Google
This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project
to make the world's books discoverable online.
It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject
to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books
are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.
Marks, notations and other maiginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the
publisher to a library and finally to you.
Usage guidelines
Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing tliis resource, we liave taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:
+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.
+ Refrain fivm automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.
+ Maintain attributionTht GoogXt "watermark" you see on each file is essential for in forming people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.
+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liabili^ can be quite severe.
About Google Book Search
Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web
at|http: //books .google .com/I
>, Google
I
(V\<s.G.W,^ Pouttttson
.,GoogIe
— . (
BMEW"
Umy
TF
3.Si
.347
/heui^ A. /U.e/ie.^
>, Google
>, Google
STEEL BAILS
THEIR HISTORY, PROPERTIES, STRENGTH
AND MANUFACTURE
WITH NOTES ON THE
PEINCIPLES OF ROLLING STOCK AND TRACK DESIGN
WILLIAM Hr SELLEW
PBtNClPAL ASSISTANT ENOINSBR, HtCHlOAIf CENTRAL RAILBOAD
sei ILLVSTRATIONS-SS FOLDING PLATES
NEW YORK
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
Twenty-five Park Place
LONDON
CONSTABLE & COMPANY, Ltd.
1913
>, Google
COPTOIGHT, 1913
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
>, Google
MRS. C W. PATTERSON
PREFACE
In this work the author has endeavored to systematize the knowledge in
existence upon the subject, and to present in a concise yet clear form the most
important features of the problem.
The fu^t chapter treats of the development of the present design of section
with a comparison of the American rails with those in use on English Railways
and on the Continent.
In chapters two to five, incluave, the external forces acting on the rail
and the corresponding stresses they produce in the rail are discussed. The
necessity and desire for information on this subject are widespread. While a
considerable amount of general mformation is to be found scattered through
the technical press and in the proceedings of the various Railway Associations
and En^neering Societies, yet very little has been published dealing broadly
with the principles of design of the rail in reference to the rolling stock and
track structure.
In recent years much thought has been given to the manufacture of rail
steel, and investigators, it would seem, have turned their attention more to an
examination of the various defects found in the process of manufacture than
to the study of the duty of the rail.
Quite early the question of the intemdty of pressure existing between the
wheel and tiie rail began to recave attention, but it was not until later that the
bending stresses in the rail were investigated. Purely theoretical contributions
to tiie latter subject were made by Zimmerman in 1888. The first practical
investigations of the bending stress In the rail were apparently those made
by the United States Government in 1894 by measuring the strains in the rail
under the static load of the locomotive wheels. These were followed by
Dr. P. H. Dudley's stremmatograph experiments for measuring the effect
of dynamic loads. In the time elapsed since the pubhcation of these investi-
gations hardly anything has been done to further elucidate this problem.
The sixth chapter deals with the detail of manufacture of the rail. The
differait stages in the process are described and the influence of each upon the
finished product is pointed out. It would be outside the limits of the present
,y Google
iv PREFACE
work to attempt a complete treatise on the manufacture of steel; the discussion
concerns itself, therefore, chiefly with the practical results obtEoned rather than
with theoretical considerations.
In the last chapter are given Rail Specifications representing the best
modem practice in this country and abroad. The forms recommended by the
American Railway Engineering Association for reports and record of the rail
are added for the sake of completeness in an appendix.
The greater part of the bibliography of rail specifications ^ven in article
39 was prepared for the present work by the Secretary of the American Soci-
ety of Civil Engineers. The other shorter bibliographies appended to the
discusMons of several of the subjects were compiled by Mr. McClelland,
Technology librarian of the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. These, which
are intended to supplement certain parts of the text, are not exhaustive but
are thought to contain most of the important articles since 1906 which come
within their scope. A bibliography for the years 1870-1906 with chronologi-
cal arrangement appears in the Transactions of the American Institute of
Mining Engineers, Vol. 37, pp. 617-627.
A comprehenave bibliography of steel manufacture would be so extensive
as to be unwieldy. Exhaustive bibliographies on this subject appear in the
various volumes of the Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, and a good
selective bibliography of iron and steel manufacture appears in Bradley
Stoughton's "Metallurgy of Iron and Steel." For the average reader who
desdres a more detailed discus^on of the processes of manufacture of steel,
Harbord's and Hall's excellent volume on the Metallurgy of Steel will gen-
erally be found sufficient. It is believed that these references, together with
the information contained in the footnotes throughout the book, will permit
a thorough examination of any of the subjects to be made.
The work is essentially a compilation. The author has, however, in ev«y
case endeavored to give credit where anything has been drawn from an outside
source, and if he has been remiss in this respect it has been unintentional. In
the discus^on of the granular structure of steel he has been much indebted to
the work of Mr. J. W. Mellor, from whose writings a conaderable part of
article 26 has been taken.
The publications of the " Railway Age Gazette " have been freely quoted
from and the author wishes to express his appreciation of the courteous permis-
don given for the use of this material and for the many quotations taken from
other sources, especially those from articles which have appeared in the Proceed-
ings of the American Rzulway Engineering Association.
,y Google
He has much pleasure in expressing his indebtedness to the following gentle-
mcm who have given assistance in reviang manuscript or proofs of the parta named:
Professor Gaetano Lanza, mathematical discussions of Chapters II to V inclusive;
Dr. A. B. Rerce, checking the author's calculations in these chapters; Professor
W. F. M. Goss, wheel pressures; Dr. Hermann von Schrenk, forestry; Professor
W. K. Hatt, strength of tie timber; Dr. P. H. Dudley, stremmatograph tests;
Mr. Harry D. Tiemann, impact; Mr. James E. Howard, repeated stress; Mr. A.
L. Colby, manufacture and spedfications; Mr. Robert W. Hunt, influence of
det^ of manufacture; Mr. Bradley Stoughton, effect of temperature during rolling,
and Mr. E. T. Howson for examination of the proofs heSore finally going to press.
WILLIAM H. SELLEW.
Detkoit, MicmGAN, July, 1912.
,y Google
>, Google
CONTENTS
Chapteb I. — Development op the Present Section p*oe
1. Early sections 1
2. Present sections 14
Chapter II. — Pbessurb of the Wheel on the Rail
3. Speeds of modern locomotives 21
4 Weights of modern locomotivea 29
5. Effect of excess balance and angularity of main rod 35
6. Effect of irregularities in the track 45
7. Effect of rocking of the engine 49
8. ESect of flat spots in the wheels 54
9. Impact tests 62
10. The dynamic augment of the wheel load 69
11. Electric locomotives 74
12. Cars 81
Chapter III. — Supports of the Rail
13. The tie 90
14. Bearing of the rail on the tie 122
15. Fastening of the rail to the tie 138
16. Strength of the tie 153
17. Bearing on the ballast 179
18. Bearing on the subgrade 180
19. Supporting power of the tie 188
Chapter IV. — Stresses in the Rail
20. Stress at point of contact of the wheel with the rail 193
21. Proposed solutions of the bending stress in the rail 210
22. Tests to determine the bending stress in the rail 218
23. Calculation of the bending and shearing stress in the rail 239
24. Effect of the joint 259
Chapter V. — Strength of the Rail
25. Influence of stress and stridn on the strength of the rail 270
26. E^ect of low temperatures on the strength of the rMi 284
27. Physical tests of the strength of the rail 288
28. The strength of the rail and proper weight for various conditions of loadii^ . 310
,y Google
Viii CONTENTS
Chapteh VI. — Influence op Detail of Mandfactuhb p*ob
29. Chemical composition 326
30. Extraction of the iron from its ore 344
31 . Conversion of the steel 366
32. The Ingot 395
33. Influence of mechanical work 420
Chapteh VII, — Rail Specifications
34. Comparison of American specifications 463
35. Specifications (New York Central Lines) for basic open-hearth rails 478
36. British standard specifications of bull head railway rails 484
37. British standard specifications of flat bottom railway rails 488
38. Specifications for street railway rails 491
39. Bibliography of rail specifications 494
Appendix
Reports and records 501
Index 525
,y Google
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fio. Faob
1. ComparisoD of Rail Failures between Different Sections of Bessemer St«el Rails, from Oct. 31,
1908, to April 30, 1909 9
2. Increase in Axle Londa, 1885-1907 15
3. Classification of Locomotives 29
4. Progress in Locomotive Building 30
5. Decapod Locomotive of 1903 and American Type of 1857 31
6. Rail Pressures. Eight-wbeel Engines 35
7. " " Ten-wheel Engines. (Light Weights.) 36
8. " " 442 (Atlantic) Type Engines 40
9. " " 462 (Pacific) Type Engines 41
10. " " 460 (Ten-wheel) Type Engines. (Heavy Weights.) 42
11. " " 260 {M(«ul) Type Engines 43
12. " " 280 (Consolidation) Type Engines 44
13. Damaging Effect of Badly Balanced Locomotive 39
14. Profile of Rail from CuSDot's Track Erperimenta 46
15. Rail Profile taken with a Railroad Automatic Track Inspector Machine 47
16. "Valley" or Local Depression in Track Profile 47
17. Summit between Two Depressions of Track Profile 47
18. Locomotive Driving Wheel Springs 48
19. Deflection of Ixicomotive Springs 49
20. Recording Device and Cab Controlling Mechanism for Testing Driving Wheel Springs 50
21. Recording Device in Place on Driving Wheel Spring 50
22. GeneraJ Arrangement of Apparatus for Testing Driving Wheel Springs SI
23. Main Stylus used in Driving Wheel Spring Tests 51
24. Streas-atrain Diagram. Locomotive Driving Wheel Springs 53
25. Flat Spot in Wheel 55
26. Lrregularity in the Roundness of Preaent-day Chilled Car Wheels 58
27. Apparatus for Measuring the Effect of a Flat Spot 60
28. Diagram of Testa on Freight Car with Flat Wheels 61
29. Wire Tests 63
30. Deformation of Bridge Members under Passing Trains 64
31. Dynamic Wheel Loads of Typical Passenger Steam Locomotives 72
32. " " " " " Freight Steam Locomotives 73
33. Detroit River Tunnel Company's Locomotive 75
34. Pennsylvania Electric Locomotive in Use in the New York Tunnek 76
35. Details Pennsylvania Electric Locomotive 77
36. Typical Load Diagrams for Electric Locomotives 78
37. Box Car 81
38. Flat Car 82
39. Gondola Car 82
40. Coke Car 83
41. Stock Car 83
42. Vestibuled Coach 83
43. Twelve-section Sleeping Car 84
44. Steel Combination Passenger and Baggage Car 84
45. Vestibuted Dining Car 84
,y Google
X LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Pra. Pio,
46. Baggaf^ Car 84
47. Typical Load Diagrama tor Cars gg
48. Typical Dynamic Load Diagrams for Motor Cars 85
49. 70-foot MoKeen Motor Car 86
60. 70-foot General Electric Gaa Electric Motor Car 86
51. Electric Railway Cats 87
fi2. Electric Railway Cars 88
53. Typical Load Diagrams tor Electric Railway Cars 89
54. Carnegie Steel Tie 90
65. Carnegie St«el Ties on the Bessemer and Lake Erie Railroad 91
56. Effect of Three Derailmenta on Steel Ties 91
57. Steel Tie after Four Yeare Service 92
58. Carnegie Steel Tie with Wedge Faatener 93
59. Hill Faatening on Carnegie Steel Tie 93
60. Hansen Steel Tie 94
61. Universal Metallic Tie on Pennsylvania Linea 95
62. Snyder Steel Tie 95
63. Buhrer Combined Steel and Wood Tie on L.S. and M.S. Ry 96
64. Mexican Railway Steel Tie 97
65. Buhrer Concrete Tie 98
66. Bottom Surface of Buhrer Concrete Tie 99
67. Section of Track on Chicago and Alton R.R., showing Kimball Tie 99
68. Kimball Tie put in Track on N. Y. C. A.St. L. R.R., July, 1904 100
69. Kimball Tie, showing Spiking Plugs 100
70. Percival Concrete Tie 101
71. Sarada Tie 102
72. Adriatic Railway Tie 102
73. Riegler Concrete Tie 103
74. " " " Appearance in the Track 103
75. Forest Regions of the United States 107
76. Hunnewell Plantation 109
77. Farlington Forest 110
78. SUndard Prussian Ties of Baltic Pme 117
79. Standard Oak and Beech Ties on the French Eastero Railway 117
80. Distribution of Pressure from Tie Plate 118
81. Half Round Tie Proposed by the Forest Service 118
82. Spacing of Halt-round Ties 118
83. Pole Tie 119
84. Extreme Form of HaF-round Tie 120
85. Test on McKee Tie Plate 122
86. Wear of Tie under Tie Plate 123
87. Loblolly Pine Tie. Section of Tie under Rail Bearing 124
88. " " " Section- from Middle 124
89. Belgian State Railways, lOS-pound Rail and Tie Plate 125
90. " " " 115-pound Rail and Tie Plate...: 126
91. Kingdom ot WOrttemberg State Railways, Tie Plate 127
92. Bavarian State Railways, Joint Hook Plate 128
93. Kingdom of Saxony State Railroad, Joint Hook Plate 129
94. Elsaas-Lothringen State Railways, Tie Plate 130
95. Prussian State Railways, Tie Plate 131
96. Bavarian State Railways, Intermediate Wedge Plate 132
97. Wooden Tie Plate on French Eastern 132
98. Plain Bearing Plates, German Experiments on Tie Plates 134
99. Hook Plates, German Experiments on Tie Plates 135
100. Hook Pkttes with Clips, German Exoerimcnts on Tie Plates 135
101. Group 1, German Experiments on Tie Plates 136
,y Google
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xi
102. Group 2, German Ezperimente on Tie Plates 136
103. Group 3, German ExperimeQla on Tie Platea 137
10*. Short Leaf Pine Tie, after 2 Years' Service, cut through Spike Holes 138
105. Croea Section through the Spike Holes of Short Leaf Pine Tie 139
106. Common Spike 140
107. Common Screw Spike 140
108. Screvr Spike used by Grand Duchy of Baden State Railnaya 140
109. Early French Screw Spikes 141
110. Machine Preparing Ties for Screw Spikes 142
HI. Showing AppUcation of Screw Spikes on A. T. & S. Fe R.R 142
112. French Railways — Rail Fastenings 143
113. German Railways — Rail Fastenings 145
114. English and Scotch Railways — Rail Fastenings 146
115. Screw Spike deduced from European Practice 147
116. French Screw Spike 140
117. Wooden Tie Plug used on French Railways 149
1 18. Collet Trenail 150
1 19. Cross Section of Pine Tie through Dowel 151
120. Three Ties of Baltic Pine on the Prussian State Railways 151
121. Comparative Resistance to Vertical Pressure of Screw Spikes in Pine Ties 152
122. " " " " " " " " "BeechTies 152
123. Control Plan — Creosote Tie Teats 161
124. Tie Plate Forms used in Tests at Purdue University 170
125. Elastic Curve of Tie, 7 feet 10.4 mches long 172
126. " " " " 8 feet 10.3 mches long 172
127. Wood and Composite Ties used in Cufinot's Experiments 173
128. Measuring Apparatus for Ties under Static Load 174
129. " " " " " Dynamic Load 176
130. Results of M. Cuenot's Tests on Ties 176
131. Strain Diagram of Entire Tie 177
132. " " " Tie between Rails 178
133. " " " Tie outside of Rails 178
134. Bsllaet Eiqteriments — Schubert. Six inches of sand and 6 inches of gravel 181
J35. " " " Six inches of sand and S inches of stone 181
136. " " " Stone with thin layer of sand 182
137. " " " Stone resting on clay subgrade 182
138. Effect erf Overloading the Subgrade 183
139. Pennsylvania Track Testing Apparatus 183
140. Distribution of Pressure to Subgrade 186
141. Bell's Apparatus for Measuring Depression of the Track 191
142. Reaction of Tie 191
143. Compreasion Modulus — Condition of Free Ftow 193
144. " " Partially Restricted Flow 193
145. " " Rffltricted Flow 193
146. Area of Ctutact between Wheel and Rail 195
147. Relation between Areas of Contact and Load on Wheel 196
148. Tire Wear, Ten-whee! Engines 198
149. " " Eight-wheel Engines 199
150. Two Pieces of a Worn 100-pound Rail after Testing 204
151. Reciprocating Machine for Testing Flow of Metal in Head of RaU 206
152. Section of 70-U>. Bessemer Rafl Tested for Flow of Head 207
153. D'stribution of Tie Pressure under Rail 213
154. "Claw I" Engine with 75 per cent Impact 214
155. Track Depression under "Class I" Loading 214
156. "Class K"Engme with 75 per cent Impact 215
167. Track Depression under "Class K" Loading 210
,y Google
xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fio. Piia
158. Bending Moment of Rail placed on Ties 218
159. Railroad Track Experiments, Boetoo and Albany R.R 219
160. " " " Photograph <^ Leveling Instrument for Measuring the Depros-
eion of the Track 220
161. " " " Photograph of Micrometer for Det«3itiiniiig the Fibre Stress in
the Baae of the Rail 220
162. " " " C.B.&Q.R.R 222
163. Advance Wave Determinations 223
164. Movement of Rails Laid Alongside of Track 224
165. Railroad Track Experiments, View showing Micrometer for Measuring Strains in Rails, in
Position on Base of Rail under Driving Wheel 226
166. " " " Pennsylvania R.R. Depression In Ballast 234
167. " " " " " Stress m RaU 236
168. Stremmatograph Teats at 19 and 40 m.p.h 236
169. " " " Slow Speeds 237
170. Wheel Loads for Different Spacing of Drivers 240
171. Rail Diagram for Wheel Spacing of 60 Inches 242
172. " " " " " " 70, 80 and 90 Inches 245
173. Distribution of Horizontal Stress in Rail 248
174. Shearing Stress of Point Distant y' from Neutral Axis 249
175. Shearing Stress in lOO-poimd A. S. C. E. Rail 260
176. Lines of Principal Stress in Beam 261
177. Diagram of Pieces tested for Sag of Rnil Head and Bending of Web 254
178. Method of Stationary Testa for Sag of Rail Head and Bending of Web 254
179. Sag of Rail Head in Stationary Tests .' 255
ISO. " " " " " ' Rolling Tests 257
181. Rails after Rolling Test with Load of 90,000 Pounds 268
182. Shearing Stress in 100-pound A. S. C. E. Rail and Splice Bar 262
183. 100 per cent Joint 263
184. Joint showing Uneconomical Distributlan of Metal 263
185. " " Economical Distri'iution of Metid 263
186. Diagram of Watertown Arsenal Tests on 100-pound Joints 266
187. Pure Swedish Iron 270
188. Pure Copper 270
189. Copper-bismuth Alloy 271
190. Iron with 1.8 per cent Carbon 271
191. Cleavage Planes with Crj^tala arranged Symmetrically 273
192. " " " " " in an Irregular Manner 273
193. Iron Strained beyond the Elastic Limit 273
194. Lead Strained beyond the Elastic Limit 273
195. Cross Section of Unstrained Metal 274
196. Cross Section of Metal after being Stressed 274
197. Slip Bands 275
198. Polished Surface with Small Cracks 275
199. " " " Large Cracks 276
200. Behavior of 0.55 Carbon Steel under Repeated Alternate Stresses 278
201. Behavior of 0.82 Carbon Steel under Repeated Alternate Stresses 279
202. Comparison of the Behavior of DifTerent Grades of Steel under Repeated jUtcmate Stresses 281
203. Number of Repetitions before Rupture in Endurance Tests of Materials 283
204. Standard Drop Testing Machine 290
205. Diagram of Tests with Drop Testing Machines of Old and New Design 291
206. Relation of Work Done in Bending Rail in Drop an-i Static Testa 294
207. Time-deflection Curve, Masaless Beam, within the Elastic Limit 296
208. " " Beam Stressed beyond the Elastic Lunit 298
209. Seleroscope 298
210. Scleroacope Tests on Open-hearth Rail 299
,y Google
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xUl
PiO. Paob
211. Scleroacope Testa on Bessemer Rail 299
212. " " " New Titanium Rail 300
213. Amsler-LaFFon lostrument for Measuring Hardness 301
214. Machine for Testing Hail Wear at Pennsylvania Steel Company 304
215. Diagramof Round Teat Pieces; Tensile Testa on Rail Steel 304
218. Diagram of Flat Test Pieces; Tensile Testa on Rail Steel 308
217. Location and Numbers of Test Pieces used in Waterhouse's Teats 309
218. Effect of Repeated Loads on Beams 311
219. Rffliatanco of Sub-grade to Pressure of the Track 314
230. Prices of Iron and Besaemer Steel Rails, 1855-1910. 325
221. Comparative Wear of Rails of Similar Chemical Composition 327
222. Tenacity of Iron-Carbon Alloys 329
223. loSuencoof the Proportion of Nickel and Varying Heat-Treatment upon the Tensile Strength
of Nickel Sleel 336
224. Influence of the Proportion of Nickel and Varying Heat-Treatment upon the Ductility of
Nickel Steel 337
225. Influence of the Proportion of Manganese on the Tensile Strength of Manganese Steel 337
226. Influence of the Proportion of Manganese on the DuctiUty of Manganese Steel 338
227. Tensile Strength and DuctiUty of Carbon Steel and of Manganese Steel 339
22S. Elasticity and Ductility of Carbon Steel and of Manganese Steel 340
229. Ore Roasters, Norway Furnace, 1883 345
230. Open Fit Mine on Mesaba Range, Mountain Iron Mine, near Hibbing, Minnesota 346
231. View of the West Cut, looking North, Biwabik Mine 347
232. Steel Ore Dock at Two Harbors, Minn 348
233. Steamer " Augustus B. Wolvin " 349
234. Great Northern Railway Ore Dock at Allouei Bay, Superior, Wis 350
235. The "Wolvin"; a Typical Lake Steamer for the Transportation of Ore 361
236. Ten-ton Bucket of Unloader in Hold of the "Wolvin" 352
237. General View of Ore Unloader with Steamer at the Dock 362
233. Brown Hoist Unloader Unloading Cargo of Ore 353
239. Blast Furnace with Stoves and Buildings 354
240. Ground Plan, Showing the General Arrangement of Blast Furnace No. 4, Built at the Hacelton
Plant of the Republic Iron and Steel Co 355
241. Sectional View of Hazelton Blast Furnace No. 4 356
212. Top Rigging of Blast Furnace 357
243. The ISO-ton Furnaces, Hot Stoves, and Gas-cleaning Plant in Course of Erection at Gary. . 358
244. The WhitweU Hot-blast Stove 359
245. Julian Kennedy Stove 360
246. Isabella Furnace, Cam^e Steel Company 361
247. Operation of Isabella Furnace on Dry Blast 362
248. 300-ton Mixer 364
249. Ten-foot Iron Cupola, Maryland Steel Company 365
250. Early Experiments of Blowing Air through Bath 367
251. Bessemer Steel Works, Johnstown, Pa 368
252. American 5-ton Bessemer Plant. Plan 369
253. " " " " Section 369
254. Arrangement of Converters at Maryland Steel Company 369
255. 18-ton Converter, Maryland Steel Company 370
256. Typical 16-ton Bessemer Converter 371
257. Charging Bessemer Converter 372
258. Bessemer Converter in Full Blast 373
259. Modem Open-hearth Furnace 376
260. Open-hearth Plant 377
261. Wellman Tilting Open-hearth Furnace 378
262. Pouring Steel into I.Adle nt Open-hearth Furnace 379
263. Chai^ng Platform of the Open-hearth Furnaces at Gary 381
,y Google
xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Fro. Pau
264. Hiroult Eleotric Furnace 384
265. Stassano Electric Furnace 385
266. Roechling-Rodenhauser Furnace 386
267. DetaUs (rf Casting Ladle SSQ
268. Crushed Head 392
269. Crushed Head 394
270. Teeming Ingots at Beasemer Converter 396
271. " " " Open-hearth Furnace 396
272. Stripping the Mold from Ingots 397
273. Soaking Pits — Gary 397
274. Soaking Pits 398
275. Formntion of Pipe in Ingot 399
276. Section of Ingot, containing Cavity of 128 cubic inches 400
277. Bloom from an Ingot of Same Heat and of Same Size as Fig. 276, showing Reduction of Cavity 400
278. Structure A. — Brinell's Testa 403
279. " B.— Brinell's Testa 403
280. " C. — Brinell's Tests 403
281. " D. — Brinell's Testa 403
282. " E. — Brinell'a Testa 403
283. " O. — Brinell's Teats 403
284. " H. — Brinell's Tests 403
286. Ordinary Steel Ingot and Titanium Steel Ingot 406
286. Sulphur in Ordinary Steel 407
287. " " Titanium Steel 407
288. Pbosphorua in Ordinary Steel 408
289. " " Titanium Steel 408
290. Carbon in Ordinary Steel 409
291. " " Titanium Steel 409
292. Influence of Conditiona of Casting as shown by Wax Ingots. (Figs. 1-6.) 412
293. " " " " " " " " " " (Figs. 7-13.) 413
294. lUingworth's Preea for Compressing Steel Ingots 414
295. Williams' Abdominal Liquid Compression of Solidifying Steel Ingots 414
296. Whitwortb's Hydraulic Press for the Compression of Steel Ingots 4lfi
297. Hannet's Liquid Compression by Wire Drawing 416
298. Steel Entering the RoUa 421
299. Croas Section of 8 by 8-inch Rail Bloom 422
300. Rail from Early Paaa in Roughing Rolls 422
301. Same Rail as shown in Fig. 300 after Further Reduction 423
302. Finished Rail from Same Ingot as Bloom and Pieces from Roughing Rolls 423
303. Cooling Curve of Solid Copper 425
304. CooUng Curve of Water 425
305. Recaleacence 425
306. Cooling Curve of Iron 426
307. Coohng and Heating Curves of Steel 426
308. CooUng of "Solid Steel" 427
309. The Influence of the Finishing Temperature on the Size of Grain. 428
310. Influence of Finishini; Temperature on the Size of Grain of Steel of 0.50 per cent Carbon , , . 429
311. Diagram of Results of Experiments on Rolling at Different Temperatures 430
312. Raa "B" near Surface 431
313. " "A" near Suriace 431
314. " "B" Center of Head 431
315. " "A" Center of Head 431
316. Top View at Top of Head, 70-lb. Rail 433
317. " " " Center of Head, 70-lb. Rail 432
318. Side View at Top of Head, 70-lb, Rail 432
319. " " " Center of Head, 70-lb. RaU 432
,y Google
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XV
320. Tranflverae View at Top of Head, 70-lb. Rail 433
321. " " " Center <rf Head, 70-lb. Rail 433
322. Pieces (or Mieroecopic Views shown in Figs. 316-321 433
323. Rail Mill, Algoma Steel Company 439
324. Housing tor 28-inch Three-high Mill 440
323. Rolls used in Three-high Rail Mills 440
326. Three-high Rolls in the RaU Mill at Gary 441
327. Pass Diagram, Rail Mill, Illinois Steel Company, South Works 442
328. Rail Mill, Illinois Steel Company, South Works 443
329. Saw Runs ot American Rail Mills 446
330. Head Sweep 445
331. Cold Straightening Press, Maryland Steel Company 446
332. Value of V/E for Tables XCVI, XCVII and XCVIIi 447
333. Diagram of C<«ging Rolls, Table* XCVI, XCVII and XCVIII 448
334. Bar Sections of Passes 14^23 (Tablre XCVI, XCVII and XCVIII) 449
335. Sections in which only "Direct Pressure" occurs in the Process of Rolling 456
336. Illustration of "Indirect Pressure" 456
337. Effect of Inclination of Inner Surface of the Rail Flsi^ on Energy required in Rolling. . . . 457
338. Work done in Accelerating the Rotating Masses in Reveising Mill 4£9
339. Recent Rail Sections 460
340. Shrinkage Allowed in American Specifications in 1909 475
341. Test Pieces C and D, British Standard Specifications of Rails 487
342. M. W. 401. — Report of Chemical and Physical Examination 603
343. M. W. 402. — Certificate of Inspection 604
344. M. W. 403. — Report of Shipment 606
345. M. W. 404, — Report of RaU Failures in Main Tracks 506
346. M. W. 405. — Superintendent's Monthly Report of Rail Failures in Main Tracks 508
347. M. W. 406. — Annual Statement of Steel Rails Existing in Main Tracks 510
348. M. W. 407. — Laboratory E;tamination of Special Rails 5H
349. Standard Locations of Borings for Chemical Analyses and Standard Tensile Test Pieces 512
350. M. W. 408. -- Summary of Steel-rail Failures for One Year Compared with the Same Period
of Previous Year 513
361. M. W. 409. — Summary of Steel-rail Failures for a Period of Years 614
362. M. W. 410. — Comparative Number of Failures of Steel Rails of Different Section or Pattern,
Rolled by Different Steel Companies 515
353. M. W. 411. — Poaition in Ingot of Steel Rails which Failed 616
354. M. W. 412. — Cover Page for Forms M. W. 408, 409, 410 and 411 517
355. M. W. 413. — Location Diagram One inch equals one mile 618
366. M. W. 414. — " " Two inches equal one mile 619
367. M. W. 415. — Diagram showing Lines of Wear 520
358. M, W. 416. — Record of Comparative Wear of Special Rail 521
359. M. W. 417. — Cover Page for Forms M. W. 413, 414, 415 and 416 622
360. Defective Rail Sheet 623
361. Diagrwn of Rail Failures, Har
,y Google
>, Google
LIST OF PLATES
(All plates except V and VI are in the bade of the book.)
(Plates V and VI are between pages 11 and 12.)
I. Standuij Rail Sections of the American Society of Civil Engineers.
II. Rail Sections used b^ore the Adoption of the A. S. C. E. Standard Sections in 1893.
III. Standard Wheel Sections showing Coning of Wheel.
IV. Rail Sections used during the Period between the Adoption of the A. 8. C. E. Standard
Sections in 1893 and tiie Recommendation of the New Standard Sections by the
American Railway Association in 1907,
V. Examples of Defective Rails; Broken Rails, Fbw of Metal and Crushed Head.
VI. " " " " SpUt Head, Split Web and Broken Base.
VII. Propoeed Standard Rail Section of the American Railway Association, Series "A."
yjjj ., ,, .. » .. ., ■■ .< .■ g^^ .^3 »
IX. Standard "P.S. " Rail Section of the Pennsylvania Railroad System.
X. Rail Sections of the Vignole Type.
XI. Rail Sections used on German Railways.
XII. Midland Railway, Permanent Way.
Xin. L. & N. W. R. Details of Permanent Way.
XIV. British Standard Bull Head Railway Rails.
XV. " " Flat Bottom Railway Rails.
XVI. Rail Sections for Street Railways, Tram Girder Rails and High Tee Rails.
XVII. " " " " " Standard Girder Sections of the American Electric
Railway Engineering Association,
XVIII. British Standard Tramway Rails.
XIX. Deflection of Driving Wheel Spring, Consolidation Engine No, 1064, Boston & Maine
Railroad.
XX. Passenger Locomotive Diagrams,
XXI. Freight Locomotive Diagrams.
XXII. Examples of American Tie Plat«e.
XXIII, Rail Diagram of Love.
XXIV. Examples of American Rail Joints,
XXV. Joints Tested at the Watertown Arsenal.
XXVI. Dynamic Wheel Loads for Various Rails and Axle Spacing.
XXVn. Bending Momento in Different Weights of Rail Corresponding to Loading on Plate
XXVI.
XXVIII. Weight of Rail for Various Conditions of Loading and Classes of Track,
XXIX, Plan of Gary Steel Plant.
XXX. Reversing Cogging Mill.
XXXI. American Three-high Mill, with 36-inch Rolls.
XXXII. Power required to Roll Rails about 35.5 kg. per meter.
XXXIII. Form M, W. 418, Am. Ry, Eng. Assn.
,y Google
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
CHAPTER I
development of the present section
1. Early Sections
Apparently the use of steel rails was first resorted to on account of the
poor quality of the iron tails of later manufacture. The wear of these iron rails
took the form of crushing or lamination, which destroyed the running surface
of the rwl and rendered it unfit for use. An iron rail when manufactured,
even in the best way, was Uttle more than a bundle of rods; and the top slab
under the heavy pounding of the locomotive had a tendency to spread side-
ways and become laminated. A steel rail, on the contrary, was rolled from a
solid ingot and for that reason was much more durable.* Iron, in the matter
of wear, exhibited very great irregularity, some rails showing signs of distress
within a year or two of being laid down, while others afforded very satts-
factory results.
t As an illustration of the latter assertion we can instance the experience
on the main line of the North-Eastern Railway on certain sections of its system
which may be taken as fair samples of the others. On that extending between
Newcastle and Berwick, 66.8 miles of double way, the iron rails laid down in
1847 wdghed 65 pounds per yard. Renewals commenced in 1855 and terminated
in 1867. In these the weight was increased to 82 pounds per yard. The maxi-
mum duration of the 65-pound rails was 21 years and the minimum 8 years,
the average being 12.8 years.
Mr. T. E. Harrison stated in 1867 that on 700 miles of permanent way of
the North-Eastem Railway the average duration of the last complete set of
rmls was found to be about 15.5 years; and some which were laid down in 1834
were still in use.
* See The Manufacture and Wear of Rails by C. P. Sandberg, Minutee of Proceedinga of the
Institution of Qvil Engineers, Vol. XXVII, Session 1867-8, and R, Price Williams's Paper "on the
Maintenance of Permanent Way," ibid., Vol. XXV, p, 353.
f Principles of the Manufacture of Iron and Steel. I. Lowthian Bell. London, 18S4.
>, Google
2 STEEL RAILS
The statements just submitted do not afford any proper criterion of the
resasting powers of iron rails; for this can only be determined by the comparative
weights of the engines, the amount of traffic, and the speed of the trains which
have passed over them. According to Mr. R. Price Williams the ava-age life of
an iron rail, on the most heavily worked portions of the rmlways in the United
Kingdom in the year 1878, may roundly be taken at about 17^ millions of tons.
There is nothing speculative in the assertion that iron rails made b^ore
the complete discontinuance of refining were, gen«tiUy speaking, longer lived
than those of later manufacture. No doubt in the later days of iron rails the
permanait way was much more severely taxed than was formerly the case.
The engines were more ponderous, the traffic was heavier, and the speed greater;
but the experience of the North-Eastern Rjulway at all events indicates that
rails of iron have occasionally been made to give very satisfactory results.
Whether this be due to their having been made from refined metal, or whether
indeed they were so made, we have unfortunately little means of proving. It
is significant to note that during the twenty years preceding 1868 the price of
iron rails had been gradually reduced to one-third of their original cost, and that
this reduction was accompanied by the production of an inferior quality of rail.
* In America several of the railway companies began to use steel rails
as far back as 1864. In that year the Chicago and Northwestern, the Phila-
delphia, Wilmington and Baltimore, and the Old Colony and Newport each laid
portions of track with this metal. In the following year the Boston and Albany,
the Boston and Providence, the Connecticut River Railroad, the Chicago, Rock
Island and Pacific, and the Chicago and Alton each began the use of steel.
In September, 1869, a commission appointed to ascertain the extent to
which steel rails had been tried in the United States ascert^ned that of fifty-
seven r^ways then in operation, from which reports had been obtained, twenty-
six had made use of steel in weights varying from 100 to 15,000 tons, the whole
bulk reported as in use being 49,800 tons, equal to about 518 miles of tracks.
This, however, did not by any means represent the total weight of steel rails
laid throughout the States. The Commission already referred to was, indeed,
particular in calling attention to the fact that on the first of January, 1870,
there were at least 100,000 tons of steel rails laid down in America, and 10,000
tons of steel-headed rails besides. Of this quantity the largest bulk had been
supplied by England, and almost entirely by the Atlas, Barrow and Dowlais
Works, although several thousand tons had been contributed by three estab-
lishments in Germany.
• steel — Ite Hiatory, Manufacture, Propertiea, and Uses. J. 8. Jeans. London, 1880.
,y Google
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESENT SECTION 3
In France the Paris, Lyons, and Mediterranean Railway Comp)any decided,
so early as 1867, to use only steel rails in relaying its permanent way on 860
kilometers of the Paris and Marseilles line, where more than 10,000 trains ran
over each line of way yearly, at speeds which might reach 90 kilometers per hour.
In Austria steel rails were used as early as 1859 on the Northern Railway,
connecting Vienna with Cracow. They were, however, of puddled steel, manu-
factured at the works of the Archduke Albrecht, at Carlshutte.
In 1861 one German mile (about 4.8 miles) of the main line was laid with
steel rails by way of experiment. So much satisfaction was afforded by this
trial that in 1865 it was resolved to reconstruct in steel the whole of the main-
line permanent way, and by the close of that year thirty-five English miles had
been laid. Previous to this, however, steel had been largely used in Austria
for railway crossings — so much so, indeed, that at the close of 1864 there were,
on the Northwn line, 468 steel crossings as compared with 977 of iron.
In Russia several lots of steel rails were liud down previous to 1872, but
the use of that metal cannot be said to have received a thorough impulse until,
in the year named, the Russian Imperial Administration approved the con-
struction with steel r^ls of the railways from Wjasma to Tula, Rjask, and
Jetetz, sud from Morschunsk to Siezran, a total length of 1200 kilometers.
Previous to this time steel rails had been laid experimentally on the Nicolas
Railway, where they were found to answer so well that in 1872 about 70,000
tons of steel rails were ordered for Russia, chiefly from Creusot.
In England, before the end of 1861, steel rails had been laid down on the
Caledonian, Lancashire, and Yorkshire, London, Brighton and South Coast,
and Rhymney railways, as well as on the London and North- Western.
The first Bessemer steel rails made in America were rolled at the North
Chicago Rolling Mill on the 24th of May, 1865, from hammered blooms made
at the Wyandotte Rolling Mill from ingots of steel made at experimental Steel
Works at Wyandotte, Mich. The experimental Steel Works at Wyandotte
were erected in 1864, and were the first works started in the country for conduct-
ing the pneumatic or Bessemer process. The rolls upon which the blooms were
rolled at the North Chicago Rolling Mill were those which had been in use for
rolling iron rails, and, though the reduction was much too rapid for steel, the
rails came out sound and well shaped. The first steel rals rolled in the United
States upon order, in the way of regular business, were rolled by the Cambria
Iron Company at Johnstown, Pa., in August, 1867,* from ingots made at the
* See paper on the Development of the American Rail sod Tiack by J. Elfreth Watkina, Trans.
Am. Soc. of Civil Eagra., April, 1890, Vol. XXII, p. 228.
,y Google
4 STEEL RAILS
works of the Pam^lvania Steel Company, at Harrisburg, Pa., rails were rolled by
the Spuytrai Duyvil Rollirig Mill Company, at Spuyten Ehiyvil, N. Y., early in
September of that year, from in^ts made at the Bessemer Steel Works, at Troy,
N. Y., then owned by Winslow and Griswold, but these were on expmmental
ordas, and not r^ular ones from any railway company.*
Before, however, the American steel works had produced any Bessemer
rails, or, indeed, before any such works had been executed in this country, the
Fennsylvama Railway Company had imported from England a lot of about
150 tons. This was towards the close of the year 1863. Some little delay took
place in slotting the rails to recme the track fastenings; they were not laid
down until the early part of 1866, when they were placed on sidings in the yards
at Altoona and Pittsburg, where they would be subjected to considerable use.
As the rails appeared very brittle, it was not deemed expedient to place them
in the main track where they would be passed over by trains at high rates of
speed. None of them, however, were broken in the track, and as they exhibited
little or no appearance of wear, other steel rals were ordered in 1867, of a quality
combining more toughness with a sufficient degree of hardness, and experiments
were continued to test the relativ? merits of the several descriptions of rail.
About 1864 the Erie Railway Company ordered from John Brown and
Company, of Sheffield, England, 1000 tons of Bessemer steel rails at 25 £ per ton.
The American Commission of 1869 concluded, as the result of comparing
reports obt^ned from twenty-six railways then using steel rails: (1) That ex-
tremes of temperature do not injuriously affect steel rails. The Grand Trunk
Railway reports them as not injured by a temperature of 30 degrees below zero
of Fahrenheit, and no other road appears to find them unable to stand a cold
winter. (2) That the durability of steel rails far exceeds that of the best iron
rails. The Erie Railway reports their stee! rails as having outworn thirteen
sets of iron rals, and as showing scarcely any sign of wear. The Philadelphia,
Wilmington and Baltimore reports them as having outworn seventeen iron r^ls,
and as showing little wear. The Chicago and Northwestern say that steel rails
have outworn fifteen iron rails, and show no perceptible wear.
In 1874 a small committee of American expertsf conducted a very careful
and elaborate inquiry into the form, endurance, and manufacture of rails. In
• private nomnmnication from Mr. Robt. W. Hunt.
t Appointed Jaouaiy 8, 1873, by the American Society of Civil Engineera, to determine " the
beat form of standard rut sections of the United States; the proportion which the weight of rails should
bear to the nuudmum loada carried on a single pmr of wheels of iocomotives or can; the beet methode
of isanufacturiDg and testing rails; the eadurance, or, as it is called, the ' life ' of rails; the causes, of
the breaking of rails and the most effective way of preventiog it, and the experieuce of railways in America
>, Google
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESENT SECTION 5
Speaking of the comparative value of steel and Iron rails this committee stated,
that "while steel rails as we get them are tolerably imiform in quality, iron
varies so much that no comparison can be made except of particular qualities
or of averages of qualities widely different. We can as yet do little more than
give the results of our own experience. In so doing we shall not only compare
steel and iron, but also the effects of some different circumstances on the duration
of both. It seems probable that the best iron, if homogeneous and the head
of uniform hardness, so as to wear off evenly like steel, would, with machinery
of moderate weight, wear a third or even half as long as steel. The chairman
has found that his 62-pound iron rail, after carrying about 14,000,000 tons
gross load, has worn off only about 25 per cent more than the steel rails on the
same track and under the same circumstances. Probably it will not wear so well
when the top crust is worn tiirough. But owing to want of homogeneousness
and uniformity the iron scales, splinters, laminates, or somehow dismtegrates
or mashes in spots before it wears out."
Ashbel Welsh, the chairman of this committee, subsequently presented a
final report, giving particulars of the behavior of the steel rails, 53 poimds per
yard. Bdieving that a very thin stem and a very thin base would possess
sufficient strength, he designed a pattern in which as much metal as posable
should be placed in the head, and as little as possible anywhere else. The height
was 4 inches, the width of base 4 inches, the head fully 2f inches wide and li
inches deep; radius of sectional curvature of the head 12 inches, stem t'j inch
thick, base A inch thick at the edges; angle of base and of under sides of head
14 degrees, length of rails 30 feet, weight 53 pomids per yard.
The rails were rolled by John Brown and Company, and were laid in 1867
and 1868 at places exposed to very heavy traffic, on the railway between Phila-
delphia and New York, where iron rails had lasted only four months. In straight
portions of the fine, after having carried a gross weight of about 50,000,000
tons, mostly at high speeds, the heads had been worn down^ inch, having lost
in weight about 6 pounds per yard. In some sharp curves the sides of the heads
were so much worn that the rails were taken up in June, 1876.
The early steel rails were naturally made to the existing iron pattern.
These were generally pear-headed in order to prevent the side of the head from
breaking down, and were therefore not adapted to fishing. In 1866, as we
have seen, Mr. Ashbel Welsh designed a section differing but slightly from the
in the use of steel rails." See paper on the Form, Weight, Manufacture and Lite o! Rails. A
Report by Ashbel Welsh, C. E.; M. N. Forney, M. E.; 0. Chanute, C. E.; and I, M. St. John, C. E.
TraiM. Am. Soc. of Civil Engra., Vol. HI, p. 87.
,y Google
6 STEEL RAILS
modern rail,* and in 1874 Mr. Chanute, chief engineer of the Erie Railway,
investigated to determine the proper contour of the head by observing
the contom- of the rails worn down by the action of the wheels. The width
and shape of the head having been provided for, the rail was considered
as a beam, and as much metal as possible was taken from the web and flange
to deepen it.
Witii the older sections the connections at the joints were very unsatis-
factory, the design preventing the fishplate from supporting the head. If the
plate could bear against horizontal surfaces, it would not be forced out laterally
by the loads, but the rail could not be properly filled by rolling and the play
would rapidly increase and could not be taken up. Mr. Chanute experimented
to determine the correct angle of the under side of the head to hold the fishplate
and found that with an angle above 15 degrees the plate was loosened by
stretching of the bolts. This relieved the pressure and friction of the plate
agMHst the nuts and allowed them to turn. He therefore adopted the angle of
15 degrees under the head, and to avoid unnecessary metal in the flange he
made its angle 12 degrees.
The adoption of an improved section was very slow, and as late as 1881
119 patterns of steel rails of 27 different weights per yard were regularly manu-
factured, and 180 older patterns were still in use, making a total of nearly 300
different patterns. This great variety of sections in use required the mills
to keep a large number of different rolls in stock, and finally to standardize
the design of the rail the present A. S. C. E. section, shown in Plate I, was
presented to the society on August 2, 1893. These sections met with favor,
and were adopted by many railroads, so that in a few years about two-thirds
of the output of the rail mills conformed to this design.
The gradual evolution of the present design of rml is shown in Plate II.
The earlier rjuls show the pear shape of the old iron rails, followed by the rails
where the section was more adapted to fishing and having a better distribution
of the metal to afford a stiffer rdl.
The question of cylindrical tires and flat top rals was one on which there
existed for a long time a great deal of difference of opinion among railroad engi-
neer In the early days of railroading the wheels were generally coned to a ratio
of 1 in 20, and after the organization of tiie Master Car Builders' Association this
ratio was adopted as the standard. This particular ratio apparently grew out of
* Robert L. Stevens ia 1830 designed a " T " section of iron raU for the Camden and Amboy
Railroad, and is generally coneidered to have been the inventor of the flat-footed rail. See Trans.
Am. Soc. of Civil Engrs., Vol. IV, p. 236, and ibid.. Vol. XXII, pp. 209, 216.
,y Google
DEVELOPMENT QF THE PRESENT SECTION 7
the prevaQing practice at the car wheel foundries, and not from any theoretical
conaderation of the relation of the wheel to a curve.
The a^tation for the cyhndrical wheel grew out of efforts to measure the area
of craitact between the wheel and the rail, to determine the intensity of pressure
on the metal, and led the Master Car Builders' Association, in 1886, to diange
thdr standard wheel section and reduce the coning ratio from 1 in 20 to 1 in 38,
which was about the last draft that would allow free withdrawal from the mold.
This section is shown on Plate III which also shows the cylindrical wheels
conadered by the Association at this period. The section thus recommended and
adopted by the Association passed into general use on the r^ways of the country.
It was noticed, however, that the change was followed by a large increase in the
number of broken and sharp flanges, and after u£dng the section for over twenty
years it was restored to the former ratio of 1 in 20 as shown by the 1910 wheel
given on the plate.
The rails of heavier section manufactured within the last few years are not
giving the service that should be expected of them. The fault may lie in im-
proper methods of manufacture or in the design of the rail itself, which, while
suitable for the conditions existing nineteen years ago, may be unfitted for
the heavy wheel loads of to-day.
It has been claimed that the old committee of the American Society of
Civil Engineers did not properly appreciate the importance of low finishing
temperature in designing their rails, and that the sections recommended in its
report in 1893 do not permit of a low enough finishing temperature in rolling
owing to the wide, thin flanges.
As a matter of fact this was one of the jwints which received most careful
consideration, not only by discussion between the members of the committee,
but also in consultation with rail manufacturers. But a peculiarity of the
situation comes from the fact, that at that time, what we now consider sections
of necessary weight were then not in general use. The committee was in-
structed to devise sections from 100 pounds per yard down, decreasing by 5
pounds, but 80-pound sections were then regarded as the heaviest likely to
be extenavely used. Only one railroad at that time had heavier sections, and
that was the Philadelphia and Reading, which had a few 90-pound rails in use.
The New York Central had put in 80-pound rails, and perhaps they had a few
heavier ones, but their standard was 80-pound. The Delaware and Hudson had
adopted the 80-pound r^l, also the Michigan Central.
The question was to devise a section which the committee considered a
good one and which could be easily rolled. Unfortunately the sections be-
,y Google
1--^, -^
1
uiuom
i^'
■- iS5—
1
A
««*.
1^
—zi—
■OHlYlOi
jw»
s
^
(q
^
sjj n«
;U OWH
—yg—
•OH IViOi
1
'!.
sia/ivrj
3Sra
i
3
\
UDOiia
i''
1
ssvavrj
tlM
-N
ililM *"""
fs
S3Vmi¥J
H 1¥101
8
i
S
«*
M
HI
•JWUf
i^'
— -J— -
ssvmirj
■oinvioi
—Stl"
■BM 11/ Wl
a
s
3 ««
J 0»,H
A
'"818"
SlUflVVJ
■OH IVWi
;
1
i
'^
^Mllllii
»iiiom
^1^
SI
s
1
UliM
3
—or-
S3ttmi¥J
1
"ill
III
"est-
1
s
^Ijll wwove
set"
■OK 1¥101
1
"i^r
£<,
—9S--^
ssumiti
1
s
1 "-
■^^S
■ON l¥i01
^niiliii" x3io»T^
Sf"
S3Hmi¥3
■ON lYlQl
1
m
1 xiiiiiiiuiiiiiaii
"WOM
>, Google
1
-—a —
%\ »ra
1
S
— f—
ssy/ivrj
■OH 7V101
s
lis
1
0)
si Bsn
^^
^m ^"^,
l§
"It IS'
•Off 7W0i
Wk 3sn
^
DMBI
4o
—3S—
■oil itioi
i
■-■BSl"
1
*|] »«
■ ■, -1 "-■"
sH w«w»
1
aivmivj
" -
1
—S--
1
^1.
"Sir-
ssiimivi
1
to
■i^=
i^
^g zz.
■OH If 101
1
_
^l]il'll]lll,ll "«
—
"H
imij
mnous
1
-—g —
S
<4
av3H
OMIYIOI
5
Kinase
1
■OH 1*101
3k
ariH
ll«
—£t£-
■OH JWOi
"^
i
'
^llljll
mnom
—819"
ssamiyj
:H 3S"
S
3
.,.«.
—gs—
■on 1 If 101
,„.
1
1
e^^
SlipiM s^«
£p
II310IIB
J^
—11—
-J
......a """
1
■ON 1*101
j|B
''tis
■ =^ i §
•III ° ^
rill sl
ttii i!.!
>, Google
10 STEEL RAlia
yond 80 pounds were matters of compromise, and as they progressed arith-
metically less satisfactory results were obtained as the weight increased.
It has been the invariable experience in chan^g from a light to a heavy
section, in any class of rolled steel, that difficulties have been met and modifi-
cations have been made in the methods of rolling, in order to get as good structure
in the heavia* sections as was formerly obtained in the lighter sections. In
ordinary sections other than r^ls it was a comparatively easy matter to over-
come the trouble and get a good structure; but the thin flange of the rail, and
the higher carbons called for in the heavier sections, further complicated
matters.
The greatest need at this time is for reliable statistical information taken
from properly kept records. The Committee on Rail of the American Railway
Engineering Association have been engaged for several years in collecting
statistics of defective rails on American roads. The classification adopted by
the committee is as follows:
1. Broken Rail.
2. Damaged.
3. Flow of Metal.
4. Crushed Head.
5. Split Head.
6. Split Web.
7. Broken Base.
It is the intention of the classification that all rails which broke in service, or
which have a straight crack working from top to bottom or from bottom
to top, which would very quickly result in a broken rail, should be classified as
"broken rails," regardless of internal defects. All of the other defective rails
which are removed, not being "broken" or damaged on account of wrecks,
broken wheels or similar causes, are to be classified under one of the other
heads, from 3 to 7, both inclusive.
Fig. 1 shows a comparison of rail failures between different sections. (See
Plates I, IV, VII and IX for description of sections.) The most striking char-
acteristic of the diagram is the comparatively lai^e number of head failures of
85 N, 85, both on tangent, 36.1 failures per 10,000 tons, and on curve 27.7
f^Iures per 10,000 tons laid. The legend on the diagram explains that this is a
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy section. It can hardly be said that the carbon
is excessively high, although pretty high, imless it is badly segregated, the chem-
ical constituents bang:
,y Google
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESENT SECTION 11
Carbon 48 to .58
Phosphorus 10
Manganese .80 to 1.10
Silicon 20
Section 852, 85-pound, also a Chicago, Burlington and Quincy section,
has the same composition, but the failures are not so numerous.
Carbon 58
Phosphorus 10
Manganese 80 to 1.10
Silicon 20
The next most numerous head failures are in the A. S. C. E. 90-pound on
tangent, 15J failures per 10,000 tons, and on curve 12J failures per 10,000 tons
laid. The P. R. R. 100-pound head fmlures on curve are 12.8 per 10,000 tons
laid, while the head failures on tangent are small, and the head failures of the
New York Cenljal 80-pound are about as large, both on tangent and curve,
11.4 per 10,000 tons laid. The A. S. C. E. 80-pound on tangent, the P. R. R.
85-pound on tangent, and the A. S. C. E. 85-pound on tangent and curve have
had the same number of head failures as the New York Central 80-pound.
The A. S. C. E. 100-pound on tangent and curve comes next, and then 852,
85-pound on curve, while the rest were all less than 5 failures per 10,000 tons laid.
The breakages are most numerous in 85 N, 85-pound on tangent, 9.6 per
10,000 tons l^d, and next of 852, 85-pound on tangent, with the A. S. C. E. 90-
pound on tangent and the Dudley 80-pound on curve, both the same, following
closely. Next comes the New York Central 80-pound and 852 85-pound on
curve and the Boston and Maine 75-pound on tangent, all the same, and then
A. S. C. E. 100 and 85-pound on tangent. The breakages of the others are less
than 4 per 10,000 tons laid.
It will be observed that the breakages of so-called stiff sections are more
numerous than those of the lower sections with the heavier head. The carbon
is generally higher in the C. B. & Q. sections than in the A. S. C. E. and P, R. R.
sections. The web and base fmlures are less than 4 per 10,000 tons laid.
Plates V and VI present photographs of typical rail failures collected by
the committee.
Nearly nine million of tons of Bessemer steel r^ls, from seven different
mills and varying in weight from 100 pounds to 75 pounds, were reported in
the tracks of the American railroads on October 31, 1910. This corresponded
to 21,503,803 rails, and for the twelve-month period from October 31, 1909,
.yGoogle
m
>, Google
1 iS
■5
I
>, Google
>, Google
t^ go:
■Is
■8
I
>, Google
12 STEEL RAILS
to October 31, 1910, there were 30,086 failures or one defective rail for every
714 rails laid in the track.
It will be interesting to turn to the conditions of twenty years ago. The
following table * shows the rail failures on one of the American railways during
the years 1884 to 1888 inclusive.
In track, June 1, 1884 121,685 tons
In track, January 1, 1889 162,526 tons
Removed from track, 1884 to 1888 inclusive, on accoimt of:
Broken 1,2931 tons
Bruised 1,435} tons
Split 1,353} tons
Worn out 28} tons
No fault 35^ tons
Total 4,147 tons
The record is deceptive in some respects without an explanation. Many
of the breaks in the older rails were caused by punching bolt holes. The record
of the bruised or battered rails, which constituted the lai^est item, would have
been still greater, except for the fact that long pieces of track laid with soft or
so-called " pewter" raiU showed up in such bad shape that they were taken up
and the rails sent to branches or used in sidings after having been in use only a
few months on the main line.
The road received the last of these soft rails in 1884, and the record given
below of the rails received in the following four years is very good. All of the
rails purchased in this period weighed 65 pounds per yard, but after 1888 an
80-f)ound section was adopted as standard. It will be observed that there
were no failures from bruising in the harder rails received after 1884.
Ye»r Roiled.
1S8S
188S
1887
1888
To«l.
Total number of rails received during year
23,208
39
0
13
0
52
23,166
0.22%
0.06%
21
29,171
5
0
12
0
17
29,154
0.06%
0.02%
41,678
43
0
16
2
61
41,617
0.14%,
0.07%
24
30,366
i
0
1
2
7
30,359
0.02%
0.02%
7
124,423
Bruised ..
0
Nnmber of rails in the track, April 1st, 1889
Detective rails:
124,286
• Cylindrical Wheels and Flat Topped Rails for RaUwayB, D. J. Whittemore, Trans. Am. Soc.
of Civil EngTB.. Vol. XXI, 1889, pp. 185, 186.
,y Google
DEVELOPMENT OF T3E PRESENT SECTION 13
There appears to have been a critical period occurring about every twenty
years in the history of the rail. When the iron rails replaced the old strap
irons and other early forms of track construction, they proved very satisfactory
for the light wheel loads of the day. The wheel loads, however, were rapidly
increased and soon demanded heavier sections and a metal better able to reast
wear at the running surface of the ral. It was claimed that the metal in the
larger sections was poorer than that found in the early iron rails. Various ex-
periments were tried with rails having steel heads, but it was not until the in-
vention of the Bessemer process for making steel, which enabled a stronger and
more uniform rail to be made, that the difficulty was successfully met.
The use of steel in place of iron for rails commenced about 1865 and enabled
heavier wheel loads to be used with safety. The early steel rails were generally
made of mild steel which, while suitable for the loads of the early seventies, was
found to be too soft for the heavier equipment of the next decade. The situ-
ation was unfortunately complicated by the experiments on the Pennsylvania
Railroad which showed, or seemed to show, that low carbon steel I'ails were to
be preferred to those made from steel of greater hardness, and for several years
following 1881 the rails were made too soft, and, while there was not a return to
the serious difficulties of the time of the iron rails, the condition of affairs was
far from satisfactory.
Relief was found by increasing the hardening constituents in the steel,
but with the constant increase in the weight of engines and cars, as well as the
greater density of traffic incident upon the growth of the industrial resources of
the country, the situation again reached an acute stage about 1905 when the
failures of rails became so numerous as to cause the gravest concern on the
part of those in charge of the operation of the roads.
The failures as before were principally a question of wear rather than of break-
age. It appeared that each increase in section produced a rail that wore out more
rapidly than tiie lighter section which preceded it. This condition was further
accented by tiie form of the American Sodety of Civil En^eers' sections with
their thin bases, which turned black in the rolls while the heads were still hot, and
the fact that the larger sections took more time to cool and so underwent a i}artial
annealmg, making the metal more readily abraded.
Three principal reasons were advanced as to the probable cause of the
poor service of these latter rails. It was claimed that the wheel loads in use in
this country were exceeding the limits of strength ot the steel in the rail and,
without resorting to extraordinary methods of manufacture and consequently
greatly increased cost, the rails could not be made to carry the loads imposed
,y Google
14 STEEL RAllS
Upon them with a proper degree of safety. The standard sections then in use
were those of the American Society of Civil Engineers and this design of rail, in
the heavier sections then demanded, was stated to be an impracticable one to roll.
The manufacturers of rails proposed these explanations as the real reason
which accounted for the failures of the rails in service. The railways, on the
other hand, while admitting that the metal of the rails would not stand the
heavy wheel loads, claimed that this was due to the fact that the steel was of
poorer quality than that obtainable in rails of earlier make, and that sufficient
care was not being given to the details of manufacture in the various processes
at the mills. The increase in the number of r^ f^lures of the type de^gnated
as "crushed heads" and "split heads" the manufacturers claimed was caused by
the metal breaking down under the excessive pressure of the heavy wheel loads,
and the railways contended that they were due to some defect in the structure of
the individual r^ls.
No one at all conversant with the situation will attempt to msdntain that
the subject is not a pressing one. The making of steel nuls for use under
high-speed passenger trains is something more than a mere commercial propo-
ffltion. Both the producer and the consumer have great responsibilities in
the matter, and neither can lay them aside nor shift them upon the other.
2. Present Sections
Realizing the impMiance of the question, the American Rmlway Asso-
ciation appointed a special committee on Standard Rail and Wheel Sections.
This committee, through a subcommittee on which the manufacturers were
represented, devoted a large amount of time and attention to the matter of
sections and spedfications for steel rails and presented a preliminary report to
the association, October 1, 1907.
While the A. S. C. E. section was apparently well adapted for the hgjit-
weight rails of 65 pounds and 75 pounds in use when it was designed, the
increase in weight on railway wheels (see Fig. 2) necessitated a heavier rail,
and the manufacturers of rails claimed that it was difficult to make such rails
of the A. S. C. E. section, due to the thin edge of the base.
Accompanying the report of the committee were two series of proposed
standard ral sections: Series "A " designed to meet the requirements of those
who advocate a rail with thin head and a high moment of inertia, and series "B"
to meet the requirements of those who think that there should be a narrow,
deep head, with the moment of inertia a secondary matter. These sections are
shown in Plates VII and VIII.
,y Google
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESENT SECTION
15
The one known as Series "A" is characterized by a shallow head, wide base,
thin flanges, and a greats height of section than Series " B." It is appar-
ently advocated by those who think that more of the duty of the track should
be borae by the rail and less by the other elements. It is obvious that the
stronger the rail, as a beam or girder, the more the strains are distributed, and
the less need, therefore, for exacting attention to the other features of track
nmntenance. Its advocates think that the distribution of metal between head,
web, and foot, is such that the rolling difficulties, and especially the question
of finishing temperatiu^s, can be met with better success.
y
r-
/
/
,..
/
/
^^
"*
'jm ihamm HKivosad
1
tk^K lias
Fio. 2. -
' Increase in Axle Loads, 1
oosam
ol907.
noM
^
'
1
1
^^
■
'
^
$
^
■^
5
^
ilmftmit»a«uc»flxlli.
\ 1
(Railway and Engineering Review — Wille.)
It is entirely problematic whether this section will prove die best of the
two under consideration, and especially whether the transference of more of the
duty to the rail will result in ultimate track economy. Those who oppose this
section fear that the shallow head is an element of weakness. According to
thdr view, with such steel as it is at present possible to get in rails, the pounding
of the heavy traffic will lead to such crushing and splitting of the heads, owing
to internal physical defects in the metal, that the section will prove a failure,
especially on roads with heavy wheel loads and dense traffic.
Series "B" is modified to meet this latter view. The distribution of metal
is beheved, as in the "A" section, successfully to meet the manufacturers' criti-
cism, the head and foot in the 100-pound rail having slightly over forty per
cent each of the metal, and the web the balance. This section is weaker as a
^rder than the "A" section, and it would appear that for lighter rails the
,y Google
16 ST££L RAIIS
section "A" should preferably be used to obtain the greatest stiffness. Where
the wheel loads are sufficiently large to require the heavy head of the "B"
section, the design of the rail should, however, approach more nearly the latter
section, even at the expense of lack of stiffness which may be compensated for
by strengthening the track structure or increasing the weight of rail used.
There is no good reason why the same characteristics of design should be
carried out for an entire series. With the excessive loads borne by the heavier
rails more attention must undoubtedly be given to the effect of the concen-
trated pressure at the point of contact of the wheel and the distribution of
this force to the base of the rail. The bending stress while of equal impor-
tance can be reduced by strengthening the track structure as a whole. Hence
under the most severe conditions a section should be used in which ample
proviaon has been made for the former stresses and the question of the bend-
ing stress, while not lost sight of, becomes of secondary importance. As the
section decreases in weight the importance of the stiffness of the rail increases,
imtil in the lighter sections, supporting small wheel loads, a very much higher
relative moment of inertia is to be desired than in the heavier rails of the same
series.
The sections "A" and "B" have been proposed as "recommended prac-
tice" by the American R^lway Association, and have been referred to the
American Railway Engineering Association to study and accumulate data and
make a report after the sections have been sufficiently tried in service to enable
an opinion to be formed as to their respective merits.
The American Railway Association Committee, in its report of October 1,
1907, submitted a statement of cardinal principles which should govern the
design of a series of rail sections, as follows:
(o) There should be such a distribution of metal between the head and
the base as to insure the best control of temperature in the manufacture
of the rail.
(6) The percentage of metal in the base of the rail should preferably be
equal to or slightly greater than that in the head, and the extremities of the
flanges should be sufficiently thick to permit the entire section to be rolled at
low temperatures. The internal stresses and the extent of cold straightening
will be reduced by this means to a minimum, and at the same time the texture
of the section will be made approximately homogeneous.
(c) The sections should be so proportioned as to possess as great an amount
of stiffness and strength as may he consistent with securing the best conditions
of manufacture and the best service.
,y Google
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESENT SECTION 17
(d) The following limitations as to dimension details of the sections are
conadered advisable for the various weights per yard:
I. The width of base to be J inch less than the height.
II. The fishing an^es to be not less than 13 degrees and not greater than 15
III. The thickness of the base to be greater than in the existing sections of
cmresponding weight.
IV. The thickness of the web to be no less than in the existing A. S. C. E.
sections of corresponding weight.
V. A fixed percentage of distribution of metal in head, web, and base for
the entire serira of sections need not be adhered to, but each section
in a series can be conadered by itself.
VI. The radii of the under comer of head and top and bottom comers of base
to be as small as practicable with the colder conditions of rolling.
VII. The radii of the fillets connecting the web with head and base to be
as great as possible, for reinforcing purposes, conastent with securing
tile necessary area for bearing surface imder the head for the t<^ of
the spUce bar.
VIII. The sides of the head should be vertical, or nearly so.
IX. The radii of the top comers of the head should not be lees than | inch
so long as the wheels continue undo* the present standard of the
Master Car Builders' Association.
The principles (a), (6), and (c), above enumerated, appear to cover the
proper design of T-rail sections. The (d) Kmitations as to dimension details
should be approached tentatively rather than regarded as a cardinal principle.
Since October, 1907, a large tonnage has been rolled of rails substantially in
accordance with the new sections, both series "A" and "B." It has been dem-
onstrated that these sections can be finished in the mill at a lower temperature
than the A. S. C. E. sections,* and therefore a finer grained and better wearing
rail should be secured with the new section. However, great care must be ex-
ercised at the mills to see that rails are actually rolled at lower temperatures.
The 90-pound series " A " is now used on a majority of the Western prairie
roads, and the " B " section is used on the group of coal roads in Maryland
and Vir^nia. On account of the heavier head found in the " B " section, it
seems to be preferred by the crooked roads of the East, especially those in the
* This refers to the temperature of the bead; uo part of the oew eections is finisbed ae cold u
Uie thin bases of the A. S. C. E. raib.
.yGoogle
18 STEEL RAILS
mountains of Pennsylvania, Vir^nia and Maryland; while on the prairie roads,
where little curvature is found, the series " A " rail with the lighter head finds
more general use.
On Jime 5, 1907, a joint committee of the Pennsylvania R^lroad system —
Mechanical and Civil Enpneers east and west of Pittsburg — was appointed
to study the rail question, and on September 20, 1907, their labors resulted in
the designs for 85-pound and 100-pound rail sections shown in Plate IX.
It will be noted that the sides of the head are vertical in the 85-pound
section and sloping in the 100-pound section. This difference is not intentional,
but arises from the method of constructing the sections. The bearing surface
underneath the head for supporting the shoulder of the splice bar was con-
ddered of great imjKirtance, and the committee was not warranted, in the light
of past experience, in reducing this surface. This was therefore fixed at not
less than the easting bearing surface.
As the same equipment is run over the 85-pound and 100-pound sections,
there was no good reason why the width of the head on top should not be the
same in each case, and, after studying the contour of the wheel tread, this width
was fixed at 2J inches. The result was sloping sides in one case and vertical
sides in the other.
This section, known as the "P. S." section, is a step farther away from the
"A" section. It has a still heavier head, a narrower base, and thicker flanges
than the "B" section. The radius of the web is smaller, thus producing
more of a buttress where the head and web join. The experience of the
Pennsylvania system seems to be that with their heavy wheel loads and
dense traffic, and with the grade of steel that it is now possible to get in
rails, more rails fail from crushing and disintegration of the head, apparently
due to the pounding of the traffic, than from any other one cause, and
accordingly in this section the maximum effort has been made to strengthen
the rjul in its weakest point. The distribution of the metal is satisfactory,
and the strength of the rail as a girder or beam is practically the same as the
"B" section.
In Europe a T-rail section is used. The Vignole rail used extensively
abroad was invented in England in 1836 by Mr. Charles Vignoles. Plate X
shows the type of Vignole rail used on the French Eastern Railway. It is their
intention eventually to modify the section by decreasing the height of the head
a little and increasing its width. The weight of the section is 45 kilos per
meter or about 91 pounds per yard. The maximum axle load is about 40,000
pounds.
,y Google
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRESENT SECTION 19
Plate X shows the rail used on the Paris, Lyon and Mediterranean, weigh-
ing 48 kilos per meter, or 96.7 pounds per yard. The maximum axle load on
this road is, for passenger service, 38,000 pounds, and, for freight service, 35,000
pounds.
Plate XI illustrates types of German rails. The figures show that the
corner radius of the head in all the rails is -^ inch, as prescribed by the "Tech-
nics Conventions of the Union," which also recommends a width of head of at
least 2J inches with a minimum radius of the top of the head of 7J inches. On
the majority of the German rails the latter radius is from 7| to 8| inches. An
inclination of ^ is given to the rails, which is obt^ed by the use of wedge
tie plates.
Plate X shows the Vignole rail recently used on the Egyptian State Rail-
ways, of 46 kilos, or 92.7 pounds.*
In England the idea seems to prevail that a T-rail track is undesirable,
and a double-headed, or bull-headed, rail is generally used on the En^ish rail-
ways. Plate XII shows the construction of the permanent way of the Midland
Railway of England, and Plate XIII the permanent way of the London and
North Western Railway of England. On the latter road the British standard
bull-headed rail is used, as shown on Plate XIV. Plate XV shows the British
Standard flat bottom rail.
For street railway work either a T-r^l or grooved-rail section is employed,
as illustrated on Plates XVI and XVII, which show the sections recommended
by the American Electric Railway Engineering Association. This association
has only taken up the study of ^^er and high T-raU sections, and the sections of
tram rails given on Plate XVI, while representative of good practice, are not the
standard sections of the association. Plate XVIII shows the British Standard
tramway rails.
While the T-rail is generally recognized in this coimtry as having superior
merits for street railway purposes, it is necessary, however, on heavily traveled
streets to use the grooved rail. The use of a number of different rail sections
in street railway work is open to the same objections as are found in steam
railway practice, and the tendency is toward the adoption of standard sections.
In determining the proper form for a rail, the subject should be considered
from two points: First, and most important, the duty required. Second, and
about equally important, the influence of detail of manufacture upon the char-
acter of the finished product. It is perfectly proper that all the stresses to
* This rail has been replaced by another weighiog flfi Ibe. per yard, according to British Standard
sections, which waa iaiS from the year 1911.
>, Google
20 STEEL RAII^
which it mil be subject should be con^dered and calculated, but its ability to
resist them will depend quite as much upon the character of the metal as upon
the form of section.
In considering the duty, we have first to examine the external forces acting
upon the rsul, which conast of the pressure exerted by the wheel on the rail and
the supporting forces represented by the ties. When these are known, the
stress induced in Uie r^ can be calculated for diffo^nt sections.
,y Google
CHAPTER 11
pre55ure op the wheel on the rail
3. Speeds of Modern Locomotives
The eight-wheel or American engine was formeriy the favorite type for
fast passenger service. The arrangement of this engine provides a four-wheel
leading truck and four-coupled driving wheels and afforded ample starting
capadty for the trains of moderate weight used at that time.
The Atlantic type is the result of the demand for large heating surface and
grate area in combination with large driving wheels in an effort to meet condi-
tions which could not be met successfully by the preceding American-type
engine. The Atlantic-type engine combines a four-wheel leading truck and
four-coupled driving wheels witii trailing wheels.
The increase in the weight of the train due to heavier equipment and longer
trans has resulted in the use of the Pacific locomotive with six-coupled wheels
in place of the Atiantic type with four-coupled wheels. The latter engine is
better suited to high-speed service than the former, but it cannot accelerate
heavy trains to running speed nor maintain speed on grades as well as the
Paci6c. The internal friction of the Pacific en^ne is much greater than that
of the Atiantic and it reaches its speed limit sooner, and in fact these powerful
engines have not been able to show any material increase in the speed of our
fast trains.
A train * was recently made up for test purposes which was intended to
i^resent modem express equipment which could be hauled at high speed on
level track. The ax cars weighed 350 tons, and the Pacific locomotive 194 tons,
total 544 tons. The Pacific locomotive, which was selected for its good record
on that line, was not able to accelerate the train to more than a fraction above
60 miles per hour on a straight level ti^ack where atmospheric conditions were
normal.
On sevwal railways in the West it was for a time thought that it would be
necessary to electrify the mountain divisions in order to attain speeds which
would carry the large volume of traffic over the grades and avoid congestion
and blockade. The Mallet locomotives have overcome this difficulty, and their
* Railway Age Gazette, January 28, 1910.
>, Google
22 STEEL EAILS
remarkable perfonnance has for the time rendered the electric locomotive on
mountain lines, where there are no long tunnels, unnecessary.
On account of the good results obtained by the use of the Mallet compound
locomotives it will prove interesting to conader the question of adopting these
machines for fast sendee. The principal advantage to be derived from the use
of the Mallet type appears to lie in its ability to develop enormous force at the
draw-bar, but it will be observed that these forces are only possible af compar-
atively low speeds.
At speed,* whatever the type may be, it is the boilra- and not the adheaon
that limits the output of power. The moment the speed is increased by any
considerable amount, high draw-bar forces become impossible and the wheel
arrangement peculiar to the Mallet type unnecessary. The assumption even
of a moderate speed will permit wheel arrangements, now common, to absorb
the full power of the largest boilers now considered practicable. For ex^nple,
assume that a locomotive is used which is to have sufficient boiler capacity to
permit 2000 h.p. to be developed in compound cylinders at all practicable
speeds. Such a locomotive would require a boiler having in the neighborhood
of 5000 feet of heating surface which, if fired with coal, would need to be supplied
with 6000 or 7000 pounds per hour. The draw-bar force equivalent to 2000 h.p.
for several different speeds is as follows:
At 1 mile an hour, the tractive force will be 750,000 lbs.
5 miles " "
" 160,000
n
" 100,000
10 "
" 76,000
20 "
" 87,600
SO "
" 26,000
60 "
" 16,000
Assuming the driving axle of the proposed locomotive to carry a load of
50,000 pounds, and assuming the adhesion to be 25 per cent, each driving axle
will serve to develop 12,500 pounds tractive force. A Mallet compound having
eight axles would be capable of developing a maximiun tractive force of 100,000
pounds, which force is equivalent to the development of 2000 h.p. in the cylinder
at a speed of 7| miles per hour. At speeds lower than this the adhesion derived
from eight axles will not permit the cylinders to develop this rated power, and
for speeds higher than this the full adhesion of eight axles will not be necessary
to the development of 2000 h.p.
• Railway Age Gaaett«, April 22, 1910.
,y Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL 23
Table I shows fast and unusual runs in the last three decades.* The
foregoing table is severely condensed.! The time in every case is from the
beginning to the end of the run, including stops. In speeds alone, for moderate
distances, there has been little change since 1895. For example, the engines of
the Atlantic City Railway make substantially the same time as was made over
the same line ten years ago; but with the larger boilers and fireboxes now used,
heavier trains are hauled without loss of speed. The Empire State Express of
the New York Central, which for years was limited to four cars, now usually
has five cars, and still makes its trip of 440 miles at the scheduled speed of
* Locomotive IKctioDaiy, 1909 Edition, Chicago.
t March I, 1901. — The record of 107.9 miles an hour ia pven by an officer of the road,
The grade waa descending, mostly at 30 feet per mile.
March 24, 1902. — Thia run was made on a descending grade, which for some of the way
was as much as 32 feet per mile.
June 21, 1902. — This nm is notable by reason of the rising grade. Altoona is 861 i feet
higher than Harrisburg.
June 19, 1903. — This ran was made without a stop, but there were two engines. The
weight of the train was 1 ,008,000 pounds. There are a nmnber of long ascending grades in the line.
August 8, 1903. — On this and the later run between the same places there were, of course,
many changes of en^nes. The record gives no data concerning the sizes of the engines, but most
or all of them were of the most powerful types made in the United States at that time.
June 9, 1904. — On thia run engines were changed at Bristol. The dimensions given are
those of the ei^ine used on the second stage of the journey. A car was left at Bristol and the
weight pven is the average weight for the whole journey. The first engine had drivers 6 feet
8 inches in diameter, four-coupled; cylinders, 18 X 26 inches. The train making thia run was the
r^ular mail train scheduled to run regularly, without a stop, from Plymouth to London in 4 hours
25 minutes.
July 20, 1904. — This is the best record which has been made over this line. The run of
June 19, 1906, was made with one more car.
1905. — Eighteen hours between New York and Chicago is the regular schedule time of one
daily train each way over the New York Central lines, and one over the Pennsylvania, the latter
beii^ about 60 miles shorter. There is no published record of less time through, though on many
occasions the trains of both roads have made up much lost time. The run of November 3, 1905,
is an example of what has been done in such cases. In this ran the number of cars was three,
except over portions of the road where a dining car was added, making four.
October 23, 1905. — This ran and that of May 5, 1906, were not undertaken with a view
of making the highest possible speed, and each of the divisions over which these trains traveled
has been traversed no doubt in shorter time; but these transcontinental records are notable for
the long distances covered, even though the time be not the very highest of which the engines are
capable. Both of these rans were made by special trains throughout, except that in the ran of
May, 1906, the ran east of Buffalo was that of the regular Empire State Express.
June 19, 1906. — On this ran a distance of 12 miles was traversed in 8 minutes (90 m.p.h.).
,y Google
li;ll m M s.s: sHI Isjl i m Si %iim I
■IS8SS SSSS SSSS SS^SS S8S8 S8SS S SS3£ 38S~ SS"8""SS8S ,
ii:
1
I
inMlNiiiniiii
Inn Hi
:g : : : ;» : :S :8 3
|: In: 11
mm 3
Nil
Ml
11^
1 Hi 11 1
ESfS : :% XX KS
i :|iii
il;l ; Nil HlHilii
InilMl
IsP. =i;s ik-. »;ii is^s sigl i ^- •^- ri-=|Si
i It
iiiiiiJiiii
aluloi B;jSd IkJJ Jzud eTaaia; Qizdz 12 ft:Bz3 tCJZ zzzja;uj<
i| I iisissseiisiiiiiii
>, Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
liilMii: liiiLliiJJtiiMM
ilin i
h
i:
mm
Jl-i
lililll ill II I
; :S :3E2 :XS S
liiiillilHiill
X ;3 : !S ;33 f^i i:
jii|| i|ii:ii:|:i;i|iii:i
illi:ini!
!:i:!!MH;?
ilMMiii
lIslH III; mas |K.?sfc5 ium .Jl i:H
^ S « 33S
iiH UH iMHI; MM;;::: ; MM; ;;M ;:;;
m
iiiiiiii
iiiiiiiijiiii
Jill '^^^
siiiisiiKsei :iiis!ii
>, Google
n
H
H
I
immmmmiJl
iiiMijMiiiNiMNiM : ii : I
III Mil
X 3 : :!3S
III ii Nil i
:li i
m mm m
i
\i \ I
l!lM:|rni|ii:|;iJ| \ l\ i i
i^mw^mmimii. g h. i i
838S 88S8 SSSS S3S 888
E? 8 3 S ;R3 t; 3
' ~ii E E£a = i.
i^if^ssSSm&nH a is s 5
I ill ill i
I
iililiii! i i j
I
m§w
^y.
i^
Mr
mm i z i I
i
>, Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL 27
53.3 miles an hour and with remarkable punctuality. Some of the records above
80 miles an hour lack the elements necessary to make them entirely credible.
It will be observed that the notable performance of October 24, 1895,
which made a number of records that stood unsurpassed for years, was set aside
by another performance equally remarkable just ten years later — October 24,
1905.
Table II sbov« the best records for ^ven distances. They are classified by
speeds alone, no account bnng taken of the modifying effects of load or grade,
or ^ze of en^e. It will be borne in mind that these records are all those of
steam locomotives. For distances under 15 miles, the electric locomotive
which was tried on the Berlin-Zossen line in Germany in 1903 made speeds over
130 miles an hour which have not yet been equated by any steam locomotive.
TABLE n. — BEST RECOEDED SPEEDS OF STEAM LOCOMOTIVES
(LoeooutiTft DiotioiuTy)
DiattUHW, HUo.
R«ta,Mil»pBrHoiu.
Data.
ROMl.
1
3,255
45,60
May 5, 1906
Various.
2
2.246
SO.OO
July 9, 1906
Feb. 15, 1897
A. T. & S. F.
3
1,025
64.27
C. B. tQ.
4
717
66.00
Nov. 3, 1905
Penn.
5
625
69.63
June 13, 1906
L, 8. & M. 8.
6
257
74.55
Oct. 24, 1905
Penn.
7
131
77.81
Oct. 24.1905
P«m.
8
55.5
78.26
May 14, 1905
Atlantio City.
9
50
79-00
June 8, 1905
Penn.
10
15
98 66
Mar. 24, 1902
C. B. & Q.
S. F. & W.
11
4.8
107,90
Mar, 1, 1901
Considering passenger service alone, the crowning achievement of the
locomotive designers of the past twenty yeara has been not speed alone, nor
speed and power combined, but speed, power, and reliability. The Penn-
sylvania trains running dmly between Jersey City and Chicago, 905 miles, at
50.9 miles an hour, were on time at destination during the year ending June 11,
1906, 328 times out of 365, or 89.8 per cent of the trips of the year, west bound,
and 85.2 p^ cent of the trips east bound. Of the 37 late arrivals at Chicago
14 were not over 10 minutes late. The New York Central reported for its
gdmilar trains a somewhat less favorable record; but the Central fast trains
travel at a higher speed, the distance being greater, and the trains were often
made up of five, ^, or seven cars for a part of the distance.
From a table published in the Railroad Gazette of January 12, 1906, page 34,
pving the speeds of a large number of regular scheduled trains between London
and other English cities, the examples shown in Table III are selected:
,y Google
STEEL RA1I5
TABLE III. — REGULAR ENGLISH EXPRESS TRAINS, 1905
Rulny.
UihB.
*n«?-"
London to —
118
194
246
201
125
126
165
162
65.7
Midland
56 a
On the two important long lines of Great Britwn, the West Coast and the
East Coast routes to Scotland, the best schedules in effect in 1909 were as
follows: London & North Western and Caledonian, London to Gla^ow (mid-
night tr^), 401.5 miles; 8 hours; rate, 50.2 miles an hour. Great Northern,
North Eastern and North British, London to Aberdeen (day train), 523.5 miles;
11 hours, 7 minutes; rate, 47.1 miles an hour.
Table IV below shows the best performances of American railroads. The
fast trains between New York and Philadelphia, which for years were notable
as the fastest trains in America, are now outclassed by the New York-Chic^o
tnuns. The Pennsylvania's Chicago trmn is regularly scheduled from Jersey
City to North Philadelphia, 84 miles, in 83 minutes.
TABLE IV. — SCHEDULED SPEEDS OF FAST REGULAR TRAINS ON
AMERICAN RAILROADS, AUGUST, 1906
(Looomociva Dietioo«ry)
Jersey City
New York .
New York.
Washington
Jersey City
Chicago
BufTalo.
Boston.
Jersey City
Waehingtc
Camden . .
Atlantic
City
Southern Pacific, Unicm Pacific, Chi-
cago & North Western
Atchison, Tqpeka & Santa F6
New York Central & Hudson River
and Lake Shore & Mich. Southern. .
Pennsylvania
New York Central
New York, New Haven * Hartford. . .
Pennsylvania.
Central of New Jersey, Philadelphia &
Reading, Baltimore & Ohio . .
West JerHev & Seashore (Pennsylvania;
Atlantic City (Philadelphia &R«ading)
ISflO
17:46
8:15
6fl0
4:46
4:48
0:52
0:50
34.2
63. S
47.1
68.1
66.6
At the International Railway Congress held at Berne, Switzerland, July
4 to July 16, 1910,* Mr. Blum expressed the opinion that the primary reason for
* Track Strengtbeoing for Increased Weight of Locomotives and Speed of TralnB. Bulletin d
the international Railway Congress. London and Brusseb, 1910, Vol. XXIV, p. 2497.
,y Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
29
the strengthemng of tracks was not the increase in the ^)eed of the wheel loads
but the greater increase in the traffic, particularly fraght traffic. The weakest
part of the track, the rail joint, was stated to be most fatigued not by the fast
trains but by the slower running trains. Si>eeds of 130.5 miles an hour had
actually been attained on a line having a weaker superstructure than that now
used for the express lines of the Prusaan State Railways vnthout any danger
to the track, and but little anxiety need be felt if higher speeds were used on
the existing track. That was the opinion of the majority of the railways from
which he had eUcited opinions.
In calculating the dfect of the wheel pressure on the track a speed of 60
mites per hour will be taken for passenger service and 40 miles per hour for
freight service. As is seen from the preceding tables these speeds are exceeded
in special runs, but from the evidence of tests we may conclude that, at the
high^ speeds, while the dynamic force of the wheel increases the track possesses
at the same Ume a greater resisting power. This subject will receive further
consideration in the following chapters.
4. Weights of Modern Locomotives
two j^ GO
^ooo
0440 .<aoo on
0660 -dnnn ooo
^oooo oooo-
2440 ^nOn on
2662 ^.,000 OOOr. -
2882 ^^onoo nnnnnA.
080 ^ OOOO BWMEI
240 ^qOO *c°UP
260 ^»000 -~">-
280 ^nnoon
2100
^nOOOOO
440 ^n nOO
460 ^^nOOn
A ncir
onno
OOOn
082 ^oonon
Annri„„ «,»,.. ot»«j»
^no„„„ .. . ..
^nnn„„„ .. . ..
^„nno„ »«.,■
A„nnnn^
IKAOO
^nOnoo„
eoUBLIB
^r.nrinc>r>„
0
^nnn„„
^nOOOnn
^„nnnn„„
^„on„„„
z^nnno„„„
^n^nOn
TLANT10
^„^onn„
»«!.Fre
^n„on„n
CI>UK€D MU.LI CHDn
^n„onn„„
A„„nn„„„
Pio. 3. — GkHsiiicatioii of Locomotives (Whyte'a SyBtem).
The classification given in Pig. 3 will be adopted for the different types of
engines under discussion. This locomotive classification is based on the repre-
sentation by numerals of the number and arrangement of the wheels, commenc-
>, Google
30 STEEL RAILS
ing at the front. Thus, 260 means a Mogul, and 460 a ten-wheel en^ne; the
cipher denoting no trailing truck is used.
The total weight is expressed in 1000 of pounds. Thus, an Atlantic loco-
motive weighing 176,000 pounds would be clasmfied as a 442-176 type. U the
engine is compound, the letter C should be substituted for the dash; thus, 442C
176 type. If tanks are used in place of a separate tender, the letter T should
be used in place of the dash. Thus, a double-end suburban locomotive with
two-wheeled leading truck, ax drivers, and six-wheeled rear truck, wei^ng
214,000 pounds, would be a 266T 214 type.
The locomotives shown in Fig. 4 give an idea of the progress in engine
building from 1832 to 1911. The three engines shown in the illustration were
t^
Fig. 4. — Progress in Locomotive Building.
built by the Baldwin Locomotive Works. The engine in the upper figure of the
illustration was the Old Ironsides, built in 1832, and weighed in working order
about four and a half tons. The engine built in 1876 weighed 103,000 pounds
exclusive of the tender and had 22,250 pounds on each driving-wheel axle, while
the modem locomotive appearing in the lower figure weighs 462,450 pounds
exclusive of the tender and has axle loads exceeding 50,000 pounds. Fig. 5
shows a fxarther comparison of early and modem locomotives.
The following tables illustrate the extent of development that has taken
place in the Pennsylvania locomotives from 1850 to 1910.*
• Paper on ScientiBc Management ot American Railways by S. M. Felton, at the Coogress of
Technology held at Boston, Mass., on April 10, 1911, under the auspices of the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology.
>, Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
UiO
1810
Passenger Locomotives.
Weight
Weight
Weight
Weight,
D each driving axte (aF^rox.)
7,500
15,000
30,000
45,000
Lbs.
69,500
178,500
272,000
Freight Locomotives.
Weight
Weight,
n each driving axle (approx.)
13.000
26,000
19,000
45,000
54,100
240,945
Since 1910 the wdght of the Pacific type
' engine shown in the table has been
increased from 272,000 pounds to 292,000
pounds by the introduction of superheaters and
mechanical stokers, in the case of some engines.
The Pennsylvania R^h^iad also have running
a Pacific type engine, built in 1912, weighing
317,000 pounds which has axle loads of about
66,000 or 67,000 pounds, and an expmmental
Atlantic type engine with 68,800 pounds on an
aile.
In Tables V to XI are given wei^ts and
axle loads of modem engines. The passenger
en^nes are noticeable for their trailing trucks
and four-wheel leading trucks, while the freight
engines commonly use a two-wheel leading truck
and no trailer, although the Mikado type (282)
is designed with the trailing truck. This engine
is a comparatively new development, and is not
shown in the tables. It is rapidly coming into
favor for heavy freight service in which the
Consolidation locomotive was formerly em-
ployed.
The weight of the ej^ne can, of course,
be determined accurately. The maximum rail pressure of a driving
when the locomotive is running is, however, not at all indicated by the
load of the wheel on the rail.
wheel
static
,y Google
32
STEEL RAILS
The dynamic augment* is due to several causes: First, the effect of the
"excess balance" necessary to counteract the reciprocating parts is to cause
an. impressed load. Second, the angularity of the main rod causes an increase
of pressure on the m^n wheel. Third, consideration of impact or imperfections
existing in the rolling stock or roadway. Fourth, the rocldng of the en^ne on
its 'springs.
TABLE v. — AXLE LOADS AND TOTAL WEIGHTS OF ATLANTIC TYPE (442)
LOCOMOTIVES
(Rom data [gnu*h«d by the American Locomolive CompsDy)
Name of railroad
Worka
Weight on leading truck, pounds, ,
Weight on driving wheels, pounds.
Weight on trailing truck, pounds..
Weight, total of engine, pounds. . .
Weight of tender, pounds
Wheel baae, driving
Wheel base, total of engine
Wabaah
Oregon Short Line
Southern
Rock Island
Richmond
Schenectady
42,000
47,500
42,000
49,000
4S,000
39,500
191,000
195,000
196,000
202,000
7' 6"
30' 11!'
27' 7'
29' 6'
30' 10'
-AXLE LOADS AND TOTAL WEIGHTS OF PACIFIC TYPE (462)
LOCOMOTIVES
(Prom data Inniiihad by the Ameriiiaa lAODmolive CompaBj)
Name of railroad
Works
Weight OD leading truck, pounds.
Weight on driving wheels, pound)
Weight on trailing truck, pounds.
Weight, total of engine, pounds. .
Weight of tender, pounds.
Wheel base, driving
Wheel base, total of engine
M. & St. P.
Brooks
Schenectady
167,300
162,000
41,300
44,5!)0
256.000
152,600
145.900
34' 81'
N. Y. C.
.Schenectady
48,000
170,500
4g,000
266.500
164,500
14' 0'
36' 6'
Pa. Lines
Pittsburg
48,000
176,500
45,500
270,000
144.000
13' 10'
35' 21'
* See Rail Pressures of Locomotive Driving Wheels. Barnes. Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. EngrB.,
Vol. XVI, 1895, pp. 249-289.
,y Google
PRESSURE OF "raE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
TABLE VII— AXLE LOADS AND TOTAL WEIGHTS OF PRAIRIE TYPE (292)
LOCOMOTIVES
(From dfttA fdmUhed by the Anurioafl Loconwtlva Company)
Name of railroad
C..B. &Q,
Brooks
158,000
25,500
33,500
217,000
148,500
13' 41'
30' 81'
P. L. W. of P.
Schenectady
163,000
28,500
40,500
230,000
140,000
14' 0'
34' 3'
P. R. R.
Schenectady
167,000
27,000
40,500
234,500
139,600
14' 0-
34' 3'
L. 8. & M. S.
Weight on driving wheels, pounds
Weight on leading truck, pounds
Weight on trailing truck, pounds
Weight, total of engine, pounds
170,000
28,000
47.000
245,000
34' 3'
- AXLE LOADS AND TOTAL WEIGHTS OF TEN-WHEEL TYPE (460)
LOCOMOTIVES
( Fram dkU (uniubad by the Americu LooomotiTe Company)
FREIOHf LOCOMOTIVES
C. * N. W.
Schenectady
135,000
46,000
181,000
143.500
14' 10'
25' 10'
D. N. W. & P.
Schenectady
143,000
47,000
190,000
149,000
14' 10'
25' 9'
St. L. A S. F.
Brooks
142,000
60,000
192,000
127,000
14' 10'
25' 9'
C. P R.
Weight on driving wheels, pounds. .
Weight on leading truck, pounds. . .
Weight, total of engine, pounds —
143,000
52 000
195,000
Wheel base, total of engine
29' 1-
PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVES
Name of railroad
Works ■■ ■
Weight on driving wheels, pounds.
Weight on leading truck, pounds. .
Weight, total of engine, pounds. . .
Weight of tender, pounds
Wheel base, driving
Wheel base, total of engine
Ore. R. R. A Nav. Co.
Brooks
181,000
44,000
205,000
164,000
13' 10'
N. Y. C.
Schenectady
158,000
51,000
209.000
_
D, N.W.&P.
Schenectady
161.500
49,500
211,000
142,000
14' 10'
25' 9'
D., L. & W.
Schenectady
170,000
48,000
218,000
135,500
14' 4'
25' 6'
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
-AXLE LOADS ANt) TOTAL WEIGHTS OF MOGUL TYPE (260)
LOCOMOTIVES
(Pram data bniuhed by the AmertcaB Looamotive Compuy)
Name of railroad
Works
Weight on driving wheels, pounds..
Weight on leading truck, pounds, . ,
Weight, total of engine, pounds. . . ■
Weight of tender, pounds
Wheel base, driving
Wheel base, total of engine
K.CM.&O.
Pittsburg
14S,000
25,000
173,000
146,000
14' 2'
23' 4'
So. Pacific
Brooks
150,000
27,000
177,000
139,000
16' 2'
24' 0'
D., L. 4 W.
Schenectady
156,500
21,000
177,500
124,000
15'
' 10'
Vandal i a
Schenectady
169,000
28,000
187,000
144,000
14' 9'
23' 10'
TABLE X. — AXLE LOADS AND TOTAL WEIGHTS OF CONSOLIDATION TYPE (280)
LOCOMOTIVES
(From dBla (uniiBhed by th> Amerioui LfKODHHive Company)
Name of railroad
Works
Weight on driving wheels, pounds.
Weight on leading truck, pounds. .
Weight, total of engine, [Kiunds. . .
Weight of tender, pounds
Wheel base, driving.
Wheel base, total o7 <
if engme . .
Mich. Cen.
C, I. AS.
Union R. R.
D. &H.
Schenectady
Brooks
Pittsburg
Schenectady
26,500
25,000
29,000
241,000
241,500
251,000
252,000
161,000
148,000
136,000
151,000
15' 7'
17' 0'
26' 5'
26' 5*
24' 4'
25' 11'
- AXLE LOADS AND TOTAL WEIGHTS OF FOUR-CYLINDER ARTIC-
ULATED COMPOUND LOCOMOTIVES
(Pnini daU (mnuhcd by tfae Amarkaii Locomotive Compuiy)
Type
Name of railroad
Works
Weight on driving wheels, poundt
Weight on leading truck, pounds
Weight on trailing truck, pounds
Weight, tutal of engine
Weight of tender.
Wheel base, drivi
Whei
base, total <^ engine.
445,000
167,000
9'& 14' 9'
40' 2'
.)gle
pressure of the wheel on the rail 35
5. Effect of Excess Balance and Ahgularity of Main Rod
p
X
p
\
x^
<^
AOMi. pen HH.
fr
V
1
A
\,
/
50C»
V
^/
flo m-
°en Hn.
■LEFT onivens
Fia. S. — Rail Pressures. Eight-wheel EngineB. (Am. Ry. M. M. Assn.)
The effect of the excess balance and the angularity of the main rod can
be accurately calculated, and is shown on the diagrams given in Figs. 6 to 12.*
The calculation for the diagrams given on Figs. 6 and 7 were all made from
* FigB. 6 and 7 are taken from Proceedings Am. Ry. M. Mech. Assn., 1
froiQ data kindly furnished by the American Locomotive Co.
Figs. 8 to 12 a
,y Google
STEEL RAII£
/-
N
/-
\«.,i
—
^
lOOOO
•o at> WD sao
'if\
r
^
t
\
■eooo
\\
i
"^
^
/
M
30000
.5000
V
^
^
lOOOO
^*i=
.«r*
ns: —
^^
^^
iV
5^
iwiT onivem^ ,Lerr mivcrs
©©©a©
Fia. 7. — Rail Preaaures. Ten-wheel Engines (Li^t WeigbU). (Am. Ry. M.
data obtained from eight- and ten-wheel engines on the C. M. & St. P. Ry.
The following are the principal dimensions and weights of each *
' Report of Committee on the Wear of Driviog-Whed Tires, Proceedings Am. Ry. M. Mech.
>, Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
Cylinders
Steam pressure
Diameter driving centers
Driving wheel base
Length of main rod
Diameter piston rod
Weight of reciprocating psrta, &
Weight on drivers
16 by 24 inches
160 pounds
S6 mches
8 feet, 6 inche
7 feet, 21 inches
2] inches
480 pounds
54,000 pounds
19 by 26 inches
150 pounds
56 Inches
io feet
3i inches
739 pounds
84,000 pounds
The piston, piston rod, crosshead, and front end of the main rod are taken
as reciprocating parts, the back end of nuun rod as a revolving weight, in all
calculations which follow.
The weights of the ends of the rods were found by supporting each end
at the center of the box or bearing, and resting them alternately on scales.
The eight-wheel engines had the entire weight of the reciprocating parts
balanced, by adding one-half this weight in each driving wheel to the weight
necessary to balance the revolving parts when weighed at the crank pin. The
ten-wheel engines were not counterbalanced alike, but all agreed in having
the forward and back wheels overbalanced; that is, with a heavier counter-
balance than that required to balance the revolving parts only; while the main
wheels of thirty-five of the fifty-three en^nes from which measurements were
taken were underbalanced for the revolving parts alone, and all of them under-
balanced according to the rule of adding to the weight necessary to balance
the revolving parts two-thirds of the weight of the reciprocating parts, divided
equally between the driving wheels.
The counterbalance in the wheels of each of these engines was carefully
weighed by resting the journals of each pair of drivers on level straight edges,
pladng the crank horizontally, and hanging on the crank pin a sufficient weight
to just balance the counterbalance opposite. From this weight the weight of
the revolving parts attached to that pin was subtracted, the remainder bdng
the amount of overbalance weighed at the crank pin. If the weight of the
revolving parts exceeded the weight so found, qt course the wheel was under-
balanced by the amount of such excess.
The actual average condition of the coimterbalimce in the wheels of the
fifty-three ten-wheelers was as follows;
Average overbalance weighed at the crank pin above that required to
balance revolving parts only:
Front wheel 271 pounds overbalance
Main wheel 80 pounds underbalance
Back wheel 237 pounds overbalance.
,y Google
38 STEEL RAII^
These weights* are used in the calculations for the ten-wheel engines
plotted on Fig. 7.
The following formulae have been used in calculating the forces in action:
NOTATION
P = Pressure of one driving wheel on rail.
W = Weight of each wheel on rail, engme at rest.
C = Centrifugal force of the excess weight in the counterbalance over that
required to balance the revolving parts.
A = Horizontal acceleratmg (or when negative retarding) force of the recip-
rocating parts.
Pi - Pressure against crosshead pin from steam in cylinder.
0 = Angle of the crank with the horizontal.
N = Ratio of length of main rod to length of crank.
Hence, P ^W - Csin o + ^,^'7^^ ■ (1)
V sm*a
But,
w = Weight of the excess in the counterbalance over that required to balance
the revolving parts.
t = Velocity of the center of gravity of the overbalance,
r = Radius of the center of gravity of the overbalance.
w' = Weight of the reciprocating parts.
v' = Velocity of the crank pin.
1 = Length of the crank.
g •= The acceleration of gravity, 32.16.
Hence, C = ^'- (2)
gr "• '
A = ^'coso. (3)
Or, by substitutmg in (1) the values of C and A given in (2) and (3),
P=W~^sina-i-^- g' ^ (4)
V sin' o
The above formulse include the centrifugal force of the overbalance in the
drivers, the effect of the acceleration and retardation of the reciprocating parts,
and the angularity of the main rod. Formula (3), for the acceleration of the
reciprocating parts, assumes that they move as they would were the main rod
• These weights are the equivalent weights at & distance from the center equal to the crank length,
and oot the actual counterbalance w^ghta used.
>, Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL OK THE RAIL 39
infinitely long, but the error this produces is too small to affect the accuracy of
the results, while the formulaa are much simplified.
The left-hand ends of the diagrams correspond to the position of the engine
when the right crank is on the forward center, positive rotation being that
produced by running the engine forward.
The pressures upon the piston used in the calculation for Figs. 6 and 7
were obtained from actual indicator cards taken at these speeds, and with a
point of cut-off found by the examination of a large number of cards to be the
usual point at which an engine is worked at the speed taken.
The points of cut-off used are:
Eight-wheel engine, just starting, 22 inches; 40 miles per hour, 6 inches;
60 miles per hour, 6 inches.
Ten-wheel engine, just starting, 22 inches; 10 miles per hour, 13 inches;
20 miles per hour, 11 inches; 30 miles per hour, 8 inches; 40 miles per hour,
6 inches; 60 miles per hour, 5| inches.
Curves for just starting, ten and twenty miles per hour, show that the total
pressure of the main driver on the rail is always greater at these speeds and
cut-offs than the actual weight of driver on the rail when the engine is at rest.
Fio. 13. — Ditmaguig Effect of Badly Balanced Locomotive.
This is due to the angularity of the main rod always causing an increase of
pressure on the main wheel. There is, of course, a corresponding upward
pressure on the guide, reducing the weight on the truck.
Figs. 8 to 12 are for heavier engines and are calculated from some of the
largest en^es that have been built of each type.
Yig. 13 shows the damaging effect upon the track of a badly balanced
locomotive.
.yGoogle
STEEL RAILS
^
S
^
>T
/
\
/
s
80000
-^=^.
tt Ml. «i|
nrs^ — '
=5S.
,P10
^
-^
y
80O00
W HB.
•=;&.
- — I — .l)f'
E
^xJ
//
..•>,\
^-1
-^t
^^
•-.,_
_
A
b
3
^
laeooo
IIOOOO
V
/^WM
^
^ —
60000
', Workini
Google
Fio. 8. — Ron PwMurea. 442 (Atlantic) Type Engines: Cylinders 211' X 28', Wheels 79", Working
FreflBure 180 lbs. (Am. Locomotive Co.)
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
STARTING
^
\
/^
^'
L=
OO ISO >Tr. w^
-^0-
^
y
\
ERHB.
^\
N
/^
^.
H
-•=-
P^
PER HR.
^^
M^O.
ooooo
N
/
\
-■^-z-J
__v
R»K_V
A
aioooo
^
eo»i,pn
JOM.PH
leooo*
v>
40NPK
\^
AM-m
l«OO00
©©©o©
FiQ. 9. — RaU Prewuree. 462 (Pacific) Type Enpnes: Cylmd«s 22* X 28*, Wheels 79', Working
Preasure 200 lbs. (Am. Locomotive Co.)
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
;
N,
>
^..
•oo
/
\
/
\
'4?iu
soooo
ie"^i:"p
-J^r^^.
^
^,.
■^
/
SOOOO
U-+--^
-«B «a
R '
K-«
^
/,<..
--Ss
"T— -
/
...N
A
n
^
^
V /
""■■"
\/
\^
■•»"■'•'
DO© ©OOO©
lera 22' X 26',
Google
FiQ. la — Rail Pressures. 460 (Ten-wheel) Type Engines (Heavy Weights) : Cylindera 22' X 26',
Wheels 89', Working Pressure 200 lbs. (Am. Locomotive Co.)
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
,0000
RIGHT SIDE
A
N
^
^
/
\
/
\
/'
^
/■
N
/
\
/
\
A
~\
/
\
/
\
80000
--=--
^__„
r
\
//'
w
^ —
—— =^
V
^y
/;
■n \
//
\\
...J.
t^—
:
00000
40000
v^
— /
^QO© ©©00©
Fto. 11. — RaU Preasuree. 260 (Mogul) Type EnginMi Cylindere 21' X 28', Wheels dT, Wcaking
Freesure 200 Ibe. (Am. Locomotive Co.)
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
«.""" s
£• ^ -
r
k
-N;?
/
\
\
■oooo
«■-■> ,
'
r
V
/
\
/,*tto
-k
aoott)
_jft»-
40000
"^
:a
V
:.-A
s
„, —
y
\
\v
'y
■■OMT
SIDI
^
/
^^
asoooo
/
^ \
=.
1
A
V
^
— '
"— '
aioooo
aooooo
■^
"—
\^
\/
L„
<eoooo
/
u
— ■
X 32', Wheel
,y Google
FiQ. 12. — RaaPrMsuree. 280 (Consolidation) Type EnRJnea: Cylindera 23' X 32', WheelB 63*,
Woriting Pressure 200 lbs. (Am. Lonomotive Co.)
pressure of the wheel on the rail 45
6. Effect of Irregularities in the Track
Fig. 14 shows the exaggerated profile of the rail observed by M. Cuenot
in his track experiments.
Figs. 15 and 16 show the rail profile taken with a Railroad Automatic
Track Inspector machine. These diagrams show the unloaded profile of the
rail, or the permanent set left in it by the passage of the trains. Evidently
the loaded profile will be below the unloaded line, and both profiles will probably
show the same general features, as indicated by the approximate loaded position
of the rail shown by the dotted line in Fig. 16.
The wheel as it passes over the curved surface of the rail shown in the
figure is constrained to move in a curved path whose radius is about 5000 feet,
Mo*
and the pressure of the wheel on the rail is the centrifugal force, C = -j^ >
ti
directed away from the center of curvature. For 30,000-pound wheel loads,
u.^
J 82.16
For 60 miles per hour,
5280 X 60
60 X 60 ■
and R = 5000.
„, , „ Mr" 30,000x88x88 ,.._ ,
Therefore C-^. 32.16x5000 - '^^ pounds,
which is the excess wheel pressure caused by the irregularity in the track shown
by the figure. To be on the safe side, it would seem desirable to increase this
amount. If, however, 4000 pounds be taken to represent the excess wheel
pressure, due to this cause, an ample factor of safety will apparently have been
provided.
It will be seen from the above that the increase of wheel pressure, due to
any change in the grade line, will be so small as to be negligible. It is good
practice to change from one rate of grade to another with a vertical curve,
changing the grade at each 100-foot station by 0.1 feet; this would give a radius
for the vertical curve of 50,000 feet, and a corresponding value for C of about
150 pounds.
Let us now consider the path of the wheel when passing over the summit
between two of the depressions shown in the track profile. Fig. 15. When tie
wheel is in the act of leaving the valley, or depression, its path lies in a direction
away from the surface of the rail before it. It is, however, under the influence
of two forces, — neglecting for the moment the action of the springs. First, its
i feet per second,
,y Google
STEEL RAIIS
>, Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAH, 47
momentum, acting along a line of direction tang«it to the vertical curve of the
rail; and, second, the force of gravity. The trajectory of the wheel acting under
^V^VvWi^/V-v^JL
la. — Rnil Fn^le taken with a Railroad Automatic Track Inspector Machine.
^^
\
^
SURFACE OF TRACK,
J
■•^^ — .^_
^
-,^
-
""--» ""
^.o";!©-- '>AfH 0|F WHEEL
Fia. 16. — " Valley " or Local Depresuon in Track Profile.
these forces will be a parabola with its axis vertical. The greatest height of
ascent, tf, and the horizontal range, x, are pven by the following equations:
y =h sin* a,
I = 2 fe sin 2 a.
h being the ideal height due to the velocity, we therefore have for a speed
of 60 miles per hour,
- »^ = 2fffe,
2ff
" 2 X 32.16
= 121 feet.
Fig. 17 is derived from the
same record as that from which
the diagram of Fig. 15 has been
taken and shows a summit be-
tween two depressions in the
profile of the track. We see from
the figure that the value of o is
0°14'. Substituting these values Fia-l? —Summitbetween Two DepreesionBotTrack Profile.
in the expressions for x and y, there results for the greatest height of ascent 0.002
feet, or 0.024 inches, and for the horizontal range, 1.97 feet.
,y Google
STEEL RAITfl
SPR1N6,H0.I
Fio. 18. — Locomotive Driving Wheel SjviDgB.
>, Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
49
Fig. 17 shows that this curve practically coincides with the profile of the
rail. It is hardly conceivable, therefore, that the wheel can leave the rail when
passing from one depression to another, as the action of the springs, as well
as the re^ience of the rail, which would tend to prevent this, are neglected in
the preceding discussion.
7. Effect op Rocking of the Engine
The pressure caused by the rocking of the engine on its springs can best
be determined by observing the amount the springs deflect under their load.
By referring to Plates XX and XXI, it will be seen that the wear of the
guides of the driving boxes will give a means of telling how much the springs
deflect. The maximum amount of wear
13 probably about one inch. Turning to
Figs. 18 and 19, which show the springs
used for the locomotive drivers, we see
that the depression of the spring one inch
corresponds to a range of pressure of
about 8000 pounds. However, as the
rocking of the en^^ne causes at times a
less pressure as well as a greater on the
springs, one-half of this amount, or 4000 ^''- i9-i>«fl«=ti«'«fL«>«»<'«ve Springs,
pounds, should be taken as the pressure which will cause the spring to deflect
an amount equal to that obtained under service conditions. ."
A careful series of experiments have been made by Messrs. Goes and
Howard * to determine the live load on locomotive driving springs under actual
running conditions.
The apparatus consists of three distinct parts; (1) a recording device,
which fits on the spring band or saddle; (2) a spanner bar or beam, which is
fastened to each end of the spring link hangers and is connected to the record-
ing apparatus ; (3) a battery box, which is in the cab with rheostat, switches, keys,
clock, and all the necessary controlling mechanism. See Figs. 20, 21, and 22.
The recording apparatus (F^. 20) is in a box, which is bolted to a steel
plate (1) by four bolts; this plate in turn is bolted to a U-shaped band (2) which
is fastened to the spring band by four hardened steel set-screws. The record
is made on metallic-faced paper, 4 inches wide and about 750 feet long. This
paper is wound up upon a detachable drum (3) and travels across a curved brass
guide plate (4) under two guide rolls (5) on to the main drum (6).
* Thesia 1906 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, under the supervision of Prof. Lansa.
/
^
s
i
/
i
/y
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
Tig, 20. — Recording Device and Cab Controlling Mechanism for Testing Drivii^
Wheel Springs. (Coea and Howard.)
Fia. 21. — Recording Device in Place on Driving Wheel Spring. (Goes and Howard.)
>, Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL 51
The main drum is driven by a motor (m) behind the curved plate, throu^
a worm and wheel drive (w). The main stylus is on a steel bar (6) machined
to fit two steel boxes (7) and is free to slide up and down. Considerable trouble
Fto. 22. — General AmmgemeDt or Apparatus for Testing Driving Wheel Spring.
(Goes and Howard.)
was encountered with the stylus on account of the excessive vibration and
jarring, and finally the type shown in Fig. 23 was designed, which gave entire
satisfaction, and with which the whole apparatus was equipped.
This is so constructed as to make the stylus spring always work in tension,
which is better than using the spring in compression. The spring is suffi-
ciently long to be sensitive and -still not be thrown from the plate when the
engine strikes a curve, a trouble characteristic of all former instruments. Be-
sides the main stylus there are three others
of identical construction. First, the zero /^^^^S™^""*^' styuus
stylus (8), which draws a straight line across ' ^^^''j^^^^
the roll and to which all deflections are
referred; second a stylus (9) which is on a
magnet that is operated by a Morse key in Fia.23.— MainStyiususedinDrivingWheei
J.I. 1. .Li.' J i. 1 /irt^ u- L • SpringTeste. (Cora and Howard.)
the cab; third, a stylus {10) which is on a
magnet and is operated automatically by a clock in the cab.
The spanner bar (11) is shown in Fig. 21 and needs no description except
its method of fastening to the spring link hangers and its mode of operation.
It is fastened to the hangers by means of two blocks, which are slotted and fit
over the ends of the hangers, these blocks being held on to the hangers by four
.yGOOgl'^
52 STEEL RAII£
hardened steel set-screws. The spanner bar (11) is connected to the stylus
bar (6) by means of a short link (Z). Thus, whatever relative movement is
given the recording apparatus by the spring is transmitted as a vertical line on
the paper by means of the stylus bar (b) and the spanner bar (11). Hence,
since the paper is being driven horizontally by the motor we have a wavy line
^ving a complete record of every movement made by the spring, and by means
of the records made by the key and the times recorded by the clock we can
account for most of the deflections due to frogs, switches, curves, crossings,
brake applications, and bridges.
The cab apparatus (Fig. 20) consists of a suitable box containing a portable
storage battery and six dry batteries. The storage battery pves 5 amperes
for 8 hours at a pressure of 6.6 bolts. This runs the motor. The six dry
batteries operate the clock and the key. On top of the box is a key (K), which
is connected by means of flexible lamp cord, fastened to the running board, to
the magnetic stylus (9). By means of the key the operator can record by code
any observation that may be necessary in working up the records. On tiie side
of the box is fastened a clock, which automatically records 15-second intervals
on the paper by a magnetic stylus (10). The motor is kept at the proper speed
by a rheostat fastened to the top of the box.
The first successful run was made on engine 1064, consolidated type 2-8-0,
with 36-inch springs, 17 leaves, 4 full-length leaves 4 inches by f inch. This run
was made on tiie Fitchburg Division of the Boston and Maine Railroad from
Boston to Ayer Junction on February 17, 1906. The spring tested was the
second (counting from the cylinder) on the left side. From this run was
obtained a maximum deflection of 0.34 inch. (See Plate XIX.)
A second run was made March 3, 1906, over the same route and on the
same engine to see if the same deflections were obtained. The curves obtained
by this latter run were practically identical with the test of February 17, 1906.
(See Figs. A and B, Plate XIX.) Figs. C D, E, and F present curves taken
at other points of the track.
The spring from engine 1064 was taken out and sent to the Engineering
Laboratory of the Institute and tested on the 100,000-pound Olsen Machine.
The results of this test are plotted and shown on Big. 24. Two tests
were made, one with rollers under the knife-edges and one without. The set
had been measured on the engine and the ends of the leaves had also been
marked. The spring was then placed in the testing machine and the loads
applied, corresponding micrometer readings of the deflections being taken until
the spring had been loaded down to the set as measured on the engine.
,y Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
DEFLeCTlON AS OBTAINED
FROM RECORDING MACHINE
MINIMUM MAXIMUM
DEFLECTION IN INCHES
Diagnun-Looomotive Driving Wheel Springs. (Coee and Howud.)
■yGoogle
54 STEEL RAILS
This load was 14,200 pounds, or the static load on the enpne, the dead
load for which the spring was designed being 14,144 pounds. Next the maxi-
mum deflection, as recorded by the spring apparatus, which was 0.34 inch,
was put in the spring, the load corresponding being 3500 pounds gradually
applied, making a total load on the spring of 17,700 pounds.
