of Modena. horn
COMSTITUTION A\I> C* >VKRN"MKNT
.Tuly 2, 1849, of which marriage there are issue eleven children : — 1. Prince
Rupprecht, born Mav 18, 1869. 2. Princess Adelgunda, born October 17,
1870. 3. Princess ifarie, born July 6. 1872. 4. Prince Karl, born April 1,
1874. 5. Prince Franz, born October 10, 1875. 6. Princess Matilda, born
August 17. 1S77. 7. Prince "Wolfgang, born July 2, 1879. 8. Princess
Hildegard, born March 5, 1881. 9. Princess Wiltrud, born November 10,
1884. 10. Princess Helmtrude, tern March 22, 1886. 11. Princess Gonde-
linde, born August 26. 1891.
II. Prince Leopold, born February 9, 1846, Commander-in-Chief of the
1st Bavarian Cor]* : married April 20, ls73. to Archduchess Gisela of Austria-
Huugary. eldest daughter of the Emperor-King Franz Joseph I. Offspring of
the union are : — 1. Princess Elizabeth, born January 8, 1874. 2. Princess
Augusta, born April 28, 1875. 3. Prince George, born April 2, 1880. 4.
Prince Konrad, born November 22, 1883.
III. Theresa, born November 12, 1850 ; abbess of the chapter royal of St,
Anne at Munich.
IV. Arnulpk, born July 6. 1852 ; Lieut -General 1st Division in the
infantry of the Bavarian army ; married April 12, 1882, to Princess Theresa
of Liechtenstein. Offspring, Prince Heinrich, born June 24, 1884.
The late Prince Adalbert, brother of Prince Luitpold, married to Princess
Amelia, Infanta of Spain, left the following issue : — 1. Prince Ludwig Ferdi-
nand, born October 22, 1859 ; married April 2, 1883, to Maria della Paz,
Infanta of Spain ; offspring, Prince Ferdinand, born May 10, 1884 ; Prince
Adalbert, born June 3, 1886 ; Princess Maria del Pilar, born March 13, 1891.
j2. Prince Alphons, born January 24, 1862 ; married April 15, 1891, to Princess
Louise of Orleans, daughter of the Duke of Alencon. 3. Princess Isabella,
born August 31, 1863 ; married April 14, 1883, to Prince Tommaso of Savoy,
Duke of Genoa. 4. Princess Elvira, born November 22, 1868. 5. Princess
Clara,1 born -October 11, 1874.
United with the royal family of Bavaria is the branch line of the Dukes
in Bavaria, formerly Palatine princes of Zweibriicken-Birkenfeld. The head
of this bouse is Prince Karl Theodor, born August 9, 1839, son of the late
Maximilian, Duke in Bavaria, and married (1) February 11, 1865, to Sophia,
Princess of Saxony ; (2) April 29, 1874, to Maria Josepha, Princess of
Braganza.
The members of the royal house of Bavaria are descendants of the aucient
Counts of Wittelsbach, who flourished iu the twelfth century. Duke Maxi-
milian I. of Bavaria was elevated to the rank of Elector of the Holy Roman
Empire in the Thirty Years' War : and Elector Maximilian Joseph was raised
to the rank of king by Napoleon I. in 1805.
The civic list of the King, and allowances to other members of the royal
family, are fixed at present at 5,404,850 marks.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Bavaria dates from May 26, 1818 ; but since
that time various modifications have been introduced. The Crown is here-
ditary in the male line. To the king belongs the sole executive power ; but
his ministers are responsible for all his acts. The legislative functions are
exercised jointly by the king and Parliament, the latter consisting of an Upper
and a Lower House. The Upper House— Chamber of 'Reichsrathe," or
councillors of the realm — formed in 1889 of 9 princes of the royal family, 3
crown dignitaries, the 2 archbishops, the heads of 18 old noble families, and
22 other hereditary ' Reichsrathe ' ; to which are added a Roman Catholic
580
GERMAN EMPIRE : — BAVARIA
bishop and the president of the Protestant Oberconsistorialrath, and 15 life-
members appointed by the Crown. The number of life-members so appointed
must not exceed one-third of the hereditary councillors. The Lower House,
or Chamber of Representatives, consists of deputies, chosen indirectly, the
people returning ' Wahlmiinner, ' or electors, 1 for eveiy 500 of the population,
who nominate the deputies. To be a deputy, it is necessary to be a Bavarian
citizen and to pay direct State taxes and to be past thirty ; to be on the electoral
lists, it is required to be twenty-five years of age, and to have paid for six
months previously direct taxation. The representation of the country is
calculated at the rate of one deputy to 31,500 souls of the whole population.
The Lower House is composed of 159 representatives, who, with the exception
of those resident in Munich, receive 10 marks per diem.
The executive is carried on, in the name of the king, by a ' Staatsrath, ' or
Council of State, consisting of six members, besides the Ministers and one
prince of the blood-royal ; and by the Ministry of State, divided into six
departments, namely, of the Royal House and of Foreign Affairs, of Justice,
of the Interior, of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, of Finance, and of
War.
Area and Population.
The kingdom has an area of 75,864 square kilometres, or 29,282 English
square miles. The following table exhibits the area and population of the
whole, and of each of the eight Begierungsbezirke or government districts,,
into which it is divided for administrative purposes : —
Regierungsbezirke
Area, Eng.
Population
Pop. per j
sq. mile, I
1890
sq. miles
1880 1890
Upper Bavaria (Oberbayern)
Lower Bavaria (Niederbayem)
Palatinate (Rheinpfalz)
Upper Palatinate (Oberpfalz)
Upper Franconia (Oberfranken) .
Middle Franconia (Mittelfranken)
Lower Franconia (Unterfranken) .
Suabia (Schwaben)
Total ....
6,456
4,152
2,289
3,729
2,702
2,923
3,243
3,788
1,006,761 11,102,027
660,802 664,131
696,375 728,422
537,990 537,217
576,703 1 572,189
671,966 ! 699,928
619,436 617,680
650,166 ! 667,788
170-8
160-5
318-5
145-0
212-3
238-2 j
191-6 !
176-1 !
29,282
5,420,199
5,589,382
191-6
To this area has to be added 257 square miles for water.
In 1866 Bavaria was compelled to cede nearly 300 square miles to Prussia.
The increase of the population since 1875 has been as follows : —
Year
Population
Density per wi. telle
Annual [nOTWUM
per cent
1875
1880
1885
1890
5,022,390
5,284,778
5,420,199
5,589,382
171-5
180-4
I.N-.-l
191-6
0-80
1-01
0 51
0-62
AREA WD POPULATION
581
The urban and rural population was thus distributed at Um censuses of
1880 and 1885:—
Census
Xo. of
Xo. of
Towns, Ac, with 2,000
inhabitants and over
Communes, Ac, with leas
than 2,000 inhabitants
Towns «lI™i
Communes
No.
Population
Per cent,
of pop.
291
Xo.
7,808
7,820
Population
Per cent,
of pop.
1880
1885
41_>
243 7,784
1,462,410
1,575,347
.368
3,844
723
70-9
In 1885 the urban population was thus distributed
—
-
Xo. Population 1885 —
No.
Population 1885 ,
Large towns' .
iiuni ,,
2
9
376,872 Small towns .
322,291 Country „ .
46
150
429,783
446,401
1 See p. 538 for official signification of these terms.
In 1885 the population included 2,639,242 males and 2,780,957 females ;
i.e., 105"4 females per 100 males. With respect to conjugal condition, the
following was the distribution : —
Mil -
Females
Total
Unmarried
Married ....
Widowed
Divorced and separated .
1,654,249
889,886
93,807
1,300
1,670,929
893,616
214,216
2,286
3,325,178
1,783,502
307,933
3,586
The division of the population according to occupation is shown in the
table on p. 536. In 1885 the number of foreigners in Bavaria (exclusive of
other Germans) was 62,042.
There is a large emigration from Bavaria. The emigration via German
ports and Antwerp was as follows in the undernoted years : —
1883
1884
1885
1886
188T
1888
1889
1890
; 17,986
;
14,856
9,939
8,068
13,350
12, 249
10,586
9,725
The population of the principal towns of the kingdom was as follows at
the census of December 1, 1890 : —
Towns
Dec l, 1890
Towns
Dec. l, 1890
Munich (Miinchen)
348,317
Kaiserslautern
87,041
Nuremberg (Xiirnberg)
142,403
Bamberg
35,248
Augsburg .
75,523
Ludwigshafen
28,716
Wurzburg .
60,844
| Hof .
24,648
Furtb ....
42,659
: Bayreuth .
Pirmasens .
21.364
Ratisbon (Regensburg).
37,567
21,045
582
GERMAN EMPIRE : — BAVARIA
The following table shows the annual movement of the population in the
five years 1885-89 :—
Year
Marriages
Total
Births
Stillborn
Illegitimate
Total Deaths
Surplus of j
Births
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
36,496
37,325
37,436
37,809
39,515
206,644
206,710
206,632
206,352
205,908
6,954
6,809
6,926
6,611
6,707
28,624
28,807
28,586
28,538
28,533
160,164
160,962
162,040
162,204
154,249
46,480
45,748
44,592
44,148
51,659
Religion.
Rather more than seven-tenths of the population of Bavaria are Roman
Catholics. At the census of December 1880 there were 3,748,032 Roman
Catholics, and 1,477,312 Protestants, the proportion being 709 Roman
Catholics to 279 Protestants in every 1,000 of the population.
The religious division of the population in each of the eight provinces of
the kingdom was as follows on December 1, 1885 : —
Provinces
Roman
Catholics
Protestants
Jews
Upper Bavaria
Lower Bavaria
Palatinate (Rheinpfalz)
Upper Palatinate .
Upper Franconia .
Middle Franconia .
Lower Franconia .
Suabia .
949,844
655,629
300,843
492,903
243,647
148,635
494,679
552,988
3,839,168
50,801
4,867
381,156
43,450
328,861
510,379
109,433
92,167
5,090
183
11,526
1,435
4,024
12,138
14,939
4,362
Total
1,521,114
53,697
Besides the above there are included in other Christian sects 5,684 Men-
nonites, Irvingites, Greek Catholics, and Free Christians, and 536 without
declaration.
As regards ecclesiastical administration, the kingdom is divided into 2
Roman Catholic archbishoprics, those of Munich and Bamberg ; 6 bishoprics :
202 deaneries ; and 2,964 parishes. The Protestant Church is under a General
Consistory — ' Ober-Consistorium ' — and three provincial consistories, 80
deaneries, and 1,116 parishes. Among the Roman Catholics there is one
clergyman to 464 souls ; among the Protestants, one to 1,013. Of the three
universities of the kingdom, two, at Munich and Wiirzhurg. are Roman
Catholic, and one, at Erlangen, Protestant.
Instruction.
(For Universities, see under Germany.) Elementary schools — * Volks-
schulen ' — exist in all parishes, and school attendance is compulsory for all
children from six till the age of fourteen. In 1888 there were 5,060 Catholic
schools, 1,893 Protestant. 184 mixed, and M Jewish. In 1890 there were
513 agricultural schools, with 9,803 pupils, besides LS winter schools, with
417 pupils.
FIXAX<E— ARMY 583
Justice, Crime, and Pauperism.
Bavaria is the only German State which has established an Obtrsbes Land-
gericht, or appeal-court intervening between the Oberlandesgerichte and the
Beichsgericht. This court, which has its seat at Munich, has a bench of 18
judges. Subject to its jurisdiction are 5 Oberlandesgerichte and 28 Land-
gericbte.
In 1889 there were 51,862 criminal convictions in Bavaria, i.e. 133-0
per 10,000 inhabitants above the age of twelve.
In 1887 the number of poor receiving relief was 173,193. the sum ex-
pended on them being 9,934,592 marks. Of the total number 75,748 were
permanent paupers.
Finance.
The Bavarian budget is voted for a period of two years. The gross public
revenue of Bavaria for the financial year ending December 31, 1883, was
277,447,131 marks, with an expenditure of 234,082,935. The estimated
revenue and expenditure for each of the years 1884 and 1885 was 241,584,781
marks, and for each of the years 1886 "and 1887, 241,491,646 marks. The
sources of revenue and branches of expenditure were estimated as follows for
each of the financial years 1890 and 1891 : —
8ources of Revenue Mat k ■ Branches of Expenditure
1 oka
Direct taxes . . 27,960,000 Public debt .
49,741.342
Indirect . . . 89,229,300
( ivil list and appanages .
5,404,850
State railwavs,post, i
telegraphs," mines. - 127,084,240
i &c. . . J
Council of State
24,800 ;
Diet ....
431,427
Ministrv of Foreign Affairs
1.131,461
State domains . . 34,813.273
„ Justice .
13,259,433 j
Miscellaneous receipts 1,204,829
,, Interior
21,521,348 :
,, Finance
3,767,591 :
,, Worship and
Education .
22,832,106
Pensions and allowances .
1,380,388
Contribution to Imperial! 37, 239.620
expenditure . f ' '
Charges of collection ofl ... 00. „_.
Revenue , . ) 114,831.324
Various expenses 725,952
Total gross revenue 280,291,642 Total expenditure . 280,291,642
The direct taxes are a trade-tax, house-tax, land-tax, and income-tax.
The debt of Bavaria amounted to 1,333,189,690 marks in June, 1891 ;
967,460,400 marks of which is railway debt. The greater number of the
railways in Bavaria, constructed at a cost of 801,500,000 marks, are the pro-
perty of the State. The annual receipts from the railways are seldom suffi-
cient to cover the charges for the railway debt.
Army.
The Bavarian army forms an integral part of the Imperial army, having,
in peace, its own administration. The military supplies, though voted by
the Bavarian Parliament, must bear a fixed proportion to the amount voted
584
GERMAN EMPIRE : — BAVARIA
for the rest of Germany by the Reichstag (see page 546). The Bavarian troops
form the 1st and 2nd Bavarian army-corps, not numbered consecutively with
the other German army-corps ; and there are certain differences in the matter
of uniform permitted to the Bavarian troops. The administration of the
fortresses in Bavaria is also in the hands of the Bavarian Government during
peace.
The contribution of Bavaria to the Imperial army in 1890-91 was as
follows in officers and men : —
Infantry
Jager
Landwehr
Cavalry
Artillery
38,480
1,196
648
7,397
7,748
Pioneers
Train .
Special Formation
1,893
1,116
493
Total . 59,671
Production and Industry.
Of the total area of Bavaria, nearly one-half is under cultivation, one-
sixth under grass, and one-third under forests. The number of separate
farms in 1882 was as follows : —
Under 1 Hect.
1-10 Hect.
10-100 Hect.
100 Hect. & over
Total
174,056
374,907
131,964
594
681,521
These farms supported a population of 2,665,123, of whom 1,355,466
were actually engaged in agriculture. The areas (in hectares) under the
chief crops, and the yield per hectare in metric tons, in 1890, with the
annual average for 1878-87, were as follows : —
1890
i
Average
Yield :
1878-87
-
1890
Average !
Yield
18784}
Area, In hect.
Yield
Area, in heck
Yield
Wheat
Rye
Barley
322,453
543,615
351,267
T52
1-44
1-56
1 32
1-12
1-29
Oats
Potatoes
Hops
450,648
300,094
26,815
1-41
10-00
0-54
1-21
9-47
0-48
In 1890 vines occupied 22,331 hectares, and yielded 846,550 hectolitres,
as against 468,650 hectolitres in 1889 of wine ; 345,403 hectares were planted
with tobacco, yielding 8,070 metric tons (2,000 lbs.) of dried leaf.
The total value of the leading mining products of Bavaria in 1889 was
6,548,577 marks.
The brewing of beer is a highly important industry in Bavaria (see Ger-
man Empire, p. 556). The average quantity manufactured is 278,000,000
gallons, of which 27,000,000 are exported. In 1888-89, 6,562 distilleries
produced 131,000 hectolitres of alcohol.
In 1891 Bavaria had 3,485 miles of railway, of which 2,982 belongnl to
the State.
British Minister. — Victor A. W. Druiiiinoinl, appointed 1885.
Consul. — John S. Smith.
BREMEN — AREA AND POPULATION"
BREMEN.
(Freie Stadt Bremen.)
Constitution.
The State and Free City of Bremen form a republic, governed, under a
Constitution proclaimed March 5, 1849, and revised February 21, 1854,
November 17, 1875, December 1, 1878, and Ma i Senate of
sixteen members, forming the executive, and the ' Burgerschaft ' (or Convent
of Burgesses) of 150 members, invested with the power of legislation. The
Convent is returned by the votes of all the citizens, divided into classes. The
citizens who have studied at a university return 14 members ; the merchants
42 members ; the mechanics and manufarturers 22 members, and the other
tax-paying inhabitants of the Free City the rest. The Convent and Senate
elect the sixteen members of the Senate, ten of whom at least must be lawyers.
Two burgomasters, the first elected for four years, and the second for the same
period, direct the affairs of the Senate, through a Ministry divided into twelve
dejwrtnients — namely, Foreign Affairs, Church and Education, J
Finance, Police, Medical and Sanitary Administration, Military Affairs,
Commerce and Shipping, Ports and Railways, Public Works, Industry, and
Poor Laws. All the ministers are senators.
Area and Population.
The State embraces an area of 99 English square miles. The population
amounted in 1875 to 142,220, inclusive of a Prussian garrison ; in 1880 it was
156,723 ; on December 1, 1885, it was 165,628 ; on December 1, 1890, it was
180,443. The increase of population from 1871 to 1875 was larger than in any
other State of Germany, reaching the high rate of 3"82 per cent, per annum :
bat it sank afterwards, for in the five years from 1885 to 1890 the increase was
but 164 per annum. Of the total population in 1890, 88,144 were males,
92,299 females— i.e. 104 7 females per 100 males. Marriages, 1890, 1,61s,
births, 5,461—162 (297 per cent.) still-born, 336 (615 percent) illegitimate ;
deaths, 3,345 ; surplus, 2,116.
Bremen, with Bremerhaven, is one of the chief outlets of German emigra-
tion. The following table shows the emigration statistics of the years 1888-
90:—
Other „
Germans Foreigners Total
51,596 42,346 95,270
47,866 55,057 102,923
46,909 92,729 140,410
The foreign emigrants were chiefly natives of Austria-Hungary, Russia,
Norway, Sweden, and Denmark.
Religion, Justice, and Crime.
L890,
_ athol
43 'unclassified
On Dec. 1, 1890, Bremen contained 169,991 Protestants (94*2 per cent.),
8,018 Roman Catholics (4 4 per cent.), 1,360 other Christians, l,03Uews, and
586 GERMAN EMPIRE: — BREMEN — BRUNSWICK
Bremen contains two Amtsgerichte and a Landgericht, whence appeals lie
to the ' Hanseatische Oberlandesgericht ' at Hamburg. In 1889, 2,939 persons
were convicted of crime — i.e. 56 per i.0,000 inhabitants. In 1885, 3,959
persons, with 7,282 dependents, received public poor-relief.
Finance.
In 1890-91 the revenue was 16,180,379 marks, and expenditure 22,711,299
marks, including 6,702,974 of extraordinary expenses. The estimated revenue
for 1891-92 is 20,332,820 marks, and expenditure 28,362,543 marks. More
than one-third of the revenue is raised from direct taxes, one-half of which is
income-tax. The chief branch of expenditure is for interest and reduction of
the public debt. The latter amounted, in 1890, to 80,438,300 marks. The
whole of the debt, which bears interest at 3£, 4, and 4 \ per cent. , was incurred
for constructing railways, harbours, and other public works.
Commerce and Shipping.
Next to that of Hamburg, the port of Bremen is the largest for the inter-
national trade of Germany. About 65 per cent, of the commerce of Bremen is
carried on under the German, and about 28 per cent, under the British flag.
The aggregate value of the imports in 1890 was 749,938,507 marks, of which
46,017,497 marks were from Great Britain ; and of exports, 706,597,492 marks,
of which 32,312,689 marks went to Great Britain.
The number of merchant vessels belonging to the State of Bremen on Jan.
1, 1891, was 353, of 378,068 tons, the number including 141 steamers of an
aggregate burthen of 179,404 tons. Of the steamers sailing under the Bremen
and German flag, 68 (aggregate tonnage 120,968) belong to the navigation
company called the ' North-German Lloyd,' which maintains communication
between Bremen and various ports in North and South America, Eastern
Asia, and Australia ; 23 steamers belong to the ' Hansa ' Company, plying to
Madras and Calcutta, and 18 to the ' Neptun ' Company, trading with
European ports.
British Consul-General. — Hon. Charles S. Dundas (Hamburg).
British Vice-Consuls. — (Bremen) Herr Rieke, (Brake) Herr Gross, (Bremer-
haven) Herr Schwoon.
BRUNSWICK.
(Braunschweig.)
Regent.
Prince Albrecht, born May 8, 1837 ; son of the late Prince Albrecht of
Prussia, brother of the first German Emperor Wilhelm I., and Marianne,
daughter of the late William I., King of the Netherlands, Field-Marshal in
the German army. Married, April 19, 1873, to Princess Maria, Duchess of
Saxony, daughter of Duke Ernst of Saxe-Altenburg. Unanimously elected
regent of the Duchy by the Diet, October 21, 1885 ; assumed the reins of
government November 2, 1885. The children of the regent are : 1, Prince
Friedrich Heinrich, born July 15, 1874 ; 2, Prince Joachim Albrecht, born
September 27, 1876 ; 3, Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, born July 12, 1880.
The last Duke of Brunswick was Wilhelm I., bom April 25, 1806. the
second son of Duke Friedrich Wilhelm and of Princess Marie of Baden :
ascended the throne April 25, 1831, ami died October 18, 1884.
The heir to Brunswick is the Duke of Cumberland, excluded owing to his
refusal to give up claim to the throne of Hanover. Duke of Cambridge, the
< "NSTITUTIOX — AREA AND POPULATION
nearer agnate heir, also not accepted owing to his refusal to give up his
English appointments and residence.
The ducal house of Brunswick- Wolfenbiittel, extinct on the death of
Wilhelra L, was long one of the most ancient and illustrious of the Germanic
Confederation. Its ancestor, Henry the Lion, possessed, in the twelfth
century, the united duchies of Bavaria and Saxony, with other territories in
the Xorth of Germany ; but having refused to aid the Eni]>eror Frit-drib
Barbarossa in his wars with the Pope, he was, by a decree of the Diet, deprived
of the whole of his territories with the sole exception of his allodial domains,
the principalities of Brunswick and Luneburg. These possessions were, on the
death of Ernest the Confessor, divided between the two sons of the latter, who
became the founders of the lines of Brunswick-Liinehurg, Elder Line, and
Brunswick-Liineburg, Younger Line, the former of which was represented in the
ducal house of Brunswick, while the latter is merged in the royal family of
Great Britain.
The Brunswick regency law of February 16, 1879, enacts that in case tin
legitimate heir to the Brunswick throne be absent or prevented from assuming
the government, a Council of Regency, consisting of the Ministers of Stat*
and the Presidents of the Landtag and of the Supreme Court, should carry on
the government ; while the German Emperor should assume command of the
military forces in the Duchy. If the rightful heir, after the space of a year, is
unable to claim the throne, the Brunswick Landtag shall elect a regent from
the non-reigning members of German reigning families.
The late Duke of Brunswick was one of the wealthiest of German
sovereigns, having been in possession of vast private estates, including the
principality of Oels, in Silesia, now belonging to the Prussian Crown, and
large domains in the district of Glatz, in Prussia, bequeathed to the King of
Saxony.
Constitution.
The Constitution of Brunswick bears date October 12, 1832, but was
modified by the fundamental laws of November 22, 1851, and March 26, 1888.
The legislative power is vested in one Chamber, consisting, according to the
law of 1851, of forty-six members. Of these, twenty-one are elected by those
who are highest taxed ; three by the Protestant clergy ; ten by the inhabitants
of towns, and twelve by those of rural districts. The Chamber meets,
according to the law of 1888, every two years, and the deputies hold their
mandate for four years. The executive is represented by a responsible
Staatsrainisterium, or Ministry of State, consisting at present of four depart-
ments, namely — of State and Foreign Affairs, of Justice, of Finance, and of
the Interior.
Area and Population.
The Duchy has an area of 1,424 English square miles, with a population of
403,773 inhabitants (201,428 males, 202,345 females), according to the census
of December 1, 1890. The increase was at the rate of 1'32 per cent, per
annum in the five vears 1880-85, and 1"68 in 1885-90. Marriages, 1890,
3,512 : births, 14,257 ; deaths, 9,914 : surplus, 3,837. Included in the births
are 506 (3"55 per cent.) still-born, and 1,478 (10"37 ]>er cent.) illegitimate
children. Emigrants 1883, 592; 1884, 449: 1885, 279; 1886, 252: 1887,
238 : 1888, 322 ; 1889, 268 ; 1890, 305. Nearly the whole of the inhabitants
of the Duchv are members of the Lutheran Church, there being onlv 12,642
Catholics in 1885.
The capital of the Duchy, the town of Brunswick (Braunschweig), had
101,047 inhabitants at the Census of Dec. 1, 1890.
588 GERMAN EMPIRE: — BRUNSWICK — HAMBURG
Finance.
The budget is voted by the Chamber for the period of two years, but each
year separate. For the year from April 1, 1891, to April 1, 1892, the revenue
and expenditure of the State were made to balance at 12,400,000 marks. Not
included in the budget estimates is the civil list of the Duke — 1,125,000
marks. The public debt of the Duchy, without regard to a premium-loan
repayable in rates of 1,200,000 marks yearly till 1924, at the commencement
of 1891 was 28,371,588 marks, four-fifths of which were contracted for the
establishment of railways ; the productive capital of the State was at the same
time 42,490,000 marks, besides an annuity of 2,625,000 marks till 1934,
stipulated at the sale of the railways of the State.
Production and Industry.
Brunswick numbered on June 5, 1882, 53,611 agricultural enclosures each
under one household, having a population of 113,177, of whom 59,643 were
actively engaged on the farms. Of these farms, 34,129 were less than 1
hectare, 14,149 ranged from 1 to less than 10 hectares, 5,168 from 10 to less
than 100 hectares, and 165 had an area each of 100 hectares and upwards.
The chief crops are wheat (22,488 hectares in 1889-90), rye (38,503), and
oats (28,269).
In 1890 minerals were raised to the value of 2,418,000 marks.
There were 234 miles of railway in 1891.
British Minister Plenipotentiary. — Sir Edward Malet, G.C.B., G.C.M.G.
Consul-Gcnercd. — Hon. C. S. Dundas (Hamburg).
HAMBURG.
(Freie und Hanse-Stadt Hamburg.)
Constitution.
The State and Free City of Hamburg is a republic. The present Con-
stitution was published on September 28, 1860, and came into force on
January 1, 1861 ; a revision was published on October 13, 1879. According
to the terms of this fundamental law, the government- Staatsgewalt- is
entrusted, in common, to two Chambers of Representatives, the Senate
and the Burgerschaft, or House of Burgesses. The Senate, which exercises
chiefly, but not entirely, the executive power, is composed of eighteen mem
bers, one half of whose number must, have studied law or tinance, while seven
out of the remaining nine must belong to the class of merchants. The
in em hers of the Senate are elected for life by the House of Burgesses ; but a
senator is at liberty to retire at the end of six years. A first and second
burgomaster, chosen annually in secret ballot, preside over the meetings of
the Senate. No burgomaster can be in office longer than two years ; and no
member of the Senate is allowed to hold any public office whatever. The
House of Burgesses consists of 160 members, 80 of whom are elected in send
ballot by the votes of all tax paying citizens. Of the remaining 80 incinhers,
40 are chosen, also by ballot, by the owners of house-property in the city
valued at 3,000 marks, or £150, over ami above the amount for which they
AREA AND POPFLATI' »X
589
are taxed ; while the other 40 members are deputed by various guilds, cor-
porations, and courts of justice. All the members of the House of Burgesses
are chosen for .six years, in such a manner that every three years new elections
take place for one-half the number. The House of Burgesses is represented,
in permanence, by a Burger- Ausschuss, or Committee of the House, consisting
of 20 deputies, of whom no more than five are allowed to be members of the
legal profession. It is the special duty of the Committee to watch the pro-
! wlings of the Senate and the general execution of the articles of the
Constitution, including the laws voted by the House of Burgesses. In all
matters of legislation, except taxation, the Senate has a veto : and, in case of
a constitutional conflict, recourse is had to an assembly of arbitrators, chosen
in equal parts from the Senate and the House of Burgesses ; also to the
Supreme Court of Judicature of the Empire (Reichsgericht) at Leipzig.
The jurisdiction of the Free Port was, on January 1, 1882, restricted to
the city and port by the inclusion of the Lower Elbe in the Zollverein, and
on October 15, 1888, the whole of the city, except the actual port and the
warehouses connected with it (population 1,490 in 1890), was incorporate 1 in
the Zollverein. The alterations in the port necessitated by this step have
involved an expenditure of six millions sterling, to which the Imperial
Government contributes two millions.
Area and Population.
The State embraces a territory of 158 English square miles, with a popu-
lation on December 1, 1880, of 453,869 ; December 1, 1885, of 518,620, and
on December 1, 1890, 622,530. Included in the census returns were two
battalions of Prussian soldiers, forming the garrison of Hamburg. The State
consists of three divisions, the population of each of which was as follows on
December 1, 1890 :— Citv of Hamburg, with suburb, 323,923; 15 di-
(Vororte), 245,337 ; Landgebiet, 53,270. In the four years from 1867 to 1871
the population of the State increased at the rate of 2 "51 per cent, per annum ;
from 1871 to 1875 at the rate of 341, 1875-80 at 310 ; in 1880-85 at 266
per cent., and in 1885-90 at 4 per cent, yearly. A large stream of emigration,
chiefly to America, flows through Hamburg. Of the population in 1890,
308,535 were males and 313,995 females, Le. 101 "1 females per 100 males.
There were 16,748 foreigners — 3,688 Austrians, 2,731 Swedish and Norwegians,
3,116 Danes, 1,661 British, 3,526 other Europeans, 2,026 non-Europeans, and
28 unclassified — resident in Hamburg in 1890.
The following table shows the number of emigrants via Hamburg for
1886-90 :—
Year
From rw*i.„»
n.„K„ Other
Hamburg n--,..,,,
itself J (ieTmaas
Foreigners
t«*«i Bound for the
10tal United States
For other
Destinations
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1,450 24,264
1,632 21,016
1,821 23,835
1,393 21,665
1,608 23,321
62,919
48,359
63,081
51,285
74,421
88,633 83,504
71,007 66,545
88,737 83,615
74,343 68,481
99,350 93,013
5,129
1,463
.'.. 1-22
5,862
6,337
Marriages (1890), 6,007 ; births, 22,561 (705, or 3 12 per cent, still-bom
2,490, or 11-04 per cent, illegitimate) ; deaths, 13,193 ; surplus, 8,663.
590
GERMAN EMPIRE : — HAMBURG
Religion, Justice, Crime, and Agriculture.
On December 1, 1890, Hamburg contained 567,617 Protestants (91 per
cent.), 23,288 Roman Catholics (374 per cent.), 8,204 other Christians, 17,973
Jews (2-89 per cent.), and 5,448 unclassified.
The State contains three Amtsgerichte, a Landgericht, and the ' Hans-
eatische Oberlandesgericht," or court of appeal for the Hanse Towns and the
Principality of Liibeck (Oldenburg). In 1888, 5,166 persons, i.e. 131 -6 per
10,000 inhabitants above twelve years, were convicted of crime. In 1885,
22,738 persons, with 27,351 dependents, received public poor-relief.
The number of separate agricultural holdings in the " Landgebiet " of
Hamburg on June 5, 1882, was as follows : —
Under 1 Hect.
1-10 Hect.
10-100 Hect.
Above 100 Hect.
4,856
1,039
632
16
Total
6,543
These farms supported a population of 20,530, of whom 8,736 were actively
engaged in agriculture.
Finance.
For 1891 the revenue was estimated at 55,341,500 marks, and expendi-
ture 55,889,600 marks. The largest source of income is direct taxes,
amounting to more than one-third the whole revenue, and next to that the
proceeds of domains, quays, railways, kc. The largest item in the expendi-
ture is for the debt, 10,095,000 marks in 1891 ; for education the expenditure
is 5,460,300 marks. The direct taxation amounts to 30 marks per head of
population.
The public debt of Hamburg on January 1, 1891, amounted to 233,963,656
marks. The debt was incurred chiefly for the construction of public works.
Commerce and Shipping.
Hamburg is the principal seaport in Germany (comp. table on p. 562).
The following table exhibits the imports and exports by sea during the five
years 1886-90 :—
Year
Imports by Sea
Exports by Sea
Weight in 100
Kilogrammes
Value in
1,000 Marks
Weigh* in 100
Kilogrammes
Value in
1,000 Marks
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
32,481,575 \ 936,822
34,524,570 i 1,049,083
38,844,224 i 1,114,906
46,016,434 : 1,245,581
50,069,666 j 1,376,929
18,346,505
19,480,557
21,442,926
23,957,299
25,123,295
876,319
968,561
1,021,581
1,206,415
1,260,475
The import and exportof the precious metals are not included in the alum
figures. The total value of the imports in 1890 was 54,591,260 marks, and
of the exports 19,604,150 marks. The marine trade of Hamburg in 1890
(millions of kilogrammes) was : —
COMMERCE AND SHIPPING
.V.'l
Country j Imports ; Exports
Country-
Imports | Exports
Great Britain . ' 2,184-8 798 4
France . . 1218 487
Holland . . 59-1 M"8
German Ports . 95 2 138-2
North Europe . j 247 5 224*9 ,
Other European
Ports . 628 0 126-2
United States .
Brazil
Other Ameri-
can Ports
Total for
594 9
811
603 4
4687
77 0
264-9
America .
Asia
Africa
Australia .
1,279 4
277 3
87 1
71".'
Total for Europe 3,336*4 1,3906
1
791
The total number of vessels which entered and cleared at Hamburg during
each of the five years 1 886-90 was as follows : —
Year
Entered
Cleared
Total
Ships
Tons
Ships
Tons
\ Ships
Tons
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
6,913
7,308
7,624
8,079
8,176
3,791,992
3,920,234
4,355,511
4,809,892
5,202,825
6,906
7,338
, 7,517
8,079
8,185
3,786,845
3,927,865
4,347,723
4,826,906
5,214,271
! 13,819
14,646
15,041
j 16,158
, 16,361
7,578,837
7,848,099
8,702,234
9,636,798
10,417,096
The following is the number and tonnage of vessels entered and cleared
with cargoes only : —
Year
Entered
Cleared
Total
Ships
Tons
Ships
Tons
! Ships
Tons
1886
i 1887
1888
1889
: 1890
5,920
6,338
6,517
6,947
6,978
3,526,955
3,697,304
4,050,479
4,469,698
4,815,327
5,320
5,664
5,735
5,871
6,040
2,985,020
3,093,147
3,335,481
3,496,303
3,831,535
11,240
11,902
12.2.V2
i 12,818
13,018
1
6,511,975
6,790,461 :
7,385,960
7,966,001
8,646,862 |
The number and tonnage of British vessels that entered and cleared at
Hamburg were as follows : —
Entered
Cleared
Year With Cargoes
In Ballast
With Cargoes
In Ballast
; Ships
Tons
Ships
Tons
Ships Tons
Ships | Tons
1886 2,254
1887 2,315
1888 2,633
1889 2,831
1890 2,827
1,553,353
1,620,675
1,859,966
2,028,220
2,151,634
211
194
252
238
226
107,830
75,506
128,534
137,381
196,7511
1,891 1,243,996
1,931 1,263.777
2,170 1,429,063
2,107 1,420,697
2,160 1,567,537
571 416,
557 411,769
697 : 545,999
956 741,366
892 782,897
592
GERMAN EMPIRE : — HESSE
The total number of sea-going vessels, above 17 '65 registered tons, which
belonged to the port of Hamburg, was as follows on December 31 of the years
1886-90 :— J
Year
Sailing Vessels
Steamers Total
No. of
Crews
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage j No.
1
Tonnage
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
285
279
266
262
268
136,428
142,157
147,099
156,204
164,650
201
210
227
258
297
205,591 1 486
215,081 i 489
234,908 ' 493
293,535 I 520
356,755 565
342,019
357,238
382,007
449,739
521,405
9,321
9,443
9,780
11,220
12,786
In 1891 there were 23 miles of railway.
British Consul-General. — Hon. Charles S. Dundas.
HESSE.
(Grossherzogthum Hessen.)
Reigning Grand-Duke. — Ludwig IV., born September 12, 1837 ; the son
of Prince Karl, eldest brother of Grand-duke Ludwig III. and of Princess
Elizabeth of Prussia. Succeeded to the throne at the death of his uncle, Grand-
duke Ludwig III., June 13, 1877. Married, July 1, 1862, to Princess Alice,
second daughter of Queen Victoria, of Great Britain and Ireland ; widower,
December 14, 1878.
Offspring. — I. Victoria, born April 5, 1863 ; married to Prince Ludwig of
Battenberg, April 30, 1884. II. Elizabeth, born November 1, 1864 ; married
to the Grand-duke Sergius Alexandrovitch of Russia, June 15, 1884. III.
Irene, born July 11, 1866, married to Prince Heinrich of Prussia, May 24,
1888. IV. Ernst Ludwig, born November 25, 1868. V. Alice, born June 6,
1872.
Brothers of the Grand-duke. — I. Prince Heinrich, born Nov. 28, 1838;
married, Feb. 28, 1878, to Caroline Willich, elevated Freifrau zu Nubia :
widower, Jan. 6, 1879. II. Prince Wilhelm, born Nov. 16, 1845.
Cousins of the Grand-duke. — The children of Prince Alexander (died Doom
ber 15, 1888) and Princess Julia von Battenberg, born November 12, 1825.
Offspring of the union are five children : — 1. Marie, born July 15, 1852 :
married, April 29, 1871, to Count Gustaf von Erbach-Schbnberg. 2. Ludwig,
born May 24, 1854, commander in the British navy ; married to Princess
Victoria of Hesse, April 30, 1884 ; offspring, Alice, born February 25, 1885 ;
Louise, born July 13, 1889. 3. Alexander, born April 5, 1857 ; elected Prince
of Bulgaria, April 29, 1879 ; abdicated, September/, 1886. 4. Heinrich, born
October 5, 1858 ; married, July 23, 1885, to Princess Beatrice of Great Britain ;
5. Franz Josef, born September 24, 1861.
The former Landgraves of Hesse had the title of Grand-duke given
them by Napoleon I., in 1806, together with a considerable increase of
territory. At the Congress of Vienna this grant was confirmed, after some
negotiations. The reigning family are not possessed of much private
property, but dependent almost entirely upon the grant of the civil list,
amounting to 1,199,145 marks, the sum including allowances to the
princes.
CONSTITUTION' — AREA AND t'< H'l'l.ATMN
593
Constitution.
The Constitution bears date December 17, 1820 ; but wis modified in 1856,
1862, and 1872. The legislative power is vested in two Chambers, the first
composed of the princea of the reigning family, the heads of a number of noble
houses, the Roman Catholic bishop, the chief Protestant superintendent, the
Chancellor of the University, two members elected by the noble landowner^.
and a number (twelve) of life-members, nominated by the Grand-daks : wliib-
the second consists often deputies of the eight larger towns, and forty repre-
sentatives of the smaller towns and rural districts.
The executive is represented by a ministry divided into three departn.
namely, of the Grand-ducal House and Foreign Affairs ; of the Interior and of
Justice ; and of Finance.
Area and Population.
The area and population were as follows on December 1, 1880, 1885, and
1890 :—
8q. Miles
Population
p..-..
Uiile.
ISM
lam
Ki,6M
394,574
1885
MM
Upper Hesse (Oborhswsn)
Rhenish Hesse (Rheinhessen) .
Total
1,269
581
l.lf,.'.
•263,044
nun
SJS.MI
Hr,«n
209-6
360-4
2,965
936,340
956,611
SM,6M
$351
There were 492,716 males and 500,943 females in 1890. Increase from 1875
to 1880 at the rate of 114 per cent, per annum ; from 1880 to 1885 at the rate
of 0*43 ; per cent, from 1885 to 1890 at the rate of 077 per cent. There were
7,512 marriages in Hesse in 1S89, 31,958 births and 21,653 deaths, leaving a
surplus of 10,305 births. Among the births are 1229, or 385 per cent,
stillborn, and 2.396, or 7 50 per cent., illegitimate children. Emigrants, 3,589
in 1883, 3,175 in 18S4, 2,503 in 1885, 1,725 in 1886, 2,167 in 1887, 2,220 in
1888, 2,011 in 1889 and 2.122 in 1890.
The largest towns of the Grand-duchy are Mayenee or Mainz, with 72,281 ;
Darmstadt, the capital, 56,503 (including Bessuugen) : Offenbach, 35,154 ;
Worms, 25,504 ; Giessen, 20,611 inhabitants, at the census of December 1,
1890.
Religion and Instruction
Of the population in 1885, 643,939 were Protestants ; 278,440 Catholics ;
-.!"'.'• 7 other Christian sects; 26,114 Jews; and 161 unclassified, or of "no
religion."
.Hesse has a university at Giessen, with 568 students in 1891, a technical
university at Darmstadt, with 339 students in 1890. There are 991 public ele-
mentary schools (1890), and 889 advanced elementarv schools, besides 31
higher schools.
Q Q
594 GERMAN EMPIRE: — HESSE — LIPPE
Finance.
The budget is granted for the term of three years. The revenue for the
financial period 1891-94 was estimated at 24,653,218 marks in ordinary,
2,363,767 marks in extraordinary, per annum ; and the expenditure at
24,128,445 marks in ordinary, 2,535,793 marks in extraordinary, per annum.
The public debt amounted to 35,267,279 marks in 1891, of which 31,545,020
marks are railway debt ; against this are active funds of the State amount-
ing to 5,235,109 marks. The total annual charge of the debt in the budget
of 1891-94 is 1,127,334 marks in ordinary, and 3,800 marks in extra-
ordinary.
Production and Industry.
The number of agricultural enclosures, each under one household, was
(1882) 128,526, with a population of 381,995, of whom 156,296 were actively
engaged on the farms. Of these farms 54,029 were less than 1 hectare each ;
65,199 ranged from 1 to less than 10 hectares, and 9,174 from 10 to less than
100 hectares, while there were 124 having a surface of 100 hectares and
upwards. The chief crops are wheat (40,073 hectares in 1889-90), lye,
(64,121), barley (54,833), oats (44,863), and potatoes (66,622). Minerals to the
value of 1,422,929 marks were raised in 1889.
Hesse has 566 miles of railway, of which 226 belong to the State.
British Charge" d' Affaires. — Hon. W. Nassau Jocelyn, C.B.
Consul-General . — Charles Oppenheimer (Frankfort).
Con ml. —Bernard Goldbeck (Frankfort).
LIPPE.
(FuRSTENTHUM LlPPE.)
Reigning Prince.
Waldemar, born April 18, 1824, the second son of Prince Leopold and of
Princess Emilie of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen : succeeded to the throne at the
death of his brother, December 8, 1875 ; married, November 9, 1858, to Princess
Sophie, born August 7, 1834, daughter of the late Margrave Wilhelm of
Baden. The only living brother of the reigning Prince is Prince Alexander,
bom January 16, 1831, formerly captain in the Hanoverian army.
Tha house of Lippe is the eldest branch of the ancient family of Lippe,
from which proceeded in the seventeenth century the still flourishing
collateral lineages of Schanmburg-Lippe, Lippe-Biesterfeld, be. The Prince
lias not a civil list. For the expenses of the court, &c, are allotted the
revenues arising from the Domanium (fauns, forests, &c), which, according to
llic covenant Of June 24, 1868, are indivisible and inalienable entail estate of
the Prince's house, the usufruct and administration of which belong to the
reigning Prince.
Constitution.
A charter oi right* was granted to Lippe by decree of July 6, 1836, partly
k placed by the electoral law of . I uue :i, 1876, according to which the Diet is
composed of twenty-one members, who arc elected in three divisions deter-
mined bv the scale of the rates. The discussions are public. To the t'hambcr
LIPPE— LUBECK
belongs the right of taking part in legislation ami the levying of I
otherwise its functions are consultative. A mini.-ti r presides over the
government.
Area and Population.
The imputation at the census of December 1, 1390, numbered 128,414,
living on an area of 469 English square milts. At the census of 1880, the
inhabitants numbered 120,216, showing an increase at the rate of 0*5 i>er cent.
per annum. Of the population 62,990 were males, and 65,424 (or -7 per 100
males) females. Marriages, 1890, 1,021 ; births 4,507 (172 stillbon
illegitimate) : deaths, 2,865 ; surplus .
The emigration statistics are as follows : —
1833
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
L8M
301
368
317
176
58
122
28
49
The capital, Detmold, has 9,735 inhabitants (1890). Except 3,865
Catholics and 1,024 Jews (1885), the people are Protestants.
Finance and Industry.
The budget is arranged for two yean, For 1891 the revenue was estimated
at 1,076,909 marks, and expenditure 1,066,401 marks.
In 1882 the separate farms were as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
1-10 Hectares
10-100 Hectares Over 1"
T-.tal
14,567
1,518 29
23,321
These farms supported a population of 45,733, of whom 19,619 were
actively engaged in agriculture. Railways, 18 miles in 1891.
British Consitl-Gcncral. — Hon. C. S. Dundas (Hamburg).
LUBECK.
(Freie mm Haxse-Stadt Lubeck.)
Constitution.
The free city and State of Lubeck form a Republic, governed according
to a Constitution proclaimed December 30, 1848, revised December 29,
1851, and April 7, 1875. The main features of this charter are two repre-
sentative bodies — first, the Senate, exercising the executive, and, secondly,
th> Biirgerschaft, or House of Burgesses, exercising, together with the
Senite, the legislative authority. The Senate is composed of fourteen
members, elected for life, and presided over by one burgomaster, who holds
office for two years. There are 120 members in the House of Burp
chosen by all citizens of the town. A committee of thirty burgesses, pre-
sided over by a chairman elected for one year, has the duty of represent-
ing the legislative assemblv in the intervals of the ordinarv sessions, and
Q Q 2
596
GERMAN EMPIRE
-LUBECK
of carrying on all active business. The government is in the hands of the
Senate, but the House of Burgesses has the right of initiative in all measures
relative to the public expenditure, foreign treaties, and general legislation.
To the passing of every new law the sanction of the Senate and the House of
Burgesses is required.
Area and Population.
The State comprises a territory of 115 English square miles, of which
the population in 1880 was 63,571, including a garrison ; on December 1,
1890, the population was 76,485 (37,471 males and 39,014 females). The city
proper had 39,743, and the rural districts, composed of scattered portions of
territory surrounded by Prussia, Oldenburg, and Mecklenburg, 12,415
inhabitants in 1875 ; in 1880 the city had increased to 51,055, in 1885 to
55,399, and in 1890 to 63,590. In the four years from 1871 to 1875 the
population increased at the rate, of 2 '28 per cent, per annum ; in the five years
from 1875 to 1880 at the rate of 2"34 per cent. ; in 1880-85 at 1 "29 per cent. ;
and in 1885-90 at 1479 per cent. Marriages, 1889, 497 ; births, 1,851 ;
still born 53 (2-31 per cent.) ; illegitimate, 147 (7'94 per cent.) ; deaths,
1,146 ; surplus, 705.
The emigration statistics for 1883-89 are as follows : —
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887 1888
1889
161
1
203
153
93
14
80
80
Religion, Instruction, Justice, and Pauperism.
On December 1, 1890, Protestants numbered 74,544 (97 -5 per cent),
Roman Catholics 1,143 (l-5 per cent,), other Christians 122, Jews 654, and
'unclassified' 22. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 11.
In the city and suburbs there are (1890) 18 elementary schools (9 for each
sex), with 6,778 pupils ; for boys 1 gymnasium (601 pupils), 1 Hohere Biirger-
schule (233 pupils), 1 private higher school (522 pupils), and 3 public
middle schools ; for girls there are 4 private high schools and several private
middle schools. There are also a public technical school for apprentices,
and 2 private commercial schools. Three daily newspapers, one weekly and
one bi-weekly periodical, are published in the city. Ltibeck contains an
Amtsgericht and a Landgericht, whence the appeal lies to the ' 1 lanseatisches
Oberlandesgericht ' at Hamburg. The police force number 107 men, ami
in 1889 cost 162,770 marks. In 1888 432 criminals were convicted — i.e.
88-3 per 10,000 inhabitants above the age of 12. In 1889 1,158 persons
received poor-relief from the State ' Armen-Anstalt,' which in that year
spent 99,512 marks out of a revenue of 118,317 marks.
Finance.
The estimated revenue lor the year L89] amounted to 3,528,007 marks,
ami the expenditure to the same amount. About one-sixtfa of the revenue is
derived from public domains, chiefly forests ; one-fourth from interest: ami
the rest mostly from direct taxation. Of the expenditure, one-fourth is for
the interest and reduction of the public debt, the latter amounting, ill 1891,
to 18,265,424 marks.
MK( KLENBURG-Sf HWERIX 597
Commerce and Shipping.
The total commerce of Liibeck was as follows : —
Tear
Imports in 1,000
Value in 1,000
Exports in 1,000
Value in 1,000
kilogrammes
MBfcl
kilogrammes
:i..irr;-i
1875
486,756
194,435
.:;-24
160,314
1880
594,783
•21-.
403,091
201,644
1885
594.
190,690
400,576
167,139
1889
884,072
238,180
.121
194,655
1890
606,103
222,858
*13
202,228
Imports by sea in 1890, 56,911,500 marks ; exports, 122,341,000 marks.
The chief articles of commerce are timber, corn, coal and coke, iron, and
colonial produce. The bulk of the direct trade of Liibeck is carried on
with Denmark, Great Britain, Russia, and Sweden and Norway. (For the flip-
ping statistics comp. p. 563.) The number of vessels arriving under the
British flag in 1890 was 21 of an aggregate tonnage of 19,081. The number
of vessels belonging to the port of Liibeck at the end of 1890 was 36, with an
aggregate tonnage of 17,582, of which 30 vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of
14,235, were steamers.
The State contained 29 miles of railway in 1891, belonging to private
companies.
British Vice-Consul— YL. L. Behncke.
MECKLENBURG-SCHWERLN.
(GaossHERZoGTHrM Mecklenburg-Schwerin.)
Reigning Grand-dnke.
Friedrich Franz III., born March 19, 1851 ; son of Friedrich Franz II. and
Princess Augusta of Reuss-Schleiz ; succeeded to the throne on the death of
his father, April 15, 1883 ; married, January 24, 1879, to Grand-duchess
Anastasia, born July 28, 1860, daughter of Grand-duke Michael of Russia.
Offspring: 1. Alexandrine, born December 24, 1879. 2. Fiiedrieh Franz,
born April 9, 1882. 3. Cecile, born September 20, 1886.
Brothers and Sisters of the Grand-duke. — I. Paul Friedrich, born Sep-
tember 19, 1S52 ; married May 5, 1881, to the Duchess Maria of Windisch-
Grstz. Offspring: 1. Paul Friedrich, born May 12, 1SS2. 2. Marie Antoi-
nette, born May 28, 1884. 3. Heinrich Borwin, born December 16, 1885.
Duke Paul in 1884 renounced all hereditary rights to the Grand-duchy
for himself and his descendants ; he himself became a Roman Catholic.
II. Marie, born May 14, 1S54 ; married August 28, 1S74, to Grand-duke
Vladimir, second son of Alexander II., Emperor of Russia. III. Johann
Albncht, born December 8, 1857 ; married, November 6, 1SS6, to Duchess
Elizabeth, daughter of the Grand-duke of Saxe-Weimar- Eisenach. IN.
■:th, born August 10, 1869. V. Friedrich JVilhelm, born April 5,
1871. VI. Adolf Friedrich, born October 10, 1873. VII. Heinrich, born
April 19, 1876.
The Grand-ducal house of Mecklenburg is the only reigning familv in
Western Europe of Slavonic origin, and claims to be" the oldest sovereign
598 GERMAN EMPIRE :— MECKLENRURG-SCHWERIN
house in the Western world. In their full title, the Grand-dukes style them-
selves Princes of the Wends. The genealogical table of the reigning Grand-
dukes begins with Niklot, who died 1160, and comprises 25 generations. The
title of Grand-duke was assumed in 1815.
Constitution.
The political institutions of the Grand-duchy are of an entirely feudal
character. The fundamental laws are embodied in the 'Union' of 1523,
the 'Reversales' of 1572 and 1621, .and the charters of 1755 and Nov. 28,
1817. Part of the legislative power (only in the Domain has the Grand-
duke the whole legislative power) is in the hands of the Diet — 'Landtag.'
There is only one Diet for both Grand-duchies, and it assembles every year
for a few weeks ; when it is not in actual session it is represented by a
committee of nine members — ' Engerer Ausschuss.' Seats and votes in the
Diet belong to the Ritterschaft — that is, the proprietors of Rittergiiter, or
Knights' Estates — and to the Landschaft, consisting of the burgomasters of
the 48 towns. The Ritterschaft has nearly 800 members, but only a few of
them take seats in the Diet. The Domain has not a representation of its own.
The only elected representatives of the people are the 6 deputies returned to
the German Reichstag.
The executive is represented by a ministry divided into four departments,
appointed by, and responsible to, the Grand-duke alone.
Area and Population.
Mecklenburg-Schwerin is situated on the north-east coast of the Empire.
The total area is 5,135 English square miles. There is no other administra-
tive division than that springing from the ownership of the soil, in which
respect the country is divided as follows, with population in 1890 : — Grand-
ducal Domains, 191,195; Knights' Estates (Rittergiiter), 119,194; Convent
Estates (Klostergiiter), 8,442 ; Town Estates, 259,615. Total, 578,446. Aver-
age density, 112'6 per square mile. Though the average density is low, and
the soil very fertile, there was a gradual decrease of population up to 1875,
and again in 1880-85, though between 1875 and 1880 there was a large
increase. Population : 1867, 560,628 ; 1871, 557,707 ; 1875, 553,785 ; 1880,
577,055 ; 1885, 575,152 ; 1890, 578,446. Of the total population in 1890,
42 '5 per cent, live in towns of 2,000 inhabitants or upwards, 57 '5 per cent, in
rural communes ; 78,052 lived in medium towns, 73,352 in small towns, and
94,591 in country towns. The rural population was thus 332,451. The chief
towns are Rostock (44,409 inhabitants), Schwerin (33,643 inhabitants), the
capital, Wismar (16,787 inhabitants), and Gustrow (14,568 inhabitants). In
1890 the population included 285,181 males and 293,265 females, i.e. 102'8
females per 100 males.
More than onedialf of the people are engaged in agriculture and cattle-
rearing, aa is shown in the table on p. 536. In 1890 there were 2,628
foreigners in Mecklenbui\'-Sehwcrin. Marriages, 1889, 4,440 ; total births.
18,085: stillborn, 607 (8*4 per cent.): Illegitimate, 2,882 (12*9 per cent) ;
d.tal deaths, 12,201 ; surplus of births, 5,884.
The numbers of emigrants, via German and Dutch ports and Antwerp, in
1 883-90 were as follows :—
1888 1884
1880
L8M 1887 1888
1,238 1,419 1,111
1889 1890
4,77!i 1,018
2,221
1,228 1,188
EKUOION, KT<\ — KIN*AX« K — PRonrcTInx
Religion and Instrnction.
Nearly all the inhabitants are Protestants. In 1890 there were : Roman
Catholics', 5,034 ; Jews, 2,182 ; other Christians, 905. The State Church is
Protestant. There are 478 Protestant churches and 346 clergymen. The
parishes are generally well endowed with landed property.
There are about 1,315 elementary schools in the Grand -duchy ; Gymnasia,
1 with 1,782 pupils ; Realschulen, 9 with 1,838 pupils: normal schools, 2
with 204 pupils ; navigation schools, 2 ; agricultural schools, 2 ; architectural
school, 1. There are besides several middle and special schools. There is a
university at Rostock (see German Empire, p. 541).
Justice, Crime, and Pauperism.
The Grand-duchy contains 43 Amtsgerichte, 3 Landgerichte, and 1 Ober-
laudesgericht at Rostock, which is also the supreme court for Mecklenburg-
Strelitz. There are also certain special military and ecclesiastical tribunals.
In 1888, 2,949 criminals were convicted, i.e. 71 per 10,000 inhabitant-
12 years of age. On October 31, 1890, 385 persons were in prison — 300 men,
60 women, and 25 children.
The Grand-duchy is divided into about 1,700 poor-law districts. In 1885,
14,475 heads of families, or solitary paupers, with 8,735 dependents, were
relieved at a total cost of 1,308,488 marks. A poor-rate, averaging about 1
per cent, on incomes, may be levied by the poor law districts.
Finance.
There exists no general budget for the Grand-duchy. There are three
a of finance, entirelv distinct. 1. That of the Grand-duke, estimated
for 1890-91 at 16,720,000 marks. 2. The financial administration of the
States, the resources of which are very small. 3. The common budget of
the G rand-duke and States, the receipts and expenditure of which balance at
000 (for 1891-92) marks. On July 1, 1891, the public debt was estimated
at 81,505,200 marks. The interest of the railway debt (11,205,400 marks),
and of the consolidated loan of 1886, amounting to 12,000,000 marks, is
covered by the annuity of 960,000 marks paid by the company who have
bought the State railways, and the remaining debt is more than covered by
the State funds.
Production.
Of the total surface of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, arable and garden-land
occupv 759,138 hectares ; pasturage, 108,512 ; woods, 226,562 : heath and
waste" laud, 77,736; uncultivated laud, 158,426. On June 5, 1882, the
number of agricultural tenements, each cultivated by one household, was
as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
1-10 Hectares
10-100 Hectares
100 Hectares
Total
62,409
20,919
8,459-
1,310
93,097
These farms had an aggregate area of 1,059,043 hectares, and supported
293,348 persons, of whom 116,135 were actively engaged upon them.
The areas in hectares under the principal crops were as follows in 1888 : —
Wheat. 43,633; rye, 167,344: barley, 17.717: oats, 112,901; potatoes,
42,699: hay, &c, 108,512.
GOO GERMAN EMPIRE : — MEOKLENBTJRG-STRELITZ
In 1891 the railways, owned by private companies, measured about 552
miles.
British Minister Plenipotentiary. — Sir Edward Malet, G.C.B., G.C.M.G.
Consul- General. — Hon. C. S. Dundas (Hamburg).
MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ.
(Grossherzogthum Mec klenburg-Strelitz . )
Reigning Grand-duke.
Friedrich. Wilhelm I., born October 17, 1819; the son of Grand-duke
Georg and of Princess Marie of Hesse-Cassel ; succeeded to the throne at the
death of his father, September 6, 1860 ; married June 28, 1843, to Augusta,
born July 19, 1822, the daughter of the late Duke Adolphus of Cambridge.
Offspring : Adolf Friedrich, born July 22, 1848 ; married April 17, 1877,
to Princess Elizabeth of Anhalt, born September 7, 1857, of which union
there is offspring : Mary Augusta, born May 8, 1878 ; Jutta, born January 24,
1880 ; Adolf Friedrich, born June 17, 1882 ; and Carl Borwin, bora October
10, 1888.
The reigning house of Mecklenburg-Strelitz was founded, in 1701, by
Duke Adolf Friedrich, youngest son of Duke Adolf Friedrich I. of Meck-
lenburg. There being no law of primogeniture at the time, the Diet was
unable to prevent the division of the country, which was protested against by
subsequent Dukes of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The Grand-duke is, however,
one of the wealthiest of German sovereigns, more than one-half of the count ry
being his private property.
Constitution and Finance.
The country is divided into two separate provinces, the first of which
Stargard, has a Diet composed of landowners and town magistral cs, while
the second, Ratzeburg, has no representative Constitution (see Mcckhn-
burg-Schwcrin). Of the 48 burgomasters and nearly 800 members of the
Ritterschaft, 7 burgomasters and over 60 proprietors of Rittergiiter belong to
M ecklenburg-Strelitz.
The executive is entirely in the hands of the Grand-duke, and is exercised
by him through his Government, at the head of which is a ' Minister of
State.' Accounts of public income and expenditure are never made known,
and the whole State revenue forms the civil list of the Grand-duke ; the debt
is estimated at 6,000,000 marks.
Area, Population, &c.
The area of the country is 2,929 square kilometres, or 1,131 English square
miles, the ownership of which territory is divided between the sovereign,
the feudal proprietors, il"d the eorporations of certain towns, in the following
manner : — 527 square miles belong to the Grand-duke ; 353 to the titled ami
untitled nobles ; and 117 to the town eorporations.
The population in 1875 was 95,673 ; in 1880, 100,269 ; in 1885, 98,371 ;
on December 1, 1890, it was 97,978 ; it was decreasing steadily, through
emigration, previous to 1875, although there is a less density than in any
other State of the German Empire, less than 100 in habitants living on the
square mile. During the census period, 1871-75, the decrease of population
AREA AND POPULATION — OLDEXBURG C01
was at the rate of 0 35 per cent, per annum. During 1875-80 there was an
increase at the rate of 0*94 per cent, per annum, and in 1880-85 a decrease of
0 39 per cent, per annum. Of the total population in 1885, 48,108 were
males, and 50,263 were females, or 104 5 females per 100 males. Marriages,
1889, 709 ; births, 3,171 ; deaths, 2,112 ; surplus, 1,059. Among the births
were 113 (3 '56 per cent.) still-born, and 409 (12 9 per cent.) illegitimate
children.
The emigration statistics for 1883-90 are as follows :—
With the exception of 303 Catholics and 497 Jews (1885), the people are
Protestants. The capital, Neu Strelitz, had 9,366 inhabitants in 1885.
Fully one-half of the population are engaged in agriculture, cattle-rearing,
&c, and only 38*4 per cent, live in towns with 2,000 inhabitants or upwards.
In 1882 the agricultural tenements were divided as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare 1-10 Hectares 10-100 Hectares 'Cher 100 Hectares Total
13,576 2,519 1,411 215 17,721
These farms supported 49,244 persons, of whom 19,142 were actively
engaged upon them.
Mecklenburg-Strelitz had 114 English miles of railway in 1891.
British Minister Plenipotentiary.— Sir Edward Malet, G.C.B., 6.C. K.G.
Consul-Oeneral. — Hon. C. S. Dundas (Hamburg).
OLDENBURG.
(Grossherzogthum Oldexburg.)
Reigning Grand-duke.
Peter I., Grand-duke of Oldenburg, born July 8, 1827 ; the son of Grand-
duke August and of Princess Ida of Anhalt- Bern burg ; succeeded to the
throne at the death of his father, February 27, 1853 ; married, February 10,
1S52, to Elisabeth, born March 26, 1826, daughter of Prince Joseph of Saxe-
Altenburg. Offspring : I. Prince August, heir-apparent, born November 16,
1852 ; married, February 18, 1878, to Princess Elizabeth, born February 8,
1857, second daughter of Prince Friedrieh Karl of Prussia ; issue a daughter,
Sophia, born February 2, 1879. II. Prince Georg, born June 27, 1855.
The ancient house of Oldenburg, which has given sovereigns to Denmark,
Scandinavia, and Russia, is said to be descended from Wittekind, the cele-
brated leader of the heathen Saxons against Charlemagne. In the fifteenth
century a scion of the House of Oldenburg, Count Christian VIII., was elected
King of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. The main line became extinct with
Count Anton Giinther, in 1667, whereupon the territory of the family fell to
the King of Denmark, who made it over to Grand-duke Paul of Russia, in
1773, in exchange for pretended claims upon Schleswig-Holstein. The Grand-
duke then (1773) gave Oldenburg to his cousin, Prince Friedrieh August of
602 GERMAN EMPIRE: — OLDENBURG
Holstein-Gottorp, with whose descendants it remained till December 1810,
when Napoleon incorporated it with the Kingdom of Westphalia. But the
Congress of Vienna not only gave the country back to its former sovereign,
but, at the urgent demand of Czar Alexander I. , added to it a territory of
nearly 400 square miles, with 50,000 inhabitants, bestowing at the same
time upon the Prince the title of Grand-dirke. Part of the new territory
consisted of the Principality of Birkenfeld, on the left bank of the Rhine,
close to the French frontier, and some three hundred miles distant from
Oldenburg. The other part consists of the Principality of Liibeck. The
Grand-duke has a civil list of 255,000 marks, or 12,750Z. He draws also
a revenue of 8,000/. from private estates of the family in Holstein, besides
about 7,500/. in interest.
Constitution and Revenue.
A Constitution was given to the Grand-duchy on February 18, 1849,
revised by a decree of November 22, 1852. The legislative power is exercised
by a Landtag, or Diet, elected for three years, by the vote of all citizens
paying taxes and not condemned for felony by a court of justice. The mode
of election is indirect. One delegate ( IVahhnami) for eveiy 500 inhabitants
is chosen by the first electors ; and these delegates, grouped in nine districts,
elect 33 deputies, or one for every 10,000 inhabitants. The executive is
vested, under the Grand-duke, in a responsible ministry of three departments.
The Principalities of Liibeck and Birkenfeld have also provincial councils
(Provinzialriithe), of 15 and 14 members respectively, summoned twice a year
by the provincial government.
The budgets are voted for three years at a time, and are divided into
the budget of the Grand-duchy and the budgets of the Duchy of Oldenburg
and the Principalities of Liibeck and Birkenfeld. The estimated revenue of
the Duchy and Principalities is :— 1891, 9,532,071 marks; 1892, 0,177,051
marks ; 1893, 5,997,151 marks. The estimated expenditure : — 1891, 7,640,341
marks ; 1892, 0,939,641 marks ; 1893, 6,671,131 marks. The debt of the
Grand-duchy amounted, at the beginning of 1890, to 36,719,202 marks.
Area and Population
Oldenburg embraces an area of 2,479 English square miles. The popu-
lation of the chief divisions was in 1890 : — Duchy of Oldenburg, 279,008 :
Principality of Liibeck, 34,718 ; Principality of Birkenfeld, 41,242. Total.
354,968 (males, 175,907 ; females, 179,001, i.e. 102 per 100 males).
The growth of the population since 1867, when the Duehv attained its
present limits, is as follows : — 1867, 315,995 ; 1871, 312,728 ; 1875, 319,314 ;
1880, 337,478 ; 1885, 341,525 ; 1890, 354,968.
In 1890 only 23 4 per cent, of the population lived in towns with 2,000
inhabitants or upwards. Oldenburg, the capital, had 23,118 inhabitants in
1890.
In 1890 there were 2,7:s<> marriages, 11,980 births, 7,250 deaths : surplus
of births, 4,686. Of the births 460 (8*9 per cent) were still-bom, and 618
(5-2 per cent.) illegitimate. The emigration statistics for 1883 90 are as
follows : —
ISS.'i I SSI
2,050 I 1,958
issc.
1 395 I 990
1887
1888
1888
is: ><i
1,040
1.03S
t,S28
1,001
RELIGION" AND INSTRUCTION — PRODrfTIOX
603
Religion and Instruction.
In 1890 Oldenburg contained 274,410 Protestants (773 per cent.), 77, 766
Roman Catholics (21 9), 1,208 other Christians (04), 1,552 Jews (04), and 32
(0-1) unclassified. The State Church (Protestant) is under the .Ministry for
Ecclesiastical Affairs.
The following table shows the higher schools of Oldenburg in 1889 : —
Gymnasia .
Rialschulen
Hiihere Biirgersehulen .
Hohere Tochterschulen
-v , ( Protestant .
formal J. „ 4.1. u
{ Catholic
Burger and agricultural school
No. of Teachers
73
35
22
32
10
4
11
Pupils
948
1,022
494
458
118
37
77
In addition to these are a middle ' Stadtschule' for boys, with 18 teachers
and 546 pupils ; a Stadtschule for girls, with 15 teachers and 597 pupils ; and
a school of navigation, with 6 teachers and 56 pupils.
Justice and Pauperism.
Oldenburg contains an Oberlandesgericht and a Landgericht. The Amts-
gcrichte of Lubeck and Birkenfeld are under the jurisdiction of the Landge-
richte at Lubeck and Saarbriicken respectively. In 1889, 1,846 persons, or
73 7 per 10,000 inhabitants above the age of twelve, were convicted of crime.
In 1885, 7,471 persons, with 5,282 dependents (in all 3/3 of the population),
iwiived public poor-relief.
Production.
Of the total area, 552,880 hectares are cultivated ; more than half the
population are engaged in agriculture and cattle-rearing, &c. In June 1882,
the number of agricultural tenements, each cultivated by one household, was
as follows : —
Under 1 Hectare
1-10 Hectares j 10-100 Hectares
Over 100 Hectares
Total
23,529
26,657
7,773
67
50,.
These farms supported 174,562 persons, of whom 71,879 wen- a< tively
engaged upon them.
Oldenburg had 247 miles of railway on June 1, 1891, of which all but 25
miles were under the direction of the State.
British Minuter Plenipotentiary.— Sir Edward Malet, G.C.B., G.C.M.G.
Consul-Genera/. — Hon. C. S. Dundas (Hamburg).
604 GERMAN EMPIRE: — PRUSSIA
PRUSSIA.
(KONIGREICH PEEUSSEN.)
Reigning King.
Wilhelm II., born Jan. 27, 1859, eldest son of Friedrich III.,
German Emperor and King of Prussia — who was eldest son of
Wilhelm I., and was born Oct. 18, 1831, married, Jan. 25, 1858,
to Victoria (Empress and Queen Friedrich), Princess Royal of
Great Britain, succeeded his father March 9, 1888, and died June
15, 1888, when he was succeeded by his son, Prince Friedrich
Wilhelm, under the title of Wilhelm II. The Emperor married,
Feb. 27, 1881, Princess Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
Augustenburg, born Oct. 22, 1858, daughter of the late Duke
Friedrich of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-ATigustenburg.
Children of the King.
1. Prince Friedrich Wilhelm Victor August Ernst, born May
6, 1882, Crown Prince of the German Empire and of Prussia ;
2. Prince Wilhelm Fitel- Friedrich Christian Karl, born July 7,
1883 ; 3. Prince Adalbert Ferdinand Berengar Victor, born July
14, 1884; 4. Prince August Wilhelm Heinrich Giinther Victor,
born Jan. 29, 1887 ; 5. Prince Oscar Karl Gustav Adolf, born
July 27, 1888 ; 6. Prince Joachim Franz Humbert, born Dec. 17,
1890.
Brother and Sisters of the King.
1. Princess Charlotte, born July 24, 1860; married, Feb. 18,
1878, to Prince Bernhard, eldest son of Duke George II. of Saxe-
Meiningen ; offspring of the union is a daughter, Feodora, born
May 12, 1879. 2. Prince Heinrich, born Aug. 14, 1862 ; married,
May 24, 1888, to Princess Irene, daughter of Grand-duke Ludwig
IV. of Hesse ; offspring of the union is a son, Waldemar, born
March 20, 1889. 3. Princess Victoria, born April 12, 1866 ;
married, Nov. 19, 1890, to Prince Adolf, of Schaumburg-Lippe.
4. Princess Sophie, born June 14, 1870; married, Oct. 27, 1889,
to Crown-Prince Konstantin of Greece. 5. Princess Margareth" ,
born April 22, 1872.
Aunt of the King.
Princess Luise, born Dec. 3, 1838; married, Sept. 20, 1856, to
Grand-duke Friedrich of Baden.
The Kings of Prussia ti'ace their origin to Count Thassilo, of
Zollern, one of the generals of Clmrlein:igne. His successor.
Count Friedrich I., l>ui It the family castle of Hohenzollern, near
the Danube, in the year 980. A subsequent Zollern, or Hohen-
ROTA1 FAMILY 605
zollern. Frieclrich III., was elevated to the rank of a Prince of
the Holy Roman Empire in 1373, and received the Burggraviate
of Nuremberg in fief; and his great-grandson. Friedrich VI.. «U
invested by Kaiser Sigmund, in 1415, with the province of
Brandenburg, and obtained the rank of Elector in 1417. A < »-n-
tury after, in 1511, the Teutonic Knights, own.-rs of the large
province of Prussia, on the Baltic, elected Margrave Albrecht, a
younger son of the family of Hohenzollern, to the post of Grand-
Master, and he, after a while, declared himself hereditary prince.
The early extinction of the male line of Albrecht brought the
province of Prussia by marriage to the Electors of Brandenburg,
who, by early adopting Protestantism, acquired a very important
position as leaders of the new faith in Northern Germany. In
the seventeenth century, the Hohenzollern territories became
greatly enlarged by Friedrich Wilhelm, ' the Great Elector, ' under
whose fostering care arose the first standing army in Central
Europe. The Great Elector, after a reign extending from 1640 to
1688, left a country of one and a half million inhabitant-, a vast
ire, and 38,000 well-drilled troops to his son, Friedrich I.,
who put the kingly crown on his head at Konigsberg on January
18, 1701. The first King of Prussia made few efforts to in-
crease the territory left him by the Great Elector ; but his Boo-
. Friedrich Wilhelm L, acquired a treasure of nine millions
of thalers, or nearly a million and a half sterling, bought family
domains to the amount of five million thalers, and raised the annual
income of the country to six millions, three-fourths of which sum,
however, had to be spent on the army. After adding part of
Pomerania to the possessions of the house, he left his son and
successor, Friedrich II., called 'the Great,' a State of 47.77<»
square miles, with two and a half million inhabitants. Friedrich
II. added Silesia, an area of 14,200 square miles, with one and a
quarter million of souls ; and this, and the large territory gained
in the first partition of Poland, increased Prussia to 74,340 square
miles, with more than five and a half millions of inhabitants.
Under the reign of Friedreich's successor, Friedrich Wilhelm II.,
the State was enlarged by the acquisition of the principalities of
Anspach and Baireuth, as well as the vast territory acquired in
another partition of Poland, which raised its area to the extent
of nearly 100,000 square miles, with about nine millions of souls.
Under Friedrich Wilhelm III., nearly one-half of this State and
population was taken by Napoleon ; but the Congress of Vienna
not only restored the loss, but added part of the Kingdom of
Saxony, the Rhineland, and Swedish Pomerania, moulding
Prussia into two separate pieces of territory, of a total area of
600 GERMAN EMPIRE :— PRUSSIA
106,820 square miles. This was shaped into a compact State of
134, 463 square miles, with a population of 22,769,436, by the war
of 1866.
Up to within a recent period, the Kings of Prussia enjoyed the whole
income of the State domains, amounting to about a million sterling per annum.
By a degree of Jan. 17, 1820, King Friedrich Wilhelm III. fixed the Krondo-
tations at the total sum of 2,573,098§ thalers, which, was sanctioned on Jan.
31, 1850, by Art. 59 of the Constitution ; remaining, as before, dependent on the
revenue derived from domains and forests. The amount of the civil list was
fixed by Art. 59 of the Constitution of Jan. 31, 1850 ; but bylaw of April 30,
1859, it was raised 500,000 thalers, by law of Jan. 27, 1868, 1,000,000 thalers,
and by law of Feb. 20, 1889, a further 3,500,000 marks. At present the total
' Krondotations Rente,' as far as it figures in the budgets, amounts to 15,719,296
marks, or 770,554?. The reigning house is also in possession of a vast amount
of private property, comprising castles, forests, and great landed estates in
various parts of the kingdom, known as 'Fideikommiss- und-Schatullgiiter,'
the revenue from which mainly serves to defray the expenditure of the court
and the members of the royal family.
The Royal Fideikommiss was last regulated by Cabinet Order of Aug. 30,
1843. Besides this the Royal Crown treasure, founded by King Friedrich
Wilhelm III., consists of a capital of 6 millions, which has since consider-
ably increased, and also the family Fideikommiss, likewise founded by King
Friedrich Wilhelm III., for the benefit of princes born afterwards. It
comprises the domains of Flatow, Krojanke, and Frauendorf, as well as
the Fideikommiss founded by the late Prince Karl (Glienicke). Finally,
the Royal House is also entitled to the House Fideikommiss of the Hohen-
zollern princes.
Dating from King Friedrich I. of Prussia (Elector Friedrich III. of
Brandenburg), there have been the following
Sovereigns of the House of Hohexzollekn.
Friedrich I. . . . 1701 I Friedrich Wilhelm III. . 1797
Friedrich Wilhelm I. . . 1713 Friedrich Wilhelm IV. . 1840
Friedrich II., called 'the Wilhelm I. . . . 1861
Great' .... 1740 Friedrich III. (Mar. 9-June 15) 1888
Friedrich Wilhelm II. . . 1786 Wilhelm II. ... 1888
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Prussia was drawn up by the
(Government of King Friedrich Wilhelm IV., with the co-opera-
tion of a Constituent Assembly, sitting August-December 1849,
and was proclaimed Jan. 31, 1850 ; but subsequently modified by
royal decrees of April 30, 1851 ; May 21 and June 5, 1852 ; May
7 and 24, 1853; June 10, 1854; May 30, 1855; April 14 and
30, 1856; May 18, 1857; May 17, 1867; March 27, 1872;
April 5, 1873 ; June 18, 1875 ; Feb. 19, 1879 ; and May 27,
1888. These fundamental laws vest the executive and part of
the legislative authority in a king, who attains his majority upon
eON8TITUTIOM \M> QOVSSN1UENT 607
accomplishing his eighteenth year. The crown is hereditary in
the male line, according to primogenitnie. In the exercise of the
government, the king is assisted by a council of ministers, ap-
pointed by royal decree. The legislative authority the king shares
with a representative assembly, the Landtag, eompesed of two
Chambers, the first called the • Herrenhaus. ' or Bouse of Lords,
and the second the ' Abgeordnetenhaus,' or Chamber of Deputies.
The assent of the king and both Chambers is requisite for all
law.-. Financial projects and estimates must first be submitted
to the second Chamber, and be either accepted or rejected en bloc
by the Upper House. The right of proposing laws is vested in
the Government and in each of the Chambers.
The fast Chamber, accenting to the original draft of tin- Constitution,
WU to oonsist of adult princes of the royal family, ami of the bead* of
Prussian houses deriving directly from the former Empire, M well as of
those heads of families that, by royal ordinance, should be a]i]>ointed to
seats ami votes in the Chamber, according to the rights of primogeniture
ami lineal descent. Besides these hereditary members, there wen to be
ninety deputies directly elected by electoral districts, consisting of a num-
ber oi' electors who pay the highest taxes to the State : and, in addition, other
thirty members elected by the members of the municipal councils of large
towns. This original composition of the 'House of Lords' was greatly
modified by the royal decree of Oct. 12, 1854, which brought into life the
Upper Chamber in its present form. It is composed of, first, the princes of
the royal family who are of age, including the scions of the formerly sovereign
families of Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen ; secondly,
the chiefs of the mediatised princely houses, recognised by the Congress of
Vienna, to the number of sixteen in Prussia ; thirdly, the heads of the
territorial nobility formed by the king, and numbering some fifty members ;
fourthly, a number of life-]>eers, chosen by the king from among the rich
landowners, great manufacturers, and ' national celebrities ' : fifthly, eight
titled noblemen elected in the eight provinces of Prussia by the resident
landowners of all degrees ; sixthly, the representatives of the universities, the
heads of 'chapters,' and the burgomasters of towns with above fifty thousand
inhabitants : and seventhly, an unlimited number of members nominated by
the king for life, or for a more or less restricted }>eriod.
The second Chamber consists of 432 meml>ers — 352 for the old kingdom,
and the rest added in 1867 to represent the newly-annexed provinces ; the pro-
portion to the population is now (1890) 1 to every 69,300. Every Prussian who
has attained his twenty-fifth year, and is qualified to vote for the municipal
elections of his place of domicile, is eligible to vote as indirect elector.
Persons who are entitled to vote for municipal elections in several parishes
can only exercise the right of indirect elector, or ' Urwahler,7 in one. One
direct elector, or 'Wahlmann,' is elected from every complete number of
250 souls. The indirect electors are divided into three classes, according
to the respective amount of direct taxes paid by each ; arranged in suet
manner that each category pays one-third of the whole amount of -direct
taxes levied on the whole. The first category consist of all electors who
pay the highest taxes to the amount of one-third of the whole : the second,
of those who pay the next highest amount down to the limits of the
second third ; the third of all the lowest taxed, who, together, complete
608 GERMAN EMPIRE : — PRUSSIA
the last class. Each class may be divided into several electoral circles,
none of which must, however, exceed 500 ' Urwahler.' Direct electors
may be nominated in each division of the circle from the number of persons
entitled to vote indirectly, without regard to special divisions. The repre-
sentatives are chosen by the direct electors. The legislative period of the
second Chamber is limited to five years. Every Prussian is eligible to be a
member of the second Chamber who has completed his thirtieth year, who
has not forfeited the enjoyment of full civic rights through a judicial sen-
tence, and who has paid taxes during three years to the State. The Chamber
.must be re-elected within six months of the expiration of their legislative
period, or after being dissolved. In either case former members are re-
eligible. The Chambers are to be regularly convoked by the king during the
month of November ; and in extraordinary session, as often as circumstances
may require. The opening and closing of the Chambers must take place by
the king in person, or by a minister appointed by him. Both Chambers are
to be convoked, opened, adjourned, and prorogued simultaneously. Each
Chamber, has to prove the qualification of its members, and to decide
thereon. Both Chambers regulate their order of business and discipline, and
elect their own presidents, vice-presidents, and secretaries. Functionaries
do not require leave of absence to sit in the Chamber. When a member
accepts paid functions, or a higher office connected with increased salary,
he vacates his seat and vote in the Chamber, and can only recover the
same by a new election. No one can be member of both Chambers. The
sittings of both Chambers are public Each Chamber, at the proposition
of the president or of ten members, may proceed to secret deliberation.
Neither Chamber can adopt a resolution when the legal majority of its
members is not present. Each Chamber has a right to present addresses
to the king. No one can deliver a petition or address to the Chambers, or
to either of them, in person. Each Chamber can refer documents addressed
to it to the ministers, and demand explanations relative to complaints
contained therein. Each Chamber has the right to appoint commissions
of investigation of facts for its own information. The members of both
Chambers are held to be representatives of the whole population. They
vote according to their free conviction, and are not bound by prescriptions
or instructions. They cannot be called to account, either for their votes
or for opinions uttered by them in the Chambers. No member of the
Chambers can, without its assent, be submitted to examination or a nest
for any proceeding entailing penalties, unless seized in the act, or within
twenty-four hours of the same. All criminal proceedings against members
of the Chambers, and all examination or civil arrest, must be suspended
during the session, should the Chamber whom it may concern so demand.
Members of the second Chamber receive travelling expenses and diet money
from the State, according to a scale fixed by law, amounting to 15 marks, or
15 shillings, per day. Refusal of the same is not allowed.
The executive government is carried on by a Staatsministerium, or
Ministry of State, the members of which are appointed by the king, and
hold office at his pleasure. The Staatsininisteriuin is divided into ten
departments, as follows : —
1. President of the Council of Ministers.— General Count George von
Caprivi.
2. Vice-President of the Council of Ministers, Minister of State, and hu-
ll lint Secretary of State for th,e Interior. — Dr. Karl lleinrich von Bocttic/nr,
horn January 6, IS:;:! ; studied jurisprudence and entered the State service
1856; J878 Landdrost at Hanover; 1876 Regierungsprasident at Schles-
wig; 1870 Oherpriisident of Schleswig-IIolstein ; September 1880 Imperial
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT G09
Secretary of State for the Interior ; 1881 'representative' of the Chancellor
of the Empire.
3. Minister of the Interior. — Braet Ludwig ZrVrr/urtfi, born March 6, 1830 :
entered 1873 the Ministry of the Interior; 1881 Ministerial Director; 1882
TTntmrtanliii'll iwl'ii : appointed Minister July 1888.
4. Minister of War. — Hans Georg von Kaltenborn-Staehau, born March
23, 1836 ; entered the army service 1854 ; attached 1865 to the General Staff ;
1884 Chief of the General Staff of the Guards ; appointed Minister October 4,
1890.
5. Minister of Public Works. — Herr Thiclen, bom 1831 ; member of various
railway directorates, 1864-1882 ; president of railway directors at Elberfeld,
1882 ; then, 1887, at Hanover ; appointed Minister June 22, 1891.
Minister of Agriculture, Domains, and Forests. — Karl Heinrich von
Heyden-Cadmc, bom March 16, 1839 ; March 1877 Landesdirector of
Pomerania ; 1881 President of the Regierungat Frankfurt; member of the
Staatsrath and of the Generalsynode of the Evangelical Church ; since 1866
member of the House of Commons ; appointed Minister November 18, 1890.
7. Minuter of Justice. — Dr. Hermann von Sehelling, born April 19, i -
studied philosophy and jurisprudence; entered the State aerviee Is 14, and
1864 the Ministry of Justice ; 1875 Vice-President of the Prussian Olertribunal :
1877 Unterstaatssekretar, and November 1879 Secretly of State in the
Imperial Department of Justice. Appointed Minister 1889.
8. Minister of Ecclesiastical Afairs, Instruction, and Medicinal Affairs. —
Coimt von ZMih Tt Utxtehltr, bom 1836; member of the Technical Com-
mission on Veterinary Institutions ; 1877 member of the Provinzialausschuss
and of the Proviuzialrath of Silesia ; 1883 President of the Regierung at
Oppeln ; 1886 Oberprasident at Posen ; appointed Minister March 12, 1891.
9. Minister of Finance. — Dr. Johannes Miguel, born February 21, 1829:
studied jurisprudence ; entered the State service 1851 ; 1854-64 lawyer and
advocate ; 1870-73 director of the Diskonto-Gesellschaft (Berlin), Member of
the Herrenhaus, Oberbiirgernieister of Frankfurt-am-Main. Appointed Mini-
ster June 1890.
10. Minister of State and Imperial Secret-art/ of State for Foreign Affairs. —
Freiherr Marsehall von Bieberstein, born 1842 ; entered the State service 1865 ;
1882 Attorney-General at Mannheim ; 1878-81 Member of the Reichstag ; 1883
Ambassador of'Baden at Berlin. Appointed Secretary of State and Minister
of State June 1890.
11. Minister of Commerce. — Freiherr von Bcrlcpsch, born March 30, 1843 :
entered the State service ; was Landrathat Kattowitz ; President of the County
of Diisseldorf : Oberprasident of the Rhine 1889; since 1884 Member of the
Staatsrath. Appointed February 1890.
The salary of the President of the Council is 54,000 marks, and that of
each of the other ministers 36,000 marks.
Local Government.
Each of the provinces of the Kingdom is placed under the superintendence
of an 'Oberprasident,' or governor, who has a salary of 21,000 marks. Each
province has also a military commandant, a superior court of justice, a director
of taxes, and a consistory, all appointed by the king. The provinces are sub-
divided into Regierungsbezirke, or counties, and these again into ' Kreise,' or
circles, and the latter into Amtsbezirke or Biirgermeistereien, these again into
Gemeinden or Gutsbezirke. Each county has a president and an administra-
tive board or council ; and the further subdivisions have also their local
authorities. The principal functionaries are all elective ; but the elections
must be confirmed by the Government.
610
GERMAN EMPIRE : — PRUSSIA
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The following table exhibits the area and population of the
whole and of each of the 14 provinces : —
Area :
Population
Pop.
Eng. Sq.
per Square
Miles
1885
1,959,475
1890
Mile, 1890
East Prussia (Ostpreussen) .
14,275
1,958,663
18? •*
West Prussia (Westpreussen)
9,846
1,408,229
1,433,681
145-6
Berlin
24
1,315,287
1,578,794
65,783-1
Brandenburg
15,376
2,342,411
2,541,783
165-4
Pomerania (Pommern) .
11,623
1,505,575
1,520,889
130-8
Posen .....
11,178
1,715,618
1,751,642
156-7
Silesia (Schlesien)
15,557
4,112,219
4,224,458
271-4
Saxony (Sachsen).
9,746
2,428,367
2,580,010
264-7
Schleswig-Holstein
7,273
1,150,306
1,217,437'
167-4
Heliogoland 1
(1)
—
(2,086)
—
Hanover (Hannover) .
14,853
2,172,702
2,278,361
133-4
Westphalia (Wcstfalen)
7,798
2,204,580
2,428,661
311-4
Hesse-Nassau
6,055
1,592,454
1,664,426
274-8
Rhine (Rheinland)
10,418
4,344,527
4,710,391
4521
Hohenzollern
Total . .
441
66,720
66,085
150-0
■J 28
134,463
28,318,470
29,955,281
1 Heligoland is
attached
,o Schleswig-Hc
lstein.
At the close of the reign of Friedrich I., first King of Prussia,
the Kingdom had an area of about 43,400 square miles, and a
population of 1,731,000. The following table illustrates the de-
velopment of Prussia since the beginning of the present century.
The figures for 1797 are estimated merely.
Year
Area in Sq. Miles
Population
Averagr per
S,|. Mile
IYrcentago Of
Annual [noreue
1797
118,000
8,700,000
7:! -7
1816
106,820
10,349,031
96-7
1-0
1831
106,820
13,038,070
122-0
1-7
1858
106,820
17,739,013
166-0
1-3
1861
106,820
18,491,220
173-1
1-4
1867
134,463
23,971,337
177-5
4'8
1871
134,463
24,643,623
182-5
0 65
1875
134,463
25,742,464
191-4
1-04
1880
134,463
27,279,111
202-8
1-24
1885
134,463
28,318,470
210-6
076
189.0
134,463
29,955,281
223
115
AREA AND POPULATION
611
Of the total population in 1885, 45 per cent, lived in towns of 2,000 in-
habitants aii'l upwards, and 55 per cent, in rural communes.
While the town population increased at the rate oi'2'08 percent, per annum
between 1875 and 1880, the country population decreased at the rate of 073
per cent, per annum. The town population in 1885 was 10,554,596, showing
a rate of increase of 174 per cent, per annum since 1880, while the rate of
increase in the country districts wa- only 0 22 per cent, per annum.
The urban and rural population won distributed as follows at the two
( ennui periods, 1880 and 1885 : —
So. of
Towns
Communes
Towns ami Communes, with
2,000 Inhabitants ami upwards
Communes. *c, wtt
than 2,000 Inhabitants
No.
Pop.
Per Ct.
Pop. 1 Per Ct.
1880
1885
1,280
54,7841
65,002 2
1,610
1,648
11,614,385
12,764,674
45-0
1 Including 1 .". ,829 separate 'GntsWzirke.'
- Including 16,403 wnfmrnUn 'CtaWmlrtfc'
The urban population was thus <listributed in 1885 : —
-
Pop. 1S85 — No. Pop. 1885
Large towns1
Medium ,,
12
74
2,880,293 Small towns ; 431 3,844,099 \
2,639,188 Country „ 1,131 3,391,094 ;
1 See p. 538 for the official signification of these terms.
In 1885 the population included 13,893,604 males and 14,424,866 females
— Le. 103"8 females per 100 males; in 1890 there were 14,702,151 males and
;.130 females. With respect to conjugal condition the following was
the distribution : —
— It* i
Females
Total
Unmarried . . . . • 8,671,958
Honied 4,772,862
Widowed . • • i 434,293
Divorced or separatea . i 14,491
8,356,978
4,796,510
1,243,044
28,334
17,028,936
9,56v.
1,677,337
42,825
The division of the population according to occupation is shown in the
table on p. 536, and some particulars as to race on the same page.
In 1SS5 the number of foreigners (exclusive of other Germans) resident in
Prussia was 214,240, of whom 58,827 were Austrians and Hungarians, 43,010
Dutch, 41,066 Russians, 18,178 Danes, 8,204 Swedes and Norwegians, 7,946
British, 6,984 Belgians, 6,903 Americans, 6,853 Swiss, and 4,:35S French ; in
1890 the number of foreigners was 164,798.
K K 2
G12
GERMAN EMPIRE : — PRUSSIA
II. Movement of the Population.
The following table shows the movement of the population for the five
years 1886-90 :—
Year
Marriages
Total Births
Still-born
Illegitimate
Total Deaths
Surplus of
Births
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
231,588
229,999
233,421
240,996
244,657
1,117,881
1,129,073
1,133,998
1,136,588
1,130,120
43,594
43,914
42,780
42,084
37,962
91,933
92,645
90,526
90,413
87,512
786,465 : 321,671
730,225 i 398,848
708,209 425,789
724,803 411,785
755,105 . 375,015
In 1890 3*35 per cent, of the total births were still-born, and 7 '74 percent,
illegitimate.
The emigration from Prussia by German ports and Antwerp in 1882 was
129,894 ; in 1885, 68,307 ; in 1886, 50,461 ; in 1887, 63,036 ; in 1888,
63,103 ; in 1889, 57,957 ; in 1890, 59,702. The following table, indicating
the emigrants from each province in 1890, shows that the northern provinces
contribute most largely : —
Posen ....
11,241
East Prussia
. 2,015
West Prussia
10,986
Silesia .
. 2,246
Pomerania .
8,382
Hesse-Nassau
. 2,775
Hanover
5,929
Saxony
. 1,471
Schleswig-Holstein
3,917
Westphalia .
. 2,356
Brandenburg (with Berlin)
4,214
Hohenzolleni
97
Rhine.
4,037
III. Principal Towns.
The following table gives the population within the present (1890) limits
of the 28 principal towns as at the census of December 1, 1890 : —
Towns
Population
Towns
Population
Berlin
1,578,794
Aachen
103,470
Breslau
335,186
Halle on Saalc
101,401
Cologne (Kiiln) .
Magdeburg.
281,681
Dortmund .
89,663
202,234
Essen .
7S. "06
Frankfort-on-Main
179,985
Charlottenburg
76,859
Hanover
163,593
Knssel
72,477
Konigsberg.
161,666
Erfurt
72,360
Dusseldorf .
144,642
Posen
69,627
Altona
143,249
Kiel .
69,172
K 11, erf eld .
125,899
Wiesbaden .
64,670
Diin/.ig
120,338
Gbrlitz
62,135
Stettin
116,228
Duisburg .
59,285
Barmen
116,144
Frankfort-on-Oder
55,738
Krefeld
105,376
Potsdam
54,125
RELIGION — IN'STItn TI< »X G13
Religion.
Absolute religious liberty is guaranteed by the Constitution.
Nearly two-thirds of the population are Protestants, and rather over
one^third Roman Catholics. The numbers and proportions of the
different creeds at the census of 1885 were as follows : — Protes-
tants, 18,244,405, or 64-4 per cent. ; Roman Catholics, 9,621,763,
or 339 per cent. ; other Christians, 82,030, or *29 per cent. ;
Jews, 366,575, or 1*29 per cent. ; others and unknown, 3,697.
In 1890 there were 19,230,376 Protestants, 10,252,807 Roman
Catholics, 95,349 other Christians, 372,058 Jews, and 4,69 1 others
and unknown. Protestants are in a decided majority in the pro-
vinces of Schleswig-Holstein, Pomerania, Brandenburg. Saxony,
Berlin, Hanover, East Prussia, and I Hem -Nassau (from 98 to
70-3 per cent.) ; Roman Catholics are in the majority in
Hohenzollern (95 per cent.), Rhineland (71), Posen (66), Silesia
(52), Westphalia (52), and West Prussia (50). Jews are most
numerous in Berlin (4'8 per cent.), Posen (3), Hesse-Nassau (2'7),
W t Prussia (1-7), and Silesia (1*2).
The Evangelical or Protestant Chun h is the State Church, and since 1817
has consisted of a fusion of the Lutheran and Calvinistic bodies, from which,
however, there are still a few dissenters. It is governed by ' consistories,' or
boards appointed by Government, one for each province. There are also
synods in most < divles ami provim as, and general synods representing the old
provinces only. Tin- constitution of the Catholic Church differs in the various
provinces. In the Upper Rhenish ecclesiastical province it is fixed by a
concordat between the Government and Pope Pius VII. In every part of the
Monarchy tin- < 'rown has reserved to itself a control over the election of
bishops and priests. There were in 1880, 9,146 Protestant ministers ami 8,300
Roman Catholic prints, besides 300 monks and 4,600 nuns. The higher
Catholic clergy are paid by the State, the Prince Bishop of Breslau receiving
34,000 marks a year, and the other bishops about 22,700 marks. The incomes
of the parochial clergy mostly arise from endowments. In the budget of
1888-89 the sum of 3,928,883 marks is set down as direct expenditure in
Evangelical Churches, and 1,297,306 marks for the Catholic Church.
Instruction.
Education in Prussia is general and compulsory. Every town,
or community in town or country, must maintain a school sup-
ported by local rates, supplemented by the State, and adminis-
tered by the local authorities, who are elected by the citizens, and
called aldermen or town councillors. All parents are compelled
to send their children to one of these elementary schools, in which
all fees are now abolished. No compulsion exists in reference to
a higher educational institution than elementary schools, but
parents who send more than one child to any school supported by
the community have, in many cases, a reduction made in the
charge, and a limited number of pupils whose parents cannot
614
GERMAN EMPIRE : — PRUSSIA
afford to pay the full rate [either enjoy this reduction or are
admitted entirely free, at the discretion of the authorities.1 The
school age is from 6 to 14 years, and the number of children of
that age in 1885 was returned at 5,240,016.
The following table gives the educational statistics of Prussia :—
No.
Teaching
Students or
Staff
Pupils
Universities (1889-90) .
11
1,224
13,715
Gymnasia and Progymnasia (1889-90)
308
5,021
91,458 !
Realgymnasia, Realprogymnasia, and
Higher Realscliulen (1889-90)
182
2,492
46,003
Realschulen and Higher Biirger-
sclralen (1889-90)
50
796
18,896
Public elementary schools (1886)
34,016
65,933
4,838,247
Private ,, ,, ,,
248
446
8,763 !
Middle schools (public) ,,
576
4,589
134,937 |
,, ,, (private) ,,
961
6,120
68,373 1
Public normal schools (1888) .
116
833
9,093 j
The number of elementary schools in Prussia in 1822 was 20,440 ; in 1843,
23,646 ; in 1864, 25,056 ; in 1878, 31,963 ; and in 1886, 34,016.
There are also 3 technical high schools, 2 forestry schools, 2 technical
mining schools, 2 agricultural high schools, with agricultural institutes
connected with universities, 2 veterinary high schools, 175 other schools
for various aspects of agriculture, besides other special schools and State
establishments for art and music.
The Universities, all the high schools, some of the Gymnasia, Real-
gymnasia, and similar schools, as also all the normal schools, are maintained
and administered by the Government, while all the other scholastic institutions
are supported by the community, under control of the Government. (For
number of professors, teachers, and students at each of the Universities of
Prussia in 1889, see table on p. 541.)
The whole of the educational establishments in Prussia arc under the
control of the Minister of Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Atfairs, but
there is a local supervision for every province. The administration of each of
these, as far as regards the Rcgicrungs-Bczirkc, is vested in a President, who
is the head of the Civil Government (Rcijicrung). Hut as far as provinces arc
concerned, the administration of the affairs of the Protestant Church is vested
in the hands of the Consistorimn, under co-operation with the Governments
in respect of church-building affairs ; while the management of the higher
(secondary) schools and the normal schools belongs to the Provincial Scnul-
ColleghUn, under the supervision of the Obcrpriisident, who is the head of the
Civil Government of the province. The ( 'onsistorimn, whieh has no jurisdic-
tion in the school administration, and the Provincial Sehul-Collegiuin are
separate! provincial authorities, not sections of the same authority. As |
general rule, the administration of school funds provided by the State is under
the control of the Civil Government, which likewise takes upon Itself nearly
the whole management of the lower and elementary schools, while the Sehul-
Collegitmi is responsible lor the higher schools, for the general system of in-
struction and discipline therein, the proper selection of school hooks, the e.\-
1 Tlic -system of secondary education common to Prussia and the rest of (iermanv is
described on ]». 589.
RUCTION — JI - RIME. PALPI :
615
amination and appointment of masters, and the examination of those who
leave school for the Unmnil
According to the Constitution of 1850, all persons are at liberty to teach, or
iMLshments for instruction, provided they can prove to the
author and technical qualifications. But private
flililfalimi ■!■ for edu>-ation are placed under the suj>cr-
• m, while all {tuhlic teachers are
servant.-*.
In the budget of 1890-91 the sum of 64,459,503 marks was set down for
of all categories. Of thus amount 60,622,143 marks are ordinary
or ptnofOMUt Bay ditwe. On the ordinary ex|>enditure there were allotted
marks ; higher in.stitutio: r>0 marks ;
-hnical schools of the upper and
lower gnv i " 9 marks.
Justice, Crime, and Pauperism.
Prussia contain^ 16 Ol>erlandesgerichte (see German. Empire, p. 541). The
Oberlanilesgeri' lit at Berlin is eml <'rmmergtrickt7 i is an
ultimate appeal court for summary convictions : though for all cases the court
of final instance is the Reichsgericht at Leipzig. The prosecution in all
criminal cases is condo SUuttMtntcdlU, or public prosecutors, paid
by the State. In 1889 there were 228,038 criminal convictions in Prussia,
or 112-8 for every 10,000 inhabitants above the age of twelve. In 1885,
'_-.•_ '7 room, with 425,035 dependents received public poor-relief ; Le.
3 -36 per cent, of the -population were paupers. The following table shows
the criminal (1889) and pauper (1885) statistics for the different pro-
vinces:—
Provinces
Criminals
P»ui*rs
taMM
Heads of
Total
|S,Wt
Faun'.:- > ■ 1
rV-jt- I;'I«:.*.S
per-
InhaK
IMIIailw
cent.
East Prussia .
■
47.. 349
.132
4-00
West Prussia . |
17,1
1764
31,373
23,100
B-M
Berlin (City).
13.
1314
_ 124
fM
Brandenburg.
72
102 3
36,536
2-64
Pomerania
10,909
103-3
•_v : -
-.305
3-34
Posen .
;03
173-2
_ 106
23,910
3 -ia .
.733
53,854
3 11
Saxony
17.: "
)
'■-■-. r' I •'
-" _•
2 39
'eswig-Holstt-in
7,504
91-4
3 73
Hanover
13,088
84 1
'11
2-46
Westphalia .
11,157
72-4
31.7 "
_ 7,65
2^1
Bean Nassau
10,047
17.770
Rhineland
13
•
93,628
4-06
Hohenzollern
347
'-
1,115
v.
3-00
From these figures it will be seen that there is little or no local connection
between the highest or lowest returns of paupers and criminals.
Finance.
The following table gives the revenue and expenditure during
each of the six years ending March 31 from 1886 to 1891 ;
616
GERMAN EMPIRE : — PRUSSIA
1886, 1887, and 1888 being the final accounts, 1889 and 1890
being revenue accounts, and 1891 the budget estimates :—
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Year Revenue Expenditure
1886
1887
1888
Marks
1,441,532,487
1,473,893,027
1,614,333,929
Marks
1,376,373,993
1,404,741,230 j
1,505,6S8,339
Marks
1889 1 1,741,042,432
1890 j 1,959,908,747
1891 ' 1,591,613,142
Marks
1,604,946,401 ,
1,831,772,073 |
1,591,613,142
The estimates of public revenue and expenditure submitted
by the Government to the Chambers are always prepared to show
an even balance, without surplus or deficit. In the budget
estimates for the year ending March 31, 1892, the sources of
revenue and expenditure were given as follows : —
Expenditure.
Revenue.
Marks
Ministry of Agriculture, Do-
mains, and Forests : —
Domains and forests . . . 83,870.9S4
Various 2,000,150
Total
Ministry of Finance : —
Direct taxes
Indirect taxes .
Lottery . . . .
Marino Bank
Mint
85,871,134
Total Ministry of Finance . 254,604,920
Ministry of Public Works: —
Produce of mines, iron furnaces,
and salt works
State railways .
140,059,612
931,051,445
Total Ministry of Public
Works .... 1,071,111,057
Dotations, and Finance Ad-
ministration : —
Dotations 20."., 695
General finance Administration 237,976,777
Total Dotations, Ac. . . 238,180,472
State Administration : —
Ministry (it Slate . . . 1,593,501
Foreign Otlice .... 4,000
Ministry of Finance . . . 2,004,266
,, ,, Commerce and In-
dustry . . 1,414,016
,, ,, Justice . . . 53,117,300
,, ,, the Interior .
„ „ Public Works . 1,902,886
,, ,, Agriculture, &c . 8,013,277
,, ,, Publie Worship and
Instruction . 2,886,080
„ ,, War ... 350
Total State Aduiinisl ration . 71,067,106
Total estimated revenue 1,720,834,749
A. Working Expenses : —
Ministry of Agriculture, Domains,
and Forests .
,, ,, Finance .
Ministry of Public Works : —
Administration of mines, &c. .
,, ,, railways
Marks
41,110,480
47,227,090
IIS, 984, 978
557,796,588
Total working expenditure 705,126,081
B. Charges on Consolidated
Fund :-
Addition to ' Krondotatiou ' of
the King ....
Interest of publicdebt, inclusive
railway debt ....
Sinking fund of debt.
Annuities, management, &c. .
Chamber of Lords
,, ,, Deputies.
Contribution to imperial funds.
Appanages, annuities, indemni-
ties, Ac
Total charges on Consoli-
dated Fund
8, ,<
224,682,688
.•'.7,109,497
2,277,812
170,490
1,211,770
188,611,473
103,604,693
505,024,274
C.
Kxpendt-
Adminislrativ
ture : —
Ministry Of finance . . . 69,280,110
„ „ Public Works . 21,009,808
,, ,, Commerce and In-
dustry . . 5,279,567
,, „ Justice . . . 89,
„ the Interior . . 47,369,896
,, ,, Agriculture, Domains,
and Forests . 18
,, ,, Public Worship and
Instruction . 90,984,004
„ „ State . . . 4,106,188
,, ,, Foreign Affairs . 684,1
„ „ War . . . 120,252
Total administrative expen-
diture .... 340,229,496
Total ordinar) expenditure 1,070,979,4 >1
Extraordinary expenditure 19,8 i 1,298
Total expenditure
L,T»0,J
FINANCE — ARMY
617
The total expenditure amounts to a little more thau 2/. 10*. per head of
population. The direct taxes amount to 5*. 6<L per head. The income-tax
averages about Is. 5d. per head of population. The other direct taxes are a
land tax, a house tax, a class tax, and a trading tax.
The expenditure for the army and navy is not entered in the budget of
Prussia, but forms part of the budget of the Empire.
The public debt of the Kingdom, inclusive of the provinces annexed in
1866, was, according to the budget of 1891-92, as follow
Amount
Sinking Fund
Mirta
■■fa
National debt bearing interest :
State Treasure Bills ....
54,022,500
6,747
Consolidated debt at 4 per cent.
3,592,667,850
—
,, ,, 3$ per cent.
1,891,575,900
—
,, ,, 3 percent.
65,000,000
—
-consolidated loans
13,839,900
3,395,019
Preference loan of 1855
8,400,000
•2,12-2,800
War debt of the Kunuark and
Neumark
64;
162.7
State railwav debt ....
179,234,009
2.749,548
Debt of provinces annexed in 1866
Total national debt
29,398,171
3,286,936
18,464,321
5,834,782,604
The charges for interest, amortisation, and management of the debt
amounted to 263,487,324 marks in the financial year 1891 -92.
The debt amounts to over 9/. 3s. per head of population, and the annual
charge to almost 9s. jter head. The clear income from the State railways
alone in 1889-90 would much more than i>ay for the yearly interest, amortisa-
tion, and management of the debt.
Army.
The military organisation of the Kingdom, dating from the year 1814, is
>n the principle that every man, eatable of bearing arms, shall receive
military instruction and enter the army for a certain number of years. The
conditions of service have been already described under German Empire.
The peace strength of the Prussian contingent of the Imperial army was
siren a.s follows in the budget estimates of 1891-92 : —
Infantry of the Line .
Riflemen, or ' Jager ' .
Bezirks-Kommandos .
Cavalry .
Artillery (field and foi
Engineers .
Military Train, kc.
Total
Officers,
- -J- ••■• t, me.
9,793
364
411
2,489
3,053
552
2,553
19,215
8,339
4,003
51,201
50,853
9,920
7,300
Ham ■
501,088
20,666
3,192
376,841 | 73,940
618
GERMAN EMPIRE : — PRUSSIA
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
The table on p. 536, showing the division of the population of Germany
according to occupations, indicates which branches are of most importance in
Prussia. About one-half, or twelve millions, of the inhabitants are dependent
upon agriculture as sole or chief occupation. Of the total area 20,853,532
hectares are productively occupied by crops or forests. On June 5, 1882, the
number and areas of separate farms were as follows : —
\ Under 1 hectare 1-10 hectares
10-100 hectares
Above 100 hectares
Total
1,456,724 i 1,178,625
653,941
24,991
3,040,196
These farms supported a population of 11,678,383, of whom 4,625,893 were
actively engaged in agriculture. The areas under the chief crops and the yield
in metric tons per hectare in 1890-91 and the annual average yield for the
period 1878-90 are as follows : —
1890-91
Average Yield
1878-90
Hectares
Yield
Wheat
Rye
Barley .....
Oats
Potatoes .
Hay
1,121,856
4,416,759
880,276
2,566,150
1,980,460
3,291,970
1-34
0-89
1-18
1-14
7-16
2-25
1-24
0-90
115
1-06
7 53
2-19
The largest wheat-crops are grown in Silesia, Rhineland, and East Prussia ;
rye is a common crop all over the Kingdom; barley is produced in greatest
quantities in Silesia and Saxony ; and oats in Silesia, Rhineland, Saxony, and
other northern provinces. Silesia, Brandenburg, and Posen produce the most
potatoes.
In 1889-90 Prussia contained 315 establishments engaged in the manufac-
ture of beet-root sugar, which consumed 7,809,869 metric tons of beet-root in
the production of 930,401 tons of raw sugar, 191,686 tons of molasses, and
24,239 tons of other products. In 1889-90 there were 6,577 breweries in
action in Prussia, which brewed 22,285,241 hectolitres of beer, or 75 litres pel
head of the population.
In 1889-90 there were 6,203 distilleries in operation, which produced
2,622,401 hectolitres of alcohol.
II. Minerals.
The mineral riches of Prussia are very considerable. The coal-mines
especially hare developed greatly during the last half-century. The coal raised
in Prussia amounts to !>:'> percent, of the total coal produced in Germany, ami
is found mostly in Silesia, Westphalia, ami the Whim Province ; lignite being
mainly worked in Saxony. The output of coal increased from 17,571,581 tons
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMERCE
619
in 1848 to 61,436,991 tons in 1889, and the output of lignite in the same time
from 8,118,553 tons to 14,205,047
Considerable • piantities of iron are also raised in Prussia, chiefly in the
Rhine Province, Westphalia, Sii.-^ia, Hanover, and Ban. The follow-
ing table shows the quantities (in metric tons) and the values (in marks) of
the coal and iron ore raised, and of the pig-iron produced in 1889-90: —
-
1889
1890
Quantity
Value
Quantity Value
Lignite .
Iron ore .
Pig iron .
81,436,991
14,205,047
".283
3,218,719
332,581,059
35,328,133
:;i. 1-24,390
163,746,028
rS,816 179,528,844
15, 188,484 89,871,250
4,243,399 31,599,880
3,288,369 196,510,082
Prussia yields about one-half (139,056 tons in 1890) of the world's annual
production of zinc : and copper (21,779 tons) and lead (91,135 tons) are also
found. The total value of the mining products in 1890 was 627,485,034
marks.
Commerce
The trade of Prussia forms an important part of the general trade of the
German customs district (Zollverein), which now includes the whole of the
Empire. This is carried on through the various jwrts of the Baltic and North
Seas, through many navigable rivers and canals, and an extensive network of
roads, railways, and telegraphs. There are 82 chambers and corporations of
commerce in the large towns of tjie Kingdom. The most important
commercial towns are Berlin, Konigsberg, Danzig, Stettin, Posen, Bieslau,
Magdeburg, Altona, Hanover, Frankfort-on-Main, Cologne, Elberl'eld, and
Barmen. There are no separate statistics for the trade of Prussia ; it is
included in that of Germany, which is given on p. 556, et scq.
Internal Communications.
The railway system of Prussia is extensive and complete. In May, 1891,
the length of the system open for traffic was as follows : —
Railways Length in Eng. miles.
1. Owned or administered by the State . . . 15,731
2. Owned and administered by private companies . 1,028
Total .... "16,759
In 1878 the lines owned by the State had a length of only 3,066 miles,
while those owned by private companies extended to 11,066 miles.
The whole of the railways of Prussia will in time become national property.
As will be seen from the budget statement, a very large revenue is derived by
the State from the railways.
REUSS-GREIZ, REUSS SCHLEIZ, SAXE-ALTENBURG. SAXE-COBTJRG-
G0THA, and SAXE-MEININGEN. Foi these see under THURINGIAN
STATES.
620 GERMAN EMPIRE: — SAXE-WEIMAR
SAXE-WEIMAR.
(Grossherzogthum Sachsen- Weimar.)
Reigning Grand-duke.
Karl Alexander, horn June 24, 1818 ; the son of Grand-duke Karl
Friedrieh and of Grand-duchess Marie, daughter of the late Czar Paul I. of
Russia. Succeeded his father July 8, 1853 ; married October 8, 1842, to
Sophie, born April 8, 1824, daughter of the late King Willein II. of the
Netherlands. Offspring : — I. Prince Karl August, heir-apparent, born July
31, 1844 ; married August 26, 1873, to Princess Pauline, born July 25, 1852,
eldest daughter of Prince Hermann of Saxe-Weimar, of which union there
are offspring, (1) Wilhelm Ernest, born June 10, 1876, and (2) Bernhard, born
April 18, 1878. II. Princess Maria, born January 20, 1849 ; married February
6, 1876, to Prince Heinrich VII., of Reuss-Schleiz-Kbstritz. III. Princess
MisabctK, born February 28, 1854 ; married Nov. 6, 1886, to Johann, Duke
of Mecklenburg-Schwerin.
Cousins of the Grand-dukc.
I. Prince Eduard, born October 11, 1823, the son of the late Duke Bern-
hard of Saxe-Weimar ; major-general in the British army ; married Nov. 27,
1851, to Lady Augusta Catherine, born Jan. 14, 1827, daughter of the fifth
Duke of Richmond.
II. Prince Hermann, born August 4, 1825, brother of the preceding ;
married June 17, 1851, to Princess Augusta, born October 4, 1826, youngest
daughter of King Wilhelm I. of Wurtteinberg, of which union there are
offspring six children.
The family of the Grand-duke stands at the head of the Ernestine or
elder line of the princely houses of Saxony, which include Saxe-Sleiningen,
Saxe-Altenburg, and Saxe-Coburg-Gotha ; while the younger, or Albertine
line, is represented by the Kings of Saxony. In the event of the Albertine
line becoming extinct, the Grand-duke of Weimar would ascend the Saxon
throne. Saxe- Weimar was formed into an independent Principality in 1640,
and Eisenach was joined to it in 1644. After a temporary subdivision the
Principality was finally united into a compact whole under Ernest Augustus
(1728-1748), who introduced the principle of primogeniture. On entering
the Confederation of the Rhine, the Principality (furst&nthum) became a
Duchy (Hcrzogtlium). At the Congress of Vienna a considerable increase of
territory, together with the title of Grand-duke, was awarded to Duke Kail
August, known as a patron of German literature.
The Grand-duke has a large private fortune, part of which he obtained in
dowry with his consort, Princess Sophie of the Netherlands. He has also a
civil list of 930,000 marks, or 46,000/., amounting to nearly one-seventh of
the revenues of Saxe-Weimar.
Constitution and Revenue.
The Constitution of the Grand-duchy was granted May 5, 1816 ; bul
slightly altered by the law of October 15, 1850. It was the first liberal
Constitution granted in Germany. According to tliis charter the legislative
power is vested in a House of Parliament of one Chamber. It is composed of
31 members, of whom one is chosen by the noble landowners ; four l>y other
landowners having a yearly income of from 3,000 marks upwards ; live by
AREA AND POPULATION* — RELIGION. ETC
621
other persons of the same income ; and twenty-one by the other inhabitants.
The first-mentioned ten deputies are elected directly, the remaining twenty-one
indirectly. All citizens over twenty-five years of age have the franchise. The
Chamber meets every three years. The executive, acting under the orders of
the Grand-duke, bat responsible to the representatives of the country, i*
divided into three department*.
The budget is granted by the Chamber for a period of three years. That
from 1890 to 1892 comprises an annual income and an annual expenditure of
7,696,040 marks. The State forests yield a large income, while there is a
graduated tax on all incomes, the estimates for which are based on a total
income for the population of 82,371,600 marks. The public debt amounted to
">,724,813 marks on January 1, 1891. The debt is more than covered by the
productive capital of the State.
Area and Population.
The Grand-duchy has an area of 1,388 English square miles, and consists
of the three detached districts of Weimar, Eisenach, and Neustadt, to which
belong also 24 smaller exclaves. The population was 292,933 in 1875 :
309,577 in 1880 ; 313,946 on December 1, 1885 ; 326,091 on December 1, 1890.
During the vear* from 1875 to 1880 the increase was at the rate of 1'10 per
cent, per annum, 028 in 1880-85, 077 in 1885-90. Of the population in
1890, 157,905 were males and 168,186 females ; i.e. 106 5 females per 100
males. Foreigners numbered 1,326. Marriages, 1890, 2,609 ; births, 11,066 :
deaths, 7,521 : surplus of births, 3,545. Among the births 402 (3 "63 per
cent.) were still-born, and 1,128 (102 per cent.) illegitimate.
In 1890, 37 percent, of the population lived in towns with 2,000 inhabitants
and upwards, and 63 per cent, in rural communes. The town of Weimar,
capital and largest town of the Grand-duchy, had 24,546 inhabitants at
the census of December 1, 1890. The number of emigrants in 1883-90 was
as follows : —
1883
1884
1885
1886
L887
1888
1889
1890
1,002 j
661
424
867
354
368
137
97
Religion. Instruction, Justice, and Crime.
1890 Saxe- Weimar contained 312,738 Protestants (95 "9 per cent.),
1,641 Catholics (36 per cent,), 41S other Christians, 1,252 Jews, and 42
classified.
The University at Jena (see Germany, p. 541) is common to the four Saxon
Duchies. The public schools in the Grand-duchy at the close of 1889-90
were as follow* : —
Schools
Elementary schools
Gymnasia ....
Realgymnasia
Hohere Biirgerschulen (2 private)
Normal schools
Drawing schools .
Deaf-mute and blind asvlum .
Bo.
1
459
3
2
27
4
47
2
36
2
6
1
11
Pupils
54,137
767
499
540
158
411
65
622 GERMAN EMPIRE: — SAXONY
Saxe-Weimar contains two Landgerichte, while the district of Neustadt
is subject to the jurisdiction of the Landgericht at Gera. The Ober-
landesgericht at Jena is a common court of appeal for the four Saxon
Duchies, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, the two Reuss Principalities, and parts of
Prussia. In 1888, 2,010 persons, i.e. 89"1 per 10,000 inhabitants above the
age of 12, were convicted of crime in Saxe-Weimar. In 1885, 4,198 persons,
with 2,601 dependents, received public poor relief, i.e. 21-66 per 1,000
inhabitants.
Production.
Nearly one-half of the population arc supported by agriculture, and
224,625 hectares, or nearly two-thirds of the entire area, are cultivated. The
number of separate agricultural tenements on June 5, 1882, was as follows : — ■
Under 1 Hect.
14,632
1-10 Hect. 10-100 Hect. I Over 100 Hect. I Total
19,408 6,016 147 t 40,203
These farms supported a population of 132,057, of whom 55,417 were
actively engaged in agriculture.
There were 193 miles of railway in 1891.
British Minister Plenipotentiary. — Sir Edward Malet, G.C. B., G.C. M.G.
Consul- General. — Baron von Tauchnitz (Leipzig).
SAXONY.
(KONIGREICH SaCHSEN.)
Reigning King.
Albert, born April 23, 1828 ; eldest son of King Johann and of Queen
Amalie, daughter of King Maximilian I. of Bavaria. Educated for a
military career, and entered the army of Saxony 1843, and of the Confederated
States of Northern (lerinany 1867. Commander of the German army of the
Meuse in tlie war against Prance, 1870-71. Nominated lield-nmrshai in the
German army 1871. Succeeded to the throne, at the death of his father,
October 29, 1873. Married June 18, 1853, to Queen Caroline, born August 5,
1 833, daughter of Prince Gustav of Vasa.
Sister and Brother of tlic King.
I. Princess Elisabeth, born February 4, 1830 ; married April 22, 1850, to
Prince Ferdinand of Sardinia ; widow February 10, 1855.
II. Prince Gcorg, Duke of Saxony, born August 8, 1832 ; married May
11, 1859, to Infanta Maria Anna, horn' July 21, 1848 (died February '., 1884),
daughter of King Ferdinand of Portugal. Nominated Held marshal in the
German army .June 15, 1888. Offspring of the union are six children ; — 1.
Princess jMatilde, horn March 19, 1868. 2. Prince Friedrieli August, born
May 25, 1865 ; married November 5, 1891, to Princess Luisc of Tuscany.
8, Princess Maria .Tosefa, born May 81, 1867 ; married October 2, 1886, to
Archduke Otto of Austria. 4. Prince Johann Georg, born July 10, 1869.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
5. Prime Max, bora November 17, 1870. 6. Prince Albert, born February
25, 1875.
The royal house of Saxony counts amongst the oldest reigning families in
Europe. It gave an emperor to Germany as early a- ingofthe
tenth century \ bat the bouse subsequently spread into numerous brai
tin- elder of which, called the Ernestine line, is represented at this moment
by the ducal families of Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe-Meiin
and Saxfr-Weimar : while the younger, the Albertine line, lives in the rulers
of the King, loin of Saxony. In 1806 the Elector Friedrich Augustus III.
(176S-1827), on entering the Confederation of the Rhine, assumed the title of
King of Saxony, whJeh was confirmed in 1815. The following were the
predecessors of the present King : —
Friedrich August I. (1763) 1806-1827
Antonv 1827-1836
Friedrich August II. . . . 1836-1854
Johann 1854-1873
King Albeit has a civil list of 2,940,000 marks per annum. Exclusive
of this sum are the appanages, or dotations of the princes and princesses,
amounting annually to (1890 -91) 366,779 marks. The formerly royal domains
consisting chiefly of extensive forests, became, in 1880, the property of the
Stat--.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Saxony dates from September 4, 1831 ; but has
undergone alterations and modifications by the laws of June 19, 1846 ; March
31, 1849 ; May 5, 1851 : November 27, 1860 ; October 19, 1861 ; December
3, 1868 ; and October 12, 1874. According to the terms of the Constitution,
the crown is hereditary in the male line ; but, at the extinction of the latter,
also in the female line. The sovereign comes of age at the completed eight-
eenth year, and, during his minority, the nearest heir to the throne takes the
regency. The legislature is jointly in the King and Parliament, the latter
consisting of two Chambers. The Upper Chamber comprises the princes of the
blood royal ; the proprietors of mediatised domains, now held by five owners ;
twelve deputies elected by the owners of other nobiliar estates : ten noble pro-
prietors and five other members without restriction nominated by the King for
life ; the burgomasters of eight towns ; and the superintendents and deputies
of four collegiate institutions, of the University of Leipzig, and of the Roman
Catholic chapter of St. Peter at Bautzen. The Lower Chamber is made up of
thirty-five deputies of towns and forty-five representatives of rural communes.
The qualification for a seat in the Upper House, as well as the right of election
to the same, is the possession of a landed estate worth at least 3,000 marks a
year ; which qualification, however, is not required by the er-officio deputies
of chapters and universities. To be a member of the Lower House, no fixed
income is required ; and electors are all men above twenty-five years of age
who pay three marks annual land-tax or other direct contributions, or who own
land with a dwelling-house. The members of both Houses, with the excep-
tion of the hereditary and certain of the ex-officio members, are each allowed 12
marks per day during the sittings of Parliament, and an allowance for travelling
expenses. Both Houses have the right to make propositions for new laws.
No taxes can be made, levied, or altered without the sanction of both
Chambers.
The executive is in the King and a Council of Ministers, namely, the
Ministers of Justice, of Finance, of the Interior, of War, of Foreign Affairs, of
Education, and Ecclesiastical Affairs.
G24
GERMAN EMPIRE : — SAXONY
Area and Population.
Saxony has an area of 5,787 English square miles. The following table
shows the area and population of the whole and of each of the four Kreishaupt-
niannschaften, or chief governmental divisions : —
Kreishauptmannschaftcn
Area, Eng-
lish Sq.
Miles
Population. Density
Dec. 1885.
Dec. 1890 Mile
Dresden
Leipzig ....
Bautzen.
Zwickau
Total .
1,674
1,378
953
1,782
860,558
774,036
356,560
1,190,849
950,454 : 567 7
869,371 630-9 :
370,690 388-8
1,309,998 ' 735-3
5,787
3,182,003
3,500,513 604-9
In 1815, when the Kingdom received its present limits, the population was
1,178,802. The growth of the population since the first satisfactory census is
illustrated in the following table :—
Density
Annual
Density i Annual
Year
Population
per Sq.
Increase
Year
Population
per Sq. : Increase
Mile
per Cent.
Mile , per Cent.
1834
1,595,668
272
—
1875
2,760,586
471 j 1-99
1846
1,836,433
313
1-3
1880
2,972,805
507 1-54
1855
2,039,176
348
1-2
1885
3,182,003
543 '■ 1-41
1864
2,337,192
399
1-6
1890
3,500,513
598 i 2-00
1871
2,556,244
436
1-8
Of the total population in 1890, 1,594,562, or 45 -6 per cent., live in towns,
and the remainder, 54 "4 per cent., in rural communes.
The urban population increased in 1871-75 at the rate of 15'1 per cent. ;
1875-80, 14-7 percent. ; 1880-85, 12-3 percent. ; and 1885-90, 12 -15 per cent.
The rural population increased in 1871-75 at the rate of only 0-S per cent. :
and 1880-85, 0-02 per cent. ; in 1875-80 it decreased 0'4 per cent. ; 1885-90,
8 "28 per cent.
The population in 1885 included 1,542,405 males, and 1,639,598 females,
i.e. 106*3 females per 100 males. The conjugal condition of the population
was as follows : —
-
Males
Females
Total
Unmarried
Married ....
Widowed ....
Divorced or separated.
925,173
572,195
42,291
2,746
922,684
573,570
137,560
5,784
1,847,857
1,145,765
179,851
8,530
The division of the population according to occupation is shown in the table
on page 536 Besides the German population, Saxony contains (1885) 49,916
AREA AND POPULATION— RELIGION
Wends, most of them in the district of Bautzen. In 1885 there were (besides
other Germans) 43,126 foreigners.
The movement of the population is illustrated by the following table : —
Year
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
Marriages
Total Births
Stillborn Illegitimate
Total Deaths
Surplus
..r
Births
29,286
29,849
30,153
30,327
31,790
137,935
141,825
142.
145,697
147,978
5,083 18,040
5,294 18,406
5,311 18,388
5,506 18,384
5,339 18,661
95,851
101,478
.'140
92,387
95,331
{,084
40,352
49,037
,;io
'.17
The emigration from Saxony, embarking at German and Dutch ports, was
as follows : —
1883
1884
1885
lS8t>
1S87
2,454
1888
I8M
1890
6,281
(,634
2,885
2,388
2,297
25,394
23,404
22, 129
21,517
21,498
There were, in December, 1890, eleven towns with a population, according
to the provisional results of the census, of more than 20,000, namely :—
Leipzig1 . . . 353,272 Zittau .
Dresden . , . 276,085 ' Olauchau .
Chemnitz . . . 138,95.". Meerane .
Plauen . . 47,008 I Zantzen .
Zwickau . . 44,202 j Reichenlmch
Freiberg 28, K
Religion.
Although the royal family is Roman Catholic in religion, the vast majority
of the inhabitants of Saxony are Protestants. The distribution of the different
creeds was as follows in 1885 :— Protestants, 3,075,961, or 96*6 per cent. ;
Roman Catholics, 87,762, or 276 per cent. : other Christians, 10,263, or U2
at : .bws, 7,755, or 24 per cent. : unclassified, 262. In 1887 the
ministers ' in evangelicis.' The chief governing body is the Landes-Consistorium
<>i National Consistory at Dresden : and it also has a representative Synod
{Synode) with 29 clerical and 35 lay members. Ecclesiastically the Kingdom
is divided into 960 parishes. °
Instruction.
The Kingdom is divided into 28 school-inspection districts. At the end of
1890 there were in Saxony 2,171 public Protestant and 39 Roman Catholic
common schools (Volksschulen), 77 private and chapter schools and lQf?
advanced common schools (Fortbildungssehulen), or altogether 4 230 common
1 With suburbs incorporated in 1891.
8 8
626 GERMAN EMPIRE: — SAXONY
schools, with a total attendance of 670,354. In addition there were 1
polytechnic at Dresden, 2 Landesschulen, 15 Gymnasia, 10 Realgymnasia, 22
Realschulen, 19 seminaries, and 2 high girls' schools and 6 private high schools
— altogether 77 educational establishments, with a total attendance of 17,906,
exclusive of the University and a large number of industrial, commercial, agri-
cultural, musical, and art institutes.
The University of Leipzig, founded in 1409, and attended in the summer
of 1891 by 3,242 students, is the third largest in Germany.
Justice, Crime, and Pauperism.
Saxony has one Oberlandesgericht, at Dresden, 7 Landgerichte, and 103
Amtsgerichte. (See German Empire, p. 532.) The Reichsgericht has its seat
at Leipzig. In 1888 20,051 persons, or 88 per 10,000 of the population over
12 years of age, were convicted of crime. The number in 1885 was 20,521, in
1886 20^437, and in 1887 20,277. In 1889, 8,566 persons (5 percent, females)
were punished as beggars or vagrants.
In 1890, 52,869 persons or 1 '51 percent, received public poor relief. In
1885, 53,190 persons, with 35,412 dependents (in all 2'78 per cent, of the
population) received public poor relief.
Finance.
The financial period extends over a term of two years. In the financial
accounts, both the revenue and expenditure are divided into ' ordinary ' and
' extraordinary,' the latter representing disbursements for public works. The
budget estimate for the two years 1890-91 was 92,620,414 marks, ami was
balanced by the expenditure ; there was also an extraordinary revenue and
expenditure of 31,384,450 marks More than one-half of the total revenue is
derived from domains, forests,, and State railways. The net revenue from
railways alone amounted in 1891 to 30,434,835 marks. The chief branch
of expenditure is that of interest and sinking fund of the pubKc debt, amount-
ing to 31,237,682 marks for the years 1890 and 1891.
The public debt amounted in 1891 to 631,967,250 marks. The debt was
incurred almost entirely for the establishment and purchase of a network of
railways and telegraphs, and the promotion of other works of public utility.
The total capital invested in State railways at the end of 1889 was 650,199,463
marks.
The total income of all classes of the population in 1890 was estimated at
1,495,910,639 marks.
Production and Industry.
Saxony is, in proportion to its size, the busiest industrial State in the
Empire, rivalled only dv the leading industrial provinces of Prussia. Textile
manufactures form the leading branch of industry, but mining and metal-
working are also important. Agriculture supported directly and indirectly
little more than a sixth of the population in 1885.
In 1890, of the total area, 977,274 hectares were under cultivation, viz. :—
797,616 hectares (81 "63 per cent.) arable and garden : 172,150 hectares (17*60
per cent.) meadow; 6,797 hectares (0'69 per cent.1) pasture; 711 hectares
(0'08 per cent.) vineyard ; besides 109,120 hectares (1NS:U under wood, of
which 175,077 belonged (1890) to the State. The number of separate farms
on June 5, 1882, was as follows : —
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMUNICATIONS • '»_.
Under 1 Hectare
1-10 Hectares
10-100 Hectare*
Over 100 Hectares Total
94,783
69,171
28,209 758 192,921
These farms sup]>orted a population of 578,592, of whom 285,414 were
actively engaged in agriculture.
The areas (in hectares) under the chief crops, and the yield per hectare in
metric tons (of 1,000 kilogrammes) at the undernoted dates were as follows : —
_
Ana 1 in metric ton*
1888
50,500
212,104
32,652
183,233
118,846
171,763
1890
1888
1890 I Arer. 1878-86
Wheat .
Rye
Barley .
Oats
Potatoes .
1 lay, &c.
51,256
213,507
31,090
187,492
118,778
172,150
1 71
1 -21
i-61
156
10-25
1 95 1 64
1-33 1 31
154 148
\M 1-51
9 59 10 08
313 3-16
1
On December 1, 1890, the factory ham 1> in Saxony were returned at 369,258,
of whom 245,896 were males and 123,362 females : 146, 4S4 were engaged in the
textile industry, 46,990 in the manufacture of machinery and tools, 39,512 in
industries connected with stone and earth, and 25,010 in those connected with
paper ami leather. The total number of factories and industrial establish-
ments was 13,386, of which 5,039 harl steam power. The following shows the
mining statistics for the years 1885-89 : —
Coal Mines
Year
No. of
Mines
188.3
1888
1SS9
169
l.v.i
158
153
MS
Hands
21,003
21,606
•21. 70(5
21.3S7
22,2S1
Production in
metric tons
Coal Lignite
Other Mines
Pn
Total
Value v ,1 duce v f
in 1,000 C,°l 'Hands in £?;°* Hands
marks *>»« .1,000
marks
Pro- !
duce in
1,000 j
marks
4,160,335 751,790 31,796
4.-J1S.144 7::::.!>1^ 34 443
4,293,112 766,733 .;7.4:.3
4,358,8
4,234,713 I 849,521 ! 40,353
140
137
131
132
130
619 3<i9 39,297
S,053 ... H9.770 :
7,673 5,6 »,379 42.4'.'2
14.094 '
1,990 175 29,460
In 1889 the Saxon iron-foundries produced 177,489 metric tons of finished
iron, representing a value of 31,799,983 marks. In 1889-90, 755 In.
produced 4,381,459 hectolitres of beer; and 619 distilleries consumed
129,961,000 kilogrammes of raw material in the manufacture of spirits.
Communications.
In 1891 there were 1,624 miles of railway in Saxony, all owned by the State.
British Minister. — George Strachey.
British Cumul-Gcncral. — Baron von Tauchnitz (Leipzig).
s s 2
628 GERMAN EMPIRE: — SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE
SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE.
(FURSTENTHUM SciIAUMBURG-LlPPE.)
Reigning Prince.
Adolf, born Aug. 1, 1817, the son of Prince Georg ; succeeded his father
Nov. 21, 1860 ; married, Oct. 25, 1824, to Princess Hermina, horn Sept, 29,
1827, daughter of the late Prince Gcorg of Waldeck.— Offspring : — I. Princess
Hermina, horn Oct. 5, 1845 ; married, Feb. 16, 1876, to Maximilian, Duke of
Wiirttemberg, who died 28 July, 1888. II. Prince Gcorg, born Oct. 10, 1846 ;
married, April 16, 1882, to Maria Anna, Duchess of Saxonv ; offspring :
Adolf, born Feb. 23, 1883 ; Moritz born March 11, 1884 ; Ernst Wolrad,
born April 19, 1887. III. Prince Hermann, born May 19, 1848. IV. Princess
Ida, born July 28, 1852 ; married Oct. 8," 1872, to Heinrich XXII. of Reuss-
Greiz. V. Prince Otto, born Sept. 13, 1854. VI. Prince Adolf, born July 20,
1859 ; married, June 16, 1890, to Princess Victoria of Prussia, daughter of the
late Emperor Friedrich III. The reigning house of Lippe is descended from a
count of the same name who lived in the sixteenth century.
Constitution and Finance.
The Principality has a Constitution, dated November 17, 1868, under
which there is a legislative Diet of 15 members, two of whom are appointed by
the Prince, one nominated by the nobility, one by the clergy, one by certain
functionaries, and the rest elected by the people. To the Prince belongs part
of the legislative and all the executive authority.
For the financial year 1890-91 the actual revenue was stated at 730,145
marks, and the actual expenditure at 733,176 marks. There was in 1891 a
public debt of 510,000 marks, besides 90,000 marks as share of the paper-
money of the Empire.
Area and Population.
The census of 1875 gave a population of 33,133; of 1880, of 85,874 ; of
1885, of 37,204 ; and of 1890, of 39,183 (19,435 males, 19,7 IS females), on an
Biea of 131 English square miles. .Marriages, 1889, 311 ; births, 1,814 J
deaths, 067 ; surplus of births, 647. Of the births 37 (2*81 MT cent.) were
stillborn, and :;i (2*60 percent.) illegitimate. Emigrants; 1883, 122; 1884,
42 ; 1885, 75 ; 1886, 45 ; 1887, 103 ; 1888, 66 ; 1889, 31 ; 1890, 3:.. Except
521 Catholics and ^!»r> Jews (1885) the inhabitants are Protestant Buckeburg,
the residence town, has 5,206 Inhabitants (1885).
Agricultural enclosures (1882), 6,488, with a population of 12,548, of
whom 5,088 were actively engaged wa the farms, or these enclosures 8,608
were less than 1 hectare each ; 2,211 ranged from 1 to less than 10 ; 607 from
10 to less than 100 hectares; while only <i had an area of 100 hectares and.
upwards.
The State had 1 5 miles of railway in June 1891.
British Conmd-Gcncral. — Hon. Charles S, Dundaa (Hamburg).
SCHWARZBURG-RTJDOLSTADT ami SCHWARZBURG-SONDERS-
HAUSEN, see under THURINGIAN STATES.
THE THURINGIAN STATES.
The Grand-Duchy or - uar, the Duchies of Saxe-Meiningen, Saxe-
Cohurg-Gotha, and Saxe-Altenburg, and the Principalities of Sehwarzburg-
Rudolstadt, Sehwarzburg-Sondershausen, Reuss-Greiz (<>
Schleiz-Lobenstein (jungerc Linie), situated close beside each other in the part
of Central Germany known as Thuringia (Thiiringen), are frequently grouped
together as the Thuringian States. Saxt -Weimar-Eisenach, the largest and
most important, lias been separately treated ; but the other seven an
given together for the sake of more convenient comparison. The reigning
family, constitution, and revenue of each are first given separately, followed
by the tabulate! statist
RETJSS. Elder Branch.
(Fi KsTEvriivM Extras — Aelteue Lime.)
Reigning Prince. — Heinrich XXII., born March 28, 1846; the son of
Prince Heinrich XX. ami of Princess Caroline of Heese-Homburg : succeeded
his father Nov. 8, 1859 : married, Oct. 8, 1872, to Prim - haumhurg-
Lippe, born July 28, L852. Offspring-: — L ■ XIV.. lxtni Mareh 20,
II. Emma, l>orn Jan. 17, 1SS1. III. Maria, born March 26, 1882.
IV. Caroline, born July 13, 1884. V. Ihnnine, born Dec. 17, 1887. VI.
Ida, born Sept. 4, 1890.
The primely family of Bean knees its descent to the Emperor Heinrich I.
of Germany, surnamed 'The Fowler,' who died in 936. All the heads of the
. ever since the commencement of the eleventh century, have been called
Heinrich. In the year 1701 it was settled, in a family council, that the
figures should not ran higher than a hundred, beginning afterwards again at
one. The present sovereign of Renss-tJiei/ has no civil list, but a great part
of the territory over which he reigns is his private property.
Constitution and Finance.- The Constitution, Waring date Man:
1867, provides for a legislative body of 12 members, 3 nominated by the
sovereign, 2 by the nobility, 3 elected by towns, and 4 by rural districts. The
public revenue, balanced by the expenditure, was set down as 1,081,778 marks
for 1891. There is a public debt of 168,750 mark-.
There \\<-re 22 miles of railway in June 1891.
RETJSS, Younger Branch.
(FiJRSTF.XTHrM ReIss — Jr/HGKRE LlXIE. )
Reigning Prince. — Heinrich XIV., born May 28, 1832 ; the son of Prince
Heinrich LXVII. and of Princess Adelaide 1 his father July 11,
. married, Feb. (3, 1858, to Princess Louisa of Wiirttemberg, who died
July 10, 1886. Offspring : — I. Prince Hcinrkh XXVII., lorn November 10,
married November 11, 18S4, to Princess Elise, born September 4, 1864,
daughter of Prince Hermann of Hohenlohe-Langenhurg ; two children. II.
Princess Elisabeth, born October 27, 1859; consort since Nov. 17. 185
Prince Hermann of Solms-Braunl
The reigning house forms a younger branch of the Beuss family. As in
Greiz, a great part of the territory of the Principality is the private
property of the reigning family.
630 GERMAN EMPIRE: — THURINGIAN STATES
All the princes are called Heinrich, and to distinguish them they have
numbers attached to their names, beginning and ending in each century.
Number I. is given to the first prince of the branch born in the century,
and the numbers follow in the order of birth until the century is finished,
when they begin again with number I.
Constitution and Finance. — The Principality has a Constitution, pro-
claimed November 30, 1849, and modified April 14, 1852, and June 20, 1856.
Under it restricted legislative rights are granted to a Diet of sixteen mem-
bers, of whom three are elected by those paying the highest income-tax,
and twelve by the inhabitants in general. The head of the collateral
Reuss-Kostritz family is hereditarily a member. The Prince has the sole
executive and part of the legislative power. In the administration of the
State a cabinet of three members acts under his direction.
The annual estimated public income was given as 1,771,220 marks
for the financial period 1890-92, with an expenditure of 1,754,341 marks.
There is a public debt (1891) of 1,040,550 marks. Railways (1891), 35
miles.
SAXE-ALTENBTJRG.
(Heiizogthum Sachsen-Altenbuug. )
Reigning Duke. — Ernst, born September 16, 1826 ; the son of Duke Georg
of Saxe-Altenburg and Princess Marie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. Suc-
ceeded to the throne at the death of his father, August 3, 1853 ; married
April 28, 1853, to Princess Agnes, of Anhalt-Dessau, born June 24, 1824.
Offspring : — Princess Marie, born Aug. 2, 1854 ; married April 19, 1873,
to Prince Albrecht of Prussia, Regent of Brunswick. Brollwr of the Duke ',
Prince Moritz, born October 24, 1829 ; married October 15, 1862, to Princess
Augusta of Saxe-Meiningen, by whom he has issue three daughters and a
son — 1. Maria Anna, born March 14, 1864, married April 16, 1882, to Prince
George of Schaumburg-Lippe ; 2. Elizabeth, born January 25, 1865,
married April 17, 1884, to Grand-duke Constantine of Russia ; 3. Ernst,
born August 31, 1871 ; 4. Louise, born August 11. 1873.
There was a separate Duchy of Saxe-Altenburg from 1603 till 1672, but
its territories were afterwards incorporated with Saxe-Gotha until 1826,
when the Duke of H ildburghausen, which had been a separate Duchy since
1680, exchanged Hildburghausen for Altenburg, and became Duke Frederick
of Saxe-Altenburg. In 1874 the Duke resigned his right to a civil list,
in exchange for a charge \ipon the State or crown-domains (Domiinen-
fideicommiss).
Constitution and Finance. — The Constitution bears date April 29, 1831,
but was altered at subsequent periods. The legislative authority is rested
in a Chamber composed of thirty representatives, of whom nine arc chosen
by the highest taxed inhabitants, nine by the inhabitants of towns, and
twelve by those of rural districts. The Chamber meets every three years,
and the deputies are elected for two sessions.
The executive is divided into three departments, namely — 1, of the
Ducal House, Foreign and Home Affairs ; 2, of Justice ; 3, of Finance. The
budget is voted for three years, the estimates of the last period, 1 N90-92,
exhibiting an annual revenue of 8,822,554 marks, and aii expenditure of
3,322,53'.) marks. Two-thirds of the revenue are derived from the State
domains and the remainder from indirect taxes. The public debt in .Inly
1891 amounted to 887,450 marks, covered seven times over by the active
Hinds of the State.
Many of the inhabitants of the Duchy are of Slavonic origin. The peasant!
are reputed to be more wealthy than those of any other part of Germany,
SAXE-COBFRG AXD GOTHA C31
and the rule prevails among them of the youngest son becoming the heir
to the landed property of the father. Estates are kept for generations in the
same family, ami seldom parcelled out. The rural population, however, has
been declining in numbers for the la-st thirty years.
There are 102 miles of railway.
British Consul-General. — Baron von Tauehnitz (Leipzig).
SAXE-COBTTBG AND GOTHA.
(Herzogthum Sai hsex-Oiu'uo-Gotha.)
Eeigning Duke. — Ernst II., born June 21, 1818 ; the son of Duke Ern-t I.
of Saxe-Cpburg-Saalfeld and of the Duchess Dorothea Luise, Princess Lui.se of
Gotha-Altenburg. Succeeded to the throne, at the death of his father, January
29, 1844. Married May 3, 1842, to Princess Alexandrine, born December 6,
1820, the daughter of the late Grand -duke Leopold of Baden.
The Duke being childless, the heir-appaient is his nephew, Prince Alfred,
Duke of Edinburgh, born August 6, 1844, the son of Prince Albert of Saxe-
Coburg-Gotha, and of Victoria, Queen of Great Britain.
The immediate ancestor of the reigning family of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha was
Duke John Ernst, seventh son of Duke Ernst the Pious, who succeeded
his brother Albrecht, Ernst's second son, in 1699, in the Duchy of Saxe-
Coburg, to which he added Saalfeld. John Ernst's two sons ruled in com-
mon, under the title Dukes of Saxe-Cobnrg-Saalfeld ; but their single successor
Ernst Frederick I. (1764-1800) introduced the principle of primogeniture.
On the extinction of the line of Saxe -Gotha in 1826, Ernst III. received
Gotha in exchange for Saalfeld, which was assigned to Saxe-Meiningen,
ami assumed the title of Ernst I. of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. The family is
in possession of a large private fortune, accumulated chiefly by Duke
Ernst I., to whom the Congress of Vienna made a present of the Princi-
pality of Lichtenberg. This Principality he sold, September 22, 1834,
to the King of Prussia, for a sum of two million thalers, and other advantages.
Besides a vast private income, Duke Ernst II. has, as reigning Duke, a
civil list of 100,000 marks out of the income of the Gotha domains, and
the surplus of 100,503 marks is paid into the public exchequer, while the
rest is divided between the Duke and the State. The Duke further receives
one-half of the excess of revenue over expenditure from the Coburg domain
lands.
Constitution and Finance. — The Staatsgrundgesetz, or fundamental law
of the two Duchies, proclaimed May 3, 1852, vests the legislative power in
the Duke in conjunction with two separate chambers, one for the Duchy of
Coburg and the other for the Duchy of Gotha. For the common affairs of
the two Duchies the two Chambers meet in common. The Coburg Chamber
consists of eleven, and that for Gotha of nineteen members, chosen in as
many electoral divisions, by the indirect vote of all the electors. Even-
man above the age of twenty-five who pays direct taxes has a vote, and
even- fully-qualified citizen above thirty may be elected a deputy to the
Landtag or Chamber. Deputies resident in Coburg or Gotha receive six
marks per diem, the others ten marks per diem and travelling expenses.
New elections take place every four years. The two assemblies meet separately,
usually in the first and last years of their duration, otherwise when necessary ;
the ' United Parliament ' meets alternately at the towns of Coburg and of
Gotha.
The domain budget is voted for the term of four years for Gotha and for
Coburg, and in the financial State-accounts a distinction is made between
632 GERMAN EMPIRE: — THURINGIAN STATES
domain-revenue and State-revenue. The annual domain revenue for Coburg
1891-97 is estimated at 420,500 marks, and expenditure 236,500 marks ;
revenue for Gotha 1889-93, 2,032,693 marks, expenditure 1,191,680 marks.
The special State-revenue of Coburg and Gotha for each of the years 1885-91
is set down at 1,647,800 marks, and expenditure 2,074,408 marks. The
public debt, in 1890, amounted to 3,318,101 marks for Coburg, and to 140,198
marks for Gotha (1891), both being largely covered by productive invest-
ments.
There are 110 miles of railway.
British Charge d' Affaires. — Ralph Milbanke.
Consul-General.— Baron von Tauchnitz (Leipzig).
SAXE-MEININGEN.
(HbEZOGTHTTM SaOHSKN-MeININGEX.)
Reigning Duke. — Georg II., born April 2, 1826 ; the son of Duke Bernhard
I. Succeeded, on the abdication of his father, September 20, 1866. Married,
May 18, 1850, to Princess Charlotte of Prussia, who died March 30, 1855 ;
married, in second nuptials, October 23, 1858, to Princess Feodora of
Hohenlohe-Langcnburg, born July 7, 1839, who died February 10, 1872 ;
married, in third nuptials, morganatically, March 18, 1873, to Ellen Franz,
Baroness von Heldburg. Offspring :■ — I. Prince Bernhard, born April 1, 1851 ;
married February 18, 1878, to Princess Charlotte, eldest daughter of the late
German Emperor Friedrich Wilhelm ; offspring of the union is a daughter,
Feodora, born May 12, 1879. II. Princess Marie Elizabeth, born September
23, 1853. III. Prince Ernst, born September 27, 1859. IV. Prince Friedrich,
born October 12, 1861 ; married April 25, 1889 to Adelheid, Countess of
Lippe Biesterfeld, offspring a son and daughter.
The line of Saxe-Meiningeii was founded by Duke Bernhard, third son of
Ernst I. of Saxony, surnamed the Pious, the friend and companion in arms
of King Custaf Adolf of Sweden. The Duchy was only one-third its present
size up to the year 1826, when, by the extinction of the ancient family of
Saxc-Gotha, the territories of 11 ildburghausen and Saalfeld fell to the father
of the present Duke. The Duke lias a civil list of 391,286 marks paid out of
the produce of the State domains. Besides these he receives the half of the
surplus, which amounts to 302,290 marks every year.
Constitution and Finance. — The charter of the Duchy hears date
August 23, 1829, and is supplemented by the laws of 1870 and 1S73. It
provides for a legislative organization, consisting of one Chamber of
twenty-four representatives. Foui of these are elected by those who pay
the highest land and property tax, and lour by those who pay income tax
on an income of 3,000 marks or more ; sixteen hy all other inhabitants.
The Chamber meets as often as necessary, and In an] case for the an
inent of the budget every three years, and new elections take place e\ei\
six. _ ■
The budget estimates for each of the three financial years 1890 !>2 stated
the revenue at 8,893,780 marks, and the expenditure a1 5,716,280 marks.
Nearly one-half of the revenue is drawn from State domains, formerly belong-
ing to the ducal family. The chief items of expenditure are the public interest
of the debt, and the, expenses for the administration of the State. The debl
in L890 ai inted to 12,580,917 marks. Most of the del.) is covered hy pro-
ductive state capital.
There were 121 miles of vai 1 way iii June 1SS9.
///■// i/th t'misn/.ii't in nil. Karon von Tauchnitz (Leipzig),
A -HWARZBrRO-SOXDERSHArSEX
SCHWARZBURG RTJDOLSTADT.
(FOKtmHTUUM S< HWAR2BrRG-RriMlLSTAI>T.)
Reigning Prince. — Gunther. l>orn August 21, 1852, succeeded his cousin
Prince Georg, Jan. 21, 1890.
The Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt line is a younger branch of the house of
Schwarzburg, being descended from Johann Gunther, who died in the middle
of the seventeenth century. The present sovereign has a civil list of 291,817
marks, exclusive of the revenue of the State domains, property of the reigning
family.
Constitution and Finance. — The fundamental law of the Principality is
institataon of March 21, 1854, modified Xoveinber 16, 1870. For all
legislative measures the Prince has to obtain the consent of a Chamber of
Representatives of sixteen members, four of whom are elected by the highest
assessed inhabitants, and the nst returned by the general imputation. The
deputies meet every three years, and their mandate expires at the end of two
sessions.
There are triennial budgets. For the i>eriod 1891-93 the annual public
income and expenditure were settled at 2,542,950 marks each. T!
a public debt of 4,018,688 marks, nearly three-fourths covered by productive
investments.
There are 19 miles of railway.
SCHWARZBURG SONDERS RAUSEN.
(FURsTEXTHTM S- HWAItZinKtJ-SoSDF.KSHAr.SES.)
Reigning Prince— Karl II., born August 7, 1830 ; succeeded his father,
Prince Gunther II.. .Tidy 17, 18S0 : married, June 12, 1869, to Princess 1
of Saxe-Altenburg, lwrn June 28, '.
Brother and Sister* of the prince. — I. Princess EUsabclli, born Mai
1829. II. Prince Leopold, l>orn Julv 2, 1832. III. Marie, born
June 14, 1837.
The princes of the house of Schwarzburg belong t veiy ancient ami
wealthy family. The small territory of the house was Itit undisturbed at the
( Songress of Vienna. The civil list of the Prince of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
amounts to 516,500 marks, being nearly one-fourth of the revenue of the
country. The Prince is, moreover, in possession of a very large income from
private estates in Bohemia and Meckleuburg.
Constitution and Finance. — The Principality has a Constitution, granted
July 8, 1857, under which restricted legislative rights are given to a Diet com-
posed of fifteen meml>ers, five of whom are appointed by the Prince, live
elected by certain highly-taxed landowners and others, and five elected by the
inhabitants in general. The sole executive and part of the legislative power is in
the hands of the Prince, who exercises his authority through a Government
divided into three departments.
The budget accounts are settled for the term of three years. In the period
1888-91 the animal revenue was estimated to amount to 2,462,449 marks, and
the annual expenditure to the same. There is a public debt (1891) of 3,547,860
marks.
There are 49 miles of railway.
634
GERMAN EMPIRE: — THURINGIAN STATES
STATISTICS OF THE THURINGIAN STATES.
Area and Population.
Population
—
Area,
Eng.
sq.
Chief
Town
Pop.
Pop.
E
miles
1890
per
sq.
mile
Males
Fe-
males
o
Reuss (altere Linie)
122
62,754
514-3
30,497
32,257
916
Greiz . .
20,141
Reuss (jiingere Li-
319
119,811
375-6
57,866
61,945
850
Gera . .
39,599
Saxe-Altenburg .
511
170,864
332-4
83,010
87,854
890
Altenburg
31,439
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
755
206,513
273-5
95,531
103.29S
062
/Gotha . .
\Coburg
27,802
10,210
Saxe-Meiningen
953
223,832
234-8
105,061
109,823
412
Meiningen
11,448
Schwarzburg - Ru-
dolsladt . . .
363
85,863
236-5
41,570
44,293
143
Rudolstadt
11,398
Schwarzburg - Son-
/Sonders-
dershausen . .
333
75,510
226-7
36,674
38,836
163
•J hausen
lArnsradt
6,634
12,818
Movement of the Population in 1890.
-
Mar-
riages
Births
Deaths
Surplus
of
Mirths
1,128
1,800
2.339
3,150
I.T'S
996
Stillborn Illegitimate
Total
No.
100
190
285
234
m
98
89
(SL No-
I', or
Cent.
Reuss (iiltcrc Linie)
BeuM (jflamre Linie) .
Saxe-Altrnburg .
Soxe-Cobuig-Qothal .
Baxe-Melningen ] .
Schwarzburg-Rudol-
.sl.-t.ll.
Behwanburg-Sondan-
ll.-lllSIll
501
1,058
1,103
1,690
1,778
see
3 0 218
8-9 595
■1 -0 787
3-3 ; 709
3-0 BM
3-3 BM
::■! 346
7-9
12-1
11-1
11-0
12-7
10-5
!>■'.
•J. 759
4,931
7,078
6,996
7,879
3,000
2,590
1,631
::,i:il
4,789
4,445
1,789
1,871
1,694
RELIGION' — CRIME AND PAUPERISM
G35
Emigration.
-
1884 1885
1886
1887
1888
41
1889
urn
M
Reuss (altere Linie)
32 44
43
44
Reuss (jiingere Linie) .
178 98
94
125
114
138
MM
Saxe-Altenburg ....
101 77
76
62
60
65
117
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
550 277
217
246
234
276
MM
Saxe-Meiningen ....
212
174
241
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
198 145
101
82
63
91
Sehwarzburg-Sondershausen
88 77
57
49
73
118
Religion.
On December 1, 1890, tbe following was the distribution of creeds: —
Protestants
Catholics
Other
Christians
Unclas-
sified.
No.
Per
Cent.
Cent
Jews
Reuss (altere
Linie)
61,572
98 1
936
1-19
175
62
9
Reuss (jiingere
Linie)
118,072
98 5
1,181
0 99
386
147
25
Saxe-Altenburg .
168,549
98 6
2.091
122
161
45
18
Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha .
202,444
98-4
2,909
1-24
577
549
34
Saxe-Meiningen .
219,207
97-8
2,780
136
274
1,560
9
Schwarzburg-
Rudolstadt
85,342
99 4
397
0-46
43
71
10
Sehwarzburg-
Sondersliausen
74,615
98-8
636
0 84
26
228
5
Crime and Pauperism.
The following table shows the number of convicted criminals in 1889,
and the numl>er of paupers in 1885, in each of the seven minor Thuringian
C"™c- hXfbove £»1*™
12 years Reeved
tions
Reuss (iilteir I.inie)
n (jiingere Linie .
Saxe-Altenbuix'. .
Bue-Cobnrg-Ootha
Saxe-Meiningen .
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt .
Sehwarzburg-Sondersliausen
4-;r>
742
o.-.i
1,185
1,813
861
694
89-6
74,
94-8
1,464
81-9
1.7".-:
79 4
2.. -.11
1241
2,61 S
141-0
847
134-4
796
Depend- Percent-
ants of age of
Paupers Paupers
596
1,105
1,219
2,037
2,023
res
586
2-39
2-32
1-81
2-M
3 11
1-87
G3G
GERMAN EMPIRE : — WALDECK
Agriculture.
The following table shows the number of separate farms in the minor
Thuringian States, on June 5, 1882, with their respective acreage, and the total
agricultural population : —
-
Farms
Below
1 Hect.
1-10 Hect.
1-100
Hect.
Above
100 Hect,
Total
Agric.
Pop.
Reusse (altore Lime) .
,, (jungere Lime) .
Saxe-Altenburg .
Saxe-Colmrg-Gotha
Saxe-Meiningen .
Schwarzlmrg - Rwlol-
sta<lt ....
Schwarzburg - Sonders-
hausen
1,827
3,663
8,111
12,410
15,706
6,541
4,818
1,445
3,423
•V>47
10,908
12,973
4,975
5,151
009
1,403
2,509
3,015
3,090
966
1,130
6
30
41
70
66
21
88
3,922
8,519
16,208
26,403
31,888
12,503
11,137
54,579
65,796
27,96 ?
Ill 1889-90 there were 1,002 breweries in operation in the Thuringian
States (including Saxe-Weiinar), which brewed 2,131,300 hectolitres of beer ;
and in 1887-88 92 distilleries produced 8,473 hectolitres of alcohol. The
value of the minerals raised in the same States in 1888 was 2,101,106
marks.
WALDECK.
(FtJRSTENTHUM WALDECK.)
Reigning Prince.
Georg Victor, born January 14, 1831; the son of Prince Georg Friedrich
and Princess Emma of Anhalt-Bernburg ; succeeded to the throne at the
death of his father, under the guardianship of his mother, May 15, 18-15 ;
married (1), September 26, 1853, to Princess tlilam, born August 12, 1831,
daughter of the late Duke Wilhelm of Nassau ; widower Octol>er 27, 1888.
Offspring : — I. Princess Pauline, born October 19, 1855 ; married, May 7, 1881,
to the Hereditary Prince Alexis of Bentheim-Bentheim. II. Princess Bmma,
born August 2, 1858 ; married, January 7, 1879, to the late King Willem III.
of the Netherlands. III. Princess Helena, born Fehruaiy 17. L861 ; married,
April 27, 1882, to Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, son of Victoria, Queen of
Greal Britain; widow March 28, 1884. IV. Prince Fried/rich, born January
20, 1865. V. Princess Elizabeth, bom September 8, 1873. Married (2)j
April 29, 1891, to Princess Louisa, born January 6, 1868, daughter of the
late Duke Frederick of Slesvig-Holstein-Sonderbuig-< lluckaburg.
After the war between Austria ami Prussia, at the end of 1866, a 'Tic.it\
of Accession ' was signed by the Prince Oil July 18, 1867, by which he .sur-
rendered his chief; sovereign lights to King Wilhelm I. lor ten years, retain-
ing merely nominal power, and renewed November 24, l s 7 7 , till January 1,
1888. A Treaty, made March 2, 1887, continued the arrangement tor the
future, making it terminable on notice given.
WALDECK — WTRTTEMP.KKi;
Constitution and Finance. — The charter of the Princi[»ality was granted
August 17, 1852. It provided for a legislative assembly of forty-one ni« m
but this number is now reduced to fifteen, with authority restricted to purely
local affairs. In tonus of the 'Treaty of Accession' all public officials arc
api>ointe<l by the King of Prussia, and take the oath of fidelity to him.
l'nissia also manages the finances of the Principality.
-
1890 1891 1892
Estimated Revenue
Marks
1,201,421
Marks Mirk*
1,187,810 1,186,802
The expenditure is estimated at exactly equal to the revenue.
The debt on July 1, 1891, was 2,217,600 marks.
Area and Population. — The Principality has an area of 433 English square
miles.
It is thus divided for administrative purposes into codes: — Wal
Twiste, population, 16,587 ; Risutbeiga, imputation. 17,6S1 : Eder, popula-
tion, 14,911 ; Pyrmont : population, 8,104— total, 57,283.
Of the population in 1890, 27,434 were males, and 29,849 females — i.e.,
108-8 females per 100 males.
In 1885 the inhabitants numbered 56,575 ; in 1880, 56,522 ; in 1871,
56,824. Marriages, 1889, 366 ; births, 1,874 (82, or 438 per cent, stillborn,
and 130, or 694 per cent., illegitimate) : deaths, 1,302 ; surplus, 572. Emi-
grants, 1883, 282; 1884, 170; 1885, 197 ; 1886, 100; 1887, 91 ; 188-
1889, 99 ; 1890, 83. Except 1,454 Catholics and 804 Jews, the people are
ints. The residence town, Arolsen, has 2,620 inhabitants.
On June 5, 1882, the number of separate agricultural tenements was as
follows : —
Below 111 1-10 Hect.
10-100 Hect.
Over 100 Hect ; Total.
3,743
4,088
1,590
34 '... l.-,;,
These farms supported 30,378 persons, of whom 11,539 were actively
engaged in agriculture. Railways, 6 miles.
British Charge a" Affaires. — Ralph Milbanke.
Coiistrf-Goural. — Hon. C. S. Dundas (Hamburg).
WURTTEMBERG.
(KoNIGREICH WuilTTEMBERr..)
Reigning King.
Wilhelmll., King of Wiirttcmberg, bom February 25, 1848 ; son of the
late Prince Friedrich of Wiirttemberg (cousin of the late king Karl I.) and
Princess Katharine of Wurttemberg (sister of the late king) ; ascended the
throne on the death of Karl I., Octolier 5, 1891. Married (1), February 15,
to Princess Marie of Waldeek, who died April 30, 1882 ; issue of this
union, Princess Pauline, born December 19, 1877 ; (2k April 8, 1886 Princess
Charlotte of Scnaumburg-Lippe, born October 10, 1864.
638 GERMAN EMPIRE: — WURTTEMBERG
Aunt of the King.
Princess Augusta, born October 4, 1826 ; married June 17, 1851, to
Prince Hermann of Saxe-Weimar ; issue : — 1. Princess Pauline, born July 25,
1852. 2. Wilhelm, born December 31, 1853, who is heir presumptive to the
throne. 3. Prince Bernard, born October 10, 1855. 4. Prince Alexander,
born June 22, 1857. 5. Prince Ernest, born August 9, 1859. 6. Princess
Olga, born September 8, 1869.
The former Duchy and Electorate of Wurttemberg was erected into a
Kingdom by the Peace of Presburg, 1805, and by a decree of January 1, 1806.
The civil list of the king amounts to 1,799,459 marks, or 89,973/., with
additional grants of 294,280 marks, or 14,714/., for the other members of the
royal family.
Constitution and Government.
Wurttemberg is a constitutional hereditary Monarchy, the Constitution of
which bears date September 25, 1819. It vests certain powers in the
Landstiinde, or two ' Estates ' of the realm, called together every three years, or
oftener if necessary. The Upper Chamber, or House of Standesherren, is com-
posed of the . princes of the royal family, of the heads of twenty mediatised
houses which were before 1806 endowed with votes in the Imperial Diet, and a
number of members nominated by the king hereditarily or for life, which
number, however, must not exceed one-third of that of the two other categories
(there are now nine, two hereditary). The Second Chamber, or House of
Deputies (Abgeordneten), consists of thirteen members of the nobility, elected
by the Ritterschaft (Equestrian Order) of the Kingdom : six dignitaries of the
Evangelical clergy ; three dignitaries of the Catholic clergy ; the chancellor of
the University of Tubingen; seven deputies of towns ('gute Stiidte '), and
sixty-three of districts (' Oberiimter '), elected by all citizens over twenty-live
years of age by secret ballot. All the members of the Second Chamber are
chosen for six years, and they must be thirty years of age ; property qualifica-
tion is not necessaiy. The president of the Upper Chamber is appointed by
the king, the vice-president is elected by the Chamber from among the
hereditary members ; the president and vice-president of the Second Chamber
are both elected by the deputies. The debates of both Chambers are public.
Whenever the Chambers are not sitting they are represented by a committee
of twelve persons, consisting of the presidents of doth Chambers, two members
of the Upper, and eight of the Lower House. A special court of just ice, called
the Staats-Gerichtshof, is appointed guardian of the Constitution. It is com-
posed of a president and twelve members, six of whom, together with the
president, are nominated by the lung, while the other six are elected by the
combined I chambers.
The executive of the Kingdom is a Ministry of State composed of six
ministerial departments. The heads of the six departments are the Ministers
of Justice ; of Foreign Affairs and the Royal House, to whose province belongs
also the administration of the Stale railways, posts, and telegraphs : of tin-
Interior; of Public Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs; of War; and of
Finance. There is also a Privy Council, of which the Ministers are members,
and which the sovereign has a right to consult on all occasions.
For administrative purposes the country isdivided into I provinces (Kreise),
(! I districts (Oheriimter), and 1,911 communes (< Iciucinden).
639
Area and Population.
Whrttemberg baa an area of 7,528 English square miles.
The following table shows the area ami population of the whole ami of each
of the four ' circles ' ( Kreise) : —
Kreise
Area
inSq.
Mil.-
Population
km
1885
1890
665,043
481.
403,007
487,147
Neckar ....
Black Forest (Schwarz-
wal'l) ....
Jagst ....
Danube (Donau)
1,284
1,842
1,983
2,419
639,398
877
405,085
475,425
517-9
261 :'»
203 2 '
2013
Total .
7,528
1,995,185
2,036,556
The increase of population between 1885 ami 1890, amounting on the whole
to only 041 per cent, per annum, varied greatly in the four circles of the
Kingdom. Between 1885 and 1890 there was an inci ,645 in the
Neckar circle, but a decrease of 2,078 in the Jagst circle. The total increase
in the Kingdom daring the fifty yean from 1*11 to 1S00 was very slight, and
.it one period, from 1849 to 1855, there was a decline of population.
Of the total i>opu]ation in 1885, 732,023, or 367 per cent., live in towns
of 2,000 inhabitants and upwards, and 1,268,162, or 63'3 per cent., in rural
communes.
In 1890 the population included 982,337 males ami 1,054,219 fannies.
Tbe division of the population according to occupation is shown in the
table on p. 536. In 1885 the number of foreigners was 1-2,177.
The movement of the population for she five years 1886-90 is thus
shown :—
Tew UarriagjH
Total
Births
Stilll-.ni
Illegitimate
Total
Deaths
Surplus of
Births
1886 13,167
1887 12,790
1888 ' 13,169
1889 13,578
1890 | 13.747
74,264
72,828
71,165
70,458
69,072
2,788
2,524
2,484
2,422
7,455
7,206
7,202
7,060
52,915
48,388
52,323
54.402
51,591
•21,349
•24.440
18.-
16,'
17.481
The emigration from Wiirttemberg, chiefly to the United States of America,
was as follows in 1883-90 : —
18S3
9,792
1884 1885 1886
1887
1888
1889 1890
7,707
5,104 3,717
6,018
6,445 ! 5,629 4,289
The population in 1890 of the eight largest towns was as follows : —
Stuttgart
Ulm
Heilbronn
Essliugen
139,817
36,201
29,939
22,156
< 'annstatt
Retttlingen
Lodwigsburg
Gmiind
20,267
18,499
17,397
16,804
640
GERMAN EMPIRE : — WURTTEMBERG
Religion.
The various creeds were distributed as follows at the last religious census,
1885:—
(Seed
1885
Per Cent, of Population
Protestants
Roman Catholics
Other Christians
Jews .....
Others ....
1,378,216
598,339
5,322
13,171
137
69-0
30-0
0-27
0-66
0-07
The administration of the Evangelical Church is in the hands of a eon-
sistorium of one president, nine councillors, and six general superintendents,
at Ludwigsburg, Heilbronn, Reutlingen, Tubingen, Hall, and Ulm. In the
king is vested, according to the Constitution, the supreme direction as well as
the guardianship — ' obersthoheitliche Schutz und Aufsichtsrecht ' — of the
Evangelical Protestant Church. The Roman Catholics, most numerous in the
southern part of the Kingdom, comprising the circle of the Danube, are under
a bishop, who has his seat at Rottenburg, lint who, in all important matters,
has to act in conjunction with a Catholic church-council — Kirchenrath — ap-
pointed by the Government. The Jews likewise arc under a special council
(Oberkirchenbehorde), nominated by the king on the proposition of the
.Minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs.
Instruction.
Education is compulsory in WurttembeTg, and there must be one public
school or more in every commune. According to recent official returns, there
is not an individual in the kingdom, above the age often, unable to read and
write. There are above 2,000 elementary public schools with (1889) 4,496
teachers, attended by 324,833 pupils ; 78 Realsehulen with (1890) 8,673 pupils ;
,68 grammar schools ; 20 classical colleges (gymnasia'), of which I are training
colleges for the Protestant clergy, and 7 lyceums, having (1890) together 8,296
scholars. The whole educational system is completed by the University of
Tubingen (founded in 1177). There are, besides, the Technical University
(Polytechnicum) a1 Stuttgart, and several agricultural and other special
institutes. The funds appropriated by the State to educational purposes
amounted in 1890-91 to 5,702,267 marks, not including the sums bestowed on
public schools by the parishes or out of the revenue of foundations.
Crime and Pauperism.
In Wiirtfcinlierg there is one Oberlandesgerichl at Stuttgart (sec German
Empire, p. MM. In 1888, 12,757 persons were convicted of crimes) i.e. :u
per 10,(1011 of the population over 12 years of age. In 1887 the number of
convictions was 12,841. In L885, 87,796 persons, with 25,525 dependents (in
all3-l7 percent, of the population), received public poor relief.
Finance.
The I'mal revenue and expenditure for the financial year 1888 89 showed a
surplus of 7,145,700 marks. The estimated revenue for 1889-90 was 60,285,018
FIN.
luarks ; estimated expenditure, 1889-90, 60,i The revenue and
expenditure for each of the two yeais ending March 31, 1891 and 1892, are
estimated as follow
Sources of Revenue
>■.-•-:
Forests, Farms, Mines, Metal and Salt Works
Commercial Revenues — Railway : net
ceipts
Post Office, Telegraph, Steamers .
Miscellaneous — chiefly State Bonds
Direct Taxes — on Lands, Rents, Buildings,
Trades
Income Tax .
Indirect Taxes
Dog Tax
Tax on Taverns
Duties on Suet i
German Empire : — Quotas from Customs, &c.
Total Revenue
6,293,590
14,753,685
1,608,630
886,593
7,668,682
4,599,400
1.456,000
.500
8,630,030
2,617,000
11,984,530
Marks
7,051,861
',000
1,923,980
841,069
7,828,600
.",168
;,ooo
v500
9.149,460
.,000
14,109,910
60,731,640 64.7
Branches i >f Ei) . iiditure
M ar.es
Marks
Civil List .
1,796,200
1,799,459
Ajijianages and Dowries
293,960
280
National Debt— Interest and Sinking Fund .
20,39"
.110
Annuities and Compensations
489.
303,485
Pensions — Ecclesiastical, Civil, and Militarv
■.076
2,409.400
Others .
510,663
•
Ministry of Justice
4,118,019
4,107,074
,, Foreign Affaire ....
200,705
204,683
,, the Interior ....
ti. 270, 395
.005
,, Worship and Education
9,420,431
10,125,691
,, Finance
3,097,489
:j,36/,770
Parliament, Expenses of ...
369,293
rve Fund
50,000
50,000
German Empire — Matricular contribution to
11,318,000
15.721.405
Postage
350,000
360,000
Various
7,730
—
Total Expenditure ....
61,040,980
65,260,673
The capital of the public debt was estimated to amount to 427,966,757
marks on April 1, 1891, of which the bulk bears interest at 4 per cent., and
most of the balance 3i. The debt of the Kingdom is divided into two portions
—namely, the general debt and the railway debt. The latter, forming by far
the largest portion of the total, amounted to 385,177,375 marks on April 1,
1891. The total debt amounts to about 10/. 16*. per head of the population,
and the charge (interest and sinking fund) for 1891-92 to IS, 793, 110 marks, or
T T
642
GERMAN EMPIRE : — WURTTEMBERG
nearly 10s. per head. The net income of the railways, all expenses deducted,
amounts to (1888-89) 15,963,300 marks, covering 80 per cent, of the interest
charge of the whole public debt, and the entire interest charge of the railway
debt alone, which amounted in the same year to 15,615,937.
Army.
The total strength of the Wurttemberg corps d'armee (the 13th of Ger-
many) had on the peace footing, April 19, 1890, 20,760 men, 3,786 horses, and
96 guns. In 1888-89 there were 7,480 recruits.
Industry.
Wurttemberg is primarily an agricultural State, and 4,720 square miles, or
about two-thirds of the entire area, are under cultivation, and about three-
tenths under forest. On June 5, 1882, the total number of agricultural
tenements, each cultivated by one household, was as follows :—
Under 1 Hectare
Between 1 and
10 Hectares
Between 10 and
100 Hectares
Above 100
Hectares
Total
110,086
172,412
'25,479
141
308,118
These farms supported 923,252 persons, of whom 387,454 were actively
engaged upon them.
The areas under the principal crops (in hectares), and the yield (in metric
tons) per hectare in 1890-91, and the average annual yield for 1878-87 are as
follows : —
-
1890-91
Avenge
Yield,
1878-87
-
1890-91
Avenge
Field,
1878-87
Hectares
Yield
rerhect.
Hectares
Yield
per beet
Wheat
Rye .
Barley
Oats .
31,834
36,941
98,122
136,317
1-45
1-27
1-48
1-30
1-27
1-05
1-44
1-22
Potatoes .
Hay .
Clover, etc.
Hops
84,828
289,144
114,112
6,485
8-14
476
5-41
0-42
8-42
M7
4-81
0 61
In 1890-91 vines occupied 18,232 hectares, and yielded 320,117 hectolitres
of wine.
In 1889-90, 7,185 breweries produced 3,419,080 hectolitres of beer. The
total value of the minerals raised in the kingdom in 1889 was 774,578 marks.
In 1891, there were in Wurttemberg 1,040 miles of railway, all, except 20
miles, tlir property of the State, which owns, moreover, 58 miles in neighbour-
ing States.
British Minister. — Victor A. W. Drummond (residing at Munich).
C)mrgi d' Affaires. — Lord Vaux of Harrow-den (residing at Stuttgart).
648
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Germany.
1. Official Pubhoaiwm
Amtlicht List.- der Sc'mtfe d.-r Deutschen Kriegs- und Handelsmarine, mit ihren Unter-
scheidungs-Sigratai. AbgeschL.ssen am 1. Januar 1S91. Heransgegeben im Reichsamt des
Inn<-rn. Berlin, 1891.
Denkschrift iiber die Deutschen Schntzgebiete. Reichstagsdrucksache. 6. Legislatur-
Peri'xU". II >■ s^j :.. 1S.S4-80, Nr. 44. Berhn.
-.•her Reichs- and Konigl. Pr.ussischer Staats-Anjeiger. Berlin.
Deutsche* Hand, lsarchiv. Zeitschrift fiir Handel und Gewerbe. Herausgegeben vom
Reiclisamt dea Innern. Berlin (monthly).
Deutsches Kolonialblatt. Berlin 1891 (fortnightly).
Di.' Denteehe Armee und die Kais.rlieli.- Marine. Kintheflnng, Tnipi>en, Ac. Bearbeitet
in der kartographischen Al.theilung der K -aufuahuie. Berlin, 1889.
•hen Regentenhauser fiir 1890. 8. Berlin, 1890.
Handbuch fur das Deutsche Reich auf das Jahr 1891. Bearbeitet im Reichsauit dcs
Innern. Berlin, 1801.
Handbuch fur die Deutsche Handelsmarine auf das Jahr 1S90. Herau&gegeben im ReiclLs-
amt des innern. Berlin,
Hof- und Staats-Han.lbuch des Konigreichs Bayern. 8. Munchen, lf>01.
Kalender und Statistisches Jahrbuch fur das Konigreich Sachsen auf das Jahr l-'.ej.
1891.
K6nigHch-PreU8sischer Staats-Kalender fiir 1>01. s. Berlin, 1-01.
iglicb-Warttembergisohea Hof- und Staats-Handbuch. Herausgeg. von dem Konigl.
Statist ischer Landesamt. •
W&rttembergiache Jahrhiicher fur Statistik u. Laudeskunde. Herausgegeben vou dem-
adben. j
Ltahefte zur Statistik des Dentaohen Reichs. Herausgegeben von Kaiserlichen
Jahrgang 1*91. Berlin. 1891.
Pretissiseli'- Statistik. Herausgegeben vom Kiiniglichen Statistischen Bureau in Berlin.
PoL Berlin, 180L
Staatshandbuch fur das Konigreich Sachsen. Dresden. 1801.
Statistik der Deutschen Reichs-Post und Telegraphen-Verwaltung fur das Kalenderjahr
1890. 4. Berlin. 1891.
Statistik der im Betriel>e liefindlichen Eisenl«hnen Deutschlands. Beariieitet im Reichs-
Eisenlahn Amt. Betriebsjahr 18S9-90. Berlin, 1891.
Statistik des Deutschen Reichs. Herausgegeben vom Kaiserlichen Statist. Amt. Nene
Band 1-4". t.. end ..f 1801.
k des Hamburgischen Staats. 4. Hamburg. 1801.
Statistisches Handbuch fiir Elsass-Lothringen. Strassburg, 1891.
Statistisches Jahrbuch fur das Deutsche Reich. Herausgegeben vom Kaiserlichen Statis-
tischen Amt. Jahrgang, 1891. Berlin, 1801.
Vorlanflge Ergebnisse der Volkszahlung vom 1. December 18S5 im Kdnigreiche Preussen.
Berlin, 188(5.
Zeitschrift des Konigl. Preussischen statistischen Bureaus. 4. Berlin, 1S91.
Zeitschrift des K. Bachsischen Statistischen Bureaus. 4. Leipzig. 1891.
Hertslet (Sir Edward, O.B.), Foreign Office List. Published annually. London, 1891.
Angra Pequefla. Copy of Despatch fnmi the Earl of Derby to H.M.'s High Commission
in S. Africa relative To the Establishment of a German Protectorate at Angra Pequena and
along the Coast. London.
Arrangement between Great Britain and Germany relative to their respective Spheres in
Africa. London, 1885. The same with reference to Xew Guinea. London, 1885.
Correspondence relating to Zanzibar. London, 1 •
Correspondence respecting Affairs in the Cameroons. London, 1885.
Trade of Germany with the United Kingdoi.i ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the vear 1890. ' London,
1891.
Weissbuch. Official Correspondence relating to German Possessions in Africa and the
Pacific, and to the Congo, Egypt, and East Asia. 11 vols. Berlin, 1884-1891.
2. Nox-Official Publicati-.
Baring-Gould (S), Germany. Past and Present. 2 vols. 8. London, 1881.
ftriickner, Jahrbuch der Deutschen Kolonialpolitik und des Export. Berlin, 1887-91.
Biittner (C. G.), Das Hinterland von Waltischbai und Angra Pequena. Heidelberg 1884
Carlyle (T.). History of Frederick the Great. 10 vols. London.
Demay (Charles), Histoire de la Colonisation Allemande. Paris, 1890.
T T 2
Ci44 GERMAN EMPIRE: — WIJRTTEMBERG
Dilthey (R.), Der Wirthschaftliche Werth von Deutsch. Ost-Afrika. Dusseldorf, 1869.
Deutsche Kolonialzeitung, Organ der Deutschen Kolonialgesellschaft. Berlin (fort-
nightly).
Droysen (J. G.), Geschichte des Preussischen Politik. 6 vols. Leipzig.
Export, Organ des Centralvereins fiir Handelsgeographie and Forderung Deutsche-
lnteressen iin Auslande. Berlin (weekly).
Firckg (A. Freiherr von), Die Volkskraft Deutscliland's und Frankreich's. Statistische
Skizze. 8. Berlin, 1875.
Franco-German War, 1870-71. Authorised translation. 4 vols. Loudon, 1881-83.
Frenzel und Mende, Deutschland's Kolonien. Hannover, 1889.
Gothaischer genealogischer Hof-Kalender auf das Jahr 1891. Gotha, 1S92.
Herzog von Mecklenburg-Strelitz (Carl Michael), Die Statistik des Militar-Ersatz-
Geschaftes im Deutschen Keiche. Leipzig, 1S87.
Hiibbe-Schleiden, Deutsche Colonisation. Hamburg, 1881.
Hue de Grais, Handbuch der Verfassung und Verwaltung in Preussen und dem Deutschen
Reiche. 5. Auflage. Berlin, 1886.
Jung (K.E.), Deutsche Kolonien. Leipzig, 1885.
Koscliitzky (Max von), Deutsche Kolonialgeschichte. Leipzig, 1887 and 1888.
Legayt (Alfred), Forces materielles de l'Empire d'Allemagne. 18 Paris, 1878.
Lowe (Charles), Life of Prince Bismarck. 2 vols. London, 1888.
Meinecke (G.), Koloniales Jahrbuch. Berlin, 1890-91.
Mitteilungen aus den Deutschen Schutzgebieten. Berlin, 1889-91.
Morhain, De l'Empire Allemand : sa Constitution et son Administration. Paris, 1SS0.
Nachrichten iiber Kaiser Wilhelm's Land und den Bismarck-Archipel. HemuBgegebeu
von der Neu-Guinea Kompagnie. Berlin (at intervals).
Neumann (G.), Geographisches Lexicon des Deutschen Reichs. 2 vols. 8.
NicoUon (A.), A Sketch of the German Constitution, and of the Events in Germany from
1S15 to 1871. 8. London, 1875.
Reclus (Elisee), Nouvelle Geographie universelle. Vol. HI. Paris, 1878.
Sybel (H. von), Die Begrundung des Deutschen Reichs. 5 vols. Berlin, 1800.
Treitschke (H. von), Deutsche Geschichte im 19 ten Juhrhuudert. Vols. I. to IV
Leipzig.
Wagner, Deutsch-Ostafrika. 2. Auflage. Berlin, 1888.
Waitz (Georg), Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte. 5 vols. 8. Kiel, 1871-74.
Wliitman (Sidney), Imperial Germany. London, 1889.
Znller, Das Togo- Land und die Sklavenkiiste. Berlin, 1885.
Zo'ller, Die Deutsche Kolonie Kamerun. 2 Biinde. Berlin, 1885.
643
GREECE.
(Kingdom of the Hellenes.)
Reigning King.
Georgios I., horn December 21, 1845, the second sin (Wil-
helin) of Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-
Gliicksburg, present King of Denmark ; elected King of the
Hellenes by the National Assembly at Athens, March 18 (30),
1863 ; accepted the crown, through his father the King of Den-
mark, acting as his guardian, June 4, 1863; declared of age by
decree of the National Assembly, June 27, 1863 ; landed in
November 2, 1863 ; married, October 27, 1867, to Que?n
(J/:/'i. born August 22 (September 3), 1851, the eldest daughter
ot Grand-duke ( 'ou^tantine of Russia, brother of the late Emperor
Alexander II.
Children of the King.
I. Prince Konstantinos, heir-apparent, born August 2, 1 v
married October 27, 1880, to Princess Sophia, Princes
Prussia. II. Prince Georgios born June 24, 1869. III. Prince
Xicofaos, born January 21, 1872. IV. Princess Maria, born
March 3, 1876. V. Prince Andreas, born February 1, 1882.
VI. Prince Christ opheros, born August 10, 1888.
By decision of the Greek National Assembly of May 15, 1863,
a civil list of 1,125,000 drachmai was settled on King Georgios I.,
to which the Governments of Great Britain, France, and Russia
added 4,000?. each, making the total income of the sovereign
of Greece about 52,000?. per annum. An annuity of 200,000
drachmai is allowed to the heir-apparent since he came of age in
August 1886.
Greece, a province of the Turkish Empire since the commencement of the
16th century, gained its independence in the insurrection of 1821-29, and by
the Protocol of London, of February 3, 1830, was declared a kingdom, under
the protection of Great Britain, France, and Russia. Prince Leopold of Saxe-
Colmrg having declined the crown of Greece, on the ground that the boun-
'hri>'-; proposed were insufficient, and especially excluded the island of Crete,
offered to, and accepted by, Prince Otto of Bavaria, who ascended the-
G4G 'GREECE
throne January 25, ] 833, being under the age of eighteen. He was expelled
the Kingdom, after a reign of 29 years, in October, 1862, which event was
followed by the election, under the directing guidance of the three protecting
Powers, of the present sovereign.
The King, according to Art. 49 of the Constitution of 1864, attains his
majority upon completing his eighteenth year. Before he ascends the throne,
he must take the oath to the Constitution in the presence of the ministers, the
sacred synod, the deputies then in the metropolis, and the higher officials of
the realm. Within two months at the most the King must convoke the
Legislature. If the successor to the throne is either a minor or absent at the
time of the King's decease, and no Regent has been appointed, the Legislative
Chamber has to assemble of its own accord within ten days after the occur-
rence of that event. The constitutional royal authority in this case has to be
exercised by the ministerial council, until the choice of a Regent, or the
arrival of the successor to the throne. The present sovereign is allowed, by
special exception, to adhere to the religion in which he was educated, the
Protestant Lutheran faith, but his heirs and successors must be members of
the Greek Orthodox Church'.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Greece was elaborated by a Con-
stituent Assembly, elected in December 1863, and adopted
October 29, 1864. It vests the whole legislative power in a
single chamber of representatives, called the Boule, elected by
manhood suffrage for the term of four years. The elections take
place by ballot, and each candidate must be put in nomination
by the requisition of at least one-thirtieth of the voters of an
electoral district. At the election of 1881 there were 460,163
voters on the list, being 1 voter in every 4*3 of the population ;
the number who voted was 306,957, or 66 per cent, of the
voters. The Boule must meet annually for not less than three,
nor more than six months. No sitting is valid unless at Least
one-half of the members of the Assembly are present, and no
bill can pass into law without an absolute majority of members.
