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Author: Gardner, Frank D
Title: Successful farming

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245 10 Successful farming $ba ready reference on all phases of agriculture for

farmers of the United States and Canada : including soils, manures ...

$cby Frank D. Gardner ; with special chapters written expressly for

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• • •

• • • , •

« « • » •

• • • •

• M • * •

• • •

• •

•• •

Plan for a Farmstead.

1— Residence 2— Poiiltiy-house. 3— Milk-house. 4— Silo. 5— Dairy-barn.
6-Horse-barn T-Stora^e for crops. 8-Farm machinery. 9-Shop and garage.
10— Corn crib. Orchard on left, garden to right.

Successful

A Ready Reference on all Phases of Agriculture for-r|trn5i;^ijs^;^

of the United States and Canada

•- «

• tl !>•• •••

• It

• 4

Including

Soils, Manures, Fertilizers, Lime, Drainage, Irrigation, Tillage, Field
Crops, Crop Rotations, Plant Improvement, Meadows and Pastures, Weeds-
Vegetables, Vegetable Forcing, Mushroom Culture, Medicinal Plants-
Orcharding, Small Fruits, Nut Culture, Farm Woodlot, Floriculture-
Livestock, Dairying, Feeds and Feeding, Animal Diseases—Farm Manage-
ment, Records and Accounts, Markets and Marketing, Land Rental,
Labor— Farm Buildings, Fences, Engines, Tractors, Machinery, Sanita-
tion—Plant Diseases, Insects, Fungicides, Insecticides— Domestic Economy,
Housing, Clothing, Education, Information— Useful Tables, Composition
of Products, Feeding Standards, Weights, Measures.

By FRANK D. GARDNER

Professor of Ajlronomy, Pennsylvania State College and Experiment Station

With Special chapters written expressly for this book

by the following authorities

AGEE. ALVA. Director Agricultural Extension. N. J.

ANTHONY E. L.. Instructor in Dairying. Pa.

BAKER. MRS. CHARLOTTE G.. Textile Special-
ist. III. . .

BLASINGAME. R. U.. Professor of Agricultural
Engineering. Ala.

BUCKLEY. SAMUEL. Professor Veterinary Science.
Md.

CAUTHENE. E. F.. Associate in Agronomy. Ala.

COCHEL. W A.. Professor of Animal Husbandry.
Kansas.

COOK. M. T.. Plant Pathologist. N. J.

CORBETT. L. C. Horticulturist, U. S. Department
Agriculture.

COWELL. A. W.. Professor of Landscape Gardenmg.

Pa.
DARST. W. H.. Assistant Professor of Agronomy. Pa.

EVVARD, J. M.. Swine Specialist, la.

GARMAN. H.. Entomologist and Zoologist. Ky.

GRINDLEY. H. S.. Professor Animal Nutrition. III.

GOLDTHWAITE. MISS NELLIE E.. Dean of

Women. N. H.
HUGHES. E. H.. Assistant Professor of Animal

Husbandry. Wis.
HUMPHREY. GEpRGE C. Professor of Animal

Husbandry. Wis.

KAINS. M. G.. Professor of Horticulture. Pa.
KILPATRJCK. M. C. Instructor in Poultry

Husbandry, Ohio.
LARSON. C. W.. Professor of Dairying. Pa.
McNElSS. G. T., Tobacco Ejtpert, Texas.
MOON. F. F.. Professor of Forestry. N. Y.
NOLL. C. F.. Associate in Agronomy. Pa
PUTNEY. F. S . Assistant Professor of Dairying. Pa.
REED. C. A.. Nut Culturist. U. S. Department

Agriculture.
SEIARS. F. C, Pomologist. Mass.
STEWART, J. P.. Pomologist. Pa.
STOCKBERGER. W. W . Plant Physiologist. U. S.

Department Agriculture.
STONE. T. C. Instructor in Animal Husbandry. 0.
TOMHAVE. W. H.. Professor of Animal Husbandry

Pa.
WAID. C. W.. Extension Specialist. Mich.
WARE. H. M.. Mushroom Specialist. Del.
WATTS. R. L . Dean and Director. Pa.
WEBBER. H. J.. Dean and Director. Tropica!

Agriculture. Cal.
WOOD. W. B.. Assistant Entomologist. U. S.

Department Agriculture
WORK. PAUL. Superintendent of Vegetable

Gardening. N. Y.

PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED WITH EXCLUSIVE
DRAWINGS AND PHOTOGRAPHS

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International Institute

Department of Agriculture

CONDITIONS OF MEMBERSHIP

Regularly enrolled members of the Department of
Agriculture of the International Institute are entitled :

To receive free of charge, upon application, expert advice
on all questions arising in connection with the manage-
ment of the farm, including advice upon Soil Management,
Manures, Fertilizers, Lime, Drainage, Irrigation, Field
Crops, Crop Rotations, Plant Improvement, Meadows
and Pastures, Vegetable Growing and Forcing, Mushroom
Culture, Fruit Growing, Nut Culture, Floriculture-
Livestock, Dairying, Feeds and Feeding, Animal Dis-
eases—Farm Management, Records and Accounts-
Markets and Marketing— Farm Buildings, Fences,
Engines, Tractors, Machinery, Sanitation— Plant Diseases,
Insects, Fungicides, Insecticides— Domestic Economy,
etc., etc.

It is mutually imderstood and agreed :

A. That this certificate covers the above-mentioned service for a period
of one year only.

That not more than four questions shall be sent in at any one time
or during any one month.

That no attention will be paid to inquiries unless certificate number
is given, and the inquiry is accompanied by a self-addressed stamped
return envelope. Do not send the certificate, merely give number of
same which is printed in red on the reverse side.

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE

1008 ARCH STREET PHILADELPHIA. PA.

Note.— It will increase the interest and profit to be derived from the work of
the International Institute if the members in any particular neighborhood will
form a club and meet at regular periods to propose questions of general interest
and to discuss replies received from the Institute.

PREFACE

This book is written for farmers. It makes a popular appeal to all
men engaged in farming. It will also be of interest to the student of agri-
culture and the prospective farmer. It is designed to be a handy reference
on the whole range of agriculture in the United States and Canada. Tech-
nical terms and lengthy discussions have been avoided.

Ages of farm experience and a few generations of agricultural research
have given us a vast store of practical knowledge on tilling the soil and
raising crops and animals. This knowledge is scattered through many
volumes on different phases of the subject, in experiment station bulletins,
agricultural journals and encyclopedias. The important facts on which
the most successful farming is based are here brought together in orderly
and readable form. Not only are directions given for the management of
the soil and the raising of crops and livestock, but the business of farming
is fully discussed, showing why some achieve success and why others fail.

The subject-matter is arranged in ten parts of a number of chapters
each, and by referring to the Table of Contents any subject may be
quickly found. References are freely given at the close of each chapter.
Each chapter has been prepared by a specialist in the subject presented.
The name of the author appears at the beginning of each chapter. Those
unacknowledged have been prepared by myself.

The illustrations have been secured from many sources. Due credit
has been given these.

Special acknowledgment is due the publishers of this volume for its
conception, and for many helpful suggestions in the presentation of its
subject-matter.

Acknowledgment is also due Professor E. L. Worthen and Professor
R. S. Smith, both of The Pennsylvania State College, for helpful suggestions
and criticisms on soils and crop rotations. I wish also to especially acknowl-
edge the valuable editorial assistance of my wife in the preparation of the

manuscript.

Frank D. Gardner.

(3)

rv.

U'!,

International Institute

Department of Agriculture
CONDITIONS OF MEMBERSHIP

Regularly enrolled members of the Department of
Agriciilture of the International Institute are entitled :

To receive free of charge, upon application, expert advice
on all questions arising in connection with the manage-
ment of the farm, including adviceupon SoU Management,
Manures, FertiUzers, Lime, Drainage, Irrigation, Field
^ Crops, Crop Rotations, Plant Improvement, Meadows
and Pastures, Vegetable Growing and Forcing, Mushroom
Culture, Fruit Growing, Nut Culture, Floriculture-
Livestock, Dairying, Feeds and Feeding, Animal Dis-
eases-Farm Management, Records and Accounts-
Markets and Marketing— Farm Buildings, Fences,
Engines, Tractors, Machinery, Sanitation— Plant Diseases,
Insects, Fungicides, Insecticides— Domestic Economy,
etc., etc.
It is mutually understood and agreed:

A. That this certificate covers the above-mentioned service for a period
of one year only.

That not more than four questions shaU be sent in at any one time
or during any one month.

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE

1008 ARCH STREET PHILADELPmA, PA.

Note.— It wiU increase the interest and profit to be derived from the work of
the International Institute if the members in any particular neighborhood will
form a club and meet at regular periods to propose questions of general mterest
and to discuss replies received from the Institute.

PREFACE

The illustrations have been secured from many sources. Due credit
has been given these.

Special acknowledgment is due the publishers of this volume for its
conception, and for many helpful suggestions in the presentation of its
subject-matter.

manuscript.

Frank D. Gardner.

(3)

INTENTION AB SECOND EXPOSURE

CONTENTS

BOOK L SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT

Chapter 1. SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND CROP^ADAPTATION 33

Soils are permanent — What farmers should know — The science of the soil — How
soils are formed — Weathering and disintegration — Decomposition — What is the
soil — The soil solids — The soil fluid — Gases of the soil — Soil classification-y-Soil
surveys— Soils of the United States — Classification by texture — Crop adaptation —
Summary of soil adaptedness — ^Eastern soils not worn out — Soil adaptation of six-
teen crops common to Northeastern States — Soil adaptation of the leading crops
of the North Central Region, South Central and South Atlantic Coast Region,
Plains and Mountain Region, Pacific Coast Region — Aids to the solution of soil
problems.

Chapter 2. PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES 51

Texture of soil — Water-holding capacity of soils — Water movement in soil — ^Absorp-
tion of fertilizers — Plasticity and ease of cultivation — Texture affects crop adapta-
tion— ^Texture affects tillage—Structure of the soil — Granular structure— Granula-
tion improved by organic matter — Good tilth important — Solubility of soil
minerals — Rate of solubility depends on texture and kind of minerals — Soil bacteria
increase solubility — Rapid solubility results in loss of fertiUty — Chemical composi-
tion of soils — ^Availability important — Elements essential to plants — Soil bacteria-
Bacteria make plant food available — Nitrogen increased by bacteria — Bacteria
abundant near surface.

Chapter 3. FERTILITY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN 62

Fertility defined — Vegetation an index to fertility — Drainage reflected in character
of vegetation — Lime content and acidity related to plants — Vegetation and alkali —
Color of soil related to fertility — Maintenance of fertility — Fertility lost by plant
removal — Loss by erosion — Preventing soil erosion — Farming systems that main-
tain fertility — Deep plowing advisable — Tillage is manure — Rotations are helpful —
Rotations reduce diseases— <^over crops prevent loss of fertility — Legumes increase
soil nitrogen — Drainage increases fertility — Manure is the best fertilizer — Commer-
cial fertilizers add plant food only— The limiting factor— Fertility an economic
problem.

Chapter 4. COMMERCUL FERTILIZERS 72

Object and use of commercial fertilizers — What are commercial fertilizers— Where
are fertilizers secured— Carriers of nitrogen — Phosphorus — Potassium — Forms of
fertilizer materials — Relative value of fertilizer ingredients — The composition of
fertiUzers — What analyses of fertilizers show — Commercial vs. agricultural value of
manures — Mechanical condition — High-grade vs. low-grade fertilizers — Use of
fertilizers — Value of crop determines rate of fertilization — Valuable products
justify heavy fertiUzation— Character of fertilizer related to soil— What the farmer
should know — How to determine needs of soil— Effect modified by soil and crop —
Which is the best fertilizer to use— Needs of different soils— Crop requirements-
Fertilizers for cereals and grasses — Legumes require no nitrogen — Available forms
best for roots — Slow-acting fertilizers suited to orchards and small fruits— Nitrogen
needed for vegetables — Fertilizers for cotton — Miscellaneous fertilizer facts — Effect
of fertilizers on proportion of straw to grain — Principles governing profitable use of
fertilizers — When to apply fertilizers — Methods of application — Purchase of fertili-
zers— Home mixing of fertilizers.

(5)

CONTENTS

Chapter 5. BARNYARD, STABLE AND GREEN MANURES 94

Manure an important farm asset — As a source of plant food — Physical effect of
manures — Biological effect of manure — ^The value of manure — Horse manure —
Cattle manure— Hog manure — Sheep manure— Poultry manure— Miscellaneous
farm manures — ^Value of manure influenced by quahty of feed — Amount and char-
acter of bedding affects value of manure— Methods of storing and handling— Losses
of manure — Experimental results — How to prevent loss — Absorbents vs. cisterns —
Sterilization — Reinforcing of manures — Economical use of mamiro — To what crops
should manure be applied — To what soils should manure be applied — Climate
affects decomposition — Eroded soils most in need of manure — Rate of ai)plication —
Methods of applying manure — Top dressing vs. plowing under — The parking
system — Distribution of benefits.

Green Manures.
WTien is green manuring advisable — Objections to green manuring — Principal
green-manuring crops.

Chapter 6. LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 115

Soils need lime — Lime content of soils — How soils lose lime — Lime requirements of
soils— -Crops require lime — Tolerance to acidity — Lime as affecting growth of plants
— Sources of lime — Forms of lime.

Functions of Lime.
Lime as plant food — Chemical action of lime — Physical effect of lime — ^Lime affects
soil bacteria — Lime corrects soil acidity — Sanitary effect of lime — Injurious effect of
lime — Rate of application — Time of applying — Frequency of application — Methods
of applying — Relative values of different forms of lime — Mixing with manure and
fertilizers — Experimental results — Spreading lime — Slaking lime — Crushing vs.
burning lime.

Chapter 7. SOIL WATER, ITS FUNCTIONS AND CONTROL 130

Amount and distribution of rain — Amount of water necessary to produce crops —
Transpiration by plants — Forms of soil water — Capillary water — Gravitational
^rat(»r — Hygroscopic water — Water affects temperature of soil — Water storage
capacity of soils — Moisture conservation — Removing excess of water.

Land Drainage.
Drainage increases warmth and fertility of soil — Improves health conditions — Open
vs. underground drains— Quality of tile — Cost of tile and excavating— Depth and
frequency of drains — Grades, silt basins and junctions — The outlet — Size of tile .

Chapters. GENERAL METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT 142

Objects of tillage — Plowing — Time of plowing — Depth of plowing — Subsoiling—
Disking — Harrowing — Planking or dragging — Rolling — Character of seed-bed-
Cultivation and hoeing — Control of weeds — Soil mulches — Soil erosion — Soil
injury — Time and intensity of tillage are economic factors.

BOOK 11. FARM CROPS

Chapter 9. CROP IMPROVEMENT 157

Plant selection — Kinds of variation — Hybridization — Choice of varieties.

Com.
The ear-row method — Ideals in selection of corn.

Wheat, Oats and Barley.
First year — Second year — Third year— Fourth year — Fifth and succeeding years
—Crossing of varieties in small grain breeding.

Potatoes.
Production of seedlings — Hill and tuber selection — Opportunities in crop improve-
ment.

CONTENTS

Chapter 10. THE ROTATION OF CROPS 166

Rotations defined — Purpose of rotations — Maintain good physical condition of
soil— Conserve organic matter and nitrogen — Provide for extermination of weeds
— Lessen insect depredations — Reduce plant diseases — Improve environment of
crops — Rotations insure returns — Prevent reduced crop yields — Rotations
systematize farming — Rotations distribute labor — Essentials of a good rotation
— Sequence of crops — Length of rotations — What crops to grow — When to apply
manure and fertilizers— Some suggested rotations — Methods of planning and
recording rotations.

Chapter 11. CORN (ZEA MAIZE) 177

Classification of corn — Varieties of com — The chief corn-growing states — Soil
and climatic adaptation — Crop rotation for com — Plowing for com — Manures
and fertilizers for corn — Time and method of planting — Rate of planting — Depth
of planting — Preparation of seed for planting — Cultivation of corn — Methods
of harvestings-Storing corn — Shrinkage of corn — Market gratdes of com —
Composition and feeding value of corn.

Com Improvement.

Securing seed — Selecting seed — Care of seed — Germination test — Germinating
box — Improvement by selection and breeding.

Chapter 12. WHEAT (WINTER AND SPRING) 197

Wheat production in the United States — Climatic and soil adaptation — ^Rotations
— Preparation of the seed-bed — Fertilizers for wheat — Time of seeding — Rate
of seeding — Grain drills — Winter killing — Wheat districts — District No. 1 — Dis-
trict No. 2 — District No. 3 — District, No. 4 — District No. 5 — Wheat improvement —
Harvesting — Cost of producing wheat — Enemies of wheat: Weeds — Insects —
Fungous cliseases — Treatment.

Chapter 13. OATS, BARLEY AND RYE 210

Oats.

Soil and climatic adaptation — Classes and varieties — Seed oats and their prepara-
tion for seeding — Preparation of the seed-bed — Fertilizers and manures for oats
— Time, rate and manner of seeding — Oats as a nurse crop — Harvesting, shock-
ing and threshing — Storing and marketing — Composition and feeding value —
Value of oats for hay and soiling purposes— Oat straw and its utilization — Cost of
producing oats — Oat improvement.

Barley.

Soil and climatic adaptation — Classes and varieties — Preparation of land and
seeding — Harvesting and use — Use of by-products.

Rye.

Adaptation and culture — Uses of rye.

Chapter 14. BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, EMMER, KAFFIR CORN AND

SUNFLOWER 220

Buckwheat.

Soil and climatic adaptation — Varieties — Preparation of soil and seeding —
Fertihzers and rotations — Harvesting and threshing — Uses of buckwheat.

Rice.

Soil and climatic adaptation — Preparation of land and seeding — Flooding or
irrigation — Harvesting and threshing — Yields and value.

Flax.

Soil and climatic adaptation— Preparation of land and seeding— Harvesting and
threshing — Yield and value of crop — Utilization — Diseases of flax.

CONTENTS

Regions of production-

Kaffir Com.
■Value and uses — Varieties-

Emmer.
Sunflowers.

-Production and harvesting.

Chapter 15. MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 230

Importance and value of grasses — Regions of production — Principal grasses of
North America — Valuable characteristics — Choice of grasses — Seed and seeding
— Harvesting.

Timothy.

Soil and climatic adaptation — Advantages of timothy — Seed and seeding —
Fertilizers and manures — Mixing timothy with other grasses and clovers —
Harvesting — Pasturing— Seed production — Composition and feeding value —
Improvement of timothy — Marketing the hay.

Blue Grass.

Soil and climatic adaptation — Importance of blue grass — Methods of establishing
— Pasture and maintenance.

Redtop.
Importance of redtop — Culture — Yields and uses.

Orchard Grass.

Importance — Culture — Yields and uses.

Brome grass — Tall oat grass — The fescues — Rye grasses — Sudan grass — ^Bermuda

grass — Johnson grass — Para grass — Guinea grass.

Chapter 16. THE CLOVERS 247

Characteristics of clovers — Uses of clovers — Inoculation — Composition and feed-
ing value — Harvesting methods.

Red Clover.

Soil and climatic adaptation — Endurance of red clover — Securing clover seed —
Preparation of seed-bed — Time, manner, rate and depth of seeding — Nurse crops
for clover — Fertilizers for clover — After treatment of clover — Harvesting of
clover — Clover seed production — Red clover troubles.

Alsike clover — White clover — Ladino clover — Crimson clover — Sweet clover —
Lespedeza or Japan clover — Bur clover — Hop clover.

Chapter 17. ALFALFA 259

Distribution of alfalfa — Soil and climatic adaptation — ^Essentials for success —
Varieties of alfalfa — Sources of seed — Need for fertilizers and hme — Preparation
of seed-bed — Time^ rate, depth and manner of seeding — Inoculation — ^After treat-
ment— Making alfalfa hay — Number of cuttings and yield — Other uses of alfalfa — ■
Composition and feeding value — Irrigation of alfalfa-— -Seed production.

Chapter 18. MEADOWS AND PASTURES 270

Extent, value and importance — Essential qualities of meadows and pastures —
Advantages of meadows and pastures — Soil and climatic requirements — Forma-
tion of meadows and pastures — Preparation of soil — Meadow and pasture seed
mixtures — Seeding grasses and clovers — Treatment of meadows ana pastiu*es —
Care of meadows and pastures — Improvement of meadows and pastures — Manur-
ing, fertilizing and liming — Utilizing aftermath — Capacity of pastures — Compo-
sition and palat ability of pasture grass and hay — Temporary pastures.

Chapter 19. MISCELLANEOUS ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS.... 282

Cowpeas.

Varieties — Time, manner, rate and depth of seeding — Seeding with other crops
— Fertilizers, tillage and rotations — Time and method of harvesting — Feeding
value and utilization.

CONTENTS

Soy Beans.

Varieties — Time, method, rate and depth of seeding — Inoculation, tillage and

fertilizers-^Time and method of harvesting — Composition, feeding value and

utilization.

Vetches — Canada field peas — Harvesting — Other annual legumes — Sorghums —

Millet — Rai>e — Catch crops for pasture and hay.

Chapter 20. ANNUAL LEGUMES, GROWN PRINCIPALLY FOR SEEDS.. 294

Field bean — Time, rate, manner and depth of seeding — Harvesting — Threshing
and cleaning — Yield — Field peas — Cowpeas — Soy beans — Castor bean — Vetch
— <^rimson clover.

Peanuts.

Soil and climatic conditions — Fertilizers and lime required— Time, rate, depth
and manner of planting — Seed selection and preparation — Varieties — Cultivation,
harvesting and curing — Preparing for market — Yields.

Chapter 21. ROOTS AND TUBERS FOR FORAGE 305

Relation to other crops — Utilization and feeding value — Sugar beets — Mangels —
Turnips and rutabagas — Carrots — Parsnip — Cabbage — Kale — Artichokes — Cas-
sava—Chuf a — Taro — Yout ia.

Chapter 22. THE POTATO 311

The soil — Crop rotation — Soil preparation — The seed — Fertilization — ^The plant-
ing— Cultivation — Diseases — Insect pests — Harvesting the crop.

Chapter 23. SUGAR CROPS (CANE, BEET AND MAPLE SUGAR, AND

SORGHUM) 318

Sugar Beets.
Adaptation — Preparation of land — Fertilization — Seeding and cultivation —
Harvesting — Seed production — Manufacture of beet sugar — By-products of beet
farming.

Cane Sugar.
Description and mode of reproduction — Soils — Varieties of cane — Rotation and
preparation of the land — Fertilizers — Cultivation — Harvesting — Cane sugar
manufacture.
Maple Sugar — Sugar making — Sorghum.

Chapter 24. COTTON PRODUCTION 329

Species— Characteristics of the plant— Seed— Varieties of upland cotton grouped
-Cluster group— Semi-cluster group— Peterkin group— King groui>— Big-boU
gro^ip — Long-staple upland group — Desired qualities of a variety — Selection —
Soils adapted to cotton — Special types of soils.

Fertilizer and Cultivation.
Plant food removed by cotton— Need of humus— Need of nitrogen— Need of
phosphoric acid— Need of potash— Commercial fertilizers profitable— Three-year
rotation suggested— Preparation of land— Time of plowing— Seed-bed— Plantmg
—Tillage.

Harvesting and Marketing.

Picking — Ginning — Cotton seed — Storing — Grades of cotton.

Chapter 25. TOBACCO '••."'\y'^^^

Tvpes and their commercial uses— Principal tobacco districts— Soils— Prepara-
tion and care of seed-beds— Preparation of the soil— Fertilizers— Transplanting
and cultivation— Methods of harvesting— Barn curing— Preparation for market-
Methods of selling.

CONTENTS

Chapter 26. WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION 353

Damage done by weeds — Weeds reduce crop yields — How introduced and spread
— Classification of weeds — Weed habitats — Principles governing control — Canada
1 histle — Quack grass — Foxtail — Dodders — Buckhorn — Plantain — Pigweed —
Lamb's-Quarters — Wild mustard or charlock — Shepherd's-purse — Peppergrass —
Cocklebur — Field bindweed or wild morning glory — Hedge bindweed — Fifty
worst weeds.

BOOK HI. HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FLORICULTURE

Chapter 27. THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE GARDENING 377

Soils and locations — Tillage and tools — Stable manures — Cover crops — Com-
mercial fertilizers — The use of lime — Seeds and seed sowing — Transplanting —
Starting early plants.

Chapter 28. VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 383

Asparagus — Bean — Beet — Brussel's sprouts — Cabbage — Carrot — Cauliflower

— Celery — Cucumbers — Eggplant — Horseradish — Kale — Kohl-rabi — Leek

— Lettuce — Muskmelon — Onion — Parsley — Parsnip — Pea — Pepper — Radish —
Rhubarb — Salsify — Spinach — Squash — Sweet corn — Sweet potatoes — Tomato —
Turnips — Watermelon.

Chapter 29. THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN 403

Choosing a site — The garden plan — Fertility — Tillage — Garden seed — Growing
early plants — Seed sowing — Transplanting — Cultivation — Irrigation — Pest control
— QuaUty of vegetables— ?>torage of vegetables — Literature.

Chapter 30. VEGETABLE FORCING 413

Cold-frames — Hotbeds — The greenhouse — Growing plants under glass.

Chapter 31. MUSHROOM CULTURE 417

Houses — Preparation of the compost — Filling the beds — Spawning — Casing the
beds — Temperature — Water — Ventilation — Picking and marketing — Mushroom
enemies — Yield and returns.

Chapter 32. MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS 424

Requirements for medicinal plants — ^Anise — Belladonna — Caraway — Coriander —
Digitalis or foxglove — Common sage plant — Ginsc^ig — Peppermint — Spearmint —
Tansy — Wormwood — American wormseed — Addit ional equipment.

Chapter 33. PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION, WITH SPECIAL

REFERENCE TO THE HOME PLANTATION 429

The main factors to consider — Moisture — Soil — Subsoil — The parasite — Site —
Aspect — Wind-breaks — Nursery stock — Southern vs. Northern grown nursery trees
— Time to plant — To heel-in trees — Marking out th(; field — Mixed plantings — The
operation of planting — First pruning — How fruit buds are borne — Pruning for
fruit — Pruning older trees — Tillage — Fertilizing — Thinning — Spraying — Harvest-
ing and marketing — The value and importance of the home fruit garden — Quality
first for the home.

Chapter 34. SMALL FRUITS 438

The Strawberry.

Selection of soil — Preparation of the soil — Fertilizers — Selecting and preparing the
plants — Perfect and imperfect flowered plants — When to set the plants — How to
set the plants — Depth to set the plants — Planting in hills — Renewing old beds —
Cultivation— Objects of mulching — Materials for mulch — Harvesting and shipping
— ^When to apply the mulch — Receptacles.

The Raspberry. Red raspberries — Selection and preparation of soil — Planting —
Cultivation — Fertilizers — Prunmg — Harvesting the fruit — Black raspberries or
blackcaps — Propagation — Character of the soil — Preparation of the soil — Cultiva-
tion— Winter protection — ^Fertihzers — Pruning — Harvesting.
The Blackberry. Soil-7Propagation — Planting, tillage and fertilizers— Pruning
and training — Harvesting.

The Currant. Soil requirements — Culture and fertiUzation — ^Enemies and dis-
eases— Harvesting the fruit.

The Gooseberry. Soil — Preparation of land— Plants for setting — Planting —
Cultivation — Fertilizers — Pruning — Harvesting.

The Cranberry.

Chapter 34a. GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE 455a

goil — Preparation of the soil — ^Fertilizers — Choice of varieties to plant — Propa-
gation— Planting, plowing and cultivating — Pruning — Diseases and insects —
Picking.

Chapter 35. THE POME FRUITS 456

The Apple.
Origin — Cultural range — Propagation— Location and soil for the orchard— Varieties
—Purchase and handling of nursery stock— Laying out the orchard— Plantmg
the trees— Forming the heads— Later pruning— Soil management— Fertilization-
Protecting the trees— Spraying during the growing season— Thinmng—1< ruit
picking and storage.

The Pear.
Origin— Propagation— Cultural range— Varieties— Location, soil and culture-
Trees, planting and pruning— Protection and spraying— Picking the fruit.

The Quince.
Cultural range and varieties— Soil and cultural methods— Pruning— Enemies.

Chapter 36. STONE FRUITS ^72

Sites and soils — Nursery stock — Varieties — Planting — Soil majiagement — Fer-
tilizers— Pruning— Diseases, insects and spraying— Thinmng the frmt— Harvesting
and marketing.

Chapter 37. CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTIVATION 484

History— Citrus species and varieties— The sweet orange— The sour orange— The
lemon— The pomelo or grapefruit— The hme— The mandarin orange^The citron-
Citrus regions and their production— Propagation of citrus varieties— Orange
seedhngs— The orange nursery— Budding the nursery stock—Care of the nursery
stock— Planting the orchard— Cultivation-Irrigation— Fertihzation-Prumng-
Frost protection— Diseases— Insects— Picking, packing and marketing of fruit.

Chapter 38. NUTS AND NUT CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES 499

The Principal Nuts.
The peanut— The pinon {jyin-yon)— The Persian walnut— The pecan— The almond
— Nuts of minor importance.

Chapter 39. MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS ;••;;••.•. ^^^

The pineapple-Propagation-Soil-Preparation of s<>il-Z^^l*.i::**^^^^
Marketing— The avocado— The mango— The banana— The fig— The guava.

Chapter 40. THE FARM WOODLOT ^21

Need of forestry— Value of the woodlot— Managing the woodlot— Improvement
cuUings - Reproduction cuttings - Pruning - Plantmg - Financial results -
Summary.

CONTENTS

Chapter 41. BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS 531

The survey — Planning for convenience — Formal ornamentation — Informal orna-
mentation— Lawn planting — ^Use of flowers — Suggested materials.

Chapter 42. WINDOW GARDENING 539

Drainage — Soil and exposure — Method of potting— Watering — Feeding plants —
Ferns and foliage plants — Flowering plants — Plant hce.

BOOK IV. LIVESTOCK FARMING (ANIMAL HUSBANDRY)

Chapter 43. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF KEEPING LIVE-
STOCK 547

Value and importance of livestock.

Advantages of Livestock.

Animals furnish food, labor and clothing — ^Animals make use of land otherwise
unproductive — ^Animals utilize crops that would be wholly or partly wasted —
Animals transform coarse, bulky products into concentrated form—Animals
return fertility to the soil — Livestock facilitate good crop rotations — Capital more
fully used— Livestock call for higher skill — More land may be farmed with the
same labor.

Disadvantages of Livestock.
Animals require larger capital — Capital of perishable nature — Products cannot
be indefinitely held— Crop failures may cause loss on livestock.

Chapter 44., BREEDING, CARE AND MANAGEMENT OF FARM ANIMALS. . 553

Breeding of Livestock.
History of animal breeding — Lines of breeding — Selection of a breed — Pedigree —
Gestation period.

Care of Livestock.

Preparation of feeds — Feeding condimental stock feeds — Care of the breeding
herd — Care of work animals — ^Assist animals at time of giving birth to their young.

Management of Livestock.
Open sheds — Arrangement of labor — The kind of farm animals — Regularity in
feeding and watering— Observing individuals — Keep up records — Preparation
and shipping livestock.

Chapter 45. FEEDS AND FEEDING 562

Introduction — Chemical composition of feeding-stuffs — Water — Mineral matter —
Crude protein-— Carbohydrates — The fats — Digestion of the nutrients — The
nutritive ratio — The energy value of feeding-stuffs — Feeding-stuffs — Concen-
trates— Roughages — The requirements of farm animals — The balanced ration —
The Wolff-I^hmann standards — The Armsby standards — The Haecker standard
for dairy cows.

Chapter 46. HORSES AND MULES 573

Development of type — The light horse — Draft type — The mule — Market require-
ments— The age of the horse — Horse feedings — Feeds for the horse — Grain —
Roughages — ^Watering — The work horse — The foal — The orphan foal — The brood
mare — The stallion.

Standard Rations.
Foals — Work horses — ^Brood mare — Grooming.

Chapter 47. BEEF CATTLE 584

Sources of profit — Breeding pure-bred cattle — Producing stockers and feeders —
Grazing cattle — Fattening cattle — Fitting show animals.

The Selection of Cattle for the Feedlot.
Methods of feeding— Characteristics of good feeders— Kind of feed related to class
of cattle— Calves and yearlings— Time to market.

The Deficiency m the Meat Supply.
Tenant farming unfavorable to beef production— Breeding cattle require
capital.

Chapter 48. SWINE '":":" V^' I' \: V- ^^^

Personal preference— Feeds available— Location and cUmat^e— Distribution—
Markets— Breeds of swine— Grading up the herd— Age of breedmg stock— Hous-
ing-Feeds for swine-Preparation of feeds-Hand vs. self-feeding-Feed for the
brood sows— Feeding the pigs— Suggested successful rations.

Chapter 49. SHEEP AND GOATS.... '^^VVr^ ^^J

Early importance of sheep— The sheep of Spain— The sheep of England— Breeds

of sheep. ^^ , -r^ -,

Long Wool Breeds.

Leicester — Cotswold — Lincoln.

Medium Wool Breeds.
Southdown— Shropshire— Oxfords— Hampshires— Dorset horn— Cheviot.
F?ne wool or merino sheep-Establishing a flock-Essentials^ to success-The
breeding season-Period of gestation-Care of ram during breeding sea.son-
™e? care of ewes-Care of young lambs-Marketing the lambs-Shearing the
flock — Dipping the flock.

Chapter 50. THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY) .; -. 618

Tinnortance of the farm flock— The size of the farm flock— Sources of income—
Adv^intaees of piirVbred poultry-Grading up a farm flock-The choice of a variety

• ^Xtion o the breeding stock-Housing the breeding stock-Selection o^ eggs
f^hatching-Care of eggs for hatching-Natural or artificial incubation-Hatch-
ng with hens— Hatching with incubators.

Brooding.
Tmnortance of the brooder— Qualifications of a good brooder— Management of the
bZder-Ration for chick^The care of growing chicks-The care of the pullets
—Feeding mature fowls— The care of market eggs.

Chapter 5L BEES *. ,****** r •

Breeds of bees-Personnel and activity of colony-Size and location of ap'arj-
ShSc and ventUation-Stocking the apiary-lntroduang a new queen-Uniting
„„^fr«n,ferrinB colonies— General methods of handling— Swarming— How to
prevent "wSg-Wb^^^^^ of bees-Bee feeding-Hives-Foundat.on combs-
Handling and marketing— Diseases of bees.

BOOK V. DAIRY FARMING (DAIRY HUSBANDRY)

Chanter 52 THE DAIRY HERD; ITS SELECTION AND IMPROVEMENT. . . 643

Open stables for heifers.

Chapter S3. DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT ......... .651

Aee to breed-Gestation period-Regularity-Care of cow at ^alymg time-Re
Age lo ortiu V^ , ' . . — Exercise — Groommg — Milkmg — Ditticult
milklng^Zus^^KrTd^SS^^'abUng-Flie^^ the cow-Dehorn-

ing — Care of the bull.

CONTENTS

Chapter 54. DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE • . 658

Dairy breeds essential — Dairy type common to all dairy breeds— Recognized
dairy breeds of America.

Ayrshire Cattle.
Origin and development — Characteristics of Ayrshire cattle.

Brown Swiss Cattle.
Origin and development — Characteristics of Brown Swiss cattle.

Guernsey Cattle.
Origin and development — Characteristics of Guernsey cattle.

Holstein-Friesian.
Origin and development — Characteristics of Holstein-Friesian cattle.

Jersey Cattle.
Origin and^development — Characteristics of Jersey cattle.

Other Dairy Breeds.
Dairy Breed Organization in America.

Chapter 55. CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION 672

Classes of Milk.
Sanitary milk — Guaranteed milk — Standardized milk — Certified milk — Inspected
milk — Pasteurized milk — Modified milk.

Equipment and Methods.

Clean, healthy cows — Stables — Milkers — Small top milk pails — Clean tinware —
Strainers — Handling the milk — Coolers — Suggestions for improvement.

Chapter 56. DAIRY BUTTER-MAKING 679

Adaptation — The need for dairy farming — The types of dairy farming — Market
milk — Farm cheese making — Farm butter making — Control of products — Cleanli-
ness necessary — Percentage of fat in cream — Thin cream undesirable — Methods
of ripening cream — Amount of acid to develop, or degree of ripening — The use of
starters — Natural starter — The amount of starter to use — Churning temperatures
— Variations in churning temperature — Care of the churn — Length of time to
churn — Washing butter — Temperature of wash water — Preparation of working
board — Salting — Working of butter — Wrapping of butter — Value of standard
product — Care of the farm churn — Dairy apparatus — Care of other dairy apparatus
— Churns — Buckets and tinware — Wooden apparatus.

BOOK VI. FARM BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT

Chapter 57. FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES AND GATES

The Farm Residence.

693

Bams.

Bank barns — Dairy barns — Storage capacity — Floor space and arrangement —
Stable floors — Lighting — Ventilation — Conveniences — Silos.

Out Buildings.
The implement house — Corn cribs — Hog houses — Poultry houses — Milk houses
— Ice houses — Roofing — Use of concrete — Lightning rods — Fences and gates.

Chapter 58. FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 715

Advantages of farm machinery — Tillage machinery — Cultivators — Seeding
machines — Corn planters.

Harvesting Machinery.
Mowing machines — Self-rake reaper — Self-binder — Corn harvesters — Threshing
machines — Corn shelters — Silage cutters — Manure spreader — Milking machines
—Spraying machines — Tractors — Farm vehicles — Hand implements — Tools —
Handy conveniences — Machinery for the house — Buying farm machinery — Care
of machinery — Condition of niachinery — Utilizing machinery — Cost of farm
machinery — Duty of farm machinery

Chapter 59. ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS FOR THE FARM 743

The Real Power for the Farm.
Gas engine principles — Vertical and horizontal engines— Ignition— Cooling system
—Lubrication — Gas engine parts— Governors — Gas engine troubles.

Transmission of Power.

Shafting— Speed of shafting— The size of pulleys— Kind of pulleys— Straight and
crown faces — Covering steel pulleys — Pulley fasteners.

Belts and Belting.
Advantages of belts— Disadvantages— Essentials of a belt— Leather belts— Rubber
belts — Belt slipping.

Water Motors.
Overshot wheels— Undershot wheels— Breast wheels— Impulse water motors-
Turbine wheels — The hydraulic ram.

The Farm Tractor.
The size of tractors— Tractor efficiency — Type of tractor.

758

Chapter 60. FARM SANITATION

Lighting.
Kerosene lamps— Gasoline lamps— Acetylene gas— Electrical lighting.
Heating— Ventilation— Water supply— Sewage disposal

Chapter 61. FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION 765

Land Drainage.
Co-operation— Tile drains— Running the levels— EstabUshing the grades— Small
ditching machines — Size of tile.

Irrigation.

Water rights-Co-operation— Sources of water— Dams and reservoirs—Methods
of trinsmission— Losses in transmission— Head gates— Prepanng land for irriga-
lL-Fa?rdHches-Distributaries-Dist the water-The check system-

Duty of water— When to irrigate— Irrigation waters— Alkah troubles.

BOOK VII. FARM MANAGEMENT

Chapter 62 FARMING COMPARED WITH OTHER OCCUPATIONS 781

The farmer as a naturalist— The farmer as a mechanic— The farmer as a laborer—
The farmer as a business man-Personal traits of the farmer-Farm expenence-
The farm hand-Farm ownership-The occupation of the farmer-Independence
of farming occupation-It furnishes employment for ^hildren-Health^lness of
the country-The farm as a home enterprise-The farm as a home-What the
famisiS of living on farms-Uncertainties m farming-Preparation

forfyming-Back to the farm-Back to the village movement-The farm manager
—The farmer's labor income— Profits in farming.

CONTENTS

Chapter 63. FACTORS THAT DETERMINE BEST TYPE OF FARMING. . . 792

The man — Climate — Soil — Topography — Location — Neighbors — Markets —
Transportation — Supply and demand — Animals — Labor — Competing types —
Natural enemies— Land values— Capital— Changing type of farnung— Successful
types of farming.

Chapter 64. COST OF PRODUCTION 800

Cost depends on yields — Product per animal — Labor of men and teams — Equipment
—Land values — Taxes, insurance and depreciation — Intensity — Size of business —
Character of feed — Class of labor — Utilization— Amount of waste — Fertility of
land — Weather conditions — Weeds, insects and diseases — Efficiency — Reducing
expenses.

Chapter 65. INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 809

Intensity depends on available land — Economizing land — Economizing labor —
Increasing, stationary and diminishing returns — Danger of under-production for
growing population — Profits per acre vs. profits per man — Intensive and extensive
enterprises — Relation of intensity to land values — Relation of intensity to labor —
Relation of intensity to t>^e of farming — The most profitable yield — Crop yields
on successful farms — Intensity in dairying — Receipts per cow and profits — Relation
of cows to size of farm — Acres of each crop-^The soiling system — Proper balance
of intensity — Intensity related to citizenship.

Chapter 66. SIZE AND DIVERSITY OF FARM RELATED TO EFFICIENCY. . 822

Diversified Farming.
Advantages of special farming — Advantages of diversified farming.

Size of Farm.

Size depends on t^-pe of farming — Bonanza farms — Medium size farms superior —
The family size — The economical unit — Size economizes on buildings and fences —
Size economizes on equipment — Size economizes on man and horse labor — Size
related to crop yields — Advantages of buying and selling — Size of fields — Size
related to capital — Size related to dairying — Size of farms in the United States —
Size helps prevent the boys leaving farms — Small farms.

Chapter 67. CROPPING AND FEEDING SYSTEMS 833

The farm scheme — Crops related to farm management — Animals related to farm
management— Cropping and feeding systems are related — Adaptation of cropping
and feeding systems — Cropping systems related to food — Crop rotations — Crops
for cash or for feed — Crops related to feed requirements — Changing cropping system
— Two rotations on the same farm — Combining fields — Fixed rotations with
irregular areas — Feeding systems — Feeding system depends on type of farming —
Feeding system related to cost of production — Feed units — Profits from cheap
crop products — Livestock gains in relation to feed — Corn silage as base for ration
— Balanced rations.

Chapter 68. PLANNING THE FARM AND FARMSTEAD 844

Location of the farmstead — Size of farmstead — Arrangement of orchard, garden
and lots — Grouping the buildings — Water supply — Relation of buildings to farm
— Sightliness and healthfulness — Size, shape and number of fields — Distance to
fields — Rotation groups — Farm lanes, roads and fences — Rearranging farms —
Crop ledger plan.

Chapter 69. LAND RENTAL AND FARM TENANTRY 857

Is tenantry desirable? — Relation to progress — Classes of land owners — Farming
with small capital — Starting as a tenant — Basis of rental — Systems of rental —
Cash rental — Advantages of share rental — Personal element — Legislation — What
the lease should contain — Time of lease — Profits under difTerent methods of
renting.

CONTENTS

Chapter 70. FARM LABOR .• 864

Social relation of farm labor— Why is farm labor scarce— Extent of employment
—Solution of farm labor problem— Demand for labor— Hours of work— Wage of
farm labor— Housing farm labor— Interesting the farm hand— Skilled and unskilled
labor — Permanency of employment — Management of men — Productive and
unproductive work— Doing work on time— Winter work— Work for stormy days
—Economizing time— Workman's attitude — Saving horse labor.

Chapter 7L THE FARMER'S CAPITAL 875

How to secure capital— Cash transactions— Agricultural credit— The Raiffeisen
bank— Borrowing money— Farm mortgages— Extent of debt pernussible— Relation
of banker to farmer— Working capital— Distribution of capital— Capital related
to area— Capital related to labor income— Capital related to type of farming-
Farming with small capital— Purchasing a farm— Land as an investment.

Chapter 72. FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS 884

Object of keeping accounts— Essential records— Blank forms and books necessary
—How to keep accounts— Time required to keep accounts— Best tune to start
ac(^ounts— Annual inventory— Values to use— Receipts and expenditures— Accounts
with farm enterprises— Work records— Abbreviated .accounts— Classifacation ot
troublesome items— Plan of farm and cropping system— Closing the accounts-
Outline of accounts — Interpretation of results.

Chapter 73. MARKETS, MARKETING AND CO-OPERATION 909

Cost of distribution— Middlemen— The consumer— The producer's share— Legisla-
tive regulations of commission business— Advertising— Marketing the farm products
—Trend of prices— Selling directly to consumer— The motor truck m marketing—
Co-operation— In what can farmers co-operate— Exchanging help— Cow testing
associations— Marketing dairy products— Marketing livestock— Marketing eggs-
Marketing vegetables— Marketing fruit— Some successful co-operative associations
— Importance of able management — Supervision of co-operation.

BOOK VIII. PLANT AND ANIMAL DISEASES, INSECT ENEMIES

AND THEIR CONTROL

Chapter 74. DISEASES OF ANIMALS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT 929

The essentials to health— Knowledge of disease should precede treatment-^^eneral
rules for maintaining health— Comfort— Exercise— General management— Nursing
—Disease— Examination of sick animals— Rational measures for treatment.

Chapter 75. DISEASES OF FARM, GARDEN AND ORCHARD CROPS,

AND THEIR REMEDIES ^^^

Apple. Bitter rot or ripe rot— Black rot— Brown rot— Storage rot^s—Scah-Blotch
—Rust— Fire blight-Other foliage spots and twig cankers— Mildew— Crown gall

and hairy root. , -r i. . t» x r^ ii

Pear. Blight— Rust— Scab— Leaf spot— Rots— Crown gall.

Quince. Rust— Blight— Leaf— Rots— Crown gall— Spray table for apples, pears

Pelch."Xown rot-Scab or freckles-Leaf curl-Shot holes-Crown gall-MHdew

—Yellows— Little peach— Peach rosette— Spray table for peach.

Plum. Black knot— Leaf spot— Mildew— Yellows— Brown rot— Crown gall—

cSy!''^^liaf spoT-Black knot— Crown gall-Brown rot— Powdery mildew-
Spray table for sweet cherries. , . j , r\4.u ^+o
Citrus Fruits. Brown rot— Black rot— Stem end rot and melanose— Other rots-
Sooty mould— Black ])it of the lemon— Anthracnose or wither tip— fecab— Canker.
Fig. Rust — Cankers — Fruit rots.
Pineapple — Mango — Avocado.

CONTENTS

SbeS^^e^^^^^ and Raspberry. Crown gall-Leaf spot-Anthracnose-

Orange rust— Double blossom— Cane blight— Yellows.

Strawberry. Leaf spot.

Cranberry. Scald or blast— Rot— Anthracnose.

Gooseberry. Powdery mildew.

G^^^' Bta'^ck Tot— Bird's-eye or anthracnose— Bitter rot or ripe rot— Downy

mildew — Powdery mildew — Necrosis — Crown gall.

AsDaraeus. Rust. _ ., , ▼ r x

Bean. Anthracnose— Rust— Blight— Downy mildew— Leaf spot.

Pea. Spot.

Beets. Leaf spot — Root rot — Scab. j- «„c^

Cabbage, Cauliflower, Turnips, etc. Black rot-Club root or finger and toe disease.
Canteloupes and Melons. Leaf blight-Downy niildow-Anthracnose~W^^^^^
Cucumber. Downy mildew— Anthracnose— Leaf blight and fruit spot— Wilt.

Celery. Leaf spot.

Onion. Smut— Downy mildew or blight.

P^atSf^Late blight or downy mildew— Early blight— Wilt, stem rot and dry rot
—Black leg— Scab— Little potato, rosette, stem rot, scurf— Bacterial wilt-
Tomato!* Early blight— Leaf blight— Fusarium wilt— Bacterial wilt— Blossom-end
rot or point rot — Anthracnose — Fruit rot.
Eggplant — Pepper.
Lettuce. jMildew — Drop or wilt.
Sweet Potato. Soft rot— Black rot— Stem rot.

Tobacco. Granville tobacco wilt— Mosaic, calico or mottle top— Leaf spots-
Root rots.

Com. Smut. ^ . , . i ^

Wheat. Rusts— Loose smut — Stinking smut or bunt.

Oats. Rust — Smut.

Sugar Cane. Red rot— Rind disease— The pineapple disease— Other diseases.

Cotton. Anthracnose— Damping off— Sore shin— Seeding rot.

Flax. Wilt.

Chapter 76. INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 967

General Crop Insects.
Caterpillars (leaf-eating)— Cutworms— Grasshoppers or locusts— Leaf beetles-
Plant hce — White grubs— Wire worms.

Field Crop Insects.
The army worm— The alfalfa loaf weevil— The chinch bug— Clover mite— Clover
root borer — Corn ear worm — The corn root aphis — Cotton boll worm — Cotton
^vorm- The cotton red spider— The fall army worm— The green bug or spring grain
aphis— The Hessian flv— Mexican cotton bollweevil— Spring grain aphis— Southern
corn root worm or i)ud worm— Tobacco flea beetle— Tobacco worms or horn
worms— Western corn root worm— Wheat joint worm— Wheat straw worm.

Truck Crop Insects.
The asparagus beetle— Bean aphis— Bean weevil, the common— Other bean wee-
vils—The beet army worm— Beet leaf beetle, the larger— The beet leaf hopper-
Blister beetles— The cabbage looper— The cabbage maggot— The Colorado potato
beetle — Flea beetles — Harlequin cabbage bug — The hop aphis — The hop plant
^orer — The imported cabbage web worm — The imported cabbage worm — The
melon aphis— The potato tuber moth— The squash bug— Squash vine borer— The
striped cucumber beetle — Sugar beet web worm.

Fruit Insects.
Apple maggot or raih-oad worm— Apple-tree tent caterpillar— The browTi-tail molh
—Canker worm, the spring— And the fall— The cherry fruit flies— The codhngmoth

or apple worm— Currant worm, the imported— The flat-headed apple-tree borer—
The fruit tree bark beetle— The gipsy moth— The grape berry moth— Grape leaf
hopper— The grape-vine flea beetle— The lesser apple worm— i he peach tree borer
—Pear leaf bhster mite— Plant hce— Plum curculio— The rose chafer— Round-
headed apple-tree borer— The San Jose scale.

Chapter 77. INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 1005

Insecticides.

Paris ereen- Arsinate of lead— Arsenate of zinc— London purple— White arsenic-
Sulphur— Lime-sulphur wash— Tobacco extracts— Pyre thrum— White he lebore—
Coal oil— Crude oils— Soaps— Coal tar— Borax— Other insecticides— Bisulphide of
carbon— Carbon tetrachlorid—Para-dichlorobenzene— Hydrocyanic acid gas.

Fungicides.
Copper sulphate— Bordeaux mixture— Copperas or iron sulphate— Formalin or
formaldehyde— Bichloride of mercury— Lime-sulphur wash.

Combined Insecticides and Fungicides.

Literature.

BOOK IX. HOME ECONOMICS AND AGRICULTURAL

EDUCATION

Chapter 78. FOOD MATERIALS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS 1023

Elements of the body-Description of body elements-Body compounds-Body
oxidation products, or final metabolic products-Need of food-E ements needed
Tn food-Nature's preparation of food materials-Man's selection of food materials
-Foodstuffs, their composition and functions-Proportions of oodstuffs in food
matSs-Discussion of Table I-Fuel value of foodstuffs-Fuel value P<^r pound
S food material-Discussion of Table II-Amount of food needed for twenty-four
hours-Reasons for cooking food materials-Effects of heat on foodstuffs-Cooking
of combinations of foodstuffs.

Chapter 79. HOUSING AND CLOTHING ^. ; 1037

House plan essentials-The basement-The kitchen— The pantry-Dinmg room-
W^ish room-The living room-The office-The hall-Sleeping rooms-Bathroom
-interi^^^^^ ^^^ decoration-Household appli-

ances— Ventilation.

Clothing.
To the farm woman— Bodily protection— Under garments— Character of material
-Amount of clothing-The outer garments-Extremes of fashion-Footwear-
Children's dress— Economy in clothing.

Chapter 80 EDUCATION AND INFORMATION FOR THE FARMER .... 1047

Agriculture in secondary schools— Agricultural c?olleges— Agricultural experiment
stS io" arm^^ institutes-Agricultural fairs-Agricultural «ocieties-Ex^^^^
8ion work-Extension representatives-Agricultural pubhcations-Libraries-
Boys' and girls' clubs.

BOOK X. TABLES OF WEIGHTS, MEASURES AND

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

V^^^^ ^71>Ifc^n^Le^of "total dry matter and digestible nutrients in feeding-stuffs.
Table U. Dry matt^^^^^^ protein, and net energy per 100 pounds of feed.

(Armsby.)

CONTENTS

Table 111. Wolff-Lehinann feeding standards. (Showing amounts of nutrients

per day per 1()00 pounds live weight.)
Table IV. Armsby feeding standards.
Table V. Haecker's standard for milk production.

Table VI. Percentage composition of agricultural products.
Table VII. Fertihty in farm produce. , ^^ -^ ^ c. .

T\BLE VIII. Composition of various extensive type soils of tnited btates.
Table IX. Weight per bushel, seeding rate per acre, number of seeds per pound

and depth to cover farm seeds.
Table X. Water requirements of various standard crops.

Table XL Cost per acre, producing crops.
Table XII. Cost of farm horse power.

Table XIII. Work capacity of farm machines. , ,. vrr x i • i r

Table XIV. Composition and amounts of manure i)roduced by different kinds of

farm animals. , i r-

Table XV. Prices of farm products. Average hvm\ value per head, hve-year

periods, United States. . - ^ -.onn

Table XVI. Average farm prices for the United States. Five-year periods, 18bb-

1915.
Table XVII. Capacity of round silos in tons.
Table XVIII. Spouting velocity of water, in feet per second, m heads of trom 5 to

1000 feet.
Table XIX. Weights and measures. • xi. tt •. i

Table XX. List of agricultural colleges and experiment stations in the Lnitecl

States. .

Table XXJ. How to estimate amount of grain in bins and hay in mow or stack.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION lO^''

GLOSSARY ^^^^

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Plan for a Farmstead {Color Plate) FrontUfdece

PAGE

Rock Weatherin(j and the Process of Soil Formation 34

The Soil Provinces and Soil Regions of the United States (Color Map) . 38

The Soil Separates as Made by Mechanical Analysis 39

Inspecting and Sampling the Soil 40

A Soil Augur 50

Rate and Height of Capillary Rise of Water in Soils of Different Texture 52

The Ease of Seed-bed Preparation Depends on Condition of Soil 55

Soil Fertility Barrel 68

Soil Fertility Plats 70

Effect of Top Dressing Meadows with Commercial Fertilizer 82

Effect of Fertilizers on the Growth of Sweet Clover 83

Effect of Commercial Fertilizer on Wheat on a Poor Soil 85

Soil Fertility Plats 88

Modern Convenience for Conveying Manure 101

Piles of Manure Stored Under Eaves of Barn 103

Spreading Manure from Wagon, Old Way 106

The Modern Manure Spreader HO

Rye Turned Under for Soil Improvement 113

The Growth of Red Clover on an Acid Soil as Affected by Lime 117

Beets Grown With and Without Lime 119

The Old Way of Spreading Lime 125

A Modern Lime Spreader in Operation 120

A Lime Crushing Outfit Suitable for the Farmer 127

Details of Construction of a Farm Limekiln — 128

Map Showing Mean Annual Rainfall for All Parts of the United States 130

Effect of Little, Medium, and Much Water on Wheat 133

Orchard Well Cultivated to Prevent Evaporation 13(")

Water Issuing from an Underground Drain 1^<)

A Deep Tilling Double-Disk Plow 143

A Badly Eroded Field : ^^^^

Details of a Good Seed Bed ^^^

Terracing as a Means of Preventin(j Erosion 150

Another Way to Stop Erosion 1^1

Variations in Timothy ^^^

Note the Variation in the Second Generation Hybrids (Wheat) 159

The Ear-to-Row Test Plat with Corn Husked 101

Variations in Yield of Potatoes from Selected Tubers 164

Dangers of Continuous Cropping 1^^

The Height of Stalks and Positions of Ears (Corn) 176

Types and Varieties of Corn (Color Plate) 178

Corn Acreage by States

(21)

22 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Corn Yield Follows the Amount of Rainfall (Chart) 180

Time and Method of Planting Corn 183, 184, 185

Right and Wrong Way of Cultivating Corn 187

Several Forms of Husking Pegs 188

High and Low Ears ^^^

Good and Poor Types of Kernels 194

A Good Germination Box Seven Days after Planting 195

Effect of Time of Preparing Seed Bed 199

Approximate Date of Seeding Winter Wheat (Map) 201

Wheat Districts of the United States (Map) 204

A Profitable Yield of Wheat 205

I^Iap of the United States Showinc; Approximately the Areas to which

Certain Types of Oats are Adapted 211

Two Types of Oat Heads 212

A Field of Good Oats being Harvested with a Modern Self-Binder 215

A Field of \\'inter Barley Seeded aj^er Corn 218

A Field of Flax in Bloom 224

Heads of Four Varieties of Kaffir 226

Emmer • 22^

Map Showing Region of Grass Production in the United States (Map) . . 231

Side Delivery Rake 233

Combined Sweep Rake and Stacker 234

A Field of Good Grass (Timothy) 235

The Hay Loader in Operation 236

Rows OF Timothy 237

Field of Timothy Plants for Selection 239

Variations in Timothy 240

Sudan Grass, a New Acquisition 245

A Clover Field in Blossom 248

Map Showing the Acreage of Red Clover in the United States and Canada 250

A Clover Buncher Attached to a Mowing Machine 254

Red Clover on Limed and Umimed Land 255

Pasturing Sweet Clover in Kansas 257

Map of the United States and Canada, Showing Acreage of Alfalfa. . 259

Alfalfa Out-yields Other Hay Crops 262

A Standing Field of Alfalfa 264

Curing Alfalfa Hay in Shocks 266

Comparison of Hogs Fed on Corn and ox Alfalfa 267

A Well-Set Cluster of Alfalfa Pods 269

Sheep Pasturing on Hilly Land (Co/or Pialc) 270

Live Stock on Pastire 271

Hay Making Scene (MiUct) 276

Good Pasture Land 279

Field of Iron Cowpeas Planted ix One -fifth Rows and Cultivated Three

Times 2815

Hairy Vetch and Rye Growincj Tocjether 288

Millet Makes an Excellent Catch Crop 2tK)

Making Hogs of Themselves 292

Harvesting Field Beans with a Harvester 295

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

* -J

PAGE

Soy Beans 297

Crimson Clover 298

A Peanut Plant 300

Harvesting and Curing Peanuts 303

Root Crops (Map) 305

A Load of Mangels 306

Cross Section of an Easily Constructed Pit for Roots 308

The Potato Crop 311

The Condition of Seed Potatoes Depends on Character of Storage 314

A Potato Planter 315

Agricultural Progress in the United States and Germany (Chart) 319

Sugar Beet 320

A Good Stand and Vigorous Growth of Sugar Beets 322

A Field of Sugar Cane 326

A Good Cotton Plant, Showing Good Base Limbs 330

Cotton Grown by Single Stalk Method 333

Turning Under Crimson Clover for Cotton 336

A Field of Cotton • 338

Field of Virginia Heavy Tobacco 342

Field of Cigar Leaf Tobacco 343

Tobacco Plant-bed 344

A Plant Ready to Set in Field 348

Fire-curing Barn 350

Flue-curing Barn 351

The Manner in which Canada Thistles Spread by Underground Root-
stocks 356

The Canada Thistle 358

Green Foxtail 359

Quack Grass 359

Field Dodder 360

Flax Dodder 360

Alfalfa Dodder 360

BucKHORN OR Narrow-leaved Plantain 361

Common or Broad-leaved Plantain ." 362

Pigweed 363

Lamb's Quarters or Smooth Pigweed 364

Wild Mustard 365

Shepherd's Purse 366

cocklebur 368

Field Bindweed 369

Necessary Garden Tools 377

One of the Many Good Types of Seed Drills 380

A Dibble 381

Bunching Asparagus Ready for Market 384

Four Strains of Jersey Wakefield Cabbage 387

A Plant Transferred with Plenty of Earth is not Checked in Growth 388

Strain Tests of Cabbage 389

Celery Under Irrigation, Skinner System 391

Good Celery Well Prepared for Market 392

24 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

395
Onions Under Skinner System of Irrigation ^^^

Some Commercial Types of Sweet Potatoes • • ^^

Tomatoes Supported by Stakes. ■ -

A Farm Garden Laid Out for Convenience in AN okkinu ^^

Transplanting Board and Dibble in Use . 406

Planting the Seedlings ^^g

Sowing Seed Package or Envelope ^^^

Wheel Cultivator and Attachments ^^^

A Double Sash Steam-heated Hotbed ^^^

A Greenhouse Suitable for Forcing Plants -

i ?r BED or MUSHROOMS Grown prom Shawn of P.re-c^lture Oricin. . 418

Turning the Compost ^20

A Typical Range of Mushroom Houses ^^^^

Sifting the Casing Dirt ^2i

Types of Fancy Packages ^,^^^

Good Nursery Stock ^.^^

Before and After Pruning ..^j.

Picking Apples in the Rogue River Valley, Oregon ^^^

Chesapeake Strawberry {Color Plate) ^^^

A Spray of Good Strawberries ^^

Planting a Strawberry Runner

American Quart Boxes of Well-Graded Strawberries. ■"-■■•; HZ

LrrTH^T WILL Produce Good Farm Crops will Produce Bush Iruits... 445

A Young Planting Cane of Raspberry, Showing Jibrous Roots 44b

Currants Should Find a Place in Every Home Garden ^^i

Well-set Branch of Gooseberries ^^^

Well Located Apple Orchard ^^^

A Properly Pruned Young Apple Tree ^^^^

Apple Orchard Favored by Type of Soil •_

Tools for U«e in Removing Roi;ndheaded Apple Tree Borer from Burrows 4^

A Power Sprayer Adapted to Large Trees

A Good Cluster of Apples, but with Some Scab Showing ^^

Picking and Packing Apples ^^

Pear Tree in Blossom ^^g

Good Specimens of Winter Nelis ^^^

A Typical Peach Orchard Site ^^^

Typical Sweet Cherries • '^^'^ ,-^

Block of Young Peach Trees with Strawberries as an Inter-crop 47b

Peach Tree with Well-Formed Framework Heavily Cut Back for R^^newal ^^^

Purposes _ *^ j^^o

Peach Twig, Showing Arrangement of Leaf and Blossom Buds 4/»

A Properly Pruned Peach Tree ^^^

Pruning Tools • ^^2

Picking Peaches ^g^

Ever-bearing Orange Tree ^^^

Good Orange Seedlings ^^^

Shield Budding with Angular Wood ^^^

Shield or Eye Budding " ^ ^^

Shield or Eye Buds

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

page

Pruning and Root Trimming of Citrus Tree at Time of Planting 494

Picking and Packing Oranges 497

Schley Pecan Tree ^^

Franquette Walnut Orchard, near Santa Rosa, Cal 502

Major, Burkett, Warrick, Havens and Owens Pecans 504

The Pineapple Plant in Fruit ^8

Pineapples Planted in an Orange Grove 510

The Taft Avocado Fruit ^12

Method of Budding the Avocado '^1^

Fruit of the Mango ^^^

A Top-worked Mango Tree in Fruit 517

A Well Protected Farm Homestead 523

Field and Woodlot ^^"^

A Woodlot after Thinning 525

Good Work in Piling Brush 527

A Convenient and Attractive Farmstead 532

An Example of Good Informal Ornamentation 534

A Desirable Method of Planting Daffodils 535

Hyacinth Bed ^^^

Removing the Plant from Old Pot 540

A Well Proportioned Fern 541

A Large Boston Fern ^'*'^

Bulbs Grown in Water-tight Receptacle 543

Utilizing Woodland for Pasture 549

Livestock and the Silo Increase the Profits on High Priced Land 550

Two Pure-bred Bulls. Polled Angus on the Left, Shorthorn on the

Right ^^^

Pure-bred Shorthorn Bull 555

Open Sheds for Steer Feeding 559

The Digestive Tract of a Cow 564

The Respiration Calorimeter in Use for an Experiment 566

Morgan Stallion, '^General Gates" 573

A High-grade Work Horse of Fine Quality and Good Conformation .... 574

Percheron Stallion ^ ' ^

Team of Percherons (Color Plate) 576

English Shire Stallion ^ ' '

Photographs Showing Teeth at Various Stages 579, 580

Pure-bred Hereford Bull

The Principal Cuts of Beef ^^^

Chester White Boar ^^^

Poland-China Boar ^

Poland-China Sow ^X.

Duroc-Jersey Boar ^^ ^

Duroc-Jersey Sow

Chester White Sows ^^

Hampshire Boar

Hampshire Sow

Yorkshire Boar

Yorkshire Sow

26 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

598

Tamworth Boar

Tamworth Sow ' '

Berkshire Boar

Berkshire Sow

A Typical Cotswold Ewe

A Typical Lincoln Ewe

A Typical Shropshire

A Typical Cheviot

A Typical Merino

A Typical Flock of Sheep in Pasture ^|^

A Good Flock of Sheep

An Angora Buck

A Typical Farm Flock

_ ^ 620

Buff Orpingtons

White Plymouth Rocks ^

Single Comb Rhode Island Reds

White Wyandottes

A Brooder Heated by Oil Lamp ^

Shipping Cases for Eggs

The Honey Bee

General View of an Apiary ^^^

A Modern Bee Hive

^ ^ 637

Queen Cells

A Typical Cow, Marked to Show Points in Judging o45

A Good Dairy Herd

An Open Stable for Heifers ^

A Good Cow Stable

^ 656

Leading a Bull

A Typical Ayrshire Cow

A Brown Swiss Cow

. ^ T^ 662

A Guernsey Bull

A Typical Guernsey Cow

A Typical Holstein Cow

A Holstein-Friesian Bull

Holstein-Friesian Bull and Cows {Color Plate) "^b

A Jersey Cow

Milk Pails of Best Design

A Clean Milker in a Clean Stable at Milking Time ^77

A Good Type of Dairy House ^^^

A Good Type of Cream Separator y/^

Farm Butter-making Apparatus ^

Butter Printer

Butter Ready for Market ^^^

T "89

Wooden Ladle

An Attractive Farm House

Plans of a Farm House *

A Good Type of Barn ^'^

Interior of a Cow Stable ^

Economical and Practical Manure Shed ^y»

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

page

Plans for a Circular Barn 699

Cross Section Showing Ventilation and Stable Floor of Concrete 700

Ensilage Cutter and Filler 701

A Good Implement Shed 703

Plan of Concrete Foundation of Corn ( 'rib 704

Interior of Double Corn Crib 705

Two Views of Iowa Gable Roof Hog House 707

A Concrete Block Ice House 708

How to Construct a Concrete Water Tank 709

A ''T" Connection for Heavy Wire Lightning Rods 710

A Good Type of Farm Fence 713

A Good Type of Walking Plow 715

One Type of Sulky Plow 716

An Adjustable Smoothing Harrow 717

Spring Toothed Harrow 717

Double Disk Harrow 718

A Corrugated Roller 719

A Home-made Planker 720

A Much Used Form of Corn Cultivator 721

A Wheelbarrow Seeder in Operation 722

The Usual Type of Grain Drill with Single Disk Furrow Openers 723

A Good Corn Planter 724

Corn Harvester with Bundle Elevator 726

A Mowing Machine with Pea Vine Attachmeitt 727

An Up-to-date Threshing Machine 729

Four-hole Mounted Belt Corn Sheller with Rkjht Angle Belt Attach-
ment 730

Milking Machine in Operation 732

A Power Sprayer Routing Orchard Pests 733

A Collection of Useful Hand Implements 734

Interior of a Workshop with a $25 Outfit of Tools 735

Home-made Barrel Cart for Hauling Liquid Feed 736

Home-made Dump Cart to Make Stable Work Eamer 737

A Washing Machine Saves Much Hard Work for the Housewife 738

Where do You Prefer to Keep Your Implements? Under the Sky? 739

Sectional View of a Four-Cycle Vertical Gas Engine 742

Sectional View of a Two-Cycle Engine 744

Sectional View of a Four-Cycle Horizontal Gas Engine 745

Three H. P. Gas Engine Operating Binder 747

Engine Operating Pump Jack 749

Pelton Water Wheel 753

Turbine Water Wheel 753

Three-Plow Tractor in Operation 754

Hackney Auto-Plow '^^

Plowing on a Large Scale {Color Plate) 756

Creeping Grip Tractor '^"

MoR-LiTE Electric Plant 758

Electric Lighting Plant for Farm House 759

Modified King System of Ventilation 760

28 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

A Pneumatic Water Tank [s^

Fairbanks-Morse Water System for Farms and Suburban Homes 76^

The Kaustine Closet ^ _

Grading the Ditch and Laying Tile ' ^

A Low Priced Tile Ditcher ^^

The Ditcher in Operation l^

Delivery Gate to Farm Lateral V^

The V-Crowder is Excellent for Making the Farm Ditches 772

Canvas Dam to Check Water ^^^

Orchard Irrigation by Furrow Method ''4

Celery Under Irrigation, Skinner System 775

A Good Rural Scene, Showing an Attractive Farming Country 784

A Well-Planned and Neat Farmstead 787

Typical Corn Land ^^^

The Utilization of Land too Steep to Plow 794

Intensive Farming on a Large Scale

An Efficient Team ""*'

An Example of Cheap Labor

Economizing Land

Rape Seeded in Standing Corn at Last Cultivation 814

Rye and Winter Vetch Make an Excellent Early Soiling Combination for

Cows l^

Onions as a Specialty "

General View of Specialized Wheat Farming in Canada 823

General View of a Good Diversified Farm 824

A Small Farm Under Glass ^^y

Utilizinc; Stony and Bottom Land ^'^-

HoGGiNG Down Corn ^'^

Buildings on a Dairy Farm "^^

The Scale is a Necessary Adjunct to Profitable Feeding 841

Sketch of a Farmstead that is too Large 845

The Farmstead Rearranged for Economy 846

General View of a Well-arranged Farmstead 847

A Farm Over-capitalized with Buildings 849

Adequate but not Over-capitalized °^'

A 100-AcRE Farm Poorly Arranged ^^2

The Farm Rearranged for Economy 853

A Good Farm Fence ^^

The Farm Sketch that is Useful for Recording 855

Typical Farm Improvements in a Farm Community where Tenantry Prevails 857

The Home of a Negro Tenant in the South 859

Insufficient Labor and Equipment ^^"

The Harrow Cart Lightens the Work of Harrowing 868

The Troubles of a Tenant ^^^

This Form of Grain Rack Saves Labor 873

A Farmers' Retail Curb Market ^^^

The Farm Bulletin Board Brings Business 913

The Motor Truck in Marketing ^1^

Threshing Scene Showing Co-operation 91^

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

page

A Full Load Reduces Cost of Hauling 919

Shipping Vegetables by Water 921

Apple Scab. ' 940

Apple Tree with Typical Collar Blkjht 941

Young Apple Tree from Nursery 942

Peaches Entirely Destroyed by Brown Rot 944

Black Knot on the Cherry 946

Anthracnose of Bean 953

Enlarged Roots of Cabbage Caused by Nematodes 955

Enlarged Roots of Cauliflower Caused by the Club-root Organism .... 956

Potato Affected with Russet Scab 959

Smut of Corn 962

Loose Smut of Wheat 963

Smut of Oats 964

Young Cotton Plant Affected by COtton Wilt 965

Chinch Bug 970

The Clover Mite 971

Clover Root Borer 972

The Cotton Worm 973

Fall Army Worm 974

Hessian Fly : 974

Green Bug or Spring Grain Aphis 975

Southern Corn Root Worm 976

Cotton Boll Weevil 976

Tobacco Flea Beetle 976

Southern Tobacco. Horn Worm 977

Western Corn Root Worm 978

Wheat Joint Worm 978

Larva of Isosoma Grande in Wheat Straw 979

Spray of Asparagus, with Common Asparagus Beetle in Different Stages. 980

The Broad Bean Weevil 981

Blister Beetle 981

Leaf Hoppers and their Work 982

Harleqxtin Cabbage Bug 983

Colorado Potato Beetle 984

Hop Plant Borer 984

Wingless Progeny of Wincjed Hop Aphids from Alternate Host 985

Imported Cabbage Web Worm 986

Potato Tuber Moth 986

Work of the Potato Tuber Moth 986

Imported Cabbage Worm 987

Squash Vine Borer 988

Striped Cucumber Beetle 988

Sugar-Beet Web Worm 988

Cantaloupe Leaves 989

Nest and Larv^ of Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar 990

Apple Maggot, or Railroad Worm 991

Stages and Work of Spring Canker- Worm 992

Brown-Tail Moth 993

30 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Cherry Fruit Fly ^^^

Fruit Tree Bark Beetle ^^^

An Imported Currant Worm 994

, The Grape Berry Moth 996

Injury to Grapes by Larv^ of Second Brood of Grape Berry Moth .... 997

Grape Leaf Hopper 998

Lesser Apple Worm 998

Peach Tree Borer 999

Adult Male and Female Roundheaded Apple Tree Borer 1000

Castings of Roundheaded Apple Tree Borer at Base of Young Apple

Tree 1^00

The Rose Chafer ^^^

1 nn9
San Jos6 Scale ^^-

A Lime Sulphur Cooking Outfit • 1008

Making Preparations to Fumigate with Hydrocyanic Gas 1012

Fumigating with Hydrocyanic Gas 1013

Efficiency of Bordeaux Mixture on Potatoes 1015

Treating Grain with Formalin for Smut 1016

Window Box for Storage of Food 1034

A Model Kitchen {Color Plate) 1038

A Conveniently Arranged Kitchen 1038

A Cheerful Living Room 1040

A Power Washing Machine 1041

School Wagons Returning Pupils to their Homes 1048

Exhibit of Corn and Vegetables Grown by Members of a Boys' Club 1054
Members of a Boys' Corn Club at Tyler, Texas 1056

BOOK I
SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT

< .

(31)

CHAPTER 1

» I

t 1

! I

SOIL Classification and Crop Adaptation

The thin layer of the earth's surface kll^^'^.r, as the ''soil and subsoil"
supports all vegetation and makes it possible for ttie ^o^.h to sustain a
highly developed life. The prosperity and degree of civilize**.: ^^ ^f ^
people depend in a large measure on the productivity and utilization v,c
this thin surface layer of the earth's crust. From it come the food supply
and the materials for clothing and to a considerable extent the materials
for housing of mankind.

Soils are Permanent. — The soil is indestructible, and according to the
great laws of nature, it should be capable of supporting generation after
generation of men each living on a slightly higher plane than the pre-
ceding. This necessitates a system of agriculture that is permanent,
and one that will foster and maintain the productivity of the soil. Each
man who owns and cultivates land owes it to his fellow-men to so cultivate
and fertilize the soil that it will be left to his successor in as good or even
better condition than it was during his occupation. In return, his fellow-
men should make it possible for him to secure a living without resorting
to soil robbery. A faulty system of soil management that permits a
decline in soil productivity will ultimately be just as injurious to the men
indirectly dependent upon the soil as it is to those actually living on the

land. -

The soils of the United States and Canada are a great asset, and
one over which man has relatively large control. Intimately associated
with this great asset are two other resources, namely, the atmosphere
that envelops the earth and the sunshine that reaches it. Little can
be done, however, to control these assets, but with the surface of the earth
man can do much as he pleases.

What Farmers Should Know.— Every farmer should have a thorough
knowledge of the soil on his own farm. In this and following chapters,
the soil and its properties as related to the business of farming will be
discussed chiefly from the standpoint of the farmer. The practical farmer
expects cash compensation for the intelligent care he gives to his land.
He should be able to distinguish between the essentials and non-essentials
in the science of the soil. He should know that all soils may be made
productive, but this cannot always be done at a profit. Soils on which
men, by the exercise of intelligence and reasonable industry, cannot
make more than a meager living, should not be cultivated. They should
revert to nature or be devoted to forestry. There is some land that has
been cleared of its virgin growth and come under the plow that should
8 (33)

» I

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

34 —

been robbed of fertility and neg^f f u^^^^^ S^ ,n some localities,
occupation. There are also ^ome types ot y economic con-

once^rofitable, that are ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^uLs that call for a fuller
ditions. These are some of t^^^";;;^^^^^^^^^ possessed. The foUowmg
SS^rtrBot itlS:^^^^^^^^^ a non-technical manner.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

EOCK WEATHERINa AND THE PROCESS OP SolL FORMATION.*

It is hoped it may all be profitable reading for any one engaged in the
^""tS Scleras the Soil-In recent years science has been directed

towJr t^s^Sl in ^^^r..o,^,^Zr::T.Jt^^^^^

tillage crop rotatior^s use ''i^^'^l'^^^^^^^f^,^ and mapped. Crop

things have been explained ^o^ J ^'^"J^'^^^'^^ts with fertilizers and cul-

S m^Jho J a?r?ei^^^^^^^^^^ in every state in the Union,

tural methods ^[^^ l?^'"! J^ ^^^y^ egress has been made and we now

h:v: ^olul u h^^^^^^^^^ 'o th^ soil. The subject is reco^zed

as vitaUo successful farming everywhere, because the soil is the founda-
tion of all agriculture.

►11 Ui ail t*5iiv/v*Av^x^..
iCourtesyof E. P. Dutton & Co. . N. Y. From " The Soil." by HaU.

How Soils are Formed. — Many agents are active in the formation
of soils. Among these may be mentioned changes in temperature, the
mechanical action of wind and water, the solvent action of water, and
the action of bacteria, fungi and the higher forms of plants.

The manner of formation gives rise to two general classes of soil
known as (1) residual soils and (2) transported soils. Residual soils are
those fojrmed from rocks like those on which they rest, while transported
soils are those carried some distance either by tne «^vement of glaciers,
or by moving water in the form of streams and tides, or by ^^-iia action of

the wind.

Weathering and Disintegration.— Rocks absorb more or less water .^
Low temperatures cause a freezing of the water, which exerts a pressure
approximating one ton per square inch. This ruptures the rocks, and the
process repeated many times every year gradually reduces the portion
subjected to these changes in temperature to fragments. Little by little
rocks are thus reduced to soil. On the immediate surface the change in
temperature between night and day causes expansion and contraction
which also tends to sliver off particles of rock. The movement of soil
particles as the result of wind and rain also tends to wear down the surface
and break off minute particles that contribute to the process of weather-
ing and disintegration.

In addition to this the vegetation which gradually secures a foothold
develops into larger plants, the roots of which penetrate the crevices,
exerting a pressure which still further moves and often ruptures the already
weakened rocks or fragments thereof. In this way, through generations,
the soils are gradually formed and become incorporated with the decom-
posed vegetation that gradually accumulates on and near the surface.
As a further aid .to the process of weathering and disintegration we find
numerous worms and insects that burrow into the soil, living on the organic
matter and living plants. These not only move particles of soil from
place to place but carry the organic matter down into the soil.

The rain which falls upon the soil is also a factor in soil formation.
When thoroughly wet the soils expand and when quite dry they contract
and little fissures open in the surface. A succeeding rain washes the fine
surface particles and organic matter into the fissures and causes a gradual
mixture of these two essential parts of the soil solids.

Decomposition.— The processes of weathering and disintegration
result in a change in the physical properties of the soil without necessarily
changing the character of the compounds. Decomposition, on the other
hand, generally results in the formation of new compounds. The proc-
esses of decomposition are technical and we will not undertake to discuss

them.

What is the Soil?— The soil consists of three principal parts, namely,
solids, a liquid and gases. The solids consist of the minerals and the
organic matter mingled with them. The liquid is the soil water in which

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

is dissolved small quantities of various soil solids. The gases con^st
lefly oHhe air intermingled with various quantities of other compounds,

<uoh fls oarbon dioxide, marsh gas, etc. , • i. i 4.

Se SOU and subsoil include all material to the depth to which plant
roots distribute themselves. It, .therefore, constitutes a wide range of
mtLial, both in depth and character. It may be deep or shalb^^^^^^^
or compact, wet or dry, coarse or fine m texture, havmg all degrees ot
.roT-io+irTn in H«i nbj-^^ii^ chcmical and biological properties,
variation ^^^^l^jj^g _The solid part of the soil consists of the minerals
J organic matter. In practically all soils the minerals form ninety-five
per cent or more of the solids. The exception to this would be the peat
and muck soils, which may contain as much as eighty per cent or more
of organic matter. The mineral matter of the soil consists chiefly of the
minute particles or fragments of the mother rock from which the soil has
been derived. In case of residual soils this will correspond in a large
degree to the rock formation generally found beneath the soil and subsoil
at varjdng depths. In transported soils the mineral particles, having been
transported either by water, glaciers, or wind, may have come from dif-
ferent sources, and will generally show a greater diversity m character.
It is significant, however, that the minerals of all soils contain all the
essential mineral elements for plant growth, although these may vary
widely in their relative proportions.

The minerals of the soil are sparingly soluble in the soil water and the
solubility is influenced by a number of factors that will be discussed in a
subsequent chapter. It is fortunate that this solubility takes place very
slowly, otherwise soils would be dissolved and disappear in the drainage
waters too rapidly, and the waters of the earth would become too saline
to be used by plant and animal life. Loss of the mineral constituents
takes place by leaching. The drainage waters from land always contain
a very small quantity of many of the elements of which the soil is coni-
posed. Nitrogen, the most valuable decomposition product of the organic
matter of the soil, is most rapidly leached away in the form of nitrates.
Likewise, lime slowly disappears from the body of the soil. Limestone
soils, formed from the disintegration and decomposition of limestone
rocks, sometimes ninety per cent or more carbonate of lime, generally
contain not more than one-half of one per cent o£ carbonate of lime. The
rate of leaching corresponds in a large measure to the rainfall of the region.
In regions of sparse rainfall very little leaching takes place, and the soil
solution frequently becomes so concentrated that the soils are known as
alkali soils. Such soils are either bare of vegetation or produce only crops
that are tolerant of alkali. The soils of arid regions are as a rule very
productive when placed under irrigation.

The Soil Fluid. — This consists of water in which is dissolved minute
quantities of the different minerals of the soil together with organic prod-
ucts and gases. The soil solution moves through the soil by virtue of

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

■ J,

gravity and capillarity. The water from rain passes downward by gravity.
The rate of downward movement depends on the size of the little passage-
ways through the soil. In fine-textured, compact soils it is often very
slow. The depth to which it penetrates depends upon the character of
the subsoil or underlying strata. It is frequently intercepted by impervi-
ous layers, and consequently in times of excessive rainfall the soil becomes
saturated and water accumulates on the surface. It then seeks an escape
by passage over the surface and often carries with it portions of the soil,
thus becoming a destructive agent in soil formation. In dry periods the
surface of the soil loses its water through direct evaporation and through
the consumption of water by the plants growing in the soil. This should
be replaced by the water in the subsoil which returns to the surface by
capillarity. The distance through which capillary water will rise is
measured by a few feet. The height of rise is greatest in case of fine-
textured soils, but in this type of soil the rate of movement is slowest.
The rate of movement in sandy soils is much more rapid, but the height
of rise is much less.

Gases of the Soil. — The soil atmosphere consists of air and the gases
resulting from decomposition of the organic solids in the soil. The domi-
nant gas is carbon dioxide, which, dissolved in water, increases the solvent
action of the water and helps to increase the available plant food. The
movement of the gases in the soil is affected by changes in temperature
which cause an expansion and contraction of their volume. It is also
affected by the movements of soil water. As the water table in the soil
is lowered air enters and fills up all spaces not occupied by water. The
movement is also facilitated by changes in barometric pressure and by
the movement of the air over the surface of the soil. Just as a strong wind
blowing over the top of a chimney causes a strong draft in the chimney,
so does such a wind cause a ventilation of the soil and increases the cir-
culation of the air within the soil.

The roots of most economic plants require oxygen and this is secured
in properly drained and well aerated soils from the soil atmosphere. When
soils are filled with water the plant roots have diflficulty in getting the
required supply of oxygen and the growth of the plant is retarded. A
proper aeration of the soil is necessary to the development of microscopic
organisms that live in great numbers in the soil and play an important
part in making available the mineral constituents necessary for the higher
forms of plants. It is essential that farmers understand the movement
of water and air in the soil in order that they may do their part in bringing
about that degree of movement that is essential to the highest productivity
of the soil. Drainage, cultivation and the judicious selection of the crops
grown are some of the means of influencing the movement of water and
air in the soil.

Soil Classification. — Science is classified knowledge. In order that
there may be a science of the soil it becomes necessary to classify soils.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Such a classification should meet the needs of an enlightened agriculture.
The first cassification of the soils of the United States and Canada to be
put into extensive use was that devised by the Bureau of Sods of he
United States Department of Agriculture, and used extensively m the
soil survey of the United States during the past sixteen years. This
iificTon is based upon factors that can be -^^^^ m \^^^ ,^^f

his for its ultimate aim the crop adaptation and management ot the sou.
Soi^^sLeys.-"A soil survey exists for the purpose of defining^
mapSng classifying, correlating and describing soils The results ob-
Sed are valuable \k many ways and to men of many kinds of occupation
andtteresi To the farmer it gives an interpretation of the appearance
ond behlvior of his soils, and enables him to compare his farm with other
Farms Tthe same and of different soils. The soil survey report shows
Sm he moaning of the comparison and furnishes a basis for workmg out
a Tvstem o management that will be profitable and at the same time
consfrv^the fertility of his soil. To the investor, banker, real estate
dealer or railway official it furnishes a basis for the determmation of land
va£ To the scientific investigator it furnishes a foundation knowledge
If the soil on which can be based plans for its improvement and further
inve.tigalion by experiment. To the colonist it furnishes a reliable

'"Tons" ?'tie'u"niied States.-"For the purposes of soil classification
the United States has been divided into thirteen subdivisions, seven of
which ytg east of the Great Plains, are called soil provmces and six,
hacluding the Great Plains and the country west of them, are known as

''''^°" A soil province is an area having the same general physiographic
expression in which the soils have been produced by the same forces or
^oup™ forces and throughout which each rock or soil material yields

*° '""^t IXe^r dSffrom a soil province in being more inclusive.
It embraces an area, the several parts of which may on further study
resolve themselves into soil provinces. „+,„„, »*

"Soil provinces and soil regions are essentially geographic features
The soils in a province are separated into groups. Each group constitutes
a ser e A soil series is divided finally into types. The type is deter-
m ned by texture. The texture may range from loose sands down to the
heaviest of clays. All types in a soil region or province that are closely
related in reference to color, drainage, character of subsoil and topog-
raphy and are of a common origin, constitute a group or senes of soils
A sou type is, therefore, the unit in soil classification. " It is Imiited to a
«ino-lp r>lft^9 a ^inele series and a single province.

, J . ^ *-^« T»,orVfl is auoted from U. S. Bureau of Soils Bulletin No. 96,

* That which is enclosed in quotation marks is quotea iroiu

•• Soils of the United States."

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

based on soil texture and is determined in the laboratory by separating
a sample into seven portions, or grades. Each portion contains soil
particles ranging in diameter between fixed limits. This process consti-
tutes a mechanical analysis. In such an analysis the groups and their
diameters are as follows:

Groups.

1. Fine gravel. . .

2. Coarse sand. . .

3. Medium sand .

4. Fine sand

5. Very fine sand

6. Silt

7. Clay

Diameter in mm.

2.000-1.000
1.000-0.500
0 . 500-0 . 250
0.250-0.100
0.100-0.050
0.050-0.005
0.005-0.000

Number of Par-
ticles in 1 Gram.

252

1,723

13,500

132,600

1,687,000

65,100,000

45,500,000,000

Fifteen types of soil are possible within any soil series. The relative
proportions of the several soil separates, given in the table above, de-
termine the type. The twelve most important of these are known as

Per Cent of Gravel, Sand, Silt. and Clay In 20 Grams of Subsoil

Grave)

I 03

Coaric
sand

3.26

I -.5

mm.

Medium
sand

9.92

Fine
sand

22.62

.25-1

mm.

Very fine
sand

45.47

.I-.05
mm.

Silt

10.41

•OS-.OI
mm.

Fine
silt

1.36

.OhOOS
m m.

Clay

2.32

.005-.000I
mm.

DIAMETER OF THE GRAINS IN MILLIMETERS.

The Soil Separates as Made by Mechanical Analysis,
Showing the Makeup of a Typical Soil.^

coarse sand, medium sand, fine sand, coarse sandy loam, medium sandy
loam, fine sandy loam, loam, silt loam, clay loam, sandy clay, silt clay and
clay. They range from light to heavy in the order named, and, except

» Courtesy o( Orange Judd Company. From "Soils and Crops," by Hunt and Burkctt,

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

as influeuced by presence of organic matter, tlf^^*^'-;^^!'^!,"^^
varies directly with the increase in fineness of texture, the sand having
rsmS water-holding capacity and the silty clays and ^^^y^^^^l^^^^^'

In classifying soils in the figld the soil expert deteranines the type by
the appearance and feel of the soil. He takes numerous samples which
are senUo the laboratory where they are subjected to a mechamcal analysis
in order to verify his judgment and field classification

The accompanying map shows the extent and location of the several

soil provinces and regions in the United States. „„j:t:«n«

Crop Adaptation.-That certain soils under defimte climatic conditions

are best adapted to certain plants is obvious to anyone who has studied

Inspecting and Sampling the Soil.

different soils under field conditions. The marked variation in the char-
acter of vegetation is often made use of in defining the boundaries of soil
types and soil series. Adaptation is also manifest in the behavior of
cultivated crops. Among our well-known crops tobacco is the most
susceptible to changes in character of soil, and we find that a specific
type of tobacco can be grown to perfection only on a certain type of soil,
while a very different type of tobacco demands an entirely different type
of soil for its satisfactory growth. The red soils of the Orangeburg series
in Texas will produce an excellent quality of tobacco, whereas the Norfolk
series with gray surface soil and yellow subsoil, occurring in the same
general locality, gives very unsatisfactory results with the same variety ot
tobacco. This difference in the tobacco is not due to the texture of the
soil, since soil of the same texture can readily be selected m both of these
series The most casual observer cannot fail to distinguish the difference
between the Norfolk and Orangeburg soils, as mamfested chiefly m their
color.

'^SS/&{r%&

125" fJl'

I Juan de Fuc'a^ L r*;-. /

Great Basin Soi

Region Arid Region

Rocky Mountain Great Plains
Region Region

trr ':lt4

River Atlantic and Gulf
Flood Plains Coastal Plains

CNS CO., Nt* YjHK

IVIap Showing the Soil Provinces and Soil Regions of the United States.^

» From Farmers' Bulletin 91, 1913, U. tf. Dcpt. of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils.

C. Flatter!} /^\J3 «? f^UiJ>. I

Great Basin Southwest

Region /\rid Region ^ Yo'j^

r — 1 1 — n c^

Rocky Mountain Great Plains
Region Region

Map Sho\vin(; the Soil Provinces and Soil Regions of the United States.^

> l-rom Fanners' liullotinyi, 1913, U. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils.

/»»»m

ill

It )

• *•• ••,

• • • »•

•• • ! • •

• • • •* ••

SOIL CLASSIFICA T:IjO N-* : '. ."'. : *

The question of crop adaptation, ih|ff foVe, Ji^oixies 'exceiedittglj
important, and success with a crop in which qus?Uty plays* ah 'impcfrt tot
part will be determined to a large extent by whejkber. pr. not i^ie -Pirotiiaced
on the soil to which it is by nature best adapted;^ .*, ; •,,•., •*.. '***' -•

Variety tests of wheat afford further illustration of crop adaptation.
In Illinois the wheat giving the highest yield on the black prairie soil of
the central and northern part of the state is Turkey Red, but this variety
when grown on the light-colored soil in the southern part of the state
yielded five bushels per acre less than the variety Harvest King. It is
evident, therefore, that if Turkey Red, which was demonstrated to be
the best variety at the experiment station, had been planted over the
wheat-growing region of the southern part of the state, farmers of that
region would have suffered a considerable loss. In Pennsylvania and
North Carolina Turkey Red has been grown in variety tests, and found
to be one of the lowest yielding varieties. For example, the yield in North
Carolina, as an average of four years, was only 8.4 bushels per acre as
compared with 13.5 bushels for Dawson^s Golden Chaff. At the Pennsyl-
vania Station the yield for two years was 26.5 bushels per acre for Turkey
Red and 37.5 bushels for Dawson's Golden Chaff.

Similar observations have been made relative to varieties of cotton
and varieties of apples. There is no doubt but that the question of varie-
tal adaptation, with reference to all of the principal crops, is important,
and it should be the business of farmers in their community to ascertam
the varieties of the crops grown which are best adapted to local conditions.
Dr. J. A. Bonsteel, born and reared on a New York farm, and for
fifteen years a soil expert in the U. S. Bureau of Soils, prepared for the
Tribune Farmer in the early part of 1913 a series of articles on '^Fittmg
Crops to Soils.'' The following is a portion of his summary and is a
concise statement of the soil adaptation of the fifteen leading crops m the
northeastern part of the United States. ^i r +

"Summary of SoU Adaptedness.— Summarizing, briefly, the tacts
stated in the articles and derived from a large number of field observations
made in all parts of the northeastern portion of the United States, we see:
^^First .— Clay soils are best suited to the production of. grass, ^hey
are suited to the growing of wheat when well drained and of cabbages
under favorable local conditions of drainage and market. Oats may be
grown, but thrive better upon more friable soils. • ^ ^ .

'^ Second —Clay loam soils are especially well suited to the growing
of grass, wheat, beans and cabbages, the latter two only when well drained
"Third— Silt loam soils produce wheat, oats, buckwheat, late
potatoes, corn, onions and celery. The last two ^P^^ J^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
Stention to drainage and moisture supply to be well suited to silt loam

'''"''-Fourth.-Loam soils, which are the most e^ensively developed of
any group in the Northeastern states, are also suited to the widest range of

. (It

I • • •

'. ^ • «

t .' t » •
■ • <

• «

• * «

.i'SV.C'CESSFUL FARMING

42 V

crpps. . These are wheat,; oats/com, buckwheat, late potatoes, barley, rye,

""^''S^^^.^^ \o^ soils ar; best suited for the growing of
barley, rye, beans, early potatoes, and, under special conditions of loca-
+;^T^ r^oor +n w«tpr level of onions and celery.

'Z^.^ZdrsL are best adapted to the early potatoes grown

o« market warden or truck crops, and to rye. , . , r .^

"Ths summary takes into consideration only the texture of the
soil and Its adaptations under fair conditions of drainage, orgamc matter

content and average skill in treatment. „^^„;„ ntbpr

"Yet the articles have called special attention to certam other
features than those of soil texture. Otherwise, the specific nammg of the
different loam soils would not have been given.

"The noteworthy lime content of the soils of the Dunkirk Ontario,
Cazenovia, Dover and Hagerstown loams has been made evident as a
basTs for the profitable growing of alfalfa, since the p ant is known to be
particularly sensitive to the amount of lime contained in the sou.

"Similarly the production of the late or staple potato crop has been
noted upon soils which are particularly well supplied with orgamc matter
as in the case of the Caribou loam and the Volusia loam. Other loams
and silt loams produce good crops of potatoes upon individual farms
where there is an unusually good supply of organic matter in the soil,
but not on portions of the other t>T>es not so well supplied. Good organic
matter content is rather a general characteristic of a good potato soil and

is found on the types named. , ,.« x •, it +v^

"Beans may be grown upon a large number of different soils if the
farmer is satisfied with average crops. But the best bean crops are secured
from soils which are well supplied both with organic matter and with lime.
Hence, the Clyde loam and clay loam and the soils of the Dunkirk series
are among the best bean soils. , ^i. .•«• +

" It is still impossible to state precisely what varieties of the difierent
crops are best suited to a particular soil, yet I hope to see the time when
there will be special breeding of staple crops to meet the different con-
ditions which prevail upon different soils. Some time there will be strains
of wheat, of corn, of oats, of alfalfa and of other field crops which have
been developed for generations upon a specific type of soil and which
excel all other strains of the crop for that soil. This is inevitable in time,
since the characteristics of plants may be fixed by growing them under
the same conditions of soil and climate for many plant generations.

"There are certain broad generalizations in crop adaptation which
are very generally known, but may profitably be stated again.

"The friable loam is the great soil texture of the temperate, humid
regions, possessing the broadest crop adaptations, and usually the most
permanent natural fertility of all soils.

"As any departure is made from the loam texture there is a restriction

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

in the number of the different crops which may be grown upon this type,

and frequently in the yields of the common crops, which may be expected

Se crop mnge in number of kinds best grown usually decreases in both

Sections beSmiiig decidedly limited at a rapid rate m the case of more
directions becoming , ^^ ^^^ j^^^^ ^^^ ^j^y^

?ht'eS e^sTs mo5t^^^^ I* ^^ ^-^ more difficult to control

SstureTn the sandy soils than in the clay loams and clays. Irr.gat on
rihe answer to the difficulty with the sands, and drainage with the

'^^^'■'Leguminous crops of all descriptions are particularly favored by
^^^esS;TstSieTwS\Tgar^^^^^ atone for some other soil

'^'^i-StpactS*^^^^^^^^ beneath the surface soil are un-

favorable t'octp production. This apples to compacted subsoil, due to
shallow plowing, as well as to actual 'hard-pan.

"Good soil management always increases the range ot crops wnicn
may b^grtrls we/as the amounts harvested. Man's ingenmty may
K^ ,i=oH nrofitablv to overcome nature s defaciencies.
be ^««f P;«™|j3Not WoniOut.-Finally,I wish to state as a result
of years ofXe^atn under widely varying circumstances of soil study

and oy«4 1^ ^f the Northeastern states are in nowise 'worn out'
or seriouSy deplete'cl of anything essential to good crop production with

^^^ X -StZi^S^SS^S^SL states are capable

11. mat tne majm j , jf gjven fair treatment, especially

;'h^rtT^;TlVKe'S.t:-%he «,« „« ....a .or plant-

'"•' ''4rZ'"o"ch have been ealled ■™,„ ouf have t«qu.„.ly

''^'?i; That the h..—<*o^ -P^^^^^^^^

Tde-'SneSf in^S ^p^uSn™ .h-n double the tot.r«oppin.

and will continue to become more and "»- favorable «^ the 'rte™,™
use ot land and to the man who use« each acre for the crop or gr p
crops best suited U> his soil and climate. , , .

"To the voung farmers who are U> carry on the great work of redeem-
ing W :^ ^t tee^ rtJ„t-jrueT: ST^thl UnS StlS
the fundamental principles, which are true in Asm oi

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

true today and for the centuries to come; true for all crops and for all
seasons. The details of modifying these principles of agriculture, ex-
perience alone can teach you."

Soil Adaptation of Fibteen Crops Commonjco^Northeastern States.

Crops.

Wheat.

Oats.

Rye.

Barlev.

Buck-
wheat.

Potatoes.

Corn.

Beang.

Apples.

Soils Best Suited To.

Ways op Modifying Soils
TO Fit Crops.

Clay and silt loams containing
considerable lime. Surface soil
friable. Subsoils of same nature,
but heavier and more compacted.

Use manure liberally. Practice
rotation with leguminous crops.
Apply moderate amounts of lime.

Clover

and
Timothy

Hay.

Alfalfa.

Wide adaptation. I^ams or
heavy loams rather fine in texture
best. Avoid dry sands. Plenty
of humus desirable.

Apply manure to crop preced-
ing. Turn under green manure.
Plow only moderately deep. Seed
early in spring. Prepare land
thoroughly.

Fertillsers to Apply.

Principally phosphatic fertilizers
containing small amounts of nitro-
gen and potash.

Always use some form of phos-
phate, preferably acid phosphate
or basic slag. Use small amounts
of potash, usually muriate.

Well-drained, sandy loams give
the longest, brightest straw and
largest crops of grain. Will do
fairly well on lighter and poorer
upland soils.

Smaller amounts of humus ne-
cessary. Will grow on more acid
soils than wheat or oats. Fine
general utility crop.

About same as wheat,
lime needed.

Little

Well-drained fertile loam. Inter-
mediate between rye and oat soils.
Heavy loams give best yields.
Sandy loams give brighter p-ain.
Avoid clay on account of lodging
and too Ught sand because of
drought.

Requires moderate amount of
humus. Avoid too rich soils on
account of lodging. Good drainage
essential.

About same as oats.

Moderately friable loam, under-
lain by compacted but well-drained
loamy subsoils.

Sandy or sandy loam preferably
for early crop. Silt loam or loam
best for late. Avoid clay and clay
loams.

Will do well on rather poor, thin
hill lands, because of power to
loosen pulverized soil. Prepare
land thoroughly, providing organic
matter. Good drainage necessary.

Complete fertilizer.

Thorough drainage essential.
Abundant organic matter needed.
Grow in rotation and turn under
green manures.

Loam or silt loam, with heavier
subsoil at least ten inches below
surface. Where seasons are short,
sandy or gravelly loams give larger
yields, because of earlier maturity.

Loam or clay loam best. Heavy
soils retain mobture best. Avoid
too compacted clays or hardpans.
Timothy: Loam or well-drained
clay loam or clay.

Well-drained, moisture-holding
lands. Turn under good grass sod
or preferably clover sod. Apply
barnyard manure to previous crop
if possible.

Apply large amounts of fertilizer
high in potash. Small amounts
of nitrogen for late crops. More
on sandy soils. Avoid liming im-
mediately ahead of potatoes.

Use 200 to 500 lbs. of fertilizer
containing 3 to 4 per cent of nitro-
gen, 8 to 12 per cent phosphoric
acid, 3 to 4 per cent potash.

Very fertile, well-drained, alka-
line soils. Strong loams contain-
ing limestone best. Avoid shallow
soils and hardpans near surface.

Wide range of soils. Best re-
sults on types not more coarse
grained than sandy loam or more
compacted than clay loam. Lime-
bearing soils best.

Fairly deep, well-drained loams
and clay and silt loams with fair
proportion of sand in surface soil.
A heavy subsoil retentive of mois-
ture, but net impervious to water.

Use stable manure on preceding
crop. Apply lime in mcst cases.
See that both surface and subsoil
are well drained. Prepare land
very thoroughly for seeding.

Stable manure best fertilizer;
100 to 300 lbs. an acre of complete
fertilizer. High in nitrogen (8 to
10 per cent). Gives good results.

Drain soil thoroughly. Stand-
ing water fatal to alfalfa. Apply
lime liberally. Inoculate soil.

Must be well drained and well
suppUed with organic matter. If
soils do not contain limestone give
moderate application of lime.

Top dress with stable manure or
with 300 to 400 lbs. of acid phos-
phate or 400 to 600 lbs. basic slag,
or 200 lbs. or more of steamed bone
meal an acre.

See that soils are thoroughly
drained. Apply moderate amounts
of manure. Pl6w under legumin-
ous cover crop. In general give
thorough cultivation in early part
of the season.

Fertilize with 200 to 300 lbs. an
acre of mixture containing 2 per
cent nitrogen, 8 to 12 per cent
phosphoric acid, 4 to 6 per cent
potash. Use. stable manure.

Depends on soils and variety.
On heavier soils none may be needed
except stable manure, which is al-
ways best. Experiment with com-
mercial fertilizers.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

nmarvKtiam

Soil Adaptation of

Fifteen Crops Common to Northeastern States {CorUinued),

Crops.

Cabbage.

Soils Best Suited To.

Celery.

Heavy loam or silt loam, with
retentive subsoils. Muck soils
generally" well suited if not too
loose.

Ways of Modifying Soils
to Fit Crops.

Fertilizers to Apply

Onioa«'.

Tobacco.

Muck soils best adapted. Silty
river flood plains and silty or fine
silty uplands, high in organic mat-
ter, will do.

Sandy loam just above water
level, protected from overflow and
well supplied with moLsture.
Strong, well-drained muck land
tilled two or three years.

See that soil is well supplied
with organic matter. Apply lime
liberally to surface of soil. Grow
crop in rotation.

Soil must be moist, but well
drained and well supplied with or-
ganic matter. Lime and salt both
affect celery favorably.

Apply complete fertilizer, high in
potash' and moderately high in
nitrogen, in liberal amounts.

Must be well drained. Large
amounts of organic matter neces-
sary. Lime gives good results.
Crop rotation or alternation desu--
able.

Many grades of soil from light
silt to heavy loams suitable, de-
pending- on grade of leaf desired.

Must be well drained. High in
organic #iatter. Very thoroughly
prepared soil and constant cultiva-
tion necessary.

Fertilize heavily with stable man-
ure where ix)ssible. Large amounts
of commercial fertilizer, rich in
nitrogen, can be applied profitably.

Stable tnanure and high grade
commercial fertilizers must be abun-
dantly supplied for continued large
yields.

Depends on kind of soil and type
of leaf being grown. Usually re-
quires large amounts of potash de-
rived from sulphate. Liming
usually thickens leaf and makes
it harsh.

Following the plan of Dr. Bonsteel, the author has gone carefully
through the soil literature of the United States and «"«»'";^"^*^\*he crop
adaptations, the means of modifying soils and the.fertilizers to apply
to them This is given for the leading crops by regions as follows (1
The North Central region, covered mostly by the Glacial -*^^ ^kcm
Inke soils Iving between Pennsylvania and the Dakotas, and north of the
OWo and Souri Rivers; (2) the South Central and South Atlanic
Coast region, comprising Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia
Kentuckv and the Cotton Belt; (3) the Plains and Mountain region west
SeiTih meridian of longitude; and (4) the Pacific Coast region, in-
cluding the three coast states and most of Nevada. . ,
The following is a summary of the leading crops adapted to soils of

^'^ W'-S>td fof Tery early truck and smah iruits; fair for sugar
beets a::5 poor for small grains. May be kept in grass to P-en^^^driftmg
Sandy Loam.-Good for tobacco, truck, apples, beans, root crops,
fruit, and fair for hay, small grains and corn.

T^ajn —Good for general crops, truck and Iruit. , .^ , ,

Silt Loam.-Vmest corn soil; good for small. grains, hay, frmt, tobacco

'''' SCl'-Belt XS sX good for com. oats, rye, barley, grass.

^'"Tiaf^^'c^^ortay, small grains, export tobacco, some fruit and
small fruit. (For continuation see next page.)

The following is a summary of the leading crops adapted to soils of
the South Central and South Atlantic Coast region: .

S -Adapted to earliest vegetables, some fruits and some varieties
of grapes.' Small grains may be grown, but do better on heavier soils.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Soil Adaptation of the Leading Crops of the Nobth Central Region.

Crops.

Corn.

Soils Best Suited To.

Loam or silt loam,
with heavy subsoil,
season, sandy loam.

Deep soil
For short

Wheat.

Clay or silt loam. Deep soil
well supplied with humus. Sub-
soil, heavier clay.

Oats.

Rye.

Any soil but light sand. Loam
or silt loam best. Good supply
of humus desirable.

Ways of MoDirYiNG Soils
TO Fit Crops.

Well -drained moisture -holding
lands. Turn under good grass or
clover sod. Apply barnyard man-
ure.

Rotate with legumes and hoed
crops. Add organic matter as
manure or green
available.

manure when

Fertiuzbrs to Apply.

Phosphoric acid and legumes.
Use lime on sour soils.

Should follow hoed crops, usu-
ally corn. Prepare seed bed by
^disking, seed early, driUing prefer-
able.

Sandy loam or loam; must be
well drained.

Barley.

Loam to clay loam. Clay causes
lodging. Heavy soils give larger
yields; light soils brighter straw.

Small to moderate amounts of
fertihzers high in phosphoric acid,
and with small amounts of nitrogen
and potash. For western portion,
phosphoric acid only.

Manure or fertilizer should be
appUed to preceding crop. On
poor soils, small amounts of phos-
phorus and nitrogen may be used.

Good crop for poor land;
stand considerable acid.

will

Buck-
wneat.

Loam with well-drained loamy
subsoil.

Potatoes.

Hay.

Clover,

Timothy.

Alfalfa.

Moderate amounts of humus.
Must be well drained. Too rich
soils will cause lodging.

Good pulverizer, hence will do
well on rather poor soil. Good
drainage essential. Add organic
matter.

About same as wheat,
need much lime.

Does not

About same as oats.

Sandy loam or loam; avoid
heavy soils.

Wide variety of soils. Loam to
clay loam best.

Beans.

Apples.

Heavy

Truck-
Cabbage,
Celery, etc.

Rather heavv soil but must be
deep and well dmned.

Fall plow; use winter coyer crop
and turn under. Grow in rota-
tion. Thorough drainage needed.

A minor crop, seldom fertilized.
Sinall amounts of complete f«-
tilizer advised for poor soils.

Drain land, top dress with man-
ure; small applications spread
uniformly.

Sandy loam and clay loam best.

Plow deep and inoculate soil.

Do not lime immediately before
potatoes. Apply fertilizer high in
potassium.

Top dress beginning of second
year with small amounts of com-
plete fertiUzer high in nitrogen.

Use good supply mineral fertilizer
and lime.

Loamy soil best; must be quite
deep and well droned. Avoid
poor air drainage.

Other

Truck-
Lettuce,
Radishes,
etc.

Heavy loams or muck soils, high
in organic matter.

Apply manure and dndn.

Sow to cover crop, preferably
to legume in fall; plow under in
spring and cultivate clean during
early summer.

Moderate amounts complete fer-
tiUzer high in phosphoric acid and
potash. Apply Ume.

Depends on soil. On good soils,
none needed for several years. Ex-
periment.

Use plenty of stable manure.

Tobacco.

Plums,
Cherries,
Small
Fruits.

Light soils, sandy for verv early
markets; sandy loam and loam
for later crops.

Must be prepared to irrigate
sand. Apply lots of manure.
Rotation desirable

For "bright" cigarette tobacco,
sand; for wrapper, sandy loam;
for filler and export grade, heavier
soils.

Sand and sandy loam. Provide
for good air drainage in order to
avoid danger from frost.

Prepare soil thoroughly and cul-
tivate frequently. Must have high
organic content and be well drained
for best results.

Complete fertilizer high in nitro-
gen. Also lime.

High grade complete fertilizer.
High nitrogen content for leaf
crops, as lettuce.

Use leguminous cover crops for
winter. Clean cultivation in sum-
mer.

Avoid lime, as it thickens leaf.
Kind of fertilizer depends on the
soil. Usually large amounts of
potassium sulphate.

Varies with soil and location.
Experiment.

Sandy Loam— "Bright" tobacco, mid-season truck, peanuts, forage
crops and cotton and small grains to some extent.

Loam.— Cotton, tobacco, main crop truck, com, small grams, sugar

SOIL classification

carte, fruit and small fruit, legumes for hay or cover crops, rice and nursery

' ^^ Silt Loam— Cotton, tobacco, truck for canning, corn, small grains,
hay and pasturage, tree and small fruits.

Clay Loam.— Cotton, export tobacco, corn, small grams, very good
for grazing, fruit, rice, flax, hemp, etc.

Clay— Rice, sugar cane, export tobacco, forage crops, hay and fruit.

Soil Adaptation of the Leading Crops of the South Central and South Atlantic
- Coast Region.

Crops.

Cotton.

Soils Best Suited To.

Loam or silt loam.

Ways or Modifying Soils
TO Fit Crops.

Fall plow, cultivate frequently,
rotate with legumes.

Fertilizers to Apply.

Corn.

Tobacco.

Any soil but very light sand and
heavy clay. Best on loam.

Sugar

)Ugar
Cane.

Varies with kind of tobacco
grown. (See North Central Re-
gion.)

Plow deep and rotate.

Frequent, careful cultivation and
cover crop in winter to prevent
erosion. Rotate with legume.

Add manure and other forms of
organic matter. Complete fertilizer.

Complete fertilizer high in phos-
phoric acid. Also plenty of organic
matter. Add Ume.

Do not hme light tobacco. Avoid
muriate of potash in fertilizer.

Loam to clay; best on clay
loam. Soil must be rich.

Truck.

Rice.

Sand for extra early, loam for
main crop.

Drain when needed; add or-
ganic matter.

Heavy complete fertilizer.

Clay or clay loam; heavy sub-
soil essential.

Must be well drwned and have
abundant supply of humus. j

Must be able to flood at proper i
time and drain at proper time^

High grade complete fertilizer.

Plow deep and add lime.

Peaches,
Plums,
Cherries,
Small
Fruits.

Forage

Crops —
Millet,
Sorghum,
etc.

Sand or sandy loam.

Use cover crops to prevent
washing, legumes best.

Varies with location, climate and
crop. Experiment.

Grapes.

Clay loam or clay.

Peanuts.

Varies with variety from sand
to clay.

Plow deep, use winter cover [Complete fertilizer and miinure,
P^p or green manure.

Add organic matter.

Annual

Legumes,
Cowpeas,
Soy Beans,
etc.

Sandy loam.

Sandy loam to clays.

Varies with soil. Experiment.

Organic matter and fall plowing.

Plow deep, give good cultiva-
tion. Good for interplanting with
cotton or com.

Mineral fertilizers.

Mineral fertilizers and lime.

Plains and Mountain Region.-Most of this region is semi-arid to
arid and used largely as pasture, but ^^ere transportation a^d^^^^
available very good crops may be grown by the aid of irrigation, i he
Swing ila summary of the leading crops adapted to soils of the Plains

'^' S-S STredominathig soil and care must be tak- to prevent
Its drifting. It gives fair crops of truck, fruit, cotton, KafRr, sorghum,
wheat, oats and hay,

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

48 ^^__

It also gives good pasturage. ^ ,„^,. „ „„ji it is good for broom-
Loam.-Is about the most productive soi " ^

corn, sorghum, milo, truck, «ugf ;>^«t«/".J' ^ \nd ^tl- No^^^ ^^eat,
Central States small grams and forage crops, and m

''"''' mL:l"^'noi quite so good as loam, but is used for about the

''" a^Loam-Is very hard to handle and not very productive. It is

"^^'^/-V;t3 to t^ntVotern^p^^^^^^^^ It is used to some
extent for general crops, but chiefly for grazmg.

T .V,-. p«..P« OP THE Plains and Mountain
Soil Adaptation of the Leadino^Crop^ ot thk

Crops.

Soils Best Suited To.

Ways op Modipyinq Soils
TO Fit Crops.

Fertilizers to Apply.

Cotton.

Loam.

Irrigate.

Manure and complete fertilizer.

Com.

Loam to clay loam.

Small
Grains

Silt loam.

Plant with lister. Manure,
cultivate frequently.

Add organic matter.

Fertilizer seldom used.

Pa8turar,e water.

Sugar
Beets.

Forage

Crops —
Kaffir,
Sorghum,
Millet.

Alfalfa.

Sandy loam and loam.

Loam best, but will grow in wide
range of soils.

Irrigate, plow deeply and give
clean cultivation.

Plow deeply, give thorough cul-
tivation. Do not plant too early.

Complete fertilizer.

Sandy loam to clay.

Plow deeply; irrigate. Seed and
light crops of hay produced with-
out irrigation.

•D^rifir roflst Region —This region is in most places almost arid.
With 1 aid of rigX^^^^ becomes'one of the garden spots of the coun-
Ty The Mowing is a summaiy of the leading crops adapted to soils of

*'' S-uSd fofTariy truck, figs, stone fruits, citrus fruits and some
of the small fruits. It 'requires large amounts of water and frequent

cultivation to conserve moisture. . ,

Sandy Loam.-Used for most of the fruits grown in this region also
grapes, small fruits, alfalfa and, to some extent, general crops. This soil
is auite light and requires much the same care as sand.

Loam -Used for fruit, late truck, small fruit, grapes, hops, hay and

general crops.

SOIL CLASSIFICATION

'silt Loam.— Used for fruit (including citrus fruit), small fruit, heavy

truck English walnuts. .

kav Loam.-Used for fruit, small fruit, truck for cannmg, and general
crops. This soil is much used in southern California for citrus groves and

lima beans. , , j x ^ •+

Clay.-^ra.\ns and hay, some heavy truck and tree truit.

Soil Adaptation of the Leading Crops of the Pacific Coast Region.

Crops.

Truck.
Fruit.

Soils Best Suited To.

Ways of Modifying Soils
TO Fit Crops.

Fertilizers to Apply.

Sandy loam for early; silt or | Add lots of organic matter,
clay loam for late. ^_

Any soil; loam or silt loam best
for most fruits.

Depends on crop and soil.

Practice clean cultivation to pre- | Varies with kind of fruit,
vent evaporation. Add organic
matter.

Grapes.

Small
Fruit.

English
Walnut.

General

Crops-
Grains,
Hay.

Sandv loam or loam.

Same as for fruit.

Sandy loam to silt loam.

Silt loam.

Same as for fruit.

Complete fertilizer.
Experiment.

Any of the heavier soils.

Cultivate clean in dry season,
but grow cover crop in ramy sea-
son, and plow under.

Give soil thorough preparation
before planting and cultivate wher-
ever possible.

Complete fertilizer.

Ai^« to Solution of Sou Problems.-The soil survey conducted by

Aids to ==ol"7'^ f ,/; ,T„Ued States Department of Agriculture, in

the Bureau ^^ .^»'^,f .^i^^'X^^^^^ of agriculture or agri-

co-operation with the various si ^^^ j^^o many counties in every

cultural experiment stations, is now exituu ^^ ^^^

state. Two kinds of surveys ^^^^ ^.T^ Ipp ig i ' ^ undertaken
reconnoissance soil survey, m 7^"=^ d^*^^^^^^^^^^^ (f) a detailed county

(it consists chiefly in mappmg the ««^;;"f ^ ' ^^"^\ [ The results

Lvey showing the '^^ ^j^tf re^ '^ "^^5

of this work are issued as g«^«^^^\"; ^ ^^, ^oils are fully described
maps outlimng the sen s^ In these i^ep ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^

and their crop adaptations statea. i ^irements are also given,

to agricultural conditions f '"^f .^^^^ J^^^^ the districts in which

These reports are -j'^^^'^^^'l^^ZJ^^^ either through the local
the surveys ^re made They may ^^^ ^^^.^^^^ Department of

senator or representative, o^ d^'^^te experiment station or state depart-
Aericulture In some cases the state e^P^'

mfnt of agriculture will be able ^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^, m such an area to
The detailed county surveys will ^^aWe any .^ ^^.^ ^^^.^_

ascertain the types of soil on his ff™;JXH samples of his soil to his
ular on the part of the ^ ^™,^\ J^ JX^threxact location of his farm,
state experiment f^^f -^ ^^^^^^^ to advise him not only as to the

the authorities at the station wui ^

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

adaptation and the treatment "^^t dv rm °™n, the field from which

Sample., ot soil should "CJ"'* r^ u o?plo«in« in not less than

taken. ^-P^f »;'%^,,r„''™ n, 'p„X.t^^^^^^ ''oronghly mixed.

'7 •■";:,:' S; S sS *i3" "fT ^bsoll. H there is
desirable also to senoa i ^^^^ experiment

ItSS and ;l! .« iitruction on eollecting and send-

'"" Tte'soil auger is most convenient for taking soil
sam Je^ I coSts of an ordinary IH-inch J-^.^m
St the *-;-f„XE^i*'crrS:e wTk ^a
S'mrtrThtactZpan^g figure shows a three-foot
iTger ':rgas pipe h.wll. For a f^ie,^ use the w»d™
handle will serve {"J "^J* /i. ™ ^well for ..king
't;rS^tt tTtt* thof pJing having one

''^' B^S'ot tt' diffiel*o« the part of the experiment
o station a "thorities in giving definite advice at long ijnge

ASon.Aeo.1.. „me of these institutions ^'>^ '"'V^ZuMl^r^eiZt

aliout the state, inspect farms and consult «'* 'a™"» «'"

tive to their soil problems as well as^ther P»*-„t,<^^ .Tcan^'e
such inspection tliese men are al)le to advise more aeiu y

done by letter. . , . , Upnofit of the farmers

In the last few years another mnovation for the beneht ot t

has been introduced, namely, the ^^^-^^^l^^^^ZTlcZesiarnil^^r
:Z^, rsS-bJTmsr'SfT^oS-Srcern his business.

REFERENCES
-Soils- How to Handle and Improve Them." Fletcher.
''Soils." Lyon and Fippm. ^^

■ . .. -n^Pr. NY From "How to ChQosc a Farm/* by Hunt,

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Co.. N.Y. i^rom «

I ifl

CHAPTER 2

PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES

Texture of SoU.— Texture pertains to the size of the mineral particles
that make up the body of the soil. In the laboratory, texture is deter-
mined by a mechanical analysis. This is described m Chapter 1. The
clav portion of a soil will range anywhere from a fraction of one per cent
to as high as fifty per cent of the body of the soil. The particles of clay
are so small that they can be seen only by the use of a high-power micro-
scooe When clay is thoroughly mixed with water the particles will
renLin in suspension for several days. It is this clay that is chiefly re-
sDonsible for the turbid condition of the streams of water flowing from
the^nd after heavy rains. Clay, when thoroughly wet and rubbed
between the thumb and finger, has a smooth, greasy feel.

The silt may also range from a very small percentage to sixty per
cent or more of the body of the soil. It forms the group of particles next
Ser than clay. It produces practically no perceptibly gritty eel when
w3 and rubbed between the thumb and finger. Silt particles will remain
Tsuspe-^Son in water for only a short time, seldom more than one-half

^''"'"The various grades of sand consist of particles very nauch larger than
tho,e of either clay or silt, and can be seen with the naked eye. The per-
ceSage of tndTn soils like that of clay and silt varies between wide

S diS ^^< -^ ri:ntx;:oJ»s^^

water **o*°^f ^^ r / j degree the water-holdmg capacity
important and determines in a large ucg r . , -j ^^

SS£i^5Efoirsi^i::^a>srt

"'^^^helarX^teTroP^^^^^^ of fine particles, such as clay and silt, the
greater is thfsurf ace .L of these particles in a unit volmne of oil. u
fweS-drained soil all gravitational water P-f ^^-^X ^jf^S/oTwS
water is retained. This capillary water consists 0^,;;'^^ *2/thT n such
adhering to the surface of the soil particles f ^^^ su"0"nding ^^^'J >^ \^j^^
a way L to make a continuous film of ^^^ f^ '^ ^.'^^^^^^^ the

continuity of the film, water moves by capillarity from a point w

(51)

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL

films are thickest to a point where they are thinner tending always to
turns are inii-K.est f equality in the thickness of the

LIMIT

,195 »^Y8- - —

usa.

AUuviai

Soil
QilalUver

Sill
Soil

Adobe

Soil

^lauitcla Co,

film, but gradually becoming thin-
ner as the distance from the
source of water increases.

It is evident, therefore, that
the fine-textured soil will hold
much more water than the one
consisting largely of sand. Such a
soil can supply crops with more
water than a sandy soil, and such
a soil is adapted to grass, wheat
and other plants having fibrous
roots that do not penetrate to

great depths.

If a glass tumbler is filled
with water and emptied, a thin
film of the liquid adheres to the
surface. This will equal only a
fraction of one per cent of the
weight of the tumbler. If the
tumbler can be pulverized into a
very fine powder and the particles
saturated with water and allowed
to drain, they may hold water to
the extent of ten to fifteen per
cent of the weight of the glass.
This change in the water-holding
power is the result of pulveriza-
tion and especially of the increase
of the exposed surface which is
brought in contact with the liquid.
The finer the degree of pulveri-
zation the larger the percentage
of water the glass particles will
retain. So we find that soils of
very fine texture will sometimes
hold as much as forty per cent

Sandy
Soil
Btanislaiis Co. QilalUver Ventura

I ' ' T, ' of their weight of water, while

Rate and Height of Capillary Rise of ° „r.ar«o snnHv soils

Watfu IN Soils OF Different Texture.' some of the coarse, sandy sons

will not hold more than four or
five per cent of their weight of water. This water-holding capacity of
the soil is also modified by its content of organic matter. Organic matter

■ Courtesy of The MacmiUan Company. N. Y. From " Soils." by Hilyard.

will absorb from two to four times its own weight of water. The sponge
best illustrates the capacity of organic matter to absorb and hold water.
Water Movement in Soil. — The movement of water in the soil is
influenced chiefly by soil texture. In soils of coarse texture the water
moves very freely. Drainage is rapid and the soils dry soon after rains
so that tillage operations may soon be resumed. On such soils there is
generally little loss of time during the period when they need tillage.
On very heavy soils, that is, on those consisting chiefly of clay and silt
particles, the movement of water within the body of the soil is exceedingly
slow Drainage is difficult, and where the land is level and the sub-
stratum is dense, underdrainage is often required in order to make the
soils productive. In sandy soils the rainfall penetrates and descends
rapidly through the soil body. In this kind of soil leaching is rather
rapid Rain penetrates heavy soils very slowly, and if the rainfall is rapid,
its passing from the surface of the soil causes severe erosion. Further-
more a large proportion of the rainfall is thus lost and in no way benefits
the Rowing plants. • On the part of the farmer it therefore becomes
essential so to plow and cultivate the fine-textured, heavy soil as to in-
crease its penetrability and facilitate the movement of air and water and
the penetration of roots as much as possible. In case of the very sandy
soil It is often advisable to do just the reverse. Applications of lime
which tend to cement the particles together, and of organic matter to fail
up the interspaces, and compacting the soil by rolling to reduce the spaces
are often resorted to. Where land has a high value it may even pay to add
clay to a sandy soil in order to improve its physical properties. On the
other hand, it may sometimes pay to add sand to a very heavy, clay sofl
Such practice, however, is justifiable only m case of land of high value
when used for intensive cropping.

Absorption of Fertilizers.-The absorptive power of the soil is also
proportLSl to the surface area of the particles withm a unit volume^
S o7 fine texture are, therefore, capable of absorbing and hold-g much
larger amounts of fertilizers than those that are f "d^- J^Wis alS
important in connection with the apphcation of fertihzers. It is also
t^e that the soil absorption is much stronger for some ^^bst^n-s^th^^^^^
is for others and this will often determine the time of application of fertU-
le^ The absorptive power of the soil is less marked for nitrogen, either
asTrnmlnfaor niLtes'than it is for either potash or Phospho^s. Con-
seauentlv nitrogenous fertilizers should be used in quantities just sulfa
cSto meet the needs of the crop, and applied just WV:^ll^:JZ
at which the crop most needs it. In view of his ^'^^t, surface applications
of nitrogen are often effective, since the downward movemejit of the
material in the soil soon brings it into the ^^gion of root act mty

Potash and phosphorus are, however, absorbed ^^d held much more
tenaciously by the soil particles, and are not subject to jeve^^ Jj^^y
leaching. Liberal applications of potash apphed to the surface of the

SUCCESSFUL FARM^^

PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL

^ . — ■ ' ,. 1 1 irrieation were found

l^il^^:^^^^^^^^^^^' tZ'7nwll^n!trXJ^ in the course of
Z have penetrated to a deptV^^l'^suchTertili.ers should be distributed
as many months. This suggests tbat sucni .^ ^^^^^ ^^^^

S Xat^-ne of the. soil where root aetm^^^ is m ^^^

Iti'^u^n^htS^^^^^^^^^ w-^ -^^^ ^^ ^^--^^^ ^^ ^ ^"'- •

--SlS^nd Ease o. 0^^^^^^^^^^^ ^ T^VZ

plastic when wet, and f ^ ;^^,^j jJ^^VtTe feet of animals. Such soils
tural implements, wheels of vehicles ana i. ^t of the soil par-

!hould not be tilled when they are wet. The m^^^^^ ^^^^ ^ ^ l,ddy
tides upon one another when ^n t^^^^^^J^^^^^ j^^^ ^se to what is known
and hard when they dry ^f- \lf^lZ^^^ water and air through
as puddUng, and prevents t^^^ fre^ m^J ,„^d in the spring when wagons
the soil. This is well »f^fj^[ f^ '^l ^et condition. These ruts will
nass over it and form ruts while ^t ?« m jijv evaporation, none

Kn become filled with water, -f ^>;,. ^C. C finerxtured soils
of it finding its way ^.^^l^^f j^^^ maUer, tend to rmi together and
when not well supplied ^th o'^gf ^^^ Cultivate. This condition can be
become very compact and f "^ j° „^^^^^^^^^^ when too wet,

alleviated to a certam extent by ^void'"!^" ^ ■/^i,^ form of manure or
Ld also by the apphcatioji. « Jf n J^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^ a by the

green manuring crops, ^ikewi^e, ^h^^^^^^^^^^ that

•rS;rth1ii1:'gtht?nrU^^^^^^^^^^^ with .rger spaces between

^%rsSdy soils and those -tainin. a^^^^^^^^^

less affected by rains, are more e^^^ f ^^l^^^^e^ tvet do not adhere to
great precautions in ^^eir til age. Such sml^^^^^^^ ^^.,^^ ^^^ the

irlrrSVr^oS :;Sodt Stter immediately after rains

than they are when in a d^-^ ^"^.^'^^'^''l.Heavv clay soils and those con-
Texture Affects ''^?l^^^fX^,,,fS71vied to the grasses such
taining large amounts of silt are generally ^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^

as timothy, blue grass, orchard grass and J^^^P; ^^.^ as cabbage,

what is commonly known as tl^heavy^mck-p^^^
tomatoes and asparagus The soils ^^^^^ ^^^^ buckwheat,

texture, are better adapted to such crops ^ com , ^^^^^

peas, beans, clover and potatoes. The soils otiig ^^^^ ^^^

Le sand and sandy loams, are -^« ^^^^^y uSdVr the early truck
all tuber and root crops, and ^'•^^^^/^Xs early peas, etc. Some of
crops, such as spinach, lettuce, ^^X^dTceZl^rtsoi Florida, are
the very lightest sands such as ^re j ound in cma V ^^^ ^^^^

especially adapted to ^^^.f ^^^Ta,?^'^^^^^^ on fairly heavy soils,
ceous fruits, such as apples and pears, win

while the stone fruits, such as peaches, cherries and plums, succeed better
on soils that are lighter in texture and l)etter drained. In fact, peaches
will often succeed admirably on shaly ridges and mountains in the Pied-
mont Plateau.

Texture Affects Tillage. — Soil texture so influences the cost of tillage
that it often determines the crop to be grown. Crops that require a great
deal of tillage and hand work, such as sugar beets, are more economically

The Ease of Seed-bed Preparation Depends on Condition of Soil.'

grown on soils of light texture, because of the greater ease of weeding and
tillage. Even though these light soils under intensive cultivation niay
require considerable expenditure for fertilizers, the additional cost thus
entailed is generally more than offset by the saving m labor.

Structure of the Soil.— The structure of the soil pertains to the
arrangement of the soil particles within the body of the soil m much the
same way that the arrangement of the bricks in a bmlding determines
the style of architecture. In all soils of fine texture it is good soil manage-
ment to strive to obtain a granular structure. This consists of a grouping
of the soil particles into small groups or granules. A good illustration ot

rS^;;;;;,)' of DouWeday, Page & Co., Garden City. N. Y. From "Soib," by Hetcher.

SUCCESSFULFARBONG

PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL

the circulation of the ^'V rC Vof cu tivation. . , ,

plant roots and lessen, ^he difficulty o^cu ^^ .^ ^ by

^ Granular Structure.- 1 he granular ^t j ^.^^^^ ^^ harrowed,

f iUaee Every time the soil is P^^^^f ' .^ """^ach formed of a larger or
ffs pulverized and broken up into P^f "'l^^'J^f^i.o improved by good
smaller number of grains. Gr^^^^^f f ^^^^^^^^^^^ completely filled with
dminage. When the body of t^e «oil is f^^^^^^^^ ,„d tend to arrange
tTter the soil particles move j^th hUk res^^ .^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ,

themselves into a compact mass. V. rPturned to the excavation water
fimng excavations, and when the sod - -^^ j^, ,« that when on.e
is turned into it in order that it may sett f ^^^^ ^^^ thoroughly

filled no depression will occur at the ™^- ^^ ,„ that there is no
undtrSrained seldom, if ^-^^^l^^^TtteUe. in this compact

opportunity for the soil Pf f^^^. *^ JrS wh«« ^"^'^ ^^^''^'^ ^'^ ?k "^
mass Consequently, a soil of this character w ^^iti^^tion, together

Assumes the granular f-^^^-^.^^thtptrand the work of insects and
with the penetration of the roots of the P^^" i^ ,i,yi„g of the soil in

worms. This is further fac litated by tn . „

neriods of prolonged drought. . „ ^„ , thawing also has an influence

^ The process of alternate ^^f »"g ^f '^JSes it expands and causes
on structure. As the water -\^^j:''^^% it thaws and the water

also rmproved by the ^^f on f orgamc^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^.^ „,tter

yard manure or the residues o^^^^P^ *™t ^^uld otherwise be occupied
Lorporated with the soil ^^^"PJXKcTit leaves small cavities which
by soil particles, and upon its g^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^oots are also influential

separate small groups of soil particl^- i-i ^^^^^^ ^^^-^^ ^f the

in improving the structure of the soi , hrst y ^^^. ^^^

soil particles due to the enlargement of the J^ ^.^^^^ ^^^^1^

. second, by the 6^^^"^! ^?.^%l*d X fi^^^ free passage. Earthworms
%^£^:rf^ZX^^ also incorporate in the soil the

a good or poor tilth. A soil m good t It h '» ^ -^ ^he best pos-

condition, or that it has a granular ^tmcture ttot m ^^ ^^^^^_

me home for the plants *« .^^^^^^J^^^Se' extent by the character

S^^tS^ir^latr^'a^ demanding a rather open

soil call for a loose seed-bed in which granular structure is accentuated.
Wheat rye, clover and the grasses, on the other hand, demand a rather
compact, fine-grained seed-bed, and, therefore, do not demand an equal

Hpsree of granulation. , . , r j i ,

SolubiUty of Sou Minerals.-Plants take their mineral food only
when it is in solution. This necessitates a degree of solubility of the
essential plant food minerals that will meet the maximum needs of the
SSs The solubility of the soil particles depends upon a number of
factor; and is a rather complex process. In pure water the solubihty is
very sUght, but as the water of the soil becomes impregnated with car-
Sc acid gas, organic compounds and mineral compounds, these a 1
San Influence ol the degree of solubility of other --ral ^st^^^^^^^^^^
Solubility is also markedly influenced by temperature. This fact is well
recognized by the housewife, who by heating dissolves sugar m water
3it becomes a syrup; so the solubility of the soil minerals is increased

bv a rise in soil temperature. . rr- a ^t tuts^omU —The

Rate of SolubiUty Depends on Texture and Kmd of Minerals. 1 he

of the more extensive use of ferti i.ers on BM.dy «*. It .sateo toe that
r^hl^^'r^S/S* than - .-^-^. ,—Cn 'Z-

sjs-ofth*, "pSLniT^t ^i^ - -To^'ri

S^ jr=l tl ;^aSv- texS? -fi' J the ..-era. of
the soil are exhausted through Plantremoval. ^^^ ^^^^

Soil Bacteria I^"«^«^Solubihty^The ba^^^^^^^^ ^^^

instrumental in increasmg the solubility ot the sou ^^^h

their greatest activity, bact^-J^q-re P -Pe --itary c^ ^^^.^ ^ .^^^ .^

as aeration, a neutral soil medium ^"^^ ^^^^ , numbers of bacteria,

will be seen that fertile soils encourage^ncrea ed^n^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^.^^ ^^^

which in turn make for increased J'^^^^^y- . "^'^^rs wMch enter into
the tiller of the soil to understand ^^e ^"ou™^^^ development

soil productivity, and to ^f^^^il^^Jn^STlu^^ may be de-
of those which are beneficial and discouragu g

structive. . , , T?--+;iitw The rate of the solution

Rapid Solubility Results in Loss of Fer^i^y. Jh^jat ^^^^

of soil minerals should not ^^r ^'^S^*^'^ tCgh leaching and the cou-
tbere be an unnecessary loss of plant food througn ^

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL

58 -___

sequent hastening of the -^Pp-ffSX^lft^^^^^^

^ ^^^^S:i^^S^^^- ve. little dange.

problem for the chemist Many years of resejc^^^^^^^ composition

Ldeavor to determine through chemical ana^^^^^^^^ not omy J^ ^^^

of the soil but its power t^ P-duce ^ ^^^^^^^ ^ute amounts of the
chemist has little difficulty in deteraaining ^ j^ ^^ther

essential plant food co-t'*-';^^^^^^^^^^^^^ indicate

long, tedious '.nd««^*y,iff,^eir^^^^^ „, comparatively little a«

the relative fertility of different soils, ana x endeavored

to the present fertihzer needs o them Thy^^e amounts of avail-
to devise methods of f "^ly^'^ ^J^* ^^ £ "« used different solvents
able plant food present in the soil. J^"^ J' ''^ T^^ ^^e plant in its ex-
of varying concentrations m ^^^.^^^^eavor to imita^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^

traction of the elements from the «' ; J^J^/'^f J^ .^'erefore, obliged
have met with comparatively J^tt^^^^^^^^^^^^^ the oil is of very little
to conclude that, as a rule, a chemical analysis o jj ^^e

help to the farmer. This f ^^^^iX^S 1^^^^^^^^ >« ^«^

analyst finds that the ^^^ :^^l; ^^^f^Z mmediately in need of
small, it at once indicates ^^at t^s soil is e ^^^^

the deficient element or soon wi *^«°"^^ ''';. /LJinafre satisfactory and
the physical -nditions of the soU a- ^^^^^^^ thTsoils

Z'tV:;':^"'J^i:SS^^ without the addition of plant
knowledge of soils. ;^^u^r of oiK^t-^ it is important

:Z^.f^,^t£oi Mrare „,te„%»«v. of the preface or

J^l

absence of particular elements. The first essential to profitable crops is
the production of a healthy and vigorous plant. Added to this is a high
degree of fruitfulness. A deficiency in phosphorus may not prevent a
satisfactory development of the plant, but may seriously curtail the pro-
duction of seed. This is often illustrated in the case of wheat which
makes a rank growth of straw and a comparatively small yield of wheat.
The absence of available nitrogen is often indicated by the yellow color

of the foliage.

The form in which the elements are combined may influence the
quality of the product. This is illustrated in tobacco when the applica-
tion of muriate of potash causes a poor burning quality of the leaf that is
to be used for cigars. Better results with a cigar tobacco, are secured
when the potash is applied in the form of sulphate or carbonate. Further-
more, the essential plant food constituents dominate in the development
of certain parts of the plant or in the performance of certam vegetative
functions. For example, potash is believed to be largely instrumental
in the development of starch, and fertilizers for starch-producing plants
such as potatoes, generally contain a high percentage «f P^t^^j^ f^J
beheved also that the color of fruits is controlled to a certain extent by
the presence or absence of certain essential elements, such as potash or iron
Hements Essential to Plants.-The essential elements of plant food
mav be grouped as follows: First, those obtained from air and water,
SstLg'^of 'oxygen, hydrogen and carbon; -^^ \h-e c^^^^^^^^^^^
that are frequently deficient in soils and are ^^P^^^"* ^^/^^ *^^^^^^
commercial fertilizers, namely, nitrogen, Pbo-pho^^^ «"f P^^^J^^^^^
third CTouD is not likely to be deficient as elements of plant food, inese
fonsisHrcaTcium, ma^esium, sulphur and iron. I- this group c^^^^^^^^^
and maenesium in the carbonate form may become so deficient that sous
SomroZTn which case the practice of applyin^^^^^^^ is ad-sab^^
The five other elements commonly present and fitting into a fourth group

-' '^:^s:^::^l:^^^'^^^ - compo-d

^^^h^ r:^gSaSnin£Se: tl t^^
ZJXtSl.^{SZ one id one-hajf "lill^ns br^ught^o-

gether in a mass in ^fer^^^J^^^ ^Si Ihons'upon millions of
plants are omnipresent, ^^^^'^^f \*^^3 ikthe water of the lakes and
them. They are present '^ ^^^^''jf^^ ^^,ZiL the foods we eat.
rivers, and occur on all vegetation and ^'^^'^r^^^ power microscope
These minute organisms were unknown until t^^ high Power m ^^

was invented a comparatively short time ago. The^ pl^^^J^^^Sa have
part in all life processes. More than a thousand spec.es «* ^acte^
already been identified and described, and new species are bemg

""Bacteria Make Plant Food AvaUable.-The bacteria of the soil are

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL

60 .^

constituents of the soil. It is essential lor u multiplication of

the bacterial flora of the soil is -P;^-^ ^^ ^ is al" will to know
these bacteria is generally to ^e encourage"-

that there are two i^-^j'--;^, ^^^^^^^^ and

in the presence of pl^nty «f '^'[A ,X^ir and even in the total absence
second, ^^osei^:^i^^:^^fj^l^^ bacteria,

of oxygen These^^^/^f^f;^'^, ^^^^ ^.^j^ pl^^^y of air,

respectively. The "f ^'f!' J^^jj^j^i f^rms, and these dominate in the
are made up generally ^^^e Whcial^ ^ ^^^ multipUca-

So'odtntXm of oTgSXr. although many forms live directly

Sbsrsoiftmi^s ioT^r:l-r^^^^^^

funct^onTn soirthan the conversion of organic nitrogen into ammonia

nitr t s?and finally nitrates, thus making the -^^^^J^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
nlnnts Nitrogen is the most expensive element that farmers nave to
Sase in a Smercial form. It costs about twenty cents per pound, o
Zeelimes as much as granulated sugar. Nitrogen is present m the air
Tgreat quantities, and' it is chiefly through various forms of bacteria
that the higher plants are able to secure the necessary supply. Among
the bacterid instrumental in this process are the ^unierous species «^^^
are found in the nodules on the roots of the various leguminous crops.
For agTs le^mes, such as clovers, have been recognized as beneficial to
the SOU asThowA by the increased growth of the non-leguminous crops
hat follow Not until the discovery of these bacteria m the nodules on
the roots of legumes (about one-fourth century ago) was it understood

whv leeumes were beneficial. ± r ^^^

Th^ species of bacteria that occur in the nodules on the roots of one
leguminous crop is generally different from that occurring on a different
leguminous crop, although there are a few exceptions to th s rule ihe
same species of bacteria occur on the roots- of both alfalfa and sweet
cCr'but a different species is characteristic of red clover, and one species
cannoi be successfully substituted for another. It is, therefore essen^a
to use the right species when attempting to inoculate soil artificiaUy for
a particular leguminous crop. The different species of bacteria for the
leguminous crops will be discussed under each of those crops m chapters

which follow. . , ., . , „,i^n+

There are also species of bacteria living in the soil, not dependent

directly upon legumes, which have the power of abstracting free nitrogen

from the air and converting it into forms available for general farm crops.

Bacteria Abundant Near Surface.— The soil bacteria are most abun-
dant in the plowed portion of the soil. Their numbers greatly diminish
as the depth increases, and disappear entirely at a depth of a few feet.
It is generally believed that direct sunshine is destructive to practically
all forms of bacteria. Consequently, we find few living bacteria immedi-
ately at the surface of a dry soil. In tlje practice of inoculatmg soils,
therefore, it is recommended that the bacteria be distributed on a cloudy
day or in the morning or evening when there is little sunshine, and that
the inoculation be at once thoroughly mixed with the soil, by disking or

harrowing. . , j- . x • a

Barnyard manures are always teeming with myriads of bacteria, and
the practice of applying such manure adds many bacteria to the soil.
Bacteria are most active during the warmer portions of the year, and most
of them are dormant when the temperature of the soil falls below the
freezing point. Those instrumental in nitrification are very inactive
when the soil is cold and wet and become exceedingly active m mid-sum-
mer when the temperature of the soil is comparatively high, when plant
growth in general is most active and when nitrogen is most needed by
growing crops. This is a fortunate coincidence, since it enab es the higher
plants to utilize the nitrates made available at that particular season by
bacteria. If nitrification through the bacteria were equally rapid during
periods when farm crops made little growth, a great loss of nitrogen would
occur through leaching of the soil. The freezing of the soil does not destroy
bacteria, as a rule, but simply causes them to be temporarily dormant.

REFERENCE

"The Soil." UaU.

i|!

CHAPTER 3

FERXaiTY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN

TT-rHHtv Defined -The fertility of a soil is measured by its capacity
Fertility Delrnea. i"« ^ ^ j^j jj t^e soil and climate

to produce an abundant growth ^^^^^^ dependent upon a single factor,
of the region are adapted. J^'^'^^l^^^^^^ ^f a number of factors acting
but requires the presence -f ^^^^^^J^^r' ^^^^ dependent, first, upon
S "^"'" oe of\ sSfenf suppy of he necessary plant-food elements
the Pr^^e'^f «^,^^!^*';fr„dTr^^ an adequate water supply to convey
in an available form, secona, upon au * m , . .. • ^ upofi suf-
these elements in solution to the r^o^ of ^^^ f ^*^^^\^;f of

ficient warmth to promote plant f^^^' .^.^'^Xn A fertile soil
^tSLZ:""^^^ ol tt jXS^oTf erals reduced t.

of the character and value oi ine bun. xi & ninnlp hickory

Lh, basswood, black walnut, burr oak, ^^'^f^^Pf/.^'^jf.^^^^^^^^^

oak predominates the soil may be considered fairly g«« J ^ut i beech
predLinates it may be looked upon with suspicion, and will probably

^^%:ir pi:nt m the same manner are a .ood indicat^^^^^
fprtilitv of the soil. For example, in regions where alfalfa, Canada thistle,
SndwJerd'e; corn, cockle'-burr, Kentucky ^^^l^^^^ SS.
ragweed and wheat grow well, the soils are generally f«3*«, f^/™
On the other hand, the predominance of b^^^wheat Canada blue gra^^
the daisy, five-finger, oats, paint-brush, potatoes, redtop, rye, sorrel and
wild carrot, indicate soils relatively poor. ^r xl^ „;i*1

In general, legumes indicate a good soil, although in case of the w^W
legumes there are some exceptions to this. Soils on which the grasses
predominate are generally better than those given over largely to the
growth of sedges. The sedges in general indicate wet soils Golden-rod
Ta common weed having a wide habitat. It grows on both poor and

(62)

i<4

•^r,^

FERTILITY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN

good soils. The character of growth of this plant will suggest whether
or not the soil is good or poor. On good soil it will have a rank and
vigorous growth. The same may be true with other plants, but where
nature is allowed to run her course and the law of 'Hhe survival of the
fittest'' has free sway, those plants naturally best adapted to the region
are the ones which will ultimately predominate.

It should not be understood that any one species of plant should be
relied upon to indicate whether or not a soil is good or poor, but when
one takes into consideration all the vegetation present, one can then judge
quite aQcurately as to the relative strength or fertility of the soil, i

Drainage Reflected in Character of Vegetation.— The condition of
the soil with reference to drainage is, of course, a modifying factor. Swamp
soils, for example, are adapted only to those plants that can grow in the
presence of an excess of moisture. So long as soils are in a- swanapy con-
dition they are unsuited to agricultural crops, and in that condition may
be considered unproductive. A good system of artificial drainage may
change the whole aspect and cause them to be transformed into highly
productive farm soils. Indeed, the establishment of a drainage system
under such conditions would ultimately cause the disappearance of the
native vegetation and encourage the encroachment of an entirely dif-
ferent set of plants. Then, again, climate is a modifying factor, and
certain plants are found in regions of continuous warm climate that are
not found where cold winters prevail.

Lime Content and Acidity Related to Plants.— The predonunance of
chestnut trees as above indicated suggests a poor soil and one low in lime
content. Chestnut trees are not found on limestone soils, and the lime-
stone soils in general are considered among the most fertile. Such plants
as the huckleberry, blueberry, cranberry and wintergreen are seldom found
on soils well supplied with lime. Redtop, while often indicative of a poor
soil, will grow luxuriantly on a fertile soil. It is also very tolerant of soil
acidity and an excess of moisture. It has a wide adaptation and is often
grown as a hay crop on poor soils.

The presence of an abundance of sorrel, plantain and moss in culti-
vated fields is indicative of the condition of the soil, although it may have
no relation to the soluble plant food present. Such plants generally indi-
cate an acid soil, and call for the application of lime to encourage the
growth of clover. Sorrel, like clover, is generally benefited by lime, but
iit is more tolerant of soil acidity than clover, and on an acid soil the clover
disappears and the sorrel takes its place. Red clover is less tolerant of
boil acidity than alsike clover. Many farmers make it a practice to mix
[these two species of clover. On neutral soils the red clover will always
lominate and the alsike will scarcely be noticeable. But if the acidity
)f the soil approaches the limit for red clover, then the alsike will pre-
lominate, and this predomination is very noticeable when the crop comes
into blossom.

lili

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

FERTILITY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN

""" T. T7^^M-ln the irrigation districts of the semi-arid

Vegetation and Alkali, ^n im img, ^ vpcetation often enables
regions of the United States the character o^ J^JJ^'^ «\^^ ^^i^aline for
one to determine at a glance ^"^^^^^^^^^ of and serves
the production of staple crops. This f acU. ^U^^ ^^^^ ^^^ p^^,

color is indicative of fertility o^ otherwise DU ^^ ^^

paratively consistent '"el^tf^^^ip between coM gr ^^^ ^^

Nearly all black soils are i'^'^^'^^^'^^'il^Z^ the

have a yellowish cast - ^-^'yj^^^J^^: ,,,,, f,My fertile^ . The

jiTr'^welf rthe s^oif ^x^rt. soon learns that color is a good index

^n^r^e,twe?er, to look further than -rely - t^^^
the soil or the character of the vegetat o- S^^^^^^^^ J^ J ^.j .^

in connection with fertility. Th«[^^. J^^^Sath ilof a hght-colored, tena-
black and where the ^-"^'^^'^^Ztttl^^^^^ productive for any con-

^SA:^^:^^1^^^!^^^ ks serious fault

'^""KeSuTLoS^W Plant Removal.-Loss of soil fertility by plant
Fertdity Lost by in ultimately be replaced, either by

removal is ^^^^f^.^^'^Z 'Zv^ thus removed in the form of unused
the return of the ^^f^ff ' J\J™Pxcreta of the animals that consume the
portions or by-products and the excreta o commercial fer-

Sops. or by the P^''^^^^^;^ /ftmt! th^ plant food through

tiUzers. In rationa ^f te^s ^^ a« ^^^ undesirable, and such removal
the removal of crops is not to be consiae replaced at a

should result in sufficien P-^^^^JVi^^^ grown. In the pre-

cost less than the f "^ts receivexi t g elements potassium and phos-
ceding chap - we fouM t^^^^^^^ td exhaustedTo such a degree as
phorus are the only ones liKeiy t ^^^^^^ .^ ,^^g^

to necessitate replacement ^s a matter ot a P^ ^^^^ ^ ^^ j^^^^j^

quantities in most ^^/J^' ^"f ^'^^S brL '^^^^^ its availability. Many

* •

time the supply will be so nearly exhausted as to necessitate the return of
this element to the soil in some commercial forni. In some soils it is
•ilready necessary for most profitable crop production.

^ Loss by Erosion.— The loss of soil fertility by erosion is more serious
than the loss by plant removal. In this way there is not only a loss of
pllnt food but a loss of a portion of the soil body itself. The millions of
tons of finest soil particles and organic matter carried annually to the
ocean by the rivers of the United States are a monument to careless soil
management. This waste may be witnessed everywhere. The removal
of the most fertile part of the soil is not only a loss to the soil, but is often
a menace to navigable streams which are filled up with this material. An
enormous expenditure on the part of our national government is necessary
in dredging them out and making them again navigable. This erosion
also becomes a menace to our great city water supplies, necessitating ex-
pensive filter plants to remove the suspended matter and purify the water.
It also frequently does damage to other land subject to overflow, and on

which the deposits may be left. , . i • xu x

The great problem, therefore, seems to be the control of the rain that
falls upon the land. A portion of this may pass over the surface, carrying
with it small amounts of the surface, which in the course of time has been
largely exhausted of plant-food elements. This loss should be accom-
panied by a renewal of the soil from below. The addition of new soil
below should keep pace with the removal from the surface if permanent
soil fertility is to be maintained. The remainder of the rainfall should
find its way into the soil. A portion of this may pass off into the dramage
waters removing certain soluble material that without such drainage
might accumulate in the course of centuries to the detriment of plant
growth Another portion should return to the surface, bringing with it
the soluble constituents of the soil and leaving them near the surface for

the use of growing plants. , -i i_ c

Preventing Soil Erosion.— Water escaping from the soil by means ot
underdrainage never carries with it any of the soil material other than
the shght portions that are soluble. It is, therefore, essential to establish
systems of farming that will enable a large proportion of the rainfall to
penetrate the soil; and to remove the excess of water by underdramage
when nature fails to provide such a system. Erosion may be largely pre-
vented on most farms by deep plowing and by keeping the soil covered
as much as possible with growing crops or their remains. Deep plowing
encourages an increased penetration of the rainfall and, therefore, reduces
the amount passing over the surface of the soil. The presence of growing
plants retards the movement of surface water and holds back the soil
particles. An abundance of roots in the soil helps to hold it together and
prevent erosion. The application of barnyard and green manures
also retards erosion. In some places terracing the soil to Prevent
erosion becomes necessary, but it is a costly and cumbersome method

66 SUCCESSFUL FARMING '

and not to be recommended where other and cheaper metliods can be

"''"^Lands that are steep and subject to erosion should be kept covered
with vegetation as fully as possible. Such lands should not be plowed
in the fall and allowed to lie bare through the winter.

Farming Systems that Maintain FertiUty.— Systems of farming which
provide for a return of the largest possible proportion of the plant-food
constituents removed in crops are those that most easily mamtam the
fertility of the soil. It is, therefore, evident that livestock farming m
general is least exhaustive of soil fertility, provided the excreta of the
animals are carefully saved and returned to the soil In the rearing of
animals for meat, about ninety per cent of the plant food consumed by
the animals is voided in the liquid and soUd excreta. If this is carefully
saved and returned to the soil, depletion of soil fertility will be exceed-

inglv slow. , , ,

In dairy farming, where the milk is sold, a somewhat larger propor-
tion of the plant food elements is sold from the farm. Even here the
total amount is relatively small, and may be offset by the plant food in
concentrates purchased for the dairy. If the milk is fed to pigs and
calves and only the butter is sold, the exhaustion m the long run will be
no greater than in meat production. It is, therefore evident that the
type of farming is closely related to the maintenance of soil fertility, and
those types which permit a maximum sale of cash crops cause the largest
direct removal of plant food from the farm. All types of livestock farm-
ing therefore, come closest to maintaining permanent fertility.

' In new countries it is not an uncommon practice for farmers to dunip
the manure from stables into a nearby stream in order to get rid of it.
It is also a common practice to burn stacks of straw and the stubble of
the field in order that the soil may be freed of rubbish and easily plowed
and cultivated. Such practices are to be condemned, for in the long run
they encourage soil depletion. Where land is cheap and fertUe and labor
expensive, the immediate returns from applying manure may not justify
the cost of its application, but in a long term of years it will prove profit-
able A farmer should be far-sighted enough to calculate what the result
will be in the course of a lifetime. There should be more profit m the
removal of fifty crops in as many years where fertility has been main-
tained or increased, and where the crop yields have increased, than there
is in the removal of fifty crops with a constantly decreasing yield. In the
first case the land is left in good condition for the succeeding generation;
in the second case, in bad condition.

Deep Plowing Advisable.— Fertility of the soil is generally improved
by increasing the depth of plowing. It is a common observation that in
regions of good farming where farmers are prosperous, the soil is generally
plowed to a depth of seven to ten inches. In many portions of the South
we find the one-mule plow that barely skims the surface of the soil, and

FERTILITY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN

accompanying this we have the unsuccessful farmer. Plowing is an expen-
sive operation. It is estimated that the power required annually to plow
the farm land of the United States exceeds that used in the operation of
all the mills and factories in the country.

There is a Umit to the profitable depth of plowing, and numerous
experiments indicate that it is seldom profitable to plow deeixir than
eight to ten inches. There doubtless are some exceptions to this found in
case of the production of intensive crops or the occasional deep plowing
for the preparation of a deep-rooted crop like trees or alfalfa. Deep plow-
ing increases fertility by increasing the area of pulverized soil in which
the roots of the plants find pasturage. Such plowing increases the aera-
tion of the soil, encourages the multiplication of bacteria to a greater depth
in the soil, and results in increased availability of plant food. Deep plow-_
ing also incorporates the organic matter applied as manure or as the stubble
of the preceding crop in a deeper stratum of soil, thus increasing its water-
holding capacity. Deep plowing also increases the penetration of rainfall
and provides for greater storage of it. This provides a larger water supply
for the growing crops in periods of drought. . „ ,, • ^

TiUage is Manure.— Cultivation of the soil, and especially the inter-
tillage of crops, such as corn, potatoes and truck crops, aids in mamtammg
fertility: first, by conserving soil moisture; second, by more thorough
aeration of the soil; third, by a fuller incorporation and distribution of
the organic matter with the mineral matter; and fourth, by the destruc-
tion of weeds which consume plant food and water to the detriment of

the crop grown. , , , ■ . • e _i-ri,.

Rotations are Helpful.— Crop rotations also help to maintain fertility.

By means of rotating crops the soil may be occupied for longer periods of
time than when one crop is planted year after year on the same soil. The
roots of different crops, having very different habits, occupy somewhat
different zones in the soil. A shallow-rooted crop may be advantageously
followed by a deep-rooted one. One takes the major portion of its plant
food from near the surface and the other from a somewhat lower stratum.
All crops do not use mineral constituents in the same proportion. One
which demands large amounts of nitrogen may appropriately follow one
which has the power of gathering nitrogen from the air For example,
corn appropriately follows clover, the corn benefiting by the mtrogen left
in the soil by the roots and stubble of the clover crop.

Rotations Reduce Diseases.— Rotations also make for fertility by
checking the epidemics of plant diseases and the depredations of insects
As a rule, a plant disease is common only to one crop and where that
one crop is grown year after year on the same soil the disease increases
until finally the crop must be abandoned. Many of the insect pests of crops
either live permanently in the soil or have but little power of migration.
These likewise prey upon certain crops and do not bother others, and the
rotation of crops prevents serious injury by them. While these do not

■■(

gg S U CCE^SFUX_FA^M£NG

___-_-__^^^ growth of crops,

be grown greatly to the benf J ^e ^oU^ ^,,p j, not in pos-

suitable plants occupying ^J^ ^"l^^lf i reason of the year, take up
session. They make growth durmg the cool s ^^^^^ .^ ^^^

plant food as it is made ^^^^1^^^''' ^f ,„,„ jf Xwed under. In this way
bo returned to the soil when such a crop is plowe^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^

soil fertility by direct
soil leaching and con-
verts mineral plant
food into an organic
form which upon decay
is more readily avail-
able than it previously
was. Such a crop also
adds organic matter to
the soil, increasing its
power for holding water
and being generally
beneficial. Good ex-
amples of cover-crops
are crimson clover or a
mixture of rye and
winter vetch seeded in
corn late in the sum-
_ mer and occupying the

• +„, q,u.h rroDS do not at all interfere with the
soil during the winter, ^^^j^^^^^^^^^^^^ „,ost of their growth in the

growth and maturity of the corn, ^^ey ^^^^_

Ste fall and early spring and n^^y be Plowed '^^der m aje^^^ P^ ^^^

ing a crop the following y^J' .f^^f J^^J^^g orthe soil is sUght, while
South, where the winter, a^e mikl and eez>ng_^^ _^ ^^^^^^

^^i:^e^::^Z::.^^y ^ -d^^ after the removal of a truck

^^°'^' T -...^oc* ^oil Nitroeen.— Of all the crops instrumental in

Legumes In ease SoU N^^«f »' f^, ^^ese alone have the

increasing «°;1 ^^f^^'^^^^^^^^^ of bacterid residing in the nodules

power, through the instrumenta^^^^^ ^.^ ^^.^^ ^^^^ ^^^p^

on their roots, to ^"f'^^^l^^l^XmraeH, yet at the same time they leave
are richer in protein than th^^^^^^^^ ^ ^^.^^ .^ ^^^i,,ble

in the roots and stubble a arg ^^.^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^
t^Xo^fTp evety foTr or five years is decidedly faulty.

—T^;;;^ot the WUcoasm Agricultural Experiment StaUon.

FERTILITY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN

Soil Febtiuty BarkklJ
Illustrating the limiting factor in crop production.

Drainage Increases FertiUty.-Fertility is increased by drainage,

n^findprdrainaee which lowers the water table, increases aeration
especially ^'^ f J^ ^^ ^j^^ ^^^^^^ ^f pj^^t

'""■ Manure is tbe Best Fertilizer.-Manures increase fertility by the
J- . ^r+tni ofnlant food and by increasing the organic matter of the
^T Srstc ea!e the waterLlding capacity of the soil, improve
?ts phyS cTnltion! introduce various forms of bacteria and encourage

^'^ ToSJS F:^Sr: Md ^^^^^^ Only.-Commercial fertilizers

te more fully tousled under the »veral chapters pertammg to them,
"""illfLtaittog F.ctor.-There is always a limiting factor in crop prc^

r wS tr s.»s^^^ ;-^^A^^ rt ai^

may be an excess. If water is the "m™ S capacity of the soil,

rainfall during the crop season and the low ^^"^f^Xuld endeavor to
The farmer has no control over the ^amff I, but he jhould «
increase the water storage capa-ty^o^^^^^^ of tglnirmatTer! thorough

i r^an-cet ^f t:Sr-Su; P^JjS' ^ >-
the case, it is important that the larmer k „hosphatic fertilizer.

ps;i:xrr gSr/ s^nt ^^^, ---' - r

cropped with a four-year rotation of ^^o™, oats ^v^^^t ^^^ "u^ ^^

and timothy, will show a ^^^-^y declme m ^op^y^^^^^ ^^.^ ^^^

fertilizers are applied. Experiments with fertilizers on i
for the crops mentioned show that when '^^^^^^J^'^'^^^^.^^or^s
no effect. Potash applied alone is l^kewis^neffective. When p^ P^^^^^
is applied there is a marked increase in t^e yield of crops, ^ho p ^_,
however, will not fully maintain the fertility of the soil. y

SUCCESSFUL FARMIN^

■^^ ■ r. • „r^„iiprl When the need

for phosphorus is met, then f*^'^ !'^'°"'' ction with phosphorus with
applicatfons of potash may ^e y-d;\co^^^^^^ ^ ^ limiting factor m

p?oWle returns. I-^tm^^Sd ascertain the limiting factors^-
crop production. ihe l^rmti economically, tie may

his^crop production, and f;^- ^^^^^^^^^ that these will vary from
find that there are several limiting lacw ,

FERTILITY AND HOW TO MAINTAIN

"Soils and Soil FertiUty." Whitson and Wakton.

Expt. Station Relative to Soil Fertility.
Farmers' BuUetins, U. S. Dept of Apiculture:
342. '' Conservation of Soil Resources.
406*. ''Soil Conservation." . ^ .^ „
421. "The Control of Blowing Soils.
446 "The Choice of Crops for Alkali Land.

.^♦'?S .v«<S, ;V^'/-

'^0mi',f*

~m-^

v:^^

{

I i 'I

,■ to time- » the problem ot soil teriillty ta . »ever-,„dmg problem
time to time, so tuc p , u„ve to contend. , ,

with which the farmer w^ ^l^^^^^^l^^i fertility is a problem of far-
FertiUty an Econonuc Problem, ^ol ^ ^ .^ ^^^^^^j

reaching economic i«;i^^^?^;„ J^dTorses equipment, seeds and land
crop production are labor of men and h«rse q p ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^

renL. These cost no -°- ^^^^e soUs are generally plowed and
productivity. In fact, ^^e produ^ti ^^ ^^^ productivity.

^yt^ntwl S Pdut oTe; ?hat required to meet the cost of

production is profit.

REFERENCES

' ^ Soil Management/' King. „ ^^

* ' First Principles of Soil I er tiuty . >

'J*-.

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

CHAPTER 4

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

A fnl «f uflv of the condition of farming in the United States shows

TZ 'alp:^ -'«.r.Hhough the amount required ia eo„,u„c.,o„

with nLral manures may be ""-PrJ":^!? '"^ „.„„ t„ms and the

It is desirable to use ^i"""?!!,, dSe S is but natural,

"■" ObS«d n.eoTconun.rci.1 Fer.iUzers.-The object of manuring
the 2 wheThtr with stable manure, i.-« -■'- l^ZT^It
''^-r rherurn:in:"St'p™durm':.st t m*'thai suffi^eient
Kt^Ste ^^oTI^s or g^e^^PjJW^^^^^^^^^^

"b:'rr*tt rrtrrcS«: ts shou,d ,.. » net

''%Z j:?t:£lX'utT«,m:e"S<ertili»,, in the United Staje,

was ^nmf TXt ,L th»e w^ J^-J^thTiS "^ F^'m
was followed the suceeedmg year by twenty t™es M / ^^j

that date the ™[»*"°°J^.tllne ES era 1^^^^^^ «' ""T'

its maximum and began to aecune oeij ^^^

Other '"'^'■'-\'"''\:iZlrv^^^^''^«o These, tocher with
from Germany, have taken *»« f'"^?' " ^| ^ „[ cottonseed meal and
the development of ""'Phosphate mines^the use continually

the utiUsation «' /fshter-houj by-pr«tet.j^ ha^^^ ^^^^^.__^

increasing demand " «XesS *^^ i» '"» «« ^'*'
?unTthe'pSTou*:S^Sng years have been a, follows:

Value.
Year. ' $28,500,000.00

1879 38,500,000.00

1889 54,750,000.00

1899 112,000,000 .00

1909

4r u^ iHflP doubt but that this rate of increase in the
^ oTSiSrwm lunt t'sle time to come. The subject . one

^ (72)

of much economic importance to farmers, and one which has received
much time and attention on the part of investigators in the agricultural
experiment stations of all the older agricultural states. Agricultural
literature now contains a vast amount of data setting forth the results of
experiments with fertilizers on different types of soil and for different
crops, but there is still much to be learned relative to the subject. We
will always have an acute fertilizer problem. This is due to the constantly
changing conditions of the soil, resulting primarily from changed agri-
cultural practices and especially from the treatment of the soil, which
will gradually change its relationship to crops.

What are Commercial Fertilizers?— In discussing the subject of
fertilizers the terms manures, complete and incomplete manures, fertil-
izers, chemical fertilizers, commercial fertilizers, natural fertilizers, arti-
ficial fertilizers, indirect fertilizers, superphosphates, etc., are used, and
there is often misunderstanding of the meaning of some of these terms.
Fertilizers are first divided into natural and artificial. The former in-
clude all the solid and liquid excrement of animals and gi-een manuring crops
when plowed under for the benefit of the soil. . Artificial fertilizers include
all commercial forms of fertilizers. These are sometimes called prepared
fertilizers and chemical fertilizers, but are becoming more generally known
as commercial fertilizers. A complete fertilizer contains the three essential
plant-food constituents, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. An in-
complete fertilizer contains only one or two of these. All animal manures
are complete fertilizers. Green manures are likewise complete.

A fertilizer is said to be indirect when it contains none of the essential
plant-food elements, but in some way acts on the soil so as to increase the
availability of plant food in the soil or increase crop growth. Lime,
gypsum, salt and numerous other substances have been found to have
this action and would be classed as indirect fertilizers.

The terms high-grade and low-grade are also applied to fertihzers.
These terms, however, are not well defined. High-grade fertilizers gen-
erally contain large amounts of plant food per ton, while low-grade fer-
tilizers contain relatively small amounts. Another distinction that is
sometimes made is that fertilizers manufactured out of high-grade con-
stituents, such as nitrate of soda, acid phosphate and muriate or sulphate
of potash, are considered high-grade fertilizers regardless of the percentage
of the elements. A high-grade fertilizer always costs more per ton than
a low-grade one, but it is generally true that the elements in such a ferti -
izer come cheaper to the farmer than they do in a low-grade material
Whether it is more economical to purchase high-grade or low-grade ma.terial
is an important question, but the answer is not difficult. AH fertihzers
should be bought on the basis of their content of available plant food, and
it is merely a problem in arithmetic to calculate the relative cost ot the
elements in different grades of fertilizer.

Where are Fertilizers Secured?— Fertilizer materials are to a large

im\

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

i J

*°« 'TrCT.™ ?„rtunXthe fertilizing element most needed

secured chiefly trom extensive ucp t, supply is

L-S^SJrto-i^e = f -r<?iv^r5::'h

from the slaughter-houses of the country; also by basic slag, oy

^ntloSTtfa^sLred almost exclusively ffom th- t^^^^^^^^^^
notash mfnes in Germany. Potash salts come to us m differen^ forms^
Sost of Tem have been manipulated and more - le- P^f ^^^^^^
one most exten jvely used is kno n ---W p^^^^^^^^^^

ICaTmeSless'r^r t Addition to these we have -e^of «;e
crude PO-h s^ts suc^^^^^^^^^^^ dw^

TeXre^C^ovtt the Pacific Ocean off the coast of the Umted
States and Canada' As yet these have not been extensively used as a

""SltrirLtil'at'^^^^^^^ in the form of nitrate of soda, which
Nitrogen IS avau^ y sulphate of ammonia, an extensive by-

^;iur^m"cot o:Ltn°;rm th^e manufacture of a^fici. gy. As

ih are cotrLeed meal, dried blood, tankage, fish scrap guano, casto
^omte together with small amounts of horn, hair, feathers and wool

""^^Carriers of Nitrogen.-Nitrate of soda (NaNO,) contains 15 per
oent oSrogen Ris readily soluble in water, and nitrogen m this form
LlmedSy available for plants. It should be applied in small quan-
tViS^nd not long prior to the time plants most need their nitrogen supply.
Subhate o^ammonia (NH,)m contains 20 per cent of nitrogen.
Like nitrate of soda, it is quick acting, but for most crops the ammonia
nJ,.^ fSt be converted into the nitrate form before it can be utilized.
Tme SSls however can utilize ammonia as such. Sulphate o ammonia
fs no^leaSed fToTt'he soil quite as rapidly as nitrate of soda, but never-
tUt it should not be applied in larger Amounts than are necessary,
nor far in advance of the needs of the crop.

CoItoSeed meal is another source of nitrogen which is extensively
.^.HtoTn the cotton belt. It contains from 3 to 8 per cent of nitrogen,
S ^n average ofa^^ut 6.8 per cent. It is not wholly a nitrogenous
Mizer Sit also contains an average of 2.9 per cent phoBphonc
add and 18 per cent potash. The nitrogen in cottonseed meal bemg n
^organic £, is rather slowly available. Availability is gradually

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

brought about through decomposition. The nitrogen thus resulting is,
therefore, distributed through a considerable period of time. It is often
used as a part of the nitrogen supply for crops with a long growing season.
Dried blood is also an organic source of nitrogen, containing on an
average 10 per cent of this element. It is easily decomposed and some-
what more available than nitrogen in cottonseed meal.

Tankage contains nitrogen in variable quantities, ranging from 5 to
12 per cent. It may also contain from 7 to 20 per cent of phosphoric
acid. The nitrogen in tankage is slowly available.

Forms of nitrogen that have more recently found their way into the
market are cyanamide and hme nitrate. These are manufactured prod-
ucts in which the nitrogen is secured directly from the air through certain
chemical and electrical processes. The nitrogen in these forms is not
so available as that in nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, although
it is considered more readily available than most of the organic forms.

Phosphorus.— This constituent is available in the form of acid
phosphate, which contains 14 to 16 per cent of phosphoric acid or 6 to 7
per cent of phosphorus. Most of the phosphorus is in an available form
Acid phosphate is made by treating a given bulk of finely pulverized
phosphate rock with an equal weight of crude commercial sulphuric acid.
The reaction that takes place makes the phosphorus available. It is
this material that is chiefly used in the manufacture of complete com-
mercial fertilizers. Phosphoric acid costs from four to five cents per
pound in acid phosphate, depending on location and size of purchases.
(As this goes to press, prices have advanced 25 to 30 per cent. Ihis
advance is probably temporary.) , ,. , r xu

There is now an increased tendency to make direct use of the raw
rock phosphate in a finely pulverized form. Such rock contains the
equivalent of 28 to 35 per cent of phosphoric acid, but it is m an insoluble
form and can be economically used only on soils that are well supplied
with organic matter or in conjunction with barnyard or stable manure
and green manure crops. The general use of raw rock phosphate has not
been advisable on the soils of the eastern and southern part of the Lnited
States. On the other hand, the raw rock phosphate has given good results
on the prairie soils of Indiana, Illinois, Iowa and some other states.
The cost of phosphoric acid in this form is equivalent to two cents per

pound or a little less. , , . i j *

Basic slag, sometimes known as Thomas Phosphate, is a by-product

of steel mills which is finely ground and used as a source of phosphorus.

It is similar to raw rock phosphate, slightly more available and contains

the equivalent of 15 to 18 per cent of phosphoric acid.

There are two types of bone meal on the market, raw bone and

steamed bone. The raw bone is fresh bone which has been finely ground

Raw bone contains about 20 per cent of phosphoric acid and 4 per cent

of nitrogen. Bone which has the fat and gelatin removed by extracting

i ^1

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

I ii'

with stea. contains only ^^^^^J^:! :'':Z\:^ '^IT^^
r r^ltS'S i th^LfaTgelatin are removed it decon^posj
t^:^::^pidly and - ^ttS^ToTbo^tS^^^^^^^^

''^toSssiul^^lMuriate of potash (KCl) the ch-f -urce of potas^
nontnins the equivalent of about 50 per cent of potash (K^O). It is the
mSt common r^^^^^^ potash salt, consisting chiefly of potassium chloride^
T r« r^r satisfactory source of potash for all crops exceptmg tobacco
lU^VaToL ThtlL, on accoLt of its -tents oj^^™' ^
t noor burn in tobacco used for smoking purposes. The chlorine is sup
nosed to be sHghtly detrimental to starch formation, and for this reason
The stlphate an^^ cibonate of potash - considered superior for ^^^^^^^^

Potassium sulphate also contains the equ valen of 50 per cent o
potash (K,0). Kainite a low-grade material contains about 12 per

''"*Woodies are a.so a source of potash. They contain about 6 per
.pnt of this constituent, together with about 2 per cent of phosphoric
S aL a Lge ~t'of Le. The availability of the potash m ashes

'' "lorSsTf" Fertilizer Materials.-It is the common experience of
farmers and investigators that the different carriers of nitrogen, phcs-
DhOTUS and potassium behave differently on different soils, in different
seasons and wfth different crops. Most fruit and tobacco growers
recognize the difference in the different forms of potash although it is
not clearly understood why these differences occur.

Under present fertiUzer regulations dealers are required to st^te
only the per^centage of the plant-food constituents - t^e fei^'^ J they
offer for sale. It would be a wise provision if m addition to this they
were required to state the source of the constituents as well as the per-
centage This is especially important as relates to nitrogen, which varies
Sy in its availability, depending on its source. Many mate ml
containing essential elements are nearly worthless as sources of plant
Sod because the form is not right. Plants are unable to make use of
these materials because they are unavailable. Materials that do not
show ^de variation in composition and in which the constituents are
practically uniform in their action, may be regarded as standard m the
Lnse that they can be depended upon to furnish practically the same
amount and form of a constituent wherever secured. Among such standard
materials may be considered nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, acid
phosphate, muriate of potash, sulphate of potash and carbonate of potash.
Relative Value of FertiUzer Ingredients.— A practical point, and one
of importance to the farmer, is a reliable estimate of the relative value
and usefulness of the various products that enter into commercial fertil-

izers The relative rate of availability of a constituent in one carriCT as
compared with its availability in another is the point at issue This
determines the advantage or disadvantage of purchasing one or the other
at ruling market prices. As yet definite relative values for all fertilizing
materials have not been worked out. Furthermore, it is recognized that
thev never can be worked out for conditions in general, because of the
wide latitude in the conditions which affect availability. This problem
is attacked by what is known as vegetative tests; that is, tests which
. show the actual amounts of the constituents taken up from vanous sub-
stances by plants when grown under identical conditions With nitrog-
enous fertilizers, for example, the. results so far obtained indf ?*« Jl^at
when nitrogen in nitrate of soda is rated at 100 per cent, that in blood
and cottonseed meal are equal to about 70 per cent, that m dried and
ground fish and hoof meal at 65 per cent, that in bone and tankage at 60
per cent, and for leather and wool waste may range from as low as 2 per

cent to as high as 30 per cent. • , • j f„^ii;,«r«

The Composition of Fertilizers.— In the purchase of mixed fertihzers
consumers should demand that they be accompanied by a guarantee
This is essential because the purchaser is unable to determine the kind
and proportion of the different materials entering into the mixture, either

bv its appearance, weight or smell. . . , i j.-

At present most of the states have on their statutes, laws regulating
the manufacture and sale of commercial fertilizers. These require Jhat
, the composition be plainly stated on the original packages o^ ™er
The law also provides for the analysis of samples collected at any point
and the publication of these analyses either by the state departments or
by the state experiment stations. Such publications set forth the name
oJ the brand of fertilizer and the name of the dealer or manufacturer,
together ^th a statement of the analysis as given by the manufacturer
^compared with that found by the official analysis InfringemenW
the law relative to its provisions call for punishment ge";;;"^^^^^^^^
Under such a system of regulation there is now little danger of the farmer
Sng cheatedTn the purchase of fertilizers so far as their composition is

''"'"'mal' Analyses of FertiUzers Show.-The difference between a gocxl
and inferior fertilizer is shown by a chemical analysis projidin^^^^^^
carried far enough to show both the amount and f orm o th^ <=onstitue^^^^
present. An analysis of a fertilizer which s^^^^/t^^,^ .'"^^ ^'e
present chiefly as nitrates, the phosphorus as acid phosphate and the
^tash as muriate of potash at once stamps such ^/^ft^h-^..^^^^^^^^
made up of high-grade materials. On the other hand, if the mtrogfi^ is
Sund Kly in anorganic form and the phosphorus n an m-lubk ^rn,
it is evident that the materials used are low-grade forms, and result m
a slow-acting and sometimes unsatisfactory fertilizer. . , .

Commercial vs. Agricultural Value of Manures.-Agricultural value

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and commercial value as applied to fertilizers are not synonymous and
should not be confused. The agricultural value is measured by the value
of the increase in crops secured through the use of the fertil^er. The
commercial value is determined by the trade conditions. It is based
upon the composition of the fertilizer and the price per pound of the
different forms of the several constituents that enter into it. Commercial
value is merely a matter of arithmetic. Agricultural value vanes greatly
and depends upon a number of factors, among which the knowledge of

the farmer plays no small part.

Mechanical Condition.— The mechanical condition of a commercial
fertilizer deserves consideration by the farmer. The degree of pulveriza-
tion controls the rate of solubility to no small extent. The finer the
pulverization the more thorough can be the distribution made in the soil.
The greater the number of points at which there are particles of fertilizer
in the soil, the more rapid will be the solution and the diffusion of the
plant-food material. Mechanical condition is also important from the
standpoint of distribution through fertilizer drills. The material should
be in what is known as a drillable condition. It should not only be
thoroughly pulverized, but also should be sufficiently dry to feed through
the mechanism of the drill at a uniform rate. Wet, sticky material clogs
up the drill and causes faulty distribution.

High-Grade vs. Low-Grade Fertilizers.— Thousands of tons of low-
grade fertilizer are bought by farmers because the price is low, when, as
a matter of fact, the same money invested m a lesser amount of high-
grade fertilizer would have given them better results. Low-grade fertil-
izers, as a rule, contain varying amounts of filler or inert matter. This
sometimes constitutes as much as one-half the weight of the fertilizer.
It costs just as much to provide bags and handle this material as it does
the more active portion. Furthermore, the farmer pays for the bags
and freight on this worthless material. At the same time, he hauls it
from the railway station to his farm, unloads it and afterwards applies
it to his fields with much more expenditure of time and effort than would
be required for a smaller amount of high-grade material containing equally

as much plant food. " • i * _x-i

Use of Fertilizers.— The most economical use of commercial fertil-
izers is secured only when a systematic crop rotation is practiced and
the soil is maintained in good physical condition and well supplied with
organic matter and moisture. The soil should contain sufficient lune to
prevent the accumulation of acids, so that legumes such as clover will
thrive. Every crop rotation should have a suitable legume occurring
once every third to fifth year. The presence of legumes will lessen the
necessity for nitrogen in the fertilizer. It is estimated that nitrogen can
be secured through the growing of legumes at a cost of approximately
four cents per pound, whereas it costs fifteen to twenty cents when pur-
chased in a commercial form.

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

Value of Crop Determines Rate of Fertilization.-Crops are divided
• +« twrclasses w^th reference to the use of commercial fertilizers. The
Sst cC Sudes thoTe crops having a comparatively low money value
sich as hay and the general grain crops. Because of the low money value

Hs TossMe to appfy only small amounts of f^^^'-^ P-^/^J app^^^^^
^ko necessary that the crops use as large a proportion of the appnea
iXsTossible. The.Lpping system ^^-1^^ be arran^^^^^^^^

17 »uthcm part /the United State, c„wl»a,, »>y bea™, ^« P»<','fJ

TJTo, th?»il1or ^i^XrUnarily it will be g™«n «vera, yea,.
" "JSbte Products Justiiy Heavy Fertilizatio..-The Kcond cte

Sr.:"'- ar t'ieVentage i-7- jj«ir ^^^tx

when fertiU^era are applied to erop, of '»" 7^'J,™'';„rtion ct ti.e
earl, truek crops, espeeially » "•" «'::^^;'2^™ekScr who ea„ get
Atlantic seaboard or in the '"''"«™ ~,'rM k the one who receives
Ws product in,« ^StXrS forp^-i of high quality, and
the fancy prices. Such in.irKcts cdu o i growth. In such

quality in many cases is determined ^^yJ^^^^ amU^nderness of the
crops as lettuce, ^ff^^^^ Sgether with earliness, are often
product are essential. Thchc qu^""^^' ^'^f , ,, character of soil on
determined not only by the time «f P^^^'Xttlro^S^ used.

which the crops are ^^f krm rf us£ f e^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ««'^^'^

We, therefore, find such farmers using iti u ^ ^ accelerate

and well -PP^ ^* T * .Sfto fT^S^^''- » " f

vegetative growth and to give qua j ^^ ^

nn'usuM to find truck 'ajme- appW — ^ ^ .^m^rLively small
high-grade fertilizer. The «'»P J^ This calls tor a rotation of crops on

and be benefited by the residual effect of the^fertiter^ ^^^^ .^

[

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

price of a crop is m some <^^f^^J;*'™of the South that reach northern
L early strawberries ^^j^^f ^^P^^e ^ J ten times as much per unit as
markets very early are ^^^en wortt^ nve x ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^

are the late strawberries and late potatoes grown .

distance from markets. ^ . .. +„ c^n _in eeneral, fertilizers that

Character of Fertilizer R^^^^ed \Sod. In ge^^ .^ ^^ ^.^^^ ,^^^^

stimulate the production o se^^ an^^^^^^^^^^^^ h combined with

On poor land the elements that ^^^^^^ J^f \^ ^^ phosphates in a readily
those that mature fruit may be used^ H^ghja^^^^^^ P ^^ ^^^

available form hasten maturity and increase P^

This is well illustrated ^n the fertil^ej- P^^^^^* ^^e ^^

Experiment Stations. As J^e oats and j i p ^ ^^^^.^^ ^^^.^^ ^^

these plats the visitor is -* "f^J^^'S Icid phosphate. Nitrogen
ripening of those grown on P»f *« ^^f^f ;^^^^^^^ retards maturity. The

tends to ^-J^ttTtaTeTw th^l^^^^^^^^^^ «/ f-^^" "^^*"^^^

r::ek^\tCslaSthanonthep^^^^^^^ , ,,,, ,„.

In the use of ^^iTncr ai" a,'a^^^^^ be determined chiefly
crease of crop and a profitable »««^^^^^' ; j ^here will be an increase m
by the value of the crop grown J"^" J^j fertiUzer u.ed, but it
yield accompanying an mcrease i^.the amount o ^^^^^^^

la fact that the first unit of apphcatum that is the h ^^^^^^ ^^^^

composition of the fertihzer and ^J ™f j^^^^^ ^^^ application are
xnechanical condition the economy of t^^^^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^1,^ j,,

portion to their content of «"/^ con tituents whe^^^^^^ ^^^

Siade that it meets the needs of he soil ^^^/JJ ^^ Jy^^^^^^ ohem-

aKricultural value of these constituents ««P^"7^'3J„,^ ^j ^-ell-defined

should also know the requirements of the plants with which he deals
He may secure these facts in a general way from the state experiment
StSn but the details can best be ascertained by actual field tests by
fhP armer himself on his own farm. Such tests do not necessitate carefully
tfd ouT Pll of a definite size. Farmers, as a rule, do not have the time
Ind mtience to do much experimenting, neither do they have the train-
f.?. exSence and facilities for such work; but any farmer may make
rtir^omparTson of two or more kinds of fertilizers, or he may test the
effic ency of any fertilizer ingredient, such as nitrogen potash or phos-
T^^r on his soil This can be done by applying a different character
KSizer through his fertihzer drill, whether it be attached to the corn
Inter the potato planter or to the grain drill, to a definite number of
^wf running clear through the field. This, if marked at one end of he
7u hv Sakes is easily and readily compared at harvest time with the
rows on Sther 's de t^ated with thJusual fertilizers or in the usual way
Much can often be determined by observation, but more definite results
Much can ""TV"^ • ^^e product of a certain number of rows

:^Iu; t^a5 rSp^^ »£ » ^^ „».„,« .diacent treated ia

*' TrapTd'Lwth and a <la,k-g«en color ot foliage indicate the preface

upon those that have given him best results rse . ^ j

mixtures should be tried «%\l"^f" ^^^^^fb^t er and r^^^^^^^^
r \i:iroSrX Z^ Z^lr^ Jaced upon the
Tm^rtatTof itSinatl^- f 'ertil.e- Th. - ^e -omphshed

through a definite cropping system '^"^^^ if-f^^'^eX needs of the
and fertilizing worked out in such a way as be«t ^^ mee^^^^^^^^^^^ utilization
soil and crops. It should take into account t>^ fullest posa

of the home and local suppHes of f^^^^^^'-J^'^^^^^^^^ in a

the general farm crops in Pennsylvania are most ^^'Jj'y g
rotation consisting of corn, oats, wheat and two yea oj ^nix^d ^^
and timothy hay. On li-stone -Is ^^^^ crops calMor^^^^^^^^ ^^
treatment about as follows: lor the corn, o w

acre should be applied and f PP^^^^'^^lH^Sr exce^i^^^^ soil is
phate; to the oats ^f^Zl£i:Zs'^,^^:S^S^^^^^ -^ ^
S;ltfwSt.'350%rndrp:r ac^re of acid phosphate, 100 pounds

{»;^j¥^.)?(?;^Jai!i^>^;-^

l^''^'-i>'t^H>'v

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

the clover following t^^J.^ i^n Jass may^^^^^^^^^

during the second year the land is f" ^^^ J^ [ ^^^^ phosphate, 150

a complete fertilizer ^^J^^^^^^^f ^S^^ broad-

tSSStS^^^^ tttXnhere it will be most fully
"^^^"tt: ther^f rrfJment will be found to fit various localities

Effect of Top Dressing Meadows with CoMMERaAL Fertiuzee.
. On left, av<Ta«e y-^, 20M poun.U cuml hay pc^a^^^^

S^ai^on' ?r.1 WlrdTe^X^^^^^^^^^^ 350 pounds pet aere of 7-7-7

fertUizer. Average of four consecutive years.

. „ w = Thp details will be determined by local conditions, and

ZX^^'^''^^^' irrilJed on the best practice Tor
'■'' 'how to Dotormino Heeds of Soa.-The tertitor need, of a^ll are
.cstSf 1 b. ap^.n. to t^ »« and fon e -P- ^^^^^

f°^ ""on 3 r^^^JivelS aSwe. by their powth and condition,
to the soil, and »« «"!» f ' . „„„ practicable and satis-

?:trr;ir„;:i';'tisirt:iid. a chcn,i^ ana,,sis of th. »»,,

is thought by many to enable the farmer or the soil expert to judge as to
the character of the fertilizer needed. This, however, is not the case,
and such chemical analyses are as a rule of very little help in this respect.
The chief difficulty with this method lies in the fact that such analyses
do not determine the availability of the plant food present. Another
method which is fairly satisfactory is to make pot tests with the soil in
question and for the crops to be grown. Such tests may frequently be
completed in a shorter period of time than can field tests. They are not,
however, so satisfactory as field tests because the crops are not grown
under field conditions.

Effect of FuRTiuzEas on the Growth of Sweet Clover.

Soil from virgin cut-over land in Pennsylvania.
Ca— Lime. N— Nitrogen. P— Phosphorus. K— I otasli.

Effect Modified by Soil and Crop.-The fertilizer to be used is deter-
mined both by the needs of the soil and the crop grown. A commercial
fertilizer is beneficial chiefly because of the plant-food elements it supp les.
Its best action is accomplished when the soil is in good physical condition
and when there is a good supply of moisture and organic matter The
effect of a fertilizer under one set of soil conditions may be reversed when
the conditions are materially changed. Under favoraUe conditions
for example, nitrification in the soil might proceed with sufficient activity
to supply a certain crop with all the nitrogen needed for normal growth
The following season being cold and accompanied by an excess of moisture
might result in slow nitrification, and this might materially din^mish the
growth of the crop. In one case nitrogen m a readily available form

^#-,.

v<£

.^M^

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

the clover following ^he ^^^'^^ "f ' J?l " *^^^

during the second year the land IS m^ass may ^^^^^^ y^^ ^^^^ ^^^

a complete fertilizer «""^f ^"^jf,^if ^Lte of potash, applied broad-
pounds nitrate of soda and 50 P^^^d^s^unate o p ^ ^^^^^^

cast early in the spring just as th f^^^J^^^^ '^J'^^^ ^^^rage farm and
of treatment makes a place for f ^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^ ^ will be most fully
provides for the application ot the leniuze

^^^^'it£ the^S tfeXLt will be found to fit various localities

EpPEc-r OK Top Duessinc. Mkadows with Commekcia. Fehtilizeb.
. On loft, uvoa^o yi'll''/-^"'"! >';r;,!a:"um!''fi^tri- , , , 7

ferliUzer Average of lour consecutive years.
• u , f .= The details will be determined by local conditions, and

best determmed by applying question directly

kinds and ^-^^l^^f^ZjltZ-er^ their growSi and condition,
to the soil and ^^ 7PXrVhave proven more practicable and satis-
t:L^i^l'rX:^^^ deviled. A chemical analysis of the 3oil

is thought by many to enable the farmer or the soil expert to judge as to
the character of the fertilizer needed. This, however, is not the case,
and such chemical analyses are as a rule of very little help in this respect.
The chief difficulty with this method lies in the fact that such analyses
do not determine the availability of the plant food present. Another
method which is fairly satisfactory is to make pot tests with the soil in
question and for "the crops to be grown. Such tests may frequently be
completed in a shorter period of time than can field tests. They are not,
however, so satisfactory as field tests because the crops are not grown
under field conditions.

Effect of Fkktiuzers on the Growth op Sweet Clover.

Soil from virgin cut-over land in Pennsylvania.
Ca— Lime. N— Nitrogen. P— Phosphoru.s. K— 1 o(a.sli.

Effect Modified by Soil and Crop.-The fertilizer to be used is deter-
mined both by the needs of the soil and the crop grown. A commercial
fertilizer is beneficial chiefly because of the plant-food elements it supplies.
Its best action is accomplished when the soil is in good physica condition
and when there is a good supply of moisture and organic matter The
effect of a fertilizer under one set of soil conditions may be reversed when
the conditions are materially changed. Under favoraUe conditions
for example, nitrification in the soil might proceed with sufficient activity
to supply a certain crop with all the nitrogen needed for normal growth
The following season being cold and accompanied by an excess of mpisture
might result in slow nitrification, and this might materially dimmish the
growth of the crop. In one case nitrogen in a readily available form

mi^:.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

-i^Pf^

■-^>^, p.jL-.'-.\iJii'-i .. . .i. ... '■'

'. ir .•ii>' ■- ■ '.V<J

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

g4 — .

would be much more beneficial than i;; f ^f J^ic Jted^V^^^^^ Scl^t
results obtained on ^-^ .'^^^^.^^^^jt^S --d type, difference in

^^"-^rirt^Best Fertilizer -^^^1^^^^:^^^^
one, and is often asked by P^^^^^^™^^^^ ^Lwer it by tests such a.
be given. The consumer of ^^''^^'f ^^^^^^f^" „„er the consumer should
above suggested. In ^r^^lfn the llrgeS' amount of plant food
select those fertilizers which ''^^f »^,,*f'^, j„Tmoney. Until a rational
L suitable and available forms fo^^^he W ^^^^^ i^ safest to depend
scheme of fertilizer t^e-^ment has beej^^esta^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^_^^^^^
UTXjn high-grade fertihzers used m rather urnii ^^^

Tteriafs aSi elements i:^^^^^::^^^:J,:^.rZ^er risk, especially

results. „ ., cs- „ +V.O fpr+ilizer is determined by both

Needs of Different Soils.-Smce the f^rtiUzeris^ ^ ^^^^^^^

soil and crop, the needs of the sod ^^^^TZttw hold under all -
general way. There is no f f^f . ^*^*;"^^;*iity may be greatly bene-

likely to need potash and mtrogen, while ^^JfJ f "" , j ^^^

uppUed with pish. There are ™ -cef m^^ ^^ow that soils vary
Experiments at various experiment statioi^s^ ho ^^^ ^

widely in their fertilizer ^X^rsSs Vespond^t^^^^^^^^ of lime and

inappUcable in another. Acid soils responu ''^ j u t^ose con-

genmlly to available phosphates. Marshy soi^e^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^

fisting chiefly of muck or peat, ^'■7;^^ ^^^^^/^^^^^^^^^ I a rule deficient
times phosphoric acid '^'^^T; thISsSi e pho phates are economically

This diBere-ce i. to to the P"n«« <" """f *« ^ ^ ftTpe-W of

length of '•'I'^^lZZS'^t^^-^^'^L.^^^iLoi the
the season when it makes its cniei 8 ' ^ ^ ^ systems. Plants

form Those which grow slowly and take a long time to mature can
utilize the more difficultly available forms of plant food. These facts
explain why plants differ in their requirements.

FertiUzers for Cereals and Grasses.— The cereals and grasses (Indian
corn excepted) are similar in habits of growth and are distinguished by
having extensive, fibrous root systems. They require comparatively
long periods of gfowth, and this enables them to extract mineral food
from comparatively insoluble sources. As a rule however these crops
make the major portion of their vegetative growth during the cool part
of the growing season. During this period nitrification is comparatively
slow- consequently, such crops need readily available nitrogen and respond
to Te'rtmzers containing some nitrogen. This demands the application

•

mk^Mk. A^

.i^mm * '"".'■I!"'

..«'->■ ♦!(•''« ■■

vf' • :-

!*■

...V^JOK-!^*-*-

A %-i

.': ■'*"!

. . -xj^v^ •

I^^^^H HN^.^S

.':*V-r

' " ' . •

■«.

%• 1

x,;«^ 1^.

'■^:t^:.

,-.5n:i-*r- <S^*^.-

r,r.-- . »-•

Effect of Commercial Fertiuzeb on Wheat on a Poor Soil.
A complete fertilizer on the left, no fertilizer in center.

Of nitrogen in a readily available form, preferably just at the beginning

"'T^l;rRil'JJrKgen.-The clovers, peas, beans, vetches
and fnfaTneariyTthe crops that belong to the family of legumes have

Srowefunler proper .oil 'conditions *«. ;«l-^^-JSe?'"Th ;
air- conseauently, such crops require no nitrogen in the fertilizer, iney
use reLTvermSe potash than most other forage crops; consequent y
th mLeial f'ertilizers'with a rather high Vro^^r^on^/^U^ ^^^^^Z
most beneficial. Corn is a rather gross feeder, ^^^'''Tj\r'£^^^^^

major portion of its vegetative growth in t^^^T" JJ^'^^ "i to £pTy
ing seLn when nitrification is e^Pecially.active it seldom pays t^^^^^^
much nitrogen to it. Furthermore, corn is able to make use of relatively
insoluble phosphorus and potash.

Br-'fx^-:^:.

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

04 — -

— TTTT-i •„ ti.o other In the same way the

would be much more ^^-f'^'-^'^T.'l^XX^c.ied on the adjacent
results obtained on ^^f . ^'^7\ " '^ f jtrmati^^^ and type, difference in

^'^-X^rSr Best Fertilizer -^^^1^::^^^:^^^^^
one, and is often asked by ^^^^^^he^ answer it by tests sux,h a.
be given. The consumer of ^'■''^'^'^^1^^,^^^^, the consumer should

a W suggested. In a ^^r^^. X'^the ITges ' amount of plant food
select those fertilizers which ^ontam the larg ^ ^^^.^^^j

n suitable and available forms ^^^ the kas^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^ ^^^ ^

scheme of fertilizer treatment ^^ J^^/'^j;^^^^^^^ amounts. Low-grade
upon high-grade fertilizers used m rather limite ^ ^^^

S^riafs aLl elements ^-^^^^f ^i^^^^^^^ risk, especially

results. „ ., c!- „„ +v.«. fertilizer is determined by both

Needs of Different Soils.-^mce the fertilizer ^ ^^^^^^

soil and crop, the needs of t^ie^sm «- ^^/^f ™:^ hold under all ^
general way. There is no .f fi^'^S^^^^'^^i^^a^^^^ ^ay be greatly bene-

Ukely to need potash ^^l^f^^f^;J,,^,,^tdns to this rule,
supplied with potash. Ihere are som^ ^^ntions show that soils vary
Experiments at various '^^V^'l'^'''^''f^ll^^r.e\ocaUymayhe
widely in their fertilizer requirement.^ m^^^ ^^ ^.^^ ,„d

inapplicable in another. Acid soils i^^P"" ' especially those con-

generally to available phosphates. M^/^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^? tash and some-
fisting chiefly of ^-^^ Z^^t''''TT^^^oSL L a rule deficient
times phosphoric acid '^"^^'™*:- . 'j^oluble phosphates are economically
in phosphorus, and on such ^^^^ ^^X^^^t^j;^^ the failure of clover

used. The need for hme is ^^^^^^^^.^^^^^ is likely to be

and the.encroachn.nt of^^^^^^^^^ ,,,pped, especially if

needed m soils that nave oii^ ^^^

hay and straw have been -« fro'n^he ^^ SeTrertiH-^ requirement.

Crop R^^l^^^T^f-Tu^Xote for which the crop is grown, to the
This difference is due to the PU'^PO^^;*!'/ , and to the period of

length of ^^l^'^r^ ^.TS SfoXloZZ composition of the
the season when it makes its chief ^owtn pj^^^^

form Those which grow slowly and take a long time to mature can
utilize the more difficultly available forms of plant food. These facts
explain why plants differ in their requirements.

FertiUzers for Cereals and Grasses.— The cereals and grasses (Indian
corn excepted) are similar in habits of growth and are distinguished by
having extensive, fibrous root systems. They require comparatively
long periods of growth, and this enables them to extract mineral food
from comparatively insoluble sources. As a rule, however these crops
make the major portion of their vegetative growth during the cool part
of the growing season. During this period nitrification is comparatively
slow; consequently, such crops need readily available nitrogen and respond
Jo fertilizers containing some nitrogen. This demands the application

Effect of Commercial Fertilizer on Wheat on a Poor Soil.
A complete fertilizer on the left, no fertilizer in center.

Of nitrogen in a readily available form, preferably just at the beginning

"^Tgt;?CV:N:Sen.-The clovers, peas, beans, vetches
.nd in facT nearly all the crops that belong to the fanuly of legumes have
the rowefun'der proper .oil'conditions to utilize ^^ jt^gen -^^^^^^
air- conseauently, such crops require no nitrogen in the fertihzer. iney
use reLtTvek mSe potash than most other forage crops; consequent y,
t itil tSrs^with a rather high proportion of Pjt-h are g^^^^^^^^^^^
most beneficial. Corn is a rather gross feeder, ^^;^ since it .^^^^^^^
maior portion of its vegetative growth in the warmer portion of the grow
major PO"ion »' ^Hrifirntion is especially active, it seldom pays to apply
ing season when nitrincation is ehpeuiciiij a.v , , -pi.ij^oiv

much nitrogen to it. Furthermore, corn is able to make use of relatively
insoluble phosphorus and potash.

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

gg S U CCESSFUL_FARMING_

regarded as a class that, because of thei; ^ab^*^^^^^ Seir profitable growth

Orchard trees are as a rule slow f^^^^^^^^^^^Zleled it may,
fertUizers. In old orchards ^^at je laye and^^^^ P ^^ ^^^ -^

however, be good Practice to use the eachl^ ^c^hib ^^^ ^^^^^^^ -^ ^^^^^^

order that it may be ^J^f,4f,;*^'Xre orchards are manured from the
wth the zones of root activity. "' "^^^n , illed barnyard manure and
beginning, and especially where they are^n^^^^^ ^^^

the more difficultly soluble forms of fertih^^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^j

The fertilizer '•equ^ements of smalMruits ^^^^^_ ^^^_

^^ "Stogen Needed for ^i^^^^S;^^^^^^^^
especially those grown for ^^^^^J^^^^^^^^? her the value of the crop
applications of Z'tXrZZe t^^^W^^on. of nitrogen that may
per unvt of weight the J^'-g^J ^^^^^^^^ Jl^^^ eabbage, beets, peas, etc.,
be used economically. In sucn c^op^ remunerative

^^JS>^:' -S S:rr Ja-To. av.,.Me .... .

experiment, with terti.i.;r,^l.- ~ ^n- Co«o„ - P'»„„, (.^i,,^,;

promptly and profitably to J«""™"» ^| ^nj, ^ increase the

should hasten «>e rt""* "l^'wrown. In recent year, it has be-
climatic area m which cotton "'»>' =* S'"" ,,|, j^e cotton boll weevil,
come of great importance '" ""X'uhes.aLon its numbers becoming

This ins«* ->*1^ --* Setl* ItTeeds on the cotton b*
very great in the latter Par^ " ^ j j g numerous at that

When the bolls are matured '.^^l' y^^^^^^J^ ^^ than when they

season, a larger proportion of ^^f^^^^"^^^^^^^^^ nitrogen, soluble phos-

mature late. The ^^^^^''^'ZZMJ^iermLrior Jion has not been
phoric acid and potash m a ^^^P^'tl^^Xr Georgia are nitrogen 1,
determined with entire accuracy Jh-e^^or^.^^^ J^^^^^^ ^ ^^

Pf "'. * '• t"S and for^genemruse nitrogen 1, potash 1, phosphoric
£& SUI I^rhTpt approximate reasonable accuracy.

The amount of fertilizer which may be profitably used varies widely
with the season, nature of soil and other circumstances. On an average
the maximum amounts indicated for Georgia are nitrogen 20 pounds,
potash 20 pounds, phosphoric acid 70 pounds; those for South Caroling,
nitrogen 20 pounds, potash 15 pounds, phosphoric acid 50 pounds.

Miscellaneous Fertilizer Facts. — Wheat, to which a moderate
amount of manure has been applied, will not need additional nitrogen.
In most cases the manure can be profitably supplemented with phos-
phoric acid, and on some soils a small amount of potash may be included.
When the wheat field is seeded to clover and grass which is to be left
down for hay, the phosphoric acid and potash in the fertilizer should be

increased somewhat.

Oats as a rule receive no commercial fertilizer. On soils low in fertil-
ity small applications of readily soluble nitrogen and phosphoric acid
applied at seeding time are advisable. Winter oats, grown mostly in the
South, are generally fertiUzed with light applications of phosphorus and
potash when seeded in the fall, and are top dressed with nitrate of soda

in the spring.

For tobacco, barnyard manure occupies a leading position as a fer-
tilizer, both because of its cheapness and effectiveness. When manure
is not available in sufficient quantities commercial fertilizers are frequently
resorted to. In fact, the manure is often supplemented with commercial
fertilizers. This crop generally requires a complete fertilizer. Cotton-
seed meal is frequently used as a source of nitrogen for tobacco. How-
ever, manure is not used for bright tobacco and only very small amounts
of cottonseed meal are used.

When nitrogen is required by a crop having a long growing season
it is generally advisable to combine it in two forms, one readily available
as nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia, the other in an organic form,
as dried blood or cottonseed meal. Where nitrate of soda is depended
upon entirely, two or more applications may be given during the growing
season. This is applicable to open, leachy soils, but is not essential on

heavy soils. ,

Effect of Fertilizers on Proportion of Straw to Gram.— i he pro-
portion of straw to grain is influenced by season, soil and character of
fertilizer At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station, in a test extending
through many years, it was found that for twenty-four different fertilizers
applied there were produced 52 pounds of stover for each 70 pounds of
ear corn. The average proportion for seven complete fertilizers was 55.4
pounds stover to 70 pounds corn. Barnyard manure gave 47.6 pounds
stover to 70 pounds corn, while a complete fertilizer containing dried
blood gave 58 pounds stover to 70 pounds corn. In case of oats, the
largest relative yield of straw was from barnyard manure. The average
for twenty-four different fertilizers was 45 pounds straw per bushel of
oats. The average for seven complete fertilizers was 42 pounds straw

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

88 . ,

' — TTi „^;^r, nf «traw will be increased

of both oats and wheat There is oiten ^^^^^ matunty.

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

Sox. Fehtxutv Plats, Peknsvlvanxx AcKicr.^^HM. Expekxment Stxtxok.

On left, 320 pounds land plaster.
KhraSd bone-black, containing 48 pounds phosphoric acid and muriate
of potash 200 pounds.

the kernel,. A P'«P-* "-"ttSr^'theS'; T^nlS."'
Principles Lrovenmi^ fprtilizer for soils or crops cannot be

s*iJ^, r "trif cef t;^Si^^:'i:^,
i;-r;r;;:*:T":, rro;;%i? of .he a«p ^ «„*, *«

■^int of fertilizer that can be profitably used. This principle is well
Strated in an experiment with fertilizers used in different amounts on

Hon at the Georgia Experiment Station. In this experiment a fertihzer
vS at aW $20 per\on was applied in amounts valued at $ $8

?«i9ner acre respectively. As an average of three years with these
iSns the incSe m lint and seed, respectively resulting from the
app icat ons lo ^^^ ^21.17, the percentage of

^£^^ZS:e::X tl fertiliz;rs being 153, 96 and 76 for the three

,int^ resoectivelv These results coincide with the principle above

amount- respectively^ experiment the increase in yield of seed cotton for

Soounds of fertihzer was 281 pounds. The increase for 800 pounds
400 pounds ot ler. ^^ ^3^ ^^^^^ ^he

rn^a^e for 1200 poinds wi: not three Umes 281, which would equal ^3
ncrease lor i^u 1 smallest amount of fertilizer produced

the Cstttum orth^^^^^^^^^ in fertihzer, although the larg^t

r 1 J il^^ Inhnr and every expense connected with the cost 01 cuiti
of land, seed, abor ana every y ^^^^^ jj

vation and V^f^^^.^^^'^f'f^^l^l^rii^^^^ $150, or lOf

his profit without fert.hzer IS g^PJ/^^S^y.^e aWe experiment and

-Jh^e rmfci^j" r; -^|ll he be Justified in reducing his acre-
age in order to purchase fertilizers?
By inspection we find :

Acres.

50....
43.75
38.9.
35...

Cost of

Growing

One Acre.

$28.00

32.00
36.00
40.00

$1,400.00
1,400.00
1,400.00
1,400.00

Profit
per Acre

$3.00

9.11

10.69

12.17

Per Cent

Investment.

$150.00
398 . 56
415.84
425.00

10.7
28.4
29.7
30.3

The increased cost per acre repre^nts the a d. K,n o fe^ iz^^^^^^^^ the
amount of ^f^'^^^'^^rt^l^^^^^^ -res well fertilized,
Z"r.C\^o^^ol :a;r investe'dfs 30| instead of 10| where no

fertilizer was to be "sed. j^^ ^^ ly commercial

When to Apply Fertilizers, i ne nine c. fert hzer,

fertilizer will be determined by the needs of the crop, kind

SUCCESSFUL FARMIN_G___

; JTv^ronortimTof straw will be increased

iTS-rcr ir^r:^uc&«on c .* «... ^ ^...^

by liberal supplies of phosphoric ''^"^- . , in,portance in the growing

This is a matter of <'^!^^,^^:X^J^a tendency for these
of both oats and wheat. Thtre is oiien ^^^^^^^ maturity,

crops to produce vegetative growth ^ at t^e^ raw ^ ^^ ^^^^^^^^^

This makes harvesting of the crops ^^h machinery ^^^^.^^

out the clover and grasses that ^^JJ^f J^^fgrain and maturing of
also prevents satisfactory filhng of. the heaas ox y

=r.

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

Sox. FKKTXUTV P..TS, PeNNSV.VAKX. Ac.KXCt™... EXPKHXMEKT ST.TXOK.

On left, 320 pounds land plaster.

8rShrdSKbo„e.blaek, containing 48 poun<l« phosphoric acid and n.ur.ate
of potash 200 pounds.

*e kernels. A P-P^* ""f^ tht'^ " theS: TrS."'

available constituents m *| »■' '» '"'i!! rf pertSers.-Definite rules

Principles Goverrung P'»f'f!« "»;.,» f^Z^o, crops cannot be

«ve to -"-■;^^»"^„^''„^S ; i efillrthM should aj.s be taken
laid down, but there are cei taui i i fpvtiUzers. In general,

into consideration in e"™" !<•" "f *' 7J aS^ S^^^ ter-

the higher the acre vsjue of ''''J™""™ ^riS that will hold even

*in^tr';Lip.ew^^^^^^^

Si^rtr;Nri*rn:n;%l?o. the a«p the smaller the

■"TTTXrtilizer that can be profitably used. This prxnciple is well
Sid in afeieriment with fertilizers used in different amounts on
illustratea in an . ^ ^^^^^^^^ i^ this experiment a fertilizer

cotton^ at the Georgia ^xpe ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^

""^.12 pef at respStiveir^ an average of three years with these
ications the incre^ase in iLt and seed, respectively resulting from the
app heat ons xa ^^^ ^21.17, the percentage of

''''^ro.r?^ inveJtm"^^ t fertiUz;rs being 153, 96 and 76 for the three
"^ Lu esx>eXelv These results coincide with the principle above
amounts ^esP^f ^^^^^^^^ experiment the increase in yield of seed cotton for

S pound^ of fSer wa. 281 pounds. The increase for 800 pounds
4UU Po^nus ^^^ ^^j 43(j pounds. The

was not. f;;^;J^^^ ™^^^^^ three imes 281, which would equal 843
that it might nave uet^ii p although the percentage

of land, seed, abor ana every t i ^^ ^^^^^ j^

ShS ^e^T.:? V"::*- Jh f S Sc llSeS . reduLg k. acre-
age in order to purchase fertilizers?
By inspection we find :

Acres.

50....
43.75
38.9.
35...

Cost of

Growing

Oue Acre.

Total
Cost.

$28.00
32.00
36.00
40.00

$1,400.00
1,400.00
1,400.00
1,400.00

Profit
per Acre.

$3.00

9.11

10.69

12.17

Total
Profit.

$150.00

398 . 56
415.84
425.00

Per Cent

Investment.

10.7

28.4
29.7
30.3

The incre^ cost per acre .pre.nts the add, ,o„ o ert .». Jo tke
amount of H « »"' , ^^^J % grling t a'cres well fertihsed,
risTrnt^^Pr^hfon JaplStvestc^d fs 30| instead o. lOJ where no

fertilizer was to be used. , . , ^ ]„ commercial

When to Apply FertiUzer^.-The tune a which to pp^y^^ ^^^.^.^^^^

fertilizer will bo determined by the needs of the croj ,

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

successful/farming

90 ^ :; T; TITI^^ce of the farmer

S the economy to «>*'* . ,! ;f™d Fertitois that are read*

planting and »"?, T, *« P"P»" *'*"*'''° °' *M Ci »

Su"X. U ae ~r,Sr«^in t* ee7 of the »eds, they «.» Ij
seeds equals the concentration witwn in germination and

!Zble to absorb water from the soil. Th s m"! P . ^„ ply large

S*ti: seed to rot. /" 4^« "S^ioL '!"""' ^r"!'?! m«
annlicalions in this way. """f .PL , „der that the tertihiers rnay
?toe?n advance of seeding or .P'*"','"* " °",be soil. Another nicthod
t,™ e ^me uniformly disseminated througn' j ^^^ ,t „,th

:»— use is to ^~^-^lP:ri°tl.» aP^Ued through the^^-^
+V.P ^oil bv harrowing. Ihe remaiuu previously noted, solupie

tr ichment of the -eding machme Y As^P-.^^ ^
nhrates may be advantageously appledjus especially applicable

t^^J. in n^ of a™ * ™^°„, ,1^ , eoncemed, the potash

Readily soluble fert.te- "« S" hi the spring, iust as the grass i.
land and should be applied ve^ early m » ^ ^ee^^ge the growth
Tarting to grow.. J^L'^Jn iSali. heluse'^the fert^r must be
tZ^tl SfsoU brrafn^ -order to be brought into contact with

'"''organic fertili.rs and 5-»i;^.r"«Td.»-^«oSrtS
r ;°setSteriSrst^^Pord:.%e.^hou,d have time . disappear

before the crop is started ^ j i^g fertilizer depends

Methods of AppUcation.-The mann p j^rtilizer, the amount

on a number of conditions f^P^f^^^^yJ^^^^^^ of its tillage. It is
Z be used, the character of the ^l^^^^";;^^^^^,,,, acid in that portion
a good practice to distribute the potash an p i .^ ^^^ abundant.

hh ii^MiS Cstf ^S £s"ct r »cs;

:lS:a«Xr'er;jH J'lUrr.ts are destroyed. At other

Vo5

cp«,ons it is likely to be so dry that roots cannot grow in it. Plant food
d^sTttfe good so long as it remains at the surface. It is not so e^entia
to put the soluble nitrates in this lower zone because there is a great
tpndencv for them to pass downward in the soil. , ^ j • w«

Where very small applications are used it is often thought advisaUe
to deposit the fertilizer with the seed or plant in order that it may have
„n abundance of plant food at the very outset. This method stimulates
trXtTn its early stages of growth. It is probably more apphcaWe
to c?ops that are seeded or planted very early when the ground is cold

'^' tl^^^^Zre are two methods of applying fertUizers
Fxoer^ments at the Georgia Experiment Station have shown that the
f^lTJnown as "bedding on the fertilizer" has given better results
ri applying the feSzer 'through the fertilizer drill at time of seedmg
.oUon In the first method the fertilizer is distributed over the bottom

S= L^ettfdetSr a?^tn- spmlf M

"'^Sif rFSi;ers.-The concentrated high-grade fertilizer
„.ateS ;Sesstily command a higher price than low-grade materia^,
and those containing small amounts of Pl-t fo^^^^^^^^ A^ a nx the h g^^

he amount'^or form of plant-food eonstituen^ they con^n H^ hould
bear in mind that he is not buying ^^^.^^^^^f *' ^j\tt fSzTrs that
one or more of the plant-food ''"^^^^"^"^y'tLe^^^^^ at the

are richest in Pl^^V^ThTs is'obXus from what haL been previously
lowest cost per unit. This is «''^;°"^, J'"'' . ...dling and shipping fer-
said relative to the costs of '".^""^^f^™; ~ ret^l versus

tilizers. It is well also to '^^"f -^^^/^.^nJ^^a e^^^^^^ passes through
wholesale rates on fertihzers. J^^^^'^'^XTthe consumer Each dealer
the greater will be its cost ^^en it reaches th^^^^^^^^ ^^

must of necessity ^^^^^^^^^ ^itZtS^^eLna additional labor
and small consignments call for '"g'ler [eig increased

in making out bills and collecting accounts, ihese allien

expense. . t„ndpnpv on the part of farmers to co-

There is now an ^^'''.^f,^^^'''Z Tml the character of fertilizer
operate in the purchase of fertilizers. J^« ^ , j j^^ ^u jn general
that best meets the needs of a farmer ^'^ ^ J^^^ \^^^^^^^^ to com-

be a good fertilizer for his neighbors. I* »« j^^^^^^^^^^^^ f^om the manu-
bine and purchase their ferti hzers ^'^. .«^f °i'«*'d ^^^^^^ freight

facturer. saving the profit of the ->J^ ^man and ge^^^^^^^^ ^^.^

rates which will very materially reduce the cost o

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

>it

'l|

down at their railway stations. Such co-operation in buying will gen-
eraTly iVad to a discussion of the merits of the different brands of fertihzers
and in this way the purchase is generally based upon the combined
judgment of the co-operating farmers instead of on an individual farmer
if by chance a diverlty of crops and soils of the neighborhood is such
that different brands are required, there will be no difficulty m havmg
several brands shipped in the same car.

It is also wise to purchase early and avoid the rush which often
causes a delay in shipments in the rush season T^en *oo, ,^[ ^ °';^,73
enable the farmer to plan more definitely relative *« ^^^^ff"^ '^^^^^^^^^^^^^
and give more careful consideration to the brand most likely to meet h s
needs In this way he is enabled to receive and haul his fertilizer to h s
?arm at a time when the field work does not demand the time of himself

^"^ ItT^also well to consider the relative advantages of buying mixed
fertilizers as compared with the unmixed goods. In the n^t"J« f ^^'^g
the manufacturer with his well-equipped p ant should be able to mix
fertihzers more thoroughly and economically than the Earner i his
however, is not always done, since the farmer can frequentlj-^tihze labor for
mixing fertilizers when it would otherwise be unemployed. The advantages
of buying unmixed goods are that the farmer can make the mixture
that in his judgment will best meet his needs^ He may not be able to
secure- on the market just such a mixture. Furthermore, it will enable
him to make different mixtures and try them on his soil and for his crops
with the view of gaining information relative to the character of fertilizer
that will best meet his future needs. ,

Home Mixing of Fertilizers.— The home mixmg of fertilizers demands
on the part of the farmer a fair knowledge of fertilizers and the needs of
soils and crops. Without this, he had probably best depend upon ready
mbced goods such a.s are recommended for his conditions. Furthermore,
much will depend upon whether or not he can purchase a fertilizer the
composition of which, in his judgment, is what he should have, arid also
whether or not there would be much saving in buying unmixed goods
when the additional labor of mixing is taken into account. Such a practice
is likely to be economical only when the fertilizers are used rather exten-
sively Where only a few hundred pounds are used by the farmer it will
generally not be advisable for him to attempt to mix his own fertilizer.

So far as the mechanical process is concerned, fertilizers can be
mixed by the farmer on the farm very satisfactorily. It does not require
a mechanical mixer, although this may be economical when it is done on
a large scale. When the unmixed goods are in good mechanical condition,
as they should be, definite weights or measures of the different constitu-
ents may be placed on a tight barn floor and shoveled over a number of
times until the mixture takes on a uniform color. It is advisable to empty
not more than 400 to 600 pounds at one time. It can be more thoroughly

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS

mixed in small quantities. A hoe and square-pointed shovel are best
suited for the mixing. A broom and an ordinary 2 by 6 foot sand screen
with three meshes to the inch are all that are necessary. This assumes
that the fertilizer comes in bags of definite weight, and that by putting
in one bag of one ingredient and two or three of another, etc., a proper
proportion can be secured. Greater exactness can, of course, be obtained
by using platform scales and weighing roughly the amounts of the different
kinds that are brought together. It is suggested that the most bulky
ingredient be placed at the bottom of the pile and the least bulky on top.
After it is mixed with a shovel and hoe it should be thrown through the
screen. This removes all lumps and perfects the mixing. The lumps,
should there be any, should be crushed before they are allowed to go
into the next mixing batch. After thorough mixing the material will be
ready to return to the bags. It can be hauled to the field when needed.
It is well to remember that most fertilizers absorb moisture, increase
in weight and later on dry out and become hard. It is, therefore, wise
to keep them in a building which is fairly dry.

The following list of fertilizer materials, together with the per-
centage of the several ingredients which they contain, is given as an aid
to those making home mixtures of fertilizers:

List of Materials Used in Home-Mixing of Fertilizers.*

Nitrate of soda

Sulphate of ammonia

Dried blood

Tankage (meat)

Tankage (bone)

Ground bone

Acid phosphate, 14 per cent. . .
Acid phosphate, 12 per cent. .

Dissolved bone-black

Basic slag

Rock phosphate

Muriate of potash

High-grade sulphate of potash

Kainite

Wood-ashes

Nitrogen,
per cent.

Phosphoric

Acid,

per cent.

Potash,
per cent.

7.4

2.5

18-30

0
0
0

Availability.

Very quick

Quick

Medium

Slow

Quick

Medium

Slow

Very slow

Quick

Medium

REFERENCES

'* Manures and Fertilizers." Wheeler.
''Fertilizers." Voorhees.

K'S ET^Iffi* B^uSS., «F.;5Uj.r Ff* to, th. T^'

Farmers' BuUetins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

388 '' Incompatibles m Fertilizer Mixtures.^^
398. "Commercial Fertilizers in the South.

* From the Farmers* Cyclopedia.

f !

CHAPTER 5

BARNYARD. STABLE AND GREEN MANURES

mulaW or been kept or some '-;'»^P^-, "/^^"Ti^ days old.
when brought <^^^'''\'^J^°Tr!4£Znm> ot torn animaU i»

ZlledT^^^^ nitrogen eighteen cents a pound, phosphoric acid
four cents a pound, potash five cents a pound.

AVERAGE Yield and Yearly Value of Fresh Manure of Farm Animals,
AVERAu*. XI Exclusive of Bedding.

Kind of Livestock.

Amount

of
Manure
Yearly,
|K}unds.

Pounds of Ingredients Yearly.

Nitrogen.

Phosphoric
Acid.

Cow . . .
Horse. .
Pig....
Sheep . .
Poultry,

28,000

15,000

3,000

1,140

Potash.

124.
96.
14.4
11.02
.414

50.

42.
9.54
4.75
.15

132.

81.
11.4
9.88
.123

Yearly
Value.

$30.92

23.01
3.54
2.67
.087

The following table gives the numbers of the different classes of farm
animlfs in K States according to the census of 1910, together with
^cSlted value of manure for each class, the calculations bemg based
uporrhe ^^^^^^^^ of manure given in the preceding table. In case of
cS the valuation has been reduced, the reduction being based on the

(94)

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 95

relative numbers and values of milch cows as compared with all other
cattle.

~mJ<"

Animals in the United States in 1910 and Estimated Value of

their Manure.

Class.

Horses

Cattle (all kinds)

Swine

Sheep and goats.
Poultry

Number of
Animals.

Total value

27,618,242
63,682,648
59,473,636
55,868,543
295,880,000

Value of Manure.

Per Head.

$23.00
23.00*
3.54
2.67
.087

Total.

$635,219,566.00

1,464,700,904.00

210,536,671.00

149,169,010.00

25,741,560.00

32,485,367,711.00

Manure is valuable because: (1) it contains the three essential ele-
ments of plant food, namely, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium; (2)
it furnishes organic matter which is converted into humus in the soil and
materially improves the physical condition, water-holding capacity and
chemical and bacterial activities in the soil; (3) it introduces beneficial
forms of bacteria in the soil and these multiply and become increasingly
beneficial as their numbers increase.

As a Source of Plant Food. — The composition of manure varies with
the kind of animals producing it, the age of animals and the amount
and quality of the feed they consume. The manure consists of the solid
excrements and the liquids or urine. These differ in their composition.
The urine is the most valuable part of the excreta of animals. The aver-
age mixed stable and barnyard manure contains approximately ten pounds
nitrogen, six pounds phosphoric acid and eight pounds potash in each ton
of manure. The solid portions consist chiefly of the undigested portions
of the food consumed, together with the straw or bedding that has been
used in the stables. The solid portions contain approximately one-third
of the total nitrogen, one-fifth of the total potash and nearly all of the
phosphoric acid voided by animals. The urine contains about two-thirds
of the total nitrogen, four-fifths of the potash and very little of the phos-
phoric acid. The elements found in the urine are insoluble. They are
not immediately available as food for plants, but become so more quickly
than the constituents in the solid portions.

Of the nitrogen in barnyard manure, that in the urine will be most
readily available; that in the finely divided matter of the feces will be
more slowly available; and that in the bedding will be most slowly avail-
able. For this reason the availability of the nitrogen in manure when
applied to the soil is distributed throughout a comparatively long period.
Availability will vary greatly with the nature and treatment of the manure.

* Estimated value based on relative numbers and values of milch cows andaU other kinds of cattle.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

I'-

* I

Experiments at several experiment stations show that tlie nitrogen in
manure is much less readily available than that m either nitrate of soda or
sulphate of ammonia. Because of this fact, barnyard manure when used
for certain truck crops is sometimes supplemented with available forms of
nitroj^en. In such cases it is not advisable to mix the chemical forms of
nitrogen with the manure. Such mixture is likely to result ma loss of
available nitrogen through denitrification in the manure pile It is best,
therefore, to apply the chemical form of nitrogen by itself, preferably
some time after the manure has been applied.

Physical Effect of Manures.— Barnyard and stable manure improves
the physical condition of heavy soils by increasing their tilth and making
them easier to cultivate. It improves loose, sandy soils by holding the
particles together and increasing the water-holding capacity. It, there-
fore, has the reverse effect on these two extremes of soil. . ^ ^ .

Manure tends to equalize the supply and distribution of water in
the soil and renders the soil less subject to erosion and injury by winds.
Experiments conducted by Professor King at the Wisconsin Experiment
Station show that manured land contained eighteen tons more water per
acre in the upper foot of soil than similar land unmanured, and thirty-
four tons more in the soil to a depth of three feet. . ^ ^v

Biological Effect of Manure.— Farm manures introduce into the
soil a variety of bacteria and ferments. These help increase the supply
of available plant food. Barnyard manure sometimes causes denitrih-
cation in the soil. By this process, nitrogen is set free in a gaseous form
and may escape. This is likely to be most serious as a result of changing
nitrates in the soil into other forms and therefore reducing the available
nitrogen supply. Experiments show that this occurs only in exceptional
cases and generally when unusually large applications of manure have
been made. On the other hand, experiments in considerable number indi-
cate that applications of manure may actually favor nitrification and aid
in the formation of nitrates. At the Delaware Experiment Station it
was found that soil liberally manured and producing hay at the rate of
six tons per acre contained several times as many bacteria as were found
in the same soil which had but little manure and was producing hay at
the rate of about one ton per acre.

The Value of Manure. — The value of manure depends: (1) upon
the class of animals by which it is produced; (2) upon the age of the
animals producing it; and (3) upon the character of feed from which
produced. Animals that are used for breeding purposes or for the pro-
duction of milk or wool retain a larger proportion of the plant-food con-
stituents of the food they consume. This will be found in their products,
whether it be the young animals to which they give birth or the milk or
wool produced by the cow and sheep respectively. Young animals that
are making rapid growth use a portion of the plant-food constituents,
and this is built into the tissues and bones of such animals. Old animals

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 97

that have ceased to grow and animals that are being fattened void prac-
tically all of the plant-food constituents in their excrements. For this
reason the manure from different classes of animals varies considerably
in its plant-food constituents.

Mature animals, neither gaining nor losing in weight, excrete prac-
tically all of the fertilizer constituents in the food consumed. Growing
animals may excrete as little as 50 per cent of such constituents. Milch
cows excrete 65 to 85 per cent; fattening and working animals 85 to 95
per cent. As regards the value of equal weights of manure under average
farm conditions, farm animals stand in the following order: poultry, sheep,
pirrs, horses, cows. At the Mississippi Experiment Station young fatten-
ing steers excreted on an average 84 per cent of the nitrogen, 86 per cent
of the phosphoric acid and 92 per cent of the potash in the food consumed.
At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station, cows in milk excreted 83 per cent
of nitrogen, 75 per cent of phosphoric acid and 92 per cent of the potash
of their food. The amount of manure produced per thousand pounds of
live weight of animals also varies with the class of animals, as w^ell as
with the method of feeding and the character of the feed consumed. Sheep
and hogs produce the smallest amount of manure, but yield manure of
the greatest value per ton. Cows stand first in the amount of manure
produced, but rank lowest in the quality of manure.

Horse Manure. — Horse manure is more variable in its composition
than that of any other class of farm animals. This is due to the fluctua-
tion in the amount and character of the feed given to the horse, depend-
ing on whether he is doing hea\^ or light work, or whether he is idle.
Horse manure is drier than that from cattle, and generally contains more
fibrous material. It ferments easily, and is, therefore, considered a hot,
quick manure. When placed in piles by itself it ferments rapidly and
soon loses a large part of its nitrogen in the form of ammonia. Because
of its dry condition and rapid fermentation the temperature of the ma-
nure pile becomes very high, causing it to dry out quickly. This results in
what is commonly called fire-fanging. To prevent this, horse manure
should be mixed with cold, heavy cow or pig manure, or the piles of horse
manure should be compacted and kept constantly wet in order to reduce
the presence of air and consequent rapid fermentation. The quality of
horse manure makes it especially valuable for use in hotbeds, for the
growing of mushrooms and for application to cold, wet soils. Horse
manure is more bulky than that of any other class of farm animals and
weighs less per cubic foot.

Cattle Manure. — Cow and steer manure contains more water than
that from other domestic animals. It is ranked as a cold manure, and
has the lowest value, both from the standpoint of its plant-food con-
stituents and its fertilizing value. The average cow produces 40 to 50
pounds of dung or solid manure, and 20 to 30 pounds of urine per day.

Hog Manure. — The manure from hogs is fairly uniform in its com-

> I

SUCCESSFUL FARMING^

gg ^ -

. " — ; 7\ X rr^QTinrp It ferments slowly.

position, and is considered a cokl wet mj^u^^-^^^^^ ^,i,y, ,„d the

Hogs of average size P-l^^^Xn that from the preceding classes of ani^^^^
manure is somewhat "cher than that irom p ^.^^eentrated foods.

chiefly because swine are ^^^^^^l^'fl^ and richer than that from

Sheep Manure.-Sheep "^^^^f J, ,^™ ^ ferments easily and acts

any of the domestic ammals except poultry, i ^ ^^ accumulate

quickly in the soil. It keeP^^f^^i^J'tS animals. It is especially
I pens where it is t^^rouf ly J ^P^^^^ ^^^^^ q^jek action

Jf^^j""' Z Ze^'l^t^rJ:^^. aU four to five pounds of

"^-^^i^^Manure,-Poultry r^^^^^)^ ^S:^

It is especially rich i" f ''^f "'J^^;^^;^' ^th the solid excrements. It
secretions are semi-solul and are voided wn .^ ^^.^^ ^^^_

ferments easily, giving rise to ^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ maintained in a fairly
ing when placed in the soU- ^^^^^f ^^^^^^^^^ absorbent or presei^ative.

nitrogen. , ovenee total production of solid and

The following table ^^.^'J'^^^^^^^^^^^ ^i animals, together with
liquid excrements per year ^^^^Jf'^^^^^,-,, ,eid and potash,
their percentage of water, nitrogen, pno. i ^

Dung— Solid Excrements.

Excreted

per Year,

pounds.

Water,
per cent.

Composition.

Nitrogen,
per cent.

Phosphoric

Acid,

per cent.

Potash,
per cent.

r. . . 1 20,000

S^w« 12,000

Horse

Pigs

Sheep

Hen

Urine— Liquid Excrements.

Cows.
Horse .
Pigs . .
Sheep

Excreted

per Year,

pounds.

8,000

3,000

1,200

380

Water,
per cent.

92.0
89.0
97.5
86.5

Nitrogen,
per cent.

0.80
1.20
0.30
1.40

Phosphoric

Acid,

per cent.

Trace

0.12

0.05

Potash,
per cent.

14
15
0.2
2.0

* This table taken from Volume Five,

Farmers' Cyclopedia.

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 99

Miscellaneous Farm Manures. — In addition to the manure from farm
animals there is a variety of materials that may be available as manure
on many farms. It is well to utilize these as far as possible. Among
those most commonly met with are night-soil, leaf-mould and muck or
peat. Night-soil is best used when mixed with some good absorbent,
such as loam, muck or peat, and composted. Muck and peat are terms
used to designate accumulations of vegetable matter that are frequently
found in marshes, swamps and small ponds. Such material varies greatly
in its composition, and is especially valuable for its content of nitrogen,
and for its physical effect upon the soil. Leaf-mould pertains to decayed
accumulations of leaves frequently found in considerable quantities in
forested areas. It is especially valuable for some classes of garden truck
and flowers, but is ordinarily too costly because of the difficulty of gather-
ing it in any considerable quantities.

Value of Manure Influenced by Quality of Feed. — The plant-food
content of manure is almost directly in proportion to the plant-food
constituents contained in the feeds from which it comes. Thus, con-
centrated feeds high in protein, such as cottonseed meal, wheat bran
and oil cake, produce manure of the highest value. Ranking next
to these are such feeds as alfalfa and clover hay and other legumes.
The cereals, including corn and oats together with hay made from
grasses, rank third, while manure from roots is the lowest in plant-
food constituents and fertilizing value. Not only will the plant-
food constituents be most abundant in the manure from the concen-
trates, but it is likely also to be more readily available than that produced
from roughage.

These facts are important in connection with the selling of cash
crops and purchasing such concentrates as cottonseed meal and bran.
One who buys cottonseed meal as a fertilizer gets only its fertilizing value.
If it is purchased for feeding purposes, one may secure both its feeding
value and practically all of its manurial value. The relative price, there-
fore, of cash crops and purchased concentrates as feed is only one phase
of the exchange problem. Such concentrates produce manure having a
much higher value than that from the cash crops. This should be con-
sidered in connection with the exchange.

The table on next page shows the pounds of fertilizer constituents
in one ton of different agricultural products. It indicates the exchanges
which might, therefore, be effected with advantage.

The feeding value of a ton of wheat bran does not differ materially
from that of a ton of shelled corn. The difference in its feeding value
affects the nutritive ratio rather than the energy value. By exchanging
one ton of corn for an equal weight of wheat bran, there would be a gain
to the farm of 21 pounds of nitrogen, 46 pounds phosphoric acid and 24
pounds of potash, as shown by the above table. At usual prices for the
fertilizer constituents, this gain would amount to not less than $6 worth

111

SUCCESSFULFARMING

Irr — T ^Ti^iilk^rpotatoes for similar con-

Tthl way the plant-food '^^f^ZXZ^fs:^Uecor.e..n absorb-

soil from whence th^^ ^"^^"f"^^ ruidfin the manure. Straw utU.zed
ent and prevents the loss of ^he hquids ^^ .^ ^^^j^^^ ^^.^.tly

in this way is probably more -luabl^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^_^^

■ Manurial Constituents.

Farm Product.

Nitrogen,
pounds.

Phosphoric

Acid,
pounds.

Potash,
pounds.

Timothy hay

Clover hay

Alfalfa hay

Cowpea hay... •• •

Corn fodder, field cured

Corn silage

Wheat straw

Rye straw

Oat straw

Wheat

Rye

Oats •

Corn

Barley

Wheat bran

Linseed meal..

Cottonseed meal

Potatoes

Milk

Cheese

Live cattle

19.2
39.4
53.2
49.6
17.2
8.4
8.6
10.0
13.0
34.6
32.4
36.2
29.6
39.6
51.2
108.6
142.8
7.0
10.2
90.6
53.2

•t • ;r.+orminfflpd with the soUd and

as such to the soil. In.tho — ^ ,^h^^^^^^^^^^^^ '" ^^^ ^'^T •''
linuid excrement, and mocula,ted ^^lth tne contams

Sals, which facilitates its decompos^^^^^^^^ t- ^^^^^ .^ ^n

less plant food than an ex,ual veight ot y ^^ ^^^^^

abundance of straw ther^^^re, jsed ^J'^ f j^,,,ever, is not a logical
nure and slightly reduce its value P^r ton^ . ' -^^^ become so on the

objection to its use on the l^'^^'^^^^^^^^^^

paitof the farmer who is ^^^^^^^^^^^ ,^ ^,,e in accordance

St?;onc:ntration or ^^^^^.^J^Zt. for bedding their ani-
Some farmers use a great abundance oi ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ f.

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 101

A superabundance of bedding gives rise to a bulky, strawy manure that
must be used in large quantities in order to be effective, and frequently
results at the outset in denitrification and unsatisfactory results."

Modern Convenience for Conveying Manure from Stalls to Manure Spreader.*

In a general way, it is estimated that the amount of bedding used
for animals should equal approximately one-third of the dry matter con-

Absorbent Capacity of 100 Pounds of Different Materials when Air Dry

Nature of Absorbent.

Wheat straw

Oat straw

Rye straw

Sawdust

Partly decomposed oak leaves

Leaf Takings

Peat

Peat moss

Liquid Absorbed,
pounds.

220
285
300
350
160
400
500
1,300

» Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 101

tSL tht .a^ would be stm^^^^ ,, Manure.-Straw

Amount and Character of B«^*^."^J^^^tiii,ed as bedding for animals,
is a by-product on most farms, ''^^.'^^^^^^^f J'^^^^ only all returned to the
In thL way the plant-food c^n^t^u^f J'^^e ^^J ^^^^^,, ,, ,bsorb-
soil from whence they o^g^^yrj^^^Xin the manure. Straw utihzed
ent and prevents the loss of th^ bqui<^s ^^ .^ ^^^j^^^ ^^.^.tiy

in this way is probably more ^^^^^^^ ^T.o. o. V..o.s .... r.o..c..

,, :„i r'/-.«Hfituonts.

Timothy hay

Clover hay

Alfalfa hay

Cowpca hay.. • •• •

Corn fodder, field cured

Corn silage

Wheat straw

Rye straw

Oat straw

Wheat

Rye ^

Oats *

Corn

Barley

Wheat bran

Linseed meal..

Cottonseed meal
Potatoes

Milk

Cheese

Live cattle

•. •. in+ormindod with the solid and
as such to the soil. ^}^lZ:^V^C^^ - the voidings.o
linuid excrement, nnd moculatcd ^^'^'^ ^ , j, ^traw contams

Sals, which facilitates ^^J^^^f^^ \ltter in manure An
less plant food than an equal ^u kM ot Y ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^
abundance of straw thorf re ^^ d asj,e R ^^^^^^^^^^ .^ ^^^ ^ , ,

nure and slightly reduce '^^^^f'^'J'lXugh it might become so on the
objection to its use on the /;^™';"ia manure from outside sources,

^^'^°!>':^Xy:^StrinS in pnce is made in accordance

SteU'-tration or «on o^^^^^^^^^ ,^^ ,,,,,„, their ani-

Some farmers use a great '-^''^"j^^^"'^^^^^^^^ to use more than is suf-

Modern Convenience for Conveying Manure from Stalls to Mantjre Spreader.*

In a general way, it is estimated that the amount of bedding used
for animals should equal approximately one-third of the dry matter con-

Absorbent Capacity of 100 Pounds of Different Materials when Air Dry

Nature of Absorbent.

Wheat straw

Oat straw

Rye straw

Sawdust

Partly decomposed oak leaves

Leaf rakings

Peat

Peat moss

Liquid Absorbed,
pounds.

220
285
300
350
160
400
500
1,300

» Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

102

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

sumed. This, however, will vary greatly, depending on the absorbent
power of the bedding used and the character of the feed the animals
receive. It will also depend on whether or not the absorbent material
is thoroughly dry when used. When bedded with ordinary oat and wheat
straw, it is estimated generally that cows should each have about 9
pounds of bedding, horses 6§ pounds and sheep f pound. The table on
preceding page shows the approximate absorbent capacity ot various

materials used as bedding.

The figures in the table are only approximate, and will vary con-
siderably under different conditions. They are supposed to represent
the amount of liquid that will be held by 100 pounds of the substances
mentioned, after twenty-four hours of contact. _ ^

Aside from the absorbent power of l)edding, its composition is also
of some importance, and the following table gives the average fertilizer
constituents in 2000 pounds of different kinds of straw.

Fertilizer Constituents in 2000 Pounds of Various Kinds of Dry Straw.

Wheat

Wheat chaff

Oats

Rye

Barley

Barley chaff ....
Buckwheat hulls

Nitrogen,
per cent.

11.8
15.8
12.4

9.2
26.2
20.2

9.8

Phosphoric Acid,
per cent.

2.4
14.0
4.0
5.6
6.0
5.4
1.4

Potash,
per cent.

10.2

8.4
24.8
15.8
41.8
19.8
10.4

Methods of Storing and Handling.— The value of manure is also
determined by the manner in which it is stored, the length of time it
remains in storage and its manipulation in the storage heap. Manure
is a very bulky material of a comparatively low money value per ton.
Its economical use, therefore, demands that the consequent labor be
reduced to the minimum, especially in those regions w^here labor is high-
priced. Where manure is to be protected from the elements, it calls for
comparatively inexpensive structures for the purpose.

When different kinds of animals are kept, it is advisable to place all
the manure together so that the moist, cold cow and pig manure may
become thoroughly mixed with the dry, hot horse and sheep dung. In
this way each class of manure benefits the other. Where the manure
is deposited in a barnyard in which the animals run, the swine are fre-
quently allowed to have free access to the manure pile, from which they
often get considerable feed which would otherwise be wasted. Such
feed consists of the undigested concentrates fed to the horses and cattle.
Swine thoroughly mix the different kinds of manure, and when it is thor-
oughly compacted by the tramping of the animals, fermentation is reduced

V *

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 103

to the minimum. If it is protected from rains and sufficient absorbent
material has been used in the bedding, loss is comparatively small.

When horse manure is placed by itself, it ferments very rapidly and
soon loses its nitrogen. Such fermentation can be materially reduced by
compacting the manure pile thoroughly and applying sufficient, water to
keep it constantly wet. This same rapid decomposition and loss of nitro-
gen will take place in case of mixed manures if they are neither compacted
nor wet, although loss will not be so rapid.

The use of covered barnyards for protecting manure has in recent
years met with much favor in some portions of the country.

Losses of Maniire. — A practice too common in many sections is to

Piles of Manure Stoked Under Eaves of Barn, Showing

How Loss Takes Place. ^

throw the manure out of stable doors and windows, and allow it to remain
for a considera})le length of time beneath the eaves of the barns. This
not only exposes it to direct rainfall, but also subjects it to additional
rain collected by the roof of the building. Under these conditions the
leaching of the manure and the consequent loss is very great. Where
manure piles remain long under these conditions, it is sometimes doubtful
whether the depleted manure is worth hauling to the field. Certainly
this is a practice to be condemned. Both the mineral constituents and
organic matter are carried off in the leachings.

Experunental Results. — Experiments at the Cornell Experiment
Station where manure remained exposed during six summer months
showed a percentage loss for horse manure as follows: gross weight 57

» Courtesy of Doublcday. Page & Co.. Garden City, N. Y. From " Soils," by Fletcher.

102

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

sumed. This, however, will vary greatly, depending on the absorbent
power of the bedding used and the character of the feed the animals
receive. It will also depend on whether or not the absorbent material
is thoroughly dry when used. When bedded with ordinary oat and wheat
straw, it is estimated generally that cows should each have about 9
pounds of bedding, horses 6 J pounds and sheep f pound. 1 he table on
preceding page shows the approximate absorbent capacity of various

materials used as bedding.

Aside from the absorbent power of bedding, its composition is also
of some importance, and the following table gives the average fertilizer
constituents in 2000 pounds of different kinds of straw.

Fertilizer Constituents in 2000 Pounds of Various Kinds of Dry Straw.

Wheat

Wheat chaff ....
Oats ....

Rye

Barley

Barley chaff ....
Buckwheat hulls

Nitrogen,
per cent.

11.8
In.S
12.4

9.2
20 . 2
20 . 2

9.8

Phosphoric Acid.

per cent.

Potash,
per cent.

10.2
8.4
24.8
15.8
41.8
19.8
10.4

Methods of Storing and Handling.— The value of manure is also
determined by the manner in which it is stored, the length of time it
remains in storage and its manipulation in the storage heap. Manure
is a very bulky material of a comparatively low money value per ton.
Its economical use, therefore, demands that the consequent labor be
reduced to the minimum, especially in those regions where lal)or is high-
priced. Where manure is to be protected from the elements, it calls for
comparatively inexpensive structures for the purpose.

When different kinds of animals are kept, it is advisable to place all
the manure together so that the moist, cold cow and pig manure may
become thoroughly mixed with the dry, hot horse and she(^p dung. In
this way each class of manure V)enefits the other. WIktc the manure
is deposited in a barnyard in which the animals run, the swine are fre-
quently allowed to have free access to the manure pile, from which they
often get considerable feed which would otherwise be wasted. Such
feed consists of the undigested concentrates fed to the horses and cattle.
Swine thoroughly mix the different kinds of manure, and when it is thor-
oughly compacted l)y the tramping of the animals, fc^rmentation is reduced

r»l

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 103

to the minimum. If it is protected from rains and sufficient absorbent
material has been used in the bedding, loss is comparatively small.

The use of covered barnyards for protecting manure has in recent
years met with much favor in some portions of the country.

Losses of Manure. — A practice too common in many sections is to

Piles of Manure Stoked Uxdeh Eaves of Baun, Showing

How Loss Takes Place. ^

throw the manure out of stable* doors and windows, and allow it to remain
for a considcra})le length of time Ix^neath the eaves of the barns. This
not only exix)ses it to direct rainfall, l)ut also subjects it to additional
rain collected by the roof of the building. Under these conditions the
leaching of the manure and the consequent loss is very great. Where
manure piles remain long under these conditions, it is sometimes doubtful
whether the depleted manure is worth hauling to the field. Certainly
this is a practice to be condenmed. Both the mineral constituents and
organic matter arc carried off in the leachings.

Experimental Results. — rLxperiments at the Cornell Experiment
Station where manure remained exposed during six sunnner months
showed a percentage loss for horse manure as follows: gross weight 57

» Courtesy of Doublrday, Pago & Co.. Garden City, N. Y. From " Soils," by Fletcher.

TMTRMTTONAT. SRCOND EXPOSURE

"tS«,-.': ...,Y,- ,:•,■.■<,>,■'(

H'l

104

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

per cent, nitrogen 60 per cent, phosphoric acid 47 per cent, potash 76
per cent; for cow manure the loss was: gross weight 49 per cent, nitro-
gen 41 per cent, phosphoric acid 19 per cent, potash 8 per cent. The
rainfall during this period was 28 inches. This shows an average loss
for the two classes of manure of more than one-half in both weight and
actual plant-food constituents.

By similar observations at the Kansas Station, it was found that
the waste in six months amounted to fully one-half of the gross weight
of the manure and nearly 40 per cent of its nitrogen.

The New Jersey Experiment Station found that cow dung exposed
to the weather for 109 days lost 37.6 per cent of its nitrogen, 52 per cent
of its phosphoric acid and 47 per cent of its potash. Mixed dung and
urine lost during the same period of time 51 per cent of its nitrogen, 51
per cent of phosphoric acid and 61 per cent of potash. Numerous other
experiments along the same line could be cited, giving essentially the same
results. These experiments leave no doubt as to the large loss incurred
in negligent methods in the management of manure, and emphasize the
importance of better methods of storing manure.

The estimated annual value of the manure from all animals in the
United States as given in the table in the first part of this chapter is
$2,485,367,711. There is no means of ascertaining what proportion of
all manure is deposited where it can be collected. For present purposes
we will assume that one-half of it is available for return to the land.
Assuming that one-third of this is lost because of faulty methods of stor-
age and handling, the loss from this source would be valued at $414,-
227,952. The enormous loss sustained by American farmers through
negligence in the care, management and use of manure emphasizes the
importance of the subject and the great need of adopting economic methods
in its utilization.

How to Prevent Loss. — Some of the methods of preventing loss
have already been suggested. Under most conditions this is best accom-
plished by hauling the manure soon after its production directly to the
field. This has become a common practice in many localities. It is
economical from a number of viewpoints. It saves labor, obviating the
extra handling incurred when the manure is first dumped in the yard
and afterwards loaded on wagons to be taken to the field. It keeps
the premises about the barns and yards clean at all times; reduces offen-
sive odors due to decomposition of manure; and reduces in the summer
time breeding places for flies. The most important saving, however, is
in the actual value of the manure, which in this way has sustained no loss
due to decomposition and leaching.

Absorbents vs. Cisterns. — Losses frequently occur both in the yard
and stable, due to a direct and immediate loss of the liquid portions of
the manure. This is overcome either by the use of an ample supply of
absorbent in the way of bedding or by collecting the liquid manure in a

BARNYARD, -STABLE, GREEN MANURES 105

cistern. The cistern method of saving liquid manure is of doubtful econ-
omy in this country. The expense of cisterns and the trouble of hauling
and distributing, together with the care which must be exercised to pre-
vent loss of nitrogen by fermentation of the liquid when it stands long,
are all valid objections to such provisions. It is possible under intensive
farming and with cheap l^bor that liquid manure might be thus saved
and utilized for crops that respond to nitrogenous fertilizers. Best results
with manure demand that the liquid and solid portions be applied together.
It is the consensus of opinion that the best general practice is to save the
liquid by the use of absorbents.

Since nitrogen frequently escapes as ammonia, certain absorbents
for gases, such as gypsum, kainite, acid phosphate and ordinary dust,
have been recommended. As direct absorbents, however, these are of
doubtful value, although some of them are effective, first, in reducing the
fermentation, and second, in actually reinforcing the manure by the addi-
tion of plant-food constituents.

Sterilization. — Preservatives have also been suggested in the nature
of substances that will prevent fermentation and thus reduce losses.
Bisulphide of carbon, caustic lime, sulphuric acid and a number of other
substances have been tested for this purpose. However, anything that
will prohibit fermentation destroys the bacteria of the manure, and such
destruction may more than offset the saving in plant-food constituents.
Furthermore, most of these materials are rather costly, and the benefits
derived are not equal to the expense incurred.

Reinforcing Manures. — A number of substances have been used to
reinforce manure. The one most beneficial and economical is either acid
phosphate or rock phosphate. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that
phosphorus is the element most frequently needed in the soils, and that
manure is inadequately supplied with it. The following table, showing
results obtained at the Ohio Experiment Station by reinforcing manure
with different substances, gives direct evidence as to the relative merits
of such substances:

Value of Manure, Average 15 Years. — Rotation: Corn, Wheat, Clover (3 Years).

Treatment.

Nothing.

Gypsum.

Kainite.

Floats.

Acid
Phosphate.

Return per ton:

Yard manure

3.31

$3.04

3.56

$2 . 93
3.97

$3.54
4.49

S4.10

Stall manure

4.82

It is evident from the above table that all the materials used have
more or less increased the value of the manure, as determined by the
value of increase in crops obtained from each ton when applied once in a
three years* rotation of corn, wheat and clover. The value per ton of

i!|

•■

«•

106

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

manure is based on the average farm price of the crops produced. It is
also evident from the table that stall manure gave in every instance a
larger return per ton than did yard manure, and that floats and acid phos-
phate proved by all odds the best reinforcing materials. While acid
phosphate reinforcement gave the largest return per ton of manure, the
floats proved about equally profitable from the investment standpoint.

In localities where phosphorus is the dominant soil requirement, the
reinforcement of manure with acid phosphate at the rate of about forty
pounds to each ton of manure is a most excellent practice. The manner
of applying the phosphate may be determined by conditions. It will
frequently be found convenient to apply this material to the manure in

"■^1 '■ i

■Si: ^>A_*-»^^ -^-^.--rWiV .-''f^.i^, .. .

'>^-y'^;^

SV • ---'■• ■• "■'■' -ri'" ■'*■'' ^■'' "^ ""^ '*^. . '^"jtj^-^^

. ■■J:^'^^

;^^>^^^ >i-?r^^^:'': ^-3^ ^-

Spreading Manure from \Va(;on, Old Way.^

the stalls or stables each day at the rate of about one pound for each
fully grown cow, horse or steer, and in lesser amounts for the smaller
animals. There is probably no place in which the raw rock phosphate
is likely to give better results than when used in this way as a reinforce-
ment to manure.

Economical Use of Manure.— The most economical use of manure
involves a number of factors. It is the opinion of both chemists and
farmers that manure and urine should be applied to the soil in its fresh-
est possible condition. If this is true, manure should be hauled from the
stable or barnyard to the field as soon as it is made. As previously indi-
cated, this method reduces to the minimum the cost of handling and has
several additional advantages. Well-rotted manure may be more quickly
available to plants, less bulky and easier to distribute, and weight for

1 Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y. From " Soils," by Fletcher.

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 107

weight may give as much or larger returns than fresh manure. There
are, however, only a few conditions under which its use can be superior
to that of using fresh material. The rotted manure may be used for
intensive crops when availability is important, and especially on land
where weeds, entailing hand work, become a serious problem. In fresh
manure the weed-seeds that may have been in the feeds are likely to be
largely viable, and give rise to trout)le in the fidd. Thorough fermenta-
tion generally destroys the viability of weed-seeds in manure.

To Which Crops Should Manure be Applied?— Next to time of haul-
ing may be considered the crops to which manure can be most advan-
tageously applied. Direct applications of fresh manure are thought to
be injurious to the quality of tobacco, to sugar beets and to potatoes.
It should, therefore, not be applied to these crops directly. It may be
applied to the crop preceding, or decomposed manure may be used. As
a rule, manure should be applied directly to the crop in the rotation
having the longest growing season, or the greatest money value. For
example, in a rotation of corn, oats, wheat and mixed grasses, corn not
only has the longest growing season, but also the greatest food and cash
value. It is, therefore, considered good practice to apply the manure
directly to the corn. Since the benefits of manure are distributed over
a number of years, the crops which follow will benefit by its residual
effect.

To What Soils Should Manure be Applied? — Character of soil may
also determine where the manure should be applied. If mechanical con-
dition is a prime consideration, fresh manure may be applied to heavy,
clay soils and well-rotted manure to light, sandy soils. On the other
hand, the sandy soils in a favorable season are more likely to utilize coarse
manure to advantage than heavy soils. In such soils decomposition will
proceed more rapidly, thus rendering available the plant-food constituents
of the manure. On sandy soils manure should be applied only a short
time before it is likely to be needed, in order to prevent the danger of loss
by leaching. On heavy, clay soils the benefits from applying fresh manure
are likely to be rather slight the first year, because of slow decomposition
of the manure. This, however, is not serious, because in such soils the
plant food as it becomes available is held by the soil with little or no
loss.

Climate Affects Decomposition. — Climate may also be a factor in-
fluencing the use of fresh manure. In a warm, damp climate it matters
little whether the manure is fresh or well rotted when applied. Under
such conditions decomposition in the soil is sufficiently rapid to make
fresh manure readily available. The character of season may also be a
factor determining the relative merits of fresh and rotted manure. In
a very dry season excessive applications of fresh manure show a tendency
to burn out the soil, and this is more marked in light, sandy soils than in
the heavy soils. Furthermore, heavy applications of strawy manure

106

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

> t

Spreadincj Mani re from Wa(J()n, Old Way.^

the stalls or stables each day at the rate of about one pound for each
fully grown cow, horse or steer, and in h^sser amounts for the smaller
animals. There is i)robably no place in which the raw rock phosphate
is likely to give better results than when used in this way as a reinforce-
ment to manure.

Economical Use of Manure.— The most economical use of manure
involves a numljer of factors. It is the opinion of both chemists and
farmers that manure and urine should be applicnl to the soil in its fresh-
est possible condition. If this is truc^ manure should ])e hauled from the
stable or barnyard to the field as soon as it is made. As previously indi-
cated, this method reduces to the mininunn the cost of handling and has
several additional advantages. Well-rotted manure may be more quickly
available to plants, less Inilky and easier to distribute, and weight for

» Courtesy of Doubleday . Page & Co., Garden City, X. Y. From ' ' Soils," by Fletcher.

TMTPMTTrkXT AT

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 107

weight may give as nmch or larger returns tiian fresh manure. There
are, however, only a few conditions under which its use can be superior
to that of using fresh material. The rotted manure may be used for
intensive crops when availability is important, and especially on land
where weeds, entailing hand work, become a serious problem. In fresh
manure the weed-seeds that may have been in the feeds are likely to be
largely viable, and give rise to trouble in the fi(^ld. Thorough fermenta-
tion generally destroys the viability of weed-seeds in manure.

To Which Crops Should Manure be Applied?— Next to thne of haul-
ing may be considered the crops to which manure can l)e most advan-
tageously applied. Dinn^t applications of fresh manure are thought to
be injurious to the quality of to})acco, to sugar beets and to potatoes.
It should, therefore, not be applied to th(\se crops directly. It may be
applied to the crop preceding, or decomposed manure may be used. As
a rule, manure should be applicnl directly to the crop in the rotation
having the longest growing season, or the greatest money value. For
example, in a rotation of corn, oats, wheat and mixed grasses, corn not
only has the longest growing season, but also the greatest food and cash
value. It is, therefore, considered good practice to apply the manure
directly to the corn. Since the })enefits of manure are distributed over
a number of years, the crops which follow will benefit by its residual
effect.

To What Soils Should Manure be Applied? — Character of soil may
also determine where the manure should })e applied. If mechanical con-
dition is a prime consick^-ation, fresh manun^ may b(* applied to hcnivy,
clay soils and well-rotted manure to light, sandy soils. On the other
hand, the sandy soils in a favorable season are more likely to utilize coarse
manure to advantage than heavy soils. In such soils decomposition will
proceed more rapidly, thus n^idering available^ the plant-food constituents
of the manure. On sandy soils manure should be applied only a short
time before it is likely to be needed, in order to prevent the danger of loss
by leaching. On heavy, clay soils the benefits from applying fresh manure
are likely to be rather slight the first year, l^ecause of slow decomposition
of the manure. This, howcner, is not serious, because in such soils the
plant food as it becomes availal)le is held by the soil with little or no
loss.

Climate Affects Decomposition. — Climate may also be a factor in-
fluencing the use of frc^sli maiiur(\ In a warm, damp climate it matters
little whether the manure is fresh or well rotted when applied. Under
such conditions dec()mj)osition in the soil is sufficiently rapid to make
fresh manure readily available. The character of season may also be a
factor determining the relative merits of fresh and rotted manure. In
a very dry season excessive applications of fresh manure show a tendency
to burn out the soil, and this is more marked in light, sandy soils than in
the heavy soils. Furthermore, heavy applications of strawy manure

>i I

li I
I'

)

;

108

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

plowed under when the soil is dry will destroy the capillary connection
between the upper and lower soils, thus preventing a rise of the subsoil
water for the benefit of the newly planted crop. This occasionally results
in a crop failure and the condemnation of the use of fresh manure.

Eroded Soil Most in Need of Manure.— In a general way, any kind
of manure should be applied to those portions of the farm the soil of which
is most in need of manure. Marked differences in the organic content
of the soil in different parts of fields are often manifest. This most fre-
quently is the result of slight erosion on the sloping portions. It is a good
practice to apply manure to these portions in an effort to restore them
to their original fertility. Such areas without special attention tend to
deteriorate rapidly. The addition of manure improves the physical con-
dition of the soil, increases its absorptive power for rain and lessens
erosion. In this way, not only is the soil benefited, but deterioration
through erosion is checked.

Rate of Application.— The rate of applying manure is also important
and will determine the returns per ton of manure. Farmers in general
do not have sufficient manure to apply in large quantities to all of their
land. This gives rise to the question as to whether or not heavy appli-
cations shairbe used on restricted areas and for certain crops, or whether
the manure shall be spread thinly and made to reach as far as possible.
Some German writers speak of 18 tons per acre as abundant, 14 tons as

Value of Manure. Average 30 Years.
Rotation: Corn,* Oats, WTieat,* Clover, Timothy (Four Years).

Treatment, One Rotation.

Nothing

Manure 12 tons

Manure 16 tons

Manure 20 tons

Manure 12 tons and lime 2 tons

Value of
Four Crops.

$60 . 02
88.91
89.62
92.68
92.22

Return per Ton
of Manure.

$2.41
1.85
1.63
2.68

Return per Ton
over 12 i>er Acre.

.18
.33

moderate and 8 tons as light applications. They recommend 10 tons
per acre for roots, 20 tons per acre for potatoes. In England, at the
Rothampsted Experiment Station, 14 tons yearly for grain was considered
heavy. In New Jersey 20 tons per acre for truck is not infrequently
used. Such applications are, however, unnecessarily large for general
farm crops and for the average farm.

At the Pennsylvania Experiment Station the average results for a
period of thirty years in a four-crop rotation when manure was used at
the rate of 12, 16 and 20 tons per acre during the rotation, show that the
largest return per ton of manure was secured with the lightest application.

* Manure applied to these crops only.

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 109

The manure in this case was applied twice in the rotation; 6, 8 and 10
tons per acre to the corn, the same amounts to the wheat and none to either
the oats or grass.

The returns per ton of manure are based on a valuation of crops
as follows: Corn 50 cents a bushel, oats 32 cents a bushel, wheat 80 cents
a bushel, hay $10 a ton, and oat straw, wheat straw and corn stover $2.50
per ton.

A similar experiment at the Ohio Experiment Station covering a
period of eighteen years has also shown the largest return per ton of
manure in case of the smaller applications. The results are given in the
following table:

Value of Manure. Average 18 Years.
Rotation: Corn,* Oats, Wheat,* Clover, Timothy (Five-year Rotation).

Treatment, One Rotation.

Manure 8 tons. .
Manure 16 tons

Return per Ton
of Manure.

$3.17
2.41

Return per Ton
over 8 per Acre.

$1.75

Rotation: Potatoes, Wheat, f Clover (Three Years).

Treatment, One Rotation.

Manure 4 tons
Manure 8 tons
Manure 16 tons
Manure 8 tons

Return per Ton
of Manure.

$3.47
2.58
2.15
3.30

Return per Ton
over 8 per Acre.

$1.69
1.72

Methods of Applying Manure. — A uniform rate and even distribution
of manure are essential. This can be most economically effected by the
use of a manure spreader. It does the work better than it can be done
with a fork, and at a great saving of labor. While a manure spreader is
rather an expensive implement, it will be a paying investment on any
farm where 60 tons or more of manure are to be applied annually. It is
a common practice in most parts of the country to apply manure to a
grass sod and plow it under. In many cases manure is also applied to
corn land and land that has been in small grain, to be followed by other
or similar crops. While it is the consensus of opinion that the manure
applied in this way will give best results, there is some question as to
whether or not more of it should not be applied in the form of a top

dressing.

Top Dressing vs. Plowing Under.— At the Maryland Experiment

* Manure applied to thos'^ crops only. .

t Manure applied to wheat, except in second 8 tons application, whicb went on potatoes.

Pll.- ■ - .

■ ff'.

ll^

t^BS.

»■""

■■■■afi

t'f^-

'i^fiim

■

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's . i ';*i

■k:

% « Vfily;!' ' ■'PiZ-

i'i ••• N- 'it fe #!!,•■; fi '^ '*'

% v'--^

» Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago.

(110)

>
O

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£ ^

W .§

b cr

s >>
s ^

Q OP
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•g

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 111

Station both fresh ^nd rotted manure were applied before and after
plowing. For fresh manure the average of two crops of corn showed
a gain of 10.9 bushels per acre in favor of applying after plowing. For the
wheat which followed the corn the gain was two bushels per acre. Where
rotted manure was compared in the same way there was practically no
difference in the yield of corn, and about one bushel gain for wheat in
favor of applying after plowing. In this experiment the fresh manure
under both conditions and for both crops gave yields considerably above
that produced by the rotted manure.

Another experiment in which the manure was plowed under in the
spring as compared with plowing under in the fall gave results with corn
and wheat favorable to plowing under in the spring. This is in harmony
with the preceding experiment, and suggests that manure applied to the
surface, and allowed to remain for some time in that position, benefits
the soil and results in a better growth of crops than when it is plowed
under immediately. The subject is one worthy of further consideration
and experimentation. It is not an uncommon opinion, however, among
practical farmers that top dressing with manure is more beneficial than
plowing it under, and it is quite a common practice to top dress grass
lands and wheat ^vith manure.

In the South, where manure is very scarce, it is frequently applied
in the hill or furrow at planting time. This entails a good deal of hand
labor, but it is probably justifiable where labor is as cheap as it is there.
The manner of applying small applications concentrates the manure in
the vicinity of the plants and stimulates growth during the early portions
of the season.

The Parking System. — The cheapest possible way of getting manure
on the land is by pasturing the animals, or allowing them to gather their
own feed. This, of course, is an old and universal practice in case of
pastures, and is becoming more popular as indicated by the practice of
hogging off corn, and other annual crops. This is spoken of as the park-
ing system. It has a disadvantage that in certain classes of animals the
manure is not uniformly distributed. It is more applicable for sheep and
swine than it is for the larger animals.

Distribution of Benefits. — The benefits of manure are distributed
over a number of years. This often gives rise to difficulty in case of the
tenant farmer who rents a farm for only one year and without assur-
ance that he will remain for more than that length of time. He hesi-
tates to haul and apply the manure, knowing that his successor will receive
a considerable part of its benefits. Under average conditions it is esti-
mated that the first crop after manure is applied will receive about 40
per cent of its benefits; the second crop 30 per cent; the third crop 20
per cent; and the fourth one the remaining 10 per cent. This distribution
of the benefits of manure is used in cost accounting in farm crops. The
accuracy of the distribution is doubtless crude, and would vary greatly

ur ■!

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 111

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago.

(110)

station both fresh ^nd rotted manure were applied before and after
plowing. For fresh manure the average of two crops of corn showed
a gain of 10.9 bushels per acre in favor of applying after plowing. For the
wheat which followed the corn the gain was two bushels per acre. Where
rotted manure was compared in the same way there was practically no
difference in the yield of corn, and about one bushel gain for wheat in
favor of applying after plowing. In this experiment the fresh manure
under both conditions and for both crops gave yields considerably above
that produced by the rotted manure.

Another experiment in which the manure was plowed under in the
spring as compared with plowing under in the fall gave results with corn
and wheat favorable to plowing under in the spring. This is in harmony
with the preceding experiment, and suggests that manure applied to the
surface, and allowed to remain for some time in that position, benefits
the soil and results in a better growi:h of crops than when it is plowed
under immediately. The sul^ject is one worthy of further consideration
and experimentation. It is not an uncommon opinion, however, among
practical farmers that top dressing with manure is more beneficial than
plowing it under, and it is quite a common practice to top dress grass
lands and wheat with manure.

In the South, where manure is very scarce, it is frequently applied
in the hill or furrow at planting time. This entails a good deal of hand
labor, but it is probably justifiable where labor is as cheap as it is there.
The manner of applying small applications concentrates the manure in
the vicinity of the i)lants and stinmlates growth during the early portions
of the season.

The Parking System. — The cheap(\st possible way of getting manure
on the land is b}^ i)asturiiig the animals, or allowing them to gather their
own feed. This, of c()urs(% is an old and universal ])ractice in case of
pastures, and is ])econiing more poi)ular as indicated by the practice of
hogging off corn, and other annual crops. This is spoken of as the park-
ing system. It has a disadvantage that in certain classes of animals the
manure is not uniformly distributed. It is more applicable for sheep and
swine than it is for the largcT animals.

Distribution of Benefits. — The benefits of manure are distributed
over a number of years. This often gives rise to difficulty in case of the
tenant farmer who rents a farm for onlv one year and without assur-
ance that he will remain for more than that length of time. He hesi-
tates to haul and aj^ply the manure, knowing that his successor will receive
a considerable j)art of its benefits. Under average conditions it is esti-
mated that the first crop after manure is api^lied will receive about 40
per cent of its benefits; the second crop 30 per cent; the third crop 20
per cent; and the fourth one the remaining 10 per cent. This distribution
of the benefits of manure is used in cost accoimting in farm crops. The
accuracy of the distribution is doubtless crude, and would vary greatly

TMTRMTTnM A T QPmwn PVPOQTTPP

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

112 -^

character of the manure and its rate of apphcation.

GREEN MANURES
Green manuring consists of plowing under green crops for the benefit

S^e °„^„eSl cl«.ue„,« from the s„b»il and upon the <iec«y of he
■>l,nt« leave them in the surface soil in an organic form. Dcep-rootca
K iraliM beneficial because they improve the physical condition of
the sub" 11 In general, crops that will furnish the largest amount of
tr«l nitrogLbejring materiaHor te soil shoul^^^^^^^^

When is Green Manurmg Advisable?— The practice oi piowmt,
urdeTcropB for the benefit of the soil is not justified m systems of live-
stock farming where the crops can be profitably fed and the manure
tSm dTo the soil. There are many localities, however where the far^^^
ine svstcms are such that but little manure is available to supply the
needs of he soil. Under such conditions green manuring crops are often
resorted to with profit. They are especially to be recommended in case
of sandv soils low in organic matter, and for heavy soils in poor physical
conditSi In addition to serving the purposes above mentioned, green

manSg crops, if properly selected, ^-^ /'^^"^l^"Tht"lso
would otherwise be bare of vegetation and subject to erosion. They ^teo
prevent the loss of nitrogen by leaching. This is later made available for
other crons as the green manures decompose in the soil.

Green manuring is most applicable on fruit and truck farms. is

quite extensively practiced in orchards during the early life of the trees.
It iT also economical in the trucking regions where the winters are mild.

Obiections to Green Manuring.-The objections to green manuring
lie chiefly in the fact that green manure crops are grown and plowed
under for the benefit of the soil and no direct immediate return is secured.
The green manuring crops generally take the place o money crops.
When it is possible to grow legumes and feed them to livestock with profit
the stubble and roots of such crops, together with the manure which
thev will afford, make possible nearly as rapid improvement of the soil
as is the case when the whole crop is plowed under. Whether or not a
green manuring crop should be fed or plowed under must be detcTmined
bv the cost of harvesting and feeding, together with the cost of returning
the manure, as compared with the returns secured in ammals or animal
products in feeding it.

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 113

Principal Green Manuring Crops.— The principal crops grown in
the United States for green manuring purposes are red clover, alfalfa,
alsike clover, crimson clover, cowpeas, Canada peas, soy beans, vetch,
velvet bean, Japan clover, sweet clover and bur clover. In addition to
these, beggar weed, peanuts and velvet bean are also used in the South.
These are all legumes, and are decidedly preferable to non-legumes under
most conditions where green manures can be used. In the North, where
the winters are severe, rye and occasionally wheat are used for this pur-
pose. Buckwheat, which is a summer annual, is also sometimes used.

M "v

^^i^w-*^-

'■^■'■'^'^^ :^1.:-^'^-:

.JV*fc/^v^r

-W>-»v

^^:&^<i

:x:'tr^ r.

Rye TcnNED Under for Soil Improvement.

When heavy green manuring crops are turned under allow two weeks or more to
W nen neavy gri,e ei^pge before planting succeedrng crop.

The characteristics and the requirements for these crops will be dis-

rimspd in Book II of this work. , , ,. ^,

On poor soils lime and the mineral fertilizers may be used wih profit
in the production of a green manure crop. This will stunulate the crop
to-a grelr^wth, and when it decays in the soil the elements applied
will again become available for the crop that is to follow.

The composition of the legumes used for green manunng varies con-
siderablv depending upon local conditions, character of soil and the stage
of maturity when plowed under. The table on next page shows the com-
tsZonXerJned by the average of a number of analy^s and ^ves
the fertilizing constituents in pounds per ton of dry matter for both tops

and roots in the crops indicated. . xu- * ui„ u c^.r.^,^A bp

In connection with the analyses as shown in this table it should b«

borne in mind that all of the mineral constituents <^?'^l'^'^J^^^^l:
and that it is not possible to increase these by the growing of green manur

p^'-;:

mm.-

74^JX^

IMifif^M^^

^j2 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

character of the manure and its rate of application.

GREEN MANURES
Green manuring consists of plowing under green crops for the benefit

Lme Jneal consf^^^^^^^ from the subsoil and upon the decay of the
nTnts leave them in the surface soil in an organic form. Deep-rooted
Sn ; irdsoXneficial because they improve t^e Ph>-^^^^^^^^ ^j

the subsoil. In general, crops tha will furni h he argent ^^^^^^^^^
humus and nitrogen-bearing material for ^^e «od r^uW ^^^^^^

When is Green Manurmg Advisable?— 1 he practice oi Pio^\" fc>
urderirops for the benefit of the soil is not justified m systems of live-
stock farming where the crops can be profitably fed and the manure
1 dTo'he soil. There are many localities^ ''''''%Z:j\:iZlyZo
inff svstcms are such that but little manure is available to supply tne
need'of tbe soil. Under such conditions green manuring crops are often
reported to Jh profit. They are especially to be recommended in case
S Sndyloiriow in organic matter, and for heavy soils in poor physical
condition In addition to serving the purposes above mentioned, green
mTnurg crops, if properly selected, occupy the soil at seasons when it
™ otherwL be bare of vegetation and subject to erosion. They a so
prevent the loss of nitrogen by leaching. This is ater made available for
other crons as the green manures decompose in the soil.

Green manuring is most applicable on fruit and truck farms. It is
quite extensively practiced in orchards during the early life of the trees.
It iTaTso economical in the trucking regions where the winters are mild.
ObTections to Green Manuring.-The objections to green manurmg
lie chiefly in the fact that green manure crops are grown and plowed
mder for the benefit of the soil and no direct immediate return is secured.
The green manuring crops generally take the place of money crops.
When it is possible to grow legumes and feed them to livestock with profit
1 stubbl? and roots of such crops, together with the -anure wh ch
thev will afford, make possible nearly as rapid improvement of the soil
asTs the case when the whole crop is plowed under. Whether or not a
^een manuring crop should be fed or plowed under must be fto-m^^^
by the cost of harvesting and feeding, together with the cost of returning
the manure, as compared with the returns secured in animals or animal
products in feeding it.

BARNYARD, STABLE, GREEN MANURES 113

•^7

Rye Turned Under for Son. Improvement.

When heavy green manuring crops are turned un.l.;r allow two ^eeks or more to
W hen ne.ivj yr^^ elapse before plantmg buececding crop.

The characteristics an<l the requirements for these crops will be dis-

"" On'po'irtils Ume'tnd' the mineral fertilizers may be used with profit
in the pSct^on of a green manure crop. This will sthnulate the crop
lo-agrelr growth, ami when it decays in the soil the elements applied
will anain become available for the crop that is to follow.

S composition of the legumes used for green manurmg varies con-
siderably Snding upon local conditions, character of soil and the stage
of matSky L plowed under. The table on next page shows the com-
^osHion fsVetermined by the average of a number of analyses and^ve
the fertilizing constituents in pounds per ton of dry matter for both tops

and roots in the crops indicated. _ cV,nnld be

In connection with the analyses as shown m this t^ble, it should be

borne in mind that all of the mineral constituents come from the soil,

and thlt itTnot possible to increase these by the growing of green manur-

■'*l*«(^:;

I -lil.^ilL^-ir;.'^ A*.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

114

ing crops. The only possible benefit in this re^^^^^^^^' ^^ onlj

fofm that may result as the g-XTrroVorTanfc^l^^^^^^^^ -trogen.
real additions to the soil will be in the torm 01 orga ^^

It is, therefore, essential to select those crops that will giv

increase in those two constituents.

Fertilizing Matebia.s in 2000_PouNB^^i^Br_SuBSTANCE.

Plant and Part.

Alfalfa, tops.
Alfalfa, roots,

Nitrogen,
per cent.

Phosphoric Acid,
per cent.

Cowpeas, tops.
Cowpeas, roots

Crimson clover, tops.
Crimson clover, roots

Common vetch, tops.
Common vetch, roots

Red clover, tops.
Red clover, roots

Soy bean, tops
Soy bean, roots

Velvet bean

46.
41.

39.2
23.6

42.6
30.

59.9
43.8

47.
54.8

43.6
21.

50.2

10.8

8.6

10.2
11.

12.4
9.4

14.2
15.8

11.6
16.8

12.5

6.8

10.6

Potash,
per cent.

30.4
9.6

38.6
23.2

27.
20.4

53.7
23.6

42.8
16.4

33.6
13.4

76.8

The cultivated crops, such as corn, potatoes, tobacco, cotton and
some of t^e heavier truck crops, generally follow a green manunng crop
trbetter adv^^^ than crops that are broadcasted or drilled and do
not reTui^^^^^^^ It is good practice to plow under green manur-

"g coT wo weeks or more in advance of the time of seedmg the crop
which is to follow. Lime applied to the surface before the jop is t^^^^^^^^^^
under will tend to hasten decomposition and neutralize acids which are
gener^^^^^^^ The more succulent the crop when turned under, the

greater the tendency to acid formation.

REFERENCES

"FertiUzers and Manures." Hall.

::&L'Xnure,''vaT"and Use." Edward Minus, Dept. of Agriculture. ComeU

MichYgirES". StaS Sir 25. "Composition and Value «/ Fam Manure/^ „
Michigan Expt. Station Circular 26. " Losses and Preservation of Barnyard Manure.
Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 246. "Barnyard Manure.
Purdue Expt. Station Bulletin 49. "Farm Manures.

CHAPTER 6

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS

SoUs Need Lime.— Lime is an essential element of plant food. Many
plants are injured by an acid condition of the soil. Soil a«^ty;^2?a
cheaply corrected by one of the several forms of lime The beneficial
effects of liming have been demonstrated by the agricultural expermient
stations in a dozen or more of the states. Observations by farmers m all
of the Eastern and Southern States.and in the Central States as far west
as the Missouri River, show that on many of the farms soils are sour.
This sourness of the sdl is due to a deficiency of lime, and often occurs

in soils originally rich in lime. • • i i:^^

Lime Content of SoUs.-Soils vary greatly m their original lime
content. Some have very little lime to begin with. Others, such as the
Tmestone soils, are formed from limestone rocks, some o^-^^^-^^^^
originally more than 90 per cent carbonate of lime. The 1 me content ot
soifs is determined by treating them with strong mineral acids. This
removes all of the lime from the soil, and the content is then determined
cheSly. The following table shows the lime content of a nmnber of
typical soils in different parts of the United States:

Lime Content (CXCO3) per Acre 7 Inches ok Soil in Some Ttpicai, Soii^

OF THE United States.

Production.

Leonard town loam

Orangeburg sandy loam

Orangeburg fine sandy loam

Cecil clay

Norfolk loam

Oswego silt loam

Hagerstown loam

Miami sand

Miami silt loam

Porters black clay

Marshal loam

Podunk fine sandy loam . . .
Fresno fine sandy loam

Maryland

Alabama

Texas

North CaroUna

Maryland

Kansas

Tennessee

Ohio...

Wisconsin

Virginia

Minnesota ....
Connecticut . . .
California

Very low,
Low

Lime Content",
pounds.

Medium

High

Huston clay.... ^ Alabama

<<
U

2,500

3,500

4,650

5,000

8,575

14,275

34,650

32,500

59,250

66,750

83,575

125,250

,000,750

Ti^^ Qnnc T ose Lime —The greatest loss of lime from the soil is
due STact n . "t^Tsio.ly sofuble in the soil solution and i^ carried
downward by the gravitational movement of the soil water The rate
ofTsIof limVin this way depends both upon the rate of solubility and

(115)

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 117

1^'

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

116

'--'^^^^i^^^or. the water generally ^n^^^^ i^ W ^^^^
ground drainage channels and few sur^ac^^^ ^^^^^^^e si become
of it passes over the surface. This explains wny ^^ ^

deficient in lime. The presence of an abundance o Humus
fetain lime in the form of humates, and reduce its^loss ^^^

':i:S::lt^^eZ:^^^n non-legume. and, therefore, cause a more
rapid reduction in^^^^^^^^^ character of vegetation is a good

index rtXTeTcquremont of soils. When red clover fails or when
Ite dover does better than red clover, it indicates a sour soil The

SstctTredtop, ^^^::^:^:^, st ^^^ ^^

IZtlLZ^^ofZ'Z^tT^^^^^ P— e of these weeds

Far^rs wlraU troubled with failure of clover and by the encroach-
ment "above-mentioned weeds, may feel reasonably sure that their

It preferably with rain water or water that is not charged with lime
rlrS the litmus paper brought in contact with the soil and allowed
t tmah^ for fifteen or thirty minutes will turn red if the soil is sour.
The «y of the change of color will in a measure indicate the degree

""^ TpoT"request, most of the state experiment stations will test repre-
' sentative samples of soil and advise concerning their lime requirements.
Thetboratory method determines approximately the amount of Imie
required to neutralize the soil to the usual depth of plowing.

Crops Require Lime.-Some crops are more tolerant of soil acidity
than others. Of our staple farm crops, common red clover is^about the
}^lst tolerant of such a condition. The staple crops that draw most
het!ilyr the soil for a supply of lime are those first affected by sod
additv They are also the least tolerant of soil acidity, and are usually
"^ esponsive to applications of lime. The clovers contmn much more
lime and magnesia than the cereals and grasses. The following table
gives the TeSge lime and magnesia content as carbonates m a ton of

the more general farm crops. Notice the large amounts in clover and
alfalfa. Common red clover contains more than alsike clover. It is less
tolerant of soil acidity than the latter.

Average Lime and Magnesia (Equivalent to CaCOs and MgCOs) in 2000 lbs.

OF the Following Crops.
(Calculated from von Wolff's Tables on the Basis of 15 per cent Moisture.)

Produce.

Pounds of Carbonates as

Calcuim
CaCOa.

Magnesium
MgCOs.

Timothy hay

Wheat (grain and straw)

Corn (grain, cobs and stover)

Oats (grain and straw)

Clover hay (alsike)

Clover hay (red)

Alfalfa hay

6.00
6.50
8.68
10.40
49.00
73.00
91.00

2.77

6.23

8.66

9.00

21.47

27.01

13.16

Total.

8 .77
12.73
17.34
19.40
70.47
100.01
104 . 16

Tolerance to Acidity.— Numerous tests at the Pennsylvania Experi-
ment Station show that when the lime requirement of the soil is 1500 to
1700 pounds of burnt or caustic lime per acre seven inches of soil, red

tutra» •
5200Lb»
CaCOj

I No Linif

The Growth of Red Clover on an Acid Soil as Affected by Lime.i
A sour soil is unfriendly to clover. Lime will overcome the difficulty.

clover fails. This is equivalent to from 2700 to 3000 pounds of carbonate
of lime or crushed limestone. A lime requirement of 500 to 1000 pounds
per acre does not seriously interfere with the growth of red clover. In
ordinary farm practice the acidity seldom becomes sufficiently marked to
affect noticeably the cereals and grasses, although these may be mdirectly

iCourti»y of The Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station.

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 117

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

116 ,

i:i.'S'S"i.t TSclS ir4f rSe. wit. wMo. ..ne . lost

'"■"i*^irL!r„*rSo™ the water .-* fin<^ !« -V i«^,-*f;
ground drainage channel and tew suri^e ^-- "^n" soi., Iccon.
IIJ^^Z '^Jpt^^ee oUnTundaneei^t hn.ns in the soil n,ay
Sn lime in the form of hnmates and re<l„ce , s^.o, .^ ^^.^

:~r rr ":'n" no-S:::: *: Se^: can. a^o„

rapid reduction in the Hme of the so^^ vegetation is a good

Lime Requirements of Soils.-The character j g ^^^^

index to the lime recjmrem^ trte^^^^S^-^ soil. The
alsike clover does better than reel ciovcr ,. , goji. In

presence of redtop, plantmn ^"<1 ^<^^7l^^^^^^ '^Z he Atlantic sea-

-fK-iiirofrs^^^^^^^^^^^^

soils need lime, if these signs leavt uuu

TheT'nsity ofthe^^^^^^^^^^ color will in a measure indicate the degree

, ^"^S^r-renues, -^ ^f J^ Xii^ t^T^^^^^

yrilorSfml^d d-™l;r r^^^^^^^ |he,.mount of lime

romiired to neutralize the soil to the usual dept h of plowmg.

^ Crops Require Lime.-Some crops are more tolerant of soil acid ty
than others Of our staple farm crops, common red clover is about the

S Snt of jc- -^^^^^^^

'"Ttv "hev ar also th^TeS tolerant of soil acidity, and are usually
'1 f UoiS^et thcations of lime. The clovers -t^J^-. S
lime and magnesia than the cereals and grasses. The JoUowmg taDie
g-l^es the average lime and magnesia content as carbonates in a ton of

the more general farm crops. Notice the large amounts in clover and
alfalfa. Common red clover contains more than alsike clover. It is less
tolerant of soil acidity than the latter.

Average Lime and Magnesia (Equivalent to CaCOs and MgCOs) in 2000 lbs.

OF the Following Crops.
(Calculated from von Wolff's Tables on the Basis of 15 per cent Moisture.)

Produce.

Pounds of Carbonates aa

Timothy hay

Wheat (grain and straw)

Corn (grain, cobs and stover)

Oats (grain and straw)

Clover hay (alsike)

Clover hay (red)

Alfalfa hay

Calcium

Magnesium

CaCOs.

MgCOs.

6.00

2.77

6.50

6.23

8.68

8.66

10.40

9.00

49.00

21.47

73.00

27.01

91.00

13.16

Total.

8 .77
12.73
17.34
19.40
70.47
100.01
104 . 16

111200

)#fLbs. •

520OLbs

2000 Lbi

The Growth of Red Clover on an Acid Soil as Affected by Lime.^
A sour soil is unfriendly to clover. Lime will overcome the difficulty.

clover fails. This is equivalent to from 2700 to 3000 pounds of carbonate
of lime or crushed limestone. A lime requirement of 500 to 1000 pounds
per acre does not scTiously intc^rfere with the growth of red clover. In
ordinary farm practice the acidity seldom becomes sufficiently marked to
affect noticeably th(^ cereals and grasses, although these may be mdirectly

iCuurtcbTof The Pcunaylvuni.i Agricultural Experiment Station.

TNTFNTTONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

It ^

III >l

l! '

118

Se crops is in the following order: oats, wheat, corn and red clover,

- sr^'ri^rrcteiiSion, whee,. haa^^f ,:*-™

iS'first, those benefited by lime; second, the- ^u^^^^^^^ benefited
by lime; third, plants usually or frequently mjured by lime.

Lime as Affecting Growth of Plants

Alfalfa
Asparagus
Balsam
Barley

Beets (all kinds)
Beans
Bush

Golden Wax
Horticultural Pole
Red Valentine
Cabbage
Cantaloupe
Cauliflower
Celery
Cherry
Clover
Red
. White
Alsike
Crimson
Cucumber
Currant
Dandelion

Plants Benefited hy Liming.

Eggplant
Elm, American
Emmer
Gooseberry

Hemp

Kentucky Bluegrass

Kohl-rabi

Lentil

Lettuce (all kinds)

Linden, American

Martynia

Mignonette *

Nasturtium

Oats

Okra (Gumbo)

Onion

Orange

Pea

Canada

Common

Sweet
Pansy
Parsnip

Peanut
Pepper
Plum (Burbank-Japan)

Pumpkin

Quince

Raspberry (Cuthbert)

Rhubarb
Salsify
Salt-bush
Sorghum
Spinach
Squash
Summer
Hubbard
Sweet Alyssum
Timothy
Tobacco
Turnip
Flat
Swedish
Upland Cress
Wheat

Bent, Rhode Island

Carrot

Chicory

Plants hut Little Benefited hy Liming,

Corn, Indian ^Y^

Redtop Spurry

Plants Usually or Frequently Injured hy Liming.

Apple*
Azalea t
Bean

Velvet

Castor
Birch, American White
Blackberry
Chestnut f
Cotton

Cowpea*

Cranberry

Flax

Grape, Concord*

Lupine

Phlox (Drummondi)*

Peach*

Pear*

Radish

Raspberry

(Black-cap)
Rhododendron t

Sorrel

Common

Sheep
Spruce, Norway
Tomato*
Zinnia*

♦ These under certain conditions are benefited by Hming.
t These have not been tested at the Rhode Island btation.

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 119

Crops benefited by lime were not only increased in size, but were
ready for market earlier than where lime was omitted. Tobacco was
improved in the character of its ash by the use of lime.

Lime is most beneficial in promoting the growth of legumes. This
results in building up the nitrogen supply and general fertility of the soil.

Sources of Lime. — The principal source of lime is in the limestone
rocks and deposits that occur in great abundance in many sections of the
country. There are probably no states in which limestone formations
do not occur, although there are sometimes considerable sections including
a number of counties in which limestone deposits are not accessible.

Deposits of marl occur in certain localities. They vary greatly in
composition and lime
content. Marl is gen-
erally in good physical
condition for applica-
tion to the soil, and
some of it contains
phosphorus and pot-
ash.

Oyster shells that
accumulate in large
quantities in sea-coast
localities where oyster
farming is carried on
forms another valua-
ble source of lime.
Wood-ashes are about
one-third actual lime.
Three tons of wood-
ashes are, therefore, equal to one ton of pure burnt lime. Unleached ashes '
contain 5 to 7 per cent of potash, and 1 to 2 per cent of phosphoric acid,
which materially increases their value for use on land. When ashes are
leached, most of the potash is lost, but the lime content is somewhat

increased.

There are a number of forms of spent lime, which is a by-product of
different manufacturing establishments that use lime. Among these
may be mentioned dye-house lime, gas-house lime, lime from tanneries,
waste lime from soda-ash works, and waste lime from beet-sugar factories.
The value of these varies widely, and it is impossible to make a definite
statement concerning their value. They can frequently be secured at no
cost other than^ the hauling. Whether or not they are worth hauling
depends upon circumstances. Frequently, they contain much water,
are in poor physical condition and will be more expensive in the long run
than to purchase first-class lime in good mechanical condition. Their

1 Courtesy of International Agricultural Association, Caledonia, N. Y.

Beets Grown With and Without Lime.^

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

118

sulphate has been used, the .-«><^,ty has become^ so marked ^^^^^^^ ^^

crops in the rotation are directly ^^^f ^^-^ ^\''^^ 'J^^'^d red clover; the
these crops is in the following order : oats, wheat, corn and rea cio ,

last being the least tolerant of soil acidity. extensive

by lime; third, plants usually or frequently injured by lime.

Lime as Affectincj Growth of Plants

Alfalfa
Asparagus
Balsam
Barley

Beets (all kinds)
Beans
Bush

Golden Wax
Horticultural Pole
Red Valentine
Cabbage
Cantaloupe
Cauliflower
Celery
Cherry
Clover
Red
White
Alsike
Crimson
Cucumber
Currant
DandeUon

Bent, Rhode Island

Carrot

Chicory

Plants Benefited by Liming.

Eggplant
Elm, American
Emmer
Gooseberry

Hemp

Kentucky Bluegrass

Kohl-rabi

Lentil

Lettuce (all kinds)

Linden, American

Martynia

Mignonette

Nasturtium

Oats

Okra (Gumbo)

Onion

Orange

Pea

Canada

Common

Sweet
Pansy
Parsnip

Peanut
Pepper
Plum (Burbank-Japan)

Pumpkin

Quince

Raspberry (Cuthbert)

Rhubarb

Salsify

Salt-bush

Sorghum

Spinach

Squash

Summer

Hubbard
Sweet Alyssum
Timothy
Tobacco
Turnip

Flat

Swedish
Upland Cress
Wheat

Plants hut Little Benefited hy Liming,

Corn, Indian ^y^

Redtop Spurry

Apple*
Azalea t
Bean

Velvet

Castor
Birch, American White
Blackberry
Chestnut t
Cotton

Plants Usually or Frequently Injured hy Liming.

Cowpea*

Cranberry

Flax

Grape, Concord*

Lupine

Phlox (Drummondi)*

Peach*

Pear*

Radish

Raspberry
(Black-cap)

Rhododendron t

Sorrel
Common
Sheep

Spruce, Norway

Tomato*

Zinnia*

♦ These under certain conditions are benefited by Ji^jj^f/ ^
t These have not been tested at the Rhode Island Station.

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 119

Crops benefited by lime were not only increased in size, but were
ready for market earlier than where lime was omitted. Tobacco was
improved in the character of its ash by the use of lime.

Lime is most beneficial in promoting the growth of legumes. This
results in building up the nitrogen supply and general fertility of the soil.

Oyster shells that
accumulate in large
quantities in sea-coast
localities where oyster
farming is carried on
forms another valua-
ble source of lime.
Wood-ashes are about
one-third actual lime.
Three tons of wood-
ashes are, therefore, equal to one ton of pure burnt lime. Unleached ashes
contain 5 to 7 per cent of potash, and 1 to 2 per cent of phosphoric acid,
which materially increases their value for use on land. When ashes are
leached, most of the potash is lost, but the lime content is somewhat

increased.

There are a number of forms of spent lime, which is a by-product of
different manufacturing establishments that use lime. Among these
may be mentioned dye-house lime, gas-house lime, lime from tanneries,
waste lime from soda-ash works, and waste lime from beet-sugar factories.
The value of these varies widely, and it is impossible to make a definite
statement concerning their value. They can frequently be secured at no
cost other than^ the hauling. W^hether or not they are worth hauling
depends upon circumstances. Frequently, they contain much water,
are in poor physical condition and will be more expensive in the long run
than to i)urchase first-class lime in good mechanical condition. Their

^Courtesy of International Agricultural Association, Caledonia, N. Y.

Bkets Grown With and Without Lime.^

TTVTT'CXT'T'TrMVT A T

QTHrriMn FVPn<5TTi?p

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 121

. I

I i

\ i

120 ^ . ,

-j-— ^j;^^;— ^j;;^^ chemist or by actual

field test. . , i j ^^ lond, and while it will

Gypsum or land plaster is 'l^^^^^'^^ZS in correcting soil
supply calcium as a plant food, it has iitiie

acidity. , , ^ j TKnmn^! slae used as sources of phosphorus,

^- '?^:^^^-^:^z SsToo tuXf pieiire--

pared by heating limestone (CaCO, ^J^J^^^^^"^ P^^ ^ioi (CO.),
stone thus heated loses 44 pounds <:! g^^^^^^^^.^^ „,ay be slaked
and results in 56 pounds o li'"^- , ^^'^ ^V. wnter to make 74 pounds of

ri rrUmf SS Tl20 pou^ndS pTre li^e T.^uals ulo pounds
hydrated hme Theretore u p ^^^^ carbonate of Imie or

of pure hydrated hme, y>^y/i'^^.j J hydrated lime are exposed
pure pulverized limestone. When lime ana ny ^^^.^

winl mT; be used because of the considerable amounts of finely d.vded

while othercontain much magnesia and are known as dolomite. The
;' sLfe oTJagn^^^^^ slightly increases the neutralizing power of a given
weight of lime.

FUNCTIONS OF LIME

Lime as Plant Food.-The absence of lime prevents a ^^^l ^^^^^P;
ment of plants. Lime is, therefore, essential as a plant food Most
S contafn sufficient lime to meet the food requirements of p Ian s.
£>me soils, however, may contain so little, or it may be so unavailable,
that plants that are hungry for lime may suffer from a lack of it.

Chemical Action of Lime.-The chemical effect of lime on most

•1 • TSor imoortance It varies somewhat xvnth the form m which

nt rpp1ic"rtrso[KT;eshV bumt or caustic lime is the most active

form. It may combine with certain soil elements liberating other elements
such as potash, and making them available for plants. Lime in the pres-
ence of soluble phosphates will, readily combine with them, forming
tricalcium phosphate. This will prevent the phosphates from uniting
with iron and aluminum, which gives rise to compounds less available to
plants than the lime phosphates.

Physical Effect of Lime.— Clay soils are frequently improved in
physical condition by the liberal application of lime. Freshly burnt lime
is the most active form for this purpose. Lime causes a flocculation of
the clay particles and increases the porosity of the soil. Lime, therefore,
facilitates drainage, makes cultivation easier, causes an aeration of the
soil and makes possible a deeper penetration by plant roots. On sandy
soils burnt lime may tend to bind the particles together. This may or
may not be desirable. When applied for its physical effect it is usually
best to apply air-slaked lime or finely pulverized limestone to sandy soils,
and to use freshly burnt lime on heavy, refractory soils well supplied with

organic matter. . .

Lime Affects Soil Bacteria.— Certain species of bacteria are instru-
mental in the change of ammonia and inorganic forms of nitrogen to
nitrates. This process is known as nitrification, and is promoted by the
presence of lime in the soil. The process not only makes the nitrogen
available, but gives rise to the development of carbon dioxide, which in turn
acts upon inert plant food and makes it more readily available to plants.
Lime is also beneficial to the several forms of micro-organisms that
reside in the tubercles on the roots of all legumes. This may explain why
legumes are generally more benefited by lime than non-legumes.

Lime Corrects SoU Acidity.— In the vast majority of instances the
chief function of lime is to correct soil acidity. Lime corrects acidity by
combining with the acids formed and giving rise to neutral salts It will
seldom pay to apply lime to the soil for purposes other than this, ihe
amount of lime to apply is, therefore, determined chiefly by the degree
of acidity of the soil. ■ In practice it is found advisable to apply more than
actual lime requirements indicated by chemical methods 1 his is advis-
able because in practice it is impossible to distribute lime thoroughly
and uniformly and secure its thorough mixture with the soil Because
of this lack of uniformity in distribution some of the lime applied will be
ineffective and portions of the soil will not be brought in contact with
lime. It is not always necessary to make the soil neutral since most
crops, even the most sensitive crops, will grow fairly well in the presence

of small amounts of acids. _„++^, ;„

Sanitary Effect of Lime.-The decomposition of organic matter in
the soil often gives rise to products that are injurious to plant growth.
While these generally disappear in time, the presence of hme often corrects
the difficulty at once. It is also believed that plant roots excrete mjurious
substances. Lime neutralizes these objectionable substances.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

122

Lime also affects plant diseases It ^^^^J^^:^ ^::^^

which is often senous m '^i;'^'^;^'^Zi^^^ rot of sweet potatoes
plants. It is found to be effective in reducing _o

and checking the root diseases of f^^f ^^; , ^'^;j^ridfn7thT germ of this
to favor the development of P°* J*^ ^^Vf ™f ge^^ -

disea.se is already m f e soU. In thj ca^^^^^^ enc g^ ^.^^ .^ ^^^^^

becomes ^^^'l^'^J^f^Z'^^^^ ^m in a crop rotation which contains
potr:tt irstr::- appl^^ttst after t/e potato crop rather than

^^nniudicious use of Lirne The ^^^f^^^^ ^;::;S ^ ^^
detriment^ Limeys not a ert hz^^^ J^«;^;Pf^p,,, .^s the truth of the
olfs:;ing ^'LSnetnd^L witU^ manure makes both farm and farmer

^"""'"Thl excessive use of burnt lime may bring about the availability of
1 rS thnn can be utilized by crops, and cause a rapid loss of
rSn Sh cl S Sletln is hastened. It is, therefore, good farm
nVctice to use r^edium to small quantities at intervals of five or six years
Sle to bTgaTned by applying more than is sufficient to meet the present
nmis of the soil from the standpoint of neutralizing its acidity.

Ra e of AppUcation.-The amount of lime to apply varies with the
kind of Le the requirements of the soil and the frequency of its apphca-
tim I a oil is a tenacious clay and physical improvement is desired
an annl cation of two or three tons of burnt lime per acre may be Profitable
OrdTna iH^^ is applied to correct acidity and make the soil friendly
to Iver Ind other p ants. The equivalent of one to one and one-half
t^s of biS lime per acre applied once in each crop rotation is usual y
« maxi. u m amount. In some instances 1000 pounds per acre wil
Lcrrrthe desired result. The equivalent of 1000 pounds of burnt
SeTs between 1300 and 1350 pounds of slaked Ihne or a little less than
oTeton o finely pulverized raw limestone. Unusually large apphcations
have emphasized the wastefulness of such applications so far as the needs
of the SOU and crops are concerned, through periods of five to six years
?!arge apphcations may last much longer, but they are more wasteful of
lime and result in capital being invested without returns.

Small appHcatiois are advised for sandy soils. On such soils the
carbonate form is to be preferred. Wood-ashes, because of the form of
lime and the content of potash, is advised for sandy soils.

Time of Applying.— Lime in any form may be applied at any time ot
the vear. In general farm practice it is advisable to apply lime when men
and teams are available for its hauling and distribution with the mmimum
interference with other farm work. There are some minor precautions,
however, in this connection. It is never advisable to apply caustic lime
in large Amounts just prior to the planting of the crop. At least ten days

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 123

or two weeks should intervene between time of application and planting
of the seed. The caustic effect may injure the young plants. In the soil
lime is converted to the carbonate form and the caustic properties soon

disappear. . , x^ • n i. i ,

Lime should usually pave the way for clover. It is well to apply
lime a year or more before the seeding of clover. If this has not been done,
it may be put on the land when the seed-bed is being made for the wheat,
oats or other crop with which clover is to be seeded. The advantages of
applying a year or two in advance of clover lie in the very thorough
mixture of lime and soil resulting from the plowing and tilling of the soil.
Frequency of Application.— The frequency with which lime should be
applied depends upon the character of the soil, the rate of application,
the length of the crop rotation and the character of the crops grown
It may also be affected by climatic conditions and soil drainage. With
good drainage and heavy rainfall the losses of lime will be large, while
under reverse conditions they will be comparatively small. In crop
rotations five years or more in length, one application at an appropriate
place in each rotation should be sufficient. For shorter rotations one
application for each two rotations may meet the needs. On soils that are
extremely acid and where lime is scarce and high-priced, it may be desir-
able to make small applications at frequent intervals unt 1 the lime require-
ment of the soil is fully met. Sandy soils call for light applications at
rather short intervals. On clay soils larger amounts can be used and the

"^^Mtth^f o;i;plying.-Lime should be applied after the ground is
plowed and thoroughly mixed with the soil by harrowing or disking
Thrmore thoroughly it is mixed with the soil the better and quicker the
results will be. It should never be plowed under, Ij^^^^^J^^ ^^^^^^^^^
is to work downward rather than upward in the soil. Apply hme ^^ th
a spreLer after the ground has been plowed. Do not ^"11 1"- m w^^^^^
seeds nor mix it with commercial fertilizer, nor use it m place of fertilizer.
App ;"to meet the lime requirements of a soil, and when this has been
I'^e use manure and commercial fertilizers in the ways that have been
found profitable for the crops which are to be grown, regardless of the

fact that lime has been applied. t-Ko np„trn1i7inff effect

Relative Values of Different Forms of Lime.— The neutralizing eneci
of the dffferent forms of Hme is given under the carriers of lime on a pre-
cLiT/nai The question of relative money values, however is a matter
of arfthmetic and involves not only the first cost of unit we.gh s of the
S fferent f™ ^ lime, but includes freight rates, cost of hau ing and

will depend largely on the presence or absence of limestone or MJme

£%

it ,

\l\h

SOCCESsrntFARMING_

method for any region. ^ ^

1 ton burnt lime at railroad station. ... ... • . • • • • ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; i 00

Hauling. . . • • •. _J

Cost of applying ^ ^^ ^

Total cost per acre

The high cost of -ft^f^rw^^^^^ Sptytg tin Xat

lime before it is apphed, together v^nn

'""■ 2640 pounds hydrated lime (equivalent to 1 ton burnt Ume),

at $7.00 per ton. ' " ' 1-^^

Hauling, at $1.00 per ton^ .99

Applying, at 75 cents per ton . . . iHTs

Total cost per acre

• ^ih\< form is due to the relatively

high hrst cost oi ny^ hvdrated lime.

^ Cct^r^J-nnrr'^e-ifate the .oU„™.: .

3570 P.U..I. 8"»"J «"«"°™ "O"""*"* "' '°°. . ^ »' "

at $4.00 per ton. 1 78

Hauling, at $1.00 per ton. 1.33

Splyink,-t 75 cents per ton ^-__

Total cost per acre

The above costs are P-^ably consid^^ abo^^^^^

most localities where lime - - *««^^^^^^^^^^^ also rather high,

ground limestone as compared ^i**^ thej^'^™^ .^ ^^^^ the greatest
^ It is good business to purchase t^f. ^°™ ^^''^^olved, providing the
amount of active lime for the amount °^ ^j^^f ^^'^^^^^^^^^^ should be
mechanical condition is satisfactory _ J^ ^^is^^^^ ^.^ to the soil, it

o! nitrogenous "'temls cau* a te ot n Wn ^ .^^^^

}:r Ts-bU: S^l^rrSS £ S advance o. ap*in, te*

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS

125

izers and mix it with the soil by disking or harrowing. In case of manure
which is plowed under, the application of lime may follow that of manure,
being applied preferably after plowing.

The pulverized raw limestone may be applied with manure, or at
the time of applying fertiUzers, without injurious results.

Experimental Results.— Experiments with lime at many experiment
stations and on ^11 kinds of soils show that it makes little difference what
form is used, so long as it is applied in sufficient quantities to meet the
lime requirements of the soil, and is thoroughly and uniformly mixed with
the soil. At the Penn-
sylvania Experiment
Station finely crushed
Umestone in each of
three field tests ex-
tending over a num-
ber of years has
proven slightly better
than equivalent
amounts of burnt
lime. Extensive pet
experiments at the
same experiment sta-
tion have shown that
finely pulverized lime-
stone is equally as
prompt and effective
in correcting soil . , ^ ^ f

acidity and promoting the growth of clover as equivalent amounts of
caustic lime. While these tests are favorable to pulverized limestone,
thev are not all sufficiently decisive to justify its use at a dispropor-
tionate price. If two tons of ground limestone cost much more than
one ton of burnt lime, one would ordinarily not be justified m usmg the

^""'"^Where lime must be shipped some distance, the more concentrated

forms are usually the cheaper. . xu t? + ^ q+o+oo

Soreadine Lime.— The practice most common in the Eastern btates
is to place small piles of burnt lump lime at uniform intervals over he
field, L amount in each pile and the distance between piles determ^^^^^^^
the rate of application. If the lime is to be spread promptly, about one-
talf pill of wTter should be applied to, each pile, and f^^^.^^^^^
with earth. This facilitates slaking, and the lime wil be ready for d^-
Sution in a comparatively short time. In other instances the piles
a^e allowed to remain without either wettmg or covering w^^^^^^^
until weather conditions bring about complete slaking. Long periods ot

J Courtesy of W. N. Lowry, Student.

The Old Way of Spreading Lime.^

After slaking, the piles are uniformly spread over

the surface.

'» ii.,"-

S0CCESSFDL2^KMIHG_

method for any region. ^^ ^^

1 ton burnt lime at railroad station . .... • • • • • • • ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; :.•.■.. 1 • 00

Hauling. ••■••.••• ; _:_

Cost of applying ^^

Total cost per acre

The high COS. ot »p*i;f j,°:;rtr«o£'^^^ a^;?,t;'u„ r..

lime before it is applied, together ^^nn

'""■ 2640 pounds hydrated lime (equivalent to 1 ton burnt lime).

HauitfaWCrton.:::::::::-.::-.-.-;;^ ^-.^^

Applyink,at 75 cents per ton ___-

Total cost per acre

• „ +k;= form is due to the relatively

h- h?4'rrofh:;:iS E -r^^^on. »pen. o, h-„.

high nrst cost oi n.y^i ^ v,vrlrqted hme.

^^ Ci:l;rJSS:ne't';Clhe .onowing: .

3570 p.»... e-o-i «"»'«"« <«'""""' " ' '"" '"•"' " »' ■ »

at $4.00 per ton. 1 .78

Hauling, at Sl.OO per ton. .^ 1.33

Applying, at 75 cents per ton ____

Total cost per acre

The above costs are probably ^^l^^^ZJ^^^'^
most localities where l^^ J/^^ ,,*^^^^^^^^^^^ ^ ^

ground limestone as compared ^ith the ^"J ^j j^ jjeg the greatest

^ It is good business to P;;'-^hase thatjo™ w hi^^^ P^^ ^^^.^.^^ ^^^

amount of active lime for the amount «^ ^^^^"^^^.tio; it should be
mechanical condition is satisfactory 1" ^^is^ c« jj^j ^o the soil, it
borne in mind that no ma ter m ^.^f J^™ jf^^ '^ J^ The advantages
soon reverts to its o"ginal form of arb°"jte oM ^^ subdivision

in using slaked burnt hme I- chi Ay - t e xtr^.^^ .^ ^^^ ^^.,
and the possibilities of m«'^7i^°3_„s _Caustic forms of lime should
Mixing with Manure and f '^'"y';^^^'^%ueh for^

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 125

izers, and mix it with the soil by disking or harrowing. In case of manure
which is plowed under, the application of lime may follow that of manure,
being applied preferably after plowing.

The pulverized raw limestone may be applied with manure, or at
the time of applying fertilizers, without injurious results.

Experimental Results.— Experiments with lime at many experiment
stations and on ^11 kinds of soils show that it makes little difference what
form is used, so long as it is applied in sufficient quantities to meet the
lime requirements of the soil, and is thoroughly and uniformly mixed with
the soil. At the Penn-
sylvania Experiment
Station finely crushed
limestone in each of
three field tests ex-
tending over a num-
ber of years has
proven slightly better
than equivalent
amounts of burnt
lime. Extensive pot
experiments at the
same experiment sta-
tion have shown that
finely pulverized lime-
stone is equally as
prompt and effective

in correcting soil . i ^ . ^f

°' Where lime must be shipped some distance, the more concentrated

forms are usually the cheaper. • xi, t- + «+„+»=

Soreading Lime— The practice most common in the Eastern btates
is to place small piles of burnt lump lime at uniform intervals over the
field, the amount in each pile and the distance between piles determmmg
the rate of application. If the lime is to be spread promptly, about one-
half paU of Ser should be applied to.each pile, and then coveTed hghtly
S earth. This facilitates slaking, and the lime w, 1 be ready for dis-
tribution in a comparatively short time. In other instances he p.ks
are aUowed to remain without either wetting or covering with earth
uSilwelther conditions bring about complete .laking. Long periods of

^Courtesy of W. N. Lowry, Student.

The Old Way of Spreading Lime.^

After slaking, the piles are uniformly spread over

the surface.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

/r^

SUCCESSFUL FAR^N^

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 127

126 ^ riTiw^rtlielime and causing

-— ;^^^;;;^^ by puddhng

it to get into bad physical ^^^^'^;^^- ^ ^^^^ lime in large stacks at the
Another method is to place the burnt mm^ ^^^^^^ ^ntil air

end of the field, and allow ^--^Vrhauled either by wagon manure
slaked. From these ^^^^^s^the toejha ^^^^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^
spreader or hme spreader, ^nd appl ert t .^ distribution. By

tains lumps the manure ^P^^^^^f./'/J' ader with large capacity may be
screening,alime spreader oyertihzer^pr^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^l^ ,d be

used with good results. W^^, ^^t the rate at the minimum

'^^j^z 1-^r wr ^iiSui^^

A MoDEBN Lime Spreadek in Operation.'

,. eanvas may be attached t the^P^eader^.^^ will reach to the .oun^,
and by tacking a f ^P/V^.^TuS is Targely overcome. Goggles for the
tf^r:Z'^^:XtX^l2. 2yU... some of the disagree-

used, both manure ^P^^^^^^^^^^^j,, ^'m^rfinds that the work is most

in its distribution. One «"«^^^^«^" Jf "^f' ^^^^^ distributor hitched

cheaply and effectively done by - "^^^^^^^^^^ Thfhmestone is shoveled

close behind a wagon loaded with hmestone ^^^^^

nto the distributor as the load - drawn jc-^^^^^^^ fn this way there is no

earth four horses are '•^^^^^'-f J^ «^^^^^^^ i« ««"^P'«*^^ ^ ^^°" ""

extra handling « ^^f j^^^^Votbe^^^^^^^ good results with the

L'Lre^reXnttal meTh^ods have been practiced with this machine.

-7^^;;;;^. r.. WC. Pu.UsM„. Ccp^v. S. Pa.. M... F.o™ -r.. Mana..e. ana C«P
Rotations." by Parker.

Some apply the lime and manure together. When the limestone is to be
applied at the rate of three tons per acre, 600 pounds on each load of
manure in case of ten loads of manure to the acre, gives the desired amount.
Another method is to put a layer of straw in the bottom of the manure
spreader, set the spreader for its minimum rate of distribution, and load
in the amount of Ume that will give the desired rate of application. For
distribution at the rate of three tons per acre, this will generally require

not more than one ton.

Slaking Lime. — Lime in large quantities may be satisfactorily slaked
by applying about two and one-half pails of water to each barrel of lime

A Limb CRUsraNG Outfit Suitable for the Farmer.^

as it is unloaded in the field. Eventually the whole stack should be
covered with soil. In a few days all of the lime will be thoroughly slaked,
and in a fine, dry condition suitable for spreading.

Crushing vs. Burning Lime.-The use of finely pulverized raw lime-
stone has created a demand for machinery for crushing lime rock. There
are now on the market quite a number of portable machines suitable
for farm use. In some localities where limestone is easily accessible it
can be quarried and finely pulverized with these machines at a cost of
$1 to $L50 per ton. This puts it within the reach of farmers at a mod-

Lime is burnt in several ways. The simplest way on the farm is
to make a stack of lime rock with alternating l^y^^-^ ^f.^?"*;,^^*^;^^.
This is built in a conical form with an intake for air at the bottom and
an opening at the top for ventilation. The stack is covered with earth
and the fire lighted.

. Courtesy of New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N, Y. BuUetin 400.

I »

m^mi

SUCCESSFUL FARMnrG

— --^^^^^^^ by puddhng

it to get into bad physical condition .^ ,^^g^ .t^eks at the

Another method is to place th^/'^™^^";^^ several months until air
end of the field, and allow «;"- ^^^^^led either by wagon manure
.laked. From these « -•^'^^l^^J'^i'^d to the field. When the hme con-
spreader or lime spreader, '-^n^^ .^f' "' \p,t results in distribution. By
tains lumps the manure ^P'-f ^^^5. f7;',,,.'aer with large capacity may be

A MODEUN Ln.E Sl-UEADF.R IN OrKUATION.^

a canvas may be attached to ^^^^^^l^^^ irl^^J on te 1='',
and by tacking a strip at^the ^oj^r -^^^ll^^'^l^^^^,^ ^Goggles for the

:^;ti:t^;re tt -u^^^^^^^ -- of tl. dlsagree.

used, both n.mure «P-f -^i^^^X^?^^^ that the work is. most
in its distribution. One ^"c"'*^*''" ^^ ^hort-tongue distributor hitched
cheaply and effectively done ^Y -mg^ shoit tongu;^^^^^^^^ ,^ ,,,,,„a

close behind a wagon "^^^^l^V^^J^^'™^^ the field. On loose, plowed
into the distributor as the loa •^^^^^.'^ J^^^^] j^ this way there is no
earth four horses are required ^^ ff ^J^Jj^^^f^^ -^ completed as soon as
extra handling o ^'- l^^^,^^"^ .^J^^^^^^^^^ good'results with the

. ^ o. P,i,l Minn From "Field ManaRcmcnt and Crop

r^^iZ^^-f Tho Wobl. PuWishinK Company. St. Paul. Mmn.

Rotations," by Parlicr.

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 127

Some apply the lime and manure together. When the limestone is to be
applied at the rate of three tons per acre, 600 pounds on each load of
manure in case of ten loads of manure to the acre, gives the desired amount.
Another method is to put a layer of straw in the bottom of the manure
spreader, set the spreader for its minimum rate of distribution, and load
in the amount of lime that will give the desired rate of application. For
distribution at the rate of three tons per acre, this will generally require

not more than one ton.

Slaking Lime.— Lime in large quantities may be satisfactorily slaked
by applying about two and one-half pails of water to each barrel of lime

A Limb Crushing Outfit Si itable for the Farmer.^

as it is unloaded in the fic^d. Eventually the whole stack should be
covered with soil. In a few days all of the lime will be thoroughly slaked,
and in a fine, dry condition suitable for spreading. ^

Crushing vs. Burning Lime.-The use of finely pulverized raw lime-
stone has created a demand for machinery for crushing lime rock. 1 here
are now on the market quite a number of portable machines suitable
for farm use. In some localities where limestone is easily accessible it
can be quarried and finely pulverized with these machines at a cost ot
$1 to $1.50 per ton. This puts it within the reach of farmers at a mod-

Lime is burnt in several ways. The simplest way on the farm is
to make a stack of lime rock with alternating laye>-^°V^^«*;,«;;^";;^^
This is built in a conical form with an intake for air at the bottom and
an opening at the top for ventilation. The stack is covered with earth
and the fire lighted.

. Courtesy of New York .Agricultural Experiment Station. Geneva, N. Y. BuUetin 100.

mmm^

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSTIRF

4««?

ti-i

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

. : IZThvburninK limestone in a kiln

More effective burning is secured bj bur g ^^^ ^^

constructed of stone o-^/^f "^.^e pS ' of 1^^^^^ ^^^ *^^ accessibility of
ing varies with the cost of fuel, the price o

"iWi^f^^^SiW^

.^P»W^5

LIME AND OTHER SOIL AMENDMENTS 129

Iowa Expt. Station Bulletin 2. "Bacteriological Effects of Lime."

New Jersey Expt. Station Bulletin 210. *'Lime as a Fertilizer for Clover and Oats."

Ohio Expt. Station BuDetin 279. "Lime as a Fertilizer."

Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 131. "Use of Lime on Land."

Rhode Island Expt. Station Bulletin 49. "Methods of Applying Lime."

Rhode Island Expt. Station Bulletin 58. "Lime with Phosphates on Grass."

Rhode Island Expt. Station Bulletin 160. "Lime with Nitrogenous FertiUzers on Acid

Soils."
Tennessee Expt. Station Bulletin 96. "Effect of Lime on Crop Production."
Tennessee Expt. Station Bulletin 109. "Lime as a FertiUzer on Tennessee Soils."
Virginia Expt. Station Bulletin 187. "Lime as a Fertihzer on Virginia Soils."
Wisconsin Expt. Station Bulletin 230. "Lime as a Fertilizer on Wisconsin Soils."
Pennsylvania State Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 261. "Sour Soils and Liming."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Bulletin 101. "Lime Sulphur Wash."
Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 435. "Burning Lime on the Farm."

'M.

will cost much more.

REFERENCES

—;^T.rm.rs- BuUeUn 435, O. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Id*. .*-7 •

SOIL WATER

131

)

CHAPTER 7

SOIL WATER. ITS FUNCTIONS AND CONTROL

Water is the most -^f^rl'ttTof mSuTe in" s'ouTaTl
to all forms of life An ^"/^f^^^J^^^^^^^^^^^ bountiful harvest Sixty

seasons of the plant s f^^^^'^'X consist of water. About forty per
to ninety per cent o all g^eei^ plants con ^^.^^^ ^^^ ^ ^^ ^

cent of the dry matter is '"'^de f--^^ J^^J j^ the necessary vehicle which
form the structure of the plant. Water

' Z ^*T T Parts of the UNITED STATES.*

Map Showing Mean Annual Rainfall for all Parts of the

carries plant food to ^^^J^^^^^^^^ -^ :iS^ S^^^^

S llln? irr nSed^'n rd^lency becLes sufficiently

melting snows. An acre inch <^[^"£^ ^'\X,:' ZZs at 10
supply the equivalent of one >°^\f . ~ ^,^e Ten inches of rain-
cents per ton of water would cost $11.30 per acre.

-:^Z;^oi Doubledav. Pa«e * Co.. Garden Cit. N. V. I^m "Soil.," by Fletche.

(130)

fall at the same rate would cost $113 per acre. From this it can be readily
understood that artificial means of supplying plants with water must be
done at a very low cost, otherwise it will not prove profitable.

The amount of rain in any region is important in connection with
crop production. In all regions. where the annual rainfall averages less
than twenty inches, failures from insufficient moisture in the soil are
frequent. The distribution of the rain is quite as important as the total
annual rainfall. That which falls during the crop-growing season is more
important than that which comes in the non-growing season. Conse-
quently, there are regions of comparatively low rainfall where the dis-
tribution is so favorable that crop failures are infrequent. In other
localities a large part of a good annual rainfall may come in the non-
crop-growing season, and as a result, crops frequently suffer from drought.
In moving from one region to another it is well to study the average rain-
fall and its distribution.

Amount of Water Necessary to Produce Crops. — In the processes of
plant growth the amount of water transpired or given off by plants is
many times greater than that used in the plant tissues. Investigations
in different parts of the world and at several of the American experiment
stations show that in plant growth the amount of water required to pro-
duce a pound of dry matter ranges from 200 to 700 pounds. This amount
must actually pass through plants. Each ton of dry matter in alfalfa
takes 700 tons of water. Each ton of dry matter in wheat required about
400 tons of water; in oats, about 500 tons; and in corn, about 300 tons.
To produce three tons of alfalfa in one season requires from 16 to 17
inches of rainfall, all of which must pass through the plants. A 20-bushel
crop of wheat would require about 6 inches, and 40 bushels of oats 6^;
while 50 bushels of corn would require about 8^ inches of rainfall. For
crops of the yields mentioned there should be more rainfall during the
growing season than above indicated, because of the loss of water by direct
evaporation from the soil, plus additional amounts that may flow from
the surface if the rain falls rapidly, together with some that may pass
through the soil into the underdrainage.

Transpiration by Plants.— Transpiration, or the amount of water
that passes through the plant and is evaporated from the surface of the
leaves, varies greatly in different localities, and is influenced by a num-
ber of factors. Transpiration takes place most rapidly during the day-
time and in the presence of plenty of sunshine and warmth. During the
night-time it is reduced to a very small amount. Transpiration is increased
with a reduction of the humidity of the air, with rise in temperature and
with intensity of sunshine. It is also increased with an increase in the
movement of the air. An increase in plant food tends to decrease it, as
does also a rapid growth of the plant. Transpiration is more rapid in the
presence of an abundance of soil moisture than it is when the soil is dry.

Experiments at the University of Illinois by Dr. Hunt showed an

fi* i'

.^..4^

--JWWWB^»^!8'<WW

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SOIL WATER

133

132 ^

one week in July. On the basis oi req & ^ growing com

each pound of dry -^ter the conj^^^^^^^^ o^ water by^^^ g ^^^ ^g

in one week would equal 1.72 inches oi raiu. , amount of

in rainfall. water -Water exists in the soil in three forms: (1)

face tension; (3) hyg^scop.c 7>«'^"'J°\~h~,hT«,U becomes

ifpartfes by which . '^^^^-f^'lh""; taXee in Sit
^w^rThe ,'S™"an!o:„rof'rthr» fon„» o, water in the soil

'■'""Tt'arunT rfi^JC" in »ils range, tron, 36 to 60 per cent of
.1 I ^rTthe soil When there is no undcrdrainagc and a miper-
IL'dtS 0° rl tUs spj^cmay become fully ocenpied wjth water to
?W exchSon of air. The soil is then said to be saturat«l. I rains ee,^
Itl Sde drabage is establi.h«l, the pavitational water wUl escape by
and ™<>ff™"»J „|,.„„els. The amount which will escape m this

Trde^r'mJjrcSerby the texture o, the soil and the Per-.^^

nf nore space in it. The larger the pore space, the greater the amount ot
Iter that win escape in this way; the finer the texture of the soil the
Targer the amount held by capillarity and the less the amount that will

""Cmai^'water.-This is the important portion of the soil water
supply It is the form on which plants wholly depend for their water
suppy Plants cannot exhaust from the soil a 1 of the cap"*^ water^
because a portion of it will be too tenaciously held by the soil particles to
be removerby the plant root hairs. The optimum or most favorable
Srcentare of water in the soil for plants, differs for different crops Such
croDs as com and potatoes do best with a moderate percentage of water
SThe soil™ hich gives opportunity for plenty of air. Such plants a«
Lothy redlop and other grasses do best when the percentage of water
in the soil is somewhat higher. Field experiments have shown that when

the water content of the soil is increased 25 per cent above the optimum
percentage, plants begin to suffer as a result of too much moisture, and
when the moisture falls 25 per cent below the optimum, they suffer from
drought.

The amount of capillary water in the soil is determined chiefly by
its texture. The following table shows the percentage of water held by
soils ranging in texture from coarse sand to clay, when subjected to a

Effect op Little, Medium, and Much Water on Wheat.*

centrifugal force 2940 times that of gravity. A coarse sand held only
4.6 per cent of moisture, while clay held 46.5 per cent or ten times as
much. The water held under natural conditions by the several classes
of soil given in the table would be much larger, but the relative amounts
would be the same.

Capillary Moisture in Soil.

Class.

Coarse sand

Medium sandy loam
Fine sandy loam ...

Silt

Silt loam

Clay loam

Clay

Percentage of
Clay in Soil.

4.8
7.3
12.6
10.6
17.7
26.6
59.8

Percentage of Moisture

Retained against Force

2940 Times that of

Gravity.

4.6
7.0
11.8
12.9
26.9
32.4
46.5

Capillary water is also influenced to some extent by the structure of
the soil, and to somewhat greater extent by its content of humus or

* Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N, Y. From "Principles of Irrigation Practice," by Widtsoe.

I i ii< ;

^% "■■■■■■■• ^^'^ '

■■-0--i.t:..T,'."- T.

f.^;,' ,'i>-i' it^ ".K-

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SOIL WATER

133

;132

-^ iTT^p rirv matte7i7^^i^ir^>m^nting to 1300 pounds in

increase per acre m theory matter m ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^

one week in July. On the basis oi ^^^"^'^ J" . K .u growing corn
each pound of dry matter the consumption of water by the gro g

in one week would equal 1.72 >"«hes o fmn- Th ^.^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^, ^f

in rainfall. water -Water exists in the soil in three forms: (1)

face tension; (3) hygroscopic ^f^^r, or that .^hich adhere ^
rf trrX' wr ; ^ ^^^^^^^^-^ very few of
JS-ecornS Its re any of the ^^^^^^f::J,^ S^:^
as it may rise \^f^^%:^^\:fj^i tnTbS/efit from the
,t replenishes. It f J^^^ J'^^J^^^^^^^ they arc unable to get it from the
hygroscopic water of the «f ' b*^;;;^^^^^^^ -^ ^^is form. The capil-

soil particles by which It IS so tenaciously ;,„ tance in plant

lary water is, therefore, the ojie form tnat i ^^^ ^^^

growth. The relative amounts of the tnree lorms

"rrdeterninhlSy Tthe texture of the soil and the percentage
TLretpace in^^^^ The larger the pore space, the greater t^ie amount of
l?rtl at wiU e cape in this way; the finer the tex;ture of the soil the
Ilrger the amount hdd by capillarity and the less the amount that will

'"'Cmai"water.-This is the important portion of the soil water
suppfy It isThe form on which plants wholly depend for heir water
sunny Plants cannot exhaust from the soil all of the capillaiy water^
becaus; a portion of it vnW be too tenaciously held by the soil particles to
brreS,ved bTthe plant root hairs. The optimum or most favorable
nerceXe of water in the soil for plants, differs for different crops Such
croTs Is corn and potatoes do best with a moderate percentage of water
rfhe sou which gives opportunity for plenty of air. Such plants as
Lothv redlop and other grasses do best when the percentage of water
n the soiHs somewhat higher. Field experiments have shown that when

the water content of the soil is increased 25 per cent above the optimum
percentage, plants begin to suffer as a result of too much moisture, and
when the moisture fails 25 per cent below the optimum, they suffer from
drought.

Effect op Little, Medium, and Much Water on Wheat. ^

Capillary Moisture in Soil.

Class.

Coarse sand

Medium sandy loam
Fine sandy loam . . . ,

Silt

Silt loam

Clay loam

Clay

Percentage of
Clay in Soil.

Percentage of Moisture

Petained again.st Force

2940 Times that of

Gravity.

4.S 1

4.6

7.3

7.0

12.6

11.8

10. G

12.9

17.7

26.9

26.6

32.4

59.8

46.5

Capillary water is also influenced to some extent by the structure of
the soil, and to somewhat greater extent by its content of humus or

1 Courtesy of The Macinillan Company, N. Y. From "Principles of Irrigation Practice," by Widtsoe.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

W^i

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SOIL WATER

135

il'i

134

: .. <.-, „f fine texture and those having plenty of organic

^ijr rtS rr .he »»,. panicle. w..«-- ^, '^jirmov^

capillary action to replace t*^* „m„vei The^ »'« ot^^P J, „„,

s 't j-^Lfj^^^arr =:if i^sasr- " --^

p,a„S, it becomes a ^enace ;„.*»■- o te. than a be^f^^^ <^^^^^
areas of "">P«'a'™'j '7'' "j"^^'; graviJ ional water by n,e.r,s ot

be ™^^^ determined chiefly by the character of crops to be

to™leldom is it advisable to place underdrains for this purpose at
a dlSh of less than three feet. For deep-rooted crops, such as alfalfa
Ld orchard fruits, four feet and sometimes more l^^^^^^^^^^ ^j^^^
While this form of water may be mjurious to upland plants, wnen
it exSsat a depth of from four to six feet below the surface it docs no
haranfserw^^^^ a reservoir from which water may be drawn by cap-
marTtv to Telt the losses above by evaporation and plant removal.

Xg^oT^^^^^^^^ Water.-The water which is held by the sod when a
thinTayTis spread out and allowed to become air dry is called hygro-
sponic moisture When this soil is placed in an oven and heated to the
teZerrure S'boL water for several hours, it loses its hygroscopic
waT anrbecomes water free. The amount of this form of water he d
bHoils varies directly with the texture of the soil and may amount to
as much as 16.5 per cent in case of clay, while m a muck soil i may be
as high as 50 per cent. The percentage of hygroscopic water will also be
influenced by the temperature and humidity of the air with which it comes

m contact^ ^^^^^ temperature of the Soil.— A requisite degree of warmth
in the soil is essential to physical, chemical and biological processes that
make for soil fertility. Warmth is essential to the germmation of seeds
and growth of plants. The chief source of warmth in the soil is from the
sun The rapidity with which a soil warms under the influence of the sun
depends more largely on its water content than on any other factor.
One pound of water requires four times as much heat to mcrease its tem-

perature one degree as would be required by an equal weight of soil. An
excess of water in the soil, therefore, greatly lessens its rate of warming.
In wet soils much evaporation of water takes place at the surface. It
requires more than five times as much heat to transform one pound of
water from liquid to vapor as it does to raise the temperature of an equal
weight of water from the freezing to the boiling point. In other words,
the heat consumed in the process of evaporation is sufficient to cause a
change of 900 degrees in temperature in an equal volume of water. This
fact emphasizes the importance of removing surplus water by means of
drainage, instead of allowing it to evaporate from the surface of the soil.
An amount of evaporation suflicient to maintain a proper soil tempera-
ture in prolonged heat periods may be desirable, but excessive evaporation
is undesirable in temperate latitudes, especially during the early grow-
ing season. Reduced temperature as the result of such evaporation often
causes disaster during the seeding or planting season and retards the
early growth of crops.