The excess load appUed to the engine when running should be classed as
a suddenly applied load. If we consider the relation between the load slowly
applied to the spring in the testing machine and that suddenly applied when
tile engine is in service, we see that in the first case the load gradually increases
from 14,200 pounds up to 17,700. The average load acting through 0.34 inch
is only 15,950 pounds and the total work done on the spring amounts to:
15,950 X 0.34 = 5423 inch-pounds.
In the case of the suddenly apphed load under service conditions it wiU
be observed that owing to the load reaching nearly its full intensity before the
spring deflects, the load producing the deflection in this case would be obtained
by dividing 5423 inch-pounds by the deflection,*
or ^ = 15,950 pounds.
This amounts to 12.3 per cent more than the static load of the engine
on the spring (14,200 pounds) and represents the dynamic augment of the
spring-bome weight of the locomotive.
It will be noticed that the dynamic augment as determined by these experi-
ments is considerable in excess of the figure arrived at by observing the wear of
the guides of the driving boxes. In the latter case the average deflection corre-
sponded to a load in the testing machine of 4000 pounds. Taking half of this or
2000 pounds as the dynamic load producing the same deflection of the spring,
we find a dynamic augment to the 25,000-pound static wheel load used of
08 per cent. This may very probably be accounted for by the fact that the
maximum deflection obtained is so infrequent as to cause no perceptible wear.
8. Effect of Flat Spots in the Wheels
We have now taken account of all the forces exerted by the wheel on the rail
except the impact caused by the existence of flat spots in the tread of the wheel.
The violence of the blow upon the track, delivered at every rotation of
the flat wheel, is a matter of common observation ; but the amount of its force
and the damage done thereby are very hard to determine.
* See Applied Mechanics, Gaetano Lauia, 1S95, page 246.
>, Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
55
A theoretical discussion of the force of the impact is not likely to lead to
any practical results because of the indefiniteness of the shape of the spot, due
to the rounding of the comers by wear, also to the lack of knowledge of the
effect of the springs and the resilience of the track.
The kinetic energy of the impact is represented by the expression i Mt?,
where Af represents tiie mass and r the velocity. In order to show a loss of
energy there must be a change of velocity, but any perceptible change in the
horizontal velocity of a moving car, due to the impact of the flat spot, is quite
inconceivable. There may, however, be a change in the vertical velocity of
the load as the flat spot comes over tiie rail.
Professor Hancock, of Purdue University, has made a very careful study
of the mathematical relations existing between the speed, impact, and length
of spot.*
Following Professor Hancock's analyas, let
A, in Pig. 25, be the caiter of a car wheel D
inches in diameter, revolving as shown by the
arrow, and CP be a flat spot L inches long just
beginning its contact with the rsdl. The whole
wheel is turning about the point C, and will so '
turn until P reaches R and the blow is struck on
the rail. At this lattra* instant A will have reached
A' and will be moving downward with a velocity
represented by the line he. If the velocity of A',
which is practically the same as that of the train,
is assimied as d feet per second, then
(k: = usinfl = if
CB'
If we regard the mass of the wheel and its load as concentrated at A and call
the total weight W pounds, the kinetic energy of the mass just before the rail
is struck will be:
This formula will give for the energy of impact of a flat spot 2.5 inches long
in a wheel 33 inches in diameter, carrying a load of 20,000 pounds when the
• Paper read before the Indians Eogineerbg Society, January, 1908. See also diacussioD by
L. S. Spilabury, presented by H. H. Vaughan in the American Engineei aad Railroad Journal, December,
>, Google
56 STEEL RAILS
train is traveling 60 miles per hour, 13,800 foot-pounds. At this speed it would
seem, however, that the results obtained by the formula would be open to
question. In the derivation of the formula it is assumed that the wheel turns
about C until P reaches R. This assumption only holds true for speeds from
zero up to about five miles per hour; * at speeds greater than five miles per hour
the point C will tend to leave the rail, and the whole wheel will revolve for an
instant entirely clear of the rail.
The above discussion neglects the effect of the springs, which will be to
increase the acceleration caused by gravity, and the resilience of the rail, which
will cause it to rise to meet the flat spot.
It is very questionable whether, on account of the very small time interval
required for the wheel to pass the length of the flat spot,t there is an appreciable
increase in the stress in the rail, except at the point of contact of the wheel with
the rail.
To increase the load on the rail a change in the vertical velocity of the
load must be made; but at high speeds, when the effect of the flat spot is most
detrimental, the time required to go the length of the flat spot is so small that
the acceleration of the wheel and its load, even when augmented by the action
of the springs, is so small as to be negligible. The real danger seems to lie
in the metal of the running surface of the head of the rail; the metal here is
under a high state of compression (see Figs. 146 and 147), which is momentarily
relieved by tiie passage of the flat spot and then applied suddenly.
When the flat spot is long enough so that the surface of the flat spot is
brought in contact with the rail, a sensible change in the vertical movement
of the load results and the load on the rail is increased. This is well shown by
the following example given by Jlr. L. R. Clausen,J of the Chicago, Milwaukee
& St. Paul Railway;
"Some time in the year 1900 we had an engine with a flat spot on rear
right-hand driver 32 inches long and aV inch deep, which broke about 27 rails
during one week's time (85-pound rails, not to exceed one or two years old) ".
This flat spot was not apparent to the eye and was only detected by cen-
tering the wheel and then measuring around it with a gauge.
■ E. E. Stetson, Rdlroad Age Gazette, December 4, 1908.
t The present allowable length of flat spots in car wheels is 2) in. This rule was adopted by the
Master Car Builders' AaBocisition in 187S. In 1909 the question of reducing the limit for freight wheels
to less than 2i inches was considered by committees of the Master Car Builders' Aaaociation and the
Ainerjcan Railway Eogineering Association, but it was not then considered advisable to make any
change in the rule.
X Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. & M. of W. Asan., 1B09, Vol. 10, Part 2, p. IISS. R«portonFlat
Spots OD Car Wheela.
,y Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
57
In the Railway Age Gazette of March 16, 1910, was reported 200 85-pound
rails broken in 14 miles by a fiat spot which had grown to a length of 6 inches, and
a maximum depth of f inch. In the extreme cold weather experienced in the months
of January and February, 1912, many tires fmled by shelling out, and the following
examples, taken from the same authority, are representative of the conditions ex-
isting on lines in the Northern parts of the countiy during this period.
January, 1912.
January 7, 1912.
January l^i 1^12.
January 20, 1912.
January 24, 1912.
February, 1912.
Minnesota.
Savanna, III.
South Dakota.
New York State.
New York State.
Ohio.
Flat spot 4
steel tire i
Flat spot 5i
wheel inp ....... ..
Two steel wheels with Hat spots, 500 rails.
on different trucks of a dining
IS. long I
passenge
la. long 01
9 80-lb. rails in 3 miles.
steel-tired
160 rails.
Flat wheel on a fast train.
Flat wheel on an observation ca
Shelled-oiit steel-tired wheel;
end of run the flat spot was 9 ti
long.
Flat spot on steel-tired wheel u
der a baggage car.
Nearly 100 rails.
15 rails.
960 rails in 200 miles.
50 rails in 70 miles.
It is generally known by those familiar with the manufacture and use of
chilled car wheels that only a very small percentage of them are evenly chilled.
This, apart from weakening the wheel, also produces a lack of roundness tend-
ing to cause poimding on the rail. The following information upon tests on
the roundness of tread of chilled car wheels has been furnished by Mr. S. K.
Dickerson, Assistant Superintendent of Motive Power, and Mr. H. E. Smith,
Engineer of Tests, of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway Company.*
To make these tests six pairs of wheels cast by different founders were
selected. An axle with a wheel pressed on each end was placed in a lathe and
the centers were firmly pressed. The wheels were then hand-turned. This
done, the tread was divided into eight sections, each the same distance from
the flat edge, and a specially constructed micrometer used to discover any
variations in the roundness. All the testing was done with great care and
predsion.
The tests are illustrated in Fig. 26. The dotted line in each diagram is a
circle through that point on the tread having the smallest radius, and is assumed
as the datum line. In plotting the diagram the variations from this datum
line have been multipKed by five in order to emphasize the irregularity of the
• Proceedings Am. Soc. for Teat. Materials, 1910, Vol. X, p. 307. Unevenly Chilled and Untrue
Car Wheels by Thomas D. Wert.
,y Google
STEEL RAII£
Fig. 26. —Irregularity in the Roundness of Present-day ChUled Cm Wheels. (The Iron Age.)
,y Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
Fia. 26. — Continued.
,y Google
60 STEEL RAIIS
tread. It is to be understood, however, that the figures given are the actual
variations in the radii of the wheels from the datum circle.
Owing to the present imperfect state of oiu- knowledge on this subject it
would seem desirable to determine experimentally the exact effect of the blow
delivered by a flat wheel on the rail.
Professor Benjamin* has designed an apparatus for such tests, which is shown
in Fig. 27. The apparatus shown in the figure will permit of the continuous
L.OAD
Fio.27. — Apparatus for Measuring the Effect of aFlatSpot. (BenjamiD.)
Operation of one wheel upon one section of rail indefinitely and permit at the
same time measurements of the effects of the blow. The truck is so supported
that one wheel turns freely upon an idle pulley, while the other wheel on the
same axle rests on a section of steel r^l and in turning drives the latter by
friction. The section of rail is bent to a circle, lying in a horizontal plane, and
is firmly riveted and bolted to a supporting web, which is then fastened to a
central hub of cast iron or steel. This hub turns freely on a vertical mandrel
and is supported by a thrust bearing underneath. The rail and its attachments
thus turn in a horizontal plane under the rotating car wheel. The portion of
the rail immediately under the wheel is supported by friction rollers, which turn
* Pt^Kr presented at Meeting of Western Railway Club, November 17, 1908. See also dis-
cussion of Professor Benjamin's paper by H. H. Vaughan, American Engineer and Railroad Journal,
December, 1006, and a further article by Professor Benjamin in the Railway Age Qaxette, June 28,
1912, p. 1613.
,y Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
61
freely in a steel box or yoke. This latter forma a portion of the main casting
supporting the hub of the rail, and this casting is bolted to a wooden pier so
as to have a certain amount of elastidty. On the lower side of this casting and
directly beneath the point of contact between the wheel and the raU is a hard-
ened steel hammer, or ball, resting on a strip of soft metal. The soft metal is
supported on a heavy anvil of cast iron and is fed slowly breath the hammer
by friction rollers.
The truck being loaded with the dedred amount of pig iron or other material,
the wheels and their axles are rotated by means of a variable speed motor, and
the energy of a blow delivered by a flat spot on the wheel is measured by the
indentations of the strip of soft metal underneath the hammer. The amount
of energy due to any ^ven indentation can be readily measured by produdng a
amilar indentation under a drop press. The curving of the rail in a horizontal
direction is not sufficient to interfere with the action of the wheel and the energy
of the blow is transmitted directly to the soft metal.
A subcommittee of the American Railway Engineering Association have
made an attempt to measure
the force of the blow caused
by flat wheels under working
conditions.
For this pmi)ose an
80,000-poxmd capacity car
was equipped with regis-
tering devices to measure
the compression of the car
springs and a pair of wheels
with flat spots was placed
in one of the trucks. The
poation of the flat wheels,
springs, and the recording
device is shown in Fig. 28.
The recording device con-
sisted of an apparatus for
measuring the maximum
deflection of the springs.
The springs were calibrated,
and it was found that a load of 32,500 pounds applied to a nest of four springs
produced a compreaaon of one inch.
POSITIONS OF RECOBD1NG DEVICES
1
£
jft
s — '
' i
i —
;
1
; —
i
Pia . 2S. — Diagram of Testa on Freight Car with Flat
Wheele. (Am. Ry. Eng. Asm.)
>, Google
ffil STEEL BAILS
The car was loaded with splice bars to its full capacity, the l(»d h&ng
imiformly distributed. The train was then run for a short distance, brought
to a stop, and the maximum deflection of the springs noted. Several different
tests were made in this manner at different rates of speed, the results of which
are shown by the diagram in Fig. 28.
The diagram shows quite uniformly for all of the tests a greater deflection
of about a sixteenth of an inch for the trucks with flat wheels, corresponding
to an increase in pressure on these trucks of from 1000 to 2000 pounds. The
results would appearto indicate, then, that the flat wheels, either by increasing
the oscillation of the car or for other reasons, cause an increase of pressure on
the track.
On account of the small number of tests made and the fact that they were
confined to one end of a car the results should not be regarded as conclusive.
However, assuming that the effect of the flat spot in the wheel is to cause addi-
tional rocking of the vehicle, as the experiments would appear to indicate, it
will be noted from article 7 that this force is already taken account of in the
consideration of the excess pressure caused by the rocking of the locomotive
on its springs.
9. Impact Tests
Professor Goss * experimented to determine the effect of the counter-
balance pressure with the Purdue Test Locomotive. This engine is mounted
with its drivers resting upon wheels of approximately the same diameter with
the drivers, and when the drivers are turned by the engine the supporting wheels
roll in contact with them, and the engine as a whole remains stationary. The
en^ne was in complete horizontal balance and was counterbalanced heavier
than it would be in ordinary road service, the main wheel being about 0.4 per
cent and the rear wheel about 54.0 per cent more heavily balanced than is
the usual practice.
A common annealed iron wire 0.037 inch in diameter was used and run
under the drivers. Fig. 29 shows the effect of the drivers on the wire.
Wire I shows slight variation.
Wire II shows a jump of the wheel just after the counterbalance Irft the
highest point, the lifting being retarded, probably due to inertia of the mass
to be lifted.
• An Experimental Study of the Effect of the Count«rbal&DCe in Locomotive Drive-wheeb
upon the Preeaure between Wheel and Rail. — Gobs. Tnms. Am. Soc. of Meeh. Engra., Vol. XVI,
1895, p. 305.
,y Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
63
Wires III, IV, and V show the more marked lifting effects, due to mcreased
speeds.
A light nick from a sharp chisel was made across the face of the wheel to
serve as a rrference mark, which left a clean-cut projection upon the wire. It
was found at high speeds that the single nick across the face of the wheel leaves
two projections upon the wire, usually about one-eighth of an inch apart. The
contact between the wheel and the track would evidently appear, therefore,
not to be continuous, but a succession of exceedingly rapid impacts. Professor
Goss derived the following conclusions from his experiments;
Fia. 29. — Wire Testa — Professor Goss.
(a) When a wheel is lifted through the action of its counterbalance, its
rise is comparatively slow and its descent rapid. The maximum lift occurs
after the counterbalance has passed its highest point.
(6) The rocking of the engine on its springs may assist or opi>ose the action
of the counterbalance in lifting the wheel. It therefore constitutes a serious
obstacle in the way of any study of the precise movement of the wheel.
(c) The contact of the moving wheel with the track is not continuous, even
for those portions of the revolution whai the pressure is greatest, but a rapid
succession of impacts.
,y Google
«4
STEEL RAJI5
The question of impact has received a great deal of attention from bridge
engineers. Recent work in this direction consists of a large number of experi-
ments that were made on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad by a subcommittee
of the American Railway Endearing Association to determine the amomit of
impact in bridge members. The records of these tests were, unfortunately,
burned in the Baltimore fire before they were put in permanent form. The
experiments were continued by the Association under the direction of Professor
Tumeaure.
The importance of this subject was widely realized, and most of the large
railroads in the country con-
tributed towards a fund which
enabled the work to be carried
on with a great degree of
thoroughness.
Professor Tumeaure's ap-
paratus consisted of an auto-
graphic extensometer for
recording the deformation of
bridge members and multi-
plying that deformation by
some factor like eighty or
ninety and recording it on a
moving strip of paper. On
Fig. 30 are shown some of the
records taken by one of these
machines in 1906. It will be
seen from an examination of
y^^^''■^*'^v-vVV-"
Fia. 30. — Defoimation of Bridge Membere tmder Paaaing
Troine. (Am. Ry, Eng. AesQ.)
the records that the effect of the different wheels can be readily traced in
the diagrams.
During the season of 1907 * further work was done by the committee.
The instruments used consisted of a deflectometer and eight extensometa^.
The deflectometer is the instrument described in Transactions A. S. C. E.,
Vol. XLI, June, 1899, p. 411. (Some Experiments on Bridges under moving
Train-loads.) The instrument is itself attached to tiie bridge, while the con-
nection with the groimd below is made by means of a wire attached to a
heavy weight resting upon the ground. The deflection is multiplied by two and
* Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. and M. of W. Asen.,
A Structures. Impact Tests.
Report of Committee on Iron and
>, Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
66
recorded on a moving strip of paper. The extensometers are clamped to various
members of a structure and record the extenaona or compressions of the mem-
bers over a length of about four feet The ratio of multiplication of the exten-
someters is about 50.
Test trains were made up of a selected type of locomotive, followed genwally
by a sufficient number of loaded cars to cover tiie span. Longer trains were
not used, for the reason that it was desired to secure speeds as high as possible,
and also because many observations under the freight tr^s of the reguW
traffic showed that at the speeds practically attmnable the impact effect was
much less than with the shorter test train.
In carrying out the tests the train was headed in the more favorable direc-
tion for speed, and was moved back and forth over the structure at various
rates of speed. Such speeds were selected as fdrly to cover the range from
about 20 miles per hour to the maximum attainable. A few movements were
made at from 10 to 20 miles per hour. Little difference was noted in the results
at various speeds below 15 miles per hour, and in general the results at 10 miles
per hour may be considered as practically equal to static stresses.
The speed of the tran was determined by the use of stop watches and
signals by observers stationed at the ends of a 500-foot base line. The loco-
motive was generally working when crossing the span, but in some cases was
not. Differences in this respect caused no noticeable differences in results,
so far as the field observers were able to judge, although this point was con-
adered mainly with respect to the higher speeds. Each test was given a serial
number, and all records obtained for that test were given tiie same number.
TABLE XII. -CALIBRATION TABLE, IMPACT TESTS ON BRIEM3ES.
■n™.,.,.'
Unlti^i^tio..
V>h» oil inch OrdiDBU,
L^^l^i.
Deflection
1
2
3
2
55.4
11,300
0,fti2
48.4
63.7
61.7
54,2
64,5
64.3
12,900
11,600
12,100
11,500
11,500
11,600
0.547
0.613
0.623
0-703
0.683
0.602
Table XII contains calibration data of the instruments and the approximate
speed of movement of the record paper. Table XIII contains detaled data of
one (rf the tests. This sheet represents tiie work of one day on one structure.
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
^
s I
mt
i
ri
SX5S55S3SSSSSSSS33SSgi;S3£RSSSSSS3S^SS
SXS3SSSS3SSS££$SiSS;;iSiESK33SSS33SSSSSS
£8 SSSSS S*SS£mmSS2
S, SMSBSSS SSS^SStSSSBaSStiUSnSSUSSStiSS
:-a3SSSS2 : : SSSSaaS.
t;?S$S! :S3S3S3SiSS«S3SS3S3SSS?S : '3399S :
$s;:ssseRiSSK£SS3;:SSssSi3SSS3rS;:n;:s3sss
;S:i3Si3sS!£l3^S£S^^i5S£iS^3Sa333S333S5S3S
SS :SSSSSSS :
3 ^ss^sisessssssssersf^KSSESs : issess^scsss
;S!3!3SKsa;;s»s»S8ss;si;ssssassss!i3Ss;i;iSSSS$
S3§3§SS?2§§S^?s52HS§SSSB§3'S2I3S^r"235
"- SS88S»SaSSSSS5:R3aS5SSSS5£ = 2=aSSE3SSS
I g..,.g.,
,„g„„„,g-.,.|- g-,
,y Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL 67
and with a particular locomotive and train. At the top of the dieet are given
the weights of test train, and a diagram of the bridge, showing the general
location of the instruments by number. The table then gives, first, the number
of the test, then the speed in miles per hour, then the position of the counter-
balance, as will be described more fully later. Then follow the data relating
to the deflection and measurements of the various extensometers from Nos. 1
to 8. The location of each instrument is given immediately below the number.
In the column headed "Maximum" is given generally the value of the
marimimi ordinate of the diagram resulting from the test, expressed in hun-
dredths of inches. An exception to this is where there was obviously considerable
instrumental vibration, in which case an effort was made in scaling the diagrams
to eliminate this instrumental ^ect. This could be done in many cases quite
satisfactorily, but not in other cases, and all such records are open to more or
less doubt.
In the column marked "Amplitude" is pven the amplitude of the vibra-
tions in the diagrams where such vibration is apparently due to the structure
and is not instrumental vibration. Vibrations may be due in general to three
causes: (a) vibrations of the structure as a whole, as shown most clearly in the
deflection diagrams and the chord or flange stresses; (&) vibrations of individual
members, especially eyebars, and (c) instrumental vibrations.
Other marked variations in the diagrams occur in such members as stringers,
floor beams, and hip verticals. It can only be stated at present that it is generally
possible to distinguish instrumental vibrations from others because of their
much greater rapidity. It may be said, however, that in most of the digrams
obtained the instrumental vibrations are not serious.
In the column marked "Peak" are given the measured ordinates to the
highest points of the curves, including instrumental vibration. The excess
of this value over the "Maximum" shows the extent of the instrumental vibra-
tion as estimated. In many cases this is small, but in many cases also it is
large. In some cases it is so excesave that no attempt has been made to measure
the records. The deflectometer gave no trouble in this respect.
In the column headed "Remarks" are noted various remarks by the use of
letters: "I" signifies instrumental vibration.
Returning to column three, headed "Counterbalance": In the later tests
the portion of the counterbalance was determined with reference to some panel
point of the bridge. This was done by inserting an index made of }-inch steel
into the rim of one of the drivers, exactly opposite the counterbalance. Then,
alongmde the rail was placed a 2- by 4-inch strip, on which was placed a ridge
,y Google
68 STEEL RAILS
of clay or putty at such a height as to be indented by the index as it passed
along. The posiUon of the indentation is noted in feet north or south of the point
of reference, which point of reference is shown on the truss diagram by the
letter "C."
During the seasons of 1908 and 1909 the experiments were continued,
and very complete data gathered of a mmiber of bridges under different con-
ditions of loading.*
The experiments obtained in this series of tests indicate that with track
and rolling stock in good condition the main cause of impact Is the unbalanced
condition of the drivers of the ordinary locomotives. The great importance of
unbalanced drivers is well brought out by a comparison of the results of com-
parative tests with the ordinary locomotive and the balanced compound and
electric locomotive. The impact caused by balanced compound and electric
locomotives was very small.
While it is interesting to study the effect of the impact in the different
members of a bridge in a consideration of the stresses in the rail, it is doubtful
whether the two cases are sufficiently alike to afford anything more than a
general comparison.
In considering the impact stresses in the rail the effect of the inertia of the
track must be borne in mind.
If we examine what takes place in the track under the impact of the wheel
it is seen that there is a force F acting between the wheel and the rail. When
impact occurs this force is increased by a force F' which produces a change in
the relative velocities of the wheel and the track, but on account of the nature
of the track the change in its velocity is almost imposdble to determine.
The average value of this force F' is exactly equal to the change in momen-
tum produced by its action divided by the time required to produce this change
or f'.™(^),
where m = mass,
V = velocity,
t = time.
It will be observed that the interval of time ( - (' during which the impact
acts is very small, and is not sufficient to allow the force F' to depress the
track at high speeds, with the result that the force F' is overcome mainly by
the resistance of the rail to compresaon. The heavier and harder the rail, there-
• ProceedmgH Am. Ry. Eng. and M. of W. Aaan., 1011, Vol. 12, Part 3, p. 12. Report of Sub-
■XHtunittee on Impact.
>, Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL 69
fore, tiie greater is this force F', other things being equal. Indeed it is quite
pos^ble that it may at times exceed the crushing strength of the r^ on its upper
surface.
A diviaon of the forces acting on the wheel into those which produce local
str^dns in the running surface of the head and the forces which tend to set up bending
stresses in the rail is difficult to determine; probably the effect in producing bend-
ing stresses of all the forces except the static load on the wheel and the centrifugal
force described in Article 6 are condda^bly lessened owing to the inertia of the
track.
This especially applies to the pressure exerted by the springs of the loco-
motive when the engine is rocking. If the full effect of the compression of the
springs was realized the pressure might well be twice what has been taken.
This was illustrated in the impact tests on bridges when the excess pressure,
caused by the counterbalance, tended to produce well-defined strains, and at or
near the critical speeds would set up vibrations in the bridge itself, while the
impact from the rocking of the locomotive on its springs apparently caused a
much less serious effect.
10. The Dynamic Augment of the Wheel Load
While we have examined the various causes of the increase in wheel pressure
when the locomotive is running, it is still necessary to consider the effect of the
velocity of the wheel load.
Assuming the track perfectly smooth, the wheel without imperfections and
all of the rotating parts perfectly balanced, the effect of a load moving over the
track at a high rate of speed depends wholly upon the vertical ciurature of
the track and the effect which this curvature has upon the path over which
the center of gravity of the load travels.
In the case of a bridge, if we assume the track orig^ally straight and
absolutely ri^d, the amount of impact or centrifugal force resulting from the
deflection of the structure can be approximately determined on theoretical
grounds. Such an analyms has been made by Dr. H. Zimmermann for the
case of a single rolling load, and a formula which is very closely approximate
to his exact formula is as follows:
f _P_J ,
gi' _o
in which F = centrifugal force, P = weight of rolling load, e = velocity in feet
per second, d = deflection of structure, and I = span length. If, for example,
,y Google
70
STEEL RAILS
d = jiinr of span length and u = 90 feet per second (about 60 mUes per hour),
we have
F = P ,
0.595i-3
a fonnula which is practically exact for spans greater than 15 feet. For a
25-foot span this gives 8.7 per cent impact, and for a 50-foot span 3.7 per cent.
For a 100-foot span the value would be 1.7 per cent.
With the yielding supports under the rail the center of gravity of the load
tends to travel along a straight line (assuming the track to be perfectly uniform).
It seems therefore probable tiiat the dynamic stress in the r^l is not increased by
any appreciable amount by the velocity of the wheel load, and the maximum
pressure to be used in calculating the stress in the rail can be taken to be made
up of the static wheel load, the excess pressure due to the counterbalance and
angularity of the m^ rod, the pressure due to the wheel passing over irregu-
larities in the surface of the track, and the pressure caused by the rocking of
the engine on its springs.
The imposed pressure due to the angularity of the main rod and the e
balance is given in Table XIV.
TABLE.XIV.— MAXIMUM DYNAMIC PRESSURE, IN POUNDS, DUE TO
ANGULARITY OF MAIN ROD AND EXCESS BALANCE,
FOR SPEEDS UP TO 60 MILES PER HOUR
Typ.,
W«i(hlo«A].l»,
Eic^ Prenure Dua to Auularity of
MsiB Rod iuhI Exwn GhbUt-
baluce. (One Sida Only.)
S.
Front or B«k
Driv.™.
Driver.
^^C""
4-4-2
4-«-2
4-B-O
2-6-0
2-8-0
5S,000
60,000
65,000
64.000
54,000
52.000
56,000
52.000
53,000
60,000
12.000
10,000
11,000
15,000
14,000
0,000
7,000
10,000
11,000
9,000"
This pressure is not a direct function of the wheel load and should be ex-
pressed in pounds for each class of locomotive.
The excess pressure for' the freight locomotive, types 2-6-0 and 2-8-0, is
noticeably greater than is that of the passenger locomotive for the high speeds
^ven in Table XIV. Inasmuch as the engines in freight service are not called
upon for as high speed as in the passenger service, the excess pressure at 40 miles
per hour may be taken as the maximum for the engines of this class. The
greatest pressure occurs with the Mogul locomotive, type 2-6-0, and is 10,000
pounds for tJie main driver and 5000 pounds for the front and rear drivers.
,y Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
71
The extra pressure due to irregularities in the track is dependent on the
weight on the wheel and may be expressed in per cent of the wheel load, and is
4000
30,000
= 13 per cent of the weight on the driver.
The pressure due to the rocking of the engine on its springs is likewise a
function of the wheel load, and is 13 per cent of the load on the driver.
Dr. P. H. Dudley has observed that the drawbar pull and the tender on
stiff rails can become important factors in distributing the df ect of the expended
tractive power to a longer portion of the track than that occupied by the driving
wheel base.
The distribution of the expended tractive dfort through the drawbar
pull may be extended in 6-inch, 100-pound rails to all of the wheels under the
locomotive. In the 80-pound rail this reduces to about two-thirds of the length
of the total wheel base of the locomotive.
Two stremmatograph tests were made for the purp(ffie of tracing the dis-
tribution of the stresses due to the expended tractive power of the locomotive
when drawing its train. The first test was made with the engine light, backing
over the stremmatograph, and then in a few moments coming forward. The
second test was made with the same engine drawing its train. It indicated
that the unit fiber stresses are increased under all of the wheels of the loco-
motive, and also the bending moments.
The effect of the expended tractive effort through the drawbar pull and
the stiff rails was distributed for the entire length of the wheel base of the loco-
motive, instead of being restricted to that of the driving wheels. The total
wheel effects under the light locomotive for one rail were 1,368,706 inch-pounds,
and 1,864,363 inch-pounds when drawing the train, an increase of nearly 500,000
inch-pounds, or 1,000,000 inch-pounds, practically, for both rails.
It is evident that this increase in pressure on the rail is allowed for by the
dynamic augment to the apring-bome load of the locomotive, and we may now
prepare Table XV, giving the dynamic augment to be added to the static
wheel load.
TABLE XVft. — DYNAMIC AUGMENT TO BE ADDED TO THE STATIC
WHEEL LOAD WHEN THE LATTER IS 25,000 POUNDS OR OVER
Note. — The dyaamic augment
as ^ven id pounds in columns 1 or
2 should be added to the per cent
of the whed load pven in column 3,
to ^ve the total dynamic augment
for the drivers. Column 3 only
should be used for the truck wbeds.
Cten.
DyBUDicAixniM.t. |
Pouid*.
P««,t.
dSS..
FnMt ud Back
DriTBrt.
1
1
I
12,000
10,000
9,000
5.000
26
26
>, Google
STEEL RAII5
TABLE XVb. — DYNAMIC AUGMENT TO BE ADDED TO
THE STATIC WHEEL LOAD WHEN THE LATTER
IS LESS THAN 25,000 POUNDS
Claa.
Dyumic Aogmat.
Uain Driven.
FiwtudBuk
Driven.
TnukWba^.
Passenger
POTMBt
75
66
Ptrcmt.
60
45
Paro«t
26
26
$ 9 3
Atlantic Type, 442-190.
A£)
tw X "' .1. "'
_557t
Pacific Type, 462-225.
Prairie Type, 262-234,
Fia. 31. — Dynamic Wheel Loads of Typical Paaeenger Steam
Locomotives.
See Plate XX for static loads and Table XV for relation between
static and dynamic loading.
Note. — Total wei^t on drivers assumed to be equally divided
between the driving axles; if the main wheel is more heavily loaded the
dynamic pressure will be increased accordin^y.
By referring to
Figs. 6 and 7 it is seen
that the excess pres-
sure, caused by the
angularity of the main
rod and counterbal-
ance, is less in amount
for these lighter en-
gines. Table XVb
shows the dynamic
augment of engines
having wheel loads less
than 26,000 pounds.
We may now pro-
ceed to construct typi-
cal load diagrams for
the diflETent classes of
locomotives. Plates
XX and XXI give the
principal dimensions of
each type of engine
under discussion, from
which, with the ^d of
Table XV, the load
diagrams given in Fig.
31 and Fig. 32 have
been prepared.
,y Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
-®i
e
€
OOOZ? H
- I Oi
§4!
m
1 I'
j J
» > 8 5 3
•.-■a Se •
lis S|
1 I1J|!|
1^ Ult-
^ ^ -2 e 5 P 2
•3 a 2 j|i^
4'
^ ill -I
-5 i ^ g * 5
S 'C s o. a ^
' ! itiM
M '-S 5 S O
S Is-ll
s ^ a 1 5, 1
£ '''t.i
« *f^5 I a
1 1. Ill
>, Google
74
STEEL ILUL9
11. Electric Locomotives
* In dealing with the electric locomotive the question of the excess balance
necessary to counteract the reciprocating parts can be entirely neglected, and these
machines, when properly constructed, would appear to have a more favorable
action on the track than is the case with a steam engine of the same capadty.
The low center of gravity possessed by the earlier locomotives of this type
imposed, under certain conditions, a very severe duty on the rail, f In order
to bring out the facts experimentally, the Pennsylvania Railroad Company,
who were about to design locomotives for their tunnel entrance into New York
City, constructed a special test track with apparatus for measuring side pres-
sures upon the rail; they built sample locomotives of different designs and
instituted a series of tests of electric and steam locomotives to determine their
relative riding qualities at speed.
It was foxmd that all types of locomotives were practically steady at speeds
under 40 miles per hour, but that above this speed marked differences appeared;
that the steadiest riding machines were those with high center of gravily and
with long and unsymmetrical wheel base. In other words, that the nearer
steam-locomotive design is approached in wheel arrangement, distribution of
wei^t, height of center of gravity, and ratio of spring-borne to under-spring
weight, the less the side pressures registered on the rail head.
TABLE XVL-
ELECTRIC AND STEAM LOCOMOTIVES, COMPARISON OF WEIGHTS
AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY. (Gibbs.)
Tola] weighl oT loconio
nuuiing ordor [a pounds . .
H^ht, ceatcr (cniviiy, com;
HflighU of cmtv of ^rai
T41T
: V. Tunnel,
332,000
N.Y..N.H.4H.
I3S,0flO
Table XVI presents a comparison of weights and centers of gravity of
modem electric locomotives and steam locomotives. Fig. 33 shows the Detroit
River Tunnel Company's locomotive.
• See the Rwiroad Age Gazette, Vol, XLVII, 1909, pp. 271,319, 537, 881, and the RaUway Age
Gazette, Vol. XLVII, 1910, p, 829, for deacriptions of electric locomotives given in this article,
t Electric Traction by George Gibbe, report presented before the International Railway Con-
gresa, July, 1910. See also a very complete article " The Electrification of Railways " by George
Westinghoiise. Appendix No. 2. Data on Electric Locomotives of American Design, pp. 970-079.
Trans. Am. Soc. of Mecb. Engrs., 1910, Vol. 32.
,y Google
PRESSUEE OP THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
>, Google
76 STEEL RAILS
Fig. 34 illustrates the type of the Pennsylvania Electric locomotives which
are used for handling the Pennsylvania Ralroad trdns into the New "York
station.
This locomotive incorpo-
rates many novel features in
electric-locomotive design, and
^ is the result of several years'
■g cooperative development be-
0 tween the Pennsylvania Rail-
^ road Company and the
I" Westinghouse Electric and
J Manufacturing Company. It
is distinctively a high-powered
1 machine, built for high speed
^ operation.
% In wheel arrangement,
ft weight distribution, trucks and
^ general character of the run-
^ ning gear, it is the practical
J equivalent of two American
a type locomotives coupled per-
1 manently back to back.
I The connecting rods are
J all rotating links between rota-
■S ting elements, and are thus
I perfectly coimterbalanced for
4 all speeds.
J The employment of this
B transmission permits the
(^ mounting of the motors upon
J the frame, secures their spring
a support, and, in common with
the rest of the locomotive, the
center of gravity at approxi-
mately the same height above
the rails, found de^rable in
the best high-speed steam
experience. The same freedom of motion in the wheels and axles that is
,y Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
77
characteristic of the present steam locomotive is also obviously secured. It
will be seen from Fig. 35 that the locomotive is an articulated machine and
that each half carries its own motor and has fom- driving wheels, 68 inches
,y Google
re STEEL RAILS
in diameter, and one four-wheel swing bolster swivd truck with 36-mch wheels.
In these locomotives the variable pressure of the unbalanced piston of the steam
locomotive is replaced by the constant torque and constant rotating ^ort of
the drive wheels, and the pull upon the drawbar is thereby constant and
uniform. It might to the casual observer appear that by this arrangement of
driving a return has been made to steam locomotive practice as regards \
counterbalancing difficulties, but it will, upon examination, be seen that nothing
of the kind is true. There are no questions of unbalanced reciprocating weights
involved, and all weights are revolving ones and directly counterbalanced.
In Table XVII is given the general characteristics of the electric locomo-
tives of this country.
In determining the dynamic augment of the wheel load in the case of the
electric locomotive, the effect of the counterbalance, which plays such an im-
portant part in the pressure of the driver of the steam locomotive, can be entirely
neglected. The other causes remain approximately the same, and by referring
to Table XV (column 3), it is seen that the dynamic augment amounts to
26 per cent of the whed load. Fig. 36 gives the load diagrams of electric loco-
motives based upon this assumption.
.B.aO.R.Rv1S95
Ci) (i) CD CD
) am am a
N.YN.H.aiH.R.R.1908
D= Dynamic Load per Wheel, poundB.
rS=Statio Load per Wheel, pounds.
D-1.26S.
'OCD^
oooo oo oo oooo
oooo oo oo oooo
oooio om cm o^ioo
too 'HO iDO oo tOOrjiO
a tn a in a ir ou> oinoc)
PENNSYLVANIA R:R. 1909
oo oo oo go oo oo oooo
CO oo oo oo oo oo oo GO
mo mo oo oo oo oo mo mQ
_— — rt (M n fj row in fa — — —J
Ou> Otf) Qin a in o V) QUI QVlQiO'
Fig. 36. — Typical Load Diagruns Tot Electric Locomotives.
>, Google
PKESSHRE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
1, s=sa--a
iiiij .
iP| '
1 |8 S£H=*HS
1 1 Ip;^ ;::::::!: ifll =
IPl »
II Hi l;f|lljll
lliilliiiii
111 1
m 1
pill J
>, Google
i
m
I
li-i
I-
:::::! i m
II
II
f
¥
ft.
H
in
!"■
19:
!=■
I
liiii,
ip:
y '
3 ft-j:a«"-s
I
m
Mil
I
>, Google
pre^ure of the wheel on the rail 81
12. Cars
In dealing with the pressure of the wheels of cars it will be noted that the
dynamic load is much less than is the case with the heavy steam locomotive.
Here the only dynamic effect caused by the rapidly moving wheel is that of
the rocking of the car on its springs, the irregularities of the track and lack of
roundness of the wheel.
Fig. 28 gives a convenient means for estimating the excess pressure caused
by the rocking of the car. It will be noted from the figure that the maximum
dynamic pressure corresponds to a depression of the nest of springs of about i\
inch at a speed of 50 miles per hour, or, as the springs are capable of resisting a
slowly applied load of 32,500 pounds for a depression of 1 inch, the dynamic
load at 50 miles per hour for the two wheels supported by the nest of springs
is probably about 5000 pounds, or 2500 pounds for each wheel greater than the
static load.
Fia. 37. — Box Car. Capacity 100,000 lbs. Weight 48,000 lbs. Length 40 ft.
An allowance of 10,000 pounds per wheel would appear to be ample to
cover higher speeds obtained and heavier cars than that used in the test to which
this figure refers, as well as any increase in pressure caused by irregularities in
equipment. With Ughter loads the dynamic augment may be decreased, and for
wheel loads less than 15,000 pounds it has been taken as 0.7 of the static load.
Figs. 37 to 41 * illustrate types of freight cars and Figs. 42 to 46 * passen-
ger cars. It will be seen that the freight cars use a four-wheel truck, each
wheel of which sustains about 20,000 pounds for 100,000-pound capacity cars
when loaded to their full capacity. The minimum spacing of wheels used under
100,000-pound capacity cars is 5 feet 6 inches. Cars in passenger service as
seal frran (iie figures use four-wheel trucks and also six-wheel trucks. The wheel
* Figs. 37 to 46 have been taken from the Car Buildera Dictionaiy.
>, Google
82 STEEL RAILS
spacing of the four-wheel trucks is 8 feet and for those having six wheds,
5 feet 3 inches.
The increase in weight in Amraican passenger equipment in recent years
has been very great. Steel coaches with wood inside finish used by one of
the Chicago lines weigh 139,000 pounds. New buffet library cars for smother
FiQ. 38. — Flat Car, Presged SWel Underframe. Capacity 100,000 Jbs. Wei^t 38,000 lbs.
western line weigh 153,000 pounds. In the design for new sleepers for the
Pennsylvania it is difficult to limit the weight to 160,000 pounds, and 75
to 80 tons may be taken as the weight of modern sleeping cars. The 70-foot
steel coaches, which are being built in large numbers, are so heavy that it is ■
necessary to use six-wheel trucks under them, and these alone weigh over
40,000 pounds for two trucks.*
Fia. 39. — Gondola Car. Wooden Body. Pressed Steel Underframe. Capacity 100,000 lbs.
Weight 44,500 lbs.
The proposed use of 80-ton freight cars with four-wheel trucks for
special service f suggests some comparison of these loads with those imposed
by the engine drivers. The proposed 80-ton car will weigh about 50,000
pounds and the total weight of the loaded car will be 210,000 pounds, which,
when carried by eight wheels, produces a static load on the rail of 26,250 pounds.
Weights on drivers have always greatly exceeded the load on smaller car
wheels, and the reason for this seems to have been the greater strength of
the larger wheels. Owing to the work locomotive tires receive in rolling they
• R^lway Age Gazette, January 28, 1910, t Ibid,, December 22, 1911.
,y Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL
Fio. 40.~CokeCar, AIISt«eI. Capacity 100,000 lbs. Weight 47,600 lbs.
Fig. 41. — Stock Car, Steel Underframe. Capacity 100,000 lbs. Weight 47,400 lbs.
Pio. 42. — Vestibuled Cooch, AU Steel.
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
Fia. 43. — Twelve-section Sleeping Car.
Fio. 44. — Steel Combination Passenger sad Baggage Cor.
Fia. 45. — Veatibuled Dining Car.
Fia. 46. — Baggie Car, AU St«el.
Dignzed by Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL 85
would appear better able to carry heavy loads than the smaller car wheels.
While the loads on car wheels in themselves are not necessarily detrimental
to the rail, it has seemed desirable to provide for the possible affect of a de-
fective whed by taking a relatively high dynamic augment of the wheel load.
Freight Cars.
[^ I ) Weight of Car Empty 60,000
Weight of Load 100,000
OO OO 10%0v»load 10,000
O O O O — :
O O O O Total 160,000
O O O O
O 0) a in Paeeenger Cars,
4-wheel trucks.
lOi
Weight of Car Empty 120,000
Weight of Load 20,000
Total 140,000
O O O O
O O O O
O O O. O Poasenger Cars.
<D <0 (0 (0
ftj — ft — 6-wheel trucks.
o in □ (0 t,b».
Weight of Car Empty 160,000
L 5'-3'X5'-S'j Weight of Load 20,000
Total 180,000
(hCbG)
337
0 o o o o o
DOOOOO ^" ^y"*""'" '°**^ P*' viheel, pounde
01 n m fi in m 5— Static load per wheel, pounds
w-w-N- D = S+ 10,000
o <n am o in
Fia. 47. — Typical Load Diagrams for Cars.
Fig. 47 show^ typical load diagrams for passenger equipment and freight cars.
Fig. 48 shows the dynamic wheel diagrams of motor cars used on steam
roads, and F^gs. 49 and 50 illustrate these cars.
1, y-o'tL sa-a* J^ C-B* J
It Is 88 g|
.1 ■■ '■ ?;
. O" on o« an
[, 7-0", I, ^4-6" ^. ,1, 7-0" I
g g g B D- Dynamic load per wheel, pounds %% gg
5« 5« S = Static load per wheel, pounds «£ 55
"Y ~7 D = S + 10,000 where S is more than 15,000 ^j ^i
an on Z) ■= 1.7S where <Ei is less than 15,000 qm qm
Via. 48. — Typical Dynamic Load Diagrams for Motor Cats.
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
,y Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL 87
In Figs. 51 and 52 are given examples of the cars in use on electric rail-
ways, both for city service and on the longer runs of the intenirban lines.
58-ft. " Single-end " Smoking and Express, Mail and Baggage Car.
Seating capacity, 38. Weight of car body, a£out 34,000 ibe.
Wheel base of trucks, 6'6'. Weight of trucks, 21,460 Ibe.
Weight complete, about 38) tons.
62-ft. Buffet Observution Parlor Car.
Seating capacity, 35. Weight of car body, about 44,000 lbs.
Wheel base ot trucks, 6'6'. Wpight of trucks, 21,460 lbs.
Weight complete, about 44 tons.
51-ft. "Double-end" Special Parlor Car with Smoking Room.
Seatbg capacity, chairs 26. Weight trf car body, about 29,000 lbs.
Seating capacity, seats 52. Weight of trucks, 20,322 lbs.
Wheel base ot trucks, 6'6', Weight complete, abait 39 tons.
Fio. 61. — Electric Railw^ Cara (Niles Car and Mfg. Co.).
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
51-[t. "Single-end," Two-compartment, Fast Interuiban Car.
Seating capacity, 52. Weight of car body, about 26,500 lbs.
Wheel base of trucks, 6'6'. Weight of trucks, 18,800 Ibe.
Weight complete, about 32 tons.
48-ft. Cent«r-vcstibule, Arch-roof, Steel Prepayment Car.
Seating capacity, 54. Weight of car body, 22,000 lbs.
Wheel base of Irucka, 6'4'. Weight of trucks, 16,132 lbs.
Weight complete, about 26 tons.
42-ft. Double-truck, "Single-end," Pay-AB-You-Enter Car,
Seating capacity, about 45. Weight of car body, about 16,000 lbs.
Wheel base of Irucks, 5'0'. Weight of trucks, about 12,000 Ibe.
Fio. 52. — Electric Railway Care {Nilee Car and Mfg. Co.).
,y Google
PRESSURE OF THE WHEEL ON THE RAIL 89
Fig. 53 presents the typical dynamic load diagrams of this class of equipment.
The dynamic augment has been taken the same for these cars and the motor
cars as was used for the freight and passenger cars on steam roads.
Weight o( car and equipment 43,000 lbs. I a'-o' j , - I bV. J
We^t o( paseenger load 15,000 lbs. JT f J-. ~ P^^-U
(100 's 160 n«.) CD iCD v---"-"'^"-- (DiCD
Total 58,0001bs. || i| || ||
Equipped with two motora weighing 34,000 lbs. aa •>•> na «o
each, both motors on axle of the rear truck, q-. q
Intentrbon Passenger Cars.
Wright ot car body 35,000 lbs.
Weight of trucks 24,000 lbs.
Weight of motor equipment 19.000 lbs.
Weight of passenger load 11,250 lbs.
(75 ® 150 lbs.)
Total 89,250 lbs.
Equipped with four motors hung on four axle»i, bo that the load is evenly distributed.
L— ?-Q1J i. ?-o" j
F 1. ~| £o1p" IZ^
CD i CD '"""-"°-°" CD I G)
Interurban Freight Cars.
Weight of car and equipment , . .62,320 lbs.
Weight of load (rated capacity) 50,000 lbs.
plus 10 per cent overload 5,000 lbs.
Total 117,320 lbs.
Equipped with four motors, one motor to each axle.
— Typical Dynamic Load Diagrams for Electric Railway Cars.
D = Dynamic load per wheel, pounds
S = Static load per wheel, pounds
D~3 + 10,000 where S is more than 15,000
D = 1.7S where 5 is less than 16,000
,y Google
CHAPTER III
supports of the rail
13. The Tie
The most common material used for the tie is wood. Some have sug-
gested (and this suggestion is made with increasing frequency) that ties should
be made out of materials other
than wood. Granite ties were
among the earliest substitutes
offered ; they were used for some
time in Dublin, Ireland, and
on the old Boston and Lowell
Rmlroad in Massachusetts. For
some fifty years various forms
of metal ties have been sug-
gested, and a large number of
steel ties have been tried in
various countries. In recent
years concrete ties have been
made.
The following examples
present in a general way what
Fio. 54. — Carnegie Steel Tie. l u ^.i. j. j i i.-
has been attempted as a substi-
tute for the wooden tie. The list is far from complete, and must necessarily
remain so, as new forms of metal and concrete ties are constantly being developed.
The subject has been very fully reported upon by the committee on ties of the
American Railway Engineering Association.*
Steel ties have been used quite extensively on the Union Railroad and on the
Bessemer and Lake Erie Railroad. The total number of steel ties on these two
roads is over one million or enough to lay 300 miles of track. There are a large
number of steel ties of the Gamete type (Fig. 54) in use throughout the country.
• See Report of Committee on Ties, Proceedings Am. By. Eng. Assn., 1909, 1910, 1911, cuid
1912, pp. 343-370.
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
Fig. 55 shows the insulated tie in use on the Bessemer and Lake Erie Rail-
road. The insulated tie is made by placing a piece of fiber on the steel tie and
Fio. 55. — Carnegie Steel Ties on the Bessemer and Lake £rie Railroad.
(Am. Ry. Eng. Asan.)
Fia. 56. —Effect of Three D^-ailments on Steel Ties. (Am. B.y. Eng. Assn.)
,y Google
92 STEEL RAILS
then firmly riveting a steel plate over the top of the fiber for the rail to rest on.
This is intended to stop all wear on the fiber.
Fig. 56 shows the effect of three derailments on the steel ties, which, in
this case, merely bent down the upper flange of the ties, and in no way injured
their usefulness as a tie.
Fia. 57. — Steel Tie after Four Yeara Service. (Am. Ky. Eng. Asm.)
Tig. 57 shows a steel tie taken from the track that had been in service four
years. Very little rust was found on the web of the tie and the bottom flange
of this tie showed very little corrosion. There were no signs whatever of the
tie failing in any respect. The cutting of the slots or holes in the web of the tie,
as shown in the figure, has been abandoned, as it was found that with slag or
stone ballast the holes with the web turned out were not necessary in order to
keep the track from sliding ^deways.
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 93
The tie was smooth on the upper face where the base of the r^ rests and
diowed very little, if any, wear. Providing the wear in years to come is no
greater in proportion than it has been during the past four years, the tie would
be good for 25 or 30 years.
Fia. S8. — Carnegie Steel Tie with Wedge FtuteneT.
Fig. 69. — Hill FaBtening on Camegie Steel Tie. (Am. Ry. Eng. Aoan.)
,y Google
04 STEEL RAII5
I^g. 58 shows the Carnegie steel tie with the wedge fastener.
Carnegie Steel Tie with Hill Fastening. — (fig. 59.) Approximately
100,000 of these ties have been installed in yard tracks at the Duquesne Plant
of the Carnegie Steel Company.
?_
Fta. 60. — Uanacn Steel Tie. (Am. Ry. Eng. Asan.)
Hansen Tie. — (Fig. 60.) Ji^ve hundred of these ties were placed in the
track, July, 1905, near Emsworth, Pa., on the Pennsylvania Lines West of Pitts-
burg. A great deal of trouble was experienced with the insulation, also from
the ties sliding transversely and lon^tudinally through the stone ballast, and
the ties were in consequence removed from the main track in November, 1905,
and placed in a passing siding.
Universal Metallic Tie. ^ (Fig. 61.) The figure shows these ties in the
Pennsylvania Lines tracks near Emsworth, Pa. The design is the trough type,
being a 6- by 8-inch by 8-foot steel channel. Holes are cut in the web of the
channel on each side of the rail, and this metal is bent up vertically on each
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 96
side of a wooden block which fits in the channel under the rml. Clamps, fitting
over the base of the rail and extending down vertically outside these bent-up
portions of the channel,
bind the block, rail and
tie together. The clamp
on the gauge side of the
rail extends tJirough the
hole in the -base of the
channels about 4 inches
into the ballast, giving
an additional bond with
the roadbed. A bolt,
with a tapering head at
one end and with a taper-
ing washer at the other
end, holds the connection
tight. An insulating
fiber is inserted between
the rail and the clamp.
The weight of this tie is
175 pounds.
Fia. 61. — UniverBal Metallic Tie on Pemuylvania Lines.
{Riulway Age Gazette.)
Fig. 62. — Snyder Steel Tie. (Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.)
Dignzed by Google
96 STEEL RAILS
Snyder Steel Tie. — (Fig. 62.) The illustration shows these ties in the
Conemaugh yards of the Pennsylvania Railroad. There is also about one
mile of these ties in use at Deny, Pa., on the same road, none of them being in
the main tracks. The standard type of the Snyder tie consists of a steel shell
1% inch thick, 8 feet long, 7 inches wide, 7 inches deep, and with the bottom
open. The interior of the shell is filled with a mixture of asphalt and crushed
stone. In 20 of the ties the mastic had disintegrated and fallen out of the ends of
the ties after four years service. With this exception the Snyder tie has given very
satisfactory service in the trade of the Penn^lvania Raibtjad at Conemaugh and
Dary.
Fio. 63. — Buhrer Combined Steel and Wood Tie on L. S. & M. S. Ry.
(Am. Ry. Eng. Assd.)
Buhrer Steel and Wood Tie. — (Fig. 63.) The figure shows the fourth or
freight track of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad, east of Toledo,
tied with the Buhrer combined steel and wood tie. Early in 1907 the Carnegie
steel ties on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad were removed
from the high-Speed track. To care for the insulation the top flange of the tie
was cut off and two wooden blocks bolted to the web of the tie for spiking strips
and for the rail to rest on. These strips also rest on the bottom flange of the
steel tie.
Mexican Railway Tie. — (Fig. 64.) Practically the whole of the Mexican
Ralway system of 361 miles is laid with these ties. These ties weigh about 125
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
«7
pounds, and cost $2.25. The ties are apparently pving excellent srariee. The
axle load on this road, however, is not heavy on the hght grades, and on the
mountain grades, where axle loads as high as 50,000 pounds are employed, the
speed is slow.
A. O HALP LCNOTH 1
I AT CCHTER
CROSS SCCT10N
UOMOlTUOINAl. SECTION Of Tit
Fig. 64. — Mexican Railway Steel Tie. (Am. Ry. Ei^. Assn.)
Buhrer Concrete Tie. — (Fig. 65.) About 600 of these ties were used on
the Pennsylvania Lines west of Pittsburg during 1903 and 1904 in stone ballast.
Nearly 500 were subjected to heavy and high-speed traffic and the balance to
medium traffic. The ties failed under traffic, the concrete breaking and crumb-
ling off from the refinforcement. The ties were removed from time to time and
by December, 1906, all had been removed on account of breaking.
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
>, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 99
Fig. 66 shows the bottom or bearing surface of this tie, which illustrates
how the concrete is left out at the center to provide against side motion.
Fia. 66. — Bottom Surface ot Buhrer Concrete Tie, (Am. Ry. Eng. Aaan.)
Fio. 67. — Section of Track on Chicago and Alton R. R. showing Kimball Tie.
Kimball Concrete Tie. — (Fig. 67.) This figure shows the Kimball tie in
the track of the Chicago and Alton Raihoad, near Lockport, HI., during October,
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
FiQ. 68. — KimbaU Tie put in Track on N. Y. C. & St. L. R. R., July, 1904.
Photograph token January, 190S.
- Kimball Tie Showing Spiking Plugs. (Am. Ry. Eng. Aaan.)
>, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 101
1905. The track is kept in good condition, but several of the ties have developed
cracks which may be due to improper application. Fig. 68 presents further ex-
amples of the Kimball tie, and Fig. 69 shows a tie in good condition, taken
from the track. In this tie the spikes entered the spiking plug and the con-
crete was not damaged, as was found to be the case in most of the ties which
Fia. 70. — Percival Concrete Tie. (Am. Ry. Eng, Assn.)
developed cracks. Ties were not rusted to any extent in the center of the track
between concrete ends. In 1912 there were about sixty Kimball ties in succesrful
xise in the track of the Chicago and Alton Railroad, the ties having been installed
in 1905.
Percival Concrete Tie. — (Fig. 70.) The figure shows ties which were
used on the Pittsburg and Lake Erie Railroad for about two years. They were
,y Google
102
STEEL RAIia
removed from the track in 1908 for the reason that the ties failed. The figure
illustrates very plainly how and where these ties failed.
The Sarada and Adriatic Railway ties, ^ven in Hgs. 71 and 72, illustrate
concrete ties used on the continent, and Fig. 127 shows the combined wood and
metal ties used in France.
Fio, 71. — Saiwia Tie. (Concrete Review.)
Sarada Tie. — (Fig. 71.) 3.9 inches in center and 5.9 inches under rails
by 9^ inches by 8 feet long. Reinforcement, 4 sheets of expanded metal, set
vertically and connected transversely by iron wires. The rail fastening bolts
enter from below and are held in tubular castings embedded in the ties. Wei^t
about 310 pounds.
V
•
•
^
•
•
\j
r\
/i_.
K|; ir^ ^i:^
PiQ. 72. — Adriatic Railway Tie. (Concrete Review.)
Adriatic Railway Tie. — (Fig. 72.) Reinforcement, 29 rods having a total
area of 3 square inches. The rail is fastened by bolts passing through the tie
and inserted from below. The beveled rail seat is in accordance with European
practice. Weight about 286 pounds.
Riegler Concrete Tie. — (Fig. 73.) Some of these ties have been in ser^
vice on the high-speed tracks of the Pennsylvania lines for several years
without showing signs of deterioration. The ties have a large bearing sm^ace
and fifteen are used for a 33-foot rail, instead of eighteen standard wooden ties.
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
103
The ties have rounded sides, which assist in distributing the downward thrust
over a short distance on each side of the tie, and the reaction assists in holding
the tie from slewing, all the ties remaining as first placed at right angles to
-i:r^
r^r-j^
s;
H ^
-^_ — 1 — p^
1
"i
h-ijr-..-.... ::„'!zzn'SvE^^3 "
[Z^:::::;ij;zzx°:
J. ■-
""
■""™"
H. ^// S // S
j
Pto. 73. — Riegler Concrete Tie.
Fio. 74. — Riegler Concrete Tie, Appearance in the Track. (Railroad Age Gazette.)
the track. The weight of the complete tie is about 850 pounds. It is proposed
to cast a ring in the end to which a short rope can be attached for hauling into
the track.
Table XVIII presents a summary of the service tests on concrete ties.
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
Ei
m
I £ i 7
II
iri 1
lllli
i i |I3 I ;
5 I ll-g I I's
s s III i >>
j § : g|i I ill
I II p I ; 13
IIS
:l S II i
1 1 iJiliii lljl nil
i«
'4 .1 ^ la
■ -'4 J
i a* 1
r is
I'll
d I Sll ?
1 I
« s
^ 9 ^
I I I ^
^ ^ ,s sj
>, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
11
HI
lii!
I
I
ii
11
ilB
m :HSIHJ II 111:1
I
I I Is iiili
Mii ^s
4
; 3jsgt!== 2- .; s 8 ssgE s
I
ii
u
lllllll
ii
I
1 1 i I «-
ilii
Jill III
I
Jl
ti i
I i I
>, Google
106 STEEL RAILS
Probably no form of reinforced concrete tie has been made which is suitable
for heavy and high-speed traffic. The real field of usefulness for the concrete
tie appears to lie in its application in places where speed is slow and where
conditions are especially adverse to the life of wood or metal.
The steel tie seems much more promising, but the fact remains that most
of the rmlroads in this country to-day are using wood, and, so far as the author is
able to judge from present tendencies, are likely to continue to do so for some time.
The question of a future timber supply for wood ties is a very important
one. The railroads are rapidly exhausting the available timber near their lines
and not on>y is the tie becoming deai-er, but in many instances it is found im-
possible to obtain a sufficient supply to meet the jumual requirements of the road.
The experience as set forth in a paper read at the American Forest Congress
by Mr. L. E. Johnson, President of the Norfolk and Western Railway, is typical
of most roads.*
"Ori^nally the country passed through by the raiht)ad was well timbered.
The first extensive depletion of timber land was on the fu^t hundred miles
adjacent to the seaboard, where the original timber was cypress and Virginia
or loblolly pine.
"Up to the year 1888 the road used a great many cypress ties, but such
timber is no longer procurable. The second growth of Virginia loblolly pine
in this district is very knotty, and, further, it is not suitable for crossties until
it is treated to improve its lasting quaUties.
"All the balance of the road is in territory where both white oak and
chestnut oak is indigenous, and up to quite recentiy all the crossties that have
been needed have been obtained within moderate hauling distance from the
railroad line.
"The average requirements in oak ties per year for renewals are 310 per
mile, aggregating, in round numbers, 800,000 ties per year for the entire road.
At prevailing prices 800,000 ties cost per annum about $315,000, which is shown
to be about 15 per cent over the cost of a like numba- ten years ago. This
total is far below what some railroads less fortunately atuated must pay for
a like number."
The general distribution and character of the original forests! of the
United States are shown by Fig. 75. A glance at this discloses that five groups
* Proceedings of The American Forest Congress, Washington, 1905, p. 265,
t The Tlniber Supply of the United States, Kellogg. Forest Service, Circular 97. OrigiDal
Forests, R. S. Kellogg, Vol. 2, pp. 179, 180. Report of the National Conservation OommieBkHi, Feb-
ruary, 1909.
,y Google
SUPPORIS OP THE HAH
'I
I
I!
II
of states embrace the natural timbered areas of the coimtry, — the Northeastern
states, the Southern states, the Lake states, the Rocky Mountain states and
the Pacific states. Of these, the two groups last mentioned are occupied by-
forests in which practically all the timber-producing trees are coniferous, the
,y Google
108
STEEL RAIIS
first three of both conifers and hardwoods. The earliest atteck was upon
the white pine of the Northeast, the original stand of which is almost
entirely cut out.
The Northeastern states reached their relative maximum in 1870 and the
Lake states in 1890. The Southern states are undoubtedly near their maximum
to-day, and the time of ascendency of the Pacific states is rapidly approaching.
There will be no more shifting after the Pacific states take first place, since
there is no new region of virgin timber to turn to.
The percentage of the total lumber cut, furnished by the principal regions
ance 1850, according to census figures, is given in Table XIX.
TABLE XIX.-
■ GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF TOTAL
LUMBER PRODUCT
Y«r.
Nen- Enelud
SlHtea.
6 4
13,6
24.4
33 4
36,3
27,4
Smitbern
~P^«n7
13.8
16,5
9.4
11.9
15,9
25.2
Pacific
Pra«Bt.
3,9
6.2
38
3.5
7.3
9,6
P««iit.
54.5
36,2
36.8
24.8
18.4
16.0
It is evident that at the present rate of consumption the available supply
of the present timber used for ties, especially white oak and yellow pine, will
be exhausted to a serious degree before many years, and that the railroads must
consider the question of what course they are to pursue in the future.
Under these conditions there are obviously two courses: First, the reduction
of the amount consumed, which can be done by the substitution of other
materials for wood and by the use of preservative methods for prolonging the
life of the tie, which, by increasing its durability, will diminish the annual
requirements for renewals; second, by the adoption of forestry methods,
having for their purpose the proper care and management of the forests still
remaining and the cultivation of new tree plantations.
The question of forest preservation and perpetuation is beginning to receive
attention in this country through the several State Bureaus of Forestry which
have been established, and attention is given to forest preservation by these
as well as by the National Government.
It has been found that the most important need for most of the railroads
at this time is definite technical information. It is not sufficient to know that
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 109
timber supplies are being exhausted, but one should also know exactly what
these supplies are, and what the rate of exhaustion is, and what the probable
rate of regrowth is in any particular region upon which that particular road is
depending.
The need of such investigation is being universally felt, and has manifested
itself in very striking form, as diown by the two meetings of the governors of
Fw. 76. — Hunnewell Plantation (Catalpa). {Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin 37.)
Average diaracter 3.85 ins., 21st year.
the various states, called by the President in May and December, 1908, in
Washington, D. C.
Many tree species * in the United States are adapted to a certain degree
at least for the production of crossties. Notwithstanding this, in making the
majority of railroad plantations only two species have been used. These two
species are catalpa and black locust.
CataljM t has been planted for a great many years on a great variety of soils
• ProceedJnKs Am. Ry. Enjt. and M, of W. Assn., 1908, Vol. 9, p. 715.
t Practical Arboriculture, J. P. Brown.
>, Google
110 STEEL RAII5
and throi^out a wide range of territory, and although many plantations have
reached the age of twenty-five years or more,* so far as known, the trees in none
of the plantations have reached a aze suitable for crossties (FHgs. 76 and 77).
The black locust, although it is a rapid grower and thrives on a variety of soils,
is so subject to the attacks of insects that trees seldom reach a sufficient dze
FIQ. 77. — Farlington Forest (Catalpa). (Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin 37.)
Avamge diameter 4.39 ins., 21st year.
to make a crosstie. Trees which do reach this size are usually so weakened by
numerous cavities made by the boring of the insects that the wood cannot be
used with safety.
Table XX shows that of the total number of trees planted, the locusts
predominate, with the catalpa second; the results to date favor the former,
although it is perhaps too early fairly to estimate the ultimate value of any of
the plantations now under cultivation.
• The Hardy Catalpa, Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 37. The Farlington Forest, p. 15. The
Hunnewell Plantation, p. 26.
>, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
I
i!l Piii
II I if III
I
5 i
i' I ■ ■
I
i i i
11
nil li I
i iiiiiiiii
i i
i jji i I lull
I II 111
I I M i
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
1
1
i i |ti
JIIUii! lit.
1 1
i
1
1
s
3
1 g
s
1
1'
i
1 ^
t
S
«
s s
]
a 1
3 1 C
1 I
J
1 §
1
1 11 1
1 i S
!
1 ■!.
1 i 1
1
1
1 :
^ i
ill
I
%
pt
ii
II!
.11
i-r
ill!
lilt
111
Ml
iii
>, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 113
Tree planting as such by railway companies has not been a very successful
matter, and it is generally felt that the planting should be regarded as supple-
mentary to other methods for securing a tie supply, particularly to the manage-
ment of forest lands.
There are, without question, large areas of timber in the South which can
be obtMned at a reasonable cost at the present time, and it seems to be very
much more advisable to buy forest regions, or where cut-over lands are pur-
chased, to encourage the growth of natural forest trees, rather than to go into
extensive experiments for the planting of new trees.
Forest planting in some cases may be desirable when a railroad has waste
land for which it has no particular use. It is a good object lesson to the farmers,
and if the plantations are successful they will net a fair return on the invest-
ment and furnish a limited supply of tie and timber for the future.
It should be observed, however, that it would not be practicable for the
individual roads to plant enough trees to supply their timber requirements,
and further the critical period of scarcity and high prices would come before
any of the trees so planted would reach maturity.
The information assembled by the Committee on Ties of the American
Railway Engineering Association, in 1910 (Table XX), shows what has been
done by the railroads in the way of tree planting; the situation is very little
changed at the present time, and, in the opinion of those best able to judge,
relief from this source is very uncertain.
If the railroads wish to provide agmnst future scarcity and excessive
prices with any degree of certainty it will be necessary for them to actively
engage in forestry operations, having for their purpose the management of
mature timberlands and the cultivation and reforestation of the cut-over lands
within the forest area. This is an individual problem with every road, but,
generally speaking, it is the only sound policy which will provide for the future
requirements fifteen or twenty years hence.
Some of the railroads have now undertaken to preserve the timberlands
which they acquired through land grants or otherwise. The Southern Pacific
in northern California and southern Oregon still have quite large areas of good
timber from which they can cut mature trees. The Northern Pacific has been
cooperating with the government for some years with a view to finding how
best to handle their western holdings, and provide a source of tie supply at the
eastern end of then- lines. In the East, the Delaware and Hudson have put
about one hundred thousand acres in the Adirondacks xmder management.*
• Timber Supply io Relation to Wood PreaervaUon, E. A, Sterling. Proceedings, American
Wood Preserver'B Awooiation, 1911, pp. 140-144.
>, Google
lU STEEL RAII^
While the great desideratum is the obtaining of a permanent source of
supply of tie timber, the economic side of the problem must as well be
considered.
The application of actuarial methods to forestry is, despite the obvious
difficulties about the assessments of the differait factors used in making calcula-
tions, the only correct way of estimating the finandal position of timber crops
as a commercial investment.
The most profitable rotation is what should, both in theory and in practice
recrave most consideration in the management of a forest. It is found by mak-
ing various calculations, each as if for a single crop, in accordance with Faust-
mann's formula, and ascertaining that particular rotation which shows the
greatest profit by indicating the maximum productivity or largest capital value
of land and growing stock.
Faustmann's formula is as follows:*
A n+(r.xi.Op--)-Kr,xi.op-^)-i- ■ ■ • (r.xi.oy-')-(Cxi.Op-) g
1.0P--1 O.Op*
where A = The productivity of the woodlands (as estimated by the net
value of the timba- crop, etc.) ;
F, = The net income, free from cost of harvesting, yielded by the
mature fall at the year (n);
T„ T^ . . . T^= The net income, free from cost of harvesting, yielded by
the thinnings at the years a, b, . . . q;
p = The percentage or rate of interest which the woodlands are
supposed to yield annually on the investment represented
by their capital value;
C = The cost of forming the crop originally, or of regenerating
.or replanting the area on the fall of the mature crop;
g = The annual outlay for general charges (supervision, protec-
tion, taxes, etc.).
After detamining the most profitable period of rotation, the amount of
land required to produce a given amount of ties annually can be found.
The cost per acre that can be paid for the land is determined as follows:
The average annual charge, at present prices, for different kinds of ties may be
taken as about 12.8 cents.
* The Foreeta, Nisbet, Vol. U, p. 239, London, MCMV; cmd Eoonomics of Foreetry, Femow,
Hew York, 1902.
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 116
This may be arrived at by the following relation. The discounted present
value of an annual rental or return r obtainable for n years in all, the rate of
interest being p, is expressed by the formula:
^_ra.Op--l) C(1.0p-xO.Op)
LOp-xO.Op 1.0p"-l
In the case of a white oak tie,
C = % .90, cost of tie in the track, and r = $ .14 annual charge.
n = 8 years, life of tie;
p - rate of interest, 5 per c^it.
The table given below shows the annual charge for different kinds of
wood.
White oak 14.0 cents annual charge
Heart pine 12.5 cents annual charge
Red odk, untreated 12.7 cents annual charge
Miscellaneous 12.0 c^ts annual chaise
Assuming the life of a treated tie produced by the forest to be 12 years, the
value of such a tie can then be expressed by the formula
„ r(1.0p--l)
1.0p"x0.0p'
where C - value of the tie;
r = return or annual charge, 12.8 cents, obtainable 12 years in all;
p = rate of interest, 5 p^ cmt.
Substituting these values in the formula, there results for the value of the
tie $1.13. From this there must be deducted:
Cutting $0.10
Handling 0.05
Treatment 0.30
Transportation 0.20
Putting in track 0.15
Total $0.80
which leaves for the stump value of the tie $0.33.
The amount of ties produced by the forest will depend upon the kind of
trees grown and the location of the tract. An annual yield of three ties per
acre should be expected under careful management in most cases of moderately
rapid growing trees. This will bring in a return per acre of:
,y Google
lie STEEL RAILS
S - 3 ties at $0.33, leas management and taxes $0.30 - $0.69, and the
investment per acre wiiich wili give a five per cent return will be:
The wasteful methods employed in cutting ties in the past have called forth
many protests and suggestions as to how this waste might be checked. The
Forest Service states in this connection:
" The suggestions made for economy in the cutting of ties have been largely
in the direction of preventing wasteful cutting. The manner in which they
have been cut from trees has been largely determined by the ease and rapidity
with which ties could be made, and by the knowledge that certain portions of a
log were more serviceable for tie purposes than others.
" Ties were usually made out of heart wood, using the best and only the
straight, live trees. No attention was paid to the waste mcurred by cutting
off all the sapwood top section, by leaving dead trees, etc. But with the intro-
duction of treated ties certain new developments in tie making have taken
place. Treated ties allow the use of sapwood, of sawed dead timber, and of
sawed ties, consequently tie forms which were altogether impracticable under
the old methods are now within the field of possibility, and must be considered
on their merits."
In view of this Dr. von Schrenk has proposed a form of half-round tie vAich
has be«i used extensively abroad (Figs. 78 and 79). The following description of
the proposed form is taken from his excellent paper on Cross-Tie F(»ins and Rail
Fastenings, t
This form of tie is probably a more economical tie tiian the present rectangular
tie used in this country, and, on account of its proved merits, should properly be
considered as a posable substitute for the present form.
If we consider the manner in which the load is distributed from the base
of a rail resting on a 5-inch plate, which in turn rests on a tie 8 inches broad,
we shall find that the lines of force acting from such a tie plate are distributed
on the ballast as indicated in Fig. 80.
* The cost per acre that can be paid for the forest laud ie baeed upon the annual chai^ of un-
treated ties as representing the average outlay by the railroads for thia material at the preset time-
The use of treated ties would probably reduce the aooual chai^ per tie, but at the same time it must
be borne in mind that owing to the rapidly increasing cost of the timber from wliich the tie is made,
the annual charge for a treated tie will probably rise as high as the present figure for a natural tie,
before auffident time has dapsed for the treated ties to affect the general average.
t CroBs-Tie Porma and Rail Fastenings, Von Sohronk; Bureau of Fwestry, Bulletin No. fiO.
>, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
- Standard Prussian Ties of Baltic Pine. (Bureau of Foraetry, Bulletin No. SO.)
- Standard Oak and Beech Ties on the French Eastern Railway.
(Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 50.)
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
Keeping in mind the dedrability of an increased bearing surface on the
ballast, it is suggested that a type of tie with a top-bearing surface of about
Distribution of Preaaure from Tie FUto Distribution of Preasure from Tie Plate Id Balf-
in Ordinary Tie. round Tie.
Fia. 80. — Distribution of Pressure from Tie Plate.
6 inches and a base-bearing surface of
anywhere from 8 to 12 inches will not
only give a suffident bearing surface
for the rail, but will also give a much
more stable track. Such a tie is shown
m Fig. 81.
Fig. 82 shows the 7 by 8-mdi tie
and tie with 6-inch top and 12-inch
base, spaced as closely as is consistent
with the proper use of the shovel or
other tool employed to tamp the tie.
- Half-round Tie Proposed by the
Forest Service.
Fm. 82. — Spacing of Half-round Ties.
The comparative showing of rectangular 7 by 8-inch and 7 by 9-lnch ties
and of ties with 6-inch top and 12-inch base, spaced respectively at 11 and 10^
inches, as shown in Fig. 82, is given in Table XXI.
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 1
TABLE XXI. — COMPARISON OF RECTANGULAR AND HALF-ROUND TIES
(Bunu of Fonatry. Bullalin No. SO)
^'^nTfc
IXSbKba,.
TX>iDch».
it^tlSi.
DUtaDce between bearing centers, on both top and base of
tie, inches
Increase in distance between bearing centers by use of ties
19
3.5
3,242
426
2,161
17,290
5,238
20
2,5
3.168
352
2,376
19,008
3.520
22.5
2,816
Bearing surface on ballast per mile, with 8-feet length,
Gain in bearing surface by use of tie of the new form, square
According to this table the number of ties of the new form required per
mile is 352 less than with the 7 by 9-inch tie, and 426 less with the 7 by 8-inch
tie, while the amount of bearing surface obtained is greater by 3,520 square feet
than that obtained by the 7 by 9-inch tie, — an increase in bearing surface of
over one-sixth. At the same time there would seem at first sight to be a con-
adderable saving from the smaller number of ties, but in reality there is little
difference in expense because of the larger number of feet, board measure, in
the new tie.
It now becomes necessary to conader
the changed tie form from a lumber
standpoint. Ties are now being cut from
trees of all diameters from 9 inches
upward. If cut but one from a cross
section, they are usually termed pole
ties. Most of these are rounded at the
edge and squared on two sides (Fig. 83),
with a required bearing surface of 6 to
8 inches. Pole ties are now cut from
trees as large as 17 inches in diameter. Most of them are hewn, and in the
hewing much of the outer portion of the tree is wasted. In larger trees also a
great deal of timber is wasted, even when ties are split in the most economical
fashion. In the majority of instances no wane is admitted for a first-class tie,
so that logs less than 10 inches in diameter will not make ties of this class. This
means that a great many tops are now left in the woods because they are too
small. By adopting the half-round tie suggested above (and here emphasis
Fia. 83. — Pole Tie.
,y Google
120 STEEL RAUfi
ought to be laid upon the fact that ties cut according to this shape will all be
treated) it will be possible to utilize a great many logs which now do not make
ties, and also to cut a good many more ties out of the same amount of timber
than under the present specifications.
The cutting of ties of this new form will be essentially a sawmill proposi-
tion. Where now there is a great deal of waste in hewing, if the log were sawed,
it would mean the obtaining of several
boards on the side. The number of
boards to be sawed from a tree 16 inches
in diameter, making two ties, will depend
largely upon the value of the timber from
which the ties are made. For instance,
it will pay to make as many boards as
possible out of a 16-inch, two-tie log of
red oak or gum, while with timber like
loblolly pine, the lumber of which has a
low value, it will at present not pay to
cut oS many boards. In the case of such
T; , „ „ , ^. timber an extreme form of the half-round
Fig, 84. — Extreme Form of Half-round Tie,
tie will be applicable (Fig. 84).
The influence which the new tie form will have upon the size of trees cut
for tie purposes ought to be a marked one. It certainly would discourage the
cutting of pole ties to a very considerable extent. It would not pay to make a
tie out of a small tree when by leaving it for a few years two ties could be made
from the same tree. In other words, the present policy of cutting trees 11 or
12 inches in diameter would be found less profitable than cutting trees 16 or
17 inches in diameter.
There is probably no other branch of the lumber industry in which so
many small trees are annually destroyed and the possible regrowth of forests
retarded to such an extent as in the manufacture of ties. The practice of sawing
ties from logs is going to be more and more prevalent as the old feeling that a
sawed tie is not worth having disappears. This feeling is abeady rapidly dis-
appearing. It certainly will disappear entirely when railroad men realize that
with a chemically treated tie it makes no difference whether it be sawed or
hewn. With increasing permanency in the source of supply, it will pay more
and more to put up small sawmills, which will saw ties and such lumber as may
incidentally come to them. This will be particularly true in regions where
there are rapidly growing tree species, such, for instance, as loblolly pine. The
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
121
cutting of these trees will, moreover, make possible the use of large quantities
of timber which now is practically wasted and from which the lumberman has
no return. This is particularly true of tops.
As the rail should be designed to have sufficient stiffness to enable it to
distribute the load over a number of ties, allowing only such a proportion of
the wheel load to come on each tie as can be safely carried, it will be necessary
to determine the safe load that it will be proper to put on the tie. As a mean
representing the average general practice, we may take in the following discus-
sion a 7 by 8-inch by 8-foot 6-inch tie and a 7 by 9-inch by 8-foot 6-inch tie
(see Table XXII). It would seem desirable also to consider the strength of
the half-round tie.
TABLE XXII. — SIZE OF TIES AND SPACING
(Am. Ry. Enj, Aa«.)
Southern
Penn. R.R
L. &N
B,&0
S. & W
P.4R
Peim. (S. W. Sys.)...
Lehigh Valley
N..C. &.St. L
D. AH. Co
-A... B. 4 A
Cent, of N. J
B..R.& P
C..C.&0
A. C. L
Penn. (N. W. Sys.),.
D., L. A W
Fla. East Coast
C.,C.,C.&St.L....
Hocking Valley
L. S. AM. S
Erie
Long laUnd
South. Pacific
Union Pacific
S. A. L
X. Y., N. H. AH...
0. of Ga
G., H. A S. A
Georgia
M. AO
Norfolk Southern., .
N. Y. C. AH. R....
Great Northern
a P., L. A. A S. L..
Nortliem Pacific
D. A R. G
C.,B. &Q
7X7 and 9X8
7X7 and 9X8
7X7 and 9x8
7X7 and 9X8
7X7 and 9X8
7x7 and 9X8
7X7 and 9X8
, 7x7 and 9X8
7X7 and 9X8
7X7 and 9x8
7X7 and 9X8
7X7 and 9X8
7x7 and 9X8
7X7 and 9X8
7X7 and 9X8
7X7 and 9x8
7X7 and 9X8
7X7 and 9X8
7X7 and 9X8
7X7 and 9X8
7X7 and 9X8
7X7 and 9X8
7X7 and 9X8
7X9X8
7X9X8
7X9X8
7X9X8
7X9X8
7X9X8
7X9X8
7X9X8
7X9X8
7X9X8
7X8X8
7X8X8
7X8X8
7X8X8
6X8X8
2816
2816
2S16
2816
3040
2720
2720
3164
2816
3200
2900
3200
32P0
C.,R. I. A P
St. L. AS. F.
Grand Trunk
M..K. A T
CoL A Sou
Maine Central
C. &E. I
C, I. A L
El. P. &S.-W
St. L., B. 4 M
Ft. W. AD. C
C. A N.-W
C, M. A P. S
C, M. A St. P
C.I. AS
St. L. S. W
M. ASt. L
S. A. A A. P
Rutland
Mo. AN. Ark
S, Fe, P, AP
L. E. A W
G. R. AI
W. ft L. E
N. W. Pac
Mo. Pac
B. AM
K.C., M. A O
Tcnn. Cent.
C. 0. w
C, H. A D
M. C
Bangor A Aroostook ,
N. Y.,0. AW
M., J. A K.C
est. P., MAO...
D..S. S, A A
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8x8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6X8X8
6x8x8
6X8x8
6X8X8
6X6X8
6X9X8
7X9X9
7X7X8
7X7X8
3200
3200
3200
3000
3000
2092
2992
3564
2880
3120
,y Google
122
STEEL RAILS
14. Bearing of the Rail on the Tie
The genera] tendency at the present time is more and more towards the use of
tie plates. With the introduction of the treated tie it is necessary to adopt some
means to protect the wood from wear at the rail bearing on account of the longer
life of the tie.
The objections which have been made to tie plates were, first of all, that
they buckled severely. This, however, has taken place only when the plates
were too thin, and the
following record of tests
made of a prominent
make of tie plate show
that the present plates
have ample strength to
resist buckling (Table
XXIII and Fig. 85).
Most plates have
been made with the idea
of being anchored to the
tie so as to prevent the
communication of the
motion of the rail to the plate. As a result, we have a large number of different
forms of plates, provided with prongs, spines, or flanges on the bottom, which
are pressed into the tie either by table xxiii.-test of McKEe tie plate
the weight of the passing load or
before the rail is laid (see Plate
XXII).
The chief objection which is
made to plates at this time, par-
ticularly in connection with the use
of softer woods, is that not only do
they not aid in preventing the wear
of fibers, but they actually assist
the rail to wear. This is well illus-
trated in Fig. 86, showing a tie plate
which has been in position on a loblolly pine tie for about four years.
The constant rocking motion of the rail, which had become very marked
as the spikes were pulled from the soft wood, had transmitted itself to the tie
plate, and when a load passed over the rail the tie plate moved back and forth
Fig. 86. — Teat on McKee Tie Plate.
LouLiuAiiplwd. T*
«No 1
Twit No, I,
PtHudii. DeB«
Ion InobB.
250
000
,000
4,000
022
022
8,000
029
030
12,000
035
,038
16,000
042
,056
20.000
054
070
24,000
066
-081
28,000
081
.100
32,000
101
.129
36,000
122
,165
40,000
154
,210
44,000
188
.248
48,000
221
.285
>, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 123
in unison with the rail. It was not long before the soft fibers of the loblolly
pine suffered under this treatment, and in the course of time so great did the
abrasion and crushing of the fibers by the plate become that a considerable hole
was made under the plate, in which water gathered. The plate gradually sank
Fia. 86. — Wear of Tie under Tie Plate,
The upper illustration shows a Loblolly Pine Tie treated with Zinc Chloride, aft^ four years' service
in Texas.
The lower iUuBlration shows a longitudinal section through the spike hole of a Western Yellow Pine
Tie after several years' service in Texas.
(Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 50.)
down into this hole, as shown in the illustration. When the tie was removed
it had disappeared in the wood, and the base of the rail was resting on the outer
edges of the tie beyond the plate.
This tie had been treated with zinc chloride. The water which gathered
under the tie plate leached out the salt, and as a result decay started on both
sides of the plate, as the illustration shows. The tie had to be removed, al-
though the rest of it was perfectly sound (Figs. 87 and 88).
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
Fig, 87. — Section of Tie under Rail Bearing showing Wear and Decay.
Fio, 88. — Section from Middle of Same Tie showing Entire Soundneas.
LOBLOLLY PINE TIE TREATED WITH ZINC CHLORIDE, AFTER FOUR
YEARS' SERVICE IN TEXAS.
{Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. SO.)
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 125
The types of plates used in Europe are without exception flat plates.* Figs.
) to 96 represent plates med by several European roads at the present time.
Plan of
Fig. 89. — Belgian State Railways, 105-Ib. RaU and Tie Plate. (Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.)
' See "The Question ot Screw Fastenings to Secure Rails to Ties." W. C Cuflhing, Proceedings
Am. Ry. Eng. and M. ot W. Assn., 1909, Vol. 10, Part 2.
,y Google
STEEL HAILS
s
Hi
,0^^^
s
r
j(
1^-
t ';"
1 ■
' %
/ l.«- ,|o.
Efl u^- \. ; .
r\
k -
-^ : I
\ 1
^ ji ■
)r^
I .Ik
lA
'■^
-d^
A/ 1
\ ^
_^
r^
»
■-y
A'l
'^A
1
^\
\-k
-iH^
S^— cnzi
-.■1'J1L'J,J-.J-._.|
1 '
1 i
^:
j '§
1 i-/
\ 1 1
Fio. 90. — Belgian State Roilwaya, 115-U>. Ran and Tie Ftat«. (Am. Ry. Eng. Aam.)
,y Google
StrPPOBTS OF THE RAIL
InTermadiote MooK Plote.
Fia. 91. — Kingdom of WOrttemberg State Railways, Tie Plate. (Am. Ry. Eng. Ama.)
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
92. — Bavari&n State Railways, Joint Hook Plate. (Am. Ry. Eng. Aaan.)
>, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
Joint HooK Plan.
Fia. 93. — Kingdom of Saxony State Railroad, Joint Hook Plate. (Am. Ry. Eng. Aaso.)
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
Lothringen State Railways, Tie Plate. (Am. Ry. Eng. j
>, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
SeCTION THROUGH JOINT TIC
] c
n
\
\
•nS
^
h.
1.89^
»J
'".I ""
p
fij
\
«30-
^
\
rs
-
11
11.42"
■i^
1
State Railways, Tie Plate. (Am. Ry. Eng. Assd.)
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
Intarmediatfi Wedge Pkite
Flo. 9S. — Bavarian State Railways, Itrtermediate Wedge Plate. (Am. Ry. Ei^. Asan.)
The general tendency on the Continent has been toward adopting more and
more rigidly flat plates, with firm fastenings. The almost universal adoption
of this principle is very striking at the
present day.
On the French Eastern* the rail
rests on the tie without metallic plates,
except on very sharp curves (of 984.25
feet radius and under). Plates of poplar
or felt are placed under the rail, solely to
protect the wood against the mechanical
action of the base. These plates are
compressed before being used, so that
they will not be further compressed
under the pressure of the rail. The
plates are furnished 0.28 inch thick, and
Fia. 97. — Wooden Tie Plate on French Eaatem. the Compression brings them to 0.16 inch.
* Bureau of Foreetiy, Bulletin No. 50, von Scbrenk.
>, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 133
The ties are adzed at the treating plant so that a place is left for this flat
wooden shim. When the track is laid, the shim is placed in position (fig. 97)
and screw spikes are screwed into the tie. Their pressure holds the plate firmly
between the base of the rail and the tie. In Fig. 97 the wooden tie plate is
represented by the thin unshaded portion between the rail and the tie. It is
exactiy the width of the rail. In the course of time the motion of the rail wears
out this shim, and a new one is substituted by giving the screw spike one or
two upward turns. A new plate is then shoved in endwise and the screw is
fastened. The length of life of one of the wooden shims on the main-line tracks,
such as that of the French Eastern from Paris to Strassburg, is about one and
one-half to two years.
Dr. von Schrenk gives the theory upon which this wooden plate is used as
follows: The principal function of the plate has been s^d to consist of prevent-
ing the wear of the fibers of the tie immediately under the rail base. This wear
consists in the actual breakage of the wood fibers under a grinding and tearing
action rather than in crushing them.
In considering the function of the tie plate we have three bodies to deal
with; the tie, the tie plate, and the rail. Motion might conceivably take place
either between the rail and the tie plate or between the tie plate and the tie.
When a metal tie plate is used on the hardwood tie, and is successfully anchored
in it, the tie plate and the tie act as one body, over which the rail moves back
and forth. As soon as the tie plate loses its holding power, however, the chances
are that when the rail moves across the tie the tie plate will oscillate back and
forth in unison with the rail. This results in breaking the wood fibers under-
neath the plate. Where a wooden plate is used, it adheres so closely to the
wood that when the rail moves across the tie the wooden plate and the
wooden tie are liable to act as one, even though the tie plate is not anchored
to the tie.
The Forest Service tests have not shown results favorable to wooden tie plates.
While the tests have not been veiy thorough, they have been thought to throw
much doubt on the efiiciency of this form of plate.
• For some years the question of a satisfactory fastening between rails and
soft-wood ties has been a subject of continuous experiments on the Prussian
Government railroads. The first investigations followed the general use of
plain bearing plates, 7J by 6J inches (rolled steel) in size, shown in Fig. 98 a.
* FaBtening ot Rails to Soft Wood (Kne) TieB, Organ fur die Fortachritt« des Eiaeabahnweseiis,
May 15, 1908, et seq. TranBlation appears id Vol. 10, Part 2, Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. 4 M. of W.
Assn.. p. 1333.
,y Google
134
STEEL RAIIS
It was soon discovered that on soft-wood ties, the small adhedon between
the spike and the wood permitted the spikes to pull out to a more or less extent,
and the loose rail, under the sudden applications of load, would quickly batter
down the wood. Besides, the pressure on the tie not being uniform would
produce a kind of convex wear in the wood, as illustrated in Fig. 98 6.
Some improvement was obtained by the use of screw spikes, without, how-
ever, entirely overcoming the abnormal wear and the consequent looseness
Fia. 9S. — Plain Bearing Flatee, German Experiments on Tie Plates.
and inefRdency of the structure (Figs. 98 e and d). The hook plate, shown
in Fig. 99 a, was next tried. The hook, which was made to hold the outade
flange of the rail, necessitated a plate somewhat longer on the outaide than on
the gage side, resulting in an uneven distribution of pressure on the wood and
a condition as shown in Fig. 99 5. The bending of the screw spikes observed
in thii case was at first thought to be due to the lack of support of the head of
the spikes on the far ade from the rail flange, and, to remedy this supposed
defect, rail clips wwe introduced, giving the head of spikes a full support all
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
135
around (Fig. 100 a). This arrangement proved to be much better than any
previous one, but still did not produce a satisfactory fastening. Fig. 100 6 indi-
cates clearly the manner of f^lure of these plates.
Fig. 99. — Hook Plates, German ExperimeatB on Tie Plates.
It is evident that the plate hook, being rigid and incapable of producing
any actual pressure against the rail flange, would cause all the stresses to be
carried against the screw fastening, and as soon as this would wear in any of
its parts the rail would become loose under the hook, and the shocks would
a
Fia. 100. — Hook Plates with Clips, German Experiments on Tie Plates.
begin their destructive work. Also, the direct pressure under the head of the
spikes would tend to pull these out of the tie, and constitute another element
of weakness to the general construction.
The impossibility of fastening the rail with the same amount of holding
power on both ades, besides the drawbacks enumerated above, led to the intro-
duction of an entirely different system of fastening.
The first set, or Group 1, of plates are shown in Fig. 101. These plates had
a bearing on the ties of 90 square mches as against 80 square inches in the
largest previous plate, and were fastened to the ties by means of four screw
spikes absolutely independent of the rail fastemng. The rail was In its turn
,y Google
136
STEEL RAILS
fastened to the plate by means of two bolts and clips, these bdng independent
of the tie fastening.
The clips were made so as to be capable of adjusting the gage of the track
by being reversible, and also of such a shape as to take up and transmit hori-
zontal forces at the base of the rail to the shoulders provided for in the tie
plates. In this manner the upward forces would be resisted by all the screw
spikes, and dmilarly all the horizontal forces would be taken care of. Spring
I2?f6
it 320.'::"- — »
oil IMMo
I
■:^ 4c
§■
o|i II 1 ]o
1
Fia. 101. — Group I, German Experimenta on Tie Plates.
washers were provided under the head of the screw spikes and the rail-fastening
nut.
Eighty-three of these plates were put in service in 1898 and removed from
the tracks, together with the ties, in 1907 for examination. The tie wear
was found to be very slight and very uniform under the base of the plate,
varying from a minimum of 0.14 millimeter (1^5 inch) to a maximum of 0.19
millimeter (^J^ inch), except in a few cases where spikes had become loose
and caused an increased as well as an irregular wear.
- 250"-
FiG. 102. — Group 2, GermaD Experiments on Tie Plates.
Sand, however, was found between the ties and plates, and this might
have caused even this slight wear. The rail seat in the tie plate had worn to
about the same extent (maximum iJj inch). No other sign of deterioration
The second series of tests. Group 2 (Fig. 102), was carried on under con-
ditions similar to those for Group 1. The main diiference between these plates
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 137
and the plates of Group 1 lies in the size of the bearing surface over tie, being
about 70 square inches for Group 2 plates as against 90 square inches for Group 1
plates.
On removal of the plates, it was found that the wear of tie developed the
same uniform wear as in the previous group. The slight wear gave the impres-
sion of being purely compression, there being no indication whatever of side dis-
placement. As a matter of fact, after the screw spikes had been removed the
plate had to be knocked off with a hammer. Sand was found under the edge
of only a few plates. The screw spikes used on these plates were 4| inches by
f inch and had a deeper thread than those of Group 1.
In spite of the smaller bearing of this plate, as compared to Group 1, the
amount of tie wear was actually smaller, and the fastening generally more
satisfactory.
Center of Raik ,
4% 4M"
Fia. 103. — Group 3, German Experiments on Tie Plates.
Condition of test in Group 3 (Fig. 103) was similar to the previous tests in
Groups 1 and 2. The mmn difference in this case consisted in the sloped top
of the tie plate, which gave the rail a desired amount of inclination toward the
gage side. This arrangement brought the center of rail closer to the outer edge
of the tie plate by about 10 millimeters (f inch). Screw spikes used were similar
to those in Group 2, but with a somewhat better grip, the holes having been
drilled smaller. To increase the rigidity of the fastening, double spring washers
were employed on all the screw spikes.
The tie wear was smaller than in any previous instance. The gage of the
track was measured frequently and found to remain practically unchanged.
The spring washers, which had shown some falures when used singly, were
found in this test to have their original elasticity unimpaired. This design of
tie plate, however, failed in a few instances, as shown at "a," Fig. 103, which
would seem to indicate that a greater stress was carried against this point than
in the other arrangements.
,y Google
138 STEEL RAILS
It is clearly evident from the behavior of plates of Groups 2 and 3 that the
wear of ties is not at all directly proportional to the extent of the bearing surface
<rf the tie plate, but depends more upon the rigidity of the fastening. In the
case under consideration, the most important point developed is the necessity
of rigidly fastening the tie plates to the ties in order to preserve the life of the tie.
15, Fastening of the Rail to the Tie
In this country the ordinary nail spike is generally used for fastening a rail
to a wooden tie. The most important objections to the spike are: first, in
Fio. 104. — Short Leaf Pine Tie, after 2 Years' Service, cut through Spike Holes.
{Bureau of Foreetry, Bulletin No. 50.)
the soft-wood tie the spike does not hold with sufficient firmness to keep the
rail securely to the tie; second, in driving the spike into the softer woods the
fibers are broken to an unusual extent (Fig. 104). As a result they do not
withstand lateral pressure of the rail, and consequently the spike hole is rapidly
increased to such an extent that the spike no longer holds. Water collects in
the enlarged hole and decay sets in (Fig. 105).
Table XXIV * compares the holding force of a common spike (Fig. 106),
weight 165 spikes to 100 pounds, with that of the common screw spike (Fig. 107),
similar to those used on the French and other continental railroads, weight
85 spikes to 100 pounds.
• Holding Force of Railroad Spikea in Wooden Ties, Forest Service, Circular 46.
>, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
- Crofls Section through the Spike Holes of Short Leaf Pine Tie, treated with Zinc Chloride,
Texas (Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 50.)
TABLE XXIV.
—HOLDING FORCE OF COMMON AND
(FoTBBi Sen-ice. Citoilar 18)
SCREW SPIKES
oT-i^
Condition or Wood.
Force R^jeited w Pull Spike.
^^ of Spik..
a™^.
«.^»™,
Minimum.
White oak:
Common spike
5
5
Partially seasoned
Foui>d>.
6,950
13,026
Pound*.
7,870
14,940
Poonds.
6,160
5
8
Oak (probably red);
Common spike
Screw spike
4,342
11,240
2.61
5,300
13,530
.do
28
2»
S.„o»d
Loblolly pine:
Common spike
3,670
7,748
2.11
6,000
14,680
2,320
4,170
12
U
Hardy CBtalpa:
Common spike
3,224
8.261
2.56
4,000
9,440
Ratio
11
11
Green
Common catalpa:
Common spike
2,887
6.939
2 42
4,500
8,340
4
5
Cbeatnut:
Common spike
2.980
9,418
3-15
3,220
11,150
2,600
7,470
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
i-%^
m
Fia. 106. — Common Spike.
Fia. 107, — Common Screw Spike,
Tables XXV and XXVI are taken from "Studies of the Stability of Rail-
way Tracks," by Jules Michel,* and ^ve the holding power of hook and screw
spikes.
T.4BLE XXV. — PULLING FORCE NECESSARY TO PULL OUT FOR 0.20 INCH IN A
HOOK SPIKE AND A SCREW SPIKE BURIED 4.13 INCHES IN THE WOOD
P.L.U. Hook Spike.
P.L.M. Screw Bpike.
PoUDds
992
1,598
Pound.
6,732
3,968
5,688
9,480
American cypreM...
6,063
Figs. 108 and 109 present examples of early screw fastenings.
Fio. 108. — Screw Spike used by Grand Duchy of Baden Slat« Railways (1860).
* Revue G<Sn6raIe des Chemim de Fer, July, 1884, and June, 1893.
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
NORTHERN
Fio. 109. — Early French Screw Spife
TABLE XXVI. — FORCES NECESSARY FOR EXTRACTING BY 0.20-INCH SCREW
SPIKES 0.79 INCH AND 0.91 INCH IN DIAMETER WITH THREADS OF 0.39-INCH
AND a59-lNCH PITCH, SUNK 4.14 INCHES IN WOOD OF VARIOUS SPECIES AND
AGES
(Jules Hichft)
Dmtaof
".■sf
n?." i ^^-
Beech.
0»k.
TS
Rwnork..
iBDhH.
iKtUB.
Pound.. 1 Pounds.
PouiKls.
PcHiids.
Ne
w Wood Cdrrbntlv Employ
ED IN Tr
CKS
0.79
0.T9
0.79
079
0 79
0.79
0 91
039
0,39
0 39
0.49
0.59
0.49
0.49
5,733
9,481
10,143
9.923
10,5&4
11,576
12.844
12.458
0.59
0,59
0.55
0.55
0.5S
July. 1884.
\
Rolled screw spikes,
24 trials.
10 trials.
7.640
11,378
1889
13.010
12,348
0 67
1
Wood Having Been 9 Ybari
IN Trac
0,79
0.79
0.3«
0.49
10,143
11,576
0.55
0.55
Fig. 110 shows a machine used on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe
for preparing ties for screw spikes. Wooden dowels as shown in Fig. Ill are
screwed into the ties.* Table XXVTI gives the cost of equipping a mile of track
with screw spikes, the estimate being based on work actually done on a section
of track five miles in length on the Illinois division of the railway.
■ Railroad Age Gazette, December 24, 1909.
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
Fia. 110. — Machine Preparing Ties tor Screw Spikes. (Railroad Age Gazette.)
Hole Tapped Plug in Place Dreased for Tie Plate Completed RaU
Faatening
Fig. 111. — Showing Application of Screw Spike on A. T. & 8. Fe R. R. (RaUroad Age Gacette.)
TABLE XXVIL — ONE MILE OF TRACK WITH SCREW SPIKES AND DOWELS
12,000 spikes at 2.7 centa each S 324
fi,000 tie plates at 21 cents each i;!60
Boring ties for, and driving, 24,000 dowels, at 1 cent each 240
24,000 wooden dowela at IS cents each 360
Driving screw spikes (per mile) 150
Total *2,334
ONE MILE WITH CUT SPIKES
12,000 spikes 8 127
6,000 tie plates at 21 cents each 1,260
Driving cut spikes (per mile) 150
Total 11,637
* Apparently the French railways were about the first in Europe to begin
the use of the screw spike (tirrfond) as a rail fastening, and it is to-day uni-
versally employed by the large systems (Fig. 112, Table XXVIII).
• For a very full discuswon of the subject, see " The Question of Screw Fastenings to Secure Rails
to Tiaa," W. C. Cuehing, Proceedings Am, Ry. Eng. & M. of W. Assn., 1909, Vol. 10, Part 2, p. 1456.
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
Flo. 112. — French Railways — Roil Fastenings. (Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.)
>, Google
STEEL SAILS
TABLE XXVIII.
— FRENCH RAILWAYS — RAIL
(Am. Ry. Ea«. A«m.)
FASTENINGS
Ralliray.
Nam'bHUd
PoaJtion of
lO;^^,
SafwraukM.
NumtMrol
JoinU.
Hhot.
Hi]«a
ii
1..
III
III
a™„.,
Bolu.
fD«IV«iLyon«
i la HediUcnnte
D'Ontana
3083
ZJSD
liaaidsandl
oauida
ZiDHdeaodl
2 inrida and 1
S3
Soataide
T. ■
•B.H.
T.
■B.H.4T.
Inohain
T.
T.
•B.H.
11. 02
G.tl
S.S2
».73
4.73
.1.
0.87
O.W
O.SI
o.u
on
o.»
o.n
o.«
o.u
0.31
lltoHpatW
17p«-3».87-
UpatM'
HtoltpvM'
Square «^
'
D*L'OiMrt
SquaraiiBil
D.L-6U.
in o«k or bMch, tl
TABLE XXIX. — GERMAN RAILWAYS — RAIL FASTENINGS
Kind of Tie
Plata.
as.*
HcivK Spikn
ofxie.''
Screw Spikes. 1
loiDU.
Nam* of Stat*
RmUwsy.
P
1=1
llll
3I |°"
ill
tL-s
'sr
No.
B^Ita.
Iiarudeaad2
l?li)k"»^ik«
]ia»de«id
C» book an
1 inaids and 1
outaida
2oiiUideaBd
linrids
T.
T.
?:'
Si..
»1T.
Hirt
07» ' OSB
0.3»
O.SB
iuiSl
0J9
Su^HdKl
Suapa«l«l
aiumdad
3<|uareBnd
S,up«d«t
J
Hook ouUide
Hook plate.
Hook inaide
Hook pEaie.
".'i-ffi'-"-
Hc»k plats.
pikaat
0 87
O.M
0 M
Bava
O.M
BavarUoO)
BmdeiWl
Pn^anO)
and
HIS
aUHSDC
and
fl.M
B.S
5»l
lands
•
12) l-'untHl ties aim
(3) In tunnels uw'caw
" Hook apikea an no
jflively- U» voodea ties on bridE« wit
tl with Midlaad Ry., Enfland.
>, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
145
The German r^lways did not adopt this style of fastening as early or as
generally as those of France, and the use of the hook spike is quite widespread.
In 1899, the general employment of the screw spike on all Knes of the system
was prescribed for the Prussian Government Railways (Fig. 113, Table XXIX).
Fta. 113. — German Railways — Rail Fastenings- {Am. Ry. Bng. Ahso.)
Same design of Screw Spike used by the Wiirttcmberg, Bavarian and Baden State Railways a
shown for the Saxon.
>, Google
STEEL RAII5
2 1
I r
^ /n— r-
■f punoj vqat J«uj»3
«d
II
nr
i r
The common hook spike used in the United States has been oftrai severely
condemned by writers in the technical press, and the readers have been usually
led to infer that it is employed everywhere in Europe, which is seen from the
above not to be the case. Indeed, the screw spike in Great Briton is almost
as rare as it is in the United States, at least on the large systems, tiie only one
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
147
makiiig use of it being the London and North Western, and that only partially
(Fig. 114, Table XXX and Plate XIII).
All of the large r^lway systems in Great Britain use the double-head rail,
held in position in large cast-iron chairs by "wedges, and consequently the fasten-
ings are for securing the chairs to the ties. For the purpose of fastening the
chairs to the ties, the almost universal plan is to use two iron or steel spikes and
two wooden trenails. The spikes are not pointed, and are driven into previously
bored holes. Instead of the trenjuls, the London and North Western Railway
makes use of two screw spikes, which resemble those of the Belgian State
Railways.
TABLE
XXX. — ENGLISH AND SCOTCH RAILWAYS —
(An. Ry. Ei«. Ann.)
RAIL FASTENINGS
Number aiHlKiiirtol
FnsIMiiiEa par Chair.
SpikB.
Tre«ib.
RuLwiy.
Ijwgth Diam. 1 Diam.
ToUl
L«,tb.
L»,th
TopC™
■a. Is- a:
ilii
•2 unkat and 2 tmsilg
■2iipik»udZlt«B.il>
*2>pili«iud2trui«llK
12 Iwisud ipik«ud 2Ir«iii1i
11-inch bofoithrou,h.i«
12 ipikH vd 2 «nw>
i ! 1 i 1
lacha.
T
iHhu. l.ich«. , iDchu.
11 !l 1 li'
'i*
"1
1
-J—
2A
ii
ri
I«d«*Xo«h
«
11
tl
1
* Hu ihort milHES ol chairx secured by two j-lnch bolte throu
t IlJiutiBWd by Tu. I ol Kw. 114.
1 IIIoiimMd by Fit. 2 o' Fig. IK.
i Illonnlsd by Put. a of Fin. IK.
i IllulntRl by FU. 4 of Fig. 114.
On th* Forth Bridie the North Britiih Ry. asm flat'bottoni
■ The twined epika are to be nbuidtHied lor plain onea.
DiomBtec of Sale iwjuinid fa- thia kth II
— Screw Spike deduced from European Practice. [Cushing.)
>, Google
148
STEEL RAILS
Fig. 115 shows a deagn of screw spike deduced by Mr. Gushing from
European practice. The form of the thread seems to have httle influence upon
the holding power of the screw spike. Table XXXI gives the resistance for
threads of right-angle form and those of isosceles triangular form.
TABLE XXXI
RESISTANCE OF SCREW SPIKES HAVING DIFFERENT THREADS
IJuIn Uiohel — Revua G^irfislB dte Cbemiu da F«. Juh. 18MJ
DidMuioM ol Scraw Splku.
1hw»I« Tbnad.
Screw Spikes 0.79 inch id diameter. New tie.
Pitch of 0.39 inch
Pitch of 0.59 inch
Pitch of 0.49 inch
11,887 pounds
12,458 pounds
13,010 pounds
12.039 pounds
12,513 pounds
13,561 pounds
Average of 4 tri&is.
Average of 4 trials.
Average of 4 trials.
Screw Spikes 0.91 inch in diameter.
Pitch of 0.49 inch
13,424 pounds 1 13,424 pounds
New tie.
Screw Spike 0.79 inch in diameter.
Pitch of 0.39 inch
Pitch of 0.49 inch
10,253 pounds
0,923 pounds
11,576 pounds
Ties 9 years in service.
Ties 9 years in service.
Screw Spikes 0.91 inch in diameter.
Pitch of 0.49 inch
11,246 pounds
5 pounds
Ties 9 years in service.
The proof that the screw spike is not a thoroughly efficient rail fastening
lies in the devices which have been invented to assist it in its work, —the square
plug, the Collet trenail, the Thiollier helical lining, and the Lakhovsky screw
and case.*
The mmn objection to the Collet trenail is its size; it is illustrated in Figs.
116, 117, and 118 with a screw spike and the wooden plug commonly used on
French rmlways for repairing old holes. The difference in size is large, the
Collet trenail being 1^ inches in diameter outside the threads. This cuts away
a considerable portion of the critical part of a tie, and is considered by many
engineers to weaken the tie too much. The plug is only about an inch square.
Nevertheless this screw dowel is largely used in Germany.
The Collet ti-enail has been tested from its inception by the Chemins de
Fer de I'Est, but the square plug illustrated in Fig. 117 is preferred. The wooden
screw, often made of elm, cannot be put in place without removing the tie from
• Lakhovsky trenail. Revue Gen&ale des Chemins de Fer. Paris, 1909, Vol. XXXIII,
pp. 324-327.
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
Cnernm' de Fe.r
V
Chemin de Fer
de L'Est
"^ScrewSpiKe
Square Wooden Plug
used for repairing old holes.
Pi«. 116. — French Screw Spike.
(Am. lly. Eng. Aaan.)
Fiu. 117. — Wooden Tic Plug used on French Railways.
(Am. Ky. Eng. Asan.)
>, Google
150 STEEL RAILS
the track, and it frequently splits. The ties on the Chemins de Fer de I'Est
are principally oak and beech. Pigs. 119 and 120 illustrate pine ties with
dowels in place.
The diagrams of Figs. 121 and
122 give the comparative resistance
to vertical" pressure of screw spikes
with and without dowels.
The Thiollier steel helical hning
is being experimented with as a sub-
stitute for the Collet trenail, and the
Lakhovsky screw and steel casing
(Bulletin of the International Railway
Congress, March, 1907) are considered
worth trying by the Chemins de Fer
de I'Est, de I'Etat, and de Paris a
Orleans.
From its greater holding power,
the verdict of the engineers of the
French, Belgian, and German railways
is that the screw spike is superior to
the hook spike, because they consider
it very important to hold the rail fast
to the tie.
On the other hand, the Briti^
railways do not seem to find the screw
spike necessary for their large and
heavy chars, and they use creosoted
ties, as well as the Continental lines;
but the holes for their spikes are bored
in advance.
According to our present knowl-
p 1 75 - M edge, the amount of bearing surface
_ - . the tie plate has upon the tie is ap-
iio. 118. — CoUetTrenaU. (Am. Ry. Eng. Aaan,) parcntly not the determining factor
in providing against wear. The
question of securing the plate firmly to the tie is fully as important as the size
of the plate used, and in selecting a proper unit stress for the bearing on the
tie it is evident, therefore, that the area of the bearing surface cannot be eon-
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
sid^ied without taking account of the kind of fastening employed to hold the
plate to the tie.
Pia. 1 19. — Croaa Sectioa of IHne Tie through Dowel. (Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 50.)
Fia. 120. — Three Ties of Baltic Pine on the PniMian State Railways, Berlin, showing the manner in
wliicb screw dowels appear in the tie when ready to be shipped. (Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 60.)
>, Google
STEEL EAII^
'"'"^TIES
"" -_::_::::::: :::::::::nq^;qiTi:.:
g Jill U ^ J
tt 6000 a' !>' ^tr
■••-['' .Ui'JJii,i.''liiL!F>JillliiJiiiili
— Comparative Reustance to Vertical Presaure of Screw Spikes io Pine Ties, Old and New,
with and without E>owele. (Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 50.)
ou, . :. BEECH TIES
,„,. i~z~~z
„„,i 1 1 1 1 ' rn
Z:::-:::::::::-±-V:/:-;::-:
,.„, 1 /
'71-'--' — ^ ^t^"" "^
Oi .04 .06 .
VGRTICAL OSPLACeMENT- INCHES
- Comparative ResiHtance to Vertical Pressure of Screw Spikes in Beech Ties, Old and New,
with and without Doweb. (Bureau of Forestry, Bulletin No. 50,)
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 153
In the case of a white-oak tie, where the spike holds well and the life of the
tie is comparatively short, the ordinary working stress of the timber to resist
crushing at right angles to the grain may probably be safely taken in propor-
tioning the strength of the tie. With soft woods, however, which offer less
resistance to the spike pulling loose, and which, when treated, possess long life,
the ordinary working stress of the wood has little application to the bearing under
the tie plate unless some means are used to secure the plate firmly to the tie.
As will be seen in the discussion of the Supporting Power of the Tie (Article
19), one of the weakest points in the support of the rail lies at the bearing of
the tie plates on soft-wood ties, even when the normal crushing value of the
wood is taken as is done in the calculations. It is thus of considerable impor-
tance that with a soft-wood tie a more secure fastening than the ordinary spike
be used to hold the tie plate firmly to the tie.
With the increase in density of traffic there has developed a growing
tendency for the rail to creep or move in the direction in which the traffic
moves. On account of the joint ties being spiked through slotted holes in the
joint, these ties move with the rail, with the result that correct spacing of the
adjacent ties is not mdntained.
To overcome this difficulty there have been devised numerous devices
for anchoring the rails to the ties. These are generally fastened to the base
of the rail and bear against the side of the tie; when employed in sufficient
numbers they are fairly efficient in preventing the movement of the rail.*
16. Strength of the Tie
Assuming the tie to be in good condition jmd free from decay, we have
now to determine the strength of the wood of which it is composed. Let us
first examine the kinds of woods used in the United States.
• Some recent literature on this subject is as followa:
KuNZE, W. — Das schienenwandera, ursache uDd abhilfc. 2,500 w. 111. 1909. (In Glasere
annalen fUr geweriw und baiiwesen, Vol. 65, p. 122.)
Considers cause o( creeping in rails and devices for itit prevention.
ScHLCsSEL, L. — On the working loose of screws when used as rail faatenings, 21 p. III.
1907. <ln Bulletin of the International Railway ConRress, Vol. 21, p. 3-)
Concludes that we<lge fastenings should be substituted for screw fastenings.
Tex. K. dex, — Creeping of raib in the direction of the trains. 800 w. lU. 1911. (In
Bulletin of the International Railway Congress, Vol, 25, p. 292.)
Use of rai'l anchors. 2,000 w. III. 1911. (In Railway Apt Gaiette, Vol. 51, p, 125.)
Considers tendencies in the creeping of rails and forma of anchors most successful in over-
coming it.
WiBTH, Alfred. — Die schienenwanderung und ihre verhlitung. 10,000 w. 1909. (In Zeit-
pchrift des Osterreichischen Ingenieur — und Archileklen — Vereines, Vol. 61, p- 317, 333.)
Discussion of rail creeping at some leogtb, considering theory and prevention by rail-faateuiag
devices.
>, Google
154
STEEL RAILS
The following statements are based on the number of ties bought rather
than on the number actually used. For all practical purposes, however, the
two are identical, because the purchases in twelve months are an accurate index
of consumption for a corresponding period.
Table XXXII shows the number and value of the different kinds of ties
purchased by the steam and street railroad lines in the United States in 1906,
and contrasts the purchases of steam railroad companies in 1905 and 1906.
TABLE XXXII. — NUMBER AND VALUE OF TIES PURCHASED BY STEAM AND
STREET RAILROADS IX THE UNITED STATES IN 1905 AND 1900
(Forest Ssrvice, CircsUr lU)
Suain
SMtm nilr«d>. i»0«.
S«e. railed.. I««.-
Numbw.
Value.
Number.
VelM.
Avw
Naoibet.
V»lu«.
Aver-
se
Oaks
South'mpincet
Cedar
Douglaa fir. . .
Cheatnut....
Cypress
Western pine.
Tamarack., .
Hemlock
Redwood
Lodgepole pine
White pine .