Every measure, before being adopted, must be discussed and
voted, article by article, thrice, and on three separate days. B\it
the Legislative Assembly has no power to alter the Constitution
itself ; particular provisions may be reviewed after the lapse of
ten years, with the exception of 'fundamental principles.' The
Chamber of Deputies, unless specially convoked at an earlier
date, for extraordinary occasions, must meet on Noveiubex I
(old style) of every year. By a law passed in August 1886, the
total number of deputies 1ms been reduced to 150, and the
electoral colleges from eparchies have been extended to nomar-
cbies. The deputies are paid 2,000 drachma] each per session,
and an extra 1,500 drachma! each For an extra session.
AREA AND POPI'LATinX
647
The executive is vested in the King and his responsible
Ministers, the heads of seven departments. They are the
Ministry of the Interior, the Ministry of Finance, tin- Ministry
of Justice, the Ministry of Education nnrt FrrTrariantiml Affuir>.
the Ministry of "War. the Mini>try of Marine, the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs.
President of the Council and Minister of War and Finance. —
P. T. Delyannis.
Area and Population.
Greece, at the census of 1889, had a total population of 2,187,208 —
1,133,625 males and 1,053,583 females— living on an area of 25,041 English
square miles. The territory detached from Turkey, consisting of most of
Thessaly and a strip of Epirus, was added to Greece by a treaty with Turkey,
executed — under pressure of the Great Powers — June 14, 1881. The King-
dom, excluding these, is divided into 17 monarchies. In 1879 and 1889 the
area and population were as follows : —
Thessaly, 1881.
648
GREECE
The increase of the population of Greece from 1870 to 1879 was at the rate
of 1 "87, and from 1879 to 1889 1'05 per cent, per annum.
The number of foreigners living in Greece in 1879 was 31,969, of whom
23,133 were Turks, 3,104 Italians, 2,187 English, 534 French, 364 Austrians,
314 Germans, 101 Russians.
The following table shows the number of births, deaths, and marriages,
with surplus of births over deaths, in years from 1880-82 and 1884, exclusive
of the recently annexed provinces :—
Year
Births
Deaths
Marriages
Surplus of Births '
over Deaths
1880
1881
1882
1884
41,304
41,689
43,157
57,995
30,288
32.195
32,194
35,899
8,513
7,843
11.186
13,657
11,016
9,494
10,963
22,096
The chief occupations of the people are the following, in percentages of
the population in Greece and Ionian Islands (census 1879) : — Agriculture, 40
per cent. ; shepherds, 9 per cent. ; industries, 6-37 ; servants, 7 '75 ;
labourers, 8 "11 ; commerce, 6'37 ; landed proprietors, 6-10 ; seafaring, 3-05 ;
army and navy, 4 '86 ; priests, 1'50. In the ceded provinces (1881): Agri-
culture, 41 -9 5 ; labourers, 12"32 ; industries, 10 '21 ; shepherds, 8'1S ; ser-
vants, 7 "24; commerce, 6 '47 ; priests, 1*61.
From a linguistic point of view, at least, the nationality of Greece is
Hellenic. Most of the Albanians who have, at various dates dining the last
400 years, migrated into Greece, have become Hellenised. At present there
are not more than 90,000 or 100,000 of distinct Albanian nationality in the
whole of Greece. These are scattered in small communities chiefly over
Attica ; noithwards as far as Thebes ; then across the Isthmus of Corinth,
throughout the ancient Argolis, in the southern districts of Eubcea, and a tew
of the neighbouring isles. On the other hand, there are large numbers of
Greeks in the Ottoman Empire, raising the whole Greek nationality to over
8,000,000, as under :— Greece, about 2,200,000; Asia Minor, 2,000,000:
Crete, Cyprus, and other Ottoman islands, 400,000 ; European Turkey,
3,500,000; total, 8,100,000.
About one-half of the total population of Greece is agricultural, living dis-
persed in villages. The jirincipal towns are the following, with populations,
1889 :—
Athens
107,251
Corfu .
. 19,025
Trikala .
. 12,662
Piraus
34,327
Zante .
. 16,603
Volo
11,029
1 'a tins
33,529
Larissa .
. 13,610
Tripolia .
. 10,698
Hermoupolis
21,998
Pyrgos .
. 12,847
Colamata
. 10,696
Religion.
The great majority of the Inhabitants of the Kingdom are adherents of the
Greek Orthodox Church Before the census of 1889 there weir 1.902,800
belonging to the Greek Orthodox Church; 14,677 other Christians, mainly
Roman' Catholics ; 5,792 Jews; and 24,166 Mohammedans. Bj the terms of
the ('(institution <>f 1MM, tin- (i reek Orthodox Church is declared tin1 religion
of the State, hut complete toleration ami liberty of worship is guaranteed to all
aaraxjcaxm — its met
other sects. Nominally, the Greek clergy owe allegiance to the Patriarch of
■utinople. though he now exercises no governing authority: he is
elected by the votes of the bishops and optimates subject to the Sultan ; his
jurisdiction extends over Thrace and other countries, including Bosnia, as
well as the greater part of Asia Minor. The real ecclesiastical authority,
formerly exercised by him in Greece, was annulled by the resolutions of a
National Synod, held at Nanplia in 1833. which vested the government of the
Orthodox Church, within the limits of the Kingdom, in a permanent
council, called the Holy Synod, consisting of the Metropolitan of Athens ami
four archbishops and bishops, who must during their year of office reside at
the seat of the executive. The Orthodox Church has nine archbishops and
eight bishops in Northern Greece : six archbishops and six bishops in the
Peloponnesus : one archbishop and five bishops in the islands of the Greek
Archipelago : and five archbishops and ten bishops in the Ionian Islands.
There are 161 monasteries and nunneries, with 2,620 monks and 485 nun-.
Instruction.
All children between the ages of five and twelve years must attend school,
but the law Ls not well enforced in country districts. According to the census
of 1879, 86*06 per cent, of males and 23 '08 females could read and write.
There are 1 university, about 35 gymnasia, 300 Hellenic schools, 1,800
commercial schools, 600 elementary schools, 80 private schools, 5 ecclesiastical
schools, and 1 Polytechnic.
Finance.
The public revenue and expenditure of the Kingdom were
as follows in the years from 1885 to 1891, according to official
returns (the figures for 1889, 1890, and 1891 are only
estimates) : —
Tear
Revenue
Expenditure
Drachinai
Drachmai
1885
66,110,568
127,798,548
1886
62,151,128
129.717,825
1887
82,868,312
82,512,731
1888
89,343,288
91,791.172
1889
96.449,453
96,410,337
1890
93.543.365
91.258,840
1891
96,541,462
100,411,479
650
GREECE
The following table gives the budget estimates for 1892 : —
Revenue
Drachmai 1
Expenditure
Drachmai
36,460,545
129,144
4,804,878
1,325,000
401,658
2,066,736
4,888,316
5,690,326
3,216,412
18,019,287
5,563,683
1,453,938
8,092,837
6,440,000
Direct taxes : —
Land taxes .
^ Cattle
Trade Licences .
House tax .
Joint Stock Co. tax
Indirect taxes :—
Customs
Tax on consumption of
tobacco .
Tax on consumption of
spirituous liquors .
Stamps
Posts and Telegraphs .
Consular dues
Exemption from mili-
tary service
Other dues, fines, &c. .
Monopolies : —
Cigarette paper .
Playing cards
Matches
Petroleum .
Salt
National establishments
Sale of land, &c.
Civil pensions, &c.
Closed accounts, &c. .
Road-making fund
Miscellaneous
Total .
12,317,431
2,565,000
3,114,000
2,386,800
475,000
Public debt
Subventions
Pensions
Civil List .
Chamber of Deputies .
Foreign Affairs .
Justice
Interior
Worship and Education
War ....
Marine
Finance
Administration .
Miscellaneous
Total .
20,850,231
24,322,500
5,000,000
350,000
29,672,500
10,052,000
2,445,000
560,000
750,000
2,336,000
16,143,000
2,015,000
400,000
900,000
4,900,000
2,447,500
10,662,500
3,741,044
2,876,922
1,634,000
4,660,000
5,861,043
2,286,800
98,396,040
98,552,760
1 In all accounts ufter 1882 the drachma is equal 1o one franc, though the re-introduction
of a tamed paper currency baa again reduced the value of the drachma.
The deficits of 1885, and 1886, amounting to 120 million drachma!, com-
pelled the Government again to resort to a forced paper currency, which liad
FINANCE
651
only recently been abolished. The budgets of 1887 and 1888 were made to
balance by a loan of 135 million dracbmai, secured on the produce of the
monopolies of salt, petroleum, matt Iks. fcc, hy the aid of which also other
dtfcu bearing from 7 to 9 per cent, interest hare t>een j-aid otT.
During the four years 1888-91 the extraordinary rweipts q>roceeds of
loans), actual or estimated, amounted to 159,542,006 dra< hmas : and the
extraordinary expenditure to 187.460,890 drachmai. unhiding 87,548,838
drachmai for redemption and consolidation of debt: 75.183,622 drachmai for
construction of railways : and 21,513,066 drachmai for ship-building.
According to a recent diplomatic report, the capital of the funded debt in
1888 amounted to 526,665,437 dr.. the annual interest and sinking fund
amounted to 29,476.124 dr. : while the floating debt amounted to 109,300,000
dr. with an annual interest of 1,418,000, the lass by difference of exchange on
interest and sinking funds being 6,085,508 dr. The condition of the debt in
1891 according to the same report was as follows : —
Date
Nature of Lou, ££*
Actual Capital, I
ISM
Drachmai
Funded debt : —
1832
Guaranteed loan ....
60,000,000
1868
Debt to ex-King Otho's bain
4
.250 :
1874
Loan of 26,000,000 dr. .
20,303,500 ;
1876
10,000,000 dr. .
886,250 i
1880
9,000,000 dr. .
8,900,000
1880
120.000,000 dr. .
i
107,666,000 !
1884
„ 170,000,000 dr. .
5
94,845,000
1885
Patriotic loan .
—
2,600,000
1887
Loan of 15,000,000 dr. .
4
14,897,500 ;
1887
135,000,000 dr. .
4
133,750,000
1889
30,000.000 dr. .
4
30,000,000
1889
125,000,000 dr. .
Total ....
4
125,000,000
601,392,500
Floating debt : —
10,000,000 bonds ....
4
10,000,000
Forced currency loan
1
60,000,000
Fractional
1
14,000,000
Bonds ....
5
15,000,000
Other advances, about
! ~
4,000,000
Total . ....
103,000,000
Grand total ....
704,392,500
At the same time the annual interest and sinking fund for the funded
debt was 26,849,587 dr., interest on floating debt was 2,090,000 dr., and
other charges 7,049,000 dr. ; total charge, 35,988,587 dr., as against
36,979,632 dr. in 1888.
In June 1890 a loan of 3,595,000/., say 89,875,000 drachmai, was issued at
5 per cent., redeemable at jar by half-yearly drawings in 99 years, or earlier
at the option of the Government Of this loan about 600,000/. were used to
652
GREECE
pay off the remaining portion of the 1879 Independence loan, which entailed
a very heavy sinking fund. The balance, say 3,000,000?., is gradually being
realised to meet the expenses of the construction of the Athens anil Larissa
Railway, the main line in Greece destined to bring that country into immedi-
ate railway communication with the rest of Europe.
This does not include the Greek portion of the Ottoman public debt, and
the sum to bo paid to the Ottoman Government as indemnity for property
acquired by the cession of Thessaly.
The loan of 1862 was guaranteed by England, France, and Russia upon
the elevation of the present King of Greece to the throne. The guarantee is
not by the Powers jointly, but is distinct in each case for a third of the loan.
By the terms of a convention signed in 1866, it is arranged that the Govern-
ment of Greece should pay to the three guaranteeing Powers not less than
36,000Z. a year— British portion 12,000/. ; and by the Act 27 & 28 Vict. c. 40,
passed in 1864, a sum of 4,000Z. sterling a year, out of the amount thus
repayable in respect of the British portion, was relinquished in favour of the
present King.
Defence.
I. Army.
There is universal liability to service on all able-bodied males aged 21
years and upwards. The total service is for 19 years, of which 2 years (with
considerable terms of leave) must be passed with the colours, 8 and 7 years i n
the reserve, and the remainder in the militia or Landwehr.
The nominal strength of the army was reported as follows in the budget
estimates for the year 1891 : —
Branches of the Military Service
Officers
Non-com-
missioned
Officers
Rank and
File
Total
War Office
Engineers . ...
Chasseurs .....
Artillery ......
Cavalry .....
Infantry ......
General Services ....
Military Schools ....
Gendarmerie .....
Total
I
136 *
101
172
224
93
684
143
379
55
358
1,017
732
333
2,460
662
303
8
1,026
2,648
2,426
1,182
9,400
2,954
496
232
136
1,485
3,837
3,382
1,608
12,544
3,759
1,178
295
28,224
1,987
5,873
20,364
1 Including the civilians ei
i ployed in
he War Oil
ce.
The estimates for 1891 reckoned 8,784 horses and nudes, and 120 guns.
By the terms of a law pasted by the Boole* in the session of 1887, the
numerical Btrengtb ef the army <>n the peace footing was Axed at 24,076 men.
comprising 16,188 infantry, 4,877 cavalry, and 8,063 artillerymen and engi-
neer*. On the war footing, the strength oonld be mobilised to 100,000 men-
The reserve luives alone give a total of 101. ."00 men. ami behind these U
what is called the territorial army, numbering 148,000 men.
DEFENCE — PKomVTloN AHD 1MH "STliY
II. X.wy.
The navy consisted, at the beginning of 1891, of two small armour-clads,
the L'curileus Gtvrgios (1,770 tons), carrying two 10-ton Krupp guns in a battery
am the npp«r deck and four 20-pounders, sjfeed 12 knots; and a wood-built
vessel, the Basilissa Olga (2,030 tons), carrying four 6-ton and two 5-ton
guns, speed 10 knots. One steel armour-clad, the Hydra, was launched in
1889; it is 6,000 tons, and is now finished ; two other similar vessels are
l>eing built in France. There are 27 torpedo boats and launches, one torpedo
depdt and school, and 2 Xordcnfeldt submarine torpedo boats. Of unpro-
tected vessels th. ; 8 L.800 ami 1,800 tons), 2 cruisers (1,000
tons each, launched 1884-85 ; 12 gun-vessels (6 built 1881-84, the rest old) ;
4 gun-boats (1880) : 3 reroute vessels (1884) ; a steel yacht, built in 1868, an
iron trausjKjrt, and 16 miscellaneous craft. The budget fixes the strength ol
the navy at 2,945 officers and men, but the actual number for 1891 was 3,957.
The navy is maimed partly by conscription from the jieople of the sea-coast
and partly by enlistment. In 1887 the period of service was made two years
instead of one.
Production and Industry.
GiMee i> mainly an agricultural country, and tin. existing manufactures
are few and uuim]iortant.
A British Emltassy Kei>ort of 1885 gives the following division of the soil
of Greece, including the recently added territories : —
Acres
Tobacco, cotton,
kc
250,000
Kitchen-gardei,
7,500
Cereals
1,000,000
Meadows .
1,000,000
Fallow lands
. 1,000,000
Pasture lands, fee.
. 5,000,000
Vines .
(50,000
Forests
1,500,000
Currants
125,000
Waste
3,000,000
Olive trees
Various fruit-tre
325,000
32.500
es.
13,490,000
While there are a lew large proprietors iu he laud is to a large
extent in the hands of peasant proprietors. On the whole, agriculture is in a
backward state. The province detached from Turkey in 1881 is, however, of
unusual fertility. The average production of cereals for the whole of Greece
is:— wheat, 7,"000,000 bushels; barley, 3,000,000 bushels : rye. 825,000
bushels : for the old provinces 2,700,000 bushels of maize ; mezlin, 1,380.000
bushels. The most favoured and best cultivated crop is the currant, which
covers vast districts ; the yield for 1886-87 was estimated at 270 million lbs. ;
olives yield about 760,000 bushels yearly, and vineyards about 4,000,000
bushels of grapes; other 12,000,000 "lbs. of tobacco and 30,000,000 lbs. of
cotton are produced.
According to the latest official returns, there are 108,361 horses, 164,000
cattle, 50,123 mules, and 106,208 asses in Greece In contrast to these
numbers, there were 3,464,954 sheep and 2,510,970 goats, the latter roaming
alwut in a half-wild state, described as causing much destruction.
Iron ore is found in some of the Cyclades and in the Ionian Islands, but its
working is undeveloped. In recent years the lead mines of Laurium have been
worked, and are estimated to have yielded during the twelve years 1877-88
over 1,200,000 tons of material for treatment. Of this quantity 043,000 tons
have been treated at the mine, and 570,000 tons, producing 22,000 tons ol
lead, have been treated elsewhere. Zinc is also found in considerable
quantities.
654
GREECE
Commerce.
The total value of the general commerce of Greece in 1889 was :— Imports,
162,122,869 drachmai ; and exports, 115,974,249 drachmai. In 1888 the
figures were— imports, 124,388,595 drachmai ; exports, 103,142,901 drachmai.
The special commerce for 1889 and 1890 was as follows with the leading
countries : —
Imports,
Exports,
Imports, | Exports,
1889
1889
1890 1890
Drachmai
Drachmai
Drachmai Drachmai
Russia
25,985,680
1,873,807
21,408,000 917,000
United Kingdom
29,610,062
32,757,380
33,237,000 33,021,000
Austria- Hungary
18,636,200
8,728,229
16,691,000 8,598,000
Turkey and Egypt
26,312,620
11,439,959
19,712,000 il2,682,000
France
11,637,872
32,506,847
10,255,000 '21,440,000
Italy ....
5,016,215
3,379,538
5,109,000 | 1,518,000
Germany .
4,715,667
2,505,881
5,651,000 1 2,372,000
Belgium
2,724,856
7,251,098
4,009,000 i 6,008,000
United States
3,200,190
3,032,164
1,667,000 j 5,702,000
Holland
2,907,102
3,040,534
1,861,000 ! 1,518,000
Other countries .
1,904,784
562,371
1,186,000 2,016,000
132,653,248
107,777,808
120,786,000 95,792,000
The following tahle shows the principal classes of special imports and ex-
ports and their values : —
Imports
Drachmai
Exerts
Drachmai
Grain.
29,183,000
Currants .
48,193,000
Yam
1 22,285,000
Ores.
17,040,000
Metal goods
8,230,000
Tobacco .
:;,'.»;6,ooo i
Minerals and metals .
7,135,000
Wine
3,770,000 i
Timber, &c.
6,944,000
Olive oil .
2,299,000
Fish.
7,158,000
Figs. . . .
2,248,000 |
chemicals
5,096,000
Sponges .
1,959,000 ;
Animals .
4,132,000
\
Hides
3,545,000
Sugar
3,145,000
Coffee
2,960,000
Rice ....
2,047,000
The trade of Greece with the United Kingdom was, in the five years 1886
to 1890, according to the Hoard of Trade Returns, as follows : —
COMMERCE — NAVIGATION AND SHIPPING
1888
Exports from Greece 1 .
Imports of British
produce 984,591
1887
t8H
UBS
UM
£.
1,888,400 11,888,444 1,864,297 1,962,798
989,217! 948,004 1 853,713 1,1
The staple article of export from Greece to the United Kingdom is cur.
the value of which in 1890 amounted to 1.343,566/. Other articles of export
in 1890 were :— raisins. 29,7981 ; olive oil, 14,629/. ; lead, 159,047/. : silver
ore, 99,659/ zinc ore, 27,595/. Of the imports from the
United Kingdom into Greece in 1890, cotton goods and yams were valued at
509,214/. ; woollens and worsteds 104,729/. ; coal 175,049/. ; iron 156,049/. :
machinery, 26,712/.
Navigation and Shipping.
The merchant navy of Greece in 1891 numbered 86 steamers, of 43,131
tons, and 5,794 sailing vessels, of an aggregate burthen of 222,331 tons. The
total numlter of vessels that entered Greek ports in 1890 was 6,117 of 2,476,862
tons, and cleared 5,312 of 2,410,081 tons. Of the vessels entered 2,486 of
329,791 were Greek. More than half the trade is through the j>ort of Pirseus.
A considerable amount of the carrying trade of the Black Sea and the Eastern
ports of the Mediterranean is under the Greek flag.
Internal Communications.
Recently the internal communication by roads has greatly impr"
there are now about 2,000 miles of roads. In May 1882 the construction of a
canal across the Isthmus of Corinth, about 4 miles, was begun : it is esti-
mated to cost a million sterling ; and more than three-quarters of the work
(1891) is now completed.
Railways were open for tiaffie in 1891 for a length of 374 miles, while 420
miles were under construction, and 226 miles were projected.
The telegraphic lines, land and submarine, were of a total length of 4,658
English miles, at the end of 1890 ; length of wire, 5,538 miles. The number
of offices was 178. They despatched 686,416 inland telegrams, and 276,045
international, in the year 1890. Receipts (1888), 1,130,160 drachmai ; ex-
penses, 992,320 drachmai.
Of post offices there existed 248 at the end of 1889, and there passed
through the post in that year 7,664,000 letters, besides 236,000 post-cards,
6,779,000 samples, journals, and printed matter. The receipts were 2,603,614
drachmai ; expenses, 2,882,240 drachmai.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Greece, and their English equiva-
lents, are : —
Monet.
Greece entered in 1868 the Monetary League of the Continent The
Ionian Bank at Corfu and the Thessalian Bank at Larissa have the right to
circulate their own notes in their respective provinces.
056 GREECE
The Drachma, of 100 lepta, was, by the abolition of forced paper currency
in November 1882, made equivalent to the franc- of the Monetary League
(25 -22A francs — £ sterling). In 1885, however, the forced paper currency
was renewed, so that the drachma is now equivalent to about 8%d.
Weights and Measures.
The Oke . . . . = 2-80 lbs. avoirdupois.
„ Oantat ... - 123 20 ,, ,,
,, Livre . . . . — l-05 ,, ,,
,, Baril (wine) . . = 16-33 imperial gallons.
,, Kilo = 0-114 ,, quarter.
,, Pike .... — | of an English yard.
,, Stremma . . . — h :> >> acl'c'-
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Greece in Great Britain.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. — Dr. J. Gennadius.
There are Consular representatives of Greece at Cardiff, Dublin, Glasgow,
Liverpool, Manchester, Southampton, Calcutta, Malta.
2. Of Great Britain in Greece.
Envoy and Minister. — Edwin H. Egerton, C.B., appointed January 2b,
1892.
Secretary. — F. E. H. Elliot.
There are British Consuls at Corfu, Patras, Piraeus, Syra.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Greece.
1. Official Publications.
Commerce de la Greceavec to pays etrangercs pendant I'annee [890. Athencs. 1891.
The Finances of Greece. Speeches delivered by H. E. M. Chariton Trloottpi* in Intro-
ducing to the Hellenic Chamber the Budgets for 1887 and 1888. London, 1886-87.
Report by Sir Horace Kumbold on the Budget of 1886, and the General Condition of Ihe
Greek finances, in ' Reports of H.M.'a Diplomatic and Consular Agents Abroad.' Part IV.
Folio. London, 1886.
Report by Mr. Elliot on the Finances of Greece, No. 968, 'Diplomatic and Consular
Reports.' London, 1891.
Report on the Trade of Patras In 1889 in No. wi ; PirsBus in No (iT'-' ; the Cycled
678 ; of ' Diplomatic and Consular Reports,' 1890.
Report OI) tlie Trade of Piraeus in ' Deutsches Jlandels-Arehiv.' for November 1891.
Berlin, 1890.
(Statistique de la Grece. Mouvementde la Population, 1884. Athens, 18S8.
Trade of Greece with the United Kingdom, in ' Animal Btatemi nt of the Trade of the
I olted Kingdom With Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the vear 1800.' Imp. I.
London. 1891.
2, Non-Official Prr.u cations.
Baedeker's Handbook to Greece.
Bemardaki»(A. N.). Lepretent e1 I'avenir de la Grece. 8. Parle, 1870.
Bianconi (C. i'). Runographie de la Tnrqule, de rBuropeel data (Mm. Paris, isTT.
Brock/inn* (Hermann), Grfechenland, geographiaeh. seschichtllch und Icultorhutorisch
von den alteaten Zeiten his anf die Gegenwart (largestellt. i. Leipzig, 1S70.
Campbi-ii (lion. Dudley), Turks and Greeks. 8. London, 1887.
Carnarvon (Earl of)> Reminiscences of Athens and the Morea. 8. Loudon, 1870.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFEREX'
Vusani (F.). Memorie storico-statistiche snlla Dalmazia, sulle isole Ionie e snlla Grecia.
I vols. S. Milano, 1862.
Digenit (Basile). Quelques notes statistiques sur la Grece. 8. Marseille, 1878.
Dora d'lttria (Mine.), Excursions en Roumelie et en Moree. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1865.
Kirkwall (Viscount). Four Years in the Ionian Islands : their Political and Social Con-
dition, with a History of the British IYot.ctor.Ui-. l! vols. S. London, 1864.
Maiuola* (Alex.), Rap] de la statistiqne en ' Te an Congres Inter-
national de Statisti.; - • • rsbonrg en I -
Mantolas (X.), La Grece a l'exposition universale ■: 378. 8. Paris, 1878.
Maurer(G. L. von). Dm Griechischc Volk in 'iffentlicherundprivatrechtlicherBezeihnn;;
S. Heidelberg, 1835.
Murray'* Handbook for Greece. 2 vols. London, 1884.
Reclu*(E\>
Schmidt (Dr. Julius). Beitrage zur physical ischen Geographic von Griecbenland. S vol*.
S. Leipzig, 1864-70.
Sergeant (Lewis), Hew Greece, 8. London, 1878.
Tuekerman (Charles K.), The Greeks of To-day. S. London, 1873.
Wp$e (Sir Thomas), Impressions of Greece. 8. London
658
GUATEMALA.
(Republica de Guatemala.)
Constitution and Government-
The Republic of Guatemala, established on March 21, 1847, after having
formed part for twenty-six years of the Confederation of Central America, is
governed under a Constitution proclaimed December 1879, and modified
October 1885, November 1887, and October 1889. By its terms the legislative
power is vested in a National Assembly, consisting of representatives chosen
by universal suffrage for four years. The executive is vested in a President,
elected for six years.
President of the, Republic. — General Manuel Lisandro Barillas, elected Presi-
dent March 15, 1886, for six years.
The administration is carried on, under the President, by the heads of six
departments — of Foreign Affairs, Government and Justice, Hacienda and
Public Credit, Public Instruction, Fomento, War.
Area and Population.
The area of Guatemala is estimated at 46,800 English square miles.
According to a census of 1880, there were at that date 1,224,602 inhabitants,
and 1,452,003 in December 1890 (on the basis of surplus of births, winch is
misleading). About 60 per cent, are pure Indians, most of the remainder
being hair-caste, there being very few descendants of Europeans. Guatemala
is administratively divided into 22 departments.
The marriages in 1890 were 4,609 ; births, 61,575 ; and deaths, 69,589.
Owing to an imperfect system of registration, the number of deaths given is
considerably below the actual number. About one-half the births among the
whites and one-fourth among the Indians were illegitimate. In 1890, 9,112
persons entered, and 8,349 left the Republic.
Capital of the Republic and seat of the government is Guatemala la Nueva,
with 65,796 inhabitants (1890), a tenth of them of European origin. Other
towns are Quezaltenango, 23,574, and Chiiiialteiiango and Guatemala la
Antigua, each 14,000.
Religion.
Roman Catholicism is the prevailing religion : but all other creeds have
complete liberty of worship.
Instruction.
In 1890 there were 1,859 nhook, of which 462 were rural, 760 urban, and
30 special (including Normal ami Technical sohooll). There were 1,681
teachers (its? male and Mi female); the avenge attendance was 52,288
children (32,958 boys and 19,830 girls), with 3,230 adults, and in the special
schools 1,860 — a total school attendance of 67,880, The Dumber of children
of school age was 148,468. The Governmenl spent on education, in 1890,
475,092 dollars, the municipalities 30,668 dollars, and from other sources
came 28,495 dollars— total. 684,1 tl dollars.
CRIME — COMMERCE 659
.Crime.
In 1890, 3,485 persons were sentenced for serious crimes, and 19,790 for
misdemeanours.
Finance.
The net public revenue in the year 1890 was 6,638,336 dollars, and ex-
penditure 8,300,778. Nearly half of the revenue is from customs, and over
one-third from taxes on spirits, tobacco, &c. ; while seven-tenths of the
expenditure is for public debt, instruction, and war.
The internal consolidated debt of Guatemala on January 1, 1891, was
returned at 6,495,062 dollars; non-consolidated 5,554,995 dollars; foreign
debt 922,700/. (= 4,613,500 dollars) ; total debt, 16,663,557 dollars. Dur-
ing 1890 the debt was increased by 3.094,367 dollars. As payments to the
Government must be in its own paper money, this currency has remained
at par.
Defence.
The army of Guatemala, the cost of which is about one-tenth of the total
public expenditure, consists (1891) of 3,718 officers and men. There is,
a, a reserve militia of 67,300 officers and men.
Production and Industry.
The number of owners who possess immovable property of the value of
more than 1,000 dollars in 1885 was returned at 6.157, the total value of
these holdings being given at 38,741,431 dollars.
The soil in general is exceedingly fertile. The chief agricultural products
are coffee, sugar, maize ; average product, 200 million lbs. ; wheat, 40 mil-
lion lbs. ; rice, 4 million lbs. ; also cacao, cotton, tobacco, rubber, banana,
and cocoa-nuts.
In 1885 Guatemala possessed 117,880 horses, 45,501 mules, 494,130 cattle.
460,426 sheep, 194,776 pigs, 30,370 goats, the total value of all animals
being given at 18,623,316 dollars.
Gold, silver, lead, tin, copper, and other minerals exist, but are little
worked.
Commerce.
The following are the statistics of trade, in dollars, in the years 1886-90,
including bullion and specie : —
-
1886 1887 1888 1889 1890
Imports .
Exports .
3,537,399 4,241,408 5,459,568 7,586,661 7,639,833
6,719,503 9,039,391 7,239,977 13,247,657 14,401,534
The chief imports in 1890 were specie, 992,666 dollars ; cotton -cloth and
yam, 945,614 dollars ; railway, telegraph, and electric light material, 458,266
dollars: woollen goods, 486,297 dollars ; silk, 157,463 dollars: flour, 189,631
dollars. The imports from Great Britain were valued at 1,722,671 dollars ;
from the United States, 1,207,546 dollars ; from Germany, 935,829 dollars :
from France, 804,561 dollars ; from Central America, 785,279 dollars ; from
South America, 521,938 dollars. The chief exports were coffee, valued at
U 0 I
660
GUATEMALA
12,714,981 dollars; hides, 106,502 dollars; bananas, 113,230 dollars ; sugar,
84,198 dollars. The sugar and fruit trades have recently been much
developed.
The value of the commercial intercourse of the Republic with the United
Kingdom is not reported in the Board of Trade Returns, which summarise,
under the heading ' Central America, ' the commerce of the live States of Costa
Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and San Salvador, with Great Britain.
The commercial intercourse of the whole of ' Central America ' with the United
Kingdom is shown in the following table : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Exports" from Central America
to Great Britain .
Imports of British produce into
Central America .
£
1,117,042
679,266
1,341,176
987,513
£
1,137,234
945,207
£
1,181,703
996,222
£
1,320,305
987,168
The principal articles exported from Central America to Great Britain in the
yeare 1890 were coffee, of the value of 1,159,566?., and indigo, of the value of
111,777/. The chief articles of British produce imported into Central America
in 1890 were cotton manufactures, amounting to 537,745/. ; iron, wrought
and unwrought, 111,156/. ; machinery, 48,893/. ; woollens, 53,759/.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1890, 430 vessels, of 548,193 tons, entered the ports of the Republic ;
of these vessels, 336, of 474,835 tons, belonged to the United States ; 40, of
47,309 tons, were German, and 48, of 24,334 tons, were British.
There is a line of railway from Sail Jose through Escuintla to the capital
(72 miles), a line from Champerico to Retalhuleu (27 miles), and one is in con-
struction from Retalhuleu to San Filipe. There are a few good roads, but
away from the railway most of the traffic is on mule-back.
There were in 1890, 155 post-offices. The total postal movement (letters,
canls, parcels, &c, received and delivered) in 1890 was 5,194,301, as against
5,126,631 in 1889. Of telegraphs there were 2,176 miles, with 110 offices, in
1890 ; the number of messages was 603,423.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Guatemala, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The Dollar or Peso, of 100 Centavas
nominal value, \s. ;
real value 6£ pesos = £1.
The Spanish Libra of 16 ounces
,, Arrohu of 80 libra!
,, ■ Quintal of i arrobai
,, Tinclada of 20 ipiintals
Ft niriji i.
Wbights and Measures.
= 1*014 lb. avoirdupois.
= 25*35 11..
= 101*40
= 18*10 cwt.
= 1^ imperial bushel,
The old weights and measures of Spain are in general use.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF RKFKBJDN K Mil
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Guatemala in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Senor Don Crisanto Medina, accredited Augu-
1886 ; accredited also to France, and resident in Paris.
Consul-General. — Benjamin Isaac, accredited December 27, 1879.
There are also Consular representatives at Glasgow, Liverpool, Manchester,
Southampton, and Plymouth.
2. Of Great Britain in Guatemala.
Minister and Consul-Gcneral to the several Republics of Central An
Audley C. Gosling. Secretary of Legation at Copenhagen 1881 ; Secretary of
Embassy at Madrid 1887, and at St. Petersburg 1888 ; appointed to <
America 1890.
Attache. — Cecil Gosling.
Consul. — Arthur Chapman.
There are British Vice-Consuls at San Jose, Livingston, and (,>uezaltenango.
Statistical and other Books ot Reference concerning Guatemala.
1. Official Publications.
■o general de la republics de Guatemala levantado en el ano de 1880. Guatemala,
1SS1.
Infonne de la Direction de Estadistica. Guatemala, 189L
Informe de la Secretaria de Fomento. Guatemala, 1891.
Memorias de los Secretarios de Estado del Gobierno de la republica de Guatemala
(Gnliernaciony Justicia; Instruccion Publica ; Guerra ; Hacienda: Relacion. -
km.
Movimiento de poblacion habido en los pueblos de la republica de Guatemala durante el
ano de 1S90. Guatemala, 1891.
Report on Guatemala, in ' Diplomatic and Consular Reports,' No. 763, 1890.
Trade of Central America with Great Britain, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom for the year 1890.' Imp. 4. London, 1891.
2. Xon-Official Publications.
Raily (J.), Central America. 8. London. 1850.
Bemouilli (Dr. Gustav), Briefe aus Guatemala, in Dr. Petermann's ' Mittheilungen.' 4.
Gotlui, 1868-69.
Bernouilli (Dr. Gustav), Reise in der Republik Guatemala, in Dr. A. Petennann's
Mittheilungen.' 4. Gotha, 1873.
Brigham (T.), Guatemala. The Land of the Quetzal. London, 1887.
i'rtibel (Julius), Aus America. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1857-68.
Gonzalez (Dario), Geografla de Centro-Ainerica. San Salvador, 187.
Lqfiriere (J.), De Paris a Guatemala, Notes de voyage au centre de I'Anieruiue. 8.
l'aris, 1877.
Lemale (G.), Guia geografica de los centres de poblacion de la republica de Guatemala.
Guatemala, 1882.
Marr ( Wilhelm), Reise nach Central-America. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Morelet (L), Voyage dans l'Amerique centrale. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1859.
Scherzer (Karl, Ritter von), Wanderungen durch die mittelamerikauischen Freistaaten.
8. Braunschweig, 1857.
Squier (E. G.), The States of Central America. 8. London, 1868.
8toll (Otto), Guatemala. Reisen und Schilderungen aus den Jahren 187S-S3. Leipzig
1886.
Whetham (J. W. Boddam), Across Central America. 8. London, 1877.
662
HAITI.
(R^PUBLIQUE 1>E HAITI.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Haiti, formerly a French colony, is governed under a
Constitution proclaimed June 14, 1867. By its terms the legislative power
rests in a National Assembly, divided into two chambers, respectively
called the Senate and the House of Representatives. The latter is elected
by the direct vote of all male citizens engaged in some occupation, for the
term of five years ; while the members of the Senate (30 in number) are
nominated for six years by the House of Representatives from two lists
presented by the Executive and the Electoral Colleges ; one -third retire
every two years. Members of both houses are paid during session. The
executive power is in the hands of a President who, according to the Con-
stitution, must be elected by the people, but in recent years has generally
been chosen by the United Senate and House of Representatives, Bitting in
National Assembly, and in some instances by the troops, and by delegates
of parties acting as representatives of the people. The nominal term of
office of the President is seven years ; it is generally cut short, however,
by insurrections.
President of the Republic. — General Hyppolite, assumed presidency
October 1889.
The administration of the Republic is carried on, under the President,
by four heads of departments. The President receives a salary of 4,800Z.
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic, which embraces the western portion of the
island of Haiti — the larger but less populated eastern division forming the
Republic of Santo Domingo — is estimated at 10,204 English square miles.
A census of the population does not exist; the inhabitants, nine-tenths of
whom are negroes and the rest mulattoes, with very few of European
descent, are calculated by the best authorities to number about f»72,000,
while an estimate by a native writer gives the total at 960,000 in 1887.
Capital : Port-au-Prince, with 40,000 to 60,000 inhabitants, situated on B
large bay, and possessed of an excellent harbour. The language of the
country is French, though most of the people speak a debased dialect
known as Creole French.
Religion and Instruction.
The religion is nominally Roman Catholicism. Public elementary edu-
cation is free, the country being divided into 14 inspectors' district-.
There are 400 national schools, besides private schools, and 5 public lycees.
Finance.
The public revenue and expenditure an known only by aatOBates,
long-continued civil war having brought extreme disorder into the linanees
of the Republic. The revenue and expenditure for 188f>-86 were estimated
at 6,412,957 dollars. The revenue for 1887-88 is given at 8,017,768 pesos.
DEFENCE— COMMERCE AND COMMUNICATION'S 663
In 1890 the inport ami export duties amounted, respectively, to 5,780,404
dollars and 2,820,554 dollars.
There is a large floating debt, consisting chiefly of paper-money issued
by ■■(OWJTi) Governments, the great mass enormously depreciated by
frequent repudiation, and by forgery on a vast scale.
rdiii" to an official statement of 1887, the total external debt is
4,320,000 dollars, and internal. 9,180,000 dollars: total, 13,500,000 dollars.
In Qctol lional Bank of Haiti entered into activity
with ■ capita] of 800,000/. in 2,000 shares. It was charged with the
Buiarfoa Ofa *ew dteima] coinage, to take the ntaed of the various coins in
circulation in the Republic. It might also issue bank-notes, but for not
more than three times the caafa in its i«wsession. In the years 1884 and 1885
the issue of 3.000,000 of ill i>ai>er-inouey was decreed by the
Government.
About 5,000,000 dollars in paper OUttncj is in circulation ilS91)t
|M)rtions are being gradually withdrawn.
Defence.
The army, under a 'law of reorganisation ' patnd bj the National
•lv in 1878, consists, nominally, of 6,828 men, chiefly infantry.
There 'Guard of the Government,' numbering 650 men, com-
manded l>v 10 generals, who also act as aides-de-camp to the President of
the Republic, Haiti lias a gun- vessel of 900 tons, a corvette, and two
sloops.
Commerce and Communications.
The total import! in the year 1889 were valued at 6,000,000 dollars, and
exporta at 12.000,000 dollars ; in 1890, im]»orts, 19,500,000 dollars, exports,
15,000,000 dollars. The nrincnt] articles exported were (1890) coffee,
60,000,000 lbs. ; logwood, 200,000,000 lbs. ; cocoa, 4,900,000 lbs. ; cotton,
2,400,000 lbs. ; mahogany, 50,000 feet.
There is no rei>ort of the exact value of the commercial intercourse of the
Republic with the United Kingdom in the ' Annual Statement ' published
by the Board of Trade, which throws Haiti, together with Santo Domingo.
But as the population of the latter State is only about one-fourth of that
of Haiti, an estimate may be made of the respective distribution of exports
and imports during the five years 1886 to 1890 given in the following
table :—
-
1888 1887 1888 1889 1890
1
£
£ £ £
Exports from Haiti and
Santo Domingo to U.K.
92,801
46,644
80,442
47,123 . 89,593
Imports of British pro-
duce into Haiti and
Santo Domingo
270,992
434,629
310,069
249,624 J 528,357
The chief exports to the United Kingdom in 1890 were logwood, valued at
i/. : mahogany and other woods, 23,082/. : coffee, 3,383/. cacao, 422/.
(8,749/. in 1884). Previously raw cotton was also exjtorted in considerable
quantities, but the value of this export sank from 7(5. 7?6/. in 1872 to nil in
1881 ; in 18S6, 350/. ; in 1887 and 1888, nil. The staple article of British
664 HAITI
produce imported into Haiti and Santo Domingo consists of cotton manu-
factures, valued at 170,758?. in 1886 ; 309,521Z. in 1887 ; 214,516?. in 1888 :
162,790/. in ]889 ; 356,078/. in 1890 ; and linens, 29,189/. in 1885 ; 19,630/.
in 1886 ; 34,859/. in 1887 ; 17,763/. in 1888 ; 13,200/. in 1889 ; 22,248/. in
1890.
In 1890 there entered the three principal ports of Haiti 694 vessels of
779,676 tons (145 of 158,095 tons British).
In 1887, 479,996 letters, &c, passed through the Post Office. There are
31 offices.
On March 31, 1891, the accounts of the National Bank of Haiti balanced
at 14,859,660 dollars.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The- money, weights, and measures of Haiti, and the British equivalents,
are : —
Money.
The Piastre, or dollar, nominal value, 4s. ; real value, 3s. Ad.
French gold and silver coins are in current use, and hank-notes of the
National Bank of Haiti.
Weights and Measures.
The weights and measures in use are those of France.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Haiti in Great Britain.
Charge d'affaires. — P. E. Latortue.
Con&til. — Maurice Erdmann.
2. Of Great Britain in Haiti.
Consul- General. — Vacant.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Haiti.
1. Official Puiilications.
Report on Haiti in ' Reports from the Consuls of the United States,' No. 88. Washington,
1887.
Report on Ihe Trade and Finances of Haiti, in 'Reports on Subjects of General Interest.
No. ,J. London, 1887.
Report on Trade and Snipping of Haiti, 1887, in 'Deutsche! HandeisArehiv,' July, 1888.
Berlin, 1888.
Eteporl on Trade of Haiti, in No. BOS Of ' Diplomat ie and Consular Reports,' 1801.
Trade of Haiti and San Domingo With the United Kingdom, in 'Annual Statement of
the Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the
year [8*0.' Imp. 1. London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publication*.
Ardouin (lleaulirun). Etudes BUT I'histoirc de Haiti. 10 vols. Paris, 1S58-61.
Jlovvtau (Alex.), Haiti, sea progrCS, son avenir. S. Paris. 1-
Fortvnat (Dante), Nouvelle geographic de 1'de de Haiti. Port -an Prinoa, 1888.
Jiidiiirimiiiin (J.i Oeschiohte von Haiti. 8. Kiel,
ffasord (Bamuel), Banto Domingo, Cast and Present ; with a glance at Haiti. 8. pp. ill.
London. 1878.
Madiou (N.). Histoirede Haiti. 8 vols. 8. Port an Prince, I
Saii{K). Histoire des Caziqncs de Haiti. 8. Port-au-Prince, 1866.
St. John (Sir Spenserl. Haiti. 01 tin Klaek Republic. London. ISM.
HAWAII.
(Hawaii-Nki.)
Reigning Monarch, Constitution, and Government.
Queen Liliuokalani, eldest sister of the late King Kalakaua L, born
September 2, 1838 ; married to His Excellency John O. Dominis, Governor
of Oahu, who died August 27, 1891 ; succeeded to the throne January 20,
1891, on the death of King Kalakaua.
Under Kamehameha I. the Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands were united
into one kingdom. The second king of the name and his queen died in
England, 1823. Under Kamehameha III. the integrity of the kingdom was
recognised by England, France, and the United States, and subsequcntly
by other Governments. This king gave hi> subjects a constitution in 1840,
which was revised and extended in 1852, and on his death in 1854 wu
ceeded by his nephew, Kamehameha IV., the husband of Qoeeo Emma,
who died in 1863. His brother, Kamt-hameha V., succeeded, and proclaimed
a revised constitution, August 20, 1864. On his death in 1872, without
issue, Prince Lunalilo was chosen, on whose death in 1874 the late King
Kalakaua was elected, and he was succeeded in 1891 by the present
queen.
The Government is a constitutional monarchy. In 1887 a new Consti-
tution was granted. The executive power of the kingdom is vested in the
Sovereign and his Cabinet. The present Cabinet consists of a Minister of
Foreign Affairs, Minister of Interior, Minister of Finance, Attorney-General.
No act of the sovereign can become law unless countersigned by one of the
members of the Cabinet. The Ministers are appointed by the Sovereign, but
are removable only on a vote of want of confidence by the Legislature, by
resignation, or by the death of the Sovereign. The Ministers are ex officio
members of the House of Nobles, and as such have seats in the Legislature ;
they have the right to speak and vote on all questions except on a motion of
'want of confidence.' The Legislature of the kingdom is composed of 24
members of the House of Nobles and 24 Representatives, which, with the 4
Ministers, make a total of 52, all sitting together. Members of both Houses
are elected by popular vote. The qualification of an elector for Noble is an
income of 600 dollars a year, or the ownership of 3,000 dollars worth of
unincumbered property. No property qualification is required of voters for
Representatives. The number of persons qualified to vote for Representatives
is about 14,000 ; an educational qualification is necessary for all voters. The
Legislature meets every two years, in April or May. * The members of the
House of Nobles are elected for six years, one-third* being changed every two
years ; the Representatives for two years. The Nobles receive no pay ; the
Representatives receive 500 dollars each for the term.
The naval and military tones, authorised by law, consist of the household
guards, fixed at 65 men. Volunteer military organisations are prohibited by
law.
666
HAWAII
Area and Population.
The total area of the islands is 6,640 square miles — namely, Hawaii,
4,210 ; Maui, 760 ; Ohau, 600 ; Kauai, 590 ; Molokai, 270 ; Lanai, 150 ;
Niihau, 97 ; Kahoolawe, 63 square miles. According to the census of 1884,
the population was 80,578 — 51,539 males and 29,039 females ; and according
to the census of 1890, 89,990—58,714 males and 31,276 females. Of the
population in 1890, 34,436 were natives, 6,186 half-castes, 7,495 born in
Hawaii of foreign parents, 15,301 Chinese, 12,360 Japanese, 8,602 Portuguese,
1,928 Americans, 1.344 British, 1,034 Germans, 227 Norwegians, 70 French,
588 Polynesians, and 419 other foreigners. The native population is closely
allied to the Maories of New Zealand. At the time of Captain Cook's discovery
of the islands, upwards of a century ago, the population numbered probably
200, 000. Since then the natives have rapidly decreased, and since the census
of 1884 there has been a decrease in the native population of 5,578. The
foreign element is, however, rapidly increasing. The total arrivals in 1883
were 11,194 ; departures, 3,535 ; the immigration in 1884 was 7,654 and
emigration 4,941 ; in 1885 the former 5,410 and the latter 1,805 ; in 1886
there were 3,725 arrivals and 2,189 departures ; in 1887, arrivals 3,250,
departures 2,220; in 1888, 5,532 arrivals, 2,890 departures; in 1889,
3,671 arrivals, 2,313 departures ; in 1890, 2,484 arrivals, 1,852 de-
partures; excess of arrivals 632. Most of the immigrants are Chinese
and Japanese. The capital, Honolulu (20,487 inhabitants) is in the island
of Oahu.
Religion and Instruction.
All forms of religion are permitted and protected. Nearly all the natives
are Christians. The Sovereign belongs to the Presbyterian Church. There is
a Chinch of England, of which there is a bishop at Honolulu ; there is also b
Roman Catholic bishop, and ministers of various denominations. According
to latest statistics there are 29,685 Protestants, 20,072 Roman Catholics, 72
Jews, 3,576 Mormons, 30,821 undesignated. Schools are established all over the
islands, the sum allotted for public instruction in 1890-92 beiug 326,922 dollars.
In 1890 there were 178 schools, with 10,000 pupils ; of the pupils 5,559 were
Hawaiians and 1,573 half-castes.
Finance.
The budget is voted for a biennial period. The following shows the
revenue and expenditure in dollars for the last five financial periods : —
-
1880-8'.'
188L--NI
1884-80
1880-88
1888-90
Revenue
Expenditure .
2,050,276
2,282,596
3,092,085
2,216,406
8,010,655
2,988,722
4,812,576
4,712,285
3,682,197
",510
Kstimated revenue, 1890-92, 2,862,505 dollars ; expenditure 2,863,110
dollars. The revenue is largely derived from customs (1,082,766 dollars in
1888-90) and internal taxes (901,808 dollars in 1888-90), while the largest
item of expenditure for the Interioi (1,180,123 dollars in 1888-90). The debt
on March 31, 1890, was 2,599,502 dollars. The interest varies from 5 to
7 per cent.
DIPLOMATIC AN!) CONSULAR REPRESENTATIVES
667
Commerce, Shipping, and Commnnications.
The islands are to a great extent mountainous and volcank', but the.
soil is highly fertile and productive. Sugar and rice are the staple industries,
while coffee, hides, bananas, and wool are also exported. The following
table shows the commerce (in thousands of dollars) and shipping for
four years : —
Imi>ort.s
Native Kx]K)rts
SSSZ Sh,i ■■«"*
1887
1888
1889
1890
1,000 dollars
4,944
1,641
:.. 180
6,962
1.000 dollars
11,631
14,040
13,02:3
1,000 dollars
585
8M
8M
696
210.;
281,
120
Of the exports in 1890 sugar wm valuetl at 12,159,585 dollars (259
million lbs.) ; rice, .'>4.">,239 dollars : Kinanas, 176,351 dollar- : hides,
70,949 dollars ; the imports are mainly groceries and provisions, clothing,
grain, timber, machinery, hardware, cotton goods. 91 per cent, of the trade
■ with the United Si il
Steamers connect the islands with the American continent, Australasia,
and China. In the inter-island traffic 20 steamers and 28 sailing vessels
are constantly engaged. In 1889 there were 57 vessels belonging to the
islands, of 15,403 tons. There are about 56 miles of railway in the islands
of Hawaii, Maui, and Oahu. There are telegraphs in "the islands of
Maui, Hawaii, between Hawaii and Oahu, and round the latter island ;
total length 250 miles : nearly every family in Honolulu has its telephone.
In the two years April 1, 1888, to March 31, 1890, the total number of
letters, &c, transmitted and received by the Post Office was 3,159,034 :
there were 54 post-offices. Postal savings-banks, 1890 ; depositors, 2,641 :
amount, 956,999 dollars. Honolulu is lighted by electricity and has lines
of tramways. The various islands will shortly be connected by telegraphic
cable.
Currency.
Hitherto, gold and silver coins of all nations have passed current in the
Hawaiian Islands as legal tender, either at their real or nominal value ; but
from December 1, 1884, only gold coins of the United States are legal
tender for more than 10 dollars, and only Hawaiian and United States
silver coins for smaller amounts. Paper money is not in use, except in the
form of treasury certificates for coin deposited there.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Hawaii n Gkeat Britain.
Charge d Affaires. — Abraham Hoffnung, November 9, 1886.
Secretary. —Sidney B. Francis Hoffnung.
Consul-Gciieral. — Henry R. Armstrong.
2. Ot Gkeat Bkitain u Hawaii.
Commission' r and Consul-Gcncad. — Major James H. Wodehouse.
668 HAWAII
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Hawaii.
1. Official Publications.
Reports of the various Government Departments for 1890. Honolulu, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Andri (A.), Les lies Hawiai. Gand, 1886.
Bastian (Adolf), Zur Kenntniss Hav/aii's. Berlin, 1883.
Bird (Miss I.), The Hawaiian Archipelago. London, 1878.
Brassey (Lady), A Voyage in the Sunbeam. London, 1880.
Bowser (G.), Hawaiian Kingdom, Statistical Directory, <fec. San Francisco, 1880.
Button (Capt. C. U. S. A.), Hawaiian Volcanoes. Washington, D.C., 1885.
Ellis (W.) Tour through Hawaii. London, 1827.
Ellis (W.), Polynesian Researches. 4 vols. London, 1831.
Fornander (C), Origin of the Polynesian Nations. 3 vols. London, 1885.
Gordon dimming (Miss C. F.), Fire Fountains : the Kingdom of Hawaii. 2 vols. London,
18S3.
Honolulu Almanac and Directory for 1891. Honolulu, 1891.
Hopkins (Mauley), History of Hawaii. 2nd edition. London, 1866.
Jarvis (J. J.), History of the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu, 1847.
Luther (H. Gulik, M.D.), Climate, &c, of the Hawaiian Islands. New York, 1855.
Mine (Albert), L'archipel des iles Hawa'i ou Sandwich. Bordeaux, 1885.
Monnier (Marcel), Un printemps sur le Pacifique. Iles Hawaii. Paris, 1885.
Varigny (C. de), Quatorze ans aux iles Sandwich. Palis.
Whitney (H. M.), The Hawaiian Guide Rook. Honolulu, 1890.
069
HONDURAS.
(Replblica del Honduras.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Honduras, established November 5, 1838, before the dis-
solution of the Confederation of Central America in 1839, is governed under
a charter proclaimed in November 1865, greatly modified by the new Constitu-
tion of November 1, 1880. It gives the legislative power to a Congress of
Deputies composed of 37 members. The executive authority rests with a
President, nominated and elected by popular vote for four years.
President of the Republic. — General Pariano Leista, elected President
November 10, 1891.
There have been no regular elections of Presidents in recent years, and
none served the full term of office.
The administration of the Republic is carried on by a Council of ministers,
to whom are entrusted the departments of Foreign Affairs, Interior, Public
Works, War, Finance, Public Instruction, and Justice.
The active army consists of 500 men with 20,000 militia.
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic is calculated to embrace 46,400 English square
miles, with a population, in 1889, of 431,917, or about 9 inhabitants to the
square mile. The Republic is divided into 13 departments, 60 districts, 212
municipalities. The bulk of the inhabitants consists of aboriginal ' Indians,'
and the sparse European-descended population, mainly of Spanish origin, is
in the small ports on the Pacific coast, and in the town of Santa Rosas in
the tobacco districts of Gracias. Capital of the Republic is the ancient town
of Tegucigalpa, with 12,600 inhabitants, including the district, situate nearly
in the centre of the State, and chief station on the planned inter-oceanic
railway.
Instruction.
There are two universities and several colleges ; about 600 schools with
23,000 scholars.
Finance.
The finances of the Republic are in great disorder, owing to prolonged
civil strife, aggravated by wars with Guatemala and San Salvador. Since
1880 there have been improvements. The actual revenue in the two years
1885 and 1886 was 2,596,936 dollars; in the two years 1886 and 1888
(July 31) the revenue was 2,818,264 dollars, and expenditure 2,826,532
dollars. The revenue for 1888-89 (year ending July 31) was 1,432,522
dollars and expenditure 1,385,000 dollars. The actual expenditure for several
years exceeded the revenue, and the deficits were covered by loans. The
revenue is drawn mainly from customs and excise duties.
The foreign debt of Honduras consisted of English loans amounting to
3,222,000*., and a French loan of 2,176,570/., or a total of 5,398,570/. No
interest has been paid since 1872, and its accumulation has reached (1891) the
amount of over 7,645,518/.
670 HONDURAS
Commerce.
The exports of Honduras consist chiefly of cattle, mahogany, hides, and
india-rubber, while the imports comprise cotton goods, silks, and hardware.
The exports for the financial year 1887-88 were valued at 3,350,664 dollars,
and were : — Vegetable products (1,221,716 dollars), animal and industrial
products (376,645 dollars), minerals, exclusive of gold and silver (1,673,449
dollars), gold and silver (78,853 dollars). These exports went to the
United States (2,790,405 dollars, England 105,088 dollars), France (81,566
dollars), "Germany (6,003 dollars), and the Central American Republics
(367,599 dollars). From Truxillo alone the exports of 1887 were valued at
628,100 dollars, including 1,200 head of cattle, valued at 30,000 dollars;
mahogany to the value of 52,000 dollars ; hides and deer-skins, 52,540
dollars ; bananas, 346,164 dollars ; india-rubber, 51,326 dollars. At that
port in 1887 139 vessels of 59,723 tons arrived, and same number cleared.
There are no complete official returns of the value of either the imports or
exports, owing partly to the customs at the principal ports being farmed out
to individuals whose interest it is to conceal all facts concerning their revenue.
The value of the commerce with Great Britain is not given in the ' Annual
Statement ' of the Board of Trade, which merges Honduras into ' Central
America.' The gold and silver mines of the country are officially stated
to be in a fair way of development.
Communications.
In 1890 there were 56 post-offices ; receipts 19,436 dollars, expenses
157,851 dollars. There are 1,800 miles of telegraphs, with 70 offices; and
there is a railway from Puerto Cortez to San Pedro Sula, 37 miles, and an
inter-oceanic railway is projected from Puerto Cortez to Amapala on the
Pacific. Also a line from Puerto Cortez by the N. Coast, through one of the
best fruit districts of the Republic.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Honduras, and the British equivalents,
are as follows : —
Money.
The Dollar, of 100 cents : nominal value, 4s., real value 3«. 4d.
Weights and Measures.
The Arroba { *» jje = *| imPerial «al|OTS-
,, Square Vara . . = 1*90 vara = 1 yard
,, Fanega . . = 1£ imperial bushel.
Diplomatic and Consular Eepresentatives.
1. Of Honduras in Cheat BRITAIN.
Constt.l-Gen.eral. — William Binney, accredited October 17, 1882.
2. Of Great Britain in Honduras.
Minwlsr and Consul-General. — Audlcy 0. Gosling.
Consult. — William Melhado (Truxillo) ; Robert HoLachlftP (Omoa).
671
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Honduras.
1. Official Publications.
Gaceta Oflcial de Honduras.
Report on the Trade and Commerce of Traxillo in 1887, in No. 364 ' Diplomatic and
Consular Reports.' London, 1888.
Trade of Central America with Great Britain, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom in the year 1890.' Imp. 4. London, 1891.
2. Xon-Offk iai. Publications.
Bate* (H. W.> Central and South America. London, 1882.
Frnbel (Julius). Se\ in Years' Travel in Central America. 8. London.
Gonzalez (I).). Geografia de Centro-Ameriea. San Salvador. II
Lombard (Thomas U.). The New Honduras. Hew York, 1887.
Murr (Willu lm). BeJae nach Central- America. 2 voK. B. Haml.ur.
Pelletier (Voi\s\\\ K.), Honduras et ses j>orts. Documents ofliciels snr It- ehemin-de.fer
interoceanique. 8. Paris, 1869.
Rfickatdt (M.). Cent n>- America. 8. Braunschweig, 18.M.
Sehtrzrr (Karl, Bitter von), Wandeningen (lurch die mittelamerikanischen Fn istaaten
Nicaragua, Honduras nnd Baa Salvador. S. Braunschwei.
Sol'trra (Maria). A Lady's Hide across Spanish Honduras. London. 1884.
Squier{K. G.). Honduras: Descriptive. Historical, and Statist leal 8. London. 1870,
672
ITALY.
(Regno d'Italia.)
Reigning King.
ITmberto I., born March 14, 1844, the eldest son of King Vittorio
Emanuele II. of Italy and of Archduchess Adelaide of Austria.
Succeeded to the throne on the death of his father, January 9,
1878. Married, April 22, 1868, to Queen Margherita, born
November 20, 1851, the only daughter of the late Prince
Ferdinando of Savoy, Duke of Genoa.
Son of tlve King.
Vittorio Emanuele, Prince of Naples, born November 11,
1869.
Sisters of the King.
I. Princess Clotilde, born March 2, 1843; married, January
30, 1859, to the late Prince Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul
Bonaparte ; widow, March 17, 1891 ; offspring of the union are
Napoleon Victor, born July 18, 1862 ; Louis, born July 16, 1864 ;
and Maria Lsetizia, born December 20, 1866 ; married, September
11, 1888, to Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta ; widow, January 18,
1890.
II. Princess Pia, born October 16, 1847 ; married, September
27, 1862, to the late King Luis I. of Portugal ; widow, October
19, 1889.
Nepliews of the King.
Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta, born January 13,
1869 ; Prince Vittorio Emanuele, Count of Turin, born November
24, 1870 ; Prince Luigi Amedeo, Duke of Abbruzzi, born January
30, 1873 ; Prince Umberto Maria, Count of Salemi, born June
22, 1889 — children of the late Prince Amedeo, Duke of Aosta.
Aunt of the King.
Princess Elisabetta, born February 4, 1830, the daughter of
King Johann of Saxony ; married, April 30, 1850, to Prince
Ferdinando of Savoy, Duke of Genoa ; widow, February 10, 1855 ;
re-married, in 1856, to the Marquis of Rapallo. Offspring of the
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT G73
first union are : — 1. Princess Margherita, born November 20,
1851 ; married, April 22, 1868, to King Umberto I. 2. Prince
Toinm.-txi of Savoy, Duke of Genoa, vice-admiral, born February 6,
1854; married, April 14, 1883, to Princess Isabella, daughter of
the late Prince Adalbert of Bavaria ; offspring, Prince Ferdinando
Umberto, born April 21, 1884.
The origin of the reigning house is not historically established ; but most
genealogists trace it to a Gentian Count Berthold, who, in the eleventh
century, established himself on the western slope of the Alps, between Mont
Blanc and Lake Leman. In the end of the eleventh century the Prince of
Savoy acquired the countries of Turin and Susa. Count Amadeus, in 1383,
founded a law of primogeniture which greatly strengthened the family,
leading to the immediate acquisition of the territory of Nice. In 1416 the
Counts of Savoy adopted the title of Duke ; in 1418 they acquired the
Principality of Piedmont : and in 1713 they obtained the island of Sicily,
with the title of King. Sicily had to be exchanged, in 1720, for the isle of
Sardinia, to which henceforth the royal dignity remained attached. Genoa
and the surrounding territory were added to the Sardinian Crown at the peace
of 1815. The direct male line of the House of Savoy died out with King
Carlo Felix in 1831, and, the existing Salir law prohibiting the accession of
females, the crowTi fell to Prince Carlo Alberto, of the house of Savoy -
Carignano, a branch founded by Tommaso Francesco, born in 1596, younger
son of Duke Carlo Emanuele I. of Savoy. King Carlo Alberto, the first of
the house of Savoy-Carignano, abdicated the throne March 23, 1849, in favour
of his son, the late King Vittorio Emanuele II. By the Peace of Zurich,
November 10, 1859, King Vittorio Emanuele II. obtained Lombardy. with
the exception of Mantua, part of the Papal States, and the Duchies of Parma
and Modena. On March 11, 1860, annexation to Sardinia was voted by
plibiscit* in Parma, Modena, the Romagna, and Tuscany ; on October 21,
Sicily and Naples (including Bensrento and Pontecorro, part of the Papal
States), and on November 4, Marche and Umbria. The first Italian Parlia-
ment assembled in February 1861, and declared (March 17, 1861) Vittorio
Emanuele King of Italy. The remaining part of Lombardy and Venetia
were added to his dominions in 1866 (October 21). Finally, the Papal States
(Province of Rome), having been taken possession of by an Italian army
(September 20, 1870), after the retreat of the French garrison, were, after a
plebiscite, annexed to the Kingdom October 2.
The ' Dotazione della Corona, ' or civil list of the King, has been settled at
14,250,000 lire. Out of this the children of the late Prince Amedeo, Duke
of Aosta, have an ' Appannaggio, ' or State allowance, of 400,000 lire ; his
cousin Prince Tommaso, Duke of Genoa, an allowance of 400,000 lire. The
greater part of the private domains of the reigning family were given up to
the State in 1848.
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Italy is an expansion of the
1 Statute fondamentale del Regno,' granted on March 4, 1848, by
King Charles Albert to his Sardinian subjects. According to
this charter, the executive power of the State belongs exclusively
674 ITALY
to the Sovereign, and is exercised by him through responsible
ministers ; while the legislative authority rests conjointly in the
King and Parliament, the latter consisting of two Chambers — an
upper one, the Senato, and a lower one, called the ' Camera
de' Deputati.' The Senate is composed of the princes of the
royal house who are of age, and of an unlimited number of
members, above forty years old, who are nominated by the King
for life ; a condition of the nomination being that the person
should either fill a high office, or have acquired fame in science,
literature, or any other pursuit tending to the benefit of the
nation, or, finally, should pay taxes to the annual amount of
3,000 lire, or 120/. In the beginning of 1890 there were 335
senators. The deputies of the lower House are elected according
to the electoral law of September 24, 1882 (modified as regards
future Parliaments by the law of May 5, 1891, abolishing the
scrutin de liste), by ballot, by all citizens who are twenty-
one years of age, can read and write, and pay taxes to the amount
of 19 lire, or 80 centesimi. Members of academies, professors,
persons who have served their country under arms for two years,
and numerous other classes, are qualified to vote by their position.
The number of deputies is 508, or 1 to every 57,000 of the
population (census 1881). In 1890 the number of enrolled
electors was 2,826,055, including 73,397 temporarily disfranchised
on account of military service. At the general election in
November 1890, the number of those who voted was 1,477,173,
or 53 "6 per cent, of those who had the right to vote. For
electoral purposes the whole of the Kingdom is divided into 508
electoral colleges or districts, and these again into several sections.
No deputy can be returned to Parliament unless he has obtained
a number of votes greater than one-fourth of the total number of
inscribed electors, and than half the votes given. A deputy must
be thirty years old, and have the requisites demanded by the electoral
law. Incapable of being elected are all salaried Government
officials, as well as all persons ordained for the priesthood and
filling clerical charges, or receiving pay from the State. Officers
in the army and navy, ministers, under-secretaries of State, and
various other classes of functionaries high in office, may be
elected, but their number must never be more than forty, not in-
cluding the ministers and the umler-serretMiies of State. Neither
senators nor deputies receive any salary or other indemnity, but
are allowed to travel free throughout Italy by rail or steamer.
The duration of Parliaments is five years ; but the Ring has the power to
dissolve the lower House at any time, being bound only to order new elections,
and convoke a new meeting within four months. It is incumbent upon the
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT G75
executive to call the Parliament together annually. Each of the Chambers
has the right of introducing new foils, the same as the Government ; but all
money bills must originate in the House of Deputies. The ministers have
the right to attend the debates of both the upper and the lower House : but
they have no vote unless they are members. The sittings of both Chambers
are public ; and no sitting is valid unless an absolute majority of the members
are present.
The executive power is exercised, under the King, by a ministry divided
into the following 11 departments : —
1. The Presidency of the Council and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. —
Marquis Antonio Starrabba di Rudini, Minister of Interior, Octol-
December 14, 1869. Appointed President of the Council of Ministers and
Minister of Foreign Affairs, February 9, 1891.
2. The Ministry of the Interior. — Baron Giovanni Nicotera, Minister
of the Interior, 1876-77. Reappointed Minister of the Interior, Februarv 9,
1891.
3. The Ministry of Finance. — Giuseppe Colombo. Appointed Februarv 9,
1891.
4. The Ministry of the Treasury. — Luigi Luzzatti. Appointed February
10, 1891.
5. The Ministry of Justice and of Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Bruno ChimirrL
Appointed Minister of Justice, December 31, 1891.
6. The Ministry of War. — General Luigi Pelloux. Appointed February
6, 1891.
7. The Ministry of Marine. — Vice- Admiral Antonio Simone Pacorct de
Saint Bon, Minister of Marine 1873-76. Reappointed Minister of Marine,
February 15, 1891.
8. The Ministry of Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture. — Marques de
Rudini. Appointed ad interim December 31, 1891.
9. The Ministry of Public Instruction. — Pasquale Villari. Appointed
February 9, 1891.
10. The Ministry of Public Works. — Ascanio Branca. Appointed
February 9, 1891.
11. The Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs. — Ascanio Branca (interim).
Local Government.
The two principal elective local administrative bodies are the communal
councils and the provincial councils. According to the law of February 10,
1889, each commune has a communal council, a municipal council, and a
syndic. Both the communal councils and the municipal councils vary accord-
ing to population, the members of the latter being selected by the former
from among themselves. The syndic is the head of the communal adminis-
tration, and is a Government official ; he is elected by the communal council
from among its own members, by secret vote, in all the chief communes of
provinces and districts, and in other communes having more than 10,000
inhabitants. In other communes the syndic is appointed by the King from
among the communal councillors. Each province has a provincial council
and a provincial commission, the numbers varying according to population.
x x 2
676
ITALY
The council elects its president and other officials. The provincial commission
is elected by the council from its own members. It conducts the business of
the province when the latter is not sitting. Both communal and provincial
councils are elected for five years, one-fifth being renewed every year. The
communal council meets twice and the provincial once a year in ordinary
session, though they may be convened for extraordinary purposes. All
communal electors are eligible to the council except those having an official
or pecuniary interest in the commune. Persons not resident in the province,
or having no solid interest in it, or who do not pay taxes on movable property,
as well as officials in any way interested in the province, are ineligible to the
provincial councils. Electors must be Italian citizens, twenty-one years of
age, able to read and write, be on the Parliamentary electoral list, or pay a
direct annual contribution to the commune, of any nature, or comply with
other conditions of a very simple character.
In 1889 the number of enrolled administrative electors was 3,420,987, of
whom 77,112 were temporarily deprived of electoral rights. In the general
communal elections of 1889, 2,002,630 electors voted, or 59 -9 per cent, of the
total number.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The first census of United Italy was taken on December 31,
1861, but at that date Venetia, certain districts of the province
of Mantua, and the present province of Rome had not been
annexed, and were excluded from the census. At the censuses of
1871 and 1881, the area was, as now, 114,410 square miles. In
1861 the area of the Kingdom of Italy was about 96,500 square
miles. The census of 1861, of 1871, and of 1881 gave the follow-
ing results: — December 31, 1861 (excluding the regions annexed,
Venetia, southern part of Mantua, and the province of Rome),
21,777,334; December 31, 1871 (present territory), 26,801,154;
December 31, 1881 (present territory), 28,459,628.
The following figures show the increase of the population of
the present territory of the Kingdom of Italy from 1800 onwards,
in round numbers : —
Year
Population
Increase per
cent, per
annum
Year
Population
Increase per
cent, per
annum
1800
1816
1825
1838
18,124,000
18,383,000
19,727,000
21,975,000
0-089
0-812
0-876
1848
1861
1871
1881
23,617,000
25,000,000
26,800,000
28,460,000
0-747
0-450
0-400
0619
The Kingdom of Italy is divided into 69 provinces, the names
of which, with area in English square miles, population in 1881,
estimated population, and density per square mile in 1890, are
AREA AND POPULATION
677
given in the subjoined table, which is classified according to the
old comjxirtimenti, not now recognised as legal divisions : —
Area in ,
square ,
miles
Population, Present: Census 1881
Estimated
Population
UN
Populati.in
Compartiinenti
Males Females ! Total
1800, i" r
square mile
Alessandria
1,976 i
374,060 355,650 729,710
771,137
39"
Cuneo
2,755
321.423 313,977 635,400
651,807
23»;
Novara
2,533
327,010 348,916 675,926
;,485
28'i -
Torino
4,068
506,175 523,039 1,029.214
1,085,077
26t. ;
Piedmont .
1,528,668 1,541,582 3,070,250
3,234,506
285-48
Genova .
1,572
376,408 383,714 7*
806,162
512
Porto Maurizio .
Liguria
i Bergamo . . j
467
65,630 66,621 132,251
140,391
300
2,039
442,038 450,335 S92,373
946,553,
464
1,088
196,915 193,860 390,775
412,393
379 04
Brescia . .
1,644
240,669 230,899 471,568
486,193
29574
0 . . !
1,050
256,444 258,606 515,050
551,617
525 35
Cremona . . J
632
152,526 149.612 302,138
305,214
482-93
Mantova . . |
1,155
151,328 144,400 295,728
306.
265-42
Milano . . '
961
567,367 £47,624 1,114,991
1.22:'.. \M 1,272
Pavia
1,284
237,527 232,304 469,831
492.
383-37
Sondrio .
Lombardy .
•
Belluno .
1,261
9,075
59,189, 61,345 120,534
129,592
10277
1,861,965 1,818,650 3,680,615
3,906,958
430-52
1,271
82,677 01,468 174.14".
175,742
138-27
Padova
IOO
201,652 196,110
430,662
57041
Rovigo
651
109,602, 108,098 817,70c
234,530
36"
Treviso
941
192,128 183,576 375,704
398,459
423 44
Udine
.
2,515
247,340 254,405 501,745
521,418
207
\ t-nezia
MA
178,551; 178,157 356. 70S
375,149
44187
Verona
1,061
202,769 191,296 394,065
419,939
395 80
Vicenza .
Venice
Bologna .
1,016
200,461 195,888 396, 34«
429,137
422-38
9,059
1,391
; 1,415,180
1,398,993 2,814,173 2,985,036
329-51
224,917J 457,474; 482,219
34667
Ferrara
1,010
117,453
113,354. 230.807 246.0S9
■_ ■
Forli
719
128,628 122,482; 251.110
2 11
Modena
966
141,308 137,946; 279,254 285,968
296 03
Parma
! 1,251
135,355 131,951 267.306 271,188
216-78
Piacenza
965
116,668 110,049 226,717 228,616
236 91
Ravenna
742
115,143 110,621 225,764 222.547
299 93
Reggio Emilia .
Emilia
Perugia(Umbria)
877
123,622 121. 337
244,959 248,931
- .84
7,921
1,110,734 1,07-
2,183,391 2,253,104
— 4 45
3,719
294,019
-7 $,041
572, 06(
) 593, 21(
1 15951
678
ITALY
Provinces and
Coiiipartinienti
Area in
square
miles
Population, Present : Census 1881
Estimated
Population
Males
Females
Total
1890 square mile
Ancona .
Ascoli Piceno .
Macerata .
Pesaio e Urbino
Marches
Arezzo
Firenze
Grosseto .
Livorno •.
Lucca
Massa e Carrara
Pisa .
Siena
Tuscany
Roma
Aquila degli
Abruzzi
Campobasso
Chieti
Teranio .
Abruzzi e
Molise
Avellino .
Benevento
Caserta
Napoli
Salerno
Campania .
Bari delle Puglie
Foggia .
Lecce
Apidia
Potenza (Basili-
cata)
Catanzaro .
Cosenza .
Reggio di Calabria
Calabria . |
736
809
1,057
1,144
130,937
101,907
116,589
112,290
136,401
107,278
123,124
110,753
267,338
209,185
239,713
223,043
271,910 369-44
214,927' 265-67
242,201 229-14
232,438 203-18
3,746
461,723
477,556
939,279
961,476
256-67
1,278
2,268
1,707
126
576
687
1,180
1,465
122,958
400,953
64,401
61,085
135,452
81,813
147,170
108,033
115,786
389,923
49,894
60,527
149,032
87,656
136,393
97,893
238,744
790,776
114,295
121,612
284,484
169,469
283,563
205,926
242,506
813,031
120,836
124,302
288,221
177,725
300,470
207,100
1 189-75
358-48
7079
I 986-52
500-38
25870
■ 254-64
141-37
9,287
1,121,865
1,087,004
2,208,869
2,274,191
244-88
4,601
480,689
422,783
903,472
977,868
212-53
2,509
1,771
1,105
1,284
6,669
1,409
688
2,313
412
2,126
164,263
176,287
168,920
127,319
188,764
189,147
175,028
127,487
353,027
365,434
343,948
254,806
372,710
376,191
348,318
263,159
148-55
212 42
315-22
204 95
636,789
680,426
1,317,215
1,360,378
203 99
888
355 33
316-82
2,65613
265-85
194,349
118,799
353,618
498,978
266,129
198,270
119,626
360,513
502,267
284,028
392,619
238,425
714,131
1,001,245
550,157
408,675
244,464
732,810
1,094,324
565,198
6,948
1,4*1,878
1,464,704
2,896,577
679,499
356,267
553,298
3,045,471
438 82
2,292
2,956
3,293
338,285
177,873
276,193
341,214
178,394
277,105
7;'.«!,07]
389,760
613,565
329-87
131-85
186 32
205-99
8,541
792,351
7!M-..7l:;
i,riS9,ot;-i
1,759,396
4,122
251,621
272,883
524,504
538,707
130 69
2,807
2,841
1,515
21 (i. 283
214,433
184,660
217,692
236,752
188,063
188,975
451,185
372,723
455,290
463,181
391,083
197-3:.
163 03
258-14
6,663
'11 5,376*
642,507
1,257,883
l,:$0y,f.;Vl
196-54
AREA AND POPULATION
Provinces and
Compartiinenti
Area in
square
miles
Population, Present : Census 1881
Estimated
Population
M l| ■
ffemalai
Total
Population ; 1890, per
1890 square mile,
Caltanisetta
Catania
Girgenti
Messina
Palermo
Siracusa
Trapani
Sicily .
Cagliari
Sassari
Sardinia
1,466
1,970
1,491
1,768
1,964
1,427
136,493
280,014
156,034
227,934
352,722
173,295
141,612
126,886
283,443
156,453
232,990
346,429
168,231
142,365
266,379
563,457
312,487
460,924
699,151
341,526
283,977
.7,901
304,444
633,249
335,433
500,742
782,648
390,368
338,588
209 24
32145
224J>7
283-23 j
398 50
273 56 i
278 90 !
11,281
1.468,104
1,459,797
3,2S
29103
5,257
4,142
217,461
134,891
206,188 420,635
126,476 261,367
447,807
278,715
85-18
67-29
9,399
114,410
352,388
329,6141 682,002
726,626
77 30 j
Total
14.265,383
14,194,245|28,459, 628 30,158,408
263 60
At the time of the census of 1881, the resident or legal population was
28,953,480. The number of foreigners in Italy was 59,956, of whom 16,092
were Austrians, 12,104 Swiss, 10,781 French, 7,302 English. 5.234 Germans,
1,387 Russians, 1,286 Americans (United States), 1,212 Greeks, 922 Spaniards,
and tlu re>t mainly Turks, Belgians, Swedes and Norwegians, Dutch,
Egyptians, Argentines, Brazilians.
The administrative divisions of Italy are provinces, territories (cireondari),
district! (distretti\ and communes. There are 69 provinces : of which 60 are
divided into territories, and 9 (the province of Mantua and the 8 provinces of
Venetia) into districts. There are 197 territories (cireondari. and 87 districts
(distretti). The territories (cireondari) and districts are divided into communes
(coniuni), of which at the census of 1881 there were 8,259; the number at
present (1891) is 8,253.
The population of Italy is in general perfectly homogeneous. According to
statistics of 1861, the exceptions are : about 100,000 of French origin, in the
territories of Aosta, Pinerolo, and Susa, in the province of Torino ; from 3,000
to 4,000 of Teutonic origin in some communes of the territories (cireondari) of
Domodossola and Varallo, in the province of Novara, and of Aosta, in the
province of Torino; from 55,000 to 60,000 of Albanian origin, in a dozen
communes of Nearer Calabria, and in some communes of the provinces of
Foggia, Avellino, Potenza, and Palermo ; from 20,000 to 25,000 of Greek
origin, in a few communes of Nearer and Further Calabria, and of the province
of Lecce ; lastly, from 7,000 to 8,000 of Spanish (Catalan) origin, settled in
Alghero in the province of Sassari, in Sardinia.
The population over 16 years of age in 1881 was 19,301,420 ; of these
7,047,163 were unmarried, " 10, 361, 039 were married, and 1,893,218 were
widowers or widows. Of the whole population, 16,205.371 or 569 per cent,
were unmarried ; 10,361,039 or 36'5 per cent, were married ; and 1,893,218 or
6 6 per cent, were widowers or widows.
The numbers of inhabitants at the different centres do not in Italian
statistics afford a sufficient basis for distinguishing between the urban and rural
680
ITALY
population. In Northern Italy the population is scattered over the country
and there are few centres. In Southern Italy and in the islands the country
people live in the towns, coming and going to cidtivate their own plots of
land ; consequently there are many populous centres where, if numbers alone
were considered, the population would be regarded as urban, though it is, in
truth, almost exclusively rural. The following statement gives the number of
the head communes (capoluoghi) of provinces and of territories (circondari) or
districts, with their population according to the census of 1881, but many of
these local capitals have under 6,000 inhabitants : —
Head communes of provinces . 69 population
,, ,, of territories (cir-
condari) or dis-
tricts . . 215 ,,
Total
Other communes .
Total population
284
4,509,159
2,573,004
7,082,163
21,377,465
28,459,628
The following table gives the population according to occupation in 1881,
exclusive of children under 9 years : — <
Occupation
Male
Female
Total
Agriculture ....
5,124,431
3,048,951
8,173,382
Raising of animals and api-
culture .
213,556
30,896
244,452
Horticulture
58,914
14,925
73,339
Sylviculture
53,226
6,425
59,651
Fishing and chase
47,901
340
48,241
Mining ....
58,937
575
59,512
Mineral industry
755
—
755
Industrial productions
2,281,317
1,904,144
4,185,461
Inns, clothing, &c.
51,500
99,594
151,094
Commerce ....
246,618
33,155
279,77:!
Transport ....
310,347
2,664
313,011
Proprietors and pensioners .
427,456
535,425
962,881
Employes and domestics
265,605
447,800
713,405
National defence .
160,155
—
160,156
Civil administration .
167,252
3,400
170,652
Public worship .
103,161
28,424
131,585
.lust ire ....
28,248
2
28.250
Sanitary service .
44,333
15,384
59,717
Instruction ....
32,908
46,887
79,795
Fine arts, &<-.
31,174
4,450
35,624
Literature and applied science
19,740
35
10,775
Hawkers ....
28,993
5,457
34,450
Workmen, porters, &c.
121,562
8,267
129,829
Prisoners, panpera, fee.
7:5,188
U,4M
129,681
Students, housekeepers, &c.
582,407
4,148,274
4,725,681
No occupation stated .
Total ....
725,284
855,691
1,580,975
1
11,258,968
11,292,158
22,551,126 j
AREA AND POPULATION
Number of proprietors in Italy on December 31, 1881 : —
681
Agriculturists
Pensioners and
persons of
means .
Othercategoii. s
Land
Buildings
Hale
a»,s»
x,m
Female Hale
131,181304,395
Pemali
W.406
70,311 27,938 54,702
Total. . '347,786 335,016 482,058 299,8761,903,623
Land and
Buildings
Total
Hale
1,WS,7M
tnjtu
Femali
Hal
163,733
765,073
344,336
Female Ti >tal
388,746
t,87*,sse
rS3,089
331,606 5W,4" I.".-.".. 1'.-.
2,738 167 l,39t,966|4,133,43i
II. MOVEHENT OF POPULATION.
1. Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
Teat
Marriages
Births Living
Stillborn
Desthi
Ulegiti-
Legitimate mate and Total
Exposed
exclusive
..f the
Stillborn
844,603
828,992
820,431
768,068
794,209
Surplu.snf
Births
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
233,310
235,629
286,883
230,451
221,200
1,005,402 81,558 1,086,960
1,067,002 85,904 1,152.906
1,037,150 82,413 1,119,563
1,064,798 84,399 1,149,197
1,002,612 78,500 ; 1,081,112
39,204
42,485
42,007
43,945
41,402
242,357
323,914
299,132
381,129 |
288,903
The numbers for 1890 are provisional.
2. Emigration.
The following table shows the number of emigrants acoorduig to MX and
ages for the year 1890 : —
Emigration
Number of Emigrants
Under 14 years
Of 14 and over Of all ages
Males Females Total
Hales Females Total Males Females
Total
Permanent
Temporary
Totals .
10,318 7,688 18,006
6,106 2,137
65,468 21,259 86,727
8 8,799 104,268
28,947
101,575 10,936
104,733
112,511
16,424 9,820 20,249
!
160,937 30,058
I
190,995
177,361
39,883
217,244
682
ITALY
The following table shows the numbers of emigrants from Italy to various
parts of the world, according to Italian statistics, for the six years 1885-
90:—
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Europe
78,232
80,406
82,474
82,941
92,631
100,259
North Africa
5,435
4,540
2,875
3,089
2,177
2,020
America —
United States
and Canada .
13,096
28,640
38,853
34,292
25,881
48,019
Mexico, Colom-
bia, Venezuela,
CentralAmerica
1,583
1,179
1,245
640
1,037
926
Brazil
12,311
11,334 j
31,445
97,730
16,953
16,233
Chili and Peru .
366
321
313
359
375
3,334
The Argentine,
Uruguay, and
Paraguay
40,054
38,383
54,499
65,958
75,058
41,352
America(country
not named)
5,080
2,309
3,108
5,285
3,877
4,553
Other countries .
Total
1,036
717
853
442
423
548
157,193
167,829
215,665
290,736
218,412
217,244
This classification is founded upon the declarations of intending emigrants
made before the syndics (or mayors) of communes on application for passports,
and it is to be observed that the figures differ considerably from those given
in the statistics of the various countries mentioned. Thus the United mates
claim to have received, in 1890, 69,969 immigrants from Italy, the Argentine
Confederation 39, 122, and Brazil 19,675. The difference is explained chiefly
by the fact that, in many cases, emigration for other European S
intended to be temporary, becomes permanent, the emigrants embarking for
America from their temporary home.
The emigrants were from the following provinces or coiupartimenti : —
Piemonte, 30,497 (19,005 temporary) ; Liguria, 4,360 ; Lombardy, 22,921
(9,916 temporary); Veneto, 67,676 (62,135 temporary) ; Emilia, 5,065;
Toscana, 11,660 (5,925 temporary); Marche, 1,406; Roma, 1,440; Abmzzi
e Molise, 12,842 ; Campania, 24,647 ; Puglie, 2,744 ; Basilicata, 9,062 :
Calabrie, 11,757 ; Sicilia, 10,705 (4,666 temporary) ; Umbria and Sardinia,
462.
III. Principal Towns.
The agglomerated (not communal) population of the principal cities ami
towns was as follows at the census of December, 1881 : —
AREA AND POPULATION — RELIGION
683
Towns
Popula-
tion
Towns
*a5" T°™
Popula-
tion
Naples .
463,172
Piacenza
34,987 Udine .
23,254 i
Milan
295,543
Trapani .
Barletta .
2,090 Termini Ene-
1 Rome
273,268
31,994 ' rese .
Turin .
230,183
Sassari .
31,596 Bitonto .
' Palermo
205,712
Ancona .
rignola
22,659
1 Genoa
138,081
Cremona
31,083 ' Acireale.
99,431
Florence
134,992
Modena .
Salerno .
22,328 I
Venice .
199,448
Alessandria
30,761 Castellamare
Bologna .
103,998
Corato .
30,428 di Stabia .
22,207
Catania .
96,017
Pavia
29,836 ' Bisceglie
Leghorn
78,998
Molfetta
29,697 Vittoria .
Messina.
78,438
Ferrara .
1 28,814 Lecce .
•21.74-2
Verona .
60,768
Caltagirone
28,119 Torre del Greco
21,588
Bari
58,266
Mantova
' 28,048 Partinico
21,000
Padua
47,334
Vicenza .
27,694 Catanzaro
20,931
| Parma .
44,492
Conio
1 25,560 Terlizzi .
20,442 ;
Brescia .
43,354
, Taranto .
' 25,246 Lucca .
20,421
Modica .
Trani .
! 25,173 '■ Chioggia
20,381
Pisa
37,704
Caltanisetta .
i 25,027 A versa .
20,183
Alcamo .
37.697
Ragusa .
; 24,183 K Vercelli.
20,165
Foggia .
36,852
Reggie- di Cal .
23,853 N Torre Annun-
Andria .
36,795
', Bergamo
23,819 ziata .
23,445 Castelvetrano .
20,060
Cagliari .
35,588
; Siena ".
20,053
San Marino. — Embraced in the area of Italy is the independent Republic,
and one of the oldest States in Europe, San Marino. It has an area of 32
square miles, and a population of about 8,000. In 1872 it concluded a treaty
of protective friendship with the Kingdom of Italy.
Religion.
The Roman Catholic Church is, nominally, the ruling State
religion of Italy ; but many Acts of the Legislature, passed since
the establishment of the Kingdom, and more especially since
the suppression of the temporal government of the Supreme
Pontiff, have subordinated the power of the Church and clergy
to the authority of the civil government, and secured perfect
religious freedom to the adherents of all creeds without exception.
However, scarcely any other creeds as yet exist but Roman
Catholicism. At the census of 1881, of the total population about
62,000 were Protestants and 38,000 Jews. Of the Protestants
22,000 belonged to the Waldensian Church of Piedmont, about
10,000 to the other evangelical Italian Churches, and 30,000 be-
longed to foreign Protestant bodies. In 1861 (exclusive of Veneto
and the province of Rome) the total number of Protestants was
32,684, and Jews 22,458 ; and in 1871 (inclusive of Veneto and
Rome), 58,651 Protestants, and 35,356 Jews.
684 ITALY
The Roman Catholic hierarchy in Italy consists of 51 archbishoprics and
223 bishoprics, in addition to the 6 cardinal -bishops who have sees in Italy.
Of these 73 are immediately subject to the Holy See, of which 12 are arch-
bishoprics. There are altogether 37 ecclesiastical provinces. All tbese
dignitaries of the Church are appointed by the Pope, on the advice of a
council of Cardinals. But the royal consent is necessary to the installation of
a bishop or archbishop. The number of parishes in 1881 was 20,465 ; of
churches and chapels, 55,263; of parish priests, 76,560.
The immense wealth of the Italian clergy has been greatly reduced since
the year 1850, when the Siccardi bill, abolishing ecclesiastical jurisdiction
and the privileges of the clergy, passed the Sardinian Chambers. This law
was extended, in 1861, over the whole of the Kingdom, and had the effect of
rapidly diminishing the numbers as well as the incomes of the clergy.
In 1865 there were 2,382 religious houses in Italy, of which 1,506 were for
men and 876 for women. The number of religious persons was 28,991, of
whom 14,807 were men and 14,184 women. The Mendicant orders numbered
8,229 persons, comprised in the above-mentioned total. A law for the entire
suppression of all religious houses throughout the Kingdom was adopted by
the Chamber of Representatives in the session of 1866. This law provided a
small pension to all monks and nuns having taken regular vows before
January 18, 1864. Several monasteries were set aside for the reception of such
monks or nuns as might wish to continue their monastic life. All chapters of
collegiate churches, abbeys, ecclesiastical benefices not attached to parishes,
lay benefices, and all brotherhoods and foundations to which an ecclesiastical
service is annexed, were suppressed. Under certain regulations the ecclesi-
astical property was transferred to the State.
See and Church of Rome.
The 'Statuto fondamentale del Regno ' enacts, in its first article, that 'the
Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion is the sole religion of the State.' By
the terms of the Royal decree of Oct. 9, 1870, which declared that ' Rome and
the Roman Provinces shall constitute an integral part of the Kingdom of
Italy,' the Pope or Roman Pontiff was acknowledged supreme head of the
Church, preserving his former rank and dignity as an independent sovereign
prince. By Roman Catholics the Bishop of Rome, or Pope, is accounted Vicar
of Jesus Christ, Successor of St. Peter, and Supreme Pontiff of the Universal
Church, Over every baptized person they hold him to possess immediate
spiritual jurisdiction.
Supreme Pontiff. — Leone XIII. (Gioacchino Pecci), born at Carpineto, in
the diocese of Anagni, March 2, 1810, son of Count Luigi Pen i : conse-
crated Archbishop of Damiata 1843 ; Apostolic Nuncio to Belgium 1843-46 ;
Bishop of Perugia 1846 ;■ proclaimed Cardinal December 19, 1853 ; elected
Supreme Pontiff, as successor of Pio IX., February 20, 1878; crowned
March 3 following.
The election of a Pope ordinarily is by scrutiny. Each Cardinal in conclave
writes on a ticket his own name with that of the Cardinal whom he chooses.
These tickets, folded and sealed, are laid in a chalice which stands on the
altar of the conclave chapel ; and each elector approaching the altar repeats a
prescribed form of oath. Thereupon the tickets arc taken from the chalice hy
scrutators appointed from the electing body ; the tickets arc compared with
the number of Cardinals present, and when it is found thai any Cardinal has
two-thirds of the votes in his favour he is declared elected. Should none have
received the needful number of votes, another proceeding is gone through,
RELIGION
685
viz., access — so called because any Cardinal may accede to the choice of
another by filling up another ticket made for that purpose. The present
Pontiff, Leone XIII. , was chosen by unanimity. He is regarded as the 263rd
Pope (or thereabouts) from St. Peter.
The rise of the Roman Pontificate, as a temporal power, dates from the
year 755, when Pippin, King of the Franks, gave to Pope Stefano III. the
Exarchate and the Pentapolis (Romagna), conquered from the Lombards, to
which Charles the Great added the provinces of Perugia and Spoleto. Kaiser
Heinrich ILL, in 1053, increased these possessions of the spiritual head of
Christendom by the city of Benevento ; and not long after, in 1102, Countess
Matilda of Tuscany bequeathed to the Holy See the territory known as the
'Patrimony of St. Peter.' From the accession of Martino V., 213th in the
usual list of Pontiffs, to Leone XIII., 263rd in the list, the Popes have been as
follows : —
No. in
the list
Name of Pontiff
Nation-
ality
Year of
Election
No. in
the list
Name of Pontiff
Nation-
ality
Fan of
Election
213
Martino Y.
Italian
1417
239
Leone XL
Italian
1605
214
Eugenio IV. .
1431
240
Paolo V.
1605
215
Niccol6 V.
IS
1447
241
Gregorio XV. .
1621
216
Calisto III. .
Spanish
1455
242
Urbano VIII.
1623
217
Pio II. .
Italian
1458
243
Innocenzo X. .
1644
218
Paolo II.
,i
1464
244
AlessandroVII.
1655
219
Sisto IV.
•i
1471
245
Clemente I.\.
1667
220
InnocenzoVIII. ,,
1484
246
Clemente X. .
..
1670
221
Alessandro VI. Spanish
1492
247
Innocenzo XL i "t
1676
222
Pio III. .
Italian
1503
248
AlessandroVIII jt
1689
223
Ghdio II.
,,
1503
249
Innocenzo XII.' M
1691
224
Leone X.
,,
1513
250
Clemente XL \
1700
225
Adriano VI. .
Dutch
1522
! 251
InnocenzoXIII.
1721
226
Clemente VII.
Italian
1523
252
BenedettoXIII.
1724
227
Paolo III.
,,
1534
; 253
Clemente XII.
1730
228
Giulio III. .
»,
1550
1 254
BenedettoXIV.
1740
229
Marcello II. .
,,
1555
: 255
Clemente XIII.
1758
230
Paolo IV.
,,
1555
256
ClementeXIY.
1769
231
Pio IV. .
,,
1559
1 257
Pio VI. .
1775
232
PioV. .
,,
1566
1 258
Pio VII.
1800
233
Gregorio XIII.
,,
1572
259
Leone XII. .
1823
234
Sisto V.
,,
1585
, 260
Pio VIII.
1829
285
Urbano VII. .
,,
1590
261
Gregorio XVI.
1831
286
Gregorio XIV.
,,
1590
262
Pio IX. .
1846
237
Innocenzo IX.
,,
1591
263
Leone XIII. .
1878
238
ClementeVIII.
Jl
1592
The Supreme Pontiff is the absolute and irresponsible ruler of the Roman
Catholic Church. His ex cathedra* definitions on matters of faith or morals
are held to be infallible, and there is no appeal against his judgments The
Roman Pontiff seeks advice from the Sacred College of Cardinals, consisting
when complete, of seventy members, namely, six cardinal-bishops, fifty
cardinal-priests, and fourteen cardinal-deacons, but hardlv ever comprising the
full number. In January 1892 the Sacred College consisted of six
cardinal-bishops, forty-five cardinal-priests, and six eardinal-deacons The
following list gives the names of these fifty-seven cardinals :—
686
ITALY
Cardinal- Bishops :-
Raffaele Monaco La
Valletta
Luigi Oreglia
Santo Stefano
4
Edward Howard
Luigi Serafini .
Lucido Maria Paroc-
chi
Angelo Bianchi .
Cardinal-Priests : —
Gustav Adolf von\
Hohenlohe . /
Luciano Bonaparte .
Mieczyslaw Ledo- \
chowski . /
Francisco de Paula \
Benavides y Na- Y
varrete . . J
Luigi di Canoasa
Friedr. von Fiirstenberg
Julien Florian Desprez
Anierico Ferreira dos\
Santos Silva . /
Tommaso Zigliara j
Carlo Laurenzi .
Francesco Ricci Par- J
raciani . . |
Charles Martial Allc- \
mand-Lavigerie /
Josfc Sebastifto Neto
Office or Dignity
Bp. ofOstia&Velle-^j
tri, Dean Sacr.Coll.,
Prefect Cong. Cere-
monial, Gr. Peniten- j>
tiary, Archpriest of j
the Lateran Arch- |
Basilica . . I
Bishop of Porto and,
Santa Rufina, Sub- 1
dean Sacred Coll., V
Camerlengo of Holy I
Roman Church '
Bishop of Frascati, ^|
Archpriest of the J-
Vatican Basilica J
Bishop of Sabina, \
Prefect Congreg. >-
Council . . J
Bishop of Albano,
Vicar-General of
His Holiness .
Bishop of Palestrina, "j
Pro-Datary of His V
Holiness . . J
Archpriest of the\
Liberian Basilica /
Prefect of the Con-\
greg. Propaganda/
Archbp. of Zaragoza .
Bishop of Verona
Archbishop of Olmiitz
,, Toulouse
Bishop of Oporto
Prefect Congreg. \
Studies . . j
Gr. Prior in Rome of|
Sov. Order St. John I
of Jerusalem, Secre- j
tary of Memorials . )
Archbishop of Car
thage and Algien
Patriarch of Lisbon
Nationality
Italian
English .
Italian .
ar-|
rs J
German .
Italian .
Polish .
Spanish .
Italian .
Austrian .
French .
Portuguese
Corsican
Italian
French .
Portuguese
Year of
Birth
1827
1828
1829
1808
1833
1817
1823
1828
1822
1810
1809
1812
1807
1829
1833
1821
1830
1825
1841
Year of
Crea-
tion
1868
1873
1877
1877
1877
1882
1866
1868
1875
1877
1877
1879
1879
1879
1879
1880
1880
1882
1884
RELIGION
Office or Dignity
"il-I'rirgts — cont.
Guglielmo Sanfelice "I
aa Aequavella /
Pietro Geremia Celesia
Ant. Monescillo y Viso
Zeferino Gonzalez v \
Diaz TuiV.ii . /
Isidoro Verga . <
v«.»«» Year of
Nationality \^f Crea-
Birth
tion
I
Paul Melchers
Alfonso Capecelatro
Francesco Battaglini .
Patrick Francis Moran
Alexandre Taschereau
Benoit M. Langenieux
James Gibbons .
Charles Philippe Place ,
Serafino Vannutelli -J i
Gaetano Aloisi-Ma-)
sella /
Luigi Giordani . . !
Camillo Siciliano di\
Rende . . J ;
Mariano Rampolla\
del Tindaro . / {
Agostino Bausa . . \
Giuseppe Benedetto \
Dusmet . . J
Giuseppe d'Annibale-l |
Francois Marie Ben-\
jamin Richard /
Joseph Alfred Foulon
Peter Lambert Goos-"\
sens . . J
Franz de Paida von\
Schbnborn . / j
Vincenzo Yannutelli .
Sebastiano Galeati
Archbp. of Naples .
,, Palermo .
,, Valencia
Formerly Archbp. \
of Seville . .J
Pref.Congr. Bishops^
and Regulars .) j
Former Archbp. of\ !
Koln . . / I
Archbp. of Capua
Bologna
Sydney
,, Quebec
,, Reims
,, Baltimore
,, Rei;
Secretaiy of Apos-1
tolic Briefs . /
Prf.Congreg. Sacred \
Rites . . /
Archbp. of Ferrara .
Italian
Sicilian
Spanish
Italian
1834 1884
1814 1884
1811 1884
1831 ' 1S84
1882
sand 1-
Gaspar Mermillod -J
Albin Dunajewski
Antonde Paul Gruscha
Luigi Ruffo Scilla
Luigi Sejiacci .
,, Benevento
Pontif. Seer, of State
Archbp. of Florence .
,, Catania .
Prefect Congreg.
of Indulgences
Sacred Relics
Archbp. of Paris
,, Lyons .
„ Mechlin .
„ Prague .
Archbp. of Ravenna .
Bishop of Lausanne \
and Geneva . j
Bishop of Cracow
Archbp. of Vienna .
German .
1813
Italian .
1824
1823
Irish
1830
Canadian
1820
French .
1824
American
1834
French .
1814
Italian .
1834
,,
1826
,,
1822
„
1847
„
1843
a
1821
Sicilian .
1818
Italian .
1815
French .
1819
>>
1823
Belgian .
1827
Bohemian
1844
Italian
1836
1824
Swiss
1824 !
Polish .
Austrian.
Italian .
1817
1820
1840
1886 !
1884
1885
1885
1885
1885
1886
1886
1886
1886
1887
1887
1887
1889
1887
1889
1889
1889
1889
1889
1889
188S
1890
1890
1890
1891
1891
1891
688
ITALY
Names
Office or Dignity
Nationality
Year of
Birth
Year of
Crea-
tion
1858
1886
1886
1889
1.889
1889
Cardinal-Deacons : —
Teodolfo Mertel . j
Augusto Theodoli
Camillo Mazzella
Luigi Maechi .
Achille Apolloni
Gaetano de Ruggiero .
Vice-Chancellor of\
Holy Roman Church /
Prefect Congr. Index
Italian .
1806
1819
1833
1832
1823
1816
Of these Cardinals 11 were nominated by Pope Pio IX., and 46 by
Leone XIII.
Though primarily belonging to the local Roman Church, the Cardinals are
regarded as Princes of the Church at large. Those living in Rome have a certain
yearly allowance, according to circumstances. In early ages the Cardinals
were simply the parish rectors of Rome, or deacons of districts. In 1586 the
number was finally settled by Sisto V. at seventy. The Cardinals compose the
Pope's Council and the various Sacred Congregations, govern the Church
while the Pontifical throne is vacant, and elect the deceased Pontiffs
successor. They received the distinction of the red hat under Innocenzo IV.,
during the Council of Lyons, in 1246 ; and the title of Eminence from
Urbano VIII., in 1630.
In 1891, besides the Pope and the Sacred College of Cardinals, the upper
Catholic Hierarchy throughout the world comprised 8 Patriarchates of the
Latin and 5 of the Oriental Rite, 167 Archbishoprics of the Latin and 17 of the
Oriental Rite, and 699 Bishoprics of the Latin and 55 of the Oriental Rite.
The list (exclusive of the new episcopal hierarchy of Japan) was as follows : —
I. Patriarchates.
Latin Rite : — 1. Constantinople ; 2. Alexandria ; 3. Antioeh ; 4. Jeru-
salem ; 5. Venice ; 6. Lisbon ; 7. West Indies ; 8. East Indies.
Oriental Rite : — 1. Antioeh, of the Maronites ; 2. Antioeh, of the Mel-
chites ; 3. Antioeh, of the Syrians ; 4. Babylon, of the Chaldajans ; 5. Cilicia,
of the Armenians.
II. Archbishoprics.
Latin Rile : —
Immediately subject to the
Holy See
With l'>r]< si.istieal Pro-
Oricntal Rite : —
With Ecclesiastical Provinces
Armenian Rite
!'.»
148
Grreco-Roumanian Rite
Grreco-Ruthenian Rite
Under Patriarchs :
Gweeo-Melchite Rite
Syria. • Kite
Syni-( 'haldaic Rite
Svro-Maronite Kite
1
1
3
3
2
6
184
RELIGION
688
III. Bishoprics.
Latin Site : —
Immediately subject to the
Holy See"
Suffragan, in Ecclesiastical
Provinces
Oriental Rite : —
Immediately subject to the
Holy See :
Graeco-Ruthenian Rite
Suffragan, in Ecclesiastical
Provinces :
v.;
613
Graeco-Roumanian Kite
1 3
Graeco-Ruthenian Rite
6
Under Patriarchs :
Armenian Rite .
. 18
Grseo-Melchite Rite .
8
Syriac Rite .
6
Syro-Chaldaic Rite
10
Syro-Maronitc Rite
2
Besides the above sees, and 17 sees 'nullius dicBceaeos,' there are now 7
Apostolic Delegations, 119 Apostolic Vicariates, and 44 Apostolic Prefectures,
most of them held by titular archbishops and bishops (formerly called ' in
partibus inndeliuin ').
The summary of actual dignitaries stands as follows for January 1892
(each dignitary being reckoned under his highest rank and title) : —
Sacred College of Cardinals ...... 57
Patriarchs of both Rites 10
Archbishops and Bishops of the Latin Rite, Residential 783
Archbishops and Bishops of the Oriental Rite . . 52
Archbishops and Bishops, Titular . . . 308
Archbishops and Bishops, having a title no longer 16
Prelates Nullius Dieeecseos 7
Total
1,233
The central administration of the Roman Catholic Church is carried on
by a number of permanent committees called Sacred Congregations, composed
of Cardinals, with Consultors and Officials. There are now twenty Sacred
Congregations, viz., Inquisition or Holy Office, Consistorial, Apostolic
Visitation, Bishops and Regulars, Council, Residence of Bishops, State of
Regulars, Ecclesiastical Immunity, Propaganda, Propaganda for Eastern Rite.
Index, Sacred Rites, Ceremonial, Regular Discipline, Indulgences and Sacred
Relics, Examination of Bishops, Fabric of St. Peter's, Lauretana, Extra-
ordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, Studies.
The apostolic delegations, vicariates, and prefectures throughout the
world stand under the ' Congregatio de Propaganda Fide ' at Rome. At
present they are distributed as follows : —
Continents, Ac.
Europe
Asia
Africa
America
Oceania
Apostolic
Delegations
2
4
1
0
0
Total
Apostolic
Apostolic
Vicariates
Prefectures
10
6
58
8
25
18
12
9
14
3
119
44
690 ITALY
Instruction.
The State regulates public instruction, and maintains, either
entirely or in conjunction with the communes and provinces,
public schools of every grade. Every teacher in a public institu-
tion maintained by the State, or by any other public body, must
have the qualifications required by law ; and in all public institu-
tions not belonging to the State, the same programme must be
followed, and the same rules observed. No private person can
keep a school without having obtained the authorisation of the
State.
Elementary education is compulsory for children between six
and nine years of age. (Of these, according to the census of 1881,
there were 1,808,129.) The compulsory clause is by no means
strictly enforced. The enactment, however, provided that education
for children of school age should be compulsory only when the
supply of teachers should reach the proportion to population, in
the least populous communes, of one to every 1,000 inhabitants ;
in the most populous, one to every 1,500 inhabitants. The law
(1889) has been applied to 8,178 communes out of 8,527.
Schools in Italy may be classified under four heads, according as they
provide : (1) elementary instruction ; (2) secondary instruction — classical ;
(3) secondary instruction — technical ; (4) higher education.
(1) Schools providing elementary instruction are of two grades. Religious
instruction is given to those whose parents request it. Only the lower-grade
instruction is compulsory. Every commune must have at least one lower-
grade school for boys and one for girls ; am' no school with only one muster
should have more than seventy pupils. Higner-grade elementary schools are
required in communes having normal and secondary schools, and in those
with over 4,000 inhabitants. In both grades the instruction is free.
(2) Secondary instruction — classical — is provided in the yimmsi and licci,
the latter leading to the universities.
(3) Secondary instruction — technical. This is supplied by the technical
schools, technical institutes, and institutes for the mercantile marine.
(4) Higher education is supplied by the universities, by other higher
institutes, and by special higher schools.
Of these various educational institutions, the elementary schools are
Supported by the communes, subsidies or free loans being occasionally
granted by the State. In the normal schools and licei, the State provides for
the payment of the staff and for scientific material. The ginnasi and techni-
cal schools should, according to the general law, be supported by the com-
munes ; but, in many cases, the cost of these is borne, in great part, by t In-
state. In the technical institutes, half the sum paid to the staff is provided
by the State. The universities are maintained by the State and by their own
ancient revenues, such expenses as those for scientific material, labora-
tories, &c, being, in some cases, borne by the various provinces of the
university region. The higher special schools are maintained conjointly by
the State, the province, the commune, and, sometimes, the local Chamber of
Commerce.
The total sum allotted by the State for the Minister of Public Instruction
in 1889-90 was 41,802 160 iire ; by the provinces in 1889, 5,502,242 lire ; and
INSTRUCTION
691
by the <<»iiiiiiun.s in 1889 (including subsidies from the State and the
provinces), 72,2:37,067 lire. There are, besides, revenues derived from
foundations (opere pie) for the benefit of schools of different grades, generally,
or in particular coiniir.
The attendance at elementary schools (public and private) has, in the last
twenty-five years, risen from 1,000,000 to 2,326,000 ; or, allowing for the
increase of population, there has been an increase of 86 per cent in school
attendance.
The percentage of illiterates, male and female, over five years for 1861,
over six for 1871 and 1881, and over twenty years of age, in 1861, 1871, and
1881, was :—
Year
Over 5 Tews
Ov.r H Tma
1861
1871
1881
Male
68 09
6186
54 56
Female
8127
7173
69 32
Mak
65 47
60 17
53 89
■■tali
8152
7718
72 93
The percentage of illiterate conscripts, and of illiterates married, at
various intervals from 1866 to 1889 was as follows : —
Year
) Illiterate Conscripts
Illiterates Married
Male
Female
1866
64 01
59 96
78-97
1871
5674
5773
7673
1881
4774
48 24
69 90
1888
42 98
42 27
6190
1889
42 04
41-21
60-45
According to the census of 1881 the number of the population above six
years of age who could not read nor write in Upper Italy was 40*85 per cent. ;
Middle Italy, 64 61 per cent. ; South Italy, 79 46 }>er cent. ; and in the
Islands, 80 91 per cent. The smallest percentage of illiterates above six
years was in Piedmont, 32 27, and the largest in Basilicata, 85-18.
The following are the statistics of elementary and higher schools for
1888-89 :—
Number
Teachers '
Pupils
Males
Females
Total
Asili for infants
2,220
5,720',
136,139
132,047
268,186
Public primary day
schools : — Regular .
44,664
45,694
1,118,217
941,172
2,059,389
Do. irregular
2,908
2,875
48,397
:;-i. 77."
85,172
Private do.
7,975
8,499 ,
63,246
i 118,585
181,831
Evening and holiday
schools .
8,797
8,942 '
205,028
86,192
291,220
Normal schools .
137
1,353
1,611
: 11,245
12,856
Licei.
309
1.8241
—
—
13,846
Ginnasi
714
4.3091
—
—
51,286
Technical institutes .
75
1,249 V
—
6,538
Technical schools
407
3,028*'
—
30,836
Naval mercantile do.
21
1711!
—
—
885
1 In 1887-S8.
v v 2
692
ITALY
The following is a list ot the twenty-one universities of Italy, with
statistics for 1888-89 :—
Date of
No. of
Students
Date of
No. of
Students
—
Found-
Teach-
and
—
Found-
Teach-
and
ation
ers1
Auditors
ation
ers i
Auditors
State "Univer-
Pisa .
1338
56
598
sities : —
Rome
1303
84
1,360
Bologna
1200
90
1,394
Sassari
1677
23
124
Cagliari
1626
35
125
Siena
1300
29
151
Catania
1434
43
544
Turin
1404
72
2,275
Genoa
1243
56
850
Macerata .
1290
13
130
Free Univer-
Messina
1549
48
251
sities : —
Modena
1678
37
316
Camerino .
1727
18
94
Naples
1224
91
4,205
Ferrara
1391
21
49
Padua
1222
73
1,222
Perugia
1276
21
145
Palermo
Parma
Pavia
1805
1512
1300
67
42
54
1,242
255
1,080
Urbino
1564
21
86
Total .
994
16,496
1 In 1887-88.
There were besides (1889) 11 superior collegiate institutions, with 1,955
students ; 11 superior special schools, with 933 students ; 29 special and
practical schools of agriculture (1890), with 768 students ; 4 schools of mining
(1888), with 93 students ; 168 industrial and commercial schools (1889), with
23,111 students; 14 Government academies and institutes of the fine arts
(1888), with .3,376 students; 6 Government institutes and conservatoires of
music (1888), with 826 students.
In 1888 there were in Italy 32 Government libraries, with 166,153 readers,
who had 1,019,498 books given out.
On December 31, 1889, there were in Italy 1,596 periodical publications.
Of these, 130 were daily ; 153 twice or thrice weekly ; 525 weekly ; 25 thrice
a month ; 233 fortnightly ; 385 monthly ; 74 at intervals of two or more
months ; 71 occasionally ; 461 were political ; 291 were economic, juridical, or
on social science ; 178 agricultural ; 175 religious ; 152 literary and scientific :
98 medical ; 28 musical and dramatic ; 11 of the fine arts ; 11 military ; 11 of
geography and travels ; 32 humorous (non-political). Of tho whole number.
26 were in Italian and a local dialect (12 Neapolitan) ; 8 in a local dialect
only ; 29 in Italian and a foreign language (13 French) ; 26 in foreign
languages only (13 French, 5 English).
In 1890 there were 10,339 books published in Italy, comprising 912
religious books; 1,159 scholastic and educational; 550 historical and
geographical ; 490 biographical ; 1,160 of poetry and general literature ; 369
in mathematical, physical, and natural science; 832 m medicine; 1,062 in
agriculture, the industries, and commerce.
Justice and Crime.
In Italy, justice in penal matters is administered in the first instance by
the Fretori, by the correctional tribunals, and by the courts of assize ; on appeal,
by the correctional tribunals, and by the courts of appeal. The highest court
is the Court of Cassation, which confines itself to Inquiring whether the forms
JUSTICE AND CRIME
693
prescribed by law have been oliserved. The new penal code came into force
on January 1, 1890, at>olishing the distinction between crimes and misde-
meanours (crimini e delitti).
The Pretori have jurisdiction concerning all delicts (delitti) punishable by
imprisonment or banishment not exceeding three months, or by fine not
axceoding 300 lire. The correctional tribunals have jurisdiction in the first
instance in offences punishable by imprisonment or banishment over three
months, or fine exceeding 300 lire. The courts of assize have jurisdiction in
the first instance in all proceedings concerning crimes brought before them by
direct citation, or by sentence of the sections of accusation (sezioni d' accusa).
They have exclusive jurisdiction concerning offences against the internal and
external security of the State, and all crimes of a serious character. Appeal is
allowed to the correctional tribunals from the sentences of the Pretori, and to
the courts of appeal from those of the correctional tribunals. The courts of
cassation have power to annul, for illegality, sentences passed by the inferior
courts, and to decide questions of jurisdiction or competency. This court can
also decide regarding sentences passed by the supreme military and naval
court.
Italy is divided, for the administration of justice, into 20 appeal court
districts, each of which is subdivided into tribunal districts, 162 in all, and
these again into mandamenti, each with its own magistracy (Pretura), 1,806
in all.
Table showing the number of persons convicted of crimes before the
various classes of courts, 1885-89 : —
Convictions
Year
Total
Before the
Pretori
Before the
Tribunali
(first instance)
Before the
Corti d' Assise
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
332,079
337,394
315,359
340,381
351,218
273,463
280,810
259,387
282,646
292,041
53,103
51,654
50,426
52,369
54,088
5,513
4,930
5,546
5,366
5,089
The number of prisons or penitentiaries, with number of inmates, on June
30, 1888, is given as follows : —
Prisons or Penitentiaries
Number
Inmates
Male Female
Total
Lock-ups
Penal establishments
Correctional establishments for the
young :
Houses of detention for the young
Private reformatories .
Penal colonies ....
1,717
110
8
40
12
26,509 1 2,152
29,463 j 1,277
920 ! 57
2,761 1,913
2,718 2
28,661
30,740
977
4,674
2,720
Total
1,877 : 62,371 ; 5,401
67,772
694 ITALY
Pauperism.
In Italy legal charity, in the sense of a right in the poor to be supported
by the parish or commune, or of an obligation on the commune to relieve the
poor, does not exist. Exceptions to this rule are in favour of forsaken
children and the sick poor, the former being maintained and the latter
supplied with medical attendance at the expense of the province or commune.
Public charity in general is exercised through the permanent charitable
foundations, called ' Opere pie,' regulated by the law of July 17, 1890. These
are very unequally distributed in the different provinces, and their operation is
in the manner prescribed and in the territory named in the deeds of founda-
tion, or by the statutes in force. A thorough inquiry into their financial
position was made in 1880. The general results were :— Leaving out of
account institutions intended for lending, or for the encouragement of saving
(that is, monti di pieta, monti frumentari, casse di prestanze agrarie), there
were 21,638 opere pie, with a gross capital of about 2,000,000,000 francs.
Their income and expenses were : —
Lire.
Gross income 89,673,307
Burdens (not charitable) . . . 7,838,000
Taxes, &c 15,131,255
Expenses of administration . . 16,076,779
Total disbursement . . 39,046,034
Balance free . .- . 50,627,273
Added to this net income were casual legacies, contributions from private
benefactors, subsidies from communes (for hospitals), &c. . all of which receipts
are spent annually, and thus the sum at the disposal of the opere pie in 1880
amounted to 96,395,470 lire.
The property of these foundations is constantly increasing. In the space
of nine years (1881-89) the new legacies amounted to 154,281,429 lire. In
1889 the communes spent about 42,683,917 lire, and the provinces about
20,273,500 lire in charity ; over one-fourth of the former sum and over three-
fourths of the latter being disposed of through the opere pie.
Finance.
I. State Finance.
Revenue and Exjyenditure.
Direct taxes are those on lands, on houses, and on incomes
derived from movable capital and labour. The tax on lands,
amounting to about 96 millions, with an additional tenth, is spread
over the 9 cadastral eompartimenti. That on houses is at the
rate of 125 per cent, (with three-tenths additional) of the amount
taxable, which is two-thirds of the real annual value in the case of
factories, and three-fourths in the case of dwelling-houses. The
tax on incomes from movable capital and labour is 13*2 per cent
of the sum taxable. This, in incomes from capital alone, is the
HNANCE
695
whole amount stated as income ; in those from capital and labour
(trade, industries), it is six-eighths, and in those from labour alone
(professions), it is five-eighths of the income stated. In the case
of State, provincial, or communal employes, half the income is
taxable. The communes and provinces also tax lands and build-
ings. The State grants to the communes one-tenth of the pr< •■
of the tax on incomes as compensation for other communal re-
venues made over to the State by various laws.
The principal indirect taxes are: — the customs duties, the
octroi, the taxes on manufacture-;, the salt and tobacco monopolies,
lotto.
The financial year of Italy ends on June 30. The following
table exhibits the total ordinary revenue and expenditure of the
Kingdom, together with the annual difference in each of the years
from 1885-86 to 1892, the first four years representing actual
receipts and disbursements, and 1890-91 and 1891-92 the budget
estimates : —
Tern
Total Revenue
Total Expenditure
Difference
Lire
Lire
Lire
1885-86
1,745,515,911
1,730,598,335
+ 14,917,576
1886-87
1,801,185,804
1,789,413,851
+ 11,771,953
1887-88
1,936,724,649
1,993,875,769
- 57,151,120
1888-89
1,866,670,029
2,097,131,115
-230,461,086
1889-90
1,903,170,131
1,879,636,028
+ 23,534,103
1890-91
1,850,248,143
1,872,133,271
- 21,885,128
1891-92
1,775,123,004
1,780,942,130
- 5,819,130
The following table gives an abstract of the official budget ac-
counts for the year ending June 30, 1892, showing the principal
sources of revenue and chief branches of expenditure : —
Revenue
Revenue — cont.
Lire
Lire
A. Ordinary revenue : —
Taxes on transactions
1st Category : '
Succession duties
37,300,000
State property
11,445,367
Registration
63,700,000
Ecclesiastical pro-
Stamps
73,300,000
perty
2,940,500
Railway tax
18,300,000
State railways
71,215,100
Various
29,440,550
Various
1,246,389
Indirect taxes :
Exdse
31,000,000
Direct taxes :
Customs .
245,000,000
Land tax .
106,342,000
Octrois
69,978,320
House tax .
83,000,000
Tobacco (mono-
Income tax
236,269,274
poly)
193,000,000
1 The revenue and the expenditure of each Ministry are divided into four categories : —
1. Efective receipts or expenditure ; i Movement of capital ; 3. Construction of railways,
4c ; 4. Receipts or expenditure d'ordre.
696
ITALY
Revenue — cont.
Salt (monopoly)
Lottery
Fines
Public services :
Posts
Telegraphs
Prisons
Fines
School taxes
Various
Repayments.
Various receipts
Total 1st Cate
gory
4th Category :
Working of State
domains .
Interest of paper-
money caution
fund
Treasury deposits &
loans for pensions
Share of gross pro-
ceeds of Octrois
of Rome and
Naples
Various
Lire
63,500,000
76,200,000
2,000
48,500,000
15,400,000
7,177,000
2,250,000
4,590,000
7,591,697
36,704,308
8,030,240
| 1,543,622,745
13,148,890
14,945,038
42,543,000
26,471,680
7,279,040
Revenue — cont.
Lire
Total ordinary | 1648010393
revenue J
Total 4th Cate-j 104)387)648
Extraordinary re-
venue : —
1st Category (ef-
fective receipts)
2nd Category
(movement of
capital) :
Sale of property, &c.
Recovery of debts .
New debts .
Total 2nd Cate-
gory
12,300,636
10,076,084
5 204,077
16,587,000
| 31,867,161
3rd Category (con-
struction of
railways). ' . 82,944,814
Total extraordi-\ ,„7 iio 611
nary revenue / ' '
Total revenue 1,775,123,004
Recapitulation.
-
Ordinary
Extraordinary,
Total
Lire
Lire
Lire
1st Category (effective
receipts)
1,543,622,745
12,300,636
1,555,923,381
2nd Category (movement
of capital) .
—
31,867,161
31,867,161
3rd Catogoiy (construc-
tion of railways) .
—
82,944,814
82,944,814
4th Category (receipts
d'ordre) . . .
Total .
104,387,648
—
104,387,648
1,648,010,393
127,112,611
1,775,123,004
FINANCE
697
Expenditure
Ordinary expenditure
Ministry of the
Treasury :
1st Category (ef-
fective expendi-
ture) :
Interest on con-
solidated debt
Interest on re-
deemable debt .
Railway annuities .
Floating debt
Fixed annuities .
Civil list and appa-
nages
Senate and Cham-
ber of Deputies
General expenses
Reserve fund
Various
Total 1st Cate-\
gory /
4th Category
((Tordre)
Total Ministry!
of Treasury /
Ministry of Finance :
1st Category (ef-
fective expendi-
ture) :
General expendi-
ture
Annuities, &c.
Expenses of collec-
tion .
Total 1st Cate-\
gory /
4th Category
Total Ministry \
of Finance /
Ministry of Justice,
&c. .
Ministry of Foreign
Affairs
Ministry of Public
Instruction
Ministry of the
Interior
Ministry of Public
Works
Ministry of Posts
and Telegraphs .
Lire
438,206,640
85,494,957
27,848,861
111,048,060
38,943,000
15,050,000
2,140,000
13,292,084
4,000,000
738,281,826
65,293,143
803,574,969
18,438,169
3,340,000
159,231,998
181,010,167
28,171,523
209,181,690
33,739,720
9,020,807
39,927,028
57,552,924
27,802,601
53,830,902
Expenditure — cont.
Lire
Ministry of War . 243,143,965
Ministry of Marine 104,010,466
Ministry of Agricul-
ture, Industry,
and Commerce . 10,139,301
50,088,442
Extraordinary ex-
penditure : —
Ministry of the
Treasury :
1st Category (ef-
fective expendi-
ture) . 11,507,670
2nd Category
(movement of
capital) :
Railway Redemp-
tion Annuities . 5,311,350
Redemption of
debts . . 25,431,658
Other disbursements 7,837,764
Total 2nd Cate-I-^^-
3rd Category
(construction of
railways). . 11,507,670
Total Ministry \
of Treasury /
Ministry of Finance 2,698,834
Ministry of Justice,
ke. . . . 546,252
Ministry of Foreign
Affairs 40,167
Ministry of Public
Instruction . 1,038,245
Ministry of the
Interior . 2,055,033
Ministry of Public
Works . . 115,506,729
Ministry of Posts
and Telegraphs . 196,400
Ministry of War . 7,750,000
Ministry of Marine 7,200,000
Ministry of Agricul-
ture, Commerce,
and Industry . _ 1,897,655
Total extraor- ^j
dinary ex- J- 189,017,757
penditure J
Totalexpendi-|lj780}942>13()
ture
;
698
ITALY
Recapitulation by Categories.
-
1st Category
(effective)
2nd Category j 3rd Category
(Movement of (Construction
capital) of railways)
4th Category
(d'ordre)
Total
Lire
1,775,123,004
1,780,942,130
- 5.S19.126
Revenue
Expenditure
Lire
1,555,923,381
1,550,391,890
Lire
31,807,161
•#3,217,772
Lire
82,944,161
82,944,814
Lire
104,387,648
104,387,648
X 5,531,485
- 11,350,611 - 653
-
In the ordinary revenue there is a surplus of 56,086,020 lire,
and in the extraordinary revenue a deficit of 61,905,146 lh"e ;
giving a net deficit of 5,819,126 lire.
Public Debt.
The following table shows the interest (including premiums)
and sinking fund of the Public Debt on July 1, 1891 : —
Debts
Per
Cent.
Rentes, Inter-
ests, &c.
Sinking
Fund
1890-91
Year of ,
Extinc- i
tion
I. Consolidated debt :
Rentes at 5 per cent.
>> 3 ,, .
Total consolidated debt .
II. Permanent annuity due to\
the Holy See . . /
III. Debts separately inscribed :
IV. Various debts
V. Floating debt :
Treasury bonds
Current accounts
Bank advances
Total floating debt
Total public debt ,
5
3
3to5
3to6
Lire
442,734,255
6,408,080
Lire
\1895-
/1961
\1906-
/1970
449,142,335
—
3,225,000
—
20,138,439
1,039,969
96,487,707
329,747
12,213,635
500,000
400,000
—
13,113,635
—
582,107,116
1,369,716
DEFENCE 699
The capital of the consolidated and redeemahle debt amounted
to 11,800,454,529 lire on July 1, 1891, or about 474,018,180 st.-r-
ling.
The burden of the debt per head of population is 15/., and of
the interest 14*. The value per head of the special exports in
1890 was 14 3s. 9d.
II. Local Finance.
The total revenue of the communes of Italy in 1889 amounted, according
to official reports, to 640,340,410 lire, and "the revenue of the provim .-
amounte.1 to 118,625,599 lire. The debts of the communes in 1S39 J)e<eml>er
31) amounted to 1,037,449,263 lire ; of the provinces t" 17". 439.703 lire.
III. Public Property.
On June 30, 1890, the property of the State was as follows : —
Lire
Financial assets (Treasury) 617,245,058
Property, immovable, movable, loans and various
titles 750,456,209
Property of industrial nature 3,548,791,209
Material in use in army and navy .... 185,072,516
Property used in the service of the State . . . 1,717,678,102
Total .... 6,819,243,094
In the financial vear 1889-90 the revenue from State property was : —
Railways, 72,235,321' lire ; ecclesiastical, 3,974,316 lire; various, 12,057,751
lire ; total, 88,267,388.
Defence.
I. Frontier.
The extent of the land frontier of Italy is as follows : — French
frontier 495 kilometres ; Swiss 655 ; Austro-Hungarian 750 ;
frontier of San Marino 38 -5 ; in all (exclusive of San Marino)
1,900 kilometres. The coast line of the peninsula measures
3,657 kilometres; of Sicily, 1,098; of Sardinia, 1,017; of Elba
and the small islands, 1,013; the total length of coast is thus
6,785 kilometres.
On the Continental frontier of Italy the principal passes of
the Alps are defended by fortifications distributed according to a
plan decided on in 1874, and at present in process of execution.
The basin of the Po is also studded with fortified places, though
some of the old fortresses have been either abandoned or de-
classed, while others are being constructed. The chief strong places
in the region are the following : — Casale, Placentia, Cremona,
700 ITALY
Peschiera, Verona, Mantua, Legnago (these four form the old
Austrian Quadrilateral), Pa via, Boara, Venice, Alessandria,
Bologna. On the coasts and islands are the following fortified
places : — Ventimiglia, Vado, Genoa, Spezia, Elba, Mont-Argen-
taro, Civitavecchia, Gaeta, Baja, and Castellamare in the Gulf of
Naples ; works in the Straits of Messina ; various places in
Sicily ; Tarentum ; Brindisi, Ancona, the mouth of the Adige ;
Brindolo and Chioggia. On the north Sardinia is defended by
the fortifications in the Island of St. Madeleine, and on the south
by those of Cagliari. Rome is surrounded by walls, and is being
protected by a circle of forts.
II. Army.
Universal liability to arms forms the basis of the military
organisation of Italy. A certain portion of all the young men
who have completed their twentieth year, amounting to about
200,000, is levied annually, 82,000 of whom are drafted into the
standing army, while the rest are entered in a second and third
category.
By recent legislation (June 28, 1891) the term of compulsory
service will be slightly lengthened for some classes. To secure
the strength required for the war footing it is intended to make
special provision for: — (1) the increase of the annual normal
contingent of the first category from 82,000 to 95,000 men ; (2)
some modification in the law of recruiting to reduce the number
of tifles to exemption from service in the first and second category.
The consideration of this has been entrusted to a commission.
According to the law of August 6, 1888, the time of service in
the standing army for the first category of recruits is five years
in the infantry, four years in the cavalry, and three years in
the other arms. Having completed their service under arms, the
men of the first category are granted unlimited leave, but are
enrolled in the permanent army, the infantry for four years, the
cavalry five years, when they are both transferred to the terri-
torial militia. The men belonging to the other arms are enrolled
in the permanent army for five or six years, when they are trans-
ferred to the mobile militia, in which they complete twelve years
of service before being transferred to the territorial militia.
Those of the second category are entered in the permanent army
for eight years, and the mobile militia for four years, when they
form part of the territorial militia. The men of the third category
are entered at once in the territorial militia, but are given un-
limited leave, The total period of service is 19 years. As in
DEFENCE 701
the German army, young men of superior education are permitted
under certain conditions to serve as one-year volunteers. The
different arms of the Italian army have the following organisation
according to the law of June 23, 1887 : —
1. Permanent Army.
The main army is composed of : — Infantry : 96 regiments of the line and
12 regiments of beraaglieri, each regiment of 3 battalions of 4 companies and 1
depot ; 7 regiments of Alpine troops divided into 22 battalions, in 75
companies ; 87 military districts with 98 companies.
Cavalry : — 24 regiments of 6 squadrons and 1 depflt ; 6 depots for re-
mounts.
Artillery : — 12 regiments of divisional field artillery, each of 1 staff and 2
brigades (8 batteries) ; 1 company of train, and 1 depot ; 12 regiments of army
corps field artillery, of 1 staff and 2 brigades (8 batteries) ; 1 brigade of train
(2 companies) and 1 depot ; 1 regiment of horse artillery, of 1 staff, 3 mounted •
brigades (6 latteries) ; 1 brigade of train, of 4 companies and 1 depot ; 1
regiment of mountain artillery, of 1 staff, 3 brigades of 9 batteries, 1 depot ;
5 regiments of fortress artillery, 2 of these composed each of 1 staff, 4 brigades
(16 companies), and 1 depot ; the other 3 each of 1 staff, 3 brigades (12 com-
panies), and 1 depot ; 1 regiment (5 companies) of artillery mechanics, and 1
company of veterans.
Engineers : — 4 engineer regiments, 2 of which of 1 staff, 6 brigades of
sappers (18 companies), 1 brigade of train (2 companies), and 1 depot ; the 3rd
regiment of 1 staff, 3 sapper brigades (7 companies), 3 brigades (6 companies) of
telegraphists and 1 of specialists, 1 brigade train (3 companies), and 1 depot ;
the 4th regiment of 1 staff, 3 brigades of pontooners (8 companies), 1 railway
brigade (4 companies), 1 lagoon brigade (2 companies), 1 train brigade (3 com-
panies), and 1 depot.
Carabineers : — 11 territorial legions, and 1 legion of cadets.
Sanitary corps, 13 companies ; commissariat, 13 companies ; veterinary
corps ; administrative corps ; invalids and veterans, 4 companies ; establish-
ments and institutes of instruction ; disciplinary establishments, 15 companies ;
2 houses of correction.
2. Mobile Militia.
Infantry :— - 48 regiments of the line of 3 battalions of 4 companies ; 18
battalions of bersaglieri of 4 companies ; 22 companies of Alpine troops.
k Artillery : — 13 brigades of field artillery of 4 batteries ; 14 companies of
train ; 36 companies of fortress artillery ; 3 brigades of mountain artillery of 3
batteries.
Engineers : — 7 brigades of sappers with 21 companies ; 2 railway com-
panies ; 3 companies of telegraphists ; 1 lagoon company ; 4 companies of
train.
Sanitary corps of 12 companies, and commissariat corps of 12 companies.
Special militia of Sardinia : — 3 regiments of the line, each of 3 battalions of
4 companies ; 1 battalion of bersaglieri of 4 companies ; 1 squadron of
cavalry ; 1 brigade of field artillery of 2 batteries, and 1 company of train ;
1 brigade of fortress artillery of 4 companies ; 1 company of engineers ; 1
sanitary company ; and 1 commissariat company.
702
ITALY
3. Territorial Militia.
320 battalions of the line of 4 companies ; 22 battalions of Alpine troops
with 75 companies ; 100 companies of fortress artillery and 20 brigade com-
mands ; 30 companies of engineers and 6 brigade commands ; 13 sanitary
companies ; 13 commissariat companies. In time of peace the territorial
militia is called out eveiy four years for 30 days' drill, which may be divided
into two, three, or four years.
There are 12 army corps. The following is the official statement of the
strength of the Italian army for February, 1891 : —
-
Permanent Army
Militia
Under
Arms
On
Unlimited
Leave
Mobile
Territorial
Officers.
Effective
14,508*
193
315
5,250
Supplementary ....
—
4,713
3,697
—
Auxiliary .....
—
2,502
—
—
Reserve .....
Total officers
T hoops.
—
4,278
—
—
14,508
11,686
4,012
5,250
Carabineers .....
24,811
4,290
572
8,952
Infantry
115,237
211,965
302,681
458,402
Bersaglieri .....
13,944
26,818
38,000
27,053
Alpine troops ....
10,099
18,110
38,304
23,833
Military districts ....
17,721
27,001
—
942,025
Cavalry .....
25,808
11,174
533
31,519
Artillery .....
36,326
68,498
44,283
38,188
Engineers . . . . .
8,352
17,531
10,312
7,502
Military schools ....
1,590
—
—
—
Sanitary corps ....
2,543
7,326
8,501
7,895
Commissariat ....
2,229
3,818
1,818
2,539
Invalid and veteran corps .
270
—
—
—
Supplementary troops .
—
157,935
—
—
Penal establishments and disci-
plinary companies .
Total troops
Grand total
2,575
—
—
—
261,505
554. Kit;
445,004
1,547,908
276,013
566,152
449,016
1,553,158
2,844,339
The special African corps, constituted in accordance with the law of
July 10, 1887, consisted (June, 1891) of : — 1 company of carabineers, 1 bat-
talion of chasseurs, 4 battalions of infantry (native), 2 squadrons of cavalry
(native), 2 mountain batteries (native) each of 4 guns, 1 company of artillery
mechanics, 1 of sappers, 1 of specialist engineers, 1 sanitary, 1 commissariat,
DEF)
703
and 1 train company. The force contained, in all, 247 officers (32 native),
6,122 men (3,795 native), and 1,069 horses and mules.
The Italian army is provided with the Vetterli repeating rifle (the Vital i
system) and sword bayonet.
III. Navy.
The following table contains the official data as to the strength
of the Italian navy on January 1, 1891 (I = iron; S = steel; W
= wood ; B = breech-loader ; M = muzzle-loader) : —
Number
Guns
Nature of Ships
Tonnage
Ban*-
power
Crews
L
S.
W.
Total
B.
11.
Total
Warships, 1st Class
5
7
12
105,467
87,682 134 ' — 134
5,670
2nd „
3
11
—
14
.si..::.;
72,098 106
115
3,725
3rd „
4
15
•21
18,407
34,840 108
r
110
2.24::
Transports, 1st „
1
2
.
5
22.47.".
15,577
23
—
23
l.>-:<
„ 2nd „
4
2
—
6
4,191
22
—
22
468
3rd „
4
—
1
.">
2.247
1,311
4
4
8
202
School ships
—
—
c
6
10,454
4,849
26
42
1,437
Central ships for local
defence
1
—
4
5
19,121
10,913
4
20
24
1,243
Local vessels
22
7
17
50
6,186
6,817
31
■
51
1,110
Lagoon gunboats
(paddle) .
6
—
—
6
528
390
—
6
72
Torpedo cruisers .
—
7
—
7
1,466
14,040
20
—
20
260
Ocean torpedo vessels .
—
01
—
61
4,881
62,600
122
—
1,043
Torpedo vessels. 1st
38
—
38
1,496
16,800
38
38
418
Torpedo vessels, 2nd
SI
_
21
281-5
•.,,-,,
210
Steam torpedo barges .
Totals .
—
—
12
12
139-4
1,590 ! -
—
120
50
171
44
269
240,714-9
337,248
644
n
715
19,224
On January 1, 1891, there were building, of the first class 1
iron clad of 13,090 tons displacement ; of the second class, 6 deck-
protected cruisers of together 14,930 tons ; and of the third class,
5 torpedo cruisers. The total tonnage building was 33,300, and
horse-power 82,860.
The following table, derived from the Annuario Ufficiale della
R. Marina, gives the names and other particulars of all the first
and second class ships of war built and building in the Italian
navy(a = barbette ships ; b = turret ships ; c = broadside ships ; d
= deck-protected cruisers ; e = spar or flush-decked unprotected
vessels). The machine guns and smaller guns with which all the
vessels are well supplied are not given in the list.
704
ITALY
Name
First-class Sea-going Armour-
clads : —
altalia
aLepanto .
oRe Umberto 1 .
aSicilia *
aSardegna 1 .
feDuilio
ftDandolo .
oLauria
aFrancesco Morosini
aAndrea Doria .
cMaria Pia .
cCastelfldardo
cSan Martino
Affondatore (turret ram)
Second-class : —
cTerribile .
cFormidabile
cVarese
dGioia ....
dVespucci .
dSavoia
eCristoforo Colombo
</ 1 iai isan (torpedo ram)
dEtna „ „
dVesuvio „ „
dStromboli,, ,,
dFieramosca 1 „
dDogali „ „
dPiemonte .
dMarco Polo 1 .
dLombardia i
dLiguria 1
dUmbria 1
dEtruria »
Elba .
1S80
1882
1890
1876
1878
1885
1885
1863
1863
1863
1865
1861
1865
1881
1882
1883
1875
1883
1885
1883
1886
1887
1887
13,898
13,550
13,298
13,298
13,860
11,138
11,202
11,000
11,000
4,460
4,262
4,259
4,234
4,062
2,660
2,220
2,524
2,533
2,850
2,316
3,020
3,530
3,530
3,530
3,745
2,050
2,500
4,460
2,281
2,281
2,281
2,281
2,281
Horse-
power
of En-
gines
11,958
15,797
15,200
15,200
15,200
7,711
8,045
10,000
10,000
2,500
2,800
2,500
2,800
3,240
1,100
1,080
950
4,066
3,696
3,340
3,782
5,500
7,480
6,480
6,262
7,700
7,617
12,200
10,000
6,500
6,500
6,500
6,500
6,600
Greatest
Thick-
ness of
Armour
at water
line
inches
22 2
22 2
18
18
4
4
4
4
5
Guns
No.
►
e
H
L00
1 In course of construction, or incomplete. a Citadel.
3 These ships have no side armour, but inclined armour 19 in. thick on the citadel, and
16 j in. thick round funnel hatchways. Armour on ammunition tube 19 in. thick.
PRODUCTION OH INDUSTRY fU6
The Duilio and Dandolo beloug to the centr.il < itadel type, of which the
Inflexible is the most powerful example in the British Navy. an«l are superior
to the Inflexible in armament and speed, although not quite so strongly
protected. The Italia and Lepanto are 400 feet long, 74 feet hroad, and have
a mean draught of water exceeding 30 feet. There is no vertical belt armour
protecting the water-line, but instead of it a deck covered with 4- and 3-inch
steel plates is built about 6 feet below water. The cost of each of them was
over a million sterling.
The navy was manned in 1891 by 7 vice-admirals, 17 rear-admirals. 1 7-".
captains, 330 lieutenants and sub-lieutenants, 44 marine guards, I
engineers and machinists, 161 medical staff, 308 commissariat, 119 'del corjio
Kquipaggi,' and 19,604 men, there being 689 officers and 48,603 men on
unlimited leave or in reserve. The total of all ranks for the navv was thus
70,323.
Production or Industry.
I. Agriculture.
The systems of cultivation in Italy may be reduced to time : — 1. The
system of ]>easant proprietorship (eoltivazione per economiao amano propria) ;
•i. That of jiartnership (la eolonia parziaria) : 3. That of rent tamttot.
Peasant proprietorship is most common in Piedmont and Liguria, but is found
in many other parts of Italy : in the province of Rome, the Abruzzi and
Molisc, Campania, Apulia, the Basilicata, Calabria, and in Sicily and Sardinia.
This system tends to become more general. The system of partnership or
eolonia parziaria, mure especially in the form of niezzadria, consists in a form
of partnership between the proprietor and the cultivator. No wages are paid,
profits and losses are equally divided, the families of the two partners sub-
sisting, it may be, entirely on the common produce of the cultivation. This
system is general in Tuscany, the Marches, and Umbria ; it prevails over other
systems in Emilia, and is frequently found in the sub-mountain (pede montane)
regions of Lombardy and Venetia, in the AbruzziandMoli.se. in Cauijmiia and
in Sicily. It is almost unknown in the Basilicata, little practised in Apulia,
Calabria, and Sardinia, and has been entirely abandoned in the two most
advanced centres of cultivation in the south, viz : — Barese and the province of
Naples. Various modifications of the system exist in different parts of Italy.
The system of rent (affitto) exists in Lombardy and Venetia, especially in the
marsh lands, Emilia, Campania, the Abruzzi and MolLse, Piedmont, and
Sicily. It is little used in Umbria, the Marches, Tuscany, the Province of
Rome, the Basilicata, and Sardinia. In Upper Italy the .agreement is usually
for nine (sometimes other multiples of three) years : in Southern Italy
for two, four, or six years, according to local customs.
Large farms (la grande eoltura) exist in the neighbourhood of Vercelli,
:Pavia, Milan, Cremona, Chioggia, Ferrara, Grosseto, Rome, Caserta, and in
Apulia, the Basilicata, Calabria, and at Girgenti and Trapani in Sicily. In
Italy generally the land is much subdivided.
Of the total area of Italy 86 "9 per cent, is productive, and 13 1 per
cent, unproductive. Of the total area 12 per cent, is under forest, and
36 per cent, under culture. Agriculture is generally in a primitive con-
dition.
The following table shows the produce of the various crops in 1889,
and the averages for the five years 1879-83 : in the case of tobacco
and silk, instead of the averages for 1879-83 the averages for 1885-89 are
given : —
z z
706
ITALY
Average 1879-83
Area under
Produce
Value 1879-83
(average)
Produce 1889
Cultivation
per
Produce
1879-83
Hectare
Hectolitres
Hectolitres
Hectares
Hectol.
Lire
Wheat .
38,391,000
46,562,105
4,434,053
10-50
803,000,000
Maize
28,918,000
29,661,200
1,891,831
15-68
384,000,000
Oats
6,111,000
6,481,155
436,741
14-84
47,000,000 I
Barley-
2,954,000
3,849,873
337,628
11-40
47,000,000 ;
Rye .
1,449,000
1,839,647
160,295
11-48
22,000,000 !
Rice
8,332,000
7,281,041
201,311
36-16
134,000,000 1
Pulse
4,936,000
6,148,669
720,059
8-27
98,000,000 1
Quintals
Quintals
Quintals
Hemp
846,000
853,142
120,319
7-09
72,000,000
Flax
144,000
198,734
68,340
2-91
20,000,000
Potatoes .
6,036,000
8,783,430
150,258
58-39
40,000,000
Chestnuts
2,865,000
3,899,657
406,416
9-60
82,000,000
Hectolitres
Hectolitres
Hectol.
Wine
21,757,000
36,760,035
3,166,718
11-61
1,066,000,000
Olive oil .
1,540,000
3,390,293
928,897
3-66
335,000,000
Kilogrammes
Kilogrammes
Kilogr.
Tobacco '.
1,757,699
! / 3,880,048
\38,984,171
1,621
2-40
4,000,000
Silk cocoons .
34,332,291
—
—
151,000,000
No. pei-
Number
Number
Plants
plant
Acid fruits
3,008,100,000
3,776,575,600
15,698.432
241
75,000,000
Total
3,380,000,000
1 Average 1885-89.
In 1890 Italy had 5,000,000 cattle, 6,900,000 sheep, 1,800,000 goats
1,800,000 swine. In 1889 Italy exported 21,946 and imported 52,391 cattle ;
exported 33,784 and imported 5,762 sheep : exported 4,678 and imported
2,289 goats ; exported 127,028 and imported 3,334 swine. The wool product
is not, however, sufficient for consumption, the export in 1890 heing only
13,305 quintals and the import 82,230 quintals.
The total weight of the cocoon harvest in 1881 was 91,683,000 lhs. : in
1882, 70,000,000 lbs. ; in 1883, 92,886,200 lbs. ; in 1884, 80,000,000 lbs. ; in
1885, 70,985,000 lbs. ; in 1886, 91,000,000 lbs. ; in 1887, 94,656,700 lbs. :
in 1888, 96,786,173 lbs. ; in 1889, 75,678,000 lbs. ; in 1890, 89,866,800 lbs.
In the census of December 31, 1881, there were 5,024,826 malesof 15 yean
of age and upwards described as engaged in agriculture. The entire agricul-
tural population, male and female, of 15 years and upwards, was thus
about 10,000,000. According to last census the number of persons oj
15 years of age and upwards was to the whole population in the ratio of
678 to 1,000 ; thus the whole agricultural population was computed to be
14,900,000.
II. Forestry.
Tlie forestry department is under the direction of the M inisl ry of Agriculture, j
Industry, and Commerce, with a council (consiglio forestale) consisting of the.
Director of Agriculture, the higher forestry inspectors, and a legal adviser.
The executive pf the department consists of inspectors of various classes and 190
guards with 25 officers (hrigadieri).
The yield from the forests, including both those free from and those
under the forest regulations (vincolo), is valued at about 90,000,000 lire, as
follows :—
PRODU< TIOX OR INDUSTRY
"!•:
Useful timber
Firewood
Charcoal
Secondary produce, ^
excluding chest- J-
uuts . . J
Cubic metres
1,374. 547
6,289,341
3,019,148
Quintals
15,527,404
Total
Lire
17,062,006
20,632,380
18,133,294
32,174.111
88,001,791
The values of produce, agricultural, animal, and forest, are thus in round
numliers : —
Lire
ils, fibres, wine, fruit, he 3,400 millions
Animals, wool, milk, cocoons. I 1,180 ,,
Forest yield 90 ,,
Total
4,670
III. Mines and Minerals.
The following table gives the mineral
production in 1889 : —
Mineral
Mines.
Tons Lire
i < 1
Employes
Iron ore ....
43
173,489 1,887,231
1,418
Copper and manganese ore .
21
50,417 1,393,329
1,346
Zinc ore . . . \
97,059 8,257
1
Lead ore . . . v
102
t 36,894 7,062,348
10,58?
Silver ore . . J '
1,997 1,748,663
Gold ore ....
20
10,932 508.427
451
Antimony ore
5
563 100,072
328
Mercury and iron pyrites
13
17,407 2,520,944
876
Mineral fuel (anthracite, &c. ) '
37
' 390,320 2,858,154
2,714
Sulphur ....
419
371,494 24,652,876
29,028
Salt, graphite, boric acid, and
others ....
Totals ....
66
71,615 2,564,436
2,233
726
: 1,222,187 53,554,255
48,981
1 Inclusive of the output from turbaries and factories of agglomerate carbon, the total
quantity of fuel obtained in Italy was 940,865 tons, valued at 19,818,585 lire.
The value of the mineral products for the years 1878-89 was: — 1878,
55,078,461 lire ; 1882, 73,815,252 lire ; 1883, 70,518,473 lire : 1885, 58,979,950
lire : 1886, 53,591,771 lire ; 1887, 49,977,119; 1888, 52,377,908; 1889,
53,554,255 The quarries of Italy, especially its marble qtiarries, employ
about 20,000 men ; the annual output being valued at a million sterling.
IV. FlSHEKl -
On December 31, 1889, the number of vessels and l>oats employed in
fishing was 19,378, with an aggregate tonnage of 52,797. These numbers
Include 64 lioats of 262 tons engaged in coral fishing. At the same date
there were 57,355 fishermen, of whom 6,602 were engaged in deep-sea
z z 2
708
ITALY
or foreign fishing. In 1890 there went to the deep-sea fishing 1,706 boats of
15,261 tons. Of these, 36 of 102 tons were employed in coral-fishing, and 98
of 1,403 tons in fishing for sponges. The value of the fish caught in 1889 (ex-
cluding foreign fishing) was estimated at 13,953,505 lire, probably too low an
estimate ; the value obtained from tunney-fishing was 1,946,700 lire and from
coral-fishing 154,732 lire, the quantity (much less than the average) being es-
timated at 3,485 kilogrammes.
Commerce.
The first two columns in the following table show the total
special imports and exports (excluding gold, coined silver, and
goods in transit), the second two the imports and exports of the
precious metals of the Kingdom in each of the five years from
1886 to 1890:—
Year
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
Lin
Lire
Lire
Lin
1 1886
1,458,243,889
1,028,231,726
52,711,000
47,870,000
1887
1,604,947,273
1,002,136,762
84,806,100
107,245,000
1888
1,174,601,582
891,934,539
67,030,400
75,478,700 ;
1889
1,391,154,246
950,645,760
49,612,800
55,058,100 !
1890
1,319,638,433
895,945,253
57,648,000
66,655,100 [
The following table shows
/he value of the leading imports
and exports in 1890
;
Imports
Exports
Lire
Lin
Grain, wheat .
128,997,200
Silk, raw and thrown
268,714,900
Cotton, raw
127,169,500
,, waste
27,002,805 !
Coal
121,935,716
,, manufactures .
15,568,514
Timber for building.
30,854,845
,, cocoons .
4,141,410
Sugar, raw
31,178,035
Wine iu casks
34,361. 126
,, refined .
984,735 1
Oil, olive.
15,398,160
Wool, raw
27,149,000
Fruit (fresh) .
47,872,022
,, manufactures,
Eggs
19,870,760
Machinciy
39,414,280
Coral, manufactured.!
15,227,280
Silk, unbleached, raw.
Hemp and llax, raw
26,878,180
or twisted
35,585,800
Sulphur, unrefined
Fish, of fill sorts
30,415,630
and refined .
26,296,648
Iron in liars, 1st fusion
17,520,841
Hire
2,945,550
Coffee
32,160,180
( 'otton, raw
22,648,625
Silk, manufactures of
11,331,601
Marble .
15,169,676 !
Linen anil hemp vara
14,030,012
Meat, IVcsli and saltnl
11,262,660 j
Elides, raw ami dried
29,387,935
Skins, raw
1 1.073,110
Cheese
13,541,500
Straw plaiting.
3,948,000
Tobacco leaf .
15,714,629
1 tyeing and tanning
Cotton tissllrS. |iU1V
stuffs .
8,926,776
or mixed
Animals, oxen
7, 866. .MO
,, unlilcarliril .
3,614,066
,, horses
1,230,400 1
< "MMERfE
"n
Import*
Export*
Lire
Lire
Cotton bleached
6,720,083
Animals, swine
■loured \ dye
1 4,971,238
Zinc i>ro •
10. 1
.. printed .
14.176.015
Lead on .
.
-'•2.169,400
Grain, wheat .
100,320
Cotton yarn .
; 8,714,311
,, other
10.!
Oil. mineral refined
1 14,94 7. 4-22
Rice
, 2,245,095
Railway materials
803,583
Indigo .
Oil, olive
2,643,690
Silkworms' eggs or
l
cards
The following table for 1890 shows, in thousands of lire (ex-
cluding precious metals), the value of the trade with the leading
countries : —
-
1 Imports from
Exports to
1,000 lire
1,000 lire
France .
163,806
160,620
, United Kingdom .
318,897
111,178
j Austria
143,914
83,947
i Germany
1 140,294
118.
1 Russia ....
, 119,352
11,258
Switzerland .
55,039
168,514
1 United States and Canada
81,670
78,337
Turkey, Servia, Roumania
37,240
13.829
i Belgium
33,842
32,203
'. Central and South America
37,234
46,064
British Possessions in Asia
98,939
12,131
! Egypt ....
19,873
7.271
Spain, Gibraltar, and Portugi
dj 11,188
13,800
The value of the commercial intercourse of Italy with the United Kingdom,
wording to the Board of Trade Returns, is shown in the following table in
ch of the five years from 1886 to 1890 :—
£ £
Exports from Italy . 2,773,573 3,072,074
Imports of British
£
3,418,371
urn
£ £
3,230,131 3,093,918
produce
16,092,470 7,794,177 5.762.941 7,113.040 7,757,862
The principal articles of export from Italvto Great Britain in the vear 1890
were —Olive oil, of the value of 320,221/."; hemp, 333,713/. : oranges and
710
ITALY
lemons, 312,654/. ; sulphur, 127,886/. ; chemical products, 156,235/. ; shumac,
119,234/. ; other dyes, 97,392/. ; wine, 73,414/. ; almonds, 79,261/. ; stones,
146,606/. ; and iron ore, 43,411/. The value of the cotton manufactures and
yarn imported from Great Britain in the year 1890 amounted to 1,067,099/. ;
coals, 2,303,301/. ; iron, wrought and unwrought, 813,127/. ; woollen manu-
factures, 845,776/. ; machinery, 638,646/. ; refined sugar, of the value of
49,437/. ; arms, ammunition, &c, 424,789/. ; fish, 149,061/. ; copper, wrought
and unwrought, 186,087/.
In addition to the total value of imports in 1888 (exclusive of precious
metals), given as 1,174,601,582 lire, the value of those imported free of duty
is stated at 350,618,417 lire. The proportion of duty-free imports would thus
be about 29 '85 per cent.
The following table shows the re-exportation and transit, in thousands of
lire, from 1884 to 1888 :—
1884
18S5
1886
1887
Re-exportation
Transit.
Lire
75,833
82,412
Lire
54,211
69,867
Life
75,232
48,418
Lire.
87,252
50,046
1888
Lire
78,012
53,115
Navigation and Shipping.
On January 1, 1890 there were on the registers of the mercantile marine
6,810 vessels, classified as follows :—
For long sea voyages
For long coasting voyages
For short voyages, fishing, Ac.
Totals .
Or according to tonnage : —
Wssels over 1,000 tons .
„ 801 to 1,000 tons
,, 001 to 800 tons .
„ 401 to 000 tons .
,, 201 to 400 tons .
„ 101 to 100 tons .
„ 1 to 100 tons
Sailing Vessels
No.
692
844
5,506
6,442
20
14:!
373
814
noi
B,90T
Totals . 6,442
Tons
358,317
108,930
174,978
642,225
34,140
86,628
99,446
182,407
68,031
48,679
122,993
642,225
Steam Vessels
No. Tons
76 123,122
43 81,330
161 27,797
Total
No. Tons
007 481,480
:ist 140,360
5,6/17 ^n-,77:.
279
188,949 6,721 ! 824,474
279
129,180
10,445
15,003
U,. -.•jo
9,868
2,602
105
ST
104
896
353
816
5,298
182,249 r..VJl
168,890
77,(174
114,449
198,997
106,167
46,041
126,496
884,474
On .lauuary 1, 1891, there were 6,442 sailing vessels of 634,209 tons, and
290 steamers of 186,567 tons ; in all 6,732 vessels of 820,776 tons.
In 1890 there entered Italian ports 111,586 Italian vessels of 14,610,961
tons, and 10,146 foreign vessels of 7,848,512 tons: in all 121, 732 vessels of
22,459, 178 tons. There cleared from Italian ports 110,790 Italian vessels M
14,525,149 tons, and 9,980 foreign vessels of 7,776.566 tons: in all 120,720
vessels of 22,301,704 tons.
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
'11
At the principal Italian ports the numher of vessels entering and clearing
in 1890 were :—
Entered
— - -
Cleared
No. Tonnage
Tonnage
Genoa . 7,863
Leghorn . . . 4,192
Naples . . . 3.717
Messina . . . 4,787
Palermo . . ., 3,359
Y.nice . . . 3,012
3,393. ni I
1,416
1,630,942
1,681.741
1,210,807
976,820
7,138
4,063
3,706
1.77:!
2,978
'..718 1
1,40-
1,61-
1,187,895 1
J 1-21
Of the Italian steam tonnage, more than half helongs to the ' Italian
Genera] Navigation ' (Societa Florio e Rubattino — Genoa and Palermo^.
Internal Communications.
I. Railway^.
A large portion of the Italian railways lielong to the State, but in accord-
ance with a law of April 27, 1885, the working of the State lines has l»eeu
transferred to private enterprise. The contracts are for 60 years, but at the
end of 20 and 40 yean they may lie terminated.
On January 1, 1889, there were 8,167 kilometres of State railway, 149
kilometres jointly State and companies', and 4.272 kilometres of companies'
railway : in all, 12,588 kilometres. The length of the principal lines.
January 1, 1891, was: — Mediterranean, 4,800 kilometres: Adriatic 5,212
kilometres ; Sicilian, 729 kilometres : Sardinian. 759 kilometres : various,
1,663 kilometres ; total, 13,163 kilometres.
In 1888 the total receipts were 249,993,973 lire, of which 100,580,634 lire
were for passenger traffic. In the same year the expenses were 106,964,976
lire. By slow trains there were forwarded 15,630,967 tons of goods, and by
fast trains 8,352,480 quintals of goods. The number of passengers was in all
49,333,266.
Up to January 1, 1891, there had lieen constructed 2.539 kilometres ot
tramway.
II. Posts and Telegraphs.
During the year ending June 30, 1890, there were transmitted 171,631,040
letters and jiost-cards, to which 39,075,241 Government official letters have to
l>e added. There were sent also 6.730,064 manuscript papers, 170,149,368
periodicals and other printed matter, and 5,817.208 parcels. The money orders
numbered 5,648,313, value 608,412,273 lire. The total receipts were 45,420,386
lire, and expenses 39,245,300 lire. On June 30. 1890, there were 5,511 post-
offices.
The public telegraph service is a monojHjly of the Government, certain con-
cessions, however, being made to the railway and tramway companies. On
June 30, 1890, the length of line and wire on land was : —
Kilometres Kilometres
Government lines 33,868 wire 100,507
Railway „ 2,401 .. 33,798
Total
36.269
134.305
712
ITALY
During the year ending June 30, 1890, there were despatched from Govern-
ment and railway telegraph offices 7,342,188 private telegrams inland, and
there were sent or received from abroad 1,501,053 telegrams. The receipts
amounted to 15,242,221 lire, and the expenses to 14,250,048 lire. Number of
State offices, 2,602 ; other offices, 1,851.
Money and Credit.
The following table shows the amount of State notes and bank notes in
circulation at the end of each year from 1886 to 1890 in thousands of lire : —
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
State notes .
Bank notes .
1,000 Lire
446,665
1,031,870
1,000 Lire
395,185
1,075,743
1,000 Lire
346,338
1,074,877
1,000 Lire
344,185
1,114,123
1,000 Lire
342,809
1,126,440
Value of gold, silver, and copper coined from 1886 to 1890, exclusive of
re-coinage : —
Year
Total
Gold
Silver
Bronze
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
2,275,512
31,304,648
2,433,950
1,364,400
1,180,160
2,433,950
1,364,400
1,095,352
31,304,648
z
The re-coinage, 1889, consisted of silver to the value of 311,960 lire, and
bronze to the value of 50,000 lire. Re-coinage in 1890, 5,655 lire (silver).
There is no national bank in Italy. There are six banks authorised to
issue notes. There are besides many private banking institutes. The follow-
ing table shows the state of the assets and liabilities of these six banks on
Decomber 31, 1890, in thousands of lire : —
-
Assets
-
Liabilities
1,000 Lire
315,750
1,126,440
388,765
822.982
389,182
Cash and reserve .
Bills ....
Credits.
Deposits
Various securities .
Total .
1,000 Lire
489,008
670,650
252,383 i
822,982
816,790
3,051,813
Capital
Notes in circulation
Accounts current .
Titles and valuables
deposited .
Various
Total .
3,043,119
There are 692 co-operative credit societies and popular hanks, with assets at
the end of 1S8S amounting to 742,717,344 lire, and liabilities 732.919.5S1 lire :
161 ordinary credit companies, with assets 2,152,864,193 lire, and liabilities
2,180,817,780 lire. Eleven agrarian credit companies had assets 58,57!'. 1 •'> I
MONET, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES
713
lire, and liabilities 58,317,156 lire. There are 9 credit fancier companies, with
778.999,121 lire, and liabilities 773,001,998 lire.
The post-office savings-l>ank.s have been in operation since January 1, 1876.
Private wrings-banks arc subject to certain statutory rules and to Government
inspection. The following table shows the numl>or of post-office, ordinary and
co-o[>crative Barings-banks <>n December 81, 1889. with the numbers of their
depositors and amount deposited at that date, and the deposits and repayments
made during the year 1889 : —
-
In 1889
Repayments
Post-office savings-banks
Ordinary ,.
• '"-operative „ ,,
4,394 1.041. KM
721 430,444
I. in- Lire
285,954,332 j 181,328,710
1,139,1;
331,488,000 365.849,852
Lire
168,558,980
".710
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Italy are the same as those of France,
the names only being altered, the franc changing into the lira, divided into 100
centesimi, the kilogramme into the chilogramma, the metre into the metro the
hectare into the ettaro, and so on. The British equivalents are —
Monky.
The Lira of 100 Centesimi ; intrinsic value, 25*22J.9. to 17. sterling.
Weights and Mk.vsirks.
The Grammo
Chilocpramma
Quintale Metrico .
Tonnellata .
Lifro, Liquid Measure .
Ettolitro \ Jfl™} Measure
( Dry Measure
Metro .
Ch ilometro .
Metro Cubo\
Stero
Ettaro or Hectare
Square Chilometro
15 '434 grains troy.
2 -20 lbs. avoirdupois.
220
2,200 lbs. avoirdupois.
0'22 imperial gallon.
22
2 "75 ,, bushels.
3-28 feet or 39-37 inches.
1,093 yards.
35*31 cubic feet.
2 47 acres.
0*386 square mile.
(2*59 sq. chilo. =1 sq. mile).
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Italy in Gp.eat Bp.itaix.
Ambassador. — Count Tornielli-Brusati de Vergano ; appointed January
Secretary. — Count de Hierschel de Minerbi
Naral Attache. — Captain Persico.
There are Consular representatives at London (C.G.), Dublin. Gfcuj
Liverpool (C.G.), Aden, Bombay, Calcutta (C.G.), Cape Town, Colombo
Gibraltar. Halifax. Mellxmrne, Rangoon, Singapore,
714 ITALY
2. Of Great Britain in Italy.
Ambassador. — Rt. Hon. Lord Vivian, G.C.M.G., C.B., Envoy and Minister
to Denmark 1881-84 ; to Belgium 1884-92 ; appointed Ambassador to Italy
January 22, 1892.
Secretary. — Henry N. Dering.
Military Attache1.— -Col. J. R. Slade, R.A., C.B.
Naval Attache. — Captain W. H. May, R.N.
There are Consular representatives at Rome, Brindisi, Cagliari, Florence
(C.G.), Genoa, Leghorn, Naples, Palermo.
Foreign Dependencies.
The dominion of Italy in Africa extends, on the coast of the Red Sea, from
Cape Kasar (18° 2' N.) to the southern limit of the Sultanate of Raheita,
on the strait of Bab-el -Mandeb (12° 30' N.). This tract comprises
Massowah and its territory (with the adjacent Dahlak archipelago), and Assab
and its territory, with Beilul and Gubbi to Cape Rakhmat and Cape Sintiar.
The territory of Assab. on the Red Sea, opposite Aden, has an area of 548
square miles, with a population of 6,800 (1888). The length of coast is about
670 miles, and the population, which is to a great extent nomadic, is roughly
estimated at 219,600 ; Massowah having 16,000 inhabitants, of whom 500 are
Italians (exclusive of the garrison), 700 Greeks, 50 other Europeans, and 100
Banians (Indians). By various decrees between January 1, 1890, and
January 25, 1891, the Italian possessions on the Red Sea are constituted as the
Colony of Evitrea, with an autonomous administration and the management of
its own finance. The general command is entrusted to a civil and military
governor, assisted by three councillors, who are nominated by the king. The
estimated revenue of the colony for 1890-91 was — From customs 1,056,000
lire, from taxes 257,300 lire ; total, 1,313,300 lire ; expenditure, 2,960,000 lire.
The deficit of 1,646,700 lire would be met by contributions and reimbursements
by various departments of the Italian Government to the civil service of the
colony. Throughout the colony agriculture is in a very primitive condition.
The tropical climate and the general scarcity of water during the summer
months necessitate works for irrigation before crops can be raised with success.
Pasture is abundant, but the pastoral population is essentially nomadic.
Camels, oxen, slice]), goats, are common, and the produce, consisting of meat,
hides, butter, supplies articles of local trade. Pearl-fishing is earned on at
Massowah and the Dahlak archipelago to the annual value of from 400,000 lire
to 600,000 lire for pearls, and 200,000 lire for mother-of-pearl. This trade is
chiefly in the hands of Banians (Indians). Trade of Massowah in 1890:
imports by land and sea, 14,980,041 lire. In 1889, vessels entered, 2,442
(1,585 Italian), of 215,955 tons ; cleared, 2,519 (1,585 Italian), of 219,712 tons.
There are 17 miles of railway from Massowah to Saate. In 1889-90 the post-
olliec at Massowah forwarded 211,807 letters and post -cards. 1,862 manuscripts,
3,640 newspapers, and 12,011 parcels. There is a telegraph line of 515 kilo-
metres from Massowah to Assah, and of 101 kilometres from Assab to l'erim.
In 1889-90 there were 9.301 messages. Keren was occupied in June, Asmara
in August, 1889.
In February, 1889, the Sultan of Obbia, on the Somali coast (5° 33' N. to
2° 30' N.), put his sultanate under the protection of Italy. In April, 1889, the
protectorate was extended to the country between t ■'>■>' N. and B' V N. bj
treaty with the Sultan of the Mijertain Somalia, who at the same time hound
himself to make no treaty with any other power regarding the rest of his
ABYSSINIA AND SHOA 71"
territory. In November, 1889, the Somali coast, from the sultanate of Obbia
to the mouth of the Juba (2° 30' N. to • - was declared to he under the
protection of Italy. The boundary between the spheres of influence of Italy
and Great Britain in East Africa, settled March 24, 1S91, ascends the channel
of the Juba from its mouth to 63 N. : thence it follows the parallel of 6° N. as
far as 351 E., whence it goes north to the Blue Nile.
In consequence of a treaty of May 2, 1889, and a subsequent convention,
ratified February 25, 1890, the region comprising Abyssinia and Shoa is within
the Italian sphere of influence.
The area and population of the territories under Italian influence (in-
cluding Abyssinia and Shoa) are estimated as follows : —
4^nta *I»l.tloB
Possessions :
Country around Massowah, with Keren and
Asmara 3,100 000
Dahlak Archipelago 420 2,000
Assab Territory 580 6,800
Protectorate :
Territory of the Hahab, Bogos, Beni- Amer. Ac 18,000 200,000
Territory of the Afar or Danakil. unhiding
the Sultanate of Aussa .... 34,000 200,000
Somali and Oallaland (according to Anglo-
Italian agreement) 70,000 210,000
Kingdom of Abyssinia (Tigre, Lasta, Amhara,
mi. Shoa." Katfa, Harrar, ke.) 190,000 5,000,000
Total 316,100 5,658,800
ABYSSINIA AND SHOA
The ancient empire of Abyssinia, or ' Ethiopia,' includes the Kingdoms of
Tigre, with Lasta, in the north-east ; Amhara, with Gojam, in the west and
centre : Shoa in the south ; liesides the outlying territories and dependencies
of the Bogos, Shoho, Mensa, Barea, Bazen (Kunamat, Hahab, and Beni-Amev
in the north ; the Shankalla in the west : the Galla and Katfa lauds beyond
Shoa, and the Afar (Danakil) and Adal country occupying the lowlands
between Abyssinia proper and the coast.
After the overthrow of Theodore, King of Amhara, by the English in 1868,
the suzerain power passed to Prince Kassai of Tigre, who assumed the old title
of Negus Negust (' King of Kings'), and was crowned in 1872 as Johannes II.,
Emperor of Ethiopia. After the death of this potentate in 18S9, Menelek II..
King of Shoa, became the supreme ruler of Abyssinia, which region has practi-
cally become an Italian protectorate in virtue of the treaty of May 2, 1889,
confirmed and extended in October of the same year by a convention for ' mutual
protection' between Menelek and Umberto I., King of Italy. The political
institutions are essentially of a feudal character, analogous to those of
mediaeval Europe.
Since the conversion of the Abyssinians in the fourth century they have re-
mained members of the Alexandrian Church. The Abuna,or head of the Church.
is always a Copt, appointed and consecrated by the Patriarch of Alexandria,
but his influence is controlled by the Echegheh, a native ecclesiastical dignitary.
7lfi ITALY : — ABYSSINIA AND SHOA
who presides over the religious orders, numbering about 12,000 monks. The
Falashas appear to have been converted at a very early date by Jewish
missionaries, and still practise many Jewish rites.
Education is restricted to the teaching of the secular and regular clergy,
who instruct a limited number of children in grammar, choral singing, poetry,
ami the recitation of Bible texts. This education is gratuitous, and those to
whom it is imparted constitute the somewhat influential class of dabtara or
literati. There is no special class of magistrates or judges, justice being
entirely administered by the provincial governors, landed proprietors, and
shitm, or petty chiefs. Besides the chiefs and their retainers summoned in
time of war, the king maintains a permanent army of Wottoadcr or ' merce-
naries, ' most of whom are now armed with rifles instead of the national
weapons, shield and lance.
There is comparatively little land under tillage, pasturage being the chief
pursuit of the people, who raise large herds of cattle, as well as sheep and
goats. Wild indigo, coffee, cotton, the sugar-cane, date-palm, and vine thrive
well in many districts, but are nowhere extensively cultivated. The forests
abound in valuable trees. The chief exports are skins, ivory, butter, gums,
mules, forwarded mainly through Massowah. British imports amounted in
1887 to 14,000*., in 1888 to 3,270Z., and in 1889 to 1,174*. Besides Maria
Theresa pieces, bales of cloth and salt are still used as currency. Towns are
numerous, but are all of small size, scarcely any with a population of over 5,000.
The most important, politically and commercially, are : Gondar, capital of
Amhara, 5, 000 ; Adua, capital of Tigre, 3, 000 ; Aksum, ancient capital of the
Ethiopian Empire, 5,000 ; Antalo, former capital of Tigre, 1,000 ; Ankober,
former capital of Shoa, 7, 000 ; Licheh, present capital of Shoa, 3, 000 ; Debra-
Tabor, Magdala, and Makalle, occasional royal residences ; Besso and Sokoto,
1,500, important trading centres; Amba-Mariam, 4,000 ; Mahdera-Mariam,
4,000.
Books of Reference on Abyssinia.
Bruce (James), Travels to discover the Source of the Nile.
Rohlfs (G.), Meine Mission nach Abessinioh.
D'Ahbadie (Antoine), Geotlesie d'Bthiopie, ami numerous other memoirs,
Wilkins (II. St. Clair), Reconnoitring in Abyssinia,
Blandford, The Geology and Zoology of Abyssinia.
Heufllin (Th. von), Reise nach Abessinien.
Riippell (K). Reise in Abyssinien.
Munzigrr (W.), Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 18f>9, and other writings.
Lefebvre, Voyage in Abyssinia.
llaffray, Abyssinie.
Harris, The Highlands of Ethiopia.
Antinori, Rxploratore, 1883, and other writings.
Hartmnnn. Aliyssinien und die ubrigen Gebiete der Ostkuste Afrikas.
SUm (Henry A.). Wanderings among the 1'alashas of Abyssinia.
Lejean (O.), Voyage en Abyssinie.
Hlmif (Henry), a Narrative of Captivity in Abyssinia.
Numerous papers by Bianchi, Ceechi. iiiulietti. and others, in Guido Cora's Cosmos ;
Kxploratore; and Bollettinoof the Italian Geographical Society.
Levanevr (Prof. B.Y The Area and Population of Ethiopia, in Bulletin of the Inter-
national Stal istieal Instil ute.
BieUut, Universal Geography. Vol. X.
Cora ((!.), Several Special Maps of Assab, Massowah. Afar Country, and of the Other
Italian Possessions and adjoining Countries, published In Turin from 1881 to lSflO.
Document! Diplomatic! presentatl ai Parlamento Itarlario. N. XIV. L' Occupasione
di Karen edeU' Asmara. S. XV. Kliopia. Home. 1889.
Mnmaja (G.). I mici Trentacinque Anni di Missionc ncll' Alta Ktiopia. 7 vis. Home.
1885-80.
I'osscssi c I'mtcttorati in Africa. Bstratto dall' Anuuario statistico it ; 1 1 i .- anno
1800 (which contains a list of official documents relating to the colony of Kvitroa). Roma,
189],
717
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Italy.
1. Official PUBLICATIONS.
Censimenti della Popolaatane del Regno d" Italia— 18*51, 1871, 1881, eseguiti a cura della
Direzione Generate dj Statistica.
Censimenti degli Italiaui all' esr< JSL Id.
licit- del Regno d' Italia valutata nel 1884. PubMicazioue dell' Istitato Geografico
Militare (Firenze).
L' Italia economica negli anni 1867, 1868, 1869, 1870, e 1873, 5 volnmi. The first four
years are by Dr. Pietro Maestri ; the volume for 1873 is an official publication issued by the
Ufficio della Statistica Gem rale d" Italia.
Annuario statistico italiano. anni 1878, 1881, 1884, 1886, 1887-88 e 1889-90. Pubblieazione
della Direzione Generate della Statistica.
Annali dl .Statistica. 10 volumes of the Oral series. 25 of the second series, 13 of thethinl
series, ami U of the 4th series are m>w published. Id.
Saggio di faibliog, statistic;', italiana. 3a edizione accrvsciuta. Rome, 1S89. Pubbli-
eazione della Direzione Generate di Statistica.
Annuario <lei Minister! dalle Finalize e del Tesoro. Statistica finanziaria. Pubblieazione
annuale.
Annuario militare e Annuario ufficiale della Regia Marina. Pubblieazione annuale dei
rispettivi Ministeri.
Relazione sulle leve e sulle vicende del Ro. Esercito. Pubblieazione annualedel Ministeri'
della Ouerra.
Relazione sulle leve di mart'. Pubblieazione annuale del Miaiatero della Marina.
Relazione intorno ai servizi poatale e telegraflco e»l al servizio dellecasse postali di ri-
sparmio. Pubblieazione annuale del Ministero delle Poste e dei Telegrafi.
Relazione sull' esereizio e sulle costruzioiii delle strade ferrate italiane. Pubblieazione
annuale del Minister" dei Lavoii Pubbiici.
Stati di Previsinne dell' Entrata e della Spesa, e Contt General! Cousuutivi. Pubblicazioui
annuali del Ministero del Tesoro.
La Gerarchia C'attolica. la famiglia e la Cappella Pontiticia. Rome. Pubblieazione
annuale dell' autorita ecclesiastiea.
Movimmto dello Stato civile. Pubblieazione annuale della Direzione Generale della
iea.
-'iea delT istruzione. Id. .
Statistica giudiziaria civile e cominerciale e Statistica giudiziaria i>enale. Pubblicazioui
annuali della Direzione Generale di Statistica.
iea della Staiupa periodica. Pubblieazione biennale. Id.
Atti della Giunta ]>er 1* inchiesta agraria e sulla condizione della clause agricola. Rome.
1880-84.
Bollettino di notizie agrarie. Pubblieazione ]>eriodica del Ministero di Agricoltura,
Industria e Coinnieicio (Direzione Generale dell' Agricoltura).
Rivista del servizio minerario. Pubblieazione annuale. Id.
Bollettino di notizie sul credito e la prevideuza. Pubblieazione wiilifiilli del Ministerodi
Agricoltura, Ind. e Comm.
Le Societa Cooperative di credito e banche popolari. le- Societa ordinarie di credito. le
Societa ed Istituti di credito agrario e gli Istituti di credito fondiario. Pubblieazione
annuale. Id.
Statistica delle Casse Rispannio. Pubblieazione annuale del Ministero di Agricoltura,
Ind. e Comm.
Bollettino dei prodotti delle fern-vie. Pubblieazione mensile del Ministero dei Lavori
Pubbiici.
Atti della Commission] d' inchiesta sull' esereizio delle ferrovie italiane.
Relazioni sulle strade comunali. provincial! e nazionali. Pubblieazione annuale del
Ministero dei Lavori Pubbiici.
Atti della Commissione d' inchiesta sulla marina mercantile.
Sulle condizione della marina mercantile italiana. Pubblieazione annuale del Ministero
della Marina.
Movimento della navigazione nei Porti del Regno. Pubblieazione annuale del Ministero
delle Finalize.
Movimento Commerciale del Regno d" Italia. Id.
Statistica dei Bilanci comunali. Pubblieazione annuale della Direzione Generale della
Statistica.
Statistica dei bilanci provincial!. Id.
Statistica dei debit! comunali e provinciali. Pubblieazione periodica della Direzione
Generale della Statistica.
• dinienti e protettorati europei in Africa. 1S90. Baoeolte di notizie geografiche,
storiche, i>olitiche militari sulle regioni costiere africane, correddte di 38 disegni intercalati
718
ITALY
nel testo e di 5 carte separate. 2a edizione. Pubblicazione del Corpo di Stato Maggiorc
italiano. Roma, tip. Voghera, 1890.
Provedimenti per la costituzione e V ordinamento di una Colonia italiana in AfBab.
Ministero degli Atfari Esteri, 1882.
Memoria sull' ordinamento politico-amministrativo e sulle condizioni economiche di
Massaua, presentata alia Camera dei Deputati dal Ministro degli Afl'ari Esteri (Di Robilant),
uella tornata del 30 giugno 1880. Atti parlamentari — Legislatura XVI. Prima sessions
1880, Doc. X.
Docnmenti diplomatici presentati al Parlamento italiano dal Presidente <lel Consiglio,
Ministro ad interim degli Affari Esteri (Crispi) di concerto col Ministro della Guerra
("Bertole-Viale). Massaua. Seduta del 24 aprile 1888. Id. id. Secouda sessione 1887-88.
N. XVII. (Docnmenti).
Id. id. id. Massaua (2a serie). Seduta dell' 8 novembre 188S. Id. id. id. N. XVIII.
bis (id.).
Id. id. id. L' occupazione di Keren e dell' Asmara. Seduta del 17 Dicembre 1889.
Id. id. quarta sessione 1889-90. N. XIV. (id.).
Id. id. id. Etiopia. Id. id. id. id. N. XV. (id.).
Reports from British Diplomatic and Consular Officers for 1890. London, 1891.
Reports .on the Agricultural Condition of Sicily in No. 813 ; on the Finances of Italy in
No. 824; on the Foreign Trade of Italy in No. 840 of 'Diplomatic and Consular Reports.'
1891.
Reports on the Octroi Duties of Italy in No. 192 ; on the Economic Progress of Italy for
the past twenty-five years in No. 195 ; on the Private Wealth of Italy in No. 205, of ' Re-
ports on Subjects of General Interest.' 1891.
Trade of Italy with the United Kingdom ; in • Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the Year 1890.'
imp. 4. London, 1891.
HerUlet (Sir E.), Foreign Office List. London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Amati Amato, Dizionario corografico dell' Italia. Milano, Vallardi, s. d. S vols, in 4t<>.
Beauclerk (Dr. W. N.), Rural Italy ; an Account of the present Agricultural Condition of
the Kingdom. London, 188S.
Bodio (L.), Di alcuni indici misuratori del movimento eoonomico in Italia. 2a edizione
riveduta ed ampliata. Roma, tipografia Nazionale di G. Bertero, 1891.
Bertolotti (Giuseppe), Statistica ecclesiastica d' Italia. Savona, 1885.
Gallent/a (A.), Italy Revisited. 2 vols. 8. London, 1870.
Laveleye (Emile de), L'ltalie actuelle. 8. Paris, 1881.
Morpnrpo (Emilio), La finanza italiana dalla foudazione del regno too a quest i giorni.
S. Roma, 1874.
■Ill
JAPAN.
(NlPHo.V)
Reigning Sovereign.
Thk Japanese claim that their empire was founded by the rirst
Emperor Jinimu 660 b.c, and that the dynasty founded by him
still reigns. It was revived in the year 1868, when the now
ruling (dejure) sovereign overthrew, after a short war, the power
of the Shiogun (the de facto sovereign), who had held the ruling
power in successive families since the twelfth century ; and in
1871 the feudal system (Hoken Seiji) was entirely suppressed.
The sovereign bears the name of Kotei, or Emperor ; but the ap-
pellation by which he is generally known in foreign countries is
the ancient title of Mikado, or 'The Honourable Gate.'
Mikado of Japan. — MutsvJdto, born at Kyoto, November 3,
1852 ; succeeded his father, Komei Tenno, Feb. 13, 1867 ; mar-
ried, Feb. 9, 1869, to Princess Haruko, born May 28, 1850,
daughter of Prince Ichijo.
Offspring. -Prince Yoshihito, born Aug. 31, 1877 ; proclaimed
the Crown Prince (Kotaishi), Nov. 3, 1878; Princess Masako,
born Sept. 30, 1888: Princess Fusako, born Jan. 29, 1890;
Princess Xobuko, born Aug. 7, 1891.
By the Imperial House Law of February 11, 1889, the suc-
cession to the throne has been definitely fixed upon the male de-
scendants. In case of failure of direct descendants, the throne
devolves upon the nearest Prince and his descendants. The civil
list for 1889-90 amounts to 3,000,000 yen.
Constitution and Government.
The system of government of the Japanese Empire was that
of an Absolute Monarchy. A Constitution was, however, pro-
mulgated on February 11, 1889.
By this Constitution the Emperor is the head of the Empire,
combining in himself the rights of sovereignty, and exercising
the whole of the executive powers with the advice and assistance
of the Cabinet Ministers, who are responsible to him, and are
appointed by himself. There is also a Privy Council, who de-
liberate upon important matters of State when they have been
consulted by the Emperor. The Emperor can declare war. make
720 JAPAN
peace, and conclude treaties. The Emperor exercises the legisla-
tive power with the consent of the Imperial Diet. It is the
prerogative of the Emperor to give sanction to laws, to convoke
the Imperial Diet, to open, close, and prorogue it, and to dissolve
the House of Representatives. The Imperial Diet consists of
two Houses, a House of Peers and a House of Representatives.
Every law requires the consent of the Imperial Diet. Both
Houses may respectively initiate projects of law, can make re-
presentations to the Government as to laws or upon any other
subject, and may present addresses to the Emperor.
The House of Peers is composed of (1) male members of the Imperial
family of the age of 20 and upwards ; (2) princes and marquises of the age of
25 and upwards (11 princes and 28 marquises) ; (3) counts, viscounts, and
barons of the age of 25 and upwards, and who have been elected by the
members of their respective orders, never to exceed one-fifth of each order (80
counts, 355 viscounts, 29 barons) ; (4) persons above the age of 30 years, who
have been nominated members by the Emperor for meritorious services to the
State or for erudition ; (5) persons who shall have been elected in each Fuand
Ken from among and by the 15 male inhabitants thereof, of above the age of
30 years, paying therein the highest amount of direct national taxes on land,
industry, or trade, and have been nominated by the Emperor, The tern of
membership under (3) and (5) is seven years ; under (1), (2), and (4) for life.
The number of members under (4) and (5) not to exceed the number of other
members. The entire membership of the House of Peers is to be about 300.
The members of the House of Representatives number 300, a fixed number
being returned from each election district. The proportion of the number of
members to the population is about one member to 128,000. The qualifica-
tions of electors are (1) male Japanese subjects of not less than full 25 years of
age ; (2) fixed permanent and actual residence in the Fit or Ken for not less
than a year ; (3) payment of direct national taxes to the amount of not less
than 15 yen for one year in the Fu or Ken, and in case of income tax for three
years.
The qualifications of persons eligible for election are generally the same as
those of electors, except that they must be of not less than 30 years, and need
not have fixed residence in the Fu or Ken. The term of membership is lour
years.
Disqualified for members of the House of Representatives are officials of
the Imperial Household, judges, auditors, ollieials connected witli the collec-
tion of taxes, police ollieials, ollieials of electoral districts within their own
districts, military and naval officers, and priests or ministers of religion. The
President and Vice-President of the House of Peers are nominated by the
Emperor from among the members, and President and Vice-President of the
House of Representatives are nominated by the Fhnperor from among three
candidates elected by the House. The Presidents of both Houses receive an
annual salary of 4,000 yen; Vice-Presidents, 2,000 yen: elected and nomi-
nated members of the Bouse <<\' peers and members of the Bouse of Repre-
sentatives, 800 yen. besides travelling expenses. No one is allowed to decline
these annual allowances.
The Imperial Diet has control over the finances and the administration of
justice. Voting is by secret ballot, and the system is that of sertUin dc link.
The Diet must be assembled once every year.
LOCAL GOVERNMENT — AREA AND POPULATION ,21
Local Government.
At the head of local administration in the provinces are the governors, one
of them residing in each of the 46 districts (3 Fus and 43 Kens) into which
Japan is divided. In 1879, city and prefectural assemblies were created, based
on the principle of election ; their power is confined to fixing the estimates of
the local rates, subject to the confirmation of the governors, and finally of the
Minister of the Interior. Eligible to the assembly are all male citizens 25
years of age, resident in the district at least three consecutive years, and pay-
ing land tax of more than ten yen annually. The franchise is conferred on all
male citizens of 20 years residing in the district, and paying more than five
yen land tax. Annually, or in every other year, governors are summoned to
the Department of the Interior to deliberate upon matters of local administra-
tion. Each district is subdivided into cities (hu), and counties («/««), each
with its chief magistrate (cAo), who manages local affairs. The Island of
Hokkaid6 (Yezo) has a governor and a special organisation.
To further carry out the principle of decentralisation and self-government
a system of local administration in xhi (municipality), eho (town), and son
(village) was established by Imperial Rescript, April 17, 1888, which came
into effect April 1, 1889, and is to be applied gradually according to the
circumstances and requirements of these lo<-alities.