Water Storage Capacity of Soils. — Since the rains of summer are
rarely fully adequate to meet the needs of growing plants, it is essential
to increase the storage capacity of the soil as far as possible. For this
purpose, the chief agencies are plowing, methods of tillage and the use
of organic manures. Deep plowing and the incorporation of organic
matter to the full depth of plowing will increase very materially the
capacity of the soil for water. In conjunction with this, the soil should
be so cultivated that it will receive the rainfall and thus have an oppor-
tunity for holding it. This means the maintenance of a porous surface
so that rainfall will not escape over the surface until the soil has become
filled with water.

Those crops endowed with the power of deep-root penetration, such
as alfalfa, can draw their moisture from greater depths in the soil than
shallow-rooted crops. In regions of low rainfall this amounts to the
same thing as increasing the storage capacity of the surface portion of

the soil.

Moisture Conservation. — The practical conservation of soil moisture
is effected chiefly by preventing direct evaporation from the surface of
the soil, and also by exterminating all foreign plants in the nature of
weeds that tend to rob the crops of their moisture supply. Evaporation
is most economically reduced to the minimum by surface tillage and the
establishment of an earth mulch. The earth mulch to the depth of two
or three inches is formed by periodic cultivation or a stirring of the surface
of the soil so as to break the capillary action with the soil immediately
beneath. The efficiency of such mulches depends largely on the perfec-
tion with which they are made. A surface mulch to be effective should
consist of rather finely pulverized loose soil. This becomes dry to such
an extent that the soil moisture film is discontinuous and water ceases to
rise to the immediate surface. In this condition, any loss that takes place

h-.

SOIL WATER

137

hi.

SUCCESSFUL FAMJ^

„.ust result from the escape «^ ^f J^Xhei'mttt rSed t^

will take place in this way. Juch mulches ^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^ ^^^

: ™;siSir uStrirs5 *e i* -^ -*»« cap,,,..

OBCH.no Wei.. Cotxivmo xo P».™»T Evak..»t.on.'

„,«, ,„o„ey crops ""-J;; J^^* C^^^e' ^.^^^^ -P* "> '^«
LTc^ntr/ir-h': ^ISt-C ™p,o4d poHio„ C the »U.

— .„ ^ „,„^ N Y From " Principles of Irrigation Practice." by Widtsoe.

1 Courtesy of The MacmiUan Company. N. Y .

Removing Excess of Water. — Excess of soil water pertains only to
that above described as gravitational water. This may be removed by
deep, open drains and by underdrains. Methods of drainage will be dis-
cussed in another topic.

On comparatively levei lands where surface water often accumulates,
its escape may be encouraged by so plowing the land that it will lie in slight
ridges and continuous depressions. If the depressions have a continuous
fall, all of the surface water will slowly escape from the land into natural
drainage channels and without causing erosion.

Excess of water is sometimes removed by the use of crops, although
this does not pertain to gravitational water. In most localities it is desir-
able to have the growth of orchard trees cease as the season draws to a
close, in order that the wood may harden and withstand winter freezing.
.For this purpose orchards are frequently planted with crops that draw
heavily on the soil moisture for the purpose of so exhausting it that the
growth of the trees will be checked. This serves not only a good purpose
with reference to the condition of the orchard, but produces organic
matter that may be plowed under for the benefit of the soil and the trees.

LAND DRAINAGE

A wet soil is cold and late. It can seldom be plowed and tilled at
the proper time. Most farm crops do not make satisfactory growth in a
wet soil, and, therefore, it seldom pays to farm such land.

Wet lands, when drained, are generally above the average in fertility.
Money invested in drainage seldom fails to bring good returns. In many
cases the increase in crops, following drainage, has paid for its cost in
one year.

Drainage Increases Warmth and Fertility of Soil. — When an excess
of soil water is removed through underground drains it permits the soil
to warm up rapidly under the influence of the sun; lengthens the growing
season; increases the number of days during which the soil is in good
condition to plow; increases aeration of the soil; encourages the deep
penetration of the roots of plants, and as a result makes the plants
resistant to drought. Drainage is, therefore, the first essential to soil

fertility.

Improves Health Conditions. — Drainage also improves health con-
ditions. The drainage of large areas of swampy land in the vicinity of
populous districts has often been undertaken for this purpose alone and
without any regard to the increased agricultural value of the land. Large
portions of the prairie region when first settled were sufficiently wet to
furnish abundant breeding places for mosquitoes. The great numbers of
mosquitoes were not only a great annoyance, but were responsible for
thousands of cases of malaria, which greatly reduced the health and
efficiency of people living in that region. Tile drainage that has been so
extensively established in most of that region has practically abolished

■^T^,-^ '-^^--iM

^3(. sUCCESSFUL_£ARMiil^

..ust result from the escape °^ -f^^lJ^S^rn^'^t rSed tt'^^^^^
will take place in this way. Such >^u ^^^ ™ jj ^^^ the rapidity with
more or less frequent, dependmg ^^ ^^e r^^^^ the absence of rains,
which the surface --\-}^y ^'^'i^Z'^Cginne. On the other hand,

'^^^^S^hef oV't^at — and otheror^an^^

OucHAUi. Welu Cultivatkd to Prevent Evaporation.'

^ These are very effective, but are often expensive. Such
rSieTat Jorcrmrnl. orchards in case of small fruits, straw-
rrries. and sometimes for potatoes and tomatoes.

Where green --^^^j^^Tellti^^^^ to plow these

with money ^^-I^^ ^^^.^^ ^;^^^^^^^^ the moisture supply of the

^^S^^:^^ ;=tnTunp Jed portion of the soil.

,, ^ n.nv N Y From "Principles of Irrigation Practice/* by Widteoe.

1 Courtesy of The MaemiUan Company. N. Y.

SOIL WATER

137

Removing Excess of Water. — Excess of soil water pertains only to
that above described as gravitational water. This may })e removed })y
deep, open drains and by underdrains. Methods of drainage will be dis-
cussed in another topic.

Excess of water is sometimes removed !)y the use of crops, although
this does not pertain to gravitational water. In most localities it is desir-
able to have the growth of orchard trees cease as the season draws to a
close, in order that the wood may harden and withstand winter freezing.
For this purpose orchards are frequently planted witli crops that draw
heavily on the soil moisture for the purjiose of so exhausting it that the
growth of the trees will be checked. This serves not only a good purpose
with reference to the condition of the orchard, but produces organic
matter that may be plowed under for the benefit of the soil and the trees.

LAND DRAINAGE

A wet soil is cold and late. It can seldom be plowed and tilled at
the proper time. Most farm crops do not make satisfactory growth in a
wet soil, and, therefore, it seldom pays to farm such land.

Drainage Increases Warmth and Fertility of Soil. — When an excess
of soil water is removed through undergi'ound drains it permits the soil
to warm up rapidly under the influence of the sun; lengthens the growing
season; increases the num])er of days during which the soil is in good
condition to plow; increases aeration of the soil; encourages the deep
l)enetration of the roots of plants, and as a result makes the plants
resistant to drought. Drainage is, therefore, the first essential to soil
fertility.

Improves Health Conditions. — Drainage also improves health con-
ditions. The drainage of large areas of swampy land in the vicinity of
populous districts has often been undertaken for this purpose alone and
without any regard to the increased agricultural value of the land. Large
portions of the prairie region when first settled were suflficiently wet to
furnish abundant l^reeding places for mosquitoes. The great numbers of
mosquitoes were not only a great annoyance, but were responsible for
thousands of cases of malaria, which greatly reduced the health and
efficiency of people living in that region. Tile drainage that has been so
extensively established in most of that region has practically abolished

TMTFMTTOKrAT f^FrOMD PYPOfJTTRP

SUCCESSFUL FARmNG^

SOIL WATER

139

> '

I iiv

Igg ^ - .

^^^^——-^^^^^^^^^^^ to »* .

degree that m.l.m » °°»/"S-T™e Flvitational water in the »,1
Open »s. Underground Drams. 1 "« «" |^, j^e surface by

„ay be lowered to the depth <>' '™ °'„';^^yX,ffected by the inrtalla-
open drains, but the same can be more ecouonuc^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^

/on ot underground *»™°f"i°'ee interferes with eultural opera-
SnS^'C^rrr eT,:lnr rmaintain, because of the necess,ty of

-tr^rnro-J'S. drains a. .ore e^^^^^^^^^

rSrwircuU^i^^Srln e^i^gtt
:r^X[:;^Srrr=er :5>w trenches are excavated

which are filled as soon as the t|^e J« l" P'^^^- ^ universally used for

Quality of TUe.-Burned daj Wes ar^ ^im ^^^.^^

soil drains. They are made m sections from 1^ to installation

. an internal diameter '•--^^"f ^'.T ' lleX care should be exercised in
of underground dramage is to ^^ permanent ^ell-burned

the selection and purchase f J^e tile W ^ ^j^^j, in color, and

tile should be used. A ^f '^^^f ^^j^^ ^ light metal. Formerly it wa.
gives a decided ""g when s^uck ^^^^^ ^ ' ^j^^^ ,„ ^.,ter, but it is now

riS" he^^^^^^^^^^^^ are ample to admit the water

Tomte soil as fast as it can reach ^^^^^^^ f^,,,,,,,^ underground
Cost of TUe and Excavating -The J^* ^Jj J„\ J i^^d, the fre-
drainage depends on the cost of the tile laia ao ^^^ ^^,

quency of the underground Ij^^^^J ;^2rt' ^'ogfof digging the trenches
Lability of the soil to water, togeth^rj^^^^ ^^e^v^ting the' soil. The cost
as determined by t^^fff, «^. ^mf thrfreTghlchafges and the distance
tr." t^Sr^^^^^ P- of L tile per 1000 feet F. O. B.
cars, at the factories, will be as follows:

Size.

3 inch
4
5
6
7
8
10
12

Price.
$10.00-$12.00
15.00- 20.00
20.00- 27.00
27.00- 35.00
36.00- 50.00
45.00- 60.00
GO. 00-110. 00
90.00-150.00

The cost of digging the trenches will vary greatly wf ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
and condition of the soil to be ex-vated, thejkiU ^^^^^^^^^^^ Jg ^^^^^.^^^^

at the top to accommodate the workman, and the earth in the bottom of
the trenches is more difficult to remove. Where the soil is free from
stones and hardpan, trenches are frequently excavated to the depth of
three feet, and the tiles placed ready for filling the trenches, at a cost of
thirty cents per linear rod. Below the depth of three feet and up to five
feet, excavating under similar conditions will cost about one cent per
inch per rod.

'Depth and Frequency of Drains. — The depth at which to place the
tile drains will be determined by the class of crops to be grown and the
character of the subsoil. Three feet in depth is considered ample for
most farm crops, but for orchards, alfalfa and especially deep-rooted
crops, a depth of four feet is preferred. There are many localities, how-
ever, where the impervious character of the subsoil is such that tiles can
be placed only twenty-four or thirty inches deep, and permit the water
to enter. Even under these conditions, tile drainage is generally advisable.

The distance between lines of drain will depend chiefly on the char-
acter of the soil, with special reference to its permeability to water. A
soil and subsoil that is sandy or loamy in character will frequently be
satisfactorily drained with lines of tile 200 to 300 feet apart. On the
other hand, a dense clay will sometimes necessita-te the lines of drains
being placed at intervals of not more than 30 to 40 feet. This, of course,
makes underdrainage much more expensive than 'in the former case.
The deeper the tile is placed the farther the lines may be apart.

Where land to be drained is uniformly wet, the gridiron or regular
system is to be preferred. The irregular system will answer the purpose
for the drainage of wet spots or sloughs. The main lines should follow
approximately the natural depressions or water courses, while the laterals
may run up and down the slopes. Rather long parallel fines are more
economical than short ones with numerous branches.

Grades, Silt Basins and Junctions. — All lines of underdrainage should
be laid with uniform grades. If the topography of the land necessitates
a change in the grade, in which the grade in the lower portion of the line
is less than in the upper portion, a silt basin should be placed at the point
where the change of grade takes place. When the reverse is true, a silt
basin is not necessary. Where laterals enter a main or sub-main which
has a lesser fall than the laterals, silt basins should also be installed.
Laterals should enter the main above the center of the pipe, rather than
below it. All junctions should be made at an angle of about forty-five
degrees up-stream. A fall of one foot in one hundred feet is considered
a heavy grade. A fall of one inch in one hundred feet will give good
results, although more fall than this is better. In the level prairie sections
of the country hundreds of miles of tile are laid with a grade of only one-
half inch in one hundred feet, and where great care is exercised in laying
the tile, difficulty has seldom been encountered.

On level land a fair grade may be obtained by gradually lessening

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

li^ I

♦*

140 '

the depth of the tile from the lower to the upper end of any branch^ In
a iSna^^^^^^^ 1200 feet in length a fall of one inch in each hundred fee
may be obtained by having the lower end of the line 3* feet below the
surface of the ground, and the upper end 2\ feet below the surface, even
though the land along this line is absolutely level.

The Outlet.-The first essential for a satisfactory system of under-
ground drainage Ib a good outlet. The outlet must be the lowest Fpmt
in the whole drainage system, and water should seldom, if ever, stand

above the opening of the tile. .

The outlet of the main should be protected by a screen m such a way

that rabbits and other animals cannot enter. At the outlet the tiles are

subject to freezing more than elsewhere m the
system, as a result of which they may be
broken. It is well to provide for this by
using a wooden box, or an iron pipe as a
substitute for the earthen tile. This should
extend back from the opening six or eight
feet to a position where it will not beccme

frozen.

Size of TUe.— The size of the main
outlet or line is determined by the area to
be drained, together with the water-shed
contributary to it. Not only must we
figure on removing all of the rainfall that
descends directly on the land to be drained,
but we must also calculate on the amount
of water that reaches such land from adjacent higher land, whether
as surface wash or underground seepage. The maximum amount of
water necessary to remove from the land in order to effect satisfactory
drainage will depend chiefly on the rainfall likely to occur m short periods
of time during the growing season. It will seldom be necessary to provide
for the removal of more than one-half inch of water in twenty-four hours.
On this basis a system of tiles flowing at full capacity will remove ram-
fall at the rate of fifteen inches per month. This is much in excess of the
usual rainfall in any part of the country. The removal of one-quarter
inch of rainfall in twenty-four hours will generally provide adequate dram-
age The size of tile required to accomplish removal of water at the
above mentioned rate will be determined largely by the grades that it is
possible to secure. The size of tile required is given in the chapter on
'^ Drainage and Irrigation.''

1 Courtesy of Orange Judd Company. From - Soils and Crops." by Hunt and Burkett.

SOIL WATER

141

Water Issuing from an
Underground Drain. ^

REFERENCES
**Dry Farming." MacDonald.
''Dry Farming." Widtsoe.
"Dry Farming." Shaw.
Kansas Expt. Station Bulletin 206. "Relation of Moisture to Yield of Wheat in

Kansas."
Nebraska Expt. Station Bulletin 114. "Storing Moisture in the Soil."
Utah Expt. Station Bulletin 104. "Storage of Winter Precipitation in Soils."

I iiiMJuilii iiiirr

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT

143

l« I

CHAPTER 8

General Methods of Soil Management

The art of soil management consists in so manipulating the two
million pounds of soil constituting the average plowed portion of each
acre, that it will give the largest returns without impairing the soil. ^ The
best chance of attaining success in the art of soil management is in the
hands of the man who best understands the principles underlying it.
The art of soil management is the result of more than 4000 years of accumu-
lated experience, while the science is very much a matter of yesterday.
It is not to be expected that science will revolutionize the art, but it will
explain why many operations are performed and will also suggest improve-
ments in the manner of performing them. There are no definite rules
relative to methods of soil tillage. The best way of performing a certain
operation of soil tillage at any particular time and place is generally a
matter of judgment on the part of the farmer. Accuracy in judgment
on his part is greatly strengthened through knowledge of the underlying

principles.

Objects of Tillage. — The chief objects of tillage are: (1) to improve
the physical condition of the soil; (2) to turn under plant residues that
have accumulated at the surface and incorporate them with the soil; (3)
to destroy weeds; and (4) to provide a suitable seed-bed.

In recent years great changes have taken place in the methods of
tillage, due chiefly to the invention and use of labor-saving implements.
In this connection it is well to know the approximate duty of the cultural
implements that are available. In a general way the duty of a cultural
implement is obtained by multiplying the width in feet which it covers in
passing over the field by 1.4. For example, a 12-inch plow will plow, on
an average 1.4 acres of land per day. A harrow 6 feet in width would
harrow 8.4 acres. The duty will vary somewhat with conditions, such
as speed in process of operation, the length of day and percentage of
time when not in actual operation. With good fast-walking teams and
implements of light draft, the acreage covered per day may be somewhat
increased. On the other hand, if much time is lost, if the teams are slow
or if implements are of heavy draft, the acreage will be reduced. These
facts are important in connection with determining the extent of equip-
ment required to perform satisfactorily the operations on a farm of given

size.

Plowing. — Plowing is the most expensive tillage operation in con-
nection with crop production. For this reason it is important to know
when it is necessary to plow the land and how deep it should be plowed,

(142)

since both depth and frequency of plowing bear directly on the cost of
the operation. Mold-board and disk plows are used for this purpose.
Either of these implements turn the soil, pulverize it and cover rubbish.
The implement to be preferred is determined largely by the character of
the soil and its condition. Disk plows work best in rather dry soil. Mold-
board plows are much more extensively used and will work under a wider
range of soil conditions. The form of the mold-board plow varies con-
siderably, and different forms are applicable to different purposes and
different soils. The sod plow has the minimum curvature and inverts

A Deep Tilling Double-Disk Plow.^

the furrow slice with the least pulverization of the soil. The stubble or
breaking plow has much more curvature of the mold board, and gives
more thorough pulverization of the soil. The greater the curvature of
the mold board and the more thorough the pulverization of the soil as a
result of it, the heavier will be the draft. Sharpness of- the share and
smoothness of the plow surface tend toward lightness of draft. The
presence of roots and stones may somewhat increase the draft of plows.
The texture, structure and physical condition of the soil, especially with
reference to its water content, greatly influence draft. The soil plows

» Courtesy of The Spalding Tilling Machine Company, Cleveland, Ohio.

j,« '!','!•;';'■:;<•'••

r':V-

;-:--.'iM'V,'L

;'i/:('>''i.Vri,

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT

143

CHAPTER 8

General Methods of Soil Management

The art of soil management consists in so manipulating the twc
million pounds of soil constituting the average plowed portion of each
acre, that it will give the largest returns without impairing the soil.^ The
best chance of attaining success in the art of soil management is in the
hands of the man who best understands the principles underlying it.
The art of soil management is the result of more than 4000 years of accumu-
lated experience, while the science is very much a matter of yesterday.
It is not to be expected that science will revolutionize the art, but it will
explain why many operations are performed and will also suggest improve-
ments in the manner of performing them. There are no definite rules
relative to methods of soil tillage. The best w\ay of performing a certain
operation of soil tillage at any particular time and place is generally a
matter of judgment on the part of the farmer. Accuracy in judgment
on his part is greatly strengthened through knowledge of the underlying
principles.

Objects of Tillage. — The chief objects of tillage are: (1) to improve
the physical condition of the soil; (2) to turn under plant residues that
have accunuilated at the surface and incorporate them with the soil; (3)
to destroy weeds; and (4) to provide a suitable seed-bed.

In recent years great changes have taken place in the methods of
tillage, due chiefly to the invention and use of labor-saving implements.
In this connection it is well to know the approximate duty of the cultural
implements that are available. In a general way the duty of a cultural
implement is obtained ])y multiplying the width in feet which it covers in
passing over the fi(4d })y 1.4. For example, a 12-inch plow will plow, on
an average 1.4 acres of land per day. A harrow G feet in width would
harrow 8.4 acn^s. The duty will vary somewhat with conditions, such
as speed in process of operation, the length of day and percentage of
time when not in actual operation. With good fast-walking teams and
implements of light draft, the acreage covered per day may be somewhat
increased. On the other hand, if nmch time is lost, if the teams are slow
or if implements are of heavy draft, the acreage will be reduced. These
facts are important in connection with determining the extent of equip-
ment required to perform satisfactorily the operations on a farm of given

size.

(142)

A Deep Tilling Double-Disk Plow.^

» Courtesy of The Spalding Tilling Machine Company, Cleveland, Ohio.

INTENTIONAL SECOND FYPOSITTpp

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

i \

■m

144

most easily when it is in a fairly moist condition and most easily pulver-
ized. The draft of the plow will be increased both when the soil is too

wet and when it is too dry. ^ . n a u

Coulters and jointers are both attached to plows to influence draft
and improve the character of plowing. Coulters are for two purposes :
(1) those which cut the roots separating the furrow slice from the unplowed
land and (2) those which cut vines and rubbish, preventmg their draggmg
across the plow standard and clogging the plow. Rolling coulters are
best for the latter purpose, while standard cutters may. be equally as
good for cutting the roots in the soil. The chief object of the jointer is
to push the surface rubbish into the furrow so that it will be more com-
pletely covered. Sulky plows are often used instead of wa king plows.
The chief advantage in the sulky plow is in reducing the labor of the
plowman and in more effective plowing. It is claimed that sulky plows
reduce the draft of the plow by relieving the friction on the bottom and
land side of the furrow. Under most favorable conditions there may be
a slight reduction in draft, but under average conditions the weight ot
the sulky and the plowman more than offset the reduced friction.

Plowing at the same depth many years in succession often gives
rise to a compacted layer just below the depth of plowing, known as plow
sole or hardpan. This is a fault which may be avoided by changing
slightly the depth of plowing from year to year. The plowman often
looks with pride on what may be poor plowing. The furrow slice should
not be completely inverted like a plank turned the other side up, but one
furrow slice should lean against the previous one in such a way that the
rubbish will be distributed from a portion oiF the bottom of the furrow
nearly to the surface of the plowed ground. At the same time a portion
- of the furrow slice should be in direct contact with the soil below. This
permits good capillary connection for a portion of each furrow slice.
When there is an abundance of rubbish to be turned under, it is often
wise to disk the land before plowing. This loosens the surface of the soU
and causes some mixture of it with the rubbish. When plowed under
in this condition it does not form so continuous a layer to cut off capillary
water from below. Disking in advance of plowing in case of rather com-
pact soil also facilitates the pulverization of the furrow slice and results
in a better pulverized seed-bed.

Time of Plowing.— The best time to plow depends on many conditions.
There is no particular season that will be better than other seasons under
all conditions. The old maxim, ^^Plow when you can,'' is a good one to
follow. Plowing done in the fall or early winter lessens the rush of work
in the following spring, and under most conditions fall plowing gives
better results than spring plowing. Fall plowing in temperate latitudes
subjects the exposed soil to the elements and results in destruction of
insects and a thorough pulverization of the soil, due to freezing and thaw-
ing. Fall plowing should neither be harrowed nor disked, but left m a

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT

145

rough condition in order to collect the rains and snows during the winter.
This will result in storage of the winter rainfall and prevent erosion,
unless by chance the land is steep and rains are very heavy. Under the
latter conditions it may not be wise to practice fall plowing. In warmer
latitudes plowing may be done during the winter, and when land is plowed
in the autumn it should be seeded with a cover crop to prevent erosion.
In the Northern states and Canada fall plowing is generally recommended,
but in the South spring plowing is considered preferable. Spring plowing,
unless it be very early, should be harrowed soon afterward in order to

A Badly Eroded Field.^
Damage of this character reflects no credit on American agriculture.

conserve soil moistures. Generally it will be found good practice to
harrow towards the close of each day the land that has been plowed during
the day. If the soil is rather dry and weather conditions very dry, it may
be better to harrow it each half day. In case of sod and compact soil,
disking in advance of plowing is advised.

Depth of Plowing. — The depth of plowing is determined by the
character of the soil and the kind of crop to be grown. In general, fall
plowing should be deeper than spring plowing. Deep-rooted crops call

'Courtesy of United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils. From " Soil Survey of Fair-
field County i South Carolina."

-f

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

144

most easily when it is in a fairly moist condition and most easily pulver-
ized. The draft of the plow will be increased both when the soil is too

wet and when it is too dry. j. - n a^^u

Coulters and jointers are both attached to plows to influence draft
and improve the character of plowing. Coulters are for two purposes :
(1) those which cut the roots separating the furrow slice from the unplowed
land and (2) those which cut vines and rubbish, preventing their draggmg
across the plow standard and clogging the plow. Rolling coulters are
best for the latter purpose, while standard cutters may be equally as
good for cutting the roots in the soil. The chief object of the jointer is
to push the surface rubbish into the furrow so that it will be more com-
pletely covered. Sulky plows are often used instead of wa king plows.
The chief advantage in the sulky plow is in reducing the labor ot the
plowman and in more effective plowing. It is claimed that sulky plows
reduce the draft of the plow by relieving the friction on the bottom and
land side of the furrow. Under most favorable conditions there may be
a slight reduction in draft, but under average conditions the weight ot
the sulky and the plowman more than offset the reduced friction.

Plowing at the same depth many years in succession often gives
rise to a compacted layer just below the depth of plowing, kno^^^l as plow
sole or hardpan. This is a fault which may be avoided by changing
slightly the depth of plowing from year to year. The plowman often
looks with pride on what may be poor plowing. The furrow slice should
not be completely inverted like a plank turned the other side up, but one
furrow slice should lean against the previous one in such a way that the
rubbish will be distributed from a portion of the bottom of the furrow
nearly to the surface of the plowed ground. At the same time a portion
of the furrow slice should be in direct contact with the soil below. This
permits good capillary connection for a portion of each furrow slice.
When there is an abundance of rubbish to be turned under, it is often
wise to disk the land before plowing. This loosens the surface of the soil
and causes some mixture of it with the ru])bish. Wiien plowed under
in this condition it does not form so continuous a layer to cut off capillary
water from below. Disking in advance of plowing in case of rather com-
pact soil also facilitates the pulverization of the furrow slice and results
in a better pulverized seed-bed. ^

Time of Plowing.— The ])est time to plow depends on many conditions.
There is no particular season that will be ])etter than other seasons under
all conditions. The old maxim, ^^Plow when you can," is a good one t<)
follow. Plowing done in the fall or early winter lessens the rush of work
in the following spring, and under most conditions fall plowing gives
better results than spring plowing. Fall plowing in tcunperate latitudes
subjects the exposed soil to the elements and results in destruction of
insects and a thorough pulverization of the soil, due to freezing and thaw-
ing. Fall plowing should neither be harrowed nor disked, but left in a

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT

145

A Badly Eroded Field. ^
Damage of this character reflects no credit on American agriculture.

conserve soil moistures. Cenerally it will be found good practice to
harrow towards the close of each day the land that has been plowed during
the day. If the soil is rather dry and weather conditions very dry, it may
be better to harrow it each half day. In case of sod and compact soil,
disking in advance of plowing is advised.

Depth of Plowing. — The depth of plowing is determined by the
charactc^r of the soil and the kind of crop to be gro\vn. In general, fall
plowing should be deeper than spring plowing. Deep-rooted crops call

'CiMirtpsy ff I^nit'^d Statra Dcpartmrnt of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils. From " Soil Survey of Fair-
field Couiityl South Carolina."

TNTRNTIONAT. SECOND RXPOSTTRF

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT

147

146

for deeper plowing than shallow-rooted ones. For ^7' P«*f ^^^^^
heaw truck crops, deep plowing is generally advised. For oats, barley,
flSy^mUlefand 'other s'pring annuals shallow f 7^g^fXl'rr dee"
good results as deep plowing, and at a less cost. ^^ **^^ j^^A'^' Ises
plowing for most soils is to be recommended. Deep plowmg ^creases,
TeXth of soil from which the mass of plant -^^s <l-w mo.tu^^^^^^^
plant food; it increases the water-holdmg capacity of the soil, 1* in^or
porates the organic matter to a greater depth in the soil; it enables the
soil to receive and hold the rainfall, thus reducing erosion

Where shallow plowing has been the practice, the depth of plowing
should be increased gradually, one-half inch to one inch each year untJ
Se desired depth has been obtained. This gives better results than
ncreas'g to the full depth at once. On virgin land with deep soil shallow
p™g during the early years of cuhivaticn may give as good results
STep plowing. Much depends on the nature of the soil and wherever
L sou at the depth of six to ten inches is compact, deep plowing and the
incorporation of organic matter will improve it. , -i i, i +v,o

Subsoiling.-Subsoiling pertains to loosening the subsoil below the
usual depth of plowing. Subsoil plows are constructed to run t<) a depth
of sixteen to eighteen inches, with a view of loosenmg and slightly liftmg the
subsdllt is neither turned nor brought to the surface. Such a practice
is even more expensive than plowing and, consequently^ more than doubles
the cost of the preparation of the land for crops While it may prove
beneficial, many tests indicate thatjthe practice does not S^^^ally Pay
for the expense involved. • Doubtless much will depend upon the value
of the land, the character of subsoil and the nature of the crops to be
erown On valuable land having impervious subsoil, and for high-
priced' crops, it may frequently pay. How long the benefits from sub-
soiling will last is determined by the rapidity with which the soil returns
to its former compact condition. Heavy rains and thorough saturation
with water often soon overcomes the benefits of subsoihng. As a genera
practice, subsoiling is not to be recommended. It might prove beneficial
in semi-arid regions as a means of increasing the water storage capacity
of the soil to tide over long periods of drought. In such regions the bene-
ficial results are likely to be more lasting than where the rainfall is heavy.
Both in practice and theory deep plowing is preferable to subsoiling.

Disking.— There are two forms of disk harrows: (1) having a sohd
disk and (2) having a serrated disk and known as the cutaway disk.
The' latter is generally lighter than the former, is adapted to stony and
gravelly soil and for light work. The full disk is more generally used,
although in double disks both the full disk and the cutaway disk are
sometimes combined in the same implement. The disk harrow stirs
the soil to a greater depth than do most other forms of harrows. It is
especially useful on land that has been plowed for some time and has
become somewhat compacted. Fall plowing and early spring plowing,

when being prepared for medium to late planted crops, should generally
be gone over once or twice with the disk.

A large portion of the spring oats in the Central States are seeded
on land prepared by the use of the disk and harrow, and without plowing.
The disk is the most effective implement in the preparation of the seed-
bed for oats. ■ This method of preparing the land enables farmers to
accomplish early seeding on a large scale. Early seeding of oats is impor-
tant in connection with good yields.

Harrowing. — There are many forms of harrows varying in style of
teeth, number of teeth, weight and adjustment. The steel frame harrow
with levers to adjust the teeth, built in sections that are joined together,
is generally preferred. The size or width of the harrow is usually deter-
mined by the number of sections it has. It is an implement of light draft,
and to be effective should be used in the nick of time. Repeated harrow-
ing is often advised (1) for the purpose of maintaining a surface mulch
to conserve moisture, and (2) to destroy weeds just as they start growth.
The spring-toothed harrow is effective in stony and gravelly soil, and
tends to loosen the soil more than the spike-toothed harrow. The former
is best for destroying weeds and loosening the soil, while the latter is
preferable for soil pulverization and for covering small seeds that are
broadcasted, such as clovers, grass seeds and the millets. While the
harrow is generally used just prior to seeding and planting, it is found
to be a good practice to harrow such crops as corn and potatoes after
planting, and sometimes even after they are up. Such harrowing is often
fully as effective in destroying weeds and pulverizing the soil as a good
cultivation would be. It is much more rapidly and cheaply done than

cultivating. , . , .

Planking or Dragging.— The plank drag is a cheap implement con-
sisting of three or four two-inch planks fastened securely together with
the edges overlapping. These may be eight to twelve feet in length.
It is used for pulverizing clods and smoothing the surface of the ground.
It is an effective implement to use where fine pulverization of the surface
is desired, and works satisfactorily when the soil is rather dry.

Rolling. — The roller serves two chief purposes: (1) to compact the
soil, and (2) to pulverize clods. The weight and size of the roller ar6
important in this connection. Soil compacting calls for considerable
weight, while pulverization demands a roller of comparatively small
diameter. In recent years the corrugated roller with a discontinuous
surface has come into use and is thought to be superior to the old style.
It compacts the soil and yet leaves some loose soil at the surface, thus
lessening direct evaporation. The roller should be used only when the
soil is in dry condition and when it is desirable to encourage capillary
rise of water and establish conditions favorable for the germination of
seeds that lie near the surface of the soil. Rolling is most frequently
resorted to in preparing the seed-bed for winter wheat. This crop calls

mf^

ps- ■

■ . ' '

''vHI

'5^

.j,| :,.,,.;,..,

^^^^^^^^^^^Ivi'i^^

4. . jfl

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

148

for a compact and well-pulverized seed-bed. In the winter wheat regbns
he soils are frequently dry at the time winter wheat ^^0"}^ be^eded

A roller known as the subsurface packer has come mto use in the
semi-arid regions. This implement, consisting of a series « heavy disks
is so constructed as to compact the soil to a considerable ^epth leavmg
two or three inches of loose soil at the surface. It encourages capillary
rise of water without encouraging surface evaporation.

I Mi'

Details of a Good Seed Bed.^

Character of Seed-Bed.— The ideal seed-bed is determined by the
character of crop to be grown. Wheat, rye, alfalfa, the clovers and most
small seeds call for a finely pulverized, compact seed-bed. If these con-
ditions are combined with a good supply of moisture these crops will
make a prompt and satisfactory growth. Such crops as corn and potatoes
call for a deep, loose seed-bed, and do not demand the same degree of
pulverization of the soil as the crops above mentioned. Oats and barley
do best with a fairly loose and open seed-bed, but demand fairly good

1 Courtesy of The Carr pbcll Soil Culture Publishir? Co. From "Wheat," by Ten Eyck.

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT

149

pulverization of the soil. As a rule, all small seeds need a seed-bed that
has been thoroughly well prepared, while larger seeds, and especially
those of crops that are to be inter-tilled, may be planted with less thorough-
ness in seed-bed preparation. The after-tillage will often overcome a
lack of previous preparation.

An even distribution of seed, especially when it is sown broadcast,
is essential. This, together with uniformity in germination, makes for
perfection in stand of plants. The character of seed-bed is important in
this connection. A well-prepared seed-bed facilitates a good stand,
while a poorly prepared one often does just the reverse.

Cixltivation and Hoeing. — Cultivation and hoeing pertain wholly to
inter-tilled crops, such as corn, potatoes, beets, tomatoes, cabbage and a
great many other garden crops. As a rule, cultivation should be sufficiently
frequent during the early stages of growth to maintain a satisfactory
soil mulch and destroy all weeds. This is best accomplished by cultivating
or hoeing at just the right time. Weeds are easily destroyed when quite
small. One cultivation at the right time is more effective than two or
three cultivations when weeds have become large. As a rule, little is to
be gained by inter-tillage when there are no weeds and when there is a
satisfactory soil mulch. The frequency of cultivation is, therefore, largely
determined by these factors. Ordinarily, nothing is to be gained by
cultivating deeper than necessary to destroy weeds and maintain a good
soil mulch. Two to three inches in depth is generally sufficient. Deep
cultivation frequently destroys roots of the crop cultivated, much to its
detriment.

Throughout most of the corn belt shallow and level cultivation is
practiced. This seems to give better results than deeper cultivation or
the ridging of the soil by throwing the earth toward the corn plants.
Ridging the soil causes rain to flow quickly to the depressions midway
between the rows, and encourages soil erosion. Level cultivation with
numerous small furrows close together encourages more thorough pene-
tration of the rain. Level cultivation makes the seeding of oats easy, as
it generally follows the corn with no other preparation than the disking
of the land.

Control of Weeds. — The time of plowing and the frequency and
character of cultivation are related to the growth and eradication of
weeds. Weed-seeds turned under to the full depth of plow^ing frequently
lie dormant until the ground is again plowed and they are brought near
to the surface. On spring-plowed land it is generally advisable to allow
time for the weed-seeds to germinate, after which the small weeds may be
destroyed by harrowing. Then crops may be planted with comparative
safety so far as weed competition is concerned. In case of late plowing,
it is advisable to plant or seed very promptly after the land is plowed in
order that the crops may get ahead of the weeds.

Weeds are a great menace to crops, and especially to those that do

r;^.;:

: I

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT

149

148

the soils are frequently dry at the time winter '^''^^ '^'''^^^^^^

A roller known as the subsurface packer has come "^/^ ^^^^^^
semi-arid regions. This implement, consistmg of !^;™/j^^^^^^^^
is so constructed as to compact the soil to a considerable depth, leaving
Two or three inches of loose soil at the surface. It encourages capillary
rise of water without encouraging surface evaporation.

Details of a Good Seed Bed.^

Character of Seed-Bed.— The ideal seed-bed is determined by the
character of crop to be grown. Wheat, rye, alfalfa, the clovers and most
small seeds call for a finely pulverized, compact seed-bed. If these con-
ditions are combined with a good supply of moisture these crops will
make a prompt and satisfactory growth. Such crops as corn and potatoes
call for a deep, loose seed-bed, and do not demand the same degree ot
pulverization of the soil as the crops above mentioned. Oat^ and barley
do best with a fairly loose and open seed-bed, ])ut demand fairly good

1 Courtesy of The Carr pbell Soil Culture Publishincr Co. From "Wheat," by Ten Eyck.

An even distribution of seed, especially when it is sown broadcast,
is essential. This, together with uniformity in germination, makes for
perfection in stand of plants. The character of seed-Vjed is important in
this connection. A well-prepared seed-bed facilitates a good stand,
while a poorly prepared one often does just the reverse.

Cultivation and Hoeing. — Cultivation and hoeing pertain wholly to
inter-tilled crops, such as corn, potatoes, beets, tomatoes, cabbage and a
great many other garden crops. As a rule, cultivation should be sufficiently
frequent during the early stages of growth to maintain a satisfactory
soil mulch and destroy all weeds. This is best accomplished by cultivating
or hoeing at just the right time. Weeds are easily destroyed when quite
small. One cultivation at the right time is more effective than two or
three cultivations when weeds have become large. As a rule, little is to
be gained by inter-tillage when there are no weeds and when there is a
satisfactory soil mulch. The frequency of cultivation is, therefore, largely
determined by these factors. Ordinarily, nothing is to be gained by
cultivating deeper than necessary to destroy weeds and maintain a good
soil mulch. Two to three inches in depth is generally sufficient. Deep
cultivation frequently destroys roots of the crop cultivated, much to its
detriment.

Control of Weeds. — Tlu* time of plowing and the frequency and
character of cultivation are related to the growth and eradication of
weeds. Weed-seeds turned under to the full depth of plowing frequently
lie dormant until the ground is again plowed* and they are brought near
to the surface. On spring-plowed land it is generally advisable to allow
time for the weed-seeds to germinate, after which the small weeds may be
destroyed by harrowing. Then crops may be planted with comparative
safety so far as weed competition is concerned. In case of late plowing,
it is advisable to plant or seed very promptly after the land is plowed in
order that the crops may get ahead of the weeds.

Weeds are a great menace to crops, and especially to those that do

i'^^^'

INTENTIONAT. SF.rOMn PVPOcttpc

MSS^^* ■-^ iV.Vi'^r'*^ v>,fj{*;sV- vviJ^Virir'- ?

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT

151

14'

150

not fully occupy the ground in their early f ™<i« J^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^'^^,
compete with the farm crop plants for plant food and "moisture wnere
compete wn." i- r frpnuentlv extermmate the crop

thev have an equal start, they will irequeiiuj/ ca „„+• „ ,-„ ^n^t
imlL removed promptly by cultivation. Weed destruction is m^t

Terracing as a Means op Preventing Erosion.^

both to conserve soil moisture and to keep down weeds. They therefore
obviate the necessity for hoeing and cultivating. Such mulches encourage
capillary rise of soil moisture to the immediate surface of the ground.
Furthermore, upon the decay of the mulch, organic matter and plant
food are added to the soil. Such mulches are applicable only under mten-
sive systems of farming and where the materials may be secured without

too great cost. i r u xu • ^

Soil Erosion —Soils are eroded by the rapid movement of both wind

and water. Wind erosion occurs most extensively in the sandy regions

iFromYear-Book. U, S. Dept. of Agriculturp. 1913.

of the semi-arid belt, especially in western Kansas and Oklahoma. Such
soil destruction calls for surface protection, either by a continuous covering
of plants, or by such methods of cultivation as will prevent the movement
of the surface soil. In those regions it is recommended that the plow
furrows be at right angles to the prevailing direction of the wind, and
that the drill rdws of grain be likewise at right angles to the wind. Mulches
of straw, especially in the wheat regions where straw is abundant, are also
recommended. Such straw may be rolled with a subsurface packer to
prevent its blowing from the soil. Under such conditions the surface
soil should not be made too fine.

In the South and in southern Illinois, Iowa and Missouri, soils erode
badly as result of the movement of rain water. Such erosion often results

Another Way to Stop Erosion.^

in deep and destructive gullies. These cause a direct loss of soil, and are
barriers to continuous cultivation in the fields in which they occur. Such
erosion should be prevented by every possible means before it proceeds
far. Gullies may be stopped by the use of brush, weeds, straw and stone.
These materials shoukl be anchored in the gullies in such a way as to
encourage them to fill with soil again. Deep plowing and the use of
green manures, which encourage penetration of rains, help to overcome
this erosion. Terracing the soil may be resorted to as a last means of

preventing erosion.

Soil Injury.— Soils are frequently injured by plowing and cultivating
when they are too wet. Heavy soils are more susceptible to such injury
than those of a sandy nature. Such injury is often difficult to overcome.
It gives rise to a puddled condition of the soil. When plowed, it turns

» Courtesy of The Interaational Harvester Company.

^•i^^:«^',

^0^mm'^'^:

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT

151

150

Terracing as a Means of Preventing Ero^^ion.!

too great cost. x r i i.u • ^

Soil Erosion— Soils are eroded by the rapid movement of both wind

and water. Wind erosion occurs most extensively in the sandy regions

xFromYear-Book, U. S. Dept. of Agriciilturo. 1913.

of the semi-arid belt, especially in western Kansas and Oklahoma. Such
soil destruction calls for surface protection, either by a continuous covering
of plants, or by such methods of cultivation as will prevent the movement
of the surface soil. In those regions it is recommended that the plow
furrows be at right angles to the prevailing direction of the wind, and
that the drill ro'ws of grain be likewise at riglit angles to the wind. Mulches
of straw, especially in the wheat regions where straw is abundant, are also
recommended. Such straw may be rolled with a subsurface packer to
prevent its blowing from the soil. Under such conditions the surface
soil should not be made too fine.

In the South and in southern Illinois, Iowa and Missouri, soils erode
badly as result of the movement of rain water. Such erosion often results

Another Way to Stop P^rosion.^

in deep and destructive gullic^s. These cause a direct loss of soil, and are
barriers to continuous cultivation in the fields in which they occur. Such
erosion should be prevented by every possible means before it proceeds
far. Gullies may be stopped l)y the use of brush, weeds, straw and stone.
These materials should l)e anchonnl in the gullies in such a way as to
encourage them to fill with soil again. Deep plowing and the use of
green manures, which encourage penetration of rains, help to overcome
this erosion. Terracing the soil may be resorted to as a last means of

preventing erosion.

» Courtesy of The International Harvester Company.

INTENTIONAL SRroMn PVDHtr

TDT-?

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

, :)

i^l

152 ^

requires more labor to prepare a seed-bed than 1^^^^^ j^ .^

Soils are often seriously injured by the 5amping oi

cultivated. -cr^nnmir Factors.— The time

Time and Intensity of l^^f^.^^'J^^l eo^eet o" with the
to plow disk harrow and if^^^.:^^^^;^:^ l^L tillage operations
cost of the operations. It is essential xo pe . ^j^j enables

when the soil is in the best possible '"«>^f"'^,;°X^°"(„i„'um amount
the farmer to accomplish the desired result with ^^^ mmimum am

Slbor; consequently, ^^ Jorce oi ^^en^^J^^^^^ ^^^ ^^
care for the maximum acreage. . It ^^ easier ana condition

stir the soil at the right time .^^^ *hus p^^^^^^^^^ A

than it is to change the bad physical ^^^^^ *^,^/°°^ ^ a finely pul-
great deal of labor is required o reduce ^ ^ard ^^^^^^^^^^

:rwVerd^s;u;tiot-^^^^^^^^

amount of kboi. ^^ determined by a number of factors

TfX as po Sble. This is Accomplished by crop rotations and a succes-
sion of crops one following another, throughout the growing season so
tZ at Ttimes plants wHl be occupying the soil and gathenng plant

'^"\t?a:irannSiU of all the manures produced on the farm
is essentialln this connection. It is more profitable to grow a full crop
on five acres than it is to produce one-half a crop on ten acres.
' S g neral soil utiUza!tion and management call for a tho-ugh under-
standkig of the underlying principles and the adoption of methods of
handS that accomplish good results without undue expense. Those
practS which are injurious and those which do not make for mainte-
nance of fertility should be avoided.

METHODS OF SOIL MANAGEMENT

153

REFERENCES

"Principles of Soil Management." Lyon and Pippin.

"Crops and Methods of Soil Improvement." Agee.

"Soils." Fletcher.

"The Soil." HaU.

"Soils." Burkett.

Michigan Expt. Station Bulletin 273. "Utilization of Muck Lands."

Missouri Expt. Station Circular 78. "Control of Soil Washing."

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 180. "Soil Erosion in the South."

lii

I'ii

BOOK II
FARM CROPS

(155)

Ifil \

h -

CHAPTER 9

Crop Improvement

By C. F. Noll
Assistant Professor of Agronomy, Pennsylvania State College

The development of varieties and strains of our farm crops which
have great productiveness or superior merit in other respects is a matter
of great interest to all agriculturists. Increase in yield due to natural
productiveness of a variety results in a gain which is maintained year
after year without additional cost of fertilizer or expense in culture.
Such gains are of much economic importance, as shown by the differences
secured in many variety tests. At the Pennsylvania State College Experi-
ment Station, where varieties of various crops are tested under the same
conditions, there are some which outyield others by as much as fifty per
cent. Here the good yielding varieties are grown with just the same
expense as the poor ones, except for the slight additional cost of handling
the increase in crop. Similar results have been secured at experiment
stations in nearly every state.

Plant Selection.— Crop improvement or plant breeding is often
looked upon as a new thing, but ever since man has been growing plants,
they have gradually been modified by seed selection. All of our culti-
vated plants come from wild forms, but some of them have been so changed
that they could not now perpetuate their race if left to shift for them-
selves. Within the memory of men now living, the fruits of tomatoes
have been developed from the size of a walnut to several times as large,
and other changes have been effected which have made them more desir-
able for table use. Though plant improvement has been thus going on
for ages, only within the past few decades has there been great general
interest in this work, and only of late have some of the fundamental
principles been understood.

Man originates to a very limited extent desirable changes in the
plants with which he works. He is dependent chiefly upon changes
which occur naturally, and all that he does is to take advantage of these
changes and perpetuate the forms which are the most suitable for his
purpose. He cannot, for example, make the pole lima beans over into
the dwarf form, but when dwarf plants are found in a field of lima beans,
he can save seed of these plants and perpetuate and multiply a race of
dwarf lima beans.

Kinds of Variation. — No two plants are exactly alike, but most of
the variations are of no significance to the plant breeder. They may be

(157)

JETf.-^Oft^agif;

! t

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

CROP IMPROVEMENT

159

158 '

It a hill of com is ^««':;ly ^""f ' 'L' tX tSe bvored hills is not
than rtere manure is withheld ,''"' *~ '"""'^ell tertifeed. How-
necessarily any belter than ^^J^/'"" /'™*!„"°;'^„d Xh may he the
ever, variations may ar^ "^tnThe ^artSsTi^ to the yiel'd or si»
^^;ar^l^orrot a^L^ish the CU^^^^^

;rpr<:^tTr\hn!:sL""^wrtL":tir=''^ -^ i or ,orm.

Variations in Timothy.^

one may have less difficulty in picking out those which could be used to

develop new strains or varieties ^^^^ ^j ^jj.

Hybridization -Hybn^^^^ ^^ taking the

ferent species or different varieties, ii i* i . j^ ^^^

— .„ /-. «„ M V From "Plant Breeding," by Bailey.

1 Courtesy of The MacmiUan Company. N. Y. *rom

merit, the cross-fertilization is usually easily accomplished, and, on the
other hand, the varieties produced by crossing are not necessarily of supe-
rior merit. Crossing of plants for the most part results in new com-
binations of fjarental characters. By crossing a yellow pear tomato and a
large red one, one could produce a red pear tomato and a large yellow one.
If a variety of wheat with bearded heads and white grains is crossed with a
variety with smooth heads and red grains, there could be produced a bearded
wheat with red grains and a smooth wheat with white grains. By selection
and propagation the characters become fixed and give new varieties.

R€ SUITS or CROSSING WHEAT

r.-M:' ^fvr/>*7t!><* fiyamo

Note the Variation in the Second Generation Hybrids.^

Choice of Varieties. — In attempting to improve a crop one should
first endeavor to secure a first-class variety. Because of the great dif-
ference in varieties, if the poorer yielding ones were chosen and an
attempt were made to improve them in productiveness, it is not likely
that they could be made better than varieties already in existence.

Variety testing is a rather simple matter, but some precautions must
be observed if the results are to be dependable. The main considerations
are as follows:

1. The varieties should be tested on as uniform soil as possible of
the kind on which the field crops are to be grown.

1 Courtesy of Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

CROP IMPROVEMENT

159

158

,f a hill of com is heav'ly °ja„ured fte state a^ ^^^^^^ ^.,,__ .^ ^^^

than where manure is withheld, but sef" ""» „ (^rtilized. How-

necessarily any better than se«l from plaMs not sowe. ^ ^^^

ever, variations may an^^ "^tn Se wtSsTre in the yield or si.e
r-r,::* o~t Lln^ish the *-- ^-- frrS
rp7o'^rSr^Ss""V!rthen'Sir'.,e -^ «,U.r or ,o™,

.^ ' ^

Variations in Timothy.'

one may have loss diffieulty in picking out those whieh eould bo used to

-^?sssss^|;,^^^Ti:tcrSe:;' C^ t

IttlS ;'i:nSSu1ir/s:erLm' MnT?e*^ WH- "= »- pollen
Twnth foreign [iillen earried by the »" "XTmany in regard to
the e™erpli'rn7aC"nl-^S^^h';.bri*^., o. superior

— .„ r- or,,, \r Y From "Plant Breeding," by BaUey.

1 Courtesy of The MacmiUan Company, N. Y. t rom

merit, the cross-fertilization is usually easily accomplished, and, on the
other hand, the varieties produced by crossing are not necessarily of supe-
rior merit. Crossing of plants for the most part results in new com-
binations of parental characters. By crossing a yellow pear tomato and a
large red one, one could produce a red pear tomato and a large yellow one.
If a variety of wheat with bearded heads and white grains is crossed with a
variety with smooth heads and red grains, there could be produced a bearded
wheat with red grains and a smooth wheat with white grains. By selection
and propagation the characters become fixed and give new varieties.

R€ SUITS OrCROSSfNG WHEAT

fiHf ^f^fflJ^TiyA nr90:o

Note the Variation in the Second Generation Hybrids.^

Variety testing is a rather simple matter, but some precautions must
be observed if the results are to be dependable. The main considerations
are as follows:

1. The varieties should be tested on as uniform soil as possible of
the kind on which the field crops are to be grown.

^Courtesy of Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station.

■' -..->» 1.,'

rr"'.;:;\l'U

INTENTIONAL SECOND RXPOST TR P

flTi

Ig; _*> . U'l,^.. >;%.«-. yi-^ir^; ^.K;^>f 4^f*r >;? • ; ^. v!-^- >. • /,

160

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

'M\

! I

M' ?

2. The plats should be long and narrow rather than J«^\^^^ ^r«^^^
and should extend across inequalities in the land rather than

3 A C^stlndaSTariety should be planted in every third or

4 Trii:to J^belXTedX; a number of years and the cho^e

of a variety based upon the average performance rather than

upon the results of only one year. + „* „ f«w

q„ffffestions are given in this chapter for the improvement of a few

crops The methodsTf procedure with others would be similar depend-

irchiefly upon how the blossoms are fertilized and upon methods of

propagation.

CORN - '

Snecial care must be exercised in the purchase of seed-corn This
crop tends to becZe adapted to local conditions and may not do well
when removed to different localities. Especially s there likely to be a
failure to mature- when seed from a locality having a longer season is
bought On the other hand, a wise selection of seed should enable a
fT.rmer to adapt his corn better to his own conditions. , , «^,,

Mos^ of our best known varieties have thus been developed by con-
sisteSection of seed for a number of years jn the same farm^ The
well-known Learning variety was developed by J. S. Leammg in i^nnxon
SLtv Ohio, by continuous selection, from a variety bought ^n Hamilton
Countv Ohio in 1855. By selection along the same line this variety
wSmade very uniform. Reid's Yellow Dent, a very popular variety of
rweSefined type, originated with a cross between two varieties planted^
fn the same Vefd by Robert Reid in 1846. The type was fixed m this
case also by continuous selection. Most farmers could not do better than
test a number of varieties to find a good one and then by careful selection

of seed trv to make it better. . .

The Ear-Row Method.-The most rapid improvment of com is
accomplished by some ear-row (or ear-to-row) method of breeding- There
are a number of methods in use which vary in detail. By ^ar-row plant
'^g ts Tant the planting of each ear to be tested m a row by itse f to
determine its productiveness and other desiraWe quaM.e^^^ The rows
should be of such a length that not over half of the seed on ari ear neea
be p anted If the rov^ are three and one-half feet apart and the hil^
thrfe feet apart forty-two hills will comprise approximately one one-
hundred h of an a re. "^ Five or six grains should be planted in a hiU and
when h corn is up, it should be thinned to three stalks perhdl. M^ed
seed of the variety should be planted for a check every sixth row. During
the^owing seaso"^ the rows should be observed and desirable or undesir-

able characteristics noted. ^n'oM nf «+ovpr

Each row should be harvested separately. Since the yield of stover

CROP IMPROVEMENT

)

161

is of only minor importance it does not matter whether the plants are
cut or not, but they must be husked separately and the corn ears weighed.
After the yields of the ear-rows have been obtained, any one of a number
of methods for continuing the work may be followed. The simplest wav
IS to take the remnants of the best ears as shown by the ear-row test,
shell these together and plant in an isolated seed plat the next year!
Irom this plat the diseased and weak stalks should be removed before the
pollen IS shed. Seed should be saved from the best rows in the ear-row
plat for field planting the next year. The third year there should be an
ear-row plat like that of the first year and the ears for this should come
n'r f h ^^}^^j^P^yi^g plat grown the second year. The seed of the main

nnrf n^'.!. ^iJ"^' "^r!^f^ u^"^" ^'^"^ ^^^ multiplying plat and from the
part of the field m which the seed from the ear-rows was planted This

The Ear-to-Row Test Plat with Corn Husked, Showing a Method Used in
Ascertaining Which Seed Ears Have Yielded Best.i

method provides for an ear-row plat and a multiplying plat on alternate
years.

Ideals in Selection of Corn.— Besides attempting to secure greater
pFGductiveness in a variety of corn, one who would improve the crop
should seek to adapt the variety in length of growing season to the local-
ity in which it is grown. In a general way the best varieties are those
which require about all of the season for development and yet can be
depended upon to mature before frost.

The stalks should be of medium size and able to stand up well.
The ears should be of medium height from the ground, with a rather short
shank, and should droop somewhat rather than stand erect. By con-
tinuous selection for high and low ears for five years at the Ohio Experi-
ment Station, two strains were developed from one variety with a

> From Year-Book, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
11

■mOisi^imiS'.

160

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

I !

2. The plats should be long and narrow rather than J«rt and b^^^^^^^^
and should extend across inequalities in the land rather than

3 A To^tSardTariety should be planted in every third or

4 Trii^tojfbe'rnSdX; a number of years and the eho^e

of a variety based upon the average performance rather than
upon the results of only one year. x „f „ f^w

Muffcestions are given in this chapter for the improvement o a fej
Suggestions are give ^^^^^^ ^^ ^.^^,^^^ ^^^ ^^

rg':hiefly' upo^ht are fertiUzed and upon methods of

propagation.

CORN

Soeciil care must be exercised in the purchase of seed-corn This

former to adaot his corn better to his own conditions.

Sosto our best known varieties have thus been developed by con-
sistent Section of seed for a number of years jn^the same farm^ The
well-known Learning variety was developed by J. b. Leaming »" v^iii lo
Sunty Ohio, by continuous selection, from a variety bought ^ Hamdton
Countv Ohio in 1855. By selection along the same Ime this variety
Srmade V ry uniform. Reid's Yellow Dent, a very popular variety of
a weU-defined type, originated with a cross between two varieties planted
fn the Tar^e VeW by Robert Reid in 1846. The type was fixed in this
case also by continuous selection. Most farmers could not do better t^an
test a number of varieties to find a good one and then by careful selection

^^ ^%t'UXw^MeSod.-The most rapid improvement of com is
accompHshed by some ear-row (or ear-to-row) method of breeding. There
are a number of methods in use which vary in detail. By ear-row plant
Zl tsTant the planting of each ear to be tested m a row by ^t^^K to
determine its productiveness and other desirable qualities. The rows
should be of such a length that not over half of the seed on an ear need
be p anted If the rows are three and one-half feet apart and the hills
three feet apart, forty-two hills will comprise approximately one one-
t loHth of nn acre Five or six grains should be planted in a hill and
S h conTs up it should be thLed to three stalks per hill. Mixed
Teed o the variety should be planted for a check every sixth row. During
the^owing season the rows should be observed and desirable or undesir-

^'•^E^fstuir^^^^^^ .separately. Since the yield of stover

CROP IMPROVEMENT

161

is of only minor importan^^TitToes not matter whether the plants are
rlrT ; u ^^7,,^^^^* ^^ ^^^«^d separately and the corn ears weighed.
After the yields of the ear-rows have been obtained, any one of a number
of methods for continuing the work may be followed. The simplest way
IS to take the remnants of the best ears as shown by the ear-row test
shell these together and plant in an isolated seed plat the next year!
l^rom this plat the diseased and weak stalks should be removed before the
pol en IS shed. Seed should be saved from the best rows in the ear-row
plat for field planting the next year. The third year there should be an
ear-row plat like that of the first year and the ears for this should come
iZ H ;r"^i^P^^^^\P^^^\g^«^n the second year. The seed of the main
nor? if 'fh fi if-^' should come from the multiplying plat and from the
part of the field m which the seed from the ear-rows was planted. This

The Ear-to-Row Test Plat with Corn Husked, Showing a Method Used in

ASCERTAININQ WlIlCH SeED EaRS HaVE YiELDED BeST.1

method provides for an ear-row plat and a multiplying plat on alternate
years.

Ideals in Selection of Corn.— Besides attempting to secure greater
productiveness in a variety of corn, one who would improve the crop
should s(M»k to adapt the variety in length of growing season to the local-
ity in which it is grown. In a general way the best varieties are those
which require about all of the season for development and yet can be
depcaided upon to mature before frost.

» From Year- Book, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
11

^KHl

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

CROP IMPROVEMENT

H \

162

I^f . ■ — 7~Z TT^^I~hhe low-eared strain

was the earlier and gave the S^f]^^* f X^ld t^ve medium size cobs,

The ears should be of f^fjjt^pe of kernel and should be attrac-

should be fairly uniform m «;;l;y^/ ^^^ %ints of the ears are o less

tive in appearance. The ^^^fj^Z,! t^^oughi, but corn that looks

^rSsTrmSX^^^^^^^^ ,, ,e corn is .own

^°' In the above discussion ^^ ^as W ^^^^^ ^ ^^^^^^ i.^ge, leafy

primarily for grain. Ensilage -^^'^' ^Zc.^,,, ,,ter in maturmg than
stalk besides a good ear, and may ue
varieties for grain.

WHEAT, OATS AND BARLEY

. nH b^rlev variations frequently occur
In the case of wheat oa s «;J ^ark^, ja ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^.^^ ^^^

within a variety which make it worth wh e to ^^ ^^^

r^ the':!: »~:"?^-'ta!i->.ouiaV P.a„t«l from each head,

wWih may be twenty-eve or thirty^ ^j^^^y ^ jetermtoed,

When ripe, the nmnljer ot plants in ea ^^^

the rows should be ert ^•P"'^'^ '"^ ^ ^d of each strain should now
Third Year.-A nun.l>cr of ounces « tc ^^^^^ ^^^„j

be available. « 100 head-rows has been P'™"" ,,^ ,h„„|d be sown
Uventy of the best *°" 'l,*",,!""" ^^ iershould be sown for a cheek

rl Lo rows i;;;|^'--:.XV.?nU.d"£ s^Se by side, for they do

inches apart, xnf^^ h

not readily cross-fertihze . ^^^ ^j^ ^e enough seed for a

Fourth Year.— By the lourtn yi good plan is to

larger plat which may be sown with a S^^^ -^- J^^^ ^^^ p,^,,

«hut off the mi<ldle hoe, P"* ,in ^--^ 1^^^^^^^^^^ •^^^^^^^ ^he drill used has

of four or five drill -^^. -"^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^^ variety should be sown in
nine hoes or eleven. As Ixh^re ^'^^^ j^^ .i^^uld be continued.

every third plat. «"»y.*^%":2r/ If d^sfred the plats may be made
Fifth and Succeedmg Y«"s.-If Je^'^^^^^^ / ^^ould be the

S: riy^r^lIlcK it:^ed i:n^;-eme^^ on the parent variety

^^^^ 163

Crossing of Varieties in Small Grain Breeding.— Different varieties
may be crossed for new combinations of characters as discussed before
The first generation from the cross will look like one parent in respect
to some characters and like the other parent in others. The seed of each
plant should be kept separate and planted like the head-rows in selection
work. Usually it will be found that the progeny of these parent plants
are not uniform. In that case the grain from each plant must be kept
separate and planted again in separate rows as before and this must be
kept up until all the plants from a parent are alike in all of their visible
characters. Those that are uniform should be considered pure strains
and after this the testing may proceed as with selections from the third
year on.

Varieties of these crops should be improved in production first of
all, but also m resistance to disease and stiffness of straw. In the case
of wheat, the milling quality of the grain is important, and in oats, from
the market point of view, the color of grain, white being the preferred
color.

Many of the older varieties of these crops owe their origin to selec-
tions made by farmers and some to crosses. Of the varieties of wheat
Fultz was originated by Abraham Fultz in 1862 from a selection from
Lancaster; Gold Coin, which was an accidental seedling variation was
selected from Deihl Mediterranean; Fulcaster, the well-known' red-
bearded variety, resulted from a cross between Fultz and Lancaster, made
by S. M. Schindel, Hagerstown, Md.

POTATOES

Production of Seedlings.— New varieties of potatoes originate from
seedlings. The seeds are produced in the true fruits, which come after
the blossoms and look like little green tomatoes. These fruits or balls,
as they are commonly called, are produced very sparingly and in some
seasons none are seen. The seed should be sown indoors early in the spring
and the young potato plants handled like tomatoes until they are set out
in the field. Transplanting to pots increases their vigor. The first year
few reach full development and most do not for two or more years. The
seedlings, as a rule, are quite variable and few if any look just like the
parents. Each should be regarded as a new variety and given a number
and kept separate as long as grown.

The work is very interesting and may give varieties better than those
already on the market, but most seedlings are of inferior merit.

Hill and Tuber Selection.— Potatoes vary in the hill and it is possible
to improve a variety by selection of the best hills or the l)est tubers. It
is a good practice to dig by hand a great many hills and save seed of some
of the best for a seed plat the next year. This seed plat should be gone
over and weak and diseased hills removed and the remainder saved for

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

164

the field planting. Greater progress will be made by keeping the tubers
from selected hills separate and testing these as new strams Each sliould
have a number by which it will always be known. The first year ten
mL o^eaTmight'be planted in rows side by -d-^* ^he parent^-^^^^^
every third place. The best only should be saved and the next and sue
fppflinff vears the plats may be made larger.

Sr unit selection should start with selected tubers of the same
size which are desirable in appearance and free from disease. These are
each cut into four pieces, which are planted in succession, one tuber after

Variation in Yield of Potatoes from Selected Tubers.^

the other, with some space between the hills from the different tubers.
When mature, the four hills from a tuber are dug together and the future
selection based upon the yield of tubers and their appearance _ These
must be designated by numbers as m other selection work. The next
vear single row plats of ten or more hills each of the most promismg may
be planted, with the parent variety in every third plat as before.

Potatoes may be improved in productiveness, disease resistance and
quality of tubers. There is a difference in susceptibility, especially to

1 Courtesy of Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station.

CROP IMPROVEMENT

165

early and late l)light, and perhaps to other serious diseases. Only strains
of high market quality should be perpetuated. The tubers should be of
medium size, smooth in outline, flat oval or flat oblong in shape and have
shallow eyes.

Where carefully conducted, these methods of selection have resulted
in the improvement of the variety.

Opportunities in Crop Improvement. — There is need in every com-
munity that at least one farmer make a specialty of producing and sell-
ing improved farm seeds. Such work is usually very remunerative, besides
being of value to the whole neighborhood.

Testing of varieties and the improvement of certain crops may be
made a matter of community interest, especially where there is some
farmers' organization. There is also the opportunity of forming clubs or
associations for crop improvement, which may be quite local or state-
wide, as in the case of many state crop improvement associations now
in existence.

REFERENCES
''Genetics.'^ Walter.
"Cereals in America." Hunt.
''Plant Breeding." Bailey and Gilbert.
" P^undamentals of Plant Breeding." Coulter.
Ontario Agricultural College Bulletin 228. ''Farm Crops."

Farmers' Bulletin 382, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Adulteration of Forage Plant
Seeds."

inr^

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

11)

M«

III

ltt)|

164 ^

the field planting. Greater progress will be made by keeping the tubers
from selected hills separate and testing these as new strains. J^jch .h«uld
have a number by which it will always be known. The first year ten
hm'of each might be planted in rows side by side with the parent variety
every third place. The best only should be saved and the next and suc-
ceeding years the plats may be made larger.

Tuber unit selection should start with selected tubers of the same
size which are desirable in appearance and free from disease. Those are
each cut into four pieces, which are planted in succession, one tuber after

,,i«w'*W!*

Variation in Yield of Potatoes from Selected Tubers.i

the other, with some space between the hills from the (Hfferent tubers.
When mature, the four hills from a tuber are dug together and the future
selection based upon the yield of tubers and their appearance 1 hese
must be designated by numbers as in other selection work. The next
year single row plats of ten or more hills each of the most promismg may
be planted, with the parent variety in every third plat as before.

Potatoes may be improved in productiveness, dis(^ase resistance and
quality of tubers. There is a difference in susceptibility, especially to

1 Courtesy of Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station.

CROP IMPROVEMENT

165

early and late blight, and perhaps to other serious diseases. Only strains
of high market quality should be perpetuated. The tubers should be of
medium size, smooth in outline, flat oval or flat oblong in shape and have
shallow eyes.

Where carefully conducted, these methods of selection have resulted
in the improvement of the variety.

REFERENCES
''Genetics." Walter.
** Cereals in America." Hunt.
''Plant Breeding." Bailey and Gilbert.
"Fundamentals of Plant Breeding." Coulter.
Ontario Agricultural College Bulletin 228. "P'arm Crops."

Farmers' Bulletin 382, U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture. ''Adulteration of Forage Plant
Seeds."

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

CHAPTER 10

THE ROTATION OF CROPS

In all of the older agricultural districts the rotation of crops is recog-
nized as an essential to successful farming. With the prevailing price of
corn, farmers on the best lands in the corn-growing belt have found it
profitable to grow corn after corn for a number of years. In like manner
on the best wheat land in Minnesota, the Dakotas and Canada wheat
grown continuously has proven a profitable enterprise. In that region
farmers find no good argument in favor of fencing their farms, construct-
ing farm buildings, feeding cattle and milking cows, when they can make
as much money or more by a system of farming that occupies their time
for a little more than one-half the year and allows them leisure during
the remainder of the year. A single crop system, while successful for a
time, however, will not prove successful in the long run.

Successful farming calls not only for the best possible utilization of
the soil and the maintenance of its fertility, but also demands the fullest
possible utilization of the labor that is to be employed. The efficiency
of the labor of men and teams on farms is measured largely by the pro-
portion of time for which they are profitably employed. In nearly all
other enterprises labor is fully and continuously employed. In order
that farming may compete with other enterprises for labor, it must be.

likewise employed on the farm.

Rotations Defined.— A crop rotation is a succession of crops grown
on the same land. A good crop rotation is a systematic succession of the
three general classes of farm crops, namely, cultivated crops, grain crops
and grass crops, in such a way as to give large yields and provide pasture
and forage on the farm at the least expense of labor and soil futility

The rotation is definite when the crops recur in a fix^ order, and it
is a fixed rotation when they not only recur in a fixed order but also at
regular intervals. A rotation consisting of corn, oats, wheat and clover
and timothy is a definite one, regardless of whether the clover and timothy
remain for one, two or three years, but it becomes a fixed rotation when
not only the order of the crops is named, but the length of tune of each

croD is also specified. . -, e • i. •

Purpose of Rotations.-A rotation of crops (1) provides for maintain-
ing the soil in good tilth; (2) supplies organic matter and nitrogen; (3)
prevents destructive outbreaks of insect pests; (4) reduces plant diseases;
(5) provides for the economical destruction of weeds; (6) maintains crop
yields- (7) distributes the labor of men and horses; (8) saves labor m
cultivkion of land; (9) keeps the soil occupied; (10) provides for a

(166)

THE ROTATION OF CROPS

167

balanced removal of plant food; (11) systematizes farming; and (12) mav
control toxic substances. > \ / j

Maintain Good Physical Condition of Soil.-Deep-rooted plants,
such as alfalfa and the clovers, improve the physical condition of the
subsoil as a result of root penetration. The cultivation given to inter-
tilled crops such as corn, potatoes, beets and the truck crops, improves
the physical condition of the surface soil. Such frequent cultivation may
tend to reduce the organic matter of the soil, but this will be largely over-
come by the stubble and roots of the grasses and clovers that follow the
grain crops.

Conserve Organic Matter and Nitrogen.-Extensive rotation expesri-
ments at the Mmnesota Experiment Station show that standard rotations,

W ■>.

^n?*-.;-2^t^^- •

■''^':-^^r:

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fer^- ■

Dangers of Continuous Cropping. ^
1 n ^'^ the 1^'f t is corn growing on land that has grown com continuously for
1 ^'T^f' V/^ ^^'^ ^^^l'^ ^^ ^^'''^ '""^ ^ five-year rotation. Both fields were
planted on the same day to the same kind of corn. The yield on the field
to the left IS 27.5 bushels to the acre. The field on the right gives 61 3
bushels an acre. These are the average yields for ten years.

which include an inter-tilled crop, small grains and grasses with clover
all gave net profits. A four-years' rotation of millet, barley, corn and oats
was no better than four years of continuous growing of wheat. All of
^ these are classified as exhaustive crops. They cause a reduction in both
the organic matter and nitrogen supply of the soil. Land cropped
contmuously to wheat, corn, potatoes or mangels for a period of ten years
showed a loss of 1100 pounds of nitrogen and 20,000 pounds of carbon
per acre. In twelve standard rotations covering the same period of time
there was a gain of 300 pounds of nitrogen per acre, while the carbon and
humus m the soil was maintained and in some cases increased. In the
standard rotations eight tons of manure per acre were applied once during:
the rotation.

Provide for Extermination of Weeds.— Noxious weeds often cause
a serious loss in farming. Weeds not only rob the crops of plant food and

iFrom ••Farm Management" by Boss. Courtesy of Lyons and Carnahan, Chicago.

P-

r;i'j.-:A, i -.1' t-i^.

i»*tW!-r i-^fc^'je--'-.

CHAPTER 10

THE ROTATION OF CROPS

In fill of the older agricultural districts the rotation of crops is recog-
nized as an essential to successful farming. With the prevailing pnce of
corn, farmers on the best lands in the corn-growmg belt have found it
profitable to grow corn after corn for a number of years. In like manner
on the best wheat land in Minnesota, the Dakotas and Canada wheat
grown continuously has proven a profitable enterprise. In that region
fvrmers find no good argument in favor of fencing their farms, construct-
ing farm buildings, feeding cattle and milking cows, when they can make
as much money or more by a system of farming that occupies their time
for a little more than one-half the year and allows them leisure during
the remainder of the year. A single crop system, while successful for a
time, however, will not prove successful in the long run.

Successful farming calls not only for the best possible utilization of
the soil and the maintenance of its fertility but also demands tho u est
possible utilization of the labor that is to be employed. The efficiencj
of the labor of men and teams on farms is measured largely by the pro-
portion of time for which they are profitably employed. In nearly all
other enterprises lal)or is fully and continuously empOyed. In order
that farming may compete with other enterprises for labor, it must be

likewise employed on the farm. • t ^^^ ^^„.„

The rotation is definite when the crops recur in a fixed order, and it
is a fixed rotation when they not only recur in a fixed order but also at
regular intervals. A rotation consisting of corn, oats, wheat and clover
and timothy is a definite one, regardless of whether the clover and timothy
remain for one, two or three years, but it becomes a fixed rotation when
not only the order of the crops is named, but the length of tmie of each

croD is also specified. . , r. • ^ •

Purpose of Rotations.-A rotation of crops (1) provides for maintain-
ing the soil in good tilth; (2) supplies organic matter and nitrogen; (3)
prevents destructive outbreaks of insect pests; (4) reduces plant diseases;
(5) provides for the economical destruction of weeds; (6) maintains crop
Yields- (7) distributes the labor of men and horses; (8) saves labor in
cultivation of land; (9) keeps the soil occupied; (10) provides for a

(166)

THE ROTATION OF CROPS

167

balanced removal of plant food; (11) systematizes farming; and (12) m-iv
control toxic substances. >- / J'

Maintain Good Physical Condition of Soil.-Decp-rootcd plants,
such as alfalfa and the clovers, improve the physical condition of the
subsoil as a result of root penetration. The cultivation given to inter-
tilled crops such as corn, potatoes, beets and the truck crops, improves
the physical condition of the surface soil. Such freciuent cultivation may
tend to reduce the organic matter of the soil, but this will i)e largeiv over-
come by the stubble and roots of the grasses and clovers that follow the
gram crops.

.^°?fr®,P'^^"'*' ^^"®'' ^"^ Nitrogen.-Extensive rotation exp.-ri-
ments at the Minnesota Experiment Station show that standard rotations,

Dangers of Continuous Cropping. ^

1 n ^" ^ h« l^-^t is corn growin^r on land t liat has grown corn cont inuously for
19 years. On the right is corn in a five-year rotation. Both fields were
planted on the same day to the same kind of corn. The yield on the field
to the left is 27.5 bushels to the acre. The field on the right gives 61 3
bushels an acre. 1 hese are the average yields for ten years.

which iucliido an intor-tilled crop, small grains and grasses with clover
all gave net profits. A four-years' rotation of millet, barley, corn and oats
was no better than four years of continuous growing of\vheat. All of
^ these are classified as exhaustive crops. They cause a reduction in })oth
the organic matter and nitrogen supply of the soil. Land cropped
contmuously to wheat, corn, potatoes or mangvis for a period of ten years
showed a loss of 1100 pounds of nitrogen and 20,000 pounds of carbon
per acre. In twelve standard rotations covering the same period of time
there was a gain of 300 pounds of nitrogen i^er acre, while the carbon and
humus m the soil was maintainc^d and in some cases increased. In the
standard rotations eight tons of manure per acre were applied once during:
the rotation.

Provide for Extermination of Weeds.— Noxious weeds often cause
a serious loss m farming. Weeds not only rob the crops of plant food and

1 From "Farm Management" by Boss. Courtesy of Lyons and Carnahan. Chicago.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

'jm

f,^^fin^HH^H

tmsBssi^^^sasiBm:

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168

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

moisture, thus reducing the yield and sometimes causing absolute failure,
but they entail additional labor in the process of cultivation. Many
weeds grow best in certain kinds of crops. For example, mustard is a
common weed in the small grain crops in the prairie states. The seeds
ripen a little earlier than the grain, and in the process of harvesting are
freely shattered and seed the land for the succeeding year. Where small
grain is grown continuously this weed becomes a serious pest. Its
extermination calls for an inter-tilled crop following the small grain.
Pigweed, bindweed, foxtail and crab-grass are common in corn and
potato fields, but they seldom become serious in small grain fields or in
grass land; consequently, cultivated crops followed by grasses and small
grains make for extermination of these weeds. Daisies, wild carrot and
buckhorn are common weeds in hay fields, and generally grow worse the
longer the land remains in hay. Such weeds, however, give no trouble
in cultivated fields devoted to corn, potatoes, etc., and the cultivation
helps to exterminate them.

Lessen Insect Depredations. — Most insect pests live upon some
particular crop or a few closely related crops. A crop or related crops,
grown continuously on the same land, affords an opportunity for the
associated insects to multiply and become very numerous. The remedy
is to plant the infested fields with a crop which will not be injured by the
pest in question. Unless these insects have the power of migration they
will* perish for the want of suitable food or for lack of conditions suitable
for multiplication.

However efficient the rotation of crops may be in the extermination
of insects, some rotations may prove not only ineffective but actually
disastrous. For example, land that has been long in grass sometimes
becomes so infested with wire-worms as to cause a practical failure when
devoted to corn. Grass affords conditions favorable to the multiplication
of wire-worms, and they may live in the soil sufficiently long after the
grass is plowed up to destroy a crop of corn which follows. Under such
conditions fall plowing or bare fallow should precede the planting of the
corn. The bill bug breeds freely in the bulbous roots of timothy, and
when timothy sod is plowed late in the spring and planted to corn, this
insect transfers its attention to the corn with disastrous results. Such
trouble may be avoided by destroying the existing vegetation some time
in advance of planting the corn. The insect under such conditions will
either be starved or forced to leave the field before it is planted to corn.

Cutworms are a great menace to newly planted tobacco and many
other crops, but their presence depends largely on the preceding crop.
Cutworms multiply extensively only in grass land where the eggs are laid
by the moths. Many similar examples could be cited, and success in
preventing insect depredation by crop rotation calls for a knowledge of
the life history and habits of the insect pest concerned. (See Chapter
76: 'insect Pests and Their Control.'^

THE ROTATION OF CROPS

169

Reduce Plant Diseases. — Plant diseases, like insect pests, are gen-
erally restricted to a particular crop or small group of closely related
crops. The potato scab, so far as is known, is confined solely to potatoes.
Its presence in the soil prevents the continuous growing of potatoes, and
calls for a rotation in which the interval between successive potato crops
is sufficiently long to provide for the disappearance of the disease. In a
similar manner flax wilt or cotton wilt demands a rotation of crops in
order to prevent the disease becoming disastrous. Bacterial diseases of
tomatoes, potatoes, eggplants, cabbage and numerous other vegetables,
the rusts and smuts of small grains, and many other diseases accumulate
in the soil under the one-crop system. These troubles can be largely
avoided and the crop-producing power of the soil maintained by intelli-
gent systems of rotation. The most profitable system for any locality or
type of farming can generally be ascertained from the state experiment
station.

Improve Environment of Crop. — Aside from insect pest, plant diseases
and weeds which flourish under the one-crop system to the disadvantage
of the crop, there is another factor inimical to best plant growth. This
consists of excreta given off by the roots of plant.:* that accumulate in the
soil to their detriment. As a rule, such excreta are not equally injurious
to a different class of crops, and a rotation, therefore, lessens the injury.
The excreted substances are organic in nature and are either changed in
character or entirely disappear with time, so that the crop giving rise to
them may be returned to the land after a year or more without injury.

Rotations Insure Returns. — The old adage, ^'Don^t place all your
eggs in one basket,^' applies with equal force in the production of crops.
Unfavorable conditions in any locality are seldom such as to cause a failure
of all kinds of crops, although a complete failure of a particular crop in
a certain locality is not uncommon. A rotation of crops which includes
a variety of crops, therefore, avoids complete failure.

Prevent Reduced Crop Yields. — The tillage given to a cultivated
crop, such as corn or potatoes, increases the yield of the crop that follows
by providing a better physical condition of the soil. In like manner
legumes leave organic matter and nitrogen in the soil which is utilized to
the advantage of corn or potatoes which may follow. The cultivation
given crops destroys weeds to the advantage of crops which follow, and
which do not receive cultivation.

Rotations Systematize Farming. — A well-planned rotation of crops
enables the farmer to know definitely what is to be done each year, and
makes possible an estimation of the general expenses and returns that
may be expected. It also enables him to plan his work and secure his
materials, such as seed, fertilizers, etc., in advance of the time they are
needed.

Rotations Distribute Labor. — A good rotation of crops will enable
the farmer to do a larger proportion of his own work than would be possible

170

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

if the land were devoted to one crop. This enables him to utilize his
own labor to the fullest possible advantage, and to reduce the expense
necessary for hired labor. It is important, therefore, in selecting crops
for a rotation, to select those that will compete with each other for the
labor of men and teams as little as possible. The common rotation of
corn, oats, wheat and hay fulfils these requirements fairly well. To
illustrate, the preparation of land and seeding of oats take place in the
early spring. Between the seeding time of oats and the time for planting
corn there is sufficient time to prepare the land for the latter crop. The
cultivation of corn will precede the harvest of hay and oats. The prep-
aration of land for winter wheat will take place after the harvest period
and prior to the harvest of corn. This fully occupies the time of the
farmer during the growing season. There will sometimes be conflict
between the harvest of wheat and hay, and the cultivation of corn, necessi-
tating a little extra labor at that time.

Essentials of a Good Rotation. — A good crop rotation should contain
(1) an inter-tilled crop, (2) a cash crop, (3) crops to feed, and (4) a crop
to supply humus and nitrogen. All crops may be roughly classified
under three heads, namely: exhaustive, intermediate and restorative.
All crops, when harvested, remove from the land more or less plant food,
and in this sense they are exhaustive. No crop restores to the soil any
considerable amount of plant food unless it is plowed under or allowed
to decay on the surface of the soil. Notwithstanding these facts, certain
crops leave land in poorer condition for subsequent crops than it was
before. These are designated as exhaustive crops, and include wheat,
oats, rye, barley and millet. Their ill effect upon subsequent crops may
be due to any one or a combination of a number of factors, among which
are physical condition of the soil, injurious insects, plant diseases, reduc-
tion of soil moisture and a failure to supply either organic matter or nitro-
gen in any appreciable quantity.

It is wise, therefore, to select as many restorative crops as possible
and so arrange the crops that these will be followed by the exhaustive
crops. These two classes of crops should alternate as far as possible.
In conjunction with this, one should select crops that will yield well
and for which there is a demand, either for feeding on the farm or as a
cash crop. The best varieties of the crops entering into the rotation
should always be used. These will be determined largely by local con-
ditions.

Sequence of Crops.— It is a good plan to follow a crop with a long
growing season by one having a short growing season. This is typified
when corn is followed by oats. In turn oats or barley is removed from
the land in ample time for seeding winter wheat, which occupies the land
for a rather long period. In this connection it is wise to provide in the
rotation a place where manure may be hauled directly from stables and
barnyards and applied to the fields. Where there is an abundance of

THE ROTATION OF CROPS

171

manure and corn is extensively and advantageously used as feed for live-
stock, corn may be grown two years in succession, especially when the
soil is fertile and manure is available for both the first and second crops.
It is desirable that crops be arranged in such a way that the improving
effects of each crop shall be regularly received and the ill effects of the
exhaustive crops be systematically neutralized by the crop that follows.
Length of Rotations.— The length of crop rotations will be deter-
mined by local conditions and the character of crops grown, together
with the value of land and cost of labor. Crops that are costly to estab-
lish, such as alfalfa, should occupy the land for two or more years in order
to minimize the annual cost of production. The length of time that a
crop remains productive is also a factor. The annual cost of seed and
the preparation of the land for the crop is one-half or one-third as much
if the crop is continued for two or three years respectively, as it is if
allowed to remain only one year. So long as the yield is satisfactory,
it generally pays to continue the crop. This tends toward a longer crop
rotation.

In many localities where general farm crops prevail, a seven-year
rotation is common, such for example as corn, oats, wheat and mixed
clover and timothy for four years. Such long rotations with only one
legume in them do not make for increased soil fertility, unless all the
crops produced are fed upon the farm and the manure returned to the
fields. Where cash crops dominate the type of farming, short rotations
may be better. A rotation of corn, wheat and clover or of potatoes,
wheat and clover affords the maximum of cash crops, while the frequency
of clover in the rotation tends to maintain the nitrogen supply of the soil.
Such short rotations also maintain the soil in good tilth as a result of the
frequent plowing and abundant tillage.

What Crops to Grow. — The crops to be grown in a rotation will be
determined by a number of factors, as soil adaptation, length of growing
season, market demands, transportation facilities, and the system of
farming that prevails. Aside from these facts there is another considera-
tion that must not be overlooked. Usually it is unwise to follow a crop
like tobacco, which is considered a gross feeder, with another crop such
as corn having similar feeding habits. Such a practice is permissible
only on very fertile soil or where the quality of the following crops is to be
influenced through reduction in organic matter or available plant food.
For example, coarseness in tobacco might be reduced by having it pre-
ceded by corn.

When to Apply Manure and Fertilizers. — It is generally advisable
to apply barnyard manure to those crops in the rotation that have a long
growing season or a high money value, or to those that are considered
gross feeders, such as corn. In the absence of manure, the same rule
will apply in the applications of commercial fertilizers. When manure is
supplemented with fertilizers, the fertilizers are best adapted to crops of

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

172

short growing season or to those influenced in quality by the character
or form rrparticular fertilizer ingredient. In this connection it shouW
be bor"et nSnd that the legumes require only -neraHe^j-- ^^ *^^
prons that demand much nitrogen should follow the legumes.

Some Suggested Rotations.-Crops should naturally fol ow each

other rsuchf way that each crop paves the way for the one that is to

follow Best results will be secured when plants are not compelled t« do

h drpart at a disadvantage Wherever f easib e a la^g P-Port- ^^^ ^

product of a rotation should be food for livestock. This provides lor tne

"^nrtTnortW* rt of the United States a rotation of cor.
oats wheat and hay with various modifications dominates most of the
Sie'ral and Uvestock types of farming. By omitting oats a three-crop
fotatTon results, which, if restricted to three years in length makes for
so iSility liovTde^ a cash crop and at the same time furnished an abun-
dance olSeSoIk food and bedding. This may be ^^PP^f-^^t^^ m*^
Sfa thus increasing the protein supply. On soils poorly adapted to
'S this crop may he omitted and oats will take its place. In the north-
wheat this crop n y elevations the acreage of corn will be

Xed ind ttt of oatt and hay increased. Where market, are favor-
able and the soil is adapted to potatoes, this crop may be substituted for a
nortion of the corn, thus increasing the cash crops at the expense of forage.
"^ Wheat Snera^^^ proves a better crop in which to seed clover and he
^rrass^s than does oats In most parts of this section of he country the
SSses !re seeded in the autumn and the clover seeded early in the spnng.
Further LS, both clover and the grasses may be seeded in the autumn
ThP fVmr staole crops above mentioned may be arranged into several
Jotatio'^tSanure and fertilizers applied as suggested in the foUowmg

tabulation. ^ _ ^^^ ^

Method of Fertilizing Crop Rotations.

Per Acre. '

Corn: 6 to 10 loads of manure and 25 lbs. of phos-

ComTe to "o loads of manure and 25 lbs. of phos-
phoric acid.
Oats: no fertilizer. . .,14.

Wheat: 50 lbs. each of phosphoric acid and potr

Clover and timothy : no fertilizer. ^ , . . ,
Timothy: 25 lbs. each of nitrogen, phosphoric acid

and potash. 1 1 -j

Timothy: 25 lbs. each of nitrogen, phosphoric acid

and potash.

buying 150 pounds nitratp of soda, 175 Po"".™ °' ?"?XwinE prices per pound, which wiU vary accord-
lid^^^.^:^^^?^^. "^ rerrXXri^^adSr ^ .LI-, anrpotash. 5 cents.

THE ROTATION OF CROPS

173

In the trucking regions of New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland and
Virginia, two crops may frequently be secured in one season. Over much
of this region tojnatoes may be set as late as June 1st. This gives oppor-
tunity to grow a quick-maturing crop before the land is needed for tomatoes.
If hay is needed crimson clover may be seeded in the fall and cut for hay
the next spring, before the land is needed for tomatoes. Where canneries
are available, early peas may be harvested before time to set tomatoes.
This gives two crops in one season, both of which provide for the opera-
tion of the cannery and prolong its season of activity. Crimson clover
may be seeded in the tomatoes at the last cultivation, and growth turned
under the following spring for the benefit of a succeeding crop.

In this district a two-year rotation in which four crops are grown is
found to be quite successful. Two of these are cash crops and two are
renovating crops. The cash crops are corn and either potatoes or toma-
toes. The renovating crops are crimson clover or soy beans or winter
rye mixed with winter vetch. This makes the purchase of nitrogen in
fertilizers unnecessary. Acid phosphate and potash are applied in moder-
ate quantities and generally to the cash crops only. This system, without
any manure and with the occasional use of lime, maintains the fertility

of the soil.

In portions of Ohio and Indiana a three-year rotation of corn, wheat
and clover is common. One strong point in this rotation is that one plow-
ing answers for three crops. When the clover sod is plowed for corn in
the spring the ground breaks up easily and makes an ideal seed-bed for
corn. The cultivation given the corn provides a good seed-bed for
wheat with no other preparation than thorough disking and harrowing
of the corn stubble. This, of course, necessitates a removal of the corn
stalks sufficiently early to seed wheat. It is not applicable where the
growing season is too short. This rotation not only economizes m labor
as above suggested, but makes a good distribution of labor. Further-
more, it provides for rather continuous occupation of the soil. If the sod
devoted to corn is not plowed until spring and corn is followed by fall
seeding of wheat in which grass and clover is seeded, the soil will be subject
to erosion only during the time it is in corn. Erosion in this case may
take place in times of heavy rains and on rolling land, by the water run-
ning down the furrows between the corn rows. This may generally be
overcome by having the rows and cultivation at right angles to the

This is a fairly good rotation for the stockman and dairy farmer.
Corn furnishes the material for the silo, while clover hay supplies the
protein in which corn is deficient, thus giving a well-balanced ration.
The wheat straw makes good bedding, while the wheat may be either sold
or exchanged for concentrates. On farms having no permanent pasture
the clover and timothy may be left for another year, cut once and pastured
afterwards, or, if necessary, it may be pastured throughout the fourth

174

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

year. If used for this purpose, both timothy and alsike clover should
be seeded with the red clover.

The following five- and six-year rotations have been. found successful

iai4 Timothv
1915 Corn
1910 Oats
1917 Wheat
191S Clover

1914 Clover

1915 Timothy

1916 Corn

1917 Oats

1918 Wheat

3 1914 Wheat

1915 Clover

1916 Timothy

1917 Corn

1918 Oats

1914 Oats

1915 Wheat

1916 Clover

1917 Timothy

1918 Corn

Field.

1—25 A

2—

3—

4—

5—

n
n
II
It

5 1914 Corn

1915 Oats

1916 Wheat

1917 Clover

1918 Timothv

A Five- Year Rotation.

1914.

Timothy

Clover

Wheat

Oats

Corn

1915.

1916.

Corn

Timothy

Clover

Wheat

Oats

Corn

Timothy

Clover

Wheat

1917.

Wheat

Oats

Corn

Timothy

Clover

1918.

Clover

Wheat

Oats

Corn

Timothy

in the Great Plains area: (1) corn; wheat; brome-grass; brome-grass;
oats, barley or emmer; (2) corn; wheat; brome-grass; brome-grass;
brome-grass; oats, barley or emmer. In these rotations the wheat may

THE ROTATION OF CROPS

175

be either winter or spring, and, furthermore, wheat may be substituted
for any of the last-mentioned crops in either of the rotations.

Space will not permit the enumeration of all the rotations that are
possible. With a clear understanding of the underlying principles and a
knowledge concerning the utilization and market value of the crops to be
grown, any farmer jnay plan crop rotations best suited to his farm.

Methods of Planning and Recording Rotations. — It is a principle
that there should be as many fields as there are years and crops in the
rotation, unless two crops can be harvested from the land in one year.
It is also advisable that the fields be as nearly of equal size and produc-
tivity as possible. This provides for uniformity in distribution of work
from year to year, as well as in the utilization of the products. Where
livestock dominates the type of farming, it will often be found advisable
to adopt two rotations, one known as the major and the other as the
minor rotation. The former will include the staple crops grown both
for feed and market, while the latter provide soiling and annual pasture
crops. In siich a scheme the minor rotation should be located near the
farmstead where the small fields will be easily accessible. The tabulation
on preceding page shows how a five-field rotation may be planned, and
serves as a record of what has been and what will be in every field in any
particular year.

REFERENCES

''Field Crops." W^ilson and War bur ton.

"Soils and Fertilizers." Snyder, papjes 131-159.

Minnesota Expt. Station Bulletin 109. ''Rotation of Crops."

Ohio Experiment Station Bulletin 182. "Maintenance of Fertility."

Rhode Island Expt. Station Bulletin 135. "Crop Rotations."

The Height of Stalks and Positions of Ears May be Greatly Changed

BY Selection of Seed for these Characters.^

1 CJourtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 282, "Corn Experiments."

(176)

>->^-?SMWm^

'^**"**'*'**'^^^^

The Height of Stalks and Positions of Ears May be Greatly Changed

BY Selection of Seed for these Characters.^

1 Courtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 282, "Corn Experiments."

(176)

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURF

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CHAPTER 11

Corn (Zea Maize)

The average acre of corn produces more food value than an equal
area of any other staple crop except potatoes. Corn has a longer season
of growth than most other staple crops, and, consequently, it more fully
utilizes the plant food that is made available by processes going on in
the soil when reasonably warm and moist. It is adapted to a wide range
of soil conditions. It fits well into the crop rotations without seriously
competing with other crops for labor. It has a wide range of uses. The
tillage which the crop receives leaves the soil in excellent condition for
the crops which follow.

Classification of Com.— There are six types of corn: dent, flint,
sweet, pop, soft and pod. The first four only are of importance in
America. Fully 90 per cent of the corn grown in North America is of the
dent type. There are several hundred varieties of dent corn and a score
or more varieties of flint corn. The types are classified according to color
and size. Dent corn is divided into three classes with reference to size
and time of maturity, namely: early, medium and late maturing varieties.
It is also divided according to color into yellow dent, white dent, white
cap yellow dent and mixed dent varieties.

Varieties of Com. — Of the several hundred varieties of dent corn,
comparatively few are worthy of cultivation in any particular locality;
and yet one often finds many varieties within a restricted area. Where
soil conditions are uniform over several counties, one or two varieties
may be found best suited to the whole of the area.

Corn is a very minor crop in Canada, the most of it being grown in
the Province of Ontario. Flint is the prevailing type. In the north-
eastern part of the United States, including New England, New York,
Pennsylvania and New Jersey, varieties of flint corn are extensively grown
on the higher elevations and in the northernmost latitudes. Among the
best known varieties of this class may be mentioned Longfellow, King
Phillip, Smut Nose, Stickney^s Yellow, Taylor^s Improved Flint and
Davis' Eight Rowed Flint. The prevailing varieties of dent corn in this
section are Pride of the North, Early Huron Dent, Funk's 90 Day,
Leaming and numerous strains of white cap dent, seldom having local
names.

In the typical corn belt of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri

and eastern Kansas and Nebraska, the leading varieties are Reed's Yellow

Dent, Funk's Yellow Dent, Leaming, Reilley's Favorite, Clarage, Hogue's

Yellow Dent, Hildreth's Yellow Dent, Hiawatha Yellow Dent, Boone

12 (177)

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C i/ -- 'O

CHAPTER 11

Corn (Zea Maize)

Corn is a very minor crop in Canada, the most of it being grown in
the Province of Ontario. Flint is the prevailing type. In the north-
eastern part of the United States, including New England, New York,
Pennsylvania and New Jersey, varieties of flint corn are extensively grown
on the higher elevations and in the northernmost latitudes. Among the
best known varieties of this class may be mentioned Longfellow, King
Phillip, Smut Nose, Stickney^s Yellow, Taylor^s Improved Flint and
Davis' Eight Rowed Flint. The prevailing varieties of dent corn in this
section are Pride of the North, Early Huron Dent, Funk's 90 Day,
I^aming and numerous strains of white cap dent, seldom having local
names.

In the typical corn belt of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri

and eastern Kansas and Nebraska, the leading varieties are Reed's Yellow

Dent, Funk's Yellow Dent, Leaming, Reilley's Favorite, Clarage, Hogue's

Yellow Dent, Hildreth's Yellow Dent, Hiawatha Yellow Dent, Boone

12 - (177)

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CHAPTER 11

Corn (Zea Maize)

In the typical corn belt of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri

and eastern Kansas and Nebraska, the leading varieties are Reed's Yellow

Dent, Funk's Yellow Dent, Leaming, Reilley's Favorite, Clarage, Hogue's

Yellow Dent, Hildreth's Yellow Dent, Hiawatha Yellow Dent, Boone

12 (177)

178

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

CORN

179

County White, Johnson County White, Silver Mine, St. Charles White
and Kansas Sunflower.

In the Southern states we have among the large-eared varieties:
Huffman, Excelsior, Chisholm, McMacnin's Gourdseed, St. Charles
White, Boone County White, Ilockdale, Singleton and Ferguson's Yellow
Dent. Among the two-eared varieties may be mentioned Lewis' Prolific,
Hickory King and NeaFs Paymaster. Prolific varieties, producing two
or more ears to a stalk, are Cocke's, Albemarle, Whatley's, Mosby's,
Hasting's, Marlborough and Batts'.

In the northern portion of the corn belt, including the states of
Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the Dakotas and the northern portions
of Illinois and Iowa, the most common varieties are Silver King, Pride of
the North, Wisconsin No. 7, Murdock, Wimple's Yellow Dent, Pickett's
Yellow Dent and Golden Eagle.

The best variety for any locality can be determined only by local
variety tests. Such tests have been conducted in many counties through
the effort of the local organizations in co-operation with the state experi-
ment stations. The results for such tests for sixteen counties in Iowa for
the year 1911 are given in the following table:

Variety Test, 1911.
Average of Sixteen Counties in Iowa.

Farmer's variety test. . . . .
One-tenth highest yielding
One-tenth lowest yielding.

Imported seed

Seed-house seed

Number

of
Samples.

966

128

190

Yield

per Acre,

bushels.

Standing,
October,
per cent.

Strong,
per cent.

Weak,
per cent.

54.3
62 . 0
44.5
53.0
49.5

78.0
81.5
71.0
81.5
72.0

78.1
80.5
73.5
67.0
61.5

14.6
14.5
15.0
27 . 0
26.5

Dead,
per cent.

7.3
5.0

11.5
6.0

12.0

Barren,
per cent.

5.2
4.4
6.1
5.9
4.6

Individual Ear Test, 1911.

Average of Sixteen Counties in Iowa.

Individual ears

One-fourth highest yielding
One-fourth lowest yielding

Number

of
Samples.

1,440
360
360

Yield j Standing,
per Acre, October,

bushels.

53.5
62.0
43.5

per cent.

78.5
83.0
71.5

Strong,
per cent.

83.5

85.5
77.5

Weak,
per cent.

11.5
11.5
11.5

Dead,
per cent.

5.0

3.0

11.0

Barren,
per cent.

5.7
4.5
7.6

The large number of samples tested and the average results secured
make conclusions relative to the differences found in yield and other
qualities rather definite. It will be noted that one-tenth of the samples
giving highest yields averaged 62 bushels per acre, while one-tenth of

the samples giving lowest yields average 44.5 bushels per acre, or only
about two-thirds as much as the best yielding samples. Note also that
over 100 samples of imported seed averaged less per acre than did nearly
1000 samples of home-grown seed. Likewise, the 360 ear-to-row tests
giving the highest yields were no better than the best one-tenth of the
larger samples tested.* One-fourth of the ear-to-row samples giving the
lowest yield averaged a little more than two-thirds as much as the one-
fourth giving the highest yields. The results show wide differences and
emphasize the importance of the farmer selecting for his soil and locality
the variety that will do best. Such selection will evidently make a great
difference in the total yield of corn on a given acreage.

Corn Acreage by States, 1915,
(Three ciphers omitted.)

The Chief Corn-Growing States. — In order of their respective pro-
duction, they are Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Indiana, Kansas,
Ohio, Texas, Oklahoma and Kentucky. These ten states produce a little
more than 70 per cent of all the corn produced in the United States.
More than 80 per cent of the corn produced in the United States is con-
sumed within the counties in which it is grown. The great use of corn
is as a feed for livestock. There are a few counties, especially in the
State of Illinois, where a considerable portion of the corn is marketed and
goes outside of the counties in which it is produced.

North America produces three-quarters of the work^s corn, nearly
all of which is produced within the borders of the United States. Of the

180

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

remaining one-quarter of the world^s production, Europe produces about
two-thirds and South America and Australia the remainder.

Soil and Climatic Adaptation.— Corn is best adapted to well-dramed
soils that are deep, loamy and warm. Large yields demand a high-water
capacity of the soil and this is materially increased by deep dramage,
deep plowing and organic matter. Corn requires a growmg season rang-
ing from 100 to 170 days, through which period the temperature should
be high and accompanied by warm rains. An abundance of ramfal
properly distributed is essential. In the typical corn belt the rainfall
during July and August is most important, and the yield of corn is deter-
mined to a considerable extent by the rain during these two months.

Chart Showing How Closely Corn Yield Follows Amount op Rainfall.

The accompanying chart shows the average yield of corn for a period of
fifteen years, together with the July precipitation for the same years.
There is a fairly close correlation between July rainfall and the average

vield of corn.

It is not profitable to grow corn on very poor land. The nature
of the corn plant is such that it will not produce grain unless the soil is
sufficiently rich to afford considerable growth of stalk. In general, the
richer the soil the heavier will be the yield of grain. Some other crops
will produce fair yields on soil too poor to produce corn.

Crop Rotation for Corn. — Corn cannot be grown continuously on the
same soil without diminished yields. A rotation of crops is, therefore,
essential. In this rotation should occur at least one leguminous crop.

CORN

181

East of the Mississippi River and north of Mason and Dixon's Line,
common red clover is best suited for this purpose. Alfalfa, crimson clover
and alsike clover may be substituted for it under certain conditions. Over
a considerable portion of this region the most usual rotation is corn, oats,
wheat, and clover and timothy. This provides for a rotation ranging
from four to seven years, depending on the length of time the land is
left in grass and whether or not corn is grown more than one year in the
rotation. In this rotation the corn should follow the sod on which may
be scattered the manure prior to plowing. No other crop is better adapted
to utilize the available nitrogen and mineral constituents that are slowly
brought into a state of availability through decomposition of the roots,
stubble and manure.

On fertile soils in a high state of cultivation corn may be grown two
years in succession. This will require sufficient manure to apply on the
corn land two years in succession, or will demand an application of com-
mercial fertilizers for the second year's crop.

In the South the crops associated with corn in the rotation are quite
different. In most cases cotton is the chief money erop; cowpeas and
soy beans are the chief legumes; and winter oats is the principal small
grain. The rotation frequently consists of cotton followed by cotton,
with cowpeas planted between the cotton rows. The third year the land
is planted in corn and seeded to winter oats after the corn has been removed.
After the oats are harvested in the fourth year the land is broadcasted with
cowpeas, and these harvested for hay. This rotation has proven successful
in many parts of the cotton belt.

Many of the experiment stations have tested different rotations.
The following tabulation gives the average results with corn in two rota-
tions covering a period of more than twenty years at the Ohio Experiment
Station :

Continuous vs. Rotation Corn. Twenty Years* Work.

System.

Treatment.

Continuous . .
Rotation*, . .

Continuous. .
Rotation*. . .

Continuous
Rotation*. .

Rotation t
Rotation!

None,
None

Manure
Manure

Com. fert. . .
Com. fert. . .

Manure
None . .

Application
per Acre.

Per Crop.

Per 5 Years.

5 tons
8 tons

250 lbs.
320 lbs.

25 tons
16 tons

1250 lbs.
985 lbs.

Average Yield per Acre,
bushels.

Ist
Period.

2d
Period.

26.26 16.76
31.89 30.82

43.131 40.11
40.73 49.52

38.86
35.78

39.09
49.54

Period.

10.43
31.04

34.62
59.75

28.00
53.91

4th
Period,

8.44
20.31

30.22
55.83

26.83
44.10

8 tons once in 3 years on corn.
Average of 8 unfertilized plots.

Aver-
age
Yield

for

20
Years.

15.47
28.95

37.02
51.81

33.19
46.49

60.20t
35.19t

♦ Five-year rotation. t Three-year rotation. t Average for 17 years.

182

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

CORN

183

It will be noted that where corn was grown continuously the yields
have declined regardless of the character of the manure or fertilizer
applied, whereas corn grown in a rotation has increased decidedly in yield
when either manure or fertilizers have been used.

Plowing for Com.— Plowing for corn may be done either m the fall,
winter or spring. In many sections of the country fall plowing gives better
results than spring plowing. The difference, however, is not sufficient to
justify the advice that fall plowing should be universal. Every acre that
is plowed in the fall or winter facilitates getting crops in the ground at
the proper season in the spring. Deep plowing for corn deposits the
trash and manure to a greater depth and induces the roots to go deeper
into the soil, thus coming into contact with more plant food and soil
moisture from which to draw nourishment. Deep plowing enables the
soil to absorb a larger proportion of the rainfall, thus increasing its capacity
for water. The further preparation of the seed-bed by disking and har-
rowing should leave it in a loose, friable condition to a considerable depth.
Such a seed-bed is in marked contrast to the compact and finely pulver-
ized one that is essential to wheat.

Manures and Fertilizers for Com.— The amount and character ot
fertilizer for corn varies greatly in different localities, depending on the
character of soil, length of time it has been in cultivation, and the rota-
tion of crops. No definite formula is applicable to any very large terri-
tory. As a rule, no crop makes better use of barnyard manure than corn.
Six to ten tons of stable manure to an acre of grass sod is generally suf-
ficient. In growing corn, all of the nitrogen needed should be secured
from the manure and leguminous crops that enter into the rotation. On
soils not in a high state of fertility, the manure may be supplemented by
about 200 pounds per acre of acid phosphate. In portions of Indiana,
Illinois and Iowa, rock phosphate may be advantageously substituted for
acid phosphate. On sandy soils and on swampy soils some potash may be

advantageously used.

In the absence of barnyard manure good corn crops may be secured
by the liberal use of a complete fertilizer in which phosphoric acid is the
dominant ingredient. The amount of such fertilizer and its exact com-
position will depend on the character and condition of the soil in question.
The average composition of such a fertilizer would be from 2 to 3 per
cent of nitrogen, 7 to 10 per cent of phosphoric acid and 3 to 6 per cent
of potash. The amount to use will range from 100 to 500 pounds per
acre depending on location. The character of fertilizer and the amount
required can best be ascertained by actual test. In general, applications
of less than 200 pounds may l)e applied through the fertilizer attachment
to the corn planter. Where large amounts are used, it is best to distribute
it throughout the soil before planting the corn.

Experiments that have been in progress for twenty years at the Ohio
Experiment Statign emphasize the importance of phosphorus m corn

Time of Planting, April 29th. ^

production. A series of plats which received nothing save 320 pounds of
acid phosphate per acre during each five-year rotation showed an increase
in the yield of the several crops valued at $16.52 per acre. The acid
phosphate cost $2.24, thus leaving a net gain of $14.28.

The addition of phosphorus to manure also increased the yield very
materially.

Time and Method of Planting. — The time of planting com varies
with the location and character of season. It is never advisable to plant
until the soil is sufficiently warm to cause a prompt germination of the

Time op Planting, May 7th. ^

1 Ck)urtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 282, *'Corn Experiments."

182

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

CORN

183

It will be noted that where corn was grown continuously the yields
have declined regardless of the character of the manure or fertilizer
appHed, whereas corn grown in a rotation has increased decidedly in yield
when either manure or fertilizers have been used.

Plowing for Corn.— Plowing for corn may be done either m the fall,
winter or spring. In many sections of the country fall plowing gives better
results than spring plowing. The difference, however, is not sufficient to
justify the advice that fall plowing should be universal. Every acre that
is plowed in the fall or winter facilitates getting crops in the ground at
the proper season in the spring. Deep plowing for corn deposits the
trash and manure to a greater depth and induces the roots to go deeper
into the soil, thus coming into contact with more plant food and soil
moisture from which to draw nourishment. Deep plowing enables the
soil to absorb a larger proportion of the rainfall, thus increasing its capacity
for water. The further preparation of the seed-bed by disking and har-
rowing should leave it in a loose, friable condition to a considerable depth.
Such a seed-bed is in marked contrast to the compact and finely pulver-
ized one that is essential to wheat. . n
Manures and FertUizers for Com.— The amount and character ot
fertilizer for corn varies greatly in different localities, depending on the
character of soil, length of time it has been in cultivation, and the rota-
tion of crops. No definite formula is applicable to any very large terri-
tory. As a rule, no crop makes better use of barnyard manure than corn.
Six to ten tons of stable manure to an acre of grass sod is generally suf-
ficient. In growing corn, all of the nitrogen needed should be secured
from the manure and leguminous crops that enter into the rotation. On
soils not in a high state of fertility, the manure may be supplemented by
about 200 pounds per acre of acid phosphate. In portions of Indiana,
Illinois and Iowa, rock phosphate may be advantageously substituted for
acid phosphate. On sandy soils and on swampy soils some potash may be

advantageously used.

In the al^sence of barnyard manure good corn crops may be secured
by the liberal use of a complete fertilizer in which phosphoric acid is the
dominant ingredient. The amount of such fertilizer and its exact com-
position will depend on the character and condition of the soil in question.
The average composition of such a fertilizer would ))e from 2 to 3 per
cent of nitrogen, 7 to 10 per cent of phosphoric acid and 3 to 6 per cent
of potash. The amount to use will range from 100 to 500 pounds per
acre, depending on location. The character of fertilizer and the amount
required can Ix^st be ascertainc^d ])y actual test. In general, applications
of less than 200 pounds may ))e applied through the fertilizer attachment
to the corn planter. WIktc large amounts are used, it is best to distribute
it throughout the soil before planting the corn.

Experiments that have been in progress for twenty years at the Ohio
Experiment Statign emphasize the importance of phosphorus in corn

\'t

Time of Planting, April 29th.*

•

The addition of phosphorus to manure also increased the yield very
materially.

Time and Method of Planting. — The time of planting corn varies
with the location and character of season. It is never advisable to plant
until the soil is sufficiently warm to cause a prompt germination of the

Time op Planting, May 7th.^

1 CJourtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 282, "Corn Experinaents.'

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

,*,!;•■». v'v

micM,

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Time of Planting, May 16th.'

seed The best of seed* will often rot in a cold, wet seed-bed. In the
United States the corn planting season from the Guf northward ranges
from the 15th of February until June 1st, a period of three and oi^e-half
months. In the heart of the typical com belt corn is generally planted
Seen the 1st and 10th of May, while in the northernmost limit of su -
cessful corn production, the planting season ranges from the 15th to 31st
of May In any localiW the best time to plant wil not be far from the
Jhne when the leaves of the oak trees are the size of a sqmrrel s ear. If
se^^al conditions retard the work and necessitate planting two weeks

Time of Planting, May 2ryrH.»

. Courtesy o"f Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin 282. "Com Experiments.

CORN

185

later than the best time, it will be wise throughout most of the typical
corn belt, and especially in the northernmost districts, to resort to
varieties of corn of earlier maturity than those generally grown in the
locality. In the Southern states the season is so long that there is a
much wider range in. the planting period. A uniform stand of vigorous
plants is most easily secured by deferring planting until the soil is in the
proper moisture and temperature condition.

Several of the state experiment stations have conducted tests extend-
ing over a number of years relative to the best time to plant corn. As
an average of six years' work at the Ohio Experiment Station there was
little difference in yield in planting any time between the 1st and 20th
of May. For dates much later than the 20th there was a marked reduc-
tion in yield. Planting in the last week in April was nearly as good as

Time of Planting, June 6th.*

planting between the 1st and 20th of May. It is better to plant too early
than to plant too late. Failure in case of early planting may be corrected
by replanting, but there is no remedial measure for a planting that is

made too late.

Rate of Planting. — A full stand of corn is essential. The number of
plants per acre will vary with the fertility of the soil, the kind of corn
and the purpose for which it is grown. Fertile soils will support more
plants per acre than poor ones. Small varieties may be more thickly
planted than large ones, and an abundant moisture supply in the soil
will mature more plants than when dry. When planted for grain, 10,000
to 12,000 plants per acre are probably best throughout the greater portion
of the corn belt. In the South, on thinner soils, fewer plants are often
desirable. If grown largely for fodder or ensilage, corn may be planted
one-quarter thicker than when grown for grain.

I Courtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station , Bulletin 282, "Com Experiments."

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Time of Planting, May IGth.^

seed The best of seed' will often rot in a cold, wet seed-bed. In the
United States the corn planting season from the Guf northward ranges
from the 15th of February until June 1st, a period of three and one-half
months. In the heart of the typical corn belt corn is generally plan ed
between the 1st and 10th of May, while in the northernmost limit of suc-
cessful corn production, the planting season ranges from the 15th to dlst
ofMay In any locality the best time to plant wil not be far from the
time when the leaves of the oak trees are the size of a squirrel s ear. If
seasonal conditions retard the work and necessitate planting two weeks

CORN

185

later than the best time, it will be wise throughout most of the typical
corn belt, and especially in the northernmost districts, to resort to
varieties of corn of earlier maturity than those generally grown in the
locality. In the Southern states the season is so long that there is a
much wider range in the planting period. A uniform stand of vigorous
plants is most easily secured by deferring planting until the soil is in the
proper moisture and temperature condition.

Time of Planting, May 20th.i

a Courtesy o"( Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin 282. "00™ Experiments.

Time of Planting, June 6th.*

made too late.

I Courtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station , Bulletin 282, "Corn Experiments."

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

180

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Numerous experiments indicate that there is Uttle difference within
a reasonable range whether corn is planted in hills or drills. When
planted in checks three kernels per hill, 3 feet 8 inches apart, an acre will
contain 9720 plants. When planted in drills with the rows 3 feet 8 inches
apart and one plant every 14 inches in the rows, an acre will contain 10,180
plants. Drilling is somewhat easier and safer on small, irregular fields
and on land that is of uneven topography, and is preferable on most lands
that are reasonably free of weeds. On badly weed-infested land checkmg
the corn is recommended, because of the better facilities offered for culti-
vation and weed extermination.

On the better lands in the corn belt there has been a tendency m
recent years to lessen the distance between hills, and in many districts
40 inches is now the common planting distance.

At the Ohio Experiment Station the average annual yield per acre
for a period of ten years when corn was planted at the rate of 1, 2, 3, 4
and 5 kernels per hill, with hills 42 inches apart, the largest yield was
secured from 4 kernels. The yields were as follows: 1 kernel, 31.7 bushels;
2 kernels, 50.8 bushels; 3 kernels, 60.8 bushels; 4 kernels, 64.9 bushels,
and 5 kernels, 63 bushels per acre. The yield of stover was largest m
case of 5 kernels per hill. The reduced size of ears ond the increased
labor in husking are such as to indicate 3 kernels per hill as the best rate
of planting when grown for grain.

In regions of abundant rainfall corn is planted on the level, but m
regions of low rainfall it is frequently planted in furrows by what is
known as listing. This encourages a deeper rooting of the plants, which
protects them from severe droughts.

Depth of Planting.— The depth at which to plant corn will vary
with the character and condition of the soil and the nature of the season.
In loose, loamy soils the depth may safely be 3 inches, and in the absence
of sufficient moisture near the surface 4 inches in depth may be justified.
On wet, heavy soils H inches to 2 inches will be better than to plant
deeper. ' No matter at what depth corn is planted, the permanent roots
start at a point about one inch beneath the surface of the soil. The depth
of rooting is not influenced by the depth of planting, unless the depth is

less than one inch.

Preparation of Seed for Planting.— Before shelling com for planting
it is important to remove all irregular kernels from the butts and tips of
ears. Such kernels will not pass through the corn-planter with uniformity.
Before being shelled the ears should be assorted into two or three lots,
according to the size of kernels, and the shelled com from each lot kept
separate so that the planter plates may be adjusted to each size The
same results may be secured by the use of a seed-corn grader, of which
there are several kinds on the market.

The planter should be carefully adjusted to each lot of seed. A
poorly adjusted machine may offset the advantages derived from the

■??■

CORN

187

THE LAST CULTIVATION
SHOULD BE SHALLOW

DEEP CULTIVATION

EARLY IN THE SEASON
SAVES THE MOISTURE

SHALLOW CULTIVATION
LATE IN THE SEASON
SAVES THE CORN ROOTS

carefully selected and graded seed. An actual count of the number of
missing hills or plants on an acre would prove to the grower his loss
through imperfect planting. Extensive investigations over large areas
have shown that in certain years farmers secured not more than three-
quarters of the full stand. If 75 per cent of a full stand produces 40
bushels to the acre, what will 95 per cent of a full stand produce?

Cultivation of Cora. — It is a trite saying that the cultivation of corn
should begin before it is planted. This means that the final preparation
of the seed-bed should take place just before planting, in order that all
weeds that have just
begun to grow will be
destroyed. In the ab-
sence of such prepara-
tion weeds that have
started will make so
much growth before
the corn comes up that
it will make the first
cultivation difficult.
Small corn may be
harrowed with a slant-
toothed smoothing
harrow without in j ury .
A thorough harrowing
at such a time will
destroy many weeds
that are beginning to
grow, and is equally
as effective as one good
cultivation, and much
more quickly done.

The chief objects
of cultivation are : (1)

to destroy weeds, (2) . .

conserve moisture, (3) aerate the soil, and (4) increase the absorption of
rainfall by keeping the surface loose. Under most conditions level and shal-
low cultivation is superior to deep cultivation and the ridging of the soil.
Deep cultivation cuts many of the corn roots, thus reducing the ability
of the plants to secure both plant food and moisture. In general, the
first cultivation may be fairly deep, thus inducing a deeper rooting of
the corn plants, after which shallower cultivation should take place which
will interfere but little with the roots. One hundred and sixteen tests
at thirteen experiment stations relative to the depth of cultivation for

5-t;

The Right and Wrong Way of Cultivating Corn.i

1 Cmirtpay of The International Harvester Company, Agricultural Extension Department,
pamphlet •'Corn is King."

From

i^M^^iM':^

CORN

189

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

188 ^

corn show a difference of more than 15 per cent in yield in favor of shallow
cultivation. Sixty-one tests of deep cultivation gave an average yield of
64.9 bushels per acre, while 55 tests of shallow cultivation gave an aver-
age yield of 74.7 bushels, a difference of nearly 10 bushels per acre. One
to two inches is considered shallow cultivation and four to five inches

"^^'SleqlTncy of cultivation will depend chiefly on the surface con-
dition of the soil and the presence of weeds. In the absence of weeds
and Uh the surface soil in a loose condition, little is to be gamed by

*''' Me&ods of Harvesting.-Throughout the typical corn belt a large
proportion of the corn is harvested from the standing stalks in the field
and the stalks are pastured or allowed to go to waste. This method
fails to fully utilize the by-products of corn production, and is wasteful in

Several Forms op Husking Pegs'

the extreme. In the eastern part of the United States the whole plant
sgenerX harvested and utilized. When com is grown for ceding
daifv cows or steers the fullest utilization of the entire product is attained
by sS in the silo. For this purpose it should be cut when the kemds
have beg^n to glaze and the husks and lower leaves are turning brown.
When S to be used for silage, corn should be put.in shocks at a some-
what more advanced stage of maturity. Three to four hundred stalks
make a shock sufficiently large to stand well and cure properly. The com
Siould be husked in three to six weeks after shocking, the ears stored in
: ^dl-ventilated crib, and the stover re.hocked. C-e f -Id be exerci^d
to so stand and slant the stover that the shocks will stand. They should
V^ securely tied about two feet from the tops with strong ^^'^der twme
Tt is a wSte of good material to allow the shocks to stand m the field
until March or April.

It is wise to feed stover during the winter period. Its feeding value
may be increased by shredding. This encourages livestock to consume
a larger proportion of the stalks. Fifty per cent of the feeding value of
the corn stover lies in the portion of the stalk below the ear. When this
is neither cut nor shredded very little of it is eaten by livestock. Shred-
ding or cutting better fits the refuse for bedding purposes and facilitates
the handling of the manure in which the refuse is finally deposited.

In storing cut or shredded fodder one should be certain that it does
not contain too much moisture. It should be reasonably dry when stored
in large bulk in order to prevent heating and spoiling. It is well, there-
fore, to shred when weather conditions are fairly dry, and not until the
corn stover has become thoroughly cured.

Shrinkage of Corn in Crib by Months. Average 8 Years,

Iowa Experiment Station.

Month.

November
December.
January . . .
February .
March . . . .

April

May

June

July

August . . . .
September
October . . .

Total Shrinkage
to Date,
per cent.

5.2

6.9

7.5

7.8

9.7

12.8

14.7

16.3

17.3

17.8

18.2

Average for

the Month,

per cent.

5.2

1.7

1.9

3.1

1.9

1.6

1.0

The cheapest method of harvesting corn is to pasture with hogs.
This is known as hogging down corn. The results of a four years' test
at the Missouri Experiment Station showed that hogging down corn gave
a return of 324.5 pounds of pork per acre, which, at 6 cents per pound, was
valued at $19.48. The average number of hogs per acre was 14, and the
number of days kept in the field was 35. This was on poor land and with
corn yielding 25 to 30 bushels per acre.

Storing Com. — The grain of corn is best stored for a time on the ear
in a well-ventilated crib or building. Corn cribs of slatted sides with
openings just small enough to prevent ears passing through are almost
universally used for this purpose. They should be covered with roofs
projecting some distance beyond the sides, and turn water without leaking.
Cribs should be on elevated foundations, preferably of masonry or concrete.
For the ideal crib, see Chapter 57. All precaution must be taken to
prevent serious loss by rats and mice. Corn should not be put in the

"i From Farmers' BuUetin 313, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

CORN

189

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

188

corn show a difference of more than 15 per cent in yield in favor of shallow
cultivation. Sixty-one tests of deep cultivation gave an average yield of
64 9 bushels per acre, while 55 tests of shallow cultivation gave an aver-
age 4ld of 74.7 bushels, a difference of nearly 10 bushels per acre. One
S two inches is considered shallow cultivation and four to five inches

'^"^'Seque'cy of cultivation will depend chiefly on the surface con-
dition of the soil and the presence of weeds. In the absence of weeds
and with the surface soil in a loose condition, little is to be gained by

'''^* M*eS>ds of Harvesting.-Throughout the typical com belt a large
proportion of the corn is harvested from the standing f^^^s in the field
and the stalks are pastured or allowed to g« *« /^^t^' :rhj rneM
fails to fully utilize the by-products of corn production, and is wasteful in

Several Forms op Husking Pegs.'

the extreme. In the eastern part of the United States the whole plant
generllTy harvested and utilized. When corn is grown for ceding
dai?v cows or steers the fullest utilization of the entire product is attained
by stor^g in the silo. For this purpose it should be cut when the kernds
have begun to glaze and the husks and lower leaves are turning brown.
When nS to be used for silage, corn should be put in shocks at a some-
what mo e advanced stage of maturity. Three to four hundred stal^
rn.,te n shock sufficiently large to stand well and cure properly. The corn
Tou d be huske? n thfee to six weeks after shocking, the ears stored in
a Se 1-ventilated crib, and the stover reshocked. Care f jld be e.erc.^d
to so stand and slant the stover that the shocks will stand. They should
£ securely 'S about two feet from the tops with strong binder U.ne
K isa ie of good material to allow the shocks to stand in the field
until March or April.

It is wise to feed stover during the winter period. Its feeding value
may be increased by shredding. This encourages hvestock to consume
a larger proportion of the stalks. Fifty per cent of the feeding value of
the corn stover lies in the portion of the stalk below the ear. When this
is neither cut nor shredded very little of it is eaten by livestock. Shred-
ding or cutting better fits the refuse for bedding purposes and facilitates
the handling of the manure in which the refuse is finally deposited.

Shrinkage of Corn in Crib by Months. Average 8 Years,

lovvA Experiment Station.

Month.

Novcnihor
Decernhpr.
January. . .
February.
March. . . .

April

May

June

July

August. . . .
September
October . . .

Total ShrinkaRe
to Date,
per cent.

Average for

the Month,

per cent.

The cheapest method of harvesting corn is to pasture with hogs.
This is known as hogging down corn. The results of a four years^ test
at the Missouri Experiment Station showed that hogging down corn gave
a return of 324.5 pounds of pork per acre, which, at 6 cents per pound, was
valued at $19.48. The average number of hogs per acre was 14, and the
number of days kept in the field was 35. This was on poor land and with
corn yielding 25 to 30 bushels per acre.

Ti^^^i^mers' Bulletin 313. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

190

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

crib until reasonably well cured. If very wet when cribbed it is likely
to mould and decay. Ear corn at husking time will contain 15 to 40 per
cent of moisture, depending on conditions. After standing for six months
or more in the crib, the moisture, under normal conditions, will range
from 10 to 12 per cent. After this time shrinkage from loss of moisture

will be slight. , i • i f „

Shrinkage of Com.— A knowledge of the average shrinkage of com
is important in connection with future prices, and should be taken into
consideration by the farmer in connection with the holding of corn for a
future market. The table on preceding page shows the average shrink-
age of corn at the Iowa Experiment Station as determined for eight

successive years. , c r^ t

Market Grades of Com.— According to the act of Congress ot
June 30, 1900, and March 4, 1913, the Secretary of Agriculture has
fixed the following definite grades of grain, which went into eftect on
July 1, 1914:

Standard Grades of Corn and Specifications for Same.

Grade and

Cla.ssification:

Wliito, Yellow

and Mixed Corn.

Moisture.

No. 1 .
No. 2.
No. 3.
No. 4.
No. 5.
No. (')

14.0
15.5
17.5
19.5
21.5
23.0

Maximum
PtTcentaKO

DamaRod

Corn.

Maximum Percentage

of Foreign Material,

Including Dirt, Cob,

Other Grains, Finely

Broken Corn, etc.

to. 5

tl.

t3.

1
2
2
3
5

Maximum Percentage

of "Cracked" Corn,

not Including Finely

Broken Corn. (See

General Rule 9.)

2
3

4
4
5

;'^/;Sllt;:tt;n^^^ ^^l- to exceed the percentage indicated.

••Sample"— StHj General Uule No. 0 tor eainple grade.

GENERAL RULES

1 The corn in c'-a.U's No. 1 to No. .'), in.-lusivo, must, l)c sweet.

•2 \\liite corn, all Kva.lcs, shall be at least OS ikt cent white.

■i Y. nw ,.„ri all tirades, shall be at le:ust 05 per (-ent yellow. . .,,.,.

t InxcX corn,' a K < es shall ineln.le corn of various colors not conuns witlnn the

limits for color as provided for under white or yeUow corn.
^ In Zlition to he various limits indicated, No. 0 corn may be musty, sour and

mav ate. in<- hide corn of inferior quality, such a.s immature and ba<lly W'stered
fi All corn thitd'H-s not meet the re.iulrement.s of either of the six numerical erad^

6. All corn tliat, (KH snou pcroontace of moisture, damaRcd kernels, foreign

by reason «fj^". ^f„\*^^?, ^ .rn tl. .^ is hot, h<'at-<lan.aged, fin-burnt, infe^sted
"1 Hve w.:"il or Xrw^s^^^^ .listinctly low quality, shall be cla.s.scd aa

7. In N^^^fl'amrs^ple gra<lo, reasons for so grading shall be stated on the inspector's

S FinX* broken corn shall include all broken particles of corn that will pass through
^- ^'a^rfotat^dTictal sieve with round holes A of an mch in diameter.

CORN

191

9. '^Cracked" corn shall include all coarsely broken pieces of kernels that will pass
through a perforated metal sieve with round holes \ of an inch in diameter, except
that the finc^ly broken corn as provided under Rule No. 8 shaU not be considered

as *'cnicked" corn.

It is understood tliat the damaged corn, the foreign material, including pieces
of cob, dirt, finely broken corn, other grains, etc., and the coarsely broken or
" cracked '[ corn, as provided for under the various grades shall be such as occur
naturally in corn when handled under good commercial conditions.
11. Moisture percentages, as provided for in these grade specifications, shall conform
to results obtained by the standard method and tester as described in Circular
No. 72, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.

Composition and Feeding Value of Com, — The following is a com-
pilation of American analyses of the grain of the three principal types
of corn and the stalks of dent corn, under three conditions:

Composition of Corn (Maize).

Number of analyses

Water

Ash. .

Protein (Nitrogen x 6.25) .

Crude fiber

Nitrogen-free extract . . . .
Fat

Grain.

Silage.

All

Varieties.

Dent.

208

86.
10.6

1.5
10.3

2.2
70.4

5.0

Flint.

10
1

70
5

3
4
5
7
1
0

Sweet.

Fresh.

Fodder.

Field
Cured.

26.
8.8
1.9

11.6

2.8
66.8

8.1

99.

35.

79.1

42.2

1.4

2.7

1.7

4.5

6.0

14.3

11.1

34.7

0.8

1.6

Stover.

Field
Cured.

60.

40.1
3.4
3.8

19.7

31.9
1.1

The following tabulation gives the farm value and feeding value of
corn per acre as compared with oats, wheat and hay, when grown in a
four years' rotation on the limestone soil at the Pennsylvania Experiment
Station:

The Average Annual Yield Durino 25 Years of 24 Treatments on 36
Plats on Each of 4 Tiers at the Pennsylvania Station.

Corn, ears

Corn, stover

Oats, grain

Oats, straw

Wheat, grain

Wheat, straw

Timothy and clover hay

Average Yield
per Acre.

Pounds.

Bushels.

3,534
2,528

50.5

• • • •

1,227
1,772
1,192

38.1

• • > •

19.9

2,099

• • • •

3,609

• • • •

Price
per 100
pounds.

Farm

Value

I>er Acre.

Digest-

ible
Protein,
pounds.

Energy

Value,

therm.s

per Acre.

.75
.125

1.00
.125

1.33
.125
.50

$26 . 51

160

3.16

12.27

102

2.22

15.85

106

2.62

18.05

135

3,198
671
813
370
985
348

1,232

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

J 92 ____^

These figures may be condensed into a table that will bring out the
comparison in a more striking manner, as shown below:

— /„ro?TSS J="oi;r ^™r./™t .1"" ""

Years (looii-iytK);.

Corn . .
Oats. . .
Wheat.
Hay...

Digestible Protein,
pounds.

Energy Value,
therms.

Farm Value.

206
121
114
135

3,869
1,189
1,333
1,232

$29.67
14.49
18.47
18.50

CORN IMPROVEMENT

STaoXig ^ time intelhgently ,p.nt '- ^"'^ZV^:,'^L .n iS

», ™p^*„t to „« --^l^-tS'pTesC; ta the't4e°dU„ of both
of good pedigree The same praic^e PP , ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^

plants and animals. Well-bred seea corn r .^ special

bircs^s rrt-p:xssrai:'«e «. .i. . a

bushel of good seed. , j ,,^ ^rchased in the ear so the

Secunng Seed.— beed-corn snoum i uniformity,

buyer can see if it is as represented m regard to type^^^^^^^^ and u^ J

It should have been ^-^^^^^^^''l^^.^^^t^^^^^ far away for
Sr:. Xr=etlat Sr rand have generally been dis-

^^nrcting Seed.-^election should be made in the fi^M w^^^^^^^^^^^

plant and ear can be seen^ ^5?^^ ^^^t 3tuW "of moderate height,
relative to soil and stand. ^««*? ,f ^"^ f"""" ^ for each node bears a
Short nodes or joints are P'-fJ^'-^^le to long ones ^r e ^

leaf. The more the leaf surface, the greater the power o P^^^ ^^^

manufacture the elements of the air ^n^ ?«'"*;'*'? ^e forage. The

.tae^e^ r^ --™ ^F ^^ -/tVSfes'-
t-li ^1^^ SlT?of JS £~i;:: win .no
Objection to having the ears five feet above the ground.

-Ti^i^TTTBuUeU. No. 116. A^cu,tu«. Experiment Station. The Pennsy.van.a State CoUe^-

CORN

193

is too long it allows the ear to pull the stalk over, and when too short the
ear is too erect and may be damaged at the tip by allowing water to enter
the husks. The husks should be moderate in amount and sufficiently
long to cover the tip of the ear and protect the kernels from insects, birds
and damage by rain.

The size of the ear will vary in different districts, but for a medium
maturing variety a good seed ear should be 8 to 10 inches long. The
circumference two-fifths the distance from the butt should equal three-
fourths but not exceed four-fifths of the length. The form should be
cylindrical or but slightly tapering from butt to tip. The tip and butt
should be well filled with kernels and the rows, 16 to 20 in number, should

High and Low Ears.^

be straight and carry out well to the butt and tip with kernels of regular
and uniform shape.

The depth of kernels should equal one-half the diameter of the cob.
Kernels five-eighth inch long, three-eighth inch wide and one-sixth inch
thick are a good size. The tips should be strong and full, for such
indicates good vitality. The embryo or germ should be large and ex-
tend well up toward the crown. Large embryos produce vigorous plants
and indicate high fat and protein content and consequently high feeding
value.

Care of Seed. — Seed-corn should be well cared for by storing in a
dry and well-ventilated room and out of reach of rats- and mice. Corn,
thoroughly dried, will stand a very low temperature without injury, but

» Courtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 282, "Corn Experiments/*

il, ».,-^«,;,.-.-,

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

192

These figures may be condensed into a table that will bring out the
comparison in a more striking manner, as shown below:

\ears (loo^-iywo;.

Corn . .
Oats. . .
Wheat
Hay...

Digestible Protein,
pounds.

Energy Value,
therms.

Farm Value.

206
121
114
135

3,869
1,189
1,333
1,232

$29 . 67
14.49
18.47
18.50

CORN IMPROVEMENT

No crop is more easily and rapidly improved by selection a^d breed^^^
than corn No work on the farm will come so near producmg ^ometh^n^^
t noTng as time intelligently spent ^^^^^^^ ^^ :Zt,
as important to use well-bred seed-corn as it is to bje^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^
nf ^ood Dedigree. The same principles apply m the oreeamg

^? Id animals Well-bred seed-corn has often produced rom five to
plants and animals, vveii ^^^^ . , . received no special

'""'"s«LS?s"l-S..<I-oor„ *ouUl l«. pu,cha.«.<l in the car so the

similar to those surroundmg the P"'^^'^'^^'';^ . ,"^„ generally been dis-
seed-corn. Many farmers have done so and liave generally u

''^PPT.Wtin^ Seed -Selection should be made in the field whore both
Selectmg beea. »eiecuoii ^^^^j conditions

plant and ear can be seen ^e^^ plants sh^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^.^^^

relative to soil and stand. <;«°*? .f,^"*^ '^''";,, for each node bears a

Short nodes or oints are preferable to long ones lor eac

leaf The more the leaf surface, the greater the power ot tne p

attached t^ThJll at a convenient height of ab^^ ^Z^t^s'i^

^'^^"^ "^ bTa'S: iSLT ortrge e mii^ron^fhere will be no
rbiS t hS tTel^ffive feet^bove the ground. When te shank

.Refer to Bulletin No. 116. Agricultural Experiment Station. The Pennsylvania State College.

CORN

193

The size of -the ear will vary in different districts, but for a medium
maturing variety a good seed ear should be 8 to 10 inches long. The
circumference two-fifths the distance from the butt should equal three-
fourths but not exceed four-fifths of the length. The form should be
cylindrical or but slightly tapering from butt to tip. The tip and butt
should be well filled with kernels and the row.s, IG to 20 in number, should

■i.*^ . .'

y^-,^^-:-^ '-^'t^:^-^ ^'^-^^,',^^ ;. •>^--^:^-

nHH^HilSflBSK

IHUNHBHI

V.^,.:^-

'- ^s*^"

High and Low Ears.^

be straight and carry out well to the butt and tip with kernels of regular
and uniform shape.

The depth of kernels should equal one-half the diameter of the cob.
Kernels five-eighth inch long, three-eighth inch wide and one-sixth inch
thick are a good size. The tips should be strong and full, for such
indicates good vitality. The embryo or germ should be large and ex-
tend well up toward the cro^vn. Large embryos produce vigorous plants
and indicate high fat and protein content and consequently high feeding
value.

Care of Seed. — Seed-com should be well cared for by storing in a
dry and well-ventilated room and out of reach of rats- and mice. Corn,
thoroughly dried, will stand a very low temperature without injury, but

* Courtesy of Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 282, "Corn Experiments.

t»

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

i^^

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

194

if not well dried, a temperature not far below freezing will injure it
and destroy its vitality or germinating power and make it worthless

'^'^ ^Gennination Test.— The importance of securing a perfect stand of
strong plants in the cornfield cannot be overestimated. Aside from held
conditions favorable to germination and the proper placing of the corn m
its seed-bed, there are two dominant factors on which perfection of stand
depends: first, the vitality of the seed; second requisite number ot
kernels in each hill or regular and uniform spacing if planted m drills.

A vitality or germination test of seed-corn should always be made.
It should be made several weeks before corn is required for plantmg
so that there may be time to secure a new supply m case the seed

has been injured. There are several
simple methods of making such tests,
but in all cases every ear should be

Germinating Box.— A box about
18 inches square and 3 inches deep,
two-thirds full of clean sawdust or
sand, is most convenient for germi-
nating corn. The material should be
thoroughly moistened and smoothed
to a level in the box. Lay the ears of
corn on the barn floor, tips to tips in
double rows. Number every tenth
ear with a small paper tag stuck
between the rows. Remove from
various parts around the ear, and from
butt to tip, five grains from each ear.
Now cover the sawdust in the box
with a piece of white cloth marked off into squares U inches on a side
v h a lead pencil, preferably an indelible pencil, and numbered consecu-
tively. In the squares, place the five grains from each ear separately
exercising care that the grains from each ear are placed m the square
with the number corresponding. Cover the grains thus placed with
another cloth of close weave or a fold of the one under the corn, to pre-
vent the sprouts from coming through, and spread over all a piece ot
burlap or a gunny sack well soaked in water. The requisites for germma-
ti^n are air, warmth and moisture. The temperature of the living room or
Shen is about right, providing it does not fall below f ^^^^^f.^^^^^
If the temperature is favorable germination will have taken place m fou^
to six days' Any ear failing to give five kernels -gor^^^^^^^^^
should be rejected.. A handy man, working systematically, can test hve
or^x bu^^^^^^ of corn in a day. It is work that should never be neglected

" 1 Courtesy of International Har^'e9ter Company. Agricultural Extension Department.

Good and Poor Types of Kernels.^

The top kernels came from an ear
with too much space at cob, indicating
low yield, poor feeding vahie, immatur-
ity. Compare them with the kernels
in the bottom row.

CORN

195

and will pay for the labor involved many times over in a better stand and
resulting larger yields of corn.

Improvement by Selection and Breeding.— The ear row method is
the most satisfactory way of improving corn along any line. This method
is based on the principle that like begets like, but fortunately this prin-
ciple is not rigid. It is the variation in the progeny of any parent plant that
enables us, through selection, to improve the variety, and it is the tendency
for like to produce a larger percentage of progeny, differing but slightly
from the parent that enables us to make progress in plant improvement.

Corn improvement by selection is easy, because the plant is large
and its characteristics plainly visible; because the variations are suffi-
ciently marked and frequent to enable man to select individuals with

A Good Germination Box Seven Days After Planting.*

The box is filled with wet sand and marked into checks by means of cord stretched

^ across the top at even intervals.

desirable characteristics, and also because of the large number of plants
that can be secured from the individual and the consequent rapidity of
multiplication.

Corn breeding is somewhat difficult because of the natural cross-
fertilization and the impracticability of keeping the breed pure, and also
because close and self-fertilization are difficulties that must be guarded
against. None but the choicest ears selected for desirable qualities of
both ear and plant should be used in the breeding plat, and any ears that
do not show a high standard in the germination test should be rejected.

The selected ears should next be tested for yield and prepotency.
The ears should be numbered and a portion of each planted in a separate
row of a test-plat having uniform fertility. The rows should be sufficiently
long to contain about 200 plants. This will require about one-fourth of
the kernels of each ear. The rows should bear the same numbers as ears

» From Farmers' Bulletin 409, U S. Dept. of Agriculture.

y^^y^-^te;^

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

194

if not well dried, a temperature not far below freezing will injure it
and destroy its vitality or germinating power and make it worthless

*"' ""Gennination Test.— The importance of securing a perfect stand of
strong plants in the cornfield cannot be overestimated. Aside from fie d
conditions favorable to germination and the proper placmg of the com in
its seed-bed, there are two dominant factors on which perfection of stand
depends: first, the vitality of the seed; second requisite number ot
kernels in each hill or regular and uniform spacing if planted m drills.

A vitality or germination test of seed-corn sliould always be made.
It should be made several weeks before corn is required for p anting
so that there may be time to secure a new supply in case the seed

•^ lias been injured. There are several

simple methods of making such tests,
but in all cases every ear should be

Germinating Box.— A box about
18 inches square and 3 inches deep,
two-thirds full of clean sawdust or
sand, is most convenient for germi-
natmg corn. The material should be
thoroughly moistened and smoothed
to a level in the box. Lay the ears of
corn on the Imrn floor, tips to tips in
double rows. Number every tenth
ear with a small paper tag stuck
between the rows. Remove from
various parts around the ear, and from
butt to tip, five grains from each ear.
Now cover the sawdust in the box
with a piece of white cloth marked off into squares H inches on a side
with a lead pencil, preferably an indelible pencil, and numl)ered consecu-
tively. In the squares, place the five grains from each ear separately,
exercising care that the grains from each ear are placed m the square
with the number corresponding. Cover the grams thus placed with
another cloth of close weave or a fold of the one under the corn, to pre-
vent the sprouts from coming through, and spread over all a pie^e ot
burlap or a gunny sack well soaked in water. The requisites for germma-
tTon are air, warinth and moisture. The temperature of the livmg room or
kitchen is about right, providing it does not fall below f degrees at night
If the temperature is favorable germination will have taken Pl^^^ ^^ J^^^^
to six davs Any ear failing to give five kernels vigorously germinated
sL^d be rejeS A handy man, working systematically, can test five
or ^bushel; of corn in a day. It is work that should never be neglected

■ 1 Courtesy of International Han-ester Company. Agricultural Extension Department.

Good and Poor Types of Kernels.^

The top kernels came from an ear
with too nuich space at cob, indicating
low yield, poor feeding vahie, immatur-
ity. Compare them with the kernels
in the bottom row.

CORN

195

and will pay for the labor involved many times over in a better stand and
resulting larger yields of corn.

A Good Germination Box Seven Days After Planting.*

The box is filled with wet sand and marked into checks by means of cord stretched

across the top at even intervals.

desirable characteristics, and also ])ecause of the large number of plants
that can be secured from the individual and the consequent rapidity of
multiplication.

Corn breeding is somewhat difficult because of the natural cross-
fertilization and the impracticability of keeping the breed pure, and also
because close and self-fertilization are difficulties that must be guarded
against. None but the choicest ears selected for desirable qualities of
l)oth ear and plant should be used in the breeding plat, and any ears that
do not show a high standard in the germination test should be rejected.

The selected ears should next be tested for yield and prepotency.
The ears should be numl)ered and a portion of each plantc^d in a separate
row of a test-plat having uniform fertility. The rows should be sufficiently
long to contain about 200 plants. This will require about one-fourth of
the kernels of each ear. The rows should bear the same numbers as ears

> From Farmers' Bulletin 409, U S. Dept. of Agriculture.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

. . ns™* « •*» ^ ; iirr.-fl: ■

196

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

from which planted. The remaining portion of ears, with numbers
securely fastened, should be saved for next yearns multiplying plat. When
corn is up, it should be thinned to a uniform stand for all rows. It should
be frequently observed during growing season for rows that develop
desirable characters. At harvest time each row should be husked sepa-
rately and the corn weighed. The remnants of seed ears, from which a
limited number of the highest yielding rows of best type were planted,
should be shelled together and planted the following year m a multiplying
plat which should supply seed for the general crop. From the multiply-
ing plat should be selected choice ears for another test as above described.
This method repeated each year makes progress in corn improvement.

REFERENCES

"Corn Crops." Montgomery.

''Book of Corn." Myrick.

" Manual of Corn Judging." Shamel.

"Study of Corn." Shoesmith. . „

Kansas Expt. Station Bulletin 205. '' Growing Corn in Kansas

North Dakota Expt. Station Circular 8. "Home Grown Seed Corn.

Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 116. ^" Corn Growing in the East.

U. S. Dept. of Apiculture Bulletin 307. "Tests of Corn Varieties on the Great Plains.

U S Dept of Agriculture Bulletin 168. "Grades for Commercial Corn.

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: ^^

313. " Corn— Harvesting and Storing. • r- k "

317 "Increasing Productiveness;" "Shrinkage of Corn in Cribs.

400 "A More Profitable Corn Planting Method.

415. "Seed Corn."

414. "Corn Cultivation."

537. " How to Grow an Acre of Corn. , tt- x ^r • • »

546. "How to Manage a Corn Crop m Kentucky and West Virginia.

553. "Pop Corn for the Home."

554. "Pop Corn for the Market.'

CHAPTER 12

Wheat (Winter and Spring)

By W. H. Darst

Assistant Professor of Agronomy, Pennsylvania State College

The crop that furnishes the bread material of a country comes a
little closer to the Uves of the people than any other. In nearly all coun-
tries of the world wheat holds the first place as a bread crop, and for that
reason deserves most careful attention.

The United States, with its rapidly increasing population, especially
in the cities, and its constantly increasing demand for breadstuffs, may
very soon find it necessary to import wheat. Under existing conditions
the price of wheat must increase rather than decrease, and there will be
more and more inducement for the farmer to increase his production.

The world's annual production of wheat for the last three years
(1912-14) has been approximately 3,882,255,000 bushels. The six leading
countries in production and in average acre yield are as follows:

Average Annual Produetion, 1912-1914.

Country.

United States . . .
European Russia

British India

France

Austria-Hungary
Canada

Bushels.

794,889,000
686,512,000
349,273,0(X)
325,650,0(K)
226,732,000
205,718,(KK)

Average Acre Yield, 1904-1913.

Country.

BusheU.

United Kingdom 32 . 8

Germany 30 . 7

France 20.1

Austria-Hungary ' 191

United States.. 14.3

European Russia 10.0

It is an interesting fact that the two largest producing countries
have the lowest acre yields. At one time these European countries had
average yields very similar to our own. By years of systematic applica-
tion of best known methods of production, the yields of these countries

have increased enormously.

The climatic and soil conditions of some European countries are
more favorable to the production of wheat than those in the United
States. In European countries, also, the labor proposition is not so serious
as it is in this country; consequently, they can afford to spend more time

on their wheat crop. , ,<. x, i, i.

Wheat Production in United States.— About one-half the wheat

crop of the United States is produced in the North Central states west of

(197)

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

198

the Mississippi River. This section includes the states of Kansas, Ne-
l)raska, North and South Dakota, Minnesota and Iowa. Hard winter
wheat andlhard spring wheat (including Durham) are grown in this section.
About one-sixth of the crop is produced in the North Central states
east of the Mississippi River. The wlieat in this section is known as the

soft or red winter wheat. , ^. . , „, x •

About one-sixth of the wheat crop of the United States is grown in
the far West This includes the irrigated districts of the Rockies and the
Pacific Coast wheat districts. White and red spring, and some winter
wheat, are grown in this section.

All other states not in the general districts mentioned produce
approximately 100,000,000 bushels annually.

Climatic and Soil Adaptation.— Wheat has a very wide climatic
adaptation, which makes it a staple crop in many countries of the world.
Wheat is best adapted, however, to regions having cold winters, especially
cool weather during the first of the growing season. Cool weather during
early growth causes wheat to stool more abundantly, which generally
results in a larger yield. This applies to spring wheat as well as to winter

^ ^Vlimatic conditions, viz: rainfall, temperature, sunshine and
humidity, influence the milling quality of wheat to a greater degree tl an
does the type or fertility of the soil. The map, roughly dividing the
United States into wheat districts, shows that climatic conditions existing
in any section determine to a large extent the milling quality of the wheat.

In the hard spring and hard winter wheat districts, the season is
comparatively hot and dry during the fruiting period, forcing early ripen-
ing of the wheat. This results in a hard, flinty k(>rnel, high in protein
and of good milling quaUty. The fruiting period being shortened, the
wheat does not have the opportunity to store as large amounts of starch
in the grain as it would under more favorable climatic conditions.

Where the fruiting season is longer and more favorable, as in the
red winter wheat district and along the Pacific Coast, more starch is
stored in the grain, which results in a starchy, light-colored wheat having

lower milling quality. , . ., , ^ • ^u • u

A proper soil for wheat is important in that it determines the yield
rather than milling quality. A large portion of the wheat in the United
States is grown on the so-called "glacial drift" soils. These soils vary
greatly in texture and structure, humus and plant food. The clay or
clav loam uplands are usually better adapted to wheat than the low-
lying dark-colored loamy soils. Dark-colored soils, rich in humus, are
better adapted to corn. Wheat grown on such soil is apt to winter-kill
and heave badly. The wheat grows tall and rank and may not fall out

properly. _ . . , . •

Rotations.— In parts of the Great Plains region, wheat is grown
in continuous culture with fair returns, because the farming operations

WHEAT

199

are so extensive. Rotations, therefore, are not profitable as yet. Even-
tually these large farms will be made into smaller ones, and it will be neces-
sary to properly rotate the crops for profitable yields.

Continuous culture of wheat not only reduces the fertility of the
soil, but multiplies the insects and fungous diseases injurious to wheat.
Rotations are greatly modified in different locaUties by the crop-pro-
ducing power of the soil and by the crops produced. Wheat is frequently
grown in a rotation in order to obtain a stand of grass. The value of

■

■ -^^■'- '■■■

::f

I Plowed S0>Ltt^^^^^^^H

■ .. ..^ •*

•> •>■.>.: ■■■1

:.■■..:- , 'J

f^wea July »
Thrtt «n.ci«<t?

H| Plowed July »
^R Vk>Hl34.»$

Br ""'" M'^mm

^^^^^^^^^^^^B^&div4^^«SMMM3BB^l^P^flK

^St--'-- ■- t 1

Effect op Time of Preparing Seed Bed. Yield of Bagged Wheat. ^

rotations from the economic standpoint has l)een discussed in a previous
chapter.

Preparation of the Seed-Bed. — The method used in preparing a seed-
bed for wheat is determined by the rotation and kind of wheat grown.
In winter wheat sections wheat may follow corn, oats, potatoes or tobacco.
Wheat requires a firm, fine and moist, seed-bed, whether it be sown in the
fall or spring. When wheat follows corn, potatoes or tobacco, the ground
should be thoroughly plowed for these crops in the spring of the year,
and the crop grown should receive thorough and regular cultivation as
long as possible. After the crop is harvested double disking should put
the ground in ideal shape for the seeding of wheat.

When winter wheat follows oats the stubble should be plowed as
early as possible. The early breaking of oat stubble gives more time

» Courtesy of Kansaa Agricultural Experiment Station.

;-\ti.:>^i

198

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

WHEAT

199

the Mississippi River. This section includes the states of Kansas, Ne-
braska, North and South Dakota, Minnesota and Iowa. Hard winter
wheat andlhard spring wheat (including Durham) are grown in this section.
About one-sixth of the crop is produced in the North Central states
east of the Mississippi River. The wheat in this section is known as the

soft or red winter wheat. .. . , r. . •

About one-sixth of the wheat crop of the United States is grown in
the far West. This includes the irrigated districts of the Rockies and the
Pacific Coast wheat districts. White and red spring, and some winter
wheat, are grown in this section.

All other states not in the general districts mentioned produce
approximately 100,000,000 bushels annually.

Climatic and Soil Adaptation.— Wheat has a very wide climatic
adaptation, which makes it a staple crop in many countries of the world.
Wheat is best adapted, however, to regions having cold winters, especially
cool weather during the first of the growing season. Cool weather during
early gro\Hh causes wheat to stool more abundantly, which generally
results in a larger yield. This applies to spring wheat as well as to winter

wheat. 1-1

Climatic conditions, viz: rainfall, temperature, sunshine and

humidity, influence the milling quality of wheat to a greater degree tl an

does the type or fertility of the soil. Tlu^ map, roughly dividing the

United States into wheat districts, shows that climatic conditions existing

in any section determine to a large extent the milling quality of the wheat.

In the hard spring and hard winter wheat districts, the season is
comparatively hot and dry during the fruiting period, forcing early ripen-
ing of the wheat. This results in a hard, flinty k(Tn(^l, high in i^rotein
•md of good milling quality. The fruiting period being shortcaied, the
wlu^at does not have the opportunity to store as largc^ amounts of starch
in the grain as it would und(T more favorable climatic conditions.

Where the fruiting season is hmgvr and more favorabl(% as in the
red winter wheat district and along the Pacific Coast, morc^ starch is
stored in the grain, which results in a starchy, light-colored wheat having

lower milling quality. ^ ,..,,. • ^i • i^

A proper soil for wheat is important in that it determiners the yield
rather than milling quality. A large portion of the wheat in the United
States is grown on the so-called ^^ glacial drift ^^ soils. These soils vary
greatly in texture and structure, humus and plant food. The clay or
clay loam uplands are usually bettcT adapted to wheat than the low-
lying dark-colored loamy soils. Dark-colored soils, rich m humus, are
better adapted to corn. Wheat grown on such soil is apt to wmter-kill
and heave badly. The wheat grows tall and rank and may not fill out

properly. . . , , .

Rotations.— In parts of the Great Plains region, wheat is grown
in continuous culture with fair returns, l)ecause the farming operations

Continuous culture of wheat not only reduces the fertility of the
soil, but multiplies the insects and fungous diseases injurious to wheat.
Rotations are greatly modified in different localities by the crop-pro-
ducing power of the soil and by the crops produced. Wheat is frequently
grown in a rotation in order to obtain a stand of grass. The value of

Effect of Timk of Preparing Seed Bed. Yield of Bagged Wheat. ^

rotations from the economic standj^oint has b(»en discussed in a previous
chapter.

Preparation of the Seed-Bed. — The method used in preparing a seed-
bed for wheat is determined by the rotation and kind of wheat grown.
In winter wheat sections wheat may follow corn, oats, potatoes or tobacco.
Wheat requires a firm, fine and moist, seed-bed, whether it be sown in the
fall or spring. When wheat follows corn, potatoes or tobacco, the ground
should be thoroughly i)l()wed for these crops in the spring of the year,
and the crop grown should receive thorough and regular cultivation as
long as possible. After the crop is harvested double disking should put
the ground in ideal shape for the seeding of wheat.

When winter wheat follows oats the stubble should be plowed as
early as possible. The early breaking of oat stubble gives more time

» Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

200

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

for the preparation of the seed-bed, the firming of the soil and the conserv-
ing of moisture.

• If plowing is done late in the season, each day's work should be
harrowed as soon as finished. Plowed ground that is allowed to remam
a few days before working is likely to become very dry and cloddy. A
well prepared seed-bed insures quick germination, a good root system
and results in less pulling and winter killing.

The following table taken from Bulletin No. 185 of the Kansas
Experiment Station, shows that yield of wheat is greatly influenced by
both the time and method of preparing the seed-bed:

Methods of Preparing Land for Wheat. Cropped to Wheat Continuously.

Method of Preparation.

Disked, not plowed

Plowed Sept. 15, 3 inches deep

Plowed Sept. 15, 7 inches deep

Plowed Aug. 15, 7 inches deep • • • •

Plowed Aug. 15, 7 inches deep. Not worked

until Sept. 15

Plowed July 15, 3 inches deep

Plowed July 15, 7 inches deep

Double disked July 15. Plowed Sept. 15 . .

Double disked July 15. Plowed Aug. 15, 7 inches

deep 1- ■ ■*■ ■ ■

Listed July 15, 5 inches deep. Ridges split Aug.

15 ••;

Listed July 15, 5 inches deep. Worked down. . .

Average 3 Years. 1911-1913.

Yield per

A ore,
bushels.

6.63
13.24
14.15
22.19

20.48
20.77
27.11
19.71

23.40

22.90
22.77

Cost per

Acre for

Preparation.

Vahie of Crop,
]jVsh Cost of
Preparation.

$2.07
2.83
3.33
4.00

3.33

4.85
5.35
3.93

4.93

3
4

92
05

$3.64
8.35
8.60

16.34

13.65
12.25
16.87
12.37

14.30

14.73
14.53

- Karly preparation of the seed-bed gave a profitable increase m yields.
Early disking of the stubble, and plowing later, also gave very good
returns. The possible objection to early plowing (July 15th to August
15th) is the lack of labor and teams at this time. In this case the stubble
may be disked early and plowed later when work is less pressing. Disking
a stubble before plowing tends: (1) to conserve moisture, (2) to kill weeds,
(3) to lessen the draft and cost of plowing the land, (4) to pulverize that
portion of the seed-bed that eventually will be turned under, and (5}

to aid in destroying the Hessian fly. , ,. . • r^ a

In the semi-arid districts of the United States the lister is often used

in preparing the seed-bed for wheat. The lister leaves the bottom of the

furrow in ridges, however, and should not be used year after year in tHe

preparation of the soil. , ,

FertiUzers for Wheat.-A detailed discussion of fertilizers has been
given in a previous chapter. Two methods of supplying plant food to

WHEAT

201

the wheat crop are: (1) by the application of barnyard manure, and (2)
by the use of commercial fertilizers.

Where clover or grass is followed by corn in a rotation, better returns
are obtained from manure when placed on the sod and plowed under
for corn. For soils low in plant-food and humus, manure may be applied
profitably to the wheat crop. Unless the ground is too rolling the manure

^ 7* r.££^

i' ^^y'</

^ — > j . — J

Approximate Date of Seeding Winter Wheat. ^

should be applied to the wheat as a top dressing before seeding rather
than plowed under, or it may be applied after seeding. Soluble plant-
food from the manure will leach down into the soil and the strawy remains
will act as a mulch during the winter.

The needs of the soil upon which the wheat crop is to be grown will
determine the proportion of different plant-food elements to be used.
The intelligent use of fertilizers for wheat calls for a knowledge of the

I Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

202 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

needs of the soil. This may be ascertained partly by knowing the previous
treatment of the soil and by studying the appearance of the crops now
growing upon it. More definite information may be secured by the use
of different fertilizing elements on small plats conducted as a test durmg
one or more years for the purpose of ascertaining the needs of the soil.

Phosphorus is the element most often needed on ordinary wheat
soils of most northern states, and is the one that usually gives the greatest
increase in yields. In many localities the yield may be further mcreased
by the addition of small to moderate amounts of potash. In many cases,
some nitrogen will produce still further increase. However, it is poor
policy to pay 18 cents a pound for nitrogen that can be produced more
cheaply on the farm by the use of various leguminous crops in the rotation.

Time of Seeding.— The time to seed wheat in a given section will be
determined largely by previous experience. The latitude, season, soil
conditions and insect enemies all help determine the proper time for

seeding. -rk 4.

The chart on preceding page prepared by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture gives the approximate date of seeding winter wheat,
where the Hessian fly must be considered as a factor.

Spring wheat should be sown as early as the ground can be prepared
properly. Early seeding insures cool weather during the early growth
and permits the crop to ripen before the severe storms of late summer.
Wheat is generally seeded with a grain drill, although broadcasting is
still practiced is some parts of the far West.

Rate of Seeding.— The rate of seeding varies greatly m different
wheat districts of the United States. East of the Mississippi River two
bushels of well-cleaned seed will generally give the best results. Results
by the Ohio Experiment Station, located near the center of the humid
region, teach a valuable lesson on this point.

Thick and Thin Seeding of Wheat. Ten Different Varieties Used.

8ixteen-Yeau Average.*

3 pecks per acre 20.2C> bushels per acre

A << 21 .u4

I a 22.97

ft a 24.11

7 a 24.36

o it 25.01 '' .

S « 25.46

In the dry farming area of the West the amount of seed required ranges
from two to three pecks in the driest sections to six or eight pecks in the
more humid sections. The rate of seeding for any section should be
determined by actual tests.

Wheat should not be covered too deeply. The depth of seeding will
depend on the type of soil and the preparation of the seed-bed. The

*Taken from records of the Ohio Experiment Station.

■msMifeSziir'

WHEAT

203

usual depth of drilling is from two to three inches. To secure ideal con-
dition for germination the seed should be placed in the drill furrow on
firm, damp soil, which will supply moisture for rapid germination and the

development of roots.

Grain Drills.— For general use a good single-disk drill does very good
work. On stony, trashy land it does better work than double-disk or shoe
drills. In the absence of trash and on a well-prepared seed-bed, the shoe
drill is more readily regulated to a uniform depth of seeding. The press
drills are preferred for use in light, droughty soils and drier climates.

Winter Killing.— Winter killing of wheat is a source of great loss
throughout the winter wheat districts of the United States. Winter
killing may be due to: (1) alternate freezing and thawing of wet soils,
which gradually lifts the plants, exposing and breaking the roots; (2)
weak plants, resulting from late sowing, lack of moisture or freezing in a
dry, open winter; (3) smothering of the plants under a heavy covering
of ice and sleet. A heavy growth of early seeded wheat is more apt to
smother than that sown later. When unfavorable weather conditions
exist, very little can be done to prevent winter killing. However, pre-
ventive measures such as the following are advised: (1) Grow a hardy
variety of wheat ; (2) drain wet spots in the wheat field ; (3) thoroughly
prepare the seed-bed; (4) sow seed early enough to secure strong, vigorous
plants; (5) roll wheat that is pulled by freezing and thawing. Rolling
early in the spring firms the soil about the roots and benefits the wheat
if the pulling has not progressed too far.

Wheat Districts.— The United States may be divided into five wheat
districts according to the color and composition of the grain. These dis-
tricts are not sharply defined, but a brief outline of them should give the
reader a better idea of the kind of wheat grown, the leading varieties and
the milling qualities of the wheat in the different parts of the United States.
District No. 1.— All wheat east of the Mississippi River is known as
Red Winter, or soft winter wheat. It varies in color from white to red
and amber. The quality of this wheat varies from medium in the northern
part to poor in the southern part of the district. The leacling varieties
in the northern portion are Fulcaster, Pool, Dawson s Golden Chart,
Gypsy, Harvest King, Fultz, Rudy and Michigan Amber. In the southern
portion the leading varieties are Fulcaster, Pool, Purple Straw, Bluestone

and Mediterranean. ^ ^ - ^ 4. i

District No. 2.— The hard spring wheat, including Durham, is located
in the Dakotas, Minnesota and parts of Nebraska, Iowa and Wisconsin.
The wheat in this district is small and shriveled in kernel, hard and dark
in color. The milling quality of hard spring wheat is excel ent. ihe
principal varieties are Bluestem, Velvet Chaff, Fife and Durham (Kur-

banka and Arnautha). tvt u 1

District No. 3.— The hard winter district includes Kansas, Nebraska,
Oklahoma, Iowa- and Missouri. The wheat in this district is red to amber

K-^%;'

204

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

WHEAT

205

in color. The grain is hard and flinty, but larger and plumper than the
hard spring. The milUng quality of the wheat is excellent, although
the quahty of the gluten is not as high as in the hard spring wheat. The
principal varieties grown are the Turkey and Kharkof .

District No. 4.— White soft or Pacific Coast wheat, grown mostly
in California, is soft and starchy, and yellow to red in color. The milling
quality varies from fair to poor. For bread purposes this wheat must be
blended with the hard wheats. The wheat in this district is classed as soft
winter on the market. The leading varieties are White AustraHan,
Sonora, Club, King's Early and Early Baart.

'EOlOMli'ARb

Wheat Districts of the ITnited States.

District No. 5.— The medium hard spring and winter wheat is grown
in the extreme Northwest, Washington, Oregon and Idaho. The whejit
in this section is medium in quality, much of it having a bleached, dull
appearance. The principal varieties of winter wheat are Forty Fold,
Red Russian and Jones' Winter Fife. Bluestem is the leadmg sprmg

Wheat Improvement.— Every wheat grower should ascertain, by
test or otherwise, the variety best suited to his conditions. The variety
tests at the nearest experiment station will generally indicate the best
varieties for similar conditions. For a community located on soil different
from that of the nearest experiment station, an ideal plan is to organize
a communitv seed association. A variety test of wheat should be con-

ducted on some central farm. After the best variety is determined, the
farmers of that community will find it advantageous if all grow the same
variety of wheat. The advantages of such a plan will be: (1) larger
yields for all; (2) better and more uniform quality, resulting in higher
prices; (3) the production of pure seed, true to name; and (4) the pro-
viding of a better opportunity to improve the variety. When farmers
of a commuivity are all interested in one variety of wheat, they will naturally
be interested in its improvement.

The so-called "mass selection" will be found both practical and profit-

A Profitable Yield of Wheat.'

able in improving a variety of wheat. The procedure is as follows: A
field of good wheat is examined at harvest time and enough of the choicest
heads are selected to make a bushel or more of seed. This is threshed by
hand and carefully stored until seeding time. This selected seed should
be sown in a marked portion of the general wheat field. At harvest time
choice heads are again hand selected from this special plat. The remain-
ing wheat is harvested for seed to be multiplied for the general field wheat.
By continuing this process of selection each year there will be a tendency
to improve the variety continually, or at least to eliminate all danger of
the wheat running out.

I Courtesy o( Penn State Fanner, State College, Pa.

al^

204

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

WHEAT

205

in color. The grain is hard and flinty, but larger and plumper than the
hard spring. The milling quality of the wheat is excellent, although
the quaUty of the gluten is not as high as in the hard spring wheat. The
principal varieties grown are the Turkey and Kharkof .

/SPRING 5 vyiNTER / f-4--\ ^ "^

/"fe Q_ IDIST3,

% *

Wheat Districts of the I'nited States.

District No. 5.— The medium hard spring and winter wheat is grown
in the extreme Northwest, Washington, Oregon and Idaho. The wheat
in this section is medium in quality, much of it havmg a bleached, dull
appearance. The principal varieties of winter wheat are Forty l^old.
Red Russian and Jones' Winter Fife. Bluestem is the leadmg sprmg

varietv. , 1 1 ± - u

Wheat Improvement.— Every wheat grower should ascertam, Dy

test or otherwise, the variety best suited to his conditions. The variety

tests at the nearest experiment station will generally indicate the best

varieties for similar conditions. For a community located on soil different

from that of the nearest experiment station, an ideal plan is to organize

a community seed association. A variety test of wheat should be con-

ducted on some central farm. After the best variety is determined, the
farmers of that community will find it advantageous if all grow the same
variety of wheat. The advantages of such a plan will be: (1) larger
yields for all; (2) better and more uniform quality, resulting in higher
prices; (3) the production of pure seed, true to name; and (4) the pro-
viding of a better opportunity to improve the variety. When farmers
of a community are all interested in one variety of wheat, they will naturally
be interested in its improvement.

The so-called '^mass selection'' will be found both practical and profit-

A Profitable Yield of Wheat.i

able in improving a variety of wheat. The procedure is as follows: A
field of good wheat is examined at harvest time and enough of the choicest
heads are selected to make a bushel or more of seed. This is threshed by
hand and carefully stored until seeding time. This selectexl seed should
be sown in a marked portion of the general wheat field. At harvest time
choice heads are again hand selected from this special plat. The remain-
ing wheat is harvested for seed to be multiplied for the general field wheat.
By continuing this process of selection each year there will be a tendency
to improve the variety continually, or at least to eliminate all danger ot
the wheat running out.

* Courtesy of Penn State Farmer, State College, Pa.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

i^ev

m$y

206

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Harvesting.— Wheat is generally liarvested as soon as ripe. The
straw should be yellow in color and the grain in hard dough, before the
wheat may be safely harvested. In the wlu^at-growing section along
the Pacific Coast the wheat is allowed to stand a week or two after it is
ripe, and is then harvested with a combined harvester and thresher.

Wheat should be shocked the same day it is cut. Considerable
starch is transferred from the leaves and stems to the grain after the wheat
is harvested. Immediate shocking of the grain prevents rapid drying

and aids this action.

When not to be threshed from the shock, wheat should be hauled
in and stacked or stored in the barn as soon as possible (a week or ten
days). Hot sun bleaches wheat rapidly; rainy weather often damages
and sometimes destroys the crop in the shock. In the eastern United
States threshing generally takes place in the barn in the late fall. In the
corn belt section and Great Plains region most of the wheat is threshed
out of the shock or in the field by a combine. ^

Threshed wheat should be stored in tight, clean granaries. When
it is to remain in storage for some time the granary should be cleaned
thoroughly to make sure of the removal of grain moths, weevils and fungous
diseases. If the granary is constructed so as to keep out vermin and
insects, there is practically no loss of weight in storage.

Cost of Producing Wheat.— The fixed charges of growing an acre of
wheat are about the same, whether the yield is 15 bushels or 30 bushels
per acre A rough estimate of the cost of growing wheat in the United
States is between $10 and $12 per acre. The United States Department
of Agriculture has secured from many farmers itemized estimatc^s of the
cost of producing wheat in all of the states. Those for a few of the widely
separated states are as follows:

Plowing

Seed

Planting

Harvesting —
Threshing . . . .

Rent

Fertilizer ....
Miscellaneous

1 otal

Cost per bushel

Net profit per acre.
Number of reports

Pennsyl-
vania.

$3 . 80
1.94
.60
1.79
1.00
3.50
2.83
.62

$16.68

.84

3.42

131

South
Carolina.

$1 . 46
1.36
.89
1.23
1.33
3.03
2.66
.35

$12.31

.96

3.85

North
Dakota.

$1.95

1.31

.44

1.03

1.60

2.22

.06

.38

$8 . 99

.62

4.87
177

Illinois.

$2.01

1.50

.35

1.19

1.46

5.33

.27

.43

$12.54

.64

6.41

256

Kansas.

$1.81

1.22

.41

1.49

1.44

3.41

.06

.45

$10 . 29

.63

5 . 66

309

The estimated cost in Kansas was based on the reports of 309 farmers
who, during the year 1909, secured an average yield of 1G.3 bushels per

WHEAT

207

acre. This is representative of Districts 2 and 3 that produce one-half of
the wheat grown in the United States. The average acre yield in the
United States is 14.8 bushels. It will be seen that there is little profit
in raising less than 15 bushels to the acre.

Enemies of Wheat: Weeds, Insects and Fungous Diseases.— Weeds,
common in wheat fields, are not, as a rule, difficult to eradicate. Weeds
damage wheat by reducing the yield and by injuring the milling quality
of the grain. The weeds most objectionable in wheat are garlic, cockle,
cheat or chess, wild oats and wild mustard. These are usually controlled
by proper cleaning of the seed wheat, by carefully preparing the seed-bed
and by a suitable rotation of crops. , , , , .

Insects.— The Hessian fly and chinch bug are probably the most
destructive of wheat insects. The methods of control are preventive for
the most part. The burning over of stubble land any time from harvest
to the middle of August will destroy many of the Hessian flies and chinch
bugs The planting of trap crops also will aid in reducing Hessian fly
trouble A strip of wheat sown early in August will induce the fly to lay
effffs This wheat should be carefully plowed down after the first frost
so as to destroy the fly. Often an early strip of wheat may be plowed
down in time for proper preparation and reseeding. ^

A stinging frost will kill the adult Hessian fly. If the season is not
too backward it is well to delay seeding of wheat until this time. How-
ever, wheat should be seeded early enough to become rooted before winter

A* patch of millet sown early in the spring will attract many of the
chinch bugs, thus keeping them out of the wheat and corn.

The common insects of the granary are the granary weevil (CoZan^ra
granaria) and the Angoumois moth (Sitotroga cerealella). Both these
insects multiply rapidly and should be attended to at once.

Used granaries should always be cleaned thoroughly before the new
wheat is stored. Granaries should be repaired when needed so as to make
the sides and floor as tight as possible. n.^u^„

Fumigation should be resorted to when insects first appear Carbon
bisulDhide is a very effective chemical to use in a good tight granary.
One anrone-ha^^ pints to one ton of grain, or 1000 cu. ft. of space, is the
recommended amoU to use. The liquid should be poured -to shaUow
pans and placed over the wheat. For the best results fumigation should
be repeated in two weeks^ time. Hydrocyanic acid gas is used m elevators
L milis, but would be very dangerous in the ordinary barn where live-
, I . 1 i

' "'^ Fungous Diseases.-Riist and smut arc perhaps the most dostructive
among wheat diseases. There is no known remedy for rust other than
the growing and breeding of rust-resistant varieties of wheat. Stink ng
smuf mTy destroy as much as 10 per cent of the total wheat crop of the
United States. It does not change the general appearance of the wheat

208

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

head while in the field, but develops within the kernel as the wheat ripens.
At threshing time the infected kernels may be broken, exposmg a
black, stinking, greasy mass of smut spores. The handling of smutty
wheat aids in the infecting of all sound wheat that comes in contact with
it. The smut spores adhere to the outside of the kernel until it is planted.
The fungus grows within the wheat plant and finally takes possession of
the newly formed berry. Stinking smut can be controlled by the formalde-
hyde treatment.

Treatment.— One pint of 40 per cent formaldehyde is added to 40
gallons of water. This is suflftcient to treat 40 bushels of wheat. The
wheat should be spread on a good tight floor and sprinkled with the
solution. The wheat should then be shoveled over until the gram is well
moistened, after which it should be shoveled into a pile or ridge and covered
with canvas for several hours. The wheat should then be spread out on
the floor to dry. The kernels will absorb water and become larger. If
seeding takes place before the wheat is thoroughly dry, one-fifth to one-
fourth more seed to the acre is sown than when untreated seed is used.

Loose smut is less injurious to wheat then the hidden or stinking
smut, but is more diflficult to treat and control. It destroys the head in
the field, leaving the bare rachis as evidence of its presence. The mature
spores are scattered by the wind. If they gain entrance to the growing
berry in the head, they germinate and send mycelium into its tissues to
await the time when the wheat is sown in the ground. The formahn
treatment, which simply acts on the outside of the berry, is ineffective.

The hot-water treatment is recommended for the loose smut of wheat.
This treatment requires careful and painstaking work, and is not practical
for large quantities of seed. A small quantity of seed should be treated
and sown in a separate plot to be used for seed purposes the following
year, thus eliminating the smut.

Treatment.— The equipment required for the hot-water treatment is
as follows: 3 large kettles, 1 tub, several wire baskets holding about 1
peck of grain, and 1 good thermometer. The seed wheat should be soaked
several hours in cold water placed in tub. The water in kettle No. 1 is
heated to 127° F., and in kettle No. 2 to 130° F. This can be done by
heating water in the extra kettle and regulating to the required tempera-
ture the water in kettles No. 1 and 2. A wire basket should be filled
with wheat from the tub of cold water, allowed to dram, and immersed
in kettle No. 1 for two minutes. It should then be taken out and
immersed in kettle No. 2 for ten minutes, after which the wheat should be
spread out to dry. This treatment frequently kills a small percentage
of the kernels, the amount of which should be determined so as to regulate
the proper rate of seeding. A germination test is therefore advised before
seeding.

WHEAT

209

REFERENCES

"Book of Wheat.'' Donalinger.

''Wheat." TenEyck.

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:
320. ''Quality in Wheat."
534. "Durum Wheat."

596. "Winter Wheat Culture in Eastern States."
616. "Winter Wheat Varieties for Eastern States."
678 . ' ' Growing Hard Spring Wheat . ' '
680. "Varieties of Hard Spring Wheat."

■■^^^S^^M--

CHAPTER 13

OATS, BARLEY AND RYE

OATS

As a farm crop in North America, oats rank fifth in value. It has
a short season of growth, is easily raised by extensive methods and brmgs
quick returns. It is, therefore, a popular crop, especially ^ith the tenant
farmer. The yield and cash value per acre is low compared with the best
oat-producing countries of Europe, and some question the advisability
of continuing its cultivation so extensively in this country.

Oats fit into the general crop rotation and follow corn better than
most other crops. In the North Central states it is extensively used as
a crop in which to seed the clovers and grasses. It makes a desirable
feed for all classes of livestock except swine, and is highly prized tor
horses. The straw is valuable as roughage and as an absorbent in stables

and has considerable fertiUzing value. ^ . • ^u tt •+ ^

The average acreage, yield, production and value of oats in the United
States for ten years ending 1914 is given in the following table:

Average Annual Acreage, Production and Farm Value and Mean Acre
Yield of Oats in the Ten States of Largest Production for

the Ten Years from 1905 to 1914.

Iowa

Illinois

Minnesota. . . .

Wisconsin

Nebraska

Ohio

Indiana

North Dakota,

Michigan

New York . . . .

Area,
acres.

Mean Yield

per Acre,

bushels.

4,581,000
4,160,000
2,697,000
2,337,000
2,373,000
1,636,000
1,719,000
1,737,000
1,424,000
1,268,000

31.9

31.2

30.8

5
3
4

29.0
27.7
30.8
31.5

Production,
bushels.

146,618,000
130,09(),000
84,739,000
73,386,000
59,384,000
53,581,000
49,887,000
48,233,000
43,704,000
39,973,000

Farm Value,
December 1.

$48,182,000
46,920,0(K)
27,526,000
29,202,000
19,938,000
20,881,000
18,018,000
15,233,000
17,327,000
18,761,000

Sou and Climatic Adaptation.— In the production of oats, favorable
climate and cultural conditions are more important than the c^iaracter
and fertility of the soil. They do best in a cool, moist climate In North
America oats succeed best in Canada and those states of the Union lying
next to the Canadian border. The acreage of spring oats below 38 degrees
north latitude is very small. Oats require an abundance of water and
loam, and clay loam soils are generally best adapted to them.

(210)

6ATS, BARLEY AND RYE

211

Classes and Varieties. — Oats are divided into spring and winter oats.
By far the larger proportion in North America belongs to the former class.
Spring oats are divided into two classes, namely, those having open pan-
icles and those with closed panicles. By far the larger number of varieties
falls into the first class. They are further classified by color into white,
yellow, black, red and shades of black and red. They are also divided
according to time of maturity into early, medium and late varieties. The
time for maturity ranges from 90 days to 140 days. In the Central states
in favorable seasons early oats should ripen in 90 days from time of seeding.

The accompanying map shows the three oat districts of the United
States.

Map of the United States, Showing Approximately the Areas to which

Certain Types of Oats are Adapted.^

In the unshaded portion rather late maturing, large-grained white oats are
usuaUy best; in the lightly shaded portion early, small-grained, yellow varieties are
most important; while in the heavily shaded portion brownish-red or gray varieties,
which in the warmer sections are sown in the fall, are most certain to succeed.

In the northern district the medium-maturing and late-maturing
varieties generally give best results. The leading varieties in this district
are American Banner, Big 4, Clydesdale, Lincoln, Probstier, Siberian,
Silver Mine, Swedish Select, Tartarian, Wide Awake and White Russian.

In the central region the principal varieties are Big 4, Burt, Clydes-
dale, Kherson, Lincoln, Red Rust Proof, 60-Day, Silver Mine, Siberian
and Swedish Select. In the southern district the chief varieties are Burt

i Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers* Bulletin 42i,

212

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and Red Rust Proof, together with Winter Turf, which is a strictly
winter variety. Burt and Red Rust Proof may be seeded either in the

winter or spring. « ^. tx • • ^ ^ +^

Seed Oats and Their Preparation for Seeding.— It is important to

seed only varieties
that are adapted
to the conditions
that prevail, giv-
ing particular at-
tention to time of
maturity as re-
lated to the pre-
vailing climatic
conditions during
the oat -growing
period. Seed oats
should be thor-
oughly cleaned by
the use of a good
fanning mill be-
fore seeding. The
screens of the mill
and the blast of
air should be such
as to remove all
foreign seed, hulls,
trash and light
and small oats.
Frequently one-
quarter or one-
third of the oats
may be removed
in this way. Such
thorough cleaning
makes for a uni-
form stand of vig-
orous plant in the

field.

If there is
any trouble from

Two Types of Oat Heads. ^

Spreading, or panioled, oats (on the left); side, or horse-
mane, oats (on the right).

smut, seed should be treated with formaldehyde; one pound of 40 pe^
cent formaldehyde to 45 gallons of water. This is sufficient for treating
about 45 bushels of oats. The solution must be brought in contact
with every berry in order to be thoroughly effective. The oats may be

1 From Farmers' Bulletin 424, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

mcns^rp^v

TV^SSIBIBlBUt.

OATS, BARLEY AND RYE

213

spread out in a thin layer on a clean floor and the solution applied with
a sprinkling can. Several thin layers of oats may be placed one on top
of another, and each sprinkled in this way, after which the whole pile
should be thoroughly stirred, shoveled into a compact heap, covered with
a wet blanket and allowed to remain for twelve hours. The blanket
should then be removed and the oats spread out and occasionally stirred
until thoroughly dry.

Preparation of the Seed-Bed. — A large portion of the oats grown in
the corn belt are seeded on corn ground without any preparation. The
ground is disked and harrowed, or sometimes cultivated once or twice
after seeding the oats. It is much better to double disk and harrow once
before seeding. The better preparation in this way will usually more
than pay for the increased expense. In some localities shallow plowing
for oats may prove to be the best method of preparing the seed-bed. When
seeded on corn land the stalks should be broken down. This is most
easily accomplished by dragging a heavy pole or iron rail broadside across
the field on a frosty morning when the ground is frozen. A mellow,
loose surface soil with a firm subsoil is best for oats. This character of
seed-bed is secured on corn land by the methods above described.

Fertilizers and Manures for Oats. — Over most of the spring oat
' region oats are grown without the direct application of either manure
or fertilizers. When soils call for manure or fertilizers it is best to apply
them to the crop preceding oats. In this way the oats receive only the
residual effect, but this generally meets the needs of the crop. This avoids
the danger of too rank a growth of straw that is Hkely to cause oats to
lodge. Oats that lodge badly are not only difficult to harvest, but generally
cause a failure of grass and clover seeded with them and give rise to a
reduced >deld of grain. On soil that is in a low state of fertility, or which
receives no manure or fertilizer for the preceding crop, rather light
applications of either manure or a complete fertihzer may be applied for
oats with profit. Experiments show that phosphorus is the most impor-
tant ingredient to be applied. Some nitrogen, preferably in an immedi-
ately available form, is generally advisable. Nitrate of soda at the rate
of 75 to 100 pounds per acre will generally fully meet the needs for nitrogen.

The fertility removed by oats is given in Table VII in the appendix.

Time, Rate and Manner of Seeding.— The time of seeding will vary
with the season and locality, but generally should be as early in the
spring as soil conditions will permit the preparation of the seed-bed.
Throughout a considerable part of the oat region, oats are seeded during
. April. Those seeded during the first half of this month are found to give
larger yields than those seeded during the last half. In the southern part
of the district, seeding in March usually gives good results, and in the
Southern states seeding may take place much earlier. Oats do best if
they can make the major portion of their growth during the cool part of
the season, They are often injured by ^ short hot spell as they near

212

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and Red Rust Proof, together with Winter Turf,
winter variety. Burt and Red Rust Proof may be
winter or spring.

Seed Oats and Their Preparation for Seeding.

which is a strictly
seeded either in the

—It is important to
seed only varieties
that are adapted
to the conditions
that prevail, giv-
ing particular at-
tention to time of
maturity as re-
lated to the pre-
vaihng climatic
conditions during
the oat -growing
period. Seed oats
should be thor-
oughly cleaned by
the use of a good
fanning mill be-
fore seeding. The
screens of the mill
and the blast of
air should be such
as to remove all
foreign seed, hulls,
trash and light
and small oats.
Frequently one-
quarter or one-
third of the oats
may be removed
in this way. Such
thorough cl(\aning
makes for a uni-
form stand of vig-
orous plant in the

field.

If there is

any trouble from

smut, seed should be treated with formaldehyde; one pound "f 40 P^r
cent formaldehyde to 45 gallons of water. This is sufficient for trea ing
about 45 bushels of oats. The solution must be brought in contact
with every berry in order to be thoroughly effective. Ihe oats may be

iFromKarmera' Bulletin 424, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Two Types of Oat Heads.'

Spreading, or panirled, oats (on the left); side, or horso-

manc, oats (on the right).

'iiS^w-

OATS, BARLEY AND RYE

213

Fertilizers and Manures for Oats. — Over most of the spring oat
region oats are grown without the direct application of either manure
or fertilizers. When soils call for manure or fertilizers it is best to apply
them to the crop preceding oats. In this way the oats receive only the
residual effect, but this generally meets the needs of the crop. This avoids
the danger of too rank a growth of straw that is likely to cause oats to
lodge. Oats that lodge badly are not only diflficult to harvest, but generally
cause a failure of grass and clover seeded with them and give rise to a
reduced yield of grain. On soil that is in a low state of fertility, or which
receives no manure or fertilizer for the preceding crop, rather light
applications of either manure or a complete fertilizer may be applied for
oats with profit. Experinunits show that phosphorus is the most impor-
tant ingredient to be applied. Some nitrogen, preferably in an immedi-
ately available form, is generally advisable. Nitrate of soda at the rate
of 75 to 100 pounds per acre will generally fully meet the needs for nitrogen.

The fertility removed by oats is given in Table VII in the appendix.

Time, Rate and Manner of Seeding.— The time of seeding will vary
with the season and locality, but generally should be as early in the
spring as soil conditions will permit the preparation of the seed-bed.
Throughout a considerable part of the oat region, oats are seeded during
. April. Those seeded during the first half of this month are found to give
larger yields than those seeded during the last half. In the southern part
of the district, seeding in March usually gives good results, and in the
Southern states seeding may take place much earlier. Oats do best if
they can make the major portion of their growth during the cool part of
the season. They are often injured by a short hot spell as they near

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

OATS, BARLEY AND RYE

215

214 ^^

~~rZ T7rn.t^ or even hard freezes after they are seeded seldoni do
maturity. Frohts or even uaiu ;,v,mpHiitelv following seeding

injury, although prolonged wet weather ™";f ^f^^J^^^ ^ f^ f^^mers

miy cLuse the seed to rot in the ^^^'^f^'f^''^^^^ t the late fall

in the Northern states a^e now se^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^.^^^^

or early winter o « f Jf ^.^ experimental stage, and farmers
loiSy !; on^J La hnled scale and in an experimental way until it is
demonstrated to be satisfactory. „hiracter and condition of the

the small-grained oats. ^^„„„c from 8 to 12 pecks per acre,

In general, the rate of «^f ^>f /^"^es ^m ^^ J ^^^^ ^^,i^^.„
the smaller amount being used when ^"lled and t e urg
broadcasted. At -eral ,f^^^^^ :S:'ZTi£ToZ broadcasted under „
yielded three to five b^jhel^ P^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^.^^j^, have not been secured"

rSUTatThasl^;^^^^^^^

covering will besatisfactory. frequently used as a nurse crop for

the clovers and grasses. ^„i,!„_ Ont* should be harvested

Harvesting, Shocking ^nd Threshmg.-Oats should

when the grain is in the hard dough stage If -^^^.^^ \^^^ ^^^J^
ripe, the ^ain shatters bad^y -J^^^^^^iXve a'higher feeding
considerable loss. When cut eariy lue «u _:„),.. „(. jn crain that may

value tha. when ^"^-Vc^utlTetrwilf ^ m" i oLt by the in-
take place as a result of <=""mg^^^^^^^^^^ .^e straw is not utilized (and
creased value of straw, in rPgi""" "' „+;„„ «iw,iilfl be carefully t mcd
there should be no such regions) ^If , '^^'i^,^* "^ -^•ould bo C'^^^^^ y
in order to secure the largest P«f ^le pe M and yrt ^^^^^ J^ ^^^^

When cut rather green or when the ^t^^^ ;« « ^ ^ ^ j^, ^^^n

r t plaliTnf Xks — ^^^^ r^rCrbeTor siloS
erally best to allow the "les to^l^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^.,^ ^ ,,p ,heaf

^'^o t pTefS" Sv; trrs toTac^h shock, exclusive of the cap
7J, is Thbe'S^ number. The cap sheaf should be broken near the

band and the heads placed toward the direction of the prevailing wind.
Where wind storms are very prevalent at this time of the year it is best
not to use cap sheaves. When oats are green or damp, long shocks, made
by standing the sheaves in pairs and extending north and south, are to
be preferred. It pays to have the grain properly shocked, even though
it is to be threshed in a short time and directly from the field.

If the grain is to be stacked, stacks should be well built. Rails or
old straw should be used for the foundation to prevent damage to the first
layer of sheaves. Stacks may be either round or long. The butts should

A Field of Good Oats being Harvested with a Modern Self-Binder.

always be laid toward the outside of the stack, and the outside layer
should always slope downward so that the stack will turn rain. The
greatest diameter of the stack at the time of construction should be five
or six feet above the ground. This form in settling accentuates the slop-
ing of the outside sheaves in the upper portion of the stack. Whether
oats are to be threshed from the field or stack will be determined largely
by the threshing custom of the locality. Where the custom of threshmg
from the field prevails, it will be difficult to get stacked oats threshed
until field threshing is completed. Stacking entails some additional work,
but generally improves the quality of the oats. Oats in the shock are

^^^■4

.-a/^//

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

214 ^

^^^^^^^^^^^^^"^^^^^^^"^^^^^

injury, although prolonged wet ''f «'\",7,r,t^nd A fei fu.n.en,
may rause the se«il to rot m the 80,1 and f"!"" ,™in« otl» h. the late tall
in the Northern states ».« now seeding »? ^ ™ °ri 1 not germinate
" early winter » "^ ttStThe^tme'^Sl^'age. .^ .»n.ers
^l^'Xlt on^y on a iSd seale and in an experimental way nn„l ,t .

demonstrated to be satistaetory. .,,,„eter and condition of the

The rate of seedmg depends "n™" *"""'[ ,,„, ,1^^. „( t],, grains

soil, the fertility of the soil, *e^»a ■ W f ^^^^^^^^^^ „„,„%„„r

■r.lteS-Set.Ss^'i'ifler m^ Xn.|;;.^ iTirtel^' ^

;:i,r;frs ^:^^^r:l:::s^::1^^ -■■ -'

"■« ttSr'th:'?* of sealing rang. .3 ^^^^^J;:^ --

broadcjUited. At ^;''"' »«""; J „,„„ tl„,„ „ats broade.asted nnder
yieldcKl three « five I-"* ^ IJ^.^^J™ " , ,„„!,» h.ave not been serared

t^tillr-trhas^Syl^^-nattf^^^^^^^^

;Kin '^. SSrrto:.' - 1' i^a dr,. se.d-lx.d, d„per

;l:n™X'grSiX\"£'e';^u;»g::'a'g^ ».., „„d .and of

the clovers caiid grasses. „,u;„„ On+s should be harvested

Harvesting, Shocking ^nd Threshmg.-Oats should
.-hen the gram is in the hard dough stage If a«^o.ed ^o b^^^^ ^^^^^^.^y

ripe, the grain shatters badly "^'^^^^^^o a'iugher feeding
considerable loss. ^^ hen ciit early the straw . ,^ ^ „,

value than when ^"XoV^uttg'Xvi^be m'olf t'lfan offset by the in-
take place as a result of cutting earij ^^lu utilized (and

creasc-d value of straw. In regions where '^^^ ^ ,J^,,;",\,"!fully lin.ed
there should be no such regions) the /^fj* "^/*;";';^^^ ^f ^^^ain.

in order to secure the largest P«f '^'^..^ f^;^;.VSa^ the oats

A\n...vi niif rMtluT 2Teen or when the straw ih uamp, ^ . r u

"^^BB^=^i^^ :;^y'ho,rbSr i::s

orally best to allo^v tne nunu j , ^^ ^^.j^h a cap sheaf

When the oat. are m a good ^^>X'rea.ch «hock, exclusive of the cap
Teat t [hf b'lS' num;:r:^ The cap sheaf should be broken near the

OATS, BARLEY AND RYE

215

A Field op Good Oats being Harvested with a Modern Self-Binder.

always be laid toward the outside of the stack, and the outside layer
should always slope downward so that the stack will turn rain. The
greatest diameter of the stack at the time of construction should be five
or six feet above the ground. This form in settling accentuates the slop-
ing of the outside sheaves in the upper portion of the stack. Whether
oats are to be threshed from the field or stack will be determmed largely
by the threshing custom of the locality. Where the custom of threshmg
from the field prevails, it will be difficult to get stacked oats threshed
until field threshing is completed. Stacking entails some additional work,
but generally improves the quality of the oats. Oats in the shock are

. \i ija-'j

itmM

«^m

\^i^¥i^--

■

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

216

often badly damaged and suffer great loss from rains. This is largely
obviated by stacking as soon as in proper condition. ^diusted

Tn threshing the concaves of the machine should be so adjusted
that a^l S^S wifl be separated from the straw, but the adjustment should
i^luchS not to cause serious hulling of the berries or undue cutting of
the straw Oats are easily threshed when in a dry condition The straw
at threshing time should be either carefully stacked or run directly into
a hay-loft or storage-shed, depending on facilities.

Storine and Marketing.— The threshed grain should be dry when
out in b^s aXhould be kept dry by adequate protection from rains or
Sorpt^^n of moisture from any source. Mustiness owers he feeding
tue and endangers the health of animals. It also lowers the market
;:iue of the^ain' Where grain weevils and other insects -"J-ly^ff-*
Itored grain tight bins which can be fumigated are advisable Under
?.vorabk conditions oats may be stored for a considerable time with
'r/Se shrinkage and loss." The highest market P^l^^^^^^'
,ro;i« Hnrinff the eaVlv part of the year and just prior to the oat harvest.
""^tmpo'sitionSd leading ValJe.-A large portion of the oats grown
in America are fed to livestock. Limited quantities are used for the
Inu^ture of prepared cereals. Oats are high in P^^^- and are^^^^^^^^
adaoted for work horses and growing animals. They are especiauy
Slble because of the hulls which they contain, and which dilute the
concentrate to about the right extent for healthy digestion They are
^eSlv feci whole, although not infrequently are they chopped and
Sixed^h other grains. An average of thirty analyses of oats ^ves
S 3 nercent protein, 5.6 per cent fat and 67.1 per cent carbohydrates, as
coinpS with 11.8,' 6.1 and 78.1 per cent for those respective items m

*''*™ Value of Oats for Hay and Soiling Purposes.-If cut when the grain
is in the milk oats make a palatable and nutritious hay, -P«7»y T,"
suited for hordes. Oats seeded with Canada peas make a good hay for
r^Uch cows and other cattle. This mixture is also well suited /or soilmg
nurnoses and provides an eariy soiling crop. By seeding at different
CsTheTeason of available soiling crops from ^^^^^^ ^i:Z
«idprablv orolonged. A common rate of seeding this mixture is 1 Dusnei
S pSts W bi^^^^^ of oats. This mixture also makes good pasture for

^*^%:t slawtd its Utilization.-Oat straw has a higher fading value
and is more palatable than straw from the other grains. It is quite gen
erallvTsed for feeding horses during the winter, and as a main enance
roughagrfo cattle and sheep. Its feeding value and ^atabihty are
S^Ln the grain is harvested fairl^^^^^^^^ an t e s.aw .s ^^^^^^^^^^^

and the straw has a fertilizer value of about $3 per ton.

OATS, BARLEY AND RYE

217

Cost of Producing Oats.— The Bureau of Statistics of the United
States Department of Agriculture secured estimates from about 5000
farmers in all parts of the country on the cost of producing oats in 1909.
The estimates show an average cost of $10.91 an acre, or 31 cents a bushel.
On the same farms for that year the average value of the oat crop was
$14 08 an acre, or 40 cents a bushel. The average net return from grain
was estimated at $3.17 an acre, to which was added the value of by-
product to the amount of $1.42, making an average total profit of $4.59

^^ Oat Improvement.— The improvement of this crop has received
much less attention from plant breeders and farmers than has corn and
wheat There are, however, many varieties of oats, most of which have
originated through selection and breeding. It is important for the farmer
to secure a variety well suited to his local conditions, and to improve that
variety by thorough cleaning and grading of seed. There are oppor-
tunities however, for improvement by selecting exceptional stools ot
oats and threshing these by hand and planting each in a separate row
These should be harvested separately and the best ones retained, threshed
and used for seeding longer rows the following year. In this way new
strains are frequently secured that are superior to the general crop.

BARLEY

The worid's production of barley is about 1,. -300,000,000 hu«hels, of
which North America produces one-seventh. Of this the United States
nroduces 166,000,000 and Canada 48,000,000 bushels. In the United
Sates California', Minnesota, Wisconsin, North and South mf-^-d^
in barley production. These five states produce 73 per cent of all the
barlev erown in the United States.

SoU^and Climatic Adaptation.-Bariey is adapted to a wide range of
cUmatic conditions, but it does best in ^he North Temperate Zone^^^^^^
somewhat more exacting in its soil requirements than either wheat or
oX It does best on a well-drained loam that - -^^/^fP '.f J^^^^^
organic matter. It is quite resistant on alkali soils, and is, therefore,
1 dinted to such soils in the irrigated districts. .

aasses and Varieties.-Barley is divided into two-rowed and six-
rowed forms, depending on the character of the «Pi«;^';-^^„/S^^^^^^^
United States the six-rowed form predominates, f^f ^um and Od^^^^^
brucken are the leading varieties of this type. It »« ^^« «™^
spring and winter, and bearded and beardless types. The bearded spring

""SpSon of Land and Seeding.-Barley demands a well-prepared

seed-be:rand should be seeded in the ^1"^ -,-;-£ .'te^s^
freezimr is past. Best results are secured by drilling at the rate ot s^x
toe'ght peTks per acre. Broadcasting the seed usually gives much
lower yields than drilling.

-Mrs o~

-v »^»,

218

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Harvesting and Use.— Barley is harvested in the same manner as
oats. It should be shocked in round shocks with cap sheaves, and in
threshing the cap sheaves are usually threshed separately m order to secure
as large a proportion as possible of unstained grain. Barley that is dis-
colored by rains commands a much lower price than bright, unstained grain.

More than half of the barley produced in North America finds its
way into the market, and much of it is used in the manufacture of malt.
Malt is largely used in the production of beer and other malt liQuors
Barley for this purpose should be clean and bright in color, and should

A.FiELD OF Winter Barley Seeded after Corn, Anne Arundel County, Md.i

be free from foreign seeds and broken grains, and possess a high germi-
nating power. 1 X ui xu +V. 4^
Use of By-Products.— Straw from barley is less palatable than that

of oats or beardless wheat, and is also somewhat less nutritious It
makes excellent bedding, although the beards are more or less irritating

to both man and beast.

RYE

Rye IS of minor importance both in the United States and Canada.
Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota and New York produce
64 per cent of that grown in the United States, while Ontario produces
the most in Canada.

1 From Farmers* Bulletin 518, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

OATS, BARLEY AND RYE

219

Adaptation and Culture. — Rye will grow on rather poor soil, and is
most extensively grown in districts in the temperate zone where the
soils are low in fertility. It is more hardy than wheat, and this is one of
the principal reasons for growing it. The time of seeding and cultural
methods are the same as those for wheat, although there is a somewhat
wider range in the time of seeding. It may be seeded late in the summer
and pastured so as to prevent heading during the autumn. It is quite
extensively used as a cover crop and for green manure. Its hardiness
and adaptation on poor soils make it especially valuable for these purposes
in the temperate zone.

Rye is frequently broadcasted, although it gives better results when
seeded with a drill. A well-prepared seed-bed is essential to a good stand
of plants. Five to six pecks of seed per acre are required.

Uses of Rye.— Rye is frequently used as a soiling crop and occa-
sionally cut for hay. When used for hay, it should be cut just before the
heads are out. If not cut early, the straw hardens and makes a tough,
unpalatable hay. A large part of the grain of rye in America is used in
the manufacture of alcohol and alcoholic beverages. The grain is excel-
lent for feeding stock, but it gives best results when used in small quan-
tities and combined with other grains. It is best suited for hogs, horses
and poultry. The grain, being very hard, generally gives best results
when coarsely ground.

REFERENCES
"Small Grains." Carleton.
''Field Crops." Livingston.
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

395. *' Sixty-day and Kherson Oats.'

420. *'Oats: Distribution and Uses."

424. ''Oats: Growing the Crop."

427. ''Barley Culture in the Southern States.

43G. "Winter Oats for the South."

443. "Barley: Growing the Crop."

518. "Winter Barley."

218

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Harvesting and Use.— Barley is harvested in the same manner as
oats. It should be shocked in round shocks with cap sheaves, and in
threshing the cap sheaves are usually threshed separately in order to secure
as large a proportion as possible of unstained grain. Barley that is dis-
colored by rains commands a much lower price than bright, unstained grain.

More than half of the barley produced in North America finds its
way into the market, and much of it is used in the manufacture of malt.
Malt is largely used in the production of beer and other malt hquors.
Barley for this purpose should be clean and bright in color, and should

A Field of Winter Barley Seeded after Corn, Anne Arundel County, IMd.i

be free from foreign seeds and broken grains, and possess a high germi-
nating power. 1 X 1 1 xu XI 4-
Use of By-Products.— vStraw from barley is less palatable than that
of oats or beardless wheat, and is also somewhat less nutritious. It
makes excellent l^edding, although the beards are more or less irritating

to both man and beast.

RYE

Rye is of minor importance both in the Ignited States and Canada.
Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Michigan, Minnesota and New York produce
64 per cent of that grown in the United States, while Ontario produces
the most in Canada.

1 From Farmers* Bulletin 518, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,

OATS, BARLEY AND RYE

219

Adaptation and Culture. — Rye will grow on rather poor soil, and is
most extensively grown in districts in the temi)erate zone where the
soils an^ low in fertility. It is more hardy than wheat, and this is one of
the principal reasons for growing it. The time of seeding and cultural
methods are the same as those for wheat, although there is a somewhat
wider range in the time of seeding. It may be seeded late in the summer
and pastured so as to prevent heading during the autumn. It is quite
extensively used as a cover crop and for green manure. Its hardiness
and adaptation on poor soils make it especially valuable for these purposes
in the temperate zone.

Uses of Rye. — Rye is frequently used as a soiling crop and occa-
sionally cut for hay. When used for hay, it should be cut just before the
heads are out. If not cut early, the straw hardens and makes a tough,
unpalatable hay. A large part of the grain of rye in America is used in
the manufacture of alcohol and alcoholic beverages. The grain is excel-
lent for feeding stock, but it gives best results when used in small quan-
tities and combined with other grains. It is best suited for hogs, horses
and poultry. The grain, being very hard, generally gives best results
when coarsely ground.

REFERENCES

''Small Grains." Carleton.

"Field Oops." Livin|2;ston.

Fanners' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Ap;rioultiire :

395. "Sixty-day and Kherson Oats."

420. "Oats: Distribution and Uses."

424. *'Oats: Growing the Crop."

427. "l^arley Culture in the Southern States.

436. ''Winter Oats for the South."

443. "I^arley: Growing the Crop."

518. "Whiter Barley."

CHAPTER 14

BUCKWHEAT. RICE. FLAX. EMMER. KAFFIR CORN AND SUNFLOWER

BUCKWHEAT
Buckwheat is a minor crop in most parts of America « «an be

a number ot years ,u "['"g "{,„iKj gt^^s is about 800,000 seres.
C" Y^ i™^n„^ylva;ia prJuce about 77 per eent ot the «al

-ntSteu spoken o, as tbe -I^^^^^^^^JI:^ Stfatld*;

'-''^^rjLrSt'AT^'t.'Son^BtklC'dtZi in a .oist

eo„,!,lara„^Tr^*aes S-^^^^^^

^ „:^,r=:«;srrer'ot ^Jr^ruUre a Lp o, .rain

• \^u^ +r. +pn wppks under favorable conditions.

■° ^'ttratTSap^a to a wide ™n.e «', »;»;^-^ X^^S !»

tr.S'*' ^r^^::'tSrre'S?rw J^'X= soi. a^ or ..ber ,o„

''""{^iie..«.--Tbe varieties «o„^o tbo^Uni^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

To,**S; TeTa^anf . If tbere yrS^ t'^e SSe" anTir

^^wrvt^jsrxraS?^" -- *«^^ " - -^ -- '-

"" 'Seiwr.tion of SoU and S«ding.-Early plo™s of the land in order
to pe^K'wing at h.tervai, of two ^^J' -■> "^J-^Sof^fbH
'^eX' ^::„"ioTt=ld"S 'i^etra tJS t/of the ^ed->.d

L"3:i':;iirwth««orb«^^^^^^^^

(220)

BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC.

221

unless the drill hoes are close together. The later buckwheat is sown so as
to get ripe before frost, the better the yield will be. It is seldom advisable
to seed earlier than the last week in June, and in some localities it may be
seeded as late as the second week in July.

Fertilizers and Rotations. — Buckwheat seeded on poor land responds
well to a moderate dressing of low-grade fertilizer. On heavy soils where it
is desired to grow potatoes, buckwheat is recommended as a good crop
to precede potatoes. The following rotation is recommended for such soils:
clover, buckwheat, potatoes, oats or wheat seeded with clover. With
this arrangement the first crop of clover is harvested early and the land
immediately plowed and seeded to buckwheat. This gives two crops
during the season preceding potatoes, and leaves the land in excellent
condition for potatoes.

Harvesting and Threshing. — The harvesting of buckwheat should be
delayed until the approach of cold weather, because the plants continue
to bloom and produce seed until killed by frost. The self-rake reaper is
well adapted to cutting buckwheat. The machine used should leave the
buckwheat in compact gavels with as little shattering as possible. The
self-binder is sometimes used, being set to deliver small bundles loosely
bound. However it may be harvested, it should be set upright in the field
so as to prevent the grain lying on the ground. It is customary to haul the
grain directly from the field to the threshing machine, as it is likely to mould
when placed in stacks.

In threshing by machinery, neither the crop nor the day need be
especially dry. The spiked concave of the thresher is generally replaced
with a smooth one or a suitable plank. This avoids serious cracking of the
grain and unnecessary breaking of the straw.

Buckwheat weighs 48 pounds to the bushel, and 35 bushels per acre is
considered a good yield,' while 25 bushels is satisfactory^ . The average yield
of buckwheat in the United States is 18 to 19 bushels per acre.

Uses of Buckwheat.— Buckwheat is used chiefly in the manufacture
of pancake flour. In some sections, and especially when the market price
is low, it is used quite extensively for feeding livestock. It is an excellent
poultry feed. The straw, being coarse and stiff, is of Uttle value except for
bedding or to make manure.

In some localities buckwheat is used as a green manuring crop. It
serves well for this purpose because it grows quickly, may occupy the land
after an early crop is removed, and leaves the soil in a loose condition.
The seed being comparatively inexpensive and requiring only a moderate
amount, makes it inexpensive from the standpoint of seeding. It is fre-
quently used as a catch crop, being seeded in fields where other crops fail

from whatever cause.

Buckwheat is an excellent bee feed. It blossoms for a considerable
period of time and affords an abundance of nectar which makes honey of
good quality.

222

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

RICE

Rice is unique in its culture, because it depends upon irrigation It is
one of the oldest cereals, and is also one of the greatest food crops, being a
staole article of diet for millions of people in India, China and Japan, ihe
wtM\ rnnual production is approximately 175,000,000,000 pounds of
deaned rice, the greater portion of which is grown in India, China and
Jnmn £;« article of food in the United States it is of minor importance,
and y^t tTe production in this country falls short of the consumption by
Ibout 200,000,000 pounds annually.

Sou and Climatic Adaptation.— Rice is adapted to a moist, warin
climate, and its production in the United States is confined to the South
Atlantic and Gulf Coast states. The bulk of the crop is now produced in
Texas, Louisi ma and Arkansas. Prior to 1890 it was produced mostly

in the Carolinas and Georgia. . • , , t tv.^

Since the lowland forms which constitute the principal source of the
crop require irrigation, it demands a level soil with a compact subsoil that
will prevent rapid downward movement of water. Such soils are found
along the bottom lands of the rivers and on the level prairies of Texas and

^""preparation of Land and Seeding.-The land is usually plowed in the
spring and disked and harrowed to provide a good seed-bed Ihe rice is
seeded at the rate of one or two bushels per acre with a seed drill, usually
from April 15th to May 15th. Unless water is needed to germinate the
seed the land is not flooded until the plants arc six to eight inches high. If
the soil is too dry the land may be flooded immediatelj, after seeding for
a few days to sprout the seed, after which the water is removed until the

plants are six to eight inches high. ^ i, j u^

Weeds are often a serious menace to rice culture. Such weeds may be
brought on rice fields in the irrigation water or may find their way there in
the seed rice. Red rice is a serious pest, and seed should not be used in which
it occurs. The presence of red rice in milled rice lo^^'ers its grade and
reduces its price. Red rice, being stronger, hardier and more persistent
than white rice, soon gets a foothold in the fields unless precautions are

taken to prevent it. . . , xu

Fertilizers are seldom used in the production of rice, because the prac-
tice of irrigation brings to the land some fertility in the water. This is
especially true when the water is not clear. Furthermore, rice lands, being
either river bottom land or prairie land, are generally very fertile. In the
course of time, however, if rice is grown continuously, fertilizers will be

"^^'^Flooding or Irrigation.-W.ater is let into the rice fi<'ld to a depth of
three to six inches, and is maintained at this depth until the crop is nearly
mature Water of a rather high and uniform temperature is preferred.
Sold water from mountain streams is undesirable. The water is constantly
renewed to prevent it from becoming stagnant. This necessitates a slow

BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC.

223

movement of water across the rice field, and for this reason it is not advis-
able to have the fields too large. Irrigation necessitates the land being
practically level and surrounded by dikes. !

There should be good facilities for draining, since land must be in
good condition when prepared for seeding and should be fairly dry at the
time of harvesting.

Harvesting- and Threshing. — It requires from four to six months to
mature a crop of rice and the date of harvesting in the United States
varies from August to October, depending on time of seeding, character of
season and variety of rice. The crop should be harvested when the grain
is in the stiff dough stage and the straw somewhat green. The ordinary
grain binder is used for harvesting the crop, and the methods of shocking,
stacking and threshing are very similar to those used in wheat production.

Yields and Value. — Rough rice weighs 45 pounds to the bushel. It
is generally put into barrels of 162 pounds each, and the yield is spoken of
in barrels, and ranges from 8 to 30 barrels per acre; 12 barrels is considered
a good yield. The hulls or chaff constitute 12 to 25 per cent of the weight
of the rice, depending on variety and condition. In 1910 the total crop in
the United States was valued at $16,000,000, or about $20 per acre. The
rice is prepared in mills which remove the husk and cuticle and polish the
surface of the grain. In this condition it is placed upon the market.

FLAX

Flax is grown in Canada and in a few of the Northern states. Nearly
nine-tenths of the flax of the United States is grown in North and South

Dakota and in Minnesota.

Soil and Clhnate Adaptation.— Flax grows best in a cool climate and
on soils that are not too heavy. Sandy loams are better adapted to the
crop than clay loams or heavy clays. It is extensively grown on virgin
prairie soil, and is well adapted for seeding on the rather tough prairie sod
when plowed for the first time. The roots of flax develop extensively near
the surface of the soil. It is often considered an exhaustive crop, but the
actual removal of plant-food constitutents is less than in most other farm
crops Its shallow, sparse root system and the small amount of stubble
usually left in the field probably explain why it is considered exhaustive.

Preparation of Land and Seedmg.— Where grovm on virgin prairie land,
the sod should be broken about four inches deep and completely inverted
in order to make a smooth surface for seeding the flax. On newly plowed
land flax is seeded broadcast at the rate of one-half bushel per acre, and
covered by harrowing. It is thought better to fall-break sod, and to provide
a better prepared seed-bed the following spring by thorough disking and
harrowing. In this process the sod should not be loosened from its place,
and the roller is frequently used to compact the seed-bed and keep it smooth
and also level to facilitate the covering of the seed at a uniform depth.

Where flax is grown on old land it follows corn to good advantage, and

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC.

225

224

tl!"sS KSr :l ^^ Su>.s. The seed should be »vere<,

irr^e-r/h 'r rtTSiJSela: Se"; J'^lU .^ deve,«.

A Field op Flax in Bloom.»

ment When flax is grown chiefly tor the fiber one and a halt to two

"^Sf 'Sd'iSilS^'-na. n,ay be harvested either with the
self^r::^? or *»nder W^^^^^^^

e;t^h"1hr^ireS i:;SW*;r. Tho^rawM^^^^^^^^^^

Tl^T^sJ^ sr^n^itteTo^' StK'«p^

wt iTvirt the binder the bundles should be set in small, loo»! shocks
rSardryinV'^ie highest quality ot »^ tor market demands

*"^S.S Sotrli* r o^lTttSS:;^ -^^-e and neeessi.

. ^. ^ „^ Q, Paul Minn. From "Field Crops." by Wilson and

T^urtesy of Webb Publishing Company. St. Paul, Mmn.

Warburton.

tates having the concaves set fairly close in order to separate all the seed
from the straw. The seed is small and flat and is but little broken in the
procpss of threshing.

The threshed seed is generally placed in strong, closely woven bags
and securely tied. The seed, being small, flat and exceedingly smooth, will
run almost like water, and requires exceedingly tight bins for its storage
and very tight wagon boxes in case it is to be hauled unbagged.

Yield and Value of Crop. — The yield of flax seed ranges fiom 8 to 20
bushels per acre. Since most of the flax is produced by extensive methods
and on new land, the average yield for the United States is about 9 bushels.
The price generally ranges from $1 to $1.50 per bushel. During the last
few years a scarcity of flax has caused a somewhat higher price. A bushel
of flax will produce about twenty pounds of crude linseed oil, and the
oil cake after the removal of the oil is worth from 1 to 1^ cents per
pound. The average annual production in the United States for ten
years ending 1911 was about 24,000,000 bushels, valued at approximately

$28,000,000.

UtUization.— Flax is grown chiefly for its seed, from which is made
linseed oil, extensively used in the manufacture of paints. The meal, after
the extraction of the oil, finds a ready sale as a nitrogenous stock food, and
is extensively used as a concentrate for dairy cows.

The straw is utilized in only a limited way. It makes fair roughage
for stock, although not as valuable as oat straw. In some localities the
straw is used in the manufacture of tow, which is used in making rough

cordage and twine.

In the old world the plant is extensively used for the manufacture ot
fiber. This necessitates pulling the plants by hand and requires special
facilities for treating the straw and separating the fiV)er. Labor is too
expensive in this country to enable American flax to compete with that ot
the old world in this respect. Ground flax seed in small amounts is a
splendid feed for all kinds of stock. It acts as a tonic and has a good
effect upon the digestive system.

Diseases of Flax.— Flax is so seriously troubled with a disease
known as flax wilt that it necessitates the use of treated seed selected
from wilt-resistant plants. The formalin treatment described for wheat
serves equally well for the treatment of flax seed. Flax seed will
require only about one-half gallon of the solution to each bushel of seed.
It should be thoroughly stirred after sprinkling, covered with canvas
treated with formalin, and allowed to remain two or three hours and
then stirred and dried. After thoroughly dry it may be placed in bags
which have been treated with formalin to prevent the presence of wilt

^Snce this disease may live in the soil for several years in the absence
of flax, it is necessary to practice long rotations in which flax will not be
grown more frequently than once in five to seven years.

■i^M'

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC,

225

224

S"." rriVSi wl tStul" The I.. shouU, ^ eovc^d
from one-hain..cl. to an inch ''"P; „j j^„ ,„te ^nd within

A Field of Flax in Bloom.^

ment When flax is grown chiefly for the fiber one and a half to two

""^''ta^ler^zZ^TLll^^tn.. may be harvested either with the
self-rake reap^for self-bin.lor. When harvested with the reaper the gavels
BhouTd be rolled and set upright. The hea.ls become entangled m such a
w^y as to hold the rolled gavels together. The straw .s ^^^-^'-^^y^^^^^
that it is necessary to cut as close to the ground as possible, and thi.s calls
r a lever L«t-bod that will facilitate close cutt ng w.h machinery
When cut vith the binder the bundles should be set in small loose shocks
rfaci?Hate drying. The highest q^iality of seed or market demands
threshing from the shock as soon as it can be safely done.

Threshhig is done with the ordinary threshing machine and necessi-

— T^^osv of Webb Publishing Company, St. Paul. Minn. Fron. "Field Crops." by Wilson and
Warburtoa.

tates having the concaves set fairly close in order to separate all the seed
from the straw. The seed is small and flat and is but little broken in the
process of threshing.

Yield and Value of Crop. — The yield of flax seed ranges fioxYi 8 to 20
bushels per acre. Since most of the flax is produced by extensive methoa:^
and on new land, the average yield for the United States is about 9 bushels.
The price generally ranges from $1 to $1.50 per bushel. During the last
few years a scarcity of flax has caused a somewhat higher price. A bushel
of flax will produce al^out twenty pounds of crude linseed oil, and the
oil cake after the removal of the oil is worth from 1 to 13^ cents per
pound. The average annual production in the United States for ten
years ending 1911 was about 24,000,000 bushels, valued at approximately

$28,000,000.

Utilization.— Flax is grown chiefly for its seed, froni which is made
linseed oil, extensively used in the manufacture of paints. The meal, after
the extraction of the oil, finds a ready sale as a nitrogenous stock food, and
is extensively used as a concentrate for dairy cows.

cordage and twine.

In the old world the plant is extensively used for the manufacture of
fiber. This necessitates pulling the plants by hand and requin^s special
facilities for treating the straw and separating the fi])er. Labor is too
expensive in this country to enal)le American flax to compete with that of
the old world in this respect. Ground flax seed in small amounts is a
splendid fcnnl for all kinds of stock. It acts as a tonic and has a good
effect upon the digestive system.

Diseases of Flax.— Flax is so seriously troubled with a disease
known as flax wilt that it necessitates the use of treated seed selected
from wilt-resistant plants. The formalin treatment described for wheat
serves equally well for the treatment of flax seed. Flax seed will
require only about one-half gallon of the solution to each bushel of seed.
It should be thoroughly stirred after sprinkling, covered with canvas
treated with formalin, and allowed to remain two or three hours and
then stirred and dried. After thoroughly dry it may be placed m bags
which have been treated with formalin to prevent the presence of wilt

spores. .

Since this disease may live in the soil for several years m the absence
of flax, it is necessary to practice long rotations in which flax will not be
grown more frequently than once in five to seven years.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

226

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC.

227

KAFFIR CORN
Kaffir corn is a non-saccharine sorghum. The sorghums are generally
divided into three classes: (1) those cultivated chiefly for grain, of which
Kaffir, milo and dura are the best types; (2) those cultivated for the manu-
facture of brooms; and (3) those grown chiefly for the production of syrup.
Regions of Production.- -Kaffir corn, milo and dura are grown chiefly
between the 98th meridian and the Rocky Mountains, and south of

40 degrees north latitude.
Tills crop is drought
resistant and adapted
especially to the dry
conditions of the Great
Plains region.

Value and Uses.—-
Kaffir corn is used chiefly
as a source of stock food.
The grain is similar in
composition to ordinary
corn, and has about the
same feeding value. In
composition there is very
little difi^erence between
tlie stover of corn and
Kaffir corn. Any surplus
of the grain finds a ready
market, and is in much
demand for poultry feed.
The grain may be fed
either whole or crushed.
It is somewhat softer
than the grain of corn
and the kernels, being
smaller, can be used for
poultry without crush-
ing. It makes excellent
feed for horses, cattle
and swine.

Varieties. — There
are many varieties in each of the three classes of non-saccharine sorghums.
The Kaffir corn proper has erect, compact seed heads and the foliage is
more leafy than that of milo. The seed heads of the latter are usually
pendant, the stalks are less leafy and the plant is generally earlier in
maturity. It is, therefore, adapted to the northern portion of the Kaffir com
region, and to those localities where seed production is most important.

» From Farraera' Bulletin 686, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Heads of Four Varieties of Kaffir.^

A— WTiite Kaffir; B— Guinea Kaffir (Guinea com
of the West Indies); C— Blackhull Kaffir; D— Ited
Kaffir. (About one-fifth natural size.)

Production and Harvesting. — The preparation of the land, the planting
and the cultivation of Kaffir corn are similar to those required for com under
the same conditions. The seed should be drilled in rows sufficiently far
apart to facilitate cultivation with two-horse cultivators, usually 3| feet
apart. The seed is drilled at such a rate that the plants in the row will
stand from 4 to 6 inches apart. For small growing varietips plants may be
closer than in case of the larger varieties. Planting should not bakp place
until the soil is quite warm. It is usually best to plant about ten days
later than the best time for planting field corn. It is advisable to have a
well-prepared seed-bed free from weeds. The plants as they first appear
are small and make slow
growth.

The crop may be har-
vested by cutting the whole
plant and placing in small
shocks, or the seed heads may
be removed and stored in nar-
row, well-ventilated cribs.
After removing the seed heads
the stalks may be cut and
shocked or they may be pas-
tured as they stand in the
field. In some localities the
whole plant is cut and put in
the silo in the same manner as
making ensilage of field corn.
The yield of grain is fully as
large as that of field corn grain
under similar conditions, and
the drought-resistance of the
crop makes it more certain than corn. Fifty bushels per acre is con-
sidered a good yield. The seed is separated from the head by means of a
threshing machine. The weight of threshed grain per bushel is 56 pounds.

EMMER

Emmer, also known as spelt, is closely related to wheat, but is distin-
guished from it by the grain, which remains enclosed in the glumes when
threshed. There are both spring and winter varieties. The spring varie-
ties are most extensively grown in the northern portion of the Great Plains
region. The crop is characterized by its ability to make a satisfactory
growth on almost any kind of soil All of the varieties are drought resistant,
and the winter varieties are fairly hardy. It is not attacked by rusts and
smuts to the same extent as wheat and oats.

Emmer. 1
A good substitute for oats and barley.

^From Farmers' Bulletin 466, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

•.vV-

226

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

40 degrees north latitude.
This crop is drought
resistant and adapted
especially to the dry
conditions of the Great
Plains region.

Value and Uses. —
Kaffir corn is used chiefly
as a source of stock food.
The grain is similar in
composition to ordinary
corn, and has about the
same feeding value. In
composition there is very
little difference between
the stover of corn and
Kaffir corn. Any surplus
(»f the grain finds a ready
market, and is in much
demand for poultry feed.
The grain may be fed
either whole or crushed.
It is somewhat softer
than the grain of corn
and the kernels, being
smaller, can be used for
poultry without crush-
ing. It makes excellent
feed for horses, cattle
and swine.

Varieties. — There

BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC.

227

Heads of Four Varieties of Kaffir.^

A— "VMiite Kaffir; B— Guinea Kaffir (Guinea com
of the West Indies); C— Blackhull Kaffir; D— R^d
Kaffir. (About one-fifth natural size.)

are many varieties in each of the three classes of non-saccharine sorghums.
The Kaffir corn proper has erect, compact seed heads and the foliage is
more leafy than that of milo. The seed heads of the latter are usually
pendant, the stalks are less leafy and the plant is generally earlier in
maturity. It is, therefore, adapted to the northern portion of the Kaffir com
region, and to those localities where seed production is most important.

iFrom Farmers* Bulletin 686, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Production and Harvesting. — The preparation of the land, the planting
and the cultivation of Kaffir corn are similar to those required for corn under
the same conditions. The seed should be drilled in rows sufficiently far
apart to facilitate cultivation with two-horse cultivators, usually 3§ feet
apart. The seed is drilled at such a rate that the plants in the row will
stand from 4 to 6 inches apart. For small growing varietips plants may be
closer than in case of the larger varieties. Planting should not lakp place
until the soil is quite warm. It is usually best to plant about ten days
later than the best time for planting field corn. It is advisable to have a
well-prepared seed-bed free from weeds. The plants as they first appear
are small and make slow
growth.

EMMER

Emmer, also known as spelt, is closely related to wheat, but is distin-
guished from it by the grain, which remains enclosed in the glumes when
threshed. There are both spring and winter varieties. The spring varie-
ties are most extensively grown in the northern portion of the Great Plains
region. The crop is characterized by its ability to make a satisfactory
growth on almost any kind of soil. All of the varieties are drought resistant,
and the winter varieties are fairly hardy. It is not attacked by rusts and
smuts to the same extent as wheat and oats.

^From Farmers' Bulletin 466, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Emmer. ^
A good substitute for oats and barley.

228

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

BUCKWHEAT, RICE, FLAX, ETC.

229

It stands up well in the field and is little damaged by wet weather at

harvest time.

The methods used in the seedmg of other spring grams will apply to
emmer. The seed should be drilled at the rate of about two bushels per
acre. ' It is important to sow early. The grain will stand a great deal of

spring frosts.

Eminor is well adapted to the feeding of stock, and will easily take the

place of oats, barley or rye.

A comparative test of emmer as compared with other spring grains
covering a period of eight years at the North Dakota Experiment Station
shows comparatively little difference in the yield of grain from the several
crops. Oats led with 1969 pounds per acre, while emmer was second with
1945 pounds to the acre. The lowest yield, 1711 pounds per acre, was from

wheat.

While this crop is especially adapted to the semi-arid conditions of the
Northwest, it is suggested that it might prove a profitable substitute for
oats in those portions of the Central, Southern and Eastern states where
oats prove unsatisfactory.

SUNFLOWERS

Sunflowers are a native of America, and are widely but not extensively
growTi. The leaves and heads of the plant make good fodder for horses and
cattle. The seeds are used for bird and poultry food and also for the manu-
facture of oil. Sunflowers succeed best on rather fertile soil and with warm
climatic conditions. The requirements are similar to those for corn. The
seed should be planted in drills sufficiently far apart for cultivation, and
should be thinned to one plant every 12 to 14 inches in the row.

When the heads form, it is advisable to remove all but two or three on

each plant.

The heads should be harvested before the seed is fully ripe. This
prevents loss of seed by shattering and damage by birds. The heads
should be spread out on a barn floor or other suitable place until dry. They
may then be stored in bulk. Where used on the farm for poultry, there is
no need for threshing the seed. The cost of growing sunflowers is much the
same as for corn. The harvesting, however, is much more expensive,
and until suitable methods for harvesting and threshing and storing are
devised, the crop is not likely to be extensively grown.

Yields ranging from 1000 to 2250 pounds of seed per acre are reported.
The seed weighs 30 pounds per bushel.

REFERENCES

''Manual of Flax Culture."

North Dakota Expt. Station Circular 6. ''Flax.

North Dakota Expt. Station Circular 7. ''Flax for Seed and Oil.

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

274. ''Flax Culture."

322. "Milo as a Dry Land Grain Crop."

417. ''Rice Culture."

448. "Better Grain. Sorghum Crops."

466. "Winter Emmer."

652. "Kaffir Corn as a Grain Crop."

669. "Fiber Flax."

688. "The Culture of Rice in Calif ornia.

MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES

231

CHAPTER IS

MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES

Meadow and pasture grasses constitute an important and desirable
part of the roughage for most classes of livestock. Livestock is indis-
pensable as a part of good agriculture. An old Flemish proverb says,
''No grass, no cattle; no cattle, no manure; no manure, no crops.'' The
history of agriculture of many countries shows that where the production
of grasses has been neglected, agriculture has declined. England neglected
the grass crops and her yield of wheat fell to less than fifteen bushels per
acre. She then turned her attention to grasses and the yield increased to
over thirty bushels per acre. Of her 28,000,000 acres of tilled land, over
one-half are now in permanent pastures. For the past forty-five years
permanent pastures of England have increased at about one per cent
annually. This should convince the American farmer that in order to
grow grain profitably crops must be rotated, and in this rotation grass
should find a prominent place. Some far-sighted farmers in North
America saw this many years ago, and in the corn belt those who have
grown grass are today husking sixty bushels of corn per acre, while those
who did not must be content with about thirty bushels.

Importance and Value of Grasses. — According to the last census the
hay crop of the United States was 61,000,000 tons, valued at $750,000,000.
This does not include the annual hay and forage crops and various kinds
of by-products, such as straw and corn stover. This amount of hay will
sustain the livestock of the United States about one-fourth of the year,
and must be supplemented by about 200,000,000 tons of other forms of
feed. Considerable of this comes from the pastures, for which we have
no definite statistics. The combined value of hay and pasture grasses
far exceeds that of any other crop excepting corn.

Regions of Production. — The perennial hay and pasture grasses
succeed best in the northeastern one-fourth of the United States and in
goutheastern Canada. This grass region extends south to the Potomac
and Ohio rivers and to the southern border of Missouri and Kansas,
and is limited on the west by about the 96th meridian. The region is
characterized by a cool, moist climate and moderate to abundant rainfall.

Principal Grasses of North America.— There are several hundred
species of grasses, but of these there are less than one dozen that are of
economic importance in North America. Those of greatest importance
in the order mentioned are timothy, blue grass, redtop, Bermuda grass,
orchard grass, smooth brome grass and Johnson grass. There are a
number of others that are grown on a very limited scale, among which

(230)

may be mentioned tall oat grass, meadow fescue, tall fescue, English rye
grass, Italian rye grass, sheep's fescue, red fescue, Sudan grass and sweet
vernal grass.

Valuable Characteristics. — To be valuable under cultivation grasses
should give satisfactory yields, possess good feeding value, be capable
of easy reproduction and be reasonably aggressive. To these might be
added, habit of seeding freely so that seed can be cheaply harvested,
together with hardiness or ability to withstand adverse climatic conditions.

Choice of Grasses. — The kind of grass to grow will depend on what
one wishes to do with it. For pastures a mixture or variety of grasses is

Map Showing Region of Grass Production in the United States.^

desirfible for a number of reasons. In the first place, a variety of grasses
lends variety to the forage for the pastured animals, and induces them
to partake of more food and consequently make more growth. A variety
often prolongs the season of pasturage, some grasses making their growth
in the early and late portions of the growing season when weather con-
ditions are cool, and others growing more freely in the warmer portion* of
the season. Variety also increases the total yield because of the variation
in habits of growth of both roots and foliage.

When grown chiefly for hay, the yield, quality and palatability of
the crop secured are important. The cost of establishing, both in direct
outlay for seed and in the preparation of the seed-bed, should be considered,

* Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Forage Plants and Their Culture," by Piper.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES

233

232

CSy »Uow iS, thus causing a large percentage ot the s^a„

irequt^iitij onalitv of the seed used is also a tactor ana

^^"t.^^Ct largely ^ PU-hase of only first-class seed.

;tL"t^ 51 fXwin. taV>le gives the rate of seeding, the cost of seed
per pound and the calculated cost per acre :

Cost of Seed per Acre, Using Average Amount. "^

Plant.

Rate of
Seeding,
pounds.

Cost of

Seed per

Pound.

Timothy

Orchard p;rass

Kedtop

Brome p-ass

Kentucky blue jiras
Italian rye gratis...
Perennial rye jn*ass

Tall oat grass

Tall fescue

Meadow fescue

Ked clover

Alsike clover

Alfalfa

Sweet clover

$0.06^

.15

.10

.14

.05

.14

.18

.11

.17

.20

.15

.20

Cost of

Seed per

Acre.

SO. 975
3.00
1.00
2.00
3.50
1.50
1.50
4.20
3.60
2.20
2.04
1.60
3.00
4.00

farmers are advised not only to "f ?J^[^ P^^ , ^^ ^gg ^n abundance

o good ^^f^^J'r'l^ these precautions becomes greater. The extra
^'^ '. ?orSa seeLg will pay abundantly in the vast majority of
^''P^^^^ i,^V deal seed bed is moist and finely pulverized. The slant-
toThed harrowTs the best implement for making the final preparation.

Harvesting.— The time of harvesting grasses for hay will be deter-
mined- (1) by the weather conditions that prevail at the period of
maturity, (2) the injury to the succeeding crop as determined by time ot
cutting, (3) the total yield as determined by stage of maturity, (4) the
amount of digestible nutrients secured, and (5) the digestibility and
nalatability of the product. These factors will vary somewhat with
different species of grasses and with the character of animals to wh ch
they are to be fed. In general, hay cutting should take place from the
perfod of bloom until seeds are in the dough stage. The total pounds o
d?y matter will generally increase up to fair maturity. PaktabUity will
be lessened and digestibility diminished if harvestmg is too long delayed.
If a large acreage is to be handled and weather conditions are uncertam,
he harvest period-is likely to be prolonged. It is, therefore, well to begin

The Side Delivery Rake.^

harvesting rather early in order that the harvest may be completed before

*'' 'S: ScTt' demands "product of timothy hay that is fairly mature
The market ^^enifnas i ^^^ j^^^ j.^^j^ ^^ ^^^^

when harvested. Such hay is more ea^ y .^ ^^^ ^^^^^^

ihe quality oi nay i* u ^ depends to no small degree

which it is handled and cured. This in turn ^epen"'' _ , . ^^ ^f
upon weather conditions. Warm weather, ^^''^^Pf^^^^^*'^^^ if
sLhine and a fairly dry atmosphere, is f^^.^^^^le to hay m^^^^^^^^^^^

the grass is fairly mature it may be cut late ^"t^^.^^^Xthe evening,
the morning, and placed in the windrow «--;^««J,/"nse W-S^^^^
Where hay is produced extensively, it is advisable to use up to a

Courtesy of The International Harvester Company. Chicago.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

232
mtuTv L retted to favorable or unfavorable weather. Abundant

p L^ !w s»i.iy .1,0,0 i» no cop in -'i-is!; 'tT^rr™,!;.:: s

fiPtorv stand of plants is more common. This is due to a numoer

Ir ors nmons which may be mentioned the poor preparation of the

::dJ;d hTLdty covering of the seed and the -Averse conchtions^^a

requently follow seeding, thus causing a large percentage of thejmaU

iitquLiit J niialitv of the seed used is also a lactor ana

plan s to P;;-^- J^^" P^^^^^^^ of only first-class seed.

;t:pet' it^f^^^^^^^^ ^ives the rate of seeding, the cost of seed

per pound and the calculated cost per acre:

Cost of Seed per Acre, Using Average Amount.*

Plant.

Rato of
Seeding,
pounds.

Cost of Cost of

Seed per • Socd per

Pound. Acre.

Timothy

Orchard prass

Kcdtop

Hromo ^rass

Kentucky hlue jtrass

Italian rye prass

Perennial rye p-ass. .

Tall oat prass

Tall feseuc

Meadow fescue

l{ed clover

Alsike clover

Alfalfa

Sweet clover

SO.OCv^

.15

.10

.14

.05

.18

.11

.17

.20

.15

.20

$0,975
3.00
1.00
2.00
3.50

1
1
4

50
.50
.20

3.60
2.20
2.04
1.60
3.00
4.00

Since failure to secure a satisfactory stand of grass is so common
bince laiiure xo h^^ precaution in the preparation

farmers are -YlteTnd mann^^ also to use an abundance

1"od slr^ an? the price of product becomes

I Tr the nccessi rtr these precautions becomes greater The extra

expense lor j-bed is moist and finely pulverized. 1 he slant

SSh'ed hl^rrowt tr^^^^^^^^ implement for making the final preparation.

MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES

233

Harvesting.— The time of harvesting grasses for hay will be deter-
mined- (1) by the weather conditions that prevail at the period ot
maturity, (2) the injury to the succeeding crop as determined by time of
cutting, (3) the total yield as determined by stage of maturity (4) the
amount of digestible nutrients secured, and (5) the digestibility and
palatability of the product. These factors will vary somewhat with
different species of grasses and with the character of animals to which
they are to be fed. In general, hay cutting should teke place from the
period of bloom until seeds are in the dough stage. The total pounds o
dry matter will generally increase up to fair maturity. Palatability w. 1
be lessened and digestibility diminished if harvesting is too long delayed.
If a large acreage is to be handled and weather conditions are uncertain,
the harvest period-is likely to be prolonged. It is, therefore, well to begin

The Side Delivery Rake.'

han-eslmg ,»ther early in ordor (hat the harvest mny Ik. eompleted betom

"■' ThTr^Tdra^rproduet of ttaothy hay «.at i,^^r.y mature
.hen harvested. Sueh hay.,™.

Thp niiqlitv of hav is determined to a large extent by tne manner
which i iThSlel an'd cured. This in turn depends to no -aU ^^^^^^^
upon weather conditions. Warm weather, ^^^^-P^f^^^y £^ i
sunshine and a fairly dry atmosphere, is ^^ ^^."^^^^^^ ^^^^'^on ^^^^^^^^^^ in
the grass is fairly mature it may be cut late ^^^^e '.fternoon o^^
the morning, and placed in the windrow "'•/^^^.'^./"""^^f ^^^^^^^^
Where hay is produced extensively, it is advisable to use up to aa

^"41 *

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company. Chicago.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

rjiMif.

ii#;

234

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

mowing machines, side-delivery hayrakes, tedders and convenient and
automatic forks for conveying the hay from wagons to mows or stacks.
With such an equipment the hay is secured with the minimum of labor
and the least possible handling and consequent loss of the leaves and

finer portions.

It is maintained, however, that hay of better quality is obtained by
curing it in the field in the shock. Cocking hay so that it will not be
unduly exposed to rain entails additional labor. Canvas covers are
advised if weather conditions are uncertain.

Hay placed in the mow or stack before thoroughly dry goes through
a sweating process. A certain degree of sweating is deemed desirable,
but should not proceed sufficiently far to develop moulds or cause dis-
coloration. The amount of sweating is dependent on the moisture in
the hay. The amount of moisture in hay as it is hauled from the field
varies greatly, but ordinarily will not exceed more than 25 to 28 per cent;

20 to 25 per cent of
moisture is favorable
to a good quahty of
hay, and is better than
to have it too dry or
too moist when stored.
Numerous determi-
nations of the shrink-
age of hay in stack or
mow show a loss in a
period of six months
ranging from as low as
3 per cent to over 30
per cent. This loss is
due chiefly to the loss
of moisture from the
hay. Where the sweating is intense and the temperature runs high,
there will also be some loss of organic matter.

In stacking hay great care should be exercised in the construction
of the stacks in order that they shed water. The stacks should be built
of good form, and the central portion should be more thoroughly compacted
than the outsides. Where hay is valuable, it pays to cover the stacks
with good canvas covers or to provide a roof of boards. The stack
should be protected from the earth by a foundation of rails or by a thick

layer of straw.

Hay is marketed both baled and unbaled. It is graded according
to its quality and freedom from weeds and grasses other than that of the
name under which sold. Market grades can be secured from grain
dealers' associations, and are generally given in market quotations.

— ■ •

> Courtesy of The International Harvester Company. Chicago.

Combined Sweep Rake and Stacker. ^

MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES

235

TIMOTHY

Timothy is the most important and the most extensively grown of
any of the meadow grasses in North America. It is the standard grass
for hay purposes and finds a ready sale in all of the hay markets.

Soil and piimatic Adaptation.— Timothy is a northern grass and
seldom does well in North America south of latitude 36 degrees, excepting
in high elevations. Cool, moist weather during the early part of the
growing season is favorable to good yields of hay. It is best adapted to
loam and clay loam soils. It is not adapted to swampy soil conditions,
neither does it succeed on sandy or gravelly soils. It is not drought

A Field of Good Grass (Timothy), College Farm, Pa.
Yield, five tons per acre field-cured hay.

resistant, and aoes best on moist, well-drained soils. It calls for a fair
degree of soil fertility and does not do well on acid soils.

Advantages of Timothy.-The importance of tunothy hes chiefly m
its ability to produce good yields of hay that find a ready "^^rket at a
fair price. The plants seldom lodge and are easily cut and cured and the
period during which it may be cut is longer than that for most passes
It seeds abundantly, and seed of a high degree of P^^^y .^^^^^^^^ ^^^
germination can be secured at a low cost. It fits well into the crop rota-
tions, and is adapted to seeding with small grains, such as wheat, oats,
rye and barley, either in the autumn or m the spring.

Seed and Seeding.-The low price of timothy seed and its appearance
make it difficult of adulteration. No grass seed on the market so nearly

-w.

■•''■■.••t.rvjtfS
•'..rV''.^V-'

234

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES

235

finer portions.

20 to 25 per cent of
moisture is favorable
to a good quality of
hay, and is better than
to have it too dry or
too moist when stored.
Numerous determi-
nations of the shrink-
age of hay in stack or
mow show a loss in a
period of six months
ranging from as low as
3 per cent to over 30
per cent. This loss is
due chiefly to the loss
of moisture from the
hay. Where the sweating is intense and the temperature runs high,
there will also be some loss of organic matter.

layer of straw.

> Courtesy of The International Harvester Company. Chicago.

Combined Sweep Rake and Stacker.^

TIMOTHY

Timothy is the most important and the most extensively grown of
any of the meadow grasses in North America. It is the standard grass
for hay purposes and finds a ready sale in all of the hay markets.

Soil and Climatic Adaptation.— Timothy is a northern grass and
seldom does well in North America south of latitude 36 degrees, excepting
in high elevations. Cool, moist weather during the early part of the
growing season is favorable to good yields of hay. It is best adapted to
loam and clay loam soils. It is not adapted to swampy soil conditions,
neither does it succeed on sandy or gravelly soils. It is not drought

A Field of Good Grass (Timothy), College Farm, Pa.
Yield, five tons per acre field-cured hay.

resistant, and aoes best on moist, well-drained soils. It calls for a fair
degree of soil fertility and does not do well on acid soils. ,• ^ •

Advantages of Timothy.— The importance of timothy hes chiefly in
its ability to produce good yields of hay that find a ready market at a
fair price. The plants seldom lodge and are easily cut and cured, and the
period during which it may be cut is longer than that for most grasses
It seeds abundantly, and seed of a high degree of P^nty and of good
germination can be secured at a low cost. It fits well into the crop rota-
tions, and is adapted to seeding with small grains, such as wheat, oats,
rye and barley, either in the autumn or in the spring.

Seed and Seeding.— The low price of timothy seed and its appearance
make it difficult of adulteration. No grass seed on the market so nearly

INTENTIONAir SECOND EXPOSURE

UA:i{6;r::

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

236 ^^^

approaches absolute purity as timothy seed; consequently, the standard
of purity is placed at 99 per cent, and that of germination at 98 per cent.
Timothy seed contains about 1,200,000 seeds to the pound, and weighs
42 to 48 pounds per bushel. The legal weight is 45 pounds. Four pounds
of timothy seed furnish 100 seeds to the square foot on an acre. It
every seed produced a plant there would be a great many more plants
than are required to make a satisfactory hay crop. The seeds, however,
are so small, and the conditions for germination and eariy growth often
so unfavorable, that 12 pounds per acre are usually required, lests at
several of the experiment stations with different rates of seeding show
that the largest yield of hay has been secured by using amounts somewhat
in excess of 15 pounds per acre.

The Hay Loader in Operation.*

Under favorable temperature and moisture conditions the seed
germinates in five to six days. Although a large percentage of seed three
or four years old will grow, it is safest to use seed that is not more than
one vear old. New seed is sometimes adulterated with old seed. Old
seed can generally be detected by its lack of luster, but a germination
test to determine the quality of the seed is advised.

The seed is sown broadcast and where seeded with a nurse crop is
generally applied by means of the grass seed attachment to the grain
drill There are two methods of distributing the seed by this attachment.
In some cases the grass seed distributors are turned in front of the drri
hoes. This provides for considerable covering of the timothy seed, and

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company , Chicago.

MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES

237

is applicable only when the soil is of a sandy nature, or in excellent physica
condition. Otherwise, it is generally best to distribute the seed behind
the drill hoes, and allow it to become covered by the action of ram.

The wheelbarrow seeder is also used, and where the seeding by the
above-mentioned method cannot be entrusted to thoroughly competent
labor it is better to use the wheelbarrow seeder. In this way the operator
has only the seeding of grass to look after and will do a better job than is
likely to be done when the seeding is combined with the distribution ot
grain and fertilizers all in one operation.

'M^'

U«

ffp, *^-^:

^m^.

<:-^fv. v^.

C'.i**.''!^

Rows OP TiMOTHV, Each Propagated by Sups from the Original Seediongs..
Each row represents a distinct tv-pe. Note the variation in size and vigor.

When winter grains are grown, most of the timothy is needed with
them^i; the\ll. When seeded in this way it -kes '.u lU^^ ZT^ ^ S
succeeding year, and no hay crop is secured. The second year a luii
c^oTof haVis s;cured. In some localities timothy is seeded alo- - t^e
fall This method is applicable in the southern P«f>«^ "^^^^XriS
region. It involves more labor, but results m a full crop of hay during

*'^ 'tt:i:^^ grains prevail, timothy is more, ^^^^^^^it^
with them in the spring. With this method, no crop is secured the farst

1 Fanners' BuUetin. 514, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

:.'-W^^

*'r*jy2l^

■t%"J

•■ .•^■'Yi.iji..,.

r -.iiiy ■<>i;S5^; Mm

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

236

approaches absolute purity as timothy seed; consequently, the standard
of purity is placed at 99 per cent, and that of germination at 98 per cent.
Timothy seed contains about 1,200,000 seeds to the pound, and weighs
42 to 48 pounds per bushel. The legal weight is 45 pounds. Four pounds
of timothy seed furnish 100 seeds to the square foot on an acre. It
every seed produced a plant there would be a great many more plants
than are required to make a satisfactory hay crop. The seeds, however,
are so small, and the conditions for germination and early growth often
so unfavorable, that 12 pounds per acre are usually required, lests at
several of the experiment stations with different rates of seeding show
that the largest yield of hay has been secured by using amounts somewhat
in excess of 15 pounds per acre.

The Hay Loader in Operation.'

The seed is sown broadcast and where seeded with a nurse crop is
generally applied by means of the grass seed attachment to the gram
drill There are two methods of distributing the seed by this attachment.
In some cases the grass seed distributors are turned in front of the drri
hoes. This provides for considerable covering of the timothy seed, and

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago.

MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES 237

is applicable only when the soil is of a sandy nature, or in excellent physical
condition. Otherwise, it is generally best to distribute the seed behind
the drill hoes, and allow it to become covered by the action of ram.

The wheelbarrow seeder is also used, and where the seeding by the
above-mentioned method cannot be entrusted to thoroughly competent
labor it is better to use the wheelbarrow seeder. In this way the operator
lias only the seeding of grass to look after and will do a better job than is
likely to be done when the seeding is combined with the distribution ot
grain and fertilizers all in one operation.

:.i,iiiitMliiiili^*^

;«

Rows OF Timothy, Each Propagated by Slips from the Original Seedlinos.'
Each row represents a distinct tj-pc Note the variation in sue and v.gor.

When winter grains are grown most of ^^e tin^othy is^^^^^^^
them in the fall. When seeded in this way it makes but htt e growth the
succeeding year, and no hay crop is secured. The second year a lull
c^oTofhaVis secured. In some localities timothy is seeded J^^ne ^n Jhe
falf This'^method is applicable in the southern P«f ;«^ ^^^^^^^^^^^
region. It involves more labor, but results m a full crop of hay during

*'' mtrfprgtvvn grains prevail, timothy is -re ^requenj^ ^ tst
withThemin the'spring^ With this method, no crop is secured the first

1 Farmers' Bulletin. 514, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

'J^:;trj -;■»>■,■ I '

.'^^^'r^*"!^

238

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

season. In the southern portion of the timothy belt spring seeding with-
out a nurse crop is practiced to a Hmited extent. Such seeding is success-
ful only on land that is free from weeds and annual grasses. Under such
conditions a light cutting of hay is secured during the first year.

Timothy may be seeded on wheat that has been severely winter
killed. If seeded early and the wheat is not harvested too early, both
wheat and timothy may be cut for seed at one and the same operation.
By using a fanning mill with proper sieves the wheat and timothy seed
are easily separated after threshing.

Fertilizers and Manures.— Timothy responds abundantly to light
top dressings of manure. The manure should be applied with a manure
spreader, and best results will be secured when used at the rate of six
to* ten loads per acre. It may be applied any time during the autumn or
winter. ' In the absence of manure, a top dressing with a complete fertil-
izer early in the spring just as the grass begins to start is very beneficial.
In several of the states 350 pounds per acre containing about seven per
cent of each of the three constituents have given excellent results.

Tests at several of the experiment stations relative to the position of
the roots of timothy in the soil show that 85 to 90 per cent of the roots are
found in the first six inches of soil. In one case 63 per cent occurred in
the upper two inches of soil. This is important in connection with the
top dressing of timothy and shows that such top dressing is very close
to the great bulk of the active roots of the crop.

Mixing Timothy with Other Grasses and Clovers.— If the hay
product is to be fed on the farm, it is advisable to seed clover with timothy.
Tn this practice the amount of timothy seed is reduced to eight or ten
pounds per acre, and may be seeded either in the fall or spring, depending
on local practice. In the northern part of the timothy region the clover
can be safely seeded only in the spring. Six to ten pounds of clover seed
per acre will be required, depending on soil conditions and the kind ot
clover. The first crop of hay will be largely clover, the second chiefly

timothy. , , • xi /= x

Where meadow land is to be used for hay during the first year or
two and afterwards devoted to pasture, it is well to include redtop, blue
grass and some other grasses and clovers with it. It is also thought wise
on very wet lands or on sour soil to include some redtop with the timothy

for hay purposes. .

Harvesting.— Many experiments relative to the time of harvesting
show that the best results are secured only when cut between the time
of full bloom and the soft dough stage of the seed. Since timothy is
shallow rooted and much of its vitality depends on the thickened bulb-
like base of the stem, it is desirable not to cut too closely. Close cutting
or pasturing closely with stock after cutting, injures the subsequent
crops by exposure of the bulbs 'and by injury from tramping. Only when
the aftermath is abundant should pasturing be allowed. In no case is it

MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES

239

deemed desirable to pasture with sheep, since they are apt to nip off the
crown of the plant and thus destroy it.

Pasturing. — Timothy is distinctly a grass for hay rather than for
pasturing. It may be used in pasture mixtures to give early grazing,
and will give way to the more permanent grasses which are slower in
becoming established. It is a common practice to cut timothy for hay
purposes for one* or more years and then pasture during the year just
preceding the devotion of the land to another crop.

^i^sos^^.

hJ^i'^1 . ' •

■iP^^'^f

P^'

'■ h ^K

-V'* -:.-; ■^-.

::'v-;ts?5-

'' ..V:'^

'\"'W-$^

<::>^^>^

I 'f. ,VN>:;-

.- ,.K.^y ^

>--*l*C5»^

r-^'v? :^'

,-.^, ,^.% jiSiTp r

Field of Timothy Plants Grown for Selection, Showing Vabution in Size

AND Form of Individual Plants. ^

Slips and seeds from choice plants are used for propagating new strains.

Seed Production.— Timothy generally produces between five and
twelve bushels of seed per acre. It is most conveniently cut with the
self-binder, and is threshed with the ordinary threshmg machme, usmg
special sieves to clean and separate the seed. Loss from shattermg will
be severe if allowed to become over-ripe. If cut promptly the straw has
considerable feeding value. The principal seed-producmg states are
lUinois, Iowa, Minnesota, South Dakota, Kansas and Ohio.

Composition and Feeding Value.— Timothy hay contains about 6
per cent of protein, 45 per cent of carbohydrates, 2.5 per cent of fat and 29
per cent of crude fiber. About one-half of this is digestible.

iFarmere' Bulletin. 514. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

238

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Timothy may be seeded on wheat that has been severely winter
killed. If seeded early and the wheat is not harvested too early, both
wheat and timothy may be cut for seed at one and the same operation
By using a fanning mill with proper sieves the wheat and timothy seed
are easily separated after threshing.

Fertilizers and Manures.— Timothy responds abundantly to hght
top dressings of manure. The manure should be applied with a manure
spreader, and best results will be secured w^hen used at the rate of six
ta ten loads per acre. It may be appUed any time during the autumn or
winter. ' In the absence of manure, a top dressing with a complete fertil-
izer early in the spring just as the grass begins to start is very beneficial.
In several of the states 350 pounds per acre containing about seven per
cent of each of the three constituents have given excellent results.

Mixing Timothy with Other Grasses and Clovers.— If the hay
product is to be fed on the farm, it is advisable to seed clover with timothy.
In this practice the amount of timothy seed is reduced to eight or ten
pounds per acre, and may be seeded either in the fall or spring, depending
on local practice. In the northern part of the timothy region the clover
can be safely seeded only in the spring. Six to ten pounds of clover seed
per acre will be required, depending on soil conditions and the kind ot
clover. The first crop of hay will be largely clover, the second chiefly

timothy. i n .

for hay purposes. .

Harvesting.— Many experiments relative to the time of harvesting
show that the best results are secured only when cut between the time
of full bloom and the soft dough stage of the seed. Since timothy is
shallow rooted and much of its vitality depends on the thickened bulb-
like base of the stem, it is desirable not to cut too closely. Close cutting,
or pasturing closely with stock after cutting, injures the subsequent
crops by exposure of the bulbs 'and by injury from tramping. Only when
the aftermath is abundant should pasturing be allowed. In no case is it

MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES

239

deemed desirable to pasture with sheep, since they are apt to nip off the
crown of the plant and thus destroy it.

.^4«^A-'^

*^M^^

i-.^^.,-
M?^-

Sv^

^ :U^^ ^'

.:'^v-

>»'V4 ^-

■■•■ '■ >, .i',

^m%'

'I- :^>'Xiy

■'m.L^.m^^:

' r^.

rVi' '','•

• I V

■ "<^^^.^

^m^'"

Field of Timothy Plants Grown for Selection, Showing Variation in Size

AND Form of Individual Plants.^

Slips and seeds from choice plants are used for propagating new strains.

Seed Production.— Timothy generally produces between five and
twelve bushels of seed per acre. It is most conveniently cut with the
self-binder, and is threshed with the ordinary threshing machme, usmg
special sieves to clean and separate the seed. Loss from shattermg will
be severe if allowed to become over-ripe. If cut promptly the straw has
considerable feeding value. The principal seed-producing states are
Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, South Dakota, Kansas and Ohio.

iFarmere' Bulletin. 514, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

■sv •. X-

240_

Improvement of Timothy.— Although timothy has been an important
crop and large quantities of seed are bought and sold, as yet no varieties
have been developed. Timothy plants show marked variation m size
vigor, character of foliage and resistance to drought. Improvement ot
the crop for special purposes can be made by the selection and propagation
of desirable plants. Several of the experiment stations have jna^e progress
along this line and have already developed strains of timothy that have

MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES

241

Variations in Timothy.'

outyielded that secured from commercial seed by as much as one ton

^^"^ M^keting the Hay.-The bulk of timothy hay is placed upon the
market in bales of about 100 pounds each. The market calls for bright
clean timothy hay, free from weeds and various grasses. When mixed with
clover!Tedtop or other grasses, quotations will be somewhat lower than for
pure timothy. ^^^ ^^^^

There ara two chief species of blue grass in North America, namely,
Kentucky blue grass and Canada blue grass. These grasses spread by

iCourt^ot The Macmillan Company. N. Y. From "PUnt Breeding." by Baifey.

means of seed and also by underground root stocks. They give rise to an
even and continuous turf, and are especially adapted for pasture purposes.
They are aggressive grasses and tend to take possession of the land and
crowd out weeds and other grasses. The Kentucky blue grass is superior
in both quality and yield. Its climatic adaptation is essentially the same
as that for Canada blue grass, and ranges from Virgima northward into
Canada, and westward to the central part of Kansas and Nebraska. It
reaches its highest development in the region of limestone soils. 1 arts ot
Kentucky, Missouri, Virginia and Tennessee are noted for their blue grass
regions. It also succeeds well on both the timber and prairie soils ot Ohio,

Indiana, Illinois and Iowa. . , .

SoU and Climatic Adaptation.— These two prominent pasture grasses
are adapted to a cool, moist climate having thirty inches of rainfall and
unward. They are exceedingly resistant to cold, never freezing out m
even the most severe winters. These grasses prefer well-drained loams
or clay loams. They are not adapted to loose, sandy soils. The Kentucky
blue grass calls for a fair to good degree of fertility, and where these two
grassfs are seeded together on such soil, the Kentucky blue grass will
Son take full possession. The Canada blue grass has the abihty to grow
on poor soils, although it will produce only small crops and poor pasturage
under such conditions. On poor soils the Canada blue grass will take pos-
session finally to the exclusion of Kentucky blue grass. ,

Although these two grasses will make hay of fair quality, the yield
is so low that they are not adapted to hay purposes.

Importance of Blue Grass.-As pasture grasses these are unexcelled
for the temperate portions of North America where the rainfall is fairly
abundant They are not only valuable as summer pasture, but as wm er
pasture for hor.ses and sheep, have no equal. When desired for wm er
pasture hey should not be dosely pastured during the summer. Winter
pasture rom these grasses can often be provided by turning the stock into
fields from which'^he spring crops have ^oen lu.rvested and on to meadow
hnd during the late summer and autumn. This permits the blue grass to
make good growth for winter pasture. Even when covered with snow,
horses and sheep will paw off the snow and pasture on the grass

Severe drought during the summer may completely suspend the growth
of blue ^ass and cause it to appear dead. No matter how long the period
o drouSfrXs wtll quickly Sivive the grass and it will resume its normal
ttth'and rdition." It wUl stand a great ^^-^ance of tra«^^^^^
serious iniurv The %vriter has seen calves retained in hurdle pens during
JeTweaS - blue grass until the surface would be thoroughl^^^^^^^^
and no grass visible. A few weeks after removing the pens the grass wouW

be in as thrifty a condition as ever. _ fnnrtpen to

Methods of Establishing.— Blue grass seed weighs from fourteen to
twen^!eTght pounds per bushel, the legal weight being fourteen pou^^^s
The weight is determined chiefly by the presence or absence of the glumes

W'^m

■ :.\."^t^%:.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

240_

Improvement of Timothy.— Although timothy has been an important
crop and large quantities of seed are bought and sold, as yet no varieties
have been developed. Timothy plants show marked variation m size,
vigor, character of foliage and resistance to drought. Improvement ot
the crop for special purposes can be made by the selection and propagation
of desirable plants. Several of the experiment stations have jnadejjrogress
along this line and have already developed strains of timothy that have

MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES

241

f-"

iltitji^'

.-m^'t^:

Variations in Timothy.'
outyieldcd that secured from commercial seed by as much as one ton

''"' M^keting the Hay.-Thc bulk of timothy hay is placed upon the
market in bales of about 100 poiinds each. The "^^^keya^'^^^^^^"^^^^^
clean timothy hay, free from weed.s and various grasses. When mixed with
clover; Sop or other grasses, quotations will be somewhat lower than for
pure timothy. ^^^ ^^^^

There ara two chief species of blue grass in North America, namely,
Kentucky blue grass and Canada blue grass. These grasses spread by

"". Courtesy"of The MacmUIan Company. N. Y. From "Plant Breeding." by Bailoy.

means of seed and also by underground root stocks. They give rise to an
even and continuous turf, and are especially adapted for pasture purposes.
They are aggressive grasses and tend to take possession of the land and
crowd out weeds and other grasses. The Kentucky blue grass is superior
in both quality and yield. Its cUmatic adaptation is essentially the same
as that for Canada blue grass, and ranges from Virginia northward into
Canada, and westward to the central part of Kansas and Nebraska, it
reaches its highest development in the region of limestone soils. 1 arts ot
Kentucky, Missouri, Virginia and Tennessee are noted for their blue grass
regions. It also succeeds well on both the timber and prairie soils of Ohio,

Indiana, IlUnois and Iowa. . , ^

SoU and Climatic Adaptation.— These two prominent pasture grasses
are adapted to a cool, moist climate having thirty inches of rainfall and
upward. They are exceedingly resistant to cold, never freezing out in
even the most severe winters. These grasses prefer well-dramed oams
or clay loams. They are not adapted to loose, sandy soils. The Kentucky
blue grass calls for a fair to good degree of fertility, and ^vjere these two
g assfs are seeded together on such soil, the Kentucky blue grass will
£on take full possession. The Canada blue grass has the ability to grow
on poor soils, although it will produce only small crops and poor pasturage
under such conditions. On poor soils the Canada blue grass will take pos-
session finally to the exclusion of Kentucky blue grass. ,

Although these two grasses will make hay of fair quality, the yield
is so low that they are not adapted to hay purposes.

Importance of Blue Grass.-As pasture grasses these are unexcelled
for the temperate portions of North America where the rainfall is fairly
Xmlnt They are not only valuable as summer pasture, but as wm er
msture for horses and sheep, have no equal. When desired for wm er
m sure hey should not be closely pastured during the summer. Winter
^Sure from these grasses can often be provided by t-mng the stoc^^^^^^^
the fields fnnn which the spring crops have been harvested =\"f "J ^o m^^^^^^^^^^
hmd during the late summer and autumn. This permits the W"^ grass to
make good growth for winter pasture. Even when covered with snow,
hOTscs and sheep will paw off the snow and pasture on the grass

SevereSht during the summer may completely suspend the growth
of blue CTasslnd cause it to appear dead. No matter how long the period
o drouSr r^lns will quickly Revive the grass and it will resume its normal
Jotthind condition.' It will stand a great abundance «[ --^^^^ ^^^^^^
serious iniurv The writer has seen calves retained in hurdle pens during
Je weX'on blue grass until the surface would be thoroughl^^^^^^^^^^
and no grass vi.sible. A few weeks after removing the pens the grass would

be in as thrifty a condition as ever. ■ u r ^r^ fr.„r+PPn to

Methods of Establishing.-Blue grass seed weighs from fourteen to

twentySht pounds per bufhel, the legal weight being fo-t-n p^"^^^^^

The weight is determined chiefly by the presence or absence of the glumes

*)!«;'

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

242

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES

243

or hulls that enclose the seed proper. Blue grass seed is frequently of low
vitality, due to faulty methods of harvesting and curing. It is always well
to test the seed before seeding as a guide to the amount of seed desirable
to use Blue grass is very slow in becoming thoroughly established, and
good pastures can seldom be secured in less than two years from time of
seeding and in some cases more time is required. It is generally advisable
to seed with a mixture of grasses and clovers, some of which will give prompt
pasture. Timothy, orchard grass, and red and alsike clover, are, therefore,
frequently used. These ultimately give way to the blue grass. Virgin
grass land and meadow land are frequently converted into blue grass
pastures by seeding blue grass, which gradually spreads and takes posses-
sion When used for lawn purposes, the rate of seeding should be three to
four bushels per acre. As httle as eight to ten pounds per acre may be
used when seeded with other grasses and when plenty of time is allowed
for becoming well established. Ordinarily, twenty to twenty-five pounds
of blue grass should be used when it is the chief grass for the pasture.

It is difficult to distinguish between seed of Kentucky blue grass and
Canada blue grass. The latter is sometimes used to adulterate the former,

since it generally is less costly.

Pasture Maintenance.— Blue grass, because of its numerous under-
ground root stocks, tends to form a sod-bound turf. This condition may be
obviated by seeding blue grass pastures with red or alsike clover every
three or four years. This can be done by using a disk drill early in the
spring The use of the disk will also help to overcome sod-bindmg. The
presence of the clover will enhance the pasture for the time being, and
especially during the dry period when the blue grass will remain dormant.
The clover roots tend to loosen up the ground and supply nitrogen to the
blue grass. White clover is advantageous when seeded with blue grass.
It re-seeds itself and becomes permanent so long as soil conditions are
favorable Under favorable conditions and with proper treatment, blue
grass pastures improve with age, at least for several years/ There are
many instances of such pastures having been undisturbed for thirty
or forty years.

REDTOP

Redtop is a native grass of North America, and grows naturally in cold,
wet soils It is a perennial provided with long, creeping underground root
stems, and spreads both by means of these and seeds. It forms a contin-
uous and fairly even turf, and is, therefore, well adapted for pasture pur-
poses It has a wider range of adaptation, both from the soil and chmatic
standpoint, than any other cultivated grass. It is resistant to cold and
withstands summer heat much better than timothy. It does not show much
preference for type of soil, but does best on loams and clay loams. It is
exceedingly tolerant of soil acidity. It is also fairly drought resistant and
succeeds better than most grasses on poor, sandy soils.

Importance of Redtop. — Redtop is the third or fourth most important
perennial grass in America. It is adapted to both pasture and hay pur-
poses, although it is not equal to timothy as a hay producer nor to Kentucky
blue grass for pasture purposes. As a pasture grass it is not so palatable
as Kentucky blue grass.

Culture. — Like Kentucky blue grass, redtop is aggressive and fre-
quently takes-full possession of the land. It is seldom seeded alone, usually
being included in mixtures. The rate of seeding depends on the quality
of the seed and the nature of the mixture in which seeded. With re-cleaned
seed, twelve to fifteen pounds per acre are sufficient when seeded alone.
Much smaller amounts will meet the requirements in mixtures. The time
and manner of seeding are similar to those for timothy.

Yields and Uses. — Redtop has been tested at a number of state experi-
ment stations and yields of hay ranging from 3000 to 5600 pounds per acre
are reported. In order to be of good quality redtop should be cut early.
If allowed to become fairly mature it makes hay that is fibrous and unpala-
table. Numerous analyses show that redtop hay contains more nutrients
than timothy hay.

ORCHARD GRASS

Orchard grass, a native of Europe, is grown quite generally throughout
the United States, except in the semi-arid sections and the extreme south.
It is a rather deep-rooted, coarse grass which grows in tufts or bunches and
is without creeping root stocks. It does best in a temperate climate, but
will stand more heat than timothy, and is less resistant to cold. In the
United States it is cultivated more abundantly southward than northward.
It begins growth earlier than most grasses, and often produces a second

cutting of hay.

Importance. — Orchard grass ranks fouith or fifth in importance among
the perennial cultivated hay grasses in North America. It is most exten-
sively grown in Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, Ken-
tucky, southern Indiana, Iowa and Oregon.

Culture.— The seed of orchard grass weighs from fourteen to twenty-
two pounds per bushel, and when seeded alone requires about thirty-five
pounds per acre. Germination of the seed is complete in about fourteen
days. It may be seeded either in the fall or very early spring. When
seeded in the fall, early seeding is desirable to prevent winter killing. The
seed, being of an exceedingly chaffy character, does not feed well through
a seed drill, and is generally sown by hand or with the wheelbarrow or other

types of seeders. • t • i

Ordinarily, the grass does not form seed the first season. It is long-
lived, and individual plants are known to live eight years, and will probably

live longer. ,

Yields and Uses.— Whether seeded in fall or spring, the first year s
growth rarely gives a hay crop, but it may be utilized for pasture. When,

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

244

used for hay it should be cut as soon as in full bloom. The stems become
woody ifit stands longer. It is usually about three weeks earlier than
^othy and is advantageous on lands infested with o---y^^-^y^^-^^^^
nnH nthpr weeds that do not ripen seed before time of harvesting it. ii
vis about afw^^^^ timothy, and yields reported ^-^ f ^^^^' X'"
ment stations range from three-quarters of a ton to two and one-half tons

^^^^iT^tntS Sbl^STsoil binder and serves to prevent soil

™K i^ rtlmSed^aVatStuent of mixed pastures. It is valuable
in thL respe'rcause of its early growth and its ability to grow dunng coo^
weather. It succeeds best under heavy grazing and is admirably adapted

'- tleC^^SJor ^tt "^^^^A i-oductio.
It is a loTglved perennial, spreading both by seeds and root stocks It

rms heTvy clumps, frequently twelve inches in f-^^-^^,"^^^^^^^^^
oKimHqntlv these ioin and form a compact sod. It is quite deep rooxea aim

s^^'^M to :S range ot climatic <»»<!i«»\'»!''J"^,',''LX'3

'°^The^";t\d',i'L°s^s«?o that tot timothy

valued for hay during the first two years after seeding. There is then a
tendency to become sodbound, after which it serves better for pasture. It
s both palatable and nutritious, whether used as hay or or Pa;^--^

Tall ftflt Grass —This grass has a climatic adaptation very siuumi
. f ? i.n;r it is fairly drought resistant and does poorly on wet

to noor land It is a perennial and is strictly a bunch grass.
'" Then used for ha'y it should be cut promptly whUe in bloom A t^
this period the stems rapidly become woody. I^' For this reaoniUs
quality, the hay being somewhat bitter in taste. For this reason

^^""^l^'eturs-Thr^f dumber of fescues, among which may be

s:^BsTh-:^^

Thev have about the same range of adaptation as timothy.

sSs fescue is a fine-textured, small-growing species adapted for
lawn ^as's mixtures. Sheep eat it quite freely, but cattle avoid it if other

^^Ted'fLr mat; a dense growth unde. favorable -f^^^^^^^^^^
attain a height of two feet or more. It ^^^^^J-^f' «^ ''^^> ^"*

'^V^^ZZl'^^^:^^:'^ a^Xtlived, rapid-growing
peref^a^^^nfusu '^only twJyefrs on poor land, but somewhat longer

MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES

245

under favorable conditions. It is seldom employed except in lawn
mixtures.

Italian rye grass is adapted to moist regions with mild winters. It
succeeds best on loam and sandy loam soils. It is adapted for hay purposes
and may be cut several times during the season.

Sudan Grass. — ^A tall annual grass resembling Johnson grass, but
spreads only by seeds. It has been recently introduced and seems to be
best adapted to the semi-arid belt. It has been tried in an experimental
way in many of the states and has generally made a good growth.

Sudan Grass, a New Acquisition. ^

Bermuda Grass.— Bermuda grass is a perennial with numerous
branched leafy stems, which, under favorable conditions, attain a height of
twelve to eighteen inches. Ordinarily, it is not so tall. This grass occurs
chiefly in the southern part of the United States, but extends as far north as
Pennsylvania and Kansas. It is especially adapted to the cotton belt, and
is to the South what blue grass is to the North. While it is more particu-
larly adapted as a pasture grass, it is also quite extensively used as hay.
It will grow on all types of soil, but does best on rich, moist bottom lands
that are well drained. It is also used as a lawn grass. Bermuda grass does
not seed at all freely and most of the seed is imported. It is most easily
propagated by cutting the culms into short pieces, scattering them on the

iCourtesyof The. Macmiilan Company. N. Y. From "Forage Plants and Their Culture," by Piper.

■

IS?-

244 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

used for hay it should be cut as soon as in full bloom. The^^ms become
woodv if it stands longer. It is usually about three weeks earlier than
rotCandts advantageous on lands infested with ox^ye daisy, flea-bane
and other weeds that do not ripen seed before t-e f »™*-J t^J
yields about as well as timothy, and yields r^P«f <^ f om seje^^^^^^^^^
ment stations range from three-quarters of a ton to two and one halt tons

'-' TiJtZSS Sb^ r:-soil binder and serves to prevent soil

^n is rtSli^nSratSuent of mixed pastures. It is valuable
in th?s r^spe^t because of its early growth and its ability ^^^-J^™^^^^^^^
weather. It succeeds best under heavy grazing, and is admirably adaptea
(nr cihnflv nasturcs and in orchards that are to be grazed.

KL iass -Brome grass is of comparatively recent introduction
It is a loTg-&ed perennial, spreading both by seeds and root stocks. It
forms heavv clumps, frequently twelve inches in diameter, but when seeded

Sency to become sodbound, after which it serves better for pasture. It
I both mlatable and nutritious, whether used as hay or for pasture.
TaU Oat Grass.-This gra^s has a climatic adaptation very sim.la
lau yai or<ib & drought resistant and does poorly on wet

IVd rLrb 'st on r^tSoi dSp loams, and succeeds well on calca-
eot sSls; also does well on sandy an<l gravelly soi , but is not adapted
to Door land It is a perennial and is strictly a bunch gi-ass
'" ^^n en used for h.^ it should be cut promptly while m bloom A t^
this period the stems rapidly become woody. ^ /-^J^^;^,^^^^^^^^^^^^
quality, the hay being somewhat bitter in taste. For this reason

^^""Til^F^ufs-Thrrr^^^^^^ of fescues, among which may be
mentTonernSow fescue, tall fescue, reed fescue, sheep s fescue and red
SLuT None of These ar^ of much importance in American agriculture.
They have about the same range of adaptation as timothy.

Sheen's fescue is a fine-textured, small-growing species adapted tor
lawn ^2 mSures. Sheep eat it quite freely, but cattle avoid it if other

^^TedTescr mat; a dense growth under ^-rable -nf t^^^^^^^^^^^
attain a height of two feet or more, t makes fair yields of hay, but is

''^'\^'^^'^:z^r^t:: r^^^^a, rapid-growmg

pere?ral,^rg u;u.^ronly two'yefrs on poor land, but somewhat longer

MEADOW AND PASTURE GRASSES

245

under favorable conditions. It is seldom employed except in lawn
mixtures.

Italian rye grass is adapted to moist regions with mild winters. It
succeeds best on loam and sandy loam soils. It is adapted for hay purposes
and may be cut several times during the season.

Sudan Grass, a New Acquisition. ^

1 Courtesy of The :Macmiilan Company. N. Y. From "Forage Plants and Their Culture," by Piper.

f^j^i>ViS^"'r't-, "

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

246 S U C C ESSFUL FARMING

field to be seeded and covering them with disk, harrow or other suitable
implements. These fragments of grass take root and spread rapidly by
means of nimierous root stocks or creepmg stems. j i. v,^

Bermuda grass meadows and P^^tures frequently become sod-Wd
and fall off in yield. This condition may be alleviated by disking or by
pbwing and haSowing. After such treatment the growth will become much

"^""'^Xson Grass.-It is a coarse, large-growing species adapted to the
whole of the cotton belt. It grows well in the summer as far north as 37
degrees north latitude, but usually will not withstand wmters m such lati-
tufe It spreads both by seeds and rhizomes, and when once established
it is difficult to eradicate. It is utihzed for both hay and pasture. Two
or three crops per season are frequently harvested. , ^ , ^ . .

Sa Grass.-This is a rank-growing tropical species adapted to moist
loams or clay loams. In the United States it is adapted only to F orida,
and the G^^^^^ southern Texas. This grass is easily propagated by

c^tti^^^^^^^^ long, prostrate runners in much the same way that Bermuda
^ass is propagated. It is of value both for pasture and for feeding m the
frpsh state It is seldom used for making hay. , , ,

Guinea Grass.-This is a long-lived perennial with short, creeping,
root stocks. It generally grows in immense tufts, f ^f^^^^/^^^^^^^^^
four feet in diameter. The culms are large, erect, tall and numerous.
ItTs adapted to tropical conditions, but may be grown m Florida and abng
the Gulf Coast of North America. Both this and the precedmg grass may
te cut severa^^^^^^ each year. Under strictly tropical conditions, cuttmgs
are frequently made every six or seven weeks.

REFERENCES

" A Textbook on Grasses." Hitchcock.

-Forage Plants and Their Culture." Piper.

''Forage and Fiber Crops in America. Hunt.

-GraJes and How to Grow Them " Shaw

FannSs' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

l^armers ^ .^Wdow Fescue (Its Culture and Uses). ,,

362. -Conditions Affecting Value of Market Hay^.

402 ^'Canada Blue Grass (Its Culture and Use).

502. ''Timothy Production on Irrigate L.ana.

508. "Market Hay." ^ x. t^ • »»

509. "Forage Crops for the Cotton iiegion.

CHAPTER 16

The Clovers

Clovers are important on account of their high protein content and
nutritive ratio. They are especially valuable as forage for all classes of
livestock. Clovers enrich the soil in nitrogen and organic matter, and
improve its physical condition through the deep penetration of roots. For
years farmers have paid out large sums in the purchase of nitrogen for the
soil and protein for livestock. This can be largely avoided by growing an
abundance of leguminous crops on the farm.

Characteristics of Clovers. — The true clovers are herbaceous leafy
plants having three palmately arranged leaves. The larger growing
species have deep roots on which occur nodules containing certain species
of bacteria. These bacteria enable the plants to secure nitrogen from the
air and use it in their development. For this reason legumes are richer in
protein than other classes of plants. Of the total nitrogen in the plants
about two-thirds are in the tops and one-third in the roots.

Uses of Clovers. — As a rule from one-half to two-thirds of the roughage
in the ration for milk cows and young stock should consist of legumes,
among which Hhe clovers as hay are most convenient to use and most
economical. The larger growing clovers are also quite extensively used for
soiling purposes, and in some cases have been used for ensilage. The
clovers are also among the most important crops for green manuring and

as cover crops.

Inoculation.— Since all of the legumes contain bacteria in the nodules
on their roots, it is best to inoculate many of the legumes when grown for
the first time in any locality. In most of the clover region soils are already
inoculated for the clovers. If inoculation is advisable, it may be effected
either by soil transferred or by the use of artificial cultures. In this connec-
tion it should be borne in mind that as a rule each legume has a particular
species of bacteria. Three to four hundred pounds of soil transferred from
a well-established field of any species of clover to a new field will effect
satisfactory inoculation of the latter. The soil should be taken from the
zone of most abundant root activity, thoroughly distributed on the new
field and at once mixed with the soil by disking or harrowing.

Artificial cultures have now been perfected and can be purchased at
reasonable prices from many manufacturing firms. The culture is generally
applied directly to the seed just before it is sown.

Composition and Feeding Value.— The composition of several species
of clovers in the green state and in forms of preservation will be found m
Table VI in the Appendix. Clovers, whether used for ensilage, soiling, hay

(247)

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

248

the production o(m,lkb„ter»^^^ and should supplant m

r^^J^tir^o'l^^'e-reSsU L b„n, oU n,eal. cotton-

will determine the method of ^'^'^^^f '"^f :, .p_ g„ffieient to meet the day's
tSt\r:lTi.:^^^tlZr^'Tp<^r.r .»-., and .o

should be considered. If the acreage to be harvested is large

A Clover Field in Blossom.'
process should begin. comparatively slow process of

lose their structure^ccome brittle and c««i to giv

^rbTa^Tbe'larg^l^oTfnXlSntorth^'ha;. Uei leaves .«
Will break and be largely los^ .j^ f^re, to cut in the evening and to

'i^' lltaVTt winiowTe ;^^^^^^^^^^^ become sufficiently dry to

place the, h^/;,"^;*'^X best quality of hav is secured by placing in shocks
'^^oS'o^^el^fS^:^^^ curing to be completed slowly withm

1 Courtesy of Hoard's Dairyman.

■'m^m

■"■■'■-■.. •
< •" •» ■■<■■■ ■■

THE CLOVERS

249

the shock. This entails much additional work, and if weather conditions
are favorable a good quality of hay may be secured without resorting to .

shocking.

Clover hay may go into the mow or stack with 25 to 30 per cent of
moisture without injury. Good judgment and prompt and systematic
work on the part of the haymaker are necessary to secure the best results.

The hay tedder and side-delivery rake are important adjuncts to
securing a good quality of clover hay, and may be considered necessities
where the acreage is sufficiently large to justify their purchase.

RED CLOVER

Red clover is a native of western Europe, and has long been cultivated
in North America. It is now the most important leguminous crop in the
Northern and North Central states and eastern Canada. While red clover
is grown to some extent in every state and province of the United States
and Canada, it is most extensively grown in those states lying north of the
Ohio River and east of the Missouri River. Kansas and Nebraska, how-
ever, produce a large acreage. The accompanying map shows the distribu-
tion of red clover, grown alone and with timothy, by states and provmces
for the United States and Canada.

Soil and Climatic Adaptation.— Red clover is quite resistant to cold
and endures winters well in Nova Scotia, Maine and Minnesota. Northern
grown seed is, therefore, generally' preferable for seeding in cold latitudes.
It does not do well in an extremely warm climate, and m the South succeeds
only when planted in the fall, and usually survives only one year. A
moderate to abundant rainfall is desirable. , . i ^ ^u

It is adapted to quite a wide range of soils, but makes its best growth
on fertile well-drained soil well supplied with lime and organic matter and
reasonably free from weeds. Any soil that will grow corn successfully
is well adapted to red clover. It does not do well on poorly drained land.
On such soil alsike clover succeeds better. ^

Endurance of Red Clover.— Red clover is generally considered a
biennial, the plants dying at the end of their second year. Some plants,
however, will live over for a third year and a few frequently die at the close
of their first year. The time of seeding and the treatment durmg the first
year doubtless influence the fife of clover plants. It is a common belie
that if clover blooms abundantly toward the close of the first year many of
the plants will fail to continue their growth the following year. For this

--'^^^:S^C^^^^ winters by repeated freeing
and thawing. The plants will be so nearly pulled out of the soil that they
perish in the spring for want of moisture and plant food. If the ground s
deeply frozen and the surface only thaws and freezes the taproots are
broken. This difficulty is best overcome by a thorough drainage of the
soil and by providing a surface mulch.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

THE CLOVERS

249

248

or pasture, all possess 1»^|; ^-di-| ^^^^^^^^^^^

the production of milk, butter and the g^«;^t^^°;j"'' | ^^^^^^ ^ plant as
among the most highly nutritious ^^/^^^ P'^^^^^^^^^^^ meal, cotton-
far as possible the expensive concentrates such as bran, on i e ,

seed meal,- etc. nuroose for which the product is used

aireCly to the silo with l-t IWe lo^j^o ■.o.tur. ^^ ,^

When clovers are cut foi hay, Dotii int ^l" ^ k laree it will be
should be considered. If the acreage to be harvested is large

A Clover Field in Rlossom.*

— r z-r '^ ;:r oU:sr ;;xt it;; r z

lose their structure, become brittle and cease to give

there may still be --^ ^f^Vhand inf o7the h^^^ These leaves are
will break and be largely los - ^^^ ^-^^^f f^.^^ Jthe evening and to
high in feeding value. .I^^^Xf^re the leaves become sufficiently dry to
I'^'V'^'J'fZi^'TZtel^X of haTis secured by placing in shocks
'^^:^-oZ^:fS^:^-^^'^ curing to be completed slowly withm

1 Courtesy of Hoard's Dairyman.

the shock. This entails much additional work, and if weather conditions
are favorable a good quality of hay may be secured without resorting to

shocking. ^

RED CLOVER

Soil and Climatic Adaptation.— Red clover is quite resistant to cold
and endures winters well in Nova Scotia, Maine and Minnesota. Northern
grown seed is, therefore, generally preferable for seeding in cold latitudes.
It does not do well in an extremely warm climate, and in the South succeeds
only when planted in the fall, and usually survives only one year. A
moderate to abundant rainfall is desirable. , .. i x ^u

Endurance of Red Clover.-Red clover is generally considered a
biennial, the plants dying at the end of their second year. S^";^^ P^^^^^^^^
however, will live over for a third year and a few frequently die at the close
of their first year. The time of seeding and the treatment during the first
year doubtless influence the Ufe of clover plants. It is a common belie
Lt if clover blooms abundantly toward the close o the first year many o
the plants will fail to continue their growth the followmg year.^ For this
reason clipping or light pasturing is advised. ^

Clover on wet soil may be killed in severe winters by repeated freezing
and thawing. The plants will be so nearly pulled out of the soil that they
perish in the spring for want of moisture and plan food. " ^^e f^^^^^^^^^
deeply frozen and the surface only thaws and freezes the taproots are
broken. This difficulty is best overcome by a thorough drainage of the
soil and by providing a surface mulch.

250

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Securing Clover Seed.— The intelligent selection of clover seed calls
for knowledge relative to the characteristics of both good and poor seed.
Good seed is plump and has a bright luster, and is generally violet to bright
yellow in color. The proportion of violet to yellow varies considerably
in different lots of seed. Good seed should be free from noxious weed-
seeds and adulterants of any kind. The standard of purity should not
be below 98 per cent and the germination should be about 98 per cent.
Frequently some of the clover seeds will be so hard that they will not
germinate promptly. The hardness of the coat prevents absorption of
moisture. The percentage of hard seeds is largest in new seed.

Home-grown seed possesses several advantages: (1) it is likely to be
adapted to local climatic and soil conditions; (2) its use avoids the intro-

Map Showing the Acreage of Red Clover in the United
States, 1909, and Canada, 1910.

duction of obnoxious weeds foreign to the neighborhood. Among the
most obnoxious weeds are clover dodder, buckhorn, Canada thistle and
dock. Most weed-seeds may be removed by the use of suitable screens.
The longevity of clover seed is three years. The deterioration in vitality
depends largely upon the conditions of storage. Continuous warm, moist
conditions cause deterioration and make it inadvisable to use seed more
than two years old. A considerable percentage of the seed as determined
by numerous tests will retain its vitality for quite a number of years, and
the hard seeds have been known to germinate after fifteen or twenty years.

Seed of mammoth clover is «o much like that of red clover that it is
difficult to distinguish between them. Ordinarily, mammoth clover seed
is a little larger than that of red.

Preparation of Seed-Bed.— Red clover is usually seeded in the winter

THE CLOVERS

251

or spring, in which case no special preparation of the seed-bed is necessary.
When seeded in this way natural covering results from the freezing and
thawing of the ground and the beating of rains. If conditions for spring
seeding with wheat necessitate seeding rather late, it is best to harrow
the wheat, thus covering the clover seed.

When seeded with spring grain the preparation for the grain is generally
sufficient for the clover. It will pay, however, to provide a well-prepared
seed-bed that will fully meet the needs of clover seed, even though equally
thorough preparation is not necessary for the spring grain. A fair degree
of compactness and a thorough covering of the seed are desirable.

Time, Manner, Rate and Depth of Seeding.— In all regions of moderate
to severe winters, winter or spring seeding is advisable, except when
clover may be seeded in midsummer without a nurse crop. Further south,
fall seeding may be practiced without winter injury to the young clover

plants.

While clover seed is gencTally broadcasted, recent tests show that better
results can be secured with less seed by using a grass seed drill. Such
implements are now available and are so constructed as to drill the rows
at intervals of four inches. Their adjustment permits of a shallow cover-
ing of the seed. The rate of seeding when clover is grown alone should be
ten to twelve pounds of good seed per acre if broadcasted and a somewhat
smaller amount when drilled. When seeded in mixtures the amount may
be reduced, depending on the character of the grass seed mixture. Clover
seed should be covered from one-half to two inches in depth. On very
loose, dry soils it may be covered as much as three inches deep with fairly

good results. ^ , ^ ^. .,

Failure to secure a satisfactory stand of clover frequently results
from various causes. The condition of newly seeded clover fields immedi-
ately after the nurse crop is harvested should be observed. It there are
indications of insufficient plants for a satisfactory stand, it is generally
advisable to re-seed at once. This re-seeding may take place over those
portions of the field where the stand is poor, or may cover the entire field
as conditions require. A disk should be used to loosen the soil before
seeding, and after seeding it should be harrowed. Disking may injure
some of the clover present, but not seriously. . -.u + « r.,,rco

Good results are also secured by seeding m August without a nurse
crop. Such seeding takes place after the wheat or oat harvest and provides
?or a f ull clover crop the following year. The chief objection to this method
is the extra labor of preparing the seed-bed and seeding.

Nurse Crops for Clover.— Where clover grows without difficulty, it is
common practice to seed with some nurse crop. In f ^^^^^^^f^XTt
wheat is grown, this crop is a favored nurse crop for clover Winter wheat
Ts semrrded before L latter part of September and th- c^o-^^^^^^^^^^
sufficient time for clover to make enough growth to protect itself during
thf Ser As a result the clovers north of latitude 36 should be seeded m

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

252

the late winter or early spring in the growing wheat. Of the ^-^d^^
grains, barley and oats are the best nurse crops for clover. These should
not be seeded very thick, otherwise the clover may be smothered. The
™rop should be cut sufficiently high to leave a stubble that will protect

*'^ SizSor are?-lsT^ no fertilizers or manures are applied

direc%tr the benefit of the clover. The ^^^^^lf^%^;^,;!SX
to the croD preceding the clover is generally sufficient. 1 his is especia y
true when seeded with winter wheat. On soils of low fertility, especially
vhenThereL little organic matter present, top dressing with manure pre-
vious to the time of sLding is very beneficial to the clover. No nitrogen
Tneeded when commercial fertilizer is used. Moderate amounts of phos-
nhorus and potash applied broadcast will meet the needs.
^ Ster-T?eatment of Clover.-Clover seeded with a grain crop seldom
requkes any special treatment during the first year. Under favorable
conltionsi may make sufficient growth after the harvest of the gra.n to
produce a cutting of hay. This is thought by some to be injurious to the
FollSg year's dover crop. It is, therefore, advised to dip the clover
be ore h comes extensively into bloom, and allow the clipping to lie on the
fie d If so abundant as to smother the plants it may be removed
Clipping is also advisable to prevent the ripening of the seeds of ob-™
weeds and grasses that are always present to some extent. The clipping
rould be so timed as to prevent the seeding of the largest possible numbe
of such plants. If too eariy, seeds may develop after the cljPP^g, and if
too late some of the seeds may have already matured The ordinary
mmvSig machine with the bar set rather high is wel suited for this purpose

S|ht pasturing may be practiced instead of dipping. Pasturing with
sheep is best, since sheep are fond of many of the weeds and grasses, and
will eat the seeds in great abundance. , • xt, „„„„„ri

Since red clover lives only two years, the first crop during the second

vear is generally cut for hay and the aftermath is either used for a seed crop,

fs paSurTd or plowed under for the benefit of the soil. If the second crop

to be used for seed it is wise to cut the first crop early. This encourages

? letter development of the second crop and -"-f ^^^jf^^f ^^ovS
The first crop should be cut just as it is coming into bloom If the clover
is to remain for the third year, seed must be allowed to mature during the
late summer of the second season, with a view of having the clover re-seed
iSelfTturally. This is not a very satisfactory method, however, because

he seSheadf generally fall to the ground ^^^ ^ '^^^^rC'^Zo^!;
bution of the seed. This, however, may be obviated by thoroughly
harlowing the field after the seed heads are mostly on the^ ground The
Sa"S breaks up the heads and distributes the seed. It should be so
timed as to avoid destruction of clover plants when just starting.

HSvestog Clover.-R«d dover, harvested for hay, should be cut
when o^-thW of the blossoms have begun to turn brown. At this time

THE CLOVERS

253

the plants will contain about all the nutrients they ever will have, and the
product will cure readily and make a palatable, digestible hay. After this
period the lower leaves begin to fall rather rapidly and the clover is apt to
lodge so that loss takes place.

When used for soiling purposes, cutting may begin as soon as the first
blossoms appear, and continue until the crop is fairly mature. When used
for silage, the plants should be fully as mature as when cut for hay. If
cut too green it makes a sloppy, sour silage of poor quality. When used
for silage, clover gives best results when mixed with non-leguminous crops.
The second cutting of clover can frequently be used to mix with corn in the

making of silage.

The least expensive way of harvesting is to pasture. While red clover
is not especially well adapted to pasture purixjses, it makes a good quality
of pasture, and especially when mixed with grasses. It is especially suited
to cattle, sheep and swine. Sheep and cattle are sometimes subject to
bloating when allowed to feed on red clover when it is especially succulent
or when wet with dew or rain. Such trouble occurs only when the animals
are unaccustomed to it and when they feed too heavily.

Clover Seed Production.— Red clover seed may be successfully pro-
duced in practically all areas adapted to the production of clover hay. It
differs in this respect from alfalfa. ■

Seed production is encouraged by retarding somewhat the vegetative
growth. Conditions that will produce a medium growth of plant usually
induce the best setting of seed. Good seed crops are seldom secured from
a rank growth of clover. Under such conditions the heads are few and are
not well filled. The probable yield of seed and advisabiUty of saving the
crop for that purpose can be determined by a careful examination of a
number of seed heads. If the seed heads are fairly abundant and contain
an average of twenty-five to thirty seeds each, it indicates a yield of one to
two bushels per acre, and justifies saving for seed purposes. If the average
number of seeds is not more than twenty it will generally not pay to cut
for seed This determination must be made fairly early in order to cut the
crop for hay before it becomes too mature in case it will not pay to save

TOT* SPPfi

It is a common belief that seed production calls for a pollination of the
flowers by insects. The ordinary honey bee cannot reach the nectar of
the average clover blossom, and is, therefore, not instrumental in the fertili-
zation of the flowers. Bumble bees, however, are supposed to be the most
effective agents in this process. There are probably numerous very small
insects that also produce pollination. However this may be the second
crop is the one that gives best results for seed purposes. At that time
insects are more numerous, weather conditions are drier and the plants
tend to produce seed more abundantly than earlier in the year Occasion-
ally the first crop will produce plenty of seed. The seed crop should be cut
when the largest number of heads can be secured. If cut too early, tne

■■■- - -7wv^-,

THE CLOVERS

255

< i

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

cut too late, the early blossoms ^^^^ ^^ff/b^fX to cutting the seed
The old-fashioned self-rake reaper is best adapt .efficiently

crop. It leaves the cut clover mbh^^^^^^^

far from the standmg clover «; ^^e tean. ana ^.^^^^^^^ ^^^.^ ^j^

swath. These bunches of cut cl?;^^/^^ J^^ "^'^^^ jn the absence of the
are ready to be hauled to '^'^^^^ZhThZ^er may be substituted,
self-rake reaper, a mowing ,"1^^ "^.^^^^^^h ^f the team and machine, a
If the buncher leaves the clover ^^ ^^^ P^^^ ^^d move the bunches,

man should follow the machine with a b^^^^^^ harvesting the

Serious shattering in the euttmg process m^^^^ be
crop in the evening or early JJ /^e momng o ^^^^^^ ^^.^

The clover is generally threshed wn ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^

should contain two cyhnders. Concaves must ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^j,^

clover seed from the
hulls. The seed being
valuable, it is advised
to spread canvas be-
neath the machine to
save the clover seed
which shatters out in
the threshing process.
Where threshing is
done on a barn floor
canvas will not be
required.
^ ^ The seed should

he thoroughly c.e^. before -|- f^ J^r w^^S^ll "ct t

TelvrdTyTse of^sSa^e ^^^^^ and Zt

present of about the same --^1" d s diffi-^ to remove in this
^11 be difficult to remove, ^"^^^^^ows and the following process
way. Itisaverytroubl«^^^ Thoroughly wet the

of removing it from clover seea is ^^ ^llow to stand m

clover seed with water at about roona t^^^P^^^^^^^^^ -^ ^he temperature

the water for five -^^--^^^^l^lT^,^::'!^ off and the moist seed
of the water is low. The water is i ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^

thoroughly mixed ^'th f awd"st ,^^out 7^^ ^.^^^^^ ^^ .^^ h

of seed by measure will be ^^J^^^^^; ^^^^ee surface moisture from the
mixing will cause the ^^^^^f^ome mu^^^^^^^^^ and the sawdust adheres
seed. The buckhorn seeds ^^""^f^^^J^htwo screens, preferably in a
rntg mi? ^S'pp^reTorS perforated with round holes

. .^ t:< «-«' 'RiillAf.in 495.

A CU,VEH BrNCHBR ArTACHEO TO A MoWIN. MACHINE.'

T^^;;;;^. V . S. Dept. .C AgHcuHure. F^m Fanae^' BuUetin 405.

one-fifteenth of an inch in diameter. The lower should be a No. 22 mesh
wire screen. The buckhorn seeds with sawdust adhering will pass over the
surface of the upper screen and be removed. The clover seed will pass
through the openings and be retained by the lower screen, passing off at
the edge, where it may be collected. The sawdust should be fine and will
pass through the lower screen. In this way the separation is complete.

Red Clover Troubles. — The principal enemies of red clover are insects,
fungous diseases and weeds. Much is heard concerning clover sickness,
but little is known relative to the nature of the malady. Failure to grow

'iJ^i?

■,i ^

^' ." ■ " ,;■ ■■' Mt. ■■■■ '. "a — .^' ». ■■-

-♦^

*>>i^

'^6

' *%

■*(■

7*:'

*« -^^

:J%«

Red Clover on Limed and Unlimed Land.^

continuous crops of clover may be due to any one of several causes. Soil
acidity is probably the most common cause of clover failure. This, as
previously stated, is overcome by the use of lime. One of the most common
diseases of clover is anthracnose. In some sections nematodes have also
been responsible for clover failure. These difficulties will be mentioned
under special chapters covering plant diseases, insect enemies and weeds.
Alsike Clover.— Is a perennial plant intermediate between red and
white clover in size and appearance. It is adapted to ground that is too
wet for red clover, and is also more tolerant of acidity.

^Courtesy of The Macmfllan Company. N. Y. From "Crops and Methods for SoH Improve-
ment," by Agee.

SUCCESSFUL FARMH^

254 ~ . —

far from the standing clover «^/^^^^^^^^^^^^ to be disturbed until they

swath. These bu-hes of cu^^^^^^^^^^^^ In the absence of the

are ready to be hauled to the ^^^res^^^^^ ^^^ substituted,

self-rake reaper, a moving ^^'^'^'^^^^^ team and machine, a

If the buncher leaves the f'^^'J^^^^^^^^ and move the bunches,

man should ^low the machine w^^^^^^^^^ harvesting the

Serious shattering in the ^f']^^XlZo^^^^ or on damp days.
crop in the evening or early - ^he^^^^^^ ^.^r huUer. This machine
The clover is generally ^hre^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ be set rather close m order
should contain two cylinders. Concaves musx ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^

present of about the same g^^^^J^^ f , lifficult to remove in this
^U be difficult to remove, ^ucldiorn^eea ^^^^^^^.^ ^^^^^^

way. It is a very troublesome weed «^«vj Thoroughly wet the
of removing it from clover seed is J^ecornmena ^^ ^^^^^ .^

clover seed with water at about room temg^at^ e a^^ .^ ^^^ temperature

the water for five -'-"t^,^; «;^"4^,"; Jhe/drained off and the moist seed
of the water is low. The viater is t sawdust to one part

thoroughly mixed -'^h sawd"st^i,:^""Vrorthre" minutes of thorough
of seed by measure will be ^equi^ea ^ ^^^.^^^^^ ^^^^ ^j^^

fe T.v,,«or«' Rnlletin 495.

A Clovek BrxcHEK ArrACHKO to a Mo.in. Machine.^

7^;;;;^oi U. S. Dept. -f A«HeuUure. Fro. Farmers' BuUetin 405.

THE CLOVERS

255

^.i^

1.-2*^

-t^

^^^h.-

^^'^'■:

^Jp*v„ ■

^*^^"m

^\0.-

■^H

■J t. *.*

>■- ■••'^.

> ^^J

-N-'- ♦

^«art:

-i-^M^^'

"■ j|f--.y^.

Red Clover on Limed and Unlimed Land.^

^Courtesy of The Macmnian Company. N. Y. From "Crops and Methods for SoU Improve-
ment," by Agee.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

THE CLOVERS

257

III

256 _~ ^ .^ ,

hay of finer textures and '"^f J^^ ^f^^^^^^^^^ and not relished as

clover, but lodges worse. The f«l?^f .\™'''^[^ j^ ^th red clover or with
well b^ cattle. For this reason it ^? better to mix it ™^ consequently,
passes. It matures about two weeks earh^J ^Tmayt gr^wn with early-
does not fit into mixtures as well ^^^'21^2^^ P^\£^^ clover and red-

*^^^ We Clover-White clover i:^^^;^^^^^^'-^^^^^
abundant solid, creeping ^'^^^^^ J! ^eflT^^^^^^^^^^ for pasture purposes

all of the temperate zone. It >^,^ff ^'^"^^Tth in pastures and lawns. It
and is frequently used ^ith blue grass bo^h in p ^^^^^ ^^^

seeds abundantly, often producing ^^^^^^^^^^ ^^,,. jt has long been

SXfa^ h^rp"- %n=s\hen excluded from insects

-nU^oClo^^^his clover is^^^^^^^^^^^

^srse-^i^xesii^^^^^^^^^^

sufficient size to be harvested for^ay ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ,{

Crimson Clover.— This is a winter <*" manuring and cover crop,

mild .-inters. It is extensively used - ^ ^^^^^"^^^7,^,^^^^ crops such
It may be seeded from May to Au^*, ^^^^^^^^^^ ,, cut iust as it comes in
as standmg corn. It makes nay oi ^ g ^ ^ j^ ^^ ^re abundantly

flower. The plant is ^^-^^^f^.^^^^J^tecome rather mature, the hairs
supplied with- long hairs. J^ t"?^ ~„^J'd to livestock. It is never
harden and cause serious trouble ^nen leu ^^^^^^

S^visable to teed ^^^X2^°S:S:JZ:'^<^^^-^^'-^'^^''^'^^^
S ?rr S'oTr ILi-s. ^^ *» ha, a„d seed crops a-e

handled in about the same way «"~ "T'^ prominence in recent years,
Sweet Clo«r.-Tl.is plant has come m» P" , Kecent

,„d has been -«J|™'i.*'^r1nlIte tSit is destLd to become
careful inquiries and »^vestigauo improvement,

an important legume both f/^^j^J^f^^^ver but the white sweet clover
There are several species of ^^eet clover conditions. It is adapted
iMMoiu. alM) is ^^l-S:'^t^^:ZtrS.mL It is exceedingly
to a wide range of both soil «^J^" . ^^^ conditions. It is a biennial.

hardy and -f -^^-^I^^^^Sfwee^^^^^^^ ^iong roadways in many

It is often spoken of as a roaasiue wcc ,

parts of nearly every state in the Union and the provinces of Canada. It
seeds abundantly, the seed being similar to that of alfalfa. The plant
also closely resembles alfalfa in its early stages of growth, although the
blossoms and seed heads are quite different.

It is deep rooted and the tops often attain a height of four to five feet.
The composition of sweet clover is nearly the same as that of alfalfa. It
is high in digestible protein and very nutritious as feed. Because of a
peculiar odor and taste, animals seldom eat it at first. They soon acquire
a taste for it and eat it with avidity and thrive on it.

Sweet clover is especially valuable for soil improvement. Its greatest
benefit will result by plowing it under the second season before it blooms.
The seed should be sown at the rate of fifteen to twenty pounds of hulled
seed, or at the rate of twenty-five to thirty pounds when hulls are present.

Pasturing Sweet Clover in Kansas.*

It may be seeded either in August or early in the spring. The methods of
seeding are similar to those for red clover.

Lespedeza or Japan Clover. — This is a small-growing summer annual,
attaining a height of six to eighteen inches, depending on soil conditions.
It is adapted especially to the cotton belt. It is to the South what white
clover is in the North. It is especially adapted for grazing purposes, and a
mixture of Bermuda grass and Lespedeza makes a good pasture for many
parts of the South. It begins growth in the middle spring and reaches
maturity in September or October. It may be distinguished from the
yellow-flowered hop clovers which it closely resembles by its purple blos-
soms, which do not appear until August or later, while the hop clovers bloom
early. It seeds freely and perpetuates itself from year to year by self-
seeding.

Bur Clover.— This is a rather small-growing clover indigenous to
Texas and California, and is closely related to alfalfa. It is of very little
value for hay, and will give only one cutting. It serves best for winter
and early spring grazing. It is especially valuable because it affords

* Courtesy of Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.

-^"^

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

THE CLOVERS

257

256 . ,

hay of finer textures and "^^fj^^J ^f^^^^^^^^^^ and not relished as

clover, but lodges worse. The f^l^^^f ,\"^f .f "^f^ -^ ^jth red clover or with
well by cattle. For this reason it is better to mix it wit ^ ^j

passes. It matures about two weeks jar -r th^^^^^^^^^ ^^h early-

does not fit into mixtures as well ^'^^^''^'Jl^^^MsL clover and red-

'- ^T^sSranra^e ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

:i^sz::tf^^^r^-^^ - - -- . mi.

tures. „^^ .^ ,_^^^ . „ low-erowing perennial, having

White Clover.-White clover >« ^ low gro g^P.^^ ^^.^^ .^ ^^^^^^

abundant solid, creepmg ^^^-J^^J* ^Veil^^^^^^^^^^ for pasture purposes
all of the temperate zone. It ^J ^sPemUy w l ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ j^

and is frequently used ^ith blue grass Dot p ^^^^^ ^^^^

seeds abundantly, often producing ^^-^J-^l^ ^.ev. It has long been

"- t^o Clov^^his clover is «aHo wMt^ d^^^^^ ^.^nistSS

•sufficient size to ^« harvested for^^^^^^^^ ^ ^^^^^ ^^gi,„, ,f

Crimson Clover.— 1 his is a winxei manuring and cover crop.

„.ild winters. It is -te-vdy u^^^^^^^^ X Xe o^ in'other crops such
It may be seeded from May to ^"Susi, eii . ^^^^^^ ^^

as standing corn. It makes hay oj f;g°«^^^^^^^^^^^ ^iJ, are abundantly

flower. The plant is ^^-^^l^^.^^JJXb^^^^^^^^^ rather mature, the hairs
supplied with long hairs. " "^^ j^^^^^^^^ to livestock. It is never

harden and cause serious trouble when leu ^^^^^^

advisable to feed straw ^f ^^f J^^^^J^ch anSStines that frequently
hay or straw causes hair balls m the stomacn ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^_.^

result in the death of the animals Both the hay
handled in about the same way as red clover . ^^^^^^ ears.

Sweet Clover.-This plant has come mto ?« ^^^^^^

and has been extensively discussed m the agnultu^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^

careful inquiries and '"^ff ^^ forVitrp and for soil improvement,
an important legume, both f« ^j^T^J^Y^K, ,>ut the white sweet clover
There are several species of ^^^et Jlover j^ j^ ^^japted

^Meliloius aM) is ^^iX'^^l^'^Ztl^n^^^^- It is exceedingly
to a wide range of both soil ana c eonditions. It is a biennial.

hardy and makes fair f ^^iJ^^jf^eS,^
It is often spoken of as a roadside weeu, a

Pasturing Sweet Clover in Kansas.*

It may be seeded either in August or early in the spring. The methods of
seeding arc similar to those for red clover.

' Courtesy ot KaD9a.i Agricultural Experiment Station.
17

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

258 .^

: . .u, conth for about two months before Bermuda grass and

grazmg m the South lor aoout w „urpose. It makes a good

ntViPr Slimmer grasses are available lor tms purpu&e.

probably .,« '--^ -^tTfrn^ "r^Sne^to =achS, extent

SS y ScomViXKita economic po^ibiUties and ^d samples

r«r Lperimen. station fo. Wonna«on and a*->^^ ^^^^^,^^ ,^

, There are several species of hop clover ana ine i improvement,

REFERENCES

441 '^Lespedeza or Japan Clover.

693. ''Bur Clover." . ^

CHAPTER 17

Alfalfa

Alfalfa is one of the oldest forage crops. Its history has been closely
related to that of man throughout past ages. It was highly esteemed by
the ancient Persians as the most important of forage crops, and followed
their invasion by Xerxes into Greece, 490 B. C. During the early centu-
ries of the Christian era it spread throughout the countries of Europe, and it
was brought to North America by the early colonists. It was introduced
into the Eastern colonies under the name of Luzerne. It found its way into

Map of the United States and Canada Showing Acreage of

Alfalfa. Figures = Acres.^

California and other Western states probably by way of South America,
and brought with it the Spanish name of alfalfa.

Alfalfa is characterized by its deep root system, on which are found
nodules similar to those described under the clovers. The bacteria in
these nodules enable the alfalfa to secure nitrogen directly from the air.
Alfalfa plants are propagated only by seeds. They do not spread, as do
some of the clovers and many of the grasses, by creeping stems and under-
ground root stocks. Alfalfa is a perennial and under favorable conditions
lives many years and attains a large size. The crowns of the plant become

» Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Forage Plants and Their Culture," by
Piper.

(259)

•"t.'*V.,.4|j

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ALFALFA

261

260 . ^

much branched and old plants frequently give rise to as many as 200

^''"distribution of Alfalfa-This plant is grown as a -op - -ery^^^^^^^^
in the Union and most of the provmces of Canada. The map on tne

^^%'T.nTciSc M^^^^^^ STdTpied to a warm, dry

r ^. ^n SSrimeriKTs most extensively and successfully grown

chmate. In North Ai^f"^;'";. , ii jn the western half of the United

under the semi-and conditions that prevail m ine .^ ^^^^^^^

States. More than two-thirds of the h^Y ^°^" ''^ ^^ ^uces more

Over one-half of that grown in Colorado is alfalfa. Kansas pr

than Nebraska ai.d Neb-^^ -^^^^^^^ and forage

production of altalta as compdit^u w ^ Aifoifr, has been culti-

vated so long that strains dim extensively grown

adapted to a wide range o^^clim^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^j, -^ ,he

in North America J* J^^ „~ extremes in the humid regions,

:nd r3;:ieirrroprcal or sub-tropical regions where the humidity
is high and rainfa.!! abundant. ^ ^^^^dy

It is adapted to a wide range o\ «« f ' f ^^est on soils of medium
soils as well as upon heavy clays. I* ^^".•^"^^^'T^^'^tr a^^^ well supplied
texture that are capable of ^f ^f J^^f ^^ ^^.^^^^^^^^^ underlaid

S htrnf ";"iot ro^k^^r ding water. Neither will it thrive

'"^ Essentials for Success.-In the western half of the United States there
ordinary treatment, its growtn wouiu :^^;^„tion In the eastern

half of the Lnited states wntit. „^^^«« ^f this rroD that must be carefully
certain »-"««>47r ^^ ^a^g ^^.TlL weed,, .Wee o,
^^S;^ «V-« «rpi, o, ■». a fa. ^^^^^^^^
8oil, thorough P'r'""T,°H™^"iS^;^S peaty of good seed. Added
tXS^^Sa;;- "^e„Xi*^X?o, e/tU„|, ea„ i„ pasturing,

«ntLTtte:fi:i:ntUl to .ue..^^^^^^^^^
larmera contemplating growing alfalfa 5«^^^°™f. *^ °'„ ^ this, such as the
a small scale. There are 73''!|;:' ^S'„r„? "„°c"£d s^-il.
practical expenence «°'"«1»°^ /'"^SSnd regional strains of alfaUa

ness. Aside from the common or ordinary alfalfa, Turkestan, Arabian.
Peruvian and Grimm are of some importance. The common or ordinary
alfalfa is that generally grown in North America, Europe, Argentine and
Australia.

Turkestan alfalfa closely resembles ordinary alfalfa, and neither plant
nor seed can be easily distinguished from it. It is thought to be a little
more drought and cold resistant than ordinary alfalfa, but is inferior to the
ordinary alfalfa for the eastern half of the United States.

Arabian alfalfa may be recognized by its hairiness, large leaflets, rapid
growth and short life. It begins growth and continues to grow at a some-
what lower temperature than common alfalfa.

Peruvian alfalfa may be recognized by its somewhat bluish appearance,
coarse, erect stems and large leaflets.

Grimm alfalfa, brought to this country from Germany, has been culti-
vated here for a long time, and through elimination of the less hardy plants
has become adapted to severe climatic conditions. It is, therefore, recom-
mended for the Northern states. It is claimed to resist severe pasturing
better than ordinary alfalfa, and is thought to be somewhat more drought
resistant. The seed is higher priced than that of the ordinary alfalfa.

Sources of Seed. — Best results are usually secured by the use of locally
grown seed. In the eastern half of the country, very little seed is produced,
and imported seed must be relied upon. It is, therefore, advisable to secure
seed from approximately the same latitude or preferably somewhat north
of the latitude in which it is to be used. Nebraska-grown seed is good for
IlHnois, Indiana and Ohio. Kansas-grown seed is generally a little cheaper
and will be good for Missouri and southern Illinois. Dakota seed will be
higher priced, but should be used in Wisconsin, Minnesota and Michigan.

Alfalfa seed varies in purity, germination and price. It is, therefore,
wise to secure samples from several sources before purchasing. These
should be examined for impurities and tested for germination as a basis ^
for calculating which will be the cheapest. None but first-class seed,
free from noxious weed seeds and showing good germination, should

be used.

A pound of alfalfa contains about 220,000 seeds. If evenly sown on
an acre these would average over five seeds to the square foot. Alfalfa
fields one year old rarely oontain more than twenty plants to the square
foot, and older fields usually have less than ten. It is evident from this
that a large percentage of the seeds sown fail to produce plants. It is very
important that a full stand be secured on all parts of the field. Vacant
spots give an opportunity for grass and weeds to start, and these encroach

upon the alfalfa.

The percentage of hard seeds in some lots runs very high and necessi-
tates treating the seed to increase its germination. Hard seeds are treated
with a mechanical device through which they are passed with much force,
and the hard coats are weakened by striking against a hard, rough surface.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ALFALFA OUT YIELDS
OTHFK HAY CROPS

ALFALFA
RED CLOVER

TIMOTHY

BROME
GRASS

K 4 TONS t»ER ACRE]

262

be detected by its having a much darker color and less l^^^r ^han tr^s

commerci.1 fertile,, and lime are seldom needed '°"'«f »■ ^"^,;" *',
ea*,„ hal, .he. are .,.,ue„tly "'XltS": S theS S*;

able quantities of lime and the essen-
tial mineral plant foods. For this
reason, large crops cannot be main-
tained except on fertile soils or soils
that are well supplied with plant food
and lime; 400 or 500 pounds of a fer-
tilizer containing about 10 per cent of
phosphoric acid and 6 to 8 per cent of
potash should be applied at the time
of seeding. If the *eld is continued
in alfalfa for several years it should be
top dressed with manure or commer-
cial fertilizer every year or two.
I There is no danger of getting the soi

I __J too rich for alfalfa. Manure should

* "Z 7r~Z hp used that is as free from weed and

A..A...O^^HU>sarHKKH..CHOPs. ^^^^J^ ^ VOSsMe. Their intro-
duction into the alfalfa should be guarded against, and the alfalfa culti-
vated for weed destruction if necessary. ^^n^oves much lime
Alfalfa has but little tolerance for soil acidity. .J* ^^™°^^'^"J,'''''hoSd
frnm the soil and grows best on soils well supplied with lime, boils stiouia
- bTTestVftiTy^efore seeding to alfa.^^^
nrovided wherever there is any indication of its need. It is immatena n
Xt form this is applied. The finely pulverized raw limestone is fully
n« pffective as equivalent amounts in any other torms. .

Predication of Seed-Bed.-Alfalfa demands a finely pulverized, moist
fairly^^c'^c^eeVbed, free of weeds. This ca. generally bej.^^
by devoting the land during the preceding year to an i^t^'-'ty'^fjl^f'
such Is corn, potatoes or tomatoes. The preceding crop, if hberaUy
r^anured wil Jbviate the necessity of applying manure directly for the
Tnefit of Slfa This has the advantage of permitting weed and ^ass
Ss L Lf m^^^^^^^^ to germinate and be destroy. The re^^^f^f^
of the manure will be sufficient to start the ^^^^^^f ..X^^^'^^^;,'!-^
can be secured by plowing late m the spnng and d'^king or ha^o^mg
«t intervals of ten days or two weeks until the hrst nan oi ^"fe
Lh treatment pulverizes the soil, compacts it, conserves soil moisture

ALFALFA

263

and destroys weeds. It provides an ideal seed-bed on which alfalfa may
be seeded.

Time, Rate, Depth and Manner of Seeding. — Alfalfa may be seeded
either in the spring or late summer. In the western half of the United
States spring seeding predominates. In the eastern half, summer seeding
is more certain. Seeding either very early in the spring or too late in the
season should be avoided. A satisfactory stand is more certain v/hen the
seeding is made on soil that is sufficiently warm to produce prompt germi-
nation of the seed and rapid growth of the young plants. At 40 degrees
north latitude spring seeding may be made during the last part of April
or early May. Northward or at considerable elevations the date should be
a little later, while southward or at low elevations it may be a little earlier.
For latitude 40 degrees north, late summer seeding should generally be
during the first half of August, northward it may be a little earlier, and
southward considerably later depending on latitude. In any event there
should be sufficient time for the alfalfa to become well established and
make considerable growth before winter sets in.

The rate of seeding varies greatly, but in the eastern half of the United
States and Canada twenty to thirty pounds of seed per acre is advised.
In the western half of the United States seeding generally ranges from ten
to twenty pounds per acre. Where grown under the dry land system of
farming, five to ten pounds of seed per acre often gives satisfactory results.

The seed should be covered anywhere from one-half inch to two
inches in depth, depending on character of soil and presence of moisture.
The manner of seeding must be determined by local conditions and avail-
able machinery. Alfalfa drills are advised when they are available. The
most of the seed, however, is sown broadcast and covered with the harrow.
Summer seeding is made without a nurse crop and spring seeding generally
with a nurse crop. The principal nurse crops are winter wheat, rye, spring
oats and barley. Barley is considered preferable to oats, and ^vinter rye
seeded in the spring is considered best of all. The nurse crops should be
seeded rather thinly in order to encourage the growth of the alfalfa.

Inoculation. — West of the Missouri River the soil seldom needs
inoculation for the successful growth of alfalfa. East of that, however,
inoculation is generally necessary. Wherever sweet clover is not a common
weed and wherever alfalfa has never been grown, it is always advisable to
inoculate this crop.

There are two general methods of inoculation: (1) by soil transfer,
(2) by artificiiil cultures. Inoculation by soil transfer is simple, easy and,
with reasonable precautions, generally successful. It consists in securing
from a well-established field or from a field where sweet clover grows, soil
from that portion of the root zone where nodules are most abundant.
This is transferred to the new field and spread broadcast at the rate of 300
to 500 pounds per acre, and thoroughly mixed with the soil by disking or
harrowing. The inoculated soil should be spread on a cloudy day, or in

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SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ALFALFA

265

264 ^

the morning or evening, and the field thoroughly disked and harrowed

^^ ° When soil must be secured from a long distance the freight charges
When soil musi u ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ amounts may

cartage bags, etc ^^^ ^j^^^f/f^^f ^^, inoculation to develop. Certain
be used and more ?n\<' aHowea j ^ ^ion of noxious weeds in this

^"^'TaS^fsTt gt^ att- extensively, it is economical to first
3a nLrof sUip of ak'lfa through the center of the field and thoroughly

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A Standing Field of Alfalfa.»

w -f At the end of one year this will serve as a source of inoculation
inoculate it. At the end oi one y eci fertilizer distributor may be

for the entire field ^;;d a ^mtab^ ^t /.gie, to this strip, and

used going back and {o^h across the neiaai g b ^^.^^ ^^^

miing the distributor from the soil of the s^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^

Artificial cultures have '^^r^*!^^^^^^^^^^^^^ directions, they are

from a number o sour^-^ By a efuj^yjol ^^^ g .j^ ^o

fnXcln^XS^Jht^^^^^^

:^^^^i^-— ^^^ SrifacUlSh the maximum result.

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

After-Treatment.— The after-treatment of alfalfa is more important
than in case of the clovers and grasses. Clipping the alfalfa at the close
of its first season has been quite generally recommended, but is a doubtful
practice so far as direct benefit to the alfalfa is concerned. If, however,
weeds and grasses are abundant, or if the alfalfa was seeded early and is
blooming rather freely, cHpping in the fall is advised. The clipping should
be so timed as to prevent maturing of weed seeds. The alfalfa should be
chpped rather high and the clippings left on the field for winter protection.

Winter killing of alfalfa is most severe during the first winter and in
severe climates or on soils subject to heaving. Winter protection by
mulching or otherwise is advised. The more hardy varieties of alfalfa will
stand a temperature twenty to thirty degrees below zero if the soil is rea-
sonably dry. The chief trouble occurs as a result of the plants being heaved
out of the soil by repeated freezing and thawing, generally toward the close
of the winter.

Disking and harrowing alfalfa fields have been frequently recom-
mended for the purpose of killing weeds and grass, for loosening the soil and
for splitting the crowns of the alfalfa plants. The improvement of soil and
destruction of weeds is justifiable, but injury to the alfalfa plants should
always be avoided. Under favorable conditions considerable injury may
not prove serious, but in the eastern part of the country, injury to the
crowns of the plants results in decay of the roots and shortens their life.-
The ordinary disk is, therefore, not recommended. Suitable harrows and
the spike-toothed alfalfa disk harrow may be used to good advantage.
The spring-toothed harrow with the teeth brought to a sharp point is
recommended. There is enough spring in the teeth so that they will pass
around the crowns of the alfalfa plants without serious injury, and at the
same time will uproot small weeds and grasses.

Cultivation should take place just after cutting, and is generally not
necessary during the first year of the alfalfa.

Making Alfalfa Hay.— The time of cutting alfalfa should be carefully
regulated in order not to injure it. If cut too early the second crop is slow
in starting and the exposed crowns of the plants may be injured by hot, dry
weather. Neither is it advisable to delay the cutting, for this will result
in clipping off the new shoots that produce the new crop. Alfalfa should be
cut for hay when the small shoots starting from the crown and which
produce the next crop are one-half inch to one and one-half inches in length.
At this time about one-tenth of the blossoms will usually be out. In the
eastern part of North America leaf spot is quite common and spreads
rapidly through the field as the plants approach the hay-making stage. If
this trouble is very prevalent the leaves fall rapidly and harvesting should
be hastened somewhat to prevent loss. A fair degree of maturity of the
alfalfa makes the curing of hay easier than if cut when too succulent. In
the western half of the United States there is very little difficulty in this
respect. Weather conditions are more favorable and hay of good quality

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ALFALFA

265

264

t^hTmorning or evening, and the fidT^oughly disked and harrowed

^* ''when soil must be secured from a long distance the freight charges
S a ^™w «p of ;Wf» through the center of the field and thoroughly

A Standing Field of Alfalfa.'

w •+ A Mho end of one year this will serve as a source of moculation
inoculate It ^^ tjie end ot one > ^^.^.^^^ distributor may be

for the entire field, and a suitaDie una ^^^

used going back and «'-t\^--^,*^;.Sri^

miing the distributor from the soil of the s^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^

Artificial culture, h^^^^^^ Ty Lefu%t£^^ directioL, they are
from a number of sources ijy ^ ^^^ accordmg to

?ht^r™irur„Tir S SraeU^£h the u,»iu.u. result.

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

After-Treatment. — The after-treatment of alfalfa is more important
than in case of the clovers and grasses. Clipping the alfalfa at the close
of its first season has been quite generally recommended, but is a doubtful
practice so far as direct benefit to the alfalfa is concerned. If, however,
weeds and grasses are abundant, or if the alfalfa was seeded early and is
blooming rather freely, clipping in the fall is advised. The clipping should
be so timed as to prevent maturing of weed seeds. The alfalfa should be
clipped rather high and the clippings left on the field for winter protection.

Disking and harrowing alfalfa fields have been frequently recom-
mended for the purpose of killing weeds and grass, for loosening the soil and
for splitting the crowns of the alfalfa plants. The improvement of soil and
destruction of weeds is justifiable, but injury to the alfalfa plants should
always be avoided. Under favorable conditions considerable injury may
not prove serious, but in the eastern part of the country, injury to the
crowns of the plants results in decay of the roots and shortens their life.
The ordinary disk is, therefore, not recommended. Suitable harrows and
the spike-toothed alfalfa disk harrow may be used to good advantage.
The spring-toothed harrow with the teeth brought to a sharp point is
recommended. There is enough spring in the teeth so that they will pass
around the crowns of the alfalfa plants without serious injury, and at the
same time will uproot small weeds and grasses.

Cultivation should take place just after cutting, and is generally not
necessary during the first year of the alfalfa.

Making Alfalfa Hay.— The time of cutting alfalfa should be carefully
regulated in order not to injure it. If cut too early the second crop is slow
in starting and the exposed crowns of the plants may be injured by hot, dry
weather. Neither is it advisable to delay the cutting, for this will result
in clipping off the new shoots that produce the new crop. Alfalfa should be
cut for hay when the small shoots starting from the crown and which
produce the next crop are one-half inch to one and one-half inches in length.
At this time about one-tenth of the blossoms wull usually be out. In the
eastern part of North America leaf spot is quite common and spreads
rapidly through the field as the plants approach the hay-making stage. If
this trouble is very prevalent the leaves fall rapidly and harvesting should
be hastened somewhat to prevent loss. A fair degree of maturity of the
alfalfa makes the curing of hay easier than if cut when too succulent. In
the western half of the United States there is very little difficulty in this
respect. Weather conditions are more favorable and hay of good quality

msm^^r.

266

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ALFALFA

267

ii|!

can be made with the minimum amount of labor. In the eastern half of
the country rains are prevalent, especially at the time of the first cutting.
This calls for special precautions and often necessitates extra labor and the
use of canvas covers to secure hay without serious mjury.

It is advised to cut in the evening and early mornmg, and follow the
mower with the tedder before any of the leaves become dry The second
teddering at right angles to the first is advised if the alfalfa is heavy.
With favorable weather it may be possible to put the alfalfa in the wmdrow
toward evening of the first day. One more day's exposure m the windrow
under favorable conditions will generally cure it sufficiently to go directly

to stack or mow.
This reduces handling
to the minimum and
prevents loss by
shattering.

If weather condi-
tions are threatening,
it will be best to put
into moderate-sized
shocks at the close of
the first day, and
cover with canvas to
protect from rains.
It requires from three,
to seven days to cure
in the shock, depend-
ing on weather condi-
tions.

A little more than

two-fifths of alfalfa hay is leaves and about three-fifths stems. The
leaves, however, contain fully three-fifths of the protein. It is, therefore,
advisable to save the leaves as fully as possible. Do not rake or tedder
alfalfa in the middle of the day if dry. This is sure to shatter the leaves

and cause serious loss. , , , , j r

Number of Cuttings and Yield.— Alfalfa is a remarkable hay and forage
plant because of its long Ufe and the frequency with which it may be cut
every year. The number of cuttings varies with the locahty and ranges
from two or three cuttings in the provinces of Canada and the northern tier
of states to as many as ten or eleven cuttings annually m the Imperial Valley
in California. In the warmer portions of Texas seven or eight cuttings
are not uncommon. In most parts of the country, a second crop may be
harvested within from thirty to forty days after the first cutting. In warm
regions where the growing season is long, cuttings during this season may
be made about every five wrecks.

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

Cubing Alfalfa Hay in Shocks.*

The yield is generally largest for the first cutting of the season and
declines slightly for subsequent cuttings. Much, however, will depend
upon rainfall and available moisture which influences the growth.

Alfalfa yields about twice as much as red clover and, being richer in
protein, produces about three times as much protein per acre.

Other Uses of Alfalfa. — Alfalfa makes an excellent soiling crop and
produces a succulent nitrogenous roughage, especially desirable for dairy
cows. Since it may be cut three or more times each season it may be quite
extensively used for this purpose. It, therefore, takes a very important
place in a soiling sys-

ALFALFA BALANCES

THE CORN RATION

KANS. EXP.- 14 PIGS- 180 DAYS

CORN & WATER

IN DRY LOT

180 DAYS

CORN & ^
ALFALFA PASTURE
80 DAYS

CORN &

ALFALFA HAY

100 DAYS

tem wherever it can
be satisfactorily
grown.

The last cutting
of alfalfa comes at
about the right time
to combine with corn
for the making of en-
silage. One load of
alfalfa to every three
or four loads of corn
makes an excellent
combination. Alfalfa
is sometimes made
into silage by itself,
but makes a rather
sour, slimy product.

While alfalfa is
not a pasture plant
and is easily injured
by pasturing, it may
•be used especially for

young stock and for swine. It makes a most excellent pasture for the
latter, and where it is to be used for this purpose will carry about forty
pigs and their dams per acre without being injured. It is generally
thought advisable to divide the field into two or three parts, pasturing one
part for a period, and then turning into another part. Frequently some
hay may be harvested in addition to pasturing.

Alfalfa makes a range for poultry and may also be fed to poultry and
swine in the form of hay.

Composition and Feeding Value. — The composition of alfalfa is given
in Table VI in the Appendix. The nutritive ratio of alfalfa hay is
about 1 to 4. Extensive experiments at a number of experiment stations

KANS. BUL. 192

Comparison of Hogs Fed on Corn and on Alfalfa.^

' Courtesy of The International Han'ester Company, Agricultural Extension Department,
pamphlet "Livestock on Every Farm."

From

266

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ALFALFA

267

■i

It is advised to cut in the evening and early mornmg, and follow the
mower with the tedder before any of the leaves become dry The second
teddering at right angles to the first is advised if the alfalfa, is heavy.
With favorable weather it may be possible to put the alfalfa m the wmdrow
toward evening of the first day. One more day's exposure m the wandrow
under favorable conditions will generally cure it sufhciently to go directly

to stack or mow.
This reduces handling
to the minimum and
prevents loss by
shattering.

A little more than

and cause serious loss. ,11, ^ c

Number of Cuttings and Yield.— Alfalfa is a remarkable hay and forage
plant because of its long life and the frequency with which it may be cut
everv vear. The number of cuttings varies with the locahty and ranges
from two or three cuttings in the provinces of Canada and the northern tier
of states to as many as ten or eleven cuttings annually m the Imperial Valley
in California. In the warmer portions of Texas seven or €ight cuttings
are not uncommon. In most parts of the country, a second crop may be
harvested within from thirty to forty days after the first cuttmg. In warm
regTonfwhr^^ the grownng season is long, cuttings durmg this season may
be made about every five weeks.

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

Curing Alfalfa Hay in Shocks.^

The yield is generally largest for the first cutting of the season and
declines shghtly for subsequent cuttings. Much, however, will depend
upon rainfall and available moisture which influences the growth.

Alfalfa yields about twice as much as red clover and, being richer in
protein, produces about three times as much protein per acre.