All others
34.677,304
18,351,037
6,962,827
3,633,276
4,717,604
3,483.746
3,060,082
1,713,000
590,852
(t)
(t)
791,409
(19,072,517
7.707,436
3,033,644
1,198,981
2,264,450
1,149,636
t0.S5
.42
.44
.33
,48
.33
41,532,629
17,538,090
6.416.867
6,706,222
4,646,763
4,988,685
3,909,500
2,430,236
2,037.002
725.346
553.838
258.030
1,734,517
(21,256,518
8,905.009
3,044.446
2,782,967
2,132,984
1,813,500
1,673,359
837,217
576,806
248,814
210,458
76,833
661,601
(0.61
51
.47
41
.46
43
.34
.28
.34
.38
.30
3,825,245
1,303,120
666,575
542,340
1,942,212
115,911
60,105
146,623
21,196
523,283
900
115,357
93,550
12,021,534
662,736
265,670
227,426
862,958
48,635
24,668
52,344
6,072
287.328
360
74,219
64,643
(0 63
.61
.40
.42
.44
.42
1,101,630
565,320
118,170
.36
.33
.20
.36
.29
.66
■fll
343,662
.43
09
Total, , ,
77,981,227
S36,585,446
10.47
93,477,625
J44,220,532
SO. 47
9,356,417
$4,598,692
SO 49
The purchases of ties reported by the steam railroad companies in 1906
exceeded those of 1905 by more than 15,000,000. Nearly one-half of this
excess was oak. The purchases of cedar ties showed a decrease of about one-
half million, due possibly to the sharp demand for cedar poles, which operated
against the production of ties. Douglas fir ties nearly doubled in quantity,
and both cypress and hemlock increased by a large percentage, but tamarack
purchases fell off more than one-fifth and chestnut about 1.5 per cent.
Oak, the chief wood used for ties, furnishes more than 44 per cent, nearly
one-half of the whole number, while the southern pines, which rank second,
contribute about one-sixth. Douglas fir and cedar, the next two, with approxi-
mately equal quantities, supply less than one-fifteenth apiece. Chestnut,
cypress, western pine, tamarack, hemlock, and redwood are all of importance,
but no one of them furnishes more than a small proportion.
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 155
Table XXXIII shows, by kinds, the number and cost of the cross-ties pur-
chased,by stBMn and electric railroads in the United States in 1907.
Table XXXIV gives a comparative statement showing the niunber of
cross-ties purchased by the steam and electric raitoads during the years 1910,
1909, 1908, and 1907.
Of the total purchases of cross-ties during 1910, 139,596,000, or 94.2 per
cent, were made by steam railroads, while electric railroads purchased 8,635,000,
or 5.8 per cent. The steady increase in the number of cross-ties reported as
purchased for new track is noteworthy. The total for this purpose in 1910 was
22,255,000, as against 16,437,000 in 1909, 7,431,000 in 1908, and 23,557,000 in
1907; the total for 1910 exceeding that for 1909 by 35.4 per cent, for 1908 by
199.5 per cent, and nearly equaling that for 1907, the largest ever recorded.
Largely as a logical result of the greater demand for cross-ties during 1910, the
average cost per tie at point of purchase advanced to 51 cents, the same figure
reached in 1907, as compared with 49 cents in 1909 and 50 cents in 1908.
In 1910, as in preceding years, oak was the principal kind of wood used for
cross-ties. The number of oak cross-ties formed 46.1 per cent of the total for
1910, as compared with 46.2 per cent in 1909, 42.8 per cent in 1908, and 40.2
per cent in 1907.
A substantial increase in 1910 over 1909 is shown in the number of southern
pine cross-ties reported; the increase in the cut from this species over 1909
being 22.8 per cent, as against an increase of 20 per cent in the total number of
cross-ties reported from all woods. Douglas fir also showed for 1910 over the
preceding year a larger increase, namely, 28.2 per cent, than the increase in the
total purchase from all woods. On the other hand, chestnut, cedar, and cypress,
with increases over 1909 of 17.1 per cent, 7.8 per cent, and 17.6 per cent,
respectively, were bought in relatively smaller quantities.
While tJie bulk of the cross-ties were cut from the six woods mentioned dur-
ing each of the four years and while combined they contributed 85.5 per cent of
the total in 1910, 85.3 per cent in 1909, 86.5 per cent in 1908, and 87.2 per cent
in 1907, a remarkable and significant showing in connection with the figures for
1910 is noted with reference to certdn woods which hitherto have been utilized
as cross-tie material to only a very limited extent. The increase in the number
of cross-ties over 1909, reported as cut from elm, was 451.7 per cent; gum, 328.8
percent; birch, 323.3 percent; spruce, 121.5 per cent; and mesquite, 114.9 per
cent. A very large percentage of the cross-ties cut from these woods were given
some preservative treatment, thus increaang then- life to or beyond that of
imtreated cross-ties made from the more commonly used or standard cross-tie
,y Google
156 STEEL RAILS
TABLE XXXIII. — CROSS-TIES PURCHASED BY STEAM AND ELECTRIC ROADS OF
THE UNITED STATES IN 1907 ^
IBiuBu o[ Chs Cnnis, Fomt ProdueU Mo. S)
Kind.
Hewed.
Siwed.
Number.
ToldCMl.
Number.
Total Coet.
Number.
Toial Cow,
Total...
153,699,620
$78,958,695
(0.51
112,309,246
$56,522,768
tO-50
31,776,434
117,020,882
10.54
Oake
Southern pines
Douglas fir...
Cedar
Chestnut
Western' pine!!
Hemlock...!!
Redwood
Lodgepole pine
White pine. . . .
Another
61,757,418
34.216,081
14,524,266
8.953,2fti
7,851,325
6,778,944
5,019,247
4,562,190
2,366,459
2,030,952
666,916
474,455
4,499,132
32.9S5,122
18,434,198
6,818,869
4,473,960
3,772,048
3,099,430
2.515.798
2,254,617
807,241
1,198.497
332,984
193,606
2,072,316
0.53
0.54
0.47
0.50
0.48
o.«
0.50
0 40
0.34
0.59
0.50
0.41
0.46
51,169,478
25,629,749
1,436,258
7,941,1,^2
4,922,831
5,695,640
3,206,754
4,144,127
2,283,675
884.552
666.916
289,624
4,038,490
26,774,251
13,100,589
590,754
3,987,035
2,337,697
2,552,381
1.575,457
2.083,646
770,969
507,154
332,984
106,528
1,802,323
0.52
0.51
0.41
0.50
047
0.45
0 49
0.50
0.34
0.57
0.50
0.37
0.44
6,929,572
7,415,686
12,366,640
396,891
889,420
884,915
1,626.330
340.618
79,256
406,519
4,033,150
4,669,060
5,884,822
190,322
426,523
453,058
835,895
137,481
34,796
224,525
0.58
o!48
0,48
0.48
0.61
0.61
0,40
0.44
0.55
131,671
308,916
53,041
178,209
0 40
0.58
TABLE XXXIV. — CROSS-TIES PURCHASED BY STEAM AND ELECTRIC ROADS OF
THE UNITED STATES DURING THE YEARS 1910, 1909, 1908, AND 1907
IBuieau of tbe Ceuua)
Kind ot Wood.
Oak
Soul hem pine...
ch^imi '.'.:'-'.:
Cedar
C>-pre«
Tumerack ....
Ile-ntock ,,.'.'!
Redo'ood
Gum
Beech
gJS" ■:;:::;:
tepi^e-::;
Birch
{fB^vfaii^lTiShit
3,7-3.000
3.m.<K0
4,328,000 I 2,007.000
>, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 157
woods. The growing scarcity of these last-mentioned woods, however, tends
to increase their cost and accounts largely for the introduction of substitutes
cut from cheaper species. The drift in this direction is clearly brought out by
a comparison of the figures relating to treated cross-ties during the past four
years. In 1907 the number of cro&s-ties reported as having been given some
preservative treatment was 19,856,000; in 1908, 23,776,000; in 1909, 22,033,00;
and in 1910, 30,544,000; the number for 1910 showing an increase over that for
the preceding year of 8,511,000, or nearly 39 per cent.
The question of tie preservation is becoming more and more important as
the donand for tie matmai Increases and the traffic requirements become more
eicacting. So long as plenty of white-oak ties could be secured, the necessity
for tie preservation was not felt; but with the constantly increasing use of pine
and other less decay-resistant woods, it has become a vital economic question.
The r^Iroad companies have met the problem by establishing treating plants
in various parts of the United States and by laying experimental tracks with
treated ties to determine the efficiency of the several preservatives xmder vary-
ing conditions.*
Table XXXV, prepared by the Forest S«Tice,t gives the results of an
elaborate series of tests upon the strength of treated and untreated pine ties.
In outlining the plan for these tests two divisions were made, dealing
respectively with the rflect on the strength of timber of the preliminary proc-
esses of steaming, superheating, vacuum, etc., commonly employed in the
preservation of wood, and the effect of the preserving materials themselves.
The tests were confined to sapwood, and were made on small pieces taken from
the tie, and also on full-sized ties.
The effect of the preliminary processes was detrarained on both green and
seasoned timber. Both green and seasoned timber were also used in deter-
mining the effect of preservatives. The preservative fluids included only
creosote t and zinc chloride.
The material for the experiments was railroad ties II feet long. One
8-foot section of each tie was put through the particular treatment, and the
untreated section, 3 feet long, was used for control test pieces.
Prom each tie 12 pieces were taken, 4 from the control section and 8 from
the treated section. All of these pieces were 2 inches by 2 inches in cross section
and 36 inches long, with one side parallel to the direction of the annual rings
• Eicperiments with Railw;iy Cross-ties, Forest Service, Circular 146.
t Experimente on the Streogth o( Treated Timber, Forest Service, Circular 39, by W. K. Halt.
X The treatment was essentially the "Ruepinf;" procesa, although this name is not used in the
circular.
>, Google
STEEL RAII5
TABLE XXXV. — EXPERIMENTS ON THE STRENGTH OF TREATED TIMBER
!) THE STKENQTH OF GREEN
2 isobea: Bir4lri«d Mare Usta]
CyliidxCooditkHL
Slnngtli.
.?&
UoiRiin,
GravLli-
(dry).
SMuniiic.
II
Sutio.
^l.
1
1
Trntmnt.
1
1
1
1
if
■ 2
1
t
i
■"
r
6^
w
*
-
Lba.
Lbe.
Per
Ftt
Pw
Per
sq. u.
UntreaMd oood -100 puonC
(*
•a)
257
92.8 93-l| 93.81 93.2
7 5
1,5
13. ^
13.4
l.fW
^Md
Steam, at variotu presaures
V
40
2fi7
99.8 104. 3I102.OI1O2.O
94.6 99.0107.7:100.4
7.5
B.O
7.0
fi.O
12. V
12.2
12.4
.553
525
.571
(4
50
•m
94.5 96.4|103.5l 93.1
13 7
in, 5
Creosote, injected at 160°F,
under a pressure of 100
pounds per square inch. . .
4
■JO
2flh
25 4
81. «
79 1
102 4
w.t:
1,5
i.O
13.2
,.1.V
Zinc chloride;
2.5 per cent solution. . .
4
20
?4fl
fi7 4
92 f
113, fl
m.r,
12. H
\H.7
.V-U
3.5 per cent solution...
4
20
24fi
97,4
9.1,2
92.7
%.i
7,5
7,n
13.1
13.5
5;«.
,.'vW
5.0 per cent aolutioa. . .
4
a)
?4fi
99 «
96 7
7H,9
tl !■
% 5
>,0
12 a
13 4
511
10.0 per cent solution. . .
4
20
255
100,1
100.4
74.8
91.8
8.5
8.5
13,2
13.5
,682
.612
,1. CSAUCTEUBnca ai
I AVKBAQB BTSEHdTH
.•DUEo Untbeaiid Wood
Moisture per cent 13,4
Weight per cubic foot (dry) pounds 33,6
RiDRS per inch 7
Modulus <rf elasticity pounds per square inch 1,893,000
Bending strength at elastic limit " " " 6,998
Bending strength at rupture " " " 13,198
Compression strength parallel to grain " " " 6,555
Compression strength at right angles to grain " " " 834
Sbe&iiag etreogtb radial to grain " " " l,li5
,, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
TABLE XXXV. — Cmtinued
InlJ-riwd tiea: M«ao»d. trwMd, ud rawioDsd bataia Ustal
Cylii»letCo«litiou.
Slnaith (Malic).
SinkoPnitiix.
J
B«Hlld(
Co.
1.
Pull Soik*.
1
«
1
1
1
H
ii
S
P
1!
<
'1
■<
1
1
1
i
LtM.
•F.
^
^^.
rit.
Untnxsd wood- 100 iw
A
10
237
M.2
79.3
91 1
89.9
118.51110.7
4.9 38.0
A
ai
2SH
«:i.7
78-4
99.1
90.4
103.6109.4
6.2 37 3
Steam, at Tortous pressures
■ A
30
W4
S7 H
Ki.4
92.7
88.0
100. l' 96.5
5.3 37.9
A
40
80.4
93.0 77, t
A
50
MS
m.1
fiO.fi
74.4
68-0
RO.^
70. ;i
4.8 36.1
■f
81.9
87.1
97. t
93.7
St«ain, for various periods
20
258
93.7
78.4
99.1
90.4
103 (
109 4
5.2 37.3
' f
20
S7.5
78. a
92.0
86. 1
8;i.f
79. r
4.6: 36.7
4.6 36.7
Zinc chloride. 2.5 per cent boIu-
tion
<
74.7
05.1
257
69.5
61.2
flO.l
63-6
68.2
68.1
4.6
Phthi
[. Cbiracteubttcs un AT>B4aa E
I Ukt
*TBD Wood
Moisture .per cent (approximate)
Weight per cubic foot (air-seasoned) pounds
RinKs per inch
Modulus of elasticity pounds per square i
Bending strength at elastic limit
Bending strength at rupture,
Compression strength parallel to grain
Compression strength at right angles to grain (rail-bearing)
Spike pulling — common spike
Spike pulling — screw spike
,568.000
3,429
6,458
4,452
,y Google
TABLE XXXV. — CorUmued
EFFECT OF STEAU AND CREOSOTE ON THE STRENGTH OF SEASONED LOBLOLLY PINE
ISpBeimmi, 1 by I iDebrn t«««i immadBUly riur trmtnmill
CylindM CoBdUiou.
Steam, at vftrious presBuree
Creosote, iDJected at 150° F.
under a, pressure of 100
pounds per square inch. . .
Soaking, wood previously
treated with creosote in-
jected at 150° F. under a
pressure of 100 pouods per
stiuare inch
19.20
ScBgoiisd wood - 1 N par nut
92 6106.41124,01107,'
70, 9i 5S,ll 72, 9I 66.;
Stsamed wood - 100 jxtcait
97,11102.21110,71103,;
SaaaosKl vood - 100 permit
81,01 7S'4| 83,0] 80,'
Sooksd iiDtr«Bt«d wood -
160,4
6.0
78,1
Panicii. Cbabactebibiicb imd AvaBAQB Stkbnotbs or tbd Uhtbeatbd Seauhbd
Moisture per ci
Weight per cubic foot (dry) poui
RinsB per inch
Modulus of elasticity pounds per square inch 1
Bending strength at elastic limit " "
Bending strength at rupture " "
Compression strength parallel to n^ia " "
Compression strength at right an^ee to grain " "
Shearing strength radial to grain " "
TABLE XXXV. — Conduded
EFFECT OF CRE080TINQ WITHOUT STEAM ON THE STRENGTH OF SEASONED LOBLOLLY PINE
ihySuebrntteetonBd.
mud, >nd
•rlnch.
mtaUl
„.„,.
Stnuftb (atktid).
Rin*.
Moiature
Control,
Weight (BirHwmdl.
Tn
«,T..-
ol Ruptun.
Comrol.
Tn»tBd,
COBttol.
Tronted.
Percent,
Untreate
100 pe
117 0
Paroeol.
J wood-
r cent.
5
7
Percent.
16,1
34,79
'-^r
AVEBAQB STBEHmHg OF THE URTaEHTBD WooD
Moisture per cent
Weight per cubic toot (dry) pounds
Rines per inch
Modulus of elasticity pounds per square inch I,
Bending strength at elastic limit " " "
Bending strength at rupture " " "
Compression strength parallel to grain " " "
Compression strength at right angles to grain " " "
Shearing strength radial to grain " "
>, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
161
and the other at right angles to it. After the bending tests had been made
on these pieces, smaller pieces, 2 Inches by 2 inches in cross section and 4 inches
long, wesre cut from their ends and used for the compression and shearing tests.
In any tie the test pieces were taken out according to Fig. 123, variation being
allowed only to secure clear pieces.
The test pieces from each tie were marked consecutively from 1 to 12.
The untreated pieces, marked 1 and 2, were used for control-impact tests, and
those marked 3 and 4 for control-static tests. The treated pieces, marked 5
and 6, were used for impact tests; those marked 7 and 8 for static tests. The
coNTnot.
0 _._!
/
/
.r
9
^
2
2
6
10
3
3
7
'I
9
IZ
i&
f
Flo. 123. — Control Plan — Creoeote Tie 'l%HtB.
treated pieces, marked from 9 to 12, were similarly tested, but were resoaked,
if necessary, to bring them back to the degree of moisture found in the control
pieces. Ordinarily the steaming process did not decrease the moisture content
of the wood, in which case tests on resoaked pieces were not required.
In addition to Uie tests on small pieces, the strength of full-sized ties in
bending and in compression, both parallel and at right angles to grain, was
obt^ned, as well as the capacity of the wood to hold a spike. The ties used
were 8 feet long. The entire tie was treated and afterwards tested in full size.
In the bending tests under a static load, the ties were supported on a span of
80 inches and loaded at the third points of the span.
Short sections of tiie ties were used for tests to determine the resistance
gainst compression parallel to grain, against compres^on at right angles to
grain (which is similar to that produced on a tie by the base of a rail), and
against the force withdrawing a spike. In the tests of compression at right
angles to grain, the width of the tool equaled that of the base of an 80-pound
A. S. C. E. rail. The force necessary to cause the yielding of the wood was
measured. Both screw spikes and common spikes were driven into the tie,
and tiie force necessary to pull them out directly along their length was meas-
ured. Any common spike was driven but once, since it was found that the resist-
ance aganst pulling diminished when the spike was redriven into new wood.
The weight of the tie before treating, after treating, and at the time of
test was determined. The physical characteristics of the wood, such as per
,y Google
162 STEEL RAILS
cent of sap, rate of growth, shakes, knots, and moisture content, were also
recorded.
Impact tests were made on certain of the full-sized ties. In general, it
was found that the influraice of the various factors may be determined by both
static and impact tests.
The results of these tests form a body ctf evidence from which tie fol-
lowing general conclusions may be drawn;
(1) A high degree of steaming is injurious to wood in strength and spike-
holding power. The degree of steaming at which pronounced harm results
will depend upon the quaUty of the wood and its degree of seasoning, and upon
the pr^sure (temperature) of steam and the duration of its application. For
loblolly pine the hmit of safety is certainly 30 pounds for 4 hours, or 20 pounds
for 6 hours.
(2) The presence of zinc chloride will not weaken wood under static load-
ing, although the indications are that the wood becomes brittle under impact
when treated with solutions above 3.5 per cent concentration.
(3) A light treatment with creosote will not weaken wood of itself. Smce,
apparently, it is present only in the opening of the cells, and does not
get into the cell walls, its action can only be to retard the seasoning of
the wood.
The Committee on Wood Preservation of the Amaican Railway Engi-
neering Association in its report at the March, 1910, Convention of the Asso-
dation presented the following conclusions based on the best data available
at the time on the strength of treated timber:
(o) High steaming will diminish the strength rapidly.
(6) Treating with strong solution of zinc chloride will render the timber
brittle, perhaps because of free acid in the solution.
(c) Creosote is inert.
(d) Seasoned timber treated with light doses of creosote is as strong as
the original timber.
Tables XXXVII and XXXVIII give the results of tests of the Forest Ser-
vice on a number of woods, and Table XXXIX shows the unit stresses recom-
mended by the Committee on Wooden Bridges and Trestles of the American
Railway En^neering Association.
The great variation in strength, which is noticeable in timber of the same
species, makes it necessary to accept with caution the result of a limited number
of tests representing the average of the species. One of the most troublesome
factors influencing the strength of wood is the amount of moisture in it.
,y Google
SUPPORTS OP THE RAIL
TABLE XXXVI. — ACXX)TTNT OF TEST MATERIAL USED IN TABLE XXXVII
LMBlitlM aad NumtMr ol TiMB han EwA.
StraRlearptH
(P&Mraii'lUMJ
^racapiBa
Bald eyproi.
fTuadiam diatichiim. )
Cow oik '.
IQiiamu miohnn
Rtdotk
(Qnereai mbrs.)
V^w^t*
.^usreuaduiUIB.)
Shuhatk hickory....
iHkoruoviu.)
Uoekanut hkkory. .
(HicoriailbLl
Wtur hickory.
Nitmsf bickoiy .
Paan hiek^
I^i^t iiiekoiy. . . .
nhilauh
la, ouut pliiii (B); DpFuds it); hill dlnrict IS):
jii, unduuuu Dpi&adj it). South C&roliBA. enaat
fibim ny.Uimmapi. low cout pjaiii (3); Louuimii.
iSm S^
•t (S).
[S)lT*iaj,law
l«): a*or|ia, npludi (I); Sooth
le):
imn, uplflndi (4); HuBOUri, low
(tuvBSt low billy nplimdi (ll);T«^^ innouuD ivi.
ima. moiuUiBoiia plataui (R}i low ooaat plaui (HI;
lunm. laval Hood pliuB (SI; Oaondk, hvd ca«)l
in it): South Cirolis, low sout plamTl).
— 1- -'— .uplaKla (S); — •■ ■'- "' •"■■ '
Alabsms, TmwBn Vallay (I];
battoni t3),
■'-" — - ■" Vuliev H). ^.™»™.
lippi. low jtlaiD r4j.
. ... Vall^ [SJ; ArkaoBU.
Akbama.
Alabuu, ToBMM* Vallay (IJ.
UiHiannri, low pUia (4).
Atabanu. TeaaeaMe Vallay (1)
bottom (3): UisabHwi low plain (1).
Alabama. Tmaute Vallay <S); Arkaaaaa
bottom (3|;IIL»iL«ippi, lowplaio (3).
* TbMt two (bodd probably bo elaassd u )
. itobr — Th« vahMi [or ipanfle iravity b«ra (
luthani red tmk. Thoy were oollMtad belon tbo diminclioB wu finally di
VKB rater to "dry" wood o( «Bl malarial, i.e.. wood cootaiBin* variabla an
hai thanfora Bot ban Uikoa iato ukoudC. but more cirslul eiperimggU in
•r caot u H> imall that it may be ntalaotad lor pmctual purpoaai.
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
In Table XXXVII all values except those for the Southern pines have been
referred to 12 per cent moisture, which may be said to be the lightest average
moisture content of seasoned wood.
TABLE XXXVIL
SUUMARY OF
- RESULTS OF TESTS IN BENDING — AT RUPTURE
3TS ON THIRTY-TWO SPECIES OF AllERICAN WOODS
lii-iMOB o( Fortuity. Ciregiar IS)
IPoonda par aquan iKhl
1! Pk mm Moiiture.
?tMoSc..
Rodokk.'.'
Willow oak
8|Mniahoak
Shubvk biekory. . .
MockonDt hickory . .
Watw hickory
BittanMt hickory ...
NutDME biekory. ...
FaanAckory
nnut hickory
wGiUBlm..
whiiBish. .'..!!!!!!;
SnetcufD
13.30)
20.700
18.000
19, HD
1S.700
IS.HO
20400
19.700
17,300
19.300
15.«00
18,100
13.W0
1740)
H.200
16.000
7J0O
s.m>
oatatial DOI reduced [or i
>, Google
SUPPORTO OF THE RAIL
TABLE XXXVII. — Con/inaed —RESULTS OF TESTS IN BENDING— AT RELATIVE
ELASTIC LIMIT
SUMMARY OF MECBANtCAL TESTS ON THIRTY-TWO SPECIES OF AMERICAN WOODS
(DivMioD dI FonatiT. Ciiculu IS)
(Pooadi pv sqiura iachl
No.
SpOdM.
Nnmbw
oT
HilhHI
Toil
l-awto,
10 Per
tSji-i.
T«su.
'Mt
oCAv«n*«.
(Avorunol
all Teaul.
•^rS-s^^
330
uo
130
1
1
1
1
s
30
I
ii.m
.000
1.W0
3,100
1.100
IS
!.9oa
i.tco
s
sjoo
iS
4.S0O
s]ioo
s
sisoo
siaoo
if
11.100
lolsoo
,s
11.200
g.too
7.390
S
l.BOO
3, NO
uoo
1.400
1
1,800
4.000
s
(.400
is
10.100
1
.MO
.900
■ESS
.WO
1400
;«oo
.100
.uo
i
.aoo
.SCO
.300
z
.200
.200
3
7.700
1
•!200
9,400
S,10O
ill
«>00
8.900
P«<*ot.
il
4«
P«rc«t.
SS
89
M
sa
M
i
1
1
1
i
TO
B2
Red-oed Id 12 Psr
000
700
700
^^t"^'
.B
^^i:::-:
jss,
sir-r- ;
1!
(too
uo
no
as
^1:
Sffl
S.73D.OOD
1 "dry" 1
TABLE XXXVII.— Conduded—RESULTS OF TESTS IN COMPRESSION, ACROSS
GRAIN,* AND SHEARING WITH GRAIN
BDlfUARY OF MECHANICAL TESTS ON THIRTY-TWO SPECIES OF AMERICAN WOODS
( Diviiioo of Foronry. areolar 15)
IPounda per aquare inch]
Sbaarutc
RednoKi to It Fv cwt
Sbnnliaf^^V.'!!!!
Loblolly pine
Reduced Ui 12 Per cent
WUle cedar
! Doocluipnicet. ..
I Wbiteoak
Overcupoak
PoetiHk
need to 12 Per cent
rtqre. — Condudtd.
oak
Souiheta red oak
Black oak
WHlaroak
Wiltowoak
SWbark hle'lniry
While hickory
NdlDw hicitor7 -,
Pecu hickory
Piiiuit hickory
While elm
- ■irelm
Ltarial not radncad lor m
jOc:)g-te
STEEL RAIIB
TABLE XXXVin. — STRENGTH VALUES FOR STRUCTURAL TIMBERS
(Font Sirvi», Qnski 189)
BENDING TESTS ON GREEN MATERIAL
SiM.
J
■3
■3
1
i
1
F. S. at E. L.
H.ofR.
H.o(E.
CUcalitsd
SpHiia.
1
sl
4
ll
J_
1
1
Z
1
1
i
II
II
i
i».
Ins.
Lbs,
u».
IK?
Lb«,
LoDslcftf piitC- , ^ ,-,..,.. .
12X12
10X16
138
168
i
4
28.6
26.8
9.7
16. 7
4099
4193
0.83
,85
6710
6453
0.74
.71
1^
1626
0,99
1,05
261
306
0.86
l.Ol
8X16
156
7
28.4
14.6
3147
.64
5439
.60
1368
,89
390
1,29
6X16
132
1
40.3
21.8
4120
.83
6460
.71
1190
.77
378
1.25
ax 10
ISO
1
31.0
6.2
3680
.72
6500
,72
1412
.92
175
,58
6X 8
180
2
27.0
8.2
3735
,75
5745
.63
1282
,83
121
,40
2X 2
30
15
33.9
U.l
4950
1,00
9070
1,00
1540
1,00
303
1.00
Douglas fir
8X16
5x 8
180
180
191
84
31.5
30.1
u.o
10.8
3968
3693
,761 5983
,71, 5178
-72
.63
1517
1533
,95
,96
269
172
.81
.52
2x12
180
27
35.7
20.3
3721
,71: 5276
.64
1642
1,03
256
.77
2X10
180
26
32.9
21.6
3160
,60, 4699
.57
1593
1,00
189
.57
2X 8
180
29
33.6
17.6
3593
,69 5352
.65
1607
1-01
171
.51
2X 2
24
568
30.4
11.6
5227
1.00 8280
1,00
1597
1.00
333
1.00
Douglas fir (fire-killed} . .
8x16
180
30
36.8
10-9
3503
.80 4994
,64
1531
.94
330
1.19
2x12
180
32
34.2 17.7
3489
,80
5085
.66
1624
.99
347
2X10
180
32
38.9.18,1
3851
,88
5359
.61
1716
1.05
216
;78
2x 8
180
31
37.0.15.7
3403
,78
5305
1676
1.02
169
.61
2x 2
30
290
33.2.17.2
4360
1,00
7752
I'.Ct
1636
1.00
277
1.00
Short leaf pine
8X16
8X14
180
180
12
12
39.5i!2.1
45.812.7
3185
3234
.73
.74
5407
5781
-70
.75
1438
1494
1.03
1.07
362
338
1.40
1,31
8X12
ISO
24
52.2
11 8
3265
,75
5503
.71
1480
1,06
277
1,07
5x 8
180
24
47.8
11-5
3519
.81
5732 ; ,74
1485
1.06
186
.72
2X 2
30
254
51.7
13-6
4360
1.00
7710 ,1,00
1395
1,00
258
1.00
IVsHtern larch < -,-..-.,-, ^
8X16
8X12
180
180
32
30
51.0
50.3
25,3
23,2
3276
3376
,77
.79
4632
5286
.64
-73
1272
1331
.97
1.02
298
254
l.U
,94
5X 8
180
14 :56.025.6
3628
.83
5331
.74
1432
1,09
169
.63
2X 2
189
46,2
26,2
4274
1,00
7251
1.00
1310
1 00
269
1.00
Loblolly pine
8X16
5X12
180
180
17
94
45.8
60.9
6.1
5,9
3094
3030
.75
.74
5394
5028
.69
.64
1406
1383
.98
,96
383
221
1.44
.83
2X 2
30
44
70.9
5,4
4100
1,00
7870
1.00
1440
1.00
265
1.00
Tamarack
BxI2
4X10
162
162
15
15
57.6
43.5
16.6
11,4
2914
2712
,73 4500
.70, 4611
.66
.68
1202
1238
1,05
1,08
255
209
l.Il
.91
2X 2
30
82
38,814,0
3875
1,00 6820
1.00
1141
1-00
229
1.00
Western hemlock
8X16
180
39
42.5
15,6
3516
,80 5296
.73
1445
t.Ol
261
.92
2X 2
28
52
51.8
12,1
4406
1,00 7294 1,00
1428
1,00
284
1.00
Redwood
8X16
6x11
180
180
14
14
86.5
87-3
19,9
17,8
3734
3787
-79 4492
80 4461
,64
.64
1016
1068
,96
1.00
300
224
1.21
,90
180
14
79.8
16.7
4412
.93 5279
,76 1324
1,25
199
.80
180
13
86,1
23,7
3506
,74| 4364
947
255
1.03
2X12
180
12
709
18,6
3100
,65' 3753
:54
1052
!99
187
.75
2X10
180
13
55.8
20,0
3285
,69 4079
,58
1107
1.04
169
.68
2x 8
ISO
13
63.821,5
2989
.63: 4063
.58
1141
1.08
134
.64
2X 2
28
157 75.519.1
4760
1.00 1061
1.00
248
1.00
Norway pine
6X12
4X12
162
162
15 50 312.5
2305
2648
,82
.94
3572 ■ 69 1 987
!:S
201
238
:.i7
18
47,914 7
4107 ,79
1266
4x10
162
16
45,7,13,3
2674
4206 .81
1306
1.36
198
;!i5
2X 2 30
133
32,311,4
2808
5173 'I. 00
960
.00
172
1.00
Red spruce
2X10
144
14
32,5l21.9
2394
3566
,60
1180
.02
181
.80
2X 2
26
60
37,321.3
3627
5900
1.00
1157
,00
227
1.00
White spruce
2X10
2X 2
144
26
16
83
40.71 9 3
2239
3090
;i
3288
5,8.
,63
1.00
1081
998
,08
166
199
.83
.3
10.2
1,00
,, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
167
TABLE XXXVIII. — CoJi(maed
COMPRESSION AND SHEAR TB9T3 ON QREEN MATERIAL
pnin.
*-.
!
1
1
■3
1
1
£
1
6^
1
1
SI
1
i
J
J
1
■5
■5
1
1
In..
4X4
46
26,3
34.7
30.7
309
29,8
34.8
37.9
41,2
43,5
51.4
Lb..
3480
loon
Lbs,
Lb.,
4800
4400
3500
3490
4030
3290
3430
3436
3423
3570
4X4
IB,
4
22
25,3
568
44
...
Douglas fir
6X6 515
5X6170
2X2'902
6X6;I08
2780
2720
3500
2620
1181
2123
1925
1801
4X8
16
259
30.3
570
531
2S,7
765
Douglas fir (fire-killed) . ,
6X8
16
24
33.7
368
77
35.8
631
6X6
5X8
2X2
95
281
2514
2241
1565
1529
5x8
6X8
5x8
5X5
2X2
fivR
16
14
12
8
3
16
12
6
4
8
8
12
12
24
24
277
22
20
53
30
16
37,7
42,8
63,0
47,0
48,5
43,6
40.2
52,8
50.4
67.2
44.6
361
366
325
344
400
417
416
478
472
392
646
179
47.0
704
Western larch
6x6
2X2
107
491
49.1
50.6
2675
3026
1575
1545
3510
179
40.7
700
4X6
4X4
8X4
4X4
Loblolly pine
8X8
4x8
2x2
6X7
4X7
2X2
6X6
2X2
6X6
2X2
14
IS
53
4
6
165
82
131
34
143
63.4
1560
365
691
2140
3560
3240
3032
3360
3190
3355
3392
3882
3980
121
83,2
630
74.0
-riv,
1432
1334
24
39.2
fm
Western hemlock
46.6
66.6
B3.6
72,1
2905
2938
3194
3490
1G17
1737
1240
1222
6x4
6
30
48.7
434
54
05.7, 630
Redwood.
6X8
6x6
6X7
6X3
6x2
6x2
6X2
2X2
16
12
9
14
12
10
8
2
13
14
13
13
12
11
12
186
86.7
83.0
74.7
75.6
66.5
55.0
56.7
75.5
473
424
477
411
430
423
396
560
148
84.2! 742
1
6X7
4X7
2X2
2X2
2X2
5
8
178
58
84
29.0 1928
28 4 2164
26.81
35 4'
905
1063
2404
2652
2504
2750
2370
20
,.,-
2x2
2
2
43
46
31,8
50.
310
270
30 ^32, 61 758
61 0
40 58,0 651
>, Google
168 STEEL RAIIS
TABLE XXXIX. — UNIT STRESSES FOR STRUCTURAL TIMBER RECOMMENDED BY
THE COMMITTEE ON WOODEN BRIDGES AND TRESTLES
AH. RY. ENQ. ASSN.
IFoanda ps Sqnira Iiehl
fiiKlip..
Bb«rinc.
»
Kiodol
Tlmbor.
1E''W
^.'S!.'"
DnlSbnriii
■«-
"sa."
For
ISDums.
&™St««'
15 Dianu.
<s
n
1
fl
-<5
a
1
■^5
n
II
^1
1
n
s!
D04«l«fir ....
SIM
IIOI
i.sio.aoo
eoo
170
270
1,0
»
.,.
3800
1200
«0
■"(-ife)
10
LMcWpiH...
uoo
,m
1.010.000
720
180
300
120
320
2«0
mo
.300
«80
.»(-*&)
10
BboKkBtpiH...
««0D
1100
1.480,000
710
170
330
130
340
170
3400
1100
830
"«(-„'^)
10
VhiUpiM. ...
4400
two
i.i3aooo
400
100
180
70
2*0
150
3000
,««,
750
'-(-«)
10
SpniM
(Wl
lonn
1310.000
imn
110
rn
TO
170
ISO
■^■m
lion
830
uoofi ' •)
Norway plw. . .
4200
«»
1.1».000
m
130
250
100
ISO
20O0*
800
6C0
»(-»)
Tapunck
4«00
too
1.120.000
«70
170
280
lOO
230
3200'
1000
760
■"(>-ife)
llflO
Ml
ton
100
i?ro
too
,»(,_'>
•<"(' ')
Bald<9prwi. -
4800
too
,.,»«»
500
110
340
170
3000
1100
830
"•(-.fe)
urn
470
™
WOO
win
«»(l-ifel
Whiwo^
1100
I.IMUJOO S40
a.
tm
,1.
020
450
3500
.3.0
B80
.»(-sft)
,.
Not<..-T
br imp&ot.
.^^
Pvlii
tatrt)
lyur-dry
..r-
DOOpd
liOBOl
timbi
<ud
l«>Db
beg;!
witbc
tbinbob
•itipcnu.
ng tb« LIvc-hMid
«-.
The difference between green and seasoned wood may amount to as much
as 50 per cent as shown by Table XL. The influence of seasoning consists in
(1) brining by means of shrinkage about 10 per cent more fibers into the same
square inch of cross section than are contained in the wet wood; (2) shrinking
the cell-wall itself by about 50 per cent of its cross section and thus hardening
it, just as a cowskin becomes thinner and hardens by drying.
Table XL applies only to small, clear pieces of wood seasoned under spedal
conditions with great care. The Forest Service has found * that a comparison of
the results of tests on seasoned material with those from tests on green matmal
shows that, without exception, the strength of 2 by 2 inch specunens is increased
by lowering the moisture content, but that increase in strength of other dzes is
* strength Values (or Structural Timbers. McGarvey Cline. Forest Service, Circular 189,
Jan. 25, 1912.
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
169
mucb mcve erratic. Some specimens, in fact, ^ow an apparent loss in strength
due to seasoning. In the li^t of these facts it is not safe to base working stresses
on results secured from any but green material.
TABLE XL.— REDUCTION FACTORS FOR STRESS AT ELASTIC LIMIT IN BEND-
ING OF LONGLEAF PINE
(ForuC Serviee. BullHiii 70)
from-
To-
Houtora
Uoiit
at.
3
*.
«.
a.
10.
11.
14,
IB.
18.
».
12.
Ji,
M.'
2
1
1. 13
1.31
1.53
1.75
1.99
2,20
2-39
2.54
2.70
2.85
2.99
3,14
4
1
1.15
1.35
1.54
1.75
1.94
2.11
2.25
2.52
2.64
2,77
6
>67
,867
1
1.17
1.34
1-52
1,69
1.S3
1.95
2-07
2.18
2.29
2,41
8
.656
.742
.S56
1
1.15
1.30
1.44
1.57
1.67
1,77
1.87
1.96
2.06
10
.572
.MS
.746
.882
I
1.13
1.26
1.37
1.45
1.54
1.63
1.71
1.80
12
.503
.570
.657
.768
.881
I
l.Il
1.20
1.28
1,36
1.44
1.51
1.58
14
.455
.515
.5M
.694
.795
.904
1
1.09
1.16
1.23
1.30
1.36
1,43
16
.419
.475
.547
.639
.733
.832
.921
1
1.07
1.13
1.19
1.26
1,32
IS
.445
.513
.600
.781
.865
1
1,06
1.12
1.17
1.24
20
.'370
.420
.485
.565
^648
.735
,814
^88^
.941
1
1.05
l.U
1.16
22
.351
.397
.45S
.535
.614
.697
,771
.838
,&93
.948
1
1.05
1.10
24
.335
.379
.437
.510
.585
.665
.735
.799
.851
.904
.954
I
1.05
•28
.318
.361
.415
.486
.556
,633
,700
.760
,810
.860
.908
.951
1
A recent instructive series of tests* have been conducted by W. K. Hatt in
the Laboratory for Testing Materials of Purdue University, in cooperation
with the Wood Preservation Committee of the American Railway Engineering
Assodation and with the following organizations:
Big Four Rsulroad Company.
Illinois Central Rmlroad Company.
American Creosoting Company.
Ayer and Lord Tie Company.
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway Company.
Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture.
The principal results of these tests are shown in Table XLI. One of the main
determinations of the tests was of the re^tance of the ties to the direct pressure
of the rail. It was shown that the various treatments had not weakened the ties,
except in the case of ties newly tr^ted with crude oil.
The tie was put through a planer, so that one surface was true. The
othw surface was adzed at the place of bearing to provide a true bearing for
the plate representing the bottom of the rwl or the tie plate.
* Fourth Progreea Report of Tests on Treated Ties, Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. & M. of W.
Asaa., 1910, Vol. II, Part 2.
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
TABLE XLI. — BEARING STRENGTH OF TIES UNDER THE RAIL
(3m FracMdiiica Am. Ry. Eat. & U. ol W. Am., VdL 11. Pmrt I. pp. 8U-4)
Natunl.
TraiWd,
R<in.rk>.
Nc.ol
Tert..
c™|^«
No. or
Tarts.
Ott-
Red oak
100
70
30
20
29
249
Kfflo'""'
612
640
688
830
100
70
30
20
29
2i9
Ll».p«<q. ».
lOSO
591
618
725
791
Loblolly pine
1. Crude oil, 539.
1. Crude oil, 373.
Longteaf pine
Red gum
Total
1. Crude oil, 655.
Tests were made upon 581 half-ties to determine the relation of the crush-
ing strength of the ties with and without the tie plates.
The fiber stress per unit of area of wood under the tie plate at the elastic limit
in the case of the oak are less than those under the rail alone except for plate C
(see F^g. 124). Of course, the total load is greater. This is accounted for by
the perceptible springing of the tie plates, thus producing a non-uniform pres-
i?^'j%>-
Fio. 124.— Tie Plate Fonna i
Teste at Purdue University.
f sz. ^'*^ Stress in Tie Plates at Elaatie
|*7» Limit: A37,500 lbs. peraq. in.; B68,800
fln. per sq. in.; C 59,800 lbs. per eq. in.
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAH.
171
sure on the wood under the tie plate. The loads, therefore, carried with the Md
of a tie plate, while larger, are not increased in the same ratio as the increase
of bearing surface.
In the loblolly-pine ties and in plate C on red oak, no perceptible spring-
'mg of the tie piate was observed within the elastic limit of the timber, the load
being increased in practically the same ratio as the surface.
Tie plate A (see Fig. 124), t'a inch thick, was permanently bent at the
edge of the r^l bearing when the test was carried to J-inch compression on oak
ties. The yielding was confined almost entirely to the edge of the rail bearing.
Tie plate B, J inch thick at edge of the rail, was not permanently bent
by the same test. It, however, springs as much, or more, than plate A, but
the sprin^ng was more uniform. Plate B is harder metal, and this would seem
to be an advantage in this test.
The three tie plates were tested under flexure to determine the quahty
of the metal. The results are shown in Fig. 124.
In the calculations of the strength of the tie, if we take the strength of
the wood as shown by Table XLII, the result will be not far from correct.
The working stress at the r^I bearing given in the table refers to the allowable
stress under the tie plate.
TABLE XLII
WORKING STRESSES FOR TIE TIMBER
Kind of Wood.
Compreauoii M
RaiIB«ariB(.
Oak
Longle&f pine. . .
Inferior woods. ,
Examining the safe load the tie in the track will carry, we have to con-
sider two sources of possible failure of the tie:
1. The compression of the fibers under the tie plate.
2. The rupture of the tie due to too great a bending moment in the tie.
A 6 by 9-inch tie plate gives an area of 54 square inches. Referrmg to
Table XLII, we find the permisdble load on the tie plate to be 27,000 pounds
for oak ties, 17,500 pounds for longleaf yellow pine, and about 11,000 to
13,000 pounds for the inferior woods.
Let us now consider the bending moment in the tie.
,y Google
172 STEEL RAILS
If the tie were completely ri^d, there would result a uniform distribution
of the pressure on the ballast. This is, however, never realized, and there is
an unequal distribution of the pressure.
The tie should be considered as a continuous beam, supporting a vertical
load at two points and resting on material which is, within certain limits, com-
pressible. Exactly what takes place in the ballast under the loaded tie is of
the greatest importance in determining the bending of the tie.
* M. Couard found that the vertical displacements of cross-ties hardly
reach three millimeters (J inch), and that they are not proportional to the
weights supported. He has concluded from his experiments that "the cross-
ties fixed to the raW remain, at certain points, suspended above the ballast,
and that right at the rail there is formed under even the best tamped cross-
ties some depressions of ballast on the edges of which the cross-tie is supported;
that under the passage of a wheel even lightly loaded the cross-ties come in
contact with the ballast and deflect to the depth of the depressions."
Shwedler, Hoffman, Schwald, Riese, and Zimmerman, from the theoretical
researches of Winckler, have derived the elastic curve of the tie represented
Fio. 125. — Elastic Curve of Tie, 7 feet 10.4 Fio. 126. — Elastic Curve of Tie, 8 feet 10.3
iochea long. (After Winckler.) inchea loDg. (After Winckler.)
by Fig. 125 or Pig. 126, according as the cross-tie was 2 m. 40 (7 feet 10.4 inches)
or 2 m. 70 (8 feet 10.3 inches) long.
Very careful experiments have been made by M. Cuenot on the relative
action of the lie and the ballast.f The following record of his tests is taken
from Mr. W. C. Cushing's translation of his work:
"The rails employed were of the type used on the Paris, Lyons and Medi-
terranean, either the P. M. type, of a weight of 39 kilograms per running meter
(78.6 pounds per yard), or the P. L. M.-A. type, of a weight of 34^ kilograms
per running meter (69.5 pounds per yard).
"All my experiments, during nearly three years, have been made, first, on
a side track, then on track No. 2 of the hne from Mouchard to Bourg, trav-
ersed by the express and fast tr^ns, comparatively with oak cross-ties employed
on the P. L. M. system, and with compoate cross-ties (wood and steel). (See
Fig. 127.) Finally, a special track for experiments was laid at the Bourg
• Revue des Chemina de Fer, July, 1897.
t Deformations of Railroad Tracks and the Means of Remedying Them. G. CuSnot, 1007,
New York.
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 173
station, and there was tested, at the same time as the two types of cross-lies
mentioned, the metallic cross-tie in use on the State System.
"The wooden cross-ties were oak, creosoted, and of the following dimen-
sions:
Length 2 m. 60 (8 ft 6.36 in.)
Width 0 m. 22 to 0 m. 25 (8.66 in. to 9.84 in.)
Depth 0 m. 14 to 0 m. 15 (5.51 in. to 5.91 in.)
"The composite cross-tie was composed of a metallic skeleton in the form
of an inverted trough, provided in the interior with two symmetrica] blocks
of wood solidly fixed, and leaving between them an empty central space."
4»Hr .
FiQ. 127. — Wood and Composite Ties uaed in Cuenot's Experiments.
The measuring apparatus for experiments in the static state was as follows:
"There were first placed in the surface of the wood cross-ties, screws with
square heads distributed over their whole length and giving 15 or 16 fixed
points, which were to serve as bench marks for the determination of the defor-
mation. A rigid steel rule in the form of a T (Fig. 128) presented, right at the
points, whose spacing was the same for all cross-ties, vertical rods terminated
by a notch, in which was brought, while resting on the screw with square head,
a gage in the form of an inclined plane, whose divisions were calculated in a
manner to correspond with a tenth of a millimeter. The inclination of the
inclined plane had been so chosen that the interval between two divisions was
at least of 2 centimeters (fVo inch), which allowed estimating the tenth of a
miUimeter with exactness.
,y Google
174 STEEL RAII5
"The rule was fixed in an uncliangeable manner to two stakes of strong
dimensions, buried in the embanlanent about 1 m. 10 (3.61 feet), in order to
eliminate the influence of the load on the supports of the rule. When the
rule was in place, an observer introduced the wedge-shaped gage in the notch,
while mainlining it horizontally on the head of the screw, and stopped it at
the moment when it commenced to become wedged; he then made a first read-
FiG. 128. — Meaauring Apparatus for Ties under Static Load. (Cuenot.)
ing on ail the pdnts of reference, proceeding, for example, from left to right,
then a second, proceeding in the reverse direction, from right to left. The
readings made were recorded and the mean taken, which thus gave the actual
position of the cross-tie.
"The vehicle, which served to load the cross-tie conadered, was brought
up, always taking care to place the same wheels at the same spot with reference
to the piece submitted to the test; it was allowed to remain during about 10
minutes, and the readings were recommenced. Two successive readings were
made, and the mean of them was taken. The diffCTence between the inscribed
means gave the deformation of a cross-tie under the load considered.
"The measuring apparatus (see Fig. 129) for the experiments in the
dynamic state was essentially composed of a stylus arranged in a stable manner
at the face of a plate of smoked glass and fixed on the points of the cross-tie
under observation. The black smoke deposited on the glass plate, which was
displaced at the same lime and by the same amount as the points, was re-
moved by the point of the stylus; the height of the part removed gave the value
of the deflection, or of the raising, of a cross-tie at the points conadered. The
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
175
reading of this heigbt was made by means of a magnifying glass nearly to the
tenth of a millimeter.
" The stylus, with a fiat point of tempered steel, was mounted on a very
flexible spring, which could be approached to or removed from the glass plate
at will, with the aid of a thumbscrew. The glass plate was fixed by screws
on one of the faces of a cross-tie, then smoked in a flame of a candle at the
moment when it was desu^ to put it in service. The thumbscrew passed
through an iron rod and simply
rested on the spring, which, left
free, moved back and forth on
the rod fixed by means of two
bolts on a stake deeply buried in
the soil.
"In order to make an ob-
servation, the screw is pressed
i^ainst the spring until the point
of the stylus comes in contact
with the blackened plate. In
this position a light blow is given
to it, which makes it oscillate
and defines a horizontal trace
of 2 or 3 millimeters' (iH to
-^ inch) length on the black
smoke, which forms the reference
mark.
"At this moment one can
either place the vehicle on the
CTOSs-tie, or allow trains at speed
to pass over it. The height of the part of the glass plate rubbed off by
the point of the stylus gives, above the reference mark, the values of the
depression, and below, the uplift, of the cross-tie. The latter is always
inferior to the former; for the flexure Is important in comparison with the move-
ment of uplift of this piece under the influence of loads at a distance. The
successive influence of each of the axles cannot be noted, but it is solely a maxi-
mum indication which is produced."
The results of the dynamic tests were always slightly less than those
obtained from the static tests. Fig. 130 shows the general results from the
large number of experiments made.
POSITION OF 3 REFERENCE MARK3 R
THE LENGTH OF A CROSS TIE , IN PLAN.
Fio. 129. — Measuring Apparatus for Ties under
Dynamic Load. (Cugnot.)
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
W^';-..H^JIJi.,Y^^ WOOD TIE ^^^T^^^^i^W^^!^^.
&55' ^^T^ — *]
r TAMPED With TJMBINO BAB
3P0NTWK0US
COMPOSITE TIE
Fio. 130. — Results of M. Cuenol'a Tesla on Ties,
The following conclusions have been drawn by M. Cufinot from his ex-
periments:
" (a) The long ties, 8 feet 6.36 inches to 7 feet 6.6 inches, take, under the
load, the form of a basin with the bottom slightly raised in the centra*.
" (6) The short ties, 7 feet 0.6 inch to 6.5 feet, are deformed according to
a curve, convex or otherwise, and inclined toward the extremity.
,yGoog[e
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 177
" (c) The ties between 7 feet 0.6 inch and 7 feet 2.64 inches are lowered
parallel with themselves without sensible curvature.
"(d) The unsymmetrical tamping raised the curve towards the center; a
very feeble lack of symmetry reacts very clearly in this direction.
"(e) It is possible, by increasing the rigidity of a cross-tie, notably by
concentrating the material about the supports, to reduce its anking to the
quantity which is intended as a limit, and its flexure in such measure as one
would wish.
"(J) The permanent sinking of the ballast is variable according to the
case, but the elastic sinking, the only one there is reason to consider, is, so to
speak, constant, whatever be the length and type of the cross-tie adopted. The
deformation is slowly produced and augments with time."
It is here seen that a tie 8 feet 6 inches long, which is the usual length of
tie employed in this country, under proper conditions of tamping, will assume
1_^
Fia. 131. — Strain Diagram of Entire Tie.
the loaded portion shown in Fig. 131. In the figure, the loads W at A and
C represent the load at each r^I.
Considerations of the tamping under the tie will not admit of any exact
mathematical formula for the distribution of the pressure of the ballast. If,
however, as a working hypothesis, we assume that the pressure of the ballast
is uniformly distributed between the rails and that the pressure is similarly
uniformly distributed, but of greater intensity from the rail to the end of the
tie, and, further, that the tangent to the elastic curve of the loaded tie is hori-
zontal under the points of support of the rail, then approximate formulse can
be readily derived for the maximum bending moment in the tie and the greatest
intensity of pressure of the ballast in terms of the load on the tie at either rail
bearing.
This assumption, while not taking into account all the conditions of the
loading (rf the ballast nor giving the exact distribution of pressure under the
tie, will, nevertheless, when applied to an 8-foot 6-inch wood tie, afford a means
of determining the maximum bending moment and the greatest intensity of
pressure with sufficient accuracy for our purpose, and very possibly as exactly
as the present state of our knowledge of the subject warants.
,y Google
178 STEEL RAII5
Where it is desired to investigate the action of ties in a more tlxorough
manner, the calculations may be proceeded with in the same manner as those for
the case where the rail acts as a continuous girder in Article 23. It should be
borne in mind, however, that the coefficient of the ballast or the ratio of pressure
to sinking is not the same for all parts of the tie, but with proper conditions of
tamping is considerably greater xmder the tie in the region adjacent to the rail
bearing.
Keferring to Fig. 132, the moments at the supports A and C are equal
and each ^ W'U, where W is the total load uniformly distributed over
Fia. 132. — Strain Diagram of Tie between Rails.
the span U. The bending moment at the center of the span B is a** W'U.
Therefore, the maximum bending moment occurs at the supports and is
M, = I'a W'U.
The free part of the tie outside the rail acts as a cantilever; the maximum
bending moment occurs at C and is M, = i W"U', where W" is the total
load uniformly distributed over the span L" (Fig. 133).
Fig. 133. — Strain Diagram of Tie outside of Rails.
Conadering the tie as a whole, Fig. 131, we have, from the principle of the
continuous girder, M^ = -^.j W'U = ^ W"U', but for an effective length of the
tie of 100 inches, L' = 60 inches and L" = 20 inches;
therefore ^\ W' 00 = ^ W" 20
W' - 2 W".
But the reaction at any support is equal to the algebraic sum of the shear
to the right and left of the support, and
W =J,,+ J,,
W = ^W' + W"
W = ^W' + ^W'
W =W' =2 W",
where
W = the load at either rail b«uTng,
J^i - the shear immediately to the left of C,
J„ = the shear immediately to the right of C.
,y Google
SUPPOETS OF THE RAIL
Substituting the value of W in the equation for the maximum bending
moment.
M. = M. - M„
M. = A W X 60,
M. - 6 W,
where
M^ = maximum bending moment,
M^ = bending moment at A,
M. - " " " C.
Theextremeflberstress, /-^-^, or W - £ •
For
a rectangular
tie l-^"^*-'A',
"'- » - 12 ■ 2 - 6 '
and
" 80
Turning to Table XLII, we find the allowable extreme fiber stress in bend-
ing 1000 pounds per square inch for oak, and 750 pounds per square inch for
the inferior woods. We can, therefore, prepare Table XLIII, showing the safe
load that the tie can bear and not exceed a proper bending stress.
TABLE XLIII. — ALLOWABLE LOAD ON TIE AS DETERMINED
FROM EXTREME FIBER STRESS IN BENDING
KiDj<orW(»ii
SiieoITi.,
Allowable Load
InchH.
7X8
7X9
•Half round
7X8
7X9
•Half round
Poyads.
13,100
14,700
15,000
g,800
11,000
11,300
17. Bearing on the Ballast
Considering now the bearing power of the ballast on which the tie rests,
the maximum loading on the ballast under the tie per linear inch of the tie,
from the preceding article, is
W" _ W
20 2 X 20'
,y Google
180
STEEL RAILS
To express W in terms of the bearing power per square foot of the ballast
(p), and the width in inches of the base (6), we have the allowable load per
linear inch of the tie equal to
hp _ W
144 2 X 20'
^ = &-
For bearing on gravel or broken stx)ne, not well confined, three tons pra*
square foot is as much as should be allowed.
We may now prepare Table XLIV, showing the safe load that can be
applied at each rail bearing as determined by the proper load on the ballast.
Width oIBa»o( Tie.
Beuini of the Tie.
InchB.
8
9
•12
Pound..
13,500
15,000
20,000
18. Bearing on the Subgrade
Before assuming a proper bearing under the tie, an examination must be
made of the distribution of the load to the subgrade. The following experi-
ments have been made in Germany to determine the distribution of force upon
the subgrade.*
An experimental box, 37 inches long, 20 inches high, and 6 inches wide, was
filled with a layer of clay 8 inches high at the bottom, on top of which was placed
a layer of sand 6 inches high, and then a layer of gravel 6 inches high, upon
which a tie was laid. This tie was tamped with the ordinary tamping pick and
then subjected to a load of 57 pounds per square inch, or 8200 pounds per
square foot, by which the rail level was depressed. By the use of an eccentric
the loading was alternately lifted from the tie and again returned, thus imitating
the process of passing a loaded wheel over the track. As soon as the tie had
settled 1.2 inches, which was registered upon an attached sliding plate, the
tie was again raised and tamped. From time to time photog aphic views
and observations as to the stage or condition of the experiment were taken
• Gloaer's Annalen fur Gewerbe und Bauwesen. May, 1899. (EHrector Schubert.) Transla-
tion appeara in Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. & M. of W. Assn., Vol. 7, p. 105.
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 181
by removing the front wall of the experimental box. After the eleventh tamp-
ing the experiment was considered as completed, and the section shown in
Fig. 134 was taken.
From this view we can eaaly see how a short depression, measuring about
12 inches to 14 inches wide, has been formed in the clay, with an upward swelling
Fto. 134. — Ballast Experiment — Schubert. Six inches of sand and 6 inchea of gravel.
on each side. The pressure transmitted from the tie has accordingly distributed
itself over this small width when the depth below the bottom of the tie was
12 inches.
In a subsequent experiment, broken stone was used in place of gravel;
otherwise the procedure was the same. From a photograph of the section
after the fifth tamping (see Fig. 135) a depresaon in the clay extending nearly
Fia. 135. — Ballast Experiments — Schubert. Six inches of sand and 6 inches of stone.
over the entire width of the experimental box (27^ inches to 29j inches wide)
is noticeable. The distribution of the force is consequently double that of
the previous experiment.
Still more favorable appears this distribution when the height of the stone
ballast is increased. In doing this, it is judidous to retmn a thin layer of sand
so as to prevent the larger pieces of broken stone from entering into tiie clay.
,y Google
182 STEEL RAILS
As will appear from the section shown in Fig. 136, a depres^on in the clay has
not taken place, and only a few of the broken stones have gone through the
sand to the clay. In emptying the box only a very unimportant depresaon
was noticeable.
FlO. 136. — BallsHt Experimenta — Schub«rt. Stone with thin layer ot Bond.
Finally, the behavior of a foundation layer was investigated, and after
the fourth tamping the section shown in Fig. 137 was taken. The stones of
the foundation layer have penetrated the clay rather deep, and not only those
in the center, but also stones on the sides, from which we can conclude that
Fio. 137. — Ballast Experiments — Schubert. Stone resting on clay subgrade.
the force transmitted through the tie has distributed itself nearly over the
entire width of the box.
Hence, the most favorable distribution of forces is accomplished by the
use of ballast of broken stone, with or without a foundation layer. The latter
is, however, not suitable m a yielding subgrade, inasmuch as the stones pene-
trate into the grade, and the yielding soil will swell into the spaces, thus making
the drainage ineffective.
The ^ect of overloading the subgrade is very clearly shown in Pig. 138.
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 183
* The road department of the Pennsylvania RaUroad has installed an
interesting piece of apparatus on the grounds of the South Altoona foundry
to test the bearing qualities of different kinds of roadway and ballast. The
Fio. 138. — Effect of Overloading the Subgrade. (Am. Ry. Eog. Aaen.)
particular ballast or subgrade to be tested is placed in three heavy boxes tiiat
extend across the track and have sufficient depth to serve the purpose. The
track crosses this on a level and extends out on either side, terminating in a short
Fig. 139. — Pennayivania Track Testing Apparatus. (Railway Age Gazette.)
and sharp incline. A four-wheel car on this track is loaded with pig metal to
obtain any desired weight on the wheels. This car is also equipped with electric
motors. A shed built across the track carries an overhead rail, from which a
motor current is obtained, and a contact shoe is on the car. Fig. 139 illus-
trates the apparatus.
• Railway Age Gaiette, June 11, 1909. and July 21, 1911.
,y Google
184 STEEL RAILS
When current is turned on, the car moves out to the end of the conductor
rail, and here, as the contact is broken, the power of the motor is shut off. The
car runs on until stopped by the adverse grade, and meanwhile a trip reverses
the current connections to the motor. Stopped by the grade, the car runs back,
beneath the current rail, when its motor drives it to the other end, where the
movement is again reversed. In this way the car is made to travel back and
forth automatically over the track until the desired results are obtained, the
number of trips being automatically registered upon a counter.
These tests are the most extensive of the land ever conducted in this
country. It was felt that while the data obtained by Mr. Schubert were very
instructive yet more valuable data could be obtained from a series of experi-
ments if made in a manner more nearly approaching actual track conditions.*
The track was 109 feet in length, built of new P. R. R. standard
85-pound rail with 7-inch by 9-inch by 8§-foot ties spaced 25i inches center
to center. It being impracticable to run the car faster than about five
miles per hour, at which speed any effect upon the track, due to impact
alone, would be negligible, a weight of 75,000 pounds per axle was chosen
for the experimental truck.
A series of five tests has been completed; the first one beginning on Sept.
2, 1908, and the last one ending on Aug. 2, 1910. Table XLV gives general
data of the tests. Water was applied by sprinkling the boxes to observe the
effect of moisture on the ballast; the amount applied in each test is shown in
the table by inches of rainfall.
In test No. 1 the line of demarkation between the bottom of the ballast
and the roadbed material was not straight. The test showed conclusively that
a depth of 8 inches of trap-rock ballast, when laid on the usual roadbed ma-
terial, was not sufficient to distribute the weight carried by the ties uniformly
over the roadbed.
The results in the third box showed, however, that if 12 inches of per-
meable material, such as cinder, were used beneath the 8 inches of ballast, the
distribution of the weight over the roadbed material was much better.
The results of the first test led to the second test to determine how a depth
of 12 inches, 18 inches, and 24 inches of trap rock under the ties would behave.
In test No. 2 the dividing line between the ballast and the loam was quite
straight in box No. 3, but in boxes Nos. 1 and 2 there existed some depressions
in the line especially under the rail.
• Experiments to Determine the Neiiessary Depth ot Stone Ballast. Report of the Geoeral
Manager's Committee Penosylvania Railroad. Proceediogs Am. Ry. EDg. Assn., 1912, Vol. 13.
>, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL
185
A study of the sections in test No. 3 showed that the loam was more evenly
depressed in box No. 3 than in the other boxes where stone had been substi-
tuted for part of the cinder during the test.
Test No. 4 showed that the gravel and slag distributed the pressure upon
the loam with about the same efficiency.
Test No. 5 was made to determine whether a combination of rock and
cinder would prove as satisfactory as the rock alone. It was found, however,
that the tine between the ballast and the loam in box No. 3 was not as good
as in box No. 3 of Test No. 2.
TABLE XLV. ~ SUMMARY OF ROADBED TESTS AT ALTOONA.
TwtNo.
■
=
'
•
let P.rl.
Ind Pan.
lit Part.
lad Part.
let Fait.
2nd Pari.
T
KK
Apr. IB. IB09
Jime IS. 1909.
lely 20.IBm.
it.V.i'^
Oct. IV, IWD
Nov. 17, 1B0»
Nov. 17. IKOe
Dec.J. 1»0».
May le. I BIO
lui»24.IB10
Jue 24, igio
Aof. 2, 1910.
BisMo. I
BoiNo-S
No. Ol RMDd
BoiNo.8
RsiBlell
B'tnvniek
27'Hiidy
kWD
K-'SS"
u- bid elm-
SI.«00
f
Ii; trap rock
M;tnpTDak
4fl,fl32
24; cinder
24; cinder
trap rock
L'Bchuged
I2'«iidy
4S,H1
f
"Lis .2
40,080
1^
24' cinder
IJ-audy
ie,2io
10' cinder re-
moved end
S3.0M
I-
For computing the bearing on subgrade we are furnished a method * by
Mr. Thomas H. Johnson, who has made a study of Director Schubert's report
with a view to deriving a formula which would show the thickness of ballast
necessary to produce an equal distribution of the axle loads on the surface
of the roadbed underneath the ballast.
Referring to fig. 140, the following formuke are su^ested by Mr. Johnson :
For gravel, ab = x = b' + ^d'.
For stone, ah = x = b' + d'.
The relatively small arcs will approxinoate to parabolas and may be con-
ffldered as such.
• Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. & M. of W. Asm., 1906, Vol. 7.
,y Google
186
STEEL RAIIS
The intensity of pressures is proportional to the ordinates of the carve.
Areas of parabolic segment = Ixy; hence, mean ordinate = f y, or mean
pressure = | maximum pressure, or maximum pressure equal to | mean pressure.
Pressure at 6 =0; hence, to obtain an approximately uniform distribution
over the surface of roadbed, the tie spacing S must be such that the curves
overlap and have a common ordinate, y' = hv- This will occur when db = {cb;
or eb = \ ab; OT mo = i mn.*
We should obviously aim to space the tie so that the area of distribution
of adjacent ties will overlap and give approximately an equal distribution of
the axle loads on the surface of the roadbed underneath the ballast.
Fia. 140. — Distribution ot Pressure to Subgrade. (Johnson.)
With a tie spacing of 23 inches centre to centre of ties, by applying Mr.
Johnson's formula, we find that it will be necessary to use 45 inches of gravel
ballast and 22 inches of stone ballast under the tie to obtain equal distribution
on the subgrade.
Tie spacing, iS = 23 inches = | x.
For gravel, S = i{b' +h d'),
or S = J 6' + I d',
N'=5-f6',
and d' = I (S - 1 6') = I (23 inches - 1 8 inches) = 45S mches.
For stone, S = H&' + d'),
or S = f &' + 2 d',
and d' = j (S - f 6') = 4 (23 inches - f 8 inches) = 22J inches.
* Approximate; to be exact, db « 0.29 eb and mo = 0.71 mn.
>, Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 187
It will be seen that unless an excessive depth of ballast is used, a uniform
distribution of pressure on the subgrade will not be obtained. However, if the
maximum pressure on the subgrade does not exceed its allowable bearing po^er,
the fact that it is not uniformly distributed will not necessarily prove detrimental.
From the above, we see that the maximum pressure = | mean pressure;
W
but from article 17 the mean pressure is ^rp ' and the maximum pressure is,
therefore,
2 ^40 a: 27 1'
Substituting the value of x for stone and gravel ballast, we have the maxi-
mum pressures:
Gravel ballast, ^.^^^L, (i,
w
stone baUart, ^ri^Tr,- f^)
We may take the depth d' for gravel ballast as 18 inches and for stone as
12 inches. Equations (1) and (2) will, therefore, reduce to:
Gmvel ballast, 27(5*^9) ■ <''
w
stone ballast, 27{b' + 12)' <^^
Equations (3) and (4) are, then, the expressions for the maximum pressure
on the subgrade per square inch, in t^ms of the load on the tie and the width
of the base of the tie.
For bearing on clay foundation, subject to frost and usually made ground,
1 to 1^ tons per square foot is good practice. Therefore, putting equations (3)
and (4) equal to the bearing power of the subgrade, we can obtain the value of W.
3000 W
Gravel ballast,
Stone ballast,
144 27 (6' +9)
3000 W
144 27 (6' + 12)
From which
Gravel ballast, W = 563 (6' + 9),
Stone ballast, W = 563 (6' + 12),
NoTB. — Frofeesor Talbot is now engaged on teeta at the Univeraity of riinoiB having for their
purpose the detemunation of the distributioD of pressure in gravd. These teeta are not complete, but
the evidence produced so far appears to indicate that the pressure under the center of the tie ae shown
in Fig. 140 is less than that at the edges, due to a distinct arching effect of the material under the tie.
A very great difference in the distributing power of the sand was noted under different conditions of
dampneas. These tests when finished will doubtless furnish information of T«lue in reference to the
distribution of the rail pressure to the subgrade-
>, Google
188
STEEL RAIIS
where W is the safe load in pounds applied to the tie at the rsul bearing and
b' is the width of the tie at its base in inches.
Table XL VI shows the value of W for the different ties under conaderation.
TABLE XLVL — ALLOWABLE LOAD APPLIED TO TIE AT RAIL BEARING
AS DETERMINED FROM BEARING ON SUBGRADE
Width of Ti.
B.,1^.
^SJ?
Kind.
Depth batow
Tie-
8
9
12
8
9
12
Gravel
Gravel
Gravel
Stone
Stone
Stone
is
18
18
12
12
12
Poimde.
9,600
10,100
11,800
11,300
11,800
13,500
19. Supporting Power of the Tie
Table XLVII assembles the information given in the previous tables.
TABLE XLVII. — BEARING POWER OF TIES IN THE TRACK
7X1«. lailochei
% Feet 0 inchee.
(Halt Round.)
Allowable load, io pounds applied at bearing of
rail on tie. as determined by:
Bearing of tie plate.
Oak
Longleal yellow pine
Inferior woods
Bending of tie,
Oak
Inferior woods
Bearing on ballast
Bearing on grade,
IS-inch gravel ballast
12-incb stone ballast
27,000
17,500
1 11,000
(13,000
27,000
17,500
11,000
13,000
It would apparently seem that the weakest part of the substructure of the
track lies in the bearing on the subgrade. In some cases of a very weak sub-
grade, as in the muskeg swamps of Canada, it has been found necessary to
resort to unusual methods of track construction in order to maintain the track
in proper condition. Mr. D. MaePherson reported at the January, 1912,
meeting of the Canadian Society of Civil Engineers the use of 12-foot ties in a
,y Google
SUPPORTS OF THE RAIL 189
stretch of track over muskeg, the resulting cheapening in cost of maintenance
apparently fully warranted the extra expense of the large ties.
If we consider the effect of the dynamic load, it will be noted from the
discussion in the previous articles that the sinking of the tie in the ballast undra-
the action of the dynamic load is little, if any, greater than under the static
load, although the dynamic load is from 50 to 75 per cent greater in amount
than the static load.
As the calculations of the strength of the track must be made for the greatest
load put upon it, which is the dynamic load, it would seem desirable to increase
somewhat the safe bearing values ^ven in the table as determined by the bend-
ing of the tie and bearing on the ballast and subgrade. We are not warranted,
however, in assuming a like increase in strength at the bearing of the tie plate
under the action of the dynamic load, as the effect of the moving loads is, in
this case, to reduce the strength of the wood.
Examining Table XLVII as it applies to dynamic loading, it is seen that
a bearing value of 14,000 pounds, or 7 tons, on half the tie can probably be
taken with safety except in the case of the bearing of the plate on the soft-wood
tie. The use of a soft wood, as cedw or loblolly pine, for ties under heavy
traffic, with the customary form of plate and fastening in use in this country,
is to be discouraged, and the general tendency at the present time is to use a
wood better adapted to resist mechanical wear under these conditions.
The rail in the track acts as a continuous girder, resting upon yielding
supports. Evidently, therefore, not only must the allowable safe load on each
lie be determined, but the yielding of the tie under the pressure of the r^l must
as well be considered.
The relation of the bearing power of the tie to the amount it is depressed
in the ballast is not thoroughly understood.
The German engineers, Weber, Winckler, and Zimmerman, have advanced
the theory that the pressure, P, of the ballast per unit of surface of the cross
tie which it supports is, at each point, in direct ratio with the anldng, Y, of
the latter; or P= CY when C is a coefficient depending upon the character
(rf the ballast. The researches of these engineers may be summed up as follows:
(a) The results of experiments are stated to agree quite closely witii the
supposition that the pressure on the unit of surface is in direct proportion with
the measure of the sinking.
* (6) With a subsoil supposed to be good, the magnitude of the coefficient
of ballast has been found: for gravel ballast (without metalled bed) C= 3; for
* Piu kilograms per gquare ceatimeter; Y in centimetera.
>, Google
190
STEEL RAU^
gravel ballast (with metalled bed) C = 8; for ballast of small stones and sccHise
(c) The anking observed under a load in motion, at speeds varying from
40 to 60 kilometers (24.85 to 37.28 miles) per horn', was not much greater than
the sinking observed under the same load in a state of repose.
Here again the fact that we are dealing with a dynamic load must be borne
in mind, and at high speeds, when the dynamic augment of the wheel load is
greatest, the bearing value of the tie corresponding to a given depression in
the ballast is largely increased.
The amount the tie is depressed in the track may be judged from the follow-
ing evidence.
Dr. P. H. Dudley gives from 0.2 inch to 0.4 inch as tiie amount the
general running surface of the rail is below the trackman's surface. Director
Schubert states that a wooden tie is depressed from 0.3 inch to 0.4 inch
brfore it reaches a solid bearing. M. Couard observed that the maximum de-
presdon of the tie was about 0.12 inch, and states that the amount of depres^on
is not proportional to the load.
Fig. 130 shows M. Cuenot's tests in which a depresMon is left under the
tie of about 0.04 inch and the loaded tie is depressed about 0.12 inch.
* Fig. 141 illustrates an apparatus used by Bell for measuring and recording
the deflection of the rmls at various speeds. The following were the results
obtained by tiie passage of a trsun in which the weights were:
Tdh.
Cwt.
46
33
22
12
18
71
Total weight of six carriages.
HpaKlofTnua.
UilM p« Hour.
4.2
14.3
26.7
40.4
57.1
65.2
0.25
0.25
0.27
0.25
0.33
0.30
The depression of the tie in the ballast is very erratic. Table LIX shows
that in the tests made by the United States government on the depression of
* The Development of the Manufacture and Use of KailB L
;. of Civil Engra., Vol. CXLII, April, igOO, p. 133.
Great Britain, Bell. Proceeding
>, Google
SUPPORTS OP THE RAIL 191
rails the mean depresaon, under the drivers of an eagine having axle loads of
44,000 pounds, was as follows:
60-pound rail 073-inch deflection
70-pound rail 138-inch deflection
85-pound rail 233-inch deflection
All of these depressions were obtained in gravel ballast with static wheel loads
and give results the reverse of what might have been expected.
Fio. 141. — Bell's Apparatus for Measuring Deprt
Fig. 142 shows the relation of the depression to the pressure on the tie.
The dotted hnes give Zimmerman's coefficients 3 and 8 and the dash line that
suggested by Freeman's discussion in Article 21. These curves are strjught
LOAD PER LINEAR INCH UNDER 0^4E LINC OF RAILS
(TIES SPACED aOIN) TONS (2000 LBS)
S P
g o
LOAD ON ONE HALF OF TIE TONS (2000 LBS>
Fio. 142. — B«action of Tie.
lines plotted through the origin, this appears to be Freeman's assumption, but
in the case of Zimmerman's analysis, owing to different parts of the tie depress-
ing unequally, some variation should probably be made from a straight line.
,y Google
192 STEEL RAILS
It is qjiite evident that under the tie at the rail there is formed a depression
of ballast, that even under a comparatively hght pressure the tie deflects to
the depth of this depression, and that from this moment only is the relation of
the deflection to the load of importance.
From Mr. Love's analysis of the Government rail experiments (Article 23)
we are furnished with a means of determining the relation between the pressure
and deflection after the tie comes to a bearing in the ballast. The points plotted
in Fig. 142 are obtained from Mr. Love's diagrams and represent the reaction
of the tie referred to the depression measured from the highest point in the
elastic curve of the rml between two drivers. The tie is assumed to come to a
sohd be^ng at 0.20-inch depression below the trackman's surface.
Bearing in nund that these points are obtained from a static !oad and
that as far as the stresses in the rail are concerned the depth the tie depresses
before it comes to a solid bearing is of comparatively small importance, we may
construct the curve of pressures shown by the full line in Fig. 142.
It is very probable that what really takes place is shown by the full line in
the figure. The rail deflects under light pressures in some cases to as much as
0.20 inch and the tie comes in contact with a compact bed of ballast and the
pressure from this point rises very rapidly in proportion to the deflection. In
general it was found from the government tests that the ties in the center of the
span between the drivers on light rail were supporting very hght loads although
in some cases they were considerably depressed in the ballast (see Plate XXIII)
and for this reason it appeared that a better knowledge of the action of the
ballast would be gained by referring the depresdon to the highest point in the
rail between the wheels rather than to the trackman's surface. In the figure
the pressure on the tie under the highest point of the rail between two drivers
is plotted with a deflection of 0.20 inch below the trackman's surface and all the
other deflections in the span referred to this.
Above the limits of the experiments, the curve is flattened to provide for
more rapid sinking caused by the increased pressure.
,y Google
CHAPTER IV
stresses in the rail
20. Stress at Point of Contact of the Wheel wfth the Rail
Passing from an examination of the external forces acting ux>on the rail
to a consideration of the resulting stresses they produce in the material of the
rail, let us first examine the stress at the point of contact between the wheel
and the rail.
The essence of the wheel is that its theoretical bearing surface shall be a
mathematical line or point, affording no area of bearing surface whatever.
In practice this is not strictly the case, owing to the elastic compressibility of
the surface, but the bearing surface is always very small, nor can it be increased
to advantage by making either the wheel or bearing surface more compressible.
To such bearing surfaces the ordinary compression moduli of the textbooks have
no application, as they are derived from experiments upon prisms which have
the same bearing surface as the greatest section, or nearly so.
Fio. 143. FiQ. 144. Fia. 145.
Condition of Free Flow. Partially Restricted Flow. Restricted Flow.
Compression Moduli. (After Johnson.)
* When a plain cylindrical column is subjected to a uniform compression
stress over its entire cross section, as in Fig. 143, it may be said to be in a con-
dition of "free flow," since it is free to spread in all directions throughout the
length of the column. In Fig. 144 the material is compressed uniformly over
a small area, as with a die. Here there is a flowing of the metal laterally, and
• Paper contributed by Profeesor Johnson to the EngineerB' Club of St. Louk, December, 1892.
,y Google
194 STEEL RAII5
then vertically, iinding escape around the edges of the die. This is a condition
of confined or restricted flow, and evidently the elastic limit here will be much
higher than with the simple column.
In Fig. 145 the surface is compressed by a cylinder, the greatest distortion
being at the middle of the area of contact. When this metal is forced to move,
or flow, it can find escape only out around the limits of the compressed area.
But at these limits the metal is very little compressed, and, hence, must be
moved from the center. The confined ring of metal inside the limits of external
flow is now much wider, and, hence, the resistance to flow much greater, so that
this condition will be found to have a higher elastic limit stress than that shown
in Fig. 144, and very much above the ordinary " elastic limit in compression "
which is found for the free-flow condition of Fig. 143.
A careful set of experiments was made by Professors Crandall and Marston*
to determine the elastic limits of steel rollers on steel plates. In these experi-
ments eleven rollers were employed, from one inch to 16 inches in diameter,
with pressures varying from 1000 to 14,000 pounds. Their results showed
that the elastic limit load with soft steel rollers on steel plates per linear inch is
P - 880 D,
where P = load in pounds per linear inch of roller,
D = diameter of roller in inches.
Professor Johnson t experimented to determine the area of contact between
locomotive and car wheels and rails. Sections of wheels were mounted in a
100,000-pound Riehle testing machine and short sections of rail were placed
in the machine so that the wheel treads rested upon them in a normal position.
They were then loaded with 5000-pound increments from 5000 to 60,000
pounds, the area of contact being measured after each loading. These actual
areas of contact are given two thirds actual size in Fig. 146, and in Fig. 147 the
areas are plotted with the area of contact as abscissa and the loads as ordinates.
Professor Johnson states that no permanent distortion was noted upon either
rails or wheels at the contact surface up to the 60,000-pound limit. It is seen
from Fig. 147 that these areas plot practically upon a straight line through the
origin, indicating that the area is directly proportional to the load. This being
true, it must follow that the load divided by the area of contact, or the average
stress per square inch over the area of contact, is a constant for all loads. This
constant is something over 80,000 pounds per square inch.
" Friction Rollers by C. L. Crandall and A. Marston, Trans. Am. 8oc. of Civil Engrs., August,
1894, Vol. XXXII, pp. 99-129.
t DiscuBsion of Crandall and Maraton'a paper on Friction Rollers. Trans. Am. Soc. of Civil
Engra., September, 1894, Vol. XXXII, pp. 270-273.
,y Google
STHESSES IN THE RAIL
* Mr. Fowler, in his experiments on the relation of the load on the wheel
to the area of the spot, found:
L«doiiWb»l.
An ot Spot.
Pound..
Sqiun Inch.
6,000
0.11
10,000
0.12
11,500
0,13
14,500
0,15
16,500
0-17
17,500
0.18
19,000
26,000
0.20
The following conclusions are drawn by Mr. Fowler from tests on the
contact areas between wheels and rails: f That the average pressure on the
metal in wheel and rail is within the safe limits at low loads, but at a load of
20,000 pounds the elastic limit is reached and permanent set begins in the rail;
DIRECTION ALONG RAIL
oooobOOOn
20000 30000 40O00
WooooOOOO
9000 tOOOO 20000 SOOQO 40000 9000O lbs.
Fig. 148. — Area ot Contact between Wheel and Kail. (Johnson.)
that the accumulated pressure at the center of the contact area Ls excessive
with comparatively small loads, and is only prevented from doing injury by
the support of the surrounding metal; that the effect of difference in diameter
in wheels under the same load is insignificant and only appreciable when the
difference is great; that a hard and unyielding cast-iron wheel damages the
rail more than a steel wheel, and the wear of the rail will be greater with cast-
iron than with steel wheels.
* ProceedingB Kttabun; Railway Club, November, 1907.
t Bulletin of the International Railway Congress, London and Brussels, 1008, pp. 651-663.
G. L. Fowler, Contact Areas between Wheels and Rails. See also G. L. Fowler, The Car Wheel 1907,
p. 161. Giving the results of a series of investigations made for the Shoen Steel Wheel Co.
>, Google
196
STEEL RAIIS
* Hbnigsberg describes a method proposed to be applied to measure the
actual forces between the wheel and the rail. This is based on the fact that
polished surfaces of iron or steel show peculiar markings — sometimes known
as Luder's Lines — on the limit of elasticity being exceeded. As the limit of
elasticity can be artificially raised to any value between the primitive elastic
limit and the breaking strength, this gives a means of making standard test
I_OAD ON WHEEL IN POUNDS
Fia. 147. — Relation between Ateae of Contact and Load on Wheel. (Att«r Johnmn.)
pieces; since when lines appear it may be concluded that the artificially raised
limit has been exceeded.
If a wheel passing over two calibrated pieces of metal causes the lines to
appear on one and not on the other, it may be concluded that the actual stress
caused by the wheel lies between the elastic limits of the two standard pieces.
Tire wear would seem to indicate that the elastic limit of the metal was
exceeded or too closely approached. The investigation of a committee of the
Master Mechanics Association in 1895, on the wear of locomotive tires, has thrown
interesting li^t on this subject.
* Measurement oT Forces between Rail and Wheel. 0. Hdnigaberg, Organ fQr die Fortachritte
des Eisenbahnwesens, Wiesbaden, 1901, pp. 109-160.
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 197
* Fig. 148 shows a diagram of the average wear of the tires of the
fifty-three ten-wheel engines for which the calculations plotted in Fig. 7
were made, and Fig. 149 shows the same data of the eight-wheel engines
shown in Fig. 6.
The lower diagrams in Figs. 148 and 149 show the ratio of the rotative
force to the weight on the rail, which we may call the " coefficient of slip."
Since the coefficient of slip is the rotative force at the rail divided by the total
weight of the drivers on the rail, it is evident that as this coefficient increases
the tendency of the drivers to slip increases, and when it just equals the coeffi-
cient of friction between the tire and rail the engine is on the point of slipping.
The committee of the Master Mechanics Association in its report says:
An examination of the tire wear shown in Figs. 148 and 149 shows no dis-
tinct relation between the worn spots and the curves of maximum pressure
of the wheels as given in Figs. 6 and 7. A very clear relation can, however,
be traced between the worn spots and the parts of the wheel where the greatest
coefficient of slip is combined with the heaviest wheel pressure.
Local peculiarities of the tire, such as soft spots in it, as well as flat spots
caused by slight sliding, aflfect the final contour of the worn tire, and it is only
by taking the average wear at the same point on a large number of tires that
the irregularities due to general conditions show themselves with the necessary
clearness.
Referring to the diagram of the average wear of the tire of the fifty-three
ten-wheel freight engines shown in fig. 148, first we will consider the wear of
the front and back tires only, as these wheels were overbalanced, the main
wheels being underbalanced, and, on account of the effect of the angularity of
the main rod, subject to quite different conditions from the others.
Directing our attention to the wheels on the right side of the engine, an
inspection of the figure shows quite uniformly, in both right forward and back
tires, two locations of maximum wear, one beginning at about 160° and attain-
ing its maximum at 220° or 230°, the other becoming pronounced at about
10° or 20" and attaining its maximum at about 50°. It will also be noticed that
both of these low spots are connected from 220° to 50° in the direction of rotation
by a portion of the tire much more worn than that portion from 50° to 220°.
To xmderstand the cause of this irregular wear, it is necessary to bear in
mind that there are at least two ways in which driving wheels are slipped: first,
when the slipping is slightiy but distinctiy noticeable, extending through but
a small portion of the revolution; second, when the hold on the r^ is entirely
* Proceedings Am. B.y. M. Mech. Aagn., Vol. 28.
>, Google
WEAR ON TIRES
^■^LErr DBivei^"^ ZZ. ^^
COEFFICIENT OF SuP 30 MILES PER HOUR
COEFFICIENT OF SUP 40 MILES PER HOUR
COEFFICIENT or SLIP eO MILES PER HOUR
Fia. 148. —Tire Wear, Ten-wheel Engioes. (Am. Ry. M. Mecli .\s8n.)
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL
FROWT TIRE
BACK TIRE !^
TROMT .TIBE %
BACK TIRE
■SA/EAR OF TIRES
COEFFICIENT OF SLIP ENGINE JUS"
^
^
COEFFICIENT OF SUP 40 MILES PER MOUH
COEFFICIEMT or SLIP 60 MILES PER MOUR
Fw. 149. — Tire Wear, Eight-wheel Eagines. (Am. Ey. M. Mech. Asaa.)
,y Google
200 STEEL RAILS
broken, and the wheels slip through a number of revolutions, usually turning
with considerable velocity.
The first case, of slipping through but a small part of a revolution, occurs
almost without exception on heavy pulls at slow speed, often being seen when
an en^ne is pulling hard on a hill with just enough sand being used to avoid
serious slipping, but not enough to prevent a slight slip at points where the
rotative force is the greatest. The beginning of slip must occur under these
conditions at or near the maximum of the coefficient of slip. Referring to
Fig. 148, we find a maximum value of the coefficient of slip at 40° to 50°, and
130° to 140° with engine just starting. At 20 miles per hour, the maxima are
at 40° and 130°, and at this speed the tendency to slip at 100° is also almost as
great as at the other points. The figure shows a small spot following 100° on
the front tire, but none is seen on the back. The diagrams on Fig. 7 indicate
the cause, as the pressure of these wheels upon the rail at 100° is almost at a
minimum and is much less than at 140° to 160°.
It is also noticeable that the amount of wear following 160° is greater than
that following 40° or 50°, for the same reason. This variation in pressure upon
the Tsil increases rapidly with the speed, and Fig. 7 shows very clearly that
following 40° the pressure of the front and back wheels on the right side
decreases very rapidly, while the reverse is the case following 160°.
The same conditions as to pressure on the rail occur, for the left-hand front
and back wheels, just 90° back of those on the right side, and irregularities of
wear produced by the drivers slipping through a number of revolutions at consid-
erable velocity should occur on the left wheels at points 90° back of the corre-
sponding point on the right wheels: 90° back of 40° is 310°, and 90° back of 220°
to 230° is 130° and 140°. Fig. 148 shows the greatest depth of wear of tires of
the left front and back wheels to be abnost exactly at these points. There is also
a small spot worn at 40°, due to the slipping at slow speeds when the influence
of the counterbalance is nil.
The irregularities of wear of the main wheels follow the same law as those
of the front and back wheels, but the conditions are considerably modified
by the difference in pressures caused by the influence of the angularity of the
main rod, and to a less degree from these wheels being under- instead of over-
balanced.
The spots caused by the slight slipping at slow speeds at about 40° and
130° should be found in these wheels as in the front and back wheels, unless
the accompanying condition of necessary pressure is absent. Fig. 7 shows from
16,500 to 17,000 pounds at 40° on the right main wheel, and from 12,700 to
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 201
17,500 pounds on the left wheel at the same point, indicating greater wear on
the right than on the left tire at this point, which the diagram, Fig. 148, shows.
The wear at 130° is found in these wheels, but, owing principally to the influence
of the angularity of the main rod and partly to the wheels being underbalanced,
the conditions of pressure following 130° on the right main wheel are very dif-
ferent from those of the right front and back wheels. Fig. 7 shows that the
pressure on this wheel is always rapidly decreasing following 130°, instead of
increasing, and, consequently, the worn spot at this point extends but a short
distance in the direction of rotation. Not so, however, with the left main tire.
Here the pressure is always increasing following this point, and the figure shows
the great elongation of this spot in the direction of rotation, extending it as
far as 210°, while that on the right tire extends only to 165°.
There still remains to be explained why the heavy spot on the main tire
should slightly precede the point of the maximum coefficient of slip at 130°,
and why that on the left wheel still farther precedes this point and, in general,
is greater than on liie right. An inspection of the diagram on Fig. 7 shows that
the pressure of the right main wheel on the rail is always greater preceding than
following the 130° point. P^g. 148 also shows that the coefficient of slip is high
as early as 110° after a speed of 10 miles per hour is attained, and increases
but slightly to its maximum at about 130°. Any slipping occurring between
110° and 130° will, on account of the pressure, cause a serious spot at this point
on the main wheels, which the diagram shows.
Fig. 148 shows the worn spot under consideration on the left tire, not
only elongated in the direction of rotation, which is explained by the difference
in pressure in this direction, but also in the opposite direction, extending beyond
the 80° point. This is doubtless due to the slight slip caused by the main rod
passing the forward center and suddenly thrusting this wheel back an amount
equal to the lost motion in the bearing shoe and wedge. The same thing occurs,
of course, on the right wheel, and the sharp, but slight, wear following the 350°
point shows it quite clearly. On the left wheel, however, this wear is imme-
diately followed by the more serious one due to the approach of the maximum
point of coefficient of slip from 110° to 130°, and becoming merged into it, both
are increased.
The upper diagram on Fig. 149 shows the wear of the tires on the en^ne
for which the calculations are plotted on Flig. 6 for the eight-wheel engine. This
shows in a general way the same characteristics of the average wear for the
fifty-three ten-wheelers, shown on Figs. 7 and 148, but is, undoubtedly, affected
to a considerable extent by unknowable local conditions. Here the front wheels.
,y Google
202 STEEL RAILS
of course, correspond most nearly to the main wheels on the ten-wheeler, and
here, as there, the left main tire shows the most serious irregularity of wear.
The committee presented the following concluaons as a result of its investi-
gation, which it should be borne in mind was in connection with much lighto* wheel
loads than obtain at the present time.
" There is no doubt locomotive tires wear without slipping, and there should
be, and probably is, a portion of the irregular wear due to the pulverizing or
crushing action being greater under heavy than light loads.
" An experiment was made by removing all the overbalance in the counter-
balance of an engine, when the irregularities of wear in the main wheel were
almost exactly duplicated in location and to a remarkable degree in magnitude.
This, together with similar experiments attended by the same general results,
leads us to believe that the irregularities of wear of the tire are almost wholly
caused by abrasion from slipping, and that the pulverizing of the steel from
pressure alone is of secondary importance."
With the smaller wheels under the cars and locomotive tenders the con-
ditions are quite different.* The smaller steel wheel or tires do not render as
satisfactory service under heavy loads and high speed as the larger locomotive
tires, principally for the reason that the manufacturer is not able to put into
the small tire sufficient mechanical work to obt^n uniform physical properties
for the full circumference of the tire, and in the service portions of the tread
thickness.
The experience with 36-inch steel-tired wheels under locomotive tenders
illustrates this point. The steel tender wheels have failed by shelling out, and
portions of the metal of inferior physical structure on one-third of the circum-
ference have worn so as to make an eccentric tire which has caused such severe
impacts on the rail as to require the removal of the wheels after a short service.
The average load on these wheels is 18,000 pounds, and the maximum static
load 20,400 pounds; many of them ^ve only six months' service, or 30,000
miles, after a first or second turning.
In a paper read at the last International Railway Congress, published in
the Bulletin of October, 1911, Dr. P. H. Dudley has proposed a new method of
measuring the tonnage service of rails and wheels. He explains that the ton-
nage supported by a ^ven portion of the bearing surface of a rail due to a pass-
ing wheel is the total load multiplied by the number of wheels passing over it.
The tonnage sustained by the metal in the treads of the wheel is the total wheel
load multiplied by the number of revolutions, and this tonnage accumulates
• Railway Age Gazette, December 22, 1911.
>, Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 203
more rapidly than that of the nul. It is greater also as the diameter is less
and the number of revolutions larger, so that the tomiage service of 36-inch
tender wheels is much greater than that of the 75- or 80-inch drivers, though
the loads on the latter may be much larger.
The pressure and movement of heavy loads on the rail causes a cold rolling
to take place on the head of the rail, which tends to expand the metal and, if
the rail were free to move, would cause it to assume a curved form with the
head on the convex surface.* As the rail cannot bend, this cold-rolled metal
is subjected to a compression stress. A tensile component would be expected
in the vicinity of and next below the part which was affected by compression
strains, and this has led to a theory of the cause of the oval silvery spots or
transverse fissures in the head of the rail observed by Mr. Howard.f These
r^ fissures which resanble the smooth surfaces of a progressive fracture have
so far been largely confined to one steel cwnpany. The theory advanced as to
their probable cause should not be regarded as final until further substantiated,
and many eng^eers feel that it is not the true explanation. No other adequate
reason has been offered as yet to explain their formation, although a careful inves-
tigaHon is bemg made which will doubtless throw further hght upon the subject.
Mr. Howard J states that: " The flow of the metal of the head, appar-
ent to the eye and witnessed very generally in portions of the track, may
be taken as evidence of exhausted ductility of the metal. The ability of
the steel to elongate, as found in the primitive state of the rail before going
into service, is lost by reason of its development, and the rail, at first tough
and capable of being bent, is now brittle and will bend only to a lunited extent
before rupture.
" The brittleness is due to the flow of the metal at or immediately below
the running surface of the head. The structural continuity has not been de-
stroyed, as may be shown upon annealing the metal, which effects a restoration
in its ability to elongate. A rail from service will not bend well with the head
on the tension side, ance the surface metal has been subjected to cold flow in
advance of its being worn away by abrasion."
* Mr. Howard found that in the case of a rail, exposed to this action, on cutting ofi the head froin
the web, the former sprung into a curved shape with the running surface on the convex side. The
deflection at the middle of the length of the piece, 5 feet loDg, was 0.20 inch. It is probable, however,
that some of this curvature was caused by the strains set up in the rail when cooUng.
t Appendix to Report by the Interstate Commerce Commission on Accident to a Lehigh Valley
Railroad Train at Manchester, N. J., on August 25, 1911. See also Broken Lehigh Valley Rail, Iron
Age, Vol. 88, Part 2, p. 800.
t Some Causes Which Tend toward the Fracture of Steel RmIs. James E. Howard, Journal
AsoodstJon of En^neering Societies, July, 1908.
>, Google
204 STEEL RAILS
Removing the surface meta], in the planer, restores the bending quali-
ties of the rail, but in this case it is necessary to plane away the metal from the
sides as well as from the top of the head, that is, as far down as the cold flow
has taken place.
The difference in the bending qualities of the same rail according to
the head being on the tension or compression side is shown by Fig. 150. The
Fig. 150. — Two Piepps of a Worn 100-Ib. Rail after Testing. The
upper piece, with head on compresaion side, bent 21 degrees with-
out rupture. The lower piece, with heiul on l«nsioa side, bent
4i degrees and then ruptured. (Howard.)
upper piece of rail in the figure was bent with the head in compression, while
the lower one had the head on the tension side of the bend.
Rails of this series of tests have ruptured with a deflection of only 3 to 5
degrees when the head was in tension, but remained unruptured when bent
through an angle of 20 degrees or more with the base in tension. After an-
nealing these old rails, of exhausted toughness, the bending qualities were
restored, after which the rail could be bent in either direction through about
the same number of degrees without fracture.
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL
205
The effect of the exhausted metal in the head is well illustrated by
Table XLVIII, which presents some of the results of Kirkaldy's tests
on rails. * Kirkaldy states that " the rail appears to have been gradually
hardened under the action of the traffic, more especially on the immediate
sldn or surface, until the steel thereon cracked under the upward flexion of the
rail in the regions just over the chairs, or the minute cracks may have been
induced by the severe action of the brakes on trains, so to speak, tearing up
or disintegrating the surface of the steel."
TABLE XLVIII. -
BENDI
NG TESTS ON
WORN
RAILS.
(Kirkaldy.)
(Dislanoebelw
ennuHBrU
Ifeet, lou
dmppliHln
™wc)
Dime
aaaa.
Strw.
Deflection
Dfptl..
Wrfj.
El«lic.
Ummat..
f^
UltiDUtft
PouodB.
locbn
Inch.
Pounds.
Founds.
Inch.
Incl™.
Worn rait; SO Iba. nuin li». 23
>«an' »rvicc.
Same. t«Md iBV«n»d.
jn,»
.«
i MJOO
M.780
H.2M
O.M
1»
RamovHi uuraeked.
Snapped,
iima. UaUd iDvartsd.
*.»
.t»
{ «:SS
'S^
o!28
t
Removsd uncracksd.
n'orn rail; M lb*., in iwd 1
yonnwilbbaavy WBK.
Sune. taud igverUd.
S.4S
.t»
( 47,800
88.710
88.130
0.24
0
RetnoVBd uncracked.
Ren.D'.-ed buckling.
Won.™[;a!lb...lO)-«n.»r-
.»
.H
1 40,000
73.130
0.31
0
Snapped.
Wom rail; sipoaKi lo breks
j «.o
4.80
M
1 34.400
81.440
0.84
0
1 31.500
«,*00
38
Snnppwl; tli(h( flnir.
The slipping of the driving wheel of the locomotive when starting a tr^
may cause roughness of the metal of the rail, accompanied by intense heating
of the immediate surface metal of the head. In addition to the loss in ductility
of the steel by reason of its flow under the wheel pressures, the metal at the
running surface is hardened through this action of the wheel. Showers of
sparks attend instances of this kind, from which the high temperature acquired
by the particles of the steel may be judged of. There follows also a sudden
reduction in temperature through conductivity of the cold metal below, which
has an effect similar to quenching steel from high temperatures in water or
other quenching liquids, and there results a surface hardening of the metal.
During this period of hardening the surface metal is placed in a state of intense
tension, relief from which is obtained by the development of cracks in the steel.
A very interesting experiment is reported by Wickhorst t on the flow of
metal in the rail head under the wheel load. The test was made to determine,
* Kirkaldy on Effects of Wear upon St«el RaJIa, Appendix II. Min. of Proceedingn of the Inst.
of avil Engre., Vol. CXXXVI, January. 1899, p. 166,
t Flow of RmI Head under Wheel Loads. M. H, Wickhorst, Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. & M.
of W. Awn.. 1911, Vol. 12, Part 2, p. 535.
,y Google
206 STEEL RAIIB
if possible, what change ia made in the microstructure of the head of the rail
by the rolling over the rail of heavy wheel loads. At the same time, measure-
ments were made of the spread of the head and the width of the bearing produced.
The test was made on a new 70-pound Bessemer rail with a reciprocating
machine in which a piece of rail is moved back and forth under a wheel to which
a load can be applied by means of levers. A diagram of the machine is shown
in Fig. 151, from which it is seen that the rail is fastened to a steel bloom
-
—
-^. f— ^^ hi 1
5TEEL BLOOM / \
«
n—
-8(1
STHL BLOOM
I
Fig. 151. — Reciprocating Machine for Testing Flow of Metal in Head of Rail.
(Am. Ry. £ng. Asan.)
which runs on rollers running on another steel bloom that forms the bed of the
machine. The rail bed is connected by means of a connecting rod to the bed
plate of a planer, which furnishes the power to run the rail machine. The
weights applied to the weight hanger are multiplied 600 times, as applied to
the axle of the wheel. The piece of rail tested was 12 inches long, which was
set up between two other similar pieces, which acted as end pieces onto which
the wheel could roll when leaving the piece under test. The piece tested had the
sides of the head planed vertical to a width of head of 2 inches. This width was
used partly to accentuate the test and partly to do away with the rounded
comer, so as to allow of measuring the width closer to the top of the head, and
the sides were made vertical so the measurements could be made satisfactorily
with a micrometer along the whole depth of the head. The section of the
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL
207
ori^nal rail and as tested are shown in Fig. 152. Before testing, the width
of the head was determined at the top, at the bottom and halfway between,
both at the middle of the piece tested and at one end, by means of a micrometer.
To determine the sag of the head, two prick-punch marks were put on each dde
of the rail at the middle of its length, one on the side of the head near its bottom
and the other on the top side of the base, about f inch from the web. In order
to have a vertical side on which to prick-punch the mark, the base was gouged
at the deared place. The distance between the marks was measured in .01
Fig. 152. — Sectioa of 70-lb. Besaemer Rail Tested for Flow of Head.
(Am. Ry. Eng. Asbd.)
inch by means of a fine-pointed toolmaker's dividers and a steel scale reading
to .02 inch.
The test was started with a load of 30,000 pounds applied to the wheel,
using 1000 double strokes or 2000 rollings of the wheel over the rail under
test. The bearing assumed a width of .64 inch. The only effect on the width
of head was to spread the top of the head .002 inch, and the load was, there-
fore, increased at once to 60,000 pounds and the teat continued until the head
seemed to no longer spread as measured with the micrometer. The width of
the head of the rail and the width of the wheel bearing on the rail, at various
stages of the test under the load of 60,000 pounds, are shown in Table XLIX.
The spread of the top part of the head and the width of bearing in this table
,y Google
208
STEEL RAII£
includes also the effect of the preliminary rolling of 2000 wheel applications
with 30,000 pounds. The head did not show any sag throughout the test.
TABLE XLIX.— ROLLING TESTS ON RAIL HEAD WITH LOAD OF 60,000 POUNDS
SprwdofHsBd.
RoUiiVB.
Buriiif.
TopolHBKi.
MlddUiot
H^.
Top of H«d.
HgdJeC
Bottom or
.002
.000
.000 .004
2,000
.92
.009
,003
.006
-002
.000
4,000
.84
,010
.004
-001
.006
.002
.000
.003
32.142
1.04
,013
.006
.001
.008
.003
.000
It should be remarked that the wheel was beveled some, and the bearing
was, therefore, on one side of the top of the head, remaining throughout about
.2 inch from one side and increasing in width toward the other side.
A microscopic examination was made of the rail at the top of the head and
at the center of the head both before and after rolling. While the micro-photo-
graphs obtained indicated a slight stratification of the grains in a longitudinal
direction, there was little, if any, difference between the specimens before and
after rolUng. The material tested was good ductile material of medium hard-
ness for rail steel, and as the maximum lateral stretch at the top of the head
was only .013 inch, much difference in the microstructure could hardly be
expected.
It is evident that the metal in the bead of the ral must have a high elastic
limit to successfully meet the severe conditions of modern service. This fact
was clearly brought out several years ago by one of the writers in connection
with some service tests on annealed rails on the Philadelphia and Reading Rail-
way. An account of this investigation appears in the Proceedings of the New
York Railroad Club, December, 1906. Eleven 90-pound rails were sawed into
halves, and one half of each rail was annealed. The carbon content averaged
0.54 and the manganese 1.06 per cent. After 88 million tons traffic it was
found that the annealed rails averaged 31.9 per cent more wear and they also
showed a greater tendency to crush and splinter, but it was found on test that
the elastic limit had been reduced over 10 per cent. The annealed rails, in spite
of their finer structure and consequent greater toughness, did not wear so well
on account of the lower elastic hmit.
In Article 9 attention was called to the dfect of the inertia of the track on the
stresses produced by impact, and in Artide 8 it was shown how the lack of round-
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 209
ness of the vrbed may cause excessive strains in the running surface of the head.
These factors make it much more difficult to control this stress than that produod
by bending; in the lattra- the forces acting on the r^l can be determmed witiiin
closa* limits and the remedy is easier to apply.
The rail is in fact called upon to perform two quite distinct functions, one of
which is to resist the strwn produced at the area of contact between the wheel and
the rml and the other to reast the bending stress; the latter can be reduced by
increasing the moment of inertia of the section or strengthening the track structure,
but the former is in a measure independent of the form of the r^ and requires a
change in the characta" of the material of which the rail is cranposed.
The defect known as "roaring rails" is caused by an imperfect surface or
corrugations in the head of the rail. These corrugations are confined almost
exclxisively to the rails used on electric roads and few problems, confronting the
maintenance of way engineer of such roads, have attracted the attention and study
being ^ven to this trouble.
There are many conflicting opinions as to the cause of the phenomena,
none of which appear adequate to properly explain it.*
The corrugations of rails in recent years have increased rapidly in number;
once they start they rapidly grow worse and it is important to remove them as
soon as the indentations appear. This is generally accomphshed by means of a
rail grinding device which consists either of a carborundum block rubbing over
the rail or an emery wheel which grinds the rail to a true surface.
The cost of removing corrugations in rails varies from a few cents to 60
cents per foot of rail, depending on the depth of the waves; fortunately
after the corrugations have been removed there is little probabiUty of their
ever returning.
* Some of the recent literature on this subject ie aa follows:
Andrews, J. H. M. — ^Some notes on rail corrugation. 1500 w. 1910. (In Electric Rail-
way Journal, Vol. 36, p. 370.)
Outlines prominent causes of corrugation and presents a few notes and coDclusiooa.
BusBB, A. — Rail coiTugfttJon. 1500 w. 1910. (In Electrician, Vol. 65, p. 930.)
Observations from many points indicate strongly that corrugation is due primarily to defects in
tbe rail metal, resulting from the rolling.
Panton, Joseph A. — Rail corrugation. 26 p. HI. 1907. (In Journal of the Institution of
Electrical Enpneers, Vol. 30, p. 3.)
Concludes, in summary, that corrugations are caused, directly or indirectly, by lateral play in
weak trucks, the weakness being intensified by vmsymmetrically driven axles.
WiLSOK, C. A. Carns. — Rail corrugation. 3000 w. III. 1908. (In Engineering, VoL 86,
p. 90.)
Aims to show conditions under which corrugations are produced.
>, Google
ST££L RAII£
21. Proposed Solutions of the Bending Stress in the Rail
Following the path of the forces as they pass through the rul and are
distributed to the ties, we find very complex and unstable conditions. The
rail is supported on a series of yielding supports. These supports, through
their unequal yielding, bring about distributions of stress in the rail that are
difficult to calculate.
Before proceeding further with the discussion of this subject, let us turn
to some of the methods advanced for the proper solution of the problem.
* Mr. 0. E. Selby approaches it in the following manner: " Examining
first the bending stress in the rail, we have 50,000-pound axle loads on supports
20 inches apart. For these conditions the American Railway Engineering and
Maintenance of Way Association specifications for steel bridges, paragraph 5,
call for 100 per cent impact, making the stresses equivalent to those from a
100,000-pound axle load, or a 50,000-pound wheel load.
" For a simple beam the bending moment in one rail would be 250,000
inch-pounds. For a continuous beam with rigid supports, it would be two-
thirds that, and for a continuous beam with partially yielding supports, three-
fourths of the bending moment for a simple beam is reasonable, giving 187,500
inch-pounds. If we consider the wheel placed over a tie which yields enough
to carry one-fourth of the load to each adjacent tie, the resulting moment in
the rail is the same. The section modulus of an 80-pound A. S. C. E. rail is
10.0, making the extreme fiber stress 18,750 pounds per square inch. For a
100-pound rail the unit stress is reduced to 12,800.
" Pasdng to the load on the tie, we encounter an element which must
vary between rather wide limits with the stiffness of the rail and yielding of
the supports. With a simple beam and load placed midway between the sup-
ports, the reaction on each support would be one-half the load. The theory
of the continuous girder would make the reactions about 55 per cent to 67 per
cent, depending on whether the load is placed over a support or midway between.
" The yielding of supports would undoubtedly reduce these percentages.
Bridge spedfications usually consider the load equally distributed among three
ties, but bridge ties are spaced usually 14 inches between centers, so that, if
the load going to one tie is proportioned to the tie spacing, the amount for
20-inch spacing would be 20 -^ 14 X 1 -^ 3 = 20 -=- 42 = 47.6 per cent. There-
* 0. E. Selby, Bridge Engineer, C, C, C. & St. L. Ry. A Study of the Streesee Existing in Track
Supentructuree and Rational Design Baaed Thereon. Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. & M. of W. Assn.,
1907, Vol. 8.
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL
211
fore, the assumption that the maximum load on a tie is half the axle load seems
a proper one.
" Modem specifications call for an E-60 loading, which contains 60,000-
pound axle loads, spaced 5 feet between centers. A tie spacing equal to one-half
the wheel spacing would load the ^rder (r^) at the quarter points and produce
moments (in a simple beam) equal to those produced by a uniform load.
" A more practicable tie spacing, one-third of the wheel spacing, would
similarly produce moments ^ part, or only 1.4 per cent greater than those
from a uniform load, so that Lf we design a rail for a uniform load equal to the
wheel load divided by the wheel spacing, the result would be very nearly correct.
The wheel load with impact is 60,000 pounds, or 1000 pounds per linear inch
of rail. For a continuous beam (indefinite number of spans and loads) the
maximum movement is 1 + 12 x WL^ = 1 -^ 12 x 1000 x 60* = 300,000
inch-pounds."
The following has been presented by Mr. Bland: *
" The rail acting as a beam under passage of wheel loads is in a condition
of ' restrained ' ends, and the maximum moment from a wheel load Q is ^ven
by M = ± i QI, ' Q ' bemg concentrated load and ' I ' being span center
to center of ties. The moment alternates from positive to negative, and alter-
nates equally. The dynamic augment to static wheel load is taken 60 per cent
for a speed of 75 miles per hour.
" Assume a static axle load of 60,000 pounds, giving static wheel load of
30,000 pounds. The dynamic augment for 75 miles per hour is 60 per cent,
making a dynamic wheel load of 48,000 pounds."
TABLE L. — RAIL STRESSES. (Bland.)
Rail W«itht.
^^ri^'
m'SSiiS-z.'
Dyumio Uomnt-
RnultlDE Van
P«ihU per Yard.
60
70
85
100
iBCllH.
24
24
22
22
6.70
8.30
11,30
15.00
lMh-p«md*.
144.000
144.000
132.000
132,000
Lbs. per Sq. In.
21,500
17,350
11,680
8,800
The following investigation of the stresses in the rail was suggested by
Mr. F. B. Freeman, in a paper presented to the New York Central Lines Main-
tenance of Way Committee entitled " Investigation of Stresses in Track Super-
structure." This paper is of considerable interest, as the results obtained by
* J. C. Bland, Engineer of Bridges, Penn. lines West of Pittsburg,
Heavy Roil tor Eristing Heavy Engines, 1907.
Q the Capadty of Modem
>, Google
212 STEEL RAIIS
the methods proposed are compared with the stresses actually g^ven by test
of the rails mider the moving trains. An abstract of the paper follows:
By means of plotted curves recently published showing resultant wheel
loads in terms of the unit static loads at various speeds, Dr. P. H. Dudley shows
as a result of his experiments that with smooth wheels rolling without accelera-
tion, the impact approaches 50 per cent as a limit at 100 miles per hour. A
curve of resultant wheel loads at various speeds with acceleration shows 100 per
cent impact as the limit at 100 miles per hour. At speeds of 50 to 70 miles p^
hour the impact appears to be about 75 per cent when the train is under
acceleration.
By acceleration it is meant that the locomotive is exerting its maximum
tractive effort at that speed.
From his strenunatograph tests, Dr. Dudley finds that the maximum
extreme fiber stresses in the 100-pound rail under the present Class " I " loco-
motive (Atlantic type) sometimes run as high as 22,000 pounds, while with the
80-pound rail stresses as high as 28,000 pounds are not uncommon. One thing,
however, must be borne in mind: though the extreme fiber stress in steel rails
may seem high as shown by test, these maximum stresses are of very short dura-
tion, lasting but a small fraction of a second and often reversed immediately.
Within certain Hmits the stress seems to vary directly as a function of the si)eed;
hence the greater the speed, the greater the stress, but the shorter its duration.
The present steel rails have an elastic limit between 50,000 pounds and
60,000 pounds and an ultimate strength of 110,000 pounds to 120,000 pounds
as shown by test.
If we investigate the stresses which are supposed to exist under the Class
" I " locomotives and then compare the resultant stresses with those of tests,
we may arrive at a conclusion regarding the trustworthiness of our assumption.
As the Atlantic type of locomotive (Class " I ") cannot draw an ordinary
train at a greater speed than 70 miles per hour with acceleration, we are justi-
fied in using 75 per cent impact in investigating the existing stresses under
Class " I."
The Pacific type (Class " K "} and the electric locomotive (Class " T ")
each may haul tr^ns at speeds approaching 100 miles per hour,* and the former
will be investigated with 100 per cent impact.
As the wheels roll along the rail there is a general depression of the track,
local depressions being greater under the heaviest concentrations, and fairly
uniform where the wheel loads are equal and evenly spaced. According to
* This statement seems open to question; compare with Article 3.
>, Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 213
Dr. Dudley, this general depression varies from .10 inch to .20 inch, varying
with the stiffness of the rail, elasticity of subgrade, and tamping of ballast.
Due to the deflection of the rail, there will ne a greater depression under the
wheels and tiie lesser depression about midway between them. The tie pressure
may be assumed proportional to the tie depression, and from the tie pressure
the stress in the rail may be approximated.
In considering the deflection of the rail, we may consider the rail as a con-
tinuous beam being supported by the wheels and having varying concentrated
loads applied by the ties. These concentrations decrease toward the center
of the span and give an effect practically similar to that of the uniform load,
equivalent to the sum of the tie pressure (Fig. 153).
'^mfmrffntffffT
Fia. 153. — Distribution of Tie PrMsure under Rail. (Freeman.)
In order to approximate the rail deflection, there will be no great error in
considering the load of the drivers and second wheel of the first truck as uni-
formly distributed from a point between the two wheels of the forward truck
to a point midway between the rear driver and the trailer; likewise that the load
of the trailer be distributed from a point midway between the rear driver and
the trailer to a point midway between the trailer and the first wheel of the tender.
The load of the drivers of the present Class " I " locomotive, including
impact, is 96,000 pounds, which will be distributed over approximately 19 feet,
giving an equivalent uniform load of 6400 pounds per lineal foot. Under the
trailer the equivalent uniform load will be 4000 pounds per lineal foot, and
under the front wheel about 3000 pounds per lineal foot (Fig. 154).
Under the drivers we have a span of 7 feet and a uniform load of 6400
pounds per lineal foot. With the 100-pound rail this loading would cause a
deflection of .047 inch and with the 80-pound rail a deflection of .08 inch.