Area and Population.
The Empire is geographically divided into the four islands of
Honshiu or Nippon, the central and most important territory ;
Kiushiu, 'the nine provinces,' the south- western island ; Shikoku,
' the four states,' the southern island ; and Hokkaido (Yezo) to
the north of Honshiu ; besides the Liukiu, Sado, Awaji, Oki,
Tsushima, and Bonin Islands. Administratively there exists a
division into three ■ Fu ' and forty-three - Ken,' or prefectures.
There is also a political division into 85 provinces, 42 urban
and 804 rural arrondissements, 1,111 towns, and 13,374 villages
(1890).
The population of Japan has increased as follows since
1879:—
(Jan. 1) J)er wnU (Jan. 1) pef <jent
1879 35,768,584 — 1888 39,069,007 146
1886 38,151.217 075 1889 39,607,234 138
1887 38,507.177 093 1890 40,072,020 1*17
The total area of Japan, according to the official returns of
1890 (Jan. 1), is 147,655 square miles, with a population of
722
JAPAN
40,072,020; namely, 20,246,336 males, and 19,825,684 females,
as follows : —
-
Density
Bqj in. Population per
sq. m.
Sq. m.
Density
Population per
sq. m.
Central Nippon
Northern ,,
Western ,,
Total Nippon
36,600
30,204
20,681
15,515,924 ' 423-93 '
6,072,551 201-05
9,183,458 444-05
i 1
Shikoku. 7,031
Kiushiui. 16,840
Hokkaido 36,299
2,863,342 407-25
6,166,482 366-18
270,263 ' . 7-45
1
87,485
30,771,933 351-74
Grand tot.
147,655
40,072,020 271-39
In 1889 tlie population was divided among the various classes as
follows: — Imperial family, 46; kvvazokn, or nobles, 3,825 ; shizoku, or
knights (formerly retainers of the damios), 38,074,558 ; common people,
1,993,637. The number of foreigners in 1890 was 9,063, of which 4,975 were
Chinese, 1,701 English, 899 Americans, 550 Germans, 312 French. The
number of Japanese residents abroad in 1889 was 18,688.
The following table gives the statistics of the births, deaths, and mar-
riages for the five years 1885-89 : —
Year Births
Deaths Marriages
Excess of Births
1885 1,024,574
1886 1,050,617
1887 1,058,137
1888 1,172,729
1889 1,209,910
886,824 259,497 137,750
938,343 315,311 | 112,274
753,456 334,149 304,681
752,834 330,246 419,895
808,680 340,445 401,230
In 1886 the still-births (not included in the above) numbered 58,350, :uid
living illegitimate, 41,322 ; in 1887 the former 60,865, the latter 49,767 : in
1888 the former 77,495, the latter 63,754 ; in 1889 the former 85,251, the
latter 68,498.
The following is a list of the principal cities, with their populations in
1890 :—
Tokyo .
1,389,684
Kagoshima
57,465
Naha
. 40,212
Osaka .
476,271
Wakayania
56,713
Shizuoka .
. 37,664
Kioto .
279,792
Nagasaki .
55,063
Matsue
. 85,984
Nagoya .
Com
162,767
Fukuoka .
53,014
Matsuyama
. 32,788
135,639
Hakodate
52,909
Koehi
82,241
Yokohama
121,985
Knniainoto
52,833
Takainatsu
. 82,081
Kana/.awn
94,257
Okayaina .
48,333
Morioka .
. 81,161
Sendai .
90,231
Sakai
48,165
Cofu
. 81,185
Hiroshima
88,820
Niigata .
hi.:;;.:;
I'tsuiidinixa
. 30,698
Tukusliinia
61,107
Kiikni
in.M'.i
llirosaki ,
80, 187
Tnvama
58,159
INSTRUCTION — JUSTICE AND CRIME
r28
Religion.
By the new Constitution absolute freedom of religious belief and practice
is secured, so long as it is not prejudicial to peace and order. The chief
forms of religion are — <1> Shintoi.sm, with 10 sects; (2) Buddhism, with 12
sects and 40 creeds. There is no State religion, and no State support. The
principal Shinto temples are. however, maintained by State or local authorities.
In 1889— Shinto temples, 193,291; priests, 14,665; students, 1,249.
Buddhist temples, 72,164 ; priests, 51,905 ; students, 10,761. there are
also numerous Roman Catholics, adherents of the Greek Church, and
Protestants.
Instruction.
Elementary education is compulsory. The number of children of schoo
age (6-14) on December 31, 1889, was 7,078,564. The following are the
educational statistics for 1889 : —
Institutes
X umber Teaching Staff
Elementary schools
Lower middle
Higher ,,
High girls'
Normal
Technical
Special
University
Kindergarten
Students and Pupils
26,101
55
7
25
48
S4
1,728
3
112
86,666
1,122
313
278
646
1,439
4,117
229
246
3,031,928
12,352
3,837
3,274
16.T.02
81,584
839
The University consists of a University Hall, Colleges of Law. Science,
Medicine, Literature, and Engineering. It is supported by Government.
The bulk of the elementary and higher schools are also supported by Govem-
f ment and by local rates. One of the normal schools is for high school
i teachers.
There are 17 libraries in Japan, with 153,202 volumes. In 1889, 14,066
[ l»ooks of various kinds were published. In 1888, 647 kinds of periodicals,
[ monthly, weekly, daily, including separate brochures, were published, and
lr« 1.892, 701 copies were issued.
Justice and Crime.
A system of justice founded on modern jurisprudence has been established.
Judges are irremovable, except by way of criminal or disciplinary punishment.
There is a Court of Cassation at Tokio, which takes cognisance of civil and
criminal appeals. There are seven courts of appeal, having apj«ellate jurisdic-
tion over civil and criminal cases decided in the courts of first instance.
There are 99 courts of first instance, one in each Fu or Ken, with branch courts
me Fus and Kens having unlimited original civil jurisdiction. As
criminal courts they try and decide all lesser crimes, and also make pre-
liminary examination of serious crimes. Courts of peace (194), established in
principal towns and villages of even' Fu and Ken, take cognisance of all petty
3 a 2
724
JAPAN
offences. Once in three months criminal courts are constituted in courts of
appeal, and sometimes in courts of first instance, a president and four judges
to try serious crimes.
A few judges of high rank are directly appointed hy the Emperor, some
are appointed by him on nomination hy the Minister of Justice, and the rest
are appointed by the Minister of Justice. The following are the criminal
statistics for five years : — •
-
1885- 1886
1887
1888 1889
Serious crimes
Lesser ,,
Total .
5,636 5,940
103,732 96,474
4,397
79,723
3,174 j 2,431
73,279 1 86,555
109,368 l 102,414
84,120
76,453 i 88,986
There are four State prisons (one temporary), 181 local prisons, reforma-
tories at least in each Fu and Ken, also 10 military prisons, and 3 naval
prisons. Number of prisoners of all kinds, convicted and accused, and those
in reformatories, at the close of 1889 : — Men, 59,909 ; women, 3,753 ; total,
63,662.
Pauperism.
Government annually sets aside 1,200,000 yen for a relief fund, 300,000 yen
contributed by the central Government, and 900,000 yen by the local govern-
ments. Landowners are besides taxed for relief rates to the amount of
900,000 yen. The amount thus distributed in 1889-90 was 316,301 yen
for food to 12,638,107 persons (counting the same person as different for each
day), 172,533 yen for provisional dwellings to 34,253 families, 117,601 yen
for instruments of agriculture to 24,278 families, 90,246 yen for seed grain
to 54,831 families, 179,770 yen for subsidy of land tax "to 56,452 persons,
132,835 yen for loan of land tax to 30,241 persons. The central Government
also grant relief to the extremely poor, the helpless, and friendless ; in 1889-90,
17,842 persons were thus relieved, to the amount of 71, 833 yen, as compared
with 6,018 persons and 44,800 yen in 1883-84 ; and besides, 1,165,113 persons
were relieved from the relief fund, to the amount of 1,109,931 yen. In the
end of 1889, 5,375 parentless children were being maintained. Then U I
workhouse in Tokio, with 419 paupers in the end of 1890, as compared with
108 in 1884 : income 1889-90, 7,020 yon ; expenditure, 6,017 yen.
Finance.
I. Imperial.
The following shows actual revenue and expenditure for
1886-90, and estimate for 1890-91 :
Revenue .
Expenditure .
1886-87 1887-88 isss s;i 1880-00 1800-01
Yen vm Ten Yen Yen
84,020,401 88,191,445 92,814,806 96,687,979| 85,070,889
83,487,257 80,116,122 81,089.013 79,713,672 84,903,651
FIN \
The following are the budget estimates for 1891-92 (March 31 > : —
Revenue
Yen Expenditure
Yen
Land-tax .
38,771,339
Public debt repayment
2,540,980 j
Income-tax
1,058.441
Public debt interest
Bank licences
221,850
and fees .
17,829.890
Stamp duties
591,592
' ivil list and Shinto
1 Tax on sake, malt, and
temples .
3,206,811
soy.
16,886,409
Cabinet, Privy Council,
Tax on tobacco .
1,844,861
Board of Auditors,
, Other inland revenue .
. 2,569,609
and Court of Admin-
(.'ustoms
4.479,096
istrative Litigation .
701,027
Post and Telegraphs .
5,163,299
Imperial Diet
56."
State Services
8,19!
Ministry of For. Affairs
741.097
Forests
7 2 4, 456
,, Interior .
858,438
Various licences, fees,
Tokio police department
301
and others
1,766,394
Provincial government
4,929,982
State property, and
miscellaneous .
Ministry of Finance .
4,173,164
901,895
War
12,507,162
Interest received from
,, Marine
5,712,471
deposits .
1,370,870
,, Justice
3,692,537
Temporary revenue
3,918,668
, , Education
,, Agriculture
955,583
and Commerce
830,834
Ministry of Post and
Telegraphs
4,684,205
Hokkaido government
1,648,913
Annuities and pensions
896,283
Redemption of paper
currency .
1,000,000
Exceptional or tempo-
rary :
Bridges and einbank-
ments
1,204,413
Defences and forti-
fications
2,810,159
Total .
Other temporary .
5,212,247
83,462,533
Total .
■
77,012,252
i
The public debt of Japan stood as follows in April 1890 : — Home debt :
7£ per cent, 10,000,000 yen ; 7 per cent, 40,426,885 yen ; 6 per cent,
46,736,485 yen ; 5 per cent, 134,882,145 yen : 4 per cent, 10,551,275 yen ;
no interest, 7,022,544 yen; total, 249,619,334 yen. Foreign debt: 7 per
cent, 5,826,232 yen. Total, 255,445,566 yen. Paper currency, 40,06*
Veil.
II. Local.
The estimated revenue of Fu and Ken for 1890-91 is 15,081,130 yen, and
tpenditure 14,965,751 yen. The Treasury is to grant to local governments
1,266,280 yen. The actual revenue for 1888-89 of Ku, Cho, and Son was
13,256,833 yen, and expenditure 12,700,039 yen.
72G JAPAN
Defence.
I. Army.
The Emperor has the supreme command of the army and
navy. Since the restoration of Imperial authority and the con-
sequent abolition of the feudal system, the army of the Empire
has been organised on a uniform system, on the basis of con-
scription. According to the present law, all males of the age
of 20 are liable to serve in the standing army for seven years, of
which three must be spent in active service, and the remaining
four in the army of reserve. After quitting the army of reserve
they have to form part of the landwehr for another five years ;
and every male from 17 up to 40 years of age, who is not either
in the line, the reserve, or the landwehr, must belong to the
landsturm, and is liable to be called to service in times of national
emergency.
The army is composed of the Imperial Guard and six divisions. The
Imperial Guard (2 brigades or 4 regiments of infantry, 1 squadron of cava lry,
1 regiment of artillery, 1 company of engineers, and a band of music) consists
on the peace footing of 252 officers, 5, 076 non-commissioned officers and men, with
28 field guns and 493 horses. The six divisions consist of — infantry, 12 brigades
or 24 regiments, 1,753 officers, 37,899 non-commissioned officers and men;
cavalry, 1 squadron and 2 companies, 45 officers, 651 non-commissioned officers
and men, 642 horses ; artillery, 6 regiments, 279 officers, 4,000 non-commis-
sioned officers and men, 168 field and 84 mountain guns, 1,649 horses ;
engineers, 6 battalions, 110 officers, 1,943 non-commissioned officers and men ;
train, 6 squadrons, 99 officers, 2,004 non-commissioned officers and men,
1,838 horses; a band of music (51 non-commissioned officers and men),
Including miscellaneous services, the total strength on the peace footing is
3,922 officers, 74,095 non-commissioned officers and men, 220 field guns, 106
mountain guns, 7,383 horses. There are besides, 4 battalions of gendarmes. o|
44 officers, 927 non-commissioned officers and men ; and 5 battalions of
yeomanry, of 55 officers, 1,995 non-commissioned officers and men. There are
a staff college, military college, cadet college, military school, gunnery
school, a.selipol for non-commissioned officers, &c, with 2,360 students. The
reserve has a strength of 96,845, and the landwehr of 70,659.
All the fire-arms, ordnance, and ammunition used in the Imperial army
are manufactured at the arsenals of Tokio and Osaka. The rifle now used in
the army is the Murata rifle, which was invented in Japan a few years ago.
II. Navy.
In the navy seamen are recruited both by conscription and voluntary
enlistment; for those recruited by conscription the period of active service u
3 years, and 3 years in the reserve, and for those by voluntary enlistment the
period of active service is 8 years, and 4 years in the reserve.
Japan is divided into five naval districts, each with an office of com-
mander-in-chief. At present, however, there are only three such offices
actually established -viz.. at naval port of Yokoanka iii the first district,
naval |ioit of Knre in the RBOOnd, and naval port of Saselio in the third
district.
DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
7^7
The following shows the condition of the Japanese navy
in 1891 :
-
Material
Launched
Tons
Indicated
Horse-
power
Number
of Qui
Kaoti ier
*- ;
Ironclad :
Fuso
Iron
1887
10
13
Coatt Defence :
Itsukushiina
Steel
1890
4,278
5,400
u
16
Matsushima.
u
16
Hashidate
1891
12
16
Cmitert:
Xaniwa
Steel
1885
3,759
8
19
Takachiho .
8
19
Chiyoda
UN
2,440
5,600
10
—
Akitsushima
Building
3,150
8,400
10
—
Takawo
..
1888
0
14
Kongo .
Composite
1879
9
u
Hi-yei .
„
2. 227
9
12
Tsukushi
Steel
1880
1.37 1
2,'ioo
6
14
Yamato
Composite
1885
1,071
7
11
Katsuragi .
..
1,404
7
13
Musashi
..
1886
1,665
1,830
7
13
Kaimon
Wood
1882
1.42V
1,307
7
u
Teuriu .
„
1883
1...47
Lias
12
Despatch:
Yayeyama •
-
18S9
'..412
Chishiina
1S91
5,000
—
—
Gun-ceueU :
Maya .
Iron
1SS0
1st
%
11
Chokai .
•j
11
Atago .
Steel
>»
744 970
-'
11
Akagi .
,,
1888
<>.-,u
4
11
Oshima
Building
640
1,200
4
13
Banjo . . Wood
1878
708
590
10
Besides 24 first-class torpedo boats, 1 sea-going torpedo-boat, and a few vedettes, there
are 8 unannoured ships and a few training ships. There are 13 admirals, 613 officers. 134
engineers, 57 constructors, 136 surgeons. 140 commissariat officers, and 10,370 men.
Production and Industry.
The land is cultivated chiefly by pea—ftt proprietors, tenancy bong rare.
The land is thus officially divided, in acres : — Public land : Crown land,
8,956,162 ; used for Government purposes, 194,361 : forests, 19,638,017 ;
open field, 24,709,201 ; miscellaneous, 39,946 ; total, 53,537,687 acres
Private land : under cultivation, 12,360,744; homesteads, 934,026; forests
17,906,381 ; open field, 2,595,250 ; miscellaneous, 62,318 ; total, 33,85S,719
acres. The public lands include only those surveyed, and the private only
those taxed.
The following are some agricultural statistics for 1886-90 : —
-
1884
1887
1888
1889
1890
Rice (acres) .
6,415,970
6,462,666
6,5- .
6.6S1.929
0.7 ■
(bushels)
184,577,318
198,512,025
191,794.164
163,813,249
213,59!
\\ heat (acres)
3,890,644
3,899,982
8,97
4.056.307
4.17
„ (bushels) .
79,573,600
7-.-'.- <■■*■]
141,340
53,167,374
1 Tea (in kwan ') .
383 -
7.111.221
—
Sugar (in kwan ')
13,621,904
9.769.771
10,648,468
13,888,393
—
Silk: coc<Hms(inkoku2)j
1.112.419
1,294,478
1.118,280
1,409,971
—
,, raw (in kwan 1) .
910,825
1.042.760
944,400
1,184,681
—
1 1 kwan = S'28 i>ounds avoir.
a 1 koku = 4-96 bushels.
728
JAPAN
The number of cattle in 1887 was 1,062,121 (cattle and swine); in 1888,
1,011,261 ; in 1889, 1,021,503 ; and of horses in 1887, 1,537,606; in 1888,
1,532,799 ; in 1889, 1,541,342.
The mineral and metal products in the year 1888 (no later return) were as
follows : —
— Official Mines
Private Mines
Gold momnie1 . . . . | 61,017
96,771
Silver , ,
! 1,717,657
9,679,237
Copper kwan 2
5,247
3,561,266
Iron ,, .
843,636
4,008,215
Lead , , .
1 —
106,669
Coal ,, .
! 127,619,916
412,041,720
Antimony ,, .
—
40,191
Sulphur ,, .
5,057,564
1 120 momnie = 1 lb. avoirdupois.
2 1 kwan = 8-28 lbs.
Silk, cotton, and other textiles were manufactured to the value ol
5,987,582 yen in 1884; 17,825,645 yen in 1886; 27,475,408 yen in 1887;
57,654,054 yen in 1888 ; in 1889, 39,344,840 yen. Cotton yarn was manu-
factured in 1886 to the extent of 785,424 kwan, in 1889, 3,242,760 kwan, and
in 1890, 5,962,484.
In 1887 there were 277,698 fishing-boats, and 865,189 persons wholly or
partially engaged in fishing. Some of the products were : — (1888) salt fish,
1,551,300 kwan; dried fish, &c, 4,636,097 kwan; fish manure, 30,734,821
kwan ; fish oil, 535,858 kwan.
Commerce.
The following table shows the value of the commerce of
Japan for five years : —
_
1886
1887
Yen
44,276,331
51,547,407
1888 1889
1890
Imports
Exports
Total .
Yen
32,099,750
47,997,954
80,099,734
Yen Yen
65,416,238 66,041,584
64,891,678 j 69,306,894
Yen
81,670,354 !
55,791,847 ,
95,823,738
130,307,916 135,348,478
137,462,201 !
The commercial intercourse' of Japan is mainly with the
following countries, and to the following values in 188D ami
1890:—
COMMERCE
Exports to
Imports from
i>»y
1890
im
UH
Yen
Ten
Yen
Yen
N. America
1 26,109,835
20,844,252
6,173,141 i
6,900,191 |
Great Britain
i 7,664,599
5,638,980
26,0«i7
26,619,102
China
>0,403
-7,495
13,303,401
8,849,685
France
14,258,727
8,354,394
3,334,168
3,869,332
East Indies and Siam .
1,352.264
612,087
7.361.72S ,
9.136,700 i
Germany .
1,638,383
846,921
4,887,900 i
6,856.956
Corea .
j 1,092,996
1.250,713
1.27
4.363,540 i
Russia
430,814
246,311
548,786
464,657
Switzerland
139,625
11,128
765,008
858,610
Italy .
736,101
214,291
144,668
128,744 •
Austria
339,475
307,108
24.17.1
Australia .
486.897
795,044
7.085
334,239
Holland .
340,343
18,439
47,002
28.210
Belgium
73,709
64,021
887,137
1,032,351
The foreign commerce of Japan is carried on through the open ports
of Yokohama, Kobe, Osaka, Nagasaki, Hakodate, and Niigata. The
following table shows the chief articles of the foreign commerce for 1889 and
1890 :—
Exports
ua
Yen
Raw silk & cocoons,
Ac
29,134,094
Tea .
0,166,7*1
Rice
7,434,941
Coal.
4,346,639
Copper .
2,860,107
Dried fish
1,771,524
Porcelain, lacquer,
bronze, Ac. .
Seaweed .
Camphor .
Mushrooms
Drugs A chemicals .
Vegetable wax
Wheat and other
cereals .
Tobacco (leaf) .
Fish oil .
Fans
8ilk textiles .
Other articles .
Total
2,386,781
573,206
1.391.372
460,663
788,004
HO, ''-P.
342.539
189,166
80,665
298.8M
2,908,607
T,8S0!*M
Yen
16,587,636
I 326,681
1,323,511
4,796,086
3,049.761
2,604,854
1.768,036
679,611
1.931.993
579.760
1440,539
279,454
162.021
134,687
63.239
389,388
3.S53.579
8,871,108
Imports
Cotton yarn .
„ piece goods.
Sugar
Wool and woollen
goods .
Metals
Petroleum
Drugs
Dyes and paint
Machinery, ships,
Ac
Beverages and pro-
visions .
Leather .
Calico
Glass
Tobacco .
Other articles
1889
!88,S06,894 55,791,847
Yen Yen
12,522,039 9,987,722
2,633,583 2,414,844
1 6,292,494 8,489,007 ;
5,143,946 6,291,091
4,799,721 6,750,077
4,584,135 4,950,256
1,419,234 1,804,280
968,289 1,053,438
6,761,309 6,739,681
1,034,347 1,052,073
2,010,715 1,716,9S1
".W.475 450,064 '
210,088 214,754
16,988.281 :>.-:.-:•'
66,041,590 81,670,354 |
The exports of bullion and specie in 1889 amounted to 5,188,529 yen, and
imports to 14,173,245 yen.
The extent of trade with the United Kingdom, according to the Board of
Trade Returns, is shown in the subjoined table, for each of the five years
1886-90 :—
730
JAPAN
-
1886
1887
1888
1889 1890
Exports from Japan .
Imports of British produce
£
565,813
2,169,590
£
489,918
3,534.619
£
1,034,383
3,976,832
£ £
977,606 1,024,993
3,888,188 4,081,793
The staple articles of export from Japan to Great Britain in the year
1890 were raw silk and silk waste, of the value of 11,794Z. (205,095Z. in 1889) ;
earthenware, of the value of 37,350Z. ; tobacco, of the value of 50,210Z. ;
drugs, 107,536Z. ; copper, 449,143/. ; rice, 345Z. (171,246Z. in 1889). The
staple articles of British import into Japan consist of cotton goods and yarn,
of the value of 1,711, 2571. ; woollen fabrics, of the value of 613,549?. ; ironj
wrought and unwrought, of the value of 488,461Z. ; machinery, 479,236?. ;
chemicals, 71,460Z. in the year 1890.
Shipping and Navigation.
The following are the shipping statistics of the Japanese ports for
1889 :—
-
Cleared
Entered
No.
Tonnage j
No.
Tonnage
Japanese steamships
,, sailing ships
Foreign steamships .
,, sailing ships
Total
275
578
786
104
293,699 i
27,337
1,026,522 |
94,676 ;
283
608
796
107
302,170
26,049
1,037,740
108,627
1,743
1,442,234
1,794
1,469,586
Of the total foreign ships entered, 429 of 660,862 tons were British ; 290 of
206,941 tons German ; 80 of 141,576 tons American ; 33 of 69,619 tons
French ; 36 of 20,204 tons Norwegian ; 25 of 32,426 tons Russian ; 3 of
3,257 tons Chinese. Of the total shipping 679 vessels of 648,070 tons entered
Nagasaki ; 232 of 397,114 tons Yokohama ; 206 of 309,707 tons Kobe.
In 1890 the merchant navy of Japan consisted of 1,407 vessels of
European build, of 141,144 tons, 564 being steamers, and 1,091 native craft
above 50 tons.
Internal Communications.
There are 5,000 miles of State roads and 16,490 miles of provincial
roads.
Railways are of two classes — (1) State railways ; (2) railways owned by
private companies, fourteen in number, guaranteed a certain rate of interest
by Government. The following table gives the railway statistics for
1890-91 :—
Length in miles .
dross income. JT6B
K\|ICH<lil!llV. \ < ■ 1 1
( ioods carried. Ions
Passengers, number
State Railways,
1890-1891
Railways owned by
Private Companies,
1889-90
586-49
8,689,866
1,094,848
9,833,553
MONET A\b rREDIT
731
The following are the postal statistics for five years :-
Yean
1880-90
1888-89
1887-8S
188647
1885-80
Letters
Newspapers
and Books
Pamphlets
154,441,419
135,605,934
103,065,217
97,151,691
27,058,851
16,015,085
1 Including postal income.
Parcels Income ^Jre oatXTa
2,114,194 ,
2,554,386
93,029
106,107
30,770
1 2,669,782
1,601,842
1,633,588
1,588,715
1,804,001
6.544
5,602
5,281
5.8BT
- Including postal expenditure.
All open ports and other important cities and towns are connected with
each other and with Europe by lines of telegraph. There were telegraphs of a
length of 6,995 miles (the length of wires 19,788) in 1890. The number of
telegrams carried was 3,306,614 in the year 1889. There were 309 offices in
Japan.
In 1891 there were 668 miles of telephone wire, with 28 offices and 396
subscribers.
Money and Credit.
The following table shows the amount of currency issued at the end of
each fiscal year in yen : —
-
1SS9-90
188849
1887-88
1886-87
1885-86
Gold coins .
60,879,705
59,655.713
58,798,534
57,820,924
56,605,848
Silver „ .
92,391,829
85,167.744
74,836,898
64,6-
54,691,710
Nickel ., .
1.071.500
—
—
—
Copper,,
12.418,050
13,418,050
11,918,051
11,683,288
11.270,932
State paper
40,o<;
45.468.455
53,565,988
66,395,945
78,6:J.i
Nippon Giuko notes .
66,862,006
-
-
—
—
Kokuritsu
Ginko
notes
26,391,377
-
-
—
—
In 1889 the Nippon Ginko, or Bank of Japan, had a paid-up capital of
10,000,000 yen ; notes in circulation, 74,297,005 (in 1888, 64,132,846) ;
deposits, 31,874,301 (in 1888, 26,238,867) ; loans, 17,846,702 (in 1888,
22,713,994). The Kokuritsu Ginko (134), paid-up capital, 47,681,379 ven ;
notes in circulation, 26,710,403 (in 1888, 27,645,771) : deposits, 33,882,604 (in
1888, 33,526,628) ; loans, 68,238,894 (in 1888, 59,404,813). The Shokin
Ginko, or Specie Bank, paid-up capital, 4,500,000 yen; deposits, 7,143,154
(in 1888, 15,471,933) ; loans, 4,253,785 (in 1888, 3,948,855).
At the end of 1889 there were 218 private banks, with capital 17,472,170
yen. In 1889, 67,198 persons deposited 6,449.961 yen. and withdrew
3,903,130 yen during the year from the Kokuritsu Ginko, which does business
also as savings banks. In the same vear 762,869 persons deposited 31,284,400
yen (in 1888, 665,822 ]>ersons 28,966,947 yen), and withdrew 10,843,122 yen
during the year from the post-offices, which act as savings banks.
732
JAPAN
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures in common use- throughout Japan, and
the British equivalents, are —
Money.
The Yen, or Dollar, of 100 sens, nominal value 4s. ; actual value about
3s. id.
The gold yen, the unit of account, very slightly differs, as to the quantity
of gold contained in it, from the quantity of gold contained in the standard
gold dollar of the United States.
Much of the internal medium of exchange is paper currency, of which
there are various denominations, corresponding to those in coins ; it is now at
par with silver (Sept. 1889). In the latter part of 1870 the Government
established the mint at Osaka, where coins of gold, silver, nickel (since 1889),
and copper are manufactured. Gold coins consist of 20, 10, 5, 2, and 1 yen
pieces ; of the silver coinage there are 1 yen, 50, 20, 10, and 5 sen pieces ; of
the nickel 5 sen. The ' trade dollar, ' about equal to the Mexican dollar in
weight and fineness, is also coined there. The copper coins consist of 2 sens,
1, \, and -fa (or rin) sen pieces, the last the smallest coin in use.
The Kin
— 160 mommA
, , Kwan
,, Shaku
= 1,000 „
,, Sun
,, Ken
— 6 shaku
„ Ch6
= 60 ken
„ Mi
- 36 ch6
, , Ri sq. . . .
,, Ch6, land measure .
,, Koku, liquid
dry . .
,, To, liquid
„ ,» dry •
Weights and Measures.
= 1 325 lb. avoirdupois.
as 8-281 lbs.
= -994 foot.
= 1,193 inches.
= 5 -965 feet.
= ^ mile, 5 '4229 chains.
= 2'44 miles.
= 5 "9552 sq. miles.
= 2#45 acres.
= 397033 gallons.
= 4 -9629 bushels.
as 3-9703 gallons.
= 1-9703 peck.
It is stated to be the intention of the Government to introduce into
Japan at an early period a new system of weights and measures, based on the
metric system.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Japan in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — -Viscount Kawase.
Secretary. — Takanori Nakada,
Xnnil Atlitc.lic. Captain llsuki.
2. Ok Gkkat BRITAIN IN JAPAN.
Envoy, Minister Plenipotentiary, and Consul-GenertU. Hugh Fraser,
appointed Envoy Extraordinary, Minister l'lenipotentiai v, ami Consul-
General, April 30, 1888.
Secretary. — Maurice W. E. de Bunsen.
There are Consuls at Hakodate Niigata, Hiogo, Osaka, Nagasaki, and
Yokohama.
■M
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Japan.
l. Official Publicath'
Constitution of the Empire of Japan. Tokio, 1SS9.
General Outlines of Education in Japan. Tokio, 1884.
Qrierton (Capt. J. M.). The Armed Strength of Japan. London, 188«.
Report on Cotton Manufactures in Japan in Xo. 80 of the ' Reports on Subjects of .
General and Commercial Interest' London, 1888.
Report on the Trade of Hakodate, No. 746 ; of Nagasaki in Xo. 751 ; of Hiogo In
: of Yokoliama in Xo. 7.">4, of ' Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' London, 1890.
Reports of the various Government Departments, 1889-90 and 1890-91.
Res- du Japan. Tokio, 1891.
I Jouimeree and Trade of Japan for the year 1890. Tokio, 1891.
Trade of Japan witl I Kingdom, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade and Navi-
gation of <he I mtriesand British Possessions for the year
1890." Imp. 4. London, 1891.
2. Xon-Offkial PVBUOATfOl
Adamt(F. O.), Flistory of Japan, from the earliest period to the present time. 2 vols
8. London, 1875.
Aleoek (Sir Rutherford), The Capital of the Tycoon ; a Narrative of a three years'
Residence in Japan. 2 vols. 8. London, 1868.
Arnold (Sir Edwin), Seas and Lands. 2 vols. London, 1891.
Bird (Miss J. L.). Unbeaten Tracks in Japan. 2 vols. Loudon, 1880.
Dixon (W. G.). The Land of the Morning. Edinburgh, 1882.
Du Pin (M.), Le Japon : Mceurs, coutiunes, rapports avec Ies Europeens. 8. Paris
1868.
Eden (C. H.), Japan : Historical ami Descriptive. 8. London, 1877.
Fi$*cher (J. F. van Overmeer), Bijdrage tot de kennis van het japansche rijk. 4.
Amsterdam, 1833.
Fontpntuit (Ad. Front de), Le Chine et le Japon, et l'exposition de 1878. 8. Paris,
1878.
Fraistinet (Ed.), Le Japon. histoire et description, moeurs, continues et religion.
Xouvelle edition, auf.nnentee de trois chapitres nouveaux, rapports et traites avec Ies
Europeens. 2 vols. 12. Paris, 1866.
OrifU (Win. Elliot), The Mikado's Empire. 8. New York, 1876.
Kein* (W.k Japan : Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Landes nnd seiner Bewohner. Fo
Leipzig, 1873.
Humbert (Aime), Le Japon illustre. Paris, 1870.
Leupe (P. A), Reise van Maarten Gerritz-Cries in 1643 naar net noorden en oosten van
Japan. 8. Amsterdam, 1858.
MetchniJcojT (L.), Empire Japonais. Geneva, 1881.
Mouman (Samuel). Xew Japan : the Land of the Rising Sun. 8. London. 1873.
Norman (H.), The Real Japan. London, 1891.
Pomne de Meerdetcoort(J. L. C), Vrjf jaren in Japan, 18.57-63. Bijdragen tot de kennis
van het japansche keizerrijk en zyne bevolking. 2 vols. & Leyden, 186t.
/teeIu*(Elisee), Geographie universelle. VoL VII. L'Asie orientale. Paris, 1882.
Rted (Sir E. J.), Japan : its History, Traditions, and Religions, with the Narrative of a
Visit in 1870. 2 vols. London, 1880.
Rein(Dr. J.), Japan nach Reisen nnd Srndien. Vol. I. 1880. Vol. n. 1886.
Satow (E. M.) and Save* (Lieut. A. G. S.), Handbook for Travellers in Central and
Northern Japan. London, 1884.
Siebold (Ph. Franz von), Nippon : Archiv zur Beschreibung von Japan. & Leyden
1834-37.
Siebold (Ph. Franz von), Crkundliche Darstellnng der Bestrebnnpen Xiederlands nnd
Russlands znr Eroffnnng Japans. 8. Leyden, 1854.
Taylor (B.), Japan in our Day. 8. New York, 1871.
TiUingh (Isaac), Xipon o dai itsi ran, on annales des emperenrs du Japon. Ourr. corr.
sur 1'oriLinal japonais-chinois par M. J. Klaproth. 4. Paris, 1834.
Wiillerttorf-Vrbair (Baron von), Reise der oesterreichischen Fregatte Novara nm die
Erde in den Jahren 1857, 185S, 1859. Beschreibender Theil von Dr. Karl t. Scherzer
I vols. S. Vienna. 1865.
734
LIBERIA.
(United States of Liberia.)
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of the Republic of Liberia is on the model of that of the
United States of America. The executive is vested in a President, and the
legislative power in a parliament of two houses, called the Senate and the
House of Representatives. The President and the House of Representatives
are elected for two years, and the Senate for four years. There are 13 members
of the Lower House, and 8 of the Upper House. The President must be
thirty-five years of age, and have real property to the value of 600 dollars,
or 1207.
President of Liberia. — Joseph James Cheeseman, elected May 1890.
The President is assisted in his executive function by five ministers — the
Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of the In-
terior, the Attorney-General, and the Postmaster-General.
Area and Population.
Liberia has about 500 miles of coast line, and extends back 200 miles on an
average, with an area of about 14,360 square miles. The total population is
estimated to number 1,068,000, all of the African race, and of which Dumber
18,000 are Americo-Liberians, and the remaining 1,050,000 aboriginal in-
habitants. Monrovia, the capital, has an estimated population (1891) of
5,000. Other towns are Robertsport, 1,200 ; Buchnam and Edma, 5,000 ;
ami Harper, 3,000, with suburbs, 8,550.
Finance.
For 1883 the revenue was officially returned at 34,8027., and expenditure
at 31,4937. ; for 1884, revenue 38,0007., expenditure 32,5007. ; and for 1885,
revenue 40,0007., and expenditure 32,5007. For 1888 the revenue was est i-
mated at 35,0007., and expenditure 33,0007. The principal part of the
revenue is derived from customs duties, while the expenditure embraces chiefly
the cost of the general administration. The principal and unpaid interest of
tli- debl contracted In 187J amounts to 200,0007.
Commerce.
The principal exports are coffee, palm oil. palm nuts, cocoa, sugar, arrow-
root, ivory, hides. The exports and imports combined probably do not
exceed 500,0007. The quantity of COW xportcd in 1889 reached one million
pounds, one half of which went to Germany.
There are no statistics regarding the extent of the commercial relations of
the Republic with the United Kingdom, the 'Annual Statement of Trade'
COMMERCE — MONEY. WEIGHTS. AND MEASURES 785
issued by the Board of Trade not mentioning Liberia, but only 'Western
Coast of Africa ' (excluding the British and other colonies). The value of the
exports and the British imports thus <lesignated was as follows in the five
years from 1886 to 1890 :—
-
1886
1887 1888 >-• 1890
Exjwrts from
W. Africa .
Imports of
British pro-
duce . .
£
973,165
716,002
951,125 851,942 908,545 971,051
639,909 768,916 769,737 971,259 ;
The chief articles of export from Western Africa to Great Britain in 1890
were palm oil of the value of 364,749/. ; nuts, 108,129/. ; caoutchouc,
284,492/. ; ivory, 151,553/. The British imports into Western Africa consist
mainly of cotton manufactures, of the value of 460,578/. in 1890.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money chiefly used is that of Great Britain, but accounts arc kept
generally in American dollars and cents. There is a large paper currency.
Gold is bought and sold by Usanos, 314*76 English troy grain, each of
16 Akis.
Weights and measures are mostly British. In the trade with the interior
of Africa, the Ardeb is the chief measure of capacity for dry goods. The
Gondar Ardeb contains 10 Madegas, or 120 Uekieh, or 1,440 Dirhems, and is
equal to 7 "7473 British imperial pints. The Kuba is the chief liquid measure ;
it is equal to 17887 British imperial pint.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Liberia in Great Britain.
Consul-General. — Henry Hayman.
2. Of Great Britain m Liberia.
Consul. — Sir James Shaw Hay, K.C.M.G., Governor of Sierra Leone.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Liberia.
1. Official Publication.
Trade and Commerce of Great Britain with Western Africa, in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the vear
1890.' Imp. 4. London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Pfblicaxiokr
Bidden (E. W-X Christianity, Islam, and the Negro Race. London, 1SS7.
Bottikqfer (J.), Liberia. Amsterdam, 1S90.
Die Negerrepublic Liberia, in ' Unsere Zeit,' Vol. III. 8. Leipzig, 1858.
HuUkiHton(K.), Impressions of Western Africa. S. London, 1858.
Johntton (Keith), Africa. London, 1882.
736 LIBERIA — LUXEMBURG
Hitter (Karl), Begriindnng und gegenwiirtige Zustande der Republic Liberia, in ' Zeit-
schrift fiir allgemeine Erdkunde,' Vol. I. 8. Leipzig, 1853.
Schwnrz (Dr. B.), Einiges iiber das interne Leben der Eingebornen Liberias, 'Deutsche
Kolonialzeitung,' Dec. 15, 1887. Berlin.
Stockwell (G. 8.), The Republic of Liberia: its Geography, Climate, Soil, and Produc-
tions. With a history of its early settlement. 12. New York, 1868.
Wauwermans (Colonel H.), Liberia, histoire de la fondation d'un etat negre libre.
Brussels, 1885.
Wilson (J.), Western Africa. 8. London, 1856.
LUXEMBURG.
Reigning Grand-duke.— Adolf, Duke of Nassau, born July 24, 1817,
married, April 23, 1851, to Adelaide, Princess of Anhalt ; succeeded Novem-
ber 24, 1890, on the death of King Willem III. of the Netherlands, who was
also Grand-duke of Luxemburg. Offspring. — 1. Prince Wilhelm, born April
22, 1852. II. Princess Hilda, born November 5, 1864.
The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg was included from 1815 to 1866 in the
dissolved Germanic Confederation.
There is a Chamber of Deputies in the Grand Duchy of 45 members, elected
directly by the cantons for six years, the half renewed every three years. By
the Treaty of London, 1867, Luxemburg is declared neutral territory. It has
an area of 998 square miles, and a population (Dec. 1, 1890) of 211,088
(105,419 males and 105,669 females), or 212 inhabitants to the square mile.
The population is Catholic, save 1,058 Protestants, 1,009 Jews, and 100
belonging to other sects. The chief town, Lxixemburg, has 18,187 inhabitants.
In the budget estimates for 1891 the gross revenue is set down at 10,000,400
francs, and the expenditure at 9,119,110 francs. There is a debt of about
16,170,000 francs, contracted mainly for the construction of railways. For
commercial purposes Luxemburg is included in the German Zollverein. There
are 270 miles of railway, and 974 miles of telegraph wire.
■37
MEXICO.
(Republica Mexicana.)
Constitution and Government.
The present Constitution of Mexico bears date February 5, 1857,
with subsequent modifications down to October 1887. By its
terms Mexico is declared a federative republic, divided into Bi
— -19 at the outset, but at present 27 in number, with 9 territories
and the Federal District — each of which has a right to manage
its own local affairs, while the whole are bound together in one
body politic by fundamental and constitutional laws. The powers
of the supreme Government are divided into three branches, the
legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislative power is
vested in a Congress consisting of a House of Representatives
and a Senate, and the executive in a President. Representatives
elected by the suffrage of all respectable male adults, at the rate
of one member for 40,000 inhabitants, hold their places for two
years. The qualifications requisite are, to l>e twenty-five years
of age, and a resident in the State. The Senate consists of fifty-
six members, two for each State, of at least thirty years of age,
who are returned in the same manner as the deputies. The
members of both Houses receive salaries of 3,000 dollars a year.
The President is elected by electors popularly chosen in a general
election, holds office for four years, and, according to an amend-
ment of the Constitution in 1887, may be elected for two con-
secutive terms of four years each. In the event of a vacancy in
the presidency otherwise than by lapse of time, the succession is
vested in the President and Vice-President of the Senate and in
the Chairman of the Standing Committee of Congress succes-
sively. Congress has to meet annually from April 1 to May 30,
and from September 16 to December 15, and a permanent com-
mittee of both Houses sits during the recesses.
President of the Republic. — General Porfirio Diaz; installed
President of the Republic, as successor of General Manuel Gon-
zales, December 1, 1884 ; re-elected and entered his second period
of four years on December 1, 1888.
The administration is carried on, under the direction of the
President, by a council of seven Secretaries of State, heads of
the Departments of Foreign Affairs, Home Affairs, Justice and
Public Instruction, Colonisation, Industry, and Commerce, the
Treasury and Public Credit, War and the Navy, and Public Works.
3 B
738
MEXICO
Local Government.
Each separate State has its own internal constitution, government, and
laws. Each has its governor and legislature popularly elected under rules
similar to those of the Federation ; and the civil and criminal code in force in
the Federal District prevail, with few exceptions (Vera Cruz and the State of
Mexico), in the different States.
Area and Population.
The following table gives the census population for 1879,
and an official estimate of the area and of the population in
1890:—
RELIGION AND INSTRUCTION
739
Name of State
Area, in
square miles
Census Estimated Population
Population, Population, > per square
1879 MM ; mile, 1890
Pacific Statet : — vmtd.
Michoacan .
Guerrero
Oaxaca
Chiapas " .
Total .
Islands ....
Grand Total
^74
.'96
35,382
27,222
661,534
295,590
744,000
205,362
784,108
:.193
768,508
•241.404
34 3
141
21 7
8-8
324,768
1,420
3,287,920
3,990,464
123
7<;7.005
9,908,011
11.395.712
14 8
In 1874 the population was returned at 9,343,470 : in 1882 there were
5,072,054 males, 5,375,930 females. Of the total population 19 per not
are of pure, or nearly pure, white race. 43 per cent, native, of mixed race, and
38 per cent, of Indian race. The Indians arc staled to l>e rapidly decreasing :
forming, it was stated, in 1874, one-half the population, in 1882 they were
returned at 3,765,044. Distinctions of race are aholished by the Constitution
of 1824. Of the mixed and Indian race only a very small proportion can be
regarded as civilised.
The chief cities are the capital, Mexico, with a population in 1890 of
329,535 ; Guadalajara, 95,000 ; Puebla, 78,530 ; San Luis Potosi, 62,573 ;
Guanajuato, 52,112; Leon, 47,739; Monterey, 41,700: Aguascalientes.
32,355: Merida, 32,000; Oaxaca, 28,827; Colima, 25.124: Vera Cruz,
24,000.
There are many difficulties in the way of successful colonisation, and a
large proportion of immigrants in recent years have left the country. In 1887
the number of Spaniards resident in Mexico was 9, 553.
Eeligion and Instruction.
The prevailing religion is the Roman Catholic, but the Church is independ-
ent of the State, and there is toleration of all other religions. In 1889 there
were 10,112 Roman Catholic churches and chapels and 119 Protestant churches
in the Republic. No ecclesiastical body can acquire landed property.
In almost all the States education is free and compulsory, but the law has
not been strictly enforced. Primary instruction is mostly at the expense of
the municipalities, but the Federal Government makes frequent grants, and
many schools are under the care of beneficent societies. In 1888 there were
10,726 primary schools, with 543,977 pupils. Higher education is carried on
in secondary schools and seminaries, and in colleges for professional instruction,
including schools of law, medicine, engineering, mining, fine arts, agriculture,
commerce, arts and trades, music. There are also one military and two naval
colleges. The number attending these higher schools is stated at 21,000.
The entire sum spent on education is given at 3,512,000 dollars, of which
995,314 dollars was contributed by the Federal Government ; 1,012,000 dollars
is spent by the municipality of Mexico, and 2,500,000 dollars by the State
Governments and municipalities.
3 B 2
7¥)
MEXICO
In 1888 there were in the Republic 23 public libraries, including the Na-
tional Library, with 150,000 volumes, and 8 other libraries with over 10,000
volumes each. There were in that year 12 museums for scientific and educa-
tional purposes, and 8 meteorological observatories. The number of news-
papers published was 387.
Justice.
The federal courts are the Supreme Court (of which the judges are chosen
for a period of six years), and the circuit and district courts.
Finance.
I. Revenue and Expenditure.
The revenue and expenditure of the State have been as fol-
lows, 1886-91 :—
Revenue
Dollars
Expenditure
Dollars
1 1886-87
28,711,811
1886-87
. 38,783,919
! 1887-88
32,321,399
1887-88
. 36,270,448
J 1888-89
32,745,981
1888-89
. 38,527,239
i 1889-90
36,500,000
1889-90
. 36,765,906
1890-91
39,970,000
1890-91
. 38,452,803
The following are the budget estimates of revenue and expen-
diture for the year ending June 30, 1892 : —
Revenue
ExPExniTr
I
BE
Dollars
Dollars
Customs
26,500,000
Legislative power
1,009,036
Excise
• 1,500,000
Executive ,,
49,977
Stamps
9,700,000
Judicial ,,
476,785
Direct taxes
1,400,000
Foreign Affairs .
558,483
Posts and Telegraphs
1.350,000
Home Department
2,480,897
Mint .
300,000
.Justice and Education
1,639,636
Lotteries .
300.000
l'ulilic Works
5,071, 4M
Various
500,000
Finance
1 1. 132,995
War and Navy ..
12,658,101
41,550,000
38,377,365
II. Debt.
An arrangement was made on June 23, 1886, Iwtwccn the Mexican Govern-
ment and the bondholders of different Mexican debts in London, the details of
which will be found in the Fear-Book for 1889, p. 642. The total amount
of the English debt recognised by Mexico was 22,341, 322Z., and thai arrange;
nient reduced it to 13,991,775/. ; Mexico, therefore, being relieved oj
FIX AXCE — DEFEX< K ,41
8,349,597/. On July 1, 1889, in accordance with this arrangement, 41J per
cent, of the whole outstanding debt was redeemed, viz., 40 per cent, for the
capital as per agreement of June 1886, and 14, per cent, for the interest of the
half-year.
On June 11, 1888, the conversion was primarily closed and another delay
given, with the following results (Januarv, 1890) : —
Of the 10,241,650/. of the 1851 bonds 10,194,000/. were presented to the
conversion, 47,650/. thereby remaining as deferred. In exchange of the
arrears of interest of the above bonds, new converted bonds of 1886 were
given to the amount of 912,632/. 1*. &/. Of the 4,864,000/. of 1864 bonds
4,792,200/. were presented to the conversion, and in exchange of them new
converted bonds of the value of 2,395,971/. 15s. were given; balance not
presented is 63,400/.
With other classes of bonds the total of the new converted bonds issued
in London bv the Mexican Financial Agency was 4,585,000/, which, added
to the 1851 bonds— 10,142,400/.— give a total of 14,727,400/.
In March 1888 the Mexican Government contracted a loan in London
and Berlin for 10,500,000/. in 6 percent, bonds. Of these 3,700,000/. were
issued at 78J, and the proceeds applied by the Mexican Government to
the payment of the outstanding floating debt of the Republic since the
year 1882. The remainder, 6,800,000/., according to the contract for the
loan, was taken at the option by the contractors before July 1, 1889, at
86J per cent. The contractors gave in exchange one part in converted
bonds, and the proceeds of the other part wen- applied to effect the redemp-
tion at 414, per cent, of all the outstanding converted bonds in July 1889.
The object (which has been realised) of this part of the loan was to redeem
the 1851 debt and the converted bonds at the rate of 40 per cent, according
to the agreement made between the Government and the bondholders, and
referred to above, on June 23, 1886. The conversion of all the internal debts
of the Republic, which is being carried into effect in Mexico, has reached
38,900,000 dollars, and very little more remains to be converted. The
interest on the internal debt for claims not presented for conversion is, from
1890, at 3 per cent. All coupons have been punctually paid since 1886. On
May 27, 1890, the conversion of the old debts was closed. On September 12,
1890, a new 6 per cent loan for 6,000,000/. was issued at 93i in London,
Berlin, and Amsterdam, the proceeds to be applied to paying off arrears and
balances of railway subventions amounting to 40, 000, 000 dollars, assigned in the
form of percentages of customs revenue. Including this loan the total foreign
debt amounts to 16,500,000/. The total debt including internal debt and
obligations of all kinds, amounts to 22,720,000/. The Mexican Government
proposes, by the sale of the national lands, to liquidate the whole or part of
the debt one-third of the price of land acquired by colonists or companies
being payable in bonds of the public debt.
Defence.
The army consists (1891) of infantry, 17,307 ; engineers, 655 ; artillery,
1,604 ; cavalry, 5,484 : rural guards or police, 1,950 : gendarmerie, 244 :
total. 27,244." There are over 3,000 officers. The total fighting strength,
including reserves, is stated to be 131,523 infantry, 25.790 dragoons, and
3,650 artillery. Every Mexican capable of carrving arms is liable for military
service from his twentieth to his fiftieth year. There is a fleet of 2 despatch
vessels and 2 unarmoured gun-vessels, each of 450 tons and 600 horse- [>ower,
742 Mexico
and armed with 2 20-pounders ; there is also a transport of 1,200 tons, a
police steamer, and a 7-knot gunboat. A steam training-ship is under the
direction of British naval officers.
Production and Industry.
Mexico has been estimated to contain 479 square leagues of forest, 18,134
square leagues of mountain-land, and 4,822 square leagues of uncultivated
land. The climate and soil are fitted for very varied produce, but, as regards
crops usually grown in cold countries, agriculture is in Mexico in a very
primitive condition. Provision is made for the sale and occupation of public
lands by a law of July 22, 1863. To promote colonisation, the Government,
during the years 1881-88, caused demarcation to be made of lands to the
extent of 86,578,780 hectares, mainly in favour of public companies. From
March to September 1891, 1,882,700 hectares were demarcated to com-
panies ; and in each case the third part of the area demarcated is ceded
to the company for expenses incurred. To meet the difficidties to which
colonists are exposed from the want of a reliable survey, and the consequent
trouble and expense of procuring a title to land, commissions of inquiry have
been appointed to survey and rectify the demarcation of lands in many of
the States. In 1890 there were 18 colonies with populations varying from
37 to 2,294, the total being 6,524. The backward state of agriculture, both
as to implements and methods, has been attributed to the want of sufficient
capital on the part of the comparatively few companies and private persons who
hold the vast tracts of land. The Government, by disseminating informa-
tion, by distributing seeds and plants brought from abroad, and by favouring
the formation of local mortgage banks, afford encouragement to agricultural
enterprise. The chief agricultural products are maize, barley, wheat, beans.
The annual cotton crop is of the average value of $10,857,000 ; sugar-cane,
$8,735,000 ; henequen, $3,718,750 ; coffee, $3,200,000 ; tobacco, $2,500,000.
Vera Cruz alone raises yearly about 5,000 tons of tobacco. Other prodiu ts
are rice, cocoa, vandla. The cultivation of the vine has proved successful,
and sericulture has been introduced. Large numbers of cattle are reared in
Mexico for the United States. In 1883, in Northern Mexico alone, on an
area of 300,000 square miles, there were 1,500,000 cattle, 2,500,000 goats,
1.000,000 horses, and 1,000,000 sheep. In the whole of Mexico in 1883
there were 20,574 cattle ranches, valued at 103,000,000/.
Mexico is rich in minerals, gold, silver, lead, iron, copper, t in. cobalt.
antimony, sulphur, coal, petroleum, being cither worked or known to exist.
There are upwards of 990 mining enterprises in the country, employing
upwards of 200,000 men. Between 1821 and 1880, silver was produced to
the value of 180,000,000/., and gold to the value of 968,200/. In 1886-87
the yield of silver was $25,897,982 and of gold $548,415. There are eleven
mints in Mexico, and every producer is free to have his bullion coined, the
mints receiving 4 "62 per cent, for gold, and 4 '41 percent, for silver. The
capital invested in Mexican mines on August 15, 1890, was estimated at
$500,000,000 ; the total annual metal product being about $70,000,000.
Operations are now carried on under regulations drawn up ill B carefully pre-
pared uuning code. The total Qiimbsr of contracts for the exploration and
working of mines up to September 1891, under the law of June 1SS7, was
323; of these 71 had lapsed. The guarantee deposits exceeded $600,000.
In 1888 there were in Mexico 98 cotton factories, which turned out
3,768,308 pieces Of manufactured cotton goods, valued at $13,189,078. There
were also 16 woollen factories, 7 paper mills, and 2 factories for earthenware.
COMMLKcK
"4:;
Commerce.
In the last five years the imports and exports have been as follows :
Y. ■>
Imports
Exj-orts
Dollars
Dollars
1886-87
41,300,000
49,191,929
1887-88
43,380,000
48,885,908
1888-89
44,500,000
60,158,423
1889-90
47,000,000
62,499,388
1890-91
—
63,276,395
The following table shows the proportion of precious metals and other
produce in the exports of Mexico during the last five years : —
Tears
Merchandise
Precious Metals
Total
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
1886-87
15,631,427
33,560,502
49,191,929
1887-88
17,879,720
31,006,188
48,885,908
1888-89
21,373,148
38,785,275
60,158,423
1889-90
23,878,098
38,621.290
62,499,388
1890-91
27,020.023
36,256,372
63,276,395
The trade of Mexico lies chiefly with the following countries in the last
two years ; the following table includes precious metals : —
Countries
Exi>ort« to
Imports from
1889-90
1890-91
1889-90
United States
England ....
France ....
Germany ....
Spain .....
Other countries
Dollars
43,022,440
13. 722. 12-2
3,159.258
1,693.773
534,057
367,738
Dollars
44,983,086
10,882,728
3.653,551
2,785,875
515,194
455,853
Dollars
22,669,000
6,338,000
4.957,000
2,843,000
1,921,000
1,297,000
The following table shows the value of the principal articles exported in
1888-89 and 1889-90 :—
-
1888-89
1889-90
Dollars
-
1888-89
1889-90
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Henequen .
6,872,593
7,392,244 II Living ani-
Coffee
3,886,035
4,811,000 mals
587,063
500,217
Hides and
Lead
467,737
607,329
skins
2,011,129
1,913,129 Gum
595,636
719,746
"Woods
1,390,215
1,739.
Ixtle
594,118
827,980
Vanilla .
926,903
917,409 1
Tobacco
971. SS6
948,332
Copper
- 817.98J
735,183
Silver
6,629,262
7,259,958
744
MEXICO
The subjoined table shows the total value of the exports from Mexico to
Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports of British and Irish produce
into Mexico, in each of the five years from 1886 to 1890, according to the
Board of Trade returns : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Exports from Mexico
Imports of British
home produce
£
591,297
900,699
£
474,023
1,106,607
£
455,167
1,257,969
£
465,994
1,512,756
£
542,979
1,906,317
The principal articles of export from Mexico to Great Britain in the year
1890 were mahogany, of the value of 153,0782. ; silver ore, 41,3082. ; hemp
and other vegetable substances, 74,2962. ; unrefined sugar, 2,3192. (20,1762. in
1888) ; tobacco, 9822. (72,491?. in 1888). Cotton manufactures, of the value
of 598,5702. ; linens, of the value of 67, 158?. ; iron, wrought and unwrought,
of the value of 456,3242. ; machinery, 306,2082. ; and woollens, 91,2022.,
formed the chief imports from the United Kingdom into Mexico in 1890.
Shipping and Communications.
The mercantile marine of Mexico in 1890 of vessels over 100 tons comprised
16 steamers of 6,952 tons gross tonnage, and 16 sailing vessels of 3,302
tons net tonnage. The shipping includes also many small vessels engaged in
the coasting trade. In 1889, at the port of Vera Cruz, there entered 577
vessels of 417,721 tons (66 of 79,019 tons British), and cleared 577 of 410,099
tons (65 of 77,784 tons British). In 1889-90, 1,488 vessels entered and 1,439
vessels cleared at the various ports of Mexico.
In 1891 there were 6,266 miles of railway, 360 miles of which were con-
structed in the first nine months of last year. The capital invested by English
companies was 14,601,3802., and by American companies 245,126,249 U.S.
dollars. In 1889 there were 12,977,952 passengers, paying 2,090,505 pesos ;
and 875,894 tons of goods were conveyed at a charge of 4,822,690 pesos.
The total length of telegraph lines in 1891 was 27,861 English miles, of
which 14,841 miles belonged to the Federal Government, the remainder
belonging, in about equal parts, to the States, companies, and the railways.
There were in all 767 offices. The telephone had a network of 4,174 miles.
In 1891 there were 1,492 post-offices. The post, inland and international,
carried in 1890 125,000,000 letters, newspapers, &C. The receipts were
1,097,435 dollars.
Money and Credit.
There are 11 mints in the Republic, coining on an average $25,000,000
annually. Most of the silver exported is shipped in the shape of dollars,
which find their way chiefly to China and the smaller communities in Indo-
China and the Eastern Archipelago.
The following table shows the coinage by Mexican mints from 1881
onwards : —
MONEY AND CREDIT
745
r«n
Silver
Gold
Copper
Total
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
1880-81
24,617,39.
) 492,068
42,259
25,151.721
1881-82
25,146,26(
) 452,590
11,972
25,610,822
1882-83
24,083,92
L 407,600
—
24,491,521
1883-84
25,377,37)
i 328,698
—
25,706,076
1886-87
26,844,03
L 398,647
200,000
27.242,678
1887-88
25,862,97'
r 316,818
85,000
26,264,795
1888-89
26,031,225
I 334,972
129,844
26,496,038
1889-90
24,328,32<
5 243,298
134,632
24.706,256
1890-91
24,237,44*
) 308,083
218,869
24,764,402
Situation of 1
he Mexican 1
ianks, October 31,
1891 :—
Banco National Banco Hipotecario
Banco de Londres
A.-se
to
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Capital not pa
dd up
12,000,000
1,500,000
—
Cash .
12,363,988
435,130
4,497,929
Notes .
15,807,137
1,926,186
6,553,633
Advances
3,058,396
1,865,029
—
Debts .
11,650,412
1,503,301
6,243,113
Property
ties
150,000
—
72,000
Total
Liabil
55,029,935
7,228,
17,366,676
Capital .
.
20,000,000
5,000,000
1.500,000
Notes in circi
dation
15,408,252
—
6,295,530
Bonds
. . .
—
1,129,200
—
Debts .
•
16,926,433
1,100,447
9,221,146
Reserve fund
Total
' *
2,695,249
—
350,000
55,029,935 ,
7,229,647
17,366,676
Concessions have been granted to a number of new banks in several of
the States for the purpose of advancing loans for agricultural and mining
purposes.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Money.
The silver peso of 100 ceutavos of 0-869 ounce in weight, 0 901 fine :
nominal value, 4s. ; actual price, about 3s. l$d.
The weights and measures of the metric system were introduced in
1884 ; but the old Spanish measures are still in use. The principal ones are
these : —
Weight. 1 libra = 0*46 kilogramme — 1014 lb. avoirdupois.
1 arroba = 25 libras = 25*357 lbs. avoirdupois.
746 MEXICO
For gold and silver : —
1 mareo = ^ libra — 4,608 granos.
1 ochava = 6 tomines.
1 tomin = 12 granos.
20 granos = 1 French gramme.
Length. 1 vara = 0'837 metre = 2 ft. 8^ English in.
1 legua eonmn = 6,666| varas.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Mexico in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Vacant.
Charg6 d' Affaires and Secretary. — Pablo Martinez del Campo.
There are Consular representatives in London, Cardiff, Great Grimsby,
Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Newport, Southampton, Dublin, Glasgow,
Gibraltar, Hongkong.
2. Of Great Britain in Mexico.
Envoy and Minister. — Sir Spenser St. John, K.C.M.G., accredited January 5,
1885.
Secretary. — Godfrey Davison Bland.
There are Consular representatives in Mexico City and Vera Cruz, and
Vice-Consuls at Campeechey, Ensenada, Frontera, Guaymas. Mazatlan, Nuevo
Laredo, Progreso, San Bias, and Tuxpan.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Mexico.
1. Official Publications.
Amonedaciones e introducciones de metales preciosos en lS87-88(Stivoli).
Anales del ininisterio de fomento, colonization, industria y comereio. 8. Mexico, 1801.
Boletin del ministerio de fomento de la Repiiblica Mexleana. Fol. Mexico. 18OT.
Boletin semestral de la estadistica de la Repiiblica M exicana, i cargo del Dr. Antonio
Penafiel. Mexico, 1891.
Coniercio exterior de Mexico. Fol. Mexico. 1891.
Cuadro geografico, estadistica descriptivo e liistorico de los Estados Unidos Mexicaiu >.
A. G. Cubas. Mexico, 1889.
Datos mercantiles. Mexico, 1891.
Kst adist Lea genenl de la Repiiblica Mexicana. Mexico, 1888.
Memoria del Secretarlo del despacho de hacienda. Fol. Mexico, 1891.
Report on the Financial Condition of Mexico by Mr. Jenner, in No. 28 ' Diplomatic ami
Consular Reports.' 1880.
Report by Mr. Jenner on Investments for British Capital in Mexico, in Part IV. of
' Reports of il.M.'s Diplomatic and Consular Agent*.' London, 188(5.
Report on the Railways of Mexico, in No. 11(1 ; on the Trade and Climate of Vera Cruz,
in Nos. 129, 183, 138, and 004 ; on Gold Discoveries in Lower California, in No. 1M; on
Banks, in No. 149; on Recent Administration, in No. 132; on the Finances ami System of
Land Tenure, in No. o.'i" of ' Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' London, 1889.
Report on Railway Concerns in Mexico in No. 170 of the ' Report on Subjects of General
Interest.' London, 1890.
Report on the Finances of Mexico and System of Land Tenure in that country, in No.
<;:!? ; and on the Trade of Vera Cruz in No. "80 of 'Diplomatic and Consular Reports.1
London, 1890.
Statistii|ue descriptive et, historique des Etats Mexicains de (iarcia Cubas. 1889.
Trade of the United Kingdom with Mexico, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of tli"
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and Rritish l'esscssii ns in the year 1890.' 4.
London, 1891.
STATISTICAL AXU <>THF.k BOOKS OF REFERENCE ,4-,
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bolt-tin de la sociedad de geografia y estadisticade la Republics Mexican*. &. Mexico,
1878-91.
Bancroft (H. H.) A Popular History of the Mexican People. 8. London.
Brocklehurst (T. U.), Mexico To-day. London, 1883.
Castro (Lorenzo), The Republic of Mexico in ISSi New York. 1882.
Charnay (D.) Ancient Cities of tlie New WorliL Tr. 8. London.
Chevalier (Michel), Le Mexique ancien el uiodenie. 18. Paris, 188b.
Conkling (Howard), Mexico and the Mexicans. Hew York, 1883.
Conkling (A. R.), Appfetoa'a Guide to Mexio. New York, 1890.
Diccionario geogratico v estadistico de la Republics Mexicana. '■> voI>. Fol. Mexico,
1874-70.
El cconomista Mexicano, weekly. Mexico.
Flint (H. M.). Mexico under Maximilian, li PhiUvlelphia. 1867.
Geiger (John Lewis), A Peep at Mexico: Narrative of a Journey across the Republic
from the Pacific to the Gulf. 8. Londoi
Gooeh (F. C), Face to Face with the Mexicans. London, 1890.
Griffin (.*. B.). Mexico of To-day. New York, 1886.
Hamilton (L. L. C), Hamilton's Mexican Handbook. London, 1884.
Kozhi i ar ( E. ). Rej»ort on the Republic of Mexico. London, 1886.
ha Be dolliire (Einile G. <le), Histoire de la guerre du Mexique. 4. Paris, 1806.
06er(F. A.). Travels m Mexico. Boston, U.8., 1884.
Prrteott (W. H.). History of tl,.- Couqueat of Mexico. S. London.
Ratzel (Fried.), Aus Mexico. Reiseskizzen aus den Jahnn ls74-7'.. Breslau. 1878.
Scobel(A.), Die Verkehrswege Mexicos und ihre wirtschaftliche Bedeutung. In 'Deutsche
Geographische Blatter." Band X-, Heft 1. Bremen, 1887.
748
MONACO.
Prince Albert, born November 13, 1848 ; succeeded his father, Prince
Charles III., September 10, 1889 ; married (1) to Lady Mary Douglas
Hamilton, September 1, 1869 ; ' (2) to Alice Duchess-Dowager de Richelieu.
Son by first wife, Prince Louis, born July 12, 1870.
Monaco is a small Principality in the Mediterranean, surrounded by the
French Departement of Alpes Maritimes excepting on the side towards the sea.
From 968 it belonged to the house of Grimaldi. In 1715 it passed into the
female line, Louise Hippolyte, daughter of Antony I., heires.s of Monaco,
marrying Jacques de Gayon Matignon, Count of Thorigny, who took the
name and arms of Grimaldi. Antony I died in 1731, Louise Hippolyte
only reigning ten months and dying in 1732. She was succeeded by her
husband under the name of Honorius III., who also succeeded Antony I. as
Due di Valentinois. This prince was dispossessed by the French Revolution in
1792, and died in 1795. In 1814 the Principality was reestablished, but
placed under the protection of the Kingdom of Sardinia by the Treatv of
Vienna (1815).
In 1848 Mentone and Roquebruue revolted, and declared themselves free
towns ; in 1861 Charles III. ceded his rights over them to France, and the
Principality thus became an enclave of France, when the Sardinian garrison
was withdrawn and the Protectorate came to an end.
Ever since the year 1819 the Government of the Principality have adopted
the French Codes and possessed a Court of First Instance, as well as a Juge de
Paix's Court. A Court of Appeal is constituted by the Prince's appointment
of two Paris judges who act as such when necessary.
The Principality has its own coinage which is current since 1876 in all tin
States of the Latin Union ; it also issues its own separate postage-stamps.
There is a Governor-General and a Council of State.
The area is eight square miles. Population, 1890, 12,000. Chief towns.
Monaco, 3,292 ; Condamine, 6,218 ; Monte Carlo, 3,794.
There is a Roman Catholic bishop. There is no ahny, only a 'guard of
honour,' consisting of 75 members (officers and men). Olive oil, oranges,
citrons, and perfumes are exported. The revenue is mainly derived from
the gaming tables.
H.B.M.'n Consul. — James Charles Harris (witli residence at Nice).
British Vice-Conmd. — Edward Smith.
1 The religious marriage was in mulled by the Court of Koine (Papal Court) on <luuuar\ ::.
1880, and the civil marriage declared dissolved by decree of the reigning Prince on
July 28, 1880.
749
MONTENEGRO.
(Cen agora — Kara-da gh.)
Reigning Prince.
Nicholas I., Petrovic Njegos, horn October 7 (September 25), 1841 ;
educated at Trieste and Paris ; proclaimed Prince of Montenegro, as successor
of his uncle, Danilo I., August 14, 1860. Married, November 8, 1860, to
Milena t'ltroxma Vueoticova, born May 4, 1847, daughter of Peter Yukotic,
senator, and Vice-President of the Council of State. Offspring of the union
are six daughters and three sons, Danilo Alexander, heir-apparent, born June
29, 1871 ; Mirko, born April 17, 1879 ; PtUr, born 1889.
The supreme power has been retained in the family of Petrovic Njegofi,
descending collaterally, since the time of Danilo Petrovic, who, being pro-
claimed Yladika, or prhne-lishop, of Monteuegro in 1697, liberated the couutry
from the Turks, and, having established himself as both spiritual and tem-
poral ruler, entered into a religious and political alliance with Russia. His
successors retained the theocratic power till the death of Peter Petrovic II.
(October 31, 1851), last Yladika of Montenegro, a ruler of great wisdom, as
well as a widely celebrated poet. He was succeeded by his nephew, Danilo I.,
who abandoned the title of Yladika, together with the spiritual functions
attached to it, and substituted that of Gospodar, or Prince. At the same time
Danilo I., to throw off a remnant of nominal dependency upon Turkey,
acknowledged by his predecessors, obtained the formal recognition of his new
title from Russia. Danilo I., assassinated August 13, 1860, was succeeded by
his nephew, second Gospodar of Montenegro.
The following is the complete list of the Petrovic dynasty, with their
dates : —
/ 'ladikas or Prince-Bishops.
Danilo . . 1697-1735 | Peter I. (St Peter) . 1782-1830
Sava and Yassili . . 1735-1782 j Peter II. (Yladika Rade) 1830-1851
Danilo I. (Kniaz and Gospodar) 1851-1860
Nicholas I. (reigning Prince, nephew of the last)
Former rulers of Montenegro possessed the whole of the revenues of the
country, and, in fact, this system obtains still, although laws have from time
to time been passed regulating both the Prince's annual civil list and the public
expenditure. Prince Nicholas's nominal vearlv income is fixed for the present
at 9,000 ducats, or 4,100/. A yearly sum of 48,000 roubles, or 4,800/., has
been received by Montenegro from Russia since the Crimean war, as a reward
for its friendly attitude during that period. The Austrian Government is
stated to contribute about 30,000 florins per annum towards the construction
of carriage roads in Montenegro.
Government.
The Constitution of the country, dating from 1852, with changes effected
in 1855 and 1879, is nominally that of a limited monarchy, resting on a
patriarchal foundation. The executive authority rests with the reigning Prince,
750
MONTENEGRO
while the legislative power is vested, according to an ' Administrative Statute '
proclaimed March 21, 1879, in a State Council of eight members, one half of
them being nominated by the Prince, and the other elected by the male in-
habitants who are bearing, or have borne, arms. Practically, all depends on
the absolute will of the Prince. The inhabitants are divided into 40 tribes,
each governed by elected 'elders,' and a chief or captain of district called
Knjez", who acts as magistrate in peace and is commander in war. By the
' Administrative Statute ' of 1879, the country was divided into 80 districts and
six military commands.
Area and Population.
The area of Montenegro is estimated to embrace 3,630 English square
miles, inclusive of the annexations effected by the Congress of Berlin in 1878.
Its extreme length, from the northernmost point of Piwa to the Boyana, is
little more than 100, and its width, from Grahovo to the Lim, about 80
English miles. It is bordered on the south or south-east by the Turkish
Vilayets of Scutari and Kossovo (North Albania), on the east by the Sanjak of
Novi Bazar, and on the north-west by the Herzegovina. On the west it is
separated from the Adriatic by the narrow strip of Austrian territory forming
the extremity of Dalmatia (Bocche di Cattaro, Budua, Spizza), excepting in
the recently (1878-81) acquired districts of Antivari and Dulcigno, where it
possesses a seaboard some 28 miles in length. The total population was stated
in official returns to number 220,000 in 1879 ; a later estimate makes it
236,000. The capital is Cettinje, with 1,500 population ; Podgoritza, 6,000 ;
Dulcigno, 5,000 ; Niksic, 3,000 ; Danilograd, 1,000. The population is mainly
pastoral and agricultural. The Montenegrins belong almost entirely to the
Servian branch of the Slav race.
Religion.
The Church is nominally independent of the State, except that the bishops
are appointed by the Prince ; but the personal authority of the latter is all-
pervading. The principal monasteries are possessed of sufficient property for
their maintenance, aided by occasional contributions from Russia. The rural
clergy are maintained by the communities. Orthodox Montenegro is divided
into two dioceses, Cettinje and Ostrog, but actually the cure of both sees is
united in the hands of the Metropolitan Bishop of Cettinje. The former sec
comprises 8 sub-districts, called proto-presbyteries, with 84 parishes, and tin-
latter into 9 such districts with 75 parishes. The Roman Catholic Arch-
bishopric of Antivari contains 10 parishes, all of which arc situated in the
districts recently acquired from Turkey, in which there are likewise 10 Mus-
sulman parishes.
Religion
Number of
Churches
Number of
Clergy
Adherents
Orthodox ....
Mohammedan .
Roman Catholic
177
19
10
180
33
13
222,000
10,000
4,000
206
226
236,000
INSTRUCTION — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 751
Instruction.
Schools for elementary education are supported by Government ; education
is compulsory and free ; "there are (1889) 70 elementary schools, with 3,000
male ami 300 female pupils. All males under the age of 25 years are supposed
to be able to read and write. There is a theological seminary and a gymnasium
or college for boys at Cettinje, and a girls' high school maintained at the
charge of the Empress of Russia.
Justice, Crime, and Pauperism.
There are district courts in four or five of the principal towns. In rural
districts justice is administered in the first instance by the local knezes, but
the ' Veliki Bod,' or supreme court at Cettinje, has jurisdiction, both appellate
and concurrent, over the whole principality, and in the last resort there lies
an appeal to the Prince in person. There are no judicial statistics, but crime
in general is rare.
There is no regular provision for poor relief. The Government, however,
annually undertakes a certain number of public works, such as roads, bridges,
fcc, at which the indigent are invited to labour, being paid mostly in grain,
procured for that purpose from Russia. Russian charity also does much.
Finance
No official returns are published regarding the public revenue and expen-
diture. Reliable estimates state the former at 600,000 Austrian florins, or
60,000/. 70,000/. is owed to Russia for grain supplied in 1879.
Defence.
The number of men capable of bearing arms, between the ages of 1 7 and
60, is calculated at about 29,000. There exists no standing army, but all the
inhabitants, not physically unfitted, are trained as soldiers, and liable to be
called under arms. Recently the Moslem inhabitants of Dulcigno have been
exempted from military service on payment of a capitation tax.
The infantry are armed with the Austrian Werndl rifle, of which 25,000
have been distributed, and the long 11 -millimetre Gasser revolver. The
artillery consists of 24 9-centimetre Krupp field-pieces, and 24 mountain guns.
By the Berlin treaty Montenegro is precluded from owning vessels of war.
Production and Industry.
Agriculture is of the most primitive kind. The cultivated land is mostly
the property of the cultivators, the Croatian system of domestic communism
being generally prevalent. In some districts, however, the land is split up
into diminutive peasant-holdings, while in a few the metayer system is met
with, but large estates nowhere exist. The principal crops grown are make,
oats, potatoes, barley, and buckwheat. The vine is cultivated successfullv in
the Tchermnitchka Nahie, and the district of Podgoritza, and the olive about
Antivari and Dulcigno. The uncultivable area consists, in the east, of forest
and mountain pasturage, and, in the west, of bare limestone sparsely sprinkled
with brushwood and stunted scrub. There are no .sea-fisheries. Any small
manufactures that exist are only for local consumption. Live stock of all
kinds are reared : there are 350,000 sheep and goats ; 60,000 cattle ; 8,000
swine ; 3,000 horses.
752 MONTENEGRO
Commerce.
The customs tariff is 5 per cent, ad valorem on all merchandise. The ex-
ports are valued at about 200,000/., imports at 20,000/. The principal exports
are shumac, flea powder (Pyrethrum roseum), smoked sardines (scoranze),
smoked mutton, cattle, goats, cheese, hides, skins, and furs.
Communications.
There are excellent carriage roads from Budua and Cattaro to Cettinje, and
from Cettinje by Rieka, near Lake Scutari, to Podgoritza, which in the course
of 1890 was completed across the country about two-thirds of the way to
Niksitch — and from Antivari to Vir Bazar on Lake Scutari, and bridle roads
over the rest of the principality. There are 280 miles of telegraph in the
country, with 15 offices.
Money.
Montenegro has no coinage of its own ; Austrian paper is the principal
medium of exchange. Turkish silver is also current, but little gold of any
kind is in circulation, as it is difficult to change. There is no bank of any
kind in the country.
British Charge a" Affaires. — Walter Baring.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Montenegro.
Andric (M.), Gescliichte des Fiirstenthuins Montenegro. 8. Wien, 1853.
Brown (H. C), A Winter in Albania. London, 1888.
Dflarue (H.), Le Montenegro. 8. Paris, 1862.
Denton (Rev. William), Montenegro : its People and their History. 8. London, 1S77.
Frilley (G.) and Wlahovitz (Ivan), Le Montenegro Conteinporain. Paris.
Kohl (3. Geo.), Reise nach Montenegro. 2 vols. 8. Dresden, 1851.
Kovalevtky (Egor Petrovich), Montenegro and the Slavonic Countries. (Russia.) 8.
St. Petersburg, 1872.
Kratinski (Walerjan Skorobohaty), Montenegro and the Slavonians of Turkey. 8.
London, 1853.
Neigebaur (H.), Die Siidslawen nnd deren Lander. 8. Leipzig, 1851.
Sehwarz (T>v. B.), Montenegro, Schilderung einer Reise durch das Imiere nebst Kntwun
etner Geographic des Landes.
SeMak (.7. F.) and Scherbi (F.), Militarische Beschreibung des Paschaliks Herzegovina nnd
del Kiirsteiithuins Omagora. 8. Wien. 1862.
Strangford (Viscountess), The Eastern Shores of the Adriatic in 1863, with a Visit to
Montenegro. 8. London, 1864.
Marnier, Lcttres sur l'Adriatique et le Montenegro.
Lenormant, Turcs et Montenegrins.
Yriarte (CU.), I.es Hinds do l'Adiiaticjue et le Montenegro.
JiAwiX (Baron), La France an Montenegro.
Wilkinson (Sir Gardner), DalinatU and Montenegro. London, 1848,
753
MOROCCO.
(Maghrib-el-Aksa. — El Ghabb.)
Reigning Sultan.
Holey -Hassan, born 1831, eldest son of Sultan Sidi-Mohamed ; ascended
the throne at the death of his father, September 17, 1873.
The present Sultan of Morocco — known to his subjects under the title of
' Emir-al-Mumeniu,' or Prince of True Believers — is the fourteenth of the
dynasty of the Alides, founded by Muley-A< Inn at, and the thirty-fifth lineal
descendant of Ali, uncle and son-in-law of the Prophet. His three pre-
decessors were : —
Sultan Reign Sultan Reign
Muley-Soliman . . 1794-1822 -,. ,. ., , xr , , ,D_„
Muley-Abderrahnian . 1822-1859 Sidi-Muley-Mohamed . 1859-18/3
The Shereefian umbrella is hereditary in the family of the Sharifs of Fileli,
or Tafilet. Each Sultan is supposed, prior to death, to indicate the member
of the Shereefian family who, according to his conscientious belief, will best
replace him. This succession is, however, elective, and all members of the
Shereefian family are eligible. Generally the late Sultan's nominee is elected
by public acclamation at noonday prayers the Friday after the Sultan's death,
as the nominee has probably possession of imperial treasure, and is supported
by the black bodyguard, from among whom the large majority of court officials
are selected.
Government.
The form of government of the Sultanate, or Empire of Morocco, is in
reality an absolute despotism, unrestricted by any laws, civil or religious.
The Sultan is chief of the State, as well as head of the religion. As spiritual
ruler, the Sultan stands quite alone, his authority not being limited, as in
Turkey and other countries following the religion of Mahomet, by the ex-
pounders of the Koran, the class of ; Ulenia,' under the ' Sheik-ul-Islam.' The
Sultan has six ministers, whom he consults if he deems it prudent to do so ;
otherwise they are merely the executive of his unrestricted will. They are the
Vizier, the Ministers for Foreign AfTairs and Home Affairs, Chief Chamberlain,
Chief Treasurer, and Chief Administrator of Customs. The Sultan's revenue
is estimated at 500,000/. per annum, derived from monopolies, taxes, tithes,
and presents.
Area and Population.
The area of Morocco can only be vaguely estimated, as the southern
frontiers, towards the Sahara, are unsettled. According to the most recent
investigation, the area of the Sultan's dominions is about 219,000 English
square miles. The estimates of the population of Morocco vary from 2,500,000
to 9,400,000 ; it is generally considered to be about 5,000,000 souls, although
Dr. Rohlfs, in the ' Geographische Mittheilungen * (1883), maintains that
the population is not more than 2,750,000. An estimate of 1889 gives the
following results : — The region of the old kingdom of Fez, 3,200,000 ; of
Morocco, 3,900,000 ; of Tafilet and the Segelmesa country, 850,000 ; of Sus,
3 c
754
MOROCCO
Adrar, and the Northern Draa, 1,450,000 ; total, 9,400,000. Again, as to
race :— Berbers and Tuaregs, 3,000,000 ; Sheila Berbers, 2,200,000 ; Arabs
(1) pure nomadic Bedouins, 700,000 ; (2) Mued, 3,000,000 ; Jews, 150,000 ;
negroes, 200,000. The number of Christians is very small, not exceeding
1,500. Much of the interior of Morocco is unknown to Europeans.
Religion.
The Sultan of Morocco and his subjects are of the Malekite sect of Sunnite
Mohammedans. The differences are chiefly in the attitudes assumed during
the recital of prayers.
Defence.
The Sultan's army, which is quartered at the capital where he may happen
to reside,, is composed of about 10,000 Askar or disciplined infantry, under the
command of an Englishman, and 400 disciplined cavalry ; a few batteries of
field guns commanded by three French officers, and 2,000 irregular cavalry.
Two Italian artillery officers and an Italian civil engineer have been recently
lent to the Sultan by the Italian Government to assist in the establishment of
a small-arms factory at Fez. A Spanish military commissioner also is engaged
on topographical works, either at Tetuan or Fez, according to the direction of
the Spanish Government. There is also a Spanish engineer officer and mili-
tary doctor, and a German engineer officer with the Sultan. In addition to
these forces there are in the Empire about 8,000 militia cavalry and 10,000
infantry. Every year several of the governors of provinces are ordered to
assemble their contingents to accompany the Sultan in his progress from Fez
to Morocco. The irregular cavalry and infantry which could be collected in
time of war would amount to about 40,000, in addition to the forces already
enumerated. There is no commissariat.
Commerce.
The foreign trade is largely with Great Britain and France, that with
Germany being on the increase in recent years ; Great Britain's share is about
three-fourths of the whole trade.
The value of the imports in 1890 was 1,793,6892., and of the exports
1, 632,6262. The following table shows the value of the trade and the shipping
of Morocco at the different ports in 1890, including specie ami premQUa
metals : —
Exports
Imports
Entered
Cleared
Vessels
Tons
Vessels
Tons
Tangier
£
273,471
£
557,324
1,176
334,267
1,010
319,422
Tetuan
12,228
61,679
116
1,679
114
4,823
Laraiche
96,734
118,718
346
56,769
346
r.ts.siis
Rabat .
72,953
128,021
92
55,718
93
55,875
Mogador
324,010
303,128
123
94,503
122
94,089
Casa Blanca
436,876
341,170
311
165,330
308
165,688
Mazagan
278,479
215,194
311
148,228
311
148,228
Sam .
137,875
68,455
171
76,923
168
76,570
Total
1,682,626
1,793,689
2,646
938,417
2,472
921,571
COMMERCE — MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES ] B 5
The following are the principal imports and exports of Morocco in 1890 : —
Imports
Exports
£
£
Candles
35,149
Almonds
92,711
Coffee
6,881
Barley
■ •
Cotton goods
695,308
Beans
• .
281,331
Glass & earthenware .
18,361
Dates
8,382
Hides
5,051
Eggs .
40.
Iron and iron goods, &c.
24,063
Gums.
Linen goods
4,475
Maize .
.159
Matches
8,431
Olive oil
171,740
Silk, manufactured
12,325
Oxen .
65,061
Silk, raw
46,320
Peas, chick
200. ;
Spices
14,349
Seed, canary
Sugar
317,138
Skins, goat
118,1
Tea .
74,604
Slippers
19,342
Wines, spirits, ales, &c.
11,061
Wax, bees' .
23."
Woollen cloth .
58,150
Wheat
—
Hardware .
24,950
Wool.
"Woollen stuffs
218,280
12,732
The following table gives the value of the exports from Morocco to Great
Britain, and of the imports of British home produce into Morocco, in each of
the five years from 1886 to 1890, according to the Board of Trade returns : —
1886 1887
1888
1889 NM
Exports from Morocco
Imports of British
produce .
£ £
482,090 393,730
463,830 344,907
£
506,812
513,092
£
956,019 668,034
572,133 638,387
The chief articles of export from Morocco to Great Britain in 1890 were
maize and beans, of the value of 217,780/. ; gum, 36,877/. ; almonds, 110,394/. ;
olive oil, 106,658/. ; wool, 98,883/. The staple article of British imports into
Morocco consists of cotton manufactures, to the value of 531,296/. in 1890.
In 1883 the Sultan granted the claim of Spain to the small territory of
Santa Cruz de Mar Pequena, near the mouth of the Ifni river, south of
Mogador, but Spain has not up to the present time taken, advantage of the
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Morocco, and the British equivalents
Money.
The Blankeel or Muzoona = 6 Floos Approximate English value = ^fad.
The Ounce or Okia . = 4 BlankeeU ,, ,, ,, = WW-
The Mitkal . = 10 Ounces „ „ „ = &d(d.
Spanish and French money are current in Morocco.
3 c 2
756 morocco
Weights and Measures.
The Kintar by which is sold the produce of weight of the country, 100
Ratals, equal to 168 lb. English.
The Kintar by which is sold the articles of weight of importation is 100
Rotate, equal to 112 lb. English.
The Drah, 8 Tomins, about 22 English inches.
Grain is sold by measure.
The actual Tangin, almost 8 Tomins, equal to l^J English bushel.
Oil is sold, wholesale, by the kwla ; that of Tangier actually weighs
28 rotals, 47 lb. English, and is equal to about 5T% British imperial gallons.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
Of Great Britain in Morocco.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. — Col. Sir Charles
Bean Euan-Smith, K.C.B., C.S.I., appointed March 10, 1891.
Consul at Tangier. — H. E. White.
There is also a Consul at Mogador ; Vice-Consuls at Laraiche, Rabat,
Dar-el-Baida, Mazagan, and Saffi ; and a Consular Agent at Tetuan.
Statistical and other Books of Eeference concerning Morocco.
1. Official Publications.
Report on the Trade and Shipping of Morocco in 1890, in ' Deutsches Handels-Archiv. '
Berlin, 1891.
Report on the Trade of Mogador and District in 1890, in Nos. 857 and 874, on the Trade
of Tangier, in ' Diplomatic and Consular Reports,' 1891.
Trade of Morocco with the United Kingdom, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1890.' Imp. 4.
London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Amicis (E. de), Marocco. 8. Milano, 1878. London, 1882.
Colville (Capt. H. E.), A Ride in Petticoats and Slippers. London, 1880,
De Campou (Ludovic), Un empire qui croule, le Maroc COntemporain. Paris, 1886.
De Foucauld (Vicomte Oh.), Reconnaissance an Maroc, 1883-1884. Paris, 1888.
Erckmann (Jules, capit.), Le Maroc moderne. Paris.
Harris (A.), The Land of an African Sultan. London, 1889.
Hooker (Sir Joseph I).), Journal of a Tour in Morocco. 8. London, 1878.
Jaekton (James (!.), All Account of the Kmpire of Morocco. London, 1814.
Leared (Arthur), Morocco and the Moors; being an Account of Travels, with a genera
Description of the Country and its People, 8. Loudon, 1870.
Lenz (Dr. o.), Timbuktu. Leipzig, 1884.
Maltzan (llcinrich, Freiherr von), Drei Jalire iui Xonlwcst.cn von Afrika: Rcisen in
Algerien und Marokko. 4 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1809.
Martiniere (H. M. I', de la), Morocco : Journeys to (lie Kingdom of Fez and to the Court
of Mnlai- 1 (as> an. witli Itineraries const rusted by tin- Author, and a Bibliography of Morocco
from ism to issr. with a Preface by Dr. Cole Trotter. 98rd Highlanders. London, 1S89.
ifeitOH (('.), Description geograpiiii|Uc de l'euipire de Maroc. 8. Paris, 1840.
liolilfs ((in-hard), Land and Volk in Afrika. H Bremen, 1870.
^oW/*((ierliard), M.in enter Aufeiithait in Marokko. 8. Bremen, 1878.
StufjlrM (Hugh Bt M.), El Maghreb; 1,300 Miles' Ride through Morocco. London, 1886
Thomson (Joseph), Travels in the Atlas and Southern Morocco, London, 1889.
Trotter (( 'apt. P. I).), Our Mission to the Court of Morocco. Edinburgh, 1881
Watton (U. S.), A Visit to Wazan. London, 1880.
NEPAL.
An independent Kingdom in the Himalayas, between 26° 25' and 30° 17' X.
Lit., and between 80J 6' and 88° 14' of E. long. ; its greatest length 500 miles,
its greatest breath about 150 : lauuded on the north by Til»et, on the east by
Sikkim, on the south and west by British India.
The nominal sovereign is the Mahanij Adinij, Surendra Bikram Shamsher
Jang, succeeded 1884 ; the real power being in the hands of his minister, Bir
Shamsher.
The Gurkhas, a Rajput race from Kashmir, conquered Nepal in the
latter half of the last century, and have maintained their ]>ower to this day.
About 1790 a Gurkha army invaded Ti!*?t : and to avenge this affront the
Chinese Emperor, Kuen Lung, in 1791, sent an army into Nepal, which
compelled the Gurkhas to submit to the terms of peace, by which they
were lxmnd to pay tribute to China. This tribute is still sent, but only at
irregular intervals. The relations l>etween the Indian Government and the
Gurkha rulers of Nepal date from the time of the Chinese invasion, when
Lord Cornwallis endeavoured, but without success, to avert hostilities. A
commercial treaty, however, between India and Nepal was signed in 1792. An
English envoy was sent to reside at Khatmandu, but was recalled two years
later. A frontier outrage, in 1814, compelled the Indian Government to declare
war : and a British force advanced to within three marches of the capital.
Peace was signed in March 1816. Since then the relations of the English
with Nepal have been on the whole friendly ; and during the Indian Mutiny,
the Prime Minister, Sir Jang Bahadur, sent a detachment of Gurkha
troops to assist in the suppression of the rebellion in Oudh. Jang Bahadur
died in 1877, and was succeeded as Prime Minister by Sir Ranodwip Singh,
who was overthrown and murdered in a revolution which occurred in
November 1885. Since then the Prime Minister Bir Shamsher has been in
power.
The government of Nepal is that of a military oligarchy. The chief power
is in the hands of a mayor of the palace, or prime minister ; the Maharaj Adinij
being merely titular sovereign. In accordance with the treaty between Nepal
and the Government of India, an English Resident lives in the capital, and is
permitted to have a small guard of Indian sej>oys : but he has no right of
interference in the affairs of the State.
Area about 54,000 square miles ; population estimated at 2,000,000. The
races of Nepal, liesides the dominant Gurkhas, include earlier inhabitants of
Tartar origin, such as Magars, Gurangs, and Newars.
Chief town, Khatmandu.
Hinduism of an early type is the religion of the Gurkhas, and is gradually
but steadily overlaying the Buddhism of the primitive inhabitants.
There is a standing irregular army in Nepal, with an estimated strength of
13,000. Besides this, a force of 17,000 regulars is said to be stationed near
the capital. The troops are equip] >ed with Enfield rifles of local manufacture ;
and there is a limited number of small field-pieces.
758
NEPAL
The trade of Nepal with British India during three years ending March 31,
1890, has been as follows (excluding treasure) : —
1889. Rx.
1,100,900
1,388,100
1890. Rx.
1891. Rx.
1,285,300
1,719,500
Imports from India .
Exports to India
1,258,300
1,542,000
The principal articles of export are rice, oil seeds, clarified butter, ponies,
timber, musk, borax. The chief imports are raw cotton, twist, and piece
goods, woollens, shawls, tobacco, sheet copper, and tea.
The silver niohar is valued at 6 annas 8 pice of British Indian currency.
Copper pice of varying value are also coined. The Indian rupee
current in southern Nepal.
British Political Resident. — Major E. L. Durand, C.B.
Books of Reference.
Essays on the Languages, Literature, and Religion of Nepaul and Tibet, by Brian Hodg-
son. London, 1874.
Sketches from Nepaul, Historical and Descriptive, by H. A. Oldfleld. London, 1880.
History of Nepaul, translated by Dr. D. Wright. Cambridge, 1877.
Short History of India and the Frontier States, by J. Talboys Wheeler. London, 1880,
NETHERLANDS (THE).
(KoXIN'KRUK DER NeDERLANIM
Reigning Sovereign.
Wilhelmina Helena Pauline Maria, horn August 31. 1880,
daughter of the late King Willem III. and of his second wife.
Princess Emma, horn August 2, 1858, daughter of Prin
Victor of Waldeck : succeeded to the throne on the death of bar
father, December 9, 1890.
Queen Regent during tlie Minority of the Queen.
Adelhaid Emma Wilhelmina Theresia, Princess of Waldeck and
Pyrmont, Queen-Dowager, mother of the Queen, who took oath
as Queen Regent, December 9, 1890, after the death of King
Willem.
Aunt of the Queen.
Princess Sophie, sister of the late King Willem, born April
8, 1824 : married October 8, 1842, to Grand-duke Karl Alexander
of Stxe- Weimar, born June 24. 1818.
The royal family of the Netherlands, known as the House of Orange,
descends from a German Count Walraro, who lived in the eleventh century.
Through the marriage of Count Engelbrecht, of the branch of Otto. Count of
Nassau, with Jane of Polanen, in 1404, the family acquired the tiarony of
Breda, and thereby became settled in the Netherlands. The alliance with
another heiress, only sister of the childless Prince of Orange and Count of
Chalons, brought to the house a rich province in the south of France : and a
third matrimonial union, that of Prince Willem III. of Orange with a
daughter of King James II.. led to the transfer of the crown of Great Britain
to that prince. Previous to this period, the members of the family had
acquired great influence in the Republic of the Netherlands under the "name
of 'stadtholders,' or governors. The dignity was formally declared to be
hereditary in 1747, in Willem IV. ; but his successor, Willem V.. had to fly
to England, in 1795. at the invasion of the French republican army. The
family did not return till November, 1813, when the fate of the republic,
released from French supremacy, was under discussion at the Congress of
Vienna. After various diplomatic negotiations, the Belgian provinces,
subject before the French revolution to the House of Austria, were ordered by
the Congress to be annexed to the territory of the republic, and the whole to
be erected into a kingdom, with the son of the last stadtholder, Willem V., as
hereditary sovereign. In consequence, the latter was proclaimed King of the
Netherlands at the Hague on the 16th of March, 1815, and recognised as
760 NETHERLANDS
sovereign by all the Powers of Europe. The established union between the
northern and southern provinces of the Netherlands was dissolved by the
Belgian revolution of 1830, and their political relations were not readjusted
until the signing of the treaty of London, April 19, 1839, which constituted
Belgium an independent kingdom. King Willem I. abdicated in 1840,
bequeathing the crown to his son Willem II., who, after a reign of nine
years, left it to his heir, Willem III. This king reigned. 41 years, and died
in 1890 ; in default of male heirs, he was succeeded by his only daughter
Wilhelmina.
King Willem II. had a civil list of 1,000,000 guilders, but the amount
was reduced to 600,000 guilders at the commencement of the reign of King
Willem III., and is since maintained. There is also a large revenue from
domains, and in addition an allowance of 50,000 guilders for the maintenance
of the royal palaces. The Queen-Regent receives an annual allowance of
175,000 guilders. The family of Orange is, besides, in the possession of a
very large juivate fortune, acquired in greater part by King Willem I. in the
prosecution of vast enterprises tending to raise the commerce of the Nether-
lands.
The House of Orange has given the following Sovereigns to the Nether-
lands since its reconstruction as a kingdom by the Congress of Vienna : —
Willem 1 1815
Willem II 1840
Willem III 1849
Wilhelmina 1890
Government and Constitution.
I. Central Government.
The first Constitution of the Netherlands after its ret onstruc-
tion as a kingdom was given in 1815, and was revised in 1848
and in 1887. According to this charter the Netherlands form a
constitutional and hereditary monarchy. The royal succession is
in the direct male line in the order of primogeniture ; in default
of male heirs, the female line ascends the throne. In default of
a legal heir, the successor to the throne is designated by the Sove-
reign and a joint meeting of both the Houses of Parliament (each
containing twice the usual number of members), and by this
assembly alone if the case occurs after the Sovereign's death. The
age of majority of the Sovereign is 18 years. During his
minority the royal power is vested in a Regent — designated by
law — and in some cases in the State Council.
The executive power of the State belongs exclusively to the
Sovereign, while the whole legislative authority rests conjointly
in the Sovereign and Parliament, the latter (ailed the States-
General — consisting of two Chambers. The Upper or First
Chamber is composed of 50 members, elected by the Provincial
States from among the most highly assessed inhabitants of the
eleven provinces, or from among some high and important
GOVERXMKNT AND GONOTITUTIOH 761
functionaries, mentioned by bill. The Second ( hamber of the
States-General numbers 100 deputies, and is elected directly from
among all the male citizens who are 30 years of age. and m not
deprived by judicial sentence of their eligibility or the adminis-
tration and the disposal of their property. Voters are all male
citizens, 23 yean of age, who have paid either a ground -tax of at
least 10 guilders, or a direct tax (personal) to an amount higher
than the sum which gives partial exemption from taxation, and
which varies according to population, or who are lodgers aocord-
ing to the precepts of the law. The total number of elector^.
according to the new Constitution, is 290,000, which gives 1
voter in about 15 persons. The members of the Second Chamber
receive M annual allowance of 2,000 guilders, besides travelling
expenses. They are elected for 4 years, and retire in a body,
whereas the First Chamber is elected for 9 years, and every three
- one-third retire by rotation. The Sovereign has the power
to dissolve both Chambers of Parliament, or one of them, being
bound only to order new elections within 40 days, and to convoke
the new meeting within two months.
The Government and the Second Chamber only have the right
of introducing new bills ; the functions of the Upper Chamber
lieing restricted to approving or rejecting them, without the right
of inserting amendments. The meetings of both Chambers
public, though each of them, by the decision of the majority, may
form itself into a private committee. The ministers can attend
at the meetings of both Chambers, but they have only a delibera-
tive voice, unless they are members. Alterations in the Consti-
tution can be made only by a bill declaring that there is reason
for introducing those alterations, followed by a dissolution of the
Chambers and a second confirmation by the new States-General
by two-thirds of the votes. Unless it is expressly declared, the
laws concern only the realm in Europe, and not the colonies.
The executive authority, lielonging to the Soveieigu, is exercised by a
responsible Council of Ministers. There are eight heads of departments in
the Ministerial Council, namely : —
1 . The Minister of Foreign Affairs and President of the Ministerial Council.
— Dr. G, van Ticnhovcn ; appointed Aug. 20, 1891.
2. fhe Minister of the Interior. — Dr. J. I'. Tak van Poortrliet ; appointed
Aug. 20, 1891.
3. The M tnfls. — Dr. X. <;. Purmm; appointed Aug. 20
1891.
4. The Minister of Justice. — Dr. H. J. Suidi : appointed Aug. 20, 1891.
5. The Minister of the Colonies. — Dr. TV. K. Baron ran Dcdem : ap-
pointed Aug. 20, 1891.
6. The Minister of Marine. — J. 0. JktUtH : ap]>ointed Aug. 20, 1891.
762 NETHERLANDS
7. The Minister of War.—k. L. W. Seyffardt; appointed Aug. 20, 1891.
8. The Minister of Public Works and Commerce ( Waterstaat). — C. Lely ;
appointed Aug. 20, 1891.
Each of the ahove Ministers has an annual salary of 12,000 guilders, or
1,0002.
There is a State Council — ' Raad van State ' — of 14 members, appointed by the
Sovereign, of which the Sovereign is president, and which is consulted on all
legislative and a great number of executive matters.
II. Local Government.
The territory of the Netherlands is divided into 11 provinces and 1,123
communes.
Each province has its own representative body, 'the Provincial States.'
The members are elected for 6 years, directly from among the male Dutch
inhabitants of the province who are 25 years of age, one-half of the members
retiring every 3 years. The practice is the same as that for the Second
Chamber. Voters must be inhabitants of the province. The number of
members varies according to the population of the province, from 80 for
Holland (South) to 35 for Drenthe. The Provincial States are entitled to
make ordinances concerning the welfare of the province, and to raise taxes
according to legal precepts. All provincial ordinances must be approved by
the King. The Provincial States exercise a right of control over the munici-
palities. They also elect the members of the First Chamber of the States-
General, and are bound to see the common law executed in their provinces.
They meet twice a year, as a rule in public. A permanent commission com-
posed of 6 of their members, called the ' Deputed States,' is charged with the
executive power in the province and the daily administration of its affairs.
Both the Deputed as well as the Provincial States are presided over by a
Commissioner of the Sovereign, who in the former assembly has a deciding
vote, but in the latter named only a deliberative voice. He is the chief
magistrate in the province. Only the members of the Deputed States
receive an allowance.
The communes form each a Corporation with its own interests and rights,
subject to the general law. In each commune is a Council, elected for six-
years directly, by the same voters as for the Provincial States, provided they
inhabit the commune ; one-third of the Council retiring every two years.
All the male Dutch inhabitants 23 years of age are eligible, the number of
members varying from 7 to 39, according to the population. The Council has
a right of making and enforcing by-laws concerning the communal welfare.
The Council may raise taxes according to rules prescribed by common Uw :
besides each commune receives a fixed annual allowance out of the State
Treasury. All by-laws can he vetoed by the Sovereign. The Municipal
Budget and the resolutions to alienate municipal property require the appro-
bation of the Deputed States of the province. The Council meets in public as
often as may be. necessary, and is presided over by a Mayor, appointed by the
Sovereign for 6 years. The executive power is vested in a college formed by
the Mayor and 2, 3, or 4 Aldermen (wethouders), elected by the Council }
this college is also charged with the execution of the common law. The
Municipal Police is under the authority of the Mayor ; as a State functionary
the Mayor supervises the actions of the Council; he may suspend their
resolutions for 30 days, but is bound to inform the Deputed States of the
province.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The following is the population at various census periods :
1829
. 2,613,487
1869
'79,529
1839
. 2,860,559
1879
. 4,"
1849
. 3,056,879
1889
. 4,511,415
1859
. 3,309,128
The rate of increase in each year, since 1872, has been, in
1880, 06; in 1881, 1*3 ; in 1882, 1*4; in 1883, 12; in 1884,
1-3; in 1885, 14; in 1886, 13, in 1887, 14; in 188*. 1-2 :
in 1889, 0-9 ; in 1890, 118.
The following table shows the area and the population of
the eleven provinces of the kingdom, according to the census of
December 31, 1889, and to the communal population table -
December 31, 1890 :—
Area:
Population
Provinces
English
square miles
1,980
Dec. 31, 1889 Dec. 31, 1890
Per sq. mile
259 6
North Brabant
509,628
574,075
Guelders
1,965
512,202
515,938
262 5
South Holland
1,166
949,641
966,999
829 3
Xorth Holland
1,070
829,489
844,488
789-2
Zealand
690
199,234
200,792
291-
Utrecht
534
221,007
224,001
4194
Friesland
1,282
335.558
335,824
260 3
Overyssel
1,291
295.445
297,453
230 4
Groningen
790
272,786
275,356
348 5
Drenthe
1,030
130,704
132,495
128 6
Limburg
850
255.721
257,144
302 5
Total . . . 12,648
4,511,415
4,564,565
360-9
Of the total population in 1890 there were 2.255,681 males
and 2,308,884 females.
The Netherlands possess a comparatively large urban popula-
tion, especially in the provinces of North and South Holland.
Population of Percentage Rural Percentage
the 21 principal of the whole r>„„J?ur„ of the whole
Towns 1 Population copulation Ponnlation
Population
Population
936,801
1,115,627
1.411,584
1,440,673
26 1
27-8
31-2
31-5
2,642,728
2,897,066
3,099,831
3,123,892
73-8
721
68-7
68-4
1 The towns with a population of more than 20,000 inhabitants.
764
NETHERLANDS
The census of 1889 gives in a population of 4,511,415 :-
-
Males
Per cent.
Females
Per cent.
Unmarried . »,,,'••
Married .
Widowers and widows .
Divorced and separated .
i
1,406,646
738,256
81,419
2,127
31-1
16-3
1-9
0-04
1,374,956
739,051
165,496
3,403
30-4
16-3
3-6
0-07
The Dutch belong to the Germanic race.
At the census of 1889 there were 47,888 persons of foreign
birth living in the Netherlands, 28,767 of them being Germans,
13,697 Belgians, 1,339 English, and 4,085 from other countries.
2,950,471 persons were born in the communes where they lived ;
977,360 in some other communes in the province ; 497,809 in
other provinces of the realm ; and 9,795 in the Dutch colonies.
II. Movement of the Population.
The following are the statistics of births, deaths, and mar-
riages : —
Years
Total Living
Births
Illegiti-
mate
Deaths 1
Marriages
Surplus ol
Birthsove
Deaths
i
■1 StiJll>orn
Average
1874-79
140,423
—
89,824 ;
31,357
50,599
7,617
1879-84
144,879
4,264
90,127
30,046
54,751
7,689
1884-89
149,516
4,753
91,658 j
30,501
57,864
7,744
1886
150,851
4,828
95,239
30,298
55,612
7,807
1887
149,157
4,811
87,093
30,924
62,064
7,749
1888
151,094
4,747
91,241
30,862
59,853
7,771
1889
150,529
4,903
91,134
31,494
59,395
7,443
1890
149,329
4,755
93,246
32,304
| 56,183
7,374
The em
igration in t]
ie last fi
ve years
has been as follows : —
Year
North America
South
Aiiirric
i
Australia
Africa
Total
1886
2,002
5
8
9
2,024
1887
5,018
—
5,018
1888
4,298
330
—
4,628
1889
5,050
4,020
41
9,111
1890
3,282
167
77
3,526
In 1890, 1,454 were males, 1,133 females, and 939 children.
The total number of emigrants, Dutch and foreigners, sailed
from Dutch ports was, in 1890, 17,136,
POPULATION* — RELIGION*
Leiden
Tilburg .
. 34,492
Maastricht
. 32.225
Nimeguen
•
Dordrecht
. 32.934
Leeuwarde
. 30.590
Delft
. 29,022
Bois-le-Duc('sHerto-
III. Principal Towns.
On December 31, 1890, the following towns had a imputation of more than
20,000 inhabitants, namely : —
Amsterdam . 417.539
Rotterdam 209.136
The Hague . 160.531
: ivenhage)
Utrecht . . 86,116
Groningeu 56.413
Haarlem . 5 1,626
Arnhem . 50,194
genboschl
. 27.302
Zwolle .
Schiedam
Breda
Deventer
Helder .
Religion.
According to the terms of the Constitution, entire liberty of conscience
ami complete social equality are granted to the members of all religious con-
fessions. The royal family and the majority of the inhabitants belong to the
Reformed Church. The government of the Reformed Church is Presbyterian :
while the Roman Catholics are under an archbishop, of Utrecht, and four
bishops, of Haarlem, Breda, Roermond, and 'sHertogenbosch. The salaries of
several British Presbyterian ministers, settled in the Netherlands, and whose
churches are incorporated with the Dutch Reformed Church, are paid out of
the public funds For Protestant Churches the sum of 1,385,852 guilders is
set down in the Budget for 1892 ; for Roman Catholics, 576,735 gL ; and for
Jews, 12,775.
Religious Bodies
Divisions
Dutch Reformed Ch. .
Walloon Church
English Presbyterian
Church . . .11
Scotch Church . . '
Various Protestant
bodies
Roman Catholic Ch. .
Jansenists
Jews
Number of
Clergy
A 1 synod, 10 provin-
cial districts, 44
classes, and 1,347
parishes
626 churches
1 archbishopric, 4
bishoprics, 1.024
churches
1 archbishopric, 2
bishoprics 25
churches
12 districts, 180
churches
Number of
Adherents
according to
the Census of
IBM
- 1,604 J
492
2,380
26
137
2,194.649
10,299
370
199
522,608
1,596,482
Belonging to other religious bodies, or of unknown creed, were 82,366
persons.
766
NETHEBLANDS
Instruction.
Public instruction (primary) is given in all places where needed, but
education is not compulsory ; religious convictions are respected.
The education of the rising generation is provided for by a Primary
Instruction Act, passed in 1857, supplemented, with important alterations
tending to extend public education, by another Act, passed August 18, 1878,
and again considerably altered by the Act of December 1889. By the last
Act public instruction is diminished and a greater share in the education of
the youths left to private instruction, which is now supported by the State.
According to the regulations of the present Act the cost of public primary
instruction is borne jointly by the State and the communes, the State con-
tributing to the salaries of the teachers and being responsible for 25 per cent,
to the costs of founding or purchasing schools.
The following table is taken from the Government returns for 1889-90 : —
Institutions
Number
Teaching Staff
Pupils or Students
Universities1
4
166
2,411
Classical Schools .
30
427
2,509
Secondary Day and Evening
Schools. ....
38
409
4,550
Navigation Schools
11
39
276
Middle Class Schools
73
887
7,047
Polytechnicum
1
24
251
Elementary Schools :
Public ....
2,952
12,575
454,926
Private ....
1,263
4,949
188,052
Infant Schools :
Public ....
129
770
23,198
Private ....
840
2,467
80,353
1 Leiden, Utrecht, Groningen, Amsterdam.
Besides the schools named in the table, there is a great number of special
schools— viz., agricultural (1), horticultural (2), deaf and dumb (3) and
blind (1) schools, 1 school for philology, geology, and demography of the East
Indies (for the Indian Civil Service), several military schools, a national
Academy of Art, a royal school of music, a national normal school for draw-
ing teachers, several technical schools and normal schools for the training of
teachers. Since 1880 there is also a private university.
1886
1887
1888
1880
£
£
£
On Primary Education —
The Government spent .
331,250
377,300
374,618
364,542
The Communes spent .
623,124
575,425
379,580
568,601
On Normal Schools were
spent in all
107,301
102,582
98,311
89,654
The total expenses for Edu-
cation were : —
For the State
537,666
586,500
589,041
578,583
For the Communes
762,000 |
714,750
722,218
710,333
JUSTICE AND CRIME — PAUPERISM .ti.
Of the conscripts called out in 1889, 7 "22 per cent could neither read nor
write, the percentage being highest in North Brabant, 1 1 0. Of the total
number of children from 6 to 12 years (school age) on January 1890, 11 per
cent, received no elementary instruction. In 1884 it was 12 70.
Justice and Crime.
Justice is administered by the High Court of the Netherlands (Court of
Appeal), by 5 courts of justice, l>y 23 district tribunals, and by 106 cantonal
courts ; trial by jury is unknown in Holland.
The number of penal sentences pronounced was :
87 UCoart^°n*1 Di8trict Tribunals Courts of Justice High Court
1888 70,207 15,293 698 221
1889 ;45 15,927 272
1890 63,499 15,253 813 256
The number of persons convicted was :-
By the Cantonal Courts
By the District Tribunals
Male Female
Vale Female
1888
1889
1890
64,513 7,008
66,315 7,718
63,499 7,408
14,931 1,952
V27 2,048
14,958 1,950
The number of prisons in 1890 was 31, of houses of detention 46. The
number of inmates in the prisons at the end of 1890 was 1,965 males and
212 females ; in the houses of detention, 588 males and 60 females. There
are also 5 State-work-establishments specially lor drunkards, l>eggars and
vagabonds. The numl>er of inmates was, at the end of 1890, 3,892.
Children under 16 years are placed in the 3 State reformatories : they
numbered in 1 890 429 boys and 88 girls.
There are both State and communal police. The State police consists of
neld-constables and cavalry. The former are spread over the country, the
latter guard the frontiers (eastern and southern).
The cavalry police (marechausse) numbers about 14 officers and 570 men.
There are about 770 — appointed and paid by the Government — field-con-
stables, divided into 115 brigades. Besides each commune has its own field-
constables or police force.
Pauperism.
The relief of the poor is largely effected by the religious societies and
organised private charity. The State does not interfere, except when no
relief is to be had from private charity ; in that case the pauper must be
supported by the commune where he is living. The communes grant small
subsidies to the private societies ; there is no poor rate in the Netherlands.
Mendicity and vagabondage are treated as a crime, and persons so convicted
can be placed in a State-work establishment. Workhouses for the poor are
found in many communes.
The number of poor relieved, either temporarily or continuously, during
the year 1888 was 230,967 or 5'12 per cent, of the total population. In 1887
768
NETHERLANDS
it was 225,458, or 5'13 per cent. ; in 1885 211,520, or 4 "94 percent. ; in
1884, 209,797, or 4 -96 per cent. ; in 1883, 214,516, or 5 -13 per cent. : in
1882, 213,270, or 5 '18 per cent. The average number in the years 1877-81
was 209,875.
Finance.
The following tables exhibits the revenue and expenditure of
the kingdom in each of the years from 1886 to 1890 : —
Revenue.
Year
Ordinary : Extraord. (loans, <fcc.)
Total
1886 ■
1887
1888
1889
1890
Guilders
117,551,564
118,401,626
120,435,101
122,780,333
124,371,106
Guilders
5,475,000
550,000
3,445,000
1,800,000
19,966,334
Guilders
123,026,564
118,951,626
123,880,101
124,580,333
144,337,440
Expenditure.
Year
Defence
Debt
Public Works General
Total
1886
1887
1888
1889
189^
Guilders
31,988,765
32,969,959
31,740,066
33,443,780
33,031,970
Guilders
34,390,953
32,633,331
35,602,241
32,731,093
34,018,172
Guilders I Guilders
15,903,130 41,583,480
15,221,605 1 41,478,239
15,672,658 43,554,282
14,337,892 43,586,255
54,583,939 45,052,333
Guilders
123,876,328
122,456,355
126,569,247
124,099,020
166,686,414
The budget estimates of revenue and expenditure for the
years 1891 and 1892 were as follows : —
Branches of Ex-
penditure
1891
1892
Sources of Revenue
1891
L892
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
Civil list
800,000
si 1.
Direct taxes : —
Legislative l>ody
Land tax .
12,802,174
12,60$ 600
and Royal cabinet
654,527
868,666
Personal .
1 11,515,000
1 1,408 ,000
Department of Fo-
Patents
1,464,000
relgn Atlairs
768,802
766,178
Excise duties
14,200,000
44,720,000
Department of Jus-
Indirect taxes
28,638,000
23,638,006
ttoe
5,288,774
Import, duties
| 5,810,800
..; 10,806
Department of In-
Tax on gold and
terior .
11,200,427
1 1 <.ii.
silver .
231,000
235,900
Department of Ma-
Domains
•.',■180.(1(10
2,880,000
rine
14,868,342
14,080,420 |
Post office
0,980,000
7,160,000
Department Of Fi-
TelagMffifc sen Ice .
1.270, 0011
1,868,000
nance .
88,886,298
18,8150,646
State lottery .
661, i00
661,660
Department of Wax
22,002,800
21,299,208
Shooting and Ash-
Department ofPnb-
ing licences
1 lo.nnn
1 10,000
lic Works, be
21,921,570
20.272.SI2
Pilot (llles
1,360,000
1 860,000
Department of Colo-
nies
lines on mines.
1,600
1,266,866
1,200,071
Stat* railways
1,866,000
1,346,000
Public Debt .
85,141,888
31.998,813
Miscellancon
Contingencies
Total expeiidil me
50.000
1.37,335,07s
.-.(1,(1(1(1
ceipls .
Total rexelilie
7.035,950
7,466,700
120,530,025
-'7,000,150
FIXAXf-E
769
The share of the direct taxes, excise, indirect taxes, and cus-
toms duties in the revenue for the years 1886-90 was as
follows : —
Year
Direct Taxes
bsJm
Indirect Taxes
Customs Duties
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
1886
27,006,852
42,711,503
22,871,761
5,001,337
1887
26,811,058
43,580,536
22,717,057
5,189,900
1888
27,188,713
43,401,346
23,892,739
5,117
1889
27,610,382
44,136,909
24,056,939
5,282,966
1890
28,212,877
43,550,730
23,998,658
'..711,952
The amount of these taxes per head of the population was. in
1890, 22 23 guilders.
The expenditure of the ■ Department for the Colonies ' entered
in the budget estimates only refers to the central administration.
There is a separate budget for the great colonial possessions in
the East Indies, voted as such by the States-General. The finan-
cial estimates for the year 1892 calculated the total revenue at
119,599,713 guilders, with an expenditure of 137,451,954 guilders.
The expenditure of 1892 is distributed between the colonies and
the mother country in the following proportions : —
Guilders
Administrative and other expenses in the colonies . 111,005,437
Home Government expenditure .... 26,446,517
Total expenditure . . . 137,451,954
In the budget for 1892 the national debt is given as follows : —
-
Nominal Capital
Annual Interest
Funded Debt
Guilders
Guilders
2^ per cent, debt
630,567,200
15,764,180
3 „ „ „ ...
94,642,800
2,839,284
3£ ,, ,, redeemable ditto
3,356,000
129,710
3$ „ „ debt of 1886 .
339,748,500
11,902,385
3* „ „)
15,753,600
551,720
3j ,, ,, ^ debt of appropriated
6,366,840
225,624
5 ,, ,, J railwav.
292.440
14,805
6 „ „j
Total.
2,719,693
165,247
1,091,447,073
31,592,955
Floating debt ....
—
500,000
Annuities .....
—
260,057
Paper money ....
15,000,000
—
Sinking fund ....
Total debt .
—
2,645,800
1,106,447,073
34:998,812
3 u
770
NETHERLANDS
The following table shows the interest and sinking fund for
the last six years
Tear Interest
Sinking Fund Tear
Interest
Sinking Fund
1891
1890
1889
Guilders
32,268,218
30,972,400
31,118,764
Guilders
2,673,900 : 1888
2,472,700 1887
2,390,800 1886
Guilders
31,189,566
30,528,547
31,077,904
Guilders
5,164,400
2,107,696
3,313,049
1
During the years 1850-1890, 259,404,180 guilders have been
devoted to the redemption of the public debt.
The rateable annual value of buildings was given at 104,758,004
guilders, in 1890, and of land, 46,506,660 guilders. The total
debt (1890) amounts to 191. lis. lOd. per head, and the annual
charge to lis. 3d.
The various provinces and communes have their own separate
budgets; the provincial expenditure for 1891 was estimated at
4,486,900 guilders : the special communal expenses in 1889
amounted to 68,206,000 guilders, whereof 18,939,000 guilders
for debt.
Defence.
I. Frontier.
The Netherlands are bordered on the south by Belgium, on
the east by Germany. On the former side the country is quite
level, on the latter more hilly ; the land frontier is open all
round. These frontiers are defended by few fortresses. The
most effective means of defending the Netherlands consists in
piercing the dykes, and inundating a great stretch of land
between the Zuiderzee and the river, the Lek. The few roads
lying above the level of the water are guarded by fortresses
connected with each other ; the river can be defended by gun-
vessels, if necessary. A. large part of the province of Utrecht,
besides North and South Holland, with the principal towns, is
thus secured.
II. Army.
The army of the Netherlands, according to the regulations
of a law of 1861, is formed partly by conscription and partly
by enlistment, the volunteers forming the stock, but not the
majority of the troops. The men drawn by conscription, at the
age of nineteen, have to serve, nominally, five years ; but really
only for twelve months, meeting afterwards for six weeks
annually for practice, during four years. Besides the reguls
army, there exists a militia — ' schutterij ' — mainly for internal
defence, divided into two classes. The first, the ' active militia
(dienstdoende), exists in communes of 2,500 inhabitants anc
DEFENCE . i 1
more ; in the others there is a * resting ' (rustende) militia. All
men from 25 to 30 belong to the militia, from 30 to 35 to the
reserve. The militia is subdivided into three parts (ban>) :
(1) the unmarried men and widowers without children ; (2) the
married men and widowers with few children, who are supposed
not to be absolutely aeeesfl&xy for their family or the exercise of
their profession ; (3) the married men and widowers with children
belonging to the militia. The militia numbers 2 per cent, of
the population. Besides this there is the ' landstorm,' consist
ing of all capable of tearing arms, and the ' Society of Sharp-
shooters,' corresponding somewhat to the English ' Volunte*
The regular army on footing of war consisted on Julv 1.
1891, of 47,716 infantry, 2,808 cavalry, 1,504 engineers, 16,264
artillery ; in all, about 69,000 men, including special services,
but excluding office.
In peace the total number of the army was, on the same date
in 1891, only 21,507 men and 1,759 officers.
Included in the infantry are 1 regiment of guards, and 8
regiments of the line ; there are 3 regiments of cavalry, 1 battalion
of sappers and miners, 3 regiments of field artillery, 4 of fortress
artillery, 1 corps of light-horse artillery, 1 corps of pontooneers,
and 1 corps of torpedoists (see under Colonies).
III. Navy.
The navy of the Netherlands was composed, in July 1891 —
(a) For coast service :
5 turret-ships with ram bows ; 2 armoured monitors
with ram bows, first-class, and 5 ditto second-class ;
5 armoured monitors, second-class ; 5 armoured gun-
boats for river service; 16 first-class and 14 second-
class steam gunboats ; 1 steel gunboat ; 15 first-class
torpedo-boats ; and 22 second-class torpedo-boats.
(b) For genera] service :
3 turret-ships with ram bows ; 7 frigate-built cruisers,
first-class steamers, 1 third-class, 4 fourth-class, 1
paddle-wheel steamer, 1 sailing vessel and 1 cruiser
for the fishery police in the North Sea.
(c) Guard- and training-ships :
3 guard-ships, and 16 training- and school-ships.
1 observation-ship.
(d) For service in the East Indies :
2 guard-ships, 1 armoured corvette, 5 paddle-wheel
steamers, 11 gunboats; 3 surveying vessels, and 1
first-class torpedo-boat.
3 d 2
772
NETHERLANDS
Names of Ironclads
, Armour
' Thickness at/
Guns
; Indicated
Horse-
Displace-
ment, or
, Knots
(All of iron)
, water-line
Xumbei
Calibrei
power
Tonnage
! per hour
First-class ; —
inches
centimetres
Kerning der Ne-
u
28)
7-50 & V
less )
derlanden
8
4,500
5,400
11-9
Prins Hendrik .
4|
■u
23)
7-50 & V
2,000
3,375
12:1
Prinses Wilhel-
less J
mina
building
Stier
6
1
28
2,257
2,069
12*4
Schorpioen
o
1
28
2,225
2,175
12-8
Buffel .
9
1
28
2,000
2,198
127
Guinea .
6
1
28
2,000
2,378
12-2
ReinierClaessen
building
Draak
8
2
28
807
2,156
8*5
Matador .
H
2
28
691
1,935
7-5 '
Second-class .—
Luipaard
H
1
28
680
1,525
7-3 j
Hijena
H
1
28
654
1,566
7-3
Panter
H
1
28
650
1,566
7 8
Haai
5i
2
23
872
1,566
7-3
Wesp
5i
1
28
744
1,566
7-3
Krokodil .
5i
1
28
630
1,530
8-0
Heiligerlee
54
1
28
630
1,530
8-0 |
Tijger .
a
1
28
684
1,414
95 j
Cerberus .
H
1
28
617
1,530
8-0 1
Bloedhond
H
1
28
680
1,530
8-0 1
Rhenus .
—
2
12
310
367
7T»
Isala
2 |
12
306
367
7-6
Mosa
2 !
12
400
367
7 '5
Merva
—
2
12
395
367
7-:>
Vahalis .
. ~
2
7. 5
243
340 '
6-0
' (inn of 28 cent
metres=27j t
OllS. ('■
nil 28 rent iin
eti-es=12J
Ions. Gn
i 13 ci'iiti-
inetres=9 tons.
The navy was officered, on January 1, 1891, by 3 vice-admirals, 4 rear-
admirals ('schouten-bij-nacht'), 25 captains. 86 commanders. 888 iirst and
second lieutenants, 104 midshipmen, besides engineers, surgeons, fcc, and
about 6,000 sailors. The marine infantry, at the same date, consisted of .">.">
officers, and about 2,200 non-commissioned officers and privates. Both
sailors and marines are recruited by enlistment, conscription being allowed,
but not actually in force.
The Government of the Netherlands spends from two to three million
florins annually in strengthening its various means of defence.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
The surface of the Netherlands was divided in 1888 (latest available statistics)
as follows (in hectares, 1 hectare = 2 "47 acres) :— Uncultivated land (heath).
712,524; water and morass, 146,868; dykes and roads, 44,309; untaxed
PRODlVTinX AM) INDUSTRY
:::\
land, 92,353 : building land, houses, ic, 38,850 ; land under culture,
859,844 ; pasture, 1,144,066 ; gardens and orchards, 54,124 ; forest, 226,968.
Total, 3,299,906 h. a.
Large estates prevail in the provinces of Zealand, South Holland,
Groningen, and North Holland ; small estates in North Brabant, Guelders,
Limburg, and Overyssel.
In 1888 l the number of estates was : —
Under
5 hectares
From S to From 10 to From 20 to From 40 to Prom Ti to
10 hectares 20 hectares 40 hectares 75 hectares 100 hectares
Above 100
hectares
74,573
34,088 30,104 18,926 6,561 503
217
416 j>er cent, of all estates being held by farmers, and 58 '4 per cent, by the
owners.
The total number of cattle in 1SSS was 14.939,000 ; of horses, 2,736,000 :
of sheep, 7,780,000 ; and of pigs, 9,342,000.
The areas under the principal crops, in hectares, were as follows : —
MM
LST1-M
Wheat
85,194
80,649
Rye .
204,018
203,737
Winter barlev
30,226
27.97S
Summer larlev •
14,851
16,593
Oats .
115,448
121,562
Potatoes
147,386
142,958
Buckwheat
48,078
50,840
Beans
36,598
37,577
.
22,769
22,800
Rapeseed .
7,334
8,381
Flax .
15,582
15,285
Beetroot .
19,135
18,233
Tobacco
1,321
1,311
Madder
898
1,132
84,763
203,876
33,955
15,645
114,555
141,629
51,671
39,786
22,266
10,535
12,838
16,038
1,303
994
88,742
M6M
86,421
201,753 199,498
196,112
30,836 28,569 26,667
16,i
19,983 21,034
112,606
119,475 1]
] 42.421
135,310
53,159
53,983
65,135
39,094
40.423
36,814
21,320
21,027
16,493
9,619
5,364
12,690
10,557
12,403
18,530
21,403
20,418
13.904
1.272
1.24S
1,676
845
790
2,295
The mean yield of these products was, per hectare, in hectolitres (1 hec-
tolitre =2 75 bushels) :—
1887
18S3 Average,
i«»d 1671-80
Wheat
Rye .
Winter barley
Summer barley
Oats .
Potatoes
Buckwheat
Beans
Peas .
Rapeseed .
Flax (kilo.)
Beetroot , ,
Tobacco ,,
Madder
28
23
46
30
37
183
8
25
26
25
530
23,100
2,105
2,800 0
v.
227
26-3
23-4
■a
18 5
20*0
18-5
•i
40 8
42 0
40-2
'0
31-2
30-3
29 6
•o
42-5
40 2
35-3
0
158 0
169-0
182 0
0
14 6
8-9
187
0
23 6
19-9
193
/
20 2
18 6
22*1
■1
218
24 ;»
24-5
0
507-0
500-0
5180
0
21,450-0
25,025-0
27. 775-0
0
2,190-0
2,0750
2,350-0
0
2,500-0
2.475-0
2,640-0
22-9
22 0
19 2
173
42-4
39 0
29 4
28-8
33 8
38 3
1740
136 0
16*9
17-4
18-8
21-7
21-8
20-5
22 1
21-3
430 0
4760
28,300-0
26,260 0
2,500 0
2.247 0
2,900-0
2,500 0 i
774
NETHERLANDS
The value of imports and exports of the leading agricultural products in
1890 and 1889 was as follows :—
_
1889
1890
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
(in guilders)
(in guilders)
(in guilders)
(in guilders)
Wheat .
69,445,000
35,562,000
70,606,000
.41,936,000
Flour wheat and
rye
19,984,000
13,309,000
37,677,000
12,809,000
Rye .
48,964,000
25,501,000
37,348,000
22,860,000
Barley
17,503,000
10,708,000
18,585,000
10,726,000
Oats .
8,987,000
9,163,000
12,314,000
11,144,000
Potatoes .
508,000
394,000
371,371
622,408
Potato-flour
2,145,000
8,459,000
2,221,000
8,906,000
Buckwheat
1,444,000
895,000
1,515,000
908,052
Flax .
667,000
19,378,000
2,478,000
20,773,000
Beetroot .
103,000
1,477,000
188,105
1,028,000
The import of 'bulbs, shrubs, and trees was valued for 1889 at 222,000 gl.,
the export at 3,854,090 gl. ; for 1890 217,000, and 5,012,000 gl. ; vegetables
at 753,000 gl. import and 19,788,000 gl. export in 1889, and 981,000 and
20,554,000 gl. in 1890.
II. Mining.
A few coal mines are found in the province of Limburg ; they belong to
the State. The quantity of coal extracted in 1890 was 58,197,000 kilos.,
valued at 298,585 gl. ; clear revenue, 104,504 gl.
III. Fisheries.
In 1890, 4,326 vessels of all kinds were engaged in the fisheries, with
crews numbering about 15,250. The produce of the herring fishery in the
North Sea was valued at 5,909,495 guilders. The total number of oysters
produced in 1890 amounted to 51,237,506; two-fifth part of it exported to
England.
IV. Manufactures.
There are no official returns of the manufacturing industries. According
to the last reports there were, in 1890, 544 distilleries, 12 sugar refineries, 80
beet-sugar manufactories, 53 salt works, 543 breweries, 96 vinegar manu-
factories, 91 soap manufactories, and 3 wine manufactories.
The total number of manufactories which made use of steam-engines at the
end of 1890 was 3,638 ; the number of engines, 4,345.
Commerce.
The Netherlands is a free-trading country. A few duties are
levied, but they have only a fiscal, not a protectionist character.
The duties amount usually to 5 per cent, of the value of manu-
factured articles, and nihil or only 2.' per cent, if these articles
are used for the industries of the count rv.
No official returns are kept of the value of the general trade,
but only of the weight of the goods. The growth of the total
commerce of the Netherlands may be seen from the fact that iu
1872 the total imports were estimated at 6,451 million kilo-
grammes, and the exports at 2.956 millions ; while in 1890 the
former were 14,612 million kilogrammes, and the latter 8,313
millions, exclusive of goods in transit.
The following are the estimates of the imports for home con-
sumption and the exports of home produce for the five years
1886-1890:—
Year
Imports
Export*
Guilders
Guilders
1886
1,102,693,000
949,488,000
1887
1,136,997,000
991,618,000
1888
1, -272, 093, 000
1,114,806,000
1889
1,845,287,000
1,094,078,000
1890
1,299,750,000
1,087,532,000
The values of the leading articles of import and export in
1889-1890 were (in thousands of guilders) : —
The following table shows the value of the import* and
776
NETHERLANDS
exports of the great classes of products in 1890 and 1889 (in
1,000 gl.):—
-
Imports
Exports
1889
1890
1889
1890
Food products .
Raw materials .
Manufactured products
Miscellaneous .
1,000 G,
258,826
251,723
187,492
319,673
1,000 G.
281,266
230,745
191,754
350,216
1,000 G.
241,634
167,159
202,232
207,932
1,000 G.
228,974
158,741
218,984
211,233
For the last five years the returns were, in millions of kilo-
grammes : —
Year
Total Imports
-Total Exports
• Re-exports
Transit
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
11,579
12,558
13,484
13,849
14,612
6,046
6,869
7,323
7,643
8,313
377
371
384
424
468
1,793
2,004
1,948
2,028
2,386
The following table shows the value of the trade with the
leading countries for the last five years, in millions of guilders : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Percentage
1890
Imports for home consump-
tion from —
Prussia ....
294-3
278-4
284-8
242-0
247-1
190
Great Britain .
262-1
246-3
341-4
297 4
283-6
21-8
Belgium ....
158-0
160-5
157-3 1766
195-2
15-0
Dutch East Indies .
90-2
114-2
118-2 142-6
159-5
12-1
Russia ....
74-7
95-0
126-2 ! 1127
112-1
9-3
United States of America
67-0
79*1
62-2 76-0 | 98-4
7 6
British India .
36-4
30-0
29-5
29-8 38-0
2 9
France ....
18-0
171
177
22-5 i 24-2
1-9
Hamburg
17*8
20-6
310
25-2 | 21-2
1-6
Exports to —
Prussia ....
396 5
4047
511-3
477-2 498-5
45-8
Great Britain .
255-4
292 6
298-3
284-7 270-5
24*9
Belgium ....
137-6
130-5
146-4
140-1 148-0
136
United States of America
45-8
491
38-4
22-2 ' 237
2 2
Dutch K.ist Indies .
44-8
41-2
47-0
69 1 53-2
4 9
Hamburg
16-8
14-5
17-9 ■ 19-0 17-3
1-6
Fiance ....
10-3
13-5
110
10-9 I 10-8
1-0
Italy ....
10-4
10-3
8 2
87 1 10-8
1-0
Russia ....
4-9
3 4
4'5 17-4 | 5-5
0-5
The total value of the exports from the Netherlands to Great Britain, and
of the imports of British and Irish produce into the Netherlands, in each of
COMMERCE — SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
777
the five years 1886-90, is shown in the table following, according to the
Board of Trade returns : —
1886
1887
UM
1889
1890
£
£
£
£
Exports from
Netherlands .
25,309,949
25,327,277
26,070,872
26,679,216
25,900,924
Imports of
British pro-
duce
8,196,974
8,186,212
8,511,863
9,704,264
10,121,160
The principal articles of export from the Netherlands to the United
Kingdom in the year 1890 were : Butter, 792,786/. ; margarine, 2,804,675/. ;
living animals, principally oxen and sheep, 551,394/. ; cheese, 723,105/. ;
gin, 56,160/. ; sugar, 1,738,408/. ; iron and steel goods, 893,388/. ; woollen
manufactures, 2,051,562/. ; cotton manufactures, 847,410/. ; leather and
leather goods, 1,386,600/. ; enumerated also as exports from the Netherlands
to Great Britain, in the official returns, are silk manufactures of various
kinds, chiefly stuffs and ribbons, 2,093,970/. in 1890, but these must be con-
sidered as principally goods in transit, coming from the Rhenish provinces of
Prussia, the seat of the German silk industry. The principal articles of
British home produce imported into the Netherlands in the year 1890 were
cotton goods, mainly yarn, of the value of 2,546,447/. ; iron, wrought and
unwrought, of the value of 1,112,207/. ; woollen-yarn and manufactures, of
the value of 1,712,972/ ; and machinery, 463,398/. A considerable amount
of these British imports are not for consumption in the Netherlands, but pass in
transit to Germany.
Shipping and Navigation.
The number of vessels belonging to the mercantile navy at
the end of 1890 was : —
Sailing vessels 500, of 360,000M3 tonnage ; steamers 118, of
364,000m3.1
The following table gives the number and tonnage of vessels
which entered and cleared the ports of the Netherlands : —
Entered.
Year
With Cargoes
In Ballast
Total
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
No.
7,695
Tonnage
1886
7,314
11,357,000MS
381
270.000M3
11,627,000m3
1887
8,089
13,022,000 „
553
445,000 „
8,642
13,467,000 „
1888
8,348
13,873,000 „
728
583,000 „
9,076
14,456,000 „
1889
8,517
14,275,000 ,,
665
501,000 „
9,182
14,775,000 „
1890
8,711
14,878,000 „
764
535,000 „
9,475
15,413,000 „
CI-:"/
ed.
1886
5,229
7,149,000,,
2,446
4,347,000 .,
7,675
11,496,000 „
' 1887
5,713
8,087,000 „
2,910
5,199,000,,
8,623
13,285,000,,
1 1888
6,045
8,468,000 „
2,973
5,946,000 „
9,018
14,413,000 „
, 1889
5,842
8,357,000 ,,
3,070
6,202,000 „
8,912
14,559,000 ,,
1890
5,931
8,511,000,,
3,272
6,745,000 ,,
9,203
15,256,000,,
1 Eng. ton=2-S3M3 (cubic metres).
778
NETHERLANDS
Of the total number in 1890, 2623 Dutch vessels entered
with a tonnage of 4,425,O00M3, and 6,852 foreign vessels with
a tonnage of 10,988,000M3 ; 2,613 Dutch vessels cleared, with a
tonnage of 4,411,000M3, and 6,590 foreign vessels with a tonnage
of 10,846,000M3.
The vessels with cargoes which entered at the chief ports were
as follows : —
Entered
Port -
1890
1889
Number
Tonnage
%
Number
Tonnage
7.
52-1
18-8
124
457
18-9
22-3
Rotterdam
Amsterdam
Flushing .
Rotterdam
Amsterdam
Flushing .
4,076
1,567
775
2,761
1,054
768
7,715,000 M3
2,807,000 „
1,823,000 „
Cle
3,911,000 M3
1,769,000 „
1,916,000 ,,
51-8
19-5
12-3
xred
45-9
20-8
22-5
4,098
1,538
767
2,850
1,035
762
7,434,000 M3
2,685,000 „
1,771,000 „
4,004,000 M3
1,653,000 „
1,862,000 ,,
The number of Dutch vessels engaged in the carrying trade
between foreign ports was, in 1889, 2,095, with a tonnage of
2,872,000M3. The coasting trade is of no importance.
Internal Communications.
I. Canals and Railways.
The length of navigable water (canals excluded) is 3,000 miles.
The total extent of the canals is 2, 000 miles.
In 1889 the total length of the tramway lines was 530 miles ; 32,901
passengers were carried, and 259,095 millions of kilogrammes of goods.
Their revenue amounts to 3,975,000 guilders.
The total outlay upon the State railways up to 1890 was 258,271,000
guilders.
In 1890 the railways had a length of 1,705 miles, whereof the State
owned 833 miles, and private companies the remainder.
INTERNAL I 0MMUNI< ATION8
Year
Revenue BqwftdttMrt ! Goods carried
(guilders) (guilders) (kilogrammes)
1886
State Railway Co. .
I'rivate railway cos.
1887
State Railway Co. .
Private railway cos.
1888
State Railway Co. .
Private railway cos.
1889
State Railway Co. .
Private railway cos.
1890
State Railway Co. .
Private railway cos.1
12,149,000
13,020,000
12,668,000
13,584,000
13,538,000
13,864,000|
13,788,000
14,033,000
14,872,000
12,431,000
6.195,000
6,937,000
6,282,000
7,192,000
6,552,000
7,297,000
6,766,000
7,595,000
7,833,000
7,300,000
3,710,000,000
2,788,000,000
4,138,000,000
3,229,000,000
4,556,000,000
3,493,000,000
4,531,000,000
3,786,000,000
4,715,000,000
2,376,000,000
4.999,000
11,811,000
5,374,000
12,323,000
5,886,000
12,596,000
6,202,000
13,248,000
6,664,000
10,306,000
1 In 1890 one of the private companies was appropriated by the State.
II. Post and Telegraphs.
The postal traffic was as follows in the years named :—
Letters
Post Cards
Newapapcn aiM
Printed Matter
Parcels
- with
Money Orders
1886
Internal .
50,323,000
19,813,100
72,329,000
2,822,589
063
Foreign .
1887
Internal .
15,091,000
3,246,582
5,757,000
271,107
576,662
50,526,000
21,736,548
70,078,000
3,056,528
021,688
Foreign .
14,535,000
3,274,697
6,150,000
323,548
624.057
1888
Internal .
50,641,000
23,283,273
75,879,000
3,189,410
918.249
Foreign .
15,159,000
3,611,857
6,785,000
333,666
663,739
1889
Internal .
50,711,000
24,672,510
78,752,000
3,341,861
958,137
Foreign .
16,182,000
3,785,849
7,541,046
370,941
676,843
1890
Internal .
50,850.000 26,569,738
83,496,000
3.480,506
980,327
Foreign .
16,519,000 4,077,776
7,580,000
394,445
687,003
The receipts of the Post Office in 1890 were 6,741,219 guilders, the ex-
penditure 4,955,461 guilders.
There are several private telegraph lines, but most of the lines are owned
by the State. The length of State lines on Jan. 1, 1891, was 3,280 miles, the
length of wires 11,427 miles. The number of State offices was, on Jan. 1,
1891, 435. The number of paid messages by State lines in 1890 was
4,286,516. The receipts of the State amounted in the same year to 1,322,531
guilders, and the ordinary expenses to 1,561,678 guilders.
780
NETHERLANDS
Money and Credit.
The money in general circulation is chiefly silver. Before 1875 the
Netherlands had the silver standard ; but a hill which passed the States-
General in the session of 1875 allowed an unrestricted coinage of ten-guilder
pieces in gold, whereas the coinage of silver was suspended for an unlimited
time.
The total circulation in thousands of guilders was as follows : —
Jan. 1 | Silver, &c.
Gold
Paper money
issued
by the State
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1,000 guilders 1,000 guilders 1,000 guilders
62,238
61,715
60,337
60,985
59,544
24,204
24,098
24,437
24,366
24,255
14,071
12,823
11,737
11,577
14,486
Paper money
issued Total
by the Bank
1,000 guilders i 1,000 guilders
213,130
200,608
207,233
213,810
204,940
313,643
299,244
303,744
310,738
303,225
Value of money minted during each of the last five years (in thousands of
guilders) : —
For the
Total
. value
Total number
Year
Gold
Silver
Cdpper
East India
of pieces
Colonies
(in thousands)
1,000 guils.
1,000 guils.
1,000 guils.
1,000 guilders
1,000 guils.
1840-50
—
130,657
—
—
130,657
130,066
1851-60
—
122,842
—
17,939
140,685
1,066,213
1861-70
—
118,736
—
—
118,736
86,402
1871-80
74,300
97,325
1,220
—
172,649
146,433
1881-90
4,030
1,433
840
2,660
8,955
111,768
State Banks are unknown. The Bank of the Netherlands is a private
institution, hut it is the only one which has received the right of issuing
bank-notes, by a bill of 1863, for a period of 25 years, in 1888 prolonged foi-
ls years, with continuation for 10 years if the contract is not broken by one
of the parties two years before the beginning of a new period. The Bank does
the same business as other banks, only with more guarantees. Two-fifths of
the paper money in circulation must be covered. It has agencies in all
places of importance.
Year ' emulation ! ™7»
March 81 M8rcU 81
Stock of Gold
in July
Stock of Silver
in July
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1,000 guilders ' 1,000 guilders
194,627 270,632
193,435 272,610
204,368 296,530
208,449 299,822
194,680 320,117
1,000 guilders
61,110
66,640
66,470
61,720
47,050
1,000 guilders
99,710
97,610
79,300
65,620
69,140
The capital amounts to 20,000,000 guilders, the reserve fund to 5.000,000
guilders. The Hank keeps rln- State-Treasury ami the cash of the State
MONET, WEIGHTS. AN'P MEASURES
781
Postal Savings-Bank. It receives 5 per cent of the clear gains ; the remainder
is divided between the State and the Bank.
Besides the Bank of the Netherlands there are 13 private banks. Their
subscribed capital was, at the end of 1890. 6.533,200 guilders, the value of
deposits 9,843,076 guilders.
There are many savings-banks, all private. Besides these there is a -
postal savings-bank, established in 1881. The following table gives some par-
ticulars of both : —
Year
Number of
Banks
Amount
AspoaJtad
(in 1,000
gldre.)
withdrawn JK^L
(in 1.000 e^n°1,JSr
■Kumlier of
Depositors at
end of year
Amount ,
per inhabi-
tant
1886
Private banks .
273
15,561
13,477 52,903
282,380
12 04 gl.
State P. S. B.
6,615
4,310 8,865
139,989
202 ,,
1887
Private banks .
265
15,345
14.170 55,629
286,938
1250 „
State P. S. B.
7,643
5,609 11,152
169,027
251 „
1888
Private banks .
264
15,437
14.992 57,781
297,682
12-82 „
State P. S. B.
9,283
6,773 13,980
201,763
312,,
1889
State P. S. B.
11,480
8,336 17
241,175
385 „
1890
State P. S. B.1
12,974
9,739 21,251
281,870
4 66,,
1 Particulars concerning private banks later than 1888 are wanting.
Money. Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of the Netherlands, and the British
equivalents, are : —
Money.
The 'gulden ' (guilder or florin) of 100 cent-.
The ' rijksdaalder ' = 2 J guilders.
A gold-piece of ten guilders.
i guilder, \ guilder, yV guilder (dubheltje), ^ guilder (stuivertje).
Cent coins are : 1 cent. A cent, and 2£ cents.
1 guilder=l sh. 8d. ; or"l2 guilders to £1 sterling.
Weights and Measvres.
The metric system of weights and measures is adopted in the Nether-
lands.
The Kilogram . = 2 205 lbs. avoirdupois.
Meter = 3 281 imperial feet
Kilometer = 1,093 yards, or nearly 5 furlongs.
■Are = 119-9 sq. yards, or 024-6 sq. acre.
Hektare . . . . = 2-47 acres!
Stere = 35 31 cubic feet
Liter . . . . = 1 -76 imperial pints.
Heklolittr . = 22 imperial gallons, or 2 -75 bushels.
All the other metric denominations are adopted, with trifling changes,
782 NETHERLANDS: — EAST INDIES
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of the Netherlands in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — C. M. E. G. Count de Bylandt ; appointed Man h
25, 1871.
Secretary of Legation. — W. F. A. Baron Gevers.
Chancellor. — J. van den Berg.
Consul-Gencral in London. — Jhr. J. W. May.
Dutch Consular representatives are placed at the following places in the
United Kingdom : —
Aberdeen. Cork. Leith. Plymouth.
Belfast. Dublin. Limerick. Portsmouth
Birmingham. Dundee. Liverpool. (Southampton).
Bradford. Glasgow. London. Sunderland.
Bristol. Harwich. Manchester. Yarmouth.
Cardiff. Hull. Newcastle.
2. Of Great Britain in the Netherlands.
Envoy and Minister. — Sir Horace Rum bold, Bart., K.C.M.G. ; accredited
June 5, 1888.
Secretary. — Sir George F. Bonham, Bart.
British Considar representatives are placed in the following places in th e
Netherlands or in the colonies : —
Amsterdam. Batavia (E. Indies). Curacoa (W. Indies).
The Hague. Paramaribo (W. Indies). Rotterdam. Flushing.
Colonies.
The colonial possessions of the Netherlands, situated in the
East Indies and the West Indies, embrace an area of 766,137
English square miles. The total population, according to the
last returns, was 29,866,000, or more than six times as large as
that of the mother country.
DUTCH EAST INDIES.
The Dutch possessions in Asia, forming the territory of Dutch East India
(Nederlandsch Oost Indie), are situated between 6° N. and 11° S. latitude,
and between 95° and 141° E. longitude.
In 1(502 the Dutch created their East India Company. This Company
conquered successively the Dutch East Indies, and ruled t hem during nearly
two centuries. After the dissolution of the Company in 1798 the Dutch
possessions were governed by the mother-country.
Government and Constitution.
ten
in (1
(3) Confederated lands.
Politically, the territory, which is under the sovereignty of the Nether-
lands, is divided in (1) Lands under direct government ; (2) Vassal lands ;
'JoVERXMEXT AND GOJtSffl'imON
With regard to administration, the Dutch possessions in the East Indies
are divided into residencies, divisions, regencies, districts, and dessas (vil-
lages). They are also very often divided into (1) Java and Madura : (2)
the Outposts — Sumatra, Borneo, Riau-Lingga Archipelago, Banco, Billiton,
Celebes, Molucca Archipelago, the small Sunda Islands, and a part ot
Guinea.
Java, the most important of the colonial possessions of the Netherlands.
was formerly administered, politically and socially, on a system established
by General Johannes Graaf Van den Bosch in 1832, and known as the ' cul-
ture system.' It was based in principle on the officially superintended
labour of the natives, directed so as to produce not only a sufficiency of fowl
for themselves, but a large quantity of colonial produce best suited for the
European market That ' culture system ' comprised the forced labour of
the natives employed in the cultivation of coffee, sugar, indigo, pepper, tea,
tobacco, and other articles. At present, the labour of the natives is only
required for the produce of coffee, which is sold by the Government partly in
the colonies, but mostly in the Netherlands. By the terms of a bill which
passed the Legislature of the Netherlands in 1870, the forced cultivation of
the sugar-cane is now totally abolished.
The whole of Java — including the neighbouring island of Madura — is
divided into twenty-two provinces, or residencies, each governed by a
Resident, assisted by several Assistant-Residents (except the Resident of one
of these provinces, Krawang, who has no Assistant-Resident), and a number
of subordinate officials called Controleurs. All these functionaries must have
gone through an examination previous to their appointment by the Govern-
ment. The Resident and his assistants exercise almost absolute control over
the province in their charge ; not, however, directly, but by means of a vast
hierarchy of native officials. There is a regular and unceasing personal
intercourse between the native chiefs and the Controleurs, who act as the
immediate agents of the Resident. The native officials receive either salaries
or percentages on the amount of the taxes gathered from the natives. In
the ' Outposts ' the ' culture ' system has never been introduced, except in
the province of Sumatra, west coast, and in the Residency of Menado (island
of Celebes), where also the labour of the natives is required for the produce
of coffee. These Outposts are administered by functionaries with the titles of
'Governor,' 'Resident,' 'Assistant-Resident,' 'Controleur,' &c.
The superior administration and executive authority of Dutch India rests
in the hands of a Governor-General. He is assisted by a Council of five
members, partly of a legislative, partly of an advisory character. The mem-
bers of the Council, however, have no share in the executive.
Gfovemor-General. — Dr. C. Pijnackcr Eordijk, appointed June 19, 1888.
The Governor-General represents not only the executive power of govern-
ment, but he has a right of passing laws and regulations for the administra-
tion of the colony, so far as this power is not reserved to the legislature of the
mother-country. But he is bound to adhere to the constitutional principles
on which the Dutch Indies are governed, and which are laid down in the
'Regulations for the Government of Netherlands India,' passed by the King
and States-General of the mother-country in 1854.
Area and Population.
The following table gives the area and population of Java, including
Madura and the Outposts : —
784
NETHERLANDS : — EAST INDIES
Area:
English
square miles
Population at i
I the end of 1889 |
Java and Madura ....
50,848
23,064,086
Sumatra, West Coast
46,200
1,193,88c1
Sumatra, East Coast
16,282
277,877s
Island of
Benkulen ....
9,576
155,7532 '
Sumatra \ Larnpongs ....
9,975
124, 4221
Palembang ....
61,152
655,228!
\ Atjeh .....
6,370
290, 6723
Riau-Lingga Archipelago
17,325
94,6762
Banca ......
4,977
79,64s1
Billiton
2,500
37.8031
Borneo, West Coast
58,926
417.5062
Borneo, South and East Districts
144,788
691,386s
Island of f Celebes .....
Celebes \ Menado ....
45,150
396,868=
26,000
365,416s
Molucca Islands ....
42,420
321,168s
Timor Archipelago ....
21,840
45,538*
Bali and Lombok ....
3,990
1,353,064s
New Guinea to 141° E. long.8 .
150,755 s
200,000s
•
Total . .
719,674
29,765,031*
1 Tolerably accurate. 2 Approximately.
* Without the non-Christianised natives.
6 New Guinea belongs to the residency of Ternate, Molucca Islands,
3 Mere conjecture.
The total number of Europeans and persons assimilated to them by
nationality at the beginning of 1889 was 29,301 males and 24,620 females':
of these 27,322 males and 24,177 females were Dutch, of whom 21,680
males and 21,348 females were born in the East Indies ; of the remainder,
821 males and 158 females were German, 197 males and 48 females French,
151 males and 40 females English, 176 males and 12 females Swiss ; the
remainder being mostly Belgians, Austrians, and Africans. Of the remaining
population 447,030 were Chinese, 20,684 Arabs, and 9,973 other Orientals,
and 29,248,205 natives.
The movement of population between Europeans and ]>crsons assimilated
with them, by marriages, births, and deaths, was as follows : —
iQor /Java and Madura
188£) \ Outposts .
.... /Java and Madura
1880 \ Outposts .
10.0.7 /Java and Madura
188/ \ Outposts .
ioqq /Java and Madura
1888 \ Outposts .
ieoo /Java and Madura
188y \ Outposts .
Marriages
Perl ,000
Births
Perl ,000
Deaths
Perl ,000
386
9-5
2,200
54-1
1,488
36 6
60
—
612
—
569
—
358
9 8
2,148
53-6
1,316
32 8
53
—
595
—
565
—
380
9-1
2,178
52 3
1,139
27-4
61
—
656
—
377
—
380
9-0
2,211
52-3
1,560
36-9
62
—
493
—
326
—
389
8-9
2,116
48-6
1,453
33 2
93
—
626
—
521
—
RELIGION — IXSTRUC] 785
The European population1 of the three principal towns of Java was, in
1889, Batavia, 7969 : Samaraug, 3,547 : Soerabaya, 6.421.
The whole j>opulation of Java is legally divided into Europeans an<l
persons assimilated with them, an«l natives ami persons assimilated with
these. The former are generally living under the same laws as the inhabi-
tants of the mother-country, while in the jurisdiction of the latter the
Indian customs and institutions are considered. The division of the whole
population into these two classes is a fundamental principle in the policy
of the administration, and enacted in the code specifying the limits and
conditions for legislation in Dutch Bast India. The Governor-General,
however, is, in agreement with the Council, authorised to make individual
exceptions on this rule.
Religion.
According to the terms of the regulations for the government of Nether-
lands India, entire liberty is granted to the members of all religious con-
fessions. The Reformed Church counts 31 ministers and 22 assistants, the
Roman Catholic 21 curates and 15 priests, not salaried out of the public
funds. The number of Christians among the natives and foreign Orientals
was : —
In Java and Madura in 1873 . 5,673, and in 1889 . 13,375
,, the Outposts ,, „ . 148,672 „ „ . 237,729
In 1889, 70 missionaries of various societies were working to propagate
Christianity in the Dutch East Indies. In the same year 3,406 natives went
to Mekka on pilgrimage.
Instruction.
For the education of Europeans and persons assimilated with them there
were in 1889, 7 middle schools, with 465 pupils ; in 1880 only 3 schools and
479 pupils.
The cost of these schools to the Government in the same year was
452. 750 guilders, and the revenue out of the school fees 52, 179 guilders.
In 1889 there were for Europeans 116 mixed public elementary schools,
and 25 for girls only, with 16 private schools, or a total of 157 elementary
schools.
The 141 public schools had a teaching staff of 438, and an attendance of
11,916 pupils, and the 16 private schools a teaching staff of 104, and an
attendance of 2,354 pupils.
The costs of the public elementary schools were, in 1889, 1,934,304 and
the income 212,548 guilders.
The following statement relates to schools for natives : —
In 1889 Dutch India had 7 normal schools, with 37 teachers ; besides
there were 4 schools for sons of native chiefs, with 206 pupils.
The elementary schools for natives were, for Java and Madura, in 1873 :
92 Government schools, with 11,209 pupils, and 114 private schools, with
pupils; and in 1S89. 202 Government schools with 31,892 pupils, and
121 private schools with 9,489 pupils. In the Ouqiosts in 1873, 173 Govern-
ment schools with 25,793 pupils, and 194 private schools with 14,035
pupils ; and in 1889, 316 Government schools with 35,383 pupils, and 316
private schools with 17,005 pupils. In 1889 there were in Java and Madura
59 private schools subventioned with 5,338 pupils, and 93 non-snbventioned
1 Of the Chinese ami other Orientals no statistic has been taken since 1887.
3 ■
786
NETHERLANDS
-EAST INDIES
with 4,151 pupils. In 1873 the Government spent 336,444 guilders lor the
education of natives, and in 1889 1,018,687 guilders.
For foreign Orientals there were in 1889 311 schools with 5,118 pupils.
The total of Mohammedan schools at Java and Madura was in 1889 23,021.
with 304,283 pupils, and in 1885 16,760 schools with 255,148 pupil*
Justice and Crime.
The administration of justice is based on the principle that Europeans
and persons assimilated with them are subject to laws nearly similar to those
of the mother- country, while the natives are subject to their own customs
and institutions. The administration of justice for Europeans is entrusted to
European judges, while for natives their own chiefs have a large shave in the
trial of cases.
There is a High Court of Justice at Batavia — courts of justice at Batavia,
Samarang, Soerabaya, Padang, and Makassar — Resident and Regent courts,
courts of circuit, district courts, and courts of priests.
The number of natives condemned for serious crimes in 1888 was 14,450 ;
for police offences, 6,860; while it was in 1879, 11,770 and 6,880. There
are 217 prisons ; their population was 33,120 at the end of 1889.
The relations of the State to pauperism are limited to subvention to Pro-
testant and Catholic orphan-houses; 96,208 guilders is set down in the
budget for 1892.
Finance.
The local revenue is derived from land, taxes on houses and estates,
from licences, customs duties, personal imposts, the Government monopolies
of salt and opium, and a number of indirect taxes. But the chief part of the
large profits is indirect, being obtained by the sale of a vast amount of coffee,
grown under the ' culture system,' and sold in India and Europe.
The following table shows the revenue and expenditure for 1870, 1880,
and 1886-90 :—
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Surplus or Deficit
Guilders
Guilders
Guilders
1870
123,525,000
115,765,000
+ 7,760,000
1880
146,838,000
146,936,000
98,000
1886
131,259,000
128,885,000
+ 2,374,000
1887
143,350,000
117,896,000
+ 25,454,000
1888
121,690,000
128,348,000
- 6,658,000
1889
132,392,000
129,275,000
+ 3,117,000 1
1890
136,532,000
128,484,000
+ 8,048,000
The percentage of the different sources of revenue is shown in the follow.
ing table : —
Year
Taxes
Monopolies '
Prodnels-
Other li< e, ■ipi.
Total
100
1886
32 6
24'0
:!:{•<»
9-5
1887
30-1
21-8
39-5
8'6
100
1888
36-2
24 6
29-4
9*8
100
1889
34-9
19-8
34 3
11-0
100
1890
33*0
19*4
34 5
131
100
i Opium and salt.
- Coffee, cinchona, and tin.
FINANCE — DEFENCE , 8 .
The total revenue, according to the budget estimates for 1892, is
119,599,713 guilders, and the expenditure 137,451,954 guilders, showing a
deficit of 17,952,241 guilders.
The sources of revenue were stated as follows in the budget for the year
1892 :—
Guilders
Receipts in the Netherlands from sales of Government coffee
(13,222,523 guilders), cinchona (196,020 guilders), tin
(6,217,340 guilders), railways (855,000 guilders), various
(1,260,385 guilders), total 21,751,268
Receipts in India from sales of opium (18,420,000 guilders),
import, export, and excise duties (11,264,000 guilders), land
revenues (16,671,000 guilders), sales of coffee in Java, &c.
(9,087,500 guilders), sales of salt (8,047,000 guilders), from
all other sources (34,358,945 guilders) 97,848,445
Total revenue .... 119,599,713
About one-third of the annual expenditure is for the army and navy, and
another third for the general administration, both in Java and in the Nether-
lands.
Defence.
The army is purely colonial. At the end of 1890 the strength of the army
was 1,384 officers and 32,547 sub-officers and soldiers, comprising 13,663
Enropeaus, 57 Africans, 2.290 Amboinese, and 16,537 natives. The number of
horses was 1,093, of mules, 150. No portion of the regular army of the Nether-
lands is allowed to be sent on colonial service ; but individual soldiers are
at liberty to enlist, by permission of their commanding officers, and they
form the nucleus of the army of Dutch India. The native and European
soldiers are not divided into separate corps, but generally mixed together,
though in separate companies in the same battalions. The artillery is com-
posed of European gunners, with native riders, while the cavalry are
Europeans and natives.
The infantry, which is the most important branch of the army in Dutch
India, is divided into field, garrison, and depot battalions. Each battalion is
composed of four companies, two companies consisting of European soldiers
and two of natives, or one of Europeans and three of natives. The 'half-
castes ' are on a footing of perfect equality with the Europeans. The whole
of the commissioned officers are Europeans, with the exception of a few
natives of high rank to whom honorary ranks are given ; in each of the com-
panies composed of natives, at least one-half of the non-commissioned officers
must also be Europeans. A military academy is established at Meester
Cornelis, near Batavia. Schools for soldiers are attached to every battalion.
Unlike the army, which is purely colonial, the navy in Dutch India is
partly colonial, partly belonging to the royal navy, and its expenses are
therefore borne partly by the mother-country and i>artly by the colony. The
royal navy consisted, at the end of 1889, of 27 vessels, manned by 2,380
Europeans and 913 natives ; the colonial navy of 36 vessels, manned bv 117
Europeans and 1,353 natives.
3 E 2
788
NETHERLANDS : — EAST INDIES
Production and Industry.
The greater part of the soil of Java is claimed as Government property,
and it is principally in the residencies in the western part of Java that there are
private estates, chiefly owned by Europeans and by Chinese. The bulk of the
people are agricultural labourers. The Government or private landowners can
enforce one day's gratuitous work out of seven, or more, from all the labourers
on their estates ; in 1882 the greater part of these enforced services for the
Government was abolished, in return for the payment of one guilder per.heacl
yearly. Great power is vested in the Resident and his European and native
officials to enforce a strict adherence to all the laws regulating labour.
The extent of the soil of Java and Madura regularly cultivated by the
natives was, in 1889, 3,572,102 bahus (1 balm = If acre). From 1885-89 the
increase of various cultures was as follows, in bahus : —
Year
Rice
Maize
Arachis
Various
plants
S" ™—
Indigo
Cotton
Total
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
2,675,368
2,742,256
2,905,337
2,757,503
2,749:128
857,937 241,679
959,029 239,783
917,081 | 224,697
889,743 i 259,067
977,844 220,026
1
518,330
603,929
603,969
596,102
590,326
I
53,708 91,742
82,346 111,390
61,690 104,374
71,417 ; 153,790
71,078 i 110,996
17,903
21,387
24,888
24,621
24,159
19,314
22,064
24,377
30,153
16,327
4,475,981
4,782,184
4,866,413
4,782,126
4,759,884
Owing to the ' agrarian law ' (1870), which has afforded opportunity to
private energy for obtaining waste lands on hereditary lease (emphyteusis) for
seventy -five years, private agriculture has greatly increased in recent years, as
well in Java as in the Outposts.
In 1889 were ceded in Java to 156 companies, 100,708 bahus; to 414
Europeans, 183,371 bahus ; 44 Chinese, 15,628 bahus ; 3 Europeans and
Chinese, 1,012 bahus; 6 natives, 2,563 bahus— total, 303,282 bahus. There
are in Java 125 private estates of 1,117,065 bahus belonging to Europeans,
234 of 431,467 bahus belonging to Chinese, and 53 of 21,729 bahus belonging
to other foreign Orientals.
The change from the Government culture of sugar to private culture is
shown by the following table : —
Year
Government
Estates, in
bahus
Private Estates
of the Natives,
in bahus
4,460
19,720
22,763
Year
Government
Estates, in
l»hus
Private Estates
Of the Natives,
in bahus
1879
1884
1886
38,668
23,508
17,405
1SS7
1888
1889
14,163
11,179
8,372
25,948
28,834
30,949
In 1889 there were, in Java 51 sugar estates of 16,404 bahus, yielding
1,332,782 picols (1 picol = 135 '8 lbs.), or 81*37 per balm.
The production of coffee in Dutch India in 1889 was, in picols :—
PRODUCTION' AND INDUSTRT
'89
-
Government
Lands
Free Cultivation
Lands on Em-
phyteusis and
on Lease
Private Lands
Java .
Sumatra .
Celebes, kc.
Total .
1888 .
1887 .
1886 .
77.561
48,336
21,498
83,249
45,000
317,115
32,687
7,075
19,741
647,395
128,249
356,877
19,741
671,799
342,672
888,411
1,152,262
The production of cinchona, in kilogrammes, in Java was as follows
Government Lands on Emphyteusis
j
Private Lands
Plantations
Production Plantations
Production
Plantations
Production
1885 8
urn
8
un 8
1889 8
216,359 45
262,849 57
351,656 74
370,899 81
351,751 85
turn
MMH
859,144
1,362,727
1,966,514
5
5
3
3
60,323
138.797
13,562 .
1MH
34,692
In 1889 the number of tobacco plantations in Java was 105, producing
9,603,743 kilogrammes, and in Sumatra (Deli, &c.) 261, with a produce of
16,933,038 kilogrammes. In 1887 the production of Java was 8,901,786
kilogrammes, of Sumatra 12,428,819 kilogrammes: and in 1888, 12,556,826
ami 16,681,480 kilogrammes.
The production of tea in Java, in kilogrammes, was as follows : — 1882,
2.S37.088: 1883, 2,336,643; 1884, 2,667,685; 1885, 2,450,585; 1886,
3,351,627 ; 1887, 3,297,684 ; 1888, 3,014,209 ; 1889, 3,717,137.
The production of 1889 was obtained from 54 plantations.
There were 137 indigo plantations in 1888, yielding 805,418 kilogrammes
of indigo ; in 1889, 151 plantations and 741,861 kilogrammes.
The production of the tin mines of Banca and Billiton delivered to the
Government is shown by the following table, in picols : —
Years
Workmen Total Product Years , Workmen Total Product
1884-5
1885-6
1886-7
12,563 135,867 ; 1887-8 14,870 162,237
12,885 157,635 1888-9 15,720 145,158
13,528 166,283 1889-90 16,846 185,970
There were, in 1889-90, 455 mines, the produce being about equally
divided between Banca and Billiton.
In 1888 there were in Java in all 2,629,045 oxen, 2,206,361 cows, and
537,315 horses. Horses are never used in India for agricultural purposes.
In 1SS9 there were 3 Government and 35 private printing-offices, 40 ice or
mineral water manufacturers, 8 soap factors, 12 arak distillers, 3 saw mills,
and 120 rice mills. The industrial establishments in Dutch India used, in
1889, 1,465 steam eugines.
790
NETHERLANDS : — EAST INDIES
Commerce.
No difference is made between Dutch and foreign imports and vessels.
There is a tariff of 6 per cent, on certain goods ; on some articles there is a
small export duty, including coffee, sugar, and tobacco.
The following table shows the value of the general import, and export
during the years 1885-89, in guilders : —
Imports
Government
Private
Grand
Total
Year
Merchan-
dise
Specie
Total
Merchan-
dise
Specie
Total
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
4,215,579
3,804,593
3,274,397
4,141,871
5,009,445
16,279,870
25,185,390
19,802,907
20,358,278
33,072,175
920,000
8,000,000
5,135,579
3,804,593
3,274,397
4,141,871
13,009,445
16,379,879
25,185,390
19,802,907
20,358,278
33,072,175
119,153,110
112,882,718
116,381,561
119,336,104
139,914,805
Exports
168,749,349
158,070,631
166,619,387
163,070,339
164,131,047
14,579,088
10,040,116
6,623,442
16,152,075
20,460,521
2,942,469
2,964,145
736,493
668,816
459,892
133,732,204
122,981,884
123,005,003
135,488,179
169,375,326
171,691,818
161,034,776
167,355,880
168,789,166
164,590,439
13S,867,785
126,736,427
126,279,400
139,630,050
173,384,771
188,071,688
186,220,166
187,168,787
184,097,433 1
197,662,614
The principal articles of export are sugar, coffee, tea, rice, indigo, cinchona,
tobacco, and tin. With the exception of rice, about one-half of which is
shipped for Borneo and China, nearly four-fifths of these exports go to the
Netherlands.
The subjoined table shows the value of the trade of Java with the United
Kingdom, according to the Board of Trade returns, in each of the five years
1886 to 1890 :—
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
£
£ £
£
£
Exports from
Java .
3,158,778
2,264,053 2,894,902
2,233,744
1,223,035
Imports of
British pro-
duce .
1,266,675
1,387,000 j 1,576,850 : 1,525,243
1,469,206
The chief and almost sole article of export to the United Kingdom is unre-
fined sugar: in 1882 of the value of 3,579,119/. : in 1887 of 3^086,6272. : in
1888 of 2,704,310/. ; in 1889, 1,904,323/. ; in 1890, 979,886/. The staple
article of Brilish liomc produce Imported is manufactured cotton ; including
cotton yarns, of the rune of 1,016,151/. : machinery, of 115,491/. ; iron,
wroughi and nn wrought, of 52,046/. : coals, 71.196/. ; woollens, 41,5292, :
manure, 32,970/., in the year 1890.
791
Shipping and Communications.
The following table shows the navigation at the various ports of Nether-
lands India in 1888 and 1889, and the share of England in it : —
Year
-
Entered
Whereof, from England :
Rata
Capacity in Ms
Number
Capacity in M*
1888 1
1889 I
Steamers
Sailing vessels
Steamers
Sailing vessels
2,647
306
3,142
308
2,405,000 230
562,000 52
3,524,000 179
577,000 66
736,000
157,000
753,000
i::.,ooo
At the end of 1890 the total length of railways (State and private) opened
for traffic was 809 English miles ; the revenues were 8,921,369 guilders.
There are about 300 post-offices ; the number of letters carried in 1888 and
1889 for internal intercourse was 4,583,263 and 5,084,519, while 3,248,798
and 3,709,403 newspapers, samples, &c, for the interior passed through the
various post-offices in the Dutch Indies during the same years. In 1888
and 1889, 1,065,400 and 1,117,813 letters were carried for foreign postal
intercourse.
There were 6,840 kilometres of telegraph lines in Dutch India in 1889
with 97 offices ; the number of messages was 475,952. There are 28 telephone
offices.
Money and Credit.
The 'Java Bank,' established in 1828, has a capital of 6,000,000 guilders,
and a reserve of 533,386 guilders. The Government has a control over the
administration. Two-fifths of the amount of the notes, assignats, and credits
must be covered by specie or bullion. In December, 1890, the value of the
notes in circulation was 57,572,000 guilders, and of the bank operations
12,000,599. There are two other Dutch banks, besides branches of British
lianks.
In the savings-banks, in 1889, there were 12,086 depositors.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Weights and Measures.
The Amsterdamsch Pond . — 1 "09 lb. avoirdupois.
„ Pikol . . . = 133 „ „
>• Catty . . . = lj „
,, Tjenglcal . . . = 4 yards
The only legal coins, as well as the weights and measures, of Dutch
India are those of the Netherlands.
Consular Representatives,
Brit ink Consul at Batavia. — X. MacXeill.
Vice-Consul at Samarang. — D. D. Fraser.
Vice-consul at Saerabaya, — A. J. Warren.
792 NETHERLANDS: — WEST INDIES
DUTCH WEST INDIES.
The Dutch possessions in the West Indies are (a) Surinam, or Dutch
Guiana, and (b) the colony Curacao.
Dutch Guiana or Surinam.
Dutch Guiana or Surinam is situated on the north coast of S. America,
between 2° and 6° N. latitude, and 53° 50' and 58° 20' E. longitude, and bounded
on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the river Marowijne, which
separates it from French Guiana, on the west by the river Corantyn, which
separates it from British Guiana, and on the south by inaccessible forests and
savannas to the Turmchumee Mountains.
At the peace of Breda, 1667, Surinam was assured to the Netherlands in
exchange, for the colony New Netherlands in North America, and this was
confirmed by the treaty of Westminster of February, 1674. Since then
Surinam has been twice in the power of England, 1799 till 1802, when it was
restored at the peace of Amiens, and in 1804 to 1816, when it was returned
according to the Convention of London of August 13, 1814, confirmed at the
Sjace of Paris of November 20, 1815, with the other Dutch colonies, except
erbice, Demerara, Essequibo, and the Cape of Good Hope.
The superior administration and executive authority of Dutch Guiana is in
the hands of a governor, assisted by a council consisting of the governor as
president, the attorney-general as vice-president, and three members, all
nominated by the King. The Colonial States form the representative body of
the colony. Four members are chosen every year by the governor ; the others
by electors in proportion of one in 200 electors.
Dutch Guiana is divided into sixteen districts and numerous communes.
The area of Dutch Guiana is 46,060 English square miles. At the end of
1889 the population was 55,968 (comprising 28,646 males and 27,322 females),
inclusive of the negroes living in the forests. The capita] is Paramaribo,
28,526 inhabitants.
According to the terms of the regulation for the government of Dutch
Guiana, entire liberty is granted to the members of all religious confessions.
At the end of 1889 there were : Reformed and Lutheran. 9,140 : Moravian
Brethren, 25,682; Roman Catholic, 9,734: Jews, 1,208: Mohammedans,
1,683 ; Hindus, 5,981.
There were, in 1889, 17 public schools with 1,918 pupils, and 29 private
schools with 3,766 pupils. Besides these elementary schools, then arc a
normal school and a central school of the Moravian Brethren lor training
teachers and of the Roman Catholics.
There is a court of justice, whose president, members, and recorder are
nominated by the Sovereign. Further, there are three cantonal courts and
two circuit courts. There were 23."> prisoners in 1888.
The relations of Government to pauperism are limited to subventions to
orphan-houses and other religious or |>hilanthropical institutions.
The local revenue is derived from import, export, and excise duties, taxes
on houses and estates, personal imposts, and some indirect taxes. A subven-
tion from the mother-country is necessary. In 1889 the expenditure was
1,574,000 guilders, the revenue 1,449,000 guilders, and the subvention
125,000. For 1891 the revenue is estimated at 1,436,000 guilders; expendi-
ture, 1,670,000 guilders. For 1890 the estimates were : revenue. 1.321,000
guilders ; expenditure. 1,539,000 guilders.
In 1889 toe militia (' Schutter'ij ') consisted of 30 officers and 195 men. the
civic guard of 56 officers and i.<;-j-j men. and the ganAsoa of 21 officers and 365
SURINAM — CURASAO
798
men.
navv.
The nary consists of a few guard ships, with some vessels of the royal
In 1889 sugar wu produced on 114 plantations of 1,737 hectares to the
amount of 7,507,647 kilogrammes; cacao on 88 plantations and 363 small
properties of 13, 103 hectares to the amount of 2,166,930 kilogrammes. The
other productions were bananas, 569,200 bundles ; coffee, 6,090 kilogrammes ;
cotton, 729 kilogrammes; rice, 17.201 kilogrammes: fruits, 201,127 kilo-
grammes : rhuin. 469,090 litres ; and melasse, 704,060 litres.
For gold mining were granted, at the end of 1889, 625 concessions, com-
prising 532,649 hectares. In that year the export of gold was 894,333
grammes, valued at 1,125,236 guilders. This export was : to the Netherlands,
798,522 grammes ; to Great Britain, 83,000 grammes. The declared value
since the beginning of the gold industry (1876) to the end of 1889 is
12,472,808 guilders.
In 1889 there entered 212 vessels of 61,000 tons, and cleared 209 ships of
61,500 tons. The following table shows the value of the imports and exports
during the years 1888-89 :—
Tear
IlIlJ"T-
Export
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
4,808,603 guilders
4,592,714
5,052,621
4,346,840
4,893,355 „
3,113,270 guilders
3,036,633
3,539,502 ,,
3,316,377
3,521,867
In 1890 the exports to the United Kingdom from the Dutch West Indies,
including Curacao,- were valued at 54,226/. ; and imports from the United
Kingdom of British produce or manufacture, 208,457/.
The colonial savings-bank had. at the end of 1889, a balance of 427,375
guilders, of which 186,075 guilders belonged to immigrated coolies.
The communication between several districts of the colony is carried on by
vessels aud small steamers.
In 1888 were received 59,232 letters, 1,048 postcards, 153,699 prints, and
2,511 samples; and sent off 62,273 letters, 1,437 postcards, 20,619 prints,
and 938 samples.
British Consul at Paramaribo. — W. Wyndham.
Cnragao.
The colony of Curacao consists of the islands Curacao, Bonaire, Aruba. St.
Martin (as far as it belongs to the Netherlands), St. Eustachc, and Saba, lying
north from the coast of Venezuela.
Square
Papulation
Miles
Dec 31, 1890
Curacao .
210
26,245
Bonaire .
95
3,821
Aruba .
69
7,743
St Martin1 .
17
3,882
St. Eustache .
7
1,588
Saba
5
1,883
1 Only the southern part belongs to the Netherlands, the northern to France,
794 NETHERLANDS
The colony is governed by a Governor, assisted by a Council composed of
the Attorney-General and three members, all nominated by the Sovereign.
There is also a Colonial Council consisting of the members of the Council
and eight members nominated by the Sovereign. The different islands of
the colony, except Curacao, are placed under chiefs called ' gezaghebbers, '
nominated by the Sovereign.
At the end of 1890 there were 36,597 Roman Catholics, 7,790 Protestants,
775 Jews. The number of schools was 27, with 4,222 pupils. At the same
period the number of prisoners was 38.
The revenue is derived from import, export, and excise duties, taxes on
land, and some indirect taxes. In the Budget for 1891 the revenue is estima-
ted at 661,000, and the expenditure at 681,000 guilders ; the difference is sup-
plied by the mother-country.
The militia (Schutterij) of the Isle of Curacao consisted at the end of 1889
of 26 officers and 336 men ; the garrison of 8 officers and 200 men. A vessel
of the royal navy is always cruising and visiting the different islands.
The imports in 1889 were valued at 3,441,508 guilders ; the exports (ex-
cluding Curacao) at 669,573 guilders. The chief produce are maize, beans,
pulse, cattle, salt, and lime.
There entered the different islands in 1890, 2,801 vessels of 1,327,506 M».
In 1889, 82,560 letters and 184,146 newspapers anived, and 81,251 and
300,383 were despatched.
British Consul at Curacao. —
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
Netherlands and its Colonies.
1. Official Publications.
(1) The Netherlands.
Bijdragen tot de algemeene Statistiek van Nederland. Jaargang 1889. 's Gravenhage.
Gerechtelijke Statistiek van net Koninkrijk der Nedeilanden. s Gravenhage, 1890.
Statistiek van het Gevangeniswezen. 1890.
Staatsalmanak voor het Koningrijk der Nederlanden. 1891. Met magtiging van de
regering uit offlciele opgaven zamengesteld. 's Gravenhage.
Uitkpmsteu der 7e tiengaarl : volkstelling van 1889-90 in het koninkrijk der Neder-
landen. ' 's Gravenhage, 1891.
Staatsbegrooting voor het dienstjaar 1892. 's Gravenhage.
Statistiek van den in-, nit- en doorover over 1890.
Statistiek van den Handel en de Scheepvaart van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden.
's Gravenhage, 1890.
Verzameling van Consulaire en andere Berigten en Verslagen over Nijverheid, Handel on
Scheepvaart. Uitgegeven door het Ministerie van Buitenlandsehe Zaken. Jaargang 1890.
4. \s Gravenhage.
Verslag van den Staat der Nederlandsche Zecvisscherijen over 1890. 4. *s Gravenhage.
Verslag van den Landl>ouw in Nederland over 1889, opgeinaakt op last van den Minister
van Handel en Nijverheid. 8. 's Gravenhage.
Verslag aan den Koning van de bevindingen en handelingen van het veeartaenijkundig
Staatstoezigt in 1890. 4. 's Gravenhage.
Verslag aan don Koning van de bevindingen en handelingen van het geneeskundig
Staatstoezigt in 1890. 4. 's Gravenhage.
Verslag van den Staat der hoogero, middelbare on lagere scholen over 1890.
Verslag der Nederlandsche Bank. 1890.
Report, by Mr. Sydney Locock, Secretary of Legation, on land laws and landed property,
dated The Hague, Di-cemlK-r 20, 1809; in ' Reports from H.M.'s Representatives respecting,
the Tenure of band in the several Countries of Kurope." Part I. Kol. London, 1870.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF BEFERENCI 795
Reports on the Finances of the Netherlands in No. 899 ; Trade of the Netherlands in
No. M0; Amsterdam, 954, of 'Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' Lonilon, 1891.
Trade of the United Kingdom with the Netherlands; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade-
of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1890.'
Imp. 4. London.
. I
Holland. East Indies. Colonial Possessions. Admiralty. Naval Intelligence Depart-
ment. London, 1888.
Koloniaal Verslag van 1890. 's Gravenhage, 1890.
Begrooting van Ned. Indie voo
Jaarboek van het munwezen in Nederiandsch OosMndie. Uitgegeven op last van Z.
Esc. den Minister van Kolonien. 1888. Amsterdam, 1889.
Naamregister van Nederlandsche-Indie voor 1890. Batavia.
Regeerings-Ahnanak voor Nederlandseh-Indie. 1891. Batavia.
Resume van het onderzoek naar de rechten van den inlander op den grond op Java en
Madoera. Batavia. 1890.
Statistiek van den Handel, de Scheepvaart en de In- en Uitvoerrechten over 1889.
Batavia.
Verslag omtrent den gouvernements post- en telegraafdienst in N.I. over 1889. Batavia,
1S90.
-!.ig van den dienst der Staats spoorwegeu op Java over 1890. Batavia, 1891.
Algemeen verslag van den staat van het middell-aar en lager onderwijs, voor europeanen
• -lezen geli.ikgestelden in N.I. over 1890. Batavia, 1891.
Algemeen vjjfjarig verslag van het inlandsch onderwijs in N.I. over IbTS-1877 (Batavia.
1880), en over 1878-188*2 (Batavia, 1885).
Verslag over het jaar 18S8, samengesteld door de Earner van koophandel en ngverheid te
Batavia. Batavia, 1889.
Report for 1890 on the Finances of Netherlands-India in No. 92.". ; Trade of Dutch Guiana
in BM of ' Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publicati*
(1) The Netherlands.
meeae Statistiek van Nederland. Uitgegeven door de Vereeniging voor de Statistiek
in Nederland. 8. Leiden, 18N
Heutden (A. van), Handboek der aardrijkskunde, staatsinrigting, staat.shuishouding en
iek van het koningrijk der Nederlanden. 8. Haarlem,]-
Jaarcyfers over 1890 en vorige jaren, omtrent Bevolkiug, Landbouw, Handel, te.
ven door de Vereeniging voor de Statistiek in Nederland.
Palgrave (W. G.), Dutch Guiana. S. London, 1876.
Staatkundig en staat huishoudkundig Jaarboekje. Uitgegeven door de Vereeniging voor de
Statistiek in Nederland. 8. Amsterdam.
W"oorf(C. W.), Through Holland. 8. London. M9T
(2) Colonic*.
Aardrijkskundig en statistisch woordenboek van Ned. Indie. Amsterdam, 1861.
Bickmore (H. S.), Travels in the East Indian Archipelago. 8. London, 1868.
Tijdschrift van het koninklijk institnut voor taal-, land- en volkenkunde van Neder-
landsch-Indie. 's Gravenhage, 1S52-91.
Jaarcyfers over 18S9 en vorige jaren omtrent de kolonien. Uitgegeven door de Vereeni-
ging voor de Statistiek in Nederland. No. 9.
Keuchenius (Dr. L. W. C), Handelingen betreffende het reglement op het beleid der re-
gerin^ van Nederiandsch Indie. 3 vol. Utrecht, 1S57.
Bool (H. J.), Regeringsreglement van Ned. Indie. Zalt-Bommel, 1S70.
DeJonge (Jhr. M. J. K. J.), De Opkomst van het Nederiandsch gezag over Java II. — VII
He Hague, IS
De Louter (Dr. J.), Handleiding tot de kennis van het staat.s- en administratiefrecht van
Ned. Indie, 's Gravenhage. 1884.
Derenter (JSz., S. van), Bijdragen tot de kennis van het Landelijk Stelsel op Java, op
Z. Exc. den Minister van Kolonien J. D. Fransen van de Pntte hijeenverzameld.
ilt-Bommel, 1865.
Gorkom (van), De Oost-Indisehe Cultures in hetrekking tot handel en nijverheid.
vdam, 1881.
796 NETHERLANDS
Haga (A.), Nederlandsch Nieuw Guinea en tie Papoesche Eilanden. 2 vols. Batavia,
1884.
Hellwald (Fr. Von), Das Colonialsystem der Niederliinder in Ostindien. 8. Leipzig,
1873.
Hollander (Dr. J. T. de), Handleiding bij de beoefening van de Taal-, Land- en Volken-
kunde van Ned. Indie. Breda, 1882.
De indische Gids. Leiden, 1891.
Money (J. W. B.), Java, or, How to Manage a Colony ; showing a practical solution of
the questions now affecting British India. 2 vols. 8. London, 1801.
Muller (Joh.), Beschreibung der Insel Java. 8. Berlin, 1860.
Veth (Prof. P. J.), Java : geographisch, ethnologisch, historisch. Haarlem. 3 vols.
1S75-84.
Idem, Borneo's Wester-afdeeling. Zalt-Bommel, 1854.
Verslag der Javasche Bank over 1890-91.
Reclus (Elisee), Universal Geography. Vol. XIII. London, 1890.
Wallace (Alfred Russel), The Malav Archipelago. 8. London, 1869.
797
NICARAGUA.
(Republica de Nicaragua.)
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution of the Republic of Nicaragua was proclaimed on August
19, 1858. It vests the legislative power in a Congress of two House-
upper called the Senate, comprising 18 members, and the lower, called the
House of Representatives, 21 members. Both branches of the Legislature arc
elected by universal suffrage, the members of the House of Representatives for
the term of four, aud those of the Senate for six years. The executive power
is with a President elected for four years.
President of the Republic. — Dr. Roberto Saeaza, elected January, 1891.
The President exercises his functions through a council of responsible
ministers, composed of the four departments of Foreign Affairs and Public
Instruction ; Finance ; Interior, Justice, War, and Marine ; Public Works.
The active army consists of 1,200 men, with a reserve of 10,000 men, and
a militia or national guard of 5, 000.
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic is estimated at 49, 500 English square miles, and
the population (1889) 282,845 (136,249 males, 146,596 females) or including
uncivilised Indians 312,845, giving about 7 inhabitants per square mile. The
great mass of the population consists of aboriginal ' Indians,' mulattoes,
negroes, and mixed races, and the number of Europeans and their descend-
ants is very small and on the decrease. There are few towns, and the chief
occupation of the inhabitants is the rearing of cattle, carried on in a rude
fashion. The old capital of the Republic is the city of Leon, ten miles from
the Pacific, surrounded by five active volcanoes, and partly in ruins ; its
population is 25,000. At present the seat of government is the town of
Managua, situated on the southern border of the great lake of the same name,
with about 18,000 inhabitants.
Instruction.
According to an official statement of 1887 there were 251 schools with
11,914 pupils. There are, besides, two higher schools for boys and one for
girls.
Finance.