Other Uses of Alfalfa.— Alfalfa makes an excellent soiling crop and
produces a succulent nitrogenous roughage, especially desirable for dairy
cows. Since it may be cut three or more times each season it may be quite
extensively used for this purpose. It, therefore, takes a very important
place in a soiling sys-

ALFALFA BALANCES

THE CORN RATION

KANS. EXP. -14 PIGS- 180 DAYS

CORN & WATER

IN DRY LOT

180 DAYS

CORN &

ALFALFA PASTURE

80 DAYS

CORN &

ALFALFA HAY

100 DAYS

tem wherever it can
be satisfactorily
grown.

While alfalfa is
not a pasture plant
and is easily injured
by pasturing, it may
he used especially for

Alfalfa makes a range for poultry and may also be fed to poultry and
swine in the form of hay.

KANS. BUL. 192

Comparison of Hogs Fed on Corn and on Alfalfa. ^

' Courtesy of The International Han-ester Company. Apricultiiral Extension Department,
pamphlet "Livestock on Every Farm."

From

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

268

have clearly demonstrated the high feeding value of alfalfa. Experiments
S forty cows covering a period of two years at the New Jersey Expen-
ment Station clearly demonstrated that eleven pounds of alfalfa hay we e
eaual in feeding value to eight pounds of wheat bran Plenty of a falfa
2 roughage miterially reduces the bills for the purchase of protem m

"^''^hrhrylrSeedingly palatable and highly digestible and is eaten
with avidity by all classes of livestock. When fed to horses the ration
Sould be ifmited. Horses, if allowed to eat their fi»^g«^^'•^"y "J^r
nearly twice as much as is necessary to provide the required protem of their
ration. This results in unnecessary waste of feed. Alfalfa hay and corn
make a good combination, since the corn tends to properly balance the

'^ '""considerable alfalfa hay is made into alfalfa meal for shipment to the
eastern markets and is quite extensively used in rations for dairy cattle

and also for poultry. ^ n j 4. ^ +^ \r^r>\„a

Irrigation of Alfalfa.— Alfalfa is exceptionally well adapted to irri^a-
tion and a large portion of that grown in North America is irrigated. The
amount of water to use will be determined chiefly by the character of the
soil and rainfall of the region. It is a good practice to irrigate rather hber-
ally and at rather remote intervals. Alfalfa is so deep-rooted that the soil
should be thoroughly wet to the depth of three feet or more Ordinarily,
one good irrigation should produce a full cutting of alfalfa. It is, therefore,
customary to irrigate the fields immediately after the hay is removed and
this irrigation should be sufficient to last until the next cutting, \\ith
this system certain precautions are called for such as to prevent the scalding
of the young and tender shoots that are just starting to grow at this tme.
Where fields are deeply and rapidly flooded with water carrying much sedi-
ment, a deposition on the young shoots frequently causes injury. It is
advisable to irrigate carefully, providing for slow movement of the water
across the fields without attaining any considerable depth at any point.
Over-irrigation is to be avoided, since it not only wastes water, but often
causes a rise in the ground-water table and brings alkali salts to the surface

of the soil. ,. . , . . ,

Winter irrigation is practiced in some localities where the winters are
mild and where water is abundant at this time of the year. The principal
object is to conserve water which would otherwise go to waste. This is
especially desirable where water is scarce in summer. Such winter irriga-
tion will often result in one good crop that could otherwise not be secured.
Seed Production.— The production of alfalfa seed in North America
is confined chiefly to the semi-arid regions. East of the Missouri River
the production of seed is small, except when drought prevails. It is
estimated that about one-half of the seed used in North America is produced
on irrigated lands in regions of dry summers. There is also a considerable
amount produced on unirrigated semi-arid lands, and such seed is con-

ALFALFA

269

sidered preferable for dry farming purposes. When produced on unirri-
gated lands alfalfa is seeded very thinly. In some cases it is seeded in rows
sufficiently far apart to permit of cultivation. Isolated plants that can
branch abundantly and receive plenty of sunlight, seed more abundantly
than when they are close together. When grown under irrigation, irriga-
tion water is withheld during the period of seed formation. The presence
of rains or the application of water stimulates the
vegetative growth and reduces seed production.
Usually the second crop is utilized for seed pro-
duction, although in the extreme Northern states the
first crop is necessarily used. There are various
conditions that influence the yield of seed, such as
thickness of stand, moisture supply, conditions favor-
able to pollination, etc. Yields of as much as twenty
bushels per acre have been reported, but eight bush-
els are considered a good yield. Two to five bushels
probably represent the average crop.

Little is known relative to seed production east
of the Missouri River, although numerous observa-
tions have shown that plants frequently seed quite
abundantly. In the corn belt it is quite possible
that certain crops could be used for seed to good
advantage. | The probable yield of seed is indicated
if the crop has been in bloom for some time and
considerable seed is set before new shoots appear.
If dry weather prevails when these conditions are
evident there is a fair chance of a crop of seed.

The hope of securing varieties adapted to eastern conditions lies in the
possibility of seed production in the various localities.

The method of harvesting the seed of alfalfa is essentially the same as
that for red clover.

REFERENCES

''The Book of Alfalfa." Coburn.

"Alfalfa in America." Wing.

"Clovers and How to Grow Them," pages 118-193, Shaw.

Missouri Extension Service Circular 6. "Growing Alfalfa in Missouri."

Delaware Expt. Station Bulletin 110. "Alfalfa."

Wisconsin Expt. Station Bulletin 259. "Alfalfa Growing in Wisconsin."

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 75. "Alfalfa Seed Production."

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

315. "Legume Inoculation."

339. "Alfalfa."

495.* "AlfklfaSeed Production."

A Well-set Cluster
OF Alfalfa Pods.^

^Courtesy of U. S. Dept of Agriculture. From Farmers' Bulletin 495.

CHAPTER 18

Meadows and Pastures

Success with livestock is conditioned on the production of good grass.
This may be in the form of meadows or pastures, but a combination of the
two is generally desirable. In latitudes of long winters the importance of
meadows may predominate, whereas in regions of short winters, pastures "
may be the more important. With minor exceptions, meadows and
pastures are the most economical source of the farm income.

As a rule, the highest type of general agriculture includes the rearing
of farm animals. They may be considered machines for the manufacturing
of the roughage produced on the farm into more concentrated and valuable
products, such as meat, milk, butter, wool, etc. These require more skill
on the part of the farmer and give to him continuous employment.

Extent, Value and Importance. — It is estimated that about thirty
per cent of the improved land in the United States is pasture land. The
largest area of land used for grazing is embodied in the extensive ranges
l>dng in the western half of the United States. To this range land and the
permanent pastures on farms may be added large deforested areas that are
capable of producing pasture. The value of the products per acre from
the grazed land is exceedingly low, but since the area is so large, the aggre-
gate return is great. The return per acre from meadow land is also
comparatively low, but much larger than that from pasture lands. No
statistics are available by which to estimate the returns from pasture
lands, although there are fairly accurate statistics for the meadows, as
indicated in the chapter on ''Meadow and Pasture Grasses."

Essential Qualities of Meadows and Pastures. — The essential qualities
of meadow grasses are given in the chapter under that name. It is not so
essential that meadows become permanent, except in case of wet land or
land too rough or stony to be cultivated, and which for any reason cannot

be pastured.

It is generally important, however, that pastures be made as permanent
as possible. This calls for a mixture of grasses that are either very long
lived or that are capable of reproduction under pasture conditions. A
good pasture should start growth early in the season and continue to produce
until late in the fall. The grasses should be palatable, nutritious and present
variety and give abundant growth. They should also form a continuous,
compact turf that will withstand much tramping by animals. A variety
of grasses that will provide for growth under both moist and dry soil
conditions is also advantageous. The deep-rooted grasses and clovers
can, therefore, be advantageously included with the shallow-rooted ones

(270)

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

271

Such as blue grass and white clover. The latter are more substantial, both
in quality of grazing and in the character and durabihty of turf which they
form.

Advantages of Meadows and Pastures. — Where land is moderate to
low in price and labor is costly, no feed will produce results with cattle and
sheep as economically as good pasture. While a given area in meadow wall
produce three times as much weight in hay as it will in pasture, yet there
is about three times as much protein in a given weight of dry material in
pasture grass as there is in the same material in hay. The increased energy
value of the hay over that of an equal area of pasture will generally be
offset by the increased labor required in harvesting and feeding the hay.
Meadows require on an average one unit of man and horse labor per acre
annually. This consists of ten hours work per year. The cultivated crops

x.ki'^P-i ■-*-¥£?■. •-:>*:;.'

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'■^^

m^.

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Live Stock on Pasture.

require from two to as high as fifteen or sometimes twenty units of labor
per acre.

Pastures, on the other hand, require no labor unless it be for the pur-
pose of applying manure or fertilizers, or for improvement by re-seeding or
cultivating. It is from the standpoint of labor that meadows and pastures
are especially economical. When land values become exceptionally high,
farmers may be justified in re'ducing the acreage of pasture and resorting
to cultivated crops as a source of feed for livestock. This is an economical
problem that must be determined by local conditions.

Meadows and pastures make use of land which cannot be economically
used for cultivated crops. This is especially true in the case of woodland
pastures or pastures along streams that are irregular and subject to over-
flow. Stony portions of farms are often utilized as meadows or pastures.
Irregular comers, cut off by roads or streams, are more economically
devoted to hay than to a cultivated crop requiring tillage.

Soil and Climatic Requirements. — Most of the grasses and clovers
succeed best in moist, cool climates and on soils that range from medium
to heavy in texture. On the other hand, there are a few grasses and clovers

CHAPTER 18

Meadows and Pastures

Success with livestock is conditioned on the production of good grass.
This may be in the form of meadows or pastures, but a combination of the
two is generally desirable. In latitudes of long winters the importance of
meadows may predominate, whereas in regions of short winters, pastures
may be the more important. With minor exceptions, meadows and
pastures are the most economical source of the farm income.

Extent, Value and Importance.— It is estimated that about thirty
per cent of the improved land in the United States is pasture land. The
largest area of land used for grazing is embodied in the extensive ranges
l^dng in the western half of the United States. To this range land and the
permanent pastures on farms may be added large deforested areas that are
capable of producing pasture. The value of the products per acre from
the grazed land is exceedingly low, but since the area is so large, the aggre-
gate*^ return is great. The return per acre from meadow land is also
comparatively low, but much larger than that from pasture lands. No
statistics are available by which to estimate the returns from pasture
lands, although there are fairly accurate statistics for the meadows, as
indicated in the chapter on '^ Meadow and Pasture Grasses."

Essential Qualities of Meadows and Pastures.— The essential qualities
of meadow grasses are given in the chapter under that name. It is not so
essential that meadows become permanent, except in case of wet land or
land too rough or stony to be cultivated, and which for any reason cannot

be pastured.

(270)

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

271

Such as blue grass and white clover. The latter are more substantial, both
in quality of grazing and in the character and durability of turf which they
form.

Advantages of Meadows and Pastures. — Where land is moderate to
low in price and labor is costly, no feed will produce results with cattle and
sheep as economically as good pasture. While a given area in meadow will
produce three times as much weight in hay as it will in pasture, yet there
is about three times as much protein in a given weight of dry material in
pasture grass as there is in the same material in hay. The increased energy
value of the hay over that of an equal area of pasture will generally be
offset by the increased labor required in harvesting and feeding the hay.
Meadows require on an average one unit of man and horse labor per acre
annually. This consists of ten hours work per year. The cultivated crops

Live Stock on Pasture.

require from two to as high as fifteen or sometimes twenty units of labor
per acre.

Meadows and pastures make use of land which cannot be economically
used for cultivated crops. This is especially true in the case of woodland
pastures or pastures along streams that are irregular and subject to over-
flow. Stony portions of farms are often utilized as meadows or pastures.
Irregular corners, cut off by roads or streams, are more economically
devoted to hay than to a cultivated crop requiring tillage.

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INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

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272

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

that succeed in regions of continuous high temperature. There are how
ever no regions in the world within the tropics that are especially promi-
nent for the production of meadows and pastures. These attain their
greatest perfection m temperate climates with abundant and well-distrib-
uted rainfall England and Scotland represent the ideal conditions for
meadows and pastures. The range in variety of grasses and clovers makes
possible meadows and pastures which are more or less successful in all
foil f^ u ^"^T^- ^^ '°"''^^' '^''' ^'' considerable areas of sandy
tidn'in E wl '"^ '^^™''' """*''"''' *^^* ^'^ impracticable of utiiiza^

Formation of Meadows and Pastures.-Since meadows and pastures
are to remain for a considerable period of time, the necessity of thorough
preparation for their establishment is more imperative than in cai of
annual crops The successful orchardist goes to much expense Tn the
preparation of land and the setting of trees for the orchard, realizing that
orcharding is a long-time proposition. The same policy i applicable in
case of permanent pastures or meadows. The shorter the perbd of L^^

L^l^TaShmLt ^^"^'^ " ^"^'' ''' ^^^ ^"^ '^ ''^ -P-- i-t^«e^
The first consideration is the adaptation of the land for meadow or
pasture purposes. The value of the land and the possibility of its Sza-
tion for other purposes should be considered. Consideration must also be
given to the variety and character of grasses adapted to the soil and cTiSate
and tha will meet the requirement of the livestock to be pastured No
definite formula can be given, since conditions vary greatlv

Preparation of Soil.-The preparation of the soil for cither meadows or
pastures should begin at least a year in advance of the time of seeding
There are two things essential to the establishment of grasps and clover!'

tZ:^ r'" ^T.T^' ""^' " S««^ physical condition of the'S'
rhis may be provided by growing an inter-tilled crop which s given
thorough cultivation during the year preceding the seeding of grl^

Organic matter in the soil is decidedly helpful for both grasses and
clovers, but not essential. In plowing for seeding grasses and dove^s
manure and organic matter should not be turned under too deeDlv bS
should be left as near the surface as possible. A thorou^ prepaS^^^^
the seed-bed is essential for both meadows and pastures iS meadoVs
the soil should not only be thoroughly pulverized and made moist Tnd
compact, but should also be level to facilitate cutting at a uniLm height
The presenee of hummocks or depressions in a meadow me^ that some
of the plants will be cut close to the crowns and others cut far above

A moist, compact, finely-pulverized seed-bed is essential in Sures
but It need not be necessarily level, since animals can graze with as r^uch
satisfaction on uneven land. Sf'<"'e witn as much

When seeding is to be made in August it is well to plow the land in
the spring. An occasional disking or harrowing during ?he summt wS

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it for ^razini^ i)iirpo.ses.

» Courtesy of " Tho V'wUl Illustratofr" X. V.

COLOR PLATE

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272

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

that succeed m regions of continuous high temperature. There are how-
ever no regions in the world within the tropics that are especially proml
nent for the production of meadows and pastures. These attain S
greatest per ection m temperate climates with abundant and well-distS
uted rainfall England and Scotland represent the ideal conditions for
meadows and pastures. The range in variety of grasses and clovers makes
possible meadows and pastures which are more or less successfulTn all
parts of North America. Of course, there are considerable aSso sandy
tS^inTrway" '™" "'*''"^' *'"* ''' "npracticable of utilS

are ^oTm^^a! I^^^^7" ^^ Pastures.-Since meadows and pastures
are to remain for a considerable period of time, the necessitv of thorough

srZs" rlr '^^'fr''\ ^^.^^^^ ""^^^--^^-^ ul L ^ie S

annual crops The successful orchardist goes to much expense in the
preparation of land and the setting of trees for the orchard, rSng th.t
orchardmg is a long-time proposition. The same policy i ajXible in
case of permanent pastures or meadows. The shorter the period of l^e
Lts^SthmL*^ ^^'"^^^ '' '^''' ''^ ^- -"^ ^ *^e exp^ense JustS
The first consideration is the adaptation of the land for meadow or
pasture purposes. The value of the land and the possibifity oHts S.a
tion for other purposes should be considered. Consideration must a o be"
given to the variety and character of grasses adapted to the soil and climate
and that will meet the requirement of the livestock to be mst^red No
definite formula can be given, since conditions vary greativ

Preparation of Soil.-The preparation of the soil for oil Lr meadows or
pastures should begin at least a year in advance of the time o seeding
There are two things essential to the establishment of graces nnl Hotr!'
namely, absence from weeds and a good physical coSiV "f theToi '
Ihis may be provided by growing an inter-tilled crop w lid I^^
thorough cultivation during the year preceding the seechngo grass

Organic matter in the soil is decidedly helpfol for bifh grasis' and
clovers, but not essential. In plowing for seeding grasses S^f,

srbrieft""''^"^ "r" f «"'' -^^-^^^is'zrsi^z

should be left as near the surface as possible. A thorough preparatfon of
the seed-bed is essential for both meadows and pastures K meadow,
the soil should not only be thoroughly pulverized and ^0^0,^.!;
compact, but should also be level to'faciliLe TuSbg a^a uni o m h ight
1 he presence o hummocks or depressions in a meadow me.a^ that son^^^
of the plants will be cut close to the cro^vns and others cut far above
but uTT' T^*''*' fi"^.'>'-P"J---^d seed-bed is essentiaHn pastures

When seeding is to be made in August it is well to i^low the land in
the spring. An occasional disking or harrowing during irsummer tiS

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Land tliat is too rough or stoop for plowiijn; c.-in ofton hv made i)rofitahIc by u.-mg

it for grazing j)ur])osos.

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f-yoi,'..-. '

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

'2l<«>£

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

273

destroy the weeds, conserve moisture and provide a pulverized seed-bed
for the grass. It is advisable to plow land for spring seeding of grass and
clover the preceding year, or at least several weeks in advance of seeding
time, in order that it may become thoroughly settled before seeding.

Meadow and Pasture Seed Mixtures. — From the standpoint of both
variety and total yield, mixtures give best results in both meadows and
pastures. Experiments at several experiment stations report yields for
mixtures of two or more grasses and clovers that exceed the yield of any of
the varieties entering into the mixture when seeded alone under identical
conditions. There are a few exceptions, namely, that of alfalfa which is
cufc several times a year, and which generally gives best results when grown
alone. The same has been found true with Italian rye grass.

Mixtures yield better than pure cultures because: (1) the require-
ments of the different plants entering into the mixtures are dissimilar and
do not make them direct competitors for plant food; (2) the root habits
being different, their distribution through the soil is more thorough;
(3) the average yearly return is more nearly even through a long period of
time; (4) variation in light requirements of different plants enable some
species to do well in the shade of taller ones, thus increasing the quantity
of herbage; and (5) legumes mixed with grasses increase the nitrogen
supply for the latter.

As before indicated, mixtures for mowing purposes should contain
only plants that mature near the same time. This will generally confine
the mixture to two or three species, although occasionally a larger number
may be advantageously used. Timothy and red clover constitute the
mixture most common and practical over a large region of the hay-produc-
ing district of North America. Redtop and alsike clover are frequently
included, especially where soils are wet and inclined to be sour. Alsike
clover and redtop are occasionally used without the timothy and red
clover. Orchard grass and alsike clover work well together, both as to
character of growth and time of maturity.

In pasture mixtures there is opportunity for a much greater variety
and wider range as to time of maturity in the plants used. In North
America, however, mixtures made up of a great number of clovers and
grasses are rather unusual, although these seem to be the rule in pasture
mixtures of England and Scotland.

Soil and climatic conditions are so diverse that it is impossible to enu-
merate all the mixtures suited to different conditions and localities for any
extensive region or for different purposes. Prominence should be given,
however, to those grasses that are best adapted to local conditions and best
meet the needs. One or more species that will make quick growth and give
early pasture should be included in such a mixture. The following general
suggestions are offered:

In regions adapted to Kentucky blue grass, add white clover, red clover
and timothy.

274

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

275

On wet soils adapted to redtop, add white clover and alsike c over.
On poor upland soils use redtop, Canada blue grass and white clover.
Under certain conditions brome grass may be included.

Where Bermuda grass thrives best, add Lespedeza clover, bur clover

and Italian rye grass. • j • ui„ k„„»„oo

In addition to the grasses mentioned, orchard grass is desirable, because

it furnishes early pasture. . , ,. a „i«,r«^

If there is any doubt relative to the purity of the grass and clover
seeds to be used, a sample should be submitted to the state experunent
station for examination and test. One familiar with grass and clover seeds
may make his own inspection by the use of a hand lens, and may also make
his own germination test by the use of white blottmg paper moistened and
placed in an ordinary dinner plate covered with another to retain moisture.
One or two hundred seeds placed between the blotters and kept at favorable
temperature will enable one to determine the percentage of germination
Careful inspection every day or two should be made to keep the blotters

continuously moist. ^ i .i. r «

Seeding Grasses and Clovers.-A full crop of grass, whether for a
meadow or pasture, necessitates a full stand of plants The fir^t essent.^
to this is the requisite number of viable seeds, well distributed on every
part of the field. There are many factors that influence the stand besides

the rate of seeding. , „, „„

Rates of seeding for the different grasses and clovers when used alone
are given in the chapter on "Grasses and Clovers." A few species only
enter into the average meadow mixture. As a rule, the ratio of the amount
of seed for the different species entering into a meadow mixture will be a
little larger than the amount when seeded alone. For example, timothy
seeded at the rate of 15 pounds alone and red clover at the rate ot ij
pounds, when seeded together would require on an average of about y
pounds of timothy and 7 pounds of clover, making a total of 16 pounds as
compared with one-half of the sum of the two individual rates, which would

The depth of seeding has already been discussed under several of the
species of grasses and clovers. The depth in case of mixtures should be
regulated with even more accuracy than in seedmg one species only. It
should meet as accurately as possible the needs of the leading grasses and
clovers in the mixture. In special cases it may be found advantageous to
drill the clovers and broadcast the smaller grass seeds, such as timothy,
redtop and blue grass. The depth is also controlled largely by character
of soil and weather conditions. In midsummer, when the soil is dry and the
temperature high, seeds should be covered rather deeply. In the cool,
moist portion of the year, very shallow covering is better. In no case can
grass and clover seeds be covered more than two inches without suffering
much loss. With the smaller grass seeds, one-half inch to an mch is
generally sufficient.

The time of seeding is subject to considerable latitude, but there are
two seasons of the year that generally give best results. - These are very
early in the spring or rather late in the summer. These two seasons will be
subject to sonie modification, depending upon weather conditions. It
is wise to seed when the soil is in a good moisture condition so as to insure
quick germination. As a rule, it is not advisable in case of summer seeding
to seed just before a heavy rain. Such a rain compacts the soil and the
hot weather that is likely to follow will form a crust that the small plants
cannot penetrate. Seeds deposited in a dry soil may be germinated by a
light shower followed by dry weather that will cause the small plants to
perish.

Grasses seeded in summer may be broadcasted on a well-prepared
seed-bed immediately following the harrow. One additional harrowing
will sift the seeds down into the soil and effect a satisfactory covering. If
the soil is dry the first harrowing may be followed by the plank drag. This
will mash the small clods, compact the soil, bring the moisture nearer
the surface and germinate the seed.

The manner of seeding depends largely on seasonal condition of the
soil and character of grass-seed mixture. Grasses and clovers are generally
sown broadcast. There are a number of forms of seeders. The grass-seed
attachment to the grain drill predominates where fall seeding with wheat
occurs. It is also extensively used where the drill is used for spring seeding
of oats. The wheelbarrow seeder and the hand seeder are extensively used
when seeded alone or on grain fields where drills are not employed. Slant-
toothed spike harrows are most generally used for covering the seed when
broadcasted in this way. Brush harrows are sometimes used when the
seed is very small and the seed-bed very mellow. This avoids covering
too deeply. In any case, implements should be used that do not tend to
drag trash or soil and result in bunching the seed. Much seeding is done
in the winter and very early spring which calls for no covering. In this
case the seed is covered by the freezing and thawing of the soil and by rains

and winds.

Late fall and early spring seeding usually takes place with a nurse
crop. In this way the cost of seed-bed preparation is charged chiefly to
the grain. This is the cheapest possible way of seeding grass other than
that of sowing it in the spring to be covered by the freezing and thawing and
rains. The nature of the nurse crop is important. Moderately thin seeding
and the use of early varieties generally favor a good catch of grass.

Seeding without a nurse crop calls for especially well-prepared seed-
bed and freedom from weeds. Such seeding generally does best in the late

summer.

Treatment of Meadows and Pastures. — Of all the farm crops, the
meadows and pastures are probably the most neglected. Meadows
usually receive more care and attention than pastures. The treatment
accorded meadows will consist chiefly: (1) in the application of manures

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

277

» Courtesy of Virginia-Carolina Chemical Company, Richmond, Va. From V.- C. Fertilizer Crop
Books.

(276)

and fertilizers, (2) re-seeding of the grasses and clovers in ease of failure,
(3) cultivation to maintain a good physical condition of the soil, and (4)
cutting of weeds when they become serious.

The cultivation given to meadows, while rather unusual, will consist
mainly in disking and harrowing. These operations will frequently be
demanded wherever re-seeding is required and may be used for the
destruction of weeds and the loosening of the soil. There are now on
the market certain forms of spiked disks designed especially for this type
of work.

Cultivation is even more applicable to pastures than it is to meadows.
Pastures are more permanent, or at least remain for a long series of years
without being disturbed. Certain grasses frequently become sod-bound.
As a result of close grazing, weeds also frequently become numerous. The
tramping of the animals tends to compact the soil. Cultivation is benefi-
cial for all of these difficulties. Harrowing spreads the droppings of the
animals and affords a more effective distribution of the manure for the
benefit of the grass*.

Meadows should not be maintained for too long a period. Better
results have been secured by plowing and re-seeding than to continue too
long in consecutive crops of grass. In pastures the situation is much
different. There are records of pastures forty and fifty years in grass
without being disturbed. This applies, however, to those regions in which
the soils and climate are especially adapted to the typical pasture grasses
and clovers, such for example as Kentucky and Canada blue grass and
white clover. Where pastures are prone to run out in a few years, it is
better as a rule to re-seed. This, of course, applies only to lands that are
capable of cultivation and devotion to other crops.

Care of Meadows and Pastures. — The life of a meadow and the main-
tenance of its productivity may be prolonged by exercising certain precau-
tions in connection with its care and the harvesting of the crops. It is
unwise to pasture animals or to haul manure onto a field when the soil is
too wet. The more permanent the nature of the meadow the greater
should be the care exercised. Meadows should go into the winter well
protected by either sufficient second growth or proper mulching with ma-
nure. It is, therefore, unwise to closely pasture the aftermath of meadows
late in the season. In favorable years a moderate amount of pasturing
will not be undesirable. If weeds occur in considerable numbers, late
summer or fall clipping to prevent seeding is advised.

Pastures should not be grazed too early in the spring. It is undesir-
able: (1) from the standpoint of not giving the grass a sufficient start, and
(2) through injury by tramping and compacting the soil when it is wet.
It is also un^vise to pasture closely too late in the fall, since pastures, like
meadows, should have winter protection. It is never wise to pasture too
closely at any time of the year. Close pasturing reduces the vitality of the
plants and their subsequent producing capacity. The packing of the soil

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^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1

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h-1

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

277

1 Courtesy of Virginia-Carolina Chemical Company, Richmond, Va. From V.- C. Fertilizer Crop
Books.

(276)

and fertilizers, (2) re-seeding of the grasses and clovers in case of failure,
(3) cultivation to maintain a good physical condition of the soil, and (4)
cutting of weeds when they become serious.

Meadows should not be maintained for too long a period. Better
results have been secured by plowing and re-seeding than to continue too
long in consecutive crops of grass. In pastures the situation is much
different. There are records of pastures forty and fifty years in grass
without being disturbed. This applies, however, to those regions in which
the soils and climate are especially adapted to the typical pasture grasses
and clovers, such for example as Kentucky and Canada blue grass and
white clover. Where pastures are prone to run out in a few years, it is
better as a rule to re-seed. This, of course, ap])lies only to lands that are
capable of cultivation and devotion to other crops.

Care of Meadows and Pastures. — The life of a meadow and the main-
tenance of its productivity may be prolonged by exercising certain precau-
tions in connection with its care and the harvesting of the crops. It is
unwise to pasture animals or to haul manure onto a field when the soil is
too wet. The more permanent the nature of the meadow the greater
should be tlie care exercised. Meadows should go into the winter well
protected by either sufficient second growth or proper mulching with ma-
nure. It is, therefore, unwise to closely pasture the aftermath of meadows
late in the season. In favorable years a moderate amount of pasturing
will not be undesirable. If weeds occur in considerable numbers, late
summer or fall clipping to prevent seeding is advised.

Pastures should not be grazed too early in the spring. It is undesir-
able: (1) from the standpoint of not giving the grass a sufficient start, and
(2) through injury by tramping and compacting the soil when it is wet.
It is also unwise to pasture closely too late in the fall, since pastures, like
meadows, should have winter protection. It is never wise to pasture too
closely at any time of the year. Close pasturing reduces the vitality of the
plants and their subsequent producing capacity. The packing of the soil

INTENTIONAIT" SECOND EXPOSURE

278

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

279

by animals under favorable conditions will be overcome m temperate
climates by the freezing and thawing during the winter.

In grasses the growth takes place at the base of the leaves and lower
portions of the internodes, so that grazing does not destroy the plants
unless the plants or portions thereof are injured below the pomt of

^^^\he grazing capacity of a pasture will be determined by the care given
to it and the manner in which it is grazed. Its grazing capacity should be
fully utilized, and it is believed that the pasture will be mamtamed fully
as well, and sometimes better, in this way than when not fully grazed. In
pastures that are not fully utilized many weeds occur that go to seed and
result in weedy pastures within a few years. No animals are better for
destroying weeds than sheep, although all classes of livestock will eat most
kinds of weeds when there is a shortage of grasses. There are few experi-
ments in America on pastures and pasturing.

Improvement of Meadows and Pastures.— ^^ An ounce of prevention
is worth a pound of cure^^ applies especially to meadows and pastures.
This is pretty thoroughly covered in the treatment and care of meadows
and pastures discussed in the preceding topics. Brush pastures may be
improved by removing the brush by clearing, by firing or by pasturing with
goats The latter is perhaps the most economical method, provided gcats
can be secured and disposed of without loss. This not only cleans the
pastures, but utilizes the removed product in the form of brush, weeds, etc.

Wet pastures may be improved by underdrainage. This not tnly
encourages the growi^h of the more nutritious and better grasses and
clovers, but protects the pasture against injury through tramping by
animals when too wet. The expense of drainage for pasture land miist

not be too great. u i ru n

Manuring, Fertilizing and Liming.— Sour soils should be liberally
limed when prepared ior meadows or pastures. Meadows that are to be
continued for several years may be top-dressed with lime to good advan-
tage and pastures may be top-dressed at intervals of six to ten years. The
benefits from liming will be determined chiefly by the acidity of the soil
and the proportion of clovers that enter into the meadow and pasture

mixtures. *

Barnyard and stable manure is advantageously used in the establish-
ment of meadows and pastures. It is often advisable to apply the manure
to the crop preceding the one in which the grass is seeded. On the other
hand, meadows that are to remain for several years may be advantageously
top-dressed with light applications of manure, greatly to the benefit of the
grass. Such top-dressing has been found profitable wherever manure is
available, or may be purchased at low cost. The better sod resulting is
also beneficial to the crops which are to follow the meadow.

It is unusual to apply manure to pastures once established, since the
droppings of the animals, if properly distributed, go far towards meeting

the needs of the soil. In all probability the manure can be more advan-
tageously used on the meadows and other crops.

Experiments at several of the state experiment stations have demon-
strated that moderate amounts of complete commercial fertilizers can be
economically used on meadows. The more perfect the stand of grass, the
larger the increased yields resulting from such treatment. While the com-
position of the fertilizer will differ somewhat for different soils and grasses,
that for the grasses proper should contain about equal percentages of the

Good Pasture Land.i

three fertilizing constituents. Nitrogen is essential in increasing vegetative
growth. A home-made mixture consisting of 150 pounds per acre each of
nitrate of soda and acid phosphate, and 50 pounds of muriate of potash, is
recommended. This should be applied broadcast very early in the springs
just as the grass is beginning to start.

Since nitrogen is so expensive, clovers should be used in both meadows
and pastures for the benefit of the grasses. They also increase the protein
content of both the hay and grazed product.

Utilizing Aftermath. — The amount of aftermath or second growth on
meadows depends on the nature of the grasses, the time of cutting the first

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y.

■(

278

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

279

< 1

by animals under favorable conditions will be overcome m temperate
climates by the freezing and thawing during the winter.

growth. , , . 1 1 XL

The grazing capacity of a pasture will be determmed by the care given
to it and the manner in which it is grazed. Its grazing capacity should be
fully utilized, and it is believed that the pasture will be maintained fully
as well and sometimes better, in this way than when not fully grazed. In
pastures that are not fully utilized many weeds occur that go to seed and
result in weedy pastures within a few years. No animals are better for
destroying weeds than sheep, although all classes of livestock will eat most
kinds of weeds when there is a shortage of grasses. There are few experi-
ments in America on pastures and pasturing.

Improvement of Meadows and Pastures.— ^' An ounce of prevention
is worth a pound of cure'^ applies especially to meadows and pastures.
This is pretty thoroughly covered in the treatment and care of meadows
and pastures discussed in the preceding topics. Brush pastures may be
improved by removing the brush by clearing, by firing or by pasturmg with
goats. The latter is perhaps the most economical method, provided gcats
can be secured and disposed of without loss. This not only cleans the
pastures, but utilizes the removed product in the form of brush, weeds, etc.
Wet pastures may be improved by underdrainage. This not cnly
encourages the growth of the more nutritious and better grasses and
clovers, but protects the pasture against injury through tramping Vy
animals when too wet. The expense of drainage for pasture land must

not be too great.

Manuring, Fertilizing and Liming.— Sour soils should be liberally
limed when prepared for meadows or pastures. Meadows that are to be
continued for several years may be top-dressed with lime to good advan-
tage, and pastures may be top-dressed at intervals of six to ten years. The
benefits from liming will be determined chiefly by the acidity of the soil
and the proportion of clovers that enter into the meadow and pasture

mixtures.

It is unusual to apply manure to pastures once established, since the
droppings of the animals, if properly distributed, go far towards meeting

the needs of the soil. In all probability the manure can be more advan-
tageously used on the meadows and other crops.

Good Pasture Land.»

Since nitrogen is so expensive, clovers should be used in both meadows
and pastures for the benefit of the grasses. They also increase the protein
content of both the hay and grazed product.

UtUizing Aftennath.— The amount of aftermath or second growth on
meadows depends on the nature of the grasses, the time of cutting the first

* Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

280

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

crop and the weather conditions which prevail. With early cutting of the
first crop and favorable subsequent weather conditions, the second crop
may be as large and well worth harvesting for hay. Certain precautions
in this connection are necessary, namely, not cutting so late as to prevent
further growth for winter protection. There is no objection to pasturing
the aftermath if not pastured too closely and if the character of grasses is
such as not to be seriously injured by the tramping of animals. The future
life and use of the pasture will be a factor in this connection.

Capacity of Pastures. — The capacity of pastures varies all the way
from fifty acres to the animal unit in case of the range pastures of the West
to one acre per animal unit on first-class pastures in humid regions. The
capacity is also measured by the length of grazing season, and this is depend-
ent chiefly upon latitude and elevation. It is also influenced by the nature
of the pasture grasses, some prolonging their growth into the cooler portion
of the year. Experiments show that more product is secured as hay than
can be secured when the same grasses are pastured. This has been deter-
mined by comparing the relative yield of cuttings at short intervals with
cutting once at maturity. Such experiments have given nearly three times
as much dry matter in the form of hay as was secured in frequent cuttings.
The protein content of the new growth was much higher and aggregated
nearly as much in frequent cuttings as in the matured product.

Pasture experiments in Missouri showed average daily gains of 1.65
and 1.85 pounds for yearlings and two-year-old steers respectively during
the summer season. At the usual charge for pasturage in that state, the
estimated cost per hundred pounds of live weight was $1.60 and $1.90
respectively. Pasture experiments in Virginia covering several years gave
gains in live weight of 150 pounds per acre annually. This was on average
blue grass pasture in that state. The average pasture in the humid region
should produce 150 pounds live weight in cattle per acre annually.

Composition and Palatability of Pasture Grass and Hay. — The com-
position of various kinds of grasses and hay is given in Table VI in
the Appendix. The composition of grass mixtures will be determined by
the relative portions of the species entering into it, and also by the stage of
growth when harvested, and the conditions under which grown. Nitro-
genous fertilizers have been found to somewhat increase the protein content
of the grasses.

The palatability and digestibility of grasses as grazed are doubtless
much greater than those for mature hay. The labor required for harvesting
the hay is also saved.

Temporary Pastures. — Temporary pastures are generally provided to
meet early needs and are designed for short periods. They consist of
annual plants, of which there are many species. These will be determined
by soil and climatic adaptation and the character of animals to be grazed.
Oats, sorghum and red clover make a good combination. Oats make rapid
growth during the early part of the season, while sorghum grows more

MEADOWS AND PASTURES

281

rapidly with the approach of warm weather. As these two crops are becom-
ing exhausted, the clover takes their place. This mixture is suited to spring
seeding and can be pastured from the latter part of June to the close of the
season. Another mixture consists of spring wheat, barley and oats, using
about one-third of the usual sowing of each. These may be pastured as
soon as they attain sufficient size to afford a good supply of pasturage.
Another mixture frequently used consists of rye, winter wheat and winter
vetch sown in the fall. This will afford pasture in the spring earlier than
the spring-sown grains, and if seeded fairly early may furnish some winter
pasture. In pasturing the annual crops, waste by tramping may be pre-
vented by restricting the area grazed by means of hurdles or temporary
fences. Such pastures require knowledge relative to the date crops must
be sown to afford pasture when needed. In this respect it resembles the
provision for soiling crops which are to be cut and fed from day to day.

REFERENCES

"Meadows and Pastures." Wing.

"Forage and Fiber Crops." Hunt, pages 1-274.

"Farm Grasses." Spillman.

Pennsylvania E,xpi. Station Bulletin 101. "Meadows and Pastures."

ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS

283

CHAPTER 19

Miscellaneous Annual Hay and forage Crops

Of the miscellaneous annual hay and forage crops the legumes take
first place. They are important both from the standpoint of high feeding
value and of the benefit derived from them by the soil. In regions adapted
to alfalfa or the clovers, annual legumes find a minor place, chiefly as substi-
tutes when for any reason the clovers fail.

Cowpeas and soy beans are by far the most important annual legumes.
The former are especially adapted to the cotton belt, while the latter may be
grown wherever corn is successfully raised. For northern latitudes, Canada
field peas and winter vetch are hardy and promising.

Of the non-legumes, the millets and sorghums rank first as annual

hay and forage crops.

COWPEAS

The cowpea is a warm-weather crop, and is the best annual legume
for the entire cotton belt. It is suited for the production of both hay and
seed. It is seldom grown above 40 degrees north latitude, and in the
northern limits of its production only early-maturing varieties should be
used. There are more than sixty varieties of cowpeas, differing greatly in
size, character of growth, color of seeds and time of maturity. Only a few
of them are extensively grown.

Varieties. — Whippoorwill is the best known and most extensively
grown variety. It is of medium maturity and well adapted for making hay.
It may be recognized by seed which has a mottled chocolate on a buff or
reddish ground color. It makes a vigorous growth, quite erect and
produces a large amount of vine. It can be handled readily by machinery.

Iron is also a well-known variety, and is especially valuable because it
is practically immune to root knot and wilt, diseases which cause much
trouble with cowpeas in many parts of the cotton belt.

New Era is one of the earliest of the cowpea varieties and is adapted
to the southern portion of the corn belt. Its habit of growth is erect with
few prostrate branches, thus making it easy to cut with machinery. It
produces a heavy crop of small seed, characterized by innumerable minute
blue specks on a gray ground color. Because of the small seed, less quan-
tity is required for seeding.

Unknown or Wonderful is one of the most vigorous and largest growing
varieties and is late in maturing. It is quite erect and is handled readily
by machinery, either for hay or grain production. The seed is large and of
a light clay color. It is not adapted north of North Carolina and Ten-
nessee, except in a few localities at the lower altitudes.

(282)

Clay is the most variable of any of the varieties, and the name is given
commercially to any cowpeas having buff-colored seeds, except the Iron.
For this reason there are doutbless many varieties that masquerade under
this name. This variety is vigorous, but of a trailing habit. It fruits
sparingly and is consequently rather unpopular either for seed or hay
purposes. . It is especially valuable for pasturing and for soil improvement.

Groit is very similar to New Era, but makes a slightly larger growth
and fruits more heavily.

Black is a variety characterized by its large black seeds that do not
;decay rapidly after ripening, even after lying on the warm, moist earth.

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Field op Iron Cowpeas Planted in One-fifth-rod Rows and

Cultivated Three Times. ^

It is especially adapted to the sanay, coastal plain soils of Virginia and North
Carolina. It is also popular in the sugar-cane section of Louisiana.

Time, Manner, Rate and Depth of Seeding.— Cowpeas should not be
seeded until the soil is thoroughly warm. In most localities the date of
seeding will be one or two weeks later than the best time for planting com.
The plants are tender and are injured by the slightest frost.

In the cotton belt, the time of seeding should be regulated so that
when harvested for hay, the proper stage of maturity will occur when the
weather conditions are favorable for hay making. This will usually be
sometime in September. \

The seed-bed for cowpeas should be prepared the same as for corn.
The planting may be in drills or by broadcasting. When growTi for seed
it is generally best to plant in drills not less than thirty inches apart and

1 From Farmers' Bulletin 318, U. S. Dept. of / griculture.

.'■^^1^'

ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS

283

CHAPTER 19

Miscellaneous Annual Hay and forage Crops

Of the non-legumes, the millets and sorghums rank first as annual

hay and forage crops.

COWPEAS

The cowpea is a w\arm-weather crop, and is the best annual legume
for the entire cotton belt. It is suited for the production of both ha,y and
seed. It is seldom grown above 40 degrees north latitude, and in the
northern limits of its production only early-maturing varieties should be
used. There are more than sixty varieties of cowpeas, differing greatly in
size, character of gro^\i:h, color of seeds and time of maturity. Only a few
of them are extensively grown.

Iron is also a well-known variety, and is especially valuable because it
is practically immune to root knot and wilt, diseases which cause much
trouble with cowpeas in many parts of the cotton belt.

(282)

Groit is very similar to New Era, but makes a slightly larger growth
and fruits more heavily.

Black is a variety characterized by its large black seeds that do not
;decay rapidly after ripening, even after lying on the warm, moist earth.

Field op Iron Cowpeas Planted in One-fifth-rod Rows and

Cultivated Three Times. ^

It is especially adapted to the sanay, coastal plain soils of Virginia and North
Carolina. It is also popular in the sugar-cane section of Louisiana.

Time, Manner, Rate and Depth of Seeding.— Cowpeas should not be
seeded until the soil is thoroughly warm. In most localities the date of
seeding will be one or two weeks later than the best time for planting corn.
The plants are tender and are injured by the slightest frost.

The seed-bed for cowpeas should be prepared the same as for corn.
The planting may be in drills or by broadcasting. When grown for seed
it is generally best to plant in drills not less than thirty inches apart and

iFrom Farmers' Bulletin 318, U. S. Dept. of /griculture.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

:h.^f'^'J:

284

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS

285

cultivate the same as for corn. Good results, however, have been secured
by seeding with the ordinary grain drill, which, of course, permits of no
cultivation. When seed is costly, the saving of seed by drillmg m rows
thirty inches or more apart may offset the labor of cultivation. ^When
grown chiefly for hay, broadcasting or drilling in rows close together is best.

The rate of seeding varies from one to eight pecks per acre, depending
on the manner of seeding, the character of seed and the purpose for which
grown When seeded with the wheat drill, with all of the holes open, one
bushel of seed per acre will give good results for hay and still provide for
fair yields of seed. Small seed requires less in planting than large, and less
seed is required for seed production than when grown for forage.

The depth of seeding will depend on the character and condition of the
soil. It may vary from one to four inches. The looser the soil or the drier
the' seed-bed, the deeper should be the planting. The cowpea is really a
bean and, like all beans, should not be planted too deeply.

Cowpea seed usually costs from $2 to $3 per bushel.

Seeding with Other Crops.— There are two principal advantages in
seeding cowpeas with otlier crops, namely, the production of a better
balanced ration when used as forage, and the increased facility with which
the crop may be harvested and cured when supported by upright growing

The best crops to seed with cowpeas are corn, sorghum and millet.
These are all similar to the cowpea in soil and climatic requirements. It
is never wise to seed cowpeas with oats, as the one requires warm weather
and the other cool w^eather for best results.

The upright growing varieties of cowpeas may be grown with corn,
preferably by planting both corn and peas in rows at the same time. By
selecting the proper variety with reference to habit of growth and time of
maturity, the cowpeas may be harvested at the same time with a corn
harvester and used for making ensilage.

In the southern portion of the corn belt and in the cotton belt cowpeas
are frequently drilled between the corn rows after the last cultivation. The
pods are gathered for the peas and the vines turned under for the benefit
of the soil. When planted with corn, the cowpeas should be four or five
inches apart in the row and the corn about twelve inches apart. Best
results are secured by using a cowpea attachment to the corn planter.

When grown for hay, seeding with sorghum or millet gives best results.
Sorghum is generally preferable to millet, because it has a somewhat
longer growing season and makes a more palatable hay. Best results are
secured by mixing the seed at the rate of two bushels of peas to one bushel
of sorghum and seeding with a wheat drill at the rate of one and one-half
bushels per acre. The large varieties of millet may be used with the early
maturing varieties of cowpeas.

Fertilizers, Tillage and Rotation.— Cowpeas respond to moderate
applications of phosphorus and potash, but do not need nitrogen.

When planted in drills suflaciently far apart to enable cultivation
cowpeas do best when given frequent, shallow and lev^el cultivation. The
earth should not be thrown on the foliage and tillage should cease as soon
as the vines begin to run.

Cowpeas are adapted to short rotations. They may frequently follow
an early-maturing crop, such as wheat, oats and early potatoes, thus
providing two crops from the land in one season. A rotation of wheat or
oats and cowpeas is giving excellent results in portions of Tennessee
Arkansas and Missouri. '

Time and Method of Harvesting.— For hay purposes cowpeas should
be cut when the first pods begin to ripen. A large growth of vines is some-
what diflacult to cure. The cut vines should lie in the swath for one day.
They should then be placed in windrows where they may remain until
fully cured. If weather conditions are not most favorable the vines, after
remaining one or two days in the windrow, should be put into tall, narrow
cocks and left to cure for a week or more. If rains threaten, canvas covers
are advised.

The leaves are the most palatable and nutritious portion of the forage,
and every effort should be made to prevent their loss. When so dry that
no moisture appears on the stems when tightly twisted in the hands, the
hay may be put into stack or mow.

Harvesting for seed is most cheaply done by machinery. The crop
should be cut with the mowing machine or self-rake reaper when half or
more of the pods are ripe. When thoroughly dry they may be threshed with
the ordinary threshing machine by removing the concaves and running the
cylinder at a low speed to prevent breaking the peas. Better results are
secured by using a regular cowpea threshing machine.

Feeding Value and Utilization.— Well-cured cowpea hay is superior
to red clover and nearly equal to alfalfa hay. It is very high in digestible
protein. Experiments relative to its feeding value show that one and one-
quarter tons of chopped cowi>ea hay is equal to one ton of wheat bran. It
is a satisfactory roughage for work stock and for beef and milk production.

SOY BEANS

Soy beans are adapted to the same soil and climatic conditions as corn.
They are most important in the region lying between the best clover and
cowpea regions. This is represented by Delaware, Maryland, West Vir-
ginia, Virginia, Tennessee and the southern portion of the corn belt. They
do well on soils too poor for good corn production, but are not so well
adapted to poor soils as the cowpea. They stand drought well.

Varieties.— There are several hundred varieties of soy beans, but only
about fifteen are handled by seedsmen. The most important of these are
described in the accompanying tabulation. The selection of a variety
should be based upon time of maturity as related to the length of season
for growth and the purpose for which grown. For seed production, good

*-**i>-

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

286

seed producers should be selected, and for hay and ensilage the leafy

Se corn planter may be used, the rows narrowed to three feet if possible
Leading Varieties of Soy Beans^d their Chabacteristics.

Vamett.

Mammoth.

Holly brook.

Haberlandt.

Medium Yellow

or
Mongol.

Color

Seed.

Yellow.

Number
OF Seeds
PER Lb.

Time

Maturity.

Purpose
TO Which
Adapted.

Yellow.

2100

Late,

120 to 150
days.

Medium,
110 to 130
days.

Yellow.

Guelph or

or
Medium Green.

Ito San.

2400

Medium-early,
100 to 120
days.

Roughage and
grain for
entire South.

Principally
for seed.
South.

Habits of Growth.

Yellow, with 3500
pale hilum.

Green.

2600

Medium-early,
100 to 120
days.

Principally
for seed.
South.

Large and bushy; 3 to 5 feet high.. Will
not mature seed north of Virginia and
Kentucky.

Three feet or less; coarse; poor for hay.
Not so valuable as Mammoth.

Stocky; seldom more than 30 inches tall.

Forage.

Y'cUow, with
pale hilum.

3200

Early,
90 to 100
days.

Wilson.

Peking.

Black,
yellow germ.

2400

Early,
90 to 110
days.

Principally
for seed.
North.

Erect; bushy; 2\ to 3 feet.

Medium-early,
100 to 120
days.

Black, C300

yellow germ.

Sable.

Black.

Medium,
110 to 130
days.

Hay and seed.
North.

Hay and seed.

Coarse; not satisfactory for hay; stout and
bushy; U to 2 feet. Seed shatters easily.

Bushy, with slender stems; 2 to 2 J feet.
Much grown in North.

Tall, slender; 3 to 4 feet. Excellent for
hay.

Hay and seed.

Hay and silage.

Bushy with slender, leafy stems; 2^ to 3
feet. Shatters very httle.

and the seed drilled two inches apart in the row. This should require not
Ire than one-half bushel per acre. The drill will accomplish the same
3t if every fifth drill hoe is used and the planting is made in rows for

'"**STng should not take place until danger of frost is past In the
Centra s Is it is safe to seed as late as July 1st and ^^^her south seedmg
mav take place later. Soy beans are adapted to seeding with corn to be
used as enSfage, in which case varieties should be used that mature abou
the same W as the corn with which planted. This mixture is also well
adapteTfor hogs and they may be turned into the field as soon as the corn
reaches the roast ing-ear stage.

ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS

287

Inoculation, Tillage and Fertilizers.— On land which has not before
grown soy beans it is advisable to inoculate, either by soil transfer or by
artificial cultures. Whenj^n in rows, inoculated soil may be put into the
fertilizing box and distriljfflfd with the beans at time of planting. This
reduces the amount of soil required and gives perfect inoculation. The
precautions pertaining to inoculated soils and artificial cultures are the same
as those given for alfalfa.

The fertilizers for soy beans are the same as for cowpeas.'
When planted in rows far enough apart to permit of cultivation
cultivation should begin early and be sufficiently frequent to keep down all
weeds and maintain a soil mulch. Soil should not be thrown on the plants
when they are wet. Cultivation should cease when the plants come into
bloom.

Time and Method of Harvesting.— Beans grown for hay may be cut
with the mowing machine and cured in the same manner as cowpeas. For
this purpose it is best to cut when the leaves first begin to turn yellow and
the best developed pods begin to ripen. When harvested for seed it is best
to wait until the leaves have fallen and at least half of the pods have turned
brown. If much value is attached to the straw, harvesting for seed may
take place a little earlier. The method of threshing is the same as that for
cowpeas.

When grown with corn for silage purposes, the beans should be a Httle
more mature than when harvested for hay.

Composition, Feeding Value and Utilization.— Well-cured soy bean
hay is superior to clover hay and equal to alfalfa. It is more palatable than
cowpea hay. Whether used for hay, grain, ^traw or ensilage, it is very
valuable as a feed for nearly all kinds of livestock. It is especially valuable
in all kinds of rations where high protein content is desired. The whole
plant is high in protein and the beans are very high in both protein and fat.

Vetches.— The hairy vetch is a winter annual and is important as a
forage and soil improvement crop in the United States and Canada. It
belongs to the same family of plants as cowpeas and soy beans. It is best
adapted to a cool, moist climate and succeeds best in the northern half of
the United States and southern portion of Canada. Although it may be
seeded any time during the summer, it does best when seeded in the late
summer or autumn. It generally blossoms in May and matures seeds in
June or July.

It is valuable as a winter cover crop. The plant has a reclining habit.
It is, therefore, best to seed rye and vetch together. About twenty-five
pounds of vetch and one-half bushel of rye per acre makes a suitable mix-
ture. The crop may be turned under early in the spring for the benefit of
the soil, or pastured or cut green for soihng purposes, or made into hay.

Canada Field Peas.— This term is used for field peas regardless of
their variety. The plant is adapted to a cool, moist climate and succeeds
best when seeded early in the spring. When used for haying or soihng

288

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

purposes, it is best to seed it with oats. The oats support the peas and
faciUtate the harvesting of the crop.

The amount of seed to use will vary with the size of the pea and the
character of the soil. It will vary from two bushels per acre in case of small

! i

Hairy Vetch and Rye Growing Together.*

seed to three and one-half bushels of the large seed. When seeded with oats,
two bushels of peas and one bushel of oats per acre is about the right pro-
portion.

On light soils peas may be sown broadcast and plowed under to a
depth of three to four inches. Peas should not be buried so deeply on stiff
clays. Best results will be secured by drilling the seed with a grain drill.
Some of the peas will be broken in passing through the drill, but the loss

iFrom Farmers' Bulletin 515, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS

289

will not be serious. When oats and peas are drilled together, it is best
to drill the peas first, after which the oats may be drilled at right angles
to the peas and not so deeply. Since the oats come up more promptly
than the peas, some advocate deferring drilling the oats until three or four
days after drilling the peas.

Harvesting.— Peas are ordinarily cut with a mowing machine when the
first pods are full grown but not yet filled. At this time they make an
excellent quality of hay. They are cured in the same manner as clover or
timothy. Care should be taken to prevent loss of leaves by shattering
and injury from rain.

Other Annual Legumes.— The Velvet Bean is a rank growing vine
requiring seven to eight months to mature seeds, and is especially adapted
as a cover crop in Florida and along the Gulf Coast.

The Beggar Weed is also well adapted to the extreme South and is
utilized both as forage and for cover crop purposes. It is adapted to light,
sandy soils, and when seeded thickly, can be converted into hay or silage!
It grows six to ten feet high and is relished by all kinds of livestock.

Sorghum. — The non-saccharine sorghums were discussed under the
head of Kaffir corn. The sweet sorghums, of which there are a number of
varieties, are utilized for forage purposes as well as for the manufacture of
molasses. The sweet sorghums are not so drought resistant as the non-
saccharine sorghums, and a small acreage may be advantageously grown on
many livestock farms east of the semi-arid region.

The season of growth is similar to that of com and the plant demands
the same kind of soil and methods of treatment. When used for hay, it
should be seeded thickly either by broadcasting or by drilling with a wheat
drill, using 70 to 100 pounds of seed per acre.

The Early Amber is considered the best variety for general purposes.

Sorghum should be cut for hay when the seeds turn black. It may be
cut with a mowing machine the same as any hay crop. Best results are
secured by putting it into large shocks and allowing it to remain until
thoroughly cured. If cut too early or stacked before the weather becomes
quite cool, it is likely to sour and make a poor quality of hay.

Millet.— There are three common varieties of millet: German, Hun-
garian and common millet. The common millet is drought resistant and
grows well on rather poor soil. It matures in from two to three months.
It makes a good quality of hay and can be fed with less loss than the coarser
varieties.

The German variety is the largest and latest maturing variety. It
will outyield common millet, but is not so drought resistant.

Hungarian millet is about midway between the common and German
millet as regards time of maturity, drought resistance and yield. Its tend-
ency to produce a volunteer growth has brought it somewhat into disfavor.

The millets may be seeded any time after the soil is thoroughly warm.
In latitude 40 degrees north, German millet should be seeded the last week
It

288

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

purposes, it is best to seed it with oats. The oats support the peas and
facihtate the harvesting of the crop.

The amount of seed to use will vary with the size of the pea and the
character of the soil. It will vary from two bushels per acre in case of small

ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS

289

Hairy Vetch and Rye Growing Together.*

seed to three and one-half bushels of the large seed. When seeded with oats,
two bushels of peas and one bushel of oats per acre is about the right pro-
portion.

» From Farmers' Bulletin 515, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Other Annual Legumes.— The Velvet Bean is a rank growing vine
requiring seven to eight months to mature seeds, and is especially adapted
as a cover crop in Florida and along the Gulf Coast.

Sorghum.— The non-saccharine sorghums w^ere discussed under the
head of Kaffir corn. The sweet sorghums, of which there are a number of
varieties, are utilized for forage purposes as well as for the manufacture of
molasses. The sweet sorghums are not so drought resistant as the non-
saccharine sorghums, and a small acreage may be advantageously grown on
many livestock farms east of the semi-arid region.

The Early Amber is considered the best variety for general purposes.

The German variety is the largest and latest maturing variety. It
will outyield common millet, but is not so drought resistant.

The millets may be seeded any time after the soil is thoroughly warm.
In latitude 40 degrees north, German millet should be seeded the last week

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

290

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

in May or the first week in June. Hungarian millet may be seeded two
or three weeks later, while common millet will frequently produce a crop
when seeded as late as the middle of July.

Millet is used chiefly as a catch crop for hay. It is well adapted for
this purpose and may be substituted where a catch of clover or timothy
fails. It is also excellent to fill in where areas of corn have failed.

The preparation of the seed-bed should begin as early in the spring as
conditions will permit. This gives an opportunity to rid the soil of weeds
by occasional harrowing prior to seeding. Millet is seeded broadcast at
the rate of one peck per acre when grown for seed, and one-half bushel per

Millet Makes an Excellent Catch Crop and is Profitable Either for Hay

Purposes or for Seed Production.

acre when grown for hay. Three pecks of seed is advised by some for hay.
This results in smaller plants with a finer quality of hay.

Where extensively grown for seed, millet should be harvested with the
self-binder when the seed is in the stiff dough stage. The after-treatment is
similar to that for wheat and oats. The best quality of hay is secured by
cutting before the seeds begin to ripen. The seeds act as a diuretic to ani-
mals and it is not safe to feed too much of it to horses. Hay that is to be
used for horses should be harvested before seeds form.

Rape. — Rape belongs to the same family of plants as cabbage and
turnips. There are two varieties, annual and biennial. The latter bears
seed in the second year. The best known variety of biennial is the Dwarf
Essex. This gives best results for soiling and pasture purposes. Cattle
and sheep are fond of rape. It is especially fine for hog pasture.

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in May or the first week in June. Hungarian millet may be seeded two
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when seeded as late as the middle of July.

Millet Makes an Excellent Catch Crop and is Profitable Either for Hay

Purposes or for Seed Production.

acre when grown for hay. Three pocks of seed is advised by some for hay.
This results in smaller plants with a finer quality of hay.

Where extensively grown for seed, millet should be harvested with the
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similar to that for wheat and oats. The best quality of hay is secured by
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SUCCESSFUL FARMING

This plant is best adapted to cool, moist climates and does best in the
Northern states and Canada. South of latitude 38 degrees it is best to sow
it in the fall. This allows it to make most of its growth during the cooler
part of the year. North of this, rape should be seeded in the spring so that
it may make most of its growth before hot weather.

Three to six pounds of seed per acre are required. It may be either
broadcasted or seeded with a drill on a well prepared seed-bed.

Rape is usually ready to pasture in six or eight weeks after seeding.
If not pastured too closely, it continues to grow until freezing weather.

Making Hogs of Themselves.*
Rape makes an excellent late fall and early spring pasture for growing hogs.

Care must be taken in pasturing cattle and sheep in rape. They should be
allowed on the rape only a short period at a time, until they become accus-
tomed to it. Very bad cases of bloat may result if this caution is unheeded.
The preceding tabulation taken from '* Wallace's Farmer'' summarizes
the requirements for catch crops when used for pasture and hay. It gives
the approximate requirements for average corn-belt conditions, but is
subject to modifications as regards time of seeding and amount of seed,
depending on climatic conditions.

^ Courtesy of Dept. of Animal Husbandry, Pennsylvania State College.

ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS

293

REFERENCES

"Soiling Crops and the Silo." Shaw.

"Forage Crops for the South." Tracy.

"Forage Crops." Voorhees.

"Forage Plants and Their Culture." Piper.

Michigan Expt. Station Circular 27. "Hairy Vetch."

Mississippi Expt. Station Bulletin 172. "Forage Crops."

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

458. "Best Two Sweet Sorghums for Forage."

515. "Vetches."

529. "Vetch Growing in the South Atlantic States."

599. "Pasture and Grain Crops for Hogs in the Pacific Northwest.

605. "Soudan Grass as a Forage Crop."

677. "Growing Hay in the South for Market.'

686. "Uses of Sorghum Grain.'*

690. "The Field Pea as a Forage Crop."

292

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ANNUAL HAY AND FORAGE CROPS

293

Three to six pounds of seed per acre are required. It may be either
broadcasted or seeded with a drill on a well prepared seed-bed.

Rape is usually ready to pasture in six or eight weeks after seeding.
If not pastured too closely, it continues to grow until freezing weather.

Making Hogs of Themselves.^
Rape makes an excellent late fall and early spring pasture for growing hogs.

Care must be taken in pasturing cattle and sheep in rape. They should be
allowed on the rape only a short period at a time, until they become accus-
tomed to it. Very bad cases of bloat may result if this caution is unheeded.
The preceding tabulation taken from ^^ Wallace's Farmer" summarizes
the requirements for catch crops when used for pasture and hay. It gives
the approximate requirements for average corn-belt conditions, but is
subject to modifications as regards time of seeding and amount of seed,
depending on climatic conditions.

* Courtesy of Dept. of Animal Husbandry, Pennsylvania State College.

REFERENCES

"Soiling Crops and the Silo." Shaw.

"Forage Crops for the South." Tracy.

"Forage Crops." Voorhees.

"Forage Plants and Their Culture." Piper.

Michigan Expt. Station Circular 27. "Hairy Vetch."

Mississippi Expt. Station Bulletin 172. "Forage Crops."

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

458. "Best Two Sweet Sorghums for Forage."

515. "Vetches."

529. "Vetch Growing in the South Atlantic States."

599. "Pasture and Grain Crops for Hogs in the Pacific Northwest.

605. "Soudan Grass as a Forage Crop."

677. "Growing Hay in the South for Market."

686. "Uses of Sorghum Grain."

690. "The Field Pea as a Forage Crop."

[NTEN

i^'tXlA ' *

k,-

[a:

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SECOND EXPOSURE

ANNUAL LEGUMES

295

CHAPTER 20

Annual Legumes, Grown Principally for Seeds

The annual legumes most grown in North America for seed are the
white or navy bean, the common pea and the peanut. They are used
extensively as food for man. In addition to these, cowpeas and soy beans
are grown for seed, some of which is used for human food, some for stock
food, but still more for seeding purposes.

The production of crimson clover, vetch and castor bean for their seed
is of minor importance in North America.

Field Bean. — Is extensively grown under field conditions for the pro-
duction of dried beans. These become the baked beans of New England
fame. According to the census of 1910 the production in the United States
was 11,250,000 bushels of 60 pounds from 803,000 acres. Michigan, Cali-
fornia and New York lead in bean production. During the same year
Canada grew about 1,000,000 bushels from 50,000 acres.

Field beans do best in a cool, moist climate. They are not adapted to
conditions south of 40 degrees north latitude. Field beans are adapted to
loamy soils of a calcareous nature, but may be grown fairly well on clay
loams and silt loams when well supplied with organic matter. The under-
drainage must be good and cultural methods such as will produce a fine,
mellow seed-bed.

Time, Rate, Manner and Depth of Seeding.— Beans are tender plants
and seeding, therefore, should be deferred until danger from frost is past.
This makes it convenient to plant them immediately after planting corn.

They give best results when planted in rows far enough apart to permit
horse cultivation. The beans may be drilled or planted in hills. Drilling
usually gives best results, distributing the seed from three to six inches
apart in the row. With rows thirty inches apart about one-half bushel of
seed per acre will be required.

Great care must be taken not to plant too deeply. The habit of growth
is such that the plant cannot reach the surface if planted deeply. An inch
and one-half to two inches is the maximum depth on any except sandy
soils. On sandy soils they may be three inches deep.

The beans should be thoroughly and frequently cultivated during
their early stages of growth to destroy weeds and conserve soil moisture.
They should not be cultivated when dew is on the plants. This precaution
must be taken to guard against certain diseases, the spores of which may
be in the soil. Disturbing the plants while they are wet tends to scatter
the spores and spread the disease.

(294)

Harvesting. — The ripe beans are harvested with a bean harvester.
This implement cuts two rows at a time, leaving the vines in a single
windrow. If the vines are practically dead when harvested they may be
placed at once in small piles, and later built into large cocks around poles
five feet or more in height.

Threshing and Cleaning. — Beans grown commercially are threshed
with a machine especially adapted to the purpose. It is operated in a
manner similar to the ordinary threshing machine. If only a few beans

Harvesting Field Beans with a Harvester. *

are grown an ordinary threshing machine may be used. All except four
teeth should be removed from the concaves and the speed of the machine
should be such as not to break the beans. Most satisfactory results will be
secured by having all the beans uniformly dry.

Beans fresh from the thresher generally contain fragments of straw,
stones and particles of earth which must be removed before being placed
upon the market. This calls for the use of a special cleaning machine,
which removes most of the foreign matter. After this the remaining
broken and discolored seeds must be removed by hand,

* Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin 89.

■''i'< r J'fii'-j'iXC"'-' ^

7 .,fr*ii.. .r*''-^'*

296

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ANNUAL LEGUMES

297

Yield. — Variations in weights of measured bushels range from fifty-
seven to sixty-five pounds. The standard weight is sixty pounds. Beans
yield all the way from five to thirty-five bushels per acre. There is usually
no profit in a ten-bushel crop. According to the last census the average
yield per acre was fourteen bushels.

Field Peas. — The Canada field peas, described in the preceding chap-
ter, are extensively grown in Canada and a few of the Northern states for
the dried peas. These are adapted to a wide range of uses as feed for
Uvestock. They also furnish the supply of seed for all localities where the
crop is grown for forage purposes.

Peas are very high in protein and are especially adapted as feed for
young stock and for the production of milk and butter. When given with
oats and bran to cows in milk, they may constitute from one-third to one-
half of the concentrates fed.

When harvested for seed, the vines are cut with a mowing machine
to which special guards are attached for lifting them from the ground.
There is also a device attached to the rear of the cutting bar, which leaves
the vines in a swath far enough from the standing peas to enable the team
and machine to work without tramping the peas. It is customary to cut
when two-thirds of the pods are yellow.

When dry the peas should be stacked under cover or threshed immedi-
ately with a pea huller or with an ordinary threshing machine in the same
manner as described for field beans.

The legal weight of field peas is sixty pounds to the bushel. They are
quite prolific and under favorable conditions will yield forty bushels to the
acre. At Guelph, Ontario, eight varieties during eleven years gave an
average yield of 31.5 bushels per acre. Four varieties at Ottawa averaged
34.4 bushels for five years, while six varieties grown for five years in three
other localities averaged 40, 41 and 41.2 bushels respectively per acre.

The most suitable varieties to grow depend somewhat on soil and
climatic conditions. Three good all-around varieties are Prussian Green,
Canadian Beauty and White Marrowfat.

Cowpeas. — The seed of cowpeas has been very little used as feed,
because the price has been too high to justify its use in this way. The
introduction of suitable harvesting and threshing machinery should make it
possible to produce grain of the more prolific varieties at prices that' will
put it in reach for feeding purposes. At present practically air of
cowpea seed is used for seeding purposes, the price ranging from $2 to

$4 per bushel.

The dried shelled peas contain 26 per cent of protein, 1.5 per cent of
fat and 63 per cent of nitrogen free extract. A comparatively low rainfall
is favorable to seed production. Continuous wet weather causes a develop-
ment of vines at the expense of seed. At one of the southern experiment
stations during a series of five years, the yield of peas with a yearly rainfall
of 62 inches was only 12 bushels per acre, whereas, with only 22 inches of

rainfall, the yield was 28 bushels per acre. The yield of hay in both cases
was practically the same.

The methods of seeding and harvesting for seed production are treated
m the foregoing chapter.

Soy Beans. — The growing of soy beans for grain to be used as feed is
profitable if the yield is sixteen bushels or more per acre. The seed is very
rich in oil and protein and occupies the same place in concentrates as
cottonseed meal and oil meal. The seed should be ground before being fed.
Some of the varieties with highest fat content are being utilized for the
manufacture of oil. This is used as a substitute for linseed oil in the manu-
facture of paints. The best varieties under proper cultivation yield from

Soy Beans, Bradford County, Pennsylvania.^

This annual legume is excellent for both forage and seed production. May be

grown nearly as far north as dent corn.

thirty to forty bushels of seed to the acre, Hollybrook, Mammoth and
Haberlandt are three especially good varieties for seed production. Tall
varieties that bear pods some distance from the ground are most desirable
and most easily harvested.

The methods for harvesting and threshing are given in the preceding
chapter. The threshed beans should be thoroughly dried when stored.
Otherwise they are likely to heat and spoil. They should be carefully
watched when first stored and at once spread out to dry if there are signs of
heating.

Soy bean seed is especially exempt from weevils.

* Courtesy of Department of Agricultural Extension, Pennsylvania State College.

296

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ANNUAL LEGUMES

297

Field Peas. — The Canada field peas, described in the preceding chap-
ter, are extensively grown in Canada and a few of the Northern states for
the dried peas. These are adapted to a wide range of uses as feed for
livestock. They also furnish the supply of seed for all localities where the
crop is grown for forage purposes.

When dry the peas should be stacked under cover or threshed immedi-
ately with a pea huller or with an ordinary threshing machine in the same
manner as described for field beans.

The most suitable varieties to grow depend somewhat on soil and
climatic conditions. Three good all-around varieties are Prussian Green,
Canadian Beauty and White Marrowfat.

$4 per bushel.

rainfall, the yield was 28 bushels per acre. The yield of hay in both cases
was practically the same.

The methods of seeding and harvesting for seed production are treated
m the foregoing chapter.

Soy Beans. — The growing of soy beans for grain to be used as feed is
profitable if the yield is sixteen bushels or more per acre. The seed is very
rich in oil and protein and occupies the same place in concentrates as
cottonseed meal and oil meal. The seed should be ground before being fed.
Some of the varieties with highest fat content are being utilized for the
manufacture of oil. This is used as a substitute for Hnseed oil in the manu-
facture of paints. The best varieties under proper cultivation yield from

Soy Beans, Bradford County, Pennsylvania.^

This annual legume is excellent for both forage and seed production. May be

grown nearly as far north as dent corn.

Soy bean seed is especially exempt from weevils.

* Courtesy of Department of Agricultural Extension, Pennsylvania State College.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

'^^':}m^

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298

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ANNUAL LEGUMES

299

Castor Bean.— There are two classes of castor beans, one a perennial,
bushy plant with large seeds; the other a small seeded variety which yields
oil of superior quality. The plant grows within a wide range of climate,
from- the tropics to the north temperate zone. In Florida it is a perennial
plant growing from fifteen to thirty feet high. Further north, it becomes
an annual, matures seed in a short season and grows only four or five feet

The castor bean thrives in sandy soils and its culture is simple. The
seeds germinate with difficulty and it is advised to place them in hot water
twenty-four hours before planting.

It is customary to plant them in hills two inches deep, eight to ten
beans to a hill. They are afterwards thinned to one or two plants per hill.
The rows should be five or six feet apart and the plants from two to three
feet apart in the North, and from five to six feet apart in the South, where

the plant grows more
luxuriantly. They
require about the same
tillage as corn.

Planting should be
done as early in the
spring as possible, but
must escape injury
from frost.

As soon as the pods
begin to open the fruit
branches should be re-;
moved. This process
must be repeated at
least once a week as
soon as seeds ripen. The branches are spread out to dry on the floor of a
suitable building.

In the United States most of the castor beans are produced in Kansas,
Oklahoma, California, Oregon and Wisconsin.

The chief use of the beans is for the manufacture of castor oil. This
oil is one of the best lubricants for machinery and is used in the manufac-
ture of many articles. * ^

Vetch. — Common vetch and hairy vetch are the two most important
varieties of vetches. Common vetch seed is produced in large quantities
in the United States only in parts of Oregon. Hairy vetch has a wider
range of growth, but is grown mostly for forage, most of the seed being
imported from Russia. Both of these varieties seed freely wherever grown
and the prevailing high price of the seed ($5 to $8 per bushel) should induce
farmers to grow more of it for seed purposes. Yields ranging from twenty
to twenty-five bushels per acre have been reported for common vetch, the
average estimated yield being ten bushels. Hairy vetch is somewhat less

Crimson Clover, a Good Winter Cover Crop Where

Winters are Mild.

Well suited to the lighter soils in the Coastal Plain Region

south of Philadelphia.

prolific, but yields ranging from two and one-half to twenty-one bushels
per acre have been reported by different experiment stations, the average
yield being seven and one-half bushels.

The method of harvesting for seed is similar to that of cowpeas. It
is threshed with the ordinary threshing machine.

Crimson Clover. — The chief demand for seed of crimson clover is for
seeding purposes. The seed is larger than that of red clover, one pound
containing 125,000 to 150,000. The weight is sixty pounds to the bushel.
It yields better than red clover, averaging about six bushels to the acre.
Most of the seed is produced in Delaware and nearby states.

Crimson clover should be harvested for seed as soon as perfectly ripe.
The seeds shatter badly. For this reason it should be cut promptly,
preferably in the morning or evening when the plants are damp. The
mowing machine with a clover buncher or the self-rake reaper are best
adapted for harvesting the crop. If the clover becomes wet the seeds
sprout, causing serious loss. For this reason threshing should promptly
follow the harvest.

Fresh seed is shiny and of a pinkish color. Seed two years old loses
its bright color, becoming dark brown. It is then worthless for seeding
purposes.

The cultural methods for crimson clover are given in the preceding

chapter.

PEANUTS

During the last decade there has been a great increase in the production
and use of peanuts in the United States. Their annual commercial value
in the United States, according to the last census, was $18,272,000. The
states leading in production are North Carolina, Virginia, Georgia and
Florida, three-fourths of the marketable nuts being produced in these
states. They are valued for forage as well as for a money crop, having a
feeding value equal to that of clover hay. Peanut products, such as peanut
butter, oil and meal, also have a market value. The peanut kernel has a
high percentage of fat. After the oil has been extracted the meal is noted
for its high percentage of protein. Being nitrogen gathering Uke other
legumes, they are valued as a soil improvement crop.

In parts of the South where corn is not a successful crop, its place is
being taken by the peanut, the entire plant being fed. It also enters use-
fully into the cropping system, on the cotton and tobacco lands of the
Southern states. In parts of the South where the cotton-boll weevil is
troublesome, peanuts are more advantageously cultivated than cotton.

Soil and Climatic Conditions.— A light, loamy, sandy soil is best suited
to peanuts. A dark soil will produce the forage crop satisfactorily, but is
apt to discolor the nuts for market purposes. Heavier soils may be used
for forage purposes, but if grown for nuts, a loose soil is necessary, owing
to the fact that the nuts must burrow into the soil in order to develop.

298

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ANNUAL LEGUMES

299

The castor bean thrives in sandy soils and its culture is simple. The
seeds germinate with difficulty and it is advised to place them in hot water
twenty-four hours before planting.

the plant grows more
luxuriantly. They
require about the same
tillage as corn.

Planting should be
done as early in the
sirring as possible, but
must escape injury
from frost.

As soon as the pods
begin to open the fruit
branches should be re-
moved. This process
must be repeated at
least once a week as
soon as seeds ripen. The branches are spread out to dry on the floor of a
suitable building.

In the United States most of the castor beans are produced in Kansas,
Oklahoma, Cahfornia, Oregon and Wisconsin.

The chief use of the beans is for the manufacture of castor oil. This
oil is one of the best lubricants for machinery and is used in the manufac-
ture of many articles.

Crimson Clover, a Good Winter Cover Crop Where

Winters are Mild.

Well suited to the lighter soils in the Coastal Plain Region

south of Philadelphia.

prolific, but yields ranging from two and one-half to twenty-one bushels
per acre have been reported by different experiment stations, the average
yield being seven and one-half bushels.

The method of harvesting for seed is similar to that of cowpeas. It
is threshed with the ordinary threshing machine.

Fresh seed is shiny and of a pinkish color. Seed two years old loses
its bright color, becoming dark brown. It is then worthless for seeding
purposes.

The cultural methods for crimson clover are given in the preceding

chapter.

PEANUTS

During the last decade there has been a great increase in the production
and use of peanuts in the United States. Their annual commercial value
in the United States, according to the last census, was $18,272,000. The
states leading in production are North Carolina, Virginia, Georgia and
Florida, three-fourths of the marketable nuts being produced in these
states. They are valued for forage as well as for a money crop, having a
feeding value equal to that of clover hay. Peanut products, such as peanut
butter, oil and meal, also have a market value. The peanut kernel has a
high percentage of fat. After the oil has been extracted the meal is noted
for its high percentage of protein. Being nitrogen gathering like other
legumes, they are valued as a soil improvement crop.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

rt?3«r^';-^-

ANNUAL LEGUMES

301

A Peanut Plant. ^

1 Farmere* Bulletin 431, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

(300)

A compact soil does not facilitate this very necessary process. The peanut
is more susceptible to frost than the bean plant. It requires a long season
without frost in order to develop nuts. The small Spanish peanuts require
about 115 days to mature and the large varieties need a still longer period.
For this reason they are most successfully grown in the frost-free regions,
such as the South Atlantic and Gulf states and westward into California.
When grown for forage, however, a wider range of climate is possible,
peanuts being successfully grow^n as far north as Maryland and Delaware.

Fertilizers and Lime Required. — Soils that are adapted to peanuts
will not require much commercial fertilizer, although the peanut responds
readily to a moderate use of it. On river bottom lands no fertilizer will be
needed, but in hillside regions applications of fertilizers and lime are advis-
able. Practically the same fertilizer that is suitable for potatoes U suitable
for peanuts. The peanut responds well to the application of manure, but
the manure should be applied to the crop preceding the peanuts. For this
reason, peanuts should follow a cultivated crop if possible. This also aids
materially in freeing the peanuts from weeds. Too much manure causes a
heavy growth of tops to the detriment of the pods. If t he forage is fed and
returned to the land in the form of manure, the peanut is not an exhaustive
crop, but if the entire crop is removed it soon robs the soil of fertility.

Peanuts also require an abundance of lime in the soil. Soils that show
any indications of sourness should receive from 600 to 1000 pounds of lime
(preferably fresh burned) to the acre. This treatment should be given at
least every five years. The sorrel weed is an indication of a sour soil.

The fertilizer may be distributed in the row to be planted and thor-
oughly mixed with the soil. Lime should not be applied at the same time,
but some time previous, either during the fall before or just after plowing.

Time, Rate, Depth and Manner of Planting. — Peanuts should be
planted as soon as the ground is thoroughly warm and all danger from
frost is over. This insures quick germination. The larger varieties must
be planted somewhat earlier than the Spanish variety, as more time is
needed to mature.

The soil is prepared much the same as that for potatoes. The peanuts
are planted in furrows about three feet apart. The nuts may be dropped
by hand or a one-horse peanut planter may be used. The running varieties
should be planted from twelve to sixteen inches apart in the row but the
])unch varieties somewhat closer, from nine to twelve inches apart. The
richer the soil, the greater should be the distance between plants, in order
to allow for growth.

Only one seed in a place is necessary, but in order to insure a good yield,
two seeds are preferable. Two pecks of shelled peanuts are generally
sufficient to plant an acre, while two bushels of the Spanish peanut in the
pod are required.

Peanuts should be covered from three-quarters of an inch to two inches
deep, depending upon character of soil. Light, sandy soils require a deeper

ANNUAL LEGUMES

301

A Peanut Plant. ^

1 Farmers* Bulletin 431. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,
(300)

A compact soil does not facilitate this very necessary process. The peanut
is more susceptible to frost than the bean plant. It requires a long season
without frost in order to develop nuts. The small Spanish peanuts require
al)out 115 days to mature and the large varieties need a still longer period.
For this reason they are most successfully grown in the frost-free regions,
such as the South Atlantic and Gulf states and westward into California.
When grown for forage, however, a wider range of climate is possible,
peanuts Ix ing successfully grow^n as far north as Maryland and Delaware.

Fertilizers and Lime Required. — Soils that are adapted to peanuts
will not require much commercial fertilizer, although the peanut responds
readily to a moderate use of it. On river bottom lands no f( rtilizer will be
needed, but in hillside regions applications of fertilizers and lime are advis-
able. Practically the same fertilizer that is suitable for potatoes i^ suitable
for peanuts. The peanut responds well to the application of manure, but
the manure should bo applied to the crop preceding the peanuts. For this
reason, peanui^s should follow a cultivated crop if possible. This also aids
materially in freeing the peanuts from weeds. Too much manure causes a
heavy growth of tops to the detriment of the pods. If the forage is fed and
returned to the land in the form of manure, the peanut is not an exhaustive
crop, but if the entire crop is removed it soon robs the soil of fertility.

Peanuts also require an abundance of lime in the soil. Soils that show
any indications of sourness should receive from 600 to 1000 pounds of lime
(preferably fn^sh burned) to the acre. This treatment should be given at
l(Mist every five years. The sorrel weed is an indication of a soux soil.

The fertilizer may be distributed in the row to be planted and thor-
oughly mix(»d with the soil. Lime should not be applied at the same time,
})ut some time previous, either during the fall before or just after plowing.

Time, Rate, Depth and Manner of Planting. — Peanuts should be
planted as soon as tlu^ ground is thoroughly warm and all danger from
frost is over. This insures quick germination. The larger varieties must
be planted somewhat earlier than the Spanish variety, as more time is
needed to mature.

The soil is prepared much the same as that for potatoes. The peanuts
are planted in furrows about three feet apart. The nuts may be dropped
by hand or a one-horse peanut planter may be used. The running varieties
should be planted from twelve to sixteen inches apart in the row but the
bunch varieties somewhat closer, from nine to twelve inches apart. The
richer the soil, the greater should be the distance between plants, in order
to allow for growth.

Peanuts should be covered from three-quarters of an inch to two inches
deep, depending upon character of soil. Light, sandy soils require a deeper

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

302

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

planting, while on heavy soils from three-quarters to one and one-quarter

inches is sufficient.

Seed Selection and Preparation.— Selecting a good grade of seed is
just as important in peanut culture as it is with corn or any other crop.
Seed should be selected only from mature plants and from those producing
the largest number of pods. It must be properly cured and kept thoroughly
dry during the winter. It is not safe to use seed older than the preceding

crop.

Seed from the large pod varieties should always be shelled before
planting. Shelled seed is surer and more rapid of germination than seed in
the pod, and insures a better stand. Machine-planted seed must be shelled.

The small or Spanish varieties may be planted in the pod with but
little disadvantage. Some growers make a practice of soaking the pods for
a fe\y hours before planting in order to soften them and hasten germination.
Soaked seed must be planted at once, however, or it becomes useless.
Shelled seed should not be soaked.

Preparing the large varieties for seed entails much work, as they must
be shelled by hand. The smaller varieties, however, are usually shelled by
machinery, although some loss is experienced by this process.

Varieties.— Peanuts are divided into large-podded and small-podded
varieties, according to their size. The Virginia bunch and the Virginia
runner are the two most grown large varieties. These varieties are the
most used when roasted and sold for human consiunption. They have
about the same weight per bushel.

The Spanish peanut is much used for forage and for shelled purposes.
Its range of growth is wider than that of the Virginia variety.

Other varieties are the African, the Tennessee Red and the Valencia.

They are all small varieties.

Cultivation, Harvesting and Curing.- Peanuts should be cultivated
in much the same manner as beans, corn or similar crops. Cultivation
should begin as soon as the crop is up and continue until the vines spread
over the ground. The soil should be kept loose and free from weeds. Pea-
nut pods have the peculiar habit of burrowing in the ground when they
begin to form. For this reason the dirt should be worked towards the vines
in the last cultivation and the vines should not be disturbed after the
process of burrowing begins.

The same implements may be used as for cultivating com and beans.
A one-horse weeder is the general form of cultivator used.

Harvesting should occur just before frost, as frost will injure the forage
as well as the peanuts. Peanuts may be plowed from the ground with a
common turning plow, but the use of a potato-digging machine is a much
better method. The initial expense of such a machine is about $75, but it
lasts many years and does the work much more efficiently than it can be
done otherwise. If dug by plow the soil must be shaken from the roots by
hand, whereas the machine shakes off the soil as it digs.

ANNUAL LEGUMES

303

A few hours after harvesting the peanuts should be stacked about a
pole. These poles should be driven firmly into the ground and pieces
nailed at right angles to them just above the ground in order to keep the
vines from the ground as much as possible. The stacks should be small
and conical and stacked as loosely as possible so that air will pass through.
It is not advisable to store peanuts in the barn until thoroughly cured.
Then the forage part may be stored after the nuts are picked.

The nuts should not be picked from the vines until they are thoroughly
dry and solid, else they will shrivel and become unfit for market purposes.

Harvesting and Curing Peanuts.^

On the other hand, picking should not be delayed too late in the season on
account of ravages from crows and mice.

Hand-picked peanuts command the highest price, but owing to the
dusty, irksome labor involved, picking machines are coming into general
favor. There are two kinds on the market: one is a cylinder type used
mostly for Spanish peanuts; the other machine drags the vines over a
horizontal wire mesh, thus removing the nuts without breaking them.

Peanuts must be kept continually dry or they become discolored.
After picking they are usually covered with dust and kept in a dry, well-
ventilated place until stored in bags ready for market.

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmerg' Bulletin 431.

302

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

planting, while on heavy soils from three-quarters to one and one-quarter

inches is sufficient.

crop.

Varieties.— Peanuts are divided into large-podded and small-podded
varieties, according to their size. The Virginia bunch and the Virginia
runner are the two most grown large varieties. These varieties are the
most used when roasted and sold for human consumption. They have
about the same weight per bushel.

The Spanish peanut is much used for forage and for shelled purposes.
Its range of growth is wider than that of the Virginia variety.

Other varieties are the African, the Tennessee Red and the Valencia.
They are all small varieties.

The same implements may be used as for cultivating corn and beans.
A one-horse weeder is the general form of cultivator used.

ANNUAL LEGUMES

303

The nuts should not be picked from the vines until they are thoroughly
dry and solid, else they will shrivel and become unfit for market purposes.

Harvesting and Curing Peanuts. ^

On the other hand, picking should not be delayed too late in the season on
account of ravages from crows and mice.

Peanuts must be kept continually dry or they become discolored.
After picking they are usually covered with dust and kept in a dry, well-
ventilated place until i^tored in bags ready for market.

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmerg* Bulletin 431.

^■y'Ji^:^k

304 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Preparing for Market.— Threshed peanuts contain much tra^h, neces-
sitating a thorough cleaning before marketing. This can be done on a
smal^scale by the grower, but if large quantities are involved, the process
Lmore economically done in a cleaning factory, which is equipped with all
npppssarv fanning and grading machinery. , , ,

ySd .-Anlveraie yield of peanuts is about thirty-four bushels an
acre although it is quite possible on fertile soil and by expert methods
to increase this to sixty bushels an acre, with from one to two tons of
Srage Peanut forage is worth from $8 to $10 per ton. Sixty bushels of
nuts are worth from $40 to $60, according to quality. Estimating upon
thTs basis, allowing an expendHure of from $12 to «25 P- acre to ^ow the
croD the grower would realize a profit of from $36 to $45 per acre.
This' is a conservative estimate and, all conditions being favorable, might
be much larger.

REFERENCES

''The Peanut." Jones.

"The Peanut and Its Culture. Roper.

-Peas and Pea Culture." Sevey. „

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 2j2. lield ^eans.

Fanners' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

315. ''Legume Inoculation.

318. ''Cowpeas."

372. "Soy Beans."

431. ''Peanuts." „

561. " Bean Growing in Western States.

579 '^ITtUization of Crimson Clover. ^^

646 "Crimson Clover Seed Production.

CHAPTER 21

Roots and Tubers for Forage

In the United States roots and tubers are grown principally as vege-
tables or for sugar production, but in Canada they are quite extensively
grown for forage purposes. In such root crops as the beet, turnip, parsnip
and carrot, the edible part is really an enlargement of the upper portion of
the root and the lower portion of the stem merged together. Roots, such
as cassava and chufa, are enlargements of the roots.

According to the last census Canada produced nearly 200,000 acres of
root crops, while those grown in the United States for forage purposes

Root Crops, 1909-1910. Figures = Acres. ^

aggregated only about 15,000 acres. Mangels, rutabagas, turnips, beets,
carrots and cabbage are best adapted to cool, moist climates. Of these the
rutabaga and turnip may be successfully grown further south than the
others. The accompanying map gives the acreage of root crops in the
United States and Canada by states and provinces according to the liitest

census figures.

Relation to Other Crops.— The economy in growing root crops for
forage purposes depends chiefly on whether or not other succulent crops
suited to feeding livestock can be more cheaply produced. It also depends
on the relative yields of the different crops.

> Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From " Forage Plants and their Cult'-- " ' " ^'^^"^
.,, (305)

306

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ROOTS AND TUBERS FOR FORAGE

307

The longer the winter period, the greater the need for succulent food
for livestock during the stabling period. For this reason there is more
need of such foods in the northern part of the United States and in Canada
than farther south where the season for plant growth is longer. Many of
the root crops are adapted to a short growing season where corn cannot be

successfully grown.

Numerous experiments on the relative cost of producing com and roots
show that corn is the cheaper source of feed wherever it can be successfully

A Load or Mangels, Note Size and Character of Roots.^

grown. The root crops require more labor than corn in culture, harvesting
and feeding. Less of the work can be done by labor-saving machinery.
It is for this reason chiefly that they are the more expensive source of suc-
culent food. Roots have the advantage in that they may be grown in
small quantities for small numbers of livestock when it would not be
practicable to have a silo. They also fit well into crop rotations and the
tillage required by them leaves the soil in excellent condition for crops that

follow. .1. J r

Utilization and Feeding Value.— The root crops are best utilized for

dairy cattle, especially during the winter period. The various roots differ

considerably in their percentage of dry matter and feeding value. Sugar

1 Courtesy of Webb Publishing Company. St. Paul, Minn. From "Field Crops." by Wilson and
Warburton.

beets rank first, as they have about 20 per cent of dry matter, three-quarters
of which is sugar. Mangels, rutabagas and turnips frequently have no
more than 10 to 12 per cent of dry matter, not more than one-half of which
is sugar.

Some of the flat-topped turnips that grow principally on the surface
of the ground may be grown for pasturage and are readily eaten by sheep.

The dry matter in roots is slightly lower in feeding value, pound for
pound, than that in cereals. It is about equal in digestibility to the dry mat-
ter in cereals.

The jdeld of some of the more important root crops, as grown at a
number of experiment stations, is as follows: mangels, average yield in
tons per acre during five years in five localities, 31; rutabagas, same locali-
ties and same number of years, 26.5 tons per acre; carrots, same localities
and same number of years, 23.6 tons per acre; sugar beets, same localities,
average five years in two of them and three years in other three, 20.6
tons per acre; turnips, three localities average of five years, 21.3 tons
per acre.

The cultural methods of most of the crops, brief description of which
will follow, are given in the chapter on ''Vegetables and Their Require-
ments.''

Sugar-Beets. — While sugar-beets have a high feeding value they are
not extensively grown as forage because the ^ yield is generally much less
than can be secured from mangels and rutabagas. The by-products of the
sugar factories in the form of beet pulp is quite extensively used as roughage
for livestock. For cultural methods of beets see not only the chapter above
referred to, but also the chapter on "Sugar Crops.''

Mangels. — Mangels differ quite materially from sugar-beets in form,
color and size. Sugar-beets grow mostly in the ground, are tapering in
form, and both the skin and flesh are white. Mangels average four times as
large, are more cylindrical in form, and a considerable portion of the root
grows above ground. The flesh of the mangel is usually reddish or yellow,
while the skin may be white, red, golden, purplish or even black. Mangels
are planted in rows twenty-eight to thirty-six inches apart. The rate of
seeding ranges from six to eight pounds of seed per acre. The seed should
be covered about one inch deep and as soon as the plants are well established
they should be thinned by use of a hoe to little groups of plants at intervals
of twelve inches. These should be thinned later by hand to one plant to
each place. They should be cultivated to destroy weeds and maintain a
good soil mulch. They are generally harvested by plowing a furrow on one
side of the row, and are pulled by hand. On account of their large size they
require much cutting before being fed. They may be stored in root cellars
or in pits, and call for a low, uniform temperature and fair ventilation during
the storage period.

Turnips and Rutabagas. — There are a great variety of turnips. Ruta-
bagas or Swedes are but a few of the large growing varieties that are espe-

!': ..

-hwrnm^.

306

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ROOTS AND TUBERS FOR FORAGE

307

successfully grown.

Numerous experiments on the relative cost of producing com and roots
show that corn is the cheaper source of feed wherever it can be successfully

A Load of Mangels, Note Size and Character of Roots.^

follow. M. 1 r

Utilization and Feeding Value.— The root crops are best utilized for
dairy cattle, especially during the winter period. The various roots differ
considerably in their percentage of dry matter and feeding value. Sugar

1 Courtesy of Webb Publishing Company, St. Paul, Minn. From "Field Crops." by Wilson and
Warburton.

Some of the flat-topped turnips that grow principally on the surface
of the ground may be grown for pasturage and are readily eaten by sheep.

The dry matter in roots is slightly lower in feeding value, pound for
pound, than that in cereals. It is about equal in digestibility to the dry mat-
ter in cereals.

The yield of some of the more important root crops, as grown at a
number of experiment stations, is as follows: mangels, average yield in
tons per acre during five years in five localities, 31; rutabagas, same locali-
ties and same number of years, 26.5 tons per acre; carrots, same localities
and same number of years, 23.6 tons per acre; sugar beets, same localities,
average five years in two of them and three years in other three, 20.6
tons per acre; turnips, three localities average of five years, 21.3 tons
per acre.

The cultural methods of most of the crops, brief description of which
will follow, are given in the chapter on "Vegetables and Their Require-
ments."

Turnips and Rutabagas. — There are a great variety of turnips. Ruta-
bagas or Swedes are but a few of the large growing varieties that are espe-

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

308

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

cially adapted for forage purposes because of the large yields they
give. From two to three pounds of turnip seed and four to five pounds of
rutabaga seed per acre are required. The seed may be either drilled or
broadcasted, although in case of rutabages drilling is decidedly preferable.
The preparation of the ground, planting and method of tillage is very simi-
lar to that given mangels. As turnips make their growth in two or three
months, they may be seeded late in the summer and yet matme before
frost. Rutabagas require more time for maturity and should be sown in

May or June.

Turnips do not keep well and should be fed in the fall and early winter.
Rutabagas, on the other hand, keep through the winter without difficulty.
The methods of storage are similar to those for rutabages.

Carrots. — This crop is less extensively used for forage purposes, chiefly
because it yields less abundantly than rutabagas and mangels. It makes

l/£A/77iJirO/?

.•.'•'.'.'•.«.•*■;

b^:cl?^[

*• •• /^n^^* . •« •. .• ••

Cross Section of an Easily Constructed Pit for Roots. ^

an excellent quality of feed and calls for about the same soil conditions and
cultural methods as the other root crops. The roots are much smaller and
consequently there should be more of them in a given area. From four to
six pounds of seed per acre are required. It should be drilled in rows, and
the plants should ultimately stand two or three inches apart in the row.

Parsnip. — This crop requires a rich, fertile soil, and demands the same
cultural methods as the carrot. The roots of the parsnip may be dug late
in the fall and stored or allowed to remain where grown and dug as required
for use. Whether they are allowed to remain in the field will be determined
largely by winter conditions and the possibilities of digging them in the
winter time. Wlien used as human food, the freezing of the roots improves

their flavor.

Cabbage. — While this crop is grown chiefly for human consumption,
in some sections of the country it is extensively grown for forage purposes.
The usual method of storing cabbage is to dig a trench about eighteen inches

1 From Farmers* Bulletin 465, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

ROOTS AND TUBERS FOR FORAGE

309

deep and three feet wide in which the cabbage is set with the heads close
together and the roots bedded in soil. As cold weather approaches they are
covered with straw and a few inches of earth. Slight freezing does not
injure them, but they should not be subjected to alternate freezing and
thawing. They should be well ventilated while in storage. Cabbage
makes a good roughage for dairy cows and young stock.

Kale. — Thousand-Head 3d kale is the variety best adapted for forage
purposes because of its large, rank growth and heavy yield. It somewhat
resembles cabbage and makes a succulent forage which can be fed from
October until April in regions where the winter is mild. It is best fed fresh
or allowed to wilt, but should not be cut more than four or five days before
feeding; neither should it be fed while frozen.

The methods of growing are similar to those for cabbage, the plants
being grown in a seed-bed and transplanted in the field early in the spring.

Cabbage and any of the root crops that tend to give a peculiar taste
to milk should always be fed soon after the milking period and never for
several hours just prior to it. This precaution in feeding is said to obviate
the disagreeable flavor which is frequently imparted to the milk.

Artichokes. — This crop, of which there are several varieties, belongs
to the sunflower family, and both the tops and tubers are relished by
livestock. They are cultivated much after the manner of potatoes, although
planted somewhat farther apart. Yields of 200 to 500 bushels of tubers
per acre have been reported.

Artichokes are valuable as forage, chiefly for hogs, which may be
turned into the fields and allowed to harvest the crop themselves. The
tubers keep in the ground all winter and usually enough of them are left
by the hogs to produce a new crop for next year.

Cassava. — This plant is a native of the tropics and is adapted to Florida
and the Gulf Coast portion of the states bordering on the Gulf of Mexico.
It is a large growing, bushy plant attaining a height of four to ten feet and
produces horizontal, fleshy roots or tubers three to five feet long and from
one to two and one-half inches in diameter. While it will grow on quite
a variety of soils, it can be economically produced only on loose, sandy soils
which will enable the easy harvesting of the roots'. On fertile soils and with
good cultural methods, yields of five to ten tons per acre of roots are
reported. The roots are very high in starch and sugar content and make
an excellent food for all kinds of livestock. The crop is quite extensively
used in the manufacture of starch.

Cassava is propagated by means of portions of the roots or stems which
are stored in the dry during the winter. The roots or seed canes are cut
into pieces of the desired length and planted in the spring after danger of
frost is past. They are usually planted four feet apart each way and cov-
ered with a few inches of moist earth.

Chtifa. — This is a sedge-like plant with creeping root stocks which
produce great numbers of edible tubers. These are small, sweet and

■«<»'. nfl'i

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

:i I
1^ I

310

ranging ^om 50 to 300 ^-^l^^^Z^^Mylr apart to permit
by planting ^^^^ ^f ^^^^/^^^^^^ about the same as for potatoes,
cultivation. The rate «* P^^ j^ ,^ ^^ its edible roots in the tropics,

Taro.— Thi plant, commoui^ g o+„tp. «= seen in the large-leaved,
is more famiUar to persons in the United S^^^^^^^^^ g ^^^

ornamental plant sometimes called ^J^lf f^^^^^^^^^ for its growth

'^''■?:„'S-Tw/ StlLrrtmbles the fro and is similar in ita
Youha.— IMS piara ™;»i' ^ j favorable conditions

rrhrstK^^.^^1 »«Mt oti^^I? t.e ifa^e^tln, ol ti.is
crop and the one preceding.

REFERENCES

Farmers' BuUetins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:
^^'"^ 309. '' Root Crops " Pages 7 to 15 „
465. ''Methods of Storing Root Crops.

CHAPTER 22
The Potato

By Alva Agee
Director, Agricultural Extension^ Rutgers College, N. J.

The potato is one of the world^s most important products for human
food. The United States have been producing between 350,000,000 and
400,000,000 bushels, and Canada between 70,000,000 and 85,000,000 bushels
annually. Adaptability to this crop gives high value to land near good
markets, and good transportation facihties have made the crop profitable

The Potato Crop.*

in sections of the country that must ship their products long distances.
The Southern states, growing their crop in the cool months of the spring,
supply Northern markets during the summer, and in the fall scores of
millions of bushels are sent southward from the Northern states. The crop
is important not only for the reason that it produces a large amount of
human food per acre, but on account of the reward it offers to the grower's
skill. The limit to production per acre is unknown, but it is a conservative
statement that the present average yield in this country could be doubled.

* From Farmers' Bulletin 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

(311)

f .' •• I
11.

■'/*'„•

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

310

frequently used as human food or Past- f^^^^^^^^^ ^^J^Jft Is^tpagat'd

by plan ing th^;f;;4^^/;fJtLg is about the same as for potatoes,
cultivation. The rate «* P^^ ^ ^^^ -^^ .^ible roots in the tropics,

Tare— Thi plant, commouij g a+„tps is seen in the arge-leaved,
is more familiar to persons m the Unitf St^^^^^^^ seen m t g^^^^ ^^^

ornamental plant sometimes called f ^Pf^f^^J^^ for its growth

may be used as a forage for livestock. . j^

\ouHa-Thi. plant '^'y.^^^'^^^jTr rvo^bHlitions

crop and the one preceding.

REFERENCES

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:
^^''^'' 309. '' Root Crops" Pages 7 to 15 „
465. ''Methods of Storing Root Crops.

CHAPTER 22

The Potato

By Alva Agee
Directory Agricultural Extension j Rutgers College, N, J.

The potato is one of the world^s most important products for human
food. The United States have been producing bi^twecn 350,000,000 and
400,000,000 bushels, and Canada between 70,000,000 and 85,000,000 bushels
annually. Adaptabihty to this crop gives high value to land near good
markets, and good transportation facihties have made the crop profitable

The Potato Crop.^

» From Farmers' Bulletin 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

(311)

312

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The Soil.— The potato is a tuber developing below the surface of the
ground and displacing soil particles as it grows. Therefore, a mellow soil is
essential. The best potato lands are naturally loose, but somewhat heavy
soils have been brought into profitable production by the free use of organic
matter from sods and cover crops. A good potato soil is retentive of
moisture, and rotted organic matter in it serves as the best insurance
against drought. Some light, sandy soils of the seaboard states are put
into productive condition by means of cover crops and manure which give
them body and excellent physical condition. Soils naturally too compact
for the potato may be made loose, friable and retentive of moisture by the

same means.

Crop Rotation.— The history of potato production in other countries
as well as our own teaches clearly that this crop should be grown in rota-
tion with others and that when the crop rotation is shorter than four years
there is great danger of ultimate failure. The practice of growing potatoes
year after year on the same land, using a winter cover crop, or of using a
rotation of two years only, may prevail for a number of years in a region
peculiarly adapted to the crop, but it is only a matter of time until yields
will be badly cut by disease and lack of vegetable matter in the soil. One
excellent crop rotation is clover, corn, potatoes and grain, followed by
clover. The manure is put on the field for corn, and both it and the sod
are thoroughly rotted for the potato the following year. Another rotation
of some reputation is clover, potatoes and wheat. The clover sod rots
more readily than a grass sod and feeds the potato and at the same time
keeps the soil mellow. A fresh-turned grass sod does not favor this crop.
When it is necessary to fellow grass with potatoes the sod should be broken
in the fall, and if there is danger of undue leaching, a winter cover crop of
rye or wheat should be grown.

Soil Preparation.— A deep soil holds moisture better than a shallow
one, and our more productive potato lands have been made and are kept
deep by proper plowing. A shallow soil should be deepened gradually,
and the best part of the sod never should be thrown into the bottom of the
furrow. A breaking-plow having a short, straight mold-board is to be
preferred for all land that is at all deficient in humus, as it is essential that
some organic matter be in the surfac? soil. The time of plowing is a local
question. Wherever leaching is not to be feared and early planting is
practiced, fall plowing is advised. When land is broken in the fall or very
early in the spring, it is less subject to summer drought than late-plowed
ground. We should bear in mind all the time that a supply of moisture is a
big consideration and in the preparation of the ground that should be
kept chiefly in view. The use of a heavily weighted, sharp, disk harrow on
sod land before it is broken does much to hasten decay after the plowing
and to insure prime physical condition. It is easy to do harm by tramping
plowed land with horses in the spring, and disking before plowing reduces
the amount of required preparation after the plowing.

THE POTATO

313

The Seed. — The potato thrives in a relatively cold climate and loses
vigor when grown during midsummer in warm latitudes. The best seed is
obtained from our northernmost states, grown in midsummer, or from more
southern states when grown in the cool months of autumn. As a rule, the
northern seed is preferred, partly because it is in abundant supply.

Successful growers prefer potatoes of marketable size for planting.
The tubers are enlarged underground stems, and their vitality may be
measured by that of the vines which produce them. A small potato, known
as a second, may have been set late by a vine of strong vitality which
produced also a big crop of merchantable tubers. In that case the small
potato makes fairly good seed, and would be just as desirable as a section
of a large potato if it did not put out any more sprouts than the cut portion
of a large tuber. On the other hand, many seconds are small because the
vines producing them lacked in vitaUty. Experience has taught that
growers depending upon seconds soon have a large percentage of plants
that lack full productive power. Potato yields in the warmer latitudes of
the Northern states ars kept low by the use of home-grown seed which
necessarily has had vitahty impaired.

The amount of seed per acre depends somewhat upon variety, but
relatively heavy seeding is profitable. The grower wants sufficient foliage
to cover and shade the soil thoroughly, and ordinarily, that requires the
use of thirteen or fourteen bushels of seed per acre. The seed piece should
be a block of potato sufficiently large to average two eyes to the piece. The
size of the seed piece is important in insuring a good stand, and the cutting
should be related more to size of the piece than to number of eyes. In some
instances there will be only one bud which may produce two or three good
stalks, and in other cases a seed piece of right size may have three eyes.
Close cutting and any skimping of the amount of seed result in loss under
ordinary conditions, however successful they may be in a very fine and
fertile soil having the right amount of moisture immediately after planting.

Fertilization. — Large areas of sandy loams are planted with potatoes
because they have right physical condition and partly because they mature
a crop early in the season. Sandy soils are badly deficient in potash, and it
has come about that most growers think of the potato as a plant requiring
unusually heavy applications of potash. Manufacturers of fertilizers have
fostered this idea, but the results of careful experiments have shown within
recent years that phosphoric acid should be the controlling element in the
potato fertiHzer, just as it is in the fertilizer for corn and most other staple
crops. In normal soils of great natural strength no commercial fertilizer
may be used, but when need first develops, phosphoric acid is the require-
ment. This occurs even where clover and stable manure are freely used.
Commercial growers, as a rule, make no use of stable manure direct to
potatoes, as it furnishes ideal conditions for the development of disease,
and especially of the scab. In the case of naturally fertile land the manure
applied for corn and the legumes in the rotation may furnish the most of

^''£iiJ£iilil&:Mj£iS£J

P^iife^^iS'

The Condition op Seed Potatoes Depends on Character of Storage.

1— Stored in cool place. 2— Stored in warm place, tubera

shrunken and vitality impaired.

THE POTATO

315

the needed nitrogen, and the decay of the vegetable matter may free all of
the potash required, but we now have relatively small areas in which
phosphorus does not add materially to crop yields. As potato production
continues, a need of nitrogen develops, and as has been said, potash is a
requirement for most sandy soils. A lack of fertility may be met by use of
a fertilizer containing 3 per cent of nitrogen, 10 per cent of phosphoric acid
and 5 or 6 per cent potash excepting, naturally, areas where the percentage
of nitrogen must be increased. The amount of fertilizer used per acre
varies greatly. Some growers in the seaboard states apply one ton of a
high-grade complete fertilizer per acre, and many growers on naturally

A Potato Planter. ^

fertile soil in the Central states use none at all. It is a common practice
to apply all of the fertilizer in the row, and when the amount is in excess
of 1000 pounds per acre, there is danger of injury to the plants as they start

growth

Lime is not applied to land immediately before potatoes are planted,
as it favors the development of potato scab. Acid soils are more free from
this disease than alkaline ones, but clover demands lime and is needed in a
rotation with potatoes. The best practice is to use finely pulverized
limestone rather than burned lime and to make the application immediately
after the potato crop in the rotation.

The Planting. — As the potato thrives best in cold latitudes the planting
should be made as early as possible in the spring in the Southern states and

1 From Farmers* Bulletin 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

i^l

(314)

The Condition op Seed Potatoes Depends on Character of Storage.

1— Stored in cool place. 2— Stored in warm place, tubers

shrunken and vitality impaired.

THE POTATO

315

A Potato Planter.^

Lime is not applied to land immediately before potatoes are planted,
as it favors the development of potato scab. Acid soils are more free from
this disease than alkaline ones, but clover demands lime and is needed in a
rotation with potatoes. The best practice is to use finely pulverized
limestone rather than burned lime and to make the appHcation immediately
after the potato crop in the rotation.

The Planting. — As the potato thrives best in cold latitudes the planting
should be made as early as possible in the spring in the Southern states and

1 From Farmers' Bulletin 365, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

(314)

t'',-'

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

mai&^smf^.:

316

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the southern tier of the Northern states. The only exception is in the case
of midsummer planting with the aim of securing a crop in the fall. Farther
north the planting may be later in the spring, although the tendency in
recent years has been away from June planting.

The depth of planting depends upon the character of the soil and the
variety. Where an early crop is wanted, the planting is shallow, but for a
main crop in loose soils the depth should be at least three inches below the

dead level of the surface.

A planter does more satisfactory work than can be done by hand,
dropping the seed in a more direct line. The width between rows may vary
from thirty to thirty-five inches and the distance between the seed pieces
in the roW should be sufficient to require about fourteen bushels of seed per
acre. This is a surer rule than any fixed number of inches, as much depends

upon the cutting.

Cultivation.— A soil that is sufficiently retentive of moisture for the
potato usually inclines to become more compact than is desired. The
preparation of the soil and the planting compacts some of the ground
beneath the surface. A few days after the planting is finished it is good
practice to give a very deep and close cultivation, the shovels being guided
by the furrows made in covering. Later the weeder or harrow should be
used to level the ground and kill all weeds so that the potato plants will
come up in a fresh, clean soil. Close and deep tillage should be given when
all the plants are above ground, and later the cultivation should be more
shallow so that the roots of the plants will not be unduly disturbed. Level
culture enables the grower to keep the maximum amount of moisture in
the soil, but dependence upon mechanical diggers has led practical growers
to ridge the rows and, when the growing is on a large scale, this is the only
practical method of controlling grass and weeds. Cultivation should
continue until the vines fill the middles, and the last cultivation should be
given by a light one-horse cultivator that will slip under fallen vines. The
early cultivation should keep the soil loose and later cultivation should
keep the surface well mulched with loose earth and should prevent any

growth of weeds.

Diseases. — The number of virulent potato diseases is increasing in
this country, and the grower should study the latest bulletins from his state
experiment station. He will be informed regarding the formalin treatment
for the seed before planting, that gives control of some diseases. All
potato seed should be given this treatment, which consists of soaking the
seed for two hours in a solution of formaldehyde made by diluting one pint
of 40 per cent formaldehyde in 30 gallons of water. This should be done
before the seed is cut and under no circumstances should scabby seed be
planted without this treatment.

Close examination of the seed pieces when cutting is an aid. Mechani-
cal cutters are not advised and partly for this reason. All tubers showing
discoloration of any sort should be rejected.

THE POTATO

317

Spraying with Bordeaux mixture increases the yield of potatoes
through stimulation, and is profitable, except in case of very highly fer-
tilized soil, even when no blight prevails. The early blight which is
prevalent in the southern tier of our Northern states is not well controlled
by spraying, but in cooler latitudes where the late blight prevails spraying
should never be omitted. Directions for making the Bordeaux mixture and
applying it are furnished by the experiment stations. The only point to be
emphasized here is that the spraying should be thoroughly done, insuring a
perfect coating of the plants, and that is possible only by use of strong pres-
sure and two nozzles to the row when the plants have reached some size.

Insect Pests. — For white grubs and wire-worms, which may render a
potato crop unmarketable, there is no remedy. There is no soil treatment
that will kill these pests. The grower should know the life history of these
insects and plan his rotation as far as possible for their control. Examina-
tion will show whether a soil is infested or not at planting time, and pota-
toes should not be planted where serious injury is sure to come.

The potato beetle is easily controlled by use of arsenical poisons and
these should be on the plants when the larvae of the potato beetle are hatch-
ing. Two pounds of Paris green or four pounds of arsenate of lead in fifty
gallons of Bordeaux will prevent injury by this insect.

The flea-beetle does great injury not only by impairing the vitality of
the plant, but by opening the way for disease attacks. Control is very
difficult. The Bordeaux mixture repels for twenty-four to forty-eight
hours and to that extent is a help.

Harvesting the Crop. — ^An early crop of potatoes when dug for market
in hot weather must have careful handling. All cut and bruised tubers
should be discarded. If there is reason for not marketing promptly, the
crop is safer in the ground than out of it, although excessive wet weather
may cause rot. Later varieties, dug usually in the fall when nights are
cool, will bear placing in large bulk.

The best diggers elevate the soil of the row with the tubers and, having
sifted the soil back, drop the tubers on top of the fresh surface. Such
diggers are relatively expensive and small growers use low-priced diggers
that do fairly good work. When good seed is planted in highly fertilized soil
the percentage of seconds may be so small that little grading is required,
but it never pays to send to market any tubers below merchantable grade.

REFERENCES

"The Potato." Eraser.

"Potatoes for Profit." Van Ornam.

"The Potato." Grubb and Gilford.

"Potatoes: How to Grow and Show Them." Pink.

South Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 155. "Selection of Seed Potatoes."

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Ap-iculture:

365. "Farm Management m Northern Potato Sections."
386. "Potato Culture on Irrigated Farms of the West."
407. "The Potato as a Truck Crop."
533. "Good Seed Potatoes and How to Produce Them."

SUGAR CROPS

319

The countries leading in the production of both beet and cane sugar in
1914 are as follows:

CHAPTER 23

SUGAR CROPS (CANE, BEET AND MAPLE SUGAR. AND SORGHUM)

By W. H. Darst

Asdstant Professor of Agronomy, The Pennsylvania State College

The world's sugar supply is manufactured from two plan^, namely,
the sugar-beet {Beta vulgaris) and the sugar-cane {Saccharum offianarum).
The amount of sugar secured from the maple tree is msignificant.

SUGAR-BEETS

The development of the sugar-beet industry dates back to March 18,
1811 when the French Emperor dictated a note to his Minister of the
Interior, instructing him to see that 90,000 acres of beets were planted
He then appropriated 1,000,000 francs with which to establish schools of
instruction, and to be given in bonuses to those who erected factories^
Even though sugar-beet was an unknown crop, the farmers were compelled
to glow them. At the end of two years France was producing 7,700 000
nonnds of sugar By 1836 the production of sugar in France amounted to
S 000 tonr At thi^ time Germany observed that sugar-beets m France
had revolutionized French agriculture. By growing beets in the rotation
the yield of all the cereals was increased to an even greater extent than where
tS were grown, as in England. Up to this time Germany had not been
able to induce her farmers to grow beets of thei^r own accord Germany
then adopted the French plan of governmental aid to establish the industry.
Other European countries soon followed the same plan, with the result that
today one-half of the worid's supply of sugar is derived from European

'"^""Theloilowing table gives the total worid's production of beet and cane
sugar compared:

World's Production.

Cane sugar

Beet sugar

Total production

(318)

Short Tons.

1911-12.

1912-13.

10,253,000
7,072,000

17,325,000

10,699,000
8,365,000

19,064,000

1913-14.

11,118,000
9,765,000

20,883,000

Beet Sugar.

Country.

Germany

Russia

Austria-Hungary

France

United States. . .
Italy

Short Tons.

2,886,000

2,031,000

1,858,000

861,000

733,000

337,000

Cane Sugar.

Country.

Cuba

British India

Java

Hawaii

Porto Rico

United States (Louisiana and
Texas)

Short Tons.

2,909,000

2,534,000

1,591,000

612,000

364,000

300,000

The development of the sugar-beet industry in the United States is cf
comparatively recent date. It was not until 1906 that the production of

xv.

BU.

PER

ACRE

Showing How Germany Has Increased the Yield of Wheat.Rye, Barley and Oats av.

PER
ACRE

by Planting Fields to Sugar Beets and Other Hoed Crop8;One Year in Four.

PER CENT

INCREASE

1879-1909

1879 I8S0 1811 1882 1883 1184 1885 I88S 1887 1888 1883 USO 1831 1892 KS3 1834 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 I9C2 1903 1904 1905 I90( 1917 (901 i9BS

COMBINED 1909 HARVEST OF /united states « 88.944.000 acres. 1.947.065.000 bushels

WHEAT. RYE BARLEY AND OATS \cermany . 34^78536 acres, u73.00o.ooo bushels.

Agricultural Progress in the United States and Germany.

sugar from beets exceeded that from sugar-cane. At present the produc-
tion of beet sugar has more than doubled that of cane sugar in the United
States. (See above table,)

320

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SUGAR CROPS

321

The leading states in the production of beet sugar, in the order of their •
production, are: Colorado, California, Michigan, Utah, Idaho and Ohio.

In the past and even at present, many farmers think beet culture
injures the soil. This, with the high cost of extracting the sugar from the
beet has made progress in beet culture in this country very slow.

Results obtained in Germany and other European countries, when
beets are introduced into the rotation, suggest' that the farmers of the
United States, having the proper conditions for production, would do well
to introduce them into their rotations. European farmers do not find the
beet crop in itself highly profitable, but the extra cultivation and fertiliza-
tion necessary to grow them, has greatly increased the yields of all other

crops, in the rotation, especially the cereals. , . ,. ,

For the most part the profit is made indirectly
from the beet crop. The preceding chart from the
loose-leaf service of the United States Sugar Manu-
facturers' Association compares the average yields
of cereals in Germany, a beet-raising country, with
those of the same crops in the United States, where
very few beets or roots are grown.

Adaptation. — The soil and climatic conditions
are very important factors in growing beets with
high sugar content. They are not as widely
adapted as other farm crops commonly grown in
this country. Plenty of moisture and sunshine,
particularly during early growth, are essential to
the production of beets with high sugar content.
Ideal conditions are found most commonly in the
irrigated districts of the Rocky Mountains and the
Pacific Coast, although many Northern states

have favorable conditions for sugar-beet growing.

Sugar-beets require deep, well-drained soils. They do best on

rich loam or sandy loam and are not adapted to clays, muck or peaty

soils. "

Preparation of Land.— The root of the sugar-beet grows entirely or
mostly underground, the smaller roots often reaching a depth of four to
six feet. For this reason, a deep soil and a deeply prepared seed-bed are
necessary. Beet ground should be plowed eight to twelve inches deep, and
where possible a sul)soiler may be used with good results. Fall plowing is
advised where conditions will permit. It is very important that the seed-
bed be well prepared. The land should be worked often enough to secure
a fine, firm, moist seed-bed. It is necessary to obtain a soil free from weeds
or weed-seeds. Beets grow slowly at first, and if weeds are allowed to start,
considerable hand labor will be required to eradicate them. Beets should
never be grown in continuous culture. The rotation will depend on the

» Courtesy of California Agricultural College.

Sugar-Beet.1

crops common to the region where grown. A three, four or five-year rota-
tion, including a legume crop, should be used when growing beets.

Fertilization. — Barnyard manure and high-grade fertilizer are used with
profit on beets. The manure should be well rotted when applied, so as to
lessen the chances of weed-seed. High-grade fertilizers, select^ed to meet
the needs of the soil, should be used.

In European countries beets are fertilized very heavily. This produces
a large tonnage of beets and the residual effect of the fertilizer is taken up
by the crops that follow. (See chapter on ''Fertilizers.'')

Seeding and Cultivation. — The beet plant produces seed in balls or
capsules containing one to five seeds. It. is impossible, therefore, to regu-
late the rate of seeding so as to get a satisfactory distribution of plants in
the row. The seed is drilled rather thickly, and when the plants are large
enough, they are thinned to the required distance in the row. The seed
is ordinarily sown with a beet drill, which sows several rows at a time. The
distance between rows varies from twenty to twenty-eight inches. To
insure a full stand of plants, about twenty pounds of seed are sown to the
acre. In irrigated sections, beets are often sown in double rows one foot
apart and twenty-four to twenty-eight inches between each pair of rows.
Beet-seed should be sown early in May or after the ground warms up.
Cultivation should begin as soon as the rows can be followed and continued
at intervals of six to ten days, until the tops nearly meet between the rows.
A special beet cultivator is used that will cultivate several rows at a time.

The thinning of the plants should be done about the time the fifth
leaf is formed. Thinning is done by first blocking or bunching with a hoe.
This consists of cutting out the plants in the row, leaving small bunches
eight to ten inches apart. After blocking, further thinning is necessary,
leaving but one plant in each bunch. The blocking and thinning, hoeing,
pulling and topping of the beets are done by hand labor. On the larger beet
farms this work is generally done by foreigners under contract.

Harvesting. — Beets should be harvested before danger of frost in the
fall; if not worked up immediately, the roots should be protected from
freezing. Harvesting consists of lifting, pulling, topping, piling and hauling
away the roots. Lifting is done by a special implement that loosens the
roots in the soil. The pulling, topping and piling are done by hand. In
topping, the leaves are sometimes simply twisted off. A much better
method of topping, from the standpoint of the manufacturer, is to remove
the tops with a sharp knife at the lowest leaf scar on the root. The part
of the beet that grows above ground is not desirable. The sugar content
of this part is low, and there is a high percentage of minerals that may
crystallize the sugar at the wrong time in the process of manufactiu'e.

Seed Production. — The sugar-beet is a biennial, producing seed the
second year. Almost all of the seed used in this country is imported. When
grown for seed, only beets with high sugar content should be saved. This
selection is based on the percentage of sugar as determined in a small sample

320

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SUGAR CROPS

321

The leading states in the production of beet sugar, in the order of their

production, are: Colorado, California, Michigan, Utah, Idaho and Ohio.

In the past and even at present, many farmers think beet culture

injures the soil. This, with the high cost of extracting the sugar from the

beet, has made progress in beet culture in this country very slow.^

Results obtained in Germany and other European countries, when
beets are introduced into the rotation, suggest* that the farmers of the
United States, having the proper conditions for production, would do well
to introduce them into their rotations. European farmers do not find the
beet crop in itself highly profitable, but the extra cultivation and fertiliza-
tion necessary to grow them, has greatly increased the yields of all other
crops, in the rotation, especially the cereals.

^ Adaptation.— The soil and climatic conditions
are very important factors in growing beets with
high sugar content. They are not as widely
adapted as other farm crops commonly grown in
this country. Plenty of moisture and sunshine,
l)articularly during early growth, are essential to
the production of beets with high sugar content.
Ideal conditions are found most commonly in the
irrigatcKl districts of the Rocky Mountains and the
Pacific Coast, although many Northern states
have favorable conditions for sugar-beet growing.

Sugar-beets require deep, well-drained soils. They do best on
rich loam or sandy loam and are not adapted to clays, muck or peaty

soils.

Preparation of Land.— The root of the sugar-beet grows entirely or
mostly underground, the smaller roots often reaching a depth of four to
six feet. For this reason, a deep soil and a deeply prepared seed-bed are
necessary. Beet ground should be plowed eight to twelve inches deep, and
where possible a su])soiler may l^e used with good results. Fall plowing is
advised where conditions will permit. It is very im]K)rtant that the seed-
bed be well prepared. The land should ])e worked often enough to secure
a fine, firm, moist seed-bed. It is necessary to obtain a soil free from weeds
or weed-seeds. Beets grow slowly at first, and if weeds are allowed to start,
considerable hand labor will be required to eradicate them. Beets should
never be grown in continuous culture. The rotation will depend on the

1 Courtesy of California Agricultural College.

Sugar-Beet.1

crops common to the region where grown. A three, four or five-year rota-
tion, including a legume crop, should be used when growing beets.

Seeding and Cultivation. — The beet plant produces seed in balls or
capsules containing one to five seeds. It is impossible, therefore, to regu-
late the rate of seeding so as to get a satisfactory distribution of plants in
the row. The seed is drilled rather thickly, and when the plants are large
enough, they are thinned to the required distance in the row. The seed
is ordinarily sown with a beet drill, which sows several rows at a time. The
distance between rows varies from twenty to twenty-eight inches. To
insure a full stand of plants, about twenty pounds of seed are sown to the
acre. In irrigated sections, beets are often sown in double rows one foot
apart and twenty-four to twenty-eight inches between each pair of rows.
Beet-seed should be sown early in May or after the ground warms up.
Cultivation should begin as soon as the rows can be followed and continued
at intervals of six to ten days, until the tops nearly meet between the rows.
A special beet cultivator is used that will cultivate several rows at a time.

Harvesting. — Beets should be harvested before danger of frost in the
fall; if not worked up immediately, the roots should be protected from
freezing. Harvesting consists of lifting, pulling, topping, piling and hauling
away the roots. Lifting is done by a special implement that loosens the
roots in the soil. The pulling, topping and piling are done by hand. In
topping, the leaves are sometimes simply twisted oil. A much better
method of topping, from the standpoint of the manufacturer, is to remove
the tops with a sharp knife at the lowest leaf scar on the root. The part
of the beet that grows above ground is not desirable. The sugar content
of this part is low, and there is a high percentage of minerals that may
crystallize the sugar at the wrong time in the process of manufacture.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

322

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SUGAR CROPS

323

taken out of the side of the root with a trier. The hole made by the trier
is filled with charcoal or clay to prevent rotting. The selected beets are
stored over winter in sand, in a dry cellar or pit. The next spring these
roots are planted in rows to produce seed. From three to five plants will
produce a pound of seed. ,

Manufacture of Beet Sugar.— At the factory the beets are washed in
sluiceways, then sHced into long strips called '^cosettes'' The juice is

A Good Stand and Vigorous Growth of Sugar-Beets.*

removed by applying hot water to the sliced l)ects, leaving a product known
as beet pulp. This juice is purified by adding small quantities of lime. The
lime combines with the foreign matter and is filtered out. The purified
juice is then placed in vacuum pans and boiled until the sugar crystallizes.
The sugar is removed by placing the product in a large centrifugal machine,
Uned with fine sieves. The whirling motion drives off the molasses through
the sieves, and the sugar is retained. The sugar is then dried and is ready

1 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, P. I. Bulletin 238.

for market. The molasses, to which is added a little fresh juice, is again
boiled in vacuum pans until the remaining sugar crystallizes. The sugar
is separated out as before, the product being known as second sugar. The
molasses, after the second boihng, is sold as stock feed.

By-Products of Beet Farming.— Beet tops left on the field after harvest-
ing may be cured as forage to be fed to Uvestock. If not fed, they should
be spread evenly over the ground and plowed under as a fertilizer.

Beet pulp, a by-product of the sugar factory, is an excellent substitute
for corn silage. Wet beet pulp contains about 90 per cent of water and 10
per cent of solids, which compares favorably with mangels as a feed. Many
factories dry the pulp. Dried pulp makes a better feed, in that it remains
in better condition for a longer time and is worth about eight times as much
as the wet pulp.

Beet molasses, another by-product, is not palatable when fed alone;
but when mixed with dried pulp, chopped hay or straw, has considerable
feeding value.

CANE SUGAR
Sugar-cane has been cultivated for many centuries in the tropical and
semi-tropical portions of the world. According to the best authorities,
sugar-cane appears to have originated in India. From there it was taken
to China and pther parts of the Old World, where it has been extensively
cultivated from time immemorial. After the discovery of the New World
sugar-cane was introduced first in San Domingo, then into Mexico, Marti-
nique, Guadaloupe, Cuba, the Guianas and the warmer states of South
America.

The State of Louisiana produces almost all of the cane sugar produced
in the United States. Texas and Florida produce some. Sugar-cane was
first introduced into Louisiana in 1751, but sugar was not manufactured
from it until about 1792.

Description and Mode of Reproduction. — Sugar-cane is a perennial
grass, growing from eight to fifteen feet tall. The stalks are thick and
heavy, being filled with a sweet, juicy pith. The flowers are borne in
silky-like panicles. Seed is never formed in this country, and is not
abundantly produced in Egypt or India. Cane in its wild and native
state reproduces vegetatively more often than by seeds.

The stalk of cane is divided into joints or nodes and internodes. At
each joint is a bud which under proper conditions develops into a stalk.
Around each bud, on the stalk, are semi-transparent dots which develop
into roots that feed the bud when planted.

Soils. — Sugar-cane requires a large quantity of water during the grow-
ing season; consequently, it grows best on soils well supplied with humus
and having a high water-holding capacity. Well-drained alluvial bottoms
and muck soils are very good soils for sugar-cane. The more fertile clay
uplands produce cane higher in sugar, but do not supply the required amount
of water for large yields.

■,-:i>"*>;

322

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

produce a pound of seed. .

Manufacture of Beet Sugar.— At the factory the beets are washed m
sluiceways, then sUced into long strips called "cosettes^' The juice is

A Good Stand and Vigorous Growth of Sugar-Beets.*

removed by applying hot water to the sliced bec.^ts, leaving a product known
as beet pulp. This juice is purified by adding small quantities of Hme. The
lime combines with the foreign matter and is filtered out. The purified
juice is then placed in vacuum pans and boiled until the sugar crystalhzes.
The sugar is removed by placing the product in a large centrifugal machme,
lined with fine sieves. The whirling motion drives off the molasses through
the sieves, and the sugar is retained. The sugar is then dried and is ready

1 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, P. I. Bulletin 238.

SUGAR CROPS

323

By-Products of Beet Farming.— Beet tops left on the field after harvest-
ing may be cured as forage to be fed to Hvestock. If not fed, they should
be spread evenly over the ground and plowed under as a fertilizer.

Beet molasses, another by-product, is not palatable when fed alone;
but when mixed with dried pulp, chopped hay or straw, has considerable
feeding value.

The State of Louisiana produces almost all of the cane sugar produced
in the Unit(^d States. Texas and Florida produce some. Sugar-cane was
first introduced into Louisiana in 1751, but sugar was not manufactured
from it until about 1792.

Description and Mode of Reproduction. — Sugar-cane is a perennial
grass, growing from eight to fifteen feet tall. The stalks are thick and
heavy, being filled ^\^th a sweet, juicy pith. The flowers are borne in
silky-like panicles. Seed is never formed in this country, and is not
abundantly produced in Eg^'^pt or India. Cane in its wild and native
state reproduces vegetatively more often than by seeds.

324

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Sugar-cane is adapted to tropical or semi-tropical latitudes, the two
predominating essentials to growth being warmth and moisture A mean
annual temperature of 70° F. and a minimum annual ramfall of about 60
inches are essential to the successful growth of sugar-cane. One of the
difficulties in growing sugar-cana is in the control of water. In Louisiana
as much as five to seven inches of water mgiy fall during one ram. .ihe
problem then, is to get rid of the excess water before it damages the crop.
Good tile drainage is necessary on most of these sugar plantations. If for
any reasons, tile drainage is not possible, it is then necessary to depend on

surface drainage.

There are times when irrigation is necessary. The ideal sugar-cane
plantation should be equipped with underdrainage as well as irrigation
ditches. In Louisiana, scarcely a year passes that irrigation water cannot
be used at some time. Irrigation may be used to help prepare the seed-bed,
as well as to supply water when needed for the growing crop.

Varieties of Cane.— Many varieties of cultivated cane are grown
in this country. These have been and are being introduced from
various parts of the world. The Louisiana Agricultural Experiment
Station has arranged the varieties into groups and then under classes as

follows :

Class one— white, green and yellow canes.

Class two — striped canes.

Class three — solid colors other than class one.

In the Louisiana Bulletin No. 129, the variety known as D.74, a light-
colored cane, is recommended very highly. It is very high in sugar and
outyields by 20 per cent the green or ribbon canes. , . ^, ,

Rotation and Preparation of the Land.— It is not desirable to grow
sugar-cane continuously. A common rotation is two years cane and one of
corn and cowpeas. The cowpeas are sown in the corn to be plowed down
for the benefit of the cane crop which follows. The plowing is generally
done in the fall of the year. The land must be plowed very deep, the
deeper the better, up to twenty to twenty-four inches. Traction plows are
quite generally used, as the work is too heavy for horses. On small plan-
tations, heavy mules and disk plows are used to break the soil.

After the land is plowed it is bedded with a two-horse mold-board plow.
This gives surface drainage between each two rows of cane. When ready
to plant, the rows are opened with a double mold-board plow. Two or
more running stalks are deposited in this furrow and covered by a disk

cultivator. .. , ,.„ix- • U4.

It has been demonstrated in Louisiana that fall planting gives best

results when winter freezing is not too severe and when the seed-bed is
properly prepared and drained. Planting may take place any time from
the middle of September to the first of April. ^ .u ru i

Fertilizers.— Cane is a rank-growing plant and demands the liberal
use of fertilizers. Since most of the potash and phosphoric acid removed

SUGAR CROPS

325

by the crop is returned in the ash and the waste from sugar factories, as
explained later, nitrogen is the only element of fertility that need be pur-
chased in large quantities. The humus of the soil must be kept up by the
application of barnyard manure and by plowing down legumes. When
nitrogen is used as a fertilizer it should })e applied in the organic form. The
nitrogen in cottonseed meal becomes available more slowly than in nitrate
of soda, hence this carrier is better adapted to the long-growing season
required for sugar-cane.

Cultivation. — Sugar-cane is cultivated frequently to keep down weeds
and to insure rapid growth by conserving the moisture. Considerable
hand hoeing is necessary as the cane rows can be cultivated only one way.
The disk is a favorable type of cultivator; however, the tooth or shovel
types are also used.

Harvesting. — The sugar in the plant increases up to a certain stage of
ripeness. While the maximum amount of sugar can be determined only
by chemical means, the grower learns to determine the proper stage quite
accurately by the appearance of the stalks and inflorescence or flower
cluster. For economy of production, it is desirable to continue the grinding
of cane over as long a period as possible. The season may be extended by
planting at different times and by using varieties that vary in time of matu-
rity on different types of soil.

In Louisiana the harvesting begins the first of November. The cane
is cut by hand and is a very slow process. The plant is first stripped with
the back of the cane knife, then topped and cut close to the ground. The
stalks are thrown in piles for loading. As the caneg begin to lose sugar
rapidly in twenty-four hours after cutting, they are usually hauled immedi-
ately to the mill.

Cane Sugar Manufacture. — At the factory the stalks are first shredded.
The juice is then pressed out by running this shredded material through
three sets of heavy steel rollers. After passing through the first set of
rollers, the pressed material is sprayed with hot juice, then passed through
the second set of rollers. In turn, this material is sprayed with hot water
and again pressed. In this way from 90 to 95 per cent of the juice is
removed. The pressed material is used as fuel and is converted into the
heat and power necessary to operate the mill.

The juice is heated and purified by adding milk of lime. The
lime combines with the impurities and is filtered out. The purified
juice is then concentrated by boiling in vacuum pans and is finally
crystallized.

The principal by-products of the sugar-cane factories are the impurities
combined with lime, the different grades of syrup an^ molasses and the
ashes from the pressed cane.

Since the impurities taken out in combination with lime contain a
large part of the phosphorus and potash removed by the crop, this product
with the ashes is returned to the soil as a fertilizer.

SUGAR CROPS

327

Iz;

O
I

&^
o

' Courtesy of 'S^rginia-Carolina Chemioal CompaQy, Riohmoad, Va. From V.-0. Fertiluer Crop
Books.

(326)

MAPLE SUGAR

The making of maple sugar, like every other farming industry, has
changed greatly within the last fifty years. In this country maple sugar
has become more and more a luxury, and less a necessity, owing to the
low price of cane and beet sugar.

The maple sugar production of the United States during the year 1909
was 14,060,206 pounds, valued at $1,380,492. The following states lead
in the production of maple sugar: Vermont, New York, Pennsylvania and
New Hampshire.

Sugar is made from the saps of several varieties of maple trees. The
two most important are the Rock Maple {Acer saccharinum) and the Red
Maple {Acer ruhrum). Ideal sugar weather occurs in the late winter or
early spring when the days are warm and sunny and the nights cold and
frosty. This weather starts a rapid flow of sap in the tree. The tree is
then tapped and the sap collected in covered buckets made for the purpose.
The sap as it comes from the tree is colorless and contains on the average
about three per cent of sugar.

Sugar Making. — In the process of sugar making, the sap is first boiled
down in evaporators; then boiled to a much greater density in concen-
trating pans.

In making maple syrup the sap is boiled until the temperature reaches
about 219° F. ; in making sugar, the temperature must reach 234° to 245° F.
Th3 boiling of maple sap for syrup must be done over a hot fire. Boiling
over is prevented by adding cream or skim milk from time to time. While
the thermometer is used to determine the amount of boiling necessary,
an experienced individual can tell simply by the way the syrup boils.

The brown syrupy fluid is then cooled, during which it must be stirred
vigorously until graining begins. The soft mass is then poured into molds.

SORGHUM

Sugar from sorghum has never been manufactured on a commercial
scale, although it has been made in small quantities and in an experimental
way. The difficulty in making sugar from sorghum lies chiefly in the fact
that there is only a very short period in the life of the plant when it is
possible to crystallize sugar from its juices. The period is so short and the
possibihties of detecting the right period are so difficult that it makes
sugar making from this plant impracticable.

The plant is quite extensively used, however, in the manufacture of
molasses or syrup. It is best known as sorghum molasses, and is used for
cooking purposes more extensively than for the table.

The requirements and cultural methods for sorghum are given in the
chapter on "Annual Forage Plants." AVhen used for molasses the crop
should be planted in drills and given thorough cultivation. The plants
should be about six inches apart in the row.

There are many varieties of sorghum, but the Early Amber is the only

r^:.^ti

■mmm:^

SUGAR CROPS

327

o
•J

^ * Courtesy of Virgmia-Carolina Chemical Company, Richmond, Va. Prom V.-C. Fertiliaer Crop
Books.

(326)

MAPLE SUGAR

Sugar is made from the saps of several varieties of maple trees. The
two most important are the Rock Maple {Acer saccharinum) and the Red
Maple (Acer rubrum). Ideal sugar weather occurs in the late winter or
early spring when the days are warm and sunny and the nights cold and
frosty. This weather starts a rapid flow of sap in the tree. The tree is
then tapped and the sap collected in covered buckets made for the purpose.
The sap as it comes from the tree is colorless and contains on the average
about three per cent of sugar.

Sugar Making. — In the process of sugar making, the sap is first boiled
down in evaporators; then boiled to a much greater density in concen-
trating ])ans.

In making maple syrup the sap is boiled until the temperature reaches
about 219° F. ; in making sugar, the temperature must reach 234° to 245° F.
Tha boiling of maple sap for syrup must be done over a hot fire. Boiling
over is prevented by adding cream or skim milk from time to time. While
the thermometer is used to determine the amount of boiling necessary,
an experienced individual can tell simply by the way the syrup boils.

The brown syrupy fluid is then cooled, during which it must be stirred
vigorously until graining begins. The soft mass is then poured into molds.

SORGHUM

Sugar from sorghum has never been manufactured on a commercial
scale, although it has been made in small quantities and in an experimental
way. The difl&culty in making sugar from sorghum lies chiefly in the fact
that there is only a very short period in the life of the plant when it is
possible to crystallize sugar from its juices. The period is so short and the
possibilities of detecting the right period are so diflftcult that it makes
sugar making from this plant impracticable.

The plant is quite extensively used, however, in the manufacture of
molasses or syrup. It is best known as sorghum molasses, and is used for
cooking purposes more extensively than for the table.

The requirements and cultural methods for sorghum are given in the
chapter on ** Annual Forage Plants." ^Yhen used for molasses the crop
should be planted in drills and given thorough cultivation. The plants
should be about six inches apart in the row.

There are many varieties of sorghum, but the Early Amber is the only

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

jtMaittmam

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

328

early variety given any particular preference. There is much uncertainty
as to the quality of molasses that will be secured, and it does not seem to
depend either upon the variety used or the method of making. Experiments
indicate that there are frequently impurities in the jmce which interfere
with the making of a good quality of molasses.

In general, the best quality of molasses is secured in the northern
region of production and in seasons of comparatively low rainfall and
abundant sunshine. It is essential that the canes be harvested at the right
stage of maturity and that there be uniformity in maturity. Carelessness
in the selection of seed and the manner of planting often give rise to canes
varying greatly in maturity at harvest time. It is very important to have
all the canes about the same height and of the same maturity. This facili-
tates the removal of the seed heads and is more likely to produce good

molasses.

REFERENCES

"American Sugar Industry." Myrick.

" Cane and Beet Sugar Industry." Martineau. ^ . a a »

Utah ExDt Station BuUetin 136. " Production of Sugar Beet Seed. . ^ ,. „

fT«lW of Apiculture BuUetin238. "Sugar Beets: Preventable Losses in Culture."

S: I De^pi of CS^ Plant Industry, Bulletin 260. "American Beet

Sugar Industry." ^ . • ,.

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: ,,

516. ''Sugar Beet Growing Under Humid Conditions.

567. ''Sugar Beet Growing Under Irrigation." ^^

568. "Production of Maple Syrup and Sugar.

CHAPTER 24

Cotton Production

By Prof. E. F. Cauthen
Associate in Agriculturey Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station

•

Cotton, the second most valuable crop produced in the United States
and the first most valuable export, is grown in that part of the country
lying south of 36 degrees north latitude and east of western Texas. This
section is known as the '' Cotton Belt." The climate and soil are peculiarly
adapted to its growth. The warm, moist spring and hot, humid summer
favor the growth of the plant and its fruit; the dry, warm autumn matures
and opens the bolls and permits the picking of the cotton.

Species. — The genus {Gossypium hirsutum) includes the common
long and short staple varieties grown in the United States. The length
of lint varies from one-half inch to one and a half inches.

Sea Island cotton (Gossypium barbadense) grows on the narrow Sea
Islands along the coast of South Carolina and in some of the interior
counties of south Georgia and north-central Florida. It makes the long-
est, finest and most valuable of all cotton fibers. Sea Island cotton may
be distinguished from the ordinary upland cotton by: (1) its long, slender
bolls bearing usually three locks, (2) deeply lobed leaves, (3) yellowish
flowers with a red spot on each petal, and (4) many black seeds almost
necked, with long slender, silky fiber. Its fiber may be two inches long,
and is separated from the seed by the roller-gin, which does not cut the
fiber from the seed, but pushes the se^d out of the fiber. This cotton is
used in the manufacture of fine fabric and laces and in the finer grades of
spool cotton thread.

Characteristics of the Plant.— Cotton is a tap-root plant. In loose
soils this root penetrates to considerable depth, even into the subsoil.
When the subsoil is hard, poorly drained or near the surface, the tap-root
is forced aside and the plant becomes dwarfed. Most lateral roots branch
from the tap-root near the surface and feed shallow, hence the need of
shallow cultivation.

On fertile soil cotton may grow five or six feet high. From its nodes
spring two kinds of branches, vegetative and fruit-bearing. The lowest
branches or vegetative ones are often called base limbs; they may bear
short fruit-limbs. As the top of the plant is approached, the branches
shorten, giving it a conical shape. The bolls of cotton are borne only on
fruit-limbs.

Some varieties, like Russell and Triumph, produce bolls from one and

(329)

330

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

one-half to two inches in diameter, and require from 60 to 70 to make one
pound of seed cotton; others, like King and Toole, having smaller bolls,
require from 100 to 120 to make a pound.

Some varieties are much more easily picked than others. If the parts
of the boll open wide, the locks of cotton are easily picked out by hand or
blown out by wind or beaten out by rain; but if the parts of the boll do
not open wide, the locks may cling to the burs and suffer less damage from

wind and rain. • u • -i-i.

Cotton fiber varies in length from three-quarters of an inch in the
upland varieties to two inches in Sea Island cotton, and may be likened to a

long, slender, flattened tube
with two-thirds of its length
shghtly curled. It is this
curled condition of a fiber that
makes it valuable, for with-
out it the fiber could not ba
spun into thread.

Seed. — The number of
seed in a boll varies from
tw?nty-five to fifty. The size
of seed in some varieties is
larger than in others. Some
varieties have green seed, some
gray and still others have
blackish or necked seed. In
the upland varieties most seed
are covered with a short fuzz.
A bushel of seed weighs 33f
pounds.

Varieties of Upland Cot-
ton Grouped. — The cotton
plant is a native of the tropics;
but under theinfluenceof man,
its growth has been extended
far into the temperate zones and its habit changed from a biennial to
an annual. Climate, soil, selection and cultivation have wrought many
changes in the plant. The true and so-called varieties now number

several hundred. . x i? •

To facilitate the study of so many varieties, a system of grouping,
worked out by the Alabama Experiment Station, is followed. According
to form of plant, size of boll, time of maturing and other characteristics,
they are classified into six groups: cluster, semi-cluster, Peterkin, King,
big-boll and long-staple upland. There is no striking demarcation between
any two groups, but a gradual blending of the characters of one mto the
next group.

A Good Cotton Plant Showing Good Base
Limbs; Variety, Cook.

COTTON PRODUCTION

331

Cluster Group. — The distinguishing characteristics of the cluster
group are the one or two long base limbs near the ground and above them
the many short fruit-limbs that bear the bolls in clusters of two or three.
The plants are usually tall, slender and bend over under the weight of the
green bolls; the bolls of most varieties are small, pointed and difficult to pick.

The leading varieties of the cluster group are Jackson and Dillon.
The Dillon variety is important where cotton wilt {Neocosmospora vadnr
fecta) exists, because of its considerable immunity to this disease.

Semi-Cluster Group. — This group somewhat resembles the cluster
group, except that its fruit-limbs are longer and the bolls do not grow in
clusters. Its varieties have medium to large bolls and large, white, fuzzy
seed.

Two well-known varieties of this group are Hawkins and Poulnot.
Bolls of both are medium size, shghtly pointed and easily picked. One
hundred pounds of seed cotton yields about thirty-four pounds of lint.

Peterkin Group. — The fruit and vegetative branches of the varieties
of this group are long and nearly straight; its leaves are small and have
rather sharp-pointed lobes; its bolls are medium to small in size; its seed
is small and many of them are without much fuzz. A striking character-
istic of the members of this group is the high percentage of lint that they
yield — often as high as 40 per cent.

Some of the well-known varieties of this group are Peterkin, Toole,
Layton and Dixie. Layton and Peterkin are very much alike, except that
Layton does not have as many necked seed and is probably more uniform in
type. Toole and a selection from it called Covington Toole, resemble
both King and Peterkin groups. Toole has small bolls, is early and very
productive. Some selections from Covington Toole are fairly immune to
cotton wilt and are extensively grown in sections affected by this disease.
Dixie is a variety that is being bred up by the United States Department
of Agriculture to resist cotton wilt.

King Group. — This group embraces the earliest varieties. The plants
do not grow large; the leaves and bolJs are usually small. Its base limbs
are often wanting, and its fruit limbs are usually long and crooked. A
distinguishing mark of the group is the red spot on the inner side of the
petals of many plants. Most varieties drop the locks of cotton on the
ground when they are rained on or blown by hard wind.

The leading varieties are King, Simpkins, Bank Account, Broadwell,
etc. On the northern border of the cotton belt these varieties are well
adapted because of their earliness.

Big-Boll Group. — This group is marked by the size of its bolls. When
seventy or less will yield a pound of seed cotton, the bolls are considered
large and classed as a big-boll variety. Some varieties have long limbs;
others have short ones, giving the plant a semi-cluster appearance. As a
general rule, all big-boll varieties have rank stalks, large, heavy foliage and
mature their fruit late.

330

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

one-half to two inches in diameter, and require from 60 to 70 to make one
pound of seed cotton; others, like King and Toole, havmg smaller bolls,
require from 100 to 120 to make a pound.

wind and rain. • u • 4.1.

Cotton fiber varies in length from three-quarters of an mch m the
upland varieties to two inches in Sea Island cotton, and may be likened to a

long, slender, flattened tube
with two-thirds of its length
shghtly curled. It is this
curled condition of a fiber that
makes it valuable, for with-
out it the fiber could not ba
spun into thread.

Seed. — The number of
seed in a boll varies from
tw?nty-five to fifty. The size
of seed in some varieties is
larger than in others. Some
varieties have green seed, some
gray and still others have
blackisli or necked seed. In
the upland varieties most seed
are covered with a short fuzz.
A bushel of seed weighs 33f
pounds.

Varieties of Upland Cot-
ton Grouped. — The cotton
plant is a native of the tropics;
but under theinfluenceof man,
its growth has been extended
far into the temperate zones and its habit changed from a biennial to
an annual Climate, soil, selection and cultivation have wrought many
changes in the plant. The true and so-called varieties now number

several hundred.

A Good Cotton Plant Showing Good Base
Limbs; Variety, Cook.

COTTON PRODUCTION

331

The leading varieties of the cluster group are Jackson and Dillon.
The Dillon variety is important where cotton wilt (Neocosmospora vasinr
feda) exists, because of its considerable immunity to this disease.

Two well-known varieties of this group are Hawkins and Poulnot.
Bolls of both are medium size, slightly pointed and easily picked. One
hundred pounds of seed cotton yields about thirty-four pounds of lint.

Some of the well-known varieties of this group are Peterkin, Toole,
Layton and Dixie. Layton and Peterkin are ver}^ much alike, except that
Layton does not have as many necked seed and is probably more uniform in
type. Toole and a selection from it called Covington Toole, resemble
both King and Peterkin groups. Toole has small bolls, is early and very
productive. Some selections from Covington Toole are fairly immune to
cotton wilt and are extensively grown in sections affected by this disease.
Dixie is a variety that is being bred up by the United States Department
of Agriculture to resist cotton wilt.

King Group. — This group embraces the earliest varieties. The plants
do not grow large; the leaves and bolls are usually vsmall. Its base limbs
are often wanting, and its fruit limbs are usually long and crooked. A
distinguishing mark of the group is the red spot on the inner side of the
petals of many plants. Most varieties drop the locks of cotton on the
ground when they are rained on or blown by hard wind.

The leading varieties are King, Simpkins, Bank Account, Broadwell,
etc. On the northern border of the cotton belt these varieties are well
adapted because of their earliness.

^m%

332

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

COTTON PRODUCTION

333

Some of the widely grown big-boll varieties are Triumph, Cleveland,
Truitt, Russell, etc. Triumph originated in Texas and is grown extensively
there. It shows considerable storm resistance, has big bolls, is easy to
pick and yields well under boll-weevil conditions. Cleveland has mediimi
size bolls and is medimn early, but it lacks storm resistance. Russell is
late in maturing, has many large green seed and turns out a low percentage

of lint.

Cook Improved is a leading variety whose bolls are scarcely large
enough to belong to the big-boll group. The type of plant is variable.
This variety yields a high percentage of lint, is early and easily picked and
has stood at the top in yield of seed cotton in many experiments. However,
it has two faults — a tendency to boll-rot (Anthracnose) , and a lack of storm

resistance.

Long-Staple Upland Group. — The chief characteristic of this group is
the length of its fiber, which measures from IJ to 1| inches long. Most
long staple varieties are late and, therefore, are not suited for that part of
the country infested with boll-weevils. The percentage of lint is lower
than the other upland varieties, but it commands a premium of three or
four cents a pound. Some of the better known long-staple varieties are
Webber, Griffin and Allen Long-Staple.

Desired Qualities of a Variety.— By careful selection, the type of plant
or yield of seed cotton of any common variety may be greatly improved in a

few years.

Some of the desirable qualities of a variety are :

(1) Large yield of lint.

(2) Medium to large size bolls that are easy to pick.

(3) Plants that are true to type and healthy.

(4) Medium earliness with some storm resistance.

Selection. — Field selection is the one method most frequently employed
to improve a variety of cotton. It consists in sending a picker, who is
famifiar with the points to be improved, ahead of the other pickers to select
the best plants and to pick the well-matured bolls on them. In this way a
few hundred pounds of well-selected seed cotton is gathered and then
carefully ginned. The next year the selected seeds are planted in a well-
prepared and fertilized field away from the other varieties for a seed patch.
From the seed patch selection is made in the same way as the year before
in the field. By repeating this operation for several years a variety may
be greatly improved. However, no variety will continue pure if the seeds
are handled at the public gins in the usual careless way.

Soils Adapted to Cotton. — Cotton is grown on all types of soil from the
light sandy to the heavy clays, from the badly eroded hills to the rich
alluvial bottoms. However, in this wide range of soils are planted many
acres that would yield a better income if they were planted in some other
crop. It is the low yield of the poorly adapted acres that makes cotton an:
unprofitable crop on so many farms.

The type of soil influences the earliness of the cotton plants. As a
general rule, cotton grown on light, sandy soil makes a rapid growth and
matures the fruit early — s, decided advantage where boll-weevils exist;
while that on heavy clay soil may grow until frost stops it, if the season is
favorable. Light soils are not naturally productive, but by the use of 500
to 1000 pounds of complete commercial fertilizer per acre, the yield is
increased from one-third of a bale to one or two bales an acre.

Special T3rpes of Soil. — Of the different types of soil, the heavier
members of the Orangeburg series are the best adapted to cotton culture.

Cotton Grown by Single Stalk Method.*

They are marked by a reddish-brown to gray color and open structure soil
with a friable, sandy-clay subsoil.

The Greenville series is very much like the Orangeburg in its adapta-
tion to cotton.

The Norfolk soils are not so productive; but when there is an abim-
dance of humus and a liberal supply of commercial fertilizer, they will
produce a heavy early crop of cotton.

The Houston series east of the Mississippi and the Victorian west,
with good cultivation and proper seasons, produce above an average crop.
However, the cotton plants often suffer from rust.

In the Piedmont regions are located the Cecil soils. Where there is
not a deficiency of humus, these soils are productive, but the plant grows

1 From p. I. Bulletin 270. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

332

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

COTTON PRODUCTION

333

Some of the widely grown big-boll varieties are Triumph, Cleveland,
Truitt, Russell, etc. Triumph originated in Texas and is grown extensively
there. It shows considerable storm resistance, has big bolls, is easy to
pick and yields well under boll-weevil conditions. Cleveland has medium
size bolls and is medium early, but it lacks storm resistance. Russell is
late in maturing, has many large green seed and turns out a low percentage

of lint.

Cook Improved is a leading variety whose bolls are scarcely large
enough to belong to the big-boll group. The type of plant is variable.
This variety yields a high percentage of lint, is early and easily picked and
has stood at the top in yield of seed cotton in many experiments. However,
it has two faults— a tendency to boll-rot {Anthracnose) , and a lack of storm

resistance.

Long-Staple Upland Group. — The chief characteristic of this group is
the length of its fiber, which measures from 1| to Ij inches long. Most
long staple varieties are late and, therefore, are not suited for that part of
the country infested with boll-weevils. The percentage of lint is lower
than the other upland varieties, but it commands a premium of three or
four cents a pound. Some of the better known long-staple varieties are
Webber, Griffin and Allen Long-Staple.

Desired Qualities of a Variety. — By careful selection, the type of plant
or >deld of seed cotton of any common variety may be greatly improved in a

few years.

Some of the desirable qualities of a variety are :

(1) Large yield of lint.

(2) Medium to large size bolls that are easy to pick.

(3) Plants that are true to type and healthy.

(4) Medium earliness with some storm resistance.

Selection. — Field selection is the one method most frequently employed
to improve a variety of cotton. It consists in sending a picker, who is
familiar with the points to be improved, ahead of the other pickers to select
the best plants and to pick the well-matured bolls on them. In this way a
few hundred pounds of well-selected seed cotton is gathered and then
carefully ginned. The next year the selected seeds are planted in a well-
prepared and fertilized field away from the other varieties for a seed patch.
From the seed patch selection is made in the same way as the year before
in the field. By repeating this operation for several years a variety may
be greatly improved. However, no variety will continue pure if the seeds
are handled at the public gins in the usual careless way.

The type of soil influences the earliness of the cotton plants. As a
general rule, cotton grown on light, sandy soil makes a rapid growth and
matures the fruit early — a decided advantage where boll-weevils exist;
while that on heavy clay soil may grow until frost stops it, if the season is
favorable. Light soils are not naturally productive, but by the use of 500
to 1000 pounds of complete commercial fertiUzer per acre, the yield is
increased from one-third of a bale to one or two bales an acre.

Special Types of Soil. — Of the different types of soil, the heavier
members of the Orangeburg series are the best adapted to cotton culture.

Cotton Grown by Single Stalk Method.*

They are marked by a reddish-brown to gray color and open structure soil
with a friable, sandy-clay subsoil.

The Greenville series is very much like the Orangeburg in its adapta-
tion to cotton.

The Norfolk soils are not so productive ; but when there is an abun-
dance of humus and a liberal supply of commercial fertilizer, they will
produce a heavy early crop of cotton.

The Houston series east of the Mississippi and the Victorian west,
with good cultivation and proper seasons, produce above an average crop.
However, the cotton plants often suffer from rust.

In the Piedmont regions are located the Cecil soils. Where there is
not a deficiency of humus, these soils are productive, but the plant grows

1 From p. I. Bulletin 270. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

334

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

fall — a condition favorable to

slowly in the spring and late in the
boll-weevils.

Along the rivers and smaller streams are strips of alluvial land called
bottoms. They are usually fertile, well watered and produce a rank growth
of plants that do not make fruit in proportion to their size. On such land,
hay or corn is a more profitable crop.

FERTILIZER AND CULTIVATION
Plant Food Removed by Cotton.— There is probably no cultivated
crop that draws so lightly upon the fertility of the soil as cotton. The
average crop per acre in the United States is slightly less than 600 pounds
seed cotton yielding 200 pounds lint. This amount of lint removes from
the land only. 42 pound nitrogen, .15 pound phosphoric acid and 1.32 pounds
potash. When both seed and lint are removed, the loss is 13 pounds nitro-
gen, 4.74 pounds phosphoric acid and 5.70 pounds potash. The roots,
stems, leaves and burs contain about as much nitrogen and phosphoric
acid, and about three times as much potash, as the seed cotton. These
parts of the plants are seldom removed from the field.

Need of Humus. — In the cotton belt the amount of humus in the soil
is small. The warm, moist conditions that prevail during a large part of
the year favor rapid nitrification; and the heavy winter and spring rains
rapidly leach out the soluble plant-food. As a general practice, cotton
follows cotton year after year and receives clean cultivation and furnishes
little organic matter to replenish the humus. There is needed on every
farm some system of crop rotation in which one crop is plowed under to

renew the humus.

■ Need of Nitrogen.— The small size of the cotton plants over large
areas is evidence of the deficiency of nitrogen in the soil. In many fields
the plants are large enough to make only two or three bolls. To make a
profitable crop they should be two or three feet high, full of fruit and have
a rich black color during the growing season. The only lands that do not
need a supply of nitrogen are the rich bottoms or those that have received
a heavy crop of clover or some other legume for soil improvement.

The chief sources of nitrogen in commercial fertilizer are cottonseed
meal, which also furnishes some phosphoric acid and potash, nitrate of
soda, tankage and calcium cyanamid. If quick results are desired, as in
the case of a side application to a growing crop, some soluble form like

nitrate of soda is used.

Need of Phosphoric Acid.— The need of phosphoric acid is almost
universal. Most fertilizer experiments show an increased yield whenever it
is used. The only soils that do not show an increased yield from its use
are the rich alluvial lands and Houston and Victoria clays. A liberal
application of acid phosphate on heavy clay soil often hastens the maturing
of a crop of bolls that would not ripen and open before frost. When a
crop of 200 or 300 pounds lint cotton is expected, it is usual to

COTTON PRODUCTION

335

apply 150 or 200 pounds acid phosphate either before planting or as
a side dressing.

Need of Potash. — Loose, sandy soils and the Houston clays show an
increased yield when kainit or some other potash fertilizer is used; but
most red clay and some silty soils do not seem to need artificial potash to
make an average crop. The red clay soils, as a rule, have a great deal of
potash, but it is slowly available.

When used alone, an excess of potash tends to delay the maturity of
the fruit. When used in connection with other materials making a complete
fertilizer, the tendency to lateness is obviated. Some soils subject to cotton
rust are greatly improved by the use of 150 to 200 pounds kainit or 35 to
50 pounds of muriate of potash per acre.

Commercial Fertilizers Profitable. — Commercial fertilizers usually
pay a good profit, when the season is favorable and they are intelligently
used. Lands that formerly produced a half a bale of cotton, now by the
use of $8 or $10 worth of high-grade commercial fertilizer adapted to the
needs of the land, produce a bale per acre without much additional expense.
There is a strong tendency all over the cotton belt to increase the amount
of fertilizer and especially the amount of nitrogen. Many farmers are
using 400 to 600 pounds of a formula that analyzes 5 per cent phosphoric
acid, 4 per cent ammonia and 3 per cent potash for sandy soils and the
same Avith less potash for the clay soils.

Three-Year Rotation Suggested. — The long practice of planting
cotton continuously on the same land has destroyed nearly all the humus
in the soil. To increase the humus and to maintain soil fertility in the
cotton states, the following three-year rotation is recommended:

First year. — Cotton, following in the fall with crimson clover or some
other winter cover crop.

Second year. — Corn with cowpeas sowed or drilled between the rows
at the last cultivation.

Third year. — Oats or wheat followed by cowpeas sowed broadcast
for hay or soil improvement.

Preparation of Land. — The only preparation a great deal of the cotton
land receives before planting is one plowing, which consists in throwing
up beds or ridges on which the seed is planted. Many farmers are begin-
ning to recognize the need of better preparation and are plowing the land
flat and then bedding it before planting.

Much of the plowing is done with a one-horse plow to a depth of four
or five inches. However, the lands that are producing a bale of cotton
to the acre are plowed with a team to a depth of six or eight inches. Sub-
soiling, as a special operation, is not recommended, but deeper plowing is
proving beneficial in many parts of the cotton belt.

Time of Plowing. — Late fall or winter plowing is commendable for
heavy soils and those that have a great deal of litter on them, if such lands
are not subject to severe erosion. Light, sandy soils are liable to winter

336

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

leaching if plowed early. All fall-plowed lands, especially if they are
sandy or subject to erosion, should have some winter cover crop like crimson
clover or grain so that their roots may take up the plant food as fast as it
becomes available and prevent washing of the surface. In the early spring
the cover crop is plowed under in the final preparation for planting. In a
large measure the date of the first plowing should bo governed by the labor
on hand, the amount of litter and stiffness of soil.

Seed-Bed.— Land that was plowed broadcast in the winter or early
spring is marked off in rows by a furrow that receives the fertilizer. Where
cotton follows cotton without any previous plowing, as is too often the
practice in a large part of the cotton belt, a furrow with a middle-buster
is run in the row of old stalks or in the middle of the previous rows, and the

,". '\

TuBNiNG Under Crimson Clover for Cotton.

fertilizer is distributed in this open furrow with a one-horse machine that
has a shovel-plow to mix soil and fertilizer together. By throwing over
the fertilizer four or five furrows with a turning plow, a bed or ridge is
formed four or five inches high and two feet wide. When no fertilizer is
used, many farmers omit even the center furrow and "list" or bed without
running the center furrow as a preparation for the row.

Planting.— Just before planting a drag or spring-tooth harrow is
drawn across the beds or lengthwise to smooth them down and freshen the
surface. On well-drained land some farmers are discarding the high beds
and planting on a level surface. In the western" part of the cotton belt,
where the rainfall is below twenty-two inches, much planting is done in a
water-furrow made with a two-horse lister.

In the southern part of the cotton belt, planting begins in March and is
usually completed in the northern part of the cotton belt by the end of May.

• ^

COTTON PRODUCTION

337

Most of the crop is planted in April. Where boll weevils are present,
planting should be made as soon as the danger from frost is past.

The seeds are sown or dropped in a shallow furrow and covered one or
two inches deep in sqU. If the soil is dry the seed should be planted deeper
and the soil sHghtly packed on the seed. When the seed is drilled, one-half
to one bushel of seed is required to plant an acre; when planted in hills,
one or two pecks are required. If the land is rough, the planting should be
thicker to secure a stand without replanting.

Tillage. — Prompt germination is desirable. If a rain packs the surface
or a crust forms before the seed comes up, the surface should be stirred with
a spike-tooth harrow or weeder to help the young plants to break through
the crust. The harrow or weeder may be drawn across the rows after the
plants come up to destroy small weeds and to cultivate the cotton plants.
When the cotton begins to show its true leaves, it should be cultivated with
a scrape or turner, which leaves the plants on a narrow ridge. The cotton
is then thinned to one plant in a hill about one foot apart on poor land and
about one and one-half to two feet apart on fertile land. Soon after
thinning a little soil should be pushed up round the young plants. This
may be done with a small scrape, sweep or spring-tooth cultivator.

Flat, shallow, frequent cultivation should be given the growing crop
until about the first^of August, when it may cease, unless the crop is very

late.

HARVESTING AND MARKETING

Picking. — Cotton is picked by hand. A picker hangs a bag over his
shoulder, picks the cotton out of the open bolls and drops it in his bag.
He picks 150 to 200 pounds seed cotton a day and receives from forty to
seventy-five cents per hundred pounds.

Picking begins in the latter part of August or early in September and
ends about the first of December. When labor is scarce, the time of harvest
may be prolonged until midwinter. Cotton should be picked out as fast
as it opens to prevent damage from storms or rotting of fiber.

Picking is an expensive operation because it has to be done by hand.
However, it does not require much skill and much of it is done by the cheap-
est of labor— women and children. Many cotton picking machines have
been invented, but none of them have proven successful. They damage the
plant and gather much trash with the cotton.

Cotton should not be picked when it is wet, nor should locks fallen
on the ground and badly stained be picked up and mixed with the white
cotton. The damaged cotton should be placed in a separate bale. If
cotton is picked when it is slightly wet, it should be dried before ginning,
as damp cotton cannot be ginned without injury to the fiber.

Ginning.— When 1200 or 1500 pounds of seed cotton have been picked,
it is usually hauled to a public ginnery. A suction pipe draws the seed
cotton into a screen where a great deal of the dirt and trash is blown out,
and then drops it into a feeder. The feeder picks up locks or small wads

336

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

COTTON PRODUCTION

337

leaching if plowed early. All fall-plowed lands, especially if they are
sandy or subject to erosion, should have some winter cover crop like crimson
clover or grain so that their roots may take up the plant food as fast as it
becomes available and prevent washing of the surface. In the early spring
the cover crop is plowed under in the final preparation for planting. In a
large measure the date of the first plowing should be governed by the labor
on hand, the amount of litter and stiffness of soil.

Seed-Bed.— Land that was plowed broadcast in the winter or early
spring is marked ofif in rows by a furrow that receives the fertilizer. Where
cotton follows cotton without any previous plowing, as is too often the
practice in a large part of the cotton belt, a furrow with a middle-buster
is run in the row of old stalks or in the middle of the previous rows, and the

Turning Under Crimson Clover for Cotton.

fertilizer is distributed in this open furrow with a one-horse machine that
has a shovel-plow to mix soil and fertilizer together. By tlirowing over
the fertilizer four or five furrows with a turning plow, a bed or ridge is
formed four or five inches high and two feet wide. When no fertilizer is
used, many farmers omit even the center furrow and ''list'' or bed without
running the center furrow as a preparation for the row.

Planting.— Just before planting a drag or spring-tooth harrow is
drawn across the beds or lengthwise to smooth them down and freshen the
surface. On well-drained land some farmers are discarding the high beds
and planting on a level surface. In the western part of the cotton belt,
where the rainfall is below twenty-two inches, much planting is done in a
water-furrow made with a two-horse lister.

In the southern part of the cotton belt, planting begins in March and is
usually completed in the northern part of the cotton belt by the end of May.

Most of the crop is planted in April. Where boll weevils are present,
planting should be made as soon as the danger from frost is past.

The seeds are sown or dropped in a shallow furrow and covered one or
two inches deep in soil. If the soil is dry the seed should be planted deeper
and the soil sUghtly packed on the seed. When the seed is drilled, one-half
to one bushel of seed is required to plant an acre; when planted in hills,
one or two pecks are required. If the land is rough, the planting should be
thicker to secure a stand without replanting.

Tillage. — Prompt germination is desirable. If a rain packs the surface
or a crust forms before the seed comes up, the surface should be stirred with
a spike-tooth harrow or weeder to help the young plants to break through
the crust. The harrow or weeder may be drawn across the rows after the
plants come up to destroy small w^eds and to cultivate the cotton plants.
When the cotton begins to show its true leaves, it should be cultivated with
a scrape or turner, which leaves the plants on a narrow ridge. The cotton
is then thinned to one plant in a hill about one foot apart on poor land and
about one and one-half to two feet apart on fertile land. Soon after
thinning a little soil should be pushed up round the young plants. This
may be done with a small scrape, sweep or spring-tooth cultivator.

Flat, shallow, frequent cultivation should be given the growing crop
until about the first_^of August, when it may cease, unless the crop is very

late.

HARVESTING AND MARKETING

Picking.— Cotton is picked by hand. A picker hangs a bag oyer his
shoulder, picks the cotton out of the open bolls and drops it in his bag.
He picks 150 to 200 pounds seed cotton a day and receives from forty to
seventy-five cents per hundred pounds.

Picking begins in the latter part of August or early in September and
ends about the first of December. When labor is scarce, the time of harvest
may be prolonged until midwinter, (votton should be picked out as fast
as it opens to prevent damage from storms or rotting of fiber.

Picking is an expensive operation l:)ecause it has to be done by hand.
However, it does not require nmch skill and nmch of it is done by the cheap-
est of labor— women and children. Many cotton picking machines have
been invented, but none of them have proven successful. They damage the
plant and gather much trash with the cotton.

Ginning.— When 1200 or 1500 pounds of seed cotton have been picked,
it is usually hauled to a pubhc ginnery. A suction pipe draws the seed
cotton into a screen where a great deal of the dirt and trash is blown out,
and then drops it into a feeder. The feeder picks up locks or small wads

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

338

of cotton and drops them into the gin-breast, where they form a revolving
roll of seed cotton. On the under side of this roll are many small circular
saws rapidly revolving in opposite directions and cuttmg the lint cfl the
sS A rapidly revolving brush takes the lint off the saws and drms it
into a condenser. The lint is then dropped into a large box and packed
into a bale of cotton, which is now ready for the market ^f y^^ete'

Cotton Seed.— The seed is usually sold to a cottonseed-oil mill. Ihe
short hnt or fuzz is cut of! the seed and is called "linters." The seed is
then run through a mill that takes off the hulls, which are used for cattle
food; the kernels, or meats as they are_called, are ground and cooked, after

A Field of Cotton.

which they arc put in a powerful press that removes the crude oil and leaves

'" 'theSe dlls refined an<l from it are obtained: (1) "summer white
oil " which is used in the manufacture of a compound of lard; (2) stearin,
iTn making solid oils, etc.; and (3) a -^^ue that is used u^^^^^^^
soan On the dry western stock ranches, a great deal of the yellow cake is
?ed to cattle and sheep in the ^^^nter; the cake is ground, forming what is
known as cottonseed meal, and is used as stock feed and comme ma^
fertUizer. Recent experiments show that specially prepared meal mixed
with wheat flour makes an excellent nutritious bread. . ^ ., , ^

Not many decades ago, cottonseed was a waste P'-^duct on the farm
but now the commercial value of the seed equals one-seventh the value of
the lint.

■■;■«'*,«

r ■ y.y'

COTTON PRODUCTION

339

On an average 1500 pouncTs of seed cotton make a 500-pound bale and
1000 pounds of seed. When the seed passes through an oil -mill, it pro-
duces about 150 pounds crude oil, 337 pounds meal, 500 pounds hulls and
13 pounds linters.

Storing. — ^After the cotton is ginned, the bales may be marketed at
once, or stored on the farm or in a public warehouse. The bales of cotton
are often left lying about the ginhouse or homes, exposed to the weather.
As a result of the weather, their covering becomes badly damaged and the
lint tinged with a bluish color, and the buyer 'Mocks*' them to cover the
damage.

Bales of cotton should be stored under a shed on timber to prevent
their touching the damp ground and absorbing moisture. In many markets
are large public warehouses where cotton can be weighed, stored and
insured at a small cost per bale.

Before selling a bale, a sample of lint is drawn from each covered side
and placed together as a sample of the bale. The buyer judges its grade
and makes a bid. The price is based on the grade and the demand for that
grade of cotton in the markets. Most farmers do not know the grade of
their cotton, as it takes expert knowledge to classify cotton correctly.
They accept the highest price bid on the cotton as the top of the market
for that grade. Where a large number of bales are offered in the market,
often an expert grader is employed to classify the cotton, which method^
usually gives satisfaction to seller and buyer.

When a foreign or domestic mill wishes a quantity of a given grade, an
order is placed with an agent, and this agent goes to the warehouses or
dealers and buys the grades desired. If the bales have to be shipped far,
they are sent to the compress, where .the size is greatly reduced by a
powerful press and thereby the cost of transportation is reduced.

Grades of Cotton. — The grades of cotton depend mainly on (1) color
of fiber, (2) amount of trash, and (3) quality of ginning. A high grade
requires that the fiber be white, with a slightly creamy tinge, strong and
free from trash or dirt. When the cotton shows a yellowish or bluish tinge,
the fiber usually is not strong; immaturity or exposure to the weather are
the usual causes for this condition. To get a high grade, the farmer should
pick the cotton from only the fully opened and matured bolls, and pick
it free from trash and dirt.

There are seven primary grades in the commercial classification of lint
cotton. They are named in the order of value: (1) ''fair,*' (2) '' middling
fair,'' (3) '^good middling," (4) '^middling," (5) '^low middling," (6)
''good ordinary," (7) ''ordinary." The half grades, which lie between the
primary grades are named by prefixing the word "strict" to the name of
the next lower grade, as "strict good middling," which is a half grade better
than "good middling." The telegraphic dispatches from the cotton
exchanges quote prices on "middling," and the prices of better and lower
grades are calculated on the basis of "middling."

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

338

of cotton and drops them into the gin-breast, where they form a revolving
roll of seed cotton. On the under side of this roll are many small circular
saws rapidly revolving in opposite directions and cuttmg the lint cff the
seed. A rapidly revolving brush takes the lint off the saws and drives it
into a condenser. The lint is then dropped into a large box and packed
into a bale of cotton, which is now ready for the market or warehouse.

Cotton Seed.— The seed is usually sold to a cottonseed-oil mill, liie
short lint or fuzz is cut cff the seed and is called "linters." The seed is
then run through a mill that takes off the hulls, which are used for cattle
food; the kernels, or meats as they are called, are ground and cooked, alter

A Field of Cotton.

which they are put in a pow(>rful press that removes the crude oil and leaves

" ''''"'AetJudedUs refined and from it are olrtained: (1) "summer white
oil " which is used in the manufacture of a compound of lard; (2) stearin,
used in making solid oils, etc.; and (3) a residue that is used in makmg
soap On the dry western stock ranches, a great deal of the yellow cake is
fed to cattle and sheep in the winter; the cake is ground, forming what is
known as cottonseed meal, and is used as stock feed and commercial
fertilizer. Recent experiments show that specially prepared meal mixed
with wheat flour makes an excellent nutritious bread.

Not many decades ago, cottonseed was a waste Product on the farin
but now the commercial value of the seed equals one-seventh the value of
the lint.

COTTON PRODUCTION

330

On an average 1500 pouncts of seed cotton make a SOO-pound bale and
1000 pounds of seed. When the seed passes through an oil -mill, it pro-
duces about 150 pounds crude oil, 337 pounds meal, 500 pounds hulls and
13 pounds linters.

Storing. — After the cotton is ginned, the bales may be marketed at
once, or stored on the farm or in a public warehouse. The bales of cotton
are often left lying about the ginhouse or homes, exposed to the v\'eather.
As a result of the weather, their covering becomes badly damaged and the
lint tinged with a bluish color, and the buyer *' docks'' them to cover the
damage.

Before seUing a bale, a sample of lint is drawTi from each covered side
and placed together as a sample of the bale. The buyer judges its grade
and makes a bid. The price is based on the grade and the demand for that
grade of cotton in the markets. Most farmers do not know the grade of
their cotton, as it takes expert knowledge to classify cotton correctly.
They accept the highest price bid on the cotton as the top of the market
for that grade. Where a large number of bales are offered in the market,
often an expert grader is employed to classify the cotton, which method^
usually gives satisfaction to seller and buyer.

There are seven primary grades in the commercial classification of lint
cotton. They are named in the order of value: (1) ''fair,'' (2) ''middUng
fair," (3) ''good middling," (4) "middhng," (5) "low middhng," (6)
"good ordinary," (7) "ordinary." The half grades, which lie between the
primary grades are named by prefixing the word "strict" to the name of
the next lower grade, as "strict good middling," which is a half grade better
than "good middling." The telegraphic dispatches from the cotton
exchanges quote prices on "middling," and the prices of better and lower
grades are calculated on the basis of "middling."

340

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

! '

The larger part of the cotton crop of the United States falls under the
following grades: strict good middling, good middling, strict middling
and middling. Storms and early frost increase the quantity in the lower

grades.

The diseases and insect enemies of cotton are discussed in Part VIII

of this book.

REFERENCES

"From Cotton Field to Cotton Mill." Thompson.
"Hemp." Boyce.
"Cotton." Burkett and Poe.
"Southern Field Crops." Duggar.
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

Bulletin 38. "Egyptian Cotton Seed Selection."

Bulletin 279. ''Single Stalk Cotton Culture at San Antonio."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry:

Circular 26. "Egyptian Cotton in Southwestern U. S."

Circular 57. " Cultivation of Hemp in U. S."

Circular 123. ''Production of Long-Staple Cotton."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

302. ''Sea Island Cotton."

314. "Method of Breeding Early Cotton to Escape Boll- Weevil/'

326. "Building Up a Run-Down Cotton Plantation."

364. "A Profitable Cotton Farm."

501. "Cotton Improvement Under Weevil Conditions."

577. "Growing Egyptian Cotton in Arizona."

591. "Classification and Grading of Cotton."

601. "A New System of Cotton Culture and Its Application.

CHAPTER 25

TOBACCO

By George T. McNess
Tobacco Expert, Texas Experiment Station

T3rpes and Their Commercial Uses. — The commercial tobaccos of
North America are divided into three principal types, known as cigar leaf,
manufacturing and export. These types are again subdivided according
to their market grades and commercial use. The cigar type consists of
three grades: wrapper, binder and filler leaf. The wrapper is a fine-
textured leaf used for covering the outside of the cigar, and must have
good appearance, length and width, be uniform in color and have fine
veins. Cigar wrapper leaf is the highest priced tobacco produced in North
America. The binder is that part of a cigar which holds the filler leaf or
bunch together. This grade of tobacco must have fair size and possess
good burning qualities. It is generally selected from the poorer grades of
wrapper leaf. The filler is that part which constitutes the bulk of the cigar,
and varies in quahty according to the kind of tobacco used for this purpose.
Filler tobacco should possess good aroma, taste and perfect combustion.
; There are quite a number of tobaccos used for cigar purposes, each
having distinctive characteristics and grown in different parts of the
country. The kind of seed used, the influence of climate, soil conditions
and methods of culture and curing determine the ultimate use of the leaf.

The tobaccos used in the manufacturing of cigars are: the Havana
Seed, Broadleaf, Cuban Seed, Florida Sumatra, Georgia Sumatra, Texas
Hybrid, Wisconsin Seed, Pennsylvania Seed, Zimmer Spanish, Gebhardt
and Little Dutch. Several types of tobacco are used in the manufacture
of smoking and chewing tobaccos, the principal type used in this country
being the White Burley, which is grown in Kentucky and parts of Ohio.
Cigarette tobacco is manufactured from the bright flue-cured leaf of the
Carolinas and southern Virginia. About 60 per cent of the crop is used for
home consumption. The heavy or fire-cured tobaccos are mostly exported
to Europe, although some of the finer grades are used for plug wrappers.

Principal Tobacco Districts. — The finest cigar tobaccos are grown in
the New England states of Connecticut and Massachusetts, and in the
South in Florida, Georgia and Texas. These states produce the fine grade
cigar wrapper leaf. In the New England states it is grown under cloth
shades, while in the Southern states a slat shade is used. These shade-
grown tobaccos rival the fine tobaccos imported from Sumatra and Cuba
both in quality of bum and taste and in wrapping capacity. The binder

(341)

:;j^:r',;,:-i%,t-'.

3*.

ifeSi

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

342

tobaccos are produced in the states of Connecticut and Wisconsin; while
filler leaf of the various types comes from the Miami Valley of Ohio,
and from Pennsylvania, Florida, Texas, Georgia and Connecticut.

The manufacturing tobaccos, air, sun. flue and fire-cured, are grown m
Kentucky, Ohio, Virginia, Tennessee and North and South Carolina^
Maryland also produces a fine grade of pipe tobacco, but most of this
tobacco is exported to England and France. Nearly all of the fire-cured

TOBACCO

343

Field of Virginia Heavy Tobacco.

tobaccos produced in the above states are exported to the various parts

""^ Tobacco SoUs.-It might be well to mention briefly a few of the prin-
cipal soils upon which tobacco is grown. The heavy tobaccos of Virginia
are grown in the Piedmont District on soil known as the Cecil clay or Cecil
clay loam. This soil is a heavy, red clay soil and produces a heavy-bodied
dark-colored tobacco. This type of soil is also found m the tobacco dis-
tricts of Tennessee and part of Kentucky. The soU of the Carolinas is
a very light-gray, sandy soU and belongs to the Norfolk series of soils as
classified by the U. S. Bureau of Soils. This soil produces a light-colored
S-textured leaf which is used in the manufacture of cigarettes and
granulated tobaccos. The soil upon which the burly tobacco is grown s
£ a light soil, as is also the tobacco soil of Maryland. The tobacco soil

of Connecticut and Massachusetts is a light, gravelly soil belonging to the
Hartford series of soils, and when well fertihzed produces a fine quality
of tobacco.

The principal tobacco soils of the South Atlantic and Gulf states are
light sand to sandy loam, underlaid by either a yellow or red sandy clay.
These soils run from gray to red in color, and where they have the yellow
clay subsoil they belong to the Norfolk series, while the red clay subsoil
places them in the Orangeburg series. The Orangeburg soils are more
productive than the Norfolk and the better grades of cigar leaf are produced
upon the former soil. These southern soils are responsive to fertilization,

Field of Cigar Leaf Tobacco.

and as high as one ton of commercial fertilizer is used to the acre by the
best growers.

The soils of Ohio are of limestone formation, and produce a heavy-
bodied cigar filler leaf having good aroma,but on account of the lime content
are apt to flake. The Pennsylvania soils are a little heavy for the produc-
tion of wrapper leaf, but the standard cigar filler leaf used in this country
is produced upon these soils. The soils of Texas are the Orangeburg and
Norfolk, which produce the same grade of tobacco as Florida and Georgia.
They are found in the eastern portion of the state. For additional
information on soils, see Chapter 1 on "Soil Classification and Crop
Adaptation.''

Preparation and Care of Seed-Bed. — The preparation of the seed-bed
varies in the different tobacco districts, owing to some extent to the varied
climatic conditions, financial condition of the grower and type of tobacco
being grown. The most expensive and complete seed-beds are to be found

ft-'"?"'- ■-•'■■ >*-'*-v^ i'

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

342

The manufacturing tobaccos, air, sun, flue and fire-cured, are gro^vn m
Kentucky, Ohio, Virginia, Tennessee and North and South Carolina.
Maryland also produces a fine grade of pipe tobacco, but most of this
tobSco is exported to England and France. Nearly all of the fire-cured

TOBACCO

343

Field of Virginia Heavy Tobacco.

tobaccos produced in the above states are exported to the various parts

""^ *^Tobacco Soils.-It might be well to mention briefly a few of the prin-
cipal soils upon which tobacco is grown. The heavy tobaccos of Virginia
are grown in the Piedmont District on soil known as the Cecil clay or Cecil
clav loam. This soil is a heavy, red clay soil and produces a heavy-bodied
dark-colored tobacco. This type of soil is also found m he tobac^o^^^^^
tricts of Tennessee and part of Kentucky. The soil of the Carolinas is
a very hght-gray, sandy soil and belongs to the Norfolk series of soils as
ckssified by the U. S. Bureau of Soils. This soil produces a light-colored
thTn-textured leaf which is used in the manufacture of cigarettes and
granulated tobaccos. The soil upon which the burly^obac^^'s grown is
ali a light soil, as is also the tobacco soil of Maryland. The tobacco soil

of Connecticut and Massachusetts is a light, gravelly soil belonging to the
Hartford series of soils, and when well fertiUzed produces a fine quality
of tobacco.

Field of Cicjar Leaf Tobacco.

and as high as one ton of commercial fertilizer is used to the acre by tlie
best growers.

The soils of Ohio are of limestone formation, and produce a heavy-
bodied cigar filler leaf having good aroma, but on account of the lime content
are apt to flake. The Pennsylvania soils are a little heavy for the produc-
tion of wrapper leaf, but the standard cigar filler leaf used in this country
is produced upon these soils. The soils of Texas are the Orangeburg and
Norfolk, which produce the same grade of tobacco as Florida and Georgia.
They are found in the eastern portion of the state. For additional
information on soils, see Chapter 1 on "Soil Classification and Crop
Adaptation.^'

%M^

.) jr:<.;-.j^- :, . ;. V-- .•ivi<t-..*-j

H*--^t-^

,1 >-.'*j;'U>

?.<•.•■•' ,'!,iV^ M

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

344

in the New England states, while less pretentious, ones are to be found in
the Carolinas. The object, however, is the same, that is, to Produce a
supply of good, healthy, vigorous plants; for a failure of the seed-bed means

a failure of the crop. , ^ _ „^^«^

In Connecticut and Massachusetts the young plants are grown under
glass in steam-heated beds, and the tobacco seed is sprouted before being
sown in order to produce plants by the time danger of frost is over. It is
only in the Northern states that it is necessary to go to this expense and
trouble In most of the heavy tobacco-growing districts, as well as m tne

TOBACCO

345

Tobacco Plaxt-bed, or Tobacco Seed-bed.

South Atlantic and Gulf states, the open seed-bed is used, the only covering
being a thin cheesecloth to keep out the cold and conserve the heat and

moisture in the bed.

In locating a good seed-bed for any type of tobacco the prospective
grower should select a piece of ground near to water, having a southern
exposure and protected on the north either by buijdings or timber. The
best plan is to select a piece of woodland near a small streani having the
desired exposure. The timber should be cut off the land in the fall of the
vear split into desired lengths and sizes and stacked to dry. January is the
best 'time to burn a seed-bed, excepting in the Northern states. In these
states this form of bed is not used. The first operation is to rake from the
bed all leaves and trash, then lay across the bed skids of green pine poles,
upon which the cut timber with a good supply of small brush is placed.
This pile of wood and brush should extend clear across the bed, but not over

the entire length. The fire should then be started and let burn until the
soil directly under the fire has been burnt to a depth of three inches. It
is then dragged on the skids and another section of the bed burnt. This
operation is repeated until the entire bed is burnt. As soon as the ground
has cooled off, the coals should be raked off the bed and the fine ashes spaded
or plowed under.

» The bed is now ready for the frame to be placed around it. In some
states logs are used for this purpose, but one-inch planks twelve inches
wide and any desired length, best serve the purpose. The most conve-
nient size to make a seed-bed is six feet wide and fifty feet long, which will
make 300 square feet of bed. In building the frame to go around the beds
the planks should be set upon edge and where the ends meet they are nailed
to a stake which has previously been driven in the ground (see preceding
page). After the frame is complete a No. 9 wire should be stretched from
the center of one end of the frame to the other, supported at intervals by
stakes, the tops of which are about two inches higher than the top of the
frame. When the cloth is stretched over the frame this will cause a peak
or ridge to the cloth roof.

Prior to stretching the cloth over the frame, fertilizer should be applied
to the bed. Be^ results have been obtained by using twenty-five pounds
of cottonseed meal and ten pounds of acid phosphate to every fifty square
yards of seed-bed. This should be thoroughly mixed with the soil, and
should be applied several days before the tobacco seed is sown. This
form of seed-bed is now used in nearly all of the tobacco districts of the
United States with the exception of the New England states, where, on
account of their severe climatic conditions and short growing season, glass
frames and steam heat are used in order to obtain early seedlings.

In sowing a seed-bed it is very important to secure a uniform stand of
seedlings and in order to have a stocky growth they must not stand too
thick in the bed. On account of the small size of tobacco seeds, it is neces-
sary to mix them with some foreign substance in order to facilitate uniform
distribution in the bed. The best material to use for this purpose is fine-
sifted dry ashes. One ounce of tobacco seed mixed with one gallon of
sifted wood-ashes will plant three hundred square feet of bed. More than
this amount of seed sown to three hundred square feet of bed will cause the
plants to grow too thick; consequently, they will not have that desired
stocky growth. The seed should not be raked in, but simply pressed into
the surface of the soil either by a small roller or by a board placed upon the
bed and pressure applied. As soon as the seeds have been pressed into
fche soil the bed should be watered and the cloth covering placed in
position.

If the seed-bed has been well burnt and otherwise prepared very little
attention will be needed except the daily watering, and this must not be
neglected if a good germination is desired, for the grower must remember
that the seed is upon the surface of the soil and that it takes moisture and

^^m

■

■mmmM

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

344

a failure of the crop. , ^ _ „^^^^

In Connecticut and Massachusetts the young plants are grown under
glass in steam-heated beds, and the tobacco seed is sprouted before being
sown in order to produce plants by the time danger of frost is over. It is
only in the Northern states that it is necessary to go to this expense and
trouble. In most of the heavy tobacco-growing districts, as well as in the

TOBACCO

345

Tobacco Plaxt-bed, or Tobacco Seed-bed.

South Atlantic and Gulf states, the open seed-bed is used, the only covering
being a thin cheesecloth to keep out the cold and conserve the heat and

moisture in the bed.

In locating a good seed-bed for any type of tobacco the prospective
grower should select a piece of ground near to water, havmg a southern
exposure and protected on the north either by buildings or timber. The
best plan is to select a piece of woodland near a small streani having the
desired exposure. The timber should be cut off the land in the fall of the
vear split into desired lengths and sizes and stacked to dry. January is the
best time to burn a seed-bed, excepting in the Northern states. In these
states this form of bed is not used. The first operation is to rake from the
bed all leaves and trash, then lay across the bed skids of green pine poles,
upon which the cut timber with a good supply of small brush is placed.
This pile of wood and brush should extend clear across the bed, but not over

Prior to stretching the cloth over the frame, fertilizer should be applied
to the bed. Best results have been obtained by using twenty-five pounds
of cottonseed meal and ten pounds of acid phosphate to every fifty square
yards of seed-bed. This should be thoroughly mixed with the soil, and
should be applied several days before the tobacco seed is sown. This
form of seed-bed is now used in nearly all of the tobacco districts of the
United States with the exception of the New England states, where, on
account of their severe climatic conditions and short growing season, glass
frames and steam heat are used in order to obtain early seedlings.

In sowing a seed-bed it is very important to secure a uniform stand of
seedlings and in order to have a stocky growth they must not stand too
thick in the bed. On account of the small size of tobacco seeds, it is neces-
sary to mix them with some foreign substance in order to facilitate uniform
distribution in the bed. The best material to use for this purpose is fine-
sifted dry ashes. One ounce of tobacco seed mixed with one gallon of
sifted wood-ashes will plant three hundred square feet of bed. More than
this amount of seed sown to three hundred square feet of bed will cause the
plants to grow too thick; consequently, they will not have that desired
stocky growth. The seed should not be raked in, but simply pressed into
the surface of the soil either by a small roller or by a board placed upon the
bed and pressure applied. As soon as the seeds have been pressed into
the soil the bed should be watered and the cloth covering placed in
position.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

346

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

TOBACCO

347

heat to cause the seed to germinate. Tobacco seed germinates in from
ten to fourteen days under normal conditions.

In the Southern states it may be necessary to weed the plant beds, and
wherever weeds or grass appear in the bed they should immediately be
pulled out. From six to seven weeks after sowing the seed the young plants
will be ready to transplant to the field. The cloth cover should be removed
for a few days prior to transplanting so as to harden the plants, and the ^
beds should be well watered before the plants are pulled in order to lessen
the injury to the roots. Plants should be taken from the plant-bed in the
early morning and placed in a shady place until used.

Preparation of the Soil. — Tobacco requires a good seed-bed, therefore,
the preparation of the soil is one of importance, and although the minor
details of soil preparation may differ in the various tobacco districts, the
ultimate object should be the same. Fields intended for tobacco culture
should be plowed the previous fall to a depth of at least ten or twelve inches,
and, if it is desirable, as in some localities,to apply stable manure,this should
be applied at the rate of from fifteen to twenty loads to the acre, broadcasted
over the field before plowing. Lime has been found beneficial upon some
tobacco soils and should be applied after the land is plowed, and disked in
during the preparation of the seed-bed. ^

The spring preparation of the soil depends largely upon the method
to be used in transplanting the seedlings, either by machinery or by hand.
In most of the Northern states, especially where cigar leaf tobacco is grown,
machine setting is practiced, while in the Central Atlantic and Southern
states most of the tobacco is transplanted by hand.

In the North where machinery is used the fertilizer is applied broadcast
after the spring plowing and harrowed in by means of a disk harrow.
Smoothing harrows, such as the Acme or Meeker, are then run several
times over the fields, pulverizing the soil and leaving it in good condition

for the planter. ,. , x i.

In the Central Atlantic and Gulf Coast states most of the tobacco is
transplanted by hand and the fields require entirely different treatment
than where the machine is- used. The field to be used for tobacco culture
is bedded up during February, the beds varying from three to three and
one-half feet apart for cigar tobaccos. The commercial fertilizer is applied
in the drill and mixed with the soil by having a single-shovel plow furrow
run in the drill, after which two furrows are made with a one-horse tummg

plow forming a list.

The field is left in this condition until the plants are large enough on
the plant-bed to transplant to the field. At this time this list is leveled
off either by a small harrow or with a log. Where the land has been listed
for some time, it is good practice to re-list and then log off, as the small
plants will take root much quicker in fresh-plowed mellow soil.

Fertilizers.— Tobacco respond? to good fertilization and feeds heavily
on nitrogen and potash. Larger amounts of commercial fertilizer are used

m the production of cigar leaf tobacco than with tobacco used for other
purposes. The principal source of nitrogen is from cottonseed meal,
although where the heavy tobaccos are grown, castor pumace or ground
blood is used to some extent. Potash is needed in the production of all
tobaccos in order to improve the burning qualities of the leaf. Only
sulphate or carbonate of potash should be used, as the salt contained in the
muriate of potash is detrimental to the burning quality of the leaf. Phos-
phoric acid is also necessary in small amounts.

In the tobacco-growing regions of Florida, Georgia and Texas a vast
amount of money is spent each season for commercial fertilizers. In
addition to a hberal application of stable manure, as high as 2000 pounds
of cottonseed meal, 400 pounds of sulphate of potash and 200 pounds of
acid phosphate are used to the acre in the production of cigar wrapper leaf.
Like amounts are used in the New England states. Smaller amouncs are
used m the production of heavy and export tobacco, and in such states as
Virginia a crop rotation in which clover appears as one of the crops in the
rotation, reduces the amount of commercial fertilizer, especially that which
is used as a source of nitrogen.

Transplanting and Cultivation.— When the seedlings in the plant-bed
have reached a height of from four to six inche?, they are ready to be
transplanted to the field. Great care is necessary in taking the seedling
from the bed that the roots are not injured; therefore, it is necessary to
water the bed well before pulling up the plants. Plants should be taken
from the bed early in the morning and placed in a cool, shady place until
they are to be used. If pulled during a rainy season there is no use in
watering the bed and they can be used at once. Plants should be pulled
one at a time with the finger and the thumb taking hold of the plant close
to the ground. They should be shaken off or, if water is near, the soil
washed from the roots, and then packed with the roots down in a basket
or box.

Where a machine is used for transplanting, the field is usually left flat,
having been previously harrowed so as to present a fresh surface. Two
men are required to feed the machine and one to do the driving. There
are several makes of transplanters, the most popular being the Beemis and
the Tiger. These machines open the furrow, set the plants and place
any amount of water desired around the roots. Tobacco transplanted by
means of these machines appears to recover from the shock of being trans-
planted, and grows off much sooner and with more uniformity than when
planted by hand. Another advantage of machine transplanting is that the
transplanting can be done just as well, if not better, during dry weather
as during wet, or when the soil is in favorable condition. These machines
have been in use in the northern tobacco states for years, and they are
gradually finding favor with the southern grower. The cheap negro
labor of the South has been the principal cause of their restricted use,
but as the price of labor has risen in the last few years, tobacco trans-

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

348

planters are now being used with success where formerly hand setting

^^ ^^tid setting of tobacco is practiced, ^^^/^^^^n^^fJ^^
of flat, the beds are marked off the distance required ^^J^-J^f ^^^^^^^^^^

dry, water is applied
at these places. The
plants are then
dropped at each mark
and a laborer sets
them at these places
with a dibble. Trans-
planting by hand
should be done only
when the soil is in a
good moisture con-
dition, or during
cloudy or rainy
weather. The dis-
tance at which the
plants are set in the
rows depends entirely
on the type and com-
mercial use of the
tobacco. The heavy
tobaccos of Virginia
and Tennessee and
the flue-cured tobaccos
of the Carolinas are
usually checked at a
distance of thirty-six
inches, while cigar leaf
tobaccos are set in
the drill from twelve
to eighteen inches,
according to their

type.

Tobaccos of all

TOBACCO

349

A Plant Ready to Set in Field.^

tvT>es require frequent and thorough cultivation. No weeds or grass
sEd ever be allowed to grow in the field. Cultivation usually
beSis about eight days after transplanting, when the you^g plant
should be hoed and given a reasonably deep plowing This is ttie
onH^me thaTa deep cultivation should be given. In the North, ridmg and
''^^^^^tT.re used, having an attachment of shallow runmng

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

plows,, while in the Southern states single stocks with sweeps are mostly
used. Cultivation usually ceases when the plants have received their
final topping. As soon as the seed-head appears it should be taken out
along with about three or four leaves with cigar type tobaccos, while the
heavy and export types are topped down to eight or ten remaining leaves,
according to the growth of the plant and the style of leaf desired. The
Maryland and Burley tobaccos have more leaves left on the pknt after
topping, but not as many as the cigar types. All types of tobacco will send
out shoots or suckers after being topped, and these should be broken
ofif, so that all the strength of the plant will go into the leaves on the
main stalk.

Tobacco is subject to insect pests from the time it germinates in the
plant-bed to the time it is harvested. The flea beetle which lives on the
young plants in the bed can be controlled by using kerosene and wood ashes.
In the field the bud worm, horn worm and grasshopper destroy the leaves.
These can be controlled by the use of Paris green, either applied dry mixed
• with cornmeal or ashes for the bud worm and in a solution at the rate of
one pound of Paris green to 100 gallons of water, for the horn worm. More
detailed instructions for controlling these pests will be found in the chapter
on '^Insect Pests.^'

Methods of Harvesting.— Various methods are used in the different
tobacco districts in harvesting tobacco. In the heavy and export districts
the entire plant is cut. The stalk is first split down the middle about two-
thirds its length; then cut off close to the ground. The plant is then hung
across a stick about four feet in length holding from six to eight plants,
according to their size. When a stick is filled it is placed upon a wagon
and taken to the curing barn. In the Burley and Maryland tobacco dis-
tricts the plant is simply cut close to the ground and speared upon the stick,
the stalk not being cut as in the former method. This method of harvesting
is also used in Ohio, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin and to some extent in the
New England states with the binder and filler grade of cigar leaf tobacco.

For the cigar wrapper tobaccos of Florida, Georgia, Texas and the
New England states, the leaves are picked off the growing plants as they
ripen, beginning with the sand or bottom leaves. The leaves are placed in
baskets and taken to the curing barn, where, by means of a needle, they are
strung upon strings attached to sticks, each string holding about thirty-
five leaves. The ends of the string are fastened to each end of the stick,
which is then hung upon the tier poles in the bam where they remain
until cured. The bright flue-cured tobaccos of North and South Carolina,
also Virginia, are harvested by a similar method, differing in that the leaves
are tied upon the string in pairs and sometimes in triplets instead of the
individual leaves being strung upon the string by means of a needle.
Cigar leaf tobacco, harvested by the priming or single-leaf method, will
cure much quicker than when the whole plant is cut and will produce
tobacco of more uniform color and finer texture ; besides, there will be less

^'':^^

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

348

planters are now being u«cd with success where formerly hand setting

"" X^fhand setting of tobacco is practiced. ^^^^/^^^ l^^f^:^
of flat, the beds are marked off the distance reqmred tojl-Uhe .^^^^^^^^^^^

type.

Tobaccos of all

tvpes require frequent and thorough cultivation. No weeds or grass
sEd ever be allowed to grow in the field Cultivation usually
beSns about eight days after transplanting, when the you^g plants
should be hoed and given a reasonably deep plo^vlng This is the
nSime that a deep cultivation should be given. In the North, ridmg and
i^'^^^^^^^^^^^ used, having an attachment of shallow runmng

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

A Plant Ready to Set in Field.^

TOBACCO

349

plows,, while in the Southern states single stocks with sweeps are mostly
used. Cultivation usually ceases when the plants have received their
final topping. As soon as the seed-head appears it should be taken out
along with about three or four leaves with cigar type tobaccos, while the
heavy and export types are topped down to eight or ten remaining leaves,
according to the growth of the plant and the style of leaf desired. The
Maryland and Burley tobaccos have more leaves left on the pknt after
topping, but not as many as the cigar types. All types of tol^acco will send
out shoots or suckers after being topped, and these should be broken
off, so that all the strength of the plant will go into the leaves on the
main stalk.

Tobacco is subject to insect pests from the time it germinates in the
plant-bed to the time it is harvested. The flea beetle which lives on the
young plants in the bed can be controlled by using kerosene and wood ashes.
In the field the bud worm, horn worm and grasshopper destroy the leaves.
These can be controlled by the use of Paris green, either applied dry mixed
with cornmeal or ashes for the bud worm and in a solution at the rate of
one pound of Paris green to 100 gallons of water, for the horn worm. More
detailed instructions for controlling these pests will be found in the chapter
on '^ Insect Pests. ^'

For the cigar wrapper tobaccos of Florida, Georgia, Texas and the
New England states, the leaves are picked off the growing plants as they
ripen, beginning with the sand or bottom leaves. The leaves are placed in
baskets and taken to the curing barn, where, by means of a needle, they are
strung upon strings attached to sticks, each string holding about thirty-
five leaves. The ends of the string are fastened to each end of the stick,
which is then hung upon the tier poles in the barn where they remain
until cured. The bright flue-cured tobaccos of North and South Carolina,
also Virginia, are harvested by a similar method, differing in that the leaves
are tied upon the string in pairs and sometimes in triplets instead of the
individual leaves being strung upon the string by means of a needle.
Cigar leaf tobacco, harvested by the priming or single-leaf method, will
cure much quicker than when the whole plant is cut and will produce
tobacco of more uniform color and finer texture; besides, there will be less

350

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

waste of the bottom leaves and every leaf can be harvested at the desired

stage of ripeness.

Bam Curing.— There are four methods of barn curing practiced: air
curing, fire curing, flue curing and sun curing. All cigar leaf, Burley and
Maryland smoking tobaccos are air cured. The tobacco, either primed or
cut on the stalk, is hung upon the tier poles in the curing barn and there
allowed to cure out by a gradual dying of the leaf tissues and evaporation
of moisture. Favorable curing conditions exist when the tobacco will
come and go ''in kase'' several times during the period of curing. Bams for
air curing are provided with ventilators which can be opened or closed

according to the climatic con-
ditions and the stage of the
cure. For the first few days
the barn should be kept closed
until the tobacco has wilted
and taken on a yellow shade of
color; then the ventilators •
should be opened so as to ad-
mit a free circulation of air
until the tobacco assumes the
brown color. During dry,
windy weather the ventilators
should be kept closed during
the day and opened at night.
The heavy and export
tobaccos of Virginia, Tennessee
and Kentucky are fire cured.
As soon as the bam has been
filled with green tobacco, small
wood fires are started to wilt
the leaf until the yellow color appears; then the amount of heat is grad-
ually increased until the leaf turns brown. When the tobacco reaches this
stage the heat is again increased to cure the midrib or stem of the leaf,
after which the fires are allowed to die and the tobacco cool off. During
the curing process the heat should never be allowed to fall until the
final cure is obtained, as a fall of temperature during the curing process
will injure the color and texture of the tobacco. Small log bams with
tight walls are used for fire curing without any ventilation except the

door. , ^ , ^, ,.

The bright tobaccos of Virginia and North and South Carolina are
cured by flues. The barns used in this process are similar to those used in
the open fire process, except that the fires are built on the outside of the
barn in brick fireplaces, having a metal flue running around the inside of
the barn about two feet from the bottom. There are usually two fireplaces,
the flues of each uniting at the opposite end of the bam, and merging into

Fire-curing Barn.

ik. .•.nfs-r'.t, .:{.;) ^

...il.Vi. »rt8

^x?^r:-?t^;i

TOBACCO

351

a single return flue coming out at the same end of the barn as the fireplaces
Some barns have the two flues independent of each other, in which case
both flues return to the front end of tlie barn.

o \ ^^.^,\^^^^f ^i ^^*f being hung in the bam, is first given a low heat so
as to wilt the leaf and produce the yellow color. The temperature is then
rapidly mcreased so as to set the yellow color in the leaf and prevent the
leaves turning brown. As soon as the color is set the temperature is again
increased to cure the midrib, when the temperature is allowed to fall and
the tobacco to cool off. Three days and nights is the usual time taken to
cure a barn of tobacco by this
process.

^ The sun-curing process is
similar to the air curing, the
difference being that the to-
bacco is allowed to wilt on
scaffolds before being placed
in the barn and when climatic
conditions are favorable it is
also sunned before being i)laced
in the barn. This process gives
the tobacco a delicate flavor
when smoked in the pipr.

Preparation for Market.
— The first damp season after
tobacco is cured is usually the
best time to take it from the
tier poles and prepare it for
the market, especially with
cigar leaf tobacco. At this

Flue-curing Barn, Virginia.

time the tobacco is soft and pliable, and can be handled without injury to
the leaf. The only grading done by the grower in preparing cigar leaf for
the market is to separate the leaves into three groups, namely, sand or
bottom leaves, middle leaves, and top leaves. Where Ihe tol)acco has
been cured on the stalk the leaves are stripped off and tied into hands con-
taining about forty leaves. Where the tobacco has been primed, or leaves
picked off the stalk in the field, the cured leaves are simply bunched on
the string and the string wrapped around the butt-end of the leaves.
The tobacco is then packed in boxes and hauled to the packing house or
kept in the barn until a buyer comes.

With the heavy, export and bright tobaccos, the grower usually grades
the tobacco into the commercial classes as sand lugs, lugs and wrappers, the
finer classification being performed by the buyer, who is usually a rehandler
of tobacco.

These tobaccos are packed in hogsheads and remain for some time in
the warehouses to undergo an ageing process which mellows the tobacco

-.'-.'^

350

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

waste of the bottom leaves and every leaf can be harvested at the desired

stage of ripeness.

Bam Curing.— There are four methods of barn curing practiced: air
curing, fire curing, flue curing and sun curing. All cigar leaf, Burley and
Maryland smoking tobaccos are air cured. The tobacco, either primed or
cut on the stalk, is hung upon the tier poles in the curing barn and there
allowed to cure out by a gradual dying of the leaf tissues and evaporation
of moisture. Favorable curing conditions exist when the tobacco will
come and go ''in kase'' several times during the period of curing. Barns for
air curing are provided with ventilators which can be opened or closed

according to the climatic con-
ditions and the stage of the
cure. For the first few days
the barn should be kept closed
until the tobacco has wilted
and taken on a yellow shade of
color; then the ventilators
slioukl be opened so as to ad-
mit a free circulation of air
until the tobacco assumes the
brown color. During dry,
windy weather the ventilators
should be kept closed during
the day and opened at night.
The heavy and export
to])accos of Virginia, Tennessee
and Kentucky are fire cured.
As soon as the barn has been
filled with green tobacco, small
wood fires are started to wilt
the leaf until the yellow color appears; then the amount of heat is grad-
ually increased until the leaf turns brown. When the tobacco reaches this
stage the heat is again increased to cure the midrib or stem of the leaf,
after which the fires are allowed to die and the tobacco cool off. During
the curing process the heat should never be allowed to fall until the
final cure is obtained, as a fall of temperature during the curing process
will injure the color and texture of the tobacco. Small log barns with
tight walls are used for fire curing without any ventilation except the

door. ^ ^ , ^^ -.

Fire-curing Barn.

TOBACCO

351

a single return flue coming out at the same end of the barn as the fireplaces
borne barns have the two flues independent of each other, in which case
both flues return to the front end of the barn.

- The tobacco after being hung in the barn, is first given a low heat so
as to wilt the leaf and produce the yellow color. The temperature is then
rapidly increased so as to set the yellow color in the leaf and prevent the
leaves turning brown. As soon as the color is set the temperature is again
increased to cure the midrib, when the temperature is allowed to fall and
the tobacco to cool off. Three days and nights is the usual time taken to
cure a barn of tobacco by this
process.

^ The sun-curing process is
similar to the air curing, the
difference being that the to-
bacco is allowed to wilt on
scaffolds before being placed
in the barn and when climatic
conditions are favorable it is
also sunned before being placed
in the barn. This proce^ss gives
th(i tobacco a delicate* fliivor
when smoked in the ])\yA\

Preparation for Market.
— The first d^Mnj) season after
tobacco is cun^d is usually the
best time to take it from the
tier poles and prepare it for
the market, especially with
cigar leaf tobacco. At this

Flue-curing Barn, Virginia.

time the tobacco is soft and pliabK^, and can be handled without injury to
the leaf. The only grading done by the grower in preparing cigar leaf for
the market is to separate the leaves into three groups, nnnic^ly, sand or
bottom leaves, middle leaves, and top knaves. Where the tobacco has
been cured on the stalk the leaves are stripped off and tied into hands con-
taining about forty leaves. Where the tobacco has })een primed, or leaves
picked off the stalk in the field, the cured leaves are simply bunched on
the string and the string wrapped around the butt-end of the leaves.
The tobacco is then packed in boxes and hauled to the packing house or
kept in the barn until a buyer comes.

These tobaccos are packed in hogsheads and remain for some time in
the warehouses to undergo an ageing process which mellows the tobacco

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

352

and brings out its best qualities. All cigar tobaccos have to go though a
^mentation process, after which they are graded out according to color
exture and L. The tobaccos of Ohio, Wisconsin P«lvama and
certain grades of the New England tobaccos are packed in boxe« /hile the
tapper grades of Connecticut and Massachusetts are packed in mat
Ss weigSg about 160 pounds. The cigar leaf tobaccos of the southern
otcco state! are all packed in bales either the Cuban or «- «^£
Methods of SeUing.-AU cigar tobaccos are sold by the grower in their
unfermented condition to dealers in leaf tobacco, who either buy the
tobacco from the curing bam, or upon delivery by the^ower at ^e ware-
house. In some cases the tobacco is grown upon contract at a stipulated
prke per pound for the various grades. All transactions are upon a cash

'-'Vr.^t'S^l.^^^^^. and bright tobaccos a. sold at

eLh auctioZ The sales are attended by buyers not only of this country
but of forekn governments where the regi system (govermnent monopoly)
Ltts; such countries as Spain, Italy, France and Japan having buyers

'""Sit ViSnia" the largest market for loose tobacco, especially
the brighUobaccof ; while Richmond, Lynchburg and Petersburg, Virgima,
lanSostly dark,'fire-cured tobaccos. Public auctions are held at vanous
places in Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio and the Carohnas.

REFERENCES
"Tobacco Leaf." KiUebrew and Myrick. ^^

;SuX^ESSSn''^^^^^^^ and Marketing Tobacco.

iSH^io^n^SK" ^.^LqSjralTBSo. Root Ro. Eun^s.
8hoE?pt. Station BuUetin 239 ''Breedmg Jgar FJer .^^^^^^^^ Canada.

L?aers' W A UJ De^^^^^^^^ ,„, Tennessee.;

Itl: "Suctton of Cigar Leaf Tobacco in Pennsylvania."
523. "Tobacco Curing."
571. "Tobacco Culture.'

>»

»»

CHAPTER 26

Weeds and Their Eradication

kp.r.^^''''^ "^"^ *^^ ^'"■™f '"u" '"'*'* ^^*'^^ ^^^ persistent enemy. If he would

Seldon^Ttl! '' T*'"'' ^' r^* ^"^^ ^ ''^^t^""^! warfare against Them
Seldom IS there soil so poor that it will not grow weeds, and the richer the

soil the greater the weed crop. They seem to have been equipped by nature
to hold their own in the struggle for existence, for they manage to thrive
despite heat or cold, drought or flood. ^

Some may ask: Why do weeds exist? They undoubtedly have a
place in nature's great plan. They are her agents in restoring fertility to
the soil. If unmolested they will cover the soil as a blanket, first as weeds

wll lu'"'f^ "■•'P' ^"'^ °" ^^"^^'^ P^«fitable, and then abandoned!

Weeds then take possession, and by returning nitrogen to the soil thev
become restorative agents. Give nature time enough and she will restore
any land to its normal fertility.

Damage Done by Weeds.-It is impos.sihle to calculate the damage
done yearly in the United States by weed.s. Investigators roughly esti-
mate it to be hundreds of millions of dollars

Weeds Reduce Crop Yields.-Weeds are more rapid of growth and
more tenacious of life than cultivated plants. They crowd out the rightful
occupants of the soil, depriving them of air and sunshine. Being more
vigorous, they absorb from the soil the plant food that should be used bv
the crops, thus reducing the jdeld. A ton of dried pigweed contains as
much phosphoric acid, twice as much nitrogen and five times as much
potash as a ton of ordinary manure.

Weeds also absorb moisture in greater quantities and more rapidlv
than crop p ants. They are more drought resistant, for, having appro-
priated all the moisture to themselves, they continue to thrive while the

o^nl cf^'n *^T '!'''"• I^^P<^riments prove that some weeds transpire
Zdi) to 270 pounds of water to develop a pound of dry matter.

In addition to this, it is a well-established fact that weeds exert an
injurious effect upon crop yields by giving off from their roots substances
which are poisonous to crop plants.

Weeds cause a direct money loss by reducing land values. A would-be
purchaser is not so apt to buy a farm where the fields are thickly covered
with mustard, wild carrot or the ox-eye daisy. Naturally, the loss in value
should be borne by the man who has allowed his land to be so abused.

Weeds increase the expense of harvesting the crop. A field overrun
with weeds calls for extra labor and entails extra strain on the machinery.
M (353)

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

354

It sometimes necessitates hand labor, which is most expensive. Also the
cost of threshing and cleaning the grain is increased by the presence of

•«rppri SPPdS

Market values are lessened by impure grain. Many crops are docked
full half their value on account of noxious weed seeds. It is estimated that
the State of Minnesota alone suffers a loss annually of over $2,000,000,
because of weed seeds in the wheat.

But the loss does not stop here. Some weeds harbor and encourage
harmful fungi and insects. For example, the very common clubroot of
cabbage thrives on the various members of the wild mustard family.
Stubble overgrown with weeds harbors cut worms, beetles and other insect
pests. Mildew, smut and rust are often transferred from friendly weeds

to the grain crop. ^, • ,• +u„

Furthermore, livestock and even human bomgs lose their lives as the
result of eating poisonous berries or roots. The water hemlock or cow-
bane is fatal to sheep and cattle. The deadly loco-weed on the western
plains has caused the death of many horses and cattle.

How Introduced and Spread.— Weeds are great travelers. Ihey
travel by means of the wind and water. They are carried by birds, beasts
and human beings. They are disseminated by means of manure, feedstufls,

machinery and grain seeds.

Such weeds as the thistle, milkweed and the dandelion have dowiiy
plumes attached to each seed. The faintest breeze will carry them miles
awav where they begin life anew. Members of the dock family have
seeds' supplied with wings which enable them to float upon the water as
well as upon the breeze. Some weed seeds have sharp barbs and stickers
by which they attach themselves to the hair of animals and to the clothing
of human beings, and are thus carried into new localities.

When it is known how many thousand seeds one weed-plant produces,
it can readily be seen how great a calamity it is to let a weed bloom and go
to seed One thistle head contains enough seeds to start several thousand
plants the next year. It is estimated that one wild mustard plant produces
10,000 seeds, and one pigweed 115,000 seeds. If only a few of these seeds
germinated, the situation would not be alarming, but the chances are that
if allowed to seed a very high percentage of them will find opportunity to

propagate their kind. , • • xu u •

One of the most prolific sources of weed dissemination is m the buying
and sowing of impure seeds. Especially is this true of clover and grass
seeds In an analysis of several samples of commercial seed at one ot the
experiment stations, one sample of red clover seed was found to contain
36,000 weed seeds to the pound. A pound sample of timothy seed contamed

79,000 weed seeds. . r x j j- +^;«+o

Care should be taken to procure seeds only from uninfested districts
A farmer should have sufficient knowledge of seeds to enable him to detect
impurities. It is a wise precaution to send first for samples of seed under

WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION

355

consideration for purchase. If the farmer cannot determine with reasonable
certainty as to their purity and germinating power, he should submit his
sample to the experiment station of his state, that the weed seeds may bd
identified. These institutions gladly test samples of seeds for farmers free
of charge.

Careful screening will overcome much of the difficulty with weed seeds.

Classification of Weeds.— It is not enough to know the name of a
weed. In order to win in the struggle against a weed enemy, one must
know its habits of life and its methods of propagation. There is no weed so
vicious that it cannot be subdued or even entirely eradicated if its habits
are understood.

Weeds may be divided into three classes according to their life cycle :
annuals, biennials and perennials. Annuals complete their growth and
ripen seed in one season, such as wild mustard and ragweed. These weeds
must depend upon seed in order to grow again the following year. It can
readily be seen that if the plant is destroyed before seeds form, the source
of next year's crop is much lessened.

Unfortunately, some of these seeds are encased in an oily covering,
enabling them to resist decay. Wild mustard seed, for instance, has such
power of vitality that it has been known to germinate after having lain in
the ground for many years.

Biennials are not so easily disposed of. They require two years in
which to complete their growth. Some of them have long tap roots in
which they store up plant food during the first year. This food is used to
produce seed during the second summer. Burdock and wild carrot are
common examples of this class. These weeds are seldom seen in cultivated
fields, for the plow and cultivator are disastrous to their roots. If these
weeds are cut off even with the ground, they branch out and become
thicker than before. Cutting two or three inches below the surface so as
to destroy the crown of the plant is effective.

Perennials grow year after year and produce seed indefinitely. Some
of them reproduce by seed only, such as the ox-eye daisy and dandelion.
Others have roots running under ground from which they send up new
plants yearly. Common examples of this kind of weed are Canada thistle
and bindweed. This class of weeds is the most difficult to eradicate,
for wherever these roots are cut or bruised new stalks are sent forth
and the difficulty increased. There is one time, however, during the
growing season when these weeds are most effectively attacked; that is,
when they are in full growth, but before seeds form. No plant can live
long without a leaf system. If the plants are cut off and plowed under at
this time, many of them will be eradicated.

Repeated and persistent attacks, however, on the part of the farmer
will be necessary for ultimate success. The poorer the land becomes, the
greater the number of biennial and perennial weeds. They seem to be best
adapted to the poor conditions and will thrive where other crops fail.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

356 _^

Weed Habitats.— Bindweed, Canada thistle and horse nettle are
entirely at home in any field, whether it be corn field, meadow or feed lot.
However, it is a well-established fact that certain weeds seem to follow
certain crops. For instance, corn fields are mostly infested by such weeds
as foxtail, cockle-bur and butter-print. These can be overcome by per-
sistent cultivation. Milkweeds and the large family of mustards of which
shepherds' purse and wild radish are members, seem to follow the small
grains. The mustard family is easily overcome by cutting before it goes
to seed The milkweed, however, is more difficult to eradicate, as it spreads
by means of underground roots. Meadows and pastures have a different

Weeds an!) tHEiR eradication

357

The Manner in which Canada Thistles Spread by Underground

rootstocks.i

When the rootstocks aro brought to the surface by plowing at the right depth

they may be raked up and destroyed.

t^-pe of weed from corn and small grains. Three of the worst meadow
w'e'el arl dock, ragweed and buckhorn They spread ^Y -ed jm^y ^^^^
can be kept down by mowng before they go to seed. The ground must
also be k?pt well seeded to grass or clover, for if bare spots appear, the
wSds are quick to appropriate them. Sorrel is a pasture weed which ,s
ha?d to eradicate, as it spreads by means of underground roots. It canno
compete with red clover, however, for a place in the meadows. For this
reZnVt rs usually found in meadows where the acidity of the soil does not
encourage red clover. Plowing and sowing to cultivated crops is the best
method of eradication. If the land will not admit of cultivated crops,
Smmon salt put on the plants will kill them and keep them from

'^'' pSiples Governing ControL-The foregoing discussion suggests

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

the necessity of working out a system of farm management that will afford
weeds the least opportunity to gain a foothold. The problem is not how to
nd a farm of weeds, but how to prevent weeds in the first place. This can
7 !?^''?.^^ "" '^^'^^'*"' ""^ cropping which tak(^s into consideration the needs
ot the different fields as regards weed eradication. This phase of the
problem has been discussed under the chapter on ''Rotations.''

^ A few general principles for weed prevention and eradication are here
given:

1. Cut all weeds before seeding, if possible.

2. Burn all weeds with mature seeds. Do not plow them under.

3. Practice crop rotations.

4. Sow clean seed.

5. Watch for new weeds in your locality. If you can not identify
them, send them to your experiment station for identification.

6. See that the laws in your state dealing with control of weed plagues
are enforced.

A few of the most common weeds are here considered.*
Canada Thistle.— The Canada thistle is a perennial of European origin,
and is the most dreaded of all weed pests. It is a common weed of the
northern half of the United States. The stems of Canada thistle grow
from one to three feet tall; they are much smaller and smoother than other
thistles. The leaves are very spiny and the margin has a ruffled appear-
ance. The upper side of the leaves is smooth and bright green in color,
while the lower side is downy or hairy. The flowers are rather small^
about one-half inch in diameter and of a rose-purple color. The Canada
thistle flowers from June to September, maturing the first seed by the mid-
dle of July. The seed is smooth and light-brown in color, measuring
one-eighth of an inch in length. The seed is easily carried by the wind and
is most commonly found in medium red and alsike clover seed.

Propagation, — The Canada thistle propagates by underground root-
stocks as well as by seed. The underground rootstocks grow rather deeply
in the soil and run parallel with the surface. They are the storehouse of
the plants, and are capable of sending up young shoots for some time after
the parent plant has been destroyed. This fact explains the persistency
of the Canada thistle. As long as the plant is permitted to form green
leaves, it will manufacture plant food, which is stored in the rootstocks.
As long as plant food is present in the rootstocks they are capable of sending
up new plants, and will continue to thrive as long as they grow leaves at
the surface.

Control — The. Canada thistle occurs in all crops in the rotation,
consequently no one method of control will be effective. The details of
control had best be worked out for each particular condition.

To thoroughly subdue the pest it is necessary to starve out the root-

PeniL'^tvaSia^tatc^cfno*'o*^°"^''' ^^^^^ ^^"^ Pennsylvania Farmer, prepared by Professor Darst. of The

XA^

IC*-^ .':^- :?*^ "'

358

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION

359

H-l>'

stocks by cutting off all green parts above ground. This requires destroy-
ing the plants in some manner every week at first, and then every two weeks
until the rootstocks die of starvation.

In a small grain crop keep thc^m cut with scythe or hoe, so as not to
let them go to seed. After harvest the land should be plowed rather deeply
and then worked down with the drag harrow. All roots harrowed out
should be piled, dried and burned. The land should be disked regularly
about every ten days, so as to destroy stray plants. In the late fall the
land should be re-plowed, but not worked down, so as to expose the remain-
ing roots to frost action. In the early spring
the ground should be worked with a disk and
a smother crop sown, such as oats and Canada
field peas, millet or buckwheat.

Canada thistles occurring in pastures must
be cut out below the ground every ten days
until starved out. After cutting the plants,
it is well to pour a little kerosene on the stem
and roots. Often spraying with strong con-
centrated salt solution will be effective in
pastures and waste places. The spraying
should be done thoroughly and repeated when
young shoots reappear. Spray materials
should be applied under high pressure, and in
a vapor spray, to be effective.

After all, sprays used as a substitute for the

scythe and mower will not kill the roots below

tlie ground.

I fl When the thistle occurs in a cultivated

\^jLp^^ crop, knives or sweeps should be used on the

^^^ cultivator instead of the ordinary shovels.

The sweeps will be more effective in cutting

off the plants. The thistles that grow within

the row should be kept cut out with the hoe.

Quack Grass. — Quack grass is perennial and propagates both by seeds

and creeping underground rootstocks. The stems grow from one to two

feet tall. The leaves are ashy green in color, rough on the upper side and

smooth beneath. The plant flowers in June and seeds in July.

The plant sends out underground rootstocks which are jointed, each
joint capable of budding a new plant. Quack grass grows an enormous
root system, which soon crowds and smothers out other plants.

Control — Quack grass may be subdued if no green leaves are allowed
to develop. Since quack grass makes fair pasture, a good plan, where
possible, is to pasture it close to the ground during the midsummer; then
plow deeply in the early fall. The ground should be worked down immedi-

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

The Canada Thistle

{Circium arvense).^
B— Seed enlarged.

Quack Grass {Agropyron repens).^

ately with the spike-tooth harrow. This will drag out a great many of the

roots. These should be dragged or

raked to one end of the field, to be

dried in piles and then, burned. The

ground should be plowed the second

time, late in the fall. This should be

done crossways of the first plowing.

The ground should be worked down

again with the harrow and as many of

the rootstocks dragged out, piled and

burned as possible.

The next spring cultivation should

begin as early as possible, the ground

being worked every few days. Then a

cultivated crop should be planted,

preferably corn. The corn should be

planted in hills so that cultivation

can be given both ways of the field.

The corn should be cultivated thor-
oughly and a close watch kept for

any stray quack grass which may come up.
If there is any doubt as to whether
the quack grass is completely killed, a
mixture of hairy vetch and rye should be
sown in the last cultivation of the com.
This cover crop should be plowed down the
next spring and a heavy seeding of millet
sown. The cover crop and the millet fol-
lowing the corn will surely smother out the
last of the quack grass.

A thick covering of straw or manure a
foot or so thick and well packed down, will
smother out the grass. It will take from
two to three months to smother out quack
grass, as the roots remain alive for some
time even though the tops above ground
be dead.

Foxtail. — The grean and yellow foxtails

are very similar in appearance and in habit.

They are both annuals and propagate by

seed alone, seeding from August to October.

The yellow foxtail is a common weed all over the world, while the

green foxtail is found mostly in North America. The seed of the foxtails

are common impurities in many grass and legume seeds. Once in the

» Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

Green Foxtail (Getaria
viridis)}

1 — Concave side of seed.
3 — Convex side of seed.

Both enlarged.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

360

ground, they retain their vitality for many years, germinating only when
brought near the surface of the ground. The stems of the foxtails grow
from one to four feet tall. The leaves are three to six inches long and are
rather wide, flat and smooth. The seed heads are from two to four inches
long. The seed is yellowish-brown in color, about one-tenth of an inch in

length and ovoid in shape.

Control— In grain fields the stubbles should be given surface cultiva-
tion or, if the soil is dry enough, burning over will destroy the seeds that
have fallen on the ground.

In cultivated crops tillage should be continued very late, m order to

prevent the development
and distribution of seed
from late-grown plants.
Sheep may be turned in to
graze down the aftermath
of infested meadows.

Dodders. — There are
several kinds of dodders;
those found in this
country are known as
common dodder, field
dodder, clover dodder and
alfalfa dodder.

They are annuals
and propagate by seed,
and are very pecuUar
weeds because they live
upon other plants. From
their habit of growth they
are known as parasites.
The seeds of the
dodder germinate in the soil and the young plants soon perish unless
they come in contact with a clover or alfalfa p ant. Once in contact
with a suitable host plant, the roots of the weed soon decay The fine
yellowish and reddish stems twine about the host and «pri^^d from plant
to plant; a single dodder plant often growing on several different host

"^'"U* wetdXves^H; nourishment by sending little suckei. out into
the stems of the plant on which it grows. Dodders appear hfeless to the
casual observer as the leaves are reduced to mere scales

The white or pink flowers occur in clusters along the slender stems.
During the latter part of summer the cluster may contain flowers m bloom

and the matured seed at the same time. • , j a r^doh o-m

Small patches of dodder may result from a single seed. A patch can

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvama Farmer.

A B C

Field Dodder. Flax Dodder. Alfalfa Dodder.^
_ Seeds enlarged. AMiuTDodder.

WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION

361

be distinguished at quite a distance on account of its distinct yellowish
cast.

Dodder seed is very difficult to remove from clover and alfalfa seed.

Eradication. — The first step in the control of dodder is to sow clean
seed. Clover and alfalfa seed should be carefully examined for the pest
before it is sown.

When a field is badly infested the crop should be plowed under before
the seeds form. Dodder seed, plowed
under, may remain in the soil for seven or
eight years and then germinate. After
plowing, plant a cultivated crop for a year
or two; as the weed is an annual, it yields
readily to cultivation.

When dodder occurs in small patches
it may be successfully eradicated by dig-
ging up the infested areas. To avoid scat-
tering the seed, dry and burn the plants
on the spot.

The dried plants may be burned by
covering them with straw or shavings
soaked with kerosene. After the first
burning, stir the surface with a rake, then
burn over for the second time, so as to de-
stroy any seed that may have matured and
fallen to the ground.

After a patch has been dug up, burned
and re-seeded, it will be well to watch for

stray plants which may come. If such Buckhorn or Narrow-leaved
plants appear, destroy them before flower- Plantain {Plantago lanceolata)}
mg tune. B — Two times natural size of seeds.

When dodder seed is allowed to *

mature in clover or alfalfa hay it should not be removed from the field,
but should be dried and burned.

Weed sprays are sometimes recommended for killing dodder in clover
and alfalfa. The spraying should be done before or at blooming time in
ord(»r to prevent the seed formation. A twenty per cent solution of iron
sulphate is found effective on alfalfa fields. The spray will kill the parasite
and apparently destroy the crop, but a new growth of alfalfa will spring
from the roots as soon as the plant is relieved of the pest.

Buckhorn. — Buckhorn is a perennial of European origin. The weed
propagates by seed, which matures any time from May to November.
The plant has a short, thick root-stem which enables it to exist over winter.
Buckhorn leaves are long and slender, borne in rosette-like clusters at the
surface of the ground. The plant does not produce st^-ms as other weeds

> Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

362

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION

363

commonly do, but sends up a stiff, slender flower stalk one to two feet long,
at the end of which there is a short, compact head or spike. The figure
shows the plant in bloom. After blooming, the heads elongate somewhat
and turn a dark brown color. The seeds are shaped like a coffee grain, but
very much smaller, measuring about one-tenth of an inch long. The seeds
are a shiny amber to rich brown color. A dark-colored scar is present on
the concave surface, while a narrow yellowish stripe is generally present
on the back of the seed.

Control, — Buckhorn is a very common and persistent weed in meadows,

pastures and lawns. It is without doubt
the most common of all weed seed in clover
and alfalfa seed. In fact, it is very difficult
to buy seed, even from the best of seedsmen,
that is entirely free from this weed. The
first step in controlling the weed on the farm
is to sow nothing but clean seed.

Where meadows and pastures are badly
infested they should be plowed and a culti-
vated crop grown for one or two years. By
thorough cultivation and the use of hoes, all
plants may be destroyed before going to
seed. The seed remaining in the soil will
be induced to germinate by frequent culti-
vation, thus making it possible to rid a field
of the pest in one or two seasons.

Small areas in lawns may be controlled
by cutting out with a spud or narrow-bladed
hoe. This method is more effective during
hot, dry weather. Buckhorn can be de-
stroyed with carbolic acid without injuring or
defacing the lawn. Stab each plant in the
center, down to the fibrous cluster of roots,
with a pointed stick and squirt into the opening a f ev drops of the acid
with a common machine oil can.

Plantain.— The common plantain is a very persistent weed in
lawns and yards. The plant is a perennial and propagates by seed. Plan-
tain does not produce a true stem as most other plants. The leaves, which
grow in a tuft near the ground are large, coarse and oval in shape. The
weed flowers from May throughout the summer and ripe seed may be found

by July.

The seeds are dark brown to black, slightly flattened, with acute
edges. They are variable in shape, measuring one-twentieth of an inch in

length. .

Control— Common plantain when occurring in fields will yield readily

» Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

Common or Broad-leaved
Plantain {Plantago major) ,^

B — Two times natural size of
seeds.

to thorough cultivation. The control is the same as recommended for
buckhorn.

In lawns the most practical method of eradicating it is by hand
digging. If the plant is cut off several inches below the ground during
dry weather, it will give no more trouble.

Carbolic acid may be used in the same manner as recommended for
buckhorn, where digging roughens the lawn.

Pigweed.— Pigweed is an annual and is commonly found growing in
cultivated fields and waste places. While the weed itself is not hard to
eradicate, yet it produces abundantly
seeds which have long vitality. The seed
has been known to survive in the ground
for more than twenty years.

The pigweed has a long, fleshy, red
taproot. The main stem is erect, stout,
woody and slightly branched. The stem
and branches are covered with stiff, short
hairs.

Usually the plant will grow from one
to four feet tall, but under more favorable
conditions it will often reach six feet.

The leaves are long and ovate in
shape, measuring from three to six inches
in length. The small greenish flowers
are crowded into thick, compact heads
which are borne at the ends of the
branches or in the axils of the leaves.
The pigweed flowers from July to Sep-
tember and produces enormous quantities
of small, shiny seeds. The seed is a jet Pigweed (Amaranthus rctroflcxus).^
black color, oval and flat in shape. It C— Root.

l)ropagates by seeds only.

Control. — Pigweed seed is commonly found in commercial seeds of
different kinds. The first step in its eradication is to guard against buying
seed containing this weed.

Thorough cultivation will suppress the weed. In case cultivation
cannot be continued late into the summer the weed should be pulled or cut
out with a hoe before going to seed. Plants which are pulled or cut while
blooming should be destroyed, as thoy frequently mature seed after cut.

Pigweed may be destroyed in small grain crops by the use of the weeder
or the spike-tooth harrow. By going over the grain field when the crop is
but a few inches tall the small seedlings may be dug out without injuring
the grain. If the weed makes its appearance later on in the growth of a
small grain crop, it may be killed with an iroii QV copper sulphate spray,

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer,

I ,-\hV" ■'•I'jj

364

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION

365

The spray to be effective must be applied before the grain })egins to head
and before the weeds bloom.

Lamb's-Quarters. — Lamb's-quarters is sometimes known as smooth
pigweed or white goosefoot. This weed is a very common annual through-
out the world. It is commonly found in cultivated fields, orchards and

gardens.

Lamb's-quarters is distinguished by its upright grooved and many
branched stem. The stems are often striped with purple. The plant is a
rapid grower and attains a height of from two to four feet. The leaves are
quite variable as to size and shape, the lower ones on the stock being com-
paratively large and irregular, while the
upper ones are rather small and narrow.
The small greenish flowers are borne
on the ends or in the axils of the branches.
The entire plant presents a silvery gray
or mealy appearance which distinguishes
it from the true pigweed. The seed is
about one-twentieth of an inch in diam-
eter, lens-shaped and a dull black color.
The seeds have long vitality, lying dor-
mant in the soil for many years.

The control of lamb's-quarters is
similar to that of pigweed. In hoed
crops the weed is very persistent and
cultivation should te continued until late
in the season. In gardens and other
small areas the weed should be pulled or
chopped out while young.

Since the plants are very succulent
while young, sheep may be used to
pasture them where conditions will per-
mit. Cultivation in the late summer or fall will germinate seed remaining
in the soil which will eliminate the seed that may germinate the next

year.

Wild Mustard or Charlock. — The crucifera^ or mustard family con-
tains a large number of weeds, of which the wild mustard and tumbling
mustard are the most troublesome. The plants of this family may be
recognized by the shape of the flowers, which consist of four petals arranged
like arms of a cross. This character was used as the basis for naming the

family.

Wild mustard, because of its immense productiveness and the exceed-
ingly long vitality of its seeds, is one of the most difficult weeds to dislodge.

It is an annual plant, which in its earlier stages of growth bears some
resemblance to the radish or yellow-fleshed varieties of the turnip. It

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer,

Lamb 's-Qu ARTE Rs, or Smooth
Pigweed (Chenopodium album) J

A — Root.

B — Seed enlarged three times
natural size.

produces erect branching stems from one to three feet in height which are
somewhat roughened by short stiff hairs.

The leaves are quite variable ; the lower ones are slender-stalked and
deeply pinnatifid, forming one large terminal lobe with two to four smaller
lateral lobes. *

The upper leaves are irregularly toothed, somewhat hairy and have
very short petioles; the lobes are not very pronounced, while the terminal
one is much narrower than the terminal lobe
of the lower leaves.

The plant flowers from June to September
and mature seeds may be found as early as
August. The bright yellow, fragrant flowers
which are about one-half inch in diameter are
borne in elongated clusters at the end of the
stem and branches.

The flowers begin to open at the bottom of
the cluster, which lengthens as the season
advances, and the pods form and empty so that
there may be emptied pods below and forming
pods above. One of the pods may contain
from four to twelve seeds.

The round dark reddish-brown seeds are
about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter.
They are a common impurity of grass and ,
clover seeds.

Wild mustard grows in all kinds of grain
crops that are sown in the spring and usually
matures its seeds before the grain in which it
grows is ripe. Where spring grains are chiefly
grown the contest with this weed will be a
difficult one.

Wild mustard is distributed by different
agencies. Some of the small seeds are carried
from place to place by the birds, but usually
the weed finds its way to new centers in grain seed. The threshing
machine is also a potent means of carrying it from farm to farm.

It is further distributed over farms on which it grows by means of
manures. It is also very frequently distributed by spring floods; when
this is the case the farmer has a difficult job.

Control. — Wild mustard seed is a common impurity of small grain,
clover and alfalfa seed. The first step in its eradication is to avoid sowing
seed containing the pest. As the seeds are small, they are easily removed
from wheat, oats and barley by screening. Wild mustard is most common
in grain fields and generally disappears in grass and cultivated crops.

Wild' Mustard
(Brassica arvensis).^

A — Pod, natural size.
B — Blossom, one-third natu-
ral size.
C — Seed enlarged four times.

Courtesy of The Penaaylvaiiia Farmer.

.'-/:.r:¥.i»?liif'

366

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

A good short rotation will in time reduce the seed in the soil. In
grain iBelds, young seedlings may be harrowed out when the grain is but a
few inches high. Later on the mustard may be destroyed by the use of
iron sulphate or copper sulphate spray. Iron sulphate is probably the
most efficient and cheapest spray. The spraying should be done before
the grain heads are out and when the mustard is just beginning to flower.
The spraying at this time will kill practically all the mustard with little
or no injury to the grain. Spraying for weeds should be done on a bright,
still day when there are no' immediate prospects of rain. For spraying,

use a solution made by dissolving 100
pounds of iron sulphate in 52 gallons of
water. This solution should be used at
the rate of 50 gallons to the acre and put
on at a high pressure of 100 or more pounds
to the square inch. The spraying can be
done at a cost of approximately $1.25 per
acre.

Shepherd's-Purse. — Shepherd's-purse
is sometimes known as Case weed, St.
James' weed and Mother's Heart. " With
the exception of the chickweed, it is prob-
ably the most common weed on earth,"
being found in all cultivated regions of the
world.

Shepherd's-purse is very prolific and
its seeds have long vitality. This weed
often harbors the club-root fungus, so
common on cabbage, cauliflower, turnips
and radishes, and will infect soil where
those plants are cultivated.

Shepherd's-purse is an annual, or
winter annual. It is one of the first plants
to make its appearance in the spring and it is not uncommon to find
it making a good growth in March.

The seeds, as a rule, germinate in the fall and form a rosette of leaves,
close to the ground. From this rosette the following spring, aris(» the stems
which vary from three inches to two feet in height. The leaves growing
close to the ground are rather long and deeply cut, while those on the stem
are small and arrow shaped. The small white flowers are borne in elon-
gated heads or racemes. On the flowering stalks will be found all gradua-
tions from a small bunch of flowers in bloom at the end, down to mature

pods below.

Shepherd's-purse is propagated by seeds only, which germinate either
in the fall or spring. This weed flowers and produces seed throughout the

> Courtesy of The Pennaylvania Farmer.

Shepherd's-Purse
{Capsella hursapastoris) .^

A — Enlarged seed pod.
B — Enlarged seed.

WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION

367

season. An average size plant will produce about 2000 seeds. The seeds
are very small and covered with a transparent, mucilaginous material
which preserves them in the soil for several seasons.

Control — Shepherd's-purse may be controlled in the field or garden
by thorough cultivation and use of the hoe.

In meadows or small grain fields the weed may be destroyed by spray-
ing. Spray while the weed is still young, and if possible before it blooms.
Seventy-five pounds of iron sulphate to fifty gallons of water is recom-
mended as a good weed spray. The spray material should be applied under
high pressure and in mist. It will take about fifty gallons to the acre.

If one intends to spray weeds in pastures or small grain crops on a
large scale, it will pay to purchase a weed sprayer, which is better adapted
for the work and will be more effective and economical than ordinary
sprayers.

Weeds can be sprayed in grass fields, but not in alfalfa or clover
fields, as the spray will kill the clover as well as the weeds.

Peppergrass. — Peppergrass is a native of this country; an annual,
and propagates by seed. It seeds from June to October and will be found
in small grains and clover fields. The seed is often found in timothy and
red clover seed on the market.

Peppergrass grows from six inches to two feet tall and is much
branched. The weed sometimes becomes a tumble weed because of its
spreading growth.

The flowers are white and very small, borne on racemes or elongated
heads. The seeds are formed in round but flattened pods. They are
small, measuring about one-sixteenth of an inch in length.

Birds are very fond of the seed and dispose of large quantities.

Control — The control is similar to that of shepherd's-purse. Care
should be taken in plowing under plants that are nearly mature, since part
of the seeds will germinate.

Badly infested land should be planted to a cultivated crop and thor-
oughly cultivated; thorough cultivation being all that is necessary to

control the weed.

Cocklebur. — Cocklebur is known by several other common names,
i.6., ^^Clotbur,'' '^Sheepsbur,'' ^^Buttonbur^' and ^^Ditchbur.^' This weed
is an annual and native of this country. The plant is coarse, rough and
branched, growing from one to four feet tall. The stems are angled and
often reddish, spotted with brown. The leaves are broad, bristly rough on
both sides and placed alternately on the stems.

Cocklebur bears the male and female flowers at different places on the
plant. The male flowers are borne above and near the end of the main
stem, while the female flower clusters are borne below in the axils of the

leaves.

The seeds of the cocklebur are borne in reddish-brown, two-peaked
burs which are covered with stout hooked prickles. Each bur contains

368

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

two seeds. It is claimed that one of the two seeds germinate the first year
and the other the following year, thus insuring at least seed for two years.
Control. — Clean cultivation and the rotation of crops are 1-ecommended
for this obnoxious weed. Infested corn fields should be put into a small
grain crop, followed by clover or grass. The harvesting of these crops will
kill or behead the weed before it has time to grow much or develop burs.
Plants that have formed burs should be cut, raked and burned.

Field Bindweed or Wild Morning Glory. — It is most commoniy found

in grain fields, meadows and waste places.
'*It is a most obnoxious weed, spreading
chiefly by means of its long, creeping, cord-
like roots, which at any part of their length
may bud new plants." Small bits of the
roots may be broken off and carried quite
a distance [by a cultivator and produce
new plants.

'^The stems are smooth, slightly
angled, slender, one to three feet long, twin-
ing about and over any plants within
reach," tending to smother them. The
leaves are cordate or heart-shaped, one to
one and one-half inches long, with back-
ward pointing lobes at the base. The
flowers are pink, sometimes nearly white,
funnel-shaped, about one inch in diameter
at the mouth of the tube.

This plant is propagated by seed and
the underground fleshy root-stocks. It
flowers from June throughout the summer
and mature seed may be found in July.
The seeds, which are borne in globular,
CocKLEBUR {Xanthium canadense).^ two-celled capsules, are dull, dark brown,
A— Bur two-thirds natural size, about one-eighth inch long, rough, oval,

with one side flat and the other rounded.
Control. — If the land is planted to crops that can be cultivated very
often throughout the growing season, field bindweed can be completely
eradicated in two years.

When this weed grows in pastures and waste places, its growth may be
checked by allowing sheep to have access to the places where it grows. Three
years of pasturing with a large number of sheep will greatly weaken this
pest, if not kill it entirely.

Infested land should be plowed in the late summer after a crop has
been removed and hogs which have not been ringed turned in for the
purpose of turning out and eating the succulent roots, of which they are

* Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION

369

very fond. If hogs are again turned into the field as soon as possible in
the spring and left until planting time the weed will be considerably
weakened in vitality.

Hedge Bindweed. — This weed is very similar to field bindweed and
about as hard to eradicate; its rootstocks are larger and not so diflScult
to remove from the soil. The trailing or
twining stems are three to ten feet or more
in length and have the same method of
destroying other plants. The leaves are
smooth, long, triangular and pointed at the
end instead of rounded as the field bindweed.
The base of the leaves forms pointed lobes.
The funnel-shaped flowers are about two
inches long, pink with white stripes or clear
white. They are borne singly on slender
flower stocks in the axils of the leaves.
The seed capsules are globular and may
contain four seeds, but often only three are
fertile; the dark-brown, kidney-shaped
seeds are angular and about one-eighth inch
long. They retain vitality for several years.

Control. — The rootstalks should be
starved persistently by the frequent cutting
of the stems. The weed loves the mellow
soil of a cornfield. If the land is planted
to corn, this will mean that as soon as the
corn is too large to be cultivated by a
cultivator the field should be gone over
with a hoe and all young shoots cut off as
soon as they make their appearance.
Keeping them cut prevents the pest from
maturing seed and leaves to re-stock the
underground storehouse with food for
another year.

Fifty Worst Weeds. — The following table gives an alphabetical list
of the fifty worst weeds of the United States, with such information as will
enable the reader: (1) to identify them; (2) to determine the nature and
place of their greatest injuriousness; (3) to determine their duration or
natural length of life, that is, whether annual, biennial or perennial; and
(4) some methods of eradication. With this knowledge one will be able to
attack much more intelligently any troublesome weed.

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

Field Bindweed

{Convolvulus arvensis) .*

After F. S. Matthews in Manual
of Weeds, by Ada E. Georgia.

370

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

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WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATION

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WEEDS AND THEIR ERADICATIO

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SUCCESSFUL FARMING

REFERENCES

"A Manual of Weeds." A. E. Georgia.

^'Farm Weeds of Canada." Clark.

''Common Weeds of the Farm and Garden." Long and Percival.

''Weeds and How to Eradicate Them." Shaw.

North Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 112. "Fertility and Weeds/'

Canadian Dept of Agriculture Bulletin 188. "Weeds of Ontario."

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 257.
in Corn Cultivation."

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

306. "Dodder in Relation to Farm Seeds."

334. "Weed Seeds in Feeding-stuffs and Manure."

368. "Eradication of Bindweed or Wild Morning Glory."

464. "Eradication of Quack Grass."

545. "Controlling Canada Thistles."

610. "Wild Onion: Methods of Eradication."

"Weed Factor

BOOK III

HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY AND

FLORICULTURE

(375)

CHAPTER 27

The Principles of Vegetable Gardening

By R. L. Watts
Dean and Director, School of Agriculture and Experiment Station,

The Pennsylvania State College

A thorough knowledge of the underlying principles of vegetable
gardening is exceedingly important, whether the vegetables are to be grown
for the home table or for commercial purposes.

Soils and Locations. — Soils containing a considerable quantity of
sand are best adapted to the growing of vegetables. Such soils are well
drained, easily culti-
vated, and may be
worked early in the
spring. Sandy soils
are warmer than clay
soils, and for this rea-
son crops mature
earlier in them. They
are especially desira-
ble for crops requiring
high temperatures,
such as eggplants,
peppers and melons.
Any soil, however,
which satisfactorily
produces general farm
crops, will, with proper
treatment, grow good
garden crops. The clay
soils are avoided so far
as possible by market
gardeners and South-
ern truck growers.
Southern or southeastern exposures are preferable for vegetable gardening
because they are warmer and, therefore, conducive to earlier crops.
Northern and western exposures are satisfactory for the later crops. Natural
or artificial windbreaks are of advantage where there are cold exposures.

XT 1 ' pourtesy of New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. From Cornell Reading Courses,
Vol. II.

(377)

if.

Necessary Garden Tools.^

CHAPTER 27

The Principles of Vegetable Gardening

By 11. L. Watts

Dean and Director, School of Agriculture and Experiment Station,

The Pennsylvania State College

A thorough knowledge of the underlying principles of vegetable
gardening is exceedingly important, whether the vegetables are to be grown
for the home table or for commercial purposes.

Southern or southeastern exposures are preferable for vegetable gardening
because they are warmer and, therefore, conducive to earlier crops.
Northern and western exposures are satisfactory for the later crops. Natural
or artificial windbreaks are of advantage where there are cold exposures.

' Courtesy of New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. From Cornell Reading Courses,
Vol. IL

(377)

Necessary Garden Tools.^

\. i

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

378

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Tillage and Tools. — The importance of thorough tillage in the pro-
duction of vegetables cannot be over-emphasized. It counts for high yields '
as well as high quality. The conservation of soil moisture should be kept
constantly in mind. Vegetables are composed largely of water and enor-
mous quantities of it are required in their growth. Fall plowing is often
advisable, especially in clay soils which are to be planted early the follow-
ing spring. Early spring plowing, followed by immediate harrowing, is
favorable to the retention of moisture.

The prudent garden maker will possess at least a small assortment of
carefully selected modern tools or implements. Of the hand tools, the
hand seed-drill and hand wheel-hoe are great time and energy savers and
should be employed in all market gardens and in most home gardens. A
variety of hand hoes and rakes should also be available.

Stable Manures. — ^All classes of vegetable growers recognize the value
of stable manure. It not only supplies plant food, but adds humus to the
soil, thus making it more retentive of moisture and more favorable to
chemical and bacteriological changes which are essential to plant growth.
Horse manure is most universally employed. Market gardeners nearly
always compost it in large piles, which are kept moist and turned one or
more times before the manure is used. If the piles have rectangular sides
and are kept moist there will be practically no loss of fertility during the
process of composting. From four to six weeks of composting will kill all
weed-seeds and leave the manure in the finest state of texture. Cow manure
is most excellent for all classes of vegetables, but it is slower in action than
horse manure. Sheep and poultry manures are rich in nitrogen and their
texture makes tliem particularly desirable for vegetable gardening.

Cover Crops. — In vegetable gardening it is absolutely essential to
maintain the supply of vegetable matter in the soil. If stable manures are
not available, cover crops must be produced for manurial purposes. The
legumes, such as vetch, cowpeas, soy beans and the clovers, are most
desirable, provided they can be grown satisfactorily, because they mate-
rially add to the supply of soil nitrogen. Rye, oats and buckwheat, how-
ever, can often be used to great advantage. The usual practice is to sow
the seed of cover crops before the last cultivation of vegetables which
mature and are harvested during the fall months.

Commercial Fertilizers. — Commercial vegetable growers are seldom
able to obtain, at reasonable prices, all the stable manure that they need
for the maximum production of crops. In many instances they rely wholly
upon green crops for humus, and purchase commercial fertilizers to supply
plant-food. There is the most varied practice with reference to the kinds
and amounts of fertilizer applied for the various crops. The character of
the fertilizer depends upon the crops to be grown, nature of soil, previous
treatment and seasonal conditions. If stable manures have been used in
liberal amounts, say twenty to forty tons to the acre, and for truck crops
like cabbage and sweet corn, it is seldom necessary to use more than half

PRINCIPLES OF GARDENING

379

a ton of fertilizer to the acre, containing four per cent of nitrogen and seven
or eight per cent of each of the mineral elements — potash and phosphoric
acid. As a rule, a complete fertilizer should be applied before the crops are
planted, and thoroughly mixed with the soil by harrowing. If additional
plant-food is needed after the crop is started, it may be applied along
the rows. Nitrate of soda is largely used for this purpose. Applications
may range from 100 to 250 pounds to the acre, and if desired may be
applied at intervals of ten days to three weeks.

The Use of Lime.— The values of lime are discussed in Chapter 6.
Vegetable growers recognize the necessity, more than ever, of keeping their
soils in a neutral or slightly alkaline condition, so that liming at regular
intervals is probably a necessity on most soils, and especially those which
receive large annual applications of acid fertilizers. Serious troubles are
likely to develop in such soils and it is desirable to take preventive measures
by liming the land. This is the best known treatment of soils to prevent
clubroot which infects cabbage and other members of this family.

Seeds and Seed Sowing.— The utmost care should be exercised to
obtain seed of the highest quality. Numerous experiments show that there
is marked variation in the strains of our most common varieties of cabbage,
tomatoes, lettuce, onions and other classes of vegetables. A superior
strain may mean a profit of fifty to one hundred dollars more to the acre
than one which is inferior. The most reliable seedsmen should be patron-
ized. It may even pay to grow seed at home or to buy from specialists
who have developed strains of unusual merit.

A fine, moist seed-bed is essential to germination, whether the seeds
are sown under glass or in the open ground. The surface of the ground
should also be smooth, so that the seeds will be covered with a uniform
depth of soil.

Transplanting.— Vegetable growers find that transplanting is often a
great advantage if not a necessity. It makes it possible to care for thou-
sands of seedlings on a very small area. For example, it is easily possible
to start 10,000 cabbage plants under a 3 x 6 foot hotbed sash, while ten
sash are necessary to protect that number of seedlings after they have
been transplanted.

Vegetable plants should be transferred to their new quarters before
they have become crowded and spindling. The time of sowing should be
carefully planned so that this condition will be avoided.

Machine planters are largely used in field operations. If they are
properly managed, they do the work fully as well as it can be done by hand.
Whatever the method employed, the main essential is to bring a consider-
able quantity of fine, moist soil into close contact with the roots.

Starting Early Plants.— Soil to be used for starting early plants should
be fine, free from stones and sticks and fairly rich. For cabbage or cauli-
flower, it should be taken from land that has not grown either those or
other members of the cabbage family for seven or eight years in order to

380

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

avoid clubroot. The soil should also contain considerable humus, and some
sand is a great advantage. If comi)ost(Hl, two parts of loam, one part of
rotten manure and one part of sand will give good results. It is always
desirable to prepare and store the soil in the fall, so that it will be ready for
use when wanted in February or March.

Flats or shallow plant boxes are a great convenience in starting early
plants. They may be made of new lumber or of empty store boxes. Chest-
nut and cedar are very durable woods for this purpose. The thin pine
boards of boot and shoe boxes are easily made over. A common plan is to
rip soap and tomato boxes into sections, using any kind of thin lumber

One of the Many Good Types of Seed Drills.^

for the bottom of the flats. Plant boxes need not have a depth of more
than two inches, though deeper boxes require less attention in watering
because they hold more soil, and, consequently, more water.

Seed sowing with such crops as cabbage and lettuce usually begins
about the first of February in northern districts and earlier in the South.
While the seed may be sown broadcast in flats or beds, the better plan is
to sow in rows about two inches apart. This is ample space for all of the
vegetables which are ordinarily started under glass. If ten to twelve good
seeds are dropped to each inch of furrow, there should be a satisfactory
stand of plants. The furrows should be about one-quarter inch deep for

1 Courtesy of New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. From Cornell Reading Courses,
Vol. III.

PRINCIPLES OF GARDENING

381

seeds sown under glass, with the exception of celery, which should barely
be covered. After the seeds are sown, the furrows may be closed quickly
by drawing a small pot label or the thumb and index finger along the
rows. The soil should be firmed with a block and thoroughly watered. If
possible, the soil should be made so moist that no additional watering
will be necessary until the plants are up.

Some fresh air should be admitted to the hotbed or greenhouse daily,
unless the weather is unusually severe. This is essential to strong, stocky
plants. High temperatures and excessive moisture, both in the soil and
atmosphere, are conducive to the growth of weak, spindling plants which
are liable to damp off, and if they do not die, are very tedious to transplant.
A safe rule is not to water unless it is absolutely necessary and then to
water thoroughly. If the flats are in hotbeds and the
weather is severe, it will be necessary to protect the plants
at night by means of mats tliose made of rye straw being
the most satisfactory.

In three to five weeks from sowing cabbage and many
other vegetables the seedlings wuU be large enough to trans-
plant. This operation may be performed any time after
the rough or true leaves make their appearance. Soil such
as has been described for seed sowing will be found satisfac-
tory for this purpose. The flats or shallow plant boxes
are also exceedingly useful receptacles in which to care for
the plants until they are taken to the field. It is desirable
to place about an inch of rotten manure in the bottom of
the flat before filling it with soil. The soil should be
moist enough to w^ork well, and it is important to press it
well along the sides and in the corners of the boxes.

Cabbage, lettuce and other plants are set from an inch
and one-half to two inches apart. If they are to be kept
in the flats for an unusual length of time, more space should
be allowed. The work of transplanting may be done rapidly by the use
of a small, pointed stick, often called a dibble. This simple tool is used
to make the holes as well as to press the soil against the small roots of the
plants. Sometimes transplanting boards, with holes bored in check rows,
are used, and then a dibble is employed to punch all the holes before any
plants are dropped. This method provides for a uniform number of
plants to each box.

If the soil is just moist enough to work well during the transplanting,
it will not be necessary to apply any water until the plants are well estab-
lished. This is a great advantage, especially if the plants are placed in
cold-fram(»s and the weath(»r is very severe.

After the plants have been in the cold-frame from several days to a

A Dibble*

(One-fifth actual
size.)

Very handy for
making holes
in which toset
small plants.

1 Courtesy of New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. From Cornell Reading Courses.
Vol. li. " '

1 1

380

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

avoid clul)ro()t. The soil should also contain considora])le humus, and some
sand is a groat advantage. If coniiKJsted, two i)arts of loam, one part of
rotten manure and one i)art of sand will give good results. It is always
desirable to pr(^i)ar(* and store tlu^ soil in the fall, so that it will be ready for
use when wanted in Fel)ruary or j\Iareh.

Flats or shallow plant boxes are a great eonvc^nience in starting early
plants. They may be made of new lumb(T or of empty store boxes. Chest-
nut and cedar are very durable woods for this purpose. The thin pine
boards of boot and shoe boxes are easily made over. A common plan is to
rip soap and tomato boxes into sections, using any kind of thin lumber

One of the Many Good Types of Seed Drills.^

Seed sowing with such crops as cabbage and lettuce usually begins
about the first of February in northern districts and earli(T in the South.
While the seed may be sown broadcast in flats or beds, the better plan is
to sow in rows about two inches apart. This is ample space for all of the
vegetables which are ordinarily started under glass. If ten to twelve good
seeds are dropped to each inch of furrow, there should be a satisfactory
stand of plants. The furrows should be about one-quarter inch deep for

i Courtesy of New York State College of Agrioulture, Ithaca, N. Y. From Cornell Reading Courses,
Vol. III.

PRINCIPLES OF GARDENING

381

Some fresh air should be admitted to the hotbed or greenhouse daily,
unless the weather is unusually severe. This is essential to strong, stocky
plants. High temperatures and excessive moisture, both in the soil and
atmosphere, are conducive to the growth of weak, spindhng plants which
are liable to damp off, and if they do not die, are very tedious to transplant.
A safe rule is not to water unless it is absolutely necessary and then to
water thoroughly. If the flats are in hotbeds and the
weather is severe, it will be necessary to protect the plants
at night by means of mats those made of rye straw being
the most satisfactory.

In three to five weeks from sowing cabbage and many
other vegetables the seedlings will be large enough to trans-
plant. This operation may be performed any time after
the rough or true leaves make their appearance. Soil such
as has been dcvscribed for seed sowing will be found satisfac-
tory for this purpose. The flats or shallow plant boxes
are also exceedingly useful receptacles in which to care for
the plants until they are taken to the field. It is desirable
to place about an inch of rotten manure in the bottom of
the flat before filling it with soil. The soil should be
moist enough to work well, and it is important to press it
well along the sid(\s and in the corners of the boxes.

Cabbage, lettuce and other plants are set from an inch
and one-half to two inches apart. If they are to be kept
in the flats for an unusual length of time, more space should
l)e allowed. The work of transplanting may be done rapidly by the use
of a small, j:)ointed stick, often called a dibble. This simple tool is used
to make the holes as well as to press t\w soil against the small roots of the
plants. Sometimes transplanting boards, with holes bored in check rows,
are used, and then a dibl^le is employed to punch all the holes before any
plants are dropped. This method provides for a uniform number of
plants to each })ox.

If the soil is just moist enough to work well during the transplanting,
it will not })e necessary to apply any water until the plants are well estab-
lished. This is a great advantage, (^si)ecially if the plants are placed in
cold-frames and the weather is V(Ty sever(\

After the plants have been in the cold-frame from several days to a

Vol \f ^"^*^^^ ^^ ^®^ ^^^^ ^^'^^'-' C'^"*'K^' "f Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. From Cornell Reading Courses,

A Dibble. 1

(One-fifth actual
size.)

Very handy for
making holes
in which toset
small plants.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

'K.<,v«a>

382

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

week, some fresh air may be admitted daily. Straw mats should be used at
night. The mats will also be found useful in shading the plants in hotbeds
and cold-frames.

Plants should be hardened as much as possible before they are taken
from the frames to the field. This is accomplished by gradually subjecting
them to fresh air and by not watering more than is absolutely necessary.
The latter factor is more important than fresh air and low temperatures.

REFERENCES ^

**Farm Gardening." Corbett.

*' Productive Vegetable Gardening." Lloyd.

*'The Practical Garden Book." Hume and Bailey.

** Culinary Herbs." Kains.

Cornell Reading Course, Garden Series 1. ''Vegetable Gardening."

CHAPTER 28

Vegetables and Their Culture

By R. L. Watts

Bean and Director, School of Agriculture and Experiment Station,

The Pennsylvania State College

Asparagus. — The farmer'i^ garden is not complete without this popu-
lar, hardy perennial, and it oilers special inducements for cultivation near
good local markets.

Numerous varieties are catalogued by our seedsmen and nurserymen
but Palmetto is most largely grown. It is vigorous in growth, the shoots
are large and the plants are regarded as more resistant to rust than other
well-known varieties. Some meritorious new varieties are being developed
at the Asparagus Experiment Station, Concord, Mass., and prospective
growers should keep in touch with the work there and test for themselves
the new sorts as soon as they are available.

It is universally conceded that asparagus thrives best in deep, rich,
moist, sandy loams. Any soil, however, which will grow a satisfactory
crop of corn will, with proper management, produce a good crop of aspar-
agus. Thorough drainage is necessary. The character of the exposure is
not important, though cuttings may be made earlier in the spring on south-
ern slopes than on northern or western exposures.

It is exceedingly important to start with good stock. If a plot of
even a few hundred plants is contemplated, it will pay to buy selected seed
or roots from a specialist. The young plants are easily grown. A fertile
plot should be chosen for the purpose and should be enriched still further
by application of rotten stable manure at the rate of twenty-five tons to the
acre. A good seed-bed should be prepared. Shallow furrows two feet
apart should be made. The seeds should be dropped by hand at intervals
of two or three inches and covered with an inch of soil. Radish seeds
dropped eight to ten feet apart in the same drills with the asparagus will
define the rows, since the radishes germinate within a few days, while the
asparagus plants will not appear for about a month. It is quite an advan-
tage to have the rows marked thus, so that the hand cultivator can be
used before the asparagus plants are up.

Experiments at The Pennsylvania State College and elsewhere show
that it pays to plant only the strongest roots or crowns. In other words,
it is a good business proposition to grow two or three times as many roots
as are actually needed for the plat in mind, and then plant only the largest.
The selection or grading of the roots should be done late in the fall after the

(38:9

■ r

.V. 'i.'^i ,

384

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

foliage has fallen. They may be kept in good condition until spring by
packing in barrels with a little moist sand or sawdust. The barrels are

then covered with
straw and a few
inches of soil added
to protect the roots
against severe freez-
ing.

The grower
should bear in mind
the fact that the as-
p a r a g u s plantation
should last at least
ten years; therefore
the soil should be
prepared with the
utmost care. The
land should be heav-
ily manured, plowed
and then harrowed
until it is thoroughly
pulverized.

Planting distan-
ces vary greatly. If
blanched o r white
shoots are to be
grown, there should
be at least five feet
between rows, in
order to provide
plenty of soil for
ridging. If green
shoots — and they are
gaining in popular-
ity on American
markets — are to be
grown, four feet be-
tween rows will
provide sufficient
space for the use of
horse cultivators,
though many grow-
ers prefer a distance of four and one-half feet. Two feet between plants in
the row is the most common distance, whether white or green shoots

* Courtesy of Department of Horticulture, Pennsylvania State College.

Bunching Asparagus Ready for Market.*

It pays to grade to a uniform size relative to color, length

and size of bunches.

VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE

385

are to be grown. The crown of the asparagus comes nearer to the surface
of the ground every year, because the new bulbs form somewhat higher
than those from which the shoots of the previous season grew. This
necessitates planting in trenches, which is also an advantage when the
rows are to be ridged for the production of white shoots.

The roots should be planted just as early in the spring as the ground
can be prepared. It is not desirable to make the trenches any deeper than
the soil is ordinarily plowed. The fleshy roots are set on a tiny mound of
soil, spread out and covered at first to a depth of not more than two inches.
If conditions for growth are favorable, the new plants will soon appear and
the trenches should be filled in gradually as the plants increase in height.

Thorough tillage is essential to the highest success. In new planta-
tions it should l)egin early in the spring and continue until fall ; old plan-
tations should be cultivated as long as a horse and cultivator can be used
without damaging the plants. It is especially important to disk the land
as early as its condition will permit in the spring and again at the close of
the cutting season, thus incorporating into the soil whatever manure has
been applied.

No specific rule can be given for the fertilization of asparagus. One of
the best methods is the application of ten tons or more of stable manure to
the acre— late in the fall or early in the spring— supplemented with at
least 1000 pounds of commercial fertilizer containing about 5 per cent of
nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphoric acid and 6 per cent potash; half of the
formula to be used early in the spring and half at the close of the cutting
season. Intensive growers use at least a ton to the acre.

Some commercial growers cut approximately $50 worth of asparagus
to the acre the second season from planting. If vigorous crowns have been
used and a satisfactory growth obtained, this practice is not regarded as
harmful to the plants. The cutting period of the third year should not
last more than three or four weeks, but after the third year the usual
practice is to cut until about the first of July.

The length of the shoots depends upon the demands of the market.
Ordinarily, they are cut about nine inches in length and tied into bunches
four and one-half inches in diameter. Two thousand bunches to the acre
is a good yield, but this number is often exceeded. Twenty cents a bunch
is a fair average price.

The asparagus beetle is the most destructive insect pest. In small
plantations it is best controlled by setting coops of young chicks near the
plot. Arsenate of lead is effective and is often used in young plantations
and in old plantations after the cutting season. Air-slaked lime will also
kill the larvae.

Rust is practically the only disease to be feared. If it appears anywhere
in the patch, the affected plants should be cut and burned before the foliage
drops in the fall. Burning the tops is not regarded as a desirable practice
in plantations which are free from rust.

384

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

foliage has fallen. They may be kept in good condition until spring by
packing in barrels with a little moist sand or sawdust. The barrels are

then covered with
straw and a few
inches of soil added
to protect the roots
against severe freez-
ing.

The grower
should bear in mind
th(^ fact that the as-
p a r a g u s plantation
should last at least
ten years; therefore
the soil should be
prepared with the
utmost care. The
land should be heav-
ily manured, plowed
and then harrowed
until it is thoroughly
pulverized.

Planting distan-
ces vary greatly. If
blanched o r white
shoots are to be
grown, there should
be at least five feet
between rows, in
order to provide
plenty of soil for
ridging. If green
shoots — and they are
gaining in popular-
ity on American
markets — are to ])e
grown, four feet be-
tween rows will
provide sufficient
space for the use of
horse cultivators,
though many grow-
ers prefer a distance of four and one-half feet. Two feet between plants in
the row is the most common distance, whether white or green shoots

* Courtesy of Department of Horticulture, Peousylvania State College.

Bunching Asparagus Ready for Market.^

It pays to grade to a uniform size relative to color, length

and size of bunches.

The roots should be planted just as early in the spring as the ground
can be prepared. It is not desirable to make the trenches any deeper than
the soil is ordinarily plowed. The fleshy roots are set on a tiny mound of
soil, spread out and covered at first to a depth of not more than two inches.
If conditions for growi^h are favorable, the new plants will soon appear and
the trenches should be filled in gradually as the plants increase in height.

Thorough tillage is essential to the highest success. In new planta-
tions it should ])egin early in the spring and continue until fall; old plan-
tations should be cultivatcnl as long as a horse and cultivator can be used
without damaging the plants. It is especially important to disk the land
as early as its condition will permit in the spring and again at the close of
the cutting season, thus incorporating into the soil whatever manure has
been applied.

Some commercial growers cut approximately $50 worth of asparagus
to the acre the second season from planting. If vigorous crowns have been
used and a satisfactory growi^h obtained, this practice is not regarded as
harmful to the plants. The cutting period of the third year should not
last more than three or four weeks, but after the third year the usual
practice is to cut until about the first of July.

The length of the shoots depends upon the demands of the market.
OrcHnarily, they are cut about nine inches in length and tied into bunches
four and one-half inches in diameter. Two thousand bunches to the acre
is a good yield, but this number is often exceeded. Twenty cents a bunch
is a fair average price.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

386

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Bean. — The bean occupies a most important place among the farm
garden crops. All classes of beans, being legumes, possess high nutritive
value and may often be served as substitutes for meats with satisfaction to

the consumer.

Improved Golden Wax is an excellent wax-podded variety. Burpee
Stringless is a leading dwarf green-podded bean. Goddard is a bush
variety largely grown as a green-shelled bean. Lazy Wife is a superb
green-podded pole bean. Early Leviathan is one of the best early lima beans
and King of the Garden is valued as a lats lima. White Marrow is one of
the best varieties to grow for soup and baking.

The bean requires a well-drained soil. Sandy loams are preferred,
but it is grown successfully in all types of soils. AppHcations of phosphoric
acid are usually beneficial. Extensive plantings should not be made in the
spring until the ground is thoroughly warm. Chances may be taken,
however, in planting bush wax and green-podded varieties for the home
table before conditions are ideal, and replanting can be made if the seeds
decay or the plants are killed by frost.

The rows of bush beans should be far enough apart to be cultivated
with a horse, and the seeds dropped two to three inches apart in the rows.
An excellent plan is to drop four beans to the hill, the hills being eight or
nine inches apart. Pole beans are usually planted in hills 4x4 feet apart.

Beet. — The beet may be grown in any good garden soil. The smoothest
and finest roots are grown in sandy loams. Liberal applications of rotten
stable manure are always beneficial. Excessive applications of nitrogen
should be avoided. Potash and phosphoric acid are often used to advantage.
Crosby Egyptian, Eclipse, Early Model and Egyptian are the leading
early varieties. Edmond Blood turnip is good to follow early varieties.

Seed for the early crop is sown in the spring as soon as the ground can
be prepared. The seed-bed should be fine and as level as possible. Drills
should be made a foot apart for wheel-hoe cultivation. About ten seeds
to the foot of furrow should be sown. Plants of early varieties should be
thinned to about three inches apart in the row, and late sorts to five or six
inches. Clean tillage is essential. An earlier crop may be obtained by
starting the plants in hotbeds and greenhouses and transplanting them to
the open ground after danger from hard frosts has passed by.

Brussels Sprouts. — This is a member of the cabbage family which is
grown for fall consumption. The seed should be sown at the same time
as for late cabbage and under the same conditions. Plants should be
thinned to an inch apart. They should be transplanted early in July to
rich, moist soil. Clean tillage should be given. Toward the end of
summer, when the plants are well grown, the leaves should be cut off along
the stalk, except a tuft at the top. This will induce the growth of large
buds or "sprouts" in the axils of the removed leaf-stems. Brussels sprouts
is regarded as a more delicate dish than cabbage.

Cabbage. — This is universally regarded as one of the most important

VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE

387

farm garden crops. It fits in well with the general rotations practiced on
Anierican farms, and takes the place of potatoes after clover. It returns
satisfactory profits wherever good markets are available.

Jersey Wakefield is the leading early variety. Charleston Wakefield,
which is somewhat larger and a few days later, is also popular. Copen-
hagen Market is a round-headed early variety of special merit which has
recently come into prominence. Early Summer, Succession and All Heart
are very good midsummer varieties. Succession is also largely grown for
late use, seed being sown later than for late varieties. Flat Dutch and
Drumhead are well-known late sorts. Danish Ball Head is extensively
grown for ^vinter use. It possesses better keeping qualities than any other
late variety. The heads are roundish and very solid.

Four Strains of Jersey Wakefield Cabbage.

Grown at The Pennsylvania State College, which show extreme variations in the

germinating power of the seeds.

Cabbage requires a very rich soil for the iDest results. Stable manures
are used extensively for this crop. Commercial fertilizers containing not less
than four per cent of nitrogen and six to eight per cent of each of the mineral
elements, are also applied at the rate of one-half ton to a ton to the acre.

Seed for the early crop should be sown in the hotbed or greenhouse
about ten weeks in advance of planting in the field. In most northern
sections the seed is sown about the first of February and the seedlings are
transplanted to the cold-frame about the first of March. With proper
frame management they will be well hardened and ready for the field April
10th or 15th.

The late crop is usually started in May. Danish Ball Head requires
a full season and it is a mistake to sow too late, though local climatic condi-
tions should be carefully considered.

386

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Improved Golden Wax is an excellent wax-podded variety. Burpee
Stringless is a leading dwarf green-podded bean. Goddard is a bush
variety largely grown as a green-shelled bean. Lazy Wife is a superb
green-podded pole bean. Early Leviathan is one of the best early lima beans
and King of the Garden is valued as a lat^ lima. White Marrow is one of
the best varieties to grow for soup and baking.

The bean requires a well-drained soil. Sandy loams are preferred,
but it is grown successfully in all types of soils. Applications of phosphoric
acid are usually beneficial. Extensive plantings should not be made in the
spring until the ground is thoroughly warm. Chances may be taken,
however, in planting bush wax and green-podded varieties for the home
table before conditions are ideal, and replanting can be made if the seeds
decay or the plants are killed by frost.

Beet. — The beet may be grown in any good garden soil. The smoothest
and finest roots are grown in sandy loams. Liberal applications of rotten
stable manure are always beneficial. Excessive applications of nitrogen
should te avoided. Potash and phosphoric acid are often used to advantage.
Crosby Egyptian, Eclipse, Early Model and Eg>^ptian are the leading
early varieties. Edmond Blood turnip is good to follow early varieties.

Brussels Sprouts. — This is a member of the cabbage family which is
grown for fall consumption. The seed should be sown at the same time
as for late cabbage and under the same conditions. Plants should be
thinned to an inch apart. They should be transplanted early in July to
rich, moist soil. Clean tillage should be given. Toward the end of
summer, when the plants are well grown, the leaves should be cut off along
the stalk, except a tuft at the top. This will induce the growth of large
buds or *^ sprouts" in the axils of the removed leaf-stems. Brussels sprouts
is regarded as a more delicate dish than cabbage.

Cabbage. — This is universally regarded as one of the most important

VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE

387

farm garden crops. It fits in well with the general rotations practiced on
American farms, and takes the place of potatoes after clover. It returns
satisfactory profits wherever good markets are available.

Jersey Wakefield is the leading early variety. Charleston Wakefield,
which is somewhat larger and a few days later, is also popular. Copen-
hagen Market is a round-headed early variety of special merit which has
recently come into prominence. Early Summer, Succession and All Heart
are very good midsummer varieties. Succession is also largely grown for
late use, seed being sown later than for late varieties. Flat Dutch and
Drumhead arc well-known late sorts. Danish Ball Head is extensively
grown for winter use. It possesses better keeping qualities than any other
late variety. The heads are roundish and very solid.

Four Strains of Jersey Wakefield Cabbage.

Grown at The Pennsylvania State College, which show extreme variations in the

germinating power of the seeds.

Cabbage requires a very rich soil for the l)est results. Stable manures
are used extensively for this crop. Commercial fertilizers containing not less
than four per cent of nitrogen and six to eight per cent of each of the mineral
elements, are also applied at the rate of one-half ton to a ton to the acre.

The late crop is usually started in May. Danish Ball Head requires
a full season and it is a mistake to sow too late, though local climatic condi-
tions should be carefully considered.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

'^_

jt-v:.

■>A.-

■^m

388

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Ordinarily, the best planting distance for Jersey Wakefield is 14 x 26,
Charleston Wakefield 16 x 28, Succession 18 x 28, Danish Ball Head 18 x 30;
and other late flat-headed varieties 24 x 36 inches. Close planting is
conducive to small heads, and most of our markets prefer heads that are
solid but not too heavy.

The early crop of the South is always marketed in crates of nearly one
barrel capacity. Much of the crop in the North is sold by count, often
by weight and frequently by the barrel. When the early crop is shipped
in barrels it is important that they be well ventilated.

The late crop is stored in a great variety of ways. Although buryhig
is troublesome, no other plan keeps the cabbage in better condition. The

soil must be well drained.
Windrows of cabbage, three
heads side by side and two
heads above, should be placed
so as to drain the water away
from the cabbage. The cab-
bage is then covered as nearly
as possible with a plow and
the work finished with hand
shovels. Four or five inches
of soil is sufficient covering and
then enough manure is added
to keep out frost. In central
Pennsylvania, for example,
four inches of soil and four
inches of manure will keep the
cabbage in perfect condition,
provided the location is pro-
tected on the north and west
from hard winds. There is no
advantage in burying cabbage
with the roots on. The best
plan is to cut the stems with
a sharp hatchet, leaving stubs four or five inches long for convenience in
handling the crop.

Cabbage should be grown in a long-period rotation in order to avoid
losses from clubroot, and the land should be kept well limed as a preventive
measure against this most dreaded disease. The common green cabbage
worm is best controlled by spraying with arsenate of lead.

Carrot. — The carrot is becoming more popular in America every year.
It is easily grown in any rich soil, but attains its best development in sandy
loams. By using early and late varieties and by making successive sowings,
it is possible to have roots for sale and for the home table from June until
late in the fall, and then the crop may be stored for winter use.

A Plant Transferred with Plenty of Earth
IS NOT Checked in Growth.

VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE

389

There are numerous varieties of carrots, but the best known early
varieties are Early Short Scarlet and Early Scarlet Horn; for medium
early. Model, Danvers Half Long Orange and Danvers Half Long Scarlet,
Oxheart and Rubicon are popular. Long Orange is the leading late long-
rooted variety.

For the early crop, seed should be sown as early in the spring as the
ground can be prepared. It is customary to allow about a foot of space
between rows for the early varieties and fifteen inches for the late. The
early kinds may be thinned to stand two or three inches apart in the row

Strain Tests of Cabbac.e at The Pennsylvania State College,

Showing First Cutting.

Note that only two heads of cabbage were marketable at the first cutting in Row 13.

while the late sorts should be four to six inches apart. Fairly liberal appli-
cations of phosphoric acid and potash are considered valuable for the
carrot. It is easily kept until late winter by storing in pits or in cool
cellars, where the roots should be covered with moist sand or soil.

Cauliflower. — Cauliflower is considered the most refined member of
the cabbage family. The heads are more delicate in quality than cabbage,
kale or even Brussels sprouts. It is also more difficult to grow than cab-
bage. This crop has two marked tendencies: first, not to form heads;
and second, for the heads to *'bolt" or *' button" instead of forming hard.

(

388

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The late crop is stored in a great variety of ways. Although burying
is troublesome, no other plan keeps the cabl^age in better condition. The

soil nmst be well drained.
Windrows of cabbage, three
heads side by side and two
heads above, should be placed
so as to drain the water away
from the cabbage. The cab-
bage is then covered as nearly
as possible with a plow and
the work finished with hand
shovels. Four or five inches
of soil is sufficient covering and
then enough manure is added
to keep out frost. In central
Pennsylvania, for example,
four inches of soil and four
inches of manure will keep the
cabbage in perfect condition,
provided the location is pro-
tected on the north and west
from hard winds. There is no
advantage in burying cabbage
with the roots on. The best
plan is to cut the stems witli
a sharp hatchet, leaving stubs four or five inches long for convenience in
handling the crop.

A Plant Transferred with Plenty of Earth
IS not Checked in Growth.

VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE

389

There are numerous varieties of carrots, but the best known early
varieties are Early Short Scarlet and Early Scarlet Horn; for medium
early, Model, Danvers Half Long Orange and Danvers Half Long Scarlet,
Oxheart and Rubicon are popular. Long Orange is the leading late long-
rooted variety.

Strain Tests of Cabbage at The Pennsylvania State College,

Showing First Cutting.

Note that only two heads of cabbage were marketable at the first rutting in Row 13.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

■■-f-'t, ■

390

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

compact heads. The failure of this crop is very frequently attributed to
the use of poor seed, and there is no question but that good seed is a most
important factor in the growing of a satisfactory crop of cauHflower.

The early crop is started under glass and the plants are handled in the
same way as cabbage. It is important, however, not to check the growth
of the plants at any time, as this may cause ^'bolting*' or *^ buttoning.''

Seed for the late crop should be sown a trifle later than for cabbage.
It is important to sow thinly so that every plant will have plenty of space
for its full development.

Cauliflower should be planted in even richer soil than cabbage. It is
especially desirable to use an abundance of rotten manurfe. Planting
distances should be about the same as for early cabbage. When the heads
are an inch or two in diameter, the leaves should be bent over them, or
perhaps tied together over the heads, in order to protect the latter from
rain and sunshine. The markets demand pure white heads.

Celery. — Celery occupies a most important place in American gardens,
though it does not receive as much attention as it should. When the
methods of culture are well understood, it may be grown with great ease,
and no vegetable is more appreciated when it appears on the farmer's
table. An immense quantity of celery which is grown in muck soils finds
its way to our great markets. The crop is also well adapted to rich, sandy
loams, but any soil which is properly fertilized will grow an excellent crop
of celery. The two great essentials are a liberal supply of plant food and
an abundance of moisture. Stable manure is universally regarded as the
best fertilizer. It should be applied in a decayed condition and worked
well into the soil as a top dressing rather than plowed under. Commercial
fertilizers are also extensively used for this crop. As a rule the fertilizers
employed by commercial growers contain four to six per cent of nitrogen
and from eight to ten per cent of each of the mineral elements. A ton to the
acre, mixed directly with the soil after plowing, is a very common applica-
tion, and some growers use double this amount.

There are two general classes of celery: First, the so-called self-
blanching, best represented by Golden Self-Blanching, which is more
generally grown in this country than any other sort; and, second, the green
varieties, such as Winter King, Winter Queen and Giant Pascal. The dwarf
self-blanching varieties are most popular among commercial growers
because they are easily blanched. Green winter varieties are better in
quality than the self-blanching and are grown more largely for winter use.

Too much care cannot be exercised in purchasing celery seed. The
grower should make certain that the stock is good, because many of the
failures of celery growers are attributable to poor seed. The best seed of
the self-blanching varieties is grown in France.

For the early crop, seed should be sown in hotbeds or greenhouses
after the first of March. It is usually a mistake to sow earlier than this
date, l)ecause the plants are likely to become crowded in the beds before

VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 391

planting time in the field, a condition which may check their growth and
cause them to produce seed shoots instead of marketable stock. On account
of the very small size of the seed, there is always likelihood of sowing too
thickly. The plants should be thinned if that happens, and in a month or
five weeks transplanted one and one-half to two inches apart in flats or beds.
In the latter a constant supply of moisture should be maintained until the
plants are set in the field.

Celery Under Irrigation, Skinner System.

Seed for the late crop should be sown in the spring as soon as the ground
can be prepared.

When boards are to be used for blanching the early crop, it is customary
to allow about two feet of space between rows and to space the plants three
to five inches apart in the row. In most sections of the North, plants
should not be set in the open ground before May 10th. The crop will
stand considerable cold, but heavy frosts almost invariably check the growth

■■^',:-(;-v->-;!»!a*iii

390

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

compact heads. The failure of this crop is very frequently, attributed to
the use of poor seed, and there is no question but that good seed is a most
important factor in the growing of a satisfactory crop of cauliflower.

Seed for the late crop should be sown a trifle later than for cabbage.
It is important to sow thinly so that every plant will have plenty of space
for its full development.

Cauliflower should be planted in even richer soil than cabbage. It is
especially desirable to use an abundance of rotten manure. Planting
distances should be a})out the same as for early cal)bage. When the heads
are an inch or two in diameter, the leaves should be bent over them, or
perhaps tied together over the heads, in order to protect the latter from
rain and sunshine. The markets demand pure white heads.

Celery. — Celery occupies a most important place in American gardens,
though it does not receive as much attention as it should. When the
methods of culture are well understood, it may be grown with great ease,
and no vegetable is more appreciated when it appears on the farmer's
table. An immense quantity of celery which is grown in muck soils finds
its way to our great markets. The crop is also well adapted to rich, sandy
loams, but any soil which is properly fertilized will grow an excellent crop
of celery. The two great essentials are a liberal supply of plant food and
an abundance of moisture. Stable manure is universally regarded as the
best fertilizer. It should be applied in a decayed condition and worked
well into the soil as a top dressing rather than plowed under. Commercial
fertilizers are also extensively used for this crop. As a rule the fertilizers
employed by commercial growers contain four to six per cent of nitrogen
and from eight to ten per cent of each of the mineral elements. A ton to tlie
acre, mixed directly with the soil after plowing, is a very conmion applica-
tion, and some growers use double this amount.

There are two general classes of celery: First, the so-called self-
blanching, best represented by Colden Self-Blanching, which is more
generally grown in this country than any other sort; and, second, the green
varieties, such as Winter King, Winter Queen and Giant Pascal. The dwarf
self-blanching varieties are most popular among commercial grow(»rs
because they are easily blanched. Green winter varieties are better in
quality than the self-blanching and are grown more largely for winter use.

For the early crop, seed should be sown in hotbeds or greenhouses
after the first of March. It is usually a mistake to sow earlier than this
date, because the plants an^ likely to become crowded in the beds Ijefore

VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 391

Celery Under Irrigation, Skinner System.

Seed for the late crop should be sown in the spring as soon as the ground
can be pre])ared.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

■■.,>V,f^J

392

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and have a tendency to cause the production of seed stalks. The late crop
should have more space and it is not uncommon to allow four to five feet
between rows, the distance depending upon the method to be used in
blanching.

The mulching system of celery culture makes the early crop much more
certain. The plan includes a mulch of three to five inches of fresh horse
manure placed between the rows immediately after the plants are set out.

This conserves soil
moisture, prevents
weed growth, renders
tillage unnecessary and
supplies food to the
plants after each rain.
Boards are used
almost entirely for
blanching the early
crop. They are placed
along both sides of the
rows and held in place
by any convenient de-
vice at hand. From
ten days to two weeks
are required to blanch
the crop. The boards
may be used over and
over again; with care
they will last fifteen
years.

The late crop is
blanched by means of
ridging with earth.
This work should not
begin until the cooler
weather arrives in
early September. The
work of ridging pro-
ceeds until about the
middle of October and commercial growers Ix^gin to store the crop soon
after the first of November. Various methods of storage are in common
use. One of the best is to dig trenches ten or twelve inches wide and not
quite as deep as the height of the plants. The plants are placed close to-
gether in the trenches and covered with boards, which are nailed together in
the form of a trough. The boards afford ample protection until freezing
weather occurs and then additional covering is provided by placing

1 Courtesy of Department of Horticulture, Pennsylvania State College.

Good Celery Well Prepajred for Market.^

VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE

393

manure or straw over them. The plants should be dry when stored and
they should not be unnecessarily exposed to sun and hard, drying winds.
Cucumbers. — Most farmers are familiar with the ordinary method of
growing cucumbers. If hotbeds are available, it is best to start a few hills
under glass. This is a very simple operation. A good plan is to fill quart
berry baskets with soil containing a large proportion of rotten manure;
drop about eight seeds in each basket and after the plants are up thin them
to two or three. See that the boxes are not lacking in moisture at any time.
The seed should be sown not more than four weeks in advance of the time
suitable for planting in the field. Overgrown plants are a disadvantage.
It is very much better not to use plants more than a month old. Whether
the seed is sown under glass or in the open ground, the soil should be made
very rich by using plenty of rotten manure. Planting distances vary, but
5x5 feet will be found satisfactory when the ground is very fertile. There
are several strains of White Spine which are popular for general planting.
For picklers, Chicago Pickling, Boston Pickling and Fordhook Pickling

are popular.

The striped cucumber beetle is one of the most serious enemies of this
crop. The most thorough means of prevention is to cover the plants with
mosquito netting or with wooden frames with netting over them. Air-
slaked lime, sprinkled on the plants, is usually effective as a repellant.
Tobacco dust may also be used.

Eggplant. — The eggplant is often overlooked in the planting of the
farmer's garden. This crop thrives best in a warm climate and for this
reason many of the northern gardeners do not attempt to cultivate it.
It may be grown, however, in all parts of the North, especially if the plants
are started under glass and planted in rich, moist soil. It is also important
to select an early variety such as Early Long Purple. The fruit of this
variety is not as large as that of New York Improved or Black Beauty,
but it will be found quite satisfactory for the home table. A high tempera-
ture is required for starting the plants ; therefore it is best not to sow too
early. They should be transplanted into two-inch pots and later into three
or four-inch pots, and then the gardener can transfer them to the field
without checking their growth.

Horse Radish. — There should be at least a few plants of horse radish
in every farm garden. It is easily grown in any moist, rich soil. The crop
is easily propagated by root cuttings, which are made when the roots are
dug for market or for the home table; that is, the small lateral roots are
trimmed from the large ones and saved for planting. It is customary to
cut the roots intended for propagation square at the upper end and slanting
at the lower end so that you will know which end to plant up when they are
set in the garden.

Kale. — This crop is quite successful in some parts of the South and
is seen occasionally in northern districts. It requires the same cultural
conditions as cabbage. The most prominent varieties are Imperial Long

392

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

This conserves soil
moisture, prevents
weed growth, renders
tillage unnecessary and
supplies food to the
plants after each rain.
Boards are used
almost entirely for
blanching the early
crop. They are placed
along l^oth sides of the
rows and hold in place
by any convenient de-
vice at hand. From
ten days to two weeks
are required to blanch
the crop. The boards
may be used over and
over again; with care
they will last fifteen
years.

The late crop is
blanched by means of
ridging with earth.
This work should not
begin until the cooler
weather arrives in
early September. The
work of ridging pro-
ceeds until about the
middle of October and commc^rcial growths b(gin to store the crop soon
after the first of November. Various methods of storage are in common
use. One of the best is to dig trenches ten or twelve inches wide and not
quite as deep as the height of the plants. The plants are placed close to-
gether in the trenches and covered with boards, which are nailed together in
the form of a trough. The boards afford ample protection until freezing
weather occurs and then additional covering is provided by placing

1 Courtesy of Department of Horticulture, Pennsylvania State College.

Good Celery Well Prepared for Market.^

VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE

393

manure or straw over them. The plants should be dry when stored and
they should not be unnecessarily exposed to sun and hard, drying winds.

Cucumbers. — Most farmers are familiar with the ordinary method of
growing cucumbers. If hotbeds are available, it is best to start a few hills
under glass. This is a very simple operation. A good plan is to fill quart
l)erry baskets with soil containing a large proportion of rotten manure;
drop about eight seeds in each basket and after the plants are up thin them
to two or three. See that the boxes are not lacking in moisture at any time.
The seed should be sown not more than four weeks in advance of the time
suitable for planting in the field. Overgrown plants are a disadvantage.
It is very much better not to use plants more than a month old. Whether
the seed is sown under glass or in the open ground, the soil should be made
very rich by using plenty of rotten manure. Planting distances vary, but
5x5 feet will be found satisfactory whc^n the ground is very fertile. There
are several strains of White Spine which are popular for general planting.
For picklers, Chicago Pickling, Boston Pickling and Fordhook Pickling
are popular.

Eggplant. — The eggplant is often overlooked in the planting of the
farmer's garden. This crop thrives best in a warm climate and for this
reason many of the northern gardeners do not attempt to cultivate it.
It may be grown, however, in all parts of the North, especially if the plants
are started under glass and planted in rich, moist soil. It is also important
to select an early variety such as Early Long Purple. The fruit of this
variety is not as large as that of New York Improved or Black Beauty,
but it will be found quite satisfactory for the home table. A high tempera-
ture is required for starting the plants; therefore it is best not to sow too
early. They should be transplanted into two-inch pots and later into three
or four-inch pots, and then the gardener can transfer them to the field
without checking their growth.

II i

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

394

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Standing, Dwarf German, Dwarf Curled Scotch and Fall Green Curled
Scotch. Sowing should be made about midsummer in order that the plants
may attain full size before cold weather. The plants are thinned to stand
eight to ten inches apart, according to variety.

Kohl-Rabi. — This vegetable is also called ''turnip-rooted cabbage."
It is easily grown in any rich soil. Plants may be started under glass, or the
seed may be sown direct in the open ground and the plants thinned to about
eight inches apart in the row. Green Vienna and Earliest Erfurt are the
leading varieties. It is possible to have fresh roots in the garden from the
middle of June until late fall, when they may be stored for winter use.

Leek. — This vegetable requires the same cultural conditions as onions.
It is regarded as milder and more tender than the onion. The seed should
be sown in the spring as soon as the ground can be worked. Market
gardeners often transplant the seedlings in July, so that the crop will be
ready to use in the fall. It is always an advantage to clip the tops at
transplanting time.

Lettuce. — Most farmers are perfectly familiar with the methods which
are ordinarily employed in growing lettuce. The usual practice is to sow
the seed broadcast in small beds. A very much better plan is to sow in
hotbeds or in a sunny window of the house and transplant the seedlings to
the open ground after it is dry enough to work. This method will insure
an earlier crop than is possible from sowing directly in the open ground.
If it is desired to make sowing out of doors, the seed should be drilled in
rows about a foot apart, and the plants thinned to stand from six to eight
inches apart in the row. This will result in much finer heads than is
possible by the broadcast method. There is a long list of varieties from
which to select. Grand Rapids is grow^n largely under glass and is also
suitable for culture out of doors. Wayahead is a comparatively new but
most excellent head variety for out-door culture. Big Boston is one of the
leading varieties for frame culture and for sandy and muck soils. All
Heart and Sensation are also good varieties. Hanson, Iceberg and Brittle
Ice are popular varieties of the "crisp-head" class.

Sandy soils are selected when an early crop is desired, though this
vegetable may be grown with entire success on any soil properly fertilized.
*i Rotten stable manure is undoubtedly the best form of fertilizer. It
may be used at the rate of twenty or more tons to the acre. Commercial
fertilizers are also used extensively for the lettuce crop. The early crop
may be started under gla.ss as previously explained for cabbage.

Muskmelon.— The remarks made concerning the cucumber apply
equally well to the muskmelon, although this vegetable requires better
cultural conditions than the cucumber. By starting the plants under
glass, practically every farmer could have a liberal supply of muskmelons.
It requires more heat and a longer season than the cucumber, but plants
which are well started by the time it is safe to plant them out of doors
should mature a satisfactory crop, especially if the soil is well enriched

VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE

395

with rotten manure. This vegetable will not thrive in any northern section
unless the soil is well filled with organic matter. The planting distances
for muskmelons should be more liberal than for cucumbers. Among the
varieties which are popular throughout the country may be mentioned
Rocky Ford, Paul Rose, Netted Gem, Hackensack, Osage, Emerald Gem,
Eden Gem and Burrell Gem.

Onion. — No vegetable is found so universally in the farmer's garden
as the onion. Indeed, it is rare that the onion is omitted from the home
garden. A long list of varieties is available. Among the best yellow kinds

Onions Under Skinner System of Irrigation.*

may be mentioned Danvers, Southport Yellow Globe and Strasburg.
Weatherfield is the best known red onion and Southport Red Globe is a
general favorite in many parts of the country. Silver Skin and Southport
White Globe are popular white onions. The Egyptian (Perennial Tree
Onion) is a valuable variety for fall planting in the North. Prizetaker is
exceedingly valuable for starting under glass and transplanting in the
open ground.

The onion thrives best in a moist, sandy loam, but may be growTi with
success in any rich soil. It is important to plant the seed in ground which
is practically free from weed seeds. An excellent plan is to precede this
vegetable with a crop like corn or cabbage which requires clean tillage.

* Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

1 1

394

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Standing, Dwarf German, Dwarf Curled Scotch and Fall Green Curled
Scotch. Sowing .should be made about midsummer in order that the plants
may attain full size before cold weather. The plants are thinned to stand
eight to ten inches apart, according to variety.

Kohl-Rabi. — This vegetable is also called "turnip-rooted cabbage."
It is easily grown in any rich soil. Plants may be started under glass, or the
seed may be sown direct in the open ground and the plants thinned to about
eight inches apart in the row. Green Vienna and Earliest Erfurt are the
leading varieties. It is possible to have fresh roots in the garden from the
middle of June until late fall, when they may be stored for winter use.

Lettuce. — Most farmers are perfectly familiar with the methods which
are ordinarily employed in growing lettuce. The usual practice is to sow
the seed broadcast in small beds. A very much better plan is to sow in
hotbeds or in a sunny window of the house and transplant the seedlings to
the open ground after it is dry enough to work. This method will insure
an earlier crop than is possible from sowing directly in the open ground.
If it is desired to make sowing out of doors, the seed should be drilled in
rows about a foot apart, and the plants thinned to stand from six to eight
inches apart in the row. This will result in much finer heads than is
possible by the broadcast method. There is a long list of varieties from
which to select. Grand Rapids is grown largely under glass and is also
suitable for culture out of doors. Wayahead is a comparatively new but
most excellent head variety for out-door culture. Big Boston is one of the
leading varieties for frame culture and for sandy and muck soils. All
Heart and Sensation are also good varieties. Hanson, Iceberg and Brittle
Ice are popular varieties of the "crisp-head'' class.

Sandy soils are selected when an early crop is desired, though this
vegetable may be grown with entire success on any soil properly fertilized.
♦1 Rotten stable manure is undoubtedly the best form of fertilizer. It
may be used at the rate of twenty or more tons to the acre. Commercial
fertilizers are also used extensively for the lettuce crop. The early crop
may be started under glass as previously explained for cabbage.

VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE

395

Onions Under Skinner System of Irrigation. ^

may be mentioned Dan vers, Southport Yellow Globe and Strasburg.
Weatherfield is the best known red onion and Southport Red Globe is a
general favorite in many parts of the country. Silver Skin and Southport
White Globe are popular white onions. The Egyptian (Perennial Tree
Onion) is a valuable variety for fall planting in the North. Prizetaker is
exceedingly valuable for starting under glass and transplanting in the
open ground.

The onion thrives best in a moist, sandy loam, but may be grown with
success in any rich soil. It is important to plant the seed in ground which
is practically free from weed seeds. An excellent plan is to precede this
vegetable with a crop like corn or cabbage which requires clean tillage.

* Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

396

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The soil may also be highly enriched the preceding year by the application
of a large quantity of stable manure, and weed seeds should be completely
destroyed by the time the onions are started. Commercial fertilizers are
also largely employed for the onion. It is not uncommon to use a fertilizer
containing four per cent nitrogen and six to eight per cent of phosphoric
acid and potash, at the rate of a ton to the acre. The fertilizer should be
well mixed with the soil before any planting is done.

The bulk of the mature bulbs which are sold on American markets
is grown from seed sown in the open ground. The most common spacing
between rows is a foot, and seed is sown sufficiently thick to give eight to
twelve plants to a foot of furrow. Ordinarily four and one-half pounds of
good seed to an acre will give the proper stand of plants. Seed more than
a year old should never be used. The transplanting method, often referred
to as the new onion culture, provides for sowing seed under glass and setting
the plants in the open ground after danger of hard freezing has passed.
Prizetaker is the leading variety for this purpose. The most common plan
is to sow seed in January or February. After the tops attain a height of
five inches they are clipped back every week to about four inches, and when
planted in the field they are clipped to three or three and one-half inches.
Bulbs of extra size for exhibition purposes may be obtained by starting the
plants under glass in the fall, clipping the tops repeatedly, as explained,
until they are set in the field, about May 10th in the North. Most farmers
grow the bulk of their crop from sets which are planted as early in the spring
as the ground can be worked. This is the most certain method of procuring
a crop, though as large bulbs cannot be obtained as from the transplanting
method. Clean tillage is absolutely essential to the success of a crop of
onions, and this requires a certain amount of hand-weeding and hoeing
between the plants. The mature bulbs for winter use are pulled after most
of the tops have turned yellow and are partly dead. The bulbs are thrown
together in windrows for a few days until partly dry and then placed in
crates or bags which are hauled to sheds or well-ventilated buildings.
Onions may be kept throughout the winter in a room where the temperature
may be controlled, or allowed to freeze and then be covered with hay and
kept in a frozen condition throughout the winter. The latter plan is very
satisfactory and should be more generally used by farmers.

Bunching onions are most largely grown from sets, though many
gardeners grow excellent green onions from seed sown in the open ground.
The Prizetaker produces a particularly mild onion. Onion sets are grown
by sowing the seed more thickly than is done for mature bulbs. There is
no reason why every farmer should not grow his own sets. A good plan is
to sow the seed very thickly in furrows which are about two inches wide and
one-quarter inch deep. The plants come up so thickly that it is impossible
for any of the bulbs to attain a large size. The sets are easily kept over
winter in any dry room where alternate thawing and freeing does not occur.

Parsley. — There should be a supply of parsley in every farmer's

VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE

397

garden. It is found useful as a flavoring for soups and other dishes
and also for garnishing purposes. Seed may be sown under glass and the
plants grown in the same way as explained for cabbage. The crop may
also be started out of doors, the rows being spaced a foot or fifteen inches
apart and the plants thinned to stand one foot apart in the row. Parsley
thrives in any moist, fertile soil. Rapid growth may be encouraged by
top-dressing with nitrate of soda.

Parsnip. — Parsnips are grown successfully in various types of soil.
It is a long-season crop, hence should be sown as early as possible in the
spring, and the soil should be made as rich as possible by the application of
rotten manure. The deep, sandy loams are preferred. Guernsey, Hollow
Crown and Early Short Round are leading varieties. The rows should be
from fifteen to eighteen inches apart and the plants should stand from six to
seven inches apart in the row. The roots may be sold or used on the home
table any time after they have attained full size, but the usual custom is
to leave most of them in the ground until spring, because freezing improves
their flavor. It is rare that the roots are damaged by the hardest winter
freezing.

Pea. — The pea is universally popular in American farm gardens. It
is highly appreciated because it is very early and also very nutritious. This
crop should be started just as soon as the ground is dry enough to work.
It is not uncommon to make plantings the latter part of March. The early,
smooth varieties are considered hardier than the wrinkled kinds. Alaska
and Extra Early are well-known varieties of the smooth type. Gradus,
Thomas Laxton and Nott^s Excelsior are popular wrinkled kinds. Most
farmers plant a few rows of medium or late varieties, such as Improved
Stratagem and Telegraph. These varieties are excellent in quality and
very prolific. The pea thrives best in cool, moist but well-drained soil.
When very late plantings are made it is desirable to plant in trenches ; cover
at first with about two inches of soil and, after the plants are up, gradually
fill in the trenches until the ground is level. This deep covering is favorable
to moisture conditions and the ground is also cooler about the roots, which
is an advantage. The dwarf varieties, such as Alaska and Extra Early,
do not need support, while the late kinds should be supported by means of
brush or wire trellises.

Pepper. — The pepper requires practically the same conditions as
the tomato, although more heat is beneficial to its growth. For this
reason the plant thrives best in warm, sandy soils. An abundance of
decayed organic matter is a decided advantage in northern districts, which
are not very favorable to peppers. Among the mild-fruited varieties may
be mentioned Bull Nose, Chinese Giant and Ruby King. The Neapolitan
is a very early variety that is popular throughout the North. Long Red
Cayenne and True Red Chili are popular pungent-fruited varieties. The
seed should be sown under glass about the time tomatoes are started.
The plants of most varieties should have eighteen inches between them

398

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

in the row and the rows should be far enough apart to use a horse culti-
vator.

Radish. — The radish is common to nearly all farm gardens. It does
best in deep, rich, loamy soils. Though grown successfully when the seed
is broadcast, it is better to sow in drills a foot apart and use enough seed to
produce plants an inch or two apart ; while late varieties should have two
to five inches between plants in the row. Among the early varieties which
are popular with home and commercial gardeners may be mentioned
Earliest White, Round Red Forcing and Scarlet Frame. French Breakfast
is a well-known radish, it is bright carmine above and clear white below.
The first sowing should be made as soon as the ground can be worked and
successive sowings should be made from week to week.

Rhubarb. — Rhubarb requires a deep, rich, moist soil. It is propagated
commonly by roots. Annual applications of manure should be made in
order to maintain the supply of organic matter in the soil and to furnish an
abundant supply of plant food. Nitrate of soda may be used to advantage
as a top dressing. It is ordinarily planted 3 x 4 or 4 x 4 feet apart. Vic-
toria and Linnaeus are leading varieties.

Salsify. — Salsify or ^^ oyster plant'' is not as generally grown as it
should be in American gardens. This root crop requires the same cultural
conditions as the parsnip. It is also a long-season crop and, therefore, the
seed should be sown as early as possible in the spring. The roots are stored
in the same manner during the winter as parsnips and will not suffer from
freezing if left in the ground until spring.

Spinach. — Spinach is more largely grown in the South than in northern
districts, although it should be a most important vegetable in all parts of
the country. The usual practice is to sow the seed late in the fall, and the
crop will be ready to harvest the following spring. In the North, the better
plan is to sow very early in the spring. A successful method is to sow
broadcast on the frozen ground and then cover the seed very lightly with
^ne, rotten manure. This vegetable requires a rich, constantly-moist soil
to obtain the best results. Late plantings should be made in drills and the
plants thinned to stand from five to six inches apart.

Squash. — The squash requires practically the same cultural condi-
tions as cucumbers, but much more space is required. If the ground
is a rich garden loam, the hills should be at least 10 x 10 feet apart,
and more liberal spacing for the winter varieties will be an advantage in
very rich soil. Summer squash need not be planted any farther apart than
cucumbers, or even less space will meet their requirements. Early White
Bush, Yellow Bush and Summer Crookneck are popular summer varieties.
Hubbard, Warted Hubbard, Golden Hubbard and Boston Marrow are
largely grown winter kinds. Squash must be stored in buildings where there
is no freezing during the winter and a uniform temperature of 50° F. is
most favorable to successful storage.

Sweet Com. — Sweet corn requires the same conditions as field corn.

VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE

399

if a good crop is expected. Among the early varieties which are popular
and largely grown may be mentioned Fordhook and White Cob Cory.
Golden Bantam matures somewhat later than these varieties and is supe-
rior in quality. Popular midsummer varieties are Cosmopolitan and
Sweet Orange. Country Gentleman and Stowell Evergreen are the best
known late varieties. Experiments made at various experiment stations
show that it pays to select seed for sweet corn with as much care as for field
corn. If space is available it pays to start one or two hundred hills in soil
under glass by sowing seed two weeks before it is considered safe to set the
plants in the open ground. This will make an early crop and insure a good
stand of plants.

Some Commercial Types of Sweet Potatoes^

A — Black Spanish. B — A Long, Cylindrical Type. C — Jersey Group. D — Red

Bermuda. E — Southern Queen.

Sweet Potatoes. — The sweet potato is not universally grown in the
farm gardens of the United States. It thrives only in warm soils and pre-
fers one which is sandy in character. There are numerous varieties of
sweet potatoes, some of the most popular being Big Stem Jersey, Yellow
Jersey, Red Jersey, Southern Queen, Georgia Yam, Red Bermuda, Florida
and Pierson. It is propagated by slips and these are obtained by bedding
the tubers in fine soil with the proper amount of heat and moisture. The
tubers soon send out sprouts and produce rooted plants which are set in the
field after all danger of frost has passed. Field planting should not be

1 From Farmers* Bulletin 324, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

398

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

in the row and the rows should be far enough apart to use a horse culti-
vator.

Radish. — The radish is common to nearly all farm gardens. It does
best in deep, rich, loamy soils. Though grown successfully w^hen the seed
is broadcast, it is better to sow in drills a foot apart and use enough seed to
produce plants an inch or two apart; while late varieties should have two
to five inches between plants in the row. Among the early varieties w^hich
are popular with home and commercial gardeners may be mentioned
Earliest White, Round Red Forcing and Scarlet Frame. French Breakfast
is a well-known radish, it is bright carmine above and clear white below.
The first sowing should be made as soon as the ground can be worked and
successive sowings should be made from week to week.

Salsify. — Salsify or ^'oyster plant'' is not as generally grown as it
should be in American gardens. This root crop requires the same cultural
conditions as the parsnip. It is also a long-season crop and, therefore, the
seed should be sown as early as possible in the spring. The roots are stored
in the same manner during the winter as parsnips and will not suffer from
freezing if left in the ground until spring.

Spinach. — Spinach is more largely grown in the South than in northern
districts, although it should be a most important vegetable in all parts of
the country. The usual practice is to sow the seed late in the fall, and th(^
crop will be ready to harvest the following spring. In the North, the better
plan is to sow very early in the spring. A successful method is to sow
broadcast on the frozen ground and then cover the seed very lightly with
fine, rotten manure. This vegetable requires a rich, constantly-moist soil
to obtain the best results. Late plantings should be made in drills and the
plants thinned to stand from five to six inches apart.

Squash. — The squash requires practically the same cultural condi-
tions as cucumbers, but much more space is required. If the ground
is a rich garden loam, the hills should be at least 10 x 10 feet apart,
and more liberal spacing for the winter varieties will be an advantage in
very rich soil. Summer squash need not be planted any farther apart than
cucumbers, or even less space will meet their requirements. Early White
Bush, Yellow Bush and Summer Crookneck are popular summer varieties.
Hubbard, Warted Hubl)ard, Golden Hubbard and Boston Marrow are
largely grown winter kinds. Squash must be stored in buildings where there
is no freezing during the winter and a uniform temperature of 50° F. is
most favorable to successful storage.

Sweet Com. — Sweet corn requires the same conditions as field corn,

VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE

399

if a good crop is expected. Among the early varieties which are popular
and largely grown may be mentioned Fordhook and White Cob Cory.
Golden Bantam matures somewhat later than these varieties and is supe-
rior in quality. Popular midsummer varieties are Cosmopolitan and
Sweet Orange. Country Gentleman and Stowel! Evergreen are the best
known late varieties. Experiments made at various experiment stations
show that it pays to select seed for sweet corn with as much care as for field
corn. If space is available it pays to start one or two hundred hills in soil
under glass by sowing seed two weeks before it is considered safe to set the
l)lants in the open ground. This will mak(^ an early crop and insure a good
stand of plants.

Some Commercial Types of Sweet Potatoes.^

A — Black Spanish. B — A Ix)ng, Cylindrical Type. C — Jersey Group. D — R^d

Bermuda. E — Southern Queen.

»From Farmers' Bulletin 324, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

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» Courtesy of Virginia-Carolina Chemical Company, Richmond, Va. From V.-C. Fertilizer Crop
Books.

(400)

VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE

401

attempted until the ground is thoroughly warm. The tubers require the
same conditions for storage as squash.

Tomato. — This is unquestionably one of the most important c ops of
American home gardens as well as commercial plantations. It does well
in a great variety of soil types. The sandy loams are preferred, though
very heavy yields have been obtained in clay and silt soils. Earliana is the
best known and most widely planted very early variety. It is fair in
quality and very productive. Bonny Best matures soon after Earliana
and is superior in some respects. Chalk Jewel and June Pink are also
popular early varieties. Among the leading late varieties may be men-
tioned Stone and Matchless. Beauty and Trucker Favorite are desirable
varieties of pink fruits. Good seed is highly essential to this crop and not
a few of our commercial growers make careful selection from their own
plantations. Seed for the early crop should be sown under glass not later
than the 1st of March and, if extremely early tomatoes are desired, the
20th of February will not be too soon. The finest plants are obtained by
first transplanting the plants one and one-half to two inches apart and then
three or four inches apart, and finally into pots which vary in size from four
to six inches. If the plants contain a blossom or two or perhaps a cluster
of fruit when set in the field, a few ripe tomatoes should be available by the
tenth of June and a large quantity should be available for market before
the first of August. The plants should be hardened as well as possible
before setting in the field, but no more water than is absolutely necessary
should be applied. Such plants will stand a considerable amount of
freezing in the field. Tomatoes of a superior quality may be obtained by
training the vines to single stems. The usual practice is to make the rows
about four feet apart and set the plants about fourteen to eighteen inches
apart in the row. The plants are secured to stakes or wire trellises and the
lateral branches are pinched out as fast as they appear. When a plant
attains a height of four or five feet a trellis is always used and this causes the
rapid development of fruit all along the stem. This method, how^ever,
should not be practiced unless there is plenty of labor to attend to the
training. .

Turnips. — Our farmers are familiar with the growing of turnips because
they are produced not only for the home table but also to be stored during
the winter for the farm stock. Roots most uniform in size are obtained by
sowing in drills a foot to fifteen inches apart and thinning the plants to
four to five inches apart. The roots are usually preserved during the winter
by burying or covering with moist soil in pits. Some of the most popular
varieties are White Milan, Red Purple Top, White Flat Dutch, Purple
Top White Globe, White Egg and Yellow Globe.

Watermelon. — The watermelon requires the same cultural condi-
tions as muskmelon. It should be planted in hills 8 x 10 feet to
10 X 10 feet apart. A bountiful supply of rotten manure should be used
in the hills. Commercial fertilizers can also often be employed to advan-

u:!
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m
o

^ Courtesy of Virginia-Carolina Chemical Company, Richmond, Va. From V.-C. Fertilizer Crop
Books.

(400)

VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE

401

attempted until the ground is thoroughly warm. The tubers require the
same conditions for storage as squash.

Tomato. — This is unquestionably one of the most important c ops of
American home gardens as well as commercial plantations. It does well
in a great variety of soil types. The sandy loams are preferred, though
very heavy yields have been obtained in clay and silt soils. Earliana is the
best known and most widely planted very early variety. It is fair in
quality and very productive. Bonny Best matures soon after Earliana
and is superior in some respects. Chalk Jewel and June Pink are also
popular early varieties. Among the leading late varieties may be men-
tioned Stone and Matchless. Beauty and Trucker Favorite are desirable
varieties of pink fruits. Good seed is highly essential to this crop and not
a few of our commercial growers make careful selection from their own
plantations. Seed for the early crop should be sown under glass not later
than the 1st of March and, if extremely early tomatoes are desired, the
20th of February will not be too soon. The finest plants are obtained by
first transplanting the plants one and one-half to two inches apart and then
three or four inches apart, and finally into pots which vary in size from four
to six inches. If the plants contain a blossom or two or perhaps a cluster
of fruit when set in the field, a few ripe tomatoes should be available by the
tenth of June and a large quantity should be available for market before
the first of August. The plants should be hardened as well as possible
before setting in the field, but no more water than is absolutely necessary
should be applied. Such plants will stand a considerable amount of
freezing in the field. Tomatoes of a superior quality may be obtained by
training the vines to single stems. The usual practice is to make the rows
about four feet apart and set the plants about fourteen to eighteen inches
apart in the row. The plants are secured to stakes or wire trellises and the
lateral branches are pinched out as fast as they appear. When a plant
attains a height of four or five feet a trellis is always used and this causes the
rapid development of fruit all along the stem. This method, however,
should not be practiced unless there is plenty of labor to attend to the
training. ,

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

402

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

tage. Planting should not occur until there is no danger of frosts. Among
the varieties which are popular may be mentioned Kleckley Sweet, Kolb
Gem, Cuban Queen, Halbert Honey, Dixie and Sugar Stick. Cole and
Fordhook are very hardy varieties desirable for planting in northern

districts.

REFERENCES

*'How to Grow Vegetables." French.

*' Garden Farming." Corbett.

*' Vegetable Gardening." Watts.

''Sweet Potato Culture." Fitts.

*' Market Gardening." Yeaw.

Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 137. "Cabbage Experiments."

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins:

196. ''Tomatoes."

199. ''Onions."

203. "Cabbage and Cauliflower."

231 . " Vegetable Growing."
Farmers* Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

324. "Sweet Potatoes."

354. "Onion Culture."

434. "The Home Production of Onion Seed and Sets."

433. "Cabbage."

520 and 548. "Storing and Marketing Sweet Potatoes."

642. "Tomato Growing in the South."

CHAPTER 29

The Farm vegetable Garden

By Paul Work

Superintendent and Instructor, Department of Vegetable Gardeningy

Cornell University

In the rural sections the vegetable gardens adjoining the homes of the
farmers show marked differences. In some sections almost no attempt is
made to supply the home table with home-grown vegetables. In other
districts the gardens are of good size, well planned and uniformly well
cared for throughout the whole season. Those who devote no attention to
the home garden little realize the advantages missed through this neglect.
The diet of these families is usually not well balanced. Meats and cereals
probably predominate and the elements which are supplied in vegetable
food are lacking. These elements are not so much concerned in furnishing
energy and building body material as they are in supplying the flavoring
and mineral requirements. Moreover, man, as well as animals, requires
a certain amount of more or less bulky feed. These factors in the diet are
seemingly of minor importance, but are, nevertheless, absolutely essential.
Just as no animal can thrive without a small amount of salt, so the absence
of these elements from the table results in the weakening of the whole
system and the undermining of the general health. The old-fashioned idea
that one must necessarily be in poor physical condition when spring opens,
is based upon the absence of vegetables and fruits from the old-fashioned
winter diet. Nowadays, when canning is much more economically prac-
ticed and when the products of the garden and orchard are to be had during
every month of the year, the old-time spring tonic is less in demand.

The value of the home garden must be further considered in its contri-
bution to the joy of living and to the relish of a good table. Much can be
said in praise of the endless array of delicacies which may be provided by
the skilful housewife who is in league with the skilful gardener.

The economic value of the products which the home garden offers has
been investigated by a number of experiment stations. At the Illinois
Station it was shown that the average annual gross return from a half acre
amounted to $105 through a period of five years, with an average cost,
including all labor and materials, of $30. Some contend that the ordinary
farmer cannot afford to devote the requisite amount of time and energy
to the cultivation of the garden. It makes demands upon him which conflict
with the demands of his fields and crops. It is true that a delay of a day

(403)

I
I

404

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

in the planting of a field of oats may result in a very serious reduction in the
yield. On the other hand, it is possible to so plan the work that both crops
and garden receive the best of care. In fact, one is impressed with the
correlation which exists between good farming and good gardening. It is
largely a matter of management.

It is the aim of this article to offer some suggestions and general hints
on garden making which may be of service to those trying to meet a given
set of conditions. Rules are subject to numerous exceptions depending
on conditions of soil, climate and exposure. These vary so widely that each
must expect to work out his own salvation. An increasing measure of
success from year to year is the reward to him who is willing to see and to
think and to do the best that he knows, even though his knowledge in the
beginning be exceedingly meagre.

Choosing a Site. — The gardener should carefully avoid the mistake of
undertaking to cultivate a plot which is too large. A small area well kept
and intensively managed will be much more satisfactory. It is safe to say
that half an acre is the extreme for the ordinary family. Such a plot may be
expected to yield an abundance for summer and autumn use, as well as for
canning and storage. It is better to start with a garden too small tl>an one
too large.

On most farms, some choice as to location is possible. The garden
should be near the buildings. It should be within easy reach of the house-
wife so that she may gather the products just as she is ready to use them.
A distant garden seldom receives the care which is required. If the location
is convenient, the hired men can make use of odds and ends of time which
would otherwise be wasted. The cultivator which has finished its task a
half hour before noon may loosen the crusted soil of many rows.

A southeasterly exposure is earlier and ordinarily offers protection from
the severest winds. Roots of trees and shade of buildings should be care-
fully avoided.

If it is possible to choose from different types of soil, it is best to select
a sandy loam. Heavy soil, the clays and clay loams, are lumpy when dry
and are sticky and unworkable when wet. They cannot be cultivated early
in the spring. On the other hand, the lightest sands ought to be avoided,
in spite of the fact that they are loose and friable and may be tilled even when
wet. They are not retentive of moisture or fertility. Of course, high
fertility is of prime importance, but a soil may be improved in this respect
more readily than in physical character. Freedom from weed-seed and
disease must also be sought.

The Garden Plan.— Good planning is no less important in the garden
than on the farm, although it is more often neglected here than in connec-
tion with the broader fields. During the winter the thoughtful gardener
gathers about himself a supply of catalogues, a few good garden books and
bulletins, together with paper, pencil and ruler. Furthermore, he refers
to the concise but comprehensive notes which he has made during the

THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN

405

previous season and which enable him to take advantage of points which
would otherwise have escaped his mind. It is better to till a garden which
is smaller by a few square yards and to keep an adequate record than to
neglect this most important part of the gardener's task. The returns in
later years will amply repay for the time and energy involved.

The first task is to decide what is wanted, making a list of crops, having
in mind the likes and dislikes of the family. This should provide for an
even distribution of products throughout the season and an adequate
supply to be canned or stored for winter use. It should also take into con-
sideration adaptation to climate, soil and space available.

In most cases the rows should be laid out lengthwise of the garden, and
the spacing for all but the most intensive crops should be wide enough for

" Plowed ^vecx

picxnted in
rows 5)&^

v^trcxw berries

Rhub^xrb

Ae)pc^r(^gc;.5

8ft.

8?t:

Gdosgbgrnes Oyrm^ 8ft

Rr\g)pberrie5 §?t

Rr\c,pberl-iee)_l hl<^okbe^llg^_ off-

&r<^peg)

_8?r.

_8ft

A Farm Garden Laid Out for Convenience in Working.*

horse cultivation. At the same time, the possibility of a much smaller
garden to be tilled with wheel hoe and hand hoe may well be considered.
The permanent crops such as asparagus and rhubarb ought to be placed at
one side to avoid interference with tillage operations. In this same section
of the garden the hotbeds and cold-frames may well be placed. Early
crops should usually be kept together in order that the space made vacant
by their removal may be more conveniently utilized. Attention should
also be devoted to the symmetry, balance and neat appearance of the
garden.

Fertility. — The first requirement for garden soil, as well as for farm
soil, is good drainage. In case of surplus water, tile drains should be laid.
Many soils which are not recognized as being especially wet are very
materially benefited by drainage.

The farm gardener enjoys at least one great advantage over the city

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Farm Management," by Warren.

406

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

A — ^Transplanting Board and
Dibble in Use.

gardener. He has available an ample supply of stable manure. This
material is the main reliance for the maintenance of fertility. Manure
supplies nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, the only chemical elements
which are frequently lacking, and if the quantity applied is sufficient to
maintain the humus content of the soil, there will be an abundance of these
three elements. Manure that has been in the pile for several months is
ordinarily preferred, but fresh material may be plowed under each fall

with the assurance that it will be
fairly well decayed and ready to aid
the plants by spring.

In case the garden soil is of a
refractory character, special treat-
ment will be necessary. Heavy soils
may be improved by hauling sand or
gravel, by the addition of ashes, by
the use of lime and especially by lib-
eral applications of manure.

The lime content of the soil
must in any case be maintained.
Applications of air-slaked lime or
finely pulverized limestone at the
rate of a ton per acre every two to
four years, are usually sufficient. If
hydrated or quicklime be used the
quantities may be reduced by ap-
proximately a quarter and a half
respectively.

Tillage. — Every farmer realizes
the danger incident to the plowing
of the soil when it is wet. If such an
error is harmful in ordinary farm
practice it is doubly disastrous in
the garden. Vegetable plants insist upon favorable growth conditions.
In case the soil is shallow, it ought to be gradually deepened from
year to year. The plowing should be done in the fall and the soil
should be left in furrows to benefit from exposure to the frosts of the
"winter. In the spring it may be gone over with the disk harrow and
worked down, making use of such other tools as are best adapted to the
type of soil involved.

It is wise to prepare a few raised beds or ridges in the autumn for the
earliest plantings. These will be ready to work much earlier in the spring,
although they will dry out more rapidly in midsummer. Their direction
should be such that they will gain full advantage of the warm southern sun.
Garden Seed. — Few problems connected with the garden are more
bewildering than the choice of varieties to be planted. Each seedsman

B — Planting the Seedlings. Grow-
ing Early Plants.

''fn$^^

-.1?^:

THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN

407

lands his own productions and impartial descriptions are seldom to be
found. A variety well adapted to one locality may be utterly unsuited to
another. Experience alone will enable one to meet this problem in a
satisfactory way. Selections ought to be made and orders placed early in
the season, in order to avoid disappointment and to allow time for testing.
Many well-known seed houses are striving to supply good, clean, viable
seed that is true to type. Packet seeds found in grocery stores may be more
or less unreliable. Many local seed houses carry excellent stock, however.

To the gardener who is able to devote a bit of extra time to his plot,
no hobby is more fascinating than the selection and saving of seeds from
his own plants. There is always wide variation in excellence and these
differences are inherited to a greater or less degree. By careful attention
for a series of years, remarkable progress may be made in increasing the
returns from a given area. Selections should be made on the basis of the
individual plant rather than that of the individual fruit. The amateur
plant-breeder should first clearly establish in his own mind a definite ideal.
If he changes his ideal from year to year, no progress will be made. Con-
siderable care should also be exercised in the harvesting, curing, labeling
and storing of his seed crop.

Seed that will not start growth will certainly not produce a crop and
such should be eliminated before the garden is planted by means of careful
germination tests. A definite number of seeds may be counted out and
planted in a small box of soil which should be placed under good growing
conditions as regards moisture and temperature. Other tests which are
less thorough may be made by the use of blotters, cloth, porous dishes and
the like. These, however, indicate only whether seed will sprout or not.
They do not afford knowledge as to whether the seed is able to establish in
the soil a plant that is of sufficient vigor to grow independently of the supply
of food material which is stored within the seed coats. The final test con-
sists in growing the crop to maturity.

Growing Early Plants. — Every gardener is anxious to mature his crops
at the earliest possible moment and to this end he is willing to employ
special equipment and special methods. He selects the varieties which
grow most rapidly and sows the seed long before outdoor planting is pos-
sible. He aims to have plants of such vigor and hardiness that they will
make steady growth in spite of unfavorable conditions which they may
encounter. These early plants enable him to more fully utilize the space of
his garden, to care for both soil and plants more easily, to secure a better,
root system and in some cases larger yields.

Early plants may be started in window boxes in the house and may
later be set directly in their permanent place, or the seed may be sown
indoors and the seedlings transplanted to the cold-frame for hardening
before they go to the garden. Whether in greenhouse or hotbed and cold-
frame, the temperature should be relatively low, ventilation free, watering
not too heavy and sunshine unimpeded. These conditions make for stock-

I
I

406

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

A — Transplanting Board and
Dibble in Use.

with the assurance that it will be
fairly well decayed and ready to aid
the plants by spring.

Tillage. — Every farmer realizes
the danger incident to the plowing
of the soil when it is wet. If such an
error is harmful in ordinary farm
practice it is doubly disastrous in
the garden. Vegetable plants insist upon favorable growth conditions.
In case the soil is shallow, it ought to be gradually deepened from
year to year. The plowing should be done in the fall and the soil
should be left in furrows to benefit from exposure to the frosts of the
winter. In the spring it may be gone over with the disk harrow and
worked down, making use of such other tools as are best adapted to the
type of soil involved.

THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN

407

B — Planting the Seedlings. Grow-
ing Early Plants.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

408

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

iness, hardiness, good root systems, vigor and freedom from disease.
Conditions which are unfavorable in any of these respects. e.ncourage a soft
and spindling growth and result in plants which do not yield as satisfactory
results as plants from seed sown in the open.

Small greenhouses adjoining the farm home should be more common.
The cost need not be heavy, as the construction may be exceedingly simple.
The farmer may do the work himself at odd times. Old or second-hand pipe
may be used for heating. The heating arrangement may be exceedingly
simple, perhaps, using no pipe at all and merely setting a small stove in the
middle of the house. In case it is not feasible to have a greenhouse, a
hotbed may be used to excellent advantage. Cold-frames and hotbeds are
described in the next chapter.

Seed Sowing. — Each vegetable has its own peculiarities as to time and
manner of planting, and these peculiarities vary greatly with different
climates and soils. Definite information upon these points, as well as
upon many"others, can be best secured from neighboring gardeners who have
enjoyed long experience. The requirements for germination are moisture,
warmth and air. Light is not necessary, although, of course, it is required
immediately after seedlings break the ground. If the best results are
to be obtained, the soil must be in excellent physical condition, especially
for the smaller and more delicate seeds. These must also be sown a little
more thickly than the more vigorous sorts, as is also the case when plant-
ings are made very early in the spring when soil conditions are not strictly
favorable and when damage by insects or diseases is feared. The skilful
gardener should know his soil and his seed in order to sow just right both
as regards thickness of sowing and depth of planting. Extreme thickness
of sowing results in weak seedlings and requires much tedious work in
thinning. Nevertheless, it is better for the novice to plant moderately
heavily and to thus insure a good stand, even though some thinning is
necessary after the plants have come up.