The average uniform load between the rear driver and the trailer being
about 5000 pounds per lineal foot, the deflection of the 100-pound rail becomes
.127 inch, while the 80-pound rail deflects .22 inch.
It will be seen by a glance at Fig. 155 that the tie reactions vary with the
stiffness of the rail, being much more uniform with the heavier rail.
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
SrOO lbs. PER LIN. FOOT
6400tb& P. L.F.
Fig. 154. — Class "I" Engine with 75 per cent Impact. (Freeman.)
o OOo
Fio, 155. — Track Depression under Class "I" Loading. (Freeman.)
Plotting the most probable deflection of the 100-pound rail (shown in solid
line) and the 80-pound rail (shown in broken line), and then taking the tie re-
actions as proportional to the ordinates to the curves of deflection, we may
expect the following depressions and reactions:
"I" LOADING
Ti*
IDO-pouDd lUil.
SO-pouDd lUil.
DeprBBHOD.
Bearim.
Baarinc.
iKb.
0.10
0.15
0.19
0,15
0.10
0.10
0.17
0 22
0.22
0.18
0,18
0.22
0-22
Paa«]e.
5.300
8,100
10.200
8,100
5.300
5,300
9,400
11.800
11.800
9.700
9.700
11,800
11.800
iMh.
0.04
0,18
0 23
O.IS
004
0.04
0 17
02
024
0 17
0 17
0 24
0.24
PodikIi.
2,200
10,000
12,600
10,000
2,200
2.200
9.500
13.400
13.400
9,500
9.500
13.400
13,400
c
e;;."*":
H .
K .
,, Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL
215
If we use these tie reactions and assume with Winckler that the moments
in a continuous girder over yielding supports are three-fourths those of a
simple beam, we may compute the bending moments and the extreme fiber
stress in the rail.
Taking moments under the rear driver, we find an extreme fiber stress of
19,430 pounds with the 100-pound rail and 28,950 pounds with the 80-pound
rail. Under the trailer we find 17,750 pounds in the 100-pound rail and 19,800
pounds in the 80-pound rail.
These stresses given for Class " I" are practically those found from the
stremmatograph tests.
According to Dr. Dudley, when the Class "I" type engine strikes a piece
of soft or rough track, it begins pitching or rocking about its center of gravity,
located between the two drivers. This rocking increases the pressure on the
trailer sometimes as much as 50 per cent. This tends to increase the stresses
" -under the trailer by that amount. In the Class " K " type, this difficulty is
obviated to a great extent by the increased length of wheel base.
We may now compare Class " K " with Class "I," using 75 per cent impact
and considering the two engines working under similar conditions.
Following the same analyas as in the investigation of Class "I," we may
assume the weight of the drivers and the second wheel of the first truck as
uniformly distributed over a length of about 28 feet of rail, giving a uniform
load of 6500 pounds per lineal foot. Under the trailer we find a uniform load
of 3800 pounds per lineal foot, and under the tender a load of 3700 pounds per
lineal foot (Fig. 156).
tIJ
i-.<L^ ^ ^-1^ ^i-l
4^^^4)
87O0 lbs. PER LIN. FOOT
3aOOItMi!L.F.
ftSOOtt^CR L
Pio. 156. — Class "K" Engine with 75 per cent Impact. (Freeman.)
Computing the deflections of the rail, we find .049 inch for the 100-pound
rail and .083 inch for the 80-pound rail on the 7-foot span under the drivers;
on the 10-foot 11-inch span between the rear driver and the trailer a deflection
of .24 inch is shown by the 100-pound rail and .42 inch by the 80-pound ral.
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
Plotting the curve of probable deflections for the 100-pound and 80-pound
rail and using a general average depression under the drivers, proportional to
the uniform load under the drivers, we may find the tie depressions (Fig. 157).
FiQ. 157. — Track Depression under Class "K" Loading. (Freei
The depression under a uniform load of 6500 pounds is taken at .20 inch.
Upon this basis we get the following tie depressions and reactions: '
TABLE LIL — TIE DEPRESSIONS AND REACTIONS, CLASS "K'' LOADING
(FREEMAX)
l»|»UBd Riiil.
«v^.«aiuii.
Ti»,
D^,^ion.
BwriBg.
DapTMBon.
BaiiDg.
1.75 P„«,.
l-imPSTMBt.
I-7SPer(»t.
I-lOOPercsrt.
0.05
0.05
0 14
0.20
0.20
0.14
0.05
0,05
0.13
0.23
0,23
0.18
0.18
0^18
0 18
3,000
3,000
7,000
10,000
10.000
7,000
3,000
3.100
7,900
14,000
14,000
11,000
11,000
14,000
14,000
11,000
11,000
3,400
3:400
8,000
11,400
11,400
8.000
3,400
3,500
9,000
16,000
16,000
12,600
12,600
16,000
16,000
12,600
12,600
0.03
0,03
0.11
0.25
0.25
0.13
0 03
0.04
0.14
0.24
0.24
0.16
0-16
0.24
0.24
0.16
0.16
1,560
1,560
5,700
13,000
13,000
6,800
1.100
1,300
9,100
15,600
15,600
10,400
10,400
15,600
15,600
10,400
10,400
.3
I
1,600
L
M
17,800
17,800
11,900
11,000
0
P
17,800
11,900
Taking moments under the rear driver, we find an extreme fiber stress of
22,000 pounds in the 100-pound rail and 32,150 pounds in the 80-pound rail.
These stresses may be expected up to speeds of 60 miles per hour. At speeds
of 90 to 100 miles per hour the impact will approach 100 per cent and the stress
in the 100-pound rail may run as high as 25,200 pounds and up to 36,600 pounds
in the 80-pound rail. These are stresses which may be expected in ordinary
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 217
main-line track, at maximum speed. On a soft piece of track they may run
up 25 per cent higher.
Zimmerman's analyas of the stresses in the rail * is based upon the stiffness
of the rail and tie and on the compressibility of the ballast. For the bending
moment in the rail he derives the following equation:
87+7
G^ =
in which
" 4-r + lO 4 4 7+10"'
Ma = Maximum bending moment in the rail.
Too = Bending moment of a simple beam loaded in
the middle of the span a with a load G,
G = Wheel load,
a = Distance center to center of ties,
B
"" V4E/
E = Modulus of elasticity of the rail,
/ = Moment of inertia of the rail,
6 = The width of the tie,
I = One-half the length of the tie,
C = Coefficient of the ballast,
2 = An auxiliary value depending on the form of the tie.
The coefficient of ballast represents the pressure in kilograms per square
centimeter of the ballast which causes a depression of one centimeter. The
coefficient 3 corresponds with simple gravel and the coefficient 8 with gravel
on a bed of dry stone or on rocky soil.
M
Fig. 158 shows that the ratio — ^ increases with y, that is to say, with
the stiffness of the rml and the flexibility of the tie.
Table LI II presents calculations for several German railroads by the
aid of Zimmerman's formulae. The table is taken from an article on " The
Track Superstructure of German Railways " by M. Blum in the Revue Gen^rale
■ Calculation of the Superstructure, Berllu, 1888.
,y Google
218 STEEL RAILS
des Chemins de Fer, No. 5, November, 1908, a translation of which is pven
in Proceedings American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way
Association, Vol. 11, Part 2, 1910.
Pio. 158. — Bending Moment of Rail placed on Ties. (Zi
In questions of such moment we cannot rely on mathematical analyses for
conclusions. We can deduce general results from specific experiments by their
Md, but it is somewhat unsafe to attempt any generalization on its evidence
alone.
22. Tests to Determine the Bending Stress in the Rail
* Experiments were made in the track of the Boston and Albany Railroad
in 1889. The experiments consist in measuring the depression of the rail at
different places along the length when loaded, and in measuring the extension
or compression of the metal at the upi)er surface of the base of the rail, near
the edge of the outside flange.
For measuring the depression a row of stakes was driven alongside the
track, three feet away, and the relative level of points on the base of the rail
and nails in the tops of the stakes was ascertained by means of a sensitive
spirit level.
For ascertaining the strains, gauged lengths of 5 inches each were estab-
lished and defined by center punch marks on the base of the rail at places
over the ties and midway between them, and the amount of extension or
compression, as the case might be, was measured on these gauged lengths.
The rails were 72 pounds per yard, 4^ inches high and 4J inches width of
base. The results of the experiments are shown in Fig. 159.
■ Houae Executive DocumeiitH, Ist Session, 51st CoDgress, 1889-90, Vol. 25, Tests on Metala.
>, Google
u u
Bu*.
P^.
sl--
i.
■^■r
H
Ib.*:
20.16
1.23
20.16
1.23
28.96
1.12
29.01
1.12
29.01
1.31
23.62
1.11
14.40
1.82
10.^
2.47
14.88
2.35
9.84
4.14
27,60
l..*8
Columns 26 and i
>, Google
>, Google
STRESSES IN THE BAIL
219
• Experiments were made by the Ordnance Department, U. S. Army, during
the month of October, 1893, on the track of the Chicago, Bm-lington and Quincy
RaikY)ad, at Hawthorne, 111.
The experiments consisted of measuring the depression of the rails under
the weights of different classes of locomotives, and the fiber stresses developed
in the base of the rail.
For the purpose of observing the depression of the rails, bench marks were
established on a row of stakes driven alongside the rml, 31 inches distant from
TENOen WITH COAL ,
)ftU6'.r-4^4'-o»j*--'e'-4."'--4*— a"-*' — 4" — e'-o'
Cfi g)
DEPRESSION
OF RAIL
STFUUNS IN J
BASE OF rail'
5" LENGTH
Fia. 159, — Railroad Track Experimenta, Boston and Albany R. R.
it. A beam carrying a micrometer and an astronomical level bubble were used
in observing the depression of the rail (see Fig. 160), first measuring the height,
using points on the outer flange, when the rail was unloaded, and repeating the
observations when the engine was standing on the track.
It was found that the roadbed in the vicinity of the locomotives was sensibly
depressed and that the bench marks were within the influence of that depression.
It was possible to detect a depression of the roadbed as far as 91 inches from the
locomotive at the side of the track.
A correction for the depression of the bench marks was obtained by means
of a cantilever supported 10 feet from the track, and the total depression of
• House Executive Documents, 3rd Session, 63rd CkmgreM, 1894-95, Vol. 30, Teste of Metals, etc.
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
Fia. 160. — Railroad Track Experimeats.
Pholof(raph of Leveling Instrument (or Measuring the Depression at the Traclc.
Fra. 161. — Railroad Track Ejcperiments.
Photograph of Micrometer for Determining the Fibre Stress in the Base of the Rail.
>, Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 221
points on the rails was also determined with reference to the cantilevers in some
of the experiments instead of using stakes.
The fiber stresses were determined in the base of the rail by measuring
the elongation or compression of the metal on a gauged length of 5 inches,
established on the top surface of the outer flange, observing the strains when
the wheels were directly over or when spanning the gauged length (see Fig. 161).
The observed strains were then computed for the stresses per square- inch,
assuming a modulus of elasticity of 30,000,000 pounds per square inch and
that the fibers in the base were strained proportionally to their distance from
the neutral axis of the rail; the computed stresses referring to the outside fibers
most remote from the neutral axis.
It will be observed that the strains and the computed stresses refer to
a gauged length of 5 inches, and, consequently, the maximum stresses may be
somewhat greater than those shown, considering the maximum bending moment
to be directly under the point of application of the load. Some of the results
are graphically shown in Fig. 162.
The moment of inertia of the 66-pound rail tested was 19.127 and the
19.127
2.24
Fig. 162A shows the depression of one rail its entire length and the ends
of contiguous rails, the locomotive occupying one position thereon as shown
with reference to the rail and ties.
Fig. 162B shows the curve of depression under another type of locomotive.
This enginehad no leading truck nor tender, buthadatwo-wheeled trailing truck.
In the position it occupied during the test, the greatest depression of the
rail occurred under the forward drivers, the rail presenting a sharp acclivity
before the engine, and beyond the joint the contiguous rail rose slightly above
the normal level.
In the diagram, Fig. 162C, are shown the fiber stresses as measured on
the base of the rail at station 14|, midway between ties Nos. 14 and 15.
Advance wave determinations were made on the 66-pound rail on cinder
ballast (8 inches under the tie) with the same class engine as shown in Fig. 162A,
the engine weighing 125,000 pounds. With the locomotive slowly approaching,
an upward movement of the rail began when the leading truck wheel was about
15 feet away; the wave increased while the locomotive continued to advance,
reaching a maximum of .0037 inch when the truck wheel was about 85 feet away.
Then followed a sudden depression, and the height of the rail was reduced to
the normal level when the truck wheel was about 7§ feet away.
,y Google
222 STEEL RAILS
The position of the locomotive when the upward motion of the wave first
reached the station could be identified with considerable precision, but, owing
to an appreciable interval of time being necessary for the level bubble of the
TEMOER »0OOIb>.
30ZaOiba. 3Z600IIM, ZSTOOtb*. IBSOOIbB.
SAME CHtJINE A& SHOWN
O O O Q
noo
5aMeTRACK 3TRISSCS LBa.
OH A OAU&GD lENQTK .OF 5 INCHES.
Fia. 162. — Railroad Track Experimenta. C. B. & Q. R. R.
measuring instrument to stop and reverse the direction of its movement, the
position of the crest of the wave, as well as the time when the height of the rail
was returned to its normal level, could not be so well defined.
The wave length was probably somewhat less than the observations showed.
The abruptness with which the direction of the wave motion was changed and
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL
FiQ. 163. — Advance Wave Determinations. (Cuenot.)
the rail returned to its normal level, after which, of course, it was depressed
below the normal, was a very striking feature of the observations.*
• Fig. 163 aljowa the advanre wave observed by M. Cu^ot. It was found that when the first
wheel of the engine is about 20 feet (foia a tie the upward moveroent commences and reaches a maxi-
mum at about 10 fec^.
>, Google
224
STEEL RAILS
The observations of the depression of the roadbed made in these experi-
ments are of importance. On cinder ballast that part of the roadbed in which
the stakes were driven (31 inches from the track) was depressed a maximum
of .049 inch and on gravel ballast the maximum was .036 inch. Wooden stakes
and iron bolts were driven
different depths into the
roadbed with similar re-
sults; in fact, the few
observations which were
made showed the longer
stakes" to have been quite
as much depressed as the
shorter ones, which did
not penetrate the cinder
ballast.
Following out the
depression of the road bed
in a lateral direction,
on cinder ballast, when
the middle driver of the
engine was abreast the
place of observation,
there was a measurable
depression at a distance
of 91 inches from therail.
The recovery in the
depression of theroadbed
was not complete imme-
diately upon the removal
of the engine from that
Fio. 164. — Movement of Rails Laid Alongside of Track. vicinity. The principal
The right-hand rail lying by the near telegraph pole moved 40 feet. pJ^J.^ Qf ^Jjg recovery at
The trail it left may be traced from a point near the angle bar io
the foreground. (Iiaihy>ad Age Gazette, Dec. 17, 1909.} Once tOOk plaCC; the
remaining portion of the
depression, however, was very sluggish in returning. The length of time
required to effect complete resilience was not determined. One observation,
however, made nine minutes after the load was removed from the vicinity,
showed the resilience then incomplete.
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 225
JRg. 164 shows an exaggerated case of the wave motion and depresaon of
the track. The road runs on an embankment about five feet above the level
of a wet meadow. The wave motion of the track and embankment is so great
that rmls lying by the side of the track move along apparently of their own
accord at the rate of nearly a foot a day. This movement was undoubtedly
due to the undulatory movement of the track and entire fill and probably some
reaction of the fill itself against the track.
Further tests were made in 1894 and 1896 on the tracks of the Pennsylvania
Railroad and the Boston and Albany by the Government. * These experiments
comprise observations on the fiber stresses developed in rails in the track, the
depression of the rails, and the slope or inclination of the rails caused by the
weight of the different wheels of the locomotive. The results show some phe-
nomena displayed by rails in service under the static conditions of loading or
when a locomotive passes slowly over the track.
The series were made chiefly on the track of the Pennsylvania Railroad,
where exceptional opportunities existed for examining roadbed, embracing a
wide variety of conditions of weight of rails and different kinds of ballast and
its behavior under heavy types of freight and passenger locomotives.
The tests were made during the early part of the month of November, 1894,
on track in the condition it was found in service.
The experiments on the Boston and Albany Railroad were made with track
on frozen gravel ballast, in the month of February, 1895.
The fiber stress tests were made by means of a micrometer mounted on
the upper side of the flange of the base of the rail, at a place midway adjacent
ties. The instrument covered a gauged length of 5 inches. The micrometer
was adjusted in position, and then the several wheels of the locomotive were
successively brought over the gauged length, or until the same was midway
adjacent wheels.
The instrument was read when the locomotive was at each of these posi-
tions. It was found practicable to make the micrometer observations without
arresting the locomotive in all cases, taking the readings as the locomotive
passed slowly over the rail. In this manner the strains developed were measured,
an elongation of the metal showing tensile stress, and a contraction in the gauged
length showing compressive stress.
The measured strains were reduced to stresses per square inch, assuming
the modulus of elasticity of the steel to be 30,000,000 pounds per square inch,
and correcting the observed strains in order to obtain the maximum flber stresses,
* House Documents, Vol. 46, 54th Congress, 1st Session, 1895-06. No. 54, Tests of Met&ls.
,y Google
226 STEEL RAII5
on the further assumption that the strains were proportional to their distance
from the neutral axis of the rail.
Fig. 165 shows the micrometer in position on the base of the rail, under
the driving wheel of a locomotive.
The depression of the rails was measured by means of a sensitive level
bubble, mounted on a rod, carrying at one end a screw micrometer, which
Fia. 165. — Railroad Track Experimeata.
View showing Micrometer for Measuring Strains in Raiia, in PodtioB on Base of Rail undo'
Driving Wheel.
rested on a stake driven in the roadbed 30 inches from the rail; the other end
of the rod rested upon the base of the rail. The depression of the track was
thus measured with reference to the top of the stake used as a bench mark.
In this series it was necessary to arrest the movement of the locomotive at
each observation.
The slope tests, or inclination of the rails, were made by means of a sensitive
level bubble mounted on a frame 12 inches long. At one end of the frame there
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL
227
was a fixed supporting rod having a conical point; at the other end there was a
screw micrometer, the contact end of which was also made with a conical point.
In the use of this instrument, two center punch marks, 12 inches apart,
were made on the base of the r^l. The conical points of the instrument entered
these center punch marks and furnished definite contact points with the rail.
The instrument was then leveled and the changes in slope, when the rail was
affected by the locomotive, were measured from this initial adjustment of the
level bubble.
Fig. 165 shows the slope instrument resting on the second tie to the right
of the fiber-stress micrometer. The rails examined ranged in weight from 60 to
100 pounds per yard, and were supported on oak ties resting on cinder, gravel,
and stone ballast, in the case of the Pennsylvania Railroad.
On the Boston and Albany Railroad, yellow pine ties, with shoulder tie
plates, were used, the roadbed being ballasted with gravel, which was in a
frozen condition at the time of the tests.
TABLE UV. — RAILROAD TRACK EXPERIMENTS. GENERAL DIMENSIONS
OF RAILS
GOVERNMENT RAIL TESTS
(HouH Documnta. Vol. it, Mth Caii)[r«a, 1st SsBion. 18M-H. No. M, T«M ol HeCaJa)
P^tt.
n»,h, 1 Widlhot 1 Widlhof Thicki.™ 1 Moment q(
^z^ ^^'x^Srx^^'^
Pound,.
Inches. liifhB<. Inches. Incb. ■ /
«-^ 1 ii.r„" ! r^-:
60
70
85
100
95
4k ' 21
? 1 It
i u.222
{ 18.055
iJ 26.374
1 38.957
1 1 32.28
6,693
8.282
10-853
14.812
13.563
2.125
2,32
2.57
2,87
2.63
2,125
2.18
2.43
2.63
2.38
The genera! dimensions of the rails are given in Table LIV. What was
then considered a heavy type of freight and passenger locomotive was em-
ployed, the weights of which are recorded in Table LV.
Referring to the tests on the Pennsylvania Railroad, the tensile fiber stresses
developed under the weight of the driving wheels ranged from 2810 to 19,540
pounds per square inch, and the compresdon stresses, when the gauged length
was between wheels, reached 7880 pounds per square inch. These values
belonged to the rails in their ordinary condition of service. A tie was removed
from the track, laid with 100-pound rwl, which increased the distance between
centers of ties to 52 inches, and here the maximum tensile stress developed
was 18,970 pounds per square inch, against 9840 pounds per square inch for
another rail of the same section resling on ties 26 inches apart.
,y Google
228
STEEL RAILS
A splice bar on a 70-pound rail was strained 22,140 pounds per square
inch, tension, and 8300 pounds per square inch, compression stress, by the
driver of passenger engine No. 809.
TABLE LV. — WEIGHTS OF LOCOMOTIVES
GOVERNMENT RAIL TEST9
. 4S, Mth CUMinH, lit StMion. lS»-9e. No. M. T«t. ol H«ul>}
Totd.
EDd».
TendK.
Weiih. p«r Whwi.
Pilot. Driven.
Wheel. Pounds.
TOIB.
Pa^aenger No. 809,
Clwa PK.
Paaaenger No. 1515,
Class T.
Freight No. 557,
B. & A. R.R.
POUDdl.
197 050
222,500
188,600
199,700
Po«nd>.
39,750
50,300
11,000
40,700
PoBDde.
87,300
95,200
800
75,000
Pounds.
70,000
77,000
63,800
84,000
Pilot
Driver, first...
Driver, second
Tender
Pilot
Driver, first. ..
Driver, second.
Tender
9,937
21,750
21,900
8,750
12,575
24,250
23,350
12,833
5,500
13,250
13.750
15,650
14,250
7,975
10,175
18,750
18,750
4.968
10.875
10 950
4.375
6.287
12.125
11,675
6.416
Driver, first. , .
Driver, second.
Driver, third , .
Driver, fourth..
Tender
Pilot
6.625
6.875
7,825
7.125
3,987
Driver, first. . .
Driver, second.
Tender
9 375
9.376
First truck
Second truck...
9,250
11,750
4.625
5.875
Table LVI shows the maximum tensile fiber stress caused by the wheels
of the pilot, engine, and tender on the different rails and kinds of ballast, also
the maximum compres^on stresses developed in each experiment. The place
of observation in these experiments was between ties and about one-quarter of
the length of the rail from the end.
From the irregular manner in which the stresses were developed in the
different weights of rail, it is evident that the peculiar condition of the track
at individual rails has an important influence on the magnitude of the fiber
The lightest section of rail examined, 60 pounds per yard, resting on ties
on gravel ballast, gave exceptionally low fiber stresses, and it will be seen that
this rail was depressed a correspondingly small amount.
So much variation is found in the stresses as to practically obscure the
relative strength of the different weights of rails, and it seems necessary to
compare the extreme sections to show a well-defined difference in the maximum
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 229
On account of the peculiar conditions influencing the behavior of the
individual rails, the relative values of the different kinds of ballast are less
conspicuously shown in the fiber-stress experiments than in the series on the
depression of the rails.
TABLE LVL — MAXIMUM FIBER STRESSES IN BASE OF RAIL
GOVERNMENT RAIL TEST8
(HouH Dooumeota. Vol. U, 5ith ContnH. lit Sa«kia. t8M-M. No. H, Taats ot HMab)
"¥iid
Gravel!!
Stone...
Gravel..
Passenger No. 809. .
" ightNo. 557...
Spite. -
Cinder
Cinder
Gravel
Gravel
Stone
Stone, tie removed. . . .
Frozen gravel, rail No. 1
Frozen gravel, rail No. 2
Freight No. 557.
Passenger No. 80
Passenger No. 8C
Freight No. 557.
Passenger No. 80tf.
Freight No. 567 . .
Passeoger No. 809.
Passenger No. 809.
Passenger No. 809..
Passenger No. 1515.
Freight No. 557,..,
Passenger No. 809. .
Passenger No. 1515
Freight No. 557. .
Passenger No. 809.
Freight No. 557...
Passenger No. 8O0
Passenger No. 809,
Freight No. 557 , .
Passenger No. 209
Passenger No. 209.
BT Stma HT Square
5,730
3,580
10,750
9,310
10,640
3,510
6,870
16,060
17,170
18,620
13,7S0
8,430
9,920
11,450
UompM-
3,490
1,400
4,290
2,180
8,300
3,580
4,300
4,300
4,300 4,300
5,020 3,580
5,620 4,220
8,430 2,110
4,220 2,810
6,870 3,050
6,870 '7,630
The relative effect of the several wheels of the locomotives are shown
with greater precision than some other features of the test, inasmuch as in this
comparison the action of all wheels are referred to the same point on the rail.
Table LVII shows the tensile stresses developed per ton weight on the dif-
ferent wheels of each locomotive on the several rails. !From these results it
appears that the stresses are generally greatest under the outside wheels.
An examination of the results shows, as an extreme case, that the pilot
wheels of freight engine No. 557 on a 60-pound rail, with stone ballast, gave
a fiber stress of 4058 pounds per square inch per ton on the wheel, whereas
the first driver of the engine, per ton, strained the rail only 1685 pounds per
square inch. In this instance the total stress per square inch was the same
under these two wheels, namely, 11,160 pounds, although the weight on the
drivers was more than twice that on the pilot wheel.
,y Google
STEEL BAILS
TABLE LVII. — TENSILE FIBER STRESSES IN BASES OF RAILS PER TON
WEIGHT ON THE DIFFERENT WHEELS
PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVES
LocomDtive
Bmllut.
Ten.
le Fibv StHH (in P«md» per Tox Weigbc
on Wh«I< of
Rail
"VS."/.-
Pilot.
DriYBf.
T«d»r.
I
«
1
1
1
1
>
i
No. 800
Cinder
1440
721
949
916
1147
85
No. 1515
Cinder
ttll
Sll
94.';
1043
vm
782
1116
60
No. 809
No. 809
No. 809
Gravel. ..
1244
1805
2164
1805
866
1073
1585
lOM
949
1700
1112
471
1262
1474
629
1735
1474
629
629
86
Gravel
1147 ' 1474
85
No. 1515
Gravel
14S1
911
1359
1466
lllfi
1451
60
No. 809
Stone
raS7
2387
1798
1784
1595
1913
1595
2279
Stone
1808
No. 809
No. 809
No. 809
1441
1272
2122
866
566
1415
989
905
1422
785
899
1732
983
M2
1(107
818
642
1607
8ia
642
12a.';
100
1285
100
1927
70
No. 809
Bridge...
1463
1672
2327
1995
1995
2494
2110
96D
No. 209
Frozen grave , rail No. 1
im
900
7ai
977
659
973
909
116B
Froien grave , rail No, 1
1050
S26
1038
No. 209
Frozen grave , rail No. 2
1.=MKI
1351
iiaq
1221
Wl
1485
«09
909
Frozen gravel, rail No. 2
1351
10.W
1319
1485
Frozen gravel, rail No. 2
l.STKI
1050
814
1139
1155
11. ^i
909
1038
No. 209
Frozen gravel, rail No. 2
1500
1050
895
1025
1155
IIW
1169
1038
95L
No. 209
Frozen gravel, rail No. 2
0
0
519
Frozen gravel, rail No. 2
lO.'MI
149
408
651
XU
-164
129
260
No. 209
Frozen gravel, rail No. 2
751
600
651
733
659
495
519
650
FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVES
Locomotive,
Ballmie.
Teasile Fiber SCtoh (in Ponnds) per Too Weifbt OB Wheels of
i*.
PUot.
nrn^.
Teiid«.
.1
1
1041
999
1»05
1146
2335
1046
1041
511
■
t
1
s
»
*
No. 557
No. 557
No. 557
No. 557
No. 557
No. 557
No. 557
No. 557
1302
1247
2760
2604
4058
2353
1564
1276
540
518
1250
974
1685
761
865
424
366
878
1323
824
1872
1011
732
718
1408
1060
2512
1408
2056
1615
1408
898
860
1558
720
2450
1264
1078
705
8S8
617
1384
720
1926
1084
880
720
860
1038
359
2275
903
898
351
1259
60
85
GO
Gravel
720
2450
1623
12.'i9
1058
85
100
Stone
>, Google
IN THE RAIL
231
Throughout this and earlier series of track experiments the same tendency
has been found, the outside wheels exerting the most severe action on the rails
in proportion to the weight which they carry.
The maximum and minimum tensile stresses per ton on the different wheels
are shown in Table LVIII.
TABLE LVIII. -
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TENSILE STRESSES PER TON ON THE
DIFFERENT WHEELS
Gravel..
Stone
Stone —
Ciader..
No. 809.
Freight No. 557...
Passenger No. 809.
Freight No. 557.. .
PasBcnger No. 809.
Paasenge
Ginder. .
Cinder .
Gravel. ,
Pasaenger No. 1515.
Freight No. 557,..-
Passenger No. 809. .
Passenger No. 1515.
Freight No. 557, ,
Stone i Passenger No, 809, ,
Stone ! Freight No. 557,,
Stone I Passenger No. 809. ,
Stone, tie removed' Passenger No. 809, .
Stone Freight No. 537. . .
Gravel, froien* . . , Passenger No. i
Gravel, frozen* . . . Passenger No. '
Gravel, frozent . . . Passenger No.
Gravel, frozen t ,
Gravel, (rozenf .
Gravel, frozent .
Gr&vel. frozent ,
209.
Passenger No. i
Passenger No. i
Passenger No, 2
Passenger No. S
lat pilot . .
Pilot
Pilot
Pilot
4 th lender ,
4 th tender ,
Pilot
1st pilot. . ,
Pilot
4th tender ,
1st pilot, , ,
Ist tender..
4th driver..
Ist pilot
1st pilot
Pilot,.,
lat pilot
Pilot,.,
1st pilot
Ist pilot
Pilot,..
1st pilot
1st pilot
lat pilot
2Qd tender
1st pilot . .
lat pilot. , .
Ist pilot. . .
Pouiids.
1244
1247
2353
2494
2789
1441
2164
1481
2604
1441
1564
1272
2122
1276
1199
I4S5
1500
1500
lat tender...
1st driver. ,.
3rd tender. .
Ist driver. . .
2nd driver. .
Ist tender. ,
3rd tender. .
1st. 2nd, 3rd
tender
1st driver. ..
2nd driver .
2nd tender..
2nd, 3rd
2nd pilot. , . .
1st driver,.,
2nd pilot, ..
1st tender, .
3rd tender , ,
2nd. 3rd
tender
3rd driver , ,
2nd pilot
3rd driver. ,
3rd driver . .
lat driver. . .
Ist tender. ,
3rd, 4th
tender
1st driver, . ,
1st driver,.,
1st driver, , .
2nd, 3rd
tender
2nd tender .
&d tender. .
1262
1038
1152
Illustrative of the influence which the condition of the roadbed has on
the fiber stresses, the 60-pound rail on gravel ballast showed 1247 pounds
per square inch stress per ton under the pilot wheel of the engine, whereas.
,y Google
232 STEEL RAIIS
with the same weight of rail on stone ballast, the same wheel gave 4058 pounds
per square inch.
The fiber stress experiments on the Boston and Albany Railroad were
made on rails 95 pounds per yard, on frozen gravel ballast, and observations
were taken at sevwal points along the length of the rails. The observations
on rail No. 1 were made with the rail in the condition in which it was found
in the track. There was some looseness between the tie plates and the rail
and ties, which, in nul No. 2, was diminished as far as possible by redriving
the spikes and by the use of a number of additional ones. This is the only
instance in which spikes were redriven before testing. Rail No. 1 was ex^nined
at two, and No. 2 was examined at seven, places along its length.
The tensile fiber stresses at the first end of rail No. 2 were higher than
those developed at the middle and near the second end of the rail. In this
rail, as the tensile stresses diminished at the second end, the compressive stresses
increased. At a space 33 inches from the end of the rail, the compressive stress
in the base reached 7630 pounds per square inch when this space was midway
the drivers. The same stress was also shown when the space was between the
tender trucks.
Concerning the relation between the fiber stress developed and the total
depression of the rail, the evidence generally favors the deduction that di-
minished depresfflon will be accompanied by diminished fiber stress.
The depression of the rails examined on the Pennsylvania Railroad shows,
with the 60-pound riuls, the least depression on the gravel ballast, the order
of rigidity being gravel, stone, and cinder ballast. With the 70-pound sections,
the order of rigidity is gravel, cinder, and stone ballast. Under the 85-pound
nuk, the stone ballast gave greater rigidity than the gravel. No test for de-
pression was made with cinder ballast under the 85-pound rails, and only stone
ballast was used under the 100-pound rails.
Table LIX states the mean depression of the driving wheels, and also
the mean depression of all the other wheels of the locomotive in each experi-
ment. There is in the table a column of differences which states the excess
of depression of the drivers over that of the other wheels. The column of
differences is useful in showing the additional depression of the rails under
the weights of the driving wheels after they have been loaded by the other
wheels.
Under the 60- and 70-pound sections, the gravel ballast gave the greatest
rigidity under the drivers, as well as under the other wheels, and in the column
of differences the excess of depression was least for this kind of ballast
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 233
The total depression with 85-pound rails was less for the stone than for
the gravel ballast, although the excess of depression under the drivers was
practically the same in the two cases.
The depression of the rails on frozen gravel ballast, in which there was
no visible movement of the ties, would seem to represent about the attainable
Kmit of ri^dity in track on wooden ties.
The fact that 60-pound rail on gravel compares favorably with the heavier
section on the frozen ballast indicates that this light section of rail was in a
condition approaching rigidity.
In the slope tests, the approach of the locomotive was felt for a distance
of 12 to 15 feet in front of the first wheel. The first observed movement was
TABLE LIX. — DEPRESSION OF RAILS— MEAN DEPRESSION UNDER DRIVING
WHEELS AND MEAN DEPRESSION UNDER PILOT AND TENDER WHEELS
B Doctmifliila. Vol.
GOVERNMENT RAIL TE8TS
U, Mth Oyagrtm. l9t Saei'on, ISM-m. No. H, Tests at Metali]
M
Ballait.
Locomotive.
Dcivm.
?ia.r
DiffonBoe.
60
.229
.073
.162
.230
luh.
,154
042
122
157
laeh.
60
70
Stone
.277 1 .207
.233 1 .184
.144 .097
. 168 , 116
100
Gravel, rroieo, rail No. 1
an upward one, the inclination of the rail sloping in a direction from the loco-
motive. This was followed by a reversal in the direction of the inclination,
which then sloped toward the locomotive. As the several wheels successively
passed over the place of observation, the inclination of the slope reached a
maximum and was reversed in direction, these motions being repeated under
each wheel with some modifications, according to the condition of the track.
After the locomotive had passed over the place of observation the incKnation
gradually diminished, and eventually the rail practically resumed its original
level. A very critical examination led to the conclusion that each passage of
a locomotive left the rail in a slightly different state than it before occupied,
and that some sluggishness of recovery in the ballast had an infiuence on these
minute displacements.
,y Google
234 STEEL EAIia
Figs. 166 and 167 show graphically the results of the tests for depression
and stress in difFerent kinds of ballast and weights of rails-
■FT^^TjrrTT'i
gj^ i g> Vi
307-SOIb> +«OOJbB rtseooibs- -reNDER 70000lb«
LOCOMOTIVE Na809 CLASS PK.
■trackmanS suRFa:^ o
Sftj*I^E£r-*BiLL AST
'^/m^ig0^'^0^i/m,.
Fia. 166. — Railroad Track Eitperimenta, Pennaylvania R. R. DepreaaioD in Ballast.
>, Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL
■ I !
Am
i'-sF _,Li_ r-r — Ue lo-
A (bd) 6
TENDER 7O00O
STRESSES (N BASE OP RML - OAAVEL. BALLAST.
STRESSES IN
OF RAIL - STONE BALLAST.
Fig. 167. — Railroad Track Eiqjerimente, PennsylvE
>, Google
236 STEEL RAILS
All of the experiments just described have been made with the static load
of the engine. In 1897, Dr. P. H. Dudley commenced a smes of interesting
tests to determine the effect of the dynamic load of the engine.
* In Figs. 168 and 169 are shown the results of tests made by Dr. Dudley
with the stremmatograph. The principle of the stremmatograph is to record
on a moving strip the molecular compression or elongation of the metal in a
given length of the base of the rail, induced by the str^ns produced by each
9T!!CAR ATBCAR aOBCAH SWCAR ICCAR TENDER ENeiNE.
«v^ nm fw. — cao-QQQ — mn nan — coa qqq — Qno.a.n "" ^X-^ -^ "^-
Fia. 168. — Stremmah^aph Tests at 19 and 40 m.p.h.
wheel of the moving train. These records can be measured by filar-micrometers
under a microscope, and then from the modulus of elasticity of the steel we may
compute the stresses which produce the g^ven compression or elongation per
square inch of the extreme fiber in the base of the rail.
The object of the stremmatograph is to convert rails of any section and
wei^tj of any system of permanent way construction, into testing machines
in the track and show how much they are strained, due to the wheel loads and
• Dr. p. H. Dudley, The Railroad Gazette, May 20 and October 21. 1S!I8, Stresses in Rails
under Moving Loads. Vol. Ill, Proceedings Am. Society tor Testing Materials, 1903. Stremmato-
BT^h Testa, by P. H. Dudley. Vol. IV, ibid., 1904, Bending Momenta in Rails, by P. H, Dudley.
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL
237
spacing of any type of locomotives and cars moving over the rails at the dif-
ferent speeds of service. In principle it is the same as the device for measuring
the strain in bridge members, described in Article 9.
0 oocx^. ,
COM
TENS
Record N?5
.on. IOO-RA.L
COMP. „ 1\ A N
TENSION
sooo
'V
ivy
sooo Record N?4
COMP. n M N
TENSION
20000
Fio. 169. — Stremmatograph Tests at Slow Speeds.
Record No. 1, Fig. 168, is taken on the New York Central and Hudson
River Railroad tracks. The instrument was applied on the outside rail of a
3-degree curve at the Grand Central Terminal, over which nearly all of the
heavy trains from the terminal pass outward; the tonnage was from 20,000 to
,y Google
?38 STEEL RAILS
25,000 per day, and there was more looseness in the track than generally found out
on the main line. The following is the data of the test.
Date,
June 28, 1898.
Weight of rail,
100 pounds per yard.
Height of rail.
6 inches.
Ballast,
Stone.
Ties,
Oak with tie plates spaced 24 inches,
center to center.
Speed, miles per
hour,
19.
Temperature,
90° F.
Locomotive and tender,
202,000 pounds.
First car.
96,000 pounds.
Second car.
86,200 pounds.
Third car.
82,000 pounds.
Fourth ear.
94,950 pounds.
Record No. 1, Fig. 169, shows the extreme fiber stresses in the same track
and under the same engine in a test of December 29, 1897, temperature 23° F.,
when the engine was moving at a speed of 10 miles per hour.
When the December test was made, the rail was not only firm on the ties
but was under some tension, due to the low temperature. In this test the
small stresses under the front truck wheel show at once that the rail was very
firmly supported and was not loose on the ties. The rail being under tension
before loading, the actual stresses of tension in the rail were higher than indi-
cated, and those of compression lower.
When the June tests were made, the track had not been tamped or sur-
faced by the trackmen since the preceding October. Over 16,000,000 tons had
been carried over the rails since that date, or 12,000,000 tons since the previous
test.
Since the December test, air brakes had been applied to the engine trucks,
which adds more to her weight. While the engine truck carried more weight
in the June than in the December test, the increased stresses under the front
truck wheels and the much larger stresses of compression show that the rail
and ties were much looser in the June test.
Record No. 2, Fig. 168, was taken at West Albany (N. Y. C. & H. R. R. R.)
September 30, 1897. The engine was drawing five Wagner palace cars at a
speed of 40 miles per hour; 80-pound rail, 5 inches high; ties spaced 25 inches,
center to center.
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 289
Records Nos.'2 and 3, Fig. 169, show tests made at 2 miles per hour
and 10 miles per hour. The total weight of the locomotive was 96 tons; the
engine 60 tons, with 15,500 poxmds on pony truck and 104,500 pounds on three
pdrs of drivers. The tender weighed 72,000 pounds. The instrument was
placed on the outside rail on a 3-degree curve and down grade of 10 feet per
mile. The rail was 80-pound section, 5i inches high. The ties were yellow
pine, 7 by 9 inches, spaced 25 inches, center to center. Gravel ballast, the
track being in good condition. 30,000,000 pounds was taken as the modulus
of elasticity of the steel.
The two ties between which the stremmatograph was attached to the rail
were very firm in the ballast, and to the eye did not seem to depress as much
as those on either side; therefore the compression sirens were probably
higher than on ties all practically depresang alike in the ballast.
Records Nos. 4 and 5, Pig. 169, were taken on 65-pound and 100-pound
rails, respectively. The 65-pound rails were of steel with an elastic limit of
60,000 pounds, while on the 100-pound rails it was 65,000 pounds. The loco-
motive was a switching engine, having 125,000 pounds upon drivers. The
instrument was placed between ties spaced 30 inches, center to center, having
tie plates.
Dr. Dudley states that tests with his stremmatograph show that the bend-
ing moments in 80-pound rails under wheel loads used in 1905 may be as high
as 300,000 to 350,000 inch-pounds, indicating a unit fiber stress in the base of
the r^ of as much as 30,000 or 35,000 pounds on worn 5-mch 80-pound sections.
With the 65-pound rail, stresses were frequentiy found as high as 40,000 to 45,000
poimds.*
23. Calculation of the Bending and Shearing Stress in the Rail
Examining, first, the moment and shear in the rail between two pairs
of driving wheels, we see that if the rail were completely rig^d there would
result a uniform distribution of the wheel pressure to the ties, and if w equal
the pressure of one wheel divided by the wheel spacing, I, the resulting moment
and shear in the rail would then be
Maximum moment, ^ = To "'^*'
Maximum shear, J = -^ •
From the discussion on the support of the rail, we can take .35 ton as
a maximxmi value for w, and 150 inch-tons will be taken, for the present, as
" Private communication, June 7, 1912.
>, Google
240
STEEL RAII5
/
/
/
/
/
/
\ \
/ /
\
\
\
SPACING OF DRIVERS INCHES
the maximum allowable moment, the following calculations being based on
100-pound A. S. C. E. rail. From the above we may constract the dotted
line shown in Fig. 170.
Considering, now, the effect of the
8 /^v unequal distribution of the wheel pres-
'' sure to the ties: Fig. 142 shows the
relation of the reaction of the tie to the
depression in the ballast. We can,
therefore, by constructing the elastic
curve of the rail to give a shear curve
corresponding to the support of the
tie, given in Fig. 142, obtain the true
"so Mastic curve of the rail, from which
the moment and shear diagrams can
Fio. 170. — Wheel Loads for Different Spacing be developed.
of Drivera. t. ■ ■ .1 i -n 1
By this method we will assume the
probable curve of the rail and from this curve deduce the moment and shear
curves. The shear curve will give the reactions under the r^l, and by comparing
these with the pressure exerted by the ties for the given depression, as shown
by the curve of the rml, the correctnras of the latter can be checked. After a few
trials the actual curve taken by the rail for any span and wheel load can be drawn,
and the maximum bending moment and pressure on the ballast ascertained.
Mr. C. E. Love of the University of Michigan has made a very interesting
analysis of the results of the government tests of 1889, 1894, and 1895, described
in Article 22. As it is proposed to use the method adopted by Mr. Love a re-
view of one of the cases he has worked out will prove instructive and, on account
of the careful measurements made in the test selected, the accuracy of the
analysis can be shown before proceeding with its application to the general
case under consideration.
In Mr. Love's discussion the elastic curve of the rail, plotted from the careful
measurements given in these tests, is taken as the original curve, and the curve of
slopes, bending moment diagram, and shear diagram derived by the following
relations: Elastic curve, i> = /(i), or ^.
z
Curve of slopes, C=f {%), or -^ .
Moment diagram, M = E7/" (x), or EI^-i>
aar
Shear diagram, F = Elf" (x). or EI^ ■
,y Google
1 space = =
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 241
Plate XXIII shows one of the digrams worked out by Mr. Love. This
plate is based on diagram No. 5 of the 1894 experiments.* The rail used was
30 feet long, with tie centers at points 1, 2, 3 - - - - 18 (diagram A) and
loaded as shown, one horizontal space representing 2 inches.
In dia^;ram B, points on the elastic curve were plotted from the observed
deflections and a smooth curve drawn through them, one vertical space
representing a deflection of .002 mch. This curve was then divided into
segments 6 inches (three spaces) in length along the horizontal axis and the
slope of each segment measured as if it had been straight. In determining the
tangent of each slope angle, the measurements were made in sixtieths of an
inch. The base, of course, was constant, three spaces equaling jj inch of
actual distance on the paper, so that, calling the altitude dv, the actual slope was
tan = yi' where dv was measured in sixtieths of an inch. In drawing the slope
curve, diagram C, however, one space corresponded to an altitude of sV inch.
For example, the extreme left-hand segment, diagram C, is three spaces below
the axis. This makes the value of one space in diagram C,
2 1 J_^ 1_
'1000*2*14 14,000'
The bending moment was constructed by plotting points directly from
diagram C, by taking the ordinates of the bending moments equal to the corre-
sponding breaks in the slope curve. The ordinates of the points in diagram D
are three times the actual slope of the curve in diagram C. The moment of
inertia (/) of the rail is 19.127, and a value of the modulus of elasticity (E) is
taken as 30,000,000.
Hence, since M = El-r^, we have for the value of one space in diagram D,
1 space = T77^ -14*30,000,000 x 19.127 = 6800 mch-pounds.
14,U0u o c
The construction of diagram E is now very simple. The actual slope of a
segment of the moment curve was measured and the ordinate of the shear curve
taken as 10 spaces for each unit of the measured slope. Hence, for diagram E,
1 space = 6800- —'I = 340 pounds.
The bending moment at any point can now be scaled directly from dia-
gram D, and the change in shear under any tie in diagram E is the reaction at
the tie.
The total load on this rail is 56,500 pounds. After examining the re-
* House Executive Documents, 3rd Seeaian, 53rd Congress, 1894-05, Vol. SO, Tests of Metala, etc
,y Google
STEEL RAIIS
actions at ties 1, 2, and 3, it is reasonable to suppose that 3000 pounds of the
load at No. 1 is supported by the rail to the left, thus leaving a net load of 53,500
pounds. The total up-
ward reaction is 52,300
pounds.
The error at No.
Sj is 100 pounds, i.e.,
the actual load is 16,-
000 pounds, while as
read from diagram E
it is 16,100 pounds;
at No. 10§ the er-
ror is + 300 pounds;
at No. 13J, +300
pounds.
Other experiments
were performed on this
rail, in which the fiber
stresses were meas-
ured. The maximum
bending moment here
is +98,500 inch-
pounds. In the other
experiments it was
117,000 inch-pounds,
caused by an engine
10 per cent heavier,
with the load at the
middle of a 24-inch
span. The minimum
here is - 24,000 inch-
pounds; in the other
experiments it was
- 38,500 inch-pounds.
Fig. 171 shows the
construction for 100-
pound A. S. C. E. rail
with spans of 60 inches, between centers of driving wheels.
1
o
0" 7
o" s
o"
>
OM'
3
O
o
2,26:
s
:;:
:■■■-
■...;i
■;
>
UJ
.,..
(A
m
^
111
>
oooo
3IIUU
3
S
WWn
£
•0
U
.....
z
i
(A
3
g
?
2000(
1 LBS
s —
a
■ ■ ■
!)i
0
i'-':
>, Google
IN THE RAIL 243
The construction of Fig. 171 is similar to that of Plate XXIII. The scale
to which the elastic curve is drawn is, 0.002 inch equals one space vertically,
and 2 inches equals one space horizontally. In deriving the slope curve,
the actual ordinates of the elastic curve are measured in fiftieths of an inch,
and one vertical space on the slope curve is taken to represent one-fiftieth of
an inch of the elastic curve ordinate. The base is taken in all the curves as
two spaces.
The value of one vertical space of the slope curve is, then,
2 1 1 1
1000'50'(A=H)*2'
2 1 50 1
1000'50'l0'2'
2 1 1^ 1
1000 ■ 10 '2 10,000"
For example, the ordinate of the elastic curve at 2 inches to the right of the
5 5 2 5 10
wheel is about rrr inch ; the actual slope is, therefore, tan = ?^ -h r;; or =;;-=- — = .5,
oO 50 10 50 50
as shown by the slope curve between 0 and 2 inches. The ordinate of the
12 5
elastic curve at 4 inches is about -=^ or the rise from 2 inches to 4 inches is
50
inches.
The ordinates on the moment curve are taken the same number of spaces
as the corresponding breaks in the ciu-ve of slopes and consequently, on account
of the base being 2 spaces, represent twice the actual slope of the slope curve.
The value of one vertical space in the moment curve is, then,
10,000 2 2
ITjL- -l-i. 30,000,000 X 43.8 - 32,860 inch-pounds.
The ordinates of the shear curve are five times those of the moment curve,
and the value of one vertical space in the shear curve is
1 1 1
*5*2'2'
The most simple way to construct the diagram is to approximate the
elastic curve of the rail and then follow out the operations, as shown by Table
LX, correcting the elastic curve from column 11 of the table and readjusting
the calculations, if necessary, to the corrected elastic curve values.
,y Google
STEEL EAIIfi
TABLE
LX.— CALCULATIONS OF RAIL DIAGRAMS FOR 60-INCH
WHEEL SPACING
Dtprawoa
track-
Pounds.
sbMt.
Moxi
«..
Stop.,
Elmti«eiirv»
in A inch.
Inch.
Pou«(..
4
s
1
OrdiMle,
7
0^..
IXlu.
Ordi-
0.30
20,080
12.2
2.44
6,1
4.9
0
0
2800
4,9
17,280
10.5
2.10
4.9
4.9
2760
2.8
2,8
14,520
1.76
7.7
7.7
2720
1,0
1.0
11,800
7,2
1.44
8 7
8.7
2680
- .4
- ,4
0.29
0,120
i.i2
S.3
S.3
2640
-1.5
-1,5
32.1
8,480
.78
6.8
6,8
2610
-2.3
-2.3
3.870
2.4
.48
4,5
4.5
2590
-2,0
-2.9
0.2Si
1.280
6,8
.16
1,6
0
1,6
0
1280
-3,1
-3,1
45 0
Col. 8 la round (rom col, 6 by dividiOK the fieutm given in col. S by 5.
In Fig. 172 are given diagrams for spans of 70 inches, 80 inches, and 90
inches between centers of drivers.
The maximum bending moment can be read directly from the moment
curve and the wheel load is twice the load supported on half the span or twice
the total reaction shown by the shear curve of the diagrams. In comparing the
shear curve with the curve of pressures of the ties it would seem desirable to
assume the r^ to be supported by a distributed load in place of a series of loads
concentrated at the ties, the effect will be practically the same and the calcula-
tions much simphfied.
The results of static and dynamic tests of the stress in the rail both indi-
cate that the negative bending moment between the drivers is very much smaller
than the positive bending moment produced in the rail under the drivers. The
dynamic tests appear to show a ratio of about 1 to 4 or a compressive stress in
the base of the rail only one-fourth as great as the tendle stress, under normal
conditions. In poorly tamped track the compression stress seems to increase.
If the ral were uniformly supported between the wheels the compresaon
stress would be one-half the tension stress under the wheels of a set of drivers.
Such a condition of the pressure exerted by the tie would be represented by
a horizontal line in Fig. 142. The diagrams given in Figs. 171 and 172 show that,
as the spacing of the drivers increases, the negative bending moment or the
compression stress in the base of the r^ decreases in relation to the tension
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL
y
'
/
'
/
ntif
y
/
"
/
/
i
run
^
-
/
/
o
/
/
\
y
y
s
r
N
«i
^^
/
\
\
=
/
\
1
\
\
ol
1
^
1
\
\
\
ioot
>I>L*
s,
\
\
%
\
\
v
5
^~~
^
^^
^
UM
LBS.
\
\
t»
\
g
\
\
V.
a.
N
K
^
^
i
Fia. 172. — Rail Diagram for Wheel Spacing of 70, 80, and 90 incbea, one-balf size of original diagram
>, Google
246 8T££L RAIIS
stress; for drivers spaced 60 inches apart it is practically one-half the tensile
stress, but when the spacing is increased to 90 inches it is not much more than
one-third.
An examination of Fig. 142 makes this clear and shows that with the
greater deflection obtained in the 90-inch span the ties in the center of the
span support relatively much less of the load. With lighter rail the deflection
would be still further increased and a greater ratio of the tension to the
compression stress obtained.
The full line, shown in Fig. 170, shows the true allowable wheel loads given
by the diagrams of Figs. 171 and 172. Up to spans of 80 inches the wheel load
is limited by the safe bearing power of the tie and is obviously less than that
obtained from the assumption that there is a uniform distribution of the wheel
pressure to the ties upon which the dotted line of Fig. 170 is based. After the
spacing of the drivers exceeds 80 inches the wheel load is limited by the bending
moment in the rail; here the bending moment is greater for a uniformly dis-
tributed load and, consequently, the dotted line in the figure falls below the
full line.
Turning our attention to the allowable wheel load as determined by the
conditions at the front and rear drivers. Figs. 162 and 163 show that there is
a wave motion of the rml ahead of the engine and the rail rises slightly above
the trackman's surface. This lack of pressure on the rail at the outside wheels
causes these wheels to exert a more severe action on the rail. This is clearly
shown by Table LVIII and in Fig. 162, where the outside drivers, although
carrying less weight, gave practically the same stress as the middle driver.
Records Nos. 2 and 3 of Fig. 169 illustrate the same tendency.
The rail diagrams, just worked out, show that in increaang the wheel
spacing from 80 to 90 inches the permissible wheel load fell from 24 to 22 tons.
From the diagram for the 90-inch wheel spacing it is seen that the ties in the
middle of the span afford little support, and while it is somewhat problematic
what load will be carried by the rail ahead of the front driver, we will not be
very far wrong if we assume it to carry 8 tons with no leading truck, 9 tons
with a two-wheel leading truck, and 10 tons with a four-wheel leading truck.
On accoimt of the load of the tender wheels and the effect of the draw-
bar pull, we may reasonably take 10 tons where a trailing truck is used and
9 tons where there is no trailer, as the load carried by the rail back of the rear
drivers.
Table LXI may now be prepared showing the allowable dynamic wheel
load under different conditions of wheel spacing.
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL
ProDt wheel,
No leading; truck
Two-wheel leading truck. .
iFour-wheel leading truck. .
Back wheel,
No trailing truck
Trailing truck
36,000
38,000
40,000
38,000
40,000
42,000
40,000
42,000
44,000
Referring to Figs. 31 and 32, of typical load diagrams of en^nes, it will be
seen that with the exception of the articulated engine there is had a very satis-
factory agreement between Table LXI and the diagrams.
We have now to consider the stresses in the rail caused by the bending
moment and shear derived in Pigs. 171 and 172. The maximum bending
moment in these figures is 300,000 inch-pounds, and the maximum shear is
24,000 pounds.
It is beyond the scope of the present work to enter into the discussion
of mathematical investigations of continuous web strains, and in order to form
some conception of the nature of stresses in the continuous rail we shall view
the matter in the simplest manner possible.*
In the rail under the wheel it is evident that, by virtue of the bending
stress, that part of the rail above the neutral axis is subject to compression,
and that below to tension, both of which stresses attain maximum values at
the outermost fibers of the rail, and decrease to zero at the neutral axis. This
intensity of the stress at any point is at once obtained from the well-known
equation of flexure:
M
y = f.
(a)
where M is the bending moment, / the moment of inertia of the section of the
rail, y the distance of the point from the neutral axis, and / the intensity
of the stress at that point.
Table LXII gives the extreme fiber stress in the base due to bending in
different sections of 100-pound r^, caused by a bending moment of 300,000
inch-pounds. The hi^ moment of inertia in the Series "A" of the American
R^way Association would give a slightly different elastic curve for this rail
than is shown for the A. S. C. E. section in Figs. 171 and 172, with the result
• See Plate Girder ConstructioD, leami Hiroi, New York.
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
that the bending moment would be increased and the unit of load supporting
the rail decreased.
- TABLE LXn. — EXTREME FIBER STRESS DUE TO A
BENDING MOMENT OF 300,000 INCH-POUNDS
Section.
WaiRbt.
Ertrme Fiber
A. S. C, E
Am. Ry. Assn., Series "A"
Am. Ry. Assn.. SerieB "B"
100
100
100
18,800'
16,900
19,100
B£EES:
- Diatribulion of HmizoDtal Stress ir
The bending moment M decreases as we proceed toward the center of the
space between the wheels, and with it evidently the intensity / of the hori-
zontal stress also; so that / varies not only in vertical directions on both sides
of the neutral axis, but also in the direction of the length of the rail.
^ Let XX and x'x', in Fig. 173, be
/~\ ^v y two sections of a rail, very close to
each other, and NN the neutral axis.
The variation of the value of /
in both sections may be represented
by triangles with apices in the
neutral axis, and the variation in
the longitudinal direction between
these two sections by the difference of the areas of two triangles, as shown
shaded in the figure. This increase of horizontal stress from one section to
another produces at each longitudinal layer a force tending to slide it past the
layer next above it, and is transmitted undiminished toward the neutral axis,
where this shearing force, which has been increasing at every layer, attains its
maximum intenaty.
This stress is called the longitudinal shear, and can be at once obtiuned
from equation (a). Thus, let/' be the corresponding value of /in section x'x';
and let M and M' be the bending moment in the two sections xx and x'x' re-
spectively, and a an infinitely small cross area, distant y from the neutral axis.
The total horizontal stresses acting in that part of the section lying between
the extreme fiber distant h from the neutral axis and the layer y'y' distant y'
from the axis in xx and x'x' are respectively:
Xfa.
tfa.
>, Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 249
The longitudinal shear in the layer y'y' between the two sections is, there-
fore, equal to
Substituting in the expression the values of / and /' given by equation
(a), we obtain,
%lo.- 2,fa= = ^ya.
Since the area on which this horizontal shear is acting is equal to 6 a:e,
when b is the breadth of the cross section at the layer y'y' and Ax the distance
between x and x', we obtwn for the intensity of the shear,
Thus at every point in the rail there are two shearing actions taking place
at the same time, one the longitudinal shear and the other the vertical shear.
Imagine abed, Fig. 174, to be an infinitely small ^ t^.^x.b. ^
•/
portion of the side of a rail at a point distant y'
from the neutral axis. Suppose the side of this •'■'
area element to be Ax and Ay, and the breadth of the
beam at the point to be 6. There are then found two Fio-m.—ShearingStresaof Point
shearing stresses on this element, one vertical and Distant y' tram Neutral Axis,
the other horizontal. These two shears form two pairs of couples acting around
the body, as shown by the arrows. Let t^ represent the intensity of the horizontal
shear at this point and t^ that of the vertical. The amount of the horizontal
shear is equal to (, Ax 6; that of the vertical shear is Hkewise equal to i. Ay b.
In order that the body be in equilibrium, the moment of these couples
must be equal, i.e., t,Axb Ay = t^Ayb Az. Consequently, (^ = (, (which is
always the case), showing that at every point in the rail the intensities of the
vertical and horizontal shears are equal, and we will hereafter designate them
with the common letter (. The value of t^ has already been deduced in equation
(b), namely:
. M' — Af V* , ,
M' — M
But the value of = 5,, where S, is the total vertical shear at the sec-
Ax
- M
in equation (c) , there results:
>, Google
250
STEEL RAIIS
or the intensity of the shearing stress at any point in the rail is equal to the
total shearing force on the entire cross section multiplied by the statical moment
of the area of the section outside the longitudinal plane of shear in question
about its axis in the neutral plane, divided by the product of the moment of
inertia of the entire section into the breadth of the section at that point.
Fig. 175 shows the intensity of the shearing stress in a 100-pound r^l,
the total vertical shear at the section being 24,000 pounds.
SHEAR
Fia. 175. — Shearing Streaa in 100-pound A. S. C. E. Rajl.
There still remains to be considered the horizontal force /, whose value
is given in equation (a), tending either to compress together or pull asunder
the two faces ac and bd (Fig. 174), according as it is on the upper or lower side
of the neutral axis.
At the neutral axis where / = 0, (, and t* are then the only stresses, and
we know from mechanics that the resultant action of two equal shears at right
angles to each other, exactly as t^ and t^ are, is equivalent to that of two equal
and opposite stresses at right angles to each other, called the principal stresses
and making an angle of 45° with the shearing stresses. But at a distance each
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 251
side of the neutral axis the third stress, /, now comes in, which evidently ^ves
a new direction to tiie line of resultant stress, turning the axis of principal stresses
toward itself more and more as its intensity increases.
Fig. 176 represents the appearance which the lines of principal stresses
thus obtained present in a beam loaded in the middle and supported at each
end. The lines of maximum tension are shown dotted and cut the lines of
compression always at right angles. Both lines cross the neutral axis at an
inclination of 45° and run almost parallel to it in the middle of the beam in the
neighborhood of extreme fibers.
Fia. 176. — Lines of Principal Stress in Beam.
Now comes the question how the web should be proportioned to resist
such stresses: The greatest intensity of the vertical shearing stress on the verti-
cal section of the rail, shown in Pig. 175, is about"10,000 pounds per square inch.
In modem bridge practice a shearing stress is allowed in web plates of 10,000
pounds per square inch, which gives a satisfactory thickness of the web for the
rail shown in the figure. But as has already been explained, the action of the
shearing stresses at the neutral axis is equivalent to compression and tension
at right angles to each other and of equal intensity, making an angle of 45° with
the axis, and the web is still in danger of failing by flexure under this com-
Consequently, the web with its thickness as already proportioned for
shearing must now be examined for its strength as a column. We will probably
be not far from correct if the length of the column is taken as A sec 45°, h being
the vertical distance between the top of the flange and bottom of the head of
the rail. Then, for the 100-pound A. S. C. E. rail, h sec 45° equals 4.4 inches,
and the load is
p
~ = p = 10,000 pounds per square inch.
This amount is correct for the bending stress caused -by the load which is
central over the rail head. The wheel load is, however, rarely applied exactly
in line with the vertical axis of the rail, and the additional couple due to the
eccentricity causes a torsion in the rail. To make a correct analysis would
,y Google
252 STEEL RAILS
be very cbmplicated and decidedly uncertain on account of the lack of experi-
mental evidence.
No column formula can be made to apply exactly to the web of the rail.
If we apply the formula for a column with an eccentric loading of .6 of an inch,
the resulting stress amounts to over 50,000 pounds per square inch. It is
doubtful, however, whether the stress introduced by this torsion can be com-
bined with those due to bending in this manner.
It will be observed that, even were this large stress correct, there is a
tensile stress acting at right angles to the compression stress and tending to
hold the strip in its true plane. Just what the restraining influence of this
tensile stress is cannot be determined theoretically, but the following experi-
ments show it to be of importance.
During I9I0 teats were made at the Maryland Steel Company's plant at
Sparrows Point, Md., for the purpose of determining what effect the eccentric
loading of the wheel had on the head and web of the rail.* The tests were made
with a 200,000-pound test machine by canting a piece of rail 18 inches long
and applying the load at the edge by means of a block with a radius of 16^
inches, to represent a car wheel, where it came in contact with the rail. Other
tests were made with a reciprocating machine representing a loaded wheel
rolling back and forth on the edge of the canted rail.
For the tests a rail was taken from stock and six pieces each 18 inches
long were cut from it for test in the stationary test machine and six similar
pieces were used for test in the reciprocating machine. In order to have the
material as imiform as possible throughout the section and in the different
pieces, a " C " rail was selected, that is, the third rail from the top of the rail
bar. The rail was a 90-pound A. R. A. type B section and the pieces were planed
down to thicknesses of head at the side of i inch, § inch, f inch, | inch, J inch,
and 1 inch, two pieces of each thickness, one for each kind of test. In each
case the brand side of the head of the rail, which was the bottom side as rolled,
was planed vertical to a width of 1^^ inches from the center line. Fig. 177
shows the dimensions of the section used and also gives diagrams of the pieces
tested. The essential dimensions of the head of the pieces tested, as indicated
by letters A, B, and C, on Fig. 177, measured as shown in Table LXIII.
Two samples were taken with a J-inch drill for analysis from a section
near the middle of the length of the rail, one close to the upper comer and the
other at the junction of the head and the web. The results of the analyses are
shown in Table LXIV.
• strength of Rwl Head, M. W. Wiokhoret, Proceedinga Am. Ry. Eng. & M. of W. Asbd.,
1911, Vol. 12, Part 2, p. 618.
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL
These results show the material to be very uniform.
TABLE LXIII. — DIMENSIONS OF HEADS AS TESTED FOR
STRENGTH OF RAIL HEAD
TMNumtMn.
ThkkDtaofHwd.
widih.
E^.
^T^
SdatoCatH,
1.02
.91
76
,62
.51
.38
1.26
1.15
1.02
.86
.75
.64
1.15
1.18
1.17
1.16
1.16
1.17
5 and 6.
9 and 10... .
TABLE LXIV. - ANALYSES
FOR STRENGTH OF
OF RAILS TESTED
RAIL HEAD
Comer of
HairMd Wsb.
.538
.070
.050
,81
.103
10
None
None
.523
.070
.055
.81
.103
.18
None
None
Manganese
NXrv.'v:;::::::::::::::::':
Chromium
Tensile tests were also made of pieces cut from near the middle of the rail,
two pieces J-inch diameter and 2-inch gauge length, for longitudinal test from
the center of the head, and two pieces i-inch diameter and 1-inch gauge length
for transverse test across the center of the head. The yield point in the 2-inch
pieces was determined by means of a Capp's multiplying dividers. The results
of the tests are shown in Table LXV.
TABLE LXV. — TENSILE TESTS OF RAILS TESTED FOR
STRENGTH OF RAIL HEAD
Ywld Pouit
S<i«.™l«h).
rPouiidB per
SqMTBlnqh).
Eloiioti«.
ReduciioB at
Longitudinal a
2-incli gauge length b
Average
Transverse a
1-inch gauge tengtli 6
Average
51,000
52,700
51,850
111,600
111,500
111,550
110,200
111,200
110,700
16
16.5
16,3
6
7
6,5
29
29
29
7
9
8
These results show material of good ductihty longitudinally and the stretch
crosswise of the head shows up well for a transverse test.
,y Google
STEEL KAILS
-i — gy— ^
- Diagram of Pieces tested for Sag of Rail Head and Bending of Web.
(Am. Ry, Eng. Assn.)
Fia. 178. — MeOiod of Sutionary Teats for Sag of Rail Head and Bending of W(i>.
(Am, Ry. Eng. Asen.)
The arrangement used for making the stationary tests is shown in Fig.
178, and is intended to represent a 33-inch car wheel resting on the edge of
the top of the rail. The head is thus tested as a cantilever, the load tending
to sag the head locally and to also bend the web.
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 255
The load was applied in increments of 10,000 pounds up to 60,000 pounds
and then in increments of 20,000 pounds up to 200,000 pounds, the capacity
of the test machine. The sag of the head was determined by measuring the
distance by means of dividers, between prick-punch marks placed on the side
of the head near the bottom and on the base, as indicated in Fig. 178, the
load being on while taking the reading. The marks on the base were placed
about one inch from the web, by gouging some of the metal so as to have a
vertical surface on which to prick-punch the mark. The amount that the
opposite side of the head elevated, or the " lift," was determined in a similar
manner. The results of these tests are shown in Table LXVI.
TABLE LXVI. -
■ STATIONARY TESTS IN TEST MACHINE OF STRENGTH
OF RAIL HEAD
Sac ud Lift is Inehli
La«l,
|-iHtlH«d.
t-iuh H«d.
l-iocb
H»d.
l-lBChHdul. 1
iBCh
Haul.
i-i«b
Hwd.
at.
Lirt.
St.
1^.
Sw.
Li,t.
Sai.
LUt. a
X.
Lin.
Sw.
UU.
,00
.02
,05
,06
,08
.09
,00
.00
.00
.01
.01
.02
.00
.01
.02
.03
.04
.05
.06
.07
.08
.00
.10
.11
.13
.00
-00
.01
.01
.01
.02
.02
.02
.02
.02
,02
.02
.02
.00
.01
.02
.04
.06
.07
.10
.11
.12
.13
.14
.15
.16
.00
.00
,00
.00
.01
.01
.02
.03
.03
.03
.04
04
,04
,00
.00
.01
.01
.02
,03
.04
.05
.07
.08
.08
-09
.10
.00
.00
.01
.02
.02
.03
.04
.04
.05
.05
.06
.07
.08
.01
.01
.02
.02
,02
.03
.03
.03
,03
,03
.03
-03
01
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
08
09
10
.02
.02
.02
,03
.03
.04
.04
.04
,04
,04
.04
.03
80,000. . . .
.02
02
.15
.17
,20
.03
.03
.05
03
200,000
.02
These results
are plotted in Fig.
179, in which the
load is plotted
against the sag of
headfor each thick-
ness of bead tested.
The f-inch head,
according to these
curves, gave a
greater sag than
the 4-inch head. P>«- l^— sag of lUa Head in stationary Tests. (Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.)
Although this is according to the measurements obtained, it would seem to
be in error, due, perhaps, partly to errors of measurement, but probably also
,y Google
256
STEEL RAILS
due to some condition which cannot be accounted for, as, for instance,
application of the load.
The curves show that a load of 10,000 pounds does not sag the head with
the load applied to the edge of the top side, with any thickness down to f inch,
and probably neither does a load of 20,000 pounds, although, as the load was
on when the measurement was taken, we cannot say how much of the sag was
elastic and how much permanent. A load of 30,000 pounds seems to cause a
permanent sag with the f-inch head, but not much, if any, with the heads of
greater thickness.
It is interesting to note in this connection that the web seemed to stand
the load of 200,000 pounds successfully.
Tests were also made with the reciprocating machine, shown in Fig. 151,
in which a piece of rail is moved back and forth under a wheel to which a
load can be applied by means of a system of levers. The rail is fastened to
a steel bloom which runs on rollers running on another steel bloom that forms
the bed of the machine. The rail bed is connected by means of a connecting
rod to the bed plate of a planer, which furnished the power to run the rail machine.
The weights attached to the weight hanger are multiplied 600 times as applied
to the axle of the wheel, and in these tests weights of 50, 100, and 150 pounds
were used, so that the wheel loads were 30,000, 60,000, and 90,000 pounds re-
spectively. A piece of rail 18 inches long was tilted on an inclined plane of
1 in 10, as in the other tests, and the wheel, loaded with 30,000 pounds, was
run back and forth over a length of about 10 inches for 100 double strokes,
which made 200 movements of the loaded wheel over the rail. The sag of the
head and the width of the bearing taken by the wheel were then measured with
no load; the load was then increased to 60,000 pounds and the wheel again
run on the rail as before. The- measurements were ag^n taken and a final test
made with a load of 90,000 pounds. The results of these tests proved to be
interesting and fairly definite, and are shown in Table LXVII.
TABLE LXVIL — RESULTS OF ROLLING TESTS OP STRENGTH OF RAIL HEAD
ThickHwolHMd,
'•Viz-'-
Widtl^oI^B«riBg.
JO.0O0
60,000
Pounda.
90.000
Poimds.
pS
^^.
I^i^.
.05
,01
.00
.13
.08
,05
.03
.01
00
.17
,13
.13
.10
.08
05
,56
.34
31
1.20
1 00
1.56
1.42
1.40
1,28
1.16
1.00
,32 .70
.32 1 ,5S
.00
.00
>, Google
<
Ul
*.i<5
i
s.
ROLLtNe TESTS
s
^
90,o>o
LBS.
s
V
60,000
LBi*
V
:k
^^3etooo
tea^
-^
THICKNESS SF HEAD
-Sag of Rail Head in Railing Tests.
(Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.)
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 267
The results showing the relation of thickness of head and sag of head und^
loads of 30,000, 60,000, and 90,000 pounds are plotted in Fig. 180. It will be
noted that 30,000 pounds
produces no sag when the
head is f inch or overin thick-
ness. With 60,000 pounds
the head must be 1 inch
or over in thickness. All
the samples tested sagged
under 90,000 pounds, but
by extending the curve
it seems probable that a
head If inches thick would
hold up a rolling load of
90,000 pounds when con-
centrated at the edge.
After the rails were tested they were cut in two and their sections are
shown in comparison with the original rail section in Pig. 181.
The rolling load of 90,000 pounds applied at the edge of the head pro-
duced very little or no bending of the web with the section used, which was a
90-pound A. R. A. type B, with a thickness of about ^ inch at the middle.
While there seems little liability of the web failing as a column, the height
of the ral in reference to the stability of the outer rail on curves must be
considered.
* Mr. E. E. Stetson found that in many cases the resultant of the hori-
zontal force and wheel pressure on curves falls entirely outside the base of the
rail in the 100-pound section.
In 1907 the Pennsylvania Ralroad Company prepared a piece of track
on the West Jersey and Seashore R^road, on a 1-degree curve, near Franklin-
ville, N. J., with special cast-steel ties and measuring apparatus, for the pur-
pose of comparing the effects of lateral horizontal forces on the outer rail of the
curve generated by different classes of electric locomotives and standard steam
locomotives.
The force exerted by the locomotive was communicated to steel plates by
means of hardened steel spheres of small diameter, and the effect of the force
• A Study of Rail Pressures and Stresses in Track Produced by DiEFerent Types of Steam Loco-
motives when Rounding Various Degree Curves at Different Speeds. E. E. Stetaon, Proceedings Am.
Ry. Eng. 4 M. of W. Assn., 1B09, Vol. 10, Part 2, p. 1432.
,y Google
258
STEEL RAILS
was to cause the spheres to make a more or less deep impression in the steel
plates.
By means of laboratory tests, it was determined what forces in pounds
were required to produce various known depths of the impression of the steel
balls in the plates, and after this calibration had been made it was possible to
transform the depths of the impressions of the balls in the plates into pounds
ROLLING- TEST- LOAD SdowLsa
Fia. ISl. — Kails after RoUiog Teat with Load of dO.OOO Pounds. (Am. Ry. Eng. Asm.)
of pressure. Table LXVIII-A gives the results of some of these tests for steam
locomotives, in order that they may be compared with the computations made
by Mr. Stetson, which are shown in Table LXVIII-B for the same degree of
curve and for one locomotive of the same class as used in the tests on the
Atlantic City Une. Mr. Stetson's calculations are for speeds of 60 miles per
hour, which are from twenty to thirty miles per hour less than the actual
tests, but the weights of the locomotives are heavier. The lower speeds should
give smaller pressures, while, on the other hand, the heavier locomotives should
give higher pressures.
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL
TABLE LXVIII. — HORIZONTAL PRESSURES EXERTED BY STEAM LOCO-
MOTIVES AGAINST RAIL ON CURVES
(Am. Ry. £n(. Ahl)
TABIfA.
- RESULTS OF TEST3 MADE IN 1907, AT FRANKLINVILLE. N. J., ON WEST JERSEY
ft SEASHORE RAILROAD ON
A l-DEGREE
2URVE
S^«.
Siwed in Mil»
per Hour.
SpMdCorrs-
5uf»nlev>tj^.
Typ«o(Looo.
moH™,
Conditicn of
RaU.
l>m«u«.
S^
iBCh
9
88.4
70
B
Dry
0.204
10,600
87.7
70
B
0.246
13,000
17
92.3
70
B
Dry
0.222
11,500
90.5
70
B
Dry
0,216
11,200
19
85.03
70
B
Dry
0.199
10,300
70
Dry
0.193
10,100
75.5
70
B
0,162
8,500
22
80.7
70
B
Wet
0,217
11,200
81.29
Wet
0.217
11,200
111
85-30
70
B
Dry
0,179
9,500
118
80-3
70
B
0,181
9,500
83.9
70
B
Wet
0.188
10,000
120
83-9
70
B
Wet
0.199
10,300
11
81.3
70
D
Dry
0.165
8,700
12
83.5
70
D
Dry
0.134
7,000
Class B ia BD Atlantic type locomotive, total weight— 176,600 pounde, height center of gre,vity
above base— 73 inchee.
Class D is ao Americao type locomotive, total weight= 138,000 pounds, height center of gravity
above base=65 inches.
TABLE B. - RESULTS OF COMPUTATIONS MADE BY E. E. STETSON FOR A l-DBQREE CCRVE
Sp^gjjile.
S^
TypsolLocc
motive.
^SS.'-
RenHlu-
60
60
Class B
11,500
Qass B is an Atlantic type, total weight=
70
60
Class B
12,950
183,150 pounds, height center of gravity
above rail taken as TQ^S.
60
60
Class A
11,120
Class A is Pacific type, total weight 270,100
70
60
Class A
12,830
pounds, height center of gravity above rail
60
60
Class C
13,180
Class C 19 consolidation type, total weight
70
60
Class C
14,700
238,200 pounds, height center of gravity above
24. Effect op the Joint
The preceding discussion is based on the assumption that the joint affords
100 per cent efficiency.
If we examine the functions the joint performs in carrying the load
from one rail to the other, we see that the splice bars, by fitting tightly to the
inclined surfaces of the head and base of the rail, are able by their frictdon to
transmit large horizontal strains from one rail to the next. The proportion
of the bending moment of the rail transmitted to the splice bar by this i
is important in determining the correct proportions of the joint.
,y Google
260
STEEL RAII5
To determine the friction of the bar the following tests were made at the
Watertown Arsenal in 1904.* There was first made a series of track observa-
tions on the Boston and Albany Railroad at Faneuil station, near Boston, to
determine the resistance of nuts on bolts of splice bars as found in the track
against further tightening.
Tests were made with a wrench 33 inches long, the resistance against tighten-
ing being shown by the force required at the end of the wrench to turn the nuts
forward. The average of 60 observations was 52 pounds on a 33-inch wrench.
Tests were then made at the Arsenal on the frictional resistance of two
6-hole splice bars on two sections of 6-inch 100-pound rail. Spring nuts
were used under the nuts, J-inch bolts, 10 threads per inch, length of wrench
used 33 inches. The results of the tests are shown in Table LXIX.
TABLE LXIX. — FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE OF SPLICE BARS
™"--Ti^5.r"'"""™''
Prictioiul Ren
«.«,». i«n,.
InitiKl
(PMind.).
ContiDuoiu
33,800
44,700
65,500
66,500
28,600
50
37.500
46.900
72,800
72,800
31,000
no — 1 bolt
The maximimi pull applied to five of the bolts in the third test, 85 pounds
on a 33-inch wrench, was the limit of strength of the bolts. This pull on the
wrench caused a permanent elongation of about .06 inch to .10 inch on each
of the five bolts. The sixth bolt resisted a pull of 110 pounds on the wrench
without material elongation.
After making observations on the frictional resistance in these tests, the
first test, with bolts tightened to 50 pounds' pull, was repeated.
The spKce bars were now used on one piece of rail, using four bolts, the
nuts of which were tightened with a pull of 50 pounds on a 33-inch wrench.
The initial resistance was 50,900 pounds and movement continued under
31,200 pounds.
Tests with four bolts in one piece of rail, with 50 pounds* pull on the
wrench, were repeated with an initial resistance of 59,200 pounds. The
movement continued under 41,600 pounds.
* House Documents, Vol. 78, No. 291, 58th CongreBS, 3rd Seaaion, 1904-05, T«ete of MeUls.
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 2ftl
The tension on the bolts was reduced during test, and after the last observa-
tions were made the nuts could be further tightened with a pull of 30 pounds.
Each nut could be turned up 90 degrees before again attaining a resistance of
50 pounds on the wrench.
One-half joint was again made up with four bolts and 50 pounds* pull on
the wrench. The initial resistance was 66,500 pounds. The slipping of the
angle bars occurred with a series of throbs, immediately followed in each
instance by a reduction in the load on the bars. The succeeding throbs took
place under gradually diminishing loads, following to 49,300 pounds at the
fourth throb. When removed from the testing machine, the nuts could be
turned on with an average pull of 35 pounds on the wrench.
* The experiments carried out by Messrs. R^sal, Foutzen, and Menard on
the longitudinal slipping of rails connected by fishplates were of four descrip-
tions, viz. :
(1) On new rails with new fishplates and bolt holes;
(2) On the same rails lubricated with mineral oil;
(3) On old rails with worn bolt holes; and
(4) On the same with the addition of a thin layer of sand between the
surfaces of contact.
It was found that the old rails gave the best results and required a pressure
of 18 tons to effect any appreciable movement, whereas the new rails were
least satisfactory, particularly after oihng. As to the experiment with sand,
it was found that, owing to the reduction of the surfaces of contact caused by
the sand, the shpping was about the same as in the case of new rails.
Dr. P. H. Dudley found that a well-fitted splice bar for a 5-inch rail re-
quired over 4000 pounds per linear inch of one-half of the length of the bar to
overcome the friction in the rail ends, and for 90-pound and 100-pound 6-inch
T3XI, 4500 and 4800 pounds respectively
We are probably not warranted in taking the frictional resistance of the
joint at more than 40,000 pounds; nor can the friction between the rail and the
spUce bar be well increased by the use of special joints, without at the same
time increasing to an imdesirable extent the stresses in the rail, caused by
sudden changes in temperature.
It will be seen that this frictional resistance may cause an initial tensile
stress of about 4000 pounds per square inch in the 100-pound rail at times of
a sudden fall in temperature.
* Revue G^nirale dea Cheauns de Fer, Paris, 1908, Vol. 31, pp. 8-14.
,y Google
262 STEEL RAIIS
The tendon set up in rails of lighter section in falling temperatures, before
they render in the splice bars, is considered by Dr. P. H. Dudley to be
important and indirectly responsible for a large number of the cracked or broken
rails which occur during falling temperatures. Records and dates of broken
rails taken by Dr. Dudley for a number of years, when compared with the
dates of decided falling temperatures, were found to practically coindde, but
as soon as the temperature would rise, reheving the rails from tension or
I putting them in compression, the breakages would cease, except in cases of a
development of a check which commenced in a falling temperature.
SHEAR
Fia. 182, — Shearing Streas in 100-poimd A. 8, C. E. Rail and Splice Bar. Tolal Shear, 24,000 Pounds.
If we consider the eifect of the frictional resistance between the splice bar
and the rail, it is apparent that the bar shown in Fig. 182 will act as an
integral part of the rail until the longitudinal shear at the surfaces of contact
of tiie rail and the bar exceeds the resistance caused by friction on these
surfaces. This resistance for a 20-inch splice bar may be taken as 4000
pounds per linear inch for the entire joint, or 1400 pounds per square inch for
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 263
the upper surface of contact, and 500 pounds per square inch for the lower
surface of contact.
It is seen from the figure that the surface friction is sufficient to carry a
total shear at the section of 24,000 pounds, and by referring to the rail diagrams
given in Figs. 171 and 172 it would appear that the maximum bending moment
in the ral would be transmitted to the splice bars without slipping. However,
between the two rails the splice bars must carry the entire moment, and unless
the section of the bar is increased at the middle of the joint there results an
excessive deflection at this point.
183. — 100 pa-
FiQ. 184. —Joint showing
Fig. 185. — Joint showing
cent Joint.
tion of Metal.
ot Metal.
To overcome this source of weakness in the joint, the form shown in Fig. 183
has been found to embody most of the essential elements demanded by the
extra reinforcement needed at the center of the joint. This section is only
used at the middle of the bar and the section shown in Fig. 185 is used for the
rest of the bar.
It will be seen that the added metal is distributed in such a way as
to still keep the vertical axis within the vertical surface that is gripped by
the bolts. The sectional area and moment of inertia of the reinforcement
shown in Fig. 183 can readily be adjusted to match the stiffness of the nul
that is to be sphced, whereas, with the space limitations of Fig. 185, it is
not jMJssible to get a higher relative jwrcentage of strength than, say, 40,
as compared with the rml.
The splice bare, shown in Figs. 184 and 185, show the greater stiffness that
can be obtfuned by means of a proper distribution of the metal. Taking the
,y Google
264 STEEL RAILS
stiffness of the rail as 100 per cent, the relative stiffness of the bars, shown in
Figs. 184 and 185, is 29.1 per cent and 37.3 per cent respectively.*
As far back as 1876 quite full experiments were made with a modified
type of reinforcement shown in Fig. E, Plate XXIV, on the Swedish Government
Raih-oads, and in the German handbooks of somewhat later dates quite a variety
of sections are found of this same general shape. The reinforcing vertical
fiange occupied a plane at some distance from the axis of the rail, which
causes the vertical axis of the splice bar to assume a position outside the ver-
tical surface that is gripped by the bolts, and in consequence the resisting
stresses in the flange itself must cause an outwardly rotating action, tending
to strip the threads of the bolts.
Plate XXIV shows types of joints used in this coimtry. t Fig- A on this
plate illustrates the common type of angle bar. The variations from this
section, as applied to 80- and 85-pound rail, are in many directions. A com-
paratively frequent one is the thickening of the vertical web to I inch. Another
tendency is to put more metal into the upper part of the web near the under
Mde of the rail head. An extreme development of this latter practice is shown
in the Pennsylvania's angle bar for use with its new section of rail. Fig. B
shows this section. The horizontal extension of the lower flange of the bar
is another direction in which the angle-bar section is frequently modified.
There are six patented joints which are now in service in sufficient numbers
to merit consideration. They may be divided into two classes: those with deep
girder flanges, namely, the Hundred per cent, the Duquesne, and the Bonzano,
Figs. C, D, and E; and those which are base-supporting, as the Continuous, the
Weber, and the Wolhaupter, Figs. F, G, and H.
The Rail Committee of the American Railway Engineering Association
have recently made a series of interesting tests on rail joints at the Watertown
Arsenal, t
(1) Three joints of each kind were furnished, of which two w^e used for
testing and the third joint was reserved for future use if needed.
(2) All joints were full-bolted. Several of the joints flrst tested had various
sized openings between the rail ends. After the test of the first three joints,
all other joints were changed so that the opening between the ends of the rails
was as close to three-eighths of an inch as possible. The span between supports
in the testing machine was 30 inches.
* Railroad Age Gaiette, April 9, 1909, p. 804.
t Railroad Age Gazette, March 19, 1909.
t Bulletin No. 123, May, 1910, Am, Ry. Eng. & M. of W. Assn.
,y Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL
266
(3) One joint was tested with the load first applied to the base, in incre-
ments of 2000 pounds, until the limit of 32,000 pounds was reached, and then
the joint was reversed and the load applied on the head imtil the joint failed
or the limit of the machine was reached.
(4) The second joint was tested by first applying the load on the head and
then reversing it, applying the load on the base, until the limit was reached.
(5) With the exception of the joints furnished by the Cambria Steel Com-
pany and Mr. A. Morrison, the joints were selected from material which had
I5OOO0
/
/
)^
/
^
D/
X
__
^-
/
Y^
i-
^
---'
y.
P>
kT
,-—
-'^
^^
-^
uj
/
/
A-
^
^
■^
//
^
^-'
'
'^
-
/
-^
/
/
^
s
/
b-
^
=g
fH
^
a
/
f/.
-!^
" 1
50000
jj
II
III
W
0
>
s
9 1
O
1
—
3 1
4 1.1
DEFLECTION.IN INCHF*^
Fia. 186. — Diagram of Watertown Arsenal Teste on lOO-poiuM^ Jointa.
(Am. Ry, Eng. Aasn.)
been furnished by the manufacturers to the railroad companies in the regular
routine of business, and therefore fairly represent the material ordinarily fur-
nished by the manufacturers.
Figs. A to F (Plate XXV) show some of the joints tested; the results of
the tests on these joints are presented in Fig. 186. The material in the different
splice bars varies so widely that it is difficult to judge of the value of the differ-
ent designs. The excellent results obtained with the Dudley joint {Fig. D) is
probably due to the high strength of the metal as compared to the other joints
tested.
,y Google
266 STEEL RAII^
The rolling mills are reluctant to make splices of higher carbon, Bessemer
process, than .10 to .20 per cent. Some railroads have specified as high as
.63 per cent, and with good results both as to manufacture and experience.
The mill, however, suffers by such a high standard. One mill claims to have
broken one-third of the total quantity of bars in the straightening process,
and it also broke many of the punches.
Splices made from steel of .50 carbon appear to give much better results,
as might be expected, than the softer steel bars. It is necessary to hot-punch
the higher carbon steel, and when this is done there is no difficulty in properly
manufacturing them. The Cambria Steel Company are rolhng bars of this
grade of steel which are hot finished and oil tempered.
* The economic advantage of high-carbon steel, hot finished, is that, with
the expenditure of about 10 per cent more than the cost of soft steel, a joint
is ^ven a carrying capacity that can be equaled only by the addition of double
the quantity of metal of soft steel and at the additional cost of 100 per cent.
This latter joint will cost 100 per cent more for freight, while there is no addi-
tional cost for freight in the former.
The oil treatment of steel is a natural sequence of the use of high carbon,
and its advantages are about equal to those of high carbon over soft steel.
This, however, varies with the section of the bar and hardness of the steel. In
economy, oil-treated steel is as much in advance of high-carbon steel as is the
latter over soft steel.
Intimately connected with the rail-joint problem is the question of the
length of the rail. In a recent bulletin (August, 1909) of the International
Railway Congress, the practice in English-speaking coimtries is very fully dis-
cussed and abstracts from this report are given below.
In Great Britain and Ireland the railways have been gradually increaang
the length of rails, with a view to reducing the number of joints. Some rail-
ways still use rails only 30 feet long, and a few iise 60-foot rails, but a large
number have 45-foot rails, and it appears that this may be taken as a standard
for the near future. The principal reasons ^ven for limiting the length, as
given by the engineers of different railways, may be summarized as follows:
(1) Difficulty of straightening rails at the mills; (2) cost of manufacture; (3)
difficulties of transportation; (4) expansion and contraction; (5) unloading and
handling on the track.
So far the use of long rails does not appear to have called for the
adoption of any special arrangements other than proper proportioning
* Railway Age Gazette, March 16, 1010, daily edition.
>, Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 267
of the bolt holes and the play at the joints, and the strengthening of
the maintenance gangs (by consolidating neighboring gangs or otherwise)
while handling long rails. , The temperature varies from 0° F. in winter to a
maximum of 130° F. in the sim in summer. To allow free play for expansion
during extreme heat, it is the practice of most en^neers to ease the joints by
slackening the nuts.
In the United States the standard length on a number of railways is 33 feet,
and the reasons given for limiting the length are, in general, similar to those
noted above. Experiments have been made with rails of greater length, but
on the whole these have not been satisfactory, although the opinions expressed
by some of the railways give 40 feet, 45 feet, 50 feet, and 60 feet as admissible
lengths. The range of temperature is 100° F. in some parts of the country,
while in others it is 180° F. In some cases the nuts are slackened in the early
part of the summer.
In the roads of other countries investigated which include 17 railways
in South America, India, South Africa, Australia, and Canada, the limiting
length of rails varies from 30 to 40 feet. The range of temperature is from
100° to 155° in India, and 160° in South Africa and Australia.
Inquiry was made as to whether any railways contemplated welding the
rails at the joints. All the replies were in the negative, and the general opinion
was that continuous rails would be unsafe, on account of the temperature
changes. It is well known, of course, that welding the joint is common practice
in street railway work, but in such cases the rails are protected by the paving,
so that only a small portion is exposed.
The following very interesting report from the Pennsylvania Lines is quoted
in the bulletin:
" In 1897 a continuous rail, 1050 feet long, made up of 35 80-pound 30-foot
rails joined by angle bars with drilled holes and machine-turned bolts (no pro-
vision being made for expansion and contraction), was laid in the eastbound
m^n track, near New Brighton, Pa. The ends were held by bent rails bedded
in concrete, so placed as to bear against the ties. Special long and wide angle
bars were used at the ends, fastened to the anchor ties with lag screws. The
track was a tangent with stone ballast.
" The rail crept and kinked out of line badly. An examination made in
August, 1900, after three years' service, showed that the entire rail crept in
the direction of traffic (eastward). At the west anchorage, the vertical holding
rals had cut into the cross-ties forming the anchorage framework, while at the
east anchorage there was a space of If inches between the vertical rails and the
,y Google
268 STEEL RAILS
framework. All of the spikes were bent eastward, and both slots and spikes
were badly cut. The bolts were all slightly sprung. The alignment at the
joints was verj- bad." *
The conclusions presented in the bulletin are ^ven below: In Great
Britain and Ireland, the lengthening of rails and the consequent reduction of
the number of joints has been steadily proceeding at an increasing rate during
the past 60 years. In 1840-50, the normal length of rolled iron rails was
from 15 to 18 feet. The length of these iron rails increased at the rate of about
3 feet in each decade until 1870-80, when steel rails from 24 to 30 feet long
were brought into general use. Since then the decennial increase has been about
4J feet, and at the present time rails 36 feet and 45 feet long are in general use,
while two railways have adopted 60 feet in length.
In 1904, when the Engineering Standards Committee issued the British
Standard sections, it recommended the adoption of the following as the normal
lengths of rails: 30, 36, 45, or 60 feet. In other countries embraced by the
report, the length of rals has been steadily and uninterruptedly increasing,
but within narrower limits than in Great Britain and Ireland.
The conclusions to be drawn from the numerous replies and remarks by
engineers throughout the English-speaking coimtries are that there is a maxi-
mum length of rail somewhere between 33 feet and 60 feet, which should not
be exceeded; and continuous or welded joints over a long length of railway are
impracticable and dangerous.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bldu. — Beport ... on the quealion of rail joinla. (All countrieB except France, Belgium,
Italy, Spain, Portugal, Austria-Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, Servia, Turkey, Egypt, and countries
using the EngliBh language.) 48 p. 111. 1910. (In Bulletin of the International Railway Con-
gress, Vol. 24, Part 1, p. 1701.)
Bouchard, H. ■ — Note aur le joint asymfitrique. 4000 w. 111. 1909. (In Revue g&i^rale des
chemins de fer. Vol. 32, p. 9.)
Describes tJieory, construction, and results with favorable r^l joint.
Chatgad. — Report ... on the question of rail jointjj (France, Belgium, Italy, Spain, and
* The author several years ago had experience with a continuous rail designed by the late
Mr. Torrey.
The rail was about the length and of the same weight as in the Pennsylvania test. It was
l^d on a branch line of the Michigan Central Railroad on a tangent and ballasted with a good
bed of gravel. Provision was made at intervals of about 500 feet tlwiughout the test track for
the expan^on of the contiimous rail by means of special cxpan^on joints, the rail being anchored
midway between these joints.
When first installed the riding; qualities of the track were exceptionally good, which may,
however, have been accounted for by the unusual care that had been taken in constructing it.
After several years the test track appeared to ride about aa well and to require the same amount
of attention as the other track on the division.
>, Google
STRESSES IN THE RAIL 269
Portu^l). 38 p. 111. 1910. (In BulleUn ot the InternaUonal Railway Congrees, Vol. 24, Part 1,
p. 1427.)
Edeutein, Leon. — Prevention of play between rail and fishplate. 2000 w. III. 1908.
(In Bulletin of the International Railway CongrcBs, Vol. 22, Part 1, p. 436.)
Shows faults that develop with wear, and gives Bu^eetiona for prolonging life of both raiU
and fishplates .
GoDFERNADX, R, — Note about rail-joint.H. 24 p. III. 1911. (In Bulletin of the Inter-
national Railway Congress, Vol. 25, p. 14S0.)
Reviews development of rail joints and different forms used.
Haaruann, a. — Der scbienenstoas. 5000 w. III. 1911. (In Stahl und eisen, Vol. 31, Part
1, p. 49.)
Discusses types of rail jointu and probable future practice in track construction.
Improvements and experiments in rail joinia. 2500 w. 1910. (In Engineering News, Vol. 64,
p. 281.)
Abstracts information from reports to Int^^mational Railway Congress on practice in the United
States, Great Britain, France, Belgium, and Austria-Hungary.
International Railway Conobebh. — iGeneral discussion on ndl joints.] 38 p. 1911. (In
Bulletin of the International Railway Congress, Vol. 25, p. 405.)
Kramer, Friedrich. ^ Report ... on the question of rail-joints (Austria, Hungary, Rumania,
Bulgaria, Servia, Turkey, and Egypt). 82 p. III. 1910. (In BuUetin of the International Rail-
way Congress, Vol. 24, Part 1, p. 1967.) •
Jones, Cyril Walter Lloyd, — Design of fishplate rail joints. 7000 w. Rt. 1910. (In
Minutes of Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 182, p. 282.)
Pellarin. — Etude des joints des rails. 27 p. 111. 1908. (In Annales des ponts et chauBS^,
M^moirfe, series 8, Vol. 33. p. 98.)
Report of commission for investigation of rail joints in Bel^um, Italy, Switaerlwid, and Holland.
Ross, Alexander. — Report ... on the question ot rail joints. (Countries using the English
language.) 44 p. III. 1909. (In Bulletin of the International Railway Congress, Vol. 23, Fart 2,
p. 689.)
,y Google
CHAPTER V
strenotm of the rail
25. Influence of Stress and Strain on the Strength of the Rail
In determining the safety of any structure, not only the amount of stress
induced in the different members by the load must be found, but its character
and the effect it may produce on the material of which the staiictm-e is composed
must be considered.
A series of rapidly repeated stresses will, under certain conditions, affect
the breaking strength of the metal. The cause of this loss of strength under
the influence of repeated stress is a much-mooted question among engineers,
and it is of interest to examine the problem in detail.*
Fio. 187. — Pure Swedish Iron. (Mellor.) Fig. 188. — Pure Copper, (Araolii.)
The junction of the crystalline grains of pure iron, shown in Fig. 187, and
of pure copper, shown in Fig. 188, are typical of pure metals; but when impuri-
ties ai'e present the crystals of the pure metal, in the act of crystallizing, reject
the impurities which collect at the crystal boundaries. The particles of pure
metal slowly migrate and coalesce together, so as to form little islands sur-
rounded by the impurity; accordingly, in the solidified mass, we find the crystals
of pure metal enveloped by a film of the metal associated with the foreign sub-
* The author is indebted for the discussion on pp. 270-276 to Mr. J. W. MeUor's nt)rk. The Crys-
tallizaUon of Iron and Steel, Longmans, Green & Co., London, 1905.
>, Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL 271
stance. This investing membrane separates the crystals of pure metal one
from the other. Obviously, the mechanical and physical properties of the alloy
will depend upon the character of the film.
The mass of pure metal, for example, may be quite ductile like gold, while
the mass of metal with the impurity may be quite brittle, as Arnold * found
to be the case with an alloy of gold with .2 per cent of bismuth; and copper
containing .5 per cent bismuth. A representation of the latter alloy is shown
in Fig. 189. When such a metal is fractured, the hne of fracture follows the
junction of the grains.
Stead calls this ailment intergranular or intercrystalline weakness (inter,-
between). We have had examples. Arnold's work on the influence of bismuth
Fio. 189. — Copper-bismuth Alloy. FiG. 190, — Iron with 1.8 per cent Carbon.
(Arnold.) (F. PoppleweQ.)
on copper and on gold. One per cent of sulphur arranged as a mesh of iron
sulphide will entirely destroy the ductility of the iron, reducing the ultimate
stress from 20 to 2 tons per square inch.
The network of cementite which envelops the crystal grains of steel cen-
tring over 1 per cent of carbon are the principal lines of weakness. The
metal when fractured generally breaks through the center of this brittle envelope.
The coefficient of contraction of the cementite cell walls is greater than of the
cell contents. Pearlite cells, for example, bound together by thick cementite
walls (Fig. 190), are liable to rupture, because the coefficient of contraction of
the cementite cell walls is greater than the cell contents. The mass is, in con-
sequence, very feebly held together, and a sudden blow will easily fracture the
metal, t
■ J. O. Arnold and J. Jefferson, Engineering, 61, 177, 1896.
t J. 0. Arnold, MetallographiBt, 5, 267, 1902.
,y Google
272 STEEL RAIIS
Intergranular weakness resembles the weakness of a brick building with
faulty mortar.
There is another type of intergranular weakness which is due to imper-
fect union of the crystal grains. This is particularly marked in phosphorous
steels. The crystal grains, on cooling, contract unequally and tend either
to draw the grains away from each other or to leave the mass in a state of
unnatural tension. The fracture then follows the granular junctions. Thick
plates and bars are frequently brittle because comparatively little work has
been done on them. The crystals are not interlocked one with another, as in
steel which has been well worked.
Intergranular weakness may, therefore, be of two kinds:
(1) Brittle envelope surrounding the crystal grains;
(2) Imperfect union of the crystal grains.
Stead has pointed out another type of weakness in sheet steels which has
to do with the crystals themselves, without reference to the imion of one crystal
with another. It is a kind of intracrystalhne weakness (intra, within).
It is characteristic of some crystals to break more readily in some directions
more than in others. This property of crystals is called cleavage. The direc-
tions in which the crystal splits are called cleavage planes. If a bar of iron
could be cut from a single crystal, that bar would have three lines of weakness
in the direction of the three cleavage planes; while if the bar were built up of
a number of crystals whose cleavage planes were all in the same direction, that
bar would be more readily broken in the direction of its cleavage planes, neglect-
ing for the moment intergranular weakness. On the other hand, if the cleavage
planes of the adjacent crystals are inclined at considerable angles to one another
the bar would be less liable to break than one in which the crystals were arranged
symmetrically. Figs. 191 and 192 will make this clear. The dotted hues ab,
Fig. 191, represent the cleavage planes across a sheet of iron when the crystals
are arranged symmetrically, while in Fig. 192 the crystals are arranged m an
irregular maimer. The cleavage planes of Fig. 191 run along parallel lines,
and the sheet would, therefore, be more liable to rupture than the sheet shown
in Fig. 192, where the lines of weakness are not in the same direction, and this
in spite of the fact that Fig. 191 has a finer grain.
Other things being equal, a fine-grained structure is stronger and tougher
than a coarse-grained piece. Figs. 191 and 192 show that this order of things
may be reversed. Fortunately, the crystals of one steel do not generally grow
symmetrically.
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL
Pia. 191. — Cleavage Planes with Crystals a
ranged Symmetrically. (J. W. Mellor.)
Flo. 192. — Cleavage Planes with Crystals arranged
ID an Irregular Manoer. (J. W. MellorO
Fio. 193. — Iron strained beyond the Elastic Limit.
{J. A. Ewing and W. Hoeenhain.)
Fig. 194. — Lead Btreioed beyond the Elastic
Limit. (J. A. Ewbg and W. Roeenhain.)
Examining now what takes place in the metal under repeated stress, Ewing
and Rosenhain * found if a metal is strained past its " yielding point " — elastic
limit — the faces of the crystal grains (Fig. 193) show fine black lines, which
increase in number as the strain increases. Lines appear on certain crystals
nearly transverse to the pull, as the strain increases lines appear upon other
• J. A. Ewing and W. Rpeenhain, Phil. Trans., 193, 353, 1899; 195, 279, 1900. J. A. Ewing
and J. C. W. Humfrey, Ibid., 200, 241, 1902. W. Rosenhain, Journal Iron and Steel Inst., 67, i, 335,
1904. F. Osmond and C. Fi^moat and G. Cartaud, Revue de M£tallurgie, 1, i, 1901.
,y Google
274 STEEL RAILS
grains. Intersecting lines then make their appearance on some of the grains.
Such a strained surface is shown in Fig. 194.
The lines are apparently not actual cracks in the surface, but rather slips
along the cleavage planes of the crystal. They are called slip bands, or
slip lines.
Let AB (Fig. 195) represent a cross section through a polished surface
of metal. Let C be the junction between two contiguous grains, A and B.
When the metal is pulled in the direction of the arrows, a number of slips are
developed along the cleavage planes, a,h,c,d . . , and the surface now presents
// / '-v
Fia. 195. — CroBs Section of Unstrained Metal. Fio. 196. — Cross SectioD of Metal after being
(J. W. MeUor.) Streased. (J. W. MeUor.)
the appearance shown in Fig. 196. With still greater strains the slip bands
develop into actual cracks, and rupture takes place. Hence it follows that
under progressively augmented strain, rupture takes place, not at the crystal
boundaries, but through the crystals themselves.
Ewing and Humfrey have subjected Swedish iron, with a breaking stress
of 23.6 tons per square inch, to a series of compresaon and tension stresses,
9 tons in magnitude, repeated 400 times per minute. On examination it was
found that fine slip bands appeared in a few crystals after a few, say, 5000
reversals of stress; with a greater number, say, 40,000, the slip bands increase
in number, and those which first appeared broaden and develop into small
cracks, as shown in Fig. 197.
If the specimen be repolished, so as to clear off the slip bands, the cracks
alone become visible, as at A (Fig. 198). The crack, or flaw, gradually creeps
across the specimen when the number of alternations is still further increased,
as shown in Fig. 199. Finally the specimen breaks.
Ewing and Humfrey state: " Whatever the selective action of the stress
is due to, the experiments demonstrate that in repeated reversals of stress
certain crystals are attacked, and yield by slipping, as in other cases of non-
elastic strain. Then, as the reversals proceed, the surfaces upon which the
slipping has occurred continue to be surfaces of weakness. The parts of the
crystal lying on the two sides of each such surface continue to slide back and
forth over one another.
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL
Fio. 197. — SUp Bands. (J. W. Ewing and J. C. W. Humfrey.)
Fio. 198. —Polished Surface with Small Cracks. (J. W. Ewing and J. C. W. Humfrey.)
,y Google
276 STEEL RAILS
" The effect of this repeated sliding or grinding is seen at the polished
surface of the specimen by the production of a burr or rough and jagged irregu-
lar edge, broadening the slip band, and su^esting the accumulation of debris.
Within the crystal this repeated grinding tends to destroy the cohesion of the
metal across the surface of the slip, and in certain cases this develops into a crack.
" Once the crack is formed, it quickly grows in a well-known manner,
by tearing at the edges, in consequence of the concentration of stress which
Fia. 199. — Polished Surface with Large Cracks. (J. W, Ewing and J. C. W. Humfrey.)
results from lack of continuity. The experiments throw light on the known
fact that fracture by repeated reversals or alternations of stress resembles
fracture resulting from ' creeping flaw ' in its abruptness, and in the absence
of local drawing out, or other deformation of shape." *
The rupture of steel is not caused by the gradual growth of the crystal-
line structure of the metal under the influence of shocks and vibrations. The
breaking down is due to fatigue. When fatigued, the metal breaks more readily.
Again, when subjected to sudden shock, the metal has no time to " flow." The
• P, Kreuzpointer, Joum. Franklin Inat., 1S3, 233, 1902. J. A. Ening, Nature, 70, 187, 1904.
P. Breuil, Suppl. Joum. I. & S. Inet., 1904.
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL 277
slipping of the crystal planes, or the plasticity of the metal, has no time to come
into play.. The metal, in consequence, appears to be abnormally brittle.
* The experiments made by Wohler, from 1859 to 1870, were the first that
indicated the laws which govern the rupture of metals under repeated applica-
tion of stress. For instance, he found that the rupture of a bar of wrought
iron by tension was caused in the following ways:
By 800 applications of 52,800 pounds per square inch.
By 107,000 applications of 48,400 pounds per square inch.
By 450,000 applications of 39,000 pounds per square inch.
By 10,140,000 applications of 35,000 pounds per square inch.
Here it is seen that the breaking unit stress decreases as the number of
applications increases. It was further observed that a bar could be strained
from 0 up to a stress near its elastic limit an enormous number of times without
rupture, and it was also found that a bar could be ruptured by a stress less than
its elastic limit under a large number of repetitions of stress which alternated
from tension to compresdon and back again.
t The apparatus used by Wohler and his successor, Spangenbei^,t was
of four kinds:
(1) To produce rupture by repeated load;
(2) For repeated bending, in one direction, of prismatic rods;
(3) For experiments on loaded rods under constant bending stress;
(4) For torsion by repeated stress.
The amount of the imposed stress was determined by breaking several
rods of like material, ascertaining the breaking load, and taking some fraction
of this for the intermittent load.
From the results of these experiments of Wohler, extending ova- eleven
years, the following law was deduced:
" Wohler's Law: Rupture of material may be caused by repeated vibra-
tions, none of which attain the absolute breaking limit. The differences of
the limiting strains are sufficient for the rupture of the material."
The work of Wohler and Spangenberg has proved what was long before
supposed to be the fact: that the permanence and safety of any iron or steel
structure depends not simply on the greatest magnitude of the load to be sus-
taned, but on the frequency of its application and the range of variation of
its amount.
• A. Wohler, En^neeringy 1871 ; Zeitschritt flir Bouwesen, 1870, p. 83, Berlin.
t Iron and Steel, Materials ot Engineering, Part 2, Thuraton, 1909, p. 618,
i Zeitachrift fQr Bouwesen, 1874, p. 485, Berlin.
,y Google
278 STEEL RAILS
Prof. L. Spangenberg resumed the line of experiments at the point of its
discontinuance by Wohler, and his results tend to confirm the law of the latter.
Spangenberg directed his attention to other metals than iron and steel, and
also endeavored, by inspection of the surfaces of fracture, and by his hypoth-
esis as to the molecular constitution of metals, to explain the phenomena of
fracture. Among the several observations noted in his " Fatigue of Metals "
is the important fact that when subjected to often-repeated transverse stress
fracture of iron took place only on the tension side of the bar and extended
only to the neutral axis. From this he inferred that the working strength of
wrought iron is less than its elastic resistance.
Fowler states, in this connection, that a steel rail tested for transverse
strength in a machine will, as a rule, bend many inches, and fail by distortion of
the head under the compressive stress. In actual work hundreds of such rails
break, but it is the tensile and not the compressive stress which causes the
failure, and there is no distortion of the head, as in the testing machine.
Reynolds and Smith * extended Wohler's conclusions to steel bars tested
under direct tension and compression and at a rapid rate of alternation. The
work of Stanton and Bairstow,t published in 1906, while less concordant than
that of Reynolds and Smith, confirms their general conclusions; it extends the
conclusions of Ewing and Humfrey to notched specimens tested for endurance
under direct tension and compression, and it clearly points out the advisability
of testing a material for endurance in approximately the form in which it is
to be used in practice.
French engineers, commenting upon the work of Wohler, Spangenberg,
Weyrauch,J and Launhardt, consider that the result is simply to base upon the
ultimate strength a deduced limit of working stress which corresponds closely
to the elastic limit, and generally urge the use of a reasonable factor of safety
related to the limit of elasticity.!
Figs. 200, 201, and 202 present three diagrams on the behavior of steels
under repeated alternate stresses, illustrating some of the tests which have
been made at the Watertown Arsenal laboratory.jl
On Fig. 200 the heavy vertical lines represent the number of loads which
were applied to a number of steel bars of .55 per cent carbon, and which
• Phil. Trans. Royal Society of London, A-Voi. 199, p. 265, 1902.
t Proceedings Inst, of Civil Engra., Vol. 166, p. 78, 1906.
t Various MeUiods of Determining Dimensions. Dr. J. Weyrauch; translated by G. R, Bodmer.
Proc. Inst. C. E., 1882-83, Vol. LXXI.
3 R£sum« de la Soci^t^ des Ingfnieura avils, 1882.
II Notee on the Endurance of Steels under Repeated Alternate Streea. Howard, Proceedings
Am Society for Testing Materials, 1907, Vol. VIL
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL
279
caused rupture of the metal. Be^nning with the highest fiber stress, 60,000
pounds pw square inch, the progressive gain in endurance of the steel as the
loads were successively reduced will be noted, as indicated by the lengths of
the different lines. The lowest fiber stress experimented with did not end in
REPEATED ALTERNATe STRESSES
o' '.55 CAHBON STEEL.
TENSrUE TEST
Q-ASnC LIMIT 59^0 LBS Ftn SOfCH
TENSILE STRENGTH 111.200
ELONGATION 12 PER CENT
CONTRACTION 33,5
REPEATED ALTERNATE STRESSES
.82 CARBON STEEL.,
TENSILE TEST
CLASTIC LIMIT S4000LBS,PCnSO.INCH
TENSILE STRENGTH H2JB0Q - ■ - -
ELONGATION 7 PEfl CENT
CONTRACTION It8.~
gi
I I I
40,000 45000 5OO0O SSXHJO ' 60.000
3DflOO 3^000 4apD0 4EpOO MpjO SOjOOO TIBRE STRESSES, LBS. PER SOUARE INCH
FIBRE 'STRESSES. LBS. pen SQUARE INCH. Ir^NOT RUPTURED
Fio. 200. — Behavior of 0.55 Carbon Steel under Repeated Fia. 201. — Behavior of 0.82 Carbon Steel under Repeated
Alternate Streases. (Am. Soc. tor Testing Materials. — Alternate Stresses. (Am. Soc. (or Teeting Materials. —
Howard.) Howard.)
rupture of the shaft; after 76 million repetitions, in round numbers, under a
load of 30,000 pounds per square inch, the fiber stress was incrrased to 60,000
pounds per square inch, which higher load caused ruptiu-e after about 8000
rotations. The enormous gam in endurance of the steel, under 30,000 pounds
fiber stress, over its behavior with the higher loads, would be represented by
a vertical line about 28 feet in height, according to the scale of this diagram.
The results of the tendle tests of this grade of steel ^e entered on the diagram,
,y Google
280 STEEL RAILS
from which it may be seen that the several fiber stresses were, with one exception,
below the tensile elastic limit of the metal.
On Fig. 201 similar Imes represent the behavior of specimens containing
.82 per cent carbon. The behavior of this grade resembles that of the previous
diagram, and similar to other steels belonging to this series of experiments.
The endurance under corresponding loads is seen to be greater than displayed
on the preceding diagram. After making 202 million rotations the test of the
shaft loaded with 40,000 pounds was temporarily discontinued, the steel being
unruptured. A line drawn to scale to represent the endurance imder this load
would be about 73 feet in height.
On Fig. 202 appear curves representing the relative endurance of each
of the six grades of steel used in this series of experiments. Their endurance
under the higher fiber stresses only are shown, loads which caused compara-
tively early rupture of the steel in most of the tests.
It may be remarked that the fiber stresses experimented with were gener-
ally below the tensile elastic limits of the steels. The greater endurance of the
steels of .73 and .82 per cent carbon in comparison with either the higher or the
lower carbons is an interesting feature of the tests.
Elastic properties only are displayed by steels, prior to rupture when rup-
ture is caused by a large number of alternate stresses of tension and compression ;
no appreciable display of ductility, as shown by elongation and contraction of
area, need precede rupture, in any grade of steel, following the application of
stresses of this kind. If the fiber stresses somewhat exceed the tensile elastic
Kmit, a hmited display of elongation, other than elastic, may occur, but rupture
caused by loads which are in the vicinity of or below the tensile elastic hmit
is not attended with an appreciable display of ductility.
While tests by repeated alternate stresses are characterized by the absence
of ductility, as witnessed in tests by tension, there may be elastic movements
of the metal aggregating considerable distances. The a^regate exten^on of
the most strained fiber of the .82 per cent carbon steel which has successfully
endured 202 miUion repetitions amounts to nearly 5 miles per linear inch of
specimen, a distance quite incomparable to the permanent extension of the
metal in the tensile test.
* Little attention seems to have been pven to the possibility of finding
a relation connecting the stress used in endurance tests with the number of
repetitions required for rupture. Spangenberg, Reynolds, and Smith, and
'The Exponential Lan of Endurance Tests, 0. H. Basquin, Proceedin(p of the American Society
for TeBtiog Materials, IBIO, Vol. X, p. 835.
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL
281
Stanton and Bairstow, have shown stress-repetition curves drawn to ordinary
Cartesian coordinates.