In 1888 the revenue was 3,814,140 dollars, and the expenditure 4,024,602
dollars. Two-thirds of the total annual revenue are derived from Government
monopolies on spirits, tobacco, and gunpowder, and the remainder chiefly from
import duties and a tax on slaughtered cattle. The expenditure is principally
for the maintenance of an army of 2,000 men, and the pavment of interest on
the public debt
798 NICARAGUA
From an oflBcial statement it appears that the total amount of the public
debt was 1,592,000 dollars, and a loan raised in London in 1886 for 285,000Z.
in 6 per cent, bonds, with a mortgage on the 93 miles of railway controlled by
the State as well as on the customs revenue.
Industry and Commerce.
There are about 400,000 head of cattle in the Republic, and there is a large
export of hides.
The culture of bananas is extending, as is also the coffee industry. In
1888-90 19,786,000 lbs. of coffee were exported. The total area under coffee is
estimated (1891) at 14,000 manyanas (1 manyanas nearly two acres). The
lands ' denounced ' from December 1st, 1889 to December 31st, 1890,
amounted to 24,598 manyanas, for which there were 164 claimants.
The total imports in 1888 amounted to 2,146,000 dollars, and the exports
to 1,522,000 dollars ; in 1889 imports 2,738,500 dollars, exports 2,376,500
dollars. In 1890 the imports at Greytown were valued at 383,440 dollars and
the exports 985,480 dollars (all to the United States). The leading exports
are coffee and india-rubber. Of the exports in 1888, 665,000 dollars went
to Great Britain, 253,000 dollars to Germany, 246,000 dollars to France,
334,000 to the United States. Of the imports in 1888, 252,000 dollars came
from England, 395,000 dollars from the United States, 351,000 dollars from
France, 766,000 dollars from Germany. In the 'Annual Statement of the
Board of Trade,' the commercial intercourse of Great Britain with the Republic
is merged into ' Central America' (see page 651).
Communications.
There entered the ports of the country in 1887 192 vessels of 191,100
tons.
A canal has been begun to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts.
There are 1,700 miles of telegraph lines in the Republic, with 53 stations.
There are 99 miles of railway open in the Republic, which cost 2, 700, 000 dollars,
and 274 miles are projected. In 1886 3,306,500 letters, &c, passed through
the Post Office.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The system of money, weights, and measures is the same as in Honduras,
though Mexican, Chilian, Peruvian, and other South American dollars and
five-franc pieces circulate freely ; there is also a paper currency.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Nicaragua in Great Britain.
Consul-General. — Frederick Isaac.
2. Of Great Britain in Nicaragua.
Minister and Consul-General. — Audley C. Gosling.
Consul at Greytown.— H. P. Bingham.
m
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Nicaragua.
1. Official Publications.
Report ou the Trade of Nicaragua, in ' Deutsche^ Handels-Archiv,' February and July,
1889, and December, 1890.
Report on the Trade of District of Greytown in 18S9-90, No. 913 in ' Diplomatic and
Consular Reports.' 1891.
J. >*<>N -OFFICIAL PUBLICATI'
Btlly (N.), Percemeiit de l'istlune de Panama par le canal de Nicaragua. 8. Paris, 1885.
Belt (Thomas), The Naturalist in Nicaragua : a Narrative of a Residence at the Gold
Mines of Chou tales. &c 8. London, 1873.
BiVtoif (A. von), Dei Freistaat Nicaragua in Mittelamerika. 8. Berlin, 1849.
KelUr (J.), Le canal de Nicaragua. 8. Paris, 1859.
Levy (P.). Notas geograficas y economics* sobre la republic de Nicaragua. Paris, 1873.
ilarr (Wilhelm), Reise nach CVntralamerika. 2 vols. 8. Hamburg, 1863.
Seherze, (Karl. Hitter von). Wanderungen durch die mittelamerikanischen Freistaaten
Nicaragua, Honduras and San Salvador. 8. Braunschweig.
Squier (E. G.). Sketches of Travel in Nicaragua. 8. New York, 1851.
Squier (E. G.), Nicaragua, its People, Scenery, Monuments, and the proposed Inter-
oceanic Canal. I vols. 8. London. 1852.
Wetham (J. W. Bodliam), Across Central America. 8. London, 1677.
800
OMAN.
An independent State in South-eastern Arabia extending along a coast line—
S.E. and S. \V. —of almost 1,000 miles from the Gulf of Ormuz and inland to
the deserts. Area, 82,000 square miles ; population, 1,500,000. The capital,
Muscat (60,000 inhabitants), was occupied by the Portuguese till the seven-
teenth century. After various vicissitudes it was taken in the eighteenth
century by Ahmed bin Sa'eed, of Yemenite origin, who was elected Iman in
1741. His family have since ruled. The present Sultan is Seyyid Feysal bin
Turki, second son of the late Seyyid Turki bin Sa'eed bin Sultan, who succeeded
his father June 4, 1888, and has now been formally recognised by the British
Government. In the beginning of the present century the power of the Imam
of Oman extended over a large area of Arabia, the islands in the Persian Gulf,
a strip on the Persian coast, and a long strip of the African coast south of
Cape Guardafui, including Socotra and Zanzibar. On the death of Sultan
Sa'eed in 1854 Zanzibar was detached from Oman and placed under the ride of
the second son, and subsequent ti'oubles cm-tailed the area of the state in Asia.
The closest relations have for years existed between the Government of India
and Oman, and a British Consul or Political Agent resides at Muscat. Oman
is practically on the footing of an independent Indian native State, and
essentially under British protection. The authority of the Sultan does not
extend far beyond Muscat.
The revenue of the Sultan amounts to about 200,000 dollars.
The exports in 1890-91 were valued at 1,432,690 dollars; chiefly dates,
490,000 dollars; cotton fabrics, 120,000 dollars; rice, 70,000 dollars; salt,
70,000 dollars ; pearls, 64,000 dollars ; fruits, 25,000 dollars. The imports
were valued at 1,988,270 dollars, chiefly rice, 684,800 dollars ; sugar, 59,050
dollars; coffee, 51,400 dollars; cotton stuff, 222,000 dollars; salt, 37,500
dollars ; pearls, 81,000 dollars. The imports from India were valued at
1,438,610 dollars; Persian Gulf, 341,470 dollars; South Arabia and AtVici,
162,340 dollars ; United States, Mauritius, and Singapore, 40,850 dollars.
Vessels entered and cleared the port of Muscat in 1890-91, 436 of 140,800
tons, of which 96 of 112,800 tons were European.
Administrative Report of the Persian Gulf rolitical Residency for 1S90-!>1. Calcutta,
1891.
SO]
ORANGE FREE STATE.
(Oba N J K- Y UJSTAAT.)
Constitution and Government.
Tin' Bepablic known as the Orang.- Fiv. State, bonded originally by Boers
who quitted Cape Colony in IS?.*; an.l following years, is separated from the
Oape Colony by the Orange River, has British Baratolaad and Natal on the
east, the Transvaal on the north, and Transvaal and Griqualand West on the
Its independence was declared on Februa; and a Constitu-
tion was proclaimed April 10, 1854, and revised February 9, 1S66, ami M
The legislative authority is vested in a popular Assembly, the Volks-
raad, of 57 members, elected by suffrage of the burghers (adult white males)
for four years from every district, town, and ward, or field-cornetcy in the
country districts. Every two yean one-half of the members vacate thei>
and an election takes place. The members of the Volksraad receive pay at the
rate of 21. per day. Eligible are burghers 25 years of age, owners of real
property to the value of 500/. Voters must be white burghers by birth or
naturalisation, be owners of real pro]>erty of not less than 150/., or lessees of
real property of an annual rental of 36/., or have a yearly income of n-
than 200/., or be owners of personal property of the value of 300/., and have
l>een in the State for not less than three yean. The executive is vested in a
President chosen for five years by universal suffrage, who is assisted by an
Executive Council. The Executive Council consists of the Government Secre-
tary, the Landrost of the capital, and three unofficial members appointed by
the Volksraad, one every year for three years.
President of the Republic. — Judge Beitt, sworn into office January 11,
. in succession to the late Sir John Henry Brand.
There is a Landrost or Governor appointed to each of the districts (19) of
the Republic by the President, the appointment requiring the confirmation of
the Volksraad. In every ward there are commissioners for various purposes,
the members of which are elected by the burghers.
Area and Population.
The area of the Free State is estimated at 11,500 square miles ; it is divided
into 19 districts. At a census taken in 1890 the white population was found
to be 77,716—10,571 males and 37,115 females. Of the population 51,910 were
born in the Free State and 21,116 in the Cape Colony. There were besides
129,787 natives in the State — 67,791 males and 61,996 females — making a
total population of 207,503. The capital, Bloemfontein, had 2,077 white
inhabitants in 1890 and 1.3S2 natives. Of the white population 10,761 were
returned in 1890 as directly engaged in agriculture, while there were 41,817
' coloured servants. '
Immigration is on the increase, mainlv from Germany and England.
3 F
802 ORANGE FREE STATE
Religion.
The Government contributes 6,8001. for religious purposes. The State is
divided into 30 parochial districts for ecclesiastical purposes. There are about
80 churches. The principal body is the Dutch Reformed Church with 68,940
adherents ; of Wesleyans there are 753 ; English Episcopalians 1,353 ;
Lutherans 312 ; Roman Catholics 466 ; Jews 113.
Instruction.
The system of education is national. Small grants are also made to the
Episcopal and Roman Catholic Churches. The Government schools are
managed by elected local boards, which choose the teachers, who are ap-
pointed by the President, if he is satisfied with their qualifications. Education
is not compulsory nor free except for very poor children. In 1891 30,120Z.
was allotted to education, being a portion of interest on a capital of 200,000Z.
set apart by the Volksraad for this purpose. There are no foundations,
properly so called, for education. In 1891 there were 71 Government schools,
inclusive of the two higher schools and the infant school at Bloemfontein,
with 2,909 pupils and 110 teachers. Grants are made to private schools on
certain conditions. In 1891 there were 43 such schools, with 706 pupils.
The Grey College, the highest school for boys, prepares candidates for the
matriculation examination of the Cape University ; there is a similar school
for girls.
At the census of 1890 45,015 of the white population could read and write.
2,721 only read, 23,722 could neither read nor write, while 6,258 were not
specified.
There is a good public library in Bloemfontein, and small libraries in
several villages.
There is a Government Gazette, one daily and one bi-weekly, and one
weekly paper.
Justice and Crime.
The Roman Dutch law prevails. The superior courts of the country are
the High Courts of Justice, with three fudges, and the circuit courts. The
inferior courts are the court of the Landdrost ami the court of Landdrost ami
Heemraden. The circuit courts, at which the judges of the High Court
preside in turn, are held twice a year in the chief town of every district. In
these courts criminal cases arc tried before a jury. The court of Landdrost
and Heemraden consists of the Landdrost (a stipendiary magistrate) and two
assessors. Tho Landdrost's court thus has both civil and criminal jurisdiction.
There are also justices of the peace who try minor offences and settle minor
disputes.
There are no statistics of crime. There are police-constables in every town,
and mounted police patrol the country.
Finance.
The following is a statement of revenue and expenditure for the five years
1886-7 to 1890-91 (ending February) :—
FINANCE — COMMERCE 803
Years
Revenue
Ex]K-ii<litun;
£
£
1886-87
168,377
142,368
1887-88
210,074
140,788
1888-89
202,270
183,550
1889-90
ijtask
205,100
1890-91
376,912
304,006
The estimated ordinary revenue for 1891-92 is 264,300/. (or with balance oi
fanner years, 469,991/.), and expenditure 406,275/., leaving a balance of
63,716/. Out of this amount "> new bridges are to be built for 37,400/.
Among the items of revenue are quit rents, 15,500/. ; transfer doe*, 23,000/. ;
md telegraphs, 17,300/. ; import dues, 100,000/. ; stamps, 37,000/. ;
native poll-tax, 13,000/.; and of expenditure, salaries, 42,841/.; police,
10,725/. : education, 30,120/. ; posts and telegraphs. 25,482/. : public m
82,935/. ; artillery, 4,730/.
The Republic has a debt of 70,000/. (1891), but possesses considerable
public property in land, buildings, bridges, telegraph-;, ke. (valued at
417,000/.), and in its share in the National Bank, amounting to 70,000/.
Bloerafontein has a municipal debt of 7,000/.
Defence.
Frontier measures about 900 miles ; of this 400 miles marches with Cape
Colony, 200 Basutoland, 100 Natal, and S.A. Republic 200 miles.
There are no fortifications on the frontier.
Every able-bodied man in the State above 16 and under 60 years of age is
compelled to take arms when called upon by his Field Cornet (equal to the
rank of a captain), when necessity demands it. The number of burghers
available is 17,381. A battery of artillery is stationed at the capital,
Bloemfontein ; 57 officers and men, with 300 passed artillerists, as a reserve.
Production and Industry.
The State consists of undulating plains, affording excellent grazing. A
comparatively small portion of the country is suited for agriculture, but a
considerable quantity of grain is produced. The number of farms in 1890 was
6,000, with a total of 24,675,800 acres, of which 250,600 were cultivate.!.
There were in the same year 248,878 horses, 276,073 oxen, 619,026 other
cattle (burthen), 6,619,992" sheep, 858,155 goats, and 1,461 ostriches.
Diamonds, garnets, and other precious stones are found in the Orange
State, and there are rich coal-mines ; gold has also been found.
Commerce-
As the exports and imports pass through the Cape and Natal ports, and
are included in the returns for these colonies, it is impossible to give any
statement of the value of the commerce. The imports have been estimated
at between 800,000/. and 1,000,000/. value, and the exports at 2,000,000/.
The principal export is wool, as also hides, diamonds, and ostrich feathers,
and considerable quantities of British produce are imported.
3 F 2
804 ORANGE FREE STATE
Communications.
The capital, Bloemfontein, is connected with Natal and the Cape Colony
by telegraph ; 1,500 miles of telegraph have been constructed. A railway
constructed by the State connects the Orange River with Bloemfontein, 120
miles. Lines are also in construction from Harrismith to connect with the
Natal railways, and from Bloemfontein to Harrismith and other parts of the
republic. There are roads throughout the districts, ox-waggons being the
principal means of conveyance.
Consul-General in London. — P. T. Blyth.
The money, weights, and measures are English. The land measure, ihc
Morgen, is equal to about 2-^ acres.
Statistical and other Books of Reference.
Census van den Oranje-Vrijstaat, opgenomen op 31 Maart, 1890. Bloemfontein, 1801.
Jepj.e's Transvaal Almanac and Directory for 1S89. Cape Town, 1880.
Johnston (Keith), Africa. London, 1884.
Norris-Xewman (C. L.), With the Boers in the Transvaal and Orange Free State. Loudon
1882.
Sandeman (E. F.), Eight Months in an Ox-Wagon. London, 1880.
Silver's Handbook to South Africa. 4th Kdition. London, 1891.
The Argus Annual and S. African Directory, 1S91. Cape Town, 1S91.
Trcllope (Anthony), South Africa. S vols. London, 1S7S.
Weber (Ernest de), Qnatre ans an pays des Boers. Paris, IvS-.'.
805
PARAGUAY.
( Rki'Uijlica i>ki. Paraguay.)
Constitution and Government.
Tin: Republic of Paraguay gained its independence from Spanish rok iu 1811,
an<l after a short government by two consuls, the supreme power was seised,
in 1815, by Dr. Jose Caspar Rodriguez Fran« ia, who exercised auto
sway as dictator till his death, September 20, 1840. Dr. Fraiuia*s reign was
followed by an interregnum, whieh lasted till 1842, when a National Congress,
meeting at the capita] Asuncion, sleeted two nephews of the Dictator, Don
.Mariano Koque Alonso and Don Carlos Antonio Lopez, joint consuls of the
Republic. Another Congress voted, March 13, 1844, s new Constitution, and,
March 14, elected Don Carlos Antonio Lopez sole Presideal ; he was continued
by another election, March 14, 1S57. At the death of Don Carlos, September
10, 1862, his son, Don Franeiseo Solano Lopez, bom 1823 led to the
Miuieine power. President Lopez, in 1864, began a dispute with the Govern-
ment of Brazil, the consequence of which was the entry of a Brazilian army,
united with forces of the Argentine Confederation and Uruguay, into the
Republic. June 1865. After a struggle of five years, Lopez was defeated and
killed at the battle of Aquidahan, March 1, 1870.
A new Constitution was proclaimed on November 85, 1870. The legisla-
tive authority is vested in a Congress of two Houses, a fhsistn and a House of
Deputies, the executive being entrusted to a President, sleeted for the term of
four years, with a non-active Vice-President at his side. The Senate and
Chamber of Deputies are elected directly by the people, the former in the ratio
of one representative to 12,000 inhabitants, and the latter one to 6,000 in-
habitants, though in the case of the sparsely populated divisions a greater
ratio is permitted. The Senators and Deputies receive each 200/. j>er annum.
■brut of the Republic. — Don Juan G. Gonzales, elected 1890.
The President exercises his functions through a cabiuet of responsible
ministers, five in number, presiding over the departments of the Interior, of
Finance, of Worship and Justice, of War, and of Foreign Affairs. The
President receives a salary of 1,900/., the Vice-President 960/., and each of
the ministers 600/. a year ; but the total administrative expenses sre stated not
to exceed 5,000/.
The country is divided into 23 counties (partidos\ which are governed by
chiefs and justices of the peace, assisted by municipal couucils.
Area and Population.
The area of Paraguay is 98,000 square miles. An enumeration made by the
Government in 1857 showed the population to number 1,337,439 souls. At
the beginning of 1873 the number of inhabitants, according to an official re-
turn (regarded as exaggerated), was reduced to 221,079, comprising 28,746
men and 106,254 women over fifteen years of age, with S6.079 children, the
enormous disproportion between the sexes, as well as the vast decrease of the
population, telling the results of the war. A very imperfect census of March
1. 1887, gives the population as 329,646 — 155,425 men and 174,220 women.
There are besides 60,000 semi-civilised and 70,000 uncivilised Indians. Of
foreigners in Paraguay in 1SS7, there were 5,000 Argentines, 2.000 Italians.
600 Brazilians, 740 Germans, 500 French, 400 Swiss, and 100 Knglish. The
country is divided into 23 electoral districts. The population of the capital,
Asuncion, was 24,838 in 1886 ; other towns are Villa Rica, 11,000 ; Concepcion,
806 PARAGUAY
11,000 ; San Pedro, 12,000 ; Luque, 8,000— including their districts. In 1887
there were 1,809 marriages, 9,365 births (65 per cent, illegitimate), and 4,463
deaths. In 1886 there were 100 immigrants ; in 1887, 563 ; in 1888, 1,064;
and in 1889, 2,395. In the first three months of 1891 there were 183 immi-
grants, of whom 52 were Italians, 36 Spaniards, and 35 French. Nearly three-
fourths of the territory was national property ; but in recent years most of it
has been sold, much of it in very large estates.
Religion, Instruction, and Justice.
The Roman Catholic Church is the established religion of the State, but
the free exercise of other religions is permitted. Education is free and com-
pulsory. In 1887 only 20 per cent, of the adult Paraguayans and 60 per cent,
of adult foreigners could read and write. There were in 1891 292 public elemen-
tary schools, with 18,944 pupils and 448 teachers. There are, besides, over 100
schools subsidised by the Council of Education, and at Asuncion there is a
National College, with 15 professors and 150 students. The amount spent by
Government on public instruction in 1890-91 was 314,615 dollars.
Asuncion has also a public library and five newspapers.
A High Court of Justice, and various inferior tribunals, with local magis-
trates, exercise judicial functions. In 1887, 1,091 persons were tried for offences,
51 of them for serious crime.
Finance.
The revenue of Paraguay in 1889-90 amounted to 4,124,674 pesos ; of this
sum, 1,419,881 pesos was derived from customs, 815,304 pesos from sales of
land and yrrbaJes, and 1,575,000 pesos from the sale of the national railway.
The expenditure was 4,252,797 pesos. For 1890-91 the revenue was 1,736,113
pesos, of which 1,183,426 pesos was derived from customs, 337,527 pesos from
the sale of land and ycrbales, and 215,160 pesos from stamps and other (lues.
The expenditure was 2,116,357 pesos.
The external debt on January 1, 1891, amounted to 23,701,045 pesos, in-
cluding the consolidated English debt annuity of 844,050/. The internal
debt at the same date was 724,485 pesos.
Defence.
The army, comprising infantry, cavalry, and artillery, maintained chiefly to
preserve internal order, consists of 82 officers and 1,345 men. Every citizen
from 20 to 35 years of age is liable to military service. There is a screw
steamer of 440 tons and 4 guns, and 2 small steamers on the river.
Production and Industry.
The number of honied cattle in Paraguay in 1891 was 861,954; horsea
99,693, mules and asses 4,621, sheej. 62,920, goats 14,656, pigs 10,778. The chief
agricultural products besides yerba and tobacco are, maize, rice, wheat,
mandioca, and cotton, barely sufficient* for home consumption. Only 158,100
acres were under cultivation in 1887 — viz. maize 58,800 acres, mandioca 41,400
acres, beans 22,300 acres, tobacco 16,300 acres, sugar 7,100 acre*, rice 3,400
acres, sundries 8,800 acres. In 1890 91 public lands and yrrhn/rs were sold
to the value of 324,873 dollars, and the rent of (lovernincnt forests and
lands was 12,653 dollars. Agricultural settlements or 'colonies,' of which
there are four, are assisted by the Government.
There are (1887) 1,198 factories, tanneries, mills, and houses of business.
with an aggregate working capital of 4,550,000 dollars, giving employment to
2,600 persons.
OOMMEBCI — MONKY AND < HKDIT
Commerce.
The total value of im}x>rts from all directions in 1888 wa>
dollars, exports 2,468,855 dollars: in 1889 imports 3,198,168 do
exports 2,183,381 dollars ; in 1890 11115* \|».its 2,9
dollars. The ehief imports are te.xti'n — Be* 1 <r .tut. bam Great Britain :
lire. About 48 per 1 >nt. of the total imports come from Britain,
The value of yerba male, or Paraguay tea, in 1887 was 520,116 pesos ; in
1888, 1,293,476 pesos ; in 1889, 976,641 pesos ; in 1890, 1,251,450 pesos
ether chief exports being tobacco, in 1887, 701,382 pesos: in 1888, 438,636
in 1889, 481,326 pesos ; in 1890, 615,310 pesos ; and bides and skins in
1887, 325,288 pesos ; in 1888, 219,183 pesos ; in 1889, 234,222 pesos ; in 1890,
323.244 pesos : timber in 1890, 34-
The British imports pass entirely through the territories of Brazil and the
Argentine Confederation, and there ■ no direct intercourse between Paraguay
■M the United Kingdom.
Communications.
In 1890, 2,950 vessels of 176, •'•'.■ tered the jwrt of Asuncion, and
■ hand. Of ti. iitered 3S1 of 126,563 tons
wen from abroad.
There is a railway of 127 miles (now in English hands). Receipts in 1887
amounted to 161,550 pesos, and the expenses to 111,837 1889 there
were 404,777 passengers. A concession was granted in 1887 for the extension
of the railway through the iflwtlwe ]>art of the Republic to the river Parana,
and another towards the Bolivian frontier. There is a line of telegraph at the
side of the railway : the national telegraph connects Asuncion wit:
in the Argentine Republic, and thus with the outside world ; ti 28,382
,res in 1890. The telephone is in ojieration at Asuncion, with
work of 625 miles of wire. Paraguay joined the postal union in 1881 ; in 1890
the number of post offices was 63 ; receipts 17.203 pesos ; letters, &c, trans-
mitted 539,513.
Money and Credit.
There are several banks in Paraguay. The National Bank of Paraguay
became the State Bank in July 1S90. By various special enactments it is
empowered to issue notes to the amount of 3,900,000 pesos, the actual amount
in circulation, June 15, 1891, being 2,758,000 pesos ; and the same enactments
have suspended the right of the holders of the notes of the banks of en
to payment in specie. For the formation of a metallic reserve the proceeds of
the sales of land and yerbales have been assigned together with a certain pro-
portion of the customs duties in gold. The Hypothecary Bank, formed for
the purpose of advancing small sums for agricultural purposes, has resolved to
issue hypothecary cedulas in notes of legal currency to the value of 3,000,000
These will 1-e received by the National Bank in payment of sums
due. On February 28, 1891, the accounts of the National Bank balanced at
10,317,194 dollars. Those of the Bank of Paraguay and Rio de La Plata
balanced at 7,057,781 dollars.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Paraguay, and the British eipaivalents,
are . —
Moaner.
• The Pe*o, or Dollar=\00 Centavos. Nominal value, 4*. ; real value, 3s.
808 PARAGUAY
Weights and Measures.
The Quintal . . . . = 101 '40 lbs. avoirdupois.
,, Arroba . . . . = 25-35 ,, ,,
,, Fanega . . . . = 1£ imperial bushel.
,, Sino (land measure) . = 69 g Engl. sq. yards.
,, Lcgua cuadrada . . — 12£ Engl. sq. miles.
Since the end of the war 1865-70, an extensive paper currency has been
introduced into the Republic. The weights and measures of the Argentine
Confederation and the currency of Brazil are also in general use.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Great Britain in Paraguay.
Envoy and Minister. — Hon. Francis J. Pakenham (resident at Buenos
Ayres).
Consul. — Dr. William Stewart.
2. Of Paraguay in Great Britain.
Consul- General in Great Britain. — Christopher James. Accredited May
14, 1884.
Consul in London. — A. F. Baillie.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Paraguay.
1. Official Publications.
Anuariii Estadistioo <lc la Republiea del Paraguay. Asuncion, 1890.
Jiraine-le-Co>ite, La Rcpublique de Paraguay. Bordeaux, 1889.
Criado (M. A.), Guide de l'etnigrant au Paraguay. Asuncion, 1889.
Mcnsage del Presidciite de la Republics, presentado al Congreso Legislativodela Naciou.
4. Asuncion, 1891.
Report by Consul Baker on Paraguay ill ' Reports of the Consuls of the United States.'
No. XXXIX. 1881. Washington, 1884.
Report by Mr. Pakenham on Paraguay, in No. 792 of ' Diplomatic and Consular Reports.'
London, 1890.
Report OD Paraguay in ; Deutsches Handels-Archiv.' 1891. Berlin.
Revue du Paraguay. Published monthly. Asuncion.
Hobre la cantidad de leguas de terrenos publiooa sproxiniadaiuente, la ealidad de elloa,
sus produociones, &c. : Infbrme por orden de 8. K. el Beflor Presidente de la Republics del
Paraguay. 4. Asuncion, 1871.
2. Nun-Official Publications.
Azara (Felix de), Voyages dans I'Amerique meridionale. Paris. 1809.
Demersay (L. A.), Hrstoire physique, eoonomique et politique uu Paraguay e1 des etab-
lissemeuls des .lesuites. -J vols. 8. Paris, 1. si U.
Du Qraty (Alfred), l^a Republique de Paraguay. 8. Bruxelles, L806.
h'iirster (Ileruhard), Einiges iiber Paraguay, in ' Deutsche Koloni&l-Zeitung,' November,
1S87.
Johnston (K.), Paraguay, in ' Oeographical Mag., '.Inly 1875. London, 18T6.
Kennedy (A. J.), La Plata, Brazil, and 1'araguay, during the War. 8. London, 1869.
Lambel, Le l'araguay. Tours, 1878.
Mansfield (Charles), I'aiaguay, Brazil, and the Plate. New Edition. Bj the Rev. Charles
Kingsley. 8. London, 1800.
Masterman(C. PA Be veil Eventful Years in Paraguay. 8. 2nd Edition. London, 1809.
Hulkali (M. c. and B. '1'.), Handbook to the EUver Plate Republics, Ac., and bite Republic*
of i rrugnaj and Paraguay. 8. London. 1886.
POM (Commander Thomas Q.), La Plata, the Argentine Confederation, and Para
Narrative of the Exploration of the Tributaries of the River La Plata and adjacent Co: 1 11 1 lies
during tiie ream 1868, L8M, 1866, and I860, under the orders of the United states Govern-
ment 8. New York, 1807,
Thompson (George), The Paraguayan War; with sketches ,,| tic lust. i\ . t Paraguay, and
of the manners and customs of the people, 8. London, 1809.
Toeppen (l)v. Hugo), llundert Tnge in Paraguay. Hamburg, 1S80.
Tichudi (.loh. Jak. von), Reisen dureh Sudainerikn. 'J vols. 8. Leipzig, 1800.
Washburn (Charles a.), The History . . f Paraguay. Wih notes ol personal observations.
-'vols. 8. Boston and New York, I B7 I.
808
PERSIA.
(Ik
Reigning Shah.
Nasr ed-din, horn Monday, 6 Safar, \.n. 1247 - 17 — 18 July.
1831 : eldest boh of Mohammed Shah; socoeeded to the throne at
tin- death of his father. Beptember 10, 1848. Coronation at
Tehentn. October 20, 1848.
Sons of the ShAli.
I. Muzafer ed-din, heir-apparent ( Valiahd), born 14 Jemadi
11. a. u. 1269= March 25, 1853, and has four sons and four
daughter.-.
II. Mas'ud, Zil es-Sultan, born 2u Safar 12 unary 5,
1850, and has live sons and four daughters.
III. Kamran, Naib es-Saltaneh, born 19 Zilkad.h 1272= July
22, 1 85*3. and has one son and three daughters.
IV. Salar es-Saltaneh, born 13 Jemadi II. 1299 = Ma;
V. Rukn es-Saltaneh, born 16 Rabi' II. 1301 =Februarv 11.
1883.
There are also thirteen daughters.
The royal family is very numerous : there are some thousands
of princes and princesses, but the official year-book only mentions
three brothers, three sisters, 140 uncles, great-uncles, and cousins
of the Shah.
The Shah of Persia- -by his official title, ' Shahinshah,' or king
of kings — is absolute ruler within his dominions, and master of
the lives and goods of all his subjects.
The whole revenue of the country being at their disposal,
recent sovereigns of Persia have been able to amass a large private
fortune. That of the present occupant of the throne is reported
to amount to five or six millions sterling, most of it represented
by diamonds, the largest, the Derya i Nftr, of 186 carats, and the
Taj i Mali, of 146 carats, and other precious stones, forming the
crown jewels.
The present sovereign of Persia is the fourth of the dynasty
of the Kajars, which took possession of the crown after a civil
war extending over fifteen years, from 1771) to 17(J4. The date
810
PERSIA
of accession of each of the four members of the reigning dynasty
was as follows : —
1. Agha Muhammed . . 1794
2. Fath Ali, nephew of Agha
Muhammed . . . 1797
3. Muhammed, grandson of Fath
Ali 1835
4. Nasi- ed-din,sonof Muhammedl848
It is within the power of the Persian monarchs to alter or to
overrule the existing law of succession, and to leave the crown,
with disregard of the natural heir, to any member of their
family.
Government.
The form of government of Persia is in its most important
features similar to that of Turkey. All the laws are based on
the precepts of the Koran, and though the power of the Shah is
absolute, it is only in so far as it is not opposed to the accepted doc-
trines of the Muhammedan religion, as laid down in the sacred book
of the Prophet, his oral commentaries and sayings, and the inter-
pretation of the same by his successors and the high priesthood.
The Shah is regarded as vicegerent of the Prophet (a great part
of the priesthood and descendants of the Prophet [Syeds] deny
this), and it is as such that he claims implicit obedience. Under
him, the executive government is carried on by a ministry, for-
merly consisting of but two high functionaries, the grand vizier
and the lord treasurer, but in more recent times divided into
several departments, after the European fashion. The depart-
ments at present represented in the ministry are — Interior, Fi-
nance, Foreign Affairs, War, Treasury, with mint, custom-house,
&c, Justice, Commerce (the last two are under one minister),
Public Instruction, Telegraphs, Mines (the last three are under
one minister), Posts, Religious Endowments (both under one
minister), Arts, Press, Arsenals — eleven ministers altogether.
There are also eight ministers without portfolios, and Amin ed-
dowleh, the Minister of Posts, is president of the whole Council
of nineteen ministers.
The country is divided into twenty-two large and ten small provinces,
which are governed by governors-general, who are directly responsible to the
central Government, and can nominate the lieutenant-governors of the districts
comprised in their own governments-general. Some of the governments-general
are very small, and do not hear subdivision into districts, &c. ; others are very
large, and comprise several provinces. Governors-general and lieutenant-
governors are generally called Hakim, the former also often have the title
of Wall; Ferman Ferma, ke. A lieutenant-governor is sometimes called
Naib el-Hukflmah ; one of a small district is a Zabit. Every town has a
mayor or chief magistrate called Kalantar, or Darogha, or Beglerbeggf
Every quarter of a town or parish, and every village, has a chief who
5!"
■
AREA AND POPULATION — RELIGION 811
called Kedkhoda. The-e officers, whose chief duty is the collection of the
revenue, are generally appointed by the lieutenant-governors, but som>
elected by the < ixi/jn<. Most of the governors have a vizir or a pishkar, a
man of experience, to whom are entrusted the accounts and the details of the
government. The chiefs of nomad tribes are called Ilkhani, Ilbeggi, WW,
Serdar, Sheikh, Tushmal : they are responsible for the collection of the
revenues to the governors of the province in which their tribe resides.
Area and Population.
According to the latest and most trustworthy estimates, the
country — extending for about 700 miles from north to south, and
for 900 miles from east to west — contains an area of 628,000
square miles. A vast portion of this area is an absolute
desert, and the population is everywhere so scanty as not to
exceed, on the average, twelve inhabitants to the square mile.
According to the latest estimates, based on personal observation
of travellers and statistics of the Persian Home Office, the popu-
lation of Persia numbered in 1881 : —
Inhabitants of cities 1,963,800
Population belonging to wandering tribes ' . . 1,909,800
Inhabitants of villages and countn -districts 3,780,000
Total population .... 7,653,600
The population in 1891 is estimated at about 9,000,000.
The number of Europeans residing in Persia does not exceed
800. '
The principal cities of Persia are: — Teheran, with 210,000
Tabriz, with 180,000; Ispahan, Meshed, each with 60,000
Barfurush, with 50,000; Kerman, Yezd, each with 40,000
Hamadan, Shiraz, Kazvin, Kom, Kashan, Resht, each with
25,000 to 30,000 inhabitants. Of the nomads 260,000 are Arabs.
720,000 Turks, 675,000 Kurds and Leks, 20.700 Baluchi* and
Gipsies, 234,000 Lore.
Religion.
Of the population about 8 millions belong to the Shia'h faith, 800,000
Sunnis, 9,000 Parsis (Guebres), 20,000 Jews, 43,000 Armenians, and 23,000
Xestorians.
The Mahometans of Persia are mostly of the sect called Shia'h, differing
to some extent in religious doctrine, and more in historical belief, from the
inhabitants of the Turkish Empire, who are called Sunni. The Persian priest-
hood (Edema) is very powerful, and works steadily against all progress. Any
person capable of reading the Koran and interpreting its laws mav act as a
priest (Mulla). As soon as such a priest becomes known for his just interpreta-
tion of the divine law, and for his knowledge of the traditions and articles of
faith, he is called a Mujtahid, a chief priest. There are many Mujtahids in
Persia, sometimes several in one town : there are, however, only four or five
whose decisions are accepted as final. The highest authority, the chief priest
812 PERSIA
oi' all, is the Mujtalud who resides at Kerbela, near Baghdad, and some con-
sider him the vicegerent of the Prophet, the representative of the Imam. The
Shah and the Government have no voice in the matter of appointing the
Mujtahids, but the Sheikh-el-Islam, chief judge, and the Imam-i-Jum'ah,
chief of the great mosque (Masjed-i-Jam'ah) of a city, are appointed by Govern-
ment. Under the Imam-i-Jum'ah are the pish nemaz or khatib (leader of
public prayers and reader of the Khutbeh, the Friday oration), the mu'azzin
(crier for prayers), and sometimes the Mutavalli (guardian of the mosque).
This latter, as well as the mu'azzin, need not necessarily be a priest. All
mosques and shrines have some endowments (wakf ), and out of the proceeds
of these are provided the funds for the salaries of the priests attached to them.
The shrines of some favourite saints are so richly endowed as to be able to
keep an immense staff of priests, servants, and hangers-on.
The Orthodox Armenians are under a bishop residing at Ispahan ; there
are also a few hundred Roman Catholic Armenians in Persia. There is a
wide tolerance exercised towards Armenians and Nestorians, Jews, and Parsis
in cities where Europeans reside ; in other places, however, the non-Mussulmans
suffer under great oppression.
Instruction.
There are a great number of colleges (inedresseh), supported by public
funds, in which students are instructed in religion and Persian and Arabic
literature, as well as in a certain amount of scientific knowledge ; and many
schools for children, while private tutors are very common, being employed by
all families who have the means. A polytechnic school with a number of
European professors, opened in Teheran forty years ago, has done much towards
introducing the knowledge of Western languages and science into Persia. There
are also military colleges at Teheran and Tabriz, lint the bulk of the popula-
tion are taught only to read the Koran.
Justice.
Justice is administered by the governors and their representatives, and by
the Sheikhs-el-Islam and the priesthood. The former administer justice
according to the Urf, the unwritten or common law ; the latter according to
the Shar , the written or divine law.
The dispensation of justice is always summary. At the end of April 1888
the Shah published a proclamation stating that henceforth no subject would
be punished except by operation of law, and that all subjects had lull liberty
as to life and property. But another proclamation published in June had
annulled the first as far as regards liberty of property.
Finance.
For the year 1839-40, before the reign of the present Shah, the total
receipts of the Persian Government in cash and kind amounted to 84,026,160
krans. The kraii then had a value of 12!>.V. and the revenue, therefore, was
equivalent to l,885,995A During the present Shah's reign the system of
collecting taxes has been greatly improved, and all the nomad tribes, which
were formerly more or leas independent, have been made to paj taxes. For
the year 1870-77 the revenues bad increased to f>0,700,000 krans, but the price
of silver having in the mean time fallen, the kran was then worth only 94,<&,
and the revenue was equivalent to 1,950,000/. Since then the revenue has
teadily increased, and amounted for 1888-89 to 54,487,630 krans (customs
DEFENCE — COMMERCE s 1 •' I
8,000,000 ; taxes in cash and kind (maliat) 45,295,850, posts ; telegraphs, mines,
mint, passports and various concessions 1,191,780), but the value of the krau
having fallen to 7*064 the iv venues of Persia, although nominally greater,
were actually len than they were fourteen years ago, and amounted to only
1,602,580/. With the risen the price of ntrta the value of the revenue for
1890-91 may be estimate.! at 1.775,000/.
The expenditure for th- year 1888-89 amounted to about 50,100,000
krans ; of this . ixp -nditure 18,000,000 were for the anny, 10,000,000 for
ponainnil. :J,000,000 for allowances to j>rinces. 600,000 for allowai.
members of the Kajar tribe, 800,000 for the Foreign Oflice, 5,000,000 for the
royal court, 500,000 for colleges, 1,500,000 for rivil _. '.30,000 for
local government exjtenses, 800,000 remission of revenue in ]KX>r districts :
the remainder was paid into the Shah's treasuiy.
About one-sixth of the receipts are constituted by payments in kind. The
whole revenue is raised by assessments upon towns, villages, and district*,
each of which baa to contribute ■ fixed sum, the amount of which is eh
from time to time by tax-assessors apj»ointed by the (Government. Almost the
entire burthen of taxation lies uj<on the labouring classes. The amount of
revenue collected from the Christian {ovulation, the .lews, and the Parsis, is
-mall. The ("overnment has no public debt.
Defence.
The Persian army, according to official returns of the Minister of War.
numbers 105,500 men, of whom 5,000 form the artillery (20 batt
54,700 the infantry (78 battalions), 25,200 the cavalry, regular and irregular,
and 7,200 militia (24 battalions). Of these troops, however, only half are
liable to lie called for service, while the actual number embodied — that is, the
standing army — does not exceed 24,500. The number liable to be called for
service is as follows : — Infantry. 35,400 ; irregular cavalry, but more or less
drilled, 3,300 : undrilled levies", 12,130 : artillery, 2,500 ; "camel artillery, 90 ;
engineers, 100 ; total, 53,520.
By a decree of the Shah, issued in July 1S75, it was ordered that the anny
should for the future be raised by conscription, instead of by irregular levies,
and that a term of service of twelve years should be substituted for the old
system, under which the mass of the soldiers were retained for life : but the
decree has never l>een enforced.
The organisation of the army is by provinces, tribes, and districts. A
province furnishes several regiments ; a tril>e gives one and sometimes two,
and a district contributes one. The commanding officers are generally selected
from the chiefs of the triWor district from which the regiment is raised. The
Christians, Jews, and Parsis, as well as the Mussulman inhabitants of the
Kashan and Yezd districts, are exempt from all military service. The army
has been under the training of European officers of different nationalities for
the last thirty years or more.
The navy consists of 2 vessels, built at Bremerhaven — the Pempolit, screw
Steamship, 600 tons, 450 horse-power, armed with four 3-inch guns ; and the
. i river steamer, on the river Karun, of 30 horse-power.
Commerce.
The principal centres of commerce are Tabriz, Teheran, and Ispahan ; the
principal ports, Bender Abbas, Liugah, and Bushire on the Persian Gulf, and
Enzeli, Meshed i Sar, and Beuder i Gez on the Caspian. There are no official
814
PERSIA
returns of the value of the total imports and exports ; the revenue from the
customs being, however, known, the approximate value of the commerce may
be calculated. The custom dues are for Europeans 5 per cent, ad valorem ;
for Persian subjects they vary from 3 per cent, to 8 per cent. The customs are
farmed out to the highest bidders, who generally make a good profit ; the farm
money, therefore, does not represent the actual sum taken for customs, which
latter sum, it is estimated, is 20 per cent, in excess. The following table shows
the farm money received by Government for the years 1880 to 1890, the esti-
mated amounts paid annually for customs, and the value of the imports and
exports, obtained by taking the average of the duty at 4 per cent, of the
value : —
Rate of
Estimated Totals
Estimated Value of j
Years.
Farm Money received
by Government.
Exchange
for the
Year.
of Customs Paid
Farm Money +
20 per cent.
Imports, and Ex- J
ports, Average Dutyi
taken at 4 per cent. \
ad valorem.
Tomans
£
Krans=jei
£
£
1880-81
708,629
257,700
274
309,240
7,731,000
1881-82
785,290
281,600
271
337,920
8,448,000
1882-83
807,770
281,400
28}
337,680
8,442,000
1883-84
814,000
280,700
29
336,840
8,421,000
1884-85
806,000
264,262
304
317,160
7,939,000
1885-86
838,000
250,150
334
300,000
7,500,000
1886-87
850,000
253,730
334
304,500
7,600,000
1888-89
800,000
235,294
34
282,400
7,060,000
1889-90
800,000
242,424
33
290,908
7,272,700
The imports consist mostly of cotton fabrics, cloth, glass, woollen goods,
carriages, sugar, petroleum, tea; coffee, drugs, &c. The exports principally
consist of dried fruits, opium, cotton and wool, silk, carpets, pearls, tu/quoiscs,
rice, &c.
The following figures have been obtained from Persian Gulf Consular
Reports and from reports published by the Persian Custom House : —
Imports
Exports
Bushire
Shiraz
Lingah
Bender Abbas
Tabriz (1888-89)
Persian Gulf, 1890
£
£
1,272,980
734,590
302,480
726,260
864,092
712,094
433,748
359,507
853,981
389,456
There are annually exported about 8,000 boxes of opium, valued at about
650,000/. The leading import into Bushire in 1890 was cotton goods,
735,092/. ; the leading exports, opium, 369,615/. ; raw cotton, 123,055/. ; and
tobacco, 43,785/. From Shiraz trie chief exports were opium, 407,692/. ; raw
cotton, 73,846/. ; hides and skins, 146,815/. Chief imports: cotton goods,
77,200/. ; sugar, 118,561/. Chief exports from Lingah : pearls, 246,577/. ;
cotton goods, 111,615/. ; grain and pulse, 43,269/. Imports : pearls, 256,539/.;
cotton goods, 123,154. Chief exports IV. mi [fender Aldus: opium, 127,708/.
Imports : cotton goods, 183,846/. ; tea, 92,808/. The share of Great Britain and
India in the trade of Persia in 1890 was : —
COMMERCE — MONEY AND CREDIT
815
-
Imports from
Exports to
Great Britain
India A Colonies
Great Britain
India 4 Colonies
Bushire .
Lingah .
Bender Abbas .
668,638
3,615
7,654
£
514,482
377,389
383,092
£
74,198
9,538
269
i
..::77
200,385
The transit trade of Persia, according to a British Foreign Office report,
amounted to 943,770/. for imports in 1884 (704,493/. from Great Britain), and
610,490/. in 1887 (471,700/. from Great Britain) ; for exports 303,970/. in 1877
(21,600/. to Great Britain).
The direct trade of Persia with the United Kingdom in each of the five
years 1886 to 1890 was as follows, according to the Board of Trade returns : —
-
KH
1887
MM
MM
1890
Exports from Persia
Imports of British
produce
£
85,027
120,368
£
103,420
149,865
£
102,232
194,432
169,751
309,334
£
104,475
362,669
The direct exports from Persia to Great Britain in 1890 consisted mainlv
of opium, valued at 19,955/., wheat 1,765/. in 1886, nil in 1887, 33,195/. in
1888, 55,454/. in 1889, and 17,765/. in 1890 ; pearl shells, 19,157 in 1890.
Cotton goods, of the value of 316,126/., and copper (wrought and unwrought)
10,210/., were the staple articles of British imports in 1890.
The number of vessels that entered Bushire in 1889 was 270 of 118,570
tons (141 of 109,404 tons British), besides native craft ; entered Lingah 967
vessels of 138,265 tons (245 of 157,050 tons British) ; entered Bender Abbas
460 vessels of 114,396 tons (96 of 61,187 tons British).
Money and Credit.
The Shah in 1889 granted a concession to Baron Julius de Reuter for the
formation of an Imperial Bank of Persia, with head office at Teheran and
branches in the chief cities. The bank was formed in the autumn of the same
year, and incorporated by Royal Charter granted by H.M. the Queen, and
dated September 2, 1889. The authorised capital is 4 millions sterling, which
may be increased. The bank has the exclusive right of issuing bank-notes —
not exceeding 800,000/. without the assent of the Persian Government. The
issue of notes shall be at first on the basis of the silver kran. The coin in
reserve for two years must be 50 per cent. , afterwards 33 per cent. The bank
has the exclusive right of working throughout the Empire the iron, copper,
lead, mercury, coal, petroleum, manganese, borax, and asbestos mines, not
already conceded. It started business in Persia in October 1889, in April 1890
took over the Persian business of the Xew Orienta Bank Corporation (London),
which had established branches and agencies in Persia in the summer of 1888,
and now has branches at Tabriz, Meshed, Ispahan, Shiraz, Bushire, Baghdad,
Basrah, and Bombay, and agencies at several other towns. The mining rights
have been ceded to the Persian Bank Mining Rights Corporation, Limited,
which was formed in April 1890.
816 PERSIA
Communications.
A small railway from Teheran to Shah Abdul-azim (six miles) was opened
in July 1888. Another from Mahmiidabad on the Caspian to Barfuriish and
Amol (twenty miles) is under construction. The former is in the hands of a
Belgian company, the latter is a private undertaking by a Persian merchant.
The river Karun at the head of the Persian Gulf has been opened to foreign
navigation as far as Ahwaz, and Messrs. Lynch Brothers are running a steamer
on it once a fortnight.
The only carriageable roads in Persia are Teheran-Kom and Teheran-
Kazvin, each about 91 miles, and on the latter mails and travellers are con-
veyed by post-carts. A concession for the construction of a cart road and the
establishment of a regular transport service from Teheran to Ahwaz was
granted to an English Company, and the road is now in construction.
Persia has a system of telegraphs consisting of about 4,150 miles of line.
with about 6,450 miles of wire, and 82 stations.
(a) 735 miles of line with three wires— that is, 2,205 miles of wire
between Bushire and Teheran — are worked by an English staff, and form
the 'Indo-European Telegraph Department in Persia,' an English Govern-
ment department, (b) 415 miles of line with three wires, 1,245 miles of
wire between Teheran and Julfa on the Russo-Persian frontier, are worked
by the Indo-European Telegraph Company, (c) About 3,000 miles of single
wire lines belong to the Persian Government, and are worked by a Persian
staff. During the year 1890-91, 120,072 messages were transmitted by the
English Government and Indo-European Telegraph Company's lines. The
average time of transmission of a message between Calcutta and England was
one hour and five minutes.
The first regular postal service, established by an Austrian official in
Persian employ, was opened January 1877. Under it mails are regularly
conveyed to and from the principal cities in Persia. There is a service
twice a week to and from Europe via Resht and Tiflis (letters to be marked
' via Russia '), and a weekly service to India via Bushire. There are 73
post offices, and during the year 1884-85 the Persian Post conveyed
1,368,835 letters, 2,050 post-cards, 302,620 newspapers and printed mat ter,
7,455 samples, and 173,995 parcels of a value of 304,721/. The receipts
were 13,611/., the expenses 12,870/.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
M( IN MY.
The monetary unit is the kran, a silver coin, formerly weighing 2S nak-
hods (88 grains), then reduced to 2(i nakhods (77 grains), now weighing
only 24 nakhods (71 grains) or somewhat less. The proportion of pore silver
was before the new coinage (commenced 1877) 92 to 95 per cent. : it was then
for some time 90 per cent., and is now about 89 J. per cent. The value of the
kran lias in consequence much decreased. In 1874 a kran had the value of I
franc, 25 being equal to 1/. ; in December 1888 a 1/. billon London was worth
84 trans. In the month of April 1888 a 1/. bill on London was worth 36£ to
:!7 krans. In consequence of the price of silver having risen, the value of a
kran is at present (December 1891) about 7 \<l, a 1/. billon London being wnith
32£ kr&ns,
DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATIVES
817
Coins issued by the Mint ^"j KrtSSl*
Copper:— -Ptf* 0185d.
Shdht = 2P4l 0 369d.
Two Shdhls=i PHI 0/38rf.
Four Shdhts = (l (Abbdssi) . . . lilM.
Silver :— Five Sf>dhts = 10 PM = \ Kran . . 1"84</.
Ten Skdhk = b Krdn .... 369'/.
One Krdn = 20 Shdhts .... 7 38rf.
Two Krdns Is. 2\d.
Five Krdns 3*. £d-
Five-shahi. ten-shahi, and five-krau pieces are rarely coined.
Gold :—
i Toman, £ Toman, 1 Toman, 2, 5 and 10 Tomans.
The Toman is nominally worth 10 Krdns ; very few gold pieces are in cir-
culation, and a gold Toman is at present worth 12 Krdns = 7s. 6%d.
Hints are reckoned in dinars, an imaginary coin, the ten-thousandth
part of a toman often krans. A krdn therefore = 1,000 dinars ; one shahi =
50 dinars.
We hts and Measures.
The unit of weight is the miskal (71 grains), subdivided into 24 nakhods
(296 grains) of 4 gandum (74 grain) each. Sixteen miskals make a sir,
and 5 sir make an abbassi, also called wakkeh, kervankeh. Most articles
are bought and sold by a weight called batman or man. The mans most
frequently in use are : —
Ma ,i-i- Tabriz = 8 A bbtU is
Ma>i-i-Xoh Abbdsst = 9 Abbdssts
Man-i-Kohnch (the old man)
Mtt*-i-Shdh=2 Tabriz Mans
-Ilcy = 4 ,,
Man-i-Bender Abbdsst
.\[an-i-Hdshcmi = \§ Mans of
Corn, straw, coal, &c, are sold by A"Aarr«r=100 Tabriz Mans
The unit of measure is the zar or gez ; of this standard several are in
u-r. The most common Ls the one of 40 '95 inches ; another, used in
Azerbaijan, equals 44 09 inches. A farsakh theoretically = 6,000 zar of
40 95 inches = 3 S 7 miles. Some calculate the farsakh at 6,000 zar of 4409
inches = 4 17 miles.
The measure of surface is jerib= 1,000 to 1,066 square zar of 40*95
inches =1,294 to 1,379 square yards.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Persia ix Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — Mirza Mahomet Ali Khan Ala-es-Sultaue, accredited
March 4, 1890.
Secretary. — Mirza Lutf Ali Khan.
Consul- General. —
2. Of Great Britain ix Persia.
Teherdn : Envoi!. Minister, and Consul-Gt-neral. — Sir Frank La-celle>,
K. I M.G. Appointed July 24, 1891.
Secretary.— R. J. Kennedy, C.M.G.
3 G
= 640 Miskdh
= 6 49 lbs.
= 720
= 7 30 „
= 1,000
= 1014 „
= 1,280
= 12 98 „
= 2,560
= 2596 „
= 840
= 852 „
720
= 116-80 „
00 Tabriz Mans
= 649-
818 PERSIA
Military Attache. — Lieut. Gen. T. E. Gordon, C.B., C.S.I.
Tabriz: Consul-General. — Colonel Charles Edward Stewart, C.B., C.M.G.,
CLE.
llcsht and Aslrabad : Consul. — H. L. Churchill.
Bushire : Political Resident and Consul-General. — Major A. C. Talbot,
CLE.
Meshed : Consul General. — Ney Elias, CLE.
Ispahdn : Consul. — J. A. Preece.
Muhamrah : Vice-Consul. — W. McDouall.
There are agents at Shiraz, Kermanshah, and Hamadan.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Persia.
1. Official Publications.
Report by Mr. Baring on the Opium Trade and Cultivation, 1881, >in ' Reports of lI.M.'s
Secretaries of Embassy and Legation.' Part I. And by Mr. Dickson on the Trade of Persia,
in Part VI. London, 1882.
Report by Mr. Herbert on the Present State of Persia, and her Mineral Resources, in
' Reports from H.M.'s Diplomatic anil Consular Officers.' Part IV. London, 18S6.
Eastern Persia : an Account of the Journeys of the Persian Boundary Commission,
1870-7-.'. 2 vols. 8. 1870.
Report for 1890 on the Trade of the Persian Gulf, in No. 940 of ' Diploinatfc and Consular
Reports.' London, 1891.
Re] >ort on the Trade and Industries of Persia, in No. 113 of 'Diplomatic and Consular
Reports.' 1887.
Report for 1890-91 on the Trade of Meshed, in No. 976 of ' Diplomatic and Consular
Reports.' London, 1892.
Trade of Persia with Great Britain, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom in the year 1890.' Imp. 4. London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Basseti (James), Persia, the Land of the Imans. London, 1880.
Benjamin (S. G. W.), Persia and the Persians. London, 1880.
Binning (R. B. M.), A Journal of Two Years' Travel in Persia, Ceylon, &v. 2 vols. s.
London, 1857.
Blarambern (General), Statistische Uebersicht von Persien. Vol. ii. of ' Journal of Russian
Geographical Society.' St. Petersburg, 1841.
Blau (Dr. O.), Commercielle Znsteinde Persiens. Berlin, I8f>8.
Brvgrch (Dr. H.), Reise der k. prenss. QeMndtsohafl nach Persien, lsoo.oi. •_' vols. s.
Leipzig, 1804.
C»/reon (Hon. G.), The Karon River. Proc. R.G.S. 1890.
Eastwick (B. B.), Journal of a Diplomat's Three Years' Residence iii Persia. 2 vols.
London, 1804.
F«Tter(J. J. P.), Caravan Journeys and Wanderings in Persia, Ac. S. London. 1866,
Plover (E. A.), Unexplored Baluchistan. London, 1882.
Oobineau (Ch. de), Lies religions et les philosophies de I'Asle oentrale. 8. Paris. (866.
Macgregor (Col. C. M.), Narrative of ft Journey tlirough the Province of Khorassan and
the North-West Frontier of Afghanistan in 187"). 2 vols. 8. London, 1879.
Malcolm (Sir John), History of Persia. 2 vols. 4. London, 1816. 2 vols. S. London.
1829.
Malcolm (Sir John), Sketches of Persian Life and Man m is. 2 vols. 8. London. I
Markham (Clements !{.), General Sketch ofthe History of Persia. S. London, 1874,
Polak (Dr. J. i:.). Persies, das Land mid seine Bewohner. 2 vols. s. Leipzig,
8>«f I (Lady), Glimpses of Life and Manners in Persia. 8. London, I860.
Stack (E.), Six Months in Persia. 2 vols. London, 1882.
Stolze {¥j and Andreas (F. C), Die llaudelsverhalt nisse Persiens, * Petorniann's Mil
tcilungen,' Krganzungsheft. No. 77. Got ha, lSS.'t.
Watson (R. Grant), A History of 1'ersia, from the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century
to the year 1868. 8. London, 1878.
Witt* (Dr. 0. J-), The Land ofthe Lion and Sun. S. London. L888.
WiH«(Dr. C. J.), Persia as it is. London, 1886.
819
PERU
| Kkih i;i.i« a DSL Pei
Constitution and Government.
1'iie Republic of Peru, formerly the most important of the Spanisti
Vicerovaltii.- in South America, issued it> declaration of indepen-
dence July 28, 1821 ; but it was not till after a war. protracted
till 1824, that the country gained in actual freedom from Spanish
rule. The Republic is politically divided into departments, and
the departments into provinces. The present Constitution, pro-
•lainied October 16, L856, was revised November 25, 18b(J. It i>
modelled on that of the United States, the legislative power
being vested in a Senate and a House of Representatives, the
Former composed of deputies of the provinces, in the proportion
of one for every 30,000 inhabitants or fraction exceeding 15,000,
Bind the latter of representatives nominated by the electoral
colleges of the provinces of each department, at the rate of two
when the department has two provinces, and one more for every
other two provinces. The parochial electoral colleges choose
deputies to the provincial colleges, who in turn send represen-
tatives to Congress, and elect the municipal councils as well.
The executive power is entrusted to a President. There are
two Vice-Presidents, who take the place of the President only in
case of his death or incapacity, and they are elected for four years
President of the Pejmblic. — Colonel Remigio Morales Bennu-
dez, appointed August 10, 1890.
Vice-Presidents. — Senor Pedro Solar and Colonel Bergono.
The President has to exercise Ids executive functions through
a Cabinet of five ministers, holding office at his pleasure. None
of the President's acts have any value without the signature of a
minister.
Area and Population.
It i-, estimated that 57 per cent, of the population of Peru are al*ni_
or •Indians,' and that 23 per cent, belong to mixed races, '('holds' and
' Zainl>os. ' The remaining 20 per cent, are chiefly descendants of Spaniards,
the rest including, l«esides 18,000 Europeans, 50,000 Asiatics, chiefly Chinese.
At the enumeration of 1876 the i>opulation of the capital, Lima, was returned
at 101,488, Callao 33,502, Areciuipa 29,237, Cuzeo 18,370.
3 g 2
820
PERU
The Republic is divided into nineteen departments, the area and
population of which were reported as follows at the last census taken (in
1876) :—
Departments
Area :
English
square miles
Population
Departments
Area :
English
square miles
Population
Piura .
Cajamarca .
Aniazonas .
Loreto
Libertad .
Ancachs
Lima ■. . |
Callao . /
Huaucavelica
Huanuco . \
Junin . . /
13,931
14,188
14,129
32,727
15,649
17,405
14,760
10,814
33,822
135,502 -
213,391
34,245
61,125
147,541 i
284,091 !
1 226,922 J
\ 34,492 1
104,155 1
/ 78,856
\ 209,871
lea
Ayacuclio .
Cuzco .
Puno .
Arequipa .
Moquegua .
Apurimac .
Lambayeque
Total .
6,295
24,213
95,547
39,743
27,744
22,516
62,325
17,939
60,111
142,205
238,445
256,594
160,282
28,786
119,246
85,984
463,747 2,621,844
There are besides about 350,000 uncivilised Indians.
No recent census has been effected, but it is believed that the population
is nearly stationary owing to the great infant mortality in the lower classes,
as well as to small-pox and alcoholism among the Indians.
As a result of the war with Chile, the latter country has annexed the
province of Tarapaca. The Chilians also occupy the department of Tacna
for ten years, after which a popular vote is to decide to which country it is to
belong.
Religion.
By the terms of the Constitution there exists absolute political, but not
religious freedom, the charter prohibiting the public exercise of any other
religion than the Roman Catholic, which is declared the religion of the State.
But ] iractically there is a certain amount of tolerance, there being in Callao
and Lima Anglican churches as well as Jewish synagogues. At the census ol
1876 there were 5,087 Protestants, 498 Jews ; other religions, 27,073.
Instruction.
Elementary education is compulsory fot both sexes, and is free in the
public schools that atfe maintained by the municipalities. High schools are
maintained by the Government in the capitals of the departments, and in
some provinces pupils pay a moderate fee. There is in Lima a.eentral univer-
sity, called ' Umversidad de San Marcos,' the most ancient in America : its
charter was granted by the Bmperor Carlos V. ; it has faculties of juris-
prudence, medicine, political science, theology, and applied science. Lima
possesses a school Ol mines and civil engineering, created in 1874, with good
collections ami laboratories. There are in the capital and in some of the
principal towns private high schools under the direction of English, German]
and Italian stall's. Lima has also a public library, with a rich collection,
besides the one of the university and school id' mini's. There are two minor
universities at Cuzco and A reipiipa.
FINANCE
821
Finance.
The public revenue was until recently mainly derived from
he sale of guano, and from customs. Direct taxation exist> in
wo forms, there being a poll-tax, at the rate of 4 soles on the
•oast and 2 in the inland departments per annum, for every man
)et\veen 21 and 60 years ; a tax is levied too, at the rate of 3 per
:ent., on the rent derived from real property. Of the actual
•e venue and expenditure of the Government there were until
recently no official returns, but it is known that there were large
mnual deficits, the profits from the sale of guano not proving
Sufficiently large to cover the cost of immense public works, in-
cluding a railway to the summit of the Andes, besides the payment
of interest of a Luge debt.
The following is an official statement of the actual revenue and
expenditure for the year ending May 31, 1890 : —
Revenue
Expenditure
Soles
Customs .
. 4,995,945
Congress .
253,459
Direct taxes .
. 914,150
Government .
759,533
Railways .
36,307
Ministry Foreign Affairs
220,807
Post Office
. 156,352
„ Justice
412,580
Telegraphs
30,652
,, Hacienda .
1,076,632
Other receipts .
. 310,023
,, Army and Xav\
2,257.'.'::
Balance from previous y
ear 513,921
To cover suppl. ire«lit o
f
previous year
753,916
Total .
Various .
Total
. 339,062
. 6,957,350
6,073,966
Surplus .
. 883,384 ,
The revenue for 1891 is stated at 8,232,294 soles, and ex-
penditure at 7,628,895 soles, leaving after all existing obligations
are satisfied a balance of 4,987 soles. The revenue from customs
was 5,367,069 soles.
Peru has a considerable public debt, divided into internal and
external. The internal liabilities (1888) were estimated officially
at over 109,287,000 soles, excluding 83,747,000 soles paper money,
the paper sole being equivalent to only 2hd. The outstanding
foreign debt is made up of two loans, contracted in England in
187ii and 1872 :—
Foreign Loan
Railway 6 per cent, loan of 1870
,, 5 i>er cent, loan of 1872
Outstanding Principal
£
. 11,141,580
. 20,437,500
Total
31,579,080
822 peru
The two loans of 1870 and 1872 were secured on the guano
deposits (now in possession of Chile) and the general resources of
Peru. No interest has been paid on the foreign debt of Peru
since 1876 ; an arrangement was made in 1882 with Chile by
which a percentage of the guano deposits should be paid as
interest to the bondholders ; and a small amount was transmitted
to England in 1883, but it was not till January 1890 that the
bondholders' claims were settled by an arrangement with the
Chilian Government securing certain gnano deposits, the estimated
value of which is 2,250,000^. This settlement, however, has not
yet (January 1892) been fulfilled. The interest arrears of Peru
amount (1889) to 22,998,65U. In January 1890 what is known
as the Grace Donoughmore contract was finally ratified. By this
the English Council of Foreign Bondholders releases Peru of all
responsibility for the 1870 and 1872 debts, on condition that the
bondholders have ceded to them all the railways, guano deposits,
mines, and lands of the State for 66 years. The bondholders
undertake to complete and extend the existing railways.
Defence.
The army of the Republic is composed of six Itattalions of infantry,
numbering 2,400 men ; of two regiments of cavalry, numbering 600 men :
of two brigades of artillery, numbering 500 men ; and of a gendarmerie of
2,400 men, forming a total of 5,900 men.
The Peruvian navy now consists of one cruiser of 1,700 tons displace-
ment, one steamer, and one training frigate.
Industry.
The staple productions of Peru are cotton, coffee, cocoa, rice, sugar,
tobaeco, wines and spirits, maize; these products might be increased con-
siderably with a good system of irrigation on the coast. Besides the above.
articles "there are in the country india-rubber, cinchona, dyes, medicinal
plants and balms, ami the highly appreciated wool of t lie alpaca ami vicuna.
The guano deposits arc to a great extent exhausted, and the nitre province of
Tarapaca now belongs to Chile.
The total number of mines held in Peru in 188(5 was 1,45(5; in 1889,
2,599; in 1890, 2,911 ; in 1891, 4,187. Of the mines claimed in 1891, 127
were gold mines of washings, Ki gold and silver, 2,641 silver, 18 silver ami
copper, 25 silver and lead, zinc, or quicksilver, 28 copper, 20 quicksilver,
618 petroleum, 278 coal, 60 salt, 14 sulphur, 17 various. Cold is found in
16 of the 19 departments of Peru, but mining operations arc now, in general.
attended with little success. Many gold fields have been abandoned or arc
worked only by natives. In the department of Junin the mines of Cerro oV
I'asco, a ridge of gravelly sand, yield 81 to 52 grm. to the metric ton. The
Montes Claros mines in Aroquips arc worked by a company mostly with
English capital, and good results are expected. The most important silver
mini's in active working are those at Cerro de I'asco, Castrovireina, and
Recuay. Peru produced in 1*87, 110,000 kilogrammes, and in 1888, 120,000
COMMERCE 823
kilogrammes of fine si'ver, including that contained in the silver ore exported
in those years (10,705 tons and 12,500 tons respectively). In 1889, 86,019
kilogrammes of silver were coined, valve 2,842,530 -
Commerce.
Tli.' foreign couiuasree of Pern is chiefly with Qreat Britain, an I with
Gerauuiy during recent years; it is cirri- 1 <m from SCTera] puts, of which
the principal are Callao, Paita, Eton, Sdaverry, ('him ItoUendo,
and Ariea.
The exports to Great Britain in 1390 were value 1 at about 5,486,500
•lie articles being chiefly sugar, c >ttonv an I wooL Daring the last
quarter of 1890, the total export <>!' sugar was valued at 1,153
cotton, 453,327 soles : Bheep's and other wool, 106,12-3 soles : hides, 13,451
soles; silver an 1 lead ores, 428,812 soles: liar-gold, 4,353 soles; silver in
various forms, 1,788,377 soles: medicinal products, 11,614 soles; wines and
spirits, 119,160 soles: straw hats and other minufactured articles, 227,886
■Otes— total for the three months, 2,950,785 soles. The imports for the sam •
period amounted to 3,025,030 soles, one-third being from Great Britain
The receipts at the Callao custom-house amounted, in 1890, to 4,267,870
Spies, whilst the corresponding receipts in 1889 amounted to 3,283,569 soles.
At the port of Paita in 1890 the imports amounted to 989, B2 >tton
goods, 335.361 soles), and the exports to 1,540,373 soles (cotton, 867,267
The commercial intercourse between Peru an I the United Kingdom- is
shown in the subjoined tabular statement, for each of the yean from 1886
to 1890 :—
& & £. I £.
Exports from Peru . 1,665,121 1,640,176 1,900,563 1,293,777 1,053,604
Imports of British
produce . . 864,067 717,121 1,148,611 958,299 1,123,395
The value of exports previous to 1889 are probahly too large, owing to
the cubic nitre from the province of Tarapaoa, now belonging to Chile.
being included. It is doubtful if any nitre is now exported from Peru. A
similar mistake has probably been made with other exports, if not also
with imports.
During the year 1876 and from 1886 to 1890 the quantities and value of
the exports of guano from Peru to Great Britain were as follows : —
— 1876 1886
1887
1888
14,081
122,324
1889
1890
Quantities, tons 156,864 27,863
Value . £ 1,966,068 206,974
5,784
46,648
6,064
34,308
nil
nil
The exports of nitre were, according to the Board of Trade returns (which
an- certainly incorrect, at least previous to 1889), as follows in each of the
years from 1886 to 1890 : —
-
1886 1887 ISS8
1389
74,569
36,148
1890
Quantities, cwts.
Value
. 1,112,819 1,355,581 1,773,135
£ 552,950 642,348 848,180
nil
nil
824 PERU
The value of the exports of sugar was 512,112?. in 1874 ; 1,380,622?. in
1879 ; 279,088?. in 1887 ; 369,369?. in 1888 ; 560,599?. in 1889 ; 412,246?. in
1890. The export to Great Britain of sheep and alpaca wool was of the
value of 236,358?. in 1886 ; 276,613?. in 1887 ; 222,182?. in 1888 ; 325,205?.
in 1889 ; 272,233?. in 1890. Raw cotton was exported to the value of 191,244?.
in 1886 ; 131,345?. in 1887 ; 204,682?. in 1888 ; 192,537?. in 1889 ; 233,898?.
in 1890 ; and copper un wrought or part wrought, of the value of 356,896?. in
1878; 17,131?. in 1886; 7,186?. in 1887; 30,660?. in 1888; 18,883?. in
1889 ; 32,602?. in 1890. Silver ore, 82,120?. in 1887 ; 45,229?. in 1888 ;
48,820?. in 1889 ; 28,678?. in 1890.
The imports from Great Britain to Peru of cotton goods amounted to
395,547?. in 1886 ; 291,955?. in 1887 ; 491,876?. in 1888 ; 376,398?. in 1889 ;
429,281?. in 1890. Of woollens the imports were of the value of 157,258?. in
1886; 113,133?. in 1887 ; 152,812?. in 1888 ; 124,195?. in 1889 ; 129,373?.
in 1890. Iron, wrought and unwrought, 99,715?. in 1890 ; machinery,
52,336?.
Shipping and Navigation.
In 1890 556 vessels of 533,467 tons (231 of 261,608 tons British) entered
the port of Callao, besides 724 coasting vessels of 8,196 tons. The port of
Mollendo was visited in 1890 by 303 vessels of 402,378 tons (121 British of
159,694 tons).
The merchant navy of Peru now (1891) consists of 1 steamer of 2,048
gross tonnage and 35 sailing vessels of 8,957 tons ; and it is expected that
the increase will be progressive, as, according to a concession contained in
the law of November 9, 1888, foreigners are allowed to own vessels carrying
the Peruvian Mag.
Internal Communications.
In 1889 the total working length of the Peruvian railways was reported
as 1,625 miles. The Peruvian railways, including those ceded to Chile, cost
about 36 million sterling.
The length of State telegraph lines in 1889 was 1,564 miles. The tele-
graph cable laid on the west coast of America has stations at Paita, Callao.
Lima, and Mollendo, and thus Peru is placed in direct communication with
the telegraphic system of the world. A telephone system is in operation
between Callao and Lima.
In 1887, 1,833,689 letters, post-cards, journals, &c, passed through the
Post Office ; there are 230 offices.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Peru, and the British equivalents,
are : —
Monky (Sii.yki: Coins).
The Sole . . = \00 eentrsiw oft ; nominal value, 4&; real value, 3a. \<l.
,, Medio Sole —50 ,,
,, Peseta . = 20 ,,
,, Ileal . . — 10 ,,
,, . Medio Real = 5 ,,
The paper sole was (1890) wortli about 2.V. In the beginning of 1888
the paper money was withdrawn from circulation, excepl as paymenl of •"> pet
cent, of customs duties, at the rate of 35 paper soles tor one ol silver.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFER KNC1
Weights ani> MSASI
The Otinee = 1'014 ounce avoirdupois.
„ Libra . = 1014 lb
„ Quintal . = 10144 lbs.
Arroba i °f 25 P°un,ls = 25'36 »
" Arro a y of wine or spirits = 670 imperial gallons.
illon . . . . = 074 ,, gallon.
,, Van . = 0'927 yard.
,, Square Vara . — 0-859 square yard.
The French metric system of weights and measures was established by
law in 1860, bat has not yet come into general use, except for the eat
tariff.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Peri- in Great Britain.
iter. — General Andres Avelino Caceres.
iry. — Wenceslao Mclend»-z.
hi. — Edward Ford North.
Consul-General in London, — F. A. Pezet.
Consul. — A. R. Robertson.
There are Consular representatives at Belfast, Cardiff, Dublin, Dundee,
Glasgow, Liverpool, t^ueenstown, Southampton, Gibraltar, Hong Kong. Mel-
l>ounie, Montreal, Port Elizabeth, Sydney.
2. Of Great Britain in Peru.
isUr and Consul-General. — Sir Charles Edward Mansfield, K.C M.G.
Appointed December 24, 1884.
There are Consular representatives at Callao, Paita, Arequipa, Mollendo,
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Pern.
1. Official Publication-.
Demarcacion politica del Peru. Edicion oficial de la direccion de estadistica. Fol.
Lima, 1ST4.
Paz Solian (Mariano Felipe), Diccionario geogrifico-estadisrico del Peru : Conriene
ademas la etimolocia Avmara v Quechna de las principales poblaciones, lagos, rios, eerros
Ac 8. Lim
Raimondi (Antonio). El Peru. 3 vols. Published at Lima, 1874.
Report by Sir C. Mansfield on the auriferous deposits of Peru. Xo. 167 of 'Reports on
Subjects of General and Commercial Importance.' 1890.
Reports on the Trade of Callao, Piura. Arequipa, and Lima, in ' Dentsches Handels-
Archive' for July. August, October 1891. Berlin, 1891.
Reports on the Trade of Callao and Mollendo in 1890 in Nos. 879 and 916 of ' Diplomatic
and Consular Reports." Loudon, 1891.
Trade of Peru with Great Britain, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the rear 1890.' Imp. 4.
London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Albertini (L. E.). Perou en 187S. Paris, 1878.
Batet (H. W. ). Central and South America. London, 1882.
Ckerot (A.), Le Perou : Productions, guano, commerce, finances, Ac S. Paris, 1876.
Vuffield (A.). Peru in the Guano Age. 8. London, 1877.
Fvrnfrt (Manuel A). Lima, or Sketches of the Capital of Pern: Historical. Statistical.
Administrative, Commercial, and Moral. S. London, 1866.
826 PERU
Grandidier (E.), Voyage dans l'Amerique du Sud, Perou et Bolivie. 8. Paris, 1863.
Ouillaume (H.), The Amazon Provinces of Peru as a Field for European Emigration.
London, 1888.
Hill (S. S.), Travels in Peru and Mexico. 2 vols. 8. London, 1860.
Hutchinson (T. J.), Two Years in Peru. 2 vols. 8. London, 1874.
Markham (C. R.), Cuzco and Lima. London, 1858.
Markham (C. R.), Peru. 1881.
Markham (C. R.), The War between Peru and Chili, 1879-81. London, 1883.
Markham (Clements R ), Travels in Peru and India, while superintending the Collection
of Cinchona Plants and Seeds in South America, and their Introduction into India. S.
London, 1862.
Menendez (D. Baldomero), Manuel de geografia y estadistica del Peru. 12. Paris, 1862.
Paz Soldan (Mariano Felipe), Historia del Peru Independente. 3 vols.
Prescott (W. H.), History of the Conquest, of Peru. London.
Squier (E. G.), Peru : Incidents of Travels and Exploration in the Land of the Ineas. S.
London, 1877.
Temple (Edmond), Travels in various Parts of Peru. 2 vols. London, 1830.
The Railways of Peru in 1873. 8. London, 1874.
2'nchudi (Joh. Jakob von), Reisen durch Siidamerika. 6 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1866-68.
Vrsel (Comte C. d'). Sud Ameriqne : Sejours et voyages au Bresil, en Bolivie, et au Perou.
12. Paris, 1879.
Wappaeu* (Joh. Eduard), Die Republic Peru ; in Stein's ' Handbuch der Geographie und
Statistik.' Part III. 8. Leipzig, 1864.
Wiener (Charles), Perou et Bolivie. Paris, 1880.
887
PORTUGAL.
(REINO DE PORTUGAL E AlGABVES.)
Reigning King.
Carlos I., born September 28, 1863, son of King Luis Land
his Queen Pia, daughter of the late King Vittorio Emanuele of
Italy, who still survives ; married, May 22, 1886, Marie Amalie,
daughter of Philippe Due d'Orleans, Comte de Paris ; succeeded to
the throne October 19, 1889.
Children of Hie King.
I. Luis Felippe, Duke of Braganza, born March 21, 1887.
II. Manuel, born November 15, 1889.
Brotlier of tlte King.
Prince Affonso, Duke of Oporto, born July 31, 1865.
Aunt of the King.
Princess Antonia, born February 17, 1845; married, Septem-
ber 12, 1861, to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, born
September 22, 1835. Offspring of the union are three sons : —
1. Prince "Wilhelm, born March 7, 1864. 2. Prince Ferdinand,
born August 24, 1865. 3. Prince Karl, born September 1,
1868.
The reigning dynasty of Portugal belongs to the House of Braganza,
which dates from the commencement of the fifteenth century, at which period
Affunso, an illegitimate son of King Joao, or John I., was created by his
father Duke of Braganza and Lord of Guimaraens. When the old line of
Portuguese kings, of the House of Avis, became extinct by the death of King
Sebastian, and of his nominal successor, Enrique 'the Cardinal.' Philip II.
of Spain took possession of the country, claiming it in virtue of his descent
from a Portuguese princess ; but in disregard of the fundamental law of the
Kingdom, passed by the Cortes of Lamego in 1139, which excluded all foreign
Srinces from the succession. After bearing the Spanish rule for more than
alf a century, the people of Portugal revolted, and proclaimed Dom Joao,
the then Duke of Braganza, as their king, he being the nearest heir to the
throne, though of an illegitimate issue. The Duke thereupon assumed the
name of Joao IV., to which Portuguese historians appended the title of ' the
Fortunate.' From this Joao, through many vfrasBXtades of family, the
patent rulers of Portugal are descended. For two centuries the members of
828
PORTUGAL
the line of Braganza kept up the ancient Mood alliances with the reigning
house of Spain ; but the custom was broken through by the late Queen
Maria II., who, by a union with a Prince of Coburg, entered the great family
of Teutonic Sovereigns. Carlos I. is the third Sovereign of Portugal of the
line of Braganza-Coburg.
Carlos I. has a civil list of 365,000 milreis ; while his consort has a
grant of 60,000 milreis. The whole grants to the royal family amount to
571,000 milreis.
The following is a list of the Sovereigns of Portugal since its conquest
from the Moors : —
I. House of Burgundy.
Henri of Burgundy
Affonso I., 'the Conqueror'
Sancho I., 'the Dexterous'
Affonso II., 'the Fat'
Sancho II., ' Capel '
Affonso III.
Diniz, ' the Farmer ' .
Affonso IV., 'the Brave'
Pedro, ' the Severe '
Ferdinando I., 'the Hancl-
1 1 . House of Av is.
Joan I., 'the Great ' .
Eduardo
Affonso V. , ' the African '
Joan II., 'the Perfect'
Manoel
Joan III.
Sebastian,
Enrique, '
' the Desired '
the Cardinal '
A.r>.
1095
1112
1185
1211
1223
1248
1279
1325
1357
1367
1385
1433
1438
1481
1495
1521
1557
1578
III. Interval of Submission to Spain.
Philip II 1580
A.D.
Philip III 1590
Philip IV 1623
IV. House of Braganza.
Joan IV., 'the Fortunate' 1640
Affonso VI. ... 1656
Pedro II 1683
Joan V 1706
Jose 1750
Maria I. and Pedro III. . 1777
Maria 1 1786
Joan Jose, Regent . . 1796
Joan VI 1816
Pedro IV 1826
Maria II 1826
Miguel 1 1828
Maria II., restored . . 1834
V. House of Braganza-Colmrg.
Pedro V.
Luis I.
Carlos I.
1853
1861
1889
Constitution and Government.
The fundamental law of the Kingdom is the ' Constitutional
Charter ' granted hy King Pedro IV., April 29, 1826, and altered
by an additional Act, dated July 5, 1852. The crown is heredi-
tary in the female as well as male line ; but with preference of the
male in case of equal birthright. The Constitution recognise*
four powers in the State, the legislative, the executive, the judicial,
and the ' moderating ' authority, the last of which is vested in the
Sovereign. There are two legislative < 'handlers, the ' < !amara dos
Pares,' or House of Peers, and the ' Camara dos Deputados,' or
House of Commons, which are conjunctively called the Cortes
Geraes. The law of July 24, 1885, abolishes hereditary peerages,
though only by a very gradual process. The number of life peers
appointed by the King will be 100, not including princes of the
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT
royal blood and the 12 bishops of the Continental dioceses. Until
such time as the life peers are reduced to 100 in number, the King
can only appoint 1 peer for every 3 vacancies that take place.
Peers living at the time when the law was passed, and their
immediate successors, will continue to enjoy the right of sitting in
the Chamber of Peers. There will be 50 elective peers, who must
be chosen from one of the classes from which the King, under the
law of May 3, 1878, may select life peers. They must possess
certain property qualifications, and be over 35 years of age. Five
of these peers mentioned above are to be chosen indirectly by the
University of Coimbra and certain other Portuguese scientific
bodies. The delegates to meet at Lisbon. The remaining 45 peers
will likewise be chosen indirectly by the different administrative
districts. The delegates for Lisbon will return 4 peers ; those for
Oporto, 3 ; those for the other districts, 2 each. The members of
the second Chamber are chosen in direct election, by all citizens
twenty-one years of age who can read or write, possessing a clear
annual income of 100 inilreis, and by heads of families ; electors
must register themselves. The deputies must have an income of
at least 390 milreis per annum ; but lawyers, professors, physicians,
or the graduates of any of the learned professions, need no
property qualification. Continental Portugal is divided into
ninety-four electoral districts, which, with Madeira and the
Azores, return 149 deputies, or 1 deputy to 30,540 people. Each
deputy has a remuneration of about 2i milreis a day during the
session. The annual session lasts three months, and fresh elections
must take place at the end of every four years. In case of dis-
solution a new Parliament must be called together immediately.
The General Cortes meet and separate at specified periods, without
the intervention of the Sovereign, and the latter has no veto on a
law passed twice by both Houses.
The executive authority rests, under the Sovereign, in a resi>onsible
Cabinet, divided into seven departments, in charge of the following ministries,
appointed January 1892 : —
1. Premier and Minister of the Interior cuid Public Instruction. — Senhor
Jose Dias Fcrreira.
2. Finance. — Senhor Olireira Martins.
3. Foreign Affairs. — Senhor Costa Lobe.
4. Public Works. — Viscount Chancclleiro*.
5. Justice. — Mgr. Antonio Ayres de Gouveia.
6. War. — General Pinheiro Furtado Coelho.
7. Marine. — Captain Fcrreira do Amaral.
The Sovereign is permitted, in important cases, to take the advice of a
Council of State, or Privy Council, consisting, when full, of thirteen ordinary
and three extraordinary members, nominated for life. The leading ministers,
past and present, generally form part of the Privy Council.
830
PORTUGAL
Area and Population.
Continental Portugal is divided into six provinces and seven-
teen districts ; in addition there are the Azores and Madeira,
which are regarded as an integral part of the Kingdom. The
area, according to the latest official geodetic data, and population,
according to the census of January 1, 1878, and an official
estimate for 1881, are given in the following table. The
results of the census of November 30, 1890, are not yet avail-
able.
Provinces and Districts
Area in
sq. miles
Population
1878
1881
Entre Minho-c-Douro : —
Viaima do Castello ....
Braga . . . . . . .
Porto
867
1,058
882
201,390
319,464
461,881
211,539
336,248
466,981
2,807
982,735
1,014,768
Tras-os-Montes : —
Villa Real
Braganza ......
1,718
575
224,628
168,651
225,090
171,586
2,293
393,279
396,676
Beira : —
Aveiro ......
Vizeu .......
Coimbra ... .
Ouarda ......
Castello Bianco .....
1,124
1,920
1,500
2,146
2,558
257,049
371,571
292,037
228,494
173,983
270,266
872,208
307,426
334,368
178,164
9,248
1,323,134
I.'. 7 7, 432
Kstrcinadura : —
Leiria ......
Santarcm
Lislwn
1,343
2,651
2,882
192,982
220,881
498,059
199,645
227,948
518,884
6,876
911,922
946,472
Alrllltt'jo : —
Portalegic . . . . .
Evora
2,484
2,738
4,209 |
!», i:;i
101,126
106,858
142,119
105,247
ii2,j
149, 1ST
350,103
867,169
Carried forward . . . . |
89,868
3,961,173
4,102,517
AREA AND POPULATION'
831
Provinces and Districts
Area in
sq. miles
Population
vm
Brought forward
Algarve (Faro)
30,655 3,961,173 4,102,517
1,873 ; 199,142 204,037
Total Continent ....
32,528
4,160,315
4,306,554
Islands : —
Madeira (Funchal) ....
1,005
505
259,800
130,584
269,401
13-J
Total Islands ....
1,510
390,384
401,624
< I rand total ....
34,038
4,550,699
4,708,178
The {Herniation increased only 4*1 per cent, in the nine years
from 1869 to 1878, or at the average rate of less than \ per
cent, per annum. The increase between 1878 and 1881 mu 3'40
per cent., or at the rate of 1*15 per cent, per annum. Of the total
population, mainland and islands, in 1878, 2,175,829 were males,
and 2,374,870 females. The average density in the mainland
(1881) is 124 per square mile; it is greatest in province Minho,
358 per square mile ; and least in Alemtejo, where it is only 39
per square mile. The only non-Portuguese element in the popu-
lation of any consequence is the gipsies ; there are about 3,000
negroes in the coast towns. The population in the north is mainly
Galician ; further south there has been considerable intermixture
with Arabs, .Tews, as also with French, English, Dutch, and
Frisians.
Portugal had in 1878 two towns with a population of above 20,000 —
Lisbon, with 246,343 ; and Oporto, with 105,838 inhabitants ; the population
of Biaga was 19,755 : Louie, 14,448 ; Coimbra, 13,369 : Evora, 13,046 ;
Funchal (Madeira), 19,752 ; Ponta Delgada (Azores), 17,635. The total urban
population on the mainland in 1878 was 490,386, and rural 3,669,929.
Movement of the Population.
In 1S6S there were 34,097 marriages (31,276 in Continental Portugal, and
in the Azores and Madeira' : the total in 1817 was 34,323. The ave-
rage for 1888 was 7 '24 marriages per 1,000 of population; that for 1887
was 7 66 per 1,000.
The following table derived from official statistics shows the numbers of
births and deaths in Continental Portugal and the Azores and Madeira in
the year 1888, as compared with the year 1887 : —
832
PORTUGAL
Births
Deaths
Legiti-
mate
Illegiti-
mate
Total
1888
Total
1887
1888
1887
Continent
Islands
•
131,616
12,215
19,358
774
150,974 I 152,914
12,989 13,000
98,369
9,066
100,330
8,222
Totals .
143,831
20,132
163,963 165,914
107,435
108,552
The 'average number of births in 1 888 was 36"03 per 1,000; in 1887 it
was 35 "02. The average number of deaths in 1888 was 23"61 per 1,000 ; in
1887 it was 23 "98. The natural increase of population was thus 56,528,
or 12 per 1,000.
The number of emigrants from Portugal during the period 1866-81 was
184,520. The following are the statistics for 1882-88, showing destination of
emigrants : —
Years
Europe
Asia
Africa
America
Oceania
Total
1882
_
71
479
17,732
18,272
1883
—
7
438
17,850
956
19,256
1884
—
7
587
15,343
1,581
17,518
1885
1,851
18
858
11,853
424
15,004
1886
260
3
270
13,039
426
13,998
1887
411
4
422
15,803
292
16,923
1888
349
19
656
22,952
5
23,981
Of the total number of emigrants in 1888, 7,393 were from the Azores
and Madeira; of the total, 5,567 were females ; and 11,885, or 49"56 per 100,
were ' illiterate. '
Religion.
The Roman Catholic faith is the State religion ; but all other forms of
worship are tolerated. The Portuguese Church is under the special jurisdiction
of a ' Patriarch' (of Lisbon), with extensive powers, two archbishops (Brags.
and Evora), and fourteen bishops (including the islands). The Patriarch of
Lisbon is always a cardinal, and, to sonic extent, independent of the Holy Sec
of Rome. Under the Patriarch are live home and live colonial bishops : under
the Archbishop of Ibaga, who has the title of Primate, are six ; and under the
Archbishop of Evora three bishops. The total income of the upper hierarchy
of the Church is calculated to amount to 300,000 milreis. There are 93,979
parishes, each under the charge of a preshitero, or incumbent. All the con-
ventual establishments of Portugal were suppressed hy decree of May 28, 1834,
and their property confiscated for the benefit of the State. At that period
there existed In the country 632 monasteries and 118 nunneries, with above
18,000 monks and nuns, and an annual income of nearly a million sterling.
This revenue was applied to tin- redemption of the national debt j while a
library of 80,000 volumes was set up at the former convent of San Francisco,
at Lisbon, from the collections 01 hooks and manuscripts at the various
monasteries. A few religious establishments arc still permitted to exist : but
their inmates are in a state of great poverty, and the buildings are gradually
INSTRUCTION' — JUSTICK AND (RIMK 383
falling to ruin. The lower ranks of the priesthood are ]>oorh cdu
and their income scan ely removes them from the social sphere of the ]•< a.>auts
and labouring classes. ' The number of Protestants in Portugal, i
foreigners, doea not exceed ">00. They have chapela at Lisbon and Oporto,
Instruction.
The superintendence of public instruction is under the management of a
superior conned of education, at the head of which is the Minister off tin In-
terior. Public education is entirely tree bom the lupeifnuan and c-ontrol of
tin- Church. l'>\ a law enacted in 1844, it is compulsory on pareir
their children to a place of public instruction : hut this prescription is far
from being enforced, and only a very small fraction of the children of the
miilille and lower classes really attend school. According to official returns of
the total population, at the close of 1878 the number of illiterate inhabitant.-
in Portugal and its ialandfl is stated to l>e 3,751,774, "i s2 par cent, of the.
total j»opulation, including, however, young children. The total school
]M)pulation in 1885 was 332,281. In the year 1SS7 the), were 3.739 public
primary schools with 179,089 pupils, and 1.608 private primary schools with
pupils. The total day-school attendance of 239,800 gave an average of
50 '9 jH?r 1.000 inhabitants. For .secondary instruction there were 22 lyeeURU
with 21S teachers ; 74 private schools ; and a royal military college with 272
students. For higher instruction their are (1887) the following schools and
colleges : — The University off Coimbra (founded in 1290>. with faculties of
law, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy 774 students' : the polytechnic
schools of Lislion and Oporto (354 students) ; the medical achooil at Lisbon,
Oporto, and Fnnchal [286 students : a military and a naval school at Lisbon ;
an agricultural and veterinary institute at Lislion ; and a higher school of
literature. For special instruction there are : — The industrial and commercial
institutes of Lisbon and Oporto with il!>87 1.222 pupils ; 14 other industrial
schools with 1,07? pupils, 4 artillery and 2 naval schools (corrattea), with
er 314 pupils : and 15 seminaries with 3,838 pupils. The clergy are
educated in 22 establishments, where most of them receive gratuitous instruc-
tion. Schools of agricidture are being established in various jiart.s of the
country.
The expenditure of the Ministry of l'ublic Instruction, according to the
budget of 1S90-91, is 1,102,283 milreis, exclusive of (543,223 milreis to l>c
expended through other ministries.
Justice and Crime.
Justice is administered by means of a supreme tribunal, which sits in
and decides cases for the whole Portuguese dominions ; Courts of
'Relacao,' three in number (similar to the French ' Cour de Cassation '), at
Lislion, Oj>orto, and in the Azores : and courts of first instance in all district
tOWH>.
In 1886 there were 11,385 convictions. The commonest offences were:
—Wounding, J. 497 : offences against the person, 1.723 : theft, 1,405 :
defamation, 1,021.
Finance.
The following tables show the receipts from various source* and
the ordinary and extraordinary expenditure of Portugal for the
years 1877-78 and 1884-85 to 1888-89 :—
3 H
834
PORTUGAL
Years
Ordinary
Receipts
Extraordinary
Receipts, exclu- bl,""s ,nu:s'"1 Total
sive of Loans by Credtl
1887-78
1884-85
1885-86
1886-87
1887-88
1888-89
Milreis
25,528,536
31,113,990
31,867,830
34,735,860
38,105,082
37,812,343
Milreis Milreis Milrcis
8,804,457 34,332,993 !
172,107 ' 8,237,959 39,554,531
50,256 9,736,890 41,758,616 [
226,462 7,853,638 44,360,048 !
12,051 4,203,792 1:'., 130,882 '
79,492 — 37,891,835
Years
Ordinary
Extraordinary
Total
Expenditure
Expenditure
Milreis
Milreis
Milreis
1877-78
27,367,034
6,965,959
34,332,993
1884-85
33,284,495
6,270,037
39,554,532
1885-86
34,571,948
7,168,669
41,740,617
1886-87
35,786,817
6,298,236
42,760,053
1887-88
38,790,984
6,212,660
45,003,644
1888-89
39,165,358
11,526,273
50,681,631
The budget estimates for 1890-91 were — ordinary revenue,
40,962,694 milreis ; ordinary expenditure, 42,861,117 milreis.
The following are the budget estimates for 1891-92 : —
Revenue Milreis
Expenditure
Milreis
Direct taxes :
( 'ivil list
526,000
Property tax . . 3,267,000
Cortes ....
160,832
Industrial tax . . 1,140,500
Int. chargeable on Treasurj
3,261,742
Income and interest taxes 879,500
I 'onsolidatcd debt .
14,074,210
Other taxes . . 1,870,400
Amortisalilo ,,
Registration . . . 2,174,000
Annuities, fee.
1,896,782
Stamps .... 1,783,000
Ministry of Finance
3,897, 470
Indirect taxes :
., Interior
Import duties . . 18,075,000
,, ,, Justice .
1,007,564
Lisbon octroi . . 2,222,000
„ ,, War
5,294,046
Export duties and ton-
,, ., Marine and
nage . . 491,000
Colonies
Other duties . . 2,717,800
., Foreign Affairs
186,240
Additional taxes . . 2,155,500
.. Public Works
4,711,284
National property :
,, ,, Instruction .
1,117,721
Forests, establishments ) _,„ .,„_
Sales, tolls . . J "8'806
Savings Bank
62,466
National defence fund
318,266,
Railways . . . 1,718,000
Posts and telegraphs . 1,128,000
Various . . . :»12,7t»7
Repayments . . . 2,060,756
Total
42,917,468
Total
44,857,020
DEFENCE 835
In 1891 the finances of Portugal hail beoati cotapletoly diaonaiaad,
us were initiated tor the purpose of reorganizing them, iiiclndii ..
]«>sils to reduce the interest of the debt to one-half. The alwve budget doe*
not represent the real condition of the tinam •«. a> the 'lch.it was expected to
l»e 10 million millets.
On the budget for 1890-91 the debt of P>
■^9,86>> milreis :5 per cent externa] bonds •>»> milreis :i psi
internal bonds; ibrau 5 par > • -nt. beads; a total of
10,612 milreis. The funded debt of Portugal per head of jopulatiou
is marly as large as that of the United Kingdom, the i|uota of del>t for
each inhabitant amounting ti> 24/.. and the annual share oi intiaust to 14*
Besides the Ihnded debt there i- s Boating debt <>f 2.;.000,000 milreis ;
- in extraordinary >let't (».«. the sum mised !>y the Treasury in four
1886-90) of 45,915,000 milreis. In 1890 a loan for 9,300,000 milreis
sought out in Paris, ami Treaaarj hills issued to the amount of
'0,000 mill
Defence.
The fortified places i»f Portugal are Efvas, Jeruinenha. Cauipo
Mayor, Marvao, Penicbe, Monsanto, Almeida, and the fori
Lisbon ; there are several naval harlxmr>.
The army of the Kingdom is formed partly by conscription and
partly by voluntary enlistment. Its organisation is based on tin-
law of June 23, 18»i4. modified by subsequent laws in lv
L875, 1*77. 1884, and 1885. All young men of 21 years of ago,
with certain exceptions, are obliged to serve. The effective is
fixed annually by the Cortes. By the law of 188-1 the army
consists of 24 regiments of infantry. 12 regiments of chasseurs, 10
regiments of cavalry. :> regiments of mounted artillery. 1 brigade
of mountain artillery. I regiment and 4 batteries of garrison
artillery, and 1 regiment of engineers. The duration of service is
us. 3 with the active army. •"» in the first, and 4 in the second
reserve. The strength of the army, including the Municipal Guards
and the Fiscal Guard, was in 18'J'» 37,273 officers and men of all
ranks. There were 4,034 horses and mules. The war effective i>
about 150,000 men. 12.690 horses and mules, and 264 guns.
There are maintained in the colonies s.880 officers and men, besides
native troops.
The navy of Portugal was composed .as follows in 1890. The steamers
comprised : —
1 ironclad, with a total of 7 guns and of 3,200 horse-power.
6 i-orvettes. .. ,, 42 „ 6,020 „
14 first-class gunboats ,, .">2 8,450 „
8 transports, ,, 6 2,200 „
y, — 2,700 ,,
Total 29 steamers, with . 107 „ 22,570 „
•j u 2
830 PORTUGAL
There were, besides, 4 small screw steamers, 3 training ships, ami I coast-
guard ships.
The largest war-ship of the Portuguese navy is the ironclad corvette
Vaseo dc Game, built at the Thames Ironworks, Blackwall, and launched
in December 1875. The Vaseo dc Gama has an unusually sharp prow tin
'ramming.' The ship is plated with armour 8 and 9 inches thick, and
carries 2 21|-ton guns, 1 4-ton, and 2 40-pounder guns. Her displacement
is 2,420 tons, and speed about 13 knots. One gunboat, the lJiu, is being
built at Lisbon, and two, not yet named, at Poplar.
The navy was (1891) officered by 2 vice-admirals, 11 rear-admirals,
61 captains; 42 lieutenant-captains; 142 lieutenants, besides surgeons.
engineers, &c. ; and had 4,360 sailors, exclusive of 400 men in the colonies.
Production and Industry.
Of the whole area of Portugal 2 '2 per cent, is under vineyards ; 7 '2 per
cent, under fruit trees; 12"5 per cent, under cereals: 2"7 per cent, under
pulse and other crops; 26 "7 per cent, pasture and fallow; and 2 "9 per
cent, under forest ; 45 "8 per cent, waste. In Alemtejo and Estremadura
and the mountainous districts of other provinces are wide tracts of com-
mon and waste lands, and it is asserted that from 2,000,000 to 4,000,000
hectares, now uncultivated, are susceptible of cultivation.
There are four modes of land tenure commonly in use : — Peasant pro-
prietorship) tenant farming, metayage, and emphyteusis. In tlie north-
ern half of Portugal, peasant proprietorship and emphyteusis prevail.
where land is much subdivided and the 'petite culture' practised. In the
south large properties and tenant farming are common. In the peculiar
system called aforamento or emphyteusis the contract arises whenever
the owner of any real property transfers the dominium, utih to another
person who binds himself to pay to the owner a certain fixed rent called
oforo or canon. The landlord, retaining only the dominium direebum of
the land, ports with all his rights in the holding except that of receiving
(put-rent, the right to distrain if the quit-rent be withheld, and the right
of eviction if tlie holding be seriously deteriorated by the tenant. Subject
to these lights of the landlord, the tenant is master of the holding, which
he can cultivate, improve, exchange, or sell : but in case of sale the landlord
has a right of pre-emption, compensated by a corresponding right in the tenant
should the quit-rent be offered for side. This system is very old- modifica-
tions having been introduced by the civil code in 1868.
The chief cereal and animal produce of the country ate: In the north,
maize and oxen : in tlie mountainous region, rye ami sheep and goats: in
the central region, wheat and maize: and in the south, wheat and swine,
which fatten in the vast acorn woods. Throughout Portugal wine is pro-
duced in large ami increasing quantities. In l.^s* there were exported of
common wines 1,488,702 hectolitres; of the liner wines of Oporto 268,028
hectolitres, and from Madeira 24,189 hectolitres, the whole value amounting
to 2,878,38 M. After wine, cork is perhaps the most important product, the
value exported in 1888 amounting to 148,000i. Olive oil, figs, tomatoes are
hugely produced, as are oranges, onions, and potatoes.
Portugal possesses considerable mineral wealth, bur coal is scarce, and,
for want of fuel and cheap transport, valuable mines remain unworked.
The quantity of iron ore exported in 1 SS7 was only 22 tons, but in 1888
there wen' exported 7,920 tons, valued at 9,332/. Lead, copper, manganese,
antimony, ami other minerals are produced. Common salt (of which
cmMMKRCF
.'^,000 kilo.- wore exported in 1888), gypsum, liuir, and marl .
largely exported, The nundier of concessions of mines existing ii
was 182 : ami the area conceded extended ever 49,440 hectare*. The
quantity of ore produced in that year a metric tons, of the valne
of 1,007.398 inflreis; of which 88,876 metric tons ware exported and the
remainder kepi for home rise. The number of i^rsons employed in mining
work was 5,450, of whom 1,859 ware n Dder 15), m>l .">91 t .
(118 ander 15). The machinery employed in mining consisted
hydraulic machines end 71 steam engines of tin aD) 2,782 horse-power.
There are no manufactures of importance. The population engaged in
industries of various kinds, exclusive of agriculture, in 1SS1 -
In 1886 there were trranr-'tl 126 patents for inventions, and 219 trade
marks were registered.
Portugal has about 1,006 vessels engage.! in fishing, an<l the erporl
saiilines ami herrings arc considerable.
Commerce.
The following table shows the value <>t tin- goanmaj impoi
exports for the five years 1884 Bfi
lean
1 lll]>OM -
Exp
Milr.i>
Whets
--
39,88<
?6,116
■-
37,l7f
•27,079.370
2,128
31,629,181
1887
14,394,871
8,518
1888
$1,488
The special imports in 1880 were valued at 4,184,537 milreis.
and exports 23,443,510.
The following table shows for 1888 the imports for consumption
from and exports to the leading countries : —
Countries
Imports
Britain
France
United States
Germany .
Spain
brazil
Belgium .
Ex]iorts
Milreis
Milrfi>
.018
7,827,923
4,980..">20
5,207,395
4,712,169
1,905
2. ."..".0,074
939.230
2.148,470
4.194.022
1.444,882
876,039
The following table shows the declared values of the leading
special imports and exports (merchandise) in 1890: —
838
PORTUGAL
Imports
Export 9
Milreis
Milreis
Cotton k cotton goods
5,404,000
Wine
10,898,000
Grain ....
3,991,000
Cork
3,114,000
Woollen & woollen goods
3,521,000
Fish
1,230,000
Machinery .
3,443,000
Copper .
1,016,000
Iron ....
2,512,000
Animals .
683,000
Coal
2,096,000
Pigs
382,000
Railway material
1,784,000
Onions
243,000
Fish . ...
1,747,000
Chemicals .
1,453,000
Animals
1,421,000
Timber
1,151,000
Hides' and skins .
1,142,000
Silk goods .
1,160,000
In 1890 bullion and specie were imported to the value of 1-1,534,500
milreis, and exported 10,538,825 milreis.
Wine is the most important product ; the export in 1887 was valued at
11,359 contos ; in 1888, at 12,946 contos ; in 1889, at 12,234 contos. In 1889
the wine exported to Great Britain was valued at 4,131 contos : to France,
at 3,125 coutos ; to Brazil, at 3,109 contos. The chief exports of Madeira
wine is to England and France : of port, to England ; of other wines, to
France and Brazil.
The subjoined table gives the total value of the exports from Portugal to
Great Britain, and of the imports of British produce into Portugal, in the
live years 1886 to 1890, according to the Board of Trade returns : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1880
1890
Exports from Por-
tugal
Imports of British
produce .
£
2,517,901
1,840,643
£
2,826,771
2,142,361
£
3,087,243
2,208,801
.c
3,106,710
2,506,583
£
2,942,191
2,157,784
Wine is the staple article of export from Portugal to the United Kingdom,
the average annual tfdue amounting to OV«8 1,000,000/. ; in 1890, 1,189,397/.
Other exports are : Oxen, 93,642/. : copper ore and regains, •231.25s/. ; cork.
■133.142/. ; fruits, 113,461/. ; fish, 125,656/. ; onions, 74,815* : wool,
76,939/. : caoutchouc, i:;i,S9t>/. in 1890. The imports of British home pro-
duce into Portugal embrace cotton goods ami yarn to the value of 627,606/. :
iron, wrought and unwrought, valued at 268,019/. : woollens and worsted.
90,382/. ; butter, 84,975/. ; coals, 846,028/. ; machinery, 228,431/. in 1890.
In 1890 the total imports of wine from all countries into the United
Kingdom was lti.l(.ti.lo7 gallons, valued at 6,886,867/.; consequently oyer
one-fourth the quantity and nearly one-fifth the value was from Portugal,
The subjoined table shows the quantity and declared value of wine
exported from Portugal to the United Kingdom in each otfthe fire years from
1886 to 1890 :
SHIPPING — MONET AND CREDIT
Ymh
Quai •
Value
Gallon -
£
1886
3,210.791
980.
1887
1,068,16!
1888
8,188,
939,013
1889
4,20:
1,340,080
1890
3,991
1,189,397
Shipping and Navigation.
The commercial navy of Portugal consisted on January 1. 1891, of 553 vessels
(including 67 steamers) of about 35,050 total tonnage.
Including coasters an«l vessels calling at different ports, there entered
from abroad °the ports of Portugal, the Azores, and Madeira in 1890, 2,390
.sailing vessels of 356,000 tons, and 3,720 steamers of 4,932,000 tons : there
cleared 2,680 sailing vessels of 354,000 tons, and 3,701 steamers of
4,922,000 tons. In the coasting trade there entered 5,438 vessels of 1,006,000
tons, and cleared 5,244 vessels of 977,000 tons.
Internal Communications.
The length of railways open for traffic in 1891 was 1,334 miles, of which
505 miles belonged to the State. There were 106 miles in course of construr-
tion. All the railways receive subventions from the State.
The number of post-offices in the Kingdom in December 1889 was 2,712.
There were 25,150,000 letters, 3.907.000 post-cards, and 22,118,000 news-
p&pers, samples, fcc., carried in the year 1889. The number of telegraph
offices at the end of 1SS7 was 326. There were at the same date 8,481 miles
of line and 8, 0S0 English miles of wire. The number of telegrams trans-
mitted, received, and in transit in the year 1SS7 was 1,105,486.
Money and Credit.
At the end of October 1890 the Portuguese Savings Bank had 11.314
accounts, with deposits amounting to 2,450,355 milreis.
The following are some statistics of Portuguese banks : —
Year
No. of
Banks
Cash in Hand
Bills
Loans on
Securiry
Depr.
s in j
Circulation
Milreis
Milreis
Milrei's
Milreis
Milreis
41
9,110,
20,756,796
4,475,
17.909,356
7,076,345
: 1886
41
16,98'
0,204
■■',. 776.000
24,328,173
.720
i 1887
40
16,507,100
24,126,386
•1.226,212
28,049,569
9,646,826
1888
40
14,573.72.".
28,757
7.404
33,632,815
11,680,675
! 1889
37
14,637,868
35,756,712
5,816,431
36,797,849
12,109,624
Money. Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Portugal, with the British equiva-
lents, are as folio v.
840 PORTUGAL
Money.
TheMilreis, or 1,000 Beis { ^ge^te of exchange is. M., or about
( -If milreis to £1 sterling.
Large sums are calculated in Contos of Rcis, of 1.000.000 Keis. value
222/. is. 5A
Weights and Measures.
The metric system of weights and measures is the legal standard. The
chief old measures still in use are : —
The Libra, . . . — 1*012 lb. avoirdupois.
,, , f of Lisbon = 3-7 imperial gallons.
,, AlihUde \ r\ i. r a
[ ,, Oporto = .v6 ,, ,,
,, AJquicre . . . = 0'36 ,, bushel.
,, Moio . . . = 2*78 ,, quarters.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Portugal in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister — Senhor Luis de Soveral. appointed Envoy and
Minister to Great Britain, January 1891.
Secretary. — Senhor Cyrillo C. Maehado.
Naval Attache. — Count de Seva.
There are Consular representatives at London (CO.), Bristol, Cork,
Dublin, Dundee, Leith, Glasgow, Hull, Liverpool, Newcastle, Southampton :
Bombay, Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, Hong Kong, Melbourne. Newfoundland,
JfeW Zealand, Quebec, Singapore, Sydney.
2. Of Great Britain in Portugal.
Envoy and Minister. — Sir George Glynn Petre, K.C.M.G., C.B.; appointed
January 25, 1884.
Secretary. — W. E. Goschen.
There are Consular representatives at Lisbon, Oporto; Loanda. .Macao.
Madeira, Mozambique, St. Michael's (Azores). St. Vincent (Cape Verdes).
Colonies.
In the colonial budgets for 1891-92 the total ordinary revenue is estimated
at 3,784,809 milreis, and the total expenditure at 4,695,185 milreis. Tin
revenue for Angola is 1,157,756 milreis. ami expenditure 1,049,058 milreis;
for East Africa, revenue 705,836 milreis, and expenditure 1.0(10.79:! milreis.
The value of imports into Portugal (including those for re-exportation)
from the colonies, and of the exports from Portugal to the colonies, were
in 1888:—
Colonics
Angola
Cape Verdi'
Guinea
St. Thomas
Mozambique
India (Goa)
Macao and Timor
Total
[m porta
Exports
Mihvis
MUreh
2,406,608
2,116,487
214,060
801,781
21,067
M.OOl
828,648
275,02]
5,180
(85,698
24,888
28,446
1.710
1,084
8,180,848
2,910,181
POLONIES
^41
The colonial possessions of Portugal, situated in Africa and Ami M*
Sfl follows : —
Colonial Pos-
Area:
I -;h square Pnj mint ion
aiona In Africa :
Cape Verde Islands (1885) .
Guinea (1886)
Prince's and St. Thonasldands
Angola. Ambriz, Bengoela, Moaaa-
modes, ami Congo ....
Africa
Total, Africa .
Possessions in Asia :
In India— Goa (1881) .
Damao, Din, fce. (1881)
Indian Archipelago (Timor, fee.)
China : Macao, fee. (1878-85)
Total, Asia
Total, Colonies
1,860
14.000
164
600,000
300,000
916,100
110,930
If. 0.000
21.040
10,000,000
1.. -.00, 000
11. 7*1. 970
1.447
168
11.'..
:..;.090
300.000
-.7.030
7,900
•
924,000
18,660,640
In 1890-91. 743 vessels of 172.042 tons entered, and 720 of 178*668 tana
I at the porta of Goa.
The exports from the whole of the Portuguese colonies, including the
Azores and Madeira, to Great Britain in 1890 amounted I . and
imports of British produce into the colonies to 886,529/.
In Angola there were in 1891 150 miles of railway in operation and 230
in construction or projected. A telegraph cable between the (.'ape of Good
Hope and Loanda has been laid, completing the telegraphic cireori of Africa.
There are 260 miles of telegraph in the colony.
The area of Mozambique and dependencies is that within the limits of the
arrangement between Great Britain and Portugal of June 1891 (.sV« British
Zambesia, p. 19
By a decree of September 30. 1891. the Colony of Mozambique was
constituted as the Free State of Bast Africa (Estado d'Africa Oriental),
ami divided into two provinces, viz.. that of Mozambique, north of the river
Zamliezi, with the city of the same name for its capital, and that of Lonrenco
Marques, south of the Zambezi, with the town of that name for its capital
The State will 1m1 administered by a royal commissioner appointed for three
years, and residing in the capitals of the provinces alternately : but it is
hoped that, with the development of the country, the State may become
altogether self-governing. The province of Mozambique includes, besides
the districts of Mozambique and Qufliraane, three imtendeneut in the region
conceded September 26, 1891, to the Cape Delgado Company : while the
province of Lonrenco Marques includes, beatdaa the district of that name,
three intendemks in the region conceded July 30, 1891. to the Inhambane
Company, and three in the region conceded February 11 and July 30. 1891.
842 PORTUGAL
to the Mozamhiquc Company. The State lias a colonial military force ami a
small navy. Every settlement on the coast has its municipality, police,
tribunals of justice, and other administrative authorities, civil and
ecclesiastical.
The imports into Mozambique in 1 890, were valued at 141,193/. and into
Delagoa Ray, 613,805/. ; total 815,298/ The exports from Mozambique,
90,374/.; and from Delagoa Ray, 2,211/. ; total 92,585/.
The chief articles imported into the colony were cotton goods, spirits,
beer, and wine.
The chief articles exported were oil-nuts and seeds, caoutchouc, and ivory.
In 1890 there entered the ports of Mozambique and Delagoa Ray 196
vessels of 519,711 tons. Of 73 vessels which entered the port of Mozambique,
26 of 29,245 tons were Portuguese, and 14 of 17,820 tons were British.
In 1890 the colony had 57 miles of railway (Delagoa Ray) open, and 428
miles projected.
There are 280 miles of telegraph in East Africa, and 350 under construction.
Statistical and other Books of Reference relating to Portugal.
Is Official Publications.
•< Annuario da DIreegSo Geral da Adininistracao civil" e< politics do Ministerio do Rcino.
1889-1890.
Annuario estadistico de Portugal, 1880. Lisbon, 1888.
Boletim da Direccfto Geral de Agriculture, 1890 e 1891.
Boletiin official. Lisbon, 1891.
Coinniercio do continente do rcino a ilhas adjaeentes com paizos cstrangciros, &&, no
anno de 1889. Lisboa, 1S91.
Contas de gerencia dc anno econoniico de 1889-1890.
Diario da Camara dos Senhores Deputados. Lisbon, 1891.
Diario do Govemo. Lisbon, 1891.
Uocumentos apresentados ;is Cortes na sesslo legislativa de 1S91 : Mgoeloa d'Africa.
Corresp. com a Inglaterra: negocios de Mozambique, dos Matabelea e Ainatongas I vol.
Negocios da Africa oriental oeentral. 1 vol. Negociaecocs do tratado coma Inglaterra.
1 vol.
Orcamento geral e proposta dc lei das reoeitas c das despezas ordinaries do estado »a
metropole para o exercicio de 1891-9,_>. Lisbon, 1891.
Correspondence respecting Portuguese Claims in South Africa. London, 1889,
Correspondence respecting the Delagoa Bay Railway. London, 1889.
Correspondence relative to Negotiations between Great Britain and Portugal, for conclu-
sion of the Congo Treaty, 1882-S4. London, 1884.
Despatch to H.M.'s Minister ;it Lisbon enclosing the Congo Treaty, signed February ~<]-
1884. London, 1884.
O movimento da populaoao nos annos de 1888 e 1889 publicado pels Direecao Geral de
Commercioe Industria. Lisbon, 1891.
Reports on the Trade of Angola, Mozambique, St. Tliouias. in the February, .lime, and
August parts, respectively, of the ' Deutaohea Haiidels-Archiv' tor 1891. Berlin,
Report on the Finances of Portugal, No. T-aii, and on Agriculture 111 N'o. Sin. 'Diplo-
matic and Consular Reports for ISS(».' London, 1890.
Reports on the Trade of Mozambique, No. 869 ; Of Madeira, No. si, ; of Macao. No. !II7.
of Diplomatic and Consular Reports' for 1890. London. l.N'.il.
HertiUtGUi K.), Foreign Office List Published annually. London. I89L
Trade of I'ortnjal with the Lnited Kingdom ; ill 'Annual Statement of the Trade Of the
United Kingdom with Foreign countries and British Possessions for the year 1890.' imp. -t.
London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Prm hatmns.
As eolonias Portugueses'. Revista. illustrada. Lisbon. Published monthly,
AMnma-Ayala (G. de). Compendia geagrApMeo^eatadtotieo da Portugal i
ultramarinas. 8. Madrid. 1880,
;:.i//ii (A.). Kssai statistimie sur la Royaumede Portugal, -.'vols. s. Paris,
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 843
Barros e Cunha (J. Q. <lt-). Historia da lilwnl.ule c-in Portugal. Vol. I. RL
i-o (A11.lr.1dp). Colouias Portugur/;i>. t \oN. I.islioii, 18$ •
fratr/iir<i(<>sWaM). Portugal : OM ami New. s. I»mlon. 1880.
Kouml the Calendar in Portugal. Loudon. 1890.
F.tcltvrgr (Willielin I., von). Portugal : ein Stoats- uu.l -
lJt-oliaclituiigen and Erfaliruugm. s. Hamburg. 18.M7.
I.amjgmt (Qenaoad de), I I le Portugal. 8. Paris. 1883.
La Trillai*(i\ de). Btade liiatorique, econopiiqoe et potitiqneanrle* colonies |iortii
It in pas.-..-, liur avenir. 8. Paris,
I .is colonies ]Oi"
MaeMurdo (¥..). History of Portugal. -J vols. S. London.
Olireira Martin* (J. P.). Historia de Portugal. J vol* Lisl>on, 1880.
Oipeira Martin* (.1. P.). Portugal contetuporanea. •_* vols. Lislton, 1881.
ftm(Oen I de Portugal e eokmias. 8. Lisbon
844
ROUMANIA.
Reigning King.
Carol I., King of Roumania, born April 20, 1839, son of the late Prince
Karl of Hoheuzollern-Sigmaringen : elected ' Donmul,' or Lord, of Boumania,
April 20, 1866 ; accepted his election May 22, I860. Proclaimed Ring of
Koumania March 26, 1881. Harried, November 15, 1869, to Princess
Elizabeth von Neuwicd, born Dec. 29, 1843.
The King has an annual allowance of 1,185, 185 le'ij or 47,400/.
The succession to the throne of Boumania, in the event of the King remain-
ing childless, was settled, by Art. 83 of the Constitution, upon his elder brother,
Prince Leopold of Hohenzollcrn-Sigmaringen, who renounced his rights in
favour of his son, Prince YVilhelm, the act having been registered by the
Senate in October 1880. Prince "Wilhehn, on November 22, 1888, renounced
his -rights to the throne in favour of his brother, Prince Ferdinand, horn
August 24, 1865, who, by a decree of the King, dated March 18, 1889. was
created ' Prince of Koumania.'
The union of the two Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia was
publicly proclaimed at Bucharest and Jassy on Dec. 23, 1861, the presenl
name being given to the united provinces. The lirst ruler of Koumania was
Colonel Couza, who had been elected ' Hospodar, ' or Lord, of Wallachia and
Moldavia in 1859, and who assumed the government under the title of Prince
Alexander John I. A revolution which broke out in February lSCti forced
Prince Alexander John to abdicate, and led to the election of Prince Carol 1.
The representatives of the people, assembled at Bucharest, proclaimed
Boumania's independence from Turkey, May 21, 1817, which was continued
by Art 43 of the Congress of Berlin, signed July 18, 1878,
Constitution and Government.
The Constitution now in lone in Boumania was voted bj a Constituent
Assembly, elected by universal sulfrage, in the summer oil Slid. It 1ms twice
been modified — viz., in 1879, and again in 1884. The Senate consists of 120
members, elected for 8 years, including 2 for the Universities, and 8 bishop*.
The ('handier of Deputies consists 01 1 88 members, elected for I \cais. A
Senator must be 10 years of age, and a Deputy ~'k Members of either House
must be Roumanians by birth or naturalisation, in full enjoyment of civil and
political rights, and domiciled in the country. for the Senate an assured
income of about 4002. is required. All citizens of full age, paving taxes, are
electors, and are divided into three Electoral Colleges For the Chambei ol
Deputies, electors who are in possession of property bringing in 501, or up-
wards per annum vote in the first CoUege. Those paying direct taxes to the
State of 20 IV. Or upwards annually vote in the second College, as well U
persons exercising the liberal professions, retired officers, state pensioners,
and those who have been through the primary course of education. The
third College is composed of the remaining electors, of whom those not know-
ing how to read or write vote indirectly. for the Senate there are only two
AUKA AND Pol'l J.ATMN 845
Colleges. The lirst constats of those electors having property yielding
annually at least 80J. : the second, of those persona, otherwise eligible, but
whose income from property is from 321 to 80/. |«r annuni. Botib Senates
and Deputies receive a small daily payment during tin- aaashm, The King
has a snapensive veto over all laws passed by the Chamber of Deputies ami
the Senate. Tin- executive is vested in a rouncU of eight ministers, and a
President who is Prime Minister.
Li* VI. (liiVKII.VMKM'.
For purposes of local government WaUachia i» divided into a
and Moldavia into thirteen district* (the Dobruja being excluded), each "i
which has a prelect, a receiver of taxes, and a eivu tribunal.
Area and Population.
The ana ami population of Bon mania art- only known by estim
Tin.- total actual area is 4S.:»07 square miles, and the estimated popula-
tion (1887) is .">,.">00,000. The Roumanian is a Latin dialect, with many
Slavonic words : it was introduced by the Roman colonists who settled in
Dacia in the time of Trajan. Tim people themselves, though of mixed
origin, may now be regarded as homogei as. Roumanians are spread
• xtensively in the neighbouring countries — Transylvania, Hungary,
Servia, Bulgaria : their total number probably reaches 9 millions, iii-
cluded in the population of Roumania Proper an- U million Roumanians,
:J00,000 Jews. 200,000 Gipsies, luo,ouo Bulgarians, 50,000 Germans,
50,000 Magyars, 15,000 Armenians, .'.000 French, 1,000 English, h
about 3,000 Italians, Turks, Poles. Tartars, fcc The total population af
the Dohruja is estimated at 106,943. comprising 31,177 Roumanian.-.
3 Bulgarians, 16,493 Turk-. 10,058 Lrpovani (Russian hei
9,165 Greeks, 6,540 Tartars, 6,162 Uu-sians. 2.171 Germans, and 1,0*1
Jews.
The number of births, deaths, and marriages, with surplus of births
over deaths, was as follows (excluding the Dobruja) in each of the ive years
from 1886 to 1890 :—
Vi- -ir>
Births
Uh
Marriages
Surplus of Uirths
212.810
over Deatka
1886
184,366
77,976
>. Ill
" -7
209,406
158,269
77.922
56,187
1888
217,200
156,216
7-;.o72
60.'.
1889
210,641
140.2>s
41.122
70.:;:.:;
1890
202,327
148,41.1
38,654
58,912
Not included in the births and deaths in 1890 are 2.342 still-born,
or over 1 per cent, of the total births. The illegitimate births are about 5 per
cent of the total number.
The following are the principal towns, with population at the end
of 1876. The capital and seat of the Government, Bucharest, had 221,805
inhabitants: .la<sy. 90,125 ; Galatz, 80,76:5: Botodmni, 39,941: PI
33.170 : BraHa, 28,272 : Beriad, 26,568 : Crajova. 22.764 : Giurgevo, 20,866 :
Focsaui, 20,323 ; Piatra, 20,000.
846 ROUMANIA
Religion.
Of the total population of Roumania Proper 1,529,000 belong to the
Orthodox Greek Church, 114,200 are Etonian ( 'atholics, 13,800 Protestants,
8,000 Armenians, 6,000 Lipovani (Russian lieretics), 400,000 .lews, 2,000
Mahometans. The government of the Greek Church rests with two arch-
bishops, the first of them styled the Primate of Roumania, and the second
the Archbishop of Moldavia. There are, besides, six bishops of the National
Church, and one Roman Catholic bishop.
Instruction.
Education is free and compulsory 'wherever their are schools;' but
is still in a very backward condition. There are about 3,000 primary
schools, with 130,000 pupils, or about 2 per cent, of the total population
(in Great Britain the proportion is 12 '3 per cent.). There are 8 normal
schools, with 800 pupils ; 54 high schools, with 8,000 pupils: 2 universities
(Bucharest and Jassy), with faculties in law, philosophy, science, and medi-
cine, and having about 100 professors and teachers and 800 students.
Finance.
The chief sources of revenue consist in direct and indirect taxes, and the
profits derived from the extensive State domains and valuable salt-mines, and
from the salt and tobacco monopolies. The capitation tax is 4s. 9d. per head.
There is an income tax of 6 per cent, on houses, 5 per cent, for property
farmed by a resident owner, 6 per cent, for property let by an owner resident
in Roumania, and 12 per cent, for estates where owners reside abroad; and
5 percent, on Government salaries. The following table shows the revenue
and expenditure for the live years (ending March 31) lS8b'-90 : —
— 1880 ISS7 1S8S 1889 1800
Lei' Lei l.ei Lei Lei
Revenue . 1124,478,398 131,329,693 142,927.318 ltil, 802,214 159,849,207
Expenditure 129,971,646127,045,614 140,201,995 161,173, 463 158,770,984
The estimate of revenue for 1890-91 was 164,869,000 lei, and expenditure
the same.
The following are the bltdgel estimates for 1891 92 :
Rkvkm K.
Km'I.mh it i:
t:.
lii
Direct taxes .
•-'it. 335,000
Public Debt .
61,4 H,818
Indirect ,, .
11,205,000
( 'ouucil of Ministers
68,560
Revenue from State
Ministries : —
monopolies
12,950,000
War.
38,855,598
Ministries : —
Finance
22,885,485
Domains .
23,619,600
Worship and Public
Public Works .
13, 527,000
Instruction .
17,587,880
Interior .
7,100,000
Interior
12,226,671
finance .
2,020,000
Public Works .
6,176,548
War.
1,376,000
Justice
5,229,64 l
Foreign Affairs .
116,000
Domains, fcc.
1,171,088
Public Instruction
808,600
Foreign Allans .
1,508,660
.Iltst ice
1,600
Fund for supplementary
votes ami extraordi-
Various
8,225,000
I
nary credit
692, 100
Total .
l'i'.'., 38,600
Total .
Hi9,738,600
HXAM E — IjEEENVE s4 .
The public debt of Roumania would amount on April 1, 1892, to 969,57
lei. Of the total amount more than half has been contracted for public
works, mainly railways. The remainder has been contracted to cover de-
reducc unfunded debt, ami pay off peasant freeholds. Th<
amounts t>> al»out 52. \>cr head of iwpulatiou, and the interest to 1
The exports areiage 1/- Ms. i»erhead.
Defence.
The army of Houmai - of an active army, divided into Perma-
nent and Territorial, with its reserve : the Militia ; the Civic Guard, and
the/ Tin- active army in Rouiuania com irmy corps
(each of 2 divisions of infantry), 1 hrigade of light cavalry (Cahuaahi), 1
brigade of artillery, 1 lwttalion of engiueers, 1 squadron of train, and 1
company of hospital corps, and 1 active division in the Dobruja. L Per-
manent Army — Infantry: 8 regiments of 2 hattalions of 4 corajwnics
each : 4 battalions of rifles. Cavalry : 3 regiments of hussars (Roshiori) of
4 squadrons, 1 regim mt of gendarmerie in the Dohruja Artillery : ."■
menu of field artillery, each of 7 batteries of 6 guns: 3 eompanj
artificers. Engineers : ~i regiments of 3 luttalions, each consisting of 2
companies of sappers, 1 company of miners, 1 telegraph company, and 1
company of pontoniers. Gendarmerie : 2 foot companies and 3 cavalry
squadrons. Honiml Service : 80 officers, 18 employes, and 4 companies.
Administrative Troops : 40 officers, 3 companies of artificers, and 4 squad-
rons of train. Every retired officer is obliged to serve in the reserve until
the age of :J7. The strength of the permanent army in time of peace is
i,50fl men, 13,200 horses, and b'00 gone
Territorial Army. '■}'■'< regiments "f infantry <Dorol>anzi> of 2 and 3
battalions; 12 regiments of cavalry (Calarashi) of 4 squadrons each; 14
batteries of artillery, with 6 gnus per battery : these latter perform the
duties of firemen in time of peace. The total of the Territorial Army is
3 men and 4,401 horses. 3. The Militia, consisting of 33 regiments
of infantry. 4. The Civic Guard and the levee en masse, the strength of
which is not definitely fixed.
Every Roumanian from his 21>t to his 46th year is ohliged to serve
either in the permanent army 3 yean of act i md 5 in the reserve,
or in the territorial infantry 5 years of active service and 8 in the r
or in the territorial cavalry 4 years of active service and 4 in the i
The entry into the permanent or territorial army is decided by lot. All
young men not taken for the conscription form put of the militia. After
completing their service in the permanent or territorial army, all are
enrolled in the militia until their 36th year. Inhabitants of towns serve in
the Civic Guard till the age of 46, and those of the country from their
36th to their 47th year form jart of the levee en masse. The army is also
kept up to its strength by enlisting volunteers and re-engaging the men in
the reserve. The army is being reorganised on the territorial system ; the
-country will be divided into 5 districts, to each of which will he attached
a corns d'armet . subdivided into 2 divisions of 2 brigades of 2 regiments.
Roumania has in the navy the Elimbcla, launched at Elswick in
1887, a shot-protected cruiser of 1,320 tons displacement and 4,900
horse-power, 3^ -inch armour at the licit, four 6-inch and 8 machine guns :
the Mima, training ship, a composite brig of 350 tons. There are besides 4
other small vessels, 2 torpedo-boats, 3 gunboats, each of 45 tons, and 3
others building at Blackwall. There are 46 officers and 1,480 sailors, and a
naval reserve of 200 men.
848
ROUMANIA
Production and Industry.
Of the total population of Roumania 70 per cent, an; employed in agri-
culture. There are 654,000 heads of families who arc freehold proprietors.
Of the total area 68 per cent, is productive, and 29 per cent, under culture,
21 per bent, under grass, and 16 '9 per cent, under forest Cereals arc the
leading products, one-third (10,800,000 acres) of the area being devoted to
them (4,600,000 acres maize, 2,500,000 acres wheat). Oil-seeds and vines
arc largely grown. There are (1889) 115,899 hectares planted with vines,
of which 64,119 are for the production of white wines, 51,436 for red and
black wines, and 339 for muscat wine. The total production of wine is equal
to about 1,850,000 hectolitres, or an average of 16 hectolitres the hectare. A
scheme for utilising the enormous forests is under the consideration of the
Government. The average annual production of cereals is about 12 million
quarters, of which more than half is exported. In 1884 Roumania had
2,376,065 cattle and 4,654,776 sheep.
Commerce.
The following table shows the value (in 1,000 lei) of the commerce for Jive
years : — ■
ISS'.l
ISiMI
Imports .
Exports .
1,000 lei
296,697
255,547
l.nOOle'i
314,633
265,726
1,000 lei
310,378
256,788
1,000 lei
367,941
274,167
1,000 lei
362,791
275,958
The following, according to Roumanian returns, shows tlie value of the
commerce in 1890 of the leading countries (imports from ami exports to) with
which Roumania deals : —
Ger-
many
Greal
Britain
Austria Prance
Uel-
''ium
Turkey Russia Italv
Switzer-
land
1,000 lei 1,000 lei' 1,000 lei 1,000 lei 1,000 lei 1,000 lol 1.000 lei I. nee lei 1.000 lri
109,262 I 97,6fi9 .'.2,710 :«»,04S 18,920 18,627 8,064 5,168 8,011
12,600 8,913 161,886 17,196 *8\451 B.661 4,688 11,616 1,486
Imports
Export*
The following are the values of the Leading articles of imporl and export in
1890 :—
Imports Exports
Imports Bxporla
1,000 lei
1. nee In
1,000 l.i
■
t,WK) lei
Textiles .
155,000
4,600
Animals ,v ani-
Metals and
mal products
7,300
6,400
metal goods .
64,500
800
Fruits, vege-
Hides, leather,
tables, fee.
24,800
26,100
fee.
■_'0, :;o<)
1,000
( loal, petroleum,
Wood
7,200
2,900
ko.
7,200
1,200
Glass and pot-
Drinks
1,000
2,700
terv
16,500
600
Paper
13,800
100
Chemicals
9,300
200
Nations
25,300
3,200
Oil, wax, <v,e. .
7,900
100
1 'eleal.S
3,200
226,100
il
Total . . i
362,800
275,900
SHIPPING AND TOMMrxIfATIOXS Ml
The following table, taken from the Board of Trade Returns, show-
line of the trade of Great Britain with Rotunania for the five years 1886-90 : —
UH
£. £ £.
Imports into Kouinania . 929,721 1,038,429 989,594
Kxpoi Itritain 2.649,718 3.400,504 3,569,206
£. £
1,258,3591.270.271
3,204.77
Tlie principal British imports into Roumania are cotton goods and
vain, 567.739/. in 1886 ; 696,760/. in 1887 : 572,397/. in 1888 ; 717,293/. in
and 640,207/. in 1890 ; woollens, 62,273/. in 1887 ; 40,399/. in 1888 ;
til, 521/. in 1S89 : and 57.570/. in 1890 ; iron, wrought aud unwrought,
88,330/. in 1886: 117,361/. in 1887 : 112,480/. in 1888 ; 143,707/. in 1889;
and 165.295/. in 1890; coals, 69,184/. in 1887; 82,899/. in 1888; 89,434/. in 1889;
8/. in 1890. The leading exerts from Roumania to Great Britain are
.028/. in 1886: 518,7422. in 1887 ; 887,380/. in 1888; 820,935/. in
ind 544,448/. in 1S90. Maize, 1,873,141/. in 1S86 ; 2,634,645/. in 1887 :
1,971,836/. in 1888 ; 1, 264,103/. in 1889 : and 2,032.028/. in 1890: and wheat
196,940/. in 1887; 519.172/. in 1888 ; " 1 1,815,770/. in
Shipping and Communications.
Tin- total number of vessels that entered the j>orts of Roumania in 1889
of 8.078,939 tons, and the uumlier that cleared was 30,586 of
:is. In l-*->9 tin- merchant navy of Roumania consisted of 184
tons, including 19 steamers of 840 tons. The navigation
of the Danube is carried on under regulations agreed to at the Berlin Con-
nd subsequently modified at a conference of the delegates
of the leading Powers (Great Britain, Germany, Austria, Russia, France,
Italy, and Turkev), which met in London in 1883. From its months to
the Iron Gates it is regarded as an international highway, the interests
of the several States being specially provided for. The navigation is under
the superintendence of a mixed commission of one delegate each for Austria,
lmlg.iria, Roumania, and Servia, with a delegate appointed for six months
by the signatory Powers in turn. The commission has its seat at Ginrg
in Roumania. The arrangement lasts for 21 years from April 1883 The
number of vessels that cleared at the Sulina mouth of the Danube in 1890
was 1,828 of 1,539.445 tons, of which 778 of 983,862 tons were British.
• >tal net revenue of the Commission in 1890 was 1,202,891 lei or
In 1891 Roumania had 1,590 miles of State railwa 140 under
action and 600 conceded. The State has now the control and working
of all the railways in Roumania.
In 1890 there were 340 post-offices, through which there passed 3,110,372
-7,093 post-cards. 6,739,642 papers, specimens, fee., and pel
In 1^90 there were 3,409 miles of telegraph lines, and 8.238 miles of wire, on
which 1,358,137 messages were forwarded. The numl>er of office- was 381, of
which 162 were in connection with the pert offices and 219 at railway stations.
Revenue of posts and telegraphs. 5,934,575 lei ; expenses, 4,015,191.
3 I
850 ROUMANIA
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The decimal system was introduced into Roumania in 1876, the unit of
the monetary system being the lei, equivalent to the franc.
Russian and Austrian coins and Turkish weights and measures are largely
in use by (lie people.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
L Ok Roumania in (iiiKvr Piutain.
Envoy and Minister. — M. A. Plagino.
Councillor of Legation. — M. D. Nedey&no.
Consul- General. — "Walter J. Cutbill.
2. OF GkKAT HlilTAIN IN Kill MAN] \.
En/roil and Minister. —
Secretary of Legation.— A. (i. Yansinari.
Vice -Consul. — Hamilton E. Browne.
Consul-arm rul at Galatz and Danube Commissioner. — Percy Sanderson
n.M.G.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Roumania.
1. Official Publications.
Commerce de la Bonmanie avfec lea puissances etrangeres pendant I'axmee 1800. Bucha-
rest, 1891.
Ministcriu de Interim. Otieiti Central de Statistica. Btatistica ilin Romania. Indicile
comunelQr pe periodu de cinei ani 1876-83. Buciuvsci, 1883,
Report liy Mr. White on the Kingdom of Ronmania, III 'Reports of II.M.'s Diplomatic
and Consular Officers.' Part VI. 18S3. Polio.
Report on the Trade of (Jalatz for 1S80, in No. tit>:> of ' Diplomatic and Consular Report.-..'
London, 1800.
.Statistics din Romania. Miscarea population! pe ami 1888. Pupa regtatrele starn
civile. 4. Bucnrescl, 1885.
Traites, conventions et arrangements inleniationaux de la konnianie. par T. G, Pjnvara.
Bucharest, ISSS.
Report for the years 1882-00 on the Finances of Ronmania, in No. 708 of ' Diplomatic
iri Cdusular Reports.' 1800.
Reports on the Trade of Roumania in isss. in the Jauuarj and Ma\ parts, and in I88fl
in the June pari of Ihe ' Hcutsehes llandels- Arehiv ' tor IS'.M. Berlin.
Trade of Ronmania with Oreal Britain, In ' Annual Statement of the Trade of tlic I niteil
Kingdom for the year 1800." London, 1801
2. No.N-Oll' U 1 A I. I'l T.I.K ATU'NS.
Bergnn- (U.). Itiiiiianicn. lireslau. 1887.
Botti (Ami), La Tnrquie d'JJurope, i vols, rviia, 1840,
Until n no (J, CI. M. ■moire sur la situation de la Moldo-Yalachic ilcpuis le traitr dc Paris.
s. Paris. 1888.
Cretzvl'sin (K.). I, a Rotimanie eonsidcrce sous le rapport pliysiiptc, ndtnlnistttitif el
iconoiniqne. 8i Bucharest, 1878,
i-'.ntiri (.1. (.). Die Geachlohte dor Walaeliel; and Gesohichto der Moldau.
Linn itmi {.\. I'.). IgtOlia Uoinanilorii.
I.uri'lriir (Kmile de). The Balkan Peninsula. I.emlon. 1887.
nh, it. nun ( M. C). I.a Houniauie iconomi(|Ue. Paris. ISTii.
Smiiiirliuiii (.lames), Koiuiiauiii. Past anil Present. London. I"
I'hirini (.1. ii. \.i. Lea provinces Roniiiniiies. s. Paris, 1868.
)<iiliitnt (.\. a.i. La Roumanie : liistoire, langue, Ac
Wnikrr (Mrs.), untrodden Paths in Ronmania, s. London.
851
RUSSIA.
(Empire of All the Rlssias.)
Reigning Emperor.
Alexander III. Euiperor of All the Romas, born February
26 (March 10 new style), 1845, the eldest son of Emperor
Alexander II. and of Princess Maria, daughter of the late Grand-
duke of Hesse Darmstadt ; ascended the throne at the death of his
father (by assassination) March 1 (March 13, new style), 1881,
and was crowned at Moscow May 27, 1883 : married November 9,
1866, to Maria Dagmar, born November 26, [§47, daughter of
King Christian IX. of Denmark.
Children of the Emperor.
I. Grand-duke Nicholas, heir-apparent, born May 6 (May 18),
1868.
II. Grand-duke George, born April 27 (May 9), 1871.
III. Grand-duchess Xeaia. born March 25 (April 6), 1875.
IV. Grand-duke Michael, born November 22 (December -1).
1878.
V. Grand-duchess Olga, born June 1 (June 13), 1882.
Brothers and Sister of the Emperor.
I. Grand duke Vladimir, born April 10 (April 22), 1847;
{married August 16 (August 28), 1874, to Princess Marie of
iMecklenburg-Schwerin. Offspring of the union are three sons
and one daughter: — 1. Cyril, born September 30 (October 12k
1876. 2. Boris, born November 12 (November 24), 1877. 3.
Andreas, born May 2 (May 14), 1879. 4. Helene, born January
17 (January 29), 1882.
II. Grand-duke Alexis, high admiral, born January 2 (January
14), 1850.
III. Grand-duchess Maria, born October 5 (October 17). 1853 ;
married January 21, 1874, to the Duke of Edinburgh, son of
^ueen Victoria of Great Britain.
IV. Grand-duke Sergius, born April 29 (May 11), 1857;
married June 3 (June 15), 1884, to Princess Elizabeth of Hesse-
Darmstadt.
852 RUSSIA
V. Grand-duke Paul, born September 21 (October 3), 1860 ;
married June 5 (June 17), 1889, to Princess Alexandra, daughter
of the King of Greece ; widower September 24, 1891. Offspring :
Maria, born April 6 (18), 1890; Dimitri born September 1891.
Uncles and Aunts of the Emperor.
I. The Grand-duke Nicholas, brother of the preceding, born July 27
(August 8), 1831 ; married, January 25 (February 6), 1856, to Princess
Alexandra of Oldenburg, died in April, 1891. He had two sons : — 1.
Nicholas, born November 6 (November 18), 1856. 2. Peter, born January 10
(January 22), 1864 ; married July 26 (August 7), 1889, to the Princess Militsa
of Montenegro.
II. Grand-duchess Olga, sister of the late Emperor Alexander II. ; born
August 30 (September 11), 1822 ; married, July 1 (July 13), 1846, to Prince
Karl, then heir-apparent, now King, of Wiirttemberg.
Cousins of the Emperor.
The children of the late Grand-duke Constantino, brother of the late
Emperor Alexander II., and his wife Princess Alexander of Saxc-Alteu-
burg, of which union there are issue five children : — 1. Nicholas, born
February 2 (February 14), 1850. 2. Olga, born August 22 (September 8),
1851, and married October 27, 1867, to Georgios I., King of the Hellenes.
3. Vera, born February 4 (February 16), 1854, and married May 8, 1874, to
Prince Eugene of Wiirttemberg ; widow January 15, 1877. 4. Constantino,
born August 10 (August 22), 1858; married April 15 (April 27), 1884, to
Princess Elizabeth of Saxe-Alteftburg, Duchess of Saxony; offspring : — John.
born July 6, 1886 ; Gabriel, born July 15, 1887 ; Tatina, born January 23,
1890 ; Constantine, born January7 1, 1891. 5. Dimitri, born June 1 (June
13), 1860.
The children of the late Grand-duke Michael and his wife the late Princess
Cecilia of Baden: — 1. Nicholas, born April 14 (April 26), 1859. 2. Ana«-
tasia, born July 16 (July 28), 1860, and married January 12 (January 84 .
1879, to Prince Friedrich Franz of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. :!. Michael, horn
October 4 (October 16), 1861, and married April 6, 1891, to Sophie. Counteat
of Merenberg, which marriage led to his exclusion from the army, a trust being
nominated on his estates. 4. George, born August 11 (August 23), 1868.
5. Alexander, born April 1 (April 13), 1866. 8. Sergius, horn September 8fi
(October 7), 1869. 7. Alexis, born December 16 (December 28), 1876.
The reigning family of Russia descend, in the female line, from Michael
Romanof, elected Tsar in 1613, after the extinction of the House of Kurik ; and
in the male line from the Duke Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp, horn in
1701, scion of a younger branch of the princely family of Olden lung. The
union of his daughter Anne with Duke Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp
formed part of the great reform projects of Peter I., intended to bring Russia
into closer contact with the Western States of Europe. Peter I. was succeeded
by his second wife, Catherine, the daughter of a Livonian peasant, and she bj
Peter II., the grandson of Peter, with whom the male line of the Romano's
terminated, in the year 1780. The reign of the next three sovereigns ol Russia,
Anne, Ivan VI., and Elizabeth, of the female line of Romanof, formed t
transition period, which came to an end with the accession of Peter 111.. 01
the house of Holstein-Gottorp. All the subsequent emperors, without
exception, connected themselves by marriage with German families. The wife
and successor of Peter III., Catherine II., daughter of the Prince ol' An hall
Zerbst, general in the Prussian army, left the crown to her only son, Paul, I
REIGNING KMPEROR — CONSTITUTION 853
who becalm the father of two emparW, Alexander I. and Nicholas, and the
grandfather of ■ third, Alexander II. All these sovereigns married German
princeaaes, 'Tearing intimate family alliances, among others, with the reigning
booses of Wnrttexoberg, Baden, and IV -
Tin' emperor is in poMession of the revenue from the Crown domains, con-
sisting of more than a million of n«n miles of cultivated land and forests,
gold and other mines in Siberia, and producing ■ vast revenue tin-
■etna] amount of which is, however, unknown, as no reference to the subject
is made in the budgets or finance accounts, the Grown domains l>eing con-
sidered the private property of the imperial family.
The following have been the Tsars and Kmj>erors of Russia, from the time
of election of Michael Komanof. Tau lVt« r I. wa>the first rider who adopted.
in the year 1721, the title ..f Emperor.
JI»n» '» '' h'innanor—M-'l 'Li,". Ivan VI. . . . 1740
Michael'. . . . 1618 KlizaWth . . . 1741
Feodor . 1676 House of Romanof-HolsUin.
Ivan and Peter I. . 1682 i>eter III. . . . 13
Peter 1 1689 Catherine II. . . 1762
Catherine I. . . . 1725 Paul . . . . 179o
Peter II. . . 1727 Alexander I. . . . 1801
, _ . Nicholas I. . 1825
House of Amuinof— Female Lt Alexander II. . . 1855
Anne .... 1730 Alexander III. . . 1881
Constitution and Government.
The government of Russia is an absolute hereditary monarchy.
The whole legislative, executive, and judicial power is united in
the emperor, whose will alone is law. There are. however, certain
rules of government which the sovereigns of the present reigning
house have acknowledged a> binding. The chief of these is the
law of succession to the throne, which, according to a decree of
the Emperor Paul, of the year 1797. is to be that of regular
descent, by the right of primogeniture, with preference of male
over female heirs. This decree annulled a previous one, issued
by Peter I., February 5, 1722, which ordered each sovereign to
select his successor to the throne from among the members of the
imperial family, irrespective of the claims of primogeniture.
Another fundamental law of the realm proc laimed by Peter I. is
that every sovereign of Russia, with his consort unci children,
krast be a member of the orthodox Greek Church. The princes
and princesses of the imperial house, according to a decree of
Alexander 1.. must obtain the consent of the emperor to any
marriage they may contract; otherwise the issue of such union
cannot inherit the throne. By an ancient law of Russia, the
heir-apparent is held to be of age at the end of the sixteenth
year, and the other members of the reigning family with the
completed twentieth year.
854 RUSSIA
. The administration of the Empire is entrusted to four grea
boards, or councils, possessing separate functions. The first c
these boards is the Council of the State, established in its presen
form by Alexander I., in the year 1810. It consists of a pres:
dent, and an unlimited number of members appointed by th
emperor. In 1889 the Council consisted of 60 members, exck
sive of the ministers, who have a seat ex officio, and including si:
princes of the imperial house. The Council is divided into thre
departments, namely, of Legislation, of Civil and Churcl
Administration, and of Finance. Each department has its owi
president, and a separate sphere of duties ; but there are collectiv
meetings of the three sections. The chief function of the Counci
of the Empire is that of examining into the projects of laws whicl
are brought before it by the ministers, and of discussing tb
budget and all the expenditures to be made during the year
But the Council has no power of proposing alterations and modi
fications of the laws of the realm ; it is, properly speaking, a con
sultative institution in matters of legislation. A special depart
ment is entrusted with the discussion of the requests addressed t<
the emperor against the decisions of the Senate.
The second of the great colleges or boards of government ii
the Ruling Senate or *. Pravitelstvuyuschiy Senat,' established b^
Peter I. in the year 1711. The functions of tlie Senate ar<
partly of a deliberative and partly of an executive character
To be valid a law must be promulgated by the Senate. It is alsc
the high court of justice for the Empire. The Senate is dividei
into nine departments or sections, which all sit at St. Petersburg
two of them being Courts of Cassation. Each department is
authorised to decide in the last resort upon certain description:
of cases. The senators are mostly persons of high rank, or win
fill high stations ; but a lawyer of eminence presides over eaol
department, who represents the emperor, and without whoa
signature its decisions would have no force. In the plenum, oi
general meeting of several sections, the Minister of Justice take]
the chair. Besides its superintendence over the courts of law,
the Senate examines into the state of the general administratiol
of the Empire, and has power to make remonstrances to thj
emperor. A special department consisting of seven members I
entrusted with judgments in political offences, and another (six
members) with disciplinary judgments againsl officials of (\w
crown.
■The third college, established by Peter 1. in the year 1721, m
the Holy Synod, and to it is committed the superintendence of
the religious affairs of the Empire. It is composed of the three
I oNSTITI TIoN \M> QOYKBNM1 N I
uietropolitans (St. PeteisUmg, Moscow, and Kieff », the Bivhbishop
of Georgia (Caucasus), and of Poland ( Khohn and Warsaw), and
several bishops sitting in turn. All its decisions run in tin
emperor's nana-, and have no force till approved by him. Tht
President of the Holy Synod i- the Metropolitan of Novgorod and
bersburg.
The fourth board of government i> the c,,„, ,„///,. qf Ministers.
li consista of all the ministers, who are —
I. The Minidry of tiu Imperial House. General Counl hkojf,
aide-de-camp of the Emperor; appointed Minister <>t" the Imperial House hi
ssion to Count Alexander Alderberg, March 29, 18
•J. The Ministry <j/ Foreign Affair*. — Actual Privy Councillor V
Carlovich / ippointed Minister of Foreign Affairs April 1882.
dry of War. — General '' ide-de-camp of tin
Emperor ; appointed Minister of War March 29, 1881.
J. Th> Ministry of H ice-Admiral Tchiihatehof, appointed
December '
."». Tin Ministry of the Interior. — Actual Privy Couhcilloi Durnom, ap-
pointed May 1 8,
0. Tht Ministry of 1 k— Actual Privy Councillor /
appointed 1882.
7. The Ministry of Finance,.— Privy Councillor V tdsty, appointed
1887.
■a of Jus - lator Privy Councillor Manasgin, ap-
pointed November 19. 1885.
9. TheM us. — Actual Privy Councillor Ostro
:tii]>ointed 1881.
10. Tin Minimi,, of Public Works "n<-' Railways. — General Annenkoff,
appointed 1891.
II. Tht I Actual Privy Councillor Fit
appointed Comptroller-General 18S9.
The post of Minister and State S tary for Finland remains vacant -
tin- death of Baron Bm,i,i ilS88>.
Most of the above heads of departments have assistant ministers who supply
their place on certain occasion.-.. They all communicate directly with the
eign.
The emperor has two Private Cabinets, one of which is occupied with
charitable affairs, and the other is devoted to public instruction of girls and to
the administration of the institution.- established by the late Empress .Maria,
mother of the Emperor Nicholas I. Besides, there is the Imperial I
Quarters (Glavnaia Kvartira), and a Cabinet, which is entrusted also with
the reception of petitions presented to the emperor, formerly received by a
special Court of Requests (abolished in 1884). According to" a law of May
1!'. 1888. a special Imperial Cabinet having lour sections (Administrative,
Economical, Agricultural and Manufacturing, and Legislative) has been
created, instead of the same departments in the Ministry of Imperial
Household.
Lot Al lo.VI.KVMKNV
Tlie Empire is divided into general governments, or vice-royalties,
governments, and districts. There are at present in European Russia (in-
cluding Poland and Finland* ijn governments, with rt:j.". districts (ttjfwrf),
tnd 1 okrug, also considered as Sopaiata governments. Some al
856 RUSSIA
them are united into general governments! which are now those of Finland,
Poland, Wilna, Kieff, and Moscow. The Asiatic part of the Empire com-
prises 5 general governments, Caucasus, Turkestan. Stepnoye (of the
Steppes), Eastern Siberia, and of the Amur, with 9 governments igubemiya)
and 18 territories (oblasts). They are divided into 173 districts {nyetd or
okrug). In 1889 the general governorship of Odessa was abolished, and tin-
Island of Sakhalin has been made a separate province (otdycl), under a
separate governor. At the head of each general government is a governor-
general, the representative of the emperor, who as such has the supreme
control and direction of all affairs, whether civil or military. In Siberia
the governors-general are each assisted by a council, which has a delibe-
rative voice. A civil governor assisted by a council of regency, to which
all measures must be submitted, is established in each government, ami
a military governor in twenty frontier provinces. A Vice-governor is
appointed to till the place of the civil governor when the latter is absent
or unwell. There is also, in each government, a council of control under
the presidency of a special officer, depending directly on the Department
of Control. Each government is divided into from 8 to 15 districts.
having each several administrative institutions. A few districts {u/cmg or
oidyel) in Siberia, in the Caucasus, in Turkestan, and in the Transcaspian
region are considered as independent governments. So also the townships
(gradoimeluilstvo) of St. Petersburg, Odessa, Kertch, Sebastopol, and Ta-
ganrog; Cronstadt, AHadivostok, and Xikolaevsk are under separate military
governors.
In European Russia the government of the parish, in so far as the lands
of the peasantry are concerned, and part of the local administration, is en-
trusted to the people. For this purpose the whole country is divided into
107,493 communes, which elect an elder (Starosta), or executive of a com-
mune, as also a tax-collector or superintendent of public stores. All these
officers are elected at communal assemblies ('Mir' — which means both 'the
village' and 'the world') by the peasants, and from among themselves.
The communal assemblies are constituted by all the householders in the
village, who discuss and decide all communal affairs. These communal
assemblies are held as business requires. The communes are united into
cantons; or 'Voloste,' each embracing a population of about '2,000 males
(9,533 in European Russia). Each of the cantons is presided over also by
an elder, 'Starshina,' elected at the cantonal assemblies, which art com-
posed of the delegates of the village communities in proportion of one
man to every ten houses. The canton assemblies decide the same das- oi
affairs as do the communal assemblies, but concerning each its respective
canton. The peasants have thus special institutions of their own. which
are submitted also to special colleges 'lor peasants' affairs,' instituted in
each government. In Poland the 'Voloste' is replaced by the 'Gniina,'
the assemblies of which are constituted of all landholders nobility in-
cluded, the clergy and the police excluded who have each but one
voice, whatever the area of land possessed. The 'Gniina' has. however,
less autonomy than the 'Yoloste,' being subject directly to the 'Chief of
the District.' In conjunction with the assemblies of the Voloste and Gniina
are cantonal tribunals, consisting of from four to twelve judges elected at
cantonal assemblies. Injuries and offences of every kind, as well as dis-
putes relating to property .between the peasants, not involving more than
a hundred roubles, come under the jurisdiction id' these popular Iribunals.
A Hairs of more importance, up to 300 roubles, are judged bj Judges of
Peace, elected in Central Russia, and nominated elsewhere: appeal against
their judgments can be made to the 'Syerd,' or gathering of judges of the
rOXSTrriTIoN AND GOVERNMENT 857
district. ;ui<l further tu tlu- Senate. In ]S>9 an important • hangc was made
in the- al>ov. organisation, .lusti ■ have lieen replaced in twenty
province.- of Cental Russia by chiefs of the District (vyczdni/i nadtmlmH),
nominated by the administration from among candidates taken from tin
nobility, recommended by the nobility, ami endowed with wi>le disciplinary
pomn against the peasants : in the cit: >r. Petersburg. Moscow, and
ial town magistrates' (goiwlstoi nuHa), nominated in the same
way. are to take the place of the former Justices of 1'. t .-. A- ;<• the jieasants'
tribunals (■ofoatiioi sud), they are placed in di tion to the 'Chi
the Districts.' The same measure has been extended in 1S90 and 1891 over
all the province* endoweil with provincial institutions iztuistvot).
The administration of the economical affairs of the district and province
are. to some extent, in the hands <>f amuAMOj or the district and provincial
■lies. COmpOted of lvpiv.-entatives rlected by the peasantry, the I
holders in the towns, and the landed proprietors. Their executive poire i-
entrusted to provincial and district ' L'prava*. ' The president of the nobility
of the district, or of the province, presides - .-■ ojtem over the tenitfrox of the
'iistrict. or of the province. Important modifications, increasing the j towers
of noble landowners in the affairs of the mnstvo*, reducing the nuiir
representative-, and limiting their uuaaas, were introduced in 1890.
The towns and cities have municipal institutions of their own OtflSl
on nearly the same principles as the MMiOM. All house-owners are divided
into three doom, each of which represents an eaoal amount of real property,
and each dam elects an equal number of representatives to the Duma* : the
latter elect their executive the Up
During the years 1883 So' the institutions of th ron in force in
34 provinces (361 districts) of European Russia. The number of <■'.
was: 40.172 landowners, 48,091 urban imputation, and 196,773 post
the number of votes given to the above electors, it appears that 64 per
cent, of all votes lielong to peasants, 12 per cent, to nobles, 10 percent, to
merchants, ~> i>er cent, to the clergy, and 4 per cent, to artisans. Of the
13.196 elected members of the Assemblies of the e 6 per cent.
belonged to the nobility. 15 per cent, to the class of the ■ merchants." and 38
1*t cent, to the peasantry. The Executives of th' i)have
1,263 members, out of whom two-thirds are jieasants in East Russia, while in
Middle Russia from two-thirds to three-quarters of the members are nobles
The 34 provincial executives have 137 members (98 nobles. 21 officials.
9 merchants, 3 artisans, and 2 peasants).
Finland '.—The Grand-duehy of Finland, ceded to the Emperor of Russia
by the treaty of Frederickshamn. September 17, 1809. has preserved, by
special grant of Alexander I. in 1810 (renewed by his successors), some
remains of its ancient Constitution, dating from the year 1772. reformed in
and slightly modified in 1869 and 1882. This' charter provides for a
national parliament, consisting of four estates, the nobles, the clergy, the
burghers, and the peasants, convoked by the • tirand-dukc.' Emperor of
Russia, for four months. They discuss the scheme- of laws proposed l>y the
emperor, who has the right* of veto. The unanimous assent of all four
chambers i- n< cessary for making changes in the Constitution and for levying
new taxes. The national representatives have been regularly convoked, since
1861, every four or five yearn ; the last time they met was in 1888. The
schemes of laws arc elaborated by the ' Committee for the Affairs of Finland.'
which >i;> at St. Petersburg, and consists of the State Secretary and four
members nominated by the Crown (two of them l>eing proposed by the
file Senate, which sits at Helsingfors, under the presidency of the
1 For farther details ou Finland, see end of liwtia.
858 Russia
Governor-General, is nominated by the Crown. It is the superior adminis-
trative power in Finland, and consists of two departments. Justice and
Finance, which have under them the administration of posts, railways, canals,
custom-houses, hygiene, and the tribunals. The military department is under
the Russian Ministry of War, and the Foreign Affairs under the Russian
Chancellor. Finland has its own money and system of custom-houses.
Recent laws have, however, altered this to some extent. (See Finland.)
Poland. — Poland, which had a Constitution of its own from ]81f> to 1830,
and a separate government till 1864, was deprived at the latter date of the
last remnant of its administrative independence. Finally, by ukase of the
Emperor, dated Feb. 23, 1868, the government of Poland was absolutely
incorporated with that of Russia.
Baltic Provinces. — The Baltic Provinces have some institutions for sell-
government of their own. Tliey have, however, been gradually curtailed.
and the privileges of the provinces in police and school matters, chiefly
vested in the nobility, have been taken away by a law of .June '21, 1888, the
judicial and police rights of the landlords having been transferred to
functionaries nominated by the State, liy a law of July 21, 1889, the last
vestiges of manorial justice and of tribunals tinder the German-speaking
nobility have been abolished, but the Law of Justice of 186). which is in
force in Russia, has been but partially applied to the provinces, so as to
maintain the administration of justice under the central Government. The
Russian language has been rendered obligatory in the official correspondence
of all parish, municipal, and provincial administration : so also in the Dorpal
University, which was deprived in December 1889 of its privileges of Self-
government, and the gymnasia in 1890.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Prksknt Condition.
The Russian Empire comprises one-seventh of the Und-surface
of the globe, and covers, with internal waters, an area of 8,644,100
English square miles. There lias been no general census of the
population since 1851), but various enumerations, chiefly made by
the statistical committees, furnish an approximately correct return
of the people. According to these, the total population of the
Empire numbered in 1SS7 113,364,649 inhabitants.
The rapidity of growth of the population of the Empire (its
acquisitions being included in the figures of population) is seen
from the following, the years being census years :
rear
l'o|.lll;iti()ll
1
1 -1.000.000
feu
Population
1 l-l-l
1 S 1 2
11.000,000
1742
n;. ooo.ooo
1 8 1 6
15,000,000
I7(i:>
19,000,000
1 885
60,000,000
17*2
29,000,000
1851
68,000,000
1798
::-; ,000,008
1859
7 1.000,000
Since ih.it period the population of the Empire is estimated
follows ;
AREA AND POPULATION'
869
European
Russia
Poland
Finland
Caucasus
' ^U ] Sl1*™ ™al
1870-7-' I
l-v_>.- ;■:
1886
63,658,934
S.r,,282,101
5,705,607
6,026,421
:.' - : t:.-.
8,319,797
1,794,911
1,832,138
2,142.091
4,583,640
4.893.332
6,534.853
4,566,096 S.428,8- ■'
5,532,021 4.493,64.7
Averagel
Yearly}
Increase 1
1,081,158
130,710
143,725*
140,2895 j8i30.
1 Finland, 1872 ; Caucasus. 1871 ; Russia, Poland. Sil»-ria, and CentTal Asia. 1870.
- Finland. 1883 ; Caucasus, 1883; Russia. Poland. Siberia, and Central
•■' Increased by annexations and bettor registration.
The following table exhibits the details of official estiinates-
referring to the years 1887-1889— concerning the area and popula-
tion of the various political and geographical divisions of the Empire
of Russia : —
A rva : r ~
English Poji
square yo
miles
1. European
BuMia (18S7). ■
Archangelsk
Astrakhan .
Bessarabia .
Chernigoff .
Courland
; Don, Region of
Ekaterinoslaf
Esthonia
Grodno
Kaluga
1 Kazan (1889)
Kietf(1890).
Kostroma .
j Kovuo
| Kursk
Kharkoll
Kherson
• Livonia
Minsk
Moghilev
Moscow
N'ijni-Novgorod
.
| Novgorod .
\ Olonetz
! Orel .
Orenbui
Perm .
Podolia
Poltava
Pskott
Ryazan
Si. Pe'.
I Samara (1889) .
91,827
17,619
10,536
61,886
26.148
7,818
14,931
11,942
24,601
19,691
15,692
17,937
21,041
18.158
35,398
1S..V.1
12,859
19,797
18,042
8,816
14. '.".'7
138,211
16,224
19,265
17,069
16,255
20,760
58,321
•
1,588,329
2,109,968
1,896.113
1,874,162
■
1,354,426
2. 1 -t". 7"2
3,672,900
1,354,162
2,666,573
•
1,680,615
1,294,116
2,210,791
1
10
90
104
64
30
71
50
M
100
89
l.Vi
41
!i7
148
HO
73
67
47
Saraton"
Simbirsk
Smolensk
Tamboff
Tauridn
Tula .
Tver .
Ufa (1889)
Vilna .
Vitebsk
Vladimir
Volhynia
Vologda
II Voronej
'' Vyatka
Yaroslav
Sea of Azov
19,110
21,688
85,710
11,964
47.112
16.421
17,440
18.864
27.74::
25,449
.v.'.117
13.77.1
14,478
2.M1.220] 70
-
U4 61
2,730,145 106
1,096.670 44
1,445,600 12"
1,781,861 70
1,304."-
1.27.V-
1,403,172 74
'I 7
3 lot
2.91 4. .144 4!'
Total. Russian
Provinces . ,1,9 1,23a 45
-
1,687,011
77
1,213,058
•>;,
.".
2,021,239
112
17
1,522,537
101
21
2,423,755
I4!»
2,794,739
14".
966,856
56
1,843,345
11".
1,680,273
SO
2. Poland:
Kalisz
Kielce
Lomja
Lublin
Piotrkow
Plock
Radon 1
Siedlei-
Snvalki
Polar,,
I. <*"
6,499
4.729
1,206
4,768
5,585
5,623
17 190
28 177
83 ISO
979,700 150
1.09 1.1-
662 143
tlA 164
671,598 121
656,:-
1,465,131 2»*>
v»7 17n
860
RUSSIA
Pro yin ee
3. Grand-Duchy
of Finland : —
Abo-BJOrneborg
Kuopio
Nvland
St. Michel . . 1
Tavastehus
Uleaborg .
Viborg
Vasa . . . !
Finland
Total European
Russia .
4. Bu*sia in Asia :
Kuban
gtavro] >ol .
Terek .
Northern Cau-
casia
Baku .
Daghestaii .
Klizabethpol
Kiivan
Kars .
Kutais
Titlis .
Trans. Caucasia .
Caucasus .
AkiuoliiisWIsso)
Area :
English
square
miles
'.'.:;:;.">
10.499
4,580
8,819
8,334
03,971
16,627
10,084
Popula-
tion
380,350
281,861
231,773
176,780
250,071
237,848
335,970
405,707
£s
98 .
a) 55
Q Z
41
10
50
19
30
8
19
24
10
46
Province
Area :
English
square
miles
Popula-
tion
h
Samarcand
Ferganah
Semirechensk .
Syr-Daria
Turkestan
Trans-Caspian
20.027
36,664
152.280
194,863
680,186
775,600
671,878
1,214,800
26
22
4
0
409,414
3,341,913
B
214,237
TOO 381
801,476
6,644,369
1
a
•_>
8
144,255
2,095,504
30,439
23,397
26,822
2,305,910
Total, Central
95,870,810
Asian dominions
Tobolsk (1889)
TonNk (1889).
Western Siberia
1,648,826
539,659
331,159
1,813,400
1,899,729
1,280,022
007,511
719.46S
85
28
20
870,818
2.023,120
421,187
546,388
265,671
468,572
1,680,768
88,221
102.781
I00.O07
S
j
•1
•4
•1
•1
80,058
15.177
11,492
1 T.o-ll
IU.T4.-,
7,200
14.1184
17,223
96,799
2,678,801
80
Irkutsk . 287,061
Transbaikalia . 230.808
Yakutsk. . 1683,397
Yeniseisk . 087,186
Eastern Siberia 3.044.512
Ainnr<1886) , 172,848
Priiuorskaya . 715,982
Amur Region,
about . . I S8S.s:;u
Sakhalin . 29,886
744.930
697,866
768,896
077.491
287,114
966,000
819,2ft
19
:,1
44
03
32
07
4,784,560
49
182,467
7,468,161
.
1 1.01-
■1
229.609
500,180
Scmipalatinsk . iKt.o:;i 57M78 S Total, Siberia 1,883,490 1,484,649 "9
Turgai (18S0) . 170,219 864,660
Uralsk (is*:') . 189,168 669,662 8 Total. Asiatic
Lake Aral . . 20.100 — — dominions . 6,604,778 17,587,069 8
Kirghiz sic|,|.c . 755,798 2, ,970
Grand Total,
Russian Bmpira 8,600 008 18
In 1889 the island of Sakhalin was separated from the bYiinorsk
province under a separate ffoverndr,
The internal waters (lakes and estuaries) occupy the following
areas, in square unlets: — in European Russia, 25,804 ; in Finland,
AREA AND POPULATION* 861
18.471 . in Siberia, 18,863 : and in Central Aria, 19,855. The
of Azov. Caspian, and Lak<- Aral cover an aggregate surface
of 210,025 square miles. The superficies, of all Biwiin profmen
have been carefully revised bjQemani Stivlhitzky : his figures are
given in the above for ITnwrin in Asia ; those for European Russia
eery slightly <liffer from the above, the total area <>f the Russian
provinces of Enropean Russia, with all islands, ami deltas, being
now given at 1,902,227 Bnghsh square miles.
For the ethnical elements rf the imputation. s<-.- YJU.R-BOOK 1885, p. 416.
The populations of the Caucasus appear as follows, according r>i n
investicpuions : —
Russians . 1.915,614 Jem . . 50,992
Palea . 8,910 KmrimKoM*: —
Hermans 23,613 Georgians . 310,499
Qneka 42,562 Mingreliaus . 200,092
■ inns : — Imeretians . 373. 141
127,430 1 'shaves. Khev-
PeniuM, r can . 20,079
Talvshius 132,792 Western Motm-
Kurds . 10,097 tain.ers . 188,083
Armenians . 80S
According to a recent jiartial census, tin- .lews number 2,843,884 in tin
n ami south-western provinces of Rossis (2,961,863 in towns), that b
11 3 ]>er cent, of the aggregate population : 77.275 in the three townships ol
"1 per cent of imputation). Eerteh, and SeUistopol :
ami 431, S00 in live governments only of Poland out of ten (11 per cent <>f
Imputation). Their aggregate number in Russia would thus exceed S|
millions.
II. MoVEMKNT OK THE POPULATION.
The statistics of marriages, births, and deaths for 1888, if not others Mi
mentioned, appear as follows : —
. :i Moun-
tain-
w-.- ai
Turks
Turcomans.
.
44,048
Northers
Tartar* .
126,600
Kalmuk* .
10.7o7
-
M irri ■._•■»
804,084
Births
1.251.473
Birth-
rate
474
Death-
2,749,085
Death-
rate
Surplus
Russia in Europe
33 0
1,502,388
Poland .
67,392
334,268
40 0
204,031
24 7
136,3 ]
Finland .
16,748
80,172
34 7
45,417
197
34.7551
Siberia (1887) .
212,148
48-4
150,197
34"4
61,951
Caucasus (1887)
268,250
37-2
17:
23 fl
Central Asia
(Russians only)
1885
8,540 ;
52,361
—
41.519
—
10,842
I 4~>.lttt iininigratetl. ami 44,014 emigrated in 1888.
The average surplus for the last three years was : 1,668,327 in European
Russia, 157,979 in Poland, and 38,130 iii Finland, giving thus a yearly
■orpins of more than 2,000,000 for the Empire.
The maximum mortality was in Perm (45), Tobolsk and Orenburg (44).
Stavropol (above 40) : and the minimum in Itaku. EHsabethpoL, Erivan.
Vitebsk (16), and Courland (IS). The maximum births were in Kuban (63).
Orenburg, Samara, and Tobolsk (60 to 54). while in several provinces it was
more than 50 in the thousand.
862
RUSSIA
During the years 1867-81, 26 -6 per cent, of all new-born children died
before reaching the age of one year, and 42 per cent, before reaching five
years.
According to official statistics there was in Russia an excess of emigration
over immigration in the case of Russians of 1,146,052 in 33 years (1856-1888),
and a surplus of immigration of 2,304,717 foreigners during the same time.
Emigration is on the increase. Of late the Russians, especially Jews, con-
tributed a large part to the flow of emigrants into the United States ; in
Great Britain the Russians numbered in 1881 nearly as many as the French
(15,271, much increased since). During the years 1871-85 8,767,605
foreigners entered Russia, but only 7,525,360 left, showing thus an immigra-
tion of 1,242,245 (563,345 Germans, 447,736 Austrians, 9,395 English, and
nearly 100,000 Persians). The surplus of foreigners who entered Russia
during the years 1886-88 ^2, 478, 430^ over those who left was 278,947, while
the surplus of Russian subjects who left Russia (1,413,018) over those who
returned was 136,129.
III. Principal Towns.
The great majority of the population of Russia being agriculturists, tluv
dwell in villages, and in 1886 the division of population in urban and rural,
as also the division according to sex, in 1886, appeared as follows : —
Euroj>ean Russia
Poland
Finland .
Caucasus .
Siberia
Central Asia
Total
In Towns I In the Country
9,964,760
2,125,458
191,620
669,085
345,071
651,831
71,760,425
5,834,846
1,984,801
6,615,462
3,968,609
4,675,267
Males
42,499,324
4,084,393
1,067,750
3,876,868
2,146,411
2,448,085
Females
42,895,885
4,223,729
1,108,672
3,407. 679
2,167,269
2,879,013
13,947,825 I 94,063,353
56,122,831 j 56,682,247
The aggregate number of settlements reached, in 1886, 555,990 in the
Empire ; of these 1,281 (468 in Poland) had municipal institutions. The
following are the populations of the principal towns, mostly according to
estimates of 1886 to 1888, if not otherwise mentioned : —
Russia in Europe, —
Towns Population
St. Petersburg1
(winter 1889) 1,003,315
(summer 1889) 849,315
Moscow (1884) . 753,469
Warsaw (1891).
Odessa (1890) .
Kliarkofl(1888)
Riga (1888)
Kieff(l891) .
Kazan
Lodz (1890)
Saratoff .
Kisfcineff.
Vilna
Towns Population
Orel (1888) . 78,404
Berditchetf(1889) 77,287
Samara . . 75,478
Astrakhan (1888) 73,710
Dunaburg . 69,033
465,272 Minsk (1887) . 67,618
313,687 Nikolaieti* . 67,249
188,469 Nijni-Novgorod 66,716
195,668 Tula (1887) . 64,047
183,640 • Orenburg (1889) 62,534
133,20s Kherson (1889) 61,824
125,227 ; Rostotf on Don 61,256
123,410 Bobruisk (1887) 58,356
120,074 Elisabetigrad
102,845' (1889) . . 67,884
1 with suburbs,
Towns
Jitomir (1888)
Voronej
Taganrog .
Vitebsk .
Reval
Koviio
Byelostok
Krementchug
Kursk
Lublin (1890)
Oronstadl
Kkatcliliosl:i\
IVii/m (1887)
Bendery .
Nye.jin .
Population
56,782
56,179
56,047
54,676
51,877
50,873
50,728
50,018
19,857
is.tr:.
48,278
16,878
18,22]
14,884
14,87]
AREA AND POPULATION — RELIGION
868
Town Population
Town P
ovulation
Poltava .
42,210
Novotcherkask .
26,646
Moghilev .
41.S99
Ivanovo- Yozne-
Akkerman
41,178
sensk
32,579
Kaluga (188
40,252
Serghievsk
31.413
Nijnetaghilsk .
40,000
Dorpat
30,643
Brat-Litorsk .
39.901
Ryazan
30.327
Grodno
39,826
Mitau
30,039
Perm (1890) .
39,281
1 *88)-
Tver
39,280
Helsingfors
58,402
Simbirsk .
39,047
Al»o
Novotrherka.sk
37,091
Tammerio!
18,097
Simphexopo)
36,503
Yiborg
Vohk (1888
37.044
Asia—
Elet»(1888j .
38,388
Tashkent
121.410
Kamenetz- Podolsk
Tiflis (1886) .
104,024
Kokand .
Bjev.
35,810
Irkutsk (1888) .
48,000
lambof
35,688
Baku (1888
Yaroslavl
34.799
Ekaterinodar
Tsaritsyn 0888)
(1886) .
39,610
Smolen.sk
34,348
Omsk (18S9)
38,000
Sebastopol
•
Stavropol (1886)
37.017
Izmail
33,084
Tomsk
36.742
Balta
32,983
Khodjent .
34,800
Town
Population
Vladikavkaz
(1886) .
33,981
Samarkand
33,117
Ekaterinburg
(1887) .
33,739
Namangan
31,074
Andidjan
30,620
Shemakha (1886) 28,:
Maikop (1886)
Shuslia (1886) .
26,806
Uralsk
< Marghelan (1887) 26,080
Yeisk (1886)
Nukha (1886)
indro]>ol
(1886) .
Jizak
Yyemyi .
81,621
Eiizal>eth]M.l
(188t)
Kutais (1886)
Toljolsk .
20.17.'-
Zlatoust (1890)
20,000
Rlagoveschensk
20,212
There are 3o more towns with imputations of fi-oni 20,000 to 30,000 in-
babitanta in European Russia ; and 172 towns with populations of more than
10.000 inhabitants
Religion.
The established religion of the Empire Is the Gneco-Russiau, officially
called the Orthodox-Catholic Faith. It has it.-, own independent synod, but
maintains the relations of a sister Church with the four patriarchates "t
< onstantinople. Jemsalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. The Holy Synod, the
ltoard of government of the Church, was established with the concurrence of
the Russian clergy and the four Eastern i>arriarchs.
The emperor is head of the Church : he appoints to every office in the
Church, and is restricted only so far as to leave to the bishops and prelates the
privilege of projKising candidates : and he transfers and dismiss.-,, persons
from their offices in certain eases. Hut he lias never claimed the right of
deciding theological and dogmatic questions. tactically, the Procurator of
the Holy Synod enjoys wide powers in Church matters.
The points in which the Oraei-o-Russian Church differs from the Roman
Catholic faith are. its denying the spiritual supremacy of the Pope, its
enforcing the celibacy of the clergy, and its authorising all individuals to read
and study xh>- Scriptures in the vernacular tongue. With the exception of
the restraints laid on the Jews, all religions may he freely professed in the
Empire. The dissenters have been and are still, however, severely perse-
cuted, though recently some lilierty has been extended to those of the
'United Church.' It is estimated that there are more than 12,000,000
iters in Great Russia alone. The affairs of the Roman Catholic Church
are entrusted to a Collegium, aud those of the Lutheran Church to a ( Ym-
l<oth Bettled at St. Petersburg. Roman Catholics are most numerous
864
RUSSIA
in the former Polish provinces, Lutherans in those of the Baltic, and
Mohammedans in Eastern and Southern Russia, while the Jews are almost
entirely settled in the towns and larger villages of the western and south-
western provinces.
There are no exact figures as to the numbers of adherents of different creeds
— many dissenters being inscribed under the head of Greek Orthodox ; they
are only estimated as follows : —
Creed
Orthodox Greek Catholics (1888), without army and navy
United Church and Armenians .....
Roman Catholics .......
Protestants .........
.lews ..........
Mohammedans ........
Pagans .........
69,808,407
f)5,000
8,300,000
2,950,000
3,000,000
2,600,000
26,000
The Russian Empire is divided into 62 bishoprics (eparchiya), which,
according to the last published report, were, in 1887, under 3 metropolitans,
15 archbishops, and 48 bishops ; the latter had under them 37 vicars ; all
of them are of the monastic clergy. The Greek Orthodox population
of the 62 bishoprics in 1886 numbered 69,S08,407, to which the Ortho-
doxes of the army and navy must be added. There were, in 1889, 50, 720
churches both public and private (of which : cathedrals, 666 ; parish
churches, 34,690; yedinovyertsy's, or nonconformists recognised by Church,
248, and 15,107 chapels), with 52,333 priests and deacons, and 43,615
cantors, &c. No less than 459 churches and 218 chapels were built in 1889.
According to official figures for 1889, the monasteries numbered 480, and
had 11,997 monks and aspirants, and 211 nunneries with 35,969 nuns and
aspirants.
Other religions had in 1888 the following numbers of churches and
clergy :—
Churches Priests Churches Priests
Roman Catholic . . 5,156 8,629 Mussulman . 9,254 16,914
Lutherans (exd. Finland) 1,866 605 Jewish ■ • • 6,319 5,678
Armenian . . . 1,275 2,025 Karaims . . . 85 38
The Holy Synod has a capital of about 5,000,000/. sterling at its disposal,
and the various churches received in 1889 11,500,000 roubles of donations.
and about 2,000,000 roubles from the Orthodox brotherhood*. The
expenditure of the Synod in 1890 was : 13,980,876 roubles contributed by the
Imperial budget (lor schools, 1,738,260 roubles; Armenian clergy, 11,-01
roubles: Catholic clergy, 1,560,840 roubles; Lutheran clergy, 121,282
roubles : Mussulman clergy, 50,955 roubles), and 6,838,068 roubles con-
tributed by the Synod, chiefly for schools. The total expenditure was
20,763*444 roubles.
Instruction.
.Most ol the schools in the Empire .ire under the Ministry of
Public I nst red ion. and the Empire is divided into II educational
districts (St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kazan, Orenburg, ECharkoi
Odessa, Kieff, villia, Warsaw. Dorpat, Caucasus, Turkestan, Wfit
IXSTKlCTluN
865
Siberia, ami East Siberia). However, many .*i)ecial schools are
under separate Ministries. The total contribution for education
from the various Ministries wm 45,093,995 roubles in the budget
for 1890.
Finland has a university of its own (see Finland). Nearly
•4,000 student* are either supported by bursaries or dispensed from
paying fees.
The high and middle schools of the Empire (exclusive of Fin-
land) are given in the subjoined table for the year 1887 (the
latest available Statistics) : —
■>U""*r Start St
Univenttiea .....
Special high schools
Ladies' university colleges (1890)
Theological academies
Medical academy ....
Military academies ....
Agricultural academy
Engineering .....
Total high schools >»till incomplete)
Norma] schools ....
Normal seminaries with practical
schools .....
Gymnasia ami progymnasia
Bealachnlen .....
Technical and professional
Theological seminaries
Military and naval schools
Total middle-class schools tor boys
(iirls" gymnasia and progymnasia
,, institutes ....
Total middle-class school for girls
1:3,165
0
190
•2,096
1
—
400
4
1-27
789
1
—
74.'.
4
—
431
1
1
—
:J06
23S
ti
289
44
1 . #00
1.049
113
622
343
30
—
873
The ladies' colleges, providing full University education, were closed by
Imperial order in 1887-SS. One of them has been reoiR-ned at St. Petersburg.
The expenses for the middle schools are contributed by the State Exchequer
to the amount of 52 per cent, of the aggregate expenditure for the gymnasia,
prugyinnasia, and technical schools, the remainder l>eing made uj> by fees
(ahout -30 per cent.* and by donations of th< lie municipalities, ami
so on. The Cossack schools (gymnasia, kc, both fur boys and girls* arc
maintained by the separate voiskos. which, moreover, maiutaiu a number of
their pupils in the governmental schools. The total exi>enditure of the
voiskos for schools was 2.720.123 roubles in 1SS8. The Church contributed the
same year the sum of 725.252 roubles. 1,615,681 roubles in 1888, the costs for
the schools under the Holy Synod being paid by either the Exchequer or the
zemstvos and the village communities.
«SG6
11 U SSI A
The education in Caucasia appeared as follows, according to the official
report for 1888, issued by the School Administration : — There were in 1888 19
lyceiuns, gymnasia, and Realschulen, 5 normal schools, 16 high schools for
girls, with a total of 10,056 pupils (6,036 hoys, 4,020 girls) ; 31 town schools,
9 special schools, 5 indigenes' schools, with a total of 6,660 pupils ; 104
private schools, with 3,813 pupils ; 876 primary schools, with 51,529 pupils :
151 Armenian schools, with 11,129 pupils ; 395 various schools, with 18,335
pupils ; 2,046 Mussulman and Jewish schools, with 24,750 pupils. •
The statistics of primary education are as follows for 1887 : —
Ministry of Public Education —
No. of Schools
Boys
Girls
District schools .....
181
13,857
Town .......
442
52,217
Primary
24,329
1,219,663
339,514'
Holy Synod —
Boys' schools .....
181
31,593
—
Girls' „
Parish ,, .....
53
15,471
—
St, 171
408
721
Schools for indigenes ....
3,415
52,681
10,325
Various .......
35
1,526
793
Jewish schools —
State
77
4,198
1,063
Private and communal
1,165
17,279
5,686
Primary schools under the military .
■1-1
993
13
Cossacks' schools —
For boys ......
1,280
52,343
—
For girls
Total, primary education
236
—
16,338
hi. 880
1,451,609 883,236
108,721
1 Figures for the Dorjiat educational district, wanting.
The total number of pupils in the schools of the Empire, exclusive o\
Finland, was estimated in 1887-88 to be 2,472,627 (1,944,057 males, and
527,570 females) ; but these figures are incomplete. It thus appears that only
2 per cent, of the aggregate population are at school, and in 1888 only 20 pel
cent, of the recruits could read ami write.
A certain extension has been given of late to schools conducted by the
clergy, the masters of which receive the rights of teaching by iHtres d'obediiiin
6i the bishops. They attained the number of 19,058 in 1890, and had about
600,000 pupils. The zematvos maintained do less than 22,000 schools. In
European Russia there is one primary Bchool for each 2,500 inhabitants
and one for each 3,345 inhabitants in Siberia (1,446 schools, i!>,ns pupils).
A scheme <d technical schools was elaborated in 1888, and a scheme of
commercial and industrial schools was prepared in 1SS9, a lirst credit of
1 11,000 roubles having been granted for thai purpose.
By s law, April 24, 1890, the middle schools of the Baltic provinces have
been transformed entirely on the plan of Russian gymnasia.
Tfu Press. — There were published iii the Russian Empire (exclusive of
JUSTICE AND CRIME
Finland) in 1889 8,699 l>ooks, with an aggregate of 8 opiea. Of
these in Russian 6,420 works, 18,777,890 copies; in Polish 723
works, 1,836,088 copies; Hebrew 474 works, 1,132,192 copies: German 377
works, 744, 3S0 copies; Lettish 203 works, 767,570 copies; Esthonian IIS
work*, 544,410 oopaea
Periodicals number 694 in 1890 (exclusive of Finland), in the following
languages : 588 in Russian, 71 in Polish. 60 in German, 12 in Esthonian, 8 in
!i, 10 in French, 6 in Armenian, 3 in Jewish, 5 in Georgian. 2 in Finnish.
1 in Russian and Polish, 1 in Russian. German, and Lettish, 1 in Russian and
Turkish.
Justice and Crime.
The organisation of justire was totally reformed by the law of 1864 ; but
the action of that law has not yet been extended to the governments of
Olonets, Vologda. Astrakhan, Ufa, and Orenburg, and has beeB applied but
in a modified form (in 1889) to the Baltic Provinces and the government of
Arkhangelsk. In the above-named governments the Justice of Peace has
been introduced, but the other tribunals remain in the old state. Tin-
report of the Ministry of Justice for the years 1886 and 1887, published
in August 1SS9, thus embraces only 59 provinces of European Russia.
Poland, and Caucasia (S9,601,400 inhabitants), and 64 provinces for joe
of the peace. No juries are allowed in Poland and the Caucasus ; the rai
of peace are nominated by the Government in the provinces which have
In Poland there are judges of peace in the towns only,
their functions in the villages being performed by Gmina courts, elected by
the inhabitants of the Gmina. Siberia has maintained the tribunals of old :
in the Steppe Provinces there are district judges, while courts of higher
instance are represented by the Justice Department of the provincial
administration.
There were in 1887 2 appeal departments of the Senate, 10 high courts, 80
courts of first instance. There were besides — 1,280 inquiry judges and 1,345
notaries ; 2,126 actual and 3,652 honorary justices of peace. In the unreformed
tribunals there were 604 judges, 129 public prosecutors, and 156 impjiry
judges.
The activity of the various tribunals in 1S87, so far as criminal affairs are
concerned, according to the official report, was as follows, the figures for pro-
secutions, &c, being very incomplete : — Before the courts of justices of the
peace there were 785,871 convictions; before the Gmina courts, 207,009
criminal prosecutions were terminated : 172.073 before the courts of first
instance; 241 political criminal affairs before the high courts, besides 4,947
appeals ; and 10,796 criminal affairs before the Senate.
A new law, dated June 21, 1889, limited also to some extent the finictions
of the juries, especially as regards the crimes committed by the representative-
of nobility in their elective functions.