Particular attention must be devoted to the covering of the seed after
it has been sown. The miniature plant enclosed within the seed coat
depends upon the capillary movement of water in the soil for the moisture
necessary for its growth. This movement is favored by thoroughly com-
pacting the soil, and there is little danger of getting it too firm except in the
case of heavy soils and of those which are rather moist at the time. Sowing
in drills is preferred to broadcasting because it is easier to sow the seed
at uniform depth. The seedlings help each other in breaking ground, and
thinning and other work are more easily performed.

In the smaller gardens, seed is usually sown by hand. An envelope
sealed at the side and cut squarely across the end is an excellent aid in this
work. It is held the flat way and gently shaken with a movement length-
wise of the row, so manipulating it that the seed will drop evenly from the
edge. Many gardeners, however, prefer to use the unaided fingers, working
the seed over the second joint of the index finger by means of the thumb.

THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN

409

Mechanical drills are much more widely used in home gardens than
ever before. Where fairly long rows are the rule, these implements are
great time savers and in addition they may be depended upon to distrib-
ute the seed uniformly both as to thickness and depth. The drill requires
as much skill for its adjustment as does the finger or envelope method. The
scale on the machine which show.s the approximate rate of sowing for the
different seeds can be used only as a general guide, as there is wide variation
in the size of seed of each vegetable.

Transplanting. — A seed consists of a miniature plant with its temporary
food supply enclosed in such protecting covering as is necessary to insure
safe removal to a situation far distant from the parent plant. This tiny
plant is accordingly well adapted for a shift. However, the gardener in his
eagerness for early fruition is not satisfied to let nature have her way. He
must remove a plant which has discarded its protecting coat and which has
already established its roots in the soil and begun to spread its branches in
the air. This modificaticn of
nature's plan makes it necessary
to exercise special precaution if
he is to succeed. The soil should
be in good physical condition
and contain a reasonable amount
of moisture. If possible, the
work should be done on a cloudy
day or in the evening so that the
l)lant may recover from the shock
before it is exposed to the un-
broken rays of the sun. The
little plants may be protected by
special shading if it seems neces-
sary. Care should be exercised
to remove a good-sized ball of earth with the plant, thus establishing the
foundling in its new place without serious disturbance of the roots.
Plants should ordinarily be set just a little deeper than they stood in
their previous place.

It is not wise to set warm-blooded plants like tcmatoes and cucumbers
exceedingly early, as they may be seriously stunted by cold weather, even
though there be no frost. Nevertheless, some gardeners set out a few plants
very early, expecting to replace them if necessary.

Cultivation. — The word cultivation is a general term used in two or
three different ways. As here applied, it refers to the maintenance of a thin
layer of loose soil upon the surface of the garden throughout as much as
possible of the growing season. This mulch is of great value in retaining
moisture, in keeping the soil in good physical condition and in checking the
growth of weeds. In small gardens the hand hoe and hand weeder will
serve every purpose without undue labor. Even more universally used than

Sowing from Seed Package or Envelope.

408

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

iness, hardiness, good root systems, vigor and freedom from disease.
Conditions which are unfavorable in any of these respects encourage a soft
and spindUng growth and result in plants which do not yield as satisfactory
results as plants from seed sown in the open.

Seed Sowing. — Each vegetable has its own peculiarities as to time and
manner of planting, and these peculiarities vary gTeatly with different
climates and soils. Definite information upon these points, as well as
upon many"others, can be best secured from neighboring gardeners who have
enjoyed long experience. The requirements for germination are moisture,
warmth and air. Light is not necessary, although, of course, it is required
immediately after seedlings break the ground. If the best results are
to be obtained, the soil must be in excellent physical condition, especially
for the smaller and more delicate seeds. These must also be sown a little
more thickly than the more vigorous sorts, as is also the case when plant-
ings are made very early in the spring when soil conditions are not strictly
favorable and when damage by insects or diseases is feared. The skilful
gardener should know his soil and his seed in order to sow just right both
as regards thickness of sowing and depth of planting. Extreme thickness
of sowing results in weak seedlings and requires much tedious work in
thinning. Nevertheless, it is better for the novice to plant moderately
heavily and to thus insure a good stand, even though some thinning is
necessary after the plants have come up.

In the smaller gardens, seed is usually sown by hand. An envelope
sealed at the side and cut squarely across the end is an excellent aid in this
work. It is held the fiat way and gently shaken with a movement length-
wise of the row, so manipulating it that the seed will drop evenly from the
edge. Many gardeners, however, prefer to use the unaided fingers, working
the seed over the second joint of the index finger by means of the thumb.

THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN

409

Transplanting. — A seed consists of a miniature plant with its temporary
food supply enclosed in such protecting covering as is necessary to insure
safe removal to a situation far distant from the parent plant. This tiny
plant is accordingly well adapted for a shift. However, the gardener in his
eagerness for early fruition is not satisfied to let nature have her way. He
nmst remove a plant which has discarded its protecting coat and which has
already established its roots in the soil and begun to spread its branches in
the air. This modificatic n of
nature's plan makes it necessary
to exercise special precaution if
he is to succeed. The soil should
be in good physical condition
and contain a reasonable amount
of moisture. If possible, the
work should be done on a cloudy
clay or in the evening so that the
plant may recover from the shock
l)efore it is exposed to the un-
broken rays of the sun. The
little plants may be protected by
special shading if it seems neces-
sary. Care should be exercised
to remove a good-sized ball of earth with the plant, thus establishing the
foundling in its new place without serious disturbance of the roots.
Plants should ordinarily be set just a little deeper than they stood in
their previous place.

It is not wise to set warm-blooded plants like tcmatoes and cucumbers
exceedingly early, as they may be seriously stunted by cold weather, even
though there be no frost. Nevertheless, seme gardeners set out a few plants
very early, expecting to replace them if necessary.

Cultivation. — The word cultivation is a general term used in two or
three different ways. As here applied, it refers to the maintenance of a thin
layer of loose soil upon the surface of the garden throughout as much as
possible of tl.e growing season. This mulch is of great value in retaining
moisture, in keeping the soil in good physical condition and in checking the
growth of weeds. In small gardens the hand hoe and hand weeder will
serve every jjurpose without undue labor. Even more universally used than

Sowing from Seed Package or Ena elope.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

';\i'Sft2

■ms^i,-

^jjSSSiW^?^

410

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the mechanical drill is the man-power wheel hoe, with its diversity of tools
adapted for all sorts of soil stirring. Such implements are found useful,
even though the rows be no more than forty feet long. In larger gardens,
horse implements should be used as far as possible. In either case, it will be
necessary to employ hand tools for maintaining the mulch between plants
in the row. There is available a wider variety of tools and implements for
cultivation than for any other type of garden work. These must be
selected in accordance with the character of the soil, the crops, and the indi-

Wheel Cultivator and Attachments.*

v^idual fancy of the gardener himself. There are a number of crops which
spread over the ground comparatively early in the season and prevent
cultivation from that time on. An increasing number of gardeners are
securing the same results by means of a mulch of fresh, strawy manure,
distributed between the rows. This conserves moisture and prevents
weed growth as effectively as cultivation.

Irrigation. — In spite of all these precautions, gardens often suffer
from lack of water. It is not always possible to irrigate the rural garden,

» Courtesy of New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. From Cornell Reading Courses.

Vol. II. Of

THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN

411

but in some cases the plot may be so located that the water of a little stream
may be so diverted as to flow between the rows when needed. An increas-
ing proportion of country homes have water supply systems of their own.
When this is the case, a line can be run to the garden for hose or overhead
irrigation.

There is great danger that watering be done superficially, only the
upper surface of the soil being moistened. This does more harm than good,
as it dries out before it reaches the roots of the plants and at the same time
it destroys the mulch which was fairly effective in conserving the moisture
already present.

Pest Control. — No garden is free from the ravages of insect enemies
and plant diseases. Each malady and each insect must be treated in its
own way. Information as to methods must be sought in spray calendars or
in special treatises upon such subjects. However, certain general principles
must be borne in mind. As in the case of human ailments, an ounce of
prevention is worth a pound of cure. The most important preventive
measure is thorough cleaning up every fall. This removes from the garden
the dormant forms of both insects and fungi, and so reduces the danger
of infestation the next year. Crop rotation, or rather the refusal to grow
the same crop on the same ground two years in succession, means much in
tlie prevention of certain diseases. Plants which are making strong and
vigorous growth are considerably less susceptible to attack than weaklings.

Cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kale and kohl-rabi are all sub-
ject to clubroot. This disease is caused by a slime mould which lurks in the
soil and which attacks the plant through the roots. When the roots are
thus affected, they are unable to secure either plant food or moisture, and
the plants soon die. The plants wilt slightly at first and more seriously as
the disease progresses. The roots become swollen, knotted and misshapen.
There is no clear-cut method of control, but rotation, liming, thorough
cleaning up each year and care to avoid the introduction of the disease by
means of manure, tools and purchased plants is advised.

With beans, special precaution must be exercised against the rust or
anthracnose. It is well to save one's own seed, choosing only pods which are
naturally free from spot. Cultivation should be avoided when the plants

are wet.

For insect enemies, plant diseases and their remedies, see chapters on

same in Part VIII of this book.

Quality of Vegetables.— Quality in many vegetables depends to a
large extent upon the stage of maturity. Peas and beans are more pala-
table, tender and digestible if gathered at a rather early stage of maturity
than if allowed to get too large. As a rule, the protein content will be
higher and the loss in actual nutritious value is more than counterbalanced
by the good qualities above mentioned.

Few people realize how rapidly sweet corn deteriorates in value after
it has been removed from the plant. It should go directly from garden to

n^^

410

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the mochanical drill is the man-power wheel hoe, with its diversity of tools
adapted for all sorts of soil stirring. Such implements are found useful,
even though the rows be no more than forty feet long. In larger gardens,
horse implements should be used as far as possible. In either case, it will be
necessary to employ hand tools for maintaining the mulch between plants
in the row. There is available a wider variety of tools and implements for
cultivation than for any other type of garden work. These must be
selected in accordance with the character of the soil, the crops, and the indi-

WiiEEL Cultivator and Attachmentjs.*

vndual fancy of th(» gardener hims(»lf. Thc^-e are a number of croj^s which
spread over the ground comparativc^ly (^arly in thc^ season and prevent
cultivation from that time on. An increasing numl)er of gardeners are
securing the same results by means of a mulch of fresh, strawy manure,
distributed between the rows. This conserves moisture and prevents
weed growi:h as effectively as cultivation.

Irrigation. — In spite of all these precautions, gardens often suffer
from lack of water. It is not always possible to irrigate the rural garden,

» Courtesy of New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. From Cornell Reading Courses,

THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN

411

irrigation.

Pest Control. — No garden is free from the ravages of insect enemies
and plant diseases. Each malady and each insect must be treated in its
own way. Information as to methods must be sought in spray calendars or
in special treatises upon such subjects. However, certain general principles
must be borne in mind. As in the case of human ailments, an ounce of
prevention is worth a pound of cure. The most imiwrtant preventive
measure is thorough cleaning up every fall. This removes from the garden
the dormant forms of both insects and fungi, and so reduces the danger
of infestation the next year. Crop rotation, or rather the refusal to grow
the same crop on the same ground two years in succession, means much in
the prevention of certain diseases. Plants which are making strong and
vigorous growth are considera})ly less susceptible to attack than weaklings.

Cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kale and kohl-rabi are all sul)-
ject to clubroot. This disease is caused by a slime mould which lurks in the
soil and which attacks the plant through the roots. When the roots are
thus affected, they are unable to secure either plant food or moisture, and
the plants soon die. The plants wilt slightly at first and more seriously as
the disease progresses. The roots become swollen, knotted and misshapen.
There is no clear-cut method of control, but rotation, liming, thorough
cleaning up each year and care to avoid the introduction of the disease by
means of manure, tools and purchased plants is advised.

are wet.

For insect enemies, plant diseases and their remedies, see chapters on

same in Part VIII of this book.

Quality of Vegetables. — Quality in many vegetables depends to a
large extent upon the stage of maturity. Peas and beans are more pala-
table, tender and digestible if gathered at a rather early stage of maturity
than if allowed to get too large. As a rule, the protein content will be
higher and the loss in actual nutritious value is more than counterbalanced
by the good qualities above mentioned.

Few people realize how rapidly sweet corn deteriorates in value after
it has been removed from the plant. It should go directly from garden to

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

412

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

kettle. Garden beets, in like manner, lose considerable of their sweetness
if allowed to stand long between time of pulling and cooking. Many of
the garden vegetables suffer loss in a similar way.

Storage of Vegetables. — The character of storage that will give best
results depends on the nature of the vegetable. Most vegetables, such as
cabbage, root crops, potatoes and apples, keep best when stored under fairly
dry conditions with some ventilation and a low temperature. The tempera-
ture cannot be too low so long as freezing is avoided. Low temperatures
prevent the development of most fungous and bacterial activities which
are directly responsible for various forms of decay.

There are a few of the vegetables, such as sweet potatoes and squash,
that keep better at a temperature of about 50° F.

Literature. — The skilful gardener is always on the lookout for new
ideas and new suggestions that will enable him to improve his garden from
year to year. Many books have been published and a number of the
experiment stations have issued bulletins dealing with the home lot. The
following are a few references:

((

n
n
((
((
((
(<
((
<<
(t
<<
((
<<

u
<(

n
a
((

Home Vegetable Gardening," bv F. F. Rockwell.

The Home Garden," by Eben E. Rexford.

The Vegetable Garden," by Ida D. Bennett.

Vegetable Gardening," by R. L. Watts.

How to Make a Vegetable Garden," by Edith Loring Fullerton.

Book of Vegetables," bv Allen French.

Manual of Gardening, by L. H. Bailey.

Vegetables for Home and Exhibition." Beckett.

Garden Making." Bailey.

Principles of Vegetable Gardening." Bailey.

Farm and Garden Rule Book."

The Home Vegetable Garden." Farmers' Bulletin No. 255.

The Home Garden in the South." Farmers' Bulletin 647.,

Hotbeds and Cold-frames." Cornell Reading-Course Bulletin No. 30.

Home-Garden Planning." Cornell Readmg-Course Bulletin No. 34.

Planting the Home Vegetable Garden." Cornell Reading-Course Bulletin No. 58.

Summer Work in the Home Garden." Cornell Reading-Course Bulletin No. 92, and

others.
The Home Vegetable Garden." Illinois Circular No. 154.
Farmer's Home Garden." West Virginia Bulletin No. 122.
The Farmer's Vegetable Garden." Illinois Bulletin No. 105.

CHAPTER 30

Vegetable Forcing

By C. W. Waid

Extension Specialist, Michigan Agricultural College

Vegetable forcing is a term applied to the growing of vegetables in
such a way that they mature or become suitable for use in a shorter time
or at a different season than when grown under normal conditions. Cold-
frames, hotbeds and greenhouses are used for this purpose.

Cold-Frames. — Cold-frames are wooden or concrete structures covered
w^ith glass or cloth. They are entirely dependent upon the sun's rays as
the source of heat and serve as a protection against cold winds and too
rapid radiation of the heat at night. The frames are usually built to run
east and west with the south side about a foot above the surface of the
ground and the north side a foot or so higher than the south side. They
are about six feet in width and of any desired length. When glass is used
as a cover the panes are fastened in sash. The standard size of the sash is
three by six feet.

It is not possible to maintain a uniform temperature in cold-frames
auring very cold weather. Their use is, therefore, confined to relatively
mild climates or to short periods in the colder climates. They are best
adapted to the growing of cool-season crops, the starting of plants for late
transplanting or the hardening off of plants started earlier in the greenhouse
or hotbed. A cloth cover is sometimes used in the place of glass as a matter
of economy.

Hotbeds. — Hotbeds are similar in construction to cold-frames. The
chief difference is that in addition to the heat secured from the sun's rays
other means are used to supply heat in the hotbeds. The common source
of artificial heat is fermented horse manure. Hot-air flues and steam or
hot-water pipes are also used for this purpose. When steam or hot water
is used to heat a greenhouse or residence the same system can be used to
advantage in heating the hotbeds. Hotbeds are more satisfactory than
cold-frames for the growing of early crops or the starting of early plants in
a cold climate, as the temperature can be made more uniform.

To prepare a manure hotbed, the dirt is removed from inside the frame
to a depth of from one and one-half to two and one-half feet. Horse manure
from grain-fed animals should be placed in a compact pile at least three
weeks before it is to be put in the pit. As soon as the manure begins to
ferment it should be forked over and thoroughly mixed. All lumps should
be broken. A second forking over may be needed before it is ready for the

(413)

414

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

pit, when it should be a steaming mass. Care must be taken not to let it
overheat anrl burn, as this would reduce its value. When the pit is dug
and the manure ready it should be placed in the pit a few inches at a time
and evenly tamped. From one to two feet of solid manure is essential for
best results; the greater amount being needed for the growing of heat-
loving plants and for other plants as well in the colder sections of the
country. Rich garden soil, preferably from a compost heap, should be
placed over the manure to a depth of about six inches. The sash should
be placed on the frame as soon as the manure and soil are put in to prevent
the heat escaping too freely and to keep off the rain or snow. If the manure
is well prepared it will raise the temperature of the soil so high at first that
it will not be safe to sow seeds until several days later. The temperature
of the soil should not be over 85° F. when the seeds are sown.

A Double Sash Steam-Heated Hotbed.

The Greenhouse. — Greenhouses are glass-covered structures, so built
that the person who grows crops in them can work inside with ease. They
are heated with hot-air flues, hot water or steam. When properly con-
structed it is possible to grow many kinds of crops to maturity in them at
any season of the year. They are even more satisfactory than hotbeds for
the starting of plants for early crops outside. It is possible for the gardener
not only to give the plants better care in bad weather in tlje greenhouse,
but he is not so much exposed, and thus can work more comfortably and to
better advantage. The combination of a greenhouse, hotbeds and cold-
frames is desirable when possible.

Growing Plants Under Glass.— The growing of plants under glass is
very different from growing them in the open. To the inexperienced, it
might seem easier to grow them inside than outside, because conditions are
more nearly under the grower's control. This is not true, however, as the

VEGETABLE FORCING

415

comparatively high temperature, excessive humidity and artificial condi-
tions in general encourage the development of tender planta which are sub-
ject to attack by various insects and diseases. Vegetable forcing is periiapo
the most exacting of all lines of intensive gardening. To be successful in
this line of work when it is followed as a business, an individual must be able
to apply himself and must have a knowledge of the needs of the crops to be
grown. If he is in love with this particular line of work, his chances of
success are much greater than when he forces himself into it because he
thinks there is money in the business. This need not discourage the man
who wishes to have a small greenhouse and a few sash to assist him in
getting more money from his outside crops. Many successful greenhouse
men have started in this very way.

A Greenhouse Suitable for Forcing Plants.

One of the most important things to keep in mind when starting in the
forcing business even in a small way, is to try to supply as nearly as possible
the needs of the crop to be grown as to temperature, ventilation, plant-food
-and water. If these demands are met there will be much less trouble from
diseases than when they are not properly looked after.

The following is a list of cool plants which require a night temperature
of from 45° to 55° F., and a day temperature of from 65° to 70° F. on clear
days:

Peas Onions

Beets Celery

Rhubarb Asparagus Parsley

Cauliflower Carrots

The warm plants demanding a night temperature of 55° F. or above
and a day temperature of 75° F. or more on bright days are tomatoes, egg-
plants, peppers, cucumbers, muskmelons and beans.

Too much importance cannot be placed on ventilation. In cold-

Lettuce
Radishes

t^^

''^rU'^j'M'iMy-'^^

■■■■ r-'vA

414

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

l)it, when it should be a steaming mass. Care must be taken not to let it
overheat anrl burn, as this would reduce its value. When the pit is dug
ftiid the manure ready it should be placed in the pit a few inches at a time
and evenly tamped. From one to two feet of solid manure is essential for
l)est results; the greater amount being needed for the growing of heat-
loving plants and for other plants as well in the colder sections of the
country, llich garden soil, preferably from a compost heap, should be
placed over the manure to a depth of about six inches. The sash should
be placed on the frame as soon as the manure and soil are put in to prevent
the heat escaping too freely and to keep off the rain or snow. If the manure
is well prepared it will raise the temperature of the soil so high at first that
it will not be safe to sow seeds until several days later. The temperature
of the soil should not be over 85° F. when the seeds are sown.

A Double Sash Steam-Heated Hotbed.

The Greenhouse. — Gn^enhouses are glass-covered structures, so built
that the person who grows crops in them can work inside with ease. They
are heated with hot-air flues, hot water or steam. When properly con-
structed it is possible to grow many kinds of crops to maturity in them at
any season of the year. They are even more satisfactory than hotbeds for
the starting of plants for early crops outside. It is possible for the gardener
not only to give the plants better care in bad weather in tlje greenhouse,
but he is not so much exposed, and thus can work more comfortably and to
better advantage. The combination of a greenhouse, hotbeds and cold-
frames is desirable when possible.

VEGETABLE FORCING

415

comparatively high temperature, excessive humidity and artificial condi-
tions in general encourage the development of tender plants which are sub-
ject to attack by various insects and diseases. Vegetable forcing is periiupo
the most exacting of all lines of intensive gardening. To be successful in
this line of work when it is followed as a business, an individual must be able
to apply himself and must have a knowledge of the needs of the crops to be
grown. If he is in love with this particular line of work, his chances of
success are much greater than when he forces himself into it because he
thinks there is money in the business. This need not discourage the man
who wishes to have a small greenhouse and a few sash to assist him in
getting more money from his outside crops. Many successful greenhouse
men have started in this very way.

A Gkeenhouse Suitable for Forcing Plants.

One of the most im})ortant things to keep in mind when starting in the
forcing business even in a small way, is to try to supply as nearly as possible
the needs of ttie crop to be grown as to temperature, ventilation, plant-food
-and water. If these demands are met there will be much less trouble from
diseases than when they are not properly looked after.

The following is a list of cool plants which require a night temperature
of from 45° to 55° F., and a day temperature of from 65° to 70° F. on clear
days :

Lettuce Peas Onions

Radishes Beets Celery

Rhubarb Asparagus Parsley

Cauliflower Carrots

The warm plants demanding a night temperature of 55° F. or above
and a day temperature of 75° F. or more on bright days are tomatoes, egg-
plants, peppers, cucumbers, muskmelons and beans.

Too much importance cannot be placed on ventilation. In cold-

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

mm^^

416

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

frames and hotbeds poor ventilation is almost certain to induce the disease
known as '' damping ott/' while careful ventilation and watering will prevent
\i to a great extent. In a greenhouse such diseases as mildew and others
which flourish in a moisture-laden atmosphere and high temperature will be
much more liable to give trouble when the ventilation is insufficient than
when it is given proper attention.

Watering is another important operation. As a rule, it is best to
water only on bright days, and preferably during the forenoon to give time
for the plants to dry off before night. The overhead system of watering is
being used very commonly by progressive gardeners in the greenhouse and
in hotbeds and cold-frames.

The most common source of plant-food in vegetable forcing is well-
rotted stable manure. When this can be secured in sufficient quantity,
little in the way of artificial fertilizers will be needed. In some cases the
use of liquid manure or nitrate of soda in small quantities will produce good
results. Wood-ashes, especially from the burning of hardwood and ashes
secured from the burning of tobacco stems, can be used to good advantage.

It is not customary to make frequent changes of soil in the vegetable
forcing business. Some soils have been in use for forty years and are still
producing good crops. In some cases steam sterilization has been necessary
to overcome certain soil diseases.

A brief treatment of this subject would not be complete without calling
attention to the importance not only of good varieties but of good strains
of vegetables for forcing. There is no line of gardening in which this matter
is of greater importance. Much time and expense is incurred in the growing
of plants under glass. It would certainly not be profitable to put so much
expense upon varieties which even when well grown are inferior. Well-
grown vegetables of good varieties and strains will demand the highest
market prices. The forcing of vegetables is a profitable and pleasant line
of work when properly done by the man who knows his business and
delights in his work.

REFERENCES

"The Forcing Book.'' Bailey. ^^. , „ , ,, . ^, ,,

Illinois Expt. Station Bulletin 184. *' Tests with Sodium Nitrate for Early Vegetablea.
Farmers' Bulletin 460, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Frames as a Factor in Iruck

Growing." ^ . ,,

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 224. "Greenhouse Construction."

•«

CHAPTER 31

Mushroom Culture

By H. M. Ware
Practical Mushroom Grower, Delaware

Over 5,000,000 pounds of the common mushroom (Agaricus campestris)
are grown annually in the United States. Besides these, in 1914 we
imported from Europe 9,188,177 pounds in cans, 30 per cent more than in
1910. Practically all of the $3,000,000 worth of mushrooms grown or
imported by this country in 1914 were sold in a few of our larger cities.
Hundreds of smaller cities and towns throughout the country offer unde-
veloped markets for this product, a fact which does not indicate that the
supply will soon exceed the demand.

The uncertainty of mushroom growing as a business was eliminated
when Dr. B! M. Duggar discovered the ''Tissue Method '' of manufacturing
spawn in 1902. As a direct result of discarding the ''Chance" spawn
imported from England and France, the American industry has developed
rapidly.

While it is true that the bigger the operation the lower will be the cost
of production, nevertheless mushroom culture is adapted as a side Une to
many farms. When sold, mushrooms enter the same channels, wholesale
or retail, as do other fancy products. Labor can be profitably employed
in winter. The manure used in the houses is in ideal condition for applica-
tion on the land. This point is better understood when it is considered
that the composting of the manure is almost identical with the methods
employed by market gardeners — that the fresh mushroom contains 90
per cent water and analysis has shown that, ton for ton, mushroom manure
is more valuable than fresh stable manure, having lost little beside weight,
water and weed-seeds.

It should be understood that much hard and some unpleasant work is
unavoidable in mushroom culture. But that, with intelligent care in supply-
ing the few essential details, success and a legitimate profit are assured.

The most common causes of failure are:

1. Poor spawn.

2. Heavy watering.

3. Unfavorable temperature.

4. Poor or improperly composted manure.

Houses. — The place in which mushrooms are to be grown must permit
easy control of temperature, moisture and ventilation. While proper
conditions may be afforded by caves, cellars or unused buildings, it will

V (417)

1 Courtesy of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin 85, B. P. I.

(418)

■Ssv^^z

MUSHROOM CULTURE

419

generally be foimd advisable to build especially for the purpose. But no
one should build a mushroom house without first inspeciing thp plant of a
successful grower. Permanent walls can be made of hollow tile or otnei
material that will not readily decay. Air space in the wall must be provided
to maintain even temperature.

When grown in winter mushrooms require artificial heat. Hot-water
heating, the system most economically and easily run, is in general use
by all large growers. Five hundred square feet of pipe surface (1000 feet
of l|-inch pipe) should be allowed
to every 20,000 cubic feet of au-
space.

Preparation of the Compost. —

The best material is fresh horse
manure, which contains plenty of
the more resistant cereal straws.
Care should be exercised to see that
no disinfectant has been used. Build
the pile with straight sides 3 or 4
feet deep throughout and 8 feet
wide. This makes turning easy,
and leaching of plant-food is pre-
vented. In five days the pile should
be turnf^d; thereafter at weekly
intervals, until rapid fermentation
has stopped; usually in three or
four weeks. Water the compost
when turning and keep it moist.
Heavy watering at first will do little
harm, but when ready for the beds
compost should be in such condition
that when squeezed in the hand
water will not readily drop from it.
Some growers cover the piles with

three inches of dirt before and after the first turning. Equally successful
growers, however, use no dirt in the compost. Dirt seems only to shorten
the time necessary for composting. When ready for the beds the manure
has lost all objectionable odors, and the straw has changed from yellow
to dark brown.

Filling the Beds. — The beds in common use are flat, 8 inches deep and
6 feet wide, built in .tiers of shelves five or six beds to ths tier. The boards
used are generally chestnut, 1 inch by 8 inches by 12 feet. These are lapped
loosely so they may be easily dumped.

The bottom beds should be filled first, so that the operator will have
head room. They should then be firmed (i. e., leveled by light pounding
with back of fork); if not wet, the manure may be tramped. Firming

Turning the Compost.

r (,'■■;

1 Courtesy of the U. S. Dept. of Agric-ulture, Bulletin 85, B. P. I.

(418)

o
O

o
o

o
ft

MUSHROOM CULTURE

419

generally be fou^d advisable to build especially for the purpose. But no
one should build a mushroom house without first inspeciing tho Dlant of a
successful gi-ower. Permanent walls can be made of hollow tile or otnex
material that will not readily decay. Air space in the wall must be provided
to maintain even temperature.

When grown in winter mushrooms require artificial heat. Hot-water
heating, the system most economically and easily run, is in general use
by all large growers. Five hundred square feet of pipe surface (1000 feet
of IJ-inch pipe) should be allowed
to every 20,000 cubic feet of air
space.

Preparation of the Compost. —

The best material is fresh horse
manure, which contains plenty of
the more resistant cereal straws.
Care should be exercised to see that
no disinfectant has been used. Build
the pile with straight sides 3 or 4
feet deep throughout and 8 feet
wide. This makes turning easy,
and leaching of plant-food is pre-
vented. In five days the pile should
be turned; thereafter at weekly
intervals, until rapid fermentation
has stopped; usually in three or
four weeks. Water the compost
when turning and keep it moist.
Heavy watering at first will do little
harm, but when ready for the beds
compost should be in such condition
that when squeezed in the hand
water will not readily drop from it.
Some growers cover the piles with

Filling the Beds. — The beds in common use are flat, 8 inches deep and
6 feet wide, built in .tiers of shelves five or six beds to th- tier. The boards
used are generally chestnut, 1 inch by 8 inches by 12 feet. These are lapped
loosely so they may be easily dumped.

Turning the Compost.

!:i«i "i

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

l^S'

-'^

■y.m

420

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

lessens evaporation and prevents burning during the secondary heating.
When filled the house is closed, and in a day or two the temperature rises,
ov^uietimes to 120° F., then slowly drops to normal. One ton of manure will
fill approximately 65 square feet of bed 8 inches deep.

Spawning. — Only the best American brick spawn should be used.

A Typical Range of Mushroom Houses.

Of the several varieties, the White and Cream are most desirable ; white is
more salable, cream more prolific and hardy. Spawning should begin when
the temperature of the beds has dropped go 70° F. The bricks should be
broken into eight or ten pieces IJ to 2 inches square and placed evenly on

Sifting the Casing Dirt.

• •

the beds. The pieces should then be inserted vertically one inch below the
surface of the manure. After spawning, the beds should be firmed again.
Spawn should be kept in a cool, dry place. One brick costs from
twelve to fifteen cents and will plant 8 square feet of bed.

MUSHROOM CULTURE

421

Casing the Beds. — Two weeks after spawning, a piece of spawn should
be dug up; if the mycelium appears as a mould running into the manure,
the beds are ready to case. Casing consists in covering the beds with a
layer of sifted loam 1 to 1§ inches deep. The loam causes the mushrooms
to head, acts as a mulch and is the best medium for picking. The average
farm wagon load of sifted loam will cover 250 square feet of bed.

Temperature. — Temperature is important because it regulates the
competition of mushrooms with insects and with other fungi. It has been
found that at 53° to 58° F. mushrooms grow slowly but strongly, while
other growths are held in check. Even at freezing temperatures mush-
rooms lie dormant without apparent harm. Too much heat causes rapid

Types of Fancy Packages.

development, not only of mushrooms, but also of any other organisms
present, so that the spawn soon *^runs out.'* The temperature should be
kept near 56° F. and sudden changes should be avoided.

Water. — Water should be applied to the beds only as a spray. The
surface should never be allowed to dry out, nor should it be soaked. It is
better to apply a little water every day than to water heavily at longer
intervals. The air should be kept as moist as proper ventilation
permits.

Ventilation. — Ventilation is of great importance, but must be accom-
plished without draughts. Draughts quickly dry out the beds and cau?e
the mushrooms to crack and darken, especially after watering. Overhead
ventilators give the most uniform ventilation with the least danger.

Picking and Marketing. — The first mushrooms appear six to eight
weeks after spawning. When in full bearing they should be picked every
day. Picking is an art. The yield and returns may be materially reduced
by lack of judgment in this single operation. Experience only can teach one
to pick properly. It should be remembered that mushrooms gain no weight

■■,..'• ■- ■■-v.--! ?-S,*iS*l

;^M?

:yr.',

420

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

lessens evaporation and prevents burning during the secondary heating.
When filled th© huuse is closed, and in a day or two the temperature rises,
owiiietimes to 120° F., then slowly drops to normal. One ton of manure will
fill approximately 65 square feet of bed 8 inches deep.

Spawning. — Only the best American brick spawn should be used.

A Typical Range of Mushroom Houses.

Sifting the Casing Dirt.

;

MUSHROOM CULTURE

421

Casing the Beds. — Two weeks after spawning, a piece of spawn should
be dug up; if the mycelium appears as a mould running into the manure,
the beds are ready to case. Casing consists in covering the beds with a
layer of sifted loam 1 to IJ inches deep. The loam causes the mushrooms
to hsad, acts as a mulch and is the best medium for picking. The average
farm wagon load of sifted loam will cover 250 square feet of bed.

Temperature. — Temperature is important because it regulates the
competition of mushrooms with insects and with other fungi. It has been
found that at 53° to 58° F. mushrooms grow slowly but strongly, while
other growths are held in chock. Even at freezing temperatures mush-
rooms lie dormant without apparent harm. Too much heat causes rapid

Types of Fancy Packages.

development, not only of mushrooms, but also of any other organisms
present, so that the spawn soon ^'runs out.^^ The temperature should be
kept near 56° F. and sudden changes should be avoided.

■ism:

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

422

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

after the veil begins to break and that an open mushroom is a third-class
article on the market.

Mushrooms are a distinctly high-grade product. They deserve the
most careful grading and care in the selection of a package. The standard
grades in the New York market are Fancy, Choice, Buttons and Seconds.
Too few growers use a label, their packages being known only by a number
given in a commission house. The ventilated pound box will recommend
itself for the retail trade. The four-pound splint basket is the standard
wholesale package; these are tied in bundles of six for shipment by express.

After picking, delay and high temperatures are to be avoided. Even
in cold weather some ventilation in the package is desirable.

The Following are the Most Troublesome Enemies.

DISEASES.

Enemy.

When Troublesome.

Injury.

Treatment.

Fogging off.

Warm weather.

Young mushrooms turn brown.

Lower temperature. Ventila-
tion.

Black spot.

Improper watering and
ventilation.

Discolored caps.

Proper conditions.

Mycogene disease.

Infected spawn or com-
post.

Abnormal growths, misshapen,
unsalable, highly infectious.

(\i r e f u 1 sanitation. Formalde-
hyde gas fumigation.

INSECTS.

Mites. 1 High temperature.

Troublesome; may affect spawn.

—, — .. .__ _ _ ,.
Springtails.

Carelessness in cleaning
house.

Similar to fogging off.

Bore into mushrooms; unsal-
able.

Fumigation with carbon bisul-
phide.

Larvae of flies.

Poor manure. Warm
weather.

Carbon bisulphide. Low tem-
perature.

Mushroom Enemies. — By providing suitable growing conditions and
exercising the utmost care in cleaning the house after a crop has been grown,
little trouble from insects or fungous enemies will be experienced. Every
speck of old compost must be brushed out. The bed boards and every
part of the house should then be whitewashed and if possible fumigated.

Yield and Returns. — The profitable life of a mushroom bed averages
three to four months. A yield of one half pound per square foot will pay
labor and expenses, but one pound per square foot should be produced
under proper conditions.

The average wholesale price is 25 to 26 cents per pound. Mushrooms
retail throughout the season from 35 to 75 cents per pound, depending alike
on season and quality.

The cost of production depends mainly upon the yield and the cost of
labor and materials in a given section. The large growers estimate the
cost at 15 to 25 cents per pound.

MUSHROOM CULTURE

423

REFERENCES

"Mushrooms: How to Grow Them." Falconer.

Ohio Expt. Station Circular 153. "Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 127. "Micogene Disease of Mushrooms."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 85. "Principles of
Mushroom Growing."

Farmers' Bulletin 342, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. " Mushroom Growing and Preserving
Wild Ones."

MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS 425

CHAPTER 32

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

By W. W. Stockberger

Physiologist in Drug and Poisonous Plant Investigations, U. S. Dept.

of Agriculture

The market demand for the products of medicinal and aromatic plants
when compared with the demand for staple products such as cereals, fruits
or vegetables, is relatively very small, and is not sufficient to make them
promising crops for general cultivation. Many such plants which can be
grown and prepared for market with little difficulty, bring but a small
return, and hence their cultivation offers little prospect of profit. A number
of high-priced medicinal plants must be given care for two or more years
before a crop can be harvested, and, since expensive equipment is usually
required for their successful culture and preparation for market, the
production of such crops offers little encouragement to inexperienced
growers who are looking for quick returns and large profits from a small
investment of time and money.

Requirements for Medicinal Plants. — Several medicinal and aromatic
plants, for which the demand is fairly constant, have been profitably grown
on a commercial basis, but the success of the growers has been due largely
to the care which they have taken to produce a uniform product of high
quality. However, the production of drugs of high quality requires skilled
management, experience in special methods of plant culture, acquaintance
with trade requirements and a knowledge of the influence of time of col-
lection and manner of preparation on those constituents of the drug which
determine its value. Small quantities of drugs produced without regard to
these conditions are apt to be poor in quality and so unattractive to dealers
and manufacturers that the product will not be salable at a price sufficient
to make their production profitable.

The agricultural conditions generally prevailing in the United States
and in Canada are far more favorable to the growing of medicinal and
aromatic plants as a special industry for well-equipped cultivators than as a
side crop for general farmers.

The growing of medicinal plants in the United States has hardly
passed beyond the experimental stage, and although several of these plants
promise satisfactory profits in suitable localities, any general attempt to
grow them on a commercial scale would soon result in over-stocking the
market. However, the demand for such plants as anise, belladonna, car-

(424)

away, coriander, digitalis and sage is at present large enough to make them
worthy of consideration.

Anise (Pimpinella anisum) is an annual plant grown for its aromatic
seeds. It is cultivated on a small scale in Rhode Island, and is suited for
localities similar in climate to that state. The best soil for anise is a light,
moderately-rich and well-drained loam. The plant is very sensitive to
unfavorable weather conditions, but in a good season the yield of seed
should be from 400 to 600 pounds per acre. About 2000 acres should
produce the average quantity of seed annually imported into this country.
The price usually ranges from 6 to 8 cents a pound.

Belladonna {Atropa belladonna) is an important drug plant for which
there is a steady demand. It has been cultivated in New Jersey, Pennsyl-
vania and California, although not very successfully from a commercial
point of view. It is apparently better adapted to the warmer states than
to the colder regions where it is likely to winter-kill. Belladonna thrives
best in deep, moist, well-drained loam containing lime. Sowing seed in the
field usually gives very poor results, but sowing seed in the greenhouse and
transplanting like tomatoes is usually successful. The cost of growing
belladonna is high, owing to the large amount of necessary hand labor.
Five hundred pounds of dry leaves per acre is considered a fair yield. At
the end of the second year about 1000 pounds of dried root per acre may be
harvested. The prices in the wholesale drug markets have been from 14
to 25 cents a pound for the leaves and from 9 to 18 cents a pound for the
roots. Prices to growers have been proportionately less.

Caraway (Carum carui) is an annual, cultivated for its aromatic
seeds, which are used medicinally and for flavoring. It grows and fruits
well over a considerable portion of the United States, especially in the north
and northwest, but its cultivation in this country has never assumed
commercial proportions. Soil of a somewhat clayey nature and containing
a fair proportion of humus and available plant-food is particularly suited
to caraway, but the plant generally grows well in any good upland soil
which will produce fair crops of corn or potatoes. The average yield of
seed per acre is about 1000 pounds. At this rate about 2700 acres would be
required to produce the quantity of seed annually imported. Anyone
undertaking the cultivation of this plant might well consider growing dill
and fennel also. Caraway seed is valued at about 6| cents a pound.

Coriander {Coriandrum sativum) is also grown for its aromatic seeds
and in its requirements and method of culture is very similar to caraway.
The yield of seed is quite variable, but from 500 to 800 pounds per acre may
be expected. If the average yield were 650 pounds per acre, 2000 acres
would be required to produce the quantity of seed annually imported.
The seed is valued at approximately 3 cents a pound.

Digitalis or Foxglove {Digitalis purpurea) is an important drug plant
for which there is a constant demand. The leaves are used in medicine.
Although widely grown in flower gardens as an ornamental, it has not yet

426

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

been grown on a large scale in this country as a drug crop. This plant
thrives best in ordinary well-drained garden soils of open texture. Sowing
the seed in the field is usually unsuccessful. For good results they should
be sown in seed-pans or flats in the greenhouse. When danger oJF frost is
past the plants should be hardened off and transplanted to the field.
Digitalis does not flower until the second year, when the leaves may be
collected. Probably 600 pounds of dry leaves per acre may be obtained
under favorable conditions. The wholesale price of leaves ranges from 8 to
40 cents a pound, averaging about 15 cents.

The Common Sage Plant {Salvia officinalis) is easily cultivated and
will grow in almost any w^ell-drained fertile soil. There is a good demand
for American leaf sage, which sells at a considerably higher price than the
imported article.

The dry herb or leaves of a number of aromatic plants form marketable
products for w^hich there is a small demand, but as a rule these plants are
grown for the essential oils which they yield. The principal essential oils
produced in the United States from cultivated plants are: peppermint,
spearmint, tansy, wormwood and American wormseed. The price of im-
ported sage is 3 to 5 cents a pound. American sage is usually a little higher.

Ginseng {Panax quinquefoliwn) is a fleshy-rooted herbaceous plant
native to this country and formerly of frequent occurrence in shady, well-
drained situations in hardwood forests from Maine to Minnesota and south-
ward to the mountains of Georgia and the Carolinas. . It has long been
valued by the Chinese for medicinal use, though rarely credited with cura-
tive properties by natives of other countries. Under cultural conditions,
ginseng should be shielded from direct sunlight by the shade of the trees
or by lath sheds. The soil should be fairly light and w^ell fertilized with
woods earth, rotted leaves or fine raw bone meal, the latter applied at the
rate of one pound to each square yard. Seed should be planted in the
spring as early as the soil can be worked to advantage, placed 6 inches apart
each way in the permanent beds, or 2 by 6 inches in seed-beds, and the
seedlings transplanted to stand 6 to 8 inches apart when two years old.
Only cracked or partially germinated seed should be used.

Ginseng needs little cultivation, but the beds should be at all times
kept free from weeds and grass and the surface of the soil slightly stirred
whenever it shows signs of caking. A winter mulch over the crowns is
usually essential, but it should not be applied until freezing weather is
imminent and should be removed in the spring before the first shoots come
through the soil.

The roots do not reach marketable size until about the fifth or sixth
year from seed. When dug, they should be carefully washed or shaken
free of all adhering soil, but not scraped. Curing is best effected in a well-
ventilated room heated to about 80° F. Nearly a month is required to
properly cure the larger roots, and great care must be taken in order to
prevent moulding or souring. Overheating must also be avoided. When

MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS 427

well cured the roots should be stored in a dry, airy place until ready for
sale. A market may be found with the wholesale drug dealers, some of
whom make a specialty of buying ginseng root for export.

The price of cultivated ginseng root, as quoted in wholesale drug lists,
has ranged during the past few years from $5 to $7.50 per pound.

A detailed account of ginseng culture is given in Farmers' Bulletin
551, entitled ''The Cultivation of American Ginseng.''

Peppermint {Mentha piperita) is frequently found growing wild
throughout the eastern half of the United States, and can be grown under
cultivation on any land that will produce good crops of corn. It is grown
commercially with most success on the muck lands of reclaimed swamps in
southern Michigan and northern Indiana. On good land the average
yield of oil per acre is about 30 pounds, but as the yield is variable, approxi-
mately 15,000 acres of land are required to produce the annual market
demand. It is valued at about $2.50 per pound.

Spearmint {Mentha spicata) is very much like peppermint in its
requirements, but can be grown successfully on a wider range of soils. On
ordinary soils the yield of oil varies from 10 to 20 pounds per acre, but on
muck lands the yield is usually only a little less than that of peppermint.
The annual market requirement for spearmint oil is about 50,000 pounds.
The oil has an average value of about $3.30 a pound and the dry herb 3 to
4 cents a pound.

Tansy {Tanacetum mlgare) is a hardy plant which grows well on
almost any good soil, but rich and rather heavy soils well supplied with
moisture favor a heavy growth. The yield of oil varies, but about 20 pounds
per acre is a fair average. The annual market requirement of this oil
probably does not much exceed 3000 pounds. It is valued at about $2.60
a pound.

Wormwood {Artemisia absinthium) is a hardy plant which can be
grown almost everywere, but commercially it is usually grown on fairly
rich, moderately moist loams. It is cultivated on a small commercial
scale chiefly in Michigan and Wisconsin. The annual production of oil is
about 2000 pounds, which is apparently sufficient to satisfy market require-
ments. It is valued at about $2.40 per pound.

American Wormseed {Chenopodium anthelminticum) is a coarse w^ed
which grows well in almost any soil. The yield of this oil varies, but
about 30 pounds per acre is a fair average and the annual production is
about 5000 pounds. It is gaining in importance largely through its use as
a remedy for hook-worm. The price ranges from $1.40 to $5.50 a pound.

Additional Equipment. — In addition to the usual agricultural equip-
ment the producer of essential oils must provide a suitable distilling
apparatus, since such oils are usually derived from plants by steam distilla-
tion. The cost of setting up a still will depend upon what facilities are
already at hand and the size and efficiency of the apparatus installed. It
may easily range from a small sum to several thousand dollars.

428

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Where successful production of medicinal plants has not been demon-
strated it should be determined on small experimental plats before under-
taking commercial plantings.

REFERENCES

Michigan Expt. Station Bulletin (Special) 72. ''Some Gingseng Troubles/'

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 26. "American Medicmal Flowers, Fruits and

Seeds."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

531. "Larkspur or Poison Weed.''

551. "Cultivation of American Ginseng."

613. "Goldenseal Under Cultivation."

694. "The Cultivation of Peppermint and Spearmint."

663. "Drug Plants Under Cultivation."

CHAPTER 33 •

Principles of Fruit Production, with Special Reference to

THE Home Plantation

By M. G. Kains
Professor of Horticulture^ The Pennsylvania State College

The establishment of home orchards is as important as ever, especially
in sections where fruit is not now grown but is shipped in. With the
wealth of inforrnation available through government and experiment station
publications, no one who owns land suitable for growing general farm crops
need hesitate to plant fruit for home needs. Even for the cold sections
hardy varieties are available.

The Main Factors to Consider. — Temperature decides as to the
species, and sometimes the variety, that may be grown. That of a region
and even of an orchard is determined mainly by latitude, altitude, physical
character of the country and distance from large bodies of water. In the
spring, lakes and rivers keep the air cool because they are cold. Thus, they
hold back bud development and aid the plants in escaping late frosts. In
the fall they continue warm and thus lengthen the season. Other sections
even nearby, but beyond the reach of breezes from the water, are more
likely to be frosted.

Moisture in the soil may be secured through rainfall or by irrigation.
In the East enough rain generally falls to care for the fruit interests,
provided proper tillage methods are practiced; in the West, irrigation has
largely solved the water supply problem. Of more importance is the rela-
tive humidity of the air; for where the air is dry, crop growing is more diffi-
cult than where it is fairly moist. In the northern prairie states, where
the winter air is both cold and dry, many fruits fail because the air sucks
moisture out of twigs and branches while the ground is frozen. In the East,
where the cold spells alternate with moist weather, the twigs have a chance
to secure moisture either from the soil or from the air.

Soil. — In general, currants and European pears usually do best on
heavy soils; peaches and strawberries on Hghter ones. But there are
countless successes on soils of other character. Because of this, it is evident
that the distinctions drawn between soils adapted to certain varieties are
perhaps too fine; and yet there are varietal preferences that should be
considered for commercial orchards. For home and local market planta-
tion these distinctions are of less importance than for big business orchards.

Subsoil is of even more importance than surface soil in fruit culture,
especially of tree fruits. Many good business orchards are on thin soils

(429)

430

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

that must be fed to keep the trees vigorous and productive. The secret is
a deep, porous subsoil which insures good drainage and deep feeding;
hence the ability of the trees to withstand seasonal vagaries. Since no
business orchard should be planted without determining the nature of the

subsoil, the prospective
planter of a home orchard
may well follow this prac-
tice.

The Parasite factor is
mainly controllable. Not
that there are no difficult
enemies to handle, but
preventive or remedial
measures are available and
mostly effective where
properly applied.

Site for the home farm
orchard is as important in
its degree as location is to
the commercial fruit
grower. Site pertains to
the position of the orchard
on the farm, as a gentle
eastward or northern slope.
Much of the success of the
plantation may be in
choosing a well-drained,
elevated site protected
from strong winds. Such
a site allows the cold air as
well as the ground water
to drain away, thus pre-
venting frost injury to
buds and blossoms. It
also favors holding fruit
by the trees, whereas a site
exposed to high winds
would favor dropping.

Aspect formerly at-
tracted far more attention than today. It was believed that southern
and eastern slopes favor earliness — and they do — but the effect is less
than commonly believed. Business fruit growers plant on all slopes and
get good results from all.

Windbreaks may or may not be a benefit. No one should plant a

» Courtesy of Maloney Brothers and Wells Company, Dansville, N. Y.

Good Nursery Stock.^
(Note the extent of roots and form of tops.)

PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION 431

windbreak without first studying the problem from all angles. Often the
best windbreak is the outside row of fruit trees, especially if of a variety
that grows large and holds its fruit tenaciously.

Nursery Stock is nowadays so low priced that no one should consider
growing his own trees. Fruit trees need special care as to propagation, and
also require too much time to grow to orchard planting size; so when the
best standard varieties can be bought for thirty cents or less, why run the
risk of failure in growing one's own? In buying stock, it is wise to insist
upon getting straight, clean trees without Y-crotches, free from insects
and diseases, and in plump, robust condition when received. Under no
condition should fruit trees older than two years be considered. Peach
trees should never be over one year. Trees older than these do not produce
fruit sooner or make better orchard trees than young ones. Most commer-
cial fruit growers prefer one-year trees of all kinds because these can be
trained more easily than can older trees. The trees also make better
progress because they have not lost so many roots.

Southern vs. Northern Grown Nursery Trees. — In the South "June
budded '' trees are popular. There they may be planted in the fall; but
for northern fall planting they do not mature early enough to get a start
before winter sets in. Therefore, in the North they should be bought only
for spring setting. They are not inferior to northern trees when planted
in spring.

Time to Plant. — Fall planting has decided advantages over spring
planting. There is a far better chance to get the varieties ordered because
nurserymen are not then sold out; if four or more weeks will elapse before
winter sets in, the trees may be planted and thus the work done when time
is not so precious as in the spring; nurserymen usually charge somewhat
less for stock delivered in the autumn. Whether or not planting can be
done in the fall, it is a good plan to have the trees delivered before winter
so as to have them on hand for spring planting at just the proper time, thus
avoiding possible delays of shipment in spring. Such trees may be " heeled-
in" until spring.

To Heel-in Trees dig or plow a trench a foot or more deep, preferably
running east and west. Make the north side vertical and the south with a
long slant. Unpack the trees, prune the mangled and broken roots, and
lay in the trench with their trunks on the slanting side. Bury both
roots and tops with soil packed around the roots. Remove all litter
that might favor mouse nests. In spring dig up and plant the trees as if
just received.

Marking Out the Field. — This may be done by sighting, plowing or
any other handy way that will get the rows straight. For convenience in
handling it is a good plan in the home orchard to choose some unit measure
that will suit all kinds of fruits. The rod is perhaps as good as any because
peaches, sour cherries, plums, quinces, dwarf pears and apricots may be set
that distance apart. Sweet cherries, standard pears and the smaller

430

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

subsoil, the prospective
planter of a home orchard
may well follow this prac-
tice.

The Parasite factor is
mainly controllable. Not
that there are no difficult
enemies to handle, but
preventive or remedial
measures are available and
mostly effective where
properly applied.

Site for the home farm
orchard is as important in
its degree as location is to
the commercial fruit
grower. Site pertains to
the position of the orchard
on the farm, as a gentle
eastward or northern slope.
Much of the success of the
plantation may be in
choosing a well-drained,
elevated site protected
from strong winds. Such
a site allows the cold air as
well as the ground water
to drain away, thus pre-
venting frost injury to
buds and blossoms. It
also favors holding fruit
l)y the trees, whereas a site
exposed to high winds
would favor dropping.

Windbreaks may or may not be a benefit. No one should plant a

1 Courtesy of Maloney Brothers and Wells Company, Dansville, N. Y.

Good Nursery Stock.^
(Note the extent of roots and form of tops.)

PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION 431

windbreak without first studying the problem from all angles. Often the
best windbreak is the outside row of fruit trees, especially if of a variety
that grows large and holds its fruit tenaciously.

Southern vs. Northern Grown Nursery Trees. — In the South "June
budded '^ trees are popular. There they may be planted in the fall; but
for northern fall planting they do not mature early enough to get a start
before winter sets in. Therefore, in the North they should be bought only
for spring setting. They are not inferior to northern trees when planted
in spring.

Time to Plant. — Fall planting has decided advantages over spring
planting. There is a far better chance to get the varieties ordered because
nurserymen are not then sold out; if four or more weeks will elapse before
winter sets in, the trees may be planted and thus the work done when time
is not so precious as in the spring; nurserymen usually charge somewhat
less for stock delivered in the autumn. Whether or not planting can be
done in the fall, it is a good j^lan to have the trees delivered before winter
so as to have them on hand for si)ring planting at just the proper time, thus
avoiding possible delays of shipment in spring. Such trees may be ''heeled-
in'' until spring.

Marking Out the Field. — This may be done by sighting, plowing or
any other handy way that will get the rows straight. For convenience in
handhng it is a good plan in the home orchard to choose some unit measure
that will suit all kinds of fruits. The rod is perhaps as good as any because
peaches, sour cherries, plums, quinces, dwarf pears and apricots may be set
that distance apart. Sweet cherries, standard pears and the smaller

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

432

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION 433

growing apple varieties require two rods, and the wide spreading apple
varieties three rods.

Mixed Plantings are not considered wise by commercial orchardists.
Each kind of fruit is kept in a block by itself. This favors uniform treat-
ment. In home plantings, however, such a plan is not always feasible;
so that by giving a little extra attention the general farmer may have all
his fruit crops together in one area. Bush fruits and strawberries will not
do well after the trees come into bearing, but up to that time they may be
grown between the trees. Where the rod is the unit of measure, two rows
of bush fruits may be placed between the tree rows five feet three inches
from the trees, thus making them six feet apart and allowing for the planting
of one row of strawberries or truck between them. The strawberries will
give one good crop, perhaps two, before the bushes will need the space and
the bushes will give two to perhaps four crops before they will have to be
removed to get best results from the trees.

If desired one row of grapes may run between the trees, thus leaving
eight feet three inches between it and the trees. But since grapes do well
for ten or more years, they had better be placed at the side of the orchard.
Besides strawberries, various vegetables may be planted between the tree
rows for two to five or six years. It is a good plan to place the bush fruits
in checks so cultivation may be given in two directions from the start.

The Operation of Planting offers no difficulty. The holes should be
dug large enough to take in the roots without serious bending, though
bending is not of much consequence. The largest roots should be turned
toward the prevailing wind. When the holes are dug the top soil should be
laid in one pile and the subsoil in another. Then when the tree is placed in
the hole — never more than two inches deeper than it stood in the nursery
row — the top soil should be worked among the roots and tramped down
hard. Finally, the subsoil should be placed on top, tramped down and a
few shovelfuls of soil scattered loosely on top to check evaporation of
water from the ground.

First Pruning. — After the trees have been planted they should be
pruned. All puny, inferior twigs should be removed, only three to five
well-placed ones being left at least a hand's breadth apart on the trunk.
If these are two hand-breadths apart, so much the better, because there
will be less danger of spUtting when loaded with fruit or ice. The frame
limbs should be cut back a half or more. Usually, the leader should be cut
out to make the tree open-headed.

The lowest limb should be fifteen mches to two feet from the ground
to favor low heading with all its advantages of easy pruning,, spraying,
thinning and harvesting, to say nothing of lessened wind damage. Exten-
sion tillage tools will cultivate close to the trunks when the trees get large.
Until then, ordinary harrows and cultivators will serve every purpose.
During the first year, leaves should never be pulled from the trunk and
branches. The tree needs them to ripen its wood. If removed the trees

will develop longer Hmbs to get more leaves and these limbs will have to be
cut off later to bring the tree within bounds. If there are twigs among the
trunk leaves, they should be cut off the following spring.

How Fruit Buds are Borne, — Much of the success of fruit growing
depends on intelligent pruning, and this on a knowledge of the way each
plant produces its fruit buds. Apples and pears produce theirs mostly on
short twigs in alternate years with leaf buds. These fruit spurs become
gnarly as they grow old, but as long as they continue to bear they should
be allowed to remain, unless the tree is producing too heavily. Then some
may be cut out. Other trees that produce fruit more or less on spurs

Before and After Pruning.^

are cherry, plum, apricot, almond, currant and gooseberry. Some produce
their buds on the sides of the shoots, not on spurs. Of these the peach is the
leader, though almonds, Japanese plums, and apricots also do this more or
less. All these trees develop fruit buds one year and blossom the following
spring. These fruit buds may be distinguished from leaf buds during winter
because they are round-topped and plump instead of pointed and thin. ^

There is another group, the plants of which develop blossom buds in
the same season as they blossom and bear fruit. Quince and medlar each
bear blossoms on the ends of short green shoots developed in early spring.
Raspberries, blackberries, dewberries and oranges produce their blossoms
more or less terminally on lateral summer shoots. Grape, mulberry, olive

» Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "The Principles of Fruit Growing." by Bailey.

.'^mmw<

434

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and persimmon produce strong shoots or canes from branch buds which
have wintered over. On these the blossom buds are borne. The loquat
bears its blossom buds at the tips of terminal shoots of the same season.

Pruning for Fruit. — In pruning for fruit, it is evident that the plants
in these various groups must be pruned differently. Apples, pears and
other plants which hold their bloom buds over winter may be encouraged
to bear by summer pruning about the time the shoots have ceased to
extend. This tends to develop blossom buds. Pruning of these plants
during the dormant season, on the other hand, tends to produce wood at
the expense of fruit production. (Consult bulletins of the Tennessee Experi-
ment Station on ^'Summer Pruning.")

Plants in the second general group are usually pruned in spring, when
the number of buds left will indicate approximately how many fruits or
clusters of fruits will be produced — one for each quince bud, two or three
clusters of grapes for each grape bud, and so on. Pruning of these plants,
therefore, is equivalent to thinning, for it limits the number of fruits to be
set and helps improve the size and quality of the specimens.

Pruning Older Trees. — In pruning trees great care should be taken to
make the wounds close to the main trunk or limbs. If a limb to be cut off
is large, the saw should first be used beneath it a foot or so away from the
crotch. When the saw sticks, a second cut should be made above so the
limb will drop off easily. Then the stub may be cut off close to the trunk
without danger of splitting or tearing the tree and making an ugly, slow-
healing wound. Beyond the removal of branches that cross each other
young trees properly started and trained should need little or no pruning
unless they break down.

Tillage. — Orchards in sod have in commercial practice practically
given place to tilled orchards. Where success attends sod treatment, some
other factor is usually evident enough upon study of the situation. The
experiment station at Geneva, N. Y., has reported that a sod-mulched
orchard under ten-year experiment yielded higher colored, earlier maturing
fruit than a tilled orchard of the same variety and otherwise handled the
same way, but that the tilled orchard yielded heavily and uniformly, gave
fruit of better quality, larger size, longer keeping, less dead wood in the
trees and better foliage and growth. Sod lowers the water supply and soil
temperature, decreases certain plant-foods, reduces humus and air supply
in soil, impairs work of soil bacteria, and forms substances that impair
tree health. Sod, however, has special use where tillage is impossible
either because of the steep slopes or stony land.

Tillage should start with the preparation of the land for planting and
be done yearly while the plants remain profitable. The advantage of this
is that the roots are encouraged to go deeply and thus withstand dry weather
as well as escape the plow. Each year operations should be begun as early
as the land can be worked and continue until the twigs have reached their
full length about midsunmier. Between mid and late summer, tillage

PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION 435

should stop to give trees or shrubs a chance to ripen their growth to with-
stand the winter. Unless this is done, growth may continue too late in the
fall, and the plants suffer during winter in consequence.

Fertilizing. — While it may be true that land which will grow any farm
crops will grow fruit without manuring, yet most money is made from fruit
crops fed to get higher quality, larger size, better color and the other points
that make for higher prices. How much and what kind to apply will depend

Picking Apples in the Rogue River Valley, Oregon.*

upon the character of the soil, the kind of crop and so on. Many farmers
and fruit growers put the question to the land itself by trying experiments
with various combinations of fertilizers until they find out the one best
suited to the desired end. In general, it must be remembered that nitro-
genous plant-food tends to be lost by seepage and also to produce wood
rather than fruit; hence, it must be handled with greater caution than
either potash or phosphoric acid, neither of which is lost to any serious
extent from the soil ; nor does either jeopardize the ability of the plants to
withstand winter injury.

» Courtesy of Portland Commercial Club, Portland, Oregon.

■■i?
M

Uiiji^M

434

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and persimmon produce strong shoots or canes from branch buds which
have wintered over. On these the blossom buds are borne. The loquat
bears its blossom' buds at the tips of terminal shoots of the same season.

Plants in the second general group are usually pruned in spring, when
the number of buds left ^vill indicate approximately how many fruits or
clusters of fruits will be produced — one for each quince bud, two or three
clusters of grapes for each grape bud, and so on. Pruning of these plants,
therefore, is equivalent to thinning, for it limits the number of fruits to be
set and helps improve the size and quality of the specimens.

Pruning Older Trees. — In pruning trees great care should be taken to
make the wounds close to the main trunk or limbs. If a limb to be cut off
is large, the saw should first be used beneath it a foot or so away from the
crotch. When the saw sticks, a second cut should be made above so the
limb will drop off easily. Then the stub may be cut off close to the trunk
without danger of splitting or tearing the tree and making an ugly, slow-
heahng wound. Beyond the removal of branches that cross each other
young trees properly started and trained should need little or no pruning
unless they break down.

Tillage. — Orchards in sod have in commercial practice practically
given place to tilled orchards. Where success attends sod treatment, some
other factor is usually evident enough upon study of the situation. The
experiment station at Geneva, N. Y., has reported that a sod-mulclied
orchard under ten-year experiment yielded higher colored, earlier maturing
fruit than a tilled orchard of the same variety and otherwise handled the
same way, but that the tilled orchard yielded heavily and uniformly, gave
fruit of better quality, larger size, longer keeping, less dead wood in the
trees and better foliage and growth. Sod lowers the water supply and soil
temperature, decreases certain plant-foods, reduces humus and air supply
in soil, impairs work of soil bacteria, and forms substances that impair
tree health. Sod, however, has special use where tillage is impossible
either because of the steep slopes or stony land.

PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION 435

Picking Apples in the Rogue River Valley, Oregon. ^

upon the character of the soil, the kind of crop and so on. Many farmers
and fruit growers put the question to the land itself by tr>^ing experiments
with various combinations of fertilizers until they find out the one best
suited to the desired end. In general, it must be remembered that nitro-
genous plant-food tends to be lost by seepage and also to produce wood
rather than fruit; hence, it must be handled with greater caution than
either potash or phosphoric acid, neither of which is lost to any serious
extent from the soil; nor does either jeopardize the ability of the plants to
withstand winter injury.

1 Courtesy of Portland Commercial Club, Portland, Oregon.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

436

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Thinning is steadily gaining popularity in the East, mainly because it
tends to produce larger, finer specimens, to make the trees more hardy and
to establish regular annual bearing. Even the Baldwin apple, perhaps the
most notorious biennial cropper, has been made to produce profitable
crops fifteen out of seventeen consecutive years.

Spraying has now become so general that no one thinks of planting
fruit without counting upon it. The first point to remember is that it must
be done with discrimination; for a plant disease cannot be combated with
an insecticide nor vice versa. Second, spraying for plant diseases must be
preventive; no remedy is known for diseases which have gained entrance
to the plant tissues. Third, sprays for insects must be suited to the kind of
insects. Those that bite off and swallow pieces of plant tissue must be
poisoned internally, and those that merely suck the juice from the plant
killed by some substance which chokes, burns or otherwise destroys them
through their skins. Experiment station literature is rich in information
on methods of control.

Harvesting and Marketing are rapidly becoming more businesslike.
Growers are recognizing the advantages from grading their fruit and selling
each grade for what it is. They are also learning that the laws which specify
standard sizes for packages are steps in the right direction, so are adopting
the new standards with profit to themselves and their communities.

The Value and Importance of the Home Fruit Garden to the general
farmer Ues mainly in the variety of pleasures as well as in the addition to
the diet supplied. Such a plantation should contain all kinds of fruits so
the table may be supphed from the time strawberries first ripen till the
last winter apples are used the following year when strawberries come in
again.

Two or three rows of strawberries one hundred feet long, one each of
black, red and purple raspberries, one of dewberries, and one or two of
blackberries or loganberries should supply an average sized family through-
out the year with fresh and canned fruit, jelly, jam and preserves. Twenty-
five plants each of gooseberries and currants should suffice. By choosing
early and late maturing grape varieties, such a family should be able to
eat the product of twenty or thirty vines, perhaps more. A dozen or a
score of plum, peach and cherry trees, early and late, as many each of
dwarf and standard pears, perhaps half a dozen quinces, and forty or fifty
apples trees beginning with a few summer apples, continuing through fall
varieties and ending with at least half or perhaps two-thirds of the trees
of varieties that reach their best between Christmas and May Day will
supply the needs of the average family.

Quality First for the Home. — In all cases the choice of varieties for the
home should fall on fruits of best quality, either for dessert, for cooking or
preserving. For local markets fewer varieties, preferably the best known
kinds of the section, should be given preference. Never choose for business
purposes varieties that have not been fully tested locally, no matter how

PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION 437

famous they may be elsewhere. They may fail to come up to their standard
estabhshed in some other sections.

REFERENCES

"Principles of Fruit Growing." Bailey.

''Popular Fruit Growing." Green.

"How to Make a Fruit Garden." Fletcher.

"Fruit Growing in Arid Regions." Paddock and Whipple.

"Beginners' Guide to Fruit Growing." Waugh.

"Propagation of Plants." Fuller.

"Fruit Harvesting and Storing." Austin.

"Nursery Book." Bailey.

Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 134. "Experimental Results of Young Orchards

in Pennsylvania."
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins:

211. "Fruits Recommended for Planting."

212. "An Orchard Survey."

CHAPTER 34

Small Fruits

By Professor L. C. Corbett
In charge of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations^ United

States Department of Agriculture

The small fruit interests of the United States are made up of a diversity
of fruits adapted to a wide range of territory and conditions. The cash
value of these crops approximates $20,000,000 annually, two-thirds of
which is derived from the strawberry, the most cosmopohtan of the small
fruits. The second place is contested by the raspberry and the blackberry,
both of which are important money crops, and the fourth crop of importance
is the cranberry, which is restricted both by climate and by soil require-
ments. Each of the important small fruits is here given a brief but, it
is hoped, clear and concise treatment.

THE STRAWBERRY

The garden strawberry is an American product. It adapts itself to a
wider range of latitude and to greater extremes in environment than any
other cultivated fruit. It is universally liked and is cosmopolitan in its

adaptations.

Selection of Soil. — The soil best suited to the cultivation of the straw-
berry in the northeastern part of the United States is a sandy or gravelly
loam. A warm, quick soil, although naturally poor, is to be preferred to a
heavy, retentive soil well supplied with plant-food. The lacking plant-
food can easily be supplied by the addition of fertilizers, while the physical
characteristics of the soil can be modified only with great difficulty by culti-
vation, drainage and the addition of organic matter. Congenial soil and
exposure are, therefore, important considerations.

Preparation of the Soil. — The land to be devoted to strawberries
should, if possible, be planted in a cultivated crop, such as potatoes,
beans or corn, at least one year previous to setting the plants, in order that
the larvae of such insects as wireworms, white grubs, cutworms, etc., may
be as. completely eliminated as possible.

Previous to setting the plants the soil should be deeply plowed in order
that all organic matter of whatever nature on the surface may be completely
turned under. Immediately following the plow the land should be thor-
oughly pulverized by the use of the harrow, and the surface should be
reduced to a condition which would form an ideal seed-bed.

(438)

SMALL FRUITS

439

Fertilizers. — If the soil is not rich, for best results it should have a
dressing of at least twenty cartloads of well-decomposed stable manure
per acre, either plowed under or incorporated with the soil by surface
culture after plowing. If stable manure is not available, plant-food should
be supplied by a liberal use of fine-ground bone and chemical manures rich
in nitrogen and potash. The use upon the plants at blooming time of
highly nitrogenous manures, such as nitrate of soda, at the rate of about
100 pounds per acre often proves of great value. If it can be applied in
solution it will give quicker results than if put on in the form of a salt.

A Spray of Good Strawberries.
Uniformity in size and form increases the market price.

Selecting and Preparing the Plants. — Plants with small crowns, i. e,,
a moderate growth of leaves, and with an abundant development of fibrous
roots, are most desirable. If the crown and the roots of the plant are
in good condition, the success of the plantation is assured, provided the
ground has been well prepared and the work of planting is done with
care.

Perfect and Imperfect Flowered Plants. — Strawberries occur with
imperfect (or pistillate) flowers as well as with perfect flowers (those
containing both stamens and pistils). It is important to give careful
attention to this point in planting a plantation, as a patch made up of
pistillate sorts alone will be unproductive, while many such sorts when

SMALL FRUITS

439

CHAPTER 34

Small Fruits

By Professor L. C. Corbett
In charge of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations^ United

States Department of Agriculture

THE STRAWBERRY

(438)

A Spray of Good Strawberries.
Uniformity in size and form increases the market price.

Selecting and Preparing the Plants. — Plants with small crowns, i. e.j
a moderate growth of leaves, and with an abundant development of fibrous
roots, are most desirable. If the crown and the roots of the plant are
in good condition, the success of the plantation is assured, provided the
ground has been well prepared and the work of i^lanting is done with
care.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

.'■j.i'S'i;

440

StlCCESSFUL FARMING

properly interspersed with perfect-flowered varieties have proved to be
the largest fruited and most prolific sorts. A common practice is to set
every fourth or fifth row with a perfect-fiowered sort which blooms at the
same period as the pistillate variety of which the plantation is chiefly

composed.

When to Set the Plants. — The time to plant depends, in humid regions,
more upon the rainfall than upon any other factor. If there are not timely
rains at the planting season to give the plants an opportunity to establish
themselves, the stand will be uneven, with the result that more work will be
required to keep the land free from weeds and more trouble will be neces-

Planting a Strawberry Runner.

On the right a plant correctly planted, showing roots spread out; on the left a plant

put in in the wrong position with roots crowded together.

sary to fill the blank spaces with runners from the plants that survive. The
plants that withstand the drought are checked and dwarfed. They seldom
recover so as to make either satisfactory croppers or plant producers. It
is most satisfactory and most economical, therefore, to choose that season
which offers most advantages at planting time, other things being equal.
It is impossible to specify the season for each locality or even for large areas,
as local conditions of soil and climate necessitate different practices in
localities only a short distance apart. In general there are only two seasons
for planting — spring and autumn — but in some localities spring planting
should be done in April or May by the use of the preceding season's plants,
while in others it may be done in June from the crop of runners of the same
season.

Chesapeake Strawberry. ^

»From Year-Book, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1012.

COLOR PLATE

'f.f^'^'<l-^

440

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

properly interspersed with perfect-flowered varieties have proved to be
the largest fruited and most prolific sorts. A common practice is to set
every fourth or fifth row with a perfect-flowered sort which blooms at the
same period as the pistillate variety of which the plantation is chiefly

composed.

When to Set the Plants.— The time to plant depends, in humid regions,
more upon the rainfall than upon any other factor. If there are not timely
rains at the planting season to give the plants an opportunity to establish
themselves, the stand will be uneven, with the result that more work will be
required to keep the land free from weeds and more trouble will be neces-

Planting a Strawberry Runner.

On the right a plant correctly planted, showing roots spread out; on the left a plant
put in in the wrong position with roots crowded together.

sary to fill the blank spaces with runners from the plants that survive. The
plants that withstand the drought are checked and dwarfed. They seldom
recover so as to make either satisfactory croppers or plant producers. It
is most satisfactory and most economical, therefore, to choose that season
which offers most advantages at planting time, other things being equal.
It is impossible to specify the season for each locality or even for large areas,
as local conditions of soil and climate necessitate different practices in
localities only a short distance apart. In general there are only two seasons
for planting — spring and autumn — but in some localities spring planting
should be done in April or May by the use of the preceding season ^s plants,
while in others it may be done in June from the crop of runners of the same
season.

Chesapeake Sthawuerry.^

*Froin Yoar-Book, V. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture, 1012.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

SMALL FRUITS

441

In irrigated regions planting can be done at whatever season the work
will give best results in future crop production. In humid regions rainfall
is a determining factor.

How to Set the Plants. — Success in transplanting strawberry plants
depends, first, on the quaUty of the plant, and, second, upon the time and
manner of iioing the work. If the plants are good, the stand, other condi-
tions baing favorable, depends upon care in setting them. The success of
this operation is measured by the degree of compactness of the soil about
the roots of the plant. If the plant has many roots and these are thrust into
a hole made by an ordinary dibble, it is more difficult to get the earth in
contact with the roots than when the plant has fewer roots. The plant
with the greatest number of feeding roots is, however, the most desirable
if properly handled. Such plants should be set in a broad, flat hole where
the roots can be spread out in natural form. By giving the crown of the
plant a whirl between the thumb and finger to throw the roots out like the
ribs of an umbrella and quickly putting it in place while the roots are still
thrown out from the crown, the normal position of the root system can be
closely approached.

Another very satisfactory method is to open a broad wedge-shaped
hole by thrusting the blade of a bright spade into the soil and moving the
handle forward. The roots of the plant are then spread in fan shape and
placed in the hole back of the spade. The spade is then withdrawn and
inserted about six inches further forward, and by a backward movement
of the handle the earth is firmly pressed against the roots of the plant.
Two persons — a man to operate the spade and a boy to place the plants —
can set plants very rapidly in this manner. This practice is particularly
well suited to localities with sparse rainfall, as it thoroughly compacts the
earth about the roots of the plant and allows the roots to extend full length
into the moist soil. Plants set in this way have their roots more deeply
inserted in the soil than when the roots are spread out in umbrella fashion
and as deeply as when set with a dibble. They also have the additional
advantage of being spread out so as to have a larger percentage of their
surface actually in contact with the soil than when set with a round dibble.

Depth to Set the Plants. — No plant which the gardener has to handle
is more exacting in regard to depth of planting than the strawberry. As
the plant is practically stemless, the base of the leaves and the roots being
so close together, care is required to avoid setting the plant so deep that the
terminal bud will be covered or so shallow that the upper portion of the
roots will be exposed, either being a disadvantage which frequently results
in the death of the plant.

Planting in Hills. — For the hill system of culture plants are set singly
either 3 by 3 feet apart, or with the rows 4 feet apart and the plants 2 feet
apart in the row, depending upon the character of the soil and the length
of time the plantation is to be maintained. In Florida a common practice
is to lay the land off in broad beds 8 to 12 feet wide, the rows of plants to

442

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

run lengthwise of the beds, the rows 24 inches apart, with the plants 18
inches apart in the rows. Such beds afford sufficient drainage and hold the
mulch better than narrow beds or raised rows, and the space between the
plants admits light to all sides of the plant — an advantage in coloring the
fruits which can not be secured by the matted row system early in the
season in the climate of Florida. ' .

A common practice is to set the plants in single rows 4 feet apart,
with the plants 12 inches apart in the row. The runners which develop
from these plants are then allowed to take possession of the area for 6 to
9 inches on either side of the original plants, thus making a matted row 12
to 18 inches wide; this leaves 30 inches between the rows, which allows
ample space for cultivation and gathering the fruit. This space can be
reduced from 30 inches to as little as 18 inches where land is valuable and
it is necessary to secure maximum returns; on thin soil, however, the greater
distance is most satisfactory.

Renewing Old Beds. — There is one advantage in the narrow cultivated
space. After the second crop has been harvested the runners can be allowed
to take possession of the cultivated middle, and when the young plants
become thoroughly established the original rows can be broken up with a
narrow turning plow or a sharp cultivator. In this way a patch can be
very satisfactorily and cheaply renewed, and by a liberal use of suitable
fertilizers the rotation can be kept up on the same soil for several years.
Some planters prefer to set the plants for the matted row in a double row
at planting time. The practice is to establish two rows 12 inches apart,
6 inches on each side of the center of the matted belt, setting the plants
2 feet apart in each row and alternating the plants in the row, so that the
plants actually stand a little over a foot apart as shown in the accompanying
diagram :

^ * * :¥ * Uli i^

Cultivation. — Clean and shallow culture are the watchwords of success-
ful cultivators. By conserving moisture, cultivation tends to counterbal-
ance the evil effect of drought. A better stand of plants can be maintained
during a dry period on well-tilled ground than upon ground that is poorly
cultivated. The mechanical effect of grinding the soil upon itself during
cultivation reduces it to smaller particles, thus exposing more surface
to the action of soil moisture, and, as a result, increasing the available
plant-food of the soil. The benefit from preserving a soil mulch, with
its consequent economy in the use of soil moisture, is sufficiently important
to justify thorough tillage.

Objects of Mulching. — Covering the surface of the soil with dead or
decaying vegetable matter is the meaning of the term mulching as here
used. Mulching serves different purposes, depending upon the locality

SMALL FRUITS

443

in which the plants are grown. A mulch acts as a protection from cold,
prevents freezing and thawing and the consequent lifting of the plants
C' heaving ouf ); it retards growth in cold regions by shading the crowns
and maintaining a low soil temperature longer than in soil not mulched;
it acts as a conserver of moisture, discourages weed growth by smothering
the young seedling, and finally protects the fruit from contact with the soil.

Materials for Mulch. — Whole or cut straw free from grains, strawy
manure from the horse stable, and pine straw from the forest are among
the more common mulching materials. In certain sections marsh hay,
either from fresh Or salt water marshes, is a common and very satisfactory
mulching material.

When to Apply the Mulch. — ^At the North where the soil is likely to
freeze and thaw several times in the course of the winter, it is the practice

*• • *■ '

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'^:':''-:'-W

■■■^■1P

'•>

•'& .X.

. -

•4

"4 "=^:

'?:■ .

'i^M.

L : . — : — ^ — ^ — '-..iti . , , —^- , ,.- -Li-2u

d^y}':.

American Quart Boxes of Well-Graded Strawberries. ^
''Fancy" on the right, ''No. 1" on the left.

to put on the mulch as soon as the ground is sufficiently frozen to allow
driving upon it with a loaded cart or wagon. Where the freezing of the soil
is only superficial or only temporary, if at all, the mulch serves the purpose
of a protection from wind more than from frost, and in such sections the
mulch is put on as soon as active growth ceases, usually early in December,
and is allowed to remain until after the crop is harvested.

Harvesting and Shipping. — The time of gathering the fruit, as well
as the manner of handling, is governed by the use to which it is to be put.
If intended for a local market, much riper fruits can be handled than when
they are to be shipped long distances.

The most progressive growers of strawberries for local markets not
only give particular attention to the ripeness of the fruit, but to assorting

» From Farmers' Bulletin 664, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

442

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Renewing Old Beds. — There is one advantage in the narrow cultivated
space. After the second crop has been harvested the runners can be allowed
to take possession of the cultivated middle, and when the young plants
become thoroughly established the original rows can be broken up with a
narrow turning plow or a sharp cultivator. In this way a patch can be
very satisfactorily and cheaply renewed, and by a liberal use of suitable
fertihzers the rotation can be kept up on the same soil for several years.
Some planters prefer to set the plants for the matted row in a double row
at planting time. The practice is to establish two rows 12 inches apart,
6 inches on each side of the center of the matted belt, setting the plants
2 feet apart in each row and alternating the plants in the row, so that the
plants actually stand a little over a foot apart as shown in the accompanying
diagram :

Cultivation. — Clean and shallow culture are the watchwords of success-
ful cultivators. By conserving moisture, cultivation tends to counter})al-
ance the evil effect of drought. A better stand of plants can be maintained
during a dry period on well-tilled ground than upon ground that is poorly
cultivated. The mechanical effect of grinding the soil upon itself during
cultivation reduces it to smaller particles, thus exposing more surface
to the action of soil moisture, and, as a result, increasing the available
plant-food of the soil. The benefit from preserving a soil mulch, with
its consequent economy in the use of soil moisture, is sufficiently important
to justify thorough tillage.

SMALL FRUITS

443

in which the plants are grown. A mulch acts as a protection from cold,
prevents freezing and thawing and the consequent lifting of the plants
("heaving ouf )i it retards growth in cold regions by shading the crowns
and maintaining a low soil temperature longer than in soil not mulched;
it acts as a conserver of moisture, discourages weed growth by smothering
the young seedling, and finally protects the fruit from contact with the soil.

Materials for Mulch. — Whole or cut straw free from grains, strawy
manure from the horse stable, and pine straw from the forest are among
the more common mulching materials. In certain sections marsh hay,
either from fresh dr salt water marshes, is a common and very satisfactory
mulching material.

When to Apply the Mulch. — At the North where the soil is likely to
freeze and thaw several times in the course of the winter, it is the practice

' 'X: ■ ^^^"-- V-'^^^

«^^^^^^^:^mm,^,m^mii»i^^ ^m

■ '^^* ■ "^ -

^ _^ _^ ^

. ' ■: -. fV',.^:::::r'.^'j: ■' .^is^a&ife-:.!^ '"'*"■'

-■ ■■-"> ^?A'j

Amekican Quart Boxes of Well-G haded Sthawberiues.^
'Fancy" on the right, *'No. 1" on the left.

<<!.•'.

to put on the mulch as soon as the ground is sufficiently frozen to allow
driving upon it with a loaded cart or wagon. Where the freezing of the soil
is only superficial or only temporary, if at all, the mulch serves the purpose
of a protection from wind more than from frost, and in such sections the
mulch is put on as soon as active growth ceases, usually early in December-
and is allowed to remain until after the crop is harvested.

The most progressive growers of strawberries for local markets not
only give particular attention to the ripeness of the fruit, but to assorting

^From Farmers' Bulletin 604, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

*■";•???;**'*

444

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and grading as well, only large, perfect berries being placed in the first
grade and all small or soiled fruits in the second.

Receptacles. — Whether it is to be shipped in crates or refrigerator
carriers or to be carried to the local market, for best results the fruit should
not be rehandled after it is picked. The pickers should be trained to do the
necessary assorting and grading as they pick the fruit in the receptacles
in which it is to be marketed.

The light splint-wood basket, holding one quart, is the most pop-
ular and most universally used. Many different forms of box or basket
have been designed, and various materials other than wood have been used
in their construction, but up to the present none has met with general
adoption.

THE RASPBERRY

The name raspberry^ as used in the United States, embraces four
distinct species of plants, three of which are of American origin, thus
placing to the credit of our native plants three important and widely
cultivated culinary fruits. The two types of fruits represented by these
species are known popularly as red raspberries and black raspberries or
'^blackcaps.''

The red-raspberry group, as represented in cultivation, includes not
only the native red raspberry but the European red raspberry, or bramble,
and a type intermediate between the native red and black raspberry, which
bears a purple fruit and is frequently spoken of as the '^purple-cane''
raspberry or as the '^Schafer group.'' The red-raspberry group, besides
having varieties which produce the characteristic red fruits, has another
set of varieties which produce amber or yellow fruit. These horticultural
varieties are recognized and are considered distinct sorts, but are not
separated botanically into different species.

The black raspberry is distinct both in habit of growth and in the
makeup of its fruit. It is recognized botanically as a species distinct from
the three which enter into the red-raspberry group. The habits of this
plant and the quality of its berries are such that it has gained an important
place in certain sections of this country as a commercial fruit.

The fact that the varieties of the red-berry type have to be marketed
from the bushes as soon as ripe confines their cultivation to the vicinity
of large centers of consumption, where climatic and soil conditions favor
their development. The black-raspberry industry, however, can be
profitably and successfully carried on in regions more remote from the
centers of consumption, because of the fact that a large proportion of the
fruits are evaporated and are sold in a dry state, there being ready sale for
them when handled in this way.

Red Raspberries. — The red-raspberry group includes varieties which
bear fruits of various shades of red, amber, yellow and purple, the last-
named division being a hybrid between the red and the black types.

SMALL FRUITS

445

Selection and Preparation of Soil. — The soil upon which red rasp-
berries thrive best is a sandy or clay loam of a glacial drift formation.
They thrive well upon moderately rich, deep soils and yield largest returns
under these conditions.

The preparation of the soil for red raspberries should be the same
as for any small fruit, preferably one or two seasons' preparatory tillage
in a ''hoe crop," which will to a very large extent rid the land of weeds.
Such crops as potatoes, beans, cowpeas and plants of this nature are good
preparatory crops.

Planting. — The distance to plant will depend very largely upon the
purpose for which the plantation is intended. If it is a commercial plan-

•'/*'%^/ '.^■^'

'WH

■^H^^K

^^ 1

. /- ^' ^Vt ijl

%\mf^

% ,» f » ■»

> ^;.

\\r

>'^:'.^'

Land that will Produce Good Farm Crops will Produce Bush Fruits.^

tation upon soil which is not especially valuable, the plants should be 3
feet apart in the row, and the rows not less than 6 feet apart. This will
allow of cultivation in both directions for two or three years, and will
permit the use of horse-power implements, and consequently will lessen
greatly the cost of tillage. On city lots or in a home fruit garden, where it
becomes desirable to combine in the same plantation raspberries and other
fruit-bearing plants, the distance can be somewhat lessened, but even under
these conditions the plants should not be set closer than 2 feet apart in the
row and the rows not less than 4 feet apart.

In home fruit gardens small holes can be opened with a spade, the plant
roots spread in the ordinary fashion for planting larger plants, and the

» Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

444

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and grading as well, only large, perfect berries being placed in the first
grade and all small or soiled fruits in the second.

THE RASPBERRY

The name raspberry y as used in the United States, embraces four
distinct species of plants, three of which are of American origin, thus
placing to the credit of our native plants three important and widely
cultivated culinary fruits. The two types of fruits represented by these
species are known popularly as red raspberries and black raspberries or
^'blackcaps.^^

The red-raspberry group, as represented in cultivation, includes not
only the native red raspberry but the European red raspberry, or bramble,
and a type intermediate between the native red and black raspberry, which
bears a purple fruit and is frequently spoken of as the ^^ purple-cane '*
raspberry or as the ^'Schafer group.'' The red-raspberry group, besides
having varieties which produce the characteristic red fruits, has another
set of varieties which produce amber or yellow fruit. These horticultural
varieties are recognized and are considered distinct sorts, but are not
separated botanically into different species.

SMALL FRUITS

445

The preparation of the soil for red raspberries should be the same
as for any small fruit, preferably one or two seasons' preparatory tillage
in a '^hoe crop," which will to a very large extent rid the land of weeds.
Such crops as potatoes, beans, cowpeas and plants of this nature are good
preparatory crops.

Planting. — The distance to plant will depend very largely upon the
purpose for which the plantation is intended. If it is a commercial plan-

Land that will Produce Good Farm Crops will Produce Bush Fruits.^

In home fruit gardens small holes can be opened with a spade, the plant
roots spread in the ordinary fashion for planting larger plants, and the

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

,m^'.-

446

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SMALL FRUITS

447

earth returned; but in all cases it should be the aim to firm the earth well
over the roots of the plants as they are set.

Cultivation. — Clean cultivation is necessary with red raspberries,
because, as above stated, they are themselves of a weedy nature, and, in
order to hold them within bounds, implements which cut all the superfluous
shoots and root sprouts from the cultivated area should be used. During
the early life of the plantation it would be found most economical to keep

the plants in check-rows so that culti-
vation by horse-power can be accom-
plished in two directions. Later,
however, as the plantation grows
older, it will be found advantageous,
both in yield of fruit and for economy,
to allow the plants to form a hedge or
matted row, and to practice cultiva-
tion in one direction only. The space
between the hedges should be plowed
at least once each year, and whether
this shall be done in the spring or in
the autumn will depend upon the
locality.

Fertilizers. — ^The liberal use of
stable manure (20 tons per acre) will
produce large yields of fruit, but the
use of a complete fertilizer, containing
nitrogen 4.5 per cent, phosphoric
acid (available) 7.7 per cent, potash
13.3 per cent, at the rate of 500
pounds per acre gives a greater net
profit at less outlay.

Pruning. — Red raspberries re-
quire attention to direct their growth
and fruit production, at two seasons
of the year. They should be pruned
in the summer, during the growing

A Young Planting Cane of Raspberry season, to regulate the height of the
Showing Fibrous Roots. ' ,., ,^ r a- e

canes and mduce the • formation of

fruiting wood for the following season, and again during the winter or
early spring for the purpose of ehminating the canes which bore last season.
This will allow all the energy of the root of the plant to be directed to the
production of fruit and the formation of the next season's bearing wood.
The summer pruning, which is not generally practiced with red rasp-
berries, consists in topping the young shoots when they have attained a
height of from 18 to 20 inches. This induces the development of side shoots
and the production of additional sprouts from the root. Both these types

of growth are desirable in order to insure as large a growth of wood as the
plants can carry to advantage.

The winter pruning is a protiess of elimination. All canes which have
served their purpose as fruit producers are removed, as are all dead or
diseased canes, thus reducing the demands upon the roots of the plant and
directing the energy to the wood intended for fruit production.

Harvesting the Fruit. — Because of the soft character of this fruit,
it can be successfully harvested only by hand picking. Small receptacles
holding not more than a pint, and preferably those made of wood, are best
suited for handling tliis crop. Under favorable conditions, the yield of
the better sorts of red raspberries, particularly of the native red and purple
cane types, is very large, and where they can be placed upon the market
quickly after being picked they are a very profitable crop.

Black Raspberries, or Blackcaps. — The black raspberry, or blackcap,
because it lends itself to several methods of harvesting and marketing, is
capable of a wider range of commercial cultivation than any of the types
of the red raspberry, although it is not capable of withstanding so severe
climatic conditions.

Propagation. — The black raspberry does not throw up root sp rents,
and is propagated only from stolons or laj^ers. In order to secure new
plants the tips of the branches are bent over and slightly covered with
earth during the month of August, after which they take root readily.
The rooted tips are usually left attached to the parent stalk until the
following spring, when the branch is cut 6 or 8 inches above the surface of
the ground, the roots being lifted, tied in bunches and stored for use or
carried to the place where they are to be replanted.

Character of the Soil. — Black raspberries grow best on a soil which is
fertile and naturally well drained, rather than one which is moist. Strong
loams of a clayey or gravelly nature are preferred to the lighter sandy soils.

Preparation of the Soil. — The same general preparation of the soil
as outlined for the red raspberry is necessary for best results with the
black raspberry. Preparatory treatment with cultivated crops in order
to rid the land as thoroughly as possible of weeds is desirable.

Planting. — The distance at which black raspberries are usually set
in commercial plantations is 3 feet apart in rows which are 8 feet apart.
The same method of planting as described for red raspberries — that is,
opening a furrow with the plow, placing the roots at the proper distances
in the row and covering with a turning plow — is very convenient and
satisfactory.

Cultivation. — Clean cultivation is equally as desirable for the black
raspberry as for the red raspberry, because weeds between the rows inter-
fere with the later operations in the berry field. While cultivation should
not be carried on so late in the season as to interfere with the harvesting
of the fruit, it should be suflficiently thorough and continued late enough
to keep the ground free from weeds.

446

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SMALL FRUITS

447

earth returned; but in all cases it should be the aim to firm the earth well
over the roots of the plants as they are set.

Pruning. — Red raspberries re-
quire attention to direct their growth
and fruit production, at two seasons
of the year. They should be pruned
in the summer, during the growing
season, to regulate the height of the
canes and induce the • formation of
fruiting wood for the following season, and again during the winter or
early spring for the purpose of eliminating the canes which bore last season.
This will allow all the energy of the root of the plant to be directed to the
production of fruit and the formation of the next season's bearing wood.
The summer pruning, which is not generally practiced with red rasp-
berries, consists in topping the young shoots when they have attained a
height of from 18 to 20 inches. This induces the development of side shoots
and the production of additional sprouts from the root. Both these types

A Young Planting Cane of Raspberry
Showing Fibr(3us Roots.

of growth are desirable in order to insure as large a growth of wood as the
plants can carry to advantage.

The winter pruning is a prot^ess of elimination. All canes which have
served their purpose as fruit producers are removed, as are all dead or
diseased canes, thus reducing the demands upon the roots of the plant and
directing the energy to the wood intended for fruit production.

Harvesting the Fruit.— Because of the soft character of this fruit,
it can be successfully harvested only by hand picking. Small receptacles
holding not more than a pint, and preferably those made of wood, are best
suited for handling tliis crop. Under favorable conditions, the yield of
the better sorts of red raspberries, particularly of the native red and purple
cane types, is very large, and where they can be placed upon the market
quickly after being picked they are a very profitable crop.

Propagation. — The black raspberry does not throw up root sprouts,
and is propagated only from stolons or layers. In order to secure new
plants the tips of the branches are bent over and slightly covered with
earth during the month of August, after which they take root readily.
The rooted tips are usually left attached to the parent stalk until the
following spring, when the branch is cut 6 or 8 inches above the surface of
the ground, the roots being lifted, tied in bunches and stored for use or
carried to the place where they are to be replanted.

Planting. — Tlie distance at which l)lack raspberries are usually set
in commercial j^lantations is 3 feet apart in rows which are 8 feet apart.
The same method of planting as described for red raspberries — that is,
opening a furrow with the plow, placing the roots at the proper distances
in the row and covering with a turning plow — is very convenient and
satisfactory.

Cultivation. — Clean cultivation is equally as desirable for the black
raspberry as for the red raspberry, because weeds between the rows inter-
fere with the later operations in the berry field. While cultivation should
not be carried on so late in the season as to interfere with the harvesting
of the fruit, it should be sufficiently thorough and continued late enough
to keej) the ground free from weeds.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

448

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Winter Protection.— In some portions of the Northern states the
raspberry can be successfully fruited only by giving it some form of protec-
tion during winter. One of the simplest methods of affording such protec-
tion is to bend the canes of the plant all in one direction along the line of
the row and fasten them either by placing earth upon them or pegging them
down. The roots are slightly loosened on one side of each plant and the
canes are bent over the roots of its neighbor. After the tops have been
properly placed a mound of earth is thrown over them. If after cold weather
sets in the earth covering is deemed inadequate, additional protection may
be provided by a layer of straw, strawy manure or corn fodder.

Fertilizers.— Stable manure in moderate quantities, supplemented by
a fertilizer carrying 4 to 5 per cent of nitrogen, 10 to 12 per cent of phos-
phoric acid and from 6 to 8 per cent of potash, will prove beneficial. Such
a fertilizer, if applied at the rate of from 300 to 500 pounds per acre, should
so increase the yield as to make its use profitable.

Pruning.— Because of its manner of fruit bearing, the black raspberry
requires care in annual pruning; in fact, pruning must be done at two sea-
sons of the year in order to accomplish the best results. The young shoots
as they appear from the roots in the spring should be tipped or disbudded
when they reach the height of 18 inches. It is better to go over the plan-
tation frequently, making three or four trips in all, in order to tip the
canes when they are about the height mentioned, rather than to delay the
operation until some of them have reached a height of 2 to 2| feet. The
early pinching or disbudding induces the development of more numerous
lateral branches. Shoots which have been allowed to harden and to grow
2 or 3 feet in height will form few lateral branches. If tipped when 18 inches
high, a cane should produce four, five, or six lateral branches. If allowed
to attain a height of 3 feet and then cut back to 18 inches, it is probable
that not more than two or three lateral branches will be formed; and,
since these lateral branches form the fruit-bearing wood of the succeeding
season, it is very desirable that the greatest possible number of branches
be secured to insure a heavy crop of fruit. It is evident, therefore, that
summer pruning predetermines the crop for the succeeding year more than
does any other single cultural factor.

The second pruning, which is also important, consists in removing the
canes which bore the last crop of fruit. This work can be done at any
time after the crop has been harvested, but preferably during the sprmg
following the crop. If the work is done in the spring the lateral branches
borne by the canes which developed from the roots of the mother plant
should at the same time be shortened to about 8 to 12 inches in length.
From each bud of these short branches annual growth will be made which
will terminate in a fruit cluster. ^

Harvesting.— Black raspberries to be marketed as fresh fruit for imme-
diate consumption are always hand picked and placed in either pint or
quart boxes similar to those used for strawberries. Those to be dried or

SMALL FRUITS

449

evaporated, or to be marketed ^s dried raspberries, may be either hand
picked or harvested with a mechanical contrivance called a ''bat.'' This
consists of a frame of light lumber a few inches deep backed up by strong
cloth against which the ripe fruit strikes as it is jarred from the bushes by
tapping them gently with a light stick or ''bat,'' while the cloth-covered
frame is held under the plants in such a position as to catch the fruits as
they fall. Such fruits, after drying, are run through a fanning mill to sepa-
rate leaves and stems,- after which they are hand picked in much the same
manner as beans, to remove all imperfect and green fruits, as well as those
which still hold the receptacle.

THE BLACKBERRY

The blackberry in the United States is a native bramble of wide distri-
bution over the eastern and northern part of the country. The fruit of the
wild blackberry was an important factor in the supply of condiments
provided by the early settlers. The esteem in which this fruit was held
led to the cultivation of some of the wild plants producing berries of supe-
rior size or flavor, or those ripening in advance of the main crop, or such as
lagged behind and thus extended the season for the fresh fruit. Such
selections from the wild blackberries and their seedlings furnish the culti-
vated sorts of today. What may yet appear is suggested by some of the
remarkable hybrids which have already been produced in this genus such
as the Logan berry. The chief considerations in the selection of a location
for a blackberry plantation are the facilities for harvesting and marketing
the crop and the moisture condition of the soil. The fruit of the blackberry
is highly perishable and will not endure rough handling in harvesting or
long journeys over rough roads.

Few crops are more adversely affected by a lack of adequate moisture
during the period of development and ripening than the blackberry, but
an excess of moisture during the dormant period is equally as detrimental.

Soil. — The blackberry is not exacting as regards the general type
of soil and will do fairly well on a clay, clay loam or sandy loam. The
largest yields are on deep, rich soils which provide an extensive feeding
area for the roots of the plants.

The preparation for blackberries should be such as to provide a
deep, mellow root area and thri best possible protection against rank
growths of annual weeds. A hoe crop such as corn, beans or potatoes,
if properly tended, leaves the area in the best possible condition for the
small fruits.

While the roots of the blackberry are perennial, the canes or branches
are practically biennial. The shoots spring up and grow one season from
the fruiting canes of the following season, after which they die and should
be removed to make room for the new growth of the following year. The
fruit is borne only on wood of last season's growth in the standard high
bush blackberries and dewberries, but the Himalaya and ever-bearing

450

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

types have perennial canes and do not therefore lend themselves to this
type of renewal.

Propagation.— The plantation of the standard blackberries can be
increased in either or both of two ways, as follows: The plants, in addition
to throwing up strong shoots or canes from the crown, throw up suckers or
root sprouts, which may be allowed to develop and later be lifted as inde-
pendent plants, or lateral roots of strong plants may be dug during the
autumn or early spring and placed in sand much the same as are ordinary
cuttings, except that blackberry root cuttings are cut to pieces 2 to 3
inches in length and should be entirely covered with sand or light soil to
the depth of 2 to 3 inches. Nurserymen propagate their supply of plants
largely by the root-cutting method. In one season root cuttings of this
sort should produce strong plants for transplanting. The dewberry and
certain blackberry hybrids take root at the tips, the same as do black
raspberries, and new plants are secured by covering the tips of each plant
v/ith earth tov/ards the end of the annual growth period.

Planting, TiUage and Fertilizers.— Blackberries are for the most part
rank-growing plants and require liberal distances in and between the rows
A common planting plan is 4 feet in the row and 8 to 10 feet between the
rows. In general, the best time for establishing a blackberry plantation is
in the spring and, as growth normally starts early, the work of planting
should be done as early as soil conditions will permit.
^ ^ As the blackberry plants will not fully occupy the land the first season,
it IS customary to use some inter-crop, such as potatoes or beans, to con-
tribute towards the cost of maintenance.

The tillage of the blackberry plantation should be such as to hold
weeds and suckers in check and maintain maximum moisture and growth
conditions, but cultivation should cease early enough to induce the plants
to ripen their wood thoroughly before winter.

If the soil on which the blackberry plantation has been established
appears to require fertilizer, experience dictates that the best results will
in general be secured by the use of liberal applications of stable manure.
Pruning and Training.— The blackberry plant normally produces long,
slender, non-branching shoots. These, where the soil is strong, grow long
and produce less fruit than those which have been pruned. A common
practice is to pinch the terminal bud of each shoot as soon as it reaches a
height of 2J feet with moderate growing varieties, or 3 feet with robust
growing sorts. This induces the formation of lateral branches which
increases the number of buds from which fruit-bearing twigs will develop
the following spring. The pruning causes the main stem of the shoot to
thicken and stiffen and consequently make it better able to carry a large
crop of fruit without a trellis. The lateral branches which are induced to
develop on the pinched-back shoots should be shortened to 10 or 12 inches
before growth starts in the spring.

Harvesting.— The fruit should be harvested as soon as well colored,

SMALL FRUITS

451

and only firm, sound berries should be sent to market. A few over-ripe
fruits in a box will shorten the marketing period of the whole box, as will
rough handling in picking or transporting the fruit to market. Quart boxes
are as large a receptacle as blackberries can be successfully marketed in,
but the crates may run from 12 to 36 quarts capacity.

THE CURRANT

There are three general groups of currants cultivated to a greater or
less degree in various parts of the United States. In general, however, the
culture of the currant is confined to the northern half of the country,

Currants Should Find a Place in Every Home Garden.^

as none of the forms are able to withstand heat as well as they do cold.
Of the three types represented by the common red, the Black and the
Crandall, the Red is by far the most important from a commercial stand-
point and is the form most generally cultivated. The other two are spar-
ingly grown for special purposes. As currants are in little demand as fresh
table fruits, but are almost universally used for the preparation of jellies,
jams, preserves or for canning in mixture with sour cherries or red rasp-
berries, they are restricted commercially. This should be borne in mind in
planning a small fruit plantation. While the currant should be found in
every home fruit plantation throughout the northern tier of states on

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

450

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

types have perennial canes and do not therefore lend themselves to this
type of renewal.

Propagation.— The plantation of the standard blackberries can be
increased in either or both of two ways, as follows: The plants, in addition
to throwing up strong shoots or canes from the crown, throw up suckers or
root sprouts, which may be allowed to develop and later be lifted as inde-
pendent plants, or lateral roots of strong plants may be dug during the
autumn or early spring and placed in sand much the same as are ordinary
cuttings, except that blackberry root cuttings are cut to pieces 2 to 3
inches in length and should be entirely covered with sand or light soil to
the depth of 2 to 3 inches. Nurserymen propagate their supply of plants
largely by the root-cutting method. In one season root cuttings of this
sort should produce strong plants for transplanting. The dewberry and
certain blackberry hybrids take root at the tips, the same as do l^lack
raspberries, and new plants are secured by covering the tips of each plant
with earth tov/ards the end of the annual growth period.

Planting, TUlage and Fertilizers.— Blackberries are for the most part
rank-growing plants and require liberal distances in and between the rows.
A common planting plan is 4 feet in the row and 8 to 10 feet between the
rows. In general, the best time for establishing a blackberry plantation is
in the spring and, as growth normally starts early, the work of planting
should be done as early as soil conditions will permit.

As the blackberry plants will not fully occupy the land the first season,
It IS customary to use some inter-crop, such as potatoes or beans, to con-
tribute towards the cost of maintenance.

If the soil on which the blackl)erry plantation has been established
appears to require fertilizer, experience dictates that the best results will
in general be secured by the use of liberal applications of sta})Ie manure.
Pruning and Training.— The blackberry plant normally produces long,
slender, non-branching shoots. These, where the soil is strong, grow long
and produce less fruit than those which have been pruned. A common
practice is to pinch the terminal bud of each shoot as soon as it reaches a
height of 2| feet with moderate growing varieties, or 3 feet with robust
growing sorts. This induces the formation of lateral branches which
increases the number of buds from which fruit-bearing twigs will develop
the following spring. The pruning causes the main stem of the shoot to
thicken and stiffen and consequently make it better able to carry a large
crop of fruit without a trellis. The lateral branches which are induced to
develop on the pinched-back shoots should be shortened to 10 or 12 inches
before growth starts in the spring.

Harvesting.— The fruit should be harvested as soon as well colored,

SMALL FRUITS

451

THE CURRANT

CuiiKANTS Should Find a Place in Every Home Garden.^

as none of the forms are able to withstand heat as well as they do cold.
Of the three types represented by the common red, the Black and the
Crandall, the Red is by far the most important from a commercial stand-
point and is the form most generally cultivated. The other two are spar-
ingly grown for special purposes. As currants are in little demand as fresh
table fruits, but are almost universally used for the preparation of jellies,
jams, preserves or for canning in mixture with sour cherries or red rasp-
berries, they are restricted commercially. This should be borne in mind in
planning a small fruit plantation. While the currant should be found in
ever^r home fruit plantation throughout the northern tier of states on

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

452

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SMALL FRUITS

453

account of its hardiness, and early and persistent fruit production, it would
be an easy matter to carry the commercial production beyond profitable
limits. Then, too, the currant is a fruit that is relatively expensive to pick,
as the work must all be done by hand.

Soil Requirements. — The currant thrives best on a deep, moist, yet
well-drained loam or sandy loam, but will thrive and produce on a great
variety of soils, provided they are arable and neither too wet nor too dry.

The soil should be well pre-
pared by deep plowing and
thorough fining for the re-
ception of the young plants.
In addition, it is well to give
the land a year of preparatory
treatment with crops which
will tend to put it in good
physical condition, and at the
same time eliminate weeds,
either through clean culture
or by the use of a crop which
is dense enough to smother the
weed growth. Currants are
usually set in rows 6 feet
apart and the distance between
the plants in the rows varies
from 3 to 5 feet. If it is de-
sirable to maintain cultivation
in both directions throughout
the greater portion of the life
of the plantation, the plants
should be allowed either 4 or
5 feet in the row. Strong one
(;r two-year-old plants should
})c chosen and the planting can
be done either in the autumn
or spring, according to the pre-
vailing practice of the locality.
The usual care exercised in
pruning the roots and tops of fruit trees at transplanting time should be car-
ried out with the currant. The fruit-bearing habit of the plant should be
carefully observed and the later pruning carried on in such a way as to pro-
vide as much bearing wood as the plant will carry and yet not overburden it
or allow wood of too great age to accumulate in the bush to the detriment of
high production or quality of the fruit. Wood more than three years of age
should be removed. A little fruit is borne on the base of shoots of last sea-
son's growth, but the main crop is borne on wood two or three years of age.

White Currants.

Culture and Fertilization. — Clean culture so as to protect the plants
from weed competition and for the purpose of conserving moisture should
be the aim. Strong, vigorous plants are more profitable and are better
able to resist the attacks of enemies and diseases. Stable manure, bone
meal or other high grade fertilizers should be used to maintain the plants in
a high state of growth and vigor.

Enemies and Diseases. — If the plants become infested with the currant
worm, as the red sorts are almost certain to be, the plants should be thor-
oughly sprayed with a solution of Paris green, 5 ounces to 30 gallons of
water, or dusted with white hellebore. If mildew is trou})lesome, Bordeaux
mixture should be used. As a rule, however, currants are not as seriously
affected by mildew as are the gooseberries.

Harvesting the Fruit. — Currants should be carefully picked so as to
maintain the little grape-Uke clusters of fruit intact. Berries torn or
stripped from the stems do not keep or ship as well as those carefully
handled. The most popular receptacle for shipping currants is the quart
strawberry box, but carefully picked currants will carry well in 4 or 10-
pound climax baskets with scale board covers.

GOOSEBERRY

The gooseberry of Europe was early brought to this country by the
colonists, but, like the grapes which they brought, it was not suited to the
new conditions. An acceptable substitute was found in the wild gooseberry
of the realm, and from these wild plants, or their seedlings, have developed
the most valuable of the sorts adapted to eastern United States. The
European sorts have proven better suited to the extreme northwest condi-
tions in the United States and are there cultivated to a limited extent.
In general, however, the basis of the commercial gooseberry industry is
the American varieties.

The cultural range of the gooseberry coincides in general with that of
the currant, but it is able to withstand a slightly higher temperature than
the currant and its southern limit of cultivation extends somewhat farther

than that of the currant.

Soil.— The gooseberry thrives well on a considerable diversity of soils,
but rich, moist, well-drained loams or clays offer the most congenial condi-
tions for the plant. Under a favorable environment the plants should
continue in good condition long enough to produce seven to ten crops of
fruit, after which the plants will be well spent.

Preparation of Land.— The area to be planted in gooseberries should
receive at least one season of preparatory treatment if practicable, before
the plants are set. This should consist of a crop which is well tilled and
kept free of weeds, or one which, by reason of its density and rank growth,
will smother the weeds.

Plants for Setting.— While the gooseberry can be propagated with a
fair degree of success from cuttings a^ well as by layering and mounding,

^^m

:>ii;->*:*^'

452

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SMALL FRUITS

453

account of its hardiness, and early and persistent fruit production, it would
be an easy matter to carry the connnercial production beyond profitable
limits. Then, too, the currant is a fruit that is relatively expensive to pick,
as the work must all be done by hand.

The soil should be well pre-
pared by deep plowing and
thorough fining for the re-
ception of the young plants.
In addition, it is well to give
the land a year of preparatory
treatment with crops which
will tend to put it in good
physical condition, and at the
same time eliminate weeds,
either through clean culture
or by the use of a crop which
is dense enough to smother the
weed growth. Currants are
usually set in rows 6 feet
apart and the distance between
the plants in the rows varies
from 3 to 5 feet. If it is de-
sirable to maintain cultivation
in both directions throughout
the greater portion of the life
of the plantation, the plants
should be allowed either 4 or
5 feet in the row. Strong one
or two-year-old plants should
})e chosen and the planting can
1)0 done either in the autumn
or spring, according to the pre-
vailing practice of the locality.
The usual care exercised in
pruning the roots and tops of fruit trees at transplanting time should be car-
ried out with the currant. The fruit-bearing habit of the plant should be
carefully observed and the later pruning carried on in such a way as to pro-
vide as much bearing wood as the plant will carry and yet not overburden it
or allow wood of too great age to accumulate in the bush to the detriment of
high production or quality of the fruit. Wood more than three years of age
should be removed. A little fruit is borne on the base of shoots of last sea-
son's growth, but the main crop is borne on wood two or three years of age.

White Currants.

Culture and Fertilization. — Clean culture so as to protect the plants
from weed competition and for the purpose of conserving moisture should
l)e the aim. Strong, vigorous plants are more profitaljle and are better
able to resist the attacks of enemies and diseases. Stable manure, bone
meal or other high grade fertilizers should be used to maintain the plants in
a high state of growth and vigor.

Enemies and Diseases. — If the plants become infested with the currant
worm, as the red sorts are almost certain to be, the plants should be thor-
oughly sprayed with a solution of Paris green, 5 ounces to 30 gallons of
water, or dusted with white helle])ore. If mildew is troublesome, Bordeaux
mixture should be used. As a rule, however, currants are not as seriously
affected by mildew as are the gooseberries.

Harvesting the Fruit. — Currants should be carefully picked so as to
maintain the little grape-like clusters of fruit intact. Berries torn or
stripped from the stems do not keep or ship as well as those carefully
handled. The most popular receptacle for shipping currants is the quart
strawberry box, but carefully picked currants will carry well in 4 or 10-
pound climax baskets with scale board covers.

GOOSEBERRY

the American varieties.

than that of the currant.

Soil, — The gooseberry thrives well on a considerable diversity of soils,
but rich, moist, well-drained loams or clays offer the most congenial condi-
tions for the plant. Under a favorable environment the plants should
continue in good condition long enough to produce seven to ten crops of
fruit, after which the plants will be well spent.

will smother the weeds.

Plants for Setting.— While the gooseberry can be propagated with a
fair degree of success from cuttings as well as by layering and mounding.

INTENTION

SECOND EXPOSURE

454

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

it will, in general, be found best either for the home fruit garden or for the
commercial plantation to purchase strong one or two-year-old plants of
the desired sort from a reliable nurseryman.

Planting. — As a rule the plants should be set in check rows so as to
permit of cultivation in both directions. Satisfactory distances are 6 feet
between the rows and 4 to 5 or 6 feet between the plants in the row. Plant-
ing can be facilitated by opening a dead furrow along the line of the row
and by marking the field in the opposite direction so as to indicate the
points in the row where the plants are to stand.

Well-set Branch of Gooseberries.^

Cultivation. — Gooseberries form their root system near the surface
of the ground. Cultivation should conform to the habits of the plants
and be shallow enough not to be injurious to them. The main purpose
of cultivation should be to conserve moisture, particularly early in the
season while the fruit is forming and ripening.

Fertilizers. — Few tests have been made to determine the fertilizer
requirements of the gooseberry. In general well-composted stable manure
will prove to be a satisfactory fertilizer. On extensive plantations where
fertilizers are evidently required it will be best to inaugurate a simple
test to determine the combination and amount best suited to the needs of
the particular plantation.

» Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

U'r-i

:.-i,.'
■ O^-'

SMALL FRUITS

455

Pruning. — The natural habit of the plant is to form a bush. Pruning
should therefore be directed to checking the growth of rampant shoots at
the proper time and to removing old branches which have served their
purpose as bearing wood.'

Enemies and Diseases. — The gooseberry suffers as severely from the
currant worm as the currant itself and is only a slightly less desirable host
plant. Paris green or hellebore should be applied the same as for currants.

The great drawback to the successful cultivation of the European
gooseberry in eastern United States is, as has been pointed out, its suscep-
til)ility to mildew. This disease is so severe and so difficult to combat that
resistant sorts. are generally grown, although the mildew can be held in
check by thorough applications of Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal
carbonate of copper.

Harvesting. — Gooseberries, because of their habit of growth, can be
successfully harvested only by hand-picking. Those intended for pie
making, which is one of the chief uses of the fruit, are picked before they
have colored and ripened. They are, in other words, picked green, as it
is the green fruit that is most prized for pie purposes. The usual receptacle
for gooseberries is the one-quart splint box.

The ripe fruit is often seen in the American market. The preferences
of the market should be determined in advance and the fruit harvested in
the condition demanded, whether it be green or ripe.

THE CRANBERRY

The cranberry is one of the native fruits which has contributed an
important product as well as a large share to the aggregate return from
small fruits. Its restricted region of cultivation and the peculiar environ-
ment required by it place it outside the general list of garden small fruits,
and in an exclusive class. The fact that it thrives only in swampy areas in
high latitudes and elevations exclude it from this discussion. The general
requirements of the crop are discussed in Farmers^ Bulletin 176, of the
United States Department of Agriculture.

' REFERENCES

*'Thc Strawberry in North America." Fletcher.

*' Hush Fruits." Card.

^'The Grai:>e Culturist." Fuller.

Wisconsin Expt. Station Bulletin 248. ** Strawberry Culture in Wisconsin."

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins:

210. "Strawberry and Red Raspberry."

222. "Currants and Gooseberries."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

643. " Blackberry Culture."

664. "Strawberry Growing in the South."

454

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SMALL FRUITS

455

it will, in general, be found best either for the home fruit garden or for the
commercial plantation to purchase strong one or two-year-old plants of
the desired sort from a reliable nurseryman.

Planting. — As a rule the plants should be set in cheek rows so as to
permit of cultivation in l^oth directions. Satisfactory distances are 6 feet
between the rows and 4 to 5 or 6 feet between the plants in the row. Plant-
ing can be facilitated by opening a dead furrow along the line of the row
and by marking the field in the opposite direction so as to indicate the
points in the row where the plants are to stand.

Well-set Branch of Gooseberiues.^

> Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

The great drawback to the successful cultivation of the European
gooseberry in eastern United States is, as has been pointed out, its suscep-
tibility to mildew. This disease is so severe and so difficult to combat that
resistant sorts. are generally grown, although the mildew can be held in
check by thorough applications of Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal
carbonate of copper.

The ripe fruit is often seen in the American market. The preferences
of the market should be determined in advance and the fruit harvested in
the condition demanded, whether it be green or ripe.

THE CRANBERRY
The cranberry is one of the native fruits which has contributed an
important product as well as a large share to the aggregate return from
small fruits. Its restricted region of cultivation and the peculiar environ-
ment required by it place it outside the general list of garden small fruits,
and in an exclusive class. The fact that it thrives only in swampy areas in
high latitudes and elevations exclude it from this discussion. The general
requirements of the crop are discussed in Farmers' Bulletin 176, of the
United States Department of Agriculture.

REFERENCES

"The Strawborrv in North America." Fletcher.

'' Hush Fruits." ^ Card.

"The Grape Culturist." Fuller.

Wisconsin Expt. Station Bulletin 248. ''Strawberry Culture in Wisconsin."

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins:

210. "Strawberry and Red Raspberry."

222. "Currants and Gooseberries."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

043. "Blackberry Culture."

G64, "Strawberry Growing in the South./'

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

4^si

CHAPTER 34a

Grapes and Grape Culture in the United States

By George C. Husmann
Pomologist in Charge of Viticultural Investigations^ United States

Department of Agriculture

• *

The grape has always been and continues to be mane's best stancn)y
ui fruits. It is one of the most important and most extensively grown

fruits in the country.

Since the year 1900, the viticultural industry of this country has more
than doubled itself, now showing as a year's commercial result in round
numbers, shipments of 15,000 cars of 'table grapes, 50,000 cases of canned

A Typical Vinifera Valley Vineyard in California

•
grapes, 250,000,000 pounds of raisins, 7,000,000 gallons of brandy,
5(),(H)0,000 gallons of wine and unfermented juice, etc. The vineyard
ncn^ago exceeds 500,000 acres, the viticultural industry representing, in
conservative figures, an investment of $300,000,000 and giving employ-
ment to 150,000 persons.

There are three distinct viticultural regions in the United States
which segregate themselves by the grape species grown in them for com-
mercial purposes. These are: (1) The vinifera region in which the
vinifera varieties grown for all the various purposes, is located almost
entirely west of the Rocky Mountains and so much of it in California that
it might almost be said to be a California industrj' . At least seventy-five
per cent of the entire grape output of the United States is froni fruit
of the vinifera varieties. Nearly one hundred per cent of the raisin and
graiX5 brandies and about eighty per cent of all other grape products pro-
(luced in this country come from California.

(2) The American Native grape regions in which improved varieties

(455^)

MW^^

Z^i^^^'.^*-!■■'■itr■'^'^^>^■■^'^(i■'>■*•*-•^^■ ::■

GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE

4556

of American Euvitis are grown for table grape, wine and unfermented
grape juice purposes. This is scattered over the entire United States
east of the Rockies and west of the Alleghany Mountains, but carried
on extensively in the States from the Hudson River west and north of the
Ohio River and that border on the Great Lakes and in the more centrally
located States of the Mississippi Valley. The great bulk of American
champagnes and dry wines and unfermented juices come from this region.

(3) The Muscadine region, in which improved varieties of Rotunde-
folia and Munsoniana are grown for commercial purposes. This region
is found in the South Atlantic and Gulf States and along the lower Mis-
sissippi Valley, extending from Maryland, south to Texas on the west,
thence north along the Mississippi River to Southeast Missouri and
Tennessee.

There are more native grape species in this country than in all the
other countries of the world combined, and America in her native grapes
has not only given to the world new fruits, but by judicious use of such
species will make it possible to successfully grow varieties of some of them
in all parts of the United States.

Soil. — Soil, location and site will differ greatly with the object in
view. Some varieties of grapes may be grown on almost any soil. Usually
those lands are selected that can be prepared and planted with the least
labor, that are the easiest to cultivate and which produce the largest
crops. Quality and quantity, however, in most cases do not go hand
in hand. The best soils for Vinifera and American Euvitis is a gently
sloping, well-drained, calcareous loam, of sufficient depth, with porous
subsoil; gravel or small stones in a so4 are not a detriment. Some ))refer
a sandy soil with a gravelly substratum. The best soils for Muscadine
grai)es are the well-drained, siliceous soils found bordering the (♦oast and
river banks throughout the Atlantic tidewater section, known as sandy
ridges, as hammock and trucking soils. It should be open and well drained,
})ut not necessarily very deep, provided the subsoil is not too heavy, as
Muscadines have a shallow spreading root system.

Whether it be intended to grow Vinifera, American Euvitis or Mus-
cadines, the place should have a good water supply, be of easy access to
market, and free from late spring frosts. The cellar, pasteurizing or
packing house should be centrally located on the place, preferably so that
the grapes can be hauled down grade, or at least on a level.

Preparation of the Soil. — The soil should be well prepared, cleared of
large stones, stumps and other obstructions. When a thin hardpan occurs
closer than 33^ feet from the surface, it should be broken by blasting.
Any wet spots should be carefully drained. If it be a virgin soil, raising
a crop of grain on it the season previous to planting helps materially to
put it in good shape. The soil should not only be thoroughly and deeply
plowed, but subsoiled as well, then thoroughly hdrrowed and the clods
crushed with a drag or roller.

CHAPTER 34a

Grapes and Grape Culture in the United States

By George C. Husmann
Pomologist in Charge of ViticuUural Investigations^ United States

Department of Agricidture

The grape has always been and continues to be man's best standby
ni fruits. It is one of the most important and most extensively grown
fruits in the country.

Cif^'-iVVfll « t

i^y^'3 ^■

A Typical Vinifera Valley Vineyard ix California

•

gra])es, 250,000,000 pounds of raisins, 7,000,000 gallons of brandy,
5(),(H)0,000 gallons of wine and unfermented juice, etc. The vineyard
acr(^age exceeds 500,000 acres, the viticultural industry representing, in
conservative figures, an investment of $300,000,000 and giving employ-
ment to 150,000 persons.

There are three distinct viticultural regions in the United States
which segregate themselves by the grape species grown in them for com-
mercial purposes. These are: (1) The vinifera region in which the
vinifera varieties grown for all the various purposes, is located almost
entirely west of the Rocky Mountains and so much of it in California that
it might almost be said to be a California industry. At least seventy-five
per cent of the entire grape output of the United States is from fruit
of the vinifera varieties. Nearly one hundred per cent of the raisin and
grape l)randies and about eighty per cent of all other grape products pro-
duced in this country come from California.

(2) The American Native grape regions in which improved varieties

(455^)

GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE

4556

There are more native grape species in this country than in all the
other countries of the world combined, and America in her native grapes
has not only given to the world new fruits, but by judicious use of such
sp<H'ies will make it possible to successfully grow varieties of some of them
in all parts of the United States.

Soil. — Soil, location and site will differ greatly with the object in
view. Some varieties of grapes ma}- be grown on almost any soil. I'sually
those lands are selected that can be prepared and plante(l with the least
labor, that are the easiest to cultivate and which produce the largest
crops. Quality and quantity, however, in most cases do not go hand
in hand. The best soils for Vinifera and American Euvitis is a gently
slo])ing, well-drained, calcareous loam, of sufficient depth, with porous
siil)S()il; gravel or small stones in a soU are not a detriment. Some prefei*
a sandy soil with a gravelly substratum. Tlu^ best soils for MuscadiiK^
grapes are the w(^ll-(lrained, siliceous soils found bordering the roast and
river banks throughout the Atlantic tidewater section, known as sandy
ridges, as hammock and trucking soils. It should be open and well drained,
})ut not necessarily very deep, provided the subsoil is not too heavy, as
Muscadines have a shallow spreading root system.

Preparation of the Soil. — The soil should be well prepared, cleared of
large stones, stumps and other obstructions. When a thin hardpan occurs
closer than 33^ feet from the surface, it should be broken by blasting.
Any wet spots should be carefully drained. If it be a virgin soil, raising
a crop of grain on it the season previous to planting helps materially to
put it in good shape. The soil should not only be thoroughly and deeply
plowed, but subsoiled as well, then thoroughly harrowed and the clods
crushed with a drag or roller.

INTENTIONAfTSECOND EXPOSURE

455c

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Fertilizers.— On partially exhausted or poor soil, such manures and
fertilizers should be applied as will supply the deficient ingredients. A
liberal application of barnyard manure is usually advisable. If the soil
lacks in fruit-producing qualities, potash is needed; if more plant-growth
is desired, nitrogenous fertilizers should be applied.

Choice of Varieties to Plant.— As to varieties of grapes to plant, each
locality largely determines for itself, grape growing being perhaps more
dependent on selection of varieties with reference to soil, climate, location
and other conditions than any other fruit. The writer has often seen such

GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE

455d

Picking and Hauling Wine Grapes

radically diflferent results with the same variety— planted in vineyards
only a short distance apart— that it hardly seemed possible that they were
the same variety. It should first be determined for what purpose it is
desired to grow grapes and select varieties suited for such purpose and
even then best results can only be expected where soil, climate and other
conditions best suited for the variety and purpose are chosen. Usually
it will be well to select such varieties as have proven valuable for such
purposes in the immediate vicinity. Should a grower embark in an
entirely new district where grape growing has not been tried, he will
have an opportunity for displaying good judgment and perhaps growing,
from seed, new varieties adapted to the locality, thus becoming a path-
finder for those who follow in his lead.

The Vinifera varieties commercially grown for the different purposes
in this country are . Alexandria, Alicante, Bouschel, Black Hamburg,
Burger, Cabernet, Sauvignon, Carignane Chasselas de Fontamebleau,
Cinsaut, Dodrclabi, Emperor, Flame Tokay, Green Hunganen, Grenache,

Listan, Malaga, Mission, Mondeuse, Mourastell, Muscadelle du Bordelais,
Olivette blanche, Olivette noir, Pedro Ximines, Petit Syrah, Pinot de
Chardonnay, Purple Damascus, Saint Macaire, Sauvignon Vert, Simillon,
Sultana, Sultanina, Sylvaner, Traminer, Valdepenas, Velt-liner, Vermen-
tino and Zinfandel. As vinifera varieties are not phylloxera resistant
and no way has been found to eradicate it from vineyards, it is conceded
the only way to successfully combat the phylloxera in all soils which can-
not be cheaply and sufficiently flooded to kill it, is to establish vinifera
vineyards on phylloxera resistant stocks.

Of American Euvitis varieties. At present nine-tenths of the plant-
ing are of Concord. The next most important variety is the Delaware.

A Typical Vinifera Hillside Vineyard in California

Other varieties, grown more or less extensively, are Agawam, Barry,
Brighton, Brilliant, Campbell, Carman, Catawba, Champenel, Clevener,
Clinton, Cynthiana, Diamond, Diana, Dutchess, Elvira, Eumelan, Goethe,
Herbemont, Herbert, Isabella, Ives, Jefferson, Lenoir, Lindley, Moores,
Missouri Riesling, Montefiore, Niagara, Noah, Nortons, Pierce, Salem,
Wilder, Winchell, Wooden and Wyoming.

Of Muscadine varieties. The Scuppernong is today more extensively
grown than any other variety. The other catalogued varieties being
Eden, Flowers, James, Memory, Mish and Thomas.

Propagation. — In ordinary practice, grape vines are propagated from
seed, from cuttings, by layering or by grafting. Seedlings should only be
used when it is desired to originate new varieties.

Cuttings should always be made from young, well-matured wood
and preferably from medium-sized, short-jointed wood. To make cuttings,
cut close below the lower bud, making the cut somewhat slanting, and
leave about an inch of wood above the upper bud. If a small piece of the
old wood or a whorl of buds can be left at the butt end of the cutting, so

tXW*"'-'-;

'-l^f'f.d^'^.iM^rr-.

455c

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

■^,v, it«2

'•*..>

.w ■ ^:i^

*■ ■'t.-U'f

.,•. ^'.

'^^^s^■♦ *>

•", V "^

•**.'

>%T

>».v

't V V

Picking and Hauling Wine Grapes

radically different results with the same variety— planted in vineyards
only a short distance apart— that it hardly seemed possible that they were
the same variety. It should first be determined for what purpose it is
desired to grow grapes and select varieties suited for such purpose and
even then best results can only be expected where soil, climate and other
conditions best suited for the variety and purpose are chosen. Lsually
it will be well to select such varieties as have proven valuable for such
purposes in the immediate vicinity. Should a grower embark in an
entirely new district where grape growing has not been tried, he will
have an opportunity for displaying good judgment and perhaps growing,
from seed, new varieties adapted to the locality, thus becoming a path-
finder for those who follow in his lead.

The Vinifera varieties commercially grown for the different purposes
in this country are • Alexandria, Alicante, Bouschel, Black Hamburg,
Burger, Cabernet, Sauvignon, Carignane Chasselas de Fontaine])leau,
Cinsaut, Dodrclabi, Emperor, Flame Tokay, Green Hungarien, Grenache,

GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE

4o5d

Of American Euvitis varieties. At present nine-tenths of the plant-
ing are of Concord. The next most important variety is the Delaware.

A Typical Vinifera Hillside Vineyard in California

Of Muscadine varieties. The Scuppernong is today more extensively
grown than any other variety. The other catalogued varieties being
Eden, Flowers, James, Memory, Mish and Thomas.

Propagation. — In ordinary practice, grape vines are propagated from
schhI, from cuttings, by layering or by grafting. Seedlings should only be
used when it is desired to originate new varieties.

Cuttings should always be made from young, well-matured wood
and preferably from medium-sized, short-jointed wood. To make cuttings,
cut close })elow the lower })ud, making the cut somewhat slanting, and
leave about an inch of wood above the upper })ud. If a small piece of the
old wood or a whorl of buds can be left at the butt end of the cutting, so

■ii?v.Vi»':^

mfMsTJif

' I

455e

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

much the better. The length of the cuttings may vary from eight to
twenty inches, depending on the chmatic and other conditions of the
locality in which they are to be planted. Keep dormant until they are
planted. Plant in spring after the ground has become warm enough.

Layers.— AW varieties of vines may be propagated by layers. Mus-
cadines are nearly always propagated in this manner, but with other
species layering is only resorted to with varieties which do not root easily
from cuttings. In layering, choose canes of last season's growth, pref-
erably those that start near the base of the vine. Canes may be layered

either in fall or in spring.

Graf ting .—Bench nursery and vineyard grafting are resorted to m

;^^)-

'iTii»niii!> Ws^-. '^:_

■'*;-' •■:,■■'

■':-:^^r:y

i^J^VSS«*,

^*#.,

» -^-.<

American Euvitis Pruned and Trellised

general vineyard practice. Bench grafting is done on benches or tables,
usually indoors during the winter. Cuttings of resistant varieties that
root easily or good young plants are usually bench grafted. The grafting
of vines growing in the nursery is called nursery grafting. Thi^ is usually
resorted to with varieties resistant to phylloxera, that do not grow readily
from cuttings. They are grafted with vinifera or non-resistant varieties
and the resultant vines planted in the vineyard. In vineyard grafting, the
vines growing where they are to remain are grafted.

Some of the important practical advantages of grafting are: (1)
Changing worthless vines into valuable ones. (2) Insuring non-resistant
varieties by grafting them on resistant stocks. (3) Obtaining quickly
plenty of wood for grafting purposes, by grafting new or scarce varieties
on strong vines. (4) Producing resistant vineyards, by grafting valuable
resistant direct producers on roots of growing vines to make roots of

their own.

Planting, Plowing and Cultivating.— In California, where most of

GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE

455/

the Vinifera regions of the United States are located, the practice has been
to plant the vines seven feet apart each way, no trellis, but simply stakes
being used as supports. This enabled the growers to plow and cultivate
lengthwise and crosswise. Now the tendency is to plant farther apart,
some planting 8x8, others 6 x 10, others 9x9, others 8x10 and 8 x 12
feet apart. Since the Sultana and Sultanina grapes for seedless raisins and
some of the choicer varieties of table grapes are extensively grown for
shipping purposes, better results with such being had by growing them
on trellis, trellis are coming into general use with them. The vineyards
are all plowed twice each year. In the first plowing, the soil is usually
thrown away from the vines and in the second plowing it is thrown up
to them again. The vineyards being cultivated frequently early in the
season, the cultivation being abandoned after the spring rains are over.

Typical Rotundifolia Arbors

The American Euvitis varieties grown in the States east of the Rocky
Mountains are usually planted in rows 8 feet apart, with the vines 8,
10,*even 12 feet and more apart, in the rows. A plain trellis of posts,
24 to 30 feet apart, is used, the end posts being firmly braced, to which
sometimes only two, but generally three strands of No. 10 or 12 wire are
fastened, the first, second and third wires being 24, 40 and 56 inches,
respectively, from the ground. Of late years many use a modification
of the Munson trellis. In this, pieces of 2 x 4 inch joist or their
equivalent 20 inches long are firmly spiked to the side or on top, when
l^osts are sawed off at the right height (4^/^ to 5 feet above the ground)
for the purpose. The two outer wires are stretched on the ends of the
cross joist and the lower wire is either stapled against or run through
the posts at the desired distance below (about six inches). The vine-
yards are plowed twice and cultivated frequently. Too late cultivation,
however, is apt to keep the vines growing too late in the season, caus-
ing unnecessary growth, which does not ripen.

In growing Muscadines for commercial purposes the system of train-

■''^"'•^iH'-\->v.;

«-^«^^^:

455e

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

much the better. The length of the cuttings may vary from eight to
twenty inches, depending on the cUmatic and other conditions of the
locality in which they are to be planted. Keep dormant until they are
planted. Plant in spring after the ground has become warm enough.

2^^^^^.^ __A11 varieties of vines may be propagated by layers. Mus-
cadines are nearly always propagated in this manner, but with other
species layering is only resorted to with varieties which do not root easily
from cuttings. In hiyering, choose canes of last season's growth, pref-
erably those that start near the base of the vine. Canes may be layered
either in fall or in spring.

Grafting.— Bench nursery and vineyard grafting are resorted to m

American Eumtls Pruned and Trellised

general vineyard practice. Bench grafting is done on benches or tables,
usuallv indoors during the winter. Cuttings of resistant varieties that
root easily or good young plants are usually bench grafted. The grafting
of vines gi'owing in the nursery is called nursery grafting. This is usually
resorted to with varieties resistant to phylloxera, that do not grow readily
from cuttings. They are grafted with vinifera or non-resistant varieties
and the resultant vines planted in the vineyard. In vineyard grafting, the
vines growing where they are to remain are grafted.

their own. . . , . t

Planting, Plowing and Cultivating.— In California, where most of

GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE

455/

the Vinifera regions of the United States are located, the practice has been
to plant the vines seven feet apart each way, no trellis, but simi)ly stakes
being used as supports. This enabled the growers to plow and cultivate
lengthwise and crosswise. Now the tendency is to plant farther apart,
some planting 8x8, others 6 x 10, others 9x9, others 8 x 10 and 8 x 12
feet apart. Since the Sultana and Sultanina grapes for seedless raisins and
some of the choicer varieties of table grapes are extensively grown for
shipping purposes, better results with such being had by growing them
on trellis, trellis are coming into general use with them. The vineyards
are all plowed twice each year. In the first plowing, the soil is usually
thrown away from the vines and in the second plowing it is thrown up
to them again. The vineyards being cultivated frequently early in the
season, the cultivation being abandoned after the spring rains are over.

Typical Rotundifolia Arbors

The American Euvitis varieties grown in the States east of the Rocky
Mountains are usually planted in rows 8 feet apart, with the vines 8,
10, "even 12 feet and more apart, in the rows. A plain trellis of posts,
24 to 30 feet apart, is used, the end posts being firmly braced, to which
sometimes only two, but generally three strands of No. 10 or 12 wire are
fastened, the first, second and third wires being 24, 40 and 56 inches,
respectively, from the ground. 0{ late years many use a modification
of the Munson trellis. In this, pieces of 2 x 4 inch joist or their
equivalent 20 inches long are firmly spiked to the side or on top, when
l)osts are sawed off at the right height (4^^ to 5 feet above the ground)
for the purpose. The two outer wires are stretched on the ends of the
cross joist and the lower wire is either stapled against or run through
the posts at the desired distance below (about six inches). The vine-
yards are plowed twice and cultivated frequently. Too late cultivation,
however, is apt to keep the vines growing too late in the season, caus-
ing unnecessary growth, which does not ripen.

In growing Muscadines for commercial purposes the system of train-

I !

:?f^BSS^I?'

mii

455c/

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

li-

ing almost exclusively followed is an overhead arbor. When planted in
sufficient number to be called a vineyard, the vines are usually set 10 x 20,
15 X 15, or 20 x 20 feet apart. In the overhead system, a durable post,
reaching seven feet above the ground, is planted at each vine. Rows of
well-braced posts are set at the ends of the rows on all four sides of the
vineyard. From the tops of these posts, governor wires are run along the
tops of the inside posts in both directions, two feet apart. Parallel with
the governor wires other wires are run across these, so as to regularly cover
the entire area. Some growers construct the arbors entirely of wood,
using slats instead of wires. In training the vines to such arbors, a single
trunk should be allowed to grow from the ground alongside the post and

ViNiFERA Vines Pruned to Canes in Caufounia

when it has reached the top, it is pinched in or cut off, to cause it to throw
out shoots which are allowed to grow and spread over the arbor. After
this, the general practice is to do no more pruning under the supposition
that the vines naturally prune themselves. It is also a mooted question
with the growers whether Muscadines should or should not be cultivated.
Experiments by the United States Department of Agriculture in recent
years not only go to show that other methods should be employed and
that the vines should be regularly cultivated, but far better fruiting results
and better fruit will be had by different training and thorough pruning
methods.

Pruning. — Details of the many methods practiced in pruning grapes
cannot be discussed in this paper. In California, two principal methods
are practiced, commonly called cane and spur pruning. Of these two
methods there are all kinds of combinations and modifications. The same

GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE

455A

holds true with the methods employed east of the Rocky Mountains with
American Euvitis, it being in the training methods and not the pruning
that they differ. All the systems have the same underlying principle,
namely, the grape usually bears its fruit on shoots of the previous year's
growth. Therefore, the pruning should be so as to renew the wood at
a given point from year to year, through this regulating its production
and keeping the plants thoroughly shaped and under constant control.

With a thorough knowledge of the nature of the vine, it is easy to
prune correctly. However, the nature of no fruit-bearing plant is so little
understood by horticulturists. Many horticulturists easily learn to prune
other fruit-bearing plants, but fail to master the vine and the same state-
ment is equally true of grafting it.

Diseases and Insects. — Of serious insect enemies of the grape east

Vinifera Vines Pruned to Spurs in California

of the Rocky Mountains should be mentioned the Grape root-worm.
Grape vine flea-beetle. Grape berry-moth, Grape curculio, all of which
can be combated with arsenical sprays.

Against the rose chafer, arsenical sprays, clean culture of land and
hand extermination at times become necessary.

Against the Grape leaf -hoppers, clean culture of land, turning sheep
into the vineyard immediately after the vintage to pasture on grape
leaves and other rubbish and when the hoppers are nymphs, spraying
with whale oil soap and nicotine, are among the most effective remedies.

Of grape diseases especially destructive east of the Rocky Mountains
are black rot, downy mildew, powdery mildew and anthracnose. All of
these are controlled by systematic spraying with Bordeaux mixture*

In California, some seasons, considerable damage is done by the
Grape leaf-hopper and powdery mildew. The so-called California vine
disease, which has in the past wiped out thousands of acres of California
vineyards, is now seldom heard of.

■.#f!^S^i

l::i^#:;-:«4'Ss?:'i

455^

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

iiig almost exclusively followed is an overhead arbor. When planted in
sufficient number to be called a vineyard, the vines are usually set 10 x 20,
15 X 15, or 20 x 20 feet apart. In the overhead system, a durable post,
reaching seven feet above the ground, is planted at each vine. Rows of
well-braced posts are set at the ends of the rows on all four sides of the
vineyard. From the tops of these posts, governor wires are run along the
tops of the inside posts in both directions, two feet apart. Parallel with
the governor wires other wires are run across these, so as to regularly cover
the entire area. Some growers construct the arbors entirely of wood,
using slats instead of wires. In training the vines to such arbors, a single
trunk should be allowed to grow from the ground alongside the post and

ViNiFERA Vines Pruned to Canes in Califounia

when it has reached the toj), it is pinched in or cut off, to cause it to throw
out shoots which are allowed to grow and spread over the arbor. After
this, the general practice is to do no more pruning under the supposition
that the vines naturally prune themselves. It is also a mooted question
with the growers whether Muscadines should or should not be cultivated.
Exj^eriments })y the United States Department of Agriculture in recent
years not only go to show that other methods should be employed and
that the vines should be regularly cultivated, but far better fruiting results
and })etter fruit will be had by different training and thorough pruning
methods.

GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE

455A

Diseases and Insects. — Of serious insect enemies of the grape east

ViNiFERA Vines Pruned to Spurs in California

of the Rocky Mountains should be mentioned the Grape root-worm.
Grape vine flea-beetle, Grape berry-moth, Grape curculio, all of w^hich
can be combated with arsenical sprays.

Against the rose chafer, arsenical sprays, clean culture of land and
hand extermination at times become necessary.

Against the Grape leaf-hoppers, clean culture of land, turning sheep
into the vineyard immediately after the vintage to pasture on grape
leaves and other rubbish and when the hoppers are nymphs, spraying
with whale oil soap and nicotine, are among the most effective remedies.

Of grape diseases especially destructive east of the Rocky Mountains
are black rot, downy mildew, pow^dery mildew and anthracnose. All of
these are controlled by systematic spraying with Bordeaux mixture.

In California, some seasons, considerable damage is done by the
Grape leaf-hopper and powdery mildew. The so-called California vino
disease, which has in the past wiped out thousands of acres of California
vineyards, is now seldom heard of.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

455t

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The grape phylloxera has been and continues as the most serious
menace to vinifera vineyards. Against this the vineyards are completely
insured, by establishing them on resistant stocks.

Picking Grapes. — Grapes for all purposes, except those converted into
raisins and dried grapes, are picked in boxes or trays and taken either to
the winery, syrup juice or canning plants or packing house.

For wine, syrup and unfermented juice purposes, the vintage begins
when the grapes have about reached the ripening stage and continues
until all are harvested and those picked last are overripe and beginning
to shrivel. The higher the sugar content of the grapes, the richer the
unfermented juice and the finer the quality of the wines made from them.

Table grapes for shipping purposes and grapes for canning and other
culinary purposes are picked at the stage of ripeness, which the purposes
they are used for demand; in each instance, however, earlier than for wine,
syrup and juice purposes.

In the packing houses, table grapes for shipping purposes are care-
fully picked over, all decayed and inferior berries being carefully removed.
In the American Native grape region, they are then packed, shipped and
sold in grape baskets.

In California, there are two distinct lines in the table grape business,
namely, grapes that are packed, shipped and sold in crates and sold as
generally are those from the American Native grape regions, without
being stored and as soon as the shipments reach their destination.

The other line of California table grapes are the late ripening storage
grapes, which are packed with specially prepared red wood sawdust
into either drums or small barrels, holding from 30 to 50 pounds of grapes.
Tliese may be shipped and sold directly, or after ])eing ])icked, are some-
times placed in cold storage in California before shipment in refrigerated
cars, or shipped in such cars and j)laced in eastern storage houses on
their arrival, to be sold at the most opportune time. This line of packed
grapes already cuts into the shipments from foreign countries, reaching
this country as so-called Malaga grapes packed in cork dust. It is only
a matter of relatively short time when all such Malaga grapes will be
grown in and supplied by California.

Almost all the raisins and dried grapes are produced in California,
in the laisin belt of which the climatic conditions are ideal for such pur-
pose. The summers are usually rainless and the nights so free from dew
or moisture that a piece of tissue paper, after lying out all night, is crisp
and stiff the next morning without a particle of moisture showing. There
are some showers in October. Frequently it rains enough in November
to cause considerable damage to partly dried raisins or grapes.

In California, picking raisin grapes commences the middle of August,
the season often lasting into November. It takes from three to four
pounds of grapes to make one pound of raisins or dried grapes. The time
necessary for drying and curing a tray of raisins is about three weeks,

GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE

455;

depending on the weather, the earliest picked grapes drying in ten days
and the later ones often taking four weeks or more. The method of
drjdng is very simple. The bunches are cut from the vines and placed on
shallow trays, 2 feet wide and 3 feet long and 1 inch high, on which the
grapes are allowed to sun dry, being turned from time to time by simply
placing an empty tray upside down on the full one and then turning both

Picking and Drying Raisin Grapes in California

over and taking off the top tray. Some dip and scald the grapes, to
cleanse the fruit, to hasten its drying and to give the fruit a lighter color.
The layer and seeded raisins are mostly made from the Alexandria
grape. The seedless raisins from the Sultana and Sultanina. The seed-
ing, grading, packing and shipping of raisins have become separate
branches of the industry.

REFERENCES
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

Year-Book article, "Grape, Raisin and Wine Production in the United States.'^
Year-Book article, ''Some Uses of the Grape Vine and its Pruit."
Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 172, "Graf)e Investigations in the Vinifera
Regions of the United States."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletins:

284. "Insect and Disease Enemies of the Grape East of the Rocky Moun-
tains."
471. "Grape Propagation, Pruning and Training."
644. "Manufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape Juice."
709. "The Muscadine Grapes."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

209. "Testing Grape Varieties in the Vinifera Regions of the United States."
349. "The Raisin Industry."

"Testing Grape Vaneties in (he Middle Atlantic; States of tlie United
States."

1"'% .

455i

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The grape phylloxera has been and continues as the most serious
menace to vinifera vineyards. Against this the vineyards are completely
insured, by establishing them on resistant stocks.

The other line of California table grapes are the late ripening storage
grapes, which are packed with specially ]:)reparod red wood Rawdust
into either drums or small barrels, holding from 30 to 50 pounds of grapes.
These may be shipped and sold directly, or after being ])icked, are sonu*-
times placed in cold storage in California before shipment in refrigerated
cars, or shipped in such cars and i)laced in eastern storage houses on
their arrival, to be sold at the most opportune time. This line of ])acke(l
grnpes already cuts into the shipments from foreign countries, reaching
this country as so-called Malaga gra})es j)acked in cork dust. It is only
a matter of relatively short time when all such Malaga grapes will be
grown in and supplied by California.

Almost all the raisins and dried grapes are produced in California,
in the raisin belt of which the climatic conditions are ideal for such ]:)ur-
pose. The summers are usually rainless and the nights so free from dew
or moisture that a piece of tissue paper, after lying out all night, is crisp
and stiff the next morning without a particle of moisture showing. There
are some showers in Octo})er. Frequently it rains enough in November
to cause considerable damage to partly dried raisins or grapes.

GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE

4^ ■» •
oo;

depending on the weather, the earliest picked grapes drying in ten days
and the later ones often taking four weeks or more. The method of
drying is very simple. The bunches are cut from the vines and placed on
shallow trays, 2 feet wide and 3 feet long and 1 inch high, on which the
grapes are allowed to sun dry, being turned from time to time by simply
placing an empty tray upside down on the full one and then turning both

Picking and Drying Raisin Grapes in Caufopnia

over and taking off the top tray. Some dij) and scald the grapes, to
cleanse the fruit, to hasten its drying and to give the fruit a ligliter color.
The layer and seeded raisins are mostly made from the Alexandria
grape. The seedless raisins from the Sultana and Sultanina. The seed-
ing, grading, packing and shipping of raisins have become sei)arate
branches of the industry.

REFERENCES
IJ. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

Year-Book article, "Grape, Raisin and Wine Production in the United States."
Year-Book article, "Some Uses of the Grape Vine and its Fruit."
Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 172, "Grape Investigations in the X'inifeni
Regions of the United States."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletins:

200. "Testing Grape Varieties in the Vinifera Regions of the United States."
349. "The Raisin Industry."

"Testing Grape Varieties in the Middle Atlantic States of the Tnited
States."

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

i^'i'::'fs^^ '....-..■

vivhj.- • .^ -''. ■•■■■ ■•i-<^''- ■

r*r

'i^ltmsT.ial^imaiiVi

CHAPTER 35

The Pome Fruits

By John P. Stewart, Ph.D.
Professor of Experimental Pomology, The Pennsylvania State College

These fruits, which include the apple, pear and quince as the principal
members, constitute the most important group of fruits in temperate
climates. In the United States, as indicated in the thirteenth census, their
combined value during the year preceding this census was $91,659,335, or
nearly two-thirds of the total value of all orchard fruits. The latter total
was $140,867,000. Among the pome fruits, the apple is by far the most
important. Its value in America in the above-named year was $83,231,492,
or more than 90.8 per cent of the total for the group. The pear comes
second in value with a total production of $7,910,600, or 8.63 per cent of
the total for the group, while the quince showed a value of only $517,243,
or but little more than one-half of one per cent of the group total.

THE APPLE .

Origin. — All the true apples have descended from a wild form in
Europe known as Pyrus mains. Most of the crab-apples have come from
the wild Pyrus baccata of Siberia, which is commonly known as the Siberian
crab. The Yellow and Red Siberian are probably as close to the original
type as any varieties now grown. Most of the so-called crabs now in culti-
vation are hybrids, and are known botanically as Pyrus prunifolia. The
Hyslop,Transcendent, Florence, Sweet Russet and Whitney are of this type.
They are supposed to be hybrids between the true crabs and true apples.
(See Budd and Hansen, Horticultural Manual, Vol. 1, pp. 161-62.)

The other source of crabs is the native American form, known as
Pyrus coronaria, and especially the large western type which has been
further distinguished by the name of Pyrus ioensis. The fruit of the latter
often attains a diameter of two and a half inches or over, and keeps easily
until the following summer. It is much like the quince in quality, however,
and is suitable only for culinary uses. The principal varieties from this
source are the Soulard, Kentucky Mammoth, Mercer and Howard. They
are of chief value to the northwest section of the Mississippi Valley and
northward. At present the number of apple varieties is very large. In
America alone between 1804 and 1904 over 7200 distinct varietal names of
apples were published, besides 383 named varieties of crabs. It is needless
to say that the great majority are worthless.

Cultural Range. — In eastern America the apple is grown commercially

(450)

THE POME FRUITS

457

from the plateaus of Georgia and Alabama on the south to Quebec and Nova
Scotia on the north and east. On the Pacific Slope it succeeds well from
the south-central portion of California to British Columl^ia. Between
these regions it is grown more or less between parallels 33 and 46 degrees
north latitude, except where the moisture is insufficient. With proper
selection of varieties and care, good home orchards or moderate-sized
commercial plantings can be grown successfully over practically all this
region. The range of the crabs extends farther north.

Propagation. — Apples are propagated by root or whip grafting in

Well Located Apple Orchard.^

winter on whole or piece roots, by crown grafting in the spring or by
budding in late summer or early autumn. There is little or no difference
between these methods so far as the growth of the resulting trees in the
orchard is concerned.

The seeds to produce the roots used as stocks come largely from France,
though some are also produced in Vermont. The former come from the
so-called French crab, which is nothing but the wild native apple or Pyrus
mains of France. The seedlings from them are produced chiefly in the
soil of the Kansas River Valley.

In the central northwest these stocks are not sufficiently hardy, and

* Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From ** How to Choose a Farm," by Hunt.

mm^

^f--«^i)/l

THE POME FRUITS

457

CHAPTER 35

The Pome Fruits

By John P. Stewart, Ph.D.
Professor- of Experimental Pomology, The Penimjlvania State College

THE APPLE .

Origin. — All the true apples have descended from a wild form in
Europe known as Pyrus mains. Most of the crab-apples have come from
the wild Pyrus baccata of Siberia, which is commonly known as the Siberian
crab. The Yellow and Red Siberian are probably as close to the original
type as any varieties now grown. Most of the so-called crabs now in culti-
vation are hybrids, and are known botanically as Pyrus prunifolia. The
Hyslop,Transcendent, Florence, Sweet Russet and Whitney are of this type.
They are supposed to be hybrids between the tru(^ crabs and true apples.
(See Budd and Hansen, Horticultural Manual, Vol. 1, pp. 161-62.)

The other source of crabs is the native American form, known as
Pyrus coronaria, and especially the large western type which has been
further distinguished by the name of Pyrus ioensis. The fruit of the latt(T
often attains a diameter of two and a half inch(\s or ov(t, and kee])s easily
until the following summer. It is much like the quince^ in quality, how(n'(T,
and is suitable only for culinary uses. The principal varieties from this
source are the Soulard, Kentucky Mammoth, Mercer and Howard. They
are of chief value to the northwest section of the Mississippi Valley and
northward. At present the number of apple varieties is very large. In
America alone between 1804 and 1904 over 7200 distinct varic^tal names of
apples were published, besides 383 named varieties of crabs. It is needless
to say that the great majority are worthless.

Cultural Range. — In eastern America the apple is grown commercially

(450)

from the plateaus of Georgia and Alabama on the south to Quebec and Nova
Scotia on the north and east. On the Pacific Slope it succeeds well from
the south-central portion of California to British Columbia. Between
these regions it is grown more or less between parallels 33 and 46 degrees
north latitude, except where the moisture is insufficient. With proper
selection of varieties and care, good home orchards or moderate-sized
commercial plantings can be grown successfully over practically all this
region. The range of the crabs extends farther north.

Propagation. — Apples are propagated by root or whip grafting in

Well Located Apple Orchard. ^

The seeds to produce the roots used as stocks come largely from France,
though some are also produced in Vermont. The former come from the
so-called French crab, which is nothing but the wild native apple or Pyrus
malus of France. The seedlings from them are produced chiefly in the
soil of the Kansas River Valley.

In the central northwest these stocks are not sufficiently hardy, and

* Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From " How to Choose a Farm," by Hunt.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

'n'-^fifif:-'

.'B

458

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

THE POME FRUITS

459

1 1

seedlings of the crab hybrids or of the pure Pyrus baccata are much preferred
as the root stocks for those sections. Budding or crown-grafting is best

when these stocks are used.

Dwarf apple trees are formed by grafting or budding on French Para-
dise stock, and semi-dwarfs by working on doucin stock. They are much
used in Europe, but thus far have found little favor in America.

Location and Soil for the Orchard.— Many orchards are permanently
handicapped by unsuitable locations, and many of their defects might
easily have been avoided by proper foresight and care. The chief character-
istics of the suitable location are good topography, proper soil, a convenient
water supply and ready access to market or good shipping points if the
orchard is to be commercial. A good topography is one that is moderately
rounded or sloping and is enough higher than its immediate surroundmgs
to give good drainage of cold air and water. Too much slope, however,-
is always objectionable, and a grade of two or three per cent is usually
sufficient, especially if some sharper depression is near. The direction of
the slope is of little or no importance, except possibly near the northern
or southern limits of culture, in which cases the southern or northern slopes,
respectively, are generally best.

The suitability of the soil seems to depend largely upon the character
of the subsoil, as good orchards occur on all classes of top soils, from dense
clays to light sands. A good subsoil is comparatively open and porous
for about one to three feet below the surface, and then becomes compact
enough to hold the moisture fairly well, but not so well as to give the trees
*'wet feet.'' For the first six or eight inches, a loamy soil with a moderate
admixture of sand and gravel is usually very good. The so-called ironstone
soils, or those derived from many of the red shales or sandstones, are often
excellent. The presence of old and productive trees under similar condi-
tions in the neighborhood is also a valuable indication.

Not all these conditions are needed, however. Many good home
orchards have been made with some of the conditions less favorable, and
their advantages are sufficient to warrant some risk in securing them.

Varieties.— The proper selection of varieties for the location involved
is extremely important. Fortunately, much assistance can now be secured
from the pomologists, horticulturists and horticultural societies of the
various states, and also from the publications of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture, such as Bulletin 151 of the Bureau of Plant Industry. Per-
sonal preferences and local experience should also be considered, whenever
available in reliable form, and the following general advice should be

For the home orchard or local market, a much wider range and greater
number of varieties are desirable and generally available than for the com-
mercial orchard. Among the early varieties, named in the order of ripen-
ing the Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg and Wealthy are among the best,
and they thrive practically across the continent. They are chiefly valuable

for culinary use, and are all early bearers. For dessert use, the Early
Harvest, Benoni, Maiden Blush, Gravenstein and Jefferis cover about the
same season and are almost as widely adapted, at least for home orchards.
For the later varieties, more attention should be given \o the section in
which they are to be grown. In the general belt from New England to
Ontario and Michigan, the Mcintosh, Hubbardston, Northern Spy,
Tompkins King, Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening and Roxbury are the lead-
ing sorts, although many others are also grown. This is known as the
Baldwin belt. The varieties in it and those later are named approximately
in order of maturity.

In the next area south, extending roughly from New Jersey and Vir-
'ginia to Kansas and Oklahoma, the leaders are Grimes, Jonathan, Rome
Beauty, Stayman Winesap, York Imperial, Ben Davis or Gano, Black-twig
or Paragon, and Winesap. It is known as the Winesap belt. The first two
or three varieties used in it are also frequently valuable in the Baldwin belt,
and vice versa. The Red Astrachan, Primate, Summer Rambo, Fall
Pippin, Smokehouse and Delicious also do well in many parts of both of
these regions.

Still farther south, from North Carolina to Texas, the White Juneating,
Red June, Horse, Kinnard, Buckingham, Terry, Buncombe and Shockley
are the principal sorts. In the Colorado-Utah section, the leading varieties
are much the same as those in the Winesap belt, with the Summer Pear-
main, White Pearmain and Yellow Bellefleur in addition.

In the central northwest, or the general district including Wisconsin,
Minnesota, the Dakotas and their immediate surroundings, only the
hardiest varieties will succeed. For this district the first three early varie-
ties named above are among the best. Others available are Tetofski,
Borovinka, Charlamoff, Alexander, Hibernal, Gideon, Peerless, Okabena,
Plumb Cider, Northwestern, Newell and Patten. This is rather a formi-
dable list, both in names and quality, but in the latter respect the Wealthy,
Peerless and Patten are best.

For the favorable mountain valleys of western Montana, Idaho,
British Columbia, Washington, Oregon and Nevada, the following varieties
are prominent in one or more sections: Gravenstein, Fall Pippin, Ortley,
Mcintosh, Grimes, Jonathan, Banana, Esopus, Wagener, Rome Beauty,
Stayman Winesap, Delicious, Winesap and Yellow Newi^own.

In California and northward along the coast, the more valuable sorts
are the Red Astrachan, Red June, Gravenstein, Fall Pippin, Grimes,
Jonathan, Esopus, Tompkins King, White and Blue Pearmains, Wagener,
Yellow Bellefleur, Missouri Pippin, Gano, Yellow Newtown and Winesap.

These lists, supplemented wfth state and local inquiry to fit the immedi-
ate places concerned, should enable one to make satisfactory plantings
almost anywhere in the apple-growing region of North America.

Purchase and Handling of Nursery Stock. — After deciding upon the
varieties, the best way to get the trees is by direct order from responsible

460

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

THE POME FRUITS

461

nurseries. It is immaterial where the nursery is located, provided the
trees it furnishes are true to name, thoroughly healthy, entirely dormant,
fully matured before digging, and free from all evidence of faulty storage
or improper handling of any kind. The wood should not show any conspicu-
ous blackening at the heart, and the roots should show entire freedom from
woolly aphis, crown-gall, hairy root or borers.

One-year-old trees of good medium size are usually best, and in no
case should they be older than two years from the bud or graft. One-year
trees usually cost less, are more easily shipped and transplanted and their
heads can be properly formed, which is not always the case with older trees.

It is well to order early, although the trees may be held at the nursery
subject to shipment at planting time. Fall planting is often advisable'
where the winters are not too severe; otherwise, planting should be done
in the spring as soon as the soil is fit. When received the trees should be
examined and ''heeled in'' if practicable, with the dirt packed closely about
the roots and the tops sloping toward the south or southwest to reduce the
danger of sun-scald. Before planting, the roots should be shortened back
to about six or eight inches and those broken or bruised should be removed
with a smooth cut above the point of injury.

Laying Out the Orchard. — The orchard may be laid out either on the
square or the hexagonal plan. The latter gives about 15^ per cent more
trees to the acre at the same distance apart, or 15| per cent more space for
each tree at the same number per acre. The former, however, is rather
better for inter-cropping, spraying, etc., and in general is rather more
simple to care for.

A good planting distance is 40 by 40 feet for the permanent trees, with
a semi-])ermanent or filler set in the center of the square. In the case of
the smaller-growing varieties, the central trees may often remain indefi-
nitely, without disturbing the general plan of the orchard. Where inter-
cropping is desired, the permanents may be set at 32 by 48 or thereabouts,
and then have the semi-permanents placed in the centers of the long sides,
with very satisfactory results. The latter plan allows two more trees to
the acre than the square at 40 by 40, or a total of 56 trees, including both
fillers and permanents.

The number of trees allowed per acre for any distance in the square
or rectangular arrangement may be readily found by determining the num-
ber of square feet in the square or rectangle formed by the nearest four
trees, and then using this number to divide 43,560, the number of square
feet in an acre. To find the number needed in the hexagonal arrangement,
find the number allowed by the square plan at the specified distance and
then increase this number l)y 15.47 per cent.

The square or rectangular arrangement can be laid out readily by
plowing straight, deep furrows for the rows and then drawing a chain or
other drag across them at the distances required for the trees. The hex-
agonal plan is best laid out by means of a couple of fight wires or chains, with

one end of each fastened to a single 2j-inch ring and with a similar ring
attached to the free end of each. These chains or wires must be exactly
equal in length, and they should just reach over stakes set at the distance
desired for the trees.

Planting the Trees. — The avoidance of all unnecessary root-exposure
and thorough firming of the soil about the roots are the principal secrets of
success in tree planting. The soil on the immediate surface, however,
should be left rather loose. If the trees or soil are inclined to be dry, the
roots may well be soaked in water for several
hours before planting, but water is seldom
or never needed in the holes themselves.
Set the trees from one to three inches deeper
than they stood in the nursery.

Little or no fertilization is needed at
planting as a rule. A good mulch of strawy
stable manure, however, will often help
greatly. It or any other mulch should be
accompanied by proper protection against
mice, and a screen of galvanized wire with
two meshes to the inch and about eighteen
inches square will probably prove most satis-
factory for this in the long run.

Forming the Heads. — If one-year
'^ whips'' are used, the only pruning needed
at planting time is to cut them off at the
height of twenty to thirty inches. As soon
as possible thereafter, four or five branches
should be selected to form the general frame-
work. The lowest of these limbs should be about 25 to 30 inches above
the ground, as the original height of this limb is the permanent one.

The other three or four frame-work limbs should be selected above, at
intervals of six or eight inches, if possible, and with an even distribution
around the trunk so as to balance the top properly. This selection is
probably best made in the early part of the season's growth, at which time
the extra Umbs should be rubbed off. In the open-center type of tree,
which is preferable for most varieties and localities, the central leader
should be eliminated at this time and should be kept from reforming later.

This is usually sufficient for the first season or two, unless some of the
limbs get too long or begin greatly out-growing the others; in which case
they should be headed back.

At the beginning of the next season some of the frame-work limbs will
need heading back to keep the tree in balance and avoid too rangy a growth.
Each of the primary limbs should develop two good branches during the
season following their selection, and all the others should be rubbed off

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "The Principles of Fruit Growing," by Bailey.

A Properly Pruned Young
Apple Tree.*

462

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

THE POME FRUITS

463

early. These branches in turn should produce not more than two branches
each for the general frame-work, after which the tree-head may be con-
sidered formed.

Later Pruning.— The above work should be completed usually by the
middle of the third season. After this the pruning should be reduced as
much as possible until the trees come into bearing. A little thinning out
in the dense places, removal of the crossing or plainly superfluous limbs,
and an occasional heading back of the extra-vigorous branches will be

Apple Orchard Favored by Type of Soil.^

sufficient and all that should be given if rapid growth and early fruiting

are desired.

The fruit spurs should always be saved and also the early blossoms,
unless they become too numerous, in which case the fruit should be thinned.
A little fertilizing of the right sort will avoid any possible injury from early
fruiting and the early formation of the bearing habit is usually desirable.

In all pruning, make the cuts close to the parent branch and avoid
trimming the limbs to poles. Also keep all blighting twigs off of the main
limbs, so far as possible, to avoid the formation of the cankers in which the
winter is passed by the blight organisms.

Soil Management. — Where tillage is advisable, the most practical

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "How to Choose a Farm," by Hunt.

method of orchard development is the use of tilled intercrops followed by a
winter cover. Potatoes, corn, vegetables or buckwheat are usually satis-
factory for the intercrops, and rye or rye and vetch are good for the winter
cover. When buckwheat is used,, the rye and vetch combination can be
sown at the same time, as it does not grow much until the buckwheat is
taken off. In the other cases, the winter cover should be sown after the
intercrop is removed, which should not be later than the 15th or 20th of
September for best results.

Where the above plan is not desirable, the mulch system is generally
best, especially for the home orchard. Strawy stable manure, at the rate
of six or eight tons per acre annually, is probably the best mulch, unless the
blight becomes too prevalent. Any other kind of vegetation is satisfactory,
however, and it should be put on frequently and heavily enough to keep

Tools for Use in Removing Roundheaded Apple-Tree Borer from Burrows. *

down most of the grass or other growth above the principal root-feeding
area. Its chief function is moisture conservation, though it naturally also
adds some plant-food as it decays. Any such mulch should extend out
at least as far as the tips of the branches, and a clear space of at least six
to twelve inches should be maintained immediately around the trees.

In many places all the mulch needed for the first eight or ten years can
be grown between the trees by the use of alfalfa or other similar plants.
When it begins to fail, manure or other outside resources should be drawn
upon.

Fertilization. — The necessity for fertilization is largely a local problem.
In general, young trees respond to it much less than those in bearing. In
either case one of the safest and best applications that can be made is
stable manure. On mature trees it can be applied at the rate of 6 or 8
tons annually per acre, while on young trees it may be reduced to as little
as 50 or 100 pounds per tree.

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farm Bulletin 675.

— 1»-

: .^..y:t^y"■

462

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

THE POME FRUITS

463

early. These branches in turn should produce not more than two branches
each for the general frame-work, after which the tree-head may be con-
sidered formed.

Apple Okchaud Favored by Type of Soil.^

sufficient and all that should be given if rapid growth and early fruiting

are desired.

Soil Management. — Where tillage is advisable, the most practi(^al

* Courtesy of The Macmillaa Company, N. Y. From "How to Choose a Farm," by Hunt.

method of orchard development is the use of tilled intercrops followed by a
winter cover. Potatoes, corn, vegetables or buckwheat are usually satis-
factory for the intercrops, and rye or rye and vetch are good for the winter
cover. When buckwheat is used, the rye and vetch combination can be
sown at the same time, as it does not grow much until the buckwheat is
taken off. In the other cases, the winter cover should be sown after the
intercrop is removed, which should not be later than the 15th or 20th of
September for best results.

Tools for Use in Removing Roundheaded Apple-Tree Borer from Burrows. ^

down most of the grass or other growth above the principal root-feecUng
area. Its chief function is moisture conservation, though it naturally also
adds some plant-food as it decays. Any such mulch should extend out
at least as far as the tips of the branches, and a clear space of at least six
to twelve inches should be maintained immediately around the trees.

^ Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farm Bulletin 675.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

P'ot^i/WT.

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464

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

THE POME FRUITS

When the manure is not available, similar benefits may often be
secured with an application of about 500 pounds per acre of a commercial
f ertihzer carrying about 5 or 6 per cent of nitrogen, 8 per cent of phosphoric
acid (P2O5), and 3 or 4 per cent of potash (K2O). This is enough for
bearing trees and it should be supplemented by a mulch or tillage to conserve
the moisture. For younger trees, the application should be reduced approx-
imately in proportion to

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the reduction in area
covered.

The area of applica-
tion should be about the
same as that described
above for mulches, and
the best time for the fer-
tilizer is probably some-
what after the fruit has
set. The manure may
well be applied any time
during late winter or
early spring. In any
orchard it is always best
to leave a few typical
trees unfertilized until
the actual value of the
fertihzation is deter-
mined.

Protecting the
Trees. — The chief ene-
mies of young trees are
mice, rabbits, borers and
the San Jos6 scale. The
screens described above
are the surest protection
against the first two,
though poisoned syrup or
shot-guns may also be
useful.
For the borers, a protective covering, such as the lime-sulphur concen-
trate more or less mixed with sediment or lime, is often very helpful if
renewed frequently enough. It can be readily applied either with a brush
or a coarse spray nozzle and the trunk should be thoroughly coated to a
height of eighteen inches or more. It should be kept in good shape from
about the middle of June to the middle of September, after which the trees
should be gone over carefully and any borers that may have entered in spite
of the coating should be cut out or killed with a wire.

A Power Sprayer Adapted to Large Trees.
A gasoline engine gives uniformly high pressure.

The scale is readily handled by thorough spraying during the dormant
season with lime-sulphur at a density of 1.03 as indicated by the specific
gravity hydrometer, or a dilution of about one part of the best commercial
concentrates to nine parts of water.

Spraying During the Growing Season. — The materials needed are
lime-sulphur, lead arsenate, and nicotine solution. The first is used at a
density of about 1.008,
which is obtained by dilut-
ing good home-made con-
centrates about 1 to 30 or
the best commercial lime-
sulphurs at about 1 to 38.
The second material is
used at the rate of 2 or 2 J
pounds of the paste, or
half as much of the pow-
der, in 50 gallons of spray.
The third is used at the
rate of about an ounce of
the 40 per cent nicotine
preparations to 5 gallons
of spray, which gives a
diluted strength of about
.05 of one per cent of nico-
tine. All these materials
may be combined in a
single application, or they
may be applied separately
as the case demands.

With these materials,
the principal pests are
controlled as follows:

1. If both scale and
plant lice are present, de-
fer the scale application
mentioned above until the
first green begins to appear
in the budsy and add the

nicotine solution above named for the aphids or plant lice, which are
then just hatched.

2. Spray with the sulphur and arsenate when the blossoms are just
showing pinky or slightly before. This is for scab, canker worms or the bud-
moth. Also valuable against aphids and red-bugs if the nicotine solution
is added.

3. Repeat No. 2 immediately after the petals fally to fill the calyx cups.

A Good Cluster of Apples, but with Some

Scab Showing.

A little more thinning and spraying would have
been useful here.

464

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

When the manure is not available, similar benefits may often be
secured with an application of about 500 pounds per acre of a commercial
fertilizer carrying about 5 or 6 per cent of nitrogen, 8 per cent of phosphoric
acid (P2O5), and 3 or 4 per cent of potash (K2O). This is enough for
bearing trees and it should l)e supplemented by a mulch or tillage to conserve
the moisture. For younger trees, the application should be reduced approx-
imately in proportion to
the reduction in area
covered.

Protecting the
Trees. — The chief ene-
mies of young trees are
mice, rabbits, borers and
the Ran Jose scale. The
screens described a])ove
are the surest protection
against the first two,
though poisoned syrup or
shot-guns may also be
useful.
For the borers, a protective covering, such as the lime-sulphur concen-
trate more or less mixed with sediment or lime, is often very helpful if
renewed frequently enough. It can be readily applied either with a brush
or a coarse spray nozzle and the trunk should be thoroughly coated to a
height of eighteen inches or more. It should })e kept in good shape from
about the middle of June to the middle of Septeml)er, after which the trees
should ])e gone over carefully and any borers that may have entered in spite
of the coating should be cut out or killed with a wire.

A Power Sprayer Adai»ted to Lar(je Trees.
A gasoline engine gives uniformly high pressure.

THE POME FRUITS

465

The scale is readily handled by thorough spraying during the dormant
season with Hme-sulphur at a density of 1.03 as indicated by the specific
gravity hydrometer, or a dilution of about one part of the best commercial
concentrates to nine parts of water.

Spraying During the Growing Season. — The materials needed are
lime-sulphur, lead arsenate, and nicotine solution. The first is used at a
density of about 1.008,
which is obtained by dilut-
ing good home-made con-
centrates about 1 to 30 or
the best commercial lime-
sulphurs at about 1 to 38.
The second material is
used at the rate of 2 or 2 J
I)ounds of the paste, or
half as much of the pow-
der, in 50 gallons of spray.
The third is used at the
rate of about an ounce of
the 40 per cent nicotine
preparations to 5 gallons
of spray, which gives a
diluted strength of about
.05 of one per cent of nico-
tine. All these materials
may be combined in a
single application, or they
may be applied separately
as the case demands.

With these materials,
the principal pests are
controlled as follows:

1. If both scale and
plant lice are present, de-
fer the scale application
mentioned above until the
first green begins to appear
in the hudsy and add the

nicotine solution above named for the aphids or plant lice, which are
then just hatched.

2. Spray with the sulphur and arsenate when the blossoms are just
showing piyiky or slightly before. This is for scab, canker worms or the bud-
moth. Also valuable against aphids and red-bugs if the nicotine solution
is added.

3. Repeat A^o. 2 immediately after the petals fall, to fill the calyx cups.

:io

A Good Cluster of Apples, but with Some

Scab Showing.

A little more thinning and spraying would have
been useful here.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

466

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

THE POME FRUITS

467

This is the most important single spray. It is to control the apple worm,
scab, curculio and the later species of red-bug if present.

4. Repeat No. 3 in about two or three weeks. This is for the same
enemies as in No. 3 and is also useful against the apple maggot if present.

5, 6 and 7. In orchards infested by bitter-rot or apple-blotch, make

\ !

Picking and Packing Apples.*

three applications, preferably with Bordeaux mixture (3-3-50), at inter-
vals of about three weeks, beginning eight or nine weeks after petals fall.
8. In the absence of sprays 5, 6 and 7, and where the second brood of
apple worms, late scab or late summer caterpillars is bad, repeat No, 2
about August 1st, or somewhat earlier in the southern sections, depending
upon the time of emergence of the codling moth. With the third and fourth

» Courtesy of Penn State P'armer, State College, Pa.

applications well made, this one is rarely needed, although much depends
on the locality and season.

This schedule of sprays is all that is needed in the worst infested
orchards, and it is seldom that more than those numbered 1, 3 and 4 need
be given.

Thinning. — Whenever the crop on a tree is too large for normal matu-
rity, it should be thinned. This should be done as soon as the June drop is
largely over, or when the fruit has become about b^ inch in diameter.
All defective fruit should be removed first and then the remainder thinned
to a distance of at least four or five inches between fruits, unless they are
on opposite sides of the limb and the limb as a whole is not well loaded.
Grape shears or similar implements are sometimes used for this, but with a
litte practice and by using the proper twist the work can probably be done
faster without them and with as little damage to fruit spurs and fruit.

Fruit Picking and Storage. — The highest color and best eating quality
in apples are generally secured by letting them ripen on the tree as far as
possible. This can be done with the early apples and especially with those
to be used at home. Too much ripening, however, interferes seriously
with long keeping, and hence with the later varieties the best time for pick- .
ing is when they are ''hard ripe,'' i, 6., when they have reached their full
size and redness, but have not yet begun to soften nor to show the yellow
colors, except possibly in occasional specimens. In many cases two or more
pickings are desirable to permit the immature fruits to develop.

Other ways of improving the keeping quality are to avoid bruises and
broken skins and to transfer the fruit at once to cool conditions. Leaving
the apples in piles in the sun is exceedingly hard on keeping quality. In
storage the best temperatures i:ange from about 30° to 35° F., though a
range up to 40° or 45° F. usually does little or no damage. Well insulated
cellars or storage rooms fitted with a good system of ventilation, which can
be opened at night and closed in the daytime, are likely to be very serviceable
except possibly in the southern third of the apple region. In that territory
it may be necessary, to make use of commercial storage, at least tempo-
rarily, in order to insure satisfactory keeping of the fruit.

THE PEAR

Origin.— Practically all the present varieties of pears have come
directly from the wild Pyrus communis of Europe and Asia. This fruit
has been grown probably as long as the apple, but it was not until the great
work of Von Mons of Belgium, in the early part of the nineteenth century,
that any important dessert varieties were produced. The better varieties
are now among the most delicious of fruits.

The other ancestor involved in a few of the commercial sorts is the
Japanese or sand pear (Pyrus sinensis) of Asia. It is of no value in itself
except for hardiness or ornamental use. Crosses between it and communis,
however, have resulted in the hardy hybrids, of which the Kieffer, LeConte

^■-;i^:'?""'i^V*!i"

466

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

THE POME FRUITS

467

This is the most important single spray. It is to control the apple worm,
scab, curcuho and the later species of red-bug if present.

4. Repeat No. 3 in about two or three weeks. This is for the same
enemies as in No. 3 and is also useful against the apple maggot if present.

5, 6 and 7. In orchards infested by bitter-rot or apple-blotch, make

Picking and Packing Apples.^

three applications, preferably with Bordeaux mixture (3-3-50), at inter-
vals of about three weeks, beginning eight or nine weeks after petals fall

8. In the absence of sprays 5, 6 and 7, and where the second brood of ^
apple worms, late scab or late summer caterpillars is bad, repeat No 2
about August 1st, or somewhat earlier in the southern sections, depending
upon the time of emergence of the codling moth. With the third and fourth

» Courtesy of Penn State Farmer, State College, Pa.

applications well made, this one is rarely needed, although much depends
on the locality and season.

This schedule of sprays is all that is needed in the worst infested
orchards, and it is seldom that more than those numbered 1, 3 and 4 need
be given.

Thinning. — Whenever the crop on a tree is too large for normal matu-
rity, it should be thinned. This should be done as soon as the June drop is
largely over, or when the fruit has become about a^i inch in diameter.
All defective fruit should be removed first and then the remainder thinned
to a distance of at least four or five inches between fruits, unless they are
on opposite sides of the limb and the limb as a whole is not w^ell loaded.
Grape shears or similar implements are sometimes used for this, but with a
litte practice and by using the proper twist the work can proba})ly be done
faster without them and with as little damage to fruit spurs and fruit.

Fruit Picking and Storage. — The highest color and best eating quality
in apples are generally secured by letting them ripen on the tree as far as
possible. This can be done with the early apples and especially with those
to be used at home. Too much ripening, however, interferes seriously
with long keeping, and hence with the later varieties the best time for pick- .
ing is when they are ^'hard ripe,^' i, e,, when they have reached their full
size and redness, but have not yet begun to soften nor to show the yellow
colors, except possi})ly in occasional specimens. In many cases two or more
pickings are desirable to permit the immature fruits to develop.

Other ways of improving the keeping quality are to avoid bruises and
broken skins and to transfer the fruit at once to cool conditions. Leaving
the apples in piles in the sun is exceedingly hard on keeping quality. In
storage the best temperatures range from about 30° to 35° F., though a
range up to 40° or 45° F. usually does little or no damage. Well insulated
cellars or storage rooms fitted with a good system of ventilation, which can
l)e opened at night and closed in the daytime, are likely to be very serviceable
except possibly in the southern third of the apple region. In that territory
it may be necessary, to make use of commercial storage, at least tempo-
rarily, in order to insure satisfactory keeping of the fruit.

THE PEAR

Origin. — Practically all the present varieties of pears have come
directly from the wild Pyrus communis of Europe and Asia. This fruit
has been grown probably as long as the apple, but it was not until the great
work of Von Mons of Belgium, in the early part of the nineteenth century,
that any important dessert varieties were produced. The better varieties
are now among the most delicious of fruits.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

MiSii ■! [liiin ^1 iii'i 5'-' jTg. ' Irr^tMjSrfriii^iiiiitiiai

'?o'.'^'\fe-^^I&r:'?-fc'^'5'!:v^^<J

468

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

THE POME FRUITS

469

and Garber are most important. Although low in quality, they are usually
very productive and are much used for canning. About 2300 names of
pear varieties have appeared in American publications between 1804 and
1907. (See Bulletin 126, Bureau of Plant Industry.)

Propagation. — The pear is propagated in the same ways as the apple,
but the stocks are different. In stocks, the pear has a very wide range of

affinities. Those
chiefly used are the
seedlings of the small
Snow pear {Pyrus
nivalis) of Europe.
This stock results in
-trees of the normal
size.

Dwarf pear trees
are produced by bud-
ding on to quince
stocks. The latter
are secured from the
Angers quince by
mound layering.
Some varieties, and
particularly the An-
gouleme, are much
benefited by this pro-
cess. Such varieties
are often planted with
the stock below the
surface to reduce in-
jury from the round-
headed borer, which
attacks the quince,
but rarely the pears.

Pear Tree in Blossom.

Note unusually spreading form of this tree. This is desir-
able, although difficult to secure in many varieties.

Some varieties do not unite well with the quince and they are ''double-
worked'' by first using one that does. The Japanese quince is not
satisfactory as a stock for any variety.

In the South, cuttings of the Kieffer pear are used to some extent, and
in the more rigorous sections, the mountain ash (Sorbus) and even the shad
bush (Amelanchier) have been used as stocks with fair success.

Cultural Range. — The pear resists cold about as well as the apple.
Its great susceptibility to fire blight (Bacillus amylovorus), however, greatly
restricts its profitable growth. In general, it does best in the Baldwin and
Winesap belts in the East, and in the general territory from Colorado west
and northward to the Pacific Coast.

Varieties.— The leading varieties in the eastern section, named

approximately in order of ripening, are: Clapp Favorite, Bartlett, Seckel,
Sheldon, Anjou, Angouleme, Kieffer, Lawrence and Winter Nelis. In the
West, the same varieties are used, excepting the Kieffer, and with the addi-
tion of Flemish, Comice and Easter Beurre. In the South the three hybrids
mentioned above are about all that have shown any profit. Very few varie-
ties will succeed on the rich soils of the Mississippi Valley, but the LaMotte,
Seckel, Dwarf Angouleme and Kieffer are most likely to succeed. It is
always best to use more than one variety and to mix them somewhat in the
planting, in order to insure satisfactory pollination. Further advice can

Good Specimens of Winter Nelis.
The fruit, however, appears more nearly round here than it really is.

be secured from local and state sources, and from Farmers' Bulletin 208
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

Location, Soil and Culture. — Since blight is its worst enemy, the pear
orchard should be located where the trees will not grow too rapidly. A
fairly high and airy situation, with a well-drained and moderately fertile,
clay or clay-loanl soil, is therefore most desirable. For the same reason
the amount of tillage and fertilization should be kept low or be eliminated
entirely if the blighting becomes severe. The mulching method is often
used with especial success on the pear, if not applied too heavily.

Trees, Planting and Pruning. — These are largely'the same as described
above for the apple. Pears, however, are planted closer. A distance of

468

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Propagation. — The pear is propagated in the same ways as the apple,
but the stocks are different. In stocks, the pear has a very wide range of

affinities. Those
chiefly used are the
seedlings of the small
Snow pear (Pyrns
nivalis) of Europe.
This stock results in
•trees of the normal
size.

Pear Tree in Blossom.

Note unusually spreading form of this tree. This is desir-
able, although difficult to secure in many varieties.

Some varieties do not unite well with the quince and they are ''double-
worked'' by first using one that does. The Japanese quince is not
satisfactory as a stock for any variety.

Cultural Range.— The pear resists cold about as well as the apple.
Its great susceptibility to fire blight {Bacillus amylovorus), however, greatly
restricts its profitable growth. In general, it does best in the Baldwin and
Winesap belts in the East, and in the general territory from Colorado west
and northward to the Pacific Coast.

Varieties.— The leading varieties in the eastern section, named

THE POME FRUITS

469

approximately in order of ripening, are : Clapp Favorite, Bartlett, Seckel,
Sheldon, Anjou, Angouleme, Kieffer, Lawrence and Winter Nelis. In the
West, the same varieties are used, excepting the Kieffer, and with the addi-
tion of Flemish, Comice and Easter Beurre. In the South the three hybrids
mentioned above are about all that have shown any profit. Very few varie-
ties will succeed on the rich soils of the Mississippi Valley, but the LaMotte,
Seckel, Dwarf Angouleme and Kieffer are most likely to succeed. It is
always best to use more than one variety and to mix them somewhat in the
planting, in order to insure satisfactory pollination. Further advice can

Good Specimens of ^^'I^'TER Nelis.
The fruit, however, appears more nearly round here than it really is.

be secured from local and state sources, and from Farmers' Bulletin 208
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

Location, Soil and Culture. — Since l)light is its worst enemy, the pear
orchard should be located where the trees will not grow too rapidly. A
fairly high and airy situation, with a well-drained and moderately fertile,
clay or clay-loani soil, is therefore most desirable. For the same reason
the amount of tillage and fertilization should be kept low or be eliminated
entirely if the blighting l)ecomes severe. The mulching method is often
used with especial success on the pear, if not applied too heavily.

Trees, Planting and Pruning. — These are largely'the same as described
above for the apple. Pears, however, are planted closer. A distance of

470

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

THE POME FRUITS

471

20 by 20 feet is about right for the standard-sized trees, and 12 by 12 feet
for the dwarfs. In forming the tops, it is customary to leave a central
leader with most varieties of pears. Severe attacks of blight, however,
are likely to be more serious in such trees than in those with three or more
leaders, as in the open-centered tree. It is also important to keep all fruit
spurs and sappy sprouts off the main branches, and to avoid any large
amount of pruning at any one time. Special promptness is needed in
pruning out and disinfecting blighted twigs whenever they appear.

Protection and Spraying. — The same general plans as stated for the
apple will take care of the pear. The scab is especially bad on some varieties,
e, g,j Flemish, but it can be readily controlled by lime-sulphur or Bordeaux
mixture (4-4-50) applied just when the blossoms are showing pink. Most
apple insects are less serious on the pear, but it has another important
enemy in the pear psylla.

This insect attacks the buds and young leaves, sucking out the sap
and blackening and often killing them. It is a very tiny insect, and when
magnified looks like a minute cicada. It can be controlled by thorough
spraying early in the spring, with nicotine solution and soap, at the rate of
an ounce of the former and three or four ounces of the latter to five gallons
of water. The rou,^h bark should be scraped away before making this
application. Lime-sulphur, at winter strength, just as the buds are swell-
ing, is also effective in killing the eggs.

Picking the Fruit. — The pear is one of the few fruits that are improved
by ripening off the tree. Both the grittiness and softening at the core are
much reduced by this process. The '^hard ripe^' stage described for the
apple is therefore especially applicable in picking the pear. After picking
it should be stored at once in a cool place, free from drafts and preferably
dark, to avoid wilting and bring out the full flavor of the fruit.

THE QUINCE

The quince has come down from the wild Cydonia vulgaris of Asia.
It is still closer to the original type than any other orchard fruit. It is
practically inedible raw, but has been used for at least 2000 years in marma-
lades and jellies. It is also used largely in preserves, canning and in flavor-
ing other fruit products. It is especially adapted to home planting, as it
is grown very little in a commercial way.

Cultural Range and Varieties. — The quince is less resistant to cold than
the pear and is about equally susceptible to bhght. Hence it is available
in the less severe portions of the pear range.

In general, the leading variety is the Orange. The Champion is
probably next, with the Rea, Missouri and Meech often useful. In the
South the Chinese does best and in California the Pear is preferred.

Soil and Cultural Methods. — A heavy, retentive clay loam, with good
drainage of both air and surplus water, is apparently best for the quince.
Two-year-old trees are probably best, and they are set from twelve to fifteen

feet apart. The quince is very shallow rooted; hence all deep tillage must
be avoided, and winter covers are always desirable. The general method of
culture and fertihzation suggested for the pear are also advisable for the
quince.

Pruning. — Quince blossoms and fruit are produced on the ends of
twigs of the current season's growth. These twigs are developed largely
from the terminal buds of spurs or branches, or from buds near the tips of
the latter; hence too much cutting back may readily remove all the fruit-
bearing wood of that season. The pruning of the quince, therefore, should
be confined largely to the removal of dead or inferior wood, thinning out the
dense places and heading back the extra vigorous shoots, to promote the
development of fruit spurs and keep the trees in balance generally. Blight-
ing twigs also need as prompt attention here as in the case of the pear.

Enemies. — The worst insect enemies of the quince are the quince
curculio and the round-headed apple-tree borer. The latter can be con-
trolled as described for the apple, although more attention is likely to be
needed. The former is the chief cause of the ''wormy'' and knotty fruits.
It is very difficult to control, but the best methods are: (1) thorough
spraying with lead arsenate, at the rate of one ounce of the paste to a
gallon of spray, when the first injury appears and again a week later; and
(2) picking and destruction of all infested fruit about a month before the
normal picking time.

The chief diseases are fire blight, leaf blight {Entomosporium macula-
turn) and rust (Gymnosporangium germinale). The first is controlled as in
the pear, the second by spraying as for apple scab and the third by removal
of all red cedars, or at least all diseased specimens, for a distance of at least
one-half mile of the quince trees.

REFERENCES

* ^ Productive Orcharding. ' * Sears.

" Horticultural Manual," 2 vols. Budd & Hansen.

' ' The Pruning Book . ' ' Bailey.

** Systematic Pomology." Waugh.

Pennsylvania Agric. Expt. Station Bulletins 115, 121, 128 and 141.

New York (Geneva) Expt. Station Bulletin 406. " Dwarf Apples."

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins:

176. ** Bacterial Blight of Apple, Pear and Quince Trees."

194. *' Apple Orcharding in Ontario."
Farmers' Bulletin, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 401. ''Protection of Orchards from
Spring Frosts by Means of Fires."

STONE FRUITS

473

CHAPTER 36

Stone Fruits

By F. C. Sears
Professor of Pomology ^ Massachusetts Agricultural College

Sites and Soils. — As a class the stone fruits do best on relatively high
lands, principally on account of the effects of elevation on temperature.
When peaches are injured by cold it is usually either by extremely low
temperature in the winter or by frosts during the blossoming period.
With cherries and plums the damage almost always comes at blossoming
time. As all of these fruits bloom early, they are particularly liable to
frost injury and it becomes necessary to guard against it.

Both these types of injury can be lessened and often largely prevented
by placing the orchards on sites which are higher than the surrounding
lands, thus allowing the cold air to drain away onto the lower levels. Occa-
sionally the lower sites bring their crops through in better shape than the
high ones. An instance of this kind was the winter of 1913-14 when
extremely low temperatures were accompanied by very high winds. This
combination did much more damage to orchards on high lands than to
those on low lands. But on the average higher sites are much to be
preferred.

As to the direction of the slope, two points are worth considering. A
northerly slope retards the blossoming and so helps to escape spring
injury. But, as just suggested, it may increase the danger from severe
winter temperatures. Consequently, if one is in a section where the
former type of injury is most likely to occur a northerly slope is to be
preferred. But if the damage is generally done by low winter tempera-
tures, a southerly slope is best.

For soils the stone fruits are not very exacting. Peaches prefer rela-
tively light soils, but will do well in almost any soil up to a moderately
heavy clay loam. Plums and cherries, especially the former, do best on
medium to fairly heavy soils, heavy sandy loams to medium clay loams.
Good soil drainage is absolutely essential.

Nursery Stock. — Medium grades of nursery stock of the stone fruits,
from four to six feet tall, are to be preferred. This is especially important
in peaches, for these are always set at one year old and where one wants
to head them at all low and start a new top, the very heavy trees do not
give as good results. Plums and cherries may be set at either one or two
years from the bud. Where the soil is fertile and has been well prepared,
one-year-old trees are to be preferred, particularly if one wants to head

(472)

them low. But if the soil conditions are not good, then two-year trees are
to be preferred, as the one-year trees will not usually form as good heads
under poor soil conditions. Locally grown trees are always to be preferred
if one can get good stock. They come fresher, the freight is less and it is
easier to adjust differences with the nurseryman. On the other hand, there
is probably nothing in the idea that either northern grown or southern
grown stock is to be preferred. Soutliern stock will do just as well in the
North, or northern grown in the South, if it can be landed at the orchard
in good condition.

Varieties. — The variety question is always important and always
difficult to decide. It can generally be decided best by referring to local
authorities, but a few general considerations are worth keeping in mind.

A Typical Peach-Orchard Site, Allegheny Mountain District, Morgan

County, W. Va.^
Good air drainage and proper exposure are important.

With peaches the important considerations are color of flesh, color of
skin, quality, juiciness, whether they are clingstone or free, hardiness of
fruit buds and season of ripening. There is a very strong prejudice (it is
nothing more) in favor of yellow-fleshed peaches, especially for canning.
It is best to respect this prejudice if possible, but many varieties which are
leaders in all other respects have white flesh. It is often possible to educate
consumers locally on this matter of color and convince them that in many
cases the white varieties are to be preferred, but in the general market one
is almost certain to be most successful with yellow sorts. Quality and
juiciness are always desirable, though from the commercial standpoint
the latter can be overdone, as very juicy peaches do not ship as well.
Clingstones are never as popular, but some of the best commercial sorts
among the early varieties are clings or semi-clings. Hardiness in the fruit

» From Farmers' Bulletin 431, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. . .

STONE FRUITS

473

CHAPTER 36

Stone Fruits

By F. C. Sears
Professor of Pomology, Massachusetts Agricultural College

(472)

A Typical Peach-Orchard Site, Allegheny Mountain District, Morgan

County, W. Va.i
Good air drainage and proper exposure are important.

rFrom Farmers' Bulletin 431, U. S. Dopt. of Agrirulturc.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

474

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

STONE fRUItS

475

bud is all-important in sections subject to low winter temperatures, and
there is a very marked difference in this respect among different varieties.
Greensboro, for example, will come through with a full crop when the fruit
buds of Elberta will be largely killed and those of Crawford entirely so.
As a class, the so-called Chinese Cling group, which includes such varieties
as Greensboro, Carman, Belle of Georgia and Elberta, has much more
hardy fruit buds than the Persian group, which includes such varieties as

Early and Late Crawford
and Old Mixon. As to
season of ripening, it is
well, of course, to have
somewhat of a succes-
sion, particularly for local
trade, but the very early
and still more the late
sorts are likely to be
more profitable than mid-
season varieties.

With plums one should
consider the quality, the
uses (whether for jelly,
canning, preserving or
eating in a fresh condi-
tion), the size and the
color.

With cherries the all-
important question is
whether to grow the
sweet varieties or the so-
called sour cherries. As
a class, the sour cherries
are much more generally
successful. In addition,
there are the questions of
size, quality and color.

With any of these
fruits the number of
varieties set must depend very largely on whether they are to go to
local or distant markets. If the latter, then it is very important
to restrict the number of varieties sufficiently to allow of shipping in
car lots.

While realizing, as already suggested, that the variety question
is very strongly local, the following lists may be helpful, including
as they do those varieties which are most generally successful and
popular:

Typical Sweet Cherries.

Early Crawford

Greensboro

Carman

Burbank

Abundance

Lombard

Early Richmond

Black Tartarian
Yellow Spanish
Napoleon

Peaches

Champion
Hieley

Plums

Wild Goose
Reine Claude
Red June

Cherries
(Sour)
Montmorency

(Sweet)
Windsor
Bing

Belle of Georgia
Elberta

Bradshaw
Shropshire Damson

English Morello

Schmidt's Bigarreau
Gov. Wood

Planting. — Spring planting will be found most generally successful,
particularly in those sections subject to variable winter climates. On the
other hand, where soil conditions are ideal (soil well prepared and well
drained both on the surface and beneath), planting in the autumn will
give excellent results. A serious difficulty, of course, is getting the nursery
stock in time to plant in the autumn and still have it well matured before
it is dug by the nurseryman.

Peach trees are set all the way from 13 to 20 feet apart. A good aver-
age distance is 18 feet. The type of land and the variety will determine

the best distance.

Plums can, on the average, be set closer than peaches, because they
are more upright growing trees, l)ut such sprawling gro\\'ing varieties as
Burbank will need fully as much room as any peach.

Sour cherries average about the same as plums, and sweet cherries

somewhat larger.

In pruning the trees at setting there are two general methods used:
In the case of one-year trees, they are simply cut back to the desired
height, which varies with different growers from 6 to 30 inches, on the
average perhaps 24 inches. With two-year trees, the head being already
established, it is necessary to cut back the main branches rather severely.
Generally from one-third to two-thirds of the last year's wood is removed.

Soil Management. — Stone fruits rarely succeed well in sod. Peaches
practically never do, and cherries very seldom. Plums can be grown in
sod, but are usually much better under cultivation. There is much less
chance for discussion as to the relative merits of sod and cultivation in
the stone fruits than with apples and pears. An additional reason for
cultivating peaches is the fact that borers are much more troublesome
where grass and weeds are left about the trees.

If the orchard is to be cultivated, the season's campaign would be to
plow it as early in the spring as possible, and for this work nothing is more

474

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

STONE FRUITS

475

With plums one should
consider the quality, the
uses (whether for jelly,
canning, preserving or
eating in a fresh condi-
tion), the size and the
color.

With any of these
fruits the number of
varieties set must depend very largely on whether they are to go to
local or distant markets. If the latter, then it is very important
to restrict the number of varic^ties sufficiently to allow of shipping in
car lots.

While realizing, as already suggested, that the variety question
is very strongly local, tlu^ following lists may be helpful, including
as they do those varieties which are most generally successful and
popular:

Typical Sweet Cherries.

Early Crawford

Greensboro

Carman

Burbank

Abundance

Lombard

Early Richmond

Black Tartarian
Yellow Spanish
Napoleon

Peaches

Champion
Hieley

Plums

Wild Goose
Reine Claude
Red June

Cherries

(Sour)
Montmorency

(Sweet)
Windsor
Binjz;

Belle of Georgia
Elberta

Bradshaw
Shropshire Damson

English Morello

Schmidt's Bigarreau
Gov. Wood

Planting. — Spring planting will l^e found most generally successful,
particularly in those sections subject to variable winter climates. On the
other hand, w^here soil conditions are ideal (soil well prepared and well
drained both on the surface and beneath), planting in the autumn will
give excellent results. A serious difficulty, of course, is getting the nursery
stock in time to plant in the autunm and still have it well matured before
it is dug by the nurseryman.

Peach trees are set all the way from 13 to 20 feet apart. A good aver-
age distance is 18 feet. The type of land and the variety will determine

the best distance.

Plums can, on the average, l^e set closer than peaches, because they
are more upright growing trees, but such sprawling gro\\ing varieties as
Burbank will need fully as much room as any i)each.

Sour cherries average about the same as plums, and sweet cherries

somewhat larger.

In pruning the trees at setting there are two general methods used:
In the case of one-year trees, they are simi:)ly cut back to the desired
height, which varies with different growers from 6 to 30 inches, on the
average perhaps 24 inches. With two-year trees, the head being already
established, it is necessary to cut back the main branches rather severely,
(generally from one-third to two-thirds of the last year's wood is removed.

If the orchard is to be cultivated, the season's campaign would be to
plow it as early in the spring as possible, and for this work nothing is more

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

^jij'r5.:?^5??s^2i-i.

476

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

satisfactory than one of the "orchard gang'' plows (usually a gang of three
small plows). After plowing the soil is ''fitted'' in good shape with the
disk and other harrows, and then is kept in good condition with some type
of cultivator up to about July 1st. The essential points of such a cultivator
are that it shall cover enough ground to do the work cheaply, that it shall
leave the soil in good condition and that it shall work well under the trees
without necessitating that the team get close to them. This latter point
is particularly important with stone fruits, since they are almost universally
headed very low. About July 1st the cover crop is sown in the orchard
and the season's work on the soil is finished. The date of sowing this crop
varies greatly with different growers and under different conditions. Where

Block of Young Peach Trees with Strawberries as an Inter-crop.

trees are carrying a large crop of fruit and the soil and season are dry,
cultivation may profital)ly be kept up considerably later in order to con-
serve the moisture, but it must always be borne in mind that moisture is
saved in this way one season at the expense of the next season, because the
longer the sowing of the cover crop is delayed the less growth it will make,
and consequently the less humus it will add to the soil the following year.
The chief functions of this cover crop are to prevent washing (and this is
especially important in peach orchards, since they are usually on high and
rolUng lands), to check the growth of the trees in autumn and to add humus
to the soil. If the cover crop is a legume, a large part of the required nitro-
gen may be secured. One of the best crops for this purpose is barley.
Another is dwarf rape. Either may be combined with one of the clovers

STONE FRUITS

477

to advantage. Vetch is an ideal crop where the seed can be secured at a
reasonable price. Some growers raise their own seed, sowing winter vetch
with rye and cutting and threshing the combination the following season.
One bushel of rye and a peck of winter vetch makes a good combination
for this purpose. In this connection, it is very desirable to get all the humus
possible into the soil before the orchard is set, since it is frequently difficult
to get as much growth as desired from the cover crop and consequently
the supply of humus
in the soil soon runs
low.

Fertilizers. — The
fertilizer needs of stone
fruits, as with other
fruits, have not been
worked out as fully as
could be desired, yet it.
has been pretty well
shown that reasonably
liberal fertihzing is
profitable. Practically
all commercial peach
growers fertilize their
orchards and most of
them very liberally.
Plums and cherries are
probably fertilized less
freely on the average
than peaches, largely
perhaps because size
with them is less im-
portant. There must
be enough nitrogen
added in some form so
that, together with
what can be gained
through cover crops,

the trees will be induced to make a good medium, well-ripened yearly
growth. Peach trees ought to make from one to two feet on the leaders
and plums about the same. Sweet cherries will stand perhaps a little more
and sour cherries less. The foliage ought also to be kept in* good vigorous
condition. To accomplish this will require varying amounts of fertilizer
and the orchard man must use his judgment as to what is required.

The following are formulas which are used by good growers, but
even in different parts of the same orchard, and certainly in different

1 Courtesy of Dept. of Experimental Pomology, Pennsylvania Experiment Station.

Peach Tree with Well-Formed Framework, Heavily
Cut Back for Renewal Purposes. ^

»»*.'- . *^\t*J

■*■; ...■ "

476

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

STONE FRUITS

477

satisfactory than one of the ''orchard gang' ' plows (usually a gang of three
small plows). After plowing the soil is ''fitted'' in good shape with the
disk and other harrows, and then is kept in good condition with some type
of cultivator up to about July 1st. The essential points of such a cultivator
are that it shall cover enough ground to do the work cheaply, that it shall
leave the soil in good condition and that it shall work well under the trees
without necessitating that the team get close to them. This latter point
is particularly important with stone fruits, since they are almost universally
headed very low. About July 1st the cover crop is sown in the orchard
and the season's work on the soil is finished. The date of sowing this crop
varies greatly with different growers and under different conditions. Where

Block of Younc; Peach Trees with Strawrerries as an Inter-trop.

trees are carrying a large crop of fruit and the soil and season are dry,
cultivation may profitably be kept up considerably later in order to con-
serve the moisture, but it nmst always be borne in mind that moisture is
saved in this way one season at the expense of the next season, because the
longer the sowing of the cover crop is delayed the less growth it will make,
and consequently the less humus it will add to the soil the following year.
The chief functions of this cover crop are to prevent washing (and this is
especially important in peach orchards, since they are usually on high and
rolUng lands), to check the growth of the trees in autumn and to add humus
to the soil. If the cover crop is a legume, a large part of the required nitro-
gen may be secured. One of the best crops for this purpose is barley.
Another is dwarf rape. P:ither may l)e com})ined with one of the clovers

Fertilizers. — The
fertilizer needs of stone
fruits, as with other
fruits, have not been
worked out as fully as
could be desired, yet it.
has been pretty well
shown that reasonably
liberal fertilizing is
profitable. Practically
all commercial peach
growers fc^rtilize their
orchards and most of
them very liberally.
Plums and cherries are
l)robably fertilized less
freely on the average
than peaches, largely
perhaps because size
with them is less im-
portant. There nmst
be enough nitrogen
added in some form so
that, together with
what can be gained
through cover crops,

the trees will be induced to make a good medium, well-ripened yearly
growth. Peach trees ought to make from one to two feet on the leaders
and plums about the same. Sweet cherries will stand perhaps a little more
and sour cherries less. The foliage ought also to be kept in good vigorous
condition. To accomplish this will requiie varying amounts of fertilizer
and the orchard man must use his judgment as to what is required.

The following are formulas which are used by good growers, but
even in different parts of the same orchard, and certainly in different

1 Courtesy of Dopt. of Experiniciital Pomology, Pennsylvania Experiment Station.

Peach Tree with Well-Formed Framework, Heavily
Cut Back fur Renewal Purposes.^

^'&^m^

LSiiM*-'*^^

478

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

years, the applications may need to be varied. The formulas given are
per acre:

1.' 250 pounds high-grade sulphate of potash.
400-600 pounds basic slag.

Nitrate of soda as needed to produce proper growth — Usually 100-200 pounds
per acre.

2. 100 pounds nitrate of soda.
100 pounds dried blood.
350 pounds slag.

100-200 pounds high-grade sulphate of potash.

3. 25- 50 pounds dried blood.
40- 80 pounds tankage.
90-180 pounds bone meal.

130-260 pounds basic slag.
80-160 pounds high-grade sulphate of potash.

This is a more complicated formula than the others, but is used by a very
successful grower.

Pruning. — The most intelligent pruning of any
kind of fruit tree requires that one should understand
thoroughly the manner in which the fruit is borne by
that tree. This is perhaps more emphatically true of
the peach than of any other fruit, but is certainly a safe
general principle. We will therefore consider this point
first.

The peach bears only on last season's wood, the
buds occurring normally in clusters of three on such
shoots, the center one being a leaf bud and the two out-
side ones fruit buds. Shoots of medium size give the
best results. If, for any reason, a peach tree makes a
very rank growi:h it will be found that fewer fruit buds
are producecf on such wood and they are apt to be less
harcly. In seasons when a large part of the fruit buds
are killed by severe cold it almost always happens that
the few ])uds which come through safely arc on the
smaller branches. The pruning of the peach, therefore,
ought, first of all, to aim at keeping up a supply of new
w^ood, and, except when one is trying to grow a new
top on the tree, it should never be so severe as to give
a very rank growth.

The following wall be found a fairly satisfactory out-
line for the i)runing of a bearing peach tree:

1. Do not allow the pruning of the tree as a whole
to be severe enough to start a very strong wood growth.

2. Take out altogether any very high and very
strong leaders. This is necessary because the fruiting

Peach Twig, Show- wood tends to get very high if these leaders are allowed

iNG Arrangement ^^ remain. Less rank leaders may be headed back less
OF Leaf AND 13los- . ^ ^

BOM Buds, severly or allowed to remam entirely.

'.^Mmmmm

STONE FRUITS

479

3. Take out all dead or injured branches. It is sometimes a question
whether one can afford time to take out all of the many small dead branches
which are always to be found in the center of the tree, but as many of
them as possible should be removed.

4. Thin the balance of the top as needed, taking out preferably no
branches larger than one^s thumb. The amount of this pruning is going
to depend, of course, on how much has been taken out in other ways and
on the type of tree. The amount of pruning should be varied somewhat
according to the outlook for a crop that season. If the fruit buds are all
killed it is a good opportunity to cut back rather severely and lower the
tree down if necessary.

If part of the buds are
killed, it may be best to
prune very lightly in
order to save as much
of the crop as possible.
On the other hand, if
there are plenty of live
fruit buds the pruning
may be fairly severe, as
this helps to thin out
the fruit.

Plums and cherries
bear essentially alike,
the fruit being produced
on short lateral spurs
and small twigs, and
also to a considerable
extent (especially with
the sour cherries and
the Japanese plums) on
the last year's wood as
with peaches. These

spurs bear for several years, perhaps three to six, and then die away and
need to be replaced by new wood. The pruning of such trees therefore
should be moderate and should aim to keep the trees fairly open to
encourage new growth. The following outline may serve as a guide for
most trees of these two fruits:

1. They require relatively little pruning.

2. Cut back leaders if too high. This is especially important with
cherries, since the picking of high trees is more expensive than with any
other fruit.

3. Cut out dead, broken and diseased branches. This is particularly
important with plums which are often l)adly attacked by the black knot.

» From Farmers* Bulletin 632, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

A Properly Pruned Peach Tree.^

478

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

STONE FRUITS

479

years, the applications may need to be varied. The formulas given are
per acre:

1.' 250 pounds high-grade sulphate of potash.
4()0-()0() pounds basic slag.

Nitrate of soda as needed to produce proper growth — Usually 100-200 pounds
per acre.

2. 100 pounds nitrate of soda.
100 pounds dried blood.
350 pounds slag.

100-200 pounds high-grade sulphate of potash.

3. 25- 50 pounds dried blood.
40- 80 pounds tankage.
90-180 pounds bone meal.

130-260 j)ounds basic slag.
80-100 pounds high-grade sulphate of potash.

This is a more complicated formula than the others, l)ut is used by a very
successful grower.

The peach bears only on last season's wood, the
buds occurring normally in clusters of three on such
shoots, the center one being a leaf bud and the two out-
side ones fruit buds. Shoots of medium size give the
best results. If, for any reason, a i)each tree makes a
very rank growth it will be found that fewer fruit buds
are i)roduce(r on such wood and they are apt to be less
hardy. In seasons when a large part of the fruit buds
are killed by severe cold it almost always happens that
tlie few buds which come through safely are on the
smaller branches. The pruning of the peach, therefore,
ought, first of all, to aim at ke(?ping up a sui)ply of new
wood, and, except when one is trying to grow a new
top on the tree, it should never be so severe as to give
a very rank growth.

The following will be found a fairly satisfactory out-
line for the pruning of a bearing peach tree:

1. Do not allow the pruning of the tree as a whole
to be severe enough to start a very strong wood growth.

2. Take out altogether any very high and very
strong leaders. This is necessary because the fruiting

Peach Twio, Show- wood tends to get very high if these leaders are allowed

iNG Arrangement ^^ remain. Less rank leaders may be headed back less
OF Leaf AND Ulos- , „ , ^ . ,. ,

bOM Buds severly or allowed to rcmam entirely.

4. Thin the balance of the top as needed, taking out ])referably no
branches larger than one's thumb. The amount of this ))runing is going
to depend, of course, on how much has ])een taken out in other ways and
on the type of tree. The amount of pruning should })e varied somewhat
according to the outlook for a crop that season. If the fruit buds are all
killed it is a good opportunity to cut back rather severely and lower the
tree down if necessary.

1. They require relatively little pruning.

2. Cut back leaders if too high. This is especially important with
cherries, since the picking of high trees is more expensive than with any
other fruit.

3. Cut out dead, broken and diseased branches. This is particularly
important with plums which are often badly attacked by the black knot.

1 From Farmers' Bullotin 032, U. S. Dopt. of Agriculture.

A Properly Pruned Peach Tree.^

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

480

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

4. Take out crossing branches.

5. Thin the balance of the top sHghtly.

The following outline may be taken as reasonably accurate for prun-
ing young trees of stone fruits — say trees two to four years old:

1. Examine critically the head of the tree. It should have three to
six main branches and no sharp forks.

2. Shorten leaders that are running too high. Only very high leaders
that throw the tree out of shape, or such as have made an exceptionally
long growth the past season, need to be cut back.

3. Cut out bad (sharp) forks on all main branches.

4.* Save all small shoots.

5. Take out only very large crossing

branches.

6. Prune strong-growing trees less and
weak-growing ones more.

In pruning these fruits, especially 'the

peach, a large pair of hand shears will be

found most satisfactory. A ten-inch pair

of the French wheel-spring shears will be

found equal to almost any emergency, and

much of the work can be done more rapidly

with shears than with a saw. The operator

will need a saw, however, for the heavier

work and one of the following dimensions

will be found very satisfactory:

Length 20 inches

Width at butt 2i

Width at point f

Seven and one-half teeth per inch.

Pruning Tools.

A — Waters' Tree-Pruner.
•B — Pruning Sliears.
C — Two-edged Pruning Saw.
D — Cahfornia Pruning Saw.
E — Pruning Knife.

Such saws may have to be made to
order. Any hardware manufacturer will
make them and they should always be of
the best steel.

Probably the ideal time to prune these
fruits is about a month or six weeks before
they start into growth. But where one has
much pruning to do, it is often necessary to greatly extend the time. It is
largely a question of the economical use of farm labor. There are usually
few expert pruners on the farm in comparison .to the pruning to be done
and it becomes necessary to keep these men at work over a relatively

long period.

Diseases, Insects and Spraying. — Since the matter of diseases
and insects has been treated fully in .the general chapters on these
subjects, it is necessary here only to give a very brief summary of the
subject.

STONE FRUITS

481

Among fungous diseases, the^ following are deserving of special
consideration:

1. The brown rot which attacks all of the stone fruits and is to be
dreaded far more than anything else. It attacks not only the fruit but
the twigs as well, spreading to the latter from the former, and hence dis-
eased fruits should be removed from the tree as soon as possible. It can
be controlled largely by spraying.

2. Peach leaf curl, often serious but thorough spraying before the
buds swell will practically eradicate it.

3. Black knot of plums and cherries. Often very serious but can
be controlled by spraying and by cutting out and destroying the knots.

4. Peach scab. Often a troublesome disease, sometimes seriously
so, but thorough spraying will usually control it, even in the worst seasons.

Among insects three are worth mentioning:

1. The plum curcuHo, which attacks both plums and peaches and is
often a very serious menace, not only for its own attacks, but because it
helps the spread of brown rot.

2. The peach borer, an ever-present pest where peaches are grown at
all extensively. Digging out is the most commonly accepted method of
combating.

3. The cherry aphis, often a serious pest and, hke all aphids, difficult
of control.

There are a number of other pests in both classes that are sometimes
troublesome, occasionally very seriously so, but the above mentioned are
the real standbys.

Thinning the Fruit. — A prerequisite to harvesting a satisfactory crop
is thinning the fruit. Nothing is simpler to do and few things connected
with fruit growing are more important. Cherries are not thinned, but
peaches and plums ought always to be. The best time to do this is after
the ''June drop'' has occurred, that is, after all the fruits which will fall
''naturally'' have fallen. The fruits will then be about the size of the
first joint of one's thumb, and a safe rule, and one easily followed by those
doing the thinning, is to thin so that no two fruits touch. In practice
this works out so as to bring the fruits a good distance apart and the oper-
ator does not spend any time in wondering whether he ought to take off
another fruit in order to bring them the required distance apart.

Thinning will help the crop wonderfully in several ways. Probably
the most important is that it gets rid of all the small, defective fruits,
leaving a crop which it is an inspiration to pick and a pleasure to sell.
The work of sorting is reduced to a minimum because there are really very
few poor fruits left. Moreover, one gets almost as much fruit in the aggre-
gate, sometimes quite as much. The trees, too, will bear more regularly
because they are relieved of the burden of maturing these extra fruits.
And lastly it reduces greatly the loss from brown rot, because the rot can
spread from one fruit to another where they are touching, and moreover

482

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

an outbreak of it frequently starts where the moisture is held between the
fruits at their points of contact. It requires a good deal of ''hustle'' to
make a good ''thinner/' but boys who have that requisite will thin fully
as well as, and more cheaply then, men.

Go over the trees systematically. Take off all defective fruits whether
they touch or not. Don't be afraid of the cost. It will be paid back
many times over in the better fruit and is really a small item. Peach trees
that will bear four or five baskets can be thinned for not over three cr
four cents each. The writer has had this done in his own orchard.

Harvesting and Marketing. — To begin with, one must decide on the
proper degree of ripeness. This is going to vary greatly with varieties
and distance to market. Let the fruit get as nearly ripe as possible and
still stand up well in transit, for stone fruits are never so good as when

STONE FRUITS

483

Picking Peaches.^

allowed to ripen fully on the trees. Peaches ought to be picked for local
markets as soon as they show signs of ripening on the shady side, that is
when they begin to look edible. A little practice will soon teach one.
Plums can be somewhat soft before picking, while cherries are picked just
before they are fully ripe. Color and taste (of a few samples) should be
the guide. All the above are for local markets. The more distant the
market the greener the fruit must be when picked.

Haveconvenientreceptaclesinto which to pick. For plums and peaches
the ordinary round Delaware peach basket holding sixteen quarts is good.
A strap with a hook at each end can be thrown over the shoulders and
hooked into the rim of the basket so that it will hang just in front of the
picker, leaving both hands free to pick. Cherries are often picked in the
same way or may be picked directly into quart baskets if they are to be
sold that way. \

1 Courtesy of Department of Experimental Pomology, Pennsylvania Experiment Station.

Do not allow the pickers to bruise the fruit in handling. This is a
very important rule and one difficult to enforce. In handling the larger
fruits like peaches and large plums, take the fruit in the hollow of the hand
and grip it firmly, with the entire hand. Never take it between the thumb
and finger. With plums and cherries always have the stem attached.
This means that the stem must be gripped by the finger and thumb.

Never pick these fruits when wet. This rule has very few exceptions.
Fruit which is picked while wet looks badly and keeps worse. Brown rot
is almost certain to develop in it.

So much for picking. Next for packing. Have a convenient packing
room. If possible have the fruit brought in on one side, packed in the
middle and delivered for marketing on the other side. There is then less
confusion. Have a table for the packers and seats if they want them.
They can work just as fast sitting down. See that the sorting is done
rigidly. Nothing discourages customers like finding a few poor number
two peaches in the middle of a basket of firsts. Be extremely careful that
the best fruits do not gravitate to the top of the baskets. It is probably
legitimate to turn the blush side up on the face, but this is as far as it is
wise (not to mention honest) to go in facing.

Plums and peaches are sold for the wholesale market in the round
Delaware basket of various sizes, and, for a more select trade, in the six-
basket Georgia carrier or crate. The latter will not pay for cheaper grades
on account of the greater cost of packing. To a limited extent these fruits
are also sold in the Climax baskets. For strictly local trade both these
fruits may be sold in the little baskets of the Delaware type with wire
bails, holding two and five quarts.

Cherries are most commonly sold in strawberry baskets and crates,
also in Climax baskets and for the large and finer sorts in boxes or cartons.

The desirability of roadside marketing where there is any great travel
past the orchard should not be overlooked. The stone fruits lend them-
selves especially well to this type of traffic and one who has never tried
it will be agreeably surprised at the amount of fruit which can be turned
into cash in this way. Moreover, it offers an outlet for the over-ripe, soft
grades which would not stand transit to market.

REFERENCES

'Tlums and Plum Culture." Waugh.

Virginia Expt. Station Bulletin (Extension) 1. "Peaching Growing in Virginia."
New Jersey Expt. Station Bulletin 284. ''Packing and Shipping Peaches."
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins:

201. "Peach Growing, Peach Diseases."

226. "Plum Culture in Ontario."

230. "Cherry Growing."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

426. "Canning Peaches on the Farm."

440. "Spraying Peaches for Brown Rot, Scab and Curculio."

631, 632, 634. "Growing Peaches."

lifc^tvilti^

■^mmM-

482

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

STONE FRUITS

483

Picking Peaches.^

Have convenient receptacles into which to pick. For plums and peaches
the ordinary round Delaware peach basket holding sixteen quarts is good.
A strap with a hook at each end can be thrown over the shoulders and
hooked into the rim of the })asket so that it will hang just in front of the
picker, leaving both hands free to pick. Cherries are often picked in the
same way or may be picked directly into quart baskets if they are to be
sold that wav. v

1 Courtesy of Department of Experimental Pomology, Pennsylvania Experiment Station.

Do not allow the pickers to bruise the fruit in handling. This is a
very important rule and one difficult to enforce. In handling the larger
fruits hke peaches and large plums, take the fruit in the hollow of the hand
and grip it firmly, with the entire hand. Never take it between the thumb
and finger. With plums and cherries always have the stem attached.
This means that the stem must be gripped by the finger and thumb.

Never pick these fruits when wet. This rule has very few exceptions.
Fruit which is picked while wet looks badly and keeps worse. Brown rot
is almost certain to develop in it.

Cherries are most commonly sold in strawberry baskets and crates,
also in Climax baskets and for the large and finer sorts in boxes or cartons.

REFERENCES

''Plums and Plum Culture." Waugh.

Virginia Expt. Station Bulletin (Extension) 1. "Peaching Growing in Virginia."
New Jersey Expt. Station Bulletin 284. ''Packing and Shipping Peaches."
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins:

201. "Peach Growing, Peach Diseases."

22r). "Plum Culture in Ontario."

230. "Cherry Growing."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

426. "Canning Peaches on the Farm."

440. "Spraying Peaches for Brown Rot, Scab and Curculio."

631, 632, 634. "Growing Peaches."

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

if^

CITRUS FRUITS

485

CHAPTER 37

Citrus Fruits and Their Cultivation

By Herbert J. Webber, Ph.D.
Dean oj Graduate School of Tropical AgricvMure, University of California

History. — The various species of the genus Citrus are natives of
India and the Malay Archipelago. The date of the importation of citrus
fruits to America is not known. They were apparently introduced into
Brazil and the West Indies at a very early date, probably some time in the
latter part of the sixteenth century. They were brought by the Spaniards
to Florida at a comparatively early date and were apparently spread by the
Indians over the state.

The commercial cultivation of oranges in Florida began in the early
part of the nineteenth century; while in California the commercial planting
cannot be considered to have started much prior to 1880. The first car-
load of oranges was shipped from California to St. Louis by William Wolf-
skill in 1877.

Citrus Species and Varieties. — The genus Citrus belongs to the family
RutacecBy which is represented in the United States by the prickly ash
Xanthoxylum) , the hop-tree (Ptelea) and the like. The representatives
of the family are mainly natives of tropical and sub-tropical countries.
Following are the principal species and varieties cultivated in the United
States.

The Sweet Orange (Citrus sinends). — This is the species most
generally cultivated throughout the world, and is the fruit commonly
referred to as the orange. It has given rise to numerous cultivated varie-
ties and exhibits a very wide range of variation in form, size, flavor, season
of maturity and the like. Certain varieties have had marked influence in
building up the industry in different sections.

This is particularly true of the Washington Navel in California. This
variety originated in Brazil about 1820 near Bahia. It gradually became
known for its good quality and seedlessness, and in 1870 twelve budded trees
were imported into the United States by William Saunders of the United
States Department of Agriculture. Other trees were propagated from
these and sent to various of the orange-growing states for trial. The
majority of these trials were apparently failures or attracted no notice.
Two trees, however, were sent to Mrs. Luther C. Tibbet, at Riverside, Cal.,
in 1873, and were carefully cared for by her until they came into bearing.
The stock of this variety in the world has been mainly taken from descend-

(484)

ants of the Tibbet trees. It has been sent from California to Australia and
South Africa, where it has become an important variety.

The next most generally grown orange in California is the Valencia,
a late-maturing variety that can be held on the trees until July and August
in interior sections of the state and until October or November in cool
sections near the* coast. This variety is also grown extensively in Florida
as a late-maturing
sort, but requires
to be shipped con-
siderably earlier
than in California.

The orange
plantings in Cali-
fornia are made
up largely of
Washington
Navels and Valen-
cias with a few
trees here a n d
there of other
varieties, such as
Mediterranean
Sweet,St.Michael,
Blood, J o p p a ,
Nugget, Ruby,
etc.

In Florida a much larger number of varieties are grown, no two standing
out as prominently as do the Navel and Valencia in California. The
following are the leading sorts in their class in Florida, though other sorts
are almost as extensively grown: Early varieties — Parson Brown, Boone,
Early Oblong; mid-season varieties — Pineapple, Homosassa, Jaffa,
Majorca, St. Michael, Ruby, Maltese; late varieties — Valencia, Bessie
and Lue Gim Gong.

The Sour Orange (Citrus aurantium). — The sour orange is grown in
the United States mainly as a root-stock on which other varieties are
budded. A few varieties are cultivated to a limited extent for their fruits.
Certain varieties are grown in some countries for manufacturing purposes.

The Lemon (Citrus limonia). — The lemon is grown extensively in
California and to some extent in Florida. The commercial production in
Florida has in recent years almost disappeared, primarily due to the damage
caused by the disease known as scab. The principal varieties of the lemon
are the Eureka, the Lisbon and the Villafranca. Of these, the Eureka, a
nearly seedless variety that originated in California, is much the most
extensively planted.

The Pomelo or Grapefruit (Citrus decumana or Citrus grandis). —

Ever-bearing Orange Tree.

nmmm

CITRUS FRUITS

485

CHAPTER 37

Citrus Fruits and Their Cultivation

By Herbert J. Webber, Ph.D.
Dean oj Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, University of California

Citrus Species and Varieties. — The genus Citrus belongs to the family
Rutacecey which is represented in the United States by the prickly ash
Xanthoxylum) , the hop-tree (Ptelea) and the like. The representatives
of the family are mainly natives of tropical and sub-tropical countries.
Following are the principal species and varieties cultivated in the United
States.

The Sweet Orange {Citrus sinends). — This is the species most
generally cultivated throughout the world, and is the fruit commonly
referred to as the orange. It has given rise to numerous cultivated varie-
ties and exhibits a very wide range of variation in form, size, flavor, season
of maturity and the like. Certain varieties have had marked influence in
building up the industry in different sections.

This is particularly true of the Washington Navel in California. This
variety originated in Brazil about 1820 near Bahia. It gradually became
known for its good quality and seedlessness, and in 1870 twelve budded trees
were imported into the United States by William Saunders of the United
' States Department of Agriculture. Other trees were propagated from
these and sent to various of the orange-growing states for trial. The
majority of these trials were apparently failures or attracted no notice.
Two trees, however, were sent to Mrs. Luther C. Tibbet, at Riverside, Cal.,
in 1873, and were carefully cared for by her until they came into bearing.
The stock of this variety in the world has been mainly taken from descend-

(484)

ants of the Tibbet trees. It has been sent from California to Australia and
South Africa, where it has become an important variety.

The orange
plantings in Cali-
fornia are made
up 1 a r g e 1 y o f
Washington
Navels and Valen-
cias with a few
trees here and
there of other
varieties, such as
M e d i terranean
Sweet,St.Michael,
Blood, J o p p a ,
Nugget, Ruby,
etc.

In Florida a much larger number of varieties are grown, no two standing
out as prominently as do the Navel and Valencia in California. The
following are the leading sorts in their class in Florida, though other sorts
are almost as extensively grown: Early varieties — Parson Brown, Boone,
Early Oblong; mid-season varieties — Pineapple, Homosassa, Jafl'a,
Majorca, St. Michael, Ruby, Maltese; late varieties — Valencia, Bessie
and Lue Gim Gong.

The Sour Orange (Citrus aurantium), — The sour orange is grown in
the United States mainly as a root-stock on which other varieties are
budded. A few varieties are cultivated to a limited extent for their fruits.
Certain varieties are grown in some countries for manufacturing purposes.

The Pomelo or Grapefruit (Citrus decumana or Citrus grayidis). —

Ever-bearing Orancje Tree.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

i^;*?

486

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

This fruit is grown extensively in Florida and the West Indies and to some
extent in California. While the pomelo has been known for many years,
it was first grown on an extensive commercial scale in Florida, first being
introduced as a commercial fruit about .1885. The varieties most commonly
grown are selected Florida seedlings, though one or two varieties, as the
Pernambuco and the Royal, are importations respectively from Brazil
and Cuba. Probably the most widely planted varieties in Florida are the
Duncan, Josselyn, Walters, Pernambuco and Marsh. The Marsh, which
is a nearly seedless variety is the most extensively planted of any variety

in California.

The Lime (Citrus limetta),— The lime is grown throughout the
citrus regions of the United States and the West Indies, but is produced
commercially only in southern Florida and the West Indies. The demand
for these fruits has rapidly increased in recent years and is assuming some
importance. The principal varieties grown are the Mexican and the

Tahiti.

The Mandarin Orange (Citrus nobilis) ,— This fruit, referred to fre-
quently as the ''kid glove orange'' because of its loose, easily removable
skin, is grown to a considerable extent in certain regions of the United
States. It is in general rather more cold-resistant than the common orange,
and this has led to its propagation to considerable extent in the Gulf
states. The Satsuma or Unshiu, an early maturing sort of fair size, is
grown rather extensively in northern Florida and southern Georgia,
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. The Dancy tangerine is
grown to some extent in Florida and California and occasionally in some

other states.

The Citron (Citrus medica).— The citron, the candied or preserved
peel of which is a staple article of commerce, is not grown to any extent in
America. A grove of about fifteen acres at Riverside, Cal., is the largest
and only grove known to the writer in the United States. Another minor
citrus fruit cultivated to some extent as an ornamental and for preserving
is the kumquat (Citrus japonica) .

Citrus Regions and their Production.— While the various citrus species
are of tropical origin, the commercial development of citrus growing has
taken place almost wholly in subtropical countries. The most important
countries in the order of their production are the United States, Spain,
Italy, Japan and Palestine. The normal citrus crop of the world is now
equal to about 90,000,000 to 100,000,000 boxes of California capacity or
from 230,000 to 250,000 carloads of California size.* The normal produc-
tion of the United States is now about 78,000 carloads; Spain, about
68,148 carloads; Italy, 58,000 carloads; Japan, 10,896 carloads; and Pal-
estine, probably about 9000 carloads. Small quantities of citrus fruits
are, of course, produced in many other tropical and subtropical countries.

* "The World'a Production and Commerce in Citrus Fruits and their By-Products." by F. O. Wall-
schlaeger. Bulletin No. 11, Citrus Protective League of California, Los Angeles, 1914.

CITRUS FRUITS

487

According to the thirteenth United States census, there were in the
United States in 1910, 11,486,768 bearing citrus trees and 5,400,402 of non-
bearing age. The production in 1909 reached a grand total of 23,502,128
boxes valued at $22,71 1,448. This production was divided as follows : Cali-
fornia, 17,318,497 boxes; Florida, 5,974,135 boxes; Louisiana, 153,319
boxes; Arizona,* 32,247 boxes; Texas, 10,694 boxes; Mississippi, 3779
boxes; Alabama, 1201 boxes. A few boxes are also produced in Georgia
and the Carolina^. The increase in yield and acreage since 1909 has been
very great in California and Florida, so that the above data are very
much below the present production.

Propagation of Citrus Varieties. — In the early days of the citrus
industry, many seedling trees were grown in commercial groves. Now all
groves are planted with stock budded with varieties of known excellence.
It is important that the proper stocks be used. Orange and lemon varieties

Good Orange Seedlings.

are most extensively budded on sour orange stock, largely because of the
resistance of this stock to foot-rot or gum disease. Wherever there is
danger from this malady, the sour orange stock should surely be used.
Sweet orange stock is also used widely, both in Florida and California.
Trees on sweet stock probably in general grow rather more rapidly and
rather larger than on sour stock, but the susceptibility of sweet stock to
the gum diseases renders its use more limited. In dry, well-drained soils
in Florida and in the dry interior regions of California it is a very satisfac-
tory stock. Pomelo and Florida rough lemon stocks have some advocates,
but have not been generally used. The Trifoliate orange is probably the
best stock for the Satsuma and some oranges grown in the Gulf states,
but has not given satisfaction in general. It has a very marked dwarfing
effect on the Eureka lemon and some other varieties.

486

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

in California.

The Lime (Citrus Kmetta).— The lime is grown throughout the
citrus regions of the United States and the West Indies, but is produced
commercially only in southern Florida and the West Indies. The demand
for these fruits has rapidly increased in recent years and is assuming some
importance. The principal varieties grown are the Mexican and the

Tahiti.

The Mandarin Orange (Citrus nohiJis),— This fruit, referred to fre-
quently as the ''kid glove orange" because of its loose, easily removable
skin, is grown to a considerable extent in certain regions of the United
States. It is in general rather more cold-resistant than the common orange,
and this has led to its propagation to considerable extent in the Gulf
states. The Satsuma or Unshiu, an early maturing sort of fair size, is
grown rather extensively in northern Florida and southern Georgia,
Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. The Dancy tangerine is
grown to some extent in Florida and California and occasionally in some

other states.

The Citron (Citrus inedica) .—The citron, the candied or preserved
peel of which is a staple article of commerce, is not grown to any extent in
America. A grove of about fifteen acres at Riverside, Cal., is the largest
and only grove known to the writer in the United States. Another minor
citrus fruit cultivated to some extent as an ornamental and for preserving
is the kumquat (Citrus japonica).

Citrus Regions and their Production. — While the various citrus species
are of tropical origin, the commercial development of citrus growing has
taken place almost wholly in subtropical countries. The most important
countries in the order of their production are the United States, Spain,
Italy, Japan and Palestine. The normal citrus crop of the world is now
equal to about 90,000,000 to 100,000,000 boxes of California capacity or
from 230,000 to 250,000 carloads of California size.* The normal produc-
tion of the United States is now about 78,000 carloads; Spain, about
68,148 carloads; Italy, 58,000 carloads; Japan, 10,896 carloads; and Pal-
estine, probably about 9000 carloads. Small quantities of citrus fruits
are, of course, produced in many other tropical and subtropical countries.

* "Tho World's Produrtion and Commprop in Citnis Fruits and thoir By-Products," by F. O. Wall-
sohlupgor. Bulletin No. 11, Citrus Protective League of California. Los Angeles, 1914.

CITRUS FRUITS

487

According to the thirteenth United States census, there were in the
United States in 1910, 11,486,768 bearing citrus trees and 5,400,402 of non-
bearing age. The production in 1909 reached a grand total of 23,502,128
boxes valued at $22,71 1,448. This production was divided as follows : Cali-
fornia, 17,318,497 boxes; Florida, 5,974,135 boxes; Louisiana, 153,319
boxes; Arizona, 32,247 boxes; Texas, 10,694 boxes; Mississippi, 3779
boxes; Alabama, 1201 boxes. A few boxes are also produced in Georgia
and the Carolina^. The increase in yield and acreage since 1909 has been
very great in California and Florida, so that the above data are very
much below the present production.

Good Orange Seedlings.

are most extensively budded on sour orange stock, largely because of the
resistance of this stock to foot-rot or gum disease. Wherever there is
danger from this malady, the sour orange stock should surely be used.
Sweet orange stock is also used widely, both in Florida and Cahfornia.
Trees on sweet stock probably in general grow rather more rapidly and
rather larger than on sour stock, but the susceptibility of sweet stock to
the gum diseases renders its use more limited. In dry, well-drained soils
in Florida and in the dry interior regions of California it is a very satisfac-
tory stock. Pomelo and Florida rough lemon stocks have some advocates,
but have not been generally used. The Trifoliate orange is probably the
best stock for the Satsuma and some oranges grown in the Gulf states,
but has not given satisfaction in general. It has a very marked dwarfing
effect on the Eureka lemon and some other varieties.

488

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

CITRUS FRUITS

489

Orange Seedlings. — Sour orange seed for stock purposes is in general
obtained from Florida; sweet orange seeds are usually taken from any
sweet seedling grove. Seed must not be allowed to dry out. The seed is
usually sown about one inch apart in a bed or may be drilled in rows. It is
a good plan to cover the seed about one-half inch deep with clean river
sand. It is desirable in most places to cover the seed-bed with a partial
shade of some sort, as of cheesecloth or a lath shed. The seedlings are
usually dug when they are about a foot high and transplanted to the nur-
sery. Before transplanting the
tops are cut back to about 7
or 8 inches above the crown.
The Orange Nursery. — The
nursery should be on a good
porous soil that contains
enough clay so that the trees
can be balled if this method of
transplanting is desired. The
seedlings are set about 10 to 12
inches apart in rows 3| to 4
feet apart. The planting is
usually done with a spade or
dibble. Care must be taken
not to let the roots get dry,
and each tree should be set as
nearly as possible at the same
relative height it occupied in
the seed-bed. The soil must
be well firmed around the
roots, and the plants should
be watered as rapidly as
planted. Small seedlings and
those with imperfect roots
should never be planted. Only
the best and largest seedlings
should be used. The nursery should be thoroughly cultivated, and the
trees must be pruned occasionally to lead them to develop a single
trunk for 6 or 10 inches above the ground. It usually requires from 16 to
18 months to grow trees to the right size for budding, an ideal size being
a diameter of from three-eighths to one-half inch at about 3 to 5 inches
above the soil.

Budding the Nursery Stock. — Trees should be budded from 4 to 8
inches above, the ground. Budding is done mainly in the spring or in the
fall. In the latter case, it is expected to keep the trees dormant until spring.
Budding is almost universally done by the so-called eye-budding method,

* From Farmers' Bulletin 539, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Shield Budding with Angular Wood.^

A — Cutting the bud. B — Bud cut ready to in-
sert. C — Bud showing cut face. D — Bud
inserted, bark on right side only being raised.

using a cut of an inverted T shape and pushing the buds up, being careful
to have the leaf-scar of the bud downward. In citrus propagation, espe-
cially in the dry, arid sections of the Southwest, it is desirable to use strips
of waxed cloth to wrap the buds, covering the buds entirely with the
wrapping. The wrapping must remain on until the buds are thoroughly
healed on, which will require about three weeks. The California method
of forcing the buds is to cut the tops entirely off about an inch or so above
the bud. In Florida the trees are cut half off above the bud and lopped over
into the row, being allowed to remain until the sprout is a foot or so high.
Care of the Nursery Stock.— As the buds develop into sprouts, stakes
must be set beside them, and the sprouts tied to the stake at frequent inter-

Shield or Eye Budding, i

A — Incision on stock. B — Incision with lower ends of bark raised for inserting the bud.
C — Bud partly inserted. D — Bud inserted ready to wrap. E— Bud wrapped with
waxed cloth.

vals to insure straight trees. A single sprout is usually allowed to grow
until it is about three feet high, and then it is headed back to about 30
inches or slightly lower. In forming the crown, three or four main branches
are allowed to grow, and it is important for the strength of the tree that
these should be on different sides of the young tree and 3 or 4 inches apart.
Trees are set at one year or two years from the bud. In California and
Arizona, owing to the dry conditions, nursery trees designed for shipment
are usually balled. A trench about a foot wide and 14 inches deep is dug
alongside of the row of trees, and the tap-root cut and the trees lifted with a
ball of earth remaining around the roots. The ball and roots are then

* From Farmers' Bulletin 539, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

.-Ml

,.<.;^i:U\^.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

490

wrapped in burlap to hold the soil in place. When trees are to be removed
for only a short distance, they may be planted with free roots as is usually
done in Florida. Great care must be exercised at every pomt to keep the
roots moist, and they must be thoroughly watered after planting.

Planting the Orchard.— The site for a citrus orchard must be carefully
selected to insure success. The warmest regions should be taken for the
lemon and the slightly colder regions for the orange and pomelo In
California, the sloping sections next to the hills are usually considered the
best and Warmest, as they give good air drainage In Florida lands in the

southern part of the state or with water
protection to the north are usually the
warmest. The selection of a good site
with reference to warmth is highly im-
portant.

The orange grows successfully on a
wide range of soils, but a good, fine, sandy-
loam soil is usually preferred. It is im-
portant to have well-drained land. Citrus
fruits cannot be successfully grown in

wet, soggy soil.

The laying out of the grove is always
important and in irrigated countries re-
quires very great care, as it is of the
highest importance to be able to water
the grove uniformly, and this cannot be
done unless the irrigation furrows run at
a uniform and proper slope.

Leveling or grading the land is rarely
desirable, as this removes the surface soil
from some places and makes it for some
time unfit for tree growth.

The land for planting should be

plowed deep and gotten in thoroughly

good condition, finely pulverized and

moist. Orange trees are usually planted

from 20 to 25 feet apart, most commonly

about 22 feet. Sometimes they are planted 20 feet apart one way and

22 or 24 feet apart the other way. Lemons and pomeloes are usually given

rather more space than the orange.

There are four methods of arranging the trees known as the rectangu-
lar, triangular, quincunx and hexagonal. Of these the rectangular or square
is the simplest and mostly commonly used. Planting m squares 20 b> 20
eet gives 108 trees to the acre, and planting 22 by 22 feet, a very common
dTstanle, gives 90 trees to the acre. The land to be planted must be laid

I From Farmers' Bulletin 539. U. S. Dept. of Agrioulturc.

CITRUS FRUITS

491

Shield or Eye Buds.^

A— Method of cutting bud from
round twig. B— Bud cut ready
to insert. C— Face of bud
showing the cut surface.

out accurately and the location of each tree staked. Before digging the
holes a notched board with stakes or some other device should be used
to insure the exact location and level of the tree in setting. The holes
are dug of the size and depth necessary to accommodate the trees. The trees
to be set should have their tops cut back severely and all but a few leaves
removed. In arid regions, if the trees are not balled, it is not a bad practice
to remove all of the leaves.

In planting the trees care should be exercised to plant them at nearly
the same level as they were in the nursery. To insure this they must be
set about 4 inches higher ordinarily to provide for settling. Many growers
prefer to plant five or six inches higher than the level of the ground, having
the trees on a slight ridge. This the writer believes to be a good practice.
Balled trees are usually planted with the sacks surrounding the roots, these
being opened at the bottoms and the strings cut. The sacks rot away in a
short time. When trees with free roots are planted, the soil must be well
sifted in around the roots and firmly pressed down. Thorough watering
must immediately follow the planting. The watering of young trees is
facilitated by forming small basins around the trees into which the water
can be run.

It is important to protect the trunks of young trees from the sun in
order to prevent sun-burning. This is usually accomplished by loosely
wrapping several thicknesses of newspapers around them or by means of
regular protectors that may be purchased for this purpose.

Cultivation. — Young orchards must be thoroughly cultivated around
the trees. It is a common practice for two or three years to grow a strip
about ten feet in width of alfalfa, beans or some other crop between the
rows of trees, keeping a cultivated and irrigated strip immediately around
the trees. As the grove comes into bearing, the normal cultivation of the
whole area is taken up.

Many different systems of cultivation are followed in different places.
In Florida the common practice is to grow a leguminous cover crop, such
as beggarweed or cowpeas, in the grove during the summer, this being
plowed or disked in, in the fall, followed by more or less frequent, shallow
cultivations until the early summer when the cover crop is again sowed.

In California the most common practice is to grow a cover crop of some
legume in the grove during the winter, from Septeml^er to the first of March.
The plants most commonly used for this purpose are the bitter clover
(Melilotus indica) and the vetch {Vida saliva). Of these the bitter clover
is much the best. The purple vetch {Vicia atropurpurea) ^ recently
imported, is far superior to the ordinary vetch for this purpose, and will
doubtless be much used when a sufficient supply of seed becomes available.
The cover crop is plowed under to a depth of seven to ten inches during the
early part of March before the trees begin to bloom and while the ground is
still in condition and moist from the winter rains. Following this the land
is harrowed and disked both ways. Very thorough working with the disk

492

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

CITRUS FRUITS

493

is believed to be preferable to plowing both ways across the grove, as is
sometimes done. After this thorough disking the land is harrowed again
and then left until it is necessary to furrow out for the first irrigation. In
harrowing, either a knife harrow should be used, or if a spike-toothed har-
row is used the teeth should be sloped backward in order not to pull up the

cover- crop. . . ,

The first irrigation is delayed if possible until after the bloommg period,
but the trees must not be allowed to suffer for water. After the irrigation,
as soon as the soil has dried sufficiently, the land is harrowed and disked
both ways and again harrowed. This should leave the surface soil thor-
oughly pulverized, and with a dry dust mulch. No other cultivation is
necessary until after the second irrigation.

During the dry summer period an irrigation is necessary about every
month. Following each of these irrigations, the land should be harrowed
as soon as dry enough and about a week later cultivated both ways with
some narrow, shoveled cultivator, running to a depth of 4 to 6 inches.
These alternating periods of irrigation followed by cultivation are continued
during the summer until the winter cover crop is sown in the fall.

In both Florida and California, the practice of mulching a portion or
all of the land in the grove is gaining in favor.

Irrigation.— In the citrus regions of California and Arizona, irrigation
is necessary and is one of the most expensive and difficult of all the various
grove operations. Water in these sections is, however, the limiting factor
of production, and an ample supply must be provided. Water is taken
directly from flowing streams, is pumped from underground basins, or is
taken from large, artificial storage reservoirs, filled mainly during the winter
rains. Different locations and soils require different amounts of water.
A porous, gravelly soil requires more water than a heavy clay or adobe soil,
the latter being more retentive of moisture although more difficult to wet.
Groves near the coast where there is more moisture in the air require less
water than those in the drier interior regions. In general, enough water
must be provided to be equal, when combined with the natural rainfall,
to a depth of 35 to 45 inches. In a single irrigation it is ordinarily expected
to apply enough water to cover the entire surface irrigated to a depth of
about three inches. The supply of water usually provided for citrus
orchards is one miner's inch to every four to eight acres.*

In the furrow method of irrigation the water is distributed over the
grove by means of several furrows, usually four to six, between each row of
trees These furrows, which are made by a special furrowing tool or plow,
should have a uniform fall, preferably not exceeding a grade of one-half of
one to three per cent. The water should run through them slowly to give
the best results. While these furrows are usually run straight, not infre-
quently they are curved in between the trees to water the middles. The

inch is 11 i gallons per minute.

length of the furrows or of the ^^run'^ ordinarily ranges from 400 to 700
feet. While 600 and 700-foot runs are common, this is too long to give the
best results.

In the basin system of irrigation, square or round basins, about eight
to twelve inches deep, are formed around the trees, into which the water is
run either by means of a single central furrow, from which it is turned into
each basin successively, or by means of steel irrigation pipes fitted together
like joints of a stove-pipe. * In making the basins the soil should be left for
a radius of about two or three feet around the base of the tree, so that the
water will not come in contact with the trunk.

The water is brought into the grove usually either by open cement
flumes or by buried cement pipes. These are run across the rows along the
upper edge of the grove to be irrigated. With the open flume, gates are put
in at intervals to discharge the water wherever a stream is desired. With
the covered cement pipe flumes, a standpipe is placed at the end of each row
of trees in which several gates are inserted according to the number of
furrows or streams desired to be taken from it.

The length of time necessary to run the water is determined by the
rapidity of penetration. The application should be continued until the
water has penetrated to a depth of three or four feet.

Fertilization. — The great majority of soils on which citrus trees are
grown require manuring to maintain the fertihty, and yet no subject is so
little understood as the fertilizer requirements. If the soil fertility is
sufficient to provide for good growth in the beginning, then the addition
of the materials removed by the crop, it would seem, should be sufficient
to maintain the fertility. The following table shows the average percentage
of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in orange and lemon fruits and the
pounds of these materials removed by a ton of fruit.

Fertilizer Analysis of the Fruit of Oranges and Lemons.

(Computed from Bulletin No. 93, University of California

Agricultural Experiment Station.)

Nitrogen (N)

Phosphoric
Acid (PjOfi).

Potash (K2O).

Per
cent.

Pounds
per Ton.

Per
cent.

Pounds
per Ton.

Per
cent.

Pounds
per Ton.

Orances

0.190
0.151

3.80
3».02

0.058
0.058

1.16
1.16

0.219
0.253

4.38

Lemons

5.06

Such a table as the above is suggestive only as a guide to fertilization,
and the same may be said regarding soil analyses. The test of a fertilizer
on the soil and the crop is the only safe guide.

In Florida a fertilizer containing about 3 to 4 per cent of nitrogen, 6 to
8 per cent of phosphoric acid and 8 to 12 per cent of potash is commonly
used. In California the proportions commonly recommended are 4 per

494

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

cent nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphoric acid and 4 per cent potash. In general,

young trees are thought to require more nitrogen and a relatively smaller

proportion of phosphoric acid and potash.

In Florida there is a tendency to avoid so far as possible the use of

organic manures, such as stable
manure, blood, cottonseed meal and
the like, owing to the effect such ma-
terials appkrently have in the pro-
duction of the disease *^ die-back*' or
exanthema. Sulphate of ammonia,
sulphate of potash and superphosphate
are very largely used.

In California, on the contrary,
the tendency is to use organic sources
to supply the various elements so far
as possible. Experimental results in-
dicate that organic matter and nitrogen
are the most important elements to be
added in the fertilization of citrus
soils in California and minimize the
importance of potash and phosphoric
acid. Eight-year experiments show
no gain over checks by the use of
sulphate of potash with oranges and
very slight gains with lemons. Similar
experiments with superphosphate show
but slight gains over check plats, while
nitrogen plats give marked increase in
growth and yield. California growers
in general prefer stable manure to any
other fertilizer and are also using large
quantities of alfalfa hay and bean
straw, both plowed under and as a
mulch to supply nitrogen and organic
matter.

The use of leguminous cover crops
in citrus orchards to supply nitrogen
and* organic matter is recognized as
good practice, both in California and
Florida (see above under ^^ Cultiva-
tion'*), and a considerable amount of

the necessary nitrogen can be produced in this way at very slight expense.

Pruning. — Ordinarily orange trees are pruned very little beyond the

moval of dead brush and water-sprouts, but this results in the formation

a very dense tree with the fruit distributed over the surface. The inte-

Prunino and Root Trimming of Citrus
Tree at Time of Planting.

CITRUS FRUITS

495

rior fruit is in general superior, and the removal of some of the interior limbs
keeping the tree somewhat open is probably a desirable practice.

Lemon trees are generally pruned regularly. They should be cut back
severely from the first and allowed to develop but slowly. The tendency
of the lemon is to throw out long branches, which fruit at the end and are
Ukely to bend over and break off or to be in the way. The principal purpose
should be to cut back this rapid growth and develop a strong, stocky tree
that will be open enough to bear considerable fruit on the interior branches.
The lateral, crooked branches are much more fruitful than the upright,
straight branches.

Trees are pruned at almost any season of the year, but the best time
is in the spring after the danger of freezing is passed.

Frost Protection. — Many citrus-growing sections are occasionally
visited by severe freezes that may cause a loss of the crop and even severely
damage the trees. It has thus been found desirable, particularly with
lemons, to provide some form of artificial protection.

In California this protection has been secured by the use of orchard
stoves, burning crude oil, abundant quantities of which are available from
nearby oil fields at reasonable prices. The principle of orchard heating,
recognized as the most desirable, is to get the greatest amount of heat
possible with the least soot and smoke. Direct, radiated heat is desired
rather than a smudge.

In Florida oil heaters have been used to some extent, but there the
burning of wood piled in the grove and other devices are also used.

Diseases.— The number of diseases affecting citrus trees is probably
as great as those affecting any other similar group of plants. For many
of these satisfactory treatments are known, but there are several maladies
which are serious that are not as yet thoroughly understood. Only a few
of the most important diseases can be mentioned.

The general group of gum diseases is important in most citrus-grow-
ing regions. Lemon gummosis, caused by the brown rot fungus {Pythia-
cystis dtrophthora) causes considerable damage in California and is also
present in Florida. This disease, which causes the exudation of gum and
the decay of the bark on lemon trunks, is effectively controlled by cutting
out the diseased parts and painting the injured surface with Bordeaux
paste. Maldigomma or foot-rot, a closely related disease that occurs
mainly in Florida, is controlled by use of the sour orange stock which is
resistant to the malady, and may be cured usually by removing the dirt
from around the crown roots, cutting out the diseased areas and pamtmg
them with Bordeaux paste. Another type of gummosis is the scaly hark,
common both in California and Florida mainly on the limbs and trunks of
orange trees. This disease is not understood at present, but is checked by
cutting out and sterilizing diseased areas with Bordeaux paste.

Exanthema or die-back, a disease common in Florida and occurring
to some extent in California, is apparently due to malnutrition, but is not

496

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

understood. When caused by use of organic manure, such as blood, stable
manure and the like, it is cured by stopping fertilization and cultivation
for a period and mulching the tree. When caused by lack of drainage,
tile drainage of the area frequently results in a cure.

Mottle leaf, a very common and injurious malady in California, is an
obscure disease, the cause of which is not yet known. Very extensive
investigations of this disease are now in progress.

Citrus canker, a very serious malady caused by a bacterium (Pseudo-
monas citri)^ has recently become epidemic in Florida and the Gulf states.
It is now known to occur in Japan and the Philippine Islands and was
apparently introduced into Florida from one of these sources. An extensive
campaign is now being waged to eradicate this disease by burning all
infected trees.

Verrucosis, or scab, and melanose are two important fungous diseases
occurring in Florida that have not appeared as yet in California. Wither-
tip, caused by the fungus Colletotrichum gloeosporioideSj is common both in
California and Florida. It is controlled by pruning accompanied by spray-
ing with Bordeaux mixture.

Many fruit rots caused by such fungi as the cottony mold (Sclerotinia
libertiniana) y brown rot (Pythiacystis dtrophthora) ^ blue mould (Penidllium
italicum) and green mould {Penicillium digitatum)^ cause considerable
loss in the packing-house and in shipment. These are controlled by careful
handling, by the use of disinfectants in the wash water and the proper
sterilization of the fruit boxes and packing-house machinery and the Uke.
(For other diseases see Chapter 75.)

Insects. — Insect pests are very numerous in all citrus sections and
require the systematic use of control methods to insure the financial success
of the industry. By far the most serious pests are the scale insects of which
there are numerous kinds.

In California the most common scale insects are the black scale {Sais-
setia olece), the citricola scale (Coccus citricola), the red scale (Chrysomphalus
aurantii) and the purple scale {Lepidosaphes beckii). The control of these
scale pests is aided to some extent by various parasites, but fumigation
with hydrocyanic acid gas about once every two years, or more often if
necessary, is almost universally practiced.

The cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi)^ which at one time was so
serious as almost to threaten the life of the citrus industry in California,
has been so thoroughly controlled by the introduction of the Australian
ladybird beetle that it has ceased to be considered a serious pest.

In Florida the most common scale insects are the purple scale {Lepido-
saphes heckii)j the long scale {Lepidosaphes gloverii), the Florida red scale
{Chrysomphalus aonidum)^ the chaff scale {Parlatoria pergandii), the soft
brown or turtle-back beetle {Coccus hesperidum) , the black scale {Saissetia
olece) and the hemispherical scale {Saissetia hemisphcerica) . In the control of
these insects in Florida, more reliance is had upon parasitic fungi and insect

CITRUS FRUITS

497

enemies than in California. While fumigation is used to some extent, when
any treatment is used it is usually spraying with paraffin oil emulsion.
Good^s caustic potash whale oil soap, resin wash or kerosene emulsion.

The white fly {Aleyrodes citri), probably the most destructive insect
pest in Florida, occurs in only one place in California and has not there
become widely spread. It is controlled by fumigation or by spraying with
paraffin oil emulsion, resin wash or kerosene emulsion.

The mealy bug, red spider, rust mite, thrips, aphis and numerous
other insects cause damage both in California and in Florida and in other
citrus sections, but are of minor importance.

Picking and Packing Oranges.

Picking, Packing and Marketing of Fruit. — The methods of picking,
packing and marketing of citrus fruits are probably more highly developed
than in any other fruit industry. The picking is in large measure done by
carefully trained special picking gangs connected with the packing houses,
rather than by the growers themselves. This insures the most careful work
and handling and the employment of uniformly good methods.

The curing, grading and packing is also done by specially trained men
working continuously under inspection to insure careful handling at every
point. The special machinery devised for washing, drying, grading, sizing
and boxing has reached a high degree of perfection and is almost univer-
sally used in the citrus sections of the United States. The watchword of
all packing houses is careful handling to avoid bruising or puncturing the
skin of the fruit and thus prevent decay,

496

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Mottle leaf, a very common and injurious malady in California, is an
obscure disease, the cause of which is not yet known. Very extensive
investigations of this disease are now in progress.

Citrus canker, a very serious malady caused by a bacterium (Pseudo-
monas citri), has recently become epidemic in Florida and the Gulf states.
It is now known to occur in Japan and the Philippine Islands and was
apparently introduced into Florida from one of these sources. An extensive
campaign is now being waged to eradicate this disease by burning all

infected trees.

Verrucosis, or scab, and melanose are two important fungous diseases
occurring in Florida that have not appeared as yet in California. Wither-
tip, caused by the fungus Colletotrichum glceosporioideSj is common both in
California and Florida. It is controlled by pruning accompanied by spray-
ing with Bordeaux mixture.

Many fruit rots caused by such fungi as the cottony mold (Sclerotinia
libertiniana) y brown rot {Pythiacystis dtrophthora) ^ blue mould {Penidllium
italicum) and green mould {Penidllium digitatum), cause considerable
loss in the packing-house and in shipment. These are controlled by careful
handling, by the use of disinfectants in the wash water and the proper
sterilization of the fruit boxes and packing-house machinery and the like.
(For other diseases see Chapter 75.)

In California the most common scale insects are the black scale {Sais-
sella olece), the citricola scale {Coccus dtricola), the red scale {Chrysomphalus
auranlii) and the purple scale {Lepidosaphes heckii). The control of these
scale pests is aided to some extent by various parasites, but fumigation
with hydrocyanic acid gas about once every two years, or more often if
necessary, is almost universally practiced.

The cottony cushion scale {I eery a purchasi), which at one time was so
serious as almost to threaten the life of the citrus industry in California,
has been so thoroughly controlled by the introduction of the Australian
ladybird beetle that it has ceased to be considered a serious pest.

In Florida the most common scale insects are the purple scale {Lepido-
saphes heckii), the long scale {Lepidosaphes gloverii), the Florida red scale
{Chrysomphalus aonidum), the chaff scale {Parlatoria pergandii), the soft
brown or turtle-back beetle {Coccus hesperidum), the black scale {Saissetia
olece) and the hemispherical scale {Saissetia hemisphcerica) . In the control of
these insects in Florida, more reliance is had upon parasitic fungi and insect

CITRUS FRUITS

497

enemies than in California. While fumigation is used to some extent, when
any treatment is used it is usually spraying with paraffin oil emulsion.
Good's caustic potash whale oil soap, resin wash or kerosene emulsion.

The white fly {Aleyrodes dtri), probably the most destructive insect
pest in Florida, occurs in only one place in California and has not there
become widely spread. It is controlled by fumigation or by spraying with
paraffin oil emulsion, resin wash or kerosene emulsion.

The mealy bug, red spider, rust mite, thrips, aphis and numerous
other insects cause damage both in California and in Florida and in other
citrus sections, but are of minor importance.

Picking and Packing Oranges.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

W^mi^^i^M^'^t'^

498

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The marketing methods have been developed with similar thorough-
ness, and a very large proportion of the fruit of California is marketed under
the direction of a co-operative organization of the growers known as the
California Fruit Growers' Exchange. This is probably the most successful
co-operative organization of growers in the world.

REFERENCES
"Citrus Fruits." Cort.
"Citrus Fruits and Their Culture." Hume.
"California Fruits and How to Grow Them." Wickson.

"U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 63. "Shipment of Oranges from Florida."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

538. "Sites, Soils and Varieties for Citrus Groves in the Gulf States."

539. "Propagation of Citrus Trees in the Gulf States."

•542. "Culture, FertiUzation and Frost Protection of Citrus Groves in the
Gulf States."

CHAPTER 38

Nuts and Nut Culture in the United States

By C. a. Reed

Nut Culturist, United States Department of Agriculture

•

THE PRINCIPAL NUTS

The group of trees which bear edible nuts of commercial importance
in this country includes a considerable number of species, some of which
are important in both hemispheres. The most important of the world's
nuts are the cocoanut, the peanut, the Persian (incorrectly called the
EngHsh) walnut, the almond, the Brazil nut, the pecan, the hazelnut
(filbert), the cashew, the pinon, the chestnut and the pistachio nut. Of
these, with the exception of the Brazil nut (nigger-toe. Para nut, cream
nut, castanea, etc.), which is strictly tropical in its requirements of culture,
all are being grown to a greater or less extent, in continental or insular
United States. The pili (pe-lee) of the Philippines and East Indies, charac-
terized by its reddish-brown (artificial) color, its triangular form tapering
to a point at each end, its very thick, hard shell and its single kernel, is now
becoming fairly familiar in our principal nut markets. The pili nut is
said to be very nutritious and pleasing to the taste when properly matured,
but as it commonly appears in this country, it is inferior in quality to the
majority of the better known nuts.

A choice nut occasionally seen in the American markets is the Paradise
nut, a near relative of the Brazil nut, which also is indigenous to the low-
lands of northern Brazil. Paradise nuts are somewhat longer than are
Brazil nuts, but in the main are triangular in form. They are of a light
buff color, irregularly grooved lengthwise, and have a close-fitting cork-like
shell which encloses a single, delicately flavored kernel of fine texture.

Both the pili and the Paradise nuts are like the Brazil nut in that their
tropical natures apparently preclude any likelihood of their ever becoming
commercially important in any part of the United States proper.

The culture of the cocoanut, together with the drying and shipping
of its dried flesh or copra, forms x)ne of the leading industries throughout
all tropics. The cocoanut produces the world's most important nut
food supply. To some extent the cocoanut palm is grown in southern
Florida, but thus far more largely as an ornamental and a curiosity than
for commercial purposes. During the winter season cocoanuts are locally
in lively demand as souvenirs among the tourists, who place postage and
the addresses of northern friends on the smooth outer surfaces of the thick

(499)

^^m^

Schley Pecan Tree.
In its seventh year and beginning to bear. Cairo, Ga.

(500)

NUTS AND NUT CULTURE

501

husks and send the nuts through the mails. The expense of removing the
husk from the nut has thus far made commercial cocoanut growing in this
country in competition with the cheap labor of the tropics practically out
of the question. Nevertheless, it is not unlikely that the devising of special
machinery will soon overcome this problem, and that a more or less thriving
industry will develop in the marshy borders of southern Florida. A few
commercial cocoanut plantings recently set may be found off the Florida
coast from Miami and near Cape Sable in Monroe County; but it appears
altogether unlikely that the growing of cocoanuts will ever be of importance
to American farmers outside of the southern parts of Florida, Texas and
California.

The cashew nut likewise is of tropical nature. Trees of this species
are rarely seen in the United States except in experimental plantings in
Florida and in California. The nuts are borne singly at the apex of fleshy,
pear-shaped fruits which form in clusters and which are known as cashew
apples. The nuts are of much the shape of lima beans, but are both larger
and thicker. In color they are between a purplish and an ashy-gray. They
have a thin but stout, smooth-surfaced shell, within which is a secondary
shell, also thin, and which encases the kidney-shaped kernel.

Between the two shells of this cashew nut there is a thin dark-brown
fluid of an extremely caustic property similar to that of poison ivy and
sumac, to which the species is closely related. Roasting entirely dispels
this poison, and as the nuts are invariably prepared in this manner before
being placed on the market, the consumer is in no danger of being poisoned.
The kernels are among the most palatable of all nut products now found in
our markets.

For the present, the cashew can hardly be said to be of commercial
promise in any portion of this country.

The pistachio is much more hardy than is the cashew. To a considera-
ble extent the two are now being grown in sections of southern California
and west Texas, and single trees have been known to survive for a number
of years in climates where zero temperatures are by no means uncommon.
Thrifty trees are reported from Kansas and one tree several years of age
near Stamford, Conn., was in a thrifty condition when seen by the writer in
1914. However, it is essentially a dry-land tree suited to the milder por-
tions of the temperate zones. The nuts, which are encased in a thin leath-
ery covering, form in loose clusters. They have thin but very stout, smooth
shells which usually split open on one side of the suture while being roasted.
To a considerable extent, the kernels, which are of greenish color and
delicate flavor, are consumed with no preparation other than that of roasting
and salting, but more largely they are ground and used in ice creams and
other confections. The pistachio tree is a slow grower, requiring several
more years to come into bearing than is the case with almond, Persian
walnut or pecan trees. Propagation is by budding and grafting.

The Peanut. — The peanut is probably a native of tropical America.

|i:

C*i 'yJ»^£^'^'^^Um

m^-^mmamir

NUTS AND NUT CULTURE

501

Schley Pecan Tree.
In its seventh year and beginning to bear. Cairo, Ga.

(500)

husks and send the nuts through the mails. The expense of removing the
husk from the nut has thus far made commercial cocoanut growing in this
country in competition with the cheap labor of the tropics practically out
of the question. Nevertheless, it is not unlikely that the devising of special
machinery will soon overcome this problem, and that a more or less thriving
industry will develop in the marshy borders of southern Florida. A few-
commercial cocoanut plantings recently set may be found off the Florida
coast from Miami and near Cape Sable in Monroe County; but it appears
altogether unlikely that the growing of cocoanuts will ever be of importance
to American farmers outside of the southern parts of Florida, Texas and
California.

The cashew nut likewise is of tropical nature. Trees of this species
are rarely seen in the United States except in experimental plantings in
Florida and in California. The nuts are borne singly at the apex of fleshy,
pear-shaped fruits which form in clusters and which are known as cashew
apples. The nuts are of much the shape of lima beans, but are both larger
and thicker. In color they are between a purplish and an ashy-gray. They
have a thin but stout, smooth-surfaced shell, within which is a seccndary
shell, also thin, and which encases the kidney-shaped kernel.

For the present, the cashew can hardly be said to be of conmiercial
promise in any portion of this country.

The pistachio is much more hardy than is the cashew. To a considera-
ble extent the two are now being grown in sections of southern California
and west Texas, and single trees have been known to survive for a number
of years in climates where zero temperatures arc by no means uncommon.
Thrifty trees are reported from Kansas and one tree several years of age
near Stamford, Conn., was in a thrifty condition when seen by the writer in
1914. However, it is essentially a dry-land tree suited to the milder por-
tions of the temperate zones. The nuts, which are encased in a thin leath-
ery covering, form in loose clusters. They have thin but very stout, smooth
shells which usually split open on one side of the suture while being roasted.
To a considerable extent, the kernels, which are of greenish color and
delicate flavor, are consumed with no preparation other than that of roasting
and salting, but more largely they are ground and used in ice creams and
other confections. The pistachio tree is a slow grower, requiring several
more years to come into bearing than is the case with almond, Persian
walnut or pecan trees. Propagation is by budding and grafting.

The Peanut. — The peanut is probably a native of tropical America.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

. 502

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

It does well in light-colored, fertile, sandy loams in the warmer portions of
the United States. Its principal centers of production in this country are
in Virginia and the Carolinas, although it is common in the entire South,
west to California. The peanut is common in the markets both in the shell
or shelled and salted. Peanut butter and peanut oil- are now among the
most valuable of our common nut products. (The culture of peanuts is
discussed in Chapter 20 of this book.)

The Pinon {Pin-yon). — The seeds of a number of pines of western
and southwestern United States, variously known as pinons, Indian or
Pine nuts and pignolia, form a very important article of food for the Indians

^mm

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Franquette Walnut Orchard, near Santa Rosa, California.

This is the famous Vrooman Orchard.

and the Mexicans of the Southwest, who gather the nuts in enormous quan-
tities. In this country the pines bearing edible nuts are not cultivated;
the. entire crop being obtained from the native trees in the mountains, which
usually appear at altitudes of from 5000 to 7000 feet. The home product
is largely consumed by the gatherers, and in the local markets of the West.
The nuts are brownish in color, usually mottled with yellow, from an eighth
to a quarter of an inch in length and have a thin but strong hard shell.
The kernels are very fine in texture, rich in quality, of pleasant flavor and
highly nutritious. The shelled seeds of the stone pine of southern Europe,
greatly resembling puffed rice in form and color, form an important product
in the nut markets of our Eastern cities.

The Persian Wahiut.— For many centuries this nut, a native of Persia,

NUTS AND NUT CULTURE

503

has been under cultivation in southwestern Asia and in Europe, but with
approximately a half century of serious cultivation in this country it has
attained its greatest degree of perfection on our Pacific Coast. In the
Old World, and until recently in the United States, propagation has been
by seedage, but modern American orchards are comprised exclusively of
budded or grafted trees. For its biest development the species requires a
deep, fertile, loamy soil, moist but well drained. However, it readily
adapts itself with proportionate results to conditions less favorable. At
the present time the chief centers of production in the United States are
southern California near Los Angeles, the Sacramento Valley in northern
California and the Willamette Valley of western Oregon. Varieties suit-
able for general culture in the southeastern quarter of this country have
not yet appeared. In that area of the Eastern states lying between lower
New England and the Potomac River on the Atlantic Coast and extending
west to the Mississippi River, local varieties originating with trees reputed
to be hardy and prolific bearers of desirable nuts are being given a fairly
general trial. These are being propagated by budding on the black walnut
stocks. To date, the chief eastern varieties are the Rush, Nebo, Barnes,
-Potomac, Holden, Hall, Lancaster and Boston. Thus far none of these
have been given sufficient trial to determine their commercial value. For
the present, planting should be limited to experimental numbers.

The. most popular varieties of walnuts in southern California are
the offspring of the Santa Barbara type, established during the late sixties
by Mr. Joseph Sexton of Santa Barbara, with seed supposed to have come
from Chile. Southern California walnuts are not sold under variety names,
but under such trade appellations as ''budded,'' ''numbers one,'' "two,"
"three," etc.; the term "budded" applying to the large sizes which will
not pass through inch squares of a wire mesh.

The leading varieties of northern California and Oregon are from
French stock first introduced into this country by Mr. Felix Gillet of
Nevada City, Cal., whose work closely followed that of Mr. Sexton, and
these to a large extent are sold under their variety names. At present
the more important are the Franquette and Mayette, direct introductions,
and the Concord, San Jose and probably the Chase, seedlings of original

introductions.

The Pecan. — The pecan is by far the most important nut indigenous
to this country, and although at present its annual production is less than
one-half that of the Persian walnut, the increased attention now being
paid to the native bearing trees and enormous number of planted orchards
in the south Atlantic and eastern Gulf states combine to make it fairly
certain that this will soon become the leading nut grown in America. Its
native range includes much of the lowlands of the Mississippi River and
its tributaries from Davenport and Terra Haute on the north, south to
near the Gulf and a large area extending southwest across Arkansas,
Louisiana, Oklahoma and Texas to near the Rio Grande. Its requirements

■ 'I

502

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The Pinon (Pin-yofi). — The seeds of a number of pines of western
and southwestern United States, variously known as pinons, Indian or
Pine nuts and pignolia, form a very important article of food for the Indians

Franquette Walni't Orchard, near Santa Rosa, California.

This is the famous Vrooman Orchard.

and the Mexicans of the Southwest, who gather the nuts in enormous quan-
tities. In this country the pines bearing edible nuts are not cultivated;
the entire crop being obtained from the native trees in the mountains, which
usually appear at altitudes of from 5000 to 7000 feet. The home product
is largely consumed by the gatherers, and in the local markets of the West.
The nuts are brownish in color, usually mottled with j^ellow, from an eighth
to a quarter of an inch in length and have a thin but strong hard shell.
The kernels are very fine in texture, rich in quality, of pleasant flavor and
liighly nutritious. The shelled seeds of the stone pine of southern p]urope,
greatly resembling puffed rice in form and color, form an important product
in the nut markets of our Eastern cities.

The Persian Wahiut. — For many centuries this nut, a native of Persia,

NUTS AND NUT CULTURE

503

has been under cultivation in southwestern Asia and in Europe, but with
approximately a half century of serious cultivation in this country it has
attained its greatest degree of perfection on our Pacific Coast. In the
Old World, and until recently in the United States, propagation has been
by seedage, but modern American orchards are comprised exclusively of
budded or grafted trees. For its best development the species requires a
deep, fertile, loamy soil, moist but well drained. However, it readily
adapts itself with proportionate results to conditions less favorable. At
the present time the chief centers of production in the United States are
southern California near Los Angeles, the Sacramento Valley in northern
California and the Willamette Valley of western Oregon. Varieties suit-
able for general culture in the southeastern quarter of this country have
not yet appeared. In that area of the Eastern states lying between lower
New England and the Potomac River on the Atlantic Coast and extending
west to the Mississippi Kiver, local varieties originating with trees reputed
to be hardy and prolific bearers of desirable nuts are being given a fairly
general trial. These are being propagated by budding on the black walnut
stocks. To date, the chief eastern varieties are the Rush, Nebo, Barnes,
.Potomac, Holden, Hall, Lancaster and Boston. Thus far none of these
have been given suflPicient trial to determine their commercial value. For
the present, planting should be limited to experimental numbers.

The. most popular varieties of walnuts in southern California are
the offspring of the Santa Barbara type, established during the late sixties
l)y Mr. Joseph Sexton of Santa Barbara, with seed supposed to have come
from Chile. Southern California walnuts are not sold under variety names,
but under such trade appellations as ''budded,'' ''numbers one,'' "two,"
"three," etc; the term "budded" applying to the large sizes which will
not pass through inch squares of a wire mesh.

The leading varieties of northern California and Oregon are from
French stock first introduced into this country ])y Mr. Felix Gillet of
Nevada City, Cal., whose work closely followed that of Mr. Sexton, and
these to a large extent are sold under their variety names. At present
the more important are the Franquette and Mayette, direct introductions,
and the Concord, San Jose and probably the Chase, seedlings of original
introductions.

The Pecan. — The pecan is by far the most important nut indigenous
to this country, and although at present its annual production is less than
one-half that of the Persian walnut, the increased attention now being
paid to the native bearing trees and enormous num])er of planted orchards
in the south Atlantic and eastern Gulf states combine to make it fairly
certain that this will soon become the leading nut grown in America. Its
native range includes much of the lowlands of the Mississippi River and
its tributaries from Davenport and Terra Haute on the north, south to
near the Gulf and a large area extending southwest across Arkansas,
Louisiana, Oklahoma and Texas to near the Rio Grande. Its requirements

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

■m^^m.

MAJOR

BURKETT

HAVENS

OWENS

..- ^ u. ^ -»

Major, Burkett, Warrick, Havens and Owens Pecans.^

» Year-Book, 1012 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
(504)

NUTS AND NUT CULTURE

505

of soil and moisture are much the same as are those of the Persian walnut.
However, it appears to be somewhat more exacting in its moisture require-
ment, for although being intolerant of improper drainage, it is less able
to sustain itself proportionately in drier soils.

The pecan is propagated by budding and grafting on stocks of its
own species. Under the most favorable conditions seedlings grown from
nuts planted in midwinter may be budded when eighteen months old, and
transplanted in orchard form by the end of the next season, or by the time
the roots have been in the ground for three years.

Thus far a total of approximately one hundred varieties have been
recognized in the South. The majority of these already have been elimi-
nated. At present, the principal sorts of the south Atlantic and Gulf sec-
tion, including Louisiana, are the Stuart, Schley, Curtis, Van Deman,
Alley, Pabst, Moneymaker, Bradley, President, Russell, Delmas and
Success. The leading varieties of central and southwest Texas are the
San Saba, Halbert, Colorado, Sovereign and Kincaid.

The varieties of neither of these groups appear readily to adapt them-
selves to the climatic conditions of the other, nor do they seem capable
of satisfactorily adjusting themselves to conditions in any of the inland
states.

. Varieties which have originated in southwestern Indiana and neighbor-
hood, and which, therefore, now are thought to be well worthy of con-
servative planting in sections of fairly comparable conditions, are the
Major, Niblack, Indiana, Posey, Busseron, Butterick, Greenriver and
Warrick. However, for the present these should not be planted in lati-
tudes greater than that of Vincennes, with the expectation of regular crops
of nuts. If set in suitable soil the trees should thrive and live to a great
age much farther north, but crops of nuts even from the forest trees are
quite irregular beyond that point.

The Almond. — Culturally speaking, this nut is not of much interest
to a great part of the United States. Its exactments for cultural success
preclude its general planting over any large portion of the United States.
It requires a fertile, moist, yet very well-drained soil and a dry atmosphere
in a section quite free from late spring frosts. The commercial plantings
of this country are in the Sacramento Valley of California, where the
orchards are usually equipped with fire-pots as a protection against frost
at blossoming time, and in northwestern Utah. A number of large young
orchards just beginning to bear are on the highlands of Klickitat County
in south central Washington near the Columbia River. The principal
varieties are the Nonpareil, I. X. L., Ne Plus Ultra, Drakes and Languedoc.

The almond is propagated by budding on stocks preferably of its own
species, although peach stocks answer nearly as well.

At least one variety of hardshell almond (the Ridenhower, of south-
ern Illinois) is being propagated by eastern nurserymen for variety plant-
ing about the home grounds in sections adapted to the more hardy varieties

»i

506

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

of peaches. However, in no way does this almond compare with those
in the market.

Nuts of Minor Importance. — In this class belong all of our native tree
nuts, with the exception of the pecan. Our native hickories, the shag-
bark (Hicoria ovata), the shellbark (Hicoria laciniosa) and the pignut
(Hicoria glabra) j the butternut {Juglans cinerea), the American hazel
(Corvlus armricana), the beech (Fagus grandifolia) and certain foreign nuts,
especially the Chinese chestnut (Castanea molUssima) , and the Asiatic
walnuts (Juglans sieboldiana and Juglans mandshurica) , afford most
inviting fields for the breeder and improver of nut trees.

The most of these species are capable of culture in the Eastern states
from lower New England south to the middle Atlantic and west to the
Mississippi. It is quite probable that this group also offers the most fruit-
ful possibilities in nut culture in the states lying between this section and
the Rocky Mountains. .

In general, prospective growers of nut trees should obtain their stock
from reliable nursery concerns, and in so far as obtainable, budded or
grafted trees only should be planted. These are not now obtainable to
any extent of the group just mentioned, although several varieties of
hickory and black walnut are now being propagated by a few nursery
concerns.

Nut trees should be ranked in the class with other kinds of fruit trees,
and must be given the same degree of attention. Under the most favor-
able conditions commercial returns may be expected with almonds in
from 6 to 8 years from the time of setting the trees; with Persian walnut
trees in from 8 to 10 years; and with southern pecans in from 10 to 12 years.
Almond trees may be set at from 28 to 30 feet apart, while walnuts and
pecans should be set not nearer than 60 feet.

Each species of nut tree has its insect pests and fungous diseases,
each of which is more or less serious. With the almond, the present most
serious pest doubtless is the red spider; with the walnut, it is the walnut
blight; and with the pecan, it is the rosette; although each species of tree
has its other serious enemies.

REFERENCES
Georgia Expt. Station Bulletin 116. ''Pecans."

Farmers' Bulletin 700, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 'Tecan Culture, with Special Refer-
ence to Propagation and New Varieties."

CHAPTER 39

Miscellaneous tropical Fruits*

The Pineapple. — As a tropical fruit the pineapple ranks second to the
orange and banana. Originally a wild fruit, very small in size, it has by
constant cultivation and improvement been developed into one of the
choicest fruits in existence. Some varieties now produce very large fruit,
weighing as much as twenty pounds.

Pineapples thrive best in Porto Rico, Cuba, Hawaii and the tropical
islands, but can be grown easily in southern Florida and even further north,
if not exposed to frost.

The pineapple resembles the cabbage in that it grows on a short, leafy
stalk from one to three feet high. The plant is very leafy, the leaves of
most varieties being edged with spines.

Propagation. — Pineapples are propagated by means of ratoons, suckers,
slips and very seldom, when only for experimental purposes, by the seed.
A ratoon'is an individual plant formed among the roots of the mother plant
and appearing beside it from under the soil. A sucker is an individual
plant coming from the side of the stem above the soil. A slip is the small
plant that appears below the fruit on the fruit stalk. The small plants
that grow on the apex of the fruit are known as the crown slips. There is
no difference in the kind of plant produced by either the ratoon, the sucker
or the slip. However, the sucker and the slip are to be preferred, because
plants from ratoons will die easily if not handled properly. The main thing
is to select a well-matured slip or sucker. Suckers have an advantage over
the slips, inasmuch as they are several months older and, of course, they
bear sooner. Whether suckers or slips are selected to be planted, they
should be trimmed by cutting the base and stripping off the lower leaves.
One inch and a half to two inches of stem should be left exposed. It is
better to let them dry a little before planting. This is called curing.

Soil. — The pineapple will grow in a great variety of soils, but thrives
best in light, deep, well-drained, sandy soils. Damp and heavy soils are
unfavorable. The plant is a gross feeder and calls for a liberal supply of
nitrogenous fertilizers. Experiments carried on in Porto Rico have demon-
strated that the plant responds to commercial fertilizers. A small plant,
although in poor soil, has attained astonishing proportions after the fertil-
izer has been applied. So, when enough plant-food is available and the
roots may obtain all the air they need, the pineapple can be successfully
grown on a wide range of soils.

♦In preparing this chapter the author wag assisted by Mr. F. G. de Quevedo, formerly of Porto Rico,
DOW teacher of Spanish in Pennsylvauia State College.

(507)

The Pineapple Plant in Fruit. ^

1 — Main stalk. 2— Ratoon. 3— Sucker. 4 — Head of fruit.
7 — Crown slip. 8 — Crown.

5— Slip. C— Fruit.

'Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Porto Rico Bulletin Xo. 8.

(508)

From one to two thousand pounds per acre of blood and bone or cotton-
seed meal will improve the size and quality of the fruit, and maintain the
fertility of the land. The following summary taken from Bulletin 104 of
the Florida Experiment Station, will serve as the best guide for the fertil-
izing of pineapples.

(a) Fine-ground steamed bone and slag phosphate are best as sources
of phosphoric acid; cottonseed meal, dried blood and castor pomace are
best as sources of nitrogen; high-grade and low-grade sulphate of potash
are best as sources of potash.

(6) Nitrate of soda, acid phosphate and kainit have not proven satis-
factory. (While sulphate of ammonia was not used in the experiment,
this material has in general practice been found unsuited to pineapple
culture.)

to use from 2250 to 3750 pounds per acre annually of a complete fertihzer.

^ (d) Analyses of a large number of fruits (Red Spanish) covering a

period of four years show that the eating quality of the fruit is not affected

by the kind of fertilizer used.

(e) The sugar content of the fruit (Red Spanish) is slightly increased
by the heavier fertilizer applications.

(/) The large fruits contain a slightly higher percentage of sugar than
the small ones.

(g) The analyses of a large number of pineapple plants show that they
contain sufficient fertilizing materials, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash,
lime and magnesia to make them of considerable value as a fertilizer.

(h) With an increase of nitrogenous fertilizers there was found an
increase of nitrates in the soil.

(i) Nitrates are most abundant at the immediate surface. After a
depth of one foot is passed the amount is very small.

(j) Where the surface of the ground is not protected, the nitrates are
much less abundant than where there is a covering of plants and decaying
leaves.

Preparation of Soil. — The essentials for the pineapple are a limited
water supply, abundance of air for the roots and plenty of available plant-
food. The selection and preparation of the soil should meet these require-
ments, as fully as possible. Sandy soils or sand, naturally most nearly
meet the physical requirements. Such soil should be thoroughly plowed
and freed from noxious weeds and grass before starting the plantation. If
the soil is level and inclined to be wet after excessive rains, it should be
made into rather wide beds on which the plants are set. The plants are
set in rows 15 to 18 inches apart and as many as 20 rows to the bed. The
advantages of this close setting lie in economy in the use of fertilizers, the
support which the plants give to each other, and the thoroughness with
which they shade the ground and prevent the growth of weeds and grass
after they are fully established. With this system of planting, there should

■}' 'AT*

The Pineapple Plant in Fhuit.^

1— Main stalk. 2— Ratoon. 3— Sucker. 4— Head of fruit.
7 — Crown slip. 8 — Crown.

o — Slip. G — Fruit.

'Courtesy of V. S. Dopt. of Agripulturc. From Porto Rico Bulletin Xo. 8.

(508)

MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS

509

{h) Nitrate of soda, acid phosphate and kainit have not proven satis-
factory. (While sulphate of ammonia was not used in the experiment,
this material has in general practice been found unsuited to pineapple
culture.)

to use from 2250 to 3750 pounds per acre annually of a complete fertilizer.

^ {d) Analyses of a large number of fruits (Red Spanish) covering a

period of four years show that the eating quality of the fruit is not affected

by the kind of fertilizer used.

(e) The sugar content of the fruit (Red Spanish) is slightly increased
by the heavier fertilizer applications.

(/) The large fruits contain a slightly higher percentage of sugar than
the small ones.

{(j) The analyses of a large number of pineapple plants show that they
contain sufficient fertilizing materials, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash,
lime and magnesia to make them of conj^uderable value as a fertilizer.

{h) With an increase of nitrogenous fertilizers there was found an
increase of nitrates in the soil.

(?) Nitrates are most abundant at the immediate surface. After a
depth of one foot is passed the amount is very small.

{j) Where the surface of the ground is not protected, the nitrates are
much less abundant than where there is a covering of plants and decaying
heaves.

Preparation of Soil. — The essentials for the pineapple are a limited
water supply, abundance of air for the roots and plenty of available plant-
food. The selection and j)reparation of the soil should meet these require-
ments, as fully as possible. Sandy soils or sand, naturally most nearly
meet the physical requirements. Such soil should be thoroughly plowed
and freed from noxious weeds and grass before starting the plantation. If
the soil is level and inclined to be wet after excessive rains, it should be
made into rather wide beds on which the plants are set. The plants are
set in rows 15 to 18 inches apart and as many as 20 rows to the bed. The
advantages of this close setting lie in economy in the use of fertilizers, the
support which the plants give to each other, and the thoroughness with
which they shade the ground and prevent the growth of weeds and grass
after they are fully established. With this system of planting, there should

I 11

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

510

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

be ample room to pass between the beds for the purpose of carrying the
fruits from the field when they are mature. There should also be roadways
crossing the beds at intervals of a few hundred feet sufficiently wide to
allow the passage of a wagon.

When planted on heavier soils the single-row or double-row systems of
planting is preferred. This allows for horse cultivation by means of which

Pineapples Planted in an Orange Grove. *
This provides a revenue from the land while the trees are coming to the bearing age.

weeds and grass are subdued and the soil kept loose to facilitate thorough
aeration.

Pineapple plants bear but one fruit, after which they die. The new
crop is secured from the slips and suckers from the mother plant. Like
most crops, pineapples will not succeed by continuous cultivation on the
same land. A rotation of crops is therefore advised. On soils that are
especially well adapted to the pineapple three consecutive crops can be
grown before the soil is devoted to other crops.

Cultivation. — The cultivation should aim to maintain a loose condition
of soil and prevent the growth of weeds and grasses. Hand cultivation
will be necessary in case of level, sandy soils planted in beds as above

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Porto Rico Bulletin No. 8.

MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS

511

mentioned. The looser the sand the less stirring will be required and the
greater the saving in labor. When planted in the single-row system the
cultivation should also aim to support the plants from tipping over as much
as possible. The fruits being borne at considerable height and being of
considerable weight, cause the plants to tip. In this position the fruits
are subject to sun-scald on one side which gives them a poor appearance
when placed upon the market.

Varieties.— The leading varieties are the Cayenne, a conical, slightly
yellow, aromatic, juicy fruit, weighing as much as ten pounds: Queen, an
exceptionally aromatic fruit, very desirable and very extensively culti-
vated; it is a good keeper, ships well and weighs as much as eight pounds
per fruit: Spanish, medium in size, juicy, good quality and early, fruits
weigh as much as six pounds and are a favorite on many of the markets.
There are many other varieties that are good for local consumption, but
not all of them possess good shipping qualities.

Marketing.— The keeping qualities of pineapples depend largely
upon the care with which they are handled. They are susceptible to
injuries, especially bruises, and should be handled as carefully as straw-
berries or other perishable fruits. Stiff bushel baskets are recommended
for collecting the fruit from the plants. Some of the varieties may be
removed from the plants by giving the fruit a quick jerk across the knee.
Others, like the cabezonas, must be cut off. In all events, the stem must
never break into the fruit. Cutting with a long stem is advised.

The fruit is best shipped in crates. It should be graded to uniformity
in size and appearance. Care should be exercised to so pack that the spines
on the crowns will not puncture the fruit.

The Avocado is a tropical tree, adapted to climatic conditions in south-
ern California and a considerable portion of Florida. Most of the varieties
are injured by frost, but the more hardy ones will stand a few degrees below
freezing. The tree is an evergreen with large, leathery leaves. It attains a
height of from 26 to GO feet, depending upon the variety and local conditions.
The wood is brittle and easily broken by winds. The flowers and fruit are
easily blown from the trees. For this reason the trees should be grown in
sheltered locations or artificial windbreaks should be provided.

The fruit varies in size, shape and color. While it is usually pear-
shaped, it not infrequently is round or oval. The color ranges through
light-green, dark-green, brown, purple and red. The center of the fruit
contains a single, large, round seed. The yellowish-buttery, fleshy portion
between the seed and the skin is the edible part. It is rich in protein and
oil, the percentage of the latter ranging from 10 to 30 per cent of the pulp.
Professor J. E. Higgins, in Bulletin No. 25 of the Hawaiian Experiment
Station, describes the fruit as follows: ''Its unique character reduces to a
minimum its competition with other fruits, while its rich, nut-like flavor
is almost universally enjoyed among those who have known it long enough
to become familiar with its peculiar charm. It is a fruit and yet so unlike

MirfiTTirriMin'v ,

510

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

When planted on heavier soils the single-row or double-row systems of
planting is preferred. This allows for horse cultivation by means of which

Pineapples Planted in an Orange Grove. ^
This provides a revenue from the land while the trees are coming to the bearing age.

weeds and grass are sulxlued and the soil kept loose to facilitate thorough
aeration.

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Porto Rico Bulletin No. 8.

MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS

511

Marketing.— The keeping qualities of pineapples depend largely
upon the care with which they are handled. They are susceptible to
injuries, especially bruises, and should be handled as carefully as straw-
berries or other peiishable fruits. Stiff bushel baskets are recommended
for collecting the fruit from the plants. Some of the varieties may be
removed from the plants by giving the fruit a quick jerk across the knee.
Others, like the cabezonas, must be cut off. In all events, the stem must
never break into the fruit. Cutting with a long stem is advised.

The fruit is best shipped in crates. It should be graded to uniformity
in size and appearance. Care shoukl be exercised to so pack that the spines
on the crowns will not puncture the fruit.

The fruit varies in size, shape and color. While it is usually pear-
shaped, it not infrequently is round or oval. The color ranges through
light-green, dark-green, brown, purple and red. The center of the fruit
contains a single, large, round seed. The yellowish-buttery, fleshy portion
between the seed and the skin is the edible part. It is rich in protein and
oil, the percentage of the latter ranging from 10 to 30 per cent of the pulp.
Professor J. E. Higgins, in Bulletin No. 25 of the Hawaiian Experiment
Station, describes the fruit as follows: ''Its unique character reduces to a
minimum its competition with other fruits, while its rich, nut-like flavor
is almost universally enjoyed ainong those who have known it long enough
to become familiar with its peculiar charm. It is a fruit and yet so unlike

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

■^«»w

512

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

other fruits as to suggest a class of its own, and for this reason it has been
called a 'salad fruit/ But this term seems too limiting, because it is used
in so many other ways. There are many ways in which it might be served.
The simplest treatment is to cut open the fruit longitudinally, remove the
seeds and serve, affording everybody the opportunity to add salt, pepper,
vinegar, olive oil, lime juice or other seasoning in any combination to suit
the individual taste. Some prefer it as a dessert with sugar and cream, or
with wine and lemon or orange juice. It may be served on the side with

soup, and in this way is
delicious. It is true that
the taste for the avocado
is an acquired one, yet
there are few, if any,
food products which so
quickly overcome any
prejudice and become so
highly esteemed. The
novice may pronounce
the first fruit worthless,
but the second is toler-
al)le, the third good, the
fourth better, the fifth
a delight and after that
the difficulty of learmng
to like them usually
gives place to that of
getting them often
enough. '^

The avocado is
adapted to a wide range
of soils. It demands
good drainage and
plenty of organic mat-
ter. The trees do well
in the southern coast district of California and in various sections of
Florida. The geographic limits of successful avocado culture are at
present undetermined.

The avocado responds to judicious applications of fertilizers. The
texture and flavor as well as the yield of fruit are improved by fertilizers.
Excessive amounts of nitrogen should be avoided.

The trees are propagated from the seeds. These must be fresh, as
they soon lose their vitality when exposed to the air. It has been a com-
mon practice to produce bearing trees from the seedlings without grafting.
The seed should be planted in the soil either in pots, in nursery rows or in

1 Courtesy of University of California, College of Agriculture. Berkeley, Cal.

The Taft Avocado Fruit.^

MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS

513

permanent position in the orchard. They should be planted so that the
upper portion of the seed protrudes slightly above the surface of the soil.
Best results are usually obtained by planting in pots and transferring the
seedlings to the field when they are of the proper size.

When the trees are not to be grafted the seed should be selected with
much care, only the largest seeds from trees that produce the best quality
of fruit being used. Even this care will not insure a uniform good quality
in the new orchard. Like all seedlings, they seldom come true to the parent
stock. Best results are, therefore, obtained by propagating through some

Method of Budding the Avocado.^

form of cuttings, selecting the scions from trees that are prolific and produce
fruit of good quality.

, Until recently it has been thought impossible to successfully bud the
avocado. Careful study of the subject and numerous experiments have
resulted in a successful method of budding, following what is known as the
shield budding method. This is similar to that practiced in the budding of
citrus trees. The success seems to depend chiefly upon the character of
growth from which buds to be inserted are selected. Buds from what is
called second flush in growth have been found superior to those in any other
stage of development.

It is often desirable to re-work good-sized trees. This may be success-
fully accomplished by budding into new wood forced out for the purpose.
The trees are usually cut back severely in the spring and the cut stubs

» Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Porto Rico Bulletin No. 8.
88

^&%',

512

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

other fruits as to suggest a class of its own, and for this reason it has been
called a 'salad fruit.' But this term seems too limiting, because it is used
in so many other ways. There are many ways in w^iich it might be served.
The simplest treatment is to cut open the fruit longitudinally, remove the
seeds and serve, affording everybody the opportunity to add salt, pepper,
vinegar, olive oil, Hme juice or other seasoning in any combination to suit
the individual taste. Some prefer it as a dessert with sugar and cream, or
^vith wine and lemon or orange juice. It may be served on the side with

soup, and in this way is
delicious. It is true that
the taste for the avocado
is an acquired one, yet
there are few, if any,
food products which so
quickly overcome any
prejudice and become so
highly esteemed. The
novice may pronounce
the first fruit worthless,
but the second is toler-
able, the third good, the
fourth better, the fifth
a delight and after that
the difficulty of learning
to like them usually
gives place to that of
getting them often
enough. '^

The avocado responds to judicious applications of fertilizers. The
texture and flavor as well as the yield of fruit are improved by fertilizers.
Excessive amounts of nitrogen should l)e avoided.

» Courtesy of University of California, College of Agriculture. Berkeley, Cal.

The Taft Avocado Fruit.*

MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS

513

Method of Budding the Avocado.^

form of cuttings, selecting the scions from trees that are prolific and produce
fruit of good quality.

Until recently it has been thought impossible to successfully bud the
avocado. Careful study of the subject and numerous experiments have
resulted in a successful method of budding, following what is known as the
shield budding method. This is similar to that practiced in the budding of
citrus trees. The success seems to depend chiefly upon the character of
growth from which buds to l)e inserted are selected. Buds from what is
called second flush in growth have been found superior to those in any other
stage of development.

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Porto Rico Bulletin No. 8.
33

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

514

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

covered with wax or paint to prevent decay. Of the new shoots that start,
only a few are allowed to grow and when these attain a size of three-quarters
of an inch in diameter they are ready for budding in the manner above
described.

Pruning should take place during the early growth of the trees to
establisla low heads and the proper form. After well grown, trees require
very little pruning. The wood, being quite soft, will not stand abuse
from pruning instruments. All cuts should be smoothly made and, on all
larger branches, should be protected with a covering of paint or wax to
prevent decay.

The seedling trees come into bearing between the fourth and eighth
years, the average bearing age being about six years. The life of the tree
in Florida and California is as yet not determined, although there are
records of trees eighty or more years old in some parts of the American
tropics. It will be safe to estimate the bearing life at not over twenty-
five years. -•

Like the deciduous fruits, the avocado has a tendency to fruit in alter-
nate years. This is generally due to setting more fruit than can be properly
matured. Thinning is therefore advised. This will encourage larger size
and better quality of the fruits that are allowed to remain and will not over-
tax the tree so as to prevent its bearing a crop the foUoyving year. Individ-
ual trees of the thin-skinned Mexican variety in southern California have
produced as many as 5000 small fruits annually. Such fruits have little
commercial value, but are of considerable value for their seeds, which are
used for nursery purposes. Of course, these should all be grafted or budded
before being set in orchards.

All fruits that are to be placed upon the market should be hand picked
and handled with the greatest care. Orange clippers are advised for this
purpose, about three-eighths of an inch of the stem being left on each fruit.
The fruits, if to be shipped, should be carefully wrapped and packed in
small packages, so that they will carry without injury. Fruits of fine
quality in good condition on the large city markets in the United States
sell for 30 to 75 cents each. The kind of fruits to ship will depend upon
market demands and the shipping qualities of the different varieties.

The industry of growing avocados is comparatively new and a list of
the most desirable varieties for different purposes is not available. At
least twenty-five different varieties of California origin have come to
notice. It is doubtful if the commercial variety of the future has yet
appeared. At least, none have been found that may be considered good
shippers.

As a fruit the avocado exceeds in food value all other species. A test
of the food value of twenty-six varieties gave an average of 984 calories per
pound of edible fruit. This is important, as it is more than twice the maxi-
mum noted for any other fruits. The fuel value is not far from twice that
of average lean meat. Of course, they are much lower in protein.

MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS 515

The avocado is worthy of careful experimentation in those localities
where climate will permit of its growth. It doubtless has great possibili-
ties, although the demand for the fruit at present is limited.

The Mango.— It originated in India. There it has been cultivated
for many centuries and the fruit is as important to the people of that
country as is the apple to the people of North America.

The fruit of the mango is not well known outside of the regions in
which It IS grown. It is strictly a tropical fruit and under favorable condi-

Fruit of the Mango. Seed on the Right.i

tions the tree attains a height of sixty feet or more and produces fruit for
several decades. In the United States it is grown chiefly in the southern
part of Florida. When in a dormant state the trees will withstand a temper-
ature of seven or eight degrees below freezing, but if growing rapidly when
freezing weather occurs, the trees are killed back to the ground.

It does best on fairly deep, rich, well-drained soils, but requires a
liberal amount of moisture.

Mango trees are usually propagated from seeds. As with any other
fruit, trees produced in this way are not true to the parent stock. More

^Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Annual Report of Porto Rico A. E. S., 1912.

f^i/k^mm

514

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The seedling trees come into bearing between the fourth and eighth
years, the average bearing age being about six years. The life of the tree
in Florida and California is as yet not determined, although there are
records of trees eighty or more years old in some ])arts of the American
tropics. It will be safe to estimate the bearing life at not over twenty-
five years.

Like the deciduous fruits, the avocado has a tendency to fruit in alter-
nate years. This is generally due to setting more fruit than can be properly
matured. Thinning is therefore advised. This will encoiu'age larger size
and better quality of the fruits that are allowed to remain and will not over-
tax the tree so as to prevent its bearing a crop the following year. Individ-
ual trees of the thin-skinned Mexican variety in southern California have
produced as many as 5000 small fruits annually. Such fruits have little
commercial value, but are of considerable value for their seeds, which are
used for nursery purposes. Of course, these should all be grafted or budded
before being set in orchards.

All fruits that are to be placed upon the market should be hand picked
and handled with the greatest care. Orange clippers are adviscnl for this
purpose, about three-eighths of an inch of the stem l)eing left on ea(^li fruit.
The fruits, if to be shipped, should be carefully wrapped and packed in
small packages, so that they will carry without injury. Fruits of fine
quality in good condition on the large city markets in the United States
sell for 30 to 75 cents each. The kind of fruits to ship will dei^end upon
market demands and the shipping qualities of the different varieties.

MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS

^515

The avocado is worthy of careful experimentation in those localities
where chmate will permit of its growth. It doubtless has great possibili-
ties, although the demand for the fruit at present is limited.

The Mango.— It originated in India. There it has been cultivated
tor many centuries and the fruit is as important to the people of that
country as is the apple to the people of North America.

The fruit of the mango is not well known outside of the regions in
which It IS grown. It is strictly a tropical fruit and under favorable condi-

Fruit of the Mango. Seed on the Right, i

It does best on fairly deep, rich, well-drained soils, but requires a
liberal amount of moisture.

Mango trees are usually propagated from seeds. As with any other
fruit, trees produced in this way are not true to the parent stock. More

^Courtesy of U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture. From Annual Report of Porto Rico A. E. S., 1912.

II
II

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

516

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

recently, methods of grafting by inarching and patch grafting have come
into use. The usual method of budding deciduous trees has not given
satisfaction with the mango.

Inarching has long been in use in India. It has been adapted in
Florida with many modifications.

The mango seeds are generally planted in pots four or five inches in
diameter and eight to twelve inches deep. These may be made from cypress
shingles or by using the internodes of rather large bamboos. The seeds are
laid flatwise in the soil and covered to a depth of about an inch and a half.
The pots must be watered at frequent intervals.

Best results are secured if seedlings are kept under partial shade.
When they have attained a height of ten to twelve inches they are ready
to be inarched. The pots are brought near the tree from which scions are
to be secured. If the tree is so tall that its branches cannot be bent down to
the ground, it will be necessary to provide a scaffolding to support the pots.
The tree selected for this purpose should be one bearing the best quality
of fruit. Branches for inarching should be in such condition that the bark
will peel freely. A strip of bark about three inches long is removed from
the side of the stock. A similar strip is also removed from the scion and
the two are brought together so that the cut surfaces will fit closely and are
securely held by wrapping. In about two weeks a cross-cut may be made in
the stock two or three inches above the union and in the scion, just below
the union. After two more weeks, these cuts may be deepened. At the
end of six weeks all plants should be carefully inspected. If a good union
has been effected the plant may now be severed from the tree and the top ot
stock removed. The plants should now be transferred to a plant house or
the shade of a tree, where they should remain until one good flush of
growth has matured. They are now ready to set in the field.

Budding the mango by the square patch method is also successful.
For this puri)ose the stock or branch should be an inch or more in diameter.
A patch of bark one and one-half inches long and three-quarters of an inch
wide is removed with a sharp knife or chisel. Next the desired bud with an
equal amount of bark attached is secured and fitted securely to the stock.
The bud should be held-in place with raffia or other wrapping material.
The wrapping should not be too tight. A suitable form of grafting wax
should be used to smear the cut edge and keep out water. The whole stem
for several inches above and below the bud should be covered with waxed
cloth, leaving only the bud open to view. Budding should take place when
the sap is moving freely.

Mango trees should be planted about thirty feet apart each way.
They should be properly cared for so as to form low-headed trees with
strong branches from which the fruit can be easily gathered.

It is advisable to inter-till and during the early stages of growth inter-
cropping may often take place.

The trees begin to bear from five to nine years of age.

?: Ill : j-i i--.^t„t:

MISCEi^LANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS 517

For immediate use the fruit should be allowed to ripen on the tree.
If it is to be stored or shipped long distances it should be gathered before
it fully ripens. If hand picked, wrapped in paper and packed in small
packages, it will keep for several weeks. The keeping period may be
lengthened by cold storage.

The fruit is best prepared for eating by placing on ice, until thoroughly
chilled. In this
condition it may
be readily peeled
and sliced. The
fruit is used chiefly
in the fresh state,
although in the
tropics where
grown it is fre-
quently used for
sauce or made into
pies and has great
possibilities for
various forms of
preserves.

The Banana.
— The banana is
strictly a tropical
fruit. It is a large
herb, with aperen-
nial root stalk.
The top grows
rapidly and
reaches a height of
from ten to thirty
feet, depending on
variety. It
requires from
twelve to fifteen
months from time

of planting to the maturity of the fruit. Ea(;h plant bears one cluster of
fruit, and upon its maturity the plant dies. Numerous shoots arise from
the base of ^the original plant. Most of these are removed for use in
establishing a new plantation, but some are left to take the place of the
old plant.

Within the past thirty years the banana has become popular in the
markets of the North and is quite extensively used. It excels in the ease

'Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Annual Report, Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment
Station, 1913.

A Top- WORKED Mango Tree in Fruit. ^

516

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

recently, methods of grafting by inarching and patch grafting have come
into use. The usual method of budding deciduous trees has not given
satisfaction with the mango.

Inarching has long been in use in India. It has been adapted in
Florida with many modifications.

Best results are secured if seedlings are kept under partial shade.
When they have attained a height of ten to twelve inches they are ready
to be inarched. The pots are brought near the tree from which scions are
to be secured. If the tree is so tall that its branches cannot be bent down to
the ground, it will be necessary to i)rovide a scaffolding to support the pots.
The tree selected for this pur])ose should be one bearing the best quality
of fruit. Branches for inarching should be in such condition that the bark
will i^eel freely. A strip of bark about three inches long is removed from
the side of the stock. A similar strip is also removed from the scion and
the two are l^rought together so that the cut surfaces will fit closely and are
securely held by wrapping. In about two weeks a cross-cut may be made in
the stock two or three inches above the union and in the scion, just l:)elow
the union. After two more weeks, these cuts may l^e deepened. At the
end of six weeks all ])lants should be carefully inspected. If a good union
has been effected the plant may now be severed from the tree and the top ot
stock removed. The plants should now be transferred to a jilant house or
the shade of a tree, where they should remain until one good flush of
growth has matured. They are now ready to set in the field.

Budding the mango by the square patch method is also successful.
For this pur])ose the stock or branch should be an inch or more in diameter.
A patch of bark one and one-half inches long and three-quarters of an inch
wide is removed with a sharji knife or chisel. Next the desired bud with an
equal amount of bark attached is secured and fitted securely to the stock.
The bud should be hekhin place with raffia or other wrapping material.
The wrapping should not })e too tight. A suitable form of grafting wax
should be used to smear the cut edge and keep out water. The whole stem
for several inches above and below the bud should be covered with waxed
cloth, leaving only the bud open to view. Budding should take place when
the sap is moving freely.

Mango trees should be planted about thirty feet apart each way.
The}^ should be properly cared for so as to form low-headed trees with
strong l>ranches from which the fruit can be easily gathered.

It is advisa})le to inter-till and during the early stages of growth inter-
cropping may often take place.

The trees begin to bear from five to nine years of age.

^^m..■n;^^^I^PI■■^^a,f jaa-ms^T

MISCEi^LANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS 517

» ",%

of planting to the maturity of the fiuit. Each ])laiit boars one cluster of
fruit, and upon its maturity tlie [)lant dies. Numerous shoots arise from
the base of ^the original plant. Most of these are removed for use in
establishing a new plantation, but some are left to take the place of the
old plant.

Within the past thirty years the banana has become popular in the
markets of the North and is quite extensively used. It excels in the ease

'Courtesy of U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Annual Kcport, l^orto llico Agricultural Experiment
Station, 1913.

•

r
f '

•

' ■ ■ ^ "■■';"' '"■^'•- ■-.'

^ - r ♦>•.'*,»

■ .. ■■ ,--^'

;%.,

' •

•

■r

fv-'^lP

'^ ?• * M

■m

» ■

*^m

A Top-woiiKKi) Mancu) Tkke in Fki it.^

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

518

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

with which it is handled. On the plantation a cluster of from 100 to 200
fruits, equal in amount to a crate of other fruits, is severed from the plant
with one stroke of the machete. The fruits are protected by a tough skin
which readily separates from the rather dry meat.

The banana is cultivated in practically all tropical countries. Those
countries leading in banana production are Jamaica, Costa Rica, Cuba and
Honduras. The commercial supply for North America comes chiefly from
the West Indies.

There are countless varieties of bananas, but very few of these are of
commercial importance. Many of the most delicious ones are of local
value only because of small size or poor shipping quahties. The varieties
usually met with in the markets are the large yellow fruits, and, less fre-
quently, the red ones.

The clusters of fruit are cut from the plant when quite green and hung
up in a dark room to ripen. When shipped to distant markets, the fruit is
sent directly from the plantations to the fruit steamers, and ripen while in
transit. They generally reach their destination before they are sufficiently
ripe to use.

The banana is grown in Florida and the southern portion of the Gulf
states. It is found as far north as Charleston, S. C. In the extreme
northern liniits it is grown chiefly as an ornamental plant. In the southern
half of Florida it has been grown commercially to a limited extent. For
central Florida the Orinoco and Hart varieties are best. These are both
early and hardy. In the southern part of the state the Dwarf Jamaica
variety is successfully grown. If freezing weather occurs, the base of the
plants to a height of two or three feet may be protected with earth or straw.
If the tops are frozen they should be removed by cutting just below the
frozen portion. A new growi;h will start almost immediately from the
center of the stalk and will mature fruit before the close of the season.

With few exceptions the banana is seedless, and must therefore be
propagated by planting suckers or sprouts. These are generally removed
from the mother plant when several feet in height. By cutting the top of
the sucker back to a foot in height it will keep for several weeks. These
are set in the new plantation at intervals of ten to fifteen feet apart each
way. The larger the variety, the greater should be the distance between
plants.

Bananas require a fertile, well-drained soil, well supplied with humus.
They develop best in a humid climate. Their extensive and tender foliage
necessitates protection from strong winds. The soil between the plants
should be cultivated to subdue weeds and grass and to conserve soil
moisture until the plants are large enough to shade the ground.

The Fig. — While the original home of the fig tree is around the Persian
Gulf, the tree will grow and thrive in any warm climate. It is very hardy
and noted for its longevity, often remaining productive for a hundred years.

The fig can be cultivated in the warmer parts of the United States and

MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS 519

will withstand considerable freezing. The young shoots are easily frosted,
but, owing to its hardy constitution, a tree though severely frosted will send
forth new shoots and will often bear fruit the following season. A heavy
frost, however, while the sap is flowing freely, is apt to be fatal.

The warm interior valleys of Arizona and Cahfornia, being dry, are
much more favorable for fig culture than the Gulf states. The rainfall of
the Gulf states, occurring at the time of fig ripening, often causes the fruit
to burst and decay before maturity. The fresh fig is a delicious fruit, but
on account of its perishable nature, has not been widely cultivated for
commercial purposes.

The fig tree will grow and thrive in a variety of soils. It is a gross
feeder and requires much moisture for its long spreading roots. Where
frosts are liable to occur, rich, moist lands should be avoided, as this kind of
soil promotes a late luxuriant growth, which is very easily killed by frost.

The fig is propagated by means of suckers and cuttings. Seldom is it
propagated by seed, as seedlings have a tendency to revert to their wild
state. Trees from seedlings require three years before beginning to bear,
and several more years to come into full fruitage. Trees from cuttings
may bear a few figs the first year and will be in full fruitage in two or three
years. Cuttings six or eight inches long should be made from young,
well-seasoned wood. These should be made in the spring before the sap
begins to run, and hung inverted for a time until the ends are calloused over.

The trees mature more rapidly if the cuttings are planted in their
permanent position. They should be planted in a deep hole, filled in with
rich compost, and liberally watered. Cuttings, transplanted after growth
has begun, are often retarded two or three years in growth. Barren trees
may be successfully grafted.

Fig trees planted in orchards should be fifteen or twenty feet apart.
This distance is sufficient for the Southern states, but in the Pacific Coast
region, where the trees grow to a greater size, thirty to forty feet is a better
distance. The low-branching varieties are best, as they are not so easily
injured by winds.

Except to remove dead or decayed limbs, the fig tree requires very
little pruning. In young orchards the cultivation must be shallow in order
to avoid injury to the surface roots. Fertihzers scattered broadcast and
worked into the earth near the trees are beneficial in the early stages of
growth.

The Guava. — The guava, a native of tropical America, has spread to
all tropical countries. In character of growth and fruit it most nearly
resembles the quince of temperate regions. It is sometimes called the
apple of the tropics.

The plant is a shrub, seldom attaining a height of more than twelve
feet. The vegetative growth is easily killed by frost, but is renewed quickly
from the roots. For this reason it can be successfully grown in sub-tropical
localities.

520

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The fruit varies greatly in size and color, ranging from an inch in
diameter to the size of large apples. When ripe, it is white or yellow, with
a sub-acid pulp of the same color as the skin. The color sometimes deepens
into crimson. The fruit contains many small seeds. It is used chiefly
for making jelly and preserves.

The guava is propagated from seeds and cuttings.

Recently this fruit has received considerable attention in Florida, where
it finds a place in nearly every fruit garden. Where frosts occur, the tops
may be protected during the winter by laying them down and covering
them with straw and earth.

REFERENCES

''Text Book of Tropical Agriculture." Nicholls.
California Expt. Station Bulletins:

250. ''The Loquat."

254. "The Avocado in California."
Florida Expt. Station Bulletins:

101. "Pineapple Culture, VI."

104. "Pineapple Culture, VII."
Hawaii Expt. Station Bulletins, O. E. S., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

28. "Effect of Manganese on Pineapple Plants and Fruits."
25. "The Avocado in Hawaii."

12. "The Mango in Hawaii."

20. "Shield Budding the Mango."

36. "The Pineapple in Hawaii."

29. "Management of Pineapple Soils."

Porto Rico Expt. Station Bulletin 11, O. E. S., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Relation

of Calcareous Soils to Pineapple Chlorasis."
O. E. S., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 8. "Pineapple Growing in Porto Rico."

CHAPTER 40

The farm Woodlot

By F. F. Moon

Professor of Forest Engineering^ College of Forestry, Syracuse

University f N, F.

Need of Forestry. — To properly solve the land problem of any nation
each acre should be put to its best permanent use. Field crops should be
grown upon the tillable areas and the land which is too steep or stony for
cultivation or too sterile for ordinary field crops should be made to produce
repeated crops of timber. That is why the practice of forestry, which is
*'the raising of repeated crops of timber on soils unsuited to agriculture,"
is necessary to secure the proper use of all the land.

Forestry is not a part of agriculture. It is separate, but co-ordinate
and interdependent. Agriculture has first call upon the land and selects
the fertile and level areas for tillage. Forestry takes the remaining portion
and raises the timber indispensable to our civilization. Both are concerned
with crops, since the forester regards his timber-covered areas as fields to
be sown (either by nature or artificially), tended and finally reaped, for
forestry means using the products of the forest and does not mean locking
up the woodlands for park purposes, as some people think.

The practice of forestry upon the non-agricultural soils is absolutely
essential for three reasons:

(1) Timber is absolutely indispensable to our civilization.

(2) There are large areas of land which can never be used for agri-

culture.

(3) The indirect influence of the forest in moderating climatic

extremes, in controlling run-off, etc., is necessary to the success-
ful practice of agriculture and to the health and comfort of the
people.

1. Next to food, shelter is most important. According to Fernow, over
half our population live in wooden houses, and two-thirds use wood for
fuel. The same authority estimates that 95 per cent of all the timber
consumed in the United States is for necessities.

Our per capita consumption of wood is unusually high, and on the
increase. (It is twice what it was fifty years ago.) We consume six times
as much timber per capita as in Germany, and twenty times as much as in
Great Britain.

2. Agriculture can never be practiced on a large part of this continent,
and this land must not be allowed to lie idle. Of the 1,900,000,000 acres

(521)

k'l

522

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

of land in the United States, 550,000,000 acres are now covered with forests
(65 per cent of the original forest area) and 415,000,000 acres are devoted to
agriculture. Agricultural experts have estimated that within the next fifty
years the forest area of this country will have been reduced to about
360,000,000 acres, and that the present area of forest land held in the form
of farm woodlots (190,000,000 acres) will have diminished to 90,000,000
acres. So that with the exhaustion of virgin supplies of timber, the farm
woodlot will be relatively much more important fifty years hence than it is
at the present time.

3. The indirect influences exerted by forest cover are much greater
than is generally supposed. Recent investigations have indicated that the
rains in the interior of a continent are largely dependent on the presence of
large bodies of timber situated in the track of prevailing winds.

In some parts of the Middle West the value of windbreaks in checking
the force of hot southern winds may exceed their value as a source of timber,
fuel and fencing. The influence of forest cover upon run-off — the drying
up of springs, the increase in spring floods after extensive forest denuda-
tion— are well known. Water experts claim that the gradual lowering of
the water in the soil is dependent to a large degree upon the absence of
sufficient forest area.

Value of the Woodlot. — The value of a good woodlot to a progressive
farmer is hard to measure in dollars and cents. It serves the following
ends:

(1) It furnishes timber for home construction purposes, fuel, fence

posts, etc.

(2) It should now, as in the past, furnish winter employment to

horses and men. Domestic timber, telephone poles or railroad
ties for the market, etc., can all be taken out during the winter
months to the vast improvement of the bank account and wood-
lot.

(3) A good woodlot is like a bank account — it can be drawn on in time

of need. After a fire, the barn may be largely rebuilt from
home timbers, and in case money is badly needed, some logs
or poles may be sold to tide matters over. A good farm
woodlot is a fine nest egg.

(4) It vastly improves the appearance of the home place and makes

it more salable.

Aside from sheltering the homestead and barns from wintry blasts,
the woodlot covers the steep, rocky slopes or the marshy spots that would
otherwise be most unsightly. Viewed from every standpoint — revenue,
year-round farm management, appearance, real estate value and comfort —
the woodlot is a splendid asset to an up-to-date farm.

Managing the Woodlot. — The average woodlot at present is suffering
from the wrong point of view. It has been grazed and grazed again, burned,
culled and culled again until in many cases the compact soil cannot suppor

THE •FARM WOODLOT

523

the growth of any desirable species or specimens. With the enormous stand
of timber covering the agricultural land in colonial times, it is no wonder
that the forest was attacked vigorously and even ruthlessly by the early
settlers. It covered lands needed for tillage and it harbored enemies,
beasts and redskins, of equal ferocity. With the end of the virgin timber
supply less than five decades away, the farm woodlot is destined to play a
still more important role in supplying the local markets with necessary
timber. The reduction in the forest area and the increase in the value of
forest products will make the woodlot more profitable each succeeding
decade. Since a crop of timber cannot be grown over night, now is the time
to start for the benefit of the next generation.

A Well-Protected Farm Homestead.

By protecting farm buildings with trees, comfort of the family is vastly' increased and

farm economy better maintained.

To make specific recommendations for the management of the farm
woodlots in different parts of the country is impossible, for climate, soil
conditions, species and markets are all different. General points only can
be covered and if further details are necessary, bulletins from the Federal
Forest Service at Washington or State Forest Office, or Manuals on Wood-
lot Management may be sent for.

At the outset the forest should be regarded as a crop of trees. It is
sown by nature and is harvested only once every forty to sixty years, but
if the crop idea is kept in mind the cultural methods to be pursued will be
very easy to follow. The woodlot contains tree weeds, as well as desirable

522

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Value of the Woodlot. — The value of a good woodlot to a progressive
farmer is hard to measure in dollars and cents. It serves the following
ends:

(1) It furnishes timber for home construction purposes, fuel, fence

posts, etc.

(2) It should now, as in the past, furnish winter employment to

horses and men. Domestic timber, telephone poles or railroad
ties for the market, etc., can all be taken out during the winter
months to the vast improvement of the bank account and wood-
lot.

(3) A good woodlot is like a bank account — it can be drawn on in time

(4) It vastly improves the appearance of the home place and makes

it more salable.

Managing the Woodlot. — The average woodlot at present is suiTering
from the wrong point of view. It has been grazed and grazed again, burned,
culled and culled again until in many cases the compact soil cannot suppor

THE •FARM WOODLOT

523

A Well-Protected Farm Homestead.

By protecting farm buildings with trees, comfort of the family is vastly increased and

farm economy better maintained.

■g^:'y

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

:!^t^^'

■^^m^mt.

524

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

species, and the weeds as usual, should be exterminated. The laws of
plant growth, as understood by the average farmer, apply to trees in the
forests as well as to the plants in the field. There is only so much growing
energy — flight and heat, moisture and plant food — available for each acre '*
of forest. This energy should be confined to a few valuable trees and not
scattered among the several hundred additional weed trees that stand

Field and Woodlot.

Upon the fertile, level lands field crops should be raised, while the steep, rocky hillsides
unsuited to agriculture should be made to yield corps of timber.

upon each acre. It should be the aim to raise a crop of valuable timber
and not forest weeds.

Improvement Cuttings. — Under ordinary circumstances no improve-
ment cuttings are attempted until the material to be cut is large enough to
pay the cost of removal. Cuttings to improve the composition are some-
times made in very young stands where intensive management is possible.
Such cuttings, or cleanings as they are called, are ordinarily beyond the
pale of woodlot management, as the average farmer cannot afford to make
the investment ($1.50 to $3 per acre in young sprouts) which such cleanings

THE FARM WOODLOT

525

would cost. Therefore, it is better to postpone the cutting until the
undesirable specimens reach cordwood size (say twenty-five to thirty
years), when a thinning may be made.

The general idea in such a thinning would be to remove competing
trees which take light, food and moisture from the straight, thrifty trees
of more desirable species. Every farmer knows which trees are valuable

1^^^

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A Woodlot after Thinning.'

By removing dead and diseased trees and those of less desirable species, the remainder

of the stand will greatly increase its growth rate.

in his neighborhood and which individuals are not thrifty. In the Eastern
states, for example, such trees as ash, basswood, tulip-poplar, red oak, etc.,
are generally favored over the slower-growing and less desirable beech,
maple, black oak, horn bean, etc. Rapid-growing conifers, like pine and
spruce, are to be preferred to slower-growing and less valuable species like
hemlock and white cedar. As a rule, conifers should be encouraged upon
poorer soils, since they make less demand upon the site for plant food and
moisture.

l;;^/;^iMiSS;i^ii'il

ri^

■#i^f^^:

524

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

species, and the weeds as usual, should be exterminated. The laws of
plant growth, as understood by the average farmer, apply to trees in the
forests as well as to the plants in the field. There is only so much growing
energy — light and heat, moisture and plant food — available for each acre
of forest. This energy should be confined to a few valuable trees and not
scattered among the several hundred additional weed trees that stand

Field and Woodlot.

Upon the fertilo, level lands field crops should be raised, while the steep, rocky hillsides
unsuited to agriculture should be made to yield corps of timber.

upon each acre. It should be the aim to raise a crop of valuable timber
and not forest weeds.

THE FARM WOODLOT

525

would cost. Therefore, it is better to postpone the cutting until the
undesirable specimens reach cordwood size (say twenty-five to thirty
years), when a thinning may be made.

A Woodlot after Thinning.'

By removing dead and diseased trees and those of less desirable species, the remainder

of the stand will greatly increase its growth rate.

in his neighborhood and which individuals are not thrifty. Tn the Eastern
states, for example, such trees as ash, basswood, tulip-poplar, red oak, etc.,
are generally favored over the slower-growing and less desirable beech,
maple, black oak, horn bean, etc. Rapid-growing conifers, like pine and
spruce, are to be ])referred to slower-growing and less valuable species hke
hemlock and white cedar. As a rule, conifers should be encouraged upon
poorer soils, since they make less demand upon the site for plant food and
moisture.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

v'si'.'J

526

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

A method of thinning a woodlot which foresters term the French
method, can be used in many stands to advantage. The idea is to select
from 200 to 250 trees per acre, depending on the species, soil, etc., to form
your final crop, and to remove all weed trees or defective specimens which
are in any way interfering with the growth of these selected trees. By cut-,
ting away the trees crowding and competing with them, all of the growing
energy will be forced into the straight, thrifty stems which remain, with
the result that the succeeding years' growth rings will be laid on the trees
of greatest value. In this way railroad ties may be secured at thirty-five
years, whereas if left untouched, they would not reach sufficient size until
forty-five or fifty years.

For the final result, the technical quality of the species (including
local demand), the growth rate and the condition of the individual tree
determine whether or not it should be removed. Briefly summarized,
the points to be kept in mind in making a thinning are as follows:

1. Leave straight, fast-growing, thrifty trees of most valuable species.

2. Avoid making holes in the canopy that will not be filled within

five years by the natural growth of the crowns. (Excessive
exposure of the soil to sunhght causes drying out of the soil,
a rapid growth of weeds and diminished volume growth.)

3. In case of doubt, leave a tree, as it may be taken out at the time

of the next thinning.

Reproduction Cuttings. — The previously described cuttings are
designed primarily to hasten growth and to improve the composition of
the stand. The reproducing of the stand is not intended, although a heavy
improvement cutting in a woodlot old enough to produce seed may result
in a fine stand of young seedlings the next spring. This is by accident
rather than by design.

In certain of the Middle Western states where grazing is permitted in
the woodlot as a matter of course, where fires and bad cuttings have ex-
hausted and compacted the soils, reproduction cuttings are out of the
question. Only weed trees or old and decrepit specimens of desirable
varieties are still standing. The best, the only way, in cases Hke this, is
to cut clean and replant with species suited to the region. •

Where the soil is in good shape and good seed trees are found, a light
cutting to prepare the soil, followed two or three years later by another
thinning to give more light to the seedlings on the ground, will provide
sufficient stand of reproduction. The thinnings, to be successful, require
considerable care in removing the defective trees and specimens whose
seed is not wanted. Great care should be exercised to prevent excessive
light coming in at first, as weeds may then choke out desirable seedlings.
After the seedlings have gotten started the trees overhead are gradually
removed, the cuttings being located where light is needed for proper devel-
opment of the young growth. When the leaves of the seedlings turn a
yellowish-green, more light is needed and a few nearby trees should be cut.

THE FARM WOODLOT

527

In regions where the sprout hardwoods are found (chestnut, oaks
maples, etc.), reproduction may be secured by clear cutting, allowing the
woodlot to spring up from stumps. The best time for sprout reproduction
is under thirty years of age, but ordinarily good sprouting species will
retain this quality until fifty or sixty years of age. This type of manage-
ment, coppicing as it is called, should not be practiced too many times in
succession, as the soil becomes exhausted and the vitality of the stand
lowered.

Pruning. — In certain parts of the East farmers have attempted to
secure a higher quality of lumber by artificially pruning coniferous stands.

Good Work in Piling Brush.

Advocates of this plan claim that the clear lumber thus produced will
bring a sufficiently larger yield to pay for the cost of this intensive process.
On the other hand, men who have sawed second growth white pine, which
was artificially pruned, claim that loose knots are produced by too rapid
drying of the stub. If pruning is desirable to improve the looks of a piece
of woodland — to open up a vista beneath the crowns — it may be done, but
let the cost be charged against landscape improvement and not added to
the cost of the forest crop.

Planting. — Where it is desired to cover an unsightly area or abandoned
pasture with trees, planting may be resorted to, as the proper species are

526

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

A method of thinning a woodlot which foresters term the French
method, can be used in many stands to advantage. The idea is to select
from 200 to 250 trees per acre, depending on the species, soil, etc., to form
your final crop, and to remove all weed trees or defective specimens which
are in any way interfering with the growth of these selected trees. By cut-
ting away the trees crowding and competing with them, all of the growing
energy will be forced into the straight, thrifty stems which remain, with
the result that the succeeding years' growth rings will be laid on the trees
of greatest value. In this way railroad ties may be secured at thirty-five
years, whereas if left untouched, they would not reach sufficient size until
forty-five or fifty years.

1. Leave straight, fast-growing, thrifty trees of most valuable species.

2. Avoid making holes in the canopy that will not be filled within

five years by the natural growth of the crowns. (Excessive
exposure of the soil to sunlight causes drying out of the soil,
a rapid growth of weeds and diminished volume growth.)

3. In case of doubt, leave a tree, as it may be taken out at the time

of the next thinning.

In certain of the Middle Western states where grazing is permitted in
the woodlot as a matter of course, where fires and bad cuttings have ex-
hausted and compacted the soils, reproduction cuttings are out of the
question. Only w^eed trees or old and decrepit specimens of desirable
varieties are still standing. The best, the only way, in cases hke this, is
to cut clean and replant with species suited to the region.

Where the soil is in good shape and good seed trees are found, a light
cutting to prepare the soil, followed two or three years later by another
thinning to give more light to the seedlings on the ground, will provide
suflficient stand of reproduction. The thinnings, to be successful, require
considerable care in removing the defective trees and specimens whose
seed is not wanted. Great care should be exercised to prevent excessive
light coming in at first, as weeds may then choke out desirable seedlings.
After the seedlings have gotten started the trees overhead are gradually
removed, the cuttings being located where light is needed for proper devel-
opment of the young growth. When the leaves of the seedlings turn a
yellowish-green, more light is needed and a few nearby trees should be cut.

THE FARM WOODLOT

527

Pruning. — In certain parts of the East farmers have attempted to
secure a higher quality of lumber by artificially pruning coniferous stands.

Good Work in Piling Brush.

Advocates of this plan claim that the clear lumber thus produced will
bring a suflficiently larger yield to pay for the cost of this intensive process.
On the other hand, men who have sawed second growth white pine, which
was artificially pruned, claim that loose knots are produced by too rapid
drying of the stub. If pruning is desirable to improve the looks of a piece
of woodland — to open up a vista beneath the crowns — it may be done, but
let the cost be charged against landscape improvement and not added to
the cost of the forest crop.

Planting. — Where it is desired to cover an unsightly area or abandoned
pasture with trees, planting may be resorted to, as the proper species are

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

528

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

THE FARM WOODLOT

529

immediately started at the correct distance. The question is often raised,
"Why is not nature's method followed and seed scattered broadcast on
the soil?'' The answer is this: It has been found after repeated experi-
ments that broadcast seeding is not only extremely expensive on account
of the high price of seed, but the results obtained are decidedly uncertain,
owing to the activity of squirrels or field mice and the frequent drying out
of the seed. Placing young seedlings in the ground six feet apart is more
certain and cheaper in the long run. Planting six feet apart each way, an
acre containing 1210 trees can be planted at a cost of $7 to $10, depending
on price of labor and whether seedlings or transplants are used.

If the woodlot has been very much run down as a result of injudicious
cuttings, excessive grazing or repeated fires, it may be desirable to plant
under the openings with fast-growing, shade-bearing species. In this
case it is desirable to first make as heavy a thinning as circumstances
will permit, and then, after the timber has been removed, plant the open
spaces immediately with the chosen species before grass and weeds take
possession of the soil. Underplanting a run-down woodlot of broad-leaf
trees with four-year transplants of spruce or pine is a splendid way of
injecting new blood. The trees will cost about one cent each in the ground,
and from three to four hundred per acre is generally sufficient.