Logarithmic coordinates present a distinct advantage in the study of
simple exponential curves, because these curves become straght lines for these
REPEATED ALTERNATE STRESSES.
GRADE .I7C. .340. .55C. 730. .B2C- I09C.
E.L. OlflOO 54,000 59.000 64.000 64flOO 77.000
Fia. 202. — Compariaon of the Behavior of DifFerent Grades of Steel under Repeated Alternate Stresies
(Am. Soc. for Testing Materials. — Howard.)
coordinates and their equations may be written at once. Fig. 203 shows
stress-repetition curves for nineteen sets of endurance tests, made by five dif-
ferent observers. The names of the experimenters, the kind of test, and the
material are ^ven in Table LXX.
,y Google
STEEL BAILS
TABLE LXX. — EXPERIMENTS ON REPEATED STRESS
(BuqniiO
Curv.
LMWr.
Kind of
Test.
Uauriil.
rrboiiu«bi|
E>po«t
h
b
Wrought-iron axles, Phoeoix Co . . .
Wrought-iron axles, Phoenix Co. . , ,
217
109
103
94
130
36
1000
920
320
310
90
97
115
250
102
66
110
150
135
0.12
D'
1
Cast steei, Borsig
Homogeneous iron, P. C. & Co
-0.11
0 OS
Cast iron, locomotive cylinder. .
Krupp'B spring steel, hardened. . .
Krupp's axle steel
H
-0.20
t;
Beni
nmmRober
p
Q
Reynolds & Smith ' '
Hardsteel
-0.15
R
s
F. B
Unannealed steel
Steel B, grooved
ic.
K bsA round shoulden near grip; L has aqnare Hhoutden.
OrdiDaUa are " tlalf Ruicc at Stn»," innud of muiinum ttnte.
.3S peir cmt ; yield point. 39.000 jxHodB par aquaie iuh.
Kinds of TesU :
(a) Bending in one direction only (+ and 0).
(b) Rotating under bending load (+ and — ).
(c) Tension only (+ and 0).
(d) Bending hack and forth (+ and — ).
(e) Tension and smaller compression (+ and ■
The curve A is represented by the equation
5 = 217,000 R-°-'\
which has the form
S = CR",
in which 5 is the maximum stress used in each test and R is the number of repe-
titions of this stress required for rupture. The coefficient, 217,000, was found
by extending the line A to the left until it intersected the vertical line R = 1
(i.e., 10°), and the stress at this intersection was read off the logarithmic scale as
217,000 pounds per square inch. The coefficient is the stress given by the curve
for a single repetition. All the coefficients given in Table LXX in the column
marked C were found in the same way. The value of the exponent, -0.12,
was found by measuring the angle (130°) which this line makes with the hori-
zontal axis and then taking one-tenth of its natural tangent. The factor " one-
tenth " comes in because, in Fig. 203, the scale used along the vertical axis
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL
283
in plotting the stresses is ten times the scale used along the horizontal axis in
plotting the repetitions. In the same way the exponent for each curve of
Fig. 203 has been found and is listed in the table under the column marked n.
In looking over the curves, Fig. 203, it is evident that in many cases the
straight line represents the results of endurance tests very accurately through-
out a considerable range of stress. One is also impressed with the approximate
Fio. 203. — Number of Repetitions before Ruptui
(Am. Soc. for Testing Materiala. -
Endui
parallehsm of many of these lines. Curves B, C, D, E, F, G, M, N, and S
represent tests made in much the same way, — by rotating a specimen under
bending load. The curve for hard steel, tested by Baker * in much the same
way, has a steeper slope; the same is also true of the grooved specimens tested
by Foppl-t Curves H, J, K, and L are approximately parallel and represent
tests in one direction only; i.e., the stresses are not reversed. They have about
• Some notes on the Working Stress on Iron and Steel, Trans. Am. Soc. of Mech. Engre., 1887,
Vol. VIII, p, 157.
t Mitteilungen aus dem Mecb. Engre., Vol. 130, 1909.
,y Google
284 STEEL RAlLii
double the slope of the other curves mentioned. Why curve A, on wrought
iron, does not fall into this class is not clear.
" Small changes in temperature occur when a bar of metal is stressed
within the elastic limit, it becoming cooler under tension and warmer under
compresMon. The measurements of these changes made by Turner, in 1902,
have shown that these changes in temperatures continue at a uniform rate up
to about three-fifths of the elastic limit, and that then a marked change occurs,
the bar under tension then beginning to grow warmer, while the temperature
of the bar under compression increases at a more rapid rate.
It thus appears for stresses higher than above three-fifths of the elastic
limit, at least, energy is converted into heat under repeated applications; prob-
ably this occurs also at lower stresses when repeated stresses range from ten-
sion into compression in a bar, or when a beam is subjected to alternating flexure.
In the case of the rail the bending stress alternates about in the proportion
of 4 to 1, and it is very probable that by taking a unit stress less than half tiie
elastic limit, we may safely ignore the effect of fatigue on the metal of the rail
produced by this stress. The disturbed metal at the running surface of die head
which is frequently conspicuous ui old rails is evidence of the elastic limit of the
metal bemg exceeded rather than the ^ect of repeated stress beknv this limit.
Generally speaking the effect of repeated stress is not to produce distortion of fiie
metal, and prior to rupture elastic properties only are displayed.
26. Effect of Low Temperatures on the Strength of the Rail
Very complete investigations were made to determine the effect of
changes of temperature in modifying the physical properties of iron and steel by
Styffe and Sandbcrg.f The conciuaon of Styffe is that the strength of iron
and steel is not diminished by cold. Aiding from these experiments, investi-
gators have assumed that the cause of the frequent breakage of rails in cold
weather, and of articles made of iron and steel, is unequal expansion and con-
traction and the rigidity of supports, where, as in the case with rails, frost may
very greatly affect them.
X Sandberg, while admitting the care and the accuracy which distinguished
this extensive series of experiments, still doubted whether the reasons just
• Mechanics of Materials, Merriman, p. 354, New York, 1905; and Trans. Am. Soc. of Civil
Engrs., Vol. XXVIII, 1902, p. 27, Thermo Electric Measurements of Stress, Turner.
t The Elasticity, Extensibility, and Tensile Strength of Iron and Steel, by Knut Slyffe, trans-
lated from the Swedish, with an original appendix by Chriater P. Sandberg; with a preface by John
Percy, M.D.. F.RS., London, 1869. (Sandberg's investigations appear in the appendix.)
\ Iron and Steel; Materials of En^neering, Tburaton, 1009 p. 556.
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL 285
given were the sole reasons why metals should more readily break in cold than
in hot weather, and, having obtained the consent of the State Railway Adminis-
tration, he conducted a series of experiments in the summer and winter of 1867,
at Stockholm, to determine whether, with equal rigidity of supports, iron rails
would yield with equal readiness to blows at the two extremes of temperature.
The rails experimented upon were each cut in halves, and one piece was
tested in cold and the other in warm weather, at temperatures of 10 degrees and
84 degrees Fahr. respectively. The supports at the end of the rails were granite
blocks placed four feet apart, and resting on the smoothly leveled surface of the
granite rock. They were broken by a heavy drop weighing 9 cwt.
Sandberg's conclusions from twenty experiments are thus given:
" (1) That for such ux)n as is usually employed for rails in the three principal
rail-making countries (Wales, France, and Belgium), the breaking strain, as
tested by sudden blows or shocks, is cozisiderably influenced by cold, such iron
exhibiting at 10 degrees Fahr. only from one-third to one-fourth of the strength
which it possesses at 84 degrees Fahr.
" (2) That the ductility and flexibility of such u-on is also much affected
by cold; rails broken at 10 degrees Fahr. showing, on an average, a perma-
nent deflection of less than one inch, whilst the other halves of the same
rails, broken at 84 degrees Fahr., showed a set of more than 4 inches before
fracture.
" (3) That at summer heat the strength of Aberdare rails was 20 per cent
greater than that of the Creus6t rails, but that in winter the latter were 20 per
cent stronger than the former."
Sandberg suggests that this considerable lack of toughness at low tem-
peratures may be due to the " cold-shortness " produced by the presence of
phosphorus.
Jouraffsky, of St. Petersburg, has reported* the results of tests of rails
made for the Russian government, which supplement the preceding in a very
valuable manner. It was found that by placing pieces of rail from 6 feet to
8 feet long in a mixture of ice and salt, the temperature of the rail could be
lowered in a very short space of time, during warm weather, 36 degrees Fahr.
below freezing point.
A special commission, Messrs. Erakoff, Beck, Guerhard, Nicolia, and Feo-
dossieff, was appointed to carry out a series of tests on this plan. Pieces of
rail 6 feet long were taken in pairs, one of which was tested at the
natural temperature, the others being placed in a box filled with a mixture of
• Communicated to the LondoD Meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute, 1879.
>, Google
286 STEEL RAIia
two parts of broken ice and one part of salt, and, after being cooled to a
temperature of from +3 degrees to -6 degrees Fahr., which occurred in half
an hour, they were all submitted to the same tests. Altogether, 86 samples
were tested, and these were, for the sake of comparison, divided into two
groups, viz.: (1) Rails which broke under the test; and (2) tbUb which stood
the test.
The results indicated that the brittleness of the steel increases very much
at low temperature if it contains more than a moderate amount of phosphorus,
silicon, and carbon. The total of the three elements in the rails which broke
under the test averages 0.54 per cent, and in those which stood the same test
0.41 per cent, the first average (0.54 per cent) varying from 0.44 to 0.67 per
cent, and the second average {0.41 per cent) varying from 0.37 to 0.55 per cent.
The tests on steel at different temperatures made at the Watertown Arsenal
in 1888,* showed within the range of 0.37 to 0.71 per cent carbon a slight mcrease
in the elastic limit and traisile strength at 0 d^:rees Fahr. above that at summer
heat, accompanied by very little change in the elongation or contraction of area.
Dr. P. H. Dudley recommends the use of basic open-hearth rails of 0.62
to 0.75 carbon with phosphorus under 0.04 to insure a more uniform range of
toughness and ductility of metal where exposed to low temperatures than has
been obtained in plain Bessemer with 0.50 carbon and 0.10 phosphorus.
Tests of Bessemer heats were made in which one-tenth of one per cent of
metallic titanium was added to the steel and the carbon increased from 0.50 to
a range of 0.60 or 0.70, the metal having higher physical properties and tough-
ness at the same time. The manganese and silicon are lowered slightly to
prevent shrinkage cavities in the ingots.
Tests were made under the drop comparing the ordinary Bessemer rails
and this grade of steel cooled to zero temperatures, and some specimens were
also cooled to 22 degrees Fahr. below zero. The tests of the Bessemer steel
with the one-tenth of one per cent of metallic titanium withstood a drop of
2000 pounds, falling sixteen feet without breaking, while the plain Bessemer
would fail at the low temperatures at about one-half that height.
Dr. Dudley! conaders that basic open-hearth rails (C = 0.68; Mn =
0.86; Si = 0.10; P = 0.012) which show ductility ranging from 15 to 20 per cent
under the drop test are proper for use under high-speed trains where the tem-
perature in winter falls to 20 degrees Fahr. below zero.
• Tests ot Metala, 1888, House Doc. No. 45, 50th Congress, 2nd Sesa., p. 505.
t Dudley on Ductility Teete on Rails. ProceedingB American Society for Testing Materials,
Vol. X, 1910, p. 229.
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL 287
The question of obtaining a proper amount of ductility in rails, used in cold
climates, is a very important one. The experience of the railroads in the
Northern and Western States, during the very cold weather of the winter of
1911-1912, was more severe than ever before reported. The effects were so
great that rails which had heretofore been quite free from breakages were broken
in considerable quantities by the wheels of the passing trains. The record of
rails of large ductility or tenacity and toughness, on the other hand, showed a
much greater freedom from breakages.
With the recently adopted standard drop-testing machine (see Article 27)
the ductility of the rail can be measured with much more accuracy than was
possible in the machine which preceded it. With the older machines the re-
bound of a 2,000'pound hammer was as large as 12 to 14 inches, while in the
present machine it is confined to 3 or 4 inches.
The maximum elongation per inch can be obtained by stamping the base,
head, or edge of the base of the butt, as the case may be, before testing with a
spacing bar of six inches, directly under the point of impact for either a sin^e
blow or for two or more required to exhaust the ductility of the metal. These
six inches include about two-thirds of the metal affected by the impact.
The elongation In the base of a 6-inch, 100-pound rail, with a moment of
inertia of 48.5, under a single blow for an 18-foot fall in the present drop-testing
machine, will be from 6 to 7 per cent for a steel of 0.50 carbon, 0.10 phosphorus,
and 1.00 manganese. The elongation of the metal under the drop-testing
machine compares favorably with that obtained by static loads in the tension
machine. The tendency is an increase of possibly one or more per cent, owing
to the fact that the base of the rail in stretching does not neck as in the case of
a tenale specimen.
To raise the mean ductility, it has been found necessary to reduce the
average percentage of carbon in heavy sections to 0.50, when the phosphorus
content is 0.10, for rails which are to be used where the temperatures fall below
zero. The Bessemer rails, owing to the greater content of phosphorus, oxides,
and nitrogen, show a greater tendency to irregular low ranges of ductility than
the basic open-hearth rails. The use of ferro-titanium in Bessemer steel, to
take up a large percentage of the oxides and also a part of the nitrogen, makes
it possible to increase the carbon content without any sacrifice to the ductility.*
Probably some of the failures of rails in cold weather can be attributed to the
effect, alr^y noted in article 24, of the contraction of the metal, which may set
• The Bubject of ductility in rail steel has been reported upon very fully by Dr. P. H. Dudley in
p^jera presented to the American Society tor Testing Materials, eee Proceedinga, Vol. X, 1910, pp.
^3-232, &nd Vol. XI, 1911, pp. 454-461.
,y Google
288 STEEL EAILS
up tensile stresses of some magnitude in the rails before the ends render in the
splice bars.
The effect of frost, in heaving the track where the ballast or subgrade con-
tains much moisture, is to cause an irregular surface and, on account of some
of the ties rising or "heaving" above the others, often produces larger bending
moments in the rail than would be expected if the ties were free to adjust them-
selves to the elastic curve of the rail. In the case of well-drained track, on stone
ballast, where heaving is absent, smaller bending moments will be found in the
frozen track than when in its natural condition.
27. Physical Tests of the Strength of the Rail
The impact hammer or drop test, introduced by Sandberg and Styffe,
in 1868, is most generally used in this country in testing the strength of the rail.
From the very prominent place given drop tests in rail specifications,*
it might be seen that the behavior of the rail under the drop test is generally
regarded as valuable information as to its character. As a matter of fact,
however, engineers differ widely as to the advisability of accepting this test as
an index to the reliability of the rail, on account of the great variation in the
results obt^ned. The test shows, it is true, whether the piece being tested is
brittle or not, and by observation of the permanent set, whether the steel
Note. For an account of the state of knowledge relating to impact teate and (or a bibliography of
literature, reference is made to the following:
American Sectjon, International Aaaociation for Testing Materials: Bulletin No. S, October,
1899. Report of Comtnitteo on Present State of Knowledge Concerning Impact Teats. W. K.
Hatt and Edgar Marburg.
Bibliography on Impact Tests and Impact Testing Machines. Proceedings American Sodety
for Testing Materials, Volume II, page 2S3. W. K. Hatt and Edgar Marburg.
The Resistance of Metals under Imp^t. Mansfield Merriman. Proceeding American
Association for the Advancement of Science, Volume 43, ISd4.
Theoty of Impact and its Application to Testing Materials. H. D. Tiemann. Journal of
the Franklin Institute, October and November, 1909.
International Association for Testing Materials, Vth Congress, Copenhagen, 1909, Impact
tests papers. III,, llli. III., III., III., III>, III,, III>.
Elongation and Ductility Tests of Rail Sections under the Manufacturers' Standard Drop-
Testing Machine. P. H. Dudley, Proceedings American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. X (1910).
p. 223.
The Same. Iron Trade Review, Vol. 47, p. 410.
Nouvelle Mothode d'essai des Rails, Ch. Fremont GSnie Civil, Vol. 59 (1911), p. 7, 26, 48, 72
The same. Railway Age Cinzette, Vol. 51, p. 1176.
New Types of Impact Testing Machines for Determining Fragility of Metab. T. Y. Olsen.
Proceedings American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. XI (1911), p. 815.
* Rome Results Showing the Behavior of Roils under the Drop Test, and Proposed New Form
of Standard Drop Testing-Machine. S. S. Martin. Proceedings Am. Soc. tor Teat. Materials, 1908,
Vol. VIII.
,y Google
STRENGTH Of THE RAIL 289
is soft or hard. Recent work in Germany and France points to the conclusion
that some form of impact test is fowid necessary to detect faults of structure
that are not evidenced by the static test.
Average specifications, which a majority of the railroads have in recent
years used as a standard, contain the following clause as to drop test:
One test shall be made on a piece of rail, not less than 4 feet, nor more than 6 feet, selected
from each blow of steel. The test piece shall be taken from the top of the ingot. The ruls shall
be placed head upwards on the supports, and the various sections shall be subjected to the follow-
ing impact testa under free falling weight:
70 to 79 pound rail, 18-foot drop.
80 to 89 pound rail, 20-foot drop.
90 to 100 pound r^l, 22-foot drop.
If any ml breaks, when subjected to the drop test, two additional testa may be made of
other rails from the same blow of steel, also taken from the top of the ingot, and if either of these
latter rails fail, all the rails of that blow which they represent will be rejected; but if both these
additional test pieces meet the requirements, all the rails of the blow which they represent will
The drop-testing machine shall have a tup of 2000 pounds weight, the striking face of which
shall have a radius of not more than 5 inches, and the test rail shall be placed head upward on
solid supports 3 feet apart. The anvil block shall weigh at least 20,000 pounds, and the supports
shall be part of or firmly secured to the anvil. The report of the drop test shall state the at-
mospheric temperature at the time the test was made.
These specifications, while used by the railroads, had to be modified ac-
cording to the character of the drop-testing machines at the different mills.
Thus, we find machines answering closely the following descriptions:
1. A drop-test machine consisting of some concrete and loose stone, supporting a number
of 12 by 12 inch oak ties, 12 feet long, on which is placed an oak block 18 inches by 18 inches by
11 feet. On the oak block are two steel plates 1 by 18 inches by 7 feet, which become the bearings
for the rail supports. These supports weigh 1300 pounds.
2. A drop-test machine con^sting of a wooden foundation 4 feet deep and 10 by 10 feet,
on vhich were placed two blooms, probably 8 by 10 inches by 10 feet. On the blooms arc placed
the rul supports.
3. A drop-test machine consisting of a concrete or stone foundation, on which rests a 20,000-
pound an^il, to which the rail supports are securely fastened.
Up to within the last few years no rail mill has been equipped with a drop-
testing machine for rails that was built on thoroughly scientific principles, owing
to the lack of proper foundations or proper anvil, as well as many other essential
details. Further, no two rail mills had machines built on even comparatively
the same lines. Consequently, any exact determination of the loss of energy
of the falling weight which is dissipated by the machine would have had no
general application, and the results obtained from testing rails in the drop-
testing machines of any two mills were not comparable.
,y Google
5W0 STEEL RAILS
The Manufacturers' Committee, recognizing these defects, prepared speci-
fications and plans of a proposed standard drop-testing machine that will ^ve
satisfactory and comparable results, and the Rail Committee of the American
Railway Engineering Association has, with ceri:ain small modifications and
additions, approved these plans and specifications.
Specifications for Drop-Testing Machine
<3es Fli. 204.)
1. The tnachiDe shall be arranged to allow a 2000-poimd tup to fall freely at least 25 feet
on the center of a rail resting on supporte that can be adjusted to epans varying from 3 feet to
4 feet 6 inches.
2. The anvil shall be a solid casting, weighing, with the attachmente that move with it,
20,000 pounds. It shall be free to move vertically independently of the lead columns and shall
be supported on 20 sprinp known as the standard " C " spring, without center coil, as employed
by the Master Car Builders' Association (their figure 5614). This spring has a free length of
$t inches, an outside diameter of 6iV inches, and is made froma bar having a diameter of lA
inches. These spring are to be arranged in groups of five at each corner of the anvil and are to
be held in place by hubs raised on the top of the base plate and by circular pockets on the under
side of the anvil. Anvil to be guided in its vertical movement by removable finished wearing
strips, these strips to t>e suitably attached to the finished edges of the column base.
3. The base plate shall be of cast iron or cast steel, 8 inches thick in the area covered by
the anvil. It shall be firmly secured to the substructure by four bolts 2 inches in diameter.
4. The substructure shall consist of a timber grillage resting on a masonry foundation. The
grillage shall project 9 inches beyond the ends of the base plate, and clear the columns at the side.
It shall consist of one course of 12 inches by 12 inches sound oak or southern yellow pine, pref-
erably creosoted, laid close and well bolted together. The masonry, preferably concrete, shall
not be less than 5 feet deep below the grillage and be suitably supported on the subsoil.
5. The pedestals for supporting the test rail shall be substantial castings, and the surface of
the anvil between these pedestals shall be formed to receive a wooden block to absorb shock under
broken pieces. The rail supports shall be removable pieces of steel securely held in the pedestals
having an upper cylindrical bearing surface with a radius of 5 inches. The pedestals shall be
adjustable to spans, varying from 3 feet minimum to 4 feet 6 inches maximum l>etween centers.
They shall be securely held together and so fixed to the anvil as to insure that the center of span
shall always coincide with the center between leads.
6. The leads shall be firmly connected to the base plate and well braced. They shall be
long enough to provide the prescribed free fall of the tup. They shall be provided with a con-
venient ladder and a plainly marked gauge, divided into one-foot intervals. The zero of this gauge
shall be 5| inches above the top of the rail support, and the specified height of drop shall be
measured from this zero, irrespective of the height of the rail Ixing tested. One of the guides
shall have a removable section, 6 feet long at the bottom, so that the tup or tripping block can
be readily removed.
7. The tup shall weigh, with the accessories that drop with it, 2000 pounds. The striking
die shall be steel having a cylindrical striking face with radius of 5 inches and a length of 12 inches.
The guide grooves shall have finished surfaces. The tripping head shall allow a grip of the tongs
that will release at the exact height for which the tripping device is set and that will be safe from
accidental release while the test piece is being shifted.
8. The tongs and tripping device shall be arranged to release the tup automatically only;
no manual releasing will be allowed. The tripping device shall be easily adjustable at one-foot
intervals.
>, Google
Mil
1-i
iP
I MS
|I|S
Ijfi
iiii
kn
Ifil 1
I*
>, Google
>, Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL 291
A diagram showing graphically the relation between results of tests as
between the old and new methods, furnished by Mr. Thomas H. Johnson,
is given in Fig. 205.
These tests were made on rails of the same grade of steel, viz., carbon,
about .50, and manganese, .90 to 1.00. All of the tests were made with a
Fio. 205. — Diagram of Testa with Drop-Testing Macbioea of Old and New Design. (Johnson. )
2000-pound tup, with a radius of striking face 5 inches, and span between
centers of supports 3 feet. Table LXXI gives the result of these tests.
Since 1908 a number of machines of this design have been installed at
various mills with satisfactory results. The introduction of a standard drop-
testing machine has been of such benefit to the manufacturers and consumers
of this country that the International Association for Testing Materials has pub-
lished a description and cuts of the American Standard drop-testing machine in
French, German, and English.* The seventh London Resolution of the Council
was as follows:
"That a standard drop-testing machine for rails be adopted in each country, as has already
been done in the United States, in order to make tests comparative."
• Proceedings, Vol. 11, No. 4, May 20, 1911. p. 237.
,y Google
292
STEEL RAILS
If we consider what occurs in dealing the blow on the rail with the falling
weight, it will be seen that the work utilized by the rail in order to take a cor-
responding set is not the potential energy of the weight at the moment when
the weight touches the bar. The energy of the falling weight serves to deform
the rail, to compress the supports, the body of the drop weight, the anvil, and
the ground upon which the anvil is placed.
TABLE LXXL-
New Btudud MubiM.
Old-Styl* Uuhi»,
HHghtol
Drop.
P. R.R,
P. S.
P. R.B.
P. 8.
P. R.R.
P.S,
P. R.R. P.S.
M-P«md
SS-Pouad
lOftPoimd
lOO-Pwod
il-PoBBd
BS-Pomid
loo-PouHi iaa-p«iDd
SM.
Set.
Set.
Set,
Set.
Set.
Set.
SM.
F»t.
iMbn.
iKbo.
lKb«.
llKbH.
Inebea.
bobM.
Iiicb«. licb«>.
.5
.02
.02
.02
,02
-0
.0
.0
0
1
.08
.08
.08
.06
.031
.0
.031
0
1.5
,16
,17
,14
.15
.093
.062
.062
031
2
.25
.22
.19
,19
,126
.093
.125
093
3
.38
.37
.28
.25
.250
.171
.218
109
4
.49
,47
.40
.38
.343
-250
.281
250
5
.60
.53
.50
.45
,406
,343
.375
313
6
.76
.66
.64
.62
.513
.468
.437
375
7
.88
,76
.74
.70
,700
.600
,650
375
8
.90
.90
.86
,81
,800
,700
,700
600
9
1.12
1.01
.98
.90
.900
,800
,750
700
10
1.20
1.13
1,06
1.02
, 1.000
,850
,800
800
Breuil* has shown that for the same amount of actual work the bending
curve of the impact test is the same as the slow-bending test, and Hattt has
observed that there is little difference In the total elongation and unit rupture
work whether the bar is ruptured in ten minutes or in from one to two one-
hundredths of a second4
* RelatioD between the Effect of StresMs elowlf applied and Stressea euddealy applied in th«
Case of Iron and Steel. P. Breuil. 1904.
t Teuaile Impact Teate of Metak. Hatt. Proceedings Am. Soc. for Test. Materia 1904,
Vol. IV.
t As further evidence we may quote the follawiiig opioiona (Report on Impact Tcflta of Metals.
Official report by G. Charpy, Montlugon, International Association for Testing Materials, 5th Con*
gress, Copenhagen, 1909. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York):
Captain Duguet writes: " The effect {of the duration of the stress) is very marked, especially
during the period of great deformations; that would in itself suffice to render any too detailed
investigation of the phenomena illusory. But we must not exaggerate the importance of this
. point. The extreme deformations are, in the case of soft steel, submitted to bending, very sen-
sibly the same, whether they be produced slowly by hydraulic pressure or bj' the impact of a tup."
Id his treatise on material testing, Professor Martens points out that, according to the
experiments of Kick, the velocity of fall has only an insignificant influence on the magnitude of
the deformation in impact bending tests. As regards tensile strength tests. Professor Martens
concludes: " From the impact tension tests so far conducted in the Charlottenburg Laboratory,
I have acquired the conviction that the deformations are produced exactly as by slow tension.
>, Google
STRENGTH Of THE RAIL 2»3
Fig. 206 shows the amount of energy dissipated in 90-pound A. R. A. type
" B " Bessemer rails when tested in the drop-testing machine.*
The weight of the tup was 2000 pounds and the distance between supports
three feet in both the dynamic and static tests. The anvil in the drop test
weighed 10 tons, spring supported. Calculating the work done on the rail in
the static test from the load deflection diagram, and in the drop test from
the height of drop and weight of tup, it would appear from the lower diagram
of the figure that about two-thirds of the energy of the falling tup is utilized
to deflect this rail.
The difficulty of comparing the values of the stresses in impact tests with
those which occur in static tests (i.e., where the momentum of the load does not
factor) hes in the difficulty of accurately determining the value of the force
acting between the hammer and the specimen in the former. Comparisons of
the total work required to rupture a specimen, or to produce a ^ven deflection,
are comparatively simple.
The manner in which impact stresses are related to so-called static stresses
requires careful theoretical con^deration before it can be clearly comprehended.
The author is indebted to the work of Mr. H. D. Tiemann f for the following
presentation of the subject.
The rail tested by impact is in reality in the nature of a cushion between
the two impacting bodies, namely, the tup A and the anvil B, and the anvil B
must be of such proportions that its relative velocity v^ to that of the com-
mon center of gravity of itself and the tup, V, may be disregarded, as other-
wise a correction must necessarily be made, which not only complicates the
subject, but on account of the nature of the foundation of the anvil is almost
impossible to apply.
In tension teats by means of Beveral blows, we find often that the elongation waa greater than
in the slow-tension testa."
M. Lebasteur (Annales des Ponts et Chaussees, 1890) had likewise arrived at the following
cone lupous;
" 1 . The elongations observed in the fracture of bars under high-drop impact testa are nearly
identical with the elongations of similar bara under slow tension.
" 2. The appearances of the broken sections are absolutely the same in the two cases.
" 3. The total intensities of the blows necessary to break bars under high-drop impacts are
proportional to the dynamic resistance to rupture (as determined from the area of the curve of
slow tensile stress);" and further on M. Lebasteur added that "the dynamic re^tance to
rupture measures the strengths of metals equally well for dynamic as for static stresses."
• Report, M. H. Wickhorst to Rail Committee of Am. Ry. Eng. & M. of W. Assn., Proceedings,
Vol. 12, Part 2, p. 389-394.
t The Theory of Impact and its Applicatjon to Testing Materials, Journal of the Franklin In-
stitute, October and November, 1909.
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
soNood avoi
s
\
N,
Z
-1
\
z^
s
si
^
\
\
1
A
O
0.
0
a:
V
1
\
A
0° f
«l
o 0
SNOJ. iOOJ
O ul O H)
ia3J dOUQ JO 1H013H
>, Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL 296
If we consider what occurs at impact, it is seen that at the beginning of
contact a mutual repellant force F begins to come into play between A and B,
which produces a change in the relative velocities (»„ - V) and (v^ - V), where
r, = the velocity of A,
V, = " " " B,
V = " " " the mutual center of gravity of A
and B along a line joining their
respective centers of gravity.
This force F, starting from 0 at first contact and increasing to a maximum
when both relative velocities of A and B are brought to 0, then when rebound
begins again decreasing until it becomes 0 at departure, is counterbalanced
directly by the local compression of the material of both bodies at the point
of contact.
This force is made up of two parts, one being the elastic resistance of the
body to compression or deformation, /, and the other of the force necessary to
produce the local acceleration of the particles compressed, /t .
F = / + /,.
At any instant F is exactly equal to the change in momentum produced
by its action divided by the time required to produce this change;
_ TO (P - Pi)
Or more exactly.
„ mdv ^ dh
where
m= mass,
8 = space,
( = time,
v= velocity
o = acceleration.
Consequently, if the time-velocity curve can be determined, the force F can
be calculated for any instant.
Let us examine first the relations between the various quantities of an
impact test graphically, and then proceed to develop formulae of the time-space
curve and of the interrelations of the values.
Consider, first, a rail lying horizontally on the anvil B and supported
freely at its ends, and let it be struck at the center by a falUng tup A. For
simplicity let us consider the r^ as massless as well as weightless.
,y Google
296
STEEL RAILS
Take the velocities as relative to the anvil, as explained above, or assume
the mass of the anvil so great that its motion may be taken as zero. Let
the motion of the center of gravity of the tup A be plotted as in Fig. 207, with
space as ordinates and time as abscissae. If the tup start at some point J, and
fall freely the distance H before striking the rail, the curve JB will be a parab-
ola, or if its velocity be uniform its motion would give the straight line
JiB. Impact with the rail begins at B, and, assuming the rail as massless,
the only resistance offered to the momentum of the tup will be the bending
stress of the rail, which will be the force F. The motion curve then becomes
Fia. 207. — Tinie.deflection Curve, Masalees Beam, withiD the Elastic limit.
(Journal of the Franklin Institute. —
BC. The resisting force, starting with 0 at B, increases in proportion to the
deflection of the rail until the maximum value is reached at C. (In this case,
let the elastic limit of the rail be not exceeded.) It is this force F which
overcomes the momentum of the tup A by producing a negative accelera-
tion until the momentum is reduced to 0 at C Rebound then begins. If the
rail is perfectly elastic, the force F continuing to act will restore exactly the
same amount of momentum to A, and in the same manner, but in the opposite
direction that it had at the beginning of contact. The curve will be CD. At
D departure takes place (the rail being considered as massless).
The total mutual repellent force F acting on the rail, between the tup A
and the anvil B, is at any instant equal to
where 5 is the space traversed by A and v is its velocity at the instant under
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL 297
con^deration. If 5 is in feet, t in seconds, and A = (weight in pounds -^ accel-
eration of gravity in feet), then F is given in pounds, by the last formula.
If the force of gravity is to be considered, as well as the initial velocity of
A at impact, then this formula should be written:
F~W =^A = -A
where W„ is the weight in pounds of the tup A. This could be avoided by
having the tup move horizontally instead of falling vertically.
Examining Fig. 207, it will be noted that the acceleration of the tup from
J to B is equal to g and is produced by the uniform force W^. From B to
D it is produced by the force W^- F and becomes negative as soon as the
value of F begins to exceed W„. This is at the point of reverse curvature, since
the acceleration
is zero, and evidently occurs at the point b or the deflection which would be
produced fay the static load W„. In horizontal motion the change would occur
at contact, B. It should be remembered that while H', is a constant force,
Fisa. variable, ranging from 0 at £, to a maximum at C, and again to 0 at D.
Whenever
becomes a maximum the force F becomes a maximum, and this evidently occurs
at the sharpest part of the curve, which in this particular case is at C.
The value of F at any instant may, therefore, be determined from the curve
F = ^,XA + W,.
Or
If the force F of the impulse becomes sufficient to cause complete f^ure
of the specimen, the conditions are those shown in Fig. 208.
The first part of the curve JB is the same as before. The velocity or
momentum of the tup is, in this case, not entirely overcome by the resistance
F of the raU, so that at failure the tup retains a portion of its velocity as
indicated by the tangent line DE,. If the tup works vertically in free fall,
instead of horizontally, then the curve DE is again a parabola of free fall. In
this case the force F becomes a maximum at some point C, when the curvature
is sharpest, and must be determined from the curve by
dt^'
since there is no means of calculating it mathematically.
,y Google
298 STEEL RAILS
The curve can be conveniently obtained by some mechanical device by
means of which the falling tup makes a tracing on a uniformly revolving drum.
When F is thus determined the maximum strength values may be calculated.
To supplement the information furnished by the drop test engineers are turn-
ing their attention to other means of testing the physical properties of the rail.
Fig. 208. — Time-dcfleclion Curve, Beam Stressed be;
Elastic Limit (Joum&l of the Franklin Inatitute. — Ti
* The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad
Company, in connection with its inves-
tigations on rail, has been making use of
the scleroscope (Fig. 209), an instrument
for determining the degree of hardness of
metals.
t The principle of the scleroscope
(Greek sclero = hardness) consists of drop-
ping a small plunger hammer from a fixed
height onto the surface of the material
whose hardness is to be measiu"ed. This
hammer after striking, by no other force
than its own weight, rebounds to variable
heights, depending on the hardness or
amount of resistance to penetration offered Fig.209,— ScieroBcope. (Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.)
by the metal tested. The rebound of the hammer is used to measure the
hardness of the metal, and the scale shown on the glass tube is simply for
• General Infonnation Concerning the Scleroscope and its Use on the Baltimore and Ohio Rail-
road. A. W. Thompson. ProeeodinRs, Am. Ry. Eng. & M. of W. Assn.. 1910, Vol. 11, Part L
f See also The Scleroscope, Albert F. Shore, p. 490, Proceedings American Society tor Testinjr
Materials, Vol. X, 1910.
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL
299
comparative purposes and has no direct numerical value. This scale has 140
graduations, and a test of very hard steel has resulted in a rehound to the point
marked 110, while soft brass results in a rebound to the point marked 12, and
lead is about 2 per cent of hard steel.
Figs. 210, 211, and 212 present examples of tests. The numbers in these
figures indicate the degrees of hardness.
Fig. 210 is an A. R. A. section of open-hearth rail, as rolled by the Bethle-
hem Steel Company, and is a new section which has not been in the track. It
will be noted that the hardness on the top of the head of the rail is practically
O
Fig. 210. — Scleroscope Tests on Open Hearth
Rail (New.) (Am. Ry. Eng. Aasn.)
- Sclero9coi>e Testa on Bessemer Rail.
(Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.)
the same as the steel in the section of the rail just below the surface. The center
of the head appears to be the hardest, as well as a line through the center of
the web and base. The upper comers of the head are comparatively soft, the
ends of the base, however, being very much softer than any of the rest of the rail.
Fig. 211 is a section of a Bessemer rml rolled at Buffalo in 1908. It is a
crop from the top end of a top ral. Although the specimen was from the top of
the ingot, there is a difference of but three points in the readings throughout the
head. The section, where polished and etched, showed rather dimly marked
segregation. The head and base when planed into and etched showed some
dark streaks in the head and light streaks and fissures in the base. The top
of the head for i-inch depth was sound. The experimenter says: " The section
as a whole is more uniform than is usually to be found in top, middle, or bottom
rail of a Bessemer ' ingot.' "
,y Google
300
STEEL RAILS
°i 1 1
Pig. 212 shows the comparative hardness on different lines on experimental
titanium rails. This test indicates a skin of soft metal across the top of the
head, but as soon as this is penetrated the
hardnres is reached, which compares favor-
ably with any part of the whole section.
* Experiments were made at the
laboratories of McGill University on the
value of the indentation test for steel rails
in regard to essential qualities desired in
service. The study of this method of
testing was suggested by tests made on a
large number of rail sections by the Chief
En^neer of the Canadian Pacific Rmlway,
a spherical punch .75 inch in diameter
Fig, 212.— ScieroHcopeTestsonNewTitaoium being used, with a load of 100,000 pounds
Rail. (Am. Ry. Eng. A«sn.) applied by an Emery testing machine for
10 seconds after commencing the load, and the indentation was measiu-ed by
an instrument reading to t^Vu inch.
The tests, conducted by Mr. Dutcher, were on a set of bars of 2.5 by .75-
inch section containing known percentages of carbon, which were verified by
tests, and varied between .11 per cent and .96 per cent. The punches used
(in addition to the foregoing) were a 60° cone, a 90° cone, and a paraboloid.
The term " hardness factor " applied to the results was obtained by divid-
ing the projected area of the indentation on the surface of the specimen into the
load applied. It was found that the yield point (as determined by tensile
tests) varies directly as the hardness factor. The percentage elongation curve
is also fairly straight between 200,000 pounds hardness factor (.10 per cent
carbon steel) and 450,000 pounds hardness factor (about .70 per cent
carbon steel) ; and the percentage of carbon varies directly with the hardness
factor up to about .90 per cent.
t There have been several methods proposed to test the hardness of the
metal by ball-pressure tests. In the Brinell testj a hard ball of steel is forced
• Transactions o( the Canadian Society of Civil Enpneers, Dutcher, Vol. XXI, pp. 47-88.
t Hardness Testa. Official report by Dr. techn. P. Ludivik, of Vienna. International AsRoda-
tion tor Testing Materials, 5th Congress, Copenhagen, 1909. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York,
al-iO various technical papers on Hardness Testa, Proceeding,?, American Society tor Teatinn MotcrinH
Vol, XI, Iflll, pp. 707-743,
I Compare P. Ludwik, " Uber Hartebeetimmung mittelst der Brinnellschen Kugeldnickprobe
und verwandter Eindruckverfahren," " Zeitachrift des osterr. Ingenieur und Architekt«n-Verein€«,"
19DT, Nr. II und 12 (Mr, 12, p, 205, extensive literature references).
>, Google
STRENGTH OF THE BAIL 301
by quiet pressure into the material to be examined; the diameter of the spherical
impression is determined, as a rule, with the aid of a special microscope, and the
area of the cavity is calculated. The quotient of pressure (in kilograms) by the
area (in millimeters ^) is Brinell's hardness number H.
The cone-pressure test marks a transition from the ball-pressure methods
to scratch methods. It is the outcome of efforts to simplify the Brinell test, with
the further object of making the hardness number Independent of the load and
of the dimensions of the impression.
In the Amsler-Laffon instrument (Fig. 213) a cylindrical steel center punch,
plane above, ground to a right-angled
cone below, is vertically mounted in a
casing of bronze, in which it is free to
turn; it is balanced by a lateral spring.
The displacement of the cone (with
regard to the casing) is transferred to
a pointer by an elastic threaded bush-
ing and a toothed wheel; the pointer
allows of easily reading depths up to 5
millimeters within .01 millimeter. The
pointer is accurately adjusted by turn-
ing it with the aid of the milled edge
of the bushing, in case the top of the
specimen should not be perfectly plane.
The cone can easily be exchanged and
beregromd. The whole instrament f„. 2,3, _ A™ie,-L.l.o„ In..™.™t for
weighs .7 kilogram (1^ pounds), and Measuring Hardneas.
its height, from the upper pressure plate to the surface of the specimen, is
about 10 centimeters (4 inches).
The question, whether the hardness numbers of a material, obtained by
these methods, admit of any general conclusions respecting the strength of
the material, and in particular the yield point and the tensile strength, is of
high practical interest.
A direct constant relation between yield point and tensile strength on the
one side, and hardness on the other, can not exist, since that relation would,
among other factors, depend upon the shape of the impression and of the stress-
strain diagram.
This admission does not, however, at all exclude the possibility of deducing
from the hardness number, with the ^d of a coefficient which will only hold
,y Google
302 STEEL RAII5
good between certmn known limits, the yield point and the tenale strength with
an approximation which will frequently be sufficient for practical purposes.*
t Permanent-way materials have been tested by Ludwik's cone-pressure
method with two objects: to inquire into the suitability of the method for practi-
cal purposes, and to ascertain the relation between the cone-pressure hardness
and the tensile strength.
The experiments have been conducted in connection with the acceptance
tests of the materials supplied to the J. R. Austrian State Railways during the
year 1908, in the Trzynietz Iron Works of the Osterr. Berg- und Huttenwerks-
Gesellschaft with the aid of an Amsler-Laffon cone-pressure hardness testerj
on a Mohr and Federhaff testing machine.
The material experimented upon comprised rails, railway ties, splices, and
steel crossings.
The specimens were not prepared in any way apart from being cleaned ; an
exception was made in the case of the steel points, in which the outer skin con-
taining coarse impurities had to be removed completely.
The following are the chief results:
The ratio of tensile strength to cone-pressure hardness had a mean value
of about .335, the range of deviation being ±6 per cent.
The lowest tensile strength of 65 kg./mm.* (42 tons per square inch), ad-
missible for rails, corresponded to a cone-pressure hardness of about 190.
The tensile strengths of ties and of smaller parts for the permanent way
varied between 39 and 47 kg./mm.= (24.75 and 29.8 tons per square inch) and
the corresponding hardness numbers between 117 and 144. The range of
variation is hence approximately the same for the tensile strengths as for the
hardness numbers.
Othei" methods of testing hardness have been used. The sclerometer of
Turner makes use of a diamond point which is drawn across the surface to be
measured. The weight required upon this point to make a barely visible scratch
determines the degree of hardness. This machine is sometimes used with a
series of standard weights and the width of a scratch made by one of these
• For instance, the Pnissian Railway Department stipulatt^ for rails of a minimum tensile strength
ot60kg,/mm."(38tonsperaqiiareineh), with halb of 19 mm. (Jinch) diameter and .50 tone loads, impres-
sion depths of from 3,5 to ."(.S mm,; for rails of a minimum tenaile atrenRlliof 70kg./mm.' (44.5tonBper
equare inch), impression depths ranKinR from 3 to 5 mm. Breaking tentaand ball tests have to be
made in equal numbers. (Zentralhlatt der Buuver-waltunfr, 1908, No. 77, p. 520.)
t The Cone-pressure Test for Determining the Hardness of Permanent-way Materials, l)y Dr.
techn. August Ge6ner, Vienna. International Association for Tesling Materials, 5th Congrees, Copen-
h^cn, 1909. Mpr.ran--Hill Book Company, New York.
t Compare P. Ludwik, " Die Kegelprobe, an neues Verfahren lur Hortebestimmung von Mat«i-
alien." Berlin, 1908, Julius Springer.
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL 3(»
measured under a microscope. The Keep test employs an instrument which
drills into the specimen and pves a measure of the work required to cut out
the metal, thus testing not only the surface, but also the interior. The Jaggar
instrument is similar, but uses a small diamond drill in connection with a micro-
scope.
Resistance to penetration was long tested by the United States Ordnance
Department by means of a weighted punch, and a somewhat similar result was
obtained by means of a series of needles of graded hardness, which were tried
in succession until one was found that would scratch the material under test.
While many inconsistencies are found in hardness tests, it is generally con-
ceded that the test affords an excellent comparison of metals of the same general
composition and treatment, and the results thus far seem to justify the expecta-
tion that it will in many cases be possible and advantageous to employ this
method in the testing of rails in place of the more elaborate and expensive tensile
strength tests which some foreign engineers require in addition to the drop test.
The mimetic laboratory of the Bureau of Standards is carrying on an investi-
gation <m the relation between the magnetic and mechanical properties of steels.
The reluctance, or the ratio of the magnetizing force to the nu^etic uiduction, of a
rail is greatly affected by changes in homogeneity, such as may be caused by segre-
gation, blowholes, or strains due to any cause whatever. By means of the mag-
netic data taken along tile length of a r^ it is possible to detect the presence of
these defects.
Special machines have been devised from time to time for testing different
properties of the rail, as the machine for testing rail wear illustrated in Fig. 151.
* The Pennsylvania Steel Company has a machine (Fig. 214) for testing
rail wear which enables specimens of rails to undergo wear similar to that im-
posed upon them by every description of traffic, but in a much shorter time than
if tried in the ordinary road. The rails are fixed to a 20-foot diameter circular
frame, three specimens being included in the circle. Two standard 33-inch
wheels having independent axles fixed at each end of a heavy casting, which is
pivoted at the center of the circle, run upon the rails at speeds up to 85 revolu-
tions per minute, equivalent to a train speed of about 60 miles per hour. There
are devices by which, through means of springs, pressure is exerted vertically and
also centrifugally on the rail, so that the action of the load can be imitated, as
well as that of its lateral pressure on the rail, and the effect produced by continu-
ous wear on the rails of different manufacture and composition can be estimated
in a comparatively short time.
* R^lway and Engineering Review, Chicago, 1908, Vol. XLVIII, p. 868.
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
Fia. 214. — Machine for Testii^E Rail Wear at Peniuylvania Steei Company.
Extensive tests have been
made of the tensile strength of
the steel in the rail by Mr. M. H .
Wickhorst, Engineer of Tests
of the Rail Committee of the
American Railway Engineering
Association, covering rails rolled
at Gary and at the Lackawanna
Steel Company.
The rails from the Gary
works were open-hearth steel
and 100-pound, A. R. A., Type
B section. The ingots furnished
six rails, which were lettered
A, B, C, D, E, F, the A rails
coming from the top of the
ingot, etc.
Tensile tests were made of
pieces J-inch diameter by 2-inch
gauge length, cut from near the
top end of each rail, as shown
-DiagramofBoundTe8tPiecea;TenflUeT«t«on '" ^S" ^l^- Five locations in
Rail Steel. (Wickhorst.) the Sections were selected as
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL 306
shown, and t«sts were made in duplicate, the bar being cut sufficiently long to
make two test pieces. The yield point was determined by means of a Capp's
multiplying divider, which method ^ves a result somewhat above the elastic
limit, but which, however, is probably sufficiently definite to make it desirable
to determine it, and is not subject to the irregularities of the yield jwint as
determined by the drop of the beam of the test machine, or even by ordinary
dividers.
The test pieces were very close to J-inch diameter at the center, but toward
the ends of the gauge length most of them were from .002 to .004 inch larger in
diameter. This would tend to make the elongation less than if the diameter
were perfectly uniform.
The results of the tensile tests are shown in Table LXXII.
The duplicates agree well with each other except in a few cases where the
test pieces broke " short " as follows; One sample from base of the A rail, one
sample from the interior of the head of the B rail, and one sample from the
comer of the head of the C rail. One sample from the web of the A rail should
probably also be classed here. The duplicates from the lower r^ls of the ingot
agree particularly well, indicating a freedom from local irregularities. The
ratio of the yield point to the tensile strength averages about 51 per cent, and
most specimens differ but little from this figure. A comparison of the tensile
strength is interesting. Table LXXIII shows the tensile strength of the
sample in each pair that gave the greatest ductility.
The b samples from the interior of the head and the c sample from the
web represent what was ori^nally the interior of the ingot, and in the A rail
these samples show strengths much higher than the samples from the other
parts of the section representing what was the outer part of the ingot. This is
also true of the B rail, but to a less extent, and also of the C rail to a slight extent.
As we continue down the ingot, however, conditions are reversed, and we find
in the D rail a little lower strength in the samples from the interior than in the
samples representing what was the outer portion of the ingot. This difference
is greater in the E r^I and greatest in the F rail.
The a sample from the comer of the head and the d sample from the
flange would be metal of similar chemistry, but the flange has a considerably
lower finishing temperature and is also reduced differently. Table LXXIV
compares results from these two places.
The d sample from the flange of the A rail is abnormal, with a low strength
and high ductility, being evidently taken at a point of negative segregation of
carbon; but, except for this sample, the d samples from the flange show a little
,y Google
STEEL RAII^
TABLE LXXII.-
Tssdlt TwU I
d-head, comer. . .
6-heftd, interior. .
d-flange
e-base
o-head, comer. . .
b-head, iDterior..
d-ftange
a-he«d, comer.. .
&-head, i
d-fltu^
&-head, interior. .
(j-flange
6-head, interior. .
d-Rangfi
6-head, interior. .
I d-flange
TESTS ON STRENGTH OF RAIL STEEL
» Oi» Hearth Rul StMl Inm Guy (Widihont)
61,640
69,510
70,020
66,970
68,220
70,310
70,010
66,970
65,690
64,940
63,930
67,710
65,690
66,970
69,230
66,970
66,230
66,490
68,720
64,940
65,930
64,180
64,940
66,460
67,440
68,220
68,220
69,510
65,210
64,180
70,020
67,710
63,670
Tsuila Stmclh.
lUtio.
PoMd-pmSquu,
124,800
5.1
125,800
48
134,400
133,900
52
141,000
52
121,700
54
123.300
54
109,600
120,200
47
128.800
128.300
51
135,900
50
137,000
61
137.000
51
132,900
50
129,800
51
129.400
50
126,800
50
130,900
52
132,900
50
133,400
52
133,900
50
50
132,900
50
128.300
50
128,800
50
132,400
51
130,900
52
129,300
50
128,300
52
130,800
51
131.900
51
133.900
52
134,400
52
130.900
50
132.400
52
127.900
52
124,800
51
124,300
52
128.900
50
128,900
52
131.800
51
132,400
52
129.800
53
130,400
53
128,400
51
128,300
50
120.800
123,700
54
126,300
132.400
53
131,900
51
127,300
50
128,300
51
11.5
12.5
12,5
10-5
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL
Rail.
s-Hwl. Comer.
b-Hivl, InUrior.
fW*.
i-Fhu^.
.B„.
A
B
c
D
E
F
124,800
128,800
130,900
132,400
127.900
128,300
133,900
136,900
133,400
128,300
124,300
120,800
141.000
137,000
133,900
131,900
128,900
125,300
121,700
129,800
133,400
133,900
131,800
131,900
120,200
129,400
128,800
132,400
129,800
128,300
Average
128,800
129,400
133,000
130,400
128,200
Co
TABLE LXXIV.-
mparison oF Scrwulh ud Ductility d 3lei
TESTS ON STRENGTH OF RAIL STEEL
t Uk« rroDi tbe Corner o[ the Head ud Fbnca of Opw Btmnh Raib (WiokbontJ
,.,.
Tenaila Streoglh poundi per
RedtHtioiiolAitt.
-
^
•
-
•
-
124,800
128,800
130,900
132,400
127,900
128,300
121,700
129,800
133,400
133,900
131,800
131,900
Ptrctot.
10
11.5
11.5
12
11
12
Percent.
14
12
12.5
13
12
12.5
Percent.
15
20
22
19
19
20
Per ctot.
C
D
27
28
Average BtoF..
129,700
132,200
11,6
12.4
20
25
higher strength and also a Httle greater ductility. As the difference in the
work of rolling is perhaps sufficient to account for this, the conclusion seems to
be that the difference in roUing temperature has not resulted in any important
difference in the tensile properties.
The 6 sample from the Interior of the head and the c sample from the web
would be of similar chemistry, as representing the interior of the ingot, but the
web is thinner and gets more work in rolhng and probably is finished at a lower
temperature. A comparison of these two locations is shown in Table UCXV.
TABLE LXXV.— TESTS ON
CorapBitaon ol Btrmsth and Ductility o( Steal talcBB from th.
STRENGTH ON RAIL
InieHor of the H«ul and Web ol
STEEL
Opea Heartb Rails (Wiclibonl)
■""*"■ ii[ssi'i«r'*"*'
Reduction of Area,
b
'
"
b
'
133,900
135,900
133,400
128,300
124,300
120.800
141.000
137,q00
133,900
131,900
128,900
125.300
Percent.
9
9
10
11
11
12
Per ant.
9
11
11,5
11.5
12,6
13
Percent,
16
16
17
21
21
22
Per cat.
10
19
23
F
25
Average BtoF..
128,500
131,400
10,6
11,9
19.4
22,6
>, Google
308 STEEL RAIia
In the A rail it is probable that the carbon is higher in the web sample than
in the head sample, but in the other rails there probably are no great differences,
and the averages shown above are of the B to f r^s inclusive. The tensile
strength decreases as we go down the ingot and the ductility increases. The
web samples, as compared with the head samples, show a Mttle greater strength,
an average of 131,400 pounds, as against 128,500 pounds, and also a little greater
ductility, an average elongation of 11.9 per cent, as against 10.6 per cent, and
a reduction of area of 22.6 per cent, as against 19.4 per cent. This difference,
it would seem, is probably due to
the increased work in rolling that
the web gets. It is also interest-
ing to note that the top rails show
as good ductility in the head
samples as the lower rails, allow-
ing, of course, for the difference in
tensile strength, which would
make about 3 per cent decrease
in elongation for an increase in
tensile strength of 10,000 pounds.
The tensile tests on the rail
steel from the Lackawanna mill
were from titanium Bessemer
rails, 90-pound, A. R. A., Type B.
It was planned to make ten-
sile tests of pieces from near the
top ends of each ndl by cutting
Fia. 216. — Test Pieces 16 inchcH long. Diagram ot Flat flveflat pieceS | by IJ by 16incheS
Test Pieces. Tensile Testa on Rail Steel. (Wickhorst.) f^om each rail aS shown in Fig.
216. The test pieces were cut in this manner from the A and D rails, but
it soon appeared that the time required to prepare the pieces in this manner
would cause consido'able delays, and then, too, the surfaces are apt to be finished
in a condition unsatisfactory for test. The plan was then changed so as to
obtain pieces | inch in diameter and 2-inch gauge length, as shown by Pig. 215.
The pieces from the B and C rails were prepared in this manner. The results
of the tensile tests are shown in Table LXXVI. Care must be taken not to
compare the results of the flat test pieces with those from the round test pieces,
except, perhaps, as regards the tensile strength, although even here the shape
of the test piece would make some difference.
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL
Rail.
LoaliMi.
KindofTen
Pieoe.
Taisile Stnmth.
Eloncstini.
Flat
Round
Flat
Far Square Inoh.
103,400
111,100
109,200
103,300
105.000
111,700
122,900
116,200
110,700
111,600
109,100
112,100
112,300
109,600
112,400
109,800
106,800
104,700
108,600
110,000
15.5 in 8 inches
20,0 "8 '■
14.5 "8 "
11.7 "8 "
13.7 "8 "
19.0 "2 "
14.0 "2 "
17.5 "2 "
19.0 "2 "
18.0 "2 "
20,0 "2 "
16.0 "2 "
21.0 "2 "
20.0 "2 "
19,5 "2
12.5 '8 •'
10.0 "8 "
13.7 "8
10,0 "8 "
9.5 "8 "
23 flat
b-head
A \
6-head
a-head
36 •■■
c
37 '■
a-head
D
e-web
23 "
The following is a re-
cord of tensile teste made
by Waterhouse* on 100-
pound A. S. C. E. r^l taken
from stock. The steel was
made by the acid Bessemer
process and the ingots rolled
without reheating. From
this rail two adjacent pieces
8 J inches long were cut with
a slow-speed cold saw, and
from these pieces tensile-
test bars were machined in
the positions shown in Fig.
217. The results of the
tensile tests are given in the
following table, the figures
being the average of those
obtained from the duplicate
pieces:
Fio. 217. — Location and Numbera o( Test Pieces used in
Waterhouse'B Tests. (Railroad Age Gawtte.)
p. 478.
• Examination of 100-pound RaUs. G. B. Waterhouee. RMlroad Age Gawtte, July 10, 1908,
,y Google
STEEL RAllS
TABLE LXXVII.— TE8TS QN STRENGTH OF RAIL
Twuile T«u od B«a«nsr Rail Steal (WaUrhouH)
Elaatic limit.
Ultimsls Sums.
•^z-
^^o,
P«ilid&
52,200
52,200
54,460
65,000
63,100
63,820
61,740
53,340
Ponndt
108,400
109,850
110,750
110,160
110,300
110,400
109,850
111,300
FaroBC.
16,75
16.25
18.50
18.50
18.25
18.00
18.26
17.00
Pa ant.
29.9
28.4
33.2
28.6
29.4
31.0
35.4
36.4
I :::::.::::::
Table LXXVIII shows the chemical composition of the rails tested in the
three tests just mentioned.
TABLE LXXVIIL — CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAIL STEEL
IN TENSILE TESTS OF WICKHORST AND WATERHOUSE
Wickhont.
W«Wrt«™e.
Cry.
Lack.™.™.
0.72'
0.20
0.72
0.036
0.036
Per cent,
0.48
o.u
0.90
0,040
0.091
Parewrt.
0,51
0.147
0,77
0,078
0089
0,186
Sulphur
.
28. The Strength of the Rail and Proper Weight for Various
Conditions of Loading
In determining the proper stress to use for the rail, careful consideration
must be given to the exact meaning of the terms by which the strength of the
steel is shown.
* The dastic limit or yield point may be properly called the limit of pro-
portionality of stress to deformation, or more briefly, the limit of proportion-
ality. The limit of proportionality is sometimes called the " true " elastic
limit, and is frequently regarded as a measure of the load-carrying capacity of
a member or structure.
The absolute value of this limit cannot, in general, be determined even by
the most careful measurements of deformation and load. It has been the
experience of experimenters that any additional refinement of measurements
in stress-deformation tests results in the detection of the limit of proportionality
* Proceedings Americao Society for Testing Materiitk, 1910, Vol, X, pp. 243, 244. Moore.
>, Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL 311
at a stress lower than that determined by the less refined methods of measure-
ment. Perhaps the thermo-electric apparatus used by Turner * and Rasch f for
measuring deformation is the most delicate yet employed, and both of these
experimenters showed the existence of a limit of proportionality at stresses
far lower than those determined by extensometer measurements as ordinarily
made.
Members and structures become more and more nearly perfectly elastic
if subjected to repeated stresses in the same direction, even if these stresses
are so far beyond the limit of proportionality
that there is a small but well-defined per-
manent set upon release of the load. Fig. 218
shows the result of loading a beam several
times to a stress well beyond the elastic limit.
The first load applied to the beam produced
considerable permanent set, and during the
application and release of load considerable
energy was lost, presumably in heat. This
energy is shown by the shaded area to the
left of the figure. During the second cycle
of loading and release much less energy was
lost, as shown by the central shaded area; and
during the third cycle the beam behaved as if
almost perfectly elastic. It should be noted ona Divi»ion.o.iin,Defiectioo
that the above results would not be obtained *""' 218.- Effect of Repeated ixjads
on Beams. (Am. Boo. for Testing
if the direction of the load were reversed. Matenaia — Moore.)
The ultimate strength, or maximum capacity for resisting stress, has a
ratio to the maximum stress due to the working load, which, although less in
metal than in wooden or stone structures, is, nevertheless, made of considerable
magnitude in many cases. It is much greater under moving than under steady
" dead " loads, and varies with the character of the material used. For
machinery it is usually 6 or 8; for structures erected by the civil engineer,
from 5 to 6.J
In general, parts of structures are so proportioned as to carry their loads
without risk of exceeding their elastic limits; and in such cases the factor of
safety should probably always be referred to the elastic limit.
• Thermo Electric Measurements of Stress, Transactions American Society of Civil En^neere,
Vol. XXVIII, January, 1902, p. 27.
t Proceedings International Aseociation for Testing Materials, No. 11, August 4, 1909, Article VII.
t Iron and Steel, Materials of Engineering, Thurston, 1909, p. 340.
>, Google
312 STEEL RAILS
The elastic limit is made the basis of estimates by nearly all French engineers,
while the ultimate strength is taken by German engineers, using a factor of
safety of larger magnitude. British and American engineers usually base all
calculations on the ultimate strength, although the former system is extending
in general practice, and the limit of working load is made to fall well within the
limit of elasticity.
The graieral practice at the present time, for railway and highway bridges, is
to use a unit strain of about one-half the elastic limit of the material. This factor
is considered correct in places where the load assumed is an absolute maximum,
as, for instance, where it consists of a definitely determined dead load only.
In the rail the maximum stress acts during a very short space of time and
its effect is not the same as the same load applied for a longer period. It is
possible to apply a much greater stress than the elastic limit of the metal, pro-
vided the stress be applied very quickly and then released.
The excellent service ^ven by some of the rails of lighter section, exposed
to heavy wheel loads, gives evidence that a limited number of excessive stresses
in the rail will not cause injury when applied for the small fraction of a second,
as is the case of the stress caused by the wheel load.
An extreme fiber stress of 20,000 pounds per square inch as applied to
the base of the rail probably represents a satisfactory mean between the danger,
on the one hand, of not providing a sufficient margin of safety for the unknown
quantities of the problem and the liability, on the other hand, of taking too
great a factor of safety, and thus designing an uneconomical structure.
The following remarks of Professor Unwin are pertinent to this question:
" If an engineer builds a structure which breaks, that is a mischief, but one of a limited and
isolated kind, and the accident itself forces him to avoid a repetition of the blunder. But an engineer
who from deficiency of scientific knowledge builds structures which don't break down, but which
stand, and in which the material ia clumsily wasted, commits blunders of a most insidious kind."
Any consideration of the strength of the rail should take account not only
of the stresses in the rail itself and the ability of the material of which it is com-
posed to resist them, but a proper proportion must be made of the rail in order
that it may distribute the wheel load to the ties in such a manner as not to over-
strain any part of the track structure. The fact that a rail will not break should
not be the determining factor in its selection, if, on account of lack of stiffness,
it will allow too great a proportion of the load to come on a tie.
The damaging effects of overloading the track, while much less apparent
than the results attending the use of too great loads in other engineering struc-
tures, are, nevertheless, of very real importance, and the lack of proper appre-
ciation of the fundamental principles underlying its design has brought about
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL 313
conditions requiring excessive maintenance charges to keep the track in proper
condition.
As the real function of the heavier rails is to distribute the wheel load and
prevent too great a concentration of pressure on the track substructure, we
have two limiting conditions to consider: First, the rail should be stiff enough
to enable it to transfer the load in such a manner as not to exceed the maximum
bearing power of the track substructure, and second, the safe working stress
of the metal in the rail must not be exceeded.
Before investigating the proper weight of rail to use with any track struc-
ture, the weight and types of the locomotives and cars to be run over it should
be considered, and the maximum wheel pressures ascertained for each type.
The bearing power of the roadway or subgrade should next be examined.
The influence of the character of the roadway is well shown by the follow-
ing case reported by Mr. A. G. Wells, General Manager of the Atchison, Topeka
and Santa Fe:*
" From Seligman to Barstow our track is laid with eighty-five-pound rwla; the density of
the traffic is practically the same over every foot of it. Between Yucca and Barstow, a. distance
of 227 miles, the subgrade is sandy, porous, and well drained; between Yucca and Seligman, a
distance of 91 miles, the subgrade is largely clay, of a kind that holds water. From November,
1907, to October, 1908, we had eighty-three rail breakages on the territory first named, or a per-
centage of .001; on the other stretch we had in the same period seventy-two breakages, the per-
centage being .0025, or, in other words, where the subgrade was dense and more or less clay, the
breakages per mile were two and one-half times greater than where the subgrade was sandy."
The bearing power of the subgrade is such an important factor in pro-
portioning the track that it will prove profitable to examine what takes place
when the soil is subjected to pressure.f
As in any structure, good judgment must enter into the design; the formulas
which will be demonstrated mxist be used as guides only. These formulae will
depend upon the angle of repose of a homogeneous granular mass. For
ordinary earths for which the angles of repose are known, the results obtained
by the use of the formulae will compare very favorably with those obtdned
from examples of the best practice.
When the angle of repose is not known it should be determined by test-J
* Railroad Age Gazette, April 9, 1909.
t The following discussion is based upon Retaining Walls for Earth, Howe, New York, 1896.
X This can conveniently be done by measuring the force required to cause slipping of two por-
tions of the earth past each other when subjected to a known pressure, and
where ^ — angle of repose.
3 = force required to cause slipping.
p = pressure on earth.
>, Google
314
STEEL RAILS
Earth which has an angle of repose of at least 27 degrees may be considered
as firm. From Table LXXIX it is seen that sand, gravel, and damp clay are
classed as firm soils; however, these may become so saturated with water that
their angles of repose will become considerably less than 27 degrees, hence
precaution must be taken against too much water by draining the ground in the
immediate vicinity of the roadbed. Particular care must be taken in the case
of clay, or sand which will become a kind of quicksand when saturated with
water.
The water which destroys the bearing power of such soils may come from
below by capillary attraction,* and the drainage should be carried to a depth
sufficient to prevent this. Semi-fluid soils, such as quicksand, alluvium, etc.,
should be removed where practicable or the foundation carried to a lower
stratum.
TABLE LXXIX. -
Earth o
Earth o
Earth o
Earth o
Earth o
earth, dry sand, clay, and mixed earth. .
I earth, damp clay
earth, wet clay
. earth, shingle, and gravel
Let Fig. 219 represent a section of the track, and
"T
'777777777777777777777m
SUB GRADE
Fic. 219. — Resistance of Sub-grade to Pressure of the Track.
I = the depth of ballast;
p = the maximum supporting power per square foot of thesubgrade;
pi the pressure exerted on subgrade midway between ties;
1 = the weight of one cubic foot of ballast;
^ ^ the angle of repose of subgrade ;
xy equals the vertical intensity of the pressure caused by the waght of the
• Movements of Ground Water, by F- H. King and C. S. Slichter, Government Printing OERce,
Washington, D. C, 1899, p. 65.
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL
315
ballast on the subgrade midway between the ties. This pressure is augmented
by the pressure transmitted from the tie, and, while this is much less between
the ties than immediately underneath a tie, it is, nevertheless, an important
factor in strengthening the surface of the roadbed.
If we assume this extra pressure on the roadbed midway between the ties
to equal in amount tx we will probably be on the safe side and can then write
Pi = 2 yx.*
Now when the ballast is about to sink
p 1 + sin ^ 1 — sin 0
*^ = , .-■ or g = p \ . ■ ■
q 1 - sm 0 1 + sin 0
But when the roadbed under the tie is on the point of sinking, the part of
the roadbed between the ties must be on the point of rising, or
^ _ 1 + sin i»
Pi 1 - sin * '
and the supporting power of the subgrade, or
j 1 + sin ij,]*
n-
\\ + sin 0P
p=Pi
; =2yx
For convenience the values
i in Table LXXXI.
1 - an *1
' sm 4>)
are g^ven in Table LXXX and for
TABLE LXXX
Values of jli^* I
ll+_-in*j'.
'
0
1.00
23
5.21
5
1.42
24
5.62
e
1.52
25
6.07
7
26
6 56
8
1>6
27
7.09
9
1.88
28
7.67
10
2.02
20
8,30
11
2.16
30
9.00
12
2.32
31
9.76
13
2.50
32
10. S9
U
2.68
33
11,50
15
2.88
34
12 61
16
3,10
35
13.62
17
3.33
36
14.84
18
3 69
37
16.18
19
3.86
17.67
20
4,22
19.64
21
4.48
40
21.16
22
4.83
• This apparently would be a safe aMumption for a depth of gravel ballast under the tie of 18
inchee and 12 inches of stone. For a lees depth of ballast the pressure would be lees and for a greater
depth the pressure would increafle, the increaae being more rapid in the case of tha stone than of th«
gravel ballast.
>, Google
STEEL RAtLS
TABLE LXXXr. —VALUES OF ■
N.maDlB.llut.
&£i5i£'Hr
90 to 106
90to)0e
U8 to 129
90 to 108
Considering first the weight of r^l which will give a proper distribution of
pressure to the track, we may adopt a tentative system of classification for the
track structure based upon the kind of tie, tie spacing, depth and kind of
ballast, and character of subgrade. As previously noted, a tie spacing of 20
inches with 18 inches of gravel or 12 inches of stone under the tie, resting on a
roadbed capable of bearing 1.5 tons per square foot, will sustain safely a load of
700 pounds per linear inch under each rail. This grade of track we will deag-
nate as class A.
Class B and C will represent weaker structures, which may be brought
about by a departure in any or all of the elements from those found in class A
track.
A track would be graded as class B if it was capable of carrying only 600
pounds per linear inch under each rail. This mi^t occur in several ways.
A tie spacing of 22 inches, but with all the other elements of class A track, would
diminish the strength of the structure on account of greater concentration of
the load on each tie and on the subgrade; similarly, a lesser depth of ballast
would affect the load on the subgrade. Evidently, a track with all the other
elements of class A, but resting on a soil having a lower bearing power, would
offer less resistance to the action of the wheel load.
Table LXXXII presents descriptions of different kinds of track in each of
these classes. It will be observed that the limiting factors may be considered
as being the supporting power of the roadbed and the bearing of the rail on the
tie. The bending stress in the tie and the bearing of the tie on the ballast are of
secondary imjwrtance.
Considering first the bearing under the rail. This is evidently a function
of the tie spacing and kind of wood of which the tie is made. For class A track,
capable of supporting 700 pounds per linear inch under each rail, a tie spacing
of 20 inches would ^ve a load on each tie under the r^l bearing of 14,000
pounds. This is about the limit of the strength of the woods shown for class A
track, and therefore excludes the use of weaker woods or greater tie spacing for
this class of track.
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL
317
In class B track, having a supporting power of 600 poimds per linear inch
under each rail, the tie spacing may be increased to 22 inches for the woods
allowed in class A track. It is doubtful whether the group of woods shown in
the table under class C track should be used for class B track even with a tie
spacing of 20 inches.
TABLE LXXXIL — CLASSES OP TRACK
CblHof
Ti..
^L^-v^'"
Subcrads
lOtol.S
1.0 to 1.5
l.Otol.5
1-0 to 1.5
0,8 to 1-2
1.0 Ui l.S
O.Stol.O
0.5 to 1,0
BtuHn; Powtc
Sua.
CUwoI Wood* Rtpraaeatsd by
cIS'j*
Stone.
Gnvel.
IDCW.
18
18
18
14
18
10
18
12
-X^"
At
iHbO.
7X9
7X9
7X8
7X8
7X8
7X8
7X8
7X8
Oak, locust, hard maple, hickory,
cherry; not tie plated.
LongleaX pine, black walnut, beech.
birch, elm, Kum, hemlock, Douglas
fir; tie plated.
IneheB.
20
20
22
20
20
22
22
20
iMhw.
12
12
12
9
12
6
12
8
700
700
Bt
600
c,
I/)blolly pine, shortleaf pine (at timee
this wood is nearly equal to longleaf )
sort maple, catalpa, chestnut, white
pine, Norway pine; tie plated.
460
The low-supporting power of class C track permits the use of weaker
woods. A 22-inch tie spacing for this grade of track ^ves a load at the rail
bearing of about 10,000 pounds.
The pressure transmitted to the subgrade is determined by the spacing of
the ties (or more properly by the distance between adjacent ties) and the depth
and kind of ballast used. In the table three characters of subgrade are con-
sidered, the firmest having a bearing power of from 1.0 to 1.5 tons per square
foot and the least firm a bearing power of from 0.5 to 1.0 tons per square
foot.
By applying Uie formula
(1 -sm<j})
we see that the firmer grade corresponds to a soil with an angle of repose of
from 23 degrees to 31 degrees for 12 inches of stone ballast or 18 inches of gravel
ballast under the tie, and from 28 degrees to 36 degrees with 6 inches of stone
or 10 inches of gravel ballast under the tie. Table LXXIX shows that these
angles (rf repcse fall writbin the limits given for dry sand, clay, and mixed
eartii.
,y Google
318 STEEL RAILS
The subgrade, having a supporting power of 0.5 ton per square foot, cor-
responds to a soil having angles of repose varying from 13 degrees to 20 degrees
under the conditions stated in the table. This agrees with the angle of repose
for wet clay shown in Table LXXIX.
Table XLVII (article 19) gives, for a subgrade capable of bearing 1.5 tons
per square foot, an allowable load applied to the tie at the rail bearing of from
10,100 to 11,800 pounds, for the size of tie, depth and kind of ballast used in
class A track. Owing to the rapid application of the load it has been assumed
in article 19 that these values could be safely increased to 14,000 pounds on
account of the inertia of the track and roadbed. For 20-inch tie spacing this
gives a supporting power of 700 pounds per linear inch of Trail.
For the track designated by Bi in Table LXXXII, owing to the increase in
distance between adjacent ties this value falls to 600 pounds per linear inch of
rail. In class B, track we find from equations Nos. 1 and 2, article 18, that the
allowable load at the rail bearing, as determined by a supporting power of 1.5
tons per square foot on the roadbed, is 9500 pounds in the case of 9 inches of
stone under the tie and 8500 pounds for 14 inches of gravel. Making the same
allowance for the inertia of the roadbed, as in the previous case, it is seen that a
supporting power of about 600 pounds per linear inch of rail is realized.
In class Bj track, if we take the supporting power of the roadbed as 1.2
tons per square foot, we find values from 7700 to 9000 pounds for the load that
can be applied to the tie at the r^l bearing, which agree fairly well with those
previously determined for class Bj track.
The bearing power under each rail, as determined by the permissible load
on the roadbed for class C track, has been calculated in a similar manner.
It will be noticed that in each case the upper Mmits of the bearing power of
the roadbed have been worked to in determining the values given in the table.
This is a featiue of the analysis which requires careful consideration of the kind
and volume of traffic over the track.
The inertia of the roadbed plays an important part in strengthening the
track when the maximum loads imposed upon it do not occur too frequently, as
in the case of high-speed passenger trains where the most destructive forces to be
provided for are those produced by the drivers of the locomotive. In the case
of dense freight traffic where the heavy loads imposed by the engine drivers are
followed by the passage of a long train, thus subjecting the track to a contin-
uing load lasting over a considerable interval of time, the inertia of the road-
bed is, in a great measure, overcome and a correspondingly lower value for the
allowable pressure on the roadbed must be used.
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL
319
The all steel 70-ton coal cars, which are coming into use on some of the
large coal-carrying roads in the Blast, weigh over 50,000 pounds, and have a
capacity of 140,000 pounds. This weight is carried on four axles and a tr^
composed of these cars would prove very destructive to the roadbed unless an
ample provision was made for the effect of the repeated application of the heavy
wheel loads.
Examining now the weights of rail required to distribute the wheel loads
so as not to exceed the bearing power of the track. Table LXXXIII shows the
moments of inertia of standard rails*; evidently the rails with the highest
moment of inertia will give the most favorable loading of the track structure.
Wtiflit, PoBiid* Ifomtat ot In- Saetioo Modiilua of
A.S.C.E
A.S.C.E
A.S.C.E
A.R.A. type A
A.R.A. type A
A.R.A. type B
A.R.A. type B
P.8., Pennsylvania R. R. System. .
P.S„ Pennsylvania R. R. System. .
P.R.R., Pennsylvf " ~
43.8
16.11
30.0
12.00
22,8
9.62
48 9
17.78
28-S
12 46
41,3
15.74
25-1
11.08
41.9
15.91
29.1
38.0
14 29
27.4
11.25
49.0
17.00
30.4
11.76
28,5
n 53
In Plate XXVI are given the dynamic wheel loads with different axle
spacing for rails having moments of inertia of 20, 30, 40, and 50. The curves
shown on the diagrams are calculated by the method explained in the first part
of article 23 and show the allowable dynamic axle loads, as determined by the
safe bearing power of the different classes of track given in Table LXXXII.
An examination of these diagrams shows that for each class of track the
allowable wheel load increases with the axle spacing up to a certain point when
a maximum is reached and, as the spacing of the wheels is still further increased,
the allowable wheel load decreases. The most favorable axle spacing, as might
be expected, is greater for the heavier rails than for those of lighter section.
• If the moment of inertia of the section is not known it may be calculated by one of the following
methods:
Culmann, C Centralellipse und kenieines schienenprofils, 5 p. 111., 1875. (In hia Die graphische
statik, ed. 2, p. 475.)
Morely, Arthur. Graphical detcrmi nation of momenta, centroids, and moments of inertia of
areas, S p. lU., 1908. (In his Strength of Materials, p. 117.)
Sankey, C. E. P. Note on the griiphic^ detennination of moments of inertia, 1000 w. dr.,
1810. CIn Engineer, London, v. 110, p. 57.)
,y Google
320 STEEL BAII^
Plate XXVII presents diagrams showing the maximum bending moments
in the rails under the conditions given in Plate XXVI. In the table shown on
Plate XXVII are given bending moments corresponding to an extreme fiber
stress of 20,000 pounds per square inch in the base of the rail. In using this
table it should be borne in mind that the relation between the moment of
inertia and section modulus of different sections vary. The values given in
the table represent average conditions.
A comparison of Plates XXVI and XXVII shows that the wheel load is
determined by the bearing power of the track in the case of classes B and C
track, but with class A track the working stress of the steel may be exceeded
without overloading the track. The dotted lines in the diagram for class A '
track on Plate XXVI show the correction necessary to apply to the curves of
this diagram in order to keep within the working stress of the metal of the rail.
Plate XXVI will now serve as a basis for determining the dynamic wheel
load corresponding to any section of r^I and axle spacing. For a wheel arrange-
ment consisting of a series of wheels having the same spacing and each sup-
porting approximately the same load, the values of the load may be read directly
from the diagrams. This loading satisfies the condition of the calculations
which assumes that the tangents to the elastic curve of the rail under the wheels
and midway between them are horizontal.
When the wheel spacing is not the same for adjacent wheels, the average
of the loads ^ven for each axle spacing should be taken.
In the case of the front and back drivers the conditions are more complex.
Here we may have a trailing truck and either a two-wheel or four-wheel leading
truck carrying loads much less than those on the drivers. The preparation of
charts for all of these conditions and for the case where the wheel spacing of
adjacent drivers is not uniform would appear to be a refinement which would
not be warranted by the data upon which the calculations must necessarily be
based.
It will be observed that little variation in the wheel load occurs after a
distance between adjacent wheels of 180 inches is reached, the curve becoming,
in most cases, nearly horizontal at this point. In other words the wheels are
so far apart as to have little or no effect upon each other.
The following formula is proposed to be used in determining the wheel
loads on the front and rear drivers, it is also applicable to the outside wheels of
the trucks under the cars.
W W" ~ W" L_,wz
2 ^ 2 W"^ 2,
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE RAIL 321
W = dynamic load of outside driver.
W = dynamic load corresponding to the wheel spacing between the
outside and adjacent driver.
W = dynamic load corresponding to the distance between the outside
driver and the center of truck.
W" = the value given below for different moments of inertia and classes
of track.
L = dynamic load on truck wheels (one side).
Uoinat of te-
'-c£s?sr
For Bull Drivwi.
OMofTrKk.
A.
B.
c.
A.
B.
c.
fiO
40
30
36.000
30,000
26,000
28,000
26.000
24.000
22,000
18,000
16,000
14,000
12,000
40,000
34,000
30,000
32,000
30,000
28,000
26,000
30,000
18,000
16,000
14,000
W'
rail outside of the driving-wheel base if there is no leading truck, this is made
smaller than indicated by the diagrams of Plate XXVI in the case of the leading
driver on account of the probable extra stress set up in the rail when it is first
depressed by the weight of the locomotive.
W" - W" L_
'W"
The term -
-, is introduced to provide for the extra support
afforded by the truck wheels. In the ejctreme case where W" = L, the wheels
ahead of the driver exert the pressure corresponding to their distance from the
no leading truck the term
W" - W"
} becomes equal to zero.
2 W"
The dynanuc wheel loads, having been determined, the corresponding
static loading can be readily computed by the methods given in article 10 for
steam locomotives, article 11 for electric locomotives, and article 12 for cars.
Plate XXVIII presents diagrams showing approximately the static loading
that can be placed on the r^l with different wheel arrangements. From these
diagrams can be obtained the weight of rail and design of track necessary to use
in connection with engines where the maximum axle load is fixed, or the diagrams
,y Google
322 STEEL RAII5
may be used in determining whether or not it is safe to run a certfun wdght of
equipment over an existing line.
On account of tlie variation in design of engines a separate examination
should be made in most cases, as the diagrams, of necessity, represent general
conditions which may be varied from in a considerable degree.
Fig. A, Plate XXVIII, gives the track diagrams for passenger engines of the
Atlantic and Pacific types. The main driver in the wheel arrangement of the
Pacific engine can carry more weight than when it is one of the outside wheels,
as in the case of the Atlantic engine, and for this reason the former engine is
generally the most favorable on the track.
The ten-wheel engine is used extensively for passenger and freight service
on branch lines. This engine does not have the trailing truck of the two former
tyi»es, and the rear driver has, therefore, less carrying power than in the Pacific
engine, although about the same as the Atlantic where the effect of the tr^ling
truck is offset by the fact that the rear driver is the main wheel. The diagrams
given on Fig. B, Plate XXVIII, show the axle loads of ten-wheel engines for
classes B and C track.
Fig. C shows diagrams for Mogul and Consolidation freight engines. The
wheel arrangement of these engines is quite similar to that of the ten-wheel
en^ne, and it will be found that the curves agree very closely with that of the
ten-wheel engine used in freight service.
On Figs. D and E are diagrams for cars. It should again be observed
that these smaller diameter wheels should not be loaded as heavily as the
drivers, and the diagrams for the loads on car axles are not extended beyond
axle loads of 45,000 pounds.
The diagrams of the figures on Plate XXVIII illustrate very clearly the
effect of the different wheels on the track, and emphasize the fact that the
entire wheel arrangement must be considered in determining the maximum
load on any one wheel.
The assumption made by most foreign writers on this subject, that the
strains produced by the loads are independent of the position of the wheel is
obviously incorrect, as has been shown experimentally by Dr. Dudley's strem-
matograph tests.
The diagrams of Plate XXVIII are not extended beyond 60,000 pound
axle loads for drivers or 45,000 pounds for car wheels. With carbon steel
rails the use of very heavy loads should be approached cautiously until
further evidence is obtained in regard to the effect of such wheel loads on the
intensity of the stress at the contact of the wheel and the rail. While axle
,y Google
STRENGTH OF THE BAIL 323
loads of nearly 70,000 pounds are in service on experimental locomotives, they
have not been used in sufficient numbers to demonstrate fully their effect on
the rail.
The lack of proper experimental data presents many difficulties in accu-
rately determining the functions performed by the rail. Within certain limits,
however, the duty of the rail can be calculated with a considerable degree of
accuracy and more attention should undoubtedly be given to the effect of dif-
ferent loadings on the rail in the design of the engines and cars which run
over it.
It must be constantly borne in mind in dealing with the design of the track
that in many cases the strength of the rail is not the first consideration in the
selection of the section to be used, and that the question of obtaining a rail of
the requisite stiffness is of the greatest importance. The sudden failing of
any part of the track is not to be anticipated within the limits of customary
practice, but rapid deterioration of the structure may take place which will
eventually result in failure.
Economy of train service has become so important that it is safe to say
that there will be no return to lighter loads the tendency is, and will be constantly,
in the opposite du-ection. The unportance therefore of pving to the deagn of the
track the same careful investigation as is considered essential in the design of a
bridge cannot be over-estimated. The track is, in fact, a continuous girder con-
necting termini over which pass the same loads as over the bridges.
The discussion of stresses in the ties, ballast and subgrade which has beai
made in the preceding pages while suffident to enable the allowable bearing power
of the supports of the r^l to be determined witiiin reasonable limits, is far from ex-
haustive enough in its character to serve as a ba^ for the general design of t^e
track and the proper proportioning of all the elements entering into its construc-
tion. Such an analysis would be clearly outade the limits of the present work and
while the various tables and fonnulse that have been developed appear sufficient
for the purpose intended, any general conclusions based upon their evidence alone
should be avoided.
,y Google
CHAPTER VI
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
The evidence of the Mlure of rails of heavy section rolled within the
last few years, equaling and at times exceeding that of lighter rails of earlier
manufacture exposed to similar conditions of traffic and roadbed, points un-
mistakably to defective material in some of the later rails. These rails apparently
do not f^ in the majority of cases due to too great a stress of the metal, and it is
this irregular failure of mdividual r^ls due to defects in manufacture which has
giv^ rise to such just feelings of dissatMaction and alarm.
Inferior quality of the metal in the rail may be attributed to two causes:
first, the use of imperfect methods of manufacture; second, the influence of the
form of the section upon the detail of manufacture.
First, let us examine the methods employed in the manufacture of the earlier
rails, which gave such satisfactory results, and which have been so constantly
presented to rail makers as representing that which they ou^t to do.
* The first steel rails were rolled in mills which had been designed for
iron rails. Other rolls were used and the number of passes was increased,
making the reduction very gradual. All blooms were allowed to cool before
being charged mto the reheating furnace. After the drawing of one heat and
before the charging of another, the fiUTiace was cooled down, then the heat
was brought up very gradually and plraity of time was taken to allow the steel
to " soak." In the converting house, all the possible practices of crudble steel
teeming were introduced. The ingot molds were carefully brushed out, heated
and smoked before being used. When the steel was teemed all doors and
windows of the casting house were closed and time was not spared on any of
the details. It was expected to produce but 50 per cent as much steel as iron
rml, and all employees working by the ton were paid twice as much for sted
as iron. The constant demand for cheaper prices (Fig. 220) and increased
tonnage rapidly changed these conditions.
Many of these practices, it is felt to-day, were entirely without reason, and it
is difficult to say as a general proposition that the steel produced was better than is
* See paper on Steel Rails, and Specifications for Their Manufaoture, R. W. Hunt. Trana.
American Institute irf Mining Engineera, Vol. XVII (: " " "
,y Google
xnixuenct; of detail of manufacture
325
obtainable at the present time. Mr. Buffington stated podtiveiy to &e Indiana
Kailway Commisdon, at its hearing, that the quaUty of the metal is to-day much
better than it ever was before, owing to the increased knowledge and bett^ machines
and mechanical appliances than formerly existed.
Mr. James E. Howard, in his report of the accident on the Great Northern
Eiulway, near Shanm, N. D., on Decembra- 30, 1911, states; "It is important to
consider whether an unprovement in the structural condition of rail steel is att^-
able. Such seems to be the case, dnce experimental rollings have furnished rails
*I50, , , , , , ,*I50
1860 I870 I880 I890 IQi
YEAR
FiQ. 220. — Prices of Iron Euid Bessemer Steel Rails, 1855 to 1910.
which, so far as could be ascotained, were free frcan streaks ... It is believed to
be metallurpcally feaable to produce better steel than has at times been offered
No doubt the failures which have their origin in defective metal are conader-
ably augmented by the character of the stress in the rail. On account of the con-
centration of tile load on a small area, the stress is not distributed, and consequentiy
a metal of a great degree of uniformity is required.
With the large wheel loads now in use the injurious dfect of inferior material
in the r^ is much more apparent than in other structures not subjected to such
highly localized stresses. The situation calls for a refinement of manufacture not
generally realized in practice, and is further comphcated by the dedre for high
carbon to resist the head stresses, with tiie need for physical properties in the other
parts of the rail which could best be obtained by the use of a much milder steel.
,y Google
326 ste£l rails
29. Chemical Composition
It was supposed that the chemical character of the steel in the earlier
rails accounted for their excellent wear. Among the makers of these rails.
Sir John Brown & Co., of Sheffield, England, sent to this country those which,
from their excellent service, were considered by railroad engineers as the type
of what rails should be. Accepting the chemical theory, rail makers expected
that the analyses of these celebrated rails would present steel of exceptional
uniformity and purity. The contrary was proved to be the case. Carbon
varied from .24 to .70; silicon, .032 to .306; phosphorus, .077 to .156; sulphur,
.050 to .181; manganese, .312 to 1.046. The following is the variation found in
thirteen rails made by John Brown & Co., England, all of which had given
good service;
Carbon 0.24 to 0.70
Manganese 312 to 1 .046
PhoaphoruB 077 to .166
Sulphur 050 to .155
Silicon 032 to ,308
Below is given the analysis of some of the earliest English rails, imported
between 1860 and 1870. These rails, low in carbon and all other hardening
constituents, have pven from thirty to thirty-five years' service before wearing
out, not breaking.
EUila Uwd on
Southern Railwiy.
Raila Used on P.. C. C. A St. L.
Railoiy.
PercBit.
0.158
.77
.114
.067
,490
P«CMt.
0,273
.28
.05
.04
,025
Per Dent.
0.22
.21
.05
.031
.035
Phosl^on^'
Fig. 221 shows the performance of two rails of very similar chemical com-
position, which, however, possessed quite different wearing qualities.
* In 1881, Dr. C. B. Dudley, the chemist of the Pennsylvania Raihoad,
made an investigation to determine the relative relation between the chemical
and physical characteristics of steel rails and their power to resist wear. Dr.
Dudley found for the average of 32 slow- wearing rails the following composition:
Poceat.
Carbon 0, 334
PhOBphorufl 0 077
Silicon 0,060
Manganese 0,491
• The Wearing Oaparaty of Steel Rails in Relation to Their Chemical Compoeition and Phyrical
Properties, C. B. Dudley, Trans. American InsUtute of Mining Engineera, Vol. IX (1880-81), p. 321.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 327
and proposed a formula for the correct composition of steel rails, as follows:
Carbon, between .25 and .35; aim at 0.30
Phosphorus, not above 0.10
Silicon, not above. 0.04
Manganese, between .30 and .40; aim at 0.35
Fia. 221.— Comparative Wear of Rails of Similar Chemical Composition. (Trans. A. S. C. E. II
Chemical 0.322 per cent Carbon 0.355 per cent.
Composition 0.026 per cent Silicon 0.039 per c«nt.
0.077 percent Phosphorus 0.108 per cent.
0.492 per cent Manganese 0.490 per cent.
^earRoUed 1871 1876
Time in Service August, 1871 to July, 1879 August, 1876 to July, 1879
7 years, 11 months. 2 years, 11 months.
Location On hinh side of 5° Curve On high side ot 5" Curve
Grade 39.6 ft. per mile. Grade 39.6 ft. per mile.
Tonnage over Rail 40,061,230 t<
21,504,824 t<
Table LXXXIV ^ves the result of his experiments.
Kind ol Sarvice,
""Kii:
Ton toLoMS
Level tangents
Grade tangents
Low side level curves. .
High side level curves. .
Low aide grade curves.
High side grade curves,
Tangents
Curves
Low side curves ,
High aide curves
All conditions
3 slower wearing
2 faster wearing
.0701
.0706
.1277
.0500
.0911
.0650
.1332
.0767
,0506
208.4
114.1
113 3
62.7
45.7
147.6
80.6
146,8
80,9
123.1
60.1
104,3
158,1
77,8
,y Google
328 STEEL RAII5
Wellington states that the result of this investigaMon, which showed, or
seemed to show, that very hard rails did not wear so well as softer and tougher
r^ls, was taken to indicate that softness in itself was a desirable quality in a
rail; and the painstaking character of the mvestigation and high reputation of
the road having given these conclusions wide dissemination, manufacturers for
many years took them as a guide, and produced rails that were too soft.
Table LXXXV shows the gradual increase of the hardening constituents in
the steel for rails sance Dr. Dudley's investigation.
TABLE LXXXV. — COMPARISON OF THE CHEMISTRY OP EARLY AND RECENT RAILS
DkW
Ch
rm.try.
Nmm.
CuboD.
Silio«i.
Sdphur.
Phoepb<™.
Day.
HiB. U
^
Hill.
M„.
Uin.
Uu.
uio.
M».
MLt
^
ISgl
1S»
IBM
190>
P« F
.M
.30
1
41
1
K
FW
Per
Per
Per
P«
Pw
Pw
«0- TO
TO- 80
K
":m
.20
.OS*
1
;?»
.90
BO
.SO
1 IE
l.O)
roc
l.X
1.01
.10
.0*
The CbTDicie 9Mel Compiiny
It has often been stated that the reason why the earlier rails seem to last
80 well was due to the elimination of the poorer quality of rails by the service
in the track. This statement is not the complete explanation. The older
rails were cold rolled by the light wheel loads until the surface was sufficiently
hardened to bear the recent heavier loads without much increased abraaon.
New rails of the same section and practically the same physical properties
would, when subjected to heavier wheel loads, lose more of the metal by wear,
before the surface was rolled as hard as the former sections, and their rate
would be much faster.*
The light earlier sections could carry from 60 million to 75 million tons
before they were rough and imsuitable for passenger traffic, and, when in a
location where the tonnage was only 250,000 to 500,000 tons per month,
would last in the track many years.
The six-inch 100-pound Dudley sections of 0.06 phosphorus and 0.65 car-
bon laid in 1895 on the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad, when
taken up in 1907 had carried 375 million tons with a loss of about one-eighth of
an inch in depth on the head of the rail.
' Peiper by Di. P. H. Dudley before the Railroad CommioBion of Indiana, February 20, 1912.
,y Google
INFLTJENCE OF DETAIL OF MANTJFACTDRE 329
Carbon is the most important element, except iron, in steel. The me-
chanical properties of iron-carbon alloys are closely connected with the relative
amounts of the two elements. The relation between the percentage of carbon
in an alloy and the tenacity in tons per square inch is indicated* in the following
table:
Per cent of carbon - 0.05 0.1 0.2
Tenacity.tonspersq.m. -26.00 26.0 31.0
0.4
36.0
0.6
48.0
0.8 1.0 1.8
58.0 60.0 44.0
/
A
\
i
8"
/
\\
s. .
: /
1= /
/
The results are shown graphically in Fig. 222.
^con in small proportions hardens the steel and stands intermediate
between carbon and phosphorus in this respect. It is used to prevent unsound
or honey-combed ii^ots, but when so used so
tends to render the steel imduly hard. Silicon
as high as .2 per cent, in high-carbon steel of
.5 and .6 per cent carbon, probably has no
injurious eflEect.
Ph(Mphorus hardens steel more rapidly 4o
than either carbon or mlicon. It increases
its rigidity but impairs its power to resist
impact. Small proportions render the metal
harder without materially affecting its
tenacity, but makes the metal at the same ^^,
time decidedly cold-short. An excess of phos- Fro- 222.
phorus also rend^^ t^e steel saudtive to high
heat. Mr. Robert W. Hunt, in his experim^its m trying to make high phosphorus
steel in the Clapp-Griffith convwter, found that it was necessary to be very careful
not to over-heat the steeJ.
t Owing to the exhaustion of the avmlable low-phosphorus ores, Bessemer
rail steel is now of necessity a high-phtsphorus and low-carbon alloy, the mean
carbon being about 0.50t per cent, while the impurity of phosphorus is limited
to 0.10 per cent.
Plain baac open-hearth r^l steel is usually a low-phosphorus and medium
unsaturated carbon alloy, as most of the phosphorus has been reduced by this
* H. M. Howe, EngJDeering and Mining Journal, p. 241, 1S87. See also Steel by Harbord and
Hall, LondtHi, 1911, pp. 347, 34S, and a Study of the Elastic Properties of a. Serkfl of Iron-Carbon
Alloys, Jones and Waggoner. Proceeding American Society tor Testing Materials, Vol. XI, 1911,
pp. 492-499.
t See Proceeding American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. XI, 1911, Dudley, Ductility in
KaU Steel.
t The chemical compoeitioii nitse, in tins and the following example, to 100-pound rails.
0-4 0-8 1*2%Carbon
Tenacity of Iron-Carfoon Alloys.
(H. M. Howe.)
,y Google
330 STEEL RAILS
process from its content in the ores and iron to 0.04 per cent or under. This
permits, in this class of steel rails, carbon of 0.63 to 0.75 per cent.
Sulphm* has little influence on the tensile strength or ductility. The
real effects of sulphur, however, are seen during the rolling, a very small per-
centage causing a great red-shortness. Its presence in excess of .06 or a maxi-
mum of .08 per cent tends to cause cracks to develop during the rolling, which,
while they close up and are almost imperceptible in the finished rail, neverthe-
less rem^n as flaws and may form starting points for rupture when the rail
is subjected to any sudden stress. With sulphur, it is necessary to work the metal
at a high heat to avoid its cracking during manipulation. The " red-short" term
means that as the heat approaches the red color ^e tendency to crack becomes
intenafied, while the effect of phosphorus on heated metal is to make it hot
short or short undw high heat; in other words, it will work at a low tempera-
ture, but is sendtive to a high one.
Apparently the greater part of the sulphur unites with the manganese
forming manganese sulphide, which is occluded by the metal as a foreign sub-
stance, preventing its welding and breaking up the continuity of its structure.
The impurity of sulphur was limited formerly to 0.075 or 0.08 per cent. The
manufacturers now chaise for this limitation of sulphur five cents extra per
hundred pounds, and it is, therefore, being omitted from some specifications,
although in most cases it is required that its content be reported.
Manganese has a general tendency to increase the tensile strength and
reduce the ductility; this influence varying with the amount of carbon pre-
sent in the steel and becoming more marked in the case of high-carbon than
low-carbon steels. It is possible to keep the manganese down, by the use of a low
manganese spiegle, and with low-sulphur steel its presence in excess of .8 per cent,
or its use to bring up the tensile strraigth in place of carbon, is dangerous on account
of its very distinct hardening effect when above .6 per cent. In the commercial
run of iron, where the sulphur varies, the practice is to allow the manganese to go
as high as l.i per (%nt, and some authorities do not consider it dangm)us unless
above 1.0 per cent even with low sulphur. Manganese tends to neutralize the effect
of sulphur and prevent the metal becoming red-short, and, to a limited degree, the
cold-shortness produced by phosphorus.
The above elements are those generally considered in rail steel, and speci-
fications rarely refer to the other elements which may be contained in the ore,
and which either from design or accident are present in the finished product.
The most important of these are arsenic and copper.
The effect of arsenic upon steel was quite fully investigated several years
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
331
ago by Harbord and Tucket.* The conclusions given by them may be sum-
marized as follows:
Arsenic, in percentages not exceeding .17, does not appear to affect the
bending properties at ordinary temperatures, but above this percentage cold-
shortness begins to appear and rapidly increases. In amounts not exceeding .66
per cent the tensile strength is raised very considerably. It lowers the elastic
limit and decreases the elongation and reduction of area in a marked degree.
Messrs. Ball and Wingham f have investigated the influence of copper on
the tensile strength of iron and steel. An alloy containing:
Copper 7.550
Carbon 2.720
Manganese 0,290
Phoaphorus 0 . 130
Sulphur 0.190
was bright, white in color, crystalline, and very hard, but did not offer any
great resistance to impact. Varying quantities of the alloy were melted down
with Bessemer steel, and teat pieces 1 inch by J inch by fg inch were annealed
before being tested. The following table shows the results:
Number.
Copp«.
CurboB.
.KS.
Pwoenc.
Percent.
Tom per «i. in.
1
0.847
0.102
18.3
2
2.124
0,217
36.6
3
3.630
0.380
47.6
4
7.171
0,712
56.0
From these experiments it is clear that copper increases the tensile strength
of iron. J The simultaneous presence of carbon tends to prevent the more
intimate association of copper with iron. In test piece No. 1, the fractured
surface was somewhat fibrous, while No. 2 and the others were highly crystallme.
Even in the absence of carbon, copi>er makes iron extremely hard. Mr. F.
Stubbs states that the presence of | per cent of copper in steel gives to it the
property of preventing the oxidation of the steel on being subjected to a burning
heat.
Copper in steel rails in small quantity does not materially affect the me-
chanical properties, but in steels, in which high ductility is required, especially
in those with high carbon, copper is objectionable. Steel with copper, say up
to I per cent, appears to resist corrosion better than the same steel without
* On the Effect of Arsenic on Mild Steel, Journal Iron and Steel Inat., Vol. 1, 1888, p. 183.
t Iron and Steel Inst., No. 1, 1889.
t Steel and Iron for Advanced Students, Hioma, London, 1903, p. 322.
>, Google
332 ST£EL RAII^
copper. * Campbell states that 1 per cent may be present without injuring
the steel, provided there be but little sulphur; but that if the sulphur be up to
.08 or .10, the metal will be red-short, and that copper also reduces the welding
power of the metal, especially if sulphur be present; but he adds: " In all cases
the cold properties seem to be entirely unaffected." f Richards states that
"copper causes red-shortness, but much less than sulphur. Five-tenths per
cent may be allowed in rails and its effect is overcome by manganese."
t The influence of copper on steel was formerly greatly exaggerated.
Whereas it was considered to be very harmful, it is now known, when present
in small quantities, to have no serious influence on the physical properties of steel.
Mr. H. J. Force reports a case of an 80-pound rail made by the Lackawanna
Steel Company in 1895, which had given very good service. An analysis showed
about .40 per cent carbon and about .60 per cent copper.§
According to a statement in Professor Howe's " Metallurgy of Steel " || an
American firm of steel-rail makers habitually made Bessemer tee rails with .51
to .66 per cent copper and they were so slightly red-short that in spite of the
thin flanges and low finishing temperature only from 1.25 to 2.5 per cent of
tbem were so defective as to be classed as second quality.
Mr. R. W. Hunt states that in the early days of the steel industry excellent
rails were produced from Cornwall irons. A large number of these r^ls con-
tained .5 per cent of copper. The Pennsylvania Steel Company, as well as
the Bethlehem and the Troy Works, used Cornwall iron containing low phos-
phorus and high copper as their basis for a long time.
Clamer H has found that the addition of copper and nickel in combination
seems to have the same effect upon the steel as if they were individually added,
the copper in its effect really being about the same as so much added nickel.
It is possible, therefore, to replace part of the nickel in nickel steel by copper,
without materially altering its physical properties. Recently Messrs. Burgess
and Aston, working quite independently of Clamer, have confirmed these results.
The attention of railroad engineers is being directed toward the develop-
ment of alloy steel, or steel containing a percentage of various materials intro-
duced to give it special mechanical qualities. In general, however, on account
of the higher cost of production, these steels are confined to use in special locali-
* Metallui^ of Iron and Steel, A. Humboldt Sexton, Manchester, 1902. p. 247.
t Notes on Iron, Robert H. Richards, 1895.
t Metallurgy of Steel. Harbord, London, 1911. p. 375.
5 Proceedings American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. X, 1910, p. 279.
II Metallurgy of Steel, New York, 1891. p. 83.
^ Proceedinga American Sodety for Testing MateriaJa, Vol. X, 1910, Clamer on Cupro-
nickel Steel.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 333
ties where the conditions are especially severe, as on sharp curves under heavy
traffic or in tunnels where it is a troublesome matter to inspect or renew the
rails.
The requirements of steel alloy may be summarized as follows:
(1) High resistance to shock;
(2) High elastic limit;
(3) Resistance to abrasion.
Some of the alloys best known are manganese, nickel, chromium, and titanium.
* The record of the chrome nickel on the Central Railroad of New Jersey,
and of the plain nickel on the. Pennsylvania Lines, Northwest System, is not
very good. In a period of six months there were 112 failures per 10,000 tons
laid of 85-pound A. S. C. E. section of nickel steel from the Carnegie Steel Com-
pany on Pennsylvania Lines, Northwest System, the chemical composition
being:
Pnont
Carbon 44
Phosphorus 09
MaDganeee 80
Silicon 10
Sulphur 03
Nickel 3.42
The 90-pound A. S. C. E. section chrome nickel steel from the Bethlehem
Steel Company on the Central Railroad of New Jersey for the same period
showed failures of 41 per 10,000 tons laid, nearly all of which were broken rails.
The same committee reported for the year, ending October 31, 1910, that
the record for 90-pound A. S. C. E. open-hearth rail with chromium and nickel
on the CentrjJ Railroad of New Jersey has been very bad so far as f^lures are
concerned, there having been 1,129 per 10,000 tons of rail Idd, mostly break-
ages. This rail is 1909 manufacture. Small lots have also been tested on the
Baltimore and Ohio and the Erie with a large number of failures. The amount
of nickel is 2 per cent to 2^ per cent, and the chromium 0.5 per cent to 0.9 per
cent. In most cases these rails showed a very marked resistance to flange
wear as compared with ordinary carbon steel rails.
It has been found dedrable to lower the carbon when the other hardening
elements are added. A rail with carbon 0.40, chrome 0.50, and nickel 1.25 is about
equal to a 0.60 carbon ordinary rail.
Manganese steel with C 0.77, P 0.06, Mn 9.93, Si 0.25, and S 0.038 showed
about one-third as much abrasion of the head as ordinary Carnegie Bessemer in
a test, on the Norfolk and Western, lasting nineteen months.
* Proceeding Am. Ry. Eng. & M. of W. Aasn., Vol. 11, Part 1, 1910, p. 316.
,y Google
334 STEEL RAILS
Chrome ^teel, which usually contains about 2 per cent of chromium and
.80 to 2 per cent of carbon, owes its value to combining, when in the " hardened"
or suddenly cooled state, intense hardness with a high elastic limit, so that it
is neither deformed permanently nor cracked by extremely violent shocks.
* The tensile strength rises with increase in the percentage of chromium
till with about 5 per cent it is about 74 tons unannealed, or 55 tons annealed,
the elongation being 13 per cent in the latter and 8 per cent in the former case.
The limit of elasticity was 40 tons in the first and 20 tons in the second case.
As the quantity of chromiiun is increased the metal becomes harder, and with
about 9 per cent can hardly be touched with the file. In the absence of carbon
its hardening influence is not so marked. Forging makes the metal hard and
brittle, but the latter property is removed by annealing, and it is rendered
excessively hard by quenching. It has a high resistance to shock, and is there-
fore suitable for the manufacture of rails.
t On low-carbon steels not annealed, the addition of each 1 per cent of
nickel up to 5 per cent causes, approximately, an increase of 5000 pounds per
square inch in the elastic limit and 4000 pounds in the ultimate tensile strength.
The influence of nickel on the elastic Umit and ultimate strength increases with
the percentage of carbon present, high-carbon nickel steels showing a greater
gain than low-carbon nickel steels-t
The addition of nickel to steel raises the proportion of elastic limit to ulti-
mate strength and adds to the ductility of the steel. This effect of nickel in
increasing the ratio of the elastic limit to tensile strength, without sacrifice to
ductility, accounts for the increase in the working efficiency of nickel steel over
carbon steel; in other words, its increased resistance to molecular fatigue.
The exhaustive series of experiments made by Wedding and Rudeloff
show that the resistance to compression of nickel-iron alloys increases steadily
with the per cent of nickel present, until 16 per cent of nickel is reached. Had-
field has also made a very complete series of experiments on the resistance of
nickel steel to compression. He has found that a steel containing .27 per
cent nickel shortened, under a compression of 100 tons (224,000 pounds) per
• Metdlurgy of Iron and Steel, A. H. S«tton, Manchester, 1902, p. 617.
t Nickel Steel: Its Properties and Applications. Colby. Proceedings American Society for
Testing Materials, Vol. Ill, 1903.
t The subject of nickel steel has received considerable attention, notably by D. H. Browne,
Trans. American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. 29, 1899, p. 569, and A. L. Colby, "A Comparison
of Certain Physical Properties of Nickel and Carbon St^el," Bethlehem Steel Company, 1903. See also
Guillet, Journal, Iron and Steel Institute, Vol. 2, 1908, p. 177; Wal«rhouse, Proceeding Am. Soc.
for Testing Materials, Vol. VI, 1906, pp. 249-258; Campbell and Alien, ibid, Vol. XI, 1911, pp. 428-
438.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 335
square inch, 49.90 per cent in a length of 1 inch ; a steel with 3.82 per cent nickel
shortened 41.38 per cent; with 5.81 per cent nickel, 37.76 per cent; and with
11.30 per cent nickel, only 1.05 per cent. He states that an ordinary mild carbon
steel without nickel, under similar conditions, would be shortened 60 per cent
to 65 per cent. He argues that the toughening action of nickel when added to
steel is caused in a very intimate combination of the molecular structure, and
that this advantage is further enehanced by the fact that the nickel does not
show a disposition to segregate in steel like other elements; in other words, it
appears to be more intimately combined.
Mr. Campbell, of the Pennsylvania Steel Company, made a series of tests
to prove what he states to be the current impression among manufacturers
of nickel steel, — that the presence of this element prevents segregation. His
conclusion is, that there seems to be good ground for the assumption that nickel
prevents tiie separation of the metalloids, but that it does not prevent it alto-
gether, and he states that it is not probable that any other agent will ever be
found competent for this task.
* Howe states that nickel steel, which usually contains from 3 to 3.50
per cent of nickel and about .26 per cent of carbon, combines very great
tensile strength and hardness, and a very high limit of elasticity, with great
ductility.
The combination of ductility, which lessens the tendency to break when
overstrained or distorted, with a very high limit of elasticity, gives it great value
for shafting, the merit of which is measured by its endurance of the repeated
stresses to which its rotation exposes it whenever its alignment is not mathe-
matically straight. The alignment of marine shafting, changing with every
I>assing wave, is an extreme example. In a direct comparative test the pres-
ence of 3.25 per cent of nickel increased nearly sixfold the number of rotations
which a steel shaft would endure before breaking.
As has been seen, nickel steel has been used tentatively for railroad rails;
but while it has the stiffness and resistance to wear which they require, too many
rails have broken in use. We may hope that this treacheroxisness will be pre-
vented. It is quite posdble that a change in the percent^e of nickel may give an
entirely different record. The Mayan ore used by the Maryland Steel Company
contains a natural percentile of chromium and nickel, and the results with rail
made from this ore seem, so far, to be pretty good.
Figs. 223 and 224 j^ve the tensile strength and the ductility of many speci-
mens of nickel steel from various sources, chiefly, however, from M. Dumas'
* Iron, Steel, and Other AHoye, Howe, 1903, pp. 316-824. Contains report of M. Dumas' work.
,y Google
336 STEEL RAILS
important monograph.* The curves here given are taken from his work (pages
18 and 19). A rough resemblance to the manganese steel curves (Figs. 225 and
226) may be noticed. The great increase of ductility in case of manganese sted
in the 13 per csat manganese region is reflected in case of nickel steel by a like
and very abrupt rise at about 25 per cent of nickel.
fim
'
,
'
.
"
M '
\
*
,
|200
f
S"°'°°°
a
,
J
~;
—
%
[fe
«
i
"
,
r
jlWOOO
1
«•>
/
.
.
\
J
'
i'
i
J
>
J
111
Ai
1 ""
W
il
-<
i
liV
, \
-^
—
""
,
>t
1
"
r
i "°°
^
*
Z 4 6 8 10 t2 14
• ' Tht SiHl ha net ncilwl \
ii_ifid*>IkI It h1(hl>i
20 2Z 24 26 2B 30 32 34 3S
PERCEKTMEOFWCKa
H _ Tht StHi h
" - codIkI IwHtnoitf In
Fia. 223. — Influence of the Proportion of Nickel and Varying Heat-Treatment upon the Tennle Strength
of Nickel Steel. (Dumas.)
As actually made, manganese steel contdns about 12 per cent of manganese
and 1.50 per cent of carbon. Although the presence of 1.50 per cent of manga-
nese makes steel brittle, and although a further addition at first increases this
brittleness, so that steel containing between 4 and 5.5 per cent can be pulverized
under the hammer, yet a still further increase gives very great ductility, accom-
panied by great hardness, — a combination of properties which, so far as known,
was not possessed by any other known substance when this remarkable alloy,
known as Hadfield's manganese steel, was discovered.
Its ductility, to which it owes much of its value, is profoundly affected by
the rate of cooling. Sudden cooHng m^es the metal extremely ductile, and
slow cooling makes it brittle; its behavior in this respect is thus the opposite oi
* " B«cherche9 but lea Aciers au Niekel h. Hautea Teneura," M. L. Dumas, Paris, 1902.
>, Google
INFLUEKCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
"
j'
"
1
"
!t
•
" ID
;
1
\
i
I
1
§■"
\*
1
t
^•!
|2.
i
V^
«
j
•
»-
_,
J**
3
X
■
1 1
■"
-^
i''
f
?f
V
I
' 1
1
1
!l
1
■'
\'
'
'
^
'U
*
V
.
'-
.'
''
'J
*
h
K
i
•1
4
/
t
I
I
<i
^
J
\
>
f
•
'
i
t
■
1
2 1
4
B :
0 2
2 2
i 2
6 28 30 32 M ae 3S M 42 44
PEaCEHTAGE OF NICKEL
2-* Elotnillon In 1 Inchn. 8 -* Elaniatkin in 9 or t» taeh«u
1 >4 II '1 V bflvp tuhjictM to antrtmalv ^^ tampsnturft.
Av fiMt'tnatm«nt. H inv, not gWmn.
fi- TKo SIhI hu no< nniivtd frtit-liiHtmant.
-InBuence of the Proportion of Nickel and Varying Heat-Treatment upon the Ductility of
Nickel Steel. (Dumas.)
Fio. 225. — Influence of the Proportion of Manganese on the Tenaile Strength of Manganese Steel.
• -■ Slowly Cooled Manganese Steel.
+ ■• Water-tougbened or Suddenly Coaled Manganese Steel.
>, Google
338 STEEL RAI13
that of carbon steel. Its great hardness, however, is not matmally affected
by the rate of cooling.
The fact that when cold it is unalterably hard has, howevo", limited its use,
because of the great difficulty of cutting it to shape, which has in general to
be done with emery wheels instead of the usual iron-cutting tools. Another
defect is its relatively low elastic limit.
Fig. 225 shows the remarkable increase of tensile strength which occurs
when the manganese rises from 7 to 13 per cent, and the decline of ten^le strength
as the manganese increases still
further. By the contrast be-
tween the position of the crosses
and the black dots it shows also
the remarkable effect of sudden
cooling.
Fig. 226 shows the corre-
sponding changes in ductility.
To show that the maxima for
tenale strength and ductility
coincide, the tensile-strength
curve sketched by eye in Fig.
225 is reproduced in Fig. 226.
In Fig. 227 is shown the
degree to which manganese steel
combines tensile strength with
ductility, and in Fig. 228 the
degree to which it combines
ductility with elasticity. These
combinations are often taken
as a rough measure of the
general degree of excellence of
a metal for en^nemng pur-
poses. For comparison the
t
5
M
^
1
.
+
■
?]
^.
J
c^'
■
.
A
/.
\
/;-
"
0l234367S9t0tt t2l3Uiaie 17 I8192DZI 22
PERCENTAGE OF NANQAHESE
Fia. 226, — Influence of the Proportion of Manganese on
the Ductility of Manganeee Steel. (Howe.)
Legend:
• — Slowly Cooled Manganeae Steel.