By a law of April 6, 1891, reformed courts as well as chiefs of districts have
D introduced in the provinces of the Kirghize Step)
According to the last report of the Chief Administration for Prisons the
Russian Empire had, in 1888, 870 prisons (of which 125 were in Poland), and
I the prison population on January 1, 1889, appeared as follows :—
8(38 RUSSIA
i
' Men Women
Lock-ups of Russia
,, ,, Poland
Hard-lahour prisons
Depots
Correction houses
•
67,736 7,376
7,259 1,546
6,772 436
4,571 548
11,157 —
97,495 9,906
Of these, 778 persons were kept in prison by order of the Administration,
2,458 were women and children following their husbands or parents into exile,
and 1,200 were insane. In the course of 1889, 656,972 persons entered the
prisons, and 654,888 left (each prisoner being counted several times as he is
transferred from one prison to another), so that on January 1, 1889, the prison
population numbered 109,485 (99,340 males and 10,145 females) ; 3,761
prisoners died during the year. For exile to Siberia, 18,363 persons reached
the prison of Tiumen (whence they are distributed over Siberia). Of the
16,077 prisoners brought to Tiumen in 1888, 2,000 were hard-labour convicts,
the remainder being — nma ways, 1,913 ; condemned to exile by courts, 3,119 ;
exiled by order of Administration, 3, 205 common law and 636 political exiles ;
women and children following exiles, 5,184. In 1889, 1,161 convicts and
persons sent into exile by order of the Administration (110 women) were conveyed
to the island of Sakhalin, on board steamers. They were followed by 120 women
and 215 children. The actual population of the hard-labour convict prisons in
Siberia at the end of 1889 was 10,667. Besides, 797 children wore kept in 13
reformatories. In the convict island of Sakhalin at the end of 1889 there were
6,360 male and 712 female hard-labour convicts, and 2,830 male and 423 female
released convicts ; to these must be added more than 600 women who followed
their husbands, with about 1,500 children. The actual expenditure for prisons
leached in 1889 the sum of 14,351,602 roubles, of which only 701, 130 roubles
were obtained through the work of prisoners and convicts.
Finance.
I. State Finaivci:.
The annual financial budget i.s usually published on January 13,
and .since 1866 accounts of the actual revenue and expenditure arc-
published by the Control Administration, after a minute revision
of each item. It consists, both for revenue and expenditure, of
three separate parts : the ordinary revenue and expenditure, the
'recettes d'ordre' and 'depenses d'ordre,' being transferences oi
sums among different brandies of Administration ; and the extra-
ordinary revenue (loans, war indemnity. &c.) ami expenditure
(railways, military, public works).
The following table gives the total actual ordinary revenue
and expenditure for each of the years 1880-89, in paper roubles,
according to a report published by the Control of the Empire in
the Official Messenger for December 7 to 12, 1891. The average)
FINANCE
860
yearly gold value of the rouble, as also its official value, taken for
budget estimates.1 are given in the last two columns.
Real average
Official Value
Revenue
Expenditure
Value of
of Paper
Rouble 1
RouMi ■
Paper Rouble
Ronlili-i
<L
d.
1880
>;:.l, 016,688
318
25 37
1881
651,764,010
7 :2,413,150
25-01
1882
703,711,508
701,661,256
1883
698,980,983 '
673,258
25-87
1884
706,266,349
727,902,675
24 0:5
1885
516
806,614,34»>
2418
1886
770,546,090
832,391,851
23 18
1887
829,661.420
838,849,860
21-30
1888
888,581,
840,419,494
22*48
21 -31
1889
927. 03.% 439
857,881,126
25-12
1890
943,685,770
854,155,080
22 48
1 Part of custom duties (S2.t>90,494 roubles in 1890) being i>aid in gold, the gold rouble
is calculated at a certain ratio, determined \ff the Ministry of Finance. Until IK
ratio was 1 rouble 50 copecks paper for the rouble in gold. It was fixed at 1 rouble 67 co-
pecks in 1887, 1 rouble SO copecks in 1888, and 1 rouble 70 copecks in 1889 and 1890.
The aggregate deficit of the ten years 1878-87 was -241,263,085
roubles.
The actual ordinary i*evenue and expenditure for the last five
years, as revised by the State's Control, are given as follows in the
Memoir presented by the Control to the Council of the State in
•*mber 1891, in thousands of roubles: —
Sources of Revenue
Actual Ordinary Revenue.
18S7
Taxes : —
A. Direct.
Land and forests .
Trade licences
5 per cent, on capital .
B. Indirect.
Spirits
Tobacco
Sugar . . . .
Other excise duties
(naphtha, matches) .
Custom duties
Stamp duties
Transfer duties .
Passports, railway
taxes. &c. .
1,000
roubles
1,000
roubles
86,626 41,102
28,020 28,862
10,081 11,677
236,977 257,624
20,190 24,093
15,072 23,162
102,334
16,198
14,354
107,425
18,242
13,935
1,000
roubles
40,478
31,783
11.60S
265,125
28,127
17,073
9.320
141.310
20.11*
15.217
1,000
roubles
42.770
32,856
12,012
1,000
roubles
42,928
34.339
11,916
274.920 268,381
28,178 27,768
17.959 21,629
13.777
13S.051
20,613
16,986
15,289
141.939
21.231
15.868
19.152 20.666 31,465 -2-2. \*V,
870
RUSSIA
Sources of Revenue
1886
1887
1888
1889
1800
2. State Monopolies : —
Mining
2,028
2,111
2,550
2,796
3,135
Mint ....
447
350
164
394
802
Posts
16,383
17,285
18,359
19,249
19,794
Telegraphs .
9,205
9,651
10,507
10,296
10,497
3. State Domains : —
Rent for domains
8,529
8,944
9,452
10,290
10,194
Sales of ,,
690
630
691
880
910
Crown forests
13,180
13,587
15,402
17,130
18,784
Crown mines
4,452
6,587
7,267
7,200
8,198
State railways
12,757
18,334
22,330
33,425
49,318
4 . Redemption of Land : —
Liberated serfs .
41,788
43,285
43,052
42,415
40,967
Crown peasants .
5,331
45,672
49,218
49,332
47,286
Liquidation fund
7,000
—
—
—
—
5. Miscellaneous : —
Railway debts
43,538
37,428
54,557
49,550
38,747
Banking operations
3,720
16,612
8,774
11,391
18,281
Crown debts
18,605
21,754
20,758
19,096
17,124
Aid from municipalities
16,237
14,483
11,510
14,046
16,044
Various
15,201
22,286
19,467
17,028
18,814
6. ' Bccettes d'ordre '
Total ordinary revenue .
3,450
3,775
2,170
2,921
3,742
770,546
829,661
898,532
927,035
!U:'..'
Actual Ordinary Expenditure.
_
1886
1SS7
1888 1S8!)
ison
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000 1,000
roubles
roil tiles
vouliles roubles
roubles
State debt
264,119
280,90S
279,432 270,693
j Higher institutions of the
J State ....
2,145
2,098
2,146 2,065
! Holy Synod .
10,021
10,999
11,017 11,186
s
Ministries: —
«-> — '
Imperial House .
10,560
10.560
10,560 10,560
© O)
9 a
Foreign Affairs .
4,465
1,786
4,705 4,591
/.
War .
211,892
210,958
212,096 225,989
« a
Navy ....
41,638
89,969
40,915 40,784
■fl 9<
Finances
116,778
109,459
107,887 107,682
«> "Z.
state's Domains .
22,527
22,355
22,131 24,485
00 (^
r-1 oj
Interior
72,609
72,679
72,710 7.'.. tiii:;
OO
<- is
Public Instruction
21,188
20,684
21,478 j 21,941
Ways ami ( 'oiiinimiiea-
~~"Z
tions
25,826
25,834
29,931 36,066
S *T
Justice
20,374
> 20,443
21,287
21,622
State's Comptrol
8,178
3, ISC)
8,828
8,601
State's studs .
1,072
1,097
1,096
1,123
Total
S32.392
B8B,850
840,420 887,881
including redemption
operation A
52.426
1 64,402 1 41,181 40,284
FINANCE
s71
The actual ordinary revenue was again in excess of the estimates in
1890, the figures being a- EbIIowh, according to the < 'ontmller-i iem-ml's
report : —
Ordinary revenue ami recettes d'ordre
Ordinary expenditure an<l defenses
d'ordre ....
Difference .
Extraordinary revenue .
Extraordinary expenditure
Balance
Total halanee
Kstiinato
Actual Revenue
and Expenditure
Roubles Roi
891,491,000
890,050,000 -:;.::. '.,080
+ 1,441,000 +89,580,690
56,378,000 103,686,991
57,819,000
-1,441,000
■■30,188
i?.198
+ 63,587,492
The surplus in the ordinary revenue over the estimates is due to the low
estimates of the budget. Thus, the excise duty gave a surplus of 15,042,574
Roubles, though in reality it was by 6,538,815 roubles below the revenue under
the same heading during the previous year. At the same time, the direct
taxes have shown a deficit of 7,800,000, as compared with the budget
estimates.
As to the extraordinary revenue, the surplus is partly due to a real surplus
in the war contribution (4,920.143). railway payments (7,069,621), peqx-tual
deposits (122,082), debt of land bank (6,708,250$, and chiefly to operations on
the conversion of the debt (71,427.312).
The detailed budget estimates for the years 1891 and 1892 appear as
follows : —
Revf.mf..
Sources of Revenue
1891
Roul.lo
44,283,801
34.266,695
11,906,600
1S92
I. Ordinary revenue :
Direct taxes —
Land and personal
Trade licences ....
On capital .....
Roubles
44.364,182
7 7,899
11,984,400
Total direct taxes
90,455,996
259,550,981
28,213,102
89,926,481
Indirect taxes—
Excise on spirits ....
.. tobacco ....
•1 12. -.70,981
27,741,108
872
RUSSIA
Sources of Revenue
1891
1892
Indirect taxes —
Excise on sugar ....
,, ,, naphtha
,, ,, matches
Customs duties ....
Stamp duties
Total indirect taxes
Mint, mines, post, and telegraphs
State Domains .....
Redemption of land : State's peasant-; .
Liberated serfs .
Miscellaneous .....
Total ordinary revenue
II. ' Recettes d'Ordre ' .
20,161,000
9,528,500
4,524,000
110,929,000
58,019,543
21,174,000
10,026,800
4.720,000
110,900,000
58,969,341
490,926,126
476,102,224
35,310,702
108,794,576
53,432,468
45,334,346
72,944,730
897,198,944
35,760,719
140,160,445
40,142,916
33,857,084
70,594,456
886,544,325
3,558,626
i
i This heading has been abolished in the budget for 1802.
The ' cost for covering extraordinary expenditure ' mentioned in the next
page is taken from the sums disposable at the Treasury, chiefly made up of
sums disposable from former loans ; it also includes 15,231,000 roubles which
accumulated for the payment of coupons and obligations not drawn by their
owners for a long time.
Sources of Revenue
III. Extraordinary revenue :
War contributions ....
Perpetual deposits at the Bank of
Russia ......
Reimbursement of railway loans .
Special capitals returning to Treasury .
Total extraordinary revenue
Cost for covering extraordinary expenditure
Total revenue ....
1891
Roubles
3,337,139
713,000
3,700,000
6,000,000
1892
Roubles
8,887,189
712,000
441,227
18,760,189
4,490,366 '
47,794,812
74,268,375
962,802,621
965.303,066
FINANCE
Ex PES PITT RE.
Branches of Expenditure
1891
Roubles
Roubles
I. Ordinary expenditure :
1. Public debt-
Co) Interest and capital, State debts
191.588,636
184,855,804
(b) ,, railway obligation >
65,153,405
62,968,884
2. Higber institutions of the State
2,081,300
2,106,411
3. Holy Synod
11,355,914
11,405,159
i. Ministry of the Imjierial Household
10,560,000
10,560,000
•">. ,, ,, Foreign Affairs
4,950,631
4,812,412
6.
., War ....
"2.1 68
.907,132
7.
, ,, Xavy ....
43,759,924
47,882,233
8.
, ,, Finances
115,067,796
119,008,304
9.
, ,, State Domains
25,914,902
24,539,715
10.
, ,, Interior
80,296,885
80,972,998
11.
, ,, Public Instruction
.".,781
21,868,914
12.
, ,, Ways ft Communications
57,367,310
63,653,051
13.
, ,, Justice
24,101,999
-.192
14. State Control
4,293,798
4,284,162
15. Direction of studs ....
1.249.946
1,268,695
Unforeseen .
Total ordinary expenditure
II. ' Depenses d'Ordre ' .
III. Extraordinary expenditure :
8,000,000
18,000,000
895,330,395
911,668,066
3,558,626
i
-1
1. For railways and ports .
42,913,500
33,495,000 '
2. Reform of armament
3. Special reserves of food supplies
20,000,000
500,000
20,140,000
Total extraordinary expenditure
63,413,500
53,635,000
Total expenditure .
962,302,521
965,303,066
1 Heading abolished in budget for 1892.
As a whole, the aggregate ordinary expenditure, apart from outlay on public
n <ft 1,a* !n,rea^ ^ the years 1877 and lS90from 587 million roubles
. milhon roubles, the burden of the public debt having meanwhile in-
creased from 114 mdlions to 266 millions. S
The following shows the state of the Russian debt on January 1, 1891 :—
H
•i
per ct. Dutch, 1798 and 1815
Interior, 1817
1820-55
Exterior, 1849 and 1860
■lidated, 1859
1860
LOAMI
14,100,000 Dutch guldens
38,547.372 paper roubles
/ 68,840,800 roubles gold
t 41,877,165 paper roubles
4,780,000 pounds
153.855,186 paper raafahc
288.377
874
RUSSIA
8 per ct. Exterior, 1859
4 ,, State's Bank metallic bonds, 1860
6 ,, State's Bank bonds, 1859-62
5i ,, Rente, 1862
5 ,, State's Bank bonds 1869-81 .
6 ,, Anglo-Dutch, 1864-66 .
5 ,, Lottery Interior loans, 1864-66
5 ,, Eastern Interior loans, 1877-79
6 „ Gold bonds, 1883 .
5 ,, ,, 1884.
6 ,, Railway bonds, 1886 .
4 ,, Interior loan, 1887
4 ,, Loan of 1889, 1st emission .
4 ,,- ,, 2nd ,,
4 „ Loan of 1890, 3rd „
4 ,, ,, 4th ,,
4 ,, Perpetual deposits at the Bank
To various institutions
4 .'; per ct. Treasury bonds
2,
28,
424,
66,
179,
f 45,
I 3,
169,
737
50
20,
100
99
124,
10,
3,
2,
216,
626,300
941,900
131,250
135,500
088,700
887,000
131.300
280,000
,101,850
,000,000
000,000
000,000
433,700
678,125
768,750
000,000
444,100
933,148
793,067
000,000
pounds
roubles gold
paper roubles
Dutch guldens
pounds
paper roubles
roubles gold
paper roubles
roubles gold
Polish Deist.
4 per ct. Metallic obligations, 1844
Liquidation certificates, 1831-52 .
13,440,150 roubles gold
34,007,536 paper roubles
Bonds ot State Railways.
4 per ct. Nicholas Railway, 1 867-69 . . 545,984,000 francs
4 and 4£ per ct. consolidated obligations . 14,591,600 pounds
4 per ct. Consolidated obligations . . 484,666,750 roubles gold
1 per cent. Consol. obligations, 1890, 1st emission 75,000,000
5 per ct. Obligations of railways bought by ( 7,340,625 ,,
The State . . . . . . \ 10,291,000 paper roubles
PAPEB CURRENCY.
1,046,295,384 roubles in circulation, covered
by 211,505,032 roubles in gold and silver .
< band total
!
568,527, 20i; paper roubles
14,100,000 Dutch guldens
21,997,900 pounds
646,884,000 francs
1,008,118,100 roubles gold
2,846,291,067 paper roubles
Reckoning the pound sterling as equal to 6r. 40c. in gold, the rouble in
gold as equal to lr. 70e. in paper money, and the silver rouble as equal bo
Ir. 19e. in paper money, the Minister of Finances gives (in the Off. Mess., Dee.
22, 1891) all liabilities of the Empire, inclusive of the debl for the redemption
on January l. 1890, and January 1.
of land, as follows.
1891
in pap
tpm
llionev
FINANCE 875
Jan. 1, 1890 j Paid in 1890 I Jan. 1, 1891
r.ij* r rouUt s Paper rou Wo s Paper rool
lebt inclusive of the paper i
currency (568,559.743 roubles !3,768,870
Kailwav obligations . . 1,46! 16,645,900
mption of land . }>;.'.. 129,650 8,070,850! 461,376,450
Total .... 5,505,435,436' 497,933,<<- .4,220
The money in the Imperial Treasury was : —
— Jan. 1, 1890 Jan. 1, 1S91
Roubles Roubles
Bullion 134,709,950 169,078,984
Paper roubles 182,597,059 196,850,053
Total in paper roubles . . 407,453,112 481,181,899
Treasury bonds, stamps, &c, paper . 53,491,858 34,878,605
> the liabilities to the State, they were at the same date : —
— Jan. 1, 1890 Jan. 1, 1891
Paper roubles Paper roubles
: railways to the State . 1,054,417,489 1.131,927,685
a of municipalities ami local
treasuries 184,784,762 198,209,069
Total 1,239,202,250s 1,330,136.754
J This sum is lower than shown in last year's report (5..V2-".. 240,026), —the debts in silver
roubles being reckoned at lr. 19c paper, instead of lr. 70c
'-' The new loans contracted in 1890 were :— State debt, 298.972,132 roubles ; railwavs
(conversions. &c), 211,000,000 roubles; redemption, 4.317.6^0 roubles.
3 1,422,294,662 roubles were given in last year's report of the State's control. Decrease
ilue to several indebted railways King taken by the State.
On January 12, 1891, a new 4 per cent, loan was concluded to the amount
of SO, 000, 000 roubles in gold (12,656,000/.), for the redemption of the 4 J per
cent, consolidated railway obligations of 1875. The bonds issued are of 125,
625, 1,250, and 3,125 metallic roubles, redeemable in 80 years, and free of
every tax or duty. Another internal 4 per cent, loan for 70,000,000 paper
roubles (issued at 93 per cent.) was concluded on February 23, for the
redemption of the 5i obligations of the States Bank. On March 22, 1891,
the Dutch loan of 1815, of which 26,600,000 Dutch guldens remained not
yet redeemed, was ordered to be liquidated, as well as the obligations of the
two 4£ per cent, metallic loans of 1850 and 1860. A 3 per cent, loan for
125,000,000 in gold was concluded at Paris (September 29). the obligations
being issued at 79 per cent.: it proved a failure, less than two-thirds of
the sum having been realised. Two issues of paper money, for 25,000,000
each, both guaranteed by equal amouuts in gold, were made in August and
September.
870 RUSSIA
The payments of interest and capital for the State and railway debts in the
budget estimates for 1892 appear as follows : —
State Debt.
Roubles, gold. Paper roubles.
A. Loans concluded in metallic value :—
Exterior, interest and capital . . 20,073,707
Interior ,, ,, . . 8,264,806
Obligations of State railways, interest and
capital 318,889
Banking expenses ..... 17,712
Loss on the depreciation of the paper rouble 1 7, 205,068
Total A 45,880,182
B. Loans concluded in paper roubles : —
Exterior, interest and capital . . . 3,982,285
Interior ,, „ . . . 134,993.377
Total B 138,975,662
Railway Debt {to be repaid by the railways).
Railway obligations, interest and capital 35,906,060
Banking expenses ..... 29,883
Loss on the depreciation of the paper rouble 21,561, 566
Loan of 1890 3,469,375
Total railway debt . . . 60,966,884
Payments for old coupons and obligations
not drawn by their owners in former years 2,002,000
Total .... 247,324,688
II. Local Finance.
The actual annual receipts of the provincial assemblies (the zemstvos), which
were 32£ million roubles in 1881, reached 47,291,233 in 1887, of which
26,916,181 roubles were levied in land taxes (out of 48*8 millions foreseen in
i hr estimates), 5,982,565 from various other taxes, ami 5,760,580 only Iron
taxation of trade. Of the 585,300,000 aires which pay the land tax,
235,000,000 acres belonging to peasants pay an average of »'>■•"' COpeoks perarir.
while the 351,000,000 acres belonging to landlords pay an avenge of 3-3
copecks per acre. The aggregate expenses of the tsmstvos reached the same
year 44,131,775 roubles, thai is, an average of Tti rouble per male of popula-
tion. Of that, li percent, was spent for tlie administration of the ttmitvM,
28 per cent, (or hygiene and medical help, 17 per cent, for education, and 87
per cent, for obligatory expenses.
The aggregate budgets of the towns of European Russia and Poland readied
in 1887 18.570,494 roubles of income and 49,617,111 roubles of expenditure
Only 5 towns have each an income above one million roubles. The aggregate
debt of all towns reached in 1882 26,842,177 roubles.
The expenses of the village communities have be, mi tabulated for 48
provinces of Russia proper fot 1S81 ; they reached the sum of 32$ million
roubles ; that is an average of 1 r. 16c. per male soul of population.
DEFENCE s- •
Defence.
I. Frontikr.
Russia has an extensive frontier both by sea and laud, pro-
tected by numerous fort irieat ions of various classes. On the west.
Poland is defended by a system of four strongholds, sometime
called the Polish Quadrilateral — Xovogeorgievsk on the right
bank of the Vistula : the fortification- of Warsaw ; Ivangorod
on both sidea of tbe Vistula ; Brest-Litovski on the Bug. A> the
Vistula line remained unprotected on the rear from a possible
invasion tluough Eastern Prussia, new fortifications have been
I in the rear of these fortresses. Western Poland, to the
west of the Vistula, remained also quite unprotected, but new
fortifications are being raised now about Kielce, at the foot of
the Lysa-Gora Mountain in south-west Poland. There are
numerous other fortified places, mostly neglected, on the Vistula
and Bug.
Between Poland and the Duns is the citadel of Vilna, while
other works are being carried out on the river Xieinan. The
river Dona is defended at its mouth, at Riga, Dunaburg, and
Vitebsk. On the west frontier, south of Poland, are several old
fortified places which are being restored. The lower course of
the Dniester is defended at Bendery and Akkermaun : belund
this line are Bobruisk and Kief? ; the entrance to the Dnieper and
the Bug is defended by Kinburnand Ochakov. The Baltic coasts
are defended at Riga, Dunamunde, Reval. Narva, Cronstadt,
Viborg, Fredericksham, Rochtensalm Island, Sveaborg Islands,
Hangoeudd, Abo, and the Aland Islands. The Black Sea coast is
defended by the batteries of Odessa and extensive strong works
at Xikolaieff ; in the Crimea Sebastopol has been refortified, and
the Isthmus of Perekop has various lines of defence, while small
fortifications are found at Kertch. Yenikale. Kaffa, Azov, and
Taganrog. There are numerous fortified posts on the Caucasian
coast, the chief of which is Poti. at the mouth of the Rion.
Batum has now a large arsenal and is fortified. The Caucasus
itself has numerous fortifications of varying importance :
Yekaterinodar on the Kuban ; Adagan, Krymskaya. and Bakan
on affluents of the left bank of that river; Vladikavkaz on the
Terek, and Nalchik on one of its leit affluents ; Derbend on the
ian : Gunib and Deshlagar in Daghestan ; Tiflis : Akaltsik.
Alexandropol, Erivan. and the recent annexations Ears, Ardahan,
and Batum. In the Asiatic dominions are Krasnovodsk and
Chikishlar on the Caspian; Chat, Kizil-Arvat. Askabad. and
878 RUSSIA
Sarakhs on the Persian frontier ; Nukus and Petro-Alexandrovsk
on the Khiva frontier ; on that of Bokhara, Katykurgan and
(Samarkand, Ura-tube and Khojent ; on that of Kashgar, Karakol
and Naryn. In the interior of Russian Turkestan are several
fortified places, as at Kazalinsk, Karamakchi, and Tashkent.
All these latter are earthworks, of importance only against the
Asiatic neighbours of Russia. On the Pacific coast there are
fortifications at Nikolaievsk, at the mouth of the Amour, and
Vladivostok.
II. Army.
Since January 13, 1874, military service has been rendered
obligatory for all men from their 21st year. With the modifica-
tions introduced in that law on October 30, 1876, and June 26,
1888, military service is organised as follows : — Out of more than
850,000 young men reaching every year their 21st year, about
260,000 are taken into the active army, and the remainder are in-
scribed partly in the reserve and partly in the 2nd reserve, or ' Za
pas.' The period of service is, in European Russia, five years in the
active army (in reality reduced by furloughs to 4 years), 13 years
in the reserve, and 5 years in the ' Zapas ; ' 7 years in active
army and 6 years in the reserve in the Asiatic dominions ; and .">
years in the active army and 15 years in the reserve in Caucasia.
In case of need the Minister of War has the right of keeping the
men for another six months under the colours.
Certain privileges are granted on account of education, and
clergymen are exempt, as also doctors and teachers.
In 1890, of the 878,011 young men liable to military service
(out of whom 47,783 Jews), 22,460 (4,1)02 Jews) did not appear .
162,537 were found too weak for military service; about 190,000
inscribed in the 2nd reserve as being single workers in their
families, and 258,536 were taken into the army, besides 2,398
Caucasian natives, out of 28,446 liable to service. The eon
tingent for 1891 was 260,000 men, besides 2,400 ( lauoasians. The
men inscribed in the reserve troops are convoked for drill six
weeks twice a year.
'I'lu' 'Opoltchenie,' formerly a simple militia, was reorganised in 1888 ami
1891 (April 27th), and the duration of the service prolonged to 48 years in-
stead of 40, for tin' soldiers, ami frpm 50 t<> 58 for the officers. It is divided
into two parts. The litst pari (pervyi raxryad) has the character of reserve
t roope, ami includes all those who have passed through active sen ice, :is alsd
those who have not been taken into the active army, though able-bodied. It
is intended chiefly to complete the active troops in time of war, ami enables
Russia to call on t, incuse of need, L 8 classes of drilled conscripts. 'Cadres'
having been formed in "the 'Opoltchenie,' the men called out in case of war
DEFKN
will find ready battalion*, squadron-, fcc, wherein to cuter, and these \ arts
will Ik- ptovided with artillery Drilling of some parts of the militia has been
introduced. The second part, or vturoi razrynd (including all able-bodied
men who have served in the first division, as also those liberated from m
as not fully able-bodied, or l>eing single woken in their families), can be
called out only by an Imperial manifesto, and only lor organis'
militia.
The Cossacks, who constitute 11 separate roiskos (Don, Kubaa, 1
Astrakhan, Orenbitrg, Ural, Siberia, Seraineteh.n.sk, Translwikalia, Amur,
and Usuri — the latter erected to a sepaiate roisko in 1889), are divider! into
three classes : the first in active service : the second on furlough with their
arms and horses : and the third with arms but without horses. Each roisko
is bound to equip, clothe, and arm its soldiers. Part of the Cossack cavalry is
ineoqjorated in the Held troops, together \> ith regular cavalry. The obliga-
tions of each roisko are regulated by separate laws.
The indigenous troop*, which Dumber in time of i>eace 23 squadrons and
2 companies, are organised from Caucasians.
By the law of December 18, 1878, which came into force on January 1,
1881, j»ersonal military service is declared obligatory in Finland. The
Finnish troops form 9 battalions of riflemen, each with 18 officers and 505
men, and number in all 4,833 and 1 regiment of dragoons. In 1886 obliga-
tory military service was extended to the natives of the Caucasus, but. accord'
ingUo the law of June 9, 1887, the Mussulman population of Caucasia lias had
a tax iinyiosed of 528,000 roubles, to be paid from January 1, 1890, instead of
military sea
The Russian army is divided into : (a) field troops ; (b) fortress trooi«s :
('•> local troop- : (d) reserve ; (e) second reserve or Zajas ; (/) auxiliary
Itsnumerical ibices, both in time of peace and war, are as follows : —
Peace-foot imj.
The peace-footing in 1 890 was as follows : —
Field Tbooh : a) Infantry. — 192 regiments (12 of the guard), divided
into 48 divisions : each regiment has 4 battalions and 1 detachment of non-
combatants, and is divided into four companies (96 armed soldiers each).
Total, 768 battalions, 848,864 combatant-, exclusive of 13,440 officers, sub-
officers, and musicians ; 20 regiments of army riflemen of 2 battalions each =
40 battalions, 17,920 combatants, 660 : 42} battalions of riflemen (4 guard, 8
Finnish, 4 Caucasian l>attalions and 4 drvjinas, 4 Turkestan, 8 Tianscaspiau,
10 East Siberian, 1 Crimea company), 20,500 combatants, 894 officers ; 33
line battalions (20 Turkestan, 8 "West Siberia, and 5 East Siberia) = 165 com-
panies =19, 780 combatants, 679 officers: and \h battalions of Cossacks =
3,888 combatants, Wing thus a total of 887J battalions of infantry, 410,952
comlatants.
(b) Cavalry. — 56 regiments (4 of cuirassiers [4 sq. each], 2 hussars, and 48
dragoons), of 6 squadrons each — the 6th squadrons being 'cadre ' troops = 328
squadrons, 57,416 combatants : 1 Finnish dragoon regiment, 870 men : and
32 Cossack regiments (185 sot n ins or squadrons), 26,440 combatants : being a
total of 519 squadrons, 84,926 combatants of cavalry, 2 squadrons of Crimea
Tartars, 2 sofnius of Usuri, being a total of 576 combatants, must be added to
the above. The cavalry is divided into 21 divisions (2 of the guard and 14 of
the army, which includes 1 Cossack regiment each), 1 Caucasian (4 regiments
of dragoons'), and 4 Cossack divisions (16 Cossack regiments). All the
cavalry is kept in time of peace on the war-footing of 144 armed men in the
squadron, ready to be moved at once after the addition of a few harness-
880 RUSSIA
horses, while 56 squadrons (one in eaeh legular regiment) remain for the for-
mation of reserves. The 32 Cossack regiments have with them 14 mounted
batteries incorporated into the cavalry divisions. Two new dragoon regiments
have been formed in July 1891.
(c) Artillery. — 5l£ field artillery brigades (48 of 6 batteries each ; 1
Turkestan, of 7 field and 3 mountain batteries j 2 Siberian, of 4 batteries),
being a total of 98 heavy, 185 light, and 23 mountain batteries. Of these 30
are kept on a war footing of 8 guns each, and 276 have horses for 4 guns each
— 1,344 guns, 55,753 combatants; 31 mounted batteries = 182 guns, 5,332
men ; 5 sortie batteries, 10 guns each, and 2 reserve sortie batteries, 6 guns
each = 62 guns, 795 men ; 8 mortar batteries in 2 regiments (created Septem-
ber 1889), 6 guns each, both in time of peace and war = 48 mortars, 6,096
men ; thus being a total of 352 field batteries, 1,542 guns, and 48 mortars,
67,976 men ; to which the 14 above-mentioned mounted Cossack batteries =
84 guns, must be added.
(d) The Engineers' Corps, reorganised in 1888. comprises : 17 battalions of
sappers, each of 5 companies (about 100 men each) ; 5 companies of Bappers (2
Turkestan, 2 Siberia, 1 Transcaspian) ; 8 battalions of pontonccrs. each of -1
companies, having each 102 carts and one bridge 700 feet long ; 17 field tele-
graph companies (40 miles wire and 2 stations in each) ; 1 telegraph instruc-
tion company ; 6 battalions of railway engineers (2 in Transcaspian) ; 4 rail-
way cadre companies ; 8 torpedo companies ; and 6 engineer trains (parks)
divided into 60 sections, each of which has the tools, &C, necessary for/an
infantry division ; being a total of 34J battalions (6 brigades), with trains and
23 parks = 19,325 men.
(e) The Train comprises : 5 train cadre battalions = 18 companies = 18,630
men and officers ; 48 flying artillery parks, of 4 divisions each ; 15 mobile
artillery parks for cadres, 4 divisions in each; 3 siege-parks, 2 in European
Russia (12 8-inch guns, 60 heavy and 144 light 6-inch guns, 116 4-inch guns,
and 130 mortars in each), and 1 Caucasian (320 guns and mortars) ; 2 siege
engineer-parks, being, together with the hospital detachment, a total of
35,130 men.
The total of the Field Troops is thus 619.173 combatants, and about
28,000 officers.
(B.) The Cossacks, first calling under arms, comprise: —
Don Cossacks : 19 regiments, 110 squadrons of cavalry, 8 mounted
batteries, 18 guns ; and 1 reserve battery, 3 guns ; total, 17,792 combatants.
Kuban: 11 regiments and 3 squadrons of cavalry = 69 squadrons J 1 bat-
talions, of 4 sotnias eaeh, and 10 cadre detachments (220 men) ; and 6
mounted batteries, 20 guns ; total, 18,575 combatants.
Terek : 4 regiments and 1 squadron = 25 squadrons and 1 mounted battery,
8 guns ; total, 3,759 combatants.
Astrakhan : 1 squadrons, 60S combatants.
Orenburg: 6 regiments and 3 squadrons — 33 squadrons, and 3 horse
batteries, 14 guns ; total, 6,232 combatants.
I " i ;i 1 : 9 regiments and 2 squadrons « 19 squadrons, 2,808 combatants.
Siberian : 3 regiments = 18 squadrons, 2,697 combatants.
SemyiretchensK : 1 regiment =4 squadrons, 650 combatants
Transbaikalia: 1 regiment =6 squadrons and 2 horse batteries. 1,983 com-
batants.
Amur: 2 squadrons, 655 combatants.
Usuri (formed in 1889, formerly part of the Amur Vbisko) : 2 companies,
about 240 combatants.
Total, 288 squadrons, 20 infantry companies, and 20 horse batteries =
52,184 combatants; out of which 4i battalions, 185 squadrons, and 14
DEFENCE
881
batteries (32,736 combatants) must l>c deducted. That is, 103 squadrons and
6 lotteries, 19,448 combatants, after the deduction of the Cossack forces in-
corporated into the field troops.
The Kkskkvk Tboom have been reorganised in 1889, so as to hare
100 battalions ready to muster as many regiments in ease of mobilisation ;
while • nana have so been reorganised ([tartly by re-forming the
local militia) that the Caucasus military district, which formerly could muster
but 10 regiments for the field, will have lb" regiments fit for action outside
( feneaata According to the new organisation they comprise : —
9 regiments =18 battalions, formed in 1889 (3 in Russia and 6 in Caucasia):
107 cadre-battalions of 5 companies each; and 12 Caucasian cadre-tattalions
I in 1889) = 58 companies : being a total of 136f battalions of infantry.
68,300 combatants : and 5 artillery brigades (6 heavy. 20 light, and 6 half-
mounted batteries) = 98 guns, 4,334 men and officers.
Total reserve troops 72.634 men and officer*.
(D.) H: I. ix wi' Arxu.iAKY TSOOH comprise : 14,110 men of
infantry: 12,319 of cavalry (inclusive of 6 squadrons. 7,969 men of gen-
darmes) ; 25,310 men of fortress-troops ; 37,800 frontier-guanls (reorganised in
: and numerous local detachments.
Total local and auxiliary troops alwve 105,000 men and offi.
The total peace footing, inclusive of general staff (1.920 officers) and
ools (865), thus represents an aggregate of nearly M 4.000 men and
officers (812,078, without the local detachmei
The peace-footing in 1891, slightly increased over the above, is officially
iriven as follows : —
troops : —
193 Infantry regimi
20 Riflemen
7 7 Separate battalions
338 Cavalry squadrons
350 Artillery latteries
34^ Engineers' battalions
Reserve troops : —
18 Infantry regiments
,, battalions
33 Artillery batteries
Fortress troops : —
1 Infantry regiment
26 ,, battalions
5 Sally latteries .
51 f Artillery battalions
is ' (second reserve) .- —
18 'Cadres' for cavalry
2 Artillery batteries
Local troops: —
165 Detachments
• —
5 lJ>attalions .
Auxiliary detachment
Total regular troops
M
449,000
Efor» i
781,
r,ooo
60,000
50,000
68,000
21,000
22,000
500
63,000
500
6,500
1.750
J 14.500
—
500
23,090
5,000
5,000
100 '
24.000
—
2,000
l::,000
500
2,500
88,750
3 L
882
RUSSIA
—
Men Horses
Cossacks : —
49 Cavalry regiments
6 Infantry battalions
20 Artillery batteries
Militiac (indigenes) : —
23 Cavalry hundreds
2 Infantry ,, ...
Grand total
1
L 58,500 45,500
| 3,500 3,000
843,000 137,250
War-footing.
According to the new organisation, the war-footing of each unit is
follows : —
Officers
Combat-
ants
Non-com-
batants
Horses
exclusiv
of trail
The Infantry Regiment (4 batt.) .
,, Riflemen Battalion .
,, Dragoon Regiment (6 squad.) .
,, Cossack Cavalry Regiment (6
sotnias) ....
,, Heavy Battery (8 guns) .
„ Light Battery (8 guns) .
,, Mounted Battery (6 guns)
,, Sapper Battalion (1 gun)
79
21
36
28
6
6
5
23
3,867
960
920
889
287
205
180
959
156
54
70
82
23
23
28
81
166
50
1,025
1,103
44
44
131
108
The estimated war-footing for 1892 appears as follows ;
Combatants
(Officers, Sul»-
offlcers,
Musicians
included)
Horses Qanfl
Field troops ; —
General staff and chief command
3,500
1,500
Sfifi battalions of infantry and rille-
men ......
843,263
41,099
34 line battalions ....
33,388
1,972
360 squadrons of regular cavalry
57, W7
64,211
—
858 field artillery batteries (exclusive
of tin- 16 sally batteries and Inclu-
sive i)!' 6 foot mountain batteries) .
77.6M
72, tio7 2,824
36i engineer battalions. S torpedo
companies, and 8 railway battaliond
29,94-1
7,016
All tniins and Biege-parks
146,298
189. r.i:. 1,281
185 squadrons of Cossacks (28,192
men and 34,144 horses) willi
their 14 mounted batteries (2,570
men and 1,834 horses and 84 gnns)
M',ra
85,978
84
DKFEXCE
, 1
: Combatants
(Officers, 8nb-
— officers,
riMMi
Gnus
Musicians
included) 1
9154 battalions, ">4.". Mjaadrona,
batteries .....
1,268,213
378.
1,146
Cossacks (all three divisions) : —
348 squadrons of Don
'13
—
196 ,, ., Kuban.
1 1 89
-
—
48 companies of Kuban infantry.
9,084
1,716
—
66 squadrons of Terek
9,864
11,734
—
12 ,. .. Astrakan
1.794
2,115
—
„ Ural
104 ,, ,, Orenburg
93 ,, of Siberian, Semi-
ryetchensk, Transbaikalian, Amur.
and Usuri Cossacks
38 horse batteries ....
30 Transbaikal and 6 Amur companies
868 squadrons, 84 companies, and
38 horse batteries ; or, exclusive
of the 185 squadrons and 14
horse batteries mentioned under
the above heading
First Reserve : —
105 regiments of infantry = 508
battalions .....
109 battalions of infantry
20 heavy and 172 light batteries
34 sapper companies
3 railway liattalions = 12 comj>aiiii>
"27 liattalions, 46 engineer com-
junies, and 92 batteries of First
Reserve, about ....
n Troops: —
135 infantry battalions .
8 Finnish landwehr battalions
54 artillery battalions
16 sally battalions .
143 battalions, 54 artillery battalions,
and 16 batteries .
.'
It consists of 'cadres ' for instruction,
organised in time of war. If
mobilised, it must supply the sub-
joined contingents :—
infantry ami riflemen lvutalions
15,595
14,185
7,030
6.696
8,463
17,999
16,182
9,538
240
(154.014) (159,835)
122.2^2 113.85;
6,616
71.766
1,168
210.921
783 1.005
246
(246)
162
406,956
106.166
20.052
8,194
3.210
19,584
872
18,092
782
147
736
544,578
130,491
39,519
567
736
128
128
3 I. 2
884
RUSSIA
112 squadrons.
1 Finnish squadron .
48 batteries
4 sapper battalions .
56 cavalry detachments .
20,720
184 ;
29,136
5,160
7, SCO
23,856
181
3,360
32
7,560
192
Total about ....
Local Troops : —
Peace-footing — the war-footing being
dependent upon many causes not
to be foreseen ....
290,493 I
101,039
28,602
15,500
192
Total war-footing
2,532,496 :
577,796
5,264
Altogether it is considered as probable that in case of war European Russia
could have in the first line of battle 19 army corps reinforced each by one
division, thus making an army 1,355,000 men strong. The reserve troops,
together with about 400,000 men of the militia, might give a second army in
the second battle-line, about 1,100,000 men strong.
A new law submitting the employes on railways to military authority in
case of mobilisation was promulgated on March 12, 1890.
By a law, May 15, 1891, a new rank of subaltern officers, Dominated in
case of war out of sub-officers not entitled by education to the grade ot
officers (zauryad-praporscMki), as well as of clerks of the same kind in the
military administration (zauryad-tchinoruili), lias been introduced. Thev are
intended to fill the several thousands of places of both officers and official
which would be vacant in case of mobilisation.
III. Navy.
The Russian navy consists of two great divisions the fleet of
the Baltic, and that of the Black Sea. Each of these two fleets
is again subdivided into sections, of which three are in or near
the Baltic, and two in or near the Black Sea. The divisions carry
the white, blue, and red flag an arrangement originating with
the Dutch — but without the rank of the admirals being connected
with the colour of the flag.
On July 1, 1890, the strength of the various divisions of tin
Russian navy was returned officially as follows: — I. The Baltic:
Fleet, comprising 26 completed ironclads (3 ships, 2 batter}!
frigates, both out of service, \ turreted frigates, I cruiser, I
batteries, 3 two-turreted monitors, and 10 one-turret ed monitors).*
7 belted ships (6 belted cruisers and gunboat) ; the following 20l;
unarmoured steam vessels : 1 frigate (24 guns), 5 corvettes (7»J|
guns), 0 clipper* (100 gttns), 2 torpedo cruisers, (i cruisers
DEFEN< 1. ss->
runs), 5 Bea-going and 19 river steamers, 13 gunboats, 15 I
and 80 small torpedo boats, 7 imperial yachts, 2 trans]*.)
schooners, 27 steamboats, 23 sailing craft (1 corvette), and
various small boats for the service of the port. II. The Black
Sea Fleet, including 5 ironclads (3 ships, Catherine II, TcJtesma,
and Sinope), and 2 Popoffkas ; the following 67 nnarinoured
vessels : 2 cruisers (Pamyat Mercuria and Zabiyaka. 1 torpedo
cruiser {Sacken), 16 steamers, 6 gunboats, 11 large and 12 small
torpedo boats, 1 imperial yacht {Standard), 13 schooners, and 4
steamboat- : 'i sailing craft and 68 small craft for the service of
the port.1 III. The Caspian Flotilla, consisting of 8 armed and 2
unarmed steamers, 2 >ailing vessels, and 6 small craft. IV. The
Siberian Flotilla, comprising the following ve.-sels, all uuarmoured :
1 clipper (8 guns), 5 gunboats (26 guns), of which the Koreetz
(1,213 tons), 3 schooners. 2 large and 4 small torpedo-boats,
1 transport, and 2 river steamboats ; and 19 small craft for the
use of the port. V. The Aral Flotilla, 6 steamers. VI. The
Amu-daria Flotilla, established in 1888, consists of 2 steamers.
The Pacific Squadron consisted of 2 armoured ships, 3 unarmoured
cruisers, and 2 gunboats.
The ironclad fleet of Russia, comprising 44 vessels— 32 in the
Baltic. 7 in the Black Sea, and 5 building — was made up, at the
end of 1891, of the ships given in the following table. The number
of guns is exclusive of pieces of small calibre and niitrailleu-
Gi.us
Xamesof Ironclads ami when
launched
Tu rrct sh ips : —
Peter the Great, 1872
. Alexander II., 1887
Thick -
•f
Anuour
at water
line Number Calibre
Indica- 1 > -
ted Horse liient. or
power Tonnage
Inches
14
is I., 1889
Catherine II.,
1886
Tchesma,
1886
Sinn]
Xavariu, 1890 ':
U
U
16
16
16
14
I
14- 4 9-i
4 12-inch
2 12-inch
4 9-inch
8 6-iueh
-inch
-* . -inch
1 - 6-inch
13 \ 6 12-inch
| 7 6-inch
13-| 6_1:Hn,h
{ i b-uich
12-inch
-inch
\ 4 12-inch
13
18
( 14 6-inch
S,258 9,340
8,550 8,440
Knot.-
per
hour
14 0
16 0
9,000
8,440
16 0
9,000
10,180
155
9,000
10,180
15 5
9,000
10,180
i.v:>
4,500
9,480
»
1 Reduced to hulk :— 1 imperial yacht, ~> steamers, and j schooners.
'-' Ship in course of construction.
886
RUSSIA
Greatesl
Thick-
Guns
Names of Ironclads and when
ness of
Armour
Indica-
ted Horse
i Displace-
ment, or
Knots
per
launched
at water
• power
Tonnage
hour
■
line
Numbei
Calibre
Inches
Twelve Apostles, 1890 J .
—
—
—
Tri Svyatitelya, 1890 * .
—
—
—
—
—
Georgiy Pobedonosets J .
—
—
—
10,000
12,480
—
Cruisers, belted : —
Minin, 1878 .
7
16j
4 8-inch
12 6-inch
5,290
5,740
12-0
Duke of Edinburgh, 1874
6
«
8 8-inch
4 6-inch
j 5,222
4,600
1 B -5
General- Admiral, 1873 .
6
a]
8 8-inch
4 6-inch
4,472
4,600
12-0
Dmitri Donskoi, 1884 .
6
"1
2 8-inch
14 6-inch
7,000
5,796
15-5
Ykdimir Monoinakh, 1883
6
U{
4 8-inch
12 6-inch
7,700
5,796
15-0
Pamyat Azova, 1888
6
10 j
2 8-inch
14 6-inch
8,000
6,000
18-0 '
Admiral Nakhimoff(par- "|
(
(
8 8 -inch
tially belted barbette Y
10
18 j
10 6-inch
8,000
7,780
17-5
cruiser), 1885 . . J
Admiral Korniloff, 1887 .
2i
14
6-inch
8,260
5,030
1 8 ■:>
Gangut, 1890
9
[
6 8-inch
5,858
6,592
—
! Rurik1 ....
10
26-j
14 6-inch
6 24-inch
—
10,940
18
Turret ships (sea-going) : —
Admiral TchitchagofF, )
1868 . . . ./
6
2
11 -inch
2,060
3,512
1 0 \s
Admiral Spiridoff, 1868 .
6
!
1 1 -inch
2,007
3,740
io-o
Admiral Greig, 1868
H
»
l 1-inch
2,030
3,646
10 3
Admiral Lazarefl", 1867
U
♦1
3 11 -inch
1 it-inrli
2,004
8,680
10-1
Frigatts, batter// : —
Kniaz-Pojarski,2 1867
H ,
-i
8 8-iuch
■2 6-inch
•j.s:::.
1,605
126
lVtropaulovsk,2 1865
44
(D
(?)
2,808
6,040
_
Battery ships : —
f
10 8-inch
Pcrvencte, 1863
44 !
n
4 6-inch
1 9-inch
1,067 !
8,279
9-0
Netron-Menya, 1864
54 ;
ii
14 8-inch
1,632 |
8,494
8 0
Kreml, 1865 .
44 |
14
1 I S-ilh-li
1,120
::..;»;;.
8 ■:■
Two-turntai mom'/ors: —
Tchazodeika, 1867 . . i
Ij
4
9-inefa
786
2,026
8*7
Rousalka, 1867
44
4
9-inch
705
1,960
8-0
Smertch, 1864
44 1
2 i
9-incfa
700
1,520
8-0
1 Sln|» in Course Of construction.
• d bo harbour wrvioe ship, or hulk.
DEI I
887
Greatest
Thick-
Names of Ironclads and when nw of
launched Armour
at water
line
Inches
Number Calibre
Indica- Displace- Knot*
ted Horse ineut, or per
power Tonnage honr
Streletz.
•J
444
1,431
6 0
Edinorog
460
1,407
6 0
Latnik .
2
490
1,518
6*0
Bronenosetz
_
480
6 0
j™r :
*4
•2
9-inch
6-0
6-0
1 Lava
■2
1,591
i Petun
•2
338
1,549
6-0
Vestchan
•j
1,449
6 0
Koldun . . '
• >
480
6-0
Circular ironclads : —
Yke-Admiral Popoff, 1875
16
■2
1 12-iuch
3,066
3,590
8-2
| Novgorod, 1873
9
•2
1 11 -inch
3,000
2,706
6*5
Deck-protected cruisers : —
Rvnda, 1885 .
Yityaz, 1885 .
IV
10
.6-inch
3,000
2,950
14-0
w
10
6-ineh
3,000
14-0
Belted gun-vessels : —
zyaschiy, 1889 .
_
—
2,000
1,492
—
Otvajnyi1
-
—
—
2,000
—
.iiyaschiy 1
o
2,000
1,492
1 Ships in course of constructiou.
s 81ope.
Note. — The 12-inch gnn weighs 40 tons ; 11-inch, 28 tons ; 9-inch, 12$ to 15 tons ; s-incb,
tons ; ti-inch. 4J tons. The weights of the new guns for ships in course of construction arc,
!-inch gun, 03 tons ; S-inch gnn, 14 and l.jj tons.
Until 1886, the most powerful vessel completed for the Russian ironclad
et was the mastless turret-ship Peter the Great. She resembles in design
~ construction the great mastless turret-ships of the British navy, more
L-ially the Dreadnought, though of larger size, her length being 330 feet,
_ extreme breadth 63^ feet. The three ironclad ships, the Tchesma,
ine II. , and Sinope, are still more powerful vessels than the Peter the
They are all of the same dimensions, which are : — Length between
•'liculars, 320 feet ; extreme breadth, 69 feet ; mean draught, 26 feet.
The armour of the Sinope has a thickness of from 16 to 18 inches above the
Wit, and 12 inches in the casemates. It will be armed with 2 12-inch guns
(50 tons), the range of which is supposed to be 13 miles. The Nicholas I.
and the Alexander II. are also formidable vessels. Both these vessels are
-hips, 326 feet long and 67 feet broad. The Nicholas I. is protected by
a belt 8 feet wide and 14 to 4 inches thick, with a 12-inch backing of wood.
It is armed with 2 12-inch, 4 9-inch, and 8 6-inch guns, besides 10 2-inch and
a number of smaller rapid-firing guns and torpedo-ejectors, and has a steel
turret with 10-inch armour. A new sister-ship to both these was begun in
888 RUSSIA
1887, and two others in 1889, at Nikolaieff and Sebastopol. The Nacurin is
360 feet long, 68 deep, and 25 feet draught, and besides the heavy guns it will
be armed with 16 Hotchkiss guns and several Whitehead torpedo dischargers.
Next to these ships come the belted cruisers. The Duke of Edinburgh and
the General- Admiral are each 270 feet long between perpendiculars, and 48
feet broad, built of iron sheathed with wood. The battery deck of these
cruisers is not protected by armour, the guns being so arranged as to lire in all
directions. The Minin, converted into an ocean cruiser in 1878, is 299 feet
long and 49 feet broad. The Vladimir Monomakh and Dmitri Donskoi are
sister ships, and are 295 feet along the water-line, with an extreme breadth of
52 feet ; draught of water at stern 25 feet. The Admiral Nakhimoff (14
guns) has been found needing alterations, amounting almost to complete
reconstruction.
Next in the list of sea-going cruisers stand the four ironclads named after
admirals — i.e. the Admiral Tchitchagoff, Admiral Spiridoff, Admiral Greig,
and Admiral Lazareff. They are turret-ships of the type of the Prince Albert
in the Royal navy, the turrets being encased in 6- and 4-inch armour. The
Kniaz-Pojarski is a centra] -battery belted ship, 272 feet long, 49 feet broad,
and is fully rigged.
The belted cruiser Pamyat Azova or Remembrance of Azoff, is 378 feet
long. She belongs to the same type as the Impericuse of the British navy,
but is less heavily armed. The cruiser Burik will be the largest of the Rus-
sian navy. She is 411 feet long, 67 feet deep, and 25 feet 9 inches draught. The
armour down to the water-line is 10 inches thick, and below, including the
keel, 5 inches. It will be armed with 6 8-inch guns in turrets, 14 6-inch, ti
2J-inch, and 19 47-millimetre and 11 37-mm. rapid-firing guns, also 2 tor-
pedo-dischargers and 2 torpedo-boats. Her calculated speed is 18 knots, ami
she is to be manned by 667 men. The Gangut, built at St. Petersburg, lias
a length of 278 feet and a beam of 62 feet, and is armed with 9 big guns.
In 1891 the following ships were in course of construction : the ironclad
ships : — Navarin and Tri Svyatitelya at St. Petersburg, and the Twelve
Apostles (launched in 1891), and Georgiy Pobedonoset-s on the Black Sea : the
belted cruiser Burik ; two belted gun-vessels, Otvajnyi and Qremyaschiy : and
two torpedo cruisers, Bjorko and Bochensalm (ended in 1891), all at St.
Petersburg. One torpedo-cruiser, sister-ship to Kazarskiy, was building at
Nikolaieff. One Imperial yacht, Stryeia, was built in Prance (launched in
1891) ; two torpedo-cruisers were building in Germany, and two transports,
Bug and Diuiai, for the Black Sea fleet, in Sweden. Six torpedo-boats (from
1,000 to 1,100 horse power, speed 21 knots) were in construction at St.
Petersburg, Abo, and Odessa : two of them {AUodor&aA ffapeat) were launched.
The Volunteer Fleet, destined for commerce and transport of exiles to
Sakhalin in time of peace, and for war purposes in time 01 war, numbers 8
cruisers, id' which only two, OrvZand Rotriya, have a notable speed (19 and l.'i
knots). The others (io to 11 knots) are in reality mere transports.
The imperial naw was commanded in 1891 by no admirals, vice-admirals,
rear-admirals, and generals, 1,700 captains, lieutenants, and midshipmen.
Besides the above, 1,068 officers of various grades belonging to special branches
of the navy, such as pilots, engineers, artillerists, were borne on ilie active
list. The effective number of sailors id' the imperial navy during the same
period serving afloat was 25,964. They are, like the soldiers of tlir army,
levied by recruitment. The period of service in the navy is ten years, soveo
of which must he spent in active service and three in the reserve.
production and endcstbi
Producion and Industry.
I. AiiKK II.TIKAL.
In 1882 nearly four-fifths of the area of Ru»ia proper — that
IS, 1.018,736,800 air. wen registered, and their distribution
appeared as follows : —
Town lands, monasteries, ami other institution* . 23,143,600
Private, or held by companies .... 2f>2,103,000 247
Held by peasant-communes . . . 317,">34,500 31 2
Crown. 406,064,900 399
Attached to imperial domains .... 19,890,800 1 9
Thirty -six per cent, of the population are landed propriet
22,396,069 male peasants held in village eonmiunities 252,103,000
acres of land, of which communities had purchased 2,05'
acres; moreover, there were 481,358 private land propri.
holding altogether 253*102,000 acres of land, distributed as
follows :— Nobility, 114,480 landholder*. 197,156,500 m
'merchants' and artisans. 70,634 landholders, 31,569,700 acres :
peasants, 278.179 landholders, 15,195,100 acres : various. Lfi
landholders, 3,377,900 acres ; and various private companies,
4.7'J2,800 acres. In Poland 55 per cent, of the area is arable
land. One-half of the total area is private property, two-fifths
belong to peasants, and one-tenth to the State and various in-
stitutions.
The state of the redemption operation among the village communities of
liberated serfs is seen from the following accounts ujp till Octol>er 1, 1891.
The accounts arc shown separately for Russia and the Western provinces, where
'he conditions of redemption wen1 more liheral for the annate, according to
he laws of 1863.
Western Provs.
Xumber of male peasants who redeemed the
land with State help
Number of acres redeemed
Value of the land, in roubles .
Average price of the allotment
Average size of allotment, in acres
Average price of the acre
Average former debt of the landowner to the
State mortgage bank, per allotment .
Average sum paid to the landlord, per allot
ment .......
6,624,494 2,514,121
61,37 -.017
.62,297 162.268,106
106r. 06c. 64 r. 5
9 4 10 0
Hi. 40c. 6r.
37r. 40c. 27r. 02c.
68r. 66c. 37r. 52
890
RUSSIA
Moreover, 93,743 leaseholders redeemed their allotments (1,882,574 acres),
for the sum of 21,243,401 roubles, in South Russia and the Western Pro-
vinces, according to the laws of 1868-88, which recognise private ownership of
land.
In 1882, out of 1,098,507,000 acres registered in European Russia proper,
the distribution of arable land, meadows, and forests appeared as follows, in
percentage of the area under each description of land holdings : —
-
Arable
Land
• Forests
Meadows,
Pasturage
Unproduc-
tive
Peasants' holdings ....
Private holdings ....
Crown and domains
Total per cent, of area
53-8
■27-2
17
io-i
37-6
64-3
26-6
23 •::
1-6
9-5
11-9
32-4
26-3
38-7
15-9
191
Crops. — The cereal crops of Russia in Europe (exclusive of Finland)
for the last three years are seen from the following, in thousands of quar-
ters : —
-
Wheat
Rye
Barley
Oats
Various
Total
Potatoes
European Russia
1888 .
30,859
88,000
17,036
00,411
24,816
.227,128
88,008
,, „
1889 .
21,847
66,848
14,010
58,806
16,848
178,157
86,722
,, ,,
1890 .
26,818
81,017
19,770
—l
«J
Poland, 1888 .
.
l,?2S
5,804
1,405
4,212
1,001
14,146
20,011
1889 .
1,018
4,545
943
I'.erjs
4'-'!)
10,168
19,618
,, 1890 .
1,532
5,509
1,487
4,301
_1
—2
21,282
i Far both Russia and Poland: 19,482,000 quarten.
Total for both Russia and Poland ; 295,082,000 quarters,
In 1889 oidy 102,910 acres were under tobacco in Russia, Siberia, and
< 'aucasia, yielding 1,001,000 cwt, as against 1,624,000 in 1887, and 1,298,8 K)
in 1886. There were in 1889 no less than 342 tobacco factories, which worked
1,333,900 cwt. of tobacco (19,800 cwt. imported), and manufactured Do less
than 1,137,720 cwt. of cigars and cigarettes. No less than 93,988 cwt. of
Russian tobacco was exported, so also 29,025,080 cigarettes and 164,600
cigars. Under vineyards there were about 16,000,000 acres, but only 361,000
acres were under proper culture. The yield was 1,550,000 gallons, of which
150,000 were produced in Crimea.
The cotton crops in Turkestan covered, in 1888, 214,115 acres, and yielded
325,148 cwt. of new cotton, one half of which is the American, and the oilier
half tin I local cotton tree. They increased in 1 889, attaining 136,840 acre-,
in Ferganah alone, the crop being 567,000 cwt. of new cotton (nearly :S30,000
cwt. American).
In 1888 Russia in Europe (without Poland) had 19,633,340 horses,
24,609,260 horned cattle, 44,465,150 sheep (about 9\5 millions of line 1,,
and 9,243,000 swine, showing thus a notable diminution against 1882.
Poland had, same year, 1,204,340 horses, 3,013,400 horned cattle, 8,764,665
sheep, and 1,499,100 swine.
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
891
II. Forests.
Of the total area of European Russia, nearly one-third is under forest. I'
appears from recent investigation that the following areas are under foi
European Russia, Poland, Finland, and Caucasia (the two latter incomplete) : —
European Russia, 422.307,000 acres : Poland, 6,70(5,000 : Finland, 50,498,000 ;
Caucasia, 18,666,000: total, 498,177,000 a.:
The decrease of the area under forest since the beginning of the century is
reckoned at about 23 per cent.
An imjortaut measure was taken in 1888 for the protection of forests, most
of which have been placed under a special committee apjiointed in each province
of European Russia. Some forest lands have Wen recognised as ' proto
for rivers, kc, and they can in no case d, felling of timber in these
tracts Wing submitted to severe regulations.
III. MlM\<; AND HSTALS.
The sod of Russia is rich in ores of all kinds, and mining industry is steadily
increasing. The statistics during the years 1880 and 1886-89 are given in tin-
following table : —
Gold
Plati-
num
Silver Lead
Tear
Ki'.' -i-iiuiuea
Tons
Thousands of tons
1880
1888
2,047 10,107 j
+,317 13,330
1,9*2 15,880'
85,151 2,687 15,135 ,
38,003
1.14.; 448 292
777 1,186 4. :.7l 583 363
974 3,567 4,911 602 354
650 3.19
569 6,343 5.97S 734 438
307
ijiaj
77:-
1.972
1,107
818
2,690
1,13".
201
3,496
3.132
1,096
4,496
3.209
l.::T"
Gold is obtained chiefly in Siberia (58,621 E. lbs. in 1889, and 63,432 lbs.
in 1890) and the Ural Mountains : silver from the following districts, with the
amount obtained 1889 : Altai, 21,972 lbs. : flfnipslstrnnk. 3,960 lb* :
Neitchinsk, 1,800 lbs. : Caucasus. 1.214 lbs. : Finland, 1,036 lbs. : total,
29,262 lbs. Copper was obtained chiefly in the Urals (2,546 tons in 1889) and
the Caucasus (1,605 tons). Cobalt is lound in the Elisabethpol government
of (aucasia (3,609 lbs. in 1889); also manganese ore (76,790 tons of ore).
Ifercury was extracted in S Russia to the amount of 368,390 lbs. : tin,
12 tons.
The iron industry develops slowly, notwithstanding the high protective
duties. Its distribution in 1889 is seen in tons from the following : —
— Pig Iron
ban
Ural
347,830 ■
220,000
•w region .
33,340
46,180
md .
86,750
68,060
th Russia
141.490
21.200
North Russia .
—
35,600
9 eria
1,790
Finland .
13,360
7,890
Crown works
59,480
20,400
Total ....
734.110
424,120
39,250
38,520
60,000
48,960
20
940
7,130
892 • Russia
The province of ; Ekaterinoslav grows to be an important centre of iron
mining. In 1890 it yielded 204,250 tons of pig iron, 26,070 of iron, and 70,380
tons of steel.
The manufacture of agricultural machinery, which was valued at 2^' million
roubles in 1867, rose to nearly 10 million roubles in 1885, and has much
increased since.
The annual consumption of coal in Russia and Poland attained, in 1888,
6,641,100 tons, of which only 1,520,900 tons were imported from abroad.
The coal mines on the Don are yearly extending ; in J. 884 they occupied
13,950 men and 135 engines, the produce reaching 1,624,720 tons, but it rose
to 3,061,000 tons in 1890. The next important coal-fields are those of Kieloe,
in Poland (2,436,000 tons), around Moscow (301,000 tons), and Urals (259,000
tons), the remainder being extracted in Caucasia (3,500 tons), Siberia (16,200
tons), and Turkestan (6,800 tons). The total extraction of coal in 1889 was : —
Coal, 709,000 tons ; anthracite, 5,349,000 tons ; brown coal, &c, 53,000 tons :
total, 6,115,000 tons. Strong measures have been taken to increase the local
consumption of Russian coal and coke by imposing a duty of 98 '5d. per ton
of coal imported through the Black Sea, 47d. through the Western frontier,
and 23 '5d. through the Baltic Sea, and by reducing the tariffs of railway
■shipping of Russian coal from the Don mines. The import of foreign coal
and coke has thus been reduced as follows : —
Imports of
Coal
Tons
Coke
Tons
1888
1889
1890
January 1 to June 1, 1891 ....
1,550,000
1,848,000
1,515,000
324,000
158,000
194,000
LM.000
66,500
During the last three years the annual consumption of fuel in the Mascot
manufacturing region was about 1,000,000 tons of wood, 80,000 tons of
English coal, 80,000 tons of Russian coal, and about 80,000 tons of
naphtha refuse. The Caspian naphtha industry is also extending very
rapidly ; its various products are also better utilised, as seen from the following
figures : —
Fear
Haw Hapfatta KeroBlne oil
Tons Tuns
1887
1888
(Baku alone) 1889
1890
2,676,000 , 711,000
3,128,000 .vJl'.OOO
:;,:;!f>,000 986,000
3,890,000
'I'lie number of persons engaged in the mining and working of minerals
was 120,000 in 1888, and the nninlirr of water and si. •am engines in tin'
Empire respectively was 1,099 and 1,85."'. showing an aggregate of more than
100,000 horse- 1 lower.
I V. Manukactukks.
The number of all kinds of manufactories, mines, and industrial establish
nients in European Russia (without Poland and Finland) was 62,801 in 1885,
employing 994,7*7 workpeople, and producing a value of 1,121,040,270
roubles. The 20,381 manufactories of Poland employed 139,650 workmen.
PRODr<Tin\ AND INDUSTRY
and produced a value of 185,822,200 roubles. The Caucasus had in 1884
14.24-1 manufactories, mostly small, with 4:5. 50 -2 workmen, producing a value
of 34,759,000 roubles, chiefly in silk : while The M9 manufactories of Finland
yielded 1,674,688/. In European Russia only 545 manufactures have a yearly
production above 500,000 roubles, and 2.417 altove 100,000 roubles.
According to another estimate, which takes no account of the mining
industries, nor of those which jay excise duties (spirits, beer, sugar, anil
tobacco), the manufactories of the Empire having a yearly productivity of
more than 1,000 roubles each appeared as follows : —
1886
1887
Numbers
20,847
21,247
People
employed
759,495
789,322
v„j, n^^™ Average Production
Ye»rl> Production per Workn*n
Ron1
1,419
Roubles
1,043.997,000
1.120.252.000
Of the people employed in 1S87 there were 19,033 bovs, 8,311 girls,
184,144 women, and 577,834 men. The small manufactories having a yearly
production of less than 1,000 roubles numbered in 1887 54,486, with 9
people employed.
The manufacture of machinery and metallic goods is steadily developing,
and the working of metals altogether apj>eared as follows in 1888 : —
Xo. of
Yearly
Factories
Produce
Foundries
175
4,319,000 roubles.
Machinery
372
. 54,220,000 „
Wire and nails
81
. 10,720,000
Copper ware .
193
9,404,000
Bolls .
38
943,000 ..
Various metals
385
. 12,181,000
Jewellery
58
2,965,000
Total .
. 1,294
. 94,772,000 „
For the same year the ironworks yielded in addition to the above : cast-
iron goods, 1,236,100 cwt. ; iron and steel goods, 3,100,600 cwt, : wire,
304,120 cwt. : glazed goods, 66.130 cwt. The small workshops are not taken
into account in the above.
_
tiers
PeopU- employed
Production
Articles of food 7, 869
79,550
Roubles
335,654,000
Animal produce
4.425
s?6
79,495,000
Textiles .
3.096
419,448
485,020,000
; Stones, glass, fca
67,346
28,965,000
•Is
1.377
113,300
112,642,000
Wood
1,093
30,703
25,688,000
Chemicals
588
21.134
21,509,000
^ arious ....
419
13,956
,313
31,279,000
1,119,952,000
Total .
21,247
894
RUSSIA
The production of spirit in 1889 was in decrease of the two preceding
years, 80,132,100 gallons of pure alcohol, obtained in 2,145 distilleries. Of
these only 10,792,600 gallons were exported. In the same year there were
267 distilleries engaged in the manufacture of spirits (refining brandies,
liqueurs, &c), the production of which attained 3,158,000 gallons, and 167
manufactures of varnish, scents, &c. In the same year there were 1,296 beer
breweries, and 551 meathe breweries. The former produced 87,124,000
gallons (in 1887), while the production of the latter is quite insignificant.
There were 180 sugar works in Russia, and 40 in Poland. Their operation
in 1888-89, which is seen from the following, was in excess over that of the
preceding year : — Acres under beetroot, 663,600 ; beetroot worked, 91,890,000
cwts. ; sugar obtained, 9,155,100 cwts., out of which 1,195,700 cwts. in Poland :
refined sugar, 5,725,200 cwts., out of which 1,602,950 cwts. were exported
(1,131,900 cwts. to Western Europe).
The sugar works employed altogether 70,805 men, 9,516 women, and
2,160 children.
Only $%-$ part of all com exported from Russia1 during the last 4 years
was exported in the shape of flour. There were in Russia and Poland in
1889 5,000 flour mills, each yielding more than 670 cwt. of flour per year.
Out of them, 979 steam mills, producing 1,076,000 tons of flour, and 4,020
water mills, 1,209,000 tons. Most of the latter have steam motors in reserve
Out of the above, 497 mills (1,000,000 tons) used rollers for grinding.
Commerce.
The following table gives the average yearly imports and
exports of Russia for 1872-81, and for each of the years 1886 to
1890, in her trade with Europe, Asia, and Finland (bullion not
included, nor the external trade of Finland) : —
Years
Exports
Imports
Paper roubles
Paper roubles
1872-76
381,198,800
171,643,000
1876-81
555,793,000
528,971,400
1886
488,483,497
438,206,337
1887
622,951,666
393,208,792
1888
793,900,000
390,700,000
1889
766,300,000
436,987,000
1890
703,968,000
416,084,000
The chief trade of the Empire is carried on through its
European frontier, as seen from the following table in thousands
of roubles. Uut the European frontier does not include the
Caucasus, so that the rapidly increasing exports of grain, and
especially of naphtha, from the ports of the Caucasus appear in the
exports from the Asiatic frontier, although both are exported to
Europe. On the other side, the arrivals of tea from China to
Odessa or St. Petersburg appear in the imports to the European
frontier.
COMMERCE
895
KxporT-;
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Through European frontier
,, Asian*- ,,
Trade with Finland .
1,000
roablM
1,000
rouble*
568,520
17,004
1,000
roablM
728,000
19,300
1,000
687,085
61,303
17. HI 4
1,000
roubles
610,453
76,800
16,715
• Total .
I--.!-:;
622,951
793,800
766,002
703,968
Import s
From European frontier
Asiatic ,,
Trade with Finland .
382,899
45,384
9,922
333,239
49,151
10,818
332,300
47,000
11,400
50,086
361,398
41.300
Total .
438,206
393,208
390,700
437,016
416,084
The following tables, giving the value of exports and imports,
in thousands of paper roubles, to and from Europe (European
frontier, exclusive of Caucasus) for the last fourteen years,
will better show the character of the foreign trade of Russia : —
Exports.
1877-81 ' 1882-86
1--..
UN
Articles of food
Raw and half- manufac
tured articles
Animals .
Manufactured goods.
Total .
1,000
roubles
308,349
203,733
16,340
5,372
1,000
roubles
1,000
roubles
1,000
roubles
323,623 476,902 , 397,937
190,254 219,205 ! 254,335
14,787 12,855 I 12,955
8,031 19,051 21,858
1,000
roubles
351.047
232,541
10,832
16,033
533,794 536,695 728,013 687,085 610,453
Imports.
-
1887-81 1882-86 I 1888 1889 1890
Articles of food
Raw and half - manufac-
tured articles
Animals ....
Manufactured goals .
1,000
roubles
93,953
264,973
140
131,306
1,000 i 1,000 1,000 I 1,000
roubles roubles roubles | roubles
108,711 51,475 55,349 59,496
254,646 218,650 242,632 232,532
435 640 469 . 431
92,564 61,527 ■ 75,223 68,943
Total .
490,372
456,356 , 332,293 373,673 361,402
To render these figures comparable with one another, the value of the
same exports and imports for the same years, but in gold, is given in the
subjoined table : —
89G
RUSSIA
Exports, Valued in Gold.
__
1877-81 1882-86
1888 1SS9 1890
Articles of food
Raw and half- manufac-
tured articles
Animals ....
Manufactured goods .
Total .
1,000 i 1,000
roubles j roubles
199,961 202,320
132,540 118,887
10,615 9,247
3,504 ; 5,002
I
1,000 1,000
roubles j roubles
283,000 262,200
129,400 ; 167,200
7,900 i 8,500
- 11,100 ! 14,400
1,000
roubles
234,031
155,027
7,221
10,689
346,620 335,456
431,400 j 452,300
406,968
Imports, Valued in Gold.
1877-81
1882-80
188S 1889
1
1890
Articles of food
Raw and half - manufac-
tured articles
Animals ....
Manufactured goods .
Total .
1,000
roubles
60,916
171,720
91
85,001
1,000
roubles
67,885
159,085
272
56,940
1,000 i 1,000
roubles roubles
31,200 36,400
129,000 160,200
400 300
36,700 49,600
1,000
roubles
39,664
155,021
288
16,162
317,728
2N-1.1N2
197,300 246,500
l?y\367
For the last six years grain has formed, on the average, 55 per cent, in
value of the aggregate exports to Europe, 587 per cent, in 1888, and 51 in
1889. The subjoined table shows the average exports (in quarters) for tin-
years 1867 to 1886 as well as for 1887, 1888, and 1889 :—
Years
1867-71
1872-76
1877-8]
1882-86
INS 7
I SSS
1889
1800
Wheat
Quarters
6,195,000
6,808,000
7,825,000
S.99S,
9,429,000
16,284^600
12,998,500
12,784,000
Maize
Various Total
Quarters
i. ,9,000
1,049,000
1,1 16,000
1,407, I
8,076,600
Quarters
I 1,828,000
16,066,000
25, 190,1
84,694,000
The export of naphtha for the last live years (from Russia and Caucasus as
well) will be seen Prom the following tahle •
I OMMERi E
Year
l'htH;i
Oils for
I-ij-'htin-
Cwt
405,000
2, '.">.% 000
1887
347,000
3,811,000
1888
23,860
8,593,670
1889
none
11,161,600
134,000
12,713,000
Oils fur
Greasing
Cwt.
719,000
903,000
871,580
1,111,500
1.472,000
Cwt. Cwt.
750,000 4,839,000
1,059,000 6,120,000
1,438,200 10,912,300
1,933,000 14,206,100
929,000 15,248,000
The export of eggs (chiefly to Germany, France, and Austria) is acquir-
ing entry yen a greater importance, u Been from the following figures "I
sxporta for the last six yean : —
The following taMe shows the relative importance of the chief exports
mi European Russia during the last three years : —
EXVOKN rSOM ECROPEAX Rt'SSIA AND NORTHERN CaVCASIA.
—
1888
1889
18901
Roubles
Roubles
Roubli s
Corn, flour, sarrazin, fcc.
441,028,000
375,666,000
338,512,000
Fish ami caviare
4,561,000
5,256,000
4,791,000
Butter and eggs . . .
16,696,000
15,767,000
16,632,000
Alcohol and gin
7,813,000
5,774,000
;.ooo
Various articles of food .
Articles of food .
24,259,000
22,300,000
19,377,000
494,357,000
424,763,000
384,066,000
j Timber and wooden goods
39,001,000
.".'.770,000
53,704,000
j Raw metals (platinum, mercy.)
1,196,000
1,714,000
2,288,000
j Oleaginous grains, chiefly lin-
seed and grass seeds .
3S, 764,000
42,911,000
44,310,000
Flax
66,828,000
62,400,000
60,998,000
1 Hemp .....
17,889,000
21,729,000
17,754,000
Tallow
948,000
1,090,000
1,069,000
I Bristle, hair, and feather
12,860,000
14,999,000
12,336,000 !
Wool
14,514,000
25,299,000
15,755,000
3,829,000
5,858,000
4,911,000
htha and naphtha oils, kc.
24,945,000
26,865,000
27,301,000
.'ins ....
Raw and half-manu-
23,081,000
26,940,000
29,482,000
factured goods .
244,815,000
286,575,000
, 269,908,000
1 Including exports to Finland.
808
RUSSIA
The principal imports into European Russia and the Black Sea frontiei
of Caucasia are shown in the following table : —
Imports to European Russia and Northern Cucasia.
1888
1 SS! >
1S901
Roubles
Roubles
Roubles
Rice .....
316,000
397,000
392,000
Other grain and flour
1,024,000
1,007,000
1,007,000
Fruits and vegetables
5,974,000
6,934,000
6,041,000
Fish
8,033,000
9,822,000
I '..'>."> 9, 000
Tea
16,641,000
15,205,000
18,809,000 -
Coffee
5,301,000
4,741,000
5,607,000
Tobacco .....
1,562,000
2,870,000
3,701,000
Wine and spirits
7,988,000
9,381,000
9,095,000
Raw cotton ....
68,386,000
84,008,000
79,868,000
Cotton yarn and wadding
10,551,000
9,804,000
9,019,000
Raw wool ....
24,507,000
20,672,000
20,788,000
Raw silk ....
11,392,000
10,435,000
8,671,000
Raw jute ....
1,979,000
1,921,000
1,247,000
Leather .....
6,616,000
7,860,000
7,586,000
Oil, cocoa, palm, and glycerine
1,341,000
1,277,000
1,768,000
Colours .....
15,368,000
15,809,000
1 1,659,000
Chemicals ....
—
13,202,000
12,196,000
Oil, olive and others
5,148,000
6,133,000
1,551,000
Coal and coke
12,920,000
13,201,000
12,612,000
Raw metals ....
18,545,000
25,375,000
33,646,000
Sheet iron ....
3,641,000
1,106,000
1,067,000
Manufactured goods : —
Cottons
3,153,000
3,740,000
3,043,000
Other textile goods
5,420,000
8,196,000
6,814,000
Iron and steel goods
11,511,000
12,492,000
11,556,000
Machinery . . ...
19,148,000
23,119,000
21,378,000
i Including i in] hhIs from Finland.
! Moreover. 14,174,000 roubles' worth through Siberia (16,644,000 in ISS'.i''.
The imports and exports by the frontier of Asia were as follows in 188
and 1890 in thousands of roubles : —
1888
IS'.M
Imports
l,(lll(l roubles
17,679
1,578
10,190
3,728
3,880
2,079
11,852
1,815
Bxporta
Imports
Biporta
Tea .
Tissue
Textiles .
Skins and cloth
Fruits, fee.
Cereals, fee.
Various .
Precious metals
1,000 roubles
6
2,485
2,962
785
158
17,51
87,889
3,062
1,000 roubles
16,154
2,433
2,825
1,860
8,564
2,077
13,378
■J. Hil
1.000 rouble*
6
4,332
3,041
748
581
25,811
42,804
3,096
Total
1
51,901
64,365 43,745
79,868
fOMMKRfK
During the first seven months of 1891, the exports, chiefly of corn,
attained the value of 388,290,000 roubles, as a_ 00 rouble!
'lining the same months of the preceding year; ami the imj»orts wen
%000 roubles (214,739,000 roubles in 1890).
The total exports ami imports of gold, silver, and bullion, not included in
the aliove, imported and exported to and from European Russia and the
Black Sea frontier of the Caucasus, are as follows, in gold roubles : —
— Exports
Imports
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
14,316,000
18,688,000
34,452,000
17,400,000
20,928,000
5,802,000
5,115,000
29,500,000
9,300,000
23,127,000
The amount of customs duties levied in the Empire, chiefly in gold and
partly in paper roubles, appears as follow
Roubles
Roubles
Paper
Paper
1885 64,441,686 1,835,077 1888 77,565,803 1,691,919
1886 70,775,550 2,233,521 1889 80,239,219 1,644,009
1887 64,170,467 -2,285,155 1S90 82,690,494 1,373,089
The following tabic shows the value of the imports from, and exports to,
le countries named, through the European and Asiatic frontier, exclusive of
le trade with Finland, in 1889 and 1890, in thousands of roubles : —
mm
Germany .
United Kingdom
Austria-Hungarv
Turkey .
France
Belgium .
Italy
Sweden and Xorway
Netherlands
p Roumania
H Denmark .
M Greece
D China
; United Stal
I Persia
I Other countries
Total
Finland .
Imports from
Exports to
Imports from
Exports to
1.000 roubles
1,000 roubles
1,000 roubles
1,000 roubles
124,315
192,34.-.
114,635
177,940
100,704
874,377
92,935
203,663
18,779
30,972
17,802
30,24.'.
7,111
18,758
7,691
16,772
19,103
42,893
17,254
48,366
8,224
26,196
7,085 .
27,388
7,581
30,141
9,152
30,338
6,111
13,184
6,436 !
12,650
4,442
47,793
4,858
43,538
1,623
7,602
1,673
7,192
1,507
11,648
1,659
1,156
6,838
747
8,303
27,280
1,359
29,060
1,189
50,760
1,522
53,393
927
11,650
8,819
11,632
10,927
46,670
51,555
40,057
76,177
437,016 766,002
17,965 13,256
416,069 703,937
3 M 2
900
RUSSIA
The steady increase of customs duties during the years 1884-89 is bes
seen from the following table, which gives the proportions between lit
customs duties levied and the values of the imjiorts, and rlius illustrates ih
steady increase of the tariffs : — •
The exports from Russia to the United Kingdom, and the imports d
British home produce into Russia, according to the Board of Trade Returns
are shown in the subjoined table : —
1
188G
1SS7
1888 1S89
1S90
Exports .
Imports .
£
13,571,786
4,424,317
£
15,893,289
4,166,944
t £
26,315,213 27,151, 190
4,810,075 l 5,332,251
£
23,750,868
5, 751,601
The chief article of export from Russia to the United Kingdom is grain
mainly wheat and oats, as follows : —
— , 1886
1S87 188S
1
1889
£
8,000. 804
::.Mo,488
1,799,389
1800
t:
7,481, :.:!7
2,660, !!>'.'
2,164,880
e
Wheal . 1,396,833
Oats . . 1,834,113
Barley 1,240,387
£
1,982,943
2,071,443
1,575,139
£
8,128,448
3,656,311
2,668,7*1
The principal other articles of export to Great Britain in the year lam
were flax, exported to the value of 1,720,852/. : wood and timber, 3,570,6151.
Max seed, rape, and linseed, 1,669,823/.; wool, 817,551/.; petroleum, 632,348£|
sugar, 10,740/. (460,024/. in 1889). Minor ait ides of export to Great liritain
are tallow and stcarinc, bristles, cordage and twine, oil-seed cake, and tar.
The principal British imports into Russia in the year 1890 were iron, wrought
and unwTought. of the value of 925,452/.; lead, 140,787/.: cotton stuffs and
yarn, of the \alue of 709,997/.; woollens, of the value of 231,682/.; coal
906,435/.; machinery, 1,176,872/.; alkali, 168,5121.; fish, 157,427/i
The quantities of grain and flour exported from Russia to the 1'uiied
Kingdom in each of the live years 1886 to 1890, from both the northern and
southern ports of the Empire, were as follows: 19.S00.257 ewts. in 1886;
29,075,932 cwts. in 1887; 54,632,590 ewts. in ISSN: 17.171.152 ewts. in
1889 ; 39,420,085 cwts. in 1890.
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
901
The chief Russian fair is that of Nijni Novgorod. In 1891 the
goods shipped to the fair wen valued at 168,211,000 roubles, as against
181,256,830 roubles in 1890. Of that there remained unsold goods to the
value of 11,262,000 roubles (7,039,840 roubles in 1890). The chief items
in 1890): Russian cottons, 28,713,500 roubles; woollen goods,
".430 roubles; linen and hemp goo<; 75 roubles; silk and
silk goods. .rs, 8,443,605 roubles ; leather and Leather
7,660,915 roubles. Metals: 22,312,508 roubles; of which:
goods, 1,782,100 roubles; iron and steel, 15,395,224 roubles: iron an';
1,648,132 roubles ; glass and earthenware, 6,255,350 roubles
Shipping and Navigation.
The sea-going commercial navy of Russia consisted in the year 1891 of 313
is, of about 180,000 gross tons, and 2,105 sailing vessels, of 3»
net tons. About one-fourth of the vessels were engaged in trading to foreign
countries, and the remainder coasting vessels, many of them belonging to
-. sailing under the Russian flag.
In 1890 the navigation in the ports of Russia and the Black Sea coast of
the Caucasus appeared as follows for vessels above 20 ton-.
White Sea
Baltic Sea
Black and Azo\
Total
\ Tesseh cleared . —
White Sea
Baltic Sea
Black and Azo\
Total
Xuii
156,910
2,641,300
4,054,060
Of these under Russian Flag,
Numbers
642
404
Tons
596
5,640
4,810
,670
343,150
11,046
-.270
1,346
564,190
3,294
155,620
2,619,540
2,904,280
274
19,601)
171,420
no
9,450
5,679,440
1,136
429,430
l the coasting trade the ports were entered bv 27.763 vessels (7,825,490
in 1889.
he yearly returns (imports and exports) of the five chief ]»orts of Russia
ic last six years (in millions of roubles) is seen from the following : —
-
131
18S8
1889
Kit. Petersburg
134
128
139
144
. u .
34
45
42
70
76
.
62
71
73
4 •>
72
il .
66
73
89
61
63
902
RUSSIA
ternal Communications.
I. Rivers and Canals.
In 1889, 73,508 smaller vessels, and 119,833 rafts were unloaded
at the river ports, the value of merchandise thus transported exceeding
223,373,000 roubles. The steam navigation on Russian rivers has rapidly
developed of late. While there were in 1874 only 691 steamers (50,900 horse-
power) plying on Russian rivers, their number reached in 18861,507 steamers,
86,400 nominal horse-power, capable of receiving a load of 115,000 tons, and
valued at 50,427,500 roubles. Of these 979 have been built in Russia, and
340 are heated with naphtha, 432 with coal, and 692 with wood.
In 1886 Russia had 33,463 English miles of navigable rivers, and 453
miles of canals. The traffic on the rivers of European Russia proper (exclusive
of Poland, Finland, and Caucasus) was in tons : —
-
Total
Com
2,205,000
2,558,500
2,664,500
2,670,000
2,570,000
Fuel Wood
Timber
Naphtlia
1884
1885
i 1886
| 1888
1889
7,940,000
8,381,500
8,610,500
8,995,200
9,908,000
1,933,000
1,918,500
2,220,000
2,075,000
2,230,000
938,000
898,000
711,000
953,000
1,090,000
445,000
722,500
543,500
730,000
984,000
To this must be added the timber transported on rafts : 7,730,000 tons in
1888, and 8,550,000 tons in 1889.
Of the whole river traffic of European Russia, 86 per cent, falls upon the
system of the Volga and the Neva — the remainder being : 9 per cent, on the
Dnieper-Nyemen and Dvina system, 2 per cent, only on the Don, and 1 li pel
cent, on the Dniester. •
In 1889 the sum of 13,000,000 roubles was assigned for the reconstruction
of the Mariinsk system of canals (connecting the Volga with St. Petersburg),
so as to permit the passage of vessels 220 feet long and with 6 feet draught of
water.
According to latest information, 184 steamers, with 240 barges, representing
at) aggregate tonnage of about 40,000 tons, are plying on the rivers of Siberia,
Of them 61 steamers and 162 barges- capable of transporting a cargo of 75,000
tons (besides passengers) every year to Tomsk, are plving in the basin of the
Obi
II. Railways.
The activity of the Russian railways, exclusive of the Transcaspian railway
and those of Finland, is seen IVoni the following table, which shows the
length, gross receipts, working expenses, and net receipts, 88 also the nnnibei
of passengers and amounts of goods carried for the last six years, according to
the last figures published by the Ministry of Ways and Communications.
Years
BL miles
(Imss
Receipts
Working
Expense*
Net Reoeipta
Passenger*
Goods
carried
1884
1 886
1886
1887
ISSS
1888
ir>,(»:«)
16,348
16,818
IT.:',:::',
17,684
Paper Roubles
14,817
288,682,787
284,661,866
262,086,669
188,764
888,600,784
Paper Roubles
148, 585,41s
1 10,076,469
148,186,187
1 14,364,1 it
1 iio. 057,085
168,888,648
Paper Roubles
86,008,899
88,866,830
108,7 '
1 '2:1,825,008
118,8
Persons
86,068,808
86,841,87 •
87,184,778
48,066,366
16,006,162
Tons
41,705,000 -
12,041,700 !
18,082,000
04,160,000 1
07,478,000 '
INTERNAL COMMUNICATION'S 903
In I - ilway lor military purposes was constructed bun Uzun-ada
on the S.E. short: of the Caspian, by Kizil Arvat, Merv, ami < liarjui, on the
Aniu-daria, to Soman ami. rid Bokhara, the whole di.~-
by the line being 890 miles. The cost of the railway was 46,120,000 roubles,
and its rolling stock is represented by 110 locomotives ami 1,080 carri ej
The latest official n turns show that at the Ifeginning of 1891 Russia had
the following length of railways, in English miles : — Op md in Russia, Poland,
and Caucasia, 18,058 (of which private, 12,749, and State raihra
in Finland, 1,137 : in Tranacaspian region, S90 : total. 20,08.". The following
railway's were building : private, liohueff-Jmerinka, 7'> miles : braneh railways
alnjut Uman, 79 mi] S Zlatou-r-Mias. 12 nuke : Theodosia-
itopol, 72 miles : Surain Tunnel. 5 mi. i72 miles.
The rolling stock on January 1, 1890, was: 6,804 steam cngi.
passengers' carriages, 141,898 goods can :
The canital spent for the construction of all the Bnarian railway (exclusive
of Finland and Ttanscaspian) reached <»n January 1, 1S89, 1*598,891,000
metallic roubles and 497,039,000 paper roubles, or about 1,930,000,000 metallic
roubles (306,098,000/.). Of this capital the share of the State was as follow
'.\\c roubles Paper rouble*
Interest guaranteed by the State . 215,817,000 '.'J, 753,000
Obligations . . ' . 3:55,662,000 11,713,000
Conaolidatod obligations taken by
the State ....'. 919,804,000 »,000
Loans to railway companies . . 49,791,000 231,611,000
Total 1,521,074,000 381,435,000
= metallic roubles, 1,775,000,000, which sum represents 91 per cent, of the
total cost of the railways. It appears considerably lower than in 188!
account of several lines of railways having bean lough t by the State. The
yearly guarantee upon this capital in paper roubles (at lr. 50c j>a]»er rouble for
one rouble gold) realised 88,168,000 roubles.
The debts of the railways to the State (for guarantee, obligations, ami
loans) attained 294,308,000 roubles in gold and 540,371,000 paper roubles^
56 roubles gold
In 1885 and 1886 the State paid, to cover the losses of the ratrwwj
gpectively 15,567,512 ami 64,786,556 roubles : but owing to the recent increase
of traffic of the railways the sum paid by the State was only 9.027,155 roubles
in 1888, and 7,311,796 in 1889.
The charters granted to railway companies are for tlie most \art terminable
after between 75 and 85 years ; but some small companies have charters only
tor 37 years.
The Caucasus Railway Company has received the authorisation to build a
new line (160 miles) between Vladikavkaz and l'etrovsk on the Caspian -
The railways in South-western Russia are continually extended by feeding
branches and strategic lines. In the Xorth-west an imjortant branch is now
ready, in order to connect Riga with Dorjiat and Pskov. Kazan is going to be
connected with the railway net. as also Ufa and Zlatoust. The line
Siberia has been begun at Vladivostok, and the first 120 miles are in a fair
way of progress. In Finland, an important main line. 160 miles, was opened
in 1889, to connect the small but commercial town of Kotka with Kuopio : it
opens large forest districts to commerce.
In order to avoid ruinous tariff- wan between various railway companies,
a law was promulgated on August 17, 1SS9, giving to the Administration the
right to interfere when necessary.
904
RUSSIA
III. Posts and Telegraphs.
The following are the postal statistics for 1889 : — Xumber of offices, 5,980 :
letters transmitted, 187,816,000 ; post-cards, 23,032,000 ; registered letters,
12,530,000 ; letters of value, value 3,984,570 roubles ; printed matter and
samples of merchandise, 31,742,000.
The length of State telegraph lines in Russia cm January 1, 1890, was
88,280 English miles, and the length of wire 172,360 English miles. Of
the total system, about nineteen-twcntieths were the property of the State.
There were at the same date 3,796 telegraph offices. The total number of
telegrams carried in 1889 was 11,071,582. The receipts of the telegraph office
amounted to 10,137,800 roubles. The actual receipts and expenditure of the
posts and telegraphs combined have been as follows for five years : —
Years
Income
Expenditure
Roubles
Roubles
1885
25,255,423
24,768,100
1886
25,587,711
21,779,303
1887
26,935,729
24,615,911
1888
28,866,884
24,412,649
1889
29,554,650
24,328,493
1890
30,291,335
—
Money and Credit.
The amount of money coined at the mint in 1889 was 26,094,785 roubles,
as against 28,117,129 roubles in 1888. It included gold, 24,430,030 roubles :
silver, 1,494,754 roubles ; copper, 170,000 roubles ; total, 26,094,085 roubles.
The amount of metallic money in circulation is not known. As to paper
money, it amounted, on January 1, 1891, to 1,046.295,384 roubles, covered by
210.346,813 roubles in gold and 1,125,682 roubles in silver, leaving thus
uncovered 568,527,206 paper roubles.
1. T/ie Bank of Russia acts in a double capacity — of State 1 Sank and of a
commercial bank. Its accounts on December 9, 1891, were : —
A. Emission of pope? currency: —
Liabilities —
Paper, roubles in circulation
Do., temporary emissions .
Assets —
Metallic fund
Da^ for temporary emissions
Debi of the Treasury for paper money.
15. Commercial operations: —
Liabilities
Foundation capital
Reserve
Paper money, temporary emission
I lapital for building new bouse
( 'ui'i'eii! accounts . . . .
Kniililrs
. 780,082,238
75,000,000
. 211,506,032
. 75,000,000
. 568,527,906
Total 865,082,288
lioulili s
25,000,000
00,000
266,263,] W
71 1,180
11.217,920
HONEY AND CREDIT
Interest bearing deposits ....
. 21,318,937
Interest due. ......
710,663
Transfers
. 26,056,783
Sums due to the branches of the bank .
. 68,363,738
Interest for the current year's operations
5,726,899
Sums to be transferred ....
. 69,7
Profits of 1889 and 1890 ....
9.^
the Ministry of Finance
. 50, 1 "
Miscellaneous ......
1,63
Total :
ta —
: japer money .....
. 19,211,159
,, gold and silver .....
. 88,402,414
Difference on gold for guarantee of paper money
. 18,62
Sums at Bankets' abroad
. 60,982,505
. 27,734,763
Paid on current accounts guarant 1 by securities
. 62,195,376
. 27, ".
Bonds, fcc., belonging t" the Bank
. 213,300,070
. 74,8"
905
Total 592,727,973
Debited in trust 1,196,744,003
2. The Savings Banks {&il in number), all under the Ministry of Finance,
J. 970,660 roubles of deposits on January 1, 1889. On January 1, 1890,
the total sum attained 118,091,748 roubles, which sum rose to 1S2, 479,148
roubles on October 1, 1891.
3. Stale Banks/or mortgage loans to the nobility, on December 1, 1889 : —
Assets —
Rot
(ash
Current account in States Bank 1,319,623
Loans granted 196,398,300
Miscellaneous 13,288,645
Liabilities —
■. v capital
Debt to the States Lank
Obligations for loans granted
Sums realised from the last loan
Miscellaneous
Total 211,036,430
Roubles
627,317
37,173,179
137.347,000
19,765,14.'
16,123,799
Total
211,036,430
4. Land Bank for llic purchase of land by the peasants. — Up to December
1889, the bank had made 7,246 loans to 2,264 village communities, 3,867
sociations. and 1,125 individuals, representing a total of 234,057 house
lders They bought 4,239,710 acres, valued at 73,033,191 roubles, of which
9 roubles were lent by the bank, and 15,020,235 roubles paid by the
No full accounts of the operations of the private Tanks are available. The
••units published by the 29 chief Kinking companies show an aggregate return
906
RUSSIA
of 25,811,100,000 roubles, with an aggregate foundation capital of 94,200,000
roubles. Their dividends vary from 6 to 15 per cent.
5. The Postal Savings Banks, opened at end of 1889, had received on Oetobei
1, 1891, the sum of 8,135,393 roubles, from 89,939 separate persons.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Russia, and the British equivalents,
are as follows : —
Money.
The silver rouble is the legal unit of money in Russia, and must contain as
such 17'9961 grammes (86'8 per cent, of its weight) of fine silver. It is equal
to 3s. 2-054c£. (3 francs 99'14 centimes), but in official calculations the pound
sterling is taken as equal to 6r. 40c. in gold (rouble = 3s. 1*504., 1 kopeck -
0"375rf.). The golden half-imperial weighs 6 "544041 grammes, and contains
5 '998704 grammes of fine gold. In actual circulation there is little else but
paper money (100, 25, 10, 5, 3, and 1 rouble, of nominal value, the paper
rouble being ■ discounted ; at 21 ^d. to 25%d, — that is, about 10 roubles to the
pound sterling — during the years 1877 to 1888. The average yearly value-- of
the paper rouble, on the Exchange, as given by the Ministry of Finance, were
as follows : —
d.
d.
d.
d.
1877
. 25-71
1880.
. 24-84
1883 .
. 23'52
1886 .
. 23*18
1878
. 24-26
1881 .
. 25-03
1884 .
. 24-04
1887 .
. 21-30
1879
. 24-03
1882.
. 23-98
1885.
. 24-14
1888 .
. 28*43
Its official value, for budget estimates, was taken during the year 1891 at It.
80c. paper roubles to the silver rouble, or at 20'80^., but it has been raised
again to about 23%d. The kopeck is the hundredth part of a rouble. The
mark of Finland = 1 franc.
Weights, and Measures.
1 Vcrst (500 sajincs)
1 Sajine (3 arshins)
1 Arshin (16 vcrshok)
1 Square vcrst
1 l~>cssiatim ....
1 Pound, (96 zotolniks=d2 lot)
1 Pood (40 poitnds) . . , I
63 Poods
1 Ship Last ....
1 Vedro (8 sh toffs) .
1 Tchetvcrt (8 tchctveriks)
3,500 ft., or two-thirds of a statute
mile (0-6629).
7 feet English.
28 inches.
0*439 11 square mile,
2*69972 English acres.
,''„ of a pound English (0-90283 lb.).
36 Lbs. English.
0-32244 cwt.
1 ton.
about 2 tons (1-8900).
■i'\ imperial gallons (2-707).
5-77 imperial bushels, <>r ,T„ Imperial
quarter (0-72186).
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Ok Russia in Cki.at Kimtain.
Ambassador. His Kxcellcnev l'rivv Councillor Georges de Staal, accre-
dited July 1, 1884.
<!i»incillorof Emlitissii. M. I ioiitttic il". First Secretary . M. Kroupcnsky.
Military Attaehi, Lieut-Colonel Yermoloff.
Xnral .Hlndic. Commander ltajest venskv.
Uoiisul-i.'iinrul. A. de Volborth.
FINLAND
-POPULATION
907
Russia has also consular repn-..'iitativ.
Aberdeen. Y.< '. nw, V.i .
Mfast. V.C.
Bristol, V.i .
Cardiff, V.C.
Cork. V.i .
Dublin. V.r.
Dundee, V.C.
Gibralt I
Hong Kon_
Malt.
M'IIhhimi .
Singapore, V.i '.
Sydm
Hull, V.C.
Leitl), V.C.
Liverpool, c.
Newcastle, V.i .
Plymouth, V.i .
Southampton. V.i .
2. Of Gkkat BimM ix Russia.
Ambassador.— Right Hon. Sii K. 15. IX Moriar, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., kv. ;
I ition at Frankfort 1865; Charge d'Affaii huge
d'Affaires at Stuttgart 1871 : Mustek 1872 : Envoy ami Minister to 1'ortugal
1876-81 ; Spain 1881-84. Appointed rtmhi— ulor to Russia Deeeinlier 1884.
Secretary of Embassy. — Henry Howard, C.R
Milifiin/ Attaehi. — Colonel 0. H. More-Molyneux.
' oiamercial Attache. — Edward FitzGerahl Law.
Consul and Translator. — J. Miehell.
There are also British consular representatiTea at :
Abo, V.c.
Archangel, V.C. Rev.l. Y
Bjornelwrg, V.C. Odessa, CO.
Cronstadt, V.C Batuin. C.
Helsingfors. V.C. Kerteh, V
Poti, \
Sebastopol. VA '.
Riga, C.
"Warsav
FINLAND.
The Government of Fiidand and her relations to the Empire have been
referred to on page 857 ; its area and population given on page 860 ; and its
army on page 879. Of the total area 11 15 per cent, is under lakes. Accord-
ing to a law of August 14, 1890, the circulation of Russian i>aper roubl- -
silver money has been rendered obligatory. The j>enal code, elaborated by the
Senate, which had to be promulgated ou January 1, 1891, has been stopped by
the Russian Government till further notice. In 1S91 the postal administration
of Finland was subjected to the Russian Ministry of Interior.
Population.
The gradual increase of the population is seen from the following: —
In Towns
In Country
Total
1830
76,4S9
1,29"
1.372,077
1870
131,1500
1,637,166
1,7M
1880
173,401
1,887,381
2,060,782
1885
199,4>4
2,003,874
2.203,358
1886
204,998
2,027,380
-'.378
•-:
211,589
2,059,323
'.912
1888
218,280
2,087,636
2,305,916
Of the total population there were at end of 1888 : — Lathers]
Greek Orthodox and raskolniks. 41,896 ; Roman Catholics, 2,
The chief towns, with imputation, of Finland are : — Helsingfors.
27,996: Tammerfors, 18,097: Wiborg, 17,494: Uleaborg, IS
Bjorneborg, 9,632 ; Xikolaistad (Wasa), 8,454 ; Kuopio, 8,141.
908 RUSSIA : — FINLAND
The movement of the population in 1884-88 was as follows : —
Years
Marriages Births
Deaths '• Excess of Birtlte
1884 . ' 16,585 80,411
1885 15,978 77,289
1886 16,248 80,776
1887 17,179 84,102
1888 16,748 80,172
47,468 32,943
50,421 26,868
51,714 •29,062
45,25:! 88,849
47,417 32,755
Immigration in 1888, 45,163. Emigration, 44,914.
In 1888 there were about 1,966,000 Finns, 332,000 Swedes, 4,650 Russia us,
1,800 Germans, 1,000 Laps.
Instruction.
In 1890 Finland had 1 university, with 1,735 students ; 1 polytechnic, 113
students ; 18 lyceums (14 State), 3,562 pupils ; 11 progymnasiums, 1,982
pupils ; 27 real schools, 1,051 pupils ; 54 girls' schools, 4,156 pupils : 1,010
primary schools and Kindergarten, with 65,291 pupils ; 4 normal schools, with
489 pupils. There are besides 7 navigation schools, with 134 pupils ; 6
commercial schools, with 162 male and 135 female pupils ; 32 evening and
Sunday professional schools, with more than 2,000 pupils ; 2 agricultural
institutes, 11 agricultural and 17 dairy schools, with 300 male and 170 female
pupils; 25 trade schools, with 1,008 pupils. Out of 419,007 children of
school age (from 7 to 16 years old), only 12,041 received no education.
Pauperism and Crime.
The number of paupers in 1888 supported by the village communities WM
79,267 (3 '4 per cent, of the population); and the total cost was 2.29 1.22 1
marks.
The prison population, at the end of 1888, was 1,484 men and ."> 19 Women,
while the number of sentences pronounced for crimes in 1888 was 1,283, and
for minor offences 16,888.
Finance.
The estimated revenue for 1890 was 54,158,331 marks (16,091,000 marks
being left from previous budgets), and expenditure the same (17,543,562 marks
being left for the next year). Of the revenue, 5,373,100 marks came from
direct taxes ; 19,847,000 marks indirect taxes. The chief items of expenditure
are military affairs, 6,647,485 marks : rivil administration, 7,168,548 marks :
worship and education, 5,797,691 : public debt, 4,429,000.
The public debt on January 1, 1890, amounted to 85,130,944 marks ; of
which 7,851,700 marks internal.
Industry.
The land is divided among 114,416 owners (846 nobles, 2,21s Barger,
111,557 peasants, and 297 foreigners), and the landed property was distributed
as follows :-- Less than 12/, acres, 35. 1S6 persons (as against 12,592 in 1885) :
from 124 to 62A acres, 56,692 persons, from 62.J, to 250 acres, 18,872 persons ;
more than 250 acres, 3,365 persons. Small farmers, 65.679.
The crop of L888 was in hectolitres: Wheat. 52,186; rye, 4,890,950 ;
barley, 1,962,575 : oats, 4,658,765 : sarra/in, 13,17-1 : peas. Ill.ti25 : potatoes,
5,092,276: flax, 1,902 tons: hemp, VW tons.
ivnrsTiiv — roMMKRfK
j>on
Of domestic animals Finland had : — Horees, 254,536 : horned <attle,
966,511 : sheep, 1,021.001 : swine, 177. !•»',:! ; reindeer, 65, 17 t : goats, 16,103 :
poultry, 259,312.
Tlie crown forests cover :>C, 15t>,000 acres. Their maintenju
Francs, and the income derived from them was 1,718,154 francs. In 1888
there were 197 saw mills with water motors, and 117 steam mills. They give
• I'-eupation to 7,04') j workers, ami their aggregate production was 1,47
cubic metres of timber.
The annual produce of pig-iron and iron, in metric tons, for five years,
Yi ar>
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
On-
30,957
46,632
27,716
30,531
Pig-irou
Iron
24,379
18,052
20,711
18,142
24,470
26,329
17,056
Finland bad in 1887, 5,373 large and small manufactures, employing an
aggregate of 42,834 workers, and yielding an aggregate product of 114,660,690
marks (4,586,428*.). The chief were :—
-
Xo. of
Establish].
Xo. of
Workers
Production
Marks
Iron and mechanical works
6,582
14,1-j:
Textiles
46
6,121
16,124,374
j Wood and bone indnt
28,002,109
Distilleries ami breweries
124
1,717
6,869,090
Paper
9,657,090
Leather
635
8,082,970
Commerce.
The exterior trade of Finland appears as follows, in rlmiwimN of marks
(francs) : —
—
1887 urn
Imports
Exports Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
from
to from
to
from
to
Russia
•".0,077
40,347 45,522
30,944
53,700 36,600
Sweden and Xorw
ay 9,184 7,687 8,497
9,094
9,500 8,900
Denmark
S12
996
4,147
2,400 7.500
Germany
29,562
4.312 28,423
38,100 8,100
Great Britain .
.
17.922 U
13,018
18,800 23,100
Spain
547
4,503 418
4,009
1,800 5,900
India
446
— ! 2,291
—
— —
1 Various .
Total .
5,620
11,127 4,541
9,622
4,900
8,400
. 109,006
89,853
105,866
77,066
133,500
102,700
i
910
RUSSIA : — FINLAND
The chief items of export are : timber (37,600,000 marks in 1888, as
against 28,699,000 in 1887), butter (14,600,000), paper and cardboard
(7,700,000), iron (2,200,000), corn (5,600,000), cottons (2,500,000), leather,
hides, tar, and pitch.
The chief imports were : — Corn and flonr (15,700,000 marks ; over 20
millions in 1885 and 1886), coffee (8,900,000), iron (5,500,000), woollen cloth
(4,700,000), sugar (4,600,000), raw cotton (4,000,000), chemicals, leather ware,
machinery, tobacco, colours, and oils.
Shipping and Navigation.
The number of vessels which entered and cleared the ports of Finland in
1889 was as follows :—
Entered
Cleared
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
1,127,626
57,373
627,982
Finnish .
Russian .
Foreign .
8,731
1,170
1,668
1,121,949
61,244
619,010
8,773
991
1,685
Total .
11,569
1,802,203
11,449
1,812,981
The Finnish commercial navy numbered on January 1, 1889, 1,799 sailing
vessels of 235,161 tons, and 336 steamers of 17,454 tons ; total, 2,185 vessels
of 252,615 tons.
Internal Communications.
For internal communications Finland has a remarkable system of lakes
connected with each other and with the Gulf of Finland by canals. The
number of vessels passing through the canals of Finland every year is from
15,000 to 18,500 (18,195 in 1889), and the net revenue from the 'canals varies
from 300,000 to 600,000 marks every year.
At the end of 1889 there were 1,875 kilometres of railways, all but 33
kilometres belonging to the State. The traffic in 1888 was 2,103,130 paa-
•angers and 751,000 tons of goods. The total cost of the State railways to the end
of 1888 was 120,771,475 marks. The total revenue of the same in 1SSS was
9,625,975 marks, and the total expenditure 5,946,682 marks.
Finland had 341 post-offices in 1888, and revenue and expenses in 188S
were respectively 1,263,105 and 1,296,753 marks ; united letters and post-cards
received 5,364,826 ; samples and printed matter, 697,737 : journals, 6,116,711.
The 132 savings-banks had on December 31, 1888, 60,097 depositors, with
aggregate deposits of 35,132,467 marks.
Money, Weights, &c.
The unit of linear measure is thef'oot, which is-0"2969 metre, or WTJ
nearly eipial to the English foot. 1 verst (3,600 Finn, feet) nearly >J of a
statute mile ; 1 tunnland (56,000 square Finn, feet) nearly 1 1 acre (0*48864
hectare); 1 tnnna (63 kannor) — nearly 4^ bushels (1-tilSS hectolitre: 1
skalpund=TVff of Eng. lb. (425 01 grammes)) 1 fai/urr (100 skAlpund = 5
/ is/>i< nil) = }*$; of Eng. ton (15501 kilogrammes) ; 1 murk 1 franc. The paper
currency is exchangeable at par against gold or silver. .Metric measures arc
now in genera] use.
Oil
RUSSIAN DEPENDENCIES IN ASIA.
The following two States in Central Asia are under the suzerainty of
Russia : —
BOKHARA.
A Russian vassal State in Central Asia, lying between X. latitude 41 and
K°t and between E. longitude 62* and 72", bounded on the north by the Russian
province of Turkestan, on the east by the Pamir, on the south by Afghai
•ui'l on the west by the Kara Kum desert
The reigning sovereign is the Ameer Say id Ablul Ahad, fourth son of the
. meer, by a slave girl; born about 1860, educated in Russia, succeeded
his father in 1885.
The modern State of Bokhara was founded by the I'sbegs in the fifteenth
century, after the power of the Golden Horde badbeen crushed by Tamurlane.
The dynasty of Manguts, to which the present ruler belongs, dans from the
end of the last century. Mir Muzatfar -ed-din in 1866 proclaimed a holy war
against the Russians, who thereupon invaded his dominions, and forced
him to sign a treaty ceding the territory now forming the Russian distriet of
Syr Daria, to consent to the demand for a war indemnity, and to permit
n trade. In 1873 a further treaty was signed, in virtue of which M
foreigner was to be admitted to Bokhara without a Russian passport, and the
became practically a Russian dependency.
Ameers of Bokhara'.— Savid Ameer Hyder," 1799-1826 ; Mir Hussein,
Mir Omir, 1826-27 : Mir NasruUa, 1827-60 ; Muzatfer-ed-din, 1860-85.
Area about 92,000 square miles, population about 2,500,000. Chief towns
—Bokhara, 100,000 ; Karshi, 25,000 ; Khuzar, Shahr-i-Sabz, Hissar, 10,000 :
l liarjui, Karakul, Kermine.
The religion is Mahomedau.
The Ameer has 20,000 troops, of which 4,000 are quartered in the city. A
proportion of the troops are armed with Russian rifles and have been taught
the Russian drill.
Bokhara produces corn, fruit, silk, tobacco, and hemp ; and breeds goats,
sheep, horses, and camels. The yearly produce of cotton is said to lie al>out
32,000 tons, of silk 967 tons. Gold, salt, alum, and sulphur are the chief
minerals found in the country.
The following figures show the trade of Bokhara in 1887 : —
Imports. — From Russia, 10,600,000 roubles ; from Persia, 5,475,000
roubles ; from Afghanistan and India, 600,000 roubles ; total imports,
16,675,000 roubles.
Exports.— To Russia, 12,500,000 roubles ; to Persia 2,120,000 ; to
Afghanistan and India, 420,000 roubles ; total exports, 15,040,000 roubles.
In 1889 the exports, Russian and native, from Bokhara to Afghanistan,
said to have risen to 3,173,230 roubles ; the imports (largely Anglo-Indian)
m Afghanistan to Bokhara to 4,884,270 roubles. These figur- ■-
rblished by the Xovoe Vrcmya, but appear to be open to suspicion.
The yearly imports of green tea, mostly from India, are said to amount to
,125 tons. The imports from India also include indigo, Dacca muslins, drugs,
' iwls, and kincobs. Bokhara exports raw silk to India, the quantity
Jorted in one year being estimated at 34 tons. The exports of cotton in
|B were 122,000 bales. By the treaty of 1873 all merchandise l^elonging
Russian traders, whether imported or exported, pays a duty of 2£ per cent.
1 valorem. No other tax or import duty can be levied on Russian goods,
012 RUSSIA: — DEPENDENCIES IN ASIA
which .are .also exempt from all transit duty. The Ameer lias forbidden the
import of spirituous liquors except for the use of the Russian Embassy.
The Russian Trans-Caspian Railway now runs through Bokhara from
Charjui, on theOxus, to a station within a few miles of the capital, and thence
to Samarkand ; the distance from Charjui to the Russian frontier station of
Katti Kurghan being about 186 miles.
There is a telegraph line from Samarkand to Bokhara, the capital.
Russian paper roubles are current everywhere. The Bokhara silver tonga
is valued at 5d.
Russian Political Resident, .M. Lessar.
BooKS OF REFERENCE CONCERNING BOKHARA.
Bume.s (Sir Alexander), Travels into Bokhara. 1889.
Vambery, History of Bokhara. London, 1S73.
Curzon (Hon. G.), Russia in Central Asia. 1889.
Le Meuurier (Col. A.), From London to Bokhara, 1SS9.
KHIVA.
A Russian vassal State in Central Asia, lying between N. latitude 43° 40'
and 41°, and E. longitude 58° and 61° 50'. Extreme length 200 miles : ex-
treme breadth 140 miles ; bounded on the north by the Aral Sea, on the fast
by the river Oxus, on the south and west by the Russian Trans-Caspian
province.
Syed Mahomed Rahim Khan succeeded his fatber in 18tif> as reigning
sovereign ; born about 1845.
Russian relations with the Khanate of Khiva — an Usbeg State, founded,
like that of Bokhara, on the ruins of Tamurlane's Central Asian Empire —
date from the beginning of the 18th century, when, according to Russian
writers, the Khivan Khans first acknowledged the Czar's supremacy. In 1872,
on the pretext that the Khivans had aided the rebellious Kirghiz, an expedi-
tion advanced to the capital, bombarded the fortifications, and compelled rbe
Khan to sign a treaty which puts the Khanate under Russian control. A war
indemnity of about 274,000Z. was also exacted. This heavy obligation, still
being liquidated by yearly instalments, has frequently involved the Khan in
disputes with his subjects, and Russian troops have more than once crossed the
frontier to afford him aid and support.
The Khans of Khiva have been Mohamed Rahim Khan, 1806-25 : Alia
Kali Khan, 1825-42 ; Rahim Kuli Khan, 1842-45 ; Mohamed Arnin Khan.
1845-55 ; Abdulla Khan, 1855-56 ; Kutlugh Murad Khan, 1856 ; Seyld Mo-
bamed Khan, 1856-65 ; Seyid Mohamed Rahim Khan, 1865.
Area, 22,320 square miles : population estimated at 700,000, Including
400,000 nomad Turcomans. Chief towns — Khiva, 4,000 5,000 ; \c\\ (Jrgenj,
3,000 ; Hazar Asp, and Kungrad.
The religion is Mahomedan.
The annual production of silk is said to be about IS bona ; of Cotton, about
8,064 tons. .
The exports of cotton in 1888 yvere 57,000 bales.
Hooks of Reference concerning Khiva.
Narrative of a Journey from Herat to Khiva, by Cant, J. Abbott. London. ]SS4.
A Hide to Khiva, l>v Colonel llunuihy. London. 1S84.
The Shores of the Lake Aral, by Major Herbert Wood. London. 1876.
Beehi* {¥..), V ouvclic geographie timvenene. L'Aife RuWk 1881.
913
Statistical aud other Books of Reference concerning Russia.
1. Out IAI. PUBUCATIOlt*.
Russian.
Annual (Vamyalnaijii Knij u of the Miuism of the Navy for In.
A— 1» (rrtmmmPt) of the Central Statistical Committee.
OoDectton of Materials (Stemtt flatdWIf) f» Burii for 1887 and 1888, published by the
unral Statistical Committ- - -Imn;, 1890.
, Rnlatlni to AgjIlllllllH Published by the Department of Agricul-
1861.
o the Empire of Russia. Published by the Statistical I>
:i- lit of the Mini.-trv of the Int.,:. •, rsburg, 1888-80.
Movement of Population in 18S on Land in .osinlSSC;
Movement of Population in 18H ; Crops of lsS'.t compared to tfaOM of l*8:i-87 ; *c.
-tics of the Landed Pro)>erty and Inhabited Places of the Russian Empire, with
Published by the .Statistical Department. St. Pi
h of the Exterior Trade (Obzor vnyeshnei Torgorli) for 1889, published by the
of Finances. St. Petersburg, 1891.
Kxterior Trade on the European Frontier in 1S(<0, published by the Ministryof Finances.
■ft. Petersburg, 1891.
• ical Annual (1 re mennik) of Cat:.
Statistical Mati rials published by the Provincial Statistical Commit;
Yearly Report of the Caucasus Administration ilout the Schools in 198ft Tiflis, |
Official mtmtugn, periodical publisheii by the Ministry of Interior. .
Vyestnik Finansof. ]>eriodical pnblished by the Ministry of Finu:
Sbornik of Materials for the Description of Caucasus and its Inhabitants. Tiflis; 8th
ML, published in 1889.
Kaufmann (Dr.). Financial Statistics of Russia for 1S0J-S4, published by the Central
il Committee. St. Petersburg,
.ctual Income and Expenditure for 1880-89, in Off. Messenger and Vytstnik Finansof
Statistical Reports (Sbornik) of the Ministry of Ways ami Communications, vol. xxv. to
(Transport of Goods on Railways and Canals in 1889.) St. Petersburg.
[With maps.)
The Russian River Steamers in Ht
Report! of the Medical Department for 1889. St. Petersburg, 1891.
>tical Inform it ion for the Years 1SSJ and ISSti, published bv the Minister of J
St. Petersburg,
ort of the Prison Administration. St. Petersburg. II
A. Haspuanand Huron Solcken. Law (Pologenie) of the Xew Organisation of Peasants'
Tribunals in the Baltic Provinces, with a Summary of Motives. Published by Minister of
St. Petersburg. 8. -J vols.
Report of the Chief Procureur of the Holy Synod for 1SS9, in Official Messenger for ls'.'l.
ph statistics for is**. St. Petersburg, 1890.
Report of the Finances of the Zemstcos for Is71-s0. St." Petersburg. I
The >aiue foi --. Petersburg. 188.5.
The same for 1SS0-S7. St. PcttsUlUg, 1890.
Annual of the Zemstros for 1S88 (Zemskiy EjegoJnik^. St. Petersburg, 1890.
Short Report on Telegraph Statistics for 1888. St. Petersburg.
Institutions of the Navy (Sroibmorskikh Postanotleniy), 18 volumes. St. Petersburg, 1SS8.
ry of the Ministry of Domains for the Fifty Years of its Existence. St. Petersburg,
Krivenko. Short Description of the Governmental Institutions of Russia. 2nd edit. St.
■burg, 1889.
Materials (Scod Materialov) relative to the Economical Conditions of the Pt
nscauca.sia. 5 vols. Tiflis, 1886-91.
Materials (Materialy) relative to the Economical Conditions of the Peasants and
ligenes of West Siberia. :i vols. Tiflis, 1SS8-91.
Collections of Laws Sbornik uzakoneniy) issued on July 13, 1889, on the Peasai
tions and Justices of the Peace. Edited bythe Ministry of Interior. St. Petersb
Russian Mining Industry in 1SS0, published by the Mining Department. St. Petersburg,
Memoirs and Bulletins of the Russian Geographical Society and its Branches in
ucasus and Siberia.
French. English, Sfc.
Ajiuuaire des finances russes : budget, credit, commerce, chemins defer. Par A. ■
lovsky. secretaire du eomitescicnt indue du mitiistere des finances, s. St. Petersburg, 189L
Tableau du commerce exterieur de la Russie de 1851 a 1878. Public par la comtuissiou
de l'exposition universelle de Viennc. S. St. Petersburg, 1881.
3 ■
014 EUSSIA
Statistik Arljok for Finland, utgifven af Statistiska Ceutralbyran. 188S-S9. Ilelsingfors,
1891.
Hertslet (Sir Edward), Foreign Office List. Published annually. London, 1892.
(irierson (Captain J. M.), Armed Strength of Eussia (with two maps). London, 1SSG.
Diplomatic and Consular Reports of the Foreign Office for 1890. London, 1891.
Trade of Russia with the United Kingdom ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the
United Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year 1S90.' Imp. 4
London, 1891.
S. Kontsbine, Apereu preliininaire de 1'industrie minerale en 1889. St. Petersburg.
1891.
2. Xo.v Official I'ujslratioxs.
liiir (K. B. von) and Helmerson (Gr. von), Beitriige zur Kenntniss des Russisohen Reichs.
25 vols. . 8. St. Petersburg, 1852-72.
Bernhardt (V. von), Geschichte Russlands. 2 vols. Leipzig, 187).
Bezobrazof, Etudes surreconomienationalede la Russieen 1877-79. St. Petersburg, 1884.
Brzeski, The Debts of the Russian Empire. St. Petersburg, 1884. (Russian.)
Caucasian Almanack (Kavkazskiy Kalendur) for 1890. Tims, 1889.
Collection of Materials relative to the Russian and American N aphtha Industry. Baku.
1890.
Das Russisehe Reich in Europa. Line Studie. Berlin, 188-1.
Diakonoff; Statistics of Blindness. Moscow, 1888. (Russian.)
Erdmann (Dr.), System des Privatrechts der Ostsceprovinzen. Bd. 1. Riga. 1889.
Erman (Georg Adolf), Archiv fiir die wissenschaftliche Kuiule Russlands! 26 vols. 8.
Berlin, 1S41-0S.
Goremydin, Laws relative to the Peasantry issued since 1869. SI. Petersburg
(Russian.)
Heyfeder (Dr. O.), Transkaspien und seine Eisenbahn. 1888.
Win (A.), Detailed Atlas of Russia, with plans of chief towns. St. Petersburg
(Russian.)
I»saeff(\. A.), Emigration and its Importance for the Economy of the Russian Nation.
St. Petersburg, 1891. (Russian.)
Jourdier (L.), Des forces productive^, destructives et improductives de la Russie. &
2nd cd. Leipzig, 1861.
Lansdell (IL), Russian Central Asia. London, 1885.
Leroy-Beaulieu (Anatole), L'einpire des Tsars et les Russes. 2 vols. Pari*. 1882.
M atthaei (Fr.), Die wirthschaftliehen Hiilfsi|uellen Russlands. 2 vols. Leipzig. 1887.
Pauly (J. N.), Description ethnogtaphique des peuplesde la Russia. 8. st. Petersburg,
1802.
. Jiaffa-ovich (Arthur), Les flnancea de la Bessie depuis la derniere guerre d'Orient,
1870-Sli Palis, ISS.'i. Also articles in the Journal des Ecoiwmiste*.
liambaud (Alfred), The History of Russia from its Origin to the year 1877. 2 vols.
London, 1S79.
Haventtein (E. G.), The Russians on the Amur: its Discover)', Conquest, and Colonisu
tion. 8. London, 1801.
ltechiK (Elisee). Geographic nniversclle. Tome V. L'EuTOpe Scandina\ e n Bus
revised to date In 1886. vL i/.\sie Rosse, I'aris. 1880-81. And Appendix to the Russia]
translation, by MM. Beketoff, Bogdanoff, Woeikoff, and others, Bt> Petersburg, 1!<M-
Be#d(Sil B. J.), Letters from Russia in 1876, 8. London, IsVil.
liottger (pari), Russisehe Revue. Monatsschrift fur die Kunde Russlands. 8. 81
Petersburg, 1872-89.
Botkotehny, Russland, Land and Leute. Leipzig, L866.
ROlkOMAMV. l>ie Wolga. Leipzig, 1887.
1 Russkiv Kaleudar,' published in September each year.
Narauw (Christian von), Die Russisehe lleevesinacht aid' Grand OflUiellcr Quellen urn
eigener Anschanung. s. Leipzig, 1876.
s,iiiiikiiI{S. P.), The Emancipation of Peasants, Vol. L st. Petersburg, 1889.
Scluiitzier (.lean Ib-nri), Lei institutions de la RlUUlle, di puis los ret'ormc :S de 1' Kmpeiei:
Alexandre IL 2 vols. 8, Paris, 1867.
Scliuyler (Eugene), Turkestan : Notes of a .lourticy in Russian Turkestan. KhokniH
Bukhara, and Kuldja. 2 vols. 8. London, 1876.
Sam n, if (P. I'.), Geographical and Statistical Dictionary Of the Russian Kmpiri
(Russian.)' 6 vols. s. SI. Petersburg. lsti:i-84.
siriuii>i>i'i.\.). The Intellectual Developmeni of the Russian People. (Russian.) s.
Petersburg, I
Slrelbitzky (M.), Superficies d. • 1'Eurojic. St. Petersburg,
■riniii, Industrie Central-Rnssland*.
WaUae* (Mackenzie), Russia. 2 vol*. 8. London. 1877.
Yaiisoii, Comparative Btatlstics. Vol. II. St. Petersburg, 1880. Researches Into tl
lllotmenl of Peasant*. Bt. Petersburg, 1882. (Russian.)
/ ii.i, in BUrnbtrg, Vine Culture in Crimea. St. Petersburg, 1888. (Russian.)
915
SALVADOR.
Ku'i'iti.n v DSL Salvador.)
Constitution and Government.
Thb Republic ot Salvador, an independent State since 1853, when it dissolved
lerstive union with Honduras an>l Nicaragua, i*> governed nominally
under a constitution proclaimed in March 1>64, and modified in February
1880, Deeciulier 1^*3, ami The Constitution vesta the
lative power in a Congress of 70 Deputies, 42 of shui ate propri
election La by suffrage ot all citizens of the Republic. I
chosen for one year. The executive i.-> in the hand-, of ;i President, whose
tenure of office la limited to tour ;> ■
President or' tic Republic — Qenenl Ca ted provisionally
September 11, 1890, to March 1, It
The regtdar election of the President has in recent years been constantly
•led by ' pronunciamientoa ' and military nominations.
The administrative affairs of the Republic are carried on, under tin-
President, by a ministry of four members, having charge of the departments
of the Exterior, Justice, and Religion : Wsrsnd Finance : Interior : and Public
Instruction.
The army numbers 4,000 men, with l.">,000 militia.
Ja,,
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic is estimated at 7,225 English square
ided into 14 depsrtments The population, according to a ea
uary 1, 1886, was 651,130 (318,329 males and 3.i2,801 females), giving
u average of 89 inhabitants to the square mile, King twenty times that of
the average of the other States of Central America. An official estimate for
the population 777,89.". Aboriginal and mixed ititute
the bulk of the ]>opulation, among whom live about 10,000 whites or de-
mts of Europeans. The capital is San Salvador, founded in 1528, with
inhabitants (1891). The city was repeatedly destroyed by earth-
feuakes and volcanic eruptions, the last time on April 16, 1S">4, when it
verwhelincd by almost total ruin, in consequence of which most of
the inhabitants erected new dwellings on a neighbouring site, at present
sailed Xueva San Salvador. The new capital again was partly destroyed
in ls73 hv a series of earthquakes and eruptions, and suffered again severely
Instruction and Justice.
Education is free and obligatory. In 1888 there were in Salvador 732
primary schools, with 27,000 pupils ; 18 higher school-- (indudrng 2 noimal
and 1 polytechnic school) with 1,293 pupils ; and a national university
with faculties c.t jurisprudence, medicine, natural sciences, and engineering,
attended l>y ISO students.
In the capital is a national library and museum, and in the Republic 13
newspapers are published.
Justice is administered by the Supreme Court of Ji
Buinate courts, and hv local justi
a n -i
916
SALVADOR
Finance.
The following are the official figures of the revenue and expenditure for
six years
Year Revenue
Expenditure
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
Dollars
1885 3,635,250
1886 4,480,307
■ 1887 : 2,959,775
Dollars
3,556,449
4,271,328
2,849,721
1888
1889
1890
Dollars
3,794,710
4,070,342
4,153,000
Dollars
2,889,092
4,033,157
5,442,000
The revenue is derived largely from customs and monopolies. Among the
items of expenditure for 1890 were: — Ministry of war, 2,753,000 dollars; oi
finance, 1,282,000 dollars ; of the interior, 407,000 dollars ; of public instruc-
tion, 384,000 dollars ; of public works, 372,000 dollars.
The internal debt is divided officially into three classes, and is stated to be
as follows :— 1st class, 1,332,022 dollars ; 2nd class, 1,834,064 dollars : 3rd
class, 2,222,673 dollars: total, 5,388,759 dollars. The external debt is
estimated at 300,000?.
Industries.
The native population of Salvador, more inclined to civilised pursuits than
that of any neighbouring State, is largely engaged in agriculture. The
principal articles of agricultural produce are indigo, coffee, sugar, and balsam,
and the mineral wealth of the Republic includes gold, silver, copper, iron,
mercury. The mines and quarries in operation number 180.
Commerce.
The imports and exports have been as follows for three years : —
-
. 1888
1889
1890
Imports
Exports
Dollars
4,081,547
6,707,024
Dollars
2,886,050
5,673,786
Dollars
2,401,000
7,579,000
To the imports in 1889 Great Britain contributed 957,359 doll
United States, 219,206 dollars; France, 312,295 dollars; Germany, :>l.'S,<;."»(
dollars. Of the exports, 940,154 dollars went to Greal Britain; 268,734
dollars to the United States ; 1,027,980 dollars to Germany : 1,158,806 dollar
to France. The principal imports in 1889 were cotton goods, PS2,50(
dollars. The principal exports in ISV.i wen-: Colin', •"•,808,410 dollars
indigo, 1,347,108 dollars.
The statistics of the commercial intercourse of Salvador with t lie Unite*
Kingdom arc not given in the 'Annual Statement of the Hoard of Trade,' ii
which the trade of the Republic is thrown together with that of the States a
Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, under the general designs
tion of 'Central America.'
Shipping- and Communications.
In 1890, 402 vessels entered the ports of the Republic, and u man
cleared.
A railway connects the port of Acapnia with the inland towns of Baal
Anna and Ateos 58 miles, and is nearly completed to San Tecla. There ai
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE D17
ever 2,000 miles of good road in the Republic 8alYador joined the
union in 1 S7i-». In 1888 there were 4S principal receiving offices. In
. printed papers, and otbei matter were transmitted. In 1890
were in Salvador 105 telegraph stations and a network <d' l.f>2-2 mUes of
•ire. There are 2 10 miles of telephone wire.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Salvador, and the British equhra-
ire —
M.'NK.Y.
The Dollar, of 100 centavas, approximate value 4*., real exchange value
90), 6 J dollars =1/.
The moneys of England, Frame. Spain, the United States, and < fentra]
and South America circulate freely in Salvador.
Wrights and II tai
The Libra = 1014 lb. avoinlujwis.
„ Quintal = 10140 lbs.
,, Arroba = S
,, Fatuga . . . . . e 1| imj>erial bushel.
In 1885 the metrical system of weights and sraa introduced.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Ok Sw.VAr»n: in Gkbat Britain.
lit ConnU-Oeneral. L. Alexander CampbelX
2. Of Orf.at Britain in Sai.yai>oi:.
Ifinisti r and Consvi-OtneraL — Audley <-. Gosling.
/.—John Moffat (San Salvador)."
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Salvador.
1. Official PtTBUCATTOKB.
Constitution politica de la Repiiblica del Salvador deeretada jior el Congreso National
Constituyente el 4 de Diciembre de 1883.
Diario Olicial, 1886. August 17, has a new Constitution.
Memoriu de Hacienda, Guerra y Marina. San Salvador, 1S91.
Report by Consul Motfat on Salvador for lSsfi, in No. 749 of ' Diplomatic and Consular
Reports." London, 1890.
Report on the Trade of Salvador, in ' Deutsehes Handels-Archiv,' Septemlxr, 18S9.
2. Xox-OffICIAL Pi'BLIC'ATION-.
Frohel (Julius). Aus America. •! vols. 8. Leipzig, 1857-58.
Gonzalez (Dr. D.), Geografia de Centro-America. San Salvador, 1878.
Guzman (D.), Apuntamieutos sobre la topografia fisica de la rep. del Salvador. San
Salvadoi
Laferriere (J.). De Paris a Guatemala. 8. Paris, 1877.
ilarr (Wilhelm), Reise nach Central-America. -2 vols. 8. Hnmhwg, 1863.
• Morrlot (L.), Voyage dans l'Ainerique centrale. -2 vols. 8. Paris. I -
Reyes (Rafael). Nociones de historia del Salvador. San Salvador, 1886.
■ rzrr (Karl Ritter von), Wanderungen durch die luittelamrrikanischen FTeistaateu
Nicaragua. Honduras und Salvador. 8. Braunschweig, 1857.
Squi-.-r (E. G.), Tlie States of Central America. 8. London, 1868.
918
SAMOA.
Reigning Kirtg. — Malietoa Laupepa, restored November 9, 1889.
Group of 14 volcanic islands in the South Pacific, the chief of which arc
Upolu, Savaii, and Tutuila. At a Samoan conference at Berlin in 1889, at
which Great Britain, Germany, and the United States were represented, an
Act was signed (June 14), guaranteeing the neutrality of the islands, in which
the citizens of the three signatory Powers have equal rights of residence,
trade, and personal protection. The three Powers recognise the independence
of the Samoan Government, and the free rights of the natives to elect their
chief or king, and choose the form of government according to their own laws
and customs. A supreme court is established, consisting of one judge, who
shall be styled Chief Justice of Samoa. Mr. Conrad Cederkrantz (late assistant
judge at Stockholm) has been appointed by the King of Sweden ;md Norway
as provided by the Treaty. To this Court shall be referred (1) all civil suits
concerning real property situated in Samoa, and all rights affecting the same ;
(2) all civil suits of any kind between natives and foreigners, or between
foreigners of different nationalities ; (3) all crimes and offences committed by
natives against foreigners, or committed by such foreigners as are not subject
to any consular jurisdiction.
All future alienation of lands is prohibited, with certain Specified ex-
ceptions. A local administration is provided for the municipal district of Apia.
Apia in the island of Upolu is the capital and centre of government.
Area, 1,701 square miles ; population, about .')6,000, of which 16,600 in
Upolu, 12,500 in Savaii, 3,750 in Tutuila. The natives are Polynesians, and
l here, are about 300 whites. The natives are all Christians (Protestant and
Roman Catholics), and schools are attached to the churches. The trade is
in the hands of German and British firms, and British trade is increasing,
[mports, 1883, 93,607/. ; exports, 52,0741 ; imports, 1887, 87,000?. ; exports,
71,340/. ; imports, 1890 (only collected May 15 to December 31), 43,626/. (of
which 25,799/. were British) ; exports, 20,509. Chief imports, haberdashery,
trinkets, lumber, galvanised roofing, and tinned provisions ; chief exports,
copra, cotton, and coffee. In 1888 371 vessels (228 German) entered the port
of Apia, in 1890 61 (33 British) excluding men-of-war and coasting vessels.
British Consul. — T. B. Cusack-Smith, Deputy Commissioner for the
Western Pacific
The Berlin Treaty made the American coinage the standard of exchange in
Samoa. Chilian dollars arc almost exclusively in circulation, 7 Chilian dollars
being tbe equivalent of 1/.
Hernial- communication is maintained every twenty-eight days b\ the
North German Lloyd steamer ZMbeck, from Sydney, Australia, vid Tonga :
the Union Company of New Zealand's steameT Wainui, from Auckland, N.X..
rii'i Tonga, and the same company's through mail steamers from San Francisco
to Auckland, whieli now call at Apia, Letters rid San Francisco and New
York reach England in about twenty -eight days ox rid Australia in about si\t\
days. Messrs. Donald and Kdenborough's steamer Richmond calls over) SIX
weeks rid Tonga.
Books oi Kstbrbnoe.
Cliiirrhirnril (W . I'..). M y ( 'misulal C in Samoa.
FYiiiay'* South L'aciflc Dictionary.
Mtineekt, l>ic Inseln dea Btlllon Oceana,
Papi is .in Samoa, published by (lie United states Foreign I
Report of the Berlin Conference relating to Samoa. London, 1800.
Turner (Rev. G.), Nineteen If ears In Polynesia, 1801— Samoa, London
Wallace (A. K.), Australasia.
U'illiamt (Rev, J.), Hisslonary Enterprise In the South Sea Islands,
010
SANTO DOMINGO.
(Rrpi}blica DoimncAi
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Suito Domingo, bonded in 1844, is governed under a Con-
stitution bearing date November 18, 1844, re-proclaimed , with changes,
November 14, 186.'. (after a revolution which expelled the troopi af Spain,
who held possession of the rountry for the two previoius years), and again in
1879, 1880, 1881, and 1887. By the karma of the < ! institution the legislative
power of the Republic is vested in a National Pnagrnai af IS deputies The
members are chosen by direct popular vote, with Miffrage, in the
ratio of two for each province and two for each district, for the term of two
years. But the powers of the National Congress only embrace the general
affairs of the Republic.
The executive of the Republic is vested in a President chosen by
universal suffrage for the term of four years. During the past few
according to the British Consular Reports, the country has been going on
prosperously, and become comparatively quiet.
President of the Republic. — General Ulisses Heurtaux, elected 1886.
The administrative affairs of the Republic are in charge of a ministry
appointed by the President. The Ministry M composed of the heads of the
departments of the Interior and Police, Finance ami Commerce, Justice and
Public Instruction, War and Marine, Public Works and Foreign Affairs.
!i province and district is administered by a governor appointed by
the President. The various communes, cantons, and sections are pi
over by prefects or magistrates appointed by the governors. The communes
have municipal corporations elected by the inhabitants.
Area and Population.
The area of Santo Domingo, which embraces the eastern jwrtioji of the
island of Haiti — the western division forming the Republic of Haiti — is
Estimated at 18,045 English square miles, with a population in 1888 officially
ited at 610,000 inhabitants, or about 34 to the square mile.
The Republic is divided into six provinces and five maritime districts.
The population, unlike that of the neighlxmring Haiti, is mainly composed of
a mixed race of the original Spanish inhabitants and the aborigin
mulatto < and of negroes, the latter l>eing less in number ; the whites, or
European-descended inhabitants, are comparatively numerous, and owing to
their influence the Spanish language prevails, though in the towns both
Fien.-h and English are spoken. The capital of the Republic is the city of
Santo Domingo, founded 1494, at the mouth of the river Ozama, with 25*000
inhabitants according to official statement ; Puerto Plata, the chief port,
has 15,000 inhabitants.
020 SANTO DOMIXCO
Religion and Instruction.
The religion of the State is Roman Catholic, other forms of religion being
permitted under certain restrictions. There are 54 parishes.
Primary instruction is gratuitous and obligatory, being supported by the
communes and by central aid. The public or state schools arc primary,
superior, technical schools, normal schools, and a professional school with
the character of a university. On December 31, 1884, when the last school
census was taken, there were 201 municipal schools for primary instruction,
with 7,708 pupils. It is estimated that there are now 300 schools with about
10,000 pupils.
There are several literary societies in the capital and other towns ; and in
the Republic there are published about 40 newspapers.
Justice.
The chief judicial power resides in the Supreme Court of Justice, which
consists of a president and 4 justices chosen by Congress, and 1 (ministro fiscal)
appointed by the executive — all these appointments being only for the presi-
dential period. The territory of the Republic is divided into 11 judicial
districts, each having its own tribunal or court of first instance, and these
districts are subdivided into communes, each with a local justice (alcalde^, a
secretary and bailiff (alguacil).
Finance.
The revenue is mainly derived from customs duties. The estimated
revenue for 1889 was 1,531,284 dollars, and expenditure 1,408,543 dollars.
The debt of the Republic was officially stated to consist of an internal debt,
returned (January 1889) at 1,282,592 dollars ; a 'public debt,' also internal,
amounting at the same date to 1,648,423 dollars ; and an international debj
of 234,250 dollars ; a foreign debt contracted at tho London Stock Exchange
in 1869. The foreign debt in 1891 amounted, according to the official state-
ment of the Council of Foreign Bondholders, to 714,300/., with unpaid interest
amounting to 680,000/. A new loan of 770,000/. has been contracted, where-
with to pay oh* all outstanding debts, at a percentage of the value, leaving a
balance of 475,000/. for the general purposes of the Government.
Defence.
There is a small army of infantry, cavalry, and artillery, a regiment being
stationed in the capital j>f each province. There are also reserve corps, and
universal liability to serve in case of foreign war.
Production and Industry.
The total area, including adjacent islands, being estimated at aboul
60,000 square kilometres, the cultivable area is ahout ."'0.000 square kilo-
metres. The Legislature, July 8, 1876, decided that subject to certain
obligations, private citizens might receive grants of unoccupied state land for
agricultural purposes : and more recently similar inducements have been
offered in favour of immigration. The chief agricultural produce is tobacco,
coffee, cocoa, cotton, the sugarcane: and the principal industries arc con-
nected with agriculture and forestry. barge sugar plantations and factories
are (1886) in full work in the south and west of the Republic
POM MERC E — SHIPPING and COMMUNICATIONS 921
Commerce.
The commerce of the Republic is small, owing in pari to customs duties
of a prohibitory character. The principal articles of export are lignum vitas,
logwood, mahogany, coffee, fustic, sugar, tobacco, and
From Puerto Plata in 1890 the chief export* were :- -Tobacco (to Germany),
1.714,704 ll.s.. value $68,296 dollar-: bo Bumps sad New York),
I 896,216 lba, ralue 179,216 doUars; mahogany, S41,625 feet, value 120,671
dollars ; cacao, 255,251 lbs., value 51,050 dollars; hides ami skins, value
[ 38,985 dollars ; logwood, 718 tons, value 7,180 dollars : sugar (to New York).
I 895.540 lbs., value 26,866 dollars.
The imports at Puerto Plata in 18S9 Ware to the value of: — From Great
Britain, 325,561 dollars (chiefly cotton goods and iron ware) : from the
United States, 269,639 dollars Hour, cotton goods, iron wares, lard) : from
France, 172,839 dollars (fancy goods, shoes, drugs); from Germany, 9-'bl7<'>
dollars (rice, beer, match
The exports from the town of Santo Domingo in 1S90 were valued at
189,809/., and imports 230,990/., exclusive of machinery admitted dutyfree.
In the ' Annual Statement of the Board <>f Trade,' the exports to ami
imports from Great Britain are added to those of Haiti.
Shipping and Commnnications.
In 1S90 1S1 vessels, of 97,250 tons (33, of 12,492 tons, British), entered,
and the same number and tonnage cleared, the j>ort of Santo Domingo. In
1890 148 vessels, of 125,390 tons, entered and cleared at the port of Puerto
Plata.
The interior is officially stated to be well supplied with roads. A railway
dieted between Samana and La Vega (72 miles), and is being carried on
to Santiago, and another line is contemplated between Barahona and the salt
mountain of 'Cerro de Sal.'
The Republic entered the Postal Union in 1880. In 1889 there were in
the Republic, besides the General Post Office, 12 central and 46 subordinate
post offices. In 18S9 the inland letters, printed packets, &c., numbered
204,546 ; and the international 182,015. The total number transmitted in
1888 was 275,312 ; in 1887, 186,824.
The telegraph, in the hands of the Antilles Telegraphic Company, is in
operation between Santo Domingo and Puerto Plata, with intermediate
stations, the total length being 229 miles. Several other inland lines are in
project. The foreign telegraphic system in operation is that of the French
Submarine Telegraphic Company.
Telephonic communication is earned on at Puerto Plata, Santiago, and
Santo Domingo.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The metrical system is coming into use.
The money in use is mainly that of Spain, the United States, Mexico,
and France.
Quintal = 4 arrol >es — 1 00 lbs. (of 1 6 oz. ) = 46 kilograms.
For liquids the arrobe=32 < uaitilles = 25"498 litres =4*110 gallons.
022 SAXTO DOMING O
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Santo Domingo in Great Britain.
Consul-General. — Miguel Ventura ; appointed July 20, 1876.
2. Of Great Britain in Santo Domingo.
Consul. — David Coen ; appointed 1874.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Santo
Domingo.
1. Official Publications.
La Republique Dominicaine. Par Francisco Alvarez Leal. Paris, 18SS.
Reports on the Trade of Puerto Plata, In No. 729 of ' Diplomatic and Consular Reports,'
1889.
Trade of Haiti and San Domingo with Great Britain, in ' Annual Statement of the Trade
of the United Kingdom for the year 1890.' Imp. 4. London, 1801.
Report on Trade of Puerto Plata in ' Deutsches Handels Archiv ' for July, 1891. Berlin.
Report for 1S90 on the Trade of Santo Domingo, in No. 928 of ' Diplomatic and Consular
Reports.' London, 1891.
2. Non-Official PUBLICATIONS.
Hazard (Samuel), Santo Domingo, Past and Present; with a Glance at Haiti. 8, pp.
511. London, 1878.
Jordan (Wilhelm), Geschichte der Insel Haiti. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 1849.
Keim (D. B. Randolph), Santo Domingo. Pen Pictures and Leaves of Travel. 12.
Philadelphia, 1871.
Monte y Tejada (Antonio), Historia de Santo Domingo, desde su desculirimiento hast a
nuestros dias. Tomo I. (all published). 8. Habana, L868.
Abad (Jose Ramon), La Republics Dominicans, resena general geografico-estadistira. S.
Santo Domingo, 1889.
Meri no (Padre), Mementos de geografia fisiea, polities e historic* de la Republl
minicana. Santo Domingo, 1889.
Garcia (Jose Gabriel), Compendio de la historia de Santo Domingo, eserilo para el nao de
las escuelas de la Republics Doiniuicaua. Santo Domingo. 1879.
:'i':;
SERVIA.
I Km kul \ wvo Srbiya.)
Reigning Sovereign and Family.
Alexander I.. King of Servia, born August 14 (new rtj
son of Milan I., Kii g F 8ei eia, born August 22, 1854,
tin- son of Milos Obrenovic. grandson of Jefrem. half-broth.
Flint*' Milos. King Milan succeeded to the throne as Prince
Milan Obrenovic TV., confirmed by the election of the Servian
Rational Assembly, after t! nation of his uncle, Prince
Michail Obrenovic III.. June 20. 1868. Crowned Prince at
ide, and assumed the government. August 22, 1>72: pee-
blaimed King March 6, 1882; married October 17, 1875, to
Natalie, born 1859, daughter of Colonel Keeehko, of the Rnasian
Imperial Guard; divorced October 24,1888. King Milan alv-
dicated March 6, 1889, and proclaimed his son Alexander King
If Servia, under a regencv until he attains his majority (18
The present rider of Servia is the fifth of his dynasty, which
Iras founded by Milos Todorovic Obrenovic, leader of the B
vians in the war of insurrection to throw off the yoke of Turkey,
which had lasted since 1459. The war lasted from 1815 to
when the Turkish Government was compelled to grant virtual
independence to Servia. By the terms of the treaty, signed
ml>er 14, 1820, Milos T. Obrenovic was acknowledged
Prince of Servia, and by a subsequent Firman of the Sultan.
lated August 15, 1830, the dignity was made hereditary in his
family.
The independence of Servia from Turkey was established by
article 34 of the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878, and was
inly proclaimed by Prince (afterwards King) Milan at his
capital, August 22, 1878. The King's civil list amounts to
.000 dinars, at present shared by the ex-King and the three
Regents.
Constitution and Government.
the Constitution votol by the Great National Affiembly Janna
B89 (December 22, 1888, old style), and signed by the King on" the 3rd, the
fcecutive power is vested in the King, assisted by a council of eight Ministers,
B&o are, individually and collectively, responsible to the nation. The legi<-
Hbve authority is exercised by the King, in conjunction with the National
Assembly, or ' Xarodna-Skupshtina.' The State Coun< il, or Senate, consi-t<
H^fi memliers, 8 nominateil l>y the King, n by the Assembly ; it
924
SERVIA
examines and elaborates the projects of laws, and authorises extraordinary
loans for the municipalities. This body is always silting. The ordinary
National Assembly is composed of deputies elected by the people, indirectly
and by ballot. Each county can elect one deputy to every 4,500 tax-paying
males, but should the surplus be over 3,000, this number is also entitled to a
deputy. The voting is by scrutin de liste. Each county must be represented
by at least two deputies holding University degrees, and are called the qualified
deputies. Every male Servian 21 years of age, paying 15 dinars in direct
taxes, is entitled to vote ; and every Servian of 30 years, paying 30 dinars in
direct taxes, is eligible to the ordinary National Assembly. The ordinary
Assembly meets each year on November 1 , and elections take place every third
year on September 14. There is also a Great National Assembly, which meets
when it is necessary. The number of its representatives is double the number
fixed for the ordinary Skupshtina, and the restriction as to University degrees
does not apply. The deputies receive travelling expenses and a salary.
Personal liberty, liberty of the press and conscience are guaranteed.
Counties, districts, and municipalities have their own administrative
assemblies. For administrative purposes, according to the new Constitution,
Servia is divided into 15 provinces or counties, 1,270 communes, which
include 3,172 villages and 71 towns or cities.
Area and Population.
The area of the Kingdom of Servia amounts to 18,855 square miles. From
the administrative point of view Servia is divided into 15 provinces, the
capital, Belgrade, and Nisch city, which have their own administration.
The following table shows the area and population of the provinces accord-
ing to the census taken on the 1st January, 1891 : —
Population
Okrug
(Province)
Belgrade CSty
Area in
sq. in.
Total
POP. lH'l
Sl|. III.
Male
1'YllKlle
4
32,008
22,460
64,466
18,61 1
Valjcvo
1,121
58,864
66,559
114|,428
101
Vranja
1,620
76,711
71,757
148,468
:m
Kragouyevatz
927
71,409
68,756
140,165
158
Kraina
1,257
46,952
44,963
91,915
7::
Krouchevatz
1,256
76,737
72,952
149,689
120
Pirot .
1,214
61,493
59,260
120,753
99
I'odrinjc
1,300
90,229
87,425
177,654
l:Sti
Pozarevatz
1,404
105,156
100,463
205,619
146
Poudnik
2,056
77,427
74,439
151,866
7:!
Toplitza
1,400
62,882
58,384
121,266
86
Ouzitze
1,676
68,925
68,778
137,703
82
Tzrnarcka
555
35,668
34,015
<;<>, tis:i
126
Morava
1,200
81,927
77, '.'77
159,904
1 :;:;
I'odunavljc (Danube)
1,246
105,596
100,912
206,508
1 65
Timok .
810
47,211
15,604
92,715
111
Nisch City .
Total .
4
11,536
8,434
19,970
l.'.c.W
19,050
l,110,7::i
l.ii.-. -',028
2,162,759
111
Of the tola] population 1.V52 inhabited lowiis and M'.'IN lived in the
country. In 1884, 5774 per cent, of the males and 62'02 per cent, of the
Al:l A AND POPULATION— RELIGION
!»^.")
females were uuuianii r cent, males aud 40 46 per cent, females
married ; 8*38 per tent, males and 7 '52 pet cent, females widowed and
divorced. As to occupation, 26 30 per cent, of the town population and
97 "20 per cent, of tin- country population are dependent on agriculture.
Of the total population 16 81 per cut. is eagaged in trade : 10 32 per cent,
in occupations connected with food : 16*29 j>er cent, connected with clothing :
1 1 -20 pet ''Ht. connected with moulding of iron and metal work : 1
cent, teachers and clergy ; 8*18 percent officials. As to race, in 188-1
were 1,693,373 Servians (who, according to language, are Slavonic by race),
_7 Roumanians, 34,066 Gipsies, 2,961 Armenians and Turks, '.127
6,749 Bulgarians, 10,733 other foreigi.
The principal towns are the capital, Belgrade, 54,458 inhabitants : Nis.li.
19,970; Leskovatz, 12,146; Pozarevatz, 11,140; Pirot, 10,108: Smederevo,
: Ouzitze, 6,664; Parachin, f>,4S8 ; Kronrhevatz, 6,730: Alexinatz,
5,742 (1891).
Mu\KMK\"T OF THK PorUI.ATIuN.
War
Total liv-
ing Births
Illegiti-
mate living
Stillborn
Hnrtagi ■
Deaths
Surplus
1885
90,627
1,338
17,107
38,314 1
, 1886
83,091
844
1,409
I 1887
93,911
900
1,360
50,481
43,430
| 1888
94,865
933
50,700
1889
93,724
988
1,315
54,093
39,631
1890
87,018
916
1,312
32,295
There are no trustworthy gtatktica of emigration and immigration.
Religion.
The State religion of Servia is Greek-orthodox. According to the o
of 1884 there were of the total population: — Greek-orthodox, 1,874,174:
Catholics, S,092 ; Protestants, 741 ; Jews, 4,160 ; Mohammedans, 14,569.
To the last belong, beside* the Amauts and Turks, almost all the gipsies.
The Church is governed by the Synod of Bishops, all the ecclesiastical
officials being under the control of the Minister of Education and 1*111 die
[Worship. There is unrestricted liberty of conscience.
Instruction.
Elementary' education is compulsory and gratuitous.
The following table gives the educational statistics for 1888-89 : —
Institutions
No.
Teaching SUIT
Students or Pupils
Universitv
1
31
292
Militarv academv
1
38
774
Theological school .
1
11
167
Xoi nial schools
2
828
• hi Is' high school .
1
33
546
'ivinnasia
22
)
Technical schools
4
Commercial ,,
1
316
Agricultural ,,
1
)
Elementary „
668
1,194
52,358
926 SERVIA
The University has faculties of jurisprudence, philosophy, and technical
science. Of the pupils at elementary schools 7,788 were girls.
In 1874 only 4 per cent, of the population could read ami write : in 1881
it was found that 10 per cent, of the population could read ami write.
All the schools in Servia are supported entirely by the State, except the
elementary ones, for which municipalities are obliged to maintain the building
and the teacher, and supply necessary books, &c. In 1887 the State spent
2,373,187 dinars on all the schools.
There is in Belgrade a national library and museum. There were 10
newspapers (political and otherwise) in 1888. About 25S books were published
in 1888.
Justice and Crime.
The judges are appointed by the king, but according to the Constitution
cannot be removed against their will. There are 22 courts of first instance in
Servia, a court of appeal, a court of cassation, and a tribunal of commerce.
In all the courts of first instance there were in 1888 10,845 civil cases : there
were in the same year 4,218 criminal cases with 7,016 criminals. Of these
2,872 were condemned ; 896 to imprisonment for serious crimes ; 2,512 were
lined ; 1,662 were in prison at the end of the year.
Pauperism.
There is no pauperism in Servia in the sense in which it is understood in
the West ; the poorest have some sort of freehold property. There are a few
poor people in Belgrade, but neither their property nor their number has
necessitated an institution like a workhouse. There is a free town hospital.
Finance.
In 1884- >s;s the State revenue and expenditure were as follows:
Fear
Dinar*
Elevenus
Expenditure
1 88 I
1885
1886
1887
1888
35,-770,9914
17,34 1,686
88,615,81 i
t6, 591,73d
38,512,855
38,727,270
11,720,483
61,061,72*;
18,086,828
38,561.1".
The Stale derives the largest revenue from direci taxation which is iinposi i
on land and income;
The budgets for each of the years 1889 and 1890 estimated the reveini
and expenditure al 6,196,864 dinars.
The Following is the budget estimate far 1891 i —
FINANCE — DPI! V 1
927
HOC
Dinars
iiturv
Dinars
'in.s .
Octroi (city-toll
Law courts
tobacco mono-
poly .
State salt monopoly
printing house
and manufactory of
gunpowder .
railway .
Posts and b l< graphs
State property .
ml other
State prodnce
State mortgage trust
An ears and sale of
State properly
New taxation .
Unforeseen revenue .
Total
21,214,246
3,600,000
1,100,000
'.'77,500
0,000
j 7,000,000
2,900,000
210,000
•0,000
1.220,000
1,950,000
10,000
931
."0,000
1,600,000
1,87!
Civil list .
Interest and annuities
on public debt
, Dotal:
National Assembly,
.
< leneral ' Iredit .
Pen-i
Ministry of Justice .
Foreign Af
Flnam e ,
1,05'
Monujiulv toWco
2,997,000
.. salt 900,000
Ministry of War
' l'ul. lie Works
l,092.:;'.'l
Btete railwav .
3,110,150
Ministry of national
lomy
i Various
Total
1,200,000
'•0,880
0,000
; 17,910
1,998,806
1,88
1 ,183,313
'.Ml 3
1
'2,541
1
| *,«
j 3,077
ording to an official rejwrt the consolidated debt of Servia amounted
(January 1S91) to 330,510,734 dinars.
Defence.
There are fortresses at Belgrade, Seniendria, Xisch, Schaltatz. Kladovo,
Bela Palanka, and Pilot.
The King is ( .'ominaiider-in-i'hicf of the army. which in time of pes
under the entire control of the Minister of War. The whole army is divided
into three classes. The first, the standing army and its cording to
he reorganisation of 1886, consisting of men from 20 to 28 Mars of age : the
second class is composed <>f those who have served in the active army, from
28 to 37 years of age ; the third cJssb, bom -u to 60 years of age, only called
m under extraordinary necessity. The first class has ."> divisions. 1
the second, 5 divisions: the third, 60 battalions; and each of these has its
assigned district. Each division (called Moravska, Drinska, Dounavska.
" umadiska, and Timochka) of the first and second class has 3 regiments
of infantry, and each regiment consists of 4 battalions : consequently each
division consist* of 3 regiments of infantry = 12 battalions; 1 regiment of
cavalry = 12 squadrons ; 1 field artillery regiment — S batteries : 1 company
of jiioneers and poutooneers : 1 field ambulance company : 1 transport
Iron ; 1 regiment of fortress artillery : besides various social companies.
All males of 20 years, with few exceptions, are obliged to serve in these
■hisses. After two years' service in the active army they pass into the
■peserve of the first class. Reserves of the first class have 30 days' net nice
annually, and the second class fa railed up for 8 days annually. The standing
!>^«S SERVIA
cadre of the army consists of 15 battalions of infantry, 6 squadrons of cavalry,
30 field batteries, 3 mountain batteries, 1 fortress half-battalion, 1 pioneers
battalion, 1 pontooneers half-battalion, 5 sanitary companies, 5 transport
squadrons, and 1 pyrotechnic company. The battalions are in 5 regiments,
and every territorial division has thus 1 regiment. Every division has also
1 regiment of 4 field batteries. All the batteries have 6 guns each. The
strength of the standing cadre is about 18,000 men. On active footing the
cadre is augmented by its first-class reserve, and thus raised to a strength of
100,000 men. The strength of the second class is 55,000 men. The third
class has 12 battalions in each division, and has also a strength of about
55,000 men. This whole army of three classes, numbering together 210,000
men, is always in whole or in part on either a peace, an extraordinary, or a
war footing, and either class is available for active service as required for the
defence of the country when called on by the royal ukase in conformity with
the law. Officers 900. A gendarme force of about 800 strong has been dis-
tributed throughout the country since 1883. There are 110 batteries of 6 guns
each — 52 batteries (45 field and 7 mountain) being of the ' De Bange ' pattern.
These guns were made in France at the Caille factory. The infantry are armed
with the Koka-Mauser rifles, and the cavalry with carbines of the same pattern.
The Government possesses 130,000 of these rifles.
Production and Industry.
Serviais an agricultural country, and has almost no manufacturing industry.
There are no large estates in Servia ; every peasant cultivates his own freehold.
The holdings vary in size from 10 to 30 acres mostly.
According to a return of 1887, of the total area (over 12,000,000 acres"
6,125,931 acres were cornland and vineyards ; 1,456,132 woods and forests ;
902,627 fallow land ; 741,086 lands reserved for public roads and State forests,
the total occupied area being 10,566,488 acres. Of the area under cornland
and vineyards a large proportion is occupied by wheat and Indian corn, which
are the principal cereal exports. Oats, barley, and rye come next.
Vine-culture is important, but the wines are not well treated. Tbe
province of Kraina alone produces about 3,300,000 gallons a year, of which
about one-half is exported to France. Other eight provinces produce
2,640,000 gallons, part of which is exported. The remaining departments
produce only sufficient for home consumption. After Kraina tbe largest
wine-producing districts are Toplitza, Nktth, and Ylachotinza.
Large quantities of plums are grown and exported in a dried state. In
1888 25,000 tons were produced and 16,942 tons exported.
Large numbers of cattle, sheep, and pigs are reared and exported ; pigs
especially arc kept, in enormous numbers, feeding on tbe acorns which
cover the ground for many miles. Establishments for breeding and feed-
ing pigs have been erected at various places iii connect inn witbtbc line ol
railway.
Since Servia .obtained ber independence t be forests bavc been undergoing
rapid destruction. The national and communal forests are supervised by tin
administrative authorities.
Servia has considerable mineral resources, including various kinds of coaL
but almost entirely undeveloped ; besides coal there are iron, lead, quicksilver]
antimony, gold, asbestos, copper, and oil shales. Various concessions have
been made to private companies for working mines
Maiiulaetuiiiig industn is in its infancy. There Were 12 breweries at the
end of isss.
920
Commerce.
The following table shows the value of the imports and exports of Servia
for the five years : —
Year
Import*
Exports
1>:i.u:-n
1 >inars
51,694,436
40,7i-
1887
7^,955
:'.6. 130,038
33,183,879
^,100
34,843,436
39,065,883
1890
38,044,748
i,550
The following tal>le shows the value of the leading imports and u
1890 :—
•xports iu
Imports
l-.M.
K.vporta
1890
Dinars
Dinars
Metal goods
1 3,448,418
Fruit and agricultural
Woollens
j 2,714,740
produce .
18,460,100 ,
Cottons, kc. .
1 7,647,800
Animals ami their
Colonial goods
Leather, hides, &c. .
4,119,190
produce .
18,000,150 !
2,751,000
Food and drink .
2,249,880 !
Apparel .
Wooden goods
, 2,688,000
Skins, &e. .
3,527,800
! 2,425,000
Pottery, glass, &c. .
1 2,649,000
The following table shows the value of the trade with different countries
n 1888-89-90 in thousands of dinars : —
Austria
America
Belgium
Bosnia
Bulgaria
Greece
Great Britain
Italy
iny
Roumania .
Russia
Turkey
.
Switzerland
Total .
Imports from
Ex]M>rTs to
1888
1889
1890
1888
1S89
1890
23,747
22,745
33,445
34,377
89,898
1,187
1,080
1,622
241
107
30
214
206
211
—
—
—
48
112
70
219
270
454
127
321
1,192
659
548
807
52
59
50
—
—
—
3,495
3,742
1,888
81
159
210
461
469
367
24
i
20
1,476
1,955
2,868
1,140
782
811
976
1,542
977
150
278
^77
1,073
1,057
1,057
—
—
—
1,702
854
1,057
1,332
1,547
3,338
142
180
857
1,532
737
420
521
609
42
252
92
35,920
34,843
38,045
38,865
39,064
45,840 \
t o
930 SERVIA
Communications.
Servia has at present (1891) one principal railway line, Belgrade-Nisch-
Vranja, 230 miles in length, and several secondary branches ; Nisch-Pirot,
59 miles ; Smederevo-Velika Plana, 28 miles ; Lapovo-Kragonjevatz, 19 miles :
total 336 miles.
Of highways there are 3,495 miles. Of rivers only those bordering on
Servia are navigable, viz. Danube, 198 miles ; Save, 90 miles; and Drina,
106 miles. The navigation on the Danube and Save is in the hands of
several foreign steam companies. The State possesses only one steamer, which
is used exclusively for military purposes.
There were 1,830 miles of telegraph line and 3,080 miles of wire, with
119 stations, at the end of 1889. In 1889, 457,974 messages were trans-
mitted.
There were 96 post-offices in 1890. In 1889 there passed through the
Post Office 6,956,000 letters, 306,000 post-cards, 4,069,000 newspapers, samples,
&c, the total value of transmissions being 134,927,000 dinars. The Post
Office receipts in 1889 amounted to 1,208,034 dinars, and expenditure to
1,447,624 dinars.
Money and Credit.
Servia has a coinage of its own, minted according to the International
Coinage Convention of December 11 and 23, 1865. In circulation are gold
coins (milan d'or) of 10 and 20 dinars apiece ; silver coins of 5, 2, 1, and
0'5 dinar ; copper of 10, 5, and 1 para ; and nickel of 20, 10, and 5 paras. A
sum of 22,734,737 dinars has been minted up to the present (1889) and put
into circulation.
Public credit is assisted by various monetary establishments, of which there
are 37 altogether. The principal place is occupied by the first privileged
National Bank of the Kingdom of Servia in Belgrade, with a paid-up capita]
of 20,000,000 dinars. It is entitled to issue bank notes, of which there an
(1889) 28,597,840 dinars in circulation, with a metallic reserve of 4,596,000
dinars. Besides the National Bank there are 4 other bank establishments, 10
bank associations, and 22 savings-banks.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
Servia accepted, by the law of June 20, 1875, the French decimal system
for its moneys, weights, and measures. The Servian dinar is equal to one
franc ; the gold milan to French gold pieces of 20 francs ; there are also silver
coins of 5, 2, and 1 dinar, and 50 centimes (para), and copper ami nicke!
coins of 20, 10, and 5 centimes.
The decinal weights and measures (kilogram, rmetre, &c.) have I urn in
practical use only since the commencement of 1883 ; the old Turkish ami
Austrian weights and measures still lingering in districts at sonic distance frOfljj
Belgrade and. railway line.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Servia in Great Britain.
Envoy Extraordinary a,nd Minister Plmipotentiary. — M. Yephrem
Grouich ; appointed Septemher 28, 1886 (resident at Taris).
Chargi a Affaires in London. — M. Alex. Z. Yovichich.
Consul-Oencral in London. — H. W. Christmas.
There are Consular representative* of Servia in Manchester, and Melbourne.
Australia.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 931
2. Of Gbeat Britain in Sebvia.
Extraordinary and Minuter Plenipotentiary. — Frederick Robert
John, appointed February 1, 1888.
There is a British Vice-Consul at Nisch.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Servia.
1. Official Pubmcati-'
Almanac for 1891 (Servian).
I 'Vine (Official Gazette).
Drzavopis Srbtfe (Servian Statistics). Vols. I.— XVIII. Belgrade, 1863-90.
Report by Hon. Alan Johnstone on 8ervian Railways in Part I. of ' Reports from H.M.'s
Diplomatic and Consular Agents Abroad,' 1886; and the State of Servian Finances, in
Part IV. of - Reports from H.M.'s Secretaries of Embassy and Legation,' 1886.
Report by Mr. Vansittart on the Trade of Servia in So. 176 ' Diplomatic and Consular
Reports.' London, 1887.
Report by Mr. R. D. G. Macdonald on the Trade of Servia in 1887-88 in No. 554 of ' Diplo-
matic and Consular Reports.' London, 1889.
Report by the Belgian Minister to Servia, M. Emile de Borchgrave : Le Royanme de
Serbie. Bruxelles. 1883.
Millet (Rene), La Serbe economique et commerciale. Paris, 1889.
2. Non-Official Pcblicati'
Balm* (M.). La ].rincii*ute de Serbie. 8. Paris, 1880.
Boikoritc h (St.). La mission <le Serbie dans la question d'Orient Florence, 1887.
Courriire (C.), Histoire de la litterature contemporaine chez les Slaves. Paris, 1879.
Denton (William), Servia and the Servians. London, 1862.
Griere (W. T.), The Church and People of Servia. 8. London, 1S64.
Grtu (J. F.), Betrachtungen ttber das Fiirstenthuin Serbien. Wien, 1851.
Holland (Thomas Erskine), The European Concert on the Eastern Question. Oxford, 1885.
Jakehich (Vladimir), Recueil statistique sur les contrees serbes. 8. Belgrade, 1875.
K>mitz(F.). Serbien : Historische-ethnographische Reisestudien aus den Jahren 1859-68.
8. Leipzig. 1S6S.
Karit(V.), Srbija (a description of the country, people, and state, in Servian). Belgrade,
Lareleye (Emile de). The Balkan Peninsula, 2 vols. London, 1887.
Leger (Louis), Le monde slave. Paris, 1873.
Mackenzie (A. Mnir), Travels in the Slavonic Provinces of Turkey in Europe. 3rd edition.
n vols. London, 1887.
Mijatoritch (Elodie Lawton), The Historv of Modern Serbia. 8. London, 1872.
Milieherich (M. G ). The Principality of Servia. (In Servian.) Belgrade, 1876.
Milieherirh (M. G.). The Kingdom of Servia. (In Servian.) Belgrade, 1884.
Minckin (J. G. C), The Growth of Freedom in the Balkan Peninsula. London. 1886.
Otadghina (the Fatherland). Servian Monthly Periodical. Edited by Dr. Vladan
■h since 1875.
Paton (Andrew Archihald), Servia, the Youngest Member of the European FaTii:
London,
Ranke (LeopoldX The History of Servia and the Servian" Revolution. London. 1853,
translated by Mrs. Alex L. Kerr.
Reinaeh (J.). La Serbie et le Montenegro. Paris, 1876.
Taillandier (Saint-ReneX La Serbie au XIXe siecle. Pari>
Thiers (Henri), La Serbie : son passe et sou avenir. 8. Paris. 1862.
Yoranorieh (Vladimir). Les Serbes, tc. Paris, 1870.
3 ii 2
932
SIAM.
(Say am, or Muang-Thai.)
Reigning King.
Chulalongkorn I. (Somdetch Phra Paramindr Maha), bora September 21,
1853 ; the eldest son of the late King, Maha Mongkut, and of Queen Ramphii
(Krom Somdetch Pratape Surin) ; succeeded to the throne on the death of
his father, October 1, 1868.
Children of the King.
Children of II. M. the Queen.
I. Prince Somdetch Chowfa Maha Vajirunhis, born June 27, 1878,
designated as Crown Prince in January 1887.
II. Prince Chowfa Samodh-Diwongse Warotai, born June 9, 1881.
III. Princess Walai-ulongkorn, born April 1883.
IV. Princess Siraponsophon, born July 9, 1887.
Children of the Second Queen.
I. Prince Chowfa Maha Chirarwoot, January 1, 1880.
II. Prince Chowfa Chakrapongse Poowanar, March 3, 1881.
III. Prince Chowfa Aradang Dacharwoot, May 1889 : and others.
Brother* of the King.
I. Somdetch Chowfa Chaturant Rasmi, born January 11. 1857.
Title : Krom Pra Chakrayadipongse.
II. Somdetch Chowfa Bhanurangsc Swangwougse, born January 13,
1860. Title: Krom Pra Bhanupandhwongse Varadej.
Half-Brothers of the King.
III. Krom Mun Narct Varariddhi, born May 7, L856,
IV. Krom Luang Pichit JTijakon, born October 29, 1855,
V. Krom Mun Adison Udomatcj, lioin March 1:"., 1856.
VI. Kroin Mun Phudharet Damiongsakdi, born March 16, 1856,
VII. Krom Mun Prachak Silapakhon, burn April 18f>6.
VIII. Krom Luang Devawongse Varoprakar, bora Nov. 27, 1868-
There arc fourteen other half-brothers.
The royal dignity is nominally hereditary, but docs not descend always
from tin- father to the eldest son, pacta sovereign being invested with the
privilege of nominating his own successor. The reigning king has reintro-
duced the practice of nominating the Crown Prinoe, early in his reign, the
child chosen for this dignity being the eldest son of the Queen. This step,
taken in 1887, will have the ell'cct of increasing the stability and order Of
things, and of establishing the reigning dynast v.
Government.
According to the law of May 8, 1871. the legislative power is exercised by
the King in conjunction with a Council of Ministers (Senabodi), who have
charge of the departments of the War ami Marine, Foreign Affairs, Horn!
Government, Justice, Agriculture, the Boya] House, and Finance, Tin
Council of state consists of the ministers, i<> to SO members appointed uj
AREA AND POPULATION 033
the King, and 6 princes of the royal lions.-. The year 1891 will probably
inaugurate the formation of a Cabinet, including : Ministers of Foreign
Affairs, Justice, Public Instruction, Finance, Pul>li>- Works. War. Home
Affairs, ami Police ami Gaol ( oiniiiissioiier ; each portfolio Iteing held by one
of the King's half-brothers. In some cases it will involve very slight change
from the present arrangements. The advantage lies in the tendency towards
clearer demarcation of responsibility and of departmental control. Bach of
the i 1 provinces is administered by a governor ; while there are several tribu-
tary district* administered liy their own primes ; of late years centralisation
has greatly iucieasnd. Hniim— mmhih, chosen by the King, are now frequently
sent from Bangkok to these tributary provinces, !>oth to those in the north, as
Chiengmai, and those in the strath, as Singora, ami others, with very full
powers.
Area and Population.
The limits of the Kingdom of Siam bare varied much at different periods
of its history ; and even now, with the exception of the western frontier, the
lines of demarcation cannot be exactly traced, most of the border lands being
occupied by tribes more or less independent. The boundary between Banna
and K.W. Siam is in process of delimitation by a Boundary Commission.
This will probably also 1»- the case, next year, with regard to the east boundary,
between Siam and the French possessions. As oearry as can be calculated,
tin- country extends at present from the 4th to the 21st degree of north lati-
tude, and from the 96th to the 106th degree of east longitude, being a total
area of about 250,000 square miles. The numbers of the population are still
more imperfectly known than the extent of territory, aud the difficulty of any
correct result is the greater on account of the Oriental custom of numbering
only the men. The latest foreign estimates give the population of the Kingdom
lows, in round numbers :— 2,000,000 Siamese: 1,000,000 Chinese:
2^000,000 Laosians ; 1,000,000 Malays ; total about 6,000,000. Kedah, Patani,
Kelantan, and Tringgauu, in the Malay Peninsula, acknowledge tin sove-
reignty of Siam, and send revenues to Bangkok. The Laos (Shan) States 6f
Luang Prabaiig, Chiengmai, Lakon, Lampoouchai, Xaru, Pree, and others
stand in a similar position towards the Government in Bangkok. Centralisa-
tion is being largely introduced.
The Siamese dominions are divided into numerous provinces or districts,
each having a Governor, deriving authority direct from the King, and having
under him subordinate governors over the various parts of his district. Of
these provinces or districts the authority is divided thus : —
tie Minister of the North.
Thirty-seven first-class districts, with Siamese Governors, having
numerous sub-districts.
(6) Thirty-seven first-class districts, with Laosiaii Governors, having
numerous Bub-districts.
Under t'n- Minister of the SmUh.
(e) Nineteen first-class districts, with Siamese Governors, having numerous
Mil '-districts.
(d) Twelve first-class districts, with Malay Governors or rajahs, as the
iy l>e.
Under tiu Minister <•/ Foreign Affaire,
Twelve other districts with Siamese Governors.
934 siam
These three ministers usually remain in Bangkok, and make occasional
tours.
The native historians distinguish two natural divisions of the country,
called Muang-Nua, the region of the north, and Muang-Tai, the southern
region. Previous to the hfteenth century the former was the more populous
part of the country, hut since the establishment of Bangkok as capital — with
from 600,000 to 1,000,000 inhabitants — the south has taken the lead in popu-
lation. Siam is called by it inhabitants Thai, or Muang-Thai, which means
'free,' or 'the kingdom of the free.' The word Siam is probably identical
with Shan, applied in Burma to the Lao race, as well as to the Shan proper
and the Siamese.
The prevailing religion is Buddhism. In recent years the results of
Western civilisation have to some extent been introduced. Some few young
Siamese have been sent to schools, and also to study at arts and technical
trades, and the leading professions in England, Germany, and France.
Education has been making considerable advance of late years. The
capital possesses three large Government schools, where English is taught.
Siamese education has been systematised and reduced to a code. Throughout
the countiy it is still chiefly in the hands of the priests. The Siamese
language is now firmly established as the official language over the whole
countiy. The Minister of Public Instruction has also under Ins charge
several large Government hospitals, which have been lately established By
the King.
Finance.
The King's revenue may be estimated at about 2,000,000/. a year. "I
which sum the land tax produces 287,000/. ; tax on fruit trees, tl."i,000/. ;
spirits, 100,000/. : opium, 120,000/. ; gambling, 100,000/. : customs, 143,000/.:
tin-mines, 90,000/. ; edible birds'-nests, 27,000/. : fisheries, -27,000/. All tlie
taxes, with the exception of the customs duties, are farmed. There is do
public debt, and power has only lately been granted to the Hong Kong and
Shanghai Bank's local branch to issue a limited amount of paper money. Tin
expenditure is stated to keep within the receipts.
Defence.
There is a small standing army, and the people generally an liable to It
called out as required, but there is no armed militia. Ever] male inhabitant,
from the age of 21 upwards, is obliged to serve the State for three months
a year. The following individuals are, however, exempted: Members of the
priesthood, the Chinese settlers who pay a commutation tax, slaves, public
functionaries, the fathers of three sons liable to service, and those who purchase
exemption by a fine of from six to eight ticals a month, or by tarnishing a
slave or some other person not subject to the conscription as a substitute. It
is stated that the Government possesses upwards of 80,000 stand of arms,
besides a considerable stock of cannon. The army is to some extent officered
by Europeans, and has very largely increased of late years in eliicicnev and in
numbers, and in the character of its equipments.
Siam possesses several gonboats (mostly in had condition), officered by
Europeans, childly Englishmen and Dams, and some sea-going steam yachts.
There are forts, with heavy guns, al the mouth of the Bangkok river. The
latter possesses a liar which effectually prevents the entrance of ships over LI
feet draught.
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMEK'
Production and Industry.
Then is comparatively little industry in the country, mainly owing to the
state of serfdom in which the population is kept by the local governors.
Throughout the whole of Siain the natives are liable to forced labour for a
certaiu period of the year, varying from one to three months, in consequence
of which the land, rich in many parts, is badly cultivated. This state of
things will no doubt be greatly improved as soon as means of transit to the
port and the capital are improved. Probably not more than one-twentieth of
the available laud in the delta of Mfnam is under cultivation. Much of
Siam is dense forest, with scanty population. The dry season lasts
November to .May. During this period rain seldom falls. At the end of
the rainy season much of the plain country is covered by fertilising inunda-
tions. Gold exists in some of the rivers, for the working of which concessions
have been granted to British and French companies. Gem-mining is carried
on in various districts on the western side of the Malay Peninsula, where tin
and coal (lignite) are also known to exist. Domestic slavery is in gradual
ss of abolition, such slavery' as exists being entirely debt slavery. By an
■diet of the present King no person born on or after his Majesty's accession
can be legally held in slavery beyond the age of 21. But free labour ia
hard to obtain in any quantities. Chinese coolies do the chief part of
killed and unskilled labour iu the smith, "specially in the mills and in
mining ; while in the north forest work Li confined almost entirely to Burmese,
Karens, and Khaimrs.
Commerce.
:ly the whole of the trade is in the hands of forrigw-rs. and in recent
years many Chinese, Dot subject like the natives to forced labour, have -
in the country. The foreign trade of Siam centres in Bangkok, the capital,
due of the total exports from Bangkok in 1889 was 2,286,280/., and in
1890, 3,209,621/. The staple articles of export are rim to Hong Kong,
ore, and Europe, in 1890 amounting to 479,660 tons, valued at
: teak, 200,178/. ; pepper, 94,149/. ; bullocks, 45,666/. ; fish, dried
-•.it. 100,516/. ; teel seed, 24.M9/. : hides, 20,169/.; tin, 13,047/.:
eardamuiDS, 14,22:3/. The total imports into Bangkok in 1889 were of the
value of 1,593,257/., and in 1890, 2,631,020/. The imports in 1890 com-
prised treasure and gold-leaf, 995,003/. : cottons, 403,184/. : Chinese goods,
165,587/. : jewellery, 131,440/. : opium. 118,292/. : gunny l«gs, 95,079/. ;
kerosene oil, 69,790/. ; silk goods, 61,572/. ; iron and machinery, 34,696/.
sports from Siam to Lower Burma in the three years from 1887-88 to
'.'0, amounted to 686,572/. ; and the imports from the latter to the
. in the same period amounted to 315,004/. There is, moreover, a large
trade on the other frontiers of Siam.
In the five years 1886 to 1890 the value of the exports from Siam to
Britain, and of imports of British produce into Siam, were as follows : —
I
Exports from Siam to
Great Britain . 102,802 33,384 294,112 290,566 193,146
Imports of British pro-
duce into Siam . 65,356 76,076 52,763 70,299 7".
936 siam
The two almost sole articles of direct export front Siam to Great Britain in
the year 1890 were hewn teak-wood, valued at 143,0447., and rice at 49,925/.
(13,2257. in 1887 ; 205,2957. in 1888 ; 184,4267. in 1889). Among the direct
imports of British produce into Siam the chief articles in 1890 were machinery
and mill-work, of the value of 23,3667. ; iron, wrought and unwrought,
7,9907. ; cottons, 9,4047. ; hardware, 1,3197. There is a large importation of
British piece-goods, transhipped at Singapore.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1890, 477 vessels of 383,977 tons cleared at the port of Bangkok, of
which 315 of 258,719 tons were British. Also 250 junks cleared.
The railway from Bangkok to Paknam (14 miles) should be finished in
April 1893.
In 1888 a survey for a railway from Bangkok to Chiengmai and other
northern and eastern provinces of Siam was commenced ; a line from Bangkok
to Ban Mai on the Patriew river has been sanctioned; tenders are being
received (October 1891) for the construction of a railway from Bangkok to
Korat (165 miles), a very rich undeveloped rice-growing plateau, the line passing
through excellent timber country. A concession has also been given for a
railway across the Malay Peninsula from Singora to Kota Star, and thence
to Kulim, a distance of 136 miles. There is a tramway in Bangkok, worked
successfully.
Telegraph lines have been completed to the total length of 1,780 miles,
and Bangkok is now in communication with Chiengmai, Nakon-Lampang.
Korat, Nong-Khai, Sesopone, Chantabun, and Bangtaphan ; with Monlmein,
and Tavoy in Lower Burma; and with Saigon in Anam ; though the work-
ing of the lines is subject to interruption. Lines are being laid from Nakhon-
sawan to Paklai and Luang-Prabang on the Mekong, and in the Malay
Peninsula from Bangtaphan to Singora, in all 710 miles.
There is a postal service in Bangkok, and in 1 8,s."» Siam joined the
International Postal Union. The mail service down the Malay Peninsula,
and also towards the north of Siam, has been largely developed in 1891. In
1890 a parcel post service was established having connection witli Singapore
and the international system.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, freights, Mini measures of Siam, and the British equivalents,
arc : —
MnNKY.
The Tical, or Bat . = 64 Atts, or 60 cents of a Mexican dollar; average
rate of exchange, St.
4 Tical s . . = 1 Tamlung.
80 Tii.th . , — 1 Catty .> these two last are moneys of account
The. legal money of Siam is the tical, a. silver coin, weighing 236 grain*
troy. Other silver coins from the Siamese mint now current are the sailing
and the fuang, the former one-fourth, the latter one-eighth ofn tical. Dollars
are accepted in payment at the rate of 3 dollars for 6 ticals. In 1875 the
lioveii ni ordered a large quantity of bronze coinage from England, which
has come into extensive use amon^ the people, in the place of the Chinese
gambling tokens previous!) used.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 937
Weights and Mka.-ire>.
1 Chang = 2§ lbs. avoirdupois ; 50 Chang — 1 hap. or 133J 11)8. ; 1 Niu
= 166 English inch : 1 Reap = 12 Xtu ; 1 ft* = 2 A'evp; 1 7JV< = 2 &*;
= 20 FTa ; 1 m"<«A = 80 English inches ; 1 Vi* - 400
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Siam ix GHAT Biutain.
drier. — The Huqnia dfl Montri (Snriyawonga
ary of Legation. — Count Dithakar Bhakdi.
Eivjlish Secretary. — Frederick W. Verney.
2. Of Great Britain in Siam.
Minirier Resident and Consul-General. — Captain EL M. Jonea, V.r.
appointed December 1888.
ml.—K B. Gould.
Consul at Chiengnvii. — E. II. French.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Siam.
1. Official PmuoAXIosa
Commercial Report of H.M.'s Minister Resident an<l Consul-General (Mr. Satow) in Siam
udon, 1886.
Report on the Trade of Bangkok and of Chiengmai for 1889, Xo. 771. 1S90, and Report on
the Trade of Siam, Xo. OSS, in Diplomatic and Consular Reports.
Trade of Siam with Great Britain in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Conntries and British Possessions for the vear 1890.' 4. London.
1881.
2. Xon-Offkial Publication -
Alabaster (Henry), The Wheel of the Lew. 8. London, 1871.
Bustian (Adolf), Die Volker des "stliehen Asiens. 3 vols. 8. Leipzig und Jena.
Botcrlng (John), The Kingdom and People ■ >f Siam. 2 vols. 8. I. \»u.
Bock (Carl). Temples and Elephants. 1 vol 8. London, 1884.
Colquhoun (A. R.). Among the Shans. London, 1885.
Cort (Mary L.), Siam, the Heart of Farther India. American Missionary Publication.
New York.
Crawford, Journal of an Embassy to Siam and Cochin-China. 't tote. 8. 2nd edition,
1-3(1.
Oarnier, Voyage d'explorat ion dans l'lndo-Chine. i vols. 4. Paris.
Got'1 on (Robert), The Economic Development of Siam. in the Journal of the Society of
V>. 1,998, vol. xxxix. London, 1891.
Orehan (A.), Le royaume de Siam. *. Paris. 1-..-.
Janrigny, Japan, Indo-China, Ceylon. 1 vol. & Pari-.
La Loubrre. Description dn royaume de Siam. 12. Paris and Amsterdam, 1091.
La Loubere, A new Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Siam. Folio. London,
Leonowens, The English Governess at tin- Siamese Court, S. Boston (Ma-s.l. 187ft
Maearthy (J.), Paper on Proceedings of the Royal Geographic rch 188*.
ifouhot (Henry), Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China (Siam). Cambodia and Laos,
during the years 1858-1860. 2 vols. 8. London, H
Pallegoix(l). J.), Description du royaune tie Thai on Sir.n. 2 vols. R. Paris. If
Rectus (Elisee), Xouvelle geographie univers.-lle. S. L'Inde ei l'lndo-Chiiii .
Satow (E. MA Essay towards a Bibliography of Siam. Singapore. -
Scherzer (Dr. K. von). Die wirthschaftlicheii Zustande Ira Siiden und ("Men Art
Iptuttgart, 1-71.
Vincent (Frank). The Land of tie- White Elephant. Hew fork,
938
SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC.
Constitution and Government.
The South African Republic, also known as the Transvaal, was originally
formed by part of the Boers, who left the Cape Colony in 1835 for Natal, but
quitted that colony on its annexation to the British Crown. In 1852 the in-
dependence of the Transvaal was recognised by the British Government, and
the constitution of the State is based on the ' Thirty-Three Articles,' passed
May 23, 1849, and the 'Grondwet,' or Fundamental law of February 13, 1858.
The Constitution has since been frequently amended down to June 1890.