Financial Results. — The best measure of the success of any farm
activity is the financial yield obtained, and it is safe to say that the
difficulty in marketing the forest crop and the long waits between
receipts are largely responsible for the slight attention paid the woodlot.
Forest management must be financially profitable before it will be accepted
by the farmer.

At the present time forest products are not sold as easily as grain,
potatoes or fruit, and this fact often causes discouragement. While the
average farmer will scan the market reports very closely to find out the
prevailing price for his field crops, the same man is apt to sell the standing
timber on his woodlot to the first mill owner who offers him real money.
If the selling of forest products can be simplified and the farmer can be
assured a reasonable return from his non-agricultural acres, it is certain
that the practice of forestry by the individual owner will advance rapidly.
These small holdings are destined to play a more important part in supply-
ing local timber markets in the coming generation, but it is necessary that
proper marketing facilities be provided in order that the owners receive
a fair return.

When an offer is made for "all the timber on the woodlot," great care
should be exercised before it is accepted. Such a sale usually results in
parting with the cream of the trees at a meagre price and leaving the land
in the possession of forest weeds, for the local mill man generally "skins
the lot." It is far better to designate by axe marks the mature trees and
those that should be removed for the good of the remainder, and thus sell
a known amount at a fixed price per thousand board feet on the stump.

A sale contract covering methods of cutting, payments, fire protection,
provision against waste and excessive damage should be drawn.

The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse has provided a
selling service for the private timberland owners of the state. Two years
ago a study of the wood-using industries was made in connection with the
Federal Forest Service, and at that time considerable data concerning
stumpage prices, costs of manufacture and value of manufactured products,
etc., were secured. This information is on record in a card catalog, and
when a farmer or small land owner writes for information concerning the
management of his woodlot and a possible sale, he is put in touch with the
nearest manufacturer, and the dimension and grades in demand and aver-
age selling price given him. By this means the College of Forestry is acting
as a clearing house for information and is endeavoring to secure a fair
price for the man who raised the forest crop. In the extension of this
scheme of co-operative marketing of forest products lies the future profit-
able management of non-arable lands by the farmers of this country.

As previously stated, forestry must be financially profitable, else it
will not be practiced by the business men of this country. The farmer,
however, is in the best possible position of all owners of forest land to
practice forestry, for he has the land, he has an annual income from
his arable land, and finally, he has the winter season to work in his

woodlot.

European experience proves beyond a doubt that forestry does pay
good dividends — from $2.50 to $7 per acre per year net revenue — while
from the woodlots of this country, a revenue of $109,000,000 in 1899 and
$195,000,000 in 1909 was obtained.

Forest plantations will yield from four to five per cent compound
interest upon the value of the land, plus the cost of planting. Thus it can
be proven conclusively that the practice of forestry is a paying proposition
at present stumpage values, while the reduction in the timbered area
will cause an increase in these values and much higher yields will be

obtained.

Summary. — The farm woodlot should be treated as a producing
portion of the farm, and the following points should be borne in mind :

1. Tend your woodlot during the slack periods. It will pay hand-

somely.

2. Cut your firewood and fence posts where cuttings are needed,

and not where it is easiest to cut.

3. Do not permit fires to run rampant through the woods. It kills

the little trees and checks the growth of the big ones.

4. Do not permit extensive grazing in the woodlot. If more pasture

is needed, clear-cut the best land and sow to grass. You
can't raise good grass and good timber on the same piece of land.

5. Use the same energy and business sense in selling a crop of trees

as you would in selling a crop of apples. Know how much you

530

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

have and aljout how much it is worth. If you can^t get your
price, hold on, as your woodlot keeps on growing in bulk and
value while you sleep.

REFERENCES

"The Farm Woodlot." Cheyney and Wentling.
''Principles of Handling Woodlots." Graves.
''Principles of American Forestry." Green.
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 209. "Farm Forestry."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Bulletins:
42. "-The Woodlot."
52. "Forest Planting."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Circulars:
97. "The Timber Supply of the U. S."
117. "Preservation Treatment of Fence Posts."
138. "Suggestions to Woodlot Owners in Ohio Valley Region."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Year-Book 1914. "The National Forests and the Farmer."

CHAPTER 41

Beautifying Home Grounds

By a. W. Cowell

In charge of Landscape Gardening, The Pennsylvania State College

How ridiculous would be the man who proceeded to build his house by
first buying up a lot of lumber, bricks, pipes and paint, and then going
ahead to put them together without first having a very definite working
plan! Too often that is the way the home surroundings are arranged and
ornamented— and don't they appear so? Whether of houses or homes,
which is a broader term and includes the nouse and all its immediate
surroundings, it is essential to good results to have a definite working plan
and stick to it. If you cannot plan it yourself, you will save time and money
by obtaining expert advice.

The Survey.— To make such a plan for the grounds, first measure up
the boundaries of the area and note all the features contained therein,
including buildings, standing trees with their approximate spread, steep
banks, rocks, swampy places and other natural features, besides roads and
walks. Next, indicate the fine views and the views of undesirable character
that should be eliminated. This accomplished, you are ready to plan
changes and alterations and record your desires and ideals. Using an
ordinary foot ruler, adopt an eighth or a sixteenth of an inch to represent a
foot of your actual measurements and thus accurately draw on paper the
survey you have made. Draw the new scheme on the same scale. It is
likely that practical and ornamental considerations will be thought of
together in this way. This study of the place as a whole should aim at a
systematic arrangement, an effective appearance, and provide for conve-
nience and comfort. Beautification should start back in the practical first
arrangement of buildings, roads, paths, windbreaks and screens, and not
be confined to the little patch of ornamented front lawn.

Planning for Convenience.— Speaking of the farmhouse, one located
upon the north side of an east and west public road will most nearly
approach the ideal in matters of arrangement of parts. The house should
stand not less than 150 nor more than 400 feet from the road, somewhere
near the center of the farm lands; for all operations begin and end at the
house, and it should, therefore, be most conveniently centered. It should
face the south. Behind it at a distance of about 150 feet, or less, if fire
hazard is minimized, may stand the barns and other service buildmgs
arranged perhaps most conveniently for work around a hollow square or

(531)

532

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

barn court. A windbreak upon the west and north of this group of build-
ings, while sheltering them, will likewise protect the house and home garden
and orchard from prevailing winds. To reach this court, the entrance drive
would pass the house, preferably upon the west side, but not nearer than
fifty feet— a little spur being provided from it for the house visitors. For
convenience, arrange the buildings with the chicken house nearest the
kitchen, and for comfort place the hog pen or other more obnoxious neces-
sity farthest to the northeast.

A Convenient and Attractive Farmstead. ^

Provide a vegetable garden, hedged in if possible, very near the house
and let it be tastefully laid out and contain the small fruits such as currants,
raspberries, strawberries, grapes, asparagus and rhubarb; possibly dwarf
fruit trees as well as kitchen vegetables and hardy flowers for cutting.
Such a garden need not, in fact, it should not, be relegated to the back of
the place, but may lie toward the front road and form the east side of the
remaining area of the house lawn. All of this makes for convenience of
operation of the farm plant and affords opportunity to ornament it with the
greatest ease and effectiveness. But it is only an ideal, and most places are

» Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y. From "Farm Management," by Card.

BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS

533

very unlike it. Others may profit by such a picture and it will give them
something to work toward along the line of home ornamentation.

Formal Ornamentation.— Before planning and planting for ornamenta-
tion, have a landscape ideal. If the place is in the city surrounded by
straight streets, shade trees in avenue rows, massive architecture and other
conventions of one kind or another, the formality of straight walks, terraced
lawns, clipped trees and bushes, and even architectural gardens and statu-
ary is quite in keeping. The object is to provide a setting appropriate
to the building and in harmony with its environment. Formal landscape
treatment requires expert knowledge beyond the scope of this chapter.
Simple ''old-fashioned'' flower gardens with box-bordered paths, and rose
gardens with grass walks laid out in simple geometrical fashion can be
successfully designed by the amateur, but they should be set away by them-
selves and in close relation to the house or other buildings, or else isolated
and secluded from any general view.

Informal Ornamentation.— For farm homes in the open country it is
much more effective and harmonious to arrange the home grounds with
naturally sloping lawns, convenient curving paths and trees and shrubs
grown in their natural form in groups and masses. The simplicity of
nature's masses of foliage as seen in copses and fence rows, of her trees
standing in splendid dignity alone or in groups of soft outline; her wood
edges that are irregular in outline and of material of different heights
rising from the ground line to high trees of the background ; her colors, so
subdued and so gracefully blended together— these should be our ideals.
A close observation of natural landscape in general, and little bits here and
there in particular, may properly instruct us in the proper arrangement of
the simple home grounds as regards the planting. Very few homes depend
for their charm upon their natural surroundings. More often is all natural
beauty destroyed when man takes possession and adapts the land
to his economic necessity. But hints for the changes and for the
embellishment as well should be taken from the place itself and its
environment if it is to be in harmony with its site and become what
we call ''charming.''

In the plan, considerations of convenience rule, but beauty may be
served also. The paths, which are not in themselves things of beauty,
however well constructed they may be, should if possible be kept out of
the center of the picture, and should not divide the open lawn more than
necessary. They should pass from house to road toward the side of great-
est travel, which satisfies the consideration of convenience while also
creating a graceful curve in course of the path and leaving unbroken the
central area. Do not interrupt any path by a flower bed, flag pole or
fountain, except in pleasure gardens, and do not cause its course to become
circuitous and tiresome in order merely to introduce curves. Where the
distance is less than fifty feet, introduce no deviation from a perfectly '
straight course. Walks should not be lined by ribbons of flower beds, but

■■■.If . -:i'

532

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

barn court. A windbreak upon the west and north of this group of build-
ings, while sheltering them, will likewise protect the house and home garden
and orchard from prevailing winds. To reach this court, the entrance drive
would pass the house, preferably upon the west side, but not nearer than
fifty feet — a little spur being provided from it for the house visitors. For
convenience, arrange the buildings with the chicken house nearest the
kitchen, and for comfort place the hog pen or other more obnoxious neces-
sity farthest to the northeast.

♦.-.♦..

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A Convenient and ATTRAmvE Farmstead.*

Provide a vegetable garden, hedged in if possible, very near the house
and let it be tastefully laid out and contain the small fruits such as currants,
raspberries, strawberries, grapes, asparagus and rhubarl3; possibly dwarf
fruit trees as well as kitchen vegetables and hardy flowers for cutting.
Such a garden need not, in fact, it should not, be relegated to the back of
the place, but may lie toward the front road and form the east side of the
remaining area of the house lawn. All of this makes for convenience of
operation of the farm plant and affords opportunity to ornament it with the
greatest ease and effectiveness. But it is only an ideal, and most places are

1 Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co.. Garden City, \. Y. From " Farm Management," by Card.

BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS

533

very unlike it. Others may profit by such a picture and it will give them
something to work toward along the line of home ornamentation.

Formal Ornamentation. — Before planning and planting for ornamenta-
tion, have a landscape ideal. If the place is in the city surrounded by
straight streets, shade trees in avenue rows, massive architecture and other
conventions of one kind or another, the formality of straight walks, terraced
lawns, clipped trees and bushes, and even architectural gardens and statu-
ary is quite in keeping. The object is to provide a setting appropriate
to the building and in harmony with its environment. Formal landscape
treatment requires expert knowledge beyond the scope of this chapter.
Simple ''old-fashioned'' flower gardens with box-bordered paths, and rose
gardens with grass walks laid out in simple geometrical fashion can be
successfully designed by the amateur, but they should be set away by them-
selves and in close relation to the house or other buildings, or else isolated
and secluded from any general view.

Informal Ornamentation.— For farm homes in the open country it is
much more effective and harmonious to arrange the home grounds with
naturally sloping lawns, convenient curving paths and trees and shrubs
grown in their natural form in groups and masses. The simplicity of
nature's masses of foliage as seen in copses and fence rows, of her trees
standing in splendid dignity alone or in groups of soft outline; her wood
edges that are irregular in outline and of material of different heights
rising from the ground line to high trees of the background; her colors, so
subdued and so gracefully blended together— these should be our ideals.
A close observation of natural landscape in general, and little bits here and
there in particular, may properly instruct us in the proper arrangement of
the simple home grounds as regards the planting. Very few homes depend
for their charm upon their natural surroundings. More often is all natural
beauty destroyed when man takes possession and adapts the land
to his economic necessity. But hints for the changes and for the
embellishment as well should be taken from the place itself and its
environment if it is to be in harmony with its site and become what
we call ''charming."

In the plan, considerations of convenience rule, but beauty may be
served also. The i)aths, which are not in themselves things of beauty,
however well constructed they may be, should if possible be kept out of
the center of the picture, and should not divide the open lawn more than
necessary. They should pass from house to road toward the side of great-
est travel, which satisfies the consideration of convenience while also
creating a graceful curve in course of the path and leaving unbroken the
central area. Do not interrupt any path by a flower bed, flag pole or
fountain, except in pleasure gardens, and do not cause its course to become
circuitous and tiresome in order merely to introduce curves. Where the
distance is less than fifty feet, introduce no deviation from a perfectly
straight course. Walks should not be lined by ribbons of flower beds, but

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

t**3fj!

mm^'i

.. ---,'A'|. .,--"i.."" ;.

1 Architect, D. Knickerbacker, F. A. L A.

(534)

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W a

BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS

535

a few good specimens or a group of bushes or a tree may properly stand in
the bend of a path.

Lawn Planting. — The lawn also should serve the considerations of
practicability with beauty. It should therefore be rather open and
unbroken. It should be somewhat enclosed by a frame of shrubbery, but
it must not, without defeating both considerations, be planted all over
with trees and bushes standing alone. This is a ''spotty,'' not effective
use of material and is hard to maintain. Arrange the bushes — they may
be wild ones taken from the woodside, flowering kinds from the nursery-
man, or both — planted in groups together, in bordering beds at sides of

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the lawn area. Such a bed should be dug over, no grass should be main-
tained between bushes, and its outline against the lawn planned in long,
flowing curves like that of the native woodland. Set the tall-growing
species generally toward the center or rear of the bed, allow the bushes
to grow together in a natural way, cut out the dead wood, but do not trim
them into rounded formal shapes. There should be a bed made against
the base of the house and other buildings. Plant this with shrubs of a
moderate height of growth and of good bushy habit. More homes look
bare and uninteresting, almost inhospitable, because of the lack of this
planting which lends a warming influence to the building, than from any

:.f:\:i>i..l!.-

1 Architect, D. Knickerbacker, F. A. !• A.

(534)

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BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS

535

a few good specimens or a group of bushes or a tree may properly stand in
the bend of a path.

A Desirable Method of Planting Daffodils, Showing the Bulbs Before

Covering.

/ f^V'

536

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

other reason. Against unattractive objects or views noted in the prehm-
inary survey should of course be arranged a heavy plantation. It may take
on a little different character and contain many trees, especially the smaller
growing kinds, as well as evergreens and closely planted shrubs. Do not
forget the softening influence of clinging vines in helping to harmonize
houses and landscape and to afford privacy to porches and service buildings.
Shade trees do not clothe the earth and in this dissertation are left to the
last for the reason that shrubbery and vines and grass are all-important
in home ornamentation; shade trees are not so often forgotten or so badly
used by the amateur planter. Arrange them in groups, not rows, of differ-
ent species, and for lawn specimens, endeavor to preserve the lower limbs.
Street and roadside trees are of a different ideal.

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Hyacinth Bed.^

Use of Flowers. — The use of flowers and flower beds in home orna-
mentation is not to be discouraged, although it harbors much danger in
chances of introducing colors and material difficult to place and to har-
monize with most natural landscape. If the advice be confined to that
type of flowers called ''old-fashioned'' hardy plants, the matter is simpli-
fied. They add charm to most shrubberies and lawns when planted along
in front of the shrub beds, arranged in and out among the shrubs. The
other class of flowers known as ''bedding plants,'' which includes gera-
niums, cannas, coleus, salvia and so forth, is more difficult to blend, more
foreign to simple places and more predominant in its color note. Such
bedding can be best used directly against the house, but never in beds,
stars, crescents and bologna sausage shapes, in the middle of the lawn,

Courtesy of The Countryside Magazine, New York City.

BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS

537

and seldom in front of shrubbery, as effectively or so practically as hardy
perennials of the other class.

These are all principles and ideals to observe in drawing a plan for
home ornamentation. As to detail, each place is a problem unto itself,
to be solved with due regard to two services — convenience of use and land-
scape charm. Nature is a good instructor in principles. From her exam-
ples in field and wood we learn of the "open center" of lawn with borders
of massed foliage, of the beauty in flowing, rounded outline, both of foliage
and of ground. We cannot copy nature, but we can and should derive
much inspiration and many ideas in the uses of trees, shrubs, vines, flowers
and grasses, and how to combine them into good groups and masses. A
few uses and combinations follow. They are merely catalogued. Perhaps
they will suggest details in the comprehensive plan.

SUGGESTED MATERIALS

Street Trees for roadside or driveway should consist of one species upon one road, but
different species upon different roads.

Maples. — Sugar, Red, Norway, distances, 45-35-40 feet.

Oaks. — Red, Pin, Scarlet, Mossy Cup, distances, 45-30-35 feet.

Elm. — American, the ideal American tree, distances, 45 to 60 feet.

Linden. — American Basswood, European or Crimean, distances, 45-35-32 feet.

Plane. — European (or Oriental), distance, 35 feet.

Ash. — American white, distance, 35 feet.

Gingko. — Chinese Maidenhair Tree (narrow streets only), distance, 25 feet.

Trees for lawn planting , besides those mentioned for street use:

Oaks. — White, Enghsh, Golden, Pyramidal.

Maple. — Weir's Cut-leaf, Purple, Norway, Cork-barked, Tartarian.

Elm. — Cork-barked, Scotch, Japanese.

Linden.— Silver, Weeping Silver, Broad-leaved.

Mountain Ash.

Empress Tree {Pavlonia).
\ Larch. — European and Japanese.

Bald Cypress. — An excellent.
. Magnolias. — Chinese species.

Buckeye.

Japanese Maples.

Pine. — White, Swiss, Dwarf Mountain, Austrian.

Fir. — Douglass, Colorado Silver.

Spruce. — Englemann, Colorado Blue, Eastern, Norway.

For screen planting, to obscure objectionable views:
Poplars. — Lombardy, Bolles Silver, White.
Willows. — White, Laurel-leaved.
Mulberry. — White.

Maple.— Weir's Cut-leaf, Water or Box Elder.
Birch.— White, Red.
Ailanthus.
Spruce. — Norway.
Pine. — Austrian, Scotch, White.

Arborvitse.— Western.

Shrubs for screen:

Sumacs, Privet, Nine-bark, Elder, Alders, Dogwood, Witch Hazel, Red Bud, Shad
Bush, Bush Honeysuckle.

536

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Hyacinth Bed.^

Use of Flowers. — The use of flowers and flower beds in home orna-
mentation is not to be discouraged, although it harbors much danger in
chances of introducing colors and material difficult to place and to har-
monize with most natural landscape. If the advice be confined to that
type of flowers called ^'old-fashioned'' hardy plants, the matter is simpli-
fied. They add charm to most shrubberies and lawns when planted along
in front of the shrub beds, arranged in and out among the shrubs. The
other class of flowers known as *' bedding plants,'' which includes gera-
niums, cannas, coleus, salvia and so forth, is more difficult to blend, more
foreign to simple places and more predominant in its color note. Such
bedding can be best used directly against the house, but never in beds,
stars, crescents and bologna sausage shapes, in the middle of the lawn,

1 Courtesy of The Countryside Magazine, New York City.

BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS

537

and seldom in front of shrubbery, as effectively or so practically as hardy
perennials of the other class.

These are all principles and ideals to observe in drawing a plan for
home ornamentation. As to detail, each place is a problem unto itself,
to be solved with due regard to two services — convenience of use and land-
scape charm. Nature is a good instructor in principles. From her exam-
ples in field and wood we learn of the ''open center" of lawn with borders
of massed foliage, of the beauty in flowing, rounded outline, both of foliage
and of ground. We cannot copy nature, but we can and should derive
much inspiration and many ideas in the uses of trees, shrubs, vines, flowers
and grasses, and how to combine them into good groups and masses. A
few uses and combinations follow. They are merely catalogued. Perhaps
they will suggest details in the comprehensive plan.

SUGGESTED MATERIALS

Street Trees for roadside or driveway should consist of one species upon one road, but
different species upon different roads.

Maples. — Sugar, Red, Norway, distances, 45-35-40 feet.

Oaks. — Red, Pin, Scarlet, Mossy Cup, distances, 45-30-35 feet.

Elm. — American, the ideal American tree, distances, 45 to 60 feet.

Linden. — American Basswood, European or Crimean, distances, 45-35-32 feet.

Plane. — European (or Oriental), distance, 35 feet.

Ash. — American white, distance, 35 feet.

Gingko. — Chinese Maidenhair Tree (narrow streets only), distance, 25 feet.

Trees for lawn planting, besides those mentioned for street use:

Oaks. — White, English, Golden, Pyramidal.

Maple. — Weir's Cut-leaf, Purple, Norway, Cork-barked, Tartarian.

Elm. — Cork-barked, Scotch, Japanese.

Linden. — Silver, Weeping Silver, Broad-leaved.

Mountain Ash.

Empress Tree (Paulonia).

Larch. — European and Japanese.

Bald Cypress. — An excellent.

Magnolias. — Chinese species.

Buckeye.

Japanese Maples.

Pine. — White, Swiss, Dwarf Mountain, Austrian.

Fir. — Douglass, Colorado Silver.

Spruce. — Englemann, Colorado Blue, Eastern, Norway.

For screen planting, to obscure objectionable views:
Poplars. — Lombardy, Bolles Silver, White.
Willows. — White, Laurel-leaved.
Mulberry. — White.

Maple.— Weir's Cut-leaf, Water or Box Elder.
Birch. — White, Red.
Ailanthus.
Spruce. — Norway.
Pine. — Austrian, Scotch, White.

Arborvitsc. — Western.

Shrubs for screen:

Sumacs, Privet, Nine-bark, Elder, Alders, Dogwood, Witch Hazel, Red Bud, Shad
Bush, Bush Honeysuckle.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

538

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Shrubs suitable for the base of the house:

Japanese Barberry, Thunbergs, Waterer's and Van Houttes' Spirea, Red-Twigged
Dogwood (C alba), Dwarf Deutzia, Hydrangea, Kerria, Lespedeza, St. John's
Wort, Kegel's Privet, Japanese Rose (Rugosa), Snowberry, Stephenandra,
Mahonia, Rhododendron, azaleas, Eulalias (ornamental Grasses), and hardy
perennials.

Shrubs suitable for general border plantings:

Blooming in early spring: Amelanchier, azaleas, daphne, calycanthus, forsythia,
cercis, cornus mas, cydonia, lindera, lonicera fragrantissima, almond.

Blooming in late summer: Althea, baccharis, araha spinosa, caryopteris, cephel-
anthus, clethra, hydrangea, hypericum, lespedeza, Sambucus canadensis,
spirea Bumalda, tamarix, vitex agnus castus, rosa rugosa.

For winter berries: Rosa rugosa, berberis, corylus, crateagus, euonymus, ilex,
cephelanthus, callicarpa, physocarpos, symphoricarpos, viburnum opulus,
ligustrum, rhodotypos.

For winter bark color: — Cornus alba, stolonifera, lutea, Euonymus alata, kerria,
eleagnus, tamarix.

Suitable hedges:

Japan barberry, privet-california, common and for untrimmed hedge, Regellianum.
Flowering hedge. — Spirea van houttei, Althea, rosa rugosa, cydonia, deutzia

gracilis, lilacs.
Protective hedge. — Barberry, rhamnus, Crataegus, gleditsia.
Evergreen hedge. — American arborvitae, hemlock, white pine (for a broad hedge),

Norway spruce.

Suitable for windbreaks:

Evergreens. — Norway spruce, Douglas spruce, Scotch pine, Austrian pine, arbor-
vitae.

Deciduous. — Poplars, willows, box elder, larch, birch, ailanthus, mulberry, osage
orange, and other tree species set out about ten feet apart to form a belt
at least twenty feet wide.

REFERENCES

"The Practical Flower Garden." Helen Ely.
"A Woman's Handy Garden." Helen Ely.
''Gardening for Beginners." Cook.
''Landscape Gardening." Waugh.
"Landscape Gardening." Maynard.

CHAPTER 42
Window Gardening

By a. W. Cowell
In charge of Landscape Gardening ^ The Pennsylvania State College

The prime requisites in raising plants in the house are proper soil,
good drainage, equable temperature, the correct amount of sunlight and
regular care in watering and re-potting. Contrary to superstition, no
better geraniums can be grown in a tomato can than in a piece of fine
pottery. So you may choose your own receptacle so long as it fits the
plant it is to house — being neither too large nor too small.

Drainage. — Good drainage is brought about by having an opening
in the bottom of the receptacle — at least half an inch in diameter, and
for very large jars or tubs, three or more openings. Over these lay pieces
of broken pottery to prevent the dirt from falling through. Good drain-
age allows any excess of moisture to escape and provides for free circula-
tion of air through the soil. This prevents it from becoming soggy and
sour.

Soil and Exposure. — Good soil is often difficult to secure. Many
planters take chances and use what is handiest. This is a mistake. Even
the blackest woods earth is not always most suitable to use. Soil which is
clayish and bakes is not good; neither is fight, sandy soil. A combina-
tion of the three types, however, is satisfactory, and a soil recommended
by a practical florist is one made up as follows:

Skim off the sod thinly from a bit of pasture land and take the loam
directly under the sod for the ground matter of your soil ; mix together 32
quarts of this loam with 4 quarts of black woods earth and 4 quarts of sharp
sand. For the plant-food, mix together 8 quarts of decomposed manure, 1
quart of air-slaked lime and 1 quart of ground bone (bone meal). Now mix
and mix and mix these two piles together, sift through a sieve of a quarter-
inch mesh, and you have a soil suitable for the most ^^persnickity'' of
plant tastes.

As to light, for flowering plants generally, a south or east window is
best. Some foliage plants and ferns like the sunless windows or interior
of a room. Their numbers are few, however, and this is unfortunate.

Method of Potting. — To pot up the plants, cover the drainage material
in bottom of the flower pot with an inch or two of the soil prepared as above
described. Then place the plant roots flatwise into the soil, holding the
stem erect while soil is sprinkled in until the pot is nearly full, and press
down firmly but not too hard. Now sprinkle a light covering of soil {not

(539)

540

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

firmed in) over top of the pot to prevent excessive evaporation and drench
with water.

A plant which has made a vigorous growth may need more root room.
It fills up the receptacle and becomes ''pot bound/' as the florist says. It
should be ''shifted up" to a pot the next size or two sizes larger. There is
failure in pots larger than necessary. Reverse the plant with the palm of
the left hand against the top of the pot and the stem passing through the

fingers and with a slight
tap the pot may be re-
moved. The ball of
roots should be put into
the new quarters, set-
ting the old surface
about level with the
top of the new pot.
Chink in new soil
around the ball of roots
and then water the
plant plenteously. In
potting up plants from
the summer garden —
geraniums, snap-
dragon, ten weeks'
stocks, petunias, scarlet
sage — set them in a
shaded corner for a few
days and syringe the
tops daily before plac-
ing in the sunny win-
dow.

Nothing is more
unsightly than a lot of
''leggy'' old plants or
puny weak ones.
Grow few plants and
have kinds which will
thrive. Make cuttings and keep the plants vigorous and shapely. Cut
back the old plants, remembering that flowers are on new wood, and that
it is "easier" for an old plant to grow a lot of new shoots than to carry
leaves on the tips of long, lanky branches. So cut the old plants back
vigorously once in a while.

In selecting plants at the florist's for home window gardening, do not be
interested in those of his hottest house; choose plants from a night tempera-
ture of about 50 degrees. Plants like equable temperatures as well as

1 Courtesy of The Countryside Magazine, N. Y.

Removing the Plant from Old Pot.»

WINDOW GARDENING

541

regularity of other conditions. Do not allow the room temperature to get
above 70 degrees in daytime nor below 50 degrees at night.

Watering.— The watering of plants is largely a matter of judgment.
It is offered as good advice that a plant should be watered when it needs it,
and contrariwise not when it does not need it. Water copiously once in two
days rather than a little each day, unless the earth has become dried out.
This can be determined by tapping the flower pot with the finger nail; a
clear, ringing sound will indicate dryness; a dull sound shows a damp
condition and water not required. Watering at the roots is not suflScient,
strange to say. Plants respond also to a wetting of the leaves. This can

ux^ti'lMi^^ -tJ^- :-. '

A Well-proportioned Fern.^

be accomplished by turning them half over in a tub and syringing the tops.
Do not allow the sun to play upon wet leaves; it may injure them severely.
Feeding Plants.— Pot-grown plants respond to ''feeding up''— the
application once in a while of liquid manure — which is merely stable
manure and water allowed to stand a few days and strained. Apply the
liquid once a month for two successive waterings. Bone meal worked in at
the top of# pot is slow in its action, but beneficial. There are prepared
plant-foods which are valuable and convenient, but more expensive than
these two.

*Courtegy of The Countryside Magazine, N. Y.

»>-■-■

540

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

firmed in) over top of the pot to prevent excessive evaporation and drt^uih
with water.

A plant which has made a vigorous growth may need more root rooni.
It fills up the receptacle and becomes ''pot bound/' as the florist nays. It
should be ''shifted up'' to a pot the next size or two sizes larger. Tlioro Ih
failure in pots larger than necessary. Reverse the plant with the j^alm of
the left hand against the top of the pot and the stem passing thi'ough \h(>

fingers and witli a slight
tap the pot may b(^ r(^-
moved. The ball of
roots should be ])ut into
the new quart(M'H, wet-
ting the old Hurfacu
about level with tlu^
top of the new pot,
(vhink in now noil
around the ball of rootH
and then water tht^
plant j)lenteouHly. In
potting up ])lantH from
th(» summer garden —
geraniumn, snap-
dragon, ten weekn'
stocks, petunias, Hvurlot
sage — set them in a
shaded corner for a f(»w
days and syringe tho
tops daily before plarf-
ing in the sunny win-
dow.

Nothing is moro
unsightly than a lot of
''h'KKy'' old plantH or
puny weak on(*H,
Grow few plants and
have kinds which will
thrive. Make cuttings and keep the plants vigorous and shapely. Cut
back the old plants, remembering that flowers are on new wood, and that
it is "easier'' for an old plant to grow a lot of new shoots than to mny
leaves on the tips of long, lanky branches. So cut the old plants back
vigorously once in a while.

In selecting plants at the florist's for home window gardening, do nrit be
interested in those of his hottest house; choose plants from a night tenifK^m-
ture of about 50 degrees. Plants like equable temix^ratures as wall uh

i Courtesy of The Countryside Magazine, N. Y.

Removing the Plant from Old Pot.^

WINDOW GARDENING

541

regulanty of other conditions. Do not allow the room temperature to cet
al)ovo 70 degrees m daytinii) nor below 50 degrees at night.
n , Watering.— The watering of plants is largely a matter of judgment.
It iH ofTeiHHl as good advice that a plant should be watered when it needs it
and (H)ntrariwise not when it does not need it. Water copiously once in two
(lays rather than a little each day, unless the earth has become dried out
I his can be determined l)y tapping the flower pot with the finger nail- a
clear, nngmg sound will indicate dryness; a dull sound shows a dainp
condition and water not required. Watering at the roots is not sufficient
Htrange to say. Plants respond also to a wetting of the leaves. This can

A Well-pkopoktioned Fern.^

be accomplished l)y turning them half over in a tub and syringing the tops.
Do not allow the sun to play upon wet leaves; it may injure them severely.
Feeding Plants.— Pot-grown plants respond to "feeding up''— the
application once in a while of liquid manure— which is merely stable
inanun^ and water allowed to stand a few days and strained. Apply the
licjiiid once a month for two successive waterings. Bone meal worked in at
tlie top of# j)ot is slow in its action, but beneficial. There are prepared
I)lafit-foo(ls which are valuable and convenient, but more expensive than
th(^He two.

^CouricFy of The Countrysiflo Magazine, N. Y.

intentional second exposure

540

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

firmed in) over top of the pot to prevent excessive evaporation and drench
with water.

A plant which has made a vigorous growth may need more root room.
It fills up the receptacle and becomes "pot bound/' as the florist says. It
should be "shifted up 'Ho a pot the next size or two sizes larger. There is
failure in pots larger than necessary. Reverse the plant with the palm of
the left hand against the top of the pot and the stem passing through the

Nothing is more
unsightly than a lot of
''leggy" old plants or
puny weak ones.
Grow few plants and
have kinds which will
thrive. Make cuttings and keep the plants vigorous and shapely. Cut
back the old plants, remembering that flowers are on new wood, and that
it is "easier" for an old plant to grow a lot of new shoots than to carry
leaves on the tips of long, lanky branches. So cut the old plants back
vigorously once in a while.

» Courtesy of The Countryside Magazine, N, Y.

Removing the Plant from Old Pot.^

-— ^^ '-' ^*-'

WINDOW GARDENING

541

regularity of other conditions. Do not allow the room temperature to get
above 70 degrees in daytime nor below 50 degrees at night.

Watering.— The watering of plants is largely a matter of judgment.
It is offered as good advice that a plant should be watered when it needs it,
and contrariwise not when it does not need it. Water copiously once in two
days rather than a little each day, unless the earth has become dried out.
This can be determined by tapping the flower pot with the finger nail; a
clear, ringing sound will indicate dryness; a dull sound shows a damp
condition and water not required. Watering at the roots is not suflicient,
strange to say. Plants respond also to a wetting of the leaves. This can

^"^^Ht.

^;|y^

- M -^ifliM^Tft^rir lirridin I

A Well-proportioned Fern.^

be accomplished by turning them half over in a tub and syringing the tops.
Do not allow the sun to play upon wet leaves; it may injure them severely.
Feeding Plants.— Pot-grown plants respond to ''feeding up"— the
application once in a while of liquid manure — which is merely stable
manure and water allowed to stand a few days and strained. Apply the
liquid once a month for two successive waterings. Bone meal worked in at
the top of# pot is slow in its action, but beneficial. There are prepared
plant-foods which are valuable and convenient, but more expensive than
these two.

1 Courtesy of The Countryside Magazine, N. Y.

'■•••.ti :-■ .

^-^^-^■m

540

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

firmed in) over top of the pot to prevent excessive evaporation and drench
with water.

A plant which has made a vigorous growth may need more root room.
It fills up the receptacle and becomes ^'pot bound/' as the florist says. It
should be ^'shifted up'' to a pot the next size or two sizes larger. There is
failure in pots larger than necessary. Reverse the plant with the palm of
the left hand against the top of the pot and the stem passing through the

Nothing is more
unsightly than a lot of
^Moggy" old plants or
puny weak ones.
Grow few plants and
have kinds which will
thrive. Make cuttings and keep the plants vigorous and shapely. Cut
back the old plants, remembering that flowers are on new wood, and that
it is ''easier" for an old plant to grow a lot of new shoots than to carry
leaves on the tips of long, lanky branches. So cut the old i)lants back
vigorously once in a while.

1 Court<*sy of The Countryside Magazine, N, Y.

Removing the Plant fuom Old Pot.*

WINDOW GARDENING

541

regularity of other conditions. Do not allow the room temperature to get
above 70 degrees in daytimx) nor below 50 degrees at night.

Watering.— The watering of plants is largely a matter of judgment.
It IS offered as good advice that a plant should be watered when it needs it*
and contrariwise not when it does not need it. Water copiously once in two
days rather than a little each day, unless the earth has become dried out.
This can })e determined by tapping the flower pot with the finger nail; a
clear, ringing sound will indicate dryness; a dull sound shows a damp
condition and water not required. Watering at the roots is not sufl^cient,
strange to say. Plants respond also to a wetting of the leaves. This can

A Well-proportioned Fern.^

be accomplished by turning them half over in a tub and syringing the tops.
Do not allow the sun to play upon wet leaves; it may injure them severely.
Feeding Plants.— Pot-grown plants respond to '' feeding up"— the
application once in a while of liquid manure— which is merely stable
manure and water allowed to stand a few days and strained. Apply the
liquid once a month for two successive waterings. Bone meal worked in at
the top of# pot is slow in its action, but beneficial. There are prepared
plant-foods which are valuable and convenient, but more expensive than
these two.

iCourte!?y of The Countryside Magazine, X. Y.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

'^m^mm^m^M

... ,.^j,, J

,..v ^'j-.-i-j ' .'' -<^i

542

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Fems and Foliage Plants. — Plants should fit the purpose for which
they are intended. If a green and growing plant for house decoration
during the winter months, one that can be moved from place to place, is
wanted, the aspidistra, dracaena, cocos and other palms, asparagus plumo-
sus, rubber plant, auraucaria (Norfolk Island Pine), and with restrictions,
the Boston, Scott^s and crested ferns should be chosen. Maidenhair ferns
do not generally succeed with house culture, but of them all Adiantum
gradllimumy cuneatum, and Capillus-Veneris are best. For the table,
small ferns in a fern dish are as good as anything except the pots of spring
bulbs as they are brought in from the cellar. The fern dish should have a

porous earthen dish in which
to grow the plants, regardless
of the ornamental character
of the dish in which it rests.
Ferns, purchased as ''table
ferns," are but baby big ferns,
and are good to use in a fern
dish. As they become larger,
they should be transplanted
to larger pots or to a fern box
and placed in a sunless win-
dow.

Flowering Plants. — For
the sunny window flowering
plants may be used. A shelf
on castors is the best stand,
as it may be turned around
^occasionally. A box the
length of the window and
from six to eight inches deep
may be used. Set the plant
jars up an inch above the
bottom of the tray in order
that they may not be too wet. For plants there is a good variety:
Abutilon, flowering begonias; fuchias, swainsomia, billbergia, Quen-
ista, geraniums (especially ''Christmas Pink''), cuphea, lobeHa, oxalis
(also for hanging basket), cyclamen (in shaded spot), Chinese, starry,
and "Baby'' primroses, stevia. Marguerites, candytuft, alyssum, agera-
tum, heUotrope, bouvardia, balsam ("touch-me-not"), cactus, and plants
mentioned later which may be brought from the outdoor summer gardens.
Among bulbs, amarylhs, calla and the so-called "Dutch bulbs" are prob-
ably the most satisfactory of all flowering plants for the house. A dozen
Paper white narcissus may be grown in an eight-inch deep glass dessert-
dish half full of sand, above which the bulbs rest, held firmly in place by

» Courtesy of House and Garden, Published by Robert J. McBride & Co., N. Y.

A Large Boston Fern.^

WINDOW GARDENING

543

pebbles sprinkled in among them and covered with water. Freesias, hya-
cinths, tulips, daffodils, single narcissus, crocus, even the Easter Lily in
any of the many named varieties listed in seedsmen's catalogues, may
also be grown successfully by the amateur. These Dutch bulbs should
be purchased in September, and excepting freesias. Paper white narcissus
and Roman hyacinths, which may be started at once, planted and put
away for about six weeks to
form roots before any top
growth is allowed. Set
them in a cool place —
buried in coal ashes in a
corner of the cellar or out-
of-doors in a box buried in
cinders for one inch above
the pots and protected from
freezing too hard by a layer
of straw, leaves and boards.
Keep them moist and cool.
They may be brought into
flower a pot at a time and
furnish pleasure from
Thanksgiving to April — a
gamut of color and delight-
ful fragrance.

Plant Lice. — The most
prevalent insect pest at-
tacking house plants is the
plant [louse, a little green
insect feeding upon the
under side of leaves and
tender shoots. Another

form is black. Both forms are combated by tobacco concoctions obtain-
able ready-made at the seed store; also, the plants may be fumigated with
burning tobacco, dusting the leaves with tobacco dust, and by spraying
the leaves with soap in solution. The insect must be wet with the solu-
tion, so care must be exercised in spraying to reach the under side of the
leaves. Another common pest is the brown scale which attaches itself
firmly to branch or leaf and resists water and fumigation. It can be
removed by brushing the leaves and by kerosene emulsion, which, how-
ever, may injure a tender plant.

Bulbs GRO^vN m Water-tight Receptaclb.i

REFERENCE.

**Manualof Gardeinng." Bailey.

» Courtesy of The Countryside Magazine, N. Y,

BOOK IV
LIVESTOCK FARMING

(Animal Husbandry)

(545)

c:/

l! i

CHAPTER 43

Advantages and Disadvantages of Keeping Livestock

Without the aid of domestic animals as beasts of burden, man would
have a sorry existence. The horse, ass and camel have been of great service
in past ages in aiding man to conquer new regions, and by their aid he has
been enabled to very materially increase his productive power.

Animals have also been a great aid to man as a source of food and
clothing. Those countries that depend upon animals and animal products
the most are, as a rule, the most productive and highly civilized. In
North America animal products, such as meat, milk, butter, cheese, lard,
eggs, etc., constitute fully one-half of the value of the products of human
consumption.

A large part of the vegetation on the earth is unsuited for human
consumption. Of this, such by-products as straw and stover are converted
into milk, butter, cheese, meat and animal fats. It is estimated that 80
per cent of the corn produced in the United States is consumed by livestock
in the county where produced. This conversion of crude farm products
adds greatly to the quality of man's diet.

The essential characteristics of domesticated animals are: (1) their
ability to convert food into energy and animal products for human use,
(2) the readiness with which they become subject to the will of man,
and (3) their prolificacy or ability to breed abundantly.

Value and Importance of Livestock. — The United States and Canada
with 28,000,000 horses, 63,000,000 cattle, 51,000,000 sheep and more than
62,000,000 swine, is pre-eminently a livestock country. South America
leads in the production of sheep with 115,000,000 and ranks third in cattle
with 48,000,000. It falls to India to lead in cattle production, which,
including the water buffalo, numbers 125,000,000 head. The United States,
however, far outranks all other countries in its numbers of horses, mules
and swine. It is second in production of cattle and sheep.

During the past half century, the livestock in the United States has
increased about three times in numbers and about six times in value.
While numbers have not quite kept pace with increase in population, the
value per capita has steadily increased. This increase in value has been
due chiefly to two factors: (1) the improvement in livestock, and (2) the
increased value per Tinit of weight of animals and animal products. In
1850 the average fleece of a sheep weighed 2.4 pounds; in 1900 it had
increased to 6.9 pounds. During the fifty years sheep nearly doubled in
number, while the yield of wool increased five times. This increase was
due chiefly to breeding rather than feeding. If statistics were available,

(547)

548

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

we would doubtless find that the increase per cow in milk, and particularly
in butter-fat, would not be less striking.

Thirty-five years ago, the usual work-team in the corn belt consisted
of two 1000-pound horses. Today, the prevailing team is three 1500-pound
horses. This increase in the size of the team has been an important factor
in increasing the man unit of production on the farm, and has undoubtedly
been one of the factors instrumental in the increase in land values in that
region. The following table gives the numbers, value per head and total
value of the principal classes of livestock in the United States for 1880 and
1915, as reported by the Bureau of Statistics of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture:

Numbers and Value of Livestock on Farms in the United States

IN 1915 AS Compared with 1880.

Class of

1880.

• 1915.

Animals.

Number.

Value
per Head.

Farm Value.

Number.

Value
per Head.

Farm Value.

Horses

Mules

11,202,000
1,730,000
12,027,000
21,231,000
40,766,000
34,034,000

$54 . 75

61.26

23.37

16.10

2.21

4.28

$613,297,000
105,948,000
279,889,000
341,761,000
90,231,000
145,782,000

21,195,000
4,479,000
21,262,000
37,067,000
49,956,000
64,618,000

$103.33

112.36

55.33

33.38

4.50

9.87

$2,190,102,000

Cows

503,271,000

Other cattle. . . .
Sheep

1,176,338,000
1,237,376,000

Swine

224,687,000

637,479,000

Total

$1,576,908,000

$5,969,253,000

■

From the above table it will be noted that the total value of livestock
in the United States increased from a little more than $1,500,000 000 in
1880 to nearly $6,000,000,000 in 1915. During that period, horses and
mules doubled in number and quadrupled in value. The increase in num-
bers of cows and other cattle did not quite double, while the value per head
of the former considerably more than doubled and the latter slightly more
than doubled. The increase in numbers of sheep and swine was slightly
less marked, but in both of these classes the value per head slightly more
than doubled.

ADVANTAGES OF LIVESTOCK

Animals Furnish Food, Labor and Clothing.— Even when not profit-
able to rear anmals for market, the cost of living on farms may be greatly
reduced by the judicious production of livestock and livestock products
for the home food supply. The difference between the purchase price of
animals and animal products and the price which the producer receives has
materially increased during recent years. The value of these products to
the farmer for his own consumption is equal, whether bought or produced
on the farm. Furthermore, animals and animal products may be produced
on a small scale on most farms on what otherwise would be wasted.

KEEPING LIVESTOCK

549

The acres of land cultivated by each horse depends on the size of the
horse, character of farming, the type of soil and the topography of the land.
In England, two horses are generally required for 80 acres of light, sandy
soil or 60 acres of heavy, clay soil. In the United States, there is about
one horse or mule of working age to each 30 acres of improved land. For-
merly, many oxen were kept for work, but these have been largely replaced
by the horse and mule because of their more rapid movements and conse-
quent greater efficiency. The draft of the ox is larger in proportion to his
weight, but his slowness has caused his displacement with the increase in
the value of human labor.

With the introduction of cotton and silk, the value of animal products
as sources of clothing decreased relatively. The value of leather, wool and

Utilizing Woodland for Pasture.^

hair is very large, however, and plays an important part in the clothing
of the human race.

Animals Make Use of Land Otherwise Unproductive.— According to
the last census, only about one-half of the farm area in the United States
was improved land, and only about two-thirds of the improved land was in
farm crops, including meadows. The other one-third, together with
considerable of the unimproved portion, is utilized as pasture for animals.
On most farms there are areas more or less extensive which may be steep,
stony, partly wooded, undrained or otherwise unprofitable for cultivated
crops, that may be utilized for grazing purposes.

Animals Utilize Orops that would be Wholly or Partly Wasted.— The
straw of the cereals, the stover of corn, have little value on most farms
except as roughage and bedding for livestock. Low grades of hay, damaged

•» Courtesy of E. K. Hibshmann, Pennsylvania State College.

'^<,.'*f-'i

550

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

by rains or delay in harvesting, often are unsalable, but may be utilized
for feed for stock. In the same way corn and small grains are sometimes
damaged by exposure to the weather or early frosts, and may have con-
siderable feeding value, but no value on the market.

Animals Transform Coarse, Bulky Products into Concentrated Form. —
Animals convert coarse, bulky, raw materials into a more concentrated
and valuable finished product, and one that may be marketed with less
cost and to much better advantage. It requires about 10 pounds of dry
matter to produce 1 pound of beef or 30 pounds of dry matter to produce
1 pound of butter. The farmer in transforming such coarse products to
a more refined one not only reaps the profit in the process of manufacture,
but the pound of butter may be sent to a market a thousand miles away,
when the material from which it was made could not be profitably sent to
a market ten miles distant. One cent a poimd for transporting butter

lrvestock and the silo increase the profits on

High-priced Land.^

would be but a small percentage of its value, but one cent a pornd for
transporting hay would be prohibitive.

Animals Return Fertility to the Soil.— In the manufacture of these
finer products on the farm, animals leave much of the fertiUzing material
to be returned to the soil. This has been thoroughly discussed in the
chapter on farm manures, and need not be emphasized at this point. In
considering livestock farming from this standpoint, it is only necessary to
determine whether it has been successful in maintaining soil fertility.
A study of the crop-producing capacity of the soil in different regions shows
conclusively that crop yields are largest where large numbers of livestock
are maintained.

Livestock Facilitate Good Crop Rotations.— A good crop rotation
should include inter-tilled crops, small grains and grasses and clovers.

RotatSns/'^by Park^e?^ Publishing Company. St. Paul. Minn. From "Field Management and Qtop

r I

KEEPING LIVESTOCK

551

Livestock make possible the production and profitable utilization of grasses
and clovers. When these are fed to livestock and the manure is returned
to the land, the fertility of the soil is increased. Good sods, plenty of manure
and animals to utilize by-products extend the range of crops that may be
grown on the farm and thus provide for better crop rotations.

Capital More Fully Used.— The wheat farmer in the Northwest is
very busy from spring until fall, but is generally idle from September to
March. When livestock is kept, labor of men and teams is more fully
employed and equipment more fully utilized.

Livestock Call for Higher Skill. — ^Animal husbandry, including keep-
ing of dairy cattle, poultry, etc., may be made to require higher skill than
ordinary extensive production of crops. It calls for the same requirements
so far as the care of the soil and the production of crops are concerned, and
there is added to this the skill of the breeder and the feeder. The products
of skilled workmen command a higher price than do those of the unskilled
workmen. In this country those communities that have given most atten-
tion to livestock are in general the most prosperous. There are, of course,
some exceptions to this.

More Land may be Farmed with the Same Labor. — This is true
only in the extensive grazing of livestock, as exemplified in the ranches of
the West, notably in the breeding and rearing of cattle and sheep. When
these are brought to the farm of the feeder, they really reverse the process
and call for increased labor and skill on the unit of area.

DISADVANTAGES OF LIVESTOCK

Animals Require Larger Capital — This is especially true when kept
in connection with the production of hay and grain. On a 160-acre farm
40 head of cattle worth $1500, 40 sheep worth $300 and 20 hogs worth
$300 may be kept, and the farm made to raise all the necessary food for
them. This would increase the capital of the farm by $2100. It would
also call for additional capital in buildings, and this would all be an increase
over what would be required if the same land were used only for cash crops.
On a farm that supplies all the feed for livestock, $10 per acre invested in
livestock may be considered as moderate. If only the coarse feed is grown
it may carry stock to the value of $25 to $30 per acre. This is exemplified
in many dairy farms close to market, and sometimes on farms where stock
are fattened for market.

Capital of Perishable Nature. — Animal diseases, such as tuberculosis -
or foot and mouth disease in cattle, cholera in hogs, and internal parasites
in sheep, may quickly wipe out the animals on any particular farm. This
entails a loss not only of the product for a single year, but also of all the
capital that may have been invested in feeds and labor to bring the stock
to that stage of maturity at which it was destroyed by disease.

Formerly, it was not uncommon in the corn belt to find farmers keep-
ing 100 or more head of hogs in a single herd, but it is now deemed best to

•iSBB^^

550

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

KEEPING LIVESTOCK

551

Livestock and the Silo Increase the Profits on

High-priced Land.^

would be but a small percentage of its value, but one cent a pound for
transporting hay would Le prohibitive.

Animals Return Fertility to the Soil.— In the manufacture of these
finer products on the farm, animals leave much of the fertilizing material
to be returned to the soil. This has been thoroughly discussed in the
chapter on farm manures, and need not be emphasized at this point. In
considering livestock farming from this standpoint, it is only necessary to
determine whether it has been successful in maintaining soil fertility.
A study of the crop-producing capacity of the soil in different regions shows
conclusively that crop yields are largest where large numbers of livestock
are maintained.

Livestock Facilitate Good Crop Rotations.— A good crop rotation
should include inter-tilled crops, small grains and grasses and clovers.

RotatSns/'ty Par^r!"^ Publishing Company. St. Paul. Minn. From "Field Management and Ch-op

Livestock Call for Higher Skill. — Animal husbandry, including keep-
ing of dairy cattle, poultry, etc., maybe made to require higher skill than
ordinary extensive production of crops. It calls for the same requirements
so far as the care of the soil and the production of crops are concerned, and
there is added to this the skill of the breeder and the feeder. The products
of skilled workmen command a higher price than do those of the unskilled
workmen. In this country those communities that have given most atten-
tion to livestock are in general the most prosperous. There are, of course,
some exceptions to this.

DISADVANTAGES OF LIVESTOCK

Animals Require Larger Capital — This is especially true when kept
in connection with the production of hay and grain. On a 160-acre farm
40 head of cattle worth $1500, 40 sheep worth $300 and 20 hogs worth
$300 may be kept, and the farm made to raise all the necessary food for
them. This would increase the capital of the farm by $2100. It would
also call for additional capital in Imildings, and this would all be an increase
over what would be required if the same land were used only for cash crops.
On a farm that sui)plies all the feed for livestock, $10 per acre invested in
livestock may be considered as moderate. If only the coarse feed is grown
it may carry stock to the value of $25 to $30 per acre. This is exemplified
in many dairy farms close to market, and sometimes on farms where stock
are fattened for market.

Capital of Perishable Nature. — Animal diseases, such as tuberculosis
or foot and mouth disease in cattle, cholera in hogs, and internal parasites
in sheep, may quickly wipe out the animals on any particular farm. This
entails a loss not only of the product for a single year, but also of all the
capital that may have been invested in feeds and labor to bring the stock
to that stage of maturity at which it was destroyed by disease.

Formerly, it was not uncommon in the corn belt to find farmers keep-
ing 100 or more head of hogs in a single herd, but it is now deemed best to

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

552

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

keep them in herds of small units, not more than 20 or 30, as protection
against cholera. More recently, of course, methods of control have been
developed, which, if properly administered, hold the disease in check.

Products Cannot be Indefinitely Held.— The holding of livestock for
a considerable time after reaching the proper stage of fattening for the
market entails considerable loss. It may sometimes result in actual
decrease in quality with little or no increase in weight, and a loss of both
food and labor for maintenance. In this respect livestock for meat is
sharply contrasted with wheat and some other cereals that may be held
almost indefinitely with very little deterioration. It is true that the
development of better markets, systems of cold storage and methods of
preserving meat have lessened somewhat this difficulty.

Crop Failures may Cause Loss on Livestock.— A low production for
the staple crops used largely for livestock food results in a marked advance
in price. This frequently causes a loss to the farmer on his livestock.
This is especially true in case of swine that depend so largely on concen-
trates for their production. A decrease of one-quarter in the yield of a
staple crop for the whole country often causes an increase in price so marked
that if the whole crop were sold it would bring more than a normal crop
or an extra large one. Since, however, so large a percentage of the crop
is fed, this does not mean much to the farmer unless there is a correspond-
ing increase in price of meat animals. A number of instances may be
cited whan a marked advance in price of corn without a corresponding
advance in hogs has induced farmers to sell their hogs before fully
ready for market, thus causing the hog market to decline in the face of
advancing prices on corn. This condition once under way will often con-
tinue for a full year before normal prices again prevail.

The advantages and disadvantages of keeping livestock have been
presented without prejudice, and it must be apparent that the advantages
seem to outweigh the disadvantages, especially from the standpoint of
permanent systems of agriculture. It is, of course, recognized that with
increasing population there should be a tendency for people to depend
more and more upon the direct products of the soil in the form of cereals,
vegetables and fruits rather than to depend so largely upon animal prod-
ucts; and doubtless the increase in land values and high prices of animal
products will gradually tend in this direction.

CHAPTER 44
Breeding, Care and Management of Farm Animals

By W. H. Tomhave
Professor of Animal Husbandry, The Pennsylvania State College

BREEDING OF LIVESTOCK

History of Animal Breeding. — The first systematic work in animal
breeding was done among the Arabians. This is indicated by the character
of the Arabian horses that were developed during the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries. Following the Arabians, the French did the next con-
structive breeding of animals, which was at that time encouraged by the
French Government in the developing of their breeds of horses. The most
important animal breeding from the point of view of the American farmer
of today was done by the people of the British Isles during the last half of
the eighteenth century, and throughout the entire nineteenth century.
Robert Bakewell is known as the foremost early breeder of livestock,
having begun his work about 1764 and continued it until the time of his
death. He was followed by noted men such as Collings Brothers, Booth
and Bates, all of whom were early breeders of Shorthorn cattle. Amos
Cruickshank was probably the most noted breeder of recent years, and was
recognized as the peer among the Shorthorn breeders of Scotland during
the nineteenth century. Great interest was then shown in developing
the various classes of livestock and this has resulted in giving us our present
breeds of pure-bred livestock.

The foundation work in animal breeding in America was done largely
during the last half of the nineteenth century. The foundation animals
used by most of the noted breeders were imported into the United States
and Canada from Europe. Large importations of well-bred animals were
made into the United States from 1880 up to 1900. Since that time only
limited importations have been made into this country, as most of the
noted animals in America at the present time are the product of American
breeders. While a great deal of work has been done in both Europe and
America, less than two per cent of all the farm animals in the United States
and Canada at the present time are of pure breeding. This seems to indi-
cate that there is a fertile field for livestock breeding for' the American
farmer.

Lines of Breeding. — There are three distinct lines of breeding that can
be followed by the American farmer. These may be enumerated as
follows : breeding of pure-breds, grading and cross-breeding. The breeding

(553)

554

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

of pure-bred animals is by far the most important system of breeding, and
the one that should be followed to a greater extent by farmers in the United
States and Canada. The greatest improvement can be made in a herd
of livestock by this system of breeding. The use of both pure-bred sire
and dam enables the farmer to follow a more rigid system of selection and
cull out undesirable individuals, which is not always possible in grading
and cross-breeding. There is one weakness, however, that every breeder
of pure-bred animals is apt to encounter, and that is a certain degree of

hesitation about elim-
inating an animal
from his herd that
may be pure-bred and
yet not up to the
standard which he
has set for building
up his herd.

Grading is an-
other means of mak-
ing a marked improve-
ment on the average
farm herd. By grad-
ing is meant the mat-
ing of a common or
relatively inferior
animal with one that
is more highly im-
proved, usually a pure-
bred. This pure-bred
may be either the sire
or dam, but it is usually the sire, as the sire can be used upon a number
of females in the herd and thus exercise greater influence in making the
improvement. If the pure-bred dam and a grade sire are used, very
little improvement is made; besides, such improvement is restricted to
one mating. If a pure-bred sire is used for five generations, it will mean
that at the end of that time the herd is practically pure-bred, but can
never be registered. Rigid selection and the use of a pure-bred sire
should always be continued.

By cross-breeding is meant the mating of two pure-bred animals of
different breeds. Nothing is to be gained by such method of breeding, as
it destroys the pure lines that may have been established and also has a
tendency to cause a greater variation. Cross-breeding is sometimes
profitably carried on in producing market animals, but it should never be
carried beyond the first generation. Cross-bred animals should never be

Two Pure-bred Bulls. Polled Angus on the Left,
Shorthorn on the Right. ^

Sires of this character should head the herd of all well-
regulated stock farms.

BREEDING FARM ANIMALS

555

retained as breeders in the herd, as this has a tendency to cause sterility
in the breeding animals, besides retarding progress in building up the herd.
Selection of a Breed.— The selection of the breed of animals must be
determined by the farmer or livestock grower, as there is no such thing as
the ''best breed." All breeds of Uvestock have been developed for a
definite purpose and among all breeds are found desirable and undesirable
individuals. In deciding upon a breed, the farmer should secure all data
available about the breeds in which he is interested and adopt the one that

* Courtesy of Dept. of Animal Husbandry, Pennsylvania State College.

Pure-bred Shorthorn Bull.*

will best suit his conditions. It is highly important that he select good
individuals of the breed adopted and that he continue with that breed
indefinitely. To change breeds at the end of one or two years is not con-
ducive to improvement, and means a loss of time. It is important to select
representative animals that possess pronounced characteristics of the breed,
and if possible to secure animals with a known ancestry. In the selecting
of a brood sow as an illustration, such sow should come from a prolific

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

656

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

BREEDING FARM ANIMALS

557

strain. The same thing is true in the selection of a herd boar or any other
animal that is to be used for breeding. It is a wise precaution to visit the
herd from which the animals are to be selected, in order to study the prepo-
tency of the sire that is at its head. It is also very important to avoid the
introduction of barrenness or sterility in the herd. The sires selected should
be strong, vigorous and in thrifty condition. Since the sire will be used on
a number of animals, it is important that he be given the greatest considera-
tion, both as to individuality and pedigree.

Pedigree. — The mere fact that an animal is pure-bred and has a
pedigree is not an indication of its being a desirable animal. The pedi-
gree is not a guaranty of excellence in the animal. There are many poor
pure-bred individuals as well as desirable individuals. A combination
of good individuality, together with a pedigree tracing back to known
ancestry, will usually result in the securing of desirable animals.

Gestation Period. — The farmer or livestock breeder must keep a
record of the breeding dates of his animals. This should be done so that
he may know at. what time they are to produce their young. The gesta-
tion period varies with the various classes of animals. For cows, it is
about 9 months, or approximately 280 days; for mares, 11 months, or
approximately 340 days; for ewes, 5 months, or about 150 days; for sows,
4 months, or about 112 days. The gestation period for all animals as
stated is only approximate, and has been known to vary a number of
days from this period. It is well, however, to watch the animals closely
at the end of the number of days given for each class of livestock.

CARE OF LIVESTOCK

The breeding, feeding and management of livestock must be combined
for the greatest success. Each class of livestock must be given special
care and attention, and a system worked out to meet the needs of the
farm. The feeding of the young animals, for instance, should not begin
at the time of birth, as is so often the case, but should be properly carried
on during the gestation period. The young life begins at the time of breed-
ing and for the greatest development must be properly nourished throughout
the gestation period. A well-bred animal does not guarantee the pro-
duction of a desirable individual unless the animal is properly fed, so that
the growing foetus may be properly nourished. Young growing animals
must have an abundance of food that is rich in protein and mineral matter
for the development of muscle and bone rather than fattening material.
This, combined with proper exercise and plenty of fresh air and sunlight,
will result in a properly developed individual.

Preparation of Feeds — In feeding livestock, it is necessary to econo-
mize on the use of grains; yet at the same time, it is not a wise plan to carry
this economy to an extreme. The method of preparing the feed for stock
will vary with the different classes of livestock and the different kinds of
feeds used. Cooking feed for hogs was at one time considered a desirable

practice, but hog-feeding experiments conducted in Canada and the
United States for the purpose of comparing the merits of cooked and
uncooked grain all show an actual loss from cooking. There was a saving
of labor and larger gains for uncooked feed.

The grinding of grain for farm animals will depend upon the kind and
price of grain and the animals to which it is to be fed. Small grains, such
as wheat, barley and rye, should always be crushed or ground before they
are fed. The kernels of these grains are hard and some of it, if fed whole,
will pass through the system of an animal without being masticated or
digested. There is a saving of about six per cent in feeding value of corn
when fed ground or cracked instead of whole. Generally speaking, when
corn is worth more than 75 cents per bushel, it will pay to grind it or have
it cracked for all classes of farm animals, except when fed to cattle where
hogs follow in the feed lot.

Feeding Condimental Stock Feeds. — The feeding of proprietary stock
foods or condition powders should be avoided. These preparations usually
cost from ten to thirty cents per pound and contain nothing that cannot
be secured by using standard feeds. They are usually made up of ground
screenings, weed seeds, bark of trees, a little oil meal, and such materials
as charcoal, copperas, epsom salts, etc. The feeding of such '^foods'' will
do more harm than good. When animals are out of condition, the addition
of a little oil meal to the regular feed will usually give fully as good results.
Salt, usually found in these preparations, should always be supplied to
farm animals in liberal amounts.

Care of the Breeding Herd. — The breeding herd must be properly
cared for if the best results are to be secured. It is not necessary to keep
the animals fat, but they should be kept in a thrifty condition, so that they
can supply the nutrients necessary to properly develop their young during
the gestation period. Breeding animals should have exercise, plenty of
nutritious feed and good water. They should be fed largely on farm-
grown feeds where the right kind can be produced cheaply.

Care of Work Animals. — The term work animals applies usually to
horses and mules. These animals are the principal beasts of burden in the
United States and Canada. The best results can be secured only through
proper feeding and care. Work horses and mules should receive the largest
portion of grain ration during the morning and noon meals, and be allowed
the bulk of their roughage at the evening meal. The reason for this is
that the horse and mule do not possess large stomachs, and thus cannot
carry a large amount of bulky feed without seriously interfering with their
ability to work. The amount of grain and roughage to supply depends
upon the work that is being done. For a horse doing heavy work, about
1 34 to 13^ pounds of grain to 100 pounds liveweight daily should be allowed,
and approximately the same amount of roughage. This amount should
be reduced to about one-half the regular allowance when the horses stand
idle over Sunday or any other day. Over 90 per cent of all cases of azoturia

fi^;ii'^A,,-.J:l.

558

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

BREEDING FARM ANIMALS

559

in horses taking place on Monday morning result directly from carelessness
in over-feeding. Work horses should not be watered when overheated,
but a horse accustomed to drinking water from which the chill has been
removed will usually suffer no injury if allowed to rest a short time before
watering. The usual and common practice is to allow the horse all the
water he cares to drink before feeding in preference to heavy watering
after feeding.

Assist Animals at Time of Giving Birth to Their Yoimg.— There is
probably no time when breeding animals require assistance and watching
as much as at the time of giving birth to their young. It is well to watch
the animals at this time and provide them with comfortable quarters and
the proper feed. It is a good practice to allow only a limited ration at
this time. The system will be in a much better condition to give birth to
the yoimg than where full allowance of feed is supplied. If the animal
has difficulty in giving birth to its young, assistance should be given, which
in case of horses and cattle, can best be secured by caUing in a competent
veterinarian.

MANAGEMENT OF LIVESTOCK

The management of livestock increases in importance with the rise
in the value of livestock and the increase in the cost of feeds, labor and,
building materials. The three most important factors to be kept in mind
in the economical production of livestock is to keep down the cost of shelter,
labor and feed. The buildings or housing facilities for all classes of farm
animals should be adequate, yet not expensive. If they can be made con-
venient and comfortable, that is all that is necessary. Too many farmers
insist on making their buildings too warm. This is seen in many cases
where large basement barns are built that become extremely hot during
the winter. Such barns favor the development of livestock diseases, rather
than keeping the animals in a healthy condition. Farm animals will
thrive much better and be healthier if they are put in open sheds that offer
protection from cold winds, rain and sleet. This is especially true in case
of cattle and sheep. Hogs and horses can also be kept in open sheds the
same as cattle and sheep if they are given plenty of bedding and are kept
dry. The sleeping quarters for all farm animals should be kept well bedded.

Open Sheds. — ^A number of experiments have been conducted to com-
pare open sheds and warm barns for cattle and sheep. In nearly every
case it has been found that beef cattle fed in open sheds made greater daily
gains, consumed less feed per pound of gain, and were in healthier and
thriftier condition than those kept in warm barns. The housing of cattle
and sheep in open sheds is a saving to the farmer, as it does not require as
much capital to construct a shed as it does to construct the usual expensive
barn. It is"also a saving of labor, as the cattle are not tied like they are
in the barn. Open sheds should be built to face the south so the interior
will not be exposed to the severe north winds. They should be built high
enough so that the manure can be taken out by driving into the shed with

the wagon or manure spreader. Feed carriers should also be provided in
order to save carrying a large amount of feed.

Arrangement of Labor. — The amount of labor necessary to care for
the livestock should be reduced to a minimum. This can be done by
arranging convenient quarters in which to feed the Uvestock. The farmer's
and livestock producer's business should be so arranged that the bulk of
the labor connected with the livestock comes during the winter. If this
is done it means that the labor employed upon the farm can be distributed
more equally throughout the entire year. It can be used to work the fields
during the summer and care for the livestock during the winter. Very

Open Sheds for Steer Feeding.*

Shelter of this character is less expensive than warm bams, and wherever the climate is
not too severe steers make better gains for feed consumed than when sheltered
in warm barns.

little labor is required during the summer if plenty of pasture of the proper
kind is provided. Such distribution of labor also makes it possible to secure
more competent help than where it can be employed only during a portion

of the year.

The Kind of Farm Animals.— The class of farm animals to keep will
depend entirely upon the location and equipment of the farm. On farms
where a large amount of pasture and rough feed is produced, beef cattle
and sheep are best adapted. This is also true of farms where there is no

1 Courtesy of Dept. of Animal Husbandry, Pennsylvania State College.

560

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

adequate means of transportation. With good transportation facilities or
near cities where there is a good demand for dairy products, dairying may
be advisable. In many sections of the United States and Canada where
cream only is sold from the dairy, hogs make an admirable addition to the
dairy. Hogs, on^the other hand, are well adapted to most all types of
farming, and provide a source of quick returns from the feeds fed. The
number of farm animals to keep upon a farm depends entirely upon the
size of the farm and the feeds that can be grown. It is a good practice to
produce as much as possible of the feeds necessary to maintain or fatten
the livestock produced on the farm. This does not mean that feeds should
not be purchased. The purchase of nitrogenous supplements to feeds
grown on the farm is not as universally practiced as it should be.

Regularity in Feeding and Watering. — The best results from farm
animals cannot be secured unless the feeding and watering is done with
system and regularity. Plenty of clean water should always be supplied.
The more water consumed by an animal, the more of the feeds supplied
will it consume, thus producing heavier gains or larger amounts of milk.
The cost of the feeds supplied is a factor of importance. The cost of the
feed bill should be kept as low as possible. This can be done only by the
use of farm-grown feeds. In many cases a large amount of roughage or
grain is grown that does not have a ready sale, possibly on account of being
slightly damaged by weathering or improper curing. Such feeds can best
be used upon the farm. Not only does it provide a desirable place to dis-
pose of them, but the fertility which would be lost if the feeds are sold from
the farm is thus saved. Such practice makes the land more fertile and
more productive than where such crops as hay, stover and corn are sold
from the farm.

Observing Individuals. — Every owner of livestock should study the
individuals in the herd and see that they are in good condition of health.
It frequently happens that animals are not doing well, and upon investi-
gation it is found to be due to internal or external parasites. Usually an
unthrifty animal is infested with internal parasites, which, if noticed in
the early stages, can often be destroyed. External parasites, such as lice,
are a source of annoyance and should be destroyed. In the case of sheep,
it is an excellent practice to dip all of the flock in a coal-tar dip at least
once a year. This is usually done following shearing in the spring. It is
also well to provide new pasture for young lambs at weaning time, as at
that time they are more subject to stomach worms than at any other time.
This is due to the fact that they become more easily the prey of worms on
account of the change from nursing the dam to depending entirely upon
food supplied for their maintenance. Hogs should frequently be sprayed
or dipped with a coal-tar dip so as to destroy lice that are often found on
their bodies. Hogs are also often unthrifty as the result of stomach worms.

Keep up Records. — It is highly desirable for a farmer or livestock
breeder who is breeding pure-bred animals to keep his records up to date.

BREEDING FARM ANIMALS

561

It frequently happens that desirable pure-bred animals are grown on the
farm, but their registration is not completed. Such practice is well enough
where only market animals are being produced. There may come a time,
however, when the breeder will desire to sell animals as breeders. Buyers
of pure-bred cattle require the registration to be complete in order that
they may sell any offspring produced from such animals for breeding pur-
poses. Registration involves only a small amount of time and expense,
but is a practice that is well worth while.

Prepaiation and Shipping of Livestock.— All livestock, whether
breeding animals or market animals, should be in the very best of con-
dition when shipped. If pure-bred stock is shipped by express, it should
be properly crated. If shipped by freight, it should be properly tied
and bedded. If the animals arrive in good condition, the purchaser will
gain a good impression of them upon first inspection. If they arrive in
poor condition due to careless preparation, the buyer as a rule will not be
satisfied and probably will not make another purchase. In selling pure-
bred livestock by mail, it is always a wise plan not to praise too highly
the animals that are offered for sale. It is much better to have the pur-
chaser find the animals that are shipped him better than he expected.
Such practice usually makes more sales and is a good means of advertising.
If a customer is not satisfied with the animals shipped, the breeder should
always make it a point to satisfy his customer either by refunding the
purchase price and the expense of shipping or by shipping another animal.

Cattle, hogs or sheep when shipped to market should be started in as
near normal condition as possible. Some farmers salt heavily before ship-
ping in order to get the proper ''fill" on the market. Cattle salted just
before they are shipped will arrive on the market in poor condition. They
will be feverish, will drink very little water, will not eat much hay and will
also be apt to scour. Cattle in such a condition usually sell at a discount.
The car in which the livestock is to be loaded should be well bedded and
in the case of cattle, the racks should be filled with hay so they can eat
while en route. Always ship the livestock so as to reach the market early
in the week, as there is usually more active buying at that time than later
in the week.

REFERENCES

"Manual of Farm Animals/' Harper.

"Types and Breeds of Farm Animals." Plumb.

"Beginnings in Animal Husbandry." Plumb.

"Productive Feeding of Farm Animals." Woll.

"Animal Breeding." Shaw.

"Feeding and Management of Farm Animals." Shaw.

Farmers' Bulletin 350, U. S. Department of Agriculture. "Dehorning of Cattle."

CHAPTER 45

Feeds and Feeding

By Dr. H. S. Grindley and Sleeter Bull
Professor and Associate of Animal Nutrition, University of Illinois

Introduction. — A knowledge of the scientific principles of stock
feeding is important to the stockman. This knowledge is not absolutely
essential, as many have achieved success in feeding as a result of years of
experience. However, "experience is a dear teacher" and if one combines
a study of the scientific principles of feeding with the experience gained in
the barn and feed lot, he will learn the art of successful feeding more quickly,
more thoroughly and with less expense than if he depends upon experience
as his only teacher.

Chemical Composition of Feeding-stuflfs.— All feeding-stuffs are
composed of a great number of different compounds which are grouped
into five classes, viz., water, mineral matter, crude protein, carbohydrates
and fats. These classes of compounds are usually spoken of as ''nutrients,''
because they are used for the nutrition of the animal.

Water is found in large amounts in such feeds as green pasture, silage,
beets and milk, while such feeds as hay, bran, corn, middlings, etc., contain
from 10 to 20 per cent water. A knowledge of the water content of feeds
is important for two reasons: (1) feeds high in water content are lower in
feeding value, pound for pound, than feeds low in water; (2) feeds contain-
ing more than 18 or 20 per cent water usually ferment and spoil when
stored in bulk.

Mineral Matter, or ash as it is sometimes called, is that part of the
feed which remains as ash when the feed is burned. In the animal body,
mineral matter is used principally for the repair and growth of bone. It
is also used in the growth and repair of the muscles and vital organs. It
is found in the blood and other body fluids. A certain amount of it is
absolutely essential to proper growth and development, or even for Ufa
itself.

Most of the roughages, especially the legumes, as clover, alfalfa and
soy beans, are quite high in mineral matter. Also such feeds as tankage,
middlings, cottonseed meal, linseed meal and bran are high in mineral
matter. The cereal grains, especially corn, are low in mineral matter.
Consequently, in feeding horses, cattle and sheep, little account need be
taken of the mineral matter of the ration, except to provide salt, a« these
animals are nearly always given feeding-stuffs, some of which are high in
mineral matter. However, in case of hogs, the ration may be deficient in

(562)

FEEDS AND FEEDING^

563

mineral matter, especially if considerable corn is used in the ration. The
hogs should have access to a mineral mixture consisting of charcoal, air-
slaked lime, salt, wood-ashes and rock phosphate or '^floats."

Crude Protein includes all the compounds of the feed which contain
the element nitrogen. Familiar forms of protein are egg albumen (the white
of the egg) and casein (the curd of milk). Protein is found in all living
matter and is absolutely essential to life. It is found in every plant cell,
but in larger amounts in the seeds. It also occurs in every animal cell and
makes up a large part of the solid matter of the blood, muscles and organs
of the body. Thus the crude protein of the ration is absolutely essential
to the animal for the repair and growth of the muscles, bones, organs, etc.
It is also essential for a pregnant animal for the formation of the foetus
and, later, for milk production. If there is any surplus of protein in the
ration above the requirements of the animal for the purposes just mentioned,
the surplus may be used to produce energy or to liberate heat. If there is
still a surplus, it may be used for the production of body fat. However,
protein is not an economical source of energy or body fat, as it usually
is the most expensive nutrient and the one which it is most often necessary
to buy. Hence, no more protein should be fed than needed by the animal
for repair, growth and milk production. Tankage, cottonseed meal,
linseed meal, gluten feed, distillers' grains, brewers' grains, bran, middlings
and soy beans are high in protein. The legume hays are also relatively
high in protein. Corn, timothy hay, the straws, fodder, stover and silage
are low in crude protein.

Carbohydrates are the chief constituents of all plants. However,
they are not found to any large extent in animals. Familiar forms of the
carbohydrates are starch, sugar and vegetable fiber, such as hemp, paper
and cotton. As the carbohydrates contain such a variety of compounds
which differ considerably in nutritive value, they are often divided into two
sub-classes: *' nitrogen-free extract" and ^* crude fiber."

Nitrogen-free extract includes those carbohydrates which are high in
feeding value, as starch and sugar. In the animal body these substances
are used as a source of energy to do work or for heat to keep the body warm.
If there is any surplus, it may be used for the production of energy and the
formation of body fat. As carbohydrates are considerably cheaper than
protein, it is more economical to use them for these purposes than to use
protein. Feeds high in nitrogen-free extract are corn, wheat, barley, rye,
rice and oats. The flour by-products, the oil meals, the straws and hays
contain medium amounts: while the pastures, silage and packing house
by-products are low. -

Crude fiber includes the tough, woody, fibroua portion of the plant.
Owing to the fact that it is not very digestible, the nutritive value of crude
fiber is less than that of the other nutrients. In the animal the digested
crude fiber is used as a source of energy and as a source of body fat. Feeds
high in crude fiber are the hays, straws, fodders, stovers and roughages in

564

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

general. The cereal grains, the oil meals and most mill feeds are low in
crude fiber.

The Fats, sometimes called "ether extract/' include all the fats and
oils found in the feed. Practically all plants contain some fats, although
usually in only small amounts. In animals, fats occur much more abun-
dantly, occurring in nearly every organ and tissue. Fat animals often
contain 40 or 50 per cent of fat. The fat of the ration is used in the animal
as a source of energy and as a source of body fat. It is about two and one-
quarter times as valuable as protein and carbohydrates for these purposes.
Tankage and the oil meals contain the largest amounts of fat of the ordina^
feeding-stuffs.

$mall

inteatinea

pancreatic duct

roof of mouth

•,

j tongue

v"*^

^^^^^^Jt^ pharynx

/^ rumen

^^ij5J^i^^j'^S^]v^ A

^CSm**^! ^''''**'—»*'*'*"*W

.,->X»SS»*3ft»y)^

salivary esophagus U

^—''..^THiunc/ii

ducts omasum, or 1

manypUes"\^

V'Blllll^l^jtfgJ^

reticulum, or honeycomb

Xo^L*-.-*^

ahomasum,or

rennet (t

rue stomach)

bile duct

rectum

■^^^^^ •

anus
caecum

colon, or large
~ intestine

The Digestive Tract of a Cow.*

Digestion of the Nutrients.— Before the nutrients can be of any use
to the animal they must be digested and taken up by the blood. Digestion
is the process of separating the useful constituents of the feed from those
that are useless, and changing the useful constituents to such form that
they may be taken up by the blood. These processes take place in the
mouth, stomach and intestines. Inasmuch as only the digestible nutrients
of a feed are of value to an animal, the amount of digestible components
of the feed are of special interest to the stockman. Table I shows the per-
centages of the digestible nutrients in the ordinary feeding-stuffs. (See
Appendix to this book.)

The Nutritive Ratio.— Proteins are used primarily for growth and
repair, while carbohydrates and fats are used for energy and fat production.
The nutritive ratio expresses the value of a feed or ration as a flesh pro-

» Courtesy of Iowa State College.

i
<?

FEEDS AND FEEDING

565

ducer or as an energy and fat producer, ^. e., it is the ratio of digestible
crude protein to digestible carbohydrates and fat in the feed or ration.
Inasmuch as fat is two and one-quarter times as valuable as carbohydrates,
the amount of digestible fat is multiplied by two and one-quarter and added
to the amount of digestible carbohydrates. The sum is then divided by
the amount of digestible protein. The first term of the ratio is always
"1," while the second term is obtained by the following formula;

digestible carbohydrates + 2J^ X digestible fat , ^. . ., ..

■ :p — tmti T-- = second term of the ratio.

digestible protein

The nutritive ratio is written as "1 : 6^' or "1 : 14,'' or whatever it
may be. It is read as ''one to six,'' or ''one to fourteen,'' Thus one finds
the nutritive ratio of corn as follows: from Table I it is found that 100
pounds of corn contain 7.8 pounds of digestible protein, 66.8 pounds of
digestible carbohydrates and 4.3 pounds of digestible fat. Then, substi-
tuting in the above formula:

66.8 + 214 X 4.3 _

7.8

= 9.8

Therefore, the nutritive ratio of corn is 1 : 9.8. The nutritive ratio
of a ration containing two or more feeds may be calculated in a similar
manner.

Ordinarily, a nutritive ratio of 1 : 6 or less is called a narrow ratio;
i. e.y the feeding-stuff or ration contains a relatively large amount of pro-
tein and a relatively small amount of carbohydrates and fat. A ratio of
1 : 7 to 1 : 9 is called a medium ratio; i. 6., there is present a medium
amount of protein and a medium amount of carbohydrates and fat. A
ratio of 1 : 10 or greater is called a wide ratio; i, e., the proportion of pro-
tein to carbohydrates and fats is relatively small.

The Energy Values of Feeding-stuffs.— One of the functions of the
ration of an animal is to act as a source of energy to do work or form heat.
Also the formation of body fat may be looked upon as a storage of energy,
because it may be used as a source of energy to do work or for heat at any
time when the ration is insufficient for these purposes. Hence, in addition
to a knowledge of the digestible nutrients in feeds, the scientific stock-
feeder should have a knowledge of the energy values of feeds, L e., the
value of different feeding-stuffs for doing work, storage of fat, milk pro-
duction, etc. Energy values of feeding-stuffs are expressed in "therms."
A therm is the amount of energy in the form of heat necessary to raise the
temperature of 1000 pounds of water 4° F. The energy values of some of
the common feeding-stuffs are given in Table II.

Feeding-stuffs. — In general, feeding-stuffs may be divided into two
classes, concentrates and roughages, according to the amounts of digestible
nutrients and their energy values.

■^^ '■'-

566

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Concentrates are feeding-stuffs which contain a relatively large
amount of digestible nutrients and energy in a small bulk. They usually
are highly nutritious in nature. Concentrates usually have an energy
value of 60 or more therms per 100 pounds. Concentrates may be sub-
divided into nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous concentrates,

A nitrogenous concentrate is one which is relatively rich in protein.
It usually contains 11 per cent or more of digestible protein. Common
examples are tankage, cottonseed meal, linseed meal, gluten feed, dried
distillers' grains, dried brewers' grains, soy beans, bran, middlings and
shorts. As a rule, but few nitrogenous concentrates are produced on the

The Respiration Calorimeter in Use for an Experiment.*

farm and therefore they must be purchased. Nitrogenous concentrates
are almost essential in the rations of all growing animals in order to furnish
protein and mineral matter so essential to the proper development of
muscle and bone. Likewise the milk cow requires nitrogenous concentrates
in order to provide the large amounts of protein and mineral matter which
she excretes in her milk. Fattening animals and work horses often need
small amoimts of nitrogenous concentrates, especially if they are still
growing.

A non-nitrogenous concentrate is low or only medium in protein con-
tent, but is usually rich in carbohydrates. It generally contains less than

1 Year-Book, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1910.

FEEDS AND FEEDING

567

11 per cent of digestible protein. Examples are corn, barley, oats, wheat,
rye, molasses and dried-beet pulp. Ordinarily the farmer raises all the
non-nitrogenous concentrates necessary, and usually it will not pay him
to buy such feeds on the market. All classes of fattening animals require
large amounts of non-nitrogenous concentrates in order to furnish the
carbohydrates and fats which, as has already been stated, are the cheapest
sources of body fat. Also work horses must have large amounts of non-
nitrogenous concentrates in order to furnish energy for doing their work.
Milch cows need medium amounts, while they should be used more spar-
ingly in the rations of growing and breeding animals.

Roughages are feeding-stuffs which contain a relatively small
amount of digestible nutrients, or net energy in a large bulk. They usually
contain less than 40 therms of energy per 100 pounds. Roughages contain
a large amount of crude fiber which lowers their feeding value considerably.
Roughages, like concentrates, may be sub-divided into nitrogenous and
non-nitrogenous.

Nitrogenous roughages usually contain 6 per cent or more of digestible
protein. Examples are clover, alfalfa, cowpea, soy-bean hay and alfalfa
meal. In general, all the legume hays fall under this sub-class. Nitro-
genous roughages should be grown on nearly every farm, not only for their
feeding value but also for their fertilizing value in the crop rotations. It
will rarely pay to buy nitrogenous roughages on the market, as they can
be produced more cheaply at home. The nitrogenous roughages are valu-
able in the rations of nearly all classes of animals except hogs, and even
they make valuable use of some of them at times. Fattening animals,
with the exception of hogs, should have nitrogenous roughage. Unless
they do, it will be necessary to feed large amounts of nitrogenous concen-
trates, and even then the results will be only fair, untess corn silage is used.
Growing animals should have nitrogenous roughage, as it furnishes much
of the protein and mineral matter so essential to their proper development.
Even pigs may make use of some alfalfa or clover hay. It is almost
impossible to produce milk economically unless nitrogenous roughages
are used. Breeding cattle and sheep need little or no other feed than
nitrogenous roughages in winter. Brood sows and boars will eat consider-
able of the^leaves. Horses may have nitrogenous roughages if they are
clean, well cured and free from dust. Often, however, they are too dusty
for horses.

Non-nitrogenous roughages usually contain less then 6 per cent of
digestible protein. Examples are timothy hay, corn silage, corn stover,
oat straw, wheat straw, barley straw and rye straw. Silage is the best
form in which to get all the feeding value of the corn crop. It may be used
to advantage in the rations of practically all classes of animals except hogs,
if it is properly supplemented with other feeds. The other non-nitroge-
nous roughages have little value except in the rations of. mature breeding
animals, stockers and work horses.

56()

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

FEEDS AND FEEDING

567

1 tbiii .

s^ :

•

h_ *'QliHHHkii>^

^ ....^^li^tf^H

J^^^KteZ*^^* , . . . «k. -■

tm^mm' ■^'^''^^SKl

"' .■„■

11^ i; J

r ■

Mi*

1 .r

]

l^'f^

^ .J

i<^ 1

■J- t

UiW^^T^

•» •

■■■•■>|yi(^

r-'

**-

•

■-(■.'.■-

•

The Respiration Calorimeter in Use for an Experiment.*

farm and therefore they must be purchased. Nitrogenous concentrates
are almost essential in the rations of all growing animals in order to furnish
protein and mineral matter so essential to the proper development of
muscle and bone. Likewise the milk cow requires nitrogenous concentrates
in order to provide the large amounts of protein and mineral matter which
she excretes in her milk. Fattening animals and work horses often need
small amounts of nitrogenous concentrates, especially if they are still
growing.

A non-nitrogenous concentrate is low or only medium in protein con-
tent, but is usually rich in carbohydrates. It generally contains less than

1 Ycar-Book, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1910.

Nitrogenous rougliages usually contain 6 per cent or more of digestible
protein. Examples are clover, alfalfa, cowpea, soy-bean hay and alfalfa
meal. In general, all the legume hays fall under this sub-class. Nitro-
genous roughages should be grown on nearly every farm, not only for their
feeding value but also for their fertilizing value in the crop rotations. It
will rarely pay to buy nitrogenous roughages on the market, as they can
be produced more cheaply at home. The nitrogenous roughages are valu-
able in the rations of nearly all classes of animals except hogs, and even
they make valuable use of some of them at times. Fattening animals,
with the exception of hogs, should have nitrogenous roughage. Unless
they do, it will be necessary to feed large amounts of nitrogenous concen-
trates, and even then the results will be only fair, unless corn silage is used.
Growing animals should have nitrogenous roughage, as it furnishes much
of the protein and mineral matter so essential to their proper development.
Even pigs may make use of some alfalfa or clover hay. It is almost
impossible to produce milk economically unless nitrogenous roughages
are used. Breeding cattle and sheep need little or no other feed than
nitrogenous roughages in winter. Brood sows and boars will eat consider-
able of the^leaves. Horses may have nitrogenous roughages if they are
clean, well cured and free from dust. Often, however, they are too dusty
for horses.

Non-nitrogenous roughages usually contain less then 6 per cent of
digestible protein. Examples are timothy hay, corn silage, corn stover,
oat straw, wheat straw, barley straw and rye straw. Silage is the best
form in which to get all the feeding value of the corn crop. It may be used
to advantage in the rations of practically all classes of animals except hogs,
if it is properly supplemented with other feeds. The other non-nitroge-
nous roughages have little value except in the rations of mature breeding
animals, stockers and work horses.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

(

568

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The Requirements of Farm Animals.— Knowing the digestible nutri-
ents and the energy in the different feeding-stuifs and the amounts of
nutrients and energy required by farm animals, one can formulate
approximately a proper ration for different farm animals under different
conditions.

The Balanced Ration. — ^A balanced ration is a ration which contains
all the nutrients in such proportions, forms and amounts as will nourish
properly and without excess of any nutrient, a given animal for one day.
Extended study of the amount of each nutrient required by the different
farm animals for the various purposes for which they are kept has led to
the formation of so-called ''feeding standards." Theoretically, feeding
standards may be looked upon as formulas which tell at a glance the amount
of each nutrient necessary to produce a given result. In practice, however,
feeding standards cannot be regarded as such, but only as a guide to be
used in connection with one's practical knowledge of the amounts, propor-
tions and combination of feeds which are used in stock feeding. Although
there are a number of valuable feeding standards, the limits of this chapter
will permit a discussion of only a few.

The Wolff-Lehmann Standards show the requirements of farm animals
under different conditions, expressed in pounds of total dry substance,
digestible crude protein, digestible carbohydrates and digestible fat per
1000 pounds live weight. The nutritive ratio required by the animal also
is given.

The calculation of a ration according to any feeding standard consists
essentially of three steps: (1) Having given the requirements for an
animal of a given weight, usually 1000 pounds, the requirements of the
animal under consideration are determined. (2) A ''trial ration'' is
assumed, using the amounts and proportions of concentrates and rough-
ages which, in the opinion of the feeder, are necessary. (3) The trial
ration is modified by adding or deducting concentrates or roughages of
such composition as to furnish approximately the required amounts of
nutrients.

Thus, for example, one calculates a ration according to the Wolff-
Lehmann standard for a 1200-pound horse at light work as follows:
According to the standard (see Appendix, Table III) the requirements
of a 1000-pound horse at light work are as follows: dry substance, 20
pounds; digestible protein, 1.5 pounds; digestible carbohydrates, 9.5
pounds; and digestible fat, 0.4 pounds. The first step is to calculate the
requirements of a 1200-pound horse, which are found to be as follows:
dry substance, 24 pounds; digestible protein, 1.8 pounds; digestible car-
bohydrates, 11.4 pounds; and digestible fat, 0.5 pound. The second step
is to assume a trial ration which will meet approximately the requirements
as determined in the first step. From the amount of dry substance required
and from practical experience, one judges that a ration consisting of 12
pounds of oats and 14 pounds of timothy hay will about answer the pur-

FEEDS AND FEEDING

569

pose. Calculating the dry substance and digestible nutrients of this ration
from Table I, the following results are obtained :

Dry

Substance,
pounds.

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

Digestible

Carbohydrates,

pounds.

Digestible

Fat,

pounds.

Oats, 12 pounds

Hay, 14 pounds

10.8

12.2
23.0

1.1

0.4
1.5

5.9
5.9

11.8

0.5
0.2

0.7

Total ration

Comparing the nutrients of the trial ration with the requirements of
the standard, it is seen that the trial ration is a little below the standard
in dry substance and protein, and a little above it in carbohydrates and fat.
Thus the third step is to modify the trial ration so that its nutrients con-
form to the standard. Consequently, a feed which is high in protein and
low in carbohydrates should be substituted for part of the ation. Inas-
much as it is not desirable to lessen the bulk of the ration as the dry
substance is already a little low, one may substitute two pounds of linseed
meal for two pounds of the oats of the ration. The ration then contains
the following nutrients:

Dry

Substance,
pounds.

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

Digestible

Carbohydrates,

pounds.

Digestible

Fat.
pounds.

Oats, 10 pounds

Oil meal, 2 pounds

Timothy hay, 14 pounds.

Total ration

9.0

1.8

12.2

23.0

0.9
0.6
0.4

1.9

4.9
0.6
5.9

11.4

0.4
0.1
0.2

0.7

The nutritive ratio is:

11.4 + 2.25 X 0.7
1.9

or 1:6.8

This ration, except 1 hat it is a trifle low in dry substance, comes very close
to satisfying the standard. Of course, in many cases, especially until one
has had considerable practice in the calculation of rations, the trial ration
may have to be modified several times before the ration conforms with
the standard. However, by applying his practical knowledge, the stock
feeder should not have much difficulty in calculating balanced rations.

In view of modern investigations, certain modifications must be made
to the Wolff-Lehmann standards to adapt them to American conditions.
In practically every instance the amount of dry substance prescribed is
10 to 20 per cent too high. The protein prescribed is from 10 to 40 per cent
too high, the greatest difference being in the case of fattening and working
animals, and, consequently, the nutritive ratio is too narrow. Very little
attention should be given to the fat content of the ration, it being con-
sidered satisfactory if the requirements for protein and carbohydrates are
fulfilled.

■ t:

ii*ir»rfii

570

SUCCESSFUL- FARMING

The Armsby Standards express the requirements of farm animals in
pounds of digestible protein and in therms of energy. Instead of giving
separate standards for all the different classes of farm animals, Armsby
gives standards for maintenance and growth. Inasmuch as any excess
of feed above maintenance may be used for fattening or milk production
he gives the amount of nutrients above the maintenance requirements
necessary to produce a pound of gain or a pound of milk. Thus, the stand-
ards for fattening and for milk production vary with the amount of gain
or with the amount of milk produced. To determine the standard for a
fattening animal, one adds 3.5 therms per each pound of daily gain to the
energy requirement for maintenance, as all the energy above the mainte-
nance requirement may be used for the production of flesh and fat. Armsby
recommends that a 1000-pound ruminant should receive 20 to 30 pounds
or an average of 25 pounds of dry matter per day. A horse should have
somewhat less. The amounts of digestible protein and of energy in the
common feeding-stuffs as presented by Armsby are given in Table II
His feeding standards are given in Table IV. For example, if one desires
to calculate a ration for a 1000-pound steer gaining two pounds per day
the first step is to determine the requirements. From Table IV it is seen
that the requirements of a 1000-pound steer gaining two pounds per day
are 1.8 pounds of digestible protein and 13.0 therms of energy. As the
second step, we will assume a trial ration consisting of 10 pounds of corn
and 8 pounds of clover hay. Referring to Table II, it is found that the
digestible protein and energy in this ration are as follows:

Corn, 10 pounds

Clover hay, 8 pounds.

Total ration

Dry

Substance,

pounds.

8.91
6.78

15.69

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

0.68
0.43

1.11

Energy
therms.

8.88
2.78

11.66

Comparing the trial ration with the standard, we find that it is low
in both protein and energy. As the third step, we will add 2 pounds of
cottonseed meal, a« jt is high in both protein and energy. The ration then
contains the following nutrients :

•

Dry

Substance,

pounds.

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

Energy,
therms.

Corn, 10 pounds

8.91
6.78
1.84

0.68

0.43
0.70

1.81

Clover hay, 8 pounds

8.88

Cottonseed meal, 2 pounds

2.78

1.68

Total ration

17.53

13.34

This ration although a trifle low in dry substance, fulfils the requirements
of the Armsbv standard.

FBBD8 AND PKBDINO

571

In calculating a ration fur » Mvy i>xm tttnnuHlinK to the Armsby stand-
ard, one adds to the requirewej^te fuv lUt^llKruMnce, 0.05 pounds of digest-
ible protein and 0.3 therm of net out^rgy (uv vnv\\ pound of milk produced.
For example, one wishes to ealouhUo n vnWuw Uw ^ 9(K)~pound cow giving
22 pounds of milk. Aooordiutf to Tnblo IV \\\v miuii^omentB are as follows:

For maintenance of 900-pound i»ow, , ,,,,,..,
Additional for 22 pounds luilk ,,,,,,,,
Total requirement

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 • 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

UiltPNiibtp
I'tulijM, pounds.

0.45
1.10

Energy,
therms.

5.7
0.6

12.3

The ration is then calculato(l in tho nmnnor ptiwlouwly (le«cril)ed.

The Haecker Standard for Dftlry Cowi holdn that the requirements
of the dairy cow vary not only iuTt.rdln« to \m weight and the quantity
of milk yield, but also aooordintf to tho (lunlliy of the milk. According to
Haecker, a 1000-pound cow requiroH for malnlrnanco 0.7 pound of digestible
crude protein, 7.0 pounds of ditfUHtlblt^ (Mirhohyth'tttert, and 0.1 pound of
digestible fat. For each pound of 1 \h^v m\i milk the Haecker standard
requires the addition of O.OM pound of diKt'HflbIn vnaUi protein, 0.24 pound
of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.021 pound of (li«G«tll)le fat in addition
to the maintenance requirement. If tho milk contains less than 4 per cent
of fat, smaller amounts of nutrlontw mv pwnvvWml. The amounts of
digestible nutrients to produce onn pound of milk containing various per-
centages of butter fat are given in Tahh* V.

For example, to calculate a ration »H«c(fnllnK to the Haecker standard
for a 900-pound cow giving 20 pounds ol milk dally containing 5 per cent
of butter fat, the process is m folio wn; (1) dpientiine the maintenance
requirement for a 900-pound cow; (2) mid to iJie inaintenance require-
ment the requirement to produce 20 ponndn of fi per cent milk; and (3)
calculate a ration to conform with thl« Ntundard. Thus a cow weighing
900 pounds requires 0.63 pound of dItfOHllbIc* protein, 6.30 pounds of
digestible carbohydrates and 0.0ft pound of dl^nmUble fat for maintenance.
According to Haecker, to produce onn prnind of fi per cent milk requires
the consumption of 0.060 pound of di^ONllhln rnide jirotein; 0.28 pound
of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.024 pound of digc-stiblo fat, in addition
to the maintenance requirementw. ThuN Min tofnl reqtiiremcnt to produce
20 pounds of 5 per cent milk l« calculnird tm follows;

Oiffr>Afitit«>

C'HtbnhydrnU'n,

ptiumU.

Digesiible

Fat,
pdilndfl.

For maintenance ,,,,,,,,,,

To produce 20 pounds of 5 per imni milk
Total , , ,,,,,

Urn '

0.09
0 50

0.59

The ration is then calculated in tli(t Htanti nmutm tm described under the
discussion of the Wolff-Ivehmann niuh^i^,^^iH,

568

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The Requirements of Farm Animals.— Knowing the digestible nutri-
ents and the energy in the different feeding-stuffs and the amounts of
nutrients and energy required by farm animals, one can formulate
approximately a proper ration for different farm animals under different
conditions.

The Balanced Ration.— A balanced ration is a ration which contains
all the nutrients in such proportions, forms and amounts as will nourish
properly and without excess of any nutrient, a given animal for one day.
Extended study of the amount of each nutrient required by the different
farm animals for the various purposes for which they are kept has led to
the formation of so-called *^ feeding standards.'' Theoretically, feeding
standards may be looked upon as formulas which tell at a glance the amount
of each nutrient necessary to produce a given result. In practice, however,
feeding standards cannot be regarded as such, but only as a guide to be
used in connection with one's practical knowledge of the amounts, propor-
tions and combination of feeds which are used in stock feeding. Although
there are a number of valuable feeding standards, the limits of this chapter
will permit a discussion of only a few.

Thus, for example, one calculates a ration according to the Wolff-
Lehmann standard for a 1200-pound horse at light work as follows:
According to the standard (see Appendix, Table III) the requirements
of a 1000-pound horse at light work are as follows: dry substance, 20
pounds; digestible protein, 1.5 pounds; digestible carbohydrates, 9.5
pounds; and digestible fat, 0.4 pounds. The first step is to calculate the
requirements of a 1200-pound horse, which are found to be as follows:
dry substance, 24 pounds; digestible protein, 1.8 pounds; digestible car-
bohydrates, 11.4 pounds; and digestible fat, 0.5 pound. The second step
is to assume a trial ration which will meet approximately the requirements
as determined in the first step. From the amount of dry substance required
and from i)ractical exi)erience, one judges that a ration consisting of 12
pounds of oats and 14 ixjunds of timothy hay will alM)ut answer the pur-

FEEDS AND FEEDING

569

pose. Calculating the dry substance and digestible nutrients of this ration
from Table I, the following results are obtained :

Dry

Substance,
pounds.

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

Digestible

Carbohydrates,

pounds.

Digestible

Fat.

pounds.

Oats, 12 pounds

10.8
12.2

23.0

1.1

0.4
1.5

5.9
5.9

11.8

0 5

Hay, 14 pounds

0 2

Total ration

0.7

Dry

Substance,
pounds.

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

Digestible

Carbohydrates,

pounds.

Digestible

Fat.

pounds.

Oats, 10 pounds

9.0

1.8

12.2

23.0

0.9
0.6
0.4

1.9

4.9

0.6
5.9

11.4

0.4

Oil meal, 2 pounds

Timothy hay, 14 pounds.

Total ration

0.1
0.2

0.7

The nutritive ratio is:

11.4 4- 2.25 X 0.7 ^^ i^gg
1.9

This ration, except that it is a trifle low in dry substance, comes very close
to satisfying the standard. Of course, in many cases, especially until one
has had considerable practice in the calculation of rations, the trial ration
may have to be modified several times before the ration conforms with
the standard. However, by applying his practical knowledge, the stock
feeder should not have much difficulty in calculating balanced rations.

570

SUCCESSFUL- FARMING

FEEDS AND FEEDING

The Armsby Standards express the requirements of farm animals in
pounds of digestible protein and in therms of energy. Instead of givinff
separate standards for all the different classes of farm animals Amsbv
gives standards for maintenance and growth. Inasmuch as any exce^
of teed above maintenance may be used for fattening or milk production
he gives the amount of nutrients above the maintenance requirements
necessary to produce a pound of gain or a pound of milk. Thus the stand-
ards for fattening and for milk production vary with the amount of gain
or with the amount of milk produced. To determine the standard for a
fattening animal, one adds 3.5 therms per each pound of daily gain to the
energy requirement for maintenance, as all the energy above the mainte-
nance reqmrement may be used for the production of flesh and fat Armsbv
recommends that a 1000-pound ruminant should receive 20 to 30 pounds
or an average of 25 pounds of dry matter per day. A horse should have
somewhat less. The amounts of digestible protein and of energy in the
common feeding-stuffs as presented by Armsby are given in Table II
His feeding standards are given in Table IV. For example, if one desires
to calculate a ration for a 1000-pound steer gaining two pounds per day
the farst step is to determine the requirements. From Table IV it is seen
that the requirements of a 1000-pound steer gaining two pounds per day
are 1.8 pounds of digestible protein and 13.0 therms of energy As the
second step, we will assume a trial ration consisting of 10 pounds of corn
and 8 pounds of clover hay. Referring to Table II, it is found that the
digestible protein and energy in this ration are as follows-

Dry

Substance,

pounds.

Corn, 10 pounds

Clover hay, 8 poun(i.s.

Total ration

8.91
6.78

15.69

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

0.68
0.43

1.11

Energy
therms.

8.88
2.78

11.66

Comparing the trial ration with the standard, we find that it is low
in both protein and energy. As the third step, we will add 2 pounds of
cottonseed meal, as it is high in both protein and energy. The ration then
contains the following nutrients:

Corn, 10 pounds

Clover hay, 8 pounds

Cottonseed meal, 2 pounds

Total ration

Dry

Substance,

pounds.

8.91

6.78
1.84

17.53

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

0.68
0.43
0.70

1.81

Energy,
therms.

8.88
2.78
1.68

13.34

This ration, although a trifle low in dry substance, fulfils the requirements
of the Armsby standard.

571

In calculating a ration for a dairy cow according to the Armsby stand-
ard, one adds to the requirements for maintenance, 0.05 pounds of digest-
ible protein and 0.3 therm of net energy for each pound of milk produced.
For example, one wishes to calculate a ration for a 900-pound cow giving
22 pounds of milk. According to Table IV the requirements are as follows:

Digestible
Protein, pounds.

Energy,
therms.

For maintenance of 900-pound cow

Additional for 22 pounds milk

Total requirement ".

0.45
1.10

1.55

5.7
6.6

12.3

The ration is then calculated in the manner previously described.

The Haecker Standard for Dairy Cows holds that the requirements
of the dairy cow vary not only according to her weight and the quantity
of milk yield, but also according to the quality of the milk. According to
Haecker, a 1000-pound cow requires for maintenance 0.7 pound of digestible
crude protein, 7.0 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.1 pound of
digestible fat. For each pound of 4 per cent milk the Haecker standard
requires the addition of 0.054 pound of digestible crude protein, 0.24 pound
of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.021 pound of digestible fat in addition
to the maintenance requirement. If the milk contains less than 4 per cent
of fat, smaller amounts of nutrients are prescribed. The amounts of
digestible nutrients to produce one pound of milk containing various per-
centages of butter fat are given in Table V.

For example, to calculate a ration according to the Haecker standard
for a 900-pound cow giving 20 pounds of milk daily containing 5 per cent
of butter fat, the process is as follows: (1) determine the maintenance
requirement for a 900-pound cow; (2) add to the maintenance require-
ment the requirement to produce 20 pounds of 5 per cent milk; and (3)
calculate a ration to conform with this standard. Thus a cow weighing
900 pounds requires 0.63 pound of digestible protein, 6.30 pounds of
digestible carbohydrates and 0.09 pound of digestible fat for maintenance.
According to Haecker, to produce one pound of 5 per cent milk requires
the consumption of 0.060 pound of digestible crude protein; 0.28 pound
of digestible carbohydrates, and 0.024 pound of digestible fat, in addition
to the maintenance requirements. Thus the total requirement to produce
20 pounds of 5 per cent milk is calculated as follows:

For maintenance . .

To produce 20 pounds of 5 per cent milk

Total

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

0.63
1.22

1.85

Digestible

Carbohydrates,

pounds.

6.30
5.60

11.90

Digestible

Fat.
pounds.

0.09
0.50

0.59

The ration is then calculated in the same manner as described under the
discussion of the Wolff-Lehmann standards.

572

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

REFERENCES

''Principles of Stock Feeding." Smith.

"Feeds and P'eeding." Henry.

''First Principles of Feeding Farm Animals." Burkett.

Prmciples of Animal Nutrition." Armsby.
"Feeding of Animals." Jordan.
"Productive Feeding of Farm Animals." Woll.
"Profitable Stock P^eeding." Smith.

California Expt. Station BuUetin 256. "Value of Barley for Cows Fed Alfalfa "
lllmois Expt Station BuUetin 172. "Study of Digestio^ of RatTonffor ste^^^^
Minnesota Expt. Station Bulletm 140. "Investigations in Milk Production "
Missouri Research BuUetin 18. "Maintenance Requirements of Cattle." '
Nebr^ka Expt. Station Bulletin 151. "Corn Silage and Alfalfa for Beef Production "
New Hampshire Expt Station Bulletin 175. "Analysis of Feeding-stuffs." ^''"^'''^"•
South Dakota Expt. Station Bulletm 160. "Silage and Grains for Steers."

Vmfl^ii^n^^''''' '^^^""^^ Feeding-stuffs, Their Composition and

Wisconsin Expt. Station Circular 37^ 'The Feeding Unit System for Determining
the Economy of Production by Dairy Cows " ^

Wisconsin Research BuUetin 26. "Studies in Dairv Production "
Wyoming Expt. Station Bulletin 106. "Cottonseed Cake for Beef Cattle "
Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 111. "Feeding"
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

346. "Computation of Rations for Farm Animals."

655. "Cottonseed Meal for Feeding Beef Cattle."

CHAPTER 46

Horses and Mules

By E. H. Hughes

Assistant Professor in Animal Husbandry, College of Agriculture ^

University of Missouri

The horse even today plays a very important part in moving mer-
chandise and performing other labor. The work on our farms is largely
accomplished by the horse, and in spite of the motor truck the horse is

Morgan Stallion, "General Gates. "^

considered indispensable in a large amount of business in the city. Modern
methods of transportation move enormous quantities of freight, yet the
demand for the work horse does not diminish.

Development of Type. — The usefulness of a horse depends upon his
power of locomotion and the characteristics which adapt him to the different

* Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

(573)

ir-.'^l

572

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

REFERENCES

'Trinciples of Stock Feeding." Smith.

''Feeds and Feeding." Henry.

!! K^^s^ .Principles of Feeding Farm Animals." Burkett.

Prmciples of Animal Nutrition." Armsby.
''Feedmg of Animals." Jordan.
''Productive Feeding of Farm Animals." Woll.
"Profitable Stock Feeding." Smith.

California Expt. Station Bulletin 250. "Value of Barley for Cows Fed Alfalfi "
llmois Expt. Station Bulletin 172. 'VStudy of Digestio^ of iLtTonffor S^^^^^^^^^^
Minnesota Expt. Station Bulletin 140. ''Investigations in Milk Production "
Missouri Research Bulletin 18. "Maintenance Requirements of Cattle." '
^eb^lska Expt. Station Bulletin 151. -Corn Milage and Alfalfa for Beef Production "
New Hampshire Expt Station Bulletin I75. -Analysis of Feeding-stuffs."
South Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 160. -Silage and Grains for Steers "

UtUi'^atiol " '''' ^''^^''^' Feeding-stuffs, Their Composition ana

Wiscxmsin Expt. Station Circular 37^ "The Feeding Unit System for Determining
the Economy of Production by Dairy Cows." lannni^

\\ isconsin Research Bulletin 26. "Studies in Dairv Product'on "
M yoming Expt. Station Bulletin 106. "Cottonseed Cake for Beef Cattle "
lennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 111. -Feeding"
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

346. "Computation of Rations for Farm Animals"

655. "Cottonseed Meal for Feeding Beef Cattle."

CHAPTER 46
Horses and Mules

By E. H. Hughes
Assistant Professor in Animal Husbandry, College of Agriculture,

University of Missouri

Morgan Stallion, "General Gates."*

considered indispensable in a large amount of business in the city. Modern
methods of transportation move enormous quantities of freight, yet the
demand for the work horse does not diminish.

Development of Type. — The usefulness of a horse depends upon his
power of locomotion and the characteristics which adapt him to the different

* Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

(573)

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

Km^

574

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

HORSES AND MULES

575

kinds of service determine his type. Whether he moves with power,
speed, extreme action and style or to carry weight, will determine whether
he is a draft, a race, a show or a saddle horse.

Our modern breeds of light horses have probably been developed with

the Arabian horse as foundation stock. The Arabians developed a light

horse with endurance and courage for desert travel, and intelligence and

friendliness for companionship on the long journey.

^ The low-lying, luxuriantly vegetated Flanders led to the development

THROAT lATCH,

jCPOUP

^ HfPJO/NT

powT a^sHO(/i0t/

j9P9^

PETl

A High-grade Work Horse of Fine Quality and Good Conformation,
Illustratino the "Points'* of a Draft Horse. ^

of the patient, sluggish Flemish horse with plenty of power to accomplish
the heavy work required of him. Th^ Flemish blood is the most important
basis of the draft types.

The Light Horse. — It is essential that the horse of this class show
refinement in all his parts. His conformation, action, style, finish and
endurance should be such that he can meet the requirements for a distinct
purpose.

Action is essential in this class. The coach horse should show high
action; the roadster must be able to haul a light vehicle at a rapid trot;
and the saddle horse is required to give the rider satisfaction.

» Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Farmers' Bulletin 451.

Weight is not so important. The carriage horse must necessarily
be heavier than the roadster, because he is required to draw a heavier
vehicle and the saddle horse must be able to perform the gaits of his class.
Size will depend upon the use to which he is put.

Draft Type. — Horses of this type are used in hauling heavy loads at a
comparatively slow gait, and should possess strength and endurance. A

Percheron Stallion.^

draft horse should be massive, relatively close to the ground and weigh at
least 1600 pounds. He should have a heavy body; a short, strong back; a
strong constitution; a sloping shoulder and a long, level croup. He should
also have plenty of bone of good quality and large, sound feet. His legs
should set properly under him and his pasterns should be long and sloping.
The important gait of the draft horse is the walk. The stride should be
long and straight. A combination of weight, muscle and good feet and

» Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

WM-ri.^

574

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

HORSES AND MULES

575

kinds of service determine his type. Whether he moves with power,
speed, extreme action and style or to carry weight, will determine whether
he is a draft, a race, a show or a saddle horse.

Om- modern breeds of light horses have probably been developed with
the Arabian horse as foundation stock. The Arabians developed a light
horse with endurance and courage for desert travel, and intelligence and
friendliness for companionship on the long journey.

The low-lying, luxuriantly vegetated Flanders led to the development

THROAT lAtC^^

jC/fOUP

^ /^/PUO/A/T

JUeULJfR 6/fOOV£

po/A/r orsHooLot/

C»£ST

FO/fe>9P^

/</¥££r
fETlOCH^
/WTSRM

A High-grade Work Horse of Fine Quality and Good Conformation,
Illustrating the "Points" of a Draft Horse. ^

of the patient, sluggish Flemish horse with plenty of power to accomplish
the heavy work required of him. The Flemish blood is the most important
basis of the draft types.

'Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Farmers* Bulletin 451.

Draft Type. — Horses of this type are used in hauling heavy loads at a
comparatively slow gait, and should possess strength and endurance. A

Percheron Stallion.^

» Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

"^^3^.

ri^f^.,.

'■^W-

^ji

W^i

576

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Light Horses.

Brffhs Native ! _
UREEDS. Country. Origin.

Arabian.

Country.

Arabia | Native horses. I 14-15.2 1850-1000

Height, Weight,

HANDS. I pounds.

Thorough- England, f Arabian mixed 1 14. 2-1 6 2
"^^"' ' ( by English peo-

ple.

Standard | America,
bred
horse.

Color.

Morgan
(branch
of stand-
ard bred)

Saddle.

English horse.

America.

14-16.2

900-1100

Other Charactkbistics.

ocSSinairbLkSsI" <^ ««<"■: '■"«'%»*•

Bay, brown, chestnut,
black or gray.

900-1200

fiay, brown, chestnut
or black; few grays and
roans.

Thoroughbred 14.3-16
(Justin Morgan
foundation
horse).

U. S.;
Virginia,
Kentucky,
Missouri.

Thoroughbred.

950-1150

Bay, chestnut, brown
or black.

Runmng horse; great
speed; intelligent, some-
times difficult to manage.

Fastest of harness horaes:
remarkable endurance: in-
telligent.

Hackney. England.

15-16

900-1200

Not extreme action or
spmi; noted for endur-
ance; inteUigent.

Arabian; thor-
oughbred native
horse.

13.2-16

750-1200

f®*"' ^ack, running-walk,

Chestnut, bay, brown
black, and roan, white
markings common.

loxtrot or slow pace.

Extreme high action.

Breed.

Percheron.

Belgian.

English
Shire.

Clydesdale.

Native
Country.

Draft Horses.

France.

Origin.

Height,
hands.

Belgium.

Native horses,
Flemish,
Arabian.

15.3-17

Weight,
pounds.

Flemish.

15.3-17

1600-2200

Color,

Gray, black, bay,
brown, roan, chestnut.

Other Characteristics.

England.

Native horses,
Flemish.

1600-2400 I Roan, chestnut brown,
black, gray.

16-17.3

Good action; intelligent.

Suffolk-
punch.

Scotland.

Native horses,
Flemish.

1700-2400

16-17

1600-2100

England, j Native horses. 16-16.2 11600-2000

Bay, black brown,
pray, chestnut, roan,
white on legs and face.

Bay, black, brown,
chestnut, roan, gray,
white on face and legs.

Chestnut.

Compact, deep and wide:
heavily muscled.

Largest of draft breeds:
heavy feather on legs.

Very good action; in-
telligent; feather on legs.

Smallest of the draft
breeds.

Mules.

Class.

Height,
hands.

Weight,

POUNDS.

Draft.

16-17.2

1200-1600

Sugar.

16-17

1150-1300

Cotton.

13.2-15.2

750-1100

Mining.

12-16

600-1350

Farm.

15.2-16

1000-1350

Color.

SsJS

O -t^ CD

Other Characteristics.

Large, heavy boned, heavy set mules.

_ m 3

O C8 >«

Tall, with considerable quahty and finish.
Small and compact, with quality.

Pit" mules, small; "miners," large and rugged.

Plain and thin, with good constitution.

Team of Pehcherons.^

This t>'pe of draft horse is noted for its great power, good action and intelligence.

Its native country is France.

» Courtesy of " The Field. Illiistnited." N. Y.

576

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Breeds.

Arabian.

Native

Light Horses.

Country, j Origin.

Thorough-
bred.

Arabia

Height, I Weight,

HANDS, j POUNDS.

Color.

Other Characteristics.

Native horses. 14-15.2 | 850-1000 j Bay, brown chestn„f I n ^ ■ "

' ' loccJonatblackofgray: ^^^ ^^^'«^' i^teUigent.

England. Arabian mixed 1 14. 2-1 6. 2 900-1100
Dy li,nglish peo- I
pie.

Standard America,
bred
horse.

Morgan
(branch
of stand-
ard bred)

Saddle.

English horse.

America.

Bay, brown, chestnut,
black or gray.

,.U. S.:
V^irginia,
Kentucky,
Missouri.

Thoroughbred 1 14 . 3-1 6
(Justin Morgan
foundation
horse).

Thoroughbred.

Runmng horse; great
speed; mtelUgent, some-
, "™es difficult to manage

950-1150

te/^^t^"t. brown ri^^r;;;^;;^r;;i~^

or black.

Hackney.

England.

15-16

900-1200 I Chestnut, black, bay
brown, gray and roan. '

speed; noted for endur-
ance; intelligent.

Arabian; thor- 13.2-16
oughbred native
horse.

750-1200

Chestnut, bay, brown
bJack, and roan, white'
markings common.

Action, style, manners,
five gaits, walk, trot, can-
ter rack, running-walk,
loxtrot or slow pace.

Extreme high action.

Ce™ao eoae. P... eoa. .. C,e.,a. U, ,„^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^i^^^^^::^^

Breed.

Percheron.

Native
Country.

Draft Horses.

Origin.

France.

Native horses,
Flemish,
Arabian.

Height,
Hands.

15.3-17

Weight,

POUNDS.

Belgian. i Belgium.

Flemish.

15.3-17

Engli.sh
Shire.

England. ! Native horses,
Flemish.

Clydesdale.

Scotland. Native horses,
Flemish.

Suffolk-
punch.

England. Native horses.

16-17.3

1600-2200

Color.

Gray, black, bay,
brown, roan, chestnut.

Other Characteristics.

1600-2400

Good action; intelligent.

1700-2400

16-17

1600-2100

Roan, chestnut brown,
black, gray.

Bay, black brown,
Kray, chestnut, roan,
white on legs and face.

Compact, deep and wide:
heavily muscled.

Bay, black, brown,
chestnut, roan, gray,
white on face and legs.

Largest of draft breeds:
heavy feather on legs.

16-16.2 ,1600-2000 | Chestnut.

Very good action; in-
telligent; feather on legs.

Smallest of the draft
breeds.

Mules.

Class.

Height,

HANDS.

Draft.

Sugar.

16-17.2

16-17

Weight,

POUNDS.

1200-1600

Cotton.

Mining.

13.2-15.2

12-16

1150-1300
750-1100

600-1350

Farm.

Color.

0 -kA CO

Other Characteristics.

Large, heavy boned, heavy set mules.

Tall, with considerable quahty and finish.

15.2-16 I 1000-1350

oq =

O.0'

Small and compact, with quality.

"Pit" mules, small; "miners." large and rugged.

Plain and thin, with good constitutions.

Team of Peuchehons.^

This typo of (Ir.'ift horse is noted for its great power, good action and intelligence.

Its native country is France.

* Courtesy of " The Field. lilustnited." N. Y.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

M&'''

HORSES AND MULES

577

^oU^ed!'^ *"' """ ''"^''^^^'' «^ ^ ^°^«^'« ability to haul a load at a fair rate

nf t J^! *!"1® '^ ^ ''^''"''' ^'^'''"S for parents a mare and a jack. Because
of this fact It shows many parental characteristics which are common to

lips, clean legs, small, narrow feet of good quality, and a scanty growth of

(

English Shire Stallion. ^

hair on the tail and a scanty mane. The sexual organs of both mare and
horse mules are undeveloped, consequently they do not breed.

The mule is generally smaller than the draft horse, being from 14 to
17 hands high, and weighing from 600 to 1600 pounds. Mares of good
quality weighing about 1350 pounds when bred to a heavy-boned jack with
long ears produce mules which have good size, quality and action. As a
rule, mare mules bring better prices on the market than do horse mules.

America has done more towards the economical development of the

» Courtesy of The Field, New York City.
37

HORSES AND MULES

577

ofsptd!'"^ *"" """ ^"'''cation «f a horse's ability to haul a load at a fair rate

of tlii??a!?ft^i,' "" ''^■'''■"'' ''^^'"S/r r""'«"t« a mare and a jack. Because
01 tins tact It shows many parental characteristics which are common to

lbs rr "" ^^ "' ^""^•^■^ ^^^ *'"" *^^^ ^«^-' ^ J^— nose heavy
lips, clean legs, small, narrow feet of good quality, and a scanty growth of

English Shire Stallion. ^

hair on the tail and a scanty mane. The sexual organs of both mare and
horse mules are undeveloped, consequently they do not breed.

America has done more towards the economical development of the

» Courtesy of The Field, New York City.
37

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

578

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

;|l

mule than any other country, and more than one-half the mules in the
world are in the United States.

Due to his hardiness and his a})ility to take care of himself, the mule is
adapted to most climates and to kinds of work for which it would not be
practical to use a horse. In most contagious and infectious diseases,
however, the mule has no more resistance than a horse.

Market Requirements. — The market requires that a horse shall fill
some definite purpose. There is a demand for good horses that fill a definite

HORSES AND MULES

Classification

OF Market Classes of Horses.*

Class.

Sub -Class.

Height,

HANDS.

Weight,

POUNDS.

Other Characteristics.

Draft.

Light draft.
Heavy draft.
Loggers.

15.3-16.2

16-17.2

16.1-17.2

1600-1750
1750-2200

Heavy, rugged, compactly built, denoting strength and
endurance.

Chunks.

Eastern Ex-
port.
Farm.
Southern.

15-16

15-15.3
15-15.3

1300-1550

1200-1400
800-1250

The same type as draft, except that he is more compact and
lighter in weight.

Low down, blocky horses not as heavy as the Eastern
chunk. Possess quahty finer and not so heavy as the other
.sub-classes.

Wagon.

Exprcssers.

Delivery.
Artillery.

Fire horses.

15.3-16.2

15-16
15.1-16

15-17.2

1350-1500

1100-1400
1050-1200

1200-1700

Upstanding, deep-bodied, closely coupled, with good bone
quality, energy and spirit.

Conformation similar to express; not so large.

Sound, well bred, with quahty; prompt action in walk, trot
or gallop. Free from vicious habits, without blemish, and
broken to harness and saddle.

More rangy in conformation than expressers; ability to
take long runs.

1 ,

Carriage.

Coach.

Cobs.
Park.
Cab.

15.1-16.1

14.1-15.1

15-15 3

15.2-16.1

1100-1250

900-1150
1000-1150
1050-1200

Smoothly turned, full-made horses with high action com-
bined with beauty of form.

Small horses of stocky build with plenty of quality.

Excellent quality; high acton.

Similar to coach horses; calk in finish; good feet and legs
and endurance.

Road.

Runabout.
Roadster.

14 3-15.2
15-16

900-1050
900-1150

Not so stockily built as cob, having more speed.
Conformation more angular than runabouts, denoting
speed, stamina and endurance.

Saddle
horses.

Five-gaited.

Three-gaited.

Hunters.

Cavalry.
Polo Ponies.

15-16

14.3-16

15.2-16.1

15-15 3
14-14 2

900-1200

1100-1250

950-1100
850-1000

Conformation denoting style, action, with strong back;
possesses five distinct gaits under the saddle.

Size depending on weight to be carried with abiUty to
walk, trot and canter.

Large, strong; must be jumpers; stand long country
rides.

Sodnd,wellbred; have quality; broken to saddle; easygaitfl.

Smallest saddle class; used for playing polo.

purpose, but misfits sell at a low figure. The horse should be sound, at
least serviceably sound, with a conformation adapted to the work required
of him. He should be in good condition in order to look well and be ready
for hard work. Condition is also an indication of the health and feeding
quality of the horse. The market requires that a horse be broken and of
good disposition. Horses between five and eight years old sell the best.
Solid colors are preferred because they can be matched more easily, and
many firms use their teams of two, four or six horses and equipment as a
part of their advertising.

* niinoia Experiment Station Bulletin No. 122.

(

579

fig.t.aVM ntM

Fig. 1 . — At one year of age the
jaw is narrow, the temporary teeth
are small and the corner incisors are
not yet in contact.

Fig. 2. — At two years of
age the jaw shows greater width
tiian at one year of age, and the
teeth are all in contact and show
considerable wear.

Ff^Z^T^o >if»»

Fig. 3. — At three years of
age the permanent incisors above
and below are in wear. Note the
greater width and length in com-
parison to the temporary teeth.

•.S^Tf/fttt)f£tlt^ii

Fig. 4. — At four years
of age the permanent arid in-
termediate incisors on lower
and upper jaws are in wear.
The corner pair of temporary
teeth have not been dis-
placed; they appear very
small in comparison with the
permanent teeth.

Note. — Photographs showing teeth at various ages, by courtesy of Prof. S. T.
Simpson, Agricultural Extension Service, Missouri Experiment Station.

^mw^Mm

580

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

i ^

HORSES AND MULES

581

f>C.S FrVE YiAM

Ft6- 6' S/x Ye^s

Fig. 5. — Complete set of lower
permanent incisors showing deep cups
at five years.

Fig. 6. — The cups in the lower
central incisors have nearly disappeared
and the tables are smooth at six years.

Fig. 7. — The cups in the lower in-
termediate pair of mcisors have dis-
appeared at seven years.

Fig. 8. — The cups in the lower
corner pair of incisors have disappeared
and the tables are all worn smooth at
eight years.

Fig. 9. — The cups in the central
mcisors above have practically dis-
appeared at nine years.

Fici. 10. — The cups in the inter-
mediate incisors above have dis-
appeared at ten years.

Fkj. 11. — At eleven years the
tables on the upper jaw are nearly
smooth.

Fig. 12.— Note the smooth tables
and the length of the teeth showing
considerable wear at fifteen years.

Hfftn

IwciVw

fi0.f2

Fig. 13. — Showing a comparison
of the angles of the jaw at five and
twenty-one years. Note the acute
angle of the teeth at twenty-one.

fi^yi;v» ->'vtf;/J-

TI*«/«y OMaVkA^

Fig. 14. — Showing order of appearance
of the permanent incisors. The central pair

at 2\ to 3 years. The intermediate pair at

3: '

I to 4 years. The corner or outside pair at
i to 5 years.

Note.— Photographs showing teeth at various ages, by courtesy of Prof. S. T.
Simpson, Agricultural Extension Service, Missouri Experiment Station.

The Age of the Horse. — The teeth form the most accurate basis for
estimating the age of a horse. The first teeth which appear are called
colt, milk or temporary teeth. As the horse grows older these are replaced
by broader, thicker, darker-colored permanent teeth.

The central incisors in the upper and lower jaws usually appear within
two weeks after foaling. The intermediate incisors, one on each side of
the central incisors, make their appearance between the second and
fourth week, and the corner or outside incisors are in at six months of
age (Fig. 1).

The central pair of permanent incisors will displace the temporary
incisors and be in use at three years of age. (Fig. 3). The permanent
intermediate ones will be in use at four (Fig. 4) and the corner pair of
permanent incisors will displace the temporary corner or outside incisors
at five years of age.

The five-year-old horse has a full mouth of permanent teeth (Fig. 5).
These have large cups that wear smooth as the age of the horse advances.
The cups or tables of the central incisors below have worn smooth at six
years of age, the intermediate incisors below are smooth at seven and the
corner pair at eight. (See Figs. 6, 7 and 8.)

The cups of the central pair of incisors on the upper jaw have dis-
appeared at nine, the intermediates above are smooth at ten and the
cups in the corner incisors are worn smooth when the horse reaches his
twelfth year. (See Figs. 9, 10, 11 and 12.)

There is no accurate method of estimating the age of a horse after he
is twelve years old; however, the angle of the teeth becomes more acute
as he becomes older (Fig. 13).

HORSE FEEDINGS

Proper management in feeding and caring for the horse is an essential
for his best health and development. The digestive system of a horse
is not large, therefore a comparatively small amount of roughage and a
relatively larger amount of grain is required. Sudden changes in feed
should be avoided, as the digestive system requires time to readjust itself
to the new conditions.

Grinding or soaking of feed is not economical except in the case
of colts or horses doing exceptionally hard work; however, many
horsemen favor rolling the oats they feed. Salt should be accessible at

all times.

Feeds for the Horse. — It is economical under most conditions to use
the feeds at hand. The most common feeds for horses are oats with timo-
thy hay, or a mixture of timothy and clover. In many sections corn is
substituted for a part or all of the oats in the ration and prairie hay or
alfalfa is substituted for the timothy.

A combination of oats and timothy hay forms an excellent ration for
work horses. The nutrients are in about the proper proportions and the

--•■»t^,,-.

■■>,■/:■.

'^^'^^;

>?£*

m-^

582

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

bulk seems to fit the needs of the horse. Both are usually free from dust
For the light horse that is required to make long, hard drives no satisfactory
substitute for oats and timothy hay has been found.

Grain.— Corn and barley are used extensively in some sections for a
part or all of tlie grain ration. Because of its hardness the barley should
be ground or cracked.

Bran and oil meal are often used to supplement corn or barley, and
for growing animals or brood mares corn, oats and bran form an excellent
ration. The bone and muscle-building elements in bran and its laxative
effect are considered indispensable by many horsemen.

Roughages.— A mixture of timothy and clover is considered an excel-
lent roughage for horses. Either clover or alfalfa hay is good, except for
horses doing heavy or rapid work. Oat hay, when cut a little green, forms
an excellent roughage and sheaf oats are often fed with good results. Millet
hay is considered unsafe to feed by most horsemen.

Corn stover and oat straw are used with success when properly bal-
anced with a grain ration.

Good clean silage that is not too acid is an excellent feed for brood
mares, idle horses and growing colts, though it should be fed in limited
quantities and with some dry roughage. It has been fed with good results,
but great care must be exercised in feeding. No mouldy or musty silage
should be fed.

Watering.— Horses, under natural conditions, drink frequently. The
most common practice among horsemen is to water the horses before
feeding, although many practice watering before and after feeding. Horses
that are heated should be compelled to drink very slowly. The value of
good running water in the horse pasture cannot be overestimated.

The Work Horse.— A horse at work should receive ten to eighteen
pounds of grain daily, depending upon the kind of work performed and
the size of the horse. On days when idle the grain ration should be reduced
and the roughage increased. The addition of a small amount of bran is
recommended.

The Foal.— The foal should l)e taught to eat grain and hay as early
as possible. Oats and bran with some clover or alfalfa hay of good quality
are the ])est feeds because they contain the muscle and bone-forming
elements required for growth.

While the mare and colt are in the pasture some grain can be fed very
satisfactorily in a small creep. After weaning, at about five or six months
of age, feed for growth rather than condition.

The Orphan Foal.— Milk from a fresh cow, one whose milk is low in
butter-fat, is well adapted to raising an orphan foal. To a dessert-spoonful
of granulated sugar should be added enough warm water to dissolve it.
To this three tablespoonsful of lime water and enough fresh milk to make
a pint should be added. A small amount, one-half pint, should be given
each hour. In a short time the amount should be increased and feed should

HORSES AND MULES

583

be given every two hours, more being given gradually and the time between
feeding lengthened.

The Brood Mare, used for breeding purposes only, does well without
grain when on good pasture. In winter, if she is in foal, she should be
given feeds high in protein and mineral matter for the best development
of the foetus. She should receive plenty of exercise at all times.

The Stallion. — Good whole oats and bran with plenty of clean timothy
hay is a very good ration for the stallion. The addition of corn or barley
to the ration lends variety and increases its palatability. Exercise is at
all times absolutely essential for the best results with any stallion. When
standing for service he should be required to walk six to ten miles per day.

STANDARD RATIONS

Foals: Parts.

Ground oats 6 Oats

Ground corn 2 Corn

Bran 2 Bran

Whole oats

Part?.

.. 4
.. 4
.. 2

Oats.
Bran,
Corn,

Parts.
... 4
... 4
... 2

Shelled corn
Bran

equal parts.

With either of the above rations, feed clover, alfalfa, or timothy and clover
mixed.
Work Horses:

Oats 5 Oats. Corn 9

Corn 5 Hay. Oatmeal 1

Hay. Hay.

Timothy and clover mixed or just timothy is recommended as roughage.
Brood Mare:

Corn 4 Corn 7 Corn 8

Oats 4 Bran 2 Linseed oil meal 1

Bran 2 Linseed oil meal 1

Clover or alfalfa of good quality, or timothy and clover mixed are good

(: roughages to feed with the above grain rations.

Grooming. — For the best health of the horse he should be groomed
before he is harnessed and at night after the harness has been removed.
A good currycomb, a stiff brush and a soft woolen cloth are the only uten-
sils ordinarily needed. The currycomb is used to loosen the dirt and sweat
in the hair and skin over the body and is followed by the brush. The
woolen cloth is then rubbed very firmly over the entire body to take up
the fine dust and to put the coat in good condition.

REFERENCES

"Productive Horse Husbandry." Gay.

''The Horse Book." Johnston.

"The Horse." Roberts.

"Breaking and Training Horses." Harper.

"Management and Breeding of Horses." Harper.

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

451. "Draft Horses and Care of Horses."
667. "Breaking and Training Colts."

BEEF CATTLE

I I I M ■ !• I . I

585

CHAPTER 47

Beef Cattle

By W. a. Cochel
Professor of Animal Husbandry, Kansas Agricultural College

Beef production is associated with the best type of farming in every
country. A careful survey of any community shows that the cattlemen
are leaders in public matters, are financially responsible, farm the best
land and are considered among the best citizens. Counties and communi-

PuiiE-BRED Hereford Bull.^
A hardy, early maturing, beef breed of good quality.

ties noted for their production of beef are also noted for their large yields
of agricultural crops and their great productive wealth. There never has
been a permanent and profitable system of farming established on an
extensive scale in any country where beef cattle have been eliminated from

Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

(684)

the farms. Beef cattle make the greatest and most profitable use of rough-
age and grass, are comparatively free from disease, require less shelter and
attention than other farm animals, enable the farmer to distribute his
work uniformly throughout the year and are easily marketed.

Sotirces of Profit. — The cattleman has four sources of profit: (1)
from growing crops; (2) from feeding crops; (3) from using by-products
which otherwise have no market value, such as straw, stover, damaged
hay and grain ; and (4) from increasing soil fertility and the yield of crops.
It frequently happens that the greatest profit comes from the use of farm
by-products and the increase of soil fertility. The successful cattleman of
the future must be as good a farmer as the man who produces grain and
hay for the market, and also have the ability and judgment to select and
feed animals that can convert grain and hay into meat profitably.

There are four distinct methods of handling beef cattle, dependent
upon the amount of capital available and the kind of crops adapted to the
farm, as follows: (1) breeding pure-bred cattle, (2) producing stockers and
feeders, (3) grazing cattle, and (4) fattening cattle.

Breeding Pure-Bred Cattle. — This is the highest type of beef produc-
tion and requires the investment of a large amount of money for a series
of years. The breeder must not only understand and practice the best
methods of breeding, feeding and developing livestock, but must also follow
the best methods of farming. He should keep the buildings and grounds
neat and attractive to impress customers with the fact that breeding pure-
bred livestock is profitable and attractive.

Excellent pasture should be available for summer grazing and the best
methods of feeding must be practiced during the winter to develop the
inherited type and form to the maximum. More breeders fail because of
poor feeding than of any other one factor. In addition to the ability to
select the approved type of the breed and to feed successfully, the breeder
of pure-bred cattle must be a business man and a salesman so that he can
successfully dispose of what he produces. It is usually better for the
beginner to start with grade or market cattle and, if he succeeds, to purchase
a few pure-bred animals and go into the business gradually, than to invest
all his capital in a specialty with which he is unacquainted.

Producing Stockers and Feeders. — The production of stockers and
feeders should be confined to those parts of the country where the larger
part of the land cannot be plowed profitably, and grass is the principal
crop. This class of cattle is kept on grass during the summer season and
fed on roughage, with little or no grain, during the remainder of the year.
Lying east of the Rocky Mountains is a large area which is peculiarly
adapted to the production of grass and roughage, such as Kaffir and sor-
ghums on the uplands, and alfalfa on the bottom land, and which logically
should be the great stocker and feeder producing section of the United
States. Where both legumes and silage crops are produced, little or no
ommercial feeds are required. If it is impossible to grow legumes, protein

■ ' '.".'' -ii

WBr

.^■■M

BEEF CATTLE

585

/ 1 1 \ ,• ' I ' I

CHAPTER 47

Beef Cattle

By W. a. Cochel
Professor of Animal Husbandry, Kansas Agricultural College

PuHE-BRED Hereford Bull.^
A hardy, early maturing, beef breed of good quality.

ties noted for their production of beef are also noted for their large yields
of agricultural crops and their great productive wealth. There never has
been a permanent and profital)le system of farming established on an
extensive scale in any country where beef cattle have been eliminated from

Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

(584)

Sources of Profit. — The cattleman has four sources of profit: (1)
from growing crops; (2) from feeding crops; (3) from using by-products
which otherwise have no market value, such as straw, stover, damaged
hay and grain; and (4) from increasing soil fertility and the yield of crops.
It frequently happens that the greatest profit comes from the use of farm
by-products and the increase of soil fertility. The successful cattleman of
the future must be as good a farmer as the man who produces grain and
hay for the market, and also have the ability and judgment to select and
feed animals that can convert grain and hay into meat profitably.

Excellent pasture should be available for summer grazing and the best
methods of feeding must be practiced during the winter to develop the
inherited type and form to the maximum. More breeders fail because of
poor feeding than of any other one factor. In addition to the ability to
select the approved tyi^e of the breed and to feed successfully, the breeder
of pure-bred cattle must be a business man and a salesman so that he can
successfully dispose of what he produces. It is usually better for the
beginner to start with grade or market cattle and, if he succeeds, to purchase
a few pure-bred animals and go into the business gradually, than to invest
all his capital in a specialty with which he is unacquainted.

Producing Stockers and Feeders. — The production of stockers and
feeders should be confined to those parts of the country where the larger
part of the land cannot be plowed profitably, and grass is the principal
crop. This class of cattle is kept on grass during the summer season and
fed on roughage, with little or no grain, during the remainder of the year.
Lying east of the Rocky Mountains is a large area which is peculiarly
adapted to the production of grass and roughage, such as Kafl^r and sor-
ghums on the uplands, and alfalfa on the bottom land, and which logically
should be the great stocker and feeder producing section of the United
States. Where both legumes and silage crops are produced, little or no
ommercial feeds are required. If it is impossible to grow legumes, protein

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

:'l >!•

586

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

i
I

should be supplied in the form of linseed meal, cottonseed cake or some other
protein concentrate.

It is essential that cattle of the best beef type be used in producing
stockers or feeders, because the chief profit comes from producing animals
of superior merit for which there is always a keen demand. It is very
important that the herd of cattle used for this purpose be uniform in type,
color, size, breeding and quality and that the animals have large feeding
capacity, because buyers prefer to buy feeders or stockers as nearly alike
as possible.

Grazing Cattle.— The business of grazing cattle is generallv followed
in those sections where the area of land in cultivation is very smalf compared
with that which must be left in grass. The cattle are seldom produced in
the grazing sections, but are usually shipped in by the train-load about the
first of May, and are pastured on grass until they are fat enough to be
marketed as grass-fat cattle during the late summer and early fall.

The cattle used to convert grass into fat are usually older, coarser and
plainer than cattle selected to convert corn into the same product. Not
so much attention is paid to quality and breeding as in pure-bred cattle,
stockers or feeders, because the profit comes from the increase in value
secured by fattening rather than in the final price per hundredweight.
Very thin steers, three years old or older, make much larger gains than
younger or fatter cattle. However, it frequently happens that when
fleshier cattle are used, they may be shipped from grass earlier in the
season, thus avoiding extreme heat, flies, water shortage or a heavy run
of cattle on the market, which will more than overbalance the larger gains
made by thinner cattle.

Fattening Cattle.— This has proven profitable in sections where corn
is the leading crop and the area devoted to permanent pasture is relatively
small. The kind of cattle selected for the feed lot depends upon the season
of the year, the feeds available, the probable demand for the cattle when fat
and the experience of the feeder. Young cattle make cheaper gains than
older cattle, but they require a longer feeding period to become fat, because
they use a large part of their feed for growth.

Calves that are to be fattened should show quality and breeding.
They should have short legs and blocky, broad, deep bodies, otherwise
they will grow rather than fatten. It will require from eight to nine
months from the time calves are weaned to make them prime even when
on full feed. An excellent ration is ten pounds of silage, five pounds of
alfalfa hay, one pound of linseed meal or cottonseed cake per head daily,
and all the corn they can eat. Older cattle consume more roughage in
proportion to the grain and are fed where corn is relatively scarce.

To fatten cattle successfully and to secure satisfactory gains, the
ration should be improved as the animals become fat. The customary farm
practice is to start the cattle on roughage, such as silage, hay and fodder,
with about six pounds of corn per thousand pounds liveweight daily, and

BEEF CATTLE

587

to increase the amount of corn as they become fatter. This makes the
period when they are really on full feed very short.

Fitting Show Animals. — The production of show animals is in reality
a form of advertisement, and is restricted largely to the breeders of pure-
bred cattle. Every art known to the feeder is utiHzed to develop such
animals. The ration is quite similar to that fed to fattening animals
during the last part of the feeding period, and is improved by grinding
the grain, cutting the hay and adding a greater variety of feeds. Some-
times barley is boiled and fed at the rate of one gallon per day and sugar
or molasses is mixed with the grain to increase the palatability. In fact,
everything possible is done to keep up the animal's appetite.

THE SELECTION OF CATTLE FOR THE FEED LOT

The selection of cattle for the feed lot is probably the most vital
question before the cattle feeders today. Upon this one problem depends
the ultimate financial success of those who make a business of converting
grain and roughage into beef. There are three factors which should always
be given consideration: (1) the purpose for which the cattle are to be
used, (2) the ability of the individuals to consume feed over and above that
required for maintenance, and (3) the probable demand for beef when the
cattle are returned from the feed lots.

Methods of Feeding. — Cattle feeders may be divided into different
groups according to their methods of feeding: (1) those who produce
market-topping animals, (2) those who handle shortfed cattle, and (3)
those who produce the great bulk of beef which usually finds its way to
market after a period of grazing or roughing followed by a finishing period
of either short or long duration.

Characteristics of Good Feeders. — It makes little difference which
method is followed. The essential characteristics of a good feeding steer
remain constant. He must have good constitution and capacity associated
with as much quality and type as it is possible to secure. A wide, strong,
short head; short, thick neck; and deep, wide chest indicate constitution,
and a deep, roomy barrel indicates capacity. These characteristics may
be found in steers of i)lain as well as of excellent breeding, which accounts
for the fact that individual dairy and scrub steers frequently make as
rapid gains in the feed lot as beef-bred steers. The type, quality, form
and finish as indicated by the deep covering of muscle, even distribution
of fat, high percentage of the higher priced cuts of meats, high dressing
percentage, smoothness and symmetry of carcass, and quahty and texture
of meat, are always associated with beef blood.

The success of a feeder buyer depends largely upon his ability to see
in thin cattle the possibiHty of improvement which results from the deposit
of fat. As a general rule, there is little change in the skeleton proper. A
feeder with a low back will finish into a fat steer with a low back. A feeder
with a high tail, head or prominent hook-bones will finish into a fat steer

W^0m

BEEF CATTLE

589

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with these same deficiencies. A feeder with a long, narrow head, long legs,
or shallow body will not alter his type in the feed lot. The greatest
improvement comes in those regions of the body where the natural covering
of muscle is thickest, in the shoulder, crops, back, loin and round. The
body will increase more in width than in length and will decrease in apparent
paunchiness due to the greater proportional increase in the width of the
upper half of the body than in the lower half. The quality of meat will
be improved by the deposit of fat within the bundles of muscle fiber, and
the tenderness of meat will be improved because of the distention of all cells
with fat, and the proportion of edible to non-edible parts of the animal
will increase during the fattening period. These are potent] reasons for
the immense industry represented by the cattle feeders.

Kind of Feed Related to Class of Cattle.— In addition to these factors
which are inherent in the steer, the successful feeder buyer must give
attention to the kind of feeds at his disposal. If he intends to use a large
amount of grass or roughage in proportion to grain, he should select thin
steers carrying some age. Older and thinner cattle will make better use
of roughage than those which are younger and fleshier. If the feeder has
a large acreage of corn and comparatively little pasture and roughage, he
should select either heavy, fleshy feeders which he can return to market
within a comparatively short time, or fancy calves of the best possible type
and breeding which will develop into prime yearlings. If heavy fleshy
feeders are selected, their quality and type should determine their market
value, as compared with that of the plainer sort. The probable demand for
the various grades of beef at the close of the feeding period is also a deter-
mining factor. The feeder should limit his selection to those cattle which
will make the greatest improvement in value per hundred pounds while
in the feed lot.

Calves and Yearlings. — Quality and type are essential in the selection
of calves for feeding purposes. They should be bred for early maturity,
otherwise they will grow rather than fatten and the cost of production
will exceed their market value. The majority of yearlings are marketed
from sixty to ninety days before they are fat, which indicates that it is
essential to secure calves of the type that will fatten. The feeder should
realize that he is entering into a proposition that requires eight to twelve
months to complete and that he must feed the best of feeds in a concen-
trated form to secure satisfactory gains and finish.

Time to Market. — The time to market fat cattle is when further gains
will not result in an increase in the value per hundredweight. For this
reason plain, rough steers which will not produce attractive carcasses
should be sold before they are thoroughly fattened. When fancy cattle
of quality and type are fed, it is a general rule that they are more profit-
able the fatter they become, because there is usually a demand for fancy
finished beef.

The season of the year also controls to some extent the quality of

Ii--'.^'?T*J|

BEEP CATTLE

589

(588)

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with these same deficiencies. A feeder with a long, narrow head, long legs,
or shallow body will not alter his type in the feed lot. The greatest
improvement comes in those regions of the body where the natural covering
of muscle is thickest, in the shoulder, crops, back, loin and round. The
body will increase more in width than in length and will decrease in apparent
paunchiness due to the greater proportional increase in the width of the
upper half of the body than in the lower half. The quality of meat will
be improved by the deposit of fat within the bundles of muscle fiber, and
the tenderness of meat will be improved because of the distention of all cells
with fat, and the proportion of edible to non-edible parts of the animal
will increase during the fattening period. These are potent^ reasons for
the immense industry represented by the cattle feeders.

Kind of Feed Related to Class of Cattle.— In addition to these factors
which are inherent in the steer, the successful feeder buyer must give
attention to the kind of feeds at his disposal. If he intends to use a large
amount of grass or roughage in proportion to grain, he should select thin
steers carrying some age. Older and thinner cattle will make better use
of roughage than those which are younger and fleshier. If the feeder has
a large acreage of corn and comparatively little pasture and roughage, he
should select either heav}', fleshy feeders which he can return to market
within a comparatively short time, or fancy calves of the best possible type
and breeding which will develop into prime yearlings. If heavy fleshy
feeders are selected, their quality and type should determine their market
value, as compared with that of the plainer sort. The probable demand for
the various grades of beef at the close of the feeding period is also a deter-
mining factor. The feeder should limit his selection to those cattle which
will make the greatest improvement in value per hundred pounds while
in the feed lot.

Time to Market. — The time to market fat cattle is when further gains
will not result in an increase in the value per hundredweight. For this
reason plain, rough steers which will not produce attractive carcasses
should be sold before they are thoroughly fattened. When fancy cattle
of quality and type are fed, it is a general rule that they are more profit-
a})le the fatter they become, because there is usually a demand for fancy
finished beef.

The season of the year also controls to some extent the quality of

.^■■\^f^isssa,

mm'

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

690

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

BEEF CATTLE

591

if-

cattle that should go into the feed lot. Where grain-fed steers are to be
marketed from the middle of July to the first of December, a better grade
of cattle and a higher finish are demanded than at any other season of
the year. In the late summer and early fall the markets are usually well
supplied with beef that has been produced cheaply on grass with which
the half-fat grain-fed cattle cannot compete profitably. After the Christ-
mas holidays all the cattle come from dry lots and liave been fattened
on expensive feedstuffs so that the plain, rough cattle can be marketed
to better advantage than during the grazing season, because the com-
petition of grass-fed cattle is ehminated.

The reasons for feeding beef cattle are that they reduce farm crops
into a more concentrated market product and they are a means of per-
manently maintaining the soil fertility. All feeding operations should
be conducted with these facts in mind. The selection of feeding cattle
which will serve the purpose and at the same time produce an immediate
profit is the mark of the successful cattle feeder.

THE DEFICIENCY IN THE MEAT SUPPLY

Statistics need not be presented to substantiate the assertion that
there is a decided deficiency in the supply of meat. The shortage is the
result of a long-continued series of years during which the final value of
the finished animal was less than the market value of the crops necessary
for its production. During the early development of the country there
were a considerable number of meat animals bred and fed in the Atlantic
states. When the territory west of the Alleghenies and east of the
Mississippi River was settled, the breeding industry moved to this section
because cattle were the only means of marketing the grass, grain and
forage. When transportation facilities were provided for the shipment
of grain and other farm products, the breeding industry moved on to
Missouri, Iowa, Kansas and Nebraska, where more favorable conditions
existed. Here it dominated the agricultural practice until the free ranga
in the West was made available through the suppression of lawlessness.
The trend of the cattle-breeding industry has been westward toward the
less expensive grazing lands, until there is now no cheap land available.
With the decline of breeding operations, finishing or fattening for market
became a well-established practice in those sections where the breeding
of livestock was unprofitable. The result of this condition is that the
demand for animals suitable for the feed lot has finally become so great
that the West is no longer able to furnish an adequate supply of feeders,
with subsequent high prices.

In recent years the papers and magazines have kept up an almost
continual agitation against the high price of meat. The high price has
been attributed to the avarice of the farmer, the packer, the stockyards
or the retail dealer, rather than to the laws of supply and demand. It has
discouraged many from entering into a legitimate business venture for

fear that unfavorable public opinion might at any time crystallize into
the forni of laws of such restrictive nature as to obliterate profits.

Reliable data in regard to methods of meat production are insufficient
to enable us to recommend practices which can be substantiated by records
of unquestioned reliability. There is, however, so great an abundance
of information as to methods of fattening that it is possible for one familiar
with the pubhcations and the general farm practices to recommend rations
which are certain to produce rapid and economical gains in the feed lot
with acceptable dressing percentages.

Tenant Farming Unfavorable to Beef Production.— The rapid growth
of tenant farming has eliminated the production of meat from thousands
of acres of land which should never have been plowed, and will probably
continue to exert a depressing influence upon the business until the value
of farm lands is based upon production rather than upon speculation.
Under the present system of renting, it is almost impossible to handle
beef cattle profitably on a tenant farm. The cattle business requires a
number of years to develop and a system of farming that will produce
the feeds necessary to maintain a herd of cattle during the winter. A
further reason is that the chief profit in cattle farming is the increase in
the fertility of the soil and the yield of crops which comes from using the
manure on the land. Where land is rented annually there is no incentive
to build it up and increase crop production when a different renter may
farm it the next year. A system of longer leases must result which will
give the tenant an incentive to increase rather than exhaust the fertility
of the soil.

Breeding Cattle Requires Capital. — If means of financing breeding
operations were provided, the supply of breeding animals on both farms
and ranges would be increased tremendously. It is possible for a farmer
who has produced a crop of corn or has pasture, to go to almost any bank
and secure funds with which to purchase steers to consume these products.
Money is loaned for ninety to one hundred and eighty days with the
privilege of renewal. It is impossible, however, for him to borrow the
same money with breeding females as security, because three to five years
must elapse before the increase will be marketable. This is probably
the greatest problem to be solved if breeding operations are to be materially
increased in the near future.

Breeding lierds should be established in the South, the East and in
the cut-over districts near the Great Lakes on the land that is adapted
to. the production of pasture grasses. More attention should be given
to pastures to increase their carrying capacity by fertilizing them with
manure or fertilizers, by thickening the stand of grass by natural or artificial
means and by using silage during unfavorable periods. While grass is
the most important crop produced in the United States, more land being
devoted to its production than to all others except trees, there is not an
important investigational project on the subject reported which the meat

ii,

•i»i

592

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

producer can use in a practical manner. Throughout the great grazing
areas of the country something of definite permanent value must be done
to re-establish pastures or the supply of feeding stock will diminish rather
than increase in the next few years.

The tremendous waste of the farm by-products of the cereal crops,
corn, oats and wheat, which takes place annually throughout the entire
country is sufficient to maintain thousands of animals in good breeding
condition. This material has not, as yet, been successfully used on a large
scale, but recent investigational work indicates that the use of a succulent
feed during the winter makes these dry, coarse feeds palatable to a large
extent. Refinement in the methods of feeding will in the future enable
us to utilize other waste products which are now considered almost
worthless.

In the sub-humid sections, the use of the silo to preserve drought-
resisting crops, such as Kaflir, milo, feterita and sorghums, and the intro-
duction of new crops, such as Sudan grass, will make it possible to more
than double the livestock production of that area. In all parts of the
United States at least 300 pounds increase in weight can be secured on
the average two-year-old steer by furnishing him an abundance of grass
in the summer and an abundance of roughage in the winter. A limited
amount of high protein feed should be used to make up the deficiency of
the ordinary roughages usually produced where legumes cannot be success-
fully grown.

It is probable that the loss of livestock from infectious and contagious
diseases will be greatly reduced by the practice of sanitary measures, that
a more careful study of breeding will result in the production of animals
of greater efficiency, that a better knowledge of feeding will result in
decreasing the cost of production, but the most potent remedy for the
present deficiency in the meat supply is now being administered in the
form of market values which leave a reasonable profit to the man who
has courage to invest his capital in breeding cattle and the feeds necessary
to maintain them. The farmer, as a business man, increases his operations
along those lines which promise to return the greatest profit.

REFERENCES

'^Beef Production." Mumford.

Indiana Expt. Station Circular 29. "Livestock Judging for Beginners."

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

588. "Economical Cattle Feeding in the Corn Belt."

580. "Beef Production in the South."

612. "Breeds of Beef Cattle."
Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 133. "Steer Feeding Experiments."

CHAPTER 48

Swine

By John M. Evvard

Chief in Swine Production ^ Animal Husbandry Section,

Iowa Experiment Station

The hog is one of the most valuable and profitable domestic animals
the farm can produce.

In the selection of the herd these factors need to be considered:
1. Personal Preference is a most important consideration.

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Chester White Boar.*

2. The Feeds Available. — In the corn belt lard type hogs are best
because of their adaptation, whereas in Canada a bacon type will utilize
the northern grown feeds to better commercial advantage.

3. Location and Climate.— The hog that is best for a certain county in

» Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

(593)

592

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

In the sub-humid sections, the use of the silo to preserve drought-
resisting crops, such as KaflSr, milo, feterita and sorghums, and the intro-
duction of new crops, such as Sudan grass, will make it possible to more
than doul)le the livestock production of that area. In all parts of the
United States at least 300 pounds increase in weight can l)e secured on
the average two-year-old steer by furnishing him an abundance of grass
in the summer and an abundance of roughage in the winter. A limited
amount of high protein feed should be used to make up the deficiency of
the ordinary roughages usually produced where legumes cannot be success-
fully grown.

It is probable tliat the loss of livestock from infectious and contagious
diseases will be greatly reduced by the practice of sanitary measures, that
a more careful study of breeding will result in the production of animals
of greater efficiency, that a better knowledge of feeding will result in
decreasing the cost of production, but the most potent remedy for the
present deficiency in the meat supply is now being administered in the
form of market values which leave a reasonable profit to the man who
has courage to invest his capital in breeding cattle and the feeds necessary
to maintain them. The farmer, as a business man, increases his operations
along those lines which promise to return the greatest profit.

REFEREN'CES

"Beef Production." Mumford.

Indiana Expt. Station Circular 29. "Livestock Judging for Beginners."

Farmers' Bulletins, U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture:

588. "Economical Cattle Feeding in the Corn Belt."

580. "Beef Production in the South."

612. "Breeds of Beef Cattle."
Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 133. "Steer Feeding Experiments."

CHAPTER 48

Swine

By John M. Evvard

Chief in Swine Production ^ Animal Husbandry Section^

Iowa Experiment Station

The hog is one of the most valuable and profitable domestic animals
the farm can produce.

In the selection of the herd these factors need to be considered:
1. Personal Preference is a most important consideration.

Chester White Boar.*

2. The Feeds Available. — In the corn belt lard type hogs are best
because of their adaptation, whereas in Canada a bacon type will utilize
the northern grown feeds to better commercial advantage.

3. Location and Climate. — The hog that is best for a certain county in

» Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

(593)

594

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SWINE

595

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» Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

Iowa may be ill-adapted to a county in Maine because various community
conditions, such as customs, pasture range and cattle raising have their
unmistakable effects. The climate in the South, because of the hot, long
hours of ^ piercing sunshine, puts the white hog at some disadvantage,
whereas in the northern country he gets along exceptionally well.

4. Distribution. — A large number of swine of one type in a certain
district usually indicates that they are well adapted. When in doubt,
that breed which is well distributed in the community should be adopted.
To raise Poland Chinas in a coimty where practically none but Tam-

Chester White Sows.^
Lard Type Hogs.

worths were raised, may result in disappointment, this being especially
true if one depends upon local buyers for the sale of hogs.

5. Markets. — A nearby market which demands the bacon type,
discriminating against the lard type, pound for pound, would have much
influence in determining the kind of swine to raise in that particular
section.

Breeds of Swine. — The two principal types of hogs are the lard and
the bacon. Lard hogs are noted for their great depth, breadth, general
compactness, smoothness, short legs, large hams, heavy jowls, relatively
heavy shoulders, mellow finish (due to heavy fat layers) and docile

» Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

■ti::>;"'

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694

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

SWINE

695

Chester Wbite Sows.'
Lard Type Hogs.

worths were raised, may result in disappointment, this being especially
true if one depends upon local buyers for the sale of hogs.

Breeds of Swine. — The two principal types of hogs are the lard and
the bacon. Lard hogs are noted for their great depth, breadth, general
compactness, smoothness, short legs, large hams, heavy jowls, relatively
lieavy shoulders, mellow finish (due to heavy fat layers) and docile

» Courtesy of The Field. New York City.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

!:^:

696

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

i I

1 Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

i-tl'il

SWINE

597

temperament. Bacon hogs stand in marked contrast in that the typi-
cal representatives have greater relative length, medium depth and
breadth, similar smoothness but more trimness, long legs; small, trim,
tapering hams; very neat, tidy jowls; very Hght and trim shoulders;
exceptionally firm finish (with slight external fat layers) and active
temperament.

The general or dual purpose breeds are a combinaton of the bacon
and lard types, emphasis being placed upon the development of suitable
market hams, bacon, ribs and loin, as well as the tendency to produce
marketable animals suitable for lard.

The most typical lard type representatives are the Poland Chinas,
black with white markings or spotted black, white and sandy; the Duroc
Jerseys, entirely of a cherry red; and the Chester Whites, wholly white.
These three breeds are especially popular in the corn belt, and deservedly
so. Other lard type breeds are the Mulefoots, black, sometimes with white
markings; the Victorias, white; the Cheshires, white; the Suffolks, white;
the small Yorkshires, white; the Essex, black; and the Sapphires, blue
(sometimes white markings).

The typical bacon type representatives are the large Yorkshires,
white; and the Tam worths, red; both being especially prominent in Can-
ada and the northern United States.

The dual purpose representatives are the Berkshires, black with white
markings; the Hampshires, black with white belt; and the middle white or
middle Yorkshires, white but little known in this country.

Of the breeds mentioned, seven are white, six all black or black with
either white or sandy markings, two red and one blue. The most widely
distributed pigs in the Canadian country are white, whereas in the corn
belt and southern districts they are either black or red. This probably*
represents climatic adaptation.

Grading Up the Herd. — An ordinary farm herd composed of native
individuals may be advantageously graded up by using successive pure-
bred sires of the same breed. The first-cross animals are especially vigorous
for market as well as for breeding purposes; they gain very rapidly and
economically, and likewise make very good mothers.

In a grading-up program, assuming that a Duroc Jersey is used for the
first cross and the offspring of the first cross are again bred to Duroc
Jersey sires, it is surprising how quickly the offspring approach the Duroc
types. In a few years, providing gilts only are kept each year for breeding,
a typical Duroc Jersey herd, resembling closely the typical jnire breed,
will be a reality. The same grading-up process may be followed with any
pure breed. This is an excellent practice and one to be followed with
profit in the production of a uniform, dependable market type.

The crossing of breeds already crossed is to be discouraged, largely
because of the heterogeneous individuals which result, these being of
various types, sizes, colors and so on ; this dissimilarity of offspring being

"1"*"*-', ., »'w''.'>w]

i>7:- ■<•■/■■ '"

696

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SWINE

1 Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

597

temperament. Bacon hogs stand in marked contrast in that the typi-
cal representatives have greater relative length, medium depth and
breadth, similar smoothness but more trimness, long legs; small, trim,
tapering hams; very neat, tidy jowls; very light and trim shoulders;
exceptionally firm finish (with slight external fat layers) and active
temperament.

The typical bacon type representatives are the large Yorkshires,
white ; and the Tam worths, red ; both being especially prominent in Can-
ada and the northern United States.

Grading Up the Herd. — An ordinary farm herd composed of native
individuals may be advantageously graded up by using successive pure-
bred sires of the same breed. The first-cross animals are especialh' vigorous
for market as well as for breeding purposes; they gain very rajiidly and
economically, and likewise make very good mothers.

In a grading-up program, assuming that a Duroc Jersey is used for the
first cross and the offspring of the first cross are again bred to Duroc
Jersey sires, it is surprising how quickly the offspring approach the Duroc
types. In a few years, providing gilts only are kept each year for breeding,
a typical Duroc Jersey herd, resembling closely the typical }nire breed,
will be a reality. The same grading-up process may be followed with any
pure breed. This is an excellent practice and one to l)e followed with
profit in th(^ production of a uniform, dependable market type.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

598

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SWINE

599

Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

al! the more marked if the original pure-breds used are very different and
less true if they are very similar.

Age of Breeding Stock. — Mature sows as compared to gilts enjoy
some very marked and practical advantages, as follows:

1. A larger number of pigs at farrowing time.

2. Heavier, stronger, bigger-boned new-born pigs.

3. More pigs usually saved to each sow up to weaning time, hence more
reach the market.

4. They are tried mothers, the undesirable brood sows being naturally
eliminated.

5. Less high-priced protein feeds are needed to supplement the cheaper
carbohydrates.

6. More rough feeds may be used, such as alfalfa hay and pasture.

7. Matured and tried-out sires can be used to advantage; this
ofttimes not being feasible with young gilts unless a breeding crate is
used.

8. Immunized, cholera-proof sows may be continuously kept, and the
expense and bother of the annual immunization of young sows thus
eliminated.

9. Two litters a year are raised with less difficulty. All young gilts
cannot raise two litters successfully the first year.

10. Less loss in condition during the suckling period.
IL More dependable as breeders.

The disadvantages of sows older than gilts are not to be overlooked,
and are as follows:

L Require more feed.
' 2. More house room necessary.

3. If the '^one litter a year^* practice is followed these sows must be
carried through a six months^ unproductive period, which is relatively
expensive.

4. Greater capital investment imperative.

5. Greater risk involved because of the greater capital invested.

6. Swine money not turned so often because the sows are kept longer
and not sold annually as are the gilts.

7. Docked more on marketing, ofttimes twenty-five cents per hun-
dred, than ^Hrim-bellied'' gilts.

8. Gains while '^ fattening off for market'* more expensive.

9. Usually need an older, mature boar, because the younger ones
are not so handily used; hence, the breeding more difficultly managed.

10. Apt to become overfat, clumsy and awkward, and hence overlie
the new-born pigs. This tendency to overfatness must be carefully
guarded against.

11. More difficult, generally speaking, to manage.

In profitable practice, a happy combination of both gilts and old
sows may be kept to good advantage. The breeder of pure-bred swine

598

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SWINE

599

1 Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

al! the more marked if the original pure-breds used are very different and
less true if they are very similar.

Age of Breeding Stock. — Mature sows as compared to gilts enjoy
some very marked and practical advantages, as follows:

1. A larger immber of pigs at farrowing time.

2. Heavier, stronger, bigger-boned new-born pigs.

3. More i)igs usually saved to each sow up to weaning time, hence more
reach the market.

4. They are tried mothers, the undesirable brood sows being naturally
eliminated.

5. Less high-priced protein feeds are needed to supplement the cheaper
carbohydrates.

6. More rough feeds may be used, such as alfalfa hay and pasture.

7. Matured and tried-out sires can be used to advantage; this
ofttimes not being feasible with young gilts unless a breeding crate is
used.

8. Immunized, cholera-proof sows may be continuously kept, and the
expense and bother of the annual immunization of young sows thus
eliminated.

9. Two litters a year are raised with less difficulty. All young gilts
cannot raise two litters successfully the first year.

10. Less loss in condition during the suckling period.
IL More dependable as breeders.

The disadvantages of sows older than gilts are not to l^e overlooked,
and are as follows:

L Require more feed.

2. More house room necessary.

3. If the *^one litter a year'^ practice is followed these sows must be
carried through a six months^ unproductive period, which is relatively
expensive.

4. Greater capital investment imperative.

5. Greater risk involved because of the greater capital invested.

6. Swine money not turned so often because the sows are kept longer
and not sold annually as are the gilts.

7. Docked more on marketing, ofttimes twenty-five cents per hun-
dred, than ^Hrim-})ellied'^ gilts.

8. Gains while ^^ fattening off for market*' more expensive.

9. Usually need an older, mature boar, because the younger ones
are not so handily used; hence, the breeding more difficultly managed.

10. Apt to become overfat, clumsy and awkward, and hence overlie
the new-born pigs. This tendency to overfatness must be carefully
guarded against.

11. More difficult, generally speaking, to manage.

In profitable practice, a happy combination of both gilts and old
sows may be kept to good advantage. The breeder of pure-bred swine

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

if^

600

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

obviously may well keep more old sows proportionately than does the
market man.

In the selection of individual sows for the herd it is well that they show;

1. Trueness to the particular type and breed wished, having a desi-
rable ancestry and being preferably from a prolific, tested family.

2. A well-formed udder with active teats and no blind ones.

3. Feminine characteristics of refinement.

4. Roominess and capacity.

5. A kindly disposition.

6. Good breeding record as manifested in their offspring.

7. Absence of overfatness and flabbiness.

8. A good, healthy constitution free from vermin and diseases.

The boar should possess most of these general requirements, emphasis
bemg placed upon his masculinity as indicated in the well-developed
crest, shield, tusks and general ruggedness. A mature, tried boar is more
acceptable than an immature, untried one.

Housing.— In the housing of swine emphasis should be placed upon
warmth, dryness, abundance of light and direct sunlight, shade, ventila-
tion, sanitation, safety, comfort, convenience, size, durability, low first
cost, minimum cost of maintenance and pleasing appearance of the struc-
ture to be used. This applies to the large centralized community or the
small movable individual type.

The selection of a correct site for the location of the hog house is very
important. Emphasis should be placed upon the economy of labor and
time in management, drainage, exposure, slope, windbreaks, nearness to
pasture and shade, elevation, prevention of odors reaching home dwelling
and risk from disease infection. To place any hog house in an undesirable,
ill-adapted place is to invite loss, dissatisfaction and possi})le failure.

The large community house as compared with the small movable
one has some advantages in that the time and labor required for some
operations is less; durability is usually greater; lighting from direct and
diffuse sunlight better arranged; ventilation made more simple and
systematic; general equipment usually less and more compactly arranged;
close attention to the herd easily and practically possible; herdsman
experiences minimum of exposure; feed storage, water supply and general
rooms may be conveniently arranged; sanitation in some respects may
be more encouraged; vermin more largely eliminated; site selection is
simplified because only one site is needed; the heating problem is compara-
tively easy; common feeding floor and water wallow may be more handily
arranged; danger of loss less than with large number of houses in common
yards; provides headquarters for the swine farm; fire and other risk may
be minimized through masonry construction; a number of swine under
one cover become better acquainted; makes possible adjustable pens;
facilitates collection of liquid manure; and advertising value may be
greater.

SWINE

601

On the other hand, the community house is a disadvantage in that
location is not easily changed; isolation is practically impossible; sanita-
tion may be sometimes discouraged; construction is more complex; it is
not so practical for beginners; the first cost is somewhat high; more fencing
is required to provide similar range conditions; it is likely to be used
solely for a farrowing house and thus decrease serviceability; and fire
and other hazardous risks may be greater if it is built of wood and is in
close proximity to other buildings.

A combination of the two types of houses, i. e., the large centralized
or community one supplemented with the small movaV)le one, deserves
favor in practice. Each type has its own peculiar advantages and dis-
advantages, whereas the two together counterbalance each other so as to
make a very complete efficient practical combination system.

Feeds for Swine. — Feeding swine has to do with the balancing of-
the grain ration to make it most efficient. The shortcomings of corn as
feed for swine have their counterpart in other grains used less extensively
in pork production, namely, barley, wheat, rye, sorghum seed, Kafl[ir corn
and milo maize.

The predominating deficiencies of corn as a grain for growing swine are:

1. Low in Protein. — A young growing pig should have a pound of
protein with every three to four pounds of carbohydrates. Corn has
only one pound of protein to about eight and one-half pounds of
carbohydrates.

2. The Quality of Protein is Only Fair. — Corn products alone, partly
because of the protein content being of low quality, are inefficient in dry
lot feeding, even though an abundance of protein be supplied as in the
form of gluten meal.

3. Lacking in Mineral Elements. — Corn is particularly low in cal-
cium, which comprises 40 per cent of the dry ash of bone. The young
pregnant gilt would have to eat something like thirty pounds of corn a
day in order to get enough calcium to supply the growing foetus. Common
salt and calcium and potassium phosphate have been found beneficial
when added to a corn diet. The deficiency of minerals in corn has been
largely responsible for the widespread general use of condimental material,
such as wood-ashes, charcoal^ bone phosphate, rock phosphate, cinders,
slaked coal and others being used in practical hog feeding.

4. Presents an Acid Ash. — When corn is high in protein this acidity
is especially marked. To make corn more productive this acidity should
be counteracted. This is made possible by the judicious use of efl^cient
and proper supplements.

The most acceptable, practical supplements to corn and the other
similar starchy grains may be briefly enumerated as follows: skimmed
milk, buttermilk, tankage, blood meal, linseed oil meal, cottonseed meal,
gluten meal, wheat middlings, Canada field peas, soy beans, alfalfa and
clover hay.

602

iiii.

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The production of pastures is an economical proposition and is to be
encouraged on every American as well as Canadian swine farm in order
to obviate the necessity of purchasing high-priced protein concentrates,
ihe most profitable supplemental pastures in the corn belt in the order
of merit are: alfalfa, rape, red clover, blue grass and sweet clover of the
first yearns growth. In the South cowpeas, soy beans, Spanish peanuts
and Lespedeza clover may be added, inasmuch as these plants give excellent
success in warm climates and on soils that are sandy and relatively unpro-
ductive as compared to the corn belt soils of Iowa and Illinois.
^ Swine feeding and dairying, along with judicious use of green forages
in a good corn, barley or other similar grain country, is a most excellent
swme-farming proposition. If alfalfa can be raised, so much the better

Preparation of Feeds.— Hard, tough, fibrous-shelled seeds such as
Kafhr corn, sorghum, milo maize and millet will be much more efficient
if fed in the ground condition. If grinding is impossible, soaking is the
next best possible procedure.

Wheat, ry^e and barley likewise give better results when ground, and
can also be soaked as an alternative. Some experiments show as much
as 20 per cent increase in the efficiency of wheat through the grinding
as compared to feeding the grain dry and whole.

The general herd, young pigs and sows on a maintenance ration do
better on ear corn than any other form. However, fattening sows and
heavy fat hogs in the final stages of fattening make more economical gains
on the soaked shelled grain. If any preparation should be used other
than dry ear, it should be shelled soaked corn rather than the ground
grain dry or soaked.

Corn-and-cob meal has little to commend it to any class of swine
except possibly the brood sows on maintenance, and even with these the
ear corn is the most profitable.

Hays, such as ground alfalfa, may be ground ofttimes in order to
facilitate their mixture with the grain rations and to encourage their
consumption.

Wetting and cooking of feeds is not ordinarily profitable, although
to produce rapid gains these procedures are sometimes permissible, this
being especially tnie in the production and finisliing of show stock.

Hand vs. Self-Feeding.— Better results will be secured by the self-
feed method than by hand-feeding twice daily. However, feeding three
times a day is the most efficient, considering rapidity of gains and economy
in feed required for 100 pounds of gain. Under our ordinary high-priced
labor conditions, thrice a day is not enough better to excel self-feeding.

The ''Free-Choice'' scheme of feeding consists of allowing acceptable
feeds before swine in such a manner that they can balance their own
rations. In 1914 a group of pigs fed at the Iowa station according to
this scheme, receiving shelled corn, linseed oil meal, oats and meat meal
(or tankage), limestone, charcoal and salt in separate feeds, weighed 316

SWINE

G03

pounds when 8 months 7 days old. They did as well as if they had been
fed according to accepted feeding standards. Tests now in progress (1915)
at the Iowa station indicate that pigs can feed themselves better than a
trained animal husbandman can feed them if he follows the customary
feeding standards.

When pigs are allowed starchy corn and high-protein meat meal
(tankage) in separate feeders, this feed being kept before them from wean-
ing time until they reach a weight of 300 pounds, they will eat of these
two dry lot fed feeds approximately as follows:

Weanling

Shote

Fattening hog

Fat marketable hog

Approximate
Age, days.

60
120
180
240

Approximate
Weight,
pounds.

35
100
210
300

Pounds 00 Per Cent

Protein Meat Meal

(Tankage) Katen

with Every 1(K)

Pounds Corn.

Pounds Protein
Eaten with
Every 10()
Pounds Starches.

3.38
3.84
4.79
6.50

The self-feeding method is excellent in dry lot feeding, on pastures
and where skim milk or buttermilk is used.

Feed for the Brood Sows. — The brood sow should have good feed in
order to produce strong, healthy pigs. Skim milk, tankage, alfalfa pas-
ture, etc., combined with corn or other grains, often increase the litters
as much as one pig over corn alone.

To demonstrate the advantage of supplementing the starchy grain
feeds such as corn with the proper protein supplement, the resulting average
weight and strength of the pigs secured is given for a few typical rations:

llation Fed.*

Corn only

Corn i)his 4 per cent tankage .
Corn plus 1() per cent tankage
Corn plus alfalfa in rack

Average Weight
per Pig.
pounds.

1.74
2.01
2.23
2.12

Strong Pigs,
per cent.

68
92
93
98

Cost of

New-born Pigs,

cents.

41
18
22
31

These gilts were charged at the rate of 50 cents a bushel for shelled
corn, $2.50 for meat meal and $15 a ton for the alfalfa hay; yet in spite of
the comparative high cost of the supplements, the pigs produced were not
only cheaper but much better pigs were secured, the animals being much
larger and stronger than where corn only was fed.

* Animal Husbandry Section — Iowa Experiment Station Results.

604

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The unborn pig must be well fed indirectly through its host the brood
sow it a strong, vigorous, active pig cariying big bone and strong muscle
at the time of farrow is desired.

In general, it is well to emphasize in brood sow management :

A. Acceptable balanced feeds in sufficient quantity.

B. Maximum growth without excessive fattening.

C. Abundant exercise, especially the latter two months of

gestation.

D. Riddance of hce and worms.

E. Moderate laxativeness, because constipation is a menace.

F. Gentleness in handling the herd.

The suckling sow and htter should be fed better than any other class
of swme. The demand for growing feeds by both the sow and pigs at
this time is great. Such feeds as corn, barley, skim milk, buttermilk, tank-
age, wheat middhngs, alfalfa, rape, clover, blue grass and other pastures
and similar feeds equally as good are to be particularly commended.

Feeding the Pigs.— From time of weaning to maturity pigs should
have plenty of suitable forage. Nothing is better than pastures of clover
alfalfa, rape, etc. Here they may be given a full or limited ration, depend-
ing on circumstances.

If the usually better early fall markets are the goal, full-feeding will
be in order; whereas if the later but somewhat lower markets are most
acceptable, the grain ration can be limited. Ordinarily, it is not a paying
proposition to feed less than three pounds of grain with every 100 pounds
of pig daily. A lesser amount, especially if the pasture be poor, will cause
the pigs to become stunted.

The fall pigs which are raised in winter dry lot must be fed a relatively
high-priced ration; in other words, one high in protein. The fall pigs
need warm shelter, and it is best to feed them inside the shelter. They
must be protected from the cold winds, snows, hails, and general wintry
conditions, while the spring pig should be i)rotected from the hot sun and
the flies. The fall pig lives at a time when attacks from worms are at
low ebb and are not readily passed from one host to another.

The '^hogging-down'' of corn deserves much emphasis. It is prac-
ticed profitably in all of the corn belt states. It may be likened to dry
lot feeding if the field is clean and free from weeds, and supplemental pro-
tein feeds should be supplied accordingly. It is well to have an alfalfa
rape or similar pasture field adjoining in order to supply this protein
at the lowest cost.

Rape, winter rye or winter wheat in the northern corn belt may be
sown in the corn at the last cultivation or shortly thereafter with excel-
lent success; in the more southern districts cowpeas and soy beans
may be included with profit.

Successful swine rations for general American conditions, and suitable

•u

SWINE

605

for the various sizes, ages and classes of hogs are suggested in a ready
reference table presented herewith:

The Swine to be Fed.

I. Growing and F aliening for Market.

1. Suckling pigs (a creep) 5-40 pounds

2. Weanling pigs, 30-100 pounds

3. Shoats, 100-175 pounds

4. Hogs, 175-250 pounds

5. Fat Hogs, 250-350 pounds

II. Fattening Sows for Market.

1. Yearlings (gilts) after weaning.

A. In poor condition, run-down . . .

B. In good condition, thrifty

2. Two years or older.

A. In poor condition, run-down . . .

B. In good condition, thrifty

III. Stags, Fattening.

A. Young

B. Old

IV. Carrying Sows, Breeding.

1. Breeding swine, flushing.

A. Gilts

B. Yearlings and older

2. During pregnancy.

A. Gilts

B. Yearlings and older

V. Suckling Sows.

A. With large litters

B. With small htters

Pounds of Tankage* (60 per cent Protein) to be

Fed along with every 100 Pounds of Corn to

Swine of Various Classes in

Dry Lot.

Low-Protein
Pasture, t

High-Protein
Pasture, t

25-18
18-10
10-4
4-1

23-16

16-9

9 4

4-1

20-12

12-5

5-2

2-2

11-8
9-5

11-8

8-5

5-0
0

6-4
2-0

4-0
0

9-4
5-0

0
0

14
11

10
8

14-10
10-0

10-7
6-4

0-5
0-4

25-18
20-8

10
3-5

* If corn is not available, it may be substituted pound for pound in these proportions with barley,
wheat, rye, sorghum seed, Kafhr corn, milo maize, or feterita, or a combination of any of these. If 60
per cent protein tankage is not available, linse(>d oil meal or soy bean meal may be substituted, 2 to 2J
times as much being used. For example, the suggested dry lot ration for growmg and fat temng shoats
is "com 100 tankage 18 to 10;" now substitute oil meal 2 times as much and we have corn 100, hnseed
oil meal 36 to 20. To substitute wheat middlings, allow 17 times as much, skim or buttermilk 20 times,
and blood meal 60 per cent as much, or almost two-fifths less. Blood meal runs about 85 per cent protein
and but little is required, but blood meal is not so good a supplement as tankage, everything considered.

i Lotv-Protein Pastures.— Dry, hard, fibrous blue grass; sorghum; fetenta; millet; Sudan grass;
milo maize; timothy when over four inches high; rye or wheat over eight inclies; or oats and barley
over five inches, or beginning a couple of weeks before beginning to joint; and sweet clover of second

year's growth after two feet high. ^i i m j u-*^

t Hiah-Protein Pas<urcs.— Alfalfa; rape. Dwarf Essex; medium red, mammoth, alsike, and white

and other clovers- young, tender, sweet clover, first year's growth; quite early, tender, new coming

timothy, rye or wheat; short, "shooting," tender, green, succulent blue grass, cowpeas; and soy beans.

606

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

REFERENCES

"Productive Swine Husbandry." Day.
''Swine in America." Coburn.
''Swine." Dietrich.

"Forty Years' Experience as a Practical Hog Man." Loveiov
"The Hog Book." Dawson. *^*

Alabama Expt Station Bulletin 185. "Dipping Vat for Hogs and Dips:" "Hog Worms
Lice and Mange;" "Hog Lot, Houses and Water Supply '^ ' ^ wurms,

Kentucky Expt. Station Circular 4. " Mal-Nutrition of Hogs "
Nebraska Expt. Station Bulletin 147. "Pork Production "

Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 268 "Fattening Swine with Substitutes for Corn."
South Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 157. "Rape Pasture for Pigs in Cornfield "
Wyoming Expt. Station Bulletin 107. "Swine Feeding " ^ornneia.

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 225. "Swine "
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

411. "Feeding Hogs in the South."

438. "Hog Houses."

<i|

Ut*'^^

FTC

CHAPTER 49

Sheep and Goats

By T. C. Stone
Instructor in Animal Husbandry, Ohio State University

Early Importance of Sheep. — There is evidence that sheep were under
domestication in Europe in prehistoric times. The primitive man used the
skin for clothing and the meat and milk for food. As man has advanced
in civilization, sheep farming has become an important branch of agricul-

A Typical Cotswold Ewe.'

ture. Sheep and their wool were very early acknowledged to be the founda-
tion of the national prosperity and the wealth of Great Britain and other
European countries. The more recent introduction of silk manufactures
and the establishment of the cotton trade have lessened the demand for
woolen goods; still, the sheep and its fleece are of great importance.

» Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

(607)

606

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

REFERENCES

''Productive Swine Husbandry." Day.
"Swine in America." Coburn.
^' Swine." Dietrich.

"Forty Years' Experience as a Practical Hog Man." Loveiov
''The Hog Book." Dawson. '' ^*

Alabama Expt Station Bulletin 185. "Dipping Vat for Hogs and Dips:" "Hog Worm^
Lice and Mange;" "Hog Lot, Houses and Water Supply." ^ v>orm.,

Kentucky Expt. Station Circular 4. "Mal-Nutrition of Hogs "
Nebraska Expt. Station Bulletin 147. "Pork Production "

Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 268 "Fattening Swine with Substitutes for Corn."
bouth Dakota Expt. Station BuUetm 157. "Rape Pasture for Pigs in Cornfield."
Wyoming Expt. Station I^ulletin 107. "Swine Feeding."
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 225 "Swine"
Farmers' Bulletins, V. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

411. "Feeding Hogs in the South."

438. "Hog Houses."

CHAPTER 49

Sheep and Goats

By T. C. Stone
Instructor in Animal Husbandry , Ohio State University

A Typical Cotswold Ewe.'

ture. Sheep and their wool were very early acknowledged to be the founda-
tion of the national prosperity and the wealth of Great Britain and other
I^luropean countries. The more recent introduction of silk manufactures
and the estal)lishment of the cotton trade have lessened the demand for
woolen goods; still, the sheep and its fleece are of great importance.

» Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

(607)

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

608

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The Sheep of Spain. — The Spanish Merino, the only type of sheep in
Spain, are noted for: (1) the production of a very fine wool, (2) hardiness
and ability to travel, and (3) the disposition to stay close together when
feeding, resting and traveling. These characteristics have had an impor-
tant influence on their later history.

The Sheep of England. — In England were developed several types of
sheep, and each type or breed was adapted to a certain locality. These
breeds were quite unlike in fleece. The wool found favor on the market
because of its variety in length and quality, which made it adaptable to

SHEEP AND GOATS

609

A Typical Lincoln Ewe."

different uses. The Royal Agricultural Society of England in its show
catalogue recognizes twenty-five breeds. These were all developed on the
British Isles. Some were developed in the lowlands, some in the hills and
others in the midlands. They were developed principally for meat; fresh
meat in England, with its great population, being of greater consequence
than wool. The various breeds were divided into four classes, namely, the
long-wool breeds, the middle-wool breeds, the highlanders or mountain
breeds and the upland breeds.

Breeds of Sheep. — Two distinct types of sheep have been produced,
namely, the mutton and wool types. The former are valued chiefly on

1 Courtesy of The Field, New York City.

account of their ability to make mutton economically, although the wool-
producing ability of the mutton sheep constitutes no small part of their
value to the farmer. The wool type, however, is raised mainly for the wool
it produces.

In conformation, the mutton sheep are compact, with a short head and
neck, a broad, level back, a full leg of mutton, a deep body and short legs.
The wool ranges in length from 2| inches in the middle-wools to 10 inches
in the long-wools. The fleece does not cover the body so compactly as
does the fleece of the fine-wool sheep. The medium-wool breeds greatly

A Typical Shropshire.^

excel the long-wools in this respect. The fleece of the medium-wool breeds
is much less fine in quality and has much less yolk or oil in it than does the
fleece of the Merino sheep.

LONG- WOOL BREEDS

Leicester. — Very large sheep, wool 6 inches long at 12 months, being
bright and lustrous; face and legs white; no wool on head. Weight of
mature rams ranges from 225 to 250 pounds; ewes from 175 to 200 pounds.

Cotswold. — Wool 8 inches long at 12 months; pronounced tuft of wool
on forehead; face and legs white. Rams weigh from 250 to 275 pounds;
ewes from 200 to 225 pounds.

» Courtesy of The Field, New York City.
89

'^^'

3^m^r

608

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The Sheep of Spain. — The Spanish Merino, the only type of sheep in
Spain, are noted for: (1) tlie jnocUiction of a very fine wool, (2) hardiness
and ability to travel, and (3) the disposition to stay close together when
feeding, resting and traveling. These characteristics have had an impor-
tant influence on their later history.

SHEEP AND GOATS

609

A Typical Lincoln Ewe.*

Breeds of Sheep. — Two distinct types of sheep have been produced,
namely, the mutton and wool types. The former are valued chiefly on

1 Courteay of The Field, Now York City.

In conformation, the mutton sheep are compact, with a short head and
neck, a broad, level back, a full leg of mutton, a deep body and short legs.
The wool ranges in length from 2| inches in the middle-wools to 10 inches
in the long- wools. The fleece does not cover the body so compactly as
does the fleece of the fine-wool sheep. The medium-wool breeds greatly

A Typical Shropshire. ^

excel the long-wools in this respect. The fleece of the medium-wool breeds
is nuich less fine in quality and has much less yolk or oil in it than does the
fleece of the Merino sheep.

LONG- WOOL BREEDS

Cotswold. — Wool 8 inches long at 12 months; i)ronounced tuft of wool
on forehead; face and legs white. Rams weigh from 250 to 275 pounds;
ewes from 200 to 225 pounds.

1 Courtesy of The Field, New York City.
89

610

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Lincoln.— No breed furnishes so long a fleece as the Lincoln It
ranges from 8 to 12 inches; tuft of wool on forehead. RarLweS about
385 pounds; ewes about 275 pounds. ^^ ^ "^

MEDIUM-WOOL BREEDS
Southdown.— They are .smallest of the middle-wools, very low-set and
compact vvith steel-gray or mouse-brown markings on fZceTnd iSs
Fleece as 2i mches long at 12 months. Rams weigh from 185 tolorpounds;

SHEEP AND GOATS

eni

A Typical CHEnox.'

fnTfff''*"'.^^^ *° \f 'f ""^'- ^'"^^^'^^'^ ^"'^ ^^'^ Of ^««J production and
insufficient size. Much improvement has been due to this breed

Shropshire.— They are stylish sheep with pronounced extension of
wool over face and legs; color marking is a deep, soft brown. Wool 3
inch^ long at 12 months. Rams weigh about 225 pounds; ewes from 140
to 160 pounds. Rank high as a dual purpose breed.

Oxfords.— They resemble the Shropshire, but are larger and do not
nave as great wool extension over face and legs. Lighter brown is the color
marking, and usually are more upstanding. Wool is 4 inches long at 12

' Coyrtcsy of U. S. Dept. of Agricufture.

• . -^

months. Heavier than Southdowns and Shropshires, equal to Hampshires.
Rams weigh from 275 to 300 pounds; ewes about 175 to 200 pounds. They
give size and weight when crossed on short-wools and quality and better
mutton when crossed on the long-wooled breeds.

Hampshires.— They have darker color markings than the Oxfords,
and a very pronounced Roman nose. Wool is 2| inches long at 12 months.
Very early maturing sheep.

Dorset Horn.— Have white color markings; very little wool on face

A Typical Merino. ^

and legs and it does not extend well over lower parts of the body. Both
ewes and rams have horns. Wool at 12 months is 3 inches long. Weight
of rams from 250 to 275 pounds; ewes 175 to 185 pounds. A mutton breed
of merit; valued as early laml) raisers.

Cheviot. — They are very alert, stylish sheep with white markings.
Face and legs arc free from wool. Wool is 4 inches long. Rams weigh
from 200 to 225 pounds; ewes from 125 to 140 pounds. It is a very hardy
breed and individuals graze independently of each other.

Fine- Wool or Merino Sheep. — This type is the result of efforts to

I Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

av?^r:^,?5:ir;:

610

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Lincoln.-No breed furnishes so long a fleece as the Lincoln. It

£?ZT ^ *^ '^ i"'''"'; *"^* ^^ ^««' ^'^ f°^^h«^d. Rams weigh about
^85 pounds; ewes about 275 pounds.

MEDIUM-WOOL BREEDS

Southdown.— They are smallest of the middle-wools, very low-set and

S.T'*ox •'*''. ''f '■^'■'^^' "'■ "-"^^-•^••»^'" "'-kings on fa!.e In dlegs
Fleece is 2^ mches long at 12 months. Hams weigh from 185 to 200 pounds ';

SHEEP AND GOATS

611

A Typical Cheviot.'

ewes from 125 to 140 pouiuls. C^riticised for lack of wool production and
insufficient size. Much iniprovenient has been due to this breed

Shropshire.-Tliey are stylish sheep with pronounced extension of
wool over face and legs; color marking is a deep, soft brown. Wool 3
inches long at 12 months. Rams weigh about 225 pounds; ewes from 140
to 160 pounds. Rank high as a dual purpose breed.

Oxfords.— They resemble the Shropshire, but are larger and do not
have as great wool extension over face and legs. Lighter brown is the color
marking, and usually are more upstanding. Wool is 4 inches long at 12

1 Covrtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agricullure.

Hampshires.— They have darker color markings than the Oxfords,
and a very pronounced Roman nose. Wool is 2^ inches long at 12 months.
Very early maturing sheep.

Dorset Horn. — Have white color markings; very little wool on face

A Typical Merino. ^

and legs and it does not extend well over lower parts of the body. Both
ewes and I'ains have horns. Wool at 12 months is 3 inches long. Weight
of rams from 250 to 275 ])()un(ls; ewes 175 to 185 pounds. A mutton breed
of merit; valued as early lamb raisers.

Cheviot. — Th(\y are very alert, stylish sheep with white markings.
Face and l(*gs are Uvo from wool. Wool is 4 inches long. Rams weigh
from 200 to 225 pounds; ewes from 125 to 140 pounds. It is a very hardy
breed and individuals graze independently of each other.

Fine- Wool or Merino Sheep. — This type is the result of efforts to

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

^\vJ

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

:kil': 'V :

C^...J.':Vi:-->*-^ -■•;»;: '«>■

m:":^m^:--

KMIHWMI^^

612

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

differences in conformation char'actrof L ^^'' f'^^'^^'^^^'on is based on
of wrinkles or folds on the sheep ' ' "''™^''' "°^ ^^^P««^*'«"

the ^e^a^LTL^r o^^rhtdnr ^7^ t ^^"^^^ ''--- «^
vigor and are much less susPenfJhi! + ^'^^^ have great constitution and

^SHEEP AND GOATS

A Typical Flock of Sheep in Pasture. ^

the dual purpose animal. The Merino will not be supplanted but a^ the

in great nunibers and they would certainly not be kept if they were S
profitab e bheep do best on slightly rolling land where diy footing pr2
vails 1 hey get more sustenance and at the same time do the land mort
good than any other class of livestock. The n.anure from sheep clSs
more fert.hzmg value ,K.r ton than ai>y other kind of farm manu^wth
the exception of poultry.

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company. N Y From "n.r.^ i xr x,. . .
meut," by Agcc. * ^' ' ^' ^^^"^ ^^"^P^ and Methods for Soil Improv©-

613

Very little capital is needed to start a flock of sheep. They need not
be housed in expensive buildings. Nature has fitted them to endure cold
weather. A small flock requires very little labor, especially during the
busy summer. These advantages, along with the fact that sheep destroy
weeds, thereby helping to beautify the farm, make the sheep a valuable
asset to the American farmer. These advantages are not mentioned with
the view of urging the farmer to give up other classes of farm animals,
but to remind him of the advantage of supplementing his stock with a
small flock of, say, forty ewes or even less.

Essentials to Success.— One should choose the breed best adapted
to local conditions, especially the climate and market. There is no best
breed for all conditions. It is best that a man gain his experience with
grade stuff. One may purchase either Merino or mutton breeds and then
grade them up by using a pure-bred ram. The latter is of great importance.
A ram having a good pedigree and good individuality should be selected.
He should be purchased from a reliable breeder and the stockman should
not hesitate to pay a good price for a desirable ram. The ram should
possess good breed type and be masculine. An effeminate ram should
have no place in a flock. Masculinity is indicated by a short, broad head,
large, broad nostrils, ruggedness in appearance and a lack of too great
refinement throughout. Rams should have a good conformation, and
those which have been very highly fitted should be avoided, as they often
prove non-breeders. There are only a few instances where it would be
permissible to use a ram lamb to head the flock. This is done more often
in the case of the Hampshire breed than others. Older rams usually make
the best breeders. A ram of the middle-wool breeds is suflficiently devel-
oped and fit for service at the age of IJ^ years.

Only ewes that are sound in their mouths and udders, and that possess
feminine characteristics and good general conformation should be pur-
chased. It must be remembered that the ewes are half the flock.

One should not make the mistake, after establishing a flock, of allow-
ing the sheep to care for themselves. Suitable but inexpensive shelter
and plenty of forage should be provided and plenty of salt and water
should be kept before them. It is necessary to be on the lookout for
internal parasites, especially in lambs, during the summer months.

The Breeding Season. — The breeding season of the year in this
country commences in September or just as soon as the cool nights begin.
The heat periods of the ewes last from one to two days and normally
appear at intervals of 16 days. The Dorset Horn and Tunis will breed
at. any time.

Period of Gestation. — The usual period is 146 days. Ewes, however,
are very irregular about bringing forth their young. Shepherds in the
old country figure on 140 days. The period of gestation is often longer
for Rambouillets than for other breeds.

Care of Ram During Breeding Season. — Not more than 40 ewes should

jjBHi

HHE^^^Mk^

^ ■■.■;. ■■ . J- -f^..--

-' '^

fil^^^^^^^^^^^^^l

^^1

612

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

mi^^:mi

'"m

A Typical Flock of Sheep in Pasture.'

the dual purpose animal. The Merino will not be sui)i,lantcd but as the

^XX^:t: ,tur,sr "- ^'"^ - ^-'^* ^« --'— ^^^^

m great nun. bens and they would certainly not be kept if iZyeeZt
prohtab e M.eep do best on slightly rolling land whire d^ footing pre-
vails ihey get more sustenance and at the same time do the land more
goo,l than any other class of livestock. The n.anure fron. .sheep conSs
more fert.h.ang value per ton than any other kin<l of farm n.anure wh
the exception of poultry.

^Cnurtosy of The Macmillan Company. N. Y. From 'Tmn^ o.wl \r .u i c o .. ,
meut," by Aijcc. ""^ ^-rops and Alothods for Soil rmprovQ-

''SHEEP AND GOATS

613

Very little capital is needed to start a flock of sheep. They need not
be housed in expensive buildings. Nature has fitted them to endure cold
weather. A small flock requires very little la})or, especially during the
busy summer. These advantages, along with the fact that sheep destroy
weeds, thereby helping to beautify the farm, make the sheep a valuable
asset to the American farmer. These advantages are not mentioned with
the view of urging the farmer to give up other classes of farm animals,
but to remind him of the advantage of supplementing his stock with a
small flock of, say, forty ewes or even less.

Essentials to Success.— One should choose the breed best adapted
to local conditions, especially the climate and market. There is no best
breed for all conditions. It is best that a man gain his experience with
grade stuff. One may purchase either Merino or mutton ])reeds and then
grade them up by using a pure-bred ram. The latter is of great importance.
A ram having a good pedigree and good individuality should be selected.
He should be purchased from a reliable breeder and the stockman should
not hesitate to pay a good price for a desirable ram. The ram should
I)ossess good breed type and be masculine. An effeminate ram should
have no place in a flock. Masculinity is indicated by a short, broad head,
large, broad nostrils, ruggedness in appearance and a lack of too great
refinement throughout. Rams should have a good conformation, and
those which have been very highly fitted should be avoided, as they often
prove non-breeders. There are only a few instances where it would })e
permissible to use a ram laml) to head the flock. This is done more often
in the case of the Hampshire breed than others. Older rams usually make
the best breeders. A ram of the middle-wool breeds is sufficiently devel-
oped and fit for service at the age of IJ^ years.

One should not make the mistake, after establishing a flock, of allow-
ing the sheep to care for themselves. Suitable but inexpensive shelter
and ])lenty of forage should be provided and i^lenty of salt and water
should be kei)t before them. It is necessary to be on the lookout for
internal parasites, especially in lambs, during the summer months.

The Breeding Season. — The breeding season of the year in this
country commences in September or just as soon as the cool nights begin.
The heat periods of the ewes last from one to two days and normally
appear at intervals of IG days. The Dorset Horn and Tunis will breed
at any time.

Period of Gestation. — The usual period is 146 days. Ewes, however,
are very irregular about bringing forth their young. Shepherds in the
old countiy figure on 140 days. The period of gestation is often longer
for Rambouillets than for other breeds.

Care of Ram During Breeding Season. — Not more than 40 ewes should

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

«}

SHEEP AND GOATS

615

•J

Q
O
O

1 Courteay of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,

(614)

be allowed to one ram. The last born lambs are often weaker than those
born earlier in the season. This indicates that it is not advisable to
breed the ram to too many ewes. In a large flock, the ram should be put
with the ewes for an hour at the end of each day. In a small flock, he may
be allowed to run with the ewes all the time. Where hand coupling is
not practiced, one should paint the brisket between the ram's fore-leg with
paint. Red lead and linseed oil make a desirable paint for this purpose.
This mark will indicate that the ewes have been bred. After 16 days
the ram may be painted another color. By this means the breeder may
know whether the ewes are returning. The ram should be fed liberally
during the breeding season, but not too well. A mixture of equal parts
of oats, bran and oil-cake, say one pint, both mornings and evenings, will
prove a good ration.

Winter Care of Ewes.— A lamb gets its start on the right or wrong
way before it is born. The pregnant ewes should be sufficiently fed, but
not overfed during winter. They should be given plenty of exercise; the
more they get, the healthier the lamb crop will be. The feeding of too
much grain just previous to lambing time should be avoided. Bran, oats,
oil meal and clover make an ideal ration for the breeding ewe. Silage and
roots are good succulent feeds, but must be fed in small quantities and
must be of good quality.

Care of Young Lambs. — Lambs should be weaned when 33^ to 4
months old, and put on fresh pasture. The secret of successful and profit-
able lamb raising is to keep them growing and in good condition from
birth to maturity. Lambs should be given grain as soon as they can
thoroughly digest it. In order that they may eat at will, it is necessary
to build creeps for them. The feeds given and the amount will depend
largely on the purpose for which they are being prepared. These being
fitted for the market should be fed liberally with grain until they are of
market age. Their ration may consist almost wholly of corn. A good
grain ration for lambs just beginning to eat is ground corn, one part;
crushed oats, one part; Hnseed oil meal, one part; and wheat bran,
two parts.

All lambs should be docked and all males intended for the open market
should be castrated. Lambs that are not castrated often sell for at least
$1.50 per 100 pounds less than castrated lambs. This does not take into
consideration the loss of flesh due to activity of ram lambs. The lamb
that is not docked gets filthy around the dock and presents a poor appear-
ance on the market. They may be docked and castrated when about
two weeks old. It is much more convenient to do both at the same time,
and no evil results will follow if the operations are performed in the right
way.

Marketing the Lambs. — It is usually best to market the lambs at
weaning time. This will occur about July 1st. There is great demand
for lambs weighing from 65 to 70 pounds. They furnish a superior prod-

SHEEP AND GOATS

615

o
o

o
O

» Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,

(614)

be allowed to one ram. The last born lambs are often weaker than those
born earlier in the season. This indicates that it is not advisable to
breed the ram to too many ewes. In a large flock, the ram should be put
with the ewes for an hour at the end of each day. In a small flock, he may
be allowed to run with the ewes all the time. Where hand coupling is
not practiced, one should paint the brisket between the ram's fore-leg with
paint. Red lead and linseed oil make a desirable paint for this purpose.
This mark will indicate that the ewes have been bred. After 16 days
the ram may l^e painted another color. By this means the breeder may
know whether the ewes are returning. The ram should be fed liberally
during the breeding season, })ut not too well. A mixture of equal parts
of oats, bran and oil-cake, say one pint, both mornings and evenings, will
prove a good ration.

Winter Care of Ewes.— A lamb gets its start on the right or wrong
way before it is born. The pregnant ewes should be sufl^ciently fed, but
not overfed during winter. They should be given plenty of exercise; the
more they get, the healthier the lamb crop will be. The feeding of too
much grain just previous to lambing time should be avoided. Bran, oats,
oil meal and clover make an ideal ration for the breeding ewe. Silage and
roots are good succulent feeds, but nuist be fed in small quantities and
must be of good quality.

Care of Young Lambs. — Lambs should be weaned when 33^ to 4
months old, and put on fresh pasture. The secret of successful and profit-
able lamb raising is to keep them growing and in good condition from
bii-th to maturity. Lambs should be given grain as soon as they can
thoroughly digest it. In order that they may eat at will, it is necessary
to build creeps for them. The feeds given and the amount will depend
largely on the i)urpose for which they are being prepared. These being
fitted for the market should be fed liberally with grain until they are of
market age. Their ration may consist almost wholly of corn. A good
grain ration for lam})s just beginning to eat is ground corn, one part;
crushed oats, one part; linseed oil meal, one part; and wheat bran,
two parts.

All lambs should be docked and all males intended for the open market
should be castrated. Lambs that are not castrated often sell for at least
$1.50 per 100 i)ounds less than castrated Iam})s. This does not take into
consideration the loss of flesh due to activity of ram lambs. The lamb
that is not docked gets filthy around the dock and presents a poor appear-
ance on the market. They may be docked and castrated when about
two weeks old. It is much more convenient to do both at the same time,
and no evil results will follow if the operations are performed in the right
wav.

Marketing the Lambs. — It is usually best to market the lambs at
weaning time. This will occur about July 1st. There is great demand
for lambs weighing from 65 to 70 i)ounds. They furnish a superior prod-

616

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

uct for the consumer and make very economical gains for the producer.
There are other reasons for marketing lambs at this time. First, lambs
gain very Httle during hot summer months; second, there is risk of losing
them through the internal parasites; third, one avoids heaviest run of
western lambs; and lastly, one gets the use of his money earlier.

Shearing the Flock. — Time of shearing depends on the weather, the
season and the locahty and equipment. It is advisable to shear as soon
as warm weather begins in the spring. Late shearing is unadvisable, as
the sheep will lose in weight if compelled to carry heavy fleeces. They

An Angora Buck.*

are also liable to lose some of their wool during the later months. Well-
fed ewes with comfortable sheds may be sheared fairly early. They will
not suffer if the days should become a little cool. Wethers fed under
the same conditions may often l^e sheared as early as March. They will
gain faster when fleeces are removed. Care should be exercised to see
that they do not overeat at this time.

Both hand shearing and machine shearing are practiced.

Dipping the Flock. — All sheep should be dipped for three reasons.
First, to promote healthy condition of the skin; second, as a remedy for
scabies in sheep; third, to kill the lice and ticks.

» From Farmers* Bulletin 573, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

SHEEP AND GOATS

617

The time for dipping depends upon the time of shearing. It is best
to dip five or six days after shearing. The ticks and hce leave the shorn
ewes and go to a more sheltered place on the bodies of the young lambs.
If one delays dipping for any length of time after shearing, the lambs will
suffer a great deal with these pests. A second dipping should take place
during the fall.

Any of the recommended coal tar dips may be used. In using these,
one should see that they have the approval of the Department of Agri-
culture and should follow the directions carefully.

A flock thus handled will afford the owner much pleasure and profit
for capital and labor invested. The earnings from sheep will compare
very favorably with those of any of our domestic animals.

GOATS

Goats are very valuable as a renovator of brush lands. They are
not naturally grazing animals, but rather browsers. In some states, the
cost of clearing large tracts of land has been greatly reduced by pasturing
with flocks of goats.

Besides this, many goats, especially the representatives of the breeds
of milch goats, are noted as milk producers. They have held a recognized
place as such for a great many years among the poorer people of the world.
In some countries varieties of goats are bred especially for their milk-
producing qualities.

In this country, the Angora goat and the common goats give milk,
but milking families have not been produced.

The Angora goat yields a fleece which is valued highly on the market.
It is commercially known as mohair. It is coarser than fine wool, but
longer and stronger.

When sold on the market, goats bring a lower price than sheep. The
mutton from goats is not considered nearly as good as mutton from sheep.

Angora and common goats are found in almost every state in this
country . They seem to do well under a wide range of climatic conditions.
A dry climate, however, seems most favorable for them.

REFERENCES

''Sheep Farming.'* Craig and Marshall.
"Sheep Farming in America." Wing.
'' Productive Sheep Husbandry." Coffey.

Doane.
Thompson.

Sheep Farming. Kleinheinz.
"Sheep Feeding and Farm Management."
"The Winter Lamb." Miller and Wing.
"Angora Goat Raising and Milch Goats."
Nebraska Expt. Station Bulletin 153. "Fattening Lambs."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bulletm 68.

Concerning the Milch Goat."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

573. "The Angora Goat."

676. "Breeds of Sheep for the Farm."

652. "The Sheep Killing Dog."

"Information

f Mi

! ji'l

III"

\'4

;

616

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

uct for the consumer and make very economical gains for the producer.
There are other reasons for marketing lambs at this time. First, lambs
gain very Httle during hot sunmier months; second, there is risk of losing
them through the internal parasites; third, one avoids heaviest run of
western lambs; and lastly, one gets the use of his money earlier.

Shearing the Flock. — Time of shearing depends on the weather, the
season and the locality and equipment. It is advisable to shear as soon
as warm weather begins in the spring. Late shearing is unadvisable, as
the sheep will lose in weight if compelled to carry heavy fleeces. They

An Angora Buck.*

are also liable to lose some of their wool during the later months. Well-
fed ewes with comfortable sheds may be sheared fairly early. They will
not suffer if the days should l^ecome a little cool. Wethers fed under
the same conditions may often ])e sheared as early as March. They will
gain faster when fleeces are removed. Care should be exercised to see
that they do not overeat at this time.

Both hand shearing and machine shearing are practiced.

Dipping the Flock. — All sheep should be dipped for three reasons.
First, to promote healthy condition of the skin; second, as a remedy for
scabies in sheep; third, to kill the lice and ticks.

1 From Farmers* Bulletin 573, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

SHEEP AND GOATS

617

The time for dipping depends upon the time of shearing. It is best
to dip five or six days after shearing. The ticks and lice leave the shorn
ewes and go to a more sheltered place on the bodies of the young lambs.
If one delays dipping for any length of time after shearing, the lambs will
suffer a great deal with these pests. A second dii)ping should take place
during the fall.

Any of the recommended coal tar dips may be used. In using these,
one should see that they have the approval of the Department of Agri-
culture and should follow the directions carefully.

A flock thus handled will afford the owner much pleasure and profit
for capital and labor invested. The earnings from sheep will compare
very favorably with those of any of our domestic animals.

GOATS

In this country, the Angora goat and the common goats give milk,
but milking families have not l)een produced.

The Angora goat yields a fleece which is valued highly on the market.
It is commercially known as mohair. It is coarser than fine wool, but
longer and stronger.

When sold on the market, goats bring a lower price than sheep. The
mutton from goats is not considered nearly as good as mutton from sheep.

Angora and common goats are found in almost every state in this
country . They seem to do well under a wide range of climatic conditions.
A dry climate, however, seems most favorable for them.

REFERENCES

''Sheep Farming." Craig and Marshall.
** Sheep Farming in America/' Wing.
'Productive Sheep Husbandry." Coffey.

Doane.
Thompson.

Sheep P'arming. Kleinheinz.
"Sheep Feeding and Farm Management."
''The \\'inter Lamb." Miller and Wing.
"Angora Goat Raising and Milch Goats."
Nebraska Expt. Station Bulletin 153. "Fattening Lambs."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Animal Industry, BuUetm 68.

Concerning the Milch Goat."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

573. "The Angora Goat."

676. "Breeds of Sheep for the Farm."

652. "The Sheep lulling Dog."

"Information

•I

PlM}t'

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

CHAPTER 50

The farm flock (Poultry)

By M. C. Kilpatrick
Instructor in Poultry Husbandry, Ohio State University

Improved methods of production and the establishment of large
specialized poultry farms have greatly increased the supply of poultry and
eggs during recent years. The demand for these products, however, has
been increasing even more rapidly than the supply. This increasing demand
is due both to the rapid increase of the consuming population and to a
growing preference for these products as food. The increase in the demand
for eggs is especially marked, due largely to the increased price of meats
and the fact that modern transportation facilities, storage warehouses and
improved methods of handling eggs have resulted in a better distribution of
the supply throughout the year and a higher standard of quality upon the

large city markets.

Importance of the Farm Flock.— The farm flocks of the country
furnish 90 and possibly 95 per cent of the total supply of poultry and eggs.
It is natural that the general farms should be the principal source of supply,
because poultry husbandry is essentially a livestock industry, and for this
reason, best adapted to development under farm conditions. The farm
provides those conditions which are essential to profitable poultry produc-
tion, viz., ample range and pasture at low cost, cheaper feeds, the oppor-
tunity to make use of waste materials and convert them into marketable
products, low labor cost, and of greatest importance, natural conditions
which tend to increase rather than to decrease the health and vigor of

the flock.

Unfortunately, the average farm flock falls far short of its productive
possibilities. This is due largely to the fact that fowls are kept on the farm
primarily for the purpose of supplying the home table with fresh meat and
eggs and have not been regarded as an important source of income. This
has resulted in flocks of small size and poor quality, inadequate equipment
and a general indifference toward poultry on the farm. The increasing
demand for poultry and eggs, and the general increase in the farm price
of these products have resulted in making the farm flock of good size and
quality, and properly equipped and handled, an important source of
income. In addition it performs its primary function in supplying poultry
and eggs for the home table.

The Size of the Farm Flock. — The size of the farm flock is an important
factor in determining whether poultry is to be a profitable farm enterprise

(618)

THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY) 619

or not. The optimum size of the flock for a particular farm depends upon
a number of conditions. These conditions are so variable that it is impos-
sible to set a definite standard which will be applicable to all farms. It is
evident, however, that the flock should number at least 100 fowls, and,
except under very favorable circumstances, should seldom exceed 500
fowls. As many fowls should be kept as possible without allowing the
poultry work to come in direct competition with more important farm enter-
prises. For the average farm, this will mean a flock of 300 to 500 fowls.
Sources of Income. — The principal sources of income from the farm
flock are poultry and eggs for market. The production of eggs for market
is the more important because of the relatively greater demand for them
and the greater convenience with which they may be produced and mar-

A Typical Farm Flock.

keted. It is impossible to separate the two and, under some conditions, the
production of market poultry may become the more important. Other
possible sources of income are the sale of eggs for hatching, fowls for breeding
purposes, day-old chicks, and the production and sale of pullets for egg
production. The relative impoi-tance of each of these sources of income and
the extent to which they may be combined will be determined by the
personality of the poultryman and the organization of the farm business.
Advantages of Pure-Bred Poultry. — A second factor of greater impor-
tance in determining the value of the farm flock is the quality of the fowls.
Pure-bred ])()ultry is superior to mongrel, cross-bred or grade fowls because
of greater reHability in breeding, more attractive appearance, ability to
feed more efficiently, greater uniformity in the size, shape and color of the
eggs, and greater uniformity in the appearance and condition of the
dressed fowls. The first cost of pure-bred fowls is greater than of inferior
stock, but no greater investment is needed. The best practice in starting

i'l'.

11 r
ii

W^-'^

THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY)

619

CHAPTER 50

The Farm Flock (Poultry)

By M. C. KiLPATiiicK
Instructor in Poultnj Husbandry, Ohio State University

Improved methods of production and the estabhshment of large
specialized poultry farms have greatly increased the supply of poultry and
eggs during recent years. The demand for these products, however, has
been increasing even more rapidly than the supply. This increasing demand
is due both to the rapid increase of the consuming population and to a
growing preference for these products as food. The increase in the demand
for eggs is especially marked, due largely to the increased price of meats
and the fact that modern transportation facilities, storage warehouses and
improved methods of handling eggs have resulted in a better distribution of
the supply throughout the year and a higher standard of quality upon the

large city markets.

Importance of the Farm Flock.— The farm flocks of the country
furnish 90 and possibly 95 per cent of the total supply of poultry and eggs.
It is natural that the general farms should be the principal source of supply,
because poultry husbandry is essentially a livestock industry, and for this
reason, l^est adapted to development imder farm conditions. The farm
provides those conditions which are essential to profitable poultry produc-
tion, viz., ample range and pasture at low cost, cheaper foods, the oppor-
tunity to make use of w^aste matei'ials and convert them into marketable
products, low labor cost, and of greatest importance, natural conditions
which tend to increase rather than to decrease the health and vigor of

the flock.

Unfortunately, the average farm flock falls far short of its productive
possibilities. This is due largely to the fact that fowls are kept on the farm
primarily for the purpose of supplying the home table with fi'osh moat and
eggs and have not been regarded as an important source of income. This
has resulted in flocks of small size and poor quality, inadequate ociuipmont
and a general indifference toward poultry on the farm. The increasing
demand for poultry and eggs, and the general increase in the farm price
of these products have resulted in making the farm flock of good size and
quality, and ]M'operly equii:)pod and handled, an important source of
income. In addition it performs its primary function in supplying poultry
and eggs for the home table.

The Size of the Farm Flock. — The size of the farm flock is an important
factor in determining whether poultry is to be a profitable farm enterprise

(618)

or not. The optimum size of the flock for a particular farm depends upon
a number of conditions. These conditions are so variable that it is impos-
sible to set a definite standard which will be applicable to all farms. It is
evident, however, that the flock should number at least 100 fowls, and,
except under very favorable circumstances, should seldom exceed 500
fowls. As many fowls should be kept as possible without allowing the
poultry work to come in direct competition with more imi)ortant farm enter-
prises. For the average farm, this will mean a flock of 300 to 500 fow^ls.
Sources of Income. — The principal sources of income from the farm
flock are ]:)Oultry and eggs for market. The production of eggs for market
is the more important because of the relatively greater demand for them
and the greater convenience with which they may be produced and mar-

A Typical Faum Floc k.

kotod. It is imi)()ssible to separate the two and, under some conditions, the
l)roduction of market poultry may become the more important. Other
l)ossible sources of income are the sale of eggs for hatching, fowls for breeding
purposes, day-old chicks, and the production and sale of pullets for egg
production. The relative importance of each of those sources of income and
the extent to which they may be combined will be dotormined by the
personality of the poultryman and the organization of the farm business.
Advantages of Pure-Bred Poultry. — A second factor of greater impor-
tance in dotcMiiiining the value of the farm flock is the quality of the fowls.
Puro-brod ])()ultry is superior to mongrel, cross-bred or grade fowls because
of grc^ater relia})ilily in breeding, more attractive ap])earance, a})ility to
feed more efficiently, greater uniformity in the size, shape and color of the
eggs, and greater uniformity in the appearance and condition of the
dressed fowls. The first cost of pure-bred fowls is greater than of inferior
stock, but no greater investment is needed. The best practice in starting

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

White Plymouth Rocks.*

Winners of First and Second Prize Exhibition Pens, Madison Square Garden, N. Y.,

December, 1911.

Buff Orpincjtons.i

First Prize Exhibition Pen, Madison Square Garden, N. Y., December 31, 1915-

January 5, 1916.

1 Courtesy of Owen Farms, Vineyard Haven, Ma^g., Maurice F.Delano, Proprietor.

(620)

THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY)

621

a flock of pure-bred fowls is to purchase a pen consisting of a male and four
to ten females. These should be housed apart from the main flock and all
of th^ good eggs laid during the breeding season should be incubated. Pure-
bred fowls of good quality may be purchased in the late summer or early
fall for $3 to $5 each for males and $2 to $4 each for females. Yearlings or
two-year-old stock should be bought. After the pure-bred flock has been
established, the many advantages of the pure-bred fowls are obtained
without additional cost.

Grading Up a Farm Flock. — While pure-bred poultry are always to be
preferred, it is possible to improve the quality of the average farm flock
by the use of a pure-bred male. If a pure-bred male of the desired variety
is mated with ten or twelve of the best hens on the farm, the offspring will
carry one-half the blood of their sire. If the male is a strong, prepotent
individual, a large percentage of the offspring wiU resemble him in many of
his characteristics. Ten or a dozen of the best pullets resulting from the
original mating should be selected and mated to their sire for the second
season. The offspring from this mating will carry 75 per cent of the blood
of the pure-bred male. For the third season, ten or a dozen of the best
of these pullets should be mated to another pure-bred male of the same
variety and of similar breeding. It is advisable to obtain the second male
from the same breeder as the first one. If the fowls used have been care-
fully selected, the offspring from this third mating will be practically as
uniform in size, shape and color as pure-bred fowls.

The Choice of a Variety. — The choice of a variety for the farm depends
upon the purpose for which poultry is kept and the type of product most
in demand in the best availa})le market. The efficiency of the various
varieties depends more upon the breeding and handling of the fowls than
upon breed or variety differences.

The most popular fowl for the production of white eggs is the Single
Comb White Leghorn. It is not a good market fowl, however, because
of its small size, nervous temperament, and greater loss in dressing. The
cockerels make good broilers at weights of IJ^ to IJ^ pounds, but do not
make good roasters or capons.

The Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds and Wyandottes are the
most satisfactory breeds for the production of both eggs and meat. The
solid-colored varieties of the Plymouth Rock and Wyandotte, particularly
the white and buff, are preferable on account of the absence of dark-
colored pin feathers. The Columbian varieties are rapidly increasing in
popularity. The most popular farm fowl in the past has been the Barred
Plymouth Rock. It is slowly being replaced by some of the newer vari-
eties. The three breeds mentioned are good layers, hardy, easily handled ;
the chicks grow rapidly, making them well adapted to the production of
broilers. They make superior, roasters and capons. Where the market
prefers brown eggs or will not pay a premium for white eggs, one of the
many varieties of these three breeds should be chosen.

;'iil

1 ^^

1. 1 'I

i'l'

y^mmm

White Plymouth Rocks. *

Winners of First and Second Prize Exhibition Pens, Madison Square Garden, N. Y.,

December, 1911.

Buff Ori'incjtons.*

First Prize Exhibition Pen. Madison Square Garden, N. Y., Docember 31, 1915-

January 5, 191G.

1 Courtesy of Owen Farms, Vmeyard Haven, M;i95?. , Maurice F. Delano, Proprietor,

(620)

THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY)

621

a flock of pun^-brod fowls is to purchase a pen consisting of a male and four
to ten females. These should be housed apart from the main flock and all
of the good eggs laid during the breeding season should be incubated. Pure-
bred fowls of good quality may l)e purchased in the late summer or early
fall for $3 to $5 each for males and $2 to $4 each for females. Y^earlings or
two-year-old stock should be bought. After the pure-bred flock has been
established, the many advantages of the pure-bred fowls are obtained
without additional cost.

Grading Up a Farm Flock. — While pure-bred poultry are always to l)e
preferred, it is possible to improve the quality of tlie average farm flock
by the use of a pure-bred male. If a pure-bred male of the desired variety
is mated with ten or twelve of the best hens on the farm, the offspring will
carry one-half the blood of their sire. If the male is a strong, prepotent
individual, a large percentage of the offspring will resemble him in many of
his characteristics. Ten or a dozen of the best pullets resulting from the
original mating should be selected and mated to their sire for the second
season. The offspring from this mating will carry 75 per cent of the blood
of the pure-bred male. For the third season, ten or a dozen of the best
of these pullets should be mated to another pure-bred male of the same
variety and of similar breeding. It is advisable to obtain the second male
from the same breeder as the first one. If the fowls used have been care-
fully selected, the offspring from this third mating will be practically as
uniform in size, shape and color as pure-bred fowls.

The Choice of a Variety. — The choice of a variety for the farm depends
upon the purpose for which ])oultry is kept and the type of product most
in demand in the best available market. The efficiency of the various
varieties depends more u])on tlie breeding and handling of the fowls than
upon breed or variety differences.

The most popular fowl for the production of white eggs is the Single
Comb White Leghorn. It is not a good market fowl, however, because
of its small size, nervous temperament, and greater loss in dressing. The
cockerels make good l)r()ilers at weights of 1)4 to 13^2 pounds, but do not
make good roasters or ca])ons.

The Plymouth Rocks, Rhode Island Reds and Wyandottes are the
most satisfactory breeds for the production of both eggs and meat. The
solid-colored varieties of the Plymouth Rock and Wyandotte, particularly
the white and buff, are preferable on account of the absence of dark-
colored pin feathers. The Columbian varieties are rapidly increasing in
popularity. The most popular farm fowl in the past has been the Barred
Plymouth Rock. It is slowly being replaced by some of the newer vari-
eties. The three !)reeds mentioned are good layers, hardy, easily handled;
the chicks grow rapidly, making them well adapted to the production of
broilers. They make superior, roasters and capons. Where the market
prefers brown eggs or will not pay a premium for white eggs, one of the
many varieties of these three breeds should be chosen.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY)

623

White Wyandottes.^
First Prize Pen, Chicago Show, December, 1912.

Single Comb Rhode Island Reds.*
First Prize Young Pen at Boston Show, January, 1915.

1 Courtesy of Owen Farms, Vineyard Haven, Mass., Maurice F. Delano, Proprietor,
(622)

Selection of the Breeding Stock. — It is seldom necessary and never
desirable to use all of the fowls on the farm for breeding. Special matings
are necessary each. season in order to make any definite improvement in
the quality of the flock. It is seldom necessary to use more than 20 per
cent of the entire flock for breeding. The fowls used for this purpose
should be the choicest on the farm. They should be strong, healthy and
vigorous, above the average in size for the variety, good layers and fully
matured. Hens are always preferable to pullets, because the eggs from
hens are larger, hatch better and produce larger and more vigorous chicks.
Strong, vigorous, early-hatched cockerels may be used, but yearling or
two-year-old cocks of proven breeding ability are to be preferred. Care
should be taken to avoid using for breeding purposes any fowl which has
had any sickness at any time, no matter how well it may appear to have
recovered.

Housing the Breeding Stock. — It is not necessary to house the breed-
ing flock separately during the entire year. The fowls to be used for
breeding should be separated from the main flock three or four weeks
before it is necessary to save eggs for hatching. They should be housed
in portable colony houses during the breeding season, and may be returned
to the main flock as soon as the last eggs needed for hatching are gathered.
The colony houses may then be used for the growing chicks or for some
other purpose.

INCUBATION

Selection of Eggs for Hatching. — Eggs for hatching should weigh not
less than two nor more than two and one-half ounces each. They should
be of a medium type, neither very long and pointed nor very short and
rounded. The shells should be clean, smooth and strong, free from ridges,
cracks, transparent spots or lime deposits. The eggs selected should be
as uniform in color as possible. Dead chalk-white or uniform brown eggs
are to be preferred. Careful selection of the eggs to be incubated will aid
greatly in improving the general quality of the eggs produced by the flock.

Care of Eggs for Hatching. — Eggs for hatching should be gathered
frequently, two or three times daily, and immediately removed to a clean,
dry place where the temperature is less than 68° F. A temperature of
50° to 60° F. is l)est. Eggs for hatching should not be held longer than
two weeks, as there is a rapid loss of vitality after that time. They should
not be washed. Eggs hatch better if they are turned once daily from the
time they are laid until set.

Natural or Artificial Incubation. — Whether hens or incubators should
be used depends upon local conditions. If chicks are wanted before
April 1st, or if non-setting varieties are kept, or if more than 150 chicks are
to b(» reared each season, incubators should be used. There is no apparent
difference between the vigor and vitality of hen-hatched and incubator-
hatched chicks.

Hatching with Hens. — Hens of medium weight, from five to seven

"i:|

•^!l

THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY)

623

White Wyandottes.*
First Prize Pen, Chicago Show, December, 1912.

Single Comb Rhode Island Reds.*
First Prize Young Pen at Boston Show, January, 1915.

» Courtesy of Owen Farms, Vineyard Haven, Mass., Maurice F. Delano, Proprietor.
(622)

Selection of the Breeding Stock. — It is seldom necessary and never
desirable to use all of the fowls on the farm for breeding. Special matings
are necessary each. season in order to make any definite improvement in
the quality of the flock. It is seldom necessary to use more than 20 per
cent of the entire flock for breeding. The fowls used for this purpose
should be the choicest on the farm. They should l)e strong, healthy and
vigorous, above the average in size for the variety, good layers and fully
matured. Hens are always preferable to pullets, because the eggs from
hens are larger, hatch better and produce larger and more vigorous chicks.
Strong, vigorous, early-liatched cockerels may ])e used, but yearling or
two-year-old cocks of proven breeding al^ility are to be preferred. Care
should be taken to avoid using for breeding purposes any fowl which has
had any sickness at any time, no matter how well it may appear to have
recovered.

Housing the Breeding Stock. — It is not necessary- to house the })reed-
ing flock separately during the entire year. The fowls to be used for
breeding should be separated from the main flock three or four weeks
before it is necessary to save eggs for hatching. They should be housed
in portable colony houses during the breeding season, and may be returned
to the main flock as soon as the last eggs needed for hatching are gathered.
The colony houses may then be used for the growing chicks or for some
other purpose.

INCUBATION

Selection of Eggs for Hatching. — Eggs for hatching should weigh not
less than two nor more than two and one-half ounces each. They should
be of a medium type, neither very long and pointed nor very short and
rounded. The shells should be clean, smooth and strong, free from ridges,
cracks, transparent spots or lime de])osits. The eggs selected should be
as uniform in color as possible. Dead chalk-white or uniform brown eggs
are to ])e preferred. Careful selection of the eggs to be incu})ated will aid
greatly in im])roving the general quality of tlie eggs produced by the flock.

Care of Eggs for Hatching. — Eggs for hatching should be gathered
frequently, two or three times daily, and immediately removed to a clean,
dry place where the t(Mn])erature is less tlian ()8° F. A temperature of
50° to 60° F. is best. Eggs for hatching should not be held longer than
two weeks, as Www is a ra])i(l loss of vitality after that time. They should
not be washed. Eggs hatch better if they are turned once daily from the
time they are laid until set.

Natural or Artificial Incubation. — Whetlier hens or incubators should
be used (le])en(ls upon local conditions. If chicks are wanted before
April 1st, or if non-setting varieties are kept, or if more than 150 chicks are
to be reared each season, incubators should l)e used. There is no apparent
difference between the vigor and vitality of hen-hatched and incubator-
hatched chicks.

Hatching with Hens. — Hens of medium weight, from five to seven

1^ !':

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

?i$«ae.~i» ';...■;;

624

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

pounds, and of quiet disposition should be selected. They should be
kept where they will be comfortable, easily controlled and free from
annoyance by other fowls. A small brood coop is advisable for each hen
during warm weather. These coops may be placed in a cool, shady location
and the nest made upon the ground, a bottomless box about five inches high
being used to confine the nesting material. During cool weather, a com-
fortable room should be provided. The nests used should be approximately
14 inches square. They should be constructed so that each hen may be
confined to her own nest. In this way a number of hens may be set in
the same room, all being released for food and water at the same time.
It is necessary to see that each hen returns to her nest as soon as through
feeding. Several hens should be set at the same time. This will save
labor and allow the chicks hatched by two or three hens to be given to
one for brooding. Hens should be removed from their regular nests to
the nests in which they are to be set after dark. If handled quietly and
given a few decoy eggs they may usually be moved without difficulty.
The hen should be allowed to become accustomed to her new surroundings
before setting her. This usually requires two to three days.

Setting hens must be kept free from lice and mites. The nest box
and the walls of the coop or room should be painted or sprayed with a
good lice killer a few days before the hens are set. The hen should be
well dusted with a good insect powder two or three days before the eggs
are placed under her and again two or three days before the chicks hatch.

The feed for setting hens should consist of hard grains. No wet or
dry mashes should be given. A constant supply of fresh water, grit and
shell should be provided.

One hen should not be given more than twelve eggs during cold
weather or more than fifteen during warm weather.

Should any eggs become broken in the nest, the nesting material
should be renewed and all badly soiled eggs washed in water at a tem-
perature of 90° F.

Hatching with Incubators.— There should be no difficulty in hatching
chicks with incubators if a good machine and good eggs are used. Different
types of incubators require different care. Each manufacturer has com-
piled a set of directions for the operation of his incubator under average
conditions. These directions should be carefully followed and an exact
record kept of the operation of the machine throughout the hatch. If
results are not satisfactory-, variations should be made in the operation
of the incubator during the following hatch as the judgment of the operator
indicates. Poor hatches are more often due to poor eggs than to any
failure on the part of the incubator.

BROODING

Importance of the Brooder.— The greater part of the mortality among
young chicks occurs during the first four to six weeks. The losses during

THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY)

625

this period are very great, careful observers placing the total mortality
as high as 40 to 50 per cent of all chicks hatched. The greater part of
this loss is due directly or indirectly to poor brooding. In order to reduce
the mortality among chicks to a minimum, good brooders must be
used.

Qualifications of a Good Brooder. — ^A good brooder for farm use should
be capable of maintaining a temperature of 90° to 100° F. under the hover
and a temperature of 70° to 85° F. outside of the hover. The chicks should
be allowed to choose the temperature in which they are most comfortable,
and should not be com-
pelled to submit to any
given temperature.

The brooder must
be well ventilated, pro-
viding an abundant sup-
ply of pure, fresh air
without drafts striking
the chicks. Fresh air is
as essential for growing
chicks as good food and
water. A two-compart-
ment brooder is advis-
able, as it permits of
feeding the young chicks
in fairly cool, fresh air
and they are not re-
quired to pass directly
from the warm hover
into the outside atmos-
phere.

The brooder for
farm use should be por-
table. Chickens should
not be reared on the

same ground year after year. The most satisfactory results will be
obtained by rearing them in the orchard, in the cornfield after the last
cultivation, or on the hay and grain fields after the crops are harvested,
moving the brooders from place to place frequently. If handled in this
manner, the chicks will make use of a large amount of waste material and
will be more healthy and vigorous and make more rapid growth than
if confined to small yards.

The brooder should be usable for some puipose during the entire
year. Any brooder which can be used only for brooding chickens is
unsatisfactory for farm use. It should be capable of housing the chicks

* Courtesy of Prairie State Incubator Company , Homer City, Pa.
40

A Brooder Heated by Oil Lamp.^

626

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

from the time they are hatched until fully matured, and should be readily
convertible into a breeding house or fattening pen.

The brooding device which best meets these requirements is a portable
colony house 6 by 8 feet to 8 by 15 feet in size, equipped with portable
hovers, gasoline brooder heater or a coal-burning brooder stove.

Management of the Brooder. — During the first two weeks a tem-
perature above 90° and below 100° F. should be maintained two inches
above the floor in the warmest part of the brooder, that is, beneath the
hover. After the second week the temperature should be gradually
reduced, the exact temperature to be maintained being determined from
the actions of the chicks. If the temperature is right, the chicks when
at rest will be spread out around the outer edge of the hover. Any evidence
of crowding is an indication of a lack of heat. If the temperature under
the hover is kept a degree or two higher than the chicks actually need,
there will l)e very little crowding.

The brooder must be kept absolutely clean at all times. The floor
should be covered to a depth of several inches with clean, dry litter, such
as short-cut clover, alfalfa, straw or chaff. The litter should be removed
whenever it l)ecomes damp, dusty or soiled.

Ration for Chicks. — A good ration for chicks consists of a grain mix-
ture of 30 pounds finely cracked corn, 20 pounds cracked wheat and
10 pounds pin-head or cracked hulled oats. With this should be fed a
mash consisting of 30 pounds wheat bran, 30 pounds wheat middlings,
30 pounds corn meal, 20 pounds fine beef scrap or granulated milk and
10 pounds of bone meal. This ration should be supplemented by a liberal
supply of succulent food such as alfalfa, clover, sprouted oats or beets.
Fine grit, finely crushed oyster shell, charcoal and clean fresh water should
be before the cliicks at all times. If skim milk is available, the chicks
should have all they will consume.

The grain should be scattered in the litter on the floor of the brooder
in order to induce the chicks to exercise. Grain should be fed early in
in the morning, at noon and later in the afternoon. As much should be
fed as the chicks will clean up from one feeding time to the next. If any
considerable amount remains in the litter, a feed should be omitted and
the amount reduced. No definite information can be given as to the
exact amount to feed, as the needs of the chicks vary from day to day.
The poultryman must study the appetite and actions of the flock in order
to feed intelligently.

The mash should be fed dry. Shallow pans may be used for feeding
the mash while the chicks are small. Small feeding hoppers should be
used as soon as the chicks are large enough to feed from them. Chicks
should never be without the dr^' mash.

This method of feeding should be continued until the chicks are large
enough to do without artificial heating or are weaned from the hen, with
the exception that the cracked wheat should be gradually replaced by

THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY)

627

whole wheat, and the finely cracked corn by the coarse cracked corn,
when the chicks are six to eight weeks old. After the chicks have free
range, the grain mixture may be changed to equal parts of cracked corn
and whole wheat. The same dry mash should be continued until the
chicks are mature. The grain may also te fed in hoppers after this time.

The Care of Growing Chicks. — The age at which chicks may be
deprived of artificial heat will depend upon weather conditions and the
condition of the chicks. This should not be done until all danger of sudden
changes in temperature is past and the chicks are well feathered out.
During the brooding period the brooders may be kept close to the farm-
stead and small, portable runs provided for the chicks. As the chicks
increase in size, the brooder should be moved farther away and the size
of the yards increased. As soon as the chicks no longer require artificial
heat they should be given free range. They must have plenty of shade,
abundant pasture, be kept free from lice and mites and protected from
their natural enemies. The brooder should be proof against rats, weasels,
etc., and should be closed every night. The chicks should be confined to
the house in the morning until the grass is well dried off. This practice
should be followed at least until they are half grown. The cockerels should
be separated from the pullets as soon as the sex can be determined. It is
advisable to caponize all males except a few of the most i)romising to be
reserved for breeding purposes. The pullets will be hindered in their
development if the cockerels are allowed to remain with them. The
cockerels, if not caponized, should be put together in a separate field or
on another part of the farm.

The Care of the Pullets.— The pullets should be transferred from
the colony house on the range to their permanent winter quarters as soon
after.the first of September as possible. . This will give them an opportunity
to become accustomed to their new surroundings before cold weather sets
in. Careful attention must be given the pullets at this time. There is
usually a tendency for them to crowd on the roosts at night or to roost
above the open doors and windows. This should be prevented, as it may
result in colds which will hinder egg production. The bulk of the eggs
received from October 1st to March 1st are produced by the pullets.

Feeding Mature Fowls. — The principal object in feeding should be
to use the poultry on the farm for the purpose of converting grains, naill
by-products and waste materials not suitable for human consumption
in their raw state into concentrated, easily handled, nutritious food
products. For this reason the farmer should make use of grains grown
on his own farm and of mill products which are easily obtained at com-
paratively low prices, supplementing them with the necessary protein
concentrates.

Suitable rations may be made from a great many combinations of
grains and mill feeds. There is no one combination which is superior to
all others under all conditions. For this reason it is possible for the farmer

628

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

to adjust any suggested ration to meet his own conditions without seriously
impairing its efficiency.

The ration should contain in proper proportions the various food
elements required by the fowl. It should be easily digested and assimilated,
palatable, economical, suitable for its intended purpose, easily obtained,
easily handled and conveniently fed. It should be a two-part ration
consisting of a grain mixture of scratch feed and a mash. It is not possible
to obtain a maximum of production with either grain or mash alone.
They should be fed in combination with grain constituting approximately
two-thirds of the ration.

The following ration and method of feeding is particularly adapted
to farm conditions. The ration as given is based on feeds at normal
prices and may be varied with a variation in the price of any feed. The
grain mixture consists of 200 pounds corn, preferably cracked, 200 pounds
wheat, and 100 pounds heavy oats. If buckwheat is available, 100 pounds
may be added during cold weather. The mash consists of 200 pounds
corn meal, 100 pounds wheat bran, 100 pounds wheat middlings and
100 pounds of beef scrap containing not less than 55 per cent protein.

The grain should be fed by hand, being scattered in clean litter six
to twelve inches deep. The grain should be fed at least twice daily, prefer-
ably early in the morning and late in the afternoon. If it is necessary
to keep the fowls confined to the house, it is advisable to give additional
light feeds in the middle of the forenoon and in the middle of the afternoon
in order to keep the fowls busy.

The amount to be fed will vary with the variety, the weather condi-
tions, the egg production and various other factors. It should be deter-
mined by the actions and appetites of the fowls. They should be well
fed. Endeavor should be made to regulate the feeding so that they will
consume approximately twice as much grain as mash. Fowls of medium
size when in full lay will consume from 2 to 2}/^ ounces of grain daily.

The mash should be fed dry. Self-feeding hoppers should be used.
For Leghorns and similar varieties and for pullets of the dual purpose
varieties, such as Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, etc., the hopper should
be open during the entire day. For yearlings and older hens of the dual
purpose varieties, the hopper should be opened at noon and closed when
the evening feed is given.

This ration should be supplemented by a constant supply of clean,
fresh water, grit and oyster shell. Sour skim milk should be fed as a
drink if it is available, allowing the fowls to consume all they will. Succu-
lent feed of some sort is necessary. During the late fall and winter,
mangels, sprouted oats, unsalable cabbage, beets, apples, potatoes,
steamed clover or alfalfa, or any other succulent food available may be
used. The yards should furnish all the green feed required during the
spring and summer.

The Care of Market Eggs. — The quality of market eggs is determined

THE FARM FLOCK (POULTRY)

629

by their size, shape, appearance and freshness or interior quality. All of
these factors may be controlled by the poultryman to a considerable
degree through breeding and the care with which the eggs are handled.
Improvement of* the quality of the eggs produced is fully as important
from a financial point of view as increased production. If the following
suggestions are observed, there should be no difficulty in producing eggs of a
quality that will meet the requirements of the best grades in any market.

Breed only from hens which lay eggs of the desired size, shape and
color.

Provide for at least one clean, convenient, well-ventilated nest for
every four or five hens in the flock.

Renew the nesting material whenever it becomes damp, dusty or
soiled. Planer shav-
ings make excellent
material for nests, but
soft hay and clean
straw may be used.

Gather eggs at
least twice daily and
more often if conve-
nient. This is par-
ticularly important
during cold weather
to avoid freezing, and
during warm weather
to avoid the develop-
ment of the embryo
and to retard evap-
oration.

From the time
eggs are gathered until marketed, keep them in a clean, cool, dry place.
Fertile eggs will begin to develop at any temperature over 68° F.

Do not put eggs into a box, basket, carton or case until all the animal
heat has escaped. When gathered, place them on a wire tray similar
to an incubator tray for ten to twelve hours and then grade and pack
them in standard cartons or cases.

Market eggs at least once weekly and more often if possi})le. Nothing
is ever gained by holding eggs for a rise in price. The egg is a perishable
food product and should be marketed as soon as possible in order to avoid
deterioration and loss.

Market eggs in standard egg packages. The standard thirty-dozen
egg case is preferred. If production is not great enough to enable a case
or two of graded eggs to be shipped weekly, use the smaller, returnable
cases which may be secured from any dealer in poultry supplies.

» Courtesy of Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station, Mt. Grove, Mo.

Shipping Cases for Eggs.^

630

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

When eggs are being transported from the farm to the market or
shipping point, they should be protected from the rays of the sun.

Do not wash eggs. The washing of eggs greatly impairs their keeping
qualities and spoils their appearance. Market eggs should never be allowed
to become wet. Moisture dissolves the protective bloom or covering of
the shell, opens the pores and allows bacteria and moulds to enter. Avoid
the necessity for washing by providing sufficient nests and keeping the
house and yards clean.

Remove all males from the flock as soon as the hatching season is
over and keep them away from the hens during the warm weather. The
male has no influence on the number of eggs produced. His only function
and use on the farm is to fertiUze the eggs to be used for hatching. Fertile
eggs spoil very quickly during warm weather. Approximately 18 per cent
of all eggs produced upon farms become unfit for food before reaching
the consumer. At least half of this loss could be avoided if only infertile
eggs were produced.

REFERENCES

''Productive Poultry Husbandry." Lewis.

''Turkeys." Reliable Poultry Journal Co.

''Principles and Practices of Poultry Culture." Robinson.

"How to Keep Hens for Profit." Valentine.

"The Beginner in Poultry." Valentine.

"Farm Poultry." Watson.

"Riices of Domestic Poultry." Brown.

"Poultry Production." Lippincott.

"Poultry Breeding." Purvis.

"Our Domestic Birds." Robinson.

North Carolina Expt. Station Bulletin 233. "Common Diseases of Poultry."

Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 284. "Rations for Roosters and Capons."

Purdue Expt. Station Bulletin 182. "Poultry Investigations."

West Virginia Expt. Station Bulletin 102.

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins:

189. "FarmPoultrv."

193. "Tuberculosis in Fowls."

217. "Farm Poultry."
Fiirmcrs' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

309. "Incubation of Eggs;" "Causes of Young Chicks' Death:" "Snow for
Chicks."

317. "Water Pans and Catching Hook for Poultry."

357. "Methods of Poultry Management at Maine Station."

452. "Capons and Caponizing."

528. " Hints to Poultry Raisers."

530. "Important Poultry Diseases."

585. "Natural and Artificial Incubation of Hen's Eggs."

624, "Natural and Artificial Brooding of Chicks."

656. "The Community Egg Circle."

682. "A Simple Trap Nest for Poultry."

CHAPTER 51

Bees

Many farmers are unaware of the great service rendered them by the
honey bee; especially in horticulture and vegetable raising is he a necessary
asset. Estimates from reliable data show that bees in the United States
produce $25,000,000 worth of honey and beeswax annually. Their value
as agents in the pollinization of fruits and vegetables is many times their
worth as producers. Many small fruits are entirely dependent upon
insect visitors for fertilization. Cucumbers, squash, melons and tomatoes
are also dependent upon the bees for the production of fruit. j^Pear trees
especially need the bees for cross-pollinization.

Aside from the service rendered as pollinators, bees, if properly
handled, make a most profitable side line in the business of farming.
While they need intelligent care, and care at the proper time, yet much of
this can be given at odd hours and at times when the regular farm work
is not pressing. Even the time of swarming can be anticipated and to some
extent regulated.

Bee keeping furnishes a most pleasant recreation and one that pays
its own way as well as produces a profit. There is so much of marvel in
the economy of the honey bee that the most casual observer becomes an
enthusiast.

One disadvantage may be mentioned, however. Many orchard and
garden diseases are easily spread by means of spores carried by insects.
The bee plays no small part in the distribution of plant contagion. Pear-
tree blight, the brown rot of plums and the wilt of cucumbers and melons
are diseases spread through the agency of bees and other insects. The
danger of infection may be reduced to the minimum ])y exterminating all
diseased plants and trees; thus giving the bees no opportunity to carry
contagion.

Breeds of Bees. — The German bee is the most common in the United
States. Although not very attractive in color, being })lack, they winter
well and make whiter honey combs than any other race. At times they are
inclined to be cross and frequently use their stings. They are not easily
handled by the novice.

The Cyprian bees are handsome, being yellow in color, but have not
come into wide popularity on account of their extreme sensitiveness.
When once aroused, they will not even be subdued by smoke.

The Carolina bee is one of the most gentle of all bees. It is gray in
color and very prolific. The chief objection to this bee is its ever-ready
tendency to swarm.

(631)

I- ■;

I, I

632

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The Caucasian bee has only recently been introduced into this country
and has not yet established wide popularity. It is prolific and so gentle
that some report it to be without sting. This, however, is not the case.

The Italian bee is the most satisfactory and profitable. It is more
gentle than either the German or Cyprian, and quite prolific. It is hand-
some in color, having yellow bands, and is an energetic worker in gathering
honey. It is also most active in defence of its home against marauders.
In order to winter well, the Italian bee must be well protected.

Personnel and Activity of Colony. — A bee colony consists ordinarily
of one queen bee, who is the mother of the colony, and a multitude of
females (sexually undeveloped), who carry on the work of the hive. The

A — Worker.

The Honey Bee.^
B — Queen. C — Drone. Twice natural size.

BEES

633

queen bee lays all the eggs. The female workers lay no eggs at all. It is
their duty to gather honey, feed the young, keep the hive clean; in fact,
perform all the labors of the hive.

During some parts of the year, hundreds of males, commonly called
drones, live in the colony. These perform no labor. Their mission is to
mate with the young queens. Their number should be restricted by the

keeper.

The bee hive permits of no idlers after the young queens are mated.
The drones are then destroyed by the workers. Even the queen bee is
killed or superseded by a younger queen as soon as she lays no more eggs.
In fact, any individual in the colony who ceases to be useful is immediately
put to death or thrown out to perish.

The length of life of any bee depends much upon the time of year and
amount of labor performed. In summer, which is the working season, a
worker bee will live about 45 days. During the winter months, while

' Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin 447.

dormant, time of life will extend from 6 to 8 months. It is, therefore,
necessary to maintain a strong, prolific queen in order to repopulate the

colony.

Size and Location of Apiary. — Authorities agree that for the most
intensive bee culture, 100 colonies are all that can be managed with profit.

The beginner will do well to start with a colony or two and gradually
build up as he becomes more familiar with the work. A year or two will
prove his success or failure. While the necessary initial capital is small,

-*»■•*• '■; .•• »••

General View of an Apiary.*

still a plunge into the bee business without previous experience and a
thorough knowledge of bee habits is very apt to end in disaster.

The ideal location for an apiary is in an orchard or near fields where
bloom is plenty; although colonies have been successfully maintained in
city back yards and even on housetops. ^

Although bees travel a distance of two miles in search of nectar, it is
best to provide for it nearer home. The time wasted in transit is negative,
as the bee flies very rapidly; but if far from home, sudden rain or wind
storms bewilder the bees and cause loss of life. In rainy or cold weather,
bees do not travel far from the hive. Should the nectar be far afield, con-
tinued unfavorable weather necessarily decreases their activity.

.The hives should be placed a few feet apart so that in working with

^Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin 447.

h' il

1 1

* 111

5 <

634

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

one, the adjacent hive is not disturbed. They should be far enough away
from roads or walks so as not to annoy passersby.

In the North, hives should be placed on a sunny slope, facing away
from the prevailing winds. Some shade is desirable, but the hives should

be so placed as to catch the
morning sun. This encourages
bee activity early in the day,
thus gathering the best of the
nectar.

The colony must be located
in a dry place and kept free from
weeds, each hive being raised a
few inches from the ground by
means of a stand. These stands
may be of wood, stone or con-
crete, and serve to keep the
hive dry.

Shade and Ventilation. — A
reasonable amount of shade is
beneficial, although dense shading
of the apiary is disastrous. It
promotes dampness and encour-
ages disease. If a natural shade
is not possible, a temporary
shade of boards or canvas should
be used during the heated por-
tions of the day. Newly swarmed
hives should be kept well shaded
and cool. Temperature influ-
ences the swarming habit; a
colony subjected to the burning
rays of the sun will swarm much
sooner than one well shaded.

Roomy, well-ventilated hives
are necessary for comfort and
health. During warm weather,
ventilation is improved by
raising the front of the hive
two or three inches by supporting it upon small blocks of wood. Care
must be taken, however, to lower the hive in case of a change in
temperature. Most authorities do not approve of opening the upper
part of the hive. It is apt to cause a draft through the hive, and also
encourage robber bees. A wide entrance at the bottom is much preferred
for ventilation purposes.

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin 503.

A Modern Bee Hive.^

BEES

685

Stocking the Apiary. — Bees may be secured more easily at swarming
time and the colonies are apt to be stronger at that time. Usually the
purchaser provides a hive into which the apiarist puts the new swarm.
This may be moved at night and, if taken a distance of a mile or more,
there is no danger of the bees returning. A good strong colon}- purchased
at this time will yield a second swarm if the season is favorable.

Introducing a New Queen. — The prosperity of the colony depends
much upon the strength of the queen. Bees from a strong queen winter
better than those from a weak one, and are more prolific in spring. If the
queen becomes weakened, it is best not to wait until the workers destroy
her, but to make away with her and introduce a new one at once. Queens
may be purchased from any dealer in bee-queens. They are sent through
the mail in a small cage, accompanied l)y a few workers.

Many methods of introducing a new queen are used, but if the queen
is a valuable one, it is best to use a perfectly safe method. Remove the
old queen in the evening. In the morning lay the cage containing the
new queen and attendants, wire side down, on the frames under the quilt.
Close the hive and leave it alone. In a short time the bees will have
eaten their way into the cage and released the queen. The wait over
night is necessary on account of the excited condition of the bees when
their queen is removed. This excitement might cause them to destroy
the new queen. Queens introduced in this manner are generally at work
in two or three days laying eggs.

Some introduce by first blowing tobacco smoke down the hive to
drive the bees down, then release the queen and allow her to run down
between the combs, blowing a little smoke after her. This not only obscures
all strange odors about the queen, but stupefies the bees.

Introducing a queen makes the opportunity to change breeds of
bees, as the new queen is usually mated when purchased. Queens are
sold under one of three labels: tested queens that are mated with a
drone whose race is known; untested queens mated with an unknown
drone; and breeding queens, those that have shown superiority for breed-
ing purposes before leaving their home. The bees in the colony have no
influence on the progeny of the new queen already mated. By the time
the new brood hatches out, the old ones begin to die, and soon the race
is changed.

Uniting and Transferring Colonies. — It often becomes advisable to
unite two weak colonies, making one strong one. Some fundamental
facts about bees must be understood in order to make this a success.
Every colony has a distinct odor and resents bees from other colonies.
It is necessary, therefore, to obscure this odor by using smoke. Smoke
also stupefies the bees and renders them more docile. Both colonies
should be smoked, but care should be taken not to use too much smoke,
or the bees will be completely overcome. One queen should be destroyed;
the one saved should be caged for a day or so to prevent the bees killing

III

636

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

her. At swarming time when the bees are full of honey, it is a simple
matter to unite colonies. If the two colonies are not near each other,
one should be moved nearer the other, a few feet each day, that the bees
may not notice the changed location. When side by side the change can
be made without difficulty.

Transferring a colony from a box hive to one with movable frames
often becomes necessary. This should be done during the honey season
and while the larger number of bees are in the field. The two hives should
be adjacent. The new hive should contain combs or sheets of foundations.
Turn the box hive upside down and fit over it a small empty box, inverted.
Then drum on the hive until most of the bees desert their combs and go
into the empty box above. These may be carried to the new hive and
put at the entrance. Care must be taken to secure the queen, as the
bees will not remain without her. If there is brood in the old hive, turn
it right side up again and after twenty-one days this will be hatched out.
These bees may then be gathered in the same manner and, by smoking
both colonies, reunited in the new hive.

General Methods of Handling. — Certain general rules will apply
at all times in handling bees.

Hives should never be jarred or disturbed more than necessary.
Rapid movements should be avoided. Bees have a peculiar eye structure
which enables them to see movements more readily than objects. Quick
movements irritate them, causing them to sting. Stings are not only
painful, but the odor of the poison irritates the other bees, thus making
them difficult to manage. The novice should wear a veil over a broad hat,
and use a good smoker. A few puffs are sufficient to subdue the bees.
Gloves generally prove a nuisance, but rubber bands on the arms prevent
the bees crawling up inside the sleeves. Black clothing is particularly
objectionable to bees. Do not handle bees at night or on cold, wet days,
unless a})solutely necessary. The middle of the day, particularly during
the honey season, is the best time to manipulate bees. Always stand to
the side or back of the hive, never in front of the entrance. In handling
frames, care should be taken not to let the bees drop off on to the ground.

Swarming. — Swarming is the exit of the original queen with part
of her w^orkers to seek a new home. In this manner, new colonies are
formed. An abundant supply of honey and a crowded condition of the
hive are the immediate causes of swarming. Swarming may occur in
May, but is more apt to occur during July and August, or when the honey
flow is at its best.

The only outward indication preceding swarming is a partial cessation
of field work and the loafing of many bees about the entrance, as if waiting
for some signal. Suddenly the bees all rush forth, accompanied by the
old queen, and after circling about for a time, cluster on a nearby limb.
This is the critical time for the bee keeper. If he has made no previous
preparation to house his departing swarm, he may lose them altogether.

BEES

637

iSr\

A wise keeper will have clean hives in readiness. These should be
kept in a shady place, so as to be cool as possible for the incoming swarm.
Newlj' swarmed colonies will not remain in overheated hives. For this
reason the hive should be kept well shaded and well ventilated for several
days after the swarm goes into it. Some recommend giving a frame of
brood to the newcomers, as bees are less apt to desert this.

Bees rarely fail to cluster after swarming. If they light on a limb
that can be spared, it may be sawed off and the bees carried to the new
hive. If this is not practical, the bees may be shaken off into a basket
or box and taken to the hive. A box with a long handle is useful for swarms
on high limbs. It is not necessary to secure all the bees. If the queen
is hived the rest will follow. If she is not hived,
however, the bees will leave the hive and join
the cluster again. Bees are usually peaceful at
swarming time, having filled themselves with
honey before starting out. A little smoke blown
uito the cluster usually subdues them.

Great care must be used in handling the bees
that none be crushed. The odor from a crushed
bee excites the living bees and makes them diffi-
cult to handle.

Soon after hiving the bees resume their
normal duties. The queen begins to lay eggs
and the workers store honey in anticipation of
the new brood. Extra frames should now be
placed for the storage of honey. If there were
incomplete supers on the parent hive, these
should be lifted over on the new hive.

The departing swarm leaves behind several
queen cells which will hatch in a few days. All
but one of these will be destroyed by the workers.
Two or three days after the remaining queen bee has been fertilized she
begins to lay eggs and the colony resumes its normal routine.

How to I^event Swarming. — A reasonal)le amount of swarming is
desirable, as in this manner new colonies are started. However, much
swarming weakens the colonies. Weak colonies do not store an abundance
of honey or winter well. Neither do they resist moths and disease. An
overcrowded colony is the most common cause of swarming. As a pre-
ventive, plenty of room should be kept in the hive by removing the
honey supply often and furnishing extra supers. The hives should be
kept well shaded and ventilated.

One queen to a colony is the rule. Too many queens cause swarming.
If the queen cells are carefully watched and cut out, the number can be
regulated. The queen cells are readily recognized by the keeper, as they

* Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Farmers* BuUetin 447.

Queen Cells. ^

I I

i(<

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

638

are larger than any other cells. They arT^^on the outside and ha^^^
vertically on the comb, having much the shape of a peanut. The supply
of queens should not be entirely cut off, however, as a vigorous colony
needs requeening at least once m two years.

Artificial swarming is sometimes resorted to by dividing an over-
crowded colony and furnishing a new queen to the queenless portion
Thi^ process is expedient, however, only after indications ot swarming
are observed. Otherwise, the bees may swarm naturally later on.

Clipping the queen's wings to prevent her flying is sometimes resorted
to to pSient swarming. In this event, she will be found near the hive
when the swarm issues and can be recaptured and put into a new hive. The
parent colony should be removed and the new hive put m its Place Ihe
rrming bees will then enter the new hive. The bees afield at the time
of swarining will also return to the new hive, thus f^^f^^^'^^^^^^
colony and reUeving the congestion of the parent colony. The same
shifting of hives should take place in event of a natural swarming.

Wintering of Bees.-Queens sho^ving lack of vitality as winter
approaches should be replaced, in order that the colony may begin the
inactive period with young and vigorous bees. Cellar wintering is not
advisable unless under the direction of an experienced bee keeper. The
dangers from moths, sweat and other bee troubles make the practice
doubtful. A dry, well-ventilated cellar with an even temperature is

imperative. . ., , i :„„ ;c

Throughout the South, where the winters are mild, no packing is
needed for outside wintering. The entrance should be closed enough
however, to keep out cold drafts and prevent the entrance of mice and
other enemies. Enough space must be left for the passage of the bees.
In the North the hives must be well packed to retain the heat gener-
ated by the bees. Heavy building paper tacked around the hive, leaving
the entrance open, makes a good ^vinter protection for bees. A piece ot
burlap, tacked over the front of the hive and hanging over the entrance,
makes a good shield from snow and wind. This may be lifted on fair days
to permit the passage of the bees. Dark wrapping paper should be avoided,
as it absorbs the rays of the sun. This creates a rise in temperature within
the hive, resulting in too much bee activity. Dampness is more fatal
than cold to bees. It is advisable to place burlap or other absorbent
material on top of the frames to absorb the dampness which otherwise
might condense and (himi)en the cluster of bees.

Bee Feeding.— A colony of bees should cuter the winter with from
25 to 40 pounds of honey stored for food. The quantity depends upon
the leiig-th and severity of the winter. .. ^. u

Fall and spring feeding is often resorted to in order to continue activity
in the colony late in the season and stimulate it early in the spring. Honey
from unknown sources should not be fed, on account of introducing
disease Syrup made from granulated sugar makes a satisfactory food.

BEES

639

A small pan filled with shavings or excelsior saturated with the syrup
may be placed on top of the frames.

Hives. — There are many good hives on the market, but the one most
widely used is the Langstroth hive. Unless one is skilled in making hives,
it is best to purchase them ready-made. All hives in the apiary should
be of the same style and size, so that the frames are interchangeable.

Foimdation Combs. — Foundation com})s should be furnished either
as starters or as entire sheets. The finished product will then be beauti-
fully uniform. If the bees are left to furnish their own wax, much time
is consumed and the resulting comb is irregular. Full sheets of foundation
produce the finest quality of comb. When one super is half full or more,
it should be raised and an empty one put under it. Care must be taken
not to furnish too many sections at once or some will be left unfinished.

Handling and Marketing. — In handling the honey combs, care must
be taken to keep the frames in a perpendicular position. If placed on
their sides, the combs will be broken. The same caution applies in packing
for market or in handling foundation or brood frames.

Honey should not be stored in a cool, damp cellar, but kept in a warm,
dry room. Honey taints easily and care must be taken to use as httle
smoke as possible in the hives in handling the bees.

The home market is the best for the small honey producer. The
product deteriorates rapidly in shipping, and much care is needed to pack,
so as to ship without loss. Unless handled in large quantities the added
expense of packing will offset the higher price at a distant market.

Wax from extracted honey and that scraped from frames can be
melted and made into beeswax. Beeswax not only has a market value
as wax, but if sent to a foundation factory, new foundations can be made
from it at a cost much less than the purchasing of new foundations.

Diseases of Bees. — Moth is not a disease, but is a common enemy
of the bee. The presence of moth denotes a weak, colony, for a strong
colony will destroy moth webs and keep them out. Once in, not much
can be done save to so strengthen the colony, that it rids itself of ^the
moth. ' •

Foul brood is the most common bee disease. It is a germ disease,
much to be dreaded, as it spreads rapidly from one apiary to the other,
the first trace is noticeable in the grubs. They turn yellow and stretch
out in their cells instead of being white and curled up. Later a stench
arises from the hive. Drastic measures must be taken at once to keep the
disease from spreading. The bees should })e remoVed to a clean hive with-
out comb and kept for thirty-six hours with the hive closed. At the end
of that time they may be put into a new hive with clean comb and a fertile
queen. Sugar syrup must be furnished them for a time. The infected hive
and all its parts must be burned.

So serious has this disease become that many states have passed
laws governing its control, and provide inspectors to see that the laws

,1 t

i I

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

640

are enforced. It is to a bee keeper^s advantage to co-operate in every
way possible with these inspectors in controlUng this disease.

REFERENCES

^' Bee Keeping." PhiHips- ^, „ ^
''How to Keep Bees for Profit. Lyon.
''Bee Book." Biggie. . ,, ^ „ ,. .
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins.

213. "Bee Diseases. „

233. '^Natural Swarming of Bees; How to Prevent
U S Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, Bulletin 14.
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

442. " Treatment of Bee Diseases.

447. "Bees."

503. "Comb Honey." . ,, „ »»

652 "Honey and Its Uses in the Home.

695. "Outdoor Wintering of Bees."

"Diseases of Bees."

BOOK V
DAIRY FARMING

(Dairy Husbandry)

ii ■ '

'«

(641)

CHAPTER 52
Thj: Dairy Herd; its Selection and Improvement

By F. S. Putney
Assistant Professor of Dairy Husbandry, The Pennsylvania State College

The dairy cow of today has been so long domesticated that it is
impossible to identify her exact origin. Several possible origins have been
written about, but one thing we are sure of is that the original cow gave
milk only for her young for a few months. The modern dairy herd is the
result of selection and improvement by man.

Scrubs, Grades, Crosses and Pure-Breds.— A dairy herd which is the
result of accident and which has never been improved is called a common
or scrub herd. Such a herd usually has the blood of several breeds, but has
been bred without thought. Occasionally a scrub dairy cow is profitable,
but it is rare indeed to find a scrub herd that is profitable. A large per-
centage of the dairy cattle in the country today are high-grades. A grade
animal carries over 50 per cent of the blood of some particular breed. The
pure-bred sire is now believed to be an essential of a good dairy herd, hence
the result is that most of the cows are now high-grade, carrying over 75
per cent of the blood of one breed. A cross-bred animal has the blood of
two pure-bred animals of different breeds in its veins. Such breeding is
good to produce vitality, but is not good for milk production; especially
IS this true in the crossing of such distinct breeds as the Holstein-Friesian •
and the Jersey. Coniparatively few pure-bred dairy herds exist. However,
the number is sufficient to permit of every one owning a pure-bred sire[
and the number of pure-bred animals is on the increase. A pure-bred
animal does not have the blood of any other breed since the founding of
that breed.

Value of Pedigrees.— A pedigree is a list of the names and registry
numbers of the ancestry of an animal. A dairy farmer who keeps pure^
bred animals should exercise care in keeping his animals registered in the
herd-book of the breed association. This is profitable because pure-bred
animals sell better than grade animals, as the offspring are more uniform,
especially in type and color. The latter fact adds a great deal to the
selling price. Further, the pure-bred dairy animals have been developed
to higher milk production than any other class of farm animals and natu-
rally the dairyman is willing to pay for their production ability. The more
high producing animals in the ancestry of an animal, the better is that
pedigree.

(643)

i:l

644 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Breed Differences.— Within dairy cattle are several definite strains
of a special type. These definite strains are called breeds. Some breeds
have been developed for the large amount of milk they give other breeds
for the large percentage of fat which the milk contauis. Ihe size ot the
different breeds also varies a great deal. These breeds are quite largely
the result of conditions that exist in different countries. Great as is the
difference in the quantity and the quality of the milk and size of the breeds,
the individual variations within a breed are nearly as great.
- The following table, from Bulletin No. 1 14 of the Pennsylvania Experi-
ment Station, shows the difference in percentage of fat of breeds:

Per cent.

All Jerseys or Guernseys of high-grade ^ ^

Mixed herd with some Jersey or Guernsey animals ^ o

Common mixed herd • • • • .. -

Mixed herd with some Holstem ammals ^ • ^

All Holsteins ; ^ •"

A Standard of Production Necessary.— In order to select and improve
tuiiinals for the dairy herd, it is necessary to have a standard of production.
The standard is, of course, the lowest limit for profitable produ(;tion. Smce
i)roduction of milk varies with the age of the animal, it is necessary to have
a standard for the first few lactation periods. A heifer with first calf
usually gives about 70 per cent of her future production as a mature cow.
A cow makes her maximum production at about seven years of age. The
standard of production varies with each community, but in a very general
way, where up-to-date dairying is followed, a cow should produce between
GOOO and 8000 pounds of milk and 250 to 300 pounds of fat to stay in

the herd. , j r j

Individual Selection.— If it is necessary to have a standard ot produc-
tion for each cow, it is equally necessary to have some way of selecting
animals that should come up to this standard. This will be discussed in
the paragraphs on Records which follow. In order to improve a herd
properly, one must keep more than records of production. The individuals
must be selected for size, vigor and trueness to type. This selection must
begin with the calf. Only calves of the right type and vigor should be
raised. Size in the animal is important, but vigor is even more essential.
Vigor and lung capacity are essential to enable the cow to resist all the
diseases to which the dairy cow is heir. It is desirable to raise farm
animals that have shown prolificness, as this quality is reproduced to a
marked degree in dairy animals. Having decided to raise a particular
breed, it is necessary to know the characteristics of that breed better than

any other.

In starting a new herd, the females should be selected for uniformity
of type, and should be typical of the breed they represent. In selecting
a bull, some breeders prefer one that is strong, where the females in the
herd are weak. If possible, this is a good practice. The bull should always

THE DAIRY HERD

645

be from as long a line of high producing animals as is possible to secure.
In starting a herd, do not allow passing fads to have undue weight. To
illustrate, the Jersey cattle have been greatly hurt by the solid color fad
that went over the country. The breed was not solid colored at its founda-
tion, and whatever fad comes into a herd after it has been founded reduces
the number of animals to select from for production and hence weakens the
herd instead of strengthening it. The Guernsey fad of light-colored noses
and the white color of the Holstein-Friesian and Ayrshires are illustrations

^>rA^^V!M:

A Typical Cow, Marked to Show Points in Judging.^

1 — ^Head. 2 — Muzzle. 3 — Nostril. 4 — Face. 5 — ^Eye. 6 — Forehead. 7 — Horn.
8— Ear. 9— Cheek. 10— Throat. 11— Neck. 12— Withers. 13— Back. 14— Loins.
15— Hip Bone. 16— Pelvic Arch. 17— Rump. 18— Tail. 19— Switch. 20— Chest.
21— Brisket. > 22— Dewlap. 23— Shoulder. 24— Elbow. 25— Forearm. 26— Knee.
27— Ankle. 28— Hoof. 29— Heart Girth. 30— Side or Barrel. 31— Belly. 32— Flank.
33— Milk Vein. 34— Fore Udder. 35— Hind Udder. 36— Teats. 37— Upper Thigh.
38— Stifle. 39— Twist. 40— Leg or Gaskin. 41— Hock. 42— Shank. 43— Dew Claw.

of this fad. In order to select animals wisely, one should be a good judge
of the l)reed in which he is interested.

Records. — While a breeder can select cows by the eye for many good
and desirable points, the only real test of a dairy cow is the record of her
milk and butter-fat yield. This should be kept for every year that a cow
stays in the herd. If the farmer has the time, he should keep other records,
such as list of offspring, feed records and the like. The greatest improve-
ment is possible only when complete records have been kept.

In order to ascertain the production of a cow, a pair of scales, a Balv
cock testing outfit and milk sheets are necessary. The most popular
scale today is the Chatillon Improved Spring Balance, which can be hung

I Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. B. A. 1. 1.5th Report.

if''

> )

646

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

in some handy place in the barn or milk room. The two hands on the
dial enable one to read the amount of milk directly. The milk sheet can
be made for the month, week or any convenient length of period. The
monthly record is the most popular. It is desirable to have a space for
tabulating ten-day periods for the reason that grain is usually fed in
accordance with the yield of milk. The amount fed should be adjusted
at least as often as every ten days. Some adjust it every week, but when
added for ten days the amount can be read directly without division.

Records show that about one-third of the cows in the United States
are '^boarders,'' or cows that do not even pay for their feed. When it
is remembered that so many cows are unprofitable, and that if records are
not kept, the daughters of these same unprofitable cows will be retained in
the herd, and in turn more than likely become unprofitable, the value of
records in dairy herd improvement is readily understood. Records show
that one-third of the dairy cows in the country should be killed. The net
profits of the herds remaining would then be greater than is now
the case.

Cow-Testing Association Records. — Since it takes time to keep
records, groups of farmers find it economical to organize and employ a
man to keep records for them. This man is called a supervisor, and his
services enable a group of both small and large farmers to practice selection
based on production. Since the supervisor must visit each farm at least
one day in a month, only about twenty-five farmers can co-operate in
the hiring of one man. A supervisor can be had for from $500 to $600 a
year with ])oard and room. If these twenty-five farms keep 500 cows,
the expense of keeping records by the supervisor method is less than though
the owners paid themselves for the time that they would take to keep
the same records. The supervisor weighs all feed given to the cows during
the day on which he visits the farm. From this data he figures the cost
of the feed by the month. In the same way he weighs the milk from each
cow and tests it for butter-fat. This enables him to calculate the pro-
duction for a month. He figures for the owner the value of the product
from each cow for the month at the price that the owner is receiving.

Each cow-testing association is bound together by by-laws, contracts
and some sort of articles of confederation. In some cases the association
buys feed in carload lots so as to reduce the cost to the members. Such
an association must be gathered from a community covering a small area.
Some cow-testing associations stretch over considerable territory.

Bull Associations. — One of the outgrowths of the cow-testing associa-
tion is the bull association. These associations are often formed from a
group of men within the cow-testing association. It is necessary that
the members keep the same breed of stock. These men own a bull, or
several bulls, together. The bull is kept in the community as long as he
is a good producer. A good producing bull is one that is a sure getter,
and whose heifer calves prove to be better producers as cows than their

THE DAIRY HERD

647

dams. Such a bull should be given a herd as long as he will breed.
Through the bull associations, it is often possible to bring into a community
a bull of better breeding than any single member of the community could
finance alone. It is not the cost of the bull that determines its value, but
rather the producing ability of his daughters.

The bull association, to be of value, needs records, and the cow-
testing 'association assures the records. They work well together.

Advanced Registry Records. — ^Any daughter or son of a registered
dam and sire can be registered in the herd-books of that breed association.
Unfortunately, many registered animals are no better producers than
scrubs. In order to improve the animals within a breed, the different
breed associations have started Advanced Registry Requirements. These

A Good Dairy Herd.*
Exercise is beneficial to the health of the cows.

requirements are based upon performance, and hence only worthy animals
find their names on its lists. The different breeders have different names
for the books in which such animals are listed, but all serve the same
purpose. Representatives from the different experiment stations vouch
for the production of the animals after personal visits. Such records
have done much toward developing the modern, wonderful milking cow.
Pure-bred sires should have some near relatives whose names appear in
the advanced registry of the particular breed. All breeders of pure-bred
stock should be encouraged to make advanced registry tests so as to improve
the sale of bull calves from their herds.

The Bull is Half the Herd. — It is one of the sayings of breeders that
''the bull is half the herd." Wliere in-breeding is practiced, he is even

* Courtesy of the Department of Dairy Husbandry, Pennsylvania Sttvte College,

1 Hi

♦ ■■ • ■

646

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

in some handy place in the barn or milk room. The two hands on the
dial enable one to read the amount of milk directly. The milk sheet can
be made for the month, week or any convenient length of period. The
monthly record is tlie most popular. It is desirable to have a space for
tabulating ten-day periods for the reason that grain is usually fed in
accordance with the yield of milk. The amount fed should be adjusted
at least as often as every ten days. Some adjust it every week, but when
added for ten days the amount can be read directly without division.

Records show that about one-third of the cows in the United States
are ''boarders,'^ or cows that do not even pay for their feed. When it
is rememl)ered that so many cows are unprofitable, and that if records are
not kept, the daughters of these same unprofitable cows will be retained in
the herd, and in turn more than likely become unprofitable, the value of
records in dairy herd improvement is readily understood. Records show
that one-third of the dairy cows in the country should be killed. The net
profits of the herds remaining would then be greater than is now
the case.

Cow-Testing Association Records. — Since it takes time to keep
records, groups of farmers find it economical to organize and employ a
man to keep records for them. This man is called a supervisor, and his
services enable a group of both small and large farmers to practice selection
based on production. Since the supervisor must visit each farm at least
one day in a month, only about twenty-five farmers can co-operate in
the hiring of one man. A supervisor can be had for from $500 to $600 a
year with l)oard and room. If these twenty-five farms keep 500 cows,
the expense of keeping records by the supervisor method is less than though
the owners paid themselves for the time that they would take to keep
the same records. The supervisor weighs all feed given to the cows during
the day on which he visits the farm. From this data he figures the cost
of the feed by the month. In the same way he weighs the milk from each
cow and tests it for butter-fat. This enables him to calculate the pro-
duction for a month. He figures for the owner the value of the product
from each cow for the month at the price that the owner is receiving.

Bull Associations. — One of the outgrowths of the cow-testing associa-
tion is the bull association. These associations are often formed from a
group of men ^\^thin the cow-testing association. It is necessary that
the members keep the same breed of stock. These men own a bull, or
several bulls, together. The bull is kept in the community as long as he
is a good producer. A good producing bull is one that is a sure getter,
and whose heifer calves prove to be better producers as cows than their

THE DAIRY HERD

647

The bull association, to be of value, needs records, and the cow-
testing association assures the records. They work well together.

Advanced Registry Records. — Any daughter or son of a registered
dam and sire can be registered in the herd-books of that breed association.
Unfortunately, many registered animals are no better producers than
scrubs. In order to improve the animals within a breed, the different
breed associations have started Advanced Registry Requirements. These

A Good Dairy Herd.*
Exercise is beneficial to the health of the cows.

The Bull is Half the Herd. — It is one of the sayings of breeders that
''the !)ull is half the herd." Wl^ero in-breeding is practiced, he is even

* Courtesy of the Department of Dairy Husbandry, Pennsylvania State College.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

From Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177,

(648)

THE DAIRY HERD

649

pa
<

5?:

c
<1

more than half. Even if the cows are scrubs, there is no place in the herd
for a grade or scrub bull. Only a pure-bred bull should head a herd of
cows. The bull should possess quality and type and come from a long
line of good producing females. In order to be sure that a bull can improve
a good herd of cows, only tested bulls should be used. In order to test
a bull he should be bred when young to a few of the good cows in the herd
and the resulting heifer calves watched. If they are better than their
dams, a good herd sire is indicated.

Professor W. J. Fraser, of the University of Illinois, calculates that
in a herd of thirty-five cows it costs $3 per heifer more to have them sired
by a pure-bred bull than by a scrub. This, then, is the total cost of pro-
viding each heifer calf with one good parent. If this same heifer calf
l^roduces only three pounds of milk more a day than her dam, this, at 80
cents a hundred pounds, means that in six years of milking, for 300 days
a year, she would bring the owner $43 more than her dam. On this basis
the rate of interest on the investment is better than anything else on the
farm. Professor Fraser believes his figures to be conservative.

The University of Missouri has a Jersey herd that has had the fortune
of having some excellent bulls at its head and the misfortune of having
had some sires of very poor quality. To illustrate: ten daughters from
Lome of Meridale, one of their bulls, would have produced in six years
$900 more than their dams, while ten daughters of Missouri Rooter in the
same time would have produced $980 less than their dams. This shows
that two farmers of equal ability living on farms side by side, and of the
same size, would differ $2000 in wealth at the end of six years with only
ten daughters from such different character bulls. The necessity of
records is seen when it is remembered that the 'M)ull is half the herd.''

Buying Cows or Raising Calves. — One cannot build up a dairy herd
and continue to improve it by buying cows. The only way to improve
a herd is by raising calves that are better than their dams. Near large
cities it is a common practice to buy cows to replenish the herd. In this
country, far from large cities, an excess of calves is raised. If all the cows
in this far-removed section had good records this method could continue.
The farmer who gets his herd free from tuberculosis and contagious abor-
tion can hope to keep it so, providing he raises his own calves. It can
never be done if he buys cows.

The new-born calf must be well fed and made to grow. The feeding
of the calf undoubtedly has some effect on the later usefulness of the cow.
A stunted calf will never be as good a cow as though she had never been
stunted.

For purposes of record it is necessary that every calf be marked before
being taken from its mother. This often seems unnecessary, but when
the young heifer spends her first summer on pasture, the owner is liable
to forget the particular animal unless he visits the pasture frequently, or
unless the heifer has some very distinguishing mark. If the habit of

t|l:

From Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 177,

(648)

•J
P3

THE DAIRY HERD

649

Professor W. J. Fraser, of the University of Illinois, calculates that
in a herd of thirty-five cows it costs $3 per heifer more to have them sired
by a pure-bred bull than by a scrub. This, then, is the total cost of pro-
viding each heifer calf with one good parent. If this same heifer calf
])roduces only three pounds of milk more a day than her dam, this, at 80
cents a hundred pounds, means that in six years of milking, for 300 days
a year, she would bring the owner $43 more than her dam. On this basis
the rate of interest on the investment is better than anything else on the
farm. Professor Fraser believes his figures to be conservative.

The University of Missouri has a Jersey herd that has had the fortune
of having some excellent bulls at its head and the misfortune of having
had some sires of very poor quality. To illustrate: ten daughters from
Lome of JVIeridale, one of their bulls, would have produced in six years
$900 more than their dams, while ten daughters of Missouri Rooter in the
same time would have produced $980 less than their dams. This shows
that two farmers of equal ability living on farms side by side, and of the
same size, would differ $2000 in wealth at the end of six vears with onlv
ten daughters from such different character bulls. The necessity of
records is seen when it is remembered that the 'M)ull is half the herd.''

Buying Cows or Raising Calves. — One cannot build up a dairy herd
and continue to improve it by buying cows. The only way to improve
a herd is by raising calves that are better than their dams. Near large
cities it is a common practice to })uy cows to replenish the herd. In this
country, far from large cities, an excess of calves is raised. If all the cows
in this far-removed section had good records this method could continue.
The farmer who gets his herd free from tuberculosis and contagious abor-
tion can hope to keep it so, providing he raises his own calves. It can
never ])e done if he buys cows.

For purposes of record it is necessar}^ that every calf be marked before
being taken from its mother. This often seems unnecessary, but when
the young heifer spends her first summer on pasture, the owner is liable
to forget the particular animal unless he visits the pasture frequently, or
unless the heifer has some very distinguishing mark. If the habit of

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

' .'Hv^umAnw.'

650

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

putting a tag in the ear, or some other good system of marking is estab-
lished, trouble is avoided.

The calf should be fed so as not to develop scours or disorders of any
kind. The best way is to feed the mother's milk for a few days, and see
that all milk is warmed to blood heat. It should be fed only from clean
pails. For the first few days it is well to feed three times a day; after
that, twice a day is sufficient. The calf should be fed liberally, but more
danger comes from over-feeding than under-feeding. Modern milk sub-
stitutes grow good dairy calves.

Developing the Young Animal. — Dairy cows are developed success-
fully in several different ways. The essential point is that the bone must
be nearly grown at the time of dropping the first calf. Some feeders simply
give large amounts of roughage to heifer calves during the winter after
weaning from milk. In this way the frame grows, but little fat is put on.
Other feeders give some grain, up to four pounds per animal per day, and
this assures the heifer being in good flesh. When pastures are excellent,
the first method is all right, but when pastures are only good or fair, better
results are obtained by feeding some grain to heifers. A well-developed
growing heifer gives more milk than one poorly developed, since she
requires less feed for growth.

Open Stables for Heifers. — Heifers over one year old are today kept
in open sheds facing the south. It is believed that this open-air method
develops a stronger constitution and more hardiness, two qualities of
great value in warding off disease later. This method of housing is much
cheaper than housing in expensive closed quarters, and the results are
at least equally good.

REFERENCE
Nebraska Expt. Station Bulletin 149. "Raising the Dairy Calf."

CHAPTER 53

Dairy Herd Management

By C. W. Larson
Professor of Dairy Husbandry, The Pennsylvania State College

The dairy cow is more sensitive to her treatment than any other of our
productive animals. By care and breeding she has been developed into an
animal of habit, and upon the care she receives depends largely the profits
of the herd. The feed is an important item in the cost of milk production,
but the systems practiced also materially affect the profits of the herd.
It is no longer profitable to keep a cow all the year for the small amount
of milk that she produces during the summer months while on pasture.
The cheapest method of keeping a herd is not always the most profitable.
This chapter deals only with the heifers from breeding time.

Age to Breed. — The age at which a heifer should be bred depends
largely upon her size, but in general, an animal that has grown well can be
bred to have her first calf when two years of age. During the last three
months of the gestation period a heifer grows very little, so that it is not
advisable to breed a small heifer too young, and some prefer to wait until
the heifer is two and one-half years old before she has a calf. A heifer bred
too young will not attain a large size, which is desirable in a dairy cow.

Gestation Period. — The gestation period of a cow is from 280 to 285
days. It is a good practice to keep a record of service, so that the cow can
be properly taken care of before calving time.

Regularity. — A regular routine of work should be planned for the herd
so that the cows will receive the same treatment each day. Any disturb-
ance or irregularity affects both the amount and quality of milk. The
cows should be milked at the same time each day. The milker should start
at the same end of the row and be as regular in the treatment of the cows
as possible. There are a number of points to keep in mind in planning
the routine of the cow stable. Grain may be fed before milking, but hay
should not be, because of the length of time it takes to eat it and because
of the dust it will raise. Silage also should not be fed immediately before
milking, because of the effect in the flavor of the milk. The stable should
be cleaned before milking, if possible, and if the cows are kept in the stable,
the grooming should also be done before milking. The cows need not be
watered until after the morning feed is given. Hay should be fed late in
the evening.

Care of Cow at Calving Time. — A cow should be carefully watched and
fed during calving time. She should be provided with a clean, well-bedded

(651)

'I'i

652

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

stall. For several days previous to calving she should be fed a bulky
ration and one that is laxative. She should not be given heavy grains. A
mash of ground oats and bran is good. For two or three days before calving
time she should be given slightly warmed water. Do not give cold water.
After two or three days the cow can gradually be put on the regular grain
and roughage feed, but the feeding should not be too heavy to start with.
Rest for Dairy Cows. — It is desirable to give a cow at least six weeks
of rest each year. Most cows dry off before this time, but occasionally
persistent milkers give a considerable supply up to the time of their next
calving. When this is allowed, it is at the sacrifice of the milk in the next

A Good Cow Stable.*

Convenience in arrangement, ease of cleaning, plenty of light and good ventilation are
essential to the health of cows and the production of clean, pure milk.

lactation period, and alsc/ /sometimes at the sacrifice of the calf. It is some-
times difficult to dry off a cow, but usually by cutting down the grain and
giving straw or timothy hay she can be reduced to a suflScient amount to be
safe to stop milking her. It is sometimes desirable to milk once a day for a
while and then stop altogether. It is not safe to stop milking her if she is
giving too much, although cows producing as much as six to eight quarts
have been dried off without injuring them.

Care of Cows when Dry. — A cow should be well taken care of when
dry, for she is then preparing for her next milking period, besides growing
the calf. Nearly all of the development of the calf takes place during the
last few weeks. She should be given succulent and laxative feeds and should
be well fed.

1 Courtesy of the Department of Dairy Husbandry, Pennsylvania State College.

DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

653

Exercise. — Many dairymen believe that a cow receives all the exercise
she needs in producing milk, but on many farms it is desirable to turn the
cows out for a part of the day. It not only gives a better opportunity to
clean out the barn, but also gives the cows an opportunity to rub them-
selves, and their feet and legs keep in better condition. Too much exercise,
of course, requires energy at the expense of milk production. Cows that
are required to walk long distances do not do as well as those that are
more confined. Cows should not be turned out during bad weather and
exposed to rains and cold winds.

Grooming. — Cows kept in the stable all, or nearly all, of the time
should be carefully groomed at least once a day. It is believed by many
that grooming has an effect upon the milk flow. Cows seem to do better
for having been groomed.

Milking. — A good milker has a fairly rapid, uniform stroke which he
continues throughout the milking period. The whole hand should grip the
teat and the pressure should come from the whole hand. The practice of
using the thumb and first finger is not recommended. The milking of
diagonal teats is thought to give best results. The Hegelund method of
the manipulation and milking has been found to stimulate milk production.
A cow milked by this process gives more milk. The steps are described as
follows :

^^ First Manipulation: The right quarters of the udder are pressed
against each other (if the udder is very large, only one quarter at a time is
taken) with the left hand on the hind quarter and the right hand in front
on the fore quarter, the thumbs being placed on the outside of the udder
and the forefingers in the division between the two halves of the udder.
The hands are now pressed toward each other and at the same time lifted
toward the body of the cow. This pressing and lifting is repeated three
times, the milk collected in the milk cistern is then milked out, and the
manipulation repeated until no more milk is obtained in this way, when the
left quarters are treated in the same way.

^^ Second Manipulation: The glands are pressed together from the
side. The fore quarters are milked each by itself by placing one hand,
with fingers spread, on the outside of the quarter and the other hand in
the division between the right and left fore quarters; the hands are pressed
against each other and the teat then milked. When no more milk is
obtained by this manipulation, the hind quarters are milked by placing
a hand on the outside of each quarter, likewise with fingers spread and
turned upward, but with the thumb just in front of the hind quarter.
The hands are lifted and grasped into the gland from behind and from
the side, after which they are lowered to dravr the milk. The manipulation
is repeated until no more milk is obtained.

"Third Manipulation: The fore teats are grasped with partly closed
hands and lifted with a push toward the body of the cow, both at the
same time, by which method the glands are pressed between the hands

ill

652

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

stall. For several days previous to calving she should be fed a bulky
ration and one that is laxative. She should not be given heavy grains. A
mash of ground oats and bran is good. For two or three days before calving
time she should be given slightly warmed water. Do not give cold water.
After two or three days the cow can gradually be put on the regular grain
and roughage feed, but tlie feeding should not be too heavy to start with.
Rest for Dairy Cows. — It is desirable to give a cow at least six weeks
of rest each year. Most cows dry off before this time, but occasionally
persistent milkers give a considerable supply up to the time of their next
calving. When this is allowed, it is at the sacrifice of the milk in the next

A Good Cow Stable.^

Convenience in arrangement, ease of cleaning, plenty of light and good ventilation are
essential to the health of cows and the production of clean, pure milk.

lactation period, and alsc/ /sometimes at the sacrifice of the calf. It is some-
times difficult to dry off a cow, but usually by cutting down the grain and
giving straw or timothy hay she can be reduced to a sufficient amount to be
safe to stoj) milking her. It is sometimes desirable to milk once a day for a
while and then stop altogether. It is not safe to stop milking her if she is
giving too much, although cows producing as much as six to eight quarts
have been dried off without injuring them.

1 Courtesy of the Department of Dairy Husbandry, Pennsylvania State College.

DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

653

Exercise. — Many dairymen believe that a cow receives all the exercise
she needs in producing milk, but on many farms it is desirable to turn the
cows out for a part of the day. It not only gives a better opportunity to
clean out the barn, but also gives the cows an opportunity to rub them-
selves, and their feet and legs keep in better condition. Too much exercise,
of course, requires energy at the expense of milk production. Cow^s that
are required to walk long distances do not do as well as those that are
more confined. Cows should not be turned out during bad weather and
exposed to rains and cold winds.

Milking. — A good milker has a fairly rapid, uniform stroke w^hich he
continues throughout the milking period. The whole hand should grip the
teat and the pressure should come from the whole hand. The practice of
using the thumb and first finger is not recommended. The milking of
diagonal teats is thought to give best results. The Hegelund method of
the manipulation and milking has been found to stimulate milk production.
A cow milked by this process gives more milk. The steps are described as
f ollow\s :

^' First IManipulation : The right quarters of the udder are pressed
against each other (if the udder is very large, only one quarter at a time is
taken) w^th the left hand on the hind quarter and the right hand in front
on the fore quarter, the thumbs being placed on the outside of the udder
and the forefingers in the division between the two halves of the udder.
The hands are now pressed toward each other and at the same time lifted
toward the body of the cow. This pressing and lifting is repeated three
times, the milk collected in the milk cistern is then milked out, and the
manipulation repeated until no more milk is obtained in this way, when the
left quarters are treated in the same way.

'^Second ]Vrani])ulation: The glands are pressed together from the
side. The fore quarters are milked each by itself by placing one hand,
with fingers spread, on the outside of the quarter and the other hand in
the division between the right and left fore quaiiers; the hands are pressed
against each other and the teat then milked. When no more milk is
obtained by this manipulation, the hind quarters are milked by placing
a hand on the outside of each quarter, likewise with fingers spread and
turned upw\ard, but with the thumb just in front of the hind quarter.
The hands are lifted and grasped into the gland from behind and from
the side, after which they are lowered to draw the milk. The manipulation
is repeated until no more milk is obtained.

''Third Manipulation: The fore teats are grasped with partly closed
hands and lifted with a push toward the body of the cow, both at the
same time, by which method the glands are pressed between the hands

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

654

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and the body; the milk is drawn after each three pushes. When the
fore teats are emptied, the hind teats are milked in the same manner."

Diffictilt Milking. — Occasionally cows are difficult to milk because
of defective teats. Sometimes the openings are too small, in which case
an instrument known as the bistoury may be used, but there is danger of
greatly injuring the teat, and it should be used only by those experienced
in its use. Only with especially good animals does it pay to spend much
time with such cows. Sore teats, caused sometimes by teats becoming
wet and exposed to the cold, can best be treated by rubbing them with
vaseline or some antiseptic grease. A cow that has developed the kicking
habit is a great annoyance. Sore teats and abuse, however, are often the
cause. Most cows, by gentle treatment and care of the teats, will cause
little trouble. Some, however, are naturally vicious, but these are few in
number. A strap tied around the body of the cow just in front of the
udder, and drawn fairly tight, will prevent most cows from kicking. A
clamp made of wood with two straps, long enough to reach around the
leg of the cow, will prevent her from bending her leg, making it impossible
for her to kick.

Abuse. — A dairy cow should always be handled gently, for any dis-
turbances affect her. Loud noises or any unusual disturbances should
))e avoided. A cow should never be struck or mistreated, nor should
she be talked to in a loud voice.

Water and Salt. — A cow requires considerable salt, and this should
be given regularly. One practice is to mix it with the grain, but the maxi-
mum requirements should not be given in this way, for a cow may be
required to eat more than she wants of it. A little in the grain is all right,
but a small amount should be given regularly, perhaps once a week, so
that she can get all she wants. A cow will eat about one-half pound of
salt a week.

An abundance of good water should be provided for dairy animals.
A cow producing large quantities of milk will consume as much as one
hundred pounds, or more, per day. Heavy milkers should be watered
twice a day. The water should not be too cold, but at the same
time it is well not to have it too warm. A uniform temperature is
desirable.

Stabling. — With most large dairy herds it is customary to have
regular stanchions in which the cows can all be tied up in rows. This
seems the best system where high-class milk is being produced. For the
small herd, the practice of allowing the cows to run in an open shed is
being followed. This method of housing, however, makes it possible to
keep the cows in a more healthy condition and to produce milk more
economically. An experiment has been conducted by The Pennsylvania
State College of housing cattle in an open shed as compared with a closed
stable, and is summarized as follows:

*'l. From the data presented it appears that cows kept under an

'fl^kseiSiwc'

DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

655

open shed have keener appetites and consume more roughage than those
kept in stables.

''2. There was sufficient protein consumed when either Van Norman's
or Eckles' Standard was used to account for the yield of milk in addition
to maintenance.

_ •

"3. Figured on Eckles' Standard, there was a slight excess of energy
consumed above maintenance and milk production the first two years,
and a small deficiency the last year. When computed on Van Norman's
Standard, there was a deficiency in energy consumed for maintenance
and milk production, except for one group the second year.

''4. The milk yield of the outside group decreased more rapidly each
winter than that of the inside group.

''5. Sudden drops in atmospheric temperature caused corresponding
decreases in milk yield for both groups, the outside group having a slightly
greater decrease.

''6. More bedding was required outside, but less labor was necessary
to keep the animals clean.

"7, Both groups finished each winter's trial in good health with the
exception of one that reacted to the tubercuhn test in April, 1914. She
had shown no reaction in two previous tests. The hair of the animals
kept outside was longer and coarser the first two winters. The third
winter this was noticeable in only one ainmal."

Flies.— In the management of a milking herd, the problem of flies
is a difficult one. Not only are they annoying to the cow and the milker,
but they also carry disease. They should be reduced to as small a number
as possible. It is beheved that they do not travel a great distance, so that
a farmer may have them fairly well under his control. Manure should
not be allowed to accumulate, and if it does, it should be treated with
some spray or disinfectant that will kill the flies. There are a number of
sprays on the market that can be used for killing flies in the barn. Some
have found traps to be practical.

Marking the Cow. — For the purpose of identification, dairy animals
should be marked. Some have a system of clipping the ears with certain
notches to represent the various figures and thus of keeping records.
This, however, is not very satisfactory. An ordinary hog ring with a
metal or composition tag fastened to it makes a satisfactory marker.
Occasionally these are torn out, but if they are properly put in and the
tag is small and round, they will stay a long time. The tattoo is also
being used successfully when good tattoo material is used.

Dehorning. — In the general milking herd all cows should be dehorned.
There is more or less pain connected with the operation, but it does not,
in the estimation of the writer, compare with the pain due to the cows
being gored day after day. It prevents the possibility also of one animal
that may be ''boss" depriving others of their rightful share of food and
water. The dehorning, however, should not be done until the animal has

If!

656

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

reached the age of two years, for if it is done before this, growth takes
place and scurs will be formed. The dehorning should be done in cold
weather and when there are no flies. The horns should be cut or clipped
as quickly as possible.

CARE OF THE BULL

A young bull should not be used too much for breeding purposes.
He should be kept growing and should be well cared for, but not overfed.
A good, thrifty young bull may breed six or seven cows before he is one

Leading a Bull.^

year old with no injury to him. Even during the second year he should
not be used too much. Often a young bull is injured by overuse. A cow
should be served only once during a period of heat. A bull should never
be allowed to run with the herd, but should be kept in a separate inclosure.
He should be given exercise and be kept out in the open as much as possible.
Where two bulls are needed in a herd, it is a good practice to dehorn them
and then turn them together, or even train them to drive. A yard in which
a l)ull is kept should be strongly fenced, for they are powerful, and once
they break through a pen, it is very difficult to get anything that will hold
them. They should be sheltered from the winds and rain, but can stand
the cold. Bulls sometimes become vicious, due to treatment, although

» Courtesy of Orange- Judd Company, N. Y, Yrom " The Young Farmer," by Hunt,

657

some bulls are naturally cross. In any case, great care must be take
with them. They should never be trusted. They should always have
a ring in their noses and be led by a stock from the ring. Bulls seem to
know when a man is afraid and are more apt to attack such a one than one
who is more courageous. A bull that becomes vicious is often subdued
by being thrown with a rope. He then learns that he is under the control
of man. The amount of service that a bull may have depends upon his
age and condition. During the second year, a good, thrifty bull can be
used once a week. A mature bull may serve one hundred to two hundred
cows a year if the periods are distributed well throughout the year. In
general, however, because of the variation in the intervals in which cows
come in heat, a bull should be provided for each forty to fifty cows.

REFERENCES

"Dairy Cattle and Milk Production." Eckles.

Iowa Expt. Station Circular !(>. ''(Jare, Feed and Management of the Dairy Herd "

Minnesota Expt. Station Bulletin 130. ''Feeding Dairy Cows."

t\i

656

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

CARE OF THE BULL
A young bull should not be used too much for breeding purposes.
He should be kept growing and should be well cared for, but not overfed.
A good, thrifty young bull may breed six or seven cows before he is one

Leading a Bull.^

year old with no injury to him. Even during the second year he should
not be used too much. Often a young bull is injured by overuse. A cow
should be served only once during a period of heat. A bull should never
be allowed to run with the herd, but should be kept in a separate inclosure.
He should be given exercise and be kept out in the open as much as possible.
Where two bulls are needed in a herd, it is a good practice to dehorn them
and then turn them together, or even train them to drive. A yard in which
a bull is kept should be strongly fenced, for they are powerful, and once
they break through a pen, it is very difficult to get anything that will hold
them. They should be sheltered from the winds and rain, but can stand
the cold. Bulls sometimes become vicious, due to treatment, although

^Courtesy of Orange-Judd Company, N. Y, From '* The Young Farmer," by Hunt,

DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

657

REFERENCES

"Dairy Cattle and Milk Production." Eckles.

Iowa Expt. Station Circular 1(). "(!are, Veed and Management of the Dairy Herd."

Minnesota Expt. Station Bulletin 130. ''Feeding Dairy Cows."

I ii

'>^*^ • >-'.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

.cv¥iT'.ji(^'ti --.%;aj^tfi,' 0

656

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

CARE OF THE BULL

Leading a Bull.^

year old wnth no injury to him. Even during the second year he should
not be used too much. Often a young bull is injured by overuse. A cow
should be served only once during a period of heat. A bull should never
be allowed to run with the herd, but should be kept in a separate inclosure.
He should be given exercise and be kept out in the open as nmch as possible.
Where two bulls are needed in a herd, it is a good practice to dehorn them
and then turn them together, or even train them to drive. A yard in which
a bull is kept should be strongly fenced, for they are powerful, and once
they break through a pen, it is very difficult to get anything that will hold
them. They should be sheltered from the winds and rain, but can stand
the cold. Bulls sometimes become vicious, due to treatment, although

1 Courtesy of Orange- Judd Company, N. Y, From " The Young Farmer," by Hunt,

DAIRY HERD MANAGEMENT

657

REFERENCES

''Dairy Cattle and Milk Production." Eckles.

Iowa Kxpt. Station Cirnilar 1(). "(^irc, Feed and Management of the Dairy Herd "

Minnesota Expt. Station Bulletin 130. ''Feeding Dairy Cows."

■

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

CHAPTER 54
Dairy breeds of Cattle

By George C. Humphrey
Professor of Animal Husbandry, University of Wisconsin

Dairy Breeds Essential. — Choosing a dairy breed of cattle is funda-
mental to successful dairying. The modern improved breeds of dairy
cattle are the result of high ideals, carefully laid plans and systematic
effort on the part of many generations of dairymen who realized there
were great possibilities in the development of breeds of cattle especially
adapted for large and economical production of milk and butter-fat.
Cattle which are true representatives of the recognized dairy breeds are
very distinct from ordinary native cattle and cattle of the improved beef
breeds, both in conformation and production of milk. They also tend to
reproduce themselves from generation to generation with such marked
degree of uniformity that one familiar with their history and character-
istics would reject any other kind if he were engaged primarily in dairying.
Natural laws that govern the reproduction of plant and animal life and
preserve forms of like character from generation to generation and the
experience of a vast number of dairymen teach the value of preserving and
utilizing the distinct dairy breeds of cattle for dairy purposes.

Dairy Tjrpe Common to All Dairy Breeds. — The development of dairy
breeds has established a distinct dairy type that is naturally correlated
with extensive milk production. Dairy type refers to the conformation
and pecuUarities of the .body that are characteristic of animals capable of
producing large and economical yields of milk and includes the following:

1. Medium to large size of body for the breed.

2. Large feed capacity, as indicated by a roomy and capacious abdom-

inal cavity, a large mouth and sufficient strength of body to
consume and utilize a large quantity of feed.

3. Dairy temperament or a disposition to convert the larger portion

of feed consumed into milk rather than body flesh. It is
indicated by the absence of surplus flesh and a comparatively
lean and refined appearance of the entire body.

4. An udder that is large, carried well up to the body, evenly and

normally developed in all quarters and of good quality.

5. A strong, healthy flow of blood to all parts of the body, giving

vigor, alertness and constitution. These characteristics are
indicated by prominent facial, udder and mammary veins,
abundant secretions in the ears, skin of the body and at the
end of the tail and a coat of fine straight hair,

(658)

•

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE

659

Ignorance of breeds and breeding and of proper feeding and manage-
ment cause a great many cows to fall below the standard embodied in the
foregoing qualifications for dairy type. This fact, however, is no argument
against the merit of improved breeds and should not cause one to question
the value of well-estabhshed dairy breeds.

Recognized Dairy Breeds of America.— Ayrshire, Brown Swiss,
Guernsey, Holstein-Friesian and Jersey breeds of cattle are recognized and
have been exhibited at the National Dairy Shows of America as specific
dairy breeds. Dairy cattle of the Dutch Belted, French Canadian and

A Typical Ayrshire Cow. ''Auchenbrain Hattie."
Medium in size, usually red and white, horns upturned and pointed.

Kerry breeds are bred and maintained in America in comparatively small
numbers. The unimportance of these breeds in well-developed dairy
districts, however, does not warrant more than mention and a very brief
discussion of them in the Umited space of this article.

AYRSHIRE CATTLE

Origin and Development.— The County of Ayr in southwestern
Scotland is the native home of the Ayrshire breed. The land in this section
is rolling and more or less rough, the climate moist and the winters extremely
cold, except for being somewhat tempered by the Irish Sea. The hills

i *

CHAPTER 54
Dairy breeds of Cattle

By George C. Humphrey
Professor of Animal Husbandry ^ University of Wisconsin

Dairy Breeds Essential. — Choosing a dairy breed of cattle is funda-
mental to successful dairying. The modern improved breeds of dairy
cattle are the result of high ideals, carefully laid plans and systematic
effort on the part of many generations of dairymen who realized there
were great possibiUties in the development of breeds of cattle especially
adapted for large and economical production of milk and butter-fat.
Cattle which are true representatives of the recognized dairy breeds are
very distinct from ordinary native cattle and cattle of the improved beef
breeds, both in conformation and production of milk. They also tend to
reproduce themselves from generation to generation with such marked
degree of uniformity that one familiar with their history and character-
istics would reject any other kind if he were engaged primarily in dairying.
Natural laws that govern the reproduction of plant and animal life and
preserve forms of like character from generation to generation and the
experience of a vast number of dairymen teach the value of preserving and
utilizing the distinct dairy breeds of cattle for dairy purposes.

Dairy Type Common to All Dairy Breeds. — The development of daily
breeds has established a distinct dairy type that is naturally correlated
with extensive milk production. Dairy type refers to the conformation
and peculiarities of the .body that are characteristic of animals capable of
producing large and economical yields of milk and includes the following:

1. Medium to large size of body for the breed.

2. Large feed capacity, as indicated by a roomy and capacious abdom-

inal cavity, a large mouth and sufficient strength of body to
consume and utilize a large quantity of feed.

3. Dairy temperament or a disposition to convert the larger portion

of feed consumed into milk rather than body flesh. It is
indicated by the absence of surplus flesh and a comparatively
lean and refined appearance of the entire body.

4. An udder that is large, carried well up to the body, evenly and

normally developed in all quarters and of good quality.

5. A strong, healthy flow of blood to all parts of the body, giving

(658)

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE

659

A Typical Ayrshire Cow. "Auchenbrain Hattie."
Medium in size, usually red and white, horns upturned and pointed.

AYRSHIRE CATTLE

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

m^t

660

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

produce rolling pastures in most parts, while the better lands grow grain
crops and grass in abundance. The conditions, on the whole, demand a
hard yrustling breed of dairy cattle, and Ayrshires have been developed to
suit the needs of their native country. Early history records the use of
several different breeds of cattle which undoubtedly have contributed to
the establishment of the Ayrshire breed. Teeswater, Shorthorn, Dutch,
Lincoln, Hereford, Devon and West Highland breeds are mentioned by
various authors as having been used. Whatever the true origin may have
been, the breed has been bred pure for many years, and its character
fixed after the manner of other pure breeds of livestock developed by the
Scotch people. The production of a breed of cattle suited to the condition
of environment of that country, and especially adapted for the production
of large yields of milk, was the standard which guided the breeders in fixing
the characteristics of this breed. The breed has found favor in other
countries and to a greater or less extent in all dairy sections of America,
especially in the New England states and the provinces of Canada.

Characteristics of Ayrshire Cattle. — Ayrshire cattle are medium in
size. Cows should weigh on the average 1000 pounds and bulls 1500
pounds. The color is a combination of white, red, brown and black.
White predominating with red or brown markings is the more popular
color. There are black and white Ayrshires in Scotland whose purity of
blood is not questioned. A neat head with horns of medium length, inclin-
ing upward, a body with straight top line, well-developed chest, arched ribs,
deep flank, and comparatively smooth hind quarters and an udder that is
symmetrical and well balanced in form and well carried up to the body
characterize the typical Ayrshire cow. The size of teats in many cows is
Subject to the criticism of being too small and one will do well to bear this
in mind in making selections. The milk production of mature cows has in
a few instances, under official tests, exceeded 20,000 pounds of milk per
annum. An Ayrshire cow should be expected to yield 6000 to 8000 pounds
of milk under ordinar>^ conditions. The milk tests in the neighborhood of
four per cent butter-fat. The highest official yearly production for an
Ayrshire cow to date was made by Auchenbrain Brown Kate 4th, 27943,
owned by Percival Roberts, Jr., Narberth, Pa. Her yearly production
amounted to 23,022 pounds of milk testing 3.99 per cent and 917.6 pounds
of butter fat.

BROWN SWISS CATTLE

Origin and Development. — The Brown Swiss breed of cattle has its
origin in Switzerland and the cattle by virtue of their native home are
strong, rugged and hardy. In this country they have been developed
with reference to their dairy qualities to the extent that they have become
recognized as one of the distinct dairy breeds. Up to 1907 they were
bred and largely advertised as a dual purpose breed. In the meantime,
however, the American breeders have given careful attention to selecting

■Tir^^'^M-

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE

661

types and developing strains which excel more particularly in yield and
economy of milk production. In the eastern and middle sections of the
United States the breed is gaining favor and promises to have a place
sooner or later of equal rank with older and better recognized breeds of
dairy cattle.

Characteristics of Brown Swiss Cattle.-The breed is noted for its
large size and ruggedness. Due to comparatively large bones and robust
appearance, it is sometimes regarded as too coarse for economy of pro-
duction. Cows will vary from 1200 to 1400 pounds in hve weight at

t ;

A Brown Swiss Cow.*

maturity, and bulls quite frequently exceed 2000 pounds in weight. There
is a tendency toward refinement and less size where dairy type is sought
and selected to take the place of the former dual purpose type. Breeders
aim, however, to maintain good size and large capacity for milk production
in their efforts to develop herds of this breed.

A dark-brown or mouse color with a line of gray along the back, a
mealy ring about the muzzle, a hght fringe of hair on the inner side of
the ear and more or less light hair on the under side of the body, constitutes
the characteristic color of the cattle of this breed. Quite frequently the
lighter gray color covers the entire body.

' Courtesy of The Field, New York.

660

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

produce rolling pastures in most parts, while the better lands grow grain
crops and grass in abundance. The conditions, on the whole, demand a
hard yrustling breed of dairy cattle, and Ayrshires have been developed to
suit the needs of their native country. Early history records the use of
several different breeds of cattle which undoubtedly have contributed to
the establishment of the Ayrshire breed. Teeswater, Shorthorn, Dutch,
Lincoln, Hereford, Devon and West Highland breeds are mentioned by
various authors as having been used. Whatever the true origin may have
been, the breed has been bred pure for many years, and its character
fixed after the manner of other pure breeds of livestock developed by the
Scotch people. The production of a breed of cattle suited to the condition
of environment of that country, and especially adapted for the production
of large yields of milk, w^as the standard which guided the breeders in fixing
the characteristics of this breed. The breed has found favor in other
countries and to a greater or less extent in all dairy sections of America,
especially in the New England states and the provinces of Canada.

Characteristics of Ayrshire Cattle. — Ayrshire cattle are medium in
size. Cows should weigh on the average 1000 pounds and bulls 1500
pounds. The color is a combination of white, red, brown and black.
White predominating with red or brow^n markings is the more popular
color. There are black and white Ayrshires in Scotland whose purity of
blood is not questioned. A neat head with horns of medium length, inclin-
ing upward, a body with straight top line, well-developed chest, arched ribs,
deep flank, and comparatively smooth hind quarters and an udder that is
symmetrical and well balanced in form and well carried up to the body
characterize the typical Ayrshire cow. The size of teats in many cows is
Subject to the criticism of being too small and one will do w^ell to bear this
in mind in making selections. The milk production of mature cows has in
a few instances, under official tests, exceeded 20,000 pounds of milk per
annum. An Ayrshire cow should be expected to yield 6000 to 8000 pounds
of milk under ordinaiy conditions. The milk tests in the neigh) )()rh()()d of
four per cent butter-fat. The highest official yearly production for an
Ayrshire cow to date was made by Auchenbrain Brown Kate 4th, 27943,
owned by Percival Roberts, Jr., Narberth, Pa. Her yearly ])roduction
amounted to 23,022 pounds of milk testing 3.99 per cent and 917.6 pounds
of butter fat.

BROWN SWISS CATTLE

Origin and Development. — The Brown Swiss breed of cattle has its
origin in Switzerland and the cattle by virtue of their native home are
strong, rugged and hardy. In this country they have been developed
with reference to their dairy qualities to the extent that they have become
recognized as one of the distinct dairy breeds. Up to 1907 they w^ere
bred and largely advertised as a dual purpose breed. In the meantime,
however, the American breeders have given careful attention to selecting

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE

661

Characteristics of Brown Swiss Cattle.— The breed is noted for its
large size and ruggedness. Due to comparatively large bones and robust
api)earance, it is sometimes regarded as too coarse for economy of pro-
duction. Cows will vary from 1200 to 1400 pounds in live weight at

A Brown Swiss Cow.*

A dark-brown or mouse color with a line of gray along the back, a
mealy ring about the muzzle, a Hght fringe of hair on the inner side of
the ear and more or less light hair on the under side of the body, constitutes
the characteristic color of the cattle of this breed. Quite frequently the
lighter gray color covers the entire body.

' Courtesy of The Field, Xcw York.

111

m^m

.^i?^l^^^<

^r,^y^f;!:»*>i«

A Guernsey Bull.*

A Typical Guernsey Cow.

1 Ck>urte^ of The Field, New York.
(662)

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE

663

The head and neck are comparatively heavy; the males, and quite
frequently the cows, carrying more or less dewlap. Well-developed udders
proportionate in size to the size of body, are sought in the selection of
mature cows. A register of production for animals of superior tnerit has
been formed by the American Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association
and there is a loyal effort on the part of breeders to make records that
will compare favorably with records of other breeds. The breed has
demonstrated its ability to make very profitable productions of milk and
butter-fat. The milk tests on the average about 4.0 per cent. The high-
est official yearly record for a Brown Swiss cow at the present time is
19,460.6 pounds of milk, testing 4.1 per cent and 798.16 pounds of butter-
fat. This record was made Jby the cow College Brauvura 2d, 2577, owned
by the Michigan Agricultural College, East Lansing, Mich.

GUERNSEY CATTLE i. /

Origin and Development.— Guernsey cattle take their name from
Guernsey Island, located in the English Channel not far from France.
This island and two smaller ones, Alderney and Sarnia, belong to the
Channel Islands group, and is where the Guernsey breed originated and
has been developed. These islands, of which Guernsey is the largest,
contain only 2600 acres. On Guernsey the land is more or less hilly and
rough, and the farms are small and devoted exclusively to horticulture and
dairying. Many of the crops, such as grapes, melons and flowers, are
grown in greenhouses. The cattle are owned in small herds and, in order
to make the best use of the available pastures, are tethered or staked
out when allowed to graze.

The people devote their attention to the one breed of cattle and
exclude all other cattle from the island, except those which may be imported
for immediate slaughter. The breed undoubtedly has its origin in stock
of early French varieties known as Brittany and Normandy cattle. The
production of a rich quality of high-colored milk and butter has always
been the principal object in breeding and developing this breed, and
naturally this has resulted in excellence of performance on the part of
well-grown cattle of the breed.

Guernsey cattle were introduced into America early in the nineteenth
century, but not until 1893, when the dairy qualities of Guernsey cattle
were brought to the attention of the general public by records made at
the World's Columbian Exhibition at Chicago, did Guernsey interests
develop to the extent they deserved. The American Guernsey Cattle
Club was organized in 1877, and of late years many importations of
Guernsey cattle have been made and much enthusiasm has been aroused
on the part of dairymen in exploiting and developing the interests of the
breed. The breed ranks at the present time as one of the most popular.
Characteristics of Guernsey Cattle.— The standard weight for Guern-
sey cows is 1050 pounds, and for bulls 1500 pounds. Standards which

.^i

I*, t.

i\ •I

A Guernsey Bull.*

A Typical Guernsey Cow,

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE

663

1 Courtesy of The Field, New York.
(662)

The head and neck are comparatively heavy; the males, and quite
frequently the cows, carrying more or less dewlap. Well-developed udders
proportionate in size to the size of body, are sought in the selection of
mature cows. A register of production for animals of superior merit has
been formed by the American Brown Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association
and there is a loyal effort on the part of breeders to make records that
will compare favorably with records of other breeds. The breed has
demonstrated its ability to make very profitable productions of milk and
butter-fat. The milk tests on the average about 4.0 per cent. The high-
est official yearly record for a Brown Swiss cow at the present time is
19,460.6 pounds of milk, testing 4.1 per cent and 798.16 pounds of butter-
fat. This record was made hy the cow College Brauvura 2d, 2577, owned
by the Michigan Agricultural College, East Lansing, Mich.

GUERNSEY CATTLE
Origin and Development.— Guernsey cattle take their name from
Guernsey Island, located in the English Channel not far from France.
This island and two smaller ones, Alderney and Sarnia, belong to the
Channel Islands group, and is where the Guernsey breed originated and
has been developed. These islands, of which Guernsey is the largest,
contain only 2600 acres. On Guernsey the land is more or less hilly and
rough, and the farms are small and devoted exclusively to horticulture and
dairying. Many of the crops, such as grapes, melons and flowers, are
grown in greenhouses. The cattle are owned in small herds and, in order
to make the best use of the available pastures, are tethered or staked
out when allowed to graze.

The people devote their attention to the one breed of cattle and
exclude all other cattle from the island, except those which may be imported
for immediate slaughter. The })reed undoubtedly has its origin in stock
of early French varieties known as Brittany and Normandy cattle. The
production of a rich quality of high-colored milk and butter has always
been the principal object in breeding and developing this breed, and
naturally this has resulted in excellence of performance on the part of
well-grown cattle of the breed.

Guernsey cattle were introduced into America early in the nineteenth
century, but not until 1893, when the dairy qualities of Guernsey cattle
were brought to the attention of the general public by records made at
the World's Columbian Exhibition at Chicago, did Guernsey interests
develoj) to the extent they deserved. The American Guernsey Cattle
Club was organized in 1877, and of late years many importations of
Guernsey cattle have been made and much enthusiasm has been aroused
on the part of dairymen in exploiting and developing the interests of the
breed. The breed ranks at the present time as one of the most popular.
Characteristics of Guernsey Cattle.— The standard weight for Guern-
sey cows is 1050 pounds, and for bulls 1500 pounds. Standards which

[

i; 1

■^»;^1

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

A Holstein-Friesian Bull.^
The largest of dairy breeds-K^olor, black and white.

A Typical Holstein Cow.^

» Courtesy of The FieUJ, New York.
(664)

i id

IIOLSTEIN-FUIESIAX BULL AND CoWS.^

This breed excels in size and prcduction of milk. They can be fattened readily should
their u efulness in llie dairy herd cease, and make excellent beef.

» Courtesy of " The Field, Illustrated," N. Y.

COLOR PLATE

'- 'WW

M^^i^m^

A Holstein-Friesian Bull.^
The largest of duiry breeds— color, bbck and white.

A Typical Holstein Cow.^

1 Courtesy of The Field, New York.
(664)

IIoLSTElN-FlilESlAX BuLL AND CoWS.^

This breed excels in size and prcfhiction of milk. They can be fattened readil}' should
their u efiilness in the dairy herd cease, and make excellent beef.

'Courtesy of " The Yivhl, Illustrated," N. Y.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

r f J

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE

665

demand excellence in conformation and characteristics pertaining to
dairy type are fulfilled by many cattle of the breed. Development for
usefulness rather than for beauty of form has resulted in a lack of refine-
ment and neatness of outline in a good many of the cattle. The compara-
tively few Guernsey cattle in the country encouraged breeders to retain all
pure-bred animals and this accounts for much of the lack of uniformitv
that exists. The American Guernsey Cattle Club was first to estabhsh
an advanced registry for oflficial annual productions of milk and butter-fat
and this again has been a standard toward which breeders have worked
to a greater extent in many instances than they have for excellence of
form. Marked improvement, however, in uniformity and excellence of
dairy form has been noted in the show herds exhibited during the past
few years.

In color the Guernsey is a shade of fawn, varying from dark-red to
light-yellow with white markings. The color of the muzzle in most
instances, which is regarded as most desirable, is buff or flesh color. A
dark muzzle is permissible but undesirable on the part of critical judges.
More emphasis is laid upon rich yellow secretion in the skin, especially
in the ear and at the end of the tail, together with a yellowish appearance
of the horns and hoofs than is laid upon the color markings. The rich
orange secretions of the body are believed to indicate a rich yellow color
of the milk, which is regarded as a most important Guernsey characteristic.
Guernsey milk is not only yellow but of good quality, testing in the neigh-
borhood of five per cent. The yield of milk under ordinary conditions
should l)e 6000 to 7000 pounds per annum. Under oflficial tests, many
Guernseys have far exceeded this amount. In three instances Guernsey
cows have held the world's championship record in butter-fat production.
The highest oflficial yearly record of milk and butter-fat production held
by a Guernsey cow was made by Murne Cowan, 19597, owned by 0. C.
Barber, Akron, Ohio, her production amounting to 24,008 pounds of
milk, testing 4.57 per cent and 1098.18 pounds of butter-fat.

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN

Origin and Development. — Holstein-Friesian cattle, commonly called
Holsteins in America, have their origin in Friesland, a province of Holland
bordering on the North Sea, where low, fertile dyke lands have been
favorable for the development of a large breed of cattle capable of making
large productions of milk. History records that for a thousand or more
years these cattle had been bred and utilized for dairy purposes. Since
1885 they have been extensively introduced into most of the dairy sections
of America and because of their large size and the large quantity of milk
which it is characteristic of them to produce, the breed ranks as one of
the most popular.

Characteristics of Holstein-Friesian Cattle.— The type and size of
the cattle of this breed varies considerably and the terms ''beef/' ''beef

I-

if ■ L

ill

>-!■» i»»J».'-|i%»>«WI|

666

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and milk/' "milk and beef/' and "milk forms" are used to describe the
different types. The milk and beef form is the most generally accepted
type and should be the aim of men engaged in the breeding of these cattle.
Extreme milk form is usually the result of improper growth on the part
of young animals or selection of breeding stock which produces too much
refinement. The following quotation characterizes true Holstein type
and owners and breeders of Holstein-Friesian cattle base their claim for
the superiority of this breed on the following points :

1. "That the Holstein-Friesian is a large, strong, vigorous cow, full

of energy and abounding in vitality.

2. "That her physical organization and digestive capacity is such

that she is able to turn to the best advantage the roughage
of the farm, converting the same into merchantable products.

3. "That she produces large quantities of most excellent milk fit

for any and all uses, and fit especially for shipping purposes.

4. "That heredity is so fh-mly established through her long lineage

that she is able to perpetuate herself through strong, healthy
calves.

5. "And that when, for any reason, her usefulness in the dairy is

at an end, she fattens readily and makes excellent beef.''
Cows of this breed should weigh 1200 to 1400 pounds. Mature
bulls ordinarily weigh 1900 to 2000 pounds or over.

Black and white is the characteristic color in America. More or
less white should extend below the knee and at least some black should
be present where white predominates. The two colors should be
distinct from one another. In Holland red and white is characteristic
of many cattle of this breed and occasionally in Ameiica there are cattle
born of this color. Such cattle, however, are not eligible to register in
the herd books of the American Holstein-Friesian Association.

The breed excels in quantity of milk rather than quality, the fat
in the milk under ordinary conditions being 3 to 3.5 per cent. A
higher test is unreasonable to expect where the large flow of milk,
characteristic of this breed is maintained. In some instances, the fat
falls below 3 per cent, which is regarded as too low, even in cheese
districts where this breed is very popular. A low percentage of fat should
be avoided by the careful selection of sires whose dams yield milk of a
higher percentage of fat.- Naturally this breed with its large size and
natural tendency to produce milk of low percentage of fat has always
excelled all other breeds in milk production. Cows of this breed have
in four instances won the championship record for both milk and butter-
fat production, and hold the world's record at the present writing, with
a production amounting to 28,403.7 pounds of milk testing 4.14 per cent
and 1176.47 pounds of butter-fat, made by the cow, Finderne Pride
Johanna Rue, 121083, owned by Somerset Holstein Breeders' Company,
Somerville, N. J,

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE

667

JERSEY CATTLE

Origin and Development.— Jersey cattle were originally developed
on the Island of Jersey, the largest of the Channel Islands group, where
a delightful cHmate, a rich soil and a people united in their effort to excel
in the production of a single breed of dairy cattle combined to make con-
ditions most favorable -for perfecting and preserving the breed. In 1793
enactments began restricting the importation and maintenance of cattle
other than Jerseys, which finally resulted in its being a crime to keep
cattle of other kinds on the island for a longer period than twenty-four
hours when they had to be slaughtered for beef.

A Jersey Cow.*

Jerseys, as nearly as history reveals, share with Guernseys the blood
of the old Brittany and Normandy cattle of France, in which they undoubt-
edly have their principal origin.

The Jersey breed early attracted the attention of England ^s aristoc-
racy, who introduced them into England to beautify parks and furnish
the rich milk that it was characteristic of them to produce. Beauty of
form has been as much a part of the standard of excellence that guided
the breeders in the development of their cattle as has production of milk,
and has resulted in cattle of marked refinement and beauty.

» Courtesy of The Field, New York.

11 H

666

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE

667

and milk," ''milk and beef/' and "milk forms'' are used to describe the
different types. The milk and beef form is the most generally accepted
type and should be the aim of men engaged in the breeding of these cattle.
Extreme milk form is usually the result of improper growth on the part
of young animals or selection of breeding stock which produces too much
refinement. The following quotation characterizes true Holstein type
and owners and breeders of Holstein-Friosian cattle base their claim for
the superiority of this breed on the following points:

1. ''That the Holstein-Friesian is a large, strong, vigorous cow, full

of energy and abounding in vitality.

2. "That her physical organization and digestive capacity is such

that she is able to turn to the best advantage the roughage
of the farm, converting the same into merchantable products.

3. "That she produces large quantities of most excellent milk fit

for any and all uses, and fit especially for shii)ping purposes.

4. "That heredity is so firmly established through her long lineage

that she is able to perpetuate herself through strong, healthy
calves.

5. "And that w^hen, for any reason, her usefulness in the dairy is

at an end, she fattens readily and makes excellent beef.''
Cows of this breed should weigh 1200 to 1400 pounds. Mature
bulls ordinarily weigh 1900 to 2000 pounds or over.

Black and white is the characteristic color in America. More or
less white should extend below the knee and at least some black should
be present where white predominates. The two colors should })e
distinct from one another. In Holland red and white is characteristic
of many cattle of this breed and occasionally in America there are cattle
born of this color. Such cattle, however, are not eligible to register in
the herd books of the American Holstein-Friesian Association.

The breed excels in quantity of milk rather than quality, the fat
in the milk under ordinary conditions being 3 to 3.5 per cent. A
higher test is unreasonable to exi)ect where the large flow of milk
characteristic of this breed is maintained. In some instances, the fat
falls below 3 per cent, which is regarded as too low, even in cheese
districts where this breed is very popular. A low percentage of fat should
be avoided by the careful selection of sires whose dams yield milk of a
higher percentage of fat.- Naturally this breed with its large size and
natural tendency to produce milk of low i)ercentage of fat has always
excelled all other breeds in milk production. Cows of this breed have
in four instances won the chami)ionship record for both milk and butter-
fat production, and hold the woi-ld's record at the present writing, with
a production amounting to 28,403.7 pounds of milk testing 4.14 per cent
and 1176.47 pounds of butter-fat, made by the cow, Finderne Pride
Johanna Rue, 121083, owned by Somerset Holstein Breeders' Company,
Somerville, N. J,

JERSEY CATTLE
Origin and Development.— Jersey cattle were originally developed
on the Island of Jersey, the largest of the Channel Islands group, where
a delightful climate, a rich soil and a people united in their effort to excel
in the production of a single breed of dairy cattle combined to make con-
ditions most favorable- for perfecting and preserving the breed. In 1793
enactments began restricting the importation and maintenance of cattle
other than Jerseys, which finally resulted in its being a crime to keep
cattle of other kinds on the island for a longer period than twenty-four
hours when they had to be slaughtered for beef.

A Jersey Cow.*

Jerseys, as nearly as history reveals, share with Guernseys the blood
of the old Brittany and Normandy cattle of France, in which they undoubt-
edly have their principal origin.

The Jersey breed early attracted the attention of England's aristoc-
racy, who introduced them into England to beautify parks and furnish
the rich milk that it was characteristic of them to produce. Beauty of
form has been as much a part of the standard of excellence that guided
the breeders in the development of their cattle as has production of milk,
and has resulted in cattle of marked refinement and beauty.

» Courtesy of The Field, New York.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

668

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE

669

Remarkable herds were produced in England, From the herd of
Philip Dancey of that country, the bull Rioter, 746E, was brought to
America and to him the St. Lambert family of Jersey cattle, so prominent
in this country, all trace.

The American people have imported many Jersey cattle both from
the Isle of Jersey and from England, and have always regarded cows of
the breed most excellent butter producers. Practical dairymen whose
choice of breeds has been the Jersey, have favored the larger-sized cows
and persistently worked to secure large productions of milk and butter.
As a result, many of the American-bred Jerseys are larger and more robust
and productive than the so-called island type. The greater size and pro-
duction of the American type of Jerseys has enabled the breed to hold
a popular place in dairy states and districts with other dairy breeds.

Parallel with the development of the American-l)red type of Jersey,
many people have taken great pride and pleasure in maintaining and
preserving the refined and smaller sized island type. Jersey cattle have
been quite universally distributed over the world and under proper care
and supervision give excellent satisfaction.

Characteristics of Jersey Cattle.— Jersey cattle conform to a dairy type
that IS usually extreme. They are regarded as most economical producers of
butter because of the marked dairy capacity they possess in proportion to
their size. The size varies according to the strain or family and for cows
ranges from 700 to 1000 pounds. Bulls will range from 1 100 to 1500 pounds.
The American-bred families, more especially the St. Lambert ^s, are larger
than the imported stock from the Isle of Jersey or from England.

The breed matures early and as a result many mistakes have' been
made in carelessly and intentionally having young heifers produce their
first calves at too young an age. This practice, together with scant feed
rations, not only reduces the size but the constitution and usefulness of
any breed and, for a breed that is naturally small, results in severe criti-
cisms that are unfair when they apply to a breed rather than to individuals.
Jersey ^cattle that are properly reared and well cared for tend to be long
lived and very satisfactory dairy cattle. They have ranked high in
economy and production tests at many shows and expositions and the pro-
duction of cows admitted to the Jersey register of merit verify the fact that
cows of this breed have highly developed powers for dairy production. The
milk is of rich quality, testing ordinarily around 5 per cent. It is reason-
able to expect a production of 300 pounds of butter-fat annually as an
average per cow in herds that are well selected and managed. Jacoba
Irene, 146443, an American-bred cow, owned by A. 0. Auten, Jerseyville,
111., in three consecutive years produced 42,900 pounds of milk and 2366 1
pounds of butter-fat. The present highest yearly record of butter-fat
production made by a Jersey cow is 999.14 pounds, the amount of milk
being 17,557.8 pounds testing 5.69 per cent, a record made by Sophie 19th
of Hood Farm, 189748, owned by C. I. Hood, Lowell, Ma^s

OTHER DAIRY BREEDS

The Dutch Belted, French Canadian and Kerry breeds of cattle
heretofore mentioned rank as dairy breeds, but representatives of them
are comparatively few and in many sections unknown.

Dutch Belted cattle are so-called from their peculiar marking which
is black with a white band about the middle of the body. This character-
istic color is uniformly found in all pure-bred herds of the breed, and is
the result of scientific breeding experiments in Holland where the breed
liad its origin, and was known as Lakenfeld cattle from the word ''Laken,"
meaning blanket or sheet about the body.

The usefulness of the breed was not a primary object in its develop-
ment and for that reason it does not enjoy a popularity common to more
[)rominent breeds.

Marked general improvement in type and production and an increase
in the number of cattle is the ambition of those who are promoting the
breed in America.

French Canadian cattle are a local and popular class of dairy cattle
in the somewhat rough country and severe winter climate of the province
of Quebec, Canada. Here the breed has been developed from early French
stock and bred for over two hundred years. The characteristics of the
cattle resemble very much the Jersey breed and lead to the belief that they
have the same origin in blood. Their hardiness and adaptability to with-
stand Canadian winters and make economical yields of rich milk are
commendable.