+ = Water-toughened or Suddenly Cooled Manganese Steel.
corresponding properties of carbon steel are shown by small black dots, which
fall in a pretty well-defined band, much below the manganese-steel crosses.
These comparisons may, however, give a false idea of the ductility of man-
ganese steel. If two metals elongate in a like manner, the extent of their elon-
gation may be a fair comparative measure of their ductility; not necessarily so,
however, when their mode of elongating is unlike in kind. A bar of carbon sted
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
339
habitually yields by " necking " when pulled in two, contracting greatly just
about the place where rupture occurs, while a bar of manganese steel or of brass
eloi^ates far more uniformly over its whole length.
The use of manganese frogs in severe service on steam roads and for rails
on curves of 75 feet radius or less for permanent street railway work has
been found preferable to ordinary carbon open-hearth or Bessemer material.
Iltanium steel, while not strictly an alloy steel, may be conveniently treated
under this head. This
metal, like vanadium, alu-
minum or ffllicon, produces
a soimder ingot, and under
the usual practice the
titanium goes into the slag
and ordinarily there^ is no
intuition of producing ti-
tanium alloy steel.
A progress report of
the Baltimore and Ohio
shows that the titanium
r^I with .70 carbon on
Kessler's curve is only
wearing one-third as fast
as the Bessemer steel
with .50 carbon, with
which it is compared.
The results of dx months'
service on a New York
Central crossover carry-
ing a heavy tonnage show
that the flange wear of
titaniimi rails was very
much reduced as a)m-
pared with that of ordmary Bessemer rals.*
t The effect of titanium on steel as understood to-day is to give the
metal greater dendty and strength. Recent tests on titanium rail steel made by
* Iron Age, March 25, April 29, and August 5, 1909.
t The Use of Titaoium Rail on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad. A. W. Hiompson. Proceedings
Am. Ry. Eng. & M. of W. Assn., Vol. 11, Part 1, 1910, and Railroad Age Gazette, November 12, 1909.
^S^ -~^
v t'
7+7 ♦ - . ,
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
00,000
70,000
80,000
90,000
00,000
110,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
SOflOO
160,000
70,000
180,000
90,000
200,000
210,000
220,000
230,000
240,000
250,000
TEHSfLE STRENGTH- POUNDS PER SQUARE INCH
Fio. 227. — Tensile Strength and DuctiLty of Carbon Steel and of
Manganeee Steel. (Howe.)
Legend;
• = Carbon Steel.
+ =■ Water-toughened or Suddenly Cooled Mangaocae Steel.
>, Google
340
STEEL RAII£
Dr. Waterhouse show the elastic limit to be raised about 6000 pounds above the same
steel to which the titaiuum alloy had not been added. In the 150 rails examined
the titanium steel from different parts of the ingot showed a remarkable degree of
uniformity.*
The first experiments with titanium alloy in r^ manufacture were made
by the Maryland Steel Company
in November, 1907, and this was
followed in 1908 by the Duquesne
Works of the Carnegie Steel Com-
pany, the Cambria Steel Com-
pany, and the Lackawanna Steel
Company. During the year 1909
the process passed the experi-
mental stage and has since been
used in a large numbo- of rsdls and
may be regarded as firmly fixed on
a commercial basis.
During the month of June,
1908, 19 rails were rolled by the
Maryland Steel Company, of the
usual composition, to which was
added 1.5 per cent titanium alloy.
This alloy was claimed to increase
the elastic limit, ultimate stroigth,
and remove a large percentage of
ELASTIC uHiT-pouHDs PER SQUARE INCH the slag; also to make ^e rail less
Fio. 228. — EUflticity aad Ductility of Carbon Steel brittle and aVOid extreme SegfCga-
and o[ Manganese Steel. (Howe.) , ■ ■ • i i i ■ ..i
j^ ^j. tion and blowholes, teavmg the
• = Carbon Steel. metal homogeneous, tough, and
+ = W«ughened or Suddenly Cooled Mangane« fiji^g,^ed. The USe of the alloy
resulted in a rail with a composi-
tion high in carbon and phosphorus, which even then successfully passed the
physical test
The analysis made by the Maryland Steel Company of this rail shows
the following:
C. Mn. P. . S. Si. N. 0.
0.701 0.92 0.086 0.048 0.079 0.004 Nil
• See also C. V. Slocum, Mechanical Engineer, Vol. XXUl, 1909, pp. 336-337.
1
1
A
•
■f
H
;:
^*l
:
1
■;
1
H
;;
1
II
1
J
11
>, Google
INTTUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 341
The addition of ferrotitanium to the ladle has an important influence on tho
mechanical structure of the steel by acting as a flux or scavenger, and the cleansing
effect results in increased solidity and purity of the metal
Fenotitanium contains 10 to 15 per cent of titanium, 5 to 10 p«- cent of car-
Ixm, and of other impurities less than 5 per cent; the balance is pure iron which
has berai electricaUy refined. In Bessemer steel rail manufacture it is the practice
to add from ^ to 1 per cent crushed ferrotitanium in the ladle as the steel is poured
from the converter, and then hold the heat in the ladle about three minutes before
pouring the ingot. Sulphur and phosphorus do not appe^ to be reduced; but in
combining with oxygen and nitrogen, forming oxides and nitrides, titanium has an
impcHtant action in ronovii^ these impurities, forming a stable combmation of
them, which passes into the slag.
The New York Central lines, prior to 1911, obtaned rmls from the Lacka-
wanna Sted Company with -^ of 1.0 p^ cent of ferrotitanium alloy added to the
ladle. The addition to the cost for phin Bessemer was 25 cents per ton for hold-
ing the metal in the ladle three minutes after the ferrotitanium was added and
$1.05 per ton for the alloy, or a total of $1.30 per ton. In 1911 ^ of 1.0 per cent
of metaUic titanium was added to the metal and the price subsequently reduced,
owing to a reduction in the cost of ferrotitanium. It is claimed that this small
proportion of ferrotitanium is sufficient to remove the bulk of blowholes and segrega-
tion usually found in Bessemer ingots and produce a clean, solid, good-wearing itul.
The following table * gives the production of alloy rails in the years 1909
and 1910. It appears that greater effort has been made to improve the Besse-
mer rail by the use of alloys than the open-hearth riul.
.909
1«0
36.945
1,028
12,287
1,245
195,940
390
4*2i6
81
Total
50,505
37,809
12,696
200,621
174,822
25,799
Table LXXXVI gives the specification of chemical composition adopted
as recommended practice by the American Railway Enpneering Association
March, 1912, for carbon steel r^ls. Table LXXXVII presents the chemical
specification adopted January 1, 1909, by the Association of American Steel
* Railway Age Gaiett«, March 16, 1910 (daily edition), and the Iroa Age, February 23, 1911,
p. 461.
,y Google
342 STEEL RAILS
Manufacturere for standard Bessemer and open-hearth steel rails for A. S. C. E.
sections.
TABLE LXXXVI
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAILS — AmMicaa Railway Eii8iiie«rii«A»«oiji»tioii
The chemical compodtion of the st«el shall be within the following limits:
( PROCESS
but under Si lbs!
0.40tro.50
0,80 to 1.10
0,20
0.10
0.45 too. 55
0.80 to 1.10
0,20
0.10
Phosphorus, not to exceed
(Wb«o lower phoipborui ca
larbon should be in
OPEN-HEARTH
bS.'SSii^i''ibV;
S5-KI0 Iba. iDcCuiive
Carbon
Pet cant
0,53 to CMS
0.60 to 0-90
0.20
0.04
PSTMlt
0.63 to 0.76
0-60 to 0,90
0.20
0.04
Manganese.
Silicon, not t
Phosphorus,
0 exceed
not to exceed
(When btgher phoqihoriiB a lued, a proper proportionate reductioa
TABLE LXXXVII.
CHEMTCAL COMPOSITION OF RAILS. — AMociatboo ot Ai
BESSEMER STEEL HAILS
si Manuliwtiirers.
SI U 90 Pound..
.KoiOOP^nda.
Carbon
Percent,
0.43 toO.53
0 10
0-45 to 0-55
0.10
0,20
0,84 to 1.14
Man^t.P.P
0.80 to 1.10
OPEN-HEARTH STEEL RAILS
«,«■« Pound,.
BIto too Founds.
Crbon
0-59 to 0.72
0-04
B.20
Per cent.
0.62 to 0-75
0.04
0.20
0.fl0to0,90
Silicon, not over....
Table LXXXVIII ^ves the Pennsylvania specifications revised January
10, 1912, for 85-pound and 100-pound carbon steel r^ls.
TABLE LXXXVIII
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF RAILS,— P«inayl»»ni« Railroad Syatem.
BESSEMER STEEL RAILS
Lower Umlt-
DseiredCom-
poaition.
Upper Limit.
Carbon
Manganese
0.45
O.RO
0,05
0.50
1.00
0,12
0.55
1.20
0.20
0,10
>, Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
OPEN-HEAHTH STEEL RAILS
C^fi^tiooB.
Lower Limit.
Deaiivd Com-
pMiUOIl.
IIPFH Limit.
lAwer Limit.
pomli™.
Upper Limit.
Cubon
0.70
0.75
0.83
0.80
0.20
0,03
0,62
0.70 '
SilicoD
0.05
0.12
0.05
0.12
BIBLIOGRAPHY
General
LiTTT, B. E. V. — Mathematical relations between increases in coet and increases in durability
in Bteel nub. 1500 w. 1911. (In RaUway Age Gazette, Vol. 51, p. 1223.)
DcoLBT, P. H. — Ductility in rail steel. 1800 w. 1911. (In Railway Age Gaiette, Vol, 51,
p. 289.) Paper before the American Society (or Tenting Materials.
Considers varying composition of rail steel and its influence on the wear,
Sandberq, Chmsteb P. — Chemical composition of steel rails and latest developments.
4000 w. 1908. (In Bulletin of the International Railway Congress, Vol. 22, Part 1, p. 13.)
The same. (In Engineering, Vol. 83, p. 827.)
Discusses effect al different elements on quality and wear of metal.
Manganese Steel
Rolled manganese steel rail. 1200 w. 111. 190S. (In Railroad Age GaEette, Vol. 45, p. 1536.)
Gives results of tests and showf comparative life of rails.
Rolled manganese steel rails. 1600 w. 111. 1909. (Id Iron Age, Vol. 83, Part 2, p. 1261.)
Discusses wear of Manard rail of the Pennsylvania Steel Company.
Steward, H. M. — Life of manganese steel rail on curves from service tests made on the
elevated division of the Boston Elevated Railway Company. 1500 w. 1908. (In Proceedings of
the American Street and Interurban Railway Engineering Association, Vol. 6, p. 333.)
The Mme. (In Electric Railway Journal, Vol. 32, p. 1196.)
Titanium Steel
DuDLET, p. H. — Use of ferro-titanium in Bessemer rails. 300(
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, Vol. 2, p. 299.)
Gives ductility teats of ferro-titanium rails showing them to average several per cent higher
than ordinary Bessemer rails in ductility. Believes that range of ductility can be prescribed by
proper study of chemical composition.
Maltttz, Ed. von. — Dcr einfluss des titans auf stahl, besonders auf schienenstahl. 6000 w.
lU. 1909. (In Stahl und Eiscn, Vol. 29, Part 2, p. 1593.)
The same, condensed. 1200 w. (In Iron Age, Vol. 84, Part 2, p. 1790.)
Gives results of experiments on effect of additions of titanium lo Bessemer rail steel.
Slocttm, Charles V. — Titanium alloy in rails and car wheels. 9000 w. LI. 1909. (In
Proceedinga of the Railway Club ot Pittsburg, Vol. 8, p. 176.)
Emphasizes the increased wear and soundness of titanium rails.
Slocum, Charles V. — Use of titanium in steel for rails, car wheels, etc. 2000 w. Dl.
1909. (In Electrochemical and Metallurgical Industry, Vol. 7, p. 128.)
Slows the increased durability and strength of titanium stee! and its product*.
Sprinoer, J. F. — Titanium steel. 2000 w. 111. 1911. (In Cassier's magazine, Vol. 40, p. 483).
Considers especially its properties and importance as rail steel.
Thompson, A. W. — Use of titanium rail on the Baltimore and Ohio Raikoad. 2500 w.
1900. (In Canadian Engineer, Vol. 17, p. 238.)
1910. (In Journal of
,y Google
344 STEEL RAIIS
Gives properties and testa.
WAT£RHOtiaE, G, B. — Influence of titanium on segregation in Beesemer rail steel. 3000 v.
111. 1910, (In Proceedings of the American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. X, p. 201.)
Results indicate that presence of titanium in rail steel lessens segregation and promotes
unifonnity.
30. Extraction op the Iron from Its Ore
Before the process of reduction or " smelting " is attempted at the blast
furnace the ore is usually subjected to some preliminary treatment.*
The preparatory processes are:
(a) " Grading " the ore;
(b) Calcination or roasting;
(c) Mixing to make up the desired proportions of ore chai^.
The grading of the ore is not necessary at the furnace when it has already
been properly done at the mine. When the sorting at the mines has not been
carefully done, or when a greater number of grades than usual are required,
sorting is also practiced at the furnace, and the ore is then distributed to the
several bins of the stock house, which building is erected as near the furnace
stack as possible.
t The purpose of roasting is to remove sulphur, carbonic add, and water
and to increase the porosity of the ore. It is accomplished in two ways, —
by roasting the ore in a heap, or in a kiln using wood, coal, or gas for fuel.
Fig. 229 shows the ore roasters used at the Norway furnace, Bechtelsville, Pa.,
inl883.t
Lake Superior ores require no roasting, and for this reason very little roasting
of the ore is necessary at the present time. The iron ores in the vicinity of
Johnstown, which were formerly used by the Cambria Steel Works, cont^
high sulphur and phosphorus content. The iron content in the ore was but
30 per cent, necessitating roasting before charging into the furnace. These
works now use Lake Superior ores having an iron content of from 50 to 65 per
cent, and the process of roasting is not necessary.
Making up the furnace charge is an operation which demands both a knowl-
edge of the chemistry of the blast furnace and of ores. The proportions of
the charge are determined by the character of the ore, the fuel, and the flux, by
the size and method of working the furnace, and by the character of product
required.
• Iron and Steel, Materials of Engineering, Thuraton, Part 2, 1909, p. 91.
t Not«e on Iron, Rjcharda.
t Roasting Iron-Ores, by John Birkjnbine. Trans. American Institute of Mining Engineers,
Vol. Xil (1883-4), pp. 361-379.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 345
The location of the plant is usually chosen according to the cost of assembling
these matetials and getting the product to the market. Other things being
equal, that furnace will be most economically located which is placed near the
mines. Where the ores and fuel are widely separated, location is often deter-
mined by the facilities for marketing the iron, and the furnace is so placed that
the total of all the costs of transportation and of working shall be a minimum.
VERTICAL SECTION
FiG. 229. — Ore Roasters, Norway Furnace, 1883. {Am. Inst, of Mining Engineers.)
If the quantities transported are 0', 0", 0'" respectively, and the cost
of carriage is e dollars per ton, the distance for each being S', S", S'", the total
cost (Thurston),
K = cO'S' + cO"S" + cO"'S"',
should, other things being equal, be made a minimum.
The notable present tendency in the iron industry is the lower average iron
content in the ores used. * This tendency will undoubtedly continue in the
future as the more easily accessible portions of the richer deposits are worked out.
As a corollary to this is the observed tendency toward a decentralization of the
* Iron Ores of the United States. Report of the National Conservation Conuniaaion, Vol. Ill,
p. 483, February, 1909. Government Printing Office, Waehinglon.
,y Google
i
s
s
"■S
3 1
>, Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
If
I
>, Google
STEEL RAII5
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 349
iron industry, and with a decrease in the hon content of the ore used, involving
a corresponding increase in cost of transportation per unit of iron, there will he
an increase in the proportion of fuel which goes to the region producing the ore.
Sir I. Lowthian Bell in 1884 stated * that while "Wages (in America) are
high ... the geographical position of the ore and coal and of the markets
themselves constitute obstacles of a far more insurmountable description. The
distances over which ore is conveyed are sometimes very great; as an example,
Fio. 233, — Steamer " Augustus B. Wolvin," 560 ft. in length, capacity about 12,000 tons.
the produce of the Lake Superior mines is carried to Pittsburg, involving car-
riage of 790 miles. The cost of transport on the minerals consumed for
each ton of pig iron I have calculated t to average 10s., 9d., at the eight chief
seats of the iron trade in Great Britain; whereas, in the United States the mean
charge at fourteen of the large caiters is 25 s., 8 d." The introduction of improved
methods for handling the ore in transport and the deepening of the waterways of
the Great I^es X has in a measure overcome the adverse conditions mentioned
above.
* Manufacture of Iron and Steel, Bell, London, 18S4, p. 473.
t Report to Her Majesty's Government on Iron Manufacture of the United States compared
with that of Great Britain.
t William Chandler, History of St. Mary's Falls Ship Canal, 1877. The Great Lakes and Our
Commercial Supremacy, John Foord, North Am. Review, Vol. 167, p. 155. Saint Mary's Falls Canal
Semicentennial, History of the Canal, John H. GoR, 1907.
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
General View of the Dock.
Side View of the Dock with Ore Care oa the Structure.
— Great Northern Railway Ore Dock at AUouei Bay, Superior, Wis.
(From ScientM Conapectua.)
>, Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 351
Figs. 230 to 234 illustrate some of the features of the Lake Superior ore
industry. Figs. 230 and 231 show the
method of mining the ore by steam
shovels employed in northern Minne-
sota. The shovels are large, with
about 5-ton dippers. The amount of
stripping required at these mines is
often heavy, amounting in some cases
to as much as 100 feet and costing
from $0.25 to $0.40 per cubic yard of
material removed from on top of the
bed of ore. It is generally considered
profitable to strip up to a maximum
depth which does not exceed the thick-
ness of the layer of ore uncovered.
Figs. 232, 233, and 234 show the
ore docks and the type of vessels used
in transporting the ore. * Down to
late in the fifties the ore product of
Lake Superior was handled over a
mule-tram road to Marquette, and as
late as 1870 a 700-ton ship was an
enormous craft, the loading of which re-
quired two days and the unloading be-
ing sddom accomplished in that time.
In 1871 the largest ore barge
carried 1050 tons, now the cargoes
reach 14,000 tons. 165,000 tons of
ore has been loaded into sixteen steam-
ships in one day at the docks of the
Duluth, Missabe and Northern Rail-
way. The loading of the steamer " H.
E. Corey " of 10,000 tons capacity at
the Duluth and Iron Range Steel
Ore Dock, at Two Harbors, Minn., _
was accomplished in 39 minutes.t
• The Development of Lake Superior Iron Ores. Bacon. Trans. American Inatitute of Mining
Engioeera, Vol. XXVII (1897), p. 341. f Scienti6c American, December II, 1909.
,y Google
352 STEEL RAILS
The construction of a special type of ship of large tonnage for ore trade,
coupled with the invention of unloading machinery of great capacity at the
terminal ports, has brought the
cost of transportation down to
a very low figure. Thus, a ton
cd ore is now hauled one hun-
dred miles by rail from the
most distant mines in the Lake
Superior range to a Lake Su-
perior port, is loaded into cars
or into the stock pile at a Lake
Erie port at a cost of less than
$1.80 per ton.
Fig. 235 presents an in-
board profile and cross section
of the " Wolvin," a representa-
tive of the type of present ore
steamers. This vessel is 560
feet in length, 56 feet beam and 32 feet deep. The largest single cargo of ore
carried by the " Wolvin " was 11,536 tons, a feat which she performed in 1904.
Fig. 236. — Ten-ton Bucket of Uuloader in Hold of the " Wol-
vin." {Scientific American.)
Fio. 237. — General View of Ore Unloader with Steamer at the Dock. (Railroad Age Gazette.)
The " E. H. Gary " in 1905 carried a single cargo of 12,368 tons. In 1906 the
"J. P. Morgan" carried a single cargo of 13,272 tons of ore and in 1907 she
carried 13,800 tons.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
il
'I
Mi
1
I
>, Google
354 STEEL RAILS
Fig. 236 shows the bucket of the Hulett ore unloader. Four of these
machines located at the docks at Conneaut, Ohio, are credited with having
taken out of the "Wolvin" 7257 grass tons of ore in four hours and six minutes.*
The Hulett unloaders at Gary are showing an average rate of 300 tons per hour
Fio. 239. — Blast Furnace with Stovea and Buildings. (Thurston.)
for each machine. On July 10, 1912, the "Morgan" discharged 10,091 tons of ore
in three hours and ten minutes at Conneaut. This was apparently the fastest time
ever made in unloading, but on July 24, 1912, it was surpassed when the "Wm.
P. Palmer" was relieved of 11,044 tons in three hours and seventeen minutes, or at
the rate of 56 tons per minute.
* Saint Mary's Falls Canal Semicentennial, Commerce of the Great Lakes, Ralph D. Williams,
1907, p. 201.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 865
1
I
i
I,
1^
>, Google
STEEL RA.11^
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 357
• The coal and ore docks of the Baltimore and Ohio Raih-oad at liOrain,
Ohio, are among the largest on the Great Lakes. The machinery for unload-
ing the steamers is the latest design of Brown hoist unloader, driven by elec-
tricity and equipped with three grab buckets having a total capacity of 1000
tons of ore an hour. Figs. 237 and 238 illustrate a steamer being unloaded at
the dock.
The large grab buckets employed scoop up from seven to ten tons of ore
each time they are lowered into the hold of the vessel, after which they are
hoisted and carried in over the dock on a movable girder, or ram, carried in a
heavily braced portal frame, which is itself movable lengthwise of the dock.
The buckets may either be dumped into a 75-ton weighing hopper, from
which the ore is discharged directly into cars on any one of the four tracks
spanned by the unloader, or dropped
into the trough space, which has a
capacity of 100,000 tons, and is sepa-
rated by a concrete wall from the
tracks. Once deposited in the trough,
the ore may either remain in tempo-
rary storage, or be conveyed to the
larger storage space covered by the
ore bridge.
The combination of fast unload-
ing plants on the dock front with
buckets moving at high speed over a
short travel, with a storage bridge of
long span, carrying a larger bucket
over the storage space, is found on
all modem lake docks.
The blast fimiace is shown by
Figs. 239, 240, and 241. It is a brick ^ „,„ -,,„.. ,„, ^
* Fia. 242. — Top R\ggins of Blast Furnace.
structure, usually cu-cular in section
and built in two parts; the upper part resting on columns, while the lower
portion rests directly on the foundation. The upper portion is sheathed with
boiler plates. Fig. 242 shows the top rigging of a modem blast furnace. The
charge is automatically elevated and dumped into the hopper.
In the United States furnaces are worked up to 100 feet high. The best
modem practice is, however, about 90 feet high, with a product of 400 to 500
* Riulway Age Gazette, July 28, 1911, p. 178.
,y Google
3
a.
|1"
>,Goog[e
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 359
tons per day. The following dimensions of the Gary furnaces are typical erf
the best practice. The blast furnaces (Fig. 243} are 88 feet in height from the
tap hole to the top of the furnace lining, and the capacity of each is 450 tons- per
day. Each furnace has four blast stoves. The interior diameter of the blast
furnace is 15 feet at the hearth, 21| feet at a height 13 to 21 feet above the hearth,
and 16 feet at the top.
Fig. 244. — The Whitwell Hot-blast Stove. (Thuraton.)
The earlier blast furnaces were blown with cold air, but later a hot blast
was used with an aim to saving fuel, and the air from the blowing engines
passed through stoves which were heated by the waste gases from the furnace.
Fig. 244 shows the Whitwell stove and Fig. 245 a more modern stove.
The fh^ stoves in use were of cast-iron. The gases were burned around
and circulated among U-shaped cast-iron pipes enclosed In a fire-brick struc-
ture. This process was continuous — a recuperative process. However, it was
,y Google
aw STEEL RAII5
subject to a number of defects, among which was the bxuning out of tiie tubes,
making it impossible to obtain more than 900° F. in the blast. This type of
stove was followed by the fire-brick stove operated on the regenerative princi-
ple, and by its use a hot-blast tem-
perature of approximately 1500°F. can
be obt^ed.
The atmosphere is the most vari-
able element involved in the blast-
furnace process, which consumes air
in large quantities. In furnaces
using ore from the Lake Superior
district the raw material, amounting
to about 7200 pounds per ton of iron,
varies in composition within 10 per
cent, but the atmosphere, of which
11,700 pounds are consumed per ton
of iron, varies in its content of
moisture from 20 to 100 per cent
from day to day and often in the
same day.
Many experiments have been
made to determine the most feasible
method for extracting the moisture
from the air. Various schemes for
its direct absorption were worked out
and in turn abandoned, and finally
Mr. Gayley* designed and put in
successful operation the dry-blast
Fia.245.-JuUan Kennedy Stove. proccss wWch bears his name. This
(Harbison- Walker Refractories Co.) • . ■ r ■ ,i
consists m freezmg the moisture out
of the air. The Gayley process not only reduces the cost of producing the
pig ircm, but, which is very much more important, gives a more effective
control of the operation and product of the furnace.
The product was first put in operation on the Isabella furnaces of the
* The Application of Dry-tur Blast to the Manufacture of Iron. James Gayley. Trans. American
Institute of Mining Engineere, Vol. XXXV (1905), p. 748.
The Application of I>ry-air Blast to the Msnufacture of Iron — Supplementary Data. Jamee
Oayley. Ibid, Vol. XXXVI (1906), p. 315.
Oayley'fl Invention of the Dry Blast. R. W. Raymond. Ibid, Vol. XXXIX (1908), p. 695.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
361
Carnegie Steel Company, situated at Etna, Pa., a suburb of Pittsburg, on August
11, 1904. The lines and dimensions of this furnace, shown in Fig. 246, repre-
sent tiie usual construction of furnaces in the Pittsburg
district.
Fig. 247 shows graphically the opwation of each
day, averaged with all the preceding days from August 1
to S^tember 9, 1904, nclusive; the increase in output
and reduction in coke consumption corresponding to the
increase in burden; the varying conditions of humidity
from day to day, which represent the average humidity
for each twelve-hour period; and the change in humidity
after treatment in the dry-blast apparatus.
The materials for smelting are iron ores, limestone
(flux), and fuel. Charcoal was first used and the iron
from this fuel was of excellent quality on account of the
low ash and sulphur of the charcoal and its great
porosity. It has so little strength, however, that its use
in the modem high furnaces is prohibited.
Coke is now generally used. Anthracite as a blast-
furnace fuel is inclined to decrepitate and give trouble
from its fineness. Bituminous coal is not used, as it
cakefi and absorbs heat for distillation of volatile consti-
tuents.
* At Gary, Plate XXIX, between the stock pile and
the furnace is a hne of elevated storage bins arranged in
two parallel row^. One row is tor coke and the other *^"^" ^^^
for ore and limestone. Above the bins are four tracks
on which travel two 60-ton electric transfer cars. The
ore is loaded into the transfer cars by the buckets of the overhead ore bridges.
The coke and limestone are brought up ova* the bins by rail and deliver thrar
load directiy by gravity.
At the bottom of the bms are spouts controlled by electrically operated
gates, and below these are tracks which run the full length of the bins. Traveling
on these tracks are electrically operated lorries into which the ore, coke, and
limestone are delivered fro-n the bin spouts. The lorries carry the materials
to what are known as the " furnace skips," of which there is a p^ to each
furnace. The skips run upon an inclined rsulway which runs db-ect from a pit
* Scientific Americ&n, December 11, 1909.
— Isabella Fiuv
Carnegie Steel
Company. (Am. Inat.
of Mining Engra.)
>, Google
STEEL RAIIS
4--
4 t 4
t
t
A-
- t -
■_
■ t
t
a
*
i- 4
\ ^ ■ ^i
-' 4
8
: 1- : '- s
a
^ s
s
T J s
s
- n - ~
s
- ^^' '
s
J 8
" " T
X V '
' t-
- ^^ - A '
s
i' i 5
5
" 5 \- " ~ =
8 .. ^ .
- t I - s
= -■ J -
- 1 A =
5
^ n ^ •-
:: . i*Y>oii»^<i
3 J V =
5
-41 Z :
1 I =
=- J -
-it A^ -
' 7
- i U V '
= C"=t^;^
" ti "^ J
' 3 4
" ^" 5 =
° ^ 1
4^ -
-l\
i i] :
I r
! »
* — r " -4
" Jl 2 '
'14 -1"
' J li
J I'
■ i »J
« t.
■■ 4 it
Ac 1-
i' :j1 r.
' M
s i ni 1
1 -8° 1 II
5 8 S , •
>, Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 363
below the transfer cars to the charging platform at the top of the blast
furnaces.
The operation is entirely automatic. Each trip of the skip is made in about
axty seconds, and its average load consists of about 7000 pounds of ore, or
6000 pounds of limestone, or 3600 pounds of coke.
At Cambria* from the port of entry the ore is hauled to the works and there
unloaded by a car-dumping machine, and again handled and stacked by a travel-
ing gantry. From the stock pile it is brought back to special bin cars that are
run into the charging house, where they take the place of the usual bins and
discharge into hoppers that empty into the loading skips, which are hoisted to
the charging door at the top of the furnace.
Slag is run off either continuously or at short intervals. The iron is tapped
regularly into a runner, through which it flows either into the molds of the pig-
bed or else into the direct metal ladles.
To control the kinds of pig iron produced by a furnace, we can vary the
compOMtion of the slag, and change the burden. The burden is made heavy by
increasing the amount of ore and flux to a charge.
Mr. Wickhorstt gives the following as the day's burden of "A" blast fur-
nace at the Maryland Steel Company:
Tons.
El Cuero ore 346-299
Nicolaieff ore 60.676
Sierra Morena ore 17.759
Coke 346.875
Limestone 82.366
Dolomite 82.266
The records of the ore analyses were as follows:
nCatro.
Ni«,b««.
Iron, natural
Iron, dried at 212"' F
PBtHOt.
58.31
69.62
2.03
9.52
-32
.017
Per ™i.
65.75
66.86
1.66
2.16
.13
.017
trace
Manganese
Phosphorus
Sulphur
No nickel, cobalt, copper or chromium in either one.
The metal from the blast furnace waa poured into an 85-ton receiver, from
which it was weighed and poured into an 18-ton converter.
The same authori^ gives the following for the blast-furnace practices at
' Rwlway Age Gazette, August 19, 1910.
t Report to Rail Committee, Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. A M. of W. Assn., Vol- 12, Part 2, 1911.
,y Google
364 STEEL RAILS
the Gary works. Lake Superior ore was used, reduced in blast furnaces using
ordinary air and having the following average charge:
Pouids,
Coke 12,000
Stone 5,100
Ore 26,500
.C
PLAN. SECTION
Fio. 248. —300-ton Mixer. E, FiUer; H. Pouring Spout. (Haibord and Hall.)
A mixture of ores was used, but consisted largely of Chapin ore, showing
analysis as follows:
Iron - 54.63
Aluminum (about) 2.00
Manganese 21
Phosphorus 059
Sulphur trace
Silicft(SiO,) fi.51
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
The limestone used analyzed about
as follows: p^^i.
54 87
Magnesium oxide..
Itoa and alui '
.53
The iron from the blast furnaces
was poured into a mixer, from which
it was weighed.
The direct process is one by which
the steel is made from the ore in one
operation. In ordinary coke blast-
furnace practice successive casts vary
too much in Si and S to allow of taking
the metal as it flows from the furnace
into ladles and from them to the con-
verter or open-hearth furnace. It is,
therefore, poured first into large reser-
voirs or mixers, the casts from diffa-ent
furnaces being mixed together.
Capt. Wm. R. Jones was the first
to use the mixer in anything like the
form which has now become universal
practice. He bmlt and successfully
operated his mixer at the Edgar Thom-
son Works, and although it may have
previously been used in some modified
form the introduction and practical use
of the mixer in connection with the Bes-
semer process is apparentiy due to his
^orts.
The larger the mixer the better
are the results obtiuned, both with re-
spect to the purification and also in
retaining the available heat of the
metal. Mixers capable of holding
600 tons of metal are now in use.
fig. 248 shows the general arrange-
ment of a 300-ton metal mixo- in use
at the Cambria Iron Company's Works.
-Ten-foot Iron Cupola, MoiylaiKl
Steel Company.
Joogle
366 STEEL RAILS
The molten metal for supplying the converter when not taken direct from
the blast furnace or the mixer is melted in cupolas. The modem cupola is
really a small blast furnace, as shown in Fig. 249.
31. Conversion of the Steel
The principal points in connection with the conversion are given below:
1. The temperature of the conversion must be controlled;
2. The recarbonizer must be thoroughly mixed;
3. Time and opportunity must be allowed for the escape of gases im-
prisoned in the molten steel.
There are three methods of converting the metal from the blast furnace
into steel: the Bessemer converter, the Open-hearth furnace and the Electric
furnace. The first or Bessemer process has had an important influence upon
railroad history. The out-growth of an attempt to make wrought iron cheaply,
it came in just at the time when the wrought-iron rml was be^nning to demon-
strate its unfitness to stand the increased wheel loads then coming into use. It
perhaps is not too much to say that the Bessemer steel rail has made the modem
railroad possible, and that without it, or its equivalent, the world's development
would be half a century behind its present advanced position.
The pneumatic method of steel making, generally known as the Bessemer
process, was until the last few years the most extensively practiced and the most
productive, by far, of all known methods of making ingot metal.
* It has been known since the time of Cort that the aptation of molten
cast iron in presence of oxygen will produce combustion and removal of carbon,
and the reduction of the cast iron to the state of malleable iron or of steel.
The pijeumatic process secures such an agitation and a very thorough inter-
mixture of the fluid iron with the oxidizing atmosphere, by causing the latter to
stream up through the molten mass in innumerable minute bubbles; the rapid
combustion thus secured is sufficient to supply all heat needed, not only to retain
the metal in a fused condition, but, also, so rapidly and so greatly to devate its
temperature during the operation that the product, even when entirely deprived
of carbon, remains a perfectly fluid wrought iron in the converting vessel.
Fig. 250 shows earlier experiments of blowing air through the bath.f
The process was invented independently by Henry Bessemer, in Great
Britain, and by William Kelly, in the United States.
• Iron and Sted, Materials of Engineering, Thuraton, New York, Part 2, 1909, p. 241.
t Sketch of the Oripn of the Bessemer Process, by Sir Henry Bessemer. Trans. American
Society o[ Mechanical Engineers, Vol. XVIII, 1897, p. 455.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE. 367
* It is even clamed for America that it was the birthplace of the pneu-
matic process of steel making, Kelly having begun a series of experiments based
upon this theory as early as 1851. As Kelly, soon after Beessmer's patent
was taken out, succeeded in showing that he had previously had similar views,
Bessemer's patent rights in the United States became limited to certain me-
chanical arrangements, and a lawsuit arose between the company which bought
Fia. 250. — Early Experimento of Blowing Air through Bath. (Am. Soc. M. E.)
Bessemer's patent rights for that country and that which took over both Kelly's
right and Munshet's patent for taking away the red-shortness of the final
product by the addition of spiegeleisen. This lawsuit, together with the Civil
War, prevented the development of the Bessemer process in the United States
up to the year 1866, when an agreement was at last entered into between the
two companies. Both these companies had, indeed, before this time con-
structed their experimental works; but it was only after the compromise was
concluded between the two companies that there could be any steps taken for
erecting Bessemer works on a larger scale.
• Stoel; Ita History, Muiuf&cture, Properties, and Uses, J. S, Jceidb, London, 1880, p. 144.
>, Google
STEEL RAIl^
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
Fia. 252. — Plan.
American 5-toii Bessemer Ftaot.
Pio. 253. — Sectitm on Line HR.
(Thurston.)
The plant shown by Fig. 251 may be taken as illustrative of an efficient
arrangement. The general arrangement of the Bessemer plant is shown in the
accompanying drawings. Fig. 252 represents the ground plan as designed by
Fio. 254. — Arrangement of Converters at Maryland Steel Company. (Am. Soc. of Mech. Ei^rs.)
>, Google
370 STEEL RAII5
Holly, and Fig. 253 is a section laterally on the center line of the pit surround-
ing the converter.
The pig iron is melted in cupolas, A, A, A, A, Fig. 252 in plan, and seen
in elevation in the section resting upon the second floor of the converting house,
at the right of the converters, C, C. Materials are hoisted from the lower levels
by hydraulic elevators placed at each end of the charging floor, the one for fuel,
the other for metal.
Fig. 255. — IS-ton Converter, Maryland Stee! Company. (Am. Soc. of Mech. Engra.)
Rgs. 254 and 255 show 18-ton converters at the Maryland Steel Works,
at Sparrows Point, Md., in 1897. Fig. 256 illustrates a typical English Bessemer
converter, while Figs. 257 and 258 show converters in operation.
The blow generally requires about ten minutes. The molten iron is
poured into the converter when it is lying on its side, as shown by Fig. 257, the
converter is then placed in a vertical position and the air, compressed to about
20 pounds per square inch, is turned on, the pressure of the blast being suf-
fident to prevent the molten metal entering the tuyeres in the bottom of the
converter.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
,2 -^
■III
lil
S'iS
111
1 a 8
llj
i i 5 i - 5
S = s S 8. 1
>, Google
>, Google
INifXUENCE OF DETAIL OP MANDTACTORE
Fia. 258. — Bestwmer Converter in FuU Blast. (Am. Tech. Soc.)
>, Google
374 STEEL RAII5
The molten pig iron contains a large proportion of carbon which is almost
burned out during the blow. The combustion of this carbon increases the heat
of the metal and the flame, shown in Fig. 258, is at first red, but rapidly be-
comes brighter until it can hardly be looked upon by the naked eye. The sudden
dropping of the flame after nine or ten minutes gives evidence that the carbon
is almost burned out, and the operator turns the converter down and shuts
off the blast. Spiegeleisen or ferromanganese is then added to recarbonize the
metal.
Mr. "Wickhorst* gives the following description of the process of making
Bessemer steel at the Maryland Steel Company: The metal from the blast
furnace was poured into an 85-ton receiver, from which it was weighed and
poured into an 18-ton converter. In addition to the hot metal from the blast
furnace, cupola metal was used, which ordinarily is the same metal that has
been run into pigs and then remelted in a cupola, this being necessary when
the Bessemer plant cannot take care of all the metal from the blast furnaces.
In the case of this heat, two-thirds of the cupola metal was Lebanon iron. The
converter charge was as follows:
Pounda.
Metal from No. 2 receiver 22,500
Cupola metal 18,000
Scr^ steel 1,000
After blowing, 4300 pounds of spiegel was added to the converter and 260 pounds
ferromanganese and 30 pounds ferrosilicon added to the ladle during the pour-
ing. The analyses of the metal in the converter before starting to blow, and
before the addition of scrap and of spiegel, were as follows, special samples
bdng taken for these analyses:
CoDTtrMc
UmsL
S|ri<«el
HntAulyns.
Carbon
3.68
.040
.060
,24
1.33
.35
3.92
.064
trace
3.»6
.65
.51
.046
.060
.89
.101
The bade open-hearth is r^idly supplanting the Bessemer process. This is
probably due to the supply of low phoeqijhorus ores being exhausted and the re-
duced price of scr^, as on account of the great capacity o( the Bessemer prorass
the open-hearth would oth«-wise have httle chance.
' Report to Rail Coram
i, Proceedinge Am. Ry. Eog. i
[. of W. Assn., Vol. 12, Part 2, 1911.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 375
The first experiments which eventually led to the development and per-
fection of the open-heart;h process were carried on by Josiah Heath about 1845.
Siemens began his experiments about 1861, while at the same time Martin was
independently working on the same problem in France. The first open-hearth
furnace introduced into the United States for the production of steel was built
by Frederick J. Siade for Cooper, Hewitt and Company, then proprietors of the
New Jersey Steel and Iron Company, at Trenton, N. J.
This method is sometimes regarded as one of decarburization of cast iron
by the addition of uncarborized metal; it must not be forgotten, however, that the
carbon and alicon of the molten pig metal are not entirely taken out or neutralized
by the addition of the uncarborized metal, but that the oxidizing flame from the
gas which is burned in the furnace plays an important part. One of the principal
objects in adding a large amount of scrap is to save time and cost of fuel in the de-
carborizing and dealiconizmg process as well as to also save Uie lining of the furnace.
* The furnace (B^g. 259) consists of a rectMigular bath, hearth, or basin,
open at each end for the admission of gas and air at the ports. This hearth is
arched by a roof from 9 inches to 12 inches in thickness. At each end of the
furnace are two checker chambers, one for the preheating or regeneration of
the Mr, the other of the gas. Before starting the furnace a wood fire is built
in one set of chambers (or in the furnace) and after these have attained a dull-
red heat the gas and air are passed through them, entering at one end of the
furnace, are deflected downward by the direction of the ports, unite in com-
bustion over the hearth, and the gases, the products of combustion, leave the
furnace through the ports at the opposite end, pas^ng downward through the
checkers or regenerative chambers, there giving up their heat to the checkers,
thence through the flues to the stacks.
At frequent intervals, say from 15 to 20 minutes, dependent on the quality
and amount of fuel, charge, working of furnace, etc., the currents of gas and
air are reversed, now entering the furnace at the opposite ends and having
passed through the checker chambers, heated up during the previous period,
take this stored-up heat to create a more intense flame over the bath. These
waste gases in turn pass out through the chambers, ^ving up their heat. This
reversal is maintained with regularity until the charge is ready to tap.
Fig. 260 illustrates the general arrangement of an open hearth plant.
The Talbot continuous open-hearth process employs a tilting furnace
which may be operated at a capacity of from 20 tons upward; 100 to 150 or
evai 200 tons are entirely practicable. The charge is run in from the cupola,
• A Study ot the Open Hearth, HarbisoD-Walker Refractories Companj, Rttaburg, 1909.
>, Google
STEEL RAI15
blast furnace, or mixer, desiliconized wholly and decarbonized lately by a
blanket of slag rich in oxides, and reduced ultimately in the usual way. The
[SECTIONAL PLAN OF BEQENEEtATIVE CHAMBERS
TBANSVEHSE SECTION OF LONQITUDINAL SEOTIOM AT TRANSVERSE SECTION AT
REGENERATIVE CHAMBERS CENTER LINE OF FURNACE CENTER UNE OF FURNACE
Fia. 259. — Modem OpeD-heartb Furnace. (HatbiBon-Walker Refractories Co.)
charge is run off and its place supplied by a new charge, the bottom bdng at
no time allowed to become exposed.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 377
Figs. 261 and 262 show tilting open-hearth furnaces. Fig. 261 shows a
Wellman tilting open-hearth furnace and Fig. 262 was taken at the Jones and
laughlin Steel Company's plant, where the Talbot open-hearth process is
employed. More Talbot tilting open-hearth furnaces have been installed, both
in this country and in England, than the Wellman furnace.
,y Google
378 STEEL RAILS
The tilting furnaces do away with a great portion of the tap-hole troubles,
the taphole being above the metal and slag lines with the furnace in the normal
position, and it is consequently only necessary to fill the tap hole with a very
light tamping. They also enable the melter to thoroughly drain the furnace
bottom of any slag or metal, it being in the stationary furnace often a difficult
matter to rabble or splash out all depressions, and any portion of the heat left
Fia. 261, — Wellman Tilting Open-hearth Furnace. (Am. Tech. Soc.)
in such a hole very soon tends to permeate and disintegrate the surrounding
bottom
The process of open-hearth steel production* at the Gary works is illus-
trated by the following description of an open-hearth heat. This consisted of
charging limestone and ore into a basic open-hearth furnace heated with pro-
ducer gas and piling on scrap. The charging was started at 7.29 A.M. After
2J hours liquid mixer metal was added, and the whole was melted down until
• Report of Teats of Open-hearth Rails — ^Gary Works. Wickhorat. Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng-
& M. of. W. Assn., Vol. 12, Part 2, 1911.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 379
the tapping test showed carbon .26 per cent by fracture. During the melting
small quantities of fluor spar were added at intervals to make the slag more
fluid and assist in the melting. The additions of fluor spar started at 2.50 P.M.
and amounted to about 1300 pounds total. At 3.00 P.M. a fimiace sample was
FiQ. 262. — Pouring Steel into Ladle of Open-hearth Furnace, {Copyright, Keystone View Co.)
taken and the phosphorus found to be .012 per cent. At 4.25 p.m. 150 pounds
of ore was added. Mixer metal to recarbonize was added to the furnace at
5.02 P.M. The furnace was tapped at 5.12 p.m. and ferromanganese (80 per
cent) and ferro-silicon {50 per cent) were added to the ladle, shortly after
tapping.
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
The amounts of the various materials used were as follows:
Limestone 25,000
Ore (Chapin) 15,000
Scrap steel 60,400
Mixer metal, first charge 110,900
Mixer metal to recarbonize 24,000
Ferromangsnese 1,000
Ferrosilicon 500
A sample of the mixer metal used to charge the furnace gave the followiztg
Carbon 3.85
Silicon 1.73
Manganese 1.50
Phospborus 215
Sulphur 030
(The silicon in the mixer metal ordinarily averaged about 1.25 per cent
instead of 1.73, as shown above.)
The ferromanganese and ferrosilicon had compositions about as follows:
Par cml ~
80.0
1.0
6.5
.3
.04
Pcrrceilicon.
.3
54.0
.3
.02
-02
* The hot metal is tapped from the blast furnaces into 40-ton ladles, in
which it is hauled to two 300-ton mixers. The metal is poured from the
mixers into 60-ton charging ladles, in which it is conveyed to the open-hearth
furnaces on electric transfer cars. From these cars the ladles are picked up
by a 75-ton traveling crane and the metal is poured into the opai-heartJi fur-
naces through a runner (Fig. 263).
The fact that the Bessemer process has ah-eady passed the zenith of its
growth is one which has now become well recognized by metallurgists generally.
Mr. Talbot has given a very clear presentation of this subject and the
author is indebted to him for the abstract of his paper which follows.!
The three mam causes bringing about the supersession of the Bessemer
process are: 1. The ever-growing scarcity of iron ores suitable either for the
acid or baac Bessemer process; 2. The superiority of the product obtmned
* SdentiGc American, December 11, 1009.
t Benjamin Talbot, in the London Times Engineeiiog Supplement, Febmaiy 13, 1907.
>, Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 381
by the open-hearth processes of manufacture; 3. The cheapening of the pro-
duction of the steel ingot by modaii open-hearth methods of manufacture.*
The increasing scarcity of iron ores suitable for use in the acid Bessemer
process is, perhaps, the most cogent of the three causes named. In the United
Fig. 263. — Cborging FUtfonn of the Open-hearth Furnaces at Gary. (Scientific American.)
States, apart from the Southern States and the northern portion of New York
State, there are practically no ores at present available tor the manufacture of
pig iron suitable for the basic Bessemer process. The rivahy is, therefore,
between the acid Bessemer and the basic open-hearth. The former had. a
long lead, but the growth of the open-hearth r^I manufacture has been rapid
and in the immediate future the development of the open hearth will be out of
all proportion to the further development of the acid Bessemer process.
t The total annual capacity for the production of open-hearth rails in the
• The cheapening of the cost of scrap, while not mentioned by Mr. Talbot, haa been an impor-
tant factor. It should also be observed that open-hearth raila are subject to the same mechanical de-
fects as Bessemer rails, and it has not yet been proved that their superiority over Bessemer rails is very
marked; in fact, some extremely poor open-hearth rails have been made.
t Railway Age Qaxette, March IS, 1910, daUy edition.
,y Google
382 STE^L RAILS
United States is now about 1,500,000 tons, the principal nsill being that at
Gary, which is turning out 500,000 tons; then Ensley, with 400,000 tons; Bethle-
hem, 200,000 tons; Colorado, 200,000 tons; Lackawanna and others of smallo-
capacity, 200,000 tons. The total capacity of all mills making open-hearth r^ls
up to 1907 was less than 200,000 tons, and in that year production reached
253,629 tons. In 1908 it reached 571,841 tons, and in 1909, 1,256,674 tons.
The production * of open-hearth steel rails in 1910 was 1,715,899 tons,
against 1,256,674 tons in 1909. The increase in 1910 over 1909 was 459,225
tons or more than 36.5 per cent, while the increase in 1909 over 1908 was
684,833 tons or over 119 per cent.
The production of Bessemer steel rails in 1910 amounted to 1,917,900 tons,
agEdnst 1,767,171 tons in 1909, an increase of 150,729 tons or over 8.5 per cent.
Included in the total for 1910 is 68,497 tons of re-rolled rails. In 1911 the produc-
tion of open-hearth steel rails was less than in the previous year, but on account
of the smaller tonnage of Bessemer steel rails rolled than in 1910 more r^ls were
made from open-hearth steel than Bessonenf
Table LXXXIX gives the production from 1907 to 1911.
TABLE LXXXIX. -
1M7,
im
igoe.
i.io.
laii.
Ton,
3,380,025
253,629
3,633,654
1,349,153
671,811
1,920,994
Tons.
1,767.171
1,256,674
3.023,845
T«B.
1,917,900
1,715,899
3,633,799
Open-hearth rails
1,676,923
2,815,556
X In any consideration as to the future of the acid Bessemer process in
the United States a thorough understanding of the ore situation is essential.
As is well known, the Lake Superior, particularly the Mesaba, ores are the
mainstay of pig-iron production in the north. Each year this ore becomes
leaner, and there is a difficulty in keeping the phosphorus content of the pig
iron manufactured from it below the .1 per cent of phosphorus which is the
standard for Bessemer steel in the United States. Sted made from such pig
is dangerously near the limit of safety for some purposes, when it is manu-
factured by the acid Bessemer process, but when treated in any form of the
basic open-hearth process such pig produces a metal of most excellent quahty,
with phosphorus, when desired, down to .02 per cent, or even less. The carbon
content of the steel can also, in the lattw class of process, be varied within v&y
* The Iron Age, Febni&ry 23, 1911, p. 461.
t Railway Age Gazette, July 19, 1912, p. 125.
t Benjamin Talbot, London Times Engjueeriog Supplement, Februaiy 13, 1907, cUuIy edition.
>, Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 383
wide limits, while it is not so easy to produce .6 to .7 per cent carbon steel
in the acid Bessemer process, and even if made, steel with such high carbon
and with .1 per cent pho^honis, or thereabouts, is certmly not a material
that should be looked upon with favor for rail purposes.
All the facta point in one direction. The Bessema- process, while the
actual cost of conver^on, apart from the question of waste, is perhaps the
cheapest, is yet one which requires, ather for acid or basic working, a spedal
quality of pig iron, — a quality which is ever tending to become dearer. The
waste of metal in the Bessemer must of neces^ty be higher than in any form
of the open-hearth process, and this fact accentuates the importance of the ques-
tion of the cost of the pig iron; the higher the price, the greater the cost due
to waste. Roughly sp^ildng the loss in a Bessemer is from 8 to 10 per cent and
in the open-hearth from 3 to 6 per cent
The margin for economies in the Bessemer process is less than any which
can be made in the bade open-hearth process. Unless a radical change is
effected in the operation of the Bessemer furnace, only small further savings
appear possible. It is true that in some Bessemer the blowing power is still
raised by steam obtsdned from coal burnt imder boil«^, but even in cases in
which the blowing power is obtained from sxuplus blast-fumace gas, products
are absorbed which could otherwise be economically and usefully employed in
creating power for other purposes, if the open-hearth process were employed.
* The electric furnace is rapidly coming into use as an important factor
in steel manufacture, and where water power is abundant and fuel is scarce
it is extending the boundaries which have for a long time confined the iron
and steel districts. Experience with the electric furnace in foreign countries
has shown that it will purify the metal to a larger ejrtent than the gas furnace
or the Bessemer converter, and it is proposed to use it as an adjunct to the
ordinary processes of steel manufacture for the purpose of reducing the amount
of phosphorus and sulphur and to deoxidize the bath.
After a careful investigation by its metallurgists, the United States Steel
Corporation has decided to use a 15-ton Hdroult electric furnace at the South
Chicago works. Three-phase alternating current will be used, and it is pro-
posed to refine the blown metal from the Bessemer converter in the H^oult
furnace, reducing the percentage of phosphorus and sulphur, and to use the
product for high-grade steel rails. The capacity of one furnace is sufficient for
the production of 500 tons of steel in 24 hours.
* Railroad Age GaKtte, March 12, 1909, end Compoeition and Heat Treatment of Steel, E. F.
Lake, 1910, pp. 42-63.
,y Google
381 STEEL RAIIS
The Hfiroult steel-refining furnace is of the crucible type with a tilting rack.
The heating is initially effected by means of the electric arc which forms between
the surface of the slagging materials which float on the metal bath and the two
k
I
i
i
3 ^
1 I
massive carbon electrodes which are suspended above it. The impurities of
the steel are removed by renewing the slag. The refining operation thus be-
comes a " washing out " one.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 385
The lining is the same as the basic open-hearth and the phosphorus is first
reduced and then the sulphur. Recarbonizing is done in the bath by addii^
crushed electrodes which are 98 per cent pure
carbon.
Fig. 264 shows a transverse section
through the pouring spout of the Heroult
furnace at La Praz, and also longitudinal sec-
ti(»is of the furnace through the roof. The
eJectrodes, of which there are two passing
through the roof, are shown at E on the figure.
An. alternating current at 110 volts is used.
In the Stassano arc fiunace the neces-
sary heat is obt^ned by direct radiation
from the arc. It is shown in Fig. 265.
Vaiious experiments have been made in this
furnace to produce steel direct from the ore,
but, owing to the difficulty of controlling the
composition of the slags with average ores,
the production of steel of any required grade
is far from easy.*
t More than 5000 tons of rails have been
made from steel from the electric furnace
at the Roechling Iron and Steel Company,
Voelklingen, Germany. The furnace is of a
spedal combination electrode and induction
type, known as the Roechling Rodenhauser,
and takes three-phase current at 25 periods.
The pig iron is blown in a basdc lined Bes-
semer converter, then transferred to the
electric furnace for refining at an expenditure ^"'- 2«6.-sta««n^^ Electric Fumaoe.
of power of 125 kilowatt hours per ton. Re- The fumace is inclined to the veridical and
cently some tests have been published, made ""'"^ ^^ '^^ '"^''^"i^ «»«>"" '>^'°"
November 27, 1908. The analysis of the three pieces then tested was as follows :
„ , PbT (Ml.
Carbon . , , , 0 75
Silicon 0. 10
Manoaneae 0 57
Sulphur 0.044
Phosphorus 0.023
The rails were of flange section, 82.65 pounds to the yard.
■ Steel, Harbord and Hall, London, 1911, pp. 261-283. t Railroad Age Gazette, July 2, 1909.
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
Physical tests were made on these rails; the pieces have a length between
punch marks of 7.94 inches and a diameter of almost 1.0 inch, being .975,
.966, .984 respectively. These results are given below;
.Vumbsr.
UlUnute
Elontatun.
Per'wnt.
12.25
12.25
13.80
ReductioBof
21.00
12.60
20.40
1
2
123,341
126,172
122,765
They show excellent ductility, in conjunction with tenacity.
Fia. 260. — Hoechling-Rodenhauser Furnace. (Lake.)
The latest development * in connection with the furnace is its operation
by a three-phase current, with a frequency of 50 periods for a 15-ton furnace.
Fig. 266 shows this furnace in sectional elevation and plan. It is claimed that
a special feature of the furnace is the rotation of the charge due to the presence
of a rotatory field, as in an induction motor, which insures an automatic circu-
lation in the bath. The furnace is essentially a transformer with a primary
winding A round both iron cores H of the transformer. The secondaries are
two in number; one is the molten bath in the form of an 8, the channel D
• Steel by Harbord and Hall, London, 1911, pp 261-283, and The Report of the Canadian Com-
mission Hppoinleil to investigate the Different Eleclro-Thermic ProceBses for the Smelling of Iron
Ores and the Manufacture of Steel in Operation in Europe.
>, Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
387
between the two cores being very broad. The other secondary is the copper
winding B, which is connected with the metal plate E.
The dectric furnaces, just described, show the three distinct types which
are daiming the serious attention of metallurgists. In the present state of
Fia. 266. — Roeehliog-Rodenhauser Furnace. (Lake). (Continued).
development of the electric furnace it cannot compete as regards cost of pro-
duction with a modem large open-hearth furnace for the manufacture of rails,
and it is only when a superior quality is reqmred that it can be employed.
The steel from different parts of the ingot shows a very regular compo-
sition and is remarkably free from segregation of impurities. The mechanical
properties are extremely good.
,y Google
388 STEEL RAII5
Some recent experiments in the United States show that steel made in the
electric furnace has a greater density, and within the range of .08 to .75 carbon,
shows 10 per cent greater strength than open-hearth steel of the same chemical
composition.
* The duplex process is a combination of the Bessemer and the open-
hearth, and is particularly applicable to pig iron containing too high alicon
for advantageous working in either basic Bessemer or basic open-hearth.
In the acid Bessemer conva-ter the preliminary blast removes the silicon,
together with a considerable portion of the manganese and a certsun amount
of the carbon. The desiliconized metal is then transferred to the basic open-
hearth, where the phosphorus and the reminder of the carbon is eliminated
in accordance with the usual practice.
t The Jones and Laughlin Steel Company has been experimenting for some
time with the duplex process in its present Pittsburg plant, with the idea of
using a portion of its Bessemer capacity for preparing metal for its open-hearth
furnaces, thus decreasing its output of Bessemer steel and correspondingly
increasing the open-hearth output. The Maryland Steel Company has com-
pleted five open-hearth furnaces and is using a considerable portion of its
Bessemer capacity to duplex with the new open-hearth furnaces.
These moves in the direction of duplexing represent a distinct dedre to
find a new use for Bessemer capacity because there Ls not sufficient employment
for it in its old function.
The casting ladle, or the ladle which receives the finished steel for casting
into molds, is shown in Fig. 267. If slag is allowed to pass into the ingot molds
with the steel the latter is liable to be spoiled, and in consequence the steel can-
not be poured from a lip into the molds, but has to be tapped or teemed from
a hole in the bottom of the ladle.
The time allowed after the conversdon of the steel and when it is held
in the converter or casting ladle exercises considerable influence upon the
finished product. The thorough mixing of the recarbonizer, and the oppor-
tunity for the impurities to separate from the metal and the gas to escape from
the molten steel are of importance. Dr. P. H. Dudley requires a definite in-
terval of time between the additions of the spiegel and the teeming of the steel.
He says:t " Restricting the ingots to three-rail lengths and holding the steel
three minutes afta* recarbonizing, in connection with the dry blast at South
• A Study of the Open-hearth, by Harbison-Walker Refractories Company.
t Railway Age Gazette, March 18, 1910, daily edition.
t ProceedingB Americaa Society for Testing Materials, Vol. VllI, 1908, p. 112.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
389
Chicago, shows a marked reduction in seams and cracks in tiie bases of rails.
In a lot of 2500 tons of these rails hardly a trace of seam has been found."
The dry blast referred to is the Gayley process of furnishing sar, practically
free from aqueous vapor, to the converters while blowing the charge. This
Fra. 367. — Details of Casting Ladle. (Hufoord and Hall.)
A, Goose-neck; B, atoppra rod; L, sliding bar carrying gooHe-neck; M, M', M', bolts for attaching
lever, P; P, lever bar; Q', Q*, brackets on ladle to guide sliding bar, L; K, screw bolt for holding
sliding bar rigidly in position previous to teeming; F, fire-clay sleeves threaded on steel stopper rod, B;
Z, teeming nozzle; E, fire-clay stopper head; G, nozzle box; H, trunnion; C, C',C, C*, cotter pins; S,
forged bead on sliding bar through which end of goose-neck is passed, and is fixed by cotter pin, C'.
decreases the amount of iron oxide in the bath which von Maltitz claims to be
a principal agent in producing blowholes.
That time should be ^ven for the necessary chemical reaction after the
addiUon of the recarbonizer and before casting the metal into ingots, has been
known for at least thirty years. It was known that such time was also impor-
tant for the escape of the occluded gases, and the value of this latter knowledge
was manifested by the several devices for accelerating their escape which, years
ago, were either propcsed or actually used. These ranged from the thrusting
into the ladle full of molten steel a wooden pole, or placing in the ladle before
it received the steel from the converter pieces of wood saturated with kerosene,
to more elaborate devices, for agitating the steel while in the casting ladle by
,y Google
390 STEEL RAIIB
power-driven, refractorily protected screws. It was the practice at some of
the Bessemer works to j^n put on the blast after the introduction of the
recarbonizer, and then to partially turn the vessel up, thus a^tating the charge.
Mr. Robert Forsyth sought to accomplish the desired results through his
transfaring ladle arrangement, by which liie ladle after receiving the steel from
the converter was transferred by a hydraulic ram from the receiving crane to
the ladle or casting crane. This he did when remodeling the Union Steel Plant,
Chicago, about 1886. Later he put the same arrangement in the South Works
of the Illinois Steel Company. Later Mr. \Tilliam R. Widker carried this further
by pouring the steel over the top of the recdving ladle into the casting ladle
through a nozzle in the bottom of which it was cast in the usual way.
Prof. Henry Fay * has observed the moon-shaped fractures in the base and
the thermal cracks in the head of the rail which he beheves to be gener^ly
found along a streak of manganese sulphide, extending in the direction of the
rolling. The cause of the manganese sulphide being in the steel he infers is
probably the lack of time given for the steel to purify itself after the addition
of the recarbonizer. When the spiegel or ferromanganese is added to the
bath, the manganese combines with the sulphur, and, given time enough, man-
ganese sulphide, having a spedfic gravity less than that of steel, will rise to the
surface.
Manganese sulphide melts at 1162° C. Its specific gravity is 3.96, or
about half that of steel. It is a glassy, hard, and extremely britUe material.
The steel from which the r^I is made sohdifies at about 1450° C, and the
manganese sulphide will not solidify imtil it reaches 1162° C. Therefore,
the manganese sulphide is in a fluid state some time after the steel sohdifies.
If the rolling of the rail starts, we will say, at a temperature above 1162° C,
this material will be rolled out in thin strips in the direction of rolling. It is
plastic below the melting point and it is capable of being rolled out while in the
plastic condition into long, thin strips.
He states: f " That manganese sulphide when existing in certain forms is a
harmful constituent of steels can no longer be doubted. The remedy seems to
be a very simple one. Specifications should be so drawn as to Umit the amount
of sulphur in the steel. At the present time most of the specifications do not
even mention sulphur. Having done this, the next step is to allow the metal
to stand a longo- time after the addition of the ferromanganese. With the
* JounuJ AsaociatiOQ of En^neeriag Societies, July, 1908, p. 2S.
t A Microscopic Investig&tion of Broken Steel Kaila; Manganese Sulphide s8 a. Source of Danger.
Fay, Vol. VIH (1908), ProcepdinRs American Roniety for Testing Materials. Further Investigationa
of Broken Steel RaUs, Fay and Winl, ibid., Vol. IX.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 391
specific gravity of manganese sulphide 3.966 and steel 6.82, it should rise to the
surface and be skimmed off with the slag if given sufficient time. Usu^y this
time interval between charging of the ferromanganese and the pouring of the
ingot is very short. The desire of the manufacturer to increase his output
has led him to cut down this interval to the shortest possible Kmit, with the
natural consequence of a large number of defective riuls. A longer time interval
will allow the metal to purify itself."
Mr. E. von Maltitz* found that where recarbomzing is done in the ladle
and insufficient time allowed for the complete reduction of the iron oxide in
the bath, an excessive number of gas holes may be formed. The presence
of gas seams tends to cause unsound metal. Mr. Robert Job has pointed out
that in nearly every case of f^lure due to crushed heads the section shows
marked unsoundness, and the vertical flaws of the gas seams weaken the head
greatly.
The fact should be empha^zed that it is not alone sulphide of manganese
which is a source of danger, but other forms of slag are also to be looked upon
with suspicion.t These may be summed up as follows:
1. Excessive slag (manganese sulphide, silicate, etc.).
2. Segregation of slag concentric with the section.
3. Remnants of slag in the large split portion of the head.
4. Slag in those areas where flow of metal has occurred, or where mi^o-
scopic cracks have developed.
The rails illustrated in Figs. 268 and 269 show the effect of unsound metal in
the head of the rdl. Referring to Fig. 268, view 1 shows a section of the rail
which has been polished and etched with add. It shows some segregation and
flow of metal, as expected from the rolling. The rail was slivered, breaking off
the right of the head as indicated. This view shou% also the portions into which
this section was cut and the marks by which they are identified ; these were in
part polished and examined microscopically for defects as shown in the other
views of this figure.
View 2 shows the grmn size at the center of the head and view 3 shows the
fin«- grain near the surface and the distortion of the grains by whed action.
The photograph is taken at the end of a crack, and shows, besides this, some
* Blowholes in Steel Ingots. E. von M&ItitE. Tr&na. American Institute of Mining Engi-
neen. Vol. XXXVin (1907), p, 412-447.
t IroD and Steet MsgaEine, August, 190S (Job); and Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute,
p. 301, 1905 (CfVtuD Howorth).
,y Google
392 STEEL RAILS
small cavities, which were more noticeable before etching, and which might have
been minute oxide pits or pockets.
View 4 shows the metal, which is the white ground mass, to be badly con-
taminated by slag, which is extended longitudinally by the process of rolling.
These slag lines were found to some extent over the whole surface of this piece,
but were worst in the neighborhood of the point indicated by the dot By, view 1.
This is shown on the picture, which was taken at the edge of the localized portion.
"WW 1. View 2. CroBB Section at point C„ Mag. 100,
68,000 graiiiB per eq. in.
FiQ. 268, — Crushed Head.
Fig. 269 illustrates another example of a crushed head due to unsound
metal. View 1 shows a section of the head taken at the point of greatest dis-
tortion. The cavity in the top of this view is a drilled hole. On one side of
the head a cavity which did not show on the surface, but indicated marked
breaking down of the metal, was revealed. The metal, however, is more uiu-
form throughout this rdl than was the case in the ral of the preceding figure.
^lew 2 shows the gran at the center of the head ; view 3, Kke view 3 of
Rg. 268, is taken at the end of the crack. It shows the finer grain and distor-
tion of the same, and shows as well the further distortion of the metal at the
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 393
end of the crack as a sort of tearing action. The end of the crack is at the
comer of the picture; the furUier direction of progress of the failure is shown
by the black defects extending across the photograph.
A longitudinal section of this rail made on portion G showed slag lines, as
in the rail of Kg. 268, somewhat most abundant at the point q, though the num-
ber was not so great as in the rail of the preceding figure.
I ' >; ' ' it'
i
View 3. Cross Section of point H„, Mag. 100. View 4. Lon^tudinal Section on Top of Portion B,
Mag. 50, Unetohed.
Fio. 268. — Crushed Head. (Continued.)
• The deleterious influence of slag inclosures in steel has perhaps escaped
attention to some extent owing to the fact that in ordinary tensile tests, taken
in a direction parallel to that of rolling, these inclosures only occupy a very
small proportion of cross-sectional area and possess a tapered shape which allows
of gradual distribution of the stresses imposed on the material. If, however, we
consider the case of transverse stresses, or of shock or vibration, it will be seen
that these inclosures will be fractured as soon as the metal undergoes any material
ddormation, and then each such inclosure practically represents an internal
* " Slag Inclosures " in Steel, by Walter Rosenhain. International Aasociatioa for Testing
MalerialB, Sth Congress, Copenhagen, 1909. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
8
i
^. .1
d.s K
IS £
o
I
>, Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 395
fissure which is ready to extend — and actually does extend — in any direction
compatible with the applied stresses.
Fia. 270. — Teeming Ingots at Beeaemer Converter. (CopjTight, Keystone View Co,)
32. The Ingot
The principal points in connection with this jjart of the process are as follows:
1. Care must be exercised in casting the ingot.
2. The ingot must be in a perpendicular position until the interior has
had time to solidify.
3. The steel must not be overheated in the heating furnace or soaking pits.
4. Defective material from the top of the ingot must be excluded from the
finished product.
,y Google
396 STEEL RAII^
From the casting ladles the steel is fun into cast-iron ingot molds located
on cars, as illustrated in Figs. 270 and 271. Table XC presents data lowing
the time required to pour the steel at different mills. After solidifying, the
Fig. 271. — Teeming Ingots at Open-hearth Furnace. (Copyright, Keystone View Co.)
ingot mold cars are run under the stripper, shown in Fig. 272, from which hooks
are lowered and engage the lugs on either side of the mOld and lift it off the
ingot.
The ingot is then taken up by a traveling crane and conveyed to the re-
heating furnaces or soaking pits, shown by Figs. 273 and 274, to allow the tem-
perature in all parts of the ingot to become equalized before rolling.
,y Google
FiQ. 272. — Stripping the Mold from Ingots. (Lake.)
Fia. 273, — Soakbg Pita — Gary. (Scieotific American.) 397
DignzcdDv Google
STEEL RAII^
>, Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
TABLE XC. — TEEMING PRACTICE AT AMERICAN RAIL MILLS
(CompiM by CommittB on Rul. Am. Ry. Emt. Asm.. ieO», ud revised by tbe author IS12)
Rail UiU.
LDCslion.
^Om Meft.
TimeinPourin*
into Ingot Mold».
Tons Poured
per MiDule.
CanadianSoo,Can. |
Bethlehem, Pa
Johnstown, Pa
Braddock, Pa
South Chicago, 111.
Gary Ind.
Tons.
Bess. 5
O.H. 40
50
12
15
13
80
12
15
100
4 min,
20 min.
20 min.
6 min. 30 sec.
7 min. 15 sec.
9 to 11 min.
20 min.
3 min. 15 sec.
6 min.
t20 to 25 min.
1.25
2,15
Buffalo. N.Y
Sparrows Point, Md
Birmingham, Ala...
Tenn. Coal, Iron & R.R. Co
t4to5
(*). whieb waa obtainad direct trtna TDuufactnnn by tbs
t Compiled by author.
The unsoundness of the ingot results from several causes:
1. A funnel-shaped cavity or pipe at the top of the ingot.
2. Dispersed cavities or blowholes throughout the ingot.
3. Segregation of the impurities of the steel, as silicon, phosphorus, man-
ganese, etc., from the mass of the metal and their concentration
in different parts of the ingot.
The pipe is due to the contraction of the interior of the mass after the out-
side has set. After molten steel has been cast into an iron mold, the metal in
contact with the bottom and the £ddes bepns first to solidify.
After a relatively short while the top of the ingot, which is
exposed to the cooling action of the air, also becomes soUd
and the ingot now consists of a rigid metallic shell holding
a mass of molten steel, as shown in Fig. 275. As the cooUng
proceeds this solid shell increases in thickness; but since steel,
like most substances, undergoes a considerable contraction in
passing from the liquid to the sohd state, the mass of metal
which when hquid was sufficient to fill the space within the
solid shell will, after it has in turn solidified, be unable to fill Fm. 275. — Forma-
it and a cavity must necessarily be formed in the upper part *"*" "^ ^'p* ^
of the ingot.
The piping of ingots has been known for a number of years.* Robert
Forsyth at the Union Steel Works in 1888 demonstrated the relation of the
length of the pipe to the position of the ingot while its interior metal was solidi-
* The Manufacture of Beesemer Steels by R. W. Hunt, Lecttu* delivered at The PrankLn In-
stitute, January 21, 1889. See Journal of the Franklin Inst., May. 1888.
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
fying, by breaking a number of ingots which had been differently handled —
some placed in a horizontal position as soon as possible after being cast, and
Fia.276. — Section of Ingot, 17 ins. Squareat Top, 19 Fio. 277. ^ Bloom from an Ingot of some
ins. Squ&re at Base, and 50.5 ina. long. Containing Heat and of same Size aa Fig. 276, ^ow-
Cavity of 128 cubic inches. (Am. Inet. of Mining ing Reduction of Cavity. (Am. Inst, of
Engrs.) Mining Engra.)
others so placed at varying intervals up to having been kept vertically until
all of the steel was thoroughly set.
The best modem practice is to charge the hot ingots into the reheating
furnaces to equalize their heat for blooming as soon as possible after they are
teemed, stripped, and weighed.
An interesting experiment was tried by Dr. P. H. Dudl^ to determine
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 401
the relation between the pipe in an ingot which had been allowed to get cold
and one which had been promptly charged into the reheating furnace.*
Fig. 276 is a photograph of a three-rail ingot, for lOO-pound rails, teemed in
a mold 19 inches square on the base, 17 inches square on the top, and 66 inches
long. The ingot, poured 50.5 inches long, was well deoxidized, and therefore
had a large cavity. The ingot had a volume of 7.4 cubic feet, inclosing a shrink-
age cavity of about 128 cubic inches, practically 1 per cent of its volume. This
is a larger percentage than would be found in nul steel not so well deoxidized,
or which cont^ned numerous blowholes.
Fig. 277 is a photograph of the bloom of an ingot of the same heat and
length, cut for a 9 per cent mill discard. The ingot, after stripping and a subse-
quent ride of 500 feet, was charged directly into the reheating furnace without
allowing the temperature to fall below the recalescence point, while the bulk
of the steel was severe hundred degrees above, and in about 2 hours the ingot
was drawn and bloomed. The cavity was small and less than one-tenth of that
of the cold ingot of the same heat.
Blowholes generally form in the upper half of the ingot, which is permeated
by honeycombs or dispersed cavities, due to the liberation of imprisoned gases,
principally hydrogen, as well as nitrogen and carbon monoxide. These gases
are absorbed, dissolved, or occluded in the molten steel, but are wholly or partially
evolved and collect into bubbles when the metal bepns to solidify. These
bubbles are generally more numerous towards the side of the ingot.
The evolution of the gases in the mold seems probably to be due to two
causes; First, by the reduction of the temperature, the solvent power of the
steel for the gases is lowered and, consequently, cert^n proportions of the gas
are libOTated; and, second, an evolution of carbon monoxide (CO) or carbon
dioxide (COi), due to chemical action.
t According to Howe, blowholes may be lessened or even wholly prevented
by adding to the molten metal shortly before it solidifies either sihcon or
aluminium, or both. An addition of manganese has a like effect.^ These ad-
ditions seem to act in part by deoxidizing the minute quantity of iron oxide and
carbonic oxide present, in part by increaang the solvent power of the metal for
gas, so that ev^i after freezing it can ret^n in solution the gas which it had
dissolved when molten. But, since preventing blowholes increases the volume
of the pipe, it is often better to allow them to form, but to control their posi-
* DbcusnoQ of Henry M. Howe's paper on Pipii^ and Segregatioa in Steel logota, Trans. Ameri-
can Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. XL (1909), pp. 821-830.
t Iron,Steel,andOtber Alloys, Howe, 1903, pp. 369-372. Contains record of Brinell's experiments,
t Titanium deozidiies the steel in a very marked manner, as shown in Fig. 285.
>, Google
402 STEEL RAIIS
tion, so that they shall be deep-seated. In case of steel which is to be foiled
or rolled, this is done chiefly by casting the steel at a relatively low tempera-
ture, and by limiting the quantity of manganese and Edlicon which it contains.
Brinell finds that, for the conditions which are normal at his worics at
Fagertsa, Sweden, if the sum of the percentage of manganese plus 5.2 times
that of the sihcon is as great as 2.05, the steel will be so completely free from
blowholes as to have an undedrably large pipe. If this sum is 1.66, there will
be just that small quantity of minute, hardly visible blowholes which, while
sufficient to prevent any serious pipe, is yet harmless. If this sum is less than
1.66, blowholes will occur and will be injuriously near the surface unless this
sum is reduced to .28. He thus finds that this sum should be either about
1.66, so that the quantity of blowholes shall be harmlessly small, or as low as
.28, so that they shall be harmlessly deep-seated.
These numbers must be varied with the variations in other conditions.
In general, either a higher casting temperature, or a smaller cross section of
the ingots, or the use of hot or that of thin-walled molds, calls for a smallCT
quantity of silicon and manganese.
Brinell also finds that an addition of .0184 per cent of duminum is ap-
proximately equivalent to the presence of manganese and silicon in the pro-
portions Mn + 5.21 Si = 1.66 per cent; i.e., it imaided gives rise to structure
B (Table XCI). Naturally, little or none of this aluminum remains in the
steel. It oxidizes to alumina, which rises to the surface of the molten metal,
or is found lining the walls of the pipe.
Table XCI and Eigs. 278 to 284 give some of Mr. Brinell's results.
TABLE XCI. — INFLUENCE OF MANGANESE AND SILICON UPON BLOWHOLES
AND PIPES
Quality of tbe 3t«l u Resnrdt Blowholat
Cast too hot
Cast too cold <
: No blowholes, but asmallpipe.
, No visible blowholes, no pipe.
j External blowholes, no pipe.
. Fewer blowholes and somewhat
deeper seated.
: The blowholes are very deep-seated.
Many external blowholes and a pipe
Many blowholes, both external atid
I internal.
the
Injured by the pipe.
Juxt compact enough; excellent.
Injured by the external blowholi
Blowholes still harmfully
surface.
Excellent.
Injured by the external blowholes.
[injured by the external blowholee.
The structures 0 and H are those induced by too high and too low a casting
temperature respectively. The steel which here has structure 0 would, if cast
at a normal temperature, have had structure A. It was thought that the reason
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 403
Fia. 278. — Structure A. — Brinell'e Teats. Fia. 279. — Structure B, — Brinell'a Testa,
Fia. 280. — Structure C. — Brinell's Tests. Fia. 281 . — Structure D, — Brinell's Testa.
FiQ. 282. — Structure E. — Brinell's Teste.
Fio. 283. — Structure 0. — BriDell'a Teeta. Fia. 284. — Structure H. — Brinell's Tests.
,y Google
404 STEEL RAII^
why the excessivdy high temperature caused these external blowholes was that it
caused the carbon of the molten steel to react on the iron oxide on the surface
of the mold, with the formation of carbonic oxide gas, which itself forms these
blowholes.
Von Maltitz* gives the following as the means for the prevention of blow-
holes in sted ingots:
1. Medium temperature of the heat during the last period of the process
in the converter or open-hearth.
2. Careful avoidance of overblowing or overordng of the heat; careful
boiling out of the last jwrtion of ore added to the bath.
3. A finishing slag not too rich in oxygen and having the proper degree
of fluidity.
4. The destruction, by stirring the heat before tapping, of the ferrous
oxide formed.
5. Addition of sufficient deoxidizing material to the heat, and the allowance
of sufficient time for the complete separation of the manganese protoxide,
silicate of manganese or alumina thus formed, into the slag.
t Howe nmntmns that the gas contained in the blowholes is partially
absorbed and the blowhole walls to some extent weldable during the process
of rolling. This action probably is less favorable in direct rolling of rails (i.e.,
rolling direct from ingot to rml at a single heat) than in reheating practice, in
which the bloom into which the ingot is rolled is held in a special bloom-heating
furnace before rolling into a rail.
Segregation is one of the important questions before the steel maker. It
is, ther^ore, natural that for many years it should have engaged the attention
of iron and steel metallurgists in different countries, and have given rise to an
important literature.
Steel contains different impurities, as silicides, phosphides, carbides, sul-
phides, etc., whose freezing or soUdifying points vary, and all have a lower
melting point than the metallic iron, consequentiy those having the lowest
melting point will tend to gradually segregate from the iron and concentrate
in the hottest part of the ingot. The top and center of the ingot always con-
tains the larger proportions of impurities.
All steeU do not necessarily exhibit excessive concentration of impurities.
* Blowholes in Steel Ingota, E. voa MaJtiti, Trana. American loatitute ot Miiung EngineecB,
Yd. XXXVni (1907), p. 445.
t The Welding of Blowholes in Sted, Heniy M. Hone, Proceedings AmericsD Society for Tesl^
ing Materials, Vol. X, 1910, p. 168.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 405
The highly segregated portions of an ingot are often very small isolated areas
in the interior of the mass.
It is highly probable that a large part of the segregates in steel ingots is
directiy traceable to the formation of blowholes. The pressure of the cooling
gas on the mixture of pure solids and impure liquid in which it forms must
squeeze out some of the impure Uquid, which passes outward, ascends to the
top of the ingot, or finds its way into previously formed blowholes.
Below are presented the results recently obtained by Waterhouse* on
segregation in add Bessemer rail steel. They point in the same direction as
those published in 1905 by Talbot, which showed the important influence of
alununium in greatly retarding segregation in cert^n cases.
In the present instance, titanium, when rightly applied in the proper amount,
was also found to retard segregation of sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon, in what
is normally quiet, quick-setting steel.
The ingots used were from an ordinary rail-steel heat, and from a heat to
which had been added 64 pounds of ferrotitanium, which amounted to only
.25 per cent of the weight of the heat. The ordinary steel was made in the usual
way. After the heat was turned down, the proper amount of molten spiegel
was poured into the vessel. The heat was held there a short time, poured
into the ladle, and tiien through a IJ-inch nozzle into the ingot molds.
There were six molds. After three ingots had been poured a ladle test
was taken. The third ingot of the six was allowed to cool while still standing
on its stool, and was then cut through lon^tudinally.
The heat in which ferrotitanium was used was made in exactly the same
way. As the steel was poured into the ladle, the alloy was shoveled in; the heat
was then held in the ladle for three minutes before pouring the ingots. In this
case also the third ingot of the heat was cooled in an upright position and cut
through longitudinally. An analysis of the ferrotitanium gave:
Carbon 10.50
Titanium il , 60
Iron 74, 12
Silicon 1 .60
Manganese 0.30
Calcium trace
Photographs of the ordinary and titanium ingots are shown in Fig. 285.
The noticeable feature is the increased soundness of the titanium steel, due to
the concentration of the blowholes in the pipe cavity.
* The iBflueace of Titanium an Segregation in Bessemer Rail St«d, G. B. Waterhouse, Proceed-
ings American Society for Testing Materiala, Vol. X, 1910, p. 201.
>, Google
STEEL RAll£
The analyses of the ladle tests from the two heats were as follows:
CsrboD. Sulpbur.
Phoephom..
SiLiufi.
Poreent.
0,44
0.47
Per cent.
0.098
0.068
Percent.
0.088
0.093
P«™t.
0.117
0.118
Permt.
Titanium ateel
0.95
Ordiasry Steel. Tituium Steet.
Fig. 285. — Ordinary Steel Ingot and Titanium Steel Ingot. (Am. Soc. for Testing Materiafa.)
No trace <rf titanium could be found in the latter steel, so that it is not,
strictly speaking, a titanium steel, but will be called so for the purpose of dis-
tinction.
In the accompanying diagrams, Figs. 286 to 291 inclusive, are shown
the results obtained from determinations for sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon.
A If-inch drill was used, and drillii^ were taken to a depth of | inch. The
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
407
diagrams are drawn to scale, so that the location of the diillings can be readily
seen. The methods used were the same for all the samples and all the deter-
minations were made by one man. The results are briefly considered in order.
Sulphur segregates the most. In the ordinary steel it has risen from .098
per cent in the ladle test to a maximum of .223, and there is a considerable
Fio. 286. — Nonnal Ingot, Half Section. Fia. 287. — Titanium Ingot, Half Section,
Sulphur in Ordinary Steel. Sulphur in Titanium Steel,
(Am, Soc. for Teeting Materials — Waterhouse.)
area with more than .147, which is 50 per cent more than the ladle test. In
the case of the titanium ingot, the contrast is very remarkable. The greatest
result is .101, which is not quite 50 per cent more than the ladle test, .068,
and the segregated area is very much smaller than in the ease of the ordinary
ingot. It is true that there are two factors which may partly account for this
difference in results: the titanium ingot is somewhat smaller, and there is less
sulphur in the steel as a whole. The fact remans, howevw, that there is much
less segregation of sulphur in the titanium than in the ordinary steel.
.yGoogle
408
STEEL RAII5
In the ordinary steel the phosphorus has risen from .088 per cent in the
ladle test to a maximum of .167, and here also the segregated area is seen to
be conaderable. In the titanium steel the maximum is .124, starting with a
ladle test of .093, and the segregated area is more restricted than in the case
of the ordinary steel. The ordinary steel is in a better condition to start with
'^n
'7^'-
^ — 3 — 3 — i
. -V V T .
ve , 'If f .
^4
"5%0~
. -y *> «■
If'/ . r »•
t T V "i' f
• '* ^ 1^ ■.T'
:j^
IT-. .
-/*/'-
W^^*'
Fig. 288. — Normal Ingot, Halt Section. Fig. 289. — Titanium Ingot, Half Section.
Phoaphorus in Ordinary St«el. Fhosphonia in Titanium Steel.
(Am. See. for Testing Materiab -~ Waterhouee.)
than the titanium steel, as it has slightly less in amount (.088 as compared
with .093), so that the behavior of the phosphorus is a good test of the pre-
ventive power of the titanium. The results given in the diagrams Rgs. 288
and 289 show it to have been effective.
The titanium steel shows less segregation of carbon than the ordinary steel,
and it must be remembered that it starts with .47 as compared with .44 per
coit. The highest results found are .67 in the one case and .69 in the other.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 409
and the diagrams show that the ordinary steel ag^n has the larger segregated
area.
The results of the sihcon and manganese determinations are not given;
they are somewhat erraUc in each case, but do not exhibit segregation.
Mr. Henry M. Howe presented a very complete discusaon on Piping and
'4^^--^.
•r r . •» -f
y f. ^ f ^
^ .^ .St ^
-"■/!-
.' ' • *
«• f * ? g
H 9 t «•
. -? -sr r
. . r.
*'' i«i
-/*«•-
B
-/*/•-
-^^
Fia. 290. — Normal Ingot, Halt Section. Fin. 291. — Titanium Ingot, Half Section.
Carbon in Ordinary Steel. Carbon in Titanium Steel.
(Am. Soc. for Teeting Materials — Waterhouse.)
Segregation in Steel Ingots, at the London meeting (July, 1906) of the American
Institute of Mining Engineers,* of which the following is an abstract. The
first part of this paper treats of the causes and the restraining of piping in steel
ingots, the second considers the causes and the restraining of segregation, and
the third proposes certain precautions in engineraing specifications concerning
these two defects. An article coming from such a source is necessarily of value
* Imping and Segregation in Steel Ingots. Howe, Trans. American Institute cf Mining En-
gineoB, Vol. XXXVIII (1907), p. 3-108.
,y Google
410 STEEL RAILS
in any conaderation of these subjects, and it will be pertinent to briefly review
it.
Professor Howe infers that the pipe is chiefly due to what may be called
the virtual expansion of the outer walls of the ingot in the early part of the
freezing, and finds that the upper and smooth-faced part of the pipe probably
forms while the interior is still molten, but that the lower, steep, and crystal-
faced part probably forms in metal which is already firm. Of the causes
which may cooperate to limit the depth of the pipe, it is suggested that three,
namely, blow holes, s^ging, and the progress of freeing from below upwards are
usually effective.
The pipe may be lessened by easting (1) in wide ingots; (2) in sand molds;
(3) at the top instead of at the bottom;* (4) slowly; (5) and with the large end up;
(6) by the use of a sinking-head or other means of retarding the cooling of the
top; (7) by permitting blowholes to form; (8) and by liquid compression.
It is believed that although the reasons why (1) casting in wide ingots
and (2) in sand or clay-lined molds shortens the pipe do not apply to show that
they should raise the segregate, yet the position of the segregate should be
raised by the six other means by which the pipe is shortened (see 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,
and 8 in preceding paragraph).
The means proposed for lessening the degree of segregation, as distinguished
from raising the position of the segregate, are next considered.
These are:
9. Quieting the steel by adding aluminium.
10. Casting in small instead of in large ingots, and hastening the solidifica-
tion, not only by casting in small ingots hut also
11. By casting at a low temperature.
12. By casting in thick-walled iron molds (i.e., those of high thermal con-
ductivity); and
13. By casting slowly.
It is pointed out that quieting the steel has materially lessened segregation
in certain cases, and that segregation is probably much less in small than in
large ingots.
The effectiveness of the different methods of fluid compression (see Rgs.
294-297) is considered, and it is concluded that the benefidal lifting effect on
the segregate should be the greatest in Williams' system, which compresses the
* logoU are now practically all cast from the top, absolutely so la regard to rail st«el. About
twenty years ago there was a great deal of bottom casting practiced, in casting the ingots at the Peon-
Bylvania Steel Company's Worlcs, which were rolled into rails at the Cambria Company's Worits, Mr,
A, L. Holley first used bottom casting.
>, Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 411
ingot chiefly in the middle of its length; it should be the least in Whitworth's
system, which compresses the ingot more at its top than elsewhere; and it should
be intermediate in the systems of lUingworth and Harmet, which compress the
ingot equally in all parts of its length.
Finally, stress is laid on inspection at the rolls and shears, and especially
on axial drilling of the billets or other products.
Figs. 292 and 293* present experimental verification of the following pre-
dictions made in this paper:
A. That the pipe is shortened and the segregate raised:
1. By slow casting.
2. By casting with the large end up instead of down.
3. By retarding the cooling of the top, e.g., by means of a anMng
head.
B. That the pipe is shortened by slow coohng.
C. That the pipe and segregate lie in the last freezing part.
The procedure was to cast ingots of wax containing a little bright-green
copper oleate (usually 1.5 per cent) under varying conditions; to saw each ingot
open along a longitudinal plane pasdng through its axis; and to examine the
longitudinal section thus laid bare. The segregated or enriched parts are shown
by the darker areas in the photographs, indicating the green of the segregated
copper oleate.
Taking up the evidence in detail, the influaice of the rate of casting is
shown in ingots Nos. 1, 2, and 3, Figs. 1, 2, and 3. The casting of No. 1 was
finished in 30 seconds and that of No. 2 was so slow that, though it was continuous
except for momentary interruptions for heating the wax, it lasted 1 hour and
13 minutes.
The pipe in the fast-poured No. 1 stretches down 90 per cent of the ingot's
length, and, except for some very thin bridges, is practically continuous for
49 per cent; whereas in the slowly cast ingot the pipe stretches down only 14 per
cent of the length of the ingot. In this particular ingot (No. 2) there is a second
riidimentary pipe near the bottom, caused by the accidental pouring at first
faster than was intended. In ingot No. 3, which was poured slowly from the
start, this second pipe is absent.
The segregate in the fast-poured ingot No. 1 can be traced at A near the
bottom of the ingot. The slow-cast ingot No. 2 has a succession of local axial
• The Influence of the Conditiona of Cuting on Piping and Segregation, aa shown by Meana of
Wax Ingots. Howe and Stoughton, Trans. American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. XXXVIII
(1W7), p. 109.
,y Google
412 STEEL RAILS
horizontal segregates, and in the still more slowly cast ingot No. 3 these local
segregates are so small as almost to escape notice
The effect of casting with the large end up instead of down is shown in
if
ll a I
•B
si 8
a
Figs. 4 and 5, which represent two ingots cast in immediate succession and under
otherwise like conditions. The pipe stretches down only 30 per cent of the in-
got's length when the large end is up, but 82 per cent when the large end is down.
The segregate Ues well above the center in the ingot with the large end up, but
very near the bottom in that with the large end down.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 413
The effect of retarding and of hastening the cooling of the top of the ingot
s shown in Figs. 6 and 7 and in Figs. 8 and 9. The depth to which the pipe reaches
IS a nearly continuous cavity is only 26 per cent of the mgot's length in the hot
4
i f
^1
el .as
it! I"
1 1
a *
* •B
III
3| I
3j
topped ingot No. 6, but 85 per cent in the cold-topped No. 7. The pair of ingots
Nos. 8 and 9 which viere slow cooling do not show so well the influence of the
distribution of temperature on the position of tiie pipe.
The effect of the rate of cooling is shown in Figs. 8, 9, and 10. Figs. 11 and
,y Google
414
STEEL RAII£
13 illustrate what Professor Howe calls "surface tensdon bridges." In the middle
and lower part of No. U there are five bridges from F to J and at K and L, as
well as at Af of Fig. 13, there are the remains of bridges. These are in each case
greener than between the bridges and appear to have been formed oa account of
FiQ. 294. — illingworth's Fresa for Compressing Steel In^te Homontally while Solidifjing, Sectional
Plana.
In I, the mold is shown ready for receiving the molten steel. Two distance-barB, DD, are set between
the halves o( the split mold B and C. After the steel has been poured into the mold, these distance-bars
are pulled out lengthwise, and the two halves of the mold are then forced towards each other by meaoa
of the ram F, shown in II. The convex edges of the distance-bars are for the purpose of making an
initial depression in the side of the ingot lest part of its side should be forced out as a fin or welt into the
crevice between the two halves of the mold.
(Trans. Am. Inst, of Mining Engrs., Vol. XXXVIII.)
the local enrichment of the oleate, making the wax so fusible and plastic that it
stretches instead of cracking open when the pipe is being formed. The same phe-
nomma was noticed at E, F, G, of Fig. 12. The mgot of this figure had its cooling
I
II
ill
Fto. 295. — Williams' Abdominal Liquid Compression of Solidifying Steel Ingots.
The ingot is cast in Its mold as shown at I. Aftt^r its outer crust has solidified the mold is opened, as
shown at II, and a hner B is slipped between mold and ingot. A strong cap A is then fastened down,
and by means of pressure applied through the ram C the abdominal protuberance on the ingot is forced
in, so as to close the pipe and Uft the segregate into it, as shown at III.
(Trans. Am. Inst, of Mining Engrs., Vol. XXXVIII.)
hastened on the right-hand side and retarded on the left-hand ade, which resulted
in shifting the pipe distinctiy to the left of the axis.
Several methods have been used to produce sound ingots, as stirring the
steel in the casting ladle to allow the gases to escape; casting on a turntable
that is made to revolve and the metal run into a mold at its center; bottom
casting, with a closed top instead of the ordinary open-topped molds; and casting
under pressure.
,y Google
\
1
a
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 415
There are different methods of exerting the pressure on the fluid metal
in the mold. At the Krupp mills, fluid compression was tried by applying
the pressure exerted by carbonic anhydride
in its fluid state, the ingot mold being
capped after the ingot was cast and con-
nected to a reservoir contmning the car-
bonic anhydride.
At the Edgar Thompson works the same
principle was appUed, u^g steam under a
pressure of about 200 pounds per square
inch. Under this steam pressure the ingot
of 5 or 6 inches diameter shortened in length
from 1^ to 2 inches.
Illingworth's process (Rg. 294) conasts
of casting in vertical molds, split lengthwise.
The two halves are separated during the
casting, but when the crust is formed they
are brought together by a ram.
Williams' system (Fig. 295) employs the
split mold, and the two sides are pressed to-
gether with a liner between.
The Whitworth process (Fig. 296) con-
sists of u^ng a steel mold which is placed
in a hydraulic press and the fluid steel sub-
jected to a pressure of about 6 or 7 tons
per square inch of horizontal section. Un-
der this pressure the ingot shortens about
li inches per foot of its length. This pro-
cess produces an ingot of uniform quality
throughout and in a great measure over-
comes the difficulty experienced from the <Traiw. Am. inat. of Miniog Eogrs., Voi.
formation of blowholes and piping.
The Harmet process (Fig. 297) consists in using a tapering mold and com-
presang the fluid by means of a hydraulic ram acting on the open end of the
mold. The effect of the tapering mold is to exert a lateral pressure which tends
to close up any axial pipes. The French Government require 28 per cent crop
in uncompressed ingots and only 5 per cent in compressed ingots made at the
St. Etienne works by the Harmet process.
Fia. 296. — Whitworth'fl Hydraulic 1
for the Compression of Steel Ingota while
Solidifying.
A, main compreaeion-cylinder. B, ita
plunger, C, the carriage on which the
mold or flask sits. G, boes against which
the ateel in the mold is forced. KK, steel
jaclfets fof the mold. LL, the mold
proper. MM, perforated cast-iron lag*
ging. NN, inner sand lining.
>, Google
416 STEEL RAILS
The test pieces cut from the compressed ingots diow, without forging
or roUing, as good results under tensile and impact tests as test pieces cut from
ingots of the same composition which had been forged with a reduction of two
times in the cross-sectional area. There is a very marked diminution of segre-
gation, the chemical analyses at the top and bottom of the ingot being sub-
stantially the same. The compressed ingot has a grain of a visibly finer structure
and the large cleavages often found in sections cut
from uncompressed ingots are not found. The
metal is sound and thoroughly homogeneous.
Fluid compression of the steel in the ingot, when
in proper hands, according to our present evidence,
prevents pipes, blowholes, and cracks almost com-
pletely, and, to a limited extent, segregation.
While its introduction would certainly lead to
complication at the mills, the benefits to be derived
warrant a trial of this method.
As has been seen the greatest defects are found
Fio.297.-H«met'« Liquid Com- »» ^^^ ^PV^T part of the ingot, and to obtain a
pression by Wire Drawing. souud ingot it was generally specified that a certain
The ingot. 4^, iaoaat in a strong discard or cfop should be made from the top of
conical mold, 27, reinforced
with hoopa, 28. Strong pres- the iugot, which it was supposcd would contain all,
Bure at the base of the ingot, 26, qj. ^g^riy all, of the Imperfect metal.
forces it leogthwise of ^he mold,
thus compressing it radially. To get definite knowledge on this pomt Dr. P.
(Trans. Am. Inst, of Mining H. Dudley experimented by lettering the rails fwrned
Engra., Vol. XXXVIIL) , j-^r i. _.. / .^u • i. an. -i i *
from different parts of the mgot. The rails were let-
tered "A" for the top rail, "B" for the second rail, and "C" for the third, or rail from
the bottom part of the ingot. These letters could be found in the tracls, and, as
was to be expected, the "A" rails have a larger percentage of impurities than the
" B " or "C " rails. They wear faster, developmg more surface defects, and at seveal
points upon the road (the New York Central), under heavy traffic, after 10 or 12
years' service, have become practically wean out for main-line traffic, while the
"B" or "C" rails are still good.
The Committee on Standard R^ls of the American Railway Assodation
reported at the meetmg of the Association, April 22, 1908, on this subject,
as follows:
All rails are to be branded with the name of the maker, the weight of the rail, and the month
and year; and the number of the heat, and a letter indicating the portion of the ingot from which
the rail was made, shall be plainly stamped on the web of each rail, where it will not be covered
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 417
by the splice bare. Rails to be lettered consecutively " A," " B," " C," etc, the rail from the
top of the ingot being " A." In case of a top discard of 20 or more per cent, letter " A " will be
omitted. All rails marked " A " shall be kept separate and be shipped in separate cars.
While railway engineers formerly specified a definite jjercentage of discard
from the ingot, they now unanimously agree that the specifications should not
state definitely how much should be sheared from the bloom, but that sufficient
material should be discarded from the top of the ingots to insure sound rmls.
Records of r^l failures which have been kept for a number of years disclose
the incontrovatible fact that, where a 15 per cent discard might do for one
ingot, 50 per cent would not be adequate for another.*
In its report the Committee of the American Rmlway Association says:
^ith regard to the discard question, the Committee has always held that it
would be preferable to test the finished product rather than specify as to the
details of mill manufacture, and the Committee arranged for a trial lot of ruls
to be rolled from the ingot without any discard whatever, except such as was
necessary to enable the bloom to enter the rolls, and after these rails had been
cut into small pieces they were broken under the hammer and the fracture ex-
amined. This test proved to the satisfaction of the Committee that if "pipes"
or other physical defects were present they could be detected by this means.
The test also proved quite conclusively that it is posdble so to conduct the
process of manufacture- that the "pipes" or other physical defects will be re-
duced to a minimum, and that these defects may not occur at all, even in rails
rolled from the top portion of the ingot.
In order to avoid an imnecessary waste of good material, the Committee
set about to devise means by which the rejection of defective material could
be insured without requiring an arbitrary and definite percentage of discard
in every case, and a committee of the Pennsylvania Railroad, pursuing the
same line of investigation, adopted a tentative specification which provided
for a phy^cal test of this nature, and which further provided that when physical
defects were discovered all top rails of the heat should be rejected. A trial
lot of rails, of a section corresponding to " type B " (Plate VIII),was rolled un-
der this specification as to discard, and the results convinced the conunittee
that a development of this idea would prove the best solution of the discard
problem.
Some of the advocates of a fixed and arbitrary discard have argued that
the mere provision of a discard to insure the elimination of " piped " rails, or
rails containing physical defects, was not sufficient, and urged the rejection of
* See Papa by W. C. CuBhiDg before the Indiana Railroad Conausaion, Fdiniary 20, 1912.
,y Google
418 STEEL RAIIS
a fixed percentage from the top of Hie ingot, because of the well-known fact that
segr^ation occurs in the upp&r portion. This question of segregation was given
careful conaderation by the Committee, and while it is a fact that, due to the
rearrangement of the constituent parts of the metal during the process of cooling
and solidification in the ingot mold, any analysis of the metal in the finished
rail will often show a wide departing from the analysLs required by the speci-
fications, it is also true that an analysis of the metal taken from the different
parts of the finished rail will frequently show similar wide variation. This
discrepancy is due to the fact that the test ingot referred to in the specifications,
and upon which the chemistry specification is based, is taken from the ladle before
the metal is poured into the ingot mold, and, consequently, before the segrega-
tion takes place.
It has been assumed that, because of this variation from the standard
composition of the metal in the finished rail, the rejection of all segregated
metal would be warranted. But, on this assumption, it would be nerassary
to discard more than a third of the upper part of the ingot to be on the safe
side, as the segregation frequently extends that far; and, while our knowledge
of the subject is not so complete as we could wish it to be, we have a great deal
of evidence that rails of good physical condition can be made from the upper
portion of the ingot. Furthermore, the analyses of a large number of rails,
taken after years of service, indicate that these wide variations in chemical
compoation may occur without apparently affecting the safety or wearing
quality of the rail; and, since it is impossible to check the analyses of the finished
rail with that of the test ingot, the question arises as to what limits should be
placed on the variation which will be permissible. None of the experts con-
sulted are ready to say what this limit should be, and all admit that no facts
are available as the results of actual experience which would warrant the adoption
of any fixed limit to govern the rejection of material.
The provision in the new specifications for stamping the rails to show
their position in the ingot will enable us to obtain more definite information
on this point in the future.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beikirch, F, 0. — Verfahren mu verhUtung der lunkerbildung in Bchweren robatahlbtdckeo,
1800 w. lU. 1905. (In Stahl und Eisen, Vol. 25, Part 2, p. 865.)
Describes uae of sinking-head, afterwards cut oS, Piped portion is thus removed.
Daglen, K, M. — Die verfoiireD Eur verhUtung der lunkerbildung in stahUilocken. 1800 w. 111.
1905. (In Stahl und Eisen, Vol. 25, Part. 2, p. 923.)
The same. {In Zeitflchrift des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure, Vol. 49, Part 2, p. 1398.)
Describes fluid compression methods, methods of heating moulds and continuous procesi, proposed
by writer.
DoRHUs, A. V. — Die blasen- und lungerbildung des flusseisens. 1000 w. Q]. 1902. (In Zeit-
schrift dea Oeterreiduschen Ingenieure- und Archit«kten- Vereines, Vol. 54, Part 1, p. 279.)
>, Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 419
The tame, translated. (In Siblev Journal of Engineeri
Describes forniation of b'ow-hofeB and pipes in steel a
prevention.
Dudley, P. H. — Dark carbon streaks in segregat«d metal in split heads of rails. 2000 W. 111.
1909. (In Proceedings of the American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 0, p. 98.)
The tame. (In Railway and Engineering Review, Vol, 49, p. 626.)
Hbboult, p. L. T. — Presence and influences of gases in steel. 800 w. 1910. (In Transactions
of the American Electrochemical Society, Vo . 17, p. 135.)
Concludes that blow holes are the result of disengagement of carbon monoxide in sl«el.
Howe, Henry M. — Does the removal of sulphur Mid phosphorus lessen the segregation of carbon?
2500 w. 1907. (In Proceedings of the American Society for Testing Materials, VoL 7, p. 75.)
Results from examination of many cases indicate that removal of sulphur and phosphorus does
not lessen segregation of carbon.
Howe, Hbnrv M. — Further study of segregation in ingots. 5000w. 111. 1907. (In Engineer-
ing and Mining Journal, Vol. 84, p. 1011.)
Suggests that quiet, resulting from increased ingotr^Ize and slow cooling, may explain why these
CMiditions do not alvrays favor segregation.
Howe, Henry M. — InQuence of ingot«ize on the degree of segregation in steel ingots. 800 w.
III. 1909. (In Transactions of the American Institute of Mming Engineers, Vol. 40, p. 614.)
Howe, Henry M. — Influence of top-lag on the depth of t£e pipe in steel ingots, 1000 w. 1909.
(In Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol, 40, p. S04,)
Howe, Henry M. — Piping and s^regation in steel ingots. 106 p. Ill, 1906. (In Transactions
of the American Institute oF Minmg Engineers, Vol, 38, p. 3.)
Discussion, Vol. 39, p, 818. 33 p.
Considers causes and prevention of piping and of segregation and precautions to be taken regarding
these in specifications.
Howe, Henry M. — Segregation in steel ingola. 1000 w. 1908, (In School of Mines Quarterly,
Vol. 29, p, 238,)
Summarizes results of author's investigations.
Howe, Henry M., and Stovqhton, Bradley, — Influence of the conditions of casting on piping
and segregation, as shown by means of wax ingots. 3000 w. 111. 1907. (In Transactions of the
American Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. 38, p. 109.)
VeriGes by experiments views expressed by Howe in earlier paper.
Huston, CH*RLBa L. ^Experiments on the segregation of steel ingots in tie relation to plate
specifications, 3000w. 111. 1906. (In Proceedings of American Society for Testing Materials, Vol 6,
p. 182.)
Illustrates and eimlains cases of segregation.
Job, Robert. — Investigation of defective open-hearth steel rails. 1500 w. 111. 1909. (InPro-
ceediniraof the American Society for Testing Mataials, VoL 9, p. 90.)
Discussion, p. 106.
The game. (In Railway Age Gazette, Vol. 48, p. 523.)
Shows failures to be due to unsoundness of meUl.
KNiaar, S. S. — Observations on segregation phenomena as applied to cast steels. 3000 w. 111.
1910. (In Iron Trade Review, Vol. 46, p. 476.)
Paper before Philadelphia Foundrymen's Association.
Illustrates examples of segregation and emphasizes need of further investigations.
LiLiENHERG, N ^Piping in steel ingots. 2000 w 111, 1906. (In Transactions of the American
Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. 37, p, 238.)
Considers methods for prevention of piping, with special attention to Illingworth's side-compression
method.
Mathbsius, W. — Herstellung von poren- und lunkerfrciem grauguss, stablguss und schmiede-
stUckendurchanwendungvonthermit 2500w. 111. 1903. (In Stahlund Eiaen, VoT.23, Part 2,p.925,)
RiEUER, JuLios. — Ein neues verfahren zura verdichten von stahlblOcken in flUssigem zustande.
2000 w, lU. 1903. (InStahlundEisen, Vol. 23, Part2, p, 1196.)
The same, translated. (In Iron and Coal Trades Review, Vol. 67, p. 1776.)
New method ci — '"'' "' ■-■.-•. ...
Saovedr. Alb:
method. 1500 w, lU, 1903.
p. 129.) . ,
Segregation in soft steel ingots; its effect on rolled material as shown in tensile and shock tests.
2500 w._ 111. 1910. (Inlron Age, Vol, 86.P. 730.)
Gives results and conclusions reached by WQst and Felser in paper in " Metallurgie," Shows
s^regation u> have matest infiuence in shock tests, as segregated material is very brittle
SPRiNaER, J. F, — Piping in irteel ingots; methods for its reduction and elimination. 4000 w.
III. 1909. (In Caasier'sMagazine. Vol. 36, p. 426.)
Springer, J. F, — Thermal treatment ofsteelingots. 1200w. HI. 1910. (In Scientific American,
Vd. 116, pp. 282. 269.)
Describes piping and s^regation phenomena and briefly reviews methods for prevention.
Stead, J. E. — Crystallization and segregation of steel ingots. 53 p- III. 1906. (In Proceedings
of the Cleveland Institution of Engineers, 1905-06, p. 163.)
Review of work done on the subjeot, with conclusions.
>, Google
420 STEEL RAILS
Talbot, Benjamin. — Segregation in steel ingoU. 44 p. III. 1905. (Id Journal of the Iron aod
Steel Institute, Vol. 68, p. 204.)
Includes extensive tabulated data on the eGFect of additions of small amounts of aluminuni lo
the ingot.
Waulbbuq, Axel. — InSuence oF chemical composition on soundness of steel ingots 38 p 111
1902. (In Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Vol. 61, p. 333.)
Wedding, H. — Unterauchung Uber den uisprung eines blasenraumee in einen flusseisenblocke
2000 w. 111. 1905. (In Stahl und Eisen, Vol. 25, Part 2, p. 832-)
Considers probable CMigin of a blow-hole in a 2-ton ingot. Faulty shape of mould cooaideied to
be explanation.
Weitere entwicklung des Rieraerschen verfabreos zur herst«llung dichter stahlbldcke. lOOO w.
111. 1904. (In Stahl und Eisen, Vol. 24, Part 1, p, 392.)
Illustrates great reduction in piping from uae of new method of Riemer.
WiCKHOBST, M. H. — Low-carbon streaks in open-hearth rails. 1200 w. III. 1910. (In Procent
ings of the American Society for Testing Materials, Vol. 10, p. 212 )
Studies rails that developed a peculiar kind of failure, shown to be due to streaks of metal low in
cartion.
WiCKHORST, M. H. — Sep^ation and other rail properties as influenced bv siae of ingot 97 p.
33. Influence of Mechanical Work
The principal points in connection with the rolling are given below:
1. Resistance to wear is a function of fineness of grain.
2. Fln^ess of grain is principally a result of mechanical treatment at
proper temperature.*
3. Work done on steel above SSO^-IOSO" C. (1742° F.-1922° F.) has less
effect on changing the size of gr^n from the normal crystallization of the ingot
than when the roUing is done at a lower temperature.
Fig. 298 shows the steel entering the rolls. Figs. 299, 300, 301, and 302
illustrate views taken by Mr. Howard and show the gradual reduction of the
bloom to the finished rail as it passes through the successive rolls.
In 1909 a further investigation was made of the steel at different stages of
the rolling by James E. Howard at the Watertown Arsenal.t In these tests,
beginning with the ingot, the structural state of the metal was examined by
taking cross sections and longitudinal sections. This method was carried
through the various successive derivative shapes, and the results obtained are
shown in the large number of illustrations which form the body of the report.
The greater part of the work was devoted to Bessemer rail steel, five add
Bessemer heats being made for this series of tests, each heat furnishing sai
ingots about 19^ by 20^ inches at the bottom and about 5 feet high.
One of the most important results of the tests was to throw light on the
question of the amount of work or reduction necessary in rolling to develop
the full physical qualities of the steel. Mr. Wickhorst draws the following
■ This should not be interpreted as meaning that resistance to wear is not a function of the chan-
ical composition.
t Tests of Metals, etc., 1900, Vol. 1 and Vol. 2, Government Printing Office, Waehingtoo.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
,y Google
422 STEEL RAILS
conclusion from the tenale tests made of specimens taken at various stages
from the ingot to the finished rail.
Fm. 2d9. — Cross Sectioa of 8 by 8 in. Rail Bloom Rolled from an Ingot 20 ins. Square.
(Am, Ry. Eng. Aaao.— Howard.)
The results indicate that the metal in the walls of the ingot takes com-
paratively little work or reduction to impart to it what may be called its full
Fio. 300. — Rail from an £arly Pass in Roughing RoUb, Rolled from Bloom Shown in Fig. 299.
(Am. Ry. Eog. Assd. — Howard.)
physical properties of tensile strength and ductility. These are reached in the
bloom, except at the top end. The axial metal at the bottom of the ingot also
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
Fio. 301. — S&tne Rail aa Shown in Fig. 300 after Further Reduction.
(Am. Ry. E^g. Asan. — Howard.)
soon reaches its full physical properties, but in the upper half of the Ingot it
must be carried well toward the finished rail before these properties are fully
developed.
Fia. 302. — Finiahed Rail froni Same Ingot as Bloom and Pieces from Roughing Rolls.
(Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. — Howard.)
>, Google
424
STEEL RAIM
Where the metal ia of fairly even compoMtion and free from sponginess, it
reaches its full physical qualities of tensile strength and ductility at about ten
reductions or a reduction to one-tenth of the original cross section of the ingot,
but the interior portion of the upper part of the ingot requires twenty-five or
more reductions to have its full physical qualities developed, that is, the cross-
sectional area must be reduced below one twenty-fifth of its original amount.
Table XCII pves the result of tests by Sauveur on the relation between
the size of the grain and the physical properties of the same piece of steel.*
TABLE XCIL — RELATION BETWEEN SIZE OF GRAIN AND
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL
Sin of CraiE.
Teoiile Stnnstta.
Elouolioii
ReduMkoaot
MiilimBWr.
Number p«r
Squan Inch.
AppmiiMtBly.
'^;;p:-
Pound* per
8qi»r« l»b.
148
118
62
44,000
54,000
101,000
69.6
70.3
77.7
99,000
100,000
110,000
15 0
19.0
22.5
20
22
36
Mr. Robest Job, chemist of the Philadelphia & Reading Railroad, states
that " in a lot of over 75,000 tons of rail observed during a period of five years,
we have 15 times as many fractures in service from rails of coarse grain, or
19,600 cells per square inch, as from rails of medium fine structure, 48,400 cells
per square inch, and there is also a marked difference in capacity for wear in
favor of the finer structure rml. Out of sevaal thousand tons of rail now
(1905) in our tracks, made with a clause in the specifications requiring more
than 40,000 cells per square inch, only one rail has fractured in service, and that
owing to pipes in the steel in process of manufacture."
Dr. P. H. Dudley states that rails of 100-pound section with 48,000 to 70,000
cells per square inch after having sustained 250,000,000 tons in the track were
still in good condition.
The roiling tends to break down the grain and give a finer structure, but im-
mediately after the work stops the grain commences to grow ^ain, consequentiy
the lower the finishing temperature the smaller the grain size. If the steel is
worked below the critical point, strains are developed which injure the metal
and may rupture it. Work at too low a temperature distorts the gr^n or
flattens and elongates the crystals in the direction of the rolling.
* N. LjomiD, Chem. Zeit, 1899, Baumateri alien, 1S99, finds the tenacity in different Bt«dB Tarka
directly as the sise of the pearlite grains, at the same finiBhing temperaUiie.
>, Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 426
To thoroughly understand the effect of the rolling, it is necessary to study
the structural changes that take place in the cooling metal.*
Let us first consider the cooling curve of a copper bar, shown in Fig. 303.
We find here no evidaice of any sudden change in the nature of the cooling copper.
ISO'
so'
\
\
\
^
-^
Tim*
Fio. 303. — Cooling Curve ot Solid Copper.
(J. W. Mellor.)
V
\
■nezinK
\
\
X
■-^
TbM
Fia. 304. — Cooling Curve of Water.
(J. W. Mellor.)
If, however, a curve is drawn for water cooling down from 20° to -20° C,
we get a terrace in the coohng curve, as shown in Fig. 304. This tells us that
some change has taken place in the nature of the substance at 0°. We see at
\
■-^
l\
l,
\
^
L^
^
■ —
0 20 40 60 80 too Time
FiQ. 305. — RecaleBcence. (J. W. MeUor.)
once that this change corresponds with the passage of water from the liquid
to the solid state.
When a steel bar is coohng, an evolution of heat occurs at about 690° C.
The amount of heat evolved is so great that the metal visibly brightens in color.