The legislative power of the State is now vested in two Volksraden of 21
members each. The five largest districts of the country elect two members,
and the 12 smaller districts one member for each Volksraad, while the Bai -
berton and Witwatersrand goldfields are represented by one member in each
Raad. They are elected for a term of four years, one half retiring every two
years. The franchise qualification for aliens for the Volksraad is : age 30
years, member of a Protestant Church, four years' residence in the Republic,
the oath of allegiance, naturalisation on payment of 5/., and possession of
landed property in the State. The qualifications for a member of the first
Volksraad are the same, except that a member must be born in the Republic
or a burgher of the State for 14 years. The members of the Second Chamber
are elected by burghers who for two years have been entitled to vote, who have
reached the age of 16 years. The members of the first Volksraad can only be
elected by burghers entitled to vote, who have obtained their burgher-right by
birth before or after the promulgation of the law, and who have attained the
age of sixteen. The Executive is vested in a President, elected for five
years by all enfranchised burghers, eligible for the first Volksraad, assisted 1>\
a council consisting of three official members (the State Secretary, the Com-
mandant-General, and the Secretary), and two non-official members elected by
the first Volksraad. On April 12, 1877, the Transvaal was annexed by the
British Government, and an administrator with an Executive Couneii and
Legislative Assembly appointed.
In December 1880 the Boers took up arms against the British Government,
and as a result a treaty of peace was signed Match 21, 1881. According to
the convention made (ratified by the Volksraad October 26, 1881), self-go\ em-
inent was restored to the Transvaal so far as regards internal affairs, the con-
trol and management of external affairs being reserved to Her Majest\ as
suzerain. A British resident was appointed, with functions analogous to
those of a Consul -Genera] and Charged' Affaires. Another convention with
the Covernment of Great Britain was signed in London February 27, 1884,
ratified by the Volksraad, August 8, by which the State is to be known as the
South African Republic, and the British suzerainty considerably restricted.
Instead of a Resident the British Government is represented by a Diplomatic
Agent.
State PrfridetU. — 8. J. Paul Krfiger, elected tor the second time May 8,
1888.
State Secretary. — Dr. \V. J. Leyds.
Secretary of Executive. — W. E. Hok.
Members of the Executive Council. — Commandant-General P. J. Joubert.
Non-official do. — M. A. Wolmaraus, N. J. Sinit (Vice-President).
AREA AND POPULATION' — FINANCE
939
Area and Population.
The area of the Republic is. according to planimetrical computation of
Jeppe'smap, 113,642 square miles, divided into 18 districts, and its white
population, according to the rather incomplete census of 1 April, 1890, 119,128,
of whom 66,498 arc men ami 58,680 women ; the native population is esti-
mated at 560,064. These figures, however, can In- regaid-d m >>nly approxi-
mate until a better census ifl taken. Tlie boundaries of the State are defined
in the convention of February ,27, 1884 — since altered by a supplementary
convention, by which the former New (Zulu) Republic was annexed to the
South African Republic as a new district, named Vrijheid, and by the terms
of the Convention regarding Swaziland, ratified by the Volksraad August 20,
1890, by which a small portion of Swaziland and AmatongaLand l>ecomespart
of the Transvaal, including an area of 10 miles in radius at Kosi Bay. The
government is Pretoria, with a population of 5,000. The largest tow u is
Johannesburg, the mining centre of Witwatersrand goldfields, with a popula-
tion of 15,000 and a floating population of 30,000 in the goldfields along the
Rand. The bulk of the imputation are engaged in agriculture.
Religion.
The Dutch Reformed Church is the dominant religious body, claiming
43,821 (1888) of the population : other Dutch Churches, 18,100: English
church, 6,581 ; Wesleyans, 3.866 : Catholic, 3,000 ; other Christian Clm
1,500 ; Jews, 2,000.
Instruction.
There are 10 English schools in Pretoria, and one or more in each of the
other towns. According to the report of the Acting Superintendent of Edu-
cation for the year 1890. the sum of 3 ."»,."> 46 !. was spent for the education of
6,990 pupils. In 1890 there were 34 village schools and 262 ward schools,
mnasiuin with 170 pupils at Pretoria. The establishment of a
university is contemplated, and 20,000/. were voted for the purpose by the
Volksraad.
Finance.
The following table shows the ordinary revenue and expenditure for the
J years : —
Revenue .
Expenditure
1885-86 j 1887
18S8 1889
1890
1891
(6 months)
£
292,353 668,433
213,975 621,073
884,440 1,577,445
770,492 1,226,135
£
1,229,060
1,531,461
£
485,611
554,041
The credit balance being on June 30, 1891, 180,147/. The revenue is
derived from land sales, quit-rents, customs, hut-tax, stamps, transport dues,
and principally from licences on the goldfields. The revenue derived from
goldfields during the year 1888 amounted to 460,466/., for the year 1889 to
727,132/. ; for 1890, 492,830/., showing a falling off against 1889 of 234,202/.,
and for the six mouths of 1891, 193,821/., showing a falling off against the
six months returns of 1890 of 124,871/. The estimates for the complete vear
1891 are set clown as revenue 1.260,259/.. and the expenditure at 1,370,019/.
The public debt in June 1891 was 274.254/.. but the Volksraad has
authorised a loan of 3,000,000/. The State lands were valued in 1884 at
400,000/.. but may now be valued at some millions, as the principal gold-
fields at Barberton are on Government lands. The debt due to Great Britain
interest at 3$ per cent., and is to be extinguished by a sinking fund of
940 SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC
3?. 0s. 9d. per cent, in twenty-five years. The balance still owing June 1891
was 200,1 71 ?.
Defence.
The Republic has no standing army, with the exception of a small force of
horse artillery, all able-bodied citizens being called out in case of war. Ac-
cording to the census of 1 April, 1890, the number of able-bodied men of
between 16 and 60 years amounts to 37,378 men.
Production and Industry.
The South African Republic is specially favourable for agriculture as well
as stock-rearing, though its capacities in this respect are not yet developed.
It is estimated (1884) that 50,000 acres are under cultivation. Wheat and
tobacco of a superior kind are the chief products, though sugar, coffee, and
cotton are also grown ; cattle, sheep, and ostriches are reared. The agricul-
tural produce, however, is not sufficient for the wants of the population.
There are about 20,000 farms, 16,000 of which belong to private individuals,
and the rest to the State.
The country is possessed of considerable mineral wealth, and gold-digging
is carried on to a great extent in the various goldfields, principally Barberton
and Witwatersrand, the total number of proclaimed goldtields being at the pre-
sent (August 1890) twenty-one, covering an area of more than 1,500,000 acres.
The export of gold through Natal and the Cape Colony amounted in 1889 to
1,445,654?., in 1890 to 1,851,905?., and for the first seven months of 188] to
1,484,091?. The output of W. \V. Rand alone amounted to -230,640 ox.
(value 807,240?.) in 1888, to 382,364 oz. (value 1,838,9742.) in 1889, td
494,392 oz. (value 1,730,372?.) in 1890, and for the first seven months of 1891
to 378,044 oz. (value .,328,154?.). In the South African Republic and Swazi-
land in 1889 there were over 371 companies working for gold, with a nominal
capital of over 21,473,000?. and 1,151 stamps. Excellent coal is found in the
east of the country, and (dose to Johannesburg, the Rand mines being supplied
with coal by the tramway extending from Boksburg to Krugersdorp ; iron is
also known to abound, while lend and silver arc worked in various mines (lose
to Pretoria.
Commerce.
The principal exports are wool, cattle, hides, grain, ostrich feathers, ivory.
gold, and other minerals The imports on which dues were charged for 1881
amounted to 721,3532. ; in 1 >>7 to 2,204,8272. ; in L888 to 3,748,830?. : in
1889 to 5,000,000?. ; in 1890 to about 5,500,000?. The imporl duties in 1881
amounted to 249,922?., in 1889 to 372,919?., to 1890 to 381,190?., and for the
six months of 1891 to 158,3582., showing a falling off against the six months
of 1890 of 71,6582.
Communications.
The southern boundary of the South African Republic is about 220 miles
from Durban, 536 from Port Elizabeth, and 698 from Cape Town : while it-
eastern boundary is not 40 miles from Delagoa Bay. A railway from I.ou-
renco Marques, on Delagoa Bay, to the boundary, was opened in December
188/, ami dow (1891) with a branch from Crocodile River to Barberton, is
being sxtended to rhetoric, 23 miles being finished within Transvaal territory.
from Pretoria the line will be continued to Vaal River, via (.icrniiston. The
earthworks between Pretoria and (oiiiiistoii (3S.1, miles) wire finished in .Inly J
1891. The South Alri'Mii Republic Ea joi 1 to Natal by telegraph, and j
telegraph lines extend 8,537 miles: the country is also connected with the
Orange Free State and Gap Colony by telegraph. There were on 1 January, ■
1891, 35 offices and 196 officials.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE !»41
Weights and measures are the same as in Cape Colony, and the currency
is English money only, but the Volksraad has authorised the making of gold,
silver, and bronze coin by a mint established in the State.
British Diplomatic Agent. — Sir Jacobus de Wet, K.G.M.G.
Consul in London. — Montagu White.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
South African Republic
1. Official PtJBUCATioi
Convention between Her Majesty and the Booth African Republic. London, 1884.
Correspondence respecting the Debt due to H.M. < Q ■• rnment by the Transvaal State.
London, 1882-83.
Correspondence respecting the Affairs of the Transvaal and adjacent Territories. London,
UM.
Further Correspondence respecting the Affairs of the Transvaal and adjacent Territories
(C. 4,275, 4,432, 4.5SS). London. 1885. (C. 4,643) 1886.
Jeppe (F.), Local Laws of the South African Republic, from 1849-1885, revisKl by Chief
Justice Kotze. Pretoria, 1887.
Kotze (J. G., Chief Justice), Local Taws of the South African Republic for 1380 and 1887.
Pretoria, 1888.
Memoire descriptif sur l'avant-projet de la partie transvalienne dn chemin de fer de
Lourenco Marques a Pretoria. Par J. Machado. Lisbon, 1885.
Precis of Information concerning Sonth Africa, the Transvaal Territory, prepared by the
Intelligence Branch, War Office. London, January, 1878.
Appendix to Precis on the Transvaal. London, 1879.
2. Non-Official PrnLicATi'
Albrecht (M. J.), La Republique sud africaine (Transvaal). Brussel, 1890.
Alford (Charles J.), Geological Features*>f the Transvaal, South Africa. London, 1891.
Argus Annual and Sonth African Directory for 1891. Cape Town, 1891.
Aub&rt (V. S.), La Republique sud-Africaine. Situation eeoBomiqne et c«-mmerciale en
Paris, 1889.
Bainet (T.), The Gold Regions of South Africa. London.
Bellairt (K. F.), The Witwatersrandt Goldfields : a Trip to Johannesburg and Back.
London, 1889.
Clark (Dr. C. B.), The Transvaal and Bechuanaland. Loud..n, 1883.
Dove (Dr. Karl), Das Klima des anssertropischen Sudafrika. G6ttingen,1888.
Finch (J.), To South Africa and Back. London, 1880.
Fuiiney (F. B.). Geographical and Economic Features of the Transvaal, in 'Journal of the
Royal Geographical Society,' vol. xlviii.
Holnb (Dr. Emil), Von der Capstadt ins Land der MaschukulumW. 2 vols. Vienna, 1890.
Jeppe (F.X Transvaal Almanac and Directory for 1889. Cape Town 1889.
Jeppe (F.), Notes on some of the Physical and Geological Features of the Transvaal, in
'Journal of the Roval Geographical Society.'
Klossel (M. N.),"Die Sudafrik-Republieken. Leipzig, 1890.
Knoekenhauer (B.), Die Goldfelder in Transvaal. Berlin. 1890.
Mack'n:ie (John), Austral Africa : Losing it or Rulinc it. 2 vols. Loudon, 1S87.
Mathers (E. P.), Zarubesia. London, 1891.
Mathers (E. P.). South Africa, ami how to reach it by the Castle Line. London, I -
Mohr (Edward), To the Victoria Falls of the Zambesi. London.
Morrison (Pearse), A Visit to the Transvaal, Barberton, and Johannesburg and Back.
London, 1890.
duller (H. P. N.). Zuid Afrika, Reisherinneringen. Leiden, 1890.
Nixon (J.), Among the Boers. London, 1SS0.
Sorris-Newinan (C. L.). With the Boers in the Transvaal and Orange Fur State in
1880-81. London, 1882.
Penning (W. Henry), Guide to the Goldfields. Pretoria, 1883.
Pinto (Major Serpa), How I crossed Africa. 2 vols. London.
PMche (H. G.), On Trek in the Transvaal. London, 1878.
SamUmann (E. F.), Eight Months in an Ox-Waggon. London, 1880.
SHrer* Handbook to South Africa. London, 1891.
Smit (Dr. J. A. Roorda), Die Transvaal Republiek. Cologne, 1881.
Theal (George McC'all), History of the Boers in South Africa. London, 1S87.
Thea! (<;. MeCall). History of* So nth Africa. Ion. 1887-89.
HV6<r (Ernest de), Quatre ans an pays des Boers. Paris.
Young (Sir Fred.), K.C.M.G., A Winter Tour in South Africa. London, 1890.
942
SPAIN.
(ESPANA.)
Reigning Sovereign.
Alfonso XIII., son of the late King Alfonso XII. and Maria
Christina, daughter of the late Karl Ferdinand, Archduke of
Austria; born after his father's death, May 17, 1886, succeeding
by his birth, being a male, his eldest sister.
Queen Regent.
Maria Christina, mother of the King. Took oath as Queen
Regent during the minority of her son.
Sisters of the King.
I. Maria-de-las-Mercedes, Queen till the birth of her brother,
born September 11, 1880.
II. Maria Teresa, born November 12, 1882.
Aunts of the King.
I. Infanta Isabel, born December 20, 1851 ; married, May 13, 1868, to
Gaetan, Count de Girgenti ; widow, November 26, 1871.
II. Infanta Maria-de-la- Paz, born June 23, 1862 ; married, April 3, 1883,
to Prince Ludwig, eldest son of the late Prince Adalbert of Bavaria.
III. Infanta Kulalia, born February 12, 1864 ; married to Prince Antoine.
son of Prince Antoine d'Orleans, Due de sfontpensier, February 28, 1886.
(All sisters of the late King.)
Parents of the late King.
Queen Isabel, born October 10, 1830 ; the eldest daughter of King Fer-
nando VII. ; ascended the throne at the death of her father, September 29, 1833 :
assumed the government on being declared of age. November 8, 1843; exiled
September 30, 1868; abdicated in favour of licr son. June 25, 1870.
lUffried, October 10, 1846, to her COUSill infants Francisco, born May 13,
1822.
Aunt of the late King.
Infanta Luim, born January 30, 1832, the second daughter of King
Fernando VII. ; married, October 10, 1846, to Prince Antoine d'Orleans. Due
de Montpensier, sixth son of King Louis Philippe of the French : widow,
GOVERNMENT AND «OXSTITI"TIOy
943
February 4, 1890. Offspring of the union are two children : — 1. Princess
Isabelle, born September 21, 1848 ; married, May 30, 1864, to Prince Louis
Philippe, T'orate de Paris, born August 24, 1838, eMest son of Prinee
Ferdinand. Due d'Orleans. 2. Prince Antoine, born February 23, 1868.
Cousin of the late King.
Infante Don Carlos Maria-de-los-Dolores, born March 30, 1848, the eldest
son of Infante Don Carlos, nephew of King Fernando VII. Married, February
4, 1867, to Princess Marguerite of Bourbon, daughter of Duke Carlos III. of
Parma. Offspring of the union are four daughters and a son, Prince Jaime,
born June 27, 1870.
The King, Alfonso XIII., has a civil list, fixed by the Cortes, 1886, of
7,000,000 pesetas, or 280,000/., exclusive of allowances to members of the
royal family ; the Queen Regent having the administration and usufruct of the
said sum until the King becomes of age. The annual grant to the Queen, as
mother to the King, was fixed by the Cortes, in 1886, at 250,000 pesetas.
The immediate successor was assigned 500,000 pesetas, and 250,000 to the
second sister, they having been Princesses of Asturias. The parents of the
late King, ex-Queen Isabel and her husband, have an allowance of 1,050,000
pesetas, or 42,000/. ; and the four Infantas, his sisters, of 800,000 pesetas, or
32,000/. The total amount of the civil list and allowances to the relatives of
the late King was fixed bv the Cortes in 1876 at 10,000,000 pesetas, or
400,000/. ; now it is 9,500,000 pesetas, or 380,000/.
The following is a list of the sovereigns and sovereign rulers of Spain, with
dates of their accession, since the foundation of the Spanish Monarchy by the
union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile : —
House of Aragoii.
Fernando V., 'The Catholie'
House of Habd
< 'arlos I.
Felipe II.
Felipe III.
Felipe IV.
Carlos II.
House of
Felij* V.
Fernando VI.
III.
Carlos IV. .
Fernando VII.
House of Bonaparte.
Joseph Bonaparte .
Boitrbnv.
1512
1516
1556
1598
1621
1665
1700
1746
1759
1788
1808
1808
House of Bourbon.
Fernando VII., restored
1814
Isabel II.
1833
Provisional Government
1868
Marshal Serrano, Regent
1869
House of Savoy.
Amadeo
1870
Republic.
Executive of the Oottea .
1S73
Estanislao Figueras
1873
Nicolas Salmeron .
1873
Pi y Margall .
1874
Emilio Castelar
1874
House of Bourbon.
Alfouso XII. .
1875
Alfonso XIII.
1886
Government and Constitution.
I. Central Government.
The present Constitution of Spain, drawn up by the Govern-
ment and laid before a Cortes Constituyentes, elected for its
ratification, March 27, 1876, was proclaimed June 30, 1876. Tt
944 spain
consists of 89 articles or clauses. The first of them enacts that
Spain shall be a constitutional monarchy, the executive resting
in the King, and the power to make laws ' in the Cortes with the
King.' The Cortes are composed of a Senate and Congress, equal
in authority. There are three classes of senators— first, senators
by their own right, or Senadores de derecho joropio ; secondly,
100 life senators nominated by the Crown — these two categories
not to exceed 180 ; and thirdly, 180 senators, elected by the
Corporations of State — that is, the communal and provincial
states, the church, the universities, academies, &c. — and by the
largest payers of contributions. Senators in their own right are
the sons, if any, of the King and of the immediate heir to the
throne, who have attained their majority; Grandees who are so
in their own right and who can prove an annual renta of 60,000
pesetas, or 2,400Z. ; captain-generals of the army ; admirals of
the navy ; the patriarch of the Indias and the archbishops ; the
presidents of the Council of State, of the Supreme Tribunal, of
the Tribunal of Cuentas del Reino, and of the Supreme Council
of War and of the Navy, after two years of office. The elective
senators must be renewed by one-half every five years, and by
totality every time the Monarch dissolves that part of the ( Iprtes.
The Congress is formed by deputies ' named in the electoral Juntas
in the form the law determines,' in the proportion of one to every
50,000 souls of the population. According to the law of June 26,
1890, the electoral qualification is held by all male Spaniards. 2.">
years of age, who enjoy full civil rights, and have been citizens
of a municipality for at least two years. By a royal decree issued
August 8, 1878, the island of Cuba received the privilege of
sending deputies to the Cortes, in the proportion of one to every
40,000 free inhabitants paying 125 pesetas annually in tsrxes.
Members of Congress must be 25 years of age; they are re-
eligible indefinitely, the elections being for 5 years, heputies,
to the number of 10, are admitted who, although not elected for
any one district, have obtained a cumulative vote of more than
10,000 in several districts, heputies to the number of 88 are
elected by scrutin de lisle in 26 large districts, in which minorities
may be duly represented. There are in all WW deputies. The
deputies cannot take State office, pensions, and salaries ; but fehe
ministers are exempted from this law. I'.oth ( 'engross and Senate
meet every year. The Monarch has the power of convoking
them, suspending them, or dissolving them; but in the latter
case a new < 'ortes must sit within three months. The Monarch
appoints the president and vice-presidents of the Senate from
members pf the Senate only ; the Congress elects its own officials!
GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION M5
Tin- Monarch ;tn<l each of the legislative chainWrs inn take the
initiative in the laws. The Congress has the right of impeaching
the ministers before the Senate.
The Constitution of June -iv. lsJti, faitb that the Honaich ■
inviolable. l>ut his ministers are responsible, and that all his deems must
Ik.- coantersigned by one of them. The Cortes most approve his marriage
before be en contract it. ami the King eannot marry any one excluded by
law bom the succession to the crown. Should the lines of the legitimate
Qaaoendents of the late Alphonso XII. beeome extinct, th- shall
be in this order — first, to bis listen : next to his aunt and her legitimate
■BBcendants ; and next to those .din's ancles, the brothen of Fernando VII..
ranlesa they have been excluded.' It" all the lines become extinct, • tin1
nation will elect its Monarch.'
The excrutive b vested, under the Monarch, in a Council of Minister- of
nine members, appointed November 1891, as follow
President of tiie Council. — Antonio Ca hocus del Castillo.
Minuter vf Foreign Affair.*.— The Duke of Tetuan ((_'. ML O'Doncll .
Minister of Finance. — Juan de la Concha t'asta&eda.
Minuter if ike Interior. A. K
Minuter of Justice. — F. C
Minister of Iv - . nd Agriculture. — A. Liiwr-x Riras.
Minister of War.- General de AscArraga.
Minuter of Marine. — Admiral 1
Minister of the Colonies. — 1'. Somen BoUeda
II. liOOiX GoVEKNMKNT.
The various provinces and communes of Spain are governed by the
vincial and municipal laws. Every '■omranne has its own elected
untamieuto. consisting of from live to thirty-nine Regidores, or Conce-
al and {>resided over by the Alcalde, at whose side stand, in the larger
lis. ■even] Tenieutes Alcaldes. The entire municipal government, with
power of taxation, is vested in the Ayuntamientos. Half the members
are elected every two year-, and they appoint the Alcalde, the executive
functionary, from their own body. In the larger towns he may l>e appointed
ay the King. Members cannot be re-elected until after two yean. Each
province of Spain has its own Parliament, the Diputacion Provincial, the
members of which are elected by the constituencies. The Diputaeiones
Provinciales meet in annual session, and are permanently represented by
the ('omission Provincial, a committee elected every year. The Constitution
of \*Jt> secures to the Diputaeiones Provinciales ami the Ayuntainientos
the government and administration of the respective provinces and com-
munes. Neither the national executive nor the Cortes have the right
to interfere in the established municipal and provincial administration,
SXcept in the case of the action of the Diputaeiones Provinciales and
Ayuntamientos going beyond the locally limited sphere to the injury of
general and pennanent interests. In the Dseuilt provinces self-government
!■■ been almost abolished since the last civil war. and they are ruled as
he rest of Spain. Notwithstanding the provisions of the Constitution,
nessure is too frequently brought to bear upon the local elections by the
Central Government.
3 r
046
SPAIN
Area and Population.
The following table gives the area arid population of each of
the forty-nine provinces into which the Kingdom is divided,
according to the census of 1887 : —
Province
Alava
Albacete .
Alicante .
Almeria .
Avila
Badajoz .
Baleiires .
Barcelona
Burgos .
Cacercs .
Cadiz
Camillas .
Castellon de
Plana .
Ciudad-Real
Cordoba .
Corufia .
Caenca .
Gerona .
(iranada .
Guadalajara
(Juipuzci ia
Quel v a .
Bnesca .
.laeii
Leon
Lerida
Area in
square
miles
1,205
5,972
2,098
a, 302
2.981
8,687
1.800
2,985
5,050
8,018
2,809
2,808
2,446
7,840
5.190
S.0T9
0,725
2,272
4,937
4,870
728
1.122
5,878
5,184
6,167
1.775
Total
Popula-
tion, 18S7
92.893
229,492
432,335
339,383
193,093
480,418
312,646
890,264
887,822
3311.793
1,29,88]
287,72s
292,487
292,291
1 20.714
618,792
242,024
806,689
IS 1.3-1 |
201,496
181,856
254,831
264,968
137,842
380,229
286,417
Pop.
pensq.
mile
77
38
200
102
04
55
108
301
59
■12
152
102
111)
37
SI
199
86
184
98
41
219
01
43
Srf
61
59
Area in
Total
Pop.
Province
square
Popula-
per sq.
Logrofio .
miles
tion. ISS7
mile
1,945
93
Lugo
3,787
431,044
113
Madrid .
2JS07
684,680
328
Malaga .
2.S24
519.377
183
Murcla .
4,478
491,488
109
Navarre .
6,046
304.051
60
Oreiise
2.7311
406,074
147
Ovicdo .
1.091
596,480
.145
Paleneia .
8,126
188,964
60
Pontevedra
1.739
148,886
Sulauianea
1.940
314,424
Q8
Santandcr
2,118
24 2,843
114
Segovia .
2,714
164,467
60
Sevilla
5.295
513,944
102
S6ria
3,886
151,471
39
Tarragona
2.4:. 1
848,679
142
Teruel .
5,491
241,805
44
Toledo .
5,686
869,662
Valencia •
4,362
733,978
168
Valladolid
3,(14.".
207,297
87
Vizeaya .
849
277
Zainora .
1,186
06
Zantgoza.
0.007
414,007
62
N. ft W. t'oasl
of Africa .
l:;
.,086
Total
197,070
88
There were in 1887, 8,607,242 males and 8,943,004 females.
The legal papulation as distinct from the population present was returned
at 17,650,234. The area oif continental Spain is 191*100 square miles, and its
population (1887) 16,945,786.
The population of <Vuia, included in thai of Cadiz, is 9,694 According
to the census return* of 1887, there wi'iv at that date only 26,824 resident
foreigners the mass of then in lour provinces namely, Barcelona; Cadiz,
Gerona, and Madrid. The Basques in the North, numbering 440,000. diffei
in race and language from Hie rest ol' Spain ; there arc (ill, 000 Moroscocs in|
the South, 50, ooo gipsies, and a small number of .lews.
In 1789 the population was estimated to number 10,061,480; in 1820 ill
was 11,000,000 ; in 1828, 13,698,029 ; in 1846, 12,168,774, and it was at thu
census of I860, 16,658,581. At the census of 1S77 the population amount
to 16,084,845, being an increase of 976,814 in the coui.se of seventeen year
or at the rate of about 0'85 per cent, per annum ; in 1887 it was 17,550,246
being an increase of 816,901 in ten years, OX at the rate of 0'65 per cent
per annum.
The following were the populations of the principal towns in 1887, viz. :-j
RELIGK »N INSTRUCTION
94"
Town
Population
Madrid
17- I
Palma (Baleares) 60, "
Barcelona .
272,481
Lorca
Valencia .
170,?
Valladolid
M18
Barilla
143,182
Cordoba .
55,614
Malaga
134,016
Bilbao
50,772
98,538
Oviedo
ri6
!07
Bantander
11.829
"06
Alicante .
39,638
igena
84,171
Almeria .
37,241
Cadiz.
62,531
Corufta
36,200
le la Froa-
Burgos
31,301
tera
61,708
Religion.
national < 'hur.-h of Spain is the Roman Catholic, and the whole
population of the Kingdom adhere to that faith, except (in 1887) I
nits. 4U2 Jews, 9,645 Rationalists, 510 of other religion*, and 18,176
igion not stated. There were in 1884 in Spain 32,485 priests in the
into which the country is divided; 1,684 monks resident in 161
tic houses, and 14,592 nuns in 1,027 convents. The number of
icathedrals was 65, of religious colleges 30, of churches 18,564, and of con-
religious houses, sanctuaries, and other buildings of a religious character
2. According to Article 12 of the Constitution of 1876, a restricted
of worship is allowed to Protestants, but it has to be entirely in
all public announcements of the same being strictly forbidden. The
tution likewise enacts that 'the nation binds itself to maintain the
ip and ministers of the Roman Catholic religion.' Resolutions of
legislative bodies, not repealed in the Constitution of 1876, settled that
rgy of the Established Church are to be maintained by the State. On
her hand, by two decrees of the Cortes, passed July 23, 1835, and
9, 1836, all conventual establishments were suppressed, and their
ty confiscated for the benefit of the nation. These decrees gave rise to
Bong dispute with the head of the Roman Catholic Church, which ended in
Hb sovereign pontiff conceding the principle of the measure. By a concordat
with Rome concluded in August 1659, the Spanish Government was authorised
■■ell the whole ecclesiastical property, except churches and parsonages, in
return for an equal amount of untransferable public debt certificates bearing
Bjtaest at the rate of 3 per cent.
Instruction.
ilie latest census returns show that a large proportion of the inhabitants
Me illiterate. In the following table there are given the percentages of those
Bio conld read and write, of those who could read only, and of those who
could not read, in 1860 and 1877 :—
Census
Year
Read and Write
Read only
Unable to Read
Men Women [ Total
Mi n
Women j Total
Men
Women Total
1860
1877
15-40 457 199
16-98 7-50 244S
2 02
1-27
2-48 4-50
2 21 3 48
32-12 4340 75-52
30-64 41-37 7-2 01
948 SPAIN
By a law of 1857 an elaborate system of primary education was ordained :
education was to be compulsory, there was to be a primary school for every 500
inhabitants, and instruction was to be on a rigidly uniform plan. Compulsion
has never been enforced, and, partly from political causes and partly from the
wretched pay of most of the elementary teachers (10/. to 20Z. per annum),
education is very inefficient. In 1881, however, several improvements wen
introduced. Under the Minister of Public Works there is a Director-Genera;
of Public Instruction, with a council ; there are ten educational districts, with
the universities as centres, 49 inspectoral districts, and numerous local educa-
tional authorities. The public and primary schools ai'e supported mainly by
the municipalities, the total sum spent in each of the last three years on
primary education, including a small contribution by Government, being aboul
1,000,000Z. Most of the children are educated free. The following tabic
shows the number of schools in the years 1850, 1870, and 1880 : —
Year
Public Private
Total
1850
1870
1880
13,334
22,711
23,132
4,100
5,406
6,696
17,434
28,117
29,828
In 1885 (to which the latest issued reports refer) there were 24»52J
public and 5,576 private primary schools, or 1 for every 560 inhabitants!
including 1,774 public and private schools for adults and Sunday schools,
In 1885 there were 1,843,183 pupils on the books. Secondary education if
conducted in 'institutions,' or middle-class schools, somewhat like universi-
ties in their organisation ; there must be one of them in every province ii
addition to private schools. These are largely attended, but t lie education
is inefficient. These institutions prepare for the universities, of which
there are ten, attended by 16,000 students. The fees largely rover tin
expenses of the universities. Government also supports various special
schools — engineering, agriculture, architecture, line arts, music, fcc. In 188)
the total sum set apart for education in the budget was only 1,868,654
pesetas.
Finance.
The revenue of the Kingdom is raised by a system of direct
and indirect taxation, stamp duties, Government monopolies, and
income from State property. The direct taxes are imposed oi
landed property, houses, live stock, industry, commerce, registra
lion acts, titles of nobility, mortgages, ami mineral produce
The indirect taxes are derived from foreign imports, articles o
consumption, tolls, bridge and ferry dues.
There have Keen no accounts of the actual public revenue am
expenditure of the Kingdom published since the year 1870-71
but only budget estimates. There are, indeed, accounts of publi
revenue and expendit ure published monthly; but the publi
accounts have not been approved by Parliament since L865 <i7
and the Tribunal de CwntM has not audited the accounts late
FINANCE
949
than 1868-69. According to official returns, the following were
tlic ordinary revenue and expenditure for the financial j
81 and 1885-86 to 1889-90:—
Financial Wars
Total Expenditure
- tas
1880-81
791,650,792
836,651,193
1885-86
815,923,103
858,041,258
1886-87
887,305,572
910,363,783
1887-88
803,090,000
839,866,146
1888-89
851,667,932
848,657,985
1889-90
800,035,687
799.943.436
The actual deficit for 1885-86 (including extraordinary ex-
snditure) was 108,309,824 pesetas; of 1886-87. 91,646,929
stas; of 1887-88, 82,013,775 pesetas; of 1888-89, over
122,450,636 pesetas ; of 1889-90, 61,738,611 ; and of 1890-91,
52,880,914. The following are the estimates for 1891-92 :—
Revjuui
Expenditure
Pesetas
Pesetas
j Direct taxes on laud,
Civil list .
9,500,000
trade, mines. Govern-
Cortes
1,749,205
ment salaries, regis-
Public debt
279,762,111
tration, fee.
269,544,110
Judicial expenses
1.777,481
j Indirect taxes, cus-
Indemnities and pen
toms, excise, ke.
298,985,000
sions
52,449,335
Tobacco monopoly,
Presidency of Council
1,384,217
lottery, mint, and
Ministry of Foreign
minor sundries
170,856,000
Affairs
5,138,192
Revenue from national
,, ,, Justice
59,352,121
property .
35,571. 277
„ War.
142,141,437
From the public trea-
,, ,, Marine
32,005,205
sury.
30,500,000
,, ,, Interior
28.704,504
,, ,, PublicWoi
•ks 77,486,483
,, ,, Finance
18,750,774
Expense of collecting
T
taxes
84,164.S44
Total .
Fernando Po
Total .
750,000
805,551,387
793,115,909
It was arranged in 1881-82 that the bulk of the 8pmish debt
should lie eon verted into a new series of 4 per cents. The follow-
ing table shows the amount of the debt on July 1. 1891. and the
annual interest and amortisation : —
950
SPAIN
Name of Loan
Nominal
Capital in
pesetas
Interest, <fec,
in pesetas
Consolidated 5% due to United States
of America
3,000,000
—
Perpetual External 4% .
1,971,151,000
78,896,040
Perpetual Internal 4% .
1,931,588,391
i- 92,007,772
Inscribed Debt in favour of Civil Cor-
porations ......
356,402,110
Inscribed Debt in favour of the Clergy .
357,160,000
—
External 4% Loan, Amortisable
1,591,680,000
87,813,623
2% Amortisable Loan ....
43,267,000
3,525,375
Due on public works ....
972,000
110,113
Due on public roads ....
492,500
159,168
Arrears due to employes ....
1,555,481
100,000
Loss in exchange .....
Total
—
1,400,000
6,257,268,482
264,012,091
At the same date the annual interest on deposits, the floating
debt, &c, amounted to 15,750,000 pesetas.
The floating debt in December, 1891, amounted to 315,630,000
pesetas. In addition to this, the State has incurred obligations in
respect to the island of Cuba estimated at over 10,000,000/.
Defence.
I. Frontier.
The {Spanish frontiers are defended by the following tort i lied
places: — On the north and north-west coast, Fuenterrahia, the
fortified port of Passages, and the military ports of Santona and
Santander, Ferrol, Corufia, Vigo; in the Basque country, between
the coast and the Ebro, are Bilbao and Vitoria ; in the country
on the left bank of the Ebro are Pamplona, Tafalla, .lata.
Venasqua, Muzon, Puycerda, Seo de Urgel, Balaguer, and Lerida ;
between the Segre and the MediteiTanean arc ( Jardona, Bostalrichj
<ampredon, Ripoll, Gerona, Olot, Cartelfollit, Figueras ; <>n thi
Mediterranean, PalamoS, Barcelona, Tarragona. Malaga, Almeria,
(.Jarthagen.a, ami Alicante ; 'on the Ebro arc Logrono, Tudelaj
Zaragoza, Edequinenza, and Tortosa : south of the Ebro arc
Burgos and Morel la. Along the Portuguese frontier are Toro,
Ciudad Rodrigo, Valencia de Alcantara. Albuquerque, and
Badajoz ; Tarifa and Algeeiras in the Strait of Gibraltar, and
Cadi/ at its entrance
DEFENCE 951
II. Army.
The army of Spain was reorganised in 1868, after the model
of that of France, and by subsequent laws in 1*77. IS78, 1882.
and 1883. Under the new military law, the armed forces of the
Kingdom consist of — 1. A permanent army ; 2. A tir>t or active
reserve; 3. A second or sedentary reserve. All Spaniard-
the age of 20 are liable to be drawn for the permanent army, in
which they have to serve three yean ; they then pass for three
vears into the first or active reserve, and for six years into the
second reserve. By a payment of 1,500 pesetas any one may
purchase exemption from service. For the colonial army the
total period of service is eight years, four with the colours and
four in the second reserve. By increasing the number of depot
battalions, assigning to each reserve battalion a special district,
and making it the essential basis of regimental organisation, both
for recruits and for the reserves, it is hoped that in time Spain
mav be able easily to mobilise in case of necessity an army of
,595 men.
The Spanish regular army is composed as follows : —
Infantry : — 74 regiments of the line of 2 battalions ; 36 battalions of
an : 136 battalions of reserves ; 68 recruiting squadrons. Each
battalion has 6 companies — 2 in skeleton only. There are also a disciplinary
battalion and a school of musketry.
Cavalry .< — A squadron of royal guards (150 strong), 8 lancer regiments,
17 chasseur regiments, 4 dragoon regiments, 2 hussar regiments, in all 31
regiments of 4 squadrons each There are also 28 reserve regiments, and
13 additional squadrons of various kinds.
Artillery : — 5 regiments of 4 batteries, and 5 regiments of 6 batteries.
2 horse batteries, 2 regiments of monntain artillery of 6 batteries, 1 siege
regiment, 12 fortress battalions (6 of 6 companies and 6 of 4 companies).
re regiments, 4 companies of workmen, and 2 companies attached to the
military academy and the central shooting school.
JBngineers: — 4 regiments of 2 battalions of 4 companies, 4 reserve regiments.
1 i egiment of pontooneers of 4 companies, 1 battalion each of railway engineers,
of telegraphists, and of workmen, and 1 brigade of topographists : 1 mixed
battalion of Cuba, 1 battalion of workmen of the Philippine Islands, and 1
special reserve battalion. There is a special body of engineer officers
numbering 451.
Administrative Corps : — 1 brigade of 1 5 sections.
I Onard — partly dependent on the Minister of War : — 1*5 infantry
regiments and 15 cavalry regiments, in all 130 companies
Sanitary Corps: — 1 brigade of 8 sections. There are 4-17 doctors and 82
pharmacists in the anm service.
Carabineers — for service on the frontier, and en the roast to act as custom-
house officials : — 30 regiments of infantry, comprising 84 companies and in
addition 7 mounted companies.
Territorial Army of the Canary Islands: — 1 battalion of chasseurs of 6
companies, and 6 reserve battalions of 4 companies
There is also a volunteer militia in ( Vuta.
952
SPAIN
The following is the strength of the regular army in peace and war
Permanent
War
Permanent'
War
Infantry .
. 51,162
959,667
Carabineers . 13,503
13,503
Cavalry .
. 14,881
38,481
Other formations 8,269
11,481
Artillery .
Engineers
. 10,112
4,315
32 152
12,807
Total . 115,735
1,083,595
Civil Guard
. 15,503
15,503
The contingent for 1891 92 is fixed at 90,916 men. A new regiment of
artillery is being formed.
The number of troops in the Philippines is 16,225, in Cuba 22,454, in Porto
Rico 3,857.
In peace there are 12,713 horses and 422 guns ; in war 22,000 horses and
518 guns.
For military purposes the Kingdom, with the Islands, is divided into 14
districts, or 'capitanias generales,' at the head of each of which stands a
' captain -general. ' It is further subdivided into 14 territorial divisions for in-
fantry, in each of which is a regimental depfit ; for the cavalry there are 24
districts, and 6 for Artillery.
There are in Spain 13 military schools and colleges.
III. Navy.
The following table shows the strength of the Spanish navy in 1891, only
the large guns being given : —
-
Number
Displacement
Hone-power
Guns
Armour-clads : —
Tons
Tons
Turret ships ....
Broadside ships
Monitor ....
1
3
1
9,900
20,150
550
6,800
10,100
330
17
42
3
Floating battery .
Deck-protected cruisers
Torpedo catcher . . .
,, boats ....
23
700
6,900
350
190
17,400
3,800
1
22
1
Submarine boat
1
—
—
Unprotected Vessels: —
Frigates ....
Cruisers, 1st class .
2nd „ . . .
2
6
9
6,330
19,140
9,750
26,800
12,800
40
42 !
50
8 first-class, 7 second-class, 31 third-class gunboats ; 6 torpedo gunboats
and 2 wooden paddle steamers ; 4 transports, 8 school ships, 2 survey ships, II
gun Launches, 3 coast defence gunboats, 5 tugs, 2 sailing corvettes. There are
building 6 belted cruisers, 3 dock-protected cruisers, 6 torpedo gunboats, and •>
gunboats.
For the defence of the colonics, and mainly of Cuba and l'ovto Rico, Spain
maintains a small fleet of gunboats, 68 vessels of all kinds. At Manila >'> twin
screw gunboats are being built.
The navy of Spain was manned In 1891 by 10,000 sailors and 7,000
marines in ait he service, and commanded by one admiral, 21 vice- and rear-
admirals, and 158 commissioned officers of various grades, besides marina
officers, The navy, like the army, is recruited by conscription, naval districts
for this purpose being formed along the coast, among the seafaring population.
PRODUCTION AND IVDT'STRY — POMMERCE
D58
Production and Industry.
Of the soil of Spain 79 65 is classed as productive ; of this 33 "8 per cent
■ted to agriculture aud garden-. 0 7 vineyavd>, 1 6 olive culture, 19"7
natural grass, 20 8 fruits. "Wheat, rje, barley, maize, esparto, flax, heuip,
aud pulse are the leading crops. The vine is the most important culture
(440 million gallons yearly on an average), while large quantities of oranges,
raisins, grapes, nuts, and olives are exported. Of animals, mules and asses and
■beep are imported.
The soil is subdivided among a very large number of proprietors. Of
3,426,083 recorded assessments to the property tax, there arc 624.920
properties which ]>av from 1 to 10 reales ; 511,666 from 10 to 20 reales :
642,377 from 20 to 40 reales ; 788,184 from 40 to 100 reales : 416,546 from
100 to 200 reeks : 165,202 from 200 to 500 reales ; while the rest, to the
number of 279,188, are larger estates charged from 500 to 10,000 reales and
upwards. The subdivision of the soil is partly the work of recent years, for
in 1800 the number of farms amounted only to 677,520, in the hands of
i7;!.760 proprietors and 403,760 farmers.
In 1888 the Agricultural Department estimated the area under vines at
000 acres, ami the total production of wine, 616,000,000 gallons.
Iron, quicksilver, lead, and copper are the most important minerals. In
1888, 5,609,876 tons of ore were produced, valued at 16,829,628 pesetas ; of
this 4.092,402 tons were exported ; the export in 1889 amounted to 4,633,698
tons. The produce of copper in 1888 amounted to 3,202,416 tons, valued at
19,214,496 pesetas ; the export of copper ore in 1888 was 756,943 tons ; in
1889, 720,622 tons. The bulk of these ores go to Great Britain. The value
of mining products at the mouth of the mines in 1887 was 120,372,948
is, and in 1888 125,825,144 pesetas. The value of the lead mines in
1888 was 39,219,950 pesetas, and of argentiferous lead, 27,516,150 pesetas.
In 1S88, 50,269 people were engaged in mining. The total value of the
metallurgical products in 1887 was 157,830,370 pesetas ; in 1888, 186,024,493
pesetas.
Commerce.
The total imports and exports of Spain were as follows in
each of the five years 1886 to 1890 :—
Year
Imports
Exports
Pesetas
Pesetas
1886
855,206,950
727,349,885
1887
811,211,708
722,181,792
1888
716,085,479
763,104,389
1889
866,311,424
896,855,826
1890
941,137,925
937,759,883
The total export of Spanish wines in 1890 amounted to
208,514,321 gallons ; of this, 178,122,230 gallons went to France,
and 4,994.300 gallons to Great Britain. In 1888 the agricultural
department estimated the area under vines at two million hec-
i, and the total production of wine for the same year was
about 616,000,000 gallons. 638,000,000 in 1890,
954
SPAIN
The following table shows the principal imports and exports
for 1890 :—
Imports
Pesetas
Exports
Wine
Pesetas
309,964,782
Cotton, raw
69,772,669
Cotton textiles
12,276,772
Minerals .
98,923,009 ,
Cotton thread .
2,523,117
Fruits .
75,569,526
Wheat .
29,049,800
Lead, iron, copper,
Flour .
7,645,698
and zinc in liars.
Other cereals .
17,751,602
&c.
111,226,178
Coal and coke .
44,596,939
Cork
i 23,851,559
Timber, planks
29,930,902
Wool
8,611,179
Timber, staves
14,580,600
Cattle .
18,219,920
Sugar
45,790,971
Olive oil .
! 13,154,277
Fish
31,299,358
Cotton goods .
23,972. .172
Woollen goods
24,490,799
Boots and shoes
17,378,544
Wool and raw skins
10,680,675
Tartan .
11,676,527
Machinery-
41,082,577
Esparto .
6,071,349
Spirits
26,531,280
Vegetables
9,115,585
Iron and steel .
8,120,491
Saffron .
4,342,800 !
Hardware, rails, tubes
24,615,039
Flour
10,157,893 1
Cattle, sheep, swine.
5,261,650
Hides and skins
9,643,318
Cement, &c.
3,731,216
Paper
6,756,738 I
Hides and skins
17,291,780
Hemp, linen, jute .
9,705,311
Hemp, linen, jute
threads
17,731,917
Chemicals
22,775,507
Coffee .
11,934,025
Cocoa
14,848,178
Silk goods
9,580,099
Silk, raw
6,519,865
The following table shows the shares of the leading countries
in the commerce of Spain in 1889 and 1890, in pesetas —
Country
1889
1890
1889
1890
Imports from
Imports from
Exports to
Exports to ,
France
272,226,007
292,710,497
394,432,582
480,186,166
Great Britain
180,625,263
207,524,548
213,277,746
222,288
United States of
America .
102,046,918
79,893,645
16,19
24,621,662
Germany
53,533,205
44,975,947
14,967,139
11,829,848
Belgium
29,974,342
40,472,983
19,934,940
21, 1 15,419
Russia .
19,658,306
26,355,075
825,683
374,884
Italy .
19,608,582
16,888,260
ll,681
8,082,048
Swclcii ami Nor-
way .
29,030,824
37,189,609
1.117,500
1,488,978
Portugal
16,891,847
84,873,578
18,761
Turkey
12,661,406
8,351,492
.'U>92
—
Spanish Colonies .
74,982,819
94.758,810
112,814,606
122,925
« "MMERCE — SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
The commercial intercourse between Spain and the United Kingdom is
shown in the following table from the Board of Trade Returns : —
Exports to Great Britain . 9,112,025
Imports of British pnxlnce 3,108,636
IMS
4
10,102,225
1888
11,0.-.0,100
3,332,707 3,522.288
I BM
M £
The quantities and value of wine exported to the United Kingdom were
as follows in each of the years from 1886 to 1890 : —
-
18S6
•1.041.:; 1-
.971
4.431.534
1,013,750
1888
UN
1890
Quantities
(gallons)
Value (£)
888,773
3,803,346
866,037
4,007,085
90>
i lea wine, the following were the leading exports from Spain to the
United Kingdom in 1889 and 1890 :—
The chief British imports into Spain were linen yarn and linens, of the
value of 210,677?. : iron, wrought and unwronght, of the value of 595,837/. ;
coals, of the value of 1,162,333/. ; machinerv, 658,114 ; cotton eoods. of the
value of 318,443/. : and woollen. 294.661/. in 1890.
Shipping and Navigation.
The merchant navy of the Kingdom consisted, on Jan. 1, 1S90, of 963
(of 100 tons and overt, of a total burthen of 560,673 tons, comprising
357 steamers, of 405,824 gross tonnage, with 69,820 horse-power, and
57,070 smaller vessels, of 342.000 tons.
In 1889 there entered 18,161 vessels, of 11,528,398 gross tonnage, of which
1 ,72 . of 4.903,240 gross tonnage, carried the Spanish flag and cleared 11.555
of 12.7.">8,024 gross tonnage, of which 7.964." nt' 6; 570, 163
tannage, carried the Spanish flag.
95(5 SPAIN
Internal Communications.
The length of railways in Spain on January 1, 1889, was 6,043 English
miles. The whole of the Spanish railways belong to private companies, bat
nearly all have obtained guarantees or subventions from the Government.
The Post Office carried 112,351,000 letters, 1,141,000 post-cards, 114,000
registered letters of a declared value of 150,476,000 pesetas, and 50,752,000
papers, samples, &c, in the year 1889. There were 2,880 post-offices in
1889.
The length of lines of telegraphs in Spain on January 1, 1890, was
15,000 English miles ; and the length of wire 34,450 English miles. In the
year 1889 the total number of telegraph messages was 4,240,428, one-fourth of
the whole international, and one-fifth of the remaining number administrative
despatches. The number of telegraph offices in 1890 was 1,088.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Spain, and the British equivalents,
are as follows : —
Money.
The Peseta = 9'6 pence, or 25 '225 pesetas = 11.
The Real ( = \ peseta) and the Escudo ( = 10 reales) have been suppressed.
Weights and Measures.
On January 1, 1859, the metric system of weights and measures was
introduced in Spain. But, besides these, the old weights and measures arc
still largely used. They are: — The Quintal = 101 "4 lbs. avoirdupois: thr
Libra = 1-014 lbs. avoirdupois ; the Arroba, for wine = 3£ imperial gallons ;
for oil = 2f imperial gallons ; the Square Vara = 1*09 vara = 1 yard : the
Fanega =1£ imperial bushel.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Spain in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — The Marquis Casa la Iglesia. «
Secretary. — Don Jose de la Rica y Calvo.
Military Attache". — Colonel T. Bernmdcz Reina.
There arc Consular representatives at London (('.<!.). Cardiff, Dublin,
Glasgow, Liverpool, Newcastle ; Adelaide, Bombay, Calcutta, Cape Town,
Hong Kong, Jamaica, Malta, Melbourne, Quebec (CO.), Singapore, Sydney.
2. Of Great Britain in Spain.
Ambassador. -Right Hon. Sir Henry Drummond-AVolff, G.C.B., G.C.M.G. ;
Envoy to Persia, 1887 to 1891 ; Envoy to Koutnania. 1691 92. Appoint^
Ambassador to Spain January 1892.
Secretary. — Hon. Henry <). Kdwards.
There are Consular representatives at Madrid. liaivelona, Bilbao, Coinna.
Fernando Po, Havana (('.(!.), Malaga, Manila. I'ahna (Balearic Islands), Portd
Kico, Cuba (C.G.), Tenerifi'e.
COLON I ES
957
Colonies.
The area and population of the various poaaeauons claimed by Spain arc
as follows : —
Colonial Possessions
Ana : English
squan
13,220
3,550
Population
1. Possessions in America :
Cuba
Torto Kieo
1,521
806,708
Total. America ....
2. Possession* in Aria :
Philippine Islands .....
Sulu Islands ......
Caroline Islands and l'alaos .
.Marianne Islands .....
Total. Asia .....
3. Possessions in Africa ;
Rio de Oro ami Adrar ....
Ifni (near Cape Nun) ....
Fernando Po, Annabon, Corisco, Elobey,
San Juan ......
46,770
114,326
950
560
420
2,328,400
7,000,000
75.000
36,000
10,172
116,256
■2l.-j.000
22
850
7.121,172
100,000
6,000
30,000
Total, Africa
Total Possessions ....
243,877 106,000
406,903 9,585. 572
For administrative purposes the Canary Islands are considered jKirt of
Bpain. Rio de Oro and Adrar are under the governorship of the Canary
Islands, with a sul '-governor resident at Rio de Oro. The country on the
hanks of the rivers Muni and Camjio is elaimed hy S]>ain, hut disputed by
Frame ; it has an area of 69,000 square miles and a population of 500,000.
The extent of the Bulu Archipelago under the S]>anish protection i.»
defined, in a protocol signed at Madrid, March 7. 18S5. by representatives of
ureal Britain, Germany, and Bpain, as including all the islands lying between
the western extremity of the island of Mindanao on the one side, and the
islands of Borneo and Aragua on the other : excluding all parts of Borneo,
and the islands within a zone of three maritime leagues of the coast.
CUBA AND PORTO BICO.
Cuba is divided into three provinces, the south-east and central being the
richest and most populous, containing 22 cities and towns and 204 villages
and hamlets. Ten per cent, of the area is cultivated. 7 i>er cent,
is unreclaimed, and 4 per cent, is under forests. There are large tracts of
country still unexplored. The population of the island in 1877 was made up
as follows : Spaniards. 977,992 ; foreign whites, 10,632 ; Chinese, 43,811 :
958 SPAIN :— CUBA AND PORTO RICO
negroes, 489,249. A law passed in 1886 abolished slavery absolutely. The
capital, Havana, has (December 1887) 198,271 inhabitants, and the other most
important towns are Matanzas, 87,760 ; Santiago de Cuba, 71,307 ; Cien-
fuegos, 65,067 ; Puerto Principe, 46,641 ; Holguin, 34,767 ; Sancti Spiritu,
32,608. Education was made obligatory in Cuba in 1880. The Cuban armed
forces, which consist of infantry, cavalry, and artillery (including a black
militia battalion), are restricted on a peace footing to 20,414 men. An
English consular report stated that in August 1889 the public debt amounted
to some 37,200,000Z., which absorbed 1,800,0002. to meet the annual interest.
The same authority estimates the annual income of the inhabitants of the
island at 16,000,0002. The estimated budget for 1890-91 placed the receipts
for the year at 25,815,376 pesos, of which 14,971,300 was put down to
customs ; and the expenditure at 25,446,807 pesos, of which 10,447,267 pesos
were required for the debt, 6,229,427 pesos for the Ministry of "War, and
4, 237, 862 pesos for the Ministry of the Interior. Sugar is the chief export from
Cuba. It is estimated that the quantity produced was 670,225 tons in 1879,
460,397 tons in 1883, 731,723 tons in 1886, 646,578tons in 1887, and 656,719
tons in 1888. In the last two years the production of molasses was 153,015
and 157,791 tons. The yearly produce of tobacco in Cuba is about 300,000
bales. From the port of Havana 182,636 bales were exported in 1888, as
against 175,364 bales in 1887, Nearly 220,000,000 cigars were also exported
from Havana, as against 162,750,000 in 1887. The total value of the
principal articles of export from Havana for 1888 was 5,856,3672., and of the
imports 2,523,1712. Rice was the principal import, its value being 771,0262.,
then lard, 598, 2362., and jerked beef, 413,3132. ; flour (American), 347,2202. :
(Spanish) 229,0712. The Spanish official returns .state the value of the
exports from Cuba to Spain for 1889 to be 34,767,153 Spanish pesetas,
and the imports from Spain 82,718,564 pesetas. In 1888 1,058 vessels
(111 British, of 90,795 tons) of 1,266,104 tons entered the port of Havana.
and 1,121 (107 British, of 87,916 tons) of 1,330,403 tons cleared the port. In
Cuba there are 2,810 miles of telegraph, and about 1,000 miles of railway.
A loan of 8,000,0002. was authorised in 1885 to complete the Cuban
railways.
I 'orto Rico is described as 'the healthiest of all the Antilles.' Its negro
population is estimated at over 300,000. An act for the abolition of Blaverj
was passed by the National Assembly on March 23, 1873. Chief town. San
Juan, 23,414 inhabitants; Ponce, 37,545 ; San German, 30,146. The Porto
BlCO budget for 1890-91 gave an estimated expenditure of 3,633,583 pesos, of
which the Ministry of Finance absorbed 615,863 pesos, ami War 1,048,538
pesos, and an estimated income of 3,683,100 pesos, of which the customs were
estimated to produce 2,466,000 pesos, ami dued ami indirect taxes 787,400
pesos. The principal articles of export are coffee, of 8,212,886 pesos in 18S9 :
sugar, 3,730,586 pesos ; tobacco, 1,292,030 pesos. The total exports in
1889 were 14,065,585 pesos, and imports 14,177,577 pesos. The value of the
exports of Porto Rico to Spain in 1889 was 15,937.617 Spanish pesetas,
ami the imports from Spain 16,385,434 pesetas. In 1889, 1,283 vessels of
1,223,831 tons entered, and 1,266 vessels of 1,093,593 tons cleared, Porto
Rico.
The total value of the exports from Ouba and Porto Rico to the United
Kingdom in 1890 was 127,8732. (984,9762. in 1885) : ami the imports of British
produce were of the value of 1,876,766,
The staple articles of export from Cuba ami I'orto Etico to the United
Kingdom are: — Unrefined sugar, the value of which was ! 299,7642. in 1879 :
770,6732. in 1880 ; 714,1242. in 1882 ; 15,4592. in 1886 ; 109,5202. in 1887 ;
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS
222,944* in 188b : tad 14.2307. in 1889 : 31.597 in 1890 : fa 9,26U
in 1885 ; 2,180/. in 1889 : and 582* in 1890 : wood, 41,978
in 1890. The British import! mainly comprise cotton manufactures, 668,902/. ;
linens of 42t>.972/. ; iron, wrought ami unwrought. 216,5884. in 1890. In
Porto Rico there are 170 miles of telegraph and 12 miles of railway.
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
These island- extern) almost dne north and south Emm Formosa to Borneo
and the Moluccas, embracing an extent of 16; of latitude and 9° of longitude.
They an oyer fuu in aumber : the two largest are Luzon ami Mindanao.
There is a small resident Spanish population, bnt a largo number of d
The native inhabitants are mostly ox the Malayan race, but than are some
bribes of Negritos. The Government is administered by a governor-general
and a captain-general,rand the 48 mormon am roled by governors, akalc
commandants, according to their importance ami position. A change of
focal policy of some importance was introduced in 1889 by the al>olitioii of
all export duties BETS that on tobacco, ami tin- imposition of a general duty of
50 ]K'i cent, on imports.
The estimated revenue of the Philippine Islands in 1890 was 9. SO 7
(dollars] and expenditure 11,201,810 |
Tin' chief articles of produce of the Philippine Islands are sugar, hemp, and
The total export of sugar in 1887 was 186,000 tons; in 1889,
0 tons : in 1890, 1 17..">2»> toils : of hemp, :>14.i<73 hales (8 bales =1 ton)
in 1887, 861,482 in 1888. 568,571 in 1889, 506,166 in 1890: of tobacco,
ens. and 11O.OU0.UO0 cigars in 1890 ; coffee, 4,796 tons in 1890. The
due of all imports in 1 SSS was '21.208.44") dollars, and exports,
- i>4o dollars. The vain, of the exports of the Philippine Islands to
Spain in 1889 was 23, 102,360 pesetas ; imports from Spaiu, 8,662,588 pesetas.
Tin total exports to Great Britain in 1890 were of the value of 1,647,708/.,
and the imports of British produce of 99S,412/. The chief articles of ex i>ort
t Britain in 1890 were hemp, of the value of 1,232,497/.. and unrefined
of the value of 300,688/. Of the British imports in 1S90, the value of
824,979/. was represented by cotton manufactures. In 1887, 438 vessels, of
•">."• V. '.>>>!> tons, entered, and 486, of 345,350 tons, cleared, the ]>orts of the
Philippine Islands. The capital of the Philippines. Manila, has 270,000
Inhabitants (1880); other towns are Laoag. 36,639: San Miguel. 3;
Banang, 33. 106; Cabecera, 29,057. There are 720 miles of telegraph in the
islands, and 16 miles of railway.
The total value of imports into Spain from Spanish colonies in 1888 was
925 pesetas, and in 1889, 73.807.160 pesetas : and the exports to the
colonies in 1888, 88,506,537 i>esetas, and in 1889, 107,766,586 pesetas.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Spain.
1. Ot-'KICI.YT. PfRLICATIONS.
Auuario nficial de correct y telegratba de Kspafia. Madrid, 1801.
Amiarin de primera enseiianza correspondiente a 1886. Madrid, 1SS7.
Boletin mensual de estadistica demografico-sanitaria de la peninsula e islas adjacentes.
Annual.
de la pnblacion en BspaSa. 1SS7. Madrid, 1889.
•listica general de comercio exterior de Espafia, con sus provincial de ultramar v
is rxtmngeras en 1889; fonnada por la Direcckm General de Adnanas. 8. Madrid
Be.
960
SPAIN
Estado general de la armada para el afio de 1891. Madrid, 1891.
Estadistica general de primera ensefianza correspondiente al decenio que termini) in 3i
de Diciembre de 1SS0. Madrid, 1883.
Estadistica mineral de Espaiia, correspondiente al afio de 1888. Madrid, 1890.
Uaceta de Madrid. 1891. »
Lisla oflcial de los buques de guerra y meicantes de la marina Espaiiola. Madrid, ItsOl.
Memoria sobre las obras piiblicas de 18S9. Madrid, 1891.
Situacion de los ferro-carriles en 1° de Enero de 1S91. Madrid, 1891.
Presupuestos generales del estado para el afio economico 1891-92. Madrid, 1890.
Resena geografica y estadistica de Espaiia por la Direccion General del Institute
Geografico y Estadistico. Madrid, 1888.
Diplomatic and Consular Reports from Spain and her Colonies. London, 1S91.
Report on the Tobacco Industry of Cuba, in No. 116, 'Reports nn Subjects of General
[nterest,' 1S89.
Trade ol iSpain with Great Britain, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the Year 1890.' Imp. 4.
London, 1891.
2. Non-Offiuial Publications.
Davillier (Baron Ch.), L'Espagne. 4. Paris. 1873.
Foreman (John), The Philippine Islands. London, 1891.
Garrido (Fernando), La Espafia conteniporanea. 8. Barcelona. 1S0">.
Gomez de Arteche (J.), Geografla de Espafia. Madrid, 1880.
.lagor(F.), Reisen in den Philippine!!. S. Berlin, 1873.
Lavigne (Germond de), L'Espagne et le Portugal. 8. Paris, 1883.
Madoz (Pascual), Diccionario geogiafieo, estadistico e historico de Espaiia y sus pro-
vincias de ultrainar. 10 vols. 4. Madrid, ISMi-.'iO.
Masade (Ch. de), Les revolutions de l'Espagne. 8. Paris, 1SC9.
Muro Martinez (J .), Constitucioncs de Espafia. 2 vols. Madrid, 1881.
Murray 's Handbook of Spain. London, 1888.
Polin (D. Jose Lopez), Diccionario estadistico municipal de Espafia. t. Madrid, 1803.
-Reciu* (Elisee), Geographic universelle. Vol. I. Paris, 1879.
Scve(Vj.), La situation economiqne de I'Sspagne. Bruxelles, 1SS7.
Webster (Rev. Wentwortti), Spain, in 'Foreign Countries and British Possessions.'
London, 1882.
Willkomm (Heinrich Morite), Das pyreitaische Ilalbinselland. S. Leipzig, 1S80.
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
(SVERIGE OCH NOBGE.)
Reigning King.
Oscar II.. born January 21, 1829; the third son of King
Oscar I., and of Queen Josephine, daughter of Prince Eugene of
Leuchtenberg. Succeeded to the throne at the death of his
brother, King Carl XV., Sept. 18, 1872. Married June 6, 1857,
to Queen Sophia, born July 9, 1836, daughter of the late Duke
Wilhelm of Nassau.
Children of the King.
I. Prince Gustqf, Duke of Wermland, born June 16, 1858.
Married Sept. 20, 1881, to Princess Victoria, born Aug. 7, 1862,
. daughter of the Grand Duke of Baden. Issue, Prince Gustaf
Adolf, Duke of Scania, born Nov. 11, 1882; Prince Carl Wil-
helm, Duke of Sodermanland, born June 17, 1884; and Prince
Erik Ludvig Albert, Duke of Vestmanland, born April 20,
1889.
II. Prince Carl, Duke of Westergotland, born Feb. 27, 1861.
III. Prince Eugen, Duke of Nerike, born Aug. 1, 1865.
TV. Prince Oscar Bemadotte, born Nov. 15, 1859. Married
March 15, 1888, to Ebba Munck of Fulkila, born Oct. 24, 1858.
King Oscar II. is the fourth sovereign of the House of Ponte
Corvo, and grandson of Marshal Bernadotte, Prince de Ponte
Corvo, who was elected heir-apparent of the crown of Sweden by
the Parliament of the Kingdom, Aug. 21, 1810, and ascended the
throne Feb. 5, 1818, under the name of Carl XIV. Johan. He
| was succeeded at his death, March 8, 1844, by his only >on
■Oscar. The latter died July 8, 1859, and was succeeded by his
eldest son Carl XV., at whose premature death, without male
children, the crown fell to his next surviving brother, the present
King.
The royal familv of Sweden and Norway have a civil list of
1,338,000 kronor, or 74,333*., from Sweden, and 433,922 kronor,
or 24,106/., from Norway. The sovereign, besides, has an annuity
of 300,000 kronor, or 16,666/., voted to King Carl XIV. and his
successors on the throne of Sweden.
The following is a list of the kings and queens of Sweden,
with the dates of their accession, from the accession of the House
<rf Vasa : —
3 Q
962
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — SWEDEN
House of Vasa.
Gustaf I 1521
Eric XIV.. .... 1560
Johan III 1568
Sigismund .... 1592
Carl IX 1599
Gustaf II. Adolph . . 1611
Christina . . . .1632
House of Pfaltz.
Carl X 1654
Carl XI 1660
Carl XII 1697
Ulrika Eleonora . . . 1718
Fredrik I.
House of Hesse.
172C
House of Holstein-Gottorp.
Adolph Fredrik . . . 1751
Gustaf III. . . 1771
Gustaf IV. Adolf. . . 1792
Carl XIII 1809
House of Ponte Corvo.
Carl XIV. . . . . 1818
Oscar 1 1844
Carl XV 1859
Oscar II 1872
By the treaty of Kiel, Jan. 14, 1814, Norway was ceded to the King of
Sweden by the King of Denmark, but the Norwegian people did not recognise
this cession, and declared themselves independent. A Constituent Assembly
met at Eidsvold, and having adopted, on May 17, a Constitution, elected the
Danish Prince Christian Fredrik King of Norway. The Swedish troops, how-
ever, entered Norway without serious resistance, and, the foreign Powers re-
fusing to recognise the newly elected King, the Norwegians were obliged to
conclude, August 14, the Convention of Moss, by which the independency of
Norway in union with Sweden was solemnly proclaimed. An extraordinary
Storthing was then convoked, which adopted the modifications in the Constitu-
tion made necessary by the union with Sweden, and then elected King Carl X 1 1 1 .
King of Norway, November 4, 1814. The following year was promulgated a
charter, the Riksakt, establishing new fundamental laws on the terms that the
union of the two Kingdoms be indissoluble and irrevocable, without prejudice,
however, to the separate government, constitution, and code of laws of either
Sweden or Norway.
The law of succession is the same in Sweden and Norway. In case of
absolute vacancy of the throne, the two Diets assemble for the election of the
future sovereign, and should they not lie able to agree upon one person, an
equal number of Swedish and Norwegian deputies have to meet at the city of
Karlstad, in Sweden, for the appointment of the king, this nomination to lie
absolute. The common affairs arc decided upon in a Council of State
composed of Swedes and Norwegians. In case of minority of the king, the
Council of State exercises the sovereign power until a regent or council of
regency is appointed by the united action of the Diets of Sweden and
Norway.
1. SWEDEN.
Constitution and Government.
I. Central Government.
The fundamental laws of the Kingdom of Sweden are : — 1. The
Constitution or Regerings-formen of June 6, 1809 ; 2. The
amended regulations for the formation of the Diet of June '2'1.
1866 ; $. The law of royal succession of September 26, 1810 ; and
4. The law on the liberty of tbe press of July 16, 1812. Accord-
ing to these statutes, the king must be a member of the Lutheran
Church, and have sworn fealty to the laws of the land. His
person is inviolable. He has the right to declare war and make
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT 963
peace, after consulting the Council of State. He nominates to
all higher appointments, both military and civil ; concludes
foreign treaties, and has a right to preside in the supreme Court
of Justice. The princes of the blood royal, however, are excluded
from all civil employments. The king possesses legislative power
in matters of political administration, but in all other respects
that power is exercised by the Diet in concert with the sovereign,
and every new law must have the assent of the crown. The
right of imposing taxes is, however, vested in the Diet. This
Diet, or Parliament of the realm, consists of two Chambers, both
elected by the people. The First Chamber consists (1891) of 147
members, or one deputy for every 30,000 of the population. The
election of the members takes place by the ' Landstings,' or pro-
vincial representations, 25 in number, and the municipal corpora-
tions of the towns, not already represented in the ' Landstings,'
Stockholm, Goteborg, Malmo, and Norrk oping. All members of
:rst Chamber must be above 35 years of age, and must have
-sed for at least three years previous to the election either
real property to the taxed value of 80,000 kronor, or 4,444/., or
an annual income of 4,000 kronor, or 223/. They are elected for
the term of nine years, and obtain no payment for their servict-s.
Tin- Second Chamber consists (Autumn 1891) of 228 members, of
whom 76 are elected by the towns and 146 by the rural districts, one
representative being returned for every 10,000 of the population
of towns, one for every ' Doinsaga,' or rural district, of under
40,000 inhabitants, and two for rural districts of over 40,00* • in-
habitants. All natives of Sweden, aged 21, possessing real
Hpperty to the taxed value of 1,000 kronor, or 56/., or farming,
for a period of not less than five years, landed property to the
Hbced value of 6,000 kronor, or 333/., or paying income tax on an
I annual income of 800 kronor, or 45/., are electors ; and all
natives, aged 25, possessing, and having possessed at least one
| year previous to the election, the same qua liri cat ions, may be elected
members of the Second Chamber. The number of qualified
[Motors to the Second Chamber in 1890 was 288,096, or 6-0 of the
[population; only 110,896, or 38*5 of the electors, actually voted.
[In the smaller towns and country districts the election may either
be direct or indirect, according to the wish of the majority. The
•hi is for the term of three years, and the members obtain
^Hpies for their services, at the rate of 1,200 kronor, or 67/., for
. ach session of four months, besides travelling expenses. The
[salaries and travelling expenses of the deputies are paid out of the
.public purse. The members of both Chambers are elected by
I Fallot, both in town and country.
3 Q 2
964 SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — SWEDEN
The executive power is in the hands of the King, who acts under the advic
of a Council of State, the head of which is the Minister of State. It consisl
often members, seven of whom are ministerial heads of departments and tint
without department, and is composed as follows : —
1. Erik Gustaf Bostrdm, Minister of State ; appointed July 10, 1891.
2. Count Carl Lcivcnhaupt, Minister of Foreign Affairs ; appointed Octobe
12, 1889.
3. August Ostcrgren, Minister of Justice ; appointed June 12, 1889.
4. Baron Nils Axel Hjalmar Palmsticma, Minister of War ; appoint©
February 6, 1888.
5. Baron Carl Gustaf von Otter, Minister of Marine ; appointed April 19
1880.
6. Victor Lennart Groll, Minister of the Interior ; appointed October 12
1889.
7. Baron Fredrik von Essen, Minister of Finance ; appointed February fi
1888.
8. Gunnar Wennerbery, Minister of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs
appointed February 6, 1888.
9. Baron Albert Lars Evert Akerhielm ; appointed September 28, 1888.
10. Sven Herman Wikblad ; appointed October 12, 1889.
All the members of the Council of State are responsible for the acta 1
the Government.
II. Local Government.
The provincial administration is entrusted in Stockholm to a Governor
General, and in each of the 24 governments to a prefect, who is nominated h;
the King. As executive officers of the prefects there are 117 baillies (Krono
fogdar) and 526 sub-officers (Liinsmiin). The right of the people to regulatt
their own local affairs is based on the communal law of March 21, lS<;-2. EacJ
rural parish, and each town, forms a commune or municipality in which al
who pay the local taxes are voters. Each commune has a communal or muni
cipal council. The communal assembly or municipal council decides on al
questions of administration, police and communal economy. Ecclesiastics
affairs and questions relating to primary schools are deall with by the nana
assemblies, presided over by the pastor of the parish. When necessary thj
communal councils and the parish assemblies hold joint meetings. Rac
government has a general council which regulates the internal affairs of thj
government. The council meets annually for a few days in September undJ
a president appointed by the King. The members are elected by the town
and provincial districts. Towns having a population of over 25,000 ail
administered separately by their municipal councils : these towns are Stockholnj
Goteborg, Malum, and Nnrrkoping.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The fust census took place in 174!*, and it was repented >■
first every third year, ami subsequently, after 1775, every flffl
year. At present, a general census is taken every ten yeaifl
beside which there are annual numerations of the people.
The area and population of Sweden, according to the eensusi-JJ
AREA AND POPULATION
1)05
taken on December 31, 1880, and December 31, 1890, the latter
preliminary, are shown in the following table : —
Goveruim-uts (Lan)
Ana: English Population Population Density i«er
square miles I Dec 31, 1880 Dec 31, 1890 square wile
)lm (city)
Stockholm (rural district
tJpnla .
Sodermanland
Ostergotland
Jonkoping
Kronoberg
it .
od .
Kh-kinge .
as tad
ihoa
Goteborg and Bohus
irg .
land
o
D inland
Kopparberg
Vesternorrland
and
:botten
Norrl>otten
Lakes Venern, Vettern, &c.
Total
13
4,243
4,4^4
3,841
4,438
1,203
1,164
2,507
1,847
1,899
1,952
4,948
3,307
s,tai
2,623
11,421
7,418
9,530
19,593
21,942
40,563
3,517
170,979
168,775
111,019
147,186
267,133
169,736
245,105
230,619
349,310
135,299
261,114
288,947
257,942
268,417
128,491
190,133
178,728
169,195
83,623
106,435
90,761
246,154
121,097
154,989 |
266,615
193,703
160,389 |
232,848 .
51,339
221,697
368,820
136,110
297,780
275,795
247,075
253,328
182,556
206,924
208,758
100,455
104,783
19,000
50
59
60
62
43
40
52
43
188
87
198
71
152
54
34
51
51
17
5
5
g
4,565,668 14,784,675
87
In 1890 there were 2,317,105 males and 2,467,570 females.
The growth of the population has been as follows : —
Population
2,347,303
2,584,690
3,138,887
3,482,541
Increase per ct.
per annum
0-5
107
1-09
Year
1860
1870
1880
1890
Population
3,859,728
4,168,525
".,668
4,784,675
Increase per ct.
per annum
1-08
0 80
0 95
0 50
With the exception of 16,976 Finns, 6,404 Lapps, and about 18,000
of foreign birth (mostly from Norway, Denmark, and Germany), the
Bwedish population is entirely of the Scandinavian branch of the Aryan
In 1880 the foreign-born population numbered 18,587, of whom 3,289
Sjre born in Germany, 4,575 in Denmark, 4,433 in Norway, 3,402 in Finland,
1,03? in Russia, and 506 in England.
According to civil condition the population was divided as follows in
1880 :—
966
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — SWEDEN
Male
Female
1 -
Male
Female
Unmarried
Married
1,380,698
755,714
1,400,294
759,872
, Widowed .
Divorced
77,831
1,000
188,200
2,059
The following table shows the leading occupations of the people, including
the families and dependents of those directly employed : —
Agriculture, &c. :
Landed and farm proprietors
Farmers, overseers, &c.
Planters, <Src.
Crofters, cottagers, <fec.
Dairy-keepers
Gardeners
Fisheries ....
Mining and metal works .
1,238,126
271,752
481,752
318,608
6,872
11,859
28,875
157,786
Timber works
Various manufactures
Trade and locomotion
Officials and military
Learning and literature
Medicine, <tc.
Owners, pensioners, &c.
Mechanics, servants, &c
Various .
88,926
884,654
222,291
206,093
84,787
34,144
251,185
782,099
51,982
II.
1.
Movement of the Population.
Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
Year
Total living
Births
Of which
Illegitimate
Stillborn
Marriages
Deaths
exclushr of
Stillborn
Surplus of
Births over
Deaths
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
137,308
139,882
140,169
136,451
132,069
14,294
14,337
14,785
13,872
13,228
4,008
3,952
3,850
3,762
3,517
30,911
30,133
29,517
28,075
28,478
82,781
78,045
76,227
75,831
76,124
54,527
61,837
63,942
60,620
55,945
2. Emigration.
Year
Immi-
grants
Total
Emigrants
To Ami
Year
Immi-
grants
Total
Emigrants
To An
1884
1885
1886
4,911
.".,792
5,224
23,493
82,889
17,664
18,222
27,913
1887
1888
1889
4,642
4,821
5,504
50,786
88,868
III. Principal Towns.
The population id' Sweden is mainly rural. In 1871 the town populatioi
numbered only 551,106, and in 1889, 883,742, showing an increasi
MI cent., or more than four times the rate of the general average of th<
Kingdom.
The following towns had nunc than 10,000 inhabitants at the end o
1890 :— Stockholm, 246,564: Cotel.org, 104,657: Malum, -18,504
Nottkoping, 82,820; Gefle, 28,484; Dpaala, 21,511; Karlskrona, 20,618
Jonkoptag, L9,682{ Hebingbom 20,410; Lund, 16,023 ; 0ivl.ro, 1-1,547
Linkdping, 12,649 ; Sundsvall, 18,215 ; Kalniar, 11,772 : Lamlskiona, 12,253
llalmstad, 11,825; Soderhamii, 10,098; kristianstad, 10,070; Eshilsttuia
10,909.
RELIGION — JUSTICE AND CRIME 967
Religion.
The mass of the population adhere to the Lutheran Protestant Chun h,
recognised as the State religion. There are 12 bishoprics, and 2,410 rural
parish churches and chapels in 1891. At the census of 1880, the number of
' Evangelical Lutherans ' was returned at 4,544,434, the Protestant Diss.
Ptotirtw, Methodist.-, and others numbering 16,911, including 6,091
unbaptized children. Of other creeds, there were 810 Roman Catholi
Greek-Catholics, 89 Irvingites, 2,993 Jews, and 414 Mormons. No civil dis-
abilities attach to those not of the national religion. The clergy are chiefly
supported from the parishes and the proceeds of the Church lands.
Instruction.
The Kingdom has two universities, at Upsala and Luud, the former
frequented by 1,749 and the latter by 811 students in the autumn of 1890.
Education is well advanced in Sweden. In 1S90 there were 78 public high
schools, with 14,22S pupils ; 25 people's high schools, 904 pupils ; 12 normal
schools for elementary school teachers, 832 pupils ; 2 high and 6 elementary
technical schools ; 10 navigation schools, 483 pupils : 19 institutions and
schools for deaf mutes and blinds ; besides uu-dical schools, military schools,
veterinary and other special schools. Public eleim-ntary instruction is
gratuitous and compulsory, and children not attending schools under the
supervision of the Government most furnish proofs of having been privately
■TOOted. In 1889 there were 10,516 elementary schools, with 1
is and 690,253 pupils. In 1889 the expenditure on elementary education
-.514,821 kronor, of which more than one-fourth came from the national
funds. Among the recruits (Bevaring) of 1888 only 0"1 per cent, were
unlettered, only 1 *7 per cent, unable to write.
Justice and Crime.
The administration of justice is entirely independent of the Government.
Two functionaries, the Justitie-Kansler, or Chancellor of Justice, and the
Justitie-Ombudsman, or Attorney-General, exercise a control over the adnii-
ion. The former, appointed by the King, acts also as a counsel for the
Crown : while the latter, who is appointed by the Diet, has to extend a
general supervision over all the courts of law. The Kingdom, which possesses
one Supreme Court of Judicature, is divided into 3 high court districts and
206 district courts divisions, of which 90 are urban districts and 116 country
districts.
In town these district courts (or courts of first instance) are held by the
burgomaster and his assessors ; in the country by a judge and 12 jurors —
peasant proprietors — the judge alone deciding, unless the jurors unanimously
differ from him, when their decision prevails. In Sweden trial by jury only
exi»t> for affairs of the press.
In 1889, 1,498 men and 239 women were sentenced for serious crimes ; at
the end of 1889, 2,176 hard-labour prisoners.
Pauperism.
Each commune is bound to assist children under 15 years of age, if their
circumstances require it, and all who from age or disease are unable to support
In other cases the communal poor board decides what course to
take. Each commune and each town (which may be divided) constir
listrict, and in each is a board of public assistance. In 1889 these
di-ui 1 workhouses and similar establishments to the number of
1,812, capable of lodging 40,226 people.
968
SWEDEN AND NORWAY : — SWEDEN
The number of paupers in 1860 was 132,982 ; in 1870, 204,378 ; in 1880,
219,532 ; in 1889, 242,852. Of the last 69,361 were in the towns.
Finance.
The budgets of revenue and expenditure for the years 1891
and 1892 were established as follows : —
Revenue
1891
1892
Expenditure
1891
1892
Kronor
Kronor
Kronor
Kronor
Domains, railway,
land taxes, &c. .
20,520,000
20,490,000
(a) Ordinary :
Customs
38,000,000
38,000,000
Royal Household
1,320,000
1,320,000
Post .
7,380,000
7,700,000
Justice
3,849,306
3,864,107
Stamps
3,600,000
3,(300,000
Foreign Affairs .
613,800
600,759
Impost on spirits,
Army
20,449,200
20,670,000
<fcc.
14,300,000
15,300,000
Navy .
6,204,240
6,258,690
Impost on income
4,050,000
4,1S0,000
Interior
4,732,077
4,800,S66
Net profit of the
Education and
State Bank
1,300,000
1,850,000
Ecclesiastical
Surplus from the
Affaire
11,940,008
l2i884,88S
previous years .
5,750,000
5,887,000
Finance
16,153,466
16,340,066
Pensions .
(ft) Extraordinary .
(c) Expenditure thro'
2,914,300
2,915,550
68,183,147
09,101,311
ir,,.v_>:i,s;,:;
16,406,389
the Riksgiilds-
kontor :
Payment of
loans and Mis-
cellaneous
(Diet, &c.)
10,031,800
10,495,000
(d) Carried Ui float-
ing capital .
8*1, 1
954,000
I'uimI for redeem-
ing of rents from
copyholds .
170,900
—
i-'iiii.i for building
■ new hiinse for
the Diet and the
Stat* Hank .
360,000
9 >",
Pond for Insurance
against accidents
of workcM .
Total expenditure.
100,000
94,950,000
109)400
97,007,000
Total revenue .
94,950,000
97,007,000
The extraordinary expenditure consisted of 2,172,800 kronor for the army,
2,143,110 kronor for the navy, and the remainder for the interior, pubfld
win-ship, education, and pensions. The land tax (including the maintenance
of the army Inddta) amounts to an average of 2s. per head of the population
The value of the land ami house property of Sweden is thus returned for
1890 :—
FINANCE — DEFEN< K
969
Taxed :
Agricultural land in the country
,, ,, in the towns .
Other real estate in the country
„ ,, ,, in the towns .
Total (1890) .
Untaxed real estate (1889) :
National
Belonging to
commonal;
academies, &c.
I In tin- oountry
I In the tow
the country
the towns
is
Total (1890)
Kronor
2,159,015,835
»3,256
304,171,010
1,107,110,915
3,613,701,016
.10,085
57,603,905
98,777,800
104,61.:..".."..".
393,304,345
4,007,005,361
Grand total (1890)
The expenditure for the ( .'hureh is chiefly defrayed by the parishes and out of
the revenue of land. I estates belonging to the Church, and the amounts do
not appear in the budget estimates. A great part of the cost for maintaining
the army Indelta also does not appear in the l.udget. The expenses for
public instruction are in great part defrayed by the parishes.
On January 1, 1891, the public liabilities of the Kingdom, eontt
entirely for railways, were as follows : —
Kronor
Funded railway loan of 1860 without interest . . 1,031,111
16,665,432
. 111,078,000
. 49,625,333
18,890,500
. 26,666,667
35,555,556
w> .
, 4
1880,
, 4
1886,
, 3*
1887 ,
1888,
, 3
1890,
,H
Total . . . 259,512,599
All the loans are paid off gradually by means of sinking funds. The debt
amounts to about 21. 18*. per head of the population, and the interest to about
2*. 6d. ; but as the railway receipts exceed two-thirds of the interest, the
charge per head is nominal.
The income of the communes in 1890 was 63,415,373 kronor, and the
expenditure 61,484,502 kronor. Their assets amounted to 238,590,316
kronor, and their debts to 142,987,365 kronor. The revenue of the provincial
representative bodies was 3,066,634 kronor, and expenditut
kronor ; their assets 11,225,332 kronor, and debts 3,340,959 kronor.
Defence.
The chief fortifications of Sweden are, on the coast, Karlskrona
with Kungsholmen and Westra Hastholinen, Stockholm with
Yaxholm and Oscar-Fredriksborg ; in the interior, Karlsborg,
near Lake Wetter.
The Swedish army is composed of four distinct classes of
troops. They are : —
1. The Vdrfvade, or enlisted troops, to which belong the
royal lifeguards, one battalion of chasseurs, one regiment of
hussars, the artillery, the engineers, and the train.
970
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — SWEDEN
2. The Indelta, consisting of 24 regiments and corps of in-
fantry, and 6 regiments and corps of cavalry, the privates of
which are paid and kept by the Landowners. Every soldier of
the Indelta has, as a rule, besides a small annual pay, his torp,
or cottage, with a piece of ground attached, which remains his
own during the whole period of service, sometimes extending to
thirty years. In time of peace the infantry of the Indelta are
called up for 22 days' annual practice, and the cavalry for
23 days. In time of war an extraordinary Indelta has to be
raised partly by landowners, who, on this account, enjoy certain
privileges, including non-contribution to the cost of the peace
establishment.
3. The Vdrnpligtige, or conscription troops, drawn by annual
levy from the male population between the ages of 21 and 32
years, of which the six first classes are called Bevdring, the six
others Landstorm. The right of purchasing substitutes, which
formerly existed, was abolished by the Diet in 1872. The
Vdrnpligtige are divided among the Vdrfvade and the Indelta
troops, and are mobilised with these. Still there are three corps
composed only of Bevdring. The Landstorm is in time of war
formed in separate troops.
4. The militia of Gothland, consisting of two battalions of
infantry, two batteries of field-artillery, and one company of
fortress-artillery. They are not compelled to serve beyond the
Isle of Gothland, and have a separate command.
The total strength of the armed forces of Sweden was as follows
in 1891 :—
-
2
H
f
O
00
P.
ill
m
1
3
1
*
c
o
1
i
o
Total
B
1
o
»
Line ( Viiri vade am
1
Indelta) : —
Generals
9
—
—
—
9
27
General staff anc
L
Staff-College
89
6
—
—
—
45
78
In Ian try
1,126
269
1,007
1,361
24,121
87,77*
213
Cavalry
219
92
199
144
4,376
5,030
5,063
Artillery
263
32
222
145
3,867
4,589
186
722
Engineers .
61
16
54
14
326
971
—
36
Trair
34
20
70
12
472
608
—
82
Reserves
Total
365
61
122
28
—
576
—
—
496
1,»',71
1,595
33,662
89,543
186
6,231
DEFJ
971
-
Olllr'
-
Z - -
•- r £
■
■
6
1
Total
X
H
it
-
-
1
E
o
-
Bevdring (Varn-
pligtige) :—
Infantry
Cavalry
Artillery .
Engineers .
Train
Landstonn .
Total
Grand Total .
—
—
—
—
104,000
3,300
4,700
1,000
10,900
149,700
^ 273,600
—
—
—
—
— 273,600
273,600
—
—
2,116
496
1,674
07,262
307,000
186
6,231
There are also volunteers, who are, however, being gradually transformed
into free associations for gun practice. In the year 1891 these numbered
17,000 men.
The personnel of the Royal Navy is divided into three classes, viz. ; 1.
The Active List ; 2. The Reserve ; 3. The Berdring. The fleet consisted in
1891 of the following vessels : —
Indicated
Guns
Number of
Horse-power
Crew
Ironclads :
2 central citadel turret
ships
6,200
12
348
4 monitors .
1,570
8
326
10 gunboats .
1,190
10
378
Unarmoured steamers :
1 line-of-battle ship
(school ship)
800
16
115
1 frigate
1,400
16
316
3 corvettes .
4,030
29
657
9 gunboats (1st class) .
6,820
18
635
5 ,, (2nd class) .
650
5
195
1 yacht
960
—
74
1 transport .
150
—
48
1 torpedo school ship .
140
—
47
17 torpedo-boats
5,600
—
172
Hailing training vessels :
2 corvettes .
32
611
4 brigs
Total 62
—
242
29,470
146
4,164
Excepting the Srea, a central citadel armour-clad, 2,900 toes displacement
itched December 1885, and completed in October 1886, with 12 inches
dniuni armour, two 32-ton breech-loading guns in a single turret, and four
972
SWEDEN AND NORWAY : — SWEDEN
6-inch guns on the upper deck, the largest ironclad of the Swedish navy is the
monitor Lokc, of 1,600 tons displacement, and 430 horse-power, launched 1868.
The other three monitors, called John Ericsson, Thordon, and Tirfing, of
earlier construction, are nearly the same size. They have 5-inch armour at
the water-line, and each carries two 14 -ton guns in a turret. A new citadel
armour-clad, like the Svea, and named Gotha, was launched. In 1890 the
Royal Navy (active list) was officered by 4 flag-officers, 6 commodores, 23
captains, 60 commanders, 50 lieutenants, and 21 sub-lieutenants, while 92
commissioned officers belonged to the Reserve. The naval Bevaring at the
same date numbered about 30, 000 men.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
The number of farms in cultivation in 1889 was 331,640 ; of these
there were of 2 hectares and under, 71,556 ; 2 to 20 hectares, 209,558 ; 20 to
100 hectares, 33,325 ; 100 and above, 3,381. Of the total land area of Sweden
8 per cent, is under cultivation, 4 3 per cent, under natural meadows, and
43 '8 per cent, under forests, the products of which form a staple export. Of
the cultivated land one-half is under cereal crops, the principal crop being
oats, which yielded 25,760,100 hectolitres in 1S90. Large quantities of wheat
and rye-flour are imported. The value of all cereal crops in 1888 was estimated
at 275 -1 million kronor. At the end of 1889 Sweden had 479,992 horses,
2,331,433 head of cattle, 1,338,193 sheep and lambs. In 1880 34,000 head of
cattle and 29,000 sheep were exported, in 1889 respectively 37,000 and 47,000.
II. Mines and Minerals.
Mining is one of the most important departments of Swedish industry, and
the working of the iron mines in particular is making constant progress by the
introduction of new machinery. There were raised in the year 1889, through-
out the Kingdom, 983,609 tons of iron ore. . The pig-iron produced amounted
to 416,043 tons ; the bar iron to 274,734 tons. Of iron ore in 1882 20,197, in
1883 34,320, in 1884 39,602, in 1885 25,816, in 1886 19,288, iu 1887 41,986,
in 1888 117,350 ; in 1889 118,573 tons were exported ; 55,732 tons pig-iron in
1882, 52,313 in 1883, 54,426 in 1884, 47,527 in 1885, 58,139 in 1886, 49,285
in 1887, 49,099 in 1888, and 79,378 in 1889 ; 153,802 tons bar iron in 1882,
133,255 tons in 1883, 125,420 tons in" 1884, 177,316 in 1885, 165,067 in 1886,
193,738 in 1887, 188,005 in 1888, and 200,726 in 1889. There were also
raised in 1889 16,577 tons of silver and lead ore, 19,952 tons of copper ore,
and 59,381 tons of sine ore. There are not Inconsiderable veins of ooaJ in the
southern parts of Sweden, giving 2,333,982 hectolitres of coal iu 1889. In
L889 there were 33,979 persons engaged in mining.
Commerce.
The total customs duties levied were in 1889 42,475,952 and in 1890
42.675,131 kronor.
The imports and exports of Sweden were as follows in the years 1884-89 : —
-
1884
1886
1880
1887
1888
1880
[mporta .
Exports .
Kronor
826,817,
238,(512,000
Kronor
840,008,000
840,271,000
kronor
801,866,000
288,808,000
Kronor
10,000
rs.ooo
08,784
881,708,718
Kronor
876,963,711
801,725,097
1
COM MERGE
973
In 1888 and 1889 the following were the values of the leading imports and
exports : —
Imports
1888
faporti
1888
I:::] • :•«
18S9
Exports
1888
Textile manufactures
Corn and flour ....
Colonial wares ....
Haw textile material anil yam
Minerals, mostly coal
Metal goods, machinery", &c. .
Live animals and animal food .
Hair, hides, and other animal pro-
ducts
Metals, raw and partly wrought
Timber, wrought and unwronght
Other articles . - . .
Total
Kroner
52, 680,529
49,411,005
so,o84>en
28,30M87
17,360.052
9,686,681
8,886,886
54.477,203
881,788,784
Kronor
6,102,801
17,884,618
844,831
1,808,895
50.409,684
1,749,188
S0,176,521
180,808,881
80,810,814
Kr MI
88,988,908
89,888,888
50,989,444
39.297,923
37,563,933
33,176,605
15,843,010
11. ,880
8,880,478
60,818,088
Kronor
e,708^8a
11,144,145
840,880
1,377,932
8,193,378
1,588,218
89,883,364
186,088*688
33,901,819
876,888,711
301,725,097
The following shorn the value of the trade with the principal countries
with which Sweden deals : —
1888
1889
Imports from I Exports to
Imports from
Exports to
Kronor Kronor
Kronor
Kronor
Great Britain
93,717,000 129,850,000
110,815,000
141,909,000
Germany
94,013,000 27.150,000
115,503,000
36,232,000
Denmark
42,424,000 34,843,000
V»,000
34,171,000
Norway
28,014,000 i 13,991,000
34,311,000
15,971,000
Russia (including
Finland) .
29,326,000 j 7,184,000
26,765,000
9,258,000
France
6,749,000 | 29,593,000
7,636,000
23,841,000
Spain .
956,000 i 5,581,000
1,037,000
5,469,000
Other countries .
Total
29,510,000 ; 33,561,000
35,658,000
34,874,000
324,709,000 281,753,000
376,964,000
301,725,000
The following table shows the trade between Sweden and Great Britain
according to the Board of Trade Returns : —
-
1886
1887 1888
1889
1890
Exports from Sweden .
Imports of British pro-
duce ....
£
7,468,696
2,066,854
£ £
7,322,216 8,IS5,431
2,094,6S7 2,376,936
£
9,207,047
2,768,369
£
8,473,656
3,061,976
974
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — SWEDEN
The following table shows the chief articles of export from Sweden to
Great Britain : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Wood & timber
Oats
Bar iron .
Iron and steel
manufactures
Pig iron .
Butter .
£
2,702,607
1,305,971
831,003
295,377
192,712
801,157
£
2,926,727
936,752
895,727
429,681
146,081
881,098
£
3,497,371
480,604
943,276
462,565
137,021
1,129,119
£
4,481,337
450,251
951,873
461,086
282,216
1,141,322
£
3,951,710
311,768
854,418
556,121
196,489
1,175,792
The leading imports of British home produce were iron, wrought and
unwrought, of the value of 293,092Z. ; coals of the value of 905,8262. ; cotton
yarn and manufactures valued 320,482Z. ; machinery, 238,505Z. in 1890.
Shipping and Navigation.
The commercial navy of Sweden, at the end of 1889, numbered 3,822
vessels of a burthen of 504,679 tons, of which total 2,859 vessels of 369,709
tons burthen were sailing vessels, and 963 vessels of 134,970 tons burthen were
steamers. The port of Giiteborg had the largest shipping in 1889 — namely,
266 vessels of 98,902 tons ; and next to it came Stockholm, possessing 253
vessels of a total burthen of 35,825 tons. In 1889 19,164 vessels cleared
Swedish ports.
Vessels entered and cleared with cargoes, as follows : —
1886
1887
1888
1889
No. Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
Bartered
Clewed
10,783 2,184,814
16,789 :i,304,751
11,047
17,164
2,096,667
8,498,787
10,140
L8.1M
2,178,8M
8,726,986
11,484
19,164
2,889,018
8,887,727
Internal Communications.
In 1889 71,893 ships and boats passed through the canals of Sweden.
At the end of 1890 the total length of railways in Sweden was 5,012 miles,
of which 1,633 miles belonged to the State. The receipts in 1889 were
45,858,597 kronor, and expenses 26,458,519 kronor. The total cost of con-
struction for the State railways to the end of 1889 was 253,443,861 kronor,
and for private railways 252,586,365 kronor. The total number of passengers
do the State railways in 1889 was 4,340,222 ; weight of goods carried on State
railways, 3,284,554 tons.
All the telegraphs in Sweden, with the exception of those of private rail-
way companies, belong to the State! The total length of all the telegraph
lines at the end of 1889 was 5,422 miles, and of wires 14,080 miles. The
number of despatches sent in the year 1889 was 1,708,752.
MONEY AND CREDIT
975
The Swedish Post Office carried 117,652,755 letters, post-cards, journals,
fee., in the year 1889. The number of post-offices at the end of the year was
2,246. The total receipts of the Post Office in 1889 amounted to 6,985,166
kronor, and the total expenditure to 6,671,702 kronor, leaving a surplus of
313,464 kronor.
Honey and Credit.
The following table gives statistics of the National Bank, private banks, and
joint-stock banks in Sweden for January 1, 1891 : —
Assets
National Bank
Private Banks
Joint-stock
IJai.ks
Kronor
Kronor
Kronor
Mortgages ....
—
51,129,500
—
Real estate ....
—
4,774,939
2,521,830
Coin and bullion
19,694,240
19,823,854
7,990,653
Accounts with other banka
6,953,270
32,480,038
14,166,654
State notes and bills
22,987,084
30,607,652
12,239,217
Stocks, shares, mortgages, &c. .
—
—
61,587.147
Bills
40,319,674
141,774,041
44,209,545
Loans, public obligation-.
shares, &e. ....
33,791,984
95,223,031
47,309,564
Cash credits, kc.
Totals . ...
16,441,454
65,541,090
19,504,088
140,642,706
441,354,145
209,528,698
Liabilities
Bank notes and bills
46,216,920
69,991,072
2,717,399
Liabilities with other banks
4,820,549
16,638,083
19,226,223
Deposits
11,776,115
222.117,195
62,155,570
Capital
45,000,000
J 6, 000
27,067,146
Reserve
5,000,000
10,940,343
7,139,442
Various liabilities
16,865,641
60,648,752
90,701,450
To further disposition
Totals ....
7,963,481
4,792,700
521,468
140,642,706
441,354,145
209,528,698
The savings-banks statistics are as follows
: —
— 1885
1886 1887
UQB
Number of depositors . . . 966,687
Depositors at end of year, kronor . 224,278,745
Capital ami reserve fiind ,, . 17,111,997
990,746 1,010,794
236,884,037 245,860,158
18,9X1,668 19,748,958
1,0:
259,296,159
20,87 i
976 SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — NORWAY
2. NORWAY.
Constitution and Government.
I. Central Government.
The Constitution of Norway, called the Grundlov, bears date
November 4, 1814, with several modifications passed at various
times up to 1889. It vests the legislative power of the realm in
the Storthing, or Great Court, the representative of the sovereign
people. The King, however, possesses the right of veto over laws
passed by the Storthing, but only for a limited period. The
royal veto may be exercised twice ; but if the same bill pass three
Storthings formed by separate and subsequent elections, it becomes
the law of the land without the assent of the sovereign. The King
has the command of the land and sea forces, and makes all
appointments, but, except in a few cases, is not allowed to nominate
any but Norwegians to public offices under the crown.
The Storthing assembles every year. New elections take
place every three years. The meetings take place suo jure, and
not by any writ from the King or the executive. They begin in
February each year, and must receive the sanction of the King to
sit longer than two months. Every Norwegian citizen of twenty-
five years of age who in the year before the election has paid income
tax on an annual income of at least 500 kroner in the country
districts or 800 kroner in the towns (provided that he has resided
for one year in the electoral district at the time when the election
takes place, and that he does not belong to the household of
another as a servant), or who is or has been a public functionary,
or possesses property in land, or has been tenant of such property
for five years at least, or is a burgess of any town, or possesses
real property in a town to the value of 600 kroner, is entitled to
elect. Under the same conditions citizens thirty years of age.
and settled in Norway for at least ten years, are entitled to l>e
elected. The mode of election is indirect. Towards the end of
every third year the people choose their deputies, at the rate of
one to fifty voters in towns, where the election is administered
by the magistrate, and one to a hundred in rural sub-districts, !
where they meet in the parish church under the presidency of the I
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERXMKNT 977
paiish minister. The deputies afterwards assemble and elect
among themselves, or from among the other qualified voters of the
district, the Storthing representatives. No Dew election takes
place for vacancies, which are filled by the persons who received
the second largest number of votes. The number of electors in
1888 was 128,368, or 6*56 per cent, of total population, while
90,416 votes, or 70"4 per cent, of the whole number, were recorded.
Of the total male population, 45 per cent are 25 years of age and
above. The Storthing has 114 members — 38 from towns, 76 from
rural districts.
The Stortliing, when assembled, divides itself into two houses, the
' Lagthing' and the ' Odelsthing.' The former is composed of one-fourth of
the members of the Storthing, and the other of the remaining three-fourths.
The Thing nominates its own presidents. The principal ordinary bat
of the Storthing is to enact or repeal laws, to impose taxes, to supervise the
financial affairs of the kingdom, to vote the amounts required for the public
expenditure, and to examine treaties concluded with foreign Powers. Ques-
tions relating to laws must be considered by each house separately. The
inspection of public accounts and the revision of the Government, and impeach-
ment before the Rigsret, belong exclusively to the Odelsthing. All other
matters are settled by both houses in common sitting. Before pronouncing
its own dissolution, every Storthing elects live delegates, whose duty it is to
the public accounts. All new laws must first l>e laid before the Odels-
thing, from which they pass into the Lagthing to be either accepted or rejected.
If the Odelsthing and Lagthing do not agree, the two houses assemble in
common sitting to deliberate, and the final decision is given by a majority of
two-thirds of the voters. The same majority is required for alterations of the
itution. The Storthing can also form itself into a high court of justice,
for the impeachment and trial of Ministers, members of the chief court of
justice, and members of the Storthing. While in session, every member of
the Storthing has an allowance of twelve kronor a day, besides travelling
expenses.
The executive is represented by the King, who exercises his authority
through a Council of State, composed of two Ministers of State and at least
seven Councillors. Two of the Councillors, who change even- year, together
with one of the Ministers, form a delegation of the Council of State, residing
kholm, near the King. Ministers and Councillors of State are entitled
to be present in the Storthing and to take part in the discussions, when public,
but without a vote. The following are the members of the Council of
8tate : —
(1. ) Council of Slate at Krisliania.
Minister of State. — Johannes Wilhelm Christian Stcen, appointed March 6,
1891.
Department of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs. — Vilhelm Andreas
Wcxelsen, appointed March 6, 1891.
Department of Justice. — Ole Anton Qvam, appointed March 6, 1891.
Department of the Interior. — Wollert Konmc, appointed March 6, 1891.
Department of Public Works. — Hans Hein Theodor Nyson, appointed
March 6, 1891.
3 £
978
SWEDEN AND NORWAY : — NORWAY
Department of Finance and Customs. — J. W. C. Steen, Minister of State.
Department of Defence.- — Lieutenant-Colonel Peter Theodor Hold, appointed
March 6, 1891.
Revision of Public Accounts Department. — Vacant.
(2.) Delegation of the Council at Stockholm.
Otto Albert Blehr, Minister of State, appointed March 6, 1891.
Carl Christian Bcrner, appointed March 6, 1891.
Jacob Otto Lange, appointed March 6, 1891.
II. Local Government.
The administrative division of the country is into twenty districts, each
governed by a chief executive functionary (Amtmand), viz., the towns of
Kristiania and Bergen, and 18 'Amts' (counties). They are subdivided
into 39 towns and 56 'Fogderier,' the latter comprising 22 'Ladesteder'
(ports). There are 500 rural communes (Herreder), mostly parishes or sub-
parishes (wards). The government of the Herred is vested in a council and a
body of representatives. The members (from three to nine) of the former th«
' Formajnd ') are elected from the different wards within the Herred. The
representatives, who vote the expenditure of the Herred, are three times the
number of the Formamd. These bodies elect conjointly every year from among
the ■ Formaend ' a chairman and a deputy chairman. All the chairmen of an
Amt form with the Amtmand and the Fogder (sheriffs) the ' Amtsformamlskah '
(county diet), which meets yearly to settle the budget of the Amt. The
Amtmand is the chairman of the diet. The towns and the pints form ;">S
communes, also governed by a council (4 to 12, Kristiania 15), and represen-
tatives (three times the size of the council). The members of both local
governing bodies are elected, in towns and rural communes, by voters tor the
Storthing.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
Norway has an area of 124,495 English square miles; at the
census of January 1, 1891, the population amounted to 1,985,992
present, and 1,999,176 domiciled inhabitants.
Domiciled Population at Successive' Census Periods
i;i 94.827
i::-7
I b
1805
1,828,471 11"2 1,490,(M7 1M 1,701,768 14*3
a ►-
1891
1,818,858 (i-9 ! 1,999,176
10-9
AUKA AM) POPULATION
979
There were 957,105 males, and 1,042,071 females.
Conjugal condition of the population, 1875 : —
Am-
Pupil. >
1 i*-r
Jan. 1, 1891
square nine
Kristiania (towu) .
6
150,414
,074
Akiishus
2,054
98,973
48
Smaaleneue
1,599
120,433
Hedemarken .
10,618
118,998
11
Kri.-tiaus
107,873
11
Huskerud
5,736
104.:
18
.Tails 1 it- rg og Larvik
895
101,001
118
Bistoberg
5,863
91,815
16
Nedenes .
3,608
81,068
Li-ti r og Mandal
2,804
78,789
28
Stavanger
3,531
117,078
33
Sondre Bergenhus
6,024
12K
21
Bergen (town)
3
53,686
17,895
Nordre Bergenhus
7,145
87,663
12
Romsdal
5,785
Sondre Trondhjem
7,188
123,563
17
Nordre Trondhjem
8,762
81,134
9
Nordland
14,655
131,837
9
Tromso .
10,132
65,090
6
Finmarken
18,295
29,110
2
Total
124,495
1,999,176
16
-
Unmarried
Married Widowed
Divorced
Males
i Females
586,222
567,330
288,079 31,652
292,231 69,446
809
1,131
Urban and
population) : —
rural population at different periods (domiciled
Census
Country
Town
Increase
per cent.
Country
Sown
1835
1,060,282
134,545
137
130
1845
1,164,745
163,726
9 9
217
1855
1,286,782
203,265
10 5
2 11
1865
1,435,464
266.i
116
31 0
18751
1,481,026
332,398
3 2
24-8
1891
1,525,537
473,639
5 0
313
i
l At the census 1875 the residence was unknown of 5,429 individuals.
Ill
080
SWEDEN AND NORWAY :— NORWAY
The population was in 1875 divided as follows according to
occupation, including the families and domestics of those actively
engaged : —
. Employers or independent
Fanning proprietors.
Life farmers
Other agriculturists .
Fishing and hunting
Mining and manufactures
Mechanics
Trade
Shipowners
567,690
51,042
19,241
93,085
4,190
151,764
48,428
2.942
2.
Agents and overseers
82,030
3.
Workpeople :
Small farmers,
&c. .
258,291
Mines and metal works
7,999
Manufacturers
61,454
Mechanics
72,749
Trade .
21,432
Sailors .
54,244
Labourers
70,759
Of the total population in 1875, 1,680,496 were born in Nor-
way, 7,637 were Lapps, 17,178 Finns, 15,784 Swedes, 1,791
Danes, 1,684 Finlanders, 1,257 Germans and Austrians, 348
British.
II. Movement of the Population.
1. Births, Deaths, and Marriages.
Births
Illegiti-
mate,
Deaths
"
Vrlll'
Marriages
(exc. still-
Stillborn
I'xcl. still-
Bxcesg .'i
Births
Average
born)
living
In >ru
1878-82
12,894
59,193
2,030
4,856
31,300
27,898
1885
13,024
61,052
1,843
4,830
32,111
28,941
1886
12,819
60,716
j 1,766
4,777
31,566
29,150
1887
12,491
60,908
1,720
4,669
31,675
29,233
1888
12,154
61,277
1,583
4,651
33,645
27,632
1889
12,416
59,188
1 1,615
4,396
34,704
24,484
2. Emigration.
PlWSe nf Destination
Average
1808-82
1885
1 13,970
/ 2
9
1880
1887
1888
1889
1890
..1 States . .1
liritisli Ninth America |
BoQtll AiniTira
Australasia .
Africa
Asia ....
Total .
12,270
167
16,118
7
J6
20,700
21
•J
is
81,848
79
4
81
12,597
\:>
8
18
10,808
61
20
88
12,420
13,981
16,168 80,741
81,468
18,648
10,991
RELIGION — JUSTICE AND CRIME
981
III. Principal Town<.
At the census taken January 1, 1891, the number of towns
with a population of above 100,000 was one, above 20,000
four, above 10,000 five, above 5,000 nine. The population of
the principal towns, January 1, 1891, was : —
Kristiania
150,444
Fredrikshald .
. 11,219
Bergen .
53,686
Fredrikstad
.
Trondhjem
25,051
Larvik
. 11,269
Stavanger
.930
Aalesund.
8,415
Drammen
20,684
Tromso .
6,004
Kmtiaiisaml .
12,831
Religion.
The evangelical Lutheran religion is the national Church and the only
one endowed by the State. Its clergy are nominated by the King. All other
Christian sects (except Jesuits) as well as the Jews are tolerated, and free
to exercise their religion within the limits prescribed by the law and public
order. Ecclesiastically Norway is divided into 6 bishopries, 83 Provstier
(provostships, or archdeaconries), 469 parishes. In 1875 there were 7,238
dissenters, including 502 Roman Catholics, 2,789 Methodists, 876 Bai
542 Mormons, 432 Quakers.
Instruction.
Education is compulsory, the school age being six and a half in town
and seven in the country, until fourteen. The number of public elementary
schools in 1888 (the latest date for which there are statistics) was 6,330,
with 295,239 pupils ; the amount expended on them being 4,843,068 kroner,
raised for the greater part by a tax levied in every parish. There are 63
secondary schools, 17 public, 36 communal, 10 private ; of the secondary
schools 22 have a higher department containing a classical or mathematical
line or both combined, 15 public, 1 communal, 6 private. Of the secondary
schools 17 are mixed schools. 28 are schools for girls alone, 7 communal, 21
private. The total of pupils in the secondary schools is 13,268. Kristiania
has a University, which was attended in 1890 by 1,537 stndents. The Uni-
versitv has a subsidy of 562,745 kroner from the State.
Justice and Crime.
For civil justice Norway is divided into 117 districts, each with an
inferior court. Of these 81 are rural courts, divided into 424 circuits. The
other courts are in towns. There are 3 superior courts, having each one
chief justice and two dther justices, and one supreme court for the whole
kingdom {HoiesUrtt\ consisting of 1 president and at least 6 other justices.
There is a court of mediation (Forligclscskommission) in each town and Herred
(parish), consisting of two men chosen by the electors, before which, as a
rule, civil cases must first be brought.
According to the law of criminal procedure of July I, 1887, all criminal
cases not military, or coining under the Eigsret*-the court for impeachments)
shall be tried either by jury (Lagmandsret), or Meddomsret.
982
SWEDEN AND NORWAY : — NORWAY
The Lagmandsret consists of three judges (1 Lagmand, or president), and
10 jurors {Lagrettemand). The Kingdom is divided into 5 jury districts
(Lagdommer), eacli having its chief judge (Lagmand). Each district is
divided into circuits, corresponding, as a rule, to the counties (Amter), in
which courts are held at fixed times. The Mcddomsret consists of the judge
and is held in the district of the inferior court, and 2 assistant judges (not
professional) summoned for each case. The Lagmandsret takes cognisance of
the higher classes of offences. The Meddomsret is for the trial of other offences,
and is also a court of first instance.
The prosecutions are directed by the State advocates (Statsadvpkater),
13 in number, subordinate to one Rigsadvokat.
The number of persons convicted of serious crimes was : in 1889, 2,938 ;
1888, 2,753 ; 1887, 2,932 ; 1886, 2,742 ; 1885, 2,803. For offences against
public- order and police, penalties were, in 1889, inflicted upon 24, 926 persons.
There are four convict prisons (1 a penitentiary) ; inmates, June 30, 1889,
700 (524 were males and 176 females).
There are, besides, 55 district prisons, in which, in 1889, 8,981 persons
were detained. There are 3 reformatories for young offenders between 10 and
15 years.
The police force of Kristiania numbers 349 men, including 14 superior
functionaries.
Pauperism.
In Norway the relief of the poor is mostly provided for by local taxation,
but certain expenditure is also borne by the Amter (counties) and by the State.
The number of persons receiving relief amounted to 77,798 in 1889, 77,555 in
1888, 76,531 in 1887, 74,638 in 1886, 67,346 in 1885, 66,407 in 1884, 67,459
in 1883, 68,573 in 1882, and 69,746 in 1881. In 1889 10,162, in 1888 9,837,
in 1887 9,677, and in 1886 9,174 persons are included who have only been
medically relieved.
Finance.
The following table shows the revenue and expenditure for each of the
five years 1886-90 in thousands of kroner : —
Revenue
liture
VlMl'S
ending
June 30
Direct
Taxes
Indirect
Taxes
Other
Sources
Total
1,000 kr.
18,640
42,977
M.l'.'."1
M,88l
Defence
Debt
Public
Works
General
Total
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1
1,000 kr.
268
292
306
623
1,000 kr,
26,006
25,318
26,219
30,006
1,000 kr.
17,286
17,426
18,289
19,803
1,000 kr.
Mil
B,811
8,881
8,884
9,876
1.000 kr.
5,852
1.101
1.000 kr.
9,078
9,698
9,938
1.000 kr.
80,784
82,181
1.000 kr.
42,600
44.0S5
13,604
16,687
i including 129,061 loan.
- Including 1,578,118 loan.
The following table shows the principal heads of the budget for years
doling June 30, 1891 and 1892.
FINANCE — DEFENCE
083
Sources of Revenue
customs .
Excise on spirits
., n. alt
-on tax
.Stamps
Judicial fees
.
Post Office
Telegraphs
State property
Ilailw:.
Miscellaneous
Balance
1891
1892
|
| Kroner
Kroner
21,500,000
21,900,000
1,000,000
8,700,000
8,000, i
2,800,000
400,000
tm/m
009,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
720,000
8os,roa
2,750,000
9,000,000
1,120.000
1.170,000
J.-.to.::i-.7
■
7,300,000
7,301,000
HNI.lH.Nl
4*.3:.O.ooo
49,300,000
Branches of Expendi-
ture
Civil list .
Storthing .
The Ministries .
Church ft education
Justice
Interior
Post, telegraphs, Ac
State railways .
Bos Is. canals, parts,
*c
Finance ami customs
Amortisation of debt
Interest ,,
Army
Navy
Foreign affairs .
Miscellaneous .
Balance
Kroner
V'.'::
•\4JMftl
■■ ;-.:•-
ls\M
550,000
(8^50,000
Kr h -
481,182
534,138
1,190,528
."..04>"..<»53
..-;••. ".i
^,390,900
0,034,181
ft,44S,8U
717.1i«>
•J. "■_•::. ;•»"■
■
■9,900,000
The following table shows the amortisation, growth, and interest of the
public debt for tho yens named, ending June 30 : —
Years ending
June 30
Amortisation
Growth
Interest
Amount at the
end of the year
Kroner
105,329,496
108,4.
-3,266
115. 71 4.1 :-2
115,357,459
1 S^S
188S
1890
Kroner
3,309,349
28,536
3,144,360
54. 123,790
356,694
Kroner
30,826,667
64,554,667
Kroner
4,619,528
4,60;
4,105,331
3,664,745
-.872
In 1890 the unredeemable debt, which amounted to 10,837,410 kroner
in 1885, was reduced by amortisation to 245,472 kroner.
The taxation for communal purposes amounted for the rural communes
,to 9,501,612 kroner, and for the towns to 7,974,357 kroner in 1888.
Defence.
The fortresses of Norway are unimportant, Fredriksstad.
Fredriksten, Carljohansvaern, Akershus near Kristiania. O
borg and Vardhous, with forts at Kristiansand, Bergen, and
Trondhjem.
The troops of the Kingdom are raised mainly by conscription,
and to a small extent by enlistment. By the terms of three laws
voted by the Storthing "in 1866, 1876, and 1885, the land forces
984 SWEDEN AND NORWAY :— NORWAY
are divided into the troops of the line, the Landvaern, the Land-
storm or final levy, and the military train. All young men past
the twenty-second year of age are liable to the conscription, with
the exception of the inhabitants of the three northern Amts of
the Kingdom, who are free from military land service. The
young men in the line raised by conscription have to go through
a first training in the school of recruits, extending over 42 days
in the infantry, 50 days in the engineers, and 70 days in the
artillery 'and cavalry. They are then put into the battalions, which
in the second, third, and fourth year in the artillery, cavalry, and
engineers, and the second and third year in the infantry and train,
under ordinary circumstances, have an annual practice of 24 days,
after which the men are sent on furlough, with obligation to meet
when ordered. The recruits of the line and the sixth year in
the Landvaern have only a practice of 1 2 days' extent. The train
has a school of recruits, extending over 25 days for the engineers,
and 18 days in the other arms. The nominal term of service is
13 years, divided between 5 years in the line, 4 years in the
Landvaern, and 4 years in the Landstorm. The Landvaern is
only liable to service within the frontiers of the Kingdom. Every
man capable of bearing arms, and not placed in one of the said
categories, is in time of war liable to do service in the reserve of
the Landstorm, from the eighteenth to the fiftieth year of age.
On January 1, 1891, the troops of the line, with its reserves, numbered
aliout 40,000 men, with 850 officers. The number of troops of the line
actually under arms can never exceed, even in war, 18,000 men without the
consent of the Storthing. The King lias permission to transfer, for the
purpose of common military exercises, 3,000 men annually from Norway to
Sweden and from Sweden to Norway.
The infantry consists of 5 brigades of 4 battalions of line, Landvaern, and
Landstorm, of 4 companies. For each brigade there is a school of non-com-
missioned officers. His Majesty's guard of 2 companies riflemen.
Cavalry. — 3 corps of mounted riflemen of line, Landvaern, and Landstorm,
of 3, 3, and 2 squadrons,
Artillery. — 8 battalions of line, Landvaern, and Landstorm, of 3 batteries
of 6 pieces, and 1 company of equipage campaign artillery : 1 battalion of line,
Landvaern, and Landstorm, of 2 companies 01 fortress artillery and two lat-
teries of 6 pieces mountain artillery.
Engineers.— 1 battalion of line, Landvaern, and Landstonn, of 2 companies
of sappers, 1 company of pontooneers, 1 company of telegraphists, and l comi
pany of equipage
Thr naval force of Noi\\a\ comprised, in 1891, 44 steamers and 2 sailing
vessels. Tin- following was the composition of the licet of steamers in the
navy :— »
DEFENCE — PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
!l.V>
Steamers
Indicated 1 G
Horse-power 1
4 ironclad monitors
2 corvettes (training ships) .
14 1st and 2nd class gunboats
17 small gunboats
9 torpedo-boats ....
46 steamers .....
1,900 8 and 4 boat guns, 3
machine gnus.
940 28 and "> boat gtma.
6,250 ' 29 and 1 boat gun
machine guns.
1,130 17.
S.536 7 revolving guns.
13,745
82 and 57 small guns.
One second-class gunboat and one aviso building, to be completed 1893
and 1892, at a total cost of alnnit 400,000 kroner each.
On July 1, 1891, the navy numbered 116 officers and 400 petty officers ami
sailors on permanent engagement. The ships in commission in 1891 wen-
manned by 1,002 sailors, with 106 commissioned officers and cadets. All sea-
faring men and inhabitants of seaports, bat ween the ages of twenty-one and
thirty-five, are enrolled on the lists of either the active fleet or the naval
militia, and liable, by a law passed in 1866, to the maritime conscription.
The numbers on the register amounted, in 1891, to nearly 23,000 men.
Production and Industry.
1. A<;i:i<Ti/rrRE.
Of the total area, 71 per cent, is unproductive, 24 per cent, forest, and 5
per cent, under cultivation. Most of the farms are worked by their o\
M will be seen in the table of Occupations under Population. At the end of
here were 137,700 farms, of which 11,600 were rented, 538 occupied by
D State officials, and the remainder used by the owners. The subdivision
Of landed property has been carried to a great extent. The latest statistic-
available are for 1865, and subdivision has probably increased considerably
since then. At that date there were 133,991 farms, not including Fiumarken,
classified as follows : —
hectares 34,224 or 25 "5 per cent, of the whole.
321
362
5-5
06
Under 2
From 2 to 5 „ 42,984
„ 5 „ 20 „ 48,575
„ 20 „ 50 „ 7,376
„ 50 ,,100 „ 739
100 or more 93
0 1
The latest agricultural statistics are for 1875, when the area under cereals was
191.215 hectares, potatoes 34,879 hectares. The estimated yield, after deduct-
ing seed, of cereals was 6,045,511 hectolitres, of potatoes 7,123,786 hectolitres.
The total value of the produce was for cereals 50,291,200 kroner, for potatoes
26,132,200 kroner. The average annual produce in hectolitres per 10 acres for
1881-85 was, wheat, 2 25 : rye, 2 39 ; barley, 2 83 ; buckwheat, 3 55 ; oats.
3 ••}."> : peas, 216 ; potatoes, 2077 hectolitres.
In 1875 there were :— Horses, 151,903 ; cattle, 1,016,617 ; sheep, 1,686,306 ;
goats. 322,861 ; swine, 101,020 ; reindeer, 96,567.
The value of cereals imported (including flour) was 33,183,700 kroner in
1890 ; the principal article being rye, 16,827,400 kroner. The import of butter
amounted to 3,789,500 kroner, and of bacon and meat to 7,725,300 kroner.
The export of agricultural produce is insignificant.
986
SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — NORWAY
II. Forestry.
The total area covered with forests is estimated at 29,960 square miles, of
which 73 per cent, is under pine trees. The State forests occupy 3,870 square
miles, administered by a forest staff under the supervision of the Ministry of
the Interior. The value of unwrought or partly wrought timber exported
from Norway in 1890 was 31,014,100 kroner, and of wrought timber 12,904,300
kroner.
III. Mines and Minerals.
The mining and metal industry of Norway is unimportant. The total
value of mineral products in 1889 (latest available statistics) was 3,717,500
kroner (3,264,400 in 1885) ; of furnace products, 1,241,600 (2,037,500 in 1885)
kroner ; of bar iron and steel, 116,000 kroner. The chief mineral products are
silver, 658,500 kroner in 1889 (1,038,000 in 1885) ; copper ore, 577,200 kroner,
pyrites," 972,000 kroner ; nickel, 177,000 kroner (1,565,000 in 1876) ; apatite,
926,900 kroner (1,186,100 in 1883). Of the smelting products in 1889 silver
was valued at 605,000 kroner ; copper, 390,000 kroner ; nickel, 194,000
kroner. At the end of 1889 there existed 27 mining establishments employing
2,330 workpeople, and 8 smelting furnaces with 308 workpeople.
IV. Fisheries.
The number of persons in 1890 engaged in cod fishery was 89,283 ; in
herring fishery, 29,804 ; and in mackerel fishery 3,335.
The value of the fisheries in kroner in 1890 was cod, 14,074,769 ; herring,
4,140,511; mackerel, 512,239; other fisheries, 2,447,682; salmon and sea
trout, 656,484 ; lobster, 365,970 ; oysters, 14,032 ; total, 22,211,687. In 1889
the total value was, 23,311,249. In 1888 the total value was 21,852,000
kroner ; in 1887 14,762,000 kroner ; in 1886 2,276,000 kroner : in 1885,
19,190,000 kroner; in 1884, 24,386,000 kroner ; and in 1883, 24,328,000 kroner.
Other fisheries are the bank fisheries off the coast, and the whale, walrus,
seal, and shark fisheries in the northern seas, which in 1889 produced a total
of 2,916,000 kroner.
Commerce.
The following table shows the value of the trade of Norway with different
countries in 1890 : —
Country
Imports
Exports
Country
Imports
Bxporta
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Sweden .
23,124,700
I0,c.:ii, :!0(i
Gibraltar and Malta
6,500
—
Niwimirk, Iceland,
Italy
1,108,)
4,871,800
iiinl Faeroe .
9,988,800
5,688,000
Austria ami Hungary
6,900
87,700
iliinnki ami Finland
20,726,200
8,096,800
Turkey, Ronmanla,
Germany.
54,986,000
18,227,000
and Greece .
l,8SS,80O
—
Switzerland .
—
Africa .
74,900
\ tl: 1 1 mils .
8,064,000
r,, •_>•_':(, 100
Asia
100
TOM
Bi'l^iiun .
6, 119,000
6,828,700
Australia
800
3,017,600
Great Britain and
America .
9,688,100
2,812,660
Ireland
88,118,806
12,858,000
Nut stated
'.'7.300
France .
7,067,600
Portugal and Madeira
491,400
1,301,300
Total .
20s,r..-..s,900
Spain
044,700
11,974,100
The total amount of the import duties oolleotod in 1890 was about 'il
millions of kroner (about one-lent li in value of the total imports), divided
a ng the principal articles as lollows : 1 5i ta<lst tills, 1,562,000 kroner!
coffee, 2,457,000 kroner; tea, 146,000 kroner; sugar, 5,525,000 kroner
COMMERCE
!»N/
tobacco, 2,996,000 kroner : spirits and wines, 1,041,000 kroner : manufc
.000 kroner; petroleum, 1,315,000 kroner: an«i salt, 331,000
kroner.
Total imports and exports of Norwegian and foreign goods in the years
1886-1890 • —
Kroner Kroner
Ini{><irts of fui.
goods . . . 208,658,900 191,608,100
Bxpoitl of Norwegian
goods . . . 184,483,100 125,910,400
Foreign goods . . 6,664,400 6,758,700
1888
Kroner
158,396,700
116,680,900
5,788,108
1883
Kroner
183,691,300
101,845,800
4,782,600
1888
Kroner
135,168,500
•
Values of imports and exports, divided into classes, for 1888-1890 : —
Classes of Goods
1890
1889 1888
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports Imports
Exports
of Foreign
Goods
Norwegian
G i>
of Foreign
Goods
Norwegian
Goods
of ran ign
Qoodi
Norwegian
Qoou
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Kroner
Animals, living .
- 1,754,900
1,186,800
1,417,400
l,787,3O0i 868,700
828,700
Animal produce
(malty food) .
13,847,900
43,885,500
42,118,200
Breadstuffs .
488,800
33,855,700
459,100 30,760,800
08M66
Groceries .
28,217,000
6,700
21,448,600
13,500 IS.925,400
11,500
Fruits, plants. Ac.
2,825,500
184,400
2,453,400
196,300
3,227,800
888,880
Spirits, Ac. .
3,838,800
390,000
3,240,000
3,116,800
884,
Yarn. rope. Ac. .
13,804,300
862,800
13,012,800
11,185,200
606,800
Textile manufac-
tures, Ac
18,188,088
4,356,200
23,156,000
4,468,100
18,825,700
8^68,800
Hair, skins, Ac .
8,145,100
6,966,000
7,374,000
5,746,500
Tallow, oils, tar,
Ac. .
8,8*0,700
7,396,100
8,116,300
6,385,000
6,562,100
6,162,500
Timber A wooden
■is
6,033,400
43,918,400
5,939,200
50,100,200
5,152,400
33,480,800
-ruffs .
1,072,800
218,800
1,013,900
92,300
998,500
171,600
Different vege-
table produce .
2,558,800
998,200
2,309,600
623,900
2,010,400
1,070,800
Paper and paper
manufactures .
1,781,500
1,777,600
1,461,900
1,244,700
1,342,800
1,145,600
Minerals, un-
w rough t .
16,126,500
3,036,800
15,867,600
2,918,500 12,839,500
3,046,200
rals, manu-
factured .
2,513,500
1,829,600
2,225,600
1,620,400
1,898,400
1,665,200
1 wrought or
partly wrought
8,091,100
1,537,600
8,580,300
1,102,900
6,506,000
1.412,400
fact u red .
7,937,000
3,626,900
6,6884888
3,285,500
5,670,500
2,994,900
Vessels, carriages,
machinery, Ac.
Total .
28,574,200
1,773,001
21,994,700
1,934,600
12,305,000
1,329,400
208,658,900
124,432,100
191,608,100
125,910,400
158,396,700
118,680,688
Re-exports
6,664,400
6,758,700
5,726,100
131,096,500
132,669,100
121,356,600
988
SWEDEN AND NORWAY : — NORWAY
Imports and exports to and from the principal Norwegian ports in the
years 1886-1890 :—
Imports.
-
1890
1889
1S8S .
1887
1886
Kristiania .
Bergen
Trondh.jem .
Kroner
105,994,000
33,065,300
16,026,000
Kroner
97,848,700
31,185,800
14,086,300
Kroner
79,842,200
29,212,800
11,752,100
Kroner
69,341,400
23,497,000
9,784,300
Kroner
68,129,500
22,079,100
10,767,800
Exports.
-
1890
1889
1888
1887
1886
Kristiania .
Bergen
Trondhjein .
Kroner
32,949,700
21,666,800
8,332,100
Kroner
31,727,800
20,636,400
8,577,600
Kroner
28,739,100
20,647,500
9,007,900
Kroner
26,071,900
19,079,200
4,639,500
Kroner
24,786,100
17,768,900
6,036,300
The commercial intercourse between Norway and the United Kingdom,
according to the Board of Trade Returns, is shown in the subjoined table, in
each of the five years 1886 to 1890
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Exports to Gnat Britain
Imports of British produce .
£
2,758,705
1,204,240
£
2,784,738
1,137,460
£
3,061,532
1,370,849
£
3,497,513
1,724,582
£
3,432,689
1,915,808
In 1890 the exports of timber amounted to 1,494,210Z. ; fish, 363,667/. ;
rags, &c, 443,960/. The minor exports to Great Britain comprise ice, butter
and margarine, and small quantities of bar iron and copper ore. Iron, wrought
and unwrought, of the value of 292,274/. ; cotton manufactures ami yarn of
the value of 244,924/. ; coals, of the value of 436,89f>/. : and woollens of
the value of 151,348/., formed the chief British imports into Norway in the
year 1890.
Shipping and Navigation.
Sailing
Steam
Total
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
No.
Tons
Vessels engaged in Fo-
reign Trade (Jan. 1891)
Under 100 tons
From 100-500 tons
„ 500-1,000 „
■ „ 1,000-2,000 „
Above 2,000 ,,
Total
1,105
1,988
786
209
4
45,644
589,406
588, l 86
252,865
8,763
Q
213
74
45
192
71,052
48,936
59,961
1,111
2,201
860
254
4
15,886"
660, 4! --s
582,122
312,826^
8,763 ]
4,092
1,429,894!
338
180,141
4,430
1,610,005|
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
989
-
1889
1888
1887
1886
Tonnage
No.
Tonnage
T'.:;I.;o
No.
Tonnage
Entered
Norwegian .
Foreign
Cleared
Norwegian
5,835
1,719,083
986,210
1,649.168
080,009
6,293
4,965
6,513
4,941
851,799
1,581,838
6,495
4,954
6,550
1,507,033
-•.'••.-•1
6,160
5,049
5,060
1,486,881
829,80}
1,536,464
889,597
Vernal entered and cleared in 1889 at the following ports (with cargoes and
in ballast) : —
-
Number
Tonnage
Number
Tonnage
Kristiania
Trondhjeiu
Entered
2,120
814,691
Entered
245
1 115,930
Cleared
1,407
.-)25
. Cleared
280
141.
Bergen
Frederikstad
Entered
691
318,894
Entered
1,344
177,048
Cleared
661
299,869
Cleared
3,099
. •
Internal Communications.
The total length of State railways in 1S91 was '.'29 miles; that of one
railway worked by a company (Kristiania to Mjosen) 42 miles ; total 971
miles.
Total receipts 1889-90, State railways, 7,320,050 kroner ; companies,
1,697,057 kroner. Total expenses 1889-90, State railways, 5,117,925 kroner ;
companies, S06,773 kroner. Goods carried 1889-90, State railways, 1,057,509
of 1,000 kilogs.) ; companies, 495,910. Passengers carried 1889-90,
State railways, 3,735,390 ; companies, 389,598. The State railways have been
constructed partly by subscription in the districts interested and partly at the
expense of Government.
The following are the postal statistics : —
-
1890
1889
^1887
Letters ....
27,248,400
\100
19,867,500
-cards
2,112,500
1,997,700
1,422,300
j Registered letters .
4S6.600
440,100
432,500
1 Journals
-',300
23,315,600
21,332,600
| Other printed matter
3,254,900
2,922,400
2,591,600
' Samples and parcels
484,500
428,700
344,800
Length of telegraph lines and wires in January 1891 : —
Belonging to the State 4,714 miles of line, 9,030 miles of wires.
„ railways 985 „ „ 1,644 „
Total . 5,699 „ „ 10,674 „
The number of messages in the year 1890 was on the State lines 1,453,932
the railway lines 78,100, total, 1,532,032, of which 1,008,105 (on the bine
990 SWEDEN AND NORWAY: — NORWAY
of the railways, 78,100) were internal, 240,480 sent abroad, 283,446 received
from abroad, and 1 in transit. The number of telegraph offices in 1890
was : — 157 belonging to the State, 197 to the railways, total 354. Receipts :
State telegraphs 60,1932., railways 3,2482., total 63,4412. Expenses :— State
telegraphs 62,7632., railways 8,1222., total 70,8852.
Money and Credit.
On December 31, 1890, the Norwegian coins in circulation (the coinage
after the monetary reform deducting the coins melted down) were : —
Gold coin 15,856,220 kroner
Silver coin .... 6,032,000 „
Bronze coin .... 430,000 ,,
Total . 22,318,220
There exists no Government paper money.
The value of income and property assessed for taxes in 1890 was : —
Income. Property.
The towns 135 "5 millions of kroner 543 "3 millions of kroner
The rural districts 184-3 ,, ,, 993 "5
The whole kingdom 319-8 ,, ,, 1,536-8 ,, ,,
There are two State banks, the ' Norges Bank ' (Bank of Norway) and
the ' Kongeriget Norges Hypothekbank. '
The ' Norges Bank ' is a joint-stock bank, of which, however, a considerable
part is owned by the State. The bank is, besides, governed by laws enacted
by the State, and its directors are elected by the Storthing. There is a head
office at Trondhjem, and 12 branch offices. It is the only bank in Norway
that is authorised to issue bank notes for circulation. The balance-sheets of
the bank for 1889 show the following figures : — Assets at the end of the year —
bullion, 38,895,523 kroner; outstanding capital, mortgaged estates, foreign
bills, &c, 36,396,553 kroner ; total, 75,292,076 kroner. Liabilities— notes in
circulation, 49,670,703; the issue of notes allowed was 57,627,046 kroner;
deposits, cheques, unclaimed dividends, unsettled losses, &c, 7,340,454
kroner (of which the deposits amounted to 6,879,364 kroner) ; dividends
payable for the year, 837,516 kroner ; total, 57,848,673 ; balance, 17,443,403.
The 'Kongeriget Norges Hypothekbank' was established in 1852 by the
State to meet tho demand for loans on mortgage. The capital of tho bank
is famished by the State, and amounted to 10,500,000 kroner in 1890. The
bank has besides a reserve fund amounting in 1890 to 500,000 kroner. At
the end of 1890 the total amount of bonds issued was 79,888,800 kroner. Tin1
loans on mortgage amounted to 83,347,450 kroner.
There were, at the end of 1890, 33 private joint-stock hanks, with a
collective subscribed capital of 40,331,430 kroner, and a paid-up capital of
16,480,300. The reserve fund amounted to 5,181,047. The deposits and
withdrawals in the course of the year amounted to 373,692,357 kroner and
371,913,010 kroner respectively. Deposits at the end of the year 119,496,865
kroner, of which 7,571,075 kroner deposits on demand, and 111,925,790
kroner on other accounts.
All savings-banks must lie chartered by royal permission. Their operations
are regulated, to a considerable extent, by the law, ami controlled bj the
Ministry of Finance. They have frequently close connections with the
municipal authorities.
MONET, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES
091
N.M.f
No. "f !)•!>. >si-
Amount to the Credit >>f Deposit
Banks
tors
Deposit* Withdrawals
At pad of year
Kroner MI
Kroner
1890
350
470,799
88,500,397 80,875,998
194,141,420
1889
345
452,736
83,687,317 72,830,155
186,554,824
1888
341
432,126
71,834,965 66,450,603
175,448,158
1887
339
416,71:3
70,139,998 69,953,112
169,637,520
1886
335
403,851
71,186,491 70,215,278
169,443,872
Hektoliter
(li<i. m.\
I'liv in. /
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Sweden and Norway, and the British
equivalents, are as follows : —
Money.
The Swedish Krona — 100 6re — approximate value Is. ljrf., or about 18
to the pound sterling.
The Norwegian Krone = 100 ore — the same value as the Swedish Krona.
By a treaty signed May 27, 1873, with additional treaty of October 16,
1875, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark adopted the same monetary system.
Weights a no Mf.a>vi:hs.
= 100 ort = 0 937 lb. avoirdupois.
= 10 turn = 11*7 English inches.
= 140 kubiktum — 4 6 imperial pints.
= 360 rrf *= 664 English mi
— 1,000 gram = 2,204 lbs. avoirdupois.
= 100 centimeter = 3 28 ft. or39 37Eng. in.
/ = 22 imperial gallons.
\ = 2-75 ,, bushels.
f= 1,094 yds. or 0 621 of
\ 1 Eng. mile.
The metric system of weights and measures was introduced in 1879, and
became obligatory in 1889. In Norwav the metric system became obligatory
on July 1, 1882.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of Sweden and Norway in Great Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — H. Akemian, accredited October 6, 1890.
Secretary. — Ove Gude.
Consul-General in London. — Carl Juhlin Dannfelt.
There are Consular representatives at the following places : — Belfast,
Birmingham, Bradford, Bristol, Cardiff, Cork, Dublin, Dundee, Glasgow,
Hull, Leith, Liverpool, Manchester, Newcastle, Southampton. Also at
Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, Bombay, Brisbane, Calcutta, Cape Town, Fiji,
Hobart, Quebec, Rangoon, Singapore, Wellington (N.Z.).
2. Of Great Britain in Sweden and Norway.
Envoy and Minister. — Hon. Sir Francis R. Plunkett, appointed Envoy
Extraordinarv and Minister Plenipotentiarv to Sweden and Norwav, June 6,
1888.
Secretary.— Won. Hugh Gough.
The Swedish S/.dlpund
Fot
, , , , Kanna
Mil
„ Norwegian Kit
Meter
m.
dry ni.
Kilometer
100 liter
1,000 meter
992 SWEDEN AND NORWAY
Consul at Stockholm. — Marniaduke S. Constable.
Consul-General at Kristiania. — Thomas Michell, C.B.
There are also Consular representatives at Gothenburg, Bergen, Trondhjem,
Hammerfest, Vardo, &c.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Norway and Sweden.
1. Official Publications.
Bidrag till Sveriges officiela statistik: A. Befolknings-statistik. B. Rattsviiscndct.
C. Bergsliandtering. D. Pabriker och maiiufakturer. E. Inrikes handel och sjdfart.
F. Utrikes handel och sjdfart. G. Fangvarden. H. K. Majestiits befallningshafvandes
fcniarsberattelser. I. Telegrafviisr.idet. K. Helso- och sjukvarden. L. Statens
jernvagstrafik. M. Postverket. N. Jordbruk och boakapsskotsel. O. Landtm&teriet 1'.
Undervisiiingsvasendet. Q. Statensdomane. R. Valstatistik. S. Allmiinna arbeten. T.
Lots- och fyrinrattningen saint lifraddningaangtalterna a rikets kuster. U. Kommunernas
fatligvard och finanser. V. Branvins tillverkning och forsaljning saint hvitbetssockertill-
verkningen. X. Aflonings- och pensionsstatistik. 4. Stockholm, 1857-91.
Norges offlcielle Statistik : Arbeidslonninger ; Bergvarksdrift ; Den alniindelige Brain Ifor-
sikriiigsiiidretning ; Civilretsstatistik ; Distriktsfujngsler ; Faste Eieudomine ; Fat tig Sta-
tistik; Fcmaarsberetninger om Amternes okonomiske Tilstand ; Btatskassens Finantser;
Fiskerier; Folkemssngdens Bevsegelse, Folketadling ; Handel; Industrielle Forhold ; De
oifentlige Jernbaner ; Jordbrug ; Kommunale Finantser; Uddrag af Aarslieretuingcr fni de
forenede Rigers Konsuler ; Kriininalstatistik ; Sundhedstilstanden og Medicinalforholdene ;
Postvsesen ; Rekruteringsstatistik ; Sindssygeasylerne ; Skibsfart ; Bkolevsesen; Sparc-
banker; Spedalske ; Strafarbeidsanstalter ; Siatstelegrafen ; Veterinajrvaesen. 4. Fra
1881-8. Kristiania, 1870-91.
Sveriges statskalender for ar 1891. Utgifven after Kongl. Majestiits nadigste forordnainle
af dess Vetenskaps-Akadeini. 8. Stockholm, 1890.
Sveriges ofliciela statistik i sammandrag, 1891. Stockholm, 1891.
Statistisk Aarbog for Kongeriget Norge. (Aimiiaire statistique de la Norvege.) lOde
Aargang, 1880. Udgivet af del Statistiske ( Vntrallmreau. Kristiania, 1891.
Norges Statskalender for Aaret 1892. Efter oft'entlig Foranstaltning redigerel af \. R.
Bull. 8. Kristiania, 1S91.
Statistisk tidskrift, utgifven af KongL statist iska Central-Byr&n. Stockholm, K6S-9L
Orersigt over Kongeriget Norges civile, gefetlige og judicielle LnddaHng. Udgiven af del
Statistiske Centralimreau. 8. Kristiania, 18S9.
Meddelelser fra det Statistiske Centralbureau. I.— VIII. 8. Kristiania, 1888-91.
Norges Land og Folk. Udgivet efter offentlig Foranstaltning. 1. Smaalenenes Ami.
Kristiania, 1885. XI. Stavanget Amt. Kristiania, 1888.
Report on the Trade of Gothenburg, in No. 981 ; Christiania, in No. 916, 941, 942 ; Trade
of Stockholm, in No. 948, of Diplomatic and Consular Reports,' 1891.
Traile of the United Kingdom with Sweden ami Norwaj ; In ' Annua] statement of the
Trade of i he United Kingdom with Foreign Countries ami British Possessions m the Tear
1890.' Imp. 4. London, 1891.
2. Non-Official I'i i;i .u \ tk»\s.
Agardh(C. A. ) odi Ljungberg (C. E.), Forsdk till en Btatsekonomisk slatistikofver S>
8. Uarlstad, Stockholm, I
Broch (Dr. O. J.), be royaume de Norvege et le people norvegien. Rapport a I'Expo-
silion univirselle de 1878. 8. Kristiania, IS7S.
Broch (Dr. O. J.), Kongerigel Norge og del NorskeFolk. s. Kristiania, li
Carlson (F. F.), Geschichte Sehwedens. 8 v.. is. Gotha, 1832-76.
Du ChailUt (P. 11.), The Land of the Miilnight Sun. 2 vols. London, 1881.
0Mi«MWlm(F.),«Kortfnftet statistisk llaandbog over Kongeriget Norges. Inddellnger i
ailininistrativ, rets lig, grist lig llenseeiide m. m., efler ollieielle Kililer lularliei.i
Bergen, 1870.
Ilnmmar ( AA Historiskt, geograliskt och statistisk! lexicon nfver Sverige. 8 V<
Stockholm, 1839-70.
Hojer (jL), Konungariket Sverige, eu to]iogralisk-statistisk beskrifning med hisloriska
anmarknlngar. 8. Stockholm, 1876-88.
Kiar(\. N.), Statistisk llaamlbog for Kongeriget Norge. S. Kristiania, 1871.
Nielsen (Dr. ingvar), Handbook for Travellers in Norway. With Maps. Kristiania, 1888.
Bosenberg (V. M.). (icograliskt-statistiskt hsjldlexlkon Ofver Sverige. 8. Stockholm, 1881.
Bosenberg(V. VLX Ny reaehandbok bfver Sverige. 8. Stoekholm, 1887.
Budberi. (.i. (..). Forsok till beakrifnino Bfver Sveriges stader i historiskt, topographiskt
och slatisliskt hanseeiiile. 8 Vols. S. Stockholm. 1866-01.
TOntberg (CUr.), Illustrerct Norge. llaandbog for Rescndo, NyUdgavu. ». Kristiania, 1879.
993
SWITZERLAND.
(Schweiz. — Sume
Constitution and Government.
I. Central.
Tin: Swiss Confederation was founded on January 1, 1308, by the
3 cantons of I'ri. Schwyz. and Cnterwald. In 1353 it numbered
8 cantons, and in 1513 it was composed of 13 cantons. This old
Confederation of 13 cantons was increased by the adherence of
several subject territories, and existed till 1798, when it WM
placed by the Helvetic Republic, which lasted four years. In 1803
Napoleon I. organised a new Confederation, comjH^ed of 1*J can-
ton-, by the addition of St. < iallen, Graubonden, Aargau. Thurgau,
Tes>in, and Vaud. Tins Confederation was modified in ! -
wheu the number of cantons was increased to L>2 by the admission
of Wallis, Neuchitel, and Geneva.
The importance of Switzerland, owing to its position in the
centre of Europe, between France. Germany, Austria, and Italy,
is out of all proportion to the extent of its territory, to its popu-
lation, or to its military power. Hence the general interest
requires that it should form an independent and neutral State,
and in November 1815, Austria. France. Great Britain, Prussia,
and Russia formally acknowledged the neutrality of .Switzerland
and the integrity of its territory. In 184S the league or ' Staat-
enbund' became a united confederacy or ' IJundes-staat.' The
present Constitution came into force on May 39, 1874, having
ed the national sanction by a general vote of the people,
given April 19, 1874. It may be revised either in the ordinary
forms of Federal legislation, or by direct popular vote, and the
latter method may be adopted on the demand (called the popular
initiative) of 50,000 citizens with the right to vote. The
supreme legislative and executive authority are vested in a
parliament of two chambers, a ' Standerath,' or State Council.
Mid a ' Xationalrath,' or National Council. The first is composed
?f forty-four members, chosen by the twenty-two cantons of the
Confederation, two for each canton. Three of the cantons are
aolitically divided Basel into Stndt and Land; Appenzell into
lusser Rhoden and Inner Khoden ; and Cnterwald into Obwald
ind Nidwald. Each of these parts of cantons sends one member to
994
SWITZERLAND
the State Council, so that there are two members to the divided as
well as to the undivided cantons. The ' Nationalrath ' consists of
147 representatives of the Swiss people, chosen in direct election,
at the rate of one deputy for every 20,000 souls. On the basis of
the general census of 1888, the cantons are represented in the
National Council as follows : —
Number of
Number of
Canton
Represen-
Canton
Represen-
tatives
tatives
Bern ....
27
Solothurn
4
Zurich ....
17
Appenzell — Exterior and
Waadt (Vaad) .
12
Interior
4
Aargau ....
10
Glarus ....
2
St. Gallen
11
Schaffhausen .
2
Luzern (Lucerne)
7
Schwyz ....
3
Tessin (Ticino)
6
Unterwald — Uppet and
Freiburg (Fribourg) .
6
Lower ....
2
Basel — town and country .
7
Uri
1
Graubiinden (Grison.s)
5
Zug ....
1
Wallis (Valais)
5
Thurgau .
5
Total of representatives in )
the National Council /
147
Neuenburg (Neuchatel) .
5
Gent' (Geneve) .
5
A general election of representatives takes place every three
years. Every citizen of the Republic who has attained the age of
twenty years is entitled to a vote; and any voter, not a clergy-
man, may be elected a deputy. Both chambers united are called
the ' Bundes-Versammlung,' or Federal Assembly, and as such
represent the supreme Government of the Republic. The first
step towards legislative action may be taken by means of the,
popular initiative, and laws passed by the Federal Assembly mays
be vetoed by the popular voice. Whenever a petition demanding
the revision or annulment of a measure passed by the Legislature
is presented by 50,000 citizens, or the alteration is demanded by
eight cantonSj'the law in question must be submit ted to the direct
vote of the nation. This principle, called the referendum, is fre-
quently acted on. The chief executive authority is deputed to a
' Bundesrath,' or Federal Council, consisting of seven mem bersf
elected for three years by the Federal Assembly. Every citizen
who has a vote for the National Council is eligible for becoming a
member of the executive. Any modification of the constitution
decreed by the Federal Assembly must be submitted to the populai
vote, and be supported by ■ majority both of the citizens voting
and of the cantons.
GOVERNMENT — AREA AND POPULATION 995
The president ami vice -president of the Federal Council are the first
magistrates of the Republic. Both an- elected by the Federal Ajweuihly for
tin- term of one year, and are not re-eligible till after the expiration <>l
another year. The election takes place at a united meeting of the
Council and the National Council. The president and vice-president of tin-
council, by the terms of the Constitution, hold office for only one year, from
January 1 to December 31.
President for 1892. — Walter Hem* r, ' Santon of Zurich.
Vice-President for 1892. Karl Sekmk.
The seven menders of the Federal Council — each of whom has a salary of
480.'. !>er annum, while the president has 600/. — act as ministers, or chiefs ol
the seven administrative departments ol the Republic. These departments
are : — 1. The Foreign Department 2. The Home Department :>. The
Department of Justice, i. The Military Department ">. The Financial and
Customs Department 6. The Department of Agriculture and Indus!
7. The Postal and Railway Department. The city of Bern is the seat of the
Federal Council and the centra! administrative authorities.
II. Local Gu\ kkn.mknt.
l'.a.li of tin- cantons and demi-eantons of Switzerland is ' sou renin, ' so
far as its independence and legislative powers are not restricted by the federal
constitution : each has its local government, different in its organisation in
most instances, but all based on the principle of absolute sovereignty of the
beople. In a few of the smallest cantons, the people exercise their powers
direct, without the intervention of any parliamentary machinery, all male
citizens of full age assembling together in the open air. at stated periods,
making laws and appointing their administrators. Such assemblies, known as the
paiidcsgemeinde, exist in Appenzell, (dams. Unterwald, and I'ri. The same
system is carried out. somewhat less directly, in several other of the thinly popu-
lated cantons, which possess legislative bodies, but limited so far that they
must submit their acts to the people for continuation or refusal. In all the
larger cantons, the jieoide delegates its sovereignty to a body chosen with
universal suffrage, called der Grosse Rath, which exercises all the functions of
the Landesgemeinde. The members of these bodies, as well as most of the
magistrates, are cither honorary servants of their fellow-citizens, or receive a
merely nominal salary.
Area and Population.
I. PROGRESS AND PkKSENT CONDITION".
A general census of the population of Switzerland was taken
on December 1, 1888. when the ordinary resident population wu
found to be 2,917,740, the whole population, in fact, being
^,933,334 (1,427,057 males, 1,506,277 females), showing an in-
crease since the previous census of 0"375 per cent, per annum.
t the census taken December 1. 1880, the people numbered
,846,102, of whom 1,394,626 were males and 1,451,476 females.
At the preceding census, taken December 1. 1870, the population
lambered 2,669,138, showing an increase of 176,964 inhabitants
luring the ten years, or 0*64 per cent, per annum.
3 s 2
A
996
SWITZERLAND
The following table gives the area and ordinary resident popu-
lation of each of the cantons and parts of cantons according to the
census of December 1, 1880, and that of December 1, 1888 :
A reft :
Population
Population
Ctiuton
Sq, miles
666
per sq. mile
Dec. 1, 1880
Dec. 1, 1888
1888
Ziirich (Zurich)
316,074
337,183
506 •:!
Bern (Berne) .
2,657
530,411
536,679
201 -9
Luzern (Lucerne) .
579
134.708
135,360
288*6
i Uri
415
23,744
17,249
11 -5
: Schwyz ....
351
51,109
50,307
148*0
Obwalden (Untenvahlen-
■
le-Haut)
183
15,329
15,048
82, *2
; Nidwalden (Unterwalderi-
le-Bas)
112
11,979
12,588
111-9
Glarus (Glaris)
267
34,242
33,825
126-7
Zng (Zong) .
92
22,829
23,029
250 •:;
Freiburg (Fribourg)
C.II
114,994
119,155
185-0
; Solotliurn (Soleure)
302
80,362
85,621
283 '5
Basel-Stadt (Bale-Y.) .
14
64,207
7:i. 7 1'.'
5.26 7 -S
Basel-Land (Bale-CI)
163
59,171
61,941
880-0
Bcbaffhausen (Schairhou.se)
114
38,241
87,788
831-4
Appettzell A.-Rh. (Ext.)
101
51,953
54,109
585-7
Appettzell I.-Rh. (Int.) .
61
12,84?
12,888
211-8
St. (Jallen (St Gall)
779
209,719
229,174
292"*9
< Iraubiinden (Orisons)
2,7?:!
93,864
94,810
:: l -2
Aargau i Argovie) .
542
198.:;:. 7
198,580
857-1
Thurgau (Tnurgovte)
381
99,231
101.67s
27 1 -7
Tessin (Ticiho)
1,088
130,394
126,751
116-1
Waaclt (Valid)
1.211
285,849
247,655
199*1
Wallis rValais)
2,027
100,190
101,985
50 3
Neuenbtuic l Nench&tel) .
312
1 02. 7 1 1
108,153
346 *fl
( : «ii 1' ((lencve)
108
99,712
106,609
976*9
Total
18,978
2,881,78?
2,917,764
182-6
The German language is apokan by the majoritj of inhabitants, in liftcei
cantons, the French in five, the Italian in one (Tessin), and the Roumunso'
in imi' (the Orisons). It is reported in the census returns of 1888 tha
2,092,680 speak Gorman, 637,972 French, 156,606 Italian, and 38,37
Kouniansch. Tlic number of foreigners, resident in Switzerland at the date o
the census was 288,818, 1" 1880 it was 211,035, ol whom <»5,262 wor
German, 53,663 French, ll, 645 Italians, 12,7S6 Austrian, 2.812 liritisli. 1,28
Russian.
Of tin- total population iii 1880, l,188y678 *ere dependent on agrirultm
and dairy fanning ; 971,062 OH manufacturing industry; 206,003 on eon
inner j 1 12.110 on transport; 42,879 on the public service; 56.(1.'..'. on the:
incomes or pensions; 86.N37 on 'alimentation ' J 80,616 on service; 24,9!"
were without calling; the remainder depending on mining silk culture, tl
i base, professions, tea
b:
ARKA AND PnlTI.vnox — RELIGION '••'•7
II. Movements op Population.
The following table gives t h<- total number of births, deaths, and
marriages, with the surplus <>r births over dtwthn, in each of the li\.
Iron. I
,. i , i« .1 i " in> *>f Births
T«« Pta$*> ft nerDtatto
^ 1 . 287
81,1
1889 - 1 . 1 7 • *•
78,548
,079
58,982
58,229
20,701
59,715
20,091
21,481
61,805
-:;.;
it;. 7!::
1 Excluding stillbirths.
In 1890. of the births 8,072, or Hearty :'.-7t'> pel cent, won- stillborn, in
addition to the above : the illegitimate births numbered 4.061. <>r 1*8 per pent.
Tlir number of emigrants in each of the live years up to 1*90 wai
1886, 6,342 ; 1885 - •- B0 : 1890, 7.712.
In 1889 the most numerous class was that of those employed in agricul-
ture, 2,837 : next, domestic servants, ."ill : then those in trade. 278, watch
and clock makers 104, masons and plasterers 108. Of the whole number,
(vere males, of whom 959 were married, and 3,045 wert females, of
Whom 77s1 were married. Of the males, 1.947. and of the females 1,233, were
tinder 20 years of aire, while in all. there wen 1,800 children under the
15. The cantons which supplied the largest contingents of emigrants were
ftern, 2,137 ; Zurich, 819; Ticino, 898; and Basel, 605. Of the whole
number in 1890, 6,917 went to the United States, 752 to South America, 15
istialia, ."• to Asia. 2:'> to Africa.
HI. Principal Towns.
The population dwell chiefly in small towns, hamlets, and villages. In
•lie populations (communal) of the following towns were— Geneva,
[1,807, including suburbs : Basel, 69,809 : Berne 46,009 : Lausanne, 33,340 :
'Zurich. 90.00S with suburbs iL'7.'i'il without suburbs); Chaux-de-Fonds,
: St. Gallen, 27,-,,»90 : Luzem, 20,314 : Nenchttel, : 6.261.
Religion
ording to the Constitution of 1874 there is complete and absolute
Klierty of conscience ami of creed. No one can incur any penalties whatso-
ou account of his religious opinions. No one is bonnd to pay taxes
Specially appropriated to defraying the expenses of a .reed to which he does
•long. Xo bishoprics can be created on Swiss territory without the
approbation of the Confederation. The order of Jesuits and its affiliated
societies cannot l>e received in any part of Switzerland ; all functions clerical
and scholastic are forbidden to its members, and the interdiction can be
extended to any other religious orders whose action is dangerous to the State,
or interferes with the peace of different creeds. The foundation of new cop.
vents or religious orders i- forbidden.
998 SWITZERLAND
The population of Switzerland is divided between Protestantism and
Roman Catholicism, about 59 per cent, of the inhabitants adhering to the
former, and 10 per cent, ro the latter. According to the census of Decem-
ber 1, 1888, the number of Protestants amounted to 1,724,257, of Roman
Catholics to 1,190,008, and of Jews to 8,386. . The Roman Catholic priests
are much more numerous than the Protestant clergy, the former comprising
more than 6,000 regular and secular priests. They are under live bishops, of
Basel, Chur, St. Gall, Lausanne, ami Sion, and an Apostolic administrator in
the canton of Tcssin. The government of the Protestant Church, Calvinistii
in doctrine and Presbyterian in form, is under the supervision of the magis-
trates of the various cantons, to whom is also entrusted, in the Protestant
districts, the superintendence of public instruction.
Instruction.
Education is compulsory, and is very widely diffused through Switzerland.
particularly in the north-eastern cantons, where the vast majority of in-
habitants arc Protestants. In these cantons the proportion of the school -
attending children to the whole population is as one to five ; while in the half-
Protestant and half-Roman Catholic cantons it is as one to seven : and in the
entire Roman Catholic cantons as one to nine. The compulsory law has
hitherto not always been enforced in the Roman Catholic cantons, but is
rigidly carried out in those where the Protestants form the majority of
inhabitants. In every district there are primary schools, and secondary
schools for youths of from twelve to fifteen. In both these schools the rich and
the poor are educated together, . the latter being admitted gratuitously. Of
the contingent for military service in 1889, 3 per cent, were found to be
illiterate.
The following are the statistics of the various classes of educational insti-
tutions for 1888 :—
— Schools
Teaohera
Pupils
Primary schools 8,101
Secondary schools .... 451
Middle schools (public and private) 78
Normal schools ..... 87
Professional and industrial schools . 120
Agricultural schools ....
9,031
1,349
836
288
549
_
171,016
26,1 16
11,733
1,021
7,068
264
There are live universities in Switzerland. Basel has a university, founded
in 1460, and since 1882 universities have I n established in Bern, Zurich!
and Geneva, The academy ■'" Lausanne was formed into a university in
1891. These universities are organised on the model of those of Germanjti
governed by B lector and a senate, and divided into four - faculties' ol
theology, jurisprudence, philosophy, and medicine. There is a Polytechnic
School for the whole Confederation at Zurich, founded in 1855, and a Military
Academy at Thun. both maintained by the Federal Government
There are also academies with facilities similar to those of the Universities
at Klibourg and XcUchatel.
The following table shows the number of matriculated students in tin
various branches of study in each of the four universities and in the academic
Of Krihourg and Neiichatel in 1S91 • —
INSTRUCTION'— JUSTKK WD CRIME — FIXAN 999
-
Theology
iJtw
Medicine
Philoeophy
Total
Teaching
Staff
85
Basel
114
40
126
109
388
Zurich
37
03
273
16.r.
538
99
Bern
42
136
263
97
88
va
28
72
219
144
79
Laiwinn<> .
26
:,:,
63
a
1M
Fribourg .
—
46
—
28
138
—
KeueUttd
18
11
-
27
56
33
423
943
612
431
Of the total. 72ti students wen foreigners, and 229 were females.
The Federal Polytechnic School consists of sections for architecture, civil
engineering industrial mechanic*, industrial chemistry, forestry, agriculture,
ami a normal section. In 1890 there were 622 regular students (279 Swim
ami 343 foreign*
Justice and Crime.
The ' Bnndes-Gericht,' or Federal Tribunal, which sits at Lausanne, con -
i nine members, apjKiinted for six years by the Federal Assembly. It
decides, in the last instance, on all matters in dispute between the various
cantons of the Republic, as well as lwtween the cantons and the Federal
( lorenunent, and acta in general as high court of appeal. It is divided into
a civil and a criminal court, the latter having three sections. 'Anklage-
kanmier,' or chamlier of accusation : the • Kriminalkammer,' or jury depart-
ment : and the 'Cassations-Gericht,' or council of ap]>eal.
On March 1. 1891, there were in Switzerland, in all. 3,206 convicted
prisoners, of whom 492 were women. The number convicted of criminal
offences was 1,452, of whom ISO were women. During the month of March
2.277 l«eggars and tramps were detained.
The penalty of death is enacted only in the cantons of Luzern ami 1'ii.
Finance.
The public revenue of the Confederation is derived chiefly
from customs. A considerable income is also derived from the
postal system, as well as from the telegraph establishment, con-
ducted by the Federal Government on the principle of uniformity
of rates. The sums raised under these heads are not left entirely
for Government expenditure, but a great part of the }H>>tal
revenue, as well as a portion of the customs dues, have to be paid
over to the cantonal administrations, in compensation for the loss
of such sources of former income. In extraordinary cases, the
Federal Government is empowered to levy a rate upon the various
cantons after a scale settled for twenty years. A branch of
revenue proportionately important is derived from the profits of
various Federal manufactories, and from the military school and
laboratory at Thun. near Bern,
1000
SWITZERLAND
The following table gives the total revenue and expenditure
of the Confederation in each of the years 1880 to 1890 :
Year
Revenue
Expenditure
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Francs
61,097,496
59,586,972
59,882,863
65,571,700
67,621,251
Franca
68,067,606
52,554,000
58,555,087
64,435,605
66,666,993
For 1891, the revenue was estimated at 65,638,000 francs
and expenditure 78,069,000 francs.
The following table gives the budget estimates for 1892 : —
'I'll.- estimated -i.ti. it of 12,828*000 francs arises mostl) from cxtiaordinwS
expenditure for military purpose i0 francs being required to provide
new rifles for the army, ano 2,000,000 francs for the Oothard fortifications.
To meet such expenditure, a loan of 26,000*000 frapes was raised in |88(J
FIXANXF— I)KFK\ ]i»lll
The amortization of this «lol>t will liegin in 1S93, and l>o awatJalad in 1917. at
■in annual oeat of abort 1,000,000 banea
Tin- public debt ot the Confederation amounted, on January 1. 1891, t"
71,112. 0:J 1 francs, at 3f jet cent. On the other lian.l. there mriatad at the
illed -Federal Fortune.' or State noperty, takwd a-.
pro)>erty. 15,653,330 b ,610,968 bases; works prodneiag
-•. 10,508,690 base*; itoiaa not paadaoiag interest. 19,784,4
inventory. 14,913,271 ban banes; total, 198,451,116
francs, the net Fortune hieing thus 37,339,085 francs.
Local Fihax
The various cantons of Switzerland have their own local administrations
and their own hudgete of revenue and expenditure. Mast of them ha\
puhlic debts, hut not of a large amount, and abundantly covered, in every
instance, by cantonal prt>i»ertv. chiefly in land. The income of the cantonal
administrations is derived partly bom direct taxes on income and property (on
vaiyi>: 1 often with progressive rates for the different classes), and
partly from indirect di 8 nil cantons have only
indirect taxation : and over the whole al>out 58 jter cent, of the revenue is
raised in this form. In most of the towns and parishes heavy nranlcinal
duties
Defence.
Fortifications are being erected on the sooth frontier for Ike
defence of the (lot-hard, and 4 companies of fortress artillery are
being formed, 1 for Airolo, 2 for Andermatt, and 1 for Oberalp.
1'urca, Gothard. Eacb company will consist of 200 or 250 men.
including 10 or 12 officers.
The fundamental laws of the Republic forbid the maintenance
of a standing army within the limits of the Confederation. The
Federal army consists of all men Liable to military service, and
both the army and the war material are at the disposal of the
( "onfederation. In cases of emergency the Confederation has also
the exclusive and undivided right of disposing of the men who do
» not belong to the Federal army, and of all the other military
foraaa of the cantons. The cantons dispose of the defensive force
of their respective territories in so far as their power to do so is
not limited by the constitutional or legal regulations of the Con-
federation. The Confederation enacts all laws relative to the
army, and watches over their due execution ; it also provides for
the education of the troops, and bears the cost of all military
expenditure which is not provided for by the Legislatures of the
cantons. To provide for the defence of the country, every citizen
has to bear arms, in the use of which the children are instructed
at school, from the age of eight, passing through annual exeirw-
and reviews. Such military instruction is voluntary on the part
of the children, hut is participated in by the greater numlxu- id'
pupils at the upper and middle-class school-
1002 SWITZERLAND
Every citizen of the Republic of military age, not exempt on account of
bodily defect or other reason, is liable to military service. On January 1,
1890, the number thus liable to serve was 477,140', and the number actually
incorporated was 220,358. Those who are liable but do not perform personal
service are subject to a tax, and the number taxed in 1889 was 241,370, the
sum due to the Confederation being 1,373,731 francs. Recruits are primarily
liable to serve in the infantry, the best fitted physically and by education and
pecuniary means being selected for other arms. In the first year of service
every man undergoes a recruit's course of training, which lasts from 42 to 80
days, and during the remainder of his service in the Elite, he is called up
every other year for 16 days' training ; rifle practice and cavalry exercise being,
however, annual. The Landwehr forces are also called together periodically
for inspection and exercise, and once or twice a year the troops of a number of
cantons assemble in general muster.
The troops of the Republic are divided into three classes, viz. :—
1. The Elite, consisting in general of all men able to bear arms, from the
age of 20 to 32.
2. The Landwehr, comprising all men from the 33rd to the completed 44 th
year.
3. The Landsturm, which can only be called out in time of war. This
force (by a law of December 5, 1887) consists of all citizens not otherwise
serving, between the ages of 17 and 50, or (in the case of ex-officers) 55.
For military purposes Switzerland is divided into 8 divisional districts of
approximately ecpual population, and the Elite is organised in 8 arm; divisions,
which are mainly raised each in its own divisional district. The Landwehr is
not grouped in divisions, but classified in the 8 divisional districts to which
the divisions of the Elite belong. Each army division has 2 brigades of
infantry, 1 battalion of carabiniers, 1 regiment of dragoons, 1 company of
guides, 1 brigade of artillery, 1 battalion of train, 1 battalion of engineers. 1
field hospital, 1 administrative company, the normal total of all ranks (in-
cluding 91 officers and 118 horses of the Landwehr train) being 12,808, with
2,284 horses, 42 guns, and 343 other carriages. The 8 divisions will, by a
law of June 26, 1891, be formed into 4 army corps, each with its own staff,
and troops corresponding with those of the united divisions. The Landwehr
is normally of the same strength in infantry, cavalry, and engineers as the
Elite, but the cavalry consists of personnel only. The effective strength of the
Swiss army on January 1, 1891, is given as follows : —
Klitc
l.ainlwelir
l.;uidst Ill-ill
Stall' of army
19
—
Stall's of combined troops
7 S6
248
[nfantry ....
97,785
62,886
78. MS
Cavalry ....
8,018
2,880
—
Artillery ....
18,085
10,886
8,481
Engineers ....
4,991
2,105
Pioneers ....
—
—
101,889
Auxiliary troops .
1,897
—
si. 197
Sanitary troops
—
1,004
—
Administrative troops .
1,386
319
—
Judicial officers, &c.
Total ....
7".
—
268,715
127,978
80,272
PRODUCTION AXD ENDU8TBT 1003
The whole araiv i- eompoMd af two Ami of troops, than of the I
Mavatioa, sad those af the laattrnfl The CoafedaratKai troops are of the
Kite ami Lamlwehr— in cavalry, the guide iiaaaniiiai : in artillery, the park
columns, artificer wanainias, ami train l«attalions : all tin.- engineers, ■ad
■uitat] ami administrative troops. The remainder. COaaating of all the
infantry and the balk of the cavalry ami artillery, both of Elite ami Laml-
wehr. ami the whole of the Landstunn. are taatowal troops, and are at the
disposal of the cantons aieept in so far as is otherwise provitleil by statute.
In ■ooordaace with this arrangement, ofieera are appointed by the cantons for
the units of the cantonal troops (i.e., up to the rank of captain*, and by the
Federal < oum-i] for troops of the Confederation and for continued corps. In time
of peace the highest eoavauuafla are held by eoleaala When mobilisation is
contemplated, one of the colonels is appelated noaimsndor hi rhW and is
styled general, bat on demobilisation he reverts to hi* former rank.
The principal training school for officers is that at Thun. near Berne.
Production and Industry.
The soil of the ooaatiy is very equally divided among the ]>opulation, it
being estimated that there are marly 300.000 peasant proprietors, representing
a population ofebovt -2.000,000.
Of the total area 284 i>er cent, is unproductive ; of the product i\>
35 8 per cent, is under grass ami meadows, 29 i«er cent, under foreM. Is 7 pei
cent, under fruit, 164 j>er cent, under cropa and gardens. Rye. oats, ami
l«otatoes are the chief crops, bat the hulk of food crops consumed in the
country is imported. A lout 22 million gallons of wine are produced annually.
At the last enumeration (1886) there were in the ooaatiy 98,333 I
1.211.71" cattle of all kinds, 341.632 sheep. 415,619 goats. 394,451 swine, of
the total value of 17.936,880/. In 1890 there wen imj»orted 9,897 horses,
123,372 cattle. 182,537 pun, 121.885 sheep. The export of cho
was 51,006.290 lbs., and of condensed milk 29,608,536 lbs.
The Swiss Confederation has the right of supervision over the police of the
a, and of framing regulations for their maintenance. The district over
which the Federal supervision extends lies to the south aud east of a tolerably
straight line from the eastern end of the Lake of Geneva to the northern end
of the Lake of Constance. It comprises about 428,000 hectares, or 1,070,000
acres ot forest, and the Federal forest laws apply to all cantonal, communal,
and municipal forests within this area, those belonging to private persons
beiag exempt, except when from their position they are accessary for protec-
tion against climatic influences. In 1876 it was enacted that this forest area
should never 1-e reduced : servitudes over it. such as rights of way, of gathering
firewood, he., should l>e I ought up : public forests should 1*- surveyed, and
new wood planted where required, subventions for the purpose being aane-
tioued. There have lieen bought up (1881-90) 1,931 servitudes, coating
079,082 frams : up to the end of 1S89 the cadastration of 61,608 hectares of
forest had been executed, and in the year 1890, 7,000,000 trees were planted.
Subventions are also granted to the free forest districts, comprising 3,837
square kilometres of forest. In most cantons forest administration U
ducted by a department under a member of the Government, assisted by a chief
forester, but in sonic by a committee chosen directly by the people.
There were, in 1890, 84 establishments for pisciculture, which produced
fry of various species to the number of 13,678,000.
Switzerland is in the main an agricultural country, though with a strong
tendency to manufacturing industry. In 1891 there were altogether in
Switzerland 4.223 factories of various kinds, subject to the factory law. with
169.999 workjieople. There were (1888) in the cotton industry 1.571 fa
1004
SWITZERLAND
with 54,168 workpeople ; 227 silk factories, with 27,819 people; ISO other
textile factories; with 9,121 workers : for machinery, 249. with 18/490 workers :
paper, 272, with 7y856 workers: watchmaking and jewellery, 191. with 12,409
workers: woodwork. 234, with 5,048 workers : metal works. 107, with 1,157
workers.
Commerce.
The special commerce, including precious metals, was as
follows in 1880-90:—
- 1886
1887
isss tsso ison
Francs
Imports . . . 790,230,060
Kxporls '. • . t;07.428,()42
Praties
887,034,016
671,092,639
Francs Francs Francs
827,078,395 955,&92,«84 1,001,640,649
673j060,648 710,894. 848 726,072,808
What is known as the effective imports (including those de-
posited in entrepots) amounted to 1,015,123,373 francs in 1890,
and effective exports (including those taken out of entrepots) to
73!), 81 (J,749 francs. The total value of the general imports in
1890 was 1,530,652,503 francs, and exports 1,255,348,879 francs.
Tlie following table shows value of special commerce in 1890 :
( 'ottons .....
Silk
Wools
Other textiles . . . .
Useful metals . . . .
Mineral matters
Animals .
Animal products
Leather . . . . .
Pood st nils . . . .
Tobacco, beer, wine, and spirits
( 'heliiieals . . . .
Timber . . . . .
( 'locks and watches .
Machinery .
Oils and tats . . . .
Agricultural products
I literature, science, and art
Paper . . . . .
Class and pottery .
Manures. RC. .
Various . . . . .
Total merchandise .
Precious metals and coins
Imports
Francs
77.7:55,082
1 11.24:5,930
01. 927, 130
48,548,060
55,824,552
50,741,689
61,005,974
7,092,190
21,611,811
216,888,421
88, 172. 2:17
83,522,985
19,871,885
8.108,222
20,461,999
10,818,024
7;226,567
1 1,189,867
8,121,877
7,142,785
5,046,528
82,677
917,824,887
84,815,762
Exports
Francs
160,154,812
199.290. 185
lS.72l.ti2:.
21,590,624
7,804,682
8,617,514
16,286,009
8,681,189
7,925,028
77.227.2.'.<;
1,519,498
16,1 17,193
7,392,880
101,067,199
23,881,785
125,058
548,898
7,081,770
97,828
798,128
168,748
1,51 1,806
7,105
34,225,703
Total
1,001,640*646
725,072. sits
COMMERCE — IXTERXAL COMMUNICATION'S
1005
In 1890 wheat was imported to the value of 74,734,262 fraic <.
exported to the value of 38. S ml condensed milk to the value
of 18,244,942 francs.
The following table shows the value of the special exports and import!
(including bullion l.ut not win) in the case of the leading countries with which
Switzerland did businesB in 1890. Being an inland country, Switzerland has
only direct commercial intercourse with the tour surrounding B istria,
Italy. Frame, and Germany : l>ut the exports to other countries, especially
Britain and the Unite, 1 States, are in fact very important Much of
ide with the frontier countries is really of the nature of transit tn
Germany.
Frame
Italy
Austria-Hungary
Great Britain .
Belgium .
in Km ] lire
Holland .
Best of Europe
Total Europe
Africa
Aria
America .
Australia
Imports from
Francs
59,784
226,34
."..030
102..T
:, 2.:; 73, 837
7,849
33,292,519
•1.414
I.'.. 210. 19S
24,317
14,946,367
7.07
1,96!
Kxi-ort* to
Francs
181,87
28,781
"S,686
106,488,547
12,34
•
:. 133
30,04
1,193,579
105,816,333
2. ;."
Total.
953, 395, 649
10,261
Internal Communications.
From official returns, it appears that the railways open for public traffic
in Switzerland in July 1891, had a total length of 1,980 miles. These
are distributed among mots than fifteen companies, the Jura -Kerne-Lucerne
Railway being in the hands of the canton of Bern. The cost of construction
of the lines, rolling stock, &<•.. up to the end of 1889 was 954,003.752 bancs.
The receipts in 1888 amounted in 82,283,477 francs, and atpSM
43,850,883 franca
In 1890 there were in Switzerland 1.485 post-offices and 1,675 letter-
boxes; 2.546 higher functionaries, and 4,285 employes (letter carriers, tc).
By the internal service then- were forwarded 62 tiers, 12,941,356
post-cards, 1S.999.149 packets of printed matter, 74,(806,405 newspapers,
and 2.545.022 sample and other parcels. In the foreign postal service there
were transmitted 26.870,961 letter-. 6,821,698 i*>st-cards, and 13,809,011
packets of printed matter. Internal post-office orders were sent to the
amount of 345,416,012 francs, and international sent and received to the
amount of 39,972,114 franca
Switzerland has a very complete system of telegraphs, which, excepting
wires for railway service, is wholly under the control of the State. In 1890
the length of State telegraph lines was 1,500 miles ; the total length of wire
1006
SWITZERLAND
being 11,400 miles. There were transmitted 1,965,862 inland telegrams,
1,219,653 international, and 510, 473 in transit through Switzerland. Number
of offices, 1,384. In the telephone service there were 10,949 offices, 2,862
miles of line, and 10,042 miles of wire. The receipts of the telegraph and
telephone services amounted to 3,985,633 francs, and the expenses to
3,266,834 francs.
Money and Credit.
On December 31, 1890, there were 15 banks with a paid-up capital of
133,850,000 francs, and note issue of 174,160,000 francs. For 1890 the
average of their general monthly balances was :• —
Assets
Francs
101,339,885
27,509,973
202,734,612
563,357,531
13,126,135
12,098,714
920.166,850
Liabilities
Francs
Cash and notes
Short-dated debts .
Bills of exchange .'
Other debts ....
Investments ....
Capital not paid up
Total i.
Note issue ....
Short dated debts .
Bills of exchange .
Other debts .
Paid-up capital, reserves, Ac.
Capital not paid up
Total ....
162,103,108
100,085,378
12,172,128
475,010,310
158, OSS, 21 2
12,09S,714
920,166,850
Cantonal bank notes are guaranteed by 18 cantons.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The metric system of money, weights, and measures has been generally
adopted in Switzerland, with some changes of names and of subdivisions.
These and their British equivalents are : —
.MnNKV.
The Franc, of 10 Batten, and 100 Happen or Centime.-..
Average rate of exchange, 25-22{, francs g] sterling.
Weights ami Measures.
The Centner, of 50 Kilogrammes and 100 Pfund= no lbs. avoirdupois.
The Quintal — 100 KHogrammee - 220 lbs. avoirdupois. The Arpent (Land)
= 8-9ths of an acre.
The Pfttnd, at pound, chief unit of Weight, is legally divided into decimal
Gframmee, but the people generally prefer the use of the old halves and quar-
ters, named Halbpfund, and Viertelpfund.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Ok Switzerland in Great Britain.
Chargi (PAffdvrea and Consul-Ckneral, Cliarlcs I'. mi rent.
Secretary. — Dr. Oh. d'OrelH Corragioni
2. Ok Great Britain in Switzerland,
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary,- diaries Stewart
Scott, O.B.j appointed Knvnv Kxtraordinarv and Minister Plenipotentiary
in Switzerland; May 1, 1888.
Sreretary. — (Jeorge W. Buchanan.
1007
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Switzerland,
l. OmouL 1'ir.i.n An*
nilmiwilMlllhn TnUlliMllt ldi 1 December, 1888. 4. Bern, 1880.
Feuille federale. Bern, 1891.
Uftaberiefate des Schweizerischen Bundesraths an die Bumle»versammlung. 8.
Bene, 1891.
MeeMwa <lu OonwU federal a la Haute Assembler federale conceniant la recensement
fi derail du lee deeemtare 1880. 8. Berne, 1881.
Reports on the Finances and on t lie Trade tad Agriculture of Switzerland in Nob. 939
and ;«i7 '>f ' Diplomatic and Consular KejMitts.' I^'iidon. 1891.
hats du compte d'i tat de la Confederation suisse j>our l'annee 1890. 4. Berne, 1891.
Schweizcrischc Statistik. Herausgegeben vom Statistischen Bureau de» Kidgenoss.
Departments des Iiinem. Bern, 1891.
-•i«iue du commerce de la Suisse avec l'etranger en 1890. Berne, 1891.
stiachee Jahrhueh der Schweiz. Bern, 1891.
VoransehUv dec Schweizerischen Eidgenossenschaft ftir das Jahr 1891. Bern, 1890.
The Armed Strength of Switzerland, by Colonel C. W. Bowdler Bell ; issued by the
Intelligence Division of the War Office. London, 1889.
2. Xux-Offh iai. IYblk ai iom.
.i,lam» (Sir F. O.), and Cunningham (C. D.), The Swiss Confederation. 1889.
Almanaeh federal rafaee pour 1891. Berne, 1891.
Bericht der Busier Haiidelskainmer. Basel, 1891.
Bericht Qber Handel und Industrie von Zurich. Zurieh, 1S91.
Grob(C.), Sammlung neuer Gesetze und Vemrdmingen. nebst statistischen I'eUrsichteii
tiber das gesammte Cnterriehtswesen in der Schweiz im Jahr 1896. Zurich.
Grot* (George). Letters OB the Politics of Switzerland. S. London. 1876.
Maguin (H.), Notes et documents sur 1'instruction populaire en Suisse. S. Tar-
Officieller Katalog der Schweizerischen Landcsangstellung. Zurich, 1883.
Rapport du cheinin de fer ilu Gothard. Zurich. 1886.
Wirth (Max), AU^emeine Beschn-ibung und Statistik der Schweiz. Tin Verein nil
fin Schweizerischen Gelehrtea und Staatsmannern herausgegeben. :; vols. S. Zurich,
1871-:-
1008
TONGA.
King. —-George Tubou, born about 1800 ; heir-presumptive, Taufa'ahau,
great grandson of the King, born in 1874.
There is a Legislative Assembly, composed one half of hereditary nobles,
and half of representatives elected for three years by the people, every adult
male being qualified to vote.
There are treaties of friendship with Great Britain, Germany, and the
United States.
The archipelago comprises groups of islands, called respectively, Tonga.
Haapai, Vavau, Niuafo'ou and Niuatobutabu, and lies between 15° and 23 30'
south, and 173° and 177° west. Area, 374 square miles : population, 1889,
20,000, including 250 Europeans. Capital, Nukualofa. The revenue, chiefly
from customs anda poll tax on natives, was, in 1889, 94,311 dollars. Imports,
1889, 49,109?., of which 25,172?. were British; exports, 1889, 84,1752., ol
which 43,628?. were British, as against 15,548?. and 38,259?. German. The
principal articles of imports are in the following order : — Drapery, 1 ; meats,
2 ; timber, 3 ; breadstuff's, 4 ; ironmongery, 5 ; the first being three times the
value of any other of this trade. 60 per cent, comes front Auckland, New
Zealand; 12 per cent, comes from Sydney, New South Wales ; 11 percent.
comes from Germany. Nineteen-twentieths of the exports are copra, and are
sent to : 1, Lisbon ; 2, Falmouth ; 3, Queenstown, in vessels proportionately
as follows: German, 53 per cent. ; Norwegian, 21 ; Swedish, 12 ; British, 11.
British tonnage entering the group was 31.957, as against 21,991 German.
Gold and silver coins of (! real Britain, United Stales, ami Germany are
legal tender. The weights and measures are the same as in Great Britain.
1I.B.M. Deputy-Commissioner and Vice-Consul. — K. B. Leefe.
Inn!)
TURKEY
AND TRIBUTARY STATES.
(Ottomak Empire.)
Reigning Sultan.
Abdul-Hamid II., born September 21, 1642 (15 shaban
1245), the second son of Sultan Abdul Mt'dji.l : succeeded to the
throne on the deposition of his elder brother. Sultan Hand V.,
August 31. is;*;.
Cktldrmi qftkt Sultan.
I. M«hemmad-HeHm Effendi, born January 11, 187". II.
Sultana, horn January 12, 1871. III. Xdimt- Sultana.
l>orn August •"». 1876. IV. AUlul-KaJir Kffendi. born Fehruarv
•_':). 1878. V. Ahmad Effendi, l>orn March 14, 1878. VI.
Snilt Sultana, burn January B, 1884. VII. Mekimwmd Bmrkmm
tMdin Effendi, horn December 19, 1885.
Brother* and Sisters of the Sultan.
I. Mohammed Murad Effendi, bom September 21, IS 10 : proclaimed
Sultan of Turkey on tin- deposition of his mule, Sultan AUlul-Aziz. May
J7€ ; declared by tin- Council of Ministers to l>e suffering from idiocy.
and deposed from the throne, August 31, 1876.
II. DjimiU Sultana, born August 18, 1843: married, June 3, 1858, to
Mahmotul-Djelal-Eddin Pasha, son of Ahmet Feti Pasha : widow.
III. M<)»ni„u<l-ll,xh(i,] Ellen. li, bora November :». 1844^ heir-apparent
t.i the throne.
IV. Senihi Sultana, born November 21, 1851 : married to the late
Mahmud Pasha, son of Halil Pasha.
V. Medihe Sultana, born 1887; married (1) 1879. to Ned jib Pasha:
widow 1885 ; (2) April 30, 1886, to Fend Pasha.
VI. Wahid-Uddi* Effendi, bora 1860.
VII. Suleiman Effendi, iwni January 12, 1861.
The present sovereign of Turkey is the thirty-fourth, in male
descent, of the house of Othman. the founder of the empire, and
the twenty-eighth Sultan since the conquest of Constantinople.
By the law of succession obeyed in the reigning family, the
crown is inherited according to seniority by the male descendants
of Othman. sprung from the Imperial Harem. The Harem is
considered a i>ermanent State institution. All children born in
the Harem, whether offspring of free women or of slaves, are
3 T
1010 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
legitimate and of equal lineage. The Sultan is succeeded by his
eldest son, but only in case there are no uncles or cousins of
greater age.
It has not been the custom of the Sultans of Turkey for some centuries
to contract regular marriages. The inmates of the Harem come, by pur-
chase or free will, mostly from districts beyond the limits of the empire, the
majority from < 'iivassia. From among these inmates the Sultan designates a
certain number, generally seven, to lie ' kadyn,' or Ladies of the Palace, the
rest, called 'Odalik,' remaining under them as servant.;. The superintendent
of the Harem, always an aged Lady (it the Palace, and healing the title of
' Haznadar- Kadyn,' has to keep it]) intercourse with the outer world through
the Guard of Eunuchs, whose chief, called ' Kyzlar- Agassi,' has the same rank
as the (irand Vizier, hut has the precedence it present on state occasions.
We first hear of the Turks in the year 811 A. IV, when they migrated from
Tartary into Armenia, hnt they only came into prominence about 1030 A. n.
Under Othman, the founder of the present dynasty, they, under the name of
Othman Turks, made themselves masters of several places in Asia, captured
Nicea, and made Broussa their capita] (1326).
The first appearance of the Turks in Europe was in 1080, when a body oi
2,000 crossed the liosphorns to assist the Emperor Botoniates against his rival.
. By the end of the fourteenth century they reduced Thessaly, Macedonia, and
Bulgaria, and were acknowledged the fillers of nearly all Western Asia.
( 'onstantinople was first besieged by the Turks in 1802, hnt was not taken till
14r>3. It has since been the capital of the Turkish Empire.
Mohammed II., its conqueror, then proceeded to subdue Trebizond,
AVallachia, Bosnia, Illyria, and the Morea.
Under Bajazet II. and Seliin I. Egypt was totally subdued, and Syria.
( 'ircassia, and Moldavia passed under Turkish rule. In 1522 Solynian 1.
subdued Rhodes, and in 1525 invaded Hungary and invested Vienna. This
siege had to he raised, ami was followed by a scries of reverses, Tin1 territory
under Turkish rule in Europe alone then extended over 230,000 square miles.
Ever since, the glory of the empire has waned. In 1595 the Turks were
driven out of Upper Hungary and Transylvania, ami for a time out of
Moldavia and Wallachia. In 1709 war broke out against Russia, ending in
the expulsion of the Turks from the Crimea, the extension of the Russian
frontier to the ling and Dnieper, the partial independence of the Damibian
principalities, and the acquisition by Russia of the right of a free passage for
their licet through the Dardanelles.