A production of 5000 pounds of milk testing 4 per cent or more is
regarded as a fair average annual production for cows of this breed.

Kerry cattle originated in the Kerry mountains of Ireland under most
adverse conditions of soil, climate and people. They have been called
''the poor man's cow.'' They are very small as a natural result of their
poor environment, bulls weighing 800 to 1000 pounds and cows 400 to 700
pounds. There are two types of the breed resulting from a cross which
resulted in the type called the Derter-Kerry, which is smaller and more
beefy than the original true Kerry. The economic value of Kerry cattle
is best appreciated in its native home, where its adaptability, hardiness
and ability to rustle and thrive recommend it. The novelty of the breed
has led to a very limited distribution of the breed, a few herds having
been introduced into Canada and the United States.

DAIRY BREED ORGANIZATION IN AMERICA
The welfare and preservation of breed interests are secured by respon-
sible national breed associations that are recognized and approved by
the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, and
the Canadian Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Ont. All the dairy
breeds of cattle except the Kerry have such organizations which are sup-
ported by a membership composed of the cattle breeders whose interest

I''

. ■ H

670

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

DAIRY BREEDS OF CATTLE

671

prompts them to become members, and by all who register pure-bred
cattle of the respective breeds. Each association registers only cattle
that are eligible by virtue of their purity of breeding, proper identification
and being formally and regularly presented for registration on forms of
application furnished by the association and certified to by the breeder
or owner. Certificates of registry are furnished the breeders or owners
and all transfers of ownership of registered animals where the identity of
subsequent offspring is to be preserved must be formally reported. Upon
being reported it is recorded and a certificate of transfer issued to the
owner.

The associations all publish herd books containing a complete list
of all registered animals and in most instances also publish literature that
is useful and helpful in promoting its cattle interests. One who is particu-
larly interested in a given breed will do well to avail himself of such litera-
ture, which is usually furnished gratis to those who apply for it. The
location of the office and the secretaries of the respective associations can
be readily determined by writing the national departments of agriculture,
heretofore mentioned, if not by acquaintance with breeders of registered
stock.

In addition to a registry of the names of pure-bred animals, the five
more important breed associations maintain an advanced registry or
register of merit for cattle which have excelled in production and made
official records of milk and butter-fat equivalent to or surpassing definite
standards fixed for periods varying from seven days to one year.

Following is a tabulated statement of the requirements for respective
breeds, ages and periods of production:

Great advancement in the appreciation and breeding of pure-bred
cattle has been and is being brought about by volunteer state and com-
munity organizations. The closer contact which these associations have
with the masses engaged in dairying make their opportunity greater than
that of national associations for giving encouragement to men to use the
very best breeding animals, especially sires, that it is possible to secure.
In fact, such organizations cannot be encouraged too much, for in the
work of local breeders and community effort lies the success of maintaining
high standards of excellence and the preservation of all breeds.

REFERENCES

"Types and Breeds of Farm Animals.'' Plumb.
"Study of Breeds." Shaw.

Age.

2 years . . .

3 years . . .

4 years . . .

5 years . . ,

6 years . .

Require-
ments
increase
each day
by pound

Ayrshire.

Year Record.

Pounds
Milk.

Pounds

Butter

P^at.

6000

6500
7500
8500

1.37

and

2.74

214.3
236 . 0
279.0
322.0

0.06
and
0.12

Brown Swiss.

Guernsey.

Year Record.

Pounds
Milk.

6000'
6430

7288
8146
9000

Pounds

Butter

Fat.

Year
Record.

Pounds

Butter

Fat.

2.35

222.0*
238 . 5
271.3
304.2
337.0

0.09

250.5
287.0
323 . 5
360.0

0.1

HOLSTEIN.

7-Day
Record.

Pounds

Butter

Fat.

7.2

8.8
10.4
12.0

• • •

Jersey.

7-Day Record.

Pounds

Butter

Fat.

Year
Record.

12.0
12.0
12.0
12.0

0 . 00439

• • •

Pounds

Butter

Fat.

14.0
14.0
14.0
14.0

• • •

♦ Two and one-half years.

Pounds

Butter

Fat

250.5
287.0
323 5
360.0

CHAPTER 55
Clean Milk Production

By C. W. Larson
Professor of Dairy Hushandnj, The Pennsylvania State College

More than half of the milk produced in the United States is used for
direct consumption. Pure, clean milk is an excellent food and is cheap.
It contains all the essential elements for a complete and balanced ration
for man. On account of its being used by infants, children and invalids
who are least able to resist the effects of unclean food, and because milk is
so easily contaminated, it is essential that great care be taken in its pro-
duction and handling.

CLASSES OF MILK

Sanitary Milk is no definite class of milk. It is simply a term used to
designate good, clean milk produced with extra care. It is usually sold at
a price somewhat above prevailing milk prices.

Guaranteed Milk is milk that the producer guarantees to be produced
under certain conditions and usually with some standard of fat and l)ac-
terial content.

Standardized Milk is milk which has been altered in its amount of
butter-fat by skimming or the adding of cream.

Certified Milk is milk that has been produced under certain conditions
prescribed by a commission, usually consisting of a veterinarian, a physi-
cian, a chemist and a bacteriologist. The prescribed conditions include
scrupulously clean methods, healthy cows, healthy milkers and carefully
sterilized utensils. Such milk should not contain over 10,000 bacteria per
cubic centimeter. It is usually sold at a considerably higher price than
ordinary milk.

Inspected Milk is produced from healthy cows that have been
inspected. The inspection involves an examination by a city or state
inspector of premises and methods.

Pasteurized Milk is milk that has been heated to a sufficiently high
temperature to kill the harmful bacteria, or germs, and then immediately
cooled. The temperature to which it is heated varies with the length of
time it is held. For market milk, it is customary to heat to 140° to 145° F.
for twenty minutes.

Modified Milk is high-class milk, such as certified or sanitary milk,
altered in composition to suit certain uses. Such milk is used for infants
and invalids.

(672)

CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION

673

EQUIPMENT AND METHODS

Clean, Healthy Cows.— The first essential in the production of clean,
healthy milk is to have cows that are clean and free from disease. The milk
from emaciated animals, or those suffering from any disease, should not be
sold. The milk from cows having inflamed udders or sore teats should not
be put into the general supply. The cows should be comfortable in order
to produce normal milk. Any unusual condition or disturbance will cause
them to produce abnormal milk. They should be kept in dry, clean
properly-bedded stalls. The food should be free from mustiness and no
decomposing silage or wet foods should be given after they become mouldy
The drinking water should be clean and fresh.

Most of the dirt that finds its way into the milk pails falls from the
bodies of the cows. It is essential, therefore, that the cows be kept clean.
One of the most important factors in keeping cows clean is to have the
platforms on which they stand the proper length, so that the manure will
drop into the gutter. Adjustable stanchions are also desirable, so that the
proper alignment can be made on the platform. Cows kept in the stable
should be groomed at lea^t once a day, but this should be sufl[iciently long
before milking time to permit the dust to settle. Wiping the udder and the
flanks with a clean, damp cloth requires only a short time and will do much
to remove dirt that would otherwise fall into the pail. It is practical,
where clean milk is being produced, to clip the udder and flanks occasion-
ally. This prevents the dirt from sticking, and makes it possible to keep
the cows cleaner.

Stables.— Expensive barns are not essential to the production of clean
milk. The health of the cows and the methods of the milker are of greater
importance and have more effect upon the finished product. Good con-
struction and convenient arrangement of the stable may lessen the work,
keep the cows more comfortable and have a beneficial effect upon the
milkers.

The barn should be located on well-drained land and be free from
contaminating surroundings. Horses, chickens, stagnant water and
manure piles, when near the stable, may pollute the air. Odors are easily
absorbed by milk. The stable floor should be of concrete or some other
material that does not absorb the liquid manure, and at the same time
should be suflSciently smooth to be easily cleaned. The walls should be
smooth and free from ledges to avoid collecting dirt. The occasional use
of whitewash on the walls and ceiling is recommended.

The barn should not be overcrowded and at the same time should not
have an excessive amount of space in cold climates. From 500 to 1000
cubic feet per cow is satisfactory. Too much light cannot be provided.
Sunlight destroys bacteria and also makes a healthy atmosphere for the
cows. The more light the better, and it is well that it be evenly distributed
and that the windows be located, if possible, so that the light can shine into
the gutter.

M (j

i 'I

I u

iiij

674

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The dairy barn should be well ventilated. Experiments at the
Pennsylvania Experiment Station have shown that cows will do well even
in an open shed, providing they are kept dry and out of the wind. Since,
therefore, it is not necessary to have the dairy barn warm, the problem
of ventilation is greatly lessened. It is not difficult to get fresh air into the
barn, but it is difficult to get sufficient fresh air without cooling the atmos-
phere. The air in the barn should be changed, even if it does become cold.
Cows must have fresh air in order to produce their maximum of milk and
keep healthy. Have many and small intakes and few and large outlets.
The capacity of the intakes and the outlets should be equal and provide
about one square foot in cross section for each four or five cows.

'I'.'.'iiiy'

1
1

Ml*]' \AM

1
1

Milk Pau.s of Rkst Desicn.*

Milkers. — A clean and careful milker can produce clean milk in a
poor barn, but an unclean milker cannot produce clean milk in any barn.
The milker must be clean and healthy and, above all things, should milk
with dry hands. The practice of wetting the hands with milk is deplorable.
It is unnecessary. The milker should always wash his hands before start-
ing to milk. The air, during the milking, should be kept free from dust
and odors. Manure should not be removed from the barn, nor should any
dusty feed be given during the milking time. Silage or other feeds that
have an odor should be fed at least three hours before milking, so that
the odor will not be taken up by the milk.

Small-top Milk Pails. — Most of the dirt that gets into the milk
drops from the cows during milking time. If, therefore, the opening at
the top of the pail is closed to one-sixth the size of an ordinary pail, only

» Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION 675

one-sixth as nmch dirt gains access to the milk. With a Httle practice,
the small-top milk pail can be used as easily as the large-top pail.

Clean Tinware. — All the cans and pails that are used for milk should
be of metal, and all of the joints and corners should be completely filled
with solder. Wooden pails should not be used. To wash the tinware,
it should first be rinsed with lukewarm water, then thoroughly scrubbed
with brush, hot water and washing powder, and finally, either steamed
or rinsed with boiling hot water. It should not be wiped with a cloth,
but should be allowed to drain and dry. The heat of the steam or boiling
water will soon dry the tinware.

Strainers. — Where milk is produced in a clean way it is not necessary
to have a strainer. It is usually not desirable to have a strainer on the
milk pail, for the dirt collected will have all the injurious effect washed
from it into the pail during the milking. A strainer may be used en the
can or milk cooler. For this a cloth strainer, made especially for that
purpose and used only once, is satisfactory. The cheesecloth strainer
that is used from day to day contaminates the milk instead of purifying
it. A metal strainer is satisfactory.

Handling the Milk. — As soon as the milk has been drawn it should
be removed from the stable so that it will not absorb odors. A convenient
milk-room should be provided. This room should be clean and free from
dust and odors. The milk should be cooled at once. Under the best of
conditions, some bacteria or germs get into the milk, and the problem,
therefore, is to prevent these bacteria from increasing in number. At a
temperature of 70° F. one bacterium may increase to two in twenty min-
utes, but at 50° F. or lower it requires a nmch longer time. One bacterium
at 50° F. may increase in twelve hours to six or seven, while at 70° F.
it ma}'^ increase to six or seven hundred. Since, therefore, there are several
hundred bacteria in every cubic centimeter of good milk, some realization
may be had of how many thousands of bacteria will be developed in ten
or twelve hours at 70° F. The following table, prepared by Stocking,
shows the importance of cooling milk at once to a low temperature. The
milk that was used in this experiment contained a low percentage of bac-
teria when produced.

Effect of Different Temperatures Upon the Development of Bacteria

IN Milk.

Temperature Maintained Bacteria per c.c. at

for 12 Hours. end of 12 Hours.

40° F 4,000

47° F 9,000

50° F 18,000

54.5° F 38,000

60° F 453,000

70° F 8,800,000

80° F 55,300,000

Coolers. — There are various styles of apparatus on the market for
cooling milk. These are called coolers. They are arranged so that the

676

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

water passes on the inside of the tubes and the milk passes over them.
By having a supply of cold water passing through the tubes, the milk
can be cooled to within two or three degrees of the temperature of the
water. Unless the cooler is placed in a room free from dust, the milk
may become contaminated. Coolers with a hood or covering are preferred.
Those having few joints so that they may easily be cleaned are also pref-
erable. When it is not necessary to cool the milk immediately for ship-
ment, or otherwise, it may be cooled by placing the can in a tank of cold
water. Unless the water supply is plentiful and the water cold, it is desir-
able to have ice.

Suggestions for Improvement. — A list of suggestions and instructions
of good methods and practices placed in a conspicuous place in the barn
does much to improve the quality of the milk. A list of twenty-one
suggestions, composed by Webster, gives the essential points to be fol-
lowed in the production of clean milk. These suggestions are as follows:

"I. Cows.

'*1. Have the herd examined frequently by a skilled veterinarian.
Remove all animals suspected of not being in good health. Never add an
animal to the herd unless it is knowai to be free from disease.

'^2. Never allow a cow to be abused, excited by loud talking or other
disturbances. Do not unduly expose her to cold and storm.

^^3. Clean the under part of the body of the cow daily. Hair in
the region of the udder should be kept short. Wipe the udder and sur-
rounding parts with a clean, damp cloth before milking.

^^4. Do not allow any strong-flavored foods such as cabbage, turnips,
garlic, etc., to be eaten except directly after milking.

'^ 5. Salt should always be accessible.

'^6. Radical changes of food should be made gradually.

'^7. Have plenty of pure, fresh water in abundance, easy of access
and not too cold.

''II. Stables.

''8. Dairy animals should be kept in a stable where no other animals
are housed, and preferably one without a cellar or storage loft. Stables
should be light — four feet of glass per cow — and dry, with at least 500 cubic
feet of air for each animal. The stable should have air inlets and outlets
so arranged as to give good ventilation without drafts over the cows. It
should have as few flies as possible.

'^9. Floors, walls and ceilings should be tight and the walls and ceiling
should be kept free from dust and cobwebs and whitewashed twice a year.
There should be as few dust-catching ledges and projections as possible.

^'10. Allow no musty or dirty litter or strong-smelling material in
the stable. Store the manure under cover at least forty feet from the
stable and in a dark place. Use land-plaster in the gutter and on the floor.

CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION

677

*'III. Milk House.

'^11. The can should not remain in the stable while being filled.
Remove the milk from each cow at once from the stable to a clean room.
Strain immediately through absorbent cotton or cotton flannel; cool to
50° F. as soon as possible. Store at 50° F. or lower.

'^12. Utensils should be of metal with all joints smoothly soldered.
If possible, they should
be made of stamped
metal. Never allow
the utensils to become
rough or rusty inside.
Use them for nothing
but milk.

" 13. To clean the
utensils, use pure water.
First rinse them with
warm water, then wash
them inside and out in
hot water in which a
cleaning material has
been dissolved. Rinse
again and sterilize in
boiling water or steam.
Then keep them in-
verted in pure air, and
in the sun as much as
possible, until ready to
use.

"IV. Milking and
Handling Milk.

"14. A milker
should wash his hands
immediately before
milking and should
milk with dry hands.
He should wear a clean
outer garment, which should be kept in a clean place when not in use.
Tobacco should not be used while milking.

" 15. In milking be quiet, quick, clean and thorough. Commence milk-
ing the same hour morning and evening. Milk the cows in the same order.

"16. If any part of the milk is bloody, stringy or not natural in
appearance, or if, by accident, dirt gets into the pail, the whole should
be rejected.

» From Farmers* Bulletin 602, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

\ '

A Clean Milker in a Clean Stable at
Milking Time.^

Note the clean suit, sanitary milking stool, small-top
pail, cow with clean flanks and udder, and sanitary
stable construction. Under these conditions clean milk
can be easily produced.

Wmmmi

67G

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

"I. Cows.

*'l. Have the herd examined frequently by a skilled veterinarian.
Remove all animals suspected of not being in good health. Never add an
animal to the herd unless it is known to i^e free from disease.

'^2. Never allow a cow to be abused, excited by loud talking or other
disturbances. Do not unduly expose her to cold and storm.

*^3. Clean the under part of the ])ody of the cow dail}-. Hair in
the region of the udder should ])c kept short. Wipe the udder and sur-
rounding parts with a clean, damp cloth l)efore milking.

^^4. Do not allow any strong-flavored foods such as cabbage, turnips,
garlic, etc., to be eaten except directly after milking.

'^5. Salt should alwavs be accessible.

''6. Radical changes of food should be made graduall3%

*^7. Have plenty of pure, fresh water in abundance, easy of access
and not too cold.

*'II. Stables.

''8. Dairy animals should be kept in a stable where no other animals
are housed, and preferal)ly one without a cellar or storage loft. Stables
should })e light — four feet of glass per cow — and dry, with at least 500 cubic
feet of air for each animal. The stable should have air inlets and outlets
so arranged as to give good ventilation without drafts over the cows. It
should have as few flies as possible.

''9. Floors, walls and ceilings should be tight and the walls and ceiling
should be kept free from dust and {X)bwel)s and whitewashed twice a year.
There should be as few dust-catching ledges and projections as possible.

'40. Allow no musty or dirty litter or strong-smelling material in
the stable. Store the manure under cover at least forty feet from the
stable and in a dark place. Use land-plaster in the gutter and on the floor.

CLEAN MILK PRODUCTION

677

*'IIL Milk House.

"11. The can should not remain in the stable while being filled.
Remove the milk from each cow at once from the stable to a clean room.
Strain immediately through absorbent cotton or cotton flannel; cool to
50° F. as soon as possible. Store at 50° F. or lower.

*'12. Utensils should be of metal with all joints smoothly soldered.
If possible, they should
be made of stamped
metal. Never allow
the utensils to become
rough or rusty inside.
Use them for nothing
but milk.

"IV. Milking and
Handling Milk.

'^14. A milker
should wash his hands
immediately before
milking and should
milk with dry hands.
He should wear a clean
outer garment, which should be kept in a clean place when not in use.
Tobacco should not be used while milking.

*' 15. In milking be quiet, quick, clean and thorough. Commence milk-
ing the same hour morning and evening. Milk the cows in the same order.

''16. If any part of the milk is })loody, stringy or not natural in
appearance, or if, by accident, dirt gets into the pail, the whole should
be rejected.

1 From Farmers* Bulletin 602. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

■

I !

A Clean Milker in a Clean Stable at

MiLKINCJ TlME.^

Note the clean suit, sanitary milking stool, small-top
pail, cow with clean flanks and udder, and sanitary
stable construction. Under these conditions clean milk
can be easily produced.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

!»

678

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

*' 17. Weigh and record the milk given by each cov/.

'* 18. Never mix warm milk with that which has been cooled. Do
not allow milk to freeze.

'* 19.. Avoid using any dry, dusty feed just previous to milking.

''20. Persons suffering from any disease, or who have been exposed
to any contagious disease, must remain away from the milk.

''21. The shorter the time between the production of the milk and
its delivery, and between its delivery and its use, the better will be the
quality.'^

REFERENCES
** Dairy Chemistry." Snyder.
'' The Milk Question.'' Rosenau.
** Bacteria and Country Life." Lipman.

'* Modern Methods of Treating Milk and Milk Products." Xan Slyke.
''Practical Dairy Bacteriology." Conn.

Kentucky Expt. Station Circular 6. " Inexpensive Appliances and Utensils for Dairy "
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

348. "Bacteria in Milk."

366. " Effect of Machine Milking and Milk Supply of Cities."

413. " Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home." *

602. " Production of Clean Milk."

608. *' Removal of Garlic Flavor from Milk."

CHAPTER 56

DAIRY BUTTER-MAKING

By Ernest L. Anthony
Assistant Professor of Dairy Husbandry, The Pennsylvania State College

Farm dairying has attracted public attention to an uncommon degree
in the last few years. This is due largely to the modern development in
the dairy field as well as to the adaptability of dairy farming or certain
phases of it to average farm practices.

Adaptation. — Dairy farming is especially adapted to farms located
near markets, because of the regular demand for fresh dairy products.
Dairy products are, as a whole, perishable and must be marketed soon after
being produced. For this reason easy and frequent access to markets is
very desirable. Dairying is also adaptable as a side line in general farming,
fruit raising and poultry farming. It provides for the utilization of
waste products on the farm as feed for cows and aids in the continuous
and economical employment of labor.

It is also particularly adapted to the person starting in to farm on a
small scale, as it is possible with a comparatively small capital to start a
dairy business which enables the dairyman to live while his business grows.

The Need of Dairy Farming. — According to late authorities, the
people of the United States consume over seven-tenths of a pint of milk per
capita daily. To this should be added the enormous consumption of
butter, cheese, ice cream, condensed milk and other minor dairy products.
This gives an idea of the possibilities which are before the American dairy-
man today.

Types of Dairy Farming. — Several types of dairy farming are pursued
in the United States; they are: (1) the production of milk for wholesale
and retail trade; (2) the production of cream for creameries and ice cream
factories; (3) the manufacture of cheese on the farm; (4) the manufacture
of butter upon the farm, or farm butter-making.

Market Milk. — The production of market milk is one of the leading
types of dairy farming. It requires easy access to reliable markets, and is
most successful when conducted on a fairly extensive scale. It requires
less labor than most other types of dairy farming. Clean milk production is
discussed in the preceding chapter.

Farm Cheese-making. — This type is especially adapted to dairy
farms not located close to dairy markets. Cheese is less perishable than
the other dairy products and this enables the farmer to engage in dairying

(679)

; f
) ■

680

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and market his products at his convenience. Farm cheese-making is most
extensive in the eastern part of the United States, especially in the rougher
sections. Cheddar and brick cheese are largely made. Much soft cheese,
such as schmier kase, cottage and Dutch hand is also produced in many
localities. Successful farm cheese-making requires some special cheese
apparatus, as well as a fair understanding of the principles which govern
cheese manufacture.

Farm Butter-making.— On the general farm more attention is paid

to the making of farm
butter than to any
other phase of farm
dairying. This is true
because of the large
market for the product
and the adaptability
of farm butter-making
to average farm con-
ditions.

Control of Prod-
ucts.— The production
of good butter of uni-
form quality starts
with the cow. Milk
from unhealthy cows
can never be made
into first-class prod-
ucts. Neither can
cows that are kept in
unclean, unsanitary
])laccs produce clean
milk.

One making but-
ter on the farm can
have complete control
of his milk from the time that it is drawn from the cow until it is made
into butter. This is not true of the creamery man or manufacturer, who
has to secure his product from outside sources over which he has no
supervision. This advantage means much to the farm butter-maker if he
realizes it and makes the most of it.

Cleanliness Necessary.— The cows should always be brushed off and
kept clean at milking time. Care should be taken that all utensils be kept
clean and in good condition, so that the cream, whether skimmed or sepa-
rated, shall be good, sweet and not absorb any undesirable taints or odors.
A^uch^utter which would otherwise be good is damaged in flavor because

» Hygienic Laboratory, Washington, D. C.

A Good Type of a Dairy IIouse.^

DAIRY BUTTER-MAKING

681

care is not taken to keep dirt and impurities out of it. Milk not separated
by a cream separator should be at once cooled by some suitable method
and held as cold as possible until the cream has risen. Cream should be
cooled as soon as it is separated.

Percentage of Fat in Cream. — If a separator is used the percentage

! I

»l

A Good Type of Cream Separator.^

of fat in the cream may be regulated. When it is impossible to test the
cream for its percentage of fat, the separator so regulated that about 12
to 14 per cent of the total milk is separated and comes out as cream, will
give approximately the proper richness to the cream. The best results

* Courtesy of the Sharpies Separator Company, West Chester, Pa.

^«Bi*'.W.i./»» . ■>:■ jt: »t; t-v'.: -l-v . wriii"i-n

"-'^Irt ,1, 1..''. ;

'5'.,-,'-.'^

">j.»'f<.'v;Wf)i'.,. •

680

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

DAIRY BUTTER-MAKING

681

Farm Butter-making.— On the general farm more attention is paid

to the making of farm
butter than to any
other phase of farm
dairying. This is true
because of the large
market for the product
and the a(laj)tability
of farm butter-making
to average farm con-
ditions.

Control of Prod-
ucts.— The production
of good butter of uni-
form quality starts
with the cow. IMilk
from unhealthy cows
can never be made
into first-class prod-
u c t s . Neither can
cows that are kept in
unclean, unsanitary
l)laces })ro(luce clean
milk.

One making })ut-
ter on the farm can
have complete control '
of his milk from the time that it is drawn from the cow until it is made
into butter. This is not true of the creamery man or manufacturer, who
has to secure his product from outside sources over which he has no
supervision. This advantage means nmch to the farm butter-maker if he
realizes it and makes the most of it.

Cleanliness Necessary.— The cows should always be brushed off and
kept clean at milking time. Care should be taken that all utensils be kept
clean and in good condition, so that the cream, whether skimmed or sepa-
rated, shall be good, sweet and not absorb any undesirable taints or odors.
R£u^j3utter which would otherwise be good is damaged in flavor because

» Hygienic Laboratory, Washington, D. C.

A Good Type of a Dairy IIousp:.^

Percentage of Fat in Cream. — If a separator is used the percentage

■ '
n

A Good Type of Cream Separator.*

^ Courtesy of the Sharpies Separator Company, West Chester, Pa.

v.'l

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

'■'rf^r.

682

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

1^4

will be obtained when the cream has about 28 to 30 per cent of fat. Cream
with too high a percentage of fat has a tendency to adhere to the sides of
the chum, which causes difficult churning and increases the danger of loss
of fat in the buttermilk.

Thin Cream Undesirable. — When cream is too thin or has too small a
percentage of fat in it, as in the case of hand-skimmed cream containing
from 12 to 20 per cent of fat, good, uniform churning is hard to secure.
Such cream loses too much fat in the buttermilk and also requires longer
churning.

Methods of Ripening Cream. — Poor quality in farm butter is most
frequently due to a lack of proper ripening of the cream previous to churn-
ing. On the farm it is often necessary to store the cream from two or
or more days' milkings in order to secure a sufficient amount for a churning.
The common method now in use on most farms is simply to collect in a
cream can or jar successive creamings, until enough has been secured
for a churning. Meanwhile the cream is held in the cellar, milkhouse,
back porch or springhouse. The temperature at which it is held varies
with the weather, season of year and other conditions. Under these
conditions the cream usually ripens or develops acid until at the end of
three or four days it becomes sour and is then stirred and churned. If
it is kept too cold for ripening during this holding period, it is warmed
for several hours and allowed to sour before churning.
' * This is a bad practice and is responsible for many of the taints and
off flavors found in farm butter. The reason for this is that the temperature
of the cream is usually about 55° F., which is a little too low to secure
a good growth of the lactic or acid-forming bacteria which produce the
proper flavors in the cream. Some claim that this average cellar tem-
perature favors the proper conditions for the growth of the bacteria that
produce objectionable flavors and taints in cream. These undesirable
bacteria produce no acid, will not grow well in the acid medium and seem
to grow best at a temperature of 50° to 60° F.

The Pennsylvania Experiment Station, Bulletin 135, has conducted
some experimental work to determine the best way to ripen cream on the
farm. This work indicates that there are three other methods, any one
of which will give better results than the storing of cream at cellar tem-
peratures. They are: (1) holding or storing the cream at a very low
temperature (below 45° F.) until enough is secured for a churning, and
then warming it up to 70° to 80° F. and ripening; (2) ripening the first
collection of cream at once and adding each skimming to it, from day to
day, until a churning is secured; (3) adding a portion of buttermilk to
the first cream gathered and then adding each skimming until enough
is secured for a churning.

The first method is a good one for butter-makers who have ice for
keeping the cream cold. Immediately after separating each day's cream,
it should be cooled to 45° F. or below, and held at this low temperature

DAIRY BUTTER-MAKING

683

until enough is secured for. a churning. It is then warmed up to 75° F.
and held at that temperature until the proper amount of acid is developed
in it. At this temperature about twelve hours is required to develop the
proper percentage of acid.

The second method is to ripen the cream of the first separation that
is to form the new churning at about 75° F. until 0.3 per cent of acid is
developed. It is then cooled to the temperature of the springhouse or
cellar, and each subsequent creaming, after it has been cooled, is added
to this lot until enough is secured for a churning. Under average conditions
this will give enough acid development in the whole churning for best
results. The ripening of the first separation of cream develops a large
number of lactic acid bacteria and produces some acid, which serves to
hold in check the undesirable types of bacteria.

The third method is to add a portion of buttermilk of good quality
to the first separation, and then add each succeeding creaming and
hold the whole amount at cellar or springhouse temperature until a
sufficient quantity is secured for a churning. If the ripening has not
sufficiently developed by that time the temperature can be raised to
75° F. and the cream allowed to ripen until the proper amount of acid
has developed.

The object in the last two methods is essentially the same, namely,
to hold in check the undesirable bacteria by having developed or intro-
duced into the cream a preponderance of the desirable bacteria and a
small amount of acid. The last two methods are simple, handy and
require no special apparatus. Care nmst be taken, however, in the last
method to make sure that the buttermilk comes from butter of a good
flavor and quality. The using of buttermilk of medium or poor quality
is very likely to produce butter of much the same kind as that from which
the buttermilk was secured.

Amount of Acid to Develop, or Degree of Ripening. — Large amounts
of farm cream are ripened or soured too much before churning. Because
of this, an old and tainted or stale flavor is developed. Cream ripened
until it is sharply sour usually contains from 0.6 to 0.8 per cent of acid,
which is too much. The best flavors and keeping quality are secured when
it is ripened so as to contain about 0.4 to 0.5 per cent of acid. Where
no acid test is used, this amount of acid may be approximated. The cream
should taste only very mildly sour. Cream naturally ripened at 70° to
75° F. will develop about this amount of acid if held ten hours.

The Use of Starters. — Starters are not much used on the farm and
when used are generally of the natural kind, that is, made up of buttermilk
or good sour milk. They are very desirable, if care is taken to use only
good buttermilk or sour milk, and in most cases will improve the quality
of the butter produced. They are especially desirable when cream is
hard to churn because of improper ripening, and where it is difficult to
secure proper ripening. The amount to use varies with the con-

fill

684

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

dition of the cream, but in most cases from 10 to 20 per cent is a suitable
quantity.

Natural Starter. — The natural starter made from sour milk is perhaps
the best for farm conditions. To make it, set several samples of good,
clean skim or whole milk in small jars until the milk becomes sour. The
holding temperature should be about 70° F. When the samples have
become sour they should be examined. They should have formed a good,
smooth curd, free from gas bubbles. The flavor and taste should be clean
and sharply sour. The sample showing the best flavor and condition of
the curd should be selected for the starter. It may be built up in larger
quantities by adding the sample to about ten times its volume of clean,
sweet skim milk and allowing the mixture to stand at about 70° F. until
it has coagulated. The coagulated milk is then the starter to use in the
cream-ripening process. It contains a preponderance of the desirable
lactic bacteria which are necessary for that process.

The Amoirnt of Starter to Use. — The amount of starter to add to
cream varies from 8 to 50 per cent. If the starter is a good one, the more
added the better, but if 'too much be added it will dilute the cream too
greatly and make it hard to churn. About 10 per cent is a common
amount to use.

Churning Temperatures. — The temperature at which cream is churned
is very important. Properly ripened cream should be cooled down to the
temperature at which it is to be churned and held at that temperature
at least two hours to allow the fat to become cool and firm enough to churn.

The churning temperature varies widely. It is affected by the season
of the year, kind of feed given the cows, condition of the cream and tem-
perature of the churning room.

Variations in Churning Temperature. — In the spring and summer,
when the cows are fresh and the feeds succulent and soft, the butter-fat
is naturally softer than later in the season. Under average conditions
temperatures ranging from 52° to 56° F. will give best results for these
seasons. This temperature should be increased to about 56° to 60° F. in
the winter. Much cream is now churned on the farms at above 60° F.
Experiments seem to indicate that the lower temperatures are to be pre-
ferred, as butter is much firmer when coming from the churn, does not so
easily incorporate buttermilk, and will stand more working, thus producing
a better body and a more uniform quality. Because of the cream being
poorly ripened or abnormal in some way, it is often necessary to use higher
temperatures than are here given. When difficulty in churning is expe-
rienced, the cream should never be raised in temperature by adding hot
water to the churn, but should be poured from the churn into a can and
gradually raised a few degrees in temperature by setting the can in a
pan of warm water.

Care of the Chum. — The proper care of cream in the ripening process,
although very essential, does not insure good butter. Good cream can

DAIRY BUTTER-MAKING

685

easily be spoiled in churning. Unless the churn is kept in good condition
it is impossible to make good butter with it. The churn should always
be well scalded out and well cooled down l)efore using. There are two
reasons for this: first, the hot water will scald out and kill all moulds that
may be growing in the wood and will close the pores of the wood so that
the cream or butter will not adhere to it; second, the churn should be
cooled so that the temperature of the cream will not be raised while churn-
ing and yield soft, greasy butter.

Length of Time to Churn. — The length of time best for churning
varies with the condition of the cream, but ranges from 15 to 30 minutes.

\ .

Farm Butter-making Apparatus.*

If the cream chums in less than 15 minutes, the butter is very likely to be
too soft to work well and will have a poor body when finished. Cream
that requires much longer than 30 minutes may be improperly ripened
or abnormal in some way. Taking the cream from the churn and raising
the temperature in the manner suggested alx)ve will in most cases over-
come the trouble.

The churning should stop when the butter begins to collect in the
buttermilk in granules from the size of a pea to that of a grain of corn.
Granules of this size do not contain so much buttermilk as do larger ones.
The butter is easier to wash, salt and work.

Washing Butter. — It is a common practice on the farm to wash butter
through several wash waters. This is unnecessary if the churning has
been stopped at the right time. If the granules are about the size of peas

> Courtesy of Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station.

684

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

DAIRY BUTTER-MAKING

685

dition of the cream, but in most cases from 10 to 20 per cent is a suitable
quantity.

Natural Starter. — The natural starter made from sour milk is perhaps
the best for farm conditions. To make it, set several samples of good,
clean skim or whole milk in small jars until the milk becomes sour. The
holding temperature should be about 70"^ F. When the samples have
become sour they should be examined. They should have formed a good,
smooth curd, free from gas bubbles. The flavor and taste should be clean
and sharply sour. The sample showing the best flavor and condition of
the curd should l)e selected for the starter. It may be built up in larger
quantities by adding the sample to about ten times its volume of clean,
sweet skim milk and allowing the mixture to stand at about 70° F. until
it has coagulated. The coagulated milk is then the starter to use in the
cream-ripening process. It contains a preponderance of the desirable
lactic bacteria which are necessary for that process.

The Amount of Starter to Use. — The amount of starter to add to
cream varies from 8 to 50 per cent. If the starter is a good one, the more
added the better, but if 'too much be added it will dilute the cream too
greatly and make it hard to churn. About 10 per cent is a conunon
amount to use.

Churning Temperatures. — The temperature at which cream is churned
is very important. Proi:)erly ripened cream should be cooled down to the
temi)erature at which it is to be churned and held at that temperature
at least two hours to allow the fat to become cool and firm enough to churn.

The churning temperature varies widely. It is affected })y the season
of the year, kind of feed given the cows, condition of the cream and tem-
perature of the churning room.

Variations in Churning Temperature. — In the spring and summer,
when the cows are fresh and the feeds succulent and soft, the butter-fat
is naturally softer than later in the season. Under average conditions
temperatures ranging from 52° to 56° F. will give best results for these
seasons. This temperature should be increased to about 56° to 60° F. in
the winter. Much cream is now churned on the farms at above 60° F.
Experiments seem to indicate that the lower temperatures are to be pi'e-
ferred, as butter is much firmer when coming from the churn, does not so
easily incorporate buttermilk, and will stand more working, thus producing
a better body and a more uniform quality. Because of the cream being
poorly ripened or abnormal in some way, it is often necessary to use higher
temperatures than are here given. When difficulty in churning is expe-
rienced, the cream should never be raised in temperature by adding hot
water to the churn, but should ])e poured from the churn into a can and
gradually raised a few degrees in temperature by setting the can in a
pan of warm water.

Care of the Chum. — The proper care of cream in the ripening process,
although very essential, does not insure good butter. Good cream can

easily be spoiled in churning. Unless the churn is kept in good condition
it is impossible to make good butter with it. The churn should always
be well scalded out and well cooled down before using. There are two
reasons for this: first, the hot water will scald out and kill all moulds that
may be growing in the wood and will close the pores of the wood so that
the cream or butter will not adhere to it; second, the churn should be
cooled so that the temperature of the cream will not be raised while churn-
ing and yield soft, greasy butter.

Length of Time to Churn. — The length of time best for churning
varies with the condition of the cream, but ranges from 15 to 30 minutes.

Farm Butter-making Apparatus.^

If the cream churns in less than 15 minutes, the butter is very likely to be
too soft to work well and will have a i)oor })ody when finished. Cream
that requires much longer than 30 minutes may be improperly ripened
or abnormal in some way. Taking the cream from the churn and raising
the temperature in the manner suggested above will in most cases over-
come the trouble.

' Courtesy of Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station.

■

'■

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

686

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

or grains of corn, one washing will remove all the buttermilk. Too much
washing has a tendency to remove the finer flavors and give the butter
a flat taste. The amount of wash water should be about equal to the
volume of cream churned.

Temperature of Wash Water.— The temperature of the wash water
may vary considerably, but it should not be much above or below the
churning temperature. Very cold wash water is to be avoided. Cold
water absorbs the flavors of the butter readily, causes brittleness of body
and lowers the quality.

When a low churning temperature is used, the washing temperature
may be the same, and should never be more than 4 to 6 degrees less. Where
a higher temperature is used for churning, the washing temperature may
differ as much as 4 to 10 degrees from that of the churning. The wash
water should be pure and clean and free from odors or taints, as these
will be readily absorbed by the butter.

Preparation of Working-Board.— After the wash water is drawn from
the butter — unless a* combined churn and worker is used — the butter
should be taken out in the loose, granular form and placed on the working-
board or table. This table should be clean and thoroughly wet with
cold water. Butter will stick to a dry, warm or dirty board.

Salting.— Fine dairy salt of the best quality should be used. The
quantity varies with the taste of the maker and the markets on which
the butter is sold. Under average conditions where the butter is
worked on a hand-worker, three-quarters of an ounce of salt to each
pound of butter-fat is a desirable amount to use. Butter made in a
combined churn requires heavier salting, and as much as one and one-
quarter ounces of salt per pound of butter-fat may be required. This
larger amount is necessary because of the wash water which is held in
the churn.

The salt should be evenly distributed over the granules of butter on
the working-board, and the working may begin at once. It is a common
practice to let the butter stand with the salt on it for a while before working.
This is unnecessary if the butter is in a good granular condition, firm in
body and the salt fine and of a good grade.

Working of Butter.— The working should begin by first using the
sharp edge of the worker to cut and flatten the butter out into a thin
sheet. This sheet should then be folded to the center of the working-board,
and the process repeated.

The working of butter accomplishes three important things: It
evenly incorporates the salt, removes the excess water and makes the
body compact. The working should be continued until the excess water
no longer appears and the salt is worked evenly through the mass. The
texture of the body may be ascertained by breaking off a piece of the
butter. The break should show a brittle, grainy appearance, similar to
that of broken steel.

DAIRY BUTTER-MAKING

687

When the butter has been sufficiently worked it should be printed
into some desirable shape. The common rectangular one-pound mould is
the best, as it makes a neat, attractive print and is easy to handle.

Wrapping of Butter. — After the butter is printed it should be wrapped
in a good grade of parchment butter paper. This is very essential. Much
butter is wrapped in cloth or oiled paper. This is a very bad practice,
as the cloth holds moulds, which readily grow and produce taints and odors.
The oiled paper, if kept for any length of time in a warm place, becomes
very rancid and imparts undesirable flavors.

Value of Standard Product. — It is always advisable to have the name
of the producer or his farm name on the wrapper of the butter, if it is
sold on the market. If the butter
is of good quality, this will tend to
increase the sales and be an in-
centive to the highest effort for
maintaining uniformity in quality.
The attractiveness and neatness of
the package always helps to sell the
butter, often at much above the
average market price.

Care of the Farm Chum. —
After the butter is taken from the
churn, the latter should be rinsed
out with warm water and the rinsing
followed by a thorough washing
with very hot water. The rinsing
out with warm water will remove
any buttermilk which may remain
in the pores of the wood. The hot
water will remove any fat which
may be left in the churn.

It is never well to use soap powders on the interior of the churn, but
the occasional use of a small amount of dairy washing powder or lime-
water is beneficial.

To keep the churn sweet and free from odors and taints a small handful
of lime placed in some water in the churn or in the last rinsing of the churn
is very effective. It is essential in good butter-making to see that all
apparatus used is absolutely clean and free from undesirable odors and
taints, as these are quickly absorbed by the butter.

Dairy Apparatus. — In the selection of dairy apparatus there are
several things which must be taken into consideration. They are: Sim-
plicity of construction, ease of cleaning, durability and first cost.

Care of Other Dairy Apparatus. — All other dairy apparatus should
at all times be kept scrupulously clean and free from rust. Pails, buckets,
crocks, etc., after being used should be rinsed out and washed well with

Butter Printer.

I-!

iii

688

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

DAIRY BUTTER-MAKING

a brush and a dairy washing powder. After they are carefully cleaned
they should be rinsed out and then either scalded with very hot water
or steamed if steam is available.

The cream separator should be taken apart and well cleaned after
each milking and left apart until its next use. If it is left unclean, or
IS not well aired, bad taints and odors will develop in the cream, causing:
a poor quality of finished product.

All dairy apparatus should be placed in the sun after it is washed
as the sun will quickly dry it. Sunlight also acts as a powerful disinl
tectmg agent. However, care should be taken to see that the appa-

689

Butter Ready for Market.*

ratus is so placed that there is no danger of dust and dirt blowing in
on it.

Chums.— The farm churn should be of ample size for the largest
churning made during the year. The common barrel churn is the most
practical for farm use, as it is simple, easy to clean and very durable as
well as economical in the first cost. On farms where large amounts of
butter are made a small combined churn, as illustrated, is very desirable.

On farms where more than three cows are kept a cream separator,
of a size depending upon the number of cows kept, is advisable. It is best
to select a make of separator that is sold in the community, so that the
purchaser can always quickly secure necessary repairs. Cream separators
have been so well perfected that there is practically no difference in the
skimming efficiency of the several machines. They all skim sufficiently

1 Courtesy of Hinde & Dauch Paper Co., Sandusky, Ohio.

clean, but one should look to simplicity of construction and
durability of wearing parts.

Buckets and Tinware. — All buckets should be made of
heavy stamped metal, heavily tinned and with all joints and
corners smpothly soldered so as to leave no place for dirt or
impurities to collect. Buckets like those shown in the pre-
ceding chapter are desirable for milking purposes, as they
admit the smallest amount of dust and dirt and are still
simple in construction.

Wooden Apparatus. — Wood is best suited for the con- .,.,__^
struction of certain dairy apparatus such as butter ladles, butter ^
moulds, workers, etc., because, by proper treatment, butter Ladle.
will not adhere to wood as it will to other materials.

REFERENCES

*' Principles and Practice of Ikitter Making." McKay and Larson.

''The Business of Dairying." Lane.

'' Milk and Its Products." Wing.*

" Dairy Farming." Michels.

'* First Lessons in Dairying." Van Nonnaii.

"Science and Practice in Cheese Making." Van Slyke and Publow.

" Farm Dairying." Laura Rose.

Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 13o. ''A Study of I\Ianuf:i?turj of liiitter/'

'' Methods of Making Farm Butter."
Purdue Expt. Station Circular 51. ''Producing Cream for Good Butter."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

349. "Dairy Industry in South."

541. "Farm Butter Making."

,,■'

688

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

DAIRY BUTTER. MAKING

a brush and a dairy washing powder. After they are carefully cleaned
they should be rinsed out and then either scalded with very hot water
or steamed if steam is available.

The cream separator should be taken apart and well cleaned after
each milking and left apart until its next use. If it is left unclean or
is not well aired, bad taints and odors will develop in the cream, causina-
a poor quality of finished product.

All dairy apparatus should be placed in the sun after it is washed
as the sun will quickly dry it. Sunlight also acts as a powerful disinl
tecting agent. However, care should be taken to see that the appa-

BuTTER Ready for Market.*

ratus is so placed that there is no danger of dust and dirt blowing in
on it.

Chums.— The farm churn should be of ample size for the largest
churning made during the year. The common barrel churn is the most
practical for farm use, as it is simple, easy to clean and very durable as
w(^ll as economical in the first cost. On farms where large amounts of
butter are made a small combined churn, as illustrated, is very desirable.

On farms where more than three cows are kept a cream separator,
of a size depcmdlng upon the number of cows kept, is advisable. It is best
to select a make of separator that is sold in the community, so that the
purchas(T can always quickly secure necessary repairs. Cream separators
have been so well perfected that there is practically no difference in the
skimmmg (>fficiency of the several machines. They all skim sufficiently

1 Courtesy of Hinde & Dauch Paper Co., Sandusky, Ohio.

689

clean, but one should look to simplicity of construction and
durability of wearing parts.

Buckets and Tinware. — All buckets should be made of
heavy stamped metal, heavily tinned and with all joints and
corners smoothly soldered so as to leave no place for dirt or
impurities to collect. Buckets like those shown in the pre-
ceding chapter are desirable for milking purposes, as they
admit the smallest amount of dust and dirt and are still
simple in construction.

Wooden Apparatus. — Wood is best suited for the con- _^^
struction of certain dairy apparatus such as butter ladles, butter vir
moulds, workers, etc., because, by proper treatment, butter Ladle.
will not adhere to wood as it will to other materials.

KEFERENCES

''Principles and Practice of lUitlcr Making;." McKay and Larson.

''The Business of Dairying." Lane.

"Milk and Its Products." Wing*

"Dairy Farming." Michels.

" First Lessons in Dairying." Van Norman.

"Science and Practice in Cheese Making." \'an Slyke and Puhlow.

"Farm Dairying." Laura Rose.

Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin loo. "A Study of Manuf:i:'tur^ of liutter,'

"'Methods of Making Farm liutter."
Purdue Expt. Station Circuhir 51. "Producing Cream for Good Butter."
Farmers' Bulletins, II. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

349. "Dairy Industry in South."

541. "Farm Butter Making."

. :

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

■I 1]

BOOK VI
FARM BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT

l891)

fM-

CHAPTER 57

Farm buildings, fences and gates

Farm buildings should be located and constructed with a view of
meeting the needs of the farm and farmer's family. They should harmonize
with the natural surroundings and have sufficient room for the housing of
the farm animals, equipment and the storage of forage, grain and such other
crops as may be grown. The number, character and size will be deteri^iined
by the size of the farm and the type of farming. They should be as fully
adapted to the type of farming as possible.

(For further details relative to the location of the buildings and their
relation to each other, see Chapter 68.)

The Farm Residence. — With some farmers the housing of the live-
stock is considered of more importance than the housing of the farmer and
his family. Where capital is very limited and the farmer is accustomed to
an exceedingly simple life, this may prove advantageous for a short time,
in order to get a start. At the present time and in most localities, the
housing of the farmer and his family properly receives first consideration.
The farm residence should be the most important building of the farm.
It should occupy a conspicuous place in the farmstead and })ear a convenient
relationship to the other buildings of the farm. There is more latitude
relative to the direction the farm house should face than there is in case of
the city house. This feature should be carefully considered in the construc-
tion of the house, the position of verandas and the location of the living
rooms. Size of windows and the entrance of sunlight should also be con-
sidered in this connection. .

The foundation and the roof of the house are two important features.
These should be constructed with reference to durability and strength as
well as appearance. The height of the house or the height of the rooms
may be increased with little additional cost, since this will increase the cost
of neither foundation nor roof. There is little excuse, however, for tall
houses in the country. Land is cheap and comparatively low structures
harmonize better with country surroundings.

It pays to paint a farm residence thoroughly immediately after its
construction, and to re-paint whenever paint is needed. Paint lengthens the
life of a house and makes it warmer. Light colors are generally preferred
for country dwellings. The smoke and dirt which make bright colors
impracticable and expensive in cities are not present in the country. Such
colors harmonize with the green foliage that should surround a country
residence. On new lumber, the first or priming coat should be mixed very
thinly and applied promptly after the house is constructed. At the time

(693)

/' 1

it//.f":-^>^p^^^^ii^§,£:::~

(694)

.■4.«-^

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

695

of priming, the boards should be reasonably dry in order that the paint may
enter the wood and fill any cracks that are present. It should be worked
well into the wood with the brush and allowed to become thoroughly dry

Plans of Farm House.

riRST TLOOR PUAN

In warm weather the dining table is set in the screened porch, convenient to
the kitchen. During the winter one end of the living-room takes the place
of a dining-room.

5CCOMD-' FLOOR PLAN

There are three good bedrooms on the second floor, and the end
ones have cross ventilation through the gable windows.

before the second coat is applied. The second coat should be somewhat
thicker, smoother and of the proper color. A third coat will generally be
required, but the application should be deferred from three to six months.

r-~

(694)

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

695

Plans of Farm House.

rjRST FLOOR PUAN

In warm weatlior the dining table is set in the screened porch, convenient to
the kitchen. During the winter one end of the living-room takes the place
of a dining-room.

5ECOMD-' FLOOR PLAN

There are three good bedrooms on the second floor, and the end
ones have cross ventihition through the gable windows.

before the second coat is applied. The second coat should be somewhat
thicker, smoother and of the proper color. A third coat will generally be
required, but the aj)])lication should be deferred from three to six months.

696

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

This allows time for the second coat to become hard and any small cracks
that may open in the meantime by shrinking of the boards will be filled
with paint.

Whether the farmer does his own painting or hires it done, it is gener-
ally advantageous for him to purchase his own paint, and to be careful to
select durable materials.

The interior ai-rangement of the house and its ventilation, equipment
and appointment are discussed in Chapter 79.

BARNS

The principal barn of the farm is second in importance only to the
house. In case of noted livestock breeders or some large stock farms, the

A Good Type of Barn.^

})arn })ecomes the most important structure on the farm. The prime
requisites for a good barn are convenience, especially in arrangement,
comfort for the animals, ample storage room for feed, proper light and
ventilation, and durable but not expensive construction.

Whether all livestock on the farm should be housed in one structure
or in several structures must be determined by the kind and number of
stock reared. It is generally advisable to house the cows in a separate
structure. The noise and odor of swine is detrimental to both the yield
and quality of milk. Swine should not be kept in the main barn. If horses
and cows are stabled in the same structure, they should have separate
compartments. It will frequently be convenient to house the cows in the
basement and the horses on the floor above them. This is the usual

1 Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer, Des ^foines, Iowa.

i|^|t^!^:v-;^

w4m

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

697

arrangement in case of bank barns. Where all stock is on the same floor,
cows should be in an extension to the main structure. This should be only
one story in height with no storage above.

Bank Bams. — The chief advantage in the bank barn is in the ease
with which materials are stored by driving the loaded wagons onto the upper
floor. This obviates the necessity of hoisting materials to the height
necessary in the other forms of barns. The ideal location for the bank barn
is on a southern slope, thus facing the barn toward the south with exercise
yards also to the south. When so situated the more elevated land to the

Interior of Cow Stable.^

north brings the north wall of the stable below the surface, thus protecting
the stable from cold north winds. The chief objection to the basement
barn lies in its lack of light and thorough ventilation. This, however, may
be largely overcome by not setting the basement too low in the earth and
by providing plenty of windows, especially in the east and west walls.

Dairy Bams. — Great improvement has been made in the housing of
cows, and much attention is now given to the health of the animals and the
production of clean milk, low in its content of bacteria. Best dairymen
demand that the cow quarters shall be separated entirely from those of all

i Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From ''Crops and Soil Management," by Agee.

696

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

This allows time for the second coat to become hard and any small cracks
that may open in the meantime by shrinking of the boards will be filled
with paint.

Whether the farmer does his own painting or hires it done, it is gener-
ally advantageous for him to purchase his own paint, and to be careful to
select durable materials.

The interior arrangement of the house and its ventilation, equipment
and appointment are discussed in Chapter 79.

BARNS

The principal barn of the farm is second in importance only to the
house. In case of noted livestock breeders or some large stock farms, the

A Good Type of Barn.^

barn l)ecomes the most important structure on the farm. The prime
requisites for a good barn are convenience, especially in arrangement,
comfort for the animals, ample storage room for feed, proper light and
ventilation, and durable but not expensive construction.

1 Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer, Dea Moines, Iowa.

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

697

arrangement in case of bank barns. W^here all stock is on the same floor,
cows should be in an extension to the main structure. This should be only
one story in height with no storage above.

Interior of Cow Stable.^

north brings the nortli wall of the stable below the surface, thus protecting
the stable from c^old north winds. The chief objection to the basement
barn lies in its lack of light and thorough ventilation. This, however, may
be largely overc^omc by not setting the basement too low in the earth and
by providing plenty of windows, especially in the east and west walls.

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Crops and Soil Management," by Agce.

fi^Mi

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

698

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

other stock. The structure should be narrow, housing not more than two
rows of cows. The walls, floor and ceiling should be smooth and easily
cleaned. For this reason concrete floors that can be frequently washed are
preferred. Such floors do not absorb liquids, and if properly cleaned,
avoid the objectionable odors so common in stables with wooden or earth
floors. Milk is the most widely used uncooked food, and those producing
market milk need conditions approaching the ideal for cleanliness in order
to secure a high-grade product. Furthermore, the modern dairy cow is
bred and fed for efliciency in milk production. This often taxes her health
and shortens her life. It calls for the best sanitary surroundings to over-
come this drawback.

Storage Capacity.— The storage portion of the barn should connect
with one end of the cow barn and should have posts of ample height to store

a year's supply of
roughage and con-
centrates for the
dairy herd. It
should be moder-
ately narrow and
have sufficient
length to meet the
storage require-
ments. The hay
chutes and feed
bins should be
conveniently
placed and con-
nected with the
cowstable by suit-
able carriers, con-
veyed on overhead
tracks.

Silos.— Silos

, , , , will generally be

needed and may be connected with the cow stable through a portion of the
storage barn. This prevents the silage odor from permeating the stable and
containmating the milk. It is usually considered best to have the storage
structure extend east and west. This permits the cow stable to extend north
and south, thus admitting sunshine from both the east and west, enabling
It to sweep across all the floor surface during the day. When there is one
extension it should connect near the center of the storage barn. When
there are two they should connect one at each end of the storage structure
thus leaving an open and protected court between the two cow stables'
Floor Space and Arrangement.— The width of the cow stable should
be 36 feet and of sufiicient length to accommodate the desired number of

Economical and Practical Manliie 8hed.

■■■%■■ ir-i

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

699

cows. The two rows
of cows face each other
with a spacious feed
alley between. Ma-
nure alleys of requisite
width are located be-
tween the gutters and
the outside walls. The
width and depth of
manure gutters, the
form of feed troughs
and the kind of stan-
chions, together with
many other details,
may be obtained from
bulletins on this sub-
ject.

Stable Floors. —
Floors that absorb
urine and are difficult
to clean should be
avoided in cow stables.
Of all floor materials

within reach of the average dairymen, concrete
durable, non-a})SoH)ent and can })e disinfected w

cv'

Plan for a Circular Barn. Floor Plan.^

Elevation Plan.^

holds first place. It is
ithout injury. Its chief
objection is hardness
and smoothness ; the
former may be partially
overcome by the liberal
use of bedding. Pre-
cautions should be taken
when making the floor
to leave its surface
slightly roughened with-
out interfering with the
ease of cleaning. Con-
crete conducts cold
more freely than other
floor materials. For
this reason it should be
underlaid with eight
inches or more of rather
coarsely broken frag-
ments of rock. The
conductivity may be

I Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia, Pa.

698

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

other stock. The structure should be narrow, housing not more than two
rows of cows. The walls, floor and ceiling should be smooth and easily
cleaned. For this reason concrete floors that can be frequently washed are
preferred. Such floors do not absorb liquids, and if properly cleaned,
avoid the objectionable odors so conniion in stables with wooden or earth
floors. Milk is the most widely used uncooked food, and those producing
market milk need conditions approaching the ideal for cleanliness in order
to secure a high-grade product. Furthermore, the modern dairy cow is
bred and fed for efliciency in milk production. This often taxes her health
and shortens her life. It calls for the best sanitary surroundings to over-
come this drawback.

Storage Capacity.— The storage portion of the barn should connect
with one end of the cow barn and should have posts of ample height to store

Silos.— Silos

, , , , will generally be

needed and may be connected with tlu^ cow stable through a portion of the
storage })arn. This prevents the silage odor from permeating the sta})le and
contannnatmg the milk. It is usually' considered })est to have the storage
structure extend east and west, lliis permits the cow stable to extend north
and south, thus admitting sunshine from both the east and west, enabling
It to sweep across all the floor surface during the day. When there is one
extension it should connect near the center of the storage })arn. When
there are two they should connect one at each end of the storage structure,
thus leaving an open and ])r()tected court })etween the two cow sta})les'
Floor Space and Arrangement.— The width of the cow stable should
be 36 feet and of suflScient length to accommodate the desired number of

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

699

Economical and Practical xManliie Hhed.

Cv''

Plan for a CiRriTLAR Barn. Floor Plan.^

Stable Floors. —
Floors that absorb
urine and are difficult
to clean should be
avoided in cow stables.
Of all floor materials

within reach of the average dairymen, concrete holds first place. It is
durable, non-absorbent and can be disinfected without injury. Its chief

objection is hardness
and smoothness; the
former may be partially
overcome by the liberal
use of l:)edding. Pre-
cautions should be taken
when making the floor
to leave its surface
slightly roughened with-
out interfering with the
ease of cleaning. Con-
crete conducts cold
more freely than other
floor materials. For
this reason it should be
underlaid with eight
inches or more of rather
coarsely broken frag-
ments of rock. The
Elevation Plan. 1 conductivity may be

1 Courtesy of The rennaylvania FarnuT, Pliila<lolphia, Pa.

700

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

still further reduced by introducing a thin layer of asphalt or other
non-conducting material an inch beneath the surface of that portion of
the floor on which the cows lie.

A four-inch thickness of concrete is sufficient. The usual proportion
of materials are 1 part of cement, 21/^ parts of sand and 5 parts of crushed
stone by measure. Screened gravel may be substituted for the stone or
good bank gravel may be used unscreened. Screening is to be preferred
unless the proportion of fine material and gravel is about 1 to 2. A bag of
cement is equal to 1 cubic foot. The concrete should be laid in sections
similar to the manner of constructing walks. This provides for seams at
reasonable intervals and allows for shrinkage without cracking the cement.
Lighting.— Plenty of light is essential in all portions of a stable where
animals are kept or work is performed. Its absence is not only incon-
venient, but allows the unobserved accumulation of dust and bacteria.

Not only should there be good light, but
direct sunshine should also be admitted as
much as possible on account of its sanitary
effect. The size and location of the win-
dows should permit an abundance of both
light and sunshine and provide as great a
distribution of the latter as possil^le. North
and south windows are not as effective in
this respect as those on the east and west.
Windows in cow stables should be screened
against flies.

Ventilation.— Fresh air is as essential
to the health of cows as it is to man. It
is necessary to have much better ventilation
in cow stables than in dwellings, because
[of the number of animals within a given
space and the rapidity with which the air becomes charged with carbon
dioxide and moisture from the lungs of the cows. Not only is ventilation
necessary for this reason, but it also sets up currents of air that convey
dust and bacteria from the barn.

The King system of ventilation is the one generally used in barns
It is described in Chapter 60.

Professor King, in his book on Ventilation says, ''A cow requires six
full pails of pure air each minute of the day and consumes twice the weight
of air that she does of food and water combined. '^ This gives a basis
for calculating the volume of air required daily by each cow, and is used
in determining the number and size of ventilating flues necessary.

Conveniences.— The tendency of the times is toward the saving of
labor. This should be seriously considered in connection with the arrange-
ment of the stable and the conveniences that should be therein. Canvas
extensions to both hay chutes and ventilators are convenient. The former

CrosS'Section, Showtxcj \'enti-

LATION AND ►'TABLE FlooU OF

Concrete.

—HI III I

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

701

prevents the distribution of dust from hay while feeding. These exten-
sions for both hay chutes and ventilators may be folded and hung against
the wall or ceiHng so as not to interfere with the stable work.

Closets for harness should be provided. They will prove economical
in keeping the harness clean and preserving it. In some instances, a
small room in which to hang, clean and repair harness is advantageous.

It will pay to have water delivered by pipes directly to the barn. If
it has considerable pressure, a hose can be used in washing the walls and

Ensilage Cutter and I'iller.i

floor of the cow stable. This will necessitate a drainage pipe leading from
the stable floor to a suitable outlet.

Silos. — Silos have come into quite general use as a means of storing
* roughage for cows, steers and sheep. The product of an acre of land can
be stored in less space when made into silage than when cured in any
other way. Hay stored in the mow will take up about three times the
space and cornfodder about five times the space of the same quantity of
food material placed in the silo

* Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago.

700

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Still further reduced by introducing a thin layer of asphalt or other
non-conducting material an inch beneath the surface of that portion of
the floor on which the cows lie.

A four-inch thickness of concrete is sufficient. The usual proportion
of materials are 1 part of cement, 2^ parts of sand and 5 parts of crushed
stone by measure. Screened gravel may be su})stituted for the stone, or
good bank gravel may be used unscreened. Screening is to be preferred,
unless the proportion of fine material and gravel is a}:>out 1 to 2. A bag of
cement is equal to 1 cubic foot. The concrete should be laid in sections,
similar to the manner of constructing walks. This provides for seams at
reasonable intervals and allows for shrinkage without cracking the cement.
Lighting.— Plenty of light is essential in all portions of a stable where
animals are kept or work is performed. Its absence is not only incon-
venient, but allows the unobserved accumulation of dust and bacteria.

Not only should there be good light, but
direct sunshine should also be admitted as
much as possible on account of its sanitary
effect. The size and location of the win-
clows should permit an abundance of both
light and sunshine and provide as great a
distii])ution of the latter as possi])le. North
and south Avindows are not as effective in
this respect as those on the east and west.
Windows in cow stables should be screened
against flies.

Ventilation. — Fresh air is as essential
to the health of cows as it is to man. It
is necessary to have much ])etter ventilation
in cow stables than in dwellings, because
fof the number of animals within a given
space and the rapidity with which the air becomes charged with carbon
dioxide and moisture from the lungs of the cows. Not only is ventilation
necessary for this reason, but it also sets up currents of air that convey
dust and bacteria from the barn.

The King system of ventilation is the one generally used in barns
It is described in Chapter 60.

Professor King, in his book on Ventilation saj^s, '^A cow requires six-
full pails of pure air each minute of the day and consumes twice the weight
of air that she does of food and water combined.'^ This gives a basis
for calculating the volume of air required daily by each cow, and is used
in determining the number and size of ventilating flues necessary.

e- -
i

Cross-section, Showinc; \'knti-

LATION AND ^ TABLE FlooK OF

Concrete.

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 701

prevents the distribution of dust from hay while feeding. These exten-
sions for both hay chutes and ventilators may be folded and hung against
the wall or ceiling so as not to interfere with the stable work.

It will pay to have water delivered by pipes directly to the barn. If
it has considerable pressure, a hose can be used in washing the walls and

Ensilage Cutter and Yilleb,,^

floor of the cow stable. This will necessitate a drainage pipe leading from
the stable floor to a suitable outlet.

Silos. — Silos have come into quite general use as a means of storing
roughage for cows, steers and sheep. The product of an acre of land can
be stored in less space when made into silage than when cured in any
other way. Hay stored in the mow will take up about three times the
space and cornfodder about five times the space of the same quantity of
food material placed in the silo

' Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

Tit&m'

702

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Corn can be made into silage at less cost than when cured as fodder.
There is not only a saving of time, but there is less waste of the crop and
it goes to the feed trough in a succulent and more digestible condition
than when dry. Crops may be put into the silo under weather conditions
that will not make possible the harvesting fc :r putting in the shock or mow.
The silo enables the farmer to keep more stock on a given area of land,
and is a step in the direction of greater intensity.

There are many forms of silos, but the essential of a good silo is a
strong, durable, tight wall that will permit of thorough settling of the
stored material. Silos of the circular form are preferred. The greater
the depth, the more compactly the material settles, the better it keeps
and the larger the quantity that may be stored in a unit of capacity. The
monolithic concrete silo is coming into extensive use. It is fireproof, and
when properly constructed should last many years. Its first cost' is a
little greater than a good wooden silo, but it should prove cheaper in
the long run. Concrete blocks and tiles are also used for silos and have
proven both satisfactory and durable.

^ The size of the silo will depend on the number of stock to be fed out
of it and the length of the feechng period. In northern latitudes this
period is seldom less than 200 days. It is usual to feed cows 30 to 40
pounds of silage daily. On the a})ove-mentioned basis, 3 to 4 tons per
animal will be required. These figures give a rough basis for calculating
the amount of silage required and the capacity of the silo to construct.
It is estimated that there should be fed from the surface of the silage about
two inches daily in order to prevent the material spoiling. A feeding
period of 200 days would, therefore, call for a silo 400 inches in depth,
or about 35 feet deep. Silos are often constructed to a greater depth.
The following table gives the height and inside diameter of silos in feet,
together with the capacity of silage in tons. This will be helpful in connec-
tion with determining the size to build.

Height of Silo,
feet.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

In.sidr'

Diameter

t)f Silo.

10 Feet.

12 Feet.

14 Feet.

15 Feet.

16 Feet.

Tons.

Ton.«i.

Tons.

' 67

103

108

100

114

105

119

110

125

101

115

131

18 Feet

Tons.

85
91
97
103
110
116
123
130
137
144
151
158
166

20 Feet^

Ton

105
112
120
128
135
143
152
160
169
178
187
195
205

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 703

It should be borne in mind that the deeper the silo the more compact
the silage becomes and the greater the weight per cubic foot. In silos of
ordinary depth the weight ranges from 30 to 50 pounds per cubic foot,
depending on the position in the silo. On an average, a cow requires
one cubic foot of silage daily.

Details concerning the construction of different forms of silos may
be secured from bulletins issued by a number of state experiment stations
and also by the manufacturers of cement.

OUT-BUILDINGS

The out-buildings of the farmstead, consisting of sheds, cribs, milk
house, pig houses, poultry houses and other minor buildings, should be

A Good Implement Shed.^

grouped with' deference to accessibility and appearance. It is worth
while in this connection to consider the possibility of fire and fire protection.
The Implement House. — The first essentials of a good implement
house are a good, dry floor and a roof and walls that will keep out rain
and snow. It should have sufficient strength to withstand winds, ample
size for the storage of all machinery without taking much of it apart and
freedom from interior posts or obstructions. Such a building need not
be expensive. In fact, it should not be expensive if it is to prove a profit-
able investment. If a comfortable workshop is provided in one end of
it where odd jobs of repairing can be done and where a stove can be installed
so much the better. Such a provision encourages the proper repair and
care of the tools and makes this work possible in weather unsuited to
outside work.

* Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer, Des Moinps, Iowa.

702

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Corn can be made into silage at less cost than when cured as fodder.
There is not only a saving of time, but there is less waste of the crop and
it goes to the feed trough in a succulent and more digestible condition
than when dry. Crops may be put into the silo under weather conditions
that will not make possible the harvesting f ( r putting in the shock or mow.
The silo enables the farmer to keep more stock on a given area of land,
and is a step in the direction of greater intensity.

There are many forms of silos, })ut the essential of a good silo is a
strong, dura])le, tight wall that will permit of thorough settling of the
stored material. Silos of the circular form are preferred. The greater
the depth, the more compactly the materi^il settles, the better it keeps
and the larger the quantity that may })e stored in a unit of capacity. The
monolithic concrete silo is coming into extensive use. It is fireproof, and
when properly constructed should last many years. Its first cost' is a
little greater than a good wooden silo, but it should prove cheaper in
the long run. Concrete blocks and tiles are also used for silos and have
proven both satisfactory and durable.

The size of the silo will depend on the number of stock to be fed out
of it and the length of the feeding period. In northern latitudes this
period is seldom less than 200 days. It is usual to feed cows 30 to 40
pounds of silage daily. On the above-mentioned basis, 3 to 4 tons per
animal will be required. These figures give a rough basis for calculating
the amount of silage required and the capacity of the silo to construct.
It is estimated that there should be fed from the surface of the silage about
two inches daily in order to prevent the material spoiling. A feeding
period of 200 days would, therefore, call for a silo 400 inches in depth,
or about 35 feet deep. Silos are often constructed to a greater depth.
The following table gives the height and inside diameter of silos in feet,
together with the capacity of silage in tons. This will be helpful in connec-
tion with determining the size to build.

Iiisidf

Diameter

[)f Sil().

Height of Silo,
feet.

10 Feet.

12 Feel.

1
It Feet.

1') Feet.

16 Feet.

18 Feet

ions.

20 Feet^

Tons.

103

108

114

119

125

131

Ton .

28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
45
47
49

38
40
43
46
49
52
55
58
61
64
68
70

51
55
59
62
66
70
74
78
83
88
93
96
101

59
()3
67
72
7f)
SI
85
90
95

100 ;

105

110 1

115

85
91
97
103
110
116
1 23
130
137
144
151
158
166

105

112
120
128
135
143
152
160
169
178
187
195
205

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

703

It should be borne in mind that the deeper the silo the more compact
the silage becomes and the greater the weight per cubic foot. In silos of
ordinary depth the weight ranges from 30 to 50 pounds per (;ubic foot,
depending on the position in the silo. On an average, a cow requires
one cubic foot of silage daily.

Details concerning the construction of different forms of silos may
be secured from bulletins issued })y a number of state experiment stations
and also by the manufacturers of cement.

OUT-BUILDINGS

The out-buildings of the farmstead, consisting of sheds, cribs, milk
house, pig houses, poultry houses and other minor buildings, should be

A Good Implement Shed.^

grouped with deference to accessibility and appearance. It is worth
while in this connection to consider the possibility of fire and fire protection.
The Implement House. — The first essentials of a good implement
house are a good, dry floor and a roof and walls that will keep out rain
and snow. It should have sufficient strength to withstand winds, ample
size for the storage of all machinery without taking much of it apart and
freedom from interior posts or obstructions. Such a building need not
be expensive. In fact, it should not be expensive if it is to prove a profit-
able investment. If a comforta})le workshop is provided in one end of
it where odd jobs of repairing can be done and where a stove can be installed
so much the better. Such a provision encourages the proper repair and
care of the tools and makes this work possible in weather unsuited to
outside work.

:il

/•I

* Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer, Des Moinos, Iowa.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

704

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

705

The building should have several wide, rolling doors, and in most
instances should be provided with eave-troughs to conduct the water
away from its foundation.

Com Cribs. — The essentials of a good corn crib are a good foundation
and a good roof, together with ample capacity and convenience for filling
and emptying it To this might be added protection of grain from the rav-
ages of vermin, especially rats and mice. Where much corn is grown,
the double crib is preferred. The usual width of each crib is eight feet and
the length is made to conform to the amount of corn raised. The advan-
tage of the double crib is that one or more loads may be driven under
shelter and unloaded in stormy weather or at leisure. The driveway, after
husking time, may be utilized for storing farm wagons or farm implements.

Since corn dimips and elevators have come into quite
\ general use, corn cribs are constructed much taller than
formerly. This is economical, since the capacity is materi-
ally increased without enlarging either the foundation or
the roof, which are the most costly parts of the structure.

• Plan of Concrete Foundation for Corn Crib.^

A— 2' X {V joLst. B— 2" x G" sill. C— Anchor bolt. D— Terra
cotta ventilator. E — Concrete. F — Broken stone.

Extending the posts and walls from four to eight feet adds very little
to the cost in proportion to the increased capacity.

Concrete floors are coming into general use for corn cribs. These
are so constructed as to afford no harbors for rats and mice. It is neces-
sary to provide against dampness in such floors by thorough drainage
about the walls or by building them up on a considerable thickness of
coarsely broken stone. It is also advisable to provide floor ventilation
by the use of hollow terra cotta tiles laid in the concrete. The accom-
panying sketch shows the construction of such a floor. It will be noted
that bolts ^ inch in diameter are set in the concrete to a depth of 4 inches,
a 3-inch washer being on the inserted end. The thread end should project
above the concrete sufficient to pass through a 2-inch sill and allow a
good washer and tap to be attached. The sill fastened in this way holds
the crib secure to its foundation.

1 Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer, Des Moines, Iowa.

Hog Houses.— The profitable production of swine demands dry,
sanitary, comfortable housing. Warmth is also essential, especially at
the time of farrowing. Early pig production is impossible without warm
shelter. The hog house should be conveniently located, but should take an
inconspicuous position in the group of farm buildings. Whether the house
is stationary or movable, it should be well ventilated and admit plenty
of sunhght. The movable type of hog house is coming into quite general
use, and has several advantages over the stationary one. In case of disease
the houses may be disin-
fected and moved to new
lots, thus escaping the
infected ones. They are
also very convenient
where pasture is depended
upon and is changed from
year to year. To be
serviceable, such houses
should be suited to all
seasons of the year.
During the summer they
should be open and afford
shade. During the win-
ter or the farrowing season
they should be closed and
still admit direct sunlight.
The accompanying illus-
trations show two views of
the Iowa gable roof hog
house. This house meets
the requirements named.
A bill of material
and estimate of cost of
this type of individual
house is as follows: Interior of Double Corn Crib.i

BILL OF MATERIAL AND ESTIMATE OF COST.a
The Iowa Gable Roof House,

1 piece 4" X 4' X 16' for runner, fir 21 J board feet, at $55 per M $1 17

4 pieces 2" x 12'' x 12' for floor, No. 1 white or yellow pine, 96 board feet, at

$30 per M . \ 2 88

1 piece 2" X 4" X 8' for floor stiffeners, No. 1 white or yellow pine, 51 board feet,

at $28 per M ..... .15

3 pieces 2" x 4" x 8' for rafters. No. 1 white or yellow pine

1 piece 2* X 4*^ X 8' for girt. No. 1 white or yellow pine

1 piece 2* X 4*' X 10' for ridge. No. 1 white or yellow pine

2 pieces 2'^ x 4' x 10' for plates. No. 1 white or yellow pine

» Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia, Pa.
* Courtesy of Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station.

704

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

705

The building should have several wide, rolling doors, and in most
instances should be provided with eave-troughs to conduct the water
away from its foundation.

Corn Cribs. — The essentials of a good corn crib are a good foundation
and a good roof, together with ample capacity and convenience for filling
and emptying it To this might be added protection of grain from the rav-
ages of vermin, especially rats and mice. Where much corn is grown,
the double crib is preferred. The usual width of each crib is eight feet and
the length is made to conform to the amount of corn raised. The advan-
tage of the double crib is that one or more loads may be driven under
shelter and unloaded in stormy w^eather or at leisure. The driveway, after
husking time, may be utilized for storing farm w^agons or farm implements.

Since corn dumps and elevators have come into quite
\ general use, corn cribs are constructed much taller than
formerly. This is economical, since the capacity is materi-
ally increased without enlarging either the foundation or
the roof, w^hich are the most costly parts of the structure.

Plan of Concrete Foundation for Corn Crib.^

A— 2" xO" joist. B— 2"xG" sill. C— Anchor bolt. D— Term
cotta ventilator. E — Concrete. F — Broken stone.

Extending the posts and walls from four to eight feet adds very little
to the cost in proportion to the increased capacity.

Concrete floors are coming into general use for corn cribs. These
are so constructed as to afford no harbors for rats and mice. It is neces-
sary to provide against dampness in such floors by thorough drainage
about the walls or by building them up on a considerable thickness of
coarsely broken stone. It is also advisable to provide floor ventilation
by the use of hollow terra cotta tiles laid in tlie concrete. The accom-
panying sketch show^s the construction of such a floor. It will be noted
that bolts % inch in diameter are set in the concrete to a depth of 4 inches,
a 3-inch washer being on the inserted end. The thread end should project
above the concrete sufficient to pass through a 2-inch sill and allow a
good washer and tap to be attached. The sill fastened in this way holds
the crib secure to its foundation.

"i»#;^^j*»^«»»jll(B<ll«'»«»^'«iiwi«^*iw^

1 Courtesy of Wallace's Farmor, Dos Moines, Iowa.

Hog Houses. — The profitable production of swine demands dry,
sanitary, comfortable housing. Warmth is also essential, especially at
the time of farrowing. Early pig production is impossible without warm
shelter. The hog house should be conveniently located, but should take an
inconspicuous position in the group of farm buildings. Whether the house
is stationary or movable, it should be well ventilated and admit plenty
of sunlight. The movable type of hog house is coming into quite general
use, and has several advantages over the stationary one. In case of disease
the houses may be disin-
fected and moved to new
lots, thus escaping the
infected ones. They are
also very convenient
where pasture is depended
upon and is (^hanged from
year to year. To be
serviceable, such houses
should be suited to all
seasons of the year.
During the summer they
should Ije open and afford
shade. During the win-
ter or the farrowing season
they should be closed and
still admit direct sunlight.
The accompanying illus-
trations show two views of
the Iowa gable roof lio^
house. This house meets
the requirements named.
A bill of material
and estimate of cost of
this type of individual
house is as follows: Interior of Double Corn Crib.i

BILL OF MATERIAL AND ESTIMATE OF COST.^
The Iowa Gable Roof House.

1 piece 4" X 4*' X 16' for nmner, fir, 2U board feet, at $55 per M $1 17

4 pieces 2" x W x 12' for floor, No. 1 white or yellow pine, 96 board feet, at

$30 per M '. . . 2.88

1 piece 2" x V x S' for floor stiffeners, No. 1 white or yellow pine, 5k board feet,

at $28 per M . . .15

3 pieces 2* x 4" x 8' for rafters. No. 1 white or yellow pine

1 piece 2" x 4" x 8' for girt. No. 1 white or yellow pine

1 piece 2*^ X 4*^ X 10' for ridge. No. 1 white or yellow pine

2 pieces 2*^ x 4*^ x 10' for plates. No. 1 white or yellow pine

* Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia, Pa.
2 Courtesy of Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station.

J<4.vt" I

^^*"iiilii' I

^^WThw^*'- .

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

706 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

2 pieces 2* x 4' x 8' for studs,* No. 1 white or yellow pine

2 pieces 2" x 4* x 10' for studs,* No. 1 white or yellow pine

2 pieces 2" x 4' x 8' for fender, No. 1 white or yellow pine

1 piece 2" X 4' X 10' for fender, No. 1 white or yellow pine, 82f board feet, at

$28 per M. . .>: $2.32

1 piece 1 "x 4'' X 12' for brace, No. 1 white or yellow pine, 4 board feet, at $30 per M . 12
5 pieces 1" x 10*' x 16' shiplap for ends and sides. No. 1 white or yellow pine*. .

I piece 1 * X 8" X 8' No. 1 white or yellow pine

3 pieces 1" x 10*' x 10' No. 1 white or yellow pine, 97 board feet, at $30 per M 2.91

II pieces 1" x 10" x 8' shiplap for roof, white or yellow pine, 72| board feet, at

$30 per M » 2.21

3 pieces 1 * x 4" x 16' for bottoms, 16 board feet, at $30 per M 48

12 eye-bolts at 5 cents 60

8 U-bolts at 8 cents 64

5 pairs 12-inch strap hinges at 22 cents 1 . 10

1 pair 8-inch strap hinges at 18 cents 18

1 door pull 10

1 wire for holding door open 10

12.5 pounds nails at 4 cents .50

0.6 gallon to paint double coat 150 square feet, at $2 gallon 1.20

Cost of material $16 . 66

Labor, 15 hours at 25 cents 3 . 75

Total cost $20.41

Further details of this and otlier forms of movable hog houses may
be found in Bulletin 152, Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa.

Poultry Houses. — The poultry house should be well lighted and ven-
tilated. The walls should have only one thickness of boards. Double
walls afiford a harboring place for lice. In cold climates, the boards may
be covered on the outside with prepared roofing. This will make a fairly
warm house. Chickens can stand much cold if protected from drafts.
The interior walls should be smooth and occasionally whitewashed. Good
perches should be supported from the raffers and in such a way as to
prevent harboring places for lice. A concrete floor is durable, sanitary
and easily cleaned. Ventilation may be provided by substituting a muslin-
covered frame for one or more of the windows. These may be hinged
at the top so as to be swung up out of the way in warm weather. Perches
should be at least twelve inches apart and on the same level, otherwise,
there will be crowding on the higher jx^rches. A good dropping board
should be beneath the perches, and the droppings should be frequently
removed with a hoe or scraper. The perches should be in the warmest
and lightest part of the house. The nests should be removable and should
rest on supports in the darkest portion of the house. If the dropping
board is not too low, some of the nests may be beneath it.

Milk Houses. — No matter w^hat type of dairying the farmer follows,
if he has many cows, a milk or dairy house becomes a necessity. Milk
is easily contaminated by dust and by absorbing odors. It should, there-
fore, be kept in a pure, clean place. The milk house should not open

* If the sides of the' bouse are built higher than specified to allow of large doorway for tall swine, make
due additions in lumber.

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

707

directly into the cow stable. The size and equipment of the house will

depend on the amount of milk and the manner of disposing of it. When

the niilk is made into butter or cheese, the size of the house should be

sufficient for the proper instaUation of the separator, churn, butter worker

and for the storage

of utensils and

butter. If steam

or gasoline power

is used, it should

be located outside

and a shaft or

steam pipe extend

into the dairy

house. Steam has

the advantage of

affording heat for

warming water

and for sterilizing

utensils.

The walls of the
building should be
constructed with
reference to keep-
ing as uniform a
temperature as pos-
sible. These may
be of concrete.
The floors should
always be of con-
crete.

Ice Houses. —
Ice is essential to
the proper hand-
ling of milk dur-
ing the summer
months. Every
dairy farm should
have an ice house.
In good-sized
dairies a thousand

pounds of ice per cow yearly is required to cool the milk. In smaller
dairies the waste would be greater and proportionately more per cow
would be required.

So far as possible the ice house should be located in the shade. It
ghould have double walls and be sufficiently large to store the required

' Courtesy of Agricultural Experiment Station,

Two Views of Iowa Gable Roof Hog House.*

MSBJbBSSESSSS:.'

706 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

2 pieces 2" x 4" x 8' for studs,* No. 1 white or yellow pine

2 pieces 2" x 4" x 10' for studs,* No. 1 white or yellow pine

2 pieces 2" x 4*^ x 8' for fender, No. 1 white or yellow pine

1 piece 2" x 4" X 10' for fender. No. 1 white or yellow pine, 82| board feet, at

$28 per M . . . < $2.32

1 piece 1 " X 4 " X 1 2' for brace, No. 1 white or yellow pine, 4 board feet, at $30 per M .12
5 pieces 1" x 10" x 16' shiplap for ends and sides, No. 1 white or yellow pine*. .

I piece 1 " X 8" X 8' No. 1 white or yellow pine

3 pieces 1" x 10" x 10' No. 1 white or yellow pine, 97 board feet, at $30 per M 2.91

II pieces 1" x 10" x 8' shiplap for roof, white or yellow pine, 72| board feet, at

$30 per M » 2.21

3 pieces 1 " x 4" x 16' for bottoms, 10 board feet, at $30 per M 48

12 eye-bolts at 5 cents GO

8 U-bolts at 8 cents 64

5 pairs 12-inch strap hinges at 22 cents 1 . 10

1 pair 8-inch strap hinges at 18 cents 18

1 door pull 10

1 wire for holding door open 10

12.5 pounds nails at 4 cents 50

0.6 gallon to paint double coat 150 s(iuare feet, at $2 gallon 1 .20

Cost of material $16 . 66

Labor, 15 hours at 25 cents 3 . 75

Total cost $20.41

Further details of this and otlier forms of movable hog houses may
be found in Bulletin 152, Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa.

Poultry Houses. — The poultry house should be well lighted and ven-
tilated. The walls should liave only one tliickness of boards. Double
walls afford a harboring ])lace for lice. In cold climates, the boards may
be covered on the outside with prepared roofing. This will make a fairly
warm house. Chickens can stand much cold if protected from drafts.
The interior walls should be smooth and occasionally whitewashed. Good
perches should be supported from the raffers and in sucli a way as to
prevent harboring places for lice. A concrete floor is durable, sanitary
and easily cleaned. Ventilation may be provided by sul)stituting a muslin-
covered frame for one or more of the windows. These may Ije hinged
at the top so as to be swung up out of the way in warm weather. Perches
should \ye at least twelve inches apaii and on the same level, otherwise,
there will be crowding on the higher perches. A good dropping board
should be teneath the perches, and the droppings should be frequently
removed with a hoe or scraper. The p(?rchcs should be in the warmest
and hghtest part of the house. The nests should be removable and should
rest on supports in the darkest portion of the house. If the dropping
board is not too low, some of the nests may be beneath it.

Milk Houses. — No matter what t\7)e of dair>nng the farmer follows,
if he has many cows, a milk or dairy house becomes a necessity. Milk
is easily contaminated by dust and by absorbing odors. It should, there-
fore, be kept in a pure, clean place. The milk house should not open

* If the sides of the bouse are built higher than specified to allow of large doorway for tall swine, make
due additions in lumber.

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

707

directly into the cow stable. The size and equipment of the house will

depend on the amount of milk and the manner of disposing of it. When

the milk is made into butter or cheese, the size of the house should be

sufficient for the proper installation of the separator, churn, butter worker

and for the storage

of utensils and

butter. If steam

or gasoline power

is used, it should

be located outside

and a shaft or

steam pipe extend

into the dairy

house. Steam has

the advantage of

affording heat for

warming water

and for sterilizing

utensils.

The walls of the
building should be
constructed with
reference to keep-
ing as uniform a
temperature as pos-
sible. These may
be of concrete.
The floors should
always be of con-
crete.

Ice Houses. —
Ice is essential to
the proper hand-
ling of milk dur-
ing the summer
months. Every
dairy farm should
have an ice house.
In good-sized
dairies a thousand

pounds of ice per cow yearly is required to cool the milk. In smaller
dairies the waste would be greater and proportionately more per cow
would be required.

So far as possible the ice house should be located in the shade. It
should have double walls and be sufficiently large to store the required

> Courtesy of Agricultural Experiment Station,

Two Views of Iowa Gable Roof Hog House.*

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

708

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

« t

amount of ice and allow a space of twelve inches between the walls and
ice, which should be filled with sawdust or other non-conducting material.
Fifty cubic feet should be allowed for each ton of stored ice. The doors
should close tightly to exclude air. Windows are unnecessary. A venti-
lator should be provided at the roof to allow the escape of vapors.

Wooden structures, because of the continual dampness of the wood,
are short lived. For this reason ice houses of concrete blocks or hollow
tile are preferable. They keep the ice well and are much more durable
than wood.

Roofing. — Wooden shingles have long been the chief roofing material.
They embody lightness, ease of construction, good appearance and, when
made of the right kind of wood and properly treated or painted, are reason-
ably durable. It is
folly to put thirty-
year shingles on
with five-year
nails. The new
process nails rust
out more quickly
than the type
made in former
years . It is,
therefore, recom-
mended that good
galvanized wire
nails be always
used for shingles
of any material
that is reasonably
durable.

Slate and tile
roofing are much
heavier than wood
shingles, but when of good quality are more durable and generally of better
appearance. They have the advantage of affording fire protection from
sparks and cinders faUing on the roof. Any kind of shingles demands a
roof of ample pitch to make them durable. If the roof is too flat, more
water is absorbed, snow is held, and consequently decay occurs more
rapidly.

There is now on the market prepared roofing of many types, much
of which is cheaper and more easily placed in position than slate, tile or
shingles. The type of building and its permanence should in large measure
determine the kind of shingle. Heavy, expensive roofing is out of place
on a cheap, temporary building.

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia.

A Concrete Block Ice House. ^

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

709

Use of Concrete. — Concrete is durable, easily cleaned, simple of
construction and finds many good uses on the farm. It makes excellent
foundation for all kinds of buildings, is well suited for silos, outside cellars,
water troughs, walks, feeding floors and stable floors. The essential in
concrete constructions consists in the use of clean sand and gravel, mixed
in the proper proportions with a good quality of cement. The greater
the strength required and the more impervious the structure is to be, the
larger should be the proportion of cement. For building foundations
and walks, the 1 : 23/^ : 5 mixture is used. Where more strength is required
the 1:2:4 mixture is preferred. Strength is further increased by iron
or steel reinforce-
ment. All over-
head work — water
tanks, silos, bridges,
etc. — calls for rein-
forcement, the ex-
tent of which will
be determined by
the strain to which
the structure is to
be subjected. The
reinforcing material
should be placed - *^>7'^^^^^
where it will be
mosteffective. Con-
crete is most dura-
ble if allowed to dry
slowly. It should
never freeze until
thoroughly dry.

Watering
troughs should have

thick walls and the sides and ends should be sloped on the inside to lessen
the danger of bursting by freezing water. It is safest to provide a means
of draining the water off during cold periods. The accompanying sketch
shows the foundation, drainage pipe, forms and reinforcement necessary
in the construction of a concrete water tank.

Both wooden and metal forms are used. The latter are preferable in
the construction of silos and round water tanks. Metal forms, when used
repeatedly, are cheaper than wooden ones. They leave a smoother concrete
surface than wooden forms. The latter should be soaped or greased on
the surface next to the concrete to prevent the material sticking to the
forms. Wooden forms should also be sprinkled with water before being
filled with concrete, lest they absorb water from the mixture too rapidly.

» Courteey of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia.

How TO Construct a Concrete Water Tank.^

■ i

m^.

708

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Roofing. — Wooden shingles have long been the chief roofing material.
They embody lightness, ease of construction, good appearance and, when
made of the right kind of wood and properly treated or painted, are reason-
ably durable. It is
folly to put thirty-
year shingles on
with five-year
nails. The new
process nails rust
out more quickly
than the type
made in former
years. It is,
therefore, recom-
mended that good
galvanized wire
nails be always
used for shingles
of any material
that is reasonably
durable.

A Concrete Block Ice House. ^

Slate and tile
roofing are much
heavier than wood
shingles, but when of good quality are more durable and generally of better
appearance. They have the advantage of affording fire protection from
sparks and cinders falling on the roof. Any kind of shingles demands a
roof of ample pitch to make them durable. If the roof is too flat, more
water is absorbed, snow is held, and consequently decay occurs more
rapidly.

There is now on the market prepared roofing of many t^T^es, much
of which is cheaper and more easily placed in position than slate, tile or
shingles. The type of building and its permanence should in large measure
determine the kind of shingle. Heavy, expensive roofing is out of place
on a cheap, temporary building.

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia.

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

709

Use of Concrete. — Concrete is durable, easily cleaned, simple of
construction and finds many good uses on the farm. It makes excellent
foundation for all kinds of buildings, is well suited for silos, outside cellars,
water troughs, walks, feeding floors and stable floors. The essential in
concrete constructions consists in the use of clean sand and gravel, mixed
in the proper proportions with a good quality of cement. The greater
the strength required and the more impervious the structure is to be, the
larger should be the proportion of cement. For building foundations
and walks, the 1 : 23^^ : 5 mixture is used. Where more strength is required
the 1:2:4 mixture is preferred. Strength is further increased by iron
or steel reinforce-
ment. All over-
head work — water
tanks, silos, bridges,
etc. — calls for rein-
forcement, the ex-
tent of which will
be determined by
the strain to which
the structure is to
be subjected. The
reinforcing material
should be placed *
where it will l)e
mosteffective. Con-
crete is most dura-
ble if allowed to dry
slowly. It should
never freeze until
thoroughly dry.

Watering
troughs should have

'■ Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia.

^ y y >

How TO Construct a Concrete Water Tank.^

; oi-/;,^,i;

710

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The concrete materials should be thoroughly mixed and enough water
used so that the mixture will flow slowly. The smaller the forms into
which it is placed, the more liquid it should be. Where much work is to
be done, mechanical mixers facilitate the work and do it more thoroughly
than can be done by hand. In the absence of a mechanical mixer, a
strong, tight board platform, about 8 by 10 feet in dimension, is convenient
on which to do the mixing. A square-pointed shovel, a rake and two or
more hoes may be advantageously used in mixing the material. If run-
ning water is not available, water in barrels or a tank should be convenient
to the mixing board. The cement usually comes in bags of 100 pounds
each, equal to one cubic foot. Bottomless boxes for measuring sand and
gravel are most convenient. They should be constructed of a size suitable
for a bag or two-bag mixture of the proportions desired.

One desiring to build should first estimate the cubic space to be
occupied by concrete. This known, the amounts of sand, gravel and

cement can be easily esti-
mated. For a 1:2:4 for-
mula, the cement required
will equal .058 times the cubic
feet in the structure. For the
1 : 23^^ : 5 formula, it will be
.048 times the cubic feet in
the structure. The amounts
of sand and gravel will be
relatively as much more than
the cement as the formula
specifies.

Plans and specifications

for structures of different

kinds may be obtained from

any cement manufacturing company, as well as from bulletins of many

of the state experiment stations and from the United States Department

of Agriculture.

Lightning Rods. — The larger buildings of the farm group should
be protected with lightning rods. The })uilding most likely to be struck
by lightning is the barn. Observations show that many barns with entire
contents have been burned as the result of lightning. The greatest danger
occurs for one or two months immediately after filling the mows with hay.
This is due to the accumulation of moisture from the newly-made hay.
This moisture fills the peak of the loft, often escaping through the cupola,
and increases the conductivity of the air, and in case of a passing thunder-
storm attracts the lightning.

Investigations during recent years by insurance companies show that
properly installed lightning rods are quite effective as protection against

1 From Farmers* Bulletin 367, U. P. Dept. of Agriculture.

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES

71]

A "T" Connection for Heavy Wire
Lkjhtning Uods.^

lightning. Eight years' investigations in Iowa show $4000 worth of dam-
age done to rodded buildings as compared with $340,000 damage to
buildings having no rods. In Canada and Michigan investigations show
similar results. Professor Day, of the Ontario Agricultural College, states
that out of $1000 worth of damage by Hghtning to unrodded buildings,
$999 would be saved if the buildings were properly rodded.

Effective hghtning rods for a barn may be installed without much
cost. The expensive copper rodding and elaborate system of points and
insulators formerly used by lightning rod companies are not necessary.
The essentials of a rodding system are metal rods of any good conducting
material, sufficiently large to carry a heavy charge of lightning. These
should have good contact with moist earth at all times. It is, therefore,
well to have the lower ends buried to a depth of three feet or more. On
the ends should be a coil at least a foot in diameter. The rods should
extend one up each side of the building and over the roof, connecting
with a horizontal rod extending along the entire length of the ridge. There
should be perpendicular extensions to the horizontal ridge wire at intervals
of 15 to 20 feet. These need not be more than 18 inches in length and
should be sharpened at the upper end. A terminal point should extend
above each cupola, ventilator and chimney on the structure.

No. 3 and No. 4 double galvanized iron telegraph wires make good
lightning conductors. The wire may be fastened directly to the building
by staples or by means of small wooden blocks and screw eyes. Blocks
IJ^ inches thick, 2^/2 inches wide and 4 inches long may be nailed to the
side of the buildings and roof at intervals of ten feet or less. The wire can
be passed through the eyes screwed into these blocks. The vertical wires
and terminals may be connected with the horizontal ridge wire by means
of galvanized T's.

The quality and type of rodding system should conform to the nature
and character of the building. An attractive system of rodding adds
much to the appearance of the building.

Fences and Gates. — The need for farm fences is probably less than
formerly. The chief purposes are for the confinement of stock and poultry
and for ornamentation. The extensive use of farm machinery and the
adoption of systematic crop rotation have reduced the number of fields
on the average farm. The increase in the price of land has reduced the
acreage used as pasture. As a rule, highway fences, except where pastures
border the road, may be omitted. Nothing mars the appearance of a
farm more than an untidy fence grown up with weeds. The farmer is
benefited and the appearance of the farm improved if unsightly fences
are removed and the fields cropped to the border of the road.

The type of fence selected depends much on the service to be rendered.
A hog-tight fence is cheapest and most effective when constructed of
well-galvanized woven wire. The posts should not be too far apart and
the bottom wire should be fastened close to the ground at intervals suffi-

*»

^^M -.

■^ -. ^.'

^ v^

712

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 718

ciently frequent to prevent hogs from springing it and crawling beneath.
Woven wire 36 inches high is sufficient to turn the hogs. If the fenced
field is to be used for cattle or horses, two barbed wires may be placed
above the woven wire. With a little additional expense, a fence 48 or 52
inches high may be secured which will turn all kinds of stock. A single
strand of barbed wire, three inches above the top of the woven wire will
prevent horses reaching over and stretching the fence.

The top wire of a 48 or 52-inch fence should be of No. 9 wire. Wires
below this may be of No. 10 or No. 11 material. Perpendicular wires
are sometimes even smaller. The lighter wires are less durable and more
easily stretched and broken ; consequently, it is economy to pay more for
the fence and secure a heavier wire. This is especially true if the fence
is to be permanent. For temporary fences to be moved from time to
time, the lighter wire is more easily handled and stretched.

Stone fences, plank fences and hedge fences, once thought desirable,
are now seldom advisable and will not be discussed.

Wooden posts will probably continue to he extensively used, but are
being replaced to some extent by metal posts and reinforced concrete
posts. Metal posts should be set in concrete. Both metal and concrete
are somewhat more expensive then wooden posts and have not been used
sufficiently long to determine extent of their durability. Much greater
durability is claimed for them than for wooden posts. The chief advantage
of the wooden posts is in the ease with which the wire may be fastened

to them.

Red cedar posts are to be preferred, chiefly because of their straight-
ness and long durability. Next to red cedar comes the black or yellow
locust, catalpa and white oak. Many other kinds of wood may be used.
The kind to select depends chiefly on the cost, together with the feasibility
and cost of treating the posts to increase their durability. For permanent
fences, the best posts are usually the cheapest. Posts of short duration
must be replaced frequently, and this adds much to the upkeep cost of

the fence.

It generally pays to treat the bottom ends of posts with creosote;
The material for this purpose will -cost from four to eight cents a post,
depending on size. The outfit for treating consists of a metal tank suffi-
ciently large to hold a number of posts, under which a fire may be built
and the creosote heated to about 220° F. The well-seasoned posts should
remain in the solution two or three hours, after which they are put into
cold creosote for an hour or two. Only the lower three feet of the posts
need be treated. Posts decay most rapidly at or just beneath the surface
of the soil. Such treatment is claimed to add ten to fifteen years to the
usefulness of ordinary soft wood posts.

Every farmer should have a wood lot that will supply posts for the
farm. Trees cut for posts should be cut the last of July or during August.
Trees felled at this time need not be cut into posts at once. In fact, it

is an advantage to let them lie until the leaves draw the water from the
sap, thus leaving the starch to preserve the wood. At a convenient season
the trees may be cut into posts and the posts set on end to further cure.
Posts cut in this way last much longer than when the trees are cut in
the winter or spring.

The interval between posts in fence construction depends on the
size of the posts, the depth to which they can be conveniently set, the
weight or strength of the wire and the strain to which it will be subjected.

A Good Type of Farm Fence.*

It will often prove economical to alternate small posts with large ones.
With exceptionally good strong posts, the intervals may be as much as
from 25 to 30 feet. The usual distance, however, will be from 15 to
20 feet.

Woven wire should be stapled to the posts so that the wire will move
freely beneath the staple. With barbed wire the staples may be driven
tightly so as to prevent the wire from slipping. The length of the staples
used and the number per post depend on the hardness of the post and
the num})er of wires. With woven wire it will usually be sufficient to
staple alternate wires at each post, although the top and bottom wire
should l)e stapled at every post. When so stapled, the staples should

1 Courtesy of The American Steel and Wire Co.

712

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

FARM BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES 718

The top wire of a 48 or 52-inch fence should be of No. 9 wire. Wires
below this may l^e of No. 10 or No. 11 material. Perpendicular wires
are sometimes even smaller. The lighter wires are less durable and more
easily stretched and l)roken; consequently, it is economy to pay more for
the fence and secure a heavier wire. This is especially true if the fence
is to be permanent. For temporary fences to ])e moved from time to
time, the lighter wire is more easily handled and stretched.

Stone fences, plank fences and hedge fences, once thought desirable,
are now seldom advisa])le and will not be discussed.

Wooden posts will pro])ably continue to })e extensively used, but are
being replaced to some extent by metal posts and reinforced concrete
posts. Metal posts should be set in concrete. Both metal and concrete
are somewhat more expensive then wooden i)()sts and have not })een used
sufficiently long to determine extent of their durability. Much greater
durability is claimed for them than for wooden jxxsts. The chief advantage
of the wooden posts is in the ease with which the wire may be fastened

to them.

the fence.

It generally pays to treat the liottom ends of posts with creosote.'
The material for this purpose will -cost from four to eight cents a post,
depending on size. The outfit for treating consists of a metal tank suffi-
ciently large to hold a number of posts, under which a fire may be built
and the creosote heated to about 220° F. The well-seasoned posts should
remain in the solution two or three hours, after which they are put into
cold creosote for an hour or two. Only the lower three feet of the posts
need be treated. Posts decay most rapidly at or just beneath the surface
of the soil. Such treatment is claimed to add ten to fifteen years to the
usefulness of ordinary soft wood posts.

A Good Type of Farm Fence.*

Woven wire should be stapled to the posts so that the wire will move
freely beneath the staple. With barbed wire the staples may be driven
tightly so as to prevent the wire from slipping. The length of the staples
used and the numl)er per post depend on the hardness of the post and
the number of wires. With woven wire it will usually be sufficient to
staple alternate wires at each post, although the top and bottom wire
should be stapled at every post. When so stapled, the staples should

^ Courtesy of The American Steel and Wire Co.

I ^.ii

I \\\

r ' '-::■ m

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

'(■^.--'■.•if' .

714

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

alternate on the intermediate wires. For example, the second wire from
the top should be stapled to the first, third and fifth post, while the third
wire should be stapled to the second, fourth and sixth post, etc.

Woven wire calls for the strongest and best braced end and corner
posts. This permits stretching the wire tightly, thus increasing its effi-
ciency. These posts should be set to a depth of four feet in the ground,
have cross pieces on the bottom to prevent them pulling up and be securely
braced and anchored as shown on preceding page.

It pays to provide substantial, durable gates of light material that
may be easily opened and closed. The style of gate should conform to
the fence. There are on the market comparatively cheap, tubular, framed
woven-wire gates that are light, neat and durable. They may be easily
attached to wooden posts. If wooden gates are preferred, 1 x 4-inch
material, well braced, is generally better than heavier material. The
weight and strength of material, however, will depend on the strain to
which the gate is likely to subjected.

REFERENCES

"Successful Houses and How to Build Them." WTiite.

"Farm Structures." Ekblaw.

"The Care of a House." Clark.

South Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 154. "Pit Silo."

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins:

207. "Ice Cold Storage on the Farm: How to Provide."

220. "Lightning Rods: How to Install on Farm Buildings."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

367. "Lightning and Lightning Conductors."

387. "Preservative Treatment of Farm Timber."

403. "Construction of Concrete Fence Posts."

405. "Cement Silos."

438. "Hog Houses."

457. "Reinforced Brick Silos."

461. "The Use of Concrete on the Farm."

469. "The Plaster Silo."

474. "Use of Paint on the Farm."

475. "Ice Houses."

574. "Poultry House Construction."

589. "Home-Made Silos."

623. "Ice Houses and Their Use. on the Dairy Farm."

CHAPTER 58

Farm machinery and Implements

During the past century the invention and introduction of farm ma-
chinery and implements has almost revolutionized methods of farming. The
great change from the simplest of tools to the almost perfect farm machines
has had a marked effect upon the life of the farmer. It has shortened his
hours of labor, increased his efficiency and brought to him better wages.
It has reduced the necessity of brute strength and increased the demand

A Good Type of Walking Plow.^

for a better developed intellect. Mechanical ability is now an essential

in farming.

Advantages of Farm Machinery. — Farm machinery has decreased the
percentage of people living upon farms in North America. In 1800, 97 per
cent of the people lived on farms. In 1850 this proportion had decreased
to 90 per cent. In 1900 it was 36 per cent and is now about 33 per cent.
At the present time one-third of our population produces the bulk of food
supplies and the raw materials for clothing. Consequently the remaining
two-thirds are free to engage in constructive work for the advancement of

the race.

This decrease in the proportion of people on farms has been accom-
panied by a great increase in production per capita. In 1800 in the United

» Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City. N. Y. From "Soils," by Fletcher. . ' .1

(715)

\' '

714

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Woven wire calls for the strongest and best braced end and corner
posts. This permits stretching the wire tightly, thus increasing its effi-
ciency. These posts should be set to a depth of four feet in the ground,
have cross pieces on the bottom to prevent them pulling up and l>e securely
braced and anchored as shown on preceding page.

REFERENCES

"Successful Houses and How to Build Them." White.

"Farm Structures." Ekblaw.

"The Care of a House." Clark.

South Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 154. "Pit Silo."

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins:

207. "Ice Cold Storage on the Farm: How to Provide."

220. "Lightning Rods: How to Install on Farm Buildings."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

367. "Lightning and Lightning Conductors."

387. "Preservative Treatment of Farm Timber."

403. "Construction of Concrete Fence Posts."

405. " Cement Silos."

438. "Hog Houses."

457. "Reinforced Brick Silos."

461. "The Use of Concrete on the Farm."

469. "The Plaster Silo."

474. "Use of Paint on the Farm."

475. "Ice Houses."

574. "Poultry House Construction."

589. "Home-Made Silos."

623. "Ice Houses and Their Use. on the Dairy Farm.''

CHAPTER 58

Farm Machinery and Implements

A Good Type of Walking Plow.^

for a better developed intellect. Mechanical ability is now an essential

in farming.

Advantages of Farm Machinery.— Farm machinery has decreased the
percentage of people living upon farms in North America. In 1800, 97 per
cent of the people lived on farms. In 1850 this proportion had decreased
to 90 per cent. In 1900 it was 36 per cent and is now about 33 per cent.
At the present time one-third of our population produces the bulk of food
supplies and the raw materials for clothing. Consequently the remaining
two-thirds are free to engage in constructive work for the advancement of

the race.

This decrease in the proportion of people on farms has been accom-
panied by a great increase in production per capita. In 1800 in the United

I Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y, From "Soils," by Fletcher. . J

(715)

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

716

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

States 5.5 bushels of wheat were produced per capita. In 1850 it had fallen
to 4.4. About this time improved harvesting and threshing machinery was
developed and the production per capita increased rapidly. In 1880 it
was 9.16 bushels per capita, and in 1915 it was 10 bushels per capita.

Although the wage of farm labor has doubled or trebled, the cost of
production has decreased. The amount of labor required to produce a
bushel of wheat by hand implements was a little over three hours.
Improved machinery has reduced it to less than ten minutes.

Machinery has also improved the quality of farm products. Short-
ening the time of operations enables the farmer to plant his crops at the

proper time, thus
insuring full ma-
turity. Shorten-
ing the harvesting
period enables
him to gather the
crop when fully
matured and with
the minimum loss.
TiUage Ma-
chinery.— The
plow takes first
rank in tillage im-
plements. It is
estimated that
more power is
required to plow
the fields of North
America than is
used in all the fac-
tories. While the
plow is a very old
implement, the stefel plow, the sulky plow and the disk plow are implements
of recent development. These are modified in form and construction to
adapt them to different kinds of soil and the power available for doing the
work. The mold-board plow is most universally used. It should be highly
polished and kept reasonably sharp in order to perform its work with the
minimum power. RoUing coulters, standing coulters and jointers are
attached to more completely cover trash, prevent clogging or reduce the
draft.

Disk plows are adapted to a dry soil and to land heavily covered with
vegetation. They have been recently modified so that one disk follows
the other in such a way that it increases the depth of plowing to 12 or 14
inches and mixes the subsoil with the surface soil.

1 Courtesy of The JanesviUe Machine Company, Janesville, Wis.

One Type of Sulky Plow.^

i^'.^;

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 717

An Adjustable Smoothing Harrow.^

Mold-board plows are made in sizes ranging from 6 inches to 18 inches.
The 12 and 14-inch sizes usually prevail. Where larger plows are needed
gang plows are substituted. A gang plow of two 12-inch bottoms will turn
25 to 26 inches of soil at one passage of the plow and generally requires four
good horses. It is essential to have the center of draft fall directly back of
the center of the team, otherwise there will be a side draft that will increase

Spring-Toothed Harrow.*

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago, 111.

716

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 717

Machinery has also improved the quality of farm products. Short-
ening the time of operations enables the farmer to plant his crops at the

proper time, thus
insuring full ma-
turity. Shorten-
ing the harvesting
period enables
him to gather the
crop when fully
matured and with
the minimum loss.
Tillage Ma-
chinery.— The
plow takes first
rank in tillage im-
plements. It is
estimated that
more power is
reciuired to plow
the fields of North
America than is
used in all the fac-
tories. While the
plow is a very old
implement, the steel plow, the sulky plow and the disk plow are implements
of recent development. These are modified in form and construction to
adapt them to different kinds of soil and the power available for doing the
work. The mold-board plow is most universally used. It should be highly
polished and kept reasonably sharp in order to perform its work with the
minimum power. Rolling coulters, standing coulters and jointers are
attached to more completely cover trash, prevent clogging or reduce the
draft.

1 Courtesy of The JanesviUe Machine Company, Janesville, Wis.

One Type of Sulky Plow.^

An Adjustable Smoothing Harrow.^

Mold-board plows are made in sizes ranging from 6 inches to 18 inches.
The 12 and 14-inch sizes usually prevail. Where larger plows are needed
gang plows are substituted. A gang plow of two 12-inch bottoms will turn
25 to 20 inches of soil at one passage of the plow and generally requires four
good horses. It is essential to have the center of draft fall directly back of
the center of the team, otherwise there will be a side draft that will increase

n.}

V. . • ■■'/l^l-

. -'i-,' ^JA

>X\

m^v^^-

.""?'v»;?'

/S^-*;i/'-."

:••»-»•■

•< T

^.ikft

Spring-Toothed Harrow.*

Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago, 111.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

■ %^^

m^^^fW^^^^-

718

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the draft of the plow. This necessitates adjusting the team, and if five
horses are used better results will be secured by placing two in the lead and
three in the rear, rather than five abreast.

Next in importance to the plow comes the harrow. The leading forms
of harrows are the smoothing harrow, the spring-toothed harrow and the disk
harrow. There are a number of forms and many makes of each. The steel-
frame smoothing harrow, made in moderate sized sections, with levers to
adjust the angle of the teeth, is most eflScient. The teeth should be sharp

Double Disk Harrow.'

in order to do effective work. They should be held in place by clamps that
do not easily loosen. When one side of the teeth is badly worn, they may
be turned half way around and a new surface brought into use.

The spring-toothed harrow is made with both wooden and steel frames.
The better forms also have either adjustable runners or wheels to regulate
the depth of harrowing and to hold the teeth out of the ground in passing
from one field to another. Without these adjustments, the harrow may be
turned upside-down when taken from shed to fields or from one field to

* Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago, 711.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 719

»^.«— . . .1. Ill !■«

another. This form of harrow is adapted to stony land, for the destruction
of weeds, for a thorough loosening of the soil and for covering broadcasted
seeds rather deeply.

Disk harrows are made in two forms: the full disk and the cutaway
disk. The former is most extensively used, while the latter is best adapted
to stony land and for light work. Double disks frequently combine both
forms. They provide for the use of large teams and increased rapidity of
work without increasing man labor. Disks of the several forms are used,
especially for pulverizing the soil. They should generally be followed with
a smoothing harrow. Disks are generally best adapted for preparing the

A Corrugated Roller.^

seed-bed on fall plowing or early spring plowing. They are also extensively
used in preparing corn land for the seeding of spring oats without plowing.
The disks of these harrows should be kept sharp to do effective work. This
is especially true when there is trash on the surface of the soil. The depth
of disking is adjusted by the angle at which the disks are set. Levers are
provided for setting at different angles. A disk truck reduces the weight
on the horses' necks, and is generally advised.

On most farms a combination of the three forms of harrows above
mentioned is advantageous.

Under this heading should also be mentioned the roller and the drag.
The chief purpose of the former is to compact the soil and crush clods.

I Courtesy of The Dunham Company, Berea, Ohio. From pamphlet "Soil Sense."

718

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the draft of the plow. This necessitates adjusting the team, and if five
horses are used better results will be secured by placing two in the lead and
three in the rear, rather than five abreast.

Double Disk Harrow. *

^ Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago, Jll.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 719

another. This form of harrow is adapted to stony land, for the destruction
of weeds, for a thorough loosening of the soil and for covering broadcasted
seeds rather deeply.

A Corrugated Roller.*

seed-bed on fall plowing or early spring plowing. They are also extensively
used in preparing corn land for the seeding of spring oats without plowing.
The disks of these harrows should l^e kept sharp to do effective work. This
is especially true when there is trash on the surface of the soil. The depth
of disking is adjusted by the angle at which the disks are set. Levers are
provided for setting at different angles. A disk truck reduces the weight
on the horses' necks, and is generally advised.

On most farms a combination of the three forms of harrows above
mentioned is advantageous.

Under this heading should also be mentioned the roller and the drag.
The chief purpose of the former is to compact the soil and crush clods.

I Courtesy of The Dunham Company, Berea. Ohio. From pamphlet "Soil Sense."

INTENTIONAL SECONIXEXPOSURE

■ » V :'; b

720

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Seldom should the soil be rolled, except when very dry. Under these condi-
tions it brings the moisture nearer the surface and helps to germinate newly
planted seed. The roller is most frequently used in preparing the soil for
seeding winter wheat. Rollers of large diameter compact the surface soil
without much pulverizing effect. Those of smaller diameter have more
pulverizing effect.

The drag or planker is a cheap implement, usually home-made. It
is generally constructed of four 8 or 10-inch planks. These are fastened
together with two or three cross pieces, to which the planks are securely
nailed or bolted in such a way that one plank overlaps the next about
one inch. The width may vary from eight to twelve feet. Such a drag
requires two or three horses, depending on length. For light work it
may be loaded with stones or bags of earth. For heavier work the
operator may ride upon it. The drag pulverizes the surface soil, fills

up depressions and levels the
surface. It is most effective
when the surface soil is rather
dry.

Cultivators. — There are
numerous forms of cultivators
requiring from one to four
horses, depending on size.
These are used for many of
the truck crops, for orchards
and for general farm intertilled
crops such as corn, cotton,
cane, potatoes, etc. Cultiva-
tors are made both for riding
and walking. The number and form of the shovels are determined by
the crop to be cultivated and the character of the soil. The size and
prevalence of weeds and grass are also determining factors. The large
single and double shovels formerly used have largely given place to
smaller shovels, disks and sweeps. The small shovels and sweeps are
designed for shallow tillage, and are extensively used for both corn and
cotton. Such cultivators do little damage to the roots of the crop, make
an effective soil mulch, and, if used in the nick of time, destroy all small
weeds.

The disk cultivator is better suited for larger weeds and for throw-
ing the earth either to or from the plants.

Numerous forms of hand cultivators are available for garden work.
There are also several forms of one-horse cultivators extensively used on
truck farms.

The weeder consists of numerous flexible teeth and is designed to
break the soil crust and destroy very small weeds when the plants to be

» Courtesy of Orauge-JudcJ Company, N. Y. From "Soils and Crops," by Hunt and Burkctt.

A Home-made Flanker. ^

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 721

tilled are small. A variety of tillage implements is advantageous, and
the selection should meet the needs of the owner.

Seeding Machines. — Until within the last century much of the
sowing and planting of seeds was done by hand. Recently the broad-
cast seeder has taken the place of broadcasting by hand, and the drill
and planter have supplanted hand planting of seeds either in hills or rows.
The end-gate seeder, used extensively for seeding oats, and the knapsack
seeders, used for grasses and clovers, are an improvement over hand
seeding, but are subject to much the same defects as hand seeding. The
speed of the distributor, the weight of the seed and the condition of the

A Much Used Form op Corn Cultivator.^

wind all affect the distance seed will be thrown. Great care is, there-
fore, necessary in the spacing of the passages back and forth across the
field in order to avoid uneven seeding.

Broadcast seeders with long hoppers carried on two wheels give
much better results than the sorts above mentioned. They are provided
either with the agitator feed or the force feed. The latter is the more
satisfactory. The former has a revolving agitator that passes over each
opening from which seed issues and prevents stoppage. The rate of seed-
ing is controlled by adjusting the size of the openings in the bottoms of
the hoppers. The seed either falls on a vibrating board or passes through

1 Courtesy of The Intem^tipnal Harvester Company, Chicago, 111,

•mm

720

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The drag or planker is a cheap implement, usually home-made. It
is generally constructed of four 8 or 10-inch i:>lanks. 'Jlieso are fastened
together with two or three cross pieces, to which the }:)lanks are securely
nailed or bolted in such a way that one plank overlaps the next about
one inch. The width may vary from eight to twelve feet. Such a drag
requires two or three horses, depending on length. For hght work it
may be loaded with stones or bags of earth. For heavier work the
operator may ride upon it. The drag pulverizes the surface soil, fills

up depressions and levels tlie
surface. It is most effective
when the surface soil is rather
dry.

Cultivators. — There are
numerous forms of cultivators
requiring from one to four
horses, dc])ending on size.
Tlicse are used for many of
the truck croi)s, for orchards
and for general farm intertilled
crops such as corn, cotton,
cane, potatoes, etc. Cultiva-
tors an^ made l)oth for riding
and walking. The number and form of the shovels are determined l)y
the crop to be cultivated and the character of the soil. The size and
prevalence of weeds and grass are also determining factors. The large
single and double siiovels formerly used have largely given place to
smaller shovels, disks and sweeps. The small shovels and sweeps are
designed for shallow tillage, and are extensively used for both corn and
cotton. Such cultivators do little damage to the roots of the croj), make
an effective soil mulch, and, if used in the nick of time, destroy all small
weeds.

The disk cultivator is better suited for larger weeds and for throw-
ing the earth either to or from the plants.

Numerous forms of hand cultivators are available for garden work.
There are also several forms of one-horse cultivators extensively used on
truck farms.

The weeder consists of numerous flexible teeth and is designed to
break the soil crust and destroy very small weeds when the plants to be

1 Courtesy of Orauge-Judci Company, N. Y. From "Soils and Crops," by IIi,„t and Tiurkett.

A Home-made Planker.^

^^mm

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 721

tilled are small. A variety of tillage implements is advantageous, and
the selection should meet the needs of the owner.

* .-^ &<*

vrnwrn

. w.

[•^.^■^-

l^- -■'■■■' ,t^-

'-■*■' '/\ " >

Lfe*-*.

%^ : .j^ ■■*■ v^ n

44^

m..r

i:«*v

.?^:^

"►♦

^^-i

■y:^.^

;'.nS

^w.

mr!

iWStKRf' s^'iyje^^Pfvi

A Much Used Form op Corn Cultivator.^

wind all affect the distance seed will be thrown. Great care is, there-
fore, necessary in the spacing of the passages back and forth across the
field in order to avoid uneven seeding.

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago, 111,
4d

722

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

fan-shaped spouts that distribute it evenly over the ground. The wheel-
barrow seeder used for grasses and clovers has the same arrangement, but
is usually without the vibrating board or spouts.

Seeders of the same form, provided with a force feed, are most satis-
factory. The force feed can be set to seed at any desired rate and makes
uniformity reasonably certain.

Broadcast seeders are sometimes attached to disk harrows. The
seed may be sown either in front of or behind the disks. In one case it
will be rather deeply covered; in the other it will he on top of the ground
and the disk must be followed with a harrow to cover the seed.

Grain drills came into use to some extent in England soon after
1731, at which time Jethro Tull advocated a system of seeding and tillage

called *^ Horse Hoeing
Husbandry.'* In the
United States drills
worthy of mention
were not perfected
until after 1840.
Drills are more expen-
sive than seeders, are
heavier of draft and
seed more slowly. As
they have become per-
fected they have dis-
placed broadcast
seeders to a large
extent. The chief ad-
vantage lies in a uni-
form depth of planting
that may be controlled
to suit the kind of seed
and the condition of the soil. This insures more perfect germination and
requires less seed than when broadcasted. Nearly all wheat is now drilled,
and the best farmers also drill oats, rye and barley. Even alfalfa and the
clovers are now being drilled with good results.

There are now several forms of furrow openers for drills. The hoe
drill was the first to be developed. It has good penetration and works
well on clean land, but clogs badly in trash. The shoe drill was next
to be developed, but has not been so extensively used as the hoe. Disk
furrow openers are of more recent use and both single and double disks
are used. They are especially good in trashy ground. Press wheels are
sometimes provided to follow the disks and compact the soil over the
seed. Covering chains are also used, their sole purpose being to insure
covering all of the seed. The several forms of furrow openers are provided

* Courtesy of Lowcry's Summer School Report.

A Wheelbarrow Seeder in Operation.*
An even distribution of grass seed is secured by its use.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 723

with a tube through which the grain passes, and these are connected
with the seed box by flexible tubes either of rubber or of steel ribbon.
Spaces between furrow openers vary from 6 to 9 inches, 7 inches being
the most common distance.

Drills are provided with both fertilizer and grass-seed attachments
if desired.

The drill compels the farmer to put his land in good condition before
seeding and this is another of its advantages. For oats, the drill has
very little advantage over broadcasting in wet seasons. On an average,
however, drilling oats has increased the yield about three bushels per
acre. It will save from one-half to one bushel of seed to each acre.

Grass and clover generally do better with drilled grain than with
that broadcasted. The drill should be run north and south so the sun

The Usual Type of Grain Drill with Single Disk Furrow Openers.^

can get into the grass. With winter wheat, north and south drill rows
generally hold snow better and heave less than rows running east and
west. All seed used in drills should be thoroughly cleaned to avoid clog-
ging and insure even distribution, (^are should be exercised to adjust
the furrow openers so that the seed will be deposited at the most desir-
able depth. The smaller the seed, the shallower it should be covered.
Seed may be covered more deeply in a dry, loose soil than in a wet,
compact one.

Com Planters. — These are strictly an American invention and have
been developed within the last sixty years. They have reached the high-
est stage of development of any of the seeding machinery. The corn crop
is so important and is grown on land of such high value that the impor-
tance of accuracy in planting is greater than with the small grains. The

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago, 111.

i.rm^x^~

t/';\'*l''i./

722

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

fan-shaped spouts that distribute it evenly over the ground. The wheel-
barrow seeder used for grasses and clovers has the same arrangement, but
is usually without the vibrating board or spouts.

Seeders of the same form, provided with a force feed, are most satis-
factory. The force feed can be set to seed at any desired rate and makes
uniformity reasonably certain.

Broadcast seeders are sometimes attached to disk harrows. The
seed may be sown either in front of or behind the disks. In one case it
will be rather deeply covered ; in the other it will lie on top of the ground
and the disk must be followed with a harrow to cover the seed.

Grain drills came into use to some extent in P^ngland soon after
1731, at which time Jethro Tull advocated a system of seeding and tillage

called ^^ Horse Hoeing
Husbandry." In the
United States drills
worthy of mention
were not perfected
until after 1840.
Drills are more expen-
sive than seeders, are
heavier of draft and
seed more slowly. As
they have become per-
fected they have dis-
placed broadcast
seeders to a large
extent. The chief ad-
vantage lies in a uni-
form dex)th of planting
that may be controlled
to suit the kind of seed
and the condition of the soil. This insures more perfect germination and
requires less seed than when broadcasted. Nearly all wheat is now drilled,
and the best farmers also drill oats, rye and barley. Even alfalfa and the
clovers are now being drilled with good results.

There are now several forms of furrow openers for drills. The hoe
drill was the first to be developed. It has good penetration and works
well on clean land, })ut clogs badly in trash. The shoe drill was next
to be developed, but has not been so extensively used as the hoe. Disk
furrow openers are of more recent use and both single and double disks
are used. They are especially good in trashy ground. Press wheels are
sometimes provided to follow the disks and compact the soil over the
seed. Covering chains are also used, their sole purpose being to insure
covering all of the seed. The several forms of furrow openers are provided

* Courtesy of Lowcry's Summer School Report,

A Wheelbarrow Seeder in Operation. ^
An even distribution of grass seed is secured by its use.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 723

Drills are provided with both fertilizer and grass-seed attachments
if desired.

The drill compels the farmer to put his land in good condition lefore
seeding and this is another of its advantages. For oats, the drill has
very little advantage over broadcasting in wet seasons. On an average,
however, drilling oats has increased the yield about three bushels per
acre. It will save from one-half to one bushel of seed to each acre.

Grass and clover generally do better with drilled grain than with
that broadcasted. The drill should be run north and south so the sun

The Usual Type of Grain Drill with Single Disk Furrow Openers.^

can get into the grass. With winter wheat, north and south drill rows
generally hold snow better and heave less than rows lunning east and
west. All seed used in drills should be thoroughly cleaned to avoid clog-
ging and insure even distribution. Care should be exercised to adjust
the furrow openers so that the seed will be deposited at the most desir-
able depth. The smaller the seed, the shallower it should be covered.
Se(Hl may l)e covei'ed moi'c deeply in a dry, loose soil than in a wet,
compact one.

Corn Planters.^ — These ai-e strictly an American invention and have
been (hn^eloped within the last sixty years. They have reached the high-
est stage of devc^lopment of any of the seeding machinery. The corn crop
is so important and is grown on land of such high value that the impor-
tance of accuracy in planting is greater than with the small grains. The

» Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicaco, 111.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

l**;

724

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

tillage demanded by this crop makes it essential that the rows be straight,
and in case it is check-rowed, that the hills be reasonably compact.

The dropping device should be carefully adjusted and the plates
selected to drop the desired number of kernels. It pays to grade the
seed for uniformity in size. No device can do perfect work with seed
corn, the kernels of which vary greatly in size. There are two forms of
plates: the round-holed plate and the edge-selection plate. Whichever
form is used, the adjustments should be such that the kernels of corn
will not be broken.

A Good Corn Planter.*

There are four forms of furrow openers for corn planters, viz., the
curved runner, the stub runner, the single disk and the double disk.
Each has its advantages, depending on character and condition of soil
and presence or freedom from trash. Whatever form is used, the seed
should be deposited at a uniform depth and properly covered.

There are several forms of planter wheels. Their purpose is three-
fold: (1) to support the frame of the machine, (2) to cover the corn, and
(3) to compress the earth about it. A solid wheel is made both flat and
concave on its surface. The concave surface is superior, because it more
completely closes the furrow and leaves the track slightly higher in the
center than at the sides. The open wheel is also used. This leaves a

1 Courtesy of Emerson-Brantinghara Implement Company, Rocklord, 111. From pamphlet "A
Book About Emerson Planters."

rm^

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 725

f'l!

narrow ridge of loose earth directly over the corn. This prevents crust-
ing of the soil directly over the seed in case rains follow planting.

Check-rowers are attached to corn planters for the purpose of having
the corn plants in rows in both directions. This provides for cross culti-
vation and is desirable on weedy soil. There are two forms of check-
rowers, one in which the wire enters the device on one side of the planter
and is left on the ground on the opposite side, where it is gathered up by
the planter upon its return. In the other form the wire remains on the
side of the planter next to the planted portion of the field. In the first
form, the knots on the wire are twice as far apart as the hills of corn,
each knot dropping two hills as it passes through the mechanism. In
the second form the distance between knots on the wire is the same as
the distance between hills.

The best planters are so constructed that the distance between fur-
row openers and wheels can be adjusted. The adjustment generally ranges
from 3 to 4 feet in width. On good soil, corn is generally planted with

rows 3 J feet apart.

The seed boxes should have tight covers with good latches. The
boxQS should be hinged so that they can be inverted to change the plates
without removing the corn. This also provides for the quick removal of
corn when one wishes to change from one variety of seed to another.

HARVESTING MACHINERY

In no phase of farm activity has there been a greater saving of labor
than through the introduction of improved harvesting machinery. In
less than three-quarters of a century this phase of farm work has passed
from the use of the cradle by which two men by long hours of back-
breaking work could cut and bind an acre and a quarter of grain in a
day, to the eight-foot self-binders, by which one man and three horses
can cut and bind fifteen acres in a day. Not only is much more accom-
plished, but the work is better done.

Mowing Machines. — The side-cut mowing machine, in spite of its
side draft, has not been displaced by the direct cutting machine. The
two-horse mowing machine with a six-foot cutting bar is generally preferred.
While there are a number of makes of mowing machines, selection should
be made to fit the character of work to be done. The machine should be
no heavier than is required for the work it is to do. The important parts
of the mowing machine are the. cutting device, consisting of the cutting
bar, guards and sickle, and the transmission gearing which transmits the
power of the team from the wheels to the cutting device. Ample adjust-
ment should be provided for regulating the height of cutting and also
for quickly elevating the bar to avoid obstructions in the field.

It is important to keep all bearings tight and thoroughly oiled.
This increases the length of life of the machine and promotes efficiency.
The sickle knives should be kept sharp and should be held firmly against

'm^

724

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

tillage demanded by this crop makes it essential that the rows be straight,
and in case it is check-rowed, that the hills be reasonably compact.

A Good Corn Planter.*

> Courtesy of Emprson-Brantingham Implement Company, Rockford, 111. From pamphlet "A
Book About Emerson Planters."

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 725

narrow ridge of loose earth directly over the corn. This prevents crust-
ing of the soil directly over the seed in case rains follow planting.

Check-rowers are attached to corn planters for the purpose of having
the corn plants in rows in both directions. This provides for cross culti-
vation and is desirable on weedy soil. There are two forms of check-
rowers, one in which the wire enters the device on one side of the planter
and is left on the ground on the opposite side, where it is gathered up by
the planter upon its return. In the other form the wire remains on the
side of the planter next to the planted portion of the field. In the first
form, the knots on the wire are twice as far apart, as the hills of corn,
each knot dropping two hills as it passes through the mechanism. In
the second form the distance between knots on the wire is the same as
the distance between hills.

The seed boxes should have tight covers with good latches. The
boxes should be hinged so that they can be inverted to change the plates
without removing the corn. This also provides for the quick removal of
corn when one wishes to change from one variety of seed to another.

HARVESTING MACHINERY

In no phase of farm activity has there been a greater saving of labcr
than through the introduction of improved harvesting machinery. In
less than three-quartei-s of a century this phase of farm work has passed
from the use of the cradle by which two men by long hours of back-
breaking work could cut and bind an acre and a quarter of grain in a
day, to the eight-foot self-binders, by which one man and three horses
can cut and ])ind fifteen acres in a day. Not only is much more accom-
plished, but the work is better done.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

3l*;

li'--U.T'.^^^2

p-i'

(726)

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FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 727

the ledger plates. Damaged plates or badly worn and broken knives
should be promptly replaced by new ones.

The Pittman bearings are the ones most likely to become loose. This
will give rise to pounding, which will wear the bearings rapidly. The
bearings of the Pittman at both the sickle head end and the Pittman crank
end should, therefore, be of easy adjustment.

Self-Rake Reaper. — This machine soon followed the improvement
and development of the modern mower. It was extensively used for a
short period, but was soon displaced by the self-binder. The self-rake
reaper is still a desirable machine for harvesting such crops as flax, buck-
wheat and clover for seed. These crops, when harvested, cling together

I / *

A Mowing Machine with Pea Vine Attachment.^

and there is little advantage in having them bound into bundles. This
machine, therefore, does the work of harvesting these crops at less initial
cost of machine and a further saving in twine. Since the mowing machine
and the modern self-binder are both required on most farms, the self-
rake reaper is now generally dispensed with, unless the acreage of the
above-mentioned crops is large.

Self-Binder. — This machine has been developed since 1875, and is
now almost universally used in harvesting small grains. There are a
number of different makes, but the most satisfactory ones are built prin-
cipally of steel, combining strength with lightness of weight and durability.
The essential parts consist of the cutting device, the elevators and the

1 Courtesy of F. Blocki Manufacturing Company, Sheboygan, WiSt

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(726)

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FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 727

the ledger plates. Damaged plates or badly worn and broken knives
should be promptly replaced by new ones.

Self-Rake Reaper. — This machine soon followed the improvement
and development of the modern mower. It was extensively used for a
short period, but was soon disphiced by the self-})inder. The self-rake
reaper is still a desirable machine for harvesting such crops as flax, buck-
wheat and clover for seed. These crops, when harvested, cling together

Y- 1, -' ,.■.-■ -.-J -•*(•.. , ,._^- .- .r^vjott.^w:* V. j( T«* -■i»<-^-'«r«f'.;' .

•

: •■ W.^. ^- 1

' *■* \ / ^feyfct^

,.V'

\^^H^St^mm^^

■

■■"'"A

■ 1
t

A Mowing Machine with Pea Vine Attachment.*

Self -Binder. — This machine has been developed since 1875, and is
now almost universally used in harvesting small grains. There are a
number of different makes, but the most satisfactory ones are built prin-
cipally of steel, combining strength with lightness of weight and durability.
The essential parts consist of the cutting device, the elevators and the

1 Courtesy of F. Blocki Manufacturing Company, Sheboygan, Wia,

Migis-.- >iiv • rr .vjbCL.tt'..jji-a«BWtiiti«ic'^^TfcKatji<i>.feii

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

i»'rx t*'^'

---.-; -^1

728

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

binding apparatus. To these, may be added the reel with its several
adjustments and the bundle carrier. There are numerous details which
will not be described here. The precautions advised relative to the
working parts of the mowing machine apply with equal force to the self-
binder. Various parts of the binding apparatus must work in harmony
and be so timed that each part will do its work at exactly the right moment.
In order to operate the self-binder satisfactorily, one should understand
the working of the various parts and be capable of adjusting them.

The canvas elevators shoi4d be neither too tight nor too loose to insure
good work. They should be loosened when the machine stands in the
field over night. If rain threatens, it is wise to remove them or cover the
machine to keep them dry. Their usefulness will be greatly lengthened by
removing them from the machine, rolling them so mice cannot enter the
folds and storing in a dry place at the close of the harvesting season.

The best way to keep the self-binder in first-class condition is to oil
all wearing parts as soon as the harvest is over and store the machine
under shelter at once. If work is not rushing at this time, repairs should
be made while the farmer knows how the machine has been running and
what parts need repairs. If these precautions are not taken, three or
four times as much labor will be required to remove the rust and get the
machine to operating smoothly the following season.

One should always have on hand a small supply of knife blades and
rivets, extra links for the chains that are likely to break and a few extra
small bolts and taps. It is essential to have with the machine suitable
wrenches, pliers, a cold chisel, screwdriver and hammer. The frequent
oiling of all bearings is necessary.

Com Harvesters. — The modern corn harvester is the outgrowth of
the self-binder. It combines the same principles in both cutting and
binding apparatus. The apparatus for conveying the stalks to the binder
is very different from that of the self-binder. The various parts of the
machine are much stronger than those of the self-binder, in order to
handle heavy green corn without straining or breaking the machine. It
is designed to cut one row of corn at a time and is now extensively used in
cutting corn for the silo as well as cutting more mature corn for shocking
in the field.

This machine costs equally as much as the self-binder, and is an eco-
nomical investment where there are twenty acres or more of corn to be
harvested.

Threshing Machines. — The modern threshing machine has reached
a high stage of development and does all the work of separating the grain
from the straw, cleans the grain of chaff and foreign material, delivers the
grain to bag or wagon and the straw to stack or mow without its being
touched by the hands of man after it is forked from the wagon to the self-
feeder and band cutter.

Since the average farmer does not own a threshing outfit, it is not

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 729

necessary for him to understand the details of it. Threshermen would
not be satisfied with the brief description that space will permit in this
chapter. They can secure ample information from the threshermen^s
books pubhshed by threshing machine manufacturing companies.

The clover huller is a modified threshing machine and is generally
owned and operated for a community by the owners of a general thresher
or corn-sheller outfit.

Small threshing machines are manufactured for individual farmers,
and may prove economical for farmers in the eastern section of the

An Up-to-date Threshing Machine.*

United States, where it is the custom to store the sheaf gram tn large
barns and thresh it in the winter tune. The essential points in operating
the thresher are the speed of the cylinder, which should be uniform, the
setting of the concaves, and the number of teeth in it so as to remove
all grain from the heads, the speed of the fan, and the selection and
adjustment of the sieves, so as to clean the grain without blowing any
into the straw. Rapid and satisfactory work necessitates ample power.
The power may consist of steam, gasoline or electric motors, and should
be adapted to as many other uses as possible.

* Courtesy of The latematiooal Harvester Con»pauy, Chicago, III,

728

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The canvas elevators should be neither too tight nor too loose to insure
good work. They should be loosened when the machine stands in the
field over night. If rain threatens, it is wise to remove them or cover the
machine to keep them dry. Their usefulness will be greatly lengthened by
removing them from the machine, rolling them so mice cannot enter the
folds and storing in a dry place at the close of the harvesting season.

The best way to keep the self-binder in first-class condition is to oil
all wearing parts as soon as the harvest is over and store the machine
under shelter at once. If work is not rushing at this time, repairs should
be made while the farmer knows how the machine has l)een running and
what parts need repairs. If these precautions are not taken, three or
four times as much labor will be required to remove the rust and get the
machine to operating smoothly the following season.

One should always have on hand a small supply of knife blades and
rivets, extra links for the chains that are likely to break and a few extra
small bolts and taps. It is essential to have with the machine suita])Ie
wrenches, pliers, a cold chisel, screwdriver and hammer. The frequent
oiling of all Ijearings is necessary.

Com Harvesters. — The modern corn harvester is the outgrowth of
the self-binder. It coml)ines the same principles in both cutting and
binding apparatus. The apparatus for conveying the stalks to the binder
is very different from that of the self-binder. The various parts of the
machine are much stronger than those of the self-binder, in order to
handle heavy green corn without straining or breaking the machine. It
is designed to cut one row of corn at a time and is now extensively used in
cutting corn for the silo as well as cutting more mature corn for shocking
in the field.

This machine costs equally as much as the self-binder, and is an eco-
nomical investment where there are twenty acres or more of corn to be
harvested.

Threshing Machines. — The modern threshing machine has reached
a high stage of development and does all the work of separating the grain
from the straw, cleans the grain of chaff and foreign material, delivers the
grain to bag or wagon and the straw to stack or mow without its teing
touched by the hands of man after it is forked from the wagon to the self-
feeder and band cutter.

Since the average farmer does not own a threshing outfit, it is not

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 729

necessary for him to understand the details of it. Threshermen would
not be satisfied with the brief description that space will permit in this
chapter. They can secure ample information from the threshermen's
books pubhshed by threshing machine manufacturing companies.

The clover huller is a modified threshing machine and is generally
owned and operated for a community by the owners of a general thresher
or corn-sheller outfit.

Small threshing ma(;hines are manufactured for individual farmers,
and may prove economical for fanners in the eastern section of the

An Up-to-date Threshing Machine.^

United States, where it is tlu; custom to store the sheaf gram tn large
barns and thresh it in the winter time. The essential points in operating
the thresher are the speed of the cylinder, which should be uniform, the
setting of the concaves, and the number of teeth in it so as to remove
all grain from the heads, the speed of the fan, and the selection and
adjustment of the sieves, so as to clean the grain without blowing any
into the straw. Rapid and satisfactory work necessitates ample ]K)wer.
The power may consist of steam, gasoline or electric motors, and should
be adapted to as many other uses as possible.

1 Courtesy of The luternational Harvester Company, Chicago, 111,

730

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Com Shellers. — In the corn belt, large corn shellers are used for
shelling nearly all corn that goes to market. They are owned and operated
for community work the same as threshers.

Many small hand and ix)wer corn shellers are used on farms for
shelling corn for feeding purposes. There are two general forms, viz.,
the spring sheller and the cylinder sheller. All hand shellers are of the
first-named type, but some of the power shellers are of the second type.
The latter are cheaper and of simpler construction, and seldom get out of
order. They break the cobs badly and small pieces of cobs are more
numerous in the corn than when spring shellers are used. For this reason,

Four-hole Mounted Belt Corn Sheller with Right Angle Belt Attachment.*

the spring sheller is considered superior. The unbroken cobs are much
better fuel.

The larger shellers of both types are provided with a cleaning device
which separates chaff, husks and- cobs from the shelled corn, and elevators
which elevate both shelled corn and cobs.

In order to do good work, corn should be reasonably dry when
shelled. It is impossible for the sheller to do satisfactory work when
corn is so damp that the kernels are removed with difficulty. Further-
more, such shelled corn will heat or spoil when placed in storage. Corn

» Courtesy of gaodwich Maoufacturing Company, Sandwich, 111.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 731

shells most easily when the temperature is below freezing, especially if
inclined to be damp.

Silage Cutters. — A silo may now be found on nearly every dairy
farm; consequently, silage cutters are in much demand and have been
greatly improved in recent years. The essential parts of the silage cutter
are the feeding table, provided with an endless apron which feeds the
corn into the cutting apparatus, the cutter head and the elevator. There
are two types of cutter heads: one with radial knives fastened directly
to the flywheel; the other with spiral knives fastened to a shaft. The
modern elevator consists of a tight metal tube, through which a blast
of air is driven by a fan. This blows the cut corn to the top of the silo,
frequently having an elevation of 40 or more feet. It is a good plan to
have a movable cylinder, either of metal or canvas to descend in the silo
nearly to the surface of the filled portion. A man in the silo can move
this to any point, thus keeping the surface level and avoiding a separation
of the fighter and heavier portions. This not only saves labor, but pro-
vides for uniform settling of the silage.

The cutter knives should be kept sharp and be carefully adjusted
so as to have a close shearing effect. If they are too loose, the material
will be broken instead of cut, thus requiring more power. If the knives
press against the ledger plate with too much force, there is undue friction
and wearing of the knives.

The cut corn leaves the silage cutter coated with juice, and acids
frequently are developed, thus causing rapid erosion and rusting of all
metal parts. It is, therefore, advised to run a few forkfuls of hay or
straw through the cutter to remove this material, thus leaving it in a
dry condition.

Manure Spreader. — A manure spreader should find a place on every
farm where there are 100 loads of manure to spread annually. It not
only reduces the work of spreading the manure, but spreads it more evenly
and with more rapidity than can be done by hand. Careful experiments
show that fight appfications of manure for general farm crops bring better
returns per unit of manure than heavier applications. Manure spreaders
make the manure cover more land, thus increasing the returns.

The essentials of a good manure spreader are strength, ample capacity
and an apron that will not clog or stick, together with a beater that will
spread the manure evenly. The machine should be capable of adjustment
so that any desired amount may be applied. The gearing should be cov-
ered so as to protect it from the manure. Spreaders are of heavy draft,
and may be provided with shafts so that three horses may be used.

It saves time to have the spreader so placed that the manure carrier
may be dumped directly into it. When filled, it may be hauled to the
field, the manure spread and the spreader returned for refilling. Good
farmers find it economy to provide a cement floor, slightly hollowed in

the center, on which the spreader stands. This saves the Hquid which

III

i t . .V. ..W.i^

'fe^':??;^»i?j^i^'^'^;^

732

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

may drain from the spreader, and the overflow of manure that sometimes
occurs. If this is covered with a roof the spreader is protected and leach-
ing is prevented. If such a shed is sufficiently large, it may serve as a
storage place when there are no fields on which manure may be spread.

Milking Machines.— These have been rapidly improved within the
last few years, but have not come into very general use. For economical
use, they require power and tubing for suction in addition to the apparatus
proper. They should, thei'efore, l)e most economical in large dairies where

Milking Machine in Opekation.^

the power can be utilized for other purposes as well. The chief advantages
of the milking machine are the saving of time in milking and cleaner milk.
Cleanliness of milk demands that the apparatus be kept sterilized and
clean. The machine should be washed with soda and hot water and all
metal parts boiled for half an hour. The rubber parts will not permit of
boiUng. It is recommended that they be hung in a tank of water con-
taining about 7 per cent of salt and 0.75 per cent of chloride of lime.

The labor saved in milking by the use of the machine may be offset
by the extra work in operating and caring for the apparatus. In large
dairies, where stablemen are required to do no other work, this is not a

» Courtesy of The CoUege of Agriculture and Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Depart-
ment of Animal Husbandry, Lexington, Ky.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 733

serious objection, since the average man can feed and care for more cows
than he can milk by hand during the milking period.

Spraying Machines. — On all truck and fruit farms spraying machines
are a necessity. The size and kind of outfit will depend on the size of
business and character of plants to be sprayed. Wherever there are more
than eight or ten acres of orchard, a power sprayer mounted on wheels
is recommended. Those which develop power from the wheels are cheap-
est, but are not so satisfactory for spraying large trees. A high-grade
gasoline engine and a good t^-nk for compressed air provide a uniform
pressure under all conditions. Good work demands a pressure of from

A Power Sprayer Routing Orchard Pests.

90 to 125 pounds. Good nozzles that will give a fine spray without clog-
ging are essential. There should be an agitator in the receptacle that
holds the spraying material. The hose attachments should be ample in
length to reach all parts of the trees.

Horses attached to the sprayer should be protected by suitable
covering.

For small orchards or for small fruit, the barrel sprayer with hand
pump, mounted on a sled, will serve the purpose. Knapsack sprayers
may meet the needs for garden purposes, and are also useful in connection
with larger outfits. They are suited to spraying the base of trees for
mice, rabbits and borers. They are also good to spray young plants and
for shrubs and bushes around the home.

732

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Milking Machines. — These have been rapidly improved within the
last few years, but have not come into very general use. For economical
use, they require power and tubing for suction in addition to the apparatus
proper. They should, thoi'efore, be most economi(;al in large dairies where

Milking Machine in Operation.^

the power can be utilized for other purposes as well. The chief advantages
of the milking machine are the saving of time in milking and cleaner milk.
Cleanliness of milk demands that the apparatus be kept sterilized and
clean. The machine should be washed with soda and hot water and all
metal parts boiled for half an hour. The rubber parts will not permit of
boiling. It is recommended that they be hung in a tank of water con-
taining about 7 per cent of salt and 0.75 per cent of chloride of lime.

1 Courtesy of The College of Agriculture and Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Depart-
ment of Animal Husbandry, Lexington, Ky.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 733

serious objection, since the average man can feed and care for more cows
than he can milk by hand during the milking period.

Spraying Machines. — On all truck and fruit farms spraying machines
are a necessity. The size and kind of outfit will depend on the size of
business and character of plants to be sprayed. Wherever there are more
than eight or ten acres of orchard, a power sprayer mounted on wheels
is recommended. Those w^hich develop power from the wheels are cheap-
est, but are not so satisfactory for spraying large trees. A high-grade
gasoline engine and a good tg.nk for compressed air provide a uniform
pressure under all conditions. Good work demands a pressure of from

A Power Sprayer Routing Orchard Pests.

Horses attached to the sprayer should be protected by suitable
covering.

i.y-m

j«5.f>'»ij-,; ■

734

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Tractors. — The rapid development of small tractors adapted to a
wide range of uses on the moderate sized to small farm is certain to dis-
place considerable of the horse power within the next decade. The
advantages of tractors lie in the saving of time and in the fact that they
are of little or no expense when not in use. With present prices of horse
feed and fuel for tractors, whether it be coal, crude oil or gasoline, the
tractor furnishes power at less cost than the horse.

The motor truck is recommended for farmers having much market-
ing to do, especially if the distance from .market is great and roads are
suitable for such a vehicle.

A Collection of Useful Hand Implements.'

For a fuller discussion of farm motors and tractors, see the follow-
ing chapter.

Farm Vehicles. — Farm wagons should be selected to suit the char-
acter of work to be done, and he adapted to the character of roads in the
vicinity. Wide tires are recommended for farm use and for dirt roads.
Under most conditions they are lighter of draft and injure roads and
fields less than do the regulation narrow-tired wagons. It pays to buy
the best makes of wagons, to provide shelter for them and to keep both
running gear and boxes well painted.

A low-wheeled running gear on which may be placed the regulation
wagon box or hay rack finds favor on most farms. It saves much
lifting.

* Courtesy of The Macmillan Company. N. Y. From "Soils," by Lyon and Fippen.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 739

A light runabout, suitable^r one horse, is useful on nearly every
farm. A carriage or surrey should be provided for the pleasure of the
family.

The automobile is now displacing the carriage or surrey to a con-
siderable extent. It serves for both business and pleasure and is a great
saver' of the farmer's time where considerable distance and frequent trips
are involved. The automobile costs little or no more than a good driving
team and carriage, and should be less expensive to maintain.

Interior OF a Workshop with a $25.00 Outfit of Tools.*

Hand Implements. — The number and variety of hand implements
found on a farm will be determined by the type of farming. They will
be most extensively needed on truck and fruit farms. Several forms of
hoes, suited to the different kinds of work, are necessary. The hand
rake, spades and shovels should be of a type best suited to the work to
be done. It pays to keep hand implements sharp and well polished. One
can not only do more work with a sharp, well-polished hoe than one can
with a dull, rusty one, but pleasure is added to the work.

There should be an ample outfit of bam implements suited to the
kind of feed to be handled and the cleaning of the barn. These should

» From Farmers* Bulletin 347, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

*-'S^

734

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Tractors. — The rapid development of small tractors adapted to a
wide range of uses on the moderate sized to small farm is certain to dis-
place considerable of the horse power within the next decade. The
advantages of tractors lie in the saving of time and in the fact that they
are of little or no expense when not in use. With present prices of horse
feed and fuel for tractors, w^hether it be coal, crude oil or gasoline, the
tractor furnishes power at less cost than the horse.

The motor truck is recommended for farmers having much market-
ing to do, especially if the distance from market is great and roads are
suitable for such a vehicle.

A Collection of Useful Hand Implements.^

For a fuller discussion of farm motors and tractors, see the follow-
ing chapter.

Farm Vehicles. — Farm wagons should be selected to suit the char-
acter of work to be done, and be adapted to the character of roads in the
vicinity. Wide tires are recommended for farm use and for dirt roads.
Under most conditions they are lighter of draft and injure roads and
fields less than do the regulation narrow-tired wagons. It pays to buy
the best makes of wagons, to provide shelter for them and to keep both
running gear and boxes well painted.

A low-wheeled running gear on which may be placed the regulation
wagon box or hay rack finds favor on most farms. It saves much
Hfting.

* Courtesy of The Macmillan Company. N. Y. From "Soils," by Lyon and Fippen.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 739

A light runabout, suitable^or one horse, is useful on nearly every
farm. A carriage or surrey should be provided for the pleasure of the
family.

The automobile is now displacing the carriage or surrey to a con-
siderable extent. It serves for both business and pleasure and is a great
saver of the farmer's time where considerable distance and frequent trips
are involved. The automobile costs little or no more than a good driving
team and carriage, and should be less expensive to maintain.

Interior OF a Workshop with a $25.00 Outfit of Tools.*

There should be an ample outfit of barn implements suited to the
kind of feed to be handled and the cleaning of the barn. These should

» From Farmers* Bulletin 347, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

736

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

include suitable brooms and brushes for sweeping dry floors, shovels of
the size and form suited to the kind of floor and also the gutters. Good
currycombs and brushes, always in their place when not in use, insure
better care of the stock.

Tools. — The most used forms of carpenter's tools should be found on
every farm. There should be a small shop in which to keep them and
where they may frequently be used. The ax, hatchet and two or more
kinds of hammers, the cross-cut and the rip saw, a brace and suitable
outlay of bits, and one or more good planes will frequently be needed.
There should also be a suitable collection of files, punches, pliers and
wrenches. Both flat and three-cornered files will be found useful. The

bastard and second-
cut are the grades of
files most needed for
general work. Cold
chisels and a few wood
chisels will also be use-
ful. There are many
other small tools that
can be added to the
outfit as needed. The
extent of the outfit
will be determined by
the extent and charac-
ter of the farm ma-
chinery, the mechani-
cal ability of the
farmer and the accessi-
bility to local repair
shops.

Handy Conveni-
ences.— There are
innumerable conveniences, many of which are home-made, that find much
use on the farm. Among these may be mentioned the various forms of
eveners and double-trees, suitable to three horses or more, and made to
suit the character of machinery on which used.

A pump with hose attachment, fastened to a board, may be placed
across the wagon bed and is very handy in filling barrels from a stream or
shallow well. A derrick of suitable height is useful in the home butchering
of hogs, sheep, calves or beef animals. A hoisting apparatus suitable for
putting hay into the mow or stack should find a place on nearly every farm.
The wagon jack will make the work of greasing wagons and other
vehicles easy.

A hand cart and a wheelbarrow are frequently needed. Suitable

* Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

Home-made Bakrel Cart for Hauling Liquid Feed.^

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 737

carriers operated on tracks in the barns are superior to the wheelbarrow
for conveying feed to mangers and manure to the spreader or manure pit,
but are more expensive.

Standard measures for carrying and measuring grain are always useful.
These may be in the form of good splint baskets or as metal measures
with handles.

Machinery for the House. — The weekly wash for the average farm
family, when done in the old-fashioned way, is a laborious task. It can
be greatly Hghtened
by the use of the
washing machine,
wringer and mangle
that are operated by
mechanical power. A
laundry, with modern
equipment, is of more
urgent need in the
country than in the
city. Power for such
a laundry may be used
for other purposes,
such as pumping water
for a pressure system,
operating the cream
separator, churn and
possibly a suction
cleaner. There are too
many farmers who are
able to supply such an
equipment who are
content to permit their
wives to do this work
in the old-fashioned
way. It is safe to
predict that if these

duties were to fall to the lot of the farmer himself, he would find a way to
do the work more easily and quickly.

There are on the market many labor-saving household implements,
including power churns, cream separators, sewing machines, meat cutters,
vacuum cleaners, etc. Wherever electricity is available, electric irons and
other electrical devices help to lighten the work.

If water must be pumped or drawn from the well by the housewife,
no reason exists why a pipe could not be extended and a pump placed in
the kitchen or a pump house connected with the kitchen.

Home-made Dump Cart to Make Stable Work Easier. ^

• H

Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

736

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Tools. — The most used forms of carpenter's tools should be found on
every farm. There sliould be a small shop in which to keep them and
where they may frequently be used. The ax, hatchet and two or more
kinds of liammers, the cross-cut and the rip saw, a brace and suitable
outlay of bits, and one or more good planes will frequently be needed.
There should also be a suitable collection of files, punches, pHers and
wrenches. Both flat and three-cornered files will be found useful. The

bastard and second -
cut are the grades of
files most needed for
general work. Cold
ciiisels and a few wood
chisels will also be use-
ful. There are many
other small tools that
can be added to the
outfit as needed. The
extent of the outfit
will be determined by
the extent and charac-
ter of the farm ma-
chinery, the mechani-
cal ability of the
farmer and the accessi-
bility to local repair
shops.

Handy Conveni-
ences.— There are
innumera])lc conveniences, many of which are home-made, that find much
use on the farm. Among these may be mentioned the various forms of
eveners and double-trees, suitable to three horses or more, and made to
suit the character of machinery on which used.

A hand cart, and a wheelbarrow are frequently needed. Suitable

* Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

Home-made Barrel Cart for Hauling Liquid Feed.^

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 737

carriers operated on tracks in the barns are superior to the wheelbarrow
for conveying feed to mangers and manure to the spreader or manure pit,
but are more expensive.

Standard measures for carrying and measuring grain are always useful.
These may be in the form of good splint baskets or as metal measures
with handles.

Machinery for the House. — The weekly wash for the average farm
family, when done in the old-fashioned way, is a laborious task. It can
be greatly hghtened
by the use of the
washing machine,
wringer and mangle
that are operated by
mechanical power. A
laundry, with modern
equipment, is of more
urgent need in the
country than in the
city. Power for such
a laundry may be used
for other purposes,
such as pumping water
for a pressure system,
operating the cream
separator, churn and
possibly a suction
cleaner. There are too
many farmers who arc
able to supply such an
equipment who are
content to permit their
wives to do this work
in the old-fashioned
way. It is safe to
predict that if these

duties were to fall to the lot of the farmer himself, he would find a way to
do the work more easily and quickly.

If water must be pumped or drawn from the well by the housewife,
no reason exists why a pipe could not be extended and a pump placed in
the kitchen or a pump house connected with the kitchen.

Home-made Dump Cart to Make Stable Work Easier.^

Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

738

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Bu5niig Farm Machinery. — The farmers of the United States spend
more than $100,000,000 annually for the purchase of farm machinery.
The average life of such machinery is about ten years. Its durability
could doubtless be much lengthened if it had better care.

It generally pays to buy the best makes of machines, even though
the initial cost is greater than that for cheaper ones. Whether or not
it pays to buy a machine depends on the amount of work for which it
can be used. If the amount of work is small, it is frequently cheaper to
hire a machine than to own one. In some localities the more expensive
machines are owned jointly by two or more farmers.

It requires good judgment to know when to replace an old machine
with a new one. Frequently machines apparently worn out may be
made to work as good as new by replacing badly worn parts. On the
other hand, some machines go rapidly out of date because of important
improvements. A new machine may, therefore, be purchased to advan-
tage and the old one discarded even
though not worn out. There is a
tendency on the part of too many
farmers to get along with the old
machine at a sacrifice of much time
spent in continual repairing.

Care of Machinery. — Every farmer
should have a shed large enough to
house all his farm implements. This
may be a cheap structure, the two essen-
tials being a dry floor and a good roof.
There should be sufficient room to store
the implements without taking them
all apart. It is well to arrange them in the shed when time is not press-
ing, so that those first needed in the spring are most accessible.

The woodwork of all machinery should be painted whenever it shows
need of it. This should be done in leisure time. All machinery should
be examined and nuts and bolts tightened. The metal parts, such as the
surface of plow bottoms, cultivator shovels, the disks of disk harrows,
drills and cultivators should be greased, either with kerosene and tallow
or cheap axle grease, as soon as their work is done. This prevents rust-
ing and is easily removed when the machine is again needed for use.
Although paint is sometimes used for this purpose, it is not advised, as
it is too difficult to remove.

Condition of Machinery. — Every farmer realizes the importance of
having all machinery and implements in good working order. This
pertains to the adjustment of all complex machinery and applies also
to the adjustment of clevises on plows, so that they will run at the proper
depth. A machine out of adjustment not only does its work poorly, but

1 Courtesy of Altorfer Bros., Roanoke, 111.

A Washing Machine Saves Much
Hard Work for the Housewife.^

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS

739

generally requires more power to operate it. Some one has well said
''Constant vigilance and oil is the price of smooth-running, efficient farm
tools, and to spare either is dangerous as well as expensive." Saws that
will saw, knives that will cut, hammers that will stay on their handles
are much to be preferred. '

Utilizing Machinery.— A full equipment of farm machinery costs so
much that interest and depreciation are a burden for the small farmer.
This may be overcome by joint ownership of the more costly machines.
Large farms can own a complete outfit and utilize it quite fully. The
smaller the farm the greater the machinery cost per acre. On small

Where Do You Prefer to Keep Your Implements? Under the Sky?

farms the use for certain machinery may be so small as to make owner-
ship unprofitable.

The greater the skill and higher the wage of workmen, the greater
the necessity of using the best and most efficient machinery.

For the general farmer tools that are adjustable and can be used
for several purposes are advantageous. A combined spike and spring-
toothed harrow that may be changed from one to the other by the use of
two levers often saves an extra trip to the house or prevents one being
used where the other would have served better. The same principle
applies to cultivators where gangs or shovels can be changed for disks
or sweeps.

Cost of Farm Machinery. — The principal items in the cost of farm
machinery are depreciation, interest on the capital invested, cost of repairs,

* Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer.

738

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Buying Farm Machinery. — The farmers of the United States spend
more than $100,000,000 annually for the purchase of farm machinery.
The averaj>:e Ufe of such machinery is about ten years. Its durability
could doubtless be much lengthened if it had better care.

> Courtesy of Altorfor Bros., Roanoko, 111.

A Washing Machine Sa\^s Much
Hard Work for the Housewife.^

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS

739

generally requires more power to operate it. Some one has well said,
''Constant vigilance and oil is the price of smooth-running, efficient farm
tools, and to spare either is dangerous as well as expensive." Saws that
will saw, knives that will cut, hammers that will stay on their handles,
are much to be preferred.

Where Do You Prefer to Keep Your Implements? Under the Sky?

farms the use for certain machinery may be so small as to make owner-
ship unprofitable.

The greater the skill and higher the wage of workmen, tlie greater
the necessity of using the best and most efficient machinery.

Cost of Farm Machinery. — The principal items in the cost of farm
machinery are depreciation, interest on the capital invested, cost of repairs,

^ Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer.

740

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

oil and labor in caring for machinery, together with the proper housing
of it. When these costs are figured on the acre basis the rate varies
inversely in proportion to the acres covered. Low cost, therefore, is asso-
ciated with the fullest possible utilization of the machines. It is signifi-
cant that the high-priced machines are usually those used for the shortest

period.

The method of computing the cost of farm machinery is well illus-
trated in the accompanying table taken from the Tribune Farmer:

Table Showing Method of Finding the Cost of Using Farm Machinery.^^

Implement.

Two two-horse walking

plows

Sprinfr-tooth harrow . . .

Spike-tooth harrow

Roller

Weeder

One-horse plow

Two riding cultivators

Grain binder

Grain drill

Fanning mill

Mower

Hay rake

Orchard sprayer

Gasoline engine

Harnesses

Wagons, boxes, racks.
Hay slings, fork track.
Miscellaneous minor
equipment

.£3
u

Total cost.

1902-04

1902

1903

1906

1905

1903

1906

1902

1904

1903

1908

1902-03

1903

1909

1902

crj

$24.00

16.4

14.40

11.4

12.00

20.0

12.00

15.0

9.00

17.5

7.50

16.4

31.00

13.7

42.00

125.00

i2.5

70.00

14.8

25.00

21.8

38.00

12.8

18.00

12.8

80.00

10.0

200.00

13.5

83.50

16.2

110.25

20.5

50.00

20.0

386.00

$1,337.65

10.0
12.7

C6 *
S'

£ *-^
a. (u*^
a > j-

$13.00
7.50
6.50
6.50
5.00
4.00
38.00

64.00
37.00
13.00
20.00
9.50
42.00
105.00
43.00
58.00
26.00

197.00

Annual Costs.

,$695.00

.65
.38
.33
.33
.25
.20
1.90

3'26
1.85

.65
1.00

.48
2.10
5.25
2.15
2.90
1.30

$1.46
1.26
.60
.80
.52
.46
5.33

i6!66

4.73
1.15
3.00
1.40
8.00
14.83
5 15
5.38
2.50

S
o

9.85 38.60

$0.95
.33
.25

3.25
.32
.18

4.30

2^98
3.50

.65
1.37

.50
5.25
5.10
5.60
4.75

.50

1.38

34.77

$105.17

41.16

$3.06
1.97
1.18
4.38
1.09
.84

11.53

ie^is

10.08

45
37

15.35
25.18
12.90
13.03
4.30

49.83

H
I
1

$181.10

344
242
78
82
25
10
154

'28
59
35
16
16
44

128
3192

250
40

78"

$0.0089
0.0073
0.0151
0.0534
0.0436
0.0840
0.0749

6.5773
0.1710
0.0700
0.3356
0.1488
0.3490
0.0200
0.0037
0.0521
0.1075

0.6400^

Numerous records of the cost of farm machinery show that the
annual cost per farm is about one-quarter of the actual value of the
machinery for the year involved.

Farm surveys in Wisconsin indicate that too many farmers economize
on their farm equipment to such an extent that efficiency is sacrificed and
profits are below what they would be with a more modern and efficient
equipment.

Duty of Farm Machinery pertains to the amount of work each
machine will do daily or for the season. Manufacturing concerns stand-
ardize different operations in their shops as much as possible. This enables
them to estimate very closely the amount of work that can be turned out
in a given time, and makes it possible for them to state to customers when
a stated task can be completed. It is just as essential for the farmer to

* Miscellaneous minor equipment charges are distributed on the basis of the total productive area of
the farm, 78 acres. In this group all machinery and small tools not specifically mentioned are included.

FARM MACHINERY AND IMPLEMENTS 741

standardize his various machines in order to know what machiner^^ will
be required for his various operations.

There are many factors influencing the duty of a given machine,
such as the speed of the team, the weather conditions and the condition
of the. ground. On an average, the daily duty of a machine in acres is
equal to the width in feet times 1.4. In other words, a 12-inch plow will
average 1.4 acres per day. A 6-foot mower will cut 8.4 acres per day. The
size of fields will also influence the duty, since small fields require more
turning and loss of time.

Careful investigations in Minnesota and Ohio show that in the
former state the acre cost of corn machinery is $1.07, while in the latter
it is only 49 cents. The lower cost in Ohio is due chiefly to the relatively
larger acreage of corn per farm and the fuller utilization of machiner}\

REFERENCES

"Farm Machinery and Farm Motors." Davidson and Chase.

Kentucky Expt. Station Bulletin 186. ''Mechanical Milker."

New York Expt. Station Bulletin 353.

Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 227. Circular 98.

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletins: 44, 212.

Farmers' Bulletin 347, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ''Repair of Farm Equipment."

. !

FUEL INLET VALVE

GRID VALVE

FUEL RESERVOIR ~;

WATER OUTLET

ELECTRIC IGNITER

AUXILIARY RESERVOIR

VALVE ROD —

^^B ',

FUEL PIPE- —..-..-.

GOVERNOR 1 I

GEAR ^^^ K J

PISTON RING
PISTON PIN

CYLINDER OILER

GOVERNOR
SLEEVE

CRANK SHAFT

PINION -

CRANK BASE

FLY WHEEl *-

BEARING PLATE

FLY WHEEL

Sectional View of a Four-Cycle Vertical Gas Engine.*

1 Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morse & Co., Chicago, lU.

(742)

CHAPTER 59

Engines, Motors and Tractors for the Farm

By R. U. Blasingame
Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Alabama Polytechnic Institute

THE REAL POWER FOR THE FARM

The real call of the farm is for power, some means by which the skill of
a single man can direct a force that will do as much work as a score or more
men could do unaided. From plowing to the feed trough, it takes 4i hours
work to raise one bushel of corn by hand. The use of improved machinery
and the multiplicity of power has reduced this figure to 41 minutes.

Various forms of power, such as the treadmill, the sweepmill and the
windmill, have all failed in many respects. Windmills are objectionable
because they are not portable, they are not steady in power and are often
wrecked by the wind. The sweep power is hard to move, cumbersome and
requires the operators to be exposed to many storms.

The steam engine, but for the close attention it requires, might be the
real power needed for farm purposes. Electricity, when correctly installed,
is safe, efficient and convenient, but for farm purposes where all jobs are
not under one roof as in factories, the lack of portability makes it incon-
venient.

The gasoline engine is the only power at the present time that embodies
all the requirements for farm purposes. The operator of such power needs
no greater mechanical training than should be necessary to properly operate
a grain binder. If power is needed in the laundry room, a small engine
might easily be transported to run a washing machine. If it is needed in the
furthest corner of the wood lot, it can be conveyed to that place without
a second or third trip for water and coal, as would be required for a steam
engine. In the coldest, driest and calmest weather the gas engine produces
power without delay. It can be obtained in units of from one-half horse
power to any size that might be required for any farm job.

In parts of the West where the gas engine is best known, it is plowing,
harrowing and seeding in one operation by the square mile instead of by
the acre, and is doing the work better quicker and cheaper than it could
be done by horse or steam power.

Gas Engine Principles,^ — There are two distinct types of gas engines
on the market at the present time which are used for agricultural purposes;
the four-stroke cycle and the two-stroke cycle engine.

The four-stroke cycle or four-cycle engine requires four strokes in
order to get one working stroke. These strokes are as follows : The intake

(743)

744

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

fiEMCvtaa

^J.'AV^

stroke, in which the charge of air and gas is mixed in the right proportions
to give an explosive mixture. The second stroke compresses the charge
of air and gas which was previously drawn into the cylinder. The third
stroke is the working one in which the compressed charge of air and gas is
exploded and the energy hurled against the piston head. The fourth
stroke is the exhaust, or elimination of all the old gases which were burned.
Therefore, the four-cycle engine requires two revolutions of the fly wheel to
complete the four strokes necessary for obtaining power from this type of

engine. The four-
cycle engine requires
two openings which
are provided with
valves held tightly in
place by springs.
These valves are oper-
ated by mechanical
means, although in
some engines the in-
take valve is operated
by suction.

The two-stroke
cycle or two-cycle
engine requires two
strokes of the piston
in securing one work-
ing stroke. Therefore,
this engine theoretic-
ally receives twice the
power per square inch
hurled against the pis-
ton that the four-cycle
engine does. The
crank case of such an
engine must necessa-
rily be airtight, because the charge of air, or sometimes a mixture of air and
gas, is brought into this part on the up-stroke of the piston and on the down-
ward stroke the burned gas passes out of the exhaust port while the new gas
from the crank case enters the combustion chamber. It is, therefore,
entirely necessary that the crank shaft which runs through the crank case
fit airtight in its bearings. This is a condition which is difficult to maintain,
especially in an old engine. This type of engine does not operate with
valves at the intake and exhaust, but operates with ports or openings which
a'-e opened and closed by the piston passing over them.

About 90 per cent of all the gas engines used for agricultural purposes

» Courtesy of Ellis Engine Company, Detroit, Mich.

CffAMi

«v.v

Sectional View of a Two-Cycle Engine.*

- -n--^ ■«-■-* i.^i^--.4H0^A':rri;:t^~

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS 745

at present are of the four-cycle type; also all but a few of the automobile
engines are of this type. By experience, users and manufacturers have
found the four-cycle engine the most successful.

Vertical and Horizontal Engines. — Either four-cycle or two-cycle
engines may be vertical or horizontal in appearance. The horizontal
engine, especially of the four-cycle type, is much easier to repair than the
vertical one. However, the vertical engine requires less space for its
installation, but may not lubricate as well as the horizontal engine with the
oil flowing from the top of the cylinder.

Ignition. — There are three types of ignition used in gas engine opera-
tion: high tension, low tension and compression ignition.

Sectional View or a Four-Cycle Horizontal Gas Engine .^

The high tension system requires a current of electricity with a voltage
sufficiently high to cause a spark to jump from one point to another of a
spark plug. This system is used, as a general rule, on high-speed motors.

The low tension system requires a low voltage for ignition of com-
pressed air and gas mixed together in the compression chamber. The spark
is produced by the separation of two points in the cylinder which have been
brought together and caused to separate.

The source of current for these two types of electric ignition may be
from dry or wet batteries or from magnetos. A very successful means of
ignition is the battery to start the engine and the magneto to furnish the
source of current after it is in operation. In no case should any one pur-
chase a modern engine without a magneto. It is not heir to the many

1 Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morse & Co., Chicago, 111.

mms^'

746

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

diseases which render battery ignition worthless. The most modern
engines do not require batteries even for starting the engines.

Compression ignition is not so common at present in gas engine
operation. It may be found upon several recent crude-oil engines, some
of which are being used very successfully and cheaply for agricultural
purposes. The principle of this ignition depends upon the separation of
the heavy and light gases as the fuel is vaporized and drawn into the
cylinders with the charge of air. In the compression stroke the lighter
gases are ignited by the heat generated by the compression caused by the
advancing piston. The light gases in turn ignite the heavier ones. This
type of engine not only burns a very cheap grade of fuel, but may be
operated with gasoline, kerosene or most any mixture of the fuels used in
internal combustion engines.

; , Cooling Systems. — ^When a mixture of gas and air is exploded in a
gas engine the temperature rises to about 3000° F., which would melt
the cyhnder of such an engine if a part of the heat was not conducted
away in some manner. Some manufacturers use water, some oil and others
air for cooling gas engines. Also a mixture of several liquids is some-
times used in extremely cold weather to prevent freezing and the conse-
quent bursting of the water jacket. Oil, when used for this purpose,
takes the place of an anti-freezing mixture.

Some engines are cooled by water poured around the cylinder in a
hopper and the heat conducted from the engine by means of evaporation.
Other engines require a circulating pump which causes some liquid to be
circulated through the water jacket and thence over a screen where it
is partially cooled and used again. There are other types of liquid-cooled
engines which depend entirely upon the liquid circulating after the engine
is warm enough to cause convection currents.

The air-cooled engines for agricultural purposes have not proven
altogether satisfactory on account of the small radiating surface; also
the poor material which enters into the make-up in order that it may sell
at a cheap price.

Lubrication. — Graphite is the true lubricant. It is not affected by
heat or cold. The reason it is not used more than it is, is because of
the inconvenience it offers in passing through small openings which are
ordinarily used for oils. A mixture of powdered graphite and oil might
be occasionally placed in gas engine cylinders to aid in lubrication, but
this could not be depended upon entirely because the operator may for-
get when it is time to replace the lubricant.

All bearings may be lubricated with a cheap grade of animal or
vegetable oil, but the cylinders of a gas engine must not be lubricated
with any except the best grade of gas engine cylinder oil. The tempera-
ture in the cylinder of a gas engine is extremely high; therefore, a vege-
table or animal oil would burn and be worthless for lubricating. More
gas engines are sacrificed to the god of friction each year than from any

IWWgiiHW|TWiw»ifl»intM<1P'i*g"'

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS 747

other legithnate cause. It should be remembered by all who operate
gas engines that oil is cheaper than iron.

The gravity system is the most common means of lubrication. It
consists of a glass cup placed above the highest point to be lubricated.
The splash system is very often used and consists of a crank case filled
with oil to the point that the crank touches the oil at each revolution.
The force feed type of lubrication is very successful; however, it adds a
few more working parts to an engine, which complicates and may cause
an added trouble. There are other systems of lubrication which will not
be mentioned because of the infrequency of their use.

Gas Engine Parts. — The base of a gas engine supports the cylinder
and all other parts of the engine structure. It should be in proportion

■0^":

Thkeb H.P. Gas Engine Operating Binder.^

to the rest of the engine. The cyhnder serves the purpose of a container
and a receiver. It should be smooth and free from irregularities or dark
spots. The cylinder contains the piston and receives the charge and its
walls receive the force of every explosion. The piston transmits the
power to the connecting rod which is similar to the pitman of a mowing
machine. The crank shaft receives the shding motion from the connect-
ing rod and changes it into rotary motion.

Governors. — There are two distinct types of governors used in gas
engine operation at the present time. The hit-miss governor causes the
exhaust valve to be held open mechanically when the engine begins to
run above speed. So long as the exhaust valve is held open fresh air is
drawn in and blown out; therefore, no power is obtained. As soon as

* Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morse & Co. , Chicago, III.

748

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the engine begins to operate below the rated speed, the exhaust valve closes
and a charge of air and gas is drawn into the cylinder through the car-
buretor. This type of governor, of course, gives an uneven speed, but
it is all right for ordinary agricultural purposes. It would not do for
furnishing electric Ughts direct from the dynamo, because the Ughts would
flicker with every variation in speed. This type of engine would do for
charging batteries from which lights may be taken.

The throttle governor regulates the amount of air and gas mixture
which enters the combustion chamber. This is done automatically in
the stationary engines. This type of governor may be relied upon to
give a more even speed than the preceding one, and especially is this true
if extra heavy flywheels are used.

Gas Engine Troubles. — Gas engine troubles are almost unlimited.
They are generally from two causes: the things we forget and the things
we don't know. Troubles most frequently occur in the ignition system
or from lack of proper lubrication. The first is easily remedied, but the
latter usually means a new part. If dry batteries are used they may
become wet and deteriorate, or a connection may be loose in the wiring.
A drop of oil or water may be over the point of the spark plug. Points
of the spark plug may be too far apart or too close together. There may
be a loss of compression due to leaking valves or piston rings which do not
fit tightly against the walls of the cyhnder. Leaking may takjB place also
around the spark plug or igniter. The mixture of air and gas may not be
proper, in which case, either the gasoline supply is not regular or the air
is not properly supplied. In cold weather the fuel often refuses to
vaporize. Such a condition may be remedied by pouring hot water in the
water jacket in order to warm the cylinder enough for good vaporization.

TRANSMISSION OF POWER

The best farm motor on the market is of no value on the farm unless
the power which it develops is transmitted to some other machine doing
useful work. Power is transmitted by shafting, belts and gear wheels.
While there are other methods of transmitting power, they are only
modifications of these three.

Shafting.— The shafting should transmit to the pulleys which it
carries whatever energy it receives minus the amount consumed by fric-
tion at its own bearings. Shafting should be of the very best material
in order to reduce the friction in the bearings by reducing the size. It
should be absolutely straight, because much power is required to spring
even a two-inch line shaft into Hne during each of two hundred or four
hundred revolutions per minute. A shaft should be driven from the
center if possible and between two bearings, and transmit its power to a
series of pulleys on either side of the main drive. If possible, heavy shafts
should have their bearings or hangers rest upon posts which are directly
connected with the ground, because there is always more or less ''give''

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS 749

in the average floor, especially if heavy storage should be above. Lhie
shafting hangers should not be over 8 feet apart and if the shaft is light,
not more than 6 feet apart. The horse power of a good shaft may be
figured in the following manner:

Multiply the cube of its diameter by the number of revolutions per
minute and divide the result by 82 for steel and 110 for iron. In other
words, ''The amount of power that can be transmitted by two shafts of
similar quality varies directly with the speed and with the cubes of their
diameters.'

The twisting strain on a shaft is greatest near the main drive; there-

Engine Operating Pump Jack.^

fore, the nearer the main drive is to the hanger, the more nearly will
its strain be counteracted. A disregard of any of the above principles
is calculated not only to waste power, but gives an unsteady energy to the
machine driven and affects both the efficiency and life of the machine being
driven by it.

Speed of Shafting. — If only one machine is to be driven by a shaft
the problem of shaft speed is very simple. With the operation of a cream
separator at a speed of 60 revolutions per minute and a wood saw at a
speed of 400 to 600 revolutions per minute as well as other varied speeds,
the problem is more difficult. It is at this point that many very large,
expensive pulleys and a number of very small pulleys upon which belts

1 Courtesy of The Christensea Engineering Company, Milwaukee, Wis.

■%-'fi>.3

- 'ff '^t*'^',

750

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

do not work very successfully are used. It is best to average all the
speeds of machines and operate a line shaft at a medium speed.

The Size of Pulleys. — From the following formulas and conditions
one may figure the speed or diameter of any given pulley.

With the speed of the driver, the speed of the driven and the diam-
eter of the driver given, the diameter of the driven may be found.

Example No. 1.
Diameter of the driver X speed of the driver ^ Diameter of dri
Speed of the driven

riven.

Example No. 2.
Given the

Speed of the driven X diameter of the driven ^ Diameter of driver.
Speed of the driver

Example No. 3.
Given the
Diameter of the driven X speed of the driven

Diameter of the driver

Example No. 4.
Given the
Diameter of the driver X spt^d of the driver

= Speed of the driver.

Diameter of the driven

= Speed of the driven.

Kind of Pulleys. — Pulleys on the market at the present time are
manufactured from cast iron, steel, wood and paper. Of these, iron is
the most commonly used. It is more compact than wood and is cheaper
than steel, although wood can stand much higher speed than the average
iron pulley of similar size and design. Wooden pulleys have the advantage
of holding to a belt better than steel or iron, especially if a belt begins to
slip upon the iron pulley, thus wearing its face very smooth. For light
work the split pulley, or the pulley which can be divided into two parts,
is the most convenient upon the market, especially if machines are changed
from time to time for different purposes.

Straight and Crown Faces. — Iron pulleys are usually made crowning
or slightly oval across the face. Where belts do not require shifting, this
form holds belts to place in good shape. If the load is not heavy the
crown pulley does not weaken the belt to a great extent, but with heavy
loads the main strain comes upon the center of the belt and this causes a
stretching and often develops splits.

Covering Steel Pulleys. — If steel pulleys are used and their surface
becomes slick to the point where belts slip badly, they may be covered
with a leather face. This can be accomplished in the following manner:

Clean the surface of the pulley with gasohne and apply a coat of
varnish upon which a layer of soft paper is placed. Upon this paper a
second coat of varnish is applied. A piece of leather belting is cut to fit
the diameter of the wheel and while the varnish is still moist the section

/ \

(

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS

___^ 751

of belting is laced as tightly as possible upon the surface Th^ d.. t ,^.
^:^T-: iZ^:S^ -angedAhereforr elfSV;rnl£

V ar^JSTrrrrratT,,^^^^^^^^ ^ ,ts "^-

by means of a set screw. The set screw arL^g ZnUs convent ntL'd
IS often used where light work is to be done. The it sc™ ay it a
source of danger especially in machines run at a high spe?d and where
hey are exposed and Hkely to catch the clothes of an oSratof Als^
if the set screw once s ps and erooves thp «hflf+in„ uu ^*''*^"^- ^'^o
to shift the pulley to a new plaS ^' * ^'°'"'' ""'^"^^^'^

BELTS AND BELTING

About 90 per cent of all the power transmission in the United States
IS accomplished by means of belts

mavllT^^*l?^^f '17^" *^' ^"^^ P'^'^'^' ^^^' ^"-e noiseless. Energy
may be transmitted by them at a much greater distance than by direct

Son r '' ''"^ ™^ '' ^^"'^"* *^^" ^^ ^-y «ther means o^ trans^
mission. They are simple and convenient and are applicable to a great
many conditions. In case of breakage they can ejy be repaired Ind
ven?nnortl''' "^^^^^^^is means of transmission is the' most' con-
venient. For these reasons belting is especially adapted to farm uses

Disadvantages.-Belts are expensive because they wear very easily
1 hey are not always economical of power and unless caref uUv --J^-
^""^ S;ssW^s''af Hl.?-P IMZ to slip. ^..., ...aointy, the ab^nce
of stretch and pulley grip, it has four very valuable qualities. Utner
qualities, such as flexibility and resist^in...^ to moisture, should also oe

"""'Set Belting.-The oak-tanned leather is the te«t material for
belting It has strength and durability, but has a disadvantage m tha
i cTnSs to the manuLturer in short lengths and if especial care is not
IkeTS cementing the ends together, it goes to pieces veiy early. It has
been found by experience that as high as 25 per cent more power and
ereTter wear may be obtained from a leather belt by runmng it with the
Z^TorhZ sTde next to the pulley. That is to say there is a rough and
Soth Ide to leather belts. The smooth side ^h^V^d .^e run nex^^^^^^^^^^^^
pulley because this side would crack more readily if placed outward,

laye^ of cotL duck and rubber alternately together and vf an »,

the mass into one. The strength of this kind ^^^b^^^^^'P^^^i'ig'behing
upon the quality of the fabric which goes into its ";ake-up. Th s belting
hL the advantage of being waterproof ^"^ "^^^ .^e made endk^ and in
any length. Endless belts are not always best m a power house wnere

752

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

every machine and pulley is stationary, because the length may change
slightly with use. For outdoor work where machines may be moved, it

gives excellent service. , . , . , ,. j

Oil of any kind is detrimental to almost every kind of belt, and
care should be exercised to keep rubber belts free from it. Rubber belting
is resistant to steam and is, therefore, used to a great extent in creameries.
Belt Slipping.— All manner of belt dressings should be avoided because
they often contain some material which shortens the life and hardens the
surface of a belt. The hardening of a belt finally causes it to crack. Any
sticky material put upon a belt will cause a loss in power due to an excess
adherence to the pulley. If a large pulley drives a small one, it is best to
pull with the lower side which is kept horizontal and allows the upper
side to sag. This brings a greater surface of the belt in contact with the

^^ %o twist a belt, as in pulleys to run in opposite directions, often pre-
vents slipping by a greater exposure of the belt to the pulley.

WATER MOTORS
Overshot Wheels.— The overshot wheel receives its power from the
weight of water carried by buckets which are fastened to the circum-
ference of the wheel. The water enters the buckets at the top of the
wheel and is discharged near the bottom. A wheel of this character is
made by placing tetween two wooden disks a numter of buckets or
V-shaped troughs. The wheel may be supported upon a wood or steel
-- • -r^ort,ed on concrete piers. Motors of this type can be built to

Undershot Wheels.— TV.P ui.acn,iiot wheel is nrnnpH^rl Kxr ^
passing beneath it in a horizontal direction wLh s3e fv'ins^arrS
the fall Ts Too .^Th^'^-'f -« «ft- --' for irrigation puJ^resXre
wheels hie stSh/ir °'/''^^'^- ^^°«* ^'^^^ ""dersho?

wh3 arbuirSt*h ::zr;rT:iZ ^tk'z^^^ri ^^^^^-^

oj^rates satisfactorily where iLZT'eurrl^^Z^ s^^ aTS

>?SalTai^JetvTr fl^S: ' '''' ^^"^""*- ^'^^ ^'^" ^^ ^^^

. hrf/!*'V^^*^'-T^"''^' «o»^l'tions where little fall may be procured
a breast wheel may be employed to develop power from running wXr
This type of wheel receives the water near the level of its axis b^.TTn
most features it is similar in its action to the oversho ^^hee The ^eiis
may l^ straight or slightly curved backward near the drcumferlnt.

The wheels mentioned above are very awkward and cumbersome
for the amount of power that they are capable of developing In Sr
words, they are not what is known a. efficient; however, thiy are cheap

l«

COLOR PLATE

MUTILATED PAGE

r:,ri ;'ta

^■V' ^^,aV

i 1

752

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

every machine and pulley is stationary, because the length may change
slightly with use. For outdoor work where machines may be moved, it

gives excellent service. . i. ix j

Oil of any kind is detrimental to almost every kmd ot belt, and
care should be^ exercised to keep rubber belts free from it. Rubber belting
is resistant to steam and is, therefore, used to a great extent m creameries.
Belt supping.— All manner of belt dressings should be avoided because
they often contain some material which shortens the life and hardens the
surface of a belt. The hardening of a belt finally causes it to crack. Any
sticky material put upon a belt will cause a loss in power due to an excess
adherence to the pulley. If a large pulley drives a small one, it is best to
pull with the lower side which is kept horizontal and allows the upper
side to sag. This brings a greater surface of the belt in contact with the

pulley. . 1. ^* ri.

To twist a belt, as in pulleys to run in opposite directions, often pre-
vents slipping by a greater exposure of the belt to the pulley.

WATER MOTORS
Overshot Wheels.— The overshot wheel receives its power from the
weight of water carried by buckets wliich are fastened to the circum-
ference of the wheel. The water enters the buckets at the top of the
wheel and is discharged near tlie bottom. A wheel of this character is
made by placing between two wooden disks a number of buckets or
V-shaped troughs. The wheel may be supported upon a wood or steel
-^ ' — orted on concrete piers. Motors of this type can be built to

s:;l;:';:rav.ra,,ie. '""** (•»«•*"''«?*""'"« - "--'-i'oureTaf;

Undershot Wheels.— Tlio u,.cicroJiut wheel is i^mnpH^ri k,. ^
passin, beneath it in a horizontal chrcction TvticS Xf^ einf caTld
by the uheel. Such wheels are often uso.l for ir..; .,>*;.>., l.I 1^''^''''''^
the fall IS

wheels hav

wheels are built witli furvecrnroiw'tion; 'Ti'' 'T ^"^™««^' ^J^^'^nt
operates satisfactorilv whr 'tirirr^rrltV^h^f ^l^^ airin
places where the volume of water is kept constant. Therwil not onera e
in streams that are ever flooded. operate

Breast Wheels.-i:n<ler conditions where little fall may be procured
a breast wheel may be en.ployed to develop power from rLning Tate '
This type of wheel receives the water near the level of its axis h^ft Tn
most features it is similar in its action to the oversho "vd.el The^dis
may be straight or slightly curve,l backwanl near the circumference

The wheels mentioned above are very awkward and cumbersome

or he amount of power that they are capable of developing In otTer

^vords, they are not what is known a. efficient; however,'lhfy are d cap

n 7Q

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(■11

I'H

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

""■^"^^nBii— «B^-

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS

753

in construction and
often may utilize
water where other
types of more efficient
wheels cannot be
employed.

Impulse Water
Motors. — Impulse
water motors are
provided with buckets
around the circumfer-
ence of the wheel
against which a small
stream of water under
high pressure oper-
ates. The Pelton
wheel is one of the
most efficient of the
water motors, but re-
quires for successful
operation a head of
water considerably
higher than is required
by most of the other
water wheels. This
type of wheel may be
secured in sizes under
one horse power and
up to several hundred
horse power.

Turbine Wheels.
— The turbine is a
water motor which is
built up of a number of
stationary and move-
able curved pipes. It
consists of the follow-
ing parts:

A guiding ele-
ment which consists
of stationary blades
the function of which
to deliver the

Pelton Water Wheel.^

Turbine Water Wheel.^

* Courtesy of Pelton Water Wheel Company, New York.
2 Courtesy of J. and W. Jolly Company, Holyoke, Mass.

i.i

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS

753

in construction and
often may utilize
water where other
types of more efficient
wheels cannot be
employed.

Impulse Water
Motors. — Impulse
water motors are
provided with buckets
around the circumfer-
ence of the wheel
against which a small
stream of water under
high pressure oper-
ates. The Pelton
wheel is one of the
most efficient of the
water motors, but rc^-
quires for successful
operation a head of
water considerably
higher than is required
by most of the other
water wheels. This
type of wheel may be
secured in sizes under
one horse power and
up to several hundred
horse power.

Turbine Wheels.
— The turbine is a
water motor which is
built up of a number of
stationary and move-
able curved pipes. It
consists of the follow-
ing parts:

A guiding ele-
ment which consists
of stationary blades
the function of which
is to deliver the

Pelton Water Wheel. ^

Turbine Water Wheel.^

1 Coiirtosy of Pelton Water Wheel Company. New York.
^ Courtesy of J. and W. Jolly Company, Holyoke, Mass.

\, - ^ y > *, ■Z' >i^

1 Courtesy of Advance-Rumely Company, Inc., La Porte, Ind.

(754)

o
o

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS

755

water to the rotary part under the proper direction and with the proper
speed.

A revolving portion which consists of veins or buckets which are
placed in a certain position around the axis of the motor.

Tbe last two mentioned are the most efficient and up-to-date water
motors on the market. Power obtained in this method is dependable,
inexpensive, safe and sanitary.

The Hydraulic Ram. — This device, although very wasteful of water,
is one of the most economical motors for pumping water. It serves both
as a motor and a pump. It is not only used for furnishing water for the
farm house, barn and dairy, but it is used in many cases for irrigation
purposes. Only about one-tenth of the water passing through a ram

Hackney Auto-plow.^

is finally delivered to the water tank. There is a ram on the market
at present which will operate on impure water which may be secured
in large quantities and made to pump a pure supply of water. This is
commonly known as the double-acting ram.

THE FARM TRACTOR

Farm tractors have been placed upon the market in the past in such
large units that they were practical only on extremely large level farms
in the Middle West. This type of tractor is being driven from the field
by smaller and more compact tractors which are finding a place also on
the small farm of 160 acres or less.

The Size of Tractors.— A tractor of less than five tractive and ten-

1 Courtesy of Hackney Manufacturing Company. St. Paul, Minn.

iV '^'m-'

1 Courtesy of Advance-Rumcly Company, Inc., La Porte, Ind.

(754)

a:
w

l-H

o
u

o
•J

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS

755

water to the rotary part under the proper direction and with the proper
speed.

A revolving portion which consists of veins or buckets which are
placed in a certain position around the axis of the motor.

The last two mentioned are the most efficient and up-to-date water
motors on the market. Power obtained in this method is dependable,
inexpensive, safe and sanitary.

Hackney Auto-plow.*

THE FARM TRACTOR

The Size of Tractors.— A tractor of less than five tractive and ten-

1 Courtesy of Hackney Manufacturing Company. St. Paul, Minn.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

756

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

belt horse power has no place under average farm conditions on the small
farm. This size should operate one fourteen-inch or two ten-inch plows.
It should operate a small threshing machine and also the small silage cutter
for silos not taller than thirty feet. This size tractor may operate a line
shaft from which power can be secured for pumping, grinding feed, sepa-
rating cream, churning, for electric lights and for many other farm opera-
tions at one time.

In hilly land where irregular fields are sure to be prevalent and rocky
ledges are very likely to occur, the tractor has little place. As plowing
is the biggest job in farm operation, the tractor should in this case have

its greatest usefulness
and should replace
about one-third of the
horses ordinarily em-
ployed upon the farm.
It generally takes
about one-third less
horse power to culti-
vate, harvest and haul
to market the crop of
any farm than it takes
to plow and prepare
the seed-bed in a thor-
ough fashion. Under
ordinary small farm
operations, the writer
believes that an 8-16-
horse power tractor is
the most economical
Ckeeping Grip Tractor.^ size.

Tractor Efficiency.
— The tractor has been used for agricultural purposes long enough for
this fact to become well established; where a tractor of repute is employed,
more depends upon the intelligence of the tractioner than upon the ability
of the machine to do good work. This does not mean that one has to
have a college training in engineering or to be a master mechanic, but one
should know the principles upon which a gas engine operates and the
inteUigent remedy of all diseases to which this mechanism is heir.

Type of Tractor. — It has long been proven that a multi-cylinder
engine is the most successful on the road for speed and power and it is
becoming recognized by the best tractor manufacturers that more than
one cylinder is more dependable and gives more constant power than the
one-cylinder type of motor. More cylinders mean more working parts,

757

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS

but it also means that a steady pull may be secured, where with one
cylinder the power is secured in large quantities at fewer intervals, which
is not calculated to give the best efficiency.

The multi-cylinder engine costs more at first, but the efficient service
which it will render will more than compensate for its greater initial cost.

REFERENCES

''Power and the Plow." Ellis and Rumely.
''Agricultural Engineering." Davidson.
"Heat Engines." Allen and Bursley.
"Farm Gas Engines." Hirshfield and Ulbricht.
"Power." Lucke.
,'Farm Motors." Potter,

^ Courtesy of The RiiUofk Traotor Company, Chicago, l\\.

756

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

757

ENGINES, MOTORS AND TRACTORS

its greatest usefulness
and should replace
about one-third of the
horses ordinarily em-
ployed upon the farm.
It generally takes
about one-third less
liorse power to culti-
vate, harvest and haul
to market the crop of
any farm than it takes
to plow and prepare
tlie seed-bed in a thor-
ough fashion. Under
ordinary small farm
operations, the writer
telle ves that an 8-16-
horse power tractor is
the most economical
CuEEPixcj Gkip Tkactor.^ size.

Tractor Efficiency.
— The tractor has been used for agricultural purposes long enough for
this fact to l^ecome well established; where a tractor of repute is employed,
more depends upon the intelligence of the tractioner than upon the ability
of the machine to do good work. This does not mean that one has to
have a college training in engineering or to be a master mechanic, but one
should know the principles upon which a gas engine operates and the
intelligent remedy of all diseases to which this mechanism is heir.

but it also means that a steady pull may be secured, where with one
cylinder the power is secured in large quantities at fewer intervals, which
is not calculated to give the best efficiency.

The multi-cylinder engine costs more at first, but the efficient service
which it will render will more than compensate for its greater initial cost.

REFERENCES

''Power and the Plow." Ellis and Rumoly.
''Agricultural Engineering." Davidson.
"Heat Engines." Allen and Bursley.
"Farm Gas Engines." Hirshfield and Ulbricht.
"Power." Lucke.
,'Farm Motors." Potter.

^ Courtesy of Tho Bullock Tractor Company, Chicago, 111.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

'MMM

CHAPTER 60

Farm Sanitation

1 1

By 11. U. Blasingame
Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Alabama Polytechnic Institute

Farm sanitation ordinarily includes five distinct branches, namely
iignting heatmg, ventilation, water supply and sewage disposal. Following
IS a brief consideration of each of the above mentioned:

LIGHTING

There are several sources of light for isolated farm homes at the present
time. They are as follows:

1. Kerosene Lamps.— These are cheap in initial
cost. The fuel may be obtained at any cross-roads
store. They are quite safe. There are a few dis-
advantages to such a source of light, namely, the
odor they emit, the soot which they produce and the
fact that they burn more oxygen than other forms

of lighting. Lastly, the
light is not a white light.
2. Gasoline Lamps.
— These may be divided
into two groups, the cold
I)rocess and the hot pro-
cess. The former system
requires a lighter grade
of gasoline for the pro-
duction of light and is
more expensive to op-
1 , r . . erate. The cold process

lamps are much safer than the hot process lamps which may be operated
with heavier, cheaper gasoline. While cheaper, the latter are more danger-
ous than the former.

3. Acetylene Gas.— This gas is produced by water and calcium
carbide bemg brought together. The safest system of acetylene lighting
may be had by feeding calcium carbide in small quantities to a large quan-
tity ot water. The heat produced is conducted away too fast for any danger
of explosion. While this system is reasonably safe, there have been many
explos^n_s_which have cost both life and property. This gas may cause

iCourt «y of Fairbanks, Morse & Co.. Chicago. 111.

(758)

MoR-LiTE Electric Plant.^

W'^^-^r^h'^^-^'Y'^

FARM SANITATION

759

death if inhaled. It has a characteristic odor which any one can easily
detect if it is escaping from the system. The Ught produced from this
system is white and considered excellent.

4. Electrical Lighting.— The lighting of isolated homes by a private
electrical system is generally thought to be an expensive luxury. However,
during the past twenty years the cost of living has increased about 20 per
cent and the cost of farm labor has increased about 35 per cent, but for the

50 Light flatit

v_.

Electric Lighting Plant for Farm House. ^

same period the cost of lighting by electricity has decreased about 85 per
cent. This method of lighting, if correctly installed, is the safest, most
sanitary, most convenient and most efficient of all modern lighting systems.
There are manufacturing companies who are building very successful
private electrical lighting systems for farm homes. These operate on differ-
ent voltages, namely: 30 volts, 60 volts and 110 volts. If the system is to
furnish power for home conveniences such as operating churns, sewing
machines, etc., the writer would recommend the 110-volt system. A
storage battery will supply about two volts of electrical energy ; therefore
the 110-volt system would require about 56 cells, whereas, the 30 and 60-

1 Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morso & Co.. Chicago, 111.

) I

CHAPTER 60

Farm Sanitation

By R. U. Blasingamp:
Professor of Agricultural Engineering, Alabama Polytechnic Institute

Farm sanitation ordinarily includes five distinct branches, namely-
lighting heating, ventilation, water supply and sewage disposal. Following
IS a brief consideration of each of the above mentioned:

LIGHTING

f in. J^T? ""'^ '^'''^''i' n"""'"^' ^^ ^'^^'^ ^'^' ^'^^^^^"^^ ^^^'"^ ^''''''^'^ ^^ the present
time. I hey are as follows :

of lighting. Lastly, the

INIoR-LiTE Electric Plant.^

light is not a white light.
2. Gasoline Lamps.
—These may be divided
into tw^o groups, the cold
I)rocess and the hot pro-
cess. The former system
requires a lighter grade
of gasoline for the pro-
duction of light and is
more expensive to op-
1 , , erate. The cold process

lamps are much safer limn the hot process lamps which may be operated
with heavier, cheaper gasoline. While cheaper, the latter are more danger-
ous than the former. ""■"gci

..r-UA ^"^^^"® Gas.-This gas is produced by water and calcium
carbide being brought together. The safest system of acetylene lighting
may be had by feedmg calcium carbide in small quantities to a large quan-

of Lnll "' Si!-, ?u-P'°''"''^ '' ''^'^^"^ted away too fast for any danger
of explosion. While this system is reasonably safe, there have been many
explos^nj^which have cost both life and property.' This gas may Tuse

iCourt ..y of Fairbanks, Morse & Co., Chicago, ni.

(7.58)

FARM SANITATION

759

death if inhaled. It has a characteristic odor which any one can easily
detect if it is escaping from the system. The light produced from this
system is white and considered excellent.

^.,

' *

■^JKaH^yf-jgg**-^- 1 *— * ■ fjtf--

• —

— "

■^

^-^

US^r

,~^

^^S^^^Om

. „^, - .

•mm'..

Electric Lighting Plant for Farm House.*

same period tlie cost of lighting by electricity has decreased about 85 per
cent. This method of lighting, if correctly installed, is the safest, most
sanitary, most convenient and most efficient of all modern lighting sj^stems.
There are manufacturing companies who are building very successful
private electrical lighting systems for farm homes. These operate on differ-
ent voltages, namely: 30 volts, 60 volts and 110 volts. If the system is to
furnish power for home conveniences such as operating churns, sewing
machines, etc., the writer would recommend the 110-volt system. A
storage battery will supply about two volts of electrical energy; therefore
the 110-volt system would require about 5G cells, whereas, the 30 and 60-

> Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morso <fe Co., Chicago, 111.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

760

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

volt systems would operate at a less cost for such equipment. In most
cases these systems receive their power from small gasoline engines; how-
ever, it is becoming popular in mountainous regions to use small streams
to furnish motive power. Where water is used, the storage battery is not
necessary, because water forces through the wheel at a steady rate which
will in turn produce a steady light. This is not true of a small gasoline
engine, although some companies are making very sensitive engine gov-
ernors and heavy flywheels which are calculated to run very smoothly.
Heating. — There are three distinct heating systems from one central

^/%^ plant, namely: hot air,

vj5J-|1^ V^^y^ hot water and steam.

These systems are used
mostly in extremely
cold countries.

1. The hot-air sys-
tem, if properly in-
stalled, gives the best
ventilation, and in most
cases is the cheapest of
the three. In cold,
windy weather this sys-
tem is rather hard to
control on account of
the leeward side of the
house receiving the
greater part of the heat.

2. The hot-water
heating system is the
most expensive to in-
stall on account of two
systems of piping, one
for feed, the other for
return. It has been

found that the Honeywell generator or the Mercury-Seal system causes
the hot water to flow more rapidly than without, thus increasing the
eflSciency of the system.

3. Steam heat is entirely satisfactory. It gives quicker heat, but does
not retain its heat as long as the hot-water system.

Ventilation. — There are two influences which cause ventilation,
namely: (1) the force of the wind, which causes more or less suction from
any opening in a building; (2) the difference in outside and inside tempera-
tures, the warm air inside rising and escaping through any opening, thus
causing ventilation. The ''King system'' is generally used in farm
buildings at the present time. It consists in admitting fresh air near the

1 Courtesy of Louden Machinery Company, Fairfield, la.

CR055 ^£:cr/ON CTBA
>5h0^fNG roUL AIR DUCTS
ARRAN<:^Mc:Nr for. cOh/3 />qc/A<^

Modified Kixg System of Ventilation.*

FARM SANITATION

761

ceiling and conducting the foul air from the interior through an opening
sometimes located at the highest point of the building.

Dampers should be placed at the intake and the outlet in order that
this system may be thoroughly controlled. For horses and cows the
area of cross section of outlet flues should not be less than 30 square inches
for each animal when the flue is 30 feet high, and 36 square inches for each
when only 20 feet high. The cross section of the intakes should aggregate

A Pneumatic Water Tank.^

approximately the same as the outlets. Ventilating flues should be airtight
and with as few bends as possible.

There is a system of using double sash windows for dairy barns, in
which the top sash is hinged at the bottom so as to permit the entrance of
air when the top of the sash is drawn into the barn a few inches. The air
entering is deflected upward, thus avoiding a draft of cold air upon the
cattle in the barn. This is one of the absolute essentials of a good ventilat-
ing system. Deflectors should be placed at the sides of the windows, which
will also prevent air from blowing directly upon the stock.

Water Supply.— Water can be supplied to a home under pressure from
an elevated tank, also from a pneumatic tank into which water is pumped

» Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morse & Company, Chicago.

760

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

FARM SANITATION

761

^.i<S^ plant, namely: hot air,

^""^ \^lj^ hot water and steam.

These systems are used
mostly in extremely
cold countries.

2. The hot-water
heating system is the
most expensive to in-
stall on account of two
systems of piping, one
for feed, the other for
return. It has been

found that the Honeywell generator or the Mercury-Seal system causes
the hot water to flow more rapidly than without, thus increasing the
efficiency of the sj^stem.

3. Steam heat is entirely satisfactory. It gives quicker heat, but does
not retain its heat as long as the hot-water system.

1 Courtesy of Loudon Machinery Company, Fairfield, la.

Modified Kisa System ok Ventilation.*

ceiling and conducting the foul air from the interior through an opening
sometimes located at the highest point of the building.

A Pneumatic Water Tank.^

approximately the same as the outlets. \'entilating flues should l)e airtight
and with as few bends as possible.

There is a system of using doul)le sash windows for dairy barns, in
which the top sash is hinged at the bottom so as to permit the entrance of
air when the top of the sash is drawn into the barn a few inches. The air
entering is deflected upward, thus avoiding a draft of cold air upon the
cattle in the barn. This is one of the absolute essentials of a good ventilat-
ing system. Deflectors should be placed at the sides of the windows, which
will also prevent air from blowing directly upon the stock.

Water Supply.— Water can be supplied to a home under pressure from
an elevated tank, also from a pneumatic tank into which water is pumped

1 Courtesy of Fairbanks, Morse & Company, Chicago.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

'.ui.

^iM-wsa^^w/ *j>^«.«a>rwi

762

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

FARM SANITATION

763

»* I

against a cushion of air. An elevation may be procured by placing the
water tank upon a silo, upon a tower or upon a hill. In extremely cold
climates water in an elevated tank is likely to freeze, and in hot climates
It becomes warm and is not palatable. Where it is not too expensive, a
reservoir placed on the side of a hill and well protected supplies water
under pressure at an even temperature the year around. Such an ele-
vation is permanent and the pipes are placed beneath the ground so
they do not freeze. It is considered, after first cost, the most satisfactory

F.URBANKS-M0RSE Water System for Farms and Suburban Homes. ^

system of water supply. In recent years the pneumatic tank which may
be buried in the ground or placed in the cellar is considered an excellent
method for supplying water under pressure to the farmstead.

In installing a system of this kind, one should be sure he is dealing
with a responsible company. It is very necessary that the pump supply-
ing the water to this tank should be provided with a small air pump as
well. This will supply air as well as water, thus insuring the air cushion
at all times. Such a system should be operated under about 60 pounds
pressure.

Sewage Disposal.— In some states there are laws which prohibit the
discharge of sewage from even a single house into a stream of any size,

^Courtesy of FairbankB. Morse & Company. Chicago.

CALV. IRON PIPE EXTENDS

even though the person discharging the sewage may own the land through
which the stream flows. Such a law should not require legal machinery
for its enforcement, but should appeal to the sense of justice and intelli-
gence of all good citizens.

Vital statistics show that the death rate from typhoid fever in New
York State since 1900 has de-
creased in the cities, while it
has remained about constant in
rural districts. This reduction
in the death rate in the cities
may be accredited in large meas-
ure to the improved methods of
sewage disposal and close atten-
tion to pure water supply in-
tended for human consumption.

It is, therefore, desirable
to purify sewage before its
discharge into any place where
it may contaminate food or
water intended for human con-
sumption.

The art of sewage treat-
ment when purification is
carried on in septic tanks con-
sists in two distinct forms of
decomposition.

The first form of decom-
position takes place in the
absence of oxygen or air, and
is called anaerobic, or without
air. Under ordinary circum-
stances it is accompanied with
disagreeable odors. The sec-
ond decomposition process
takes place in the presence of
air and is called aerobic, or with air. It is accomplished without dis-
agreeable odors.

The first treatment consists in allowing the fresh sewage to enter a
water-tight septic tank, and remain for twenty-four or forty-eight hours.
Diuing this period, in the absence of air, the organic matter of the sewage
is broken down into small particles. The purpose of this treatment is to
get the sewage in such a condition that it can be purified No purifica-
tion is accomplished during this process. The secondary treatment con-
sists in exposing the eflSuent from the septic tank to the atmosphere, where

> Courtesy of The Kaustine Company, Inc., Buffalo.

GROUND LINE

The Kaustine Closet. ^ *
A germless water closet.

^'"V^w^""'*

762

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

FARM SANITATION

763

against a cushion of air. An elevation may be procured by placing the
water tank upon a silo, upon a tower or upon a hill. In extremely cold
climates water in an elevated tank is likely to freeze, and in hot cUmates
It becomes warm and is not palatable. Where it is not too expensive a
reservoir placed on the side of a hill and well protected supplies water
under pressure at an even temperature the year around. Such an ele-
vation is permanent and the pipes are placed beneath the ground so
they do not freeze. It is considered, after first cost, the most satisfactory

Fairbanks-Morse Water System for Farms and Suburban Homes. ^

system of water supply. In recent years the pneumatic tank which may
l>e buried in the ground or placed in the cellar is considered an excellent
method for supplying water under pressure to the farmstead.

In instalhng a system of this kind, one should be sure he is dealing
with a responsible company. It is very necessary that the pump supply-
ing the water to this tank should be provided with a small air pump as
well. This will supply air as well as water, thus insuring the air cushion
at all times. Such a system should be operated under about 50 pounds
pressure.

Sewage Disposal.— In some states there are laws which prohibit the
discharge of sewage from even a single house into a stream of any size,

* Courtesy of Fairbanks. Morse & ComDany. Chicaso.

CALV. IRON PIPE EXTENDS
ABOVE PEAK OF ROOF

even though the person discharging the sewage may own the land through
which the stream flows. Such a law should not require legal machinery
for its -enforcement, but should appeal to the sense of justice and intelli-
gence of all good citizens.

It is, therefore, desirable
to purify sewage before its
discharge into any place where
it may contaminate food or
water intended for human con-
sumption.

The art of sewage treat-
ment when purification is
carried on in septic tanks con-
sists in two distinct forms of
decomposition.

The first form of decom-
position takes place in the
absence of oxygen or air, and
is called anaerobic, or without
air. Under ordinary circum-
stances it is accompanied with
disagreeable odors. The sec-
ond decomposition process
takes place in the presence of
air and is called serobic, or with air. It is accomplished without dis-
agreeable odors.

The first treatment consists in allowing the fresh sewage to enter a
water-tight septic tank, and remain for twenty-four or forty-eight hours.
During this period, in the absence of air, the organic matter of the sewage
is broken down into small particles. The purpose of this treatment is to
get the sewage in such a condition that it can be purified No purifica-
tion is accomplished during this process. The secondary treatment con-
sists in exposing the effluent from the septic tank to the atmosphere, where

1 Courtesy of The Kaustine Company, Inc., Buffalo.

GROUND LINE

The Kaustixb Closet.^ '
A germless water closet.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

-^m

:^mmi.

764

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the mass of small particles may be oxidized after the water has been
strained from it. This process is accomplished generally in two ways.
First, the effluent from the septic tank is flushed upon filter beds which
are made by excavating in the ground about two feet deep and filling
with sand after placing four-inch drain tile on the bottom. The drain
tile should have an outlet from whence the filtered liquid may escape.
The air and sunshine decompose the organic matter which is left upon
the filter bed. The second method of final disposition of sewage consists
in flushing the sewage from the septic tank into a series of drain tile which
are placed under ground and have a slope of about 1 inch in 100 feet. In
sandy soil about 150 feet of pipe should be allowed for each person hving
in the home. In clay soil about 400 feet of pipe should be provided for
each person. It is necessary to ventilate these lines of pipe at intervals
in order that the material left in the pipes after the liquid has escaped
into the soil may be oxidized by the air. The size of the tank should be
determined by the size of the family, allowing twenty-five gallons of water
per day for each person.

By writing the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C,
one may receive farmers' bulletins which describe and illustrate different
systems of sewage disposal. It is often thought and sometimes stated in
literature that after sewage has remained in a septic tank for twenty-four
hours it may be dumped into a stream without fear of pollution. This
is absolutely wTong, for the sewage may contain disease germs which are
not affected in the least by the decomposition in the septic tank.

There is a patented sanitary closet which is manufactured by the
Kaustine Company, Buffalo, N. Y., which is giving good satisfaction.
The principle upon w^hich this method of sewage purification operates is
as follows:

The excrement enters a steel tank containing a very strong chemical
which is mixed w4th water. This chemical destroys all bacteria and odor
and also disintegrates all solid matter to the point that it may be drained
or pumped from the tank and disposed of without fear of contamination.
This tank will hold the sewage produced by a family of five during a
period of six to eight months. The contents of the tank rates high in
fertilizing value.

REFERENCES

''Electricity for the Farm." Anderson.

"Rural Hygiene." Ogden.

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 78. "Ventilation of Farm Buildings."

U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 57. "Water Supply and Sewage Disposal for

Country Homes."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Year-Book 1914. "Clean Water on the Farm and How to

Get It."
Farmers' Bulletin 463, IJ. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Sanitary Privy."

CHAPTER 61
Farm Drainage and Irrigation

Water is the first essential to plant growth, and yet either too much or
too little prevents a normal growth of most farm crops. The removal of
water from the soil is known as drainage, while the adding of water is called
irrigation.

LAND DRAINAGE

The need for drainage and the acivantages of it are discussed in
Chapter 7. Only the engineering features of it will be discussed here.

Co-operation. — Wherever large tracts of farm land are to be drained,
co-operation among the land owners is necessary for the establishment of
an economic drainage system. The laws of most states provide for an
equitable appraisement of benefits derived by the land owners in a drainage
district and make possible the establishment of the district when the
majority of land owners ask for it.

The first step in the formation of a district is an accurate survey of
the natural water course and an estimate of the size and length of the
system of open ditches necessary for the proper drainage of the land. The
ditching is generally done by a contractor making a specialty of this kind
of work. His services are secured through the ditch commissioners, three
or more in number, who are elected by the land owners of the district.
Bids are usually let in order to secure competition and get the w^ork done
at an equitable price.

The dredged ditches, when completed, usually provide each landowner
with an outlet. All subsequent drainage is done by the individual owners,
each for his own farm. The individual farm drainage consists chiefly or
wholly of tile drains that empty into the open ditches.

The old plow-and-scraper method of making ditches is applicable only
when the soil is fairly dry. It will not be described here. Except for
very small jobs, it is more expensive than excavating with one of the
several forms of large ditching machines.

Of the several types of ditching machines, the floating dredge is the
most common and the most successful in level land and for large jobs. It
begins at the upper end of the drainage course and works down stream so
that the excavation is always well filled with water and easily floats the
dredge. This style of dredge is adapted to a large channel, varying from
12 to 60 feet in width. The earth is excavated by large scoops on immense
steel arms, operated by steam power. The earth is deposited on either side
of the channel and at a distance of 6 to 12 feet from the edee of it. In the

(765)

766

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

absence of stones, roots or other obstructions, ditches may be excavated
at a cost of from 7 to 13 cents per cubic yard. The contract is frequently
made on the basis of material removed.

It is essential that such water courses be made as straight and as deep
as conditions will permit. The straight course makes the shortest possible
ditch and provides for the maximum fall. Good fall and straightness both
accelerate the flow of water and make possible adequate drainage with a
smaller ditch than would be possible with a longer and more circuitous
route.

The ditch embankments, after weathering for a year, may be gradually

leveled down and worked back into the adja-
cent fields by the use of plows and scrapers.
The banks of the ditch need not be as sloping,
as formerly thought, although the slope will
depend on the character of soil. In heavy, ten-
acious soils, a slope of | to 1 is suflScient, that
is 6 inches horizontal to 1 foot vertical. The
fall of the ditch may range from 6 inches to 3
feet or more per mile. With 3 feet of fall per
mile, the velocity of the water will keep the
ditch fairly free from sediment, provided it is
not allowed to become filled with growing grass,
weeds or willows. If these grow in the ditch
during the dry portion of the year, they should
be cut and removed annually. Where the
fall is too great, the banks of the ditch are
apt to erode and cave in. The caved earth
will be carried and deposited in lower portions
of the stream course and cause trouble. The
banks of the ditch should be kept covered
with grass to prevent erosion.

Tile Drains. — The first step in tile drain-
age is an accurate survey of the land to be
drained. This will determine the fall and the best position for the main
drains. It should also include an estimate of the water shed, that is, the
amount of water to be carried away, whether falling on the land to be
drained or flowing on to it from adjacent higher lands. The lines of
drainage should be as straight as conditions will permit. The mains
should be in the lowest portions of the field. Laterals may extend from
them into more elevated portions. In case of very level land, this makes
provision for the greatest possible fall in the drainage lines.

Running the Levels. — This work may be done by the farmer. In
large systems or on very level land, the employment of an engineer is
advised. A farm drainage level that is sufficiently accurate may be pur-

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 187.

Grading the Ditch and
Lading Tile.^

A — Depth gauge. B —
Cross piece. C and D — Stakes
driven in ground to give
proper slope to grading line.
E F — Hollow tile drain.

FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION

767

chased for about $15. For very small jobs a home-made water level will
serve the purpose. This consists of a section of gas pipe about three feet
long, -with a glass tube attached to each end by means of corks or rubber
tubing. The glass tubes should be at right angles to the pipe. When
filled with a colored solution and held approximately level, the operator
sights across the top of the colored solution as it appears in the two glass
tubes.

Establishing the Grades.— The drainage lines are laid out by driving
stakes at intervals of 50 to 100 feet, about 18 inches to one side of the
center of the ditch. These stakes are driven into the ground until the tops

A Low-priced Tile Ditcher.

are only two or three inches above the ground level. By use of the level,
the elevation of each is ascertained. The next step is to calculate the total
fall of the line and determine whether the grade is to be uniform or whether
it must be changed for a portion of the course. This will depend on the
variation in the slope of the surface of the ground. If the slope varies
much, two or more grades may be necessary in order that the drainage pipe
may be placed at the desired depth beneath the surface of the ground. A
single grade may result in the tile being too deep over a portion of the course,
thus necessitating expensive excavating, or it may be too shallow to provide
effective drainage. These difficulties are avoided by suitable changes in
the grade.

Grade stakes projecting about 18 inches above the surface of the
ground are set one beside each of the stakes designating the level. These

■mmi-

..■fv>'-v'

766

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

absence of stones, roots or other obstructions, ditches may be excavated
at a cost of from 7 to 13 cents per cubic yard. The contract is frequently
made on the basis of material removed.

The ditch embankments, after weathering for a year, may be gradually

leveled down and worked back into the adja-
cent fields by the use of plows and scrapers.
The banks of the ditch need not be as sloping,
as formerly thought, although the slope will
depend on the character of soil. In heavy, ten-
acious soils, a slope of | to 1 is sufficient, that
is 6 inches horizontal to 1 foot vertical. The
fall of the ditch may range from 6 inches to 3
feet or more per mile. With 3 feet of fall per
mile, the velocity of the water will keep the
ditch fairly free from sediment, provided it is
not allowed to become filled with growing grass,
weeds or willows. If these grow in the ditch
during the dry portion of the year, they should
be cut and removed annually. Where the
fall is too great, the banks of the ditch are
apt to erode and cave in. The caved earth
will be carried and deposited in lower portions
of the stream course and cause trouble. The
banks of the ditch should be kept covered
with grass to prevent erosion.

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 187.

Grading the Ditch and

LAnXG TlLE.^

A — Depth gauge. B—
Cross piece. C and D — Stakes
driven in ground to give
proper slope to grading line.
E F — Hollow tile drain.

FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION

767

chased for about $15. For very small jobs a home-made water level will
serve the purpose. This consists of a section of gas pipe about three feet
long, with a glass tube attached to each end by means of corks or rubber
tubing. The glass tubes should be at right angles to the pipe. When
filled with a colored solution and held approximately level, the operator
sights across the top of the colored solution as it appears in the two glass
tubes.

A Low-priced Tile Ditcher.

Grade stakes projecting about 18 inches above the surface of the
ground are set one beside each of the stakes designating the level. These

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

768

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION

769

are driven so that the tops are a uniform distance above the bottom of
the ditch as it is to be excavated. This may be ^ feet or any convenient
height. A cord or wire is next stretched tightly over the top of the grade
stakes. By means of a gauge, the ditcher can control the depth of the
ditch. Care should be exercised not to get it too deep, or to make the
bottom wider than necessarj' .

The sketch on page 760 shows the method of gauging the depth,
the character of excavation and the position of the tile.

Small Ditching Machines.— These may be used to facilitate the work

The Ditcher in Operation.

Can be operated by one man and six horses. It will excavate 100 rods of dirt

to a depth of 3 feet daily.

of excavation. They do it more rapidly than can be done by hand and
at less cost. They are adapted only to fairiy long courses. It will gen-
erally be necessary to grade the bottom of the ditch by hand.

Size of Tile.— In any system the major portion of the tiles will be
three inches in diameter. All lines not exceeding 500 feet in length and
having no branches entering may be of this size. When such hues exceed
500 feet the lower portion should be 4-inch tile. The capacity of pipes
is in proportion to the square of their respective diameters, plus some-
thing for the relatively lesser amount of friction in the large diameters.
In practice, one 4-inch line will accommodate two 3-inch hues. One
8-inch line will accommodate five 4-inch lines, etc.

The removal of one-quarter inch of rainfall in 24 hours will generally
provide adequate drainage. On this basis the area in acres drained by
given sizes of tile and grades are as follows :

Diameter of Drain.

Grade 1 Inch
to 100 Feet.

Grade 3 Inches
to 100 Feet.

19.1

29.9

44.1

61.4

82.2

106.2

167.7

341.4

25.1

39.6

58.9

80.9

108.4

140.6

221 1

•

449 Q

To double the fall for steeper grades than those given in the above table
will increase the carrying capacity of the tile one-quarter to one-third.

IRRIGATION

Water, wisely used, has converted many desert acres into fruitful
fields and orchards. This has made possible thriving settlements in many
parts of the arid West, and encouraged the development of industries
other than agriculture, especially the mining of useful metals.

Water Rights. — In regions of limited water supply, laws for the con-
trol of water become essential. These laws should be understood and
obeyed by all users of water. It is a principle that rather definite shares
in the water supply of a region shall be apportioned to specific areas of
land. When the water supply is insufficient for all available land, priority
of Appropriation receives first consideration. A new settler is prohibited
by law from sharing in the water supply at the expense of early settlers.
In many irrigation districts, the extravagant use of water has prevailed.
A more economical use on the part of the older settlers would produce
equally as good crops. In fact, the extravagant use of water is more
often injurious than otherwise.

Co-operation. — This is a necessary feature in most irrigation dis-
tricts, because the water supply must serve the entire community, and in
order to do so most advantageously, co-operative action is called for in
its use "and conservation. Co-operation means that the farmers on an
irrigation ditch must take turns in using the water. The larger the volume
of water the shorter the time each may use it and the greater number
of farmers can be supplied. The apportionment of the water should
correspond to the acreage of crops to be irrigated by each farmer. This
rotation of the allotment of water to the farmers on a ditch is advan-
tageous from two standpoints. First, it gives each farmer suflftcient water
to cover his land in a very short time, thus economizing on the time spent

!^Mf^

7G8

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION

769

are driven so that the tops are a uniform distance above the bottom of
the ditch as it is to be excavated. This may be 4^ feet or any convenient
height. A cord or wire is next stretched tightly over the top of the grade
stakes. By means of a gauge, the ditcher can control the depth of the
ditch. Care should be exercised not to get it too deep, or to make the
bottom wider than necessary-.

The sketch on page 760 shows the method of gauging the depth,
the character of excavation and the position of the tile.

Small Ditching Machines.— These may be used to facilitate the work

The Ditcher i.v Operation.

Can be operated bv one man and six horses. It will excavate 100 rods of dirt

to a depth of 3 feet daily.

of excavation. They do it more rapidly than can be done by hand and
at less cost. They are adapted only to fairly long courses. It will gen-
erally be necessary to grade the bottom of the ditch by hand.

Size of Tile.— In any system the major portion of the tiles will be
three inches in diameter. All lines not exceeding 500 feet in length and
having no branches entering may be of this size. When such lines exceed
500 feet the lower portion should be 4-inch tile. The capacity of pipes
is in proportion to the sqi^are of their respective diameters, plus some-
thing for the relatively lesser amount of friction in the large diameters.
In practice, one 4-inch line will accommodate two 3-inch lines. One
8-inch line will accoiiiinodate five 4-inch lines, etc.

The removal of one-quarter inch of rainfall in 24 hours will generally
provide adequate drainage. On this basis the area in acres drained by
given sizes of tile and grades are as follows:

Diameter of Drain.

Grade 1 Inch
to 100 Feet.

Grade 3 Inches
to 100 Feet.

19.1

29.9

44.1

61.4

82.2

106.2

167.7

341.4

25.1

39.6

58.9

80.9

108.4

140.6

221 1

•

44Q Q

To double the fall for steeper grades than those given in the above table
will increase the carrying capacity of the tile one-quarter to one-third.

IRRIGATION

Co-operation. — This is a necessary feature in most irrigation dis-
tricts, because the water supply must serve the entire community, and in
order to do so most advantageously, co-operative action is called for in
its use "and conservation. Co-operation means that the farmers on an
irrigation ditch must take turns in using the water. The larger the volume
of water the shorter the time each may use it and the greater number
of farmers can be supplied. The apportionment of the water should
correspond to the acreage of crops to be irrigated by each farmer. This
rotation of the allotment of water to the farmers on a ditch is advan-
tageous from two standpoints. First, it gives each farmer sufficient water
to cover his land in a very short time, thus economizing on the time spent

770

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION

771

in irrigating. Second, it overcomes the loss of water by seepage and
evaporation which takes place when he has a constant small stream.

Sources of Water. — The chief sources of irrigation water are peren-
nial streams, springs and wells. The first named is by far the most
important. The first consideration in the development of an irrigation
supply from a stream is the volume of water carried at all times during
the year; and second, whether or not the water can be brought to the
land to be irrigated at a reasonable expense. This will depend prin-
cipally upon the length of ditch to be constructed and the character of
land that must be traversed by it. In some cases, pipe lines may take
the place of ditches without great additional expense and with much less
waste of water.

The larger the ditch and the more porous the soil through which it
passes, the smaller should be the fall. If, however, the grade is too
small, the ditch must be larger in order to carry the supply of water. In
ordinary soils, a grade of one foot in 600 feet may be given. In clay
soils, it may be increased to two feet in 600 feet. A slow movement of
water in the ditch prevents scouring and encourages the settlement of
fine sediment. This ultimately forms an impervious lining and prevents
seepage.

Springs offer an excellent irrigation water supply, and although the
volume is much less than that from perennial streams, it is subject to less
fluctuation in volume and is consequently more dependable.

Wells form a considerable source of irrigation water supply in many
of the irrigation districts. They are virtually artificial springs secured
by boring deep wells provided with iron casings. In some instances, as
in case of wells that do not flow, and in elevating water from lakes and
streams to land lying above the water level, pumping is resorted to.

Dams and Reservoirs. — Perennial streams are subject to great
fluctuation, due to periodic rains and melting snow. Their direct diver-
sion for irrigation purposes, therefore, fails to utilize much of the water
during high stages. This has led to methods of storing the water to be
used as needed, thus increasing the area irrigated. While dams are neces-
sary for diverting water from streams into canals, much larger and more
expensive ones are required in the building of reservoirs. It is important
to select the dam site with a view of securing the largest possible water
storage capacity with the minimum expenditure for construction. Such
sites are most usually found in the upper courses of a stream where it
passes through a narrows or canyon. Rocky, impervious abutments to
which to connect the dam are essential. On large projects the reinforced
masonry or concrete dam that will be permanent is advised. The de(»per
the water in a storage reservoir the less will be the relative loss by
evaporation.

Methods of Transmission. — The census of 1910 gave an aggregate
of over 125,000 miles of irrigated ditches in the United States. At that

time, less than four per cent of this mileage was lined or otherwise made
impervious to water. A limited amount of irrigation water is conveyed
through pipe lines of different types, of which wood, terra-cotta and
cement predominate. It is important to construct the irrigation ditch
of the proper size to convey the maximum amount of water that will be
available or the maximum that can be used by those who irrigate. In
this connection it is advised to secure the services of an engineer. It
should be understood that the amount of water conveyed depends on the
cross section of the canal and the rate of movement of the water. In a
small ditch capable of carrying 50 miner^s inches, a fall of 2 inches to the
rod will give a velocity of 2 feet per second. In a ditch carrying 20 times
as much water, a fall of I inch to a rod will give an equal velocity. Except
in hard clay or a mixture of gravel and clay, a velocity greater than 3
feet per second is likely to cause serious erosion. A velocity of 2 to 2|
feet is the maximum that should be permitted for ordinary sandy loams
or loams. Where the fall of the land is such as to cause a greater velocity
of the water, checks in the canals should be provided. These may be
wooden dams or obstructions of cobblestones, causing a drop in the water.

In lined canals erosion is overcome and the velocity of the water
may be much greater. Where there is ample fall, such a canal may be
much smaller than an ordinary' earth canal. The transmission of water
through pipes has a still greater advantage in this respect and may be
conducted down very steep grades.

Losses in Transmission. — Much water diverted from streams for
irrigation is lost from the ditches by seepage and evaporation, and is
still further wasted by over-irrigation and by allowing the water to pene-
trate the soil beyond the reach of crops. Water lost in these ways often
causes serious damage to the lower lying land in the irrigation district.
Numerous water measurements and experiments have led to a conserva-
tive estimate that not more than 35 per cent of the water diverted from
streams is effective in plant production.

The efficiency of irrigation water can be greatly increased by the
substitution of pipe lines for open ditches and by greater care in the
distribution of water in the fields.

Head Gates. — Head gates are necessary at the point of diversion
from a stream into the main irrigation canal, and also at points along
the main canal at the juncture of laterals. Such gates are usually con-
structed of plank with a gate that slides up and down to control the
volume of water. A simple form is shown in the accompanying illustration.

Preparing Land for Irrigation. — The preparation of the land consists
in clearing it of the native vegetation, which in the arid region is usually
sage-brush, rabbit-bush, cacti and native grasses. Plowing frequently
precedes the clearing operation. This makes easy the gathering and
burning of the vegetation. The plowing and clearing should be followed
by a thorough harrowing, grading and smoothing of the surface. The

772

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION

773

supply ditch should be above the highest portion of the land to be irri-
gated. After the field is cleaned and leveled, farm ditches should be

" //

3 X 4 ^ ,^

y*x2 WYotrroiT'
J^'HoLeh Stag'r'cC

Hy Open aud Locked

Delivery Gate to Farm Lateral. ^

conducted over the higher portions of it. From these ditches the water
may be conducted to all portions of the land. As far as possible these
ditches should extend along the borders of the fields in order to avoid

-Old Wagon Tire

The V-Crowder is Excellent for Making the Farm Ditches.^

obstructions to cultivation. When necessary to cross fields with open
ditches, they should be so placed as to avoid as far as possible irregularity
in shape of fields.

1 Courtesy of The McGraw-Hill Book Company, N. Y. From " Use of Water in Irrigation," by Fortier.

Farm Ditches. — The size of the farm ditches will be determined by
the acreage of land irrigated by each, the fall in the ditches and the
amount of water that must be cared for in a unit of time. On uneven
land it is necessary to bridge over the depressions with levees or flumes.
The levee is usually the cheaper, but should be allowed to settle. It will
be subject to wash-outs during the first few years.

Wooden flumes are more satisfactory, but wood soon decays when
used for this purpose. Metal or concrete pipes cost most, but are durable
and generally cheapest in the end. The method of constructing the farm
ditches depends on their size. Most of the work on them may be done
with the plow and the V-crowder. The crowder makes a ditch with a
triangular bottom. This bottom becomes rounded by usage. It is
important that the ditch be made in the proper place at the outset.
The older the ditch, the more impervious its banks and bottom become
and the more satisfaction it
gives. Leaky ditches may
be greatly improved by pud-
dling the earth of the sides
and bottom. This may be
done by drawing off the
water and driving a flock of
sheep the length of the ditch
while it is muddy. Drag-
ging the bottom with a
brush harrow may be re-
sorted to for the same ])ur-
pose.

On well-established
ditches the chief items of maintenance are the removal of silt, weeds
. and aquatic plants that may grow in them.

Distributaries. — These consist of small wooden, metal or rubber
tubes, imbedded in the bank of the ditch so that the water will pass
through the embankment and be uniformly distributed on the adjacent
land. These need not be permanent, but may be imbedded temporarily,
and moved from field to field as needed. Square boxes, made of lath cut
in half, are cheap, light and serve the purpose as well as more expensive
metal tubes. Being square and rough, they stay in the embankment
better than the smoother metal or rubber tubes.

Small syphons of rubber hose are also used. These obviate the
necessity of disturbing the ditch bank. The chief objection to these is
the starting of the flow of water.

Distributing the Water.— The method of distribution will depend
on the slope of the land, the character of the soil and the kind of crop.
I^vel land is easily irrigated by flooding the whole surface. This method

1 Courtesy of The MacmiUan Company, X. Y. From " Principles of Irrigation Practice," by Widtsoe.

Canvas Dam to Check Water. ^

774

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

IS applicable to the irrigation of alfalfa, grass and small grains. The
surface, however, should be divided into areas that may be covered in a
comparatively short time with the water available. When one area has
received sufficient water, the flow is then directed to the next one, and
so on until the irrigation is completed. If the field to be irrigated is
large, it necessitates a network of ditches or parallel ditches at intervals
of 300 to 400 feet, extending across the field. The distance to which the
water may travel over the surface of the ground depends on the char-
acter of soil and the ease of penetration. The more porous the soil, the
shorter the intervals should l)e. If the intervals are too long, the soil

Orchard Irrigation by Furrow Method.^

nearest the ditch })ecomes over-irrigated before the water reaches the
further portions.

With this method of irrigation the water is generally made to flow
over the embankment by use of a temporary dam. The most convenient
form consists of a strong piece of canvas four or five feet square with one
edge securely nailed to a tough but light piece of wood that will reach from
bank to bank of the ditch. When this is laid in the ditch with the canvas
upstream and a few shovels of dirt thrown on its edges, it completely
dams the water. It is easily moved from place to place as needed.

All crops planted in rows, such as vegetables, sugar beets, potatoes
and fruit, are generally irrigated by the furrow method. Where the rows
are close together, the furrows alternate with the rows, being midway

I Courtesy of The MoOrnw-Hill Rook rompany. N.Y. From " Use of Water in Irrigation," by Fortier.

FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION

776

between them. If they are further apart, as in orchards, two or more
furrows for each row of plants are desirable. The length of furrows will
depend on the character of soil. If very porous, they should not be more
than 300 feet long. In heavy soils, the length may be as much as 600
feet. In this type of irrigation the rows extend at right angles to the
ditches, and the water is most conveniently taken from the ditch by dis-
tributors previously described. It is usually desirable to turn the water
into as many as 50 furrows at one time.

The Check System. — It consists of dividing the field into a number
of small compartments, surrounded by low levees. The water is turned
in these to the desired depth. This gives a rather complete control of

Celery Under Irrigation, Skinner System.^

the amount of water applied to each unit of ground. The size of the
checks depends on the slope of the land, small checks being necessary
where the slope is severe. This method is adapted to orchard irrigation.
Where water is conveyed through pipes and there is sufficient water-
head for pipe pressure, spraying u-rigation may be resorted to. The
Skinner system is proloably the most successful of the several spray
methods. It consists of a series of pipes at intervals of about forty feet,
extending across the field to be irrigated. These are connected with a
water main which is closed by a valve when not in use. The lines of pipe
are supported at a height of about seven feet on posts, in such a way that
the pipes may be turned. The pipes are fitted with small nozzles at
intervals of about three feet. These should be in straight lines. The
water issuing from them under high pressure is thrown a considerable

» Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

774

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

I \

FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION

775

Orchard Irrigation by Furrow Method. i

nearest the ditch hocomos over-irrigatcMl Ix^foro the water reaches the
further portions.

With this method of irrigation the water is generally made to flow
over the emixmkment by use of a temporary dam. The most convenient
form consists of a strong piece of canvas four or five feet square with one
edge securely nailed to a tough but light piece of wood that will reach from
bank to bank of the ditch. When this is laid in the ditch with the canvas
upstream and a few shovels of dirt thrown on its edges, it completely
dams the water. It is easily moved from place to place as needed.

1 Courtesy of The MfGrnw-TIill Rook Tompany, \.Y. From " Vho of Wator in Irrigation." by Fortior.

Celery Under Irrigation, Skinner System.^

the amount of water applied to each unit of ground. The size of the
cliecks depends on the slope of the land, small checks being necessary
where the slope is severe. This method is adapted to orchard irrigation.
Where water is conveyed through pipes and there is sufficient water-
head for pipe pressure, spraying irrigation may be resorted to. The
Skinner system is probably the most successful of the several spray
methods. It consists of a series of pipes at intervals of about forty feet,
extending across the field to be irrigated. These are connected with a
water main which is closed by a valve when not in use. The lines of pipe
are supported at a height of about seven feet on posts, in such a way that
the pipes may be turned. The pipes are fitted with small nozzles at
intervals of about three feet. These should be in straight lines. The
water issuing from them under high pressure is thrown a considerable

J Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

776

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

distance in a fine spray. By turning the pipe, the water is directed to
either side of the pipe line at the desired angle.

With the pipes parallel and the supporting posts in line at right
angles to them cultivation may take place in either direction beneath the
pipes. While this system is rather expensive to install, it is well adapted
to small areas intensively farmed, to truck crops and small fruits. Such-
systems are common along the Atlantic Seaboard and in some parts of
the South.

Duty of Water.— This pertains to the area of land that may be irri-
gated with a unit of water, such ss a '^second foot'^ or a ^^miner^s inch ''
The wasteful methods of irrigating and lack of knowledge on the part
of the farmer result in a low duty. Under favorable conditions the duty
should be about 200 acres for each '^second foot.'' It would seem wise
that the duty of water should be fixed within reasonable limits by some
competent authority for a particular state or irrigation district. Local
conditions, such as rainfall, length of growing season and the intensity of
agriculture, should be taken into consideration in fixing the duty of water.
When to Irrigate.— How often to irrigate and how much water to
apply will depend on local conditions, such as character of soil, kind of
crop and weather conditions. Economy in water as well as the labor of
irrigating, should make the intervals as long as feasible. Water should
be applied until the soil is wet to the full depth to which the roots of the
crop in question penetrate. The deeper the soil is wet, the longer may be
the interval between irrigations. Lighter and more frequent irrigations
penetrate the soil to less depth, increase the labor and result in greater
loss of water by direct evaporation. Water should 1x3 applied when the
crops need it and irrigation cease when the need is fully met. Enough
water is better than too much.

Where there is a bountiful winter supply of water and a scant supply
during the summer, winter irrigation is recommended. It stores the soil
with water and lessens the need during the summer.

Water should be applied to crops abundantly when they are growing
most rapidly. Irrigation may be withheld as they approach maturity.

Irrigation Waters. — Irrigation water sometimes becomes so heavily
charged with salts that it proves harmful to tender plants. This con-
dition arises either from concentration through evaporation in shallow
reservoirs or from passing through alkali soil. Along stream courses, the
reckless use of water gives rise to much seepage which returns to the
stream lower down. This frequently becomes so plentiful that it forms a
supply for another irrigation district further down the stream course. Such
water is frequently unsuited for irrigation purposes.

Alkali Troubles.— The rise of alkaH is generally caused by over- .
irrigation. An excess of water causes the ground water table to rise until
the gravitational water can reach the surface by capillary attraction.
This causes excessive evaporation at the surface of the soil and results

FARM DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION 777

in the accumulation of alkali salts. In time, the concentration will pre-
vent the growth of crops. This can usually be avoided by greater care in
irrigating. Where conditions are such that it cannot be avoided in this
way, under-drainage should be installed. The alkaU may now be washed
out of the soil through the underdrains, by flooding the surface with fresh
water. The use of alkali waters also stocks the soil with alkali salts. The
use of such water should be avoided as far as possible, or the diflJculty
overcome by drainage and flooding as above mentioned.

REFERENCES

''Practical Farm Drainage." Elliott.
'Trinciples of Irrigation Practice." Widtsoe.
''Irrigation and Drainage." King.
"Irrigation Institutions." Mead.
"Practical Irrigation." Bowie.
"Irrigation." Newell.
"American Irrigation Farming." Olin.
Utah Expt. Station Bulletins:

115. "The Movement of Water in Irrigation."

118. "Method of Increasing Crop Producing Power of Water."
U. S. Dept. of Agiiculture^ O. E. S. Bulletins:

177. "Evaporation Losses in Irrigation and Water Requirements of Crops."

248. "Evaporation from Irrigation Soils."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

373. "Irrigation of Alfalfa."

371. " Drainage of Irrigated Lands."

392. "Irrigation of Sugar Beets."

394. "Use of Windmills in Irrigation."

399. "Irrigation of Grain."

404. "Irrigation of Orchards."

524. "Drainage on the Farm."

673. "Irrigation Practice in Rice Growing."

698. "Trenching Machinery Used for the Construction of Trenches for the
Drains."

BOOK VII
FARM MANAGEMENT

(779)

CHAPTER 62

Farming Compared with Other Occupations

farm management

Columella, noted writer of the first century, who wrote extensively on
agriculture, stated that there are three essentials to success in agriculture,
namely, love for the occupation, knowledge and capital. These three are
just as essential now as they were in the time of this noted writer.

Farm management is the application of the science and practice of
soil management, crop production and the raising of farm animals, to the
lousiness of farming. It includes the planning of crop rotations; feeding
systems; the employment, distribution and direction of labor; the equip-
ment of the farm; the keeping of records and accounts of each farm enter-
l)rise; and the application of modern business methods. Farm manage-
ment pertains to the farm as a unit, while rural economics, to which it is
closely related, pertains to the community. How to produce any partic-
ular crop is a question of crop production, but whether to produce alfalfa
or potatoes is farm management. Whether to sell a crop for cash or to feed
it to livestock on the farm is farm management. The effect of tenantry
on a community is rural economics, but the form of a lease and the equitable
distribution of the proceeds between the tenant and the landlord is a prob-
lem in farm management. Farm management is concerned with the
profitable relationship of all the factors of the individual farm. If any
particular farm enterprise is over developed or insufficiently developed, it
should be readjusted so a^ to bear the proper relationship to the other-
enterprises, and thus increase the profits of the farm as a whole.

Farm management calls for good judgment, practical experience and a
knowledge of the principles underlying farming. A change in the manage-
ment of a farm involves many questions, such as the determination of
which crops are most profitable ; should certain crops be fed or sold ; when
will it pay to purchase a machine to perform certain farm work ; or when
will it pay better to do it by hand; can soil fertility be maintained by the
use of green manures and fertilizers as economically as by keeping live-
stock; will a three-course or four-course rotation be most economical;
how many horses and men will be required to handle a certain acreage of
crops; what is the most economical roughage on which to raise young
animals; and when will a soiling system most economically replace pasturing
of animals? These are some of the many questions in farm management.

Rather extensive investigations have been under way for the past
few years with the view of ascertaining some of the fundamental facts m

(781)

i?*

i}ii

.782

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

farm management. These investigations have given rather exact informa-
tion relative to the cost of producing various crops, and of feeding and
maintaining the different classes of livestock. It also has shown what it
costs to produce one pound of butter, one dozen eggs or a hundred-weight
of meat in different classes of animals. Likewise, it has shown the cost per
hour of horse labor in many farm districts. This data is all available to
the student of farm management and to the man who is about to embark
in practical farming. It gives to him the means of calculating the probable
cost and returns in a particular line of farming on a given scale.

Farming is so different from most other occupations that its advan-
tages and disadvantages as compared with others call for careful consid-
eration.

The Farmer as a Naturalist.— In no other occupation are men brought
so intimately in contact with nature and nature's laws as in the occupation
of farming. A knowledge of the laws of plant and animal growth add greatly
to the interest in crop and animal production, even though the farmer may
not be able to apply this knowledge. The fund of knowledge acquired by
many generations of farmers is now being organized on a scientific basis,
and new knowledge acquired through investigations is being added.

The Farmer as a Mechanic— The rapid development of agricultural
machinery and its extensive use in farming has increased rather than
diminished the necessity of the mechanical ability of the farmer. This
mechanical skill is a necessity, whether the farmer work by himself or
whether he directs the labor of others. The farm laborer without mechan-
ical skill may do more damage in an hour's time, if charged with operating
a complicated machine, than his month's wages would cover. Machines
often do work much better than when done by hand, and do it at a reduced
cost, but their efl^ciency calls for proper adjustment and operation.

The Farmer as a Laborer.— While the introduction of machinery has
reduced the necessity somewhat for brute strength and endurance, it has
not and never will obviate the necessity of the farmer being able to perform
manual labor with skill and dexterity. Farm labor is so diversified and
calls for such a variety of motions on the part of the laborer that the highest
skill in it is attained only through a number of years of practice. This is
most readily acquired during early life, and men who have never been
accustomed to farm work seldom find it advantageous to make the change
after middle life. The same rule applies to men who have always lived on
farms and who contemplate changing to some other form of business as
conducted in cities.

The Farmer as a Business Man.— A little more than half a century
ago farms were largely self-supporting. Farming then was not capitalized.
It was diversified and most farmers produced nearly everything required
for their livelihood. The wool produced on the farm was carded, spun
and made into cloth on the farm, and the cloth in turn was made into
garments, either by the housewife or the neighborhood tailor, who went

FARMING COMPARED

783

from house to house to ply his trade. In the same manner the hides of the
farm animals were tanned and made into gloves, boots and shoes for
members of the family by the shoemaker who went from farm to farm for
this purpose.

' Conditions, however, have now greatly changed. Land values have
risen, farming is capitalized and much more specialized than formerly.
The standard of living has also risen, so that farmers sell and buy much
more extensively than formerly.

. The business ability required of the farmer is not so much that of
the merchant or trader as it is that of the organizer who can organize the
enterprises of the farm in such a way as to make production profitable.
It is true that there is a constantly increasing need for the buying and
selling ability of farmers also.

Personal Traits of the Farmer. — Success is most easily acquired in
the line of work one loves best; and the first problem is to get into that
character of work as soon as possible. Men cannot always advantageously
estimate their own abilities, but so far as possible, one should engage
in the occupation which he likes and for which he is best fitted by
nature, experience and training. It is important for the young man to
reach his decision as early as possible and then acquire the knowledge and
experience as rapidly as possible. While men are sometimes quite suc-
cessful with no particular qualifications except strength and industry,
this is no argument that they would not have succeeded even better with
knowledge and the application of science in their occupation. A good
executive may have fair success without doing manual work, but in farm-
ing the highest success is usually attained by those who combine executive
ability with labor. Scientific knowledge, experience, business ability,
manual and mechanical skill, and hard work make a combination that is

successful.

Farm Experience.— Experience is one of the essentials to success m
farming. City industries are specialized. Farming calls for experience
with the weather, diseases of plants and animals, insect pests, the feeding
of plants and animals, breeding, machinery, business affairs and numerous
other things that it takes time to learn. For one not reared on a farm
experience is best acquired by seeking employment under the direction of
a successful farmer. If engaged in farming in a new locahty, one should
follow the practice of the most successful neighbors. When he can dupli-
cate the results of his best neighbors, it will then be time enough to under-
take changes that will make for improvement.

The Farm Hand.— Most of the farm hands in the Lnited btates are
yourg men, a large percentage of whom later expect to become farmers.
The farm hand receiving $25 a month with board, room and washing,
will generally be able to save more than he would if employed in the city
at $50 per month. Not only are his living expenses greatly reduced, but
the temptation and opportunity to spend for pleasure is also reduced.

784

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The clothing requirements of the farm hand are less expensive than those
of his city brother.

It is true that the farm does not call for as many grades of men as
do most other occupations, and there is, therefore, less opportunity for
advancement. Only here and there are there opportunities for high-
pnced men as wage-earners. The farm hand who proves his worth Avill
generally receive his reward by soon being able to rent a farm advan-
tageously, and this will form a stepping stone to farm ownership.
- Farm Ownership.— Farm ownership embraces two forms of invest-
ment: (1) a speculative and (2) a purely business venture.

A Good Rural Scene Showing an Attractive Farming Country.*

With the rapid increase in land values and the rapid improvement
of farm equipment, the capital required in farming is much greater than
formerly. A large part of the capital generally consists of land, and this,
as a rule, is one of the safest investments. It is not subject to the severe
losses that occur in commerce and manufacture. There niay be periods
of depreciation in land values, but these are not likely to continue long.
As a rule the reverse will be true, and land values will increase and may
comprise a large part of the farmer's increase in wealth. During the decade

» Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. R-om "Cropa and Methods for Soil Improvement,"

FARMING COMPARED

785

endmg 1910, farm ownership in most parts of the United States was exceed-
mgly profitable from the investment standpoint. During that period
land values m many of the states of the Union increased more than 100
per cent.

Ordinarily, the farmer invests in land in order to go into business
with his capital. In the purchase of a farm both the speculative and
business aspects should be carefully considered. Where the rise in land
value is likely to be large and continue for some time, one may be justi-
fied in buying rather extensively and going in debt to the upper limit.
On the other hand, where land is not increasing in value, it is much better
to have ample capital for stock and equipment. Plenty of working capital
is essential to good and profitable farming.

That part of the investment consisting of buildings, livestock and
equipraent is subject to destruction and depreciation just as rapidly as
is^the investment in buildings and equipment in any line of manufacture.

One should not expect as large a percentage when he invests money
as when he goes into business with his money. Money in the form of
mortgages on land is safe, calls for little attention, and, therefore, should
demand only a moderate rate of interest. Such rate of interest ranges
from 5 to 7 per cent at the present time in different sections of the country.

The Occupation of the Farmer. — In comparing farming with other
occupations one should consider the capital invested, the safety of the
investment, the probable returns, the hours of labor and the standard of
living. It is somewhat difficult to compare these directly with the same
items in other occupations.

Wliile the hours of labor on farms are frequently longer than in
other occupations, it should be borne in mind that there are generally
periods when the hours are either quito short or there is almost nothing
to do. This, together with the fact that the home is so closely associated
\vith the work, compensates for the more regular and exacting hours in
most other occupations. In large cities much time is often consumed
in going to and from one's place of business.

Independence of Farming Occupation. — The farmer enjoys independ-
ence to a greater degree than men in most other occupations. He is his
own boss, and is sure of self -employment. In nearly all occupations men
who are employed for wages have fixed hours of labor and are in danger
of being out of employment. These items often mean more than a man
can fully realize until he has begun to work for others.

It Furnishes Employment for Children. — Modern conditions have
made necessary the enactment of laws to regulate child labor. The steady
employment of children in mills, factories and shops at the age when
they should be in school tends to lower the standard of citizenship. It is
advantageous, however, for boys and girls to have some light tasks to
perform at regular intervals, but it is difficult to provide desirable work
for children in cities. The farm offers an opportunity for just such employ-

784

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The clothing requirements of the farm hand are less expensive than those
of his city brother.

It is true that the farm does not call for as many grades of men as
do most other occupations, and there is, therefore, less opportunity for
advancement. Only here and there are there opportunities for high-
priced men as wage-earners. The farm hand who proves his worth will
generally receive his reward by soon being able to rent a farm advan-
tageously, and this will form a stepping stone to farm ownership.
. Farm Ownership.— Farm ownership embraces two forms of hivest-
ment: (1) a speculative and (2) a purely business venture.

i«5«^*!fr-^sa»<«-iV.

A Good Rural Scene Showing an Attractive Farming Country.*

With the rapid increase in land values and the rapid imi)r()vement
of farm equipment, the capital required in farming is much greater than
formerly. A large part of the capital generally consists of land, and this,
as a rule, is one of the safest investments. It is not subject to the severe
losses that occur in commerce and manufacture. There may be periods
of depreciation in land values, but these are not likely to continue long.
As a rule the reverse will be true, and land values will increase and may
comprise a large part of the farmer's increase in wealth. During the decade

» Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Cropa and Methods for Soil Improvement,
by Agee.

FARMING COMPARED

785

endmg 1910, farm ownership in most parts of the United States was exceed-
mgly profitable from the investment standpoint. During that period,
land values in many of the states of the Union increased more than 100
per cent.

That part of the investment consisting of buildings, livestock and
equipment is subject to destruction and depreciation just as rapidly as
is^the investment in buildings and equipment in any line of manufacture.

While the hours of labor on farms are frequently longer than in
other occupations, it should be borne in mind that there are generally
periods when the hours are either quite short or there is almost nothing
to do. This, together with the fact that the home is so closely associated
with the work, compensates for the more regular and exacting hours in
most other occupations. In large cities much time is often consumed
in going to and from one's place of b/usincss.

Independence of Farmmg Occupation.— The farmer enjoys independ-
ence to a greater degree than men in most other occupations. He is his
own boss, and is sure of self -employment. In nearly all occupations men
who are employed for wages have fixed hours of labor and are in danger
oi being out of employment. These items often mean more than a man
can fully realize until he has begun to work for others.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

786

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ment, and is decidedly educational in its value, and may at the same
time be made productive. Farm boys have the companionship of their
fathers, and are often made to feel that they are taking a part in the work
that he is doing.

The introduction of manual training into the schools of the cities
is but a reflection of the necessity for training the city boy to use his
hands in productive work. Habits of industry formed early in life are
essential to a successful life.

Healthftilness of the Country. — Recent investigations by several life
insurance companies show that longevity and diminished liability to dis-
ease are decidedly favored in the country. Typhoid, malaria, influenza,
dysentery, apoplexy, peritonitis, paralysis and heart disease are found to
be slightly more common in the country than in cities. A number of
these diseases, however, are recognized as diseases of old age. The marked
tendency during recent years for the young people of the farm to go towards
the cities has resulted in a much greater percentage of old people on the
farms than in cities. In cities venereal diseases, cancer, meningitis, ente-
ritis, bronchitis, pneumonia, appendicitis, Bright^s disease, tuberculosis,
alcoholism and violence are much more common than in the country.

Sanitary conveniences and regulations are much better in the cities
than in the country, but there is no reason why they should not be equally
as good in the country, and the tendency is now marked in that direction.

The Farm a Home Enterprise. — In no other business is the home so
closely related to the business as in farming. Success on the farm depends
to a considerable extent on the home. Much of the farm work is done
in the home, such, for example, as making butter, caring for the milk and
preparing many of the articles for market. The care of poultry, the garden
and the fruit often falls largely into the hands of the housewife and the
children. For this reason, farming is a family business and unmarried
farmers are at a decided disadvantage. Statistics show a very small per-
centage of farms operated by unmarried people. Such are usually the
result of death of either the husband or wife, and frequently result in a
change of occupation. "*

The Farm as a Home. — The advantages of the farm as a home are
recognized to such an extent that we find close to cities and villages many
who live on small farms, but who are engaged in some other occupation.
The advantages lie largely in the reduced cost of living. Land, being
less expensive, may be had in sufficient quantity to produce a large part
of the products necessary for family use. These consist of fruits, vege-
tables, poultry, eggs, milk and butter, and in many cases a considerable
part of the meat. Then, too, there are the advantages previously men-
tioned of affording employment for members of the family that would
otherwise have no work to do. The work in this case becomes profitable,
both from the educational and financial standpoints.

The farmer frequently fails to give the farm full credit for the pre-

life:-

FARMING COMPARED

787

requisites he receives from it. The farm is entitled to credit for the house
rent saved and the provisions furnished to the farmer.

What the Farm Supplies.— The house which shelters tb.c farmer and
his family is considered a part of the farm investment, and in so far as
the work of the farm is carried on in the house this is justifiable. On the
other hand, it furnishes him a home which in any other occupation would
have to be paid for either in the form of rent or as a separate investment.
The average house rent value of the farmhouse is probably worth about
$150 a year.

The farm supplies much besides money. It gives food, shelter and
in most instances fuel. The United States Department of Agriculture
has recently made investigations of between 400 and 500 farm families
in different parts of the United States with the view of ascertaining the
cost of maintaining persons on farms. It was found that the cost of main-

A Well-planned and Neat Farmstead.

taining a grown person averaged $176 a year. Of this sum, only about
twenty-two per cent was paid out in cash, the remainder being furnished

by the farm.

Cost of Living on Farms.— The reduced cost of living on farms is
due not only to the reduced cost of what is used, but, also, too frequently,
to a reduced living. We often find that the farmer disposes of all the
best of his products, while the family uses that which cannot be sold. This
reduced standard of living is also manifest in the absence of such con-
veniences as the bathroom, running water, sewage disposal and modern
systems of heatmg and lighting. It is true that some of these items are
cheaper in cities than they are in the country. The individual lighting
system for a country house may make such lighting more expensive than
in the city, where the electricity or gas may be obtained from a company
or municipality manufacturing it on a large scale. Likewise, running

786

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

! I

The introduction of manual training into the schools of the cities
is hut a reflection of the necessity for training the city boy to use his
hands in ])roductive work. Habits of industry formed early in life are
essential to a successful life.

Healthfulness of the Country. — Recent investigations by several life
insurance companies show that longevity and diminished liability to dis-
ease are decidedly favored in the country. Typhoid, malaria, influenza,
dysentery, apoplexy, peritonitis, paralysis and heart disease are found to
be slightly more common in the country than in cities. A number of
these diseases, however, are recognized as diseases of old age. The marked
tendency during recent years for the young people of the farm to go towards
the cities has resulted in a much greater percentage of old people on the
farms than in cities. In cities venereal diseases, cancer, meningitis, ente-
ritis, bronchitis, pneumonia, appendicitis, Bright^s disease, tuberculosis,
alcoholism and violence are much more common than in the country.

Sanitary conveniences and regulations are much better in the cities
than in the country, but there is no reason wh}^ they should not be equally
as good in the country, and the tendencj^ is now marked in that direction.

The Farm a Home Enterprise. — In no other business is the home so
closely related to the business as in farming. Success on the farm depends
to a considerable extent on the home. Much of the farm work is done
in the home, such, for example, as making butter, caring for the milk and
preparing many of the articles for market. The care of poultry, the garden
and the fruit often falls larg(»ly into the hands of the housewife and the
children. For this reason, farming is a family business and unmarried
farmers are at a decided disadvantage. Statistics show a very small per-
centage of farms operated by unmarried people. Such are usually the
result of death of either the husband or wiiv, and frequently result in a
change of occupation.

The Farm as a Home. — The advantages of the farm as a home arc
recognized to such an extent that we find close to cities and villages many
who live on small farms, })ut who are engaged in some other occupation.
The advantages lie largely in the reduced cost of living. Land, being
less expensive, may be had in sufficient quantity to produce a large part
of the products necessary for family use. These consist of fruits, vege-
tables, poultry, eggs, milk and butter, and in many cases a considerable
part of the meat. Then, too, there are the advantages previously men-
tioned of affording employment for members of the family that would
otherwise have no work to do. The work in this case becomes profitable,
both from the educational and financial standpoints.

The farmer frequently fails to give the farm full credit for the pre-

FARMING COMPARED

787

requisites he receives from it. The farm is entitled to credit for the house
rent saved and the provisions furnished to the farmer.

What the Farm Supplies.— The house which shelters tb.o fanner and
his family is considered a part of the farm investment, and in so far as
the work of the farm is carried on in the house this is justifia})le. On the
other hand, it furnishes him a home which in any other occupation would
have to be paid for either in the form of rent or as a separate investment.
The average house rent value of the farmhouse is probably worth about
$150 a year.

A Well-planned and Neat Farmstead.

taining a grown person averaged $176 a year. Of this sum, only about
twenty-two per cent was paid out in cash, the remainder being furnished
by the farm.

Cost of Living on Farms. — The reduced cost of living on farms is
due not only to the reduced cost of what is used, but, also, too frequently,
to a reduced living. We often find that the farmer disposes of all the
best of his products, while the family uses that which cannot be sold. This
reduced standard of living is also manifest in the absence of such con-
veniences as the bathroom, running water, sewage disposal and modern
systems of heating and lighting. It is true that some of these items are
cheaper in cities than they are in the country. The individual lighting
system for a country house may make such lighting more expensive than
in the city, where the electricity or gas may be obtained from a company
or municipality manufacturing it on a large scale. Likewise, running

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

788

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

water may be cheaper in the city home than in the country. This reduced
standard of hving in the country is more often a necessity than otherwise,
since most farmers who are financially able are installing such improve-
ments. It is true that habit or custom has much to do with the providing
of modern conveniences, and the introduction of such conveniences
into any community generally spreads rapidly, especially among the
younger people, as soon as means are available with which to supply
them.

Uncertainties in Farming. — No other occupation is so largely depend-
ent upon weather conditions, insect pests and plant and animal diseases
as farming; consequently, it is not so fully controlled as is most other
lines of business. In a shoe factory the output of each machine may be
estimated within a fraction of one per cent. Knowing the cost of mate-
rials, the number of machines in operation and the capacity of each, the
output of a shoe factory of any size may be c-losely calculated. Heat and
cold, drought and rain, are likely to have little or no effect. With the
farmer the season is so important that he may have an unusually large
crop or he may have less than half a crop.

Then, too, his plan of operations may be frequently changed as a
result of the change in weather. The men and teams that were to plow or
cultivate in a certain field today may have to be directed to some other
line of work, because rains prevent working in the field. It is, there-
fore, necessary to have plans that will include more than one line of work
for any particular period. Fortunately, this uncertainty in the farmer's
cash income is largely offset by his assurance in a livelihood, and a cer-
tainty that if some years are failures, others are just as certain to l)e
doubly successful.

Preparation for Farming. — The opportunities on the farm hinge
largely on the preparation of the farmer for the occupation. It is now
recognized that farming calls for a greater diversity of knowledge and a
greater variety of skill on the part of the workman than any other occupa-
tion. The unit of production of American farmers has increased rapidly
as a result of better methods and the utilization of better farm equipment,
and the tendency is to require a relatively smaller number of farmers
in proportion to the entire population of the country'. It seems probable
that the time will soon come when one farmer will produce sufficient to
feed four or five other families. This, of course, will mean that only
fifteen or twenty per cent will be farmers, unless exports of farm products
continue to be important.

One who is to farm should prepare for the business. The man who
seeks an agricultural education as a preparation for farming is preparing
not only for today, but for many years to come. The necessity for such
training will increase rapidly from decade to decade. The establishment
of state agricultural colleges and experiment stations for the education
and enlightenment of the man on the farm is not only an opportunity

FARMING COMPARED

789

that should not be neglected by the farmer, but, too, is indicative of the
importance which agriculture plays in the welfare of the nation.

Bapk to the Farm. — The back to the farm movement naturally origi-
nated in cities as the result of increased cost of living and the apparent
better opportunities for the man on the farm. Much has been written
on this subject and a word of caution should be sounded, lest those that
are illy prepared for farm life should engage in it, only to be greatly dis-
appointed. They should thoroughly understand that the farm is no place
for the inefficient. Those who are not capable of successfully directing
their own efforts will do better to serve under the direction of others who
are competent. In farming, one generally must direct his own operations.
One without experience is necessarily handicapped when thrown into
competition with those born and reared on farms. It is, therefore, sug-
gested that those without experience who are anxious to acquire farms
with a view of farming them successfully should first get experience by
actually working on farms under the direction of the best and most prac-
tical farmers.

Back to the Village Movement. — There is no doubt but that cities
have become over-populated, resulting in great congestion and sacrifice
on the part of many of its residents. There are many industries crowded
into great cities that could be operated to better advantage in villages.
The demands of a great city call for so much in the way of food products
that much of it must necessarily be shipped long distances, while the prod-
ucts manufactured in the city must in turn be sent back to the people
in the country, thus entaihng much expense in transportation. The
cheaper living in the country would do much to reduce the cost of the
manufactured article and should at the same time afford the farmer equally
as good prices for his products. It is true that it might reduce somewhat
the demands on the farmer, since the provision of small parcels of land
for families in towns and village would enable each family to produce
part of its own food supply. Whatever might be the disadvantage on the
part of the farmer, it would certainly be an advantage to the country as
a whole.

The Farm Manager. — The purchase of farms by men in other forms
of business has given rise to a demand for men trained as farm managers.
In many cases such farms are used chiefly as country homes, and cannot
be expected to pay interest on over-capitahzation. Farming, to be profit-
* able, must be placed on a business basis. It is not possible for the ordinary-
cow to make a profit on the feed consumed, the labor required, and at the
same time pay 6 per cent interest on a barn that costs $1000 per cow.
The young man who engages as a farm manager is cautioned to accept
such a position only after careful consideration and with a clear under-
standing as to what he is expected to accomplish. He should know at
the outset whether or not he is merely to operate a country estate for the
pleasure of its owner and his friends, or whether he is expected to run

790

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the farm on a business basis with the expectation of making it pa}^ The
man trained as a farm manager or superintendent should be given much
latitude and allowed to plan the operations of the farm. The general
policies of operation may be outlined by the owner, but if it is to be
successful, he cannot expect to direct the management in any detail
without being thoroughly conversant with the business of farming.

The Farmer's Labor Income. — Farm surveys in many sections of
the country have recently given us data showing the farmer's income.
It has never been possible to figure from statistical returns as printed by
the United States census exactly what the average farmer of the United
States makes. The last census, however, was somewhat more complete
than former ones, and when supplemented with a few facts established
by the office of farm management of the United States Department of
Agriculture, it has been possible to estimate closely the average labor
income of farmers of the United States. According to the last census
there were in round numbers 6,361,000 farms in the United States. The
average size of the farm was 138 acres, 75 acres of which were improved
and 50 acres of which were devoted to crops. The average farm invest-
ment was $6444, of which amount $994 was in buildings and $199 in
implements and machinery. The average gross farm income per farm
was $981 and the total expenses $340, leaving a net farm income of $640.
If interest on the investment at the rate of 5 per cent is deducted from
the net farm income, it leaves a labor income of only $318. This differs
very little from the average hired man's wages.

There are many farmers having large farms that are living on the
interest of their investment. On the other hand, there are many who
are making very good labor incomes.

The following table shows the average labor income of a considerable
number of farmers, taken just as they come in different sections of the
country for the years indicated in the table:

Labor Income of Farmers in Different Parts of the United States.

Operated by Owner a.

Number of
Farms.

County.

6,361,502.

193

615

670

178

578

410

123

United States'. . . .

Chemung

Tompkins

Jefferson

State

Livingston

Chester

Clinton and Tipton
Green and Guthrie
Menard and Cass .

1 Average

State.

Size,

1 Acres.

138

• • •

New York . . .

108

New York. . .

143

New York . . .

132

New York . . .

148

Pennsylvania

Indiana

105

Iowa

176

Illinois

253

Average
\'alue.

T.abf)r
Income.

$6,444

4,642

5,712

9,006

11,137

12,037

11,815

17,535

23,193

51,091

$318
190
423
609
981
666
743
310
291
622

Years.

1909

1911

1907

1910

1906-7

1909

1912

1911

' Calculated from census figures.

FARMING COMPARED

791

Operated by Teiiants.

Number of
Farms. .

127

83
93
71

County.

Chester

Clinton and Tipton
Green and Guthrie
Menard and Cass .

State.

Average

Size,

Acres.

Pennsylvania

Indiana

Iowa

Illinois. .... .

104
128
187
202

Average
Value.

Labor
Income.

$778
755
716

1,139

Cap. $1,728
Cap. 2,667
Cap. 2,867

Years.
1912

1911
1911
1911

In studying the above tabulation it should he understood that the
year in which the survey was made may or may not have been normal,
and the labor income for any particular year is influenced greatly by the
character of the season. Many facts are brought out by these surveys
which will not be fully discussed at this point. In general, however, the
larger the farm or the larger the investment, the larger the labor income.
Increase in working capital, either in the form of livestock or equipment,
also makes for larger incomes. There is considerable difference in labor
incomes from farms as the result of location. This is due partly to soil
and climatic conditions and partly to transportation and markets. How
much is due to methods of farming is difficult to ascertain, since there are
so many factors that influence the final result.

Profits in Fanning. — These vary from time to time as the result of
cycles of over and under-production. From 1870 to 1895 farm profits
were small because of over-production during that period. As a result,
prices of all farm products were exceedingly low. This helped to make
the cost of living in cities low, and since there was a great development
along the lines of manufacturing and merchandising, city opportunities
were apparently better than on the farm. Many farm people consequently
moved to the cities. This was especially marked in case of the younger
people. From 1895 there has been a gradual change. Prices of farm
products have increased greatly. Farm profits consequently have been
larger. The farm has become more attractive, and there has been a
tendency for city people to move back to the land.

It should be borne in mind that farming is a conservative business.
With good management, it yields good returns, but fortunes can hardly
be expected from farms of average size. Farmers may hope to make a
comfortable living, be able to travel some, educate their children as well
as city folk and save up a competence sufficient for old age. It is
doubtful if more than this is of any particular advantage.

REFERENCES

New York Expt. Station Bulletin 295. ''An Agricultural Survey of Tompkins County,

N. Y."
Farmers' Bulletin 432, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ''How a City Family Managed a

Farm."

CHAPTER 63

Factors that Determine best Type of Farming

Type of farming pertains to the enterprises that make up the farm
business. The farm may be devoted to a single crop, such as wheat, or it
may consist of a number of crops in combination with the production of
dairy products or meat. In the one case it would be a special type; in
the other, a general type.

It is important that the many factors that inlSuence the type of farming
harmonize with all the farm enterprises. When a combination of crops
and animals can be selected, all of which are adapted to the climate, soil
and topography of the farm, and when first-class transportation faciUties
or good markets for all of the products are at hand, farming is compara-
tively easy, and success is assured if the farmer does his part.

The Man. — By nature, training and experience, men are better adapted
to some lines of production than others. It is a significant fact, however,
that men soon learn to like most any type of farming that is financially
successful, and to dislike that type that is unsuccessful. While success
may depend to a considerable extent upon the man, there are many types
of farming that are impractical in certain localities because some of the
factors necessary for success are lacking.

Climate. — Sunshine and rain are important factors in plant growth.
They are beyond the control of man, and this makes it necessary for him to
work in co-operation with climatic conditions as far as possible.

Cotton cannot be grown successfully beyond the limits of the cotton
belt, chiefly because climatic conditions are unfavorable farther north.
Corn requires plenty of rainfall and warm weather during its growing
season. It does poorly in the arid regions, even though it be irrigated.
It is also an unsatisfactory crop where the summer season is short and the
summer nights are cool. Potatoes, Canada peas and other crops will
not succeed under the warm weather conditions of the Southern states.
It is, therefore, important to have the crop adapted to climatic conditions.

The Soil. — Soil adaptation has been thoroughly discussed in the first
part of this book. Soils may be somewhat modified, and there is more
range in soil adaptation than there is in climatic adaptation. Where
markets are especially good, one may be justified in growing a crop to
which the soil is not as well adapted as it may be elsewhere, but the crop
should always be adapted to the soil as far as other conditions will justify.

Topography. — Comparatively level land may be devoted to any kind
of crops to which the soil and climate are adapted. It permits the use of
any kind of machinery. A rugged topography, on the other hand, may

(792)

BEST TYPE OF FARMING

793

make impossible the use of a self-binder, and, consequently, makes impos-
sible the successful growing of small grains in competition with their
production on the level lands adapted to machinery. The use of machinery
has reduced the cost of production of these crops to such an extent, and
transportation facilities have so reduced the differences in price in different
localities, that the whole country is brought into competition in the
production of most of the cereals.

Erosion on steep land is often so severe as to make it necessary to
grow only those crops that tend to hold the soil in place. Cultivated crops,
such as corn, encourage the loss of soil by erosion, and should not be grown
on stfeep hillsides.

Location. — In general, the nearer one is located to good markets, the

Typical Corn Land.^
A 320-acre cornfield, Illinois.

more intensive the type of farming may be. Fruits and truck crops close
to good markets may be produced profitably even though the soil and the
climatic conditions are not ideal. The farmer who can secure high prices
can afford to spend more in modifying the soil in order to produce crops to
which it is naturally not best adapted. He may irrigate his crops if there
is a shortage of rain, providing prices are uniformly good.

Far away from good markets the type of farming should become more
general and more extensive. It will generally tend more toward the
production of livestock and livestock products that may be marketed with

the minimum expense.

Neighbors.— The character of neighbors is generally considered chiefly
from the social standpoint, but neighbors also have an economic value.
The type of farming that prevails in any neighborhood will generally be
the one to adopt. There will be advantages in several ways.

1 Courtesy of E. L. Worthen.

■.'•■■.'''-■■■<i,

■^:h^r::^'i

CHAPTER 63

Factors that determine best Type of Farming

Type of farming pertains to the enterprises that make up the farm
business. The farm may be devoted to a single crop, such as wlieat, or it
may consist of a number of crops in combination with the production of
dairy products or meat. In the one case it would be a special type; in
the other, a general type.

It is important that the many factors that influence the type of farming
harmonize with all the farm enterprises. When a combination of crops
and animals can be selected, all of which are adapted to the climate, soil
and topography of the farm, and when first-class transportation facilities
or good markets for all of the products are at hand, farming is compara-
tively easy, and success is assured if the farmer does his part.

(792)

BEST TYPE OF FARMING

793

Location. — In general, the nearer one is located to good markets, the

Typical Corn Land.^
A 320-acre cornfield, Illinois.

the minimum expense.

Neighbors.— The character of neighbors is generally considered chiefly
from the social standpoint, but neighbors also have an economic value.
The type of farming that prevails in any neighborhood will generally be
tlie one to adopt. There will be advantages in several ways.

1 Courtesy of E. T.. Worthen.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

§m^!^W^:m^M^im

:--^n :

'.^

794

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

(1) Neighbors have an advertising value. The neighborhood noted
for the production of fine apples or peaches attracts buyers for these
products. Prices in such neighborhoods are generally higher than in
regions that have no reputation for the same product.

(2) The labor in such a neighborhood is trained in the operations that
pertain to the industry and work more rapidly and with greater care than
untrained labor in that kind of work. New crops often fail because labor
adapted to their production is lacking. Cotton picking becomes an art
and calls for cheap labor. The introduction of Sea Island cotton in the
island of Porto Rico a few years ago failed solely because the available

The Utiuzation of Land too Steep to Plow.*

labor was not trained in cotton picking, and the crop could be harvested
only at large expense.

(3) The prevailing breeds of livestock in the neighborhood facilitate
securing the services of the best sires.

(4) The experience of the neighbors is of value to all who are engaged
in the prevailing type of farming.

Occasionally, changed economic conditions may justify a change in
the type of farming. The growth of a town, creating a new local market,
wdll make possible successful truck and fruit farming on a scale sufficient
to meet the local demand, where previously it would not have been success-
ful. Then, too, new enterprises may occasionally be discovered that will
prove more profitable than the old ones. The introduction of such enter-

i Courtesy of Dopartment of Animal Husbandry, Pennsylvania State College.

BEST TYPE OF FARMING

795

prises often entails considerable expense in improvements or in the equip-
ment of the farm, as well as necessitating the training of labor to meet the
demands of the new enterprise. Changes in the type of farming must,
therefore, be rather gradual.

Markets. — The distance from market or shipping point often deter-
mines the character of product to be grown. Soil and climate may be
admirably adapted to the production of potatoes, but if the farm is some
distance from the market or shipping point the cost of marketing may be
too great to make production of potatoes profitable. The character of
road between the farm and market is also a factor. The cost of hauling
on poor, hilly roads may be two or three times as great as on level macadam

Intensive Farming on a Large Scale.*

roads. The better the road, the further one may be from market and
yet be successful. The prices of wheat and hay near large Eastern markets
are better than in the West. Local conditions may be favorable to the
production of both crops, but the difference in prices of the two commodities
in the two localities will be greater in case of hay. This often makes it
advisable for the eastern farmer to produce hay rather than wheat.

Market milk which must be delivered daily cannot be hauled long
distances to market with profit. Many farmers spend too much time in
the delivery of small quantities of milk. Often the time spent is worth
as much as the receipts from the milk sold. A part of this difficulty may be
overcome by co-operation and hauling milk in full loads, thus reducing

the cost of hauling.

Transportation. — It is a fundamental principle that products cheaply

1 Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer, Sioux City, Iowa.

794

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The Utilization of Land too Steep to Plow.^

labor was not trahied in cotton picking, and tlie croj) could be harvested
only at large expense.

(3) The prevailing breeds of livestock hi the neighborhood facilitate
securmg the services of the l)est sires.

(4) The experience of the neighbors is of value to all who are engaged
in the prevailing type of farming.

Occasionally, changed economic conditions may justify a change in
the type of farming. The growth of a town, creatmg a new local market,
will make possible successful truck and fruit farming on a scale sufficient
to meet the local demand, where previously it would not have been success-
ful. Then, too, new enterprises may occasionally be discovered that will
prove more profitable than the old ones. The introduction of such enter-

i Courtesy of Department of Animal Husbandry, P«*nn.sylvania State College.

BEST TYPE OF FARMING

795

:«*S<i(i(S^> ■-• %1^ •> ,

mm-

m .»

^^tST^K-o

.«-:i

-< i»i*"C .t«".

mm...:

♦ tN*.

;:|-- ■>%4^.,.., \.;..

Intensive Farming on a Large Scale.^

roads. The better the road, the further one may be from market and
yet be successful. The prices of wheat and hay near large Eastern markets
are l)ett(T than in the West. Local conditions may be favorable to the
I)roduction of both crops, but the difference in prices of the two commodities
in the two localities will be greater in case of hay. This often makes it
advisable for the eastern farmer to produce hay rather than wheat.

Market milk which must be delivered daily cannot be hauled long
distances to market with profit. Many farmers spend too much tune in
the delivery of small quantities of milk. Often the time spent is worth
as much as the receipts from the milk sold. A part of this difficulty may be
overcome by co-operation and hauling milk in full loads, thus reducing

the cost of hauling.

Transportation.— It is a fundamental principle that products cheaply

» Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer, Sioux City, I

owa.

796

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and easily transported may be successfully grown some distance from
markets, while bulky and perishable products should be grown near points
of consumption. The value of a product is also a factor in this connection
The greater the value per unit of weight, the less important will be the
relative cost of transportation in connection with placing it on the market
The greater the distance between points of production and market, the
greater the difference in price; and the more bulky the product the
greater the relative difference. To illustrate: hay in the Boston market
may be worth $20 per ton, whereas 1000 miles away it would be worth
less than $10 a ton. At the same time and for the same places the differ-
enee in concentrated products, such as butter or cheese, would probablv
be no more than 8 to 10 per cent in price.

One bushel of corn will produce ten pounds of pork, but the ten
pounds of pork can be shipped to market at considerably less cost than
the bushel of corn. Consequently, the l)est place to raise hogs is in the
corn belt where corn is cheapest. Iowa excels all other states in pork
production. ^

Sheep may be reared for their wool in regions remote from market
because wool is a high-priced product and may be hauled and shipped
long distances, and the cost of marketing is comparatively small in com-
parison with its value.

Horses are generally more valuable, weight for weight, than cattle
or sheep, but they are more difficult to ship, because they are more sub-
ject to injury in transportation.

It is very difficult to get eggs to market in prime condition, and the
egg producer near the markets has a decided advantage. In country dis-
tncts eggs are generally produced on so small a scale that they are mar-
keted by the farmer to advantage only in connection with his going to
the market place for other purposes.

Fresh fruits, such as strawberries, raspberries and cherries, must be
marketed promptly, and are, therefore, best produced near points of
consumption. On the other hand, apples may be shipped long distances.
Supply and Demand.— The supply and demand of all farm products
are subject to greater fluctuation than any other line of production. Favor-
able seasons over large areas often cause such abundant crops that
the market is oversupplied and prices may be so reduced that the
large crop nets the farmer less than a small one would. One needs only
to study the crop statistics to be impressed with the violent fluctuations
in both yields and prices, even of our staple crops. Corn in Illinois has
varied from 21 bushels to 40 bushels per acre; wheat in Kansas from
10 to 18 bushels; cotton in Texas from 125 to 225 pounds per acre.
The fluctuation in truck crops and fruits is even more striking, while that
in special crops, such as broom corn, is greater stilll Prices of broom
corn may range all the way from $25 to $200 per ton, due chiefly to supply
and demand.

BEST TYPE OF FARMING

797

Crops are frequently subject to cycles of over and under production.
When prices are high, farmers are apt to think they are going to continue
to be high; consequently, they increase their acreage of those products
which command the best price. This generally results in over production
and the consequent decrease in price. Farmers then think that low
prices will continue, and restrict their production to such an extent that
prices again rise. This process repeats itself periodically and neariy all
products are consequently subject to cycles of over and under production.
These cycles vary greatly in their length of duration. They are longest
in case of crops that require much time in coming into full fruitage, such
as apples and other tree fruits.

In apple production the cycles range from twenty to twenty-five
years in length. In annual crops they are subject to very short cycles .of
two or three years in length. With livestock, the longer cycles are with
horses that require four or five years to come into maturity, while the
short ones are with swine that mature in a year or less.

It is worth while for farmers to study crop statistics and crop prices
with a view of meeting the demands as nearly as possible. Such fore-
thought on the part of the farmer will lessen the variation in both supply
and price, and make more certain the probable price.

Animals. — Livestock production is affected by climate and the grazing
period. Beef cattle have never been successfully raised in the Northern
states, because of the short grazing period and the long winter feeding
period. With higher prices for meat it is possible that beef cattle may
be successfully raised in that region.

Long, cold winters require better housing facilities for livestock and
more labor in the feeding of them. Both add to the cost of production.

Horses are not adapted to hard work in tropical regions. Mules and
oxen are better adapted to such regions.

Labor. — The type of farming is dependent to a considerable extent
upon the character and supply of labor. Improved livestock and the
extensive use of agricultural machinery call for skilled labor. Dairying
calls for men trained in milking. Attempts to establish dairying in the
South have often failed because of the unreliable nature of available help
and its lack of adaptation for the dairy business. Sugar beets and most veg-
etables call for much hand labor, and cannot be extensively grown unless
labor is comparatively cheap and abundant. The weeding of beets and
the picking of berries, if done economically, must be done by cheap labor.

Competing Types. — The crops which pay best are the ones that
should be given prominence. Corn may be profitably grown near cities,
but it cannot compete with potatoes, sweet corn and other crops requiring
similar soil and climatic conditions, and for which there is a good market.
Root crops make excellent stock feed, but cannot compete with corn
which produces equally as good winter feed in the form of silage and
which can be grown more cheaply.

: t

798

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Natural Enemies. — Plant diseases, insect enemies and weeds may seri-
ously affect the type of farming. In some instances an entire change in
system has been necessary because of these factors. The peach yellows in
Delaware practically wiped out the peach industry in that state at one time.
Cattle raising and dairying in the South have been held back because of
the prevalence of Texas fever. In parts of the cotton belt, the cotton-
boll weevil has caused the introduction of new crops and crop rotations.
The weevil in this case has doubtless been a blessing in disguise. The
corn-root worm has forced rotations in portions of the corn belt. An
abundance of noxious weeds may prevent the profitable production of such
crops as beets.

Land Value. — The rise in land values necessitates gradually increasing
the intensity in the type of farming and the replacing of crops of low
value with those of higher value. There must be a rather definite relation-
ship between land values and values of crops produced. Where land values
are low it may pay better to own more land and farm more extensively
than to apply intensive methods. It should be remembered that the
product per man is more important than the product per acre so long
as land is fairly abundant. In time and with increase in population the
product per acre will become relatively more important, and may be of
more benefit to the community as a whole.

Capital. — The type of farming may, to a certain extent, be adjusted
to the available capital. With small capital it may be advisable to depend
chiefly upon croi)s, rather than engage in both crop and livestock pro-
duction. The crops alone will require less capital and generally bring
quicker returns.

Types of farming that require a long time for returns demand more
capital than those bringing quick returns. Orcharding or the raising of
horses are examples of slow returns and expenditure of much capital.
The production of cash crops, dairy products and swine are examples of
quick returns, although considerable initial capital will be required in land
and stock. The permanent investment should be large, but the working
capital may be very small. Men who engage in orcharding must either
have some other source of income on which to live until the orchard comes
in bearing, or devote the orchard to crop production until it begins to
bear fruit.

Changing Type of Farming. — The wrong type of farming may con-
tinue for some time because of the difficulty in making a change. A
wrong type of farming usually results in bad financial condition of the
farmer. A radical change in type will generally call for increased expendi-
tures. This may be in the form of new buildings, additional equipment
or the purchase of livestock. This makes the problem difficult for the
poor man, even though he may fully realize the benefits to be derived
from such a change. The opening of the country in the Central West
and the development of cereal production there necessitated a readjustment

BEST TYPE OF FARMING

799

of Eastern agriculture, but it took much time to complete the change, and
even yet some farmers cling to the old enterprises when they would do
much better by making a change. •

Successful Types of Farming.— Agricultural surveys conducted in all
parts of the United States reveal the fact that there are many successful
types of farming, but in the field of general agriculture, diversity is usually
the keynote of success. It has many advantages. It provides for the
most uniform distribution of labor; it facilitates crop rotations; crop rota-
tions help to maintain soil productivity, reduce plant diseases and over-
come the depredations of insects.

It is very important to have the type of farming fit all local conditions
as far as possible, and farmers are urged to make a careful study of the
subject. /

REFERENCES
' * How to' Choose'a Farm . ' ' Hunt .

New Mexico Expt. Station Bulletin 59. "Forty Years of New Mexico Climate."
North Dakota Expt. Station Bulletin 52. "The Length of Growing Season in North

Dakota."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils. "Field Operations."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Weather Bureau. "Weather Reports."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Year-Book, 1908, pages 289-300. "The So-Called Change of

CUmate in the Semi-Arid West."

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Year-Book 1906, pages 181-lSD. "The Use of Soil Surveys."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service Circular 159. "The Future Use of Land in

the U. S."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Biological Survey, Bulletin 10. "Life Zones and Crop

Zones."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Biological Survey, Bulletin 10. "Distribution of Cereals in

North America."
Colorado Expt. Station Bulletin 127. "Climate of Colorado."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:
454. "A Successful New York Farm."
472. "Systems of Farming in Central New Jersey."

COST OF PRODUCTION

801

•I

CHAPTER 64
^CosT OF Production

Profits in farming depend on many factors, among which the cost of
production and the selUng price are the most important. The chief
difficulty at the present time hes in the fact that few farmers actually know
what it costs to produce a pound, bushel or ton of the various farm products.
The cost of production is more fully under the farmer's control than is the
seUing price.

The method of procedure in ascertaining the cost of producing different
crop and animal products on the farm will be outlined in another chapter.

Cost Depends on Yields. — The cost of production per acre varies
less than the cost per unit of product, chiefly because of the wide variation
in yields. It costs a definite amount for the rent of land, taxes, labor of
men and teams, use of equipment and purchase of seed and fertilizers for
an acre of land, whether it produces a full crop or a half crop. It is, there-
fore, important that yields be made as large as possible by every economic
method. This will necessitate the use of the best strains of seed, the
application of the optimum amount of manures and fertilizers and the
right amount of labor per unit of land. The cost of producing 60 bushels
of corn per acre is very little greater than that of 30 bushels per acre. Divid-
ing the cost by 60 and 30 respectively, the cost per bushel is found to be
nearly twice as great in case of the smaller yield.

The largest possible yield may not be the most profitable one. Yields
are affected not only by soil fertility, but by the amount of labor and
fertilizer applied to the land. In general, the more valuable the crop, the
more intensive may be the cultivation. Intensive methods applied to the
production of hay and cereals may actually reduce profits. A recent farm
survey of 135 farms ranging from 80 to 120 acres each, gave an average
labor income of $421 per farm. On 14 of these farms crop yields were 16.3
per cent above the average, but the labor income was $1 below the average.
In this case the cost of production was so much greater than the average
that the labor income fell somewhat below the standard of the community.
On 26 other farms where the crop yields were 12 per cent below the average,
the labor income averaged $835 per farm, or 98 per cent above the average.
In this case the cost of production was so reduced as to increase the profit.
Evidently, this survey was in a district where some were employing methods
too intensive for the type of farming. This is probably unusual. Gen-
erally, crop yields may be increased 20 to 25 per cent with a corresponding
increase in profits. Farm surveys of over 1300 farms in New York State
showed the crop yields on 13 farms making labor incomes of over $2000

(800)

each, were 27 per cent better than the average. Increased yields are not
difficult to secure, but increased profits are a different matter. It requires
very careful study to know just what degree of intensity will bring the best
results. It is* granted that weather conditions, insect enemies and plant
diseases are factors that may materially modify what would be otherwise
normal yields.

Product per Animal.— The difference in the cost of rearing and main-
taining animals is less than the difference in the value of their products.
It costs nearly as much to feed and care for an unproductive cow as it does
for one that is highly productive. A man spends as much time in driving a
little horse or a small team as he does in driving a large horse or a team
consisting of several horses. The one will do much more work than the
other, and hence increases the efficiency of the unit of man labor. The
small horse usually occupies a stall in the stable equally as large as the
larger one, and requires the same amount of labor in his care, although he
may not consume as much feed. The cost of producing a quart of milk or
a pound of butter is, therefore, determined to a considerable extent by
the natural productivity of the animal. Productive cows are generally
profitable, but there are many in nearly every herd that do not pay for
their feed and labor. The problem becomes one of eliminating the unpro-
ductive cows.

The following table, taken from '^Farm Management," by Warren,
shows the relation of size of cows to value of product above food cost :

Average
Weight,
pounds.

Value of

W«'ig}it of Cows,

Number

Butter Fat,

Value of

Product

pouiidu.

of Cows.

pounds.

Product.

Feed.

forjl
in Feed.

Above Cost
of Feed.

900 and under

847

366.2

$114.52

$60.32

$1.90

$54 . 20

901-1000....

952

417.8

131.22

69.86

1.88

61.36

1001-1100....

1071

447.8

142.56

76.28

1.87

66.28

1101-1200....

1175

477.7

155.02

82.81

1.87

72.21

1201-1300....

1276

506.2

163.52

91.51

1.79

72.01

1301-1400....

1379

525.8

171.79

92.15

1.86

79.64

Over 1400....

1556

566.6

184.61

96.60

1.91

88.01

Data furnished by F. W. Woll, for cows whose records are reported in Wisconsin Bulletin No. 226.

The cost of producing dairy products varies greatly with location, and
is dependent upon cost of feed, price of labor and cost of housing, as well as
upon the character and efficiency of the animals. The cost of producing
dairy products under different conditions has been worked out at a number
of experiment stations, as well as by farm surveys for farm conditions.
In general, feed constitutes just about 50 per cent of the cost of producing
milk or butter. Labor constitutes about 25 per cent, and the other items,
such as interest, depreciation and housing make up the other] 25 per cent.

Labor of Men and Teams. — In the production of most crops, the largest

802

: t

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Items of cost are the labor of men and teams. The more intensive the
character of f armmg, the larger becomes the relative importance of these
Items. In the grazing of animals, the crop is harvested by the animals
with very httle expense on the part of the farmer. In the production of
some of the more extensive crops, such as oats and wheat, on land of high
value, land rental becomes almost as large as that of labor. Since labor is
so important, it becomes essential to utilize labor as fully as possible This
means that there should be diversity of enterprises in order to afford contin-
uous employment. It means that each enterprise should be sufficiently
large so that time will not be wasted in numerous changes from one piece of
work to another, and so that fields will be sufficiently large to avoid waste

of land and waste of
time in the turning of
teams and implements
in the process of til-
lage.

The efficiency ' of
man labor in field oper-
ations, as previously
indicated, is greatly
increased by driving
large teams and using
large machines. A
man plowing with a
two-horse plow does

. work valued at about

$4 per (lay. A\ith a four-horse team and a gang plow he may accomplish
work valued at just twice as much.

Equipment.—The completeness of the farm equipment affects the
cost of production m two ways. Machines of various kinds increase the
work that may be accomplished by the unit of labor, and in many cases
do the work more uniformly than it can be done by hand. The manure
spreader spreads more perfectly than can the man spreading with a fork.
Corn planters drop with much accuracy and seeding machinery seeds more
uniformly than seeding can be done by hand.

The cost of machinery and the extent of its utilization determine
Its effect upon cost of production. Much of the farm machinery is used
for a very short period of time. The self-binder costing $125 is frequently
used only two or three days in the year. The interest on the investment
and the depreciation, therefore, make the cost of harvesting even with a
binder rather expensive. The same will be true of many other machines
on the farm. The farmer can better afford to cut fifteen acres of corn
by hand than he can to own a corn harvester for cutting so small an area.
^^^re the acreage is large, there can be much saving on the cost of the

' Courtesy of Virginia-Carolina Chemical Company, Richmond, Va. From V.-C. Crop Bookf.

An Efficient Team.^

COST OF PRODUCTION

803

operation. A plow costing $15 if used to plow only 10 acres a year, would
cost 24 cents per acre, but if the same plow is used to plow 50 acres, the
cost is reduced to 5 cents per acre. It is necessary, therefore, to estimate
carefully whether or not, in the purchase of farm machinery, it will be
used enough to make it a paying investment.

Land Values, — The value of land has a rather definite relation to
cost production. Since the interest on its value or the rental is definite
for any particular locality, the higher the price of land, the greater is
the interest or rental as an item in the cost production. Increased land
values generally call for a gradual increase in the intensity of the type of
farming. The more intensive the type of farming, the less important
land becomes as a factor in the cost of production. In the production of
such crops as mangels and potatoes, land rental usually constitutes only
10 or 15 per cent of the cost production. In the raising of hay it may be
50 per cent or even more of the cost production. For such crops as the
cereals, it will usually range from 20 to 35 per cent of the cost.

Taxes, Insurance and Depreciation. — These items, while of minor
importance, have a direct effect upon the cost of production, and vary
with the nature of the product in question. Taxes and insurance will be
fairly uniform, but depreciation is quite variable. In case of buildings
and equipment, it is usual to allow about 10 per cent annually for this
item. For some farm implements 5 per cent is sufficient, while for others
that wear out quickly or go out of date because of rapid change in improve-
ment, 10 per cent is not sufficient.

The depreciation of work animals and cows is also variable, and is
largest in case of the more valuable animals. In figuring depreciation on
cows, it is necessary to first take into account the difference in the value
for milk and beef purposes. A cow as a productive animal may be worth
$200, while she would not bring more than $40 when sold for beef. The
average milking life of a cow is about seven years. The difference between
the milk and beef value, which in this case would be $160, divided by 7,
the number of years in milk, would give the major portion of the annual
depreciation. To this should be added the mortality in cows, which
averages about 1.2 per cent annually. Likewise, the interest on the valu-
able cow is much greater than on an ordinary one. This all increases the
cost of production.

Intensity. — In every locality and for each type of farming there is
an optimum degree of intensity that will bring maximum profit or mini-
mum cost of production per unit of product. In general, the higher the
price of land and the higher the value of product, the greater may be
the intensity. High-priced labor has just the reverse effect. Cheap labor
encourages intensity. Each producer must carefully consider the amount
of labor and the value of fertilizer that can be applied to each acre of land
in order to bring the largest profit.

Size of Business. — Careful investigations show that it costs less per

H'^a'^'^:^-^: ;■ ^^^^^^-^^

802

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

COST OF PRODUCTION

803

Items of cost are the labor of men and teams. The more intensive the
character of farmnig, the larger becomes the relative importance of these
Items. In the grazmg of animals, the crop is harvested by the animals
^vith very little expense on the part of the farmer. In the production of
some of the more extensive crops, such as oats and wheat, on land of high
value, land rental becomes almost as large as that of labor. Since labor is
so nnportant, it becomes essential to utilize labor as fully as possible This
means that there should l^e diversity of enterprises in order to afford contin-
uous employment. It means that each enterprise should be sufficiently
large so that time will not be wasted in numerous changes from one piece of
work to another, and so that fields will be sufficiently large to avoid waste

of land and waste of
time in the turning of
teams and implements
in the process of til-
lage.

The efficiency -of
man labor in field oper-
ations, as previously
indicated, is greatly
increased by driving
large teams and using
large machines. A
man plowing with a
two-horse plow does

work valued at about
J54 ])er (lay. W ith a four-horse team and a gang i)low he may accomplish
work vakiod at just twice as much.

Equipment.— The completeness of the farm equipment affects the
cost of production in two ways. Machines of various kinds increase the
work that may l)e accomplished by the unit of labor, and in many cases
do the work more uniformly than it can be done by hand. The manure
spreader s])reads more perfectly than can the man spreading with a fork.
Corn planters drop with much accuracy and seeding machiner>^ seeds more
uniformly than seeding can l)e done by hand.

The cost of machineiy and the extent of its utilization determine
Its effect upon cost of production. Much of the farm machinery is used
for a very short period of time. The self-binder costing $125 is frequently
used only two or three days in the year. The interest on the investment
and the depreciation, therefore, make the cost of harvesting even with a
binder rather expensive. The same will be true of many other machines
on the farm. The farmer can better afford to cut fifteen acres of corn
by hand than he can to own a corn harvester for cutting so small an area.
^^^^e the acreage is large, there can l)e much saving on the cost of the

1 Courtesy of Virginia-Carolinu Chemical Company, Richmond, Va. From V.-C. Crop BookF.

An Efficiext Tjiam.i

Land Values. — The value of land has a rather definite relation to
cost production. Since the interest on its value or the rental is definite
for any particular locality, the higher the price of land, the greater is
the interest or rental as an item in the cost production. Increased land
values generally call for a gradual increase in the intensity of the type of
farming. The more intensive the type of farming, the less impoi-tant
land becomes as a factor in the cost of production. In the production of
such crops as mangels and potatoes, land rental usually constitutes only
10 or 15 per cent of the cost production. In the raising of hay it may be
50 per cent or even more of the cost production. For such crops as the
cereals, it will usually range from 20 to 35 per cent of the cost.

Taxes, Insurance and Depreciation. — These items, while of minor
importance, have a direct effect upon the cost of production, and vaiy
with the nature of the product in question. Taxes and insurance will be
fairly uniform, but depreciation is quite variable. In case of buildings
and equipment, it is usual to allow about 10 per cent annually for this
item. For some farm implements 5 per cent is sufficient, while for others
that wear out quickly or go out of date because of rapid change in improve-
ment, 10 per cent is not sufficient.

Size of Business. — Careful investigations show that it costs less per

s"i*"^.VtVi;,. . ,'::; ;;-j;^trjS>S^f:rfji:

INTRNTTONAT SFrOMn pyphqitpti?

'Wh

■\

m i

COST OP PRODUCTION

806

m
<

U
o

» Courtesy of Virginia-Carolina Chemical Company, Richmond, Va.
Crop Books-

(804)

From V.-C. Fertilizer

acre to produce crops on large farms than it does on small ones. The
same is true in the cost of producing livestock and livestock products.
The larger farms are enabled to make a fuller use of the labor of men
and horses, as well as equipment. It costs nearly as much to equ p an
80-acre farm as it does a 160-acre farm, so that the equipment cost per acre
is little more than half as much for the larger size as it is for the smaller.
The buildings on an 80-acre farm will cost nearly as much as on a 160-acre
farm, so that the cost of housing per animal is relatively less in case of
the larger farm. Larger farms make for the use of large teams and large
implements, thus reducing the cost for labor. They also offer better
opportunities for more continuous employment and greater diversity than
do small farms. They reduce the waste of time that is encountered in
the cultivation of small fields.

An agricultural survey of 586 farms in Tompkins County, N Y.,
showed that the labor cost per acre of producing crops ranged from $3.33
for farms averaging 261 acres to $19.90 for farms averaging 21 acres in
size. In other words, the area farmed with $100 worth of labor ranged
from only 5 acres in the case of small farms to as much as 30 acres in case
of the largest farms. It is true that the receipts per acre on the smaller
farms were somewhat larger than on the larger farms, but the difference
was nowhere in proportion to the difference in labor cost. On the larger
farms there was a profit, while on the smaller farms there was a decided loss.

On 578 farms in Livingston County, N. Y., $100 worth of labor
farmed only 4.4 acres in case of farms of 30 acres or less, and 21.8 acres
in case of farms of over 200 acres in size. The acres per horse ranged
from 15 in case of small farms to as much as 49 in case of the large farms.
Size of business or size of farms, therefore, is rather important in keeping
down the cost of production.

Character of Feed.— In the production of animals and animal products
the character of feed that can be most economically used should be care-
fully considered. While balanced rations are desirable, the value of the
different classes of feed must be considered, and those selected that will
give good results at the minimum cost. When concentrates are high
and roughages low, the amount of roughage may be increased and a small
sacrifice made on the production side with enough saving in the cost of
feed to make the profits greater than they would be by using large amounts
of concentrates at high cost in order to secure high production. When
concentrates are cheap and roughages relatively high, the reverse may

be advisable. i r j u

In general, young stock should be fed largely on cheap feeds, much
of which will be roughage. Feeds that are not marketable at good prices
can generally be used for some kind of livestock production.

Class of Labor.— The skill of the labor employed should correspond
with the character of work to be done. Skilled labor at high cost would
very materially increase the cost of production of most mtensive crops

COST OF PRODUCTION

805

a
o
n
<

a,
<

o
•J

1 Courtesy of Virginia-Carolina Chemical Company, Richmond, Va.
Crop Books.

(804)

From V.-C. Fertilizer

Character of Feed.— lii the production of animals and animal products
the character of feed that can be most economically used should be care-
fully considered. While balanced rations are desirable, the value of the
different classes of feed must be considered, and those selected tliat will
give good results at the minimum cost. When concentrates are high
and roughages low, the amount of roughage may be increased and a small
sacrifice made on the production side with enough saving in the cost of
feed to make the profits greater than they would be by using large amounts
of concentrates at high cost in order to secure high production. W hen
concentrates are cheap and roughages relatively high, the reverse may

be advisable. i r i u

In general, young stock should be fed largely on cheap feeds, much
of which will be roughage. Feeds that are not marketable at good prices
can generally be used for some kind of livestock production.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

■A
^ 1

806

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

COST OF PRODUCTION

807

s if

1
\

where much hand labor is required. Women, children and other cheap
forms of labor may be utilized more economically in much of such work.
In the production of livestock and livestock products, including
poultry, there is considerable work that may be performed by the women
and children on farms, such as the care of the milk, the making of butter,
the feeding, care and marketing of poultry and poultry products. This
all tends to reduce the cost of production.

Utilization of Time and Products.— On all farms a flock of 50 to 100
chickens, a few pigs and a few larger animals may be kept on what would
otherwise be absolutely wasted. The time required in caring for these
will not necessarily interfere with other lines of production. Such items
when attended to on over 6,000,000 farms, become of much importance,
and materially reduces the cost of production of a vast amount of food
products. More than 90 per cent of the eggs are produced in this way on
general farms. Much of the dairy products come from small farms that keep
only a few cows. Those products are consequently produced with cheap feed
and low-priced labor. This necessarily makes the margin of profit for the
man who engages in either poultry or dairying as a specialty, very narrow.
Amount of Waste. — Perhaps no business permits as lai-ge waste as
is incurred in farming. There is waste in labor of horses and men, waste
in products through delay in harvesting and marketing or through improper
storage. The farmer, as well as other classes, must live, and these losses
must be made up by a little better price on that which finally reaches
the market in good condition. Waste of whatever nature, therefore,
tends to increase the cost of production.

Fertility of Land. — Since land values play a minor part in the cost
of production of most crops, fertile soil, even though the land may cost
more than where the soil is poor, generally makes for reduced cost of
production. Land that will produce one-fourth more than average land
should command a price that is much more than one-fourth above the
average price of land. The most successful farmers are usually on highly
productive land, regardless of its money value.

Weather Conditions. — The cost of producing both crop and animal
products is affected by weather conditions. Long periods without rain
so reduce the yield that the cost per unit of product is necessarily greatly
increased. In the same way, periods of wet weather may prevent proper
tillage and reduce yields to such an extent that the cost is greatly increased.
Unusually long, severe, stormy winter periods increase the amount of
feed required for livestock, and thus increase the cost of their products.
In like manner, droughts which affect pastures necessitate supplementing
with feed at some increase in cost of production. Seasons are uncertain
and play an important part in both cost of production and the probable
price. Fortunately, reduced production and increased cost of production
are generally offset to considerable degree by increased price of products.
Weeds, Insects and Diseases. — These all reduce the yields in pro-

portion to their prevalence and, consequently, increasethe cost of production.
They not only increase the cost in this way, but they call for extra expense in
production. Weeds necessitate additional tillage; insects callfor the use of
spray materials, as do also diseases. Diseases increase not only the cost of
production in crops, but may in the same manner affect the cost of pro-
ducing animals and animal products, since they likewise are subject to dis-
ease which may cause loss and call for additional expense in treatment.

Efficiency. — A lack of efficiency increases the cost of production.
Efficiency is made up of little things, and includes the wasted moments
and hours, as well as the waste of products. , Efficiency calls for the
proper care of implements and animals on the farm, the preparation of
land and the planting of crops at the most favorable time. Destruction
of weeds is much less expensive when tillage is given in the nick of time.
Efliciency calls for the utilization of time, of men and teams to the fullest
possible advantage. The loss entailed by hunting for some missing part
of a machine or mending a long-neglected break is often serious and adds
materially to the cost of production.

Reducing Expenses. — Expenses in the cost of production may be
reduced by an actual reduction in the expenditures for labor of horses and
men and machinery, or the business may be increased in order to more
fully utiUze the present force and equipment. On many farms horses
work on an average only three hours per day, whereas by proper organiza-
tion a number of work horses might be dispensed with and the hour^ per
horse increased. This reduces the actual expenses. In the same way
the expense for labor may be reduced. The following tabulation taken
from the Tribune Farmer shows the distribution of horse labor for a year
on a New York farm:

Distribution of Horse Labor on a New York Farm.

Month.

No. 1.

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

No. 5,
Extra.

Total,

Four

Horses

Average Hours

a Day Each
Horse Worked.

Average Rate
an Hour at $10
a Month Cost.

January

February

March

April

May

8^
3^
23^
78
198
223^
220
125
1125
125
95
22

25i

183
222^
201
1321
120
120
92J
27i

• •

110

175

122J
56J
17
51i
33
10

575J

1.8

12J
4

« •

83
149
75f
27^
28
52
36§
9

480J
1.5

• •

95
45^
20
36
23
10

• •

144

• •

331

49
167^
574
770
619^

34U

2775
348^
257
685

1.5

5.3

7.7

5.7

3.2

2.8

3.2

2.4

33.5

2.8

$1 . 180
2.666
0.816
0.240
0.070

June

0.052

July

0.064

August

September

October

November

December

0.117
0.144
0.115
0.156
0.586

Year total . .
Averages

l,234i
3.9

1,231
3.9

3,52U

8805

$0,136

j^OTE —A cost of $10 a month or $120 a year is assumed.

808

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

"This table shows the actual amount of work done by each of four
horses dunng each month in the year on a western New York farm of
104 acres The extra horse is not counted in the averages, as it was a
colt just bemg broken into work. On this farm there were, in one year
25 acres of mixed orchard plantings and about 72 acres of crops— wheat'
hay, beans and oats. While two of the horses worked more than 1200
hours in the year, the average total work of all four horses was 8803^
hours each, or 2.8 hours a day each for the 313 working days of the year
At an average cost of $10 a month a horse, this amounted to 13 6 cents
an hour for horse labor. The variation in cost was from $2.66 an hour
m February, when the four horses worked only fifteen hours during the
whole month, to a little over 5 cents an hour in June, the busiest month
1 he personal use of horses on Sunday for driving is not counted; neither
is the time of the horses, though the cost of maintenance on Sundays is
included m the $10-a-month charge. It should be possible to utiHze this
horse labor to better advantage in the winter, thus relieving the congestion
later and possibly lowering the rate. This is a good illustration of the
uneven distribution of horse labor on a farm.''

Reducing the cost of production calls for careful information relative
to the Items that make up the cost. The introduction of records and
accounts on farms in such a way as to account for the time and expenditures
mcurred for each enterprise will doubtless do much to stimulate better
methods and more attention in the production of farm products.

REFERENCES

''Manual of Practical Farming." McLennan.

Connecticut Expt. Station Bulletin 73.

Illinois Expt Station Circular 177. ''Relation Between Yields and Prices "

Minnesota Expt. Station Bulletins: i^rio«s.

97. "Cost of Producing Farm Products."
124. "Cost of Producing Dairy Products."
. y7. "Cost of Producing Farm Products."
Missom;i Expt Station Bulletin 125. "Cost of Production on Missouri Farms."
Texas Expt. Station BuUetin 26. "Cost of Cotton Production and Profit per Acre."
F?rm Produces ^^^''^' ^^^^ ""^ Statistics, Bulletin 48. "Cost of Producing

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Statistics, Bulletin 73. "Cost of Producing Min-
nesota rsLTUi Products."
Farmers' Bulletin 364 U. S Dept. of Agriculture. "A Profitable Cotton Farm."
U. b. Dept. of Agriculture, B. P. I., Bulletin 49. " Cost of Raising a Dairy Cow."

CHAPTER 65

Intensive and Extensive Farming

Intensive farming is frequently ai)plied to the production of truck and
fruit crops on small farms. This, however, is not a true definition of
intensive farming, since any crop may be produced by intensive methods,
and on either a small or large scale. It is true that hay and cereals are
generally produced on a rather large scale and with extensive methods.
This type of farming is looked upon as extensive farming.

Intensive farming may mean any or all of the following methods:
(1) the application of more labor to a unit of area in preparation of the soil
and the cultivation and handling of the crop; (2) the use of more capital in
the form of machinery and fertilizers on a given area of land, thus enabling
the same labor to produce larger yields; (3) the appHcation of better
methods for the improvement and maintenance of soil fertility.

Extensive farming calls for the smaller amount of labor and capital
per unit of area, although considerable capital is frequently invested in
machinery for extensive farming.

Intensity Depends on Available Land. — Farming, to a greater extent
than any other occupation, necessitates ample surface area. There must
be room for the development of plants. They require sunshine and rain.
The roots must have room to develop and sufficient soil in which to forage
for plant food.

A manufacturing or mercantile establishment needs very little area.
If land values become high, the business may be enlarged by increasing the
height of the building. This is exemplified in the big factories near cities,
and in the big mercantile and office buildings, frequently as much as tw^enty
stories in height.

By intensive methods it is possible to make one acre produce 100
bushels of wheat, but under existing conditions it is much more profitable
to use two acres or possibly four acres in the production of 100 bushels of
wheat. In every locality there will be for every crop and for every agri-
cultural product an optimum of intensity that wdll bring best returns.
Tbis will be determined by many factors.

So long as there is waste land that may be brought under cultivation
by reclamation or irrigation, there wdll be little occasion to severely magnify
intensity in the process of production. When lands are no longer available,
then intensity must gradually and continually increase in order to meet
the demands of a growing population for food.

Economizing Land. — In the development of any country the more
easily tilled and most productive lands are the first to come under cultiva-

(809)

riir ■

•STi-

< I. 'i

810

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 811

li j;

^•

tion providing markets and transportation facilities are available The
least productive are the last to come into use; in fact, cannot be e^onom-

^f h^nrnfil """S "'"""T- ' ^"^^fj^r ' ^'^ «»«h as to enable their cultivation
mth profit The variation in the location and character of land necessarily
deternunes the character of crops and the intensity of tillage that prevail
Two of the most extensive types of farming consist of the utilization of
land for grazing and forestry. The former ha« been popular because i
requires small capital and gives quick returns. The latter requires so much
time for returns that but little has been done in reforestation.

Ihere is little doubt, however, as to the large possibilities and good

Economizing Land.
An example of intercropping. Pennsylvania State College student gardens.

profits that may accrue from reforesting lands that are adapted to tree
growth and that are of little value for other purposes. They offer induce-
ments for long-time investments by people who have capital for investment
purposes.

The grazing and reforestation of land is a most expensive manner of
economizing land area. Other methods of economizing pertain to increas-
ing the product per acre, and this involves an increased intensity in agri-
cultural methods. The necessity for this economy comes gradually with
the increase in population.

Many of the Old World countries practice intensive methods, and
produce two or three times as much yield per acre as is secured in North
America. It is interesting to note, however, that the returns per man are

much lower in the Old World countries. What we really desire to know
is how to increase the productivity of our land per acre without reducing
the productivity per farmer. Productivity is increased by the substitution
of more productive crops and by the more intensive cultivation of each crop.
Increase in productivity of crops has been gradually brought about by
plant selection and breeding. The more usual method, however, is to
substitute a more productive crop for a less productive one. Such an
example would be the substitution of corn for oats, or potatoes for corn.

Economizing Labor. — The prosperity of agriculture and the standard
of rural life depends more on the character of labor than upon the character
of land, although fertile land makes easier a high standard of living.
History shows that nations have declined in the midst of fertile lands and
favorable surroundings. This has been due to the human factor, and
especially to the fact that labor has been allowed to run to waste. Other
nations have grown rich and powerful in spite of sterile soil and poor
surroundings. Such people were intelligent, industrious and painstaking.
The natural conditions of New England were far inferior to those of other
portions of North America more recently settled, and yet the early people
of New England prospered in the absence of transportation facilities and
inventions that are so abundant today.

Economizing labor means a larger product per man. A large product
per acre is desirable only when it means k large product per man. An
abundance of cheap labor sometimes facilitates securing a large product
per acre, but this means large numbers of families to be supported on very
low wages. It gives rise to widespread poverty, a condition which true
political economy aims to avoid.

• Labor is economized by the introduction of scientific methods and the
utilization of the most modern labor-saving implements. These include
all the best agricultural machines and the use of large teams and mechanical

power.

Increasing, Stationary and Diminishing Returns. — The niggardly
application of labor and capital to a piece of land in the cultivation of
any crop is little better than wasted. It generally produces very little
in proportion to itself. With a more generous application a much larger
crop yield is secured. One day^s labor with man and team on ten acres
of land would give no crop at all. Five days* labor on the same area might
produce a very poor crop. Ten days of labor would certainly produce
more than twice as much as five days of labor, and twenty days of labor
might produce a good crop and one more than twice as large as that pro-
duced with ten days of labor. Up to this point we have what is known
as increasing returns. The addition of another ten days of labor might
result in an increase just sufficient to pay for the increased labor. This
would give us what is known as stationary returns. To go beyond this
the returns for additional labor would not be equal to the added cost of
labor, and would give us diminishing returns. The point of stationary

810

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 811

tion, providing markets and transportation facilities are available The
least productive are the last to come into use; in fact, cannot be econom-
ically used until economic conditions are such as to enable their cultivation
with profit. The variation in the location and character of land necessarily
determmes the character of crops and the intensity of tillage that prevail
1 wo of the most extensive types of farming consist of the utilization of
land for grazing and forestry. The former has been popular because it
requires small capital and gives quick returns. The latter requires so much
time for returns that but little has been done in reforestation

There is little doubt, however, as to the large possibilities and good

Economizing Land.
An example of intercropping. Pennsylvania Stale College student gardens.

Economizing labor means a larger product per man. A large product
per acre is desirable only when it means h large product per man. An
abundance of cheap labor sometimes facilitates securing a large product
per acre, but this means large numbers of families to be supported on very
low wages. It gives rise to widespread poverty, a condition which true
political economy aims to avoid.

Labor is economized by the introduction of scientific methods and the
utilization of the most modern labor-saving implements. These include
all the best agricultural machines and the use of large teams and mechanical

power.

Increasing, Stationary and Diminishing Returns. — The niggardly
application of labor and capital to a piece of land in the cultivation of
any crop is little better than wasted. It generally produces very little
in proportion to itself. With a more generous application a much larger
crop yield is secured. One day's labor with man and team on ten acres
of land would give no crop at all. Five days' labor on the same area might
produce a very poor crop. Ten days of labor would certainly produce
more than twice as much as five days of labor, and twenty days of labor
might produce a good crop and one more than twice as large as that pro-
duced with ten days of labor. Up to this point we have what is known
as increasing returns. The addition of another ten days of labor might
result in an increase just sufficient to pay for the increased labor. This
would give us what is known as stationary returns. To go beyond this
the returns for additional labor would not be equal to the added cost of
labor, and would give us diminishing returns. The point of stationary

TNTFNTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

812

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

returns should not be passed, and will vary with locality and character
of crop. It wall be determined largely by land values, cost of labor and
value of product.

Starting with land that is reasonably productive and with a degree
of intensity that is moderate, an increase in the labor and capital applied
to land will increase the yield of crops, but not in the same proportion
as the labor and capital applied. For every crop there will be an optimum
of labor and capital that can be applied for best results. If this is exceeded
the value of the returns at once begins to diminish as compared with the
value of labor and capital which is applied.

Danger of Under-Production for Growing Population. — ^An increase
in population means that there must either be a corresponding increase
in agricultural producers or the art of agriculture must improve so that
each worker will increase his output. An increase in agricultural workers
ultimately means a marked reduction in size of farms, and in order to
maintain the labor income, this demands increased intensity. A great
danger lies in the reduced labor income and the lower standard of living
for the agricultural worker. The avenues of escape from this situation
are: (1) in improving the art of production by discoveries in the science
of agriculture; (2) by reduced population by migration; (3) by acquiring
of new land either peacefully or by war; (4) a reduced standard of living.
The most logical of these seem's to be the first, namely, increasing produc-
tion by a better knowledge of the art of agriculture.

Profits per Acre vs. Profits per Man. — The gross receipts per acre
from crops give very little indication of the possible profits per man.
For example, it often is more profitable to produce hay that brings a gross
return of not more than $20 per acre than it is to grow cherries, lettuce
or some other high-priced crop that produces $200 or $300 per acre. The
larger area and more extensive methods on the one hand bring a larger
return per hour of labor than does the small acreage and large yield of
the intensive crops that require a great deal of labor. While the profit
per acre may be largest on the intensive crop, the greater number of acres
that can be farmed in the more extensive crops will more than offset the
difference and makes the latter the more profitable.

Extensive investigations relative to the returns per hour of labor
on different classes of crops in the State of New York show that very few
crops return as much per hour of labor as does hay. Of course, it would
be impossible to depend solely on the production of hay, because it would
afford employment for too small a proportion of the year. Under pre-
vailing conditions in New York, farmers are justified, however, in growing
as large an acreage of hay as the farm force can take care of during the
haying season. The accompanying table is taken from a set of cost
accounts on a 90-acre farm in New York.

From the table it is evident that timothy hay giving a return of
$15.67 per acre gave a larger profit per hour of labor than did the orchard

IJ.

INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 813

which gave a return of $101.75 per acre. Studies of this character enable
the farmer to know what crops may be developed most extensively to
his advantage.

The law of supply and demand will, of course, prevent any very
extensive changes in the class of products grown by farmers. There will
be a limit to the amount of hay for which there is a market, and if the
supply becomes too great, market prices will fall and naturally hold in
check the amount produced. This will be true of any product.

Comparison of Receipts and Profit per Acre with Profit per Hour

OF Labor.

Crop.

Receipts
per Acre.

Profit
per Acre.

Profit per
Hour of Labor.

Orchard

$101.75

26.42
15.67

$38 . 28
6.84
6.37

$0.23

Oats

.33

Timothv hav

.63

Intensive and Extensive Enterprises. — It frequently happens that
the crop that pays the largest profit per hour of labor also gives the largest
profit per acre. Such crops are doubly desirable. So long as such crops
prove to be staple products, the acreage may be considerably increased by
many farmers. It is well, however, to avoid a large dependence upon
speculative enterprises that are subject to violent fluctuations in price.
The majority of farmers should continue to produce the staple crops.
There is a more uniform market for hay than for strawberries, cotton is
needed as well as apples, and the more extensive crops generally pay as
good wages as the intensive ones. In fact, there is no crop or group of crops
that offers for a long-continued period of time over a wide territory any
striking advantages over other crops. Such a condition may prevail for
a short time, but the advantages offered in this way induce many to engage
in that particular enterprise and this naturally causes a decline in profits.
Where one crop pays much better than others, it is generally a question
of adaptation. It may be soil, climate, markets or a combination of these.
Intei^ive enterprises do not appear to require much less capital than
extensive ones. They may require much less land, but this is generally
offset in larger expenditures for fertihzers, labor, seed and equipment.
The advantage of one over the other will often depend largely on the
trend of land values. Where land values are increasing, the extensive
enterprises that demand more land combine profits from products and
profits due to increase in land values.

Relation of Intensity to Land Values. — High land values necessitate
large gross returns and fair profits in order to pay normal rates of interest
on rent of land. This means intensive farming and usually the produc-
tion of crops of high value, such as vegetables, tobacco or fruits. In general,
the higher the value of land the greater the degree of intensity in farming.

Relation of Intensity to Labor. — A low price for labor encourages

S14

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

intensity, although so far as machine labor is concerned, high-priced labor
may be used advantageously in intensive enterprises. Intensive farming
will generally not only employ more labor, but can advantageously use
a greater variety of labor. Skilled and unskilled men, women and children
frequently can all be utilized to advantage in intensive farming. The
more extensive farming generally calls for skilled labor and less variety.

There is little opportunity for
the employment of women and
children in the production of
cereals. Most of the work on
the larger farms is done with
complicated machinery and large
teams that call for skilled and
experienced workmen.

Relation of Intensity to Type
of Fanning. — Intensity depends
largely on type of farming and
character of enterprises included
in it. The growing of forest
trees, pasturing of animals and
the production of cereals are
necessarily extensive, requiring
large areas of land, and because
of the low returns per acre, require
much land to bring a satisfactory
labor income. The production
of cultivated crops, such as corn,
potatoes and roots, involves more
labor and better class of land, and
requires less area. These crops
are consequently cultivated in
a more intensive manner and
often this type of farmings may
fall in the class of intensive
farming. The next step towards
intensity would be the produc-
tion of the usual run of truck
crops, small fruits and tree fruits. This will almost always be strictly
intensive farming. The degree of intensity will be determined by the
value of the land and the price of the products. The most intensive form
will be represented in greenhouse production where the returns per acre
of land may be several thousand dollars annually.

The Most Profitable Yield. — Increasing the yield of any crop involves
additional capital in the form of irrigation, drainage, manures or fertilizers.
Increased cost per acre may not only increase the net income per acre,

Rape Seeded in Standing Corn at Last

Cultivation, Protects the Soil and

Increases the Returns.

INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 815

but may also reduce the cost per unit of product. There will always he
a limit to the amount of labor and capital that can be applied mcst
economically. The following quotation and tabulation from the Tribune
Farmer illustrates the point in question:

*'The following figures show how two fields on the same farm in
New York State were operated ; the first under a very intensive system
of management, the other under a comparatively extensive system of
management. The figures in the first column are an average made up from
careful records for ten years. The figures in the second column are made
up from careful estimates, as no records are available:

Items of Expense.

Plowing

Preparation of land, very thor

ough

Planting

Cultivating

Spraying

Harvesting

Marketing

Total labor cost

Seed..

Fertilizers

Spraying material

Use of equipment

Interest on land

Total cash cost

Total cost

Total cost per bushel

Total receipts, 282 bushels . . .
Total receipts per bushel ....

Net profit

Net profit per bushel

Cost per Acre.

Intensive Method.

14 times
8 times
282 bushels

22 bushels
1500 pounds
8 times
$28 per acre
$150 at 6 per cent

$3.00

2.00
1.00
6.30
6.30
7.00
3.00

$28 . 60

$9.32

25.63

6.00

1.68

9.00

$51.63

$80 . 23

$0 . 284
119.56

.424
39.33
.14

Extensive Method.

5 times

Once

125 bushels

15 bushels

300 pounds

Once

$14 per acre

$100 at 6 per cent

125 bushels

$3.00

1.50
1.00
2.50
1.00
4.50
1.50

$15.00

$6.36

5.13

.75

.84

6.00

$20 . 08

$35.08

$0,281
53.00

.424
17.92

.143

"In this case, where the markets and supply of capital and labor
apparently warranted it, the increasing of the intensity of the methods
of production more than doubled the net profits an acre. The cost and
the profit a bushel, however, remained practically the same, the increased
income an acre being wholly due to increased yields, which in turn were
due to better and more intensive methods."

Given $2000 to raise potatoes, which of the above degrees of intensity
would give the best returns on the capital in hand? On the intensive
plan $2000 would finance as many acres as the cost of production per

;

' 1

mM'.

S14

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Relation of Intensity to Type
of Farming. — Intensity depends
largely on type of farming and
character of enterprises included
in it. The growing of forest
trees, pasturing of animals and
the production of cereals are
necessarily extensive, requiring
large areas of land, and because
of the low returns per acre, require
much land to bring a satisfactory
labor income. The production
of cultivated crops, such as corn,
potatoes and roots, involves more
labor and better class of land, and
requires less area. These crops
are consequently cultivated in
a more intensive manner and
often this type of farmings may
fall in the class of intensive
farming. The next step towards
intensity would be the produc-
tion of the usual run of truck
crops, small fruits and tree fruits. This will almost always be strictly
intensive farming. The degree of intensity will be determined by the
value of the land and the price of the products. The most intensive form
will be represented in greenhouse production where the returns per acre
of land may be several thousand dollars annually.

Rape Seeded in Standing Corn at Last

Cultivation, Protects the Soil and

Increases the Returns.

INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 815

but may also reduce the cost per unit of product. There will always be
a limit to the amount of labor and capital that can be applied mcst
economically. The following quotation and tabulation from the Tribune
Farmer illustrates the point in question:

''The following figures show how two fields on the same farm in
New York State were operated; the first under a very intensive system
of management, the other under a comparatively extensive system of
management. The figures in the first column are an average made up from
careful records for ten years. The figures in the second column are made
up from careful estimates, as no records are available:

Items of Expense.

Cost per Acre.

Plowing

Preparation of land, very thor

ough

Planting

Cultivating

Spraying

Harvesting

Marketing

Total labor cost

Seed..

Fertilizers

Spraying material

Use of equipment

Interest on land

Total cash cost

Total cost

Total cost per bushel

Total receipts, 282 bushels . . .
Total receipts per bushel ....

Net profit

Net profit per bushel

Intensive Method.

14 times
8 times
282 bushels

22 bushels
1500 pounds
8 times
$28 per acre
$150 at 6 per cent

$3.00

2.00
1.00
6.30
6.30
7.00
3.00

$28 . 60

$9.32
25.63

6
1
9

00
68
00

$51.63
$80 . 23

$0 . 284
119.56
.424
39.33
.14

Extensive Method.

5 times

Once

125 bushels

15 bushels

300 pounds

Once

$14 per acre

$100 at 6 per cent

125 bushels

$3.00

1.50
1.00
2.50
1.00
4.50
1.50

$15.00

$6.36

5.13

.75

.84

6.00

$20 . 08

$35 . 08

$0 . 281
53.00

.424
17.92

.143

'^In this case, where the markets and supply of capital and labor
apparently warranted it, the increasing of the intensity of the methods
of production more than doubled the net profits an acre. The cost and
the profit a bushel, however, remained practically the same, the increased
income an acre being wholly due to increased yields, which in turn were
due to better and more intensive methods/'

' '

III

llil

>lli

't J

?^^^m-

816

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

acre, $80.23, is contained in $2000, or 25 acres. At the net profit received,
$39.33, per acre, this would give a profit of $983.

On the extensive plan $2000 would finance as many acres as the cost
per acre of production, $35.08, is contained in $2000, or- 57 acres. At the
net profit per acre, $17.92, this would give a profit of $1022.

Where plenty of land is available, a little greater profit on the capital
in hand could be secured from the extensive method. In the absence
of available land, one would be fully justified in increasing the intensity
of farming to the limit given in the above table. To go beyond this point
in the production of potatoes imder the conditions that prevailed would
likely have resulted in a reduction in profit.

Crop Yields on Successful Farms. — Agricultural surveys show that
there are some farms that produce crop yields much above the average,
but fail to make good labor incomes. This may be due to any one of
several causes. It frequently is due to poor management and too great
a cost in production. It is sometimes due to feeding the crops to unprofit-
able cows. A man may produce large fields at low cost, which, if sold
for cash, would bring good returns, but when fed to unproductive cows,
may cause a loss instead of a gain. It requires a careful consideration of
all the factors of production in order to know how nmchi above the average
yields it is safe to go and still reap the largest profits. It is well not to
attempt to increase the yields more than 25 per cent over the average of
the locality, providing one's land is of no more than average fertility and
other conditions are no better than the average. This applies to general
farm crops. In case of more intensive crops, the upper limit is likely to
be higher rather than lower. Yields may apply to animals as well as
crops. As previously stated, crop yields in several counties in New York
where the labor income was much above the average ranged from 18 to
27 per cent better than average crop yields. There were a number of
instances when large crop yields were accompanied by low labor income.

Intensity in Dairying. — The degree of intensity in dairy farming
depends chiefly upon the relative prices of feed, la}x)r and dairy products.
Near large cities with high-priced feed, costly land and excellent markets,
intensity may be quite marked. Under such conditions it may pay to
resort to the growing of soiling crops, roots and silage, and provide no
pasture whatever. Under such conditions it will be most profitable to
produce market milk. Butter, which is easily transported long distances
at low cost, can be more economically produced in sections remote from
markets where land and feed are much less expensive. One represents
intensive dairying, the other extensive dairying. In one case it is essential
to use very productive cows and to feed heavily and carefully. In the
other, the poorer grade of cows may be used and a poorer quality and
smaller quantity of feed may give fair results. This fact seems to be
recognized by dairymen^ and milk production is carried on extensively
wear the large cities, whereas the production of butter is being most exten-

' INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 817

sively developed in regions rather far from cities, such as northern Iowa,
Minnesota and to some extent the Dakotas.

Formerly, much butter was produced in the summer time because
pastures afforded the cheapest form of feed for cows. Cows were generally
allowed to go dry at the approach of winter, and maintained as cheaply
as possible on dry feeds during that period. This resulted in marked
difference between summer and
winter prices for butter. More
recently farmers have found it
advantageous to have cows
freshen in the fall or early win-
ter, and feed more heavily during
the winter period. While this
involves the storage of more feed,
which is somewhat more expen-
sive than pastures, it affords em-
ployment during the winter
season, and avoids so much con-
flict with the production of crops
during the growing season. This
distributes the la})or and enables
the farmer to grow more crops
to feed more cows and conse-
quently increases the total of
production. It also lessens the
fluctuation in the price of dairy
products.