The phenomenon is called " recalescence." The cooling curve is shown in
Fig. 305.
* See The Ciystallization of Iron and Steel, J. W. Mellor, 1006.
,y Google
426
STEEL RAIIfl
The cooling curve of iron from the molten condition is shown in Fig. 306.
The iron was practically pure, containing only .01 per cent of carbon.
Osmond maintains that the existence of the tranation points, Ar, and Arj,
in the cooling curve of the solidified metal points to the existence of three
allotropic modifications of solid iron. Each critical point is found to be associ-
ated with a change in the mechanical properties, the microscopic appearance,
and the specific gravity of the metal.
V.
Fr..,lnj
\,
600'
86C
S^
V
V
/
\
Ae,,.^
i
«s
f^
/
^
./
V
^
Fia. 306. — Cooling Curve of Iron.
(J. W MeUor.)
0 20 40 60 Time
Fio. 307. — Cooling and Heating Curves of
Steel. (J. W. Mellor.)
The changes which occur during the cooling of a substance are reversed
when the substance is heated. The cooling curve of steel, with 1.2 per cent
of carbon, shown in Fig. 307, is reversed on heating, as shown by the heating
curve in the same diagram.
The critical points on the heating curve of mild steel are generally a few
degrees higher than the corresponding points on the cooling curve.
Let us now consider what takes place when steel containing 0.6 per cent
carbon cools from 900° C. The cooling curve shows nothing very remarkable
until a temperature of about 720° C. is attuned. Here the critical points
Ar% and Ar^ of pure iron coalesce into one. At this point pure iron, or
ferrite, separates from the solid solution. The sejKiration of ferrite goes on
along the curve AF (Fig. 308) until the temperature reaches about 690" C,
when another recalescence point occurs (Ari). No other essential change, as
far as we are concerned, occurs as the system cools down to the normal tem-
perature of the atmosphere.
n,g. 308 is derived from Roozeboom's diagram,* the carbon-iron diagram,
• H. W. B. Rooseboom, Zeit. Phys. Chem., 34.437, 1900; improved in Zeit. Elektrochem.,
10,489, 1904; MetallographiBt, 3.293, 1900: H. le ChateUer, ibid., 3.290, 1900; 4.161, 1901; F. Osmood,
4.150, 1901; H. Jiiptner von JonBtorft, ibid., 5,210, 1902.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
427
400,
given by Howe,* based upon later researches, shows the temperatures some'
what higher than those of the figure.
When the temperature is above the hne APB the iron is in a form known
as "austenite." Whatever carbon is present is dissolved in this austenite,
which is what is called a "solid solution" as distinguished from a mechanical
mixture or conglomerate, just as salt and water, when brought in contact, merge
in each other and pass from the condition nooV
of a mixture or conglomerate to that of a
^ngle substance.
As the iron with 0.6 per cent carbon
cools and the line AP is reached the
austenite begins expeUing from itself part
of its iron in the form of ferrite. As the
ferrite thus expelled is nearly or quite free
from carbon, the remaining austenite be-
comes relatively richer in carbon, until,
when the temperature reaches Ati, it
contains 0.9 per cent carbon which is the
carbon content of pearlite. On cooling
past this point all the austenite changes into pearlite, with no change in the
ferrite which it has generated in the passage, along the line AP, so that the
steel now con^sts of a conglomerate of ferrite and pearlite. This conversion of
the austenite into pearhte is accompanied by a considerable evolution of heat,
and is shown by the recalescence curve of Fig. 305.
Steels containing just 0.90 per cent carbon, and hence consisting of pearlite
alone, are called "eutectoid " steels. Those containing less than this are called
"hypo^eutectoid," and those more than this, "hyper-eutectoid" steels.
As previously stated, work below the Ar^ point distorts t^e grain or flattens
and elongates the crystals in the direction of the rolUng.
The result of work above the An point is to retard the growth of the
grains. Howef explains the relation between the temperature of the hot work
and the size of the grain as follows:
The mechanical distortion in rolling elongates these gnuns in the direction
of rolling and shortens them in the plane of the pressure; this appears to throw
the metal crystallographically into unstable equilibrium, with the result that
Fia. 308.
1-S?i Carbon
- Cooling of "Solid Steel."
(J. W. Mellor.)
''life History of Network and Ferrite Grains lit CarboD St«el, H. I
Atnericfm Society for Testing Materials, Vol. XI, 1911, p. 266.
t H. M. Howe, Iron, Steel, and Other AlloyH, 1903, p. 262.
, Howe. Proceedings,
>, Google
428 STEEL RAIia
the old grains thus distorted break up, and that the metal rearranges itself into
new and equiaxed grains.
But these new grains assume a size normal, not to the temperature at which
the old ones had formed, but rather to the temperature now existing; during the
rolling the temperature is constantly falling; each pass through the rolls tends
more or less fully to break up the preexistii^ grain, and to substitute for it a
new grain of a aze more nearly normal to the
now lower temperature. To speak more accu-
rately, the new grain size approaches that
normal for the existing temperature; but the
result is much the same. For if each of a
succes^on of passes through the rolls breaks
up the existing grain, and substitutes for it a
new one, then ^ch new grain will be smalla-
than the preceding, because the normal towards
which it tends is smaller than the normal
towards which its' predecessor tended at t^e
higher temperature then existing.
Fig. 309 attempts to express this condi-
tion of affairs graphically. Here ordinates
represent temperature and abscissae coarseness
of grain. The line AciA may be taken as
representii^ roughly the normal size of grain,
D", which steel of g^ven composition tends to
assume with varying temperature, or the line
of normal coarseness of gnun. If the grain is
smaller than the normal for existing tempera-
ture, it always tends to grow and to approach
that normal. If it is coarser than that normal, it does not tend to shrink
back towards the normal, except when the temperature is riang past Act.
Let us suppose that we cease rolKng a piece of steel while its temperature
is at B, the mechanical work of the rolls having broken the grain down. During
subsequent cooling the grain will grow, somewhat as sketched in the Hne BCE.
If, however, we resume rolling when the grain has reached C, we will break down
' the grain, and drive it back, say to D. And so, keeping on, between passes the
grain grows and the temperature simultaneously falls, while at each pass the
squeeze which we give the metal breaks up the grain, and the curve of grain
and tempraature follows the zigzag line BCDG.
B 4 .
^^'
G
^
1 I
1 i
A -*> ,:
Ora//7 ' ^/>e
Fio. 309.— The Influence of the Finisb-
ing Temperature on theSizeof Grain.
(Howe.)
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 429
If we cease rolling when the temperature has fallen to G, then the grain
will grow as the metal cools, till the line of the actual size of grain intersects
that of the normal size, the line AciA ; with further cooling no further growth
ensues, and the final size of grain is OP. If we had quenched the metal while
at G, the final size of grain would have been OH. If we had ceased rolling
when the temperature was at B, the final size of grain in the cooled steel would
have been OE.
Generally speaking, the grain aze will be the coarser the higher the finish-
ing temperature. Fig. 310 illustrates this principle. This shows the micro-
structure of two like bars of the same steel, of which each had first been heated
Cooled to 993° C. Cooled lo S17" C.
Fio. 310. — Influence of Fioishing Temperature on the Size of the Grain of Steel
of 0.50 per cent CarboQ (Howe,)
to 1394° C, then cooled slowly to the temperature indicated in the figure, then
rolled, and then cooled slowly, so that these temperatures are the " finishing
temperatures." Note how much coarser the meshes are in A, finished at
963° C, than in B, finished at 837°.
Professor Sauveur's micrographs of r^l structure show that in the section
of a given rail, the network, or size of the walled cells, is the coarser the higher
the temperature at which the rolling is finished.*
According to Howe, when a piece like a rail, which is highly heated, is
rolled with such heavy reduction as to distort the austenite grains greatly, the
distorted and hence unstable grains immediately shatter, and their remans im-
mediately begin growing again by coalescence. This is repeated as often as the
piece is greatly reduced by the rolling. Each of the grains of austenite, formed
by coalescence after the last of these reductions, in cooUng down to the Ari
point, gives birth to a walled cell by ejecting to its outside the ferrite which it
generates. Hence it is the size which these austenite grains reach after this last
• Trans. Americtm Institute of Mining Engineers, Vol. XXII, 1893, pp. 546-557, and especially
Plat« IV and V.
,y Google
430 STEEL RAIIS
effective reduction that determines the network size of the cold steel, and as
regards the opportunity for network growth, the finishing temperature is the
equivalait of the highest temperature reached by objects not rolled.
This well-marked network common to rail steels is probably due to their
large manganese content, as otherwise, on account of their slow cooling, the
ferrite would coalesce and break up the network.*
\
r ._v-v>^
IH^r
'K^^^r^
^
M
c<
■S
i
^!
1
1
PMCTICW.
Fig. 311. — Diagram of Results of EicperimeDts on Rolling at Dififerent Temperatures.
This principle of governing the grain size by means of the finishing tempera-
ture is of very great importance. In general, we should be inclined by considera-
tions of economy of power to roil steel as hot as we dare, because the hotter it is
the softer it is, and the less power is consumed in rolling. But this would natu-
rally lead to a high finishing temperature, and thus to coarseness of gnun and
brittleness. Hence a high temperature is desirable as regards power consump-
tion, but unde^rable as regards the quality of the steel.
t Fig. 311 shows graphically the results of experiments made at the Spar-
• For iliufltration of thia cellular structure in rails aee Job, The Metallographist, Vol. 5, 1902,
pp. 177-191; P. H. Dudley, ibid., Vol. 8, 1903, p. HI.
t Tbe Manufacture and Properties of Iron and Steel, H. H. Campbell, 1904, p. 410.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 431
rows Point plant of the Maryland Steel Company. As in Fig. 309 ordinates
represent temperature and abscissae coarseness of grain, the grain growing
coarser from left to right. An ingot was rolled into blooms and two adjacent
blooms, "A" and " B," were rolled into rails without further heating, the first,
"A," bang held before rolUng in order to allow it to cool so that all work
should be done at as low a temperature as possible, without, of course, reaching
the lower critical point, while the second, "B," was rolled as quickly as possi-
ble through all the passes, except the last, but was then held at the finishing
pass If minutes; the result being that both pieces went through the finishing
pass at the same temperature, which was about 750° C. (1382° F.).
Fia. 312. — Rail " B" Near Surface, Fia. 313. — Rail "A" Near Surface,
46 Dia. — CampbeU. 46 Dia. — Campbell.
Fig. 312 shows " B " rail near the surface.
Fig. 313 shows " A " rail near the surface.
Fio. 314. — Rail "B" Center of Head, Fra. 315. — Rail "A" Center of Head,
46 Dia. — CampbeU. 46 Dia. — CampbeU.
Fig. 314 is from the center of the head of " B " rail.
Fig. 315 is from the center of the head of " A " rail.
While Figs. 312 and 313 appear similar. Figs. 314 and 315 show the real
difference between the two rollings. The last pass does very little work; there-
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
fore, holding the rail hefore the last pass does little good, except on the outer
surface of the rail, and a low shrinkage or finishing temperature does not neces-
sarily mean that the r^ will have a good grain throughout.
Fia. 316. — Top View at Top of Head, TO lb. Rail, Fic;. 317. — Top View at Ceoter of Head,
50 Dia. (Am. Ry. Eng. Aasn.) 70-lb. Rail, 50 Dia, (Am, Ry. Eng. Amd.)
Fia. 318. —Side View at Top ot Head, 70-lb. Rail, Fig. 319. —Side View at Center of Head,
50 DU. (Am. Ry. Eng. .\s.sn.) 70-lb. Rail, 50 Dia. (Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.)
Figs. 316 to 321 presented by Wickhorst* illustrate the different grain found
in the top and center of a new 70-pound Bessemer ral. A section about { inch
• Flow of Rail Head under Wheel Loada, M. W. Wickhoral, Am. Ry. Eng. & M. ot W. Aflsn.,
Vol. 12, Part 2, 1911, p. 535.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 433
tJuek was taken from, the rail and two pieces cut from it for microscopic test,
as shown in Fig. 322. These pieces were polished on three sides, etched with
Fia.320.— Transverse View at Top of Head, 70-lb. Flo. 321, —Transverse View at Center of
Rail, 50Dia. (Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.) Head, 70-lb. Rail, 50 Dia. (Am. Ry.
Eng. Assn.)
10 per cent solution of nitric acid in alcohol, and microphotographs made, mag-
nified 50 diameters. Thus, horizontal, vertical transverse, and vertical longi-
tudinal sections were obtained at
the top and at the center of the
head.
There will always be some
difference between the structure of
the center of the head and the por-
tion near the surface, but when the
rail is rolled at a proper temperature
during the passes, when considerable
work is put upon the piece, this
difference will not be serious.
The effect of finishing temper-
ature is not fully agreed upon, and
many rolling-mill men feel that
the properties of the steel depend
quite as much on the amount of
reduction in the rolls as upon Qie finishing temperature.
Fia. 322. — Pieces tor Microscopic Viewa shown in
Figs. 316 to 321.
,y Google
434 STEEL RAILS
* To try to arrive at some concluaon in this matter, a number of tempera-
ture readings were taken with both the Fery and Wanner pyiximeters and
checked against a thermo-couple at one or two large plants. For steel rails the
finishing temperatures as indicated by the optical pyrometers averaged 1050
to 1100° C.;t for structural steel, 950 to 1000° C. And yet such material is not
coarse-grained. (Reheating to such a temperature would give rail steel a very
coarse grain.) A difference of over 100° C. in finishing temperature could not
be detected in the size of grain, but a difference in section could very soon be
noticed. Similar results can be reached experimentally by rolling out small
sections at different temperatures. A section heated to 1300° C. and rolled
out with 30 per cent reduction showed about the same sized grain as one heated
to 1300° C, cooled to 900°, and rolled out, the finishing temperature being about
700° C.
The question of rolling at a low temperature is one that has occupied the
minds of engineers for a long time, and the fact that at present no solution has
been made which is satisfactory to both the manufacturer and the consumer
is evidence that it is not easily put aade.
In rolUng early rails it was recognized that mechanical defects would be de-
veloped to a greater or less ejrtent by the rolling process, and therefore the bloom,
about 7 inches square, was conveyed from the blooming rolls to a steam hammer
by which all visible cracks or defects were chipped out, care being taken to cut
to the bottom of the imperfection, and not leave any pronounced shoulders at
the edges of the resulting depressions; and until the adoption of automatically
operated tables attached to the rail rolls, if the partially formed r^ls still showed
defects, the operation of rolling was halted, while such places were chipped out
by hand. These were usual practices, and were not abandoned because of their
results being unsatisfactory, but on account of the time consumed and the
expense incurred.
In the formation of the grooves in the rolls much damage can be and often
is done to the steel. With the object of increasing the product of a given mill,
the ingot is rolled off at one heat, with heavy reductions in each pass so as to
reduce the number of passes and consequentiy the time taken in rolling.
It is interesting to turn to the following review of the English practice by
Mr. Talbot: t " Our practice '& to take large ingots and have a furnace between
* Some Practical ApplicatiooB of Metallography, Campbell, Proceedinp American Society for
Testing Materials, Vol. VIII, 1908, p. 353.
t These temperatures are from 100 to 200 degrees hinher than the usual practice.
t On Rail Steel as Manufactured by the ContiouoUB Open-hearth Procees, Talbot. Proceedings
American Society for Testing Materiab, Vol. VII, 1007.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 436
the cogging and finishing mills,* which has the effect of acting as an equalizer
so that the blooms are delivered to the finishing mill at ^i even temperature,
making the bar more easily shaped, and the flange of the rail is sent out of the
finishing groove at a temperature nearer to that of the head than has hitherto
been possible. This, no doubt lessens the strains set up in cooling on the hot
banks. Our practice is to increase the number of passes, decrease the amount
of reduction per passj and get the product by increased speed of the rolls and
not by digging into and tearing the metal, as is done in the case where too few
passes and heavy drafts are adopted.
" With regard to rolling temperature, we may say we roll a 100-poimd rml
in lengths which give, after crops are cut off, three lengths of 10 meters. The
first length is cut within 15 to 20 seconds after leaving the finishing groove of
the mill, and on this we allow 71 inches shrinkage. The next length is cut within
35 to 50 seconds from leaving groove, and here 7} inches is allowed. The third
is within 60 to 80 seconds, and 7 inches is allowed for shrinkage. Of course these
allowance only apply to 100-pound rails; less allowance is made in lighter rmls."
t At one of the large rail mills they formerly had a table on which the rails
were held before they went through the finishing pass. The scheme of holding
the rail before the finishing pass, where only a small amount of work is put upon
the metal, as illustrated in P^gs. 312, 313, 314, and 315, while giving a low
finishing temperature, does not necessarily decrease the size of the grain.
Starting with such a scheme as a basis and designing the rolling mill to
hold the pieces to allow them to cool before the passes where the most work
is done, and also arranging for the sorting out of the blooms to equalize the
finishing temperature, would give a better arrangement and would have merit
if applied to mills where the rails are finished too hot as a direct result of pro-
ducing large tonnage. However, even with the most careful manufacture, a
certain amount of heat on the bloom is necessary in order to take the A. S. C. E.
sections through with the flanges properly filled out, and it will not be possible
to reduce this temperature without the danger of the breakage of rolls, improper
filling out of the flange, and additional strains in the steel, which are necessarily
detrimental, unless the design is changed to make all parts of the section more
nearly in balance as to the temperature of finish.
An interesting experiment may be tried on a tee rail, which has been finished
and str^ghtened. Take 6 or 8 feet of rail and place it on a planing machine
and cut the head off the web at the point where the web joins the head, and both
* Thia is customary at a. number of rolling mills in America.
t Eenoedy-MorrisoD Frocwa. The Iron Age, December 20, 1900, pp. 16-18.
>, Google
436
BTEEL RAIIfi
the head and bottom portion will spring out of a str^ght line, sometimes to a
very marked extent, thus showing that great internal strains are there. This
is a condition that cannot be avoided by the manufacturer without some help
from the rail deagner.
The better distribution of metal in the new American Railway Association
sections gives a rail that can not only be rolled at a lower temperature, but
which is much less liable to injury in the straightening press.
The rolling of these rails has developed some surprises. It was expected
that the rails could be rolled at a lower temperature than the old sections, and
that the shrinkage allowance could be reduced; but it was found that under
the same conditions the new section would require a greater shrinkage allowance
than the old. The rails were unquestionably rolled colder than the old section,
with the exception of the thin flange, but it was this thin flange that determined
the shrinkage of the old rails. In going through the cambering wheels the head
was stretched, giving the hot head a greater length for shrinkage than the base.
In the new section the temperature is nearly uniform and much colder than the
head of the old rail was, but no part of the new rail is as cold as the thin base
of the old rail; consequently a greats shrinkage allowance is required.
At Gary* the ingots are bloomed to 8 by 8 Inches in 9 passes and finished
in 9 passes, making a total of 18 passes from ingot to rail. The reduction of
the rail is from 400 square inches at the bottom of the ingot to 10.1 square inches,
or a reduction of 39 times. The areas of the various passes, as furnished by the
Steel Company at Gary, of their section 10030, which is the A. R. A. type " B "
100-pound ral, are as follows:
P^K^b..
Am
I Pw Number.
a™..
SqWre InehesT
Square Inches.
Ingot
400
10
43,2
376.6
1 11
32,9
2
2S2.4
1 12
25.2
3
214. S
13
21.5
4
164 8
14
17.8
5
130 3
15
16.4
6
107 9
16
13.2
7
88.9
17
10.7
8
70.8
IS
10.1
'
589
At the Maryland Steel Company f the blooms remain in the soaking pit
about 1 hour and 25 nunutes, and are rolled to 7f by 7f-inch blooms in 13 passes,
the top end of the ingot forward, and turned after each two passes. The blooms
■ Report to Rail Committee, ProceedinRB Am. Ry. Eng. & M. of W. Aasn., Vol. 12, Part 2,
1911, p, 430.
t Report to RaU Committee, ProceedinKs Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., Vol. 12, Part 2, I9!l, p. 388.
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
437
are rolled directly into rails without reheating, in 11 passes, making a total of
24 passes from ingot to rail. The area of cross section in square inches in the
various passes for the A. R. A. type " B " 90-pound rail, Maryland Steel
Company, section No. 162, is about as follows:
TABLE XCIII.— REDUCTION OF AREA IN 90-LB. A. R. A. TYPE "B" RAILS ROLLED
AT MARYLAND STEEL COMPANY
Ingot
Blooming..
Blooming. .
Blooming..
Blooming. .
Blooming. .
Blooming. .
Blooming, .
Blooming. .
Blooming.
Blo<
ling
I' Blooming.
' Blooming.
I Blooming.
. Roughing.
! Roughing
[ Roughing
Roughing.
10
1.7- '
.• n
■1 12
74
1 13
58
'1 1
,1 2
34.4
3
31.3
.1 i
23.1
Roughing. . . .
Roughing. . . .
Intermediate.
Intermediate.
Intermediate,
Intermediate,
Finishing. . . .
21.5
J7,8
16-0
15.2
12.3
Table XCIV presents data on American rolling-mill practice. Fig. 323
shows the arrangement of the rail mill of the Algoma Steel Company's plant.
This consists of one 32-inch rev. bloom mill, three Seimens heating furnaces
for reheating the blooms, and one 23-inch three-high rail mill.
Plate XXX illustrates a reversing cogging mill and Plate XXXI and
f^g. 324 three-high mills. The left hand illustration of Fig. 325 shows a set
of rolls for use in a three-high mill, according to common English practice, in
which the bottom and middle rolls are grooved to receive the rail, while the
"closers" are on the middle and top rolls, and the guards to peel the bars out
of the grooves rest by gravity on the bottom and middle rolls.
In the American three-high mill, shown on the same figure, the top and
bottom rolls are grooved and the middle roll serves as the "closer" for each of
the others, itself carrying no grooves at all; to enable the bare to be got out of
the top groove, the upper guard must be placed on the upper dde of the bar as
it issues from the roll, and as it will not lie there by gravity, the guard has ^o
be kept up to the roll by a counterweight or spring, and is known as a balanced
guard.*
f^g. 326 shows the three-high rolls in the r^l mill at Gary. fThis mill is
equipped with 12 sets or stands of roll trains, all operated at varying speeds by
General Electric alternating-current motors, some of which are of the largest
* steel, by Harbord and HaU, London, 1911, p. 625.
t Raiboad Age Gazette, November 13, 1908, and The Iron Age, April 1, 1900.
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
TABLE XCI v. — DATA ON AMERICAN ROLUNG-MILL PRACTICE
(CompilalbyCamiiutUionRul, Am. Ry. E«. Amb., im, ukl revioKiby themotbor IllS)
N
mbarof
!
1
pl
■
Bloami(« Hill.
PuMin
p- .
1
8ailT««.
IJ
2
taS).
r ,■
P
m
RullfUI.
1
¥
II
r
1
i
i
!
So. In
I'
i
m. ».
Al«onuiSt«JC(..
Ou>adiaoeoo,
Cauda.
181 -xim
tl 30
ts'xs-
It
B
*
M
Bknnia rehaitMl.
tBtthlabem Slsd
B«Lhl«baiD.
1B-X23'
1 20
S-X8-
M 8
2«
1
Co.
Pa.
hit taken Inm molik
■ltd are railed direcl irith-
oul lurlhcr reheati^.
'Cambria SMel Co
)obanawi.P..
M'xa-
1 ii
si'xio-
t
iS 00
a
S M
liwoli! an nbHted, rolled
into blooins. mtxia w«-
heated and nlM iaio
prior' to GabgbiH pui.
Cani«ii*3l»ICo
Breddock. Pa.
"'"'
SJ'XW
m
(M
liKOU are rebHted. roUsd
into bk»nik mil- re-
bMtad and railed inia
laUs. Uaib an «iren a
EniahiBi PH. oThom
1 min, lo t mia. 41 sec.
CanacieSlaelCo
Braddock, P..
Hi'xisr
Old mill. Lii^ltHla.
Raila sol bM belir^
ICiniMig Steri Co.
Y«™iowa.
Ohio,
l»'X!l'
»
8'X8-
»
10
■
3im
JO
4 »
pa».
Colnrado Fud A
Pueblo, Colo.
SydMy.
Canada.
wxzr
17
10
;
38
Iron Co.
t Dominion Iron A
StaalCo.
•IlllBoaaUBiCo,
a Chiowo.III
tl8'XI9i"
tso
8'XS'
31 W
Raib bald 30 to 80 ncoida
Indiwia StaaL Co.
Gary, Ind.
9
8
,
18
before Rniahint Pua.
No rett prior to fiaiabinc
•L.^™™ St-l
Bdffnio, N. Y.
IB'XIB*
i «
8'XS'
e
4
«
4» i
IS
S i
'MaryUiud Stari
Sparrows PI.,
M'XSI*
! 10
^'XTI'
13
,
,
m
M
5 00
l^u an rebaated aflar
Md.
lad aie rolled direcl wiib-
OBt further batii«. No
r«t i. livs. ocapt ibai
SleelloD. Pa.
!8('X181'
rrx7i-
0
6
30
StnlCo.
bSrslSTcS^" "
tTnuiMH Coal.
M
■to«"
lmi.*R.R.Co.
Ala.
in Irom R. W. HuoiA Cto., t
which waa obtained di
t Compiled by autbor.
sizes ever constructed for industria service. These are housed in a separate
bay, or lean-to, running parallel with the rolls. The rotors are 20 feet in
diameter and have a speed of 83 revolutions per minute. All of the motors are
connected directly to the roll trdns by regular mill couplings. Although the
motors are provided with flywheels and run in one direction, provision is made
for reverang in case of necessity. The control system has been worked out
with the greatest nicety, all operations being under the instant control of the
operator by means of a master controller.
The first group of rolls consists of four stands of continuous 40-inch mills,
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
Fio. 324. — Housing for 28-inch Three-high MiU. (HEirbord and Hall.)
ish Three-high Rail Mill, American Three-high Rail Mill.
Fro, 325, — Rolb used in Three-high Rait Mills. (Harbord and Hall.)
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 441
each two of which are driven by a 2000-h.p. motor. They are arranged in
tandem, requiring no manipulation from stand to stand. Here, as elsewhere
through the plant, sufficient distance is left between successdve sets of rolls to
enable a quarter turn of the ingot or bloom to be made, so that it is worked
equally on all sides. The first two mills are equipped with 42-inch rolls,
enabling 20-inch by 24-inch ingots to be used. After passing these four mills
the ingot is sent to a 40-inch three-high blooming mill equipped with lifting
Fia. 326. —Three-high Rolle in the lUil MiU at Garr. (Scientific American.)
tables and arranged with a combined hydraulic and pneumatic balancing device.
This mill, which is driven by a 6000-h.p. motor, gives the ingot five passes.
After being bloomed the ingot is sheared in a 10-inch by 10-inch horizontal
blooming shear, and the crop ends or butts are taken outside of the mill by a
butt conveyor of unusual construction, which was designed and built by the
engineers of the Indiana Steel Company. Each bloom then goes through a
28-inch roughing null, which is three-hi^ and equipped with tilting tables.
This null has three stands or rolls. The roughing stand, however, is the only
one that is three-high, the other two stands being two-high. The mill is driven
.y'Google
4^ STEEL RAILS
by a 6000-h.p. motor and ^ves the bloom three passes. After leaving the rough-
ing mill the bloom goes through a two-hi^ 28-inc:h forming mill driven by a
2000-h.p. motor, receiving but one pass. Then it is sent to finishing mills, which
consist of five stands of 28-inch mills driven by two 6000-h.p. motors.
After the dummy pass, the bloom is transferred to the first edging, which
is in this same mill but the second stand, and turns back on an elevated table
to the second edging, which is in line with the 28-inch rou^ng mill. It then
travds by chain transfer to the lower tables and on the leading pass goes through
DUMMY 2e''x40"
l»T ROUGHING F»SS
28"X60"
Pass Diagram, Rail Mill, Illinois Steel Company, South Works.
2>f> R0U6HING FV^SS
ZB'x-56"
Pia. 327. -
a stand, which is also in hne with the roughing mill and driven by the same
motor, and continues on to the third stand of the 28-inch finishing mill, this
being the eighteenth and last pass. After the finishing pass the rail travels
through to the saws, of which there are five provided, thus cutting four rails to
length. These four rail lengths consist of half the ingot. As the capacity of
this mill is 4000 gross tons per 24 hours, it will be seen that there must be a
four-rail length sawed about every half-minute. The saws have 42-inch
blades, arranged to be raised and lowered in unison by one controller from
the hot-saw operator.
The pass diagram of the rail mill at the South Works plant of the Illinois
Steel Company is illustrated in F^g. 327. The Bessemer ingot is 18 inches by
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
*%!
>, Google
444 STEEL RAILS
19i inches, the heating capacity is 192 ingots (24 single-hole pits). The ingot
is worked direct to rail without reheating. The blooming mill is 40-inch pitch
diameter three-high, and the ingot is ^ven 9 passes and reduced to an 8-inch by
8-inch or 8-inch by 8J-inch bloom. The number of rail lengths rolled are three
and four.
The finishing mill eonasts of one stand 28-inch P. D. three-high first rough-
ing rolls, one stand 28-inch P. D. two-high second roughing rolls, one stand 28-
inch P. D. two-high dummy rolls,one stand 28-inch P.D. three-high finishing rolls.
The number of passes from ingot to rail is as follows:
Blooming 9
First roughing 3
Second roughing 1
Dummy 1
Finiahing. 4
Total 18
Fig. 328 presents the general arrangement of the rail mill.
Table XCV shows the shrinkage allowed by American rail mills and
Fig. 329 the lengths of saw runs.
TABLE XCV. - SHRINKAGE ALLOWED BY
(Compitod byCommitlaeon Ruil. Am. Ry. En*. Amu., 190
AMERICAN RAIL
V. und reviBKl by the author
MILLS
912)
No. of
Rail Mill.
LooatioD.
Tim.
of
Saw
Ruu.t
SbriDkac* Alloirad by Milla on 33-IaoI Raili.
iMhs.
I.
T*
BO
ss
M
M 1 IH
Algoma Steel Co...
■Bethlehem Steel Co.
•Cambria Steel Co. . .
Carnegie Steel Co. .
Carnegie Steel Co. . .
Carnegie Steel Co. . ,
Colo. Fuel & Iron Co
EJominion Iron &
Steel Co
•Illinois Steel Co....
Indiana Steel Co.. ,
•Lackawanna Steel
Co
•Maryland Steel Co...
•PennBylvania Stee!
Co
Tenn. Coal, Iron &
R.R.CO
Canadian Soo, Canada.
Bethlehem, Pa
Johnstown. Pa
35
20
17-19
12-14
'12-17
*i7"
10-20
16
26
5
27
6
6
il
6i
2
3
6
51
6A
1
.,'*.l ?
Braddock! Pa
I'
6i
6 "
ti
61
•1
6«
11
it
is
V
61
ei
8
9
Sydney, Canada
South 6hicago, 111.
::::;. 1
11
12
13
14
Buffalo, N. Y
Sparrows Point, Md.
StMlton, Pa
6
1 a
1
Nm. ~ labmutiao Imm R. W. Hmt A Co.. ucspt that marksd (■}. wbicb vas ot
t Time It wcoDili anwuiMd ham tbe tima rail luvas Hniihinc rolts tilt sair dropa.
After leaving the saw the rals pass through the cambering machine and
are ^ven a head sweep (Fig. 330) of from 3 to 8 inches, the A. S. C. E. sectjon
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MAKUFACTHEE
SAW RUNS
SAW NO I 2
- 2O7-0" -
'I,., °1
SAW NO, I I 1 1 RAIL STOP
— 105'- O"
SANV NO.
ii—^
I ll RAIL i
"J 'r
-154-2" ►
^fcfc
— 2J8'-0" -
JL 'I °l
- 69 -O' — »
SAW NQI I a I 5 1
Fio. 329. — Saw Runs of Amerioan Rail MMIa. (See Table XCV for number of millfl.)
requiring a greater ordinate than the A. R. A. rails. The rails then pass to the
hot beds and after bang allowed to cool are transferred to the gagging or cold-
straightening presses (Rg. 331).
Fia. 330. — Head Sweep.
In the heavier A. S. C. E. sections the gagging or straightening of the rail
after it leaves the rolls and is cooled in the hot beds tends to develop injurious
strains in the base and web. In some of the most modem English plants the
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
rails are run while still hot through straightening rolls, thus much reducing
the labor of final straightening.*
Fiu, 331 . — Cold StraightenJDg Press, MarylaDd Steel Company.
After straightening, the rails are inspected, drilled, reinspected, and loaded
on cars for shipment. Many rails were formerly damaged in loading, but at
several mills the use of a magnetic crane is now employed for loading the rails.
The brand on rails gives the name of the manufacturer, a number or abbrevia-
tion by which the rail section is designated, the month and year of manufacture,
* 3. von Schukowski advocates Btrai^htening rails while still hot. Das richlen voa eisenbafan-
Bchienen im katten und warraen zuatande. Stahl und Eiaen, Vol. 27 (1907), Ft. 1, p. 797.
,y Google
^ i
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
447
and, if the metal is open-hearth steel, the letters "O. H." are also added. Some-
times the letters "F. T." are added to signify ferro-titanium steel. Square
block letters and figures about one inch high are commonly used, and, as these
are cut into one of the rolls of the last pass, the brand will always appear slightly
r^sed at regular intervals on the web of the rail. The month is generally
shown by Roman numerals, as VII for July, and sometimes by a series of I's,
as mil for May.
-
*^
1
r
17
J
\
^
■b
•s
^ Jk
rr
o
-~ ~~
te
EMPERAT
RE IN •
66 1020 sao
Fia. 332. — Value of V/E for Tables XCVI, XCVII and XCVIIL
The number representing the heat, blow or melt of steel, and the letter
to indicate the position of the rail in the .ingot is stamped on the web of the
rail with dies while it is still red hot, but after it has been completely rolled and
sawed to length. As the brand always appears in raised letters, and the heat
number and letter is stamped on no confusion of the two should exist.*
A series of experiments were made in Germany by Dr. Puppef to determine
the power required to roll different sections. As this investigation presents
many features connected with the design of the section and rolls and the effect
of the temperature on rolling, it will be of interest to briefly review Dr. Puppe's
work as it relates to the heavier weights of rails examined.
The reverang mill on which these tests were made consisted of one cogging
mill houang and three finishing mill housings. A flywheel converter set of
the Ilgner system served to equalize the fluctuations of the power taken. The
mill was driven by three motors rigidly coupled together, and connected in ;
* R. W. Hunt and Company, 1121, The Rookery, Chicago, 111., have published in convenient
Torm full information in r^^axd to the practice of branding and stamping at the different mills.
t Experimental Investigationa on the Power Required to Drive Rolling Mills, J. Puppe, London,
19L0. See also iot a fuU treatise of this subject Steel, Hatbord and Hall, London, 1011, pp. 666-741.
,y Google
44S
STEEL RAI1£
series electrically; they had an aggregate output of 3600 H.P. normal and
10,350 H.P. maximum at a speed of 110 r.p.m.
Tables XCVI, XCVII and XCVIII contain the results of the tests with
the heavier rails. The second line of the tables gives the time taken by the
pass (in seconds) determined from the rise and fall of the current and jrowa-
Line 3 gives the time intervals (in seconds) between successive passes which
were determined in the same way as the times of the passes. The time interval
between the first and second passes is given in the colunm headed " pass 1,"
that between second and third passes in the column headed " pass 2," and so on.
The last column contains the sum of all the figures in the preceding columns.
Fia. 333. — Diagnun of Coding Rolls, Tables XCVI, XCVU and XCVIII, Dimensiona in Millimetera.
The energy given up, or stored by, the flywheel and other rotating masses
was calculated from the speed ou^es and the moments of inertia.
To arrive at the light-load loss, the average speed was determined, and the
light-load loss was obtained by multiplying the power taken to drive the mill
hght at this speed by the time.
The total work done in rolhng the bar up to any pass is the sum of the work
done in each individual pass up to that point, taking due account of the motor
eflSciency and leaving out the work expended m accelerating the moving parts
or in light-load losses, copper losses, etc. Frequently, the section of the ingot
during the first few passes could be determined only roughly, and then the laigth
of the bar after the second or third pass was taken as unity, and the summation
of the work done in rolling commenced correspondingly later.
The areas of the cross sections of the bar or ingot were obtained wherever
posable by cutting trial pieces off the bar, and measuring the area directly by
a planimeter. It was not always possible to cut samples from the bars during
the roughing passes, as the bar was too large for the bloom shears or hot saws,
and in such cases the cross-sectional area was obtained from the scale showing
the position of the rolls, while sections were cut from the bar in the last two
passes, and the area measured as a check. It is often found that billets are
,y Google
>, Google
p
'Sy^rmnmW^lP'lh
"' ^i 1P»^gPi§"l i^''l ^ !
5^; iHj ;||i8sg§i§|^s;| i=i"i = g
-:-^ap^^P#-iiii"i
= 5
«;:»i;j|;ssp8j|5"|j§'^iij
i;^S6:jiis3psgri|i=--iSj
2'S jSss
p^
is:,5s:#.p^r=iir-|ig
==*-^
S:: S;,
:6.|Si§|!Bgf-S.
1%
"3 ;;=8 ;pss»;8a8.f "I
..B„ ,
:=::S.B:||ss.p8Bf"||is--|i|
Mi
13
II
I
an
m
m
in
! ill; i
lili
i
iili!
ipil
■-"II «
>, Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
I m ill 1 1
P
"'' i^"! :S}°^-iP W"|
I ^
114
III!
fijllll
>, Google
-=5 ;3SJ ;i|SJS||gJiS3-| P'^"|
'5
^Hw^^ww^i
"-Mmum^-s^lij
"'N:jpss|i5gf"|P--|ig I
^mmnimw^s^lij] \
I
11
^m^mmmw^l^ih
21=;:
' :!F8^g88ap=-|
ir-jij
IFili
^ «i ;||Bss|u||S::|
2'! ;3Si
:S.E.iS!SISaiS"i
S3s;aigp,,„„,;:g,|ffigij
>, Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
= 1
'== ;=5i ||isajis8.|'="5 |5s""i i §
-" H ;gps=ps|f ==| pi-"! s 1
"5= Issi ;|iB8ss.sasr^3| |5s--i s =
d
^1 •
Ii ■
-"^ ;S=i ;tS!5sp5||5:-| |jj-=i i 5
a ■
-sis pSj ;|p3S|5|!|»==| ||i"-i i 3.
"-= ;'=i ^S|B|5|.SSi§»=^| A^"l 3 §
-"= :s5i ;g|ij!.iS5p5S=j |p--| s 8^
nmimyiiHiNi
i:
a :
ft
1
1
ii
i
it
!
>, Google
a
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
asia sslg § «
!al8 s5l3 S 1
s ; ; . : . — :
1.
a
= := ;=«S. ||.»3S||s|,|S=5 ;
.9
r
a
5-!iS3=isssisiS»8IS=" :
If
u
S^S ig =: g
»
== - — :
1
s
5|
'■" i- ' 1
a
S2o « „„„
P
— 5 ■ *
s
'aSEesiiijJjjajpjs:! :
J
F
sM ;| 5 1
5
"■ ■ ;S=j ||=«5S||8f s=
|j
■8
=
""^:^^iiil=-pilf=
P
=
— ;2S| sssssiisgic"
P
8S= :| n 1
3
•2= ;=s| ii|8ss|58.||»='-| 1 ie-"| = s.
a
•S= ;»!ii ;?s5gsiissss::j | liiii i j
J
■a
1
li Bi.
iii IL
i
1
11
SI
ll
p
>, Google
456 STEEL RAILS
rolled to different cross sections in the same grooves in the cogging mill, but this
is because the position of the screwing-down gear is altered.
The cross sections of the ingot in each pass with the reversing cogging mills
were determined from the position of the top roll. A special pointer was fixed
to the top roll, which indicated the position of this roll on a vertical scale pro-
vided for the purpose. The length of ingot or bar was calculated from its cross
section and weight. The crop ends were frequently cut off by bloom shears
after the roughing passes, in which case a corresponding allowance was made
in the calculations for the finishing passes.
nzn
Fig. 335. — Sectiona in which only "Direct Presaiire" occuta in the Proeeaa of Rolling. (Puppc.)
The elongation was calculated from the cross sections and the lengths, such
calculations often being based on the cross section after the second or third pass,
in order to obtain greater accuracy, as already mentioned. The " volume dis-
placed " is obtained by multiplying the reduction in cross section by the length
of the billet before the pass in question, i.e., {Qi - Qa) X L„, where d = the
cross section of the ingot or billet before the pass, ft = the cross section after
the pass, and L,, - length of billet before the pass.
In rolling there are two means by which the
pressure is applied to the bar, viz., " direct " and
" indirect " pressure. By direct pressure " is
meant pressure which exists between the surfaces
of two rolls, as, for example, with rolls grooved
as shown in Fig 335.
The term ' indirect pressure " will be used
to denote the pressure usually existing between
the groove sides of one and the same roll, which
produces principally a reduction in a horizontal
direction (width) and not in a vertical direction
(height), as is the case with the sections shown
Fia. 336. — lUustratioo of "Indirect In F^g. 335. The following example will make
Pressure." (Puppe.) this dear:
If the flange of a rail (Fig. 336) be pressed in such a manner that its thick-
ness 0-6 and a'-b' is reduced, then this must be due to indirect pressure along
the whole line from c to d and c' to d'. It will be noticed that indirect pressure
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE 457
takes place here both between the sides of the groove of the same roll as also
between the two rolls.
Where the j)articles move solely in an axial direction along the bar, the
energy required to accomplish this displacement is directly proportional to the
product (Qi — Qi) X L,„ in which Qi and Qi represent the cross sections of two
consecutive passes, and L„ the length of bar corresponding to the cross section
Qi. For shortness, we will denote this product, which represents the volume
displaced, by V. The fraction (Q^ - Q^) ^X L^A^'^ f- ^^-^ depends on the
*^ •' work done m rolling {m m. kg.)
plasticity of the material, and, therefore, to a large extent on the temperature.
By plotting a curve with the above fraction calculated for each pass as ordi-
nates, and the corresponding temperatures as abscissae, we can obtain from this
the number of cubic millimeters of material which will be displaced per m. kg.
at various temperatures.
Let us now investigate the case in which the particles of the metal do not
move mainly in an axial direction along the bar, but also at right angles thereto.
A simple example is that of a bar which is flattened out by rolls having no grooves
to restrict the movement sideways.
The angle of inci^on into the bar should be such as not to cause excessive
spreading. Incisions at acute angles naturally cause greater spreading than
inciaons at obtuse angles, but very often the proper form at the first passes can
only be obtained by incision of the bar at an angle from about 40° to 60°,* in
which case a considerable amount of lateral
spreading cannot be avoided. It is then
advisable to facilitate lateral spreading and
not to hinder the movement too much by
Uie sides of the grooves.
When designing rolls, successive profiles
should be arranged in such a way as to
obtain a smooth carve for V/E free from
such sudden jumps as occur, for instance, f,«. 337. _ Effect of Inclin^Jion of inner
in th6 curves in Fig. 332. It need hardly Surface ot the Rail Flange on Energy re-
be said that the roUing of simple sections, "^"^ " ^^'"'- f^""^-*
such as flats, squares, rounds, etc., requires less power than the more compli-
cated rail sections in which the flow of the metal is brought about by indirect
pressure, and where the loss due to friction gainst the ades of the grooves is
great. This loss should, of course, be kept as low as posable, and equally dia-
* Bartholme, Stahl usd Eiaea, 1907, p. 68.
,y Google
458 STEEL RAII^
tributed amongst the various passes. It can be reduced to a nunimum l^
making the angle oo (Fig. 337) as small as possible, so as to obtain a large com-
ponent a.
From the point of view of economy in energy consumption when rolling
rmls, it is very desirable that the inner surfaces of their flanges be inclined as
much as possible. If, however, the inclination of the inner surfaces, or the
thickness of the finished flange, has been fixed, the amount of indirect pressure
required for the formation of the flange can be reduced to a minimum by
working it as thin as possible at the first forming pass.
To sum up, the power required for complicated sections is greater than for
simpler sections of the same final cross-sectional area, but this extra power
depends to a very large extent on the skill with which the rolls are designed.
If the rolls have the most favorable shape, the values for Y JE for the various
passes will be consistent with one another.
Plate XXXII contains curves which are calculated from the tests. The
shaded areas represent the energy supplied by the motors to the mill, and cover,
therrfore, not only the work required for actual rolling, but also the power
required for running tiie mill light and for accelerating. The power taken by
the cogging mill generally increases towards the end of the pass, owing to the
acceleration of the rotating masses and the increase in the no-lead losses.
The same holds good for a few of the roughing and finishing passes. At liie
last passes, however, the power taken decreases when the maximum speed has
been attained, and the rotating masses are no longer accelerated. The peaks
at the beginning of the ciUTes for the last passes are due to this cause. The
relatively high peak in the lower curve for pass No. 23 may be explained by the
fact that maximum speed was reached in a very short time, as indicated by
the sharp rise in the speed curve.
The speed curve (Plate XXXII) usually drops rapidly when the ingot enters
the rolls, and sometimes it even falls to zero, and then rises again. Frequently
the speed increases suddenly at the end of the pass, especially in cogging mills.
These irregularities in speed are due to careless manipulation of the driver's
lever. In reversing mills the kinetic energy of the rotating masses is seldom
used to assist the motor, but it does happen occasionally.
From the acceleration curve (Fig. 338). it will be seen that a very large
amount of energy is requu^ to accelerate the rotating masses of a reverang
mill; for instance, about 5300 h.p.-minutes are reqmred to bring the rotating
masses of this reverang mill up to a speed of 120 r.p.m. Assuming that tiie
average speed is only 80 r.p.m., and that there are 20 passes, this means that
,y Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
459
48,000 h.p.-minutes are expended in accelerating the rotating masses per ingot.
This is a large percentage of the total energy required for rolling. It must be
noted, howevo", that in the case of electrically driven reversing mills the energy
expended in accderating the rotating masses is largely returned again in the
form of electric energy when the speed decreases, so that the net amoimt of
energy required for acceleration purposes is not considerable. Where reverang
-
~
~
'~
'~
~
J
t
^~
JIW
""IZI-
_ -iZ: -
I
\-l-^. _
aeoo
:z : :
_,. _ . .
/
^
}
/
Jllk
/
'
»
-A
f
L
1
'i«
«:
9
.!
ulr.
ti ao m m M
Fig. 338. — Work done in Accelerating the Rotating Masses in Reversing Mill. (Puppe.)
steam en^nes are employed, however, the work done in accelerating the rotating
masses is lost, and this should he borne in mind when deciding whether for a
given mill a reverable engine or a flywheel engine is best.
Rails after becoming so worn in the track as to be unfit for further service may
be rerolled into new sections. A consdderable tonnage of such r^ has been re-
rolled by the McKenna process at a cost of about $7.00 pa- ton. The advantages
claimed for this process are:
BTret. That the worn rail is selected material, as the imperfect rails have been
eliminated to a large extent during the time the rails have been in service.
,y Google
460
STEEL RAILS
Second. The rerolling puts additional mechanical work upon the material,
which should improve its quaKty.
The practical difficulties in connection with the process may be summarized
as follows:
Ilrst. The rail must not be worn beyond a co-tain degree, as tiiere must re-
main in the head of the rml a suffident amount of metal to form the new head.
The metal from the base and flange cannot be made to flow into the head to make
up for its worn conditiffli. In general it is not desirable to remove rails from the
main track, which show only the amount of wear best adapted to rerolling; how-
ever, wheal it is necessary to remove rails from some cause otho" than reduction of
section on account of wear it may prove ewnomical to reroll them into sections of
lesser wdght.
Second. It is desirable that the rerolled rails may conform to standards already
in use. This seems to be in a practical way difficult to accomplish, owing to the
varying shape of the head of (iie rerolled rail, as the rail is much or little worn.
The following figures are taken from a record of a mUe oi 80-pound r^
rerolled by the American McKenna Process Company.
10,560 ft. of rail taken out of track Tooi.
Weight when new 125.71
Loss in track after 10 years' use 5,33
Weight sent to mill 120.38
10,151 ft. of rail received from mill 103.20
Scrap received from mill 17 . 18
The sections pven in Fig.
— -Ji- *i
* and Plates VII and VIII of the rails used
Pennayivania, 100-lb.
Fio. 339. — Recent Rail Sectiooa. (R^lroad Age Gacette.)
U. <j-
Penntylvania, 8B-lb.
>, Google
INFLUENCE OF DETAIL OF MANUFACTURE
j. 2^.
Canadian Pacific, 8G>lb.
Baltimore A Ohio, go.lb.
r* — -« — •-!
--*--1
r — "' — I/- f> TT
Santa Fe, es-lb.
Burlington, 90'lb.
Hsad.
WA.
But.
ToW.
42.2
33.8
37.0
36.2
17.8
22,2
22.8
24.0
"lo™''
40.0
41.0
40.2
39.8
Fia. 339 (continued). — Recent Rail Sections. (Railroad Age Gazette.)
>, Google
462 STEEL RAIIB
at the present time show clearly the willingness on the part of the railroads to
meet the criticism of the manufacturers in regard to the faults in tbe deagn of
the heavier A. S. C. E. sections.
These new thick-base sections, adopted after the studies of 1907, cool with
less curvature than the former thin-base types and require less cold-straighten-
ing. There appears to have been a material reduction in the number of base
fsdlures in the new sections as compared with the A. S. C. E. design.
A number of students of this subject think that there is room for still
further improvements along this line to eliminate to an even greater extent the
failures in the base of the rail. This is evidenced by the new Chicago and
North-Westem section for 100-pound rail in which the base is |^ inch thick
at the outer edge. Dr. P. H. Dudley has designed a new section ^ving to the
fillet between the base and the web a radius of 1 inch. The Illinois Steel
Company at its South Works plant is also expmmenting with a new section
of 110 pounds in wei^t which is similar to that used on the foreign railways
in that the upper surface of the base is broken at two angles.
,y Google
CHAPTER VII
RAIL SPECIFICATIONS
34. COMPABISON OF AMERICAN SPECIFICATIONS
The r^ committee of the American Railway En^neering and Maintenance
of Way Association revised their specifications in the latter part of the year
1909; these were subsequently withdrawn and in March, 1912, the committee
presented to the American Railway Engineering Association, which was now
the name of the association, specifications for carbon steel r^ls.
Some par^raphs, such as those relating to carbon under remarks in Table
XCIX and Nos. 14 and 15, relatmg to physical requirements, were not conddered as
final, it being thought that the committee did not have sufficient information in
its possession to make these sections in the specifications mandatory. The re-
quirements in section 14 for ductility were somewhat lower than some of the
members thought desirable. Paragraph No. 15, referring to deflections as a
method of clas^ying rails, is also tentative, and it is the intention, when suffi-
dent data is at hand, to prescribe maximum and minimum limits for deflections
under the drop test. The committee, will continue its investigations and the
gpedfications in these respects will be subject to change.
On January 10, 1912, the Pennsylvania revised its specifications for
Bessemer and open-hearth rails.
On January 1, 1909, the Association of American Steel Manufacturers
issued standard specifications for Bessemer and open-hearth rails. These rail
spedfications, adopted by the steel manufacturers of the United States and
Canada, which are practically the same for the different companies, indicate
the views of the rail makers as to the proper tests and chemical composition for
securing good rails. The A. S. C. E. sections are still officially regarded as
standard practice.
Standard specifications for Bessemer and open-hearth steel rails were
adopted by letter ballot on August 16 1909, by the American Society for Testing
Materials.
In October, 1909, ihe Harriman lines adopted standard spedficatimis for
Bessemer and open-hearth steel rails; the open-hearth specifications were subse-
quently revised in February, 1910.
,y Google
^4 STEEL BAII£
The above spedfications ^w the development during recent years of rail
siiecifications in this country and an examination of th^ requirements will prove
of inters. The American Railwi^f Engineering Association specifications of 1912
reflect the latest thought and are noticeable for the increase in the number of
physical tests ovk- those required in earlier specifications. A great many defects,
such as piping of the ingot, can be adequatdy guarded against by proper physacal
tests, and in gaia^ it would appear dedrable to leave the producer free in
such cases to adopt his own methods of manufacture. Within certain limits,
however, the specifications may well be drawn to racclude practice which is known
to result in defective material. The desirability of doing this is emphasized by the
great difference in quality found in rolhngs from different mills and in some cases
for rails from the same mill, but rolled in different years. The specifications giv«i
m Article 35 are a good example of spedfications drawn with a view to eliminating
defective practice at the mill.
The trend of recent specifications is to increase tiie amount of inspection which
is brai^ ^ven the rail at the mills. The plan of the R. W. Hunt and Company of
placmg inspectora throughout the mill to watdi the entire process of manufacture
is evidence of this.
Inspection
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.:
1. Inspectors representing the purehasra" have free entry to the works of the
manufacturer at all times while the contract is being executed, and shall have all
reasonable facilities afforded them by the manufacturer to satisfy them that the
rails have been made in accordance with the terms of the spedfications.
2. All tests and inspections shall be made at the place of manufacture, prior to
shipment, and shall be so conducted as not to mterfere unnecessarily with the oper-
ation of the mill.
All of the specifications are substantially the same as the above.
Maierial
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.:
3. The material shall be steel made by the Bessemer or open-hearth proce^
provided by the contract.
The clause ui reference to material in the Pennsylvania Specification is the
same, but in the other spedfications it is omitted and a separate specification
written for each class of material, i.e., Bessemra- or opwi-hearth sted.
,y Google
RAIL SPECIFICATIONS 465
Chemical R&piirements
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.: '
4. The chemical composition of the steel from which the rails are rolled, de-
termined as prescribed in Section 7, shall be within the following limits: (See Table
XCIX.)
Table XCIX presents a comparison of the chemical requirements of the
different specifications.
The Committee on Standard Rail and Wheel Sections of the American
Railway Association, in its report of March 23, 1908, to the association, stated:
" In the matter of chemistry specifications for Bessemer steel rail, statistics
were obtained from the officers of the Ore Producers' Association which con-
vinced the committee that it would be impossible for the mills to furnish more
than a small percentage of the total rail requirements of the railways with a
phaiphorus specification less than .10.
" The optional specification for .085 phosphorus prepared by the joint
conmiittee of manufacturers and railway men is now in the hands of all members,
and is, therefore, available for use by those who are able to obtain low-phos-
phorus Bessemer rails. It is not considered proper, however, to require less than
.10 phosphorus in a specification intended for general use. Members desiring
to obtain a low-phosphorus rail will have the further option of using open-
hearth steel.
The committee conferred with a nimiber of disinterested experts on the
phosphorus question, and among the principal authorities consulted were
William Metcalf, of Rttsburg, Robert Forsyth, of Chicago, and Henry M.
Howe, of Columbia University. These gentlemen all agreed that it would be
unreasonable to require less than .10 phosphorus in a specification for Bessemer
rails intended to cover purchases for all American railways."
The Pennsylvania specification for open-hearth rails makes the upper limits
for classification A, phosphorus .03 and carbon .83; for elasafication B, .04
phosphorus and .75 carbon. The desired carbon for the two grades is .75 for
the lower phosphorus, and .70 for the higher. The reason for making two
classifications for open-hearth rails relates principally to the cost of manufacture.
It was thought desirable to specify phosphorus as low as .03 so that high carbon
could be used and the wearing quality of the rails, particularly on curves, would
be materially improved. But the extra time required in the open-hearth furnace
to reduce phosphorus from .04 to .03 results in some increase in the cost of
manufacture, and a slight addition to the normal price per ton is added for the
class A rails.
,y Google
STEEL RAILS
HI
niJi- li
p
1!
1^1
i
1
i
1
1 f''M I l^'k
' j-iiii '-Hi
II
ii
m
Hi
■"Hi
i
^■a
■™ 1
J_
H
■"H
s
3
ss
s
■"!W 1
-U
i
-Hi
g
8
•"!H 1 :
s
f.-
:"« I _ _
^
I
a
S
e
°
__
£j:3
SB
SS3
£
■o-W
«
n
2
S
S
i
■"!H
s
i
1
■"!K
s
s
s
t«
,,^
* ""^
*
9 S«=i
sss
1
■p."a
S S9S
s
S33
""
.^i.
_o_S = =
:
<j
s
im
liliS
1
i
3SS
1
2
S
! !
=
11
1
1
1
^ 1
u
1
1
!
1
IE
>, Google
RAIL SPECIFICATIONS 467
Sulphur is not generally mentioned in the chemical requirements, but the
trend of modem specifications is to require that this element be reported. This
is illustrated by the American R^way Engineerii^ Assodation specification
for analyses pven below.
Amdyses
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. :
7. In order to ascertain whether the chemical compo^tion is in accord-
ance with the requirements, analyses shall be furnished as follows:
(o) For Bessemer process the manufacturer shall furnish to the inspector,
daily, carbon detaminations for each heat before the rails are shipped, and two
chemical analyses every twenty-four hours representing the average of the
elements, carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorus, and sulphur contained in the
steel, one for each day and night turn respectively. These analyses shall be
made on drillings taken from the ladle test ingot not less than one-eighth inch
beneath the surface.
(6) For Open-hearth process, the makers shall furnish the inspectors with
a chemical analysis of the elements, carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorus, and
sulphur, for each heat.
(c) On request of the inspector, the manufacturer shall furnish drillings
from the test ingot for check analyses.
The Pennsylvania spediications are die same as t^e above. The other speci-
fications only require one complete chemical analysis every twenty-four hours ui
the Bessemo* process. The manufacturers and American Society for Testing
Materials require that the analyses shall be made an drillings taken not less than
(me-fourth inch beneath the surface of the test ingot. The Harriman Lines speci-
fication does not give the depth at \duch the drillings should be taken.
PkysiccU Requirements
Table C compares the physical requironents of the different spedfications.
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.:
Pkyaedl QnaWiet.
8. Testa dudl be made to determine:
{a) Ductility or toughness as opposed to brittleness.
(ft) Soundness.
MeOiod of reeling.
9. The phymcal qualitiee shall be determined by the Drop Test.
Drop Tegtirtg Maehine.
10. The drop-teeting machine used shall be the standard of the American Railway Engineering
Assodation.
. (a) The tup shall weigh 2000 pounds, and have a striking face with a radius of five inches.
(b) The anvil block shall weigh 20,000 pounds, and be supported on springs.
(c) The supports for the tcatpieces shall be spaced 3 feet between centers and shall be a part of,
and finnly secured to the anvil. Tne bearing surfaces of the supports shall have a radius of S mches.
Dionizodb, Google
468 STEEL RAILS
Pieeei for Drop Te»t.
11. Drop testa sh^ be made on pieces of rail not less than 4 feet and not more than 6 feet kmg.
These test pieces shall be cut from the top end of the top rail of the ingot, and marked od the base or
head with gaee marks 1 inch apart for 3 inches each mde of the center of the test piece, for measimng the
ductility of the metal.
Temperattare of Tesf Pieces.
12. The temperature of the test pieces shall be between 60 and 100 d^reea Fahrenheit.
Height of Drop.
13. The test piece shall, at the option of the inspector, be placed head or base upwards on the
auppcarts, and be subjected to impact of the tup falling free from uxe following heights:
For 70-pound rail 16 feet
For 80-, 85-, and 90-pouiid raU 17 feet
Fot 100-pound rail 18 feet
Elongation or Ductility.
14. Under these impacts the rail under one or more blows shall show at least 6 per cent elongation
for 1 inch or 5 per cent each for two consecutive inches of the 6-inch scale, marited as described rn
Section 11.
Permanent Set.
15. It is desired that the permanent set after one blow under the drop test shall not exceed that
in the following table, and a record shall be made of this information.
Rail.
Ordinate in Inches in a Length ol 3 [t.
SwtiOB.
"7^-
HomentDTIurtia.
Beesamei Pnxwa.
O. H. Proom.
A.R.A.-A
100
100
90
90
80
80
70
70
48.94
41.30
38.70
32.30
28.80
25,00
21.05
18,60
1.65
2,05
1.90
2.20
2,85
3.15
3.50
3.85
1 45
A.R.A.-A
A.R.A.-B
A.R.A.-A
A.R.A.-B
A.R.A.-A
1.65
2.00
2,45
2.85
3,10
Teel to Destruction.
r subsequent blows shall be nicked and
B««emer Process Drop Tetta.
17. One piece shall be tested from each heat of Bessemer steel.
(a) If the test piece does not bre^ at the first blow and shows the required elongation (Section 14),
all of the rails of the beat shall be accepted, provided that the test piece when nicked and broken does
not diow interior defect.
" ' IF does not show the requu^ elongation (Section 14),
u, but when nicked and broken shows interior defect,
piece selected by the inspector from the top end of
ingot. If the test piece does not break a( *"""
(d) If the piece breaks at the first blow, a
or if the test piece shows the required elongatio:
ail of the top rails from that heat shall be rejectt
(c) A second test shall then be made of a tes
any second rail of the same heat, preferably of the „--. ^ -. ..
first blow, and shows the reauired elongation (Section 14), all of the remainder of the rails of the heat
shall be accepted, provided that the test piece when nicked and broken does not show interior defect,
{d) If the piece breaks at the first blow, or does not show the required elongation (Section 14), ot
it the piece shows the required elongation, but when nicked and broken shows interior defect, all of the
second rails from that heat ^all be rejected. ,
(e) A third test shall then be made of a test piece selected by the inspector from the top end of
any third rail of the same heat, preferably of the same ingot. If the test piece does not break at the
firet blow and shows the required ek>ngation (Section 14), all of the remainder of the rails of the heat
shall be accepted, provided that the teat piece when nicked and broken does not show interior defect.
if) If the piece breaks at the first, blow, or does not show the required elongation (Section 14), or
if the piece shows the required elongation, but when nicked and broken shows interior drfect, all of we
remainder of the rails from that h^it shall be rejected.
>, Google
RAIL SPECIFICATIONS 469
Open-hearth Process Drop Teslt.
18. Test pieces ghall be selected from the second, middle, and last full ingot of each open-bearth
heat.
(a) If two of these test pieces do not break at the lirat blow and show the required elongation
(Section 14), all of the rails of the heat shall be accepted, provided that these test pieces when nidied
and broken do not show interior defect.
(b) If two of the test pieces break at the first blow, or do not show the required elongatitm, or if
any of the pieces that have been tested under the drop when nicked and broken show interior defect,
all of the top rails from that heat shall be rejected.
(c) Second tests shall then be made from three test pieces selected by the inspector from the top
end of any second rails of the same heat, preferably of the same in^ta. If two of these test pieces do
not break at the liiat blow and show the required elongation (Section 14), all of the remainder of the
rails (rf the heat shall be accepted, provided that the pieces that have been tested under the drop when
nicked and broken do not show interior defect.
(d) If two of these test pieces break at the first blow or do not show the required elongation
(Section 14), or if any of the pieces that have been tested under the drop when nicked and broken show
interior detect, all of the second rails of the heat shall be rejected.
(e) Third tests shall then be made from three test pieces selected by the inspector from the top
end of any third rails of the same heat, preferably of the same ingots. If two of these test pieces do not
bieak at the first blow, and show the required elongation (Section 14), all of the remainder of the rails
of the heat shall be accepted, provided that the pieces that have been tested under the drop when
nicked and broken do not show interior defect.
(f) If two of these test pieces break at the finrt blow or do not show the required elongation
{Section 14), or if any of the pieces, that have been tested under the drop when nicked and broken
show interior defect, all of the remainder of the rails from that heat shall be rejected.
The drop-testing machine has been standardized, and it is claimed that the
lower drop called for under the new conditions is equivalent to the higher drop
of 22 feet previously specified.
The provision in the American Railway Engineering Association and Penn-
sylvania specifications that drop testing shall be continued to the destruction of
the specimen is a precaution which should result in a material benefit to the railway
by reducing the number of piped rails, which, in spite of the usual inspection and
tests, get into the main track. It seems far more desirable not to specify any defi-
nite discard, but to test to destruction a number of rail butts representing a certain
proportlcHi of the total output, and to base rejections on the results of these
tests.
The Cambria Steel Company rolled a considerable tonnage of rmls under
these specifications, and the testing to destruction unquestionably detected the
pipes. To find to what depth the pipes extended, they poUshed the ends of the drop-
test pieces and cut the top rail adjoining the test pieces into small lengths, examin-
ing carefully each cut for pipes. It was found that of the heats showing pipes in
the drop-test piece when tested to destruction, sixty per cent contained pipes so
diort that they were confined raitirely to the crop end. Of the remaining forty
per cent which extended into the top rml, nearly half showed a pipe extendmg less
than four feet.
Most of the spedfications require that two test pieces be tested in the open-
hearth process but only one in the Be^emer process. This is because of the greater
tonnj^ of metal in an open-hearth heat as compared to a Brasemer heat, there
being about five times as much metal. All the basic open-hearth rml steel now
,y Google
Uig:izcci ^y vjiv*. 'Wi\.
1
1
1
n
m
J
1
il
II
m.
Is
'hi
ti
■111
Jli:
°JI
H^
^
■
1
•s
1
i
is
1
*0
1
1
1
|1
fi
i
1=^
1^
>, Google
472 STEEL RAILS
being made in the United States is melted in furnaces of a minimum capacity (rf
40 tons, and the majority of it is made in 50-ton or 80-ton furnaces.
The feeling is growing among railway eng^eers that present specifications do
not go far enough in specifying tests of a cotain number of ingots from each heat,
but that specimens should be tested from each individual ingot. On account of the
uncertainty attending the formation of the pipe in the ii^t an increase in the
number of tests per heat would appear desirable.
The Pennsylvania is the only spedfication that provides for a Umiting deflec-
tion, althou^ the American Railway Ei^:ineering Association give limits that it is
dedred not to exceed and state that it is proposed to presmbe the requirements in
r^ard to deflection as soon as proper limits have been decided on. In the absence
of a tendon test it would se^n desirable to make provisions for fixing maximum
and minimum limits for the deflection.
The American Railway Engineering Association speeifieatdons are the only
specifications which call for a ductility test. This test has beai used for some
time by Dr. P. H. Dudley, as shown in the New Yoric Central lines qiecifications
^ven in Article 35.
No. 1 and No. 2 RaOs
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.:
19. No. 1 classification rails shall be free from injurious defects and flaws
of all kinds.
20. (a) R^ls which, by reason of surface imperfections, or for causes men-
tioned in Section 30 hereof, are not classed as No. 1 rails will be accepted as No. 2
rails, but No. 2 rails which contain imperfections in such number or of such char-
acter as will, in the judgment of the inspector, render them unfit for recognized
No. 2 uses will not be accepted for shipment.
(6) No. 2 rMls to the extent of 5 per cent of the whole order will be received.
All rails accepted as No. 2 rails shall have the ends painted white and shall have
two prick punch marks on the dde of the web near the heat number near the end
of the rail, so placed as not to be covered by the splice bars.
All of the specifications state that "No. 1 rails shall be free from injurious
defects and flavra of all kinds."
The Pennsylvania spedfications for No. 2 r^ls are the same as the above with
the clause added that rails which exceed the prescribed limits of deflection in tiie
drop test may be accepted as No. 2 rails. The manufacturers' specifications are
somewhat different and are given below.
Rails which, by reason of surface imperfections, are not classed as No. 1 r^
,y Google
RAIL SPECIFICATIONS 473
shall be conEodered No. 2 rails, but No. 2 rails shall not be acc^ted for shipment
which have flaws in the head of more than ^ inch, or in the flange of more than
i inch in depth, and these shall not, in the judgment of the inspector, be, in any in-
dividual rail, so numerous or of such a character as to render it unfit for recognized
No. 2 rail uses. Both ends of No. 2 rails shall be p^ted white.
The Harriman lines spedfications are the same as the manufacturers' with
the additional clauses tiiat No. 2 rails will be accepted up to 5 per cent of the
whole order, and m conmion with the American Sodety for Testing Materials they
will not accept rails as No. 2 from heats which failed under the drop test.
Quality of Manufaetwe
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. :
21. The entire process of manufacture shall be m accordance with the best
current state of the art.
This section is common to all specifications except the manufactures'.
Bledlng<as
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.:
22. Bled ingots shall not be used.
This is specified by aH except the manufacturers', with an addifional clause
providing that the ingots be kept in a vertical position until ready to be rolled,
or until the metal in the interior has had time to solidify.
Discard
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.:
23. There shall be sheared from end of the bloom formed from the top of
the ingot, sufficient metal to secure sound rails.
The Pennsylvania requirements are the same as the American Railway
En^eering Association, while the Manufacturers' specifications do not refer
to this part of the process.
The American Society for Testing Materials and the Harriman linK sped-
fications call for a definite discard as follows:
A.S.forT.M.:
There shall be sheared from the end of the blooms formed from the top of
the ingots not less than z per cent,* and if, from any cause, the steel does not
then appear to be sofid, the shearing shall continue until it dora.
* The percentage of luinimum discard in any case to be subject to agreement, and it should be
recogniied that the hi^er this percentage the greater will be the coat.
DionizodbyGOOgle
474
STEEL RAILS
HanimaQ lines:
1. (d) There shall be sheared from the end of the bloom and rail formed
from the top of the ingot a total discard of not less than nine (9) per cent of the
weight of the ii^ot, and if, from any cause, the steel does not then appear to
be solid, the shearing shall continue until it does. If, by the use of any improve-
ments in the process of making ingots, the defects known as " piping " shall be
prevented, the above shearing requirements may be modified.
On this system, by excluding the top, or A, rdls from main-line use, the
effect of an additional 30 per cent discard is obtained, and at the same time
the discard is saved for use on sidings and other locations where second-hand
rails usually are used; the road thus doing its own discarding beyond the
manufacturers' allowance, and saving the product without risk to the quality
of the main-track rails.
In view of the uncertjdnties, as to the length of the pipe it appears that
the position taken by the American Railway Engineering Association and the
Pennsylvania System in their spedfications is the most reasonable one, viz., to
leave the discard to the manufacturers, and to safeguard the product by proper
tests, especially by chooang the test piece from such a location, and making the
rejections such, that it will be to the interest of the manufactiu'er to volun-
tarily discard the metal which will not stand test.
LengA
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.;
24. The standard l^igth of rails shall be 33 feet, at a temperature of 60 de-
grees Fahrenheit. Ten per cent of the entire ordra- will be accepted in shorto"
lengths varying by 1 foot from 32 feet to 25 feet. A variation of i inch from the
specified lengths will be allowed. No. 1 rails less than 33 feet long shall be painted
green on both ends.
TABLE CL — LENGTH OF RAILS IN STANDARD AMERICAN SPECIFICATIONS
SpeciEiaitioiUL
'^^
^-,XbilX^"
33*
30 or 33
30 or 33
33
33*
32, 31, 30, 29
28, 27, 26. 25
J Varying by e^'en
J feet to twenty-
) four (24) feet.
30, 27i, 25
All of the specifications agree m allowing ten per cent (rf the entire orda- to
be shorter lengths than the standard and permit of a variation of i uich in length
from that specified. All call for the short-length rails to be painted green aa both
,y Google
__^ I
RAIL SPECIFICATIONS
aids. The standard length and short lengths that will be accepted, however,
vary, and tiie requirements given in the various specifications are shovm m Table CI.
Shrinkage or Control of Finishing Temperature
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.:
25. The number of passes and speed of tram shall be so regulated that, on
leaving the rolls at the final pass, the temperature of the rml will not exceed
that which requires a shrinkage allowance at the hot saws, for a rail 33 feet in
length and of 100 pounds' section, of 6f inches, and ^ inch less for each 10 pounds'
a in section.
MANU
=ACTUR
AS.FO
ERS 1
RT.M/
V^
-^
^^
^
■^
AAE.t
M.wX/
x^
^
^^
^
AS.C.E.
'^
o*^
«i
lu
1
z
70 SO 90 lOO
WEIGHT OF RAIL. LBS. PER- YD.
Fia. 340. — Shrinkage Allowed in American Specificatione in 1909.
26. The bars ^lall not be held for the purpose of reducing their tempera-
ture, nor shall any artificial means of cooling them be used after they leave
the finishing pass. Rails, while on the cooling beds, shall be protected from
snow and water.
The other specifications are the same, except that in the Manufacturers'
American Society for Testing Materials and Harriman Lines, the statemwit that
rails, while on the cooling beds, shall be protected from aiow and water, is omitted.
A greater shrinkage Is allowed in present specifications than was formerly the
case. fig. 340 shows the allowance of different specifications in 1909; it will be
,y Google
476 STEEL RAILS
noted that the shrinkage has been increased to agree with the higher figure ^ven by
the mamifacturers. In the Pennsylvania requirements of that date, it was pro-
vided tiiat the shrink^:e allowance be decreased at the rate of t Ju inch for each
second of time elapsed between the rail leaving the finishuig rolls and being sawed.
The A. S. C. E. specifications called for sV i"*^ in place of j}^ inch.
The control of the finishing temperature by the amount of contraction which
the rail undergoes in cooling from the finishing to the atmospheric temperature
appears to be the only method practical to use. Other efforts have been made
to determine the finishing temperature by the use of pyrometers and by the ex-
amination of the microstructure of the rails. The use of pyrometers naturally
suggested itself at iirst as the most promising means of accomplishing that pur-
pose, but it was soon found that no pjTometric device existed which could be
applied in a practical way to the detection of the temperature of quickly moving
r^ls. The micro-test, although attractive and useful, can only be applied to a
very small percentage of the rails manufactured, and this is its greatest
Section
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.:
27. The section of rails shall conform as accurately as possible to the tem-
plet furnished by the railroad company. A variation in height of ^ inch less
or sV inch greater than the specified height Mid jV inch in width of flange will
be permitted; but no variation shall be allowed in the dimensions affecting
the fit of the splice bars.
The other specifications are substantially the same as those given above. The
Maniifacturers' specify A. S. C. E. sections; the Harriman Lines, A. R. A. section
"A" 90-pound, Railroad Company's "Common Standard" 75-pound, A. S. C. E.
section, 65-pound; and the American Society for Testing Matraials say, unless
otherwise specified, A. S. C. E. sections.
Weighi
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.:
28. The weight of the rails specified in the order shall be mmnt^ned as
nearly as possible, after complying with the preceding section. A variation of
one-half of one per cent from the calculated weight of section, as applied to an
entire order, will be allowed.
29. R^ls accepted will be paid for according to actual weights.
The other specifications are substantially the same as the above.
,y Google
RAIL SPECIFICATIONS 477
Straightening
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.:
30. The hot straightening shall be carefully done, so that gagging under
the cold presses will be reduced to a minimum. Any rail coming to the straight-
ening presses showing sharp kinks or greater camber than that indicated by a
middle ordinate of 4 inches in 33 feet, for A. R. A. type of sections, or 5 inches
for A. S. C. E. type of sections, will be at once classed as a No. 2 rail. The
distance between the supports of rails in the straightening presses shall not be
less than 42 inches. The supports shall have flat surfaces and be out of wind.
All of the specifications are substantially the same.
DriUing
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. :
31. Circular holes for joint bolts shall be drilled to conform accurately in
every respect to the drawing and dimensions furnished by the Railroad Company.
Substantially the same for all specifications.
Finishing
32. (a) All rails shall be smooth on the heads, str^ght in line and surface,
and without any twists, waves or kinks. They shall be sawed square at the
ends, a variation of not more than one-thirty-second inch being allowed; and
burrs shall be carefully removed.
(b) Rails improperly drilled or straightened, or from which the burrs have
not been removed, shall be rejected, but may be accepted after being properly
finished.
Substantially the same for all specifications.
Branding
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.:
33. The name of the manufacturer, the weight and type of rail, and the
month and year of manufacture shall be rolled in raised letters and figures on
the side of the web. The number of the heat and a letter indicating the portion
of the ingot from which the rail was made shall be plmnly stamped on the web
of each rml, where it will not be covered by the spKce bars. The top rails shall
be lettered "A," and the succeeding ones "B," "C," "D," etc., consecutively;
but in case of a top discard of twenty or more per cent, the letter "A" will be
omitted. Open-hearth rails shall be branded or stamped "0. H." All mark-
ings of rails shall be done so effectively that the marks may be read as long as
the rmls are in service.
The Pemisylvania spedficalions are the same as the above.
,y Google
478
STEEL RAILS
All of the other spedfications omit the clause in the American Railway Engi-
neering Association specifications in refCTence to omitting the letter "A" in case of
a top discard of twenty per cent or more, but are substantially the same in otha*
respects. The Harriman lines specify that all "A" rails i^iall have the top of the
flange at each end painted yellow, and the American Society for Testing Materials
only require rails weighing 70 pounds per yard or over to be stamped with a letter
to indicate the portion of the ingot from which the ral was rolled.
Separate Classes
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.:
34. All classes of rails shall be kept separate from each other.
Loading
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn.:
35. All rails shall be loaded in the presence of the inspector.
The Pennsylvania specifications are the same for both of the above clauses.
The Harriman lines specifications contain the following clause:
The following classes of rail shall be loaded separately as far as practicable,
excepting at the finishing of an order or the end of a rolling. In this case the differ-
ent classes shall be kept separate by placmg strips of wood between each class, and
each shipping notice shall contain full mfcHmation as to the contents of each car:
No. 1 rails, B, C, D, etc, full lengths.
No. 1 rails, B, C, D, etc., short lei^ths.
No. 1 "A " rails; that is, r^ from the top of the ingot, full length.
No. 1 "A" r^ls, short length.
No. 2 r^, all lengths.
35. SPEcinCATioNS (New York Central Lines) for Basic Open-hearth
Rails
i6t — Chemical Composition:
» Lb.
» Lb.
lOD Lb.
.65 to .68
.70 to 1.00
.10 to .20
.04
.60 to .73
,70 to 1.00
.10 to .20
.04
.62 to .75
.70 to 1.00
.10 to .20
.04
To adjust the chemical composition to the special conditions of manu-
fecture at each mill, the engineer representing the railroad company, from the
inspection of the ingots, their heating, blooming, and rolling into r^ls, shall
have the right to select the lower or average limit of either the sificon or man-
,y Google
RAIL SPECIFICATIONS 479
ganese, or both, with the average carbon content as the working haras for mak-
ing the steel, as he may find requisite for good setting ingots with freedom from
pipes and rolling into tough steel by the plant of the manufacturer.
2nd — Process of Manufacture : The entire process of manufacture and
testing shall be in accordance with the best current state of the art, and special
care shall be taken to conform to the following instructions:
(a) Excessive use of material thrown into the teeming ladle to set the
stopper must be avoided.
(&) The steel must be well deondized and the waste products eliminated
before the ingots are teemed.
(c) The steel must be made to set quiet by the chemical composition in the
molds without the addition of aluminum, either in the ladle or molds.
(d) Spattering the ulterior sides of the molds in pricking the melts and
teeming the ingots to be avoided as much as possible.
(c) "Hme must be allowed for the tops of the ingots to set without spray-
ing with water.
(J) The ingots should be stripped as soon as the metal caps over on top,
then sent to the scales to be weighed, th^i sent to the reheating
furnaces to be charged promptly, to avoid the cooKng of the interior
metal and thus check the large shrinkage which occms in it from
unnecessary loss of temperature due to delays. It has been found,
in good practice, possible in this way to confine the interior shrinkage
to 0.05 to 0.1 of one per cent per cubic foot of the metal of rail
ingots. The total shrinkage of an ingot depends upon its volume,
chemical composition and loss of temperature at the time it is charged,
yet in fair practice it may be confined to such small limits that it is
removed in the usual discard of the bloom. Piped rails come from
cold ingots or those which have been unduly delayed before charging
into tiie reheating furnace.
(g) Cast Iron Cut Out qf the Ingot Stools: Care to be taken m teeming the
ingots to prevent cutting out of the cast iron of the stools or ingot
molds by the falling stream of hot metal from the ladle, avoiding a
frequent cause of carbon streaks found in the segregated steel of
"split heads." The most disturbing factor of the small amount of
ordinary segregation in rail steel is the diffused cast iron in some
ingots cut out from the stools.
(A) Ingots shall be kept in a vertical position on the ingot cars and in the
reheating furnaces until their heat is equalized ready to be rolled.
,y Google
480 STEEL RAILS
(t) Bled ingots shall not be used. (" Bled ingot " — one from the centa-
of which the liquid steei has been permitted to escape.)
(j") There shall be sheared from the end of the bloom formed from the top
of the ingot sufficient discard to secure sound rails. (All metal from
the top of the ingot, whether cut from the bloom or the r^l, is the
"top discard.")
(k) One-hundred-pound (100 lb.) rails not to be rolled from blooms exceed-
ing three (3) thirty-three-foot (33') lengths in a continuous bar;
eighty-pound (80 lb.), or lighter, rails in not over four (4) lengths
of thirty-three feet (33') in a continuous bar, when inserted in the
contract.
3rd — Shrinkage : The number of passes and speed of train diall be so reg-
ulated that, on leaving the rolls on the final pass, the temperature of the rails
will not exceed that which requires a shrinkage allowance at the hot saws for
a 33-foot rail of 100 pounds section of 6f inches, and ^^ inch less for each five
pounds decrease of section. No artificial means of cooling the steel shall be
used between the leading and finishing passes, nor after the rails leave the
finishing rolls; neither shall rails be held before sawing for the purpose of
reducing their temperature.
4th — Drop and Ductility Tests : A drop test to be made of a crop from
the top bar of the second, the middle and the last full ingot of the melt. The
crop 4 to 6 feet long to be stamped with a spacing bar of dx one-inch spaces on
the base, head or side as desired.
Each butt must show under a angle blow of the drop, of 18-foot, for the
80-pound or 90-pound section, and 20-foot for the 100-pound section, at least
MX per cent elongation for one inch or five per cent each for two consecutive
inches before fracture for acceptance of the melt.
The crop or butt is Uable to be chilled accidentally in entering the rolls
several times, or it may be caused by other delays, and should it break under
a single blow without showing the percentage of elongation specified, it shall
be considered as indicating deficient ductility or chilled metal, and the results
must be rejected.
The Inspecting Engineer representing the Rmlroad Company must then
take a duplicate test from the same ingot at the top end of the " A " or " B "
rail, according to the nine or greater percentage of discard, and the results
taken in lieu of those from the first crop or test to determine whether or not
the piece had the requisite ductility in accordance with the specifications.
The distinction between a chilled test crop and those of inadequate ductility
,y Google
^ 1
RAIL SPECinCATIONS 481
must be ascertained according to above preBcribed tests before rejections are
made or rails accepted.
Should any test piece under the first blow of the drop not break, but fail
to show the percentage of elongation specified, the test piece shall be subjected
in the same position to a second blow and the results so obtained govern in
passing the test.
The ductility of at least one specimen of each melt to be exhausted by one
or more blows of the drop, and a record made of the respective elongations of
each test.
The drop-testing machine shall have a tup of 2000 pounds weight, the
striking face of which shall have a radius of not more than five inches (5"),
and solid supports, centers three feet (3') apart, for the test butts. The anvil
block shall weigh at least 20,000 pounds and the supports shall be part of or
firmly secured to the anvil. The report of drop test shall state the atmospheric
temperature at the time the test was made. The testing shall proceed con-
currently with the operation of the mill. The temperature of the test butts
to be between 40 degrees and 100 degrees Fahr.
5^1 — Section : The section of rail shall conform to the dunensions fur-
nished by the purchaser as accurately as possible consistent with the paragraph
relative to specified weight.
A variation in height of rails of sV of an inch over or g^ of an inch under,
also tV of an inch in width of flange will be permitted, but no variation will
be allowed in dimensions affecting the fit of the splice bars.
6th — Weight: The weight of the rail shall be maintained as nearly as
possible, after complying with the preceding paragraph, to that specified in the
contract.
A variation of one-half of one per cent, from the calculated weight of sec-
tion, on the entire order, will be allowed.
Rails will be accepted and paid for according to actual weight.
7th — Length: The standard length of r^ls shall be thirty-three feet (330.
Ten per cent of the entire order will be accepted in shorter lengths varying as
follows: Thirty feet (30'), twenty-eight feet (28'), twenty-six feet (26') and
twenty-four feet (24'). A variation of i of an inch from the specified length
will be allowed.
Three rmls in every 100 tons to be thirty-two feet and ax inches (32' 6")
long, the ends painted red, when inserted in the New York Central Contract.
All other No. 1 rails less than thirty-three feet (33') long shall be painted
green on both ends.
,y Google
482 STEEL RAILS
8th — Branding: The name of the maker, the weight of the raO and the
month and year of manufacture, together with "0-H," shall be rolled in raised
letters on the side of the weh, and the number of the melt and letter to deag-
nate the position of the rail in the ingot shall be so stamped on each r^ as not
to be covered by the splice bars.
When the rails are to be rolled with twenty per cent (20%) discard the
first rail in the ingot shall commence with the letter "B," the second "C,"
the third "D" and the fourth "E."
When the "A" rmls are to be taken they are to be loaded separately upon
cars for shipment and the flanges at the ends painted yellow, when inserted
in the contract.
pth — Drilling: Circular holes for splice bars shall be drilled in accordance
with specifications of purchaser. They shall in every respect accurately con-
form to drawing and dimensions furnished and shall be free from burrs.
loth — Straightening: Care must be taken in cambering the rails and
with the hot-bed work, which must result in the rails being left in such con-
dition that they shall not vary throughout their entire length more than four
inches (4") for the "A. R. A." thick bases and not more than five inches (5")
for the "DUDLEY" section or "A. S. C. E." sections from a straight line in
any direction when delivered to the cold-straightening presses. Those which
vary beyond that amount, or have short kinks, shall be classed as second qual-
ity rails and be so marked. Rails while on the "hot-beds" shall be protected
from coming in contact with water or snow. The distance between supports
of rails in the gagging press shall not be less than forty-two inches (42");
supports to have flat surfaces.
Rails shall be straight in line and surface and smooth on head when fin-
ished — final straightening being done while cold. They shall be sawed square
at ends, variations to be not more than jV of an inch, and prior to shipment
shall have the burr caused by the saw cutting removed and the ends made
clean.
1 1 til — Inspection: The inspector representing the purchaser shall have
free entry to the works of the manufacturer at all times while his contract is
being executed, and shall have all reasonable facilities afforded him by the
manufacturer to satisfy him that the rails are being made in accordance with
the terms of the contract. All tests and inspection shall be made at the place
of manufacture priw to shipment, and shall be so conducted as not to imneces-
sarily interfere with the operation of the mill.
The manufacturer shall furnish the inspector with a chemical analysis of
,y Google
RAIL SPECIFICATIONS 483
each melt of steel covering the elements spedfied m the section No. 1 hereof,
and also report sulphur and copper.
Analysis shall be made on drillings taken from small test ingots, the drill-
ing being taken at a distance of not less than J of an inch beneath the surface
of said test ingots. On request of the inspector the manufacturer shall furnish
drillings for check analysis.
rath — No. 2 Rails : Rails which by reason of surface imperfections are
not classed as No. 1 rails shall be considered No. 2 rails, but No. 2 rails shall
not be accepted for shipment which have flaws in the head of more than J of
an inch; or in the flange of more than j of an inch in depth; and these shall
not, in the judgment of the inspector, be, in any individual rail, so numerous
or of such a character as to render it unfit for recognized No. 2 rail uses.
13th — Designation of No. 2 Rails and Short Lengths of No. i Rails:
Both ends of all No. 2 rails shall be painted white.
Both ends of all short lengths No. 1 r^s shall be painted green, except
Uie 32-foot and 6-inch rails, which are to be painted red.
(Sgd.) P. H. DUDLEY,
New York Central Lines.
(Specifications of Oct. 1st, 1909.
Revised Jan. 11th, 1911, to con-
form to Manufacturers' sale per
100 pounds.)
Note 1. "Process of Manufacture" (b): The elimination of the deoxidation
products and impiuities from the bath of metal is more important than has
yet been appreciated. This prevents minute portions of the deoxidation prod-
ucts from becoming entrained in the setting metal and therefore will avoid
their being rolled in the steel, where in the rail head or base they would be
subjected to alternate unit fiber strmns under moving trains and contribute
the needed factor to develop the interior transverse checks recently observed
in a few rail heads.
Time is required for the deoxidation products and impurities to rise after
the steel is tapped into the ladle.
These heterogeneous portions of the deoxidation products or impurities
in the steel, as well as small flaws and interior cavities, are theoretically and
practically known to be zones of weakness, and interrupt the normal unit strains
and increase them in the surrounding metal, which often result in detailed
fractures.
Note 2. "Process of Manufacture" (/): The percentage of interior shrink-
.yGoogle
4S4
STEEL RAILS
age per cubic foot of the metal of the ingots there mentioned was reduced the
past year by good mill practice and well organized train service. The lattff
was to transport promptly the ingots after they were teemed and stripped
so that they could be charged with the least possible delay into the reheating
pits and then as soon as the heat of the metal was properly equalized, they
were bloomed, which restricted the reduced cavity to the discard.
Note 1 and 2 added for information.
P.H.D.
1/3/12
86. Brttkh Standasd Specifications of Bull Head Railway Rails
(Iteport No. 9, Revised July, 1909.)
laaued by The Engineering Standards Committee
Supported by: The Institution of Civil Engineers; The Institution of Mecbanical EoEiiieera; Tb«
Institution of Naval Architects; The Iron and Steel Institute; The Institution of ElectrictuEngineen.
(Reprinted by permisBion of the Committee).
1. The steel for the Rails shall be of the best quality made by the Bessemer, Siemens-Martin,
or other process, aa may be approved by the Engineer (or by the Purchaser).
The Rails shall show on analysis that in chemical composition they conform to the following
limits:
Carbon from 0.35 to 0.5 per cent.
Manganese " .7 to I.O " "
Silicon not to exceed 0.1 " "
Phosphorus " " 0.075 " "
Sulphur " " 0.08 " "
2. The Manufacturer Ehall make and furnish to the representative of the Engineer (or of
the Purchaser) carbon determinations of each cast.
A complete chemical analysis, representing the average of the other elements contained
in the steel, shall be similarly given for each rolling. Such complete analysis shall be made fronj
drillings taken from the rail or tensile test piece or pieces. When the roiling exceeds 200 tons,
an additional complete analysis shal be made for each 200 tons or part thereof.
Should the Engineer (or the Purchaser) desire to make independent chemical determinations,
the necessary specimens and samples shall bo furnished by the Manufacturer. For this purpoee
not more than two rails in every hundred tons manufactured shall be selected by representative
of the Engineer (or of the Purchaser) and drillings taken with a drill of 2 inches diameter from
the top of the head of the rail, unless otherwise specified by him, and if, upon being subjected to
the specified tests, cither fail to comply therewith, then all the Rails in the cast of which the let
pieces form a part may be rejected.
The representative of the Engineer (or of the Purchaser) may then take similar samples
from a further two rails out of the same 100 tons, and should either fail to conaply with Ibe
specified analy^a the whole 100 tons may be rejected.
In case of difference between the Engineer (or between the Purchaser) and the Manufacturer
as to the accuracy of any analysis, cither party shall have the right to have samples of the Bt«l
analyzed by an independent metallurpst, to be mutually agreed upon. The expenses attendant
upon such independent analysis shall be borne by the party adjudged to be in the wroi^.
3. Each Rail shall be made from an ingot not less than 12 inches square at the smaller and
14 inches square at the larger end, and must be cogged down Into blooms, and sufficient crop
then sheared from each end to ensure soundness.
., Google
RAIL SPECIFICATIONS
All stn^htening shall be done by pressure tmd not by hammering. Pwmissible
4, A rolling margin of J per cent under to J per cent above the calculated wdght will be Variation
pennitted, but the calculated weight only will be paid for. "* weight
TABLE OF GENEBAL DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHTS OF "B. S." RAILS
(See PIftte XIV)
Numb«of-B.8."
S«tk>n and Nomina
HeiihtotlUil.
Width otHsHi.
C.I™l;.gdW«<b.
Pounda.
lHh«
laebm.
Pounds iwr Yard.
60
4!
U"
59.79
65
4{
64.58
70
5
2A
70.13
75
5
74,56
80
5
21*3
79.49
85
5
2|
S4.8S
90
5
2
89-77
95
5
2
94.59
100
5
2
99.84
General
DinensiooB
of Kails.
6. Before the general manufacture of the Rails is commenced the Manufacturer shall, if
required by the Engineer (or by the Purchaser), supply two sets of templates, internal and external,
of approved material, for each " B. S." Section of Rail.
Each template shall be suitably engraved with the Purchaser's name, the number of the
" B. S." section (being the nominal weight of the Rail in pounds per lineal yard), the Manufac-
turers' name and address, and the date of the Contract.
These templates shall be submitted to the Engineer (or to the Purchaser) for his approval,
and at the commencement of rolling the Engineer will have a competent person present to approve
of the section.
7. Each Section of Rail under this Contract shall be accurately rolled to its respective
template.
8. The whole of the Rails shall be of uniform section throughout, true to templates, per-
fectly sound and straight, and free from splits, cracks, burrs and defects of every kind.
9. A quantity of abort lengths will be taken in such lengths and quantities as may be
ordered by the Engineer (or by the Purchaser), provided that these short lengths are cut down
from longer lengths found to be defective at the ends only, and that the total quantity taken
does not exceed 7J per cent of the contract.
N. B. — The Committee recommend the adoption of the following, as the normal lengths
of Rails, viz.: — 30 feet, 36 feet, 45 feet, or 60 feet.
10. The Rails shall be the specified length at the temperature of 60° Fahr. No Rail
will be accepted which is more than three-sixteenths of an inch (t^ inch) above or below the
length specified, whether for curved or straight line.
11. When required by the Engineer (or by the Purchaser) rails are to be supplied from 1 to
6 inches shorter or longer than the normal specified lengths, and these special lengths are to have
about one foot at each end painted with such colors as may be ordered.
12. Rails shall be supplied for sn-itches and crossings when so ordered, and such Rails shall
be of the required lengths and shall be cut from sound long Rails.
13. The Brand shall be rolledonthewebof each Rail to show that the Rail is of British Standard
Section and made under the conditions of this Specification,' the number of the " B. S." Section
(being the nominal weight of the Rail in pounds per yard), the process by which the Ralls have
been manufactured, the Manufacturer's name, initials, or other recognized mark, and the month
and year of manufacture shall be rolled, in letters three-quarters of an inch (I inch) in size, on one
Length of Rails
for Straight
Pennissible
Variation
in Length.
Rails of Special
Length for
Matching in
Curved Line.
Rails for
Switches and
Crossings.
Branding.
>, Google
486
STEEL RAILS
aide of the web of each Rail, e.g., w B.S. 95, B.A.* 4.04; and tbe aumber of the cast or
blow from which it has been rolled efaall be stamped on tbe end of each Rail in half-inch (1 inch)
block figures. *
14. From each caat one rail shall be selected by the representative of the Engineer (or of
the Purchaser). Prom this a piece 5 feet long shall be cut which shall be placed in a horizontal
position with the bullhead uppermost upon two iron or steel supports resting on a solid founda-
tion and placed so that their centers are 3 feet 6 inches apart, the upper surfaces of the supports
being curved to a radius of 3 inches. The test shall comprise two blows delivered midway
between the bearings from a falling iron weight of 2240 pounds, the striking face of which shall be
roimded to a radius of not more than 5 inches. The heights of tbe drop for tbe various sections
of Rails shall be as tabulated below. The blows must be sustained without fracture, and the
Rail must show a deflection between the limits given below.
FALLING WEIGHT TEST
Pint Bkiv
SecoiHlBlow
NnmbM ol ■■ B. g.''
Sectioo and Nom-
inal Weight ol Rails
per <% iD lb..
Drop.
Deaeetio..
Drop.
DeflocdoD.
From. To.
From. To.
Pooad..
F»m.
lB0b«a.
F«M.
Incbm.
60
5
I lA
10
3 3
65
5
1 H
12
3 3
TO
6
1 lA
12
3 3
75
6
1 lA
12
3 3
80
6
15
85
6
15
90
7
20
95
7
lA
20
100
7
lA
20
3 il
Should the length cut from the selected Rail fail to comply with the test specified for its
weight, two other Rails from the same cast will be selected and similar lengths cut and tested, and
the acceptance or rejection of the cast will be decided by the result of the three tests, so that if
two of the Rails selected fail to comply with the test, the entire caat will be rejected.
15. From each 100 tons of Rails the Manufacturer shall (if required by the representative
of the Engineer or of the Purchaser) cut a test piece from any Rail selected as a sample Rail ; such
test piece to be stamped to correspond with the sample Rail. It shall then be placed in a testing
machine of approved pattern, and shall have an ultimate tensile strength equivalent to not less
than 40 tons per square inch, nor more than 48 tons per square inch, with an elongation of not
less than 15 per cent upon the Standard Test Reces C or D (see Fig. 341). Should the test piece
fail to fulfil these conditions, the representative of the Engineer (or of the Purchaser) may require
the Manufacturer to test two other Roils from the same cast in the same manner, and the blC-
ceptance or rejection of the east shall be decided by the results of the three tests so that if two of
the three Rails selected fail to comply with the test the entire cast will be rejected.
The representative of the En^oeer (or of the Purchaser) may then take similar test pieces
fn»n a further two rails out of the same 100 tons, and should either f«l to comply with the test
the whole 100 tons may be rejected.
Should the Engineer (or the Purchaser) desire to have independent tests made, the Manu-
facturer shall provide the necessary test pieces, viz., two for every 200 tons, properly shaped and
prepared as described in Fig. 341.
• The following abbreviations are recommended :
S.A. SieiDens-Martin Add.
S.B. Kemeos-Martin Ba«c.
B.A. Bessemer Add.
B.B. Bessemer Basic.
>, Google
RAIL SPECIFICATIONS
487
16, TTie boles for fishbolts must be drilled through the web from the solid at each end of Hdes in Rails.
the Rails, of the sizes and in the position shown in the British Standard specification for Fish
plates for Bull Head Rails (Report Xo. 47) or on a drawing to be supplied by the Engineer (or
the Purchaser). These holes must be clean and square with the web, without burrs on either
side, and will be checked with the gai^es to be furnished to the Manufacturer by the Engineer
(or by the Purchaser). Should any of the holes vary from the correct size or position more than
one thirty-second of an inch (A inch) the Rails in question will be liable to rejection.
— a'awOE LENOTH—
AMA-MS^m.
TEST PIECE C.
DIA^.TMIN.
MCA-MaO-IH.
TEST PIECE D.
Fio. 341 . — Test Pieces C and D, British Standard Specifications of Rails.
The gauge length and the parallel portion are to be as shown, the form of the ends to be as
required in order to suit the various methods employed (or gripping the test piece.
17. The Manufacturer shall give to the Engmeer (or to the Purchaser), or his representative,
at least seven clear days' previous notice, in writing, b^ore the rollii^ of the first lot of Rails,
and at least three clear days' previous notice, in writing, Ijefore the rolling of any subsequent lot
of Rails, is commenced, in order that arrangements may be made for the presence of the repre-
sentative of the Engineer (or of the Purchaser) at the rolling.
18. The Engineer (or the Purchaser) or his representative shall have access to the works
of the Manufacturer at all reasonable times. He shall be at liberty to examine the Rails during
any stage of their manufacture, and to reject any material or finished Rail which does not conform
to the terms of this specification.
Before the Rails are put before the representative of the Engineer (or of the Purchaser)
for inspection the Manufacturer shall have them examined, and all Rail which he admits to be
defective are to be sorted out and placed in a separate stack; the representative of the Engineer
(or of the Purchaser) being empowered to refuse to inspect any lot of Rails not put in uniform
lengths and sorted.
19. The Manufacturer shall supply the material required for testing free of chai^ and shall,
at his own cost, furnish and prepare the necessary test pieces, and supply labor and appliances
for such testing as may be carried out at his premises in accordance with this specification. FmI-
ing facilities at his own works for making the prescribed tests the Manufacturer shall bear the
cost of carrying out the tests elsewhere.
20. All Rails accepted by the representative of the Engineer (or of the Purchaser) shall be
" Q his presence.
Notice of
Rolling to be
Given.
>, Google
STEEL RAILS
Pennissible
b^ariatioii in
Weight
37. British Standard Specifications of Flat Bottom Railway Raii^
(Report No. 11, Revised July, 1909)
Issued by The Engineering Standanla Committee
Supported by: The Institution of Civil Engineers; The Institution of Mech&nical Engjaeers; The
Institution of Naval Architects; The Iron and Steel Institute; The Institution of Electrical Engineers.
(Reprinted by permissioa of the Committee.)
1. The steel for the Rails shall be of the best quality made by the Bessemer, Siemens-
Martin, or other process, as may be approved by the Engineer (or hy the Purchaaer).
The Rails shall show on analysis that in chemical composition they cooform to the following
limits:
Carbon from 0.35 to 0.50 per cent.
Manganese " 0.70 to 1.00 " "
Silicon not to exceed 0.10 " "
Phosphorus... .. " " " 0.07 " "
Sulphur " " " 0.07 " "
2. The Manufacturer shall make and furnish to the representative of the Engineer (or of
the Purchaser) carbon and phosphorus determinations of each east.
A complete chemical analj^is, representing the average of the other elements contained in
the steel, shall be similarly given for each rolling. Such complete analysis shall be made from
drillings taken from the Rail or from the tensile test piece or pieces. When the rolling exceeds
200 tons, an additional complete analysis shall be made for each 200 tons or part thereof.
Should the Engineer (or the Purchaser) desire to make independent chemical determinations,
the necessary specimens and samples shall be furnished by the Manufacturer. For this purpose
not more than two Rails in every 100 tons manufactured shall be selected by the representative
of the Engineer (or of the Purchaser) and drillings taken with a drill of 2 inches diameter from the
top of the head of the Rail unless otherwise specified by him, and if, upon being subjected to the
specified tests, either fail to comply therewith, then all the Rails in the cast of which the test
pieces form a part may be rejected.
The representative of the Engineer (or of the Purchaser) may then take similar samples
from a further two rails out of the same 100 tons, and should either fail to comply with the specified
analysis the whole 100 tons may be rejected.
In ease of difference between the Enpneer (or between the Purchaser) and the Manufac-
turer, as to the accuracy of an analysis, either party shall have the right to have samples of the
steel analyzed by an independent metallurgist, to be mutually agreed upon The expenses at-
tendant upon such independent analysis shall be borne by the party adjudged to be in the wrong.
3. Each Rail shall be made from an ingot not less than 12 inches square at the smaller
end and 14 inches square at the larger end, which must be cogged down into blooms, and have
sufficient crop then sheared from each end to ensure soundness.
All straightening shall be done by pressure and not by hammering.
4. A rolling margin of J per cent under to J per cent above the calculated weight will be
permitted, but the calculated weight only will be paid for.
6. Before the general manufacture of the Rails is conmienced the Manufacturer shall, if
required hy the Engineer (or by the Purchaser), supply two sets of templates, internal and external,
of approved material, for each " B. S." Section of Rail,
Each template shall he suitably engraved with the Purchaser's name, the number of the
" B, S." section (being the nominal weight of the Rail in pounds per yard), the Manufacturer's
name and address, and the date of the Contract.
These templates shall be submitted to the Engineer (or to the Purchaser) for his approval,
and at the commencement of rolling the Engineer will have a competent person present to aj^rove
of the section.
>, Google
RAIL SPECinCATlONS
. TABLE OP GENERAL DIMENSIONS AND WEIGHTS OF "B. 8."
(3« PlaU XVI
Niimbar al "B. S."
Vaid iBPounds.
"*"■»■"■
WidlhofH«d.
oIRul.
jMh«.
iDChM.
Pound, per YKd.
20
2)
19.96
25
21
24.95
30
29.98
35
35.03
40
39,98
45
1
45,10
50
fj*
2Vi
49.94
65
22
54,78
60
4^
2
60.11
65
2
fk
64.86
70
6S.77
75
It
74,79
80
6
79.94
85
It
2A
84.87
90
89,92
95
5A
2H
94,76
100
5i
99.95
Genend
Dimensiona
and Wei^ts
of Kails.
7. Each Section of Rail shall be accurately rolled to ite respective template.
8. The whole of the Rails shall be of uniform section throughout, true to templates, per-
fectly sound and straight, and free from splits, cracks, burra, and defects of every kind.
9. A quantity of short lengths will be taken in such lengths and quantities as may be ordered
by the Engineer {or by the Purchaser), provided that these short lengths are cut down from longer
lengths found to be defective at the ends only, and that the total quantity taken does not exceed
71 per cent of the Contract.
10. The Rails shall be the specified length at a temperature of 60° Fahr, No Rail will be
accepted which is more than three-sixteenths of an inch (.-A inch) above or below the length
specified, whether for straight or curved Unes.
11. When required by the Enpneer (or by the Purchaser) Rails are to be supplied from 1
to 6 inches shorter or longer than the normal specified lengths, and these special lengths are to
have about one foot at each end painted with such colors as may- be ordered.
12. Rails shall be suppUed for switches and crossings when so ordered, and such Rails shall
he of the required lengths and shall be cut from sound R^ls.
13. The Brand (see sketch) shall be rolled on the web of each Rail to show that the Rail
is of British Standard Section and made under the conditions of this Specification; the number
of the " B. S." Section (being the nominal weight of the Rail in pounds per yard), the process* by
which the Rails have been manufactured, the Manufacturer's name, initials, or other recognized
mark, and the month and year of manufacture shall also be rolled, in letters three-quarters of
an inch (} inch) in laie, on one side of the web of each R^I, e.g., W B,8. 95-B.A,* 4.04;
and the number of the cast from which it has been rolled shall be stamped on the end of each Rail
in half-inch () inch) block figures,
14. From each cast a piece of Rail (which may be a crop end) shall be selected by the repre-
sentative of the Engineer (or of the Purchaser) and stamped with his mark and the number of
the cast. From this a piece 5 feet long shall be cut which shaU be placed in a horizontal position,
with the bead uppermost, upon two iron or steel supports resting on a solid foundation, the upper
* The ftdlowing abbreviations are recommended: —
S.A. Siemens-Martin Acid.
S.B. Siemens-Martin Bauc.
Rails to Conform
to Templates.
Rails to be Free
from Defects.
Length of Rails
for Straight
Penniaaible
Variation in
Length.
Curved Line.
Rails for
Switcbes and
Crossings.
Branding.
>, Google
490
STEEL RAILS
surfaces of the supports being curved to a, radius of 3 inches. The test shall comprise one blow,
delivered midway between the bearings, from a falling iron weight or tup, the striking face of
which shall be rounded to a radius of not more than 5 inches. The weight of the tup, the span
of the test piece between the centers of the bearings, and the height of the drop for the various
sections of Rails shall be as tabulated below. The blow must be sustained without fracture. In
addition to the above test the representative of the En^eer (or of the Purchaser) shall select one
finished Rjul from every 200 offered, and a piece S feet in length cut from this R^I shall be si " "
tested as specified above.
Nuiiib«'ot"B,S."
FdliuWtwhtTaK.
*'°4'5#''"'
WBghtoITnp.
C«MnotBi>rii«L
Drop.
CwU.
F»t.
Few.
20
5
3
8
25
5
3
9
30
10
3
10
35
10
3
12i 1
40
10
3
15
45
15
3
15
60
15
3
15
&S
15
3
171
80
20
3
20
65
20
3
20
70
20
3
20
75
20
3
20
80
20
3
22
85
20
3
24
90
20
3
26
95
20
3
28
JOO
20
3
30
Should the length cut from the selected Rail fail to comply with the test specified for its
weight, two other Rails from the same cast will be selected and similar lei^hs cut and tested,
and the acceptance or rejection of the cast wili be decided by the result of the three tests, so that
if two of the Rails selected fail to comply with the test the entire cast will be rejected.
15. From each 100 tons of R^ls the Manufacturer shall (if required by the representative
of the Engineer or of the Purchaser) cut a teat piece from any IRaii selected as a sample Rail; such
test piece to be stamped to correspond with the sample Rail. . It shall then be placed in a testing
machine of approved pattern, and shall have an ultimate tensile strength of not leas than 40 tons
per square inch, nor more than 48 tons per square inch, with an elongation of not less than 15 per
cent upon the Standard Test Keces C or D (see Fig. 341). Should the teat piece fail to fulfil these
conditions, the representative of the Engineer (or of the Purchaser) may require the Manufacturer
to test two other Rails from the same cast in the aame manner, and the acceptance or rejection
of the cast shall be decided by the result of the three testa, so that if two of the three Rails selected
fail to comply with the test the entire cast will be rejected.
The representative of the En^neer (or of the Purchaser) may then take similar test pieces
from a further two Rails out of the same 100 tons, and should either fail to comply with the test
the whole lOO tons may be rejected.
Should the Engineer (or the Purchaser) desire to have independent tests made, the Manu-
facturer shall provide the necessary test pieces, viz., two for every 200 tons, properly shaped and
prepared as described in Fig. 341.
16. The holes for fishbolts shall be drilled through the web from the solid at each end of
the R^ls, of the azes and in the position shown in the British Standard Specification for Fish
Plates for Flat Bottom Rails (Report No. 47), or on a drawing to be supplied by the Ei^neer
(or by the Purchaaer), These holes must be clean and square with the web, without burrs on
>, Google
RAIL SPECinCATlONS 491
either side, and will be checked with the gauges to be furnished to the Manufacturer by the
Engineer (or by the Purchaser). Should any of the holes vary from the correct size or position
more than one thirty-second of an inch (Vi inch) the Rails in question wiU be liable to rejection.
17. The Manufacturer shall give to the Engineer (or to the Purchaser), or his representative, Notice of
at least seven clear days' previous notice, in writing, before the rolling of the first lot of Rails, R?'!''** *» Be
and at least three clear days' previous notice, in writing, before the rolling of any subsequent lot
of Rails, is commenced, in order that arrangements may be made for the presence of the repre-
sentative of the En^eer (or of the Purchaser) at the rolling.
18. The Engineer (or the Purchaser), or his representative, shall have free access to the Inspection and
works of the Manufacturer at all reasonable times: he shall be at Uberty to examine the Rails Testiiij.
during any stage of their manufacture, and to reject any material or finished Rail which does not
conform to the terms of this Specification.
Before the Rails are put before the representative of the Engineer (or of the Purchaser)
for inspection, the Manufacturer shall have them examined, and all R^ls which he admits to be
defective shall be sorted out and placed in a separate stack; the representative of the En^neer
(or of the Purchaser) being empowered to refuse to inspect any lot of Rails not put in uniform
lengths and sorted.
19. The Manufacturer shall supply the material required for testing free of charge and shall. Testing
at his own cost, furnish and prepare the necessary test pieces, and supply labor and appUances PaeUitieB.
for such testing as may be carried out on his premises in accordance with this Specification. Failing
facilities at his own works for making the prescribed tests, the Manufacturer shall bear the cost
of carrying out the tests elsewhere.
20. All Rails accepted by the representative of the En^eer (or of the Purchaser) shall be Haiking nt
stamped in hie presence. Accepted Kails
38. Specifications for Street Railway Raiis
American Society for Testing Materials, AfUialed mth the International Asaociation for Testing
Materials. — Standard Specifications for Open-hearth Sted Girder and High Tee Rails. Adopted
June 1, 191S.
I. Mahofacttirz
1. The steel shall be made by the open-hearth process. The entire process of manufac- Process,
ture and testing shaU accord with the best current practice.
2. Bled ingots, and ingots or blooms which show the effects of injurious treatment, shall Bled Ingots,
not be used.
3. A BuflScient discard from the top of each ingot shall be made at any stage of the manu- Discard.
facture to obtain sound rails. When finished rails show pipii^, they may be cut to shorter lengths
until all evidence of this is removed.
II. Chemical PnopEETiEe and Taars
4. The steel shall conform to either of the following requirements as to chemical composi- Chemical
tion, as specified in the order: Composition.
Clah a. Clam B.
Carbon, per cent 0.60-0,75 0,70-0.85
Manganese, per cent 0.60-0.90 0,60-0-90
Silicon, percent notoverO,20 not over 0.20
Phosphorus, per cent not over 0.04 not over 0,04
5. To determine whether the material conforms to the requirements specified in Section 4, J'^je
an analysis shall be made by the manufacturer from a test ingot taken during the pouring of ^^^'
each melt. Drilling for analysis shall be taken not less than i inch beneath the surface of the
teat ingot. A copy of this analysb shall be given to the purchaser or his representative.
6. A Check analy^ may be made from time to time by the purchaser from a test ingot or Check
driUii^ therefrom furnished by the manufacturer. Analyses.
>, Google
STEEL RAII^
Ntunber
of Tests.
Retests,
III. Physical Properties and Tests
7. (o) The teat specimen shall be test«d on a drop-teat machine of the type recommended
by the American Railway Engineering Association. The specimen shall be placed head upwards
on the supports of the machine, and shall not break when tested with one blow in accordance with
the following conditions :
Waithl^dHaitbtof RaU.
Rails weighing over 100 lb. per yd.
and over 7 in. in depth ...
ig 100 lb. or less per
. or less in depth. , . .
Rails y
yd..-
60-120
60-120
Hai«ht at Etrop.
2000
2000
(b) The atmospheric temperature at the time of testing shall be recorded in the test
report.
(c) The testing shall proceed concurrently with the operation of the works.
8. (a) Three rails, each from the top of one of three ingots from each melt, shall be selected
by the inspector, and a test specimen shall be taken from each of two of these.
(b) Drop test specimens shall not be less than 4, nor more than 6 feet in length.
9. Two drop tests shall be made from each melt.
10. If the result of the drop test on only one of the two specimens representing the rails in
a melt does not conform to the requirements specified in Section 7, a retcst on a specimen from
the third rail selected shall be made and this shall govern the acceptance or rejection of the raib
from that melt.
IV. Standard Secttons, Lengths, and Weights
11. (a) The cold templet of the manufacturer shall conform to the specified section as shown
in detail on the drawing of the purchaser, and shall at ail times be maintained
perfect.
(6) The section of the rtul shall conform as accurately as possible to the templet, and
within the following tolerances:
(1) The height shall not vary more than A inch under nor more than ^ inch
over that specified.
(2) The over-all width of head and tram shall not vary more than j inch fron;
that specified. Any variation which would affect the gage line mort
than I*! inch will not be allowed.
(3) The width of base shall not vary more than j inch under that specified for
widths less than Gi inches; -^n inch under for a width of 6} inches; and
i inch under for a width of 7 inches.
(4) Any variation which would affect the fit of the splice bars will not be allowed.
(5) The base of the rail shall be at right angles to the web; and the convexity
shall not exceed V: inch,
(c) When necessary on account of the type of track construction, and notice to that
effect has been given to the manufacturer, special care shall be taken to mainlaio
the proper position of the gage line with respect to the outer edge of the base.
12. (a) Unless otherwise specified, the lengths of rails at a temperature of 60° F. shall be
60 and 62 feet for those sections in which the weight per yard will peiroit.
(6) The lengths shall not vary more than 1 inch from those specified.
(c) Shorter lengths, varying by even feet down to 40 feet, will be accepted to the extent
of 10 per cent by weight of the entire order.
>, Google
RAIL SPECIFICATIONS 493
13. (a) The weight of the rails per yard as epecified in the order shall be maintained as Weight.
nearly aa possible after confonmng to the requirements specified in Section 11.
(b) The total weight of an order shall not vary more than 0.5 per cent from tliat specified.
(c) Payments shall be based on actual weights.
V. Workmanship and Finish
14. (o) Rails on the hot beds shall be protected from water or snow, and shall be carefully Straightening.
manipulated to minimize cold straightenii^.