In 1806 war with Russia was again resumed; and resulted in the extension
of the Russian frontier to the Truth (1812). The Greek war for independence
(1822-28) ended, owing to the interference of the foreign Powers, in the leas
of that kingdom. In 1888 Russia was successful in arresting the progress of
Meheniet Ali I'asha of Egypt, hut the hold of Turkey over Egypt was from
that time nominal. By the Treaty of 1841, Turkey was virtually placed
under the protection of the (ireat 1'owers. who guaranteed its integrity and
independence. In 1ST. I war was declared by Russia, hut although assisted hy
England and France, anil successful in its warlike operations, Turkey derived
no henclit from it. In 1858 Moldavia and Wallachia united to declare what
was practically their independence. The war against Russia in Ks7ti resulted
in the loss of Bulgaria. Eastern Roumelia, Thessaly. and a strip of Eastern
Armenia, also in the entire indepemleiirc rif lloumania, Servia, and Montc-
iicuro, ami in the administration of Bosnia ami Herzegovina by Austria and
6f I 'yprns hy England,
CONSTITUTION WD GOVERNMENT
1011
Th«- following U a list of the names, with date of accession, of the
tour ^-overturns who ruled Turk.-v Binoa the foundation of the empire
the reigning house : —
House of Oth man.
. 1299 Murad IV., 'The Intrepid'
. 1326 Ibrahim
. 1380 Mohammed IV.
Othman
Orchan
Murad I
Mt '
Interregnum
Mohani
Murad II. .
Mohammed II
of Constantinople
Bajazet II.
Selim I.
man I
ficent '
Selim II. .
Murad III.
Mohammed III
Ahmet I. .
Mustapha I. (
Daman I. \
The Thunder-
Commeror
The Magni-
1988
1402
1413
1121
147.1
1481
1512
1520
. lf>7 1
. 1595
. 1603
1617-1818
Solvman II. .
Ahmet II. .
tpha II.
Ahmet III. .
Mahmoud I. .
Osman II.
Mustapha III.
Abdul Hamid I.
Selim III.
pha IV.
Mahmoud II.
Abdul-Medjid
Abdul-Aziz .
Murad V.
Mav 20-
Alnhil-Hainid II.
-Au«r.
81
thirty-
and of
1623
1640
ltfH*
1691
1703
1730
1788
1807
1808
1839
1861
1876
The civil list of the Sultan Is variously reported at from one to two millions
ig. To the Imi>erial family belong a great number of crown dor
the income from which contributes to the revenue. The finances of the tivil
list have of late been put into order, but are still reported to be insufficient to
< over the expenditure of the Point and Harem, numbering altogether over
five thousand individuals. The amount charged to the Budget ol
717.116 for the Palace, and P. 23,750,212 for the Crown prii
about 785,000*.
Constitution and Government.
The fundamental laws of the empire are based on the
precepts of the Koran. The will of the Sultan is absolute, in so
far as it is not in opposition to the accepted truths of the
Mahometan religion as laid down in the sacred book of the
Prophet. Next to the Koran, the laws of the * Multeka.' a code
formed of the supposed sayings and opinions of Mahomet, and
the sentences and decisions of his immediate successors, are
binding upon the Sovereign as well as his subjects. Another
code of laws, the ' Cahon nameh.' formed by Sultan Solvman the
nifieent, from a collection of • hatti-sheriffs,' or de<
issued by him and his predecessors, is held in general obedience,
but merely as an emanation of human authority.
The legislative and executive authority is exercised, under
the supreme direction of the Sultan, by two high dignitaries, the
■ Sadr-azam,' or Grand Yizier. the head of the temporal Govern-
3 T 2
1012 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
inent, and the ' Shei'k-ul-Islain,' the head of the Church. Both
are appointed by the Sovereign, the latter with the nominal
concurrence of the ' Ulema,' a body comprising the clergy and
chief functionaries of the law, over which the ' Sheik-ul-Islam '
presides, although he himself does not exercise priestly functions.
Connected with the ' Ulema ' are the ' Mufti,' the interpreters of
the Koran. The Ulema comprise all the great judges, theo-
logians, and jurists, and the great teachers of literature and
science who may be summoned by the Mufti. The principal
civic functionaries bear the titles of Effendi, Bey, or Pasha.
Forms of constitution, after the model of the West European
States-, were drawn up at various periods by successive Ottoman
Governments, the first of them embodied in the ' Hatti-Hum;i-
youn' of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, proclaimed February 18, 1856,
and the most recent in a decree of Sultan Abdul-Hamid II., of
November, 1876. But the carrying out of these projects of
reform appears entirely impossible in the present condition of
the Ottoman Empire.
The Grand Vizier, as head of the Government and representa-
tive of the Sovereign, is assisted by the Medjliss-i-Hass, or Privy
Council, which corresponds to the British Cabinet. The
Medjliss-i-Hass consists of the following members: — 1. The
Grand Vizier ; 2. The Sheik-ul-Islam ; 3. The Minister of the
Interior ; 4. The Minister of War ; 5. The Minister of Evkaf
(Worship) ; 6. The Minister of Public Instruction ; 7. The
Minister of Public Works; 8. President of Council of State;
9. Minister of Foreign Affairs; 10. Minister of Finance;
11. Minister of Marine; 12. Minister of Justice; 13. Minister
of Civil List.
The whole of the empire is divided into thirty-one Vilayets
or governments, and subdivided into Sanjaks, or provinces.
Kazas, or districts, Nahies, or subdistricts. and Karies, or
communities. A Vali, or governoi-general, who is held to
represent the Sultan, and is assisted by a provincial council, is
placed at the head of each Vilayet. The provinces, districts, &c.,
are subjected to inferior authorities (Mutesarit's, ( 'ai'makanis.
Mudirs and Muktars) under the superintendence of the principal
governor. The division of the country into Vilayets has been
frequently modified of late for political reasons. For similar
reasons six of the Sanjaks of the empire are governed by
Mutesarifs appointed directly by the Sultan, and are known as
Mutessarifats. All subjects, however humble their origin, are
eligible to, and may fill, the highest offices in the State.
Under the capitulations foreigners residing in Turkey are
AREA AND POPULATION*
1013
under the laws of their respective countries, and are amenable
for trial (in cases in which Turkish subjects are not concerned)
to a tribunal presided over by their consul. Foreigners who own
real pi-opertv are amenable to the Ottoman civil courts in ques-
tions relative to their landed property. Case- between foreign
and Turkish subjects are tried in the Ottoman courts, a drago-
man of the foreign consulate being present to see that the trial
be according to the law : the carrying out of the sentence, if
against the foreigner, to be through his consulate. Cases between
two foreign subjects of different nationalities are tried in the
court of the defendant.
Gran'! Vizier. — General Djevad Pasha, appointed SeptendnT.
1891.
She'ik-ul- Islam. — Djomalledin Effendi, appointed September,
1891.
Mnasttr <>/ Interior. — Kifaat Pasha, {September, 1891.
Minister of War. — General Riza Pasha, {September, 1891.
Minister fo-r Foreign Affairs. — Said Pasha.
Mmutm of Finance. — Naxif Effendi. March 15, 1891.
Area and Population.
The total area of the Ottoman Empire (including States
nominally subject) may be estimated at 1,609,240 square miles,
and its total population at about 39,212,000, viz. : —
Square Miles Population
Immediate ]>ossessions : —
Europe 61,200 4,780,000
Asia 687,640 21,608,000
Africa ... . 398,738 1,300,000
1,147,578 27,688,000
Bulgaria (including Eastern Rouiuelia) au-
tonomous province 37,860 3.154,375
Bosnia, Herzegovina. and Novibaxar —
under Austria-Hungary . 23,570 1.504,091
Sunos— tributary principality . . . 232 48,500
Egypt • - . 400,000 6,817,265
461,662 11,524,131
Total
1,609,240 39,212,131
In the following table the subdivision by Vilayets is given
1014
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
for the immediate possessions according to the census begun in
1885, but still incomplete for those marked with an asterisk.
Vilayets
Area
Sq. Miles
Population
(Census)
Pop.
per Sq.
MUe
Europe : —
Constantinople (European and
Asiatic) .
5,867*
895,470
1;"):;
Adiianople ....
15,015
836,044
56
Salonica .....
13,684
990,400
72
Monastir .....
7,643
664,379
87
Servia (Mutessarifat)
2,895
100,000
34
Kossova .....
9,264
588,282
63
Scutari (Albania)
4,516
202,819
45
Janina .....
7,025
509,151
72
Total (Europe) .
Asia : —
65,909
4,786,545
73
Asia Minor : —
Ismid (Mutessarifat) .
4,296
246,824
57
*Broussa .....
26,248
1,300,000
49
Bigha (Mutessarifat) .
2,895
129,047
44
Archipelago ....
4,963
325,866
66
*Crete
2,949
294,192
96
Smyrna .....
17,370
1,390,783
80
*Castamouni ....
19,300
1,009,460
52
Anghora .....
32,339
892,901
27
Konia .....
35,373
1,088,100
:il
Adana .....
14,494
402,439
28
*Siwas .....
32,308
996,120
31
Trebizond. . . . .
12,082
1,047,700
87
Total (Asia Minor)
Armenia and Khuiumstan : —
204,618
9,123,432
44
Erzcrouni .....
29,614
(i 15,702
22
Miiinoiirct-ul-Aziz
14,614
575,314
39
Diarbekir .....
18,074
471,462
26
*Bitlis
11,522
388,625
.",1
•Van
15,440
376/297
24
Total (Armenia) .
M KSOI-OTAMIA : —
89,264
2,457,400
27
Mossul
29,220
300,280 !
10
Bagdad
54,503
850,000
15
*Bassora .....
16,482
200,000
12
Tot.ll 1 Mcs(i|Mit;l|]ii:ii .
ioo.-jo;.
1,350.280 ;
i:;
i or iiiis arm, *,709 square milea are on tip- Asiatic side "f the Bosporus.
ARKA AM) POPULATION
1015
Vil.
Area
Population
(Cat
Pop.
Mile
Stria : —
Aleppo .....
*Zor
•Syria
•Beyrouth .....
Jbtuaatam < Mutessarifal | .
noil (privileged Provin
.304
-100
J 1.009
11,77:;
994.604
100,000
60;
400.000
■000
:;
34
41
111
Total (Syria)
11 ."..14!
2,6J
Ababj y
Hedjai (approximate)
Yemen .. . .
!'o..'.0U
77.200
■1. .".00,000
Total (Arabia)
173,700
6,000,000'
31
Total (Asia) .
682,981
11,6U
Africa
Tripoli (approximate) . /
Benghazi |
; a
7.00,000
1
I "
Totiil (Africa)
398,738
1,300,000
Total (Turkish Kinpii-e).
1,147
27,694,600
2t
1 Bsthnstea of USe yoputetion of Arabia cHfferwMely; In the ■ BevSlkertnig derBrde'
it is put and tin- entire population nf Asiatic Turkey at io.-w.ihn..
Accurate ethnological statistics of the population do not exist. In the
Euro|>ean provinces under immediate Turkish rule. Turks tot Finno-Tatarie
Greeks, ami Albanians ate almost equally numerous, ami constitute 70
percent of the ]>opulation. Otlier races represented are Serbs, Bulgarians,
Roumanians. Armenians, Magyars. Gipsies, -Tews. Circassians. In Asiatic
Turkey there is a large Turkish element, with some tour million Arabs, I
Greeks, Syrians. Kurds, Circassians, Armenians. Jews, ami numerons other
races. The following are the returns tor Constantinople, arranged in order of
religious 1 .(diet's, viz. : —
Mussulmans, 384,910 ; Greeks, 152,741 ; Armenians. 119,7.90; Bulgarians,
1.377 : Roman Catholics (native). 8,442; Greek Latins, 1,082; Proto
■native), 819 : Jews. 14,361 ; Foreigners, 129,243) Total !
The estimated |>opuIations of the other largest towns are as follows
Adrianople, 100,000; Salonica, 60.000 : Monastir. 45,000; Scutari, 30,000:
Janina, 20,000 ; Smyrna, 200,000: Damascus, 200,000; Bagdad, 1>0,000:
Aleppo, 120.000: Erzcnnrm, 60.000: Kaisarich, 60.000: Mossul, t"..000 :
"J: Sivas, 18,000; Mecca, 15; : Trebiaond, 47..O00 ; Adana,
15,000 ; Diarbekir, 40,000 : Brouasa, 35,700 ; Anghora, 30.000 : Van. 30,000 ;
1016 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
Jedda, 30,000 ; Jerusalem, 28,000: Konieh, 25,000; Chios, 25,000; Bitlis,
25,000 ; Canea, 15,000 ; Tripoli, 30,000.
The Lebanon is governed by a Mutessarif (Christian), and has a special
government. Its population is reckoned at 245,000 or about 111 per square
mile.
Religion and Education.
The adherents of the two great religious creeds of the Turkish
dominions in Europe and Asia, as reduced in its limits by the
treaty of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878, are estimated to consist of
sixteen millions of Mahometans, and of five millions of Christians.
The Mahometans form the vast majority in Asia, but only one-
half of the population in Europe. In the Arabian and African
Provinces the Mahometans are estimated at about seven millions.
Recognised by the Turkish Government are the adherents of
seven non-Mahometan creeds — namely : 1 . Latins, Franks, or
Catholics, who use the Roman Liturgy, consisting of the descend-
ants of the Genoese and Venetian settlers in the empire, and
proselytes among Armenians ; Bulgarians, and others ; 2. Greeks ;
3. Armenians ; 4. Syrians and United Chaldeans ; 5. Maronites,
under a Patriarch at Kanobin in Mount Lebanon ; 6. Protestants,
consisting of converts chiefly among the Armenians ; 7. Jews.
These seven religious denominations are invested with the privi-
lege of possessing their own ecclesiastical rule. The Bishops and
Patriarchs of the Greeks and Armenians, and the ' Chacham-
Baschi,' or high-rabbi of the Jews, possess, in consequence of those
functions, considerable influence.
The Mahometan clergy are subordinates to theSheik-ul-Islam.
Their offices are hereditary, and they can only be removed l>y
Imperial irade. A priesthood, however, in the strict sense of the
word, meaning a separate class, to whom alone the right of officiat-
ing in religious services belongs, cannot be said to exist in Turkey.
Not only may officers of the State be called upon to perforin
the rites, but any member of the congregation, who has the
requisite voice and is of reputable character, may be desired to
take the place of the Imam, and either recite verses of the Koran
or lead in prayer. Owing to the fact that the Koran constitutes
1 lie code of law and charter of rights, as well as the religious
guide, of the followers of Mahomet, there is a close connection
between the ministers of religion and the professors and inter-
preters of the law.
There is an annual pilgrimage to Mecca from all parts of the
Mahometan world ; in 1890-91, 21,184 arrived from the Turco-
l'ersian frontier and 61,172 by sea. against 31. 170 and 69,622 on
the previous year.
RELIGION* AN*D EDUCATION — FINA\« I 1017
The Koran and Multeka encourage public education, and, as
a consequence, public schools have been long established in most
considerable Turkish towns ; while ' medresses.' or colleges, with
public libraries, are attached to the greater numl>er of the prin-
cipal mosques. But the instruction afforded by these establish-
ment^ i> rather limited.
Tin- number of mosques in the Turkish Empire is 2,120, "t which 379
in Constantinople. The number of the clergy a 11,800. Connected with tin-
aaaaauea are 1,780 elementary sehoess, vhm education h supplied gratia Tlie
private reveaue ef the Evkaf (chaveh), previous to the war of 187s.
30,200,000 piastres i •-£."> 1,000/.) per annum, l.ut they have now beea re<lu
20,000,000 piastres 166,000*.). The expeneee are reckoned at 15,000,000
piastres I 1 •_'.'., 000/. ». The stipend of the sheik-nl-Islam 7, 0:51, .".20 pii
(59,000/. ), an.l tbos.- of the Nafta and Mufti- 7.s7r;..;t.; piastres (60,0002.), an-
l>ai«l by the State. The principal revenues, of the Evkaf arc derived from the
sdc of Leaded property which haa beea baaaeatbed it. aad which is known
ander the aame of vaconf. Three-fourths of the arbaa property of the
Empire is supposed to belong to the Vaeonf. Purchasers of property of tlii>
daauiptien pay a nominal annual rant to the Evkaf: bat should they die
without direct heirs the avoperty raverta M tin- Church. The amount paid
dfereet by the State to the Evkaf in 1889 (tin- last regular budget) was 6.910,210
piastres (57,000/.). The budget for the name year shows the following amount-
sa paid by the State for religious purposes :— Toward the expenses of pilgrim-
sge to Mecca sad presents, 18,139,529 piastres (109,000/.): for the public
reading of the Koran, 12,747.:)!'.'. piastres (106,000/.): subvention to Tekee
Unonasteiiesi. 1*78,260 piastres (6,8002.).
Finance.
An official report from the British Embassy, dated September
L883, estimates the gro» revenue at 13.686,000/.. and expendi-
ture 14,089,000/. An estimate for — M gave the receipts
at iTl 6.31 3,006, and expenditure £T16,223,016, including
£T4, 187,005, aa ■ balance available for the State creditors.
For 1889 the Budget Committee returned the following figures
for the financial year from March 1888 to March 1889: —
Revenue £T18,500,000 ; expenditure £T21 ,400,000 • deficit
£T2,900,000, The deficit for 1889-90, estimated at iTl.Tno.unti.
was met by reducing the expenses of tlie War Department to
£T5,500,000, the Ordnance Department to £T800,000, tic
the Navy to £T600,000, by a reduction of 5 per cent, on the
Budgets of other Ministers, and by the conversion of the
Priority and other debts into 4 per cents. The Budget for
1890-91 has not yet (.January. 1892) Wen estimated. (For
details Bee Ykak-book, 1886, p. 505.)
According to an international arrangement of 1881, the debt
was reduced to 106,437,234/. The Government agreed to hand
over to an international commi»ion the excise revenues el
10i8 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
Turkey, to be administered by them entirely separate from the
other Government administrations. The decree provided for a
reduction of the capital and capitalisation of arrears of the Otto-
man loans therein enumerated, and authorised a conversion of
the debt by the Council of Administration in accord with the
Government. The Council consists of six members, representing
England, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, and the Priority
Obligations of the Galata bankers, the English representative
acting for the Dutch and Belgian bondholders. The decree pro-
vides for the application of the produce of the conceded revenues,
on the 13th of March and 13th of September of each year, to
payment of interest and amortisation of the debt, subject to the
preferential deduction for 22 years of i>T590,000 for interest and
redemption of the 5 per cent. Privileged Obligations (Priority
Bonds) (see Year-book for 1888).
The following table gives the year of issue, nominal capital,
the interest per cent., and the issue price, of the foreign loans of
Turkey :—
Year of
Nominal
Inter-
Issue
Year of
Nominal
Inter- Issue
Issue
capital
est
price
Issue
capital
ist price
£
Pr. cent.
IV. cent.
'.
IV. cent. Pr. cent.
1 S.">4
3,000,000
6
85
1870-72
81,680,000
a 46
1855
5,000,000
4
102J
1.S71
6,700,000
(i 7:;
1858
5,000,000
0
85
18fe
11,186,200
9 98i
1800
2,037,220
0
62J
1873
27,777. 780
6
1862
& 000,000
(i
68
1805-74
87,924,640
50
is,;::
6,000,000
6
72
1877
5,000,000
52
L864
186S
2,000,000
5,773,680
0
0
72
(Hi
1869
22,177,220
8
00J
Tnlal .
228,Kh;.7Io
Of the above, those of 1854, 1871, and 1877 (Defence Loan)
were secured on the Egyptian Tribute, payable to Turkey ; that
of 1855 was guaranteed by Prance and Kngland.
Since September 1882 interest lias been pttid at the rate of I per cent, per
annum on the reiueed bapital value. Both interest and amortisation will
increase when the Powers determine tlie amount payable by Montenegro.
Servia, ami Greece, in accordance with the Treaty of Kerlin.
The net amount df the revenues collected is as follows ; —
. £1,7S0, I'Jl 1SS7SS. . . . t'l. licit, ,ss<i
l.;iii,!»79 1888-80 .... U732.51Q
. I,7;t1,«:;s 1 ss;» OO . . . . 1,860,033
. l,702,0;-:x is'.io 01 . . . . 1,808,294
. 1,604,277
The jjtoss : 1 1 1 1 < ' I n 1 1 6f the revenues assigned For the service of the debt,
which were collected during the years 1889 -90 and 1800-01, was as follov
1 882
83
I 883
SI
L88d
85
86
188H
8;
FIN .\
1019
—
1890-91
! 1889-90 1890-91 j
. 1
Salt monopoly .
Stamp does 169,139
::S.M1
Silktith.s.
Tobacco nioiiop<ily . 081,818
£206,050
• .••.-■■1
43,006
681,818
Contrihutions.Cvi • 93,388- 93,968
Do. K.i-
Koum-lia 188,306 138,205
Tninlieki (Persian)
Tobacco
Arrears 4,83-
Tobaceu Tithe 71,036 81,916
■.
A consolidation of the various loans (excepting the Railway Bonds,
14,211,407/.) lias l>een carried on under a twofold form — first, that of registra-
tion : second, that of eonversiou. By the fonner, which was preliminary to
conversion, bonds proportionate to the reduction of the capital of each loan
were withdrawn, and the remainder returned with a new coupon-sheet attached
thereto : by the latter, the bonds were exchanged at their reduced value
against the new Converted Bonds. The various loans are consolidated in four
8 rha A, 7,183,872/., representing loans of 1858 and 1862 :
Series B, 10,241,048/., representing loans of 1860, 1863, and
30,832,511/., representing loans of 1865, 1869, and 1873 ; Series D, 43,968,396/.,
representing the General Debt. The Conversion commenced on November 20,
1884, and was closed on May 13, 1888. The amounts converted stand as
follows (Sept. 1891) :—
-
Bonds converted , Redeemed Circulating
Series A.
„ B. . . .
„ C. . . .
„ D. .
Registered — to convert .
Bonds not pieseuted fori
conversion and can- -
celled, May, 1888. J
5,909,180 -.620 2.136,560
10,042,920 100 9,867
30,542.760 219,000 30,323,760
43.641,420 220,500 43.420.920
.'20 — .'20
£90,159,200
859,880
4,387,220 1.980
£91.019.080
For the details of the arrangement, see YlAK-BoOK for 1888.
In virtue of an Irade dated May 29. 1886, the Government eoiuptiuuded its
debt towards the Imperial Ottoman Bank for stock of £T4,500,000, which
along with stock for £T2, 000,000 required for State purposes, is now -
The stock was identical in type with the Priority Bonds, bearing interest at 5
percent per annum, and had a progressive sinking fund of 1 per cent, per
annum, to be applied by purchase in the open market.
An annuity of £T390,000, to result from the customs of the \'ila\.
Adrianople, Salonica, Brouasa, Aidin, and Syria, is affected to this purpose.
The Government assigns its participation in the profits of the tobacco monopoly
towards an increase of the Redemption Fund. The sum ot ' £T 1,000, 00*
also obtained in 1SSS from Baron Hirsch in exchange for certain railwav
1020
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
privileges, and a further sum of £T1, 188,000 in 1889 as an award for claims on
the railway.
In 1890 a conversion of the 5 per cent. Priority Loan was effected by the
issue of 7,827,260/. privileged 4 pet cents.
A further conversion was also made of the Dahlies and the Sehim Annuities
by the issue of 4,545,000/. Consolidation 4 per cent. Bonds, and in 1891 the
1877 Defence Loan was converted into 6,316,920/. Bonds bearing interest of 4
per cent, and guaranteed by the Egyptian Tribute.
The following is the position of the Ottoman Debt (Sept. 1891) :—
Year
-
Interest
Capital
1854
1855
1871
1881
1881
1886
1889
1890
1891
Egyptian Tribute .
•Guaranteed ....
Egyptian Tribute .
Converted ....
S. Railway . * .
Douane .....
Anatolian Railway .
Privileged ....
Egyptian Tribute .
Total ....
Per cent.
6
4
6
4
5
4
£4
£
1,605,740
3,815,200'
5,378,700
85,771,980
13,605,000
4,238,500
1,421,160
7,748,240
6,316,920
—
129,901,440
1 Inclusive of £2,125,000 drawn but not paid off.
There is in addition the war indemnity to Russia of 32,000,000/., which by
negotiation it has been agreed to pay at the rate of 320,000/. per annum with-
out interest. The revenues of the Province of Konia have been assigned as
guarantee for this annual payment, but in January 1890 the Ottoman Govern-
ment was £T686,734 in arrears in meeting its engagements.
The internal debt now consists of £T7, 500,000 ' Tasfie Bonds,' bearing no
interest, but received by the Government for arrears in taxes, fce., up to the
year 1882 ; ATI, 140,000 owing to savings banks, £T500,000 advanced bv the
Pension Fund Department, £Tl30,000 by the agricultural banks, A.T838,000
in bonds, £T500,000 through old forced loans. Interest on these advances i>
verv irregularly paid.
Defence.
I. Fkontikks.
Turkey occupies the South-Eastern corner of Burope and the
Westcin portion <>t' Asia.
The boundaries of Turkey have been considerably modified
of late years. European Turkey has lor frontier stales in the
north, Montenegro, Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria, ami ISastern
Ivouinelia. The frontiers are mountainous towards the east, but
at many points passage is easy.
The western frontier of European Turkey is formed by (lie
Adriatic and the Ionian Seas. Its southern limits are formed by
DEFENCE 1021
Thessaly. the -Egean Sou. the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora.
ami the Bosphorus. the shores of which are strongly fortified.
Asiatic Turkey has for its northern boundary the Black Sea.
the Bosphorus, the Bee of Marmora, and the Dardanelles.
The boundaries to the vest are the Archipelago, the Medi-
terranean, Arabia Petrea. and the Red Sea. Its limits to the
south are Central Arabia and the Persian QuH, those to the east
Persia and Trans-Caucasia (Russia), the chief stronghold near the
Rnnrrinn frontier being Eneroum.
II. Army.
According to the existing system, the army consists of the
Nizam or regular army, two lians of Kedif or 1-indwehr. and
the Mustahfiz or ]«mdsturm. Non-Mahometans are not liable
to military service, but have to pay an exemption tax, aboflt fix
shillings per head per annum, levied alike on males of all age-.
Military service is compulsory on all able-bodied Mahometans
who have reached the age of 20. By the recruiting law of
military service is rendered obligatory for all the Mussulman
population of the empire, excepting only Constantinople and its
suburbs, which still retains its privilege of exemption from
military service.
The conscripts are divided into two classes : —
1. Those who can claim no reason for exemption.
3. Those who are infirm, sole supports of families, or who are
exempt for various special reasons.
The 1st class is again divided into two classes, called 1st and
2nd levies (Tertib).
As many men as are required to till the ranks of the standing
army are taken for the 1st levy, and go through twenty years'
service, six with the Nizam and first reserve (Ikhtiyats), eight
years in the Redif. and six in the Mustahtiz or I^andsturm.
The men of the 2nd levy have to undergo six to nine months'
drill with a Nizam battalion in the first year of their service,
and thirty days' drill at their homes in every subsequent year.
They are also liable on emergency to be called to join the Nizam.
Thus all the able-bodied Mahometan {population will receive a
fair amount of military training, and it is expected that when
the system is in working order the Ottoman Government will be
able to put at least 800,000 trained men into the field.
The Empire is divided into seven military districts or riivumscri}itions,
the head -quarters of which are situated respectively at — 1. Constantinople ; 2.
Adrianople ; 3 Monastir : 4. Erzingian : '». Damascus : fi. Baghdad : 7. Sanaa
(the Yemen V
1022 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
Each of the first six circumscriptions furnishes a corps d'armee to the Nizam,
and one each to the first and second ban of the Redif ; the seventh circum-
scription furnishes no Redif; and the Nizam corps is principally recruited from
the other circumscriptions.
The artillery force was newly divided in 1886-87 by the addition of a
second regiment to each of the first six corps d'armee. Each of the first six
r.orps d'armee comprises 2 divisions of infantry of 2 brigades of 2 regiments, 2
battalions of chasseurs, 3 brigades of cavalry of 2 regiments each, 2 regiments
of artillery, and should, when complete, also contain 1 battalion of pioneers, 1
battalion infantry train, 3 companies artillery train, I telegraph company, and
1 sanitary section ; but these latter are as yet only partially formed. * Each
infantry regiment has 4 battalions of a war strength of 830 officers and men,
but in time of peace containing from 300 to 500 men. The infantry will
shortly be armed with the Mauer repeating rifle, 250,000 of which have
already been procured. Each artillery regiment has a strength of 12 field
batteries, and 2 or more mountain batteries (6 guns to a battery).
The seventh army corps (Yemen) has the same infantry organisation as the
other corps, but has no cavalry, and only 3 batteries field and 3 batteries
mountain artillery.
In addition to the above, which are all under the Ministry of War, the
Ordnance Department (Tophane) has under its orders 12 batteries field, 2
mountain batteries, and 8 battalions of garrison artillery, besides 13 companies
of engineers.
There is also a local force in the island of Crete composed of 2 regiments of
infantry of 3 battalions each, and a battalion of garrison artillery.
There is also a local division in Tripoli composed of 17 battalions infantry.
10 scpiadrons of cavalry, and 3 batteries of field artillery.
The above form the permanent army, and comprise 264 battalions of
infantry, 189 squadrons of cavalry, 104 batteries field artillery, 3(5 batteries
mountain and 29 battalions garrison artillery, 4 battalions infantry train, 1 I
battalions of artificers, 3 battalions fire brigade, 22 companies of engineers, 2
sanitary companies, and 1 telegraph company, with a total numerical force of
9,810 officers and 149,000 men.
III. Navy.
The fleet of war of Turkey has in recent years been consult t-
ahly reduced by the sale of some of its best ships to England.
At the end of the year 1891 it consisted of 15 large armour-clad
ships, a river monitor, 2 river gun-boats, 27 torpedo gun-boats,
30 sea-going torpedo-boats, 2 Nordenfeldt submarine boats. 1
torpedo school-ship, 2 frigates. 1 spar deck corvette, 1 corvette.
11 despatch gun-vessels, (i gun-boats, 17 despatch-vessels ami
yachts, (i despatch-boats, 5 river-transports, besides coal-ships,
wooden tugs, &C. Man)- of tbein are of wood and of old make.
There are building 1 ironclad, .'! torpedo-cruisers, 1 guu-\cssel,
and 1 corvette. The 15 large armour-clad ships comprise 7 sea-
going frigates and 8 Corvettes for coast defer^Ce. The follow-
ing is a tabulated list of the principal armour-clad ships (all
iron) of the Turkish navy in existence at the end of 1891 : —
PEFEX< F.
Name of Ironola«l
i-Tefvik .
•Shefket
Idjlal-Lieh
Nedjimi-Shefket
if Sl, ,/,
Avni-Illali
Fethi-Bonlend .
Hamidieli .
idiye.
Muin-i-Zafler
Ifoukadem-i-Hftir
■ ipx: —
h .
Malunoudieh
Orkanieh
Osmanieh .
Monitor : —
Hatiz- Rahman .
1869
1870
187-1
1869
1872
_= 5
l~
12
6
1884 ■'■!
1864
l ><;:
t t
I i
' i
i
i
110
12
I
[1
I'i
il
lu
( i
2
1!
1
1
2
i l
1 3.100 4,680
4-t->ii I
I
12-touj M
3£) ^°
I 3"3
I I :'.
12-t..n
12-ton
4.200
2,380
2,760
6,820
3.000
12-ton) 450Q
4-ton I
18-ton
12-t«n
12-ton
12-ton .
7-t"ii |
J -ton I
HA-ton^l
9-ton ]
7-t>'ii I
12-toui
12 2
140
13 0
12-:.
■-..100 12 0
tj.400 12 0
4 -ton J
12-0
1 2-ton ^k
9-ton I
7-ton f
4-ton I
-;.400 12 0
Mon 800 2,500 12 0
The largest armonr clad ships of the Turkish navy are the two frigates, the
ind the JJamidirh. These two frigates wen- built on somewhat
similar designs, but the Hamvlick is the smaller. The
long, with extreme breadth of 59 feet. She is constructed on the central
principle, and has on the main deck a 12-gnn lattery, 148 feet long,
the armour-plates of which are 12 inches thick at. and 10 inches thick above,
the water-line. The lx>w also is strongly fortified, and fitted with a ram of
great strength, adapted to pierce an opponent below the armour in the most
vulnerable part. Forward, under the forecastle, were two 6^-ton guus, tiring
ahead, and under the poop aft was one gun of the same calibre, but these have
l>een removed for smaller Krupp guns.
1024 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
For the navy of Turkey the crews are raised in the same manner as the
land forces, partly by conscription, and partly by voluntary enlistment. The
time of service in the navy is twelve years, five in active service, three in the
reserve, and four in the Redif. The nominal strength of the navy is 6 vice-
admirals, 1 1 rear-admirals, 208 captains, 289 vice-captains, 228 lieutenants,
187 ensigns, and 30,000 sailors, besides 9,460 marines. In 1889 90 the cost
of maintenance of the navy was put at 60,000,000 piastres.
Production and Industry.
Land in Turkey is held under four different forms of tenure —
namely, 1st, as ' MM,' or Crown lands ; 2nd, as ' Vacouf,' or pious
foundations ; 3rd, as ' Mulikaneh,' or Crown grants ; and 4th, as
' Miilk,' or freehold property. The first description, the ' m\ri,' or
Crown lands, which form the largest portion of the territory of the
Sultan, are held direct from the Crown. The Government grunts
the right to cultivate an unoccupied tract on the payment of cer-
tain fees, but continues to exercise the rights of seigniory over the
land in question, as is implied in the condition that if the owner
neglects to cultivate it for a period of three years it is forfeited to
the Crown. The second form of tenure, the 'vacouf,' was insti-
tuted originally to provide for the religion of the State and the
education of the people, by the erection of mosques and schools ;
but this object has been set aside, or neglected, for several
generations, and the ' vacouf ' lands have mostly been seized by
Government officials. The third class of landed property, the
' mulikaneh,' was granted to the spahis, the old feudal troops, in
recompense for the military service required of them, and is here-
ditary, and exempt from tithes. The fourth form of tenure, the
'miilk,' or freehold property, does not exist to a great extent.
Some bouse property in the towns, and of the land in the neigh-
bourhood of villages, is ' miilk,' which the peasants purchase from
time to time from the Government.
Only a small proportion of arable land is under cultivation,
owing principally to the want of roads and means of conveyance.
which preclude the possibility of remunerative exportation.
The system of levying a tithe on all produce leaves no induce-
ment to the farmer to grow more than is required for his own
use, or in his immediate proximity. The agricultural develop-
ment of the country is further crippled by custom dues For the
exportation of produce from one province to another.
The system of agriculture is most primitive. The toil tor the raosl pari is
very fertile : the principal products are tobacco, cereals of all kinds, cotton, figs,
nuts, almonds, grapes, olives, all varieties of fruits. Coffee, madder, opium,
gums ;ire largely exported. It is estimated that 1 1 million acres of the Empire
in Europe and Asia are under cultivation.
i omra 1025
Since the ravages produced by the phylloxera in France, Turkish wines
have been largely exported to that country ; 20,308,521 litres in 1887-88, at
an average cost of 31 francs the hectolitre.
The forest laws of the empire are based on those of France, but restrictive
regulations are not enforced, and the country is being rapidly deprived of its
timber. About 21 million acres are under forest, of which 3$ million acres are
in European Turkey.
The culture of silkworms, although still important, has fallen off con-
siderably, owing to disease among the worms. The value of cocoons pro-
duced in 1887-88 was 356,450/., and of raw silk 764,450/. Most of the silk
produced is exported, but some is used in the manufacturing of native dress
material.
The mining laws of the empire are restrictive, though the country is rich
in minerals, coal, copper, lead, silver, iron, bitumen, sulphur, salt, alum ; coal
especially is abundant, but hardly worked.
The fisheries of Turkey are important ; the fisheries of the Bosphorus alone
represent a value of upwards of 250,000/. The coast of the Mediterranean pro-
duces excellent sponges.
There is a good deal of brass-turning and beating of copper into utensils
for household purposes. Concessions have also been granted for glass manu-
factories, paper mills, and textile looms. Carpets, which constitute a consider-
able article of export tabout 150,000/.), are made on hand-looms, and so also
are a number of light materials for dress.
Commerce.
All articles of import into Turkey are taxed 8 per cent, ad
valorem, except tobacco and salt, which are monopolies ; there
is also an export duty of 1 per cent, on native produce if sent
abroad, but of 8 per cent, if sent from one part of the empire to
another.
Turkey is (September 1891) negotiating a new treaty of
commerce with Great Britain and some of the other Powers, and
it proposes removing the export custom duty of 1 per cent., and
building Bonded Warehouses in some of the principal seaport
towns of the empire.
Articles destined for schools, churches, embassies, consulate.-.
as well as agricultural machines and the plant for railways, are
free of duty.
The following table gives (100 piastres = <£T1), according to
the Turkish Custom House, the value of the trade of Turkey in
1888-89 and 1889-90 (March 13 to March 12) according to
countries : —
3 U
1026
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
Country
Importation
Exportation
1888-89
1889-90
1SS8-89
18S9-90
Piastres
Piastres
Piastres
Piastivs
Great Britain
797,646,824
914,513,943
500,348,993
583,392,001
Austria .
345,523,796
409,144,341
115,463,565
135,432,106
France .
252,052,425
254,368,642
426,472,890
426,951,003
Russia .
204,816,172
173,321,811
29,416,109
32,413,774
Italy .
46,837,888
42,438,053
38,959,888
68,974,556
Bulgaria
96,576,772
112,419,709
31,598,253
38,118,994
Persia .
55,487,899
53,000,764
1,264,828
1,131,444
Greece .
31,835,714
29,435,314
46,419,324
53,115,112
Belgium .
38,817,782
41,574,426
476,554
1,671,777
Roumania
47,313,683
39,451,054
19,618,001
24,619,330
United States
8,180,973
6,028,126
15,609,331
15,735,892
Tunis .
3,306,110
2,608,844
143,001
298,044
Servia .
5,789,180
6,438,071
3,124,442
3,532,669
Holland
2,425,028
9,349,169
36,986,333
25,030,665
Germany
2,994,194
2,648,945
1,410,219
5,358,223
Egypt .
2,034,424
1,896,753
85,108,580
98,776,827
Sweden .
2,924,278
4,584,044
—
—
Montenegro .
1,036,189
829,371
529,410
552,717
Sarnos .
34,547
71,362
319,047
597,954
Denmark
5,889
29,569
592,333
190,779
Spain .
25.597
—
792,888
1,349,111
1,945,665,364
2,104,152,311
1,354,653,989
1,517,242,978
Of the Turkish export trade, 38 per cent., and of the import trade, 13 per
cent., is with Great Britain.
Tobacco exported abroad is not included in this table ;■ the Director 6f tin
General Debt states that the quantity exported in 1884-85 amounted to
8,913,088 kilos. ; in 1885-86 to 11,521,126 kilos. ; in 1886-87, 11,688,052
kilos. ; in 1887-88, 10,373,217 kilos. ; in 1889-90, 10,454,427 kilos.
The principal exports and imports for 1889-90 are as follows : —
Exports, 1889-90
Imports, 1889-90
Piastivs
Piastres
Raisins .
147,274,497
Sugar
153,785,655
Mohair
66,880,777
Cotton — thread
117,111,525
Opium
62,938,572
,, prints
119,284,288
Raw silk
97,632,138
Calico
68,334.1 10
( iocoons
55,266,001
Linen stuns
LB,1 10,978
Wheat
186,845,572
Woollen ..
54,674, 120
Make
lii,:!()S.li>:.
( 'oiton and linen stufls
28,849,1 l i
( 'niton
50,081,039
Sheeting.
68,334,140
Valonia
51,184,191
Cashmere
27,174,252
Wool
56,508,277
Cloth
37,588,487
Coflee
64,070,750
Dress material
54,674,420
Skins
40,037,620
Coffee
84,249,778
COMMERCE
102
Export*, 1S89-90
Imports, 18S9-90
Piastres
Piastres
.
-J. 702
Flour .
I 43,845,052
.
"),512
a .
1 83,301,044
Oranges ami leuions.
10,921,150
Live animals .
12.412,905
Dates
16,717
Petroleum
I 59,797,681
Fresh and dried fruit
11,68
Leather .
15,084,416
Wines .
9,784,255
Bar iron .
84,713
Chemicals
;;,839
Carpets .
17,316,582
Sesame .
'1,097
Skins
10.331,381
1 .
13,993,514
Chemicals
Olive oil .
68,014,986
i ware
21.(575,995
- .in 1 lentils
■s:. 210,981
Butter .
21.329,019
Carpets .
22. 227, 110
Coal
21,761
.
Class
4,392,417
Minerals .
29,077,555
Timber .
1 20,5V 7
Is
11.211,558
Maize
-.054
Confectionery .
683,878
•Spirit-.
16,261.472
Gum tragacanth
1,183,650
■
S869
Butter .
9,53<
' torn
14,3:;
Corn
.■.1.201.7'.'."'
Beady-made clothes .
7,262
Oats
13,018,449
Indigo blue
14,23
Call nuts
11.270.222
Sheep and goats
'>,376
Iron tools
11,549,850 :
Bar iron .
33. 170,906
Confectionery .
1,515,877 :
Raw silk .
13,960,266
Silken goods .
16,306,303 j
The value of the commercial intercourse between the whole of the Turkish
Empire, in Europe and Asia, and 6mat Britain during the live years from
1886 to 1890, according to the Board of Trade Returns, is shown in the follow-
ins table : —
M87
1890
£ I £ £
Exports from Turkey 1,154, 720 3,736,987 4,242,075 5,265,373 4,816,883
Imports of British produce 5,904,531 5.634,341 5,073,662 6,160,534 6,772,061
Among the articles of export of the Turkish Empire to the United Kingdom
are corn, in 1880, 171,422/. ; in 1884, 1.474,042/. : in 1885, 960,401/. ; in
1887, 132,053/. : in 1889, 1.035,695/. : in 1S90. 1.161,961/. : wool and <roats'
hair. 1,326,148/. in 1886 : 955,8781. in 1887 : 931,2102. in 1S88; 1,116,985/.
in 1889 : 7:15,169/. in 1S90 ; valonia dhc staff), 389,5412. in 1886 : 358,2452.
in 1887; 104,246/. in 1888; 429,8692. in 1889; 444,1192 in 1*90: opium
622. in 1866 : 252,3992. in 1887 ; 342,5522. in 188f '. in 1889 ;
227,3962. in 1890; fruit, chiefly raisins ami figs, 651,5592. in 1886 ; 851,0472.
: 771,3532. in 1S88 : S44,506Z. in 1889 ; 799,939/. in 1890.
The most important article imiiorted from Great Britain is manufactured
cotton. The imports of cotton goeds in 1890 amounted to 3,938,6132. : cotton
yarn. 1,123,6692. : woollens, 406,S562. : iron, wrought and onwroaght,
3 v 2
1028
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES
205,0372. ; copper, wrought and un wrought, 89,612Z. ; coals, 302,9522. ;
machinery, 135,6622.
In 1890 the imports into Tripoli were valued at 250,0002. (from Great
Britain, 92,0002.), and exports 387,5002. (to Great Britain, 233,0002.).
Smyrna, imports 3,030,5592. (1,005,8612. British), exports 3,708,1492.
(1,723,3462. to Great Britain) ; Aleppo, imports 1,716,3522. (954,4002. British),
exports 696,0452. (45,7952. to Great Britain).
Shipping and Navigation.
The mercantile navy of the Turkish Empire, according to Lloyd's Register,
in 1891 consisted of 101 steamers (each of 100 tons or upwards) of 72,207 gross
tons, and 846 sailing vessels of 166,774 tons. In 1890-91 (March to February)
the Ottoman ports of the Mediterranean and Black Sea were visited by 179,317
vessels of 30,509,861 tons, those of the Red Sea by 4,786 vessels of 511,192
tons, and those of the Persian Gulf by 1,262 vessels of 199,485 tons. Constan-
tinople alone was visited by 34,793 vessels of 10,529,813 tons, of which 5,S74
vessels of 6,377,695 tons were English. Arranged according to order of flag,
the tonnage of vessels which visited the Mediterranean ports and those of the
Black Sea were as follows : — English, 11,245,855 ; Ottoman, 5,444,778 ;
Austro-Hungarian, 3,539,179 ; French, 2,464,066 ; Greek, 2,462,225 ; Russian,
2,002,485; Italian, 1,227,464; Egyptian, 672,587; Swedish, 581,644; Ger-
man, 398,720 ; sundries, 470,858.
In 1890-91 (March 1 to February 28) 14,455 vessels of 9,998,127 tons
entered the Dardanelles.
In 1890, 692 vessels of 235,024 tons (57 of 52,630 tons British) entered the
port of Tripoli.
Internal Communications.
Since the summer of 1888 Turkey has been in direct railway communication
with the rest of Europe. The main lines start from Constantinople and from
Salonica. From this latter port is now the shortest route to Egypt.
Below is a list of the various lines in Europe (including Bulgaria) ami Asia
which were open for traffic in 1891 : —
Length,
Length,
i.iins of Railway
BSnglisli
Lines of Jiiiilwuy
English
MQes
Miles
European 7 V rkey : —
Atiatic Turkey : —
Constantinople to Adrianople
210
Scutari to Biledjik
1 50
Adrianople to Saremby
152
Smyrna to Scvdikeni .
;i
Salonica to Uskub
150
„ ,, Dinah
i^:;i
Uskuh to Mitrovitza .
7.".
,, ,, Odcinish
M
Kulleli to pegeagbatch
70
,, ,, Alashcr
1 05
Tirnova to Janiboli
65
Menrina to Adana
49
Banjalouke to Novi
0 1
1
Zenica to Brod .
Total, European Turkey .
118
Total, Asiatic Turkej
Total, Turkish Empire .
808
1,512
904
There arc 1,150 Turkish post-offices in the Empire (Europe aid Asia).
The Length of talegrapu lines in Turkey m about 15,000 miles. Th
number of telegraph offices amount to 671 in Europe ami Asia.
1029
Money, Weights, and Measures of Turkey.
On May 31, 1891, the situation of the Imperial Ottoman Rank was as
follows : —
Assets
m
Liabilities
i " 1
Capital not paid up
5,500,000
Capital
11,000,000 i
Cash ....
1,1.'
Note issue .
744
Securities .
6,440,284
Bills ....
1.47
Current accounts of\
Imperial treasury J
1,391,850
Current accounts of\
Imperial treasury )
-
Various current ae- |
counts )
6,222. 814
Various current
counts f
6.012.549
Advances .
'..088
Deposits for fixed term
1,197
Property
91,371
Various reserves .
350.730
Various
81,239
Dividends due
Various
Total .
21,638,481
Total .
21,688,481
The money, weights, ami measures of the Turkish Empire, ami the British
equivalents, are : —
KOHZT. £ -i. <).
The Turkish Lira, or gold Med j id i.- . . .0 18 0064
Piastre, 100 to the Lira 0 0 216
,, ,, beshlik-altilik and metallic currency
avcraging 105 to the Lira . . . . 0 0 2 06
iccounta are frequently, as in the official budget estimates, set down in
■ purses ' of 500 Mcdjidie piastres, or 5 Turkish liras. The ' purse ' is calculate.]
as worth M. 10.9. sterling. There exists a large amount of debased silver
currency — which, however, it is stated, is being gradually withdrawn — to
which were added, during the years 1876 to 1S81, 600,000,000 piastres of pa per
money, known as cai'me ; but being refused by the Government, owing to its
depreciation, it became in the end of merely nominal value, and altogether
refused in commercial intercourse. The copper currency was likewise re-
pudiated, owing to its depreciation. The beshlik-altilik and metallic currency
was reduced by decree to half its coined value. The former is now lieing
called in (1889). Foreign silver coins circulate freely in the empire, notwith-
standing the efforts made to prevent it, while silver is in excess of the require-
ments of trade. This depreciation is further accounted for by the fact that the
balance of trade is against Turkey, and by the large amounts of gold which
have to be yearly exported for the payment of the funded debt and the purchase
of warlike ammunition.
The present monetary system of Turkey was established in the reign of the
late Sultan Abdul-Medjid, on which account the name of Medjidie is frequently
given to the Lira, the unit of the system.
Old Weights and Measiti -.
The Ok,; of 400 drams .
,, Almud .
.. Kihh .
= 2*8326 lbs. avoirdupois.
=• 1151 imperial gallon.
= 0*9120 imperial bushel.
1030 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — BULGARIA
44 Okcs = 1 Cantar or Kintal . = 125 lbs. avoirdupois.
39 -44 Okcs =1 cwt.
180 Okcs = 1 Tchckf . . . = 511 "380 pounds.
1 Kileh = 20 Okcs . . . = 0-36 Imperial quarter,
816 Kilchs . . . . . = 100 imperial quarters.
The Andaze (eloth measure). . = 27 inches.
,, Arshin (land measure) . . = 30 inches.
,, Doniim (laud measure) . . = 40 square paces.
The kileh is the chief measure for grain, the lower measures being definite
weights rather than measures. 100 killehs are equal to 12 '128 British imperial
quarters, or 35-266 hectolitres.
In March 1882 Turkish weights and measures were assimilated to the metric
system, hut under the old names, leading to much confusion ; they have not
been generally adopted in practice. Oke = kilogramme, batman = 10 kilo-
grammes,' cantar =100 kilogrammes, tcheki = 1,000 kilogrammes, shinik =
decalitre, kileh = hectolitre (275 bushels), evlek = are, djeril= hectare (2*47
acres), arshin = metre, nul= kilometre, farsang = 10 kilometres.
In 1889 the metric system of weights was made obligatory for cereals ;
metric weights became universally obligatory in January 1892.
TRIBUTARY STATES.
I. BULGARIA.
Ferdinand, Duke of Saxony, youngest son of the late Prince Augustus,
Duke of Saxony, and Princess Clementine of Bourbon -Orleans (daughter of
King Louis Philippe), born Feb. 26, 1861, was elected Prince of Bulgaria by
unanimous vote of the National Assembly, July 7, 1887 ; assumed the govern-
ment August 14, 1887, in succession to Prince Alexander, who abdicated
Sept. 7, 1886. The election of Prince Ferdinand has not yet (January 1892)
been confirmed by the Porte and the Great Powers. On January 13, 1886,
Prince Alexander was appointed Governor of Eastern Roumelia, which was
thus united to Bulgaria, though the union has not yet been recognised by tin
Towers.
It is enacted by the Constitution of 1879 that -the Prince must reside per-
manently in tfte principality. In case of absence he musl appoint a Regent,
who will have his rights ami duties determined by a Special law. The princely
title being hereditary falls on the eldest son. In case the Prince succeeds in
his minority, a Regency will be appointed until his majority.' By amend-
ments to the Constitution adopted by ill'' assembly in 1883 :i Regency is to
consist of three regents, two to he elected by the National Assembly. When
the heir-apparent comes of age the National Assembly is to lix the amount of
the civil list.
Constitution and Government.
The Principality of Bulgaria was created by the Treaty or Berlin, Bigned
July 13, 1878. It was ordered by Art. 1 of the Treaty thai Bulgaria should
lie 'constituted an autonomous ami tributary Principality under the suzerainty
of His Imperial Majesty the Sultan. It will have a Christian Government and
a national militia. ' Ait. :'. ordered; 'The Prince of Bulgaria Bhall be freely
elected by the population and confirmed bj the Sublime Porte, with the con-
sent of the Powers. No member of any of the reigning Houses of the Great
AREA AND POPULATION 1031
European Powers can l»e elected Prince of Bulgaria. In case of a vacancy in
the princely dignity, the election of the new Prince shall take place under the
same renditions and with the same forms.' On January 31, 1886, Bulgaria
and Eastern Roumelia were united under one government.
• rn Roumelia (since its union with Bulgaria also known as Southern
Bulgaria) was created by the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878. I"
to remain under the direct political and military authority of the Sultan, under
conditions of administrative autonomy. It was ordered l>y Art. 17 that ' the
Governor-General of Eastern Roumelia shall 1h> named by the Sublime Porte,
with the assent of the Powers, for a term of live years.' On SeptemKr 17,
1885, the Government was overthrown by a revolution, the Governor de]
it out of the Province, and the union of the latter with Bulgaria pro-
claimed. As the result of the Conference held at Constantinople 1
representatives of the signatory Powers of the Berlin Treaty during the latter
months of 1885, the Sultan, by imperial firman, April 6, 1886, recognised the
following changes in the state of the province : — The government of Eastern
Roumelia to l>e confided to the Prince of Bulgaria. The Mussulman district!
of Kirjali and the Rupchus (Rhodope) to be re-ceded to the Porte. A com-
mission to be named to examine the Organic Statute in order to modify it
in accordance with the requirements of the situation and local needs. The
:s of the Ottoman Treasury to be considered at the same time. The
other stipulations of the Berlin Treaty to remain intact.
In accordance with the above provisions the rectification of the Organic
Statute — chiefly as concerned the questions of the tribute and the customs —
was undertaken by a Turco-Bulgarian commission sitting at Sofia. Its labours
were, however, abruptly brought to a close by the events which overthrew the
Prince on the night of August 20, 1886.
The province has since for all purposes formed part of Bulgaria, and is under
the administration at Sofia, which is now the only recognised capital, Philip-
popolis being merely the centre of a prefecture.
By the Constitution of 1879, the legislative authority was vested in a single
( ihaxnber, called the National Assembly of Bulgaria. The members of it are
elected by universal manhood suffrage at the rate of one member to sreiy
10,000 of the population, 'counting both sexes.' The duration of the
Assembly is three years, but it may be dissolved at any time by the Prince,
when new elections must take place within four months. The Assembly in
1883 assented to a proposal for the creation of a second Chamber.
The executive power is vested, under the Prince, in a Council of six
ministers — namely, 1. Minister for Foreign Affairs and Public Worship ; 2.
Minister of the Interior ; 3. Minister of Public Instruction ; 4. Minister of
Finance ; 5. Minister of Justice ; and 6. Minister of War.
President of the Council of Minister* and Minister of the Interior. — S.
Stambouloff.
Area and Population.
The estimated area of the Principality of Bulgaria proper is 24,360 English
square miles, and of South Bulgaria (or Eastern Roumelia) 13,500 square miles.
The total population of the whole Principality, according to a census taken
January 1, 1888, was 3,154,375—1,605,389 males, 1,548,986 females; of the
total, 960,441 represent South Bulgaria (E. Roumelia). Bulgaria has been
redivided into 22 districts (including the six districts of Eastern RoumeliaV Of
the total population in 1888, 2,326,250 are Bulgars, 607,319 Turks.
Greeks, 23,546 Jews, 50,291 gipsies, 1,069 Russians. 4,699 Servians and other
Slaves, 2,245 Germans. Of the population 2,432,154 belong to the Orthodox
Greek Church, which is the State religion, 668,173 are Mahometans, 18,539
1032 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — BULGARIA
Catholics, 24,352 Jews. The present capital of the Principality is the city of
Sofia, with a population of 30, 428. The other principal towns are Philippopolis
(capital of Roumelia), 33,442 ; Varna, with a population of 25,256 ; Shurnla,
with 23,161 ; Rustchuk, with 27,198 ; Slivno, 20,893 ; Stara-Zagora, 16,039 ;
Tatar-Bazarjik, 15,659; Sistova, 12,482; Plevna, 14,307; Silistria, 11,414;
Tirnova, the ancient capital of Bulgaria, with 11,314 ; and Vidin, with
14,772 inhabitants. The great majority of the population live by the cultiva-
tion of the soil and the produce of their flocks and herds. On February 1,
1890, there were 2,626 persons in prison for serious offences.
Instruction.
In 1890 Bulgaria had 3,844 elementary schools, with 129,777 boys and
42,206 girls as pupils. The total number of boys of school age, is 275,756 :
of girls, 261,968. For education the State grants a yearly subvention of
2,000.000 lev. Education is free and nominally obligatory for a period of four
years. About 81 per cent, of the population cannot read or write. There is a
university at Sofia, with gymnasia in the principal towns, including four for
girls, besides several lower middle-class schools. There is a free public library
at Sofia.
Finance.
The budget for 1891 was estimated at 80,478,700 levs (francs) revenue
and 80,208,233 levs expenditure. The chief items of expenditure are : — Armv
20,617,435 levs, Interior 8,335,430 levs, Public Debt 13,078,618 levs, Finance
13,720,732 levs, Public Instruction 5,140,985 levs, Public Works 7,722,243
levs. The chief items of revenue are : — Direct taxes 39,952,000 levs, customs
and excise 15,893,500 levs. The public debt consists of the surplus of the
Russian occupation, 21,700,000 levs, to be extinguished in 1896 ; a loan of
50,000,000 levs in 1887 ; a loan of 30,000,000 levs in 1889 ; besides which
Bulgaria has also undertaken to pay £T118,040 as the annual amount of the
Eastern Roumelian Contribution, and £T21,000 in settlement of arrears under
this head.
By the Treaty of Berlin the amount of the annual tribute and the share of
the Turkish debt which Bulgaria should pay to Turkey should lie fixed by an
agreement between the signatory Powers. So far (Dot'. 1 891) no amount lins
been fixed upon.
Defence.
The northern frontier of Bulgaria is formed by the Danube, which, ex-
cept on the east (bordering on the Dobruja), separates it from Rouinania :
here are the three important fortresses of Vidin, Rustchuk, and Silistria,
Varna is a fortress on the Black Sea, and Shumla westward in the interior.
On the west Bulgaria is bordered by Servia, and in the south-wist ami
south by Turkey Proper.
Military service is obligatory. The army, which since the revolution of
Philippopolis, in 1885, includes the Eastern Roumelian forces, is composed
of 24 regiments of infantry, of 2 battalions and 1 depot battalion cadi ;
4 regiments of cavalry, besides the Prince's escort. 6 regiments of artillery,
having 4 field-batteries of 4 guns and 120 men (8 guns in time of war),
■1 depots of artillery and 1 battery of siege artillery, 1 regiment of engi-
neers of 2 battalions, 1 company of discipline. The army is divided into
3 divisions, consisting of 2 brigades each. The peace strength is about
35,800 officers and men, and the war strength about 125,000. The fleet
consists of 3 ships of war, 10 steam sloops with guns of small calibre, and
2 torpedo boats. The person wf consists of 12 officers ami 88 I men.
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY — COMMERCE
L033
Production and Industry.
■ The principal agricultural product is wheat, which is largely exported
Wine, tobacco, and silk are also produced, and attar of roses largely manu-
factured. There are (1889) 4,450,000 acres under corn. 794.500 meadow.
489,900 pasturage, 178,500 vineyard, 6,500 tobacco, 5,050 roses. Of the
total area 25 per cent, under cultivation. In 1888 there were in Bulgaria
6,872,000 sheep, 1,204,000 goats, and 395,000 pigs. There are 728,000
acres under forest. The wool is exported chiefly to Austria, while the finer
qualities are shipped to France.
The principal mineral productions of the Principality are iron and coal.
Deposits of coal have been discovered in the neighbourhood of Yidin.
Travna, Moshino, near Sofia, and between Yarna and Babhik on the
Black Sea-
Commerce.
The principal article of trade is wheat. The other export*
wool, tallow, butter, cheese, hides, flax, and timber. The principal import*
are textile manufactures, iron, and coals. The value of the imports of the
whole Principality in 1S88 was 66,358,497 levs. exports 63.508.009 levs ; in
1889 imports 72,869,245 levs, exports 80,581,076 levs.
The following table shows the trade by countries for 1890 : —
Country
Imports
from
Exports
to
Country
Imports
from
Exports
to
United King-
dom .
Austria.
Turkey.
France .
Russia .
Germany
20,020.397
33, (MM
10,393,425
3,459,670
5,201,724
3,865,388
2.184,295
1.319.402
Levs 1
14.936,811
5,750,589
21,928,218
19.496.331
495,761
483,650
1,54'
Belgium
Switzerland .
Servia .
United Stat.*
Greece .
Other State*
2.485,380
1,161,476
1.178,897
40,652
115.389
98,645
Lm
640,334
207
721,130
4,789,300
Ronmania
Italy .
>4.:.30,497 71,051,123
1 1 lev = 1 franc.
The chief imports in 1890 were textiles 26,806,000 levs : articles of food
and drink, 19, 243, 000 levs -.chemicals, 10.296,000 levs : metals and metal goods,
8,363,000 levs ; machinery, &c, 5,025,000 levs. The chief articles of export
were grain 54,348,570 levi mainly to Turkey, France, and Great Britain, ami
live stock 5 million levs.
According to the Board of Trade Returns the exports from Bulgaria to
Great Britain in 1890 were valued at 138,282/., and imports from Great
Britain of British produce, at 83,6787. : the chief export was wheat,
128,9357., and the principal imports from Great Britain were cottons,
valued at 49,3067., iron, copper, and tin, 14.2637.
Shipping and Communications.
The numbeT of vessels entered at the port of Yarna in 1888 was 256 of
274.261 tons, and cleared 255 of 274,015 tons — chiefly Austrian ; at
Bourgas, 553 of 101.657 tons entered, and«same number cleared.
1034 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — SAMOS
Bulgaria (including Eastern Roumelia) has 507 miles of railway (1891).
Railways have been constructed so as to connect Sofia with Constantinople
on the one hand, and Belgrade and the general European system on the
other. Ports being constructed at Vama and Bourgas. There were (including
Eastern Roumelia) 2,800 miles of State telegraph lines in 1890, and 143
offices ; the number of messages was 765,295. There were 128 post offices,
and the number of letters, newspapers, &c, earned was 8,070,000.
Money and Credit.
There is a National Bank of Bulgaria, with headquarters at Sofia and
branches at Philippopolis, Rustchuk, and Varna ; its capital is 400,000?.,
pi'ovided by the State, a reserve fund of 30,000Z., and 16,O0OZ. notes in
circulation. The Ottoman Bank has a branch at Philippopolis, and in each
district there is an agricultural bank under control of the Government.
There are. nickel and '.bronze Stotinki (centimes), silver coins of ■■J, 1, 2, and
5 levs (francs) ; the notes of the National Bank circulate at par.
II. SAMOS.
An island off the coast of Asia Minor, forming a principality under the
sovereignty of Turkey, under the guarantee of France, Great Britain, and
Russia, December 11, 1832.
The ruling Prince is Alexander Karathcodori, born 1833, appointed 1885.
Area 180 square miles ; population (1890) 44,661. There are besides,
13,500 natives living on the coast of Asia Minor. There are 614 foreigners,
of whom 565 are Greeks. In 1889 there were 289 marriages, in 1890 1,631
births, 703 deaths.
The religion is the Greek Orthodox, all, except 30, of the inhabitants
professing it.
The estimated revenue for 1890-91 was 3,345,980 piastres, and expendi-
ture the same. There is no public debt.
The exports for 1890 were valued at 17,134,413 piastres, and imports
20,722,270 piastres. The chief exports were raisins 6,710,000 piastres,
hides 1,055,000 piastres, wine 8,282,000 piastres, oil 430,000 piastres. The
chief imports were wheat, flour, textiles.
In 1890, 4,458 vessels of 266,348 tons entered and cleared the port, 418
out of 937 steamers being British. The vessels belonging to the island
were 342 of 7,813 tons.
In 1890, 54,879 letters passed through the Post Office, and 23,544
parcels, &c. The number of telegraphic despatches was 7,083.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Turkey in Great Britain.
Ambassador. — Snstem Pafeha, accredited December?, 1885.
Councillor of Embassy. — Morel Bey.
Secretary. — Ham id Bey.
Naval Attache". — Lieutenant Ismail Bey,
Consul-General. — Emin Elfendi.
There are Consular representatives of Turkey at the following places : —
Consuls-OcneraJ. — Liverpool, Bombay, Cape of Good Hope, Malta.
Consuls or Vice-Consuls. — Birmingham, Dublin, Jersey, Newcaatle-on-
Tyne, Colombo (Ceylon), Gibraltar, St. Louis (Mauritius). Point de Galle,
Cardiff, Glasgow, Hartlepool, Hull. T.eith. Manchester. Southampton, Stan*
derland, Swansea.
.AT .\M> 01 II I RE1 I i:i M i: 1' 3i
2. Of Gi:kat Blitain in Tukkey and Evr.orF.AN DF.ri
Ambassador.— Right Hon. Sir Francis Clare Ford, G.C.B, G.C.M
and Minister to Brazil, 1879-81 ; to Greece, 1881-84 ; to Spain
1884-87 ; Ambassador to Spain 1887-92. Apjtointed Ambassador to Turkey,
January 12, 1892.
Secretary. — Edmnnd D. V. Fane.
Military Attache.— Colonel H. C. Chcrmside, C.B., C.M.G.
Commercial Attache (Asiatic Turkey \. — Edward Fitxt i« raid Law.
Consul -General — Sir J. EL Fawc tt. K.0.M.6,
Bfi.gakia. — British Agent and Csmml Ghmcral at Sofia. — Nicholas
Roderick O'Conor, C.B., C.M.G. ; appointed January 1, 1887.
At Sofia there is also a Vice-Consul and Consular Assistant, and a
Consul at Philippopolis.
There are also British Consular Representatives at the following places —
Consuls-General. — Bagdad, Beyrout, Salonica, Smyrna, Tripoli.
Consuls or Vice-Consuls. — Benghazi (Tripoli), Adrianople, Bassora, Da-
mascus, Bosna Serai, Crete (Island), Jeddah, Jerusalem, Kurdistan, Samos,
Smyrna. Trehizond. Brussa, Dardanelles, Gallipoli, Scutari, Adana, Antioch,
I'andia, Van, Buigas, Rustchuk, Varna, Rhode, Scala Nnova.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Tnrkey.
1. Official Publication-.
Saluame 1306. Official Almanac for the Turkish Empire for 1890-91. 8. Constantinople,
1S91.
Report of the Health Officer, published annually.
RejM.rt by Mr. Godfrev Blunt on the Finances of Turkey, in ' Reports of H.M.'s Secretaries
.if Emlassy.' Parti. 1884.
Corresi>ondenee respecting the Affairs of Turkey. 1S76. FoL pp. 57V. London.
CorrespoBdcnec respecting the condition of the population of Asiatic Turkey, 1S8S-S9.
C-*i,72t fi-1. London,
Treaty between Great Britain, Germany, Austria, France, Italy, Russia, and Turk
the settlement of affairs in the East. Signed at Berlin, July 13, 187& F"l. Lend
Beport by Mr. Jago on the History, Revenue, and Taxation of the Hejaz, in Part II. of
■ Re]«>rts of H.M.'s Diplomatic and Consular Agents Abroad.' London, 1886.
Diplomatic and Consular Reports from Tnrkey fur 1890. London, 1S91.
Report on the Uskup-Vranja Railway in No. 86; on the Mother-of-pearl Fisheries in
No. 28 ; on Native Cotton Manufactures in Erzeronm. in No. 36 of 'Reports on Subjects of
General Interest,' 1887.
Bulgaria. Report on Trade, Finance, Population, 4c, of Bulgaria, in 1889. No. 753 of
' Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' London, 1890.
Herttlet (Sir E.), Foreign Office List. Published annually. London, 1891.
Trade of Turkey with Great Britain ; in ' Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kiugdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions, for the vear 1890." Imp. 4.
London, 1891.
2. Nox-Officiai. Ptjbucatiohs,
Annual Report of the British Chamber of Commerce, Constantinople.
BarkUy (H. C), Between the Danube and the Black Sea. 8. London.
Bath (Marqr.is of), Observations on Bulgarian Affairs. 8. London, 1880
Bone (Ami), La Turquie d'Europe. 4 vols. S. Paris, 1840.
Bovrke (R.), Turkish Debt. Report by Rt. Hon. Robert Bourke, M.P., to the English
and Dutch Bondholders. London, January 188i
Caillard (V.). Memorandum on the History of the Turkish Debt since 1881.
Campbell (Hon. Dudley), Turks and Greeks. 8. Londoi
Clark (Edson L.), The Races of European Turkev : their Historv, Condition, and Prr -
York, 1879.
Crtarg (Sir Edward Shepherd), History of the Ottoman Turks, from the beginning of
their Empire to the present time. New ed. 8. London, 1882.
1036 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
Cu inet (Vital), La Turquie d'Asie. Geographie administrative, <fcc. Paris, 1S91.
Davis (E.), Asiatic Turkey. London, 1S79.
Dunn (Archibald J.), The Rise and Decay of Islam. 8. London, 187".
Farley (J. Lewis), The Decline of Turkey. 8. London, 1876.
Freeman (Edward A.), The Ottoman Power in Europe : its Nature, its Growth, and its
Decline. 8. London, 1877.
Geary (Grattan), Asiatic Turkey. 2 vols. 8. London, 1878.
Goehlert (J. V.), Die Bevolkerung der europaischen Turkey. S. Wien, 1866.
Hafiz Husseyn (Effendi), Hadikat-ul-dschevaml. Description of the Mosques, High
Schools, and Convents. 2 vols. 8. Constantinople, 1864-66.
Hertslet (Sir E.), Treaties and Tariffs between Great Britain and Turkey.
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1859.
Holland (Thomas Erskine), The European Concert in the Eastern Question. Oxford
18S5.
Huhn (Major A. von), The Struggle of the Balkans for National Independence under
Prince Alexander. London, 1886.
Journal de la Chambre de Commerce de Constantinople. Constantinople. Published
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Keane (A. H.) and Temple (Sir R.), Asia. London, 1882.
Kinglake (Alexander William), The Invasion of the Crimea. 8. Edinburgh and London
1863-75.
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London, 1854.
Michelsen (Edward H.), The Ottoman Empire and its Resources. Tables. 8. London.
1854.
Millingen (Fred.), La Turquie sous le regno d* Abdul Aziz. 8. Paris, 1S68.
Paoli (Sim.), La Turquie devant l'Europe. S. Paris, 1868.
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187S.
Poole (Stanley Lane-), The People of Turkey : Twenty Years' Residence among Bulga-
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London, 1878.
Rectus (Elisee), Geographic Universelle. Vol.1. Paris, 1876.
Rosen (G.), Geschichte der Tiirkei neuester Zeit. 2 vols. 8. Leipzig, 180(5-07.
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Schweiger-Lerchenfeld (Baron Armand von), Unter doni Halbmonde. Bin Bild des Otto-
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Sinclair and Brophy. Twelve Years' Study of the Eastern Queslion in Bulgaria S.
London.
Tarreng (C. J.), British Consular Jurisdiction in the East. London. 1SSS.
Tchihatchef (M.), Lettres sur la Turquie. 8. Bruxelles, 1859.
Ubicini (A.), Lettres sur la Turquie. 2 vols. 8. Paris, 1868,
Zinkeisen (J. W.), Geschichte des Osmanischen Reichs in Enropa. 7 vols. 8. Qotha,
1840-63.
Zwiedenek-Siklenhirst (Freiherr von), Die Adminisl ration dor Tiirkisehen Staatssohnld.
' OSsterreichische Monatsschrift fur don Orient.' October 15, 1SS3. Vienna.
Elf Jahre Balkan-Erinnerungen eines Preussischen Offlciors ana don .lalir.n 1*70, Mb
18S7. J. U. Kern's Vorlag. Breslan, 1889.
III. EGYPT.
(Kemi — Misr.)
Reigning Khedive.
Abbas, born July 14, 1874; son of Mohamed Tewfik ; sue-
oeeded to the throne on the death of his father, January 7, 1802.
He has one brother, Mohamed, born Oct. 88. IS7.*>. and two
sisters, Kadjali Haneni. born May 2. 1 S7l>. and Niinet-Hanein.
I "hi i Nov. 6, 1881.
Died
_ue<l
1849
1811-48
1848
.lime— Nov. 1848
1854
1848-54
1863
1854-63
—
1863-79
GOVERNMENT AND CONSTITUTION" 1037
The present sovereign of Egypt is the sixth ruler of the dynasty of Mehe-
1 1 it- 1 Ali, appointed Governor of Egypt in 1806, who made himself, in 1811,
absolute master of the country by force of arms. The position of his father
and predecessor, Ismail I. — forced to abdicate, under pressure of the British
and French Governments, in 1879 — was recognised by the Imperial Hatti-
Sheriff of February 13, 1841, issued under the guarantee of the five great
European Powers, which established the hereditary succession to tin- throne of
Egypt under the same rules and regulations as those to the throne of Turkey.
The title given to Mehemet Ali and his iininoliat' m the Turkish
one of • Vali,' or Viceroy : but this was changed by an Imjierial firman of
Hay 21, 1866, into the Persian-Arabic of ' khidewi-Misr,' or, as more commonly
called, Khedive. By the same finnan of May 27. 1866, obtained on the con-
dition of the sovereign of Bgypl raising his annual tribute to the Sultan's civil
list from ;;7t>,000/. to 720,000/., the succession to the throne of Egypt was
madc direct from father to eon, instead of descending, after the Turkish law,
to the eldest heir. By a finnan issued June 8, 1873, the Sultan granted to
Ismail I. the hitherto withheld rights of concluding commercial treaties with
foreign Powers, and of maintaining armies.
Tin- predecessors of the present ruler of Egypt w<
Born
Mehcmet Ali, founder of the dynasty 1769
Ibrahim, son of Mehemet. . . . 1789
Abbas, grandson of Mehemet. . . 1813
Said, son of Mehemet 1822
Ismail, son of Ibrahim 1830
The present Khedive of Egypt has an annual allowance of 100,000/., and
his son, the heir-apparent, 10,000/.
Government and Constitution.
The administration of Egypt is carried on by native Ministers,
subject to the ruling of the Khedive. From 1879 to 1883 two
Controllers-General, appointed by France and England, bad con-
siderable powers in the direction of the affairs of the country
(Kbedivial Decree, November 10, 187'J). In the summer of 1882,
in consequence of a military rebellion, England intervened, sub-
dued the rising, and restored the authority of the Khedive. In
this intervention England was not joined by France, and as a
result, on January 18, 1883, the Khedive signed a decree abolish-
ing the joint control of England and France. In the place of
the Control, the Khedive, on the recommendation of England,
appointed an Engbsh financial adviser, without whose concurrence
no financial decision can be taken. The financial adviser lias a
right to a seat in the Council of Ministers, but he is not an
executive officer.
The Egyptian Ministry is at present composed of six members, among
whom the de|>artinental work is distributed as follows : — 1. President — Interior
and Finance ; 2. Justice ; 3. War ; 4. Public Works ; 5. Instruction ; 6. Foreign
Allah's.
1038
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES : — EGYPT
On May 1, 1883, an organic law was promulgated by the Khedive creating
a number of representative institutions, based on universal suffrage, with a view
of carrying on the government of the country in a more constitutional manner.
These institutions included a Legislative Council, a General Assembly, and
provincial boards.
The Legislative Council is a consultative body in matters of legislation, to
which all general laws are submitted for examination ; but the Government is
not obliged to act on its advice.
The functions of the two other institutions are also of a limited character ;
but no new direct personal or land tax can be imposed without the consent of
the General Assembly, which has to be summoned every two years.
Egypt Proper is administratively divided into 5 governorships of principal
towns, and 14 mudirichs, or provinces, subdivided into kisms.
Governorships.
Mudirichs.
1.
Suez Canal,
with the towns
Lower Egypt : —
Upper Egypt : —
of Port Said, Suez,
and
1. Kalioubieh.
1. Guizeh.
Ismailieh.
2. Menoutieh.
2. Minieh.
2.
Cairo.
3. Gharbieh.
3. Beni Souef.
•s.
Alexandria.
4. Charkieh.
4. Fayoum.
4.
Rosetta.
5. Dakahlieh.
5. Assiout.
5.
Damietta.
6. Behera.
6. Guerga.
7. Kena.
8. El Hedood.
There are also the governorships of the Red Sea littoral with Suakin. of
Kosseir in the Red Sea, El Arish on the frontier of Syria, and the Sinai penin-
sula under the Governor-General of the Suez Canal.
The governors and moudirs possess very extensive powers.
Area and Population.
Prior to 1884 the sovereign of Egypt claimed rule over
territories extending almost to the Equator. As a result
of the rebellion of the Sudanese, the Sudan provinces were
practically abandoned (though still nominally Egyptian), and
Wady Haifa, about 800 miles up the Nile from Cairo, has
been (provisionally) agreed upon as the boundary of Egypt
to the south (see under British East Africa and Africa,
Central).
At the present time Egypt Proper extends from Wady Haifa,
21° 40' lat. N., to the Mediterranean. The total area, including
the Oases in the Libyan Desert, the region between the Nile and
(lie Red Sea, and Kl-Arish in Syria, is 400,000 square miles : l>nf
the cultivated and settled area, dial is. the Nile valley and Delta,
covers only 1 2,1)7(> square miles. Canals, roadsi date plantations.
Ac. cover 1,1)00 square miles ; 2,850 square miles are comprised
in the surface of the Nile, marshes, lakes, and desert. Egypt is
AND POPULATION'
1039
divided iuto two great districts — ' Masr-el-Bahri,' or Lower Egypt,
and ' El-Said,' or Upper Egypt.
The following table gives the area of the settled land surface,
and the results of the census of May 1882 : —
Area in
sq. m.
Egyptians
• 11
•"oreigners
Total
lMlMtV
Sedentary
Nomad )
per sq. in.
'vernorats :
Cairo .
862,416
m
21,650
•
Alexandria .
70 181,200
503
49,693
231,396 !
3,305
—
—
Damietta
♦4
43.501
1
114
43,616
9,692
Rosetta
u\
19,267
—
111
19,378
790
Mudiriehs:
Behera
932
364,050
33,102
1,704
398,856
1
Charkieh .
905
435,380
27,471
1,804
464,655 ,
511
-
Dakahl ieh .
931
578,144
6.213
1,676
586,033
Gharbieh
•2,340
908,041
IS, 900
Kalioubieli .
352
254,198
16,596
271.391
771
Menoufieh .
639 642,609
2, 512
892
646.013
1,010
8 | liuvemorais :
6,204 3,778,806
106,070
9&78fl
3,965,664
639
5 'Tort Said \
1 (Suez . /
| El-Arish .
Koaaebr
1UJ \ 9,977
226
8
7,010
1,190
21,296
11,175
| 3,092 !
10£ ; 24,037
234
8,200
32,471
3,092
i 2,629
1,291
3
3,923
19,615
i 2,190
240
2,430
17,010
}[v.diriehs :
~z. Assiout
840 549,776
11,906
562.137
712
££ Iioui Souef .
501 193,305
26.119
149
219,573
— Favoum
493 200,967
27.32S
414
228,709
464
-
Guizeh
370 274.406
8,483
194
283,083
:<•:■
~
Miuieh
772 294.655
19,824
339
314,818
407
u
Guerga
631
5,311
130
521.413
826
Kena .
544 383,819
162
406,858
958
Esna1.
332 221,813
16.096
52
237,961
717
4,483i 2,636,903
138,184
1,895
2,776,982
619
Oases .
— 38,225
—
—
—
—
Total
10,698 6,480,600
245,779
90,886
6,817.265
638
1
1 A new province, Kl Hedood, has been formed on the frontier.
l, liaving been merged into the new province (18S8).
Esna as a province no
Of the total population, 3,401,498 were males and 3.415,767 females.
If we arrange the above figures by administrative divisions we have the
following result : —
1040
TUEKEY AND TRIBUTAKY STATES: — EGYPT
-
Egyptians
Foreigners
Total
Sedentary Nomad
Governorats
Mudiriehs
Oases . .
Total .
625,240
. 5,817,135
. ' 38,225
3,041
242,738
79,771
11,115
708,052 ;
6,070.988
38,225
. I 6,480,600
245,779
90,886
6,817,265
The families number 1,178,564, and the houses 1,084,384. Taken by
nationalities, the number of foreigners in Egypt is : — Greeks, 37,301 ; Italians,
18,665 ; French, 15,716 ; Austrians, 8,022 ; English, 6,118 ; Germans, 948 ;
other foreign nations, 4,116 ; total, 90,886. Of this total nearly 90 per cent.
reside in Xower Egypt. 1
The growth of the general population of the country is exhibited by the
following figures :• —
1872 (De Regny) .... 5,203,405
1875 (Dr. Rossi Bey) . . 5,251,757
1882 (Census) 6,806,381
1800 (French estimate)
1846 (Census) . . .
1855 (Colucci Pasha) .
1865 (Colucci Pasha) .
2,000,000
4,463,244
4,402,013
4,841,677
A comparison of the two official returns, 1846 and 1882, shows an average
annual increase in the population of about 1 '25 per cent.
The principal towns, with their populations in 1882, are : — Cairo, 368,108 ;
Alexandria, 208,755 ; Damietta, 34,046 ; Tantah, 33,725 ; Mansourah, 26,784 ;
Zagazig, 19,046 ; Rosetta, 16,671 ; Port Said, 16,560 ; Suez, 10,913.
Religion and Instruction.
The prevailing religion in Egypt is Mohammedanism. There are, however,
about 600,000 Copts, Christian descendants of the ancient Egyptians. Their
highest dignitaiy is the Patriarch of Egypt and Abyssinia, who resides at Cairo.
There are twelve bishops, besides archpriests, priests, deacons, and monks.
The religion is Greek-Orthodox, with peculiar doctrines and practices : priests
must be married before ordained ; monks and high dignitaries only cannot
be married before or after ordination.
In 1875 there were 4,232 elementary schools and 4,343 teacbers ; in 1887
there were 6,639 schools and 7,244 teachers. Education is not compulsory,
and the teachers are paid by fees. There are besides 17 schools supported by
the administration of the Wakfs, with 2,000 pupils: In the chief villages the
well-to-do cultivator educates his own children and those of his dependents by
engaging poor students as lecturers. Education is mainly confined to the read-
ing of the Koran. The higher standard is taught in 15 Government Colleges
(schools of law, medicine, aits and crafts, polytechnic, ic), 2,847 pupils ; and
in 21 national schools in the chief towns. 2,481 pupils. Over 100 pupils arc
educated in Prance, England, Austria, and Germany, at the expense of the
( !n\ eminent.
Justice and Crime.
Subsequent to 1882 a body ot gendarmerie was formed for the provinces, and
a corps of police for the towns of Alexandria and Cairo. On January 1, 1884,
a new organisation of police came into force, placing both them and the gaols
1 These we old statistics, but no new ones have been compiled. The number of resident
foreigners lias largely increased.
JUSTICE AXD PRIME — FINANCE
l"4l
— hitherto iu the hands of the moudirs — under the control of two English
officials attached to the Ministry of the Interior. Also at the end of February
1884 new criminal codes came into operation, taking away all magisterial
power from the hands of the moudirs, and placing it in the hands of diu
appointed by a Procurcur-Gtneral, working under the Minister of .1
Within the last five years a series of reforms has been inaugurated under
English su]>ervision, and they have resulted in the establishment of new native
tribunals, the reform of the prison system, the partial alwlition of the corvee
(forced labour), the reform of the currency, and an improvement in the ad-
ministration of the Finances and of the Public "Works. Litigation between
natives and foreigners is conducted l>efore mixed tribunals, established under
the auspices of the European Powers, and possessing very extensive jurisdiction.
The total strength of the police and the gendarmerie is alwut 7,000.
The following are the criminal statistics of Lower Egypt for three years, and
of Lower and Upper Egypt in 1889 and 1890 :—
Year
Crimes
Offences
Contraventions
Total
1886
550
7,359
9,900
17,809
1887
760
8,203
9.977
18,940
1888
1,144
14,968
17.268
380
1889
1,387
15,751
19,172
36,311
1890
1,979
16,349
124
"
Finance.
On April 5, 1880, the Khedive famed a decree appointing an international
ission of liquidation to examine the financial situation of Egypt, and to
draft a law regulating the relations between Egypt and her creditors, and also
between the Daira Sanieh and the Daira Rhassa and their creditors. That
commission, in concert with the Egyptian Government, estimated the annual
income of the country as follows : —
-
1880-81
1882 and after
nues assigned to the Debt '
,, ,, to the Government .
*'E3,463,734
4,897,888
££3,513,734
4,897,888
Total
8,361,622
8,411,622
1 £ E equals £1 0*. 6rf.
The commissioners assigned (1) to the service of the Privileged Debt the
railway and telegraph income and the port dues of Alexandria ; and (2) to the
service of the Unified Stock the customs revenue and the taxes of four pro-
vinces. The charge for the Privileged Debt was a fixed annuity, providing
interest at 5 per cent., and sinking fund calculated to extinguish the debt fan
1941. Should the revenues assigned to the Privileged Debt prove insufficient
to meet the annuity, the deficit was to become a first charge on the revenues
assigned to the Unified Debt. The interest of the latter debt was fixed at
4 percent., guaranteed by the Government in case the assigned revenues were
insufficient. The surplus of the revenues assigned to the debt was to go to the
3 x
1042 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
redemption of the Unified by purchase of stock in the market. In September
1884 a portion of this surplus was appropriated by the Government.
Their estimate of the liabilities of Egypt was : —
Government : £E £E
Tribute 681,486
Moukabalah annuity 150,000
Interest to England on Suez Canal shares . . 193,858
Daira Khassa 34,000
Administrative expenses 3,641,544
Unforeseen expenditure 197,000
4,897,888
Debt :
Privileged Stock 1,157,718
Unified 2,263,686
3,421,404
8,319,292
The total floating debt at the end of 1884 was about £E8, 000, 000. In
March 1885 the representatives of Great Britain, Germany, Austria, Franco,
Italy, Russia, and Turkey signed a Convention according to which they agreed
to guarantee a new loan of 9,000,000?. This sum was to provide for the settle-
ment of the floating debt and the Alexandria Indemnities, with a surplus of
1,000,000?. to be applied to irrigation works. The principal stipulations of
the Convention were : — Rate of interest on the guaranteed loan not to exceed
3£ per cent. ; its service to be a fixed annuity of 315,000?., which is a first
charge on the assigned revenues, and the surplus of the annuity after payment
of interest to be used for redemption. The coupons of the other Egyptian
loans to be taxed in 1885-86 to the extent of 5 per cent. ; the surplus of
revenue over expenditure to be divided between the Government and the
sinking fund.
The tax on the coupons was repaid in 1887, the tax discontinued, and a
reserve fund established, which at the present time amounts to nearly
£E1,000,000. In the early part of 1888 — an arrangement having been come
to with the ex-Khedive Ismail Pasha and certain members of his family for
the commutation of their allocations on the civil list for Domains, and it being
considered desirable to redeem pensions in a similar manner — a loan of
£E2, 300, 000 was issued in May 1888 to provide for these commutations In-
paying off the mortgages on the Domains lands required. A fixed annuity of
£E130,000 was assigned for the service of the new 4^ per cent, loan, but, as
an ecpiivalent sum was economized through the reduction of the civil list ami
of the pension budget, and the considerable diminution in the interest on the
Domains Loan, the annual burden on Egypt was not increased by tin- new
issue ; while, as a large sinking fund provides for the rapid extraction of the
4^ per cent, loan, a temporary charge has been substituted for a permanent one.
A K bed i vial decree was issued on June 6, 1890, witli the consent of the
Powers, authorizing the convention of the 5 pet cent. Privileged Loan, of
the Daira Sanieh Loan, and of the Domains Loan, and the reimbursement of
the 4j percent. Loan of 1888. A new privileged loan was issued in which was
included the 5 per cent. Privileged Loan, the 4i per cent. Loan, and a sum of
1,333,333?. to 1)0 employed on irrigation works, and in the exchange of pen-
sion* for land. This new privileged loan hears interest at :!.', per cent., and
was issued at 91?. per 100?. of capital A new 4 per oent Daira Sanieh Loan
was issued at par. The capital of the old loan was calculated at 85?. for 100?.
FINANCE
li»4:
of nominal capital, in accordance with the decree of Jnne 6, 1890. The con-
version of the Domains Loan has not yet (December 1891) been carried out.
The new loans issued enjoy the same privileges and guarantees as the loans for
which they were substituted.
Table showing the amount of the Egyptian debt at the end of 1891 : —
£
Guaranteed Loan, 3 per cent 9, 024, 500
Privileged Debt, 3 J per cent 29,400,000
Unified Debt, 4 per cent 55,986,960
Daira Sanieh Loan, 4 per cent 7,272,320
Domains Loan, 5 per cent 4,888,620
Total
106,572,400
The budgets fixed upon for 1891 and 1892 are set forth in the table
below : —
Revenue
Land tax, date taxes,
&c.
Professional & urban
taxes, Arc.
Customs .
Octrois .
Salt and natron
Fisheries .
Navigation dues
Railways .
Telegraphs
Port of Alexandria
Posts & postal boats
Lighthouses
Ministry of Justice
Exemption from
military service
Rents on Govern-
ment property
Governorship of
Suakin .
Pension fund .
Sundry receipts
specified
1891
1892
i
Expenditure
4E
£E
Public debt
1 5,100,000
5,000,000 ,
Tribute to Turkey .
Civil List, H. H.
1 155,000
185,000
Khedive
l.:>".
1,400,000
Civil Lists, H. H.
800,000
190,000
Ismail Pasha
00,
233,000
Private Cabinet of
80,000
85,000
H. H. Khedive .
74,000
75,000
Public WorksMinistry
1,350,000
1,480,000
Ministry of Justice .
25,000
36,000
Administration of
j 110,000
115,000
Provinces
840,090
245,000
Finance Ministry .
90,000
100,000
Ministry of the In-
806,000
360,000 terior .
Ministry of Public
| 100,000
80,000
Instruction .
Other Ministries
70,000
80,000
specified
Customs administra-
13,000
16,000
tion
55,000
55,000
Octrois .
Salt and natron
' 147,000
215,000
Fisheries .
Navigation
Railways .
Telegraphs
Port of Alexandria .
Posts A postal boats
Lighthouses .
Public security . M i n -
istry of War.Police,
Prisons, and Army
of Occupation
Suakin
Pensions .
Suppression of Corvee
Sundries specified .
' 9,820,000
9,950,000
um
uh
.£E
4,061,035
665,041
100,000
114,127
-.4.420
tfMM
367,448
353,716
116,797
110,973
88,478
135,711
116,469
42,359
63,157
8,392
3,433
635,211
35,000
19,500
218,611
26,769
679,830
111,428
405,000
100,000
68,78(1
9,320,000 9,400,000
£E
4,015,047
665,041
100,000
114,127
'■4.4:2"
140,080
385,908
322,027
112,046
115,050
90,849
122,263
126,870
47,040
8,578
2,979
700,888
46,000
23,000
225,521
27,169
707,300
119,000
410,000
250,000
100(088
3x2
1044
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
The charges on account of debts of all descriptions in 1892 are estimated
at-
Guaranteed Loan : 3% fixed annuity
Privileged Debt : 34% .
Unified Debt I 4% :.
Daira Sanieh Loan : 4%
Domains Loan : 5%
Interest on Suez Canal shares up to 1894
Daira Khassa : annual payment to Daira
missioners .....
Moukabala : annuity till 1930
Sanieh Loan
Com
£
315,000
1,029,000
2,239,478
290,893
258,550
198,000
34,871
153,846
4,519,637
iteed by the Domains
Total
The services of the Domains and Daira are guarar
and Daira estates, which are administered for the bondholders by com-
missioners ; -should the revenue of these lands prove insufficient to cover
the interest of the loans, the Government has to make good the deficits.
The final accounts for the year 1890 showed the financial result of the
year to be as follows : —
£E
Receipts . . . . . . 10,291,713
Expenditure 9,637,774
Surplus .... 653,939
Of this surplus £E384,858 went to the Reserve Fund of the Caisse de In
Dette, and £E269,081 to the Egyptian Government Special Reserve Fund.
At the beginning of the year 1891 the Reserve Funds stood as follows : —
£E
Reserve Fund of the Caisse de la Dette 1,359,999
Egyptian Government Reserve Fund ..... 384,039
Total Reserves .
. 1,744,038
Defence.
Army.
On September 19, 1882, the whole of the Egyptian army was
disbanded by Khedivial decree. In December of the same year
the organisation of a new army was entrusted to a British general
officer, who was given the title of Sirdar. There are about 60
English officers serving at present in the Egyptian army. The
army has a total strength of 13,000.
Since the rebellion in 1882 an English army of occupation has
remained in Egypt. Its strength on January 1, 1891, was 3,300,
under the command of Major-General Forestier Walker, C.B.
Production and Industry.
The total area, land and water, of Egypt is about 8,000,000 feddans
(1 fVddan = l,03 am), mid of this 5,022,000 have been cultivated in 1891.
The agricultural population form (il per cent, of the total.
Tlic Egyptian agricultural year includes Hirer seasons or crops. The
PRODUCTION AND INDi
leading winter crops, sown in Noveintar and harvested in May and June, are
cereal produce of all kinds ; the principal summer crops, sown in March and
harvested in October and November, are cotton, sugar, and rice ; the autumn
crops, sown in July and gathered in September and October, are rice, sorgho
(a sort of maize), and vegetables generally. In Lower Egypt the irrigation of
the land is effected by means of a network of canals tapping the Nile and
traversing the Delta in every direction ; while in Upper Egypt the
system of irrigation, i.e. the submersion at high Nile of the land to be
cultivated, is adhered to.
The following table refers to the cultivation of cotton : —
Tear
Area cultivated
Yield
Prod ace per feddaii
Feddans
Kan tars
Kantars
1886
874,645
3,025,965
3 46
1887
865.
3,046,485
3 5
1888
1,021,250
2,900,000
2 84
1889
852,829
3,158,000
3-7
1890
864,400
4,160,000
4-8
1891
851,000
—
Feddan is equal to 1 03808 acre. Kantar is equal to 99 0492 lbs. .
In 1886, 2,444 villages were occupied in the culture of cotton out of a
total of 3,781 ; in 1889 the number was 2,685.
In the following table the agricultural condition of each of the prov i
in Lower and Upper Egypt is indicated : —
-
No. of
Villages
No. of
Feddans
cultivated
No. of
Farm
Aii.u.;.!.-
Sheep and
Goats
No. of
FruitTree*
No. of
Date Trees
Per 100
PerlOO
Per 100
Per 100
Lower Egypt :
feddans
!o:-;a:.5
fiUilans
frddam
Behera
403
467,662
12
13
23
Charkieh .
451
434,982
12
9
24
116
Dakahlieh .
449
462,367
11
13
--13
Gharbieh
552
840,089
17
16
16
Kalioubieh .
166
187,180
17
19
325
70
Meuoufieh .
338
351,710
33
18
43
8
2,359
2,743,990
17
14
42
40
Upper Egypt :
.
Assiout
292
419,100
10
30
21
84
Beni Souef .
174
231,610
15
16
8
46
Fayoum
87
231,045
8
13
54
105
Guizeh
168
181,176
19
36
9
195
Minia .
268
397,240
6
9
17
54
Esna .
195
150,459
18
11
.
348
Guerga
110
.915
16
51
9
96
Kena .
126
280,927
10
34
10
92
1,420
2,217,472
13
25
17
106
Total, Egypt .
3,779
4,961,462
14
20
13
69
1046
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
The total number of date trees which yield fruit or seed is about
3,452,674. Cattle and farm animals, including horses and camels, number
1,668,860.
The following table shows (in feddans) the area of the several crops in
1889 and 1890 :—
-
1889
1890
-
1889
1890
i Feddans
Feddans
Feddans
Feddans
Wheat .
971,678
1,165,676
Water - melons,
Maize and durrah
j 1,406,073
1,559,906
melons, cfec. .
38,501
44,012
Clover
1 864,680
875,761
Lupins, smut .
11,856
13,141
Cotton
, 855,482
864,302
Tobacco .
4,824
860
Beans
546,705
628,211
Peas, ifec.
5,679
8,819
Barley
485,651
456,075
Flax, henna, indigo,
Lentils • .
47,182
77,216
&c.
10,489
6,050
Rice
115,988
148,095
Castor plant, sesame
9,831
14,133
' Helbe ' (Fenugreek
Vegetables, potatoe
) 146,823
133,484
&c.
46,747
37,244
Total crops
5,654,424
6,130,701
Sugar-cane
' Guilbane ' (Chick
ling vetch) .
1 58,611
27,624
65,505
Area cultivated
4,723,424
5,022,701
i
Double cultivation .
922,000
1,108,000
In Lower Egypt the soil yields four crops in three years ; in Upper Egypt
seven crops in six years
Commerce.
The exterior commerce of Egypt, comprising imports and exports of all
kinds of merchandise, is given at the following figures for five years : —
Year
Imports
Exports
Totals
£E
£E
£E
1886
7,848,231
10,129,620
17,977,851
1887
8,137,054
10,876,417
19,013,471
1888
7,738,343
10,418,213
18,156,556
1889
7,020,961
11,953,196
18,974,157
1890
8,081,297
11,876,086
19,957,383
The movement of specie during the same period has been —
Year
Imports
Exports
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1,838,797
3,066,740
2,038,956
1,900,418
1 2,971,461
£E
2,972,520
1,898,062
2,642,900
1,963,700
2,085,455
COMMERCE
1047
The following table shows the value of the commercial intercourse of
Egypt with different foreign countries in 1888, 1889, and 1890 :—
Exports t«
Imports from
LM
1890
MM
I-v-
1890
a
£E
£K
a
a
Great Britain i .
6,584,028
r,7K,90i
7,704,121
M*Mt>
2,648,517
l,lU,m
Turkey
387,710
320,553
334,179
t,48MB
:.• .:.:-:
France and Algeria .
MMM
'.<»vH
MS,0*1
822,193
M4,U4
Austria-Hungary
' 663,792
mmh
MMM
• ■•:.-:
775,201
Italv ....
816,077
MMM
mmm
Russia
847,376
1,017,411 ;
HUM
bm,m i
India, China, 4c.
15,576
5,203 :
-;■'.»:■.
501,161
MM< '•
Greece
■MM
31,592
24,718
97,066
121,503
America
10,840
him
24,057:
mjm
Vt.uU
Other countries .
!
MMM
228,047!
403,417
354,503
448,12?:
Total .
10,418,213 11,953,196
ajgnjta
7,738,343
7,020,961
8,081,297
1 Includes British possessions in the Mediterranean.
The percentage of Egyptian intercourse with various countries in 1889 and
1890 was as follows : —
Imports
Exports
UN
MM
UN
Great Britain 36 37
Mediterranean possessions . . . . 1-9 1
Eastern possessions 7 7
Austria 9 10
France and Algeria 10 10
Greece ....... l 11
Italy 3 ; 3
Russia ....... 5 4
Turkey 20 20
65
0*1
0-1
8
8 :
0 3
7 I
3
65
01
0-4
;
8
0 2
6 I
9
a
The value of the leading exports and imports of Egypt during 1888, 1889,
and 1890 is shown in the following table : —
1048
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
Exports
Imports
-
1888
1889
1890
-
188S
1889
1890
£E
£E
£E
£E
£E
£E
Cotton .
6,823,311
8,547,716
8,272,226
Cotton goods .
1,409,574
1,310,820
1,674,073
Cotton seed .
1,309,743
1,453,892
1,380,255
Silks, wool-
Sugar .
541,168
496,795
338,923
lens, linen,
Beans .
469,910
326,836
730,647
hemp, &c. .
774,279
599,349
755,469
Wheat .
305,163
165,608
223,906
Coal
441,660
440,983
491,495
Rice
109,833
74,809
70,696
Hosiery, cloth-
Indian corn .
99,665
2,669
23,457
ing, &c.
413,242
317,711
339,284
Hides & skins
75,069
86,118
95,293
Timber .
315,088
288,540
349,432
Onions .
72,153
65,214
72,834
Coffee .
296,950
254,202
243,575
Wool .
57,783
63,214
52,514
Wine, beer, &
Flour . and
spirits
281,989
252,810
265,267
bran .
46,985
9,350
Tobacco and
Lentils .
19,530
10,762
19,627
cigars .
270,455
272,042
475,475
Gum arabic .
1,938
2,566
469
Petroleum &
oils
262,893
351,276
296,301
Machinery
261,035
103,943
187,532
Iron and steel
goods .
246,746
264,207
—
Indigo .
233,547
177,057
191,379
Fruits, fresh &
preserved .
189,070
176,265
183,188
Animals
170,042
71,724
91,090
Wheat & flour
128,677
219,635
—
Rice
123,864
128,625
167,905
Refined sugar
39,929
40,282
S4,000
Statement showing the principal imports, with the proportion per 1,000 of
the total imports, and the proportionfper 1,000 for each country in 1890 : —
'
Article
Per thou-
sand of
Total
Im orts
Per thousand of each Article for each Country
Cotto
Coal
Tobac
cigc
Timb
Texti
cot
Iron
Coffei
Indig
Fruit
Mach
Cloth
Colli
Rico
Linei
Whet
ti goods
co, tombac, and
rs ...
IV .
es other than
ton.
> . . . .
o . .
inerj
cs ....
n .viiiiis
i goods .
t . . . .
183
61
59
43
37
32
80
24
28
23
21
21
21
g]
20
England, 963 ; France, 16 ; Austria, 8 ; Turkey, 8;
other countries, 0
England, 998 ; other countries, 2
Turkey, 694; Greece, 211; America, 38; other
countries. 57
Austria, 317; Russia, 1SS ; Roumania, 17- ;
Sweden, 149; Turkey, 81 ; other count ries. 08
France, 284 ; Austria, 241 ; Turkey, 186; England,
104 ; other countries, 125
England, 593; France, 245; Belgium, 120; other
countries, 42
Turkey, 799; Eastern British Possessions, 113;
England, 59 ; other countries, 29
Eastern British Possessions, 999 ; otlicreountrics, 1
Turkey, 762; English Possessions iii Mediter-
ranean, 89 j < >t In r countries. 166
England, 006; France, 266: other countries, 47
Austria, 782 ; Other countries, 218
Ki igiand, 957 ; other countries, 48
Eastern British Possessions. 054 ; olhei countries,
M
England, 285 ; France, 248 ; Austria, 197 ; Turkey,
870
Turkey, 021 ; Russiu, 280; other countries, yy 1
COM Ml
1049
Per thou-
sand of
Total
Import*
Wine
Silk
Petroleum
Sacks ....
M
13
lashery
Butter ami cheeM .
....
u
11
Animals
11
Charcoal
Soap ....
Olive oil
Alcohols
10
10
9
9
Per thousand of each Article for each Country
Prance, 250; English Possessions in Mediter-
.... 239; Italy, 193; Turkey, 191 ; other
countries, 127
Turkey, 359; Italy, 183; China, etc, 181;
British Possessions in East, 154 ; other
countries, 123
Russia, 825 ; America, 175
British Possessions in East, 720; Engl..
other countries, 28
France, 461 ; Austria, 234 ; England, 109 ; Turkey,
83 ; other countries, 113
Turkey. 636 : Italy, 193 ; English Possessions in
Mediterranean, 87 ; other countries, 195
Russia, 871 ; other countries, 129
Austria, 314; Morocco, 218; England, 207;
Turkev, 123 ; France, 117 ; other countries, 21
Turkey, 893; English Possessions in Mediter-
ranean, 60; Russia, 37 ; other countries, 10
Turkey, 975 ; other countries, 25
Turkey, 952 ; other countries, 48
Turkey, 787 ; Italy, 128 ; other countries, 85
France, 519 ; England, 148 ; Russia, 129 ; other
countries, 204
Statement showing the principal exports, with the proportion per 1,000 of
the total exports, and the proportion per 1,000- for each country : —
Article
Per thou-
sand of
Total
Per thousand of each Article for each Country
Cotton ....
Cottonseed .
Beans ....
Sugar ....
Wheat ....
Skins ....
: Rice ....
Onions ....
Wool ....
Rags ....
Cotton Goods
Lentils ....
697
116
61
29
19
8
6
6
4
3
3
1
England, 623; Russia, 122; Austria, 95; France, ■
72 ; Italy, 71 ; other countries
England. 934; France, 65 ; other countries, 1
England, 799 : France, 173 ; other countries, 28
Italy, 403; England, 401; Turkey, 120- France, '
74 ; other countri
England, 645 ; Belgium, 205 ; France, So ; Turkey,
51 ; other countries, 14
Turkey, 745 ; Greece, 77 ; other countries, 178
Turkey, 984 ; other countries, 16
England, 875 ; Austria, 73 ; other countries.
England, 953 ; other countries, 47
England, 580 ; America, 403 ; other countries, 17 j
Turkev, 705 ; other countri-
England, 525 ; Turkey, 429 ; other countries, 46
The conclusion of commercial treaties in the course ol 18S4 with (_.
Italy, England. United States. Portugal, ami other countries has given a
eoiiaidiraldc impulse to Egyptian ccmnierce, particularly in the tobacco trade.
The receipts from tobacco' were :— In 1SS5, XE21-J.-207 : 18S0, £E30
xE289,000 ; 1888, ilE332,500 ; 1889, £E441,000 ; 1890, £E475,500.
The subjoined statement shows the total value of the exports from S
to Great Britain and Ireland, and of the imports of British produce and
1050
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYPT
manufactures into Egypt, in each of the five years from 1886 to 1890,
according to the Board of Trade returns : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Exports from Egypt .
Imports of British pro-
duce ....
£
7,256,759
2,858,070
£
7,689,177
3,003,948
£
7,285,499
2,903,320
£
8,620,602
2,940,445
£
8,368,851
3,381,830
The following table shows the principal articles of export from Egypt
to Great Britain, and the principal imports from Great Britain : —
Year
Exports
Imports
Raw
Cotton
Cotton Wh t
Seeds j
Beans
Cotton
Goods
Coal
£
577,286
472,643
585,852
609,409
828,928
1,038,523
Iron
Machi-
nery
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
£
5,707,573
4,795,991
5,098,226
4,297,872
5,704,017
5,316,936
£ £
1,704,374 38,321
1,368,061 15,211
1,393,876 1 67,293
1,480,305 | 236,236
1,683,767 1 104,002
1,605,801 142,852
£
761,748
487,400
462,044
391,375
315,358
509,876
£
1,521,005
1,478,326
1,596,310
1,401,907
1,270,304
1,530,576
£ £
371,233 205,922
183,359 109,431
118,900 104,220 j
142,658 117,396
184,404 ! 141,390
152,712 118,282
Shipping and Navigation.
The following tables show the nationality and tonnage of vessels arriving
and clearing at Alexandria. Great facilities have been afforded to steamers
since the completion of the docks, wharfs, and quays ; and in order to still
further facilitate navigation the Government have decided upon constructing
a new pass, 300 feet wide and 30 deep, to enable vessels, which have
often been delayed off the port during stormy weather, to make a direct run
into harbour.
Arrivals and clearances of commercial vessels at Alexandria, 1886-1890.
Year
Arrivals Clearances
Wssels
tohi
Wssels Tons
1886
1887
1888
1 .N.NSI
1890
2,267
2,228
2,182
2,224
2,019
1,512,926
1,618,036
1,587,558
1,549,961
1,632,220
2,261 1,518,781
2,236 1.. ill. .vjs
2,152 1,587,177
2,216 1,528,977
2,020 1,613,800
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION*
Idol
The following table shows the nationality of commercial vessels arrived
and cleared in 1890 : —
Nationality
Arrivals
Clearances
v.— it
Tom
Vessels
Tons
British ....
569
756,088
564
754,854
French ....
131
263,658
124
242.095
Austrian ....
114
157,581
109
154
Ottoman ....
937
239,743
955
244 _
Russian ....
55
82,315
03
83,259
Italian ....
81
74,625
83
Greek ....
78
15,794
79
15,707
Swedish and Norwegian .
17
18,838
17
18,181
Spanish ....
1
1.021
2
2,041
Belgian ....
2
2,750
3
4,099
Danish ....
5
5,360
5
5,360
' German ....
13
11,802
10
9,052
I Dutch ....
1
954
1
954
■ Samos ....
10
1,112
9
1,504
Jerusalem
3
338
3
338
Montenegro
Total ....
2
281
1
141
2,019
1,632,220
2,020
1,611,798
The total arrivals and clearances at 'Egyptian ports other than Alexandria,
Damietta and Suakin, in 1890, were 3,942 vessels of 2,307,200 tons, of which
930 vessels of 1,312,300 tons were British.
Suez Canal.
The following table show;s the number and gross tonnage ol vessels of the
eading nationalities that passed through the canal in 1890 : —
Country No.
Tonnage
Country N
Tonnage
Great Brit
ain . 2,522
7,438,682
Turkey
21
28,303
France
169
555,941
Siam
1
206
Germany
275
731,888
China
—
—
Italy
87
817,480
Brazil
1
1,119
Holland
144
341,828
Portugal
7
3,814
Austria
55
177,941
Egypt
—
—
V;lY
43
78,107
America
3
2.112
Sp&in
34
103,111
Japan
4
6,300
-ia
20
59,613
Belgium
—
—
(irtece
3
2,682
Denmark
—
. —
The number and gross tonnage of vessels that have passed through the
•Suez Caual, and the gross receipts of the companv, have been as follows in
1890:—
1052
TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES: — EGYRT
Year
No. of
Vessels
Gross
Tonnage
Keceipts
Year
No. of
Vessels
Gross
Tonnage
Receipts
18S5
1886
1887
3,024
3,100
3,137
8,985,411
8,183,313
8,430,043
£
2,540,375 1
2,389,218
2,367,955
1888
1889
1S90
3,440
.",425
3,389
9,437,957
9,605,745
9,749,129
£
2,053,174
2,735,678
8,079,940
The number of passengers who went through -the canal in 1890 was
161,353.
The Suez Canal is 87 miles long, 66 actual canal and 21 miles lakes,
connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea, opened for navigation
November 17, 1869.
The state of the capital account was as follows in 1891 as regards bonds .in
circulation : —
394,250 shares of 500 francs
270,516 obligations (1867-68) of 500 francs issued at
300 francs, bearing interest at 5 per cent, on par,
and redeemable at par
71,546 obligations (1880) issued at 330 francs each,
bearing interest at 3 per cent. ....
71,120 thirty-year bonds (1871) of 110 francs
134,657 3 per cent, obligations of 1887
397,406 'bons de coupons,' or bonds of 85 francs each,
bearing interest at 5 per cent., issued for the con-
solidation of unpaid coupons on shares, redeemable
at par, which commenced November 1882
Francs
197,125,000
81,154,800
26,999,961
7,112,000
53,717,908
33,779,510
Besides 100,000 founders' shares, with right to participate in surplus profit
under certain conditions. In 1890 the founders' share of surplus profits was
2,545,732 francs.
Of the above 394,677 shares, 176,602 belonged formerly to the Khedive
of Egypt, and were purchased from him by the British Government in
November 1875 for the sum of 3,976,582/. But the Khedive, by a con-
vention passed in 1869 between himself and the Suez Canal Company, for
the settlement of disputed claims and accounts, had alienated all dividends
on his 176,602 shares up to 1894, and placed them at the disposal of tin
company. Against these dividends the company issued 120,000 'Delega-
tions,'which are entitled to all .sums hit ruing on the above 176,602 shaves
up to 1894; the dividends which the 'Delegations' receive are, however,
lessened by an annual sum laid aside to provide a sinking fund, sufficient
to extinguish them all by the end of the year 1894.
The statutes of the Suez Canal Company provide that all net earnings
in excess of the 5 per cent, interest on the shares shall OS divided as
follows : —
1. 15 percent to the Kgvptian Government,
2. 10 ,, to the humiliTs' .shares.
.;. 2 ,, for the employes of the company.
4. 71 ,, as dividend on the 39-1, 677 share
5. .2 ,, to the managing directors.
The net profits in 1890 were 38,133,384 francs.
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
1053
Internal Communications.
pthasa railway system of a total length of 1,127 miles, aud 10S miles now
under construction. Gross receipts in 1890, £E1, 408,7 '•- \penditure,
1890, £E610,124. The following are the statistics of passengers and goods
carried for five years : —
The Egyptian eantsr = 99 podnds avoirdupois.
The telegraphs lielonging to the Egyptian Government were, at the end of
1890, of a total length of 3,168 miles, the length of the wire being 5,430 miles.
The Government have also established telephone communication between
Cairo and Alexandria, and have given concessions to a telephone company for
urban telephone lines. The Eastern Telegraph Company, also by concessions,
have telegraph lines across Egypt from Alexandria rid Cairo to Suez, and from
Port Said to Suez, connecting their cables to England and India. Number of
telegrams in 1890, 819,940, not including telegrams sent by the Eastern
Telegraph.
The following table gives the munlier of letters, post-cards, newspapen
carried and received by the Egyptian Post Office in the year 1890 : —
_
Carried Received
InUnd
Total
' Letters and post-canls
Newspapers, samples,
.v... N N No.
7,726,200 1,630,500 9,356.700 7,241,060 1,499,000
3,219,000 550,500 3,769,500 3,689,440 ' 1,693,500
No.
8,740,060
5,383,940
10,945,200 | 2,181,000 13,126,200 10,930,500 3,192,500
14,123,000
Twenty-nine per cent, of the total foreign correspondence was with
Great Britain.
Money, Weights, and Measures
The money, weights, and measures of Egypt are —
Money
10 Milliemcs =
1,000 Milliemes or 100 P.T. . =
£1 sterling .....=
Napoleon, gold piece of 20 fram -
Piastre Tarif (written P.T A
£1 Egyptian.
97 h P'T.
77^V PT.
A thorough reform was effected of the Egyptian silver coinage during
1885 and 1886. Previously the coins of nearly all the countries of Europe
were freely used, but now foreign silver cannot be passed except at a heavv
discount-
I 054 TURKEY AND TRIBUTARY STATES : — EGYPT
By a decree of the Khedive, dated August 1, 1875, the metrical system
of weights and measures was ordered to be introduced into Egypt on the
1st of January, 1876, compulsory only at first in all public and admini-
strative transactions.
Dry Measure.
The Ardeb is used as the unit in all transactions in grain, &c, and is
equal to 5-44739 bushels.
The approximate weight of the ardeb is as follows :— Wheat, 315
rottles; beans, 320 rottles; barley, 250 rottles ; maize, 315 rottles ; cotton
seed, 270.
Weights.
Okieh . = 1-3206 ounce.
Bottle . = -99049 lb.
Oke . . . . = 2-7513 lbs.
n,~.mtr. for 100 Rottles or) nr. „.„„ „
Cantar^ 36 0kes J = " 0492 lbs-
Length Measures.
Inches
Diraa Baladi (town) = 22-8350
Diraa Mimari for building, &c. = 29-5281
Kassabah — 139-7663
Measures of Surface.
Feddan, the unit of measure for land, is equal to 1 -03808 acre.
Square Pic. — This measure is generally used for the measuring of
building sites, gardens, and other small plots of ground, and is equal to
about 6 square feet and 7 inches.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
Cairo. — Her Majesty's Agent and Consul- General in Egypt, Miniatei
Plenipotentiary.— Sir Evelyn Baring, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., K.C.S.I., CLE,
Secretary. — A. Hardinge.
Alexandria. ■- Sir Charles Cookson, K.C.M.G., C.B., Consul-Oeneral and
Judge.
There are also Consular representatives at Cairo, Massownli, Zngazig
Damictta, Port Said, Suez, Suakiii.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Egypt.
l. Official Publications.
Le Commerce exterieur de l'Egypte, 1884-1800. Alexandria, 1891.
Convention between the Governments of Great Britain, Germany, Austria-Hungary,
fiance, Italy, Russia, and Turkey, relative to the Finance of Kgypt, signed at London,
March 18, 1886. London, 188.r>.
Correspondence respecting the State Domains of Egypt. London, 1883.
Correspondence respecting the Reorganisation of Kgypt. London, 188!t.
Correspondence respecting the Mixed Courts and Judicial Reforms in Egypt. London,
1884.
Correspondence respecting the Finances of Kgypt. Loudon, 1884.
Further Correspondence on the A flairs of Kgypt (Egypt, Nos. I and 17.) London,
188&.
Report On the Financial Situation of Kgypt. dated .lime L'S, 1884. London. I SSI.
Correspondence respecting the propose.! International Convention for securing (lie free
Navigation of the Suez Canal. London, 1888.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1055
Correspondence respecting the Settlement of the Claims of the ex-Khedive Ismail Pasha
and his Family. London, 1888.
Despatch from Lord Dufferin forwarding the Decree constituting the new Political Insti-
tutions of Egypt. London, 1883.
La reforme monetaire en Egypte. Cairo, 1888.
Le Canal de Suet. Paris, published every ten days.
Rencensement general de l'Egypte. Tomes 1 et 2. Le Caire, 1885.
Reports by Sir H. Drummond" Wolff on the Administration of Egypt. London, 1887.
Reports by Mr. Villiers Stuart, M.P., respecting Reorganisation of Egypt. London, 1883.
Report on the Egyptian Provinces of the Soudan, Red Sea, and Equator. Compiled in
the Intelligence Branch of the Quartermaster-General's Department, Horse Guards, War
Office. London, 1884.
Report on the Soudan, by Lieut. -Colonel 8tewart. London, 1883.
Reports on the State of Egypt and the Progress of Administrative Reforms. London,
1885.
Reports on the Trade of Alexandria, Suakin. Port Said, and Suez, in ' Diplomat ic and
Consular Reports.' London, 1891.
Reports of Sir Evelyn Baring on the Finances of Egypt London, 1888-89-90-91.
Despatch from Sir Evelvn Baring inclosing a Report on the Condition of the Agricultural
Population in Egypt. July, 1888.
Statement or the Revenue and Expenditure of Egypt, together with a List of tin-
Egyptian Bonds and the Charges for their Services. London, 1885.
Suez Canal, Returns of Shipping and Tonnage, 1888-91. London, 1891.
Suez Canal, Report by the British Directors on the provisional Agreement with M. de
Lesseps. London, 18S3.
Vincent (Sir Edgar), Memorandum on the Land Tax of Egypt. Cairo, 1884. — Report on
the Financial Position of Egypt. Cairo, 1SS4. — Memorandum on the Budget of 1S8.">.
Cairo, 1885. — Note on the Currency of Egypt. Cairo, 1885. — Note on the Revenue State-
ment for 1884. Cairo, 1885. — Note on the Proposed Monetary Law. Cairo, 1885. —
Financial Proposals. Cairo, 1885. — Egyptian Balance-sheet, December 31, 1884. Cairo.
1885.— Report on the Year 1884. Cairo, 1885.— Report on the Finances of Egypt, 1885,
1886, and 1887. Cairo.
L'administration flnanciere 1884-87 et la modification du regime fiscal des t abacs en
Egypte. 1887.
Trade of Egypt with Great Britain, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions for the year 1S90.' Imp. 4.
London, 1891.
Essai de statistiqne agricole, 18S7 and 1SSS. (Boinet Bey) Le Caire, 18SS and 1889.
2. Non-Officiax Publications.
Baroit (J.), L'irrigation en Egypte. Paris, 1888.
Brugsch-Bey (Henri), Histoire d'Egypte, 2nd edit Leipzig, 1875.
Chilu (A), Le Nil. le Soudan, l'Egypte. Paris, 1891.
De Leon (Edwin), The Khedive's Egypt. 8. London, 1877.
Duff- Gordon (Lady), Last Letters from Egypt. 8. London, 1875.
Ebert (Georg), Aegypten in Bild und Wort. FoL Stuttgart, 1879.
Edward* (A. B.), A Thousand Miles up the Nile. 8. London, 1877.
Ibrahim-Hilmu (Prince), The Literattire of Egypt and the Soudan. 2 vols. London,
1886-88.
Le$tep$ (Ferdinand de), Le Canal de Suez. 8. Paris, 1875.
Loftie (W. J.), A Ride in Egypt. 8. London, 1879.
Moberly-Bell (C. F-X Khedives and Pashas. London, 1 -
„ „ Egyptian Finance. London, 1886.
,, ' „ From Pharaoh to Fellah. London, 1887.
UeCoan (J. C), Egypt as it is. London, 1877.
Ualortie (Baron de), Egypt : Native Rulers and Foreign Interference. London, 1883
Miihlbaeh (L.), Reisebriefe aus Aegypten. 2 vols. 8. Jena, 1871.
Babino (Joseph), Some Statistics of Egypt. Statistical Society. London, 1884.
„ ,, De la progression de la dette egyptienne. Boulac, 1889.
The Statistical Story of the Suez Canal. 'Journal of the Roval Statistical 8ocietv,'
June, 1S87.
Bonehetti (N.). L'Egypte et ses progres sous Ismail Pascha. 8. Marseilles. 1868
Siephan (H.). Das heutige Aegypten. 8. Leipzig, 1S72.
Stuart (Villiers), Egypt after the War. London, 1883.
Wallace (D. Mackenzie), Egypt and the Egyptian Question. London, 1883.
Wileocks (W.), Egyptian Irrigation. E. & F. N. Spon, London, 1889.
IFt'Uoti (C. T.), and Felkin (R. W.). Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan. London, 1882.
M'inpatt (Major D. S. O., R.A.), Mahdiism and the Sudan, 1881-90. London, 1S91.
Wylde (A. B.), '83 to '87 in the Soudan. 2 vols. London. 1888.
Zineke (F. R), Egypt of the Pharaohs and the Khedive. S. London, 1872.
1050
UNITED STATES.
(United States of America.)
Constitution and Government.
The form of government of the United States is based on the
Constitution of Sept. 17, 1787, to which ten amendments were
added Dec. 15, 1791 ; an eleventh amendment, Jan. 8, 1798 ; a
twelfth amendment, Sept. 25, 1804; a thirteenth amendment,
Dec. 18, 1865 : a fourteenth amendment, July 28, 1868; and a
fifteenth amendment, March 30, 1870.
By the Constitution, the government of the nation is entrusted
to three separate authorities, the Executive, the Legislative, and
the Judicial. The executive power is vested in a President, who
holds his office during the term of four years, and is elected, to-
gether with a Vice-President chosen for the same term, in the
mode prescribed as follows : — ' Each State shall appoint, in such
manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of elec-
tors, equal to the whole number of senators and representatives to
which the State may be entitled in the Congress : but no senator
or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit
under the United States, shall be appointed an elector.' The
Constitution enacts that 'the Congress may determine the time
of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give
their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the United
States;' and further, that 'too person except a natural-born
citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adop-
tion of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of Presi-
dent ; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall
not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been tour
teen years a resident within the United States.'
The President is commander-in-chief of the army and navy.
and of the militia in the service of the Union. He has tho power
of a veto on all laws passed by Congress; but, notwithstanding
his veto, any bill may become a law on its being afterwards
passed by each House of Congress by a two-thirds vote. The
Vice-President is ex-qfficio President of the Senate ; and in case of
CONSTITUTION' AND GOVERNMENT
1057
the death or resignation of the President, he becomes the Pre.-d-
dent for the remainder of the term. The elections for President
and Vice-President are at present held in all the States on Tues-
day next after the first Monday in November, every bap-year ;
and on the 4th of March following the new President-elect
assumes office.
President of the United States. — Benjamin Harrison, born
August 20, 1833, in the State of Ohio ; studied at Miami I
versity ; studied law at Cincinnati; in 1860 elected reporter <d
"Miprenie Court of Indiana ; held a general's command in tin-
Federal army during the Civil "War ; elected to the TJ>. Senate
1881 ; entered upon the Presidency March 4, 1889.
Vice-President. — Levi Parsons Morton.
The President of the United States has an annual Salary of
50,000 dollars, and the Vice-President 8,000 dollar.-.
Since the adoption of the Constitution the offices of President
and Vice-President have been occupied as follows :—
l'KK>ll>KXI> OF THE I'mI:
Xanu-
ge Washington
John Adams
Thomas Jefferson .
James Madison
James Monroe
John Quincy Adams
Andrew Jackson .
Martin Van Bnreu
William H. Harrison
John Tyler .
James K. Polk
Zachary Taylor
Millard Fillmoi
Franklin Pierce
James Buchanan .
Abraham Lincoln .
Andrew Johnson .
Ulysses S. Grant .
Pku*therford B. Hayes
James A. Garfield
Chester A. Arthur
Grover Cleveland .
Benjamin Harrison
Frvrni State
Term of Service
Bum
Died
Virginia .
1789-1797
1732
1799
Massachusetts .
1797-1801
1735
1826
Virginia .
1801-1809
1743
1824!
Virginia .
1809-1817
1751
1836
Virginia .
1817-lS2r.
1759
1831
Massachr.-
1825-1829
1767
1848
Tennessee
1829-1837
1767
New York
1S:37-1M1
17SS
li>62
Ohio
Marcli-Apl. lfell
1773
1841
Virginia .
1841-1845
1790
1862
Tenii'
1845-1849
1795
1849
Louisiana .
1849-1850
1784
1850
New York
1*50-1853
1S00
1874
New Hamnshin
j 1 853-1 S57
1S04
1869
Pennsylvania
1857-1S61
1791
1368
Illinois
1861-1865
1809
1865
Tenii-
1865-1869
1808
Illinois
1869- ->■
m
1885
Ohio
1877-1881
1822
—
Ohio
March-Sept. 1881
1831
1881
New York
1881-1885
1830
1886
New York
1885-1889
1832
—
Indiana
-
—
3 Y
1058
UNITED STATES
VlCB-PRBSIflfcENTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
Name
From State
Term (if Service
Born
Died
John Adams
Massachusetts .
1789-1797
1735
1826
Thomas Jefferson .
Virginia .
1797-1801
1743
1826
Aaron Burr .
N ew York
1801-1805
1756
1836
George Clinton
New York
1805-1812
1739
1812
Elbridge Gerry
Massachusetts .
1813-1814
1744
1814
Daniel D. Tompkins
New York
1817-1825
1774
1825
John C. Calhoun .
South Carolina .
1825-1832
1782
1850
Martin Van Buren
New York
1833-1837
1782
1862
Richard M. Johnson
Kentucky
1837-1841
1780
1850
John Tyler .
Virginia .
March-Apl. 1841
1790
1862
George M. Dallas .
Pennsylvania .
1845-1849
1792
1864
Millard Fillmore .
New York
1849-1850
1800
1874
William R. King .
Alabama .
1853
1786
1853
John C. Breckinridge .
Kentucky
1857-1861
1821
1875
Hannibal Hamlin .
Maine
1861-1865
1809
—
Andrew Johnson .
Tennessee
March-ApL 1865
1808
1875
Schuyler Colfax .
Indiana .
1869-1873
1823
1885
Henry Wilson
Massachusetts .
1873-1875
1812
1875
William A. Wheeler
New York
1877-1881
1819
1887
Chester A. Arthur
New York
March-Sept. 1881
1830
1886
Thomas A. Hendricks .
Indiana .
Mar.-Nov.25, 1885
1819
1885
Levi P. Morton .
New York
1889
—
—
By a law which came into force Jan. 19, 1886, in case of re-
moval, death, resignation, or inability of both the President and
Vice-President, the Secretary of State, and after him, in their
order, other members of the Cabinet, shall act as President until
the disability of the President is removed or a President shall be
elected. Such acting President, however, continues to retain his
office in the Cabinet. On the death of a Vice-President the
duties of the office fall to the President pro tempoi-e of the Senate,
who receives the salary of the Vice-President.
The administrative business of the nation is conducted by
eight chief officers, or heads of departments, who form what is
called the ' Cabinet.' They are chosen by the President, but
must be approved of by the Senate. Each of them presides over
a separate department, and has to act under the immediate
authority of the President. The heads of departments are (Jan.
1802) :
1. Secretary of State. James (J. Ittaiae, March •"», ISS'.i
2. Secretary of the. Treasury. Charles Foster, February I.
1 89 1 .
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT! L059
3. Secretary of Mar. —Stephen B. Elkins. Dee. 17, 1891.
4. Secretary of the Navy. — Benjamin F. Tracy, Much 5, 1889.
5. Secretary of the Interior. — John W. Noble, March 5, 1889.
6. Postmaster-General. — John Wanamaker, March 5, 1889.
7. Attorney-General.— William H. H. Miller, March 3, 1889.
8. Secretary of Agriculture. — Jeremiah M. Rusk, March 5,
1889.
Each of the above ministers has an annual salary of 8,000
dollars, and holds office during the pleasure of the President.
The whole legislative power is vested by the Constitution in a
Congress, consisting of a Senate and House of Representat i
The Senate consists of two members from each State, chosen by
the State Legislatures for six years. Senators must be not less
than thirty years of age ; must have been citizens of the United
States for nine years ; and be residents in the States for which
they are chosen. Besides its legislative capacity, the Senate i>
entrusted uith the power of ratifying or rejecting all treaties
made by the President with foreign powers, a two-thirds majority
of senators present being required for ratification. The Senate
is also invested with the power of confirming or rejecting all
appointments to office made by the President, and its members
constitute a High Court of Impeachment. The judgment in the
latter case extends only to removal from office and disqualification.
Representatives have the sole power of impeachment.
The House of Representatives is composed of members elected
every second year by the vote of all male citizens over the age of
21 of the several States of the Union who are duly qualified and
registered in accordance with the laws of their respective State.-.
By the 15th Amendment to the Constitution, neither race nor
colour affects the right of citizens. The franchise is not abso-
lutely universal ; residence for at least one year in most States
(in Michigan and Maine three months) is necessary ; in some
States the payment of taxes, in others registration. Untaxed
Indians are excluded froin the franchise, in most States convict.-.
in some States duellists and fraudulent voters ; in Massachu-
setts voters are required to be able to read English. The num-
ber of members to which each State is entitled is determined by
the census taken every ten years. By the Apportionment Bill
consequent on the census of 1890, the number of representatives
was 356, distributed as follows : —
3 \
loco
UNITED STATES
Alabama
. 9
Maine .
. 4
Arkansas
. 6
Maryland
. 6
California
. 7
Massachusetts
. 13
Colorado
. 2
Michigan
. 12
Connecticut .
. 4
Minnesota
7
Delaware
. 1
Mississippi
. 7
Florida .
. 2
Missouri
. 15
Georgia
. 11
Montana
. 1
Idaho .
. 1
Nebraska
. 6
Illinois .
. 22
Nevada .
. 1
Indiana
. 13
New Hampshire
2
Iowa
. 11
New Jersey .
.' 8
Kansas .
• 8
New York
. 34
Kentucky
. 11
North Carolina
. 9
Louisiana
. 6
North Dakota
. 1
Ohio .
. 21
Oregon .
2
Pennsylvania
. 30
Rhode Island
2
South Carolina
7
South Dakota
2
Tennessee
. 10
Texas .
. 13
Vermont
2
Virginia
. 10
Washington .
. 2
West Virginia
. 4
Wisconsin
. 10
Wyoming
. 1
Total .
356
This is 31 more than in the previous decade.
On the basis of the last census there is one representative to every
173.900 inhabitants. The popular vote for President in 1888 was about
11,378,000, or somewhat under one in five of the entire population.
According to the terms of the Constitution, representatives must not be
less than twenty-five years of age, must have been citizens of the United
States for seven years, and be residents in the States from which they arc
chosen. In addition to the representatives from the States, the House
admits a 'delegate ' from each organised Territory, who lias the right to speak
on any subject and to make motions, but not to vote. The delegates arc
elected in the same manner as the representatives. In Wyoming and Utah
the franchise is accorded to women.
Every bill that has passed the House of Representatives and the Senate
must, before it becomes a law, be presented to the President of the United
States ; if not approved, he may return it, with his objections, to the House
in which it originated. If after reconsideration two-thirds of that Houw
agree to pass the bill, it must be sent, together with the objections, to the
other House, by which it must be likewise reconsidered) and if approved by
two-thirds of that House it becomes a law. Put in all such cases the votes ot
both Houses are determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons
voting for and against the bill are entered on the journal of each House.
Should the President fail to return any Act presented to him for approval
to the House of Congress in which it originated, within ten days prescribed
by the Constitution, it becomes a law Without his approval.
Each of the two Houses of Congress is made by the Constitution the
'judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members' : ami
each of the Houses may, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a
member.
The Congress of the United States has the power to propose alterations
in the Constitution, by the 6th article of the same. The article orders that
the Congress, whenever two-thirds of DOth Houses shall deem il necessilA.
shall propose amendments to the Constitution, or, on the application of the
Legislatures of two-thirds of all the States, shall call a convention for pro-
posing the amendments, which in either case shall be valid to all intents
and purposes as part of the Constitution when ratified by the Legislatures
of three-fourths of the several States, or fay conventions in three-fourth*
thereof, as the one or other mode of ratification may he proposed hy Con-
gress.
CONSTITUTION AND GOVKBNMENT 106]
Under an Act of Congress approved Jan. 20, 1874. the salary of a senator.
M ntative, or delegate in Congress is f>.000 dollars per annum, with
travelling expenses: these expenses are calculated by the most ilirect route
of osaaJ travel, and similar return, one foi Tin
salary of the Speaker of the II. tinder the .-vine'
Act of Congress, 8,000 dollars j>er annum.
The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators ami
• ntatives are by the Constitution allowed to be prescribed in each
State by the Legislature thereof : hut Congress may at any time by law alter
sueh regulations, or make new ones, except as to the places of choosing
seuatois. Under this provision a law has heen passed prescribing a method
of choosing senators. No senator or representative can. during the time
for which he is elected, l>e appointed to any ciril office under authority of the
United States which shall have been created or the emoluments of which
shall have been increased during such time ; and no person holding any office
under the United States can be a member of either House during his con-
tinuance in office. No religious test is required as a qualification to any
office or public bust under the United States.
The period usually termed 'a Congress' in legislative language, con-
tinues for two years : as, for example, from noon, March 4, 1891, until noon,
March 4, 1893, at which latter time the term of the representatives to the
52nd Congress expires, and the term of the new House of Representatives,
commences.
State and Local Government.
The powers to enact laws which concern only the States directly and
immediately are among the reserved rights of the States, and as such vested
in the State Legislatures. The Constitutions of the several States all agree
in their main features, and the modes of administration are virtually alike.
In all there is the same form, and the same principles lie at the foundation.
The executive in every State is vested in a Governor. The duties of the
Governors are in general analogous to those of the President, as far as the
several State Governments are analogous to that of the Union. In some
States the Covernors have the nomination, and, in conjunction with the
Senate, the appointment, of many important officers ; but in most State-
appointments in the power of the Governors are comparatively unimi>ortant :
in Xew York, for example, nearly all officers and all judges are elected by the
people. Like the President, they make recommendations to the Legislature,
and take care that the laws are executed. Like the President, they may be
impeached and removed for treason, briber}', or other crimes.
In the Indian Territory, between Kansas and Texas, there are settled
about 25 native tribes, of which five are civilised. Each race has a govern-
ment of the republican form. In each, a Chief, Vice-chief, a Senate, and
< Jouneil are chosen for two years, and a deliberative body, composed of
delegates from the different races in proportion to their numbers, meets
year. The land assigned to them is not regarded as separate property.
.eh race holds its portion in common, individuals settle ujion par-
ticular lands, and these lands may pass from father to son, but there is no
legal right to their possession, and they cannot be sold or exchanged even
by the Indian Governments. The authority of these Governments extend-
only to the persons and personal property of their own citizens. Tlu\
cannot even repel an intruder of the white race, but must, for such purpose,
have recourse to the United States authorities, and in their courts no suit ti
which a white man is a party can 1n> decided.
10G2
UNITED STATES
The District of Columbia is the seat of the United States Government,
provided by the State of Maryland for the purposes of government in 1701.
It includes the cities of Washington and Georgetown, and embraces an area
of about 72 square miles. The district has no municipal legislative body,
and its citizens have no right to vote either in national or municipal concerns.
By an Act of Congress of 1878, its municipal government is administered by
three commissioners, appointed by the President.
Slavery was abolished throughout the whole of the United States by the
thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution, passed December 18, 1865. The
vast change in the political and social organisation of the Republic made by
this new fundamental law was completed by the fourteenth and fifteenth
Amendments of the Constitution, passed in 1868 and 1870, which gave to the
former slaves all the rights and privileges of citizenship.
Area and Population.
I. Progress and Present Condition.
The following table gives the total white and coloured popu-
lation of the United States, at each of the ten censuses from
1790 to 1890 :—
These figures do not include Chinese (105,613) in 1880 and
Indians.
The following table shows the area and population at the
census of 1880 and of June 1, 1890, and population per sijuare
mile in 1890 of the States and Territories arranged in geogra-
phical divisions,
AREA AND P< >1TI.A Tl< >\
-
Am
_.ish
sqiutre miles
Population in
1380
Population in
1890
1V>]..].| r
s.). mile.
MM
Atlantic Division .
Maine ....
29,895
.936
661,086
22 i
New Hampshire .
9,005
346,991
.530
Vermont
9,135
332,286
33 J
36 3
Massachusetts
8,040
1.783,085
-,943
Rhode Island
1,085
.531
.506
318-2
..necti.-ut .
4,845
•-'•2,700
74.:
New York .
47,620
5,082,871
.- - -'
New Jersey .
7,455
1,131,116
1,444,933
193 3
Pennsylvania
44.985
4,282,891
-,014
1166
Total .
162,065
14,507,407
17,401,545
89-4
South Atlanl'f Dirisvm:
Delaware
1.900
146,608
16S.493
-Maryland
0.S60
934,943
1,042,390
11.'. 7
District of Columbia
60
177,624
230,392
S889-8
Virginia
40 125
1,512,565
1,655,980
411
West Virginia
21.645
618,457
762.794
30 8
North Carolina
48,580
1,399,750
1,817
33 3
South Carolina
30,170
995,577
1,151,149
38 0
Georgia
58,980
1,542,180
1,887
31 1
Florida
.'.4. -240
269,493
391,422
72
Total .
268,620
7,597,197
8,857,920
32 9
Xurthcrn Central Division :
Ohio ....
40,760
3,198,062
3,672,316
90-3
Indiana
35,910
1,978,301
2,192,404
60-9
Illinois
56,000
3,077,871
3,826,351
68-2
Michigan
57,430
1,636,937
2,093,889
36-4
AYisconsin
54,450
1,315,497
1,686,880
30 9
Minnesota
79,205
780,773
1,301,826
164
Iowa ....
55,475
1,624,615
1,911,896
34 3
Missouri
68,735
2,168,380
2,67
38-9
North Dakota
70,195
36,909
182.719
2-6
South Dakota
76,850
98,268
328,808
4 3
Nehraska
76,840
452.402
1,058,910
13 8
Kansas
81,700
996,096
1,427,096
17-4
Total .
7"«3,550
17,364,111
22,362,279
29 7
Southern Central Division :
Kentucky
40,000
1.648,690
1,858.635
46 4
Tennessee
41,750
1,542,359
1,767,518
42-2
Alahama
51,540
1,262.505
1,513,017
29-2
Mississippi .
46,340
1,131,597
1,289.600
27-6
Louisiana
45,420
939,946
1,118,587
24 6
Texas ....
262,290
1,591,749
2. 2:
8-5
Indian Territory .
31,000
79.024
177
5-7 j
Oklahoma (Territory)
38,830
—
61,884
1-8 i
Arkansas
53,045
802. 52.'.
1,128,179
21 "2
Total .
610,215
8. 90S, 395
11,150,675
18-2
10G4
FNITED STATES
-
Area :
English
square miles
Population in
1880
Population in
1890
Pop. per
sq.mile,
1890
Western Division :
Montana . .
145,310
39,159
132,159
08
Wyoming
97,575
20,789
60,705
0-6
Colorado
103,645
194,327
412,198
3-9
New Mexico (Territory)
122,460
119,565
153,593
1-2
Arizona (Territory)
112,920
40,440
59,620
0-5
Utah (Territory) ' .
82,190
143,963
207,905
2-5
Nevada
109,740
62,266
45,761
0-4
Idaho ....
84,290
32,610
84,385
1-0
Washington
66,880
75,116
349,390
5-2
Oregon
94,560
174,768
313,767
3 3
California
Total .
155,980
864,694
1,208,130
77
1,175,550
1,767,697
3,027,613
2-5
Alaska (Territory)
531,410
33,426
31,795
—
General totals
i
3,501,410
50,268,233
62,831,827
17-94
Not included in the general census of 1890 were : — Agency Indians,
150,417.
As regards sex, the total population of the States and Territories at the
census of 1880 comprised 25,518,820 males, and 24,636,993 females. In the
Mormon Territory of Utah there were 74,509 males, and 69,454 females at
the census of 1880.
At the first census of the Union, in 1790, there existed only 13 States,
the largest of which, as then constituted, was Virginia, with a population
of 747,610. In 1800 there were 16 States and 2 Territories, Virginia having
then a population of 880,200. In 1810 the .same State, with a population
of 974,601, took the lead of 17 States and 5 Territories. In 1820 there were
23 States and 3 Territories, New York standing first with a population
of 1,372,111. In 1830 there were 25 States and 2 Territories ; in 1840, 26
States and 3 Territories ; in 1850, 31 States and 4 Territories ; in 1860, 33
States and 5 Territories ; in 1870, 37 States and 10 Territories ; in 1880, 38
States and 9 Territories; in 1890, 44 States and 5 Territories (including
Oklahoma), neither the District of Columbia nor the Indian Territory being
included in these numbers.
Of a total population in 1880 of 36,761,607 over ten years of age,
17,392,099 were engaged in the various professional ami industrial occupa-
tions, and of these 2,647,157 were females. These were distributed as
follows :
Male
7,075,983
Female
594,510
Total
Agriculture . . .
7,670,498
Professional and personal services
2,712,948
1,861,295
4,074,288
Trade and transportation
1,750,893
59,864
1,810,256
Manufactures, mechanical and min-
ing industries ....
3,205,121
631,988
3,837.11:'
AREA AND POPFT. ATIO\
1065
Of those engaged in agriculture, 4,225,945 were returnetl as fanners and
planters, and 3,323.S76 as agricultural labourers. Of the 'professional ami
personal' class, 1,859,223 were labourers, and 1,075.655 domestic servants.
67,081 Government officials. 85,671 physicians ami surgeons, 64,698 clergy-
men, and 64,137 lawyers. Of those engaged in trade and transportation,
about 280,000 were 'traders and dealers.' Of the last class 234,228 art-
returned as miners; 114,539 as engaged in iron and steel works; 169.771
cotton-mill operatives ; saw-mill operatives. 77,050 : silk-mill operatives,
18,071 : woollen-mill operative*, 88,010.
Area nF Indian Reservations, Population, and Births and Deytii-
<>f Indians in EACH State and Territory <>f the United States
DURING THE YEAR ENDING JtNE 30, 1890: —
States and Territories
Area of Indian Reserva-
tions
Acres Square Miles
Population
on Reser-
vations
(Ili'i: aw)
Vital
Births Deaths
Arizona
<i.%191
in,317
California
404.04".
772
12,108
83
M
Colorado .
1,094.400
L7M
58
Idaho
2.273.421
4.2.-.1
70
Indian Territory
40,411
43
Iowa
-•
399
14
18
Kansas
1 0-2,0-26
ltt
1,016
M
19
MichiL'iii .
27,319
42
1,4
—
—
Minnesota
2.254,781
6.403
118
Montana .
10.591,360
16,649
10,842
951
342
Nebraska
136.947
•214
134
14(1
Nevada .
964,198
1.490
8,375
83
:,i
New Mexico .
10,<«
10,998
1.093
1.627
New York
ST,677
137
'.,112
117
114
North Carolina
86,111
102
3,000
—
—
North Dakota .
5,S61.12»
371
Oklahoma
13.292,668
90,770
13. 176
.
2,075,240
.242
101
127
South Dakota .
11.661,360
18,221
19,696
497
Texas
—
—
290
—
—
Utah
3,972,480
2.211
:.i
41
Washington
4,045,284
9.830
331
Wisconsin
M2.12S
M0
9,153
271
19".
Wyoming .
+2,400
1,658
86
7",
Miscellaneous .
—
—
—
—
Total. 1890 .
104,314.349
162.991
243,. -,24
1,91 B
Total, 1880 .
154.741.349
241,SOO
997
3,430
2.729
The vital statistics are defe
In 1890 the United States spent 6,708,046 dollars on the
Indians. There are 66 agencies throughout the States.
Of the population of the States and Territories in 1S80, 43,475,840 were
natives, and 6,679,943 foreign-born. Including the latter there were
10GG
UNITED STATES
12,978,394 residents of foreign-born parentage. Of this total 4,529,523 had
Irish fathers, and 4,444,421 Irish mothers; 4,883,842 German fathers, and
4,557,629 German mothers; 2,039,808 with fathers, and 1,790,200 with
mothers, natives of Great Britain.
The following table shows the origin of the foreign-born population at
the census of 1880 : —
England .
662,676
Switzerland
88,621
Ireland .
. 1,854,571
Denmark
64,196
Scotland .
170,136
Holland .
58,090
Wales
83,302
Belgium .
15,535
Unspecified
1,484
Luxembourg .
12,836
rTfO T1PO
106,971
68,399
United Kingdom .
. 2,772,169
J.1 Id-IlUC . . •
Mexico .
Germany
. 1,966,742
Italy .
44,230
British America
717,157
Spain and Portugal .
13,259
Norway and Sweden
376,066
Russia
84,279
Austria-Hungary
125,550 :
China
104,468
It will thus be seen that the foreign-born population formed 13 3 per cent,
of the total population, and of that 41 "5 per cent, are natives of the United
Kingdom, and of these two-thirds came from Ireland. Of the total foreign -
born population 71 per cent, came from Great Britain and Germany, and only
a small percentage came from countries not prevailingly Teutonic. Besides
the countries above mentioned, at least seventeen others are represented
among the foreign-born population of the United States. Of New York city
one-third of the population is foreign-born.
II. Movement of Population.
There is no systematic registration of births, deaths, and marriages in the
United States as a whole, so that it is not possible to ascertain the growth
of population by the excess of births al6ne. The death-rate is comparatively
low; in 1880 the death-rate among the whites was 14-74 per 1,000, and
among coloured 17 "28 per 1,000. The highest death-rate among whites was
in New Mexico, 22 04 per 1,000, and the lowest in Arizona, 7 "91 per 1,000 ;
the highest among coloured in the District of Columbia, 35 '25, and the lowest
in Arizona, 1'89.
From 1775 to 1815 immigration into the United States was very small, on
account of the American Revolution and the European wars, not over 3,000 or
4,000 a year arriving during this period. When peace between England and
America w.is re-established, in 1815, immigration took a fresh start. The
total number of Immigrants from 1820 to 1891 (June 30) was 15.9 16,410.
The following statement, in which, from July 1, 1885, immigranta from
I ianada and Mexico are not included, shows the number arrived in the United
States from the leading foreign countries during the decade ending June 80,
1891, with the total number of immigrant! in each year during that
period : — ,
AREA AND POPULATION
1061
British
Germany
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
158,092
109,508
112,648
161,748
182,203
122,754
122,311
250,630
194,786
124,443
84,403
106,865
109,717
99,538
92,427
113,554
Sweden,
Norway,
and
Denmark
105,326
71,994
40.704
81,924
57.504
50,368
60,107
Austria-
Hnnu-irv
29,150
35,571
27,309
28,680
40,265
45,811
34.174
56,199
71,042
32.084
81,792
16,510
13.599
21,316
47,622
51,075
24,848
51.799
76,065
21,590
9,809
17,226
21.739
36,894
89,318
31,889
88,147
6,003
4,821
3,608
3,318
5,918
6,585
6,766
788,902
619,812
546,889
444.427
560,319
Thus the total for the last ten years, including other countries 1»
those mentioned, was 5,138,221. Of the total immigrants in 1891, 206,260
were females.
The total number of Chinese immigrants between 1855 and 1885 was
274,399, but the total number reported in the census of 1880 was 105,465.
Many arc supposed to have returned. By the law jwissed in 1882, I I
immigration has been prohibited for ten
The following table shows the comparative increase of the population
during the last five decades by reproduction and by immigration : —
Year
1840
Population
Decade
total
Incn-xsi'
Decade
Increase l.y
Immigrants
Percentage of Decade
Increase
Total
By
Immi-
gration
By
Repro-
duction
17,069,453
4,203,433
599,125
32 67
4 65
28-02
1850
23,191,876
6,122.443
1,653,275
9-68
2619
1860
38,443,321
8,251,445
2,639,556
11-38
1870
38,558,371
7,115,053
2,281,142
22 '63
15 38
1880
50,155,783
11,597,412
2,812,191
30 07
7-29
22 ;-
1890
62.622.250
12,466.467
^.247.333
10 46
14 39
III. Principal Cities.
In 1880 there were 45, and in 1890, 74 cities with upwards of 40,000
inhabitants. Of the entire imputation in 1890, 18,235,670, or 29 12 per cant
(in 1880, 22 57 i*r cent.) lived in 443 towns (in 1880, 286 towns) of over
8.000 inhabitants. Of these towns, 278 had each from 8,000 to 20,000 in-
habitants; 91 from 20,000 to 40,000: 35 from 40,000 to 75,000: 14 from
75,000 to 125,000 ; 14 from 125,000 to 250,000 : 7 from 250,000 to 500,000 :
1 from 500,000 to 1,000,000 ; and 3 over 1,000,000.
. The following table shows the fifty principal cities of the United States.
giving the population in 1880 and 1890 : — >
1068
UNITED STATES
Town
Population
Town
Denver . .
Population
1S80
1S00
1880
35,629
1S00
106,713
New York
1,206,299
1,515,301
Chicago .
503,185
1,099,850
Indianapolis
75,056
105,436
Philadelphia
847,170
1,046,964
Allegheny
78,682
105,287
Brooklyn .
566,663
806,343
Albany
90,758
94,923
Saint Louis
350,518
451,770
Columbus
51,647
88,150
Boston
362,839
448,477
Syracuse.
51,792
88,143
Baltimore
332,313
434,439
Worcester
58,291
84,655
San Francisco .
233,959
298,997
Toledo .
50,137
81,434
Cincinnati
255,139
296,908
Richmond
63,600
81,388
Cleveland
160,146
261,353
New Haven
62,882
81,298
Buffalo .
155,134
255,664
Paterson .
51,031
78,347
New Orleans
216,090
242,039
Lowell
59,475
77,696
Pittsburg .
156,389
238,617
Nashville .
43,350
76,168
Washington
177,624
230,392
Scranton .
15,850
75,215
Detroit
116,340
205,876
Fall River
48,961
74,398
Milwaukee
115,587
204,468
Cambridge
52,669
70,028
Newark .
136,508
181,830
Atlanta .
37,409
65,588
Minneapolis
46,887
164,738
Memphis .
33,592
64,495
Jersey City
120,722
163,003
Wilmington
42,478
61,431
Louisville
123,758
161,129
Dayton .
38,678
61,220
Omaha
30,518
140,452 '
Troy
56,717
60,956 ,
Rochester
89,366
133,896
Grand Rapids .
32,016
60,278
Saint Paul
41,473
188,156 |
Reading .
43,278
58,661
Kansas City
55,785
132,710
Camden .
41,659
58,313
Providence
104,857
132,146 I
Trenton .
29,910
57. 158
Religion.
The Constitution of the United States guarantees the free
exercise of religious profession and worship, and this guaranty is
repeated in the Constitutions of the forty-four States. Nearly
all the sects and religious denominations existing in Europe are
represented in the United States. At the census of 1880 there
were 86,132 Protestant and 5,975 Roman Catholic churches:
70,864 Protestant ministers, and 6,366 Roman Catholic clergy,
The Protestants returned 8,975,260 ' members," or communicants :
adding to this an estimate of the families of members, and of
adherents, the total attached to Protestantism would probably he
about 30,000,000. In 1870 there were in all 63,082 churches, of
which 3,806 were Roman Catholic; and in the same year the
number of 'sittings' returned was 21,665,052, of which l,990,5J I
were in Roman Catholic churches. There were in all 45 separate
religious bodies returned in 1880.
In 1890 the membership of the most important Protestant
INSTRUCTION L0t>9
bodies, as compiled from official sources, mostly by the New
York Independent, was as follows : — Roman Catholics. B-L'""1 '.' ' l-~> :
Methodists of various s< 1,240; Baptists of vari
2,291 ; Presbyterians, 1,229,012; Lutherans, 1,086,048 ;
Congregational, 41)1,985 ; Episcopal, 480,176 ; Reformed Church
man and Dutch), 282,856; Friends, 106,930; Mormons,
144,352. In 1880 the Jews numbered 13,683.
Instruction.
Each State of the Union has a system of free public schools
established by law. The work of these is largely supplemented
by private and parochial schools. ^Nevertheless, owing partly to
the former existence of slavery, and partly to the constant influx
of numbers of uneducated immigrants, there exists a large mass
still totally ignorant of the first elements of education. According
to the census of 1880, in the whole country, out of a total popu-
lation above ten years of age of 36,761,607, 4,923,431 were
returned as unable to read, and 6,239,958 as unable to write. The
former is 13-4 per cent., the latter 17 per cent., which, couti
with 16 and 20 per cent, (the proportions of the corresponding
classes of 1870), shows a very decided gain in the direction of
rudimentary education. Of the whites above ten years of age.
the • cannot writes' formed 9 4 per cent. The native whites,
however, show a proportion of but 8"7 per cent., while foreign
whites show 12 per cent. A very large proportion of the illite-
racy of the country, and especially of the South, is seen to be
among the coloured population, where the ' cannot writes ' form
70 per cent of all above ten years of age. Most of the illiteracy
of the country exists south of Mason and Dixon's hues, the Ohio,
and the south boundary of the Missouri. The results of the
census of 1890 have not yet been published.
In 1889-90 there were" enrolled in the public schools 12,6>
pupils of ages varying from 4 to 21. Of this total about 3-5
per cent, were in public secondary schools. The average num-
ber of school days was 134*5, and average daily attendance
8,151,810. The pupils enrolled in private and parochial elemen-
tary schools, not included in these numbers, were estimated at
1,200,000. The private middle-class schools, in 1886-87, num-
bered 1,324, with 8,511 teachers and 146,561 pupils. In 1889-90
the number of colleges and universities, in many of which, how-
ever, the course of study is not advanced, was 415, with 6,163
teachers and 103,970 students.
The United States Government makes no direct appropria-
1070
UNITED STATES
tiou of moneys for the support of the elementary public schools,
but has set aside for that purpose in each of the newer States a
certain portion of the public domain, the proceeds from the sale
of which form a part of the permanent school fund, the income
alone being used for the support of the schools. This income is
supplemented by direct taxation in the different States, or by
local taxation, or by both, so that in these States it forms only
about 6 per cent, of the total school revenue. In 1880-90 the
amount expended on elementary public schools was 140,268,987
dollars. In the same year the universities and colleges had an
income of 3,966,083 dollars from productive funds, exclusive of
State appropriations. These appropriations, which are the chief
or sole ineans of support for State universities, amounted to
1,406,117 dollars, and the tuition fees to 3,764,984 dollars.
The following table refers to the year 1889-90, except where
otherwise noted : —
North Atlantic
c »
02
Children
of
School Age
Enrolled in :
Public
Schools 1
Average
Daily
Attendance
O Expended
| for Public
Schools
c g)
8 =
Division.
Maine
4-21
211,547
139,676
98,364
1,327,553
3
38
476
New Hamp-
shire .
—
—
59,813
41,520
844,333
1
32
:;i:;
Vermont
5-18
78,997
65,608
45,887
711,072
2
80
891
Massachusetts
5-15
0370,116
371,492
273,910
S, 286, 062
9
414
8,865
Rhode Island.
5-15
64,900
52,774
33,905
884,966
1
32
286
Connecticut .
4-16
al59,241
126,505
83,656
2,157,014
3
124
1,645
New York
5-21
1,844,596
1,042,160
642,984
17,548,880
22
542
8,174
New jersey .
5-18
a399,052
d227,441
dl39,272
d3,323,067
4
90
1,189
Pennsylvania.
—
—
1,020,522
682,941
12,928,422
27
379
6,894
South Atlantic
Division.
Delaware
0-21
39,131
31,434
19,649
<r246,718
1
8
81
Maryland
— »
—
184,251
102,351
1,791,081
10
188
1,786
District of
Columbia .
6-17
651,500
36,906
28,184
906,777
4
94
741
Virginia .
5-21
652,040
342,269
108.290
1,606 509
a
94
1,128
Wcsi Virginia
6-21
206,826
193,004
121,700
1,198,498
8
27
117
(forth Carolina
6-21
586,668
828,688
208,100
714.900
10
83
1,789
South Carolina
—
201,260
147,779
eU60,8M
9
80
1,8911
Georgia .
0-18
6560,281
0842,496
0280,884
0069,881
7
80
i, as
Florida .
6-21
113 647
92,472
64,819
516,683
4
32
849
South Central
Division.
Kentucky
0-20
676,870
108,666
281,288
2,860,467
14
187
:s,172
Tennessee
6-91
686,810
20
182
8,822
Alabama
7-2]
-1522,691
301,615
182,467
<?890,000
B
<f2
1.447.
ilppl
5-21
646-1,171
6
Louisiana
6-18
1
ol8 ' 9 ■■•
a02,066
o704,586
U
180
8,906
Texas
466,872
191 "ii
3,168,300
11
124
8,166"
\vkaii'-'i
6-21
405.587
223,071
C148.700 !
4
28
5S:i
INSTRUCTION
L071
1
Beta "I
Aft
Child* n
Ml
=
_ •- _
■ — —
- £
■2 2 -a
"--:
: -
*
______
X
—
<
North Central
Division
Ohio
1,128,895
797,439
549,269
10,602,238
i
Indiana .
M2 .:..■■
-,.4-...l>
"
235
3,824
Illinois .
l.l-Ki.44"
778,319
28
428
Mv.
Michigan
654,502
427,032
__mm
-.:.-!.<.:.■"
H
201
:■:.-■;
Wisconsin
592,755
351,723
MQ.4.7
3,801,212
8
141
2,043
Minnesota
5-21
ISSJS—
_-,....,
127.025
9
102
MM
Iowa
6-21
660,495
«M»
HMM
••:.-..••■•..
21
281
5,645
Missouri.
6-20
858,754
-J--..14
-4 an
-..'■-.7.-71
27
361
.......
North Dakota
7-20
43,153
35,543
■:■'.<■:",
696,94*
2
18
South Dakota
7-20
86,177
78,043
48 327
1,199,630
5
61
Ml
Nebraska
a_,9-
24<'.:'.'«'
146,139
3J7MH
7
90
1.1 19
Kansas .
5-21
MMM
399,322
243,300
4.. 72 M
15
202
4,105
We*Um
Division.
, Montana
:,-2l
27,821
':•.:-•
10,596
364,084
1
8
-
tag
—
—
7,875
e5,200
C140.000
1
12
80
Colorado
6-21
95,137
65.490
38,715
1,681,379
4
55
1,172
New Mexico.^
—
—
15,000
12,000
87,000
1
T
165
Arizona .
6-18
12,882
7,989
4,702
181,914
—
Utah
6-18
60,959
37,279
sb;wi
994,685
1
20
357
Nevada .
6-18
10,022
7,387
5,064
161,481
1
10
137
Idaho
5-21
•.■.:■»',
14,311
.9,500
l.i.02"
—
—
Washington .
5-21
87,813
55,964
36,946
■68^111
3
474
| Oregon .
4-20
99,543
63,254
43,333
106,991
«
42
.71
[ California
5-17
■_ _
.Jl.T.V.
146,589
5,187,162
12
186
3,017
i Atlantic
Division . —
—
3,105,991
2,040,445
48,006,309
1,671
21.542
South Atlantic
Division . —
—
1,746,685
1,116,276
8,400,291
56
686
9,258
South Central
Division
—
—
2,307,289
1,470,745
10,684,340
73
17,430
North Central
Division
—
—
5,015,217
3,188,732
63,047,172
184
2,660
48,287
Western Divi-
sion .
—
513,285
333,612
10,130,815
30
364
102,970
United States
-
-
12,688,467
8,151,810
140,268,987
415
6,163
.; La 188 •.
b In 1SSS.
e Estimated.
_ In 1888-89.
t In 1887-88.
Besides these 415 colleges for liberal arts, there were in the States (1889)
the following :—
Theological
Law
( Regular
Medical - Eclectic .
\ Homoeopathic
Female
CMlagi -
145
54
98
9
14
179
Teachers
Students
765
7,053
352
716
13,830
120
721
1,169
299
24.S51
1072 UNITED STATES
In 1890 there were in special schools (for deaf mutes, blind, &c.) 12,500
pupils, and in reformatories, 14,846.
There were in 1890 246 Indian schools, with an average attendance of
12,232, costing the United States $1,364,033.
The Education Report for 1884-85, issued in 1887 by the United States
Bureau of Education, contains statistics specially collected in 1885-86 of
5,338 libraries 'other than private,' containing 300 or more volumes each,
and 20,622,076 volumes in the aggregate; 2,357 of these libraries contain
less than 1,000 volumes each; 2,139 between 1,000 and 5,000 each; 440
between 5,000 and 10,000 ; 355 between 10,000 and 50,000 ; and 47 more
50,000 volumes.
In 1889 there were in the United States 1,494 daily newspapers, with a
total circulation of 5,713,750; 12,234 weeklies, with a total circulation of
19,588,000 ; 1,898 monthlies, with a circulation of 7,472,750 ; and 693 other
] icriodicals. The total number of periodicals was then 16,319 ; in 1880 the
total number was 11,403.
Justice and Crime.
The Supreme Court consists of a Chief Justice and eight Associate
Justices appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of
the Senate. The Associate Judges have precedence according to the dates of
I heir commissions, or, when the commissions of two or more of them bear the
same date, according to their ages. In case of a vacancy in the office of Chief
J ustice, or of his inability to perform the duties and powers of his office, they si in 1 1
devolve upon the Associate Justice who is first in precedence, until such dis-
ability is removed or another Chief Justice is appointed and duly qualified
The salary of -the Chief Justice is $10,500 per annum, and the Associate
Justices $10,000 each.
The Justices, besides their duties in annual sessions of the Supreme Court
at Washington, have assigned to them each his own judicial circuit, these
circuits having, in addition, their own circuit judges. Other courts are the
United States Court of Claims, the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia,
and the United States District Courts, many of the States being for judicial
purposes divided into two or more districts.
Each separate State has also its own judicial system with a Chief Justice
and Associate Justices, who are appointed usually for terms of years, hut in
some States practically for life, or during good behaviour. Molt frequently
they are elected by the people, though sometimes appointed by the Governor,
with or without the Senate or Council. Their salaries vary from 2,500 dollars
to 7,500 dollars per annum.
In 1880 there were 35,538 convicts in penitentiaries : in 1890, 45,233.
Of the total in 1890, 30,546 were white and 11,687 coloured: of the total
white, 12,842 were born of native parents, 8,331 of (one or both) foreign
parents, and 7,267 were foreign born. Of the total, 1,791 weir women. In
1880, there were 11,468 inmates of juvenile reformatories : in 1890, 11,846.
Pauperism.
Although there are poordaws in the State.-, the statistics of pauperism,
i for indoor paupers, are not recorded. The total number of indoor
paupers in 1880 was 66,203 ; in 1890 the number was 78,045. Of the total
in 1890, 66,578 were white, and 6,467 coloured; of the white, 27,646 W«N
FINANCE
kit:;
foreign -born and 10,608 were l>orn of (one or both) foreign parents. Of the
total, 32,304 were women. The number of out-door jiaupers reporteil in 1890
was 24,220 — probably far below the truth. The expense of the alnis-h"
given at 2,409,445 dollars.
Finance.
I. Federal.
The following table exhibits the total net revenue and the
total ordinary expenditure of the United States in each of the
ten fiscal years, ended June 30, from 1882 to 1891 : —
Revenue
Bcpendttnre \
BereuM
Kx|.iinliture
Year
ending Hollars
Jun.
Dollars
257,981,440
265,408,138
244,126,244
260,226,935
242,483,138
Year
ending
June .SO
Dollars
Dollars
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
403,525,250
398,287,581
348,519,869
323,690,706
336,439,727
1887
1888
L889
1890
1891
371,403,277
379,266,074
387,050,058
403,080,982
392,612,447
267,932,180
252,653,958'
281,996,615'
297,736,486'
365,773,905
i Exclusive of ]iremium on purchase of bonds.
These figures are exclusive of postal revenues and expenditures
as well as of loans in the revenue and expenditure, other than
interest, and premiums in connection with the public debt.
The following tables give the actual sourcfes of revenue and
branches of expenditure for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1891,
and the estimated revenue and expenditure for 1892 : —
1891
1891
Revenue
Expend ili
Dollars
Dollars
Customs taxes .
219,522,205
Civil expenses .
27,143,925
Internal revenue
145,686,250
Foreign intercourse .
2,028,715
National bank taxes .
1,236,042
Indians .
8,527,469
Sales of public lands .
4,029,535
Pensions .
124,415,951
Profits on coinage .
7,701,992
Military establish-
i 'ustoms fees .
966,122 ,
ment .
48,720,065
Consular, land, and
X a v a 1 establish-
patent fees .
3,019,782
ment .
26,113,896
Pacific railways, in-
Miscellaneous, in-
terest .
823,904
cluding public
Pacific railways, sink-
buildings, light-
ing fund
2,326,359
houses, &c. .
70,498,245
3 z
1074
UNITED STATES
1891
1891
Revenue
Expenditure
Dollars
Dollars
Surveying public
District of Columbia
5,635,511
lands .
131,142
Interest on public
Sales of Government
debt .
37,547,135
property
259,379
Deficiency in postal
„ i
Immigrant fund
292,271
revenues
4,741,772
Soldiers' Home per-
manent fund
308,648
Revenues of District
of Columbia " .
2,853,898
Miscellaneous sources
Total ordinary
3,454,638
Total ordinary
receipts
392,612,447
expenditure .
Redemption of notes
355,372,684
and purchase of
bonds for sinking-
fund .
44,006,111
Leaving net excess
of expenditures
of .
6,766,348
189-2
1892
Dollars
Hollars
Customs .
185,000,000
Civil and miscella-
Internal revenue
152,000,000
neous expenses
100,000,000
.Miscellaneous .
25,000,000
Indians .
12,000,000
Postal service .
71,000,000
Tensions.
Military establish-
1-25.000.000
•
ment .
46,000,000
Naval establish-
33,000,000
ment .
Interest on public
23,000,000
debt .
Postal Service .
71,000,000
Total ordinary
Total ordinary
receipts.
433,000,000
expenditure .
409,000,000
These receipts are partly actual and partly estimated, and
show an expected surplus of 24,000,000 dollars. For 1892 M
the estimated revenue is 455,336,350, and the expenditure
441,300,093 dollars, giving an estimated surplus of 14,03fi.-:>"
dollars. ,
The surpluses are all available for reducing the public debt,
and during the year ending June 30, 1891, the net surplus
FINANCE
1075
of 37,239,762 dollars, together with other sums amounting in all
ro lo4,947,635 dollars, was used in the redemption and purchase
of the debt, including 44,006,111 dollars for the sinking-fund.
The following table shows the total amount of the national
debt on the 1st of July at various periods from 1860 : —
Year
Capital of Debt
Teat
Capital of Debt
Dollars
Dollars
1860
64,842,287
1884
1,830,528,923
1866
i. 236, 173
1887
1.700,771,948
1877
2,205,301,392
1890
1,555,630,910
1880
2,120,415,370
1891
1,610,620,103
1883
1,884,171,728
The net debt — that is, what remains after deducting the cash in the
Treasury — was 903,236,580 dollars on December 1, 1891. Included in
figures is the United States liability for 64,623,512 dollars, or 12,924,702/. 6
l>er cent, lwnds issued to the Pacific railways, which pay over 5 per cent, of
their net earnings. The bulk of the debt of the United States was originally
contracted at 6 and 5 per cent., but less than five hundred and sixty
millions of the interest-bearing debt is now at 4 per cent, and the rest at
2 per cent.
There is practically no direct taxation for national purposes, though
personal and real property are taxed in the several States. The assessed
valuation of the real and personal propertv in the States is returned for 1890
at 24.2|f».oS9,804 dollars. In 1880 the "assessed value was 16,902.9'.
dollars, and the estimated true value was 43,642,000,000 dollars.
II. State Finance.
The following table shows the total State and county indebtedness (ex-
clusive of that of municipalities and towns), less the sinking fund in each
case, in 1890 : —
State or Territory
State Debt
County Debt
Total Debt
Debt per
head of pop
Dollars
Dollars
. Dollars
Dollars
.Maine ....
3,470,908
434,346
3,905,254
5 91
New Hampshire
2.691,019
559,054
3,250,073
8 63
1 \ ermont
148,416
5,108
153,524
•46
Massachusetts
7.267,349
4,051,830
11,319,179
1-22
Rhode Island .
422,984
422,984
5 06
Connecticut .
3,740,200
30,547
3,770,747
i New York
2,308,229
10,936,638
13,244,867
2-21
New Jersey .
1,022.642
S130
4,750,772
3 29
Pennsylvania
4,090,792
1.484
11,932,276
2-27
N. Atlantic Piv.
I >elaware
25,162,539
27,587,137
52, 749,676
3 03
887,573
618,400
1,505,973
8-94
Maryland
8,434,368
893,776
9,328,144
8 95
District of Colombia
19,781,050
—
19.781,050
85-86
3 z -i
1076
UNITED STATES
State or Territory
State Debt
County Debt
Total Debt
Debt per
headof poj>.
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Virginia
31,067,137
1,807,535
32,874,672
19-85
W. Virginia .
184,511
1,197,462
1,381,973
1-81
N. Carolina .
7,703,100
1,514,600
9,217,700
570
S. Carolina
6,566,849
1,062,750
7,629,599
6-63
Georgia .
10,449,542
429,380
10,878,922
5-92
Florida .
S. Atlantic Div.
Ohio ....
1,032,500
334,658
1,367,158
3 49
86,106,630
7,858,561
93,965,191
10-61
7,135,805
6,291,928
13,427,733
3 66
Indiana .
8,540,615
4,753,455
13,294,070
6 06
Illinois .
1,184,907
11,016,380
12,201,287
3-19
Michigan
5,308,294
1,257,698
6,565,992
3-14
Wisconsin
2,295,390
1,529,681
3,825,071
2-27
Minnesota
2,239,482
3,315,657
5,555,139
4-27
Iowa
245,435
3,403,073
3,648,508
1-91
Missouri
11,759,832
10,244,232
22,004,064
8-21
N. Dakota
689,807
1,372,261
2,062,068
11-29
S. Dakota
860,200
2,441,334
3,301,534
10-04
Nebraska
253,879
5,546,287
5,800,166
5-48
Kansas .
1,119,791
14,593,751
15,713,542
11 01
N. Central Div.
Kentucky
41,633,437
65,765,737
107,399,174
4-80
4-10
1,671,133
5,948,652
7,619,785
Tennessee
17,492,474
2,185,459
19,677,933
11-13
Alabama
12,413,196
1,436,821
13,850,017
9-15
Mississippi
3,503,008
1,206,799
4,709,807
3-65
Louisiana
16,008,585
177,798
16,186,383
1447
Texas
4,317,514
6,893,714
11,211,228
5 02
Arkansas
8,671,782
1,553,588
10,225,370
9 06
S. Central Div.
Montana
64,077,692
19,402,831
83,480,523
7 61
2,004,513
2,004,513
157
Wyoming
320,000
1,083,790
1,403,790
2312
Colorado
599,851
4,645,668
5,245,519
1273
N. Mexico
870,961
1,815,083
2,686,044
17-49
Arizona .
757,158
2,006,094
2,763,252
MM
Utah .
—
49,859
49,859
0-24
Nevada .
509,526
812,676
1,322,202
28-89
Idaho
240,128
1,224,075
1,464,203
17 35
Washington
300,000
1,507,786
1,807,786
5-17
Oregon .
2,337
905,711
908,048
2-89
California
2,527,624
5,281,324
7,808,948
6-46
Western Div. .
Grand Total, 1890 .
6,127,585
21,336,579
27,464,164
9-07
223,107,883
141,950,845
365,058,728
5 83
„ 1880 .
290,326,643
124,105,027
414,431,670
8-26
1 "77
Defence.
I. Army.
By the eighth section of the first article of the < 'on>t it ution
of the United States, Congress is empowered in general ' to raise
and support armies ; ' and by the second section of the second
article, the President is appointed commander-in-chief of the
army and navy, and of the militia when called into the service of
the United States. On August 7, 1789, Congress established a
Department of War as the instrument of the President in carry-
ing out the provisions of the Constitution for military affair.-.
By Acts of Congress approved July 28, 1866, March 3, 1869,
and July 15, 1870, the number of land forces constituting the
standing army of the United States was strictly limited. It was
subsequently enacted that from the year 1875 there shall be no
more than 25,000 eidisted men at any one time, exclusive of the
signal corps, the authorised strength of which is 350 enlisted
men, the hospital corps, the strength of which is 723 enlisted
men, and of 125 general service clerks and 45 general service
messengers. The actual commissioned and enlisted strength of
the army varies very little from that authorised, and is organised
as follows : —
General ami General Stall
Ordnance Dej>artruent
Kngineer Dcjiartment
10 Regiments of Cavalry
5 Regiments of Artillery
25 Regiments of Infantry
Non-commissioned staff, enlisted men not attached to
regiments, Indian scouts, &c.
Total
Of the officers of the regular army there are 19 general officers, 70 colonels,
91 lieutenant colonels, 221 majors, 612 captains.
The 9th and 10th regiments of cavalry, and 24th and 25th regiments of
infantry, are composed of negro soldiers, but with white officers.
Besides the regular army each State is sup}>osed to have a militia in which
all men from 18 to 45 capable of lwaring arms ought to be enrolled, hut in
several States the organisation is imperfect. The organised militia numbers
8,312 officers and 106,269 men. The number of citizens who in case of war
might be enrolled in the militia is upwards of 74 millions. In 1880 the males
of all classes between 18 and 44 years of age numbered 10,231,239, of whom
7,000,000 were native-lioru whites and 1,242,354 coloured.
The territory of the United States is divided for mUitaiy purposes into
tight departments, and five of these are grouped into three military divisions,
namely — Division of the Atlantic, composed of the Dej>artment of the East :
Division of the Missouri, composed of the Departments of the Platte and
Officers
Men
400
—
58
450
113
500
432
6,050
289
3,675
877
12,125
'K
2,200
2,169
25,000
1078
UNITED STATES
Dakota ; Division of the Pacific, composed of the Departments of California
and Columbia ; and three independent Departments, viz. , the Departments of
the Missouri, of Texas, and Arizona. The United States has a military academy
at West Point.
II. Navy.
The following table shows the state of the United States Navy on June 1,
1891 :—
In Commis-
sion
Building
Armoured battle ships 1st rate
Armoured cruiser 1st ,,
Armoured rani 2nd ,,
( 1st „
a, , • 2nd „
Steel cruisers . . < „ i
I 4th \\ '.
Coast defence ships . -J o i "
Torpedo boats ....
Dynamite cruiser ....
Total .
5
3
3
1
1
1
5
1
1
2
5
2
1
2
4
14
a
Besides these there are 13 old monitors, 26 old-type wooden and iron
vessels, 12 sailing ships, 13 tugs, &c.
Vessels are rated according to tonnage, as follows : — 1st Rate, over 4,000
tons ; 2nd Rate, 2,000 to 4,000 tons ; 3rd Rate, 1,000 to 2,000 tons ; 1th
Rate, tinder 1,000 tons.
The term 'protected' indicates that a vessel has a complete deflective
steel deck of over 1 inch thickness (generally 2£ to 4 inches) ; ' partially pro-
tected ' indicates that the deflective deck exists only over a portion of the
ship's length protecting machinery, or that the deck protection is complete
and less than 1 inch in thickness.
Of the five armoured bank-ships under construction, the Maine and
Texas are partly completed. The Maine, launched in November 1890, is a
twin-screw armoured turret vessel, of the belted cruiser type, with protective
deck. Its displacement fs- 9,648 tons, -and speed 17 knots, it has 4 10-inch
and b' 6-inch B. L.R. The 10-inch guns are mounted in the turrets, pro-
tected by 10J inches steel armour, and tlic turrets arc in echelon, so that all
four guns can be fired ahead ot astern.
The Texas is a twin-screw armoured turret vessel of 6,814 tons displace-
ment, with 2 12-inch and 6 6-ineh RL.R. Its speed is 17 knots. Tkr
vital parts of the vessel are protected by a steel armour belt 12 inches thick.
terminated by 6-inch steel breastworks, extending diagonally across the
vessel. Aii armoured protected deck, 8 inches thick, u worked over the
armour belt The turrets are plated with 12-inch steel armour, and have
their lower parte enclosed in redoubts, also 12 inches thick. One 12-inch
B.L.R, is mounted in each turret. Both ships are fitted with secondary
batteries and torpedo-tubes.
The three other battle-ships have been named Indiana, Massachusetts,
and Ongtm. Their principal characteristics are as follows: — Armament J
DEFEXCK 1079
4 13-inch and 8 8-ineh B.L.R. ami 4 5-inch R.F., besides 24 light K.F.G. and
7 torpedo tubes. Protection : a water belt 18 inches thick for about j of
ship's length amidships ; side armour 5 inches thick above belt : turrets 10 to
17 inches thick: diagonal bulkheads 14 inches: redoubts 17 inches : tubes
7 inches; protective deck -2-7 to 3 inches. Estimated sea speed 16 k
Displacement 10.231 tons.
The armoured cruiser New York (Xo. 2) will soon be ready for launching.
It is to have a protective curved steel deck. 2J CO 6 inches thick, extending
from stem to stern, the edges of which amidships are to be five feet below the
water dine, and the top will have a rise of about one foot above the water at
the centre of the vessel. The machinery and boiler space are protected bj a
belt of 3|-inch armour. The ship will have displacement of 8, 150 ton-
length overall is 380 It., breadth of beam 64 ft, mean draught 24ft,
20 knots, with calculated I.H.P. of 16,000. It will cam- 6 8-inch B.L.K.
ami 12 4-inch K.F.
The armoured rain is a vessel of 2,050 tons displacement, carrying a
light batten- of rapid-fire guns as an auxiliary armament, but de] lending on
the ram as her principal offensive weapon. The protection consists of a
heavy protective deck and side armour from 3 to 6 inches thick, and 18 inch
armour on the conning tower. Estimated speed 17 knots.
Of the steel cruisers building, the largest is Xo. 12, of 7,400 tons dis-
placement, with the following armament :— 1 8-ineh B.L.R., 2 6-iueh B.L.R,
12 4-inch K. F.. 28 small R.F., and 6 toq>edo tubes. Protection: complete,
steel armoured deck 2i to 4 inches thick ; 4-inch armour about engine room
hatches, and 4-inch shields over guns. Motive power : three triple-expansion
engines which are expected to give 21,000 I.H.P. and 21 knots speed.
Dimensions : length 412 ft., beam 58 "2 ft, mean draught 23 ft.
Cruiser Xo. 6, of 5,500 tons displacement, with 4 8-inch B.L.R. and 10
5-inch R.F. It is fitted with a protective deck. The length over all is
340 ft, breadth 53 ft, mean draught 21 A ft., with a calculated speed of
20 knots and I.H.P. 13,500.
Xos. 7 and 8, with complete protective decks, will have 3,183 tons dis-
placement, speed 19 knots, I.H.P. 10,000. Each will carry 1 6-inch B.L.R.,
ami 10 5-inch R.F. Xo. 7 has been named Cincinnati and Xo. 8 Raleigh.
Xos. 9, 10, 11, with partial! v protective decks, will have displacement
2,000, contract speed 18 knots, and I.H.P. 5,400. They will carry 2 6-inch
B.L.R. and 8 5-inch R.F. The Bennington will have displacement 1,700
tons, speed 16 knots, and will carry 6 6-inch B.L.R. and 4 R.F.
Of the steel cruisers in commission the largest is the Chicago of 4,500 tons
displacement speed 15 "3 knots, with 4 8-inch, 8 6-inch, and 2 5-inch B.L.R.
The Baltimore has 4,400 tons displacement, speed 20 '1 knots, and carries
4 8-inch and 6 6-inch B.L.R. The Philadelphia, 4,325 tons displace-
ment, and 19 7 knots speed ; the Newark, 4,083 tons displacement, and 18
knots speed : the San Francisco, 4,083 tons displacement and 19 "6 knots
speed, are twin-screw protected cruisers, carrying each 12 6-inch B.L.R. and
17 R.F. The Newark is barque-rigged, spreading 9,486 square ft. of canvas ;
the two others have schooner masts, spreading 5, 400 ft. of fore and aft sails.
A new cruiser provided for by the last Congress will displace about 7,400
t<ms. and be similar to Xo. 12. She is now known as Xo. 13.
The coast defence ships, with the exception of the Monterey, are old
monitors under reconstruction. The Puritan, 6,060 tons displacement ami
13 knots speed, will carry 4 12-inch B.L.R. and 6 4-inch R.F. , and will be
protected by 14-inch steel armour on the sides and on turrets. The Monterey,
tons displacement and 16 knots speed, has 2 10-inch B.L.R.. 2
12-inch B.L.R., and 12 R.F. Four other coast defence vessels building will
1080 UNITED STATES
have each 3,815 tons displacement and 12 knots speed, and will carry 4
10-inch B.L.R. and 12 R.F.G.
The dynamite cruiser Vesuvius is a steel ship of 725 tons displacement, 250
ft. over all, and 26| ft. beam, speed 21 '6 knots. In the forward part of the
ship are 3 15-inch pneumatic guns, 70 feet long, made of thin cast iron. The
full size shell for each gun is 15 inches in diameter, about 7 ft. long. It
weighs loaded about 600 lbs. , and the charge is 400 lbs. of dynamite. The
ship is steered by steam, and all her operations are directed from a conning
tower protected by light armour. In firing, the guns have a fixed elevation,
and difference in range is effected by greater or less air compression ; in short,
the hull is nothing but a gun carriage, on which are mounted these pneu-
matic guns. The calculated range is about one mile.
The United States possess ten navy yards and stations — namely, Ports-
mouth, Charlestown, Brooklyn, League Island, New London, Washington,
Norfolk,. Pensacola, Mare Island, and Port Royal. Portsmouth, Brooklyn,
Norfolk, and Mare Island are used as construction yards. At Washington
there is a gun factory for the completion of high-powdered breech-loading
cannon.
The navy of the United States is commanded by 1 admiral, 6 rear-
admirals, 10 commodores, 45 captains, 85 commanders and 74 lieutenant-
commanders, 325 lieutenants, and 180 ensigns. There are 7,500 enlisted men
and 750 boys, besides a marine corps of 2,177 officers and men.
Production and Industry.
I. Agriculture.
The immense extent of land, forming part of the United States, as yel
uninhabited and uncultivated, is held to be national property, at the disposal
of Congress and the executive of the Republic. The public lands of the United
States which are still undisposed of lie in 19 States and 8 Territories. The
public lands are divided into two great classes. The one class have a dollar
and a quarter an acre designated as the minimum price, and the other two
dollars and a half an acre, the latter being the alternate sections, reserved by
the United States in land grants to railroads, &c. Titles to these lands may be
acquired by private entry of location under the homestead, pre-emption, and
timber-culture laws ; or, as to some classes, by purchase for cash. The home-
stead laws give the right to 160 acres of a-dollar-and-a-quarter lauds, or to 80
acres of two-dollar-and-a-half lands, to any citizen or applicant for citizenship
over twenty-one who will actually settle upon and cultivate the land. The
title is perfected by the issue of a patent after five years of actual settlement.
The only charges in the case of homestead entries arc fees and commissions.
Another large class of free entries of public lands is that provided for under
the Timber-Culture Acts of 1873-78. The purpose of these laws is to promote
the growth of forest trees on the public lands. They give the right to any
settler who has cultivated for two years as much as five acres in trees to an
80-acrc homestead, or, if ten acres, to a homestead of 160 acres, and a five
patent for his land is given him at the end of three years instead of five. In
the middle of 1890 there were 1,815,504,147 acres of public lands in the States
and Territories, of which 986,084,675 had been surveyed. Of the total area ol
the United States, 1,400,000 square miles, or 896,000,000 acres, were unoccu-
pied at the census of 1880. Upwards of 88 million acres of laud are settled under
the Homestead and Timber-Culture Acts. In 1890 there were f..:.:!1,t;7M acres
taken up under the Homestead Act, and (in 1889) 3,735,305 under the Timber
Culture Act. In 1888, 5,317,906 acres were sold for cash, and the total
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
1081
nuinlx r of mam of public lands disposed of during that year was 30,116
the MO— y lv-.-.-ivod bang ?1 3,547,137. Of the public lands in
369,529.600 acres were in Alaska unsurveyed. It is provided l>y law that
two sections, of 640 acres of land, in each ' township,' are reserved for common
schools, so that the spread of education may go together with colonisation.
The power of Congress over the public territory is exclusive and universal.
except so far as restrained hy stipulations in the original cessions.
At the census of 1880 there were 536,081, 835 acres taken up in farms, being
iian 30 ]>er cent, of the total area, excluding Alaska and the Indian
Territory ; in 1870 the farm acreage was 407,735,041. Of thisarea 284.771.042
iri.s. or a little more than one-half, were returned as improved. Th-'
following table shows the number of farms of different sizes in 1870 and
1880 :—
Acres
1870
1880
L ndt-r 3 i
6,875
l.::.V2
3 and under
10
172.021
134.889
10
20
607
28 1.740
20
50
847,614
781.
50
100
7.'. 1.221
1.032.910
100
500
"54
1,896
500
1,000
15,873
! 1,000 and over .
Total
3,720
28,578
2,659,985
4,008,907
It will thus be Been that the smaller farms have decreased in somber
during the decade, and that while those lietween 50 and 100 have only
increased 37 pet cent., those between 100 and 500 have trebled, those be-
tween 500 and 1,000 have quintupled, while those alx>ve 1,000 acres are
eight times more in number than in 1870. In 1883 over 18,000,000 acres
were in the hands of eight proprietors, while the great railway companies
own 200,000,000 acres. The total value of farms in 1880 was 2,039,419,355/.,
and in 1870 1,852,560,772/. ; but in the latter year gold was at a premium of
25 per cent. The total value of farm implements in 1880 was 81.304,011/.,
and the total value of all agricultural produce was 442,680,513/. The follow-
ing are tbe returns of the cereal crops for the five years 1886-90 : —
Year
Acra
Bushels
Value
Dollars
1886
141,859,656
2,842,579,000
1,162,161.910
1887
141,821,315
2,660.457,000
1.204.28'.'.
188S
146,281,000
3,209,742,000
1.320, 255, 398
1889
146,606,000
3,354,967,000
1.112,191,544
1890
134,489,286
2,402,853,000
1,311,255,609
Detailed cotton statistics are not published for years later than 1888. In
1889, 19,058,000 acres were under cotton, and the crop was 3,439,172,391 lis.
In 1890 the cotton crop was 3,628,520,831 lbs., the largest ever produced.
Tbe following table gives statists a of leading commercial crojis in each
State and Territory, in thousands of acres, bushels, hales, lbs., dollars, for the
indicated :—
1082
UNITED STATES
Cotton, 188
Tobacco, 1889
States and
Territories
1,000
1,000
Value
1,000
1,000
Value
:
!
Acres
Bales
Acres
rounds
1.000 Dols.
1,000 Dols.
j Maine .
—
■ —
—
—
—
—
New Hampshire .