Receipts per Cow and
Profits. — The difference in the
value of cows should be rela-
tively greater than their relative
milk or butter-fat production.
It costs considerable to maintain
a cow even when she is producing
nothing. The cost of mainte-
nance is increased slightly with
the increase in production. Pro-
duction involves work in the transformation of crude products into milk
and butter-fat. Cows, like types of soil, differ in productivity, and like
the soil, the yield may be- increased by better care and feeding. The
same principle applies to both relative to the degree of production that
will be most profitable. The more valuable the cow and higher the price
of her products, the greater the intensity in care and feeding may be.

On the most profitable farms in Tompkins County, N. Y., the
receipts per cow were 48 per cent better than the average of the region.

«2

Rye and Winter Vetch Make an Excei/-

LENT Early Soiling Combination

FOR Cows.

816

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

acre, $80.23, is contained in $2000, or 25 acres. At the net profit received,
$39.33, per acre, this would give a profit of $983.

Where plenty of land is available, a little greater profit on the capital
in hand could be secured from the extensive method. In the absence
of available land, one would be fully justified in increasing the intensity
of farming to the limit given in the above table. To go beyond this point
in the production of potatoes under the conditions that prevailed would
Ukely have resulted in a reduction in profit.

Crop Yields on Successful Farms. — Agricultural surveys show that
there are some farms that produce crop yields much above the average,
but fail to make good labor incomes. This may be due to any one of
several causes. It frequently is due to poor management and too great
a cost in production. It is sometimes due to feeding the crops to unprofit-
able cows. A man may produce large yields at low cost, which, if sold
for cash, would bring good returns, but when fed to unproductive cows,
may cause a loss instead of a gain. It requires a careful consideration of
all the factors of production in order to know how much alx)ve the average
yields it is safe to go and still reap the largest profits. It is well not to
attempt to increase the yields more than 25 per cent over the average of
the locality, providing one's land is of no more than average fertility and
other conditions are no better than the average. This applies to general
farm crops. In case of more intensive crops, the upper limit is likely to
i)e higher rather than lower. Yields may apply to animals as well as
crops. As previously stated, crop yields in several counties in New York
where the labor income was much above the average ranged from 18 to
27 per cent better than average crop yields. There were a number of
instances when large crop yields were accompanied by low labor income.

Intensity in Dairying.— The degree of intensity in dairy farming
depends chiefly upon the relative prices of feed, lal^or and dairy products.
Near large cities with high-priced feed, costly land and excellent markets,
intensity may be quite marked. Under such conditions it may pay to
resort to the growing of soiling crops, roots and silage, and provide no
pasture whatever. Under sucli conditions it will be most profitable to
produce market milk. Butter, which is easily transported long distances
at low cost, can be more economically produced in sections remote from
markets where land and feed are much less expensive. One represents
intensive dairying, the other extensive dairying. In one case it is essential
to use very productive cows and to feed heavily and carefully. In the
other, the poorer grade of cows may be used and a poorer quality and
smaller quantity of feed may give fair results. This fact seems to be
recognized by dairymen, and milk production is carried on extensively
near the large cities, whereas the production of butter is being most exten-

' INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 817

sively developed in regions rather far from cities, such as northern Iowa,
Minnesota and to some extent the Dakotas.

Formerly, much butter was produced in the summer time because
pastures afforded the cheapest form of feed for cows. Cows were generally
allowed to go diy at the approach of winter, and maintained as cheaply
as possible on dry feeds during that period. This resulted in marked
difference between summer and
winter prices for butter. More
recently farmers have found it
advantageous to have cows
freshen in the fall or early win-
ter, and feed more heavily during
the winter period. While this
involves the storage of more feed,
which is somewhat more expen-
sive than pastures, it affords em-
ployment during the winter
season, and avoids so much con-
flict with the production of crops
during the growing season. This
distril)utes the labor and enables
the farmer to grow more cro]:s
to feed more cows and conse-
quently increases the total of
production. It also lessens the
fluctuation in the price of dairy
products.

On the most profitable farms in Tompkins County, N. Y., the
receipts per cow were 48 per cent better than the average of the region.

Rye and Winter Vetch Make an Excelt

LENT Early Soiling Combination

FOR Cows.

it',

lii

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

818

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

In Jefferson County, N. Y., the receipts per cow from the best farms were
56 per cent more than the average. In these same counties the receipts
per acre on best farms exceeded that of the average by a much smaller
margin. This indicates that the degree of intensity may be carried further
with cows than it can be with crops.

Relation of Cows to Size of Farm. — The number of dairy cows that
may be maintained on a farm will depend on the productivity of the land,
the feeding system best adapted and the proportion of the total feed that
is to come from the farm. It will also depend on the extent to which cash
crops may be grown.

Knowing the average yield of the crops to be grown for the dairy and
having a feeding system for the year, it is possible to calculate just how
many cows may be maintained on the farm, and just what acreage of the
several crops will be required. Such a problem is worked out and pre-
sented herewith.

How many cows can be kept on a UO-acre farm when the yields of
crops and the feeding system are as follows:

Yields:

Pasture, one acre for each cow and bull.

Soiling corn, 7 tons per acre.

Silage corn, 10 tons per acre.

Com for grain, 50 bushels per acre = 1.4 tons.

Oats for grain, 50 bushels per acre = 0.8 ton.

Wheat for grain, 26 § bushels per acre =0.8 ton.

Hay, 3 tons per acre.

Feeding System:

Five horses, one for delivery and four for work.
365 days at 15 pounds hay each daily.
365 days at 10 pounds grain each daily.
Grain, one-half oats and one-half corn.

Cows AND One Bull, Daily Requirements of Each.

Date.

Days.

Pasture,
acres.

Soiling

Corn,

pounds.

Silage,
pounds.

Hay,
pounds.

Grain,
pounds.

May 10 to July 31

175

365

1
1

• •

■ •
• •

• •

20
35

• •

August 1 to September 15

September 16 to November 15 ... .
November 16 to May 9

i 5

Grain for cows and bull, 3 parts corn, 2 parts oats, 5 parts purchased concentrates.
Wheat sold. Acreage equal to acreage of oats.
Oats and wheat straw for bedding.

Acres of Each Crop. — From the food requirements calculate the
amount of each crop required for the year for each cow and for the five
horses. This is expressed decimally in tons and entered in the first and
second columns of the following table. The figures are obtained by mul-

INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 819

tiplying the daily requirement by the days in the feeding period, and
dividing by 2000, the pounds in a ton. To illustrate: 20 pounds silage
X 61 days, + 35 pounds silage X 175 days, -f- 2000 = 3.672 tons of
silage per cow, thus :

(20 X 61) + (34 X 175) ^ o 572
2000

It is next necessary to ascertain the acres of each crop as given in the
third and fourth columns of the table. To illustrate, the silage requirement
per cow, 3.672 tons, divided by the yield of silage per acre gives the acres
of silage corn required per cow (3.672 -f- 10 = .367 acres).

Let X equal the number of cows plus one (bull) and the tabulation
is as follows:

Crop.

Pasture

SoiUng corn

Silage corn

Corn for grain

Oats

Wheat

Hay

Area of farm, 110 acres, equals

Tons of Feed Required for

1 Cow or Bull.

.575

3.672

.314

.209

i!i42

5 Horses.

4.562
4.562

13^688

Acres of Crops Required for

6 Horses.

1 Cow or Bull.

l.OOOx +

.082x +

. 367x +

. 224x -}-

.261x +

.381x +

2 . 576x +

3.259
5.704
5.704
4.562

19.229

Th6 equation is solved for the value of x, the number of cows plus
one, as follows :

2.576X = 110 — 19.229 = 90.771 -4- 2.576 = 35.24 or 34.24 cows and 1 bull.

With the crop yield assumed and feeding system given the 110 acres
will maintain 34 cows, 1 bull and 5 horses, and will provide for an acreage
of wheat, as a cash crop, equal to the acreage of oats.

Substituting the value of x (35.24) in the third column of the above
table and adding the acres of the several crops for horses given in the
fourth column, the acres of pasture and crops are as follows:

Crop. Acres.

Pasture 35.240

Soiling corn 2.889

Silage corn 12.933

Corn for grain 1 1 . 153

Oats 14.900

Wheat 14.900

Hay 17.988

26.975

Total 110.003

Pasture 35

Cultivated crops 75

820

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

It is necessary to next outline a rotation that will best provide for
the crops needed. By inspection, we find the requirements to be as follows:
corn 27 acres, oats and wheat each 15 acres, hay 18 acres. This could
be provided for in several ways, but since the acreage of corn is nearly twice
as large as that for oats and wheat, it will likely be best to grow corn two
years in succession. Five fields of 15 acres each are, therefore, provided
and the rotations become as follows:

Field.

1915.

1910.

1917.

1918.

1919. .

12 Corn
3 Hay

Corn

Oats

Wheat

Hay

Corn

Oats

Wheat

Hay

12 Corn
3 Hay '

Oats

Wheat

Hay

12 Corn
3 Hay

Corn

Wheat

Hay

12 Corn
3 Hay

Com

Oats

Hay

12 Corn
'3 Hay

Corn

Oats

Wheat

If young stock are to be included, let x equal the number of cows plus
half as many young, one-half calves and one-half yearhngs. If the number
of young stock are known, their requirements may be included with the
horses. The bull and other stock may also be included with horses.

The Soiling System. — This provides for the production of crops to
be cut green and fed to cows in stables. It calls for a succession and
variety of crops that will afford continuous, succulent feed in the best stage
of maturity, throughout the greater part of the summer. Such systems
are quite extensive in European countries, especially for the production
of market milk on high-priced land near .cities. It enables the keeping of
the maximum number of cows on a limited area. In this country the
system is but little used. Farmers here are more concerned with the
profits of the year's work than they are in entertaining the largest possible
number of cows. There doubtless always will be a tendency to increase
the soiling system for milk production, with increased price of milk and
advance in land values fJear centers of large milk production.

Proper Balance of Intensity. — Intensity depends on many factors. .
These should be properly balanced. The high-priced cow responds to more
and better feed, to a greater extent than the low-priced or poor cow. There
will always be a limiting factor, and this factor is the one that should
first be intensified. If, for example, land is poorly drained, no amount
of fertilizer will insure maximum crops. Drainage is the first deficiency

INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 821

' ' ' » ' '

to overcome. The various factors must be kept in proportion. It requires
more capital, feed and better care in the rearing of pure-bred stock than
it does for scrub stock. This relationship should run throughout the farm
business. The best horses and most modern implements c*all for tlje most
skilled labor. It would be more serious to employ inefficient labor for the
operation of such Equipment than it would in case of the one-mule farm
in the cotton belt.

Intensity Related to Citizenship. — In spite of the arguments fre-
quently presented in the agricultural press for smaller farms and increased
intensity, most of the farming of America continues on the extensive basis.
There is no country in the world in which farmers are more prosperous or
of a higher order of intelligence. This type of farming encourages the use
of large areas of land, much horse power, the best farm equipment, and
develops the highest form of rural civilizafion. It provides for an income
above physical needs and affords means for the procuring of broader cul-
ture. It is in marked contrast to the very intensive systems that prevail
in many of the European countries.

REFERENCES

''The Small Country Place." Maynard.
Colorado Expt. Station Bulletins:

89. ''Wheat Raising on the Plains."

117. "The Colorado Potato Industry."
North Carolina Expt. Station Bulletins:

84, 112. "Trucking in the South."
New York Expt. Station Bulletin 226. "An Apple Orchard Survey of Wayne Co.,

N Y."
New York ExDt. Station Bulletin 229. "An Apple Orchard Survey of Orleans Co.,

N. Y."
Oregon Expt. Station Bulletins:

99. "An Orchard Survey of Wasco County."
101. "An Orchard Survey of Jackson County."
Texas Expt. Station Bulletin 94. "Horticultural Survey of Gulf Coast."

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: . . ^, ^t a »

Year-Book 1908, pages 351 to 366. "Types of Farming m the U. S."
Year-Book 1904, pages 161 to 191. "Growing Crops Under Glass," "Fruit
Growing," "General Farming."
Farmers' Bulletin 519, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Intensive Farming in the Cotton
Belt."

v]\

5 r

ill

CHAPTER 66

Size and diversity of farm related to Efficiency

In every locality and for every type of farming there is a degree of
diversity and a size of business that will prove most advantageous. It
should be the aim of farmers to attain this so far as capital and ability will
permit. The size of the farm does not necessarily pertain to area, since a
large business in certain types of farming may be carried on on a compara-
tively limited area. The most striking example of this is found in the

Onions as a Specialty.^

production of vegetables and flowers under glass. An acre of this kind of
farming often employs a number of men and brings a large gross return.

Diversified farming is a somewhat indefinite term, and may mean the
producing of a few well-chosen products or may include a large number of
products.

DIVERSIFIED FARMING

Diversified farming is often the production of a little of everything
and not much of anything. It is at once evident that such farming will

SIZE AND DIVERSITY OF FARM

823

1 Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer.

(822)

not pay. Successful diversification consists in the production of enough
of a few products to make it worth while.

Special farming is generally looked upon as the production of one
commodity.. The subject is somewhat confused, because of such terms as
dairying, fruit farming and vegetable farming, that are often thought of as
special farming. Dairying, if confined to the production of wholesale milk,
would be a special line of farming, but it frequently includes the retailing
of milk, and the sale of pure-bred stock, in which case the farmer has three
lines of production. In fruit farming or truck farming, there will usually be
a variety of fruit and truck crops, so that it will not be specialized in the
true sense of the word. The same may be true of grain farming where a
variety of grains are grown in a systematic rotation and in such a way that
there is an equitable distribution of labor and a variety of cash crops.

General View of SPEaAUZED Wheat Farming in Canada.

Advantages of Special Farming. — Special farming, or the production
of one product, has an advantage in that there is usually enough of it to
make it quite worth while. With a given area, it will provide for fields
sufficiently large to economize on the labor of men and teams and make
possible the use of the best machinery adapted to the crop in question.
With small capital one can provide for enough of one crop, whereas with
a number of crops it might be impossible to have enough to secure a desir-
able equipment. One becomes more skilled when deaUng with only one
line of production.

Special farming is subject to many disadvantages. It does not provide
for crop rotations. In case of failure from whatever cause, there is nothing
to fall back on. In diversified farming, if one crop fails there are others
that will bring fair returns. A single crop does not provide for distribution
of labor. There are times and places for this type of farming, but it gen-
erally consists in the production of some special crop for which there is a
limited demand. Wheat, as grown in the Northwest and in Canada, is

itj

CHAPTER 66

Size and Diversity of Farm Related to Efficiency

SIZE AND DIVERSITY OF FARM

823

-- Onions as a Specialty.^

production of vegetables and flowers under glass. An acre of this kind of
farming often employs a number of men and brings a large gross return.

Diversified farming is a somewhat indefinite term, and may mean the
producing of a few well-chosen products or may include a large number of
products.

DIVERSIFIED FARMING

Diversified farming is often the production of a little of everything
and not much of anything. It is at once evident that such farming will

^ Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer.

(822)

not pay. Successful diversification consists in the production of enough
of a few products to make it worth while.

Special farming is generally looked upon as the production of one
commodity.. The subject is somewhat confused, because of such terms as
dairying, fruit farming and vegetable farming, that are often thought of as
special farming. Dairying, if confined to the production of wholesale milk,
would be a special line of farming, but it frequently includes the retailing
of milk, and the sale of pure-bred stock, in which case the farmer has three
lines of production. In fruit farming or truck farming, there will usually be
a variety of fruit and truck crops, so that it will not be speciaUzed in the
true sense of the word. The same may be true of grain farming where a
variety of grains are grown in a systematic rotation and in such a way that
there is an equitable distribution of labor and a variety of cash crops.

' ^I^HOMOMMtf^

:-»-'*•> .,

' -''^■^^■■'^ ■::'■'■. -S-

■f-^:^P^.

^-,#ivs: >■

General View of Speqauzed Wheat Farahng in Canada.

Advantages of Special Farming. — Special farming, or the production
of one product, has an advantage in that there is usually enough of it to
make it quite worth while. With a given area, it will provide for fields
suflficiently large to economize on the labor of men and teams and make
possible the use of the best machinery adapted to the crop in question.
With small capital one can provide for enough of one crop, whereas with
a number of crops it might be impossible to have enough to secure a desir-
able equipment. One becomes more skilled when deaUng with only one
fine of production.

ijij

■>^C'^-

mmm

824

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

strictly special farming. In many places cotton is also grown as a specialty.
These are staple crops, and have proven successful for a number of
years, but we know that better results may be obtained by diversity and
the introduction of crop rotations. We find now and then farmers near
large cities who make a specialty of producing hay. This necessitates prices
that are far above the average and calls for land that is not too high priced.
Advantages of Diversified Farming. — The majority of farmers in
North America are engaged in diversified farming. A large percentage of
them combine the production of crops and animals or animal i)roducts.

General View of a Good Diversified Farm.^

There are many advantages in such farming. Cotton farms excepted,
probably 95 per cent of the remaining farms of the country would be
classified as general farms that derive their income from a combination of
crops and animal products. The advantages of diversity so far as crops are
concerned are discussed in the chapter on Crop Rotations. Diversity
lessens the risk of failure. It distributes both the income and the labor.
No. matter how profitable a crop may be, there is a limit to the amount
that can be produced with a given amount of labor, because it requires
seeding and harvesting in a limited season. This usually covers only a
small portion of the year.

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From *' How to Choose a Farm," by Hunt.

SIZE AND DIVERSITY OF FARM

825

Diversified farming is most successful when the several enterprises
chosen do not compete with each other for labor. Crops are said to be
competing only when they demand the attention of the farmer at precisely
the same portion of the growing season. Agricultural surveys in many
localities have shown that diversity of enterprises increases the farmer^s
labor income.

Dairying, which is generally considered a specialty, is more successful
when combined with the production of cash crops. The labor required to
do the milking mornings and evenings is more than sufficient to care for
the herd. If the time 6i the laborers can be utilized in the production
of crops, profits are increased.

SIZE OF FARMS

The scale on which farm operations are conducted is determined by
many factors. It is often fixed by the amount of available capital or the
size of the farm on which one is already located. If large-scale farming
were decidedly more profitable than small-scale farming there would be no
difficulty in embarking in it. Investigations show that farming on a very
large scale has certain disadvantages and more frequently results in failure
than moderate or small-scale farming. Consequently, it is difficult to
borrow capital on a large scale for this purpose. There are no hard and
fast lines separating large, medium and small-scale farming. As already
indicated, the acreage of the farm is not the true test. More capital and
labor may be employed on ten acres intensively farmed than on a thousand
acres most extensively farmed.

In North America the majority of farms fall into the class of medium-
size farms. A study of statistics shows that there is a tendency for the size
of farms to change with the change in efficiency of the unit of labor. The
introduction of larger teams and large farm implements, thus increasing
the area that one man can farm, has had a tendency to increase the size of
the one-man farm over a considerable portion of the corn belt. Small
farms and very large farms are decreasing in numbers, while medium-size
farms are increasing in numbers.

Size Depends on Type of Farming. — For the production of cereals,
100 to 200 acres is considered a moderate size farm. For the raising of
vegetables, 20 to 40 acres is a medium size. The size of the farm, therefore,
is largely dependent upon the type of farming. If the' crops grown are fed
to dairy cows, the labor required and the gross income received are both
increased. The combination of dairying and cash crops, therefore, need
not be quite so large as when crops only are depended upon. The capital
required will vary according to the region selected and the type of farming,
and when comparing the labor income of different types of farms, capital
invested is a better measure of size than land area. In the better portions
of the corn belt $10,000 would be too small an investment to yield a fair
income. Land values at $150 to $200 per acre would make the acreage

k, ■<. ■ ■ ),■■'■--■'■■ ■ . . .

^^;:l^^^.^i>;,^;^'^,:.■,, ;., iyj^^g,';;;!

824

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

General View of a Good Diversified Farm.^

There are many advantages in such farming. Cotton farms excepted,
probably 95 per cent of the remaining farms of the country would be
classified as general farms that derive their income from a combination of
crops and animal products. The advantages of diversity so far as crops are
concerned are discussed in the chapter on Crop Rotations. Diversity
lessens the risk of failure. It distributes both the income and the labor.
No matter how profitable a crop may be, there is a limit to the amount
that can be produced with a given amount of labor, because it requires
seeding and harvesting in a limited season. This usually covers only a
small portion of the year.

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From " How to Choose a Farm," by Hunt.

SIZE AND DIVERSITY OF FARM

825

Dairying, which is generally considered a specialty, is more successful
when combined with the production of cash crops. The labor required to
do the milking mornings and evenings is more than sufficient to care for
the herd. If the time Of the laborers can be utilized in the production
of crops, profits are increased.

SIZE OF FARMS

Size Depends on Type of Farming. — For the production of cereals,
100 to 200 acres is considered a moderate size farm. For the raising of
vegetables, 20 to 40 acres is a medium size. The size of the farm, therefore,
is largely dependent upon the type of farming. If the crops grown are fed
to dairy cows, the labor required and the gross income received are both
increased. The combination of dairying and cash crops, therefore, need
not be quite so large as when crops only are depended upon. The capital
required will vary according to the region selected and the type of fanning,
and when comparing the labor income of different types of farms, capital
invested is a better measure of size than land area. In the better portions
of the corn belt $10,000 would be too small an investment to yield a fair
income. Land valuer at $150 to $200 per acre would make the acreage

< ^ v

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

826

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

too small to fully utilize the character of teams and equipment best adapted
to the production of the crops of that region; 100 to 120 acres is about
the minimum size that can be economically farmed there; 160 to 240 acres
is a more economical size.

Bonanza Farms.— This term applies to the very large farms, most of
which are located in the northvv^estern part of the United States and which
frequently cover from ten to thirty or more square miles. Wheat is
generally the leading product. Such farms usually consist of an aggrega-
tion of a number of farm units under one management. In some cases,
however, several thousand acres may be farmed with one set of buildings.

A Small Farm Under Glass. '
Soil made to order; heat, light and moisture controlled.

Very large fields are used and the work is done either with farm tractors or
with very large teams. The chief advantage in farming on such a large
scale lies in the economy of skill, equipment, buying and selling. Large-
scale farming, like manufacturing on a large scale, affords enough of one
special kind of labor to fully occupy the time of one or more men. In this
way, men are most highly skilled and confined to a performance of work
for which they are specially trained. Unlike manufacturing, however, such
large-scale farming covers so much area that close supervision by a superin-
tendent is impossible. It also involves the loss of much time on the
part of both manager and workmen in traveling to and from fields, or from
one enterprise to another. It obviously enables the employment of a high-

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Fann Management," by Wanep,

SIZE AND DIVERSITY OP FARM

827

priced and competent manager. Such management is even more difficult
than the management of large-scale manufacturing, because farming is
subject to a great extent to weather conditions and includes a diversity of
operations.

Manufacturing has increased enormously, and its development has
seen a marked change from large numbers of small factories to smaller
numbers of large factories. The increase in the size of manufacturing
plants has been very great. There are such decided advantages in the large
manufacturing plant that it is difficult for the small one to compete with
it. The large area over which large farms must extend make factory
methods inapplicable. The change in season, the variety of enterprises,
the sudden approach of storms, the encroachment of insect enemies and
plant diseases, all call for abrupt changes in the character of work and for
reorganization of the farm forces.

Medium Size Farms Superior. — Farm surveys in many sections show
that the labor income of farms increases with the size of business. With
any particular type of farming, the size of business corresponds approxi-
mately with the area. By grouping fai-ms according to capital invested or
acres farmed, we find that the labor income increases, step by step, with
each group as size is increased. This view is confined to comparison of
small and moderate size farms. The exceedingly large farms are so small
in number that but few have been investigated in these farm surveys.
The few that have been investigated show conclusively that while farms of
from 500 to 1000 acres may bring large labor incomes, they also offer
opportunity for failm*e. The following ta^ble shows the labor income of
farms in several farming districts as related to size of farms:

578 Farms,
Livingston Co., N. Y.

586 Farms,
Tompkins Co., N. Y.

410 Farms,
Chester Co., Pa.

Acres.

Income.

Acres.

Income.

Acres.

Income.

$24
257
400
481
642
937
1261

31-60

61-100. ...

101-150....

151-200. ...

Over 200....

$168
254
373
436
635
946

41-80. . . .

81-120. . .

121-160...

161-200. . .

Over 200...

$297

21-40

41-^0

61-80

81-100

101-140......

Over 140

611

963

1068

1630

1229

The Family Size. — ^The typical American farm is, and probably always
will be, the family size. It should be suflficiently large to employ advan-
tageously the time of the farmer and his family. It will vary with the type
of farming and the size of the family. The farmer with only one son should
have sufficient land to employ the time of the son when not in school.
If he has several sons his farm should be somewhat larger. Statistics show

826

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Bonanza Farms. — This term applies to the very large farms, most of
which are located in the northwestern part of the United States and which
frequently cover from ten to thirty or more square miles. Wheat is
generally the leading product. Such farms usually consist of an aggrega-
tion of a number of farm units under one management. In some cases,
however, several thousand acres may be farmed with one set of buildings.

A Small Farm Under Giass.^
Soil made to order; heat, light and moisture controlled.

Very large fields are used and the work is done either with farm tractors or
with very large teams. The chief advantage in farming on such a large
scale lies in the economy of skill, equipment, buying and selling. Large-
scale farming, like manufacturing on a large scale, affords enough of one
special kind of labor to fully occupy the time of one or more men. In this
way, men are most highly skilled and confined to a performance of work
for \vhich they are specially trained. Unlike manufacturing, however, such
large-scale farming covers so much area that close supervision by a superin-
tendent is impossible. It also involves the loss of much time on the
part of both manager and workmen in traveling to and from fields, or from
one enterprise to another. It obviously enables the employment of a high-

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Farm Management," by Warren.

SIZE AND DIVERSITY OF FARM

827

Medium Size Farms Superior. — Farm surveys in many sections show
that the labor income of farms increases with the size of business. With
any particular type of farming, the size of business corresponds approxi-
mately with the area. By grouping farms according to capital invested or
acres farmed, we find that the labor income increases, step by step, with
each group as size is increased. This view is confined to comparison of
small and moderate size farms. The exceedingly large farms are so small
in number that but few have been investigated in these farm surveys.
The few that have been investigated show conclusively that while farms of
from 500 to 1000 acres may bring large labor incomes, they also offer
opportunity for failure. The following ta^ble shows the labor income of
farms in several farming districts as related to size of farms :

578 P'arms,
Livingston Co., N. Y.

Acres.

21-40.
41-60.
61-80.
81-100
101-140
Over 140

Income.

580 Farms,
Tompkins Co., N. Y.

Acres.

Income.

$24
257
400
481
642
937
1261

31-60. .

61-100.

101-150.

151-200.

Over 200 .

$1C8
254
373
436
635
946

410 Farms,
Chester Co., Pa.

Acres.

41-80..

81-120.

121-160.

161-200.

Over 200 .

Income.

$297
611
963
1068
1630
1229

The Family Size. — The typical American farm is, and probably always
will be, the family size. It should be sufficiently large to employ advan-
tageously the time of the farmer and his family. It will vary with the type
of farming and the size of the family. The farmer with only one son should
have sufficient land to employ the time of the son when not in school.
If he has several sons his farm should be somewhat larger. Statistics show

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

828

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

SIZE AND DIVERSITY OF FARM

that less than one-half of the farms in the United States employ hired labor*.
There are about one and a half male workers engaged in agriculture for
each farm. Some farms employ a number of workmen throughout the
year. Others employ one workman and still others employ day labor in
busy seasons.

The Economical Unit. — This provides for an area sufficiently large for
economical production. The area depends on the type of farming. It
should provide for the utilization of buildings and equipment essential to
the type of farming. If the area is too small, labor is wasted, machinery
is not fully utilized and the land is likely to be over-capitalized with
respect to buildings. The 120-acre grain farm in the corn belt will require
the same equipment in the way of machinery and cultural implements
that a 200-acre farm would require. The 200-acre farm in this case would
be the most economical unit, since it could })e farmed equally as well
without increased expense for equipment. The size most economical is,
therefore, the largest unit that can be farmed satisfactorily with the imple-
ments that the crops call for. If one increases the size 40 or 80 acres
beyond what a set of implements can manage, it calls for duplication of
tools, and unless the extra 'tools are fully utilized the increase in size may
be disadvantageous rather than otherwise. In order to farm most econom-
ically the logical step would be from one unit in size to two full units in
size. Statistical studies show that a little increase in area generally
increases efficiency greatly, but when the area of a 200 or 300-acre farm is
increased, the increase in efficiency is scarcely noticeable. Usually 300
acres represent about the upper limit that can be most economically farmed
as a unit. Larger areas result in much land being so remote from buildings
that much time is wasted in going to and from fields, hauling products to
the farmstead and manure to the fields.

Size Economizes on Buildings and Fences. — The farmer on an 80-
acre farm usually desires as good a house as he would wish if he were on a
160-acre farm. The barn and outbuildings on the larger farm will gen-
erally be larger than on the smaller one, but the increase in size, cost and
expense for upkeep will not be in proportion to the area farmed.

It costs twice as much per acre to fence a square 10-acre field as it does
to fence a square 40-acre field.

Size Economizes on Equipment. — A survey of 586 farms operated
by owners in Tompkins County, N. Y., showed that the investment in
machinery per acre ranged from $3.50 on the larger farms to $6 on the
smaller ones. The larger farms were generally best equipped. Very small
areas of crops often prohibit the use of labor-saving machines, because the
cost is too great to justify their employment. The annual cost of depre-
ciation, interest, insurance, repairs, housing and oil for machinery is about
20 per cent of its value. This would make the annual cost per acre for
these items 50 cents more on the small farms above mentioned than on the
large ones.

829

In Livingston County, N. Y., the investment per acre in machinery
ranged from $3.18 on large farms to $7.05 on small ones. In the United
States as a whole, according to the census for 1900, the investment in
machinery per acre on improved land ranged from $1.31 on fa^-ms ranging
from 500 to 1000 acres each to $7.50 on farms ranging from three to
nine acres each.

Size Economizes on Man and Horse Labor. — A comparison shows
that the number of acres farmed per horse varies greatly with the size of
farm. It will vary also with the type of farming, and a satisfactory
comparison of efficiency can be made only when comparing farms of differ-
ent size devoted to the same type of farming. Iowa is all devoted to general
farming. The farms of Lyon County in the northwestern, part of the state
average 210 acres, and those in Henry County in the southeastern part of
the state, 123 acres. In Lyon County there are 22 acres of crops per horse;
in Henry County only 11 acres of crops per horse.

In Tompkins County, N. Y., on 586 farms operated by owners, the
acres per horse ranged from 15 on farms of 30 acres or less to 49 on farms
of over 200 acres. In most parts of the country it costs as much to keep a
team of horses as it does to employ a hired man. Three or four horses is
the smallest number that can be most economically employed in the use of
machinery best adapted to the production of general farm crops. To em-
ploy a smaller number increases the cost of production, or to employ this
number for too small a percentage of the time also increases the cost of
production.

The same principles apply in the employment of man labor, especially
in so far as this labor is associated with the use of horses and implements.

There are many farm operations that are more advantageously per-
formed by two men working together than by one man. Among these may
be mentioned the harvesting of grain and hay. In hauling these products
from field to stack or barn, one man is required to pitch and the other to
load, stack or mow the product. Very often, odd tasks such as changing
of wagon racks and boxes are much more quickly and easily done by two
men than by one.

Size Related to Crop Yields. — Small farms do not necessarily produce
larger yields ]^er acre than large farms. Farms in the two Iowa counties
above referred to gave yields of the staple crops that were almost identical.
In T()mi)kins County, N. Y., 586 farms show practically the same yield
per acre of staple crops on large farms as on small ones. In one product
only, namely, hay, did there seem to be any consistent decline in yield with
increase in acreage. The average yield of hay was 1.38 tons per acre on
farms of 30 acres or less, and 1.24 tons per acre on farms of 150 acres or
more. Yield per acre will depend more upon the character of soil and
value of land and the intensity of farming, than upon the size of farms.*

♦The figures givcu for Liviugstou aud Tompkins counties, New York, arc from Warren's Fa'TO
Management.

830

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Advantages of Buying and Selling. — Large farms, using larger quanti-
ties of supplies in the form of fertilizers and feed may often purchase at
wholesale to good advantage. The manager can also afford to spend
more time in investigating markets and market conditions, because of his
larger business. There is also a gain when products can be shipped in
carload lots. Not only may the price received be better, but there is a
saving on transportation charges. One may be justified in some expendi-
ture for advertising where the product is sufficiently large, for it generally
costs no more to advertise large quantities of produce than small quantities.

Size of Fields. — Good size farms enable laying the farm out into fields
of an economical size. Large fields are cultivated with less loss of time than
small ones. They require less expense per acre in fencing. Less waste
land is incurred about borders and for turning rows. Cost accounting has
shown that it costs more to produce crops on very small fields than it does
on good size fields.

Size Related to Capital. — ^All farms necessarily have some capital
invested in unproductive ways. This is always relatively larger on small
farms than on large farms. The chief item in this respect is generally the
house and the ornamental features of the farm. In Livingston County,
N. Y., the capital invested in the farmhouses ranged from nine per cent of
the total investment on the large farms to 43 per cent on the small ones.
The value of other buildings per animal unit ranged from $50 on large
farms to $164 on small farms. Capital is more fully utilized on good
size farms. •

Size Related to Dairying. — The best size for a dairy farm will depend
on location and the type of dairying. In Denmark, the most progressive
dairy country in the world, dairy farms average 40 acres in size. The
dairymen in Scotland favor a farm that will maintain a herd that can be
milked by the dairyman and his family. In the United States dairy farms
should generally range from 75 to 150 acres in extent. Grain and general
farms should range from 120 to 300 acres in extent. A limited number in
each of these cases, under favorable conditions, may be somewhat smaller.

Dairying will frequently prove advantageous for men located close
to good markets and whose farms are too small for general farming. Dairy-
ing will enable them to increase the volume of business and permit them to
remain in the same neighborhood without the purchase of more land.

Size of Farms in the United States. — The size of farms in the United
States has changed somewhat during the past sixty years. In 1850 the
average area per farm was 203 acres. It declined steadily xmtil 1880, when
it was 134 acres. Since then change has been slight. In 1910 it was 138
acres, 75 acres of which was improved land and 46 acres of which was in the
principal crops. The smaller farms were found in the trucking regions and
in the cotton belt. In Dallas County, Ala., farms average 44 acres. They
are generally farmed by colored people. In Gloucester County, N. J.,
farms average 62 acres. Truck is the leading industry. Farjns in an

SIZE AND DIVERSITY OP FARM

831

irrigated district in Utah average 82 acres per farm. McHenry County,
111., in which dairying predominates, averages 129 acres per farm. In
Shelby County, Iowa, farms devoted chiefly to grain, hogs and cattle,
average 167 acres per farm. In Clay County, Neb., farms devoted largely
to grain production average 182 acres. In Sherman County, Ore., farms
devoted largely to the production of wheat average 799 acres. This gives
some idea of the wide range in the size of farms in different localities.

Size Helps Prevent the Boys Leaving Farms. — Boys generally leave
the farm because there is not sufficient work to make it pay to stay.
Surveys in New York State show that 79 per cent of the soiis of the
smallest farmers had left home. On the largest farms only 16 per cent
had left home.

Small Farms. — Small farms have the advantage in a better supervision
of the farm work, less loss from waste of material and less difficulty with
the labor problem from the standpoint of hired help. The chief disadvan-
tage in the small farm lies in the lack of adequate equipment, which results
in high cost of production and a small labor income. The many advantages
that have been cited in favor of good size farms seldom apply to the very
small farm.

A -great deal has been written advocating the small farm, and so far
as area is concerned, there is room in the vicinity of large cities for a con- *
siderable number of comparatively small farms. These must necessarily
be devoted to intensive farming along the line of vegetables and fruits for
human consumption. Any attempt to grow the staple crops on very small
areas results in marked increase in cost of production or materially reduces
the standard of farm life. In Belgium and other European countries com-
paratively Httle animal power is used in farming. Much of the work is
done by hand. The areas are often so small that if a team of horses was
employed, they would consume more than one-half of the products of the
farm, thus leaving comparatively little for the farmer. ;

REFERENCES

New York Expt. Station Bulletin 178. "The Income of 178 New York Farms."

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Year-Book 1908, pages 311-320. ''The Small Fai;m as a

Remedy for Southern Rural Conditions."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 75. !

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 259.
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: '

310. '* A Successful Alabama Diversification Farm." ■

"A Successful Southern Hay Farm." '

''Small Farms in the Corn Belt."

312.
325.
355.
364.
365.

"A Successful Southern Dairy Farm."

"A Profitable Cotton Farm.'^

"Farm Management in Northern Potato Growing Sections."

i if

N
M

» Courtesy of U. S. pppt. of ARriculttirp Bulleiin 341.
(832)

CHAPTER 67

Cropping and Feeding Systems

•

The character of cropping and feeding systems on a farm determines to
a considerable extent the success of the farm. Cropping systems from the
standpoint of crop production and maintenance of soil fertility are discussed
in the chapter on '^Crop Rotations." The discussion here will pertain
more especially to the farm nianagement phase of it and its relation to the
other enterprises of the farm.

Feeding systems pertain to the rations and methods of feeding live-
stock and will be discussed especially from the farm management stand-
point.

The Farm Scheme. — Success in farming does not rest on the results
of a single year. It is not enough to be successful in the production of one
crop, but one must continually grow a satisfactory crop at regular intervals.
This calls for a cropping system in order that the chief crop or crops may be
rotated with other crops to avoid the numerous difficulties mentioned in
the chapter on rotations.

From the crop standpoint the two dominant factors are how to main-
tain the yield of cash crops year after year and at the same time prevent
any decline in soil fertility. When animals enter into the farm scheme
the cropping system must also meet the needs for animal feed, including
necessary bedding. Profits necessitate considering the enterprises as a
whole. The order in which crops may be grown and the feeding system to
be adopted is a local question. It will be determined by a great many
factors, such as character of soil, climatic conditions, price of land, markets,
transportation and the personal preferences of the farmer. No def]nit;e
system can be laid down that will be best under all conditions, but there is
a philosophy underlying the question that will aid every farmer in working
out the system best suited to his conditions.

Crops Related to Farm Management. — Crops are grown either to sell
or to feed to livestock. One farmer may desire to grow corn pxincipally,
another cotton, a third one potatoes, and still another some other crop.
Usually, several crops are grown. The problem from the standpoint of
farm management will be that of determining how much of each of the
different crops should be grown. From the standpoint of crop production
the farmer is interested only in the method of growing the crop, and when
the crop is harvested the task is completed. As a farm manager, it will be
necessary for him to decide what to do with the crop. Will he profit more
by feeding it or by selling it? If so, when should it be sold or to what class
of livestock can it be most profitably fed?
68 (833)

^fe-

» Courtesy of V . R. pppi. of AKricultnro BiiUplin .^41.

(832)

I-}

CHAPTER 67

Cropping and Feeding Systems

•

The character of cropping and feecHng systems on a farm determines to
a considerable extent the success of the farm. Cropping systems from the
standpoint of crop production and maintenance of soil fertility are discussed
in the chapter on *^Crop Rotations/^ The discussion here will pertain
more especially to the farm management phase of it and its relation to the
other enterprises of the farm.

Feeding systems pertain to the rations and methods of feeding live-
stock and will be discussed especially from the farm management stand-
point.

From the crop standpoint the two dominant factors are how to main-
tain the yield of cash crops year after year and at the same time prevent
any decline in soil fertility. When animals enter into the farm scheme
the cropping system must also meet the needs for animal feed, including
necessary bedding. Profits necessitate considering the enterprises as a
whole. The order in which crops may be grown and the feeding system to
be adopted is a local question. It will be determined by a great many
factors, such as character of soil, climatic conditions, price of land, markets,
transportation and the personal preferences of the farmer. No definite
system can be laid down that will be best under all conditions, but there is
a philosophy underlying the question that will aid every farmer in working
out the system best suited to his conditions.

Crops Related to Farm Management. — Crops are grown either to sell
or to feed to livestock. One farmer may desire to grow corn pnncipally,
another cotton, a third one potatoes, and still another some other crop.
Usually, several crops are grown. The problem from the standpoint of
farm management will be that of determining how much of each of the
different crops should be grown. From the standpoint of crop production
the farmer is interested only in the method of growing the crop, and when
the crop is harvested the task is completed. As a farm manager, it will be
necessary for him to decide what to do with the crop. Will he profit more
l)y feeding it or by selling it? If so, when should it be sold or to what class
of livestock can it be most profitably fed?

08 (833)

^ii

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

* Courtesy of U. S. Pept. of AKricultiire ntillefin M\.

(832)

CHAPTER 67

Cropping and Feeding Systems

The character of cropping and feeding systems on a farm determines to
a considerable extent the success of the farm. Cropping systems from the
standpoint of crop production and maintenance of soil fertility are discussed
in the chapter on *^Crop Rotations.'' The discussion here will pertain
more especially to the farm nianagement phase of it and its relation to the
other enterprises of the farm.

Feeding systems pertain to the rations and methods of feeding live-
stock and will be discussed especially from the farm management stand-
point.

From the crop standpoint the two dominant factors are how to main-
tain the yield of cash crops year after year and at the same time prevent
any decline in soil fertility. When animals enter into the farm scheme
the cropping system must also meet the needs for animal feed, including
necessary bedding. Profits necessitate considering the enterprises as a
whole. The order in which crops may be grown and the feeding system to
be adopted is a local question. It will be determined by a great many
factors, such as character of soil, climatic conditions, price of land, markets,
transportation and the personal preferences of the farmer. No definite
system can be laid down that will be best under all conditions, but there is
a philosophy underlying the question that will aid every farmer in working
out the system best suited to his conditions.

Crops Related to Farm Management.— Crops are grown either to sell
or to feed to livestock. One farmer may desire to grow corn pxdncipally,
another cotton, a third one potatoes, and still another some other crop.
Usually, several crops are grown. The problem from the standpoint of
farm management will be that of determining how much of each of the
different crops should be grown. From the standpoint of crop production
the farmer is interested only in the method of growing the crop, and when
the crop is harvested the task is completed. As a farm manager, it will be
necessary for him to decide what to do with the crop. Will he profit more
by feeding it or by selling it? If so, when should it be sold or to what class
of livestock can it be most profitably fed?
63 (833)

rii

^:\j

■i

! I

•J
, 1

nil

i «

>i'^siy

' Courtesy of U. S. P^pf , of Agriciiltnro BullpUn .'141.

(832)

'p.

CHAPTER 67

Cropping and Feeding Systems

The character of cropping and feeding systems on a farm determines to
a considerable extent the success of the farm. Cropping systems from the
standpoint of crop production and maintenance of soil fertility are discussed
in the chapter on ^X>op Rotations/' The discussion here will pertain
more especially to the farm management phase of it and its relation to the
other enterprises of the farm.

Feeding systems pertain to the rations and methods of feeding live-
stock and will be discussed especially from the farm management stand-
point.

From the crop standpoint the two dominant factors are how to main-
tain the yield of cash crops year after year and at the same time prevent
any decline in soil fertility. When animals enter into the farm scheme
the cropping system must also meet the needs for animal feed, including
necessary bedding. Profits necessitate considering the enterprises as a
whole. The order in which crops may be grown and the feeding system to
be adopted is a local question. It will be determined by a great many
factors, such as character of soil, climatic conditions, price of land, markets,
transportation and the personal preferences of the farmer. No definite
system can be laid down that will be best under all conditions, but there is
a philosophy underlying the question that will aid every farmer in working
out the system best suited to his conditions.

Crops Related to Farm Management.— Crops are grown either to sell
or to feed to livestock. One farmer may desire to grow corn principally,
another cotton, a third one potatoes, and still another some other crop.
Usually, several crops are grown. The problem from the standpoint of
farm management will be that of determining how much of each of the
different crops should be grown. From the standpoint of crop production
the farmer is interested only in the method of growing the crop, and when
the crop is harvested the task is completed. As a farm manager, it will be
necessary for him to decide what to do with the crop. Will he profit more
by feeding it or by selling it? If so, when should it be sold or to what class
of livestock can it be most profitably fed?

53 (833)

III

Ml:

lit I

834

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Animals Related to Farm Management. — Most farmers raise some
livestock. They should know the nature of animals and their require-
ments. The care, the character of feed and the breeding that will give best
results are generally questions of animal husbandry. From the standpoint
of farm management, farmers must decide what classes of stock they will
raise. This will be determined by many factors. The class of livestock
to be kept will depend largely upon the character of the crops to which the
farm is best adapted. On some farms, horses, sheep and poultry may he
most desirable. On others, dairy cows for market milk will prove most
profitable. The problem resolves itself into making plans for a specific
farm, arranging it into fields, selecting the kinds of crops and the classes of
livestock that are best adapted to it, and deciding upon the proper propor-
tion of each. The buildings, equipment and capital must all be considered
in this connection.

Cropping and Feeding Systems are Related. — When crops are of prime
importance on the farm, the livestock kept is generally selected chiefly
for the utilization of by-products. Statistics show that four-fifths of the
farms in the United States keep dairy cows. Two-thirds of the farms make
butter. The small dairies are maintained largely on cornstalks, straw and
hay of poor quality, and the cows are pastured on land that is not woil
adapted to the growing of crops.

On most farms a few swine and 50 to 100 head of poultry are kej^t
largely as scavengers to utilize what would otherwise be wasted. In some
instances a few sheep are kept in the same way, and more might be kept in
small flocks at low cost, to the advantage of both the farmer and the
consumer of meat.

On farms where livestock predominates,' crops become subsidiary and
the crops grown are those that meet the needs of the livestock.

Adaptation of Cropping and Feeding Systems.— Crop adaptation is
discussed under the heading of ''Soils'' and also in the part of this book
pertaining to crops, but there is a further adaptation involved in the crop-
ping system as well as in the feeding system. These two are dependent
upon each other. If crops are grown chiefly for livestock, consideration
must be given not only to yields, but also to feeding values. Corn generally
produces more digestible nutrients per acre than any of the small grains,
clovers or grasses. For example, 12 tons of ensilage, a fair yield on an acre,
contains approximately 3600 pounds of digestible nutrients. An acre of
timothy yielding 2 tons contains only about 1700 pounds of digestible
nutrients. An acre of clover yielding 2| tons of hay contains about 2300
pounds of digestible nutrients. The clover also contains much more
protein than the timothy. Crops for feed must be compared in this way,
and definite information from the standpoint of yield and feeding value
may be ascertained from the chapters on ''Crops'' and from the tables
given on "Feeding Values of Different Crops."

Adaptation must also be considered from the standpoint of cost of

CROPPING AND FEEDING SYSTEMS

- !:|

835

production and the relation to the labor problem of the farm as a whole
The relative cost per unit of digestible nutrients is the safest basis for
comparison.

Usually the farms should provide sufficient pasture or the number of
animals should be regulated in accordance with the available pasture
Generally the cropping system should provide all of the necessary pasture
and roughage for hvestock. To secure these from the outside usually
entails much additional expense. In most cases the farm may also produce
the major portion of the concentrates, and in many cases will produce all
of the concentrates. This will generally be true in case of the production
of swine, beef cattle and sheep. It is less frequently true in case of the

Hogging Down Corn.i

production of dairy products. There are many factors that determine
the proportion that should be produced and that should be purchased.

Cropping System Related to Future.— The plan of the cropping system
should take into consideration the future productivity of the soil. Humus
and nitrogen are most important in this connection. No cropping system
will prove satisfactory for a long term of years that does not include at
intervals of four to five years a leguminous crop such as clover, alfalfa or
some of the annual legumes. Nitrogen in commercial form is much more
expensive than that secured through the production of legumes. There is
about $11,000,000 worth of nitrogen in the air resting on each acre of land.
It is of prime importance to secure the soil nitrogen for crop production
from this abundant supply. The humus will be maintained largely

» Courtesy of South Dakota Experiment Station, Brookins, S. D.

'!*

iii

i' I

•:iii

III

;'*':f.

834

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Animals Related to Farm Management. — Most farmers raise some
livestock. They should know the nature of animals and their require-
ments. The care, the character of feed and the breeding that will give best
results are generally questions of animal husl)andry. From the standpoint
of farm management, farmers must decide what classes of stock they will
raise. This will be determined by many factors. The class of livestock
to be kept will depend largely upon the character of the crops to which the
farm is best adapted. On some farms, horses, sheep and poultry may l)e
most desirable. On others, dairy cows for market milk will prove most
profitable. The problem resolves itself into making plans for a specific
farm, arranging it into fields, selecting the kinds of crops and the classes of
livestock that are best adapted to it, and deciding upon the proper propor-
tion of each. The buildings, equipment and capital must all be considered
in this connection.

On most farms a few s\vine and 50 to 100 head of poultry are kei)t
largely as scavengers to utilize what would otherwise be wasted. In sonu^
instances a few sheep are kept in the same way, and more might be kept in
small flocks at low cost, to the advantage of both the farmer and the
consumer of meat.

On farms where livestock predominates,' crops become subsidiary and
the crops grown are those that meet the needs of the livestock.

Adaptation of Cropping and Feeding Systems.— Crop adaptation is
discussed under the heading of ''Soils'' and also in the part of this book
pertaining to crops, but there is a further adaptation involved in the crop-
ping system as well as in the feeding system. These two are dependent
upon each other. If crops are grown chiefly for livestock, consideration
must be given not only to }ields, but also to feeding values. Corn generally
produces more digesti])le nutrients per acre than any of the small grains,
clovers or grasses. For example, 12 tons of ensilage, a fair yield on an acre,
contains approximately 3600 pounds of digestible nutrients. An acre of
timothy yielding 2 tons contains only about 1700 pounds of digestible
nutrients. An acre of clover yielding 2^ tons of hay contains about 2300
pounds of digestible nutrients. The clover also contains much more
protein than the timothy. Crops for feed must be compared in this way,
and definite information from the standpoint of yield and feeding value
may be ascertained from the chapters on ''Crops'' and from the tables
given on "Feeding Values of Different Crops."

Adaptation must also be considered from the standpoint of cost of

CROPPING AND FEEDING SYSTEMS

835

production and the relation to the labor problem of the farm as a whole
The relative cost per unit of digestible nutrients is the safest basis for
comparison.

Usually the farms should provide sufficient pasture or the number of
animals should be regulated in accordance with the available pasture
Generally the cropping system should provide all of the necessary pasture
and roughage for livestock. To secure these from the outside usually
entails much additional expense. In most cases the farm may also produce
the major portion of the concentrates, and in many cases will produce all
of the concentrates. This will generally be true in case of the production
of swine, beef cattle and sheep. It is less frequently true in case of the

Hogging Down Corn.i

production of dairy products. There are many factors that determine
the proportion that should be produced and that should be purchased.

Cropping System Related to Future.— The plan of the cropping system
should take into consideration the future productivity of the soil. Humus
and nitrogen are most important in this connection. No cropping system
will prove satisfactory for a long term of years that does not include at
intervals of four to five yeai-s a leguminous crop such as clover, alfalfa or
some of the annual legumes. Nitrogen in commercial form is much more
expensive than that secured through the production of legumes. There is
about $11,000,000 worth of nitrogen in the air resting on each acre of land.
It is of prime importance to secure the soil nitrogen for crop production
from this abundant supply. The humus will be maintained largely

» Courtesy of South Dakota Experiment Station, Brookins, S. D.

:l|

' i

ill

.- "

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

836

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

through the return of crop residues in the form of barnyard manure. This
calls for the feeding of a considerable portion of the general farm crops.

Crop Rotations. — From the standpoint of the farm scheme, a rotation
should ordinarily provide the roughage and pasture for the number of
animals that are to be kept. It should include a sod and a legume for the
supply of organic matter and nitrogen. It should also include as large an
area of the profitable cash crops as can be produced advantageously. In
nearly every region there is one cash crop or sometimes several that pay
better than other crops. In the South it is cotton; in the corn belt it is
corn; in the New England states it may be hay; in some other districts it
is apples. These crops should dominate both from the standpoint of area
and the care which they are given. Agricultural surveys show that the
most successful farmers follow this practice.

Crops for Cash or for Feed. — The cash products may be either soil
products or animal products. When animals dominate, the cropping system
should be adjusted to meet their needs. Many small factors should be
considered. The amount of bedding required should not be neglected.
A crop that is of low value as a cash crop may be grown particularly for the
straw it supplies for bedding.

Milk may be produced more cheaply by allowing the liquid excrements
of the cows to go to waste rather than by going to the expense of securing
sufficient bedding to absorb it. If, however, the saving of the liquid by the
use of straw will increase the yield of corn for ensilage and result in 12 tons
l)er acre instead of 8 and a corresponding increase in the other crops that
are grown for feed, the enterprise as a whole will undoubtedly be much more
profitable by providing the necessary straw for bedding purposes.

Straw contains a considerable part of the fertilizer constituents removed
from the soil by a crop of grain. Prices for straw seldom justify selling it.
If it cannot be used as bedding for livestock and returned to the fields in the
manure, it should be returned in some other way. The practice of burning
straw should be universally condemned. In cereal farming, the grain
should be cut as high as possible, thus leaving the major portion of the straw
on the land.

In some localities a cash crop may be grown, marketed and the pro-
ceeds enable the farmer to purchase twice as much of a given stock feed as
he could produce on an equal area of land. Under such conditions the
exchange is justifiable. In dairy districts farmers are often able to produce
potatoes, and with the potatoes purchase more cow feed than they could
possibly produce on the land devoted to potatoes.

Crops Related to Feed Requirements. — When grown chiefly for live-
stock, the proportion of the different crops should be determined to con-
siderable extent by the requirements of the stock. One can ascertain how
much of each crop should be produced by establishing what seems to be the
best feeding system for the animals in question and calculating the yearns
requirements of silage, clover hay and grain as concentrates. Knowing the

CROPPING AND FEEDING SYSTEMS

837

yield for these crops on the farm in question, the relative acreage of each
can then be approximately determined.

Plenty of pasture may reduce the requirements for hay. Where corn
does well, it is generally cheaper to feed than oats. A horse or mule without
pasture generally requires about 3 tons of hay or its equivalent annually.
Ho needs approximately 70 bushels of corn or 100 bushels of oats. Some of
each is better than either alone.

Cows usually require about 1 to 13^ tons of grain, 1 ton of hay and 4
tons of silage per year. If silage is not available, about 2J^ tons of hay per
cow is needed.

Seven sheep require about as much feed as one cow. Hens eat about
i.wice as much in proportion to their weight as other farm animals; 100
hens are equivalent to a 1000-pound cow and are considered an animal unit.

Buildings on a Dairy Farm.*

Changing Cropping System. — The development of the livestock
enterprises on the farm will often necessitate changing the cropping system
to meet the feed requirements. This will often require increasing the area
of crops that produce the roughage. Such a change may be effected by
substituting forage crops for cash crops or by increasing the length of the
rotation. For example, the amount of hay produced could be very mate-
rially increased by increasing the ordinary four-crop rotation of equal areas
of corn, oats, wheat and hay to a five-years* rotation of the same crops in
which hay would remain for two years. This would increase the proportion
of total cropped land in hay from one-fourth to two-fifths.

Two Rotations on the Same Farm. — The best development of the
cropping system often calls for two rotations. This will be determined
chiefly by the nature of the crops grown and the sequence that gives best

1 Courtesy of Hoard's Dairyman.

i;i

li!

836

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

through the return of crop residues in the form of barnyard manure. This
calls for the feeding of a considerable portion of the general farm crops.

Crop Rotations. — From the standpoint of the farm scheme, a rotation
should ordinarily provide the roughage and pasture for the number of
animals that are to be kept. It should include a sod and a legume for the
supply of organic matter and nitrogen. It should also include as large an
area of the profitable cash crops as can be produced advantageously. In
nearly every region there is one cash crop or sometimes several that pay
better than other crops. In the South it is cotton; in the corn belt it is
corn ; in the New England states it may be hay ; in some other districts it
is apples. These crops should dominate both from the standpoint of area
and the care which they are given. Agricultural surveys show that the
most successful farmers follow this practice.

Crops for Cash or for Feed. — The cash products may be either soil
products or animal products. When animals dominate, the cropi)ing system
should be adjusted to meet their needs. Many small factors should be
considered. The amount of bedding required should not be neglected.
A crop that is of low value as a cash crop may be grown particularly for the
straw it supplies for bedding.

Milk may be produced more cheaply by allowing the liquid excrements
of the cows to go to waste rather than by going to the expense of securing
sufficient bedding to al)sorb it. If, however, the saving of the liquid l)y the
use of straw will increase the yield of corn for ensilage and result in 12 tons
l)er acre instead of 8 and a corresponding increase in the other cro}:)s that
are grown for feed, the enterprise as a whole will undoubtedly be much more
profital)le l^y providing the necessary straw for bedding ])uiposes.

Straw contains a considerable part of the fertilizer constituents removed
from the soil by a crop of grain. Prices for straw seldom justify selling it.
If it cannot be used as bedding for livestock and returned to the fields in the
manure, it should be returned in some other way. The practice of burning
straw should be universally condemned. In cereal fanning, the grain
should be cut as high as possible, thus leaving the major portion of the straw
on the land.

In some localities a cash crop may be grown, marketed and the pro-
ceeds enable the farmer to purchase twice as much of a given stock feed as
he could produce on an equal area of land. lender such conditions the
exchange is justifiable. In dairy districts farmers ai'o oftc^n able to produce
potatoes, and with the potatoes purchase more cow feed than they could
possibly produce on the land devoted to potatoes.

CROPPING AND FEEDING SYSTEMS

837

yield for these crops on the farm in question, the relative acreage of each
can then be approximately determined.

Plenty of pasture may reduce the requirements for hay. Where corn
does well, it is generally cheaper to feed than oats. A horse or mule without
pastui-e generally requires about 3 tons of hay or its equivalent annually.
He needs approximately 70 bushels of corn or 100 bushels of oats. Some of
ciU']{ is better than either alone.

Cows usually require about 1 to 13^ tons of grain, 1 ton of hay and 4
tons of silage per year. If silage is not available, about 2)^ tons of hay per
<'()\v is needed.

Seven sheep require about as much feed as one cow. Hens eat about
twice as much in proportion to their weight as other farm animals; 100
Ikmis are equivalent to a 1000-pound cow and are considered an animal unit.

BnLDiNGs ON A Dairy Farm.^

Changing Cropping System. — The development of the livestock
enteri)rises on the farm will often necessitate changing the cropping system
to meet the feed requirements. This will often require increasing the area
of crops that produce the roughage. Such a change may be effected by
substituting forage crops for cash crops or by increasing the length of the
rotation. For example, the amount of hay produced could be very mate-
rially increased by increasing the ordinary four-crop rotation of equal areas
of corn, oats, wheat and hay to a five-years^ rotation of the same crops in
which hay would remain for two years. This would increase the proportion
of total cropped land in hay from one-fourth to two-fifths.

* Courtesy of Hoard's Dairyman.

\\ i\

llti

838

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

results. Potatoes give good results when grown in a three-years' rotation
consisting of potatoes, small grain and clover. At the same time a longer
rotation of general farm crops may prove more advantageous for the major
area of the farm.

On dairy farms where soiling crops are used, a subsidiary rotation on
small fields close to the farmstead may prove advantageous for the produc-
tion of a succession of suitable soiling crops. These will be supplementary
to the general farm rotation that occupies the large fields for the remainder
of the farm. The two systems can usually be worked together, so that a
field is sometimes in one and sometimes in the other rotation.

Combining Fields. — Some farms are laid out in many small, irregular
fields that cannot always be satisfactorily combined. The number and
size of fields may not fit the most desirable rotation. This will involve a
plan of cropping the fields in the most advantageous way to meet the desired
cropping system.

Having decided upon the length of the rotation, ascertain the acreage
of all fields and divide by the years in the rotation. This will give the area
of each crop for each year. With this data, select the fields that are to be
cropped the same in any given year in such a way that the acreage of two cr
possibly more, may equal as nearly as possible the desired acreage of the
crop to be grown.

Fixed Rotations with Unequal Areas. — The livestock requirements
often call for an unequal acreage of the several crops. This makes the
cropping system more complicated, but never impossible of solution.
Fields of equal area may be maintained without growing an equal area of
each crop. Suppose the farmer wishes to grow 8 acres of potatoes, 20 acres
of corn, 28 acres of oats, 16 acres of wheat and 40 acres of hay, making a
total of 112 acres of crops. It will be necessary to decide on the number of
fields that give best results in accommodating these crops. If the area is
divided into four fields of equal size, there will be 28 acres in each. The
following rotation and arrangement might be used:

Field.

1914.

1915.

1916.

1917.

8 acres potatoes
20 acres corn

28 acres oats

12 acres hay
16 acres wheat

28 acres hay

28 acres oats

12 acres hay
16 acres wheat

28 acres hay

8 acres potatoes
20 acres corn

12 acres hay
16 acres wheat

28 acres hay

8 acres potatoe.*^
20 acres corn

28 acres oats

28 acres hay

8 acres potatoes
20 acres corn

28 acres oats

12 acres hay
16 acres wheat

Rotations for Dairy Farms. — The rotations on dairy farms will depend
chiefly on the location and the relative cost of producing the dairy feeds as

CROPPING AKD FEEDING SYSTEMS

839

compared with purchasing. The cost of production may be relatively
low, because the manure from the dairy is an important factor in the crop
yields, and because labor will be available for a certain amount of field work
and still fully meet the needs of the dairy. Corn as ensilage will prove an
imi!)ortant crop wherever it can be successfully grown. Hay for supplemen-
tary roughage, and oats or wheat for the sake of the straw, will frequently
\ye found advantageous.

Careful investigations of the success of dairymen show that a combina-

A Feed Lot Rack for Both Grain and Roughage.^

tion of dairy products and cash crops are generally more successful than
dairying alone.

Corn, wheat, clover or clover and timothy mixed is a very common
rotation. Where wheat does poorly, oats generally succeed and may
supplant the wheat. In other districts both oats and wheat are advanta-
geously grown. Alfalfa in limited acreage is generally advisable. It
affords a most excellent crop, both for hay and soiling purposes.

Feeding Systems. — The feeding system for any particular farm should
be based on the class of animals, their age and the chief purpose for which
grown. The feeding system for the rearing of young stock is quite different
than for dairy cows or stock that is being fattened. Many farmers find it
advantageous to raise young stock and sell it for feeding purposes, while
others are better equipped to purchase feeding stock and fatten it for

.., > Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer,

j .

!i!

838

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Fixed Rotations with Unequal Areas. — The livestock requirements
often call for an unequal acreage of the several crops. This makes the
cropping system more complicated, but never impossible of solution.
Fields of equal area may be maintained without growing an equal area of
each crop. Suppose the farmer wishes to grow 8 acres of potatoes, 20 acres
of corn, 28 acres of oats, 16 acres of w^heat and 40 acres of hay, making a
total of 112 acres of crops. It will be necessary to decide on the number of
fields that give best results in accommodating these crops. If the area is
divided into four fields of equal size, there will be 28 acres in each. The
following rotation and arrangement might })e used:

Field.

■
1914.

191").

1910.

1917.

8 acres potatoes
20 acres corn

28 acres oats

12 acres hay
16 acres wheat

28 acres hay

28 acres oats

12 acres hay
16 acres wheat

28 acres hay

8 acres potatoes
20 acres corn

12 acres hay
16 acres wheat

28 acres hay

8 acres potatoej-
20 acres corn

28 acres oats

28 acres hay

8 acres potatoes
20 acres corn

28 acres oats

12 acres hay
16 acres wheat

Rotations for Dairy Farms. — The rotations on dairy farms will depend
chiefly on the location and the relative cost of producing the dairy feeds as

CROPPING AN.D FEEDING SYSTEMS

839

compared with purchasing. The cost of production may be relatively
low, because the manure from the dairy is an important factor in the crop
yields, and because labor will be available for a certain amount of field work
and still fully meet the needs of the dairy. Corn as ensilage will prove an
important crop wherever it can be successfully grown. Hay for supplemen-
tary roughage, and oats or wheat for the sake of the straw, will frequently
be found advantageous.

Careful investigations of the success of dairymen show that a combina-

A Feed Lot Rack for Both Grain and Roughage.*

tiou of dairy products and cash crops are generally more successful than
dairying alone.

I Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

I I

mj^;

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

■^mmm^

840

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

market. The cheap feeds should be utilized to the fullest possible extent.
Waste should be avoided.

Economy in feeding often calls for two or more classes of stock. Swine
will follow steers and secure much feed from the droppings that otherwise
would be wasted. They will also utilize the skim milk and buttermilk on
farms that make butter. Under these conditions one may be justified in
feeding steers whole grain in greater abundance than he would in the
absence of swine.

The rearing of young stock generally necessitates depending chiefly
on roughage and cheap feed. The roughage develops bone, and so long
as the animal is kept thrifty and develops a good frame, the fat required
for marketing can be secured by the use of concentrates during the feeding
period. In this connection stockmen are cautioned to avoid the stunting
of young stock by insufficient feed. The higher the grade and value of
stock, the greater the necessity for quality in the feed consumed.

Feeding System Depends on Type of Farming. — Types of farming
differ greatly in different sections of the country, depending on many
factors previously mentioned in the chapter on this subject. Consequently,
the feeding systems will vary greatly, depending on crops available. A
type of farming that includes intensive crops, like tobacco, that respond
abundantly to animal manures, may be justified in adopting a feeding
system in which concentrates predominate. This results in more valuable
manure which may increase the value of the cash crop to such an extent
that stock can be fed on such a basis, even though there is no direct profit
in the feeding enterprise.

The type of farming, however, will regulate the feeding system more
largely from the standpoint of the products that are available for feed.
On the grain farms in the corn belt, roughage in the form of stover and
straw, supplemented with corn and oats, together with small amounts (if
hay, should constitute the chief products in the feeding system. In the
cotton belt, corn and annual legumes which can be grown advantageously
with cotton, should constitute the major portion of the livestock ration.
This may be supplemented with cottonseed meal.

In the semi-arid belt, grazing combined with alfalfa and Kaffir corn
would doubtless dominate the feeding system.

Feeding System Related to Cost of Production. — Agricultural surveys
show that crops generally pay better than livestock for the time put upon
them, but a combination of crops and livestock is generally more profitable
than either alone. The feeding system for livestock produced in combina-
tion with cash crops will generally be more economical than that used when
livestock alone is sold. When full time is s])cnt u])on crops, the waste
products are not utilized and there is absence of manure to maintain yield;
and when one devotes full time to livestock, time is spent in a line of produc-
tion that is carried on at a very low margin of profit. It is a mistake either
to overstock or understock on general farms. It is a good policy to keep

CROPPING AND FEEDING SYSTEMS

841

enough livestock to consume all the by-products. When a farm is so heavily
stocked that all the farm products are consumed, in years of low yields
feed will have to be purchased, generally at such a high price as to make
livestock an unprofitable enterprise.

Feed Units. — Feeds of different kinds are most readily compared by
using a standard. Corn, being the leading crop in America, is the best
standard -to use. When corn is taken as 1, the equivalent value of a few
other products is as follows: mixed hay .4, alfalfa .5, cottonseed meal

The Scale is a Necessary Adjunct to Profitable Feeding.^

1.25, wheat bran, oats, malt sprouts and similar feeds .91, corn silage .17,
root crops .08. These equivalents vary somewhat, depending on the
quality of the product in question. The value of other products is more
definitely given in the feeding tables. Roughly, a cow or horse requires
about 25 pounds of dry matter daily. This will generally contain from 18
to 20 feed units. The relation of protein, carbohydrates, etc., will depend
on the work that the animal is doing or the product that is made.

Profits from Cheap Crop Products. — The cheapest stock feeds are
products on which little labor has been expended and the cheapest way of

* Courtesy of The Pcimsylvama Farmer,

i i

840

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

market. The cheap feeds should be utilized to the fullest possible extent.
Waste should be avoided.

Economy in feeding often calls for two or more classes of stock. Swine
will follow steers and secure much feed from the droppings that otherwise
would be wasted. They will also utiUze the skim milk and buttermilk on
farms that make butter. Under these conditions one may be justified in
feeding steers whole grain in greater abundance than he would in the
absence of swine.

Feeding System Depends on Type of Farming. — Types of farming
differ greatly in different sections of the country, (lo])en(ling on many
factors previously mentioned in the chapter on this subject. Consequently,
the feeding systems will vary greatly, depending on cro])s available. A
type of farming that includes intensive crops, like tobacco, that respond
abundantly to animal manures, may be justified in adopting a feeding
system in which concentrates predominate. This results in more valuable
manure which may increase the value of the cash crop to such an extent
that stock can be fed on such a basis, even though there is no direct profit
in the feeding enterprise.

The type of farming, however, will regulate the feeding system more
largely from the stan(l])()int of the products that are available for feed.
On the grain farms in the corn ])elt, roughage in the form of stover and
straw, sup])leniented with corn and oats, together with small amounts (f
hay, should constitute the chief ])roducts in the feeding system. In the
cotton belt, corn and annual legumes which can V)e grown advantageously
with cotton, should constitute the major portion of the livestock ration.
This may be supplemented with cottonseed meal.

In the semi-arid belt, grazing combined with alfalfa and Kaffir corn
would doubtless dominate the feeding system.

Feeding System Related to Cost of Production. — Agricultural surveys
show that crops generally pay better than livestock for the time put upon
them, but a combination of crops and livestock is generally more profitable
than cither alone. The feeding system for livestock ]iro(luced in c()ni])ina-
tion with cash crops will generally be more economical than that used when
livestock alone is sold. When full time is s])ent uiK)n croi)s, the waste
products are not utilized and there is absence of manure to maintain yield;
and when one devotes full time to livestock, time is spent in a line of produc-
tion that is carried on at a very low margin of profit. It is a mistake either
to overstock or understock on general farms. It is a good policy to keep

i .!!

CROPPING AND FEEDING SYSTEMS 841

The 8cale is a Necessary Adjunct to Profitable Feeding.^

Profits from Cheap Crop Products. — The cheapest stock feeds are
products on which little labor has been expended and the cheapest way of

* Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

lit

I* '

St I

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

842 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

feeding is to allow animals to harvest their own feed. The grazing of
grass lands and the pasturing of cornstalk fields is typical of this process.
It is further illustrated by chickens and pigs in small numbers that are
allowed to forage for themselves about the farm premises. The farmer
who produces pork on concentrates alone is at a disadvantage with the one
who depends partly on hog pasture.

Livestock Gains in Relation to Feed. — Swine gain about 10 pounds in
weight for each bushel of corn; steers require about 1000 pounds dry
matter to make 100 pounds of gain; sheep require somewhat less food per
pound of gain than steers; 100 pounds dry matter in dairy rations will
produce about 74 pounds of milk containing 3J^ per cent of fat.

Better gains are made with given amounts of feed during the early
portions of the feeding period than toward its close. Young animals make
a more profitable use of feed than older ones. It is seldom that the value
of gain in f^ening cattle is equal to the cost of the feed consumed. The
profit is usi^py made on the increase in value of the total weight of the
animal: Generally, a feeder weighing 1000 pounds can be purchased for
from 1 to 3 cents per pound less than he will bring when in prime condition
and weighing 1200 to 1400 pounds.

Com Silage as Base for Ration. — In the corn belt, com silage should
form the base for feeding rations. It should be supplemented with dry
roughage and nitrogenous conc^itrates in such a way as to meet the require-
ments of the stock raised. Ifc has a wide adaptation and may be extensively
used, either for the production of dairy products, the fattening of steers or
the feeding of horses and young stock.

The following are a few rations which include corn ensilage as taken
from an article by J. G. Grigsdale, published in the Tribune Farmer:

For yearling heifers : Pounds.

Corn silage 25 to 35

Straw or chaff 4 to 6

Clover hay 4

Bran 2

For dry cows:

Corn silage 50 to 60

Straw 8 to 10

Clover hay 4

Bran 1 to 2

For cows in milk :

Corn silage 45

Straw 6

Clover hay 4 to 6

Meal mixture: Bran, oats, gluten or oilcake or cottonseed

meal, equal parts. One pound of meal to three or four

pounds of milk produced per diem.

For steers running over winter (1000 pounds weight):

Corn silage 60 to 75

Straw 8 to 12

Clover hay 2 to 4

CROPPING AND FEEDING SYSTEMS 843

For fattening steers (1000 pounds) : Pounds.

Corn silage 50 to 60

Straw 6 to 10

Hay 3 to 6

Meal, starting at one pound, go up to 10 pounds per diem.

Balanced Rations. — ^Animals require not only a sufficient amount of
feed, but also enough of each of the different food elements as well. This
pertains to the relationship of protein to carbohydrates and fat, and is
spoken of as the nutritive ratio. The nutritive ratio is determined, as
above indicated, by the character of animal and the work performed. It
may vary somewhat within reasonable limits without seriously affecting
the yield of animal products. The relative cost of protein and carbohy-
drates often justifies some modification in the ratio.

Standard rations for different classes of livestock will be found in the
chapters pertaining to each class of animals. Methods of calculating
rations are given in Chapter 45.

REFERENCES

Illinois Expt. Station Bulletin 125. ''Thirty Years of Crop Rotation on a Prairie Soil."
Minnesota Expt. Station Bulletins:

104, 109. "The Rotation of Crops."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 102. "Planning a

Cropping System." (In three parts.)
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

Year-Book 1902, pages 342-364. "Systems of Farm Management in the

United States."
Year-Book 1907, pages 385-389. "Cropping Systems for Stock Farms."
Farmers' Bulletin 337, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Cropping Systems for New England
Dairy Farms."

CHAPTER 68

Planning the farm and farmstead

Economy in the management of a farm and the pleasure in farm life
depend to a considerable extent upon the plan of the farm, the arrange-
ment of the farmstead and its position on the farm. A plan that will meet
the needs of the farm for a long period of time calls for a plan of farm
operations that is Ukely to be most successful under the conditions which
prevail. These consist of crop adaptation, market demands and other
factors discussed in preceding chapters.

Location of the Farmstead. — The farmstead includes that portion of
the farm on which is located the farm buildings and feedlots, and generally
includes the garden, orchard and ornamental features. The farmstead is
the center of the business operations of the farm and from the business
standpoint should be centrally located in order to economize in time in the
performance of all farm operations. On the other hand, the farmstead is
the home of the farm family, and many factors which contribute to the
ideal home may be opposed to those which pertain strictly to the farm
business. From the standpoint of the home, the farmstead should be
near the public road. It should be in a sightly position and have a pleasing
outlook. Proximity to a lake, stream or wooded area may add to the
attractiveness of the home surroundings. These factors may not be
available if the farmstead is centrally located.

The central location economizes time in getting to and from the fields.
All four sides of the farmstead are directly connected with the fields. It
makes possible minor rotations immediately adjacent for the pasturing
of livestock so that they are near buildings, have access to water, shade and
other protection. From the central location the manure is more easily
returned to the fields and the crops are more easily brought to the barns.

The location will generally be a compromise between the business and
the living requirements. If the farm is not too large, it will often be possible
to locate the farmstead on the public highway in the center of one side of
the farm. This brings three sides of it in contact with the fields and at the
same time has the advantage of the public highway and nearness to the
market, school and church.

The best position for the farmstead will be determined by the several
factors that must be considered. If, for example, the trips to town are
very numerous as a result of the character of farming, the children who go to
school, etc., it may be equally as saving of time to have the farmstead
located on the part of the farm that will bring it nearest to the place or
places where members of the family must go.

(844)

PLANNING FARM AND FARMSTEAD

845

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GARDEN

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Size of Farmstead. — The size of the farmstead should be in proportion
to the size of the farm and will vary with the type of farming and the price
of land. Livestock farming calls for more buildings and paddocks than
most other types, and demands a relatively larger farmstead to provide
these features. Where
land is cheap more
space may be given
up to the farmstead
than where it is high-
priced. Land in feed-
lots, paddocks and
driveways is unpro-
ductive. A large farm-
stead generally results
in scattering the build-
ings and increasing
the distance between
them, thus causing
increased work in
doing the chores.

From four to six
acres are usually suffi-
cient for the farmstead
on a diversified grain
and stock farm of 160
acres. More can
sometimes be used to
advantage. The di-
mensions may be va-
ried in any way desir-
able. The length and
breadth will often be
determined by the
position on the farm
as affected by topog-
raphy, proximity to
shelters of either hills
or wooded areas and
the direction which it
faces. In any local-

«»'^j

'^f^OUSE YARD

PUBLIC

HIGH WAV

Sketch of Farmstead that is too Large. ^

Buildings poorly located. 1 — Farm-house. 2 —
Poultry-house. 3— Hog-house. 4 — Horse-barn. 5 —
Smoke-house. 6— Milk and well-house. 7— Corn-crib.
8— Machine-shed. 9.— Ice-house. 10— Cow-barn and
granary. 11— Silo. 12— Hog-shed. Distance from horse-
barn to machine-shed 220 feet; from corn-crib to hog-pen
250 feet, and from well to hog-pen 155 feet. In one trip
three times a day for a year betveen the corn-crib and
the hog-house and between the well and the hog-houre,
199.6 miles would be traveled. In one trip a day between
the machine-shed and horse-barn 26.1 miles would be
traveled, and going to the poultry-house three times a day
for a year would require 78 miles of travel. A total of
264 miles would be traveled, which, at the rate of 15 miles
a day, would require 18.1 days.

ity, the prevailing direction of the wind at different seasons of the year
wili determine the position of windbreaks and the direction of the barns

from the house.

' ' Extensive lawns and ornamental features, while very attractive,

1 Courtesy of Lyons & Carnahan, Chicago. From " Farm Management," by Boss.

f'l

' ''lIu'lfc-.M!^

Itt^'r^.

846

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

really have no place on the average farm. The farmer, as a rule, has less
time to devote to keeping a lawn in good condition than does his village or
city brother. The latter may not only have more time for such work, but
finds the outdoor exercise a decided advantage to him, while the farmer
already has enough of such exercise without mowing a lawn or trimming

shrubbery. A lawn

^4>^^

*^ es@*^^<fi^^^^ ^^

<a ^^ ^*

Ul
•9

2
u

/*0€. LOTS

I*.

•

9AR0ZN

PUBLIC

HIGH WAV

of moderate size
planted with a lim-
ited number of orna-
ment al trees and
shrubs artistically
grouped with plenty
of open space for air
circulation and good
views, is desirable.

Arrangement of
Orchard, Garden and
Lots. — T h e orchard
may serve for fruit
supply, ornamental
features and wind pro-
tection. Its position
need not necessarily
be especially near the
house. Often, how-
ever, it will be found
advantageous to util-
ize it as runs for
poultry, or as pas-
ture for pigs, calves
and lambs. These
features should be
considered in connec-
tion with its location
and relation to the
buildings.

It is more impor-
tant to have the gar-
den easy of access, and
it may lie in any direction froni the house so long as it is not brought
conspicuously to the front. Vegetable gardens at certain seasons are, as a
rule, weedy and more or less unsightly, and should, therefore, be kept in
the background.

The position and size of the paddocks or feedlots will be determined

1 Courtesy of Lyons k Carnahan, Chicago. From " Farm Management," by Boss.

^ttj..».« »

Tee Farmstead Rearranged for Economy.^

Buildings moved and more closely grouped,
house. 2 — Poultry-house. 3 — Hog-house.

1 — Farm-
4 — Horse-
barn. 5 — Smoke-house. 6 — Milk and well-house. 7 —
Corn-crib. 8 — Machine-shed. 9 — Ice-house. 10 — Cow-
barn. 11 — Silo. 12 — Hog-shed. 13 — Feeding-floor. In
doing the same chores described under previous illustra-
tion on page 845, only a little over 30 miles need be trav-
eled, and but 2.24 days would be required. The water is
piped to the hog-house and barns, greatly reducing the
labor. The feec^in'^-floor joins the corn-crib and hog-*
house, and the machine-shed is only 30 feet distant from
the barn.

PLANNING FARM AND FARMSTEAD

847

by the class of stock that is to use them, the position of the buildings and
the drainage of the land. Sheltered lots that drain away from the buildiligs
are to be preferred. One-half acre to an acre in extent will generally meet
the needs for most any class of stock on the average size farm. For the
minor classes, smaller ones may be sufficient.

The garden calls for careful arrangement within itself, in order to make
it as sightly as possible and at the same time economize in the garden work.
The small fruits and all perennials, such as asparagus and rhubarb, should

w.jK^.»iit^.jr^»..- ^imR.«'.i

^.'2.-^»rjSi^-f~k.^i

General View of a Well- arranged Farmstead.*

be brought together in one portion of the garden, preferably with the taller
growing ones in the further background. These should be arranged in
rows as long as the dimensions of the garden will permit and with sufficient
space between for horse cultivation.

The annual crops should occupy another portion, preferably in the
foreground with the corn and tall-growing plants to one side or in the rear.
It will be necessary, however, to plan the plantings of annual crops with a
view of crop rotation. Such will lessen the difficulties with plant diseases
and help to maintain satisfactory yields and high quality. The garden
should be planned with this rotation in view, and the rotation should pro-

*Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From " How to Choose a Farm," by Hunt.

mitU.-^:i^-:-

m^^yfv

846

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

shrubbery. A lawn

^ ^A ^ ff/?0 Vf * WOODLAND <3)^d % ^ ^

/^06 LOTS

GARDEN

?v*

PUBLIC

HIGH WAV

of moderate size
planted with a lim-
ited number of orna-
mental trees and
shrubs artistically
grouped with plenty
of open space for air
circulation and good
views, is desirable.

Arrangement of
Orchard, Garden and
Lots. — The orchard
may serve for fruit
supply, ornamental
features and wind pro-
tection. Its position
need not necessarily
be especially near the
house. Often, how-
ever, it will be found
advantageous to util-
ize it as runs for
poultry, or as pas-
ture for pigs, calves
and lambs. These
features should be
considered in connec-
tion with its location
and relation to the
buildings.

It is more impor-
tant to have the gar-
den easy of access, and
it may lie in any direction from the house so long as it is not brought
conspicuously to the front. Vegetable gardens at certain seasons are, as a
rule, weedy and more or less unsightly, and should, therefore, be kept in
the background.

The position and size of the paddocks or feedlots will be determined

^ Courtesy of Lyons & Carnahan. Chicago. From " Farm Management," by Boss.

m»pJi*»i mm

The Farmstead Rearran(;ed for Economy.^

Buildings moved and more closely grouped. 1 — Farm-
house. 2 — Poultry-house. 3 — Hog-house. 4 — Horse-
barn. 5 — Smoke-house. 6 — Milk and well-house. 7 —
Corn-crib. 8 — Machine-shed. 9 — Ice-house. 10 — Cow-
barn. 11 — Silo. 12 — Hog-shed. 13 — Feeding-floor. In
doing the same chores described under previous illustra-
tion on page 845, only a little over 30 miles need be trav-
eled, and but 2.24 days would be required. Tlie water is
piped to the hof?;-house and barns, greatly reducing the
labor. The feec'in'^-floor joins the corn-crib and hog-'
house, and the machine-shed is only 30 feet distant from
the barn.

PLANNING FARM AND FARMSTEAD

847

by the class of stock that is to use them, the position of the buildings and
the drainage of the land. Sheltered lots that drain away from the buildings
are to be preferred. One-half acre to an acre in extent will generally meet
the needs for most any class of stock on the average size farm. For the
minor classes, smaller ones may be sufficient.

:'^f^rmT<-'^'''^.^n%m

General View of a Well- arranged Farmstead.*

The annual crops should occupy another portion, preferably in the
foreground 'with the corn and tall-growing plants to one side or in the rear.
It will be necessary, however, to plan the plantings of annual crops with a
view of crop rotation. Such will lessen the difficulties with plant diseases
and help to maintain satisfactory yields and high quality. The garden
should be planned with this rotation in view, and the rotation should pro-

» Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, X. Y. From " How to Choose a Farm," by Hunt.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

848

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

vide for legumes, such as beans and peas, every third or fourth year, so as
to avoid the successive plantings of cabbage, cauliflower and other crops
that are Ukely to be affected with diseases as a result of continuous cropping.

It is generally advisable to fence the garden against poultry. This is
better than to confine the poultry within a limited enclosure. After the
planting season is over and the garden crops are well estabhshed, there are
periods of time when poultry may be more beneficial in the garden than
harmful. Young chickens catch many insects and feed upon quantities
of weeds and weed seeds, and except for injury to the fruits or berries, may
do little harm in the garden.

Grouping the Buildings.— The farm buildings should be grouped with
reference to economy in doing the chores and with the object of good appear-
ance. Both of these features call for careful consideration. From the
architectural standpoint, it may be wise to consult the landscape architect,
but from the standpoint of economy in work, no one is better able to calcu-
late the position of the several buildings and their distance from each other
in relation to economy in the work than is the farmer himself. The hcrse
l)arn, machine shed and shop should be located near each other and on the
main lane that leads to the largest number of fields. This arrangement
reduces to the minimum the time in caring for the horses and machinery
and connecting them up with the field work. The buildings in which ani-
mals are sheltered, and those used for storing feed are generally visited
several times daily throughout the year. A few yards added to the distance
between those visited in this way means many miles in the course of a year.
One needs only to make some calculations in order to ascertain how much
time can be saved by a better arrangement and lessening the distance
between buildmgs. It is always wise, however, to have the barns 100 feet
or more distant from the house or any other buildings in which fire is niain-
tained at any time during the year. This lessens the danger of less by
fires and furthermore reduces the insurance rates on barns ancl outbuildings.

All of the buildings should be in keeping with the farm. The size of
the farm and the value of the land will determine in a large measure the
size and quality of the buildings. It is seldom wise to l)uild an expensive
house or barn on a small farm or on cheap land. This principle holds even
in city building where it is not considered good business to build an expen-
sive house on a cheap lot, or vice versa.

In all parts of the country are found farms which are over-capitalized
with buildings, and it is not unusual to see a farm advertised for sale, the
buildings on which cost more than is asked for the farm. These are exam-
ples of farm buildings that were either illy adapted to the type of farming or
too expensive to enable the farm to maintain them.

It is always wise to provide ample shelter and sufficient storage to meet
the needs of the type of farming. Storage capacity often enables the
farmer to hold his products for the best market prices. In starting the
new farm, however, it is better to defer building until one is sure of what he

PLANNING FARM AND FARMSTEAD

849

needs than it is to build hastily. Energy and money spent in raising
crops in the beginning will place the farm on a good financial basib sooner
than to put all capital into buildings at the sacrifice of working capital.

Buildings should be located and constructed with reference to future
needs. When a barn is being built a place should be provided for other
buildings that will be needed in the future, in order that they may bear

A Farm Over-capitalized with Buildings.^
Buildings too extensive for average business farming.

proper relation to the barn. If enlargement of the business contemplates
enlarging the barn, this should be provided for at the outset.

Numbers of farmhouses, the result of additions from time to time with-
out reference to future needs, are striking illustrations of the lack of fore-
thought in this respect.

Few buildings with ample capacity are generally more economical,
both from the standpoint of construction and upkeep, than many small
buildings having equal capacity. The less the number of buildings, the
greater the economy in doing the chores.

Water Supply. — The well or water supply for the farm should be

» Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y, From "Farm Management," by Cord.

^ii*:Kf:

848

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

vide for legumes, such as beans and peas, every third or fourth year, so as
to avoid the successive plantings of cabbage, cauliflower and other crops
that are likely to be affected with diseases as a result of continuous cropping.

It is generally advisable to fence the garden against poultry. TJiis is
better than to confine the poultry within a limited enclosure. After the
planting season is over and the garden crops are w^ell established, thoie are
periods of time when poultry may be more beneficial in the garden than
harmful. Young chickens catch many insects and feed upon quantities
of weeds and weed seeds, and except for injury to the fruits or berries, may
do little harm in the garden.

Grouping the Buildings. — The farm buildings should be grouped with
lofcrence to economy in doing the chores and with the object of good ai)pear-
ance. Both of these features call for careful consideration. From the
architectural standpoint, it may be wise to consult the landscape architect,
l)ut from the standpoint of economy in work, no one is better able to calcu-
late the position of the several buildings and their distance from each other
in relation to economy in the work than is the farmer himself. The hcrse
l)arn, machine shed and shop should be located near each other and on the
main lane that leads to the largest number of fields. This arrangement
reduces to the minimum the time in caring for the horses and machinery
and connecting them up with the field work. The buildings in which ani-
mals are sheltered, and those used for storing feed are generally visited
several times daily throughout the year. A few yards added to the distance
l)etween those visited in this way means many miles in the course of a year.
One needs only to make some calculations in order to ascertain how nmch
lime can be saved by a better arrangement and lessening the distance
between ])uildings. It is always wise, however, to have the i)arns 100 feet
or more distant from the house or any other buildings in wliich fire is n.ain-
tained at any time during the year. This lessens the danger of loss l)y
fires and fui-thermore reduces the insurance rates on barns ancl outbuildings.

All of the buildings should be in keeping with the farm. The size of
the farm and the value of the land will determine in a large measure the
size and quality of the buildings. It is seldom wise to Imild an expensive
house or barn on a small farm or on cheap land. This principle Iiolds even
in city building where it is not considered good business to build an expen-
sive house on a cheap lot, or vice versa.

In all parts of the country are found farms which are over-caj^italized
with buildings, and it is not unusual to see a farm advertised for sale, the
buildings on which cost more than is asked for the farm. These are exam-
p.les of farm buildings that were either illy adapted to the type of farming or
too expensive to enable the farm to maintain them.

PLANNING FARM AND FARMSTEAD

849

needs than it is to build hastily. Energy and money spent in raising
crops in the beginning will place the farm on a good financial basi^ sooner
than to put all capital into buildings at the sacrifice of working capital.

Buildings should be located and constructed with reference to future
needs. When a barn is l)eing built a place should be provided for othc^r
buildings that will be needed in the future, in order that they may bear

m^-.mt

^~^'"— ■ "^^l'

-^ ^ ...j^m.

nur np- -n' " --•

_.-f S f •!

»^.^^^i^^.<.v»v -

'''-^^^^-'^^y^i^utti.f,,,,,,,,,^ ••■."!??^v*''? i-ir:-- ■ vy,

:«»?» V

;j?t9«^>^»

■JS*'.^ .'-.'\M«g.1»..'MmBJ

>»>!^.£'>^5'**' ,„.

'■i.^!i■^-^■?'■':'♦•:<n^,

■w* _«?;y?r^

•vW^V

A Farm Over-capitalized with Buildings. ^
Buildings loo extensive for average husiness farming.

proper relation to the barn. If enlargement of tlie business contemplates
enlarging the barn, this should be provided for at the outset.

Numbers of farmhouses, the result of additions from time to time with-
out reference to future needs, are striking illustrations of the* lack of fore-
thought in this respect.

Water Supply. — The well or water supply for the farm should be

» Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N. Y, From "Farm Management," by Cord.

IM)

') I

ill

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

.^:^.'*?»
:'i^&

'A V

850

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

brought to a central location that will be easily accessible to the farm
family, as well as to all livestock on the farm. Where gravity systems are
feasible, or where wind or gasoline power can be provided, water may be
forced through pipes to different points on the farmstead, and the time
required in watering stock thus greatly reduced. As far as possible, water
should be in all feedlots and paddocks, and running water in the house
saves many steps on the part of the housewife or other members of the
family.

Relation of Buildings to Farm. — The farmhouse should be set in the
foreground of the farmstead, and, when possible, should occupy a prom-
inence that will afford drainage and enable the farm family to have a good
outlook in as many directions as possible. From the business standpoint,

Adequate but not OyER-CAPiTALizED.

the more of the farm that can be seen directly from the house, the better.
There is nearly always some member of the family there, and if stock
escape from the pasture, or the neighbor's cattle break into the grain fields,
the trouble may be detected and damage avoided.

In most localities an east or a south front for the farmhouse is pre-
ferred.

In type, a farmhouse differs from the city house. It should be built
on broader lines and not so tall as the city house. Numerous gables or
striking shapes are more noticeable in the country house and should be
largely avoided. Since the back of the farmhouse is more extensively
used than that of the city house, relatively more attention should be given
to its construction, appearance and convenience. The back yard of the
farmhouse frequently comes more into prominence than the front yard.
Since all travel is done by team or automobile which find their housing in

PLANNING FARM AND FARMSTEAD

851

the rear, the farmer seldom leaves by the front door or through the front
yard. Even visitors often drive directly to the barn, where their team is
cared for, and enter the house at the rear.

The interior arrangement of farm buildings and plans for their construc-
tion will be found in Chapter 57.

Sightliness and Healthfulness.— The appearance of the farmstead and
the buildings which it contains may be greatly enhanced by natural
features. These should be taken advantage of in selecting the site. The
arrangement of the buildings and the ornamental planting, together with
the type of architecture and the use of paint of suitable shades should be
considered also. The ornamental plantings are discussed in Chapter 41.

Healthfulness is often closely related to one's surroundings. Ill
health may result from living on wet land or in close proximity to stagnant
ponds of water. This should be avoided in locating the farmstead. Where
surface water is depended upon, contamination of the water supply often
results in sickness. A proper location of the well which is to provide
a healthful water supply is quite as important as the location of the
farmstead.

Size, Shape and Number of Fields. — The size and shape of the fields
on a farm are determined to a considerable extent by the size and shape of
the farm. For most economical cultivation, fields should be fairly large
and rectangular in shape. Fields twice as long as they are broad are gen-
erally preferable to square fields. Long fields lessen the number of turns in
the operation of farm machinery, thus avoiding wasted time. Triangular
fields, or those of irregular shape, necessitate irregularity in the length of
the rows, and are more expensive to plow, seed, till and harvest than rec-
tangular fields.

The more horses one drives the greater the necessity for large fields.
In most kinds of general farming, fields should be at least 40 rods long; 80
rods is much better and 160 rods is ample. Little is to be gained by having
fields more than half a mile in length. Ordinarily teams should rest for a
few minutes during each half mile of travel when doing field-work.

Large fields waste less land than small ones. Some space is required
along the margins of the field for turning rows, especially when the fields
are fenced. The smaller the field, the larger the percentage of land wasted
in this way. Even though crops are planted close to the borders of the
field, considerable will be wasted along the turning rows in both cultivation
and harvesting.

Large fields economize in the cost of fencing, and the shape of the field
is also a factor in the relative cost of fencing. A strip of land 1 rod wide
and 160 rods long contains 1 acre and would require 322 rods of fence to
enclose it. One acre in the form of a square requires about 50 rods of
fence; 10 acres in the form of a square requires 16 rods of fence per acre;
40 acres in the form of a square requires only 8 rods of fence per acre;
while a square mile requires only 2 rods of fence per acre. The most

; 1

I .'

#{«'■?

^•M!^$iB%f^,

jMkm^^-^'&^f'T^^m^^.

850

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

brought to a central location that will be easily accessible to the farm
family, as well as to all livestock on the farm. Where gravity systems are
feasible, or where wind or gasoline power can be provided, water may be
forced through pipes to different points on the farmstead, and the time
lequired in watering stock thus greatly reduced. As far as possible, water
should be in all feedlots and paddocks, and running water in the house
saves many steps on the part of the housewife or other members of the
family.

-Mv.;-

^r*

/*r»V-v->

Adequate but not Over-capitalized.

In most localities an east or a south front for the farmhouse is pre-
ferred.

WES^^Cf^

PLANNING FARM AND FARMSTEAD

851

the rear, the farmer seldom leaves by the front door or through the front
yard. Even visitors often drive directly to the barn, where their team is
cared for, and enter the house at the rear.

The interior arrangement of farm buildings and plans for their construc-
tion will be found in Chapter 57.

Sightliness and Healthfulness. — The appearance of the farmstead and
the buildings which it contains may be greatly enhanced by natural
features. These should be taken advantage of in selecting the site. The
arrangement of the buildings and the ornamental planting, together with
the type of architecture and the use of paint of suitable shades should be
considered also. The ornamental plantings are discussed in Chapter 41.

Size, Shape and Number of Fields.— The size and shape of the fields
on a farm are determined to a considerable extent by the size and shape of
the farm. For most economical cultivation, fields should be fairly large
and rectangular in shape. Fields twice as long as they are broad are gen-
erally preferable to square fields. Long fields lessen the number of turns in
the operation of farm machiner}^ thus avoiding wasted time. Triangular
fields, or those of irregular shape, necessitate irregularity in the length of
the rows, and are more expensive to plow, seed, till and harvest than rec-
tangular fields.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

iMI

(

852

SUCCESSFUL' FARMING

economical fence and the one occupying the minimum of space is the
woven wire fence. This calls for very strong deeply-set and well-braced
corner posts. Fields of irregular shape have more corners and increase
the expense of brace posts.

It is much better to have a few large fields than many small ones. The
number of fields should be determined by the crop rotations, there being
one field for each crop or each year in the rotation. In some cases, streams,
woodlots, roads or railways may interfere with the regularity in shape of

A 100-AcRE Farm Poorly Arranged.*

fields and uniformity in size. The plan for the fields should be such as to
obviate these difficulties as much as possible.

Distance to Fields. — The distance from the farmstead to fields should
be as short as possible and the reduction in this distance will depend greatly
on the size, shape and arrangement of the fields. Time spent in traveling
to and from the fields is unproductive. The number of trips in the course of
a year are many. If the average distance to fields is reduced by twenty rods
as a result of proper planning, many miles of travel and many hours of
time on the part of the men and teams will be saved in a year. Even
though the average distance of the farmlands from the farmstead is not
changed, bringing the nearest portion of the field close to the farmstead
greatly facilitates the work. All tillage, seeding and harvesting operations
should be so planned that the machine and team begin work at once upon

* Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "Farm Management," by Warren.

PLANNING FARM AND FARMSTEAD

853

reaching the nearest point of the field. It is unwise to finish the work of
that portion of the field nearest the farmstead, and thus travel over it
unoccupied to reach the more remote portions. The hauling of the prod-
ucts from the field and the manure to the field may, to a certain extent,
be planned in the same way. Only when the field is so long that a load can
be gathered or unloaded in passing less than twice across the field, is there
any loss in this respect.

Variation in topography and character of soil will sometimes influence
the shape and direction of the lines of the field. It is desirable as far as

The Farm Rearranged for Economy in Cultivation and Saving

IN Waste Land and Fences.^

possible to have fields uniform in character of soil, for this facilitates uni-
formity in treatment and rate of seeding.

Rotation Groups. — Under present conditions, the arrangement of
fields on a farm most generally becomes a question of remodeling the farm.
To lay out a farm from the beginning, the fields should be free from crops,
but since this is usually not feasible, it is necessary to change the plan by
degrees. It will usually require two or three years to establish the change
and sajtisfactory rotation. Sometimes it will take four years to do it.
' WheretWO rotations are advisable, two groups of fields are called for,
one for the njajor rotation consisting of. large fields, and theother for the
minor, made' up of small fields. • The latter should lie adjacent to the

1 Courtesy of The MacmUlan Company, N. Y. From "Farm Management," by Warren.

1 •;;

854

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

farmstead. The small fields, if not immediately adjacent to the farm-
stead, should be connected with it by short lanes, and these should generally
be fenced. Such fields will be most frequently used for summer forage and
pasture purposes.

Farm Lanes, Roads and Fences. — Farm lanes should be sufficiently
wide for the convenient passage of all types of farm machinery to and from
the fields, and where gates are necessary, they should be sufficiently wide
to permit the passage of wide machines, such as hay-rakes and binders.
Seldom should a lane be less than two rods in width. Lanes that are
fenced and through which livestock frequently pass may be considerably
wider, providing they can be pastured. Such lanes are fully utilized and

A Good Farm Fence. ^

provide for some latitude in the roadway in case the road becomes too
bad and difficult for heavy hauling.

The ideal road arrangement is to have the public road pass through
the center of the farm. While this takes more of the farm land than when
the road passes along the border of the farm, the saving in time in reaching
all parts of the farm over a good public road more than offsets the loss in
land. Where such roads are available, farmers are advised to have their
buildings all on one side. To have the house on one side and the barn on
the other is both dangerous and inconvenient. Such an arrangement calls
for fences and gates to keep the livestock within the farm fields and out of
the public highway. If such provision is not made, stock may be injured
by automobiles, or passersby may be injured as a result of the stock being
in the highway.

Unnecessary fences are frequently provided at much expense. Many

1 Courtesy of Wallace's Farmer,

PLANNING FARM AND FARMSTEAD

855

farms and fields, expensively fenced, could be better utilized in the absence
of fences. In the better and more prosperous grain-growing districts many
farms have no fences other than those about the farmstead. On general
and livestock farms it is advisable to have the farm as a whole enclosed by
a good stock fence that will afford protection from the encroachment of
stock of neighbors or from stock escaping on to neighbor's land. Aside
from this, the only fences advisable are those enclosing the permanent
pasture, the paddocks and the farmstead. It is true that having all fields
fenced enables the farmer to pasture such fields temporarily when forage is
available. Utilization of such material, however, can frequently be

The Farm Sketch That is Useful for Recording Crops Grown,
Yields, Place of Applying Manure, Lime, etc.^

arranged for without permanent fences. Stock may be herded a few hours
each day during the short period when pasture is thus available at small
cost, or temporary fences may sometimes be provided and shifted from year
to year as the temporary grazing shifts from field to field in the rotation.
The type of fence is important from the standpoint of land occupied,
effectiveness, diu'ability and first cost. The old type of rail fence is no
longer economical. Hedge fences once were quite desirable, but today have
been universally discarded except in a small way and for ornamental pur-
poses. The standard woven wire fence, well built, is both effective and
economical. It occupies little land and calls for little work in keeping the
fence row free from weeds.

* Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, New York. From "Farm Management/' by Warren.

«j^; ■'. ■-'"r

854

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

farmstead. The small fields, if not immediately adjacent to the farm-
stead, should be connected with it by short lanes, and these should generally
])e fenced. Such fields will be most frequently used for summer forage and
l)asture purposes.

A Good Farm Fence. ^

provide for some latitude in the roadway in case the road becomes too
bad and difficult for heavy hauling.

Unnecessary fences are frequently provided at much expense. Many

^ Courtesy of Wallaco's Farmer.

PLANNING FARM AND FARMSTEAD

855

— ■"

/ 1

"QST^

■

'!^

df 3

*-i ■

[ 8 1

1 ^

.1,

The Farm Sketch That is IJsefitl for Recording Crops Grown,
Yields, Place of Applying Manure, Lime, etc.^

arranged for without permanent fences. Stock may be herded a few hours
each day during the short period when pasture is thus available at small
cost, or temporary fences may sometimes be provided and shifted from year
to year as the temporar}^ grazing shifts from field to field in the rotation.
The type of fence is important from the standpoint of land occupied,
effectiveness, durability and first cost. The old type of rail fence is no
longer economical. Hedge fences once were quite desirable, but today have
been universally discarded except in a small way and for ornamental pur-
poses. The standard woven wire fence, well built, is both effective and
economical. It occupies Httle land and calls for little work in keeping the
fence row free from weeds.

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, New York. From "Farm Management," by Warren.

{{ I,

'! i

■I i

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

m::^^'^mmmm^^m;s^

-t\

856

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Rearranging Farms. — As a rule, farms in the older sections of the
country contain many small, irregular fields. These should be combined
in a systematic way and the number reduced to meet the crop rotation most
desirable. Such revision calls for careful thought, considerable work and
some expense. Qften stone fences or rows of trees and shrubbery will have
to be removed in order to unite small fields. Such revision brings into
cultivation land that is now absolutely wasted and increases the economy
in the farm operations. It enables the use of larger teams and bigger
machines which cannot be economically used on very small, irregular fields.
One needs to figure on the saving in time and land for the years to come as
compared with the expense called for in the remodehng process. As a
rule, the work of cleaning up old fence rows can be performed at odd times
when the crops and animals of the farm do not call for all the time of the
farmer. From this standpoint, the cost may be comparatively slight.

The accompanying sketches show a farm before and after revision in
this way and bring out the decided advantages of the new plan

Crop Ledger Plan. — A plan of the farm drawn to scale, showing the
size and shape of fields and location of buildings, woodlots, etc., is always
desirable. Such a plan is necessary in connection with working up a new
plan for the farm. After the new plan has been arranged, a number of
copies may be provided so there may be one copy for each year on which
may be entered the name of the crop grown on each field, the acres con-
tained and the yield secured. This forms a permanent record, if kept, and
gives a history of the cropping of the fields.

If desirable, two copies may be used, one to show the fields which have
received manure from year to year, in order that manure may be equally
distributed over the entire farm. The use of this system is illustrated in
the accompanying sketch.

REFERENCES
''The Farmstead." Roberts.
Illinois Expt. Station Bulletin 105.

Wisconsin Expt. Station Bulletin 105. "Improvement of Home Grounds."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 236.
Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

317. Pages 5-10. ''Planning a Home."

370. ''Replanning a Farm for Profit."

ijtv^ U .]

CHAPTER' 69

LAND RENTAL AND FARM TENANTRY

Methods of renting land are becoming of greater importance. Accord-
ing to census figures there were 2,354,676 tenants in the United States in
1910. This constitutes 37 per cent of all farms, as compared with 35.3
per cent in 1900 and 28.4 per cent in 1890.

¥. lii/j*

'l^M^'^:'

^^■i*v

:y,;«i^'

^=tU,i«. ■-''-'

Typical Farm Impkovements in a Ywim (-ommunity where Tenantry

Prevails.*

The report shows further that while 37 per cent of farms are rented,
22 per cent are on the share basis, 11.2 per cent on a cash basis and 2 per
cent on a combination cash and share rent. The system of rental for the
remaining 1.8 per cent is not given.

Is Tenantay Desirable? — Much has been written relative to the evils
of farm tenantry, but it is not necessarily a curse to the country. The

» Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, N . Y. From "Farm Management," by Cord.

(857)

ii^

t
I

'*""^m:M

850

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Rearranging Farms. — As a rule, farms in the older sections of the
country contain many small, irregular fields. These should be combined
in a systematic way and the number reduced to meet the crop rotation most
desirable. Such revision calls for careful thought, considerable work and
some expense. Qften stone fences or rows of trees and shrubbery will have
to ])e removed in order to unite small fields. Such revision brings into
cultivation land that is now absolutely wasted and increases the economy
in the farm operations. It enables the use of larger teams and bigger
machines which cannot be economically used on very small, irregular fields.
One needs to figure on the saving in time and land for the years to come as
compared with the expense called for in the remodeling process. As a
rule, the work of cleaning up old fence rows can be performed at odd times
when the crops and animals of the farm do not call for all the time of the
farmer. From this standpoint, the cost may be comparatively slight.

The accompanying sketches show a farm before and after revision in
this way and ])ring out the decided advantages of the new plan

If desiral)lo, two coi)ies may be used, one to show the fields which have
received manure from year to year, in order that manure may be equally
distributed over the entire farm. The use of this system is illustrated in
the accompanying sketch.

REFERENCES
"Tho Farmstead." Roberts.
Illinois Expt. Station Bulletin 105.

Wisconsin Expt. Station Bulletin 105. ''Improvement of Home Grounds."
I^ S. Dcpt. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 236.
Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

317. Pages 5-10. ''Planning a Home."

370. "Replanning a Farm for Profit."

CHAPTER '69

LAND Rental and farm Tenantry

w»i ■

Typical Farm Imphovements in a Fakm Commi nity whkke Tknantry

Pkevails.i

Is Tenantry Desirable? — Much has been written relative to the evils
of farm tenantry, but it is not necessarily a curse to the country. The

» Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City. N.Y. From "Farm Management," by Cord.

(857)

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

858

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

evils depend upon the land-owner and the tenant, rather than upon the
system. Where both conspire to rob the soil, the landlord will ultimately
be forced to sell and eventually the tenant will have to discontinue renting.
The landlord should pursue a policy that will provide fojr the maintenance
of permanent soil fertility, and should offer terms that will secure the
co-operation of a tenant who can see the advantage of such a system.

There are marked advantages in the long-time lease for both landlord
and tenant, but as yet relatively few land-holders are willing to enter into
long contracts with tenants. Investigations show that permanency on the
part of a tenant makes for a higher standard of farming than where tenants
are changing annually from farm to farm.

Relation to Progress. — In these times of extensive co-operation, a
shifting tenant population blocks progress along agricultural lines. Such
movement, common in the South and in the prairie states, affects not
only marketing, but the character of schools, churches and other helpful
institutions.

Closer sympathy between owner and tenant is needed. - Both should
realize that a farm will not stand the old-time drain on fertility and con-
tinue to yield a profit. In England, where tenantry is usually common, the
long-time lease prevails. There legislation has been enacted in the interest
of both landlord and tenant, providing for the adjustment of capital
invested in improvements or fertilizers, in case the tenant leaves.

Classes of Land-Owners. — There are three classes of land-owners that
rent their land, viz., retired farmers, who think the rent of the farm will
enable them to live in town; business men, who buy farms for an invest-
ment ; and speculators, who buy because they expect a rise in land values.
These all rent to men who cultivate the land. The contracts made between
owner and tenant should be such a^ to provide for permanent improve-
ments and for soil fertility better than would be necessary if the owner
farmed the land. Two families, instead of one, must live from the farm
returns.

Under the present system of tenantry, ownership on the part of the
tiller of the soil has decided advantages. It stimulates interest in building
up the farm and providing improvements.

Farming with Small Capital. — Land values have increased so rapidly
that profitable farm ownership requires considerable capital. As a result,
men with limited capital are obliged to farm as tenants. This enables them
to put all their capital into livestock and equipment. Investigations show
that they generally make more on rented farms than they possibly could
on farms of such size as their limited capital would enable them to purchase.
Recent farm surveys in Indiana, Illinois and Iowa show that tenants with
$1758, $2867 and $2667, respectively, invested in machinery and live-
stock, made average labor incomes of $755, $1139 and $716, respectively.
The average labor income of farm owners for these same districts in the
same year was only $310, $622 and $291, respectively. The capitalization

LAND RENTAL AND FARM TENANTRY 859

in case of the owners was $17,000, $51,000 and $23,000, respectively, 5 per
cent interest on the investment being considered as part of the expense
this percentage being deducted in order to find the labor income.

Starting as a Tenant. — It is seldom advantageous for a young man to
start farming as a tenant with less than $1000 in capital. The good farm
workman will generally make more as a farm laborer than he can make
with a capital of less than $1000.

In most of the livestock, grain and hay regions, one should have from
$1500 to $2000 worth of stock and equipment before one is ready to start
as a tenant. Part of this may be borrowed. In such regions a tenant with
$3000 can run a business with a total capital of about $15,000.

It is usually better to rent a good farm than a poor one. Half the crop
on good land is frequently equal to the entire crop on poor land.

If land is Ukely to rise in value, a tenant is justified in purchasing a
farm sooner than would otherwise be advantageous. Increase in land
values are sometimes greater than rents or interest.

Basis of Rental. —
The rent or share of
crops demanded by the
landlord should be in
proportion to his risk
and trouble. Cash rent
involves little trouble
on his part and no risk.
It is, therefore, the
cheapest form of rent.

The more the land-
lord furnishes, the

larger is his risk. He n i r r + i

takes a risk on weather conditions and upon the possible loss of livestock
The more the landlord furnishes, the greater the necessity on his part of
looking after his interest. This demands considerable of his time, and
he therefore should have a larger proportion of the products.

The extreme of this system occurs in the South with the negro tenants
where the landlord supplies everything and trusts the tenant for his

^""Tnvestigations in Tompkins County, N. Y., show that landlords
who rent for cash averaged 5.2 per cent on their investment while those
owning part of the stock and equipment and receiving half the i)roceeds,
made 9 per cent. In the same county, tenants renting for casli averaged
$604 yearly for their labor, while those renting for a share averaged only

$342 a year for their labor. ' ; , i . j. ^

As a general principle, tenants who are good farmers had best rent for
cash when possible. They assume all responsibility and all risk of loss, but
by good management generally make more than by rentmg for shares.

The Home of a Negro Tenant in the South.

'T|

*l|

I t

"" '. •'■■V-,

858

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

evils depend upon the land-owner and the tenant, rather than upon the
system. Where both conspire to rob the soil, the landlord will ultimately
be forced to sell and eventually the tenant will have to discontinue renting.
The landlord should pursue a policy that will provide for the maintenance
of permanent soil fertility, and should offer terms that will secure the
co-operation of a tenant who can see the advantage of such a system.

Relation to Progress. — In these times of extensive co-operation, a
shifting tenant population blocks progress along agricultural lines. Such
movement, conmion in the South and in the prairie states, affects not
only marketing, but the character of schools, churches and other helpful
institutions.

Under the present system of tenantry, ownership on the part of the
tiller of the soil has decided advantages. It stimulates interest in building
up the farm and providing improvements.

Fanning with Small Capital. — Land values have increased so rapidly
that profitable farm ownership requires considerable capital. As a result,
men with limited capital are obliged to farm as tenants. This enables them
to put all their capital into livestock and equipment. Investigations show
that they generally make more on rented farms than they possibly could
on farms of such size as their limited capital would enable them to purchase.
Recent farm surveys in Indiana, Illinois and Iowa show that tenants with
$1758, $2867 and $2667, respectively, invested in machinery and live-
stock, made average labor incomes of $755, $1139 and $716, respectively.
The average labor income of farm owners for these same districts in the
same year was only $310, $622 and $291, respectively. The capitalization

LAND RENTAL AND FARM TENANTRY 859

Starting as a Tenant.— It is seldom advantageous for a young man to
start farming as a tenant with less than $1000 in capital. The good farm
workman will generally make more as a farm laborer than he can make
with a capital of less than $1000.

It is usually better to rent a good farm than a poor one. Half the crop
on good land is frequently equal to the entire crop on poor land.

If land is Ukely to rise in value, a tenant is justified in purchasing a
farm sooner than would otherwise be advantageous. Increase in land
values are sometimes greater than rents or interest.

The more the land-
lord furnishes, the
larger is his risk. He

The Home of a Negro Texant in the South.

takes a risk on weather conditions and upon the possible lossof hvestock
The more the landlord furnishes, the greater the necessity on his part of
looking after his interest. This demands considerable of his time, and
he therefore should have a larger proportion of the products.

The extreme of this system occurs in the South with the negro tenants
where the landlord supplies everything and trusts the tenant for his

^"'investigations in Tompkins County, N Y., show that landlords
who rent for cash averaged 5.2 per cent on the.r investment while those
r^ing part of the stock and equipment and receivmg half the proceeds,
3e 9 per cent. In the same county, tenants renting for ciish averaged
S yearly for their labor, while those renting for a share averaged only

$342 a year for their labor. ' "L i u 4- «*.+ ^..t.

As a general principle, tenants who are good farmers had ^est rent or

cash when possible. They assume all responsibility and all nsk of loss, but

by g^od management generally make more than by renting for shares.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

'_jii«/-J ;.',"■

'.^assssssasii.

860

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

One who is just starting as a farmer will often do better by renting for
shares from a good landlord who will give close supervision to the manage-
ment of the farm. A landlord's good judgment and experience in farming
will be of much assistance to an inexperienced tenant.

Systems of Rental. — The method of renting land varies greatly, but
there are three general methods, which are subject to variation: (1) the
landlord may furnish only the land; (2) he may furnish land, half the live-
stock, other than work animals, and pay half of the feed, fertilizer and seed
bills; and (3) he may furnish everything but the labor.

Renting for shares is more common than any other system. The
division of the farm proceeds may be based on the gross receipts or upon
net returns. The former is much more conmion. The basis of division is
determined by the relative responsibility and interest of the landlord and
tenant. The more working capital the landlord has invested, the larger
will be his share of the farm products.

In most of the eastern states, the tenant and owner each pay one-half
of the running expenses of the farm, such as feed, fertilizers, spraying
material, binder twine, etc., and divide the proceeds equally. Under this
system, the owner pays for all permanent repairs, improvements on
])uil(lings and land, taxes and sometimes half the school taxes. The tenant
fuinishes all the labor, all tools and implements, the work stock and pays
the school taxes. Where dairy cows al*e kept, their ownership is frequently
shared equally. Under this arrangement the equal division of all products
between landlord and tenant is a fair division in most regions where
general ^farming prevails. The more intensive the type of farming, the
larger should be the tenant's share of the products. Tenants can seldom
afford to spend most of their time milking cows and raising such crops as
potatoes for one-half the products. In this kind of farming, labor consti-
tutes a large part of the cost of production and the burden of this falls
entirely on the tenant.

Cash Rental. — Good farms rented for cash often bring better returns
than land ownership. This gives the tenant independence in the conduct
of his methods of farming and he reaps the benefit of all special efforts that
he puts forth. If better tillage increases crop yields, he receives the full
Ix^nefit of his effort.

If a long lease can be secured, there is nearly as much inducement to
Ixiild up the fertility of the soil as if he were the owner.

Advantages of Share Rental. — Renting land on shares lessens the
investment on the part of the renter and makes it possible for some men to
farm who would not be able to buy or rent for cash. The lower the value
of the land rented, the larger should be the tenant's share of the farm
products; the greater the intensity of the type of farming and the larger
the cost on the part of the tenant, the larger should be his share of the
products. The chief disadvantage in share renting lies in the fact that the
tenant receives only a share of the increased yield of crops that may

LAND RENTAL AND FARM TEN AN TRY 8(31

result from extra tillage. For example, if a tenant puts an extra dollar per
acre into the preparation of land for wheat, and gets an increased yield of
two bushels per acre, selling for 90 cents per bushel, he loses 10 cents per
acre, although the landlord profits 90 cents per acre.

In the newer regions, where grain is the chief crop, tne tenant usually

gets three-fifths of the crop, and usually agrees to deliver the landlord's

two-fifths at the nearest market place. The tenant generally gets all the

straw, corn stocks and other by-products, for use on the farm. Where land

is very poor or crops uncertain, the tenant may get a larger share. On the

high-priced corn lands in the corn belt, tenants are now getting one-half

of the grain and hay or any other products that may be sold. They are

allowed all straw, stalks and other by-products if they are fed on the farm.

In the eastern part of the United States, where a considerable part of

the crops are fed to livestock, the landlord bears a certain portion of the

expenses and furnishes part of the livestock as previously mentioned, and

gets one-half of all receipts. The straight half-and-half division is fair when

the tenant sells many cash crops, such as corn, wheat and hay. If nearly

all receipts are from dairying and livestock products, he should receive

three-fifths of all the receipts.

Personal Element.— It is to the interest of the landlord to have the
good will of the tenant. This will generally be secured by giving him a fair
deal The proper understanding between the landlord and tenant can best
be secured if each will put himself in the place of the other in their business
dealings. In order to do the square thing with each other, each must
understand that the right thing must be done by the soil. The mainte-
nance of soil fertility is to the best interest of both of them, and is hkewise
a matter of interest to the general public. If this situation is thoroughly
understood, there is little need of legislation.

Legisiation.— The increase in the percentage of farms in this country
that are rented from decade to decade indicates an increased need for
legislation that will protect landlords, tenants, farm lands and the public.
Legislation relative to land tenantry should be preceded by education.
Before we can inteUigently adopt the measures of older nations, we must
ascertain whether or not they will meet local requirements.

The merchant who rents a building in the city uses it, but he does not
improve it. He may be Uable for damages l^eyond reasonable wear and
tear but he never adds to its value. Good tenant farming necessitates
fertility being at least maintained, and it should be improved. The burdc^u
of this falls upon the tenant, and the character of the lease should be such
that he can afford to do it. The tenant uses up the fertility of the soil
hence there is some necessity that the landlord also te protected. It
regulations necessitate the tenant applying fertilizers to the land, the
landlord should be prevented from confiscating the benefits, as he may do
if he finds some rival tenant that will pay a larger rent. Legislation,
therefore, should be framed for the protection of both parties.

862

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

What the Lease Should Contain.— Bulletin 198 of the Wisconsin
Agricultural Experiment Station gives the results of investigations relative
to methods of renting farm land in that state. As a result of these investi-
gations the author gives the following considerations :

''A. The contract should vary with the farm, the tenant and the land-
lord. The three chief requisites of the tenant are honesty, efficiency and
capital. The capable and fair-minded landlord gets better tenants, higher
rents and has many more friends than the grasping type of landlord. In
choosing a farm, fairness of rent, suitability to type of farming most con-
genial to tenants, location with respect to markets, schools, etc., are of
prmiary importance to tenant.

''B. What the lease should contain: A dozen or more phases of the
contract are discussed in detail. Some of the phases will be merely enumer-
ated, while a brief summary of others will be given :

'' 1. A description of the farm as found in the deed.

"2. Uses of property should be stated specifically.

''3. Disposition of products regulates crops that are to be produced
and the forms in which they are sold. Restrictive clauses should be
accompanied by supply of credit to comply with restrictions.

"4. Manure should not be removed from the farm.

^'5. Purchase of feed and fertilizers should be encouraged by ctmpen-
sating the tenant for exhausted fertility added to the land.

"6. Noxious weeds should be destroyed before maturity.

''7. Duration of lease should be longer than one year. Extensions of
one year or more make it possible for less loss in division each year, and
afford the tenant time to realize more fully on labor and investments he
has made. Compensation for unexhausted improvements is the remedy for
many of the evils of the short term lease.

^'8. The amount of rent to be paid depends upon the usefulness cf the
land and the scarcity of land of this grade.

"9. Time of paying rent should be adjusted to the time of the tenant's

sales

'' 10. Guarantee that the rent shall be paid should be obtained either

by statutory law or by agreement.

''11. The agreement should provide for closing the tenancy at the
end of the current year in case either party fails to perform his part.

'' 12. Notice to terminate a lease is used where a contract remains in
force as long as it is mutually agreeable.''

Time of Lease.— The tenant on the one-year lease has little interest
in the fertility of the soil. His chief object is to realize on what fertility
is there. It is not to his interest to turn from grain to livestock farming.
The land, on the other hand, is entitled to stock and the pasture on which
stock should graze. On the one-year lease, it seldom gets it.

The long-term' lease increases the interest of the tenant both with
reference to keeping up a good appearance of the farm buildings and

LAND RENTAL AND FARM TENANTRY 863

maintaining the fertility of the soil. It makes it to his interest to destroy
noxious weeds and haul out all stable manure. Long-time leases enable
him to plan ahead and to establish crop rotations on which he may realize
the most in the long run. They enable him to build up a herd of livestock
of such a kind as may be best adapted to the conditions. Neither land-
lords nor tenants can profit in the long run through short-term leases, espe-
cially if this results in a change of tenant from year to year.

Profits Under Different Methods of Renting. — Investigations show
conclusively that the average tenant makes larger profits when he rents
for cash than he does when renting for shares of either the products or the
net returns. The cash tenant assumes all risk and the largest possible
supervision of the farm and labor, while the tenant who rents for share,
shares the risks with the landlord and frequently is subject to the direction
of the landlord with reference to the manner of farming. In Tompkins
County, N. Y., it was found that cash tenants made an average labor income
of $604,' as compared with $342, the average made by share tenants.

Systems of rental should be flexible and leases drawn to fit the type of
farming engaged in. The equitable division of the farm products should be
determined by the relative cost of labor and expenses on the part of the
tenant as compared with the interest value on the capital on the part of
the landlord.

REFERENCES

''Agricultural Economics." Taylor. , , ,t^ .. t. t j • w • >»

Wisconsin Expt. Station BuUetin 198. ''Methods of Renting Farm Lands m Wisronsm.
Farmers' Bulletin 437, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "A System of Tenant Farmmg and
Its Results."

CHAPTER 70

Farm Labor

Labor is an important factor in the production of all wealth. The
labor of men and teams is the chief item in the cost of producmg general
farm products. Agriculture, therefore, has its labor problem the same as
all otlier productive industries. Farming, however, is ^^f^ i^^^^^^i^^^^^
than other industries, and the labor problem on farms should be less difhcult.

Social Relation of Farm Labor.— It is often necessary for the farm
laborer to eat at the same table with the farm owner and mmgle freely with
tlio farm family. In this respect farm labor differs from most other kinds.
For this reason^ there can be less difference in the social standing of employer
and employee than in most other industries. Industrial corporations do
not discriminate against employment of southern European imniigrants,
Hungarians or negroes, so long as they are fitted for the work to be done,
l^lu^ reason these people are not more extensively employed in farm labor
is bcH^ause the farm hand is so frequently a member of the farmer s family.

Why is Farm Labor Scarce?— Most of the farm labor has always been
dene bv the farmer and his family. The increasing importance of educa-
tion, raising the age limit of employment, the lessening tendency for women
io woik in fields, together with increased farm tenancy, has lessened the
nunilxM- of farm laborers. Foreign immigrants are not going to farms as
nmch a.s formerly, because the development of farm machinery and
improved methods in agriculture call for a higher class of workmen. The
unskilled labor can be used only on farms where much hand labor is

required. . ,, x- ^«

Farming does not^sort men as closely as most other occupations,
consequently, the farm laborer has less opportunity for advancement. In
many industries there are many grades of men and this gives opportunities
for advancement from one grade to another, to positions of considerable
responsi])ility. The farm laborer must either look upon his employment
as temporary or be willing to serve without much advancement, buch
service is essential to the young man who intends to become a farmer, it
prepares him first as a farm tenant, and paves the way to ownership.

Extent of Employment.— On the average American farm there is not
much opportunity to profit by the employment of labor. According to
the last census, there was employed less than 5,000,000 people exclusive
of owners, on something over 6,000,000 farms in the United States. Over
half of those employed were members of the farmers famihes, so there was
less than one hired employee to every two farms. A considerable number

(864)

FARM LABOR

865

of farms employ more than one person, so the majority of farms employ
no help other than members of the family.

The development and introduction of farm machinery have more than
offset the increased need of farm workmen, resulting from more intensive
agriculture. This has increased the difficulty in keeping farm labor contin-
uously employed.

Solution of Farm Labor Problem. — It is not possible to settle once for
all the labor problem on farms or in any other occupation. Changed
economic conditions will raise new questions and result in new phases of
the old problem. The problem is not to be solved by having more and
cheaper labor, but by a better direction of the efforts of labor, and by
providing homes and a continuous employment for it.

Many farmers have reported favorably on the employment of married
men. This necessitates a tenant house in which the man and his family can
live. This arrangement relieves the farmer's household from the housing
and feeding of farm workmen, and often enables the housewife to secure
assistance. Often children, members of the workman's family, can assist
in the household or on the farm during rush seasons. Often, too, the wife
of the farm laborer is glad of the opportunity to furnish meals, lodging and
do the work of the laundry for extra day labor at reasonable compensation.
Such an arrangement usually calls for the allotment of a small parcel of
land to the laborer for a garden. Milk, butter and eggs may be supplied
by the farm. These, together with the home, constitute the perquisites in
addition to the monthly wage.

The distribution of labor throughout the year will aid materially in
the solution of the problem. Continuous and effective employment
enables the farmer to pay wages equal to those of other industries.

Since so large a part of the labor on the average farm is performed by
the farmer and his family, his income is largest when labor is high-priced.
Under these conditions, much of his profit is on the labor of himself and
family.

Demand for Labor. — The farm labor supply is not equal to the
demand. In many sections of the country, and at rather frequent intervals,
good land lies idle or crops are not harvested when they should be because
of insufficient help. Such conditions necessitate long hours of labor on the
part of the farmer and his inadequate supply of help. This condition often
creates dissatisfaction on the part of labor and tends to aggravate rather
than relieve the situation.

Many farmers become discouraged and sell or rent their farms and
move to town. In other cases, they adopt a type of farming that will
enable them to remain on the farm without hiring help. Often their farms
are better adapted to more intensive agriculture than the type into which
they are forced by the scarcity of labor.

Less than a century ago, more than four-fifths of the population of
this country in gainful occupations were engaged in agriculture. At

i !■

L' I

866

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

present less than one-third are so engaged. High wages, short hours and
other advantages enjoyed by workmen in other industnes are more attrac-
tive than the farm. . ,

Hours of Work.— A day's work on the farm is usually longer than a
day's work in the city. There are good reasons why it should be longer.
Farm work is more varied and less monotonous than most kinds of city
work. It is subject to interruptions as the result of unfavorable weather
The care and feeding of livestock often requires attention in the early and

.. niii Ml. J ' ■'■■"'- -■- ^'""^^U<^■'.■J.! . ' i"." L.ATl--^ ''r^

t •• " I "■ I I t

a^^r^*^^^'

:.:C,-jt^j?f:^.^i^_

-,j.^T4Jr*

^"^^P'f^/'^'

■ »,>,: ----JiV-

-rx--- .^-V*'

Insufficient Labor and Equipment.^
. A farmer seventy-five years old harvesting thirty acres of hay alone.

late portions of the day. Best results in the dairy are obtained byjnilWng
twice daily with equal intervals between milking P^^^; ^f/- J^^^
and other reasons, the farm work-day is long. There are seaso^^
however, when work is slack and the day^s work is ^^^l^'^^^^f^'^^^^^
During the short winter days darkness prevents long hours for outside

"^""'^Vhile the eight-hour day is becoming common in many industries
manv men live so far from their work that an hour or more is reqmred
Iir/g"ing to and from their duties. The farmer usually loses less time m

.Courtesy "of Doubleday. Page & Co.. Garden City. N. Y. From "Farm Management." bv Cord.

FARM LABOR

867

going to and from his work than the city man. He is at home for the
midday meal.

In the majority of cases, the hours of labor during the busy season could
be reduced to ten without reducing the work accomplished. In most
cases men and teams could work more rapidly and accomplish just as much
as by longer hours and slower work. There always will be the emergency
demand for long hours for a few days now and then during seeding and
harvesting periods.

Statistics indicate that the hours on farms are not as long as claimed.
While the farmer may be out of bed sixteen hours a day, he does not work
this many hours. In southeastern Minnesota, where crop raising and
dairying is followed, the average work-day throughout the year was found
to be 8.6 hours. In the northwestern part of the state, in a grain-growing
district, the average work-day was 7.4 hours. The average hours on Sunday
in these two districts were 3.4 and 2.2 respectively. (These data were
gathered by the United States Department of Agriculture and the Minne-
sota Experiment Station.)

When long hours of labor prevail, the condition may be somewhat
ameliorated by allowing the help holidays during the time when the work
is not pressing.

Wage of Farm Labor. — In comparing farm wages with those of other
occupations, the numerous perquisites^ of the farm laborer are underesti-
mated. Unmarried men generally receive room, board and laundry, in
addition to wages. The clothing requirements for farm work are generally
less than in most other occupations, and the incentive and opportunities
for spending for pleasure are also minimized.

A comparison of wages in different occupations shows that farm wages
in this country have advanced relatively more than in any other line.
United States census reports show that the amount of wage paid farm labor-
ers in 1909 was over $650,000,000, or about double the amount reported
by the census ten years earlier. Farm wages are now about 55 per cent
higher than during the 80's, and 67 per cent higher than in 1894, a year of
financial depression. The average monthly rate of farm wages in the
United States, including board, is $21.38. When board is not included
it is $30.31. It varies widely in different sections of the country, and
ranged from $17.90 in South Carolina and $19.60 in Mississippi to $54
in Montana and $56.50 in Nevada. It is thus seen that the wage in Nevada
is more than three times that in South Carolina. Since 1890, wages of farm
labor have increased relatively more than those of manufacturing indus-
tries. The increase in farai wages was 37 per cent from 1900 to 1910 and
55 per cent from 1890 to 1910. For the same periods the increase in
manufacturing wages was 22 and 23 per cent. only. The relative increase
of farm wage acts automatically in the distribution of labor.

It is customary to employ a farm laborer by the day, week, month or
year. Frequently, a man will hire out early in the season for the year at a

866

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

present less than one-third are so engaged. High wages, short hours and
other advantages enjoyed by workmen in other industries are more attrac-
tive than the farm. . iu „ „
Hours of Work.— A day's work on the farm is usually longer than a
day's work in the city. There are good reasons why it should be longer.
Farm work is more varied and less monotonous than most kinds ot city
work. It is subject to interruptions as the result of unfavorable weather
The care and feeding of livestock often leciuires attention m the early and

r-T"

Insufficient Labor and Equipment.'
A farmer scvonty-fivc years oUl harvesting tl.irty acres of hay alone.

late portions of the day. Best results in t.ie dairy are obtained by bilking
twice daily with cciual intervals between imlking ^"^ff' J''^^^^^
and other reasons, the farm work-day is long, ^^ere a. e seasons,
however, when work is slack and the day's work is -^^^'^^ ^'^;^
During the short winter days darkness prevents long hou.s foi outs.de

'"'''^Vhile the eiglit-hour day is becoming common in many industries
manv men live so far from their work that an hour or more is required
ir g'ing to and from their duties. The farmer usually loses less time m

' * T^ , 1 J T> 1 nr^ Harflen Citv N Y. From "Farm Management," bv Cord.

» Courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co., Oaraen ^ny, ->. x .

FARM LABOR

867

going to and from his work than the city man. He is at home for the
midday meal.

In the majority of cases, the hours of labor dm-ing the busy season could
be reduced to ten without reducing the work accomplished. In most
cases men and teams could work more rapidly and accomplish just as much
as by longer hours and slower work. There always will be the emergency
demand for long hours for a few days now and then during seeding and
harvesting periods.

When long hours of labor prevail, the condition may be somewhat
ameliorated by allowing the help holidays during the time when the work
is not pressing.

A comparison of wages in different occupations shows that farm wages
in this country have advanced relatively more than in any other line.
United States census reports show that the amount of wage paid farm labor-
ers in 1909 was over $650,000,000, or about double the amount reported
by the census ten years earlier. Farm wages are now about 55 per cent
higher than during the 80's, and 67 per cent higher than in 1894, a year of
financial depression. The average monthly rate of farm wages in the
United States, including board, is $21.38. When board is not included
it is $30.31. It varies widely in different sections of the country-, and
ranged from $17.90 in South Carolina and $19.60 in Mississippi to $54
in Montana and $56.50 in Nevada. It is thus seen that the wage in Nevada
is more than three times that in South Carolina. Since 1890, wages of farm
labor have increased relatively more than those of manufacturing indus-
tries. The increase in farm wages was 37 per cent from 1900 to 1910 and
55 per cent from 1890 to 1910. For the same periods the increase in
manufacturing wages was 22 and 23 per cent only. The relative increase
of farm wage acts automatically in the distribution of labor.

It is customary to employ a farm laborer by the day, week, month or
year. Frequently, a man will hire out early in the season for the year at a

i|:

Wj.".;-W

mm-

\j].

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company, Chicago.
(868)

FARM LABOR

869

comparatively low wage. In the rush season, when day wages are high, he
will sometimes leave his employer unless his wages are raised. To avoid
this difficulty, a sliding wage is suggested, the gradation depending on the
variation in character and amount of work at different seasons. In gen-
eral farming districts a wage of $20 per month and board during December
to March, inclusive; $25 for April, May, June and November; and $35
per month from July to October, inclusive, gives a satisfactory adjustment
and a fairly liberal wage.

Where records and accoimts are kept and it is possible to figure closely
on profits, there are conditions under which a living wage may be given,
supplemented by a percentage of profits. This offers an incentive to the

The Troubles of a Tenant.'

laborer, increases his interest in the work and frequently proves advan-
tageous for both employer and employee.

The wide range in farm wages previously mentioned is due both to the
skill of labor and the equipment which is provided. On an average, the
wage of labor is in proportion to the work accomplished. The farm
laborer in Idaho, receiving more than three times the wage of the colored
laborer in the cotton belt, generally drives from three to six horses in a team,
whereas the colored man of the South generally drives one mule. In this
comparison, the highest paid laborer is probably the cheapest and the one
on which the employer makes the greatest profit.

Housing Farm Labor.— Whether the farm laborer is a single man or is
married, whether he lives in the farm owner's house or in the tenant house,
it generally pays to provide him with comfortable quarters and plenty of
good food. There are many advantages in having a tenant house on the

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From " Farm Managomont." by Warren.

1 Courtesy of The International Harvester Company. Chicago.
(868)

FARM LABOR

869

comparatively low wage. In the rush season, when day wages are high, lie
will sometimes leave his employer unless his wages are raised. To avoid
this difficulty, a sliding wage is suggested, the gradation depending on the
variation in character and amount of work at different seasons. In gen-
eral farming districts a wage of $20 per month and board during December
to March, inclusive; $25 for April, May, June and November; and $35
per month from July to October, inclusive, gives a satisfactory adjustment
and a fairly liberal wage.

Where records and accounts are kept and it is possible to figure closely
on profits, there are conditions under which a living wage may be given,
supplemented by a percentage of profits. This offers an incentive to the

The Tkoubles of a Tenant.'

laborer, increases his interest in the work and frequently proves advan-
tageous for both employer and employee.

The wide range in farm wages previously mentioned is due both to the
skill of labor and the equipment which is provided. On an average, the
wage of labor is in proportion to the work accomplished. The farm
laborer in Idaho, receiving more than three times the wage of the colored
laborer in the cotton belt, generally drives from three to six horses in a team,
whereas the colored man of the South generally drives one mule. In this
comparison, the highest paid laborer is i^robably the cheapest and the one
on which the em]:)loyer makes the greatest profit.

Housing Farm Labor.— Whether the farm laborer is a single man or is
married, whether he lives in the farm owner's house or in the tenant house,
it generally pays to provide him with comfortable quarters and plenty of
good food. Tliere are many advantages in having a tenant house on the

1 Courtesy of The Mucmillan Company, N. Y. From " Farm Managomont." by Warren.

^^^m-K

870

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

FARM LABOR

871

farm so that a married man can be employed. Such a man is less apt to be
dissatisfied, or, if he does become dissatisfied, he cannot pack his suitcase
and leave on a day's notice, and before he can leave his dissatisfaction may
prove to be more imaginary than real.

The better the housing facilities for labor, the better the class of labor
that can be secured. Laborers are always looking for good places, and the
farmer who can offer the right inducements generally has a number of
applicants from which to choose.

Interesting the Farm Hand.— The average farmer is not satisfied with
unskilled labor or with labor of such a social status that it will prove
undesirable on the farm under the close relationships which must exist.
This is especially true when the laborer becomes a member of the farmer's
family. Men of fair intelligence will not take an interest in the work or
put forth their best efforts unless their employer shows an interest in them.
This lack of interest is quite as often the fault of the farmer as it is of the
laborer. Labor must be given as much responsibility as is consistent with
its intelUgence and ability. It must be advised of the plans for the next
day's work, at least during the evening of the day preceding. Men are
seldom opposed to hard work, providing work is well arranged, runs
smoothly and something is accomplished at the day's close. The farmer
who gets the most out of his labor is generally the one that most fully
satisfies the labor and pays the best wage.

SkiUed and UnskiUed Labor.— The degree of skill that the farmer
can afford to pay for will depend chiefly upon the character of work to be
done and the degree of supervision. The nian of mediocre intelHgence who
is faithful and industrious will often give better satisfaction under good
supervision than the more intelligent workman. The man who knows more
than his employer should be working for himself.

The immigrants from southern Europe, unskilled in most farm work,
may be used advantageously in types of farming where much hand labor is
required. The immigrants from northern Europe, on the other hand, are
more skilled, and are accustomed to driving teams and caring for livestock.
These men, with a little training and experience in this country, generally

make desirable farm hands. , ,_ i •

The rapid development of agricultural machinery and the adoption
of up-to-date methods, together with specialization in certain lines, call for
more skill on the part of the farm laborers than formerly. In general,
farm work requires more skill than that of most any other industry. In
the industries, labor is specialized. In agriculture, it is usually general.

The most satisfactory farm hand is usually a farmer's son. His
natural training and his knowledge of local conditions and practices give
him a decided advantage over men from foreign countries or from cities.
A young man from an adjacent county is frequently better than one from
the immediate neighborhood. The latter is apt to have social attachments
that may interfere with his duties. A second choice will generally he with

men who have been farm laborers for a number of years, and who, because
of their inability to direct their own efforts satisfactorily, have been unable
to farm for themselves. Such men require careful direction, but are
generally faithful and reliable. The hobo class is the least desirable.
They find employment for short periods of time in busy seasons, and
frequently do satisfactory work for a short time. Such men are restless
and never satisfied to remain long in one locality. Furthermore, they are
not dependable.

Permanency of Employment. — The satisfactory workman attaches
much importance to the certainty of employment. This is especially
true of all workmen who have famiUes dependent upon them. In this fact
lies the weakness of the farm opportunities for labor. In many instances a
farmer wishes to employ labor for only a portion of the year. The keen
competition for labor in other industries makes it essential for the farmer to
so plan his business that he can employ labor continuously and at a wage
which, including perquisites and opportunities, will be equal to that in
other industries.

Permanency of employment apphes not only to the year, but also to
the duties of each day. Some farmers manage so badly that men are idle
during a portion of many days. The farm laborer, if paid regardless of
whether working or not, ordinarily will not object, but good w^orkmen
generally prefer to have their time during working hours fully employed.
A good farm laborer, who left the farmer for whom he was working and
engaged ^\dth another having the reputation of being strict, made this
explanation: ''Jones is a mighty nice fellow to visit with, but he has no
management about his work. He put me at easy jobs that did not pay for
doing. I suppose I ought not to kick so long as I got my pay, but I could
not bear to see work so mismanaged, and I was afraid I would get so easy
going that I would fall into bad habits and do my own work slack when I
got on the farm I hope to buy some day. Sands keeps me hopping, but
every lick of work counts, and when bedtime comes I can see I have accom-
plished something."

Management of Men. — The management of farm laborers depends
largely on the character of the employees, but to some extent upon the
nature of the work and the number employed. It is always best to hire
with a definite understanding. A written agreement is desirable when
hiring by the year. In any event, it is always a good plan to have a witness
to the agreement, whether it be written or oral. Such an agreement should
state the wages to be paid, the dates of payment and the time to be covered.
It is also well to specify the character of duties of the employee and the
obligations of the employer. If privileges are granted, such as keeping a
horse, storing a buggy or furnishing a driving horse occasionally, it is well
to have this understood at the outset.

The successful employer will assign certain chores and more or less
definite procedure for the direction of his employees. With the more

111

872

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

skilled laborers, it is often advantageous to discuss the work with them.
The average farmer works with his men. He thus becomes the leader in
the work and sets the pace. More is generally accompUshed in this way
than by assigning men to work, each at a different task. This is not appli-
cable to chores and the care of livestock to the extent that it is in field opera-
tions, where men work advantageously in groups.

Where a number of men are employed on the farm, the business is
sufficiently large to require much of the operator's time in directing the
work. It may even call for his being absent quite frequently. Under such
conditions he should employ one of his men as a foreman and make him
responsible for the direction of the work in his absence. Such a man should
have a wage correspondingly larger than those with less responsibility.
The wage of such a man, however, need be very little larger than that of
other workmen.

Successful management calls for a definite plan of work with c rders or
instructions given either the evening before or promptly on the morning
of the day's work. Directions must be concise and definite. Much should
not be merely understccd.

Productive and Unproductive Work. — ^No matter what the price of
labor, it is essential to employ it in productive enterprises to the greatest
possible extent. There will always be some unproductive work on farms,
such as cutting weeds, cleaning ditches, repairing fences, caring for work
stock, and household items. These are necessary in the long run for the
upkeep and the good appearance of the farm and home. Labor employed
in this way should not interfere with the productive enterprises any more
than possible. Many farmers have a weakness for tinkering around with
old machinery and patching up old fences and buildings, thus materially
reducing productive operations and failing to make the farm pay. We may
go still further, and by knowing what crops and animals give the best returns
per hour of labor, select those that are most profital)le.

Many farmers postpone necessaiy repairs and adjustments to impor-
tant machinery, such for example as a self-binder, until the day that it is
to be used. It often requires a full day of time to put the machine in working
order. A day or two in the winter, or during a rainy period, may have had
little value, but in the heat of harvest it is worth much. The delay of one
day may mean serious loss in connection with the harvesting of the crop.
Doing Work on Time. — It is important in farming to do the right thing
at the right time. This never increases the amount of work to be dene,
whereas a delay often means added labor. Seeds not planted on time result
in a late crop, the yields of which may be reduced. Crops not harvested
on time result in loss or depreciation in quality. Weeds not destroyed in
time are destroyed when larger only by added labor, and in the meantime
reduce the yield. Best results are secured and the minimum amount of
labor is required by doing work on time. This is one item in the solution
of the labor pro})lem of farms.

FARM LABOR

873

Winter Work. — Winter, being the slack period in nearly all kinds of
farming, calls for careful consideration relative to the work that may be
done in order to relieve the work situation during the crop season. The more
nearly the winter work equalizes that of the summer, the less difficulty will
be encoimtered when employing laborers the year around. Such a plan
greatly relieves the labor problem on farms. Work that may be done
during the winter includes the repair of buildings, fences and farm imple-
ments, preparation of seeds and the mixing of fertilizers, or any improve-
ments possible to make under winter weather conditions.

The type of farming and the adjustment of farm enterprises may also
be made to furnish work during the winter. Winter lambs may be raised
and dairy cows made to freshen at the beginning of the winter, and other
livestock features so adjusted as to demand the major portion of the work

This Form of Grain Rack Saves Labor. ^

pertaining to them at this season of the year. By proper planning, crops
may be marketed and manure hauled in the winter season.

A work-shop, suitably warmed, makes a place where harness can be
oiled and repaired during the coldest and stormiest weather.

Work for Stormy Days. — In order that labor may be employed
during stormy days it is advisable to keep a memorandum of things to be
done. Oiling machinery, sharpening sickles, oifing harness and making
repairs are some of the items that can be done on rainy days, and are likely
to be overlooked unless a memorandum of this and other things is kept.
The barn, the hen-house and the pig-pens may be cleaned on rainy days.
Feed may be ground, rations mixed for cows and pigs, etc.

Economizing Time. — Time is economized in many ways, but largely
through the arrangement of the fields and the position and interior arrange-
ment of buildings. It is saved also by the proper equipment, teams of
adequate size, by a careful planning of the work and by reducing the
motions required in the performance of work. All useless motions should

I 11

^Courtesy of Tho Macmillan Company, N. Y. From " Farm Management," by Warren.

872

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

skilled laborers, it is often advantageous to discuss the work with them.
The average farmer works with his men. He thus becomes the leader in
the work and sets the pace. More is generally accomplished in this way
than by assigning men to w^ork, each at a different task. This is not ai)pli-
cable to chores and the care of livestock to the extent that it is in field opera-
tions, where men work advantageously in groups.

Where a number of men are employed on the farm, the business is
sufficiently large to require nmch of the operator's time in directing the
work. It may even call for his being absent quite frequently. Under such
conditions he should employ one of his men as a foreman and make him
responsible for the direction of the work in his absence. Such a man should
have a wage correspondingly larger than those with less responsibility.
The wage of such a man, however, need be very little larger than that of
other workmen.

Successful management calls for a definite plan of work with ( iders or
instructions given either the evening before or promptly on the morning
of the day's work. Directions must be concise and definite. Much sliould
not be merely understc(xl.

Productive and Unproductive Work. — No matter what the i^jrice of
labor, it is essential to emi^^loy it in productive enterprises to the greatest
possible extent. There will always be seme unproductive work on farms,
such as cutting weeds, cleaning ditches, repairing fences, caring for work
stock, and household items. These are necessary in the long run for the
upkeep and the good appearance of the farm and home. Labor employed
in this way should not interfere with the productive enterprises any more
than possible. Many farmers have a weakness for tinkering around with
old machinery and patching up old fences and buildings, thus materially
reducing productive operations and failing to make the farm pay. We may
go still further, and by knowing what crops and animals give the best returns
per hour of la])or, select those that are most profitable.

Many farmers postpone necessary repairs and adjustments to impor-
tant machineiy, such for example as a self-binder, until the day that it is
to })e used. It often requires a full day of time to put the machine in working
order. A day or two in the winter, or during a rainy period, may have had
little value, Imt in the heat of han^st it is worth much. The delay of one
day may mean serious loss in connection with the harvesting of the crop.
Doing Work on Time. — It is important in farming to do the right thing
at the right time. This never increases the amount of work to be done,
whereas a delay often means added labor. Seeds not planted on time result
in a late crop, the yields of which may be reduced. C^rops not harvested
on time result in loss or de])reciati()n in (juality. Weeds not destroyed in
time are destroyed when larger only by added labor, and in the meantime
reduce the yield. Best results are secured and the minimmn amount of
labor is required by doing work on time. This is onc^ item in the solution
of the labor problem of farms.

FARM LABOR

873

Winter Work. — Winter, being the slack period in nearly all kinds of
farming, calls for careful consideration relative to the work that may be
done in order to relieve the work situation during the crop season. The more
nearly the winter work equalizes that of the summer, the less difficulty will
be encountered when employing laborers the year around. Such a plan
greatly relieves the labor problem on farms. Work that may be done
during the winter includes the repair of buildings, fences and farm imple-
ments, preparation of seeds and the mixing of fertilizers, or any improve-
ments possible to make under winter weather conditions.

This Form of Grain Rack Saves Labor. ^

pertaining to them at this season of the year. By proper planning, crops
may be marketed and manure hauled in the winter season.

A work-shop, suitably warmed, makes a place where harness can be
oiled and repaired during the coldest and stormiest weather.

Work for Stormy Days. — In order that labor may be employed
during stormy days it is advisable to keep a memorandum of things to be
done. Oiling machinery, sharpening sickles, oiling harness and making
repairs are some of the items that can be done on rainy days, and are likely
to be overlooked unless a memorandum of this and other things is kept.
The barn, the hen-house and the pig-pens may be cleaned on rainy days.
Feed may be ground, rations mixed for cows and pigs, etc.

1 Courtesy of Tho Maomillan Company, X. Y. From " Farm Management," by Warren.

874

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

be eliminated. This principle comes prominently into play in the husking
of corn, pitching of grain and in all work where many motions of the hands
are called for. With the same effort, a skilled workman will often accom-
plish more than an unskilled one. Time is saved on the part of both men
and teams by hauling large loads. The wagon constitutes a considerable
percentage of the load hauled. The larger the load, the less the relative
importance of the weight of the wagon. The movement of the large load
seldom requires more time than the small one unless it involves a slower
speed or resting the team. Much time may be saved by making the
loads large. This is especially true when the haul is long.

Workman's Attitude.— One working for another should always endeavor
to earn more than he receives. The employment of both capital and labor
is supposed to be at some profit. The employee who recognizes this is the
one first likely to receive promotion.

Saving Horse Labor.— The value of work-horses and the high cost of
their maintenance make necessary their fullest possible employment on
the farm in order to make the farm pay. This calls for a distribution of
the horse work so as to increase the average hours of labor per horse as
much as possible. Investigations show that on many farms the farm work-
horse averages only about three hours of work for the work days in the
year. Good management has enabled farmers to increase this in some cases

to six or seven hours daily. u r j-

Horse labor may also be economized by using cheap horses, by feeding
them on low-grade roughage when not being worked, and by using brood
mares and raising colts.

REFERENCES

'•Farm Management." Boss.

'* Farm Management." Warren. ^ tt tt »>

^niifh Cftrolina ExDt Station Bu letin 84. "The One Horse Farm.

u! S\ Dept^^^^^ of Statistics, Bulletin 26. ''Wages of Farm Labor m

U.S.'De™AS Year-Book 1911, pages 269-284. ''Seasonal Distribution of

U. S. Dept! of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 269, pages 16-23. " What
is Farm Management?"

CHAPTER 71

The Farmer»s Capital

More capital is now required for farming than formerly. Land costs
more, livestock is more valuable, labor is dearer and the necessary equip-
ment more extensive and costly. During the decade 1900 to 1910, the
average value of farms in the United States nearly doubled.

How to Secure Capital. — Capital is brought into existence by work,
and its accumulation is the result of consuming less than is produced. If
one has a dollar and spends it for an article of consumption, the process will
not increase capital. If the dollar is used to purchase an implement such
as a hoe or a spade, the purchaser becomes a capitalist to that extent.
He now possesses articles of production that are as truly capital as was
the dollar.

In farming, the easiest way to secure capital is to become a tenant.
That this method is being taken advantage of is set forth in a preceding
chapter. For several decades the percentage of tenant farmers has been on
the increase. If one has a very small capital, it is usually undesirable to
attempt to farm on the very small area that the money will purchase. It
is much better to put all of the capital into equipment, livestock, labor
and seeds, and operate a rented farm. In 1910 land made up 70 per cent
and buildings 15 per cent of the average value of all farm property.

Cash Transactions. — Because of inadequate facilities to secure credit,
farm implements, fertilizers and other necessities are often purchased on
time, the manufacturer acting as banker as well as a dealer. As a rule,
the price paid for purchases made in this way differs from the cash price by
two or three times the usual rate of interest. Under such conditions, it is
economy for the farmer to borrow the money at a bank if possible and pay
cash for his purchases. One's credit is frequently jeopardized by allowing
innumerable little bills to go unpaid. This may be avoided by establishing
credit at a bank and borrowing enough to pay bills promptly.

One should not promise to pay an obligation too soon. A payment
made in advance of the promised time strengthens one's credit much more
than a payment delayed.

Payment by check is preferable to payment by cash. A check serves
as a receipt. For this reason, it is well to indicate on the check the item
for which it is drawn.

Agricultural Credit. — The increased capitalization of farming in
recent years has emphasized the need for an adequate system for agricul-
tural credit in this country that will meet the needs of farmers, just as such

(875)

f f

876

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

systems have met the needs of the farmers in many of the European

countries.

Good farming necessitates improving the soil, providing buildings
suitable for animals and crops, as well as a modern equipment of ma-
chinery. The farmer must have money to put in his crop, harvest it, market
it and maintain his family in the meantime. If he is obliged to sell to a
creditor or sell at a sacrifice to meet a debt, he is at a decided disadvantage.
This represents the condition of many farmers. It is a condition under
which railroads and manufactures could not develop.

At a general conference on rural credits, held in Washington, D. C,
1914, it was the consensus of opinion that the primary demand is for a
system of credit that will recognize farm property of all kinds as security
against loans on the same basis that other forms of real estate and property
are recognized. There is no reason why farmers should not have as low
rates of interest and as long time on loans as other lines of business. They
do not ask for special privilege or a laxity in security precautions. The
present banking laws favor manufactures and commerce. This is but
natural, since the banking system was developed first in the cities and
primarily for the purpose of aiding and doing business with commercial
and manufacturing interests.

The problem which presents itself is that of securing a better system of
credit. With this in view, a large commission visited Europe during the
summer of 1914 to study credit systems. The finding of this committee
has been reported in full by Congress, but as yet the foremost farmers and
bankers of this country have failed to adapt European systems to our
conditions. (This report, '^Agricultural Co-operation and Rural Credit
in Europe,'' is document No. 214, Sixty-third Congress, First Session,
Washington, Government Printing Office.)

The credit of the American farmer is as good as that of farmers in any
other country. The strength of the European credit system lies in the
co-operation of a group of farmers sufficiently small that each is acquainted
with the others. The combined credit of a group of farmers in any part of
the world is security on which the money market will lend almost as cheaply
as on government bonds. The nearest approach to this co-operative credit
system in this country is found in the financial aid extended to Jewish
farmers by organizations composed of their own race. There are a number
of these in the State of New Jersey, the membership ranging from 20 to 40
each. The first of these was established in 1890, through the agency of
Baron de Hirsch. Since 1900 nearly $2,000,000 have been loaned through
this agency to Jewish farmers in this country.

While the credit system is faulty, farmers may remedy conditions if
they will fully realize that tangible property, such as land, is not' neces-
sarily the best security. The character and ability of the man is of much
greater importance than the land he may own. In many localities, farmers
have little difficulty in borrowing of local banks most any reasonable

THE FARMER'S CAPITAL

877

amount without security. Where farmers are known to be capable of
paying their debts, and do so without legal proceedings, credit conditions
are good and desirable money lenders are attracted. Honest bankers
avoid localities where legal pressure is necessary to collect loans; such men
merely want their principal back with the stipulated rate of interest. It
is true that the individual farmer can do little to establish the reputation of
a neighborhood, but the co-operative effort of many farmers can establish

confidence and credit.

The Raiffeinsen Bank has done much for thie farmers of Germany,
and under a different name has been equally effective in other European
countries. It is a neighborhood bank and is a simple institution. Each
member pledges his entire resources for the bank's debts. Each must be a
shareholder, the minimum holdings seldom being more than $5 each. As
soon as the bank is established, confidence is established and the wealthier
members deposit their money to be loaned to their neighbors and draw
interest. If this does not provide funds for all the would-be borrowers,
more money is easily secured in the open market, generally from the largest
bank in the nearest town. The organization is entitled to deal in credit
like bankers in cities, with the exception that it may lend only to its own
members, and then for productive purposes only, the purpose being stated
in the application for the loan. The officers, except the cashier, serve
without pay and are elected from the membership.

Borrowing Money.— The amount of money that one can borrow on a
farm depends to a considerable extent on the character of the borrower
In most cases, however, the limit is placed at about one-half the actual
value of the farm. Bankers will lend freely to men who are mdustrious
and honest, even though they have very little property Applications for
loans are frequently refused to extensive property holders because of a
reputation they may have of not paying their debts unless forced to do so.
Large insurance companies loan much money at the rate of 5 per cent,
but the farmer cannot get it at this rate. He must pay his banker or some
• agent for securing the loan. The commission may range from .5 to 2 per
cent of the loan. There are innumerable other small expenses such as
abstract of title, exchange in remitting, recorder's fee, etc. The tendency
is to shorten the time of the loan and increase the frequency of these renewal
expenses. This condition is unfair to the farmer and calls for a remedy,

legislative or otherwise. , ^ _ . . -

Farmers' Bulletin No. 593, issued by the United States Department of
Agriculture, states five rules that should be observed in borrowing money
These are believed to be applicable under all systems of «>[fdit They are
as follows: " (1) Make sure that the purpose for which the borrowed money
is to be used will produce a return greater than needed to P^Y th« JeU
(2) The contract should provide for the repayment of t^e Pnncipal at he
most convenient time; that is, when the farmer is "^ost 10.e ly to have the
means wherewith to repay it. (3) The length of time the debt is to run

»l

ill

878

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

should have a close relation to the productive life of the improvement for
which the money is borrowed. (4) Provision should be made in the long-
time loan for the gradual reduction of the principal. (5) As low interest
rates as possible should be secured."

Farm Mortgages. — A farm mortgage is a legal document which usually
transfers the title of land or an equity in it for a money consideration. It
is redeemable upon fulfillment of the stipulated requirements. It is usually
safe to mortgage a farm for one-half its actual value. The more stable land
prices are, the greater the relative proportion that may be covered by a
mortgage. In this, as in case of other credits, much will depend on the
character and ability of the one giving the mortgage. Some men are able
to secure mortgages covering three-quarters or more of the actual value of
their property.

According to the census of 1910, 62 per cent of the farms in the United
States were operated by owners. These are the only ones for which statis-
tics relative to mortgages were obtained. Of these, 33.6 per cent w^ere
mortgaged. The average mortgage per farm was $1715, while the average
value of mortgaged farms was $6289. The average mortgage is, therefore,
27.3 per cent of the actual value of the mortgaged farms. A study of the
census figures shows that mortgaged indebtedness does not necessarily
indicate a lack of prosperity. This form of indebtedness is higher in Iowa
and Wisconsin than in most other states. These are prosperous agricul-
tural states.

Farm mortgages are of prime interest chiefly to four classes: (1)
owners of farms, who live on them and operate them; (2) absentee owners,
who generally operate through tenants or by managers; (3) prospective
owners, including tenants and farm laborers who hope to become owners;
and (4) those individuals, institutions and organizations having funds to
loan on farm real estate as security. Some of the questions in connection
with farm mortgages are: For how long a period should the mortgage run?
For what purpose should money be borrowed? How is the loan to be
repaid? What institutions should be allowed to negotiate loans? Where
is the money to be secured? These and many other questions arise in
connection with farm mortgages.

The period for which mortgages run has been settled by practice in
some localities. Occasionally they are renewed every second year; more
frequently every third year. In other localities they run five years, and in
some exceptional cases ten years. Seldom, if ever, are farm mortgages
drawn for a period longer than this. In many instances, the period of
time is too short. It should not be determined by custom, but should
depend upon the purpose for which made. If a mortgage is negotiated
for the construction of farm buildings, the time should be sufficiently long
to make reasonably certain the payment for these out of farm profits. The
duration of the buildings covers many years. If money is borrowed to
equip the farm with machinery, the time of the mortgage should be shorter

THE FARMER'S CAPITAL

879

than if borrowed for buildings. The life of the machinery will be shorter
than that of the buildings. In no case should the mortgage be drawn for a
period of time longer than the life of the equipment or improvement for
which it is negotiated.

One should be prepared to pay a mortgage when it comes due, or to
renew it. If renewal is necessary, the agreement for such should be made
at least a year in advance of the date of maturity.

Extent of Debt Permissible. — The extent of indebtedness depends
partly on the man, but to a considerable extent on the character of land for
which he goes in debt. Careful observations indicate that good land may
justify a larger percentage of indebtedness than poor land, yet we more
often find the man of very limited means purchasing poor land and going
deeply in debt for it because it is cheap. The young man runs fewer risks
in paying a big price for first-class land than he does in paying a low price
for run-down land, especially if he must go heavily in debt for the purchase.
The one will bring good returns without expenditure for improvements,
while the other must be improved before it can be farmed with profit.
In this case the poor land requires relatively more working capital than the
good land.

Relation of Banker to Farmer. — In recent years bankers have begun
to reaUze that farming is the first industr>^ of the country, and that the
needs of farmers should be cultivated by the bankers. As a result, confer-
ences between bankers and farmers with a view of establishing a better
relationship between them are frequent. It is interesting to note that the
bankers always take the initiative in this matter. The agitation for better
systems of rural credit have doubtless had their effect in this direction.

If farmers are not accorded fair treatment by banking institutions, it
is quite possible for them to establish their own credit institutions, just as
has been done in many of the European countries.

Building and loan associations have been successful in aiding home
builders in cities and towns. These, with slight modifications, could doubt-
less be applied to farm conditions. Such co-operative institutions reduce
to the minimum the incidental costs that now often seem exorbitant in
negotiating loans for farmers.

Working Capital.— One of the greatest needs of farmers in most parts
of the country is working capital ; that is, money that can be used for the
purchase of livestock, equipment, fertilizers, seeds and an adequate labor
supply in order to increase to the maximum the efficiency of the farm. For
example, the efficiency of labor has been enormously increased by the inven-
tion and use of labor-saving farm implements. The time required to
produce neariy all of the staple crops has been reduced from 60 to as much
as 95 per cent through the introduction of machinery. This has made neces-
sary an increase in the working capital of the farmer.

" It is not uncommon to find railroads .discarding their old locomotives
and purchasing costly new ones, abandoning old tracks and constructing

880

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

new ones alongside of them with lesser grades. Such investment is for the
purpose of increased efficiency. Farmers often work with antiquated tools
and inefficient teams when, with a little more working capital, their effi-
ciency could be materially increased by replacing these with a better

equipment.

One buying a farm should have enough money to pay a reasonable
part of the purchase price, to buy an adequate equipment, the necessary
stock, and have some cash left on which to do business.

Investigations at the University of Wisconsin relative to the relation-
ship between the percentage of capital on farms as working capital and the
net profits are as follows: On fifteen farms on which only 13.5 per cent of
the total capital was in the form of working capital, the average net profit
was $167; on twelve farms where it was increased to 17.7 per cent the
profit was $433; on six farms having 28 per cent as working capital the
profit was $1628; and on six farms where one-third was working capital the
net profit was $3511. The number of farms investigated is too small to
draw sweeping conclusions, but the results are certainly very suggestive.

In Scotland and England, where 90 per cent of the farms are rented, the
tenants regard $50 an acre as the necessary working capital in order to farm
profitably. The amount of working capital necessary depends on the kind of
farming and also on the fertility of the soil. The extensive purchase of com-
mercial fertilizers very materially increases the need of a working capital.

Distribution of Capital. — The proportion of capital to be invested in
land, stock and equipment varies viith the price of land and kind of stock
and the type of farming. There will always be a distribution between
these various parts that will give best results. This distribution may be
settled for a given time, but a marked rise in land values will necessitate
changing it. Any change in the type of farming is also hkely to disturb it.
We have already found that the size of the farm is also a factor, and that
the larger the farm the smaller the relative investment in buildings and
equipment. The average distribution of capital on farms in the United
States is given in the following table :

Average Capital and Its Distribution on Farms in the United States.

(U. S. Census, 1910.)

Land, exclusive of buildings : $2285

Buildings ^20

Implements and machinery

Livestock

Tota'

1910

$4476
995
199
774

$0444

70%
15%

3%
12%

100%

Capital Related to Area.— No matter how small a farm may be, the
owner demands a respectable house, and on the small farms of the United

THE FARMER'S CAPITAL

881

States this represents from 40 to 50 per cent of the total capital. Larger
farms generally have better houses, and have only 5 to 10 per cent of the
capital in the house. This to a less marked extent applies to the other
buildings on the farm.

In the same way the investment in machinery and in work horses is
relatively less per unit of area as the farm increases in size. This holds up
to about 300 acres in extent, beyond which it becomes relatively small.

Capital Related to Labor Income. — In previous chapters the impor-
tance of farming on a scale sufficiently large to provide an adequate labor
income has been pointed out. The size of the farm is measured both by
extent and by capital invested. The importance of having sufficient
capital, as an owner or as a tenant, to farm on a scale that will bring a
satisfactory income has been emphasized. Under-capitalization limits
decidedly the possibilities of the farmer. Investigations in many parts of
the country show that in a general way the average labor income is approxi-
mately in proportion to the capital invested. Doubling the capital gen-
erally doubles the farmer's income. For this reason, one may purchase a
comparatively large farm, make a living from it and pay for it out of the
farm proceeds more easily and in less time than he could pay for a very
small farm under the same conditions and with the same initial capital.

Capital Related to Type of Farming.— Types of farming that require
the minimum of land usually require more capital in other forms, so that
the investment required to bring a suitable labor income does not differ
materially in different types of farming. With restricted capital, one had
best engage mainly in grain farming or the production of truck crops.
With plenty of capital, one will generally succeed best in a long term of
years by giving considerable attention to livestock. Livestock farming
calls for equally as large an investment in land, while the stock and build-
ings to shelter them increase the investment. The risk is also increased.
These disadvantages, however, are more than counterbalanced by better
distribution of labor, the better maintenance of soil fertility and increased

returns. ^ ^ t. ±u ±

Investigations of hundreds of farms in New York State show that
farmers with less than $7500 in capital secured two-thirds of their receipts
from cash crops, while those with more than $20,000 in capital secured
three-fifths of their receipts from livestock. By examining those having
less than $15,000 in capital, it was found that those having the greatest
receipts received four-fifths of their income from crops.

Farming with SmaU Capital.— One with small capital or heavily m
debt should avoid types of farming that require much time for returns.
Among such types are orcharding, timber culture, the rearing of horses and
other classes of animals requiring several years for maturity. One should
avoid purchasing pure-bred stock or making extensive improvements
when money is scarce. Debts will more quickly be cancelled by devoting
one's efforts chiefly to cash crops.

(

^^mr-

882

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Purchasing a Farm. — There are many items to consider in the purchase
of a farm. One should begin with a careful estimate of his own inclination.
The size and character of farm, and the nature of the buildings upon it,
will depend largely on the type of farming to be followed. The experience
and ability of the purchaser, together with his available capital, will also
determine the size of the business. With the vast majority the available
capital will likely be the determining factor, but in some cases there may be
plenty of capital and a lack of both experience and ability, in which case it
will be wise to start on a conservative basis.

In purchasing a farm, it is wise to take plenty of time and look at
farms in different localities. It is also well to visit the farm at two seasons,
once in the spring time when some of the fields are in the course of prepara-
tion for crops, and again late in the season as harvest is approaching. The
first visit enables one to inspect the soil carefully with reference to its
fertility, drainage and uniformity. The second one enables him to see
what the soil has really done. In this connection one must, of course,
consider the character of the season and know whether it is better or worse
than the average season in that locality. One should also be able to judge
as to the nature of the farming that is being done and how rapidly a run-
down farm may be improved. It is a good idea to make a sketch of the
farm, outlining the fields and making careful estimates of the acreage of
woodlots, stream courses and waste lands of whatever nature. It is much
safer to put a valuation on the different classes of land than it is to value
the whole farm at so much per acre. The probable returns from the farm
can be more closely calculated when one figures on the different classes of
land and the crops to which they are likely to be adapted.

Most men will not base their selection on the monetary value of the
farm alone, but will be influenced by the character of the neighborhood.
Social and educational advantages should not be ignored. These count
much in the environment of the family.

Land as an Investment. — The rise in land values in recent years has
caused many persons not desiring to be farmers to invest money in land.
Such investments are considered among the safest and the appreciation in
land values is often as large and sometimes larger than the actual returns
in land rents. Such investments frequently tend toward inflated prices,
and these occasionally finally result in a decline in land values. Land
investment for the investment only tends to increase land tenancy, and
makes necessary a better tenant system than now generally prevails.
Land tenancy ordinarily does not encourage increase in land values, because
of the marked tendency for poor farming and for neglect to maintain the

fertility of the soil.

When purchasing a farm, the farmer should always consider carefully
the investment phase. Other things equal, there are decided advantages
in the purchase of farms in localities where land values are rising. Under
those conditions one is justified in purchasing a larger farm and in going

THE FARMER'S CAPITAL

883

more deeply in debt for it. Seldom is it possible under present regulations
to mortgage a farm for more than one-half its actual value. This makes
farm mortgages comparatively safe, both for the borrower and lender.

REFERENCES

''Principles of Rural Credit." Morman.
' ' Agricultural Credit." BuUock.
''Principles of Rural Economics." Carver.
''Rural Credits." Myron Herrick.

New York (Cornell) Expt. Station Bulletin 295. "Farm Management Survey of Tomp-
kins County, N. Y."

CHAPTER 72

FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS

In every farm community may be found a certain percentage of the
farmers who are successful, but who are often unable to tell upon what their
success is based. This lack of knowledge on the part of the farmer is due
chiefly to his not keeping farm records and accounts, and, therefore, not
attempting to carefully analyze his business. Investigations along this
line have done much not only to show the labor income of farmers in differ-
ent districts, but also to give rather definite information on the duty of farm
machines and the average amount of work that should be expected from

the farm laborer.

Those farmers who keep good farm records and accounts are not
willing to do without them. The study of such accounts adds much to the
interest of farm management. Farm accounts should not only show the
profit or loss of the farm as a whole, but should show on which crops or
animals the best profits are made. Such accounts do not make necessary
a course in bookkeeping. Cost accounting is quite different from book-
keeping. Attempts to apply bookkeeping to farm cost accounting usually
fails. The first essential to cost accounting is good judgment and a
thorough knowledge of the farm business.

Object of Keeping Accounts.— The chief object of farm accounts is to
learn how to improve the business of farming and make it more profitable.
Another object is to have a record of everything bought or sold on time.
This enables the farmer to know what he owes and what is due him. Hav-
ing a record of the payment of a bill may prevent its payment a second time.
Most of the disputes relative to debts are the result of forgetfulness rather
than of dishonesty. When accounts are not kept, bills creep up in an aston-
ishing way, and one is apt to buy more than one^s resources warrant.

Many of the industries employ efficiency experts to study their
business plants with a view of increasing their efficiency. This may result
in a saving in the cost of production or increasing the output without
increasing the investment. Such experts emphasize the importance of
keeping accurate records of costs. This enables them to ascertain just
where losses occur and where to apply the remedy. It is just as essential
that farmers keep records that will enable them to know where the gains
and losses occur. Such records would surprise many farmers.

Essential Records.— There are many kinds of farm records that are
desirable. Those most useful will be determined by the kind of farming.
Animal records, egg records and records of milk production are important
where any of these enterprises are conducted on the farm. Weather

(884)

FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS

885

records are helpful in most any kind of farming. Records of the applica-
tion of manure or fertilizers to the different fields of the farm are essential
in deciding where manure or fertilizers had best be used. Records in the
form of maps showing the location of drains should never be neglected.

Records of milk production and butter-fat content enable the farmer
to dispose of unprofitable cows. Such records enable him to select calves
most likely to develop into productive adults.

An inventory once a year is a necessary part of farm accounting.

Blank Forms and Books Necessary. — Farm bookkeeping does not
require that accounts be kept in a particular form so long as it is a logical
selection and arrangement of facts, bearing upon the essentials of the busi-
ness. So far as blank forms fit the records to be made, time is saved in
using them. The kind of blank forms suitable for one farmer may not fit
the conditions of another. It is generally best for each farmer to ascertain
the character of books and what kind of blank forms best meet his require-
ments. Once started in farm accounting, he will ultimately find it advan-
tageous to devise blanks that will fit his needs. He may then have a
supply printed at small cost that will last for several years.

To begin with, one will usually need a day book small enough to be
carried in the pocket. This should have one column ruled on the left of
each page for the date and a double column at the right for receipts and
expenses. The space between the columns may be used for entering the
items bought or sold, or may be used for memorandum for work done. In
addition to this, a journal should be kept. It should have two double
columns on the right of each page, one for charges and the other for credits.
Some prefer to use two pages for each account, devoting the right-hand page
to credits and the left-hand page to charges.

How to Keep Accounts. — Cost accounts contain many estimates.
It is foolish to spend time and refinement in methods of bookkeeping in
hunting for insignificant errors or to check accounts to the last cent. It is
these things that frequently disgust farmers with accounting. One should
know what facts to record in order to accomplish the desired object. A
full set of accounts will involve an annual inventory, a record of time
accounts, a record of all receipts and disbursements, and a record of the
time of men and teams for all of the farm enterprises, including each crop
grown and each class of animals raised. It should also show the amount
and value of crops transferred from bin or mow to the feed bins and feed
lots. These data may be classified and distributed to the different accounts.
These accounts should include interest, notes and accounts payable, notes
and accounts receivable, equipment, labor, improvements and a personal
account. In addition to these there should be one for each farm

enterprise.

It is essential to record in the diary transactions of the day. Little
difficulty will be found in remembering the day's transactions and amount
of time employed in work items. If no record is made for several days,

886

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

considerable guessing is involved. The transfer of daily transactions to
the journal may be done at odd times. It is wise, however, to post at
frequent intervals in order to avoid work of tedious length.

Time Required to Keep Accounts. — Farmers who have used the
system of farm accounts here outlined report the time consumed in making
daily entries to be from two to ten minutes, with an average of about five
minutes. To this must be added a number of hours at the close of the
year to close the accounts. This will vary with the size of the farm and
the complexity of the business. Much of this work can be done evenings
and on winter days when there is little to interfere. It is time most profit-
ably spent.

Best Time to Start Accoimts. — Farm accounts may be started any
time after the last crop is harvested in the fall and before the first crop
preparations are started in the spring. The exact date will vary with
location and type of farming. Usually January 1st, March 1st or April 1st
will be suitable dates. For the tenant farmer the date should correspond
with the termination of his lease. In all cases the date should be early
enough to enable the farmer to close his year's accounts and make his
plans for the new year before the rush of the season's work begins.

Amiual Inventory. — The time of making inventory should correspond
with the date of opening farm accounts. It is the most essential item in
the accounts. The inventory items should be the first entries in the
accounts with the various enterprises on the farm. For example, the
cow account should be charged at the beginning of the year by inventory
for the number and value of the cows ; also the amount and value of cow
feed on hand. At the close of the year the accounts should be credited
with the number and value of cows and the amounts of feed on hand.
The purchase or sale of cows during the year may have materially increased
or diminished the value of the herd. The herd itself may have increased
in value because of the development of a number of heifers or decreased
because of a predominance of old cows. The inventory at the beginning
and close of the year shows the actual value of the herd, and is necessary
for an accurate account with it.

The inventory should include the farm, the buildings, all stock and
equipment, cash crops and feed on hand, cash and money in bank, and
should also show accounts that are due. This gives the total assets. It
should likewise show notes that have been given and bills to be paid.
These represent the liabilities and when subtracted from the assets give
the true worth of the farmer.

Values to Use. — In estimating values, the market price at the farm
or the price at the nearest seUing joints, less cost of hauling, should be
used. Hay in mow or stack and grain in bins may be closely estimated
by measurements. It is customary to allow a reasonable depreciation on
all machinery and implements, on buildings and on stock that is past
its prime.

FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS

887

No other account will give so much information for the time spent
upon it as the inventory. If no money has been taken from or added to
the business during the year, by gift or transfer, the inventory will show
the net gain or loss of the year's business. Every farmer should make an
annual inventory, even though he keeps no further accounts. The inven-
tory, however, will not show on what enterprise he has gained or lost.

Account No. 16 shows the summary of the inventory for one year.
The inventory proper may be kept on separate sheets, so ruled that the
inventory may be repeated for four or five years without rewriting the
items. It is usually best to list each animal by name or number, stating
age and value. Important machines should be listed separately. Small
implements, like hoes, rakes and forks, need not be itemized.

Receipts and Expenditures. — A record of receipts and expenditures is
necessary, but the receipts minus the expenditures seldom give a correct
idea of the net returns for the year. Some permanent improvements may
have been added or machinery and livestock purchased. This would make
expenses run high and make the net receipts appear low. The improve-
ments, machinery and stock would increase the farmer's net worth at the
end of the year by their purchase price, less a very small amount for
depreciation. On the other hand, stock may have been sold, thus increas-
ing receipts and making the net receipts appear large. At the same time,
the net worth at the end of the year might be reduced by an amount
nearly equal to the sale of stock. It is, therefore, necessary that records
of expenses and receipts be studied in connection with the inventory at
the beginning and the end of the year.

Accounts with Farm Enterprises. — The farmer should have as definite
a method of measuring the profits of his business as does any other business
man. This calls for an account with each crop and each farm enterprise.
The fields should be numbered or lettered and an account kept of the hours
of man and horse labor, the cost of seed and fertilizer and any other ex-
penses, such as twine for binding grain, and coal and oil for threshing.

Whether the product is sold directly from the field or placed in storage,
the field or crop should be credited with the farm value of it.

Each class of livestock should be charged with the feed consumed,
the labor required, including incidentals, such as bedding, medicine, equip-
ment and a charge for interest and housing. In hke manner, it should
be credited with all animal products sold.

The important points in connection with the several farm enterprises
are: What does each product really represent in cash, and what is the

profit at the selling price? .

Work Records.— A record of the time of men and horses is most
conveniently kept by having blank forms, in which the man hours and
horse hours may be recorded. These blanks may be either in the form of
cards or blank books. Cards are suitable for weekly or monthly reports.
If one does not wish to transfer the time records to the several enterpnses,

•\

888

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

a blank may be provided for each and the hours of labor entered as they
occur. The following record serves to show how such records can be kept:

Sample Work Record with Corn. Field No. 3 (24 Acres).

1916.

Operation.

March 30.
April 20..
April 21..
April 21..

Hauling manure,

Plowing

Harrowing

Planting

Man.

Hours.

Minutes.

Horse.i

Hours.

Minutes.

18
30
15
10

1 Horse hours are recorded as hours worked times the number of horses in the team.

For chores a special page or form should be provided as follows:

Time Spent in "

Doing Chores.

Horses.

Cows.

Sheep.

Poultry.

1910.

Hours.

Minutes.

Hours

Minutes.

Hours.

Minutes.

Hours.

Minutes.

Aoril 1

1
1
2

30
30
30

2
2
2
2

50
50
50
50

30
30
30

April 2

Aoril 3

April 4

If horses are used in doing chores, extra columns must be provided.
Time required for doing chores usually is about the same each day, and
it may not be necessary to make the entries daily

Abbreviated Accounts. — If one does not wish to keep a full set of
accounts, one may keep accounts with the most important enterprises
only. This necessitates more estimating than full accounts. The cost of
labor per hour can be accurately determined only by knowing the total
number of hours and the total cost. If the time for each enterprise is
kept, it can be accurately distributed. Otherwise, labor charges must be
based on estimates. Such accounts, however, are better than mere guesses.

Classification of Troublesome Items.— The items most likely to
puzzle the beginner in farm accounts are those relating to real estate and
machinery. To the farm should be charged all items of repairs on buildings
and fences, the construction of new buildings and fences, expenditures for
drainage, taxes and insurance. These pertain to the farm and its per-
manent improvement. This account should be credited with rent of land
and buildings; also with the sale of buildings or building materials, such

as stone, from the farm.

The machinery account should be charged with all costs of machinery

FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS

889

repairs, oil for lubricating machines and the purchase of new implements.
There should also be a charge for housing. The machinery account should
be credited for machinery rented or sold. The balance of the machinery
account should be distributed in the same manner that man and horse
labor is distributed. Since the important machinery is used with horse
power, the distribution is based on the time records kept for horses.

Plan of Farm and Cropping Systems. — A sketch of the farm, showing
the size, number and location of fields and the location of drains, is
advisable. A number of copies may be provided so that one may be
posted for each year. On this may be entered certain data, such as the
crop in each field, its acreage and yield. If manure is applied to a portion
of the field, the portion so treated should be indicated on the map. These
maps, if kept, form a permanent record and make an efficient aid to the
farmer in subsequent years.

Closing the Accoimts. — Considerable time will be required in this
operation. A definite ordel* should be adhered to, which is as follows:
The first step is to take the inventory and enter the inventory items
after all regular posting has been done.

Items, such as the use of pasture and farm products used by the
family, should be entered in the proper accounts. These may involve
estimates. The value of board, produce and other allowances furnished
to labor should be charged against labor and the proper accounts be
credited with equal amounts. Animals should be credited with the
value of maniu-e produced and the same charged to the crops to which

applied. ,

The crops, animals, the farmer and laborers should be charged with
the proper amounts for the use of buildings. The several classes of live-
stock should also be charged with straw used for bedding and the crops
from which the straw was obtained credited with the same amount.

After all these entries have been made, the labor account should be
balanced, the rate per hour obtained and the cost of labor distributed to
all enterprises in proportion to the time put upon them. Some of this
will be charged to the horse account. When this charge has been made
the horse account may be closed in the same way and the cost of horse
labor distributed to the several enterprises in proportion to the horse

hours that each required. . -i •

Next in order will be the equipment account and the distribution of
the cost cf the equipment to the several enterprises in proportion to the

hours of horse labor.

If the system is in double entry, that is if each item is entered m
two accounts, the books may be closed and accurately balanced. In this
case, the total gain or loss for the year, as shown by the account with
^Hoss and gain," should check with the increase or decrease in inventory.
After the system is thoroughly understood, there is no necessity for making
double entries throughout. This will reduce the work by about one-third

890

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

and obviate the difficulties frequently encountered in attempting to balance
books to the last cent.

The following set of accounts, the details and daily entries of which
are given for the first two months of the year, will show the method. The
transactions for the remainder of the year are summarized and the account
closed and balanced.

Those wishing further aid in this system of farm accounts are referred
to Farmers' Bulletin 572 of the United States Department of Agriculture,
or to Chapters 16 and 17 in Warren's ^'Farm Management,'' published
by The Macmillan Company, New York City.

INDEX.

FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS

891

Cash

Corn

Cows

Cremor, Charles

Equipment

Farm

Hay

Interest

Labor

Loss and Gain

Inventory

Notes and accounts payable . .
Notes and accounts receivable

Oats

Orchard

Personal

Potatoes

Poultry

Rye

Wheat

Teams

Thresher

Pages.

2-3-4-5

9-10
11
12
13
14
15

16 ,

17 top

17 bottom

26-27

Cash.

1911

April

To inventory 16

By plow .9

By allowance 20

By copper sulphate 19

By house rent, tenant 14

By purchase 1 horse 26

By Courier subscription 20

By P. O. box rent 20

By stamps, candy and tobacco 20

By bull service 17

By 40 eggs for incubating 23

By thresher repairs 28

To sale 6 cows 7

By telephone, horse doctor 27

To sale 2 bbls. potatoes 22

By tickets to schoolhouse 20

By church, haircut, tobacco 20

By purchase, 3 cows and freight 7

By pump casting and express 9

To 3^ bbls. seed potatoes 22

To sale 30 bales hay 12

By purchased feed 7

By coal 8

By use drill and help 18

By purchased feed 7

By purchased pair mules 27

By ^ bu. seed corn 6

Carried forward

Dr.

Cr.

892

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Note: Page number 3 omitted.
1911

Cash (Continued).

Dr.

May
15
15
15
15
25
26
26
26
26
26
28
31
31

1912

March

Brought forward

\ Interest on note, 6 months 17

I To balance horse-trade 27

By rent on tenant house 14

To sale, veal calf 7

To sale, 93 bales hay 12

By 1 bbl. of hme 19

By fert. for corn 6

By mat. for wagon bottom 9

By 8 ton coal ami stamps 20

By 6 days labor by Brown 14

To sale eggs 23

By amount paid Cremor 8

To cash receipts for balance year

By cash disbursements for balance year

By inventory 16

By balance (loss) -. 15

Total

$2,334

9
134

4,189

$6,693

Note : Pago number .'>, blank.

1911

Corn (30 Acres).

Dr.

April
1
24
30

May
14
14
26

1912
March
31
31
31
31
31
31
31

To inventory 16

To purchase J bu. seed corn 2

By 300 bu. corn for teams 27

To 6 bu. Learning seed 3

To 2 bottles strychnine, for corn 3

To fertilizer 4

To expense balance year

By produce balance year

By inventory 16

To use of land 1 1

To 1987 hr. labor @ 15.576 cents 14

To 2974 hr. horse labor @ 17.:i85 cents. . .27

To 2974 hr. equipment 9

By balance (loss) 15

Total.

Cr.

$690 ' 40
37 50

1
4
1
40
9

5,432
140
300

$6,693

50
00
40
04
00

63
34
00

Cr.

$125^

$125

10
25 ;

642

240

120

309

517

98 j

209

$1,216

FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS

893

Cows.

19—

April

8
10
13
18
23
25
30

May
14
25
31

1912
March
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31

To inventory (10 cows) 16

To bull service 2

To 800 lbs. rye 24

By sale 6 cows 2

To purchase 3 cows and freight 2

To purchase of feed 2

By 94 qts. milk for house 20

By sale of milk . . '. 3

By sale of veal calf 4

By 87 qts. milk for house 20

To expense balance year

By products balance year •

By inventory (23 cows) 16

To interest 13

To use of buildings 1 1

To use of pasture 1 1

To 2480 hrs. of labor 14

To 576 hrs. horse labor 27

To 576 hrs. equipment 9

By balance (loss) l*^

Total ,

Charles Cremor.

19—

April
18
30
30

May
30
30

1912

March

To coal -2

By labor for month 14

To cash 3

By labor for month 14

To cash for month 4

To amount paid

By labor for balance year

Dr.

2,447 36

33
100
100
386
100

$3,856

00
00
28
14
16

Dr.

5 00

281 00

$331 00

Cr.

$355

$180

111

130

52
9

2,009
975

51
13
61

67
00

624
$3,856

33
97

Cr.

$25 00

281

$331 00

i i

894

1911

April

1
13
25
27

May
14
26

1912
March
31
31
31
31
31
31

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Equipment.

To inventory 16

To 1 plow 2

To pump-casting and express charges 2

To repairs on wagon 3

By sale of 4 milk cans 3

To purchase whip lash 3

To mat. for wagon-bottom 4

To expense balance of year •

By inventory 1^

To interest 1^

To use of buildings 11

To 79 hrs. of labor 14

To 40 hrs. of horse labor 27

By balance 1*^

Total

DiSTIlIBUTION OF EXPENSE ON EQUIPMENT.

By 2974 hrs. on corn @ 2.979 cents 6

By 576 hrs. on cows (^ 2.979 cents 7

By 156 hrs. on farm @ 2.979 cents U

By 1408 hrs. on hay @ 2.979 cents 12

By 366 hrs. on oats @ 2.979 cents 18

By 300 hrs. on orchard @ 2.979 cents 19

By 228 hrs. on personal fe 2.979 cents ... .20

Continui'd

Dr.

$602

1
1

15
00
76
15

232

00
40

13
00
30
96

S952 46

Cr.

723 90

226 56

$952 46

60
16
64

41 94
10 90

8
6

$178

94
79

FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS

895

Equipment {Continued) .

Dr.

Brought forward

By 280 hrs. on potatoes % 2.979 cents. . . .22

By 18 hrs. on poultry @ 2.979 cents 23

By 920 hrs. on rye % 2.979 cents 24

By 250 hrs. on thresher @ 2.979 cents. . . .28
By 130 hrs. on wheat @ 2.979 cents 25

'I'otal

Hours = 7606 ) $2:>6.56 ( 2.979 = Cost per hour, cents.

152.12

74 . 440
68.454

5 . 9860
5 . 3242

.66180
.60848

Cr.

$178

34
53

$226

896

1911

1912
March
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31

31
31
31
31
31

31
31
31
31

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Fakm (200 AcKEs).

April
1

To inventory 1^

May

1 To plastering tenant house

14 ; To thread on pipe, 55 cents

To freight on tile and cement, 30 cents

3
3

To expense balance of year

By returns balance of year

By inventory J^

To interest ^^

By rent buildings (personal) *-^0

By use tenant house (labor) 14

By use buildings (equipment) -9

By use buildings (teams) 27

By use buildings (thresher) 28

By use buildings, cows, $100 7

By use land, $100 7

By use building and yard poultry 2,6

By use land (corn) -^

By use land (potatoes) 2Z

By use land (wheat) ^b

By use land, hay, $225

By use buildings, $100

By use land, oats, $36

By use buildings, $15

By use land, rye, $60 f^

By use buildings, $15 ^^

By use land (orchard) j^

To 614 hrs. labor 1^

To 156 hrs. horse labor 27

To 156 hrs. equipment ^ ^

By balance (loss) 1^

12
12

18
18

Total,

Di.

Cr.

$14,000

480

700

75
85

$48!

14,000;

200

50:

200

120

325

95 64

27 1 12
64

51
75

$15,309 84

$15,309

00
00

20 00

FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS

897

1911

Hay (75 Acres).

I I

Dr.

Or.

April

May
26

1912
March
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31

To inventory 16

By sale 30 bales hay 2

To phone 3

By sale 93 bales hay 4

To expense balance of year

By product for balance of year

By inventory 16

To use of land 11

To use of buildings 11

To 1550 hrs. labor 14

To 1408 hrs. horse labor 27

To 1408 hrs. equipment 9

To balance (gain)

$445 00
30

225
100
241
244
41
541

Total I $1,884

00
00
43
78
94
51

$39 29

.134 78

1,533 95
176 00

$1,884 02

Interest.

1911

Dr.

Cr.

May
15

1912
March
31
31
31
31
31
31
31

To 6 mo. interest on note $1500 4

To balance year

By interest on cows 7

By interest on equipment 9

By interest on farm 11

By interest on poultry 23

By interest on teams 27

By interest on thresher 28

To balance (gain) 15

Total,

$37

512

$33
33

700

298

$848

25
13
00

82
38
50

898

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS

899

Labor.

1911

April

May
15

28
30

1912
March
31
31
31
31

To house rent ;-

By labor of a man y

To cash 2

To 1 mo. of labor *

To house rent

To 0 days labor by Brown
To 1 mo. of labor

4
4

To labor balance of year

By amount received balance of year •

To use tenant house 11

To use personal labor ^^

To balance ^^

Total

Distribution of Labor.

Corn y

Cows g

Equipment ^ ^

Farm ' ^9

Hay Ig

Oats jg

Orchard 20

Personal 92

Potatoes 93

Poultry 24

gye ; .27

Teams 28

Thresher 9k

Wheat

Total,

1,650 I 43

$1,657 ! 68

Hrs.

1,987
2,480
79
614
1,550
243
483
285
368
304
793
983
330
97

10,596

$1650 . 43 -^ 1 0596 = 15. 576 cents \^t hour.

Amount

$309

386

241

123

153

$1,650

April

Loss AND Gain.

Dr.

Cr.

Cash 4

Corn 6

Cows 7

Farm U

Hay 12

Interest 13

Oats 18

Orchard 19

Personal 20

Potatoes 22

Poultry 23

Rye 24

Wheat ....25

Thresher 28

By balance (loss) 15

Total

Inventory.

Resources

1911

Farm 11

Cash 2

Equipment 9

rr _ f 6 horses in 1911 1 ot

T^^"^« 17 horses in 1912/ ^^

r. / lOin 1911 \ . -

^«^n 23 in 1912 / ^

Poultry 23

Corn 6

Hay 12

Oats 18

Potatoes 22

Rye 24

Wheat 25

Threshing machine 28

Notes and accounts receivable 17

$14,000
536
602

580

(X)
54
15

355 00

125

445

900

00
00
00
95
50
00
00
00

Total resources ! $17,677 ! 14

Liabilities

Notes and accounts payable 17

Net assets, 191 1

Net assets, 1912

Balance (loss) 15

$10,004
7,672

65
49

Los^

Gain

$300

209

624

$541

298

329

179

69
31

633

$1,652

1912

$14,000
140
723

675

975

100
240
176

Total 1 S7,672 49

1,000
4

$18,039

$11,000

7,039
633

$7,672

00
34
90

95
00
00

00
00

44
05

900

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Notes and Accounts Payable.

1911

April
1

May
14

By inventory. 16

To bill, James Holden, paid 3

15 , By note given 3

1912
March

To notes paid,

March To inventory,

1911
April
1

March
31
31

Notes and Accounts Receivable.

To inventory 16

To amount paid on notes

By inventory 16

1911

April
1
23
30

1912
March
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31

Oats (12 Acres).

To inventory 16

To use driU and help 2

By 157 bu. for teams 27

To expense balance of year

By product balance of year

To use of land JJ

To use of buildings JJ

To 243 hrs. of labor 14

To 366 hrs. horse labor 27

To 366 hrs. equipment -9

By balance (loss) 1^

Dr.

Cr.

$54

180

$237

FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS

901

1911

April
1
1
29

May
15
26

1912
March
31
31
31
31
31
31
31

Orchard.

60 lbs. copper sulphate 2

60 lbs. sulphur 2

To 4 lbs. lead arsenate 1 „

To 16 lbs. sal. soda j ^

To use wheels and tank 28

To 1 bbl. lime ,,,4

To expense balance of year

By products

To use of land 11

To 483 hrs. labor 14

To 300 hrs. horse labor 27

To 300 hrs. equipment 9

By balance (loss) 15

Total

Dr.

$3
2

30
40

10
1

00
50

20
75
52

00
23

16 ,
94 i

$191

Cr.

$133 52

$191

58
10

902

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Personal.

1911

April
1

12
30
30
30

May
l'
G

14
26
30
31

1912
March
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31

To allowance, household expense .2

To Courier subscription $1.50 1, 2

To P. O. box rent, 10 cents

To stamps, 90 cents

candy, 25 cents

tobacco, 20 cents

To church, 30 cents

tobacco, 20 cents

haircut, 20 cents

To tickets to school house 2

To 15 doz. eggs '^j

To 2 hens ^'T^v^ -M

To 94 qts. milk '

To allowance, household expense .3

To shoe repairs, 75 cents

tobacco, 40 cents

Masonic dues, $3.00

To postage stamps ^

'.'.'.'.'.'.'.....2:^

To coal (8 tons) and stamps
To 87 qts. milk .
To 13 J doz. eggs

To expenses balance of year

By receipts balance of year • •

To rent buildings |l

By labor for year J4

To 285 hrs. labor ]^

To 228 hrs. horse labor 27

To 228 hrs. equipment •»

By balance (loss) 1^

Total

Dr.

$30 00
1 CO

1 35

70
3 00

1 00

2 82

30 00
4 15

1 00
40 04

2 61
2 34

436 59

200

$848

39
64
79

Cr.

$19
500

329

$848

35
00

FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS

903

Note : Page 21 blank.

1911

Potatoes.

Dr.

April
1
11

1912
March
31
31
31
31
31
31

To inventory 16

By sale 2 bbls. potatoes 2

By sale 3j bbls. seed potatoes 2

By sale product

By inventory 16

To use of land 11

To 368 hrs. labor 14

To 280 hrs. horse labor 27

To 280 hrs. equipment 10

To balance (gain) 15

Total

$18

129

$144

Poi'LTHY.

1911

April

May
14
31
31

1912
March
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31

To inventory 16

To 40 eggs for incubating 2

By sale of eggs 3

By 15 doz. eggs used 20

By 2 hens used 20

To chick food, wire and brooder 3

By sale eggs 4

By 13 J doz. eggs for house 20

To expense, balance of year

By receipts

By inventory 16

To interest • 13

To use buildings and yard H

To 304 hrs. labor 14

To 18 hrs. horse labor 27

To 18 hrs. eauipment 10

By balance (loss) 15

Total

Dr.

$12
10

108

00
00

$198

82
00
35
13
53

Cr.

100

$198

904

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Rye (20 Acres).

1911

April

8
8

1912
March
31
31
31
31
31
31
31

1911

April
1

1912
March
31
31
31
31
31
31

To inventory 16

By 500 lbs. of rye 27

By 800 lbs. rye 7

To expense, balance of year

By product, balance of year

To use of land H

To use of buildings H

To 793 hrs. of labor 14

To 920 hrs. horse labor 27

To 920 hrs. equipment 10

To balance (gain) 15

Total

Wheat (5 Acubs).

To inventory 16

To expense balance of year

By sale product • • •

To use of land J J

To 97 hrs. labor 1^

To 130 hrs. horse labor 27

To 130 hrs. equipment 10

By balance (loss) 1^

Total

Dr.

Cr.

$18

FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS

905

1911

Teams.

Dr.

Cr.

KJ%J

123

159

179

$5 00

610 34

597

$610

Dr.

Cr.

$30

$90

00
11
60

$86

4
$90

April

8
10
23
27
30
30

May
14
15

1912
March
31
31
31
31
31
31

To inventory, 6 horses 16

To 1 horse purchased 2

To 500 lbs. rye 24

To phone horse doctor 2

To purchase pair mules 2

By labor of teams

To 157 bu. oats from field 18

To 500 bu. corn from field 6

To purchase salt 3

By cash to boot on horse trade 4

To expense

By returns

By inventory, 7 horses 16

To interest 13

To use buildings 11

To 983 hrs. labor 14

By balance 15

Total

$580

00
25

100

125

00
49

1,131

274
675

153

1,329
$2,306

$2,306

45
00

27
47

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Teams {Continued).
Distribution of Expense on Horse Labor.

FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS

907

By 2974 hrs. on corn @ 17.385 cents 6

By 576 hrs. on cows @ 17.385 cents 7

By 40 hrs. on equipment @ 17.385 cents 9

By 156 hrs. on farm @ 17.385 cents H

By 1408 hrs. on hay @ 17.385 cents 12

By 366 hrs. on oats @ 17.385 cents 18

By 300 hrs. on orchard @ 17.385 cents 19

By 228 hrs. on personal @ 17.385 cents 20

By 280 hrs. on potatoes @ 17.385 cents 22

By 18 hrs. on poultry @ 17.385 cents 23

By 920 hrs. on rye @ 17.385 cents 24

By 250 hrs. thresher @ 17.385 cents 28

By 130 hrs. wheat @ 17.385 cents 25

Total

1911

Thresher.

Dr.

Or.

$517.03

100.

244

159

.46

$1 ,329 . 27

7646) $1329.27 ( 17.385 +
764.6

April
1
8

May
14
15

1912
March
31
31
31
31
31
31
31
31

To inventory 16

To repairs 2

By use of thresher 3

By use of wheels and tank 19

To expenses

By returns

By inventory 16

To interest 13

To use building 11

To 330 hrs. labor 14

To 250 hrs. horse labor 27

To 250 hrs. equipment ; . 10

By balance (loss) 15

Total

$900
2

47
15
51
43

$1,125

564 . 67
535 . 22

29.450
22 . 938

6.5120
6.1168

. 39520
. 38230

00
00

50
00
40
46
45

$5
10

00
00

109
1,000

70
00

$1,125

31
01

■\

m^^mm'^

908

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Interpretation of Results. — This is the most important phase of the
work. If an account comes out even it means that the enterprise has paid
rent on land, taxes, interest on inventory value, all expenses, and has also
paid wages to men and teams for the time put upon it. If a more profitable
crop can be found that will not interfere with the other successful crops
of the farm, it should be substituted. If not, it may be good business to
continue the old crop. It employs labor at actual cost when it would other-
wise be idle.

A study of the account may reveal a way to make the crop pay. It
may be by increasing the yield or it may be by reducing the cost per acre.
One should judge whether the year is an average one and if average prices
prevail.

A study of the accounts here given shows a heavy exp'^nse for teams.
There are too many horses for the acres of land under plow; consequently,
they averaged only about three hours of work daily for 300 days in the
year. This made the horse labor cost 17.38 cents an hour. On a well-
managed farm the cost should be not more than 10 cents an hour.

Of the crops, hay and rye gave good profits, while potatoes gave a
very small profit. The potatoes could be made more profitable by increas-
ing the acreage. Two and one-half acres are too small to justify the
maintenance of a good equipment. Corn gave a fair gross return, but the
hours of man and horse labor devoted to it were so large and costly that
the crop shows a loss of $209.73. Six units of horse labor per acre of
corn are usually suflficient. In this crop nearly ten units per acre were used.

The cows show a heavy loss. Without the detailed account for the
year it is not quite clear why they lost money. The gross receipts appear
fairly good, but expenses are too high. It is evident that one may lose
money by feeding profitable crops to unprofitable cows.

The poultry shows a loss due very likely to the fact that it was just
being established. The account is not fully satisfactory because it does
not show the number of fowls either at the beginning of the year or in
the final inventory. The hours of labor on poultry are rather large in com-
parison with the inventory at the close of the year. The expenses, as will
be noted, are much greater than the actual receipts. From 100 to 300
hens can usually be kept on a farm with comparatively small expense for
feed and with cheap labor. Such usually should give a good profit.

REFERENCES

"Farm Accounts.'' Vye.

"Farmers' Business Hand Book." Roberts.

"The Business Side of Farming." Bexel. .

Illinois Expt. Station Circulars 77, 84, 102, 114, 115. "Records of Dairy Cows."

Indiana Expt. Station Bulletin 127. "Records of Dairy Cows."

Massachusetts Expt. Station Bulletin 120.

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

511. "Farm Bookkeeping."

572. "A System of Farm Cost Accounting."

* *

CHAPTER 73

Markets, Marketing and Co-operation

The rapid increase in the size and number of cities has increased the
need of markets; not only has the number of people that gain a livelihood
in the market business increased, but the proportion of them to the total
population has also increased. This is due to the increased complexity of
the marketing system. At present, the cost of getting perishable products
from the producer to the consumer is greater than the actual cost of
production.

A reduction in the cost of production can not be hoped for. Living
costs can be lowered only through more economical methods of distribution.
This important problem is now engaging the attention of town and city
organizations in many centers.

Cost of Distribution. — Careful investigations have been conducted
in recent years in a number of large cities to ascertain through what hands
products pass in transit from producer to consumer and the increase in
cost resulting from each transfer. The following table from a report by Dr.
C. L. King, of the University of Pennsylvania, to Mayor Rudolph Blank-
enburg of Philadelphia, shows the prices of various products as they passed
from farmers in counties near Philadelphia to the consumer in the city:

Table GmNG the Price Received by the Producer and Each Middleman and
THE Per Cent Increase of Each Price over the Preceding Price, Together
with the Total Increase of Consumers' Prices over Producers Prices.

Far-
mer.

Plus
Freight to
Terminal.

Butter (low-grade), per pound

Butter (high-srade), per pound

Potatoes (low-grade), per bushel

Potatoes (high-grade), per bushel

Eggs (low-grade), per dozen

Eggs (high-grade), per dozen

Huckleberries (low-grade), per quart..
Huckleberries (high-grade), per quart.
Blackberries (low-grade), per quart...
Blackberries (high-grade), per quart..
Live poultry (low-grade), per pound.

Corn, per dozen

Tomatoes, per peck

,18H0.

.23

.53

.63

.11

.21

.07
.04
.06
.06
.15
.32

>— lis
-*» s

Oh O^

Jobber.

23J

05i

,08

,05

.07

.065

!325

»0.21i
.26
.68
.80

.24

.06

.10

.05i

.08

.09

Whole-
saler.

>•

di of

13
10

9
11
12
10

9
25
10
14
38

.36 1 10

w ft,

« > t.

Retailer.

>
Pi

$0.24
.29
.75
.90
.15
.27
.07
.11
.06
.09
.11

!46

11
11
10
12
11
11
16
10
13
12
22

$0.32-0.38

.40- .45
1.10-1.30
1.30-1.60

.25- .30

.35

.12

.16

.12

.15

.22

.40

.80

fc.s

0* > C
pH oPk

a »i

33-58

38-55

4&-73

44-78

67-100

100
66

100

ioo

*> 2 90

Pk 5qT3

73-105
74-96

108-145

106-154

121-173
67

166

114

200

150

266

167

150

(909)

h '

910 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

From this table it will be noted that the price paid by the consumer
ranges from 67 to 266 per cent above that received by the producer, the
average increase in price being 136 per cent. This represents the average
condition for farmers who sell comparatively small quantities and for
consumers who buy for daily needs.

The large cost of distribution tends towards increasing prices for the
consumer and lowering prices for the producer. It is estimated that the
people of New York City are paying over $150,000,000 annually to have
their foodstuffs carried from railroad terminals to their kitchens. Of the
$146,000,000 paid annually by the people of New York City for milk, eggs,
potatoes and onions, less than $50,000,000 are received by the farmers
who produced them.*

It is clear that a cheaper method of food distribution is of much con-
cern to both producer and consumer.

Frederick O. Sibley makes the following report in regard to the cost
of growing apples as compared with the cost of selling them:

Some Costs of Growing Apples.

Per Barrel.

Labor $0.50 to $0.75

Cash expenses 15 to .25

Interest and overhead rharp;(\s 10 to .15

The barrel 35 to .40

Storage 25 to .40

$1.35 to $1.95
Some Costs of Selung Apples.

Per Barrel.

Freight $0. 10 to $0.15

Commission 06 to .25

Cartage 15 to .25

Storage 25 to .25

Jobbers 25 to .40

Retailers 50 to 3.00

$1.31 to $4.30

Middlemen. — There is a long list in this class. They consist of the
local buyer and shipper, the transportation companies, the transfer compa-
nies, the commission merchant, the jobber and the retailer. Their purpose
is to serve the producer and consumer. In this capacity they find a market
for the farmers' goods. So long as this service lessens the work of the
farmer, he may give more time to production and produce more cheaply.

Some of the transportation companies have established market
bureaus to assist the farmer in finding a market for his produce. They
have also taught the farmer how best to prepare his produce for sale.
Some have also aided the producers in securing suitable packages in which
to ship produce. In like manner other classes of middlemen have estab-

* These figures are from report by Dr. King.

MARKETS, MARKETING, CO-OPERATION 911

lished markets and standardized produce so that farmers can better under-
stand market quotations and know the price their goods will command.

The chief difficulty lies in the large number of middlemen and the
complexity of the business, thus entailing an expense in getting produce
from the farm to the consumer's table. This unwarranted expense is a
burden to both producer and consumer.

The Consumer is helpless and must pay the price asked for produce
by those with whom he deals. Dissatisfaction on his part has more
recently given rise to public meetings with a view of forming associations
for the purpose of protecting consumers. The chief difficulty encountered
has been a lack of reliable data on which to base practical plans. In some
places the consumers have organized and established a market place where

A Farmers' Retail Curb Market. ^

they may meet the producer directly, thus eliminating the middlemen.
In other instances co-operative associations have been established, and
produce bought at wholesale and retailed to the members of the association
at actual cost. In order to succeed, such an organization requires loyalty
of all its members. The organized trade does everything to discourage
such competition. For a time regular dealers will reduce prices even below
that of the co-operative store, for the purpose of putting it out of business.
This is often looked upon as a failure on the part of the co-operative store,
and it receives no credit for having reduced the prices. If the co-operative
store is forced to close, prices again rise, frequently above their former
level to enable the regular merchants to make up for their sacrifice in
gaining their point. Co-operative associations should recognize this
difficulty and hold out against it until the regular trade resumes normal
prices; this critical period once passed, such organizations are usually
in a position to render good service to a community.

iFromYear-Book, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914.

910 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The large cost of distribution tends towards increasing prices for the
consumer and lowering prices for the producer. It is estimated that the
people of New York City are pajdng over $150,000,000 annually to have
their foodstuffs carried from railroad terminals to their kitchens. Of the
$146,000,000 paid annually by the people of New York City for milk, eggs,
potatoes and onions, less than $50,000,000 are received by the farmers
who produced them.*

It is clear that a cheaper method of food distribution is of much con-
cern to both producer and consumer.

Frederick O. Sible}' makes the following report in regard to the cost
of growing apples as compared with the cost of selling them:

Some Costs of Growinc; Apples.

Per Barrel.

Labor $0.50 to SO. 75

Cash expenses 1 5 to .25

Interest and overhead eliar^os 10 to .15

The barrel 35 to .40

Storage 25 to .40

SI. 35 to SI. 95
Some Costs of Selling Apples.

Per Barrel.

Freight SO. 10 to $0.15

Commission 06 to .25

Cartage 15 to .25

Storage 25 to .25

Jobbers 25 to .40

Retailers 50 to 3.00

SI. 31 to $4.30

Middlemen. — There is a long list in this class. They consist of the
local buyer and shipper, the transportation companies, the transfer compa-
nies, the commission merchant, the jobber and the retailer. Their purpose
is to serve the producer and consumer. In this capacity they find a market
for the farmers* goods. So long as this service lessens the work of the
farmer, he may give more time to production and produce more cheaply.

* These figures are from report hy Dr. King.

MARKETS, MARKETING, CO-OPERATION 911

lished markets and standardized produce so that farmers can better under-
stand market quotations and know the price their goods will command.

The Consumer is helpless and must pay the price asked for produce
by those with whom he deals. Dissatisfaction on his part has niore
recently given rise to public meetings with a view of forming associations
for the purpose of protecting consumers. The chief difficulty encountered
has been a lack of reliable data on which to base practical plans. In some
places the consumers have organized and established a market place where

A Farmers' Retail Curb Market.^

they may meet the producer directly, thus eliminating the middlemen.
In other instances co-operative associations have been established, and
produce bought at wholesale and retailed to the members of the association
at actual cost. In order to succeed, such an organization requires loyalty
of all its members. The organized trade does everything to discourage
such competition. For a time regular dealers will reduce prices even below
that of the co-operative store, for the purpose of putting it out of busmess.
This is often looked upon as a failure on the part of the co-operative store,
and it receives no credit for having reduced the prices. If the co-operative
store is forced to close, prices again rise, frequently above their former
level to enable the regular merchants to make up for their sacrihce in
gaining their point. Co-operative associations should recogmze this
difficulty and hold out against it until the regular trade resumes normal
prices; this critical period once passed, such organizations are usually
in a position to render good service to a community.

iFromYear-Book. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1914.

912

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Such organizations must be willing to pay the price necessary to secure
a good manager. It is good business to purchase directly from producers
so far as it is possible.

The Producer's Share. — The producer of food supplies is complaining
bitterly of the small share of the consumer's dollar which he receives.
Farmers producing vegetables, fruit, potatoes and milk suffer more in this
respect than do those who produce the staple crops, such as corn and
wheat. The latter pass through a less number of hands and are sold in
larger quantities.

The remedy for the farmer will not be found until the farmers them-
selves organize for the purpose of solving their own problem and protecting
their own interests. In numerous localities, the farmers have organized
and are selling their produce through the organization, adopting a system
of grading and a style of package found to be best suited to the market on
which their goods are placed. In this way prices have frequently been
increased from 50 to 100 per cent above what they were before they were
organized.

Such organizations may also profit by purchasing fertilizers, seeds,
feeds, coal, farm machinery and shipping packages by wholesale. In this
way the goods are secured at lower prices and much is saved in freight
by carload rates.

Aside from financial benefits, farmers come to know each other better,
trust one another more fully and profit by the leadership of those best
qualified to lead.

Legislative Regulations of Commission Business. — The commission
business offers opportunities for gross irregularities. There is plenty of
evidence to show that unscrupulous commission men have made false
reports to the farmer, relative to the condition of his goods upon arrival
at the market and the price for which they were sold. In such instances,
the farmer is at a decided disadvantage and is usually unable to secure
redress. It is important that farmers ship only to commission men who
have a reputation for honest and fair dealing.

Commission merchants should be compelled by law to keep records
and accounts of their business, and these should be open to inspection with
reference to their regularity. Should a question of unfairness arise on the
part of the farmer, the records of the merchant should show the condition
of the goods when received, the price for which sold and the parties to whom
sold. Such a requirement would provide for establishing the truth relative
to the condition of goods and price received.

The law should also protect the farmer against the commission man
who voluntarily goes into bankruptcy for the purpose of swindling the
farmer.

Advertising. — When the farmer goes to town, he sees on the front
of every business house the name of the firm and usually finds a display
of goods to attract attention. This is advertising. As one drives through

MARKETS, MARKETING, CO-OPERATION 913

the country, one sometimes sees the farmer's name on the mail-box, more
frequently it is painted out. Many farmers would find it to their advantage
to have a farm bulletin board so placed that passersby could easily see it.
A good one is shown in the accompanying picture. This one is in front
of the farm home of Mr. W. W. Scott, Clinton County, Iowa. His name
and the name of his farm appear on the upper part of the board; on the
lower part is a blackboard on which may be written articles for sale and
also articles wanted.

There are many ways of advertising. The neat appearance of a farm
is always more or less of an advertisement One may use letter-heads

The Farm Bulletin Board Brings Business.

giving the name of the farmer, the name of the farm and the special line
of production. Produce sold in packages should be marked with the
producer's name and address. Produce and animals exhibited at fairs
are also advertisements.

The four essentials to a good advertisement are: (1) to attract atten-
tion, (2) excite interest, (3) convince buyers, and (4) to consummate

sales.

Marketing the Farm Products. — The first essential to the successful
marketing of farm products is to have an article of good quality put up in
an attractive form. If package goods, the package should be of suitable
size. Whatever the package, make sure that it is full measure or weight.
Be ready to stand back of every sale to the extent that if the product is

III

912

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Such organizations must be willing to pay the price necessary to secure
a good manager. It is good business to purchase directly from producers
so far as it is possible.

The Producer's Share, — The producer of food supplies is complaining
bitterly of the small share of the consumer's dollar which he receives.
Farmers producing vegetables, fruit, potatoes and milk suffer more in this
respect than do those who produce the staple crops, such as corn and
wheat. The latter pass through a less number of hands and are sold in
larger quantities.

Aside from financial benefits, farmers come to know each other better,
trust one another more fully and profit by the leadership of those best
quahfied to lead.

Commission merchants should be compelled by law to keep records
and accounts of their business, and these should be o])en to inspection with
reference to their regularity. Should a question of unfairness arise on the
part of the farmer, the records of the merchant should show the condition
of the goods when received, the price for which sold and the parties to whom
sold. Such a requirement would provide for establishing tlie truth relative
to the condition of goods and price received.

The law should also protect the farmer against the commission man
who voluntarily goes into bankruptcy for the purpose of swindling the
farmer.

MARKETS, MARKETING, CO-OPERATION 913

There are many ways of advertising. The neat appearance of a farm
is always more or less of an advertisement. One may use letter-heads

The Farm Bulletin Board Brings Business.

The four essentials to a good advertisement are: (1) to attract atten-
tion, (2) excite interest, (3) convince buyers, and (4) to consummate

sales.

Marketing the Farm Products. — The first essential to the successful
marketing of farm products is to have an article of good quality put up in
an attractive torm. If package goods, the package should be of suitable
size. Whatever the package, make sure that it is full measure or weight.
Be ready to stand back of every sale to the extent that if the product is

VJ^^f'^Sfel

^^■S'i%

f-,.,,.,;..- ^-..^ .

|i.

914

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

not up to what is claimed, the purchase price will be refunded or the

package duplicated.

Purchasers do not like to find upon opening a box or a barrel of fruit

that the interior is inferior to the surface layer. Goods packed in this

way cannot establish a reputation for the producer, and, of course, are

not branded. It pays to be honest.

Trend of Prices.— The prices of farm products fluctuate from month

to month and from year to year. The rise and fall in prices is due to

several factors, such as over and under production, the financial condition

of the country and the extent of exportations.

For products that have a world-wide market, such as wheat and

most animal products, the supply in foreign countries will also affect

price. A shortage in the supply of any farm product results in a rise in
price. Frequently the advance in price is such as to render a short crop
more valuable on the market than a large crop sold at a price somewhat
below normal. Neariy all crops are subject to high and low prices at rather
regular intervals. When prices of any commodity are unusually good,
farmers generally plant more extensively of it the following year and
thus cause the price to decline. A decline in price is then followed by a
reduced acreage and a consequent rise in price.

With annual crops these periods are of short duration. With crops
that require several years for fruitage, these periods are much longer.
With apples, for example, the periods of high prices and low prices occur
at intervals of about twenty years. With horses, that require four or five
years for maturity, these periods occur at intervals of eight to ten years,
while with swine the intervals are about three years. It is good busmess
on the part of the farmer to anticipate these periods of high prices and
increase his output to meet the demand.

There is also a monthly trend of prices for neariy all farm products.
As a rule, prices are lowest just at the close of the harvesting period of
each crop and during the months that livestock is most conveniently mar-
keted. If crops are held for an advance in price, one should compare the
cost of holding with the probable rise in price. The cost of holding con-
sists of shrinkage, storage, interest on value of crop, insurance and possible
depreciation in quality, together with loss from vermin. The cost of mar-
keting should also be taken into account. It is advantageous to market
the crops when farm work is not pressing. This helps to distribute the
work of the farm and keep men and teams more fully employed. It will
pay the farmer to study market prices and the forecast of probable yields
as reported by the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the daily and

agricultural press. ,

Selling Directly to Consiuner.— Milk, butter, poultry, eggs and
neariv all classes of fruit and vegetables are frequently sold by the farmer
directly to the consumer. While this method eliminates all middlemen
and secures for the farmer the best price, the production side of his business

MARKETS, MARKETING, CO-OPERATION 915

generally suffers as a consequence. Whether or not a farmer should follow
this method will depend on many factors, such as personal qualifications,
the character of local markets, the distance from market, the character
and condition of roads, the amount and kind of produce for sale and the
assistance available to conduct both the production and marketing ends
of the business.

The recent introduction of parcel post has made it possible for the
farmer to market direct to the consumer without wagon service. Such

-:-^-%„;.4aii4i*|fc:^..

#XV' ■^'..f'*^

The Motor Truck in Marketing.^

Milk delivery truck, making 67-mile trip daily. Carries 96 cans of 46 quarts each

from Elmer, N. J., to Philadelphia.

marketing necessitates special packages to protect the produce and guar-
antee safe delivery. It is not applicable to very low-priced and bulky
materials at present delivery rates. Its chief merit lies in the better quality
secured through direct and quick delivery.

The Motor Truck in Marketing.— The motor truck in regions of good
roads is a saver of time and horses in the marketing of produce. Such a
truck frequently dispenses with one team of horses and at the same time
reduces the time consumed in delivery.

In New Jersey, peaches from one neighborhood, hauled to market
in a market truck netted about twenty cents per basket more than those

» Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

914

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

not up to what is claimed, the purchase price will be refunded or the
package duplicated.

Purchasers do not like to find upon opening a box or a barrel of fruit
that the interior is inferior to the surface layer. Goods packed in this
way cannot establish a reputation for the producer, and, of course, are
not branded. It pays to be honest.

Trend of Prices.— The prices of farm products fluctuate from month
to month and from year to year. The rise and fall in prices is due to
several factors, such as over and under production, the financial condition
of the country and the extent of ex])ortations.

For products that have a world-wide market, such as wheat and
most animal products, the supply in foreign countries will also affect
l)rice. A shortage in the supply of any farm product results in a rise in
price. Frequently the advance in price is such as to render a short crop
more valuable on the market than a large crop sold at a price somewhat
below normal. Nearly all crops are subject to high and low prices at rather
regular intervals. When prices of any commodity are unusually good,
farmers generally plant more extensively of it the following year and
thus cause the price to decline. A decline in price is then followed by a
reduced acreage and a consequent rise in price.

With annual crops these periods are of short duration. With crops
that require several years for fruitage, these periods are nmch longer.
With apples, for example, the periods of high prices and low prices occur
at intervals of about twenty years. With horses, that require four or five
years for maturity, these periods occur at intervals of eight to ten years,
while with swine the intervals are about three years. It is good business
on the part of the farmer to anticipate these periods of high prices and
increase his output to meet the demand.

There is also a monthly trend of prices for nearly all farm products.
As a rule, prices are lowest just at the close of the harvesting period of
each crop and during the months that livestock is most conveniently mar-
keted. If crops are held for an advance in price, one should compare the
cost of holding with the proba])le rise in price. The cost of holding con-
sists of shrinkage, storage, interest on value of crop, insurance and possible
depreciation in qualitv, together with loss from vermin. The cost of mar-
keting should also be taken into account. It is advantageous to market
the crops when farm work is not pressing. This helps to distribute the
work of the farm and keep men and teams more fully employed. It will
pay the farmer to study market prices and the forecast of probable yields
as reported by the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the daily and

agricultural press.

SeUing Directly to Consumer.— Milk, ])utter, poultry, eggs and
ncarlv all classes of fruit and vegetaV)les are frequently sold by the farmer
directly to the consumer. While this method eliminates all middlemen
and secures for the farmer the best price, the production side of his business

MARKETS, MARKETING, CO-OPERATION 915

The recent introduction of parcel post has made it possible for the
farmer to market direct to the consumer without wagon service. Such

The Motor Truck in Marketing.^

Milk delivery truck, making 67-milc trip daily. Carries 96 cans of 46 quarts each

from Klmcr, X. J., to Pliiladolphia.

marketing necessitates special packages to protect the produce and guar-
antee safe delivery. It is not applicable to ver>' low-priced and bulky
materials at present delivery rates. Its chief merit lies in the better quality
secured through direct and quick delivery.

In New Jersey, peaches from one neighborhood, hauled to market
in a market truck netted about twenty cents per basket more than those

' Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer.

■a^M If i-u ^'uii, tLK .'A. :

I
f

916

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Threshing Scene

hauled in the old way. This difference was due to the reduced cost of
hauling and the better condition of the peaches upon their arrival.

It is estimated that it costs $7,500,000 annually to haul the freight
to and from terminals in Philadelphia by teams. A motor truck of half
the length of a wagon carries double the load and travels twice as fast.
In cities, the motor truck is relatively more important than in the country.
This is manifest by the extent to which it has already displaced the

city horse.

Co-operation.— The tendency of the twentieth century is for all
produce growers to increase their facilities for direct marketing by organ-
izing co-operative associations. This is a world-wide movement and such
societ'es are doing business successfully in nearly every country of the
world. Co-operation is best developed in little Denmark. There it has
become almost a national trait. Denmark has more than a thousand
co-operative dairies, 500 egg societies and numerous other co-operative
associations. Through these associations the farmers of Denmark are
exporting nearly $100,000,000 worth of butter, eggs and meat every year.
Through such associations the Danish farmer purchases nearly $20,000,000
worth of machinery, fertilizers, etc., each year

Successful co-operation among farmers in the United States is mani-
fest in such associations as the New England Cranberry Sa es Company,
the Monmouth County Farmers' Exchange of Freeho d, N. J., the Citrus
Association of Florida, the Dassel Co-operative Association of M nnesota,
the Rockyford Melon Association of Colorado, the Hood River Apple

MARKETS, MARKETING, CO-OPERATION 917

Showing Co-operation.

Growers* Union of Oregon, the California Fruit Growers' Exchange, and
more than a hundred others that could be mentioned.

Successful co-operation requires a study of local conditions and needs.
While the principles of co-operation are similar for all places, their applica-
tion must be modified to meet the needs of each locality. It is, therefore,
necessary for the farmers to get together and thoroughly discuss the ways
in which they can co-operate. The launching of a co-operative association
requires leadership, and whether for the purpose of selling or buying, a
good business manager is needed. The Citrus Growers' Association of
California pay their manager $10,000 a year.

As co-operation develops in any region, there should be a central
co-operative organization to assist and advise the local branches. Once
such an organization is started, it makes easy the organization of many
local branches which soon enlarge and increase the effectiveness of the
organization as a whole. The more territory covered by the organization
the more completely can it control the marketing and prices of the farm
products.

In What Can Farmers Co-operate? — Farmers can co-operate in
exchanging work, in the joint ownership of expensive machines and pure-
bred sires. They may exchange fresh meats, fruits and vegetables to
advantage. By co-operation, they can secure and maintain good roads,
improve the schools, churches and country clubs. They may establish
cow-testing associations and co-operative creameries; drainage districts
may be formed and farm bureaus established for the betterment of agricul-

' t
I

r 1 rcn ■,

916

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

TjiRESHiNG Scene

hauled in the old way. This difference was due to the reduced cost of
hauling and the better condition of the peaches upon their arrival.

city horse.

Co-operation.— The tendency of the twentieth century is for all
produce growers to increase their facilities for direct marketing by organ-
izing co-operative associations. This is a world-wide movement and such
societ'es are doing business successfully in nearly every country of the
world. Co-operation is l^est developed in little Denmark. There it has
])ecome almost a national trait. Denmark has more than a thousand
co-operative dairies, 500 egg societies and numerous other co-operative
associations. Through those associations the farmers of Denmark are
exporting nearly $100,000,000 worth of butter, eggs and meat every year.
Through such associations the Danish farmer purchases nearly $20,000,000
worth of machinery, fertilizers, etc., each year

MARKETS, MARKETING, CO-OPERATION 917

i:^'0m:

,'<■ ^ s>*

i* '

^ ^t J*;'

»5^

Showing Co-operation.

Growers' Union of Oregon, the California Fruit Growers' Exchange, and
more than a hundred others that could be mentioned.

products.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

J'A':-

'■'.-'.-'■■<%'T'-iipy^^§.--'.^.

918

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

(111

ture. They may also co-operate in selling the farm products and in
purchasing farm supplies. There are other ways in which to co-operate.

Exchanging Help.— There are many kinds of farm work that can be
most advantageously done by two or more men working together. The
most striking instances of this are the harvesting of grain and hay, the
shelling and marketing of corn and threshing. The exchanging of work
during the harvest season often meets the temporary demand for extra
labor. Such co-operation brings neighbors closer together and promote?
friendly relations. It should be free from abuse. It frequently happens
that some farmers, through generosity, give much more than they receive.
A value should l)e placed on tlie lal)or of men and teams and a record kept
of the time given to the neighbor as well as that received from him. A
settlement for the difference in time at the close of the year promotes
good feeling and avoids dissatisfaction.

Co-operation in threshing grain is now the rule in the large grain
districts. The threshing ring consists of fifteen to thirty farmers, the
number depending on the size of the farms and the length of the threshing
period. The members of the ring either purchase an outfit for their own
use or contract to hire one. They hold meetings at stated times and agree
upon terms, the price to V)e paid for threshing the different kinds of grain
and the order in which the members' threshing shall be done. The order
should change from year to year in order to be fair to all members. Each
member furnishes help in proportion to the size of his farm or acreage

of grain he grows.

Cow Testing Associations.— These associations have been of great
service to dairymen in many districts. Such an association requires that
there shall be fifteen or more dairymen living wathin an area sufficiently
restricted so that all herds can be visited by one man once or twice each
month, and that each dairyman own ten or more cows. The association
members each agree to pay so much per cow, usually not more than $1.50
per year. They employ an official tester, who spends one day each month
with each farmer; or, in ca.se of small herds, two herds may be tested in
one day. The tester weighs the milk of each cow morning and evenmg,
and takes samples of it which are tested for butter-fat. He also weighs
or measures the quantity of each kind of feed that is given the cows. These
records, after being repeated for several months, enable the farmer to rec-
ognize which cows are the most productive and which should be sold in
order to make the herd more profitable.

Many farmers milk cows year after year that do not pay for the feed
consumed. The average annual production of cows in the United States
is about 4000 pounds of milk and 160 pounds of butter-fat. Since this is
the average, many cows must produce less than this. The best dairynien
say there is no profit in cows of even average production. One association
in Pennsylvania reports a gain valued at $4500 in one year as a result of
• cow testing.

MARKETS, MARKETING, CO-OPERATION 919

The associations lead to a better understanding of the feed require-
ments, and have resulted in auxiliary associations for the purchase of
feed at wholesale with much saving to members.

Marketing Dairy Products. — The intelligent marketing of dairy
products necessitates an understanding of the value of the different milk
products and the cost of making them as compared with the price for which
the milk may be sold. Knowing the price of milk, cream, butter, cheese
and ice cream, and the butter-fat content of the milk and cream, one can
easily calculate the relative values of the several products as compared
with the milk. This, in connection with the cost of production, will enable
the farmer to determine which is most profitable for him.

Where there is little demand for market milk, co-operative creameries
are advantageous. They enable the farmer to have his milk manufact\ired

JC4' ^^-

^"W^

A Full Load Reduces Cost of Hauling.'

into a first-class article and sold for a good price. Such creameries need
not be expensive structures nor contain elaborate equipment. A creamery
to be successful must have the product of a sufficient number of cows
within reasonable distance to fully employ the time of the creameryman
and utilize the equipment. The rules of the creamery in reference to the
standard and condition milk received, should be enforced; otherwise a few
careless patrons may impair the product of the whole. The essentials to
success are the making of a first-class product and economy in the cost
of production. There will be no difl^culty in finding a gilt-edged market

for the good product.

Marketing Livestock. — Under the old system of marketing livestock
there were two or more local buyers at every small shipping point who
made a living from this business. Very few farmers have enough of any
one class of stock to make a carload. For this reason it is not feasible

1 Courtesy of The Maomillan Company, N. Y. From " Farm Management," by Warren.

ril

918

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ture. They may also co-operate in selling the farm products and in
purchasing farm supplies. There are other ways in which to co-operate.
Exchanging Help.— Tliere are many kinds of farm work that can be
most advantageously done by two or more men working together. The
most striking instances of this are the harvesting of grain and hay, the
shelling and marketing of corn and threshing. The exchanging of work
during the harvest season often meets the temporary demand for extra
labor. Such co-oi:)eration brings neighbors closer together and promoter
friendly relations. It should be free from abuse. It frequently happens
that some farmers, through generosity, give much more than they receive.
A value should be placed on the labor of men and teams and a record kept
of the time given to the neighbor as well as that received from him. A
settlement for the difference in time at the close of the year promotes
good feeling and avoids dissatisfaction.

Co-operation in threshing grain is now the rule in the large gram
districts. The threshing ring consists of fifteen to thirty farmers, the
number depending on the size of the farms and the length of the threshing
period. The members of the ring either purchase an outfit for their own
use or contract to hire one. They hold meetings at stated times and agree
upon terms, the price to be paid for threshing the different kinds of gram
and the order in which the members' threshing shall be done. The order
should change from year to year in order to be fair to all members. Each
member furnishes help in proportion to the size of his farm or acreage

of grain he grows.

Cow Testmg Associations.— These associations have been of great
service to dairymen in many districts. Such an association requires that
there shall be fifteen or more dair^^en living within an area sufficiently
restricted so that all herds can be visited by one man once or twice each
month, and that each dairyman own ten or more cows. The association
members each agree to pay so much per cow, usually not more than $1.50
per year. They employ an official tester, who spends one day each month
with each farmer; or, in case of small herds, two herds may be tested in
one day The tester weighs the milk of each cow morning and evening,
and takes samples of it which are tested for butter-fat. He also weighs
or measures the quantity of each kind of feed that is given the cows. These
records, after being repeated for several months, enable the farmer to rec-
ognize which cows are the most productive and which should be sold in
order to make the herd more profitable.

Many farmers milk cows year after year that do not pay for the feed
consumed. The average annual production of cows in the United States
is about 4000 pounds of milk and 160 pounds of butter-fat. Since this is
the average, many cows must produce less than this. The best dairymen
say there is no profit in cows of even average production. One association
in Pennsylvania reports a gain valued at $4500 in one year as a result of
cow testing.

MARKETS, MARKETING, CO-OPERATION 919

The associations lead to a better understanding of the feed require-
ments, and have resulted in auxiliary associations for the purchase of
feed at wholesale with much saving to members.

Marketing Dairy Products. — The intelligent marketing of dairy
products necessitates an understanding of the value of the different milk
l)roducts and the cost of making them as compared with the price for which
tiie milk may be sold. Knowing the price of milk, cream, butter, cheese
and ice cream, and the butter-fat content of the milk and cream, one can
easily calculate the relative values of the several products as compared
with the milk. This, in connection with the cost of production, will enable
the farmer to determine which is most profitable for him.

Where there is little demand for market milk, co-operative creameries
are advantageous. They enable the farmer to have his milk manufact\n-ed

A Full Load Reduces Cost of IIaulingJ

into a first-class article and sold for a good i)rice. Such creameries need
not be expensive structures nor contain elaborate equipment. A creamery
to be successful must have the product of a sufficient number of cows
within reasonable distance to fully employ the time of the creameryman
and utilize the equipment. The rules of the creamery in reference to the
standard and condition milk received, should be enforced; otherwise a few
careless patrons may impair the product of the whole. The essentials to
success are the making of a first-class product and economy in the cost
of production. There will be no difficulty in finding a gilt-edged market

for the good product.

Marketing Livestock.— Under the old system of marketing livestock
there were two or more local buyers at ever>' small shipping point who
made a living from this business. Very few farmers have enough of any
one class of stock to make a carload. For this reason it is not feasible

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From *' Farm Managoment." by Warren.

't'ji^fi

IHitf

920

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

for them to make their own shipments. Furthermore, many a farmer
would Hke to feed half a carload of cattle, but since he can buy from the
stockyards economically only in carload lots, he concludes that less than
this number is not worth while. In this way he fails to utilize roughage
and other unmarketable products on the farm.

The above state of affairs has given rise to dissatisfaction and has
resulted in the organization of co-operative livestock shipping associations.
Minnesota has taken an active lead in this respect. In 1911 there were
three of these associations in that state. In 1913 the number had increased
to forty. Since then others have been added and a State Ceutral Associa-
tion has been formed, the chief purpose of which is to assist in organizing
local associations and developing a uniform system of accounting.

No capital is required in this kind of an organization. A manager
is employed to look after the shipping and selling of the stock. His chief
qualifications must be honesty, a thorough knowledge of livestock and
business methods. He should be a good salesman. Since he handles
considerable sums of money for the patrons, he should be required to give

a bond.

When the members of the association have stock to market they
advise the manager. As soon as several members have enough to make
a carload, he advises each of the date when shipment will be made. The
stock of each member is given a number or other identification mark and
weighed. The stock of each is sold on its merit at the stockyards, and
the bill of sale shows what it brought. The manager may conduct the
business on a percentage basis or on a salary. He is subject to the direc-
tion of the board of managers.

Marketing Eggs. — The bulk of eggs l^eing produced as a side Hne,
can be marketed co-operatively in connection with the co-operative mar-
keting of other products to good advantage. In districts where co-opera-
tive creameries exist, eggs are found to be an ideal side line for the creamery.
The teams that bring milk or cream to the creamery can also bring eggs
produced by the patrons with practically no extra expense. In this^way
the creamer>^ can secure eggs at frequent intervals and by having definite
rules will secure nothing but strictly fresh eggs and guarantee them to
consumers. It has the facilities for keeping eggs cool and for putting them
upon the market at the minimum of expense.

Z^ '\ The plan that has proven successful with some creameries is to deliver
egg cartons and to supply a stamp to each patron. The eggs are stamped
as soon as gathered, placed in the carton, sealed and kept cool until
deUvered. Patrons should gather eggs twice daily, especially during
warm weather, should grade them to uniform size and keep white and
brown eggs separate. If these eggs are stamped and guaranteed not to
be over a certain number of days old, they have been found to bring on
the market from two to five cents per dozen over the ruling price. In
some cases advance in price is even greater.

■m^mr

MARKETS, MARKETING, CO-OPERATION 921

In Prince Edward Island, within the last few years, a number of egg
circles or associations have been formed for no other purpose than the
marketing of eggs. The membership of each circle ranges from 35 to 100,
and each elects a board of directors and hires a manager. It is the business
of the manager to collect eggs and find a market for them, finally turning
over the proceeds to each member. The eggs are gathered and graded
according to rules which must be lived up to. The manager's salary is
paid out of a commission which, during the summer, equals about one cent

Shipping Vegetables by Water. ^

a dozen on all eggs, and during the winter amounts to about two cents

a dozen. . ^ ix

The Objects of the egg circles are to secure better prices for poultry
products, to improve the quality and to buy at wholesale supphes for its
members. It also aims to introduce pure-bred poultry and disseminate

poultry information.

Marketing Vegetables.— In the marketing of vegetables, quality and
appearance count for nearly as much as in case of fruit. The attractive
package of the family size is in greatest demand. Several of the western
states are taking the lead in this respect, as they have done m case of the
marketing of fruit. They are teaching the eastern truck grower the value
of putting upon the market a strictly fancy article.

The most successful vegetable growers are those that produce as high

1 Ck)urte8y of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia, Pa.

"^VS^^^ '"

"■;vyfHr;rl

'•■■•;■ ^:^*/'^'-:^r .ct'\«)9

920

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

for them to make their own shipments. Furthermore, many a farmer
would hke to feed half a carload of cattle, but since he can buy from the
stockyards economically only in carload lots, he concludes that less than
this number is not worth while. In this way he fails to utilize roughage
and other unmarketable products on the farm.

The above state of affairs has given rise to dissatisfaction and has
resulted in the organization of co-operative livestock shipping associations.
Minnesota has taken an active lead in this respect. In 1911 there were
three of these associations in that state. In 1913 the number had increased
to forty. Since then others have been added and a State Central Associa-
tion has been formed, the chief purpose of which is to assist in organizing
local associations and developing a uniform system of accounting.

a bond.

Marketing Eggs. — The bulk of eggs ])eing produced as a side line,
can be marketed co-operatively in connection with the co-operative mar-
keting of other products to good advantage. In districts where co-opera-
tive creameries exist, eggs are found to be an ideal side line for the creamery.
The teams that bring milk or cream to the creameiy can also bring eggs
produced by the patrons with practically no extra expense. In this^way
the creamer>^ can secure eggs at frequent intervals and by having definite
rules will secure nothing but strictly fresh eggs and guarantee them to
consumers. It has the facilities for keeping eggs cool and for putting them
upon the market at the minimum of expense.

^ . The plan that has proven successful with some creameries is to deliver
egg cartons and to supply a stamp to each patron. The eggs are stamped
as soon as gathered, placed in the carton, sealed and kept cool until
delivered. Patrons should gather eggs twice daily, especially during
warm weather, should grade them to uniform size and keep white and
])rown eggs separate. If these eggs are stamped and guaranteed not to
be over a certain number of days old, they have been found to bring on
the market from two to five cents per dozen over the ruling price. In
some cases advance in price is even greater.

MARKETS, MARKETING, CO-OPERATION 921

Shipping Vegetables by Water.^
a dozen on all eggs, and during the winter amounts to about two cents

"^The oDJects of the egg circles are to secure better prices for poultry
products, to improve the quality and to buy at wholesale supphes for its
members. It also aims to introduce pure-bred poultry and dissemmate

Doultry information. ^ , , ... ,

Marketing Vegetables.-In the marketing of vegetables quality and
appearance count for nearly as much as in case of fruit. The attractive
pKge of the family size is in greatest demand Several of the western
states are taking the lead in this respect, as they have done in case of the
markXg of IrJit. They are teaching the eastern tmck grower the value
of nutting upon the market a strictly fancy article.

The most successful vegetable growers are those that produce as high

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia, Pa.

^^^m

I'tW^-

mm.

m^m<

922

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

a percentage of first-class product as possible and grade their product
carefully, putting their first-class stuff on the market under their farm
name or brand. Any low-grade material should go to the market as such
where there is likely to be the greatest demand for it, and should not bear
a brand.

Co-operative marketing of vegetables has proven eminently successful
iu many localities. A notable example of such marketing is that of the
Eastern Virginia Produce Exchange, with the headquarters at Onley, Va.

Loading Peaches for Auto Truck Transportation at Glassboro, N. J.*

The sales of this exchange amount to about $4,000,000 animally, and it
carries from $50,000 to $100,000 to the surplus fund each year.

The sales of this exchange are made in the northern cities in carload
lots by traveling salesmen. If there is any complaint on the arrival of
produce, a man is sent at once to investigate, and if claim is just, settle-
ment is made. It is the aim to market goods that come up to the standard
claimed for them and to do a strictly honest business.

Marketing Fruit. — Reference has been made to the advantages fre-
quently taken of the producer by commission merchants. On the other
hand, producers frequently put upon the market all kinds of fruit, the
package contents of which are not what is represented by the top layer.
This is especially true in case of barreled apples. An instance is cited of
a producer who visited a commission merchant and saw first-class Winesap

* Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadelphia, Pa.

MARKETS, MARKETING, CO-OPERATION 923

apples sold at $3.20 per barrel. These were purchased on the assumption
that the interior of the barrel would be decidedly inferior to the surface
layer. This gentleman followed the apples to the retailer and found
that they were sold at the rate of $9.60 a barrel. The retailer
stated that if he had believed the label true he would have willingly,
paid $5.00 a barrel for them. Further investigation among both
retailers and wholesalers in that city brought out the fact that
honest packing was estimated at about 5 per cent of the fruit product
put upon the market, and that 95 per cent of it was more or less dis-
honest.

Until fruit producers correct this defect in their method of marketing
their product, they cannot hope for the best results. Neither can they
blame the commission merchant and other middlemen for taking what
seems to be advantage of them. Everyone should aim to have his goods
fully up to what they are claimed to be in quality and then insist on fair
treatment by the dealer.

Co-operation in the marketing of fruit is becoming the rule rather
than the exception. At a recent meeting of the fruit growers of Kansas,
Nebraska, Iowa and Missouri for the purpose of forming a fruit growers*
association of these states, it was stated on good authority that 90 per cent
of the Missouri fruit growers not marketing co-operatively were not making
the fruit business pay, while over 90 per cent of those selling co-operatively
were making good money at it. Many of those present gave testimony to
this effect and cited specific instances to substantiate their claims. It was
shown that in 1912 grape growers along the Missouri River on one side
received an average price of 13^ cents per pound for grapes, whereas just
across the river grapes marketed co-operatively brought an average price

of 2| cents.

Some Successful Co-operative Associations. — The Farmers* Incor-
porated Co-operative Society of Rockville, Iowa, has been in existence for
twenty-four years. It markets general farm products, particularly corn,
wheat, oats and barley, and purchases for its members feed, fuel, building
material, machinery, clothing and some other items. It does an annual
business of about $600,000. In the spring wheat belt, including the states
of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and North and South Dakota, co-opera-
tive associations are numbered by the hundreds. These consist of co-opera-
tive elevators, creameries, cow-testing associations, poultry associations,
and organizations for buying farm supplies. Minnesota claims first rank
in co-operative business enterprises. In January, 1914, it reports 2013
co-operative establishments. These did a total business of $60,760,000 in
1913. Co-operative creameries led with a total business of $21,675,000.
There were 270 farmers' elevators with a membership of 34,500. To these
enterprises may be added co-operative telephone and insurance companies.
The total amount of insurance outstanding in January, 1914, was $342,-
000,000. The cost of each $100 worth of insurance in force was 18 cents

•*5'«S«f.S

,^;.i'.;K(,-?,'«5ii;i»5

922

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

a percentage of first-class product as possible and grade their product
carefully, putting their firet-class stuff on the market under their farm
name or brand. Any low-grade material should go to the market as such
where there is likely to be the greatest demand for it, and should not bear
a brand.

Co-oi)erative marketing of vegetables has proven eminently successful
iu many localities. A notable example of such marketing is that of the
Eastern Virginia Produce Exchange, with the headquarters at Onley, Va.

Loading Peaches for Auto Tkuck Transportation at Glassboro, N. J.'

The sales of this exchange amount to about $4,000,000 annually, and it
carries from $50,000 to $100,000 to the surplus fund each year.

Tlie sales of this exchange are made in the northern cities in carload
lots by traveling salesmen. If there is any complaint on the arrival of
produce, a man is sent at once to investigate, and if claim is just, settle-
ment is made. It is the aim to market goods that come up to the standard
claimed for them and to do a strictly honest business.

Marketing Fruit. — lieference has been made to the advantages fre-
quently taken of the producer by commission merchants. On the other
hand, producers frequently put upon the market all kinds of fruit, the
package contents of which are not what is represented by the top layer.
This is especially true in case of barreled apples. An instance is cited of
a producer who visited a commission merchant and saw first-class Winesap

> Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer, Philadilphia, Pa.

MARKETS, MARKETING, CO-OPERATION 923

apples sold at $3.20 per barrel. These were purchased on the assumption
that the interior of the barrel would be decidedly inferior to the surface
layer. This gentleman followed the apples to the retailer and found
that they were sold at the rate of $9.60 a barrel. The retailer
stated that if he had believed the label true he would have wiUingly.
paid $5.00 a barrel for them. Further investigation among both
retailers and wholesalers in that city brought out the fact that
honest packing was estimated at about 5 per cent of the fruit product
put upon the market, and that 95 per cent of it was more or less dis-
honest.

Co-operation in the marketing of fruit is becoming the rule rather
than the exception. At a recent meeting of the fruit growers of Kansas,
Nebraska, Iowa and Missouri for the purpose of forming a fruit growers*
association of these states, it was stated on good authority that 90 per cent
of the Missouri fruit growers not marketing co-operatively were not making
the fruit business pay, while over 90 per cent of those selling co-operatively
were making good money at it. Many of those present gave testimony to
this effect and cited specific instances to substantiate their claims. It was
shown that in 1912 grape growers along the Missouri River on one side
received an average price of IJ/^ cents per pound for grapes, whereas just
across the river grapes marketed co-operatively brought an average price

of 2 1 cents.

Some Successful Co-operative Associations. — The Farmers* Incor-
porated C 'O-operative Society of Rdckville, Iowa, has been in existence for
twenty-four years. It markets general farm products, particularly corn,
wheat, oats and barley, and purchases for its members feed, fuel, building
material, machinery, clothing and some other items. It does an annual
lousiness of about $600,000. In the spring wheat belt, including the states
of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and North and South Dakota, co-opera-
tive associations are numbered by the hundreds. These consist of co-opera-
tive elevators, creameries, cow-testing associations, poultry associations,
and organizations for buying farm supplies. Minnesota claims first rank
in co-operative business enterprises. In January, 1914, it reports 2013
co-operative establishments. These did a total business of $60,760,000 in
1913. Co-operative creameries led with a total business of $21,675,000.
There were 270 farmers' elevators with a membership of 34,500. To these
enterprises may be added co-operative telephone and insurance companies.
The total amount of insurance outstanding in January, 1914, was $342,-
000,000. The cost of each $100 worth of insurance in force was 18 cents

924

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

as against 46 cents the rate of stock companies soliciting business in com-
petition on three-year contracts.

Even among the conservative people of Lancaster County, Pa., there
is a co-operative association which has been in existence for over eight
years, having a membership of over a thousand, and doing an annual
business of nearly $200,000. Enough has been stated to indicate that
co-operation is growing rapidly and that it is successful.

Importance of Able Management. — Success in co-operation depends
much upon the manager. It is necessary to leave a great deal of the
business to the manager, and for this reason a man should have wide
experience, ability and be of unquestioned integrity. Such a man is sure
to be worth a good salary. Those tr^^ing to co-operate who underestimate
the value of good management are likely to fail.

Supervision of Co-operation. — Several of the states have already
passed laws regulating certain features of co-operation. Such a law
passed a few years ago by New York, provides that five or more persons
may become a co-operative corporation, company, association, exchange,
society or union for the purpose of conducting a general producing, manu-
facturing and merchandising business on a co-operative plan. It limits
the aggregate value of shares held by one person to not more than $5,000.
Each stockholder is entitled to only one vote, regardless of the amount of
his stock. It provides for the apportionment of the net earnings by first
paying dividends at a rate not exceeding 6 per cent per annum on stock.
Not less than 10 per cent of the net earnings are reserved until the reserve
fund equals 30 per cent of the paid-up capital stock. Five per cent of
the earnings must be devoted to an educational fund designed especially
for the teaching of co-operation. The remainder of the net earnings shall
be distributed to members of the first class, thab is, stockholders, and
those of the second class, non-stockholders. Dividends are paid on pur-
chases and sales and in proportion to the amount purchased or sold.

A Bureau of Supervision of Co-operation has been created. The
superintendent is appointed by the Commissioner of Agriculture. It is
his duty to aid co-operative associations throughout the state.

REFERENCES

"Co-operation in Agriculture." Powell.

*'Farm Management." Card.

"Farmers' Business Hand-Book." Roberts.

* ' M ar ke ts for People . ' ' Sullivan .

" Marketing of Farm Products." Weld.

Michigan Expt, Station Bulletin 191. "Shrinkage of Farm Products."

Illinois Expt. Station Bulletin 124. "Shrinkage of Cr-n in Cribs."

Kansas Expt. Station Bulletin 147. "Shrinkage of Corn in Cribs."

New Jersey Extension Circular No. 5. "Marketing White Potatoes in New Jersey.

Wisconsin Expt. Station Bulletin 209. "Prices of Farm Products."

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins:

192. "Agricultural Co-operation."

216. **Box Packing of Apples."

MARKETS, MARKETING, CO-OPERATION

925

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Statistics:

Bulletin 21 "Rates of Charge for Transporting Garden Truck with Notes
on Growth of the Industry."

Bulletin 49. "Cost of Hauling Crops from Farms to Shipping Points."

Bulletin 9. "Production and Price of Cotton for 100 Years."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

Year-Books, Appendix. Transportation Rates, Yields, Prices, etc.

Year-Book 1906, pages 371-386. "Freight Costs and Market Values."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

321 . "Use of the Split-Log Drag on Earth Roads."

445. "Marketing Eggs Through the Creamery."

594. "Shipping Eggs by Parcels Post."

* *

BOOK VIII

PLANT AND ANIMAL DISEASES,
INSECT ENEMIES AND

CONTROL

(927)

'|r

CHAPTER 74
Diseases of Animals and Their Management

By Dr. S. S. Buckley
Professor of Veterinary Science and Pathology, Maryland Agricultural College

"You say you doctored me when lately ill;
To prove you didn't, I'm living still."

Domestic animals contribute largely to the benefits of country life,
and, a^de from house pets, these pleasures are denied the residents of towns
and cities. Farms devoted to trucking and fruit growing may prove
financially profitable, as do mercantile pursuits, but they fail to make the
farm a home as do those which possess a varied assortment of species of
hve §tock.

Domestic animals share our labor, contribute to our food supply and
furnish the means for improving our soil and maintaining its fertility.
While the different species of domestic animals are materially unlike in
some respects, yet the general scheme on which their conformation and
action is planned makes it possible to apply similar broad rules for the care
and management of them all.

Animals in health are by nature intended to serve man's purposes
and, according to the degree of impairment of health, so is the degree of their
usefulness to man affected.

Strictly considered, there are not different degrees of health, since
health signifies a normal condition of the body. Abnormal conditions of
the body occur, however, which are variable in degree, and these constitute
disease.

Disease, therefore, may range from slight unrecognizable disturbances
of the body functions to extremely complex modifications which terminate
life in death.

An animal is most highly profitable to its owner when in a normal or
healthy condition, and its value to him diminishes according to the degree
of abnormality or disease. It is for the stockman, therefore, to interest
himself in maintaining animals in health, rather than in the study of the
nature and treatment of their diseases, if he is to derive the greatest benefits
from them.

The Essentials for Health.— In order to be most successful in the

management of animals, a study should be made of the eflicacy of sound,

wholesome food and pure water; the necessity for pure air and proper

exercise; the effects of proper dieting, over-feeding and abstinence; the

50 • (929)

« »

•i^'iy^M.

930

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

necessity for comfortable quarters, and lastly the benefits of humane and
intelligent treatment. This means familiarity with the laws of hygiene
and as far as possible with the structures (anatomical parts) and the
functions (normal actions) of the animal body. There is a general simi-
larity of the organization of animal bodies and of the human body, and what
is bad for mankind is most likely bad for animals.

Knowledge of Disease Should Precede Treatment.— No one should
undertake the treatment of a disease of animals whose nature he is not
familiar with, nor to administer medicines whose effects are unknown to
him, any more than he should attempt to treat similar disorders in the
human. The mere fact that one is animal and the other human does not
alter the chances for success, nor prove more creditable to his intelligence.

Stockmen should exercise common sense in the management of animals
in health and disease, and remember that there is always to be regarded
the powerful effort on the part of nature to combat bodily disturbances
and disease. Intelligent assistance would frequently restore, where mdis-

creet meddling will destroy. . . ^u

There is a strong propensity on the part of stockmen to resort to the
use o<" powerful remedies for all diseases without first deliberating on the
nature of the disorder, its cause, its symptoms, its course, its normal duration
and finally, its rational treatment. Such deliberation would frequently
indicate that the disorder was due to some lapse in management; that some
of the symptoms were mere evidences of nature's effort to overcome the
disorder: that its normal cause and duration was dependent upon the
duration of mismanagement and that rational treatment should be directed
towards assisting rather than in opposing nature's efforts. For example,
an animal has been over-fed and diarrhea results. More frequently than
otherwise, such a case is treated with opium preparations or astringents,
to check the diarrhea, possibly with serious consequences; while on the
other hand, rational treatment would consist in restricting the diet, perhaps
modifying it, and administering a mild laxative, mashes, flaxseed tea, or
raw linseed oil, to assist nature in her efforts at the expulsion of the offending
material as shown by the condition of diarrhea. After the desired result
has been secured, the animal is brought back, by gradually increased
amounts of food, to the usual ration which had been fed.

Intelligent and judicious management is essential, both in preserving
health and in restoring it when impaired.

GENERAL RULES FOR MAINTAmiNG HEALTH

1. Feed only sound, wholesome grain and fodder. Supply abundantly

Dure water, at short intervals. „ , ,, . r ui x^

2. Supply salt regularly to all animals. Rock salt is preferable to
purified salt, a.s it contains other needed elements than soda. Hogs and .
poultry need little salt compared to other farm animals, excessive amounts
being Doisonous to them.

DISEASES OF ANIMALS

931

3. Charcoal may be given occasionally with benefit to all animals,
and may be fed with salt.

4. Feed with extreme regularity, tad according to the requirements of
animals, in quantity and nutritive value.

5. Developing or growing animals, females with young, pregnant
females, males for breeding purposes, work animals and animals not at
work require different feeds, in quantity and quality.

6. Animals at pasture require attention. Pasturage may be adequate
or it may need to be supplemented with additional feed.

7. Make all changes in rations gradually. Add any new variety of
feed to the ration in small and successively increasing amounts until the
desired addition is secured.

8. Unwholesome food is frequently produced on farms, and, l^eing
unmarketable, is kept for feeding purposes. Such foods may be fed safely
if proper methods are employed.

Damaged grain, soft, rotten, mouldy, worm-eaten and otherwise
unwholesome, may be made safe for feeding if it is first shelled from the
cob or threshed from the straw and then carefully fanned to remove the
light, badly damaged and unwholesome grains. By the same process, the
spores of mold and poisonous dust are largely eliminated.

Damaged fodder and hay may be made less objectionable and safer
by shaking out as much as possible the dust and must as it is removed from
the stack. It should then be run through a cutting box and cut into con-
venient lengths. This cut fodder should be mixed with a proper amount of
grain and salted at the rate of one pound of salt to the hundred pounds of
chop. Moisten the entire mass and after macerating for several hours, it
can be fed. Where this is practiced, the chop box should be kept scrupu-
lously clean.

Comfort. — Animals may be well bred and well fed and yet not develop
nor thrive properly if kept in uncomfortable surroundings.

Stables which are comfortable should be well lighted, but the light
must be admitted into the building in such a way as not to subject the
animals to a constant glare of bright sunhght and they should not face dark,
unlighted walls. Stables, however, should be so arranged that all parts
of the enclosure are well lighted with diffuse light. They should be devoid
of dark recesses which might serve for the accumulation of filth, as breeding
places for vermin or for the decomposition of feed and fodder.

Mangers and racks for feed should be convenient alike for feeder and
animals and easy to clean. Refuse must not be allowed to accumulate,
as when moistened with saliva it sticks to the mangers and affords an ideal
place for decomposition processes and the development of attendant poisons.

Floors must be kept with even surfaces, and be clean. If hard and
impervious, they should be well bedded. If porous, they must not be
permitted to become foul. Foot and hoof troubles, lameness and foul
skins develop in dirty stalls.

■ I.

932

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The air of stables must be pure. Any ventilating system which admits
an abundance of pure air and allows the escape of foul air is a proper one.
There is no one system suited to all stable designs. Muslin stretched across
window openings, instead of glazed sash, makes a desirable covering. It
at thv. same time allows the passage of air through its meshes and subdues
the light from without.

Animals must be kept well groomed. It is an old adage that '* groom-
ing is half the feed." The skin of animals becomes dirty with dust from
without and from the dried sweat and skin emanations from within the
body. Unless accumulations are removed through grooming, the natural
function of the skin is impaired and debility results. Dirty coats of animals
afford desirable breeding places for vermin.

Proper light, pure air, suitable mangers and floors, together with
cleanliness of stables and bodies, all tend toward the comfort of animals,
and the less perfect these are, the more likely is it that the animals will be
affected with abnormal sight, unhealthy skin, disordered respiration and
impaired digestion, with all their consequent ills. It is necessary, therefore,
to study carefully the comfort of animals, to insure good condition or
physical fitness of their bodies.

Exercise. — Regularity of exercise in the open air is necessary for the
health of all classes of animals. Animals closely confined in stables, even
though well fed and watered, properly groomed and otherwise well cared
for^ will become soft, their body tissues more or less watery. They become
less resistant to disease and less vigorous in every way.

The proper assimilation of food and bodily comfort is dependent upon
proper exercise. The appearance of animals is deceptive in this respect.
If a lot of young animals with similar treatment is divided and one part is
allowed a paddock for exercise and the other part confined to stalls, the
latter will usually appear to better advantage. They will be well rounded,
smooth and apparently in prime condition, compared with the other lot,
which is rough, rugged and more or less angular. As they mature, however,
the lot which has been allowed to exercise in the open will continue a steady
development to maturity, while the stalled lot will undergo a period of
arrested development and fail totally in becoming large, robust, resistant
animals. It is in the young and developing animals particularly that
opportunity for exercise in the open should be given.

Failure to provide this has resulted, among other things, in the
unnecessary^ susceptibility of horses to heaves, or cattle to tuberculosis,
and of hogs to thumps, etc.

General Management. — Intelligent management of animals, there-
fore, may be said to consist of the following essentials:

1. An abundant supply of pure air at all times.

2. Proper food and water, regularly and judiciously provided.

3. Good grooming for all animals when stabled.

4. Proper exercise in the outside air.

DISEASES OF ANIMALS

933

Nursing. — In spite of intelligent management and due regard for the
laws of hygiene, disorders and disease of the animal system will occur.
Sick animals require intelligent care and greater attention to details of
management even than do animals in health. Good nursing is of prime
importance in the treatment of disease.

Sick animals should be placed in detached, well-ventilated and clean
box stalls, conveniently located. Such stalls should be roomy, clean,
cool and dry. In certain cases body clothing — blankets and bandages —
are necessary.

All utensils, buckets, brooms, etc., used in the care of sick animals
should be kept clean and should not be used in other parts of the stable.

All food not eaten should be removed from the sick animal and under
no circumstances offered to other animals.

Bedding must be clean, sufficient in amount and comfortable for the

patient.

Sick animals should be seen frequently, but should not be disturbed
more nor oftener than is absolutely necessary.

Sick animals are more comfortable and improve more rapidly when the
bowels are in a lax state. Mashes and soft feed tend to keep them in this
condition. In addition to having laxatives, mashes, flaxseed tea, apples,
carrots or potatoes are serviceable in catering to their appetites. Exposure*
for a short while daily to sunlight acts as a tonic to convalescent animals
and enables them to regain strength rapidly.

Disease. — With the appearance of disease in an animal, it is essential
that its true nature be speedily recognized or diagnosed. To this end there
are observed the modifications in the external visible or otherwise acces-
sible parts of the body which indicate the nature of the internal changes

occurring.

These modifications are perceived through one or more of the special
senses: sight, reveaUng alteration in size, conformation, color, etc.; sound,
differentiating cavities and solid parts; touch, the texture, sensibility to
pain, temperature variation, etc. ; smell, the natural or modified odor and
even the sense of taste, in milk examination for instance, serving an

important end. r • i

In addition to the immediate employment of the senses, the clinical
thermometer gives accurately the internal temperature, and various
tests are at the command of veterinarians for special examinations. It is
necessary for the stockman to recognize health and the earliest approach
of disease and be capable of applying the treatment prescribed. To do so,
he must acquaint himself with a system of examination which will enable
him to fairly well approximate the condition of the animal, as well as to
secure information which, compared with later examinations, will show the

progress of disease.

The modifications in form and function of the body are known as
symptoms. By observing these the disease is located, and by them also

''.K.m

934 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

its character is shown or a diagnosis made. For correctly diagnosing disease
it is necessary that all changes be noted.

The following procedure is recommended to the stockman who should
make written rather than mental notes, in order to have positive and
complete information about the patient prior to a veteriimrian^s exami-
nation, if such proves to be necessary.

Examination of Sick Animals. — 1. Description oj Animal. — This refers
to the kind of animal, the sex, color, age, size and breed. This serves not
only as a mark of identification, but such information may limit the
diagnosis to certain diseases or may eliminate certain diseases from
consideration.

2. Characteristic Pose. — ^The attitude of the patient, whether standing
or lying down, and the particular positions assumed are to be noted. The
mere pose of an animal is more or less significant in some diseases, e. g.y by
rigidity of muscles, dilated nostrils, slightly extended tail and extension
of the haw over the corners of the eyes in the standing horse, picture
tetanus or lockjaw; the recumbent cow with muzzle at the flank, dull eyes,
slow respiration and grating teeth, with history of calving within a few hours
or days, designates calving fever or paralysis, etc.

The physical condition of the animal suggests the possibility of certain
diseases, e. g., azoturia, while conformation and temperament may point
equally well to other diseases; e. g., long-coupled, thin-barreled and long-
legged horses are liable to scours.

3. The Skin. — The condition of the skin indicates in an accurate way
the condition of the body. In its examination we must take into account
the disposition of the hair, the action of the sweat glands, presence of
enlargements or growths upon the skin, any changes in the color of skin
and whether these are confined to the skin or are evidences of general
disease.

4. The Eye. — An examination of the eye will indicate the volume and
character of the blood, as seen in the visible capillary vessels. The color
of the conjunctiva shows the condition of the animal and the character of
its blood. The discharge of tears and swellings about the eyes should be
noted as important to diagnosis.

5. Temperature. — The internal body temperature in health varies
within certain narrow limits, the average being for —

Horses 100.0M01.5° F.

Cattle 100.5°-102.5° F.

Sheep 102.5°-105.0° F.

Hogs 100.5°-104.0°F.

In diseases, these temperatures may range if or —

Horses 102.0° F. and over

Cattle 103 . 5° F. and over

Sheep 104 . 0° F. and over

Hogs 104 . 0° F. and over

DISEASES OF ANIMALS 935

In all animals the temperature may rarely reach as high as 110° F.,
but life will soon terminate at such. The temperature must be accurately
gotten with a thermometer inserted into the rectum for at least three
minutes. The clinical thermometer registers only from 95° to 110° F. and
is self-registering. This allows ample time for accurate reading and does
away with the errors of estimating fever by the sensation of touch.

Temperatures should be taken throughout the course of the disease
and should be taken at about the same hour, once or twice daily.

Fevers are measured by temperature and, in addition, by noting the
accompanying chill, the uneven surface temperature, the alteration of pulse
and respirations, the alteration of appetite and the general depression
produced.

6. The Pulse. — The pulse or blood force in the arteries indicates the
frequency or rapidity of circulation, its rhythm or regularity and its quality
and character.

The normal pulse rate for animals is for —

Horses 30-40

Cattle 40-60

Swine 60-80

Sheep 70-80

The rapidity of circulation or pulse frequency varies and is easily
influenced by age, sex, external temperatures, exercise, the digestive
processes, and by disease.

The regularity of the pulse beat is greatly modified according to the

state of health.

The quality or character of the pulse is determined by the resistance
to pressure by the fiitger tips when placed over the accessible arteries.

7. The Respirations.— The examination of the respiratory system
should be complete and thorough. The respirations are to be noted as to
frequency, the manner in which they are produced and by the various
chest sounds. The normal respiration of animals is as followc?:

TTorapR 8-16

Cattle : 1^30

swne ::.: 1^20

K::::::: 12-20

In health, the respirations are carried on noiselessly. There are certain
physiological or normal noises, as the snort and the blowing sound made by

horses when galloping. , . ,

On the other hand, with abnormal conditions, there is the snoring
sound produced with the mouth partially open in semi-comatose animals
from any cause; a wheezing sound from the nostril when polyps, tumors
or thickening of the bones occur; gargling or gurgling sounds are produced
when mucus is present; and, finally, grunting sounds occur when the
abdomen is greatly distended.

936

SUCCESSFUL FARMING!

The breath of animals in health is inoffensive. In disease it may
become intensely disagreeable. It may indicate bad teeth, pus in the
sinuses or chronic catarrhal conditions. Septic and gangrenous pneumonia
is accompanied by foulness of breath.

The nasal discharges signify various conditions by their quantity,
color, consistency, odor, and by the presence of particles of food, blood, etc.

They afford an excellent opportunity for examination of the quantity
and the character of capillary blood circulation and characteristic evidences
of particular diseases.

The cough is indicative of various conditions such as heaves, bronchitis

or pneumonia.

8. The Mouth. — An examination of the mouth is of particular impor-
tance, inasmuch as it exposes to view mucous surfaces which are altered in
some diseases. It allows an opportunity for judging age, by the characters
upon the teeth; and further, the amounts of secretion present indicate the
degree to which the secretory glands are disturbed. . '

9. The Kidneys and Bowels, — Direct examination of the kidneys and
bowels is only safely conducted by experienced and trained men, but the
stockman has an opportunity to examine the urine and the excrement. He
should note the amount, color, consistency and any unusual odor of either.
He should observe the frequency of the evacuations and whether they were
made without causing distress.

Rational Measures for Treatment.— Not until after having made a
critical examination of the sick patient is the stockman or attendant
justified in the attempt to supply remedial measures.

If the condition of the patient justifies it, the sei*vices of a veterinarian
should be secured promptly. If, on the other hand, there is no necessity
for professional services, it is advisable that a comparison be made of the
symptoms presented by the animal and the symptoms described in books
on diseases of animals. When these are found to closely correspond, then,
and only then, should the administration of medicines be begun. Many
animals are destroyed or permanently ruined by unwise treatment. The
eagerness 'Ho do something" for these animals prevents proper deliberation
and proper judgment, and the result is that the ''cure is worse than the ill."

references;

"Common Diseases of Farm Animals." Craig.

"Care of Animals." Mayo.

"Diseases of Animals." Mayo.

Kentucky Expt. Station Circulars: , „

5. "A Remedy for Clover Bloat."

7. "Blackhead of Turkey." , rr. ^ , t>- rr u i->»

Montana Expt. Station Bulletin 105. "Intraderma Test for Bovme Tuberculosis
nVim Fvnf Station Bulletin 2S(). " Important Animal Parasites.
CanJ^an D^t of Cicu^ Bulletin. "A Plain Statement of Facts Concerning

Tuberculosis." ^ . . ,.

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:
351. "TuberailinTcst."

DISEASES OF ANIMALS

937

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

366.
379.
380.
439.
449.
473.
669.
666.

'Hookworm Disease of Cattle."

'Hog Cholera."

'Loco- Weed Disease."

'Anthrax."

'Rabies or Hydrophobia."

'Tuberculosis."

'Texas or Tick Fever."

'Foot and Mouth Disease."

CHAPTER 75

Diseases of farm, Garden and Orchard Crops; and Their

Remedies

By Dr. Mel. T. Cook
Plant Pathologist, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station

When any of the various parts of a plant are not doing their work
properly the plant is said to be diseased. The disease frequently causes
poor growth or poor fruit, or both; and in ease of our cultivated plants, an

unsatisfactory crop. ' * . .

The most important causes of plant diseases are fungi, bacteria, slime
moulds, parasitic flowering plants, insects, mites, nematodes, unsatisfactory
soil, too much or too small amount of moisture, unfavorable temperature,
gas' fumes and smoke. Some plant diseases occur for which there are no
satisfactory explanations.

Plant diseases may be detected by characteristic symptoms which
readily distinguish the disease upon the healthy plants. The most common
of these symptoms are : (a) a discoloration of the foliage and sometimes
of the new growths; (b) wilting, frequently followed by yellowing and
browning; (c) dropping of the foliage; (d) the formation of spots on foliage-,
stems or roots; {e) perforation of the foliage commonly called ^^shot hole;
(/) variegation of the foliage commonly called mosaic; (g) the ^^ damping
off '' or dying which is especially common on seedling plants; {h) the blight
or dying of leaves, twigs or stems; (t) the dwarfing of parts; (j) the increase
in size of parts; {k) formation of galls, pustules or corky growths; {I)
cankers on fruit, stems or roots; (m) abnormal fruits; (n) the formation
of masses of small shoots called ^^ witches^ brooms;'^ (o) the curling of leaves;
(p) the formation of leaf rosettes; {q) abnormal root growths conimonly
known as hairy root; (r) exudations of gums, resins; etc.; (s) the rotting ot
fruit, stems or other parts; and (0 sunburn of fruits and foliages.

Some diseases of the soil, such as ^^ damping off," are very severe in
seed-beds and in greenhouses, and can be controlled by sterilizing the soil.
Diseases that occur in the soil in fields are frequently overcome by a rota-
tion of crops, by improved drainage and sometimes by stimulating the

plants with suitable fertilizer.

Many diseases are controlled by spra>*ing, but in most cases spraying
is used for the protection of plants against disease and not for curing them;
therefore, it is a kind of insurance and must always be supplied in advance
of the appearance of the disease. Spraying cannot be conducted in a
satisfactory manner unless the grower is sufficiently familiar with the disease

(938)

DISEASES OF CROPS

939

to understand when, why and how to give the necessary treatments. In
recent years it has been found possible to overcome some diseases by
growing plants that are disease-resistant and, therefore, do not need
treatments^

In this chapter only the most common and important plant diseases
in the United States and Canada are considered. Brief descriptions and
condensed directions for treatment are given.

Farmers should always report the presence of disease on crops to
the agricultural experiment station of the state in which they reside, and
ask advice as to treatment. The treatment of some diseases will vary
somewhat, dependent upon the part of the country in which it occurs.

APPLE

Bitter Rot or Ripe Rot (Glomerella rufomaculans [Berk.], Spaul and
von Schrenk). — This rot is not confined to ripe apples and is not always
bitter. It attacks both fruit and twig and occurs in orchard and in storage.
On the fruit it appears as a brown, sometimes black, circular spot which
gradually enlarges. It may be soft and wet or dry and corky, depending
on variety of the fruit and age of the infection. The spore pustules start
from the center of the spot and gradually spread over the surface, usually
forming rather definite circles. They are pinkish in color and watery and
spread the disease from fruit to fruit. Large spots become depressed and
wrinkled and the entire fruit eventually becomes rotten, then dry and
shrunken, and is finally known as a *^ mummy.'*

The disease may be carried from year to year on these mummies and
also on the stems. On the twigs and branches it causes rough spots known
as cankers. These cankers are rough and vary in size with age. The
fungous spores from these infect the growing crop.

Treatment. — Remove and burn the mummied fruit and twig cankers.
Spray with lime-sulphur before the buds open. After the petals fall, spray
with self-boiled lime-sulphur of Bordeaux mixture. (See spray table on
page 943.)

Black Rot (Sphceropsis malorum, Peck). — The rotten spot on the fruit
is usually blacker and drier than the bitter rot spot and can be readily
distinguished by the numerous black dots or papillae from which masses of
black spores emerge.

It also causes a stem canker in which the twigs become swollen,
rough and black. On the trunk and larger branches it causes peculiar
cankers. On young trees it causes a blight which is somewhat similar to
the fire blight of the pear, but which can be readily distinguished by the
presence of numerous small black dots. It also attacks the leaves, causing
peculiar spots frequently spoken of as ^^frog eye.'*

Treatment. — Same as for bitter rot.

Brown Rot. — Usually not severe on the apple. (See Peach.)

Storage Rots, — The rots which occur in storage may be due to the

940

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

'Sl#

preceding fungi or to a number of others. Thorough spraying of the
orchards, careful handling of the fruit, regulation of temperature and
humidity will reduce these rots to a minimum.

Scab (Venturia incequalsis [Cke.], Wint.). — This is one of the most
injurious diseases of the apple. It causes a dry, black spotting of the
fruit which is well characterized by the name ^^scab.^^ As the season

advances the seriously
infected fruits become
distorted and cracked.
Affected fruits are es-
pecially susceptible to
storage rots.

The disease also
attacks the leaves and
twigs, causing a more
or less thick, velvet-
like covering, varying
in color from olive-
green to black.

Treatment, — Spray
with concentrated lime-
sulphur (5 quarts in 50
gallons of water) or
Bordeaux mixture when
the pink shows, but
just before the blossom
opens.

Blotch (Phyllosticta
solitaria, Ell. and Ev.).
— This disease causes
dark, irregular blotches
on the fruit and, when
severe, causes a crack-
ing. In the older spots
a number of small,
black, fruiting dots are
formed. It also attacks the twigs, causing small tan-colored cankers.
In the old cankers the bark becomes cracked and roughened.

Treatment.— SprsLY with lime-sulphur or Bordeaux mixture.. (See
table for apples, pears and quinces.)

Rust (Gymnosporangium macropus, Link.). — This disease attacks
foliage, fruit and twig, causing a yellowish orange-colored spot which
is not readily confused with other diseases. On the upper surface these
spots show numerous small yellow pustules becoming black. On the

1 Courtesy of New Jersey Agricultural Station,

Apple Scab.^
Photograph by Prof. M. A. Blake.

^^^H^^^^^^^^^^H

^^^^^^^^^^^^^HDHlH^HfiflHfl^^^^^^^^^^^l

^^^^^^^^^HiKr "'' ' ''

^^^^^^^H^^^^^^H

^^^^^^^^^^^EiT^^^^^ZT^^^^^^^^^H

^^^^^^^^^■" •'■'»'■ -"«• ■ .'.l^^^^^^^^M

^^^^^^m<Z3 ,,'.1 .

DISEASES OF CROPS

941

under surface, in the late stages, are produced small, fringed, cup-like
structures containing great masses of spores. These spores will not re-in-
fect the apple, but are carried by the wind to neighboring red cedar trees,
where they cause the formation of the familiar cedar apples.

These large brown cedar apples of the cedar, occurring in the spring,
produce gelatinous, horn-
like projections, bearing
masses of spores. These
spores a-re borne by the
wind to the apple tree,
which is re-infected with
the disease.

Treatment. — Remove
the cedar apples, or still
better, remove the cedar
trees. Spraying the apple
trees as for scab will re-
duce the disease to some
extent.

Fire Blight.— See
Pear.

Other Foliage Spots
and Twig Cankers. —There
are leaf spots and twig
cankers due to other causes
which cannot be enumer-
ated in this brief discus-
sion. These diseases are
all more or less injurious,
but can be controlled by
the regular spraying
methods and sanitation.

Mildew {Sphcerotheca
maK[Duby],Burr.). — This
fungus grows on the sur-
face of the leaf, causing a
grayish or whitish covering. Usually it is not severe and can be con-
trolled by the regular spraying or by spraying with potassium sulphide.

Crown Gall and Hairy Root (Bacterium tumefadens, Smith and Town-
g^nd) .—These two diseases are due to the same organism. The crown galls
or root galls occur at the crown or on the roots and sometimes on the
stems. They are more or less spherical, with irregular, roughened surfaces.
Some are hard and others soft, but they are all probably due to the same
cause. They are most severe on red raspberries, are very injurious to peach

1 Courtesy of Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station, State CoUege, Pa.

Apple Tree with Typical Collar Blight.^

Showing proper method of cutting back into healthy
bark before treating with paint.

940

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

preceding fungi or to a number of others. Thorough spraying of the
orchards, careful handling of the fruit, regulation of temperature and
humidity will reduce these rots to a minimum.

Scab {Venturia incequalsis [Cke.], Wint.). — This is one of the most
injurious diseases of the apple. It causes a dry, black spotting of the
fruit which is well characterized by the name ''scab.'^ As the season

advances the seriously
infected fruits become
distorted and cracked.
Affected fruits are es-
pecially susceptible to
storage rots.

The disease also
attacks the leaves and
twigs, causing a more
or less thick, velvet-
like covering, varying
in color from olive-
green to black.

Treatment. — Spray
with concentrated lime-
sulphur (5 quarts in 50
gallons of water) or
Bordeaux mixture when
the pink shows, but
just before the blossom
opens.

Treatment. — Spray with lime-sulphur or Bordeaux mixture.. (See
table for apples, pears and quinces.)

Rust {Gymnosporangium macropuSy Link.). — This disease attacks
foliage, fruit and twig, causing a yellowish orange-colored spot which
is not readily confused with other diseases. On the upper surface these
spots show numerous small yellow pustules becoming black. On the

' Courtesy of New Jersey Agricultural Station,

Apple Scab.^
Photograph by Prof. M. A. Blake.

DISEASES OF CROPS

941

Those large brown cedar apples of the cedar, occurring in the spring,
produce gelatinous, horn-
like projections, bearing
masses of spores. These
spores are borne by the
wind to the apple tree,
which is re-infected with
the disease.

Treatment, — Remove
the cedar apples, or still
better, remove the cedar
trees. Spraying the apple
trees as for scab will re-
duce the disease to some
extent.

Fire Blight.— See
Pear.

Other Foliage Spots
and Twig Cankers. —There
are leaf spots and twig
cankers due to other causes
which cannot be enumer-
ated in this brief discus-
sion. These diseases arc
all more or less injurious,
but can be controlled by
the regular spraying
methods and sanitation.

Mildew (Spharotheca
mall [Duby ] , Burr . ) .—This
fungus grows on the sur-
face of the leaf, causing a
grayish or wliitish covering. Usually it is not severe and can be con-
trolled by the regular spraying or by spraying with potassium sulpliide.

Crown Gall and Hairy Root (Bacterium tumefadens, Smith and Town-
send).— These two diseases are due to the same organism. The crown galls
or root galls occur at the crown or on the roots and sometimes on the
stems. They are more or less spherical, with irregular, roughened surfaces.
Some are hard and others soft, but they are all probably due to the same
cause. They are most severe on red raspberries, are very injurious to peach

1 Courtesy of Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station, State CoUege, Pa.

Apple Tree with Typical Collar Blight.^

Showing projx^r method of cutting; bark into healthy
bark before treating with paint.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

942

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

trees and more or less injurious to apple trees, dependent somewhat on the
varieties. They also occur on pears, quinces, cherries, plums, grapes,
roses and many other plants. The diseased tissues extend throughout a

considerable part
of the plant which
makes cutting off
of these malforma-
tions a very uncer-
tain treatment.

The hairy root
appears under-
ground as a mass
of fibrous roots and
above ground as
warty knots on
trunk and branch,
and is sometimes
mistaken for cank-
ers, due to other
causes.

Treatment. —
The organism which
causes this disease
lives in the soil for
several years, and
cannot be eradi-
cated except by a
long rotation of
crops. It is unwise
to set orchards,
especially peach
orchards, in old
berry fields or other
fields known to be
infected or to use
berries as inter-row

Young Apple Tree from Nursery.^
Showing the disease known as Root Gall.

crops in orchards. Nursery stock known to be infected should be de-
stroyed.

PEAR

Blight {Bacillus amylovorus [Burr], De Toni).— This very familiar
disease causes the leaves and young twigs to die and blacken very much a^
though injured by fire. These dead leaves hang on the trees during the
winter instead of falling in the autumn, as is the case with healthy leaves.
The disease also attacks the branches, causing black, sunken cankers from

» Courtesy of The Field, New York.

DISEASES OF CROPS

943

which a sticky, milky fluid oozes in the early spring, and from which the
disease is spread, by means of insects, to the opening blossoms. If the
weather conditions are favorable the blossoms and fruit spurs die and
blacken and very frequently considerable quantities of the young fruit are
destroyed. The disease also occurs on the apple, crab, hawthorn and
other related trees.

Treatment — Prune and burn the diseased twigs on young trees;
clean out the cankers on old trees, dipping the knife from time to time in
formaldehyde (1 part in 20 parts water). Paint these wounds with formal-
dehyde and then with white lead paint or coal tar. Do not over-fertilize
or over-cultivate the orchard.

Spray Table for Apples, Pears and Quinces. '

Time.

Materul.

PUHPOSE.

1. Before the buds swell.

Concentrated commercial lime-sulphur, 1 part in 9 parts water or
home-made concentrated lime-sulphur diluted to a specific gravity
of 1.03.

For fungous dis-
eases and for San Jose
scale.

2. As soon as the flower
buds show the pink color.

Concentrated commercial lime-sulphur, diluted to 5 quarts in 50
Rallons of water or 1-40, or home-made concentrated lime-sulphur
diluted to specific gravity of 1.007. (Bordeaux mixture can be used
for this treatment.)

For scale and fungi.

3. Immediately after pet-
als fall.

Same as 2.

4. Ten days after blos-
soms fall.

Same as 2.

Two additional sprayings are frequently necessary for fall and winter varieties.

Arsenical poisons for chewing insects and tobacco extracts for sucking insects may be added to treatments 2 and 3.

Rust (Gymnosporangium juniperi'virginianae and G. hlasdaleanum
[D. and H.], Kern) .—Similar to apple rust.

Scab (F. pyrina, Aderh.). — Similar to apple scab.

Leaf Spot (Septoria pyricola, Desm.) appears as numerous small, well-
defined, angular, ashy-colored spots with minute black dots. It is not often

severe.

Leaf Spot {Entomosporium maculatum, Lev.) occurs on the leaf, causing
small, circular spots with dull, red centers and dark borders. When severe
it causes the leaves to become yellow or brown and fall. It also attacks
the fruit, causing spots which are at first red, becoming dark and in severe
cases causing the fruit to crack. It is carried over the winter on the fallen

leaves. . . , t^ ,

Treatment.— This disease can be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux

mixture, beginning when tte leaves are about half or two-thirds full grown

and repeating at intervals of three weeks until four treatments have been

given.

Rots.— The black rot and brown rot also occur on the pear, (bee

Apple.)

Crown Gall. — See Apple.

942

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

considerable part
of the plant which
makes cutting off
of these malforma-
tions a very uncer-
tain treatment.

The hairy root
appears under-
ground as a mass
of fibrous roots and
above ground as
warty knots on
trunk and branch,
and is sometimes
mistaken for cank-
ers, due to other
causes.

Treatment. —
Theorganismwliich
causes this disease
lives in the soil for
several yeai-s, and
cannot be eradi-
cated except by a
long rotation of
crops. It is unwise
to set orchards,
especially peach
orchards, in old
berrv fields or other
fields known to be
infected or to use
berries as inter-row^

Young Apple Tree from Nursery.*
Showing the disease known us Root Gall.

crops in orchards. Nurserj' stock known to be infected should be de-
stroyed.

PEAR

Blight (Bacillus amylovorns [Burr], De Toni).— This very familiar
disease causes the leaves and young twigs to die and blacken very much as
though injured by fire. These dead leaves hang on the trees during the
winter instead of falling in the autumn, as is the case with healthy leaves.
The disease also attacks the branches, causing black, sunken cankers from

i Courtesy of The Field, New York.

^^iw"^^?«^

DISEASES OF CROPS

943

Treatment. — Prune and burn the diseased twigs on young trees;
clean out the cankers on old trees, dipping the knife from time to time in
formaldehyde (1 part in 20 parts water). Paint these wounds with formal-
dehyde and then with white lead paint or coal tar. Do not over-fertilize
or over-cultivate the orchard.

Spray Table for Apples, Pears and Quinces.

Time.

Material.

Purpose.

1. Before the buda swell.

Concentrated commercial lime-sulphur, 1 part in 9 parts water or
home-made concentrated lime-sulphur diluted to a specific gravity
of L03.

For fungous dis-
eases and for San Jose
scale.

2. As soon as the flower
buds show the pink color.

Concentrated commercial lime-sulphur, diluted to 5 quarts in 50
gallons of water or 1-40, or home-made concentrated lime-sulphur
diluted to specific gravity of 1.007. (Bordeaux mixture can be used
for this treatment.)

For scale and fungi.

3. Immediately after pet-
als fall.

Same as 2.

4. Ten days after blos-
soms fall.

Same as 2.

Two additional sprayings are frequently necessary for fall and winter varieties.

Arsenical i)oisoius for chewing insects and tobacco extracts for sucking insects may be added to treatments 2 and 3.

Rust {Gymnosporangium jimiperi'Virginianae and G, hlasdaleanum
[D. and H.], Kern).— Similar to apple rust.

Scab (F. pyrina, Aderh.). — Similar to apple scab.

Leaf Spot {Septoria pyricola, Desm.) appears as numerous small, well-
defined, angular, ashy-colored spots with minute black dots. It is not often

severe. *

Treatment— TYCi^ disease can be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux
mixture, beginning when t&e leaves are about half or two-thirds full grown
and repeating at intervals of three weeks until four treatments have been

given.

Rots.— The black rot and brown rot also occur on the pear. (See

Apple.)

Crown Gall.— See Apple.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

944

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

QUINCE

Rust (G. clavipesy C. and P.). — This disease is very similar to the rusts
on apples and pears, but is more severe on the fruit and twigs than on either
of the preceding. It also has the cedar for its alternate host.

Blight. — See Pear.

Leaf Spot.r-See Pear.

Rots.— See Apple.

Crown Gall. — See Apple.

PEACH
Brown Rot {Sclerotinia frudigena [Pers.], Schroet.). — This is one of
the most destructive diseases of the peach. It attacks the fruit as

Peaches Entirely Destroyed by Brown Rot.*
Showing gray masses of spores of fungus.

it is approaching maturity, causing it to rot, become brown, soft and use-
less. The fungus produces an abundance of spores which form a dense
brown, powdery mass over the fruit. It also attacks the blossoms, causing
them to die, turn brown and fall soon after opening. It then spreads to the
twigs, causing death of the young shoots and causing cankers on the older

branches.

Treatment. — See spray table for peach.

Scab or Freckles {Cladosporium carpophilumj Thuem.). — This extremely
common disease attacks the fruit, causing sooty, black specks or blotches

» From Farmers* Bulletin 440, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

DISEASES OF CROPS

945

which, when severe, may prevent normal ripening and cause the fruit to be
irregular in shape and to crack.

Treatment,— 'See spray table for peach.

Leaf Curl (Exoascus deformans [Berk.] Fckl.). — This very familiar
and very injurious disease causes the leaves to curl, reduces their value to
the tree and finally causes them to fall. With the appearance of the
second crop of leaves, the growers frequently suppose the tree to have
recovered. However, it has lost in vitality and vigor, which results in a
reduction or complete loss of the crop.

Treatment, — Spray with lime-sulphur before the buds open.

Shot Holes (Cercospora drcumsoissay Sacc, Phyllosticta drcumscissa,
Cke.). — These ''shot hole'' diseases are quite common, but readily con-
trolled by the regular spraying treatments.

Another shot hole {Bacterium pruniy Smith) is very common in the
Southern states and especially on Elbertas. It frequently causes the
foliage to fall in midsummer. It also attacks the fruit, causing a spotting
somewhat similar to the scab. It cannot be controlled by spraying.

Crown Gall. — See Apple.

Mildew {Sphcerotheca pannosa [Wallr.], Lev.). — Similar to the mildew
of the apple. It is of little importance and can be controlled by the regular
spray treatment. (See table for peach.)

Yellows. — The cause of this very destructive disease remains a mystery.
In its earlier stages it causes a premature ripening of the fruit, accompanied
by a red blotching over the surface and through the flesh which is usually
insipid and frequently bitter. (Prematuring may also be caused by borers
or winter injury.) In its later stages it causes the so-called ''willowing"
or formation of slender yellowish-green shoots on the trunk and larger
branches. The leaves on these shoots are small, narrow and greenish-
yellow. The foliage is frequently greenish-yellow, but when supplied with
nitrogenous fertilizers will not show this character. In its earlier stages,
one part of the tree may show the disease and the other parts appear
perfectly healthy, but in fact the entire tree is diseased. It can be trans-
mitted from tree to tree by contact and to young trees by budding. Buds
from the apparently healthy parts of very slightly diseased trees will trans-
mit the disease. Healthy nursery stock is of the greatest importance.

Treatment. — Dig and burn the trees as soon as the disease appears,
using care to prevent the tree coming in contact with others. Young
trees can be set in the places from which the old ones were removed; the
disease does not persist in the soil. The greatest care should be used in
the selection of bud wood, to insure its freedom from disease.

Little Peach. — The cause of this disease is also unknown, but it is of
the same nature as yellows. The fruit of diseased trees is small, ripens
late, is inferior in quality, frequently insipid and watery. The leaves are
frequently lighter than normal leaves or yellowish-green and often rolled
and drooping.

60 •

944

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

QUINCE

Rust (G, clavipes, C. and P.). — This disease is very similar to the rusts
on apples and pears, but is more severe on the fruit and twigs than on either
of the preceding. It also has the cedar for its alternate host.

Blight. — See Pear.

Leaf Spot.;— See Pear.

Rots. — See Apple.

Crown Gall. — See Apple.

PEACH
Brown Rot (Sclerotinia fructigena [Pers.], Schroet.). — This is one of
the most destructive diseases of the peach. It attacks the fruit as

Peaches Entirely Destroyed by Brown Rot.*
Showing gray masses of spores of fungus.

it is approaching maturity, causing it to rot, become brown, soft and use-
less. The fungus produces an abundance of spores which form a dense
brown, powdery mass over the fruit. It also attacks the blossoms, causing
them to die, turn brown and fall soon after opening. It then spreads to the
t\^ags, causing death of the young shoots and causing cankers on the older

branches.

Treatment. — See spray table for peach.

Scab or Freckles {Cladosporium carpophilum, Thuem.). — This extremely
common disease attacks the fruit, causing sooty, black specks or blotches

» From Farmers* Bulletin 440, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

DISEASES OF CROPS

945

which, when severe, may prevent normal ripening and cause the fruit to be
irregular in shape and to crack.

Treatment, — See spray table for peach.

Leaf Curl {Exoascus deformans [Berk.] Fckl.). — This very familiar
and very injurious disease causes the leaves to curl, reduces their value to
the tree and finally causes them to fall. With the appearance of the
second crop of leaves, the growers frequently suppose the tree to have
recovered. However, it has lost in vitality and vigor, which results in a
reduction or complete loss of the crop.

Treatment, — Spray with lime-sulphur before the buds open.

Shot Holes (Cercospora circumscissa, Sacc, Phyllosticta drcumscissa^
Cke.). — These ^'shot hole'^ diseases are quite common, but readily con-
trolled by the regular spraying treatments.

Another shot hole {Bacterium pruni. Smith) is very common in the
Southern states and especially on Elbertas. It frequently causes the
foliage to fall in midsummer. It also attacks the fruit, causing a spotting
somewhat similar to the scab. It cannot be controlled by spraying.

Crown Gall. — See Apple.

Mildew {Sphcerotheca pannosa [Wallr.], Lev.). — Similar to the mildew
of the apple. It is of little importance and can be controlled by the regular
spray treatment. (See table for peach.)

Yellows. — The cause of this very destructive disease remains a mystery.
In its earlier stages it causes a premature ripening of the fruit, accompanied
by a red blotching over the surface and through the flesh which is usually
insipid and frequently bitter. (Prematuring may also be caused by borers
or winter injury.) In its later stages it causes the so-called 'Svillowing"
or formation of slender yellowish-green shoots on the trunk and larger
branches. The leaves on these shoots are small, narrow and greenish-
yellow. The foliage is frequently greenish-yellow, but when supplied with
nitrogenous fertilizers will not show this character. In its earlier stages,
one part of the tree may show the disease and the other parts appear
perfectly healthy, but in fact the entire tree is diseased. It can be trans-
mitted from tree to tree by contact and to young trees by budding. Buds
from the apparently healthy parts of very slightly diseased trees will trans-
mit the disease. Healthy nursery stock is of the greatest importance.

Treatment, — Dig and burn the trees as soon "as the disease appears,
using care to prevent the tree coming in contact with others. Young
trees can be set in the places from which the old ones were removed ; the
disease does not persist in the soil. The greatest care should be used in
the selection of bud wood, to insure its freedom from disease.

946

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

ill

Treatment — Same as for yellows.

Peach Rosette. — The cause of this disease of the peach in the Southern
states is also unknown. It is very similar to yellows, but the leaves tend to
cluster, giving the general appearance of green roses.

Treatment. — Same as for yellows.

Spray Table for Peach.'

Tims.

Materul.

Purpose.

1. Same as first treatment for apple. (See page 943.)

2. Just as the husks fall from the small fruit.

Self-boiled lime-sulphur.

For brown rot, scab and
other diseases.

3. Three weeks after 2.

Same as 2.

4. Three weeks after 3, for late varieties.

Same as 2.

5. Same as 2 for very late varieties.

Note. — Arsenical poisons may be added to No. 2 for curculio. Tobacco extrac s and soap can also be added for suck-
ing insects.

PLUM

Black Knot {Plowrightia morhosa [Schw.], Sacc). — This very common

and well-known dis-
ease causes swollen
growths on the
branches which are
at first olivaceous in
color, but finally be-
come deep black and
very hard and brit-
tle. It will spread
over the greater part
of a tree, interfere
with its growth and
finally cause its
death.

Treatment, —
The diseased parts
should be cut out
and burned and the
trees should be
sprayed with lime-
sulphur in the spring
before the opening
of the buds. (See
table for plum.)

Leaf Spot. — See Cherry. Mildew. — See Cherry. Yellows. — See
Peach. Brown Rot. — See Peach. Crown Gall. — See Apple.

1 Cfturtesy of New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station .

Black Knot on the Cherry.*
Photograph by Prof. J. P. Helyar.

DISEASES OF CROPS

947

Spray Table

FOR

Plum.

Time.

Material.

Purpose.

1. Same as for apple and peach.

2. Immediately after the petals fall.

Self-boiled lime-sulphur.

For brown rot.

3. When frUit s about the size of green peas.

Same as 2.

4. Three weeks after 3.

Same as 2.

NoTK.— Arsenical poisons for control of curculio may be added to No. 2. Tobacco extracts and soap may be added
for control of plant lice.

CHERRY

Leaf Spot {Cylindrosporium padi, Karst.). — This disease, which is also
called ''shot hole/^ causes discolored circular spots usually with reddish
or purple border, eventually becoming brown and breaking into a hole and
often resulting in a defoliation of the tree. When severe it is very injurious
to the growth and health of the tree.

Treatment. — Spray with lime-sulphur or with Bordeaux mixture.

Black Knot. — See Plum.

Crown Gall. — See Apple.

Brown Rot. — See Peach.

Powdery Mildew {Podosphcera oxyacanthce [D. C], DeBy.). — Similar

to S, mali of the apple.

Spray Table for Sweet Cherries.

1. Treatment same as first treatment for apple.

2. Treatment same as second treatment for peach, but jriven immediately after the i)etaLs fall.

3 Repeat treatment 2 when fruit is about the size of small pea.

4. Repeat treatment 2 after the fruit is picked.

CITRUS FRUITS

Brown "Rot (Pythiacysiis dtrophthora, Sm. and Sm.).— This disease
of the California fruit is sometimes the cause of heavy losses. It is caused
by a fungus which is white in ma^s. It occurs in the orchard and packing
houses causing a rot with a peculiar rancid odor. Very slightly infected
fruits rot during transportation. It is most abundant in wet weather or
on low ground after irrigation.

Treatment.— It is spread by contact and can be controlled by usmg a
heavy straw mulch or cover crop under the trees and by disinfecting the

fruit in the packing house.

Black Rot (Alternaria dtn, Pierce).— This disease of the navel orange
causes a premature ripening. It usually enters the fruit through the
navel, causing an internal rot accompanied by a reddish color. The
diseased fruit should be burned or buried.

Stem End Rot and Melanose {Phomosis citri, Fawcett).— This disease
. is most common on mature packed fruit, causing a circular patch of soft

946

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Treatment, — Same as for yellows.

Spray Table for Peach.

TniB.

Material.

Purpose.

1. Same as first treatment for apple. (See page 943.)

2. Just as the husks fall from the small fruit.

Self-boiled lime-sulphur.

For brown rot. scab and
other diseases.

3. Three weeks after 2.

Same as 2.

Same as 2,

4. Three weeks after 3, for late varieties.

Same as 2.

'). Same as 2 for very late varieties.

Note. — Arsenical poisons may be added to No. 2 for curculio. Tobacco extrac s and soap can also be added for suck-
ing insects.

PLUM

Black Knot {Plowrightia m^rbosa [Schw.], Sacc). — This very common

Treatment, —
The diseased parts
should be cut out
and burned and the
trees should be
sprayed with lime-
sulphur in the spring
before the opening
of the buds. (See
table for plum.)

Leaf Spot. — See Cherry. Mildew. — See Cherry. Yellows. — See
Peach. Brown Rot. — See Peach. Crown Gall. — See Apple.

1 Courtesy of New Jersey Agricultural Experiniont Station .

Black Knot on the Cherry.^
Photog;raph by Prof. J. P. Helyar.

DISEASES OF CROPS

947

Spray Table for Plum.

Time.

Materul.

Purpose.

1. Same as for apple and peach.

2. Immediately after the petals fall.

Self-boiled lime-sulphur.

For brown rot.

3. When fru.t s about the size of green peas.

Same as 2.

4. Three weeks after 3.

Same as 2.

Note.— Arsenical poisons for control of curculio may be added to No. 2. Tobacco extracts and soap may be added
for control of plant lice.

CHERRY

Leaf Spot (Cylindrosporium padi, Karst.). — This (hsease, which is also
called ''shot hole/^ causes discolored circular spots usually with reddish
or purple border, eventually becoming brown and breaking into a hole and
often resulting in a defoliation of the tree. When severe it is very injurious
to the growth and health of the tree.

Treatment. — Spray with lime-sulphur or with Bordeaux mixture.

Black Knot. — See Plum.

Crown Gall. — See Apple.

Brown Rot. — See Peach.

Powdery Mildew {Podosphcera oxyacanihce [D. C\], DeBy.).— Similar

to S, mall of the apple.

Spray Table for Sweet Cherries.

1. Treatment same as first treatment for apple.

2. Treatment same as second treatment for peach, but given immediately after the jwtals fall.

3 Repeat treatment 2 when fruit is alwut the size of small pea.

4. Repeat treatment 2 after the fruit is picked.

CITRUS FRUITS

Brown "Rot (Pijthiacystis citrophthora, Sm. and Sm.).— This disease
of the California fruit is sometimes the cause of heavy losses. It is caused
by a fungus which is white in mass. It occurs in the orchard and packing
houses causing a rot with a peculiar rancid odor. Very slightly infected
fruits rot during transportation. It is most abundant in wet weather or
on low ground after irrigation.

Treatment,— It is spread by contact and can be controlled by usmg a
heavy straw nmlch or cover crop under the trees and by disinfecting the

fruit in the packing house.

Black Rot {Alternana dtn, Pierce).— This disease of the navel orange
causes a premature ripening. It usually enters the fruit through the
navel, causing an internal rot accompanied by a reddish color. Ihe
diseased fruit should be burned or buried. rm • j-

Stem End Rot and Melanose {Phomods citri, Fawcett).— This disease
is most common on mature packed fruit, causing a circular patch of soft

■■s«a

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

948

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

rot at the stem end which can be detected by a pressure of the finger even
though there may be no discoloration. The presence of scale insects and
warm, damp weather tend to increase the disease.

This organism also causes the disease known as melanose of the fruit,
twig and leaf. This form of the disease appears as a raised brownish area
forming dots, lines and crosses, varying from yellow to brown and black.
The cutting out of the dead wood is an important factor in the control of
this disease.

Other Rots (Penidllium italicumy Wehm., and P. digitatum [Fr.],
Sacc). — These rots are covered by the fungus and appear as blue moulds.
They are the causes of heavy losses in transportation. The fungus enters
the fruits through slight wounds and therefore the fruit should always be
handled carefully.

Sooty Mould {Meliola camellice [Catt.], Sacc). — In this case the
fungus covers the fruit with a black velvety coating which can usually be
removed. It is not nearly so serious as some other diseases. It really
grows on the exudations (honey dew) of plant lice and its control depends
on their destruction.

Black Pit of the Lemon {Bacterium' citrijndeale, Sm.).— This disease
appears as circular or oval, well-defined, reddish-brown, brown or black
spots or pits on the fruit. They are caused by bacteria which gain entrance
through wounds.

Anthracnose or Wither Tip {Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Penz.). —
This disease attacks the young leaves, twig tips and fruits. It causes a
yellowish spotting of the leaves, a withering and dying of the new shoots
and canker-like spots on the fruit. It is one of the most common diseases
of the citrus fruits.

Scab (Cladosporium citri, Mass.). — This very common disease attacks
leaves, twigs and fruits, causing prominent warty or corky outgrowths.
The leaves are frequently twisted and twigs are frequently cracked.

Canker. — This is a comparatively new disease in America and there is
some difference of opinion as to the cause. It is very destructive and a
very vigorous campaign is being made against its spread. It occurs on
leaf, twng and fruit, causing dead, circular spots which are usually raised.
They are light-colored when young, but become brown and corky and fre-
quently marked with small cracks.

Other important diseases of the citrus fruits are the scaly bark or
nail head rust {Clado'sporium herbarum var. ciiricolum) of Florida, the
citrus knot (Sphceropsis tumejaciens^ H. and T.) of the West Indies, and
the gummosis, which is very \^idely distributed.

Treatment of Diseases of Citrus Fruits. — So nmch progress is being
made in the study of these diseases at this time that it is inadvisable to
attempt a discussion as to treatment. Those interested in these diseases
should consult with the agricultural experiment station in the state in.
which the disease occurs.

DISEASES OF CROPS

949

FIG

Rust (Kuehneoal fid [Cast.], Butler). — This very common disease
causes numerous rusty red spots on the lower surface of the leaves. When
severe the trees are almost defoliated. It can be controlled by frequent
spraying with Bordeaux mixture.

Cankers (Lihertella ulcerata, Massee). — This disease is sometimes
severe where figs are grown under glass. It starts as small radiating cracks
which develop into cankers, sometimes completely girdling the branch and
causing the death of the parts beyond the point of attack.

Another canker {Tubercularia fid) causes a shrinking and drying out
of the tissues surrounding the fruit scars, followed by a drooping of the
dead parts.

Fruit Rots {Glomerella rufomaculans [Clint], Sacc). — This disease is
due to the same organism as the bitter rot of the apple. It causes sunken,
rotten spots, usually covered with a whitish growth and later by numerous
pustules of salmon-pink colored spores. If the fruit is attacked when young,
it becomes dry and hangs on the tree!

Ripe fruit rots may be due to various fungous organisms.

Other important diseases of the fig are the yellow rot {Fusarium
roseum, Lint), the leaf spot {Cercospori fid, H. and W.) and the limb
bUght {Corticu£m Icetum, Karsten).

PINEAPPLE
The pineapple is subject to several diseases, all of which should receive
more attention. Growers who have reason to complain of these troubles
should consult with the state agricultural experiment station.

MANGO
Bloom Blight (Colletotrichum glceosporioides, Penz).— This most severe
disease of the mango is due to the same organism that causes the
wither top of the orange. It attacks the blossoms, causing them to turn
black and fall. Unfortunately, the blooming is during the rainy season,
which makes spraying impractical.

AVOCADO
Leaf Spot (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) .—This is due to the same
organism as the wither top of the orange. It is frequently so severe as to
cause a heavy loss of foliage. It also attacks the fruit, frequently causing
a pronounced cracking.

OLIVE
Olive Knot (Bacterium savastanoi, Smith).— This disease originates as
irregular, more or less hemispherical swellings on trunk, branches and
leaves. They are firm and fleshy, but finally become woody and crack.
Badly infected trees frequently die as a result of this disease.

950

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

BLACKBERRY, DEWBERRY AND RASPBERRY

Crown Gall. — See Apple.

Leaf Spot (Septoria rubi, West) occurs on the leaves of these bush
fruits, causing small white or ash-colored spots with brown or reddish mar-
gins. Close examination shows very small black dots in each spot. It is
frequently the cause of considerable damage.

Treatment. — Spray in the spring with Bordeaux mixture.

Anthracnose {Gloeosporium venetum, Speg.). — This disease attacks
the young canes of these fruits, causing small purplish spots which enlarge
and become grayish or dirty white in the centers. When severe, it causes
the canes to crack and die, the leaves to be dwarfed and the fruit to ripen
prematurely. The disease also occurs on the leaves, causing them to
develop unequally.

Treatment, — Cut and burn the diseased and dead canes soon after
picking the fruit. Spray with Bordeaux mixture in the spring and also as
soon as possible after the berry season.

Orange Rust {Gymnoconia interstitialis [Schlecht], Lagh.). — This
disease is very abundant in the spring of the year, causing a dense coating
of red rust (spores) on the under surface of the leaves. The fungus grows
within and may spread throughout the entire plant.

Treatment. — Dig and burn the entire plant. Spraying with Bordeaux
mixture will prevent the infection of healthy plants, but is not a practical

treatment.

Double Blossom {Fusarium mU, Wint.). — This disease is especially
abundant on the Lucretia dewterry, the black diamond or Brazil
blackberry and also occurs upon other varieties of blackberries and
dewberries. The fungus lives within the buds, causing them to
form watches' brooms of slender shoots with deformed or double
flowers producing little or no fruit. The infection of the new buds which
are forming for the next year occurs when the diseased flower buds are

opening.

Treatment,— The disease can be greatly reduced by picking these
deformed leaf buds soon after they open and before the opening of the
flower buds. Select plants so far as possible from fields free from the

disease.

Cane Blight (Coniothyrmm fuckelii Sacc.).— This disease of the rasp-
berries attacks the canes, causing them to be lighter in color, with smoke-
colored patches. The foliage of diseased canes wilts and dies very much as
from drought. The disease penetrates wounds, frequently those made by
pruning. It is readily distributed in nurser>' stock and will persist in the

soil for several years.

Treatment.— Rotate the crops and use only healthy plants for

setting.

Yellows.— This disease is confined to the ra^spberries. It resembles

peach yellows and should be treated in the same manner.

^^y^m

^'{i^ma

DISEASES OF CROPS

951

STRAWBERRY

Leaf Spot {Sphc^ella fragarice [Tul.], Sacc). — This is the most promi-
nent of the diseases of the strawberry. It causes small leaf spots with
white or ashy centers and purple or red borders. These spots frequently
unite, forming irregular blotches. It reduces the vigor of the plant and,
therefore, the quality and quantity of the fruit.

Treatment. — The soil should be well drained and rotation of crops
practiced. Cutting over the beds and burning of the tops is advantageous.
Spraying with Bordeaux mixture will reduce the disease to the minimum,
but there is doubt as to whether this treatment will prove profitable.

CRANBERRY
Scald or Blast {Guignardia vacdnii, Shear) — This fungus attacks the
blossoms or the fruit soon after the falling of the blossoms, causing the berry
to shrivel and turn black. This form of the disease is known as the '' blast."
The form known as ''scald" causes small, soft, light-colored, watery spots
which spread over the entire fruit, sometimes causing a zone effect. The
disease also attacks the leaves, causing irregular, reddish-brown spots.
The disease is likely to become worse from year to year and to prove very

destructive.

rrea^/M^n/.— Careful irrigation, raking and burning of the dead
material and sanding the bogs are advantageous. Selection of resistant
strains for planting, and spraying with Bordeaux mixture about five times
during the season will control the disease.

Rot {Acanthoshynchus vaccinii, Shear).— This fungus causes a
rot very similar to the scald and can be controlled by the same treat-
ment.

Anthracnose {Glomerella rufomaculans [Berk.] Spaul. and von
Schrenk; vadnii, Shear).— This fungus is the same as the one causing the
bitter rot of the apple. It causes a rot very similar to and almost indis-
tinguishable from the scald and can be controlled by the same treatment.

GOOSEBERRY

Powdery Mfldew (Sphcerothecam/yrs-uvce [8chw.] Berk, and Curt.)—
Very similar to the mildew on the apple and other fruits and should receive
the same treatment.

CURRANT

Anthracnose (Pseudopedza vibes, Kleb.).— This very common disease
of the currant attacks the leaves, causing many small brown or black spots,
followed by a yellowing of the entire leaf which falls prematurely. The
disease also attacks the canes and the fruit, causing small black, sunken
areas. It is carried from year to year on the canes.

Treatment.— Remove the old canes and spray with Bordeaux mix-
ture in the spring just before the buds open, again after the leaf

952

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

!'•

buds open and then at intervals of three weeks until the fruit is two-
thirds grown.

Note. — There are several other leaf diseases of the gooseberry and
currant that may occasionally prove injurious or destructive and should
be treated as the circumstances may demand.

» •

GRAPE

Black Rot {Guignardia bidwellii [Ell.], V. and R.). — This very conmion
disease of the grape attacks the fruit, causing a black rot followed by a
shriveling and drying into a hard, wrinkled munmiy. It occurs on the
leaves and young shoots earlier than on the fruit and causes tan-colored
spots with minute black dots in the centers.

Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture before the opening of
the flower-buds, and again after the setting of * the fruit. Addi-
tional spraying should depend on the weather; in dry seasons it may
be necessary to spray every three weeks until the fruit is two-thirds
grown.

Bird's Eye or Anthracnose (Sphaceloma ampelinum, DeBy.). — This
disease is not nearly so severe as the black rot. It attacks the fruit, causing
brown or black spots wdth sunken centers and red borders. On the canes
it causes similar spots, but as they approach maturity the centers become
ashy in color and the edge dark.

Treatment. — Badly diseased canes should be cut out and burned.
Spray treatment same as for black rot.

Bitter Rot or Ripe Rot. — This is the same as on the apple but its attack
is confined to the ripe fruit.

Treatment. — Spray with ammoniacal copper carbonate solution.

Downy Mildew (Plasjnopara viticola [Berk, and Curt.], Berl. and De
Toni.). — This fungus causes whitish and finally brownish areas in the leaf,
followed by a veiy perceptible downy growth on the lower surface. It
sometimes causes the death of the entire leaf, shoot or vine. It is especially
severe on the P^uropean varieties.^ It sometimes attacks the fruit, causing
the gray or brown rot.

Treatment. — Same as for black rot.

Powdery Mildew {Uncinula necator [Schw.], Burr.).— This fungus is
very similar to the powdery mildew of the apples and other fruits. It
attacks all parts of the plant al)ove ground, and occurs on both upper and
lower surfaces of the leaves, causing, circular, whitish, powdery spots which
frequently unite and cover the entire leaf. It also attacks the fruit, causing
it to develop irregularly, fail to develop or to fall. It is especially common
in vineyards where the vines are too closely set and on vines grown under

glass.

Treatment. — Spray with potassium sulphide or when the temperature
is above 75° F., sprinkle the vines with flowers of sulphur.

Necrosis {Fxmcoccum viticolum, Reddick).— This disease causes a

DISEASES OF CROPS

953

III

dwarfing of the new shoots and leaves and when severe a shriveling up and
dying.

Treatment. —
Dig and burn all
diseased vines, and
spray with Bor-
deaux mixture.

Crown Gall. —
See Apple.

Note . — A
number of other
minor diseases will
be controlled by
the treatment pre-
scribed for the rot.

ASPARAGUS

Rust (Pucdnia
asparagiy D. C). —
This fungus causes
the tops of the
plants to redden
soon after blossom-
ing. The leaves
turn yellow and
fall, and the stems
show numerous
small blisters con-
taining masses of
rust-colored powder
(spores). Later in
the season these
pustules break and
become black in
color. The disease
spreads rapidly and
causes heavy losses.

Treatment, —
Cut and bum dis-
eased plants as soon
as observed. Spray
with Bordeaux mix-
ture.

Anthracnose of Bean. ^

The brown spots occur on both the pods and plants. They
are caused by spores coming in contact with the tender plant
tissues, where they germinate and give rise to serious damage.

Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 255.

952

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

buds open and then at intervals of three weeks until the fruit is two-
thirds grown.

Note. — There are several other leaf diseases of the gooseberry and
currant that may occasionally prove injurious or destructive and should
be treated as the circumstances may demand.

#
GRAPE

Black Rot (Guignardia bidwellii [Ell.], V. and R.). — This very common
disease of the grape attacks the fruit, causing a black rot followed by a
shriveling and drying into a hard, wrinkled mummy. It occurs on the
leaves and young shoots earlier than on the fruit and causes tan-colored
spots with minute black dots in the centers.

Treattnent. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture before the opening of
the flower-]:)uds, and again after the setting of the fruit. Addi-
tional spraying should depend on the weather; in dry seasons it may
be necessary to spray every three weeks until the fruit is two-thirds
grown.

Bird's Eye or Anthracnose (Sphaceloma arnpelinuniy DeBy.). — This
disease is not nearly so severe as the black rot. It attacks the fruit, causing
brown or black spots with sunken centers and red borders. On the canes
it causes similar spots, but as they approach maturity the centers become
ashy in color and the edge dark.

Treattnent. — Badly diseased canes should l)e cut out and burned.
Spray treatment same as for l)lack rot.

Bitter Rot or Ripe Rot. — This is the same as on the apple but its attack
is confined to the ri])e fruit.

Treairnent. — Si)ray with ammoniacal copper carbonate solution.

Downy Mildew {Plcmnopara viticola [Berk, and Curt.], Berl. and De
Toni.). — This fungus causes whitish and finally brownish areas in the leaf,
followed by a veiy perceptible downy growth on tlie lower surface. It
sometimes causes the death of the entire leaf, shoot or vine. It is especially
severe on the European varieties. It sometimes attacks the fruit, causing
the gray or brown rot.

Treatment. — Same as for black rot.

Powdery Mildew {Undnula necalor [Schw.], Burr.).— This fungus is
very similar to the powdery mildew of the apples and other fruits. It
attacks all parts of the plant above ground, and occurs on both upper and
lower surfaces of the leaves, causing, circular, whitish, powdery spots which
frequently unite and cover the entire leaf. It also attacks the fruit, causing
it to develop irregulariy, fail to develop or to fall. It is especially common
in vineyards where the vines are too closely set and on vines grown under

glass.

Treatment. — Spray with potassium sulphide or when the temperature
is above 75° F., sprinkle the vines with flowers of sulphur.

Necrosis {Fumoccum viticolum, Reddick) .— This disease causes a

DISEASES OF CROPS

953

dwarfing of the new shoots and leaves and when severe a shriveling up and
dying.

Treatment. —
Dig and burn all
diseased vines, and
spray with Bor-
deaux mixture.

Crown Gall. —
See Apple.

Note . — A
number of other
minor diseases will

be controlled by
the treatment pre-
scribed for the rot.

ASPARAGUS

Rust {Pucdnia
asparagiy D. C). —
This fungus causes
the tops of the
plants to redden
soon after blossom-
ing. The leaves
turn yellow and
fall, and the stems
show numerous
small blisters con-
taining masses of
rust-colored powder
(spores). Later in
the season these
pustules break and
become black in
color. The disease
spreads rapidly and
causes heavy losses.

Treatment. —
Cut and burn dis-
eased plants as soon
as observed. Spray
with Bordeaux mix-
ture.

L^^

Anthracnose of Bean. ^

The brown spots occur on both the pods and plants. They
are caused by spores coming in contact with the tender plant
tissues, where they germinate and give rise to serious damage.

Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 2oo.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

954

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

BEAN

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum lindemuthianum [Sacc. and Magn.], B.
and C). — This disease is most severe on the wax beans. It occurs on
the pods, causing unsightly, dark-colored, sunken, canker-like spots. It
also attacks the leaves and stems, producing similar spots and frequently
causing the death of the plants. The fungus is carried in the seed and one
diseased seed in a thousand is enough to infect a large number of growing
plants.

Treatment. — Select clean seed.

Rust (JJromyces appendiculatus [Pers.], Link). — This fungus causes
minute rusty spots or blisters on the under surface of the leaves and
occasionally on the pods. These blisters break and set free great quan-
tities of the reddish or rust-colored spores. It is not so severe as the
anthracnose.

Treatment, — Practice clean cultivation and burn all old vines in the

fall.

Blight (Psevdomonas phaseoli, Smith). — This disease attacks leaves,
stems and pods, causing large watery areas, which later become dry, brown
and paper>\ It is carried from year to year in the seed.

Treatment, — Use seed from healthy plants.

Downy Mildew {Phytophthora phaseoli, Thaxt.).— This disease is
unlike the mildew on the fruits. It attacks the pods of lima beans, causing
irregular areas of dense, woolly-white growi,h. It also occurs on other
parts of the plant, causing dwarfing and irregular growths.

Treatment, — Spray with Bordeaux mixture.

Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta sp.). — This disease is most severe on the pole
lima beans. It causes an irregular spotting of the leaves and to some
extent of the pods. It is carried from season to season in the seed.

Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture.

PEA

Spot (Ascochyta pisi, Lib.).— This disease causes spots on stems,
leaves and pods which are most conspicuous on the latter. On the pods
they are circular, sunken with dark borders and pale centers, becoming
pink when mature. The spots on the leaves are oval and usually show
concentric circles. When severe on the stems it causes wilting and death
of the plant.

Treatment. — Select clean seed and rotate crops..

BEET

Leaf Spot {Cercospora heticola, Sacc). — This fungus causes the very
common circular, brown, purple-bordered spots with ash-colored centers.

Treatment. — Spraying with Bordeaux mixture will control this dis-
ease.

DISEASES OF CROPS

955

Root Rot {Rhizoctonia betce, Kuhn). — This disease causes the outer
leaves to turn black and fall. As the disease advances the roots crack and
then rot from the crown downward.

Treatment. — Use lime and rotate crops.

Scab. — See Potato.

CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, TURNIP, ETC.

Black Rot {Pseudomonas campestris, Pammel). — This is a bacterial
disease which attacks
all of the above and
many related plants.
It starts at the edges
of the leaves, causing
a blackening of the
veins, gradually work-
ing downward to the
main stalk and then
upward and outward
until the entire plant is
affected. , The affected
leaves become yellow,
wilt and then dry. In
advanced stages the
disease is accompanied
by other rot organisms
which cause a pro-
nounced odor.

Treatment. — When
once in the soil it is
extremely difficult to
eradicate. Prevent in-
fection by using clean
seed, which as a pre-
cautionary measure
should be soaked for
fifteen minutes in for-
maldehyde (1 part for-
malin to 30 parts
water).

Club Root or Fin-
ger and Toe Disease

{Plasmodiophora brassicce, Wor.).— This very destructive and well-known
disease attacks cabbage and related plants, causing unsightly knotted
roots. The diseased plants are dwarfed and fail to develop heads.

1 From Farmers' Bulletin 488, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Enlarged Roots op Cabbage Caused by Nematodes. *

■^sFvSK^

954

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

BEAN

Anthracnose (Colleiotrichum lindemuthianum [Sacc. and Magn.], B.
and C). — This disease is most severe on the wax beans. It occurs on
the pods, causing unsightly, dark-colored, sunken, canker-like spots. It
also attacks the leaves and stems, producing similar spots and frequently
causing the death of the plants. The fungus is carried in the seed and one
diseased seed in a thousand is enough to infect a large number of growing
plants.

Treatment, — Select clean seed.

Rust (Uromyces appendiculaius [Pers.], Link). — This fungus causes
minute rusty spots or blisters on the under surface of the leaves and
occasionally on the pods. These blisters break and set free great quan-
tities of the reddish or rust-colored spores. It is not so severe as the
anthracnose.

Treatment. — Practice clean cultivation and burn all old vines in the

fall.

Blight {Psexidomon^s phaseoliy Smith). — This disease attacks leaves,
stems and pods, causing large watery areas, which later become dry, brown
and pai:)ery. It is carried from year to year in the seed.

Treatment. — Use seed from healthy plants.

Downy Mildew (Phytophthora phaseoli, Thaxt.). — This disease is
imlike the mildew on the fruits. It attacks the pods of lima beans, causing
irregular areas of dense, woolly-white growth. It also occurs on other
parts of the plant, causing dwarfing and irregular growths.

Treatment. — Sj^jray with Bordeaux mixture.

Leaf Spot (PhyUosticta sp.). — This disease is most severe on the pole
lima beans. It causes an irregular spotting of the leaves and to some
extent of the pods. It is carried from season to season in the seed.

Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture.

PEA

Spot (Ascochyta pisiy Lib.). — This disease causes spots on stems,
leaves and pods which are most conspicuous on the latter. On the pods
they are circular, sunken with dark borders and pale centers, becoming
pink when mature. The spots on the leaves are oval and usually show
concentric circles. When severe on the stems it causes wilting and death
of the plant.

Treatment. — Select clean seed and rotate crops.

BEET

Leaf Spot {Cercospora heticola, Sacc). — This fungus causes the very
common circular, brown, ]Mirple-l)ordered spots wnth ash-colored centers.

Treatment. — Spraying with Bordeaux mixture will control this dis-
ease.

DISEASES OF CROPS

955

Root Rot {Rhizoctonia hetce, Kuhn). — This disease causes the outer
leaves to turji black and fall. As the disease advances the roots crack and
then rot from the crown downward.

Treatment. — Use lime and rotate crops.

Scab. — See Potato.

CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, TURNIP, ETC.

Black Rot {Pseudomonas campestris, Pammel). — This is a bacterial
disease which attacks
all of the above and
many related i)lants.
It starts at the edges
of the leaves, causing
a blackening of the
veins, gradually work-
ing downward to the
main stalk and then
upward and outward
until the entire plant is
affected. . The affected
leaves become yellow,
wilt and then dry. In
advanced stages the
disease is accompanied
by other rot organisms
which cause a pro-
nounced odor.

Club Root or Fin-
ger and Toe Disease

1 From Farmers' Bulletin 488, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Enlarcjed Roots of Cabbage Caused by Nematodes. ^

^^h

956

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Treatment,— Use nothing but absolutely clean soil in the seed-beds;
use lime in the fields; rotate crops.

CANTALOUPES AND MELONS
Leaf Blight (AUernaria hrassicce [Berk.], Sacc. var, nigrescens, Pegl.). —
This disease starts as small brown spots with concentric rings, which

enlarge, unite and fre-

Iquently cause the de-
struction of the entire
leaf. The melons ripen
prematurely and are
soft, wilted and in-
sipid.

Treatment. — Ro-
tate crops and spray
with Bordeaux mix-
ture.

Downy Mildew. —
See Cucumber.

Anthracnose (Col-
letotrichuni lagenarium
[Pass.], Ell. and Halst.).
— This disease attacks
all parts of the vines of
cucumber and squash,
but is most injurious
to watermelons, causing
the buds and tendrils
to die and turn black
and the leaves to turn
yellow. It is very no-
ticeable on the fruit,
causing sunken canker-
like spots with pinkish
centers. When the
young fruit is attacked
it is likely to have a
bitter flavor.
Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture.

Wilt (Bacillus tracheiphiluSy E. F. Smith). — This disease of melons and
cucumbers, and sometimes of pumpkins and squash, may start with the
central stem, causing the entire vine to wilt and die quickly, or it may start
with a branch and work slowly back to the central stem.

Treatment, — Rotation of crops; avoid those that are susceptible.

1 From Farmeis* Bulletin 488, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Enlarged Roots op Cauliflower Caused by the

Club-root Organism.^

DISEASES OF CROPS

957

CUCUMBER

Downy Mildew (Pseudoperonospora cubensis^ B. and C. Rost.). —
This disease causes yellow, angular spots on the older leaves and eventually
causes the entire leaf to turti pale and die. Considerable quantity of white
growth appears on the under surface.

Treatment, — Spray with Bordeaux mixture.

Anthracnose. — See Melon.

Leaf Blight and Fruit Spot (Cladosporium cucumerinumj Ell. and
Arth.). — This disease appears on the leaves as water spots and finally
causes the entire leaf to wilt and rot.- On the fruit it appears as minute
gray, sunken, velvety spots which frequently unite and finally become black.

Treatment. — Prompt spraying with Bordeaux mixture.

Wilt.— See Melon.

CELERY

Leaf Spots (Cerospora apii, Fr., and Septoria petroselini, Desm., var.
apii) .-^There are two leaf spot diseases which can be controlled by spraying
with Bordeaux mixture. The first treatment should be while the plants
are in the seed-bed and should be given whether the plants do or do not
show the disease. Other sprayings should be at intervals of two weeks
and with a high pressure sprayer. If necessary to spray late in the season,
the last treatment should be with ammoniacal copper carbonate solution.

ONION

Smut (Urocystise cepulce, Frost.). — This very destructive disease
attacks the young plants, causing dark opaque spots on the leaves. The
leaves finally die and dry up and the spots burst and permit the escape of
masses of spores. The mature bulbs show black masses of spores in the
outer and sometimes in the inner leaves, and when badly infected dry and
rot. Sets and young onions when well started are practically immune
from the disease. The spores persist in the soil for many years.

Treatment. — Prevent the introduction by using clean sets. Use lime
and long crop rotations for infected soil. In small plantings disinfect the
soil with formaldehyde.

Downy Mildew or Blight (Peronospora schleideniy Ung.). — Diseased
plants have a tendency to develop a violet tint by which they can be
recognized at a distance. As the disease advances, they become covered
with a mouldy coating and finally collapse. Slightly affected plants may
recover under suitable weather conditions. The disease spreads rapidly
in damp, warm weather and on wet land.

Treatment. — See that lands are well drained. Rotate crops. Spray
with Bordeaux mixture.

CARROT

Soft Rot (Bacillus carotovorus, Jones). — This is a bacterial disease
which causes a soft rotting of the roots. It also attacks turnips, radishes,

fttsvi-Vi

956

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Treatment.— Use nothing but absolutely clean soil in the seed-beds;
use lime in the fields; rotate crops.

CANTALOUPES AND MELONS
Leaf Blight (Alternaria brassicce [Berk.], Sace. var. nigrescens, Pegl.). —
This disease starts as small brown sj^ots witli concentric rings, which

enlarge, unite and fre-
quently cause the de-
struction of the entire
leaf. The melons ripen
prematurely and are
soft, wilted and in-
sipid.

Treatment. — Ro-
tate crops and spray
with Bordeaux mix-
ture.

Downy Mildew. —
See Cucumber.

Anthracnose (Col-
letotrichurn lagenarium
[Pass.], Ell. and Halst.).
• — This disease attacks
all parts of the vines of
cucumber and squash,
but is most injurious
to watermelons, causing
the buds and tendrils
to die and turn black
and the leaves to turn
yellow. It is very no-
ticeable on the fruit,
causing sunken canker-
like spots with pinkish
centers. When the
young fruit is attacked
it is likely to have a
bitter flavor.
Treatment. — Spray wuth Bordeaux mixture.

Wilt {Bacillus tracheiphilus, E. F. Smith). — This disease of melons and
cucumbers, and sometimes of pumi)kins and squash, may start with the
central stem, causing the entire vine to wilt and die quickly, or it may start
with a branch and work slowly back to the central stem.

Treatment. — Rotation of crops; avoid those that are susceptible.

1 From Farmers' Bulletin 488, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Enlarged Roots op Cauliflower Caused by the

Club-root Organism. ^

DISEASES OF CROPS

957

CUCUMBER

Downy Mildew {Pseudoperonospora cubensis, B. and C. Rost.). —
This disease causes yellow, angular spots on the older leaves and eventually
causes the entire leaf to turti pale and die. Considerable quantity of white
growth appears on the under surface.

Treaiment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture.

Anthracnose. — See Melon.

Leaf Blight and Fruit Spot (Cladosporium cucumerinumj Ell. and
Arth.). — This disease appears on the leaves as water spots and finally
causes the entire leaf to wilt and rot. • On the fruit it appears as minute
gray, sunken, velvety spots which frequently unite and finally become black.

Treatment. — Prompt spraying with Bordeaux mixture.

WUt.— See Melon.

CELERY

Leaf Spots {Cerospora apii, Fr., and Septoria petroselini, Desm., var.
apii) .—There are two leaf spot diseases which can be controlled by spraying
with Bordeaux mixture. The first treatment should be while the plants
are in the seed-bed and should be given whether the plants do or do not
show the disease. Other sj)rayings should be at intervals of two weeks
and with a high pressure sprayer. If necessary to spray late in the season,
the last treatment should be with ammoniacal copper carbonate solution.

ONION

Smut (Urocystise cepulce, Frost.). — This very destructive disease
attacks the young plants, causing dark opaque spots on the leaves. The
leaves finally die and dry up and the spots burst and permit the escape of
masses of si)ores. The mature bulbs show black masses of spores in the
outer and sometimes in the inner leaves, and when badly infected dry and
rot. Sets and young onions when well started are practically immune
from the disease. The spores persist in the soil for many years.

Treatment. — Prevent the introduction l)y using clean sets. Use lime
and long crop rotations for infected soil. In small i)lantings disinfect the
soil with formaldehyde.

Downy Mildew or Blight {Peronospora schleidenij Ung.). — Diseased
plants have a tendency to develop a violet tint by which they can })e
recognized at a distance. As the disease advances, they become covered
with a mouldy coating and finally collapse. Slightly affected plants may
recover under suitable weather conditions. The disease spreads rapidly
in damp, warm weather and on wet land.

Treatment. — See that lands are well drained. Rotate crops. Spray
with Bordeaux mixture.

CARROT

Soft Rot {Bacillus carotovorus, Jones). — This is a bacterial disease
which causes a soft rotting of the roots. It also attacks turnips, radishes,

'I'

t I

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

958

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

parsnips, onions, celery, beets and many other plants. The only satis-
factory treatment lies in the rotation of crops.

PARSNIP
Blight (Cercospora apii, Fr.). — See Celery.