(b) The distance between the rail supports in the cold-strmghtening presses shall not
be less than 42 inches, except as may be necessary near the ends of the rails. The
gag shall have rounded comers to avoid injury to the rails.
15. (a) Circular holes for jomt bolts, bonds, and tie rods shall be drilled to conform to the Drilling aiul
drawings and dimensions furmahed by the purchaser. Punching.
(b) In Class A rails the tie-rod holes may be punched.
16. The ends shall be milled square laterally and vertically, but the base may be undercut Hilling.
1*1 inch.
17. (a) Rails shall be smooth on the head, straight in line and surface without any twists, Finiah.
waves, or kinks, particular attention being given to having the ends without kinks
(6) All burrs or flow caused by drilling or sawing shall be carefully removed,
(c) Raih shall be free from gag marks and other injurious defects of cold-straightening.
VI. CnASaiFiCATioN of Raiu
18. Rails which are free from injurious defects and flaws of all kinds shall be classed as No. 1 No. i Rails,
Rails.
19. (o) Rails which are rough on the head or which by reason of surface or other imper- No. a Sails.
fections are not classed as No. 1 rails, shall be classed as No. 2 rails; providing
they do not, in the judgment of the inspector, contain imperfections in such num-
ber and of such character as to render them unfit for No. 2 rail uses, and pro-
viding they conform to the requirements specified in Section II.
(b) Rails which have flaws in the head exceeding t inch in depth, or in the base exceed-
ing i inch in depth, shall not be classed as No. 2 nuls.
(c) No. 2 riuls will be accepted to the extent of 10 per cent by weight of the entire order.
VII. Marong and Loaping
20. (a) The name or brand of the manufacturer, the year and month of manufacture, the Marking.
letters "O. H.," the weight of the rail, and the section number shall be iegibly
rolled in raised letters and figures on the web. The melt number shall be legibly
stamped on each rail where it will not be covered subsequently by the joint plates.
(it) Both ends of ail shortr-length No. 1 rails shall be pmnted green.
Both ends of all No. 2 rails shall be painted white and shall have two heavy center-
punch marks on the web at each end at such a distance from the end that they
will not be covered subsequently by the joint plates.
21. (a) Rdls shall be loaded in the presence of the inspector, and shall be handled in such Loading.
a manner as not to bruise the flanges or cause other injuries.
(b) Rails of each class shall be placed together in loading.
(c) Rails shaU be paired as to length before shipment.
VIII. Inspection
22. The inspector representing the purchaser shall have free entry, at all times while work Inqwctioii.
1 the contract of the purchaser is being performed, to all parts of the manufacturer's works
>, Google
494 STEEL RAILS
which concern the nmnufacture of the material ordered. The manufacturer shall afford the
inspector, free of cost, all reasonable facilities to satisfy him that the material is being furnished
in accordance with these specifications. All tests and inspection shall be made at the place of
manufacture prior to shipment, and shall be so conducted as not to interfere unnecessarily with
the operation of the works.
39. BiBUOGEAPHY OF RAIL SPECIFICATIONS
Search furnished by the Secretary of the American Society of Civil Engineers, and made
in its library, January 24, 1910, and January 19, 1912, supplemented by the Teclmology
department of the Carnegie Library of Pitteburgh.
1877
" Permanent-way Rolling Stock and Technical Working of R^lways," Vol. 1, p. 512, by
Ch. Couche, tr. by James N. Shoolbred. Paris, 1877. Dunod, 49 Quai des Augustins. (Contains
specifications for cliemical composition of steel rails.)
1879
"The Chemical Composition and Physical Properties of Steel Rails," by C. B. Dudley.
Trans. Am. lust. Min. Engra., Vol. 7, p. 172 (1879). (Recommends a formula for the chemical
composition of rails for the use of the Pennsylvania Railroad.)
" Does the Wearing Power of Steel Rails Increase with the Hardness of Steel? " by Charles
B. Dudley. Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Engrs , Vol. 7, p. 202 (1879) (four pages).
" Discussion of Dr. Charles B. Dudley's Papers on Steel Riuls." Trans. Am. Inat. Min.
Engrs., Vol. 7, p. 357 (1879)
1380
" The Wearing Capacity of Steel Rails in Relation to their Chemical Composition and
Physical Properties," by Charies B. Dudley. Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Engrs., Vol. 8, p. 321 (1880).
(Contains references to specifications for chemical composition.)
" Specifications for Steel RiuU and Track Fastenings." Eng. News, Vol. 20, p. 172 (Sept.
1, 1888). (Specifications drawn up and used by Frank Ward & Bro., of Kttaburg, Pa.)
Same. R. R. Gai., Vol. 20, p. 587 (Sept. 7, 1888).
" Steel Rails and Specifications for their Manufacture," by Robert W. Hunt. Trans. Am.
Inst. Min. Engrs., Vol. 17, p. 226 (1888). (Contains specifications for Bessemer steel rails.)
Abstracts of same. R. R. Gaz., Vol. 20, p. 697 (Oct. 26, 1888); Eng. and Min. Jour.,
Vol. 46, p. 370 (Nov. 3, 1888).
1893
" Steel Rdls: their Manufacture and Service." Eng. News, Vol. 30, p. 172 (Aug. 31, 1893).
(Proposed spet^fications for steel rails.)
1895
" Specifications for Steel Rails of Heavy Sections Manufactured West of the Alleghenies,"
by Robert W. Hunt. Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Engrs., Vol. 25, p. 653 (1895). (The author states
that " the only important features in which the present specifications differ from those of 1888 is
in providing for a chemical composition and for drop tests.")
" Brief Note on Rail Specifications," by Robert W. Hunt. Trans. Am. Inst, Mjn. Engrs,,
Vol. 27, p. 139 (1897). (One page; report of progress.)
,y Google
RAIL SPECIFICATIONS
" Specifications on Stnictural Steel and Rails," by W. R. Webater. Journal of the EVankiiii
Institute, Vol. 147, p. 1 (Jan., 1899). (General diacusdon of the subject.)
1900
Proceedings American Railway En^neering and Maintenance of Way Association, Vol. 1,
p. 116 (1000). (Refers to specifications for steel rails.)
" Recent Practice in Rails: an Informal Discussion." Trans. Am. Socy. of Civ. Engrs.,
Vol. 44, p. 489 (Paper 887, Dec, 1900). (Gives tiie standard rail specifications of the Louisville
& Nashville R, R, Co., Robert W, Hunt's specifications, and specifications of the Western rail
mills, and a review of foreign rail specifications.)
"American Standard Specifications and Methods of Testing Iron and Steel," by Albert
Ladd Colby. Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute, Vol. 158, p. 215 (1900). (Gives specifi-
cations for steel rails.)
1901
" Proposed Standard Specifications for Steel Ruls." In Proc. Ant. Ry. Ei^. and M. of
W. Assn., Vol. 2, p. 192 (1901). (Specifications recommended by Committee No. 1 of the Ameri-
can Section of the International Association for Testing Materials.)
"Nature of Metal for Rwb, Report (United States)," by P. H. Dudley. International
Rwlway Congress. Proceedinp, Sixth Session, 1900, Vol. 1, Question 1, pp. 205, 248, Brussels,
1901. P. Weissenbruch, 49 Rue du Poingon. (Gives specifications for steel rwls.)
" Examen des Specifications Normales Americaines Proposes Eprouvettes et M4tbodes
d'Easai du Fer et de I'Acier," by Albert Ladd Colby. In " ConununieatJons Pr^nt^ devant
le Congres International des M^hodes d'f^ssai des Mat4riaux de Construction tenu a Paris du
9 au 16 Juillet, 1900," Vol. 2, Pt. 1, pp. 147, 162. Paris, 1901. Vve. Ch. Dunod, 49 Qum des
Grands-Augustins. (Contuns a review of foreign specifications for steel rails aiid proposed
American standard specificatJona.)
" Specifications for Steel Ralls," by P. H. Dudley. R. R. Gaz., Vol. 33, p. 158 (March 8,
1901} (one page).
" Some Suggestions as to SpecificatJons for Steel Rails," by E. P. Kenney. Eng. News,
Vol. 46, p. 226 (Oct. 3, 1901).
1902
American Society for Testing Materials, Proceedings, Vol. 1, pp. 101, 264 (1899-1902).
(Proposed standard specifications for steel rails recommended by American Branch of Coomiittee
No. 1, American Section of the International Association for Testing Materials.
" Review and Text of the American Standard Specifications for Steel, adopted in August,
1901," p. 41, by Albert Ladd Colby. Ed. 2. Easton, Pa., 1902. The Chemical Publishing Co.
(Contdns specifications for steel rails.)
" Proposed Modifications of the Standard Specifications for Steel Rails, Topical Discussion."
Proc. Am. Socy. for Testing Materials, Vol. 2, p. 9, 23 (1902).
Proceedings of the Am. Ry. Eng. and M. of W. Assn., Vol. 3, p. 201 (1902). (Specifications
recommended in 1901 with some amendments.)
" Speofications for Steel Rails/' by W. R. Webster, Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Engrs., Vol. 31,
pp. 449, 967 (1902), (Contains proposed standard specifications recommended May, 1900, by
the American Branch of Committee No. 1 of the International Association for Testing Materials.)
" Steel Rails: Specifications," by Robert Job. Am. Eng. and R. R. Jour., Vol. 76, p. 310
(Oct., 1902). (Givesspecificationsof thePhiladelphia&ReadingRailwayCompanyforsteelrailB.)
" The Present Situation as to Specifications for Steel Rwls," by William R. Webrter. Trans.
Am. Inst. Wn. Engrs., Vol. 33, p. 164 (1903) (five pages).
,y Google
496 STEEL RAILS
"Proposed ModilicationB in the Specifications for Steel Rails adopted by the Anierican
Railway En^neering and Maintenance of Way Association in March, 1903." Proc. Am. Socy.
for Testing Materials, Vol. 3, p. 74 (1903).
1904
" British Standard Specification and Sections of Bullheaded Railway Rails." Engineering
Standards Committee. Report No. 9, Lond., 1904. (lOs. 6d. net.)
" Specifications for Steel Raiia of the American Railway Ei^neering and Maintenance of
Way Association, aa Amended and Adopted in March, 1904," with Introduction by William R.
Webster. Proc. Am. Socy. for Testing Materials, Vol. 4, p. 195 (1904). (Showii^ main difference
in specifications adopted by the two societies.)
" Standard Specifications for Bessemer Steel R^ls." In Proc. Am. Ry. Eng. and M. of
W. Assn., Vol. 5, p. 465 (1904).
" Specifications for Bessemer Steel R^Is." Eng. News, Vol. 50, p. 275 (March 24, 1904).
(Gives specifications adopted by the American Railway En^neering and Maintenance of Way
Association.)
1905
" Railroad Construction," p. 243; by Walter Loring Webb, M. Am. Socy. C. E. Ed. 3.
N. Y., 1905, John Wiley & Sons, 43 E. 19th St. (Contains proposed standard specifications for st«el
rails of the American Railway Enpneering and Maintenance of Way Association, March, 1902.)
British Standard Specification and Sections of Flat-bottomed Railway Rjuls. Eng^eering
Standards Committee. Report No. 11. Lond., 1905. Leslie S, Robertson, Secy., 28 Victoria
Street, Westminster, S. W. (IDs. 6d. net.)
" Steel Rails," by William R. Webster. R. R. Gaz., Vol. 38, p. 440 (May 5, 1905). (Gives
specifications of the Ataerican Railway Ei^neering and Maintenance of Way Association.)
1906
" On Specifications for Steel Rails." Proc. Am. Socy. for Testii^ Materials, Vol, 6, p. 35
(1906). (Gives proposed standard specifications for steel rails.)
Proc. Am. Ry. Eng. and M. of W. Assn. Vol. 7, p. 553 (1906). (Gives comparison of
spedfications of American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association and the
American Society of Civil Engineers.)
" Rails for Lines with Fast Trains." Reports; by P. H, Dudley and Van Bogaert. Inter-
national Railway Congress, Seventh Session, 1905, Vol. 1, Question 2, pp. 141, 194. Brussels,
1906. P. Weissenbruch. {Contains very brief data on rails specifications.)
"Specifications for Steel Rails." R. R. Gaz., Vol. 40, p. 280 (March 16, 1906). (Specifi-
cations recommended by the American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association,
American Society for Testing Materials, and American Society of Civil Engineers.)
1907
" Report of the Special Committee on Rail Sections to the American Society of Civil En-
gineers." Proc. Am. Socy. of Civ. Engrs., Vol. 32, p. 52; Vol. 33, p. 290 (1906, 1907). {Contains
recommended specifications for Bessemer steel rails.)
" Manual of Recommended Practice for Railway Engineering and Mtuntenance of Way,"
p. 55. Am. Ry. Eng. and M. of W. Assn. Edition of 1907. (Contains specifications for rails.)
" Proposed Standard Specifications for Steel Rails." Proc. Am. Socy. for Testing Materials,
Vol. 7, p. 40 (1907). (Specifications adopted Sept. 1, 1907.)
" The Steel-rail Discussion, American Society for Testing Materials." Ry. and Eng.
Review, Vol. 47, p. 570 (June 29, 1907).
" Proceedings of the Session of the American Rwlway Association, October 30, 1907," p. 176,
N, Y., 1907. (Report of the Committee on Rwl Sections givii^ specifications for Bessemer
steel rails with explanatory notes.)
>, Google
RAIL OTECIFICATIONS 497
" Standard Specifications for Steel Rails." Proc. Am. Soc. for Testing Materials, Vol. 7,
p. 44 (1907).
Same. Eng. Record, Vol. 55, p. 774 (June 29, 1907).
Comparison of American and Foreign Rail Specifications, with a Proposed Standard Speci-
fication to Cover American Rails for Export," by Albert Ladd Colby. Trans. Am. Inat. Min,
Ei^rs., Vol. 37, p. 576 (1907). (Contains bibliography.)
Same. Iron and Coal Trades Review, Vol. 73, p. 357 (July 27, 1906).
" Rail Sections and Specifications." R. R. Gaz., Vol. 43, p. 250 (Sept. 6, 1907). (Com-
pares rail specifications of the American Society of Civil Engineers, American Railway Engineering
and Maintenance of Way Association, American Society for Testing Materials.)
" Some Progress Toward Getting Better Rails." (Editorial.) R. R. Gaz., Vol. 43, p. 577
(Nov. 15, 1907). (Brief discussion of rail specifications.)
" Proposed Standard Rail Sections of the American Railway Association." R. R. Gaz.,
Vol. 43, p. 627 (Nov. 22, 1907) (illustrated).
" Rail Specifications." R. R. Gaz., Vol. 43, p. 736 (Dec. 20, 1907). (Contains specifiea-
tjons of the American Railway Association.)
1908
" Railway Track and Track Work," p. 78; by E. E. Russell Tratman, Assoc. M. Am.
Sooy. C. E. Ed. 3. N. Y., 1908. Enpneerii^ News Publishii^ Co., 220 Broadway. S3.50
net. (Contains a comparative table of specifications for chemical composition of rails.)
Proceedings of the American Railway AssocialJon, Special Session, February 7, 1908;
Regular Session, April 22, 1908, p. 359, N. Y., 1908. (Specifications for Bessemer and open-
hearth steel rails, accompanying the Report of the Committee on Standard Rail and Wheel Sec-
tions, dated March 23, 1908.)
" Standard Specifications for Steel Rails." Proc. Am. Soc. for Testing Materials, Vol. 8,
p. 44 (1908). (Specifications adopted Aug. 15, 1908.)
" The Present Status of Rail Specifications." R. R. Age, Vol. 45, p. 76 (Jan. 17, 1908).
(A review of the action taken hy the American Railway Association.)
American Society of Civil En^neers, Report of Special Committee on HaH Sections. Eng.
News, Vol. 59, p. 105 (Jan. 23, 1908). (Recommended specifications for Bessemer steel rails.)
" New Steel-rail Specifications of the Pennsylvania Railroad." Eng. News, Vol. 59, p. 426
(April 16, 1908). (Gives specifications for chemical composition, process of manufacture, mechani-
cal requirements, tests, and inspection.)
" The Pennsylvania New Rail Sections and Specifications." R. R. Gaz., Vol. 44, p. 539
(April 17, 1908).
" New Rail Sections and Rail Specifications of the American Railway Association." Eng.
News, Vol. 59, p. 530 (May 14, 1908). (Specifications for Bessemer and open-hearth steel rails.)
"American Railway Association's Rail Committee." (Editorial.) Eng. News, Vol. 59,
p. 533 (May 14, 1908). (Comments on the rail specifications; one and a half colunms.)
" Steel-rail Breakages; Questions of Design and Specifications," by Harold V. Coes. En-
gineering Magazine, Vol. 35, p. 417 (June, 1908). (Gives specifications for the Union and Southern
Pacific railways and British standard chemical specifications for steel rails.)
" Some Features of the Present Steel Rail Question," by Charles B. Dudley, Proc. Am. Soc.
for Testing Materials, Vol. 8, p. 19 (1908). (Discusses changed demands on steel rails and pro-
posed specifications.) Same. Engineering News, Vol, 60, p. 9.
1909
" Proceedings of the Session of the American Railway Association held in Chic^o, Novem-
ber 17, 1909," p. 995. N. Y., 1909. W. F. Allen, Secy., 24 Park Place. (American Railway
AssociatJoD specifications for Bessemer and for open-hearth steel nuls, adopted as lecoomiended
practice April 22, 1908.)
,y Google
498 STEEL RAII5
Proceedings Am. Ry. Eng. and M. of W. Assn., Vol. 10, Pt. I, pp. 369, 374 (1909). (Recom-
mended changes in epecificaUoDS as previously adopted by the Association.)
" New Rail Section and Specifications, Canadian Pacific Ry." Ry. and Eng. Review, VoL
49, p. 27 (Jan. 9, 1909). (Gives specifications for open-hearth and Bessemer rails.)
" New Ruls for the Canadian Pacific Ry." (Editorial.) Ry, and Eng. Review, Vol. 49,
p. 34 (Jan. 9, 1909). (Discusses specifications and rail gections.)
"New R^ Specifications of the Pennsylvania R. R. System." Eng News, Vol. 61, p. 50
(Jan. 14, 1009). (Revision of specifications of Feb. 4, 1908.)
" Pennsylvania RmI Specifications." R. R. Age Gaz., VoL 46, p. 101 (Jan. 16, 1909).
(Specifications of the Pennsylvania Riulroad evised under date of Dec. 10 1008.)
"The New 85-pound Hai! Section of the Canadian Pacific Ry." Eng. News, Vol. fil,
p. 272 (March 11, 1909) (illustrated).
" Recent Developments in Rail Dengn and a Comparison of Ridl Sections." (Editorial.)
Ei«. News, Vol. 61, p. 276 (March 11, 1909). (Compares rail specifications.)
" Recent Rail Sections." R. R. A e Gaz., Vol. 46, p. 537 (March 19, 1909) (one page,
illustrated).
" New Raii Orders and Specifications." (Editorial.) R. R. Age Gaz., Vol. 46, p. 535 (March
19, 1909). (Discusses nul specifications of various nuiroads.)
" Riul Specifications." (Editorial,) R. R.A^Gaz., Vol. 46,p.925 (April 30,1909). (Very
brief.)
" R^l Spetafications " (letter), by R. Trimble. R. R. Age Gaz., Vol. 46, p. 1018 (May 14,
1909), (Brief letter correcting error in the above editorial.)
" Comparative RaU Specifications." R. R. Age Gaz., VoL 46, p. 1066 (May 21, 1909).
(Compares specifications of the American Railway Association, Steel Manufacturers of America,
American Society of Civil Engineers, American Railway En^neering and Mfuntenance of Way
Association, and American Society for Testing Materials, with comments.)
" Rul Sections and Specifications." (Editorial.) R. R. Age Gaz., Vol. 46, p. 1060 (May 21,
1909).
" Specifications for 90-pound Bessemer and Open-hearth Steel Rails for the Harriman
Lines." R. R. Age Gaz., Vol. 47, p. 185 (July 30, 1909). (Specifications to which the Harriman
Lines are ordering thdr 1909 rails.
" On the Question of Strengthening the Traclt and the Bridges with a View to Increasing
the Speed of Trains Subject II, for Discussion at the Eighth Session of the Railway Congress,"
by M. L. Byers. Bulletin of the International Railway Congress Association, VoL 23, p. 908
(Sept., 1909). (Gives rail specifications proposed by he American Railway Association and by
the Pennsylvania Railroad Committee.)
" Report of Committee on R^, American R^way Engineering and Miuntenance c^ Way
Association. Bulletin 113 (Dec., 1909). (Specifications for steel rtuls and review of previous
r^wrts.)
Abstract of same. "Specifications for Steel Rails." R^way and Engineering Review,
Vol. 50, p, 118 (Feb. 5, 1910).
" Standard Specifications for Bessemer Steel Riuls." Proceedings American Society for
Testing Materials, Vol. 9, p. 62 (1909). (Adopted Aug. 16, 1909.)
" Standard Specifications for Open-hearth Steel Rails." Proceedings American Society tor
Testing Materials, VoL 9, p. 66 (1909). (Adopted Aug. 16, 1909.)
" La Voie Courante des Chenains de Fer de I'Etat Beige," by Pierre Decamps. Revue Gen-
eral des Chemins de Fer et des Tramways, VoL 32, Pt. 2, p. 267 (Oct., 1909). (Appendix pv«B
r^ specifications of the state railroad of Belgium.)
" Revised Rail Specifications, Pennsylvania Railroad System." En^eering, VcA. 87,
p. 218.
British Standard Sections, No. 47. En^neering Standards Committee (1909). (British
standard specifications for bull headed and flat bottom railway rfdls.)
>, Google
RAIL SPECIFICATIONS 499
" Specifications for Standard Open Hearth Steel Rails for A. S. C. E. Sections," Cam^^
Steel Co., Jan. I, 1909. (Two leaflets.)
" Specifications for Standard Bessemer Steel R^ls for A. S. C. E. Sections," Carnegie Steel
Co., Jan. 1, 1909. (Two leaflets.)
" Specifications for Steel Rails." Baltimore and Ohio R. R. Co., No. 163C., Jan. 25, 1909.
(Two leaflets.)
" Specifications for Open Hearth Steel Rails." Proceedings American Street and Inter-
urban Railway Engineering Association, Vol. 7, p. 59 (1909). (Includes specifications adopted
by the Traout Supply Co., Lorain Steel Co., Pennsylvania Steel Co., and the Manganese Steel
RaUCo.)
1910
" Permanent Way." R. R. Engr., Vol. 31, p. !8 (Jan., 1910). (Gives Pennsylvania Railroad
System specifications for steel rails.)
" Final Report of Special Committee on Riul Sections." Transactions American Society of
Civil En^neers, Vol. 70, p. 456 (Paper 1177, Dec, 1910). (Contains reprint of rwl specifics^
tions of the American Railway Engineering Association.)
" The American Railway Association, The American Railway En^neering and Maintenance
of Way Association, Specifications for Steel Raits." Proceedings American Railway Engineering
and Maintenance of Way Association, Vol. 11, Pt. 1, p. 254 (1910).
Abstracts of same. "Specifications for Steel Rails." Railway and En^neering Review,
Vol. 50, p. 118 (Feb. 5, 1910). "Rail Specifications and Sections," Engineering News, Vol. 63,
p. 384 (Mar. 31, 1910).
" Track Standards and General Rules." Depari^ment of Munt. of Way, Metropolitan
Street Railway Co. Elec. Ry. Journal, Vol. 35, p. 863.
" Recent Work of the German Street and Interurban R^lway Association." Elec. Ry.
Journal, Vol. 35, p. 38. (Considers specifications and standards agreed upon.)
Hunt (Robert W.) & Co., Engineers. Bureau of Inspection, Testa and Consultation.
(Includes "Specifications for Standard Open-hearth Steel Girder and High Tee-Rails," 1910,
American Street and Interurban Railway En^eering Association, p. 5; and "Specifications for
Standard Open-hearth Steel Girder and High Tee-Rails," Lorain Steel Co., Jan. 1, 1910, p. 14.)
1911
" Standard Specifications for Bessemer and Open-hearth Steel Rwls." March 21, 1910,
United States Steel Products Export Co." (Year-book, American Society tor Testing Materials,
1911, p. 202.)
" Rail Sections and Specifications." Elec. Ry. Journal, Vol. 37, p. 8. (Editorial, dis-
cusui^ progress toward uniform specifications in 1910.)
" Interborough Rails for Tangents and Curves." Elec. Ry. Journal, Vol. 37, p. 82. (Gives
recent modifications of specifications of open-hearth steel rails.)
Same, abstract. Journal of the Iron and Steel Inst., Vol, 34, p. 619.
" Manufacturers' Standard Specifications for Bessemer Steel Rails," Association of American
Steel Manufacturers. Year-book, American Society of Testing Materials, 1911, p. 199.
" Specifications for Basic Open-hearth Rails," New York Central Lines. (Specifications of
Oct. 1, 1909, revised Jan. 11, 1911, to conform to manufacturers' sale per 100 pounds.)
" Specifications." Report of Committee on Rail. Proceedings American Railway En-
gineering and Maintenance of Way Association, Vol. 12 (1911), Pt. 2, p. 12. (Gives short report
of pn^press.)
Report of Conmiittee A-1. Proceedinp American Society for Testing Materials (1911),
Vol. XI, p. 48. (Contains reference to international specifications for kuIs.)
,y Google
STEEL RAII£
1912
" Specifications for Carbon Steel Rails." Proceedings American Railway Engineering As-
sodation (1912), Vol. 13, p. 665.
" New Specifications for Steel Rails." Iron Age, Vol. 89, p. 816. (Gives report of rail com-
mittee at 1912 meeting of the American Railway Ei^neering Association and specifications
adopted.)
" Specifications for 85-pound and 100-pound Carbon Steel Rails," 1912, Pennsylvania Rail-
load Company. (Two leaflets.)
" Specifications for Standard Bessemer Steel Tee Rails," 1912 Catalogue, Maryland St«et
Company, p. 10.
" Specifications for Standard Open-hearth Steel Tee Ruls," 1912 Catalogue, Maryland
Steel Company, p. 12,
" Specifications for Standard Open-hearth Steel Girders and Kgh Tee R^ls," 1912 Cata-
logue, Pennsylvania Steel Company, p. 14.
,y Google
APPENDIX
REPORTS AND RECORDS
The forms recommended by the Rail Committee of the American Railway
Engineering Association, and contained in the 1911 Manual of the Association,
are typical of the best practice, and are shown on ¥ig^. 342 to 359 incluave
and Plate XXXIII. The explanation of the forms as ^ven by the committee
is as follows:
Group I. Repor'k of Rail Inspection and Shipment at the Mill
This set of forms. Figs. 342-344 and Plate XXXIII, is for the use of the
railroad company's Inspector at the mills where the rwl is rolled, and gives
all the information necessary to inform the purchaser that his order has been
manufactured in accordance with the specifications and shipped.
,y Google
>, Google
ji. B. ^ C R. R. Co.
Rwportof Chamloal and Rhyaloal .g^,
-.■S.-;-
Co,M
Oidv
No.of
1
P««ii.RoIl. _B«hdd«..v«aeeo( «™d4« .P«.
Wc«ht ol Tup, 2000 Hm.
«• Stnight«>Dg Pp
Height of Drop .„
tt DBianct between Supportt. 3 f(
HdtKi.
,™l.^
1
1
1
1
1
f|l
^
i4°u
^r
£JS
2
3
4
S
«
;
B
9
10
Pen
Uvln
ntbtT
otgmn
ihouM
dau
lb. si
lejKh
■, th.1
iu«l 11
J
s
s
3
3
t
" 12
luto
<niu|i
Kba.
13
14
IS
18
IT
IS
IB
20
2t
23
23
24
2S
27
28
sg
30
31
32
Nol«— R«|uir«nenu of Standanl SpeciScaimnt an lo be su
ed t>n line 1
ihtC
-fEn,
meer
« o( «
App
™..
i^.S^x-"~
Fio. 342.
M. W. 401. — Report of Chemical and Physical Examination:
This blank is filled out from the mill records under the supervision of the
Inspector, and ^ves the chemical contents taken from the ladle analysis and
the result of the drop test. (503)
-lOOgle
/i. B. & a R. R. Co.
Certificate of inspection
(OpnHoiUi.Bawi
Uanufactured by
_ Praces Riik lt«. pwyii._.
Mt ..Chief Engineer M. o( W. Date
The following Steel Rails have been in^iecieil and aciepted according to contract.
Rail! are certified to be within the limits of the Specilkationi of the
AU Ruils have been inspected and approved (or Chcmiqal Analysis, Physical Test*, Section.
Weight. Straightening. Drilling, Saving. Length, Stamping. Finish, Quality.
end poution occupied in Oie ingot. Dateol Rolling j_j£_
No.ot Rails Rolled _ No. o( Rails Accepted ^
No. of Rails temporarily rejected and cause
;#'"
This Cotilicate coven the run fimi ^
Heat No to Meat No both incl
Calculated Weight.
«pted under this Ctnitv
Hours Wis. Houn Wit.
Approved : ,
Fia. 343.
M. W. 402. — Certificate of Inspection:
This is the Inspector's written statement that the material which he has
witnessed rolled has been turned out strictly in accordance with the specifications
and tlie order of the railroad company. (Sm)
.yGoogle
13
e IS
le
17
23
24
2S
56
11
28
29
30
32
RCRC
5RT
£^ C *. ^. Ci.
OF SHIRMENT.
No
_ Secuon
Coiuigns
Orf«N
1
LoxdedODCan.
Nambei of R«Is of each Length.
""t:!"^
[nilui
No
33
30
2TJ
:u
?js:
F™sih.t«.-iih
-p^nl
colon
U.bd.:
Jh>p
«lm
nllu^
10 UK
ueivc
hy .h
Bs^rei,
c
g
1
i
Jl
Jl
J
J
J
s
e
8
S.I
gl it.
Ilnqu
'da>i
Toial Wciuhl Eipressed iii Grcsi Tons and D«imiiJi.
.«.T«ueT,o«. ,;^,^
Onto
Chirf E
the Gen
■T»l Supe
s
tnd
ndcnt
^:T?
Th'^
Ap
^
— ?^i^¥i:"
Fia.344.
M. W. 403. — Report of Shipment:
This blank is used for reporting the number and length of rail shipped in
each car from the works, and, when properly checked by the Receiving Officer,
it furnishes the basis for payment of the bill.
M. W. 418. — Results of Drop Tests and Surface Inspection of Rails Rolled
(Plate XXXIII). (605)
This form is intended for tabulating the results of drop tests and surface
inspection of r^ls rolled.
Group II. Reports from Division Officers
This group, Figs. 345-347, contains all the regular reports which come from
the division officers concerning the rsuls which have been put in service in track.
A. B. & a J?. J?. Co.
Report of RAIL FAILURES in Main Tracks
Date of Report 191...
Brand an Rail? ("D" on back)
Kind of Steel? ("E" on back)
He»l No. on Rail? ("F"on back),.,.
Rail No. or Letter f ("F" on back)..
* if Hail?
Oririnal Length of R
Montb and V^r Rail
Wbich fraekV.! ".';:; '!.'";;
Which Rail?
On Curve or Straight Line?..
No. of Curve?
Degree of Curve?
High or Lo* Rail, if on Corr
) Rail "Broken"? ,
r "Detccti™"?
r Damaged?
e "Description of Failuret" oi
Wai Rail much or titti
By whom diEcovered..
Dale and Time found?
Was Rail removed?.,
Exact gage of Track »t "Break"?
Was "Break" over or between Tie*?..
Was "Break" square or angntar?
DisUnce between edges of Tia at
ci each tide of "Brei
Kind of materialin roadbed unde
bii:
Was Track well A
er? (Wet, dtj. warm or cold, fre.
of flaws or defects, and If pofsible.
)raw on Diagram lines of "Break," or partial fracture, aoch ai long mccca from
nde of head and hatt-moon piecei from ba», ihowing dimensons. Hollows in
head should be ihovm on "End Section." Defect! miT also be Indicated en
ing^nd.'
lark distance from end ti
ng End," draw pen through words "Leaving End;" if nearest "Leaving End."
Iraw pen throuah words ''Receiving End." ('Refers to track upon which the
urrent of ttaffic is En one direction.) Indicale "Gage Side" on "Diagram"
I "Damaged," describe ni
ing pen through words "Gage Side" on
lesTdc
|. g « 1
* m m m m m
m
OB
IBB
and cause if known. (See "Description of Failures"
Approved:
. . . Foreman.
I, and Description of Failures, on Back.
Fia. 345, q^ace of Fonn.)
- Report of Rail Failures in Main Tracks:
This is the basic report of all rail failures and is sent by the Track Foreman
to his Supervisor and by him transmitted to the Division Engineer. It contains
a clasfflfication of r^ failures which is used in the tabulations employed in t&e
following blanks.
INSTRUCTIONS
-ward tbis Report direct to the Divirio
r will have copies af Ihii Report mu
:pj 10 the CbLef Engineer M. o£ W.
raised characters oa the web of tl
e day the break li
the daj it ia taken
ERgineer.
: iiDiaediitelr upon
D. The answer I
E. The answer to 4 is "Bessemer" <I»; "Open-Heartb" (O.H.); "Nidwl" (N.);
"Ferto-tilaniura (F.T.)i "Chrome Nicker CC.N.); or other method of iranu-
factare or allof.
F. The answers lo S and 6 are stamped into the metal on side of web— figures
for 5 and a teller for 6.
G. Mile Fast No. from 1 1^^^"* end of DiTJslon to be nsed.
DESCRIPTION OP RAIL PAILURES
When descrlMng Failures of Rails, Che following terms shoDld be used
h *- Sn.TT Hud. This tern includes rails split throagh or near the center line
P of the held, or rails with jHeces split off the side of the bead. When this
bt term is used it sfaould be further defined by stating whether it i> or is not
1 ±
Sn.IT Wn. This term la a longitudinal split along the arts of the web.
generally sUrtiog f,
lil through the bolt holes.
I ~ia
Fio. 345 (continued). (Back of Form.)
>, Google
1
1
■s
i
^ J
^ i
i
•"H'wi
-
«
«
-
»■
«■
"-"
■;
7
s
3
z
a
s
s
s
s
s
2 a
1
1 J
1 »
"11^8 |o ""O
iS
"!I«S"I
s
ana
i:
g 1'«'!14S
S
E
3 V^HWS
K!
■:,
Z
c
ii
i i«vua
a
1
Ittlnna
^
jf '
£
& 1
a
1 i
.-"w
s
.J"'»
s
.3|j
a
1 I^
, H
a
si-SS
=
g I"™!
3
U 1
K
J ■
1 1
S
? 1
.(i>.»i
s
f =
".7
-
?
^^f,'
«
,
3
^l^i
^?l^
"
?
^•U
. .1
-
1
=is j
„
1
1'
"
j
=sli
'S
■■
iH
li
-
'l"l
M. W. 405. — Superintendent's Monthly Report of Rail Failures in Main
Tracks:
On this blank the Division Engineer informs his Superintendent of the
total number of rail fmlures for the month, tabulated from the Track "t'oreman's
,y Google
INSTRUCTIONS
A. The DiTidoD EnclDMr will make out two coi^ei of tbi* report at the end of
the month from the Section Foremen's Reports, and lend one copj to the
Chief Eniineer M. of W. and one to the General SuperiiitendenL
B. Mile Port No. frotn [ |^("' end of Diyinon to be niad.
DESCRIPTION OF RAIL FAILURES
When descrihing Failure! oE RaUa, the followinf lerms should be nied:
1. BiOKEN R^iL. Thig tern Is to be coaGned to a rail which ii broken through,
Bcparaling it into two or more parts. A crack which misht result in ■ complete
break will come under this head.
' 2. Flow or Metal. Thin term means a "RollinR Out" of the metal on
of the head towards its sides without there heing any indication of ■ b
ing down of the head ttruciure, thai is, the under side of Ihe bead it
i. CIUSHED Head. This term is used
and is usually accompanied by a
"Flattening" of t.
fi A. Sfltt Head. This term includes rails split through or near the center line
id of the head, or rails with pieces split off the side of (he head. When this
lb term is used it should be further defined by stating whether it is ot is not
Fia. 346 (continued). (Back of Form.)
report, and other officers who are interested, such as the Chief Engineer, Chief
Engineer of Mmntenance of Way, or General Superintendent, are furnished with
copies. In eases where a copy of the Track Foreman's report is sent to the Chief
Engineer or Chief Engineer of Maintenance of Way, the monthly report serves
as a check on the receipt of all individual rail reports.
,y Google
J. B. ^ C. R. R. Co.
Stitemenl of Suel Rails nisting in Main Tnc
M.in Track.
December SI 19
Location.
i
1
Brand.
«
1
■s
I.«nelhofF«tinTn:k
From Tg
Uid Previous
Kll9
K.-S«,L*,d
Steel Laid
19
Raiurla.
U.P.
.ft.
M.P
*f>.
1
IcSlli
.1
*«.
■■ ■■ 100
Column a lobtiind ler any (pedal nn.n
and Rc-drOkd
To be made out aod fonnided by the Bnii
Engineer M, ol W., as loon »ft« the cloK o( It
KhatR^-nlkdorSawed
Comet:
iw*rM,ofWtolheCiael
»yeara>poDib)e. ■aita.a..<>
FiQ. 347.
M. W. 406. — Annual Statement of Steel Rails Existing in Main Tracks:
This is an annual report sent by the Division Engineer to the Chief Engineer
or Chief Engineer of Maintenance of Way, for the permanent record of the com-
pany, to show the different kinds of steel in the main tracks at the end of tiie
year. This may be used in conjunction with the rail chart, or take its place
altogether, because the rail chart may not be in convenient form for a per-
manent record, which may be referred to, after many years, for information
concerning the kind of rail in use at a stated period. (sio)
,y Google
li
1 i
el
oj .
0! ■
y 1
S 1
|l!
3 1 j
u
d
ll
i
i
1 M '
m •
i^i\ 1-
1 fi r
5
f.5
1,
1 I
1 ^
1
„ I
I. t-
1^ ''
.
II =
>, Google
Group III. Laboratory Examination of Special Raii^
This group is, at present, represented by the angle form shown in Rg. 348.
It is used for making chedc analyses against Uie mill analyses and for reporting the
result of chemical analyds and physical test of special rail or other test pieces which
may be sent to the laboratory, from time to time, for examination. Fig. 349 shows
standard locations of borings for chemical analyses and also the standard tensile
test pieces of the association.
FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSES
FOR TENSILE TEST RECE8.
IF RAIL IS FLiNBE WtfH, THE
eoniMBS WO test piece from the upper
PART Cr HEAD BHALL BE TAKEN FROM JUt
OPPOerTE GWNER
|^i*-~«f— ifrrj
tfF
Group IV. Compilation of Results for Study
This group. Figs. 350-354, exhibits the different ways for compiling quan-
titative statistics of rail failures.
M. W. 408 (Fig. 350) is intended for compiling the information relative to
rail failures for a period of one year.
The columns for " specified chemical analysis " are intended for recording
the analysis of the particular lot of rml as given in the specification, and is
inserted in this blank in order to give an idea as to whether the rail is high or
low in carbon, or high or low in phosphorus, etc.
M. W. 409 (Jig. 351) has been provided on which the results from M. W.
408 will be recorded at the end of the year, thus making a continuous
record.
(512)
,y Google
I
I
lisi
<t;i
m
li
j' li
s : ! : ! t e s 8 =
31
1
II
f
--.- — T- — J — J — ^
i
i
J
1 1
J ^
J T
1-
i
5 T
P 1
1 I "^^T
s
n ii ,
i
f
5 T T
; ^
J
1
r
.lj.|j.|j.|j.|/.|i.|jWi|.|(.|i.tf
-!«l-!3I-i«i-?.(-i-i
■•»?• 1 1
1
!
i
1
fi
1
•
.
j
.
.
"1
ih'
J!
-«n ---..--••s:
H5-- = !r5SSS
St iMfntiqi kfnD (pn ■•
f»axfoi'^'"'vm'>
m
_^^ -Biflui Jnt""- )<>•»< «>^''*°>™p>™' JOB"!!'
-worn suu to □httiu loi sKouoma
jOOglc
„_, -«A,«er.a<>
a = a22sssasj
?3
___J
t ,ll
9
U ,1 :..
1
! h
9
i 3^
U n ;
1 i] :
:::::::::::::: ::i
^ \ 11""" : "
1 llii
]il*l
\ru
1 ir;:::::::::::::::
I 1
M |J ...:..
i 3i
j
|j :.
1
I I I I I I I I I I I r ! 7[i , I I t )
.i.3-!;i.|.i<i;iss
"I "I -l-i »^ *l*l ^*S -1
1 -
i ^
i 1-
1 „
:l f -t
1? T ,-
J i"i
?i 1 -I
i] I ""
1 ■= ^, 1
s ^ ^ "
!
i p
13
,K,.l -««-«».-iBO
s =22 -; s ^ A s '
-^
1
e J
II
u
i
c
i 1 ,
r IE
II . - J,
1
1
J T" a
s t- 1
J
1
1 f • t
' %' 1
1
1
i 1' ' 1
1
2
J
lii
■si
1'
i %' '■ n
1
j ] ' ] 1
i 1 " 1 1
1
1
1 1 1' 1 1
i 1" 1
1
■i
- - - --i- -- ti --|
3 I----J4-- I
i : f
1
1 t: !
Z
•
>
5
5
E
0
0
111 • 1
™;-
p
Fia.352.
M. W. 410. — Comparative Number of Failures of Steel R^ls of Different
Section or Pattern, Rolled by Different Steel Companies:
In order to compare the product of different mills, and also to compare
different weights per yard and different sections together, this blank has been
provided. It cont^ns the totals taken from M. W. 408 or M. W. 409 as deared.
(515)
if
■
S
I
1 .
il
il
-
i
1,
h 1
1
M
a
,
"^
_ - <-- _
1
""""!"]-
^
1 s
---|-1T---- !;
jj ^
■j •" -^
""f]-~~" A
w s
___.'j-..__t
Q \
___.._-. __JI
- ' 1-i -«^
ai
.i'^
^ 1
____|_i>i___?
Is
"3
1
! >i il
'-
s
i
1
1
1 1
1 "i II
^
^ :
M " |«
1
;:::r -ii::^]
■* ^-i
a '
" il- - i«
" "d
"---n - — i'A
■ ::::::r::
___jj-____li
0 L
.1^ - -ill
[
J s
1 J" "
r
5 ;
-,- - — -ly
S
= ' iSt
■
sis
a 1
____,_. ^_„_iii
o ;3
- " '13
" :::"""i:""
__.,.. _ 1^
<
-"■■"■ °l5
Fig. 353.
M. W. 411. — Position in Ingot of Steel Rails which Failed:
This is intended to furnish data on the number and character of raol ffulures
according to the original position in the ingot held by the rail in question.
(ei6)
,y Google
(COTW Ptgt tor Formi M. W. 406. 409. 410. 411.)
A. B. & C. H. /i. Co.
Offl« of CHIBP EK6INBER U. of W.
M. W. 412:
The information in this group should be bound together in one book; this
cover has been provided for convenience and neatness.
Group V. Progressive Wear of Special Rail under Observation
In order to keep track of special rail, from time to time, and determine
the value of the results being given, it is necessary to have a systematic plan
of procedure for examinations and records. This group. Figs. 355-359, is fur-
nished for that purpose, and is provided with a cover, as in the case of the
previous group. (517)
,y Google
nil
Pill!
3* 1
d
^
*
^
5
t
S
. 1
.'
s
.
f
iiiili
<
M. W. 413. — Location Diagram:
This blank is on a scale one inch equals one mile, and is intended fw ^'
grams showing the location in different places of the same kind of rail under trial
(SIS)
,y Google
m
Fio. 336.
M. W. 414. — Location Diagram:
This is similar to M. W. 413 except that it is on a scale of two inches equal
one mile, and is intended to show the location of a particular portion of the
raU given in M. W. 413. It is made on a larger scale, so as to locate the points
of measurement. A place U provided on each blanli for the summary of the
wear or area abraded m percentage of total area of head. (sis)
Joogle
M. W. 415. — Diagram Showing Lines of Wear:
The measurement of rail section at a spedfied point is shown on this blanlt
and its position on M. W. 414 is given by the number in the circle of the blank
at the top. All statistical information of interest and importance is given on
the blank. (520)
-vGoOgi-
1
1
if
il
1
1
ii
-
1
!
I
1
i
s
1
1
1
■8
1
1
s
«
f 1) =
!^
•
1
1
^•5
•
;l
•
UodSM ;o M^P
-•
1.
RT"C
?.
I
1
1
%
::::i;:"
a.
n
t:
(J
^3
e
1
u
S
- - 2- 6 -1
1
.._jA
1
B.
.-.-l-i
Cj
5.1
1
i
:::: if:::::
|.?
»
""^ l-l
«
a
a.
5*
■s
u
,*
ami»]nu.|,
f=
.^»s^-^^
i-
lu.Xj«[„»«„
£.
p.rIIuOJ,Joo^
•
1
=
il
=
M. W. 416. — Record of Comparative Wear of Special R^l:
This blank is intended for compiling the information given in the previous
ones, so as to ^ve a general summary of the results, (sai)
.yGoogle
(CoMT Pag* tor Fonni H.W. 413. (14, 4U. 4U.)
A. B. & C. R. R. Co,
RAIL SECTIONS
Showing ProgTcssive Wear
OBm of CHIBP RNGINEBR H. of W.
(or other afflcer]
Fio.359.
M. W. 417:
The information in this group should be bound together in one book; this
cover has been provided for convenience and neatness.
In some cases it may prove desirable to use charts or diagrams which illus-
trate graphically the information found in the records. The diagrams of rail
f^lures foimd in the Proceedings of the American Railway Engineering Asso-
ciation are examples of this. Fig. 360 shows a method of recording the failures
of different groups of rails during a period of years, and shows as well the dis-
tribution of the failures during each year. It will be noted from the figure that
the rails f^Ied, with a few exceptions, during the winter and spring months.
A modification of this diagram can be obtained by making the record cumu-
lative, which affords a ready comparison of the behavior of different rollings
after having been in service any considerable length of time.
,y Google
; s I
i \
oSoOO
am
,y Google
Mg. 361 presents a further example and shows a diagram of rail failures <
the Harriman Lines.
\
1
"
•i
1
'
%
«/
I
'
> ,
/
1
'
*
/
1
«
/
I
1 "
1
1
I "
1
■J
1
'
? '
^v-
5 =
,
.
Lg
. J,.
rAILl/^^ 0*f ALL I
i ou/fiA/s yTA/r aoT.
*mn90/6.r»,iiof/l>
pMct during t-ht tt/^1- ma
« >arv*r mtimimr «/ iramUt ttrli
- Diagr&m of Rail FaUures, Harriman Li&ea. (Am. 1
>, Google
id to Area of Head 1^
J " " " Web 3.73
2 " « « Ban 352
Aim of Head 4.18 aq. in. 42% Batio Feripfaery of Head to Area of Head 1.66
" " Web 2.06 " " 21% Web " " " Web 3.43
" " Bam 3.83 " " 87% " " " Base " " " Base 3.06
Total 9.82 sq. in. 100% RAtio Total Perii^ier; to Total Area 2M
Mranent of Inertia, 43.8
Section Modulus, Head, 14.44
Section Modulus, Base, 16.11
lociety of Civil Engineen (adopted 18SS).
^,
., Google.
>, Google
lEW YORK CENTRAL ft.R.
Pura n.— Rail
6I>'*' SANDBER& 187a
>, Google
>, Google
1885 Recommended bt Committee to *
m.c.b.as5.ak0 received majority of
Votes but mot enough to make IT the
MECOMMGNDED STANDARD
"N
1886 Presented TO M.M, ASS.
BUT NOT ADOPTED
,y Google
>, Google
■ Uig:izcd by
Google
>, Google
Ratio POTphwy
B sq. in. 100.0% lUUo Total Pen
Moment <rf Inertia, 28^
Sectum Modulus, Head, 10.2'
Sectkn Modulus, Base, 12.40
1 Sail Section of the American Raihr^
.Google
>, Google
E
(rfHd
"Ba
otal
,y Google
>, Google
■ Web 3.58
' Base 2.43
Total 9.97 aq. in. 100% B»Uo Total Perq)ha7 to Total Area
MMONit of Inertu, 41.9
Section Moduhu, Head, 13.71
Section Modulus, Base, 15.SI
FtDiUiTlratu lUilroad Byetem (adopted 1907).
,y Google
>, Google
FUtb X.—RailSeoUoos
,y Google
>, Google
Geiman Raihntyi.
-■■\
.Google'
>, Google
.Google
>, Google
^^^
□IL— L. A
1 lai Inj r«MOT«l>
vngji 54 Ibe. each. The ordinary or mtcnnedi&te chaiis are 7| itia. wide, and weigh 45 lbs. each.
>, Google
>, Google
GALVMIItO SCDIW
^
^ wrigji 64 &». eadi. The ordinary or intermedtftte ch^rs are 7| ins. wid^ and wei^ 45 lbs. each.
>, Google
>, Google
.^2S£._.
lie Ibfl. per yd.
"B£." Section No. So.
For use w cunree.
.Google
>, Google
1
^
■
^ — _^
15 18
TIME IN SE
' I>riTinK Wheel Spring, Consolidation Engi
>, Google
>, Google
.Google
>, Google
»wra XXL— Freif^tLocomol
.Google
>, Google
^ ..,
□
□
D
taOnxd Tie Plate.
>v Google
>, Google
4l
\i\KK\\\KWmii
:^^^m
\\\\\\\\\\\w, yro^
-II
li
1%
II
III
ill
in
S -si
I H
H
|8t
I
li
>, Google
«y
>, Google
Google
■yGOOglJ
>, Google
>, Google
Dynnn^ Wbeel Loads for Various BaSa sad Axle ^Mtdng.
:/ny Inci
75 100 /25
MKle Spacing Inches
CUueCTnck,
>, Google
>, Google
/
"Sr^tS,-
^^p-sr*-
' .^ 50
46
40
18.0
18.5
IS.O
13.5
12.0
10.5
9.0
360,000
330,000
300.000
270,000
240,000
210,000
180,000
30
25
ding moments in different rails which
"Till cause an extreme fiber stress of
),000 lbs. per sq. in. in the base of the
;ail.
.ing In.
I' SO
.75 /OO /ZS
Me spacing inches
>, Google
>, Google
Platb XXVnL— Weight of Riul for Varioua Conditioiu of Loading and Ckaeea d Tfadc
Class A Track.
;
1
6
Sn
n
L
f
I
in
-^^
Xx
£0,000 3O.000 ^000
static Axle load lbs.
. K — Poor Wheel I^sBBUger Can on Steam Roodfl and Interaib&n Cam on Electric Roads,
Dwizodb, Google J
>, Google
PL4T1 XXrX. — Plan oi
,y Google
>, Google
3
>, Google
>, Google
>, Google
>, Google
i
1
\^
h
^
'
so-
li™ 3a
6*
JtU.
K)'
Pappe.)
>, Google
>, Google I
iffphu >te Atinf. Phot. Sit. W
•E&TS AND INSPECTION.
'shelff
aiibeHsied
:ef^asNo.l
Avarfff* Anmlyti9
of Httft Pmj*et»d
Di»e»rJ«d
Ifftcfef
effh€ soma heat Ifhto eufeffhne ^fheaeaecond Msf pieeet
breeK fhar«m9in^r^H»r»iboffhahesfmllglsob4reiechd
tfh¥0outotfheeeffheseaeeoniittstpie^sdonotbnak,fh9
remainder of Hie rails afffte/teaf mU be aceepfad, previ^thaf
conform to fhe efhar raguiremertta of these apeeif/tattona,aal4ett
or/itpL z cb$$ificgf/on. aeeord/nq as the deflection ia lass or/nor^
raspeeflvefy. tttm the pr^ scribed limit. '
ii) Ifsny Asff piaea, tasf'^dbaa not break; but mhen nicked and
tested h destruction shoMs mteriordetact ttTst^ rails ftem
esett ingot ^fftaftiOBtsttai/ be r^fseted '
ptacaa
' second rm'ls
(r\
>, Google
>, Google
Ar,, Ar,, ^r. points 426
Aberdarc rails, effect of cold on 385
Adriatic Railway tie 102, 104
Affleck tie 104
Algoma Steel Compaoy:
raU mill 437. 438, 444
shrinkage allowed at 444
teeming practice 399
Alloy steel (see Special steels).
Alsace-Lorraine Railways, data on track 218
Aluminum:
effect of, in casting steel 401, 40S
America {see alto American) :
early steel rails used in 2
length of rails used In 267
production of rails in 382
steel manufacturers of (see Association of
American Steel Manufacturers).
use of English rails in 2, 4
American (see also America and United
States) ;
engines, examples of 32, 33, 34, 72
joints, emmples of 264
rail mills, practice at 399, 43S, 444
specifications for rails 463
speed of railway trains 21, 23,27,28
Steel Manufacturers, Association of {tee
Association of American Steel Manu-
facturers).
Bteel rails:
examples of girder rails 19
T-raila, early 6
T-roils, present 10, 460
prices of 326
tie platen, examples of 122
type engine (see Eight-wheel type engine).
American cypress, resistance to pulling
of spike 140
American Electric Railway Engineering
Association, rail sections 19
American Forest Congress, ties 106
American Institute of Mining Engineers:
blowholes 404
effect of recarbonizing 391
Gayley dry blast 360
American Institute of Mining Engineers:
Lake Superior ores 351
piping in ingots 401, 409
relation between chemical composition and
strength of rails, Dudley on 326
roasting iron ores 344
Sauveur on rail structure 429
American Locomotive Company :
examples of modem locomotives. 32, 33, 34, 72
excess pressure of driving wheels 35
American McKenna Process Company,
rerolling rails 459
American Railway Association:
committee on standard rail and wheel sec-
tions, report of 14
discard, investigation of 417
lettering rails from different parts of the
ingot 416
rail sections, principles governing design
of 16
proposed by ... : 14
seriea A, description of 15
failures of 10
B, description of 15
test to determine piping 417
American Railway Engineering and Main-
tenance of Way Association («ee
American Railway Engineering As-
sociation).
American Railway Engineering Association:
classification of defective rails 10
comparison of rail failures of different
sections 10
distribution of pressure to subgrade 185
drop testing machine, proposed by 290
tests 293
flow of rail h&d under wheel loads 205
grain size in head of rail 432
impact teats 64
report on flat spots on car wheels 56, 61
manufacture of rails,
363, 374, 378, 439
metal and composite ties 90
scleroaeope 298
reports and records proposed by 10, 501
screw spikes 142
,y Google
American Railway EiigineerinB Association:
size and spacing of ties 121
special steels 333, 339
specifications for rails 463
Standard locations of borings for chemical
analysts and tensile test pieces 512
statistics of defective rails 10
strei^h of head and web of rail 252
tail steel 304
stresses in the rail 210, 218
t«Bts on flat spots in car wheels 61
joint* 264
strength of roil steel 304
strength of wood 169
tie plates 133, 170
tree plantations for ties Ill
unit stresses of different woods 16S
American Railway Masto' Mechanics'
Association:
excess pressure of driving wheels 35
tire wear 197
American Society (or Testing Materials:
bibliography of impact tests 288
cupro-nickel steel 332
drop tests 288
ductility m rail steel 286, 287
experiments on repeated Htress 278, 280
finishing temperature 434
hardness tests 298
Howe, on welding blowholes 404
ferrite grains 427
impact tests 288
influence of titanium on segregation 405
manganese sulphide in steel 390
manufacture of car wheels 57
specifications for girder rails 4fll
T-rails 463, 491
stremmati^raph experiments 236
Talbot, roUing practice in England 434
tests on nickel steel 332, 334
American Society of Civil Engineers:
committee on rail sectioiw 6
finishing temperature m rails 7
rail section 6
difficulty in rolling heavier rails. . . 7, 14, 435
failures of 10
necessity for rolling at Bigh tem-
peratures 435
strains produced in, by straightening. . . 445
report on early steel rails 4
specifications for rails, bibliography of.. . . 494
American Society of Mechanical Engineers:
Bessemer process 366
electric locomotives 74
■e of locomotive drivers 32, 62
e tests of Professor Goes 62
American Wood Preservers' Association,
report on timber supply 113
Amsler-LafFon machine for testing hardness.. 301
Analysis:
converter metal 374
copper alloys used by Ball and Wingham. 331
early Enghsh rails 326
ferromanganese 374, 3S0
ferrosiLcon 3S0
ferrotitanium 405
iron oree 363, 361
location of standard borings for (American
Railway Engineering Association) ... 512
mixer metal 380
specification for [see Specifications).
steel, Bessemer II, 253, 310
electric 385
manganese 333
nickel 333
open hearth 310
titanium 340, 406
Angle bare (see Joints).
Angle:
fishing (»ee Joints).
of friction of soils 311
of incision in roUing 457
of repose of various soils 314
Ann Arbor Railroad, concrete ties on 105
Annealed rails 20S
Annealing, effect of, on special steels. . . 336, 337
Anthracite coal in blast furnace 361
Archduke Albrecht Steel Works at Carl-
shQtte 3
Arnold, J. O.:
causes of rupture in steel 271
infiuence of bismuth on copper 2TI
Arsenic, effect of, in steel 330
Articulated compound engine (aee Articu-
lated engine).
Articulated engine:
classification of 29
dimensions of 34, 72
typical dynamic wheel loads 73
weights of 31. 72
Aah, physical properties of IW
Association of American Sleel Manufacturers:
chemical specifications for rails 34-
drop testing machine 230
specificatiora for rails 342, 463
Association of Engineering Societies, Howard,
on rail failures 203
Ast^n, on cupro-nickel steel 332
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Eailway:
effect of aubgrade on track 3'3
rail section *fi'
screw spikes on "'
,y Google
Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway;
speed o( trains 25, 26, 27, 28
Atlanta, Birmingham and Atlantic Railroad,
ate and spacing of ties 121
Atlantic City Railway, speed of trains,
23, 25, 26, 28
Atluttic Coast line Railroad:
size and spacing of ties 121
speed of trains 24
Atlantic type engine:
allowable asle loads 322
classification of 29
description of 21
dimensions of 32, 72
effect of excess balance and angularity of
main rod 40,70
pressure rounding curve 259
rail stresses caused by 212
speeds of 21, 24, 25, 26, 70
strength of track required for 322
typical dynamic wheel loads 72
weight of rail required for 3^
weights of 32, 72
Atlas, Barrow and Dowl&is, steel rails made
by 2
Austenite 427
Australia, length of rails used in 267
Austria, early steel rails 3
Austrian State Railways, hardness tests
on 302
Axle loads:
caia 85, 89
dynamic (tee Dynamic).
effect of siie of wheel on 202
given in modem bridge specifications 211
increase in 15, 30
locomotives, electric 74, 79, 80
steam 31, 32, 33, 34, 72
maximum albwable, on rail 319
used on Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean
Railway 19
Axle spacing:
effect of, on load 247
load diagrams of rail for different 319
Back driver (»ee Driving wheels).
Baggage car 84
Bairstow and Stanton, experiments on re-
peated atresB 281
Baker, Benjamin, experiments on repeated
stress 282
Bald cypress, physical properties of 164, 168
Baldwin Locomotive Works, ptf^rees in loco-
motive building 30
BaO, influence of copper on steel 331
BaQ pressure tests 300
bearing power of 179
effect of dynamic load on 189
CuSnot's experiments on 172
depression of tie in, U. S. Government
experiments 219, 222, 233
depression of track m 172, 176, 189
depth required for different classes of
track 317
distribution of load to subgrade 180, 185
experiments on, in Germany 180
frozen, effect of, on bending moment of
raU 229,288
frozen, tests on, by U. S. Government 225
influence of kind of, on stresses in rail .... 229
Pennsylvania Railroad testa 184
weights of 316
Baltic Sr (lee al»o Fir), force required to puU
spike from 140
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad:
articulated compound engine 34
chrome-nickel rails on 333
electric locomotives 79
impact tests on bridges 64
ore docks 357
rail section 461
size and spacing of ties 121
speed of trains 24, 28
titanium rails on 339
use of scleroscope on 298
Bangor and Aroostook Railroad, size and
spacing of ties 121
Barnes, rail pressures of locomotive driving
wheels 32
Base rail:
broken (see Broken base).
indirect pressure used in rolling. . . , 457
principles governing design of 16
strength of st«el from 306
of cars 85,89
of electric locomotives 79, 80
of steam locomotives 32, 33, 34, 72
Basquin, O. H,, endurance tests 280
Bavarian State Railways:
arrangement of joints on 144
daU on track 218
spikes used on 144, 145
tie plate 128, 132
weight of rail on 144
Bearing power (see Supporting poww).
Beck, effect of cold on rails 285
Beech:
force required to pull spike from 140, 152
ties, amount purchased in the United
States 158
,y Google
Beech ties, coet of 156
gn French Eaet«ni Railway .... 117
Belgian State Railways, rail and tie plate, 125, 126
Bell, Sir I. Lowthian:
coet of transporting ore. 349
depression of rails at different speeds 190
early iron rails 1
□ for different loading of rail 3^
rail, calculation of 2
determined by Love 2
effect of joint on 2<
unequal tie pressure on . . 239, 21
proposed solutions of 2
stremmati^aph tests of 21
U. S. government experiments 2
tie 171, 177, r
tie plat« 122, 1'
Bending strength of wood:
effect of moisture on li
steaming on 1
treatment on 1.
in natural state 158, 164, 166, 1
Bending tests on worn rails 3
Benjamin, Professor C. H., flat spots on
Berlin-iSoHaen line, speed of electric loco-
motivee
Bessemer, Sir Henry, origin of the Bessemer
comparison of, with open hearth process. .
description of plant
early rails, in America
invention of process
process, description of 370,
economies possible in
steel, analysis of 11, 253,
segregation in
strength of 309,
rails, amount in tracks of American
railroads
branding
ductility of
failures of
hardness determined by sclero-
prices of
production of
rolling tests on, at Watertown
Arsenal
specifications for (see Specifi-
cations).
Steel Works at Troy, early steel rails
1 Lake Erie Railroad, steel
Bethlehem Steel Company:
chrome nickel steel rails 333
raU mill 438, 4M
shrinkage allowed at 444
teeming practice 399
use of iron with high copper 333
Bibhography:
of chemical composition 343
of impact teste 28S
of jointa 268
of literature on steel manufacture (see
Preface).
of piping and segr^^tion 41S
of rail specifications 494
Birch ties:
amount purchased in the United States. . . 156
cost of 156
Birkinbine, John, roasting iron ores 344
Bittemut hickory, physical properties of.. . . 164
Bituminous coal in blast furnace 361
Black locust, phmting, for tie timber 109
Bland, J. C, stresses in the rail 211
Blast furnace:
description of 357
dry blast 360
fuel used in 361
location of plant 345
operation of, at Gary 361
Maryland Stoel Company 363
performance of, with dry blast 361
stoves 359
typical examples of 357
Bled ingote, specifications for 473
Blessing, concrete tie 104
Bloom;
elimination of defecte in, early mill
practice 434
entering rolls 421
size of 438
Bloombg:
passes, reduction m 437, 43S
practice at American mills 43S
Blowholes:
Brinell's oxperimente on 402
caused by iron oxide 3S9
description of ■*("
effect of fluid compression on 4IG
m titanium steel 406
means for preventing 401
Blum:
report on speed of trains as affecting track . 2S
stresses in the rail 21'
Bolt, track (tee aUo Joints):
holes, arrangement of (see Joints).
specifications for (tee SpecificatioDS,
drilling).
>, Google
Bolt, track, pull required to tighten 260
strength of 260
used on English buU head rail 19
Bonzono joint 264
Borings, location of standard, for chemical
analysis, American Railway £ngineer-
ing Association 512
Boehia and Albany Railroad:
angle bar t«ats 260
early steel rails on 2
track experimenta on, by U. S. Govern-
ment 218, 225
Boston and Lowell Railroad, granite ties
on 90
Boston and Maine Railroad:
rail section 10
faQurea 10
size and spacing of ties 121
teeta on locomotive springs 52
Boston and Providence Railway, early steel
rails on 2
Box car 81
Brakes, effect of application of, on locomo-
tive springs ^
Branding:
practice at different mills 447
specifications for (see aUo Specification in
question) 477
Breuil, P., impact teats 292
Bridge:
effect of velocity of load on 69
unpact on, caused by moving train 64
specifications, impact allowed in 210
limiting weights on axles.. . 211
Brinell:
ball pressure testa 300
experiments on blowholes 402
hardness test 300
British Standards Committee;
bull bead rails 19
flat bottom rails 19
rail sections 19
specifications for bull head railway rails . . 4S4
flat bottom railway rails. 488
tramway rails 19
Broken base:
ctassiffcation of, American Railway Engi-
neering Association 10
due to defects in casting 390
photographs of typical failures 11
rail failures, six months ending April 30,
1909 10
Broken rails:
caused by defective equipment 57
classification of, by American Railway
Engineering Association 10
Broken rails:
failures, six months ending April 30,
1909
photographs of typical failures
Broken stone:
ballast (see Ballast).
weight of 3
Brown hoist machine for unloading ore 3
Brown, John, and Company:
chemical composition of rails rolled by.. . . 3
early steel rails
rails rolled tor Ashbel Welsh
Brown, J. P., on use of catalpa for ties 1
Brunson concrete tie 1
"B. S." rail sections (_ue British Standards
Committee).
Buffalo, Rochester and Pittsburgh Railway,
sise and spacing of ties 1
Buhrer:
composition tie
concrote tie 97, 1
8t«el tie
Bull head rail (see also British Standards
Committee) :
speciheations for 4
types of
Burbank tie 1
Burden of blast furnace 363, 3
Bureau of Forestry (see U. S. Forest Service).
Bureau of Standards, magnetic testing of
Burgess, on cupro-nickel steel 3
Burlington (see Chicago, Burlington and
Quincy Railroad),
Calcination of iron ore 3
Caledonian, Lancashire and Yorkshire Rail-
way, early steel rails on
Caledonian Railway:
raU fastenings on 1
speed of trains
Camber, amount of, in rails 444, 477, 4
Cambering machine 4
Cambering, specifications for (see Specifi-
cations).
Cambria Steel Company:
early steel rails
handling ore at 3
mixer used at 3
oil tempered joints !
ores formerly used at 3
railmill 438,4
shrinkage allowed at 4
teeming practice 3
tests to detect pipes 4
titanium steel rails S
>, Google
Camden and Amboy Railroad, first use of
T-raU 6
Camden and Atlantic Railroad, speed of
trains 25
Campbell, H.H.r
experiments on nickel steel 335
rolling 430
Campbell tie 105
Canada, length of raila used in 2€7
Canadian Pacific Railway:
indentation test 300
rail section 461
speed of trainB 24
ten-wheel type engine 33
Canadian Society of Civil Engineers:
Dutcher on indentation test 300
long ties used on Musk^ swamp 188
Capillary attraction, movement of water by,
insubgrade 314
Carbon:
content in rails:
increase in following Dudley's experi-
ments 328
of Bessemer steel 11, 263, 310
of open hearth steel 310
of special steel (see Special steels) ,
specifications for (see ^»o Specifications),
328, 342, 466
effect of, in steel 329
on ductility of rail steel 287
iron diagram 427
modification of, for low phosphorus 466
segregation of 409
Carbon dioxide, evolution of, in cooling
steel 401
Carbon-iron diagram 427
Carijon monoxide, evolution of, in cool-
ing steel 401
Carbonic anhydride, compression of the ingot
by means of 415
Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh, bibliography
of rail specifications 494
Carnegie Steel Company:
blast furnaces 361
chemical composition of rails 32S
dry blast at 361
nickel steel rails 333
rail miU 438, 444
shrinkage allowed at 444
steel ties in tracks at Duquesne Plant 94
teeming practice 399
titanium steel rails 340
Carnegie steel tie 90
Cars:
allowable wheel loads of 322
dynamic augment of wheel pressure — 85, 89
Cars:
strength of track required for 322
weight of rail required for 322
weights of 85, 89
Cartesian coordinates, stress-repetition
curves drawn to 281
Cast iron:
manufacture of 357
wheel, effect of, on rail 195
Casting:
effect on steel 390, 395
fluid compression during 410, 415
the ingot 393
Casting ladle:
effect of agitation of steel in 390
example of 3S9
Catalpa:
force required ta puQ spike from 139
plantii^ for tie timber 109
Cedar:
physical properties of 164, 168
ties, amount purchased in the United
SUtcB 154,156
cost of 154,156
Cedar elm, physical properties of 164
Cell {see Grain).
Cementite 437
Census, United States:
distribution of lumber products in the
United States 106
ties purchased in the United States Ia6
Center of gravity in locomotives 74, 259
Central of Georgia Railway, size and spacing
of ties 121
Central Railroad of New Jersey:
site and spacing of ties 121
special steel rails on 333
speed of trains 24, 28
Centrifugal force:
of counterbalance 3S
of locomotive when rounding curve 2^
of wheel on irregular track 45
Chair used with bull head rail 19
Chanute, Octave;
investigation of proper design of rail ^
report on steel rails 5
Chapinore 394
Charcoal in blast furnace 361
Charge of blast furnace 363, 361
Charpy, G., impact tests 292
Chemical composition:
bibliography of recent literature on ^
comparison of early and rec^it, in rails. . . 3%
Dudley's formula 321
effect on physical properties of steel (tee
Element in question).
>, Google
Chemical composition:
effect OB rail breakages in cold weather ... 2
form for reporting, American Railway En-
gineering Association 5
increase in hardening constituents in rails . 3
location of etandard borings for analysis,
American Railway Engineering
Association 5
of Bessemer Bteel 11.253,3
of different steels (see Analysis).
of early rails 3
of joints 264, 2
of open hearth steel 3
of special steels (aee Special steels).
epeciScations for, in rails (see also Specifi-
cation in question) 328, 342, 4
Chemins de Fer d'Orl^ans (see Orleans Rail-
Ch'emms de Fer de I'Est («« French Eastern
Railway).
Chemins de Fer de I'Etat {see State Railways
of France).
Chemins de Fer de I'Ouest («ee Western Rail-
way of France).
Chemins de Fer de Paris k Lyon et k la Medi-
terran6e {see Paris, Lyons and Medi-
terranean Railway).
Chemins de Fer du Midi (see Southern Rail-
way of France).
Chemins de Fer du Nord (see Northern Rail-
way of France).
Chenoweth concrete tie I'
Chesapeake and Ohio Railway articulated
compound ei^ine
Chestnut:
force required to pull spike from i:
ties, amount pm^jhased in the United
States 154,1.
cost of 154, 1
Chicago and Alton Railroad:
concrete ties on 90, li
early steel rails on
Chic^o and Eastern Illinois Railroad, size
and spacing of ties l;
Chicago and North Western Railway:
concrete ties on II
early steel rails on 2,
new rail section 4i
siie and placing of tjea t!
speed of trtuns 24, 26, :
ten-wheel type en^e I
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad :
concrete ties on II
plantations tor tie timber i:
prairie type engine ;
rail section 10, 41
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad :
rail section failures 10
size and spacing of ties 131
speed of trains 24, 25, 26, 27
track experiments 210
Chicago Great Western Railroad, size and
spacing of ties 121
Chicago, Indiana and Southern Railroad:
consolidation type engine 34
size and spacing of ties 121
Chicago, Indianapolis and Louisville Rail-
way, size and spacing of ties 121
Chicago Junction Rail\ray, concrete ties on.. 104
Chicago, Milwaukee and Puget Sound Rail-
way, size and spacing of ttea 121
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway:
excess pressure of driving wheels 36
flat spot in engine wheel 56
Pacific typo engine 32
size and spacing of ties 121
speed of trains 25
Chicago, Rock Island and PaciSc Railway:
Atlantic type engine 32
early steel rails on 2
size and spacing of ties 121
Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha
Railway, size and spacing of ties. . . . 121
Chrome-nickel steel raib:
production of 341
use of 333
Chromium:
effect of, in steel 334
in combination with
nickel 335
steel rails, production of 341
Cincinnati, Hamilton and Dayton Railway,
size and spacing of tics 121
Cinder ballast (see Ballast).
City core 88
Clamer, copper and nickel in steel 332
Clary tie plate 122
Classification:
of locomotives 29
of track 317
Whyte's system 29
Clausen, L. R., example of flat wheels 66
Clay:
ai^le of friction of 314
bearit^ power of 187
Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago and St.
Louis Railway:
plantations of tie timber 112
size and spacing of ties 121
Cleveland, Painesville, Ashtabula Railway,
car used on 88
>, Google
Coal:
can {tee idao Care], effect of heavy, on
track 82, S
used in blast furnace S
Coefficient:
of ballast I
of friction of soils !
of slip in driving wbeela ISS, 1
of yielding in ballaat on German railways, ^
Coes and Howard, experiments on rocking
of engine
Cogging mill 437, 4
Cogging rolls used in Puppe's tests 448, 4
Coke car
Coke used in bkst ruraace 361, 363, i
Colby, A. L., experiments on nickel steel , . , , S
Cold:
defective tires due to
effect of, on strength of rail i
roUing of head of rail caused by wheel
rolling of rails 4
shortness in steel S
straightening press 4
straightening rails 4
work, effect of, on structure of steel . 424, 4
CoUet trenail 148, ]
Colorado and Southern Railway, siie and
spacing of ties 1
Colorado Fuel and Iron Company:
rail mill 438,4
shrinkage allowed at 4
Columbia type engine, ctasBification of
Composite ties used in CuSnot's experi-
ments ]
Compression:
fluid, of ingot 410, 4
modulus of, at point of contact of wheel
and rail 194, 1
cfTect of bearing surface on. , . 1
strpuRth of special steels (see Steel in
strength of steel 1
effect of chemical composition on (see
Element in question).
strength of wood 158, 165, 167, 168, 1
effect of treatment on ]
Concrete ties:
(see alto Tie in question) 97, 1
service tesU on 1
Cone pressure tests J
Conical tires
Connecticut River Railroad, early stw^l rails
Consolidation type engine:
classification of 29
dimensions of 34, 72
effect of excess pressure and angularity of
main rod 44, 70
pressure rounding curve 259
rail stresses caused by 228
speeds of 70
strength of track requu^ for 322
tests on driving wheel springs 52
typical dynamic wheel loads 73
U. S. Government experiments with 228
weight of rail required for 322
weights of 34, 72
Continuous:
girder, rail as 189, 240, 247
joint 264
process of malting steel 375
rails 267
record of rail failures, form (or reporting
graphically 523
Conversion of iron into steel 366
Converter (see Bessemer).
Converter metal, analysis of 374
Cooling curve of different substances. . . 425, 426
Coombs, R. D., on concrete ties 104
Cooper, Hewitt and Company, first open
hearth furnace in America 375
cooling curve of 425
effect of, in steel 331
granular structure 270
Cornwall irons, high copper in mils made
from 332
Corrugations of rails 209
Cort, early methods of making steel . 366
Coat:
of Bessemer compared to open hearth
proces 383
of forest land 114
of plantations tor tie timber Ill
of rails, 1855 to 1910 325
ferrotitanium 341
rerolling 459
of ties, annual charge of 115
treated 115
in the United SUtes 154,156
of track of German railways 218
with screw spikes U2
of transporting ore 349, 352
Codard, depreasion of ties in ballast.. . . 172, 190
Counterbalance pressure:
absence of, in electric locomotives 7S
amount of, for different types of
engines 35, 70
calculation of M
>, Google
Counterbalance preaaure:
effect of inertia of track on stresses pro-
duced by 69
on bridges 68
tire wear 202
Professor Goes' experimente on 62
Cow oak, physical properties of 164
Crandall, Profeaaor, experiments on steel
roUcTB, on steel plates 194
Creeping of rails 153
Creosote treatment (see Treated Ties).
Crescent breaks in flange:
eSect of casting on 390
examples of 11
CreusAt rails, effect of cold on 285
CreusAt, steel works, early steel rails 3
Critical point, eSect of rolling below 427
Crop (see Discard).
Cross ties (eee Ties).
Crushed head:
classification of, American Railway En-
gineering Association 10
effect of casting on 390
investigation of 391
photographs of typical failures 11
rail failures, six months ending April 30,
1909 10
Crushing strength (see Compression),
Crystal (see Grain).
Cuban pine, physical properties of 164
Cu6not, G.:
advance wave of rail 223
experiments on ties 172
profile of rail 46
Cupola for melting pig iron 366
CujHO-nickel steel 332
Oimre;
comparison of rail failures on, with tangent. 10
elaetic, of mil 241, 242
of tie 172, 176, 177
horizontal pressure exerted by engine when
roundii^ 259
relation of coning of wheel to 7
Gushing, W. C:
design of screw spike proposed by 147
discard of ii^ot 417
discussion of screw spikes 142
on ties (translation of M. CuEnot's
experiments) 172
Cylinder:
compression modulus of surface of 193
siae of, on modem steam locomotives,
40, 41, 42, 43, 44
Cylindrical tires 6
Cypress :
force required to pull spike from 140
Cypress:
physical properties of 164, 168
ties, amount purchased in the United
States 154, 156
costof 154, 156
De Paris & Lyon et & la Mediterran6e (see
Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean Rail-
way).
Decapod engine:
classification of 29
example of 31
Defective equipment:
broken rails caused by 57
due to excessive loads 85
small diameter of wheel 202
effect of, on track 57
examples of long flat spots in wheels ... 56, 57
lack of roundness in chilled car wheels. ... 53
Defective rails:
classification of, by American Railway
Engineering Association 10
for six months ending April 30, 1909 10
forms for reports and records of, American
Railway Engineering Association 506, 512
fonns for reports and records of, chart for . 523
forms for reports and records of, used on
Haniman Lines 524
on American railroads 10
photographs of typical failures 11
Defective wheels (see Defective equipment).
Deflection:
in drop test, specifications for 470, 486
of driving wheel springs 48, 49, 53
of head of rail under eccentric load . . 255, 257
of rail, comparison of worn and un-
worn 204, 205
in drop test 292, 294, 470, 486
in track, amount of 190, 233
in track, effect of, on stress in
rail 243
Deflectometer used by Tumeaure in impact
tests 64
Delaware and Hudson Company:
articulated compound engine 34
consolidation type engine 34
80-ib. rails used by, in 1893 7
management of timber lands 113
size and spacing of ties 121
Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Rail-
Mogul tjTM engine 34
plantations of tie timber Ill
size and spacing of ties 121
speed of trains 26
ten-wheel type engine 33
>, Google
De L'Est (see French Eastern Railway).
De L'^tat (see State RaUwaya of France).
De L'Oueet (see Western Railway of France).
Denver and Rio Grande Railroad, site and
spacing of ties 121
Denver, North Western and Pacific Railway,
tea-wbeel type engine 33
Depression (see also Deflection):
of tie in ballast, amount ot 172, 176, 189
effect of, on etreea in rail. 243
of track, U. S. Government, experimentB
on 218
of rail 6, 17, 458
of rolls 467
of track 323
Detroit River Tunnel Company's loco-
motive 75, 80
Dickerson, S. K., tesU on chilled car
wheels 67
Dining car 84
Direct pressure in rolling 456
Direct process of making st«el 365
Discard:
amount of, necessary 417
report of American Railway Association
on 416
required on compressed ingots 415
specifications for (see alto Specification
in question) 473
Docks, ore 348, 350, 357
Dolomite uaed in blast furnace 363
Dominion Iron and Steel Company:
rail miU 438, 444
shrinkage allowed at 444
D'OrWans (see Orleans Railway).
Double-headed rail:
examples of 19
specifications for 484
Douglas fir (see aUo Fir), physical pn>p^>-
tiesof 186,163
Douglas spruce, physical pn^wrties of 164
increased resistance due to use of, in ties. 152
use of, with screw spike 142, ISO
Drainage:
effect of water on gravel ballast 187
necessity of, for subgrade 314
Drawbar:
constant pull on, of electric locomo-
tives 78
effect of, on pressure of drivera 71
pull in Mallet locomotive 22
Drill test for hardness 303
Drilling, specifications for, in rails (see alio
Specification in question) 477
Driving wheels (see (Uso Axle and Wheel) :
coefficient of slip of 198, 199
effect of position of, on allowable bad 322
pressure on rail due to excess
balance and angularity of main rod. . 35, 70
'ease in pressure on rail due to irregu-
larities in the track 45, 71
«ase in pressure on rail due to rocking
of engine 54, 71
weight on 15, 30
springs (see Springs).
weights on, electric locomotives 79, 80
steam locomotives. . 31, 32, 33, 34
wheel base, electric locomotives 79, 80
steam locomotives. . 32, 33, 34, 72
Drop test;
bibliography of 288
comparison of deflections obtained with
different machbes 291
deflections obtained in 291, 291
description of recent machines 289
en^gy di8sipat«d in 293
form for reporting results of, American
Railway Engineering Association .... 505
machine, standard 290
measurement of ductility in 287
specifications for 290
specifications for (see alto Speciflcation
in question) 470
theoretical considerations of 293
Dry blast (tee Gayley).
Ductility:
in rail, spedfications for 470, 480
steel 287
in special steels (see Steel in question),
of steel, effect of chemical composition
on (see Element in question).
effect of cold on 286
effect of titanium on 287
Dudley, C. B.:
proposed formula for chemical composi-
tion of rails 327
t«st« on relation between chemical com-
position and wearing of rails 326
Dudley, P. H.:
casting steel 38S
depression of track in ballast 190, 213
design of new section with large fillet 462
ductility in rail steel 286
dynamic augment to wheel load 212
effect of cold on rails 287
draw bar pull on wheel p
friction in splice bars
grains per square inch in rail st«el. .
>, Google
Dudley, P. H.:
fettering rails from ingot 416
reheating furnace, effect of, on ingot 400
section of rail 10, 462
failures 10
Btremmatograph tests 212, 236
tonnage service of wheels and rails 202
Duguet, Captain, impact tests 292
Duluth and Iron Range Railroad, ore
docli 348
Dulutb, Mesabi and Northern Railway, ore
docks 361
Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic Railway,
size and pacing of tiee 121
Dumas, report on nickel steel 336
Du Midi (see Southern Railway of France).
Dummy pass 443, 444
Du Nord (see Northern Railway of France).
Duplex process for making steel 388
Duquesne jcunt 264
Dutcher, indentation test 300
Dynamic:
augment of wheel load:
amount of, for cars 85, 89
for electric locomotives .... 78
fc« steam locomotives 71, 72
assumed by Bland 211
Dudley 212
eauseeof 32
due to excess pressure of counter-bal-
ance and angularityof main rod 35
flat spots in wheels 54
impact 6S
irregularities in track 45
rocking of engine. 54, 71
velocity of load 70
load, effect of, on driving wheel springs. . . 54
track 189
teste on ties 175, 190
typical, load diagrams for cars 85, 89
electric engines. 78
steam engines. 72, 73
wheel load allowable for lOft-lb. rail 247
wheel loads for different weights of rail
and axle spacing 319
E-60 loading 211
Earth:
angle of friction of 314
bearing power of 313
Bast Coast Railway of England, speed of
trains 25,28
EJgar Thomson Works:
early use of mixer at 365
D of the ingot 415
Egyptian State Railways, rail section 19
Eight-wheel type engine;
classification of 29
coupled, classification of 29
description of 21
effect of excess balance and angularity of
main rod 35
rail stresses caused by 219, 235, 236
stremmatograph tests with 236
U. S. Govonment experiments with.. 219, 228
wear of tires 199
£1 Cuero ore used at Maryland St«el
Company 363
El Paso and Southwestern System, size and
spacing of ties 121
Elastic curve:
calculation of, for 100-Ib. rail 242
of rail, calculation of, by Love 240
of ties 172, 176, 177
Elastic limit:
definition of 310
effect of repeated loads on 311
effect on structure of metals of straining
beyond 273
necessity for high, in rail head 208
of tail at point of contact with wheel. . 194, 195
ofrailsteel 306
relation of breaking strength to, under
repeated stress 273, 278
relation of, to working load 312
of special steels (,iee Steel in question).
Elasticity, modulus of:
of steel 225, 241
of wood 168, 166, 168
Electric:
cars 87, 88, 322
description of 383
steel from, analysis of 385
production of 341
strength of 386
locomotives:
comparison of, with steam 74
dynamic augment to wheel load (see
Dynamic).
general characteristics of 79, 80
pressure of, rounding curve 257
speeds of 27, 29, 79, 80
typical dynamic load diagrams 78
magnet for loading rails 446
motor for rolling mills:
advant^es of 459
use of, at Gary 437
railway:
cars 87, 88, 322
corrugations in rails 209
>, Google
Electric:
railway;
croas-tieH purchaaed by 164,
rails, specifications for
use of manganese in
roaring rails
weight of rail for various axle loads
welded joints on
Steel rails, production of
Elgin, Joliet and Eastern Railway, concrete
Ellin, physical properties of
Elm ties:
amount purchased in the United States., .
effect of chemical composition on (see
Element in question).
effect of siie of grain on
in electric steel
in rail, specifications for 470,
in rail steel
determined in drop t«ating machine ....
in rolling, Puppe's teats
in special steels (*ee Steel in question}.
under repeated stress
Elsasa-I/>thringen Stat« Railways;
arrangement of joints on
rail and tie plate
^ikes used on 144,
weight of rail on
Empire State Express, speed of
Engineering Standards Committee (London) :
bull head rail
flat bottom rail
length of rails 268, 485,
rail sections
specifications for bull head railway rails,
flat bottom railway rails.
tramway rail
Engineers' Club of St. Louis, Johnson on
compression moduli
Engines (see Locomotive).
England (see English).
English:
chemical composition of early steel rails . .
early steel rails 2,
iron rails, life of
prices of
lengtli of roils
practice in rolling rails
rail fastenings 19,
rail mills, hot straightening at
reheating furnace
screw spikes 19, 146,
s for rails 4S4, 4S8
speeds of railway trains 24, 25, 2S
steel rails, prices of 323
used in America 2, 4
three-high rail mill 437
trenails used on, railways 19, 146, 147
types of rails 19
weights of rails used on, railways 19
ErakoS, effect of cold on rails 285
Erie Railroad:
chrome-nickel rails on 333
early steel rails on 4
size and spacing of ties 121
speed of trains 25, 26
Europe:
rail fastenings used in 144
rails used in 19, 125
types of tie plates 125
Eutectoid steel 427
Ewii^, J. A., experiments on repeated stress 273
Excess balance (aee Counterbalance pressure).
Exhausted metal in head of rail 204
Extensometer used in Tumeaure's impact
tests 64
Extreme fiber stress:
allowable in rail , 312
bending moments corresponding to 24S, 320
in 100-lb, rail, calculation of 239
in rail, det«nnined by Bland 211
Freeman 211
Government tests. . 21S
Selby 210
on German railways 218
shown by stremmatograph. . . . 212, 236
in tie 171,179
Factor of safety;
amount of, in different structures 311
in rails 312
Failures:
rait (see Defective rails).
wheel (see Detective equipment).
Farlii^;ton forest 110
Fastenings, rail (see Joints).
Fatigue of metal:
in head of raU 2(M, 2S4
under repeated stress 270
Faustmann's formula for productivity of
woodlands 114
Fay, Henry, manganese sulphide in steel. . . 390
Felt;
tie plate on French Elastem Riulway 132
London and North Western
Railway 19
.yGooglc
Felton, S. M., incieaae in loads on engine
drivers 30
Feodoflsieff, effect of cold oq rails 285
Ferrite 427
Ferromtuiganese (aee also Recarbonizing):
amount added to recarbonize 374, 380
analysis of 374, 380
manganese in steel due to use of 330
Ferroeilicon 380
Ferrotitanium (tee Titanium).
Ferrule, oak, for spike 19
F&y pyrometer 434
Fiber stress (s«e Extreme fiber stress).
Finishing:
paffl 437, 438
specifications tor, in rails (aee alto Specifi-
cation in question) 477
Finishing temperature:
effect of, in rolling 430
in A.S.C.E. rails 7, 435
in English rails 435
specifications for (see alto Specification
in question) 475
Fir:
force required to pull spike from 140
physical properties of 166, 168
ties, amount purchased in the United
States 154, 156
cost of 154,156
Fishbolt <8e« Bole).
Fishing angles of rail:
determined by Chanute 6
principles of design of 6, 17
Fishplate (see Joints).
Fissures, transverse, in head of rail 203
Flange, rail (see Baw, rail).
Flat bottom railway rails:
specifications for 488
types of 19
Flat car 82
Flat spots in wheels:
American Railway Engineering Asso-
ciation, experiments with 61
broken rails caused by 67
effect of inertia of track on stresses pro-
duced by 68
example of, on the Chicago, Milwaukee
and St. Paul Railway 56
excess pressure cau.'^ed by 54
M, C. B., rule for length of 56
Professor Benjamin's apparatus for testing 60
Professor Hancock's mathematical in-
vestigation of 55
Florida East Coast Railway:
concrete ties on 105
size and spacing of ties 121
Flow of metal m head of rail:
classification of, by American Railway
Engineering Association
effect of, on bending properties of rail. ... i
wheel load on i
photographs of typical failures
rail failures, six months ending April
30, 1909
Flux used in blast furnace 3
Flywheel of rolling mill, energy in 4
FOppl, experiments on repeated stress S
Force, H. J., effect of copper on steel 3
Forest;
original, of the United States 1
wasteful cutting of, for ties 1
Forest Service (we U. S. Forest Service).
Forestry:
appUcation of methods to growing tie
timber I
Faustmann's formula 1
original forests in the United States. 1
plantations for ties li
Forney coupled ei^ne, classification of
Forney, M. N., report on steel rails
Foreyth, Robert:
phosphorus in rail steel 4
piping of ingots 3!
transferring ladle 3>.
Four-wheel ei^ne:
classification of !
coupled, classifieation of
Fowler, G. L.:
effect of repeated stress on rails Z
experiments on contact between wheel
and rail ._ 1!
France (see French).
Freeman, F. B.:
reaction of tie in ballast. 1!
stresses in the rail 2
Freight car {see Cars).
Freight locomotives (see Locomotives).
French:
early screw spikes !■
8l«el rails
rail fastenings 143, 1'
screw spikes 143, r
speeds of railway trains !
tie plates i;
tie plug 1'
types of rails
weights of rail used on, railways 18, !■
French Eastern Railway:
arrangement of joints on I-
early screw spikes used on 1'
half-round ties on 1
screw spikes on 143, I
,y Google
French Ef>8t«m Railway:
section of rail
tie plate 1
tie plug 1
weight of rail on
French Government, fluid compreasion of
ingots required by 4
Friction, coefficient d, for earth and gravel . 3
effect of, on rail atreasea 3
testa on 2
of soils, angles of 3
FrtHit driver (tee Driving wheels).
Fyost (see aUo Cold);
effect of, on depreeaion of track 2
on rail breakages 2
Ft. Worth and Denver City Railway, size
and spacing of ties I
Fuel used in blast funiace 3
Furnace:
blast (tee Blast furnace).
cupola 3
electric (itee Electric).
open beartih (see Open hearth).
Gagging, effect of, on rail 4
Gagging press 4
Galvanized screw spike
Galveston, Harrisburg and San Antonio
Railway:
concrete ties on 1
size and spacii^ of ties I
plantations of tie timber 1
Gary:
blast furnaces at 358, 3
general arrangement of plant 3
open hearth furnaces at 3
rolling mill practice 437, 438, 4
shrinkage allowed at 4
soaking pita at 3
strength of steel from 3
teeming practice 3
Gas electric car
Gas in molten steel 366, 4
Gayley dry blast:
at Bessemer converter 3
description of, (or blast furnace 3
General electric gaa electric car
Georgia Railroad, size and spacing of ties ... 1
German;
electric steel 3
experiments on ballast 1
rolling mills 4
rail fastenings 144, 1
raUs
German:
screw spikes 144, 145
speeds of electric locomotives 27, 29
tests on tie plates 133
tie plates 125
track, data on 218
weights of rail used on, railways 19, 144
Gennany (see German).
Gibbs, George, electric locomotives 74
Girder rail {see Street railway).
Goldie tie plate 122
GondoU car 82
Goes, Professor, tests on counterbalance
pressure 62
Grab bucket forunloading ore 357
Grade, effect of changes in, on wheel pres-
sure 45
Grading ore. 344
Grain;
changes in, under repeated stress 273
effect of rolling on 427
on strength of steel 272, 424
temperature on 427
number in rail steel 434
sise of, m head of rail 392, 394, 424, 431
structure of different metab 270
Grand Duchy of Baden State Railways, early
screw spike used on 140
Grand Rapids and Indiana Railway, size
and spacii^ of ties 121
Grand Trunk Railway;
effect of cold on steel raib 4
electric locomotives 80
siie and spacing of ties 121
Granite ties 90
Granular structure (tee Grain).
Gravel;
angle of friction of 314
ballast (see Ballast).
weight of 311)
Gravity;
center of, in steam and electric locomo-
effect of, on wheel on irregular track 47
specific (see Specific gravity) .
Great Britain {see English).
Great Central Railway (of England), speed
of trains 28
Great Eastern Railway (of England), rail
fastenings on 147
Great Lakes (see Transportation).
Great Northern Railway:
accident on, at Sharon, N. D 325
electric locomotives 80
ore dock 350
size and spacing of ties 121
>, Google
Great Northeni Railvray (of England):
rail faBtenings on 147
speed of trains 24, 28
GreeD ash, phyaical properties of 164
Grooved rail:
eiamples of 19
specificationfl for 491
Guerhard, effect of cold on rails 2S5
physical properties of 164, 170
plantations of, for tie timber 112
ties, amount purchased in the United
States 156
cost of 156
Hadfield:
experimeats on nickel steel 334
manganese ateel 336
Half4Y>und tie 116
Hancock, I^ofessor, flat spots in wheels .... 55
Hansen steel tie 94
Haibord, influence of arsenic on steel 331
Hardness tests:
BrineU's baU teat 300
cone pressure test 301
indentation test 300
Keep driU test 303
sclerometer, of Turner 302
sclerosoope 298
Hardy catalpa:
force required to puU spike from 139
use of, for tie planUtions 109, 112
Harmet process for compression of ingot 411, 416
HarreU tie 104
Harriman Lines:
chart of rail failures 524
specifications for rails 463
Harrison, T. E., iron rails, life of 1
Halt, W. K.:
impact tests 292
tests on strength of timber 157, 169
tie plates 169
Hawaiian Ohia ties:
amount purchased in the United States.. . 166
coat of 156
Head:
bull, rail, eicamples of 19
specifications for. 4S4
double, rail (see Bull bead rail).
rail:
crushed {tee Crushed head).
^ect of casting on 390
flat spot in wheel on 66
fatigue of metal in 203, 284
flow of metal in (see Flow of metal),
principles governing design 16
size of grain in 392, 394, 424, 4:
split (see Split head).
strength of, experiments on, at Mary-
land Steel Company. . . 2J
steel from 3(
stress at point of contact with wheel, 11
thennal cracks in 2<
transverse fissures in 21
unsound metal in 31
sweep 4-
Heath, Josiah, early experiments with open
hearth furnace 3'
Heating curve of steel 41
Hecla Be4t Line, concrete ties on H
Hemlock :
physical properties of 166, V
ties, amount purchased in the United
States 154, 1.
cost of 154, 1.
Hennebique, concrete tie H
H^roult electric tumace 3i
Hiokey tie 1^
Hickory, physical properties of li
High T-rails:
examples of
specifications for 4
Hill fastening on Carnegie st«el tie
Hiroi, I., web streases 2
Hockii^ VaUey Railroad, size and spac-
Hoffman, elastic curve of tie 1
HoUey, A. L.:
bottom casting used by 4
design of Bessemer plant 3
HCnigsberg, 0., measurement of forces be-
tween wheel and rail 1
Hook plates:
examples of 127, 128, 129, 130, 1
German experiments with 1
Hook spike (see Spikes),
Horisontal pressure of wheel on rail 2
Hotbeds A
shortness in steel '. . .
work, effect of, on steel
Howard, Goes and, experiments o
rocking
Howard, James E.:
examination of rolling at different stages . .
experiments on repeated stress
flow of metal in head of rail
report on Great Northern wreck
Lehigh Valley wreck
Howe, H. M.:
blowholes
>, Google
Howe, H. M.r
effect of copper on st«d 332
nickel on steel 335
roUb); on structure of steel 427
phoephoruB in ml steel 465
piping Euid segre^tion 401, 404, 409
network and feirite grains in iteel 427
on nickel steel 335
relation between cari>on content and
strength of steel 329
Howe, M. A., bearing power of earth 313
Howorth, Captain, effect of slag in steel. . . . 391
Hulett ore unloader 354
Humfrey, J. C. W., eyperimente on repeated
stress 274
Hundred per cent joint 264
Hunnewell plantation 109
Hunt, R. W.:
effect of copper on steel 332
manufacture of early rails 324
piping of ingots 399
Hunt, R. W., and Company;
American rolling mill practice 438, 444
branding of rails 447
method of Inspection at mills 464
shrinkage allowed at American rail mills ■ . 444
teeming practice at American rail mills. . . 399
Hydrogen, evolution of, in cooling steel 401
Hyper-eutectoid steel 427
Hypo-eutectoid steel 427
lUingworth's process for compression of
ingot 411,415
Illinois Steel Company (lee Gary; South Works).
Impact:
bibliography of 288
discussion of, as applied to teats 293
effect of, onatrenglh of pinetiea 158
track 68
in bridge specifications 210
increase in wheel load due to 68
testa by Professor Goss on engine drivers 62
drop (see Drop test).
on bridges 64
Incision, angle of, in rolling 457
Indentation test 300
India, length of rails used in 267
Indiana Engineering Society, flat spots on
car wheels 55
Indiana Railroad Commission (gee Railroad
Commission of Indiana).
Indiana Steel Company (see Gaiy).
Indirect pressure in rolling 456
Inertia:
moment oF (see Moment of inertia).
of roadbed, effect of , on bearing power 189,318
Inertia;
of track, effect of, on impact of wheel 68
rail stresses 318
bled, specifications for 473
blowholes in 401
casting 395
discard from 416
fluid compression of 410, 41S
form for reporting rails which failed from
different parts of, American Railway
Ki^noering Association 516
lettering rails from 416
piping of 399
reduction neoeasary for ((ifferent parts of. . 420
segregation of 404
sice of, at American mills 438
stripper 397
Inspection:
form for, American Railway Engineering
Association 504
specifications for, in rails (tee aUo Specifi-
cation in question) 464
tendency toward greater, at mill 164
Institution of Civil Engineers:
Bell, on deflection of rails in track 190
Kirkeldy, on wear of rails 205
Sandbe^, manufacture and near of rails. - 1
Williams, maintenance of permanent way. 1
Intergranular weakness in steel 272
International Association for Testing
Materials:
drop testing machine 291
hardness tests 30O
impact teste 292
slag in steel 393
thermoelectric measurements of stress 31 1
International Railway Congress;
Dudley, on tonnage of rails and wheels.. . . 202
report on contact area between wheel and
rail 195
effect of speed on the track 28
electric traction 74
joints 266
length of rail 266
use of screw spikes 150
Interstate Commerce Commission, report
on Lehigh Valley Railroad wreck 203
Interurban cars 87, 88
Interurban railways (see Electric railway).
Interurban Rapid Transit, concrete ties on. . 104
Ireland (see English).
carbon diagram 427
cast, manufacture of 357
content in ore 344, 363, W*
,y Google
Iron:
convwBJon of, into ateel 9
cooling curve of 4!
cupola 3<
effet-t of repeated stress on 274, 2!
extraction o(, from its ore ^
OK (Me Ore).
oxide, blowholes caused by 3J
pig, raanufacture of 3i
rails, life of, in American raib^Muls
United Kingdom
on North Eastern Railway 1,
price of 2,3:
wear of
structure of 2
Zorta 1'
Iron and Steel Inatitute:
eSect of slag in rail steel 3>.
e)q>erimeDl3 on influence of arsenic on
on influence of copper on
Bteel a
on repeated stress 2'
Iron rails (see iron).
Jaggar teat for hardness 3
Jeans, J. S. :
early steel rails
origin of pneumatic process of making steel 3
Job, Robert:
cells per square inch in rail steel 4
unsoundness of head of rail 3
John Brown and Company («ee Brown,
John, and Company).
Johnson, L. E., ties, supply of 1
Johnson, Professor:
compression modulus as affected by sur-
face of contact 1
experiments on contact between wheel
and rail I
Johnson, Thomas H,;
distribution of pressure through ballast. , 1
drop testing machine, tests on 2
Joints {see aUo Joint in question):
American Railway Engineering Associa-
tion tests on 2
bibliography t^ recent literature on 2
chemical composition 264, 2
economic distribution of metal in 2
effect of, on rail stresses 2
fishir^; angle, determined by Chanute
for bull head rail
friction of 2
on American railways 2
on English and Scotch railw^.ys. arrange-
ment of
Joints;
on French railways, arrangement of 144
on German railways, arrangement of 144
size of 218
oil tempered 266
shear in 262
Watertown Arsenal tests on 260, 264
welded 267
Jones, Capt. Wm. R., development of mixer
by 365
Jones and Laughlin Steel Company:
duplex process employed at 38S
tilting open hearth f uniaces at . 377
Jouraffsky, effect of colil on rails 283
Kansas City, Mexico and Orient Railway:
Mogul type engine 34
size and spacing of ties 121
Keep test for hardness 303
Kelli^S, R. S., timber supply of the United
States 106
Kelly, William, pneumatic process of mak-
ing steel 367
Keimedy- Morrison process 435
Kennedy stove 360
Key, oak for double-headed rail 19
Kimbal tie 99, 103
Kingdom of Saxony State Railways :
arrangement of joints on 144
data on track 218
rail and tie plate 129
spikes used on 144, 145
weight of rail on 19, 144
Kingdom of WOrttembeis State Railways:
arrangement of joints on 144
rail and tie plate 127
screw spikes on 144, 145
weight of rail on 19
Kirkaldy, wear of rails 205
Kneedler concrete tie 104
Krupp mills, fluid compression of ingot 415
Lackawanna Steel Company:
railmiU 438,444
shrinkage allowed at 444
strength of steel from 309
teeming practice 399
titanium steel rails 340
Ladle, casting 389
Lake Erie and Western Railroad:
concrete ties on 105
size and spacing of ties 121
Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway:
composition and metal ties on.. . . 96, 104, 105
concrete ties on 104, 105
prairie type engine 33
>, Google
lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway:
size and apociog of tics 121
speed of trains 24, 25, 26, 27, 28
tests on chilled car wheels 57
Lakeside and Marblehead Railroad, concrete
ties on 105
Lake States, lumber production of lOS
Lake Superior;
ore iiiitustry 349
ores, iron content 344
Lakhovsky Bcrew spike 148
Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, rail
fastenings on 148, 147
Lanza, Gactano:
driving wheel spring teats 49
effect of Buddenly applied load 54
force required to pull spike from 140
physical properties of 140, 166
Leading truck:
allowable weights on 321
on freight and passenger ei^ines 32, 33, 34, 72
Lebanon iron used at Maryland Steel
Company 374
Lebasteur, impact testa 293
Lehigh Valley Railroad:
size and spacing of ties 121
speeds of trains on 25
wreck caused by broken rail 203
Lenf!th of rails:
report on, International Railway Con-
gress 266
specifications tor {»ee also Specification in
question) 474
Lettering rails from different parts of ingot. . 416
Limestone used in blast furnace 365
Loading:
axle (see Axle loads).
dynamic, for different types of cars .... 85, 89
for different types of electric
engines 78
for different types of steam
engines 72, 73
E-60 211
maximum axle, allowable on rail 319
rail, for different classes of track 319
specifications for, rail 478
weights of rail for different conditions
of 322
Loblolly pine («ee also Pine) :
foree required to pull spike from 139
physical properties of 158, 164, 166, 170
tie, decay in spike hole 139
wear of, under tie plate 123
Locomotives:
allowable axle loads of 322
Locomotives;
axle loads of (see Axle loads).
classification of !
counterbalance pressure (see Counter-
balaace).
decapod 29, 3!
development in, at Baldwin Locomotive
Works 31
on Pennsylvania Rail^
road 3(
draw bar pull, effect on track T.
driving wheels (see Driving wheels).
dynamic augment of wbeel pressure (see
Dynamic).
effect of rocking of, on track . 49, 7
on track of badly balanced 3!
electric (see Electric locomotives),
freight, development of, on Pennsylvania
Railroad 3l
examples of 33, 34, T
passenger, development of, on Pennsyl-
vania Railroad 3
examples of 32, 33, 7
Pennsylvania Railroad tests on steam and
electric 74, 25
rail stresses caused by (see Stresses).
speed of 21, 23, 2
springs (see Springs).
steam, beet speeds o! 2
dimensions of 32, 33, 34, 7
weights of different types,
29, 32, 33, 34, 7
strength of track required for 32
tires (see Tires).
types of (see also Type in question);
American 2
articulated 34, 7
Atlantic 21,29,3
coiwolidation 29, 3
eight^wheel 21, 2
Mallet 2
Mikado 3
Mogul 34, 7
Pacific 21,29,3
prairie 33, "
ten-wheel 33, 7
typical dynamic wheel loads 72, i
weight of rail required for 32
weights of 29,32,33,34.;
wheels (see Wheel).
Locust, plantations of, for tie timber, . . 109, 1]
Lodgcpole pine ties:
amount purchased in the United States 154, 1!
cost of , 154, U
London and North Western Railway:
early steel rails on
>, Google
London and North Western Railw&y:
potnaaent way 19
nil foBteninga on 19, 147
Borew apikea cm 19, 146, 147
sectiMi of roil 19
epeed of tnuna 24, 26, 28
London, Brighton and South Coast Railway,
early steel rails on 3
JjODg Island Railroad, sin and spacing of
tin 121
Longleof pine {iee also I*ine), physical
properties of.. 164, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170
Lomes in drop testing machine 293
Louisville and Nashville Raikoad:
plantations for tie timber Ill
sice and spacing of ties 121
Love, C. E.:
analysis of Government track experi-
mento 240
relation between d^reesioD and pressure
on tie 192
Ludwick, hardness teats 300
MacPheraon, D., long ties used on muskeg
ewamp 188
Magnetic crane for loading rails 446
testing of rails 303
Main driver {«ee Driving wheels).
Main rod:
angularity of, effect of inertia of track on
stresses produced by 69
effect tA angularity of, calculation of 35
pressure on rail caused by angularity of . . 35
Maine Central Railroad, site and spacing
of ties 121
Mallet type enpne (aee also Articulated
engine):
description of 21
dimensions of 34, 72
draw bar puU (rf 22
speeds of 22
weights of 34, 72
Maldtz, E. von:
blowholes 389, 391, 404
effect of recarbonising 391
Manganese:
content in raib:
of Bessemer ateel 11,253,310
of open hearth steel 310
specifications for {see alto SpcciBcation
in question) 328, 342, 466
rftect of, in casting 402
ateel 330
on blowholes 402
feiro 330, 374, 380
in iron ore 363, 364
Manganese:
segregation of 409
specificationfl for, in raib (we aUo Specifi-
cations in question) 328.342,466
steel 333, 336, 341
rails, production of 341
use (^, on steam railways 333
street railways 339
sulphide in steel 390
Manufacture:
bibliography of Uterature on steel (lee
Preface).
casting the ingot 395
conversion of iron into steel 366
difficulty in heavy A.S.C.E. raU 7, 14
early process of rail 324
extraction of the iron from its an 344
influence o! detail of 324
of car wheels 67
of iron rails; 1,2
rolling 420
specifications for (sm also Specifica-
tions) 473
Manufacturers (see Association of American
Steel Manufacturers) :
Steel, of America (see Association of Ameri-
can Steel Manufacturers).
Maple ties:
amount purchased in the United States . . . 156
cost of 159
Marston, A., experiments on steel rollers on
steel plates 194
Martens, Professor, impact tests 202
Martin, S. 8., drop teste 288
Maryland Steel Company:
Bessemer converters at 370, 374
blast furnaces at 363
cold straighteidng press at 446
duplex process employed at 388
experimente on rolling rails 430
iron cupola at 365
Mayan ore used at 335
rolling mill practice 438, 444
shrinkage allowed at 444
teeming practice 399
tests on strength of rail head 252
titanium rail steel 340
Massachusetts Institute of Technology:
Coes and Howard's thesis on driving wheel
springs 49
congress of technology 30
Master Car Builders' Association:
limiting length of flat spot in car wheels.. ' 56
standard tire 7
wheel in relation to design of
>, Google
Master Mechanics Association {see AxDerican
Railway Master Mechanics Associa-
Mayari ore 335
McGill UniverBity, indentation t«et8 300
McKee tie pkte:
examples of 122
' tests OD 122
McKeen motor car 86
McKenna process tor reroUing rails 459
Mechanical work, influence of, on ateel 427
Melior, J. W.:
changes during ccxiling of metab 425
cryatailine Htnicture of metals 270
M£nard, friction of joints 261
Meequite ties:
amount purchased in the United States. . . 156
cost of 156
Metal ties (nee also Tie in question) 90
Metcalf , William, phoephorua in rail steel . . . 465
Mexican Railway steel tie 96
Michel, Jules:
holding power of spikes 140
influence of form of thread on holding
power of screw spikes 148
Michigan Central Railroad:
chemical composition of rails 328
concrete ties on 105
consolidation type engine 34
continuous rail on 268
80-lb. rails used on, in 1893 7
electric locomotives in Detroit River
tunnel 80
plantations for tie timber 112
stKe and spacing of ties 121
speeds of trains on 24, 26
Middle driver (see Driving wheels).
Midland Railway:
pennanent way 19
rail fastenings on 19, 146, 147
section of rail 19
^>eed of trains 28
Mikado type enpne:
classification of 29
description d 31
Mill:
American, practice 399, 438, 444
blooming 436, 438
reversing et^ing 437
rolling (see Rolling).
thrce^iigh 437
Minneapolis and St, Louis Railroad, siie and
spacing of ties 121
Minnesota, iron ore mines in 346, 347
Missouri and North Arkansas Railroad, size
and spacing of ties 121
Missouri, Kansas and Texas RaQw&y Syst«n,
size and spacing of ties
Missouri, Pacific Railway Systems, size and
spacing of ties
development of
metal used in open hearth heat, analysis
of
MobQe and Ohio Railroad, size and spacing
" oftiee 121
Mock«mut hickory, physical properties of. . . 164
Modiolus:
irf compression {see Compreaaion).
of eiaaticity of steel 225, 241
wood 158,166,168
of rupture {see alto Ultimate strength).
of steel 306
wood 158,164, 166,168
section, of different rails (see atto Rail in
question) 319
Mogul type engine:
allowable axle loads 322
elaaaification of 29
dimensiona of 34, 72
effect of excess balance and angularity of
main rod 43, 70
rail stresses caused by 222, 237
speeds of 70
strength of track required for 322
typical dynamic wheel loads 73
U. S. Government experiments with 222
weight of rail required for 322
weights of 34, 72
Moisture (see Water).
Moment, bending (see Bending moment).
Moment of inertia:
load diagram for rails having different . . . 319
of different rails (see al»o Rail in question) . 319
of rails and joints on German railways. . . . 218
Motor care 85, 86
Munahet, improvement in making steel 367
Nail spike (see Spikes).
National Connervation Commission, report
New England States, lumber production
of 108
New Jersey Steel and Iron Company, first
open hearth furnace in America 375
New York Central and Hudson River Rail-
concrete ties on 104
80-lb. rails used on, in 1893 7
electric locomotives. 79
Pacific type engine 32
rail sectitMi 10
>, Google
New York Centml and Hudson River Rail-
rail failures 10
size and spacing of ties 121
speed of trains 23, 24, 25, 26, 28
atreinmat<^raph teats 237
ten-wheel type engine 33
wear (rf rails on 328
New York Central Lines;
specifications for rail 478
speed of trains 23
titanium steel rails 341
New York, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad,
size and spacing of ties 121
New York, New Haven and Hartford Rail-
electric locomotives 74, 80
size and spacing of ties 121
speed of trains 28
New York, Ontario and Western Railway,
eiae and spacing of tics 121
New York Railroad Club, annealed rails 208
Nickel, chrome, steel rails:
production of 341
use of 333
Nickel, effect of, in steel 334
Nickel Plate, concrete ties on 105
Nickel steel rails r
production of 341
use of 333
Nicolaieff, ore used ot Maryland Steel
Company 363
Nicolas Railway {of Russia), early steel
rails on 3
Nicolia, effect of cold on rails 285
Nisbet, productivity of woodlands 114
Nitrogen:
effect of, in steel 287, 341
on ductility of rail steel 287
titanium on, in steel 287, 341
evolution of, in cooling steel 401
Norfolk and Western Railway:
chemical composition of rails 328
manganese rails on 333
plantations for tie timber 112
size and spacing of ties 121
Norfolk Southern Railroad, size and spacing
of ties 121
North Austrian Railways, experiments on
rails rolled for 450
North British Railway, rail fastenings on, 146, 147
North Chicago Rolling Mill, early steel rails 3
North Eastern Railway (of England):
rail fastenings on 147
speed of trains 28
Northov Pacific Railway:
management of timber lands on 113
size and spacing of ties 121
Northern Railway (of Austria), early steel
rails on 3
Northern Railway {of France) :
arrangement of joinU on 144
early screw spikes used on 141
screw spikes on 143, 144
speed of trains .■ 24
Northern Railway (of Spain), concrete ties
on 104, 106
North Western Pacific Railroad Company,
sise and spacing of ties 121
Norway pine, physical properties of. . . . 166, 168
Nutmeg hickory, physical properties of 164
Oak:
ferrule for spike 19
force required to pull spike from 139, 140
key, for double-headed rail 19
permissible load under tie plate 171
physical properties of 164, 168, 170
plantations of, for tie timber Ill
ties, amount purchased in the United
Stales 154,156
annual charge of 115
cost ot. . .' 154, 156
on French Extern RaOway 117
Oklahoma Railway Company, car used on.. . 88
Old Colony and Newport Railway, early steel
rails on , , 2
Open hearth:
comparison of, with Bessemer process. . . . 380
description of process 375, 378
early experiments with 375
steel, analysis of 310
raits, branding 447
ductility ot ." 286
hardness determined by sclero-
scope 299
production of 382
specifications for, 342, 463, 478, 491
strength of 306
TaUrat continuous process 375
tilting furnace 375
Ore:
analyses of. 363, 3ftl
docks 351, 357 ■
extraction of iron from 344
handling of 351, 357
iron content in 344, 363, 364
Ijike Superior mining 351
Mayan 335
roasting 344
supply of, low phosphorus 374, 381
>, Google
Ore:
transportatioti of 349
unloader 352
used in blast furnace 360, 363, 364
open-hearth furnace 3T8, 380
vessels 349
Or^on Electric Railway Company, cara
tised on 87
OregoD Railroad and Navigation Company,
ten-wheel type engine 33
Or^on Short Line Railroad, Atlantic type
engine 32
Orleans Railway:
arrangcinent of joints on 144
screw apikea on 144
Osmond, transition points in steel 426
Overcup oak, physical properties of 164
Oxygen, effect of, in steel 401, 404
Pacific States, lumber production of 108
Pacific type engine:
allowable axle loads 322
classification of 29
description of 21
dimensiona of 32, 72
effect of excess balance and angularity of
main rod 41, 70
pressure rounding curve 259
rail stresses