—
—
— i —
86
11
; Vermont
—
—
— ■ —
70
8
Massachusetts
—
—
2-0
2,795
339
Rhotle Island
—
—
—
. —
— :
Connecticut .
—
—
- —
6-3
8,875
1.132
New York
—
—
—
8-6
9,316
836
New Jersey .
—
—
—
—
—
—
Pennsylvania
—
—
—
26-9
28,956
1,985
Delaware
—
—
—
■ —
—
'■ —
Maryland
—
—
—
17-9
12,357
580
Virginia
42
14
r,;,2 110-5
48,523
4,324
North Carolina
1,072
364
15,080' 97-0
36,375
5,176
Sou tli Carolina
! 1,647
552
22,673 —
—
—
Georgia .
2,971
954
39,394 "8
264
28
Florida .
260
68
2,533 1-2
470
106
j Alabama
2,852
905
38,784 -6
162
17
Mississippi .
2,592
1,058
45,028 -2
61
5
Louisiana
I 1,088-
447
18,90 1 -1
46
11
Texas .
4,158
1,594
67,764
•4
176
i:>
Arkansas
■ 1,416
597
25,283
1-8
954
90
i Tennessee
881
358
14,985
51-4
36,369
l.Ml
West Virginia
—
—
— 4*6
2,602
302
Kentucky
—
—
— 274*5
221,880
13,155
Ohio .
—
— ■
— 44-3
37,853
2,648
Michigan
—
—
— —
—
Indiana
—
—
93
7,710
88 1
Illinois .
—
—
4-1
3,048
116
Wisconsin
—
.ii.
17 2
19,389
1,260
' Minnesota
—
—
—
Iowa
—
—
•1
71
7
Missouri . >
113
9, 125
419
Kansas .
Nebraska
California
Oregon .
Nevada .
Colorado
Arizona . ;
78
29
1,209
) -2
99
10
Dakota .
Idaho .
Montana
New Mexico .
Ilall .
Washington .
Wyoming . )
Total . . 19,058
6,940
292,139 692-fc
84,844
PRODUCTION" AND INDUSTRY
Table of Indian Corn, "Wheat, and Oats foe 1890.
States and
Territories
Indian Corn, 1890
1,000
Aera
Bushels
Wheat, 1890
1,000 1,000 \a.1"e/
Acres Bushels ^J^
Uats. UN
1,000 1,000 YZ'
Acres Bushels ^£T
Maine
(for Hampshire
Vermont
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut
: .rk .
New .1
Pennsylvania
Delaware
Maryland .
Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
< toonia
Florida
Alabama
~ 4'1'i
Louisiana .
Texas .
Arkansas .
Tennessee .
W -" Virginia
Kentucky .
Ohio .
Michigan .
Indiana
Illinois
Wisconsin .
Minnesota .
Iowa .
Missouri
I
Nebraska .
California .
Oregon
Nevada
Colorado .
Arizona
N. and-S. Dakota
Idaho .
Montana .
N if Mexico
Utah .
Washington
Total .
|
048
1,383 '
no
8,110
1,570
2,981
4:<1
1,061
4,116
3,600 {
2,816
'.•77
8.804
7,154
1,108
768 .
8.771
6,706
3,543
160
1,008
L8M
1,839
1,868
4'i-J
2,014
17,101
11,185
88,041
4,188
16,333
86*823
30,264
16,078
81,808
4,570
25,390
16,973
08,808
33,443
18,488
63,645
65,876
26,580
33,061
175,845
55,310
4,396
173
746
906 j
1,324
1,307 I
290
1,410 ,
11,116
2.064
19,046
11,204
21,601
11,885 '
45,938
21,738
35,200
8,061
31,186
33,596
14,619
41.S42
80.602 :
14.>77
8,940
95,300
77,152
28,187
26,549
114
42 767 483
8S4 12,030 6,015
1.136
739
640
139
1,337
95
535
802
717
17:'
."44
293
61
.'.11
1.177.
302
848
2,399
1,501
2.494
1,853
1.073
3,144
1,685
1,603
1,418
2.427
'887
IS
'.Hi
26
4.209
83
87
01
130
436
543
140 161
30 33
9,288 9,288 i
1.680 1,680 i
-
883
-..711
6,614
3,156
788
1,411
1,319 , 1.437
314
I
9,162
29,984
20.271
18,161
13,096
38,356
19,041 '
17,638
a
16,815
29.121
12,865
1.777
311
40,411
1,370 •
1,48S
1,105
2.27'.'
3,396
1..V14
7,637
2.210
8,420
27,286
18.244
24,577
15,800
10,870
31,068
14,639
21.710
11,640
82,182
9.649
Stf
1,439
280
88,888
1,069
1,191
1,050
1.77S
6.134
101
31
862
106
1,888
23
598
329
153
83
39
780
414
1.343
88,818
11,886
141
1.277
21,878
I8»MS
888
134
118
6,587
2,964
674
6*188
3,161
393
4,168
2,501
63
349
405
4,864
3,016
362
43
639
11,059
.••-
3.967
6S3
6,486
2,919
142
1,506
678
1.77:'
1,111
1 1,004
941
11.014
1,017
17,800
7,288
70,821
1,487
8,018
1.500
38,402
27.131
1.412
1,303
31,248
1,053
8,748
71
1.943
[,088
6,658
_
101
1,183
36
90
16
38
104
2,498
24.S46
1,093
1,050
1,249
7.9.-.1
634
1,650
223
-.
1.644
1,971 1,489,970 754,433 36,087 399,262 334,777 26,431 7.23,621
The anas and produce of the various cereal dope for 1888, 1889, and 1890
are specified in the subjoined tables so far as known. Statistics regarding rye,
l«arley, and buckwheat in 1889 and 1890 are not published.
1084
UNITED STATES
-
1888 1889
1890
1,000
Acres
1,000
Bushels
B"f, 1,000 1,000 «J*
1,000
Acres
1,000
Bushels
Bush.
]icr
Acre
Corn
Wheat .
Oats
Rvc
Barley .
Buckwheat .
Total • .
75,073
37,336
26,998
2,365
2 996
913
1,987,790
415.S68
701,735
28,415
63,884
12,050
26-26
11-11
22-28
12-00
21-32
13-21
78,320
38,124
27,462
2,112,892 27-11
490,560 12-86
751,515 27-36
71,971
36,087
26,431
1,489,970
399,262
523,621
20-7
11-1
19-8
146,281
3,209,742
143,906
3,354,967
-
134,489
2,412,853
The following statistics relate to 1891 : — Corn, 76,204,515 acres, yielding
2,060,154,000 bushels, valued at 836,439,228 dollars ; wheat 39.916,897 acres,
yielding 611,780,000 bushels, valued at 513,472,711 dollars ; oats 25,581,861
acres, yielding 736,394,000 bushels, valued at 232,312,267 dollars.
In 1889 there were, in all, 1,318,698 acres under flax ; 10,250,410 lbs. of
flax-end were produced, and 241,389 lbs. of fibre, the whole produce being of
the value (to the producer) of 10,436,228 dollars. The largest flax-growing
States were Minnesota, Iowa, South Dakota, and Nebraska. In the same year
50,212 acres (mostly in New York State) were under hops, and the 'yield was
39,171,270 lbs., of the value of 4,059,697 dollars ; while 25,054 acres (nearly
all in Kentucky) were under hemp, producing 11,511 lbs., of the value of
1,102,602 dollars.
The following table exhibits the number of live stock in 1891 ami at the
census years 1870, 1880, and 1890, the numbers of cattle, sheep, ami swine
for 1890, and all the numbers for 1891, being estimates : —
-
1870
1880
1890
1891
Horses
Mules
Cattle of all kinds
Sheep
Swine
8,248,800
1,179,500
25,484,100
40,853,000
26,751,400
11,201,800
1,729,500
33,258,000
40,765,900
34,034,100
14,976,017
2,246,936
52,801,907
44,336,072
51,602,780
14,056,750
2,296,532
52,895,239
43,431,136
50,625,106
The total value of farm animals in the United States in 1891 win
2,329,787,770 dollars. The area devoted exclusively to the rearing of cattle
measures 1,365,000 square miles. In 1889-90, 276,000,000 pounds of wool were
grown. In 1889, 15,504,978 lbs. of butter and 84,999,828 lbs. of cheese were
produced ; in 1890, 29,748,042 lbs. of butter, valued at 4,187,489 dollars, and
95,376,053 lbs. of cheese, valued at 8,591,042 dollars.
Viticulture is extending. In ISN't the area under vines was 401,261 acres
(California 200,544 acres); 24,306,905 gallons of wine were made (California
14,626,000 gallons) | and in California 1,372,195 boxes (of 20 lbs.) of raisins
were produced. The ntiinlicr of labourers employed was. iii all, 200,780.
New York and Ohio rank next to California as vine growing States.
In 1889-90, 136,494 tons of sugar were produced, mostly in Louisiana.
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY
II. Forestry.
In connection with the great forests of the country, the preiiaration <•!
hunter or timl>er is important. There were 25,708 establishments for this
purpose in 1880, with a capital of 36,237. 224/., employing 146,880 hands,
using materials valued at 29,231,077/., the value of" the produce being
46,653,745/. For 1888 the total product of lumber was estimated at
30,000,000,000 cubic feet, valued at 120,000,000/.
III. MlNIXC.
The following are the statistics of the metallic products of the United
States in 1890 (long tons, 2,240 lbs. ; short tons, 2,000 lbs.) :—
Metallic Product*
Quantity
Value
Dollars
Pig iron, spot value
long tons
9,202,703
151,200,410
Silver, coining value ($1 "2929 per oz.
) troy oz.
54,500,000
70,464,645
Gold, coining value ($20 6718 ,,
I „
1,588,880
32,845,000
Copj»er, ' value at New York < 'itv .
poumls
265,115,133
30,848,797
Lead ,, ,, ,,
short tons
161
14,266,703
Ziin- ,, ,, ,,
,,
69,689
6,266,407
Quicksilver, value at San Francisco
flasks
22,926
1,203,615
Nickel,1 value at Philadelphia
pounds
488
134,093
Aluminium*,, ,, ,,
j,
61.281
61,281
Antimonv, value at San Francisco .
short tons
129
40.:
Platinum, value crude) at XewYork
troy oz.
600
ftjMM
Total value 1890 .
—
307,334,207
Total value 1889 .
-
269,391,487
1 Including copper made from imported pyrites.
- Including nickel in copper-nickel alloy, and in exported ore and nietaL
* Including aluminium alloys.
The following are statistics of non-metallic minerals for 1890 : —
Xon-Metallic Prodncts
Quantity
Value
Bituminous coal .
Pennsylvania anthracite
Building stone
Lime ....
Petroleum (crude value)
Natural gas .
Cement
Salt ... .
Limestone for iron flux
S. Carolina phosphate rock
Zinc-white .
Mineral waters
All others
Total, 1890
Total, 1889
long tons
99,392,871
41,489,858
lKirrels1 60,000,000
45,000,000
barrels-
. long tons
. short tons
rallons sold
Dollars
110,420,801
61,445,683
54,000,000
28,000,000
35,000,000
20,000,000
6,000,000
4,752,286
2,760,811
3,213,795
1,600,000
2,338,140
5,477,674
335,009,190
307,882,575
8,000,000
8,776,991
5,521,622
510,499
11,321,878
1 Of 200 lbs.
- Of 300 lbs. for natural cement, and 400 lbs. for artificial Portland.
» Of 280 lbs. net
108G
UNITED STATES
The total value of the specified mineral products in 1890 was thus
642,343,397 dollars, the corresponding value for 1889 being 587,474,069
dollars. To each of these sums the official statement adds 10,000,000 dollars
as the estimated value of unspecified mineral products.
The following statement, taken from a census bvdletin, shows the con-
dition of the iron ore mining industry in 1889, as compared with that in
1880 :—
Production ™*«
Capital
Employed
Persons
Employed
Long tons Dollars
1880 . . 7,120,362 i 23,156,957
1889 . . | 14,518,041 | 33,351,978
Dollars
61,782,287!
109,766,199
31.6681
38,227
1 In regular establishments.
Of the iron ore produced in 1889, 5,856,169 long tons were from Michigan :
1,570,319 long tons from Alabama ; 1,560,234 long tons from Pennsylvania.
In the same year 853,573 long tons of iron ore were imported, and the total
consumption was 15,733,465 long tons.
The total production of gold and silver (coining value) in the country was
as follows during each of the years from 1887 to 1891 : —
Year
Gold
Silver
Tola!
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
1887
33,100,000
53.441,300
86,541,300
1888
33,175,000
59,195,000
92,370,000
]889
32,886,744
66,396,988
99,288,782
1890
32,845,000
70,464,645
103,309,645
1891
33,250,000
74,820,000
108,450,000
The precious metals are raised mainly in California for gold, and Colorado,
Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and Montana for silver. The total value of sold
deposited at the mints and assay offices from 1793 to 18S7 is estimated n
1,334,609,150 dollars, and the silver at 423,655,811 dollars.
IV. Manufactures.
The following table shows the progress of manufacturing industries in the
United States between 1870 and 1880, excluding petroleum refining and gas
manufacture : —
rear
No. of
Establishments
Capital
Hands
employed
Value of Value of
Materials dneta
1870
I860
252,148
253,852
£
338,913,403
558,054,521
2,053,996
2,732,595
£ &
398,148,358! 677.1,
679,364,710 |l,073,915,888
It will be seen that, while the Dumber of establishments had not materially
increased, there had been I very large increase in all rlie other items, showing
PRODUCTION AND INDUSTRY 1087
the concentration of manufactures in large establishments, anil the increased
use of machinery. More than one-half of the establishments and of the capital
are in the States of New York, renn.sylvania, Ohio, Massachusetts. Illinois.
Indiana, and Michigan.
The manufacture of cotton in the United States has been rapidly growing
in recent years. At the census of 1880 there were found to be 756 manu-
factories for materials solely of cotton, with a capital of 41.656,069/. : the
number of spindles was 10,653,435 (12,000,000 in 1882) ; of looms, 225,759 :
hands employed, 174,659 ; cotton consumed, 1,570,344 bales (750,343,981 lbs.),
valued at 17J389.145/., producing materials valued at 38,418.000/.
The following are some statistics of cotton : —
Yc:ir ending
Retained for
June 30
Production
Imi>orts
Kxiiort.
■Home Consumj>! i jn
lbs.
lbs.
lb*.
lbs.
1880
2.771.797,596
3, 54 7, 792
1,822,295,843
953,049,105
L884
14,422
7,019,492
1,863.926,466
900,'-U,448
1885
2,742,966,011
5.115,680
1,893,268,732
854,812,959 |
1886
3,182,305,659
5,072,334
2,059,314,405
1.128,063,588 \
1887
3,157,378,443
3,924,531
2,170,173,701
991.129 -
1888
3,439,172,391
7.592
2,264,324,798
1,180.345.1-:.
1889
3,437,408,499
7,973,039
2,385,004,628
1,060,376,910
1890
3,628,520,831
8,606,049
2,472,047,957
1,165,078,
The values of cottons of domestic manufacture exported from the United
States were from 4,071,882 dollars in 1875 to 11,836,591 dollars in 1885. and
9.999,277 dollars in 1890.
Another industry of great importance is that connected with iron and
steel. In the various branches of this industry there were 1,005 estaMish-
naents in the census year ended May 31, 1880 with a capital of 47,525,079/.
(reckoning the £ at $4-86), and employing 140,978 hands: these produced
. 1 40 short tons of iron and steel in the year, the value of all the
materials used being 39,356,203/., and the total value of the products
61,020,099/.
On June 30, 1890, there were in the United States 562 completed furnace
stacks (in 1880, 681) for the production of pig-iron, and during the year ended
at that date 9,579,779 tons of pig-iron were produced (in 1880, 3.7S1.021).
Of the furnaces, 224 were in Pennsylvania, where the production was 49 2 per
(i nt. of the whole. Included in the total was 4,233,372 tons of Bessemer pig-
iron, of which 60 '6 per cent, was produced in Pennsylvania. Of the total of
pig-iron, Ohio produced 13"6 percent., Alabama 9-3 percent., Illinois 7 per
cant., and New York 8*7 per rent.
At the same date there were in all 158 (in 1880, 73) steel works (Penn-
sylvania 79), and during the year 4,466,926 (in 1880, 1,145,711) short tons of
steel ingots and castings (including 3,877,039 tons of Bessemer and Clapp-
• Jriffiths steel) were produced. Of the total, Pennsylvania produced 61 9 per
cent., Illinois 19-4 per cent., and Ohio 10 per cent. The production of
raer steel rails was 2,036,654 tons (Pennsylvania 1.377,119 tons).
The production of pig-iron in 1882 was 5,178,122 short tons: in 1885.
S69; in 18S6, 6,365,328; in 1887, 7,187,206; in 1888, 7,26S,507 : in
8,516,079 ; in 1890, 10,307,028 short tons. The total number of
furnaces hnDecember, 1887, was 583 ; in 1888, 589 ; in 1889, 570. The num-
ber of furnaces in blast at the end of 1888 was 332 ; at the close of 1889, 344 :
1088
UNITED STATES
at the close of 1890, 311. The total quantity of pig-iron consumed in 1888
was 7,491,393 short tons ; in 1889, 8,734,137 short tons. The production of
rolled iron in 1889 was 2,586,385 short tons ; in 1890, 2,820,377 short tons.
In 1887 the Bessemer steel ingots produced amounted to 3,288,537 short tons :
2,812,500 tons in 1888; 3,281,829 tons in 1889 ; 4,131,535 short tons in 1890 :
and Bessemer steel rails, 2,013,188 short tons in 1890. Open-hearth steel
ingots in 1886, 245,250 short tons; in 1887, 360,717 tons ; in 1888, 352,036
tons ; in 1889, 419,488 tons ; in 1890, 564,873 short tons.
V. Fisheries.
At the census of 1880 the fisheries of the United States employed 131,426
persons, the capital invested was 7,591,700Z., and the value of the products
(including seal and whale fisheries) was 8,600,000?. ; the number of vessels
engaged was 6,605, of 208,297 tons. In 1889 the capital invested in the
whale and seal fisheries was 2,081,636 dollars ; the number of vessels was 101, of
22,660 tons, valued at 1,791,173 dollars ; the value of products landed was
1,834,551 dollars ; persons employed, 3,513. In 1890 the Arctic whale-fishing
yielded 226,402 lbs. of whale-bone, 3,980 lbs. of ivory, and 14,567 barrels of
oil. In the years 1884-90 the product of the Alaska Salmon Canneries was
nearly 7,000,000 dollars ; the value of the seal and other furs shipped from
Alaska to London (1867-90) is given at 49,000,000 dollars ; in 1889 the fur
seal and sea-otter industry yielded 124,983 dollars.
Commerce.
The subjoined table gives the total value, in dollars, of the
imports and exports of merchandise in the years ended June 30,
1879 and 1887-91 :—
Imports of
^Merchandise
Exports of
Domestic
Merchandise
Dollars Hollars
445,777,775 i 698,340,790
692,319,768 I 703,022,923
723,957,114 j 683,862,104
Year
(ended
June 80)
1889
1890
1891
Imports of
Merchandise
Dollars
745,131,652
789,310,409
844,916,196
Exports of
Domestic
Merchandise
Dollars
730,282,609
845,293,828
872,270,283
The following table gives the total value of the gold and silver
bullion and specie imported into the United States, and the valur
of that exported, being the product of the States, in the Tears
ended June 30, 1879 and 1887-91 :
rear
fended
.1 80)
Imports of
S|.i<-i«-
Bxperts of
Domestic and
foreign specie
June 80) ' 8Pecio
Exports of
Domestic and
Foreign Specie
1879
1887
INNS
Dollars
20,296,000
60,170,792
59,337,986
Dollars
24,997,111
35,997,691
It!. 114,183
Dollars
L889 1 28,968,078
1890 33,976,326
1 1891 36,259,447
Dollars
96,641,:'.:!:!
52,148,420
108,951,462
COMMERCE
IMS'..
The general imports and the exports of United States pro-
duce are classified as follows for 1889-90 and 1890-91 :—
Imports 1889-90 1 1890-91
Exports
1889-90 j 1890-91
Dollars
Food and animals 351,947,351
Raw materials . ' 180,833,230
Articles wholly or
partially manu-
factured. . ! 84,737,715
Manufactured and
ready for con-
Dollars
284,715,737
196,393,609
107,024,423
138,469,966
118,312,401
Unmanufactured:
Agriculture
Forests .
Fisheries
All others
Dollars Dollars '
629,785,917 642,751,344
2-2,351,746 22,054,970
28,715,713
7,496,044 6,208,577
5,055,740 3,612,364
:
sumption
Luxuries, &c .
157,945,053
113,758,879
Total .
Manufactures .
i
694,162.531 703,342.968
151,131,297 ; 168,927,315
844,916,196
Total .
789,222,898
Aggregate
845,293,828
872,270,288
The following table shows the value of the chief exports of
domestic merchandise for the year ending June 30, 1891 : —
Dollars
Dalian
Cotton
Cotton manufactures .
Wheat
Wheat-flour
Maize ....
Provisions, comprising
meat and dairy pro-
ducts
Mineral oils
Tobacco, and manu-
factures of
Wood and its manu-
factures .
Iron and steel and their
manufactures .
Cattle
Sugar, molasses, and
confectionery .
Copper, and manufac-
tures of, incl. ore .
Cars and carriages, &c.
290,712,898
13,604,857
51,420,272
54,705,616
17,652,687
139,017,47l!j
52,026,734!
25,220,472 j
26,270,040|
28,909,614:
30,445,249,1
7,099,788;'
11,875,490
4,901,120
Leather, and manufac-
tures of .
Oil cake
Furs, furskins, hides
and skins
Fish ....
Chemicals, &c. .
Coal .
Spirits of turpentine .
Paraffine k paraffine wax
Fruits
Agricultural implements
Clocks and watches
Resin.
Hops ....
Spirits, distilled .
Books, and other print-
ed matter
Seeds ....
Vegetable oils
Grease, grease scraps, &a
13,278,847
7,452,094
4,570,360
4,996,621
6,545,354
8,391,026
4,668,140
3,714,649
2,434,793
3,219,130
1,580,164
3.467,199
2,32"
1,887,431
1,820,470
2,500,899
4,302,936
2,038,886
The leading imports into the United States were in
1890-91 :—
4 A
1090
UNITED STATES
Sugar, molasses, &c
Wools
"Woollen manufactures
Chemicals .
Coffee
Iron and steel manu
factures .
Flax, hemp, jute, and
manufactures .
Cotton goods
Hides, furs, &c. .
Silk goods .
Silk, raw, and cocoons
Tea .
Fruits and nuts .
Wood and manufac
tures
Dollars
108,458,621;
18,231,372
41,060,080
47,317,0311
96,123,777
53,544,372
45,310,799
29,712,624
37,759,608;
37,880,143:
19,076,081!
13,828,993!
25,983,1361
19,888,186!
Dollars
Leather and manufac-
tures
Tobacco and manufac-
tures
India-rubber and gutta-
percha, crude .
Paper stock and
manufactures .
Jewellery and precious
stones
Animals
Barley-
Wines
Glass and glassware .
Hats, bonnets, &c.
Earthenware, &c.
Tin .
12,683,303
16,763,141
18,020,804
8,050,987
14,635,494
4,945,365
3,222,593
10,007,060
8,364,312
3,222,660
8,381,388
7,977,545
In 1888-89 the customs duties amounted to 223,832,742 dollars,
in 1889-90 to 229,668,584 dollars, in 1890-91 to 215,790,686
dollars. The following table shows for the years 1889-90 and
1890-91 the values of the exports of domestic merchandise to and
the imports from the following countries, according to the United
States returns : —
Country
Home Exports to
Imports from
1889-90
1890-91
1889-90
1890-91
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
United Kingdom .
444,459,009
441,599,807
186,488,956
194,723,262!
Germany
84,315,215
91,684,981
98,837,683
97,316,383
France .
49,013,004
59,826,739
77,672,311
76,688,995 j
British North
America
38,544,454
37,345,515
39,396,980
39,434,535 j
Belgium
Netherlands .
26,140,377
26,694,150
9,336,482
10,945,672 !
22,487,588
23,816,814
17,029,233
12,422,174
Spain .
12,736,273
14,607,893
5,288,537
6,033,481 !
Italy .
12,974,249
15,927,274
20,330,051
21,678,208 '
Russia .
10,661,531
7,925,092
3,409,879
4,833,345 '
British Australasia
11,168,081
12,891,679
4,277,676
6,239,021
Cuba
12,669,509
11,929,605
53,801,591
61,714,395
Mexico .
12,666,108
14,199,080
22,690,915
27,295,992
British West Indies
8,074,433
9,546,058
14,865,018
16,293,184
Brazil .
11,902,496
14,049,273
59,318,756
83,230,595
Argentine Republic
8,322,627
2,718,075
5,401,697
5,976,544
Colombia
2,522,351
3,108,989
3,575,253
4,765,354 I
Portugal . . 1
3,891,789
4,986,909
1,418,309 | 1,618,252 |
China . 1
2,943,790
8,700,308
16,260,471 |
19,321,850|
COMMERCE
1091
Home Exports to
Imports from
1889-90
1890-91
1889-90
1890-91
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Japan .
5,227,186
4,800,650 21,103,324
3,243,454
Haiti
4,101,464
5,589,178
2,421,221
19,309,198
Central American
States
5,1'-
6,579,916
8,052,444
9,799,122
British East Indies
4,655,256
4,399,544
20,804,319
23,356,989
Hongkong .
4,434,641
4,743,498
969,745
56:
Africa N.E.S.
3,778,076
4,538,071
1,501,038
2,611.279
Hawaii .
4,606,900
4,935,911
12,313,908
13,895,597
Venezuela
3,984,280
4,716,047
10,966.765
12,078,541
Denmark
5,037,290
3,306,357
238,508
268,686
Chile .
3,219,465
3,133,991
3,183,249
3,448,290
Dutch East Indies
1,799,306
2,102,942
5,791,250
6,778,992
Guianas
2,439,184
2,161,764
4,918,736
5,653,916
Uruguay
3,210,112
1,032,937
1,754,903
2,856,739
Austria Hungary .
945,703
1,215,540
9,331,378
11,595,310
Turkey in Europe,
Asia and Africa .
176,386
330,609
4,6-:
6.260,835 ,
Philippine Islands
122,276
124,572
11,592,626
5,167,209
Switzerland .
22,170
49,317
14,441,950
14,118,805 !
Thus, in the year ending June 30, 1891, 5062 per cent, of
the domestic exports of the United States went to Great Britain
alone, while 23 "05 per cent, of the imports came from that
country.
The following is the trade of Great Britain and Ireland with
the United States, according to the Board of Trade returns : —
-
1880 1886 1887
1888 1889
1890
Imports from the
United States .
Exports of Bri-
tish produce .
£ £ £
107,081,260 ; 81,600,197 ■ 83,049,074
30,855,871 ! 26,824,876 29,547,800
£ £
79,763,018 95,461,475
28,897,060 30,293,942
£
97,283,349
32,068,128
The value of the total imports from Great Britain into the
United States in 1886 was 37,607,805?. ; in 1887, 40,240,150?. ;
in 1888,41,211,213;. ; in 1889, 43,878,934/. ; in 1890, 46,340,012?.
The total quantity and value of the grain and flour exports
J to Great Britain were as follows in each of the live years from
1886 to 1890:—
4 a 2
1092
UNITED STATES
Year
Quantities
Value
Cwts.
£
1886
54,044,225
20,237,656
1887
57,800,407
23,157,632
1888
37,310,341
15,262,002
1889
50,607,986
18,209,496
1890
56,668,226
19,890,486
The most valuable of the corn exports is that of wheat and
wheat flour, which amounted to 15,690,8947. in 1886 ; 20,040,1947.
in 1887 ; 12,520,300/. in 1888 ; 12,480,843/. in 1889 j 13,628,815/.
in 1890. The value of the maize exports to Great Britain in
1886 was 4,093,821/. ; in 1887, 2,786,486/. ; in 1888, 2,643,174/. ;
in 1889, 5,325,498/. ; in 1890, 5,153,537/.
The exports of raw cotton from the United States to Great
Britain and Ireland were of the following quantities and value in
each of the years ending June 30 from 1886 to 1890 : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Quantities
Value .
Cwts.
11,540,508
£
28,555,402
Cwts.
11,222,272
£
28,414,597
Cwts.
12,040,820
£
31,126,787
Cwts.
12,712,606
£
33,545,271
Cwts.
11,756,758
£
31,395,055
Other considerable exports to Great Britain were, in 1890 —
bacon and hams, 7,474,737/.; cheese, 2,081,546/. ; lard, 2,049,747/. ;
petroleum, 1,719,654/. ; oil-cake, 1,355,853/. ; oxen and bulls,
7,351,981/. ; fresh beef, 3,629,939/. ; tobacco, 2,530,510/. ; leather,
2,019,359/.; sugar, 143,668/. in 1888, 131,811/. in 1889, 425,429
in 1890.
The following table gives the total value of the leading
articles of British import into the United States in the five years
from 1886 to 1890:—
Year
Iron
Cotton Goods
Linen Goods
Woollen Goods
£
£
£
£
1886
5,780,580
2,362,640
2,510,981
4,434,456
1887
7,630,209
2,479,545
2,742,036
4,371,656
1888
5,936,795
2,187,737
2,763,295
4,717,768
1889
6,187,286
2,385,382
2,917,447
5,808,327
1890-
6,410,757
2,735,070
2,948,440
5,262,240
Other imports are alkali, 1,256,805/. ; silk manufactures,
SHIPPING AND NAVIGATION
1093
992,467/. ; jute manufactures and yarn, 1,475,560/. ; machinery,
720,246/. in 1890.
The total trade of the United States (imports and exports of
merchandise) is divided as follows in 1890-91 among the various
coasts and frontiers of the States in percentage of the total : —
Atlantic Coast
77-22
Gulf Coast
11-11
Pacific Coast
6 23
North Boundary
4 89
Interior Ports
0-55
The percentage of the leading ports was as follows :-
New York
51 14
Boston
8 57
Philadelphia
5 38
Baltimore
4 91
New Orleans
7-48
San Francisco
5 27
Shipping and Navigation.
The foreign commerce of the United States is at present
largely carried on in foreign bottoms. The shipping belonging to
the United States was classed as" follows for 1891 : — Sailing
kg, 17,683 of 2,668,495 tons; steam vessels, 6,216 of
2,016,264 tons; total, 23,899 vessels of 4,684,759 tons.
Of vessels registered as engaged in the foreign trade, the
aggregate burthen was in 1891 988,719 tons, showing an increase
of 60,657 tons on 1890 ; while of vessels engaged in the coasting
trade the total burthen was 3,609,876 tons, or 200,441 tons more
than in the preceding year.
The shipping is distributed thus (1891) : —
Grand
Divisions
Atlantic and
Gulf Coasts .
Pacific Coast
Northern Lakes
Western Rivers .
Totals, 1891
1890
Sailing Vessels Steam Vessels Canal Boats Barges
No. j Tons
No.
13,085
871
1,243
1,599,287 2,936
325,131 1.592
— 1,111
Tons
886,375
187,429
736,752
896,71 -
Total
No. Tons No. Tons No. Tons
443 48,484 1,101 .'4 2,780,683
— 1 — 9 j 6.109 1,458 440,858
703 72,515 n 20.472 3,600 1,154,870
— — 166 102,64" 1,277 308,348
15,199 2,171,7371 6,216 2,016,264 1,146 120,999 1,33S 375.75S 23.889 4,684.759
15,164 2,109,413' 5,965 1,859,089 1,097 114,953 1,241 341,042 23,467 4,424,497
During the year 1890-91 there were built: — Sailing vessels,
733 of 144,290 tons ; steam vessels, 488 of 185,037 tons; canal
boats, 57 of 7,059 tons; barges, 106 of 32,916 tons.
The total tonnage on June 30, 1891, was 2,016,264 steam and
2,668,495 other than steam.
The tonnage entered and cleared in the foreign trade during
the last three fiscal years was as follows : —
1094
UNITED STATES
-
1889
1890
1891
Entered :—
American
Foreign . .
Total .
Cleared : —
American
Foreign .
Total .
No. 1 Tonnage
10,459 3,724,325
21,387 12,227,794
No.
11,217
22,231
Tonnage
4,083,121
14,024,140
No.
11,046
21,532
Tonnage
4,380,804
13,823,491
31,846
15,952,119
33,448
18,107,261
32,578
18,204,295
10,878
21,498
3,988,454
12,354,693
11,000
22,297
4,066,757
14,082,105
11,182
21,521
4,455,402
13,805,430
32,376
16,343,147
33,297
18,148,862
32,703
18,260,832
In 1890-91 62 vessels of 108,206 tons cleared from Atlantic
for Pacific ports of the United States, and 14 vessels of 23,812
tons cleared from Pacific for Atlantic ports, vid Cape Horn.
Of the total foreign trade in 1890-91, only 11*94 per cent, in
value was carried in vessels belonging to the United States.
The proportion has steadily decreased since 1856, when it was
75 '2 per cent.
Internal Communications.
The growth of the railway system of the United States dates from 1827,
when the first line was opened for traffic at Quincy, Massachusetts. The
extent of railways in operation in 1830 was 23 miles ; it rose to 2,818 miles
in 1840 ; to 9,021 miles in 1850 ; to 30,635 miles in 1860 ; to 53,399 miles
in 1870 ; to 84,393 miles in 1880 ; to 91,147 miles in 1881 ; and to 171,000
miles in 1892, 4,168 miles having been added during 1891. The railways
are divided as follows among the great groups of States, the statistics over-
lapping to some extent : — New England States, 6,839 miles ; Middle Atlantic,
20,112 miles; Central Northern, 36,913 miles; South Atlantic, 17,511
miles; Gulf and Mississippi Valley, 13,568 miles; South-Western, 33,038
miles ; North-Western, 27,578 miles ; Pacific, 12,180 miles.
The total capital invested in railways in 1890 was 9,680,942,249 dollars ;
the gross yearly earnings, 1,003,735,656 dollars, and the net earnings,
322,284,986 dollars. In the 56 principal cities of the United States in
1888-89 there were altogether 3,151 miles of street railway, 2,351 miles
being worked by animal power, 260 miles by electricity, 256 miles by cable,
and 283 miles by steam.
The telegraphs of the United States are almost entirely in the hands of
the Western Union Telegraph Company, which had in 1890 183,917 miles of
line, 678,997 miles of wire, and 19,382 offices; the number of messages
sent in 1890 was 55,887,762; the receipts, 22,389,029 dollars; expenses,
15,074,304 dollars; and profits, 7,312,725 dollars. Including minor com-
panies, there were altogether over 210,000 miles of telegraph line open for
public use in 1890. In 1890 there were 193,213 miles of telephone wire
belonging to one company, with 449 861 telephones, and 757 telephone
MONET AND CREDIT
1095
exchanges. Including this company it is estimated that in 1890 there were
about 250,000 miles of wire for telephone use.
The postal business of the United States for the fiscal years of 1886-90
was as follows : —
Fiscal Year
ending
June 30
Pieces of Mail
handled
Registered
Packages
Sacks handled
Total
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
5,329,521,475
5,834,690,875
6,528,772,060
7,027,837,339
7,847,723,600
15,525,844
15,752,569
16,001,059
15,866,550
16,576,293
798.725
950,613
1,103,083
1,134,898
1,138,208
5,345,846,044
5,851,394,057
6,545,876,202
7,044,838,787
7,865,438,101
Money orders issued (1889-90) :—
Dollars
Domestic. . . 10,624,727 amounting to 114,362,757.12
International
Postal notes
Total
859,054
6,927,825
18,411,606
13,230,135.71
12,160,489.60
139,753,382.43
There are (1890) 62,401 offices. The total expenditure of the department
during the year 1889-90 was 65,930,717.11 dollars; total receipts, 60.882,097.92
dollars : excess of expenditure over receipts, 5,048,619.19 dollars.
Money and Credit.
The following table shows the amount of gold and silver coin and bullion ;
gold, silver, and currency certificates ; United States notes, and national and
State bank notes in the United States, in the Treasury, in national banks,
and in circulation through other banks, in the vears ending June 30, 1880,
1885, 1890, and 1891:—
1880
1885
1890
1891
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Gold, estimated, including
bullion ....
351,841,206
588,697,036
695,563,029
646.582,852 ;
Gold certificates .
8,004,600
140,323,140
157,562.979
152,486.429
Silver certificates .
12.374,270
139.901,646
301,539,751
314,715,185 '
Silver dollars, including
bullion ....
69,660,408
208,538,967
380,083,304
438,753,502
Subsidiarv silver, estimated
72,862,270
74,939.820
76,825,305
77,848,700
National bank notes .
344,505,427
318.576.711
185,970.775
167,927.974
Legal-tender notes
346,681,016
346,681,016
346,681,016
346,681,016
„ „ certificates
14,595,000
29,785,000
12,390,000
23,780,000
Treasury notes of 1890
Grand total
—
50,228,417
1,220,524,197
1,847,443,336
2,156,616,159,
2,219,004,075 :
1096 UNITED STATES
Coinage, 1886-91, in dollars : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
Gold
Silver
Minor
Total .
28,945,542
32,086,709
343,186
23,972,383
35,191,081
1,215,686
28,364,170
34,136,095
1,218,977
25,543,910
34,515,546
906,473
22,021,748
36,815,837
1,416,852
24,172,202
38,272,020
1,166,936
61,375,438
60,379,150
63,917,242
60,965,929
60,254,437
63,611,158
The following table shows the aggregate resources and liabilities of the
national banks, 3,677 in number, on September 25, 1981 : —
Resources
Dollars
Liabilities
Dollars
Loans .
2,005,500,000
Capital stock
677,400,000
Bonds .
300,100,000
Surplus fund
227,600,000 |
Due from other
Undivided profits
103,300,000 !
banks
338,700,000
Circulation .
131,400,000
Real estate, &e.
83,300,000
Due to depositors .
1,608,600,000
Specie .
183,500,000
Due to other banks
430,600,000
Legal tender notes,
Other liabilities .
34,200,000
U. S. certificates,
&c. .
113,300,000
National Bank
notes .
20,000,000
Clearing house ex-
changes
122,000,000
Other resources
Total
46,700,000
Total .
3,213,100,000
•3,213,100,000
On March 1, 1889, the amount of public money held by national bank
depositories was 48,818,992 dollars ; on November 1, 1890, it had been
reduced to 29,937,688 dollars, held by 204 banks.
In 1889-90 the savings banks had 4,258,623 depositors, with deposits
amounting to 1,524,844,506 dollars, showing an average of 358 dollars to
each depositor.
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of the United States are : —
Monet.
The Dollar, of 100 cents. Approximate value, is. Par value, 49-32rf.
or 11. = 4866 dollars.
There is no difference in value between coined money and paper cur-
rency.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1097
Weights and Measures.
British weights and measures are usually employed, but the old Win-
chester gallon ami bushel are used instead of the new or imperial standards.
They are : —
Wine Gallon = 0 83333 gallon.
Ale Gallon = 1 01695 „
Bushel . = 0 9692 imperial bushel.
Instead of the British cwt. a Cental, of 100 pounds, is used.
Diplomatic Representatives.
1. Of the United States eh Geeat Britain.
Envoy and Minister. — The Hon. R. T. Lincoln.
Secretary. — Henry White.
Military Attache'— Major J. C. Post.
Naval Attache". — Lieutenant-Commander W. H. Emory.
Consul-General {London). — John C. New.
There are Consular representatives in Belfast, Birmingham, Bradford,
Bristol, Cardiff, Cork, Dublin, Dundee, Glasgow, Hull, Leeds, Leith, Liver-
pool, Manchester, Newcastle, Plymouth, Sheffield, Southampton, Antigua,
Auckland (N.Z.), Bombay, Calcutta, Cape Town, Ceylon. Halifax (IS
Hobart, Melbourne, Montreal, Quebec, St. John's (N.F.), Singapore, Sydney.
2. Of Great Britain in the United States.
Envoy and Minister. — Sir Julian Pauncefote, G.C.M.G., K.C.B. Ap-
pointed i889.
Secretary. —
There are Consular representatives at Baltimore, Boston, Charleston,
Chicago, Galveston, New Orleans, New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning the
United States.
1. Official Publications.
Acts of Congress relating to Loans and the Currency from 1846 to 1SS5 inclusive. 8.
New York, 1888.
Agriculture : Special Reports of the Department for 1890. Washington, 1891.
Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education. 8. Washington, 1890.
Annual Report of the Foreign Commerce of the United States for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1891. Washington, 1891.
Annual Report of the Secretary of the Naw, made to the President of the United States.
8. Washington, 1891.
Annual Reports of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey. S. Washing-
ton, 1869-89.
Census of the United States. Tenth census. Vols. I. to XX*I. 4. Washington, 1883-89.
Census Bulletins of the Eleventh Census. Washington, 1890-91.
Commercial Relations of the United States with Foreign Countries. 8. Washington
1889-90.
Congressional Directory. 8. Washington, 1891.
Digest of the International Law of the United States. 3 vols. Washington, 1886.
Education Bureau : Circulars of Information during 1891. Washington, 1891.
HerUlet (Sir E.), Foreign Office List. Published annually. London, 1892.
Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury transmitting Estimates of Appropriation
required for the year ending June 30, 1892. Washington, 1891.
Mineral Resources of the United States. By David T. Day, Jun., Chief of Bureau of
Mining Statistics and Technology in United States Geological Survev. Washington, 1889.
1098 UNITED STATES
Navy Register of the United States to July 20, 1891. Printed by order of the Secretary
of the Navy. Washington, 1891.
Official Register of the United States. 8. Washington, 1891.
Papers relating to the Foreign Relations of the United States, transmitted to Congress.
8. Washington, 1891.
Quarterly Reports of the Chief of the Bureau of Statistics relative to the Imports,
Exports, Immigration, and Navigation of the United States, for the fiscal year ended
June 30, 1891. Washington, 1891.
Report of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue of the United States for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1891. 8. Washington, 1891.
Report of the Commissioner of the General Land Office to the Secretary of the Interior,
for the year 1891. 8. Washington, 1891.
Report of the Director of the Mint on the Production of the Precious Metals in the
United States during the calendar year 1890. Washington, 1891.
Report of the Secretary of the Interior upon the Operations of the Department of the
Interior, 1890-91. 8. Washington, 1891.
Report of the Secretary of the Navy. 8. Washington, 1891.
Report of the Secretary of the Treasury on the State of the Finances for the year ended
June 30, 1891. Washington, 1891.
Report of the Secretary of War upon the Operations of the War Department for the year
1891. 8. Washington, 1891.
Report on the Internal Commerce of the United States. Washington, 1891.
Reports of the British Consular Officers for their various duties in 'Diplomatic and
Consular Reports ' for 1890. London, 1891.
Report on the Constitution, Attributes, and Legal Status of 'Trusts' in the United
States, in No. 171 of ' Reports on Subjects of General Interest.' London, 1890.
Statement of the Public Debt of the United States, July 1, 1891. Fol. Washington,
1891.
Statistical Abstract of the United States. Prepared by the Chief of the Bureau of
Statistics, Treasury Department. No. XII. Washington, 1891.
The Statutes at large, and Treaties of the United States of America. Collated with the
originals at Washington. Published annually. 8.
Trade of the United States with Great Britain and Ireland, in ' Annual Statement of the
Trade of the United Kingdom with Foreign Countries in the year 1890.' Imp. 4. London,
1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Adams (Henry), History of the United States of America. 9 vols. New York and
London, 1891.
Appleton. General Guide to the United States and Canada. 8. New York.
Bancroft (George), History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States of
America. 2 vols. London, 1882.
Bancroft (George), History of the United States. New ed. 6 vols. 8. London, 1882.
Bollet (A. 8.), Financial History of the United States. 3 vols. New York, 1885.
Brockett (L. R.), Our Western Empire. Philadelphia, 1882.
Bryce (James), The American Commonwealth. 3 vols. London, 1888.
Colange (E.), The National Gazetteer : a Geographical Dictionary of the United States.
8. New York.
Cooley (T. M.), Constitutional Law in the United States. Boston, 1880.
Cooper (T. V.) and Fenton (H. T.), American Politics. New York, 1882.
Curtis (G. T.), History of the Constitution of the United 8tates. New York, 1854-58.
2 vols.
Dall (W. H.), Alaska and its Resources. 8. Boston, 1870.
De Tocqueville (A.), Democratic en Amerique. 3 vols. 8. Paris.
Dilke (Sir Charles Wentworth, Bart, M.P.), Greater Britain: a Record of Travel in
English-speaking Countries in 1866 and 1867. 4th ed. 8. London, 1885.
Donaldson (T.), The Public Domain : its History, with Statistics, &c. 8. Washington.
Ely (R. T.), Labour Movement in America. 8. London.
Elliot (H. W.), An Arctic Province. London, 1886.
Hildrcth (Richard), History of the United States. 6 vols. New York, 1880, Ac.
Homans (B.), The Banker's Almanac and Register for 1892. 8. New York, 1891.
Johnston (Alex.), History of American Politics. NY\v York, 1882.
Kent (J.), Commentary's on Aimiicnn LAW (with Notes by O. W. Holmes, Jun.). 4
vols. 8. New York.
Kinri (Edward), The Southern States of America. 8. London, 1875.
Lanman (Charles), Biographical Annals of the Civil Government of the United States
during its First Century. 8. London, 1876.
Laws of the United States relating to Loans and the Currency, Coinage, and Banking.
Washington, 1886.
STATISTICAL AND OTHER BOOKS OF REFERENCE 1099
Lotting (B. J.) Cyclopaedia of United States History. New York, 1883. 2 vols.
McMatter(J. B.), History of the People of the United States. New York, 1883-91. (In
progress.)
Slacpherton (E.), The Political History of the United States of America during the Great
Rebellion from 1860 to 1864. 8. Washington, 1864.
Paschal (George W.), The Constitution of the United States. 8. Washington, 1868.
Patton (I. H.), Natural Resources of the United 8tates. 8. New York.
Pomeroy (J. N.), Constitutional Law of the United States. Enlarged by E. H. Bennett,
Boston.
Poor (Henrv V.), Manual of the Railroads of the United States. 8. New York, 1891.
Porter (R. P.), Gannett (H), and Jonet (W. P.), The West, from the Census of 1880. A
History of the Industrial, Commercial, Social, and Political Development of the States and
Territories of the West, from 1800 to 1880. Chicago, 1882.
Reclus (Elesee), Nouvelle Geographie Universelle. Vol. XVI. Paris, 1892.
■Spo/ord (Ainsworth R.), American Almanac. 8. New York and Washington, 1889.
-tical Atlas of the United States. New York. 1884.
Stanford 's Compendium. North America. Ed. Harden and Selwyn. 8. London.
Stantcood (Edward), History of Presidential Elections. Boston, 1884.
Taussig (F. W.), Tariff History of the United States. 8. New York.
Von Holtt (Dr. H.), The Constitutional and Political History of the United States of
America. 5 vols. 8. New York 1879-85.
Wharton (Francis). International Law of the United States. 3 vols. Washington, 1887.
Whitney (J. D.), The United States. 8. New York, 1890.
Wintor (Justin), Vols. 6 and 7 of the Narrative and Critical History of America
1100
URUGUAY.
(Republica Oriental del Uruguay.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Uruguay, formerly a part of the viceroyalty of
Spain, and subsequently a province of Brazil, declared its inde-
pendence August 25, 1825, which was recognised by the Treaty
of Montevideo, signed August 27, 1828. The Constitution of the
Republic was sworn July 18, 1830. By the terms of this charter,
the legislative power is in a Parliament, composed of two Houses,
the Senate and the Chamber of Representatives, which meet in
annual session, extending from February 15 to July 15. In the
interval of the session, a permanent committee of two senators
and five members of the Lower House assume the legislative
power, as well as the general control of the administration. The
representatives are chosen for three years, in the proportion of 1
to every 3,000 inhabitants of male adults who can read and
write. The senators are chosen by an Electoral College, whose
members are directly elected by the people ; there is one senator
for each department, chosen for six years, one-third retiring
every two years. There are (1889) 53 representatives and 19
senators.
The executive is given by the Constitution to the President of
the Republic, elected for the term of four years.
President of the Republic. — Dr. Ilereira y Obes, elected
March 1, 1890.
The President is assisted in his executive functions by a
council of ministers divided into five departments, namely, that
of the Interior, Foreign Affairs, Finance, War and Marine, and
the department of Worship, Justice, and Public Instruction.
Area and Population.
The area of Uruguay is estimated at 72,110 English square
miles, with a population, in 1889, of 683,943, which, it is stated,
to allow for omissions, should be raised to 711,656. The country
is divided into 19 departments.
AREA AND POPULATION
1101
The following table shows the area, population, and density of the various
provinces : —
Estimated 1
Population
Departments
Area, square 1
miles
Population I
1889
per ,
square mile
Salto 4,863
31,600
6-47
Artigas
4,392
17,652
3 88
Paysandu
Rio Negro
5,115
3,269
| 44,587
5 18
Soriano
3,560
,089
8 61
La Colonia
2,192
37,344
1657
San Jose
Flores .
2,687
1,744
| 38,435
8-28
Monte %-ideo
| 256
222,049
865 06
Canelones
1,833
72,093
38 85
Maldonado
Rocha .
1,584
4,280
| 36,131
5-9".
Minas .
4,844
)
Treinta v Tre
s
3,686
} 61,209
414
Cerro Largo
5,753
\
Tacuarembo
Rivera .
8,074
3,790
| 43,306
3 62
Durazno
5,525
23,696
414
Florida .
4,673
28,752
5 95
Total
72,110
683,943
9 48
The proportion ol males in the population is 52 per cent. ; of females,
48 per cent.
Seventy per cent, of the population is native-born. Of the remainder the
greater number are Spaniards, Italians, French, Brazilians, and Argentines.
The number of English and Germans is small. The Spaniards and French are
mostly Basques.
Montevideo, with suburbs, had in 1889 a population of 175,000, one-
third foreigners.
The following table gives the number of births, deaths, and marriages
from 1885 to 1889 :—
Year
Births
Deaths
Marriages
Excess of Births
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
23,707
24,712
25,132
25,832
26,981
10,273
11,537
12,573
12,077
12,882
3,657
3,093
3,428
3,976
4,175
13,434
13,175
12,559
13,755
14,099
Of the total births in 1889, ,21,654 were legitimate and 5,327 illegitimate.
For the whole Republic the population was 80 '28 per cent, legitimate and
19 '72 illegitimate ; for the provinces of the interior 76 61 legitimate and
23 39 illegitimate ; for the province of Montevideo, 89 14 legitimate and
10-86 illegitimate. There were 505 children stillborn in 1888 and 520
in 1889.
1102
URUGUAY
There is a considerable flow of immigration,
immigrants was 243,391 ; in 1875 it fell to 5,298.
the figures were : —
In 1873 the number of
For the five years 1886-90
-
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
Immigrants .
Emigrants
12,291
6,542
12,867
6,252
16,581
7,601
27,349
10,658
24,117
19,852.
Religion.
The Roman Catholic is the State religion, but there is complete tolera-
tion. In 1885 (census) there were 159,922 Catholics, 2,032 Protestants, and
2,074 of no religion.
Instruction.
Primary education is obligatory. There were in 1888 380 public
schools, with 694 teachers and 32,731 scholars. The number of private
schools was 402, with 833 teachers and 21,017 scholars. In 1887 the
cost of primary education defrayed by the State was 513,249 dollars.
There are at Montevideo a university and other establishments for
secondary and higher education. In 1888 the university had 59 professors
and 695 students. The normal school for girls has 19 professors and 70
pupils. There is a school of arts and trades supported by the State where
260 pupils receive instruction gratuitously. At the military college, with
8 professors, there are 56 pupils between the ages of 14 and 18. There are
also 383 teachers and 4,261 pupils in religious seminaries throughout the
Republic.
The national library contains over 20,000 volumes and more than 2,300
manuscripts. There is also a national museum, with more than 20,000
objects. Ninety-seven newspapers and periodicals are published, 91 in
Spanish, 2 in English, 2 in Italian, 2 in Portuguese, and 1 each in German
and French.
Finance.
The following, so far as published, are the figures of the
revenue and expenditure for the four years from 1885-86 to
1888-89 :—
-
1885-86
1886-87
1887-88
1888-89
Revenue collected
Expenditure
Dollars
11,719,693
13,365,107
Dollars
12,704,832
13,018,530
Dollars
13,668,096
13,834,149
Dollars
15,690,294
The actual expenditure for 1888-9 has not been published. The estimated
expenditure was 13,811,308 dollars.
The estimated revenue for 1891-2 is 15,409,500 dollars, and expenditure
15,246,175 dollars. The estimated revenue from customs is set down at
10,622,000 dollars ; property tax 1,800,000 dollars ; licences 1,000,000 dollars.
The expenditure m "national obligations" is estimated at 8,720,257
dollars, in government 2,100,724 dollars.
FINANCE — COMMERCE 1103
The public debt on January 1, 1889, according to the official returns,
was 81,491,722 dollars. This sum is divided as follows : — Internal,
8,908,687 dollars ; external, 70,280,510 dollars, including 50,480,350 dollars
which represent the Unified Debt ; and international, 2,302,525 dollars.
On July 1, 1891, the total debt was 106,000,000 dollars. In the end of 1891
steps were being taken for a serious rearrangement of the debt, which for some
time has been in a very unsatisfactory position. The total value of the
real property of the Republic in the years stated is shown in the
following table : —
tim 1884 1885 MM 1888
Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars
243,760,27-2 257,314,305 287,540,793 282,030,143 247,460,346
The province of Montevideo is credited with 112,546,540 dollars of the
total in 1888, the next richest province being Sal to with 12,625,288 dollars.
The number of proprietors is returned as 47,050, of whom 22,823 are
Uruguayans, owning property of the value of 112,099,418 dollars.
Defence.
The permanent army of Uruguay is officially reported to consist of
3,482 officers and men, including 4 battalions of infantry, 4 regiments of
cavalry, 2 of artillery. There is besides an armed police force of 3,980
men, and an active civilian force of 3,264. The soldiers are armed with
Remington rifles, and there are 67 pieces of artillery. In recent years
there has been an excessive expenditure for the maintenance of an in-
creased military force. Uruguay has three gunboats, seven small steamers,
one coaster, and one steam sloop, with a complement of 184 officers and men.
Production and Industry.
The rearing of cattle and sheep is the chief industry of Uruguay. An
official return of 1884 gives the extent of pastoral land in actual occupation
at 38^750,000 acres, and that of agricultural land, including forage-growths,
at 1,507,000 acres. The pastoral establishments in 1887 were officially
estimated to contain 6,119,482 head of cattle, 408,452 horses, anil
15,905,441 sheep. In 1888 773,449 head of cattle were slaughtered for
their hides, tallow, &c, for manufacturing extract of meat ana beef pre-
served in tins. The total value of the flocks and herds in Uruguay is
estimated at 76,341,180 dollars. Agriculture is also carried on to some
extent, wheat and maize being the chief products. Tobacco, olives, and
the vine are also cultivated to a small extent. There are several agricultural
colonies in the country, composed mainly of Swiss and Spaniards.
Commerce.
Uruguay carries on an active commerce with foreign countries. It was as
follows in 1886-90 :—
Imports
Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars Dollars
20,194,655 24,616,000 29,477,448 . 36,823,86.:
Exports . 23,811,986 18,672,000 | 28,008,254 25,954,107 29,085,519
1104
URUGUAY
The following table shows the value of the trade of Uruguay in 1889 and
1890, with the countries with which she mainly deals : —
1889
1890
Country
Imports from
Exports to
Imports from
Exports to
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars Dollars
Great Britain
10,471,610
3,551,623
8,772,378 ! 3,946,347
France
5,515,915
5,223,743
5,099,436 | 6,120,965
Germany .
3,431,830
1,299,731
2,809,315 1,019,575
Spain
2,615,153
366,746
2,174,181 1 241,646
Italy
3,260,524
381,823
2,628,663
358,646
Brazil
2,504,692
3,295,485
2,472,786
3,278,774
United States
3,411,601
1,441,310
2,444,936
2,004,217
Belgium .
1,625,894
4,110,773
1,495,667
3,140,624
Argentine
1,450,057
2,289,552
2,643,328
2,550,740
The followirj
g an
|
the various
classes of in
ports for 1888, 1889, and
1890 :-
—
1888
1889
1890
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
Foods and drinks
8,731,640
13,022,500
11,101,664
Tobacco
517,347
585,369
589,308
Textiles .....
4,896,095
4,932,201
3,769,570
Apparel and haberdashery
1,669,421
1,742,814
1,534,735
Raw materials and machinery .
4,808,981
8,466,058
9,436,594
Various .....
Total ....
6,853,964
8,074,921
5,927,681
29,477,448
36,823,863
32,359,552
The following are the various classes of exports for 1888, 1889, and
1890 :—
-
1888
1889
1890
Living animals
Animal products
Agricultural products
Other products ....
Totals ....
Dollars
853,640
24,221,069
1,722,629
1,210,916
Dollars
466,272
23,824,672
373,280
1,289,883
Dollars
544,709
26,007,091
1,234,934
1,298,785
28,008,254 25,954,107
29,085,519
The following table gives the principal exports for the years 1888, 1889,
and 1890 : —
Year
Jerked
Beef
Extract of
Beef
Hides and
Skins
Tallow
Wool
1888 • .
1889
1890
Dollars
4,950,553
3,807,815
3,881,000
Dollars
1,152,106
1,099,908
1,677,000
Dollars
7,512,874
7,117,324
9,413,000
Dollars
2,287,465
1,926,093
1,665,000
— ' ^ — ' ■ ' ' '
Dollars
7,587,924
9,149,932
7,866,000
SHIPPING MONEY AND CREDIT
1105
Of the total imports in 1890, 28,652,773 dollars passed through Monte-
video, and 16,607,778 dollars exports.
The commercial intercourse of Uruguay with the United Kingdom is
exhibited in the following tabular statement, according to the Board of Trade
Returns for each of the five years 1886 to 1890 : —
-
1886
1887
1888
1880
1890
Exports from Uruguay
Imports of British produce
M
414,203
1,264,468
£
. 288,307
1,750,012
&
1A8JM
1,771,692
£
450,531
£
341.208
2,043,106
The chief articles of export from Uruguay to the United Kingdom are
hides, of the value (1890) of 56,376*. ; tallow, 15,975*. ; preserved meat,
89,039*. ; sheep skins, 30,370*. ; bones, 17,933*. ; wool, 14,583*. The im-
ports from the United Kingdom into Uruguay consist chiefly of manufactured
cotton goods, woollens, coal, and iron — the first valued at 500,700*. ; the
second at 232,377*. ; coal, 205,408*. ; iron, wrought and unwrought, 386,512*. ;
and machinery, 129,360*., in the year 1890
Shipping and Navigation.
There entered at the port of Montevideo in 1890 from abroad 1,431 sea-
going vessels of 1,812,361 tons, and cleared 1,362 vessels of 1,779,277 tons ;
of these 545 vessels of 796,753 tons were British. In the river and coasting
trade there entered 3,420 vessels of 1,741,110 tons, and cleared 3,556 vessels
of 1,846,292 tons.
Internal Communications.
There are (1891) 707 English miles of railway open for traffic, and 402
miles under construction. The principal telegraph lines in operation in
1890 were of a total length of 2,352 English miles. There were 55 offices.
In 1889 189,412 telegrams were conveyed.
In 1890 the post office transmitted 6,586,840 letters and post-cards, and
14,947,369 printed papers and packets.
Money and Credit.
* The following figures show the situation of the principal banks of Monte-
video on June 30, 1891 : —
-
Cash
Capital
Note-issue
Dollars
Dollars
Dollars
National Bank ....
1,137,007
12,000,000
1,661,949
London and River Plate Bank .
5,142,615
1,500,000
2,656,940
English Bank of River Plate
1,473,781
1,250,000
1,002,540
Banco de Esparia y Rio de la Plata
498,051
1,500,000
352,260
Banco Italiano del Uruguay
419,788
2,200,000
352,260
Banco Italo-Oriental
Totals ....
167,670
1,600,000
131,720
8,838,912
20,050,000
6,157,669
Besides these banks there are in Uruguay a number of credit societies,
and a National Companv of Credit and Public "Works, with a capital of
20,000,000 dollars.
4 B
1106 URUGUAY
Money, Weights, and Measures.
* The money, weights, and measures of Uruguay, and the British equiva-
lents, are : —
Money.
The Peso, or Dollar, of 100 centenas. Approximate value, 4s. 3d. ;
£1 = 470 dollars.
Weights and Measures.
The Quintal = 101 '40 lbs. avoirdupois.
,, Arroba — 25 -35 ,, ,,
,, Fanega = 30 gallons.
,, Square, league = 10| English square miles.
The metric system has been officially adopted, but is not in general use
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Uruguay in Great Britain.
Minister Resident. — Dr. Don Alberto Nin, appointed June 1, 1891.
2 Of Great Britain in Uruguay.
Minister and Consul- General. — Ernest Mason Satow, C.M.G., appointed
December 17, 1888.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning
Uruguay.
1. Official Publications.
Anuario estadistico de la Republica Oriental del Uruguay. Montevideo, 1891.
Comercio exterior de la Republica Oriental del Uruguav, 1890. Montevideo, 1891.
Diario oflcial. 1891.
La Republica Oriental del Uruguay. Por Ramon Lopez Lomba. Montevideo, 1884.
Report by Mr. Gifford Palgrave on the general Condition of Uruguay, in ' Reports of
H.M.'s Diplomatic and Consular Officers Abroad.' Part III. Folio. London, 188.r>. And
for 1885-8(5 in No. 129 of ' Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' London, 1887.
Roustim (Honore), La Republique de l'Uruguay a l'Exposition Universelle de Paris de
1889. Montevideo, 1889. [Also an English edition.]
The Uruguay Republic : Territory and Conditions. Reprinted by authority of fhe
COnsul-General of Uruguay. London, 1888.
Report by Mr. Satow on the Trade, <fec, of Uruguay for the years 1886-90, in No. TiM of
' Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' London, 1890.
Trade of Uruguay with Great Britain, iu 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
kingdom with Foreign Countries and British Possessions in the year 1890.' Imp. 4.
London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Bauza (Francisco), Historia de la dominacion espanola en el Uruguay. Montevideo,
1S80.
Gardner (Gilbert J.), The Financial Position of Uruguay. 8. London, 1*74.
Maria (Isid. de), Compendio de la hist6ria de la Republica Orientul del Uruguay, 1
Montevideo, 1864.
Mulhall (M. G. and E. T.), Handbook of the River Plate. 8. London, 1885.
Murray (Rev. J. H.), Travels in Uruguay, S. America. 8. London, 1S71.
Reyt*(M.\ Dcscripcion geograflca del territorio de la Republica Oriental del Uruguay.
k. Montevideo, I k.v.i.
Rumbold (Sir II.), The Great Silver River. London, 1888.
Sommer-Geistr (H.), Lebensbilder aus dem Staat Uruguay. 8. Basel, 1861.
Vaillant(\.), La Republica Oriental del Uruguay. 8. Montevideo, 1878.
Vincent (Frank), Round and About South America. New York, 1880.
1M7
VENEZUELA.
(Etados Unidos de Venezuela.)
Constitution and Government.
The Republic of Venezuela was formed in 1830, by secession from the other
members of the Free State founded by Simon Bolivar within the limits of the
Spanish colony of New Granada. The charter of fundamental laws actually
in force, dating from 1 830, and re-proclaimed, with alterations, on March 28,
1864, and April 1881, is designed on the model of the Constitution of the
United States of America, but with considerably more independence secured
to provincial and local government. At the head of the central executive
government is the President, elected for the term of two years, exercising his
functions through six ministers, and a Federal Council of 19 members. The
Federal Council is appointed by the Congress every two years ; the Council
from its own members, choose a President, who is also President of the Republic.
Neither the President nor members of the Federal Council can be re-elected for
the following period. The President has no veto power. The legislation for
the whole Republic is vested in a Congress of two Houses, called the Senate
(three senators for each of the eight States and the Federal District), and the
House of Representatives (one to every 35, 000 of population). The Senators are
elected for four years by the Legislature of each State, and the Representatives
for a like period by ' popular, direct, and public election. ' The Congresses of
States are elected by universal suffrage. There are 24 Senators and 52
Representatives, A revised Constitution has been presented, June 1891, by
the two Chambers to the Legislative Assemblies of the States for their
consideration.
President of the Republic. — Dr. Raimundo Andueza Palaeio, appointed
March 7, 1890.
The provinces, or States, of the Republic have each their own legislature
land executive, as well as their own budgets and judicial officers, and the
main purpose of their alliance is that of common defence. The administration
of the territories and colonies is entrusted to the government of the Federation.
Area and Population.
Until 1881 Venezuela was divided into twenty-one States and their tern-
aries ; but in that year a re-division was made into eight large States, each
undivided into sections or districts, corresponding to the old States, besides
(the Federal District, two national settlements, and eight territories. The
following table gives the area and population of each of the new States and
itories according to an estimate in 1890 : —
4 B 2
1108
VENEZUELA
State, &c.
Federal District
Miranda
Carabobo
Bermudez
Zamora
Lara
Los Andes .
Falcon and Zulia
Bolivar
Territories :
Goajira .
Alto Orinoco
Amazonas
Colon .
Yuruari
Caura .
Armisticio
Delta .
Settlements :
Independencia
Bolivar .
Total
Area
square miles
45
33,969
2,984
32,243
25,212
9,296
14,719
36,212
88,701
3,608
119,780\
90,928/
166
81,123
22,564")
7,046 V
25,347 J
214
Population,
1890
594,165
71,399
526,633
175,294
297,466
249,018
260,681
339,619
205,357
60,097
36,589
39,047
238
21,194
In adjoining
States
Population per
sq. mile, 1890
1,577
855
2,285,054
1,586-6
15-5
587
8-1
9 9
20-8
23-1
57
0-7
10-1
•19
1-4
•2
7-3
106 9
3-6
To this total is added 5, 204 for immigrants, bringing the entire population
up to 2,290,958.
A census taken in 1891 gave the population as 2,323,527.
According to the census of 1881 the population was 2,075,245 ; 1,005,518
males, 1,069,727 females. This showed an increase in the population over
the census of 1873, of 291,051. The native Indian population in 1890
numbered 326,000, of whom 66,000 independent, 20,000 submitted, 240,000
civilized. In 1889 the number of marriages was 6,705 ; of births 76,187 ; of
deaths, 55,218. The immigration (1,555 in 1890) and emigration nearly
balance each other.
The population of Caracas, the capital, in 1881 was 55,638 (70,466 in 1888),
Valencia 36,145 (38,654 in 1888), Maracaibo 31,921 (34,284 in 1888), Bar-
quisimeto 28,918 (31,476 in 1888), Tocuyo 15,383, Maturin 14,473, La Guayra
14,000.
Religion and Instruction.
The Roman Catholic is the State religion, but there is toleration of all
others, though they are not permitted any external manifestations.
In 1870 education was made free and compulsory ; at that time only 10 per
cent, of the adult population were able to read and write. In 1891 there
were, for primary instruction, 1,415 Federal and 151 State schools. The
number of pupils receiving elementary instruction in 1889 was 100,026. The
sum expended in 1890 on Federal schools was 2,503,797 bolivares. Besides
these there are 9 barrack schools, 4 normal schools, and one school of arts and
trades. Higher education is given in 2 universities, 22 Federal colleges, 9
JUSTICE AND CRIME — FINANCE — DEFKN< K 1109
national colleges for girls, schools for- fine arte, for music, 1 polytechnic
school, 28 private colleges and 1 nautical school. These institutions have
669 professors and 4,814 students. Their cost (excluding the private colleges)
to the nation in 1890 was 841,930 bolivares.
In Caracas is the national library, with 32,000 volumes, and the national
museum.
Justice and Crime.
Justice is administered by the Supreme Federal Court and the Supreme
Court of Appeal, by special local courts for civil and criminal cases separately,
and by district, borough, and municipal judges.
There were in the penitentiaries at the end of 1890, 131 prisoners, of whom
113 had been convicted of manslaughter. In the gaols of the Federal District
and States were, at the end of 1888 (including convicts and persons waiting
trial), 1,037 prisoners, 103 of whom were for manslaughter, 149 for wounding,
and 338 for drunkenness.
Finance.
The chief source of public revenue at the disposal of the central Government
is that of customs duties. The revenue for 1888-89 was 40,395,329 bolivares,
and expenditure 37,423,390 bolivares. The revenue for 1889-90 was
45,031,224 bolivares, and expenditure 45,670,166. On these two years'
finance there was thus a balance of 2,332,296 bolivares. The chief source of
revenue is customs, 33,457,477 bolivares in 1890 ; and the chief items of ex-
Knditure were : Interior, 7,502,514 bolivares ; Finance, 10,844,733 bolivares ;
iblic Works, 11,166,590 bolivares ; War and Marine, 5,489,843 bolivares ;
Public Instruction, 3,217,955 bolivares.
In the budget for 1890-91 the revenue is estimated at 35,976,000 bolivares,
and the expenditure the same.
For the Federal District and the separate States in 1886-87 the total revenue
was 5,379,600 bolivares, and expenditure, 5,203,775. In 1887-88 the total
revenue was 8,019,424 bolivares, and expenditure 7,297,113.
The foreign debt, with the unpaid interest of several years, had grown to
10,869,563/. in 1878, when the Government resumed the payment of interest.
New consolidated bonds were issued to the amount of 4, 000,000Z. (100,100,000
bolivares) on January 1, 1881, in substitution of all pre-existing internal and
external bonds ; 2,750,0007. to represent the external bonds, bearing 3 percent,
for two years, and after that 4 per cent. Up to 1889 the service of the debt
did not proceed satisfactorily, but the unification of internal and external debt
was accomplished in November, 1889, when the 4 per cent, rate was agreed to.
The following is an official summary of the Venezuelan debt, Dec. 31,
1890 :—
Bolivares
Internal national consolidated debt . . 38,245,153
External 67,388,462
Diplomatic conventions debt . . . 4,310,532
Bonds of 1 per cent, per month . . . 3,365,896
Total .... 113,310,043
Defence.
In 1891 the army numbered 5,760 officers and men, dispersed in 20 towns
of the Republic, and in Federal garrisons and ships.
Besides the regular troops, there is a national militia in which even-
citizen, from the 18th to the 45th year inclusive, must be enrolled. Recent
1110
VENEZUELA
intestine wars were chiefly carried on by the militia, which in times of civil
war has been increased to 60,000 men. The number of citizens able for
military service according to law was 250,000 in 1889.
Venezuela has one war vessel, an iron steamer, built in 1884.
Production and Industry.
The surface of Venezuela is naturally divided into 3 distinct zones — the
agricultural, the pastoral, and the forest zone. In the first are grown sugar-
cane, coffee, cocoa, cereals, &c. ; the second affords runs for cattle ; and in
the third tropical products, such as caoutchouc, tonca beans, copaiba, vanilla,
growing wild, are worked by the inhabitants. All lands within the bounds
of the Republic without a lawful owner (corporate or private) are considered
public lands, and are managed by the Federal executive, who, under certain
regulations, have power to sell or to make grants therefrom for the purpose of
agricultural or mining settlements or to properly certified immigrants, in the
proportion of 1\ acres to eveiy member of the family.
The following table shows the extent, in square miles, of the public
and private land in 1891 : —
Zone
Public Land
Private Land
Total
Agricultural ....
Pastoral .....
Forest
Total ....
87,236
57,900
298,273
47,626
98,430
4,700
134,862
156,330
- 302,973
443,409
150,756
594,165
One-fifth of the population is engaged in agriculture. In 1888 there weii'
in Venezuela 8,476,300 cattle, 5,727,500 sheep and goats, 1,929,700 swine,
387,650 horses, 300,560 mules, and 858,970 asses.
Venezuela is rich in metals and other minerals. Gold is found chiefly in
the Yuruari Territory. The quantity sent from that district in 1884 was
233,935 oz. ; in 1885, 172,037 oz. ; in 1886, 217,135 oz. ; in 1887, 95,352 oz. ;
and in 1888, 71,594 oz. ; in 1889, 87,158 oz. ; in 1890, 83,603 oz. There are
silver mines in the States of Bermudez, Lara, and Los Andes. Copper and
iron are abundant, while sulphur, coal, asphalt, lead, kaolin, and tin are also
found. The salt mines in various States, under Government administration,
produced in 1889-90 a revenue of 1,478,904 bolivares. The total value of
the mineral products in 1886 was estimated at 28,560,500 bolivares (gold
24,070,320 bolivares, and copper 4,124,114 bolivares).
Commerce.
Nearly six-sevenths in value of the imports are subject to duty. The
following table shows the progress of Venezuela commerce in bolivares : —
-
1878-74
1886-87
1887-88
1888-89
1889-90
Imports
Exports
01,717,183
73,918,122
78,191,880
80,245,204
78,468, 18*
84,412,024
81,372,250
97,271,300
83,014,411
100,917,838
Of the imports (1887-88) 23,610,113 bolivares came from Great Britain,
19,743,824 from the United States, 12,651,777 from France, 13,460,390 from
Germany, 4,345,477 from Colombia. Of the exports during the ycar4l 887-88
MERCE — SHIPPING AND COMMUNICATION 1111
the value of 3,318,615 bolivares went to Great Britain, 45,615,499 to the
United States, 15,209,809 to France, 10,046,886 to Germany, 16,445,723 to
the West Indies. The chief article of export was coffee (60,417,399 bolivares),
of which the supplv to Great Britain was valued at 1,861,653 bolivares, to
the United States 42,108,757 bolivares, to France 6,952,223, to Germany
7,013,724. The export of cocoa amounted to 11,486,754 bolivares (Great
Britain 205,147, United States 476,117, France 7,600,104, Germany
1,327,610). Gold was exported to the amount of 4,095,475 bolivares (Great
Britain 20,800, United States 78,649, France 492,500, Germany 662,318).
The hides exported were valued at 2,847,320 bolivares ; deer-skins and goat-
skins at 2,274,289 bolivares. The total stated above does not include coin
(gold and silver), which was exported in 1888 to the amount of 4,072,739
bolivares ; nor precious stones, valued at 72,S54 bolivares. In the same year
there were exported also 14,511 cattle (including 12,582 horned cattle and
1,138 asses), valued at 1,651,911 bolivares. The coasting trade for 1887-88
was valued at 90,700,953 bolivares, imports and exports. In 1889-90 the
chief article exported was coffee, valued at 71,167,850 bolivares ; next was
cocoa, 9,329,396 bolivares ; virgin and placer gold and residuum, 8,888,428
bolivares ; then hides and skins, 4,728,074 bolivares ; cattle, 1,176,000
bolivares.
The total value of the exports of Venezuela to Great Britain, and of the
imports of British produce and manufactures, was as follows in each of the five
years 1886 to 1890, according to the Board of Trade Returns : —
mm 1887
tats ism
£ £ £ £ £
Exports to Great Britain . 144,877 117,581 269,969 284,666 308,550
Imports of British produce 450,886 779,717 581,467 785,424 828,978
The chief article of export from Venezuela to Great Britain in 1890 was
copper ore and regulus, of the value of 285,355/. In 1880 the cocoa exported
to Great Britain was valued at 20,739/., in 1886, 2,907/., in 1887, 4,539/.,
in 1889, 2,531/., in 1890, 4,782/. ; coffee in 1880 was 15,553/., in 1887,
2,157/., in 1889, 13,478/., in 1890, 1,735/. : dye-woods exported in 1890
were valued at 3,840/., and dye-stuffs 6,558/. The imports from Great
Britain comprise cotton and linen manufactures, the former of the value of
466,890/., and the latter of 38,307/., in the year 1890 ; besides woollen.-,
34,206/. ; jute goods, 30,839/. ; iron, wrought and unwrought, 66,200/. :
machinery, 34,969/.
Shipping and Communications.
In 1889 278 vessels of 351,281 tons entered, and 276 of 350,859 tons
cleared the port of La Guayra (117 of 125,256 tons British) ; and 62 of 25,247
tons entered, and 68 of 25,383 tons cleared the port of Cuidad Bolivar. In
1887 Venezuela, for maritime and river navigation, had 2,523 vessels of
25,317 tons, 26 of 2,523 tons being steamers.
There are (1891) 282 miles of railway in operation, and 1,240 miles under
consideration. In 1889-90 there were conveyed 6,071,365 letters and parcels
inland ; and 343,936 abroad. In 1880 Venezuela joined the General Postal
Union. In 1890 there were 3,528 miles of telegraph lines and 102 telegraph
offices ; 419,724 telegrams were sent in 1890 ; receipts, 1890, 326,904 bolivares ;
expenses, 924,607 bolivares. On December 1, 1890, one company had in use
776 telephone instruments, and 1,477 subscribers, while another company was
establishing connections between various centres.
1112 VENEZUELA
Money, Weights, and Measures.
The money, weights, and measures of Venezuela, and the British equiva-
lents, are : —
Money.
The Venezolano, of 100 Centavas. . approximate value, 3s. id.
,, Bolivar ,, ,, 1 fr.
"Weights and Measures.
The Libra =1 -014 lb; avoirdupois.
,, Quintal . . . . = 101-40 lbs.
,, Arroba . . . = 25-35 ,,
The above are the old weights and measures in general use, but the legal
ones are- those of the metric system.
Diplomatic and Consular Representatives.
1. Of Venezuela in Great Britain.
Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary. — [Diplomatic relations
suspended December, 1887.]
Consul- General. — Dr. M. V. Montenegro.
Consul. — N. G. Burch.
There are Consular representatives at Cardiff, Dundee, Glasgow, Liver-
pool, Manchester, Southampton, Swansea, Cape Town, Jamaica, Melbourne,
Montreal.
2. Of Great Britain in Venezuela.
Minister and Consul- General. — [Diplomatic relations suspended Decem-
ber 1887.]
There are Consular representatives at Caracas, Bolivar, La Guayra,
Maracaibo, Puerto Caballo.
Statistical and other Books of Reference concerning Venezuela.
1. Official Publications.
Segundo censo de la Republica. Caracas, 1881.
Statistical Annuary of the United States of Venezuela. Caracas, 1891.
Reports by Colonel Mansfield on the Trade, Commerce, and General Material Condition
of Venezuela in 1883, in 'Reports from H.M.'s Diplomatic and Consular Agents Abroad.'
Part I. Folio. London, 1885.
Report on the State of Bolivar and the Mines of Yuruari, in No. 138, and on the Trade of
Puerto Caballo, in No. 144, of 'Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' 1887.
Report on Venezuela, in No. 912, 'Diplomatic and Consular Reports.' London, 1891.
Trade of Venezuela with Great Britain, in 'Annual Statement of the Trade of the United
Kingdom with Foreign Countries for the year 1890.' 4. London, 1891.
2. Non-Official Publications.
Appun (C. FA Unter den Tropen. Vol. I. Venezuela. 8. Jena, 1871.
Bates (H. W.), Central and South America. London, 1882.
Danee (C. D.), Four Years in Venezuela. 8. London, 1876.
Eattwiek (Edward), Venezuela, or Sketches of Life in a South American Republic; with
a History of the Loan of 1864. 8. London, 1868.
Erntt (Dr. A.), Les produits de Venezuela. 8. Bremen, 1874.
Meulemans (Auguste), La republique de Venezuela. 8. Bruxelles, 1872.
flp«n«(J. M.), The Land of Bolivar: Adventures in Venezuela. 2 vols. 8. London,
1878.
Thirion (C), Les etats-unis de Venezuela. 8. Paris, 1867.
Tejtra (Miguel), Venezuela pintoresca e ilustrada. 8. Paris, 1875.
Tfjera (Miguel), Mapa fisico y politico de los Estados Unidos de Venezuela. Paris, 1877.
INDEX
INDEX
AAC
AACHEEX, 538, 612
Abbas, Khedive, 1036
Abdul-Hamid II., 1009
Aberdeen, population, 22
— University, 34
Aberystwith College, 34
Abomey, 321
Abyssinia, 715
Adana, 1014
Adelaide, S
— University, 278
Aden and Perim, 100
Adolf, Duke of Nassau, 736
— Prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, 628
Adrar, 957
Adrianople, 1014
Afghanistan, area, 313
— army, 314
— books of reference, 316
— currency, 316
— exports, 315
— government, 313
— horticulture, 315
— imports, 315
— justice, 314
— land cultivation, 314
— manufactures, 315
— mining, 315
— origin of the Afghans, 313
— population, 314
— reigning sovereign, 313
— revenue, 314
— trade, 315
Africa, British East, 168
— central independent states, 317
— colonies in, British, 166
French, 507, 510
German, 568
Italian, 714
- — — Portuguese, 841
Spanish, 957
— (West), British colonies. 192
Agra, 125
Agram, 344
— University, 347
Ahmadabad, 126
Akassa, 189
Albany, 1068
Albert, King (Saxony), 622
Albert, Prince (Monaco .
Albrecht, Prince (Brunswick), 586
Albury (N.S.W.), 241
Alcamo, 683
Aldabra Island, 183
Alderney, population, 26
Aleppo, 1015
Alexander I. (Servia), 923
Alexander III. (Russia), 851
Alexandria. 1040
Alfonso XIII. (Spain), 942
Algeria, agriculture, 512
— area, 510
— books of reference, 514
— commerce, 513
— crime, 511
— defence, 512
— exports, 513 •
— finance, 511
— government, 510
— imports, 513
— industry, 512
— instruction, 511
— mining, 512
— mOney, weights, and measures,
514'
— population, 510
— railways, 514
— shipping, 514
— telegraphs, 514
Algerian Sahara, 511
Algiers, 511
Allahabad, 125
— University, 127
Alleghany, 1068
Alost, population, 380
| Alsace-Lorraine, agriculture, 572
1116
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
AL8
Alsace-Lorraine, area, 571
— constitution, 570
— finance, 572
— instruction, 572
— justice and crime, 572
— manufactures, 572
— mining, 572
— population, 571
— production and industry, 572
— railway, 572
— religion, 572
— representatives in the Bundesrath,
533"
Altona, 538, 612
Ambriz, 841
America, British colonies in, 202,
French colonies in, 507
— Spanish colonies in, 957
Amiens, 475
Amritsar, 125
Amsterdam, 765
— Island, 183
Andaman Islands, 157
Andorra, 505
Andria, 683
Angers, 475
Angola, 840, 841
Anghora, 1014
Anguilla, 230, 231, 232
Anhalt, area, 573
— constitution, 573
— finance, 574
— population, 573
— reigning duke, 572
Annabon, 957
Annam, area and population, 507,
509
Antananarivo, 517
Antigua, 230, 232, 233
Antwerp, population, 380
Aral Lake, 861
Argentine Republic, agriculture, 326
— area, 323
— banks, 331
— books of reference, 331
— cattle industry, 327
— commerce, 328
— constitution, 322
— currency and credit, 330
— defence, 326
— diplomatic representatives, 331
— emigration, 324
— exports, 328, 330
AUS
Argentine Republic, finance, 325
— government, 322
local, 323
— immigration, 324
— imports, 328, 330
— instruction, 324
— justice, 324
— land under cultivation, 327
— money, weights, and measures, 331
— population, 323
— posts and telegraphs, 330
— president, 322
— production and industry, 326
— railways, 330
— religion, 324
— revenue and expenditure, 325
— shipping and navigation, 330
Arnhem, 765
Aruba Island, 793
Asaba, 189
Ascension Island, 166
Asia, British colonies in, 100
— French colonies in, 507
— Portuguese colonies in, 841
— Russian dependencies in, 911
— Spanish colonies in, 957
Assab, 714
Assumption Island, 183
Aston Manor, 19 jj
Astrakhan, 862
Asuncion, 805
Athens, 648
Atlanta, 1068
Auckland Islands, 269
Auckland, N.Z., 256, 257
— trade, 1890, 267
— University College, 258
Augsburg, 581
Australasia and Oceania, 235
Australasia, French colonies in, 528
Australasian federation, 307
— books of reference, 308
Australian defence, 307
Austria-Hungary, agriculture, 358
— area, 340
— banks, 368
— births, deaths, and marriages, 343
— books of reference, 372
— commerce, 363
— constitution, 335
— currency and credit, 368
— debt, 353
— defence, frontier, 354
INDEX
1117
A08
Austria-Hungary, defence, army, 355
navy, 356
— diplomatic representatives, 371
— emigration, 344
— exports, 363-365
— finance, 349
— forestry, 361
— government, 335
central (Austria), 336 ; (Hun-
gary), 339
— — local (Austria), 338 ; (Hun-
gary), 340
provincial (Austria), 338 ;
(Hungary), 339
— imports, 363-365
— instruction, 346
— justice and crime, 348
— manufactures, 362
— mining, 361
— ministry, 336 ; (Austria), 337 ;
(Hungary), 339
— money, weights, and measures, 370
— occupation of the people, 342
— pauperism, 349
— population, 340
— posts and telegraphs, 367
— railways, 367
— reigning sovereign, 333
— religion, 344
— revenue and expenditure, 351-353
— rivers and canals, 366
— roval familv, 333
— schools, &c, 346-348
— sea fisheries, 362
— shipping and navigation, 365
— sovereigns since 1282, 334
— towns, 344
— universities, 347
Azores, 831
Azov, Sea of, 861
BADEN, agriculture, 577
— area, 575
— constitution, 575
— education, 576
— finance, 577
— manufactures, 578
— navigation, 578
— population, 575
— production and industry, 577
— railways, 578
— reigning grand-duke, 574
BAV
Baden, religion, 576
— royal family, 574
— towns, 576
Bagdad, 1014, 1015
Bagirmi, 318
Bahamas, 227, 232-234
Bahia, 401
Bahour, 508 %
Bahrein Islands, 100
Bali, 784
Ballarat, 291
Baltic (provinces of Russia), 858
Baltimore, 1068
Baluchistan, 154
Bangalore, 125
Bangor College, 34
Barbados, 227, 232-234
Barbuda, 230
Barcelona, 947
Bareilly, 125
Barfurush, 811
Bari, 683
Barmen, 538, 612
Baroda, 121, 125
Barranquilla, 434
Barrow-in-Furness, 19
Basel, 997
— University, 997
Basseterre, 230
Bassora, 1014
Basutoland, 166
Bath, 19
Bathurst, population, 241
Bautzen, 624
Bavaria, agriculture, 584
— area, 580
— army, 583
— beer brewing, 584
— births, marriages, and deaths, 582
— constitution, 579
— emigration, 581
— finance, 583
— government, 579
— instruction, 582
— justice and crime, 583
— mining, 584
— pauperism, 583
— population, 580
— railways, 584
— regent, 579
— reigning king, 579
— religion, 582
— royal family, 578
1118
THE STATESMANS YEAR-BOOK, 1892
Bechuanaland, 167, 168
Bedford College, London, 35
Belem, 401
Belfast, 25
— Queen's College, 34
Belgium, agriculture, 385
— area, 378
— army, 384, 385 §
— births, deaths, and marriages, 379
— books of reference, 393
— commerce, 387
— constitution, 376
— currency and credit, 391
— debt, 384
— defence, 384
— diplomatic representatives, 392
— emigration, 379
— exports, 388, 389
— finance, 383
— government, 376
local, 377
— immigration, 379
— imports, 388, 389
— instruction, 380
— justice and crime, 382
— mining and metals, 386
— ministry, 377
— money, weights, and measures, 392
— occupation of the people, 379
— pauperism, 382
— population, 378
— posts and telegraphs, 391
— railways, 390
— reigning king, 375
— religion, 380
— revenue and expenditure, 383
— royal family, 375
— schools, &c, 381
— shipping and navigation, 390
— towns, 380
— universities, 381
Belgrade, 925
Benares, 125
Bengal, province, government, 118
Benghazi, 1015
Benguela, 841
Berbera, 100, 320
Berditcheff, 862
Bergen, 981
Berlin, 538, 612
— University, 541
Bermudas, 202
Berne, 997
BOR
Berne, University, 999
Besancon, 475
Bessemer steel, 72
Beyrouth, 1015
Beziers, 475
Bhutan, 394
Bida, 189
Bigha, 1014
Bight of Benin settlement, 523
Bilbao, 947
Birkenhead, population, 19
Birmingham, 18
— College, 34
Bismarck Archipelago, 570
Bitlis, 1014
Blackburn, population, 19
Black Forest, 630
Blidah, 511
Bloemfontein, 801, 804
Bluff Harbour shipping, 1890, 267
Bobruisk, 862
Bogota, 436
Bois-le-Duc, 765
Bokhara, 911
Bolivia, area, 395
— books of reference, 398
— commerce, 396
— communications, 397
— constitution, 395
— consular representative, 398
— defence, 396
— exports, 397
— finance, 396
— government, 395
— imports, 397
— industry, 396
— instruction, 396
— justice, 396
— money, weights, and measures, 397
— population, 395
— production, 396
— religion, 396
Bologna, 683
— University, 692
Bolton, population, 19
Bombay, 125
— province, government, 1 ] 7
— University, 127
Bonaire Island, 793
BOne, 511
Bonn University, 541
l'<>nleaux,.475 '
Borgu, 189
INDEX
1119
BOR
Borneo, North British, 101
— East, 784
— South, 784
— West, 784
Bornu, 317
Bosnia and Herzegovina, 371
Boston, 1068
Botochani, 845
Boulogne, 475
Bourges, 475
Bradford, population, 18
Braga, 831
Brazil, area, 401
— army, 404
— births, deaths, and marriages, 402
— books of reference, 408
— commerce, 405
— constitution, 399
— currency and credit, 407
— debt, 404
— defence, 404
— diplomatic representatives, 408
— emigration, 402
— exports, 405
— finance, 403
— government, 399
local, 400
— immigration, 402
— imports, 405
— instruction, 402
— justice and crime, 403
— money, weights, and measures, 407
— navy, 404
— population, 401
— posts and telegraphs, 407
— president, 399
— production and industry, 405
— railways, 406
— religion, 402
— revenue and expenditure, 403
— shipping and navigation, 406
Breda, 765
Bremen, area, 585
— commerce, 586
— constitution, 585
— finance, 586
— justice and crime, 586
— population, 585
— religion, 585
— shipping, 586
— town, 538
Brescia, 683
Breslau, 538, 612
BIL
Breslau. University, 541
Brest, 475
Brighton, population, 19
Brisbane, 271
Bristol, 18
— College, 34
British Columbia, 207
— East Africa, 168
British Empire (see Great Britain
England, Ireland, Scotland,
India, &c.)
British Guiana, 223
— New Guinea, 238
— South Africa Company, 195
— Zambezia, 195
Brooklyn, 1068
Broken Hill (N.S. W.), 241
Broussa, 1014
Bruges, population, 380
Brunei, 102
Briinn, 344
Brunswick, agriculture, 588
— area, 587
— constitution, 587
— finance, 588
— mining, 588
— population, 587
— production and industry, 588
— railways, &c. , 588
— regent, 586
— town, 538
Brussels and suburbs, population,
380
— University, 381
Bucaramanga, 434
Bucharest, 845
Buckeburg, 628
Budapest, 344
— University, 347
Buenos Ayres, 324
Buffalo, 1068
Bulgaria, area, 1031
— commerce, 1033
— constitution, 1030
— currency and credit, 1034
— defence, 1032
— exports, 1033
— finance, 1032
— government, 1030
— imports, 1033
— instruction, 1032
— population, 1031
— posts and telegraphs, 1034
1120
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
BUL
Bulgaria, prince of, 1030
— production and industry, 1033
— railways, 1034
— shipping, 1033
Burnley, 19
Bury, 19
Byelostok, 862
CADIZ, 947
Cagliari, 683
— University, 692
Caicos Island, 229
Caen, 475
Cairo, 1040
Calais, 475
Calcutta, 125
— University, 127
Cambodia, area and population, 507,
509
Cambridge (Mass.), 1068
Cambridge University, 34
Camden (U.S.A.), 1068
Camerino University, 692
Cameroons, 568
Canada, agriculture, 213
— area, 206
— army, 212
— banks, 220
— books of reference, 220
— commerce, 214
— commissioner, 220
— constitution, 203
— crime, 209
— deaths, 207
— defence, 212
— education, 209
— expenditure, 210-212
— exports, 204-217
— finance, 210
— fisheries, 214
— government, 203
provincial, 206
— governor, 205
— immigration, 207, 208
— imports, 214-217-
— instruction, 208
— internal communications, 218
— justice and crime, 209
— mining, 214
— money and credit, 219
— money, weights, and measures, 220
— navy, 213
CAR
Canada, parliament, 203
— population, 206
— posts and telegraphs, 219
— production and industry, 213
— Queen's Privy Council, 205
— railways, 218
— religion, 208
— revenue, 210-212
— shipping and navigation, 218
Cannstatt, 639
Canterbury (N.Z.), 256
— College, Christchurch, 259
Cape of Good Hope, Agent-general,
178
— area, 171, 172
— banks, 178
— books of reference, 179
— commerce, 176
— communications, 178
— constitution, 170
— defence, 175
— expenditure, 174
— exports, 176, 177
— finance, 174
— government, 170
— governor, 171
— imports, 176, 177
— instruction, 173
— justice and crime, 174
— money, weights, and measures, 178
— pauperism, 174
— population, 172
— posts and telegraphs, 178
— production and industry, 175
— railways, 178
— religion, 173
— revenue, 174
— shipping and navigation, 177
— tramways, 178
Cape Town, 172
Cape Verde Islands, 841, 842
Caracas, 1108
Cardiff, population, 19
— College, 34
Cargados Islands, 183
Carlos I. (Portugal), 827
Carnot, Marie Francois Sadi, 467
Carol I. (Roumania), 844
Caroline Island, 310
— Islands, 957
Carriacou, 232
Cartagena, 434
Carthagena, 947
INDEX
1121
CAS
Caspian Sea, 861
Castamouni, 1014
naine, 291
Castries, S. Lucia, 282
Catania, 683
— Univ
• ;uii asus, 859, 861
• kwapoor, 126
( SftTinan, Uands,
Celebes, Island of, 784
< ettinje, 750
< Avion, ana, 103
— banks, 108
— books of reference, 108
— commerce. 106
— communications, 108
— constitution, 102
— defence, 106
— dependency (Maldive Islands),
108
— exports, 107
finance, 105
— government, 102
— governor, 103
— immigration, 104
— imports, 107
— industry, 106
— instruction, 104
— justice and crime, 105
— money, weights, and measures, 108
— pauperism, 105
— population, 103
— production, 106
— religion, 104
Chagos Islands, 183
Channel Islands, population, 25
Charleroi, population, 380
Charlestown (West Indies), 230
Chatham Islands, 269
Charlottenburg, 612
Chemnitz, 538, 625
-terfield Islands, 528
Chicago, 1068
Chile, area, 511
■ — books of reference, 418
— births and deaths. 412
— commerce, 414
— constitution, 410
— currency and credit, 417
— debt, 413
— defence, 413
— diplomatic representatives, 417
— exports, 414-416
COL
Chile, finance, 413
— government, 410
local, 411
imports, 414
industry, 414
- instruction, 412
— justice and crime. 4 1 8
— money, weight-, and ln.a-uns. 417
- imputation. 411
— posts and telegraphs. 417
— President. 410
— railways. 417
— religion, 412
.-! lipping ami navigation, 416
China, area, 421
— army
— books of reference, 430
— commerc
— diplomatic representatives
— exports, 425-428
— finance, 423
— government. 419
— imports, 425
— instruction, 422
— money, weights, and me
— navy, 424
— population, 421
— post, 429
- — production and imi
— railways, 429
— reigning emperor, 419
— religion, 421
— shipping and navigation, 428
— tea, 428
Christchurch. X. /.
Christian IX. (Denmark >.
Christmas Island, 165, 310
Chulalongkorn I. (Siam). 0
Cincinnati, 1068
Clermont-Ferran' I
Cleveland, 1068
Cochabamba, 396
Cochin-China (French), 509
Cocos Island-
Coimbra, 831 : University, 833
Cologne, 538, 612
Colomata, 648
Colombo, 104
Columbia, area, 433
— books of reference, 437
— commerce, 435
— constitution, 433
— currency and credit, 436
4 I
1122
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
COL
Columbia, defence, 435
— diplomatic representatives!, 437
— ■ education, 434
— exports, 435-436
— finance, 434
— government, 433
— imports, 435-436
— money, weights, and measures, 437
— - Panama Canal, 436
— population, 433
— posts and telegraphs, 436
— production, 435
— railways, 436
— religion, 434
— shipping, 436
Columbus, 1068
Comoro Isles, area and population,
507, 521
Condamine, 748
Congo Free State, 439
Connaught, province, population, 23
Constantine, 511
Constantinople, 1014
Cook's Islands, 310
Copenhagen, 452 ; University, 453
Cordoba, 324, 947
Corea, area, 444
— books of reference, 443
— commerce, 442
— finance, 442
— government, 444
— instruction, 441
— population, 444
— religion, 444
Corisco, 957
Corfu, «48
Cork, 25
— ■ Queen's College. 8 I
Cosmoledo Islands, 183
Costa Rica, area, 444
— books of reference, 447
— constitution, 444
— defence, 445
— diplomatic representatives, 446
— exports, 445
finance, 4 15
— government, 1 1 1
— imports, 445
— industry and e< rce, I l">
— instruction, 444
— justice, 444
— moncv, weight*, and measures, 146
— population, 444
DEN
Costa Rica, posts and telegraphs. 1 l'i
— railways, 446
— shipping, 448
Courtrai, population, 380
Coventry, 19
Cracow University, 347
Crefeld, 538
Crete, 1014
Croydon, 19
Cuba, 958
Cucuta, 434
Curacao, 793
Cyprus, agriculture, 110
— Commissioner, 109
— education, 109
— imports and exports, 110
— justice and crime, 110
— legislation, 109
— money, 110
— municipal councils, 109
— population, 109
— revenue and expenditure, 110
— shipping, 110
— sponge fishery, 110
Czernowitz, 344
— University, 347
DAHOMEY, 320
Dainao, 841
Damascus, 1015
Uamietta, 1040
Danube (province), 639
Danzig, 538, 612
Darfur, 319, 320
Darmstadt, 593
Dayton (U.S.A.), 1068
Delireczin, 344
Delft, 765
Delhi, 125
Denmark, agriculture, 46(1
— area, 451
- army, 455
— banks, 458
— births, deaths, and marriages, 452
— books of reference, 460
— colonies, 459
commerce, 156
constitution, 460
— crime, 453
currency, and credit, 158
— debt, 454
defence, 455
isdkx
1123
MB
Denmark, diplomatic and other re-
piaasntatiTcn, 459,
-■■ emigration, 4.')2
— expenditure. 453
ports, 456 l">s
— finance, 458
— government. 150
— imports, 456- 158
— instruction. 158
— kings of, sine i- 1448, 4 4'^
— ministry. 4.">1
— money, weights, and measures, 458
— navy. 155
— occupation of tin- people, 4.V2
— jwpiilation, 541
— l>osts and talauapha,
— production ami industry, l.'.t;
— railways, 458
— reigning king. 44!>
— religion, 452
— revenue, 453
— royal family, 44H
— shipping and navigation.
Denv.-V - 1068
Derby, 19
Dessau, ."'7:'>
Detmold, 595
Detroit, 1068
Deutsch-Damaraland, 568
Deutsch-Xanialand. 568
Deventer. 76.".
Devonjwrt, 19
Diego Garcia Island, 188
Diego-Suarez, 520
Dijon. 4 7"'
Diu, 841
Dominica, 230, 231, 232, 2=33
Dongola, 320
Dordrecht, 765
Dortmund, 612
Dresden. 588,
Dublin. 25 : University, 34
Ducic Island, 309
Dudoza Island, 310
Doisburg, 612
Duuaburg, 862
Dumlee, popidatiou, 22
— University. 34
Duuedin, X.Z.. 257 ; trade in 1890,
267
Durban, 184
Durham University, 3 1
Morf, 538, 612
Dutch But Indies, agriculture, 788
— area, 783
— array, 787
buna, deaths, and marriages, 784
— cinchona cultuiv. 7
— coffee culture, 788
commerce, 790
— constitution. ~
nsulv lvpr.-s'-ntativi-s 7!'l
— currency and credit, 791
— defence, 7V7
- exports, 7'"'
— finance, 786
— government, 788
governor-general, 783
— imports, 790
- instractHH
— justice and crime, 786
mining, 789
— money, weights, and means
- nav
— population, 7s
— posts and telegraphs, 791
— production and industry, 788, 789
— railway-
- religion. 780
- shipping, 791
— sugar culture, 788
— tobacco culture, 789
Dutch Guiana (Surinam), 792
— West Indies. 792
Cumeao, 788
— Surinam, 792
EAGLE Luanda, 183
Bast Imli.- (Dutch), 782 t^ee
Dutch East Indies
Ecuador, area, 461 .
— banks, 4»).".
— books of reference, 466
— commerce, 463
— constitution, 461
currency and credit. 464
— defence, 463
— diplomatic representatives, 465
— exports, 463
— finance, 462
— government, 461
— imports, 468
— instruction, 462
— internal communications, 464
— justice and crime, 462
4 0 2
1124
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
ECU
Ecuador, population, 461
— railways, 464
— religion, 462
— shipping and navigation, 464
telegraphs, 464
— weights and measures, 465
Edinburgh, population, 22
— ■ University, 34
Egypt, agriculture, 1044
— area, 1038-1040
— army, 1044
— 1 looks of reference, 1054
— budgets, 1891, 1892, 1043
— commerce, 1046
— constitution, 1037
— crime, 1040
— cultivation, 1044
— debt, 1044
— diplomatic representatives, 1054
— exports, 1046-1050
— finance, 1041
— government, 1037
— governorships, 1038
— imports, 1046-1050
— instruction, 1040
— justice and crime, 1 040
— ministry, 1037
— money, weights, and measures, 1053
— mudiriehs, 1038
— population, 1038-1040
— posts and telegraphs, 1053
— production and industry, 1044
— railways, 1053
reigning Khedive, 1036
religion, 1040
— revenue and expenditure, 1043
shipping ami navigation, 1050
Sue/ Canal, 1051
Egyptian Sudan,. 31!)
E3berfeld, 538, 612
Elisabethgrad, 862
EUice Islands, ;;10
Elohey, 957
England ami "Wales, agriculture, 94
et teg.
— agricultural holdings, 67
— area, 14-20
army, 55
— banks, chartered, 92
joint-stock, 92, 93
post-office, 93
trustee, 94
— births, deal lis, ami marriages, 26
PAM
England and Wales, canals, 88
— cities and towns, 18
— coal produce, 71
— commerce, 76
— ■ counties, 16
— criminals, 1886-1890, 39
— education, elementary, 36
— — medical, 35
middle-class, 35
— — universities, 34
— electorate, 1883, 1891, 8
— emigration, 27, 28
— fisheries, 69
— illiterates, 9, 33
— immigration, 27, 28
— imports and exports, 77
— income-tax, 48
— ironworks, value of, 49
— justice and crime, 37
— live stock, 66
— local government, 12
— metropolis, 20
- mines, value of, 49
— occupation of the people, 20
— parliamentary representation,
— pauperism, 40, 41
— population, 14-20
• — police force, 40
counties, 16
metropolis, 20
— property assessed, lit
— towns and cities, 1 8
— posts and telegraphs, 89, 91
— railways, 87
value of, 49
— religion, 28
— taxation, imperial, 48 ; local,
— textile factories, 73
— universities, ;; I
Erfurt, 612
Erlaiigen University, 511
Ernst, Duke, 630
Ernst II., Duke, 681
Krxeioum, 1015
Kssell, 612
Europe, British colonies in, 98
Esslingen, 639
Brora, 831
FALKLAND ISLANDS, iS%
l.ill Rivw (U.S.A.), 1068
l';iin.igusta, 109
IN'DF.X
1 1 25
KAN
Panning Island, 310
Ferdinand, Prince (Bulgaria), 1"
Fernando 1'
Ferram University, <>'.'•_'
Fiji, area. •_':!."■
— births and deaths, 236
— books of reference, 238
— common
— communications, 238
— constitution.
— exerts. _ _ -
— finance, I
— government. S
— imports. -IM .
— - instruction. 2:?6
— money, weights, and measures, 238
— population, 285
— production ami industry, 237
religion, 236
— shipping, 238
Finland, 857
— agriculture, 908
— area, 859
— banks, 910
— births, deaths, and marriages,
861, 908
— commerce, 909
— exports and imports, 909, 910
— finance, 908
— government, 857
— industry, 908
— instruction, 908
— mines, 909
— money, weights, and measures, 91 0
— pauperism and crime, 908
— population, 859, 907
— posts and telegraphs, 910
— ■ railways, 910
— shipping and navigation, 910
Florence, 683
Flores, SeBor Antonio, 461
Foggia, 683
France, agriculture, 492
— area, 471
— army, 485-487
— banks, 502
— births, marriages, and deaths, 474
— books of reference, 504
— budget, 482
— Chamber of Deputies, 468
— colonies and dependencies, 506
ft*/.
trade of, 506
FRA
France, colonies and depend)
in Africa. 510
America,
Aortal
Oceania.
— commerce, external,
— — internal. 496
— — with Great Britain ami Ireland,
1887-90. 499
— constitution, 4»i"
— cotton industries, 495
— crime, 478
— currency and credit, 502
— defence, 485
— deficits from 1814-1S89.
— diplomatic rem
— emigration, 475
— expenditure, 1878-1889.
— exports, 497-499
— finance, local, 483
| public property, 484
! state, 479
1 — fisheries, 496
I — foreigners residing in, 474
I — fortresses, 485
— government, central. l>'.7
local, 470
— illegitimacy, 473
— imports, 497-499
— instruction, 476
— internal communications, 501
— ironclads and protected vessels, 489
— justice, 478
— land defences, 484
— live stock statistics. 494
— manufactures. 495
— mercantile navy, 500
— mining and minerals, 494
— ministry, 467
— money, weights, and me
— national debt, 483
— navigation, 500
— navy, 488-491
— occupation of the people, 474
— Paris, yearly expenditure,
— pauperism, 479
— population, 471
. departments, 471
town*.
— posts and telegraphs, 501
— President, 467
— production and industry, 492
1126
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
PRA
France, protectorates, 506
— railways, 501
— religion, 476
— revenue, 480
— rivers, 501
— schools, 477-478
— Senate, 469
— shipping and navigation, 499
— silk industries, 494, 495
— sovereigns and governments from
1589, 468
— sugar works, 496
— textile industries, 495
■ — towns, 475
— tramways, 501
— universities, 476
— wine statistics, 494
— woollen industries, 495
Frankfort-on-Main, 538-612
Frankfort-on-Oder, 612
Franz Josef I. (Austria), 333
Freiburg, 576, 625
— University, 541, 999
French Congo, 515
— India, 508
— Indo-China, 508
— Soudan, 523
Friedrich I. (Baden), 574
Friedrich, Anhalt, 572
Friedrich Franz III. 597
Friedrich Willielm 1., 600
Fukuoka, 722
Funchal, 831
Fiirtli, 581
fl ABUN-CONGO, 515
VX Galapagos, or Tortoise Islands,
461
Galatz, 845
Gallc, 104
Galway, Queen's College, 31
Gambia, 192
— exports and imports, 192
— revenue ;ini I expenditure, 192
Gamtak, 156
Gando, 189
i lateshead, 19
Ocelong, 291
Geneva, 997
— University, 999
Genoa, 683
— University, 692
GER
Georg II., Duke, 632
George Tubou (Tonga), 1008
George Victor, Prince (Waldeck),
636
Georgios I., 645
German East Africa, 568
German Empire, agriculture, 552
— area, 534
— army, 545-549
— beer brewed, 556
— births, deaths, and marriages, 537
- — books of reference, 643
— Bundesrath, 532
— colonies and dependencies, 566
— commerce, 556
— constitution, 531
— crime, 541
— currency and credit, 564
— deaths, 537
— ■ debt, 545
— defence, 545
— diplomatic representatives, 565
— education, 539
— emigration, 537
— emperor and king, 530
— emperors since 800, 530
— exports, 557-560
finance, 543
— fisheries, 555
— foreigners resident in, 688
— forestry, 55 I
fortresses, 546
— government, 531
— illegitimacy, 537
— imports, 557*560
— inhabited houses, 536
— instruction, 539
— justice and crime, 6 1 1
— manufactures, 555
— marriages. 537
— mining, 554
— money, weights, and measures, 566
— navigation, 560
— navy, 549-552
— occupation census, 1882. 686
pauperism, 542
— population, 53 1 it »■</.
conjugal condition. 585
of states, 53 I
of towns. 588
— postal statistics, 568
— production and Industry, 552
— railways, 5t;-j
IXDEX
1127
GER
German Reichstag, 532
- religion, 538
— religiou- '>39
— revenue anil expenditure, .543. 544
— royal family, 530
— schools, 540
— • shipping, 560
— states, population. 53 I
— sugar manufacture,
— telegraphs, 563
— towns, 538
— trade and industry, 552
urffanuliea, 541
I toman South-west Africa, 568
Gtomany, states of, 570 et seq.
Ghent, population, 380
- University, 381
Gibraltar, area, 98
— army, 98
— - births, 99
— currency, 9S
— education, 98
— governor-general, 98
— population, 98
— posts and telegraphs, 98
— religion, 98
— revenue and expenditure, 9S
Giessen Univti^iry, 541, 593
Girton College, Cambridge, 35
Glasgow, population, 22
— University, 34
Glauchau, 625
Glorioso Island, 183
Goa, 841, 843
Gold Coast, 192
— exports and imports, 192
— revenue and expenditure, 192
Gold Coast Settlements (French), 583
Gondon, 716
Gorlitz, 612
Gbtelx>rg, 966
Gbttingen, University, 541
Goulburn, population, 241
Granada, 947
Grand Rapids, 1068
Grata, 344
— University, 347
Great Britain and Ireland, agricul-
ture, 63
— agricultural holdings, 67
— area, 14
— army, 53
distribution, 55
GRE
Great Britain, army from 1800-1870,
1890, 1891, 55
| estimates, 45
in India, .'■'
regular, 1890, 53
troops in colonii m,
— banks, chartered. 92
joint-stock, 92
post-office, 93
trustee, 94
— barley produce, 1887-1890, 66
— births, deaths, and man
— books of reference. 94
- budgets, 42 et strq.
— canals, 88
— — annual value, 49
— Celtic-speaking population, 16
— census, 1851, 1861, 1871. 1881,
14 ; 1891, 14
Civil Service estimat
— coal raised, 1889. 71
exports since 1851, 71
ports. 7 1
— colonies and dependencies, 97
et seq.
— commerce, 76
— Commons, House nt. 7
— constitution, 6
— corn and green craps,
— cotton, home consumption, 7;>
export -
impoi ;
— credit, 91
— crime, 37
— customs, 43, 49
— deaths, 26
— debt, 50
— defence. 13
— education, 33
— estimates, 1891-1892, 48
— emigration. 27
— expenditure, 41
— exports, 76
average per head, 1881-1890.
76
coal, ke., since 1851, 71
cotton. 73
foreign and colonial,
1890, 77
gold and silver. 1887-1891. 79
principal articles, 1889-1891,
81
wool, 1874. 1886-1890, 73
1128
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
GRE
Great Britain, farm holdings, 1885,
67
— finance, 41
— fisheries, 68
— gas works, annual value, 49
— gold bullion imports and exports,
1887-1891, 79
< — government, imperial and cen-
tral, 6
— — executive, 10
local, 12
— illiteracy, 33
— immigration, 27
— imports, 1881-1890, 76, 77
-average per head, 1881-1890,
76
cotton, 1815-1890, 72 ; 1886-
1890, 73
flour, 1891, 81
food, 1889-1891, 81
per head, 1869-1889, 83
foreign and colonial, 1889,
1890, 77
gold and silver, 1887-1891, 79
iron and steel, 1868-1890, 72
metals and minerals, 1886-
1890, 72
principal articles, 1889, 1890,
1891, 82
tea, 81
wheat, 1870-1891, 80
wool, 1874, 1886-1890, 73
— income, 42
tax, 48
— industry, 63
— instruction, 33
— iron and steel imports, 72
production from 1868, 72
value in 1890, 49
— judicial system, 37
• — justice and crime, 37
— land distribution, 64
owners, 64
1 i ve stock, 65, 66
— Local Government Board, 13
taxation, 52
— Lords, House of, 6
— marriages, 26
— military expenditure, ooionial con-
tribution, 97
— minerals. 89, 70
— mines, 69 ; value in 1890, 49
— ministries since 171 I. Lf
GRE
Great Britain, ministry, 10
— money, 91
— municipal corporations, 13
— national debt, 50-52
— navigation, 84
— navy, 5*7
actual strength, 1889, 59
Board of Admiralty, 57
estimates, 46
— — number of seamen and marines,
58
reserved merchant cruisers, 60
standard proposed to reach by
1894, 59
tabulated list of efficient iron-
clads, 61
vessels in commission, 58-63
in foreign service, 1891,
60
— oats produce, 1887-1890, 66
— occupations of the people, 20
— parliaments: duration during the
present century, 9
— pauperism, 40
— population, 14
counties, 16
— ■ — divisions, 15
towns, 18, 19
— postal statistics, 88
— production, 63
— quarries, annual value, 49
— railways, 87
value in 1889, 49
— registered electors, 8
— Redistribution of Seats Act.
1885, 8
— Reform Bill, 1832, 1867-1868, 8
1884, 8
— religion, 28
— revenue and expenditure, 11
— royal family, 3
— salt and alum works. •!')
schools, middle-chat, 86
voluntary and board, 36, 87
— Science and Art Department, 36
— shipping, 84
— silver bullion imports and exports,
1887-1890, 79
sn\ ereigna, list of, .">
— taxation, 48
local, 52
— technical education, ■'>'>
telegraph
INDEX
112«J
GRE
Great Britain, textile iadnati
— tramways, 87
— universiri
— waterworks, annual value of, 49
— trim* produce, 1887-1890, 66
— wool, exported, imported, and
home consumption, 73
Greece, agricultur
— are:i
— army, 6". -.2
— births, deaths, and marriages,
648
— hooks of reference, 656
— budget, 1892, 650
— commerce, 654
— constitution, 646
— diplomatic representatives, 656
— exports, 654
— finance, 649
— government, 646
— imports, 654
— instruction, 649
— mining, 653
— monev, weights, and measures,
655*
— navigation, 655
— navy, 653
— population, 647
— posts and telegraphs, 655
— railways, 655
— reigning king, 645
— religion, 648
— royal family, 645
— shipping, 655
Greenland, 459
Greenock, poptdation, 22
Greifswald Universitv, 541
Grenada, 231, 232, 233, 234
Grenadines, the, 231, 232
Grenoble, 475
Grimsby, 19
Griqualand, East and West, 172
Groningen, 765
Guadalajara, 739
Guadeloupe and dependencies. 527
Guanajuato, 739
Guatemala, area, 658
— books of reference, 662
— commerce, 659
— constitution, 658
— crime, 659
— defence, 659
— diplomatic representatives, 662
HAM
Guatemala, exports. r!8<"i.
— finance, 659
— government.
i — imiwrts, 660, 661
— instruction.
— money, weights, and mea
660
— population.
— posts and telegraphs, 660
— production and industry, 659
— railways, 660
j — religion, 658
' — shipping, 660
Guernsey, Herm, and Jethou, popula-
tion, 25
Guiana (British),
— (French
I Guinea, 840, 841
1 Gunther, Prince, 633
HAARLEM, 765
Hague, 765
Haidarabad, 121
Haiti, area, 662
— books of reference, 664
— commerce, 663
— constitution, 662
— defence, 663
— diplomatic representatives, 664
— exports, 663
— finance, 662
— government, 662
— imports, 663
— instruction, 662
— monev, weights, and measures,
664"
— population, 662
— religion, 662
Hakodate, 722
Halifax (Nova Scotia^, 207
— population, 19
Halle-on-Saale, 612
— ■ Universitv. 542
Hamburg.
— agriculture, 590
— area, 589
— births, 589
— commerce and shipping. 590
— constitution, 588
— deaths, 589
— emigration, 589
— exports and imports, 590
1130
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
HAM
Hamburg, finance, 590
— justice and crime, 590
— marine trade, 590
— marriages, 589
— population, 589
— religion, 590
Hamilton (Bermudas), 202
— (Ontario), 207
Hanley, 19
Hanoi, 510
Hanover, 538, 612
Harrison, Benjamin,
Hastings', 19
Hawaii, area, 666
— books of reference, 668
— commerce, 667
— ■ constitution, 665
— currency, 667
■ — diplomatic representatives, 667
— finance, 666
— government, 665
— instruction, 666
— population, 666
— reigning monarch, 665
— religion, 666
— shipping, 667
Hawkes Bay, 257
Hedjaz, 1015
Heidelberg University, 541
Heilbroim, 639
Heinrich, XIV., 629
Heinrich XXII., 629
Helder, 765
Helsingfors, 863
Hermoupolis, 648
Ilervey Islands, 310
Herzegovina, 371
Hesse, agriculture, 59 1
— area, 593
— constitution, 593
— finance, 594
— grand -duke, 592
— instruction, 593
— population, 593
— production and industry, 594
— railways, 594
— religion, 593
Hiroshima, 722
Ilud-Mrzu Vasarlirly, 344
Honduras, ana, 669
— books <>i reference, 671
commerce, 870
— constitution, 669
IND
Honduras, diplomatic representatives,
670
— finance, 669
— government, 669
— instruction, 669
— money, weights, and measures,
670
— population, 669
• — posts and telegraphs, 670
— president, 669
— railway, 670
Honduras, British, 224
Hong Kong, administration. 111
— area, 111
— births, 112
— books of reference, 1 1 5
— commerce, 113
— ■ constitution, 111
— deaths, 112
— defence, 113
— emigration, 112
— exports and imports, 114
— finance 112
— government, 111
— governor, 111
— instruction, 112
— justice and crime, 112
— money and credit, 114
— money, weights, and measures,
115
— population, 111
- revenue and expenditure, 113
— shipping, 118
Honolulu, 666
llowrah, 125
Huddersfield, population, 19
Hungary (sec Austria-Hungary)
1 1 uon Islands. 528
Hyderabad, 12.".
I< 'K LAX I), 151. 159
llni, 957
India, agriculture, 136
area, 1 IS ft Mq,
— army expenditure, 132
European, 55, 133, 184
native, 133
of independent states, 1811
— banks, railway, post-office, and
military, 150
— births, 124
— books of reference, 152
INDEX
1131
INK
India, collieries, 140
— commerce, 140
— constitution, 1 1 6
— cotton mills. 13S
— council, 1 1 7
— crime, 1 28
— currency, 15]
— deaths, 1 2 1
— debt, 132
— defence, 133
— dependent srat> •■». 1 r. I - / s&j.
— emigration, 124
— executive authority, 116
— expenditure, 129, 130, 132
— exports, bullion and specie, 1881,
1887-91, 141
merchandise. 1881, 1887-91.
140
merchandise, 1890. 1891, 142.
143
treasure, 1881, 1887-91, 141
— finance, 129
— forest ground, 1890. 188
revenue, 136
— government, 11. r>
municipal, 118
— governors-general, 116
— imports, bullion and si>ecie, 1881,
1887 91, 141
merchandise, 1881, 1887 91,
140
merchandise, 1890. 1891,112.
143
— instruction, 127
medical colleges, 1 27
normal schools, 127
technical schools. 127
universities, 127
— internal communications, 147
— justice and crime, 128
— land, cultivated and uncultivated,
1889-90, 139
irrigated, 137
ownership, 136, 137
revenue, 130, 131
— languages, 123
— money and credit, 150 ; money,
weights, and measures, 151
— municipal government, 118
— native states, 121
— occupations of the |>eople, 123
— opium revenue, 130, 131
— police, 129
IRE
India, ]*>pulation, 118 rt seq.
British territory. 1841-1891,
119
presidencies, provinces, and
divisions, 119, 120
native states. 121
according to nee, 122
British lorn, distribution of.
1881, in
occupations of, 1 0
of towns. 128
distribution according to re-
ligion, 126
— ]>osts and telegraphs. 1 It
— production and industry. 13.*.
railways, 148
— religion. 126
— revenue, 129, 130, 132
— salt revenue. 130, 131
— Secretary of State, 116
— shipping ami navigation. 145
— tenure of land, 136
— towns, 125
— trans-frontier land trade, 146
— Upper Burma, 120
Iudiana]iolis, 1068
Indian. Archipelago, Mi
Innsbruck university. 347
Ipswich, 19
Inland, agriculture. 61 ./ »q.
holdings. 68
— area, 28-25
army, 55
— hanks, joint-stock, 92, 93
post-office, 93
trustee, 94
— births, deaths, and marriages
— canals, 88
— cities and towns. 26
— coal produce, 71
— commerce, 76
— criminals, 1886-1890, 40
— customs, 49
— education, intermediate, 36
primary, 37
— ■ — universities. :;4
— electorate, 1883, 1SP1. S
— emigration, 27, 28
— fisheries, 69
— illiterates, 9, 33
— immigration, 2J
— imjwts and enporta, 77
— income- tax. (8
1132
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
IRE
Ireland, ironworks, vahic of, 49
— justice ami crime, 38
— live stock, 66
— local government, 14
— mines, value of, 49
— parliamentary representation, 8
— pauperism, 40, 41
— police force, 40
— population, 23-25 ; towns, 25
provinces, 23
— posts and telegraphs, 89, 91
— property assessed, 49
— railways, 87
value of, 49
— religion, 32
— taxation imperial, 48 ; local, 52
' — textile factories, 73
— universities, 34
Isle of Man, population, 25
Isle of Pines, 528
Ismid, 1014
Ispahan, 811
Italy, agriculture, 705
— area, 676
— army, 700
— — mobile militia, 701
— — permanent, 701
territorial militia, 702
— hanks, 713
— births, deaths, and marriages, 681
— books of reference, 717
— commerce, 708
— constitution, 673
.•rime, 692, 693
— currency and credit, 712
— debt, 698
— defence, army, 700
frontier, 699
navy, 703
diplomatic representatives, 713
— emigration, 681
— expenditure, 694-698
ports, 708-710
— finance, local, 699
public property, 699
state, 694
fisheries, 707
foreign dependencies, 711 ft s ' ■/
forestry, 706
governmenl 678 ; local, <'><":'>
illiterates, 691
Imports, 708-710
instruct ion. 'it'll
Ireland, internal communications, 711
— justice and crime, 692
— land proprietors, t'.M
— mines and minerals, 707
— ministry, 675
— - money, weights, and measures,
713"
— navigation, 710
— navy, 703
— occupation of people, 680
— pauperism, 694
— periodicals, 692
— Topes of Rome from 1417, 685
— population, 676
— posts and. telegraphs, 711
— prisons, 693
— provinces, 677
— railways, 711
— reigning kings, 672
— revenue, 694-698
— religion, 683
— royal family, 672
— schools, 690, 692
— See and Church of Rome. 686
ct seq.
— shipping, 710
— towns, 683
— universities, 692
JAFFNA, 104
Jagst, 639
Jamaica, 228, 232, 233, 23 I
Janina, 1014
Japan, agriculture, 727
— area, 721
— army, 726
— books of reference, 733
— births, deaths, ami marriages, 729
— budget, 725
— cities, 722
— commerce, 728
— constitution, 719
— currency ami credit, 731
diplomatic representatives, 782
— exports, 728 730
— finance, 721
— -government, 719: local. 721
Imperial Diet, 720
imports, 728-730
instruction. 728
— justice and crime. 728
manufactures, 728
1\1>KX
11:3:}
JAP
Japan, Mikado, 719
— minerals, 7--
— money, weights, :ui<l measures,
782
— nav . .
— pauperism, 724
population, 721
posts and telegraphs, 7:;i
— production and industry, 727
railways,
- religion, 72:;
shipping and navigation, 750
Jarris islands, :510
. B45
Java, .
Jena University, 541
Jeres de la Frontera, 947
. population, 26
1 'in, 1068
Jerusalem, 1015, 1016
Jeypore, 125
Jitnmir, 862
Johannesburg, 939
KAGOSHIMA, :
Kaisarieh, 1015
Kaiser Wilhelm's Land,
Kainaraii Inland, 157
Kampot, 509
Kanasawa, 722
Kandy, 104
Kanem, 318
Kano, 189
Kansas City, 10t58
Karachi, 125
Karagwe, 569
Karatheodori, Prince (Santos), 1034
Kuriral, 508
Karl Alexander (Saxe-Weimar>, 620
Karl II., 633
Karlsruhe, 576
Karahi, 911
Kashmir, 121
Kasscl, 612
Kazan, 862
Kecskemet, 344
Keeling Island.-, 165
Kermadec Islands, 269
Kharkoff, 862
Khatmandn, 757
Khartum, 320
Khelat, 155
LEH
Kherson,
Khiva, 912
Kieff, -
Kiel, 612
University .
Kilinarnock. 2-J
Kimherley, 1 7:;
King's College, London, 31
Kingston (Jamaica
Kingston-ujMin-Hull, 19
Kingstown (EL Vtneenl
Kioto, 1
Kishin.tr. -
Klansenberg Unh
Kobe, :
Kokam
Konia, 1014
Konigsberg, 538, 612
University, 541
Kordoian, 319, 320
Kossova, 1014
Kovno, 862
Krakau, 344
KiviVld, 612
Kreinentchug, 862
Kristiania, 981
Kuka, 318
Kmnamot", 722
I Kuria Muria Islands, 100
Kyrenia, 109
LABRADOR, 225
Labium, 158
Laccadive Islands, 157
Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, 86
Lagoon Islands, 310
Lagos, 192
— exports ami imparts, 192
— revenue and expenditure, 192
La Grande Aldee, 508
Lahore, 125
Lampeter College, 34
La Paz, 399
Larissa, 648
Lsrnaca, 109
Lebanon, 1015
Leeds College, 34
— population, 18
Leeward Islands, 230, 232, 233, 234
Leeuwarde, 765
Leghorn, 683
Le Havre, 475
1134
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
Leicester, population, 19
Leiden, 765
Leinster province, population, 23
Leipzig, 538, 624, 625
— University, 541, 626
Leith, population, 22
Le Mans, 475
Lemberg, 344
— University, 347
Leone XIII., 684
Leopold II. (Belgium), 375
Leyton, 19
Liberia, -area, 734
— books of reference, 735
— commerce, 734
— constitution, 734
— diplomatic representatives, 735
— exports, 735
— finance, 734
— government, 734
— imports, 735
— money, weights, and measures, 735
— population, 734
— president, 734
Liege, population, 380
— University, 381
Li-Hi, King of Corea, 441
Liliuokalani, Queen (Hawaii), 665
Lille, 475
Limasol, 109
Limerick, 25
Limoges, 475
Lippe, area, 595
— constitution, 594
— finance, 595
— industry, 595
— - population, 595
— prince, 59 1
Lisbon, 831
Liverpool, 19
— College, 34
Lodz, 862
Lombok, 784
London, population of divisions in
1881, 1891, 18 ; night and day
population, 20
Kind's ( Sollege, 34
— University I iollege, 8 I
London (Ontario), 207
Londonderry, 25
Lorca, 947
Lord Howe [aland, 258
Louisville, 1068
Louie, 831
Louvain, population, 380
— University, 381
Lowell (US. A.), 1068
Loyalty Archipelago, 528
Lubeck, area, 596
— commerce, 597
— constitution, 595
— expenditure, 596
— instruction, 596
— justice, 596
— pauperism, 596
— population, 596
— railways, 597
— religion, 596
— revenue, 596
— shipping, 597
Luck now, 125
Ludwig IV. (Hesse), 592
Lund University, 967
Luxemburg, 736
Luzon Island, 959
Lyons, 475
Lyttelton, trade in 1S90, 267
MACAO, 840, Ml
Macerata University, 692
Madagascar, area, 516
— banks, 520
— books of reference, 519
— commerce, 519
— consular representatives, 519
— - currency, 519
— defence, 518
education, 5] 7
— finance, 518
— French sphere in, 507
government, .">1ti
— justice, 518
— population, 516
posts and telegraphs, 519
— production and industry, 518
— religion, 517
— shipping, 519
sovereign, 516
Madeira, 881
Madras, 185
-province, government, 117
University, 127
Madrid, 947'
Madura. 788
Maesllielit, J1tt
IXDEX
1135
M.V«.
Magdeburg, 538, 612
Mahe, 508
Maitland (N.8.W.), 241
Malacca, 160-164
Mala-:.
Maiden Island, 310
Maldive Islands, 108
Malta, ana, 99
. 99
mm amor, 99
imports, 99
— population, 99
post, railway, telegraph, 99
- prodncta,
— revenue and expenditure, 99
Manameli, 100
Manchester, 18
— Collage, :'. 1
Mandalav, 126
Manihiki Islands, 310
Manila (Philippines), 959
Manipnr, 12-2
Manitoba, population, 207
Mannheim, .">7<'>
Mai hurt; University, 541
Maria Christina (Spain), 942
Marianne Islands, 957
Maria-TheresiojKH, 344
Marlborough (N.Z.), 256
Marseille. 475
Marshall Islands, 570
Martinique, 527
Maseru, 166
Mashonaland, 195
Maasawah, 320
Massowah, 71 1
Matabeleland, 195
Mauritius, area, 180
— books of reference, 1 83
— commerce, 181
— constitution, 180
— defence, 181
— dependencies, 182
— education, 181
— exports, 181
— finance, 181
— government, 180
- governor, 180
— imports, 181
— money, weights, and measures, 1^2
— population, 180
— religion, 181
— shipping and communications, 182
MKX
Mayence, 593
Mayotte Island, 521
Mccklenburg-Schwerin, agriculture,
598, 599
— area, 598
— constitution, 598
— crime, 599
! — duke, 597
— finance, 599
— instruction, 599
— justice, 599
I — pauperism, 599
— population,
— production, 599
— railways, 600
— religion, 599
Mecklenburg-Strelit/, agriculture, 601
— area, 600
| — constitution, 600
— emigration, 601
— finance, 600
— grand-duke, 600
— popiUation, 600
Mechlin, popiUation, 380
Medelln, 434
Meerane, 625
Meerut, 125
Melbourne, 291
— University, 292
Memphis, 1068
Merthyr Tydfil, 19
Meshed, 811
Messina, 683
— University, 692
Metz, 571
Mexico, agriculture, 742
— area, 738
— army, 741
— banks, 745
— books of reference, 746
— cities, 739
— commerce, 743
— constitution, 737
— currencv and credit, 744
— debt, 740
— defence, 741
— diplomatic representatives, 746
— exports, 743, 744
— finance, 740
— government, 737
local, 738
— immigration, 739
— imports, 743,744
11 30
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
MEX
Mexico, instruction, 739
— justice, 740
— manufactures, 742
— mining, 742
— ■ money, weights, and measures, 744
— navy, 741
— population, 738
— posts and telegraphs, 744
— president, 737
— production and industry, 742
— railways, 744
— religion, 739
— revenue and expenditure, 740
— shipping, 714
Middleshorough, 19
Miquelon, 528
Milan, 683
Milwaukee, 1068
Mindans Island, 959
Minneapolis, 1068
Minsk, 862
Modena, 683
— University, 692
Modica, 683
Mohamed Tcwfik, 1036
Moharek Island, 100
Molucca Islands, 784
Momhasa, 169, 170
Monaco, 748
Monaster, 1014
Mous, population, 380
Monte Carlo, 748
Montego Bay (Jamaica)! 228
Montenegro, agriculture, 751
— area, 750
— hooks of reference, 752
— commerce, 752
— communications, 752
— crime, 751
— defence, 751
— finance, 751
— government, 749
— instruction, 751
— justice, 751
— money, 752
pauperism, 751
— Petrovic dynasty, 749
— population, 750
— production and industry, 761
— reigning prince, 749
— religion, 750
— royal family, 7 I'.'
Montevideo, 1101
NAT
Montpellier, 475 ■
Montreal, 207
Montserrat, 230, 232, 233
Moorea, 529
Morant Cays, 229
Morocco, area, 753
— army, 754
— hooks of reference, 756
— commerce, 754
— defence, 754
— diplomatic representatives, 756
— exports, 754, 755
— government, 753
— imports, 754, 755
— money, weights, and measures, 755
— population, 753
— religion, 754
— Sultan, 753
Moscow, 862
Mossamedes, 841
Mozambique, 840
Muley-Hassan, Sultan (Morocco), 753
Mulhausen, 571
Munich, 538, 581
— University, 541
Minister province, population, 23
Miinster University, 541
Miircia, 947
Muscat, 800
Mutsuhito, Mikado of Japan, 719
Mysore, 121
NAGASAKI, 722
Nagoya, 722
Nagpur, 125
Naniur, population, 380
Nancy, 475
Nantes, 475
Naples, 683
— University, 692
Nashville, 1068
Nasr cd-diu, Shall of IVisia, S09
Natal, area, 184
— books of reference, 187
— commerce, 186
— constitution, 183
— defence, 185
— exports, 186
— finance, 185
— government, 183
imports, 186
— industry, 185
INDEX
11S7
N
NAT
atal, instruction, 184
- population, 184
■ poati and telegraphs, 187
- railways, 187
- shipping, 187
eckar, 639
edounkadan, 508
elson (N.Z. ), 256
epal, 7-'>7
etherlands, agriculture, 772
area, 763
- army, 770
Kinks, 780, 781
- births, deaths, and marriages, 764
- lxwks of reference, 794
- budget, 1891, 1892, 768, 769
- canals, 778
colonies, 782
- commerce, 774
- constitution, 760
- crime, 767
- currency an>l credit, 780
- debt, 769
- defence, army, 770
■ — frontier, 770
navy, 771
- diplomatic representatives, 782
- emigration, 764
- exports, 77" 777
- finance, 768
- fisheries, 774
- government, central, 760
— local, 762
- import.-. 77
• instruction, 766
- justice, 767
• manufacture-
mining, 774
ministry, 761
■ money, weights, and measures,
781*
navy, 771
pauperism, 767
population, 763, 764
]K>sts and telegraphs, 77'.'
production and industry, 77 li
railways, 778
reigning sovereign, 759
religion, 765
revenue and exjionditure, 768
royal family, 759
schools, 766
shipping and navigation. 777
NEW
Netherlands, towns, 7'i'
Neu Strelitz, 601
Neuchatel Academv, 999
Nevis (Island), 230
N-wark, 1068
New Brunswick, population, 207
New Caledonia, 528
— prison, population, 479
Newcastle (N.S.W.i. population 241
-:le-on-Tvne, papulation, 18
— College, 34 "
Newfoundland and Lahradc:
New Guinea, 238, 784
New Haven, 1068
Newnham College, Cambridi:
New Orleans, 1068
New]>ort (Mom), 19
New South Wales, agriculture. 2n;
— area, 241
— army, 245
— banks, 252
— births, 242
— books of reference. 252
— cabinet, 240
— Chinese poll-tax, 242
— commerce, 249
— constitution. 239
— crime, 244
— currency and credit,
— deaths, 242
— defence. 245
— emigrants, 242
— exports, 249-250
— ■ finance, 244
— government, 239
local, 240
— governor, 240
— illegitimacy, 242
— immigrants, 242
— imports, 249, 250
— instruction, 243
— justice and crime, 244
— manufactures, 249
— marriages, 242
— mines and minerals, 248
— money and credit, 252
— navy, 215
— occupation of people, 241
— population, 241
— posts and telegraphs, 252
— production and industry, 246
— railways, 251
— religion. 242
4 l)
1138
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
New South Wales, schools, 243
— snipping and navigation, 251
— tramways, 252
New York, 1068
New Zealand, agriculture, 262
— area, 256
— hanks, 268
— births, deaths, and marriages, 257
— hooks of reference, 269
— commerce, 265
— constitution, 254
— credit, 268
— deaths, 257
— defence, 262
— emigration, 257
— expenditure, 260
— exports, 265, 266
— finance, 260
— — local, 262
— government, 254
local, 255
— governor, 255
— immigration, 257
— imports, 265, 266
— instruction, 258
— justice and crime, 259
— - legislative council, 254
— manufactures, 264
— marriages, 257
mines and minerals, 26 i
— ministry, 255
— money, 268
— occupation of jieople, 263
— pauperism, 259
population, 256
posts ami telegraphs, 268
production and industry, 262
— railways, 267
— religion, 258
revenue, 260
schools, 259
shipping and navigation, 267
University, 258
Nicaragua, area, 797
books of reference, 799
commerce, 798
— communications, 788
— constitution, 797
diplomatic representatives, T'.'s
— finance, 797
— government, 797
industry, 798
• - Instruction, 797
Nicaragua, money, weights, and mea-
sures, 798
— population, 797
Nice, 475.
Nicholas I. (Montenegro), 749
Nicobar Islands, 157
Nicosia, 109
Niger Territories, 188
Nijni-Novgorod, 862
Nikolaieff, 862
Nimeguen, 765
Nimes, 475
Nisch City (Servia), 924
Nine Island, 310
Norfolk Island, 253
Northampton, 19
Norway, agriculture, 985
— area, 978
— ■ army, 984
— banks, 990
— births, deaths, and marriages,
980
— commerce, 986
— constitution, 976
— council of state, 97"
currency and credit, 990
defence, 983
emigration, 980
exports, 986 988
finance, 982
fisheries, 986
forestry, 980
government, central, * ► r * i
local, 978
Grundlov, the, 976
imports, 986-988
instruction, 981
justice and clinic, 98]
mines and minerals, 986
money* weights, and rneasufi
991
navy, 986
occupation of people. 980
pauperism, 982
population, 979
posts and telegraphs, D88
railways, 989
religion, 981
revenue and expenditure. 9S2
shipping and navigat ion, 988
— Storthing, the, 977
— towns. 981
— (See also Sweden)
INDEX
1139
NOR
Norwich, population, 19
NoBsi'B^ Island, ">21
Nottingham, 18
— College, o4
Noumea, 528
Nova Scotia, population, 207
Xul.ia (lower), 319
(upper), 319
Nui-va, 658
Niigata, 722
Nukualofa (Tonga), 1040
Nunez, Sefior Dr. Don Rafael (Co-
lombia), 433
Nuremberg, 538, 581
iland, 195
/ kBOCK, 521
U Oceania, French colonies in,
507, 528
•., 862
Offenbach, 593
Oil Islands, 183
Oil Rivers Protectorate (Niger), 189
Okayama, 722
Oldenburg, agriculture, 603
— area, 602
— constitution, 602
— grand-duke, 601
— instruction, 603
— justice, 603
— pauperism, 603
— population, 602
railways, 603
religion, 603
revenue, 602
Oldham, population, 19
Oman, 800
Ontario, population, 207
Oporto, 831
Oran, 511
Orange Five State, area, 801
books of reference, 804
commerce, 803
communications, 804
constitution, 801
crime, 802
defence, 803
finance, 802
■ government, 801
— instruction, 802
justice, 802
population, 801
PAT
Orange Free State, president, 801
— production and industry.
— religion.
— revenue and expenditun
Orel, 862
Orenburg, 862
Orleans, 475
Ormond College, Melbourne
Oruro, 396
Osaka, 722
Oscar II., 961
Ostend, population, 380
Otago, 256 ; University, Dm:
Ottawa, 207
Otto Wilhelm Luitpold, 578
Oulgaret, 508
Oxford University, 34
PACIFIC ISLANDS. 309
Padua, 683
— University, 692
Paisley, population. 22
Palermo, 683
University, 692
Palma (Bab
Panama Canal, 436
Pajieete, 529
Papho, 109
Paraguay, area. 806
— books of refereii ...
— commerce, 807
— communication -
— constitution, 805
— currency and credit, 807
defence, 806
— diplomatic represent
— finance, 806
— government, 805
— instruction, 8 •
— justice, 806
— money, weights, and mease
— population, 805
— president, S05
— production and industry,
— railways, 807
— religion, 806
Paramaribo, 792
Paris, 475
Parma, 683
— University, 692
Parramatta, population, 241
Paterson d'.S.A.), 1068
1 i. 2
1.140
THE STATESMAN S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
Patna, 125
Patras, 648
Pavia University, 692
Pedro Cays, 229
Penang, 159-164
Penrhyn Island, 310
Perim, 100
Pernambuco, 401
Persia, area, 811
— books of reference, 81 8
— commerce, 813
— currency and credit, 815
— defence, 813
— diplomatic representatives, 817
— exports, 814, 815
— finance, 812
— government, 810
— imports, 814, 815
— instruction, 812
— justice, 812
— money, weights, and measures, 816
— population, 811
— posts and telegraphs, 816
— railways, 816
— religion, 811
— royal family, 809
— Shah, 809
Perth (W. Australia), 302
— (Scotland), population, 22
Peru, area, 819, 820
— books of reference, 825
— commerce, 823
— constitution, 819
— defence, 822
— diplomatic representatives, 825
— exports, 823
— ■ finance, 821
— government, 819
— imports, 823
-i- industry, 822
— instruction, 820
— money, weights, and measures,
824
— population, 819, 820
— posts and telegraphs, 824
— president, 819
— ■ railways, 824
— religion, 820
— revenue and expenditure, 821
— shipping and navigation, 824
Perugia University, 692
Peter I. (Oldenburg), 601
Philadelphia, 1068
POR
Philippeville, 511
Philippine Islands, 957, 959
Philippopolis, 1032
Phoenix group of islands, 310
Pietermaritzburg, 184
Pilsen, 344
Pines, Isle of, 528
Piraeus, 648
Pisa, 683
— University, 692
Pitcairn Island, 253
Pittsburg, 1068
Plauen, 625
Plymouth, population, 19
Plymouth, Montserrat, 230
Pnom-Penh, 509
Point-a-Pitre, 527
Poland, 858
— area, 859
— births, deaths, and marriages, 861
— justice, 867
— population, 859
— sugar works, 894
— (see also Russia)
Pondichery, 508
Pondoland, 172
Ponta Delgada, 831
Poona, 125
Popo, Little, 567
Port Eli2abeth, 172
Port Maria, 228
Porto Rico, 957, 958
Portsmouth, population, 18
Portugal, agriculture, 836
— area, 830
— army, 835
births, deaths, and marriages, S32
— books of reference, 8 10
— colonies, 840
— commerce, 837
— constitution, 828
— crime, 833
— defence, 835
diplomatic rcpmscntativWj 840
emigrants, 832
— exports, 837, 868
— finance, 833
— government, 828
— imports, 837, 838
— instruction, 833
— justice, 833
— king, 827
— - marriages, 881
INDEX
1141
POR
Portugal, mines, 836
— ministers, 829
— money, weights, ami measures,
839
— navy, 835
— population, 830
— l>osts and telegraphs, 839
— production and industry, 836^
— railways, 839
— religion, 832
— revenue and expenditure, 834
— royal family, 827
— shipping and navigation, 839
— sovereigns since 1095, 828
— wine exports, 1886-1890, 839
Posen, 612
Potosi, 396
Potsdam, 612
Prague, 344
— University, 347
Pressburg, 344
Preston, population, 19
Pretoria, 939
Prince's Islands, 841
Providence, 1068
Prussia, agriculture, 618
— area, 610
— army, 617
— births, deaths, and marriages, 612
— breweries, 618
— commerce, 619
— constitution, 606
— ■ crime, 615
— debt, 617
— distilleries, 618
— educational statistics, 614
— emigration, 612
— expenditure, 616
— finance, 615
— foreigners, 611
— government, 606
local, 609
— instruction, 613
— justice, 615
— king, 604
— kings from 1701, 606
— minerals, 618
— ministry, 608
— pauperism, 615
— population, 610, 611
conjugal condition, 611
— railways, 619
— religion, 613
RAR
l'm-sia, nv.uut', 616
— royal family, 604
— schools, 614
— sugar manufacture, 618
— towns, 612
— universities, 614
Puebla, 739
Punakha, 394
Punjab University, 127
Pyrgos, 648
Pyrmont, 637
QUEBEC, population, 207
Queen's College, Bella -
Cork, 34
Galway, 34
Melbourne, 293
Queensland, agriculture, 273
— area, 270
— banks, 275
— births, deaths, and marriages, 271
— books of reference, 275
— commerce, 274
— constitution, 269
— defence, 273
— emigration, 271
— exports, 274
— finance, 272
— government, 269
— governor, 269
— immigration, 271
— imports, 274
— instruction, 272
— justice and crime, 272
— mines, 273, 274
— navigation, 27.".
— pauperism, 272
— population, 270
— posts and telegraphs, 275
— production and industry, 270
— railways, 275
— religion, 271
— shipping and navigation, -27">
Quetta, 156
Quito, 462
RAJPUTAXA, 121
Ranavalona, Queen (Madagas-
car), 516
Rangoon, 125
Raratonga Island, 310
1142
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
Ratisbon, 581
Reading, 19
Reading (U.S.A.), 1068
Rcdonda Island, 230
Reiehenbaeh, 625
Reims, 475
Rennes, 475
Reunion Island, 521
Reuss (younger branch), agriculture,
636
— area, 634
— births, deaths, and marriages, 634
— ■ constitution, 630
— • crime, 635
— - emigration, 635
— finance, 630
— pauperism, 635
— population, 634
— reigning prince, 629
— religion, 635
— revenue, 630 •
Reuss (elder branch), agriculture, 636
— area, 634
— ■ births, deaths, and marriages, 634
— constitution, 629
— crime, 635
— emigration, 635
— finance, 629
— pauperism, 635
- population, 634
— reigning prince, 629
religion, 635
— revenue, 629
Reval, 862
Richmond, U.S.A., 1068
Riga, 862
Kin de Janeiro, 1 01
- College, 402
Rio de Oro, 957
Rivieres du Sud, 522
Rochdale, 19
Rochester, U.S.A., 1068
Rodrigues, 182
Rome, population, 688
— archnuhopricB, 688
bishoprics, 689
— cardinal bishops, 688
priests, 686
deacons, 688
patriarchates, 688
Pope, election of, »>s i
Popes from 1117. 686
Sacred College, 686
RUS
Rome, See and Church, 684
— Supreme Pontiff, 684
— University, 692
Rostock, 598
— • University, 541
Rostoff-on-Don, 862
Rotterdam, 765
Rotujna Island, 235
Roubaix, 475
Rouen, 475
Roumania, agriculture, 848
— area, 845
i — army, 847
— births, deaths, and marriages, 8 15
— books of reference, 850
I — commerce, 848
— constitution, 844
— diplomatic representatives, 850
— exports, 848, 849
I — finance, 846
I — government, 844
; local, 845
— imports, 848, 849
— instruction, 846
— king, 844
— ■ money, weights, and measures, s"'H
— navy, 847
— • population, 845
— posts and telegraphs, 849
— production ami industry, 848
— railways, 849
| — religion, 846
— revenue and expenditure, 846
- shipping, 849
Russia, agriculture, 889
I — area, 858-860
i — army, 878
I peace footing, 879
war footing, 882
! — banks, 905
I — births, 861
i — books of reference, 913
commerce, S9-I
— const it ut imi. S5:S
— council of the state. 86 I
- crime, 867
j —currency, 871. 876, w\
deaths, 861
debt, 878, 87 I
defence, arm) . 878
frontier, 877
n;i\ \ . ss I
— dependencies in Asia, 811
IN DFX.
U48
RUS
Russia, diplomatic representatives,
907
!>eror, 851
i — exports, 894
— finance, Local,
state, 868
— forests, 891
— government.
local, 855
I My Synod, -
— inn
— attraction, 864
— justice and crime, 66/
— laana,
— manufacture-.
— marriage-.
— mines and minerals, 891
— ministn .
— many, mights, and mr.i-ui. -. 904
— nav
— peptdatioi
— l>osts and telegraphs, 904
— anas,
— prisons,
— production and industry.
— railway-.
— religion, 863
— rivers and canals, 902
— revenue and ex]ienditu;
— royal family, 851
— ruling Senas .
— schools, 865
— ship] ling and navigation. 901
— state finance, 868
— sugar works, >'.' I
— towns, -
— Tsars and emperon from 1613, 853
SABA ISLAND, 793
Sahara, French proteetora
St. Andrews University, 3 I
St. IJraudou Islands. 188
hristopher, 230, 232. 288
St. Croix ( \V. I. ), 459
St. Denis, 175
St. Etieinie. 475
St. Eustachc (Island), I
St. Helena, 190
St Helens. 19
St. John New Brunswick). 2U7
St. John (W.L), "230, 459
St. Kitts. 230
St. Louis, 1068
St. Louis (Senegal
St. Lucia, 232, 233, 234
farie, 521
St. Martiu (Island), 7
sure, 17."
St. Nicholas, population,
St. l'aul Island, 183
St. l'aul (U.S.A.i. 1068
St. Petersburg, -
St. Pierre,
St. (Juiutiu, 47">
St. Thomas (Portugal'.
St. Thomas ( \V. I. ), 459
St. Viueeni -Ml
Sakai, 722
Salford, ]Kjpulati<
Salouiea, 1014, 1015
Salvador, area, 915
— 1 looks of refei
' UllllllelV
— constitution, 915
— diplomatic representatives, 917
— finance, 916
— government, 916
— industries, 916
— instruction, 916
— justice, 915
— money, weights, and measures. '.'17
— jiopulation, 915
— railways, 916
— shipping, 916
Samara, 862
Samoa, 918
Samos, 1034
Sandhurst Royal Military and Stall"
Colleger-.
Sandhurst (Victoria), 291
San Francisco, 1068
San Juan, 957
San Luis Potosi.
San Marino, 683
Santa Cruz, 396
Santiago, 412
Santo Domingo, area, 919
— books of refer
— commerce, 921
— ■ constitution, 919
— defence, 920
— diplomatic represent
— finance, 920
— government, 919
— industry, 920
1144
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
SAN
Santo Domingo, instruction, 920
— justice, 920
— money, weights, and measures, 921
— population, 919
— posts and telegraphs, 921
— president, 919
— production and industry, 920
— railways, 921
— religion, 920
— shipping, 921
Santo Domingo (City), 919
Saratoff, 862
Sarawak, 102
Sark and Breehon, population, 26
Sassari University, 692
Savage Island, 310
Sawakin-Massawah, 320
Saxe-Altenburg, agriculture, 636
— area, 634
— births, deaths, and marriages, 634
— constitution, 630
— crime, 635
— emigration, 635
— finance, 630
— pauperism, 635
— population, 634
— reigning duke, 630
— religion, 635
— revenue, 630
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, agriculture, 636
— area, 634
— births, deaths, and marriages, 634
— constitution, 631
— crime, 635
— emigration, 635
— li nance, 631
— pauperism, 635
— population, 634
— reigning duke, 631
— religion, 635
— revenue, 632
Saxe*Meiningen, agriculture, 636
area, *>'■'> I
births, deaths, and marriages, 634
— constitution, 682
— crime, 888
— emigration, 686
— finance, 682
pauperism, 685
population, 68 1
— reigning duke, 882
— religion, 635
— revenue, 632
SCH
Saxe-Weimar, area, 621
— constitution, 620
— government, 620
— grand-duke, 620
— instruction, 624
— justice and crime, 624
— population, 621
— production, 622
— religion, 624
— revenue, 620
Saxony, agriculture, 626
— area, 624
— births, deaths, and marriages, 625
— breweries, 627
— constitution, 623
— distilleries, 627
— emigration, 625
— finance, 626
— government, 623
— instruction, 625
— justice and crime, 626
— king, 622
— mining, 627
— pauperism, 626
— population, 624
— production and industry, 626
— railways, 627
— religion, 625
— royal family, 622
Schaumberg-Lippe, agriculture, 628
— area, 628
— births, deaths, and marriages,
628
— constitution, 628
— finance, 628
population, 628
railways, 628
-- reigning prince, 628
— revenue, 628
Schiedam, 768
Schwarxburg-Rndolstadt, agriculture,
688
area. 68 I
— births, deaths, and marriages, 634
constitution, <!3:!
— crinic, 888
— emigration, 6.">:>
— finance. 688
pauperism, 688
— l>opulation. i>:'> I
— reigning prince, 6 "■
- religion, 6 ■"■•■
— revenue, 633
INDEX
1145
SCH
Sch warzburg-Sondershausen, agricul -
ture, 636
— area, 634
— births, deaths, and marriages, 634
— constitution, 633
— crime, 635
— emigration, 635
— finance, 633
— pauperism, 635
— ]>opulation, 634
— reigning prince, 633
— religion, 635
— revenue, 633
Sehwerin, 598
Scotland, agricultural holdings, 67
— agriculture, 64 ct seq.
— area, 20-23
— army, 55
— tianks, joint-stock, 92, 93
post-office, 93
trustee, 94
— births, deaths, and marriages, 27
— canals, 88
— coal produce, 71
— commerce, 76
— counties, 21
— criminals, 1886-1890, 39
— customs, 49
— education, middle-class, 34
primary. :'.7
universities. 34
— electorate, 1883, 1891, 8
— emigration. 27, 28
— fisheries. 69
— illiterates, 9, '■'/■'>
— immigration, 27, 28
— ini|)orts and export-. ! ",
— income-tax, Is
— ironworks, value. 49
— justice and crime, 38
— live stock, 66
— local government, 18
— mines, value of, 49
— occupations of the people. ii'>
— parliamentary representation
pauperism, 40, 41
- police force, 40
— population, 20-23
counties. 21
towns, 22
— posts and telegraphs, 89-91
— property assessed, 49
— railways, 87
8IA
Scotland, railways, value of, 49
— religion, 31
— taxation, Imperial, 48
local, 52
— textile factories, 73
— towns, 22
— universities, 34
Scranton (U.S.A.), 1068
Scutaria, 1014
Senaar, 320
Sendai, 722
Senega..
Seoul (Corea), 441
Seraing, population, 380
Servia, agriculture, 928
— area, 924
— army, 927
— births, deaths, and marriage*.
— books of reference, 931
budget, 1891.
— commerce, 929
— constitution.
— currency and credit, 930
— defend-. 937
— diplomatic representatives, 930
exports and imports, 929
— finance, 926
— forests, 928
— government.
— instruction. 925
— justice and crime, i
— manufacture, 928
— mining, 928
— money, weights, and measures, 930
— pauperism, 926
— population. 92 1
— posts and telegraphs, 930
— production and industrv, 92S
— railways, 930
— religion, 925
— revenue and exj»enditure, 926, 927
sovereign, 928
Servia, 1014
S.villa. 947
Seychelles, 182
Shandernagar, 50S
Sheffield College, 3 1
— population, 18
Shoa, 715
Siam, area, 933
— books of reference,
— commerce, 935
— defence, 934
1146
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
SIA
Siain, diplomatic representatives, 937
— finance, 934
— • government, 932
— king, 932
— money, weights, and measures,
936
— population, 933
— posts and telegraphs, 936
— production and industry, 935
— railways, 936
— royal family, 932
— shipping, 936
Siberia, 859, 860, 861, 8ti8
Sidibel-Abbes, 511
Siena University, 692
Siena Leone, 192
— exports and imports, 193, 194
I'ime and expenditure, 193
Sikkim, 156
Singapore, 159-164
Siwas, 1014
Smyrna, 1014, 1015
Society Islands, 528
Socotra Island, 100
Solia, 1032
Sokoto, 188
Solomon Islands, 570
Somali Coast Protectorate* 100
Sombrero Island, 231
Semerville Hall, Oxford, 35
South African Republic, agriculture,
940
- area, '.•:;!•
books of reference, 9 1 1
commerce, 940
communications, 940
constitution, 988
defence, 946
finance, 939
government, 938
instruction, 939
mining 940
population, 939
production and industry, 9 M)
religion, '.>;i'.»
South Australia, agriculture, 274
area, 277
banks, 282
births, ileal lis, ami marriages, 278
books of reference, 282
commerce, 2S0
constitution, 276
- debt, 279
SPA
South Australia, defence, 279
— emigration, 278
— exports, 280, 281
— factories, 280
— finance, 270
— government, 276
local, 277
— governor, 276
— immigration, 278
— imports, 280, 281
— instruction, 278
— justice and crime, 278
— mines, 280
— population, 277
— posts and telegraphs, 281
— production and industry, 279
— railways, 281
— religion, 278
— shipping and navigation. 281
Southampton, 19
South Shields, 19
Spain, agriculture 968
- area, 946
- ami}', 951
— books of reference, 960
— colonies, 957
— commerce, 963
— ■ constitution, 94.">
— debt, 950
— defence, ann\ , 961
frontier, 9M
navy, 952
diplomatic representatives, 956
exports, 968 966
finance, 948
government, central) 9 18
local, 946
imports, 968 i » ."> r.
— • industry, 908
instruction, 9 17
mining, 953
ministry, 945
money, weights, and measures, 956
navy, 952
population, 946
posts and telegraphs, 950
- production, 958
— queen regent, 9 12
railways. 956
religion, 947
revenue and expenditun . '.< 19
royal Gratify, 948
■ hooJs, 9 18
INDEX
1147
Sl'A
Spain, shipping and navigation. 956
— sovereign, 942
— sovereigns since 1512, 943
— towns, 947
— wines, 954
Spanish Town, Jamaica.
Srinagar, 12">
Starbuck Island, 310
Stettin, 538,
Stockholm, 966
tport, 19
Straits Settlements, am
— books of reference, 165
— commerce, 162
— communications, 164
— constitution, 158
- currency, 164
— defence, 162
tpOTtB, 163. 164
— finance, 161
— • government, 1 58
— governor, 158
— imports, 163, 164
— instruction, 160
— justice and crime, 161
— money, weights, and measures, 164
navigation, 164
— population, 159
— production and industry, 162
shipping, 164
'"urg, 538, 571
— - University, 541
Stuttgart, 538, 639
Sucre (Bolivia), 396
Sudan States, Central, :J17
Egyptian, 319
Suez Canal, 1051
Sulu Islands, 957
Sumatra, Island of, 784
Sunderland, population, 19
Surat, 125
Surinam, 792
Suvarof Islands, 310
Swansea, 19
Sweden, agriculture, 972
— area, 964
— army, 969
kanks, 975
births, deaths, and marriages, 966
- commerce, 972
itstitution, 962
— council of state, 964
— crime, 967
Sweden, currency and credit.
— defence, 969 "
— Diet, the, 963
— emigration, 966
— exports, 972-974
- finance, 968
— government, central .
— — local, 964
— imports, 972-974
instruction, 967
— justice, 967
— mines and minerals,
— money, weights, and me
— navy, 971
- pauperism, 967
— population, 964
— posts and telegraphs, 975
— railways, 974
— religion, 967
— revenue and expenditure,
— shipping and navigation, 974
- towns, 966
Sweden and Norway, lwoks of refer-
ence, 991
— diplomatic representatives, 991
— kings and queens since 1521, 962
— money, weights, and measures, 991
— reigning king, 961
— royal family, 961
— (see also Norway |
— (see also Sweden)
Switzerland, agriculture, 1003
— area, 995
— army, 1001
— books of reference, 1007
— births, deaths, and marriages
— Bundesrath, the, 994
— commerce, 1004
— constitution, 993
— crime, 999
— currency and credit, 1006
— defence, 1001
— diplomatic representatives, 1006
— exports, 1004, 1005
— finance, 999-1001
— government, central, 993
local, 995
— imports, 1004, 1005
— instruction, 998
— justice, 999
— inonev, weights, and meat
1006
— Nationalrath, the, 994
1148
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
SWI
Switzerland, population, 995, 986
— posts and telegraphs, 1005
— production and industry, 1003
— • railways, 1005
— religion, 997
— revenue and expenditure, 1000
— schools, &c, 998
— towns, 997
Sydney as a naval station, 307
— population, 241
— University, 243
Syracuse, 1068
Syria, 1015
Szegedin, 344
TABRIZ, 811
Taganrog, 862
Tahiti, 529
Tarnaki, 257
Tashkent, 863
Tasmania, agriculture, 286
— area, 283
— hirths, deaths, and marriages, 284
— books of reference, 289
— commerce, 287
— constitution, 282
— defence, -286
— emigration, 284
— exports, 287
— government, 282
— horticulture, 286
— immigration, 284
— imports, 287
— instruction, 284
— justice and crime, 285
— mines, 287
- pauperism, 285
— population, 283
— posts ami telegraphs, 288
— product inn and industry, 286
— railways, 288
— religion, 284
— revenue and expenditure, 285
shipping and navigation, 288
Tegucigalpa, 669
Tenerftn, 811
Tembuland, 172
Thuringiai] States, 629
— agriculture, 686
— area, 634
— births, deaths, and marriages, 624
— breweries, 636
TUN
Thuringian States, crime, 635
— ■ emigration, 635
— minerals, 636
— pauperism, 635
— population, 634
— religion, 635
Tiflis, 863
Tilburg, 765
Timor, 840, 841, 784
Tlemcen, 511
Tobago, 231, 232, 233, 234
Togoland, 567
Tokelau Islands, 310
Tokushima, 722
Tokyo, 722
Toledo, 1068
Tonga, 1008
Tongaland, 201
Tongarewa Island, 310
Tonquin, 510
Toronto, 207
Tortoise Islands, 461
Tottenham, 19
Toulon, 475
Toulouse, 475
Tourcoing, 475
Tournai, population, 380
Tours, 475
Toyama, 722
Transkei, 172
Trebizond, 1014
Trenton (U.S.A.), 1068
Trieste, 344
Trikala, 648
Trincomalcc, 104
Trinidad, 231, 232, 233, 234
Trinity College, Melbourne, 293
Tripoli, 1015
Tripolis, 648
Tristan D'Acunha, 192
Troy (U.S.A.), 1068
Troves, I7">
Tsait'ien (Emperor of China), 419
Tubingen University, 541, 640
Tula, 862
Tumlong, 156
Tunis, area, 507, 524
— Bey, 523
— books of reference, 626
— commeroe, 626
— exports, 525
— finance, 524
— government, 523
INDEX
114H
TUN
Tunis, imports, 525
— industry, 524
— money, weights, and measures,
525
— population, 507, 524
— posts and telegraphs, 525
— railway.^.
Turin, 683
— University, 692
Turkey, agriculture, 1024
— area, 1013
— army, 1021
— books of reference, 1035
— commerce, 1025
— constitution, 1011
— debt, 1020
— defence, army, 1021
frontier, 1020
navy, 1022
— diplomatic representatives, 1034
— education, 1016
— exports, 1026, 1027
— finance, 1017
— government, 1011
— imports, 1026, 1027
— loans, 1018
— mining, 1025
— money, weights, and measures,
1029
— navy, 1022
— population, 1013
— posts and telegraphs, 1028
— privy council, 1013
— production and industry. 1024
— railways, 1028
— reigning Sidtan, 1009
— religion, 1010
— royal family, 1009
— shipping and navigation, 1028
— sovereigns from 1299, 1011
— tributary states, 1030
Turk's Island, 229, 232, 233, 234
UGANDA, 169
Ulm, 639
Ulster province, population, 24
Umberto I., 672
Union, or Tokelau group of islands,
310
United States, 1056
— agriculture, 1080
— area, 1062
UNI
United States, army, 1077
— banks, 1096
— births, deaths, and marriages, 1066
— books of reference, 1097
— cabinet, 1058
— cereal crops, 1081
— cities, 1067
— commerce, 1088
— Congress, 1059
— constitution, 1056
— corn, 1083
— cotton, 1082, 1087, 1092
— currency and credit, 1095
— debt, 1074
— diplomatic representatives. 1097
— exports, 1088-1093
— finance, Federal, 1073
state, 1075
— fisheries, 1088
— foreign-born population, 1066
— forestry, 1085
— government, 1056
local, 1061
state, 1061
— House of Representatives. 10.*9
— immigration, 1066
— imports, 1088-1093
— Indian reservations, 1065
area, 1065
— — births, 1065
deaths, 1065
— — population, 1065
— instruction, 1069
— justice and crime, 1072
— live stock, 1084
— manufactures, 1086
— mines and minerals, 1085
— monev, weights, and measures.
1096
— navy, 1078
— occupations of the people, 1064
— pauperism, 1072
— population, 1062-1067
— posts and telegraphs, 1094, 1095
— president, 1057
— presidents since 1789, 1057
— production and industry, 1080
— railways, 1094
— religion, 1068
— revenue and expenditure, 1073,
1074
— schools, 1069, 1070
— shipping and navigation, 1093
1150
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
UNI
United States, tobacco, 1082
— towns, 1068
— vice-presidents since 1789, 1058
University College, London, 34
Upsala, 966
— University, 967
Urbino University, 692
Uruguay, area, 1100
— births, deaths, and marriages, 1101
— books of reference, 1106
— commerce, 1103
— constitution, 1100
— currency and credit, 1105
— defence, 1103
— diplomatic representatives, 1106
— emigration, 1102
— exports, 1103-1105
— finance, 1102
— government, 1100
— immigration, 1102
— imports, 1103-1105
— ■ instruction, 1102
— money, weights, and measures,
1106
— population, 1100, 1101
— posts and telegraphs, ] 105
— production and industry, 1103
— railways, 1105
— religion, 1102
— shipping and navigation, 1105
Utrecht, 765
VALENCIA, 947
Valetta (Malta), 99
Valladolid, 947
Valparaiso, 412
Vanua Levu Island, 235
Venezuela, agriculture, 1110
area, 1107, 1108
books of reference, 1112
— commerce, 1110
— constitution, 1 107
— defence, 1109
— diplomatic representatives,
exports, 1110, 1111
finance, 1109
— government, 1107
— imports, 1110, 1111
— instruction, 1108
— justice and crime, 1 109
mines and minerals. 1110
Venezuela, money, weights, and
measures, 1112
— population, 1107, 1108
— posts and telegraphs, 1112
— production and industry, 1110
— railways, 1112
— religion, 1108
— shipping, 1111
Venice, 683
Verona, 683
Versailles, 475
Verviers, population, 380
Victoria, agriculture, 295
— area, 290
— banks, 300
— births, deaths, and marriages, 292
— books of reference, 300
— commerce, 296
— constitution, 289
— currency and credit, 300
— debt, 295
— defence, 295
— emigration, 292
— exports, 295-298
— finance, 294 ;
— government, 289
local, 290
— immigration, 292
— imports, 296-298
instruction, 292
— justice and crime, 293
— manufactures, 296
— mining, 296
— occupations of the people, 291
— population, 290
— posts and telegraphs, 300
railways, 299
— religion, 292
revenue and expenditure, 29 I
schools and colleges, 293
shipping and navigation, 299
Victoria (British Columbia), 207
Victoria, Queen and Empress, ■'•
Victoria University, 8 1
Vienna, •"> 1 1
— University, :! 17
Villa Rica, 805
Villenour, 508
Vilna, 862
Virgin Islands, 280, 281, 232,
234
Vitebsk, BOS
Viti L'vn Island. 28fi
INDEX
1151
v.»i,..
Vuroii
Vryburg, 168
\\ADAI, 318
>) Wakayama,
Waldeck, agriculture, 637
t. 637
institution,
expenditure, I
- tiii
— l>oi»ulatio:
reigning prince, 636
- revenue, 637
-. live stock, 66
— agricultural holdings, 67
Wal'nsh Bay, 172
Wains Archipelag
Walsall, 19
Warrington, 19
Wareaw, 862
Washington,
Island, 310
Waterford, 2.".
Weimar, 621
Wellington (N.Z.), 256,
- trade in 1890. 2
African Colonies, 192
West Bromwich, 19
:i Australia, agriculture, 301
-- urea,
Kink-, 306
— books of reference, 306
commerce, 30.">
enstitution, 301
debt, 304
- defi
exports, 30.".
finance, 301
vernment, 301
imports, 30.">
instruction, 303
justice and crime, 303
— money and credit, 306
— pauperism, 303
— population, 302
posts and telegraphs, 306
— production ami industry, 304
— railway, 306
— religion,
■ iooIs, 303
— shipping, 306
YK.M
Western Pacific (German depend)
in), 569
— Danish, 459
— Dutch, 7
Wart Ham, 18
Westland (N.Z. ■
Wieskaden, 612
Wigan, 19
Wilhelm II., German Emi>eror,
King of Prussia, 604
Wilhelm II. (Wurttem
Wilhelmina Helena Pauline (Nether-
lands), 759
Willesden, 19
Wilmington, 1068
Windward Islam ;-
Winnipeg, 207
Woldemar, Prince (lappa),
Wolverhampton, population, 19
Woolwich, Royal Military Acaii
57
Worcester (U.S.A.), 1068
Worms, 593
Wurno, 189
Wiirttemberg, agriculture, I
— area, 639
army, 642
— births, deaths, and man
— books of reference. 6 13
lueweries, 642
— constitution.
— crime, 640
— emigration, 639
— expenditure, 640
finance, 640
— government, 638
— industry, 642
— instruction, 640
pauperism, 640
- population, 639
railways, 642
— reigning king. 637
— religion, 640
revenue, 641
— royal family. I
Wiirzburg, 581
University, .'■ ll
AWKOBA, 189
± Vauaon, 50S
Yemen, 1015
1152
THE STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, 1892
YOK
Yokohama, 722
Yola, 189
York, 19
Ystradyfodwg, 19
ZAM15ESIA (British) and Nyassa-
land, 195
Zante, 648
Zantzen, 625
Zanzibar, area, 199
— army,. 200
books of reference, 200
— commerce, 200
— currency, 200
ZWO
Zanzibar, finance, 199
— government, 198
— justice, 199
— population, 199
— religion, 199
— Sultan, 198
Zaragoza, 947
Zeilah, 320
Zittau, 625
Zomba, 198
Zor, 1015
_Znlulan<l, 201
Zurich, 997
— Universal y, 998
Zwickau, 624, 625
Zwolle, 765
RICHARD CLA1 IND lOWS, LIMITED, LONDON INI) BUHOA\
1
PROVIDENT LIFE OFFICE.
FOUNDED 1806.
FINANCIAL, POSITION.
Existing Assurances ... £7,470,866 Annual Income ... £321,625
Invested Funds ... £2,690,809 Claims & Surrenders Paid £9. 108,217
Bonuses Declared £2.971.852
CLAIMS. 1 e are now paid within
>nths after proof of death as heretofore.
FOREIGN RESIDENCE AND TRAVEL.— The free limits of Foreign Residence
NON FORFEITABLE POLICIES. . yable at death, the
mly during a ( years.
.inms, befon
pletion of rhe full term, each I ;p Policy for fractional
amounts, as follow
30 years' Premium 1 30th of Sum Assured. 20 years' Premium 1 20th of Sum Assured.
25 years' do. 1 25th do. 15 years' do. 1 15th do.
10 years' Premium 1 10th of Sum Assured.
ENDOWMENT ASSURANCES.— The.-- are granted with participation in profits.
M1XITARY AND NAVAL OFFICERS, lolic: rll and War
lium of 10*. per cent, on I
until retirement from acl
AD1 \VI \«.l ».
ABSOLUTE SECURITY. EQUITABLE DISTRIBUTION OF PROFITS
LARGE BONUSES.
HALF-CREDIT SYSTEM. ( Thh ofert the advantage of a low Premium during th.
LIBERAL CONDITIONS. »,,.
50 REGENT STREET, W., & 14 C0RNHILL, E.C., LONDON.
ProtpettuMt ■ml furtkrr information to be obtained at Head Office or of any of the Agent*.
< HAKLRs -1KV -■- ■ - ■ ,-,,
Favourably Reviewed by over 80 influential Newspapers.
" UOW TO SELECT A LIFE OFFICE."
WW By G. M. DENT, P.S.S.
"Those who arc seeking an o-' ..plains witl
purpose of assurance will do well to pemse canons by which the security of ax
this ' fore deciding upon any may
particular company." — Bullionist. and shows!
the advanl 'erent orni-
"The statistics as to endowment as- pai '>er.
surance policies as investments are highly | '"Avalnal onlifeasstua
interesting and convincing." — Citizen. — Jforntn.-'
Price Is.; by post. Is. Id.
.To 'IN' HEVWOOD M --■ :' ■ v London.
LONDON CITY MISSION.
MISSIONARIES now employed in - in the
Metropolis to be reconciled to God through Jesus Christ our Lord,
nation.
:>al dealing.
________ Work pi rely undenominational.
For tl _ nditnre has exceeded the income hy £3,500.
il "f £7,000 the Committee have been compelled to draw npon their
comparatively small reserve find.
e is an immediate increase in the income of the Mission they fear they will
be obliged, most r> luoantly. to reduce their staff of Missn :
vert this cala i itj they ask all friends to come, without h •
■>ion.
Tli.- ::■.■■ - ■nt. Wrftak.f / T- S BUTCHISSON. M.A.
.1ECKETARIE.S ^ R0BER , |,\\VM)N". B A.
Treasurer, F. A. RKVAN.
Baskkrs: BARCLAY, BEVA*, KANsoM * (U. 34 Lohbaei. -
500
Advertising Sheet.
EAGLE INSURANCE COMPANY.
ESTABLISHED 1807,
FOR LIVES ONLY.
79, PALL MALL, LONDON, S.W.
City Office— SOUTH SEA HOUSE, THREADNEEDLE STREET, E.C.
directors.
Sir Georok RUSBBI.L. Bart., M.P, Chairman.
Charles BlscHuKF, Esq., Deputy-Chairman.
Thomas Allen, Rsq. I The Rt. Hon. Sir James Fbrgussoh
Orokre Brackenhury, Esq., C.M.O. Bart., M.P., R.C.S.I.
The Rt. Hon Fjord Od'i'tksi.uk. | C. A. Tjookh art Robertson, M I) F.R.C V
TbeRt. Hon. Sir Wm. HARTDvKE.Bt.,M.P, I IIksrv I'aii.l, Esq.
Henry Rose, Esq.
Colonel the Hon. W. P. M. v. Talbot,
Hctuan? an£> Sccrctavv.
George Humphreys, Esq., M.A., F.I. A.
SUMS ASSURED AND BONUS £6,875,000
TOTAL FUNDS £2.750,000
ANNUAL INCOME £300.000
THE ASSURANCE FUND.
Proportion of Assurance Fund (excluding Reserve for Annuities) to the
total SUMS ASSURED and the ANNUAL PREMIUMS payab
1877 32 per cent, of Liabilities and 11 times the Annual Premiums
1882 36 ,, ,, 18
1887 :'.'').'. ,, „ M
1889 37 „ ,, 14i
During the past 43 years the Company has
paid in Claims £9,400,000
And divided Bonuses amongst the Assured,
exclusive of those taken in reduction of
Premium, amounting to £1,300,000
LOW KATES of PREMIUM for ENDOWMENT ASSURANCES, which combine
the principle of INVESTMENT with that of INSURANCE.
The Now Prospectus of the Company issued in 1890 ntainiug (lit-
latest Modern and Liberal Conditions, a New Nou-Profii Table at Low
Rates, and Now Tables for Whole-Life and Endowment Assmam
.i Low Rates insuring a Contingent Bonus, will be sent on Application.
PERKEN, SON, & RAYMEHT, •558Sr«5SS; LONDON.
BONA-FIDE MAKERS
CATALOGUE POST FREE.
OPTIMUS EURYSCOPE
"The 'OPTIMUS RVPID
EURYSCOPE,' with its full
aperture of!} In. (its equivalent
focus bein- 11 in. ), defines with
EXTREME BRIU.I
**"* w I th a stop it
f?3'1-'" by 8 plate to
theenrm-,.. rthan
that engraved on the mount as
its possibility. Working as it
does with .such a J \R«;f
APERTURE (f/6 approxA it
serves as a portrait and group
Uns, as well as a landscape an'l
copying objective. There is no
doubt of its proving a most
USEFUL LENS." J. T ™°£
Iatlor, Britith Journal of
Photography.
" I should strongly recom-
mend Rayment's Camera It
is LIGHT, COMPACT
RIGID, and ex-
tends to about
doable the usual
focus."— Amateur
Photographer.
SPECTACLES ,
Eye Glasses, Fold-
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Lenses either
Spherical, Cylin-
drical, S j i hero-
Cylindrical or
Prismatic, White
or Coloured
Glasses of all Foci.
OPERA, Field,
or Marine Glasses
of every descrip-
tion.
TELESCOPES,
Binocular of
Highest Power.
TELESCOPES,
Monocular, very
Powerful.
ANEROIDS
f f ^ni^LUUUt POST
OPTIMUS
Manufacture Lenses, Cameras
and Photographic Apparatus. '
99
ENLARGING
AM>
IwK by ° 0Pti">us' Lew..
winch, as peryoi;:
have tried in the prmluc-
^%heads- Mone ™th * •
send two negatives taken
the head in one of them measur-
ing «ico inches, that in the other
being three inches. In both the
Perspective seems right enough
tnere being no appearance
°emg strained or violent.
„ '!With us jt wa* rather dark
and very ramy all dav, and I
took the negatives inside a
room, without a diaphragm
MAGICLANTPBK« «posure 7 sees, and 1
UANTERNS^ respectively. The SHAH!
or an the planes of the :
good, as you will p£!
" Yours tr
Trail i. Tavi.or."
MICROSCOPES,
Microscopic Ob-
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Lamps, and all
Accessories.
THERMOME-
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' aimum.Ao.
BAROMETERS,
rial, Board
of Trade, Marine,
Pit, and House-
hold..
JMATHEMATI-
CAL& SURVEY-
ING INSTRU-
MENTS, Theodo-
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T - Squares,
Squares, Curves
Spirit Levels!
Compasses.
Dcoi/rfc, SuPerior Workmanship Guaranteed.
PERKEN, SON, & RAYMENT. Ms±rVSa». i nwnnw
Advertising Sheet.
BRITISH EMPIRE MUTUAL
LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANY,
4 & 5 King William Street, London, E.C.
FOUNDED 1847.
ACCUMULATED FUNDS - - £1,500,726
PREMIUM INCOME - - - £193,951
TOTAL CLAIMS PAID, £1,824,734.
TRIENNIAL BONUSES. ALL PROFITS BELONG TO THE MEMBERS.
LIBERAL CONDITIONS.
Special Advantages with regard to Residence, Travel, and
Occupation.
LOW PREMIUMS. LARGE RESERVES.
INCREASED BONUS IN THE TEMPERANCE SECTION.
Loans granted on Freeholds, Leaseholds, and Reversionary
and Life Interest Securities.
REVERSIONS AND LIFE INTERESTS PURCHASED.
HOWARD J. ROTHBRY, F.I.A.,
Actuary and Sec
NORTH BRITISH AND MERCANTILE
INSURANCE COMPANY,
Incorporated by Royal Charter and Special Actt of Parliament.
TOTAL ASSETS at 31st December, 1890, £10,439,943 18s. 5d.
•■.i
...
Paid-up Capital
II. Fire Funds— Reserves (including Balance ufPru
III. Life i id of the L'fe
Annuity Branch 1
Revenue for the Year 1890.
\t :—
a
From I.' it:—
1- 11
Tte Accumulated F nds of the Lift Depart liability in r
Fire Department, a-. ! in e Accumulated Funds of | »rtment are
free from liability in respect
lent: Hra G KE <»F ROXBURGHE.
Yice-Pr<$ident : His Oba.e the DUKE OF SUTHERLAND.
Xonoon Directors.
Chairman: Babon SCHRODER. Deputy-Chairman : Pascof. Df Pre G:-.
| Ql INTIN HO' Ali
lion. C. W. Mn us. M.P. Gl
Alex. H. Camfbsll, Esq. ' Hon. C. N. Lawr
John v I Charles A. Catki
Fire Department: GEORGE HENRY BURNETT.
Manager of Lit' Department and Actuary: HENRY COCK BURN. Sectary : F.W.I
r; PHILIP WIN80R and E. A dkPAIVA.
HERMANN WEBKR, M D. and H. PORT. M.D.
flUHitfnii B1RCHAMAOO. J Auditor: JAMES HALDANE, Chartered
Eomburab Directors.
•L F. Waxkbr-Dri mmosd, Esq. i Krkdemoc Pttmas, Ksq. ISirJ.H. • . Bt.
DAVIIi li. ■ | CharlesGairi>xer, Es«j. Right H> IN.
>ir James Garpinf.r Baiki>. Bt. i Ralph D mas Clark, Bart.
Georoe Auumo -; . I JohjiWhabtos I . kri.es B. I.
Chak:
Mtmap-r: A. GILLIES SMITH, i - \ J.PLAYFAIR.M.B.F.R
Secretary: PHILIP R. D. MACLAGAN. Solicitor*': J. a: F ANDERSON. W.S.
A tuary : THOMAS WAIT ACE | Auditor: JAM ES HALDANE. Chart. Account.
i.i ik i>Ki>\it ram i .
The principles on which th s Company was founded, and on which i: to act,
combine the system of Mutual Assurance with the safety of a 1 i -Capital and
Accumulated Funds, and thus afford all the facilities and advantages which can prudently
be offered by any Life Assurance OftV?. Under these prineipfes the bc-
Oompany continues rapidly to increase.
Ninety per Cent of the Whole Profit* is divided among the Assurers on the Partici
Scale.
The Profits are divided every five years. Next division of Fronts. 31st December
Annuities "t all kinds are granted, and the rates fixed on the most favourable terms.
Prospectors and every information can be obtained at the Chief Off;..
LONDON -61 THREADNEEDLE STREET. EC.
EDINBURGH— 64 PRINCES STREET.
LONDON- {West End Branch)-* WATERLOO PLACE. S.W.
Advertising Sheet.
176th YEAR.
WESTMINSTER
FIRE OFFICE.
ZEHOTTIKriDIEID _A_.ID_ 1717.
CHIEF OFFICES:—
KING STREET, COVENT GARDEN,
LONDON, W.C.
BRANCHES:—
CITY OF LONDON. .5 KING WILLIAM ST. E.C.
BIRMINGHAM ...35 COLMORE ROW.
GLASGOW SAINT VINCENT PLACE.
LEEDS 28 EAST PARADE.
LIVERPOOL .6 CHAPEL STREET.
f WESTMINSTER BUILD-
' ( INGS, BROWN STREET.
MANCHESTER
RATES OF PREMIUM MODERATE.
LOSSES PROMPTLY AND LIBERALLY
SETTLED.
Forms of Proposal and every information on
application at the chief Offices or Brandies.
CHARLES ROUSE BROWNE,
Secretary,
NORTHERN
Assurance Co.
Income & Funds
1890
Fire Premiums.
£671.000.
Life Premiums.
£216.000
Interest.
£161.000
Accumulated
Funds,
£3.975.000
NORTHERN
Assurance Co.
HEAD OFFICES:
LONDON—
1 Moorgate Street.
ABERDEEN—
1 Union Terrace.
BRANCHES:
BIRMINGHAM.
BRISTOL.
DUBLIN.
DUNDEE.
EDINBURGH.
GLASGOW.
LIVERPOOL.
MANCHESTER.
NEWCASTLE.
NOTTINGHAM.
BOSTON. U.S.
CHICAGO.
CINCINNATI.
NEW YORK.
SAN FRANCISCO.
MONTREAL.
MELBOURNE.
LONDON BOARD OF DIRECTORS.
I Robert Baring.
Hlnrv Cosmo Ormi Bohsor, Esq . M.r
-r CHAPLIN. I
Sir Philip Orrie, K.C.B.
~-r>F.R Pearson Pi iti her. ¥.~q.
Alexander H
William E<:ertos Hubbai
Ki :ki>isam> Marshall H'
Hesrv Jam
William \* u.kinshaw. 1
etar* — H. E. Vfu -
Fire Department — James Robb, Man-iger. Life Department — Thos. H. O
Central Mamm per— JaS. Vai.i n
FIRE DEPARTMENT.— 1; « nted on Property situate in all i>arts
of the British Dominions, and in mo>t foreign Countries, at rates which an computet
according to the actual risk incurreil. The Company haa already ]«id over £6,500.000
in the settlement of claims under it* Firu Poll
LIFE DEPARTMENT. The Company otters the advantages of perl
_v-at economy in management ami moderate rates of premium. The total expenses
in the year 1890 were slightly under i per cent, of the Income from Premiums and Interest,
or, excluding commission paid t< - than Hi percent.
In the Participation Branch the wnole of the ascertained surplus at each valuation
belon. ed. The amount for the Quinquennium ending Slst DecemK--
rfieient to provide a Bonus of £\ 11#. per cei.t. per anuuiu upon the sum a-
or JET 16*. per cent, for the whole Quinquennium, besides leaving ±
forward. The Liabilities were ascertained by the well known combination ol
.aries H*(s) and H>» Tables of Mortality, with only 3 ht cent, assumed
be in future earned by the fuuds. which are acknowledged to I
.'. for the pur]
8 Advertising Sheet.
THE LONDONTaSSURANCE.
Incorporated by Iioyal Charter, A.T). 1720.
FOR FIRE, LIFE, AND MARINE ASSURANCES.
Head Office : No. 7 ROYAL EXCHANGE, LONDON.
Governor.
George William Campbell, Esq.
Sub-Governor. Deputy-Governor.
Henry J. B. Kendall, Esq. Howard Gilliat, Esq.
Directors.
Charles G. Arbuthnot, Esq. Edwin Gower, Esq.
otto August Benecke, Esq. A. C. Guthrie, Esq.
IIobert Henry Benson, Esq. Robert Henderson, Esq.
William Thomas Brand, Esq. Louis Urn,
Alfred Clayton Cole, Esq. Frederic Lubbock, Esq.
Henry Lloyd Gibbs, Esq. Admiral Sir F. L. McClintock,
mr Robert Gillespie F.R.S., K.C.B.
Henry Goschem, Esq. Greville ir. Palmer, Esq.
Howard Potter, Esq.
Robert Ryrie, Esq
Albert G. Bandeman, Esq.
1). P. Sellar, Esq.
Colonel Leopold R. Seymoi r.
General !Sir I). M. STEWART, Hart.. G.( ,B.
Lewis A. Wallace, Esq.
John Younc, Esq.
Secretary. Underwriter.
< '. A. Den'ION. John STEWART MACKINTOSH.
Actuary. Manager of the Fire Department.
Arthur II. Bailey. James Clunks.
The Corporation has granted Fire, Life, and Marino Assurances for more than o Century
and a half ; during thai long period it lias endeavoured t<> introduce into its practice all the
real improvements that have from time to time been suggested, and to afford every facility
for tin- transaction of business.
INCOME, 1890.
g ». ./.
Life Premiums 147,037 l B
Fire Premiums 423,766 c< s
.Marine Premiums 812,232 17 7
[ntaresl 139,724 11
Other Receipts 5,726 13 n
l.o-js. |s7 i-
PUNDS, 31st Dec, 1890.
Shareholders' Capital paid tip 448,276 " 0
Genera] Reserve Fond 810,000 0 0
Life Assurance Fund
Fire Fund 596,403 :i 8
Marine Fund 196,484 I l
1'iolit, and Loss I07.!7:> I
Provision for aci i 84,871 8 '
-
Prospectuses and copies of the -\< nnts can he had on application personally or hy
ad 1851.
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THREE PER CENT. INTEREST allowed on I -.repayable
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STOCKS, SHAKES, and ANNUITIES i
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Letters of Credit and Circular Notes issued for all parts of the world.
3TBACT of Fortieth Annual Balance Sheet. Mauch, 1891.
Amount at Credit of Subscriptions, Current ami Deposit I
Investments in the English Funds and other Negotiable
irities, and Cash in hand ... ... ... ... ... 5,0'.j-
Permanent Guarantee Fund, invested in Consols...
Amount of Assets in Excess of Liabilities:..
Nnml eis' Current and Deposit Accounts
I RKBKCK ALMANACK, with full particulars, post free on application.
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