POTATO

Late Blight or Downy Mildew (Phytopthora infestans [Mont.], De
By.). — This disease usually starts near the tip or margin of the leaf, but
causes the infected area to die and blacken. In cool, wet, cloudy weather
it spreads very rapidly and causes an offensive odor. The diseased tubers
may show slightly depressed, dark-colored areas and a dirty brown color
within. The disease is frequently the cause of heavy losses by rotting.

Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture, beginning when the plants
are about six inches in height and repeat about every two or three weeks
throughout the growing season.

Early Blight (Alternaria solani [E. and M.], J. and G.). — This disease
appears earlier in the season than the late blight. It causes brown, brittle,
irregular, more or less circular leaf spots with rather definite concentric
circles. These spots frequently unite and the plant dies very much as
though from natural causes.

Treatment, — Same as for late blight.

Wilt, Stem Rot and Dry Rot {Fusarium oxysporum, Schlecht). — The
plant assumes an unhealthy appearance, the leaves roll and curl and the
plant falls and dies prematurely. The stems are partly or entirely black and
dead near the base and frequently show a white or pink mould. When
stems are cut across below the ground they show discolorations just below
the surface. This field form of the disease is known as '^ wilt " or '^ stem rot.''

In storage the tubers undergo a '^dry rot" beginning at the stem end,
which causes them to shrivel and become light in weight. When cut
across, these tubers show black discolorations just below the surface. The
disease can be carried on the seed and will also persist in the soil.

Treatment. — Select seed potatoes which are free from surface cankers
and are perfectly white when cut. When the soil becomes infected use
rotation of crops for from three to five years.

Black Leg {Bacillus phytophthorus, Appel). — This disease causes the
plants to be dwarfed, erect, pale in color and to die early. The stems
become brown or black near the ground and the disease works downward.
It is carried in the seed.

Treatment. — Soak the seed in formaldehyde or corrosive sublimate as
recommended for potato scab.

Scab (Oospora scabies, Thaxt.). — This well-known disease is readily
recognized by the rough, pitted character of the tubers and is the cause of
heavy losses. It can be carried on the seed and will persist in the soil for
several years.

DISEASES OF CROPS

959

Treatment. — Soak the seed potatoes for two hours in formaldehyde
(1 pound in 30 gallons of water) or in corrosive sublimate (4 ounces in 30
gallons of water) for one and one-half hours. When the land becomes
infected, avoid the use of stable manure and lime, and rotate crops for
three to five years.

Little Potato, Rosette, Stem Rot, Scurf (Rhizoctonia or Cortidum
vagum, B. and C, var. solani, Burt.).— This disease assumes different forms,
varying with the climatic conditions, soils and varieties. In very severe
cases many of the young plants fail to get through the ground. Many
that do get through are dwarfed and show a peculiar crinkling of the
foliage. The part of the stems
below ground shows peculiar
brownish or black cankers. In
some cases the leaves tend to roll
upward; many small tubers are
formed just below the surface of
the ground and just above a very
pronounced canker, and aerial
potatoes along the stem above
ground. The fungus can be
readily detected on the tubers;
it appears as small black spots,
which do not wash off, but can be
readily removed by rubbing.
However, the presence of these
spots on the tubers does not
necessarily mean a severe out-
break of the disease.

Treatment. — Soak seed pota-
toes in corrosive sublimate as
recommended for scab.

Bacterial Wilt {Bacillus sol-
anacearum, Smith). — The plants wilt prematurely, become yellow, then
black and dry. This disease attacks tomatoes, tobacco, peppers and
eggplants.

Treatment. — Rotate crops, avoiding those that are susceptible.

Tipbum. — This disease is due entirely to hot, dry weather. It causes
the leaves to dry at the tips and margins, roll up and break off.

Note. — There are a number of other diseases of the potato which
cannot be included in this brief discussion.

TOMATO
Early Blight.— See Potato.
Leaf Blight {Septoria lycopersiciy Speg.). — This disease appears as

A Potato Affected with Russet Scab.^

Showing the russeting and cracking, asso-
ciated with the fungus Rhizoctonia.

*From Farmers' Bulletin 544, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

lit

W''

958

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

parsnips, onions, celery, beets and many other plants. The only satis-
factory treatment lies in the rotation of crops.

PARSNIP
Blight (Cercospora apii, Fr.). — See Celery.

POTATO

Late Blight or Downy Mildew (Phytopthora infestans [Mont.], De
By.). — This disease usually starts near the tip or margin of the leaf, but
causes the infected area to die and blacken. In cool, wet, cloudy weather
it spreads very rai)idly and causes an offensive odor. The diseased tubers
may show slightly depressed, dark-colored areas and a dirty brown color
within. The disease is frequently the cause of heavy losses by rotting.

Treatment, — Spray with Bordeaux mixture, beginning when the plants
are about six inches in height and repeat about every two or three weeks
throughout the growing season.

Early Blight (Alternaria solani[E. and M.], J. and G.). — This disease
appears earlier in the season than the late blight. It causes brown, })rittle,
irregular, more or less circular leaf spots with rather definite concentric
circles. These spots frequently unite and the plant dies very much as
though from natural causes.

Treatment. — Same as for late l)light.

Wilt, Stem Rot and Dry Rot {Fusarium oxysponim, Schlecht). — The
plant assumes an unhealthy aj^pearance, the leaves roll and curl and the
))lant falls and dies prematurely. The stems are partly or entirely black and
dead near the base and frequently show a white or j)ink mould. When
stems are cut across below the ground they show discolorations just })elow
the surface. This field form of the disease is known as ^' wilt '' or '^ stem rot.''

In storage the tul)ers undergo a ''dry rot" beginning at the stem end,
Avhich causes them to shrivel and become light in weight. When cut
across, these tubers show black discolorations just below the surface. The
disease can ]>e carried on the seed and will also persist in the soil.

Treatment. — Select seed potatoes which are free from surface cankers
and are perfectly white when cut. When the soil becomes infected use
rotation of crops for from three to five years.

Black Leg {Bacillus phytophthonis, Appel). — This disease causes the
plants to l>e dwarfed, erect, pale in color and to die early. The stems
become brown or black near the ground and the disease works downward.
It is carried in the seed.

Treatment. — Soak the seed in formaldehyde or corrosive sublimate as
recommended for ])otato scab.

Scab (Oospora scabies, Thaxt.). — This well-known disease is readily
recognized by the rough, pitted character of the tul)ers and is the cause of
heavy losses. It can be carried on the seed and will persist in the soil for
several years.

DISEASES OF CROPS

959

Little Potato, Rosette, Stem Rot, Scurf (Rhizodonia or Cortidum
vagum, B. and C, var, solani, Burt.). — This disease assumes different forms,
varying with the climatic conditions, soils and varieties. In very severe
cases many of the young plants fail to get through the ground. Many
that do get through are dwarfed and show a petniliar crinkling of the
foliage. The part of the stems
below ground shows peculiar
brownish or black cankers. In
some cases the leaves tend to roll
upward; many small tul>ers are
formed just below the surface of
the ground and just above a very
pronounced canker, and aerial
potatoes along the stem a})ove
ground. The fungus can be
readily detected on the tubers;
it appears as small black spots,
which do not wash off, but can be
readily removed by rubbing.
However, the presence of these
spots on the tubers does not
necessarily mean a severe out-
break of the disease.

Treatment. — Soak seed pota-
toes in corrosive sublimate as
reconunended for scab.

Bacterial Wilt {Bacillus sol-
anacearumy Smith). — The plants wilt prematurely, become yellow, then
black and dry. This disease attacks tomatoes, tobacco, peppers and
eggi)lants.

Treatment. — Ilotate crops, avoiding those that are susceptil)le.

Tipbum. — This disease is due entirely to hot, dry weather. It causes
the leaves to dry at the tips and margins, roll ly) and break off.

Note. — There are a number of other diseases of the potato which
cannot be included in this brief discussion.

A Potato Affected with Russet Scab.^

Shovying the russeting and cracking, asso-
ciated with the fungus Khizoctonia.

TOMATO
Early Blight.— See Potato.
Leaf Blight {Septoria I y coper sidy Speg.).-

-This disease appears as

*Froia Farmers' Bulletin 544, U. S. Dopt. of Agriculture.

•19

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

960

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

numerous small spots over the surface of the leaves, beginning with the
lower and older leaves, causing them to turn yellow and fall. It is one of
the most severe diseases and the cause of heavy losses.

Treatment— Spray with Bordeaux mixture.

Fusarium Wilt (Fusarium lycopersici, Sacc.).— This is a disease in
which the fungus works on the inside of the plant, causing it to wilt and
die. It cannot be controlled by spraying. Rotation of crops is advan-
tageous. ^

Bacterial Wilt.— See Potato.

Blossom-End Rot or Point Rot.-The cause of this disease is disputed
but it is now generally believed to be due to drought, although it mav
also be due to other causes. It is a dry black rot starting at the blossom
end of the fruit and is often very destructive. It is more serious in drv
weather and in dry soils.

TreatrmnL—Vv^QiiGQ thorough cultivation of the soil and remove
diseased fruit.

Anthracnose (Colletotrichum phomoides [Sacc], Chester).— This dis-
ease causes discolored, sunken spots which become centers of decay It
is likely to be very severe in wet weather.

Treatment.— Spray with Bordeaux mixture.

Fruit Rot (Phoma destructiva, Plowr.).~This disease causes a spotting
of the leaves and a fruit rot. Can probably })e controlled by spraying with
Bordeaux mixture. ^ i- ^ &

EGGPLANT

Aitacked by several fruit rots and leaf spots which sometimes prove
destructive. They can be controlled by the use of Bordeaux mixture.

PEPPER

Susceptible to s.everal fruit and stem rots, leaf spots and wilts which
can be controlled by rotation of crops and treatment with Bordeaux
mixture.

LETTUCE
Mildew (Bremia lactucce, Kegel).— This disease is frequently very
destructive. It causes rather large, pale spots, which become yellowish
above and fuzzy below.

Treatment,— Good cultural methods for outdoors. Ventilation for
crops grown under glass.

Drop or Wilt (Sclerotinia Kbertiana, Fckl.).— This causes a very pro-
nounced wilting and drooping, beginning with the lower leaves and grad-
ually spreading throughout the entire plant.

Treatment,— Removal and destruction of the diseased plants and
disinfection of soil at that point with Bordeaux mixture.

Note.— There are several other diseases of the lettuce more or less
important.

DISEASES OF CROPS

961

SWEET POTATO

Soft Rot {Rhi^o-pus nigricans^ Ehrbg.). — This storage rot is caused by
the bread mould fungus and can be readily recognized. It is accompanied
by a sweetish odor and dense growth of white mould which becomes black.
It spreads rapidly, but can be controlled by proper ventilation and regula-
tion of temperature.

Black Rot {Sphceronema fimbriaium [Ell. and Halst.], Sacc). — This
disease occurs in both field and storage house. It appears as dark-brown
or black, irregular, dry patches on the potatoes, sometimes causing break-
ing or cracking near the center of the diseased area. On the young sprouts
and stems it causes black patches and frequently kills the entire plant.

Treatment, — Do not use diseased plants for setting. Do not use
stable manure. Grow seeds from slips. These slips should be cut from the
old i)lants and set as early in July as possible.

Stem Rot {Nectria ipomoecBj Halst.). — This disease attacks the stem
near the surface of the ground and spreads in both directions, frequently
causing the death of the plant. The interior of the stem shows a yellow
discoloration.

Treatment. — Rotate the crops and use slip seed.

Note. — There are a number of other rots and diseases which will not
be taken up in this discussion.

PEANUT

Peanuts are subject to several foliage and root diseases of more or
loss importance, (irowers of this crop should consult with their state
agricultural exi)eriment station.

TOBACCO

Granville Tobacco Wilt (B. solenacerarumy Smith). — This is due to the
same organism as the wilt of the potato, tomato, peppers and eggplants.
(See Potato.)

Mosaic, Calico or Mottle Top. — The cause of tliis disease is still some-
what unceilain. The leaves of the diseased plants show dark and light
areas and frequently irregular thickenings or twistings.

Treatment. — Remove the diseased phmts. Be careful not to touch
healthy i)lants while working with the diseased plants. The disease can
be communicated l)y contact.

Leaf Spots. — There are a number of leaf si)ot diseases and also mildews
which cause more or less trouble.

Root Rots {Thielavia basicolay Zopf.). — This disease is a rotting of
the roots, accompanied by the production of numerous new roots. The
affected plants are dwarfed and frequently killed.

Treatment. — Sterilize seed-bed. Rotate crops. Avoid liming and
acid fertilizers.

•1

•V

962

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

CORN

Smut {UsHlago Zeae [Beckm.], Ung.)

Corn smut on ear, tassel and
leaves is so common
that it is not necessary
to give a description.
It is frequently very
destructive, especially
on sweet corn.

Treatment. — The
treatment will depend
largely on the severity
of the disease. Do
not use manure from
animals which have
been fed on smutted
cornf odder. Rotate
crops. If growing
sweet corn on the
same land year after
year, it is advisable to
remove the smut balls
as soon as they appear.

WHEAT

Rust (Puccinia
graminisj Pers., P.
ruhigoveraj Wint.). —
This crop is affected
with the familiar rust
diseases, all of which
appear to be very
much the same to the
inexperienced student
of plant diseases.
They are very difficult
to control and in fact
comparatively little
effort is made to pro-
tect the crop. Ke-

sistant varieties should ba used and if possible spring wheat should be

sown early.

Loose Smut {Ustilago tritid [Pers.], Jens.). — This very common and

familiar disease is the cause of much greater loss than the growers realize.

Treatment, — It can be controlled by treating with hot w^ater. Clean

1 From Farmers* Bulletin 507, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Smut of Corn.^
Showing a young smutted ear.

Loose Smut of Wheat. ^

Showing four smutted heads of various stages of development, and for comparison

a sound wheat head.

^From Farmers' Bulletin 507, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture,

(963)

^^^

mM^

^M*. l..r«i«i < ■-,«! .». HTwri.i. n— f«!B»-— -^

902

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

CORN
Smut {Ustilago Zeae [Beckm.], Ung.)

Corn smut on ear, tassel and
leaves is so common
that it is not necessary
to give a description.
It is frequently very
destructive, especially
on sweet corn.

Treatment. • — The
treatment will depend
largely on the severity
of the disease. Do
not use manure from
animals which have
been fed on smutted
eornf odder . Rotate
crops. If growing
sweet corn on the
same land year after
year, it is advisable to
remove the smut balls
as soon as they appear.

WHEAT

Rust {Pvca'nia
graiyiiiiisj Pers., P.
rifhigorera, Wint.). —
1'his crop is affected
with the familiar rust
diseases, all of which
a])pear to be very
nuich the same to the
inexperienced student
of i)lant diseases.
''Hiey are very difficult
to control and in fact
comparatively little
effort is made to pro-
tect the crop. Re-
sistant varieties should 1)3 used and if possible si)ring wheat should be
sown early.

Loose Smut (Ustilago tn'tici [Pers.], Jens.). — This very common and

familiar disease is the cause of nnich greater loss than the growers realize.

Treatment. — It can be controlled by treating with hot water. Clean

1 From Farmers* Bulletin 507, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

Smut of Corn.^
Showing a young smutted ear.

Loose Smut of Wheat. ^

Showing four smutted heads of various stages of development, and for comparison

a soimd wheat head.

^From Farmers' Bulletin 507, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

(963)

/ m

f 8

i .

»•

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

964

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the seed and sack for five to seven hours in water at a temperature of 63°
to 72° F. Then put into loose bags or wire baskets holding about one peck
each and plunge into water ranging between 126° and 129° F. for ten min-
utes. Care should be taken
to keep the water at the
proper temperature and to
keep the grain w^ell stirred.
The seed can be dried on a
barn floor or canvas.

Stinking Smut or Bunt
(Tilletia foetans [B. and C],
Trel.). — This disease is very
different from the loose smut.
The diseased grains are shriv-
eled, greenish tinted, filled
with a mass of black spores
and have a disagreeable
odor. Badly infested crops
are worthless for milling or
for stock feed.

Treatment — Put one
pound of formaldehyde in
fifty gallons of water and
sprmkle on the grains at the
rate of one gallon to each
bushel of grain. Shovel the
wet grain into a pile and
cover with canvas or burlap
for six to twelve hours.
Spread and dry. (See Chap-
ter on Wheat.)

OATS

Rust {Pucdnia coronatay
Cda.). — Also the two species
found on wheat.

Treatment, — Same as for
wheat.
Smut {Usiilago avena [Per.], Jens.). — Very similar in appearance to the
loose smut of wheat.

Treatment. — Formaldehyde treatment same as for stinking smut of
wheat.

Smi T OF Oats.'

Showing a smutted head, and for comparison
a eound oat head.

'From Farmers' Bulletin 607, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

DISEASES OF CROPS

965

SUGAR CANE

Red Rot (Colletotrichum falcatumy Went.). — This is one of the most
destructive diseases of the sugar cane. It causes the plants to wilt and
finally a yellowing of the upper leaves. This is followed by a blackening
and dying of the eyes and a gradual discoloration on the outside extending
from the nodes. Upon splitting the canes, the fibro-vascular bundles are
found to show reddish discolor-
ations.

Rind Disease {Trichosphae-
ria sacchariy Massee). — Although
this disease is not so severe as the
preceding one, it causes a prema-
ture yellowing and dying of the
plants. The joints become dis-
colored and shrunken and the
entire plant loses weight. Finally,
small black eruptions which are
thread-like in appearance appear
over the canes.

The Pineapple Disease
{Thielaviopsis ethaceticay Went.).
— This disease is of comparatively
little importance, but it some-
times attacks the cuttings which
have been prepared for phinting
and prevents their growth or
causes weak, unhealthy plants.

Treatment. — The most satis-
factory treatment for these throe
diseases is care in selection of
good healthy plants for cutting
and the treatment of these cut-
tings with Bordeaux mixture
before planting.

When the grower has any
reason to suspect the appearance

of these or other diseases, he should consult with the plant pathologist of
the experiment station in the state in which he is located.

Other Diseases. — There are a number of other diseases of minor
importance.

COTTON

Anthracnose (GolmereUa gossyyiiy Southworth Edg.). — This disease
attacks stem, boll and leaves, causing dull, reddish-brown spots which are

* Courtesy of Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

A Young (-otton Plant Affec ted by
Cotton Wilt.*

:::^wm

964

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

tlie seed
to 72° F.
each and

and sack for five to seven hours in water at a temperature of 63°
Then put into loose bags or wire baskets holding about one peck
plunge into water ranging between 126° and 129° F. for ten min-
utes. Care should be taken
to keep the water at the
proper temperature and to
keep the grain well stirred.
The seed can be dried on a
barn floor or canvas.

Stinking Smut or Bunt
{Tilletia fcetans [B. and C],
Trel.). — This disease is very
different from the loose smut.
The diseased grains are shriv-
eled, greenish tinted, filled
with a mass of black spores
and have a disagreeable
odor. Badly infested crops
are worthless for milling or
for stock feed.

Treatment — Put one
pound of formaldehyde in
fifty gallons of w^ater and
sprinkle on the grains at the
rate of one gallon to each
bushel of grain. Shovel the
wet grain into a pile and
cover with canvas or burlap
for six to twelve hours.
Spread and dry. (See Chap-
ter on Wheat.)

OATS

Rust (Puccmia coronafOy
Cda.). — Also the two species
found on wheat.

Treatment, — Same as for
wheat.
Smut (UsHlago avena [Per.], Jens.). — Very similar in appearance to the
loose smut of wheat.

Treatment. — Formaldehyde treatment same as for stinking smut of
wheat.

Smi T OF Oats.'

Showing a smutted head, and for comparison
a sound oat head.

.JS

*irom Farmers' Bulletin 607, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

DISEASES OF CROPS

905

SUGAR CANE

Red Rot {Colletotrichum Jalcatum^ Went.). — This is one of the most
destructive diseases of the sugar cane. It causes the plants to wilt and
finally a yellowing of the upper leaves. This is followed by a blackening
and dying of the eyes and a gradual discoloration on the outside extending
from the nodes. Upon splitting the canes, the fibro-vascular bundles are
found to show reddish discolor-
ations.

Rind Disease {Trichonphae'
ria saccharij Massee). — Although
this disease is not so severe as the
preceding one, it causes a prema-
ture yellowing and dying of the
plants. The joints become dis-
colored and shrunken and the
entire plant loses weight. Finally,
small bla(^k eruptions which are
thread-like in appearance appear
over the canes.

The Pineapple Disease
( Thielaviopsis ethacelicay Went . ) .
— This disease is of comparatively
little importance, but it some-
times attacks the cuttings which
have been prepared for planting
and prevents their growth or
causes weak, unhealthy plants.

Treatment. — The most satis-
factory treatment for these three
diseases is care in selection of
good healtliy ))lants for cutting
and the treatment of these cut-
tings with Bordeaux mixture
before i)lanting.

When the grower has any
reason to suspect the appearance

of these or other diseases, he should consult with the plant pathologist of
the experiment station in the state in which he is located.

Other Diseases. — There are a numl)er of other diseases of minor
importance.

COTTON

Anthracnose {Golmerella gossypii, Southworth Edg.). — This disease
attacks stem, boll and leaves, causing dull, reddish-brown spots which are

^Courtesy of Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture

A YorNG Cotton Plant Affe< tei> bv
CoiToN Wilt.*

l:\

i>\

i '4

i«^'i

Ft f

966

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

slightly depressed. In advanced stages these spots are covered with a
dirty gray or pinkish powder which is the spores of the fungus. This
disease is carried in the seed and is the cause of heavy losses.

Damping Off, Sore Shin, Seeding Rot. — These diseases may be due to
any one of several organisms. They attack the young plants at or just
below the surface of the ground, causing them to rot off and die. They are
sometimes the cause of heav^^ losses.

There are a number of other diseases of the cotton. The most satis-
factory remedy for most diseases is the selection of seed from healthy
plants. Where groVvors experience much difficulty, they should consult
with the autliorities at the state agricultural experiment station.

FLAX

Wilt {Fumrinm lini^ Bolley). — This is one of the most severe diseases
of the flax. Sometimes the organism causing this disease is so abundant
in the soil that it leads to the term ^' flax sick soil.'^ The new plants affected
with this disease wilt and die and fields are very frequently seen in which
there are large bare spots due to the ravages of this disease. When the
older plants are attacked they wilt and gradually turn yellow and die.

The grower who has any difficulty with this or other diseases should
consult with the state agricultural experiment station.

REFERENCES

"Diseases of Tropioal Plants." Cooke.
*' Fungous Diseases of Plants." DuM;gar.
*\Sprayinp; of Plants." Lodeinan.

Minnesota Plant Diseases." Freeman.

*' Diseases of Economic Plants." Stevens and Ilall.

** Diseases of Cultivated Plants and Trees." Massee.

California Expt. Station Bulletin 202. ''Citrus Diseases of Florida and Cuba Compared

with California."
Michigan Expt. Station (Technical Bulletin 20). ''Control of Root Knot Nematode."
New Jersey Expt. Station Circulars:

44. "Disejuses of Apples, Pears and Quinces."

45. "Diseases of Peach, Plum and Cherry."
Ohio Expt. Station Bulletin 205. "Cob Rot of Corn."

Pennsylvania Expt. Station liulletin 130. "CoUar-I^hght and Related Forms of Fire

Blight."
Washington Expt. Station Bulletin 120. "Bunt or Smut of Wheat."
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture liulletin 229. "Smuts and Rusts."
U. S. Dept. of Agricuhure Bulletins:

04. "i'otato Wilt and Other Diseases."

203. "Field Studies of the Crown Gall of Sugnr Beets."

210. "Rust of Grain in United States" (Bureau of Plant Industry).
Farmers^ Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

333. "Cotton Wilt."

507. "The Smuts of \Mieat, Oats, Barley and Corn."

544. "Potato Tuber Diseases."

555. "Cotton Anthracnose and Its Control."

018. "Leaf Spot: A Disease of the Sugar Beet."

025. "Cotton Wilt and Root Knot."

048. "The Control of Root Knot."

CHAPTER 76

INSECT Pests and their Control

By W. B. Wood
Scientific Assistant ^ Bureau of Entomology j U, S. Department of Agriculture

Insects are, without doubt, the greatest enemies of the farmer, for they
destroy the crops of field and garden and render the fruit on the trees unfit
for use; they injure the domestic animals by constant irritation, causing
them to lose weight and even to die. Stored grains, tobacco and other
farm products also suffer from their attacks.

After studying their life histories and habits, methods of control have
been devised by which they can be combated with a reasonable amount of
success. Many species can be held in absolute control l)y thorough and
timely applications of the proper remedies, while others are only partially
held in check.

In order to intelligently apply a treatment for the control of an insect,
something of its habits must be known, especially in regard to its manner
of feeding. Most of the important pests fall within two great groups,
namely, biting or chewing insects and sucking insects, depending on
whether the mouth parts are chisel or pinchcr-like in the first class, or
beak-like and made for piercing and sucking in the second class. A
number of these pests will fall in certain special groups which require a
definite treatment, indicated by their manner of living or by the injury they
do. Some of these special classes are internal feeders, as boring insects,
subterranean insects and insects affecting stored products.

The external feeders, which have biting mouth parts, usually feed upon
plants by gnawing out small pieces of the plant tissue which are swallowed.
This group includes the larvae or caterpillars of moths and butterflies, the
larvse of beetles and the adults, grasshoppers and crickets, and the larvae of
some species of Hymenoptera or the wasp group. Such insects may usually
be controlled by ap])lying a poison to the plant, either as a fine spray or as
a powder dusted or blown over its surface. The arsenicals have been found
to be the best remedy for this group.

The sucking insects feed by piercing the skin or epidermis of plants
with their sharp beaks and sucking the sap. This group of insects is
represented by the tree bugs or Hemiptera, to which order belong the
squash bug, scale insects, plant lice and leaf hoppers. It is evident that a
stomach poison on the surface of the plant would not affect insects of this
class, so it is necessary to use what is known as a contact insecticide, which
should be applied as a spray or wash directly to the insect's body. Such

(907)

968

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

remedies kill by their suffocating or corrosive action. The most common
of these insecticides are nicotine solutions, kerosene or oil emulsions, lime-
sulphur wash and fish-oil soap.

In the following pages will be found listed the principal insect pests of
farm crops under the class of crops to which they are most injurious. Only
a ver>^ brief description of each insect can be given, and in most cases noth-
ing of their life histories, in the limited space devoted to the subject. The
treatments which have given the best results in each individual case are
indicated briefly and reference is made to publications which give a more
extended account of the insects. The abbreviations which are used in the
references are as follows:

Bur. Ent. Bull. — U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology Bulletin.
Bur. Ent. C'ir. — U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology Circular.
Farm. Bull. — U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin.
Dept. Bull. — U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin.

GENERAL CROP INSECTS

Caterpillars (leaf-eating). — Many plants are attacked by caterpillars
which fee(l ui)on the leaves. These worms are the larvae of Lepidopterous
insects, or moths and butterflies.

Treatinent, — Spray with an arsenical, preferably arsenate of lead, or
dust with powdered arsenate of lead or Paris green. If the spray gathers
in drops and does not adhere well to the surface of the leaves, use a resin
fish-oil soap sticker.

Cutworms. — Various species of the family Noctuidce, usually feeding
at night upon the roots, crowns or foliage of plants. The worms may be
found in daytime lying curled up in ground about an inch below surface.

Treatment. — Broadcast poison bran mash about the garden in the
spring just before the plants come up. Make other applications later if
the cutworms are still found. Cultivate the ground thoroughly in late
summer and early in the spring to prevent the growth of grasses and weeds,
thus starving out worms if present.

Grasshoppers or Locusts. — A number of species feed on corn, wheat,
sorghum and other field crops, also on many garden crops and at times on
fruit trees.

Treatment. — Cultivate the fields and stony fence rows in the fall to
break up the egg masses deposited one to two inches below the surface of
the ground. Broadcast Criddle mixture or poison bran mash flavored with
juice of orange or lemon in fields where grasshoppers are plentiful.

Leaf Beetles (Chrysomelidce). — Crops of many kinds are injured by
beetles which feed upon the leaves as adults and sometimes as larvse.

Treatment. — Spray or dust the affected plants with arsenicals.

Plant Lice (Aphididce). — Many species of plant lice are found attacking
field, garden and orchard crops. They feed by sucking the juices of the
host plant and cannot be controlled by a poison spray.

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 969

Treatment. — Use sprays of nicotine or tobacco extract, kerosene
emulsion (5 to 10 per cent strength) or fish-oil soap just after the aphids
appear and at such other times as may be necessary. Spray thoroughly,
being sure to wet all plant lice. If spray does not adhere to the bodies of
insects, add 2 or 3 pounds of laundry soap to 50 gallons of spray solution,
or preferably an equal amount of resin fish-oil soap as a sticker. For under-
ground forms practice rotation of crops or use soil fumigants.

White Grubs (Lachnosterna spp.). — White grubs or grub worms are
the larvae of the common brown beetles known as May beetles or June
bugs, commonly seen around lights and on the screens in the spring and
summer. Their natural breeding place is grass lands, but they are found
in fields and gardens feeding upon the roots of many plants.

Treatment. — No successful treatment is known. Practice crop rotation
when necessary. Fall plowing will be of some Ijenefit. Do not plant
crops liable to be injured, as strawberries, on recently broken sod land.

Wire Worms {Elateridce) . — Slender, brown, hard, shining larvse, J-^
inch to 13^ inches long, body divided into several segments which show
plainly three pairs of small legs near front end of body. Their natural
breeding place is grass lands, but they feed on or in the roots of many
garden and field crops. Two years or more are required for development.

Treatment. — No satisfactory treatment has been found. Rotation of
crops, preventing ground from remaining long in grass, and late fall plow-
ing followed by repeated harrowing for a month or two are the V>est means
of preventing their increase. Seeds might be protected by the use of some
substance as a repellent which would not injure germination.

GENERAL CROP INSECTS

The Army Worm {Leucania unipunctay Haworth). — In general appear-
ance it resembles cutworms. About 13^ inches long, dark in color, with
three yellowish stripes down the back. The adult insect is a dull brown
moth, often seen about lights in the spring. The worm feeds naturally on
wild grasses, but when it is abundant marches across fields, destroying
many crops, including corn, wheat, oats and related crops, as well as many
truck crops.

Treatment. — The march of the worms to uninfested fields may be
checked by a deep dust furrow through which a log is dragged occasionally
to crush the worms and to maintain a thick coat of dust on the sides.
Scattering poison bran mash through infested fields will often prove very
effective. Late fall plowing and cultivating will help in destroying over-
wintering worms.

The Alfalfa Leaf Weevil (Phytonomus posticus^ Fab.). — This insect,
which has been accidentally introduced into the United States from Europe,
now threatens the alfalfa industry of the country. From a small field
near Salt Lake, where it was first found, it has spread through the surround-
ing country until it has gone as far as Wyoming and Idaho. In the spring

070

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the adult insect punctures the stems of the plants as they are coming
up, and deposits its eggs in the wounds. The grubs hatch and feed upon
the tender leaves until they are fully developed. Transformation then

takes place and the adult beetle begins to de-
stroy the foliage.

Treatment, — Breaking up the ground in the
spring with a disk harrow to stimulate a rapid
growth has been found to be beneficial. Clean
up all trash and rubbish which might form hiding
places for the insect. Immediately after first
cutting use a spike-tooth harrow, followed closely
by a brush drag to knock oiff and kill the grubs.
Bur. Ent. Bull. 112; Utah Exp. Sta. Bull. 110.

The Chinch Bug (Blissus leucopteruSy Say.). —
Throughout the Middle states this is the worst
enemy of all kinds of grains. It hibernates for
the most part in clumps of grass, but may be
found in weeds and rubbish along fence rows.
The bug injures the plant by sucking the sap
from the stalks.
Treatment, — Concerted action by the farmers in a large area, in burn-
ing the bunch grass late in the fall or in early winter, is the best means of
control. The grass should be burned close to the ground when it is per-

Chinch Bug
{Blissus leucopierus) .^

Adult of long- winged form,
much enlarged.

Chinch Bug (Blissus leucopterus).^
Adults of short- winged form, much enlarged.

fectly dry, thus destroying many of the insects and leaving others unpro-
tected against the storms of winter. When bugs are migrating from small
grains to corn or other crops in summer, they may be stopped by dusty
ditches with post holes in bottom, by dust ridges or coal tar barriers.

Farm. Bull. 657.

»Bur. Ent. Cir. 113.

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 971

Clover Mite {Bryobia prcetensisy Garm.). — A common red mite on
many plants, including clover, alfalfa and a number of varieties of fruit.

Treatinent, — Dust the plants with sulphur and lime at rate of 1-4, or
spray with either 10 per cent kerosene emulsion or sulphur in water, 1
pound to 4 gallons. Destroy eggs on fruit trees in winter with 20 i)er cent
kerosene emulsion or with lime-sulphur.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 158.

Clover Root Borer (Hylastinus ohscurus, Marsham). — The beetle win-
ters over in clover roots; emerges
in the spring and lays eggs in
the larger roots. The grubs, on
hatching, bore through central
part, destroying plants.

Treatment, — Plow the fields
after haying, allowing the roots
to dry. Pasturing checks the
injury. Infested field should not
be allowed to stand over the sec-
ond season.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 119.

Com Ear Worm (Heliothis
obsoletay Fab.). — This insect is
also known as the cotton boll
worm, the tobacco bud worm or
the tomato fruit worm. It has
a long list of other food plants,
but on many causes no serious
injury. On corn the eggs are
laid by the moths upon the silk.
The larvae upon hatching enter
the ear and ^ begin to feed on
the immature grains. Cotton is
not seriously attacked until the
corn silks are-drying up, as corn
is much preferred by the worms.
The adults lay their eggs upon the

cotton leaves and the larvae, after feeding for a short time upon the foliage,
enter the bolls. They attack tobacco by eating into the buds, and tomatoes
are injured by attacks upon the fruit.

Treatment. — For all crops the injury is materially lessened by late
fall plowing and cultivation which crushes many pupae in the soil and
exposes others to the winter. On cotton the insect may be well controlled
by two applications of an arsenical dust or spray at the tiine the eggs are
hatching. Tobacco may be protected by dropping into the buds a little

»Bur. Ent. Cir. 168,

Clover Mite (Bryobia prcetensis).^
Enlarged; natural size shown by line at right.

^PT

..#;

'•viiv**:

972

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

corn meal, poisoned with powdered arsenate of lead, using 2 or 3 spoonfuls
to a quart of meal. Early maturing varieties of corn or cotton will not
be so seriously injured as the later kinds.
Farm. Bull. 290; Bur. Ent. Bull. 50.

The Com Root Aphis (Aphis maidi-rddids, Forbes). — A bluish-green
plant louse found on the roots of corn, broom corn, sorghum and on several
weeds. It weakens the plant, causing it to be stunted and poorly nour-
ished.

Treatment, — One year rotation to other crops than corn, clean cultiva-
tion and liberal use of fertilizers, winter plowing to break up nests of ants
where aphis eggs are stored.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 80; Bur. Ent. Bull. 85, Pt. 6.

Cotton Boll Worm (Heliothis obsoletay Fab.). —
See Corn Ear Worm.

Cotton Worm {Alabama argillaceaj Hbn.). — A
dark-greenish caterpillar, striped with black, the
larva of a grayish-brown moth marked on the fore
wings with irregular darker bands. They feed on
the under side of leaves when young, later feeding
on the entire leaf and when abundant on buds and
tender stalks. Adults make strong flights, going as
far north as Canada. They feed at times on ripe
fruit, which they are able to puncture with strong
mouth parts.

Treatment. — Dust the plants with powdered ar-
senate of lead when the worms appear.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 153.

Clover Root Borer (Hylastinus ohscurus).^

1 — ^Adult beetle, natural size at right. 2 — Larva or grub, much enlarged,

3 — Showing work of the borer.

» Bur. Ent. Cir. liy.

Cotton Worm {Alabama argilla£ea).^
Stages and work.

•Bur. Ent. Cir. 153

(973)

■I

'^l

m^m'-.- "■

974

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

8 I '.i

The Cotton Red Spider {Tetran-
ychus bimaculatuSy Harvey). — This
small red mite is common on cot-
ton and on several other plants, es-
pecially pokeweed and violet. It
causes the leaves of cotton to turn
red and fall off. It kills plants if
abundant.

Treatment. — Prevent the mites
from starting on the cotton by clean
culture, being sure to eradicate all
pokeweed and violets near the fields.
If found in cotton fields, spray the
affected plants with potassium sul-
phide 3 pounds and water 100 gallons;
make two applications one week

Fall Army Worm
{Laphygma frugiperda).

A — Moth, plain gray form. B — Fore ^P^rt*

wing of prodenia-like form. C — Larva Bur. Ent. Cir. 172.

extended D-Abdominal segment of ^^6 FaU Army Worm (Laphygma

larva, lateral view; twice natural size. - . , o. i \ * \^K*y,i,yyi,vu,

E— Pupa, lateral view. frugiperda, S. and A.).— In general

appearance is similar to the common
army worm, but with different markings. It has wide range of food
plants, including many
forage and truck crops.

Treatment. — P r a c -
tice fall plowing to break
up the pupae cells in the
ground. Scatter poison
bran mash when the cat-
erpillars appear, or spray

or dust with areenicals.
Bur. Ent. Bull. 29.

The Green Bug, or
Spring Grain Aphis {Tox-
opteragraminumy Rond.).
— ^A small green plant
louse which attacks oats,
wheat, barley and other
grains. It appears very
early in the spring.

Treatment. — No sat-
isfactory method of con-
trol is known. Attacks
may be partially pre-

Hessian Fly (Mayetiola destructor).*
Adult female, much enlarged.

>Bur. Ent. Bull. 29.

« Farm. Bull. 640.

v«eiJ^-^

Green Bug, or Spring Grain Aphis (Toxoptera graminum).^

Wheat plant showing winged and wingless viviparous females with their
young clustered on leaves, and a few parasitized individuals on lower leaves.
About natural size.

' li

.'.

• Bur. Eot. Bull. 110

(975)

»'0,

'i V'y},

•»,''«■

.frfi-lV'S

976

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 977

vented by late planting
and by the destruction of
volunteer wheat and cats
in the fall.

Bur. Ent. Bull. 110.

The Hessian Fly

{Mayetiola destructor ,
Say.). — This small two-
winged fly is one of the
most destructive insects
of growing wheat, causing
the plants to be stunted
and to break down near
harvest time.

Treatment,— ^urn the
stubble or plow it under
as soon after harvest as
possible. Destroy all
volunteer wheat just be-
fore sowing. Delay the
sowing until ten days or
two weeks after usual time. The two latter precautions should pre-
vent most of usual injury.

IT. S. Dcpt. Aprri. Cir. 51, Office of
Secretary; Farm. Bull. 640.

Southern Corn Root Worm
{Diahrolica d uodecimpunctata) .^

A — Beetle. H — Egg. C — Larva. D — Anal

sc^ginent of larva. K — Work of larva at base of corn

stalk. F — Pupa. All much enlarged except E, which
is reduced.

A B

Cotton Boll Weevil
(Anthonomus grandis).^

A — Beetle, from above. B — Same from
side. About five times natural size.

» Bur. Ent. Bull. 43.

2 Farm. Bull. 344.

Tobacco Flea Beetle
{Epitrix 'parwla)}

A — Adult beetle. B — Larva, side
view. C — Head of larva. D — Hind leg
of same. E — Anal segment of same.
F— Pupa. A, B, F— Enlarged about fif-
teen times. C, D, E — More enlarged.

» Bur. Ent. Cir. 123.

Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil {Anthonomus grandisy Boh.). — No pest of
cotton has caused so much injury as this small brown beetle. Both the
adult insects and the larvse feed upon the squares and the bolls, injuring

the fiber.

Treatment. — Clean up and destroy all stalks, dead bolls and crop rem-
nants as soon as cotton is picked, either by burning or burying. Plow
under or burn in the fall and winter all trash in neighboring fields and

South EKN Tobacco Horn Worm (Phlegethontius stxta).^
A — Adult. B — Larva. C — Pupa.

hedgerows where the insect might hibernate. Prepare the land early»
plant eady and fertilize heavily to secure an early crop.
Farm. Bull. 344, Senate Document No. 305, 62d Congress.

Spring Grain Aphis (Toxoptera graminum, Rond.). — See Green Bug.

Southern Com Root Worm, or Bud Worm {Diabrotica duodecimpunc-
taia, Oliv.).— Greenish-yellow beetle marked on the back with twelve
black spots. Feeds on a variety of plants. Larva or grub feeds on roots
of corn after boring into roots and stem.

Treatment. — No satisfactory insecticidal treatment is known. The
worst of the injury may be prevented in Southern states by planting about

»Bur. Ent. Cir. 123.
02

#■^

sm^.::

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 979

i 4

Wheat Joint Worm (Isosorna iritici).

Adult of t^ e joint worm much enlarged. 2-
effect of the joint worm in wheat straw.

• Dept. Bull. 8.

(978)

- Bur. Ent. Cir. 66.

three weeks later than usual or after most of the first brood eggs have

been deposited.

Dept. BuU. No. 5.

Tobacco Flea Beetle (Epitrix parvula^ Fab.). — ^A small dark-colored
beetle, eating holes in the leaves of tobacco. The
beetle is a very active jumper and cannot be readily
captured.

Treatment — ^Apply arsenicals by spraying or as
dust when the injury is first noticed and again a
few days later, if the beetles are still present.
Bur. Ent. Cir. 123; Year-Book 1910, pp. 281-296.

Tobacco Worms, or Horn Worms (Phlegethontius
quinqicemaculata,IisiW.jaxidP, sexta, Johan.). — These
two pests are the most destructive of the tobacco
insects. They feed on the leaves and buds.

Treatment, — Hand picking or the use of arsen-
icals will prevent serious injury.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 123; Bur. Ent. Cir. 173

Western Com Root Worm (Diabrotica longicor-
nisy Say.). — A yellowish green beetle, the larva of
which feeds on the roots of corn. There is only
one generation of the insect each year.

Treatment, — The only successful way of com-
bating the pest is to rotate crops from corn to one

of the small grains.

Dept. Bull. No. 8.

Wheat Joint Worm {Isosomxi tritidy Fitch). —
Most of the injury from this insect has been found
in the wheat-growing regions east of the Missis-
sippi River. The adult is a small black insect
somewhat resembling a small winged ant. Eggs
are laid in the straw of growing wheat after several
joints have been formed. The larvae develop in
the joints and emerge in the following spring.

Treatment, — Burn or plow under all stubble in the fall. Bum all
outstanding straw in spring. Do not scatter green manure in fields to be
planted in wheat in spring if infested straw was used for bedding. Fertilize
liberally. Practice rotation of crops.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 66.

Wheat Straw Worm (Isosoma grandcy Riley) . — ^West of the Mississippi
River this insect is often a very serious enemy of wheat. The larva works
inside the young shoots early in the spring and the later generation in

straw.

Trea^m^n^— Injury can be largely prevented by a rotation of crops

» Bur. Ent. Cir. 106.

liARVA OF Isosoma

grande in Wheat

Straw. ^

■<u^

980

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

according to Prof. F. M. Webster. Wheat should not be planted on the
same ground two years in succession.
Bur. Ent. Cir. 106.

TRUCK CROP INSECTS
The Asparagus Beetle {Crioceris asparagi, Linn.) . — This beetle is about

one-fourth of an inch long, with
dark-colored body, red thorax and
yellow wing covers marked and
bordered with blue. The adults
and grubs feed on the stems and
tender shoots of asparagus.

Treatment,— Apply arsenical
sprays. Air-slaked lime will kill
the grubs.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 102.

Bean Aphis {Aphis rumiciSy
Linn.). — ^A small black plant louse
with pale shanks. It attacks beans,
dock, shepherd's purse, pigweed,
''burning bush'' and snowball
bush.

Treatment, — Spray the plants
thoroughly with nicotine solution.
Bur. Ent. Bull. 33, p. 109.

Bean Weevil, The Common

{Bruchus obtectusy Say.). — ^A small
gray or brown beetle with mottled
wing covers, about one-eighth of
an inch long. It lay its eggs on or
in beans in the field, also breeds in
stored beans. The grub eats its
way into the bean and develops

Spray of Asparagus, with Common Aspar- J^^^"*^' sometimes several to one

AGU8 Beetle in its Different STA(iEs.i nean.
Asparagus tip at right, showing eggs and Treatment, — Heat the infested

injury. Natural size. seed or fumigate with carbon

bisulphide.
Bur. Ent. Bull. 9C; Year-Book, U. S. D. A., 1898, p. 239.

Other Bean WeevUs.— Several other weevils affect the bean in March,
in the same way as the common bean weevil.

Treatment,— ^ee Bean Weevil, the Common.

The Beet Army Worm (Laphygma exiguay Hbn.).— Beets are some-
tnnes attacked in the Western states by this insect at about the same time
the fall army worm is making its attacks in other sections. Several

ifiur. Ent. Cir. 102.

Broad-bean Weevil
{Laria rufimana).^

Adult, or beetle, enlarged.

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 981

other food plants are known, including a few garden crops and a niunber of
weeds.

Treatment, — Spray or dust arsenicals upon the leaves. Poison bran

mash may also be of value.
Bur. Ent. Bull. 43.

Beet Leaf Beetle, The Larger (MonoxiapuncticolliSjSsiy.), — This leaf
beetle, known, also locally as the alkali bug and
the French bug, resembles somewhat the elm-
leaf beetle. It causes considerable injury to the
sugar-beet in Colorado and nearby states.

Treatment, — Dust or spray foliage with ar-
senicals.

The Beet Leaf Hopper (Eutettix tenella.
Baker). — The beet in the Western states is often
troubled with a condition known as '^ curly leaf,''
caused by the above-named leaf hopper, a light
yellowish green species about one-eighth of an
inch long.

Treatment, — Spray the beets thoroughly with
a 40 per cent nicotine sulphate solution in

water, diluted 1 part
to 600; or spray with

5 per cent kerosene emulsion. Many, hoppers
may be captured on a shield smeared with
tanglefoot or covered with sticky fly paper
if it is pushed up and down between the
rows. A wire or rod should be fastened in
front of the shield at the proper distance to
stir out the hoppers.

Bur. Ent. Bull. 66, Pt. 4.

Blister Beetles (Meloidce), — ^At times a
number of crops are badly damaged by the
insects known as blister beetles or *^ old-
fashioned potato bugs.'' These beetles are
rather large, long-legged and are variously
colored, the usual colors being black, gray or
striped with yellow and black.

Treaiment, — Apply arsenate of lead or
other arsenicals to the affected plants as a spray or dust. Several treat-
ments may be necessary if the beetles swarm on crops from other localities.
Bur. Ent. Bull. 43, pp. 21-27.

The Cabbage Looper (Autographa brassiccBy Riley). — The looper is a
light-green worm often referred to as a measuring worm because of its
looping movement when crawling. It feeds on the leaves of cabbage.

X Bur. Ent. Bull. 96, Pt. 5. ^g^ur. Ent. Bull. 43.

Blister Beetle
{Epicauta marginata).^

Enlarged.

I «

1 ■':

'If

Leaf Hoppers {EvJUUix^ Spp.) and their Work.^
Explanation of illustration on page 983.

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 983

1 — EiUeitix teneUa: o, adult; 6, nymph; c. wing; d, e, genitalia; /, eggs, greatly
enlarged; fif, section of beet stem, showing fresn eggs in place: A, same, showing e^s
ready to hatch; i, old egg-scars on beet stems; j, small leaf of sugar-beet, showmg
characteristic *' curly-leaf condition; A;, enlarged section of back of an extreme case of
"curly-leaf,^' showing " warty *' condition of veins. 2 — EtUettix strobi: a, work of
nymphs on sugar-beets; 6, leaf enlarged. 3 — Eulettix scUvla: adult. 4r—Eulettix
clanvida: a, wing; 6, head and pronotum; c, d, genitalia. 5 — Eulettix nigridorsum:
work of nymphs on leaf of HeUanthus. 6 — Eulettix straminea: work of nymphs on
leaf of another Helianthus. 7 — Eulettix insana: wing. 8 — Eulettix stricta: a, 6,
genitalia.

Treatment, — ^Apply arsenicals until the cabbage head is half grown.
If spray is used, add resin fish-oil soap as a sticker.

> !l

» Bur. Ent. Bull. 66. Pt. 4.

Harlequin Cabbage Bug (Murganlia hislrionica).^

A — ^Adult. B — Egg mass. C — First stage of nymph. D — Second stage.
E — Third stage. F — Fourth stage. G — Fifth stage. All enlarged.

The Cabbage Maggot {Pegomya brassiccey Bouch^). — Soft white mag-
gots work in the roots of cabbage, turnip and cauliflower, eating away the
root hairs and scarring the surface of the larger roots. This maggot is the
larva of a two-winged fly which lays its eggs in the ground near the plants.

Treatment. — Fit a disk of tarred paper about four inches in diameter
around the stem of each plant, letting it lie flat on the ground to keep the

1 Bur. Ent. Cir. 103.

fill

-i

1 1

(982)

:i^i^^

■■Xi:0.^^^r^,

■'i':^*-^'

38V

984

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

maggots from reaching the roots. Clean up all cabbage stumps in the fall

and plow deeply. Rotate crops.

The Colorado Potato Beetle {Leptinotarsa decemlineatay Say.). — With-
out doubt the worst enemy
of the potato is the robust
yellow-striped beetle which,
together with its larvae or
slugs, feeds upon the leaves.
The insect is too well known
to need description.

Treatment, — Apply ar-
senicals either as a dust or
as a spray. Hand picking or
'^bugging ^^may be resorted
to in a small garden patch.

& • a o

Colorado Potato Beetle
{Leptinotarsa decemlineata) . *

A — Beetle. B — Larva. C — Pupa. Enlarged.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 87, Bull. 82, Pt. 1.

Flea Beetles. — Small dark-colored insects which as adults feed upon
the foliage of many truck crops and weeds. The larvjB feed upon the roots.
The name is derived from the active way in which the insect hops about.
In this respect it re-
sembles a flea.

Treatment, — Clean
up weeds about the gar-
den that may form a
breeding place for the
pests. Apply arsenicals
to plants as a spray,
using Bordeaux mixture
preferably, which acts
as a repellent.

Harlequin Cabbage
Bug {Murgantia histrion-
tea, Hahn.). — This gaud-
ily marked bug is easily
recognized by its bright
colors of red, yellow and
blue. It feeds upon cab-
bage, cauliflower, mus-
tard and other related
plants.

Treatment, — Plant a trap crop of mustard or turnips in the spring and
fall and when the bugs have become numerous spray with pure kerosene.
Hand picking may be profitable in the spring. Methods of clean culture
should be practiced, especially in the fall, tall cabbage stalks and weeds

JBur. Ent. Cir. 87. » Bur. Ent. Bull 7

Hop Plant Borer (Hydroecia immanis),^

A — Enlarged segment of larva. B — Larva. C — Pupa.

D — Adult. Natural size.

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 985

being destroyed in order to starve out the bug. Destroy trash where it

might hibernate.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 103.

The Hop Aphis {Phorodon humuli, Schr.). — This plant louse is found
on the plum in spring, but flies to the hop plant in early sunmier, where
it turns the leayes yellow, causing them to fall.

Wingless Progeny of Winged Hop Aphids from Alternate Host.^

Treatment,— ^\\Qi\ apliids appear spray thoroughly with 40 per cent
nicotine solution diluted 1 part to 800 parts water.
Bur. Ent. Bull. 111.

The Hop Plant Borer (Hydroecia immanis, Get.).— The hop plant is
attacked in three places by this borer during the period of development of
the insect. Early in the season it bores into the tender tips, causing them
to droop; after a short time it falls to the ground and bores into the stem
at the crown. Later it bores out of the stem and goes below the ground,
feeding just above the old roots, where it nearly severs the plant.

Treatm£nt.— In the spring search for the affected tips and crush the
insects in the stem.

Bur. Ent Bnll. 7, p. 40.

» Bur. Ent. Bull. lUt

984

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

maggots from reaching the roots. Clean up all cabbage stumps in the fall

and plow deeply. Rotate crops.

The Colorado Potato Beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineatay Say.). — With-
out doubt the worst enemy
of the potato is the robust
yellow-striped beetle which,
together with its larv^a? or
slugs, feeds upon the leaves.
The insect is too well known
to need description.

Treatment, — Apply ar-
senicals either as a dust or
as a spray. Hand picking or
'^ bugging ''may be resorted
to in a small garden patch.

6 ' a o

Colorado Potato Beetle
{Leptinotarsa decemlineata).^

A — Beetle. B — Larva. C — Pupa. Enlarged.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 87, Bull. 82, Pt. 1.

Flea Beetles. — Small dark-colored insects which as adults feed upon
the foliage of many truck crops and weeds. The larva? feed upon the roots.
The name is derived from the active way in which the insect hops about.
In this respect it re-
sembles a flea.

Treatment. — C lean
up weeds about the gar-
den that may form a
breeding place for the
pests. Apply arsenicals
to plants as a spray,
using Bordeaux mixture
preferably, which acts
as a repellent.

Harlequin Cabbage
Bug (Murgantia histrion-
icaj Hahn.). — This gaud-
ily marked bug is easily
recognized by its bright
colors of red, yellow and
blue. It feeds upon cab-
bage, cauliflower, mus-
tard and other related
plants.

Treatment. — Plant a trap crop of mustard or turnips in the spring and
fall and when the bugs have become numerous spray with pure kerosene.
Hand picking may be profitable in the spring. Methods of clean culture
should be practiced, especially in the fall, tall cabbage stalks and weeds

Hop Plant Borer (Hydroecia immanis).^

A — Enlarged segment of larva. B — Larva. C — Pupa.

D — Adult. Natural size.

JBur. Ent. Cir. 87.

2 Bur. Ent. Bull. 7

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 985

being destroyed in order to starve out the bug. Destroy trash where it

might hibernate.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 103.

The Hop Aphis {Phorodon humuli, Schr.).— This plant louse is found
on the plum in spring, but flies to the hop plant in early summer, where
it turns the leayes yellow, causing them to fall.

Wingless Proget^ of Winged Hop Aphids from Alternate Host.^

Treatment.— 'S^ii^-n apliids api:)ear spray thoroughly with 40 per cent
nicotine solution diluted 1 part to 800 parts water.
Bur. Ent. BuU. HI.

The Hop Plant Borer {Hydrcecia immnnis, Get.).— The hop plant is
attacked in three places by this borer during the period of development of
the insect. Early in the season it bores into the tender tips, causing them
to droop; after a short time it falls to the ground and bores into the stem
at the crown. Later it bores out of the stem and goes below the ground,
feeding just above the old roots, where it nearly severs the plant.

Treatment.— In the spring search for the affected tips and crush the
insects in the stem.

Bur. Ent Bull. 7, p. 40.

»Bur. Ent. Bull. 111.

f i

t;i

t^»i^tim»Bm

Potato Tubeh Moth
( PhtJiorimoea operciUella) . ^
Imported Cabbage Web Worm A-Moth. B-Larva, lat-

(HeUula imdalis).^ eral view. C— Larva, dorsal

A— Mature moth. B— Larva, lateral view. view. D— Pupa. E, F— Seg-
C— Larva, dorsal view. D— Pupa. All three ments of larva, enlargied. (Re-
times natural size. drawn from Riley and Howard.)

iiiiirf r ijfr ^

Hfe^-.jj^

. ■

t^|||^H|BM|

^HHlH|H|g^&^

^^^^0^^^^

H|^^^H^^^^HRf ,* '

^^^H

KF<

•

^^^^^^r

Work of the Potato-Tuber Moth.^
Exterior view of potato.

^Bur. Ent. Bull. 19.

(986)

»Farm. Bull. 557.

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 987

The Imported Cabbage Web Worm (Hellula undalis, Fab.). — This
worm feeds upon cabbage, turnips and other similar crops, spinning a web
under which it retires when not feeding. -

Treatment. — Same as for cabbage looper.
Ent. Bull. 23, p. 54.

The Imported Cabbage Worm (Pontia rapce^ Linn.). — Of all the insects
on cabbage, this is the
worst pest. It is the larvae
of the white butterfly-
seen fluttering about over
fields of cabbage during
spring and summer.

Treatment, — Same as
for cabbage looper.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 60.

The Melon Aphis

{Aphis gossypiiy Glov.). —

This plant louse feeds not

only on melons but on

cotton, strawberries and a

number of other plants.

Treatment, — Before

the leaves are badly curled

spray them with nicotine

solution, turning the vines

over if necessary, so as to

hit the under sides of the

leaves. In small gardens

fumigate under tub with

carbon bisulphide, using

about a teaspoonful to

each cubic foot of space.

Tobacco fumes may also

be used.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 80.

The Potato Tuber Moth {Phthorimcea operculellay Zell.). — Potato
growing is now menaced in California, Washington and southern Texas
by this insect, which bores into the vines and tubers of potatoes. It also
feeds upon tomato, eggplant and tobacco, and on the latter plant is
known as the split worm.

Treatment, — No satisfactory method of treatment is known, but the
injury may be partly prevented by clean methods of cultivation, crop
rotation and fumigation of infested tubers. The latter is by far the best
remedy. For a full discussion of methods of control see Farm. Bull. 557.

»Bur. Ent. Cir. 60.

Imported Cabbage Worm
(Pontia rapce).^

A — Female butterfly. B — Above, egg as seen from
above; below, egg as seen from side. C — Larva in
natural position on cabbage leaf. D — Suspended
chrysalis. A, C, D — ^Are sli^tly enlarged. B — More
enlarged.

Potato Tubeu Moth
( PhUiorimcea operculelta).^
Imported Cabbage Web Woim A-Moth. B-Larva, lat,-

(HelluJa undohs).^ eral view. C— Larva, dorsal

A— Mature moth. Ji— Larva, lateral view. view. D— Pupa. E, F— Seg-
C— Larva, dorsal view. D— Pupa. All three ments of larva, enUirged. (Re-
times natural size. ^^^^n from Riley and Howard.)

Work of the Potato-Tuber Moth.^
Exterior view of potato.

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 987

iBur. Ent. Bull. 19.

'' Farm. Bull. 557.

(986)

The Imported Cabbage Web Worm {Hellula undalisy Fab.). — This
worm feeds upon cabbage, turnips and other similar crops, spinning a web
under which it retires when not feeding.

Treatment, — Same as for cabbage looper.
Ent. Bull. 23, p. 54.

The Imported Cabbage Worm (Pontia rapcBy Linn.). — Of all the insects
on cabbage, this is the
worst pest. It is the larvae
of the white butterfly
seen fluttering about over
fields of cabbage during
spring and summer.

Treatment, — Same as
for cabbage looper.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 60.

The Melon Aphis

{Aphis gossypiij Glov.). —
This plant louse feeds not
only on melons but on
cotton, strawberries and a
number of other plants.

Treatment, — Before
the leaves are badly curled
spray them wuth nicotine
solution, turning the vines
over if necessary, so as to
hit the under sides of the
leaves. In small gardens Imported Cabhage Worm

fumigate under tub with {Pontia rapw).^

carbon l)isulphide, using A— Female butterfly. B— Above, egg as seen from

about a teaspoonful to above; below, egg as seen from side. ^"I ^arva in

r.^r,V. .»iiKw. h^M r»f ci^nr>r» natural position on cabbage leaf. D— buspended

each cul)ic foot ot space. ^.j^^y^^^Ug * ^^ q^ D— Are slightly enlarged. B— More

Tobacco fumes may also enlarged.

J)e used.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 80.

The Potato Tuber Moth (Phthorimma operculella, Zell.). — Potato
growing is now menaced in California, Washington and southern Texas
l)y this insect, which bores into the vines and tubers of potatoes. It also
feeds upon tomato, eggplant and tobacco, and on the latter plant is
known as the split worm.

Treatment,— ^o satisfactory method of treatment is known, but the
injury may be partly prevented by clean methods of cultivation, crop
rotation and fumigation of infested tubers. The latter is by far the best
remedv. For a full discussion of methods of control see Farm. Bull. 557.

iBur. Ent. Cir. 60.

. '\

• '.«£«> JIM

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

Squash Vine Borer

{Melittia satyrinijonnis) . ^

A — Male moth. B — Female moth with wings folded in
natural position when at rest. C — Eggs shown on bit of
squash stem. D — Full grown larva — in situ in vine.
E — Pupa. F — Pupal cell. • All J larger than natural size.

Striped Cucumber Beetle
{Diabrotica vittata).^

A — Beetle. B — Larva. C — Pupa. D — Anal
proleg. A, B, C — Much enlarged. D — More
enlarged.

Sugar-Beet Web Worm

{Loxostege siicticalis) ?

Moth twice natural size.

1 Bur. Ent. Cir. 38.

»Bur. Ent. Cir 31.

»Bur. Ent. Bull. 109, Part 2.

(988)

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 989

The Squash Bug {Anasa tristis, De G.). — This well-known insect is
often a serious pest of squashes and pumpkins and can nearly always be
found upon the vines during the summer.

Treatment— Pick off and destroy the eggs in the spring, Trap the

(^antaloi)pe Leaves, Showing Curling Caused bv Melon
Aphis; Aphides on Lower Surface.^

Slightly reduced.

bugs under boards placed near the vines and gather them up in the morning.
Protect cucumbers and melons by planting early squashes among them,
from which adults should be picked. Spray with kerosene emulsion.
Bur. Ent. Cir. 39. '

Squash Vine Boref (Melittia satyriniformis, Hbn.).— In many locahties

i Bur. Ent. Cir. 80.

:[^

*»

Nest and Larv^ of Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar in Crotch or

Wild Cherry Tree.^ .

1 Farm. Bull. 662.

(990)

m,'-

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 991

this is the most serious pest of squash vines. The larvae bore into the

vines, causing them to rot and break off easily.

Treatment — Rake up and destroy vines as soon as possible in the fall.

Plow deeply in the spring. Rotate crops; plant early squashes among

other vines as a trap crop.
Bur. Ent. Cir. 38.

The Striped Cucumber Beetle (Diabrotica vittata^ Fab.). — A black-
and-yellow striped beetle two-fifths of an inch long, injuring cucumbers,
squashes and melons by feeding on the young plants as they come up.

Treatment, — Cover the hills of young plants with nets to protect them
from beetles. Dust
heavily with air-
slaked lime and
tobacco dust while
the dew is on. Spray
the plants with ar-
senate of lead b to 5
pounds to 50 gallons.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 31.

Sugar Beet Web
Worm (Loxostege
sticticaliSj Linn . ) . —
This insect defoliates
beets and webs them
together at times,
causing notable in-
jury. It also feeds
on onions, cabbage,

Apple Maggot, or Railroad Worm

( Rhagoletis pomonella). ^

A — Adult. B — Larva or maggot. C — Funnel of ceph-
alic spiracle. D — Puparium. E — Portion of apple show-
ing injury by maggots. A, B, C — Enlarged. D — Still more

vrxx vrxxivrxxo, v.i*-^ ^c*^v., jj^g ^jury DV maggots.
alfalfa, pigweed and enlarged. E — Reduced

careless weed.

Treatment. — Plow the infested land in late fall or winter. Spray or
dust the plants with arsenicals.

Bur. Ent. Bull. 109, Pt. 6.

FRUIT INSECTS

Apple Maggot, or Railroad Worm {Rhagoletis pomonellay Walsh.). — The
larva of a two-winged fly. It infests summer and early fall apples and
occasionally winter apples, tunneUng through the flesh of fruit and causing

it to fall.

Treatment. — Spray the trees during the first week in July with arsenate
of lead, 4 pounds to 100 gallons. Pick up infested fruit every two or three
days and feed it to hogs or bury it deeply.
Bur. Ent. Cir. 101.

Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar (Malacosoma Americana^ Fab.). — The

1 Bur. Ent. Cir. 101.

. 1

' '.<

Nest and Larv^ of Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar in Crotch of

Wild Cherry Tree.^ •

1 Farm. Bull. 662.
(990)

' Tiif^S^!BBM^^^^^^^^^B^^^^^^^BlBKfet"'" ■ r •-■' '^^-.

INTENTIONAL SI

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 991

this is the most serious pest of squash vines. The larvae bore into the

vines, causing them to rot and break off easily.

Treatment, — Rake up and destroy vines as soon as possible in the fall.

Plow deeply in the spring. Rotate crops; plant early squashes among

other vines as a trap crop.
Bur. Ent. Cir. 38.

The Striped Cucumber Beetle (Diabrotica vittata, Fab.). — A black-
and-yellow striped beetle two-fifths of an inch long, injuring cucumbers,
squashes and melons by feeding on the young plants as they come up.

Treatment. — Cover the hills of young plants with nets to protect them
from beetles. Dust
heavily with air-
slaked lime and
tobacco dust while
the dew is on. Spray
the plants with ar-
senate of lead 3 to 5
pounds to 50 gallons.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 31.

Sugar Beet Web
Worm {Loxostege
sticticalisj Linn . ) . —
This insect defoHates
beets and webs them
together at times, Apple Maggot, or Hailroad Worm

causing notable in- (Rhagoletis pomoudla).^

iurv. It also feeds ^ — Adult. B — Larva or maggot. C — Funnel of ceph-

. 11 alic spiracle. D — Pupiu*ium. E — Portion of apple show-

on onions, ca»)bage, -^^^ jj^jy^y by maggots. A, B, C— Enlarged. D— Still more
alfalfa, pigweed and enlarged. E — Reduced.

careless weed.

Treatment. — Plow the infested land in late fall or winter. Spray or
dust the plants with arsenicals.
Bur. Ent. Bull. 109, Pt. 6.

FRUIT INSECTS

Apple Maggot, or Railroad Worm {Rhagoletis pomonellay Walsh.). — The
larva of a two-winged fly. It infests summer and early fall apples and
occasionally winter apples, tunneling through the flesh of fruit and causing

it to fall.

Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar {Malacosoma Americana^ Fab.). — The

1 Bur. Ent. Cir. 101.

Stages and Work of Spring Canker- Worm (Paleacrita vernata).^

1 — Egg mass on bark scale. 2 — The larvae or canker-worms. 3 — Pupae.
4 — Female moths. 5 — Male moth. 6 — Work of canker-worms on apple leaves
when small. 7 — Later work of the larvae, only the midribs of leaves being
left. l-5--Considerably enlarged. 6, 7 — Ileduced.

^ Bur. Ent. Bull. 68 Pi 2.

(W3)

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 993

larva of moth. It feeds on the foliage of apple and a number of other trees.
It makes large nests or web tents in which caterpillars stay when not feeding.
Treatment. — Spray the trees with arsenate of lead when the nests
first appear. Make later application if necessary.
Farm. Bull. 662.

The Brown-Tail Moth (Euprodis chrysorrhcea, Linn.). — This well-
known caterpillar was accidentally introduced into Massachusetts from
Europe. It has now spread over a large part of New England and is still
extending its territory. The moths appear early in July and the female
deposits masses of eggs on
the under side of leaves.
The young caterpillars web
terminal leaves together
and spend the winter in
those nests in partially
grown condition. They
resume feeding in the spring
and soon reach their full
development.

Treatment. — C u t out
and burn all the winter
nests before the buds start.
Spray the trees with arse-
nate of lead, 4 pounds to
100 gallons. Band the
trees with tanglefoot to pre-
vent the ascent of cater-
pillars from other trees.

Farm. Bull. 264.

Canker-Worm, The
Spring {Paleacrita vernata, Peck), and The Fall {Alsophila pometaria,
Harris). — The larvse of canker-worm moths are measuring worms about
an inch long, dark-colored and variously striped. The adult males are
winged, females wingless. They defoliate apple trees.

Treatment. — Cultivate orchards well in summer to destroy pupae.
Apply sprays of arsenate of lead 4 or 5 pounds to 100 gallons water, first
before the blossoms open; second, just after petals fall. Apply barriers of
tanglefoot or cotton batting to the trunks of trees to prevent the ascent

of the moths to lay eggs.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 9; Bur. Ent. Bull. 68, Pt. 2.

The Cherry Fruit Flies (Rhdgoletis cingulata, Loew, and R. fausta, 0.
S.).— Two-winged flies deposit eggs in cherries. Maggots develop in the
fruit on the tree, causing it to rot on one side. They enter ground to
pupate.

i Farm. Bull. 264.
•8

Brown-Tail Moth
(Euproctis chrysorrhoea.y

Female moth above, male moth below, larva or
caterpillar at right, slightly enlarged.

I, \

i i\

.. w

Stacjes and Work of Spring Canker- Worm (Paleacrita vernata).^

1 — Egg mass on bark scale. 2 — Tho larvae or canker-worms. 3 — Pupae.
4 — Female moths. 5 — Male moth. 6 — Work of canker-worms on apple leaves
when small. 7— Later work of the larvse, only the midribs of leaves being
left. 1-5— Considerably enlarged. 6, 7— Reduced.

1 Bur. Ent. Bull. 68 Pt 2.

(992)

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 993

-v/

'>^??*«<p*«^*

larva of moth. It feeds on the foliage of apple and a number of other trees.
It makes large nests or web tents in which caterpillars stay when not feeding.

Treatment. — Spray the trees with arsenate of lead when the nests
first appear. Make later application if necessary.
Farm. Bull. 662.

The Brown-Tail Moth (Eiiproctis chrysorrhoea, Linn.). — This well-
known caterpillar was accidentally introduced into Massachusetts from
Europe. It has now spread over a large part of New England and is still
extending its territory. The moths appear early in July and the female
deposits masses of eggs on
the under side of leaves.
The young caterpillars web
terminal leaves togetlier
and spend the winter in
those nests in partially
grown condition. They
resume feeding in the spring
and soon reach their full
development.

Farm. Bull. 264.

Brown-Tail Moth
(Euproctis chrysorrhoea.y

Female moth above, male moth below, larva or
caterpillar at right, slightly enlarged.

Canker- Worm, The
Spring (Paleacrita vernata, Peck), and The Fall (Alsophila pometana,
Harris) —The larvse of canker-worm moths are measuring worms about
an inch long, dark-colored and variously striped. The adult males are
winged, females wingless. They defoliate apple trees.

Trea^m^n^— Cultivate orchards well in summer to destroy pupae.
Apply sprays of arsenate of lead 4 or 5 pounds to 100 gallons water, first
before the blossoms open; second, just after petals fall. Apply barriers of
tanglefoot or cotton batting to the trunks of trees to prevent the ascent

of the moths to lay eggs.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 9; Bur. Ent. Bull. 68, Pt. 2.

The Cherry Fruit Flies {Rhagoletis cingulata, Loew, and R. fausta, 0.
S.)._Two-winged flies deposit eggs in cherries. Maggots develop in the
fruit on the tree, causing it to rot on one side. They enter ground to
pupate.

1 Farm. Bull. 264.

' r

•If

^•1

I ',

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

KMiBliMM

■«MMIH*iM«iiMNaH

Cherry Fruit Fly
(Rhagolelis cinguhita).^

A — Fly. B — Maggot from side. C — Anterior spiracle.s of
same. D — Puparium. E — Posterior spiraoular plates of pupa.
All enlarged.

An Imported
Currant
Worm. 2

A B

Fruit Tree Bark Beetle

{Scolytus rugvlosus).^

-Adult beetle. B — Work in twig
of apple. Natural size.

>Bur Ent. Bull. 44. «Bur. Ent. Cir. 29.

• Courtesy of (jonnecticut Agricultural Experiment Station.

(994)

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 995

Treatment. — Apply arsenate of lead to the trees, either with or with-
out sweetening, 4 or 5 pounds to 100 gallons, at the time the flies are
emerging. Two applications usually necessary.

Bur. Ent. Bull. 44, pp. 70-75; Cornell Agricultural Exp. Sta. Bull. 325.

The Codling Moth, or Apple Worm (Carpocapsa pomonella, Linn.).
— This is the insect the larva of which is responsible for most of the
wormy apples, pears and quinces. The female moths lay their eggs upon
the leaves and fruit. The larvae upon hatching begin at once to hunt for
the fruit, which they enter mostly through the calyx cup. In spraying
it is very necessary to fill this cup with the poison, as it is here that
the larvae mostly take their first meal. The time when this first and most
important spray should be made is just after the petals have fallen and
before the calyx cup closes. In most parts of the country there are two
broods of insects, but in the South there may be three and in places
even four.

Treatment. — Spray with arsenate of lead, 4 pounds to 100 gallons, first
just 3s the petals have fallen; second, three to four weeks after the petals
have fallen ; third, eight to nine weeks after petals have fallen.

Bur. Ent. Bull. 115, Pts. 1 and 2; Farm. Bull. 492.

Currant Worm, The Imported {Pteronus rihesii, Scop.). — This currant
worm is the most destructive insect enemy of the currant, but is easily
controlled.

Treatment — At the time the worms begin to appear spray or dust
with an arsenical.

Report of the Conn. State Entomologist, 1902, pp. 170-172.

The Flat-Headed Apple Tree Borer (Chrysobothris femoratay Fab.). —

A larva about one inch long, slightly flattened. The front end much

enlarged. It usually attacks trees partly dead or in poor condition, rarely

sound trees. As a preventive measure, keep trees healthy by use of

fertilizers and thorough cultivation.

Treatment, — Dig the borers from burrows with sharp instrument.
Bur. Ent. Cir. 32.

The Fruit Tree Bark Beetle (Scolytus rugulosus, Ratz.). — The small
dark-brown beetle which bores shot holes in fruit trees of nearly all kinds,
like the flat-headed borer, works only in dead or dying wood. As a pre-
ventive, koop the trees healthy; clean up all dead wood about orchards;
cut out and burn all infested wood.

Treatment. — No satisfactory treatment is known.
Bur. Ent. Cir. 29, Revised.

The Gipsy Moth (Porthetria dispar, Linn.). — The gipsy moth, like the
brown-tail, is a serious enemy of forest and fruit trees. Egg masses are
deposited in the fall on trunks of trees, on fences or wherever *a roughened
surface can be found. Tb^y hatch in the spring and llii^tjiiMmii Tilnl on the
foliage of vg^rious trees. *-,' rzCr ^

Trea^mwi.^^Hunt out \^% egg masses in winter tin^^i^ soak with

■ ^

: i

if-

996

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

coal tar creosote. Spray the trees in the spring with arsenate of lead as
soon as the eggs hatch, using 10 pounds to 100 gallons of water.
Bur. Ent. Bull. 87; Farm. Bull. 564.

The Grape Berry Moth {Polychrosis viteanaj Clem.). — ^A larva about

Grape Berry Moth
(Polychrosis viteana).^

1 and 2 — Adult, or moth. 3 — Full grown larvae.

All greatly enlarged.

4 — Pupae.

one-fourth of an inch long, works in the berry of grape, webbing several
together. It is the cause of most of the wormy grapes in the eastern
sections of the country.

Treatment. — Spray with arsenate of lead, 6 pounds to 100 gallons.

»Bur. Ent. Bull. 115.

Mm-A'

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 997

First application shortly after fruit sets; second, about ten days later, and
third, when the fruit is about half grown or when the second brood eggs
are hatching.

Bur. Ent. Bull. 116, Pt. 2, Farm. Bull. 284.

Grape Leaf* Hopper (Typhlocyba comes, Say.).— This active little

Injury to Grapes by Larvae of Second Brood op Grape-
Berry MOTH.^

Just previous to harvesting of fruit.

hopper is known in all parts of the country where grapes are grown. It
is yellowish in color, marked with green stripes. The leaves of the grapes
are injured by the puncture made by the hopper in feeding on the under
side of the leaf, causing them to turn spotted and yellow and finally fall off.
Treatment. — Spray the vines thoroughly about the first week in July,
when the maximum number of young hoppers are on the leaf, with a

iBur. Ent. Bull. 116, Pt. 2.

■ II

996

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

coal tar creosote. Spray the trees in the spring with arsenate of lead as

soon as the eggs hatch, using 10 pounds to 100 gallons of water.
Bur. Ent. Bull. 87; Farm. Bull. 564.

The Grape Berry Moth {Polychrosis viteanaj Clem.). — ^A larva about

Grape Berry Moth
(Polychrosis viteana).^

1 and 2 — Adult, or moth. 3 — Full grown larvae.

All greatly enlarged.

4 — Pupae.

one-fourth of an inch long, works in the berry of grape, webbing several
together. It is the cause of most of the wormy grapes in the eastern
sections of the country.

Treatment. — Spray with arsenate of lead, 6 pounds to 100 gallons.

iBur. Ent. Bull. 115.

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 997

First application shortly after fruit sets; second, about ten days later, and
third, when the fruit is about half grown or when the second brood eggs
are hatching.

Bur. Ent. Bull. 116, Pt. 2, Farm. Bull. 284.

Grape Leaf Hopper (Typhlocyba comes, Say.).— This active little

Injury to Grapes by Larv^ of Second Brood of Grape-

Bekuy Moth.^

Just previous to harvesting of fruit.

hopper is known in all parts of the country where grapes are grown. It
is yellowish in color, marked with green stripes. The leaves of the grapes
are injured by the puncture made by the hopper in feeding on the under
side of the leaf, causing them to turn spotted and yellow and finally fall off.
Treatment, — Spray the vines thoroughly about the first week in July,
when the maximum number of young hoppers are on the leaf, with a

»Bur. Ent. Bull. 116, Pt. 2.

f[i

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INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

^^-..■'

998

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

m^mSl^mfUMlii^

solution of 40 per cent nicotine, diluted 1 part to
1000 parts water. Clean up trash and weeds in
fence corners and practice clean culture generally.
Dept. Bull. 19.

The Grape Vine Flea Beetle (Haltica chalybea,
111.). — A blue metallic beetle about one-fourth of an
inch long. It feeds on buds and tender shoots in
early spring. The grubs feed later upon the leaves.
Treatment, — Spray with arsenate of lead to kill
the adults and grubs on the leaves during May and
June. The beetles may be captured in sheets or pans
by jarring the vines.

New York (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bull. 331, pp. 494-514.

The Lesser Apple Worm {Enarmonia prunivoray
Walsh). — This insect is closely related to the cod-
ling moth and has very much the same life history.

Treatment. — Spray as for the codling moth, but

take especial pains to make the second spray very

thorough, three to four weeks after petals have fallen.
Bur. Ent. Bull. 68, Pt. 5; Bur. Ent. Bull. 80, Pt. 3.

The Peach Tree Borer (Sanninoidea exitiosaySsiy.), — The larvae of this
insect are found at the crown of peach, plum and cherry trees, boring

Grape Leaf Hopper
(Typhhcyba comes) .^

Adult, winter form.
Greatly enlarged.

Lesser Apple Worm
(Enarmonia prunivora).^

A — Adult, or moth. B — Same with wings folded. C — Larva. D — Pupa in
cocoon ready for transformation to adult. E — Young apple, showing at calyx
end empty pupa skin from which moth has emerged. Enlarged about three
times.

» Dept. Bull. 19. ' Bur. Ent. Bull. 68.

.■.'CTJEIBK'ittM,,-

INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL

999

beneath the bark. The external indications of their presence are the mass
of sap which is commonly seen at the base of the tree and the frass or worm-
wood that has been worked out through holes in the bark. Preventive
means that have given some measure of success are various styles of pro-
tectors placed around the base of the trees, and coating washes applied to
the trunk. The latter are not satisfactory.

Treatment— Remove the ground from the crown of the tree in the
spring and fall and dig out the borers with a sharp knife.

Georgia Agri. Exp. Sta. Bull. 73; N. J. Agri. Exp. Sta. Bull. 235.

Pear Leaf Blister Mite (Eriophyes pyri, Pagenstecher).— This small
mite, only yir-inch in length, is the cause of the rough, blistered surface
of pear and apples leaves. When the attack is severe the trees become so
brown that they
have the appear-
ance at a dis-
tance of having
been swept by
fire.

Treatment.
— Spray in the
spring or fall
with concen-
trated commer-
cial lime-sulphur
testing 33°
Baum^, diluted
at the rate of 1-
10 or 11.

Plant Lice
{Aphididce). —

Many species of plant lice are found upon the various fruit trees grown
in this country. They feed by sucking the sap from the. leaves and
stems and thus do considerable injury at times. Some species curl the
leaves about them so that they are very difficult to reach with a spray
unless the treatment is made before the attack becomes severe. The
treatment for all aerial forms is practically the same.

Treatment, — Spray carefully with a 40 per cent nicotine sulphate solu-
tion diluted at the rate of 1 part to 800 parts of water, being sure to touch
all insects with the spray. A kerosene emulsion spray is also good if used
at the 8 or 10 per cent strength.

Plum Curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar ^ Hubst.).— On apples this
insect injures the fruit by deforming or scarring it by its feeding and egg-
laying punctures.

Treatm£nt.—^Y)ray as for codling moth, except that one additional

»Bur. Ent. Cir. 17.

Peach Tree Borer
(Sanninoidea exitiosa).^

A — Adult female. B — Adult male. C— Full grown larva.
D— Female pupa. E— Male pupa. F— Pupa skin extruded
partially from cocoon. All natural size.

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INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL lOOl

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spray should be given before the blossoms open or at the time the cluster
buds have opened out.

On plum, peach and cherry trees most of the injury is caused by the
grubs inside the fruit.

Treatment— For plums, spray with arsenate of lead, two pounds to
50 gallons; first, soon after petals fall; second, a week or ten days
later.

For cherries, same as for plum.

For peaclies, first, spray just as calyxes or shucks are shedding;

Rose Chafer
(Macroclactylus subspinosiLs) .^

A— Adult, or beetle. B— Larva. C, D— Mouth parts of larva. E— Pupa.
F-— Injury to leaves and blossoms of grape, with beetles at work. A, B, E—
Much enlarged. C, D— More enlarged. F— Slightly reduced.

second, spray three weeks later. When spraying peaches, self-boiled lime-
sulphur is usually added to prevent fungous troubles.
Farm. Bull. 440, Farm. Bull. 492.

The Rose Chafer (Macrodadylus subspinosus, Fab.).— This beetle is
recognized by his long legs and yellowish-gray color. Often in sandy
regions the beetles swarm upon the grapes in great numbers, causing
serious injury.

iBur. Ent. Bull. 97.

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INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL lOOl

spray should be given before the blossoms open or at the time the cluster
buds have opened out.

On plum, peach and cherry trees most of the injury is caused by the
grubs inside the fruit.

Treatment.— For plums, spray with arsenate of lead, two pounds to
50 gallons; first, soon after petals fall; second, a week or ten days
later.

For cherries, same as for plum.

For peaclies, first, spray just as calyxes or shucks are shedding;

Rose Chafer
(Macrodact ylus subspinosus) . ^

A — Adult, or beetle. B — Larva. C, D — Mouth parts of larva. E — Pupa.
F — Injury to leaves and blossoms of grape, with beetles at work. A, B, E —
Much enlarged. C, D — More enlarged. F— Slightly reduced.

second, spray three weeks later. When spraying peaches, self-boiled lime-
sulphur is usually added to prevent fungous troubles.

Farm. Bull. 440, Farm. Bull. 492.

The Rose Chafer (Macrodadylus suhspinoms, Fab.).— This beetle is
recognized by his long legs and yellowish-gray color. Often in sandy
regions the beetles swarm upon the grapes in great numbers, causing
serious injury.

iBur. Ent. Bull. 97.

1 i.

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

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•Bur. Ent. Bull. 02.
(1002)

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INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL

1003

Treaimmi.—'$^^x^y with arsenate of lead at the rate of 8 or 10 pounds
to 100 gallons of water, to which is added 1 or 2 gallons of cheap molasses
Bur. Ent. Bull. 97, Ptr. 3.

Round-Headed Apple Tree Borer {^aperda Candida, Fab.).— The
adult of the round-headed borer is a handsome striped beetle. It lays its
eggs on the bark at the base of apple trees and the young grubs eat through
and enter the wood. Their presence can be detected by dark areas or
discolored places on the bark and usually by the presence of small chips
or frass worked out through the holes.

Treatment— W\\Qn the borer is located it should be removed with a
sharp knife. Many washes and protectors have been tried to prevent
injury from this insect. White lead has been strongly recommended for
this purpose.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 32, Farm. Bull. G75.

The San Jose Scale {Aspidiotus perniciosus, Comst.).— This insect
has a wide distribution throughout the country and is a serious enemy of
fruit trees in many states. The scale is nearly circular in outline and about
the size of the head of a pin. When it is plentiful upon trees it becomes
encrusted on the trunk and branches, giving the tree a scurfy appearance.
The insect under the protecting scale feeds by sucking the sap of the tree,
so a contact insecticide is necessary for its control.

Treatment — Spray the trees during the dormant season with concen-
trated Hme-sulphur giving a Baume test of 33°, diluted at the rate of 1
gallon to 8 or 9 of water. The so-called miscible oils (mineral oils which
have been so treated that they may be readily mixed with water) are also
used successfully.
Bur. Ent. Bull. 62.

REFERENCES

''Insects Injurious to th/o Household and Annoying to Man." Heriick.

** Injurious Insects: How to Recognize and Control." O'Kane.

** Manual of Fruit Insects." Slingerland and Crosby.

*' Insects Injurious to Vegetables." Chittenden.

''Manual for Study of Insects." Comstock.

"American Insects." Kellogg.

"Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard." Sanderson.

California Expt. Station Bulletin 255. "The Citricola Scale."

California Expt. Station Bulletin 258. "Mealy Bugs of Citrus Tree."

Connecticut Expt. Station Bulletin 186. "Gipsv Moth."

Iowa Expt. Station Bulletin 162. "Strawberry Slugs."

Illinois Expt. Station Bulletin 174. "Method for Controlling Melon Lice."

Maine Expt. Station Bulletin 242. "Pink and Green Aphid of Potato."

Missouri Expt. Station Bulletin 134. "Insect Pests of Field Crops."

New Jersey Expt. Station Circular 43. "Hessian Fly."

New York Expt. Station Bulletin 402. "Controlling Plant Lice in Apple Orchard."

Ohio Expt. Station Bulletins:

154. "Important Greenhouse Pests."

264. "Orchard Bark Beetles and Borers."
Utah Expt. Station Bulletin 138. "Control of Grasshoppers."
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins:

150. "Common Fungous and Insect Pests."

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INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL

1003

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(1002)

Treatment.— Sprsiy with arsenate of lead at the rate of 8 or 10 pounds
to 100 gallons of water, to which is added 1 or 2 gallons of cheap molasses
Bur. Ent. Bull. 97, Pt. 3.

Round-Headed Apple Tree Borer (Saperda Candida, Fab.).— The
adult of the round-headed borer is a liandsonie striped beetle. It lays its
eggs on the bark at the base of apple trees and the young grubs eat through
and enter the wood. Their i)resence can be detected ])y dark areas or
discolored places on the bark and usually by the presence of small chips
or frass worked out through the holes.

T'rm/men^.— When the borer is located it should be removed with a
sharp knife. Many washes and protectors have been tried to prevent
injury from this insect. White lead has been strongly recommended for
this purpose.

Bur. Ent. Cir. 32, Farm. Bull. G75.

The San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus, Comst.). — This insect
has a wide distribution throughout the country and is a serious enemy of
fruit trees in many states. The scale is nearly circular in outline and about
the size of the head of a pin. When it is plentiful upon trees it becomes
encrusted on the trunk and branches, giving the tree a scurfy appearance.
The insect under the protecting scale feeds by sucking the sap of the tree,
so a contact insecticide is necessary for its control.

Treatment. — Spray the trees during the doi'inant season with concen-
trated hme-sul]^hur giving a l^aume test of 33°, diluted at the rate of 1
gallon to 8 or 9 of water. The so-called miscible oils (mineral oils which
have been sj treated that they may be readily mixed with water) are also
used successfully.
Bur. Ent. Bufl. 02.

UEFKHEXCES

''Insects Injurious to Ih/:* Household uiul AniioyiuM; to Man." Ileriick.

''Injurious Insects: How to Uocofi;nizo and Control." O'Kane.

*' Manual of Fruit Insects." Slingerland and Crosby.

*' Insects Injurious to \'ej5;e tables." Chittenden.

"Manual for Study of Insects." Comstock.

"American Insects." Kellogg.

"Insect Pests of P^arm, Garden and Orchard." Sanderson.

California Expt. Station Bulletin 255. "The Citricola Scale."

California Expt. Station Bulletin 258. "Mealy Bugs of Citrus Tree."

Connecticut Expt. Station Bulletin 186. "Gipsv Moth."

Iowa Expt. Station Bulletin 162. "Strawberry SI uss."

Illinois Expt. Station Bulletin 174. "Method for Controlling Melon Lice."

Maine Expt. Station Bulletin 242. "Pink and Green Aphid of Potato."

Missouri Expt. Station Bulletin 134. "Insect Pests of Field Crops."

New Jersey Expt. Station Circular 43. "Hessian Fly."

New York Expt. Station Bulletin 402. "Controlhng Plant Lice in Apple Orchard."

Ohio Expt. Station Bulletins:

154. "Important Greenhouse Pests."

264. "Orchard Bark Beetles and Borers."
Utah Expt. Station Bulletin 138. "Control of Grasshoppers."
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins:

150. "Common Fungous and Insect Pests."

) i

^^■,:..

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOS! JRF

--.r>i ja<afii'fr>-Mrtiiin-iiMrrtiM»i

1004

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins:

187. ''The CodUng Moth."

219. "San Jose Scale and Oyster Shell Scales."

227. '' Cherry Fruit Fhes."
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

344. ''Boll-Weevil Problem."

492. "Insect Enemies of Fruit and Foliage of the Apple."

498. "Methods of Exterminating the Texas Fever Tick."

512. "Boll- Weevil Problem."

543. " Common White Grubs."

557. "Potato Tuber Moth."

564. "The Gipsy and Brown Tail Moth: Their Control."

634. "The Larger Corn Stalk Borer."

636. "The Chalcis-Fly in Alfalfa Seed."

637. "The Grass Hopper Problem and the Alfalfa Culture."

639. "Eradication of the Cattle Tick."

640. "The Hessian Fly."

65o! "The San Jos6 Scale and Its Control."

658. "Cockroaches."

659. "The True Clothes Moth."

662. "The Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar."

668. "The Squash Vine Borer."

671. "Harvest Mites or Chiggers."

674. "Control of Citrus Thrips in California and Arizona."

675. "The Round-Headed Apple Tree Borer."

CHAPTER 77

INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

By H. Garman
Professor of Entomology, University of Kentucky

The word insecticide has come to mean any chemical or other sub-
stance used to destroy insects that are hurtful or objectionable in any way
to man. This definition excludes substances such as sticky fly-paper that
may be employed to entrap pests and would, according to some entomolo-
gists, exclude also simple deterrents, such as oil of citronella, used to keep
insects away by their offensive odors. In a general way, however, every
substance employed to prevent the injuries of insects is an insecticide and
in this view it does not matter whether or not they kill, deter or entrap.

The insecticides most used and valued by practical men either kill
as poisons when eaten with food, or else destroy when brought in contact
with the bodies of insects, in which case they are sometimes called contact
insecticides.

A group of insecticides of which the effective ingredient is arsenic has
proved especially popular and useful in suppressing insects which feed by
gnawing away and devouring the leaves of plants.

Paris Green. — Of these the one best known and most used is Paris
green, Schweinfurth green, or Imperial green, French green and Emerald
green. It was first used in the arts, and because of its cheapness and
poisonous properties was early tried on the Colorado potato beetle (about
1868) proving a very satisfactory means of suppressing the pest when used
either as a dry powder or when stirred into water. It contains a little
soluble arsenic however, and in water this is liable to burn leaves to which
it. is applied, hence care must be exercised not to use too much. Four to
five ounces of the powder in a barrel of water is commonly regarded as
enough ; if more is used a pound or two of freshly-slaked lime may be added
to neutralize its caustic effect.

Arsenate of Lead. — Paris green has two defects: Its burning action
is often hard to guard against, and its weight causes it to settle quickly
when used in water, rendering the spray produced uneven in strength.
Stirrers connected with spray pumps obviate the latter trouble, but some-
times increase the labor of operating pumps. The addition of Ume, as
already suggested, lessens the burning action, though the lime may, if care
is not exercised, increase the labor of applying.

Arsenate of lead has neither of these defects. It is practically insol-
uble in water, does not burn foliage, and it is so finely subdivided that it

(1005)

Nff

■'m^m

1006

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

remains suspended much better than Paris green. It has the additional
advantage of adhering to leaves longer than Paris green, and thus fewer
applications are required. A single spraying with this substance, if applied
at the right time, is for some plants sufficient for a whole season. The
arsenate of lead paste is com.monly used with water in the proportion of
2^ to 3 pounds in 50 gallons. As found in the market it contains about 50
per cent of water.

It requires more by weight to destroy insects than Paris green, but
the cost per pound is less and hence the actual cost for materials amounts
to about the same, whichever poison is used. Its advantages are so
decided in other directions that it is now supplanting Paris green in popular
favor. For the injuries of most gnawing insects working on foliage this
insecticide may be safely recommended.

To meet the objections sometimes made to arsenate of lead paste,
a powdered arsenate of lead has recently been offered to the public by
manufacturers of insecticides. The paste when dried out is lumpy and is
not in this condition easy to mix with water. In the powdered form it is
not open to this objection and may, besides, be dusted over plants without
the addition of water.

There are serious objections to the use of poisonous dusts, however,
though in practice they have advantages that always commend them to
workmen. The weight of the water to be carried when using liquid sprays
increases the labor, of course, and this ought to be lessened if it can be done
without diminishing the effectiveness of the applications, and also without
increasing the danger to those making the applications. The inhaling of
either dry Paris green or arsenate of lead is a serious matter, and if con-
tinued long is certain to lead to ill health. Liquid sprays go more directly
and evenly to the plants and stay there. They may be made just as
promptly effective as the dusts if used when the injury is beginning. They
are not so likely to be inhaled.

Arsenite of Zinc. — This poison has somewhat recently been recom-
mended as a substitute for Paris green and arsenate of lead, and appears
to be about equally good and somewhat cheaper than either. It is a finely
divided white powder as put on the market and remains in suspension
about as well as arsenate of lead, having thus some advantage over Paris
green. It contains a little water-soluble arsenic and has been claimed to be
less injurious to foliage even than arsenate of lead, possessing at the same
time about the same killing power. For use it is stirred first into a little
water and allowed to soak for a time, then is stirred into the water in which
it is to be used, about one pound of the powder being added to 50 gallons of
water. It contains nearly the same quantity of arsenic as Paris green.
Like arsenate of lead, it remains in suspension better if a little soap is
dissolved in the water into which it has been stirred. It has of late been
quoted by dealers at from 20 to 25 cents per pound.

London Purple.— This arsenite came into use for injurious insects

, r'' -^i

INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

1007

somewhat later than Paris green (about 1878), but is less used now than
formerly because of its lack of uniformity in composition and its excessive
burning of foliage. Itfe affective ingredient as an insecticide is arsenic in
the form of lime arsenite and lime arsenate, of which it contains about 40
per cent, nearly half of which is soluble. It is the soluble arsenious and
arsenic oxides that make this insecticide so injurious to the foliage and
render necessary the addition of lime. The amount of pure arsenic
present has been found to be about 29 per cent. For use it is customary to
recommend about one-quarter pound each of London purple and fresh lime
in from 50 to 75 gallons of water.

White Arsenic. — The use of this poison has been recommended from
time to time for gnawing insects, but the time and labor required in boiling
it with milk of lime (thus producing an arsenite of lime) in order to avoid its
burning effect on foliage has prevented its general employment as an insect-
icide. It can })e made to accomplish the same purpose as Paris green and
arsenate of lead, without injury to foliage, by boiling for a half hour 1
ixmnd of commercial arsenic and 2 pounds of fresh lime in 4 gallons of
water, diluting with water finally to make 100 gallons.

Sulphur. — F1<)W(TS of sulphur has been used for many years as an in-
secticide, especially for mites infesting hothouse plants. When dusted on
l)lants it does no Imrm to the leaves, but is not as effective as could be
desired. WTien burned in hothouses it may do severe injury to plants.
These defects have led to its neglect by entomologists. When sulphur is
boiled with lime, however, it produces a lime sulphide, in which condition
it becomes one of the best of insecticides for use in winter against scale
insects.

Lime-sulphur Wash. — In this condition thousands of barrels of the
boiled suli)hur and lime are sold to fruit growers every year, who use it
largely as a remedy against San Jos6 scale. A concentrated solution
is prepared by boiling in large iron kettles, tanks or other vessels, 50 pounds
of fresh lime, 100 pounds of sul})hur and 50 gallons of water. Part of the
water is heateil, then the lime is added and is followed by the sulphur, the
whole being stirred continually while boiling, the time employed being
from fifty minutes to an hour. Finall}', after adding enough hot water to
make 50 gallons, the solution is strained and set aside until ready to use.
Home-made solutions may not test higher than 27 to 30*^ Baum^, but when
carefully made go higher and may even reach 34 or 35° Baum6, the differ-
ences being apparently due to differences in the quality of limes used.

The manufacturers now follow about the same formula in producing
their concentrated products, but because of having better facilities will
perhaps average higher in concentration than the fruit grower, although
analysis of samples bought in the market have sometimes shown that they
did not test as high as good home-made lime-sulphur.

These concentrated solutions are of a deep reddish-yellow color and
for use must be greatly diluted with water. It is customary in spraying

1008

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

for San Jos6 scale to use one part of the solution to eight or ten of water
and to apply during open weather in February or March, while the trees are
still dormant. For summer use they must be diluted with from 30 to 50
parts of water to avoid injury to the foliage, but lose much of their value
as insecticides when thus weakened. The concentrated solution is regarded
as the most effective remedy for scale injury now in use.

It should be added that there has somewhat recently appeared a
so-called ''soluble sulphur'' which is reconmiended for the same uses as

A Lime-sulphur Cooking Outfit.^

) «« •»* •

! "i

lime-sulphur. It promises well, but has not been tested long enough and
carefully enough to justify very positive statements as to its merits.

Tobacco Extracts. — For use against soft-bodied insects such as plant
lice there is no more useful insecticide than extracts made from the midribs
of tobacco leaves. These extracts contain as their effective ingredient
nicotine and differ widely in the percentage of nicotine they contain.
Home-made extracts or decoctions are made by placing a couple of pounds
of the midribs in a wooden bucket full of boiling hot water, allowing it to
stand over night. The percentage of nicotine under such treatment will
probably not be more than 0.07 per cent, but it is a very useful wash for
plants infested with aphides, does no harm at all to leaves, and where

iFrom Farmera* Bulletin 650, XT. S. Dent, of Agriculture.

\'f

INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

1009

tobacco is grown and the midribs can be easily secured is one of the very
best insecticides for uses of this sort. The whole leaf makes a somewhat
stronger extract (0.12 per cent) as determined by tests recently made at
the Virginia Station. Soaking seems to extract as much of the nicotine as
boiling. When plants are to be treated on a larger scale it becomes impor-
tant to know just how much nicotine is present in a wash, and manufactured
extracts, some of them containing 40 per cent of nicotine, are demanded.
For the apple leaf louse, the lettuce louse, the rose aphis and other similar
pests, these extracts are safe and effective. For thick-skinned insects they
are not so satisfactory.

Tobacco is often used in other ways as a remedy for insect injuries,
but is open to some objections when so employed. Florists have long usee!
the midribs (often called ''stems'') for making a smudge for the destruction
of plant lice. The tobacco is simply burned in a perforated iron vessel.
The smoke leaves a strong smell of tobacco on flowers, which is sometimes
objected to by buyers. The odor can be avoided by using the extract
diluted with water and driven off as a vapor by dropping a hot iron into a
pan containing it.

Pyrethrum. — Under the name Persian insect powder or simply insect
powder this insecticide is to be obtained from most dealers in drugs. It
is a brown powder made from the flowers of a rather handsome plant of
the sunflower family (Compositce). Its beauty leads florists to propagate
it, though few who grow the plant know that it has any relation to the
powder sold in drug stores. It comes to us from the F.ast, and the pow-
der commonly sold here is imported, though an effort has been made in
the west coast states to manufacture the powder in this country.

The powder is thought to give off a volatile oil which penetrates the
breathing tubes of insects and thus by some irritating or suffocating effect
overpowers them. It is effective either dry, in water or when burned to
produce a smudge, but must be fresh. It loses much of its effectiveness if
kept in open packages. Though rather costly for use on field crops, it has
a place in the household at times, and may sometimes be profitably resorted
to for limited outbreaks of garden pests. Unlike most other insecticides,
this one is not hurtful to man; at any rate, not more so than snuff.

White Hellebore. — This is another vegetable product, being the
pulverized rootstocks of a plant (Veratrum alburn) of the lily family,
occurring in Europe and northern Africa. It is used in this country for
the rose slug, either dry or in water, in the latter case about two heaping
tablespoonfuls being stirred into a wooden bucketful (2^ gallons) of water.
It is a stomach poison and also a contact insecticide.

Old samples when not kept in airtight receptacles lose their virtue and
tend to discredit this vegetable poison as a remedy for pests.

Coal Oil. — This oil has become well known as an insecticide in the
form of an emulsion. It is a good contact insecticide, serving the same
purpose as lime-sulphur wash in the destruction of scale insects, and having

'.■■V3

1010 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the advantage of remaining effective when diluted. It can, therefore, be
used on foliage in summer for both scale insects and plant lice, and being
quicker in its action than tobacco extract, has advantages under some
circumstances over the extract for the prompt destruction of soft-bodied
insects. It is, however, more likely to do injury to plants, especially if the
emulsion is badly prepared, and this, together with the work required in
making it, leads practical men to neglect it whenever they can use some-
thing else.

The standard emulsion is made of one-half pound of whale oil or
laundry soap dissolved in a gallon of boiling hot water, this to be added to
two gallons of coal oil, and the whole churned for ten minutes by passing
rapidly through a force pump. As thus made it can be diluted for use,
one part to ten of water.

Crude Oils. — These are sometimes used for the same purposes as the
refined oil, and to render them easily mixed with water are sometimes
mixed with caustic potash, fish oil and crude carbolic acid, producing a
so-called miscible or soluble oil, which can be diluted with water for use
like the coal oil emulsion.

Soaps. — Many of the soaps sold in our market can be used at times as
a means of lessening the injuries of insect pests. A good soapsuds fre-
quently and freely used on plants infested with aphides or scale insects has
a good effect, though not a very prompt one. Stronger solutions must be
used with some caution to avoid injury to foliage. When trees are dormant
very strong solutions (one or two pounds to a gallon of water) are sometimes
used on the trunks for scale and other insects.

Whale oil soap or fish oil soap, as it is sometimes called, is to be pre-
ferred to most others because of its more even composition. It is particu-
larly good for use in making coal oil emulsion.

Coal Tar. — In the early days of fruit growing in America this substance
was much used on the trunks of trees to prevent the ascent in the spring
of the wingless female canker worm moth. It proved to have an injurious
effect on the trees after a time, and hardened on exposure, so that the insects
could pass over the barrier. It was then used on bands of tin, and by
frequent renewal proved a useful check on the insect. But with the intro-
duction of arsenites and spraying machineiy, it was given up for the more
convenient treatment. It is still used as a barrier, poured along the ground,
for chinch-bugs which are migrating from small grains to corn. Seed corn
may be treated with it before planting to deter wire worms and the seed
corn maggot from attacking the germinating seeds. The corn is first
immersed in warm water for a minute or two, then a couple of teaspoonfuls
of the tar are stirred quickly among the grain so as to bring a little in con-
tact with each seed. It dries over night so as to be ready for planting the
following day. The application does no harm to the germ, as has been
determined by germination tests of treated seeds.

Borax. — Thii? substance has often been recommended for roaches in

INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

1011

dwellings, and is sometimes found with an arsenite as an ingredient of
proprietary roach pastes. Recent work done with a view to destroying
the larvae of house flies in manure indicates that this is one of the best of
insecticides for the purpose, excelUng for this use, coal oil, pyroUgneus acid,
formalin and Paris green. Sodium borate and crude calcium borate were
both found effective in killing the larvae, either when used dry or in solu-
tion. It was recommended as a result of the work done that about 0.62
pound of borax be used in 8 bushels of manure. Larger amounts of borax
are believed to be injurious to plants when the manure is spread on land.
The cost was estimated at one cent per horse per day.

Other Insecticides. — Numerous other insecticides have been recom-
mended, and have had a limited use, but, excepting the fumigants con-
sidered later, they have not been generally adopted by practical men.
Among them may be mentioned benzene, which is sometimes applied to
fabrics to destroy clothes moth; carbolized plaster, sometimes recom-
mended as a remedy for fleas about stables; fir-tree oil, lemon oil and oil
of citronella, the latter often employed as a deterrent against the attacks
of mosquitoes and also as a preventive of injury to seed com in the soil.
Quassia, the effective ingredient of which is quassiin, is obtained from
the wood of the Jamaican Picrasma excelsa. It is an old insecticide that
has been perhaps most used in solutions for the hop aphis in the West.
The extract is made from the ''chips'' by either soaking or boiling.

Bisulphide of Carbon. — As sold by druggists and manufacturers, this
is a brownish fluid which quickly disappears in the air when exposed in
an open vessel. Its disagreeable odor is due to impurities, since the odor
of pure bisulphide of carbon is not unpleasant. The fumes are not only
poisonous, but are inflammable, so that some care must be exercised in
handling the fluid. It has proved of special service as a remedy for grain
weevil, bean weevil and other insects attacking stored seeds, and for the
phylloxera of grapevines in Europe, for the woolly aphis, for ants, and
even for the clothes moth. Its great value for such purposes comes not
only from its effectiveness in destroying all insects, but also because it is
not corrosive and is otherwise not injurious to seeds, fabrics and other
objects fumigated. The offensive odor is soon gone if objects that have
been exposed to the fumes are thoroughly aired. It cannot be used for
fumigating plants infested with insects because of its destructive effect on
the plants themselves.

About one fluid ounce should be used on each bushel of seed, and may
be poured over the seeds or simply placed in a saucer or other open vessel
set on their surface. It is absolutely necessary that the seeds be enclosed
in a tight box or bin to get satisfactory results, and the time of exposure
should not be less than two nours.

Carbon Tetrachlorid. — The disagreeable odor of commercial bisulphide
of carbon renders it objectionable to some people for use on fabrics infested
with moth, and has led to the suggestion that carbon tetrachlorid, which

I \

1012

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

has a rather pleasant odor, be used in its stead. This also is a fluid, and is
used in the same way as carbon bisulphide, namely, by pouring it into open
dishes or crocks and allowing it to evaporate in a box, bin or room.

It is not nearly as effective in small quantities as either cyanide of
potassium or carbon bisulphide, and the large quantities that must be
used increase the cost of treatment.

Para-dichlorobenzene. — This is a recently proposed fumigant and is
not yet in general use, because of its cost. It is not evil-smelling like

Making Prep\ration.s to Fumigate with Hydrocyanic Gas.*
Front edge of sheet tent and top of derrick ready to be pulled over tree.

carbon bisulphide, and appears to be quite effective in destroying weevils
in grain and clothes moth. Since it is not inflammable, it can be more
safely used about dwellings, though its fumes have wonderful penetrating
power and escape in some quantity even from tightly stoppered bottles.
From a limited experience with it the writer is disposed to regard it very
favorably for fumigating seeds and fabrics, though more extended tests
may show it to have defects that are not now apparent.

Hydrocyatiic Acid Gas. — This gas is made from cyanide of potassium
(98 per cent), commercial sulphuric acid of good grade and water. The

» Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

1013

gas produced is very poisonous, as are also the cyanide of potassium and
sulphuric acid. When fumigating it is well to place a notice on the room
or house warning people not to enter. After the fumigating is accomplished
it is advisable to open up doors and windows and air out for ten minutes
or more before entering.

The dose to be used depends upon the space to be fumigated and upon
the character of the plants to be treated. Dormant trees can l^e exposed for

^..^

t ^ r

■^^.

*::■'< i

r»'f.'

V' ',^/V'

'«• ■i***-**^^^ tm^'^-'-^;

-^^^f

Fumigating with Hydrocyanic Gas.^
Sheet tent ready for introduction of chemicals.

a time to very strong fumes. Growing plants must be treated cautiously
with very mild doses. Some of them are very sensitive to the gas and will
be slightly burned with any dose calculated to be of value in destroying
insects. The condition of the air as to moisture may influence the results,
since dampness favors injury from the gas.

For nursery stock it is customary to employ for each 100 cubic feet
enclosed, the following:

Cyanide of potassium 1 ounce

Sulphuric acid ^ 1 . 25 fluid ounces

Water 3 fluid ounces

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

■I

-%*Mmm^

'."SL'^VfV'i'i '^-■«

1012

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

It is not nearly as effective in small quantities as either cyanide of
potassium or carl)on bisulphide, and the large quantities that must be
used increase the cost of treatment.

Para-dichlorobenzene. — This is a recently proposed fumigant and is
not yet in general use, because of its cost. It is not evil-smelling like

Makixc; Preparations to Fumigate with Hydrocyanic Gas.*
Front edge of sheet tent and top of derrick ready to he pulled over tree.

car])on bisulphide, and appears to be quite effective in destroying weevils
in grain and clothes moth. Since it is not inflammable, it can be more
safely used about dwellings, though its fumes have wonderful penetrating
power and escape in some quantity even from tightly stoppered bottles.
From a limited experience with it the writer is disposed to regard it very
favorably for fumigating seeds and fabrics, though more extended tests
may show it to have defects that are not now apparent.

Hydrocyatiic Acid Gas. — This gas is made from cyanide of potassium
(98 per cent), commercial sulphuric acid of good grade and water. The

» Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

1013

The dose to be used dej^ends upon the space to be fumigated and upon
the character of the plants to be treated. Dormant trees can be exposed for

FuMIGATINTf WITH HYDROCYANIC GaS.^

Sheet tent ready for introduction of chemicals.

a time to very strong fumes. Growing plants must be treated cautiously
with very mild doses. Some of them are very sensitive to the gas and will
be slightly burned with any dose calculated to be of value in destroying
insects. The condition of the air as to moisture may inSuence the results,
since dampness favors injury from the gas.

For nursery stock it is customary to employ for each 100 cubic feet
enclosed, the following: _

Cyanide of potassium 1 ounce

Sulphuric acid ^ 1 . 25 fluid ounces

Water 3 fluid ounces

^ Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of A^rioulture.

^ .

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

■ „, .'1, - ;-?^(TrtE

- ■■.',..j».-.; ■■ii'/?..7

1014

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The box or house should be as nearly gas-tight as possible, with a very
tighfc-fitting door. The water and sulphuric acid are placed in a deep cpen
crock, then the cyanide of potassium, broken up into pieces about as large
as a hickory nut, is poured into the crock and the door shut as quickly as
possible. The fumes must be left about the trees not less than forty min-
utes, and fifty minutes or an hour is better. Short exposures in badly con-
structed houses have sometimes resulted in the sending out of living San
Jos6 scale on trees.

In the hothouse the gas must be used with very great care to avoid
injury to plants. Plants of the grass family (Graminece) endure more gas
than most others tested by the writer. Corn, timothy, blue grass and
the like are not very sensitive. The leguminous plants, such as clover,
sweet pea and cowpea, are very likely to suffer some injury with any t)ut
very light doses, and on this account it is best to use the less hurtful
tobacco extract when practicable. The extract will not, however, destroy
the adults of all hothouse pests, and has no effect at all on the scale insects
nor on the immature white fly.

i i;

FUNGICIDES

When all has been said the number of fungicides approved by the
experience of practical and scientific men is very small. Many have been
recommended, but comparatively few have stood all the tests as to effective-
ness, convenience of appHcation and cheapness. Some are cheap and only
slightly effective; some are diflftcult to prepare; others are too costly for
extensive use.

Copper Sulpnate. — At the head of the list stands copper sulphate, a
cheap, effective fungicide, commonly known as bluestone. This is the
active and most essential ingredient of Bordeaux mixture. Concentrated
solutions of it cannot be used alone on fohage because of their caustic action.
Id winter on dormant trees it is sometimes used for fungous troubles, about
two pounds being dissolved in a barrel of water. A weaker solution — 1
pound in 200 gallons of water — ^may be used on foliage in summer when
fruit is well matured and it is not desirable to use sprays like Bordeaux
mixture, which leave a residue. The bluestone may be quickly dissolved
by pouring boiling hot water over it. When one is not hurried it may be
dissolved by suspending in a loose sack in the water. It dissolves slowly
if simply thrown in the water and allowed to settle.

To avoid to some extent the delays involved in dissolving bluestone it
is well to buy a finely powdered grade now manufactured for the making
of fungicidal preparations.

» Bordeaux Mixture. — A standard formula for the preparation of this
valuable mixture is the following:

Bluestone 4"pound8

Fresh lime 4 pounds

Water 50 gallons

INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

1015

Dissolve the bluestone in 25 gallons of water, slake the lime separately,
and add water to make 25 gallons; then pour the two, bucket by bucket,
into a third barrel so as to mix thoroughly. For peach and plum, which are
more tender than apple and grape, the above formula may be changed to
the following:

BWone 2.5 pounds

Fresh hme 2.5 pounds

Water 50 gallons

These are the best preparations known for mildews, rots, scabs, smuts
and the hke, and where one is dealing with a fungous trouble and is uncer-
tain as to how to proceed, the chances are that he will accomplish as much

Efficiency of Bordeaux Mixture on Potatoes. One Row

% Not Sprayed.^

by using this preparation as with anything that could be recommended.
It is the best general-purpose fungicide we have at present.

Copperas, or Iron Sixlphate. — While this is less often used than blue-
stone, yet it has decided fungicide and antiseptic value, and because of its
cheapness may sometimes be found serviceable. As now used it generally
comes to the market as a waste product in the manufacture of steel wire, and
may be bought for a cent or less per pound.

Formalin, or Formaldehyde. — This very valuable preservative and
antiseptic has beeii much used of late as a remedy for potato scab and to
some extent for wheat smut. It is sold as a fluid containing forty per cent
of formalin. In this condition it is very acrid, and gives off fumes that
affect the eyes and nostrils unpleasantly. Used on the hands, it quickly
destroys the outer skin. It cannot, therefore, be employed except when

» Courtesy of New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y.

1014 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The box or house should be as nearly gas-tight as possible, with a very
tight-fitting door. The water and sulphuric acid are placed in a deep cpen
crock, then the cyanide of potassium, broken up into pieces about as large
as a hickory nut, is poured into the crock and the door shut as quickly as
possible. The fumes must be left about the trees not less than forty min-
utes, and fifty minutes or an hour is better. Short exposures in badly con-
structed houses have sometimes resulted in the sending out of living San
Jose scale on trees.

In the hothouse the gas must be used with very great care to avoid
injury to plants. Plants of the grass family (Graminece) endure more gas
than most others tested by the writer. Corn, timothy, blue grass and
the like are not very sensitive. The leguminous plants, such as clover,
sweet pea and cowpea, are very likely to suffer some injury with any 43ut
very light doses, and on this account it is best to use the less hurtful
tobacco extract when practicable. The extract will not, however, destroy
the adults of all hothouse pests, and has no effect at all on the scale insects
nor on the immature white fly.

FUNGICIDES

When all has been said the number of fungicides approved by the
expc^rience of practical and scientific men is very small. Many have been
recommended, but comparatively few liave stood all the tests as to effective-
ness, convenience of apphcation and cheapness. Some are cheap and only
slightly effective; some are difficult to prepare; others are too costly for
extensive use.

Copper Sulpnate. — At the lu^ad of the list stands copper sulphate, a
cheap, effective fungicide, conmionly known as bluestone. This is the
active and most essential ingredient of Bordeaux mixture. Concentrated
solutions of it cannot be used alone on foliage l)ecause of their caustic action.
Id winter on dormant trees it is sometimes used for fungous troubles, about
two pounds being dissolved in a barrel of water. A weaker solution — 1
pound in 200 gallons of waiei* — may be used on foliage in summer wh-en
fruit is well matured and it is not desirable to use sprays like Bordeaux
mixture, which leave a residue. The bluestone may be quickly dissolved
by i)ouring boiling hot waivv over it. When one is not hurried it may be
dissolved by suspending in a loose sack in the water. It dissolves slowly
if simply thrown in the water tuid allowed to settle.

To avoid to some extent the delays involved in dissolving bluestone it
is well to buy a finely powdered grade now manufactured for the making
of fungicidal preparations.

Bordeaux Mixture. — A standard formula for the preparation of this
valuable mixture is the following:

Bluestone ' 4"pounds

Fresh lime 4 pounds

Water 50 gallons

INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

1015

Bluestone 2.5 pounds

Fresh lime 2. .5 iKuimls

Water 50 gallons

These are the best preparations known for mildews, rots, sca])s, smuts
and the like, and where one is dealing with a fungous trouble and is unc^er-
tain as to how to proceed, the chances are that he will accomplisli as nuich

Efficiency of Bordeaux Mixture on Potatoe '.. One Row

^ Not Sprayed. 1

by using this preparation as with anything that could be recommended.
It is the best general-purpose fungicide we have at present.

Copperas, or Iron Sulphate. — While this is less often used than blue-
stone, yet it has decided fungicide and antiseptic value, and because of its
cheapness may sometimes be found serviceable. As now used it generally
comes to the market as a waste product in the manufacture of steel wire, and
may be bought for a cent or less per pound.

Formalin, or Formaldehyde. — This very valuable preservative and
antiseptic has been much used of late as a remedy for potato scab and to
some extent for wheat smut. It is sold as a fluid containing forty per cent
of formalin. In this condition it is very acrid, and gives off fumes that
affect the eyes and nostrils unpleasantly. Used on the hands, it quickly
destroys the outer skin. It cannot, therefore, be employed except when

» Courtesy of New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y.

• I

't4:^

1016

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

greatly diluted. But since it retains its active fungicide and bactericidal
properties even when very greatly diluted, and is not so dangerous a poison
in this condition as are corrosive sublimate and other antiseptic agents, it
becomes very useful in the hands of those who wish to disinfect quarters in
which have been lodged people, or animals, affected with communicable
diseases. The wash or spray of the dilute formalin has always seemed to
the writer much better for such uses than the fumes of formalin as generally
produced.

On plants the action of even dilute sprays is very quickly destructive,
and I doubt if it has a value for their treatment. But for seed wheat,

>*^'

'^jgtt.

Treating Grain with Forma4.in for Smut.^

likely to produce smutted heads and for potato scab it has proved very
convenient and useful. A pint of the 40 per cent formalin may be poured
into a barrel containing 30 gallons of water, stirred thoroughly, and the
potatoes in a sack can be set in the barrel for disinfection. They should be
left in the fluid for two hours and may then be removed and spread out on
grass or on a clean plank floor to dry, when another sack may be placed
in the barrel. The treated potatoes must not be put in barrels or sacks
that have not been treated with the formalin. By having a number of
barrels at hand, the work proceeds rapidly.

Oats and wheat liable to smut may be treated by sprinkling the seed
with dilute formalin (1 pint in a barrel of water) until every seed is moist,
not wet, then leaving for several hours in a heap, finally spreading out
to dry.

1 Courtesy of H. L. Bolley and M. L. Wilson, North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station,

INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

1017

Fumes of formalin produced either by heat or by the use of perman-
ganate of potash have been recommended as a remedy for potato scab,
but the writer's experience with the fumes has not been such as to warrant
him in reconmiending them for this or for other purposes.

Bichloride of Mercury. — ^A very poisonous chemical, valuable in dilute
solutions (1 part ii\ 1000) as a disinfectant, and particularly good as a
remedy for potato scab. The whitish, crystalline, very heavy material is
very dangerous to have about, since it may attract the attention of children
or animals. It should of course always be kept labeled as a poison. It
dissolves slowly in cold water, and it is best, therefore, to make use of heat,
afterward turning the dissolved poison into the larger quantity of water
required, best kept in a barrel. Good results have been obtained in check-
ing potato scab with this disinfectant, using 4 ounces in 30 gallons of
water and soaking the seed potatoes one hour. They were placed in the
fluid in gunny sacks and afterward spread out on a barn floor to dry.

It is very essential that poisoned potatoes be not left where stock will
eat them, and the poisonous fluid must be disposed of after treating the
seed, so that it will do no harm.

Lime-Sulphur Wash. — This preparation of sulphur and lime has
already been mentioned under insecticides. It ha^ undoubted fungicide
value both in concentrated and dilute preparations. For foliage the latter
must always be used. Even the sulphur alone thickly strewn over leaves
is a fairly good remedy for mildew. A very small quantity of the sulphur,
dissolved in the presence of lime renders it more effective both as an insect-
icide and as a fungicide.

COMBINED INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

The cost of treatment for pests is greatly increased by the necessity
for frequent spraying when insecticides and fungicides are used separately.
They have been combined in some causes with no l(jss in the effectiveness of
either, and one of the important problems of both entomologists and plant
pathologists at the present time is the finding of ways and means of reducing
the number of sprayings still further.

Some work in determining the compatibility of different mixtures has
already been done, and it may be said that the following mix without less
and in some cases with a gain in effectiveness:

Arsenate of lead (acid) and Bordeaux mixture.

Arsenate of lead and tobacco.

Arsenate of lead and acids.

Arsenate of lead (neutral) and Bordeaux mixture.

Arsenate of lead (neutral) and lime-sulphur.

Arsenate of lead (neutral) and tobacco.

Paris green and Bordeaux mixture.

Arsenite of lime and Bordeaux mixture.

Arsenite of lime and tobacco.

Lime-sulphur and tobacco.

Soaps and Bordeaux mixture,

■M

1016

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

On plants the action of even dilute sprays is very quickly destructive,
and I doubt if it has a value for their treatment. But for seed wheat,

Treating Grain with Forma-lin for Smut.*

likely to produce smutted heads and for potato scab it has proved very
convenient and useful. A pint of the 40 per cent formahn may be poured
into a barrel containing 30 gallons of water, stirred thoroughly, and the
potatoes in a sack can be set in the barrel for disinfection. They should be
left in the fluid for two hours and may then be removed and spread out on
grass or on a clean plank floor to dry, when another sack may be placed
in the barrel. The treated potatoes must not be put in barrels or sacks
that have not been treated with the formalin. By having a number of
barrels at hand, the work proceeds rapidly.

I Courtesy of H. L. Bolley and M. L. Wilson, Xorth Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station,

INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

1017

It is very essential that poisoned potatoes be not left where stock will
eat them, and the poisonous fluid must be disposed of after treating the
seed, so that it will do no harm.

Lime-Sulphur Wash. — This preparation of sulphur and lime has
already been mentioned under insecticides. It has undoubted fungicide
value both in concentrated and dilute preparations. For foHage the latter
must always be used. Even the sulphur alone thickly strewn over leaves
is a fairly good remedy for mildew. A very small cjuantity of the sulphur
dissolved in the presence of hme renders it more effective both as an insect-
icide and as a fungicide.

COMBINED INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

The cost of treatment for pests is greatly iiicrcMised by the necessity
for frequent spraying when insecticides and fungicides are used separately.
They have been combined in some cases wltli no loss in the effectiveness of
either, and one of the important problems of both entomologists and plant
pathologists at the present time is the finding of ways and means of reducing
the number of sprayings still further.

Some work in determining the compatibility of different mixtures has
already been done, and it may be said that the following mix without less
and in some cases with a gain in effectiveness:

Arsenate of lead (acid) and Bordeaux mixture.

Arsenate of lead and tobacco.

Arsenate of lead and acids.

Arsenate of lead (neutral) and Bordeaux mixture.

Arsenate of lead (neutral) and lime-sulphur.

Arsenate of lead (neutral) and tobacco.

Paris green and Bordeaux mixture.

Arsenite of lime and Bordeaux mixture.

Arsenite of lime and tobacco.

Lime-sulphur and tobacco.

Soaps and Bordeaux mixture,

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

'■I\

1018

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Soaps and tobacco.
Soaps and emulsions.
Tobacco and lime-sulphur.
Tobacco and soaps.
Tobacco and emulsions.
Tobacco and alkalies.

Some dangerous combinations are the following:

Arsenate of lead (acid) and soaps.

Arsenate of lead (acid) and emulsions.

Arsenate of lead (acid) and alkalies.

Arsenate of lead (neutral) and acids.

Arsenite of zinc and lime-sulphur.

Arsenite of zinc and soaps.

Arsenite of zinc and emulsions.

Arsenite of zinc and alkalies.

Arsenite of zinc and acids.

Hydrocyanic acid gas and Bordeaux mixture.

REFERENCES

The literature dealing with the subject is very extensive and cannot be
cited at all adequately in a brief rfeume such as this. The few recent
papers given will help the reader to an understanding of the range and
character of work being done to throw light on this important subject:

"The Spraying of Plants." Lodeman.

**The Chemical Composition of Insecticides and Fungicides." Bui. 68, Bur. of
Chem., U. S. Dept. Agr., 1902.

**An Investigation of Lime-sulphur Injury — Its Causes and Prevention." Bui.
No. 2, Ore. Agr. College Exp. Sta., 1913.

*' Fumigation and Spraying," Bui. No. 172, Kentucky Agr. Exper. Sta., 1913.

''Chemical Studies of Lime-sulphur — Lead-arsenate Spray Mixture." Research
Bui. No. 12, Iowa Exper. Sta., 1913.

*' Analyses of Materials Sold as Insecticides." Bui. No. 262. New Jersey Exper.
Sta., 1913.

"Preparation of Nicotin Extracts on the Farm." Bui. No. 218, Virginia Agr.
Exper. Sta., 1914.

"The Compatibility of Insecticides and Fungicides." By Greorge P. Gray, Vol.
Ill, No. 7, Monthly Bulletin, Cal. State Comm. of Horticulture, 1914.

"A Report of Chemical Investigations on the Lime-sulphur Spray." Research
Bui. No. 3, Oregon Exper. Sta., 1914.

"Experiments in the Dusting and Spraying of Apples." Bui. No. 340, N. Y.
Agr. Exper. Station (Ithaca), 1914.

"Analyses of Materials Sold as Insecticides and Fungicides." Bui. No. 384,
N. Y. Agr. Exper. Station (Geneva), 1914.

" Exp)eriments in the Destruction of Fly Larvic in Horse Manure." Bui. No.
118, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1914.

"Quassiin as a Contact Insecticide." Bui. No. 165, U. S. Dept. Agr.^ 1914.
"Notes on the Preparation
shire Agr. Exper. Station, 1914.

"Notes on the Preparation of Bordeaux Mixture." Circular

►ept. Agr.,
No. 15, N

ew Hamp-

" Bordeaux Mixture." Technical Bui. No. 8, New Hampshire Agr. Exper. Sta-
tion, 1914.

"The Nicotin-Sulfate-Bordeaux Combination." By V. I. Safro, Journal of Eco-
nomic Entomology^ Vol. 8, No. 2, 1915.

"Homemade Lime-sulphur Concentrate." Bui. No. 197, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1915.

" Para-Dichlorobenzene as an Insect Fumigant." Bui. No. 167, U. S. Dept.
Agr., 1915..

• -nJifi'iia

INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES

1019

"Cactus Solution as an Adhesive in Arsenical Sprays for Insects." Bui No 160
U. S. Dept. Agr., 1915. '

"Further Experiments in the Dusting and Spraying of Apples." Bui. No. 354,
New York Agr. Exper. Station (Ithaca), 1915.

California Expt. Station Bulletin 257. "Dosage Tables;" "Fumigation Studies
No. 1."

Kansas Expt. Station Bulletin 203. "Orchard Spraying."

Michigan Expt. Station Bulletin (Technical) 21. "How Contact Insecticides Kill."

New Jersey Expt. Station Bulletin 48. "Bordeaux Mixture."

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 198. " Lim^-Sulphur Wash."
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Plant Industiy Bu
Influencing the Efficiency of Bordeaux Mixture."

Agriculture, Plant Industiy Bureau, Bulletin 265. "Some Factors

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

440. "Self Boiled Lime Sulphur Mixture as a Promising Fungicide."
492. "Fungous Enemies of the Fniit and Foliage of Apple Tree."
595. "Arsenate of Lead, An Insecticide Against Tobacco Worms."
603. "Arsenical Cattle Dips."

BOOK IX

HOME ECONOMICS AND AGRICUL

TURAL EDUCATION

. ¥|

(1021)

CHAPTER 78

!
I

Food Materials and Their Functions

By Miss Nellie E. Goldthwaite, Ph.D.
Dean of Women, New Hampshire College

Woman, from the savage state on, has been more fundamentally
interested in foods and food-products than man. This has been true
because of the dependence of the young upon her. She who bore the little
ones must find food for them when her breast no longer furnishes suste-
nance. For the children who walked by her side she was still responsible.
It was she who gathered fruits and berries for their subsistence. Perhaps
it was she who first noted the sprouting of seeds and thus learned how she
could increase the food-supply of her family. Possibly she was the first
agriculturist. At least, we know that among all primitive peoples it was
woman who tilled the soil. So, from the most primitive times on, it has
been woman^s work and pleasure to be interested in foods. Sad will it })e
for the race if she ever lose that interest.

In these days when science is rapidly unlocking the mysteries concern-
ing the ways in which food sustains life, subjects of vital interest to human-
ity, let not the woman be ignorant. It is still her province to mother the
young and to look into the ways of her household. Today she may, if she
will, profit by the researches of a multitude of workers. But there is no
royal road to learning. It takes time and patient work to grasp the under-
lying principles in any field of knowledge. Let the woman once grasp
the fact that food not only preserves life, but that the general condition
of the body depends largely upon the food taken into it, and she will be
quick to make herself intelligent concerning the principles of human
nutrition. Planning the family dietary is a work worthy of the best
thought.

Elements of the Body. — Scientists tell us that our earth is composed
of about eighty different elements, i, e., simplest forms of matter. Our
bodies consist of about a dozen of these elements that have been taken from
the earth and so combined with each other that we should not recognize
any one of them as elements. Combinations of elements in which each one
has lost its own peculiar identity, we call compounds.

Chemists generally agree that our bodies are composed of the
following elements, and that each is present in about the percentage
given:*

*ShermaD. "Food and Nutrition," page 260.

(1023)

1024

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Oxygen about 65

Carbon
Hydrogen . .
Nitrogen . . .
Calcium . . .
Phosphorus

it
It
tt
tt
It

Potassium about .35.

" .25
.16
.15
.05
.004

Sulphur

Sodium

Chlorine "

Magnesium

Iron

it
tt

Iodine 1

Fluorine \ Very minute quantities.

Silicon

These percentages mean that the body of an adult weighing 154
pounds contains about —

100 pounds of oxygen i pound of potassium.

27 *' '' carbon \ '' '' sulphur.

15 " ''hydrogen } *' "sodium.

\\ '' '' nitrogen \ " ** chlorine.

3 " *' calcium 1 ounce " magnesium.

\\ '' ''phosphorus ^ *' "iron.

Description of Body Elements. — Let us familiarize ourselves a little
with these body elements.

As every one knows, the air we breathe is made up mainly of a mix-
tyre (not compound) of oxygen and nitrogen^ each of which is a colorless,
odorless gas. About one-fifth the air by volume is oxygen.*

Water is a chemical combination of oxygen and hydrogen, another
colorless, odorless gas. In water both oxygen and hydrogen have lost
their identity and have formed a compound.

Carbon is familiar in its elemental form as soot, lampblack, coal,
charcoal. We realize its presence in our foods by the blackening that
occurs when we scorch or burn them.

Calduniy Potassium and Sodium never occur in nature in their ele-
mental forms. When freed from their compounds they are soft, silvery-
white metals that are dangerous to handle.

Phosphorus, also, is never in nature in its elemental form. When
pure it may be a yellow solid that burns spontaneously in the air.

Sulphur, a yellow solid, is well known. When set on fire it burns
with the familiar blue flame of the sulphur match.

Chlorine is a heavy, yellow, suffocating gas. Our common table salt
is composed of chlorine and sodium chemically combined. Chlorine so
combined with hydrogen forms hydrochloric acid, the essential acid of
the gastric juice of the stomach.

Magnesium is a silvery-white metal that bums with a brilliant white
flame.

Iron we are all familiar with.

Body Compounds. — From the foregoing it is needless to add that no
one of the elements that make up the human body occurs in the body in its
elemental form. These elements are chemically combined with each other in

♦The carbon dioxide found in the air is very important in plant life. It occurs to the extent of about
3 parts per 10,000.

FOOD MATERIALS

1025

divers ways to form the various types of compounds which make up the dif-
ferent parts of the body, e. g,, the bones, teeth, muscles, vital organs, fat, etc.

Body Oxidation Products, or Final Metabolic Products.— All of the
body compounds seem to be in a state of more or less constant chemical
change, i, e., new combinations of the elements are being produced. So
long as life lasts the body is constantly breathing in air and, in a sense, is
constantly burning itself up — oxidizing itself. The mere act of living
involves constant chemical changes in the body. Chemical changes keep
the body warm. Each motion of the body involves chemical change;
the more strenuous the motions, the more rapid the chemical changes.

In the process of these changes, some of the body compounds are
constantly uniting with the oxygen of the air and are producing so-called
highly oxidized waste products, or final metabolic products, which the
body must finally rid itself of. Thus, the body finally burns its carbon
mainly to carbon dioxide, a colorless gas which it excretes by way of the
lungs; its hydrogen mainly to water; its nitrogen mainly to urea, a white
crystalline solid, which is held in solution and excreted in the urine and
perspiration; its sulphur and phosphorus to sulphates and phosphates of
calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, which also are white solids
excreted in the same manner as urea. Some other solid metabolic products
are similarly excreted.

All these waste products the body proceeds to get rid of as rapidly as
possible, so all such products are ultimately returned to the air or to the
soil. Other things being equal, the quantity of these products which the
body excretes per 24 hours is in proportion to the amount of its physical
exertion per 24 hours.

It should be mentioned that small amounts of certain metabolic
products are excreted in the feces, but in the main, the feces consist of any
indigestible materials taken in with the food, the remains of the food
that has escaped digestion, residues of digestive juices and bodies of
bacteria.

Need of Food. — Because of these constant oxidizing processes which
are going on in the body, and because of the quantity of metabolic products
thus produced and excreted, the body soon wastes away if food be not
supplied. Hence, we eat to make up for the constant oxidation which the
body compounds are undergoing, ^ore explicitly, the adult eats to
repair the body tissues constantly being torn down through the life pro-
cesses, and also to supply energy for physical motions; the child eats not
only to repair its body tissues and to supply energy for its intense activities,
but also for growth. This last fact must not be forgotten in feeding
the child.

Elements Needed in Food. — Obviously, the food furnished must
contain the same elements as those which constitute the body. In the
case of the healthy adult, the amount of these elements furnished daily
should correspond to the daily losses of these elements; e. g,, if the body

1026

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

loss of carbon per 24 hours is 12 ounces, then the food intake of carbon
per 24 hours should be 12 ounces; and the same must be true of the twelve
or more body elements. In the case of the growing child, the amount of
each element furnished in the daily food must exceed that daily excreted
from his body. In any case, food must be presented to the body in an
organic form, i, e., a form which has been produced by /?/6, either vegetable
or animal. Table salt is a noted exception to this rule.

Nature's Preparation of Food Materials. — All the essential elements
of food are found in soil or air. The plant apparently builds its parts from
this dead world of matter and serves as food for the animal. Both plant
and animal may serve as food for man. In nature's scheme the plant
kingdom is intermediate between the inorganic kingdom and the animal
kingdom. Always the animal economy returns to the inorganic kingdom
its metabolic products to serve again and again in ceaseless cycles of

life forms.

Man's Selection of Food Materials.— In the ages past man has selected
food materials from both plant and animal kingdoms. Instinctively, he has
selected the most appetizing and nutritious parts of either plant or animal.
He has gradually added to his diet, till now it is possible for civilized man
to choose from a wide variety of food materials.

Foodstuffs, their Composition and Functions.— Scientific investi-
gation of these food materials shows that man has unerringly chosen
substances that are composed of water and of various types of so-called
foodstuffs: proteins, fats, carljohydrates and mineral matter. The
proteins are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur
(phosphorus and iron sometimes). The fats and the carbohydrates are
composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, the fats being much the richer in
carbon. The mineral matter of the food includes sulphur, phosphorus, cal-
cium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron, in various combinations.

The term protein means ''I take the first place;'' the name is given
because the proteins appear to be the most important of the foodstuffs.
Their nitrogen and sulphur seem necessary to every living cell of the
body. These living cells apparently are constantly breaking down; hence,
proteins (nitrogenous foodstuffs) are always needed to repair the worn-
out tissues or to build new tissues, as in the growth of the child. The
white of egg and the curd of milk are typical protein foodstuffs; the
muscle fiber of meat is largely protein; the gluten of wheat (the sticky
stuff that permits the making of a dough) consists of proteins. Dried
beans and peas are rich in protein.

Typical animal fats are butter-fat of milk, lard, beef tallow, mutton
tallow, fat of chickens; while typical vegetable fats are olive oil, cotton-
seed oil and oils of various nuts.

Typical carbohydrates are the various sugars and starches; e. g., cane
sugar, milk sugar, glucose, cornstarch, starch of wheat flour, starch of
potatoes.

FOOD MATERIALS

1027

Both fats and carbohydrates are essentially energy foods- i e thev
do not appear to be repairers of tissue, but they are Lned in the'bodv
in proportion to the physical exertion that the'^body puts fort^^^^^^^^
mam, they furnish the energy that enables the body [o do work altL^^
protein may serve as an energy food. It is very interesting that fats and
carbohydrates, which are eaten when not immediately needed as ei^^^
foods, seem to be stored as body-f at till sometimes the body becomS
much over-weight from the amount of stored fat it is forced to carry about
1^\ITT A ^^,?^^r:«^PPly «^ food-protein may also be converted into
fat and stored m the body. In a certain sense the fats are more concen-
trated foods than the car})ohy(Irates. Fats are al)out 76 per cent carbon
whereas carbohydrates are 40 to 44 per cent carbon. The fats furnish
more than twice as much energy, pound for pound, as the carbohydrates-
but apparently the fats are digested, assimilated and used by the body
less easily.

The mineral matters contained in the food are needed, like the
proteins, in the repair and growth of tissues— they are needed in
every iving cell; hence the great necessity of their presence in
the diet of both adult and child. They are often called body regula-
tors. Fruits and vegeta})les are very important sources of food mineral
matter.

Proportions of Foodstuffs in Food Materials.-Most food materials
c()ntain varying proportions of the different foodstuffs along with water
Consideration of the constituents of some typical food materials will make
this clear.

Average cow's milk consists of 87 per cent water, 3.3 per cent protein
4 per cent fat, 5 per cent carbohydrate and .7 per cent mineral matter- or
cow's milk contains 13 ])er cent of foodstuffs. A quart of standard iliilk
weighs 34.4 ounces. Hence, a quart of whole (unskimmed) milk contains
4.46 ounces of foodstuffs; a i)int 2.23 ounces and a cup 1.12 ounces. In
other words, a quart of milk contains some more than a quarter of a pound
of total foodstuffs; while a pint and a cup each contain proportional
amounts.

First patent flour consists of 10.55 per cent water, 11.08 per cent
protein, 1.15 per cent fat, 76.85 per cent carbohydrates and .37 per cent
mineral matter. Hence a pound (a})out one quart sifted) of this flour
consists of U\ ounces of foodstuffs, and a pint or a cup contains propor-
tional amounts. Note that fine wheat flour is a very concentrated food
since it contains nearly 90 ])er cent of foodstuff's. '

Wliole eggs consist of 11.2 per cent refuse (shell), 65.5 per cent water
11.9 per cent protein, 9.3 per cen;, fat, no carbohydrate and .9 per cent
mineral matter; or whole eggs consist of about 22 per cent foodstuffs. An
egg of average size weighs about 2 ounces. Such an egg contains nearly
1^ ounce protein, a little less than 3^ ounce fat and about -^ ounce
mineral matter. It will be discovered that in eggs we have to consider a

1028

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Table I.

FOOD MATERIALS

Food Materials
(Purchased).

I.
(a) Meats:

Bacon (smoked)

Beef:
Porterhouse
Rib rolls
Round i 8.5

Chicken, broilers ! 41.6

Mutton, IcK ! 17.7

Pork, chops { 193

(6) Fish

Mackerel 44 . 7

Lake trout 48.5

Butter

Cream cheese

Whole milk

Skim milk

Cream
id) Other Animal Products

Eggs ' n.2

Lard

n. Cereal Productb
Bread, whit*
Bread, whole wheat
Corn meal
Flour, first (patent)
Flour, whole wheat

Oatmeal

Rice

Shredded wheat

in.

(a) Fresh:

Apples .

Cnerries.

Grapes.

Oranges.

Peaches.

Strawt)erries .

Watermelon ,
(6) Dried:

Apples .

Apricots.

Prunes.

(o) Fresh:

String beans .

Beets

Cabbage .

Green corn .

Lettuce .

Onions

Green peas.

Potatoes.

Spinach
(6) Dried:

Beans.

Peas

Molasses.

Olive oil .

Sugar.

1029

Sn^Trlof.?h "''•'' This is true in many foods, a. apple and potato
panngs, com cobs, bones of meat, etc. i' "

Table I gives the percentage composition and the number of ounces of
foodstuffs per pound of some of our more common food materials

Discussion of Table I.-The data concerning these food materials
refer to each ''as purchased." The first column under ''per cent ««!-
tion gives the average amount of refuse to be expected from the food
indicated. t should he noted that the percentage of refuse Ts generally

s^!h Is Zt: h '"1, ^'"'^ ^^S^tMes. The prepared food products'^
such as butter, cheese, flours, sugar, contain little or no refuse: these are
the most concentrated foods that the ingenuity of man has produced

Ihe percentages or proportions of water, protein, fat, carbohydrate
hTstr^ctive ""^^^^ "^^^^ ""^ *^'^ ""'^'^^^ portion" of foods are veiy

Every housewife knows, even if the chemist did not tell her, that fresh
fruits and vegetables contain the most water of any of our food materials
but she may not realize that meats also contain the astonishing amount of
water indicated m the second column.

Examination of the third and fourth columns shows that the animal
foods are es^ntially our protein and fat foods, with tiie cereal products a
close second in proteins. Note, however, that olive oil, as well as refine<l
fat, is 100 per cent fat.

The fifth column shows that animal foods, with the exception of milk
and cheese, contain no carbohydrate; that the vegetable kingdom furnishes
our carbohydrate foodstuffs, with the cereal products containing from 50
to 75 per cent carbohydrate.

The sixth column shows the percentages of mineral matter contained
m these foods. It should be noted that the high percentages of mineral
matter in bacon, butter, cheese, are due to the added salt in their manufac-
ture. Animal foods generally are more or less rich in mineral matter; but
the mineral matter contained in fruits and vegetables is considerable and
seems best adapted to keep the body in health. Witness the dread disease,
scurvy, which ensues when vegetables are excluded from the diet.

The number of ounces of foodstuffs per pound yielded by each food
material is given in columns 7 to 11. These data have been worked out in
terms of protein, fat, carbohydrate, mineral matter and the total. The
results are given for the convenience of the housewife who wishes to calcu-
late just how many ounces of the various foodstuffs, per pound of food
material, she is purchasing and is feeding to her family in any given length
of time.

Fuel Value of Foodstuffs.— As has already been said, protein is essen-
tially a tissue builder, but it may be burned in the body as an energy food;
fats and carbohydrates are essentially energy foods.

Just as the fuel value of coal is measured by the quantity of heat that
is given off when a given weight of it is burned, so the fuel value of a food-

':,M^

1030 SUCCESSFUL FARMING

stuff is measured by the quantity of heat given off when a given weight of
the foodstuff is burned. Such measurements are made by burning a small
weighed quantity of the foodstuff in such a way that all the heat produced
is used to heat a given weight of water. From the results obtained, the
quantity of heat given off, when a pound of the foodstuff is burned, is
readily calculated.

Very careful experiments have been made further to determine the
quantity of heat that is yielded to the body when it burns a given weight
of a foodstuff. Such experiments have shown that when a pound of
protein or of carbohydrate is burned in the body, the body derives 1814
calories* of heat, while it derives from the burning of a pound of fat 4082
calories of heat. In terms of ounces these figures mean that —

1 ounce protein yields 113.5 calories of heat to the body.

1 ounce fat yields 255.1 calories of heat to the body.

1 ounce carbohydrate yields 113.5 calories of heat to the body.

Thus, a given weight of fat yields to the body more than double as much
heat or energy as the same weight of carbohydrates. Given weights of
protein and of carbohydrate yield the body equal amounts of heat or energy.
Fuel Value per Pound of Food Material. — In addition to a knowledge
of the amount of each foodstuff contained in a given weight of a food
material, the woman who would feed her family intelligently should know
liow much heat these foodstuffs will yield the body. Knowing the number
of ounces of each foodstuff contained in a pound of the food material, and
also the fuel value per ounce of each foodstuff, she can easily calculate the
fuel value of each foodstuff contained in the pound, and readily obtain the
total. Thus, a pound of milk (Table I) contains .52 ounce protein, .64
ounce fat and .80 ounce carbohydrate; then the fuel-value of each food-
stuff is as follows:

Protein 52 X 113.5 = 59 calories

Fat 64 X 255. 1 = 163 ''

Carbohydrate 80X113.5= 92 *'

Total 314 ''

Hence, the fuel value per pound of milk equals 314 calories. By this
method Table II has been prepared. (See following pages.)

Discussion of Table II. — The first three columns of figures in Table
II show the number of calories of heat which the protein, fat and carbo-
hydrate contained in a pound of the food material yield respectively when
burned in the body. The last column shows the total number of calories
of heat the pound yields when burned in the body.

It should be noted that the pure fats, i.e., lard and olive oil, yield the
greatest number of calories (4082) per pound, while butter is a close second.

water

*A calorie is the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1000 grams (or 2.2 p>ound8) of
er l" Centigrade or 1°.8 Fahrenheit.

FOOD MATERIALS

1031

Table II.

Food Materials
(Purchased).

(h) Dried:
Apples
Apricots
Prunes

, , ,, I- Animal Foods.

(a) Meats:

Bacon, smoked
Beef:

Porterhouse

Rib rolls

Round
Chicken, broilers
Mutton, leg
Pork, chops

(h) Fish:
Mackerel, whole

Cheese, cream
Milk, whole
Milk, skim
Cream

(d) Other Animal Foods
Eggs
Lard

II. Cereal Products.

Bread, white, average
Bread, whole wheat
Corn meal
Flour, first patent
Flour, whole wheat
Oatmeal

Rice

Shredded wheat

(a) Fresh:
Apples
Cherries
Grapes
Oranges
Peaches
Strawberries
Watermelon

'!; ^i

1032

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Table II {Continued),

Food Materials
(Purchased).

IV. Vegetables.
(a) Fresh:

Beans, string

Beets

Cabbage

Corn, green

Lettuce

• Onions

Peas

Potatoes

Spinach

(6) Dried:

Beans

Peas

V. Vegetable Products.

Molasses

Olive oil

Sugar

Calories per Pound.

Protein.

38
23
25
23
18
25
65
32
38

409
446

Fat

Carbo-

hydrate.

125

140

161

177

267

1082

1126

1258

4082

• • • •

....

1816

Total.

173
166
119
178
72
196
250
302
106

1563
1613

1301
4082
1816

with its 3487 calories per pound. In general, the foods containing notable
quantities of fat are the richest in fuel value. This has long been known in a

practical way.

It is interesting to note that although cheese, the richest protein food
material of the list, yields 470 calories from its protein per pound, that dried
peas and beans are close seconds, with 408 and 446 calories per pound respec-
tively. Fully one-quarter the total fuel value of cheese, peas and beans is

due to protein.

Note that, exclusive of breads, the cereal products yield 1600 to 1800
calories per pound ; breads are much less because of the proportion of water
used in making them.

While the fuel value per pound of fresh fruits and fresh vegetables
is not high, their fuel value when dried is much increased, 1100 to 1600

calories per pound.

The first and last columns of Table II are of particular interest to the
housekeeper. This is because she wishes primarily to know how many
calories a pound of a given food material will yield the body ; and second-
arily, because she wishes to know how many of these calories are due to

protein.

Amount of Food Needed for Twenty-four Hours.— It has already been
pointed out that the quantity of food needed by the body per twenty-four
hours is in direct proportion to the amount of its physical exertion per
twenty-four hours. This amount of food needed is measured in calories

mtm

FOOD MATERIALS 1033

per kilogram (2.2 pounds) of body weight. Young to middle-aged men
and women are said to require:

Per kg.

At complete rest {i. e., for life processes only) 30-35 calories

With light exercise 35-40 **

With moderate exercise 40-45 *'

With hard muscular labor 45-60 "

Translated into terms of calories per pound of body weight, these figures
become :

Per pound
body weight.

At complete rest 13.6-16 calories

With light exercise 16 . 0-18 "

With moderate exercise 18 .0-20 '*

With hard muscular labor 20.0-27 "

These figures mean that if your body weighs 154 pounds, and you are
doing light exercise, you need 16 X 154 = 2464 calories, to 18 X 154 = 2772
calories of food per day.

Authorities disagree as to the proportion of these calories which should
be yielded by protein. The high protein advocate considers the ration

Table III.

Food Materials.

Weight in
Ounces.

Fuel Value in Calories.

Total.

Protein.

Orange

Shredded wheat
Bread, white . . .
Egg,

Potato

Round steak

Beets

Corn, green.
Whole milk .

Butter

Prunes

Cheese

Sugar

Cream

Total

12
1
6
2
8
4
4
8

16
2
4
1
2
2

124

104

342

151

181

314

436

282

117

227

110

2593

332

'M)alanced" when 1 calorie out of 6 calories is obtained from protein; the
medium protein advocate, 1 out of 9 or 10; and the low protein advocate,
1 out of 12 or more.

Suppose you eat during twenty-four hours the kinds and quantities
of foods indicated in Table III. The fuel value of these food materiaip
(computed from Table II) is given in column 2, and the fuel value of the

1034

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

protein in column 3. Evidently the total fuel value of this food is 2593
calories, of which 332 calories are yielded by protein. The amounts mean
that one calorie in 7.8 (i.e., 2436 4- 302) is yielded by protein. This means
that the dietary is intermediate l)etween high and medium protein. If a

Window Box for Storage of Food.i

A north window is to be preferred. It should exactly fit the
width of the window and come half way up the lower sash. When
sash is raised the contents are easily accessible. In freezing weather
the sash may be left up so that box becomes a part of the room.

greater or a less proportion of protein is desired, it can most readily be
secured by increasing or diminishing the quantity of meat or cheese eaten.
If you weigh 154 pounds, this day's dietary, 16.8 calories per pound (i. e.,
2593 -T- 154) corresponds very well to that calculated for light exercise.

Since the child must eat not only for repair and for energy, but also for
gro^vth, it follows that he needs much more food in proportion to his body

» Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Farmers* Bulletin 375.

FOOD MATERIALS 1035

weight than the adult. Authorities say that the needs of children are as
follows :

Under 1 year 100 calories per kg. (or 45 calories per pound body-weight).

• X~i y^^^s 100-90 calories per kg. (or 45-40 calories per pound bodv-weight)

^-5 years 90-80 calories per kg. (or 40-36 calories per pound body-weight).

,^?/^^^« 22~^5 calories per kg. (or 36-32 calories per pound body-weight).

iV~i5 ^^^^^ I9r^^ ca ones per kg. (or 32-27 calories per pound body-weight).

14-17 years 60-45 calories per kg. (or 27-20 calories per pound body-weight).

Comparison of these food requirements of the child with those of the
adult shows strikingly that the child needs a liberal diet)— much more in
proportion to his body weight than the adult.

Reasons for Cooking Food Materials.— Food materials are cocked for
the purpose of developing flavor, of making foods more easily digestible
and of killing bacteria. Doubtless, the use of fire in the preparation of food
was first discovered by accident; the flavor developed by the action of heat
on meat appealed to the palate, and so the action of heat on various other
food materials was tried gradually. Also, it was learned that some foods
keep better when cooked. But it was reserved for the la^t century to
explain scientifically the effects of heat on the palatability, the digestibility
and the keeping qualities of food.

Effects of Heat on Foodstuffs.— One of the first lessons to be learned in
the cooking of foods is that all food materials conduct heat slowly— that is,
it takes time for heat to penetrate them.

The proteins are coagulated, hardened by heat, and the higher the
temperature the more they are hardened. Hence the difficulty of cooking
meats 'Ho a turn'' and of cooking eggs so that they shall be tender.
Proteins should be cooked at a comparatively low temperature — below
the boiling point of water; otherwise they will be tough and indigestible,
i, e., not easily dissolved by the digestive juices. High heat should be
used at first with meats to sear the outside in order to keep the juices in;
then the cooking should proceed at a lower temperature. In re-heating
meats, the protein is much hardened. Soft-cooked eggs are best when
put into cold water, covered, and heated just to the boiling point. Eggs
may be cooked hard, and yet be tender, if put into boiling water, covered,
then set where water will keep hot, but not boil, for 30 to 45 minutes.

The fats melt when heated, but otherwise seem to be unchanged except
at high temperatures. Then they are decomposed, and at least one of the
products formed is very irritating to the mucous membrane. This is one
reason why people find difficulty in digesting fried foods. Butter scorches
easily because of the small amount of protein in it.

Of the carbohydrates y sugar is melted, but not otherwise changed by
heat unless heated to caramelization, or to the burning point. Starchy
when cooked by dry heat, changes into dextrine, a more soluble and hence
more digestible form of carbohydrate. When starch is cooked in the
presence of water, the granules swell and finally burst open. This renders

V \

i.^'". ''^•■■'

1036

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the starch more readily accessible to the digestive juices. Cereals to be
well cooked should be brought to the boiling temperature and kept there
for some time.

Cooking of Combinations of Foodstuffs. — ^The baking of breads con-
sists in hardening the protein (gluten) and thus enclosing the gas bubbles
in cooking the starch and in killing the yeast plants. The baking of cake
is essentially the same thing, except that cake contains the protein of egg as
well as gluten, and it also contains more fat, but does not contain yeast
ordinarily. As the inside of the cake (or bread) never goes above the boiling
point of water, there is little danger of decomposing the fat. All foodstuffs
carbonize if subjected to dry heat when cooked; this explains the browning
of baked foods. In baking doughs, the smaller the mass, the hotter should
be the oven; the larger the mass, the lower the oven temperature in order
to give time for the heat to penetrate.

In these days much is said of preventive medicine. The study of the
human body is demanding the attention of some of the finest minds of the
age. Physicians are seeking to learn and to teach fundamental laws of
health. Better than in any past generation may the woman of today
understand her own body and that of her child. Better than ever before
may she know how best to care for and to feed each member of the family.
When she fully appreciates that only food well chosen, well cared for and
properly prepared should be presented to the wonderful human laboratory
to be made over into body substance, then will the physician find his most
eflicient co-worker in woman, the mother of the race.

(The woman who wishes to know the subject of foods should write
to the Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, for a fist of bulletins
published on food and nutrition. She should get some of these, especially
the Farmers' Bulletins. After these have been studied, she should send for
others, and so gradually build up her own food library.)

REFERENCES

''Principles of Human Nutrition." Jordan.

** Things Mother Used to Make." Gurney.

''Household Bacteriology." Buchanan.

** Foods and Household Management." Cooler.

" Food for the Invahd and Convalescent." Gibbs.

New Jersey Home Economics Bulletin 2. ''Milk and Eggs. '

South Carolina Circular 27 (Expt. Station). " Home Canning of Fruits and Vegetables."

Canadian Dept. of Agrculture Bulletin 221. "Food Value of Milk and Its Products."

Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture:

332. "Nuts and Their Uses as Food."

359. "Canning Vegetables in the Home.*'

363. " Use of Milk as Food."

375. "Care of Food in the Home." ^

389. "Bread and Bread Making." ' '

391. "Economical Use of Meat in the Home." "*

526. "Mutton and Its Value in the Diet."

535. "Sugar and Its Value as Food."

559. "Uses of Corn, Kaffir and Cowpeas in the Home."

565. "Com Meal as a Food; Ways of Using It."

CHAPTER 79

Housing and Clothing

By Mrs. Cecil Baker
Textile and Clothing Expert, Chicago, III

Among the many improvements that have come to the farm in the
last generation, those to the farm-house have been the slowest. Many a
farm woman still carries on her work in the same sort of kitchen, with the
same tools, in the same way that her grandmother did. Her husband has
new barns designed according to the latest ideas of farm building, filled
with the most improved machinery. His high-bred stock drink from a
trough filled by a windmill or a gasoline engine, while his wife must often
carry the water necessary for her operations, by the pailful, sometimes a
considerable distance. If the farmer's wife and children are to have the
full advantage of the new life made possible to them by better roads, auto-
mobiles, telephones, better schools and community associations of all sorts,
the woman must have more time and energy for the new things. She must
have her share of the improvements that come to the farm.

Leisure to the farm woman can come only through better facilities for
work. The amount of work to be done has not markedly decreased, help
froni the outside is difficult to obtain, but the conveniences which make for
efficiency have multiplied. Some expense is involved in obtaining labor-
saving appliances, but this must be considered in the house as it is in the
barn or the field, as an investment, the profit to come to be in the form of a
freer, fuller life for the woman, which will mean in the end a fuller, saner
life for the family.

House Plan Essentials. — Not only labor-saving devices are needed,
but more thought in planning and arranging the house and its furnishings.
Health is a vital factor; better sanitation and better facilities for personal
hygiene aid in conserving it.

Finally, the more intangible psychological effect of the home on the
family must be dealt with. This relates to the provision for the individual
needs of the members of the family and the esthetic requirements of the
home, and is more important than is sometimes understood.

The first requisite of a good house plan is that it shall fulfil the needs
of the family that is to live in it. A farm-house must be planned for the
farm, and not be a copy of the town house; the needs are not the same.
A four-room cottage may be planned to meet the requirements of a certain
family, but it is not likely to do so if taken from a builder's catalog. Four
walls with a roof will give shelter, but only with intelligent thought will it

(1037)

1038

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

give convenience and comfort. Generous porches for work, rest and sleep-
ing, and plenty of windows to let in air and sunshine are blessings that should
not be forgotten. The water supply which brings drink to the cattle should
bring water to the house, to the sinks in the kitchen and milk room, to the
laundry, to the family bath and to the wash, toilet and bathroom for the
help; all of which must have the proper sewage disposal.

The Basement. — In constructing the house the basement will be the

5i' X 5i'

9'x 16'

A Conveniently Arkancjed

KlTC^HEN.^

A— Cold pantry. B— Kitchen. C— Butler's pantry. D— Back hall. E— Dining
room. 1 — Window box to be used to keep food material in cold weather. 2 — Refrig-
erator, with outside door for icing. 3 — Kitchen cabinet. 4 — Range. 5 — Sink with
shelves and drainage board on either side. 6 — Door for passage of soiled dishes to be

passed back. 7 — Shelves in pantry. 8, 9 and 10 — Shelves with glass doors. 11

Shelves in cold pantry.

starting point and should be planned as carefully as any other part. The
walls should be well constructed of stone, l)rick or concrete. The floor
should be of cement and there should be enough windows to insure plenty
of light and air. The heating plant should go in the basement, a separate
room being planned for it and the fuel. A hot-air furnace is the cheapest
to install and in a small house is fairly satisfactory. The initial expense of
hot water is greater, but it is most satisfactory, especially in larger houses;
it is less affected by wind, is more easily regulated and causes less dirt in
the house. As far from the furnace as possible, and near the stairs, should

* Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

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1038

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

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give convenience and comfort. Generous porches for work, rest and sleep-
ing, and ])lenty of windows to let in air and sunshine are blessings that should
not l)e forgotten. The water supply which brings drink to the cattle should
l)ring water to the house, to the sinks in the kitchen and milk room, to the
laundry, to the family bath and to the wash, toilet and bathroom for the
help; all of which must have the pro})er sewage disposal.

The Basement. — In constructing the house the basement will be the

A Conveniently AHKAN(iED
Kitchen.^

A — Cold puntry. B— Kitchen. C— Butler's piintry. D— Back hall. E— Dining
room. 1 — A\'indo\v box to be used to keep food material in cold weather. 2 — Refrig-
erator, with outside door for icing. 3 — Kitchen cabinet. 4— Ilange. 5 — Sink with
shelves and drainage board on either side. 6— Door for passage of soiled dishes to ho,
passed back. 7 — Shelves in pantry. 8, 9 and 10 — Shelves with glass doors. 11 —
Shelves in cokl pantry.

starting point and should be planned as carefully as any other part. The
walls should be well constructed of stone, brick or concrete. The floor
should be of cement and there should be enough windows to insure plenty
of light and air. The heating plant should go in the basement, a separate
room being i)lanned for it and the fuel. A hot-air furnace is the cheapest
to install and in a small house is fairly satisfactory. The initial expense of
hot water is greater, but it is most satisfactory, especially in larger houses;
it is less affected by wind, is more easily regulated and causes less dirt in
the house. As far from the furnace as possible, and near the stairs, should

^ Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

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HOUSING AND CLOTHING

1039

be a storage room for vegetables, canned goods and extra provisions; this
should be light and have shelves or cupboards. A dumb-waiter to carry
wood, coal and food supplies to the kitchen will add Httle expense and save
many steps and much back-breaking labor. The cellar stairs, not too steep or
winding, may lead directly to the kitchen, with a landing at the grade level.

The Kitchen is a place for preparing food and not a laundry, men's
wash room or nursery. If well arranged, 8 by 10 feet or 10 by 12 feet will
give ample room for stove, sink, cupboards with working counter and work
table. Utensils used every day may hang on the wall over stove and sink;
open shelves above these give place for salt, spices, cereals, coffee, etc!
The things in constant use will not be any trouble to care for when kept in
this way and the steps saved are well worth counting; the writer knows this
from experience with both types of kitchen. The sink and tables should
be high enough so the worker does not have to stoop over them, and if a
high stool is nearby, it \vill many times be found a comfort to tired feet
and back. A table on large casters, which will move easily to any part of
the room and even to the dining room, is very useful. With good cross
ventilation, air from two ^ides at least, good light, a floor and walls which
may be easily cleaned, and the whole cheerful in color, a beginning has at
least been made towards a comfortable work room.

The Pantry. — If the kitchen is fitted with cupboards for the dishes and
staple food supplies, and plenty of working space, the pantry then becomes
a place for keeping food cold, a place for the storing of large utensils and
those used occasionally, and possibly for food which must be bought in
quantities on the farm. The ice box may be here and should be so arranged
that it will be filled from outdoors through a window at the back. Whether
there will be one or more pantries is a question for the individual to decide.
The main point to be emphasized is, that the food supplies, the dishes,
the working area embraced by the stove, sink and table, and the ice box,
should be as close together as possi!)le.

Dining Room. — The entrance to the dining room should be near the
working area, though possibly through a pantry or passage, to cut off the
odors of cooking. The dining room itself should be large enough to hold
the table, extended to accommodate the seasonal help, with room when the
persons are seated to pass easily around when serving. A serving table
or buffet will add to the convenience and attractiveness of the room. If
one room must serve the dou})le purpose of kitchen and dining room, the
two parts should be kept as much separated as possible; the kitchen may be
an alcove.

Wash Room. — A small room with a sink for the care of the milk may
be near the kitchen, in the house or in a separate building, which latter
may also contain the laundry and summer kitchen, and the wash room
for the men help. In more pretentious houses there should be a sitting
room and porch for the men, opening into the dining room and provided
with washing facilities.

1040

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The Living Room. — The living room is very important in the hfe of
the family. If it is attractive and amusement is here provided for all, the
boys and girls will be more content to stay at home. The piano, book
case, sewing table, writing table, magazines and the toys all belong here
and each should have its place. A comfortable couch, a good light for
reading and a small chair for the child are more essential than a gay rug,
lace curtains or vases on the mantelpiece. An open fire adds cheer to the
room, spares the furnace in the first chill mornings of fall and in spring,
and aids in ventilation.

The Office. — A most desirable room, even though it be a small one,
has a place for the farmer's desk, account books, catalogs and other business
papers. If access to it from the front or side door is easy, business callers

A Cheerful Living Room.*

may be received here apart from the family life. This room is much more
important on the farm, where there are ahnost no formal calls, than a recep-
tion hall or parlor.

The Hall. — The chief use of the hall is to serve as a passage from out-
doors to the living rooms and to the upstairs. Here there should be a
good closet for wraps, possibly under the stairs. It is not desirable to
have the front entrance direct into the living room, as the privacy of the
room is thus destroyed and cold and dirt from outdoors come in. Neither
should the kitchen entrance be the most used one, as the passing interferes
greatly with the work done there.

Sleeping Rooms. — Bedrooms are the strictly individual rooms of the
house and here, above all, the individual should have privacy. A painted
or hardwood floor, simple washable curtains and rugs, a comfortable bed,
a good clothes closet and plenty of fresh air are the essentials of a bedroom.

» Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y, From "Shelter and Clothing," by Cooley.

HOUSING AND CLOTHING

1041

In case there are children or old people, and one woman does all of the
work, a bedroom on the first floor is very desirable.

Bathroom facilities on a farm, where hard physical exercise makes
frequent baths necessary, ar6 too often inadequate. Tub, toilet and wash
bowl of enameled iron may be purchased for from $60 to $100. The
toilet should be a syphon closet and the tub one which sets close to the
floor, leaving no room for dirt underneath. The fixtures should be of
good quality and without ornament.

Interior Finish.— Bathroom and kitchen walls painted with oil paint
or papered with a washable paper are easily cared for. Inlaid linoleum on
the floor wears well, printed oilcloth does not. Woodwork may be painted
or varnished, or white enamel is
an attractive finish and is not as
much work to care for as is
usually thought. Light, cheer-
ful colors which show when they
need washing are desirable.
Walls in other rooms may be cal-
cimined, a cheap but temporary'
finish; painted with oil paint,
which is more permanent and
may be cleaned, or papered.
Plain colors or simple figures
with not too contrasting colors
are good backgrounds for pic-
tures. The soft greens and
browns of the woods, buff and
warm grays, yellows in rooms
inclined to be dark, are all good
colors to live with. Red is excit-
ing, blue apt to look cold and gold far from restful. There are many
papers on the market bad in color and design; seek to avoid them.

The Furnishings. — Simple, substantial furniture should be chosen,
with comfort and usefulness its first requirements. Cheap machine carving
only mars the beauty of wood. A dull wax finish on both furniture and
woodwork is more restful than a shiny varnish and mars less easily. Rugs
should keep their place on the floor and not, because of their giddy color
and design, seem to rise and hit one upon entering the rooms. Hardwood or
painted floors are easier to care for and more sanitary than carpets. Wash-
able rugs are good for bedrooms and bathrooms. Wilton, Brussels, Smyrna,
Scotch and grass rugs each have their good featm*es for general wear; they
are named in the order of their cost.

Draperies and Decoration. — Simple white or ecru curtains of scrim,
net, Swiss or madras soften the windows, yet let in sunlight and air, and

* Courtesy of Altorfer Bros., Roanoke, 111,

A Power WAsraNO Machine. ^

1 i

'Wf^^;

y^'.

1040

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The Living Room. — The living room is very important in the Hfe of
the family. If it is attractive and amusement is here provided for all, the
boys and girls will be more content to stay at home. The piano, book
case, sewing table, WTiting table, magazines and the toys all belong here
and each should have its place. A comfortable couch, a good light for
reading and a small chair for the child are more essential than a gay rug,
lace curtains or vases on the mantelpiece. An open fire adds cheer to the
room, spares the furnace in the first chill mornings of fall and in spring,
and aids in ventilation.

A Cheerful Living Room.*

may be received here apart from tlie family life. This room is much more
important on the farm, where there are almost no formal calls, than a recep-
tion hall or parlor.

» Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y, From "Shelter and Clothing," by Cooley.

HOUSING AND CLOTHING

1041

In case there are children or old people, and one woman does all of the
work, a bedroom on the first floor is very desirable.

Bathroom facilities on a farm, where hard physical exercise makes
frequent baths necessary, are too often inadequate. Tub, toilet and wash
bowl of enameled iron may be purchased for from $60 to $100. The
toilet should be a syphon closet and the tub one which sets close to the
floor, leaving no room for dirt underneath. The fixtures should be of
good quality and without ornament.

Interior Finish.— Bathroom and kitchen walls painted with oil paint
or papered with a washable paper are easily cared for. Inlaid linoleum on
the floor wears well, printed oilcloth does not. Woodwork may be painted
or varnished, or white enamel is
an attractive finish and is not as
much work to care for as is
usually thought. Light, cheer-
ful colors which show when they
need washing are desirable.
Walls in other rooms may be cal-
cimined, a cheap but temporary
finish; painted with oil paint,
which is more permanent and
may be cleaned, or papered.
Plain colors or simple figures
with not too contrasting colors
are good backgrounds for pic-
tures. The soft greens and
browns of the woods, buff and
warm grays, yellows in rooms
inclined to be dark, are all good
colors to live with. Red is excit-
ing, blue apt to look cold and gold far from restful. There are many
papers on the market bad in color and design; seek to avoid them.

The Furnishings. — Simple, substantial furniture should be chosen,
with comfort and usefulness its first requirements. Cheap machine carving
only mars the beauty of wood. A dull wax finish on both furniture and
woodwork is more restful than a shiny varnish and mars less easily. Rugs
should keep their place on the floor and not, because of their giddy color
and design, seem to rise and hit one upon entering the rooms. Hardwood or
painted floors are easier to care for and more sanitary than carpets. Wash-
able rugs are good for bedrooms and bathrooms. Wilton, Brussels, Smyrna,
Scotch and grass rugs each have their good features for general wear; they
are named in the order of their cost.

Draperies and Decoration. — Simple white or ecru curtains of scrim,
net, Swiss or madras soften the windows, yet let in sunlight and air, and

^Courtesy of Altorfer Bros., Roanoke, 111,
66

A Power Washing Machine.*

•«

1^1

n
I

#.l

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

1042

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

are easily washed. They should hang straight to the window sill or be
draped back simply. Pictures and bric-a-brac give the finishing touches
to the room, but should be used sparingly. A few good pictures, one or
two pieces of pottery, and a good clock add character to the room.
Embroidered satin sofa pillows set against the table leg have no excuse
for being, but two or three plain washable ones will make the couch more
comfortable. Whether the home be a cottage or a mansion, the same
principles of good taste hold. Simplicity is a good guide, and inexpensive
things are often more beautiful than the costly.

Household Appliances. — To aid in caring for the house there are now
many mechanical devices; the vacuum cleaner, the power washing machine,
the mangle, the bread mixer, the fireless cooker and the meat grinder are
all good investments. Before buying labor-saving devices be sure they
save more work than they make.

Ventilation in most houses is merely a question of opening and shutting
windows. The health derived from sleeping outdoors has proved that
plenty of fresh air at all times is more to be sought than avoided. The
house sealed up from fall until spring is more likely to breed consumption
than is cold, fresh air. Let in the air and sunshine; if dust and faded
carpets result, they are less to be feared than air which has been breathed
over and over and contains many impurities. In winter boards 6 to 8
inches high fitted imder the lower sash make an opening between the two
sashes and let in air without draft. In bedrooms a window screen covered
with a coarse muslin allows the window to be kept open, winter and sum-
mer, regardless of the weather. Artificially heated air is usually too dry;
flat pans or buckets hanging in the registers, kept filled with water, and
plenty of fresh air from the outside will help. It is a mistaken idea of
economy to re-circulate air through the house and furnace again and again ;
open the windows wide and let in the fresh air; it will heat much more
quickly than foul air.

A house planned and furnished with thought for all of these details,
provided love dwells there, will be truly a home, a haven for old and young
alike, and a joy to the guest who enters its doors.

CLOTHING

To the farm woman, because of the simpler social demands, the prob-
lem of clothing her family is less trying than to her city sister. It is her
duty, nevertheless, to see that those of her household are dressed as well
and as economically as can be; and in accordance with the needs of their
social environment. She must do the planning, the buying, perhaps the
making, as well as care for the clothes. She must set the standard of
dress for her own family, and thus help set that of the community.

Bodily protection, and through it the preservation of health, should be
the first consideration in the choice of dress. Clothing to be most healthful
must allow perfect bodily freedom, must protect the body from extreme

HOUSING AND CLOTHING

1043

cold and from sudden changes in temperature, and must take care of the
perspiration Our ideas of clothing that will best accomplish this, change
as we gain knowledge of the physiology of the human body and of the
properties of the different materials. Also, the changes which have come
about in living conditions (warmer houses, overheated trains and street
cars and poorly ventilated buildings of all sorts) demand a different type
ot clothing from that worn by our forefathers.

The entrance of women into outdoor sports, into business and pro-
tessional life, has done much towards the development of saner and more
varied dress for women, such as the tailored suit, the shirtwaist, the house
dress and the sporting costume.

Undergarments.— In considering clothing for health the undergarment
IS ot farst importance. It must perform three functions: (1) regulate the
body heat, (2) absorb perspiration, (3) allow ventilation, so that the per-
spiration may be evaporated. It is important that the materials chosen
be capable of fulfilling these requirements. Loosely woven materials
absorb moisture into the meshes readily without seeming wet, these same
meshes allow ventilation, and the still air held in them, being a poor con-
ductor of heat, makes them warm, provided the outer garment is woven
sufficiently close to prevent too sudden changing of the air. Several
layers of light-weight material, holding air between them, are warmer than
a single layer of heavier material. For summer, the loosely woven under-
garment takes care of the perspiration and a thin outer garment allows the
constant changing of air which cools the skin.

Character of Material.— Cotton and linen, closely woven, absorb
perspiration, but get very wet, because of the lack of meshes to hold air
to hasten evaporation. Woolens, because of the nature of the fiber, con-
tain many air spaces; however, with washing the fibers mat or felt together
and this characteristic is lost. Wool also is irritating to some skins and
is too warm for people in active life. As the skin must be clean, so must
the clothing })e clean if it is to perform its functions. Cotton and linen
wash more easily than wool, another point in their favor.

Amount of Clothing.— The actual amount of clothing required for
warmth will vary with the individual. Old age and infancy require more
than active youth, while an invalid or a person leading a sedentary life
requires more than one exercising or possessing great vitality. The old
custom of putting the woolens on in October and not taking them off until
May was not a good one. Clothing should be regulated by the weather;
with summer temperature in the house, summer underwear may be worn
all the year and the outer garments changed when greater warmth is desired.
When the body is over-heated and the ventilation cut off, one becomes
over-sensitive to cold. The throat swathed in furs or a muflJer is more
Hkely to suffer when exposed than one left bare; therefore when such neck-
wear is worn it should be left slightly open at the throat. This does not
mean, however, that the whole chest need be exposed, a« fashion some-

1044

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

times decrees it should be. A great criticism of women's clothing is due
to its weight and uneven distribution over the body. Union suits and
one-piece garments of all kinds are desirable, because they do away with
extra layers about the waist and throw some of the weight on the shoulders.
Tight clothing is of course undesirable, but garments fitting close to the
body give more protection from cold; tights in preference to petticoats is
a striking example of this.

The Outer Garments. — In considering the outer garments, the desire
for beauty plays a large part. We owe it to ourselves, our family and our
neighbors, to look as well as we can. Becoming colors are no more expen-
sive than unbecoming ones, and careful observation in the mirror will tell
better than fashion which are the ones suited to us. The color of the
skin, the hair and the eyes should be considered ; if the skin is sallow and
the hair colorless, do not emphasize the fact by matching them in the
clothes. It is not possible to give rules, as each individual is a law unto
herself and must be studied as such.

In choosing the pattern for a dress, the figure of the individual should
be considered. A tall, slender woman should not wear stripes or tucks up
and down, nor the fat one tucks or flounces around. Ruffles, fullness, the
kind of material, all should conform to the figure.

Extremes of Fashion. — Our ideas of modesty are purely conventional,
but change from tune to tune as fashions change, though not so rapidly.
The ball gown is immodest if worn on the street, and the bathing suit
shocking in the parlor. The extremes of fashion are often immodest from
the standpoint of the more conservative. Fashion in its greatest follies
makes it difficult at times to live up to our highest ideals in clothes, but
we must not deviate too far from convention. There seem to be some
indications that thinking woman is dictating slightly to fashion; at least,
she insists that for work and recreation she have suitable clothes. To be
sure, the idle rich are willing to give most of their time to the pursuit of
this capricious queen, and, unfortunately, many of those less able to do
so ape them, but the better class of working, thinking women, be they
rich or poor, do not follow the greatest extremes.

If one is to l)e well dressed, one must not be conspicuous, and to be
entirely out of fashion makes one so. Therefore, consider the prevailing
style, modify it to suit the individual figure, the individual needs and the
occasion for which it is to be worn. Consider the material to he used and
do not copy a design suited for filmy chiffon in heavy woolen. The trim-
ming should harmonize with the material and excessive trinuning is in all
cases to be avoided. Do not overdress; this is as great a sin as to be not
well enough dressed; in fact, it usually makes one more conspicuous.
One is always at greater ease when one's clothes are suitable. An old
woolen skirt worn in the kitchen does not hurt one socially, but a clean,
simple wash dress worn there increases one's self-respect.

Footwear. — Shoes are the cause of more discomfort than is usually

HOUSING AND CLOTHING

1045

attributed to them, not being restricted to that of the feet. Shoes should
be designed on lines more nearly corresponding to those of the foot
straight on he inside, with broad toes and low heels broad and Tong enS
to support the arch of the foot. Veiy high heels throw the whole body
out of balance, cause backache and legache, and affect the nerves Most
women wear shoes too small for them; they should fit, with the Zme
joint opposite the broad part of the sole, with ample room'for tL tt^^^^^^^^^
at the same tune snug at the heel.

+u .f?^**^®'^'^ Dress.-In dressing children, it should be remembered
that they are at the playtime of life, that bodil^ freedom is of moSport
ance to them than fine clothes. Children like cheerful colors and loZwell
m bnght ones; they should not be made somber before their years. Clean-
mess should be mstiUed in their minds early; not the cleanliness whth
forbids makmg mud pies, but the kind which means frequent baths and
clean underwear.

The infant needs the softest wool, or silk and wool, as protection about
the stomach, and flannel shirts and skirts in cool weather; they should all
be light in weight, very soft and clean. Woolen dresses are very undesir-
able, being too warm and not easily washed. The habit of bundling babies
up until they cannot move, and then covering their faces if there is a
breath of air about, is greatly to be deplored.

Economy in Clothing.— The question of economy in clothes comes
close home to most people. Changes in fashion are so frequent, and the
manufacture of materials has become so cheap that fabrics are often not
made for wear, but merely for fleeting appearance. To buy wisely a
woman needs some knowledge of textiles. She should, for example, recog-
nize cotton when it is skilfully mixed with wool or finished to look like
linen,- she should understand that silk can be loaded with metallic salts
and that a heavy silk is not necessarily a good one. With fresh accessories'
such as girdles and collars, garments made from good materials in not too
marked a style may be worn for several seasons. Poor materials, though
perhaps attractive to begin with, are disappointing in wear, and the tune
spent in making them up is often lost.

Ready-made garments are much more attractive than formeriy, and
if carefully chosen save time and may prove economical. One must con-
sider the cost of making as well as the cost of materials, when comparing
them with homemade garments. If much alteration is necessary it will
probably not pay to buy them. The greatest fault in much ready-made
clothing is the amount of cheap trimming used, a good garment often
being spoiled thus.

In conclusion, much thought is necessary if we are to get the best
results for the least money. More and more intelligent thought is needed,
and when women as a whole are willing to give this, perhaps they will be
masters over fashion, instead of allowing fashion to master them.

1046

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

REFERENCES

"From Kitchen to Garret." Van De Water."

** Shelter and Clothing." Cooley.

Farmers' Bulletin 317, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "The Farm Home."

CHAPTER 80

Education and Information for the Farmer

Having read the preceding chapters of this book, one must be impressed
with the breadth of the field of agriculture and its close relationship with
or dependence upon the laws of nature. No other occupation calls for so
great a knowledge in the sciences. Science applied to farming does not
make the occupation less difficult. On the other hand, it gives the man
with a trained mind a decided advantage over the man who depends chiefly
upon physical exertion and set rules.

North America needs a type of agriculture that will provide for the
future generations. During the nineteenth century, the population of the
United States doubled every twenty-five years. In the normal course of
events, this rate of increase should continue throughout the twentieth
century. If population continues to increase at this rate, what will be the
population at the close of the twentieth century, and what kind of an agri-
culture must exist in order to provide a cheap and abundant food supply
for all the people? Furthermore, what kind of men will be needed on the
farm in order to meet the needs of the high civilization?

The extent to which the national and state governments are fostering
agricultural research and education is an index of the importance of
agriculture and the necessity of making it more productive and profitable.

The character of agriculture can be no better than the man who follows
the occupation. It is evident that the agriculture of the future will need
the brightest and best trained men. In order to train these men in adequate
numbers, agricultural sul)jects are being introduced into the secondary
schools in every state in the Union. The agricultural departments of our
colleges are being taxed to the limit of their capacity.

While vocational training dominates our entire educational system, it
is the hope that it will not be developed at the expense of non-vocational
education. To maintain a strong and virile nation demands that all be
educated for citizenship. The training for this function is the same for
the man on the farm as it is for the man in the city. All should be educated
for one citizenship.

Agriculture in Secondary Schools. — It was about thirty years after the
first agricultural college was opened in the United States, before the first
successful agricultural high school was opened. This was established in
Minnesota in 1888. A Farmers' High School had been established in
Pennsylvania in 1855, but was afterwards merged with The Pennsylvania
State College. For twenty years after the establishment of the Minnesota
school the development of agriculture in secondary schools, as well as that

(1047)

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1018

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

EDUCATION AND INFORMATION

in institutions of higher learning, was slow. During the past ten years
however, it has gained a wonderful momentum, and has exceeded in devel-
opment and support any other branch of vocational training in an equal
length of time. According to the annual report of Director Claxton, of the
United States Bureau of Education, for the year 1914, there were in the
United States 1792 secondary schools teaching agriculture to 53,367 pupils.
At the present time the greatest need in these secondary schools is for
teachers with suitable agricultural training. To meet this demand, many
of the normal schools have established courses in general agriculture, and

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the agricultural colleges have introduced courses in agricultural education,
running parallel with the courses in agronomy, animal husbandry, horti-
culture, etc.

Teachers of agriculture in secondary schools should have a liberal
education in the general cultural subjects and in the physical and natural
sciences, particularly as related to agriculture. They should also have
sufficient training in psychology and pedagogy to make them efficient
teachers. It is also essential that they have the technical and practical
knowledge needed on the farm. Familiarity with farm life, acquired by
having lived on a farm, strengthens the sympathy between teacher and
pupils, and makes possible the most effective teaching.

There is a large field of service for young men and young women trained

'Courtesy of U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture.

1049

for the vocation of teacher of agriculture in secondary schools. The full
fruits of such service will be realized in the years to come

There are several types of secondary schools, chief among which are
the congressional district agricultural high schools, county agricultural
high schools, and the high school proper having a course in agriculture
No attempt will here be made to outline a course of study in agriculture
for the secondary school. The growth of these schools hasbeen so marked
that the courses first outlined have been greatly modified and further
improvement will doubtless be made from year to year. The guiding
principle should be that the technical agricultural studies fit local conditions
and meet the needs of the rural community to the fullest possible extent
In many of these schools, the teacher is expected to serve the farm
commumty in an advisory capacity. Vacation periods are spent in visiting
farmers, studying their methods and conducting tests that bear directlv on
their soil, crop and livestock problems.

Those seeking detailed information on the introduction of agriculture
into secondary schools and the most effective way of conducting it are
referred to bulletins issued by the States Relation Service of the United
States Department of Agriculture, the United States Department of
Mucation, and State Department of Education, and the State Agricultural
College and Experiment Station.

Agricultural CoUeges.-In 1821, R. H. Gardner of Maine secured from
the state legislature an appropriation of $1000 to aid in maintaining an
institution that would give farmers and mechanics a scientific training for
their occupation. Students were first received in this institution in 1823
Three years later there was established at Derby, Conn., an agricultural
school that proved successful and was obliged to increase its accommoda-
tions for students. Between 1845 and 1850 a number of agricultural colleges
were established as private enterprises in New York State and Connecticut
In 1846 Yale College established a chair of Agricultural Chemistry and
Vegetable and Animal Physiology, and the demand for teachers in these
subjects became suflScient in 1848 to justify establishing a course for their
preparation at this institution.

Agricultural colleges which have proven ijermanent were opened in
Michigan in 1857 and in Maryland and Pennsylvania in 1859. State
agricultural colleges were opened in Iowa and Minnesota in 1858.

In 1862, Senator Morrill of Vermont, after several unsuccessful
attempts, secured the passage of a bill in the United States Congress
establishing land grant colleges. This bill bestowed 30,000 acres of land
for each member of Congress upon the several states, the proceeds of the
land by sale or rental to be used in maintaining courses of learning related
to agriculture and the mechanic arts.

A second bill, also introduced by Senator Morrill, passed Congress
in 1890, provided for an annual appropriation of $15,000 to each state and
temtory, to be used for instruction in these colleges. This amount was

■1

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1048

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

EDUCATION AND INFORMATION

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School Wagons Returning Pupils to theih Homes. ^

the agricultural colleges have introduced courses in agricultural education,
running parallel with the courses in agronomy, animal husbandry, horti-
culture, etc.

There is a large field of service for young men and young women trained

* Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.

1049

for the vocation of teacher of agriculture in secondary schools. The full
fruits of such service will be realized in the years to come

There are several types of secondary schools, chief among which are
the congressional distnct agricultm-al high schools, county agricultural
high schools, and the high school proper having a course in agriculture
No attempt will here be made to outline a course of study in agriculture
for the secondary school. The growth of these schools hasbeen so marked
that the courses first outlined have been greatly modified and further
improvement will doubtless be made from year to year. The guiding
principle should be that the technical agricultural studies fit local conditions
and meet tlie needs of the rural community to the fullest possible extent
in many of these schools, the teacher is expected to serve the farm
community m an advisory capacity. Vacation periods are spent in visitine
farmers, studying their methods and conducting tests that bear directlv on
their soil, crop and livestock problems.

Those seeking detailed information on the introduction of agriculture
into secondary schools and the most effective way of conducting it are
referred to bulletins issued by the States Relation Service of the United
States Department of Agriculture, the United States Department of
iiducation, and State Department of Education, and the State Agricultural
College and FJxperiment Station.

Agricultural CoUeges.— In 1821, R. H. Gardner of Maine secured from
the state legislature an appropriation of $1000 to aid in maintaining an
institution that would give farmers and mechanics a scientific training for
their occupation. Students were first received in this institution in 1823
Three years later there was established at Derby, Conn., an agricultural
school that proved successful and was obliged to increase its accommoda-
tions for students. Between 1845 and 1850 a number of agricultural colleges
were established as private enterprises in New York State and Connecticut
In 1846 Yale College established a chair of Agricultural Chemistry and
Vegetable and Animal Physiology, and the demand for teachers in these
subjects became sufficient in 1848 to justify establishing a course for their
preparation at this institution.

Agricultural colleges which have proven i)ermanent were opened in
Michigan in 1857 and in Maryland and Pennsylvania in 1859. State
agricultural colleges were opened in Iowa and Minnesota in 1858.

A second bill, also introduced by Senator Morrill, passe<l Congre&s
in 1890, provided for an annual appropriation of $15,000 to each state and
territory, to be used for instruction in these coUegea This amount was

II'

INTENTIONAL SECOND EXPOSURE

1050

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

increased $1000 annually for ten years, since which time it has remained
at $25,000.

At present there is a strong agricultural and mechanical college in
every state in the Union and in sixteen states an additional institution
IS mamtamed for colored students. In one state only, viz., Massachusetts
IS there a college teaching agriculture only. In a number of the states'
such as Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Missouri, California and a few
others, the college of agriculture is affiliated with the state university. In
most of the states, the Federal appropriation is multiplied several times
by state appropriations. In a few states, support of the institutions is
provided for by a mill tax. Most of them, however, are dependent on
direct appropriations for buildings and maintenance. These are made
annually or biennially at the pleasure of the legislature.

Agricultural Experiment Stations.— The first experiment station in
North America receiving state aid was established in 1875, at Meriden,
Conn. The success attending the first station attracted suflScient attention
throughout the country to warrant the establishment of similar stations
in other states. The second station was established at Chapel Hill, N. C,
in 1877 in connection with the state university. Two years later one was
established at Cornell, N. Y. New Jersey followed in 1880 by establishing
a station in connection with Rutgers College.

The Hatch Act passed the United States Congress in 1887. This
provided $15,000 annually for each state to establish an agricultural experi-
ment station in connection with the land grant colleges, except in those
states where experiment stations had already been established as separate
institutions.

In 1907, the Hatch appropriation was supplemented by the passage
of the Adams bill, which provided $15,000 annually to each state or terri-
tory, this sum to be used in agricultural research.

The forces of the agricultural colleges and experiment stations
should be utilized as fully as possible by farmers, in order that their
sons and daughters may be educated to a better citizenship and higher
efficiency.

Farmers' Institutes.— These grew out of meetings held at a com-
paratively early date under the auspices of local agricultural societies.
This form of education did not become regularly established until the
organization of the agricultural colleges in 1862. At this time they began
to receive state aid. These institutes are conducted under the direction
of the state board of agriculture or the state agricultural college. They
are usually held during the winter months and, as a rule, each institute
continues from two to four days.

In 1885, Wisconsin appointed a Superintendent of Farmers' Institutes.
Other states soon followed the example of Wisconsin and now nearly every
state has a Director or Superintendent of Farmers' Institutes. In 1910,
there were 5651 regular institutes having an aggregate of over 16,000

EDUCATION AND INFORMATION

1051

sessions and a total attendance of nearly 3,000,000 persons. For the same
year the appropriations for institutes aggregated $432,000.

The weakest point in the institute lies in the failure to put the plat-
form teachmg mto practice. Another defect has been the absence of an
attempt to do for the woman in the farm home what it has so long tried
to do for the man in the field. There is as great need for work of this
kmd for the woman as for the man in the country, and the institute that
serves both sexes more thah doubles its efliciency. Happily, these two
defects are now being corrected in a number of the states. If the institute
IS to contmue to be a living force among farmers, it must meet the needs
of all rural communities as fully as possible. It is well to forget these
defects and improve the institute work in every possible way.

The teachings of the institute force should be interesting and apply to
the problems of the farm, farm home and rural community. It may serve
a good purpose by carrying to the farmer the findings of the state experi-
ment station. For this reason tliere are advantages in placing this work
under the direction of the agricultural college and experiment station.
It is a form of extension work that fits well with the research and teaching
of the college and experiment station.

Agricultural Fairs.— This form of agricultural education and enter-
tainment had its inception in this country in the fairs held on market days
in Washington, D. C, as early as 1804. A similar fair was started at
Pittsfield, Mass., in 1807.

An investigation in 1909 showed over 1200 county agricultural fair
associations in the United States at that time. The membership was
approximately 250,000. The annual gross receipts was $6,500,000, and
expenditures for premiums $2,500,000.

In addition to the county fairs, most of the states maintain a state
fair. These are usually on a larger scale, having extensive grounds a^d
numerous and commodious buildings for the housing of livestock and
exhibits.

Fairs serve as effective educational, stimulating and advertising
agencies for both the farmer and merchant. They also afford social and
amusement features. Often the last-mentioned feature is allowed to
become too prominent and sometimes lowers the tone and reflects dis-
credit on the fair.

Agricultural Societies. — The first agricultural societies were formed
between 1785 and 1794, as follows: 1785, Society for Promotion of Agricul-
ture, Charleston, S. C. ; same year, Philadelphia Society for Promotion of
Agriculture; 1791, New York Society for Promotion of Agriculture, Arts
and Manufactures; 1792, Massachusetts Society for Agricultural Promo-
tion; 1794, Society for the Promotion of Agriculture in Connecticut.
These early agricultural societies were soon followed by the formation
of many others in different sections of the country. In the majority
of cases, city men took the initiative in the formation of societies for

.! \

' 'I

1052

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the promotion of agriculture. Then, as now, far-sighted men realized
that the welfare of the country was based' largely on the prosperity of
the farmers.

The first attempt to form a national agricultural organization was
made in Washington, in 1841. This attempt was unsuccessful, and it
was not until after the Civil War that the first national agricultural society
was successfully launched. This was estabUshed in 1866 and known as
the National Grange or Patrons of Husbandry. The organization has for
its chief objects the promotion of the welfare of the agricultural classes
through better legislation, better systems of agricultural education and
co-operation along all lines, especially with reference to buying and selling
products. Under its auspices many co-operative stores have been estab-
lished. For various reasons many of these have failed, although some
have been successful. Co-operative creameries and co-operative whole-
sale buying and selling through local agents have been more successful.

At this time the country has need of the conservative advice and
constructive criticism of the conservative farmer on many of the live issues
of the day. We find the grange in both its state and national meetings
discussing such questions as public roads, taxation, rural education, co-oper-
ation, woman suffrage and many other of the issues that conern the nation
at large.

In recent years farmers' clubs in large numbers have been organized
in all sections of the country and these have proven successful chiefly
because the membership covers a small area. This enables the club to
consider matters that are of practical local interest to all its members, and
affords an opportunity to discuss topics at close range. Such clubs have
been instrumental in advancing the welfare of the neighborhood through
securing postal routes, telephone lines, the introduction of pure-bred
stQck and pure-bred seeds, and various other improvements.

These various agricultural societies frequently carry with them social
advantages, and the bringing of farmers together helps to overcome the
conservativism for which they are frequently criticised.

Extension Work. — This consists in conveying information to the
people at large, whether it be from the university, the college, the experi-
ment station or other sources of information. In no field has extension
developed more rapidly than in agriculture. This information may be
conveyed through circulars and bulletins, by means of correspondence
lessons, through lectures delivered by college and experiment station mem-
bers or by means of the farmers' institutes. More recently these methods
have been very effectively supplemented by means of the county farm
advisor. While the old method carried information, it too frequently
failed to get it put into operation. The last-mentioned method of extension
overcomes this more fully than any of those previously used.

The passage of the Smith-Lever Bill by the United States Congress
has given the farm advisory work financial support that far exceeds that

EDUCATION AND INFORMATION

1053

ever before given by the Federal Government to any form of education.
Ihis withm a few years, will amount to over $4,000,000 annually, which
must, ac^rdmg to the act, be met with an equal amount from the several
states. This will ultimately make possible the placing of trained agricul-
turists in every one of the three thousand counties in the United States
Extension Representatives.— In farming, knowledge is quite as import-
ant as experience. There are many things that the farmer should know
which he has not learned by experience, no matter how many years he
may have been farming, there are many valuable things that he could
learn from those who are not farmers. Dr. Babcock was not a farmer but
he gave to the farmer the milk test which bears his name, and which has
done more than any one thing to improve the yield of milk and butter-fat
per cow all over the United States. This simple test that may be used
by any farmer, enables him to accurately measure the yield of each cow
with but httle time and expense. With the knowledge thus secured,
the farmer is able to decide which cows are profitable and which are
unprofitable.

The advantages of the extension representative, located permanently
in a county, lie in his being able to become acquainted with the people
and their problems. If he is the right man for the position, he soon secures
the confidence of the people with whom he works, and this is the first
essential in his success. He cannot be expected to solve all of the problems
that may be presented, but he should know where to secure expert advice
on those which he is unable to solve by himself.

It has so far been a principle in the development of this type of exten-
sion that men would be placed only in the counties where the people were
ready for this kind of work and willing to aid in financing it. To attempt
to force this type of advice on unwilling people only invites failure. So
far, many counties have requested the work, and the great difficulty has
been to find the type of men who could successfully fill the positions.
There are many lines of work that such a representative can undertake.
Among these may be mentioned tests of varieties of the different crops
best adapted to local conditions, methods of testing seed corn and other
seeds for germination, the treatment of seeds for smut and potatoes for
scab. Much good can be done l)y showing the farmers how to compute
feeding rations and advising them relative to the home mixing of fertilizers
and the amount and form of lime that may be most economically used.
Cow testing associations may be formed and boys' and girls' corn clubs,
pig clubs, etc., organized.

Agricultural Publications.— The earliest publications in the interest
of agriculture in this country consisted of reports of the early agricultural
societies. As early as 1792 the New York Society published a volume on
its transactions and five years later the trustees of the Massachusetts
Society began a series of pamphlets on agricultural topics which after-
wards developed into a journal.

\ ::

1054

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The first distinctively agricultural periodical in America was the
American Farmer^ started in Baltimore in 1819. The century has seen a
wonderful growi^h in the development of publications bearing upon the
occupation of farming. In fact, there has been such a wealth of literature
that it is often a problem to know what to select for one's library.

Every farmer should take one or more agricultural journals that deal
most directly with the enterprises in which he is engaged. He should also
secure and make use of many of the free publications that are issued by his
state experiment station and by the National Department of Agriculture.

f^i^^^£ION AND INFORMATION

Exhibit of Corn and Vegetables Grown by Members of a Boys' Club.

He should see that his name is on the mailing list of the experiment station
of the state in which he resides. The bulletins and circulars issued by his
home station are more likely to deal directly with his problems than those
from other states. Frequently, he will learn of particular bulletins from
stations in other states that bear directly on his enterprises and these he
may secure by addressing a letter to the director of the station concerned.
The publications of the national department are classified into Journal
of Research, departmenb bulletins and farmers' bulletins. The farmers'
bulletins are issued in large editions and are free to all farmers. The
department bulletins are printed in small editions and are sent free to
farmers especially interested as long as the department supply lasts.
After this, they may be purchased from the Superintendent of Public

1055

Having this hst they may send for those that will be of interest to them

acceit a'wTf' " "'"r^.^ T" '" ^*^^^ ^^^P^*--' "houM have
access to a hbrary. It is more difficult to establish and maintain librarip,

of much consequence in the country than it is in villages or dS Tn th!
country Vie school or grange should be the agencrthrough whi^h^s^^^^^^^
libraries could be established. With the large number of avluable W
publications a library of much value can be assembled V^^hhSle^^^^^^^^^

To overcome the difficulties in estal^lishing libraries in the countn^
the movmg library has recently been inaugurated. This is a case of books
varymg in number and consisting of those pertaining to variou phases o
arming, as well as some of fiction. A set of books is supplied La nehrh
borhood, where it is placed in charge of an individual The Lks mav
be secured by neighbors, returned and others secured untilthe St has
been read by most of those interested. It is then returned to the Sntral
library and another set secured;

Boys' and Gifls' Clubs.-The object of these clubs is to interest the

iMere^t" tlfe mlb'' '"™1 '"^T ^' *'^ ^^™' ^"^ '" ^^er to create
interest the members are induced to compete for prizes. This is the

stimulus which nduces the boy or giri to study the problem in wh ^h he
IS engaged Prizes are offered for the largest yield of corn or potatoes on
an acre or fraction of an acre of-ground. This induces the boy to use the
best seed that he can secure, t« pre,xare the ground in the best possible
v.ay, and use the manure or kind of fertilizer that will give best results.
f«kpn [nf. of economic production, as well as large yield, is generally
token into consideration m this connection. A careful presentation of the
method of procedure is also taken into account. In a similar way, giris
compete in the growing of tomatoes or other vegetables.

These clubs to be effective should be under the direction of a com-
petent teacher who can guide and train the participants. The boys and
girls in the country are excellent material on which those interested in
agricultural betterment can work. These clubs have not only a direct
stimulating and educational effect, but they often pave the way for a higher
education. "Knowledge is power" applies to the man on the farm with
as much force as to the man in any other occupation. Farm surveys have
shown that farmers .vith college training are making larger incomes than
those whose schooling ended in the high school. Those who completed

■

"'^•''. ;'."•' r'""

■itM\ '

1054

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

The first distinctively agricultural periodical in America was the
American Fanner, started in Baltimore in 1819. The century has seen a
wonderful growth in the development of publications bearing upon the
occupation of farming. In fact, there has been such a wealth of literature
that it is often a problem to know what to select for one's library.

Every farmer should take one or more agricultural journals that deal
most directly with the enteri)rises in whicli he is engaged. He should also
secure and make use of many of the free publications that are issued by his
state experiment station and by the National Department of Agriculture.

f.5J^^^^^;iON AND INFORMATION

Exhibit of Corn and Vegetables Grown by Members of a Boys' Club.

He sliould see that his name is on the malHng list of the ex])eriment station
of the state in which he resides. The bulletins and circulars issued by his
home station are more likely to deal directly with his problems than those
from other states. Frequently, he will learn of ])arti(;ular bulletins from
stations in other states that bear directly on his enter])rises and these he
may securer by addressing a letter to the director of the station concerned.
Th(i publications of the national department are classified into Journal
of Research f department l)ulletins and farmers' bulletins. The farmers'
bulletins are issued in large editions and are free to all farmers. Th(*
department bulletins are printed in small editions and are sent free to
farmers especially interested as long as the department supply lasts.
After this, they may be purchased from the Superintendent of Public

^1055

and t.tle of all do,^rt.„ent bulletins and ^nJ.^tZZZXZ:^^
Having th,s list they nmy send for those that will he of ir, "rest to them'

aceesttTu W ™lt?' " "'"r^.^ T '" "*^^^^ -cupations "houkl W
actebs to a lil)rary. It is more difficult to establish and maintain librario,

of much consequence in the countiy than it is in villagesrci Ss In tW
country t^ie school or grange should be the agency through which sm^
libraries could be established. With the large number of avlnableTei
publications a library of much value can be a'ssemblecrj h S^^^^^^^^^^

To overcome the difficulties in establishing libraries in 1 e coun rv
the movmg library has recently been inaugurated. This is a case of booT^
varymg in number and consisting of those pertaining to variou phases of
fanning, as well as some of fiction. A set of books is supplieT o a neTah
borhood, where it is placed in charge of an individual. The books mav
be secured by neighbors, returned and others secured untilthe set has
een read by most of those interested. It is then returned to the cent 'l
library and another set secured. teniiai

hov«^o?f ' ^""^ ^^}u ^"^'^•-The object of these clubs is to interest the

iMe rest I'e ml '' '"""'", '"^T "' '''' ^^'™' -'» ^ -der to create
interest the members are induced to compete for prizes. This is the

timulus which induces the boy or girl to study the problem in which lie

Ll!To)J!r r "*'"'^'"'' *'^'^'•^^^* ^''^'<' «f ^«™ - P°t-toes on
besrs^ed thnf '. ''^ '''' 1 ^'■"""^'- "^'"^ '"^'"''^^ *he boy to use the
wav \nH u^W "''" ««'^"'-«' t« prepare the gnnind in the best possible

S'Drolom <'!"''""'■' "' 'V'" -"^ ^'''^'''' *^'"* ^^'" ^'^« best results,
tikpn [n "f economic production, as well as large yield, is generally

taken mto consideration m this connection. A careful presentation of the
method of procedure is also taken into account. In a similar way, girls
compete in the growing of tomatoes or other vegetables

These clubs to be effective should be under the direction of a com-
petent teacher who can guide and train the participants. The boys and
girls in the country are excellent material on which those interested in
agricuKural betterment can work. These clubs have not only a direct
stimu at.ng and educational effect, but they often pave the way for a higher
education Knowledge is power" applies to the man on the farm with
as much force as to the man in any other occupation. Farm surveys have
shown that farmers with college training are making larger incomes than
those xvhose schooling ended in the high school. Those who completed

l.'l

1056

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the high school are making more than those whose school days ended with
the grades. In one county in New York, the average labor income of 165
farmers who had attended high school was $304 more than the average for
398 farmers none of whom had gone beyond the district school. Three
hundred dollars is 5 per cent interest on $6000. This investigation
mdicates that a high school training is worth $6000 to one engaged in

Members of a Boys' Corn Club at Tyler, Tex.i
A real school of agriculture.

farming. Which would you prefer for your boy, a high school training
or $6000?

Education is much more essential now in farming than it was twenty-
five years ago. One preparing for farming is preparing not only for the
present but for forty years of active service, each succeeding year of which
will demonstrate the greater need of education.

REFERENCES

;;Country Life Movement;" ''Outlook to Nature ;'' "State and the Farmer/* Bailey.
Farm Boys and Girls;- "Training the Boy;- "Training the Girl;- "The Industrial
Education of the Boy;- "The Industrial Education of the Girl.- McKeever.

1 Courtesy of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Year-Book 1909.

-^^iL^AlI:^£_i£DlN F O R M A T I O N

1057

Burkett.

''&!i;rff7°'"T°T;" Anderson. '

;;Training of &eri^ ^^^ ''' '^^''"^'"y ««hools.) Hunt and
"F?L *■.*!?? American Farmer." Green

U S npn^T ^'^•"°^" ''"'' '" '^'"''^''''^ Agriculture in

385.

408.

409.

422.

428.

468.

521.

562.

566.

586.

617.

638.

'nr^JJ \r^^\' , ^^riculture:
^f2f 1^5"^ ^'^^ Agricultural Clubs -
Schoo Exercises in Plant Production -
School Lessons on Corn.-

-Tw''''^^^*'''''.^^^^ on Southern Farms -

:|^X^rS?iruS -'""""^ ^"™'«^ ^-^ «*ooi."

Canning Tomatoes in Clubs -
'Bo~ Clubs "°^^' '""^ ^^'«' P°"l*^y Clubs."

'Kits Mfn ''? '^"^^ •'^ ^«^-'*-"
Laboratory Exercises in Farm Mechanics."

' >i

I <i

* .

f
\

' ",-?.f;.-fi,'';,

F.VMmHwk'r fM>.'^

1056

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

the higfi school are making more than those whose school days ended with
the grades. In one county in New York, the average labor income of 165
farmers who had attended high school was $304 more than the average for
398 farmers none of whom had gone beyond the districfc school. Three
hundred dollars is 5 per cent interest on $6000. This investigation
mdicates that a high school training is worth $6000 to one engaged in

mm.

\:-..^%.

It- j^

Members of a Roys' Corn Club at Tyler, Tex.i
A real school of agriculture.

farming. Which would you prefer for your boy, a high school training
or $6000?

p]ducation is much more essential now in farming than it was twenty-
five years ago. One preparing for farming is preparing not only for the
present l)ut for forty years of active service, each succeeding year of which
will demonstrate the greater need of education.

REFERENCES

"Country Life Movement;" ''Outlook to Nature;" "State and the Farmer." Bailey.
'Farm Boys and Girls;" "Training the Boy;" "Training the Girl;" "The Industrial
Education of the Boy;" "The Industrial Education of the Girl." McKeever.

1 Courtesy of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Year-Book 1909.

1 057

;;Farmer of Tomorrow." Anderson '

;;frLinbg o?Eeri^^ M^armal for 'Secondary Schools.) Hunt and Burkett.
-F«^ ^H'?^"'^^^^^^^'^^™er.'" Green

47wMi^^r^^li ^^^'' Willis ^''^•

TJni ^,^*^?^^ ^n Education." Todd

Nebrka"ElSS:,&^^^^ "SX^f ^ Yo""^ ^^ "-omo a Farmer-
Missouri Expfc. Station cfroul-ir 77 "v^^ ^?V*^*' ^^"'"'^l ^^hool." *''
Wisconsin Research Bulletin 34 "Sockl Anl-!^ ""J'T ^ *'"' Farmer."

F™s'3//et|nf U-'n^^^^^^^^^^^^ of H«r.. Communities."

Boys' and Girls' Agricultural Clubs."
"t^tT] ?'''«'"'''ses m Plant Production."
^ School Lessons on Corn "

Demonstration Work on Southern Farms "
::£X'n'Sa1Su^^-«-^ -^ ^^ the Rural School."
Canning Tomatoes in Clubs."

"Bo^s" PiJ cVbs "°^'' '"' '^"'^' P°"lt'-y Clubs."
:>S"ooKZi frJo^/.? ''^"y °^ Agriculture."
"Laboratory Exercises in Farm Mechanics."

til"
r .

408.

409.

422.

428.

468.

521.

562.

566.

586.

617.

638.

9 {

III

TPfc

BOOK X

TABLES OF WEIGHTS, MEASURES AND
AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

(1059)

Table I.— Percentage of Total Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients

IN Feeding-Stuffs.

Feeding-stuff.

GRAINS AND SEEDS.

Total Dry

Matter,

per cent.

Cereals :

Dent corn

Corn meal

Corn and cob meal

Wheat .

Oats

Barley

Ry« •

Rice

Emmer (Spelt) . . . .
Legumes :

Field pea

Cowpea

Soy bean

Peanut

Oil-bearing seeds:

Flax seed

Cotton seed

Sunflower seed . . . .

. 1

89.4

85.0

84.9

89.5

89.6

89.2

91.3

87.6

92.0

85.0

85.4

88.3

92.5

90.8

89.7

91.4

Digestible Nutrients.

Protein,

per cent.

7.8 .

20.6

Carbohydrates,
per cent. '

66.8
64.3
60.0
67.5
49.2
65.3
69.4
79.2
70.3

49.3
54.9
23.3
13.7

17.1
30.0
29.7

Fat,
per cent.

3
5
9
5
3
6
2
4
0

0.4

1.1

14.6

35.6

29.0
17.3
18.2

Nutritive
Ratio, 1:

9.8

10.8

15.1

8.1

6.7

8.2

7.6

12.5

7.5

2.5
3.4
1.9
3.7

4.0
5.5

4.8

( EREAL BY-PRODUCTS.

Gluten meal

Gluten feed

Germ oil meal

Corn bran

Hominy feed

Corncobs

Wheat bran

Wheat middlings (standard) . .

Wheat middlings (flour)

Red Dog flour

Oat hulls

Oat dust

Dried brewers' grains

Wet brewers' grains

Malt sprouts

Dried distillers' grains

90.5
90.8
91.4
90.6
90.4
89.3
88.1
88.8
90.0
90.1
92.6
93.5
91.3
23.0
90.5
92.4

20.0

20.

22.

42.5

6.1

1.9

52.8

2.9

2.8

38.8

10.8

4.0

52.5

4.8

10.5

60.5

7.4

11.3

44.8

• • •

89.6

42.0

2.5

4.0

45.7

4.5

4.3

53.6

4.1

3.7

57.0

3.4

4.0

38.5

0.6

30.6

32.8

2.3

7.5

32.2

6.0

2.3

9.4

1.7

2.7

46.0

4.4

2.4

39.7

11.6

2.9

OIL BY-PRODUCTS.

Linseed oil meal (O. P.)
Linseed oil meal (N. P.)

Cottonseed meal

Peanut cake

90.2
91.0
93 . 0
89.3
Corn germ cake 91.4

1
.2

15.8

(1061)

32.0
35.7
21.4
20.4

38.8

1.6
1.3
1.1
0.9
4.0

1062

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Table I.— Percentage op Total Dry Matter

PACKING HOUSE BY-PRODUCTS.

Feeding-stuff.

Total Dry

Matter,

per cent.

Digestible Nutrients.

Protein,
per cent.

Dried blood
Tankage
Meat scrap

Carbohydrates,
per cent.

MISCELLANEOUS CONCENTRATES.

Beet molasses .... I 7q

Cane molasses

Molasses beet pulp. ,
Dried beet pulp. ...
Molasses alfalfa feeci

Cows' milk

Skim milk ... i o

Buttermilk *..*.'.'...'..'.*.' 9

74.1
92.0
91.6

90,
12.

9
8
4
9

4.7
1.4
6.1
4.1
9.8
3.4
2.9
3.8

HAYS.

Legumes:

Ked clover

Mammoth clover
Alsike clover

Alfalfa

Soy bean

Cowpea

Grasses:

Timothy

Redtop

Blue grass

Bermuda grass . . .

Prairie grass

Cereals:

Oat

Barley

Millet

84.7
78.8
90.3
91.9
88.2
89.5

86.8
91.1
86.0
92.9
90.8

86.0
85.0
86.0

7.1
6.2

8.4
10.5
10.6

9.2

2.8
4.8
4.4
6.4
3.0

4.7
5.7
5.2

FODDER AND STOVER.

Corn fodder,
Corn stover.

83.3

81.8

2.4
1.9

STRAWS.

Oat

Wheat

Barley

Rye V.V.V.V.V.V.

— — ^— — — — T

92.

1.3
0.8
0.9
0.7

37.8
34.7
39.7
40.5
40.9
39.3

42.4
46.9
40.2
44.9
42.9

36.7
43.6
38.6

50.4
43.9

39.5
35.2
40.1
39.6

Fat,
per cent.

Nutritive
liatio, 1;

54.1

59.2

68.7

64.9

40.8

0.9

4.8

3.7

5.3

0.3

3.9

1.0

11.5

42.3

11.3

15.8

4.4

3.9

2.1

1.6

1.8
2.1
1.1
0.9
1.2
1.3

1.3
1.0
0.7
1.6
1.6

1.7
1.0
0.8

1.2
0.5

5.9
6.4
5.0
4.1
4.1
7.3

16.2

10.2

9.5

7.6

15.5

8.6
8.0

7.8

22.1
23.7

0.8

31.8

0.4

45.1

0.6

46.0

0.4

57.9

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

1063

Table I.~Percentage of Total Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients

IN Feeding-Stuffs {Continued).

pasture or forage, and soiling crops.

Feeding-stuff.

Corn

Corn and soy bean

Grasses:

Blue grass ....

Timothy

Orchard grass .

Bermuda grass

Green corn

Sorghum

Rye

Rape

Legumes:

Red clover ....

Alsike clover. .

Alfalfa

Cowpea

Soy bean

Total Dry
Matter,
percent.

Digestible Nutrients.

protein,
per cent.

34.9
38.4
27.0
28.3
21.0
20.6
23.4
14.3

29.2
25.2

28.2
16.4
24.9

2.8
1.5
1.2
1.3
0.9
0.6
2.1
2.0

2.9
2.6
3.6
1.8
3.1

Carbohydrates,
per cent.

SILAGE.

26.4

24.0

1.4
1.6

ROOTS.

Mangel . . .
Rutabaga.
Sugar beet

Carrot

Potato. . .

1.0
1.0
1.3
0.8
1.1

19.7
19.9
13.4
13.4
12.2
11.6
14.1
8.2

13.6
11.4
12.1

8.7
11.0

14.2
13.2

5.5

8.1

9.8

7.7

15.7

Fat,
per cent.

Nutritive
Ratio, 1:

0.8
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.4
0.2

0.7
0.5
0.4
0.2
0.5

0.7
0.7

0.2
0.2
0.1
0.3
0.1

7.7
14.1
12.1
11.0
14.6
20.5
7.1
4.3

5.7
4.8
3.6
5.1
3.9

11.3
9.3

5.9

8.5

7.7

10.5

14.5

1064

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Table II.-Dhy Matter, Digestible PaoTEm, and Net Energy per ino
^ Pounds of Feed. (Armsby.) '^'''ergy per lOO

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

1065

Feeding-stuflf.

Green fodder and silace:

Alfalfa ^

Clover, red

Corn fodder, green

Corn silage

Hungarian grasa

Rape

Rye '.'.'.'///.['.'.

Timothy

Hay and dry coarse fodciers:

Alfalfa hay

Clover hay, red

Corn forage, field cured . .

Corn stover, field cured

Cowpea hay

Hungarian hay

Oat hay

Soy bean hay

Timothy hay

Straws:

Oat straw

Rye straw

Wheat straw

Roots and tubers:

Carrots

Mangels

Potatoes

Rutabagas

Turnips

Grains:

Barley

Corn

Corn and cob meal .

Oats

Pea meal

Rye ::;;;;

Wheat

By-products:

Brewers' grains, dried

Brewers' grains, wet

Buckwheat middlings

Cottonseed meal

Distillers' grains, dried :

Principally corn

Principally rye

Gluten feed, dry

Gluten meal, Buffalo.

Gluten meal, Chicago

Linseed meal, O. P

Linseed meal, N. P

Malt sprouts

Rye bran

Sugar beet pulp, fresh .. .

Sugar beet pulp, dried

Wheat bran

Wheat middlings •' . .

Total Dry Mat
ter, pounds.

28.2

2.50

29.2

2.21

20.7

0.41

25.6

1.21

28.9

1.33

14.3

2.16

23.4

1.44

38.4

1.04

91.6

6.93

84.7

5.41

57.8

2.13

59.5

1.80

89.3

8.57

92.3

3.00

84.0

2.59

88.7

7.68

86.8

2.05

90.8

1.09

92.9

0.63

90.4

0.37

11.4

0.37

9.1

0.14

21.1

0.45

11.4

0.88

9.4

0.22

89.1

8.37

89.1

6.79

84.9

4.53

89.0

8.36

89.5

16.77

88.4

8.12

89.5

8.90

92.0

19.04

24.3

3.81

88.2

22.34

91.8

35.15

93.0

21.93

93.2

10.38

91.9

19.95

91.8

21.56

90.5

33.09

90.8

27.54

90.1

29.26

89.8

12.36

88.2

11.35

10.1

0.63

93.6

6.80

88.1

10.21

84.0

12.79

Digestible Pro- I Net Energy
tern, pounds. therms.

12.45
16.17
12.44
16.56
14.76
11.43
11.63
19.08

34.41

34.74

30.53

26.53

40.76

44.03

26.97

38.65

33.56

21.21
20.87
16.56

7.82
4.62
18.05
8.00
5.74

80.75
88.84
72.05
66.27
71.75
81.72
82.63

60.01
14.82
75.92
84.20

79.23

60.93

79.32

88.80

78.49

78.92

74.67

46.33

56 . 65

7.77

60.10

48 . 23

77.65

Table III.— Wolff-Lehmann Feeding Standards
(Showing amounts of nutrients per day per 1000 pounds hve weight.)

Animal.

Oxen, at rest in stall

Fattening cattle:

First period

Second period ....
Third period

Milch cows, when yielding daily

1 1 .0 pounds of milk

16.6 pounds of milk

22.0 pounds of milk

27.5 pounds of milk

Sheep:

Coarse wool
Fine wool . . .

Breeding ewes, with lambs,

Fattening sheep:

First period

Second period

Horses :

Light work

Medium work. .

Heavy work

Brood sows

Fattening swine:
First period . . .
Second period.
Third period . .

Growing cattle (dairy bn^eds) :
2-3 months, 150 pounds. . . .
3-6 months, 300 pounds . . . .
6-12 months, 500 pounds. . .

12-18 months, 700 pounds. . .

18-24 months, 900 pounds. . .

Growing cattle (beef breeds) :
2-3 months, 160 pounds. . . .
3-6 months, 330 pounds . . . .
&-12 months, 550 pounds . . .

12-18 months, 750 pounds. . .

18-24 months, 950 pounds . . .

Growing sheep (nuitton breeds):

4-6 months, (50 i)ounds

6-8 months, 80 pounds

8-11 months, 100 pounds. . .

11-15 months, 120 pounds. . .

15-20 months, 150 pounds. . .

Total Dry
Matter,
pounds.

30
30
26

25
27
29
32

20
23

20
24
26

36
32
25

23
24
27
26
26

23
24
25
24
24

2()
26
24
23
22

Digestible Digestible ! Digestible

Protein,
pounds.

Carbohydrates,
pounds.

0.7

2.5
3.0
2.7

1.6
2.0
2.5
3.3

1.2
1.5

2.9

3.0
3.5

1.5
2.0
2.5

2.5

4.5
4.0
2.7

4.0
3.0
2.0
1.8
1.5

4.2
3.5
2.5
2.0
1.8

4.4
3.5
3.0
2.2
2.0

8.0

15.0
14.5
15.0

10.0
11.0
13.0
13.0

10.5
12.0

15.0

15.0
14.5

9.5
11.0
13.3

15.5

25.0
24.0
18.0

13.0
12.8
12.5
12.5
12.0

13.0
12.8
13.2
12.5
12.0

15.5
15.0
14.3
12.6
12.0

Fat,
pounds.

0.1

0.5
0.7
0.7

0.3
0.4
0.5
0.8

0.2
0.3

0.5

0.5
0.6

0.4
0.6
0.8

0.4

0.7
0.5
0.4

2.0
1.0
0.5
0.4
0.3

2.0
1.5
0.7
0.5
0.4

0.9
0.7
0.5
0.5
0.4

Nutritive
Ratio, 1;

11.8

6.5
5.4
6.2

6.7
6.0
5.7
4.5

9.1

8.5

5.6

5.4
4.5

7.0
6.2
6.0

6.6

5.0
6.3
7.0

4.5
5.1
6.8
7.5

8.5

4.2
4.7
6.0
6.8

7.2

4.0
4.8
5.2
6.3
6.5

1066

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Table III.—Wqlff-Lehmann Feeding Standards {Continued),

Animal.

Growing sheep (wool breeds) :

4-6 months, 60 pounds

6-8 months, 75 pounds

8-11 months, 80 pounds.

11-15 months, 90 pounds.

15-20 months, 100 pounds.

Growing swine (breeding stock) :

2-3 months, 50 pounds

3-5 months, 100 pounds

5-6 months, 120 pounds

6-8 months, 200 pounds

8-12 months, 250 pounds. . .

Growing fattening swine:

2-3 months, 50 pounds

3-5 months, 100 pounds. . . .
5-6 months, 150 pounds. . . .
6-8 months, 200 pounds ....
9-12 months, 300 pounds . . .

Total Dry
Matter,
pounds.

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

25
25
23
22
22

44
35
32

28
25

44
35
33
30
26

3.4

2.8
2.1
1.8
1.5

7.6
4.8
3.7
2.8
2.1

7.6
5.0
4.3
3.6
3.0

Digestible

Carbohydrates,

pounds.

15.4
13.8
11.5
11.2
10.8

28.0
22.5
21.3

18.7
15.3

28.0
23.1
22.3
20.5
18.3

Digestible

Fat,
pounds.

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3

1.0
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.2

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.3

Table IV.—

Armsby Feeding Standards.*

FOR maintenance.

Cattle.

Live
Weight,
pounds.

150

250

5()P

750

1000

1250

1500

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

0.15
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.65

Net

Energy,
therms.

Horses.

1.7

2.4

3.8

4.95

6.0

7.0

7.9

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

Net
Energy,
therms.

Sheep.

Live
Woight.
pounds.

0.3

2.0

0.4

2.8

0.6

4.4

0.8

5.8

1.0

7.0

1.2

8.15

1.3

9.2

100

120

140

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

0.03'

0.05

0.07

0.09

0.10

0.11

0.13

FOR GROWTH.

Nutritive
Ratio, 1:

5.0
5.4
6.0
7.0

7.7

4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
7.5

4.0
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.4

Net
Energy,
therms.

0.30
0.54
0.71
0.87
1.00
1.13
1.25

Cattle.

Sheep.

Age,
months.

Live
Weight ,
pounds.

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

Energy

Value,

therms.

Age,
months.

Live
Weight,
pounds.

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

Energy

Value,

therms.

18
24
30

275
425
650
850
1000
1100

1.10

1.30
1.65
1.70
1.75
1.65

5.0
6.0
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.0

9
12
15

110

130

145

0.30
0.25
0.23
0.23
0.22

1.30
1.40
1.40
1.50
1.60

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

1067

Table IV.— Armsby Feeding Standards* {Continued),

FOR fattening.

Cattle.

Live
Weight,
pounds.

250

425

500

650

750

850

1000

1100

1250

1500

Digestible
Protein,
pounds.

1.1

1.3
1.5
1.7

Net Energy,
therms.

1
1

,7
7

1.8
1.7

1
1

6
5

2. 4 H- (3. 5 X daily gain)

3.4 +

3.8-f "

4.5 +
5.0 +
5.4 +
6.0 +
6.4 +
7.0 +
7.9 +

(t
tt
tt
tt
tt
tt

Live

Digestible

Weight.

Protein.

pounds.

• • • •

0.30

0.28

0.25

100

0.24

110

0.23

120

0.23

130

0.23

140

0.22

145

0.22

Sheep.

Net Energy,
therms.

0. 54 + (3. 5 X daily gain)
0.70+ ' '^

0.79 +

0.87 +

0.94 +

1.00 +

1.06 +

1.13 +

1.19 +

1.25 +

1.28 +

* Modified from Armsby's original table for the sake of simplicity.

Table V. — Haecker's Standard for Milk Production.
Digestible nutrients for the production of one pound of milk.

Fat in

Milk,

per cent.

2.5

2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2

3
4
5

7
8
9
0

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7

Protein,
pounds.

0 . 0446
0.0451
0 . 0455
0.0460
0 . 0464
0 . 0469
0 . 0474
0 . 0478
0 . 0483
0 . 0486
0 . 0492
0.0501
0.0511
0 . 0520
0 . 0530
0 . 0539
0 . 0546
0 0553
0 . 0558
0 . 0565
0 . 0572
0 . 0579
0 . 0584

Carbohydrates,
pounds.

0.176

0.180

0.185

0.190

0.194

0.199

0.203

0.207

0.212

0.216

0.221

0.225

0.229

0.234

0.238

0.242

0.247

0.251

0.255

0 . 260

0.264

0.268

0.272

Fat,
pounds.

Fat in

Milk.

per cent.

O.Olol

0.0155

0.0159

0.0163

0.0166

0.0170

0.0174

0.0178

0.0181

0.0185

0.0189

0.0193

0.0196

0 . 0200

0 . 0204

0 . 0208

0.0211

0.0215

0.0218

0 . 0222

0 . 0226

0 . 0230

0 . 0233

4.8

4.9

5.0

5.1

5.2

5.3

5.4

5.5

5.6

5.7

5.8

5.9

6.0

6.1

6.2

6
6

3
4

6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
7.0

Protein,
pounds.

0.0591
0 . 0597
0.0604
0.0611
0.0618
0.0625
0 . 0632
0 . 0639
0 . 0644
0.0651
0 . 0656
0 . 0663
0 . 0668
0 . 0679
0 . 0689
0.0700
0.0710
0.0721
0 . 0724
0 . 0728
0.0731
0 . 0735
0 . 0738

Carbohydrates,
pounds.

0.276

0.280

0.284

0.288

0.291

0.295

0.299

0.302

0.307

0.310

0.314

0.318

0.322

0.326

0.330

0.334

0.338

0.342

0.345

0 . 349

0.353

0.357

0 . 359

Fat.
pounds.

0 . 0236
0.0240
Q . 0243
0 . 0247
0 . 0250
0 . 0253
0 . 0256
0 . 0259
0 . 0263
0 . 0266
0 . 0269
0.0273
0 . 0276
0 . 0279
0 . 0283
0 . 0286
0 . 0289
0 . 0293
0 . 0296
0 . 0299
0 . 0302
0 . 0305
0 . 0308

* Modified from Armsby's original table for the sake of simplicity.

ii^iWm

1Q68

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Table VI.— Percentage Composi

Crop.

TioN OF Agricultural Products.

11.5

Corn, dent

Corn, flint

Corn, sweet

Corn meal

Corn cob

Corn and cob meal

Corn bran

Corn germ

Hominy chops

Germ meal

Dried starch and sugar feed

Starch feed, wet

Maize feed, Chicago ........'."

Grano-gluten

Cream gluten

Gluten meal

Gluten feed

Wheat, all analyses ......

Wheat, spring

Wheat, winter

Flour, high grade

Flour, low grade

Flour, dark feeding.

Bran, all analyses

Bran, spring wheat ^

Bran, winter wheat . . 190

Middhngs ! I; ?

ohorts

Wheat screenings. ...

Rye

Rye flour

Rye bran

Rye shorts

Barley

Barley meal .....

Barley screenings

Brewers' grains, wet ......

Brewers' grains, dried

Malt sprouts

Oats

Oat meal

Oat feed

Oat dust

Oat hulls

Rjce " ■ ■ I j.^ .

Rice meal ' 1 n o

Rice hulls .".'.'......■.'.■■■ '^

Rice bran

Rice poHsh

Buckwheat

Buckwheat flour

Buckwheat hulls

Buckwheat bran

Buckwheat shorts ....

Buckwheat middhngs.
Sorghum seed

Nitrogen-
Free
Extract.

Ether
Extract.

70.4

70.1

66.8

68.7

54.9

64.8

62.2

64.0

64.5

62.5

54.8

22.0

52.7

33.4

39 0

46.5

51.2

71.9

71.2

72.0

70.0

63.3

56.2

53.9

54.5

53.7

60.4

56 . 8

65.1

72 . 5

78.3

63.8

59.9

69.8

66.3

61.8

12.5

51.7

48.5

59.7

67.4

59.4

50.2

52.1

79.2

51.2

38 . 6

49.9

58 . 0

64.5

75.8

35 . 3

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

1069

Table VI. -Percentage Composition of Aoricultuhal Products {CorUinued)

Crop.

Broom-corn seed ....

Kaflir seed . .

Millet seed

Hungarian grass seed

Flaxseed

Flaxseed, ground .

Linseed meal, old process.
Linseed meal, new process

Cotton seed

Cotton seed, roasted

Cottonseed meal

Cottonseed hulls

Cottonseed kernels (no hulls)

Cocoanut cake

Palm nut meal

Sunflower seed

Sunflower seed cake
Peanut kernels (no hulls)

Peanut meal

Rape seed cake.

Pea meal

Soy bean

Cowpea

Horse bean

Corn fodder, field curetl
Corn stover, field cured
Corn husks, field cured
Corn leaves, field cured

Corn fodder, green

Dent varieties, green

Dent, kernels glazed green

Flint varieties, green

Flint, kernels glazed green
Sweet varieties, green ....
Leaves and husks, green
Stripped stalks, green . .

Hay from Grasses:

Mixetl grasses

Timothy, all analyses

Timothy, cut in full bloom
Timothy, cut soon after bloom . . .

Timothy, cut when near ripe

Orchard grass

Redtop, cut at difi'erent stages. . .

Redtop, cut in full bloom

Kentucky })lue grass

Kentucky blue grass, cut when seed

is in milk

Kentucky blue grass, cut when seed

is ripe

Hungarian grass

Meadow fescue

Indian rye grass

Perennial rye grass

Rowen (mixed)

27.8

6.4

5.8

7.7

6.0

7.5

20.0

6.8

7.0

8.5

6.9

7.5

14.0

7.9

10.1

16.6

6.8

11.6

23.8
27.7
25.9
30.5
25.4
22.5

1070

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Table VI.— Pekcentage Composition

Crop.

of^Agwcui^ural Products {Continued).

AT^^J ^^^ Grasses {Continued) •
Mixed grasses and clovers *

Barley hay, cut in milk

Oat hay, cut in milk

Swamp hay

Salt marsh hay

Wild oat grass

Buttercups

White daisy

Johnson grass i

Fresh Grass:

Pasture grass

Kentucky blue grass

limothy, different stages.
Orchard grass, in bloom

Itedtop, in bloom

Oat fodder

Rye fodder

Sorghum fodder

Barley fodder

Hungarian grass

Meadow fescue, in bloom

Italian rye grass, coming in bloom
i all oat gi-ass, in bloom

Japanese millet

Barnyard millet

Hay from Lecji mes:

Red clover

Red clover in bloom. . . . "
Red clover, mammoth

Alsike clover

AN'hite clover

Crimson clover

Japan clover

Alfalfa .'.".'.".'.'.'.'

Cowpea

Soy bean

Pea vine

Vetch .'.'.'.'.'."*

Serradella \

Flat |x?a

Peanut vines (no nuts)
Sainfoin

Fresh Legumes:
Red clover, different stage

Alsike clover

Crimson clover

Alfalfa .'.'.'.*.".'.'

Cowpea

Soy bean

Serradella

Horse bean

Flat pea

Watei

12.9
15.0
15.0
11.6
10.4
14.3

9.3
10.3
10.2

80.0

65.1

61.6

73.0

65.3

62.2

76.6

79.4

79.0

71.1

69.9

73.2

69.5

75.0

15.3
20.8
21.2
9.7
9.7
9.6
11.0
8.4
10.7
11.3
15.0
11.3
9.2
8.4
7.6
15.0

70.8

74.8

80.9

71.8

83.6

75.1

79.5

84.2

66.7

Aah.

5.5
4.2
5.2
6.7

7.7
3.8
5.6
6.6
6.1

2.0

2.8

2.1

2.0

2.3

2.5

1.8

1.1

1.8

1.7

1.8

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.9

6.2
6.6
6.1
8.3
8.3
8.6
8.5
7.4
7.5
7.2
6.7
7.9
7.2
7.9
10.8
7.3

12.3

12.4

10.7

12.8

15.7

15.2

13.8

14.3

16.6

15.4

13.7

17.0

15.2

22.9

10.7

14.8

2.1

4.4

2.0

3.9

1.7

3.1

2.7

4.8

1.7

2.4

2.6

4.0

3.2

2.7

1.2

2.8

2.9

8.7

Protein.

10.1
8.8
9.3
7.2
5.5
5.0
9.9
7.7
7.2

3.5

4.1

3.1

2.6

2.8

3.4

2.6

1.3

2.7

3.1

2.4

3.1

2.4

2.1

2.4

Crude
Fiber.

27.6

24.7

29.2

26.6

30.0

25.0

30.6

30.0

28.5

4.0
9.1
11.8
8.2
11.0
11.2
11.6
6.1
7.9
9.2
10.8
6.8
9.4
7.8
7.0

Nitrogen- 1

Free Ether

Extract. I Extract.

24.8

21.9

24.5

25.6

24.1

27.2

24.0

25.0

20.1

22.3

24.7

25.4

21.6

26.2

23.6

20.4

8.1
7.4
5.2
7.4
4.8
6.7
5.4
4.9
7.9

41.3

44.9

39.0

45.9

44.1

48.8

41.1

42.0

45.9

9.7
17.6
20.2
13.3
17.7
19.3
6.8
11.6
8.0
14.2
14.3
13.3
15.8
13.1
13.1

38.1

33.8

33.6

40.7

39 . 3

36.6

39.0

42.7

42.2

38.6

37.6

36.1

44.2

31.4

42.7

39.5

13.5
11.0

8.4
12.3

7.1
10.6

8.6

6.5
12.2

2.6

2.4

2.3

2.0

2.4

3.3

3.5

3.4

2.1

0.09

1.3

1.2

0.9

0.9
1.4

0.6

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

1.3

0.9

0.5

0.6

3
4

3
5

3.9
2.9

2.2

5.2

2.3

2.6

3.2

4.6

3.0

1.1
0.9
0.7
1.0
0.4
1.0
0.7
0.4
1.6

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

1071

Table VI.— Percentage Composition

OF Agricultural Products {Continued).

Crop.

Straw:

Wheat

Rye

Oat

Barley

Wheat chaff

Oat chaff

Buckwheat straw,

Soy bean

Horse bean

Silage :

Com

Sorghum

Red clover

Soy bean

Apple pomace

Cowpea vine

Cow and soy bean vines mixed

Field pea vine

Barnyard millet and soy bean.
Com and soy bean

Rye ;;

Roots and Tubers:

Potato

Common beets

Sugar beets

Mangels

Turnip

Rutabaga

Carrot

Parsnip

Artichoke

Sweet potato

Miscellaneous:

Cabbage

Spurry

Sugar beet leaves ....

Pumpkin, field

Pumpkin, garden. . . .

Prickly comfrey

Rape

Acorns, fresh

Apples

Cow's milk

Cow's colustmm

Mare's milk

Ewe's milk

Goat's milk

Sow's milk

Skim milk, gravity

Skim milk, centrifugal
Buttermilk

Wat

er.

9.6

7.1

9.2

14.2

14.3

9.9

10.1

9.2

79.1
76.1
72.0
74.2
85.0
79.3
69.8
50.1
79.0
76.0
80.8

78.9
88.5
86.5
90.9
90.5
88.6
88.6
88.3
79.5
71.1

90.5

75.7

88.0

90.9

80.8

88.4

84.5

55.3

80.8

87.2

74.6

91.0

81.3

86.9

80.8

90.4

90.6

90.1

Ash.

4.2
3.2
5.1
5.7
9.2
10.0
5.5
5.8
8.7

1.4
1.1
2.6
2.8
0.6
2.9
4.5
3.5
2.8
2.4
1.6

1.0
1.0
0.9
1.1
0.8
1.2
1.0
0.7
1.0
1.0

1.4

4.0

2.4

0.5

0.9

2.2

2.0

1.0

0.4

0.7

1.6

0.4

0.8

0.9

1.1

0.7

Protein.

3.4
3.0
4.0
3.5
4.5
4.0
5.2
4.6
8.8

1.7
0.8
4.2
4.1
1.2
2.7
3.8
5.9
2.8
2.5
2.4

2.1
1.5
1.8
1.4
1.1
1.2
1.1
1.6
2.6
1.5

2.4
2.0
2.6
1.3
1.8
2.4
2.3
2.5
0.7
3.6
17.6
2.1
6.3
3.7
6.2
3.3
3.1
4.0

Crude
Fiber.

38.1
38.9
37.0
36.0
36.0
34.0
43.0
40.4
37.6

6.0
6.4
8.4
9.7
3.3
6.0
9.5
13.0
7.2
7.2
5.8

0.6
0.9
0.9
0.9
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.0
0.8
1.3

1.5
•4.9
2.2
1.7
1.8
1.6
2.6
4.4
1.2

Nitrogen-
Free
Extract.

40.4
46.6

42.4
39.0
34.6
36.2
35.1
37.4
34.3

11.0

15.3

11.6

6.9

8.8

7.6

11.1

26.0

7.2

11.1

9.2

17.3

8.0

9.8

5.5

6.2

7.5

7.6

10.2

15.9

24.7

3.9

12.7

4.4

5.2

7.9

5.1

5.4

34.8

16.6

4.9

2.7

5.3

4.7

4.4

4.7

5.3

4.0

Ether
Extrac-

1.3
1.2
2.3
1.5
1.4
1.5
1.3
1.7
1.4

0.8
0.3
1.2
2.2
1.1
1.5
1.3
1.6
1.0
0.8
0.3

0.1
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.4

0.4
0.8
[0.4
0.4
0.8
0.3
0.5
1.9
0.4

3
3
1

7
6

6.8
4.1
7.1
0.9
0.3
1.1

■ r '''-'Ma

1072

Table VI.-Pebcentage Com^^^^^^^^^'^^TZ,

£!:^2!f™«Ai^PHODcc™ (Continued).

Water.

Crop.

^Miscellaneous (Continved) ;

Dried blood.! .* I ^3.8

Meat scrap 8.5

Dried fish 10.7

Beet pulp. ...*''*■ 10. 8

Beet molasses ^^ • ^

Apple pomace.. 20.8

Distillery slops '^-7

^st''^^"'"''* ^rom ■di3tiilery ^^ ^
5.0

^sh. ! Protein.

0.4
4.7
4.1

29.2
0.6

10.6
0.5

0.2

Crude
Fiber.

0.6
84.4
71.2
48.4

0.9

9.1

1.4 i

1.7

n 3 I 27.4

2.4

3. 9
0.6

N^itrogen-

Free
Extract.

5.1

0.3

6.3
59.5
16.2

2.8

Ether
Extract.

•

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

1073

Produce.

Table VII.-Febtiutv in Farm Produce.

Corn, grain

Corn, stover

Corn crop ][[

Oats, grain

Oats, straw

Oat crop

Wheat, grain .

Wheat, straw

Wheat crop

Soy beans

Soy bean st raw

Soy bean crop

Timothy hay

Clover seed

Clover hay

Cowpea hay [[[

Alfalfa hay ///

Cotton, lint . . . .

Cotton, seed

Cotton, stalks

Cotton crop

Potatoes

Sugar beets

Apples

leaves

Wood growth

Total crop

Fat cattle

Fat hogs

Milk

Butter

Rye, grain

Rye, straw

Rye crop •

Beets, roots

Beets, topts

Beets, crop

Grass

Cotton cake, decoraticated

Rape cake

Linseed cake

Amount.

100 bushels .
3 tons

ioo bushels.
23^ tons. . . .

50 bushels
23^ tons. .

25 bushels
2J^ tons. .

3 tons

4 bushels . . . .

4 tons

3 tons :

8 tons

1000 pounds.
2000 i)ounds .
4000 pounds .

300 bushels
20 tons ....
600 bushels .

4 tons

1 tree

Cotton cake, undecorticated

l()00i)oun(ls.

1000 pounds.

10,000 pounds

400 pounds . .

1470 pounds .

3500 pounds .

4970 pounds .

36,800 pounds

9200 pounds . .

46,000 pounds.

4000 pounds. .

1000 pounds. .

1000 pounds

T .W^H ' ^'"^it'^'orticatecl iQOO pounds .

^^''^^^'^ ' 1000 pounds.

1000 pounds .

1000 pounds.

Palm kernel meal, IJnglish

Malt dust

Bran

Mangels

Swedes

Carrots

Turnips

1000 pounds
1000 pounds.
1000 pounds.
1000 pounds.
1000 pounds.

Nitrogon.
pounds.

100
48
148
66
31
97
71
25
96
80
79
159
72
7
160
130
400
3
63
102
168
63
100
47
59
6
112
25
18
57
0.8
28
12
40
88
26
114
53
()6
48
45
39
36
25
38
22
1.9
2.4
1.6
1.8

Phosphorus,
pounds.

0.4

29.4

0.2
12
4
16
22
11
33
13

31.2

24.6

19.6

22.9

15.4

12.2

17.2

32.3

0.7

0.6

1.0

0.6

Potassium,
pounds.

19
52
71
16
52
68
13
45
58
24
49
73
71
3

120
98

192

157

109

12
0
9

36
158

69
227

13.2

14.7
20.1
12.3

5.5
19.5
14.8

3.9

2.0

3.2

2.9

:ii>

1 3 *j

f^^'J^'v'tM

1074

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

■ «

J?:

o
o

t«0

c
o

6
o

O OOQOOO

'^^^^"^'l^^OO <N t^ CO

9^000
JO O lOCOi-H v^

r>» CO '

'P ^(N O

§§i?S§Si8Sg

ss;££s^;^f^pi-|Sf|5gsf|||Si

i-H T-H rH C^ C^ (M

SSggggg2g.9.99oooQ
c55oco5^oo3^^25S=:2^^o
^r_r^f _Jjr -^ - - -^- -'^ ^ i-h c^^ ;o

OJ <« ^ S c3

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S § S S""

cj 5^ c«
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G a> S c ti c ?->

g e >:a

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bC-T-J
03 O

^1 (h

a; v^ "^

'-^ "S S
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c3 -3

•"C3
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c8
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g.^-g 03-^ P^t^

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bC 3-S t^

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oooooodo^

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ot>

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

1075

Table IX.— Weight pe« Bushel, Seeding Rate

PEH PouKO ano'^epth'xo" Co'^LT.n^^'i^i.^''"^'^- "*■ ^'^-^

Crop.

Grasses.

Bermuda

Canada blue

Creeping bent

Crested dog's tail

Erect brome

Fowl meadow

Hard fescue

Italian rye

Johnson *

Kentucky blue

Meadow fescue

Meadow foxtail

Orchard

Perennial rye

Red top

Reed canary

Rough stalked meadow,

Sheep's fescue

Smooth brome

Sweet vernal

Tall meadow fescue . . . .

Tall meadow oat

Timothy

Velvet

Yellow oat

Legumes.

Alfalfa

Alsike clover

Bird's foot trefoil

Bur clover

Common vetch

Cowpeas

Crimson clover

Field peas

Garden peas

Hairy vetch

Horse bean ^

Japan clover

Kidney "beans

Kidney vetch

Red clover

Soy beans

Sweet clover

Velvet beans

White clover

White lupine

Yellow trefoil

Annual Forage Crops.

Barnyard millet, Japanese . .
Broom corn millet

Weight per
Bushel,
pounds.

14-20
15-20
26-30
14-15
12-15
10

17-24
28
6-28
12-28
6-14
12-21
18-30
12-40
14-48
12-28
12-28
12-14
6-15
14-25
7-14
44-50
6-7
12-14

60-63

60-66

52-68

60-64

60-63
50-60
64-66

Rate of
Seeding.

Number

of Seeds

per Pound.

5 pecks . . .
15 pounds

4-6 pecks .
30 pounds.

30 pounds

4-6 pecks . . . .

25 pounds . . . .
12-15 pounds.

40 pounds

20 pounds

30 pounds

12-15 pounds.
20-25 pounds .

26 pounds ....

30 pounds

15-20 pounds.
30 pounds. . . .

! 12-20 pounds.
I 30-40 pounds.
I 15 pounds

20 pounds

30 pounds

15-25 pounds.
4-8 pounds . . .
1 1 pounds ....
15 pounds. . . .
60 pounds. . . .
4-6 pecks ....
12-15 pounds. .
23^-3K bushels

3 bushels

40-60 pounds . .

4 bushels

15-25 pounds. .

18-22 pounds. .
8-14 pounds. . .

2-3 pecks

2-4 pecks

2-6 pecks

3-6 pounds

1 J^-2 bushels . .
4-6 pounds. . . .

1-2 pecks
2-4 ixjcks

180,000

2,583,000

8,000,000

897,000

162,000

578,000 '
275,000

* 2,637,006'
264,000
769,000
457,000
280,000
4,135,000
632,000
2,706,(XM)
802,000
120,000
837,000
246,000
151,000
1,146,000
1,268,000
1,540,000

210,000
692,000
367,000

129,000
2,400-4,000
800-2,400
75,000

370,000
3,200-4,000
169,000
304,000
2,000-7,000

739,000
305,000

212,000
212,000

Depth

to Cover,

inches.

Y-Vi

Yi
Y2
H
Yi-Yi

Ya
Y*

Y2-1
Y2

H
Y2-H.

YA-Yi

H-IY2
Y2

YA.-Y2
Y2-1

i-2'

Y2-lYi
IY2-3

1-3

lA-2

1-2

Y2-VA
Y2
1-2

H-1

1-2

H-Y2

■'•I-

III

107G

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

'':^'''-^^'^r^i:^J's^zJ^i-s.^i?.j^^ o. «....

ARM Seeds (Continued).

Crop,

Weight per
Buslu'l,
pounds.

Annual Fofiage Crops (Con-

tinned).
Millet, common. \

Millet, Hungarian.

Millet, German... f ' .50

Millet, Golden Wonder ,

Hape \ Kf\ pi\

Sainfoin ;. { ^.-^^

Serradella I oj ..^

Sorghmn .■.'.'.*.■.■.■; ' f^r^^

Sunflower ...

Ratp of
Seeding.

Number

of Seeds,

per pound.

Depth

to Cover,

inches.

Cereals.
Barley

Buckwheat. .

Flax '.'.'.'.'.'..

Kaflir corn. .

Milo

Maize, shelled.. .

Maize, on cob

Rice. . .

Rye ;;

Spelt

Wheat .*.'.'.■.■.■.'..■

Oats

oo
24-50

42-50

5()

50-60

50-00

43-45

40-60

2-3 pecks I 212,000

3-8 pounds. .
40 pounds. . . .
40-50 pounds
l>^-2 bushels.
10-15 pounds.

Vegetables And Roots. i
Artichokes I

SL;;.;;;;:;;;;;;:''-'-'' ^'

Mangels m\u\i\*

Potato :.•.•: ^"'^

i urnip

Rutabaga

Sugar beets

Sweet potato

-^ Fjjier.

Broom corn

Cotton, Sea Island.
Cotton, upland ....
Hemp

55-60*

50-()0*

.50-60*

50-55

30-48
44
30
44

* Roots,

7-9 pecks . . .
3-5 pecks. . .
2-8 pecks . . .
3-12 quarts. .
5 quarts

1 5-16 quarts

1-3 bushels. .
5-10 pecks. .

5-8 pecks. .
8-10 pecks.

6-8 bushels. .
4-6 pounds.
3-4 pounds. .
5-8 pounds . .
4-8 pounds. .
8-15 bushels.
2-4 pounds . .
3-5 pounds . . ,
15-20 pounds
1 J^-4 bushels .

3 pecks

1 1-3 bushels .
31^-4 pecks. .

22,500
23,000-35,000

25,000
384,(XK)

112,000
208,000

• • • • •

%~\

1-2

K-lJi

l>^23^

1-2^
1-2

1-2
1-2

13^-4

h-2 ■

1-3
1-3

l-2Ji

2-4

y2-i

'A-l

2-4

•1-2

VA-3

1-2

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

1077

^;^^^;^X^--W^^ ^^ y^^^j^^^ Standard Crops.

Crop.

Wheat

Jt ;

Oats

Barley

Com

Rye..
Peas.

Potatoes,

Alfalfa, 1 year.
Alfalfa, 2 years

Clover, red . .

Sugar beets . .
Hice

Location.

Germany

India ,

Akron, Col

England

Logan, Utah

Davis, Cal

Bozeman, Mont . . .

Reno, Nev

Germany

India .'

Wisconsin

Akron, Col

England

Germany

India

Wisconsin

Akron, Col

Germany

India

Wisconsin

Akron, Col

Germany

Akron, Col

England

Germany

India

Wisconsin

Akron, Col

Germany

Wisconsin

Akron, Col

Davis, Cal

Experimenter.

Pounds Water per
Pound Dry Matter.

Max-
imum.

333
544

534

State College, N. M

Akron, Col

England

Germany

Wisconsin

Logan, Utah

Akron, Col

India

Sorauer ' 708

^^^^i^gel ..'..j 390

Von Seelhorst ....

Leather

Briggs and Shantz ... „„^

Lawes 235

Widstoe 4j^9

Fortier and Beck(^tt . . 359
Fortier and Gieseker . 334
Fortier and Peterson . 395

Wollny I

Sorauer I

Hellriegcl I 4(34

Leather i

}>ing .**.*. "I 526

Briggs and Shantz . . . 639

Lawes 9^2

Wolhiy .■.;.■■ "

Sorauer

Hellriegel

Von Seelhorst

Leather

King

Briggs and Shantz .

WoUny

Leather

King .| 390

Briggs and Shantz . . . ! 420

Hellriegel I 438

Von SeeDiorst 700

Briggs and Shantz . .

Lawes

Wollny

Hellriegel

Leather

King

Briggs and Shantz . . ,

Von Seelhorst i 294

King

Briggs and Shantz . .
Fortier and Beckett . .

366
454

544

353

Briggs and Shantz . . .

Lawes

Hellriegel

King

Widstoe

Briggs and Shantz . . .
Leather

1265
971

889

363
564

.Min-
imum.

328

468

427
286
226
309

339

502
598
258

263
295

375
527

305
319
315
343

231

268

1005
522
757

297
398

Mean.*

708

339

333

544

507

235

458

326

271

360

665

600

401

469

514

614

260

774

490

297

365

468

388

539

233

337

348

369

377

469

724

235

416

292

563

477

800

281

423

448
1102

761

823
1068

251

330

481

497

377
811

.,; I,

I I 1

* This column

represents the average of all reliable and comparable tests.

1078

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Crop.

Barley, fall plowed

Clover, cut for seed .

Corn, ears husked from standing stalks

Corn, cut, shocked and shredded

Corn, cut, shocked and hauled in'from fieid*
Corn, grown thickly and siloed. '^•

1; axseed, threshed from windrow

i; axseed, stacked from windrow

J hixseed, bound, shocked, stacked,' threshed'
fodder corn, cut and shocked in field

Fodder corn, cut, shocked and stacked'. '.

Hay, timothy and clover, first crop

S;St''^ .'.'^^ .^'^"^^' *"^ ^''^^ • • ■ • •

Hay, wild grasses

Hay, timothy. ...

Hemp....

Mangels .'

Oats, fall plowed

Oats, on disked corn stubbie

matoes, machine production

^^ heat, fall plowed

Average Cost.

♦Minnesota Experiment Station. BuUetin No. 117. page 29."

$8.21
6.50
10.44
15.30
10.26
19.89
7.50
7.85
7.28
9.65
12.36
5.59
7.18
7.10
4.04
3.39
6.74
32.68
8.86
8.88
26.37
37.72
4.43
7.25

Table XH.-Cost ofFarm Horse Power.*

Agricultural Region.

Southeastern Minnesota.
Southwestern Minnesota
Northwestern Minnesota

Total Annual Cost of Aofnoi r- *

Keeping One Horse of Wo^k^or fff' m ""'"

Average 5 Years IQOK lo 'a 7. v/ ^"^ Horse.

K I ears. iyu8-i2. j Average 9 Years, 1904-12.

$103.27

100.64
84.67

9.72 cents
8.64 cents t
8.05 cents

t S^ven%ear"'„v. rago. ^^"""'•""■"' '"'<< Crop Rotation." by Parker.

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS

Table XIIL—Work Capacity op V^u^, \f .

. v>Ax-Av.iix u* takm Machines

ACHINES. *

Kind of Machine.

Size of
Machine.

Binder, small grain

Binder, corn

Cultivator, single row (42-inch
rows)

Cultivator, riding "(42linch rows)
Cultivator, 2 row riding (42-

inch rows)

Drill, small grain .

l->riU, small gram

Drill, small grain *

Ensilage cutter, with flywheel

diameter of

Ensilage cutter, with flywheel

diameter of

Ensilage cutter, with flywheel

diameter of

Harrow, disk m lapped)

Harrow, disk (}^ lapped)

Harrow, spring tooth

Harrow, spike tooth

Harrow, spike tooth *

Header, small grain

Mower

Packer

Planter, beet (18-inch rows) .
Planter, corn, 1 row (42-inch
rows)

Planter, com, 2 rows (42-inch
rows)

Planter, potato, 1 row (io^inch
rows)

Planter, potato, 2 rows (46-inch
rows)

Plow, walking * '

Plow, walking *

Plow, sulky

Plow, sulky gang

Plow, engine gang, 4 plows

Plow, engine gang, 6 plows . . .

Plow, engine gang, 8 plows. . .

Plow, deep tillage, 2 disk ....

Potato digger, 40-inch rows. .

Rake, self -dump lo foot

Rake, side-delivery 8 foot

Shredder and husker, corn ....
Shredder and husker, corn ....
Shredder and husker, corn ....

6-foot cut
7-foot cut
8-foot cut .

30 inch .

4 foot...
6 foot. . .
8 foot...
6 foot . . .
8 foot . . .

3 section

5 section
12 foot..

5 foot

6 foot . . . .
10 foot...

4 row . . . .

14-inch cut.
16-inch cut.
16-inch cut.
28-inch cut.
56-inch cut.
84-inch cut.
112-inch cut
20-inch cut.

4 roll
6 roll
8 roll

Horse
Power

Re-
quired.

12 tube.
16 tube .
20 tube .

42 inch . .

36 inch . .

3
4
4
3-4

1
2

3-4
2
3
4

15-20

12-15

8-12

2-3

4-5
14-18
20-25
25-30

10-12
15-20
25

Speed per hr.
in Miles, or
Revolutions
per Minute.

Acre
Capacity
per Hour.

2>^

2
2

2^
23^
2K

2J^

23^

.2>i

23^

2>^

23i

23^

2K
2K

1.5-1.8
1.7-2.1
2.0-2.4
0.8-1.0

0.5-0.8
0.5-0.8

1.0-1.6
1.5-1.8
2.0-2.4
2.5-3.0

0.4-0.5

0.6-0.7

0.8-1.0

1.0-1.4

1.5-2.0

3.0-3.6

5.0-6.0

3.0-3.6

1.2-1.5

1.5-1.8

2.0-2.4

1.5-1.8

0.5-1.0

1.0-2.0

0.6-1.0

1.2-2.0
0.25-0.35
0.3-0.4
0.3-0.4
0.5-0.7
0.9-1.1
1.4-1.6
1.9-2.2
0.34-0.4
0.7-1.0
2. .5-3.0
2.0-2.4

1079

Ton

Capacity

per Hour.

III I

9-15
8-12

5-8

»t|

Bushel
25-50
50-75
80-100

♦From "Field Management and Crop Rotation," by Parker.

1080

SUCCESSFUL FARMING

Table XllL— Wokk Capaci

^::^^^^;^^J^^^^^RmMm:hi^^* iCoMnued).

Kind of Machine.

Size of
Machine.

Threshing separator, pea and

bean special 12 in h

TJjresliing separator, pea ' and

bean special

Threshing separator,* pea " and

bean special

Threshing separator,' pea ' and

bean special

Threshing separator," small grain

(wheat and flax)

Threshing separator, oats and
barley

Threshing separator, wheat and

Threshing separator,' oats' and ^^ ^ ^^ "^

^..^^^^7 128x50 in

1 hreshing separator, wheat and

Threshing separator,* oats * and i ' "" ^^ "'
barl(»v

20x32 in..
20 X 44 in . .
30 X 54 in . .
18x30 in...
18x30 in...

Threshing sepiirator, wheat and
flax

32 X 54 in

Threshing separator, oats and
barley

Threshing separator, wheat and
flax

Threshing separator, oats and

^^^l^y '40x02 in.

30 X 5<S in .
30 X 58 in .
40 X 02 in . ,

Horse
Power

Re-
quired.

2-4

0-8
10-14
14-18
15-18
15-18
30-40
30-40
40-50
40-50
50-00
50-00
00-80
00-80

Speed per hr.
in Miles, or
Itevohitions
per Minute.

Acre
Capacity
per Hour.

Bushel
Capacity
per Hour.

300-350
300-350
300-350
300-350
1050-1150
1050-1150
750-800
750-800
750-800
750-800
75a-800
750-800
750-800
750-800

8-10
35-50
50-80
80-100
00
220
75
275
125
300
100
350
200
375

Hpocd and7t.„.iroTL"4,fs"™4'rid'ra,:;"r^ T^ "'t """'l-''. d»e to soil and crop condi.i

the potato digRcr are especially subject to viri^'trnn^v T*?" fna^>»nea such as the corn binder nrrn
at comparatively high siio^d (2'^ to Smiles iS>"hour\ J.A^u^''^ '^!1''*'' •♦^^^ machines rSust be driven
to maintain maximum capacity ?t is m-cessHr^ tn ?.h I 1*^''' ^^"^^ quickly tires the horses InnZlr
""^ -^-^--^ ^^- capacity^varie^s griltTyTcoTdilrg't'o^Jf: aZunt""orreTt^at;eV"'" '^^^ ^-"^ «-

* From •• Field Management and Crop Rotation." by Parker.

Table XIV. — i

i^HiZi^.E^AI' STATISTICS

Composition

1081

Kros^rp?!^^^-^^^^^ ^-.nc

OP Farm Animals.*

Analysis.

Kind of Animal and
•Kinds of Food Fed.

Sheep.— l^ed hay, corn, oats;
or hay, wheat bran, cotton-
seed meal and linseed meal

Swine.-Fed skim milk, corn
meal, meat scraps; or corn
meal, wheat bran and lin-
seed meal

Cattle-Fed hay, silage,
beets, wheat bran, corn
meal and cottonseed meal

Horses— Fed hay, oats, corn
meal and wheat bran

Water.

ED BY Different

Amount per 1000 Pounds
Live Weight.

Nitro- Phos-
«en. Iphorus.j sium.

Potas- Pounds

per
Day.

Pounds

per
Year.

Pounds' I"^«^

Absorb

ents

per

Year.

Tons

Farm

Manure

per

Year.

.'59.52 0.77 4.10

0.59 I 34.1

12,440

74.13 C.84 0.17

5,000

0.32 83.0 30,514

S.7

75.25 0.43 0.127 0.44 74.1

^9 1 0.49 0.114 I 0.48 48.8 17,812 3,000

5,000

27,040

17.7

3,000 15.0

10.5

are

VT ^ ~ ■ — ■- — I I (

• Prom •• Fidd Management and Crop Rotation." by Parker.

Tab.. XV.-Phices ok F.km Phoottc^. Avb=k.cb= F.km V.i.n. pkk H.az,
_ _^__ JiVE-\ EAK PEKIOD.S, Ignited States* '

Period.

1800-1870
1871-1875.
1870-1880.
1881-1885.
1880-1890.
1891-1895.
1890-1900.
1901-1905.
1900-1910.
1911-1915.

orses.

Mules.

Milch
Cows.

Other
Cattle.

Swine.

$00.83
00.24
55.37
07.18
71.19
55.47
30.17
02.40
94.29

108.10

$73.10
83.50
01.90
77.45
79.21
00.77
45.87
74.04
109.18
121.39

$29 . 29
28.29
24.30
28.22
24.84
21.70
20.88
29.22
31.85
40.73

$17.11
18.28
10.24
21.10
18.20
14.78
20.24
17.72
17.35
20.52

$4 . 44
4.41
4.79
5.00
4.85
5.22
4.45
0.03
7.11
9.50

Sheep.

$1.98
2.49
2.20
2.30
2.07
2.20
2.33
2.73
3.75
3.97

* From United States Year-Book, 1914.

Ill

1082

SPCCESSFPt FARMING

!n """ ~"™rf i;-j:is» ,s-!?rj™ ^™..

Period.

1866-1870..

1871-1875..

1876-1880..

1881-1885.

1886-1890

1891-1895.. ■■

1896-1900. .

1901-1905...

1906-1910

1911-1915. *

!^!?^ hH 'j;- h«^

Corn

per I per
Bushel I Bushel.! Pound.! p^^^ ,
cents. I cents. | cents I bushel.

cents

per
Bushel,
cents

Rye

per

Bushel,

cents.

Wheat

per

Bushel,

cents.

Hay

per

Pota- I To-
toes bacco

.Ton, I rP\^ , ^Per

dollars.! ""^^*'^• I l^«und.

cents.

Inside
Height
of Silo,

feet.

♦Taken from Vnii^^^;;:^;^^~^^;;~^^^^

Zl!f±iEXHil£l!l^Z!lf!j.«^'"> S'^-o^ IN Tons.

10.

^^^1^^±TURAL STATISTICS

Table XVIIL-SpouTma Velocitv op Water ,. k.

m Heads op prom 5 to 1000 'Feet * ^^ '■^'' ^^^'''^°'

1083

•Takea from " ElectricuTTor the Farm," hy f!1

Anderson.

55 . 6
56.2
56.7
59
62.1
64.7
67.1
69.5
71.8
74.0
76.1
78.2
80.3
114.0
139.0
160.0
179.0
254 . 0

Tablk XIX.— Weights and Measurrs.

16 ounces (oz.) avoirdupois weight.

100 pounds =1 pound (lb.).

20 cwt ■ =1 hundredweight (cwt )

1 ton =1 ton (T.).

==-0 ^^^- «r 2000 lbs. or 32,000 oz.

2 pints (pt.) 1>KY MEASURE

8 qts =1 quart (qt.).

4 nks ' =1 peck (pk.).

1 bu =1 bushel (bu.).

• =2150.42 cu. in.

4 gills (gi.).... LIQUID MEASURE

2 pints =1 pint (pt.).

4 quarts * =1 quart (qt.).

^lli gallons. . . =1 K^^^lon (gal.). .

U. S. gallon .'.'.■;; =1 barrel (bbl.).

73^ gallons water. ~^^^ ^"- ^^-

= 1 cu. ft. approximately.

12 inches (in.).
3 feet (ft.)

LINEAR MEASURE.

= 1 foot (ft.).

5J4 yds. or 16>^ ft =1 y-^rd (y<i-).

320 rds. ... ^ =1 rod (rd.).

1 mile or 320 rds. or 1760 yds. or 5280 ft.or 63;36o1ns"''^' ^'''^•^•

I 4

■■■, Xi

i "Xf.

TABLi. XIX.-W.K.HTS AND Mkasireh (Canity

144 square inches (sc,. in ) ''''''^'**^ measure.

y square feet (sq. ft.) =1 «<|uare foot (sq. ft.).

,^^ «q- rds = s(,uare rod («q.Vd ). '

J>40 acres =1 acre (a.). ^

.5/q- ^V = ^ '^quiire miJe (sq. mi )

»36 sections =1 section. ' ^'

4:^,560 sq. ft =1 township (twp.).

=1 Jicre.

■I

1728 cubic inches (c„ in ) ''*'"'' "^ '^"""^ measure.

■""■■" = ' '-"hie foot (cu. ft.).

27cu. ft.

f '•"•yd .■.■.■.■..::

1 PU. yd

-'IJicu.ft...

128 cu ft or 8 ft. X 4 ft. X 4 ft
i M. \ ij in. X lin. . . .

-1 cubic yard (cu. yd*).
= f,j;^yt- or 46,656 cu. in.

= 1 l)erch.
= 1 cord.
• =1 board foot.

7 . 92 inches stTRVEYoa's linear measure.

HK) hnks. .."'."'.'.■.';;; = l Hnk.

HO chains . . =1 chain.

Gunter'.s chain is the unit ami is 66 feet iong.' ' ' ' ' "* '""^-

10,000 sq. hnks surveyor's s..>uare measure.

10 sq. chains =1 square chain.

10 chains square. ~ 1 ♦'^^'I'c.

=10 acres.

WEIGHT OF DAIRY PRODUCTS.

Arfif lo.

Specific
CJravity.

Pure water '

iSkim milk 1 .000

Whole milk 1 .036

20 per cent cream 1 032

24 per cent cream. 1 022

.'^0 per cent cream 1 009

Pure butter-fat . . 1 .001

0.910

Wo.ght of I Weight of
C.allon. , Quart,
pounda. pounda.

S.342

cS.642

8.609

8.525

8.417

8.350

7.591

2.085
2.160
2.152
2.131
2.104
2.087
1.898

ill

^^^1^_^]^TVRAL STATISTI

Table XX.— Li.st

1085

State.

"' '™" THru^srsr'' ^'^~- «—

Name of Institution.

"""""" 4l^fel?'^^rwc i„,uu.o

Arizona

Arkansas

CaJifornia.
Colorado ....
Connecticut .
Delaware ....
Florida

Georgia

Hawaii

Idaho.

Agricultural School of fhL t " i .v

, Institute... ..''^.^^" ^"^^^^^^ Normal and Industrial

Location or
College.

Aubu

rn.

Co ege o Agriculture of UniSv " iT^^::

College of Agr cu uro nf 1/"^^"!*^ "f Arkaasas." .* '
The Itate AKil"a?LVen'KloVar""^ '

fSI'S ^Stu^l^^f [;"T'^i^of Florida; v::

]^^^'' : : : : : cdte S tste ^ f^iversity ofidaho: :

Indiana. ...... School of AgrSurn of ri' "'rT*^. ^^ l"'"oi«-

Iowa Tnw« .Q*i*^^"n"l^"'^^ o.^ ^^^w Universitv

Tuskegee Institute

Normal

Tucson .

Fayetteville .'.■.■.■;■
Berkeley.

Fort Collins ;.'

Storrs ■■■

Newark .....'"

Gainesville. ....
Tallahassee

Athens

Savannah
Honolulu
Moscow

ix)cati0n of

experi.ment

Station.

Auburn

Tuskegee Institute

tniontown

Tucson

Fayetteville

Berkeley

Fort Collins

Storrs, New Haven

Newark

Gainesville ,^

Experiment

Honolulu
Moscow

Aowa I T^„_ Q+V+^'r^'ir"'"'^]."' ''uruue Universitv J-Vbana ." " TJrhana.

Lou

isiana.

Tk« r< n " i''^"'-i'Hurai Collecre

U5jj». »■" W."i» ™i »„,&■ ii, Mil,..;..,

Ames

Manhattan.
Lexington . . .

Maine. . .
Maryland ,

""^'fclroTii^uSl^^-''-^^ .I"'' Mecbanioal College
MhS ■ f}?™?"'"'* 'ta Agricult.ir»l Co lege

Frankfort

Ames

Manhattan
Lexington

Baton Rouge Baton Rouge

New Orleans (sugar)

Massachusetts

Scotland Heij^hts,
Baton Rouge

Orono

College Park .

^^^'PP* , Mississippi Agricultural

Crowley (rice)
Calhoun, North

Orono
College Park

Princess Anne

p^^T^ • 'Amherst

University of Minnesota. ! ; ; [ [ [ ' f ^SveHt'v F .rn." • I ?^* ^^"^'"«

„ . .^ . ^"'veg.ityl<arm, I I niversity Farm

and Mechanical College .... x^i'Ju''^ , St. Paul '

'^ ■•^ffricultural i

"^"' ^^"^'^^^t^Z^^Z

niversity of Missouri'. V. '. " .' .' .' .' [[]"\ c^i

^'^"'^S*' Agricultural

Alcorn i ^'""^«^

Montana

Nebraska

Nevada

New Hampshire
New Jersey. .
New Mexico.

SITW-^^^^^^^ A.. . .

umbii

Boaeman .
Lincoln.. .
Reno

Columbia. College
Mountain CJrove
-, (fruit)
Bozeman
Lincoln
Reno
Durham

North Carolina

North Dakota. .

AKricultural

Agricultural

OhJn /^ 1. AKriCUltUral ' AsrrionU,

Oklahoma.- .' ' ^ OkhThoml i'^'^'l'^^^ ^^i" ^'^'^ ^^"^versity p^V^''^ I ^"'J^^'

W,.r,r.f f'? m"'*' ^",1 Mechanical College & r^"" Wooster

rw •^*^<^"'"'ral and Norma UnvoroW,, ^ Stillwater... .Qf:n«,„*„

Oregon

Pennsylvania .
Porto Rico...

OrPirnn «* V "a ' ^'T""^' ^nivcrsity ."'. ^""^"^ I ';^^'"water Stillwater

qIu^ P r^ Agricultural College Langston

"^"\, »^orvaiiig

^o^^KC State College

Rhode Island. Rhode Island State College.

^^y^l'^'^ I Mayaquez (Federal)

I Rio Piedras (In-
V X sular)

K'"«ston Kingstc

1086

l^^^ESSFUL FARMING

"-:::i^::^^^^T^^^^^^ s.„

State.

South Carolina

South Dakota
Tennessee. .
Texas

rtah

Vermont

Virginia

Washintrton . . .
West Virginia.

Wisconsin . .
Wyoming.. '.^

Name of Institution.

Location of
College.

„ College of SoScarolia^"' '*«"'"'""™1 »nd Mechanie,l
College of Amculture of T'niversitvof Vermont

Location or

Experiment

Station.

CJemson College. . Clemson College

Orangeburg

Brookings

Knoxville. ....
College Station .
Prairie View

I-<ogan

Burlington... ..

Blacksburg.

Hampton

Pullman

Morgantown ,
Institute
Madison.. . .
Laramie . . .

Brookings
Knoxville
College Station

Logan
I Burlington

BlacksburgCCoIlege)
Norfolk (truck)

Pullman
Morgantown

Madison
Laramie

, Length ..ultiplied by «S muHbltTh'"'""" ""■*"•

feet of grain. tL muftiplied bTg ftl'^^brK.^r^l! 'l \«* «'-« ^^e cubic

Example.— A bin of wheat is 8 foot wX l?^ iV f^J"?"^ *^« bushels,
wheat IS 6 feet. "^ '"''* ''"'e ^^ 16 feet long and the average depth of

8X16X6X8 „

20 =614.4 bushels.

M..Uinl„ *K 1-- . *'°" »"««*:i^ OF EAK CORN.

Multiply the cubic feet occupied by ear corn by 4 and divide by 10.

jr I , ^^R TONS OF HAY.

r^d'"'f ^^^L^'^ "oTste.r Cws^r'sSVan^ '^ "^'.^'^'^^ -"ic con-

widtJ, from the over ^he ''o^^^'^iA^^'^S^.t^nYe from Ih'""*' '^i""""^^ Subtrrt'' hf
stack to the ground on the other side) divMe hv f L» v. *^l^?»'^<i »•» one side over the
by the over, the width the length and by ^25^ ''*'«''*' ^^^"^ '""'"ply successively

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Circulars and Bulletins.— Everv stxto i„ ti, tt •
college and experiment station. Canada L one «f Fuf"" mam*'''"^ "^n agricultural .
several states are located as stated ?n Tabled %?Jh7''' ^"*''™- ^hose for the
a maUing bst of names to which the statiotr;vr,hli„ f experiment station maintains

by letter of inSy"un]ith?;Xtno^^^^^^^^

college or station to whom or which he should HnnlvlT.'''"'*^'''' ^fPartment of the

the director of the experiment station ThT^J^^^' 'ette^s should be addressed io

f^^t'^e.to the character of soU andTrop e^lvt^tiXZT^'^f'^ ^1-'"^^''' ^^»^^^
the fertihzer and Ume requirement of the s^t v«r?»t; ^'^^'^nt sections of the state,
best sources of seed, how to coml^.m^ soUs varieties of crops that will succeed best
enemies and plant and anTmal dSs will he?l r« T '^'^ '"'^ fertilizers. InS

Inspection by Experts -Somf X l^ .'dentified and remedies advised,

along several linJs who c^ vSftmers ISTdTdvi*?^'"'^' T '*'''« ^o furnish ^
farm business. This may be done free or ?Wem?vbe'^ relative to improving the
and subsistence, depending on the federal and r/Tti^^X .u * "^''"'f^- ^°'' transportation

County Extension RepreseXtivesi-lwl^^^^^ .*^^ several mstitutions receive,
state now has a number of ro>int J f ^"'""JKn the support of the Lever A(^t everv

plied Within : verytw°yerr^°e*4ijTne'^f\r'3^^ these, ai^. being rapidlyS^
should have such a representative o7whom to .«i'T •=°"" '?«,«» the United States
These representatives are selecteif t^^V, ,^?.?i. ^'*" ^7 '^''^ ^'^^ °^ a farm problem
will organize a CountyXm B^L^ id^ass^-,?T fin '^ ^^ ^^^''''^'''^ ^""^ """"ti^s that
United States Deoartment oi Ati,v.?i* ^ S S- finficuig the enterprise.

and reports are fssulS^wlfe bX^!'''"'''^?^^ '^^'^^ "^ buUetins

free to all farmers. The DeoLtment Y^r K^^r "^f '"f"^'' "» ^''^^^ editions and are
are issued in smaller edltSt^Tar^ 1^'XZtJ^J'^ ^ ""^i '^^P'^'^'^^ ^"Uetins
others as long as the sunnlv ll^ts t/T^^ libraries experiment station workers and

acreage, condition an/ffioSm cro^s^Tt fKo" nvone '"''°*"^ ^"^ ^^^'^
catiot".^°^lua';i;^ t SZ^-eWe'^i^t ^^ WUthl^ lists of publi-
the month. Knowhig what hriVn* Lued tlfeT^'' °^ '*" P^W'catio^ issued d'iring
he is interested. " '^"''''' ^'^^ ^^^e^ "an write for those in which

BureS.' SSer^rpartSlbiiL^or'^'^^^^ ''^"t'^ to the Weather

lications, U. S. De^ata^rAffcult^^rVV^lLS d'T '""^ °'^™ °^ ^"^
ComScrrd^t' °"^ ^'•""''^ '^^"•^ '" '^^ i™ of%ensus. Department of

pertal'Ke^'iiSSn and'S?con?^* 1 ^'^V'^'^^i 7^' ''^*- ^--^
tions, etc. In many states othTrw^tf« T ' "^ fertilizers, feeds, livestock regula-

tutes'. Bulletins a^frequently iss^d free ^^' '"''' ^ '^^ ''"'*''°' °^ ^^^ers' Insti-

(1087)

GLOSSARY

Protoplasm.— The slimy, granular, semi-fluid content of vcRetable cells. Th s
substlmce is the living portion of the plant, the active, vital thing which gives to t
"nsibility to heat, cold and other agents, and the power of moving, of appropriat-
ing food, and of increasing its size. , , .

Chloroohvll.— The green coloring matter of plants. ,,,...,, •,

Inoculation (Soil).— Introduction of a definite species of bacteria into the soil or
on toThe roots of a leguminous plant. This may be accompbshed by transferring soil
from fields already inoSulat^d or*by the use of artificial cultures a pphed either to the

^^'^ Ma^we °Salt.-Double sulphate of potash and magnesia, somctin.es referred to

'^%e^^!^^-A'^^lri^^'.y^ioi. results, in the breaking down of
nitroge^^compounds, such as. nitrates and nitrites, givmg rise to free nitrogen or
iiifrno-pn in the form in which it is found in the an*. i r ^ j.

Concentmte^.-These include aU the grain and mill pro,lucts used for fcedmg

''*°*' Humates.-These are compounds of humus and salts, such as lime.

Tri^alcium Phosphate.-^A definite compound of cakiuiri, phosphorus and

"^^^R•kcSS!-^te^ontTnu^^^^^^^^^^ along which the spikelets, as in wheat

^°" ' MvcdLS -™S:ad-like growth of fungi which penetrates the host plant in
case Kch^;*ai^s as sim.t on ^ain or moulds on fruit. In the case of mushrooms,

'' ''''i^S^''cyJj^t^A'^^l^^of 'c'ld^lumr'carbon and nitrogen manufactured
by an elec.r^ca, p_roce^ a^^^^ .^^^ ^ , ,„,,

brittle'^n^hfcuring b:;rt ,^i|l, diiring damp or rainy weather, become soft and
phable. When in this condition it is called in kase.

INDEX

(1088)

(1089)

INDEX

Accounts, 884-908
abbreviated, 888
aids, 890

best time to start, 886
classification of troublesome

items, 888
closing, 889
how to keep, 885
interpretation of results,

908
inventory, 886
object of keeping, 884
samples, 890-908
time required to keep,
886
Acetylene gas, 758
Acres of each crop, 818
Advanced registry records,

647, 670
Advertising, 912
Advertising value of neigh-
bors, 794
Aeration of the soil, 37
Agee, Alva, The potato, 311-

317
Agricultural colleges, 1049
list of, 1085
support, 1050
train farmer, 788
Agricultural credit, 875
Agricultural experiment sta-
tions, 1050
Agricultural fairs, 1051
Agricultural publications,

1053
Agricultural societies, 1051
Agricultural training, 1048
Agriculture, extension work,
1052
importance, 1047 • ,
sources of information,

1087
teachers, 1048
Agriculture department, U. b.,

Yearbook, 1055
Agriculture in secondary
schools, 1C47
to obtain information
about, 1049
Agriculture. See also Farm-

. ing.
Air of stables must be pure,

932
Alfalfa, 259-269

after-treatment, 265
climatic adaptation, 260
cultural range, 260
drills are advised, 263
essentials for success, 260
feeding value, 267
fertilizers and lime, 262
irrigation, 268

Alfalfa, number of cuttings,
266
seed, 261 , , ,

seed examined for dodder

before sown, 361
seed production, 268
seed production, east of

Missouri river, 269
seed-bed, 262
seeding, 263
soil, 44, 46, 48, 260, 262
soil inoculation for, 263
uses, 267
varieties, 260
vield, 267
Alfalfa hay, 265
Alfalfa leaf weevil, 969
Alkali, caused by over-irnga-
tion, 776
under-drainage to remove,

777
Alligator-pear (Avocado), 511

diseases, 949
Almond, 505
Alsike clover, 255
American Farmer, 1054
American hazel nut, 506
Analysis, soil, 38, 39
Animal breeding, 553-558
Animals, breath, 936
comfort, 931

disease, 929, 930, 933-937
exercise, 932
essentials for health, 929
gestation periods, 556
management, 932
pulse rate, 935 ,

rules for maintaining

health, 930
temperature, 934
Animals, breeding, care, 557,

558
Animals, sick, 933

examination, 934
Animals, work, care, 557
Anise, 425

Anthony, E. L., Dairy butter-
making, 679-689
Anthracnose, bean, 954
berry, 950
citrus fruits, 948
cotton, 965
cranberry, 951
currant, 951
grape, 952
melons, 956
tomato, 960
Apiary, size and location, 0.30
stocking, 635
See also Bees.
Apple, 456-467
cultural range, 456

Apple, diseases, 464, 939
crown gall, 941
hairy root, 941
mildew, 941
rot, 939
rust, 940
scab 940
insects,' 991, 993, 995, 998,

1003
origin, 456
propagation, 457
soil, 44, 46, 458
varieties, 458
Apple maggot, 991 ^
Apple orchard, laying out,
460
location, 458
soil, 44, 46, 458
soil management, 462
Apple tree tent caterpillar,

991
Apple trees, dwarf, 458
fertilizers, 463
planting, 461
protecting, 464
pruning, 461

purchase and handling, 45y
spraying, 465; table, 943
thinning, 467
Apple worm, 995
Apples, cost of growing com-
pared with cost of
selling, 910
picking and storing, 467
Armsby feeding standards,

570; table, 1066
Army worm, 969
Army worm, beet, 980
Army worm, Fall, 974
Aromatic plants, 424
Arsenate of lead, 1005
Arsenite of zinc, 1006
Artichokes, as forage, 309
Asparagus, 383
cultivation, 385
diseases, 953
green shoots, 384
Asparagus beetle, 980
Automobile on the farm, 735
Avocado, 511
culture, 512
diseases, 949
food value, 514
ways of serving, 512
Ayrshire cattle, character-
istics, 660
origin and development,
659

"Back to the farm," 789
Bacteria, aerobic, 60
Bacteria, anaerobic, 60

(1091)

■i

1092

INDEX

Bacteria, soil, increase nitro-
gen, 60
Bacteria in milk, 675

on roots of legumes, 60
Bacterial wilt, plants, 959
Baker, Mrs. Cecil, HousiJig
and clothing, 1037-
1046
"Balanced" ration, man,

1033
Banana, 517
Bank Imrns, 697
Banker, relation to farmer,

879
Barns, 696

lighting, 700

lightning rods protect, 710
Barns, bank, 697
Barley, 217

by-products, 218

climatic adaptation, 217

harvesting, 218

preparation of land, 217

seed selection, 162

seeding, 217

soil, 44, 46, 217

use, 218

varieties, 217

world's production, 217
Basement, farm-house, 1038
Bathroom, 1041
Bean, field, 294
Bean aphis, 980
Bean weevil, 980
Beans, 386

diseases, 954

harvesting, 295

seeding, 294

soil, 44, 46, 386

threshing and cleaning,
295

yield, 296
Bedrooms, 1040
Beechnut, 506
Beef, cuts, iUustration, 588
Beef production, 590
Bee-hives, 633, 639

shade and ventilation, 634
Bees, 631-640

apiary, 633

breeds, 631

colony, 632

diseases, 639

feeding, 638

foundation combs, 639

handling, 636

introducing a new queen,
635

length of life, 632

profitable, 631

stocking the apiary, 635

swarming, 636
artificial, 638
how to prevent, 637

transferring a colony, 636

uniting colonies, 635

wintering, 638
Beeswax, 639
Beet, 386

diseases, 954

Beet, sugar, 318
Beet army worm, 980
Beet leaf beetle, 981
Beet leaf hopper, 981
Beet sugar, manufacture,
322

production, 318
Beetles, leaf, 968
Belladonna, 425
Belt slipping, 752
Belting, leather, 751

rubber, 751
Belts, 751

Benzene, as insecticide, 1011
Bermuda grass, 245
Bichloride of mercurj', 1017
Bill bug, 168
Binder, 727
Bindweed, field, 368

hedge, 369
Bird's eye, grape, 952
Bisulphide of carbon, 1011
Bitter rot, apple, 939

grape, 952
Black knot, plum, 946
Black leg, potato, 958
Black pit, lemon, 948
Black rot, apple, 939

cabbage, 955

cauliflower, 955

grape, 952

navel orange, 947

sweet potato, 961

turnip, 955
Blackberry, 449

diseases, 950

harvesting, 450

planting, 450

propagation, 450

pruning, 450

soil, 449
Blackcaps, 447
Blank forms, 885
Blasingame, R. U., Engines,
motors and tractors
for the farm, 743-757

Farm sanitation, 758-764
Blast, cranberry, 951
Blight, bean, 954

onion, 957

parsnip, 958

pear, 942
Blister beetle, 981
Blood, dried, 74
Bloom blight, mango, 949
Blossom-end rot, tomato, 960
Blue grass, 240

importance, 241

methods of establishing,
241
Body, human, compounds,
1024

elements. 1023

description of elements,
1024

waste products, 1025
Bonanza farms, 826
Bonsteel, J. A., Summary of

soil adaptation, 41
Bookkeeping, 884

INDEX

1093

Borax, as insecticide, 1010
Bordeaux mixture, 1014

for apple trees, 466

for asparagus, 953

for beans, 954

for beets, 954

for berries, 950
• for cucumbers, 957

for currant, 951

for grapes, 952

for lettuce, 960

for melons, 956

for onions, 957

for pear trees, 943

for potatoes, 958

for tomatoes, 960

spraying with, 317
Borrowing money, 877

rules, 877
Boys' clubs, 1055
Boys leave small farms, 831
Breast wheels, 752
Breath of animals, 936
Breeding herd, care, 557
Breeding herds should bo

established, 591
Broadcast seeders, 721
Brome grass, 244
Brood mare, feed, 583
Brooder, management, 626

qualifications of a good, 625
Brown rot, apple, 939

citrus fruits, 947

peach, 944
Brown Swiss cattle, char-
acteristics, 661

origin and development,
669
Brown-tail moth, 993
Brussels sprouts, 386
Buckhorn, 361

Buckley, S. S., Diseases of
animals and their
management, 929 ^
937
Buckwheat, 220

climatic adaptation, 220

crop rotation, 221

fertilizers, 221

harvesting, 221

soil, 44, 46, 220

uses, 221

varieties, 220

seeding, 220
Bud worm, 977
Building and loan associa-
tions, 879
Buildings, 693-711

grouping, 848

in keeping with farm, 848

location, 848, 850

number, 849
Bull, care, 656

vicious, 657
Bull associations, 646
"The bull is half tho herd,"

647
Bunt, wheat, 964
Bureau of Supervision of Co-
operation, U. S., 924

Butter, cleanliness necessary,
680
good, control of products,

680
name on wrapper advisable,

687
salting, 686
wash water, temperature,

686
washing, 685
working, 686
preparation of working

board, 686
wrapping, 687
Butter-making, 679-689

See also Churning, Cream.
Buttermilk, use in producing

butter, 683
Butternut, 506
Buttonbur, 367
Buying land, 785, 882
Buying machinery, 738

Cabbage, 386

diseases, 955

for forage purposes, 308

soil, 45, 46, 387

storing, 388

" turnip-rooted "(Kohl-
Rabi), 394
Cabbage looper, 981
Cabbage maggot, 983
Cabbage web worm, im-
ported, 987
Calico tobacco, 961
California Fruit Growers' Ex-
change, 498
Calves, raising, 649

selection for feeding pur-
poses, 589
Canada field peas, 287, 296
Canada thistle, 357
Cane blight, raspberries, 950
Cane sugar, 323

manufacture, 325

production, 318
Canker, citrus fruits, 948

fig, 949
Canker-worm, 993
Cantaloupes, diseases, 956
Capillary water, 37, 51

amount determined by soil
texture, 133

amount in various soils, 133

plants depend on, 132
Capital, distribution of, 880

how to secure, 875

relate-! to area of farm, 880

related to labor income, 881

related to type of farming,
881
Caoital, small, farming with,

858, 881
Capital, working. 879
Caraway seed, 425
Carbohydrates, 563, 1026
Carbolized plaster, 1011
Carbon tetrachlorid, 1011
Carriages, 735
Carrot, 388

Carrot, diseases, 957

for forage purposes, 308
Case weed, 366
Cash rental, 860
Cash transactions, 875
Cashew nut, 501
Cassava, 309
Castor bean, 298
Castor pomace, 74
Catch crops, 68, 291
Caterpillars, leaf eating, 9t38
Cattle, bull associations, 646
characteristics of good

feeders, 587
fattening, 586
kind of feed related to class,

589
methods of feeding, 587
reasons for feeding. 590
fitting show animals, 587
grazing, 586
time to market, 589
selection for. the feed lot,

587
sources of profit, 585
producing stockers and

feeders. 585
waste of farm by-products
sufficient to main-
tain, 592
Cattle, Ayrshire, 659
beef, 584-592
Brown Swiss, 660
Dutch Belted, 669
French Canadian, 669
Guernsey. 663
Holstein-Friesian, 665
Jersey, 667
Kerry, 669

pure-bred, breeding. 585
Cattle breeding requires
capital, 591
See aho Cow, Cows, Dairy
cattle
Cattle sheds, 55H, 654
Cauliflower, 389

diseases, 955
Cauthen, E. F., Cotton pro-
duction, 329-340
Cedar apples, 941
Celery, 390
blanching, 391
diseases, 957
soil, 45, 46, 390
Cereals, fertilizers, 85
Certified milk, 672
Charlock, 364
Check-rowers, 725
Cheese-making, where profit-
able, 679
Cherry, diseases, 947

varieties. 474
Cherry, sweet, spray table,

947
Cherry fruit flies, 993
Cherry trees, pnming, 479
soil, 46, 47
See also Stone fruits.
Chestnut, Chinese. 506
Chicken house, 706

Chickens, see Poultry.
Chicks, care, 627

feeding, 626
Children, farming furnishes
employment for, 785
Children's clothing, 1045
Chinch bug, 970
Chufa, 309
Churn, care, 684, 687
Churning, temperature, 684

time required, 685
Churns, 688
Citron, 486
Citronella oil, 1011
Citrus fruits, 484-498
cultivation, 401
diseases, 495. 947
anthracnose, 948
canker, 496, 948
rot, 496, 947
scab, 496, 948
sooty mould, 948
stem end rot, 947
treatment, 495, 948
wither tip, 948
fertilizers, 493
frost protection, 495
insects, 496
irrigation, 492
marketing. 498
picking and packing, 497
planting, 490
production, 486
propagation, 487
Citrus knot, 948
Classification, soils, 33-40
Clay loam soils, 41
Clay soils, 41

Climatic conditions, work in
co-operation with,
792
Clotbur, 367

Clothes, ready-made, 1045
Clothing, 1042
amount, 1043

character of material, 1043
children's, 1045
economy, 1045
outer garments, 1044
suggestions, 1044
undergarments, 1043
Clover, alsike, 255
Clover, bur, 257
Clover, crimson, 256

for seed, 299
Clover, hop, 258
Clover, Japan, 257
Clover, ladino, 256
Clover, red, 249

after-treatment, 252
causes of failure, 255
endurance, 249
fertilizers, 252
harvesting, 252
nurse crops for. 251
requires lime in soil, 116
securing seed, 250
seed production, 253
seed-bed, 250
seeding, 251

1094

Clover, sweet, 256

valuable for soil improve-
ment, 257
Clover, white, 256
Clover huller, 254
Clover mite, 971
Clover root borer, 971
Clovers, 247-258
characteristics, 247
crop rotation with corn,

181
feeding value, 247
harvesting methods, 248
for hay, 248
seed exanunod for dodder

before sown, 361
soils inoculated for, 247
uses, 247
Club root, 955
Clubs. ])oys', 1055
Clubs, farmers', 1052
Clubs, girls', 1055
Coal oil, as insectidc, 1009

for lighting, 758
Coal tar, as insectidc, 1010
Cochel, W. A., Beef cattle,

584-592
Cocklcbur, 367
Cocoanut, 499
Codling moth, 995
Cold-frames, 413
College training, for farmers,

1055
Colleges, agricultural, 1049;

/i>f «/, 1085
Colleges, land grant, 1049
Color, index to soil fertility,

64
Colorado potato beetle, 984
Commercial fertilizers, 72-93
add plant food only, 69
availability of ingredients

as plant food, 77
composition, 77
efficiency, 81
first use in U. S., 72
should be guaranteed, 77
high grade vs. low grade, 78
mechanical condition, 78
relative value of ingredi-
ents, 76
source of ingredients affects

value, 74
supply available plan t food,

80
use, 78

for vegetables, 378
where secured. 73
Commission business, legisla-
tive regulations, 912
Concentrates, feeding stuffs,

566
Concrete, mixing, 710

use, 709
Consumer, protecting, 911

selling direct to. 914
Conveniences, 736
Cook, M. T., Dia^aftes of farm
crops and their reme-
dies, 938-966

INDEX

Coolers, milk, 675
Co-operation, importance of
able management,
924
in labor, 918
in marketing, 916
in what possible, 917
Co-operative associations,
879, 916
in Denmark, 916
state supervision, 924
successful associations, 923
Co-operative credit system,

876
Co-operative stores, 911
Copper sulphate, 1014
Copperas. 1015
Corbett, L. C, Small fruits,

438-455
Coriander, 425
Corn, 177-196

acreage by states, 191S,

ilhtj^ration, 179
cheaper than root crops for

forage, 305
checking recommended, 186
classification, 177
composition of. 191
crop rotation for. 180
crop rotation tests, 181
deficiencies as food for

swine, 601
diseases. 962
ear row j lanting, 160
feeding value. 191
fertilizers, 182
grades, 190
harvesting, 188, 189
"hogging down." 189, 604
importance of phosphorus

in production, 182
in regions of low rainfall,

186
planted in hills or drills, 186
depth of planting, 186
rate of planting, 185
time of planting, 183
plowing. 182
preparation of seed for

planting, 186
ideals in selection, 161
shocking. 188
shrinkage. 190
made into silage, 188, 702
silage as base for ration, 842
smut disease. 962
soil, 44, 46, 47, 48, 180
soil erosion prevented, 173
storing, 188. 189
tillage, 187
varieties, 177
variety t-ests, 160
A^ariety tests, results, 178
where produced, 179
vield, 191
yield affected by climate,

180
yield per aero. 186
Corn, sweet. 398
Com belt, 177

INDEX

Corn breeding, 192, 195
Corn cribs, 189

construction, 704
Corn ear worm, 971
Corn harvester, 728
Corn improvement, 192
by selection, 160, 195
Corn planters, 723

check rowers, 725
Corn root aphis, 972
Com root worm, Southern,
977
Western, 979
Corn shellers, 730
Corn stover, 189
Cost of living on farms, 787
Cost of production, 800-808
Cotton, 329-340
characteristics, 329
commercial fertilizers prof-
itable, 335
diseases, 965
fertilizers, 86, 334, 335
ginning, 337
grades, 339
land preparation, 335
marketing. 339
picking, 337

plant food removed by, 334
planting, 336
seed. 330

seed, commercial value, 338
seed-bed, 336
soil. 47, 48, 332
species, 329
storing, 339

three-year rotation, 335
tillage, 337

varieties grouped, 330
desired qualities of a vari-
ety, 332
field selection to improve a
variety, 332
Cotton boll wee\'il, 977
Cotton boll worm (corn ear),

971
Cotton red spider, 974
Cotton worm. 972
Cottonseed meal. 72, 74, 338
Cottonseed oil, 338
Coulters, 144

Country, healthfulness, 786
County fairs, 1051
County farm adviser, 50, 1052
Cover crops, 68, 291

in vegetable gardening, 378
Cow, abuse, 654

amount of silage required,

703
care, 651, 676 ,
care at calving time, 651
care when dry. 652
dairy type, 658
developing the young an-
imal. 650
exercise, 653 ^
gestation period. 651
points in judging,

illustration, 645

marking, 655

•f

Cow, receipts per cow, 817
rest, 652

individual selection, 644
standard of production nec-
essary, 644
to ascertain production of,

645
unproductive, 801
Cow stables, 673, 676, 697-701
conveniences, 700
floor space and arrange-
ment, 698
floors, 699
lighting, 700
routine, 651
ventilation, 700
Cow testing associations, 646,

918
Cowell, A. W., Beautifying
home grounds, 531-
538
Window gardening, 539-543
Cowpeas, crop rotation, 285
fertilizers, 284
. harvesting, 285
seed production, 296
seeding, 283
seeding with other crops,

284
tillage, 285
utilization, 285
varieties, 282
Cows, clean, 673
dehorning, 655
flies in the barn, 655
grooming, 653
regularity of treatment, 651
relation to size of farm, 818
require salt, 654
sta])ling, 654, 073, 676, 696
unprofitable, 646, 801
watering, 654
Cranberry, 455
diseases, 951
Cream, churning tempera-
tures, 684
percentage of fat in. 681
ripening, degree, 683
ripening, methods. 682
ripening, use of starters, 683
thin, undesirable, 682
Creameries, co-operative, 919

eggs as side linej 920
Credit, 875

Credit, agricultural, 875
Crop adaptation, see Soil

adaptation.
Crop failures may cause loss

on livestock, 552
Crop improvement, 157

a community interest, 165
Crop insects, 968
truck, 980-991
Crop plan, 856 , .

Crop production, the hmiting

factor, 69
Crop products, profits from

cheap, 841
Crop reporter monthly, 1055
Crop rotation, 166-175

Crop rotation, for com, 180
for cowpeas, 285
for dairy farmer, 173, 838
defined, 166

essentials of a good, 170
facilitated by livestock, 550
in farm scheme, 836
fertilizers, 171. 172
insect depredations affected

by, 168
length, 171

methods of planning, 175
for potato, 312
purpose, 166
recording, 175
sequence, 170
for stockman, 173
sugar-cane, 324
suggested rotations, 172
two rotations on same farm,

837
unequal areas, 838
what to grow, 171, 172
Crop rotation advantages,
conserves nitrogen, 167
conserves organic matter,

167
distributes labor, 169
exterminates weeds, 167
improves environment of

crop. 169
increases soil fertility, 67,

78, 166
insures returns, 169
maintains good physical
condition of soil, 167
prevents reduced yields, 169
reduces plant diseases, 169
systematizes farming, 169
Crop yields, 800

on successful farms, 816
weeds reduce, 353
Cropping systems, 833
adaptation, 834
changing system, 837
related to future productiv-
ity, 835
Crops, acreage. 818

amount of water necessary

to produce, 131
competing types, 797
for cash or for feed, 836
diseases, 938-966
related to farm manage-
ment, 833
related to feed require-
ments. 836
feeding svstems related to,

834
livestock utilize wasted

crops, 549
require hme. 116
sequence. 170
sharing for rent. 859, 860
subject to cycles of pro-
duction, 797
water requirements, table,
1077
Crops, catch, for pasture and
hay, 291

1095

Crops, exhaustive, 170
Crops, extensive, 813
Crops, intensive, 813
Crops, new, fail when experi-
enced labor is lack-
ing, 794
Crops, producing, cost per

acre, table, 1078
Crops, restorative, 170
Cross-breeding, 554
Cross-fertilization, 159
Crown gall, apple, 941
Crude oils, as insectidc, 1010
Crude protein, 563
Cucumber, 393

diseases, 956, 957
Cultivation, see Tillage,
Cultivators, 720
Currant, 451

diseases, 453, 951
enemies, 453, 995
soil, 452
Currant worm. 453, 995
Cutworms, 168, 968

Dairy apparatus, 687
Dairy barn, 673, 676, 697
storage capacity, 698
See also Cattle sheds, Cow
stables.
Dairy breed organization in

America, 669
Dairy breeds, 658-671
American, 659
dairv tvpe common to all,

658^
essential. 658
Dairy cattle, 643-671
Dairy cattle, advanced reg-
istry requirements,
647, 670
associations, 646, 669
breed differences, 644
breeds, 658-671
buying or raising calves, 649
cow-testing association rec-
ords. 646
feeding, Haecker standard,

571; table, 1067
management, 651-657
number, 818
records, 645
records, supervisor method,

646
registry, 647, 670
selecting for breeding, 644
selection and improvement,

643-650
value of pedigrees, 643
Haecker standard for, 571
Dairy farm, crop rotation for,
173, 838
size, 830
Dairy farming, adaptation,
679
combined with cash crops,

825
intensity, 816
need of dairy farms, 679
types, 679

10%

INDEX

Dairy house, 706
Dairy products, cost of pro-
ducing, 801

fluctuation in price less-
ened, 817

marketing, 919

weight, table, 1084
Damping off, cotton, 966
Dams, irrigation, 770
Darst, W. H., Sugar crops,
318-328

Wheat (winter and spring),
197-209
Day's work on farm, 866
Debt, extent permissible,

879
Dehorning cows, 655
Depreciation affects cost of

production, 803
Derrick, 736
Dewberry, diseases, 950
Digitalis, 425
Diminishing returns, 811
Dining room, 1039
Diseases, apple, 939

asparagus, 953

avocado, 949

bean, 954

beet, 954

blackberry, 950

cabbage, 955

cantaloupes, 956

carrot, 957

cauliflower, 955

celery, 957

cherrv', 947

corn, 962

cotton, 965

cranberrj% 951

cucumber, 956, 957

currant, 951

dewberry, 950

eggplant, 960

fig, 949

flax, 966

gooseberry, 951

grape, 952

lettuce, 960

mango, 949

melons, 956

oats, 964

olive, 949

onion, 957

pea, 954

peach, 944

peanut, 961

pear, 942

pepper, 960

plum, 946

potato, 958

quince, 944

raspberry, 950

strawberry, 951

sugar cane, 965

sweet potato, 961

tobacco, 961

tomato, 959

turnip, 955

wheat, 962
Diseases, animals, 929-937

Diseases, animals, knowledge
should precede treat-
ment, 930

symptoms, 933
Diseases, citrus fruits, 495,
947

treatment, 948
Diseases, crops, 938-966

report to agricultural ex-
periment station, 939
Diseases, fruit, 939-953
Diseases, plant, 938-960
Diseases, soil, 938
Diseases, vegetables, 953-

962
Diseases increase cost of pro-
duction, 807
Disk cultivator, 720
Disk harrow, 719
Disk plows, 716
Disking, 146
Distribution cost, 909
Ditchbur, 367
Ditches, banks, 766

distributaries, 773

drainage, 765

irrigation, 773
Ditching machines, 765

small, 768
Diversified farming, 822

advantages, 824
Dodders, 360

Double blossom, berry, 950
Double-acting ram, 755
Double-trees, 736
Downy mildew, bean, 954

cucumber, 957

grape, 952

onion, 957

potato, 958
Drag, 147, 720
Drainage, 137, 765

co-operation among the
land owners, 765

ditches, 765

essential to soil fertility. 137

improves health conditions,
137

to remove gravitational
water, 134

wet spots, 139
Drainage reflected in char-
acter of vegetation,
63
Drains, open vs. underground,
138

tile, 138, 766
Dredge, floating, 765
Dress, choice of, 1042
Dried blood, 74, 75
Drills, grain, 203, 722
Drop lettuce, 960
Drv rot, potato, 958
Dutch belted cattle, 669
Dwarf trees, apple, 458

pear, 468

Ear-row method, 160
Economic value of neighbors,
793

Economical unit, size of farm,

828
Economizing time, 873
Education essential in farm-
ing, 1056
Efficiency, lack of, increases
cost of production,
807
Eggplant, 393
diseases, 960
Eggs, as source of income, 619
for hatching, 623
improvement of quality,

629
market, care of, 628
rnarketing, 920
side line for co-operative

creameries, 920
washing impairs, 630
Electric lighting, 759
Electricity, lightens work, 737
"Elephant's ear," 310
Emerald green, 1005
Emmer, 227
Employment, permanency of,

871
Engines, 743
horizontal, 745
vertical, 745
English walnut (Persian wal-
nut), 499, 502
soil, 49
Erosion, soil, 65
"Ether extract," 564
Evaporation, soil water, pre-
venting, 135
Evvard, J. M., Swine, 593-

606
Ewos, winter care, 615
Exchanging help, 918
Exercise, animals, 932
Expenditures, record of, 887
Expenses, reducing, 807
Experience essential in farm-
ing, 783
Experiment stations, 1050
bulletins on silos, 703
listed, 1085
test samples of seeds free,

355
test soil samples, 116
Extension representatives,

1053
Extension work, 1052
Extensive crops, 813
Eye, animals, indicates condi-
tion, 934

Fairs, 1051

Fall army worm, 974

Fall plowing, 144

Family, size of, determines

size of farm, 827
Farm, back to the, move-
ment, 789

cost of living on, 787

as a home, 786

location, 793

power for, 743

purchasing, 785, 882

INDEX

1097

)

Farm, rearranging, 856
size, 825
size of family determines

size, 827
topography, 792
what it supplies, 787
Farm accounts, 884
Farm advisor, county, 50
Farm advisory work, 1052
Farm animals, 547-617
Farm bookkeeping, 885
Farm buildings, 693-711
concrete, 709
in keeping with farm, 848
Farm enterprises, accounts

with, 887
Farm equipment affects cost

of production, 802
Farm hand, 783
hiring, 871
housing, 869, 1039
interesting, 870
management, 871
most satisfactory, 870
sharing profits, 869
social standing, 864
wages, 867
working spirit, 874
Farm house, 693, 1037-1042
basement, 1038
bathroom, 1041
dining-room, 1039
draperies and decoration,

1041
furnishings, 1041

hall, 1040

improvements, 1037
interior finish, 1041
kitchen, 1039
lighting, 758
living-room, 1040
location, 850
painting, 693
pantry, 1039

plans, 1037; drawings, 695
sleeping rooms, 1040
ventilation, 1042
Farm implements, 715-742

hand tools, 735
Farm labor, 783, 864-874
co-operation, 918
demand, 865

extent of employment, 864
hours, 866
housing, 869
incentives, 869
permanency of employ-
ment, 871
productive and unproduc-
tive, 872
season, 867

skilled and unskilled, 870
solution of problem, 865
stormy days, 873
wages, 867
why scarce, 864
in winter, 873
working on time, 872
Farm legislation, 861
Farm machinery, 715-742

Farm machinery, work ca-
pacity, table, 1079
Farm management, 781
crops related to, 833
livestock, 834
Farm manager, 789
Farm mortgages, 878
Farm office, 1040
Farm ownership, 784
Farm plan, 844-856

for record, 889
Farm produce, fertility in,

table, 1073
Farm products, composition
percentage, tables,
1068-1072
cost of distribution, 909
marketing, 913
markets, 795
prices, 796; <aWc, 1082
prices fluctuate, 914
supply and demand, 796
transportation, 795
Farm records, 884
Farm roads, 854
Farm sanitation, 758-764
Farm scheme, 833
Farm tools, 735, 736
Farm wagons, 734
Farmer as a business man, 782
as a laborer, 782
as a mechanic, 782
as a naturalist, 782
education increases income,

1055
independence, 785
personal traits, 783
relation to banker, 879
Farmers' Bulletins describe
systems of sewage
disposal, 764
are free, 1054

on food and nutrition, 1036
Farmers' clubs, 1052
Farmers' institutes, 1050

weak points, 1051
Farmer's labor income, 790
Farming, capital, 798
capital small, 858, 881
changing type, 798
climate important factor,

792
compared with other occu-
pations, 781-791
economical production, 828
economical unit, 828
factors that determine best

type, 792
furnishes employment for

children, 785
healthful life, 786
a home enterprise, 786
intensity of, 803
natural enemies, 798
as an occupation, 785
preparation for, 788
profits, 791, 800
requires knowledge, ^^47
sources of information, 1087
successful types, 799

Farming, uncertainties, 788

winter work, 873
Farming, American, on ex-
tensive basis, 821
Farming, diversified, 822
Farming, intensive, 809
Farming, special, 823
Farming with small capital,

858, 881
Farms, bonanza, 826
Farms, large, advantages,

828-831
Farms, medium size, superior,

827
Farms, size, 825

economizes on buildings
and fences, 828
on equipment, 828
on labor, 829
fields, 830

in the United States, 830
related to capital, 830
related to crop yields, 829
Farms, small, 831
Farmstead, appearance, 851
healthfulness, 851
location, 844
size, 845
Fashion, extremes, 1044
Fats, feed, 564
Fats, food, 1026
Feed, Armsby standards, 570
damaged grain made safe,

931
digestion of the nutrients,

564
fats, 564

Haecker standard for dairy
cows, 571 ;/aWr, 1067
nutritive ratio, 564, 843
preparation, 556
Wolff-Lehmann standards,
568
Feed units, 841
Feeding, balanced rations,
843
cheapest, 841
corn silage, 842
economy, 840
profitable, 842
regularity, 560
Feeding standards, Armsby,
570; table, 1066
Wolff-Lehmann 568; tables,
1065, 1066
Feeding stuffs, chemical com-
position, 562

classes, 565

concentrates, 566

digestible nutrients, 564;
table, 1061-1063

dry matter and digestible
nutrients, to6Ze,1061
-1063

dry matter, digestible pro-
tein, and net energy,
Armsby table, 1064

energy values, 565

mineral matter, 562

roughages, 567

1098

Feeding stuffs, water, 562
Feeding system, 833-843

based on class of animals,
839

depends on type of farm-
ing, 840

related to cost of produc-
tion, 840
Feedlots, position and size,

846
Feeds, 562

* stock feeds, 557
Fence posts, 712
Fences, 711, 854

construction, 713

gates, 714

hedge, 712

plank, 712

stone, 712

types, 711, 855

wire, 711
Ferns, 542

Fertility in farm produce,
table, 1073

vegetation an index, 62
Fertilization, value of crop
determines rate, 79
Fertilizers, 72

absorption, 53

best kind, 69, 84

care of, 93

character related to soil, 80

commercial vs. agricultural
value, 77

co-operation in buying, 91

crop requirements, 84

effect modified by soil and
crop, 83

home mixing, 92

materials, 93

methods of application, 90

needs of different soils, 84

profitable use, 88

proportion of straw to grain
affected by, 87

purchase, 91

soil tests, 82

what analj'ses show, 77

when to apply, 89
Fertilizers, for apple trees,
463

buckwheat, 221

citrus fruits, 493

corn, 182

crop rotations, 171, 172

meadows, 278

oats, 213

pastures, 278

raspberries, 446, 448

red clover, 252

stone fruits, 477

timothy, 238

tobacco, 346

vegetable forcing, 416

wheat, 200

See also Commercial fertil-
izers, Manure.
Fescues, 244
Field bindweed, 368
Field peas, 287, 296

INDEX

Field tests, soil requirements,

81
Fields, combining, 838

distance, 852

number, 852

rearranging, 856

rotation groups, 853

shape, 851

size, 830, 851
Fig, 518

diseases, 949
Finger and toe disease, plants,

955
Fir-tree oil, 1011
Fish scrap, 74
Flat-headed apple tree borer,

995
Flax, 223

diseases, 225, 966

utilization, 225
Flax seed, yield and value,

225
Flea beetle, 984
Flies, in the bam, 655
Floating dredge, 765
Flowering plants, 542
Flowers, use of, 536
Flumes, irrigation, 773
Food, 1023-1036

amount needed, 1032

elements needed, 1025

government bulletins, 1036

need of, 1025
Food materials, energy value
per pound, 1030
table, 1031

man's selection, 1026

nature's preparation, 1026

proportions of foodstuffs in,
1027
table, 1028

reasons for cooking, 1035
Foodstuffs, .1026

cooking of combinations,
1036

effect of cooking, 1035

energy value, 1029

proportions in food mate-
rials, 1027
table, 1028
Foal, feeding, 582

orphan foal, 582
Foliage plants, 542
Forage crops, 282-2&3. 305-
310

corn cheaper than root
crops, 305

roots and tubers for, 305

soil, 47, 4H
Foreman, 872
Forest, a crop of trees, 523
Forestry, financially profit-
able, 529

need, 521
Formaldehyde, 1015
Formalin, 1015
Foxglove, 425
Foxtail, 359
Freckles, peach, 944
French Canadian cattle, 669

French green, 1005
Fruit, marketing, 436, 922

co-operation, 923

diseases, 939-953
Fruit culture, choice of varie-
ties, 436

fertilizers, 435

insects, 991

mixed plantings, 432

parasites, 430

principles, 429-437

soil moisture, 429

subsoil, 429

value, 436
Fruit rot, fig, 949

tomato, 96k)
Fruit spot, cucumber, 957
Fruit tree bark beetle, 995
Fruit trees, how buds are
borne, 433

buying stock, 431

to heel-in, 431

planting, 432

time to plant, 431

pruning, 432, 434

Southern vs. Northern
grown, 431

spraying, 436

thinning, 436
Fruits, pome, 456-471
Fruits, small, 438-455
Fruits, stone, 472-483
Fruits, tropical, 507-520
Fungicides, 1014
Fungicides and insecticides

combined, 1017
Fusarium wait, tomato, 960

Garden, 403^12, 846-848

plan, 404

seed, 379, 406 .

soil, 377, 405

tillage, 378, 406, 409

tools, 378
Carman, H., Insecticides and
fungicides, 1005-
1019
Gas, acetylene, 758
Gas engine, cooling systems,
746

governors, 747

ignition, 745

lubrication, 746

parts, 747

principles, 743

troubles, 748
Gasoline lamps, 758
Gates, 714

Germinating box, 194
Germination test, com, 194
Gestation perio'^ livestock,

556 '
Ginseng, 426
Gipsy moth, 995
Girls' clubs, 1055
Glossary, 1088
Goats, 617

Goldthwaite, N. E., Food
materials and their
functions, 1023-1036

INDEX

1099

Gooseberry, 453
diseases, 455, 951
enemies, 455
fertilizers, 454
mildew, 455, 951
planting, 454
pruning, 455
soil, 453
Goosefoot, white, 364
Government reports, how

secured, 49
Governors, gas engine, 747
Grain breeding, crossing of

varieties, 163
Grain drills, 203, 722
Grain in bins, how to estimate

amount of, 1086
Grains, small, soil, 48
Granville tobacco wilt, 961
Grape, diseases, 952
insects, 996
rots, 952
soil, 47, 49
Grape berry moth, 996
Grape leaf hopper, 997
Grape vine flea beetle, 998
Grapefruit, 485

See also Citrus fruits.
Grasses, 230-246
choice, 231
cost of seed, 232
harvesting, 233
importance and value, 230
North American, 230
regions of production, 230
seeding, 232
valuable characteristics,

231
Grasses, Bermuda grass, 245

blue grass, 240

brome grass, 244

the fescues, 244

guinea grass, 246

Johnson grass, 246

orchard grass, 243

para grass, 246

redtop, 242

rye grass, 244

Sudan grass, 245

tall oat grass, 244

timothy, 235-240
Grasshoppers, 968
Gravitational water, 132 134

removal, 134
Green bug, 974
Greenhouse, 408, 414
Grindley, H. S., Feeds and

feeding, 562-572
Grooming, essential to health,

932
Grooming, horge, 583
Grounds, occ Home grounds.
Growing plants under glass,

414
Grubworms, 969
Guano, 72, 74
Guaranteed milk, 672
Guava, 519

Guernsey cattle, characteris-
tics, 663

Guernsey cattle, origin and
development, 663

Guinea grass, 246

Gummosis, citrus fruits, 495,
948

Gypsum, 120

Haecker feed standard for
dairy cows, 671;
table, 1067
Hairy root, apple, 941
Hand cart, 736
Hand implements, 735
Harlequin cabbage bug, 984
Harrow, 147, 718
disk, 719
smoothing, 718
spring-toothed, 147, 718
Harrowing, 147

after plowing, 145
Harvester, corn, 728
Harvesting machinery, 725
Hay, alfalfa, 265
clover, 248
marketing, 234, 240
quality, 233
soil, 44, 46, 48, 49
stacking, 234
sweating process, 234
Hay crops, 282-293
Hay in bins, how to estimate

amount of, 1086
Head gates, irrigation, 771
Heating systems, 760
Hedge bindweed, 369
Hedge fences, 712
Heifer, ago to breed, 651

open stables for, 650
Hellebore, white, 1009
Herd books, 670
Hessian fly, 976
Hickory nut, 506
Hoeing, 149
Hog house, 600, 705
movable, cost, 705
Hoisting apparatus, 736
Holstein-Fricisian cattle, char-
acteristics, 665
origin and development, 665
Home, psychological effect,

1037
Home grounds, 531-538
flowers, 536

landscape treatment, 533
planning, 531
planting, 533
Honey, marketing, 639

See also Bees.
Honeywell generator, hot-
water heating, 760
Hop aphis, 985
Hop plant borer, 985
Horn worm, 979
Horse, 573-583

age, 581 • , ^

classification of market

classes, table, 578
development of type, 573
feeding, 581-583
grooming, 583

Horse, labor distribution, 807
market requirements, 578
standard rations, 583
teeth at various ages,

photographs, 579, 580
watering, 582

Horse, draft type, 575, 576

Horse, light, 574, 576

Horse, work, feed, 582

#See a^so Animals, Livestock.

Horse power, cost, table, 1078

Horseradish, 393

Hotbeds, 413

care of plants, 381

Hours of work, 866

Household appliances, 1042

Hughes, E. H., Horses and
mules, 573-583

Humphrey, G. C, Dairy
breeds of cattle, 658-
671

Hybridization, 158

Hydraulic ram, 755

Hydrocyanic acid gas, 1012

Hygroscopic water, 132, 134

Ice house, 707
Ignition, gas engine, 745
Imperial green, 1005
Implement house, 703, 738
Imported cabbage worm, 987
Impulse water motors, 753
Income of farmers, 790
Increasing returns, 811
Incubation, poultry, 623
Indebtedness, extent, 879
Information, sources of, 1087
Insect pests, 967-1004
citrus fruits, 496
control, 967
fruit, 991-1003
potato, 317, 968, 984, 987
relation to crop rotation,

168
tobacco, 349, 979
Insectidcs, 1005
Insectides, powdered, objec-
tions to, 1006
Insecticides and fungicides

combined, 1017
Insects, crop, 968-991
Inspected milk, 672
Institutes, Farmers', 1050
Insurance affects cost of pro-
duction, 803
Intensity in dairying, 816
Intensive crops, 813
Intensive farming, 809-821
depends on available land,

809
proper balance, 820
relation to labor, 813
relation to land values, 813
relation to type of farming,
814
Inventory, 886
Iron sulphate, 1015
Irrigate, when to, 776
Irrigation, 769

alkali troubles, 776

1100

INDEX

Irrigation, apportionment of
the water, 769

check system, 775

citrus regions, 492

co-operation, 769

dams, 770

distributing the water, 773

ditches, 773

furrow method, 774

head gates, 771

preparing land for, 771

reservoirs, 770

Skinner system, 775

spray method, 775

unit of water, 776

vegetable gardens, 410
Irrigation water, 776

losses in transmission, 771

methods of transmission,
770

sources, 770

Jersey cattle, characteristics,

668
origin and development,

667
Johnson grass, 246
Jointers used in plowing, 144
Journal of Research, 1054

Kaffir corn, 226

Kainite, 74

Kains, M. G., Principles of

fruit production, 429-

*437
Kale, 393

for forage purposes, 309
Kerosene lamps, 758
Kerry cattle, 669
Kilpatrick, M. C, Farm flock,

618-830
"King system," ventilation,

760
Kitchen, 1039
Kohl-Rabi, 394

Labor adapted to crops, 794
character and supply aflfects
type of farming, 797
class should correspond
with character of
work, 805
economizing, 811
low price encourages in-
tensity, 813
Labor, farm, 864-874
Labor, horse, distribution,
table, 807
saving, 874
Labor, man, efficiency in field

Hi operations, 802
Labor income, 790
Labor problem, solution, 865
Labor returns, 811
Labor-saving household im-
plements, 737
Ladino clover, 256
Lambs, care, 615
marketing, 615
Lamb's quarters, 364

Lamps, 758

Land, economizing, 809

as an investment, 785, 882

renting, 857-863

unimproved utilized as pas-
ture, 549

values, relation to crops,
798, 803

values, relation to produc-
tion cost, 803
Lanes, 854
Land drainage, 765
Land grant colleges, 1049
Land-owners, classes of, 858
Larson, C. W., Clean milk
production, 672-678

Dairy herd management,
651-657
Late blight, potato, 958
I^aundry, equipment, 737
Lawn, 535, 845
Leaching, 36

loss of lime by, 115
Leaf beetles, 968
Leaf })light, cucumber, 957

melons, 950

tomato, 959
Leaf curl, peach, 945
Leaf spot, avocado, 949

bean, 954

beet, 954

berry, 950

celery, 957

cherry, 947

pear, 943

strawberry, 951
Lease, time of, 862

what it should contain, 862
Leek, 394

Legislation, farm, 861
Legislative regulation of com-
mission business, 912
Legumes, 282-289, 294-304

increase soil nitrogen, 68

soil, 47
Lemon, 485

diseases, black pit, 948
Lemon oil, 1011
Lemon trees, pruning, 495

See also Citrus fruits.
Lespedeza, clover, 257
Lesser apple worm, 998
Lettuce, 46. 381, 394

diseases, 960
Libraries, farmers should
have access to, 1055
Libraries, traveling, 1055
Lice, plant, 543, 968
Lighting, electric, 759

farm house, 758
Lightning rods, 710
Limb blight, fig, 949
Lime, 115-129

amount to apply, 122

application, 54, 122, 123

chemical action, 120

cost, 124

crops require, 116

crushing vs. burning, 127

experimental results, 125

Lime, forms, 120
functions, 120
frequency of application,

123
how soils lose, 115
injudicious use, 122
ntethod of applying, 123,

125
mixing with manure and

fertilizers, 124
physical effect, 121
relative values of different

forms, 123
sanitary effect, 121
slaking, 127
soils need, 115
sources, 119
spreading, 125
time of applying, 122
Lime affects plant diseases,

122
affects plant growth, 118
affects soil bacteria, 121
as plant food, 120
content in general farm

crops, table, 117
content in typical soils of

the U. S., table, 115
content of soils determined,

115
corrects soil acidity, 121
favors development of po-
tato scab, 315
not a fertilizer, 122
removed in farm crops, 116
requirements, soils, 116
Lime (fruit), 486
Lime, spent, 119
Lime-sulphur wash, 1007,

1017
Little peach, 945
Little potato, 959
Livestock, 547-552
advantages, 548
amount of each crop re-
quired for, 818
breeding, 553-558
care, 556-561, 930-932
care of breeding herd, 557
cross-breeding, 554
disadvantages, 551
disease, 929-937
feeding, 556, 562-572
gestation periods, 556
grading, 554
holding for market entails

loss, 552
housed separately, 696
kind to keep, 559
labor of care reduced, 559
management, 558, 932
marketing, 919
observing individuals, 560
pedigree, 556
prices affected by crops,

552
prices, table, 1081
pure-breds, 553
rations, 568, 842
records kept up to date, 560

INDEX

1101

Livestock, registration, 561
regularity in feeding and

watering, 560
selection of breed, 555
shipping, 561

value and importance, 547
Livestock convert raw mate-
rials into valuable
finished product, 550
crop failures cause loss, 552
crops related to, 834
demands large farmstead,

845
facilitate good crop rota-
tions, 550
increase prosperity of com-
munity, 551
manure produced by, table,

1081
relation to farm manage-
ment, 834
return fertility to soil, 550
use unproductive land, 549
utilize wasted crops, 549
Livestock gains in relation to

feed, 842
Livestock production, af-
fected by climate,
797
doubled by the use of the
silo, 592
Livestock shipping associa-
tions, 920
Living room, 1040
Loam soils, 41
Loan associations, 879
Locusts, 908
London purple, 1006
Loose smut, wheat, 962

Machinery, advantages, 715

amount of work accom-
plished by, 740

buying, 738

care, 738

cost, 739

computing cost, 740

duty of, 740

utilizing, 739
Machinery, harvesting, 725
Machinery, tillage, 716
Machinery for the house, 737
Magnesia, average in general
farm crops, table, 117
Maize. See Corn.
Management, farm, 781
Manager, farm, 789
Mandarin orange, 486
Mangels, 307
f Mangle, 737
Mango, 515

diseases, 949

inarching and patch graft-
ing, 516

prepared for eating, 517
Manure, absorbents vs. cis-
terns, 104

availability for plant food,
95

biological effect, 96

Manure, cheapest way of ap-
plying, 111
composition, 95
composition and amounts
produced by differ-
ent animals, table,
1081
for corn, 182

to which crops applied, 107
decomposition, 107
distribution of benefits. 111
economical use, 106
eroded soil most in need of,

108
best fertilizer, 69
fertilizer constituents in
farm products, 100,
102, 114
important farm asset, 94
losses, 103

methods of applying, 109
methods of storing and

handling, 102
physical effect, 96
preservatives, 105
rate of applying, 108
reinforcing, 105
to what soils applied, 107
top dressing vs. plowing

under, 109
value, 94, 96, 99
value affected by character

of bedding, 100
value affected by quality

of feed, 99
for vegetables, 378, 406
Manure, barnyard, 94
cattle, 97
hog, 97
horse, 97
poultry, 98
sheep, 98
Manure losses, how to pre-
vent, 104
Manure salt, 74
Manure spreader, 731
Manures, 73, 94-114
Manures, green, 112

cultivated crops best to

follow, 114
fertilizing constituents in,

113
objections, 112
on poor soils, 113
prevent loss of nitrogen by

leaching, 112
principal crops, 113
when advisable, 112
Manures, miscellaneous, 99
Maple sugar, 327
Mare, brood, feed, 583
Marketing, co-operation, 916
dairy products, 919
eggs, 920

farm products, 913
fruit, 922
livestock, 919
motor truck use, 915
Parcel Post, 915
vegetables, 921

Markets, farm products, 795

need of, 909
Marl, 119
Married men, employment of,

865
McNess, G. T., Tobacco, 341-

352
Meadows, 270-281
advantages, 271
care, 277
climatic requirements, 271,

273
essential qualities, 270
fertilizers, 278
formation, 272
improvement, 278
seed mixtures, 273
seeding grasses and clovers,

274
soil, 271, 272, 273
treatment, 275
utilizing aftermath, 279
Pleasures, standard, 737

tables, 1083
Measuring worm (cabbage

looper), 981
Meat supply, dej&ciency in,

590
Medicinal plants, 424
distiUing, 427
profitably grown, 424
Melanose, disease, 948
Melon aphis, 987
Melons, diseases, 956
Mercury, bichloride of, 1017
Mercury-Seal system, hot-
water heating, 760
Merino sheep, 608
Metabolic products, 1025
Mexican cotton boll weevil,

977
Middlemen, 910
Mildew, apple, 941
cherry, 947
grape, 952
lettuce, 960
peach, 945
Milk, bacteria in, 675
classes, 672
handhng, 675, 677
to improve quality, 676
for market, 679
Milk, certified, 672
Milk, clean, production, 672-
678
clean, healthy cows essen-
tial, 673
essential points in produc-
tion, 676
Milk, guaranteed, 672
Milk, inspected, 672
Milk, modified, 672
Milk, pasteurized, 672
Milk, sanitary, 672
Milk, standardized, 672
Milk coolers, 675
Milk house, 706

care of utensils, 677
Milk pails, 675, 689
small-top, 674

1102

. INDEX

Milk production, Haecker's
feed standard for,
table, 1067
Milk strainers, 675
Milker must be clean and

healthy, 674
Milking, 674, 677
difficult, 654
process, 653
Milking machines, 732
Millet. 289

catch crop for hay, 290
Mineral matters in food, 1026
Modified milk, 672
Molasses, sorghum, 327
Mold-board plows, 717
Money, borrowing, 877
Moon, F. F., Farm woodlot,

521-530
Morning glory, wild, 368
Mortgages, 878

period for w^hich run, 878
Mosaic tobacco, 961
Mosquitoes, drainage
abolishes breeding
places, 137
Mother's heart, 366
Motor truck in marketing,

915
Motors, water, 752
Mottle top tobacco, 961
Mouth, animals, examination

of, 936
Mowing machines, 725
Mulches, 150

prevent soil erosion, 151
Mule, 576, 577
Mushroom culture, 417
Mushroom houses, 417
Mushrooms, casing the beds,
421
enemies, 422
filling the beds, 419
marketing, 422
picking, 421
preparation of the compost,

419
spawning, 420
temperature, 421
ventilation, 421
watering, 421
yield and returns, 422
Muskmelon, 394

Nail head rust, citrus fruits,
948

Nasal discharges, animals,
936

National Grange, 1052

Natural starter, butter mak-
ing, 684

Necrosis, grape, 952

Neighbors, 793

advertising value, 794
economic value, 7^3

New York State College of
Forestry, selling ser-
vice of, 529

Nitrate of soda, 74

Nitrogen, carriers, 74

Nitrogen, deficiency in cotton
soil, 334
needed for vegetables, 86
retards maturity, 80
secured through the grow-
ing of legumes, 78
surface applications, 53
tends to accelerate vegeta-
tive growth, 79
Noll, C. F., Crop improve-
ment, 157-165
Norfolk soils, 40
Nursery stock, 431
Nut culture, United States,

499-506
Nut trees, 506
Nuts, 499-506

Oat grass, 244
Oat straw, 216
Oats, 210-217

climatic adaptation, 210

composition, 216

cost of producing, 217

diseases, 964

districts of the United
States, 211

early soiling crop, 216

feeding value, 216

fertilizers, 213

harvesting, 214

improvement, 217

as nurse crop, 214

price, when highest, 216

seed selection, 162

seed-bed, 213

method of seeding, 214

preparation for seeding,
212

rate of seeding, 214

time of seeding, 213

shocking, 214

soil, 44, 46, 210

stacking, 215

statistics, 210

storing, 216

threshing, 216

value for hay, 216

varieties, 211
Oats, spring, seeded without

plowing, 147
Office, farm, 1040
Oil, as insecticide, 1009
Olive, diseases, 949
Olive knot, 949
Onion, 395

diseases, 957

soil, 45, 46, 395
Onion culture, 396
Onion sets, 396
Orange, mandarin, 486

navel, black rot, 947

sour, 485

sweet, 484
Orange nursery, 488
Orange rust, berry, 950
Orange seedlings. 488
Orange trees, budding, 488

care of nursery stock, 489

pruning, 494

Orange. See also Citrus

fruits.
Orchard, fertilizers, 86

location, 846

marking out the field, 431

site, 430

tillage, 434

windbreaks, 430
Orchard grass, 243
Orphan foal, feeding, 582
Out-buildings, 703
Ownership, farm, 784
Oyster plant, 398
Oyster shells, sources of lime,
119

Paddocks, 846

Paint, 693

Pantry, 1039

Para grass, 246

Para-dichlorobenzene, 1012

Paradise nut, 499

Parcel post marketing, 915

Paris green, 1005

Parking system. 111

Parsley, 396

Parsnip, 308, 397

blight, 958
Pasteurized milk, 672
Pastures, 270-281

advantages, 271

capacity, 280

care, 277

climatic requirements, 271,
273

essential qualities, 270

fertilizers, 278

formation, 272

improvement, 278

maintenance, 242

seed mixtures, 273

seeding grasses and clovers,
274

soil, 48, 271-273

soil preparation, 272

temporary, 280

treatment, 275

utilizing aftermath, 279
Patrons of husbandry, 1052
Pea, 397

diseases, 954
Peach, diseases, 944 *

brown rot, 944
leaf curl, 945
mildew, 945
scab, 944
yellows, 945

insects, 995, 998, 999, 1003

•'shot hole" diseases, 945

varieties, 473
Peach rosette, 946
Peach tree borer, 998
Peach trees, planting, 475

pruning, 478

spray table, 946

willowing, 945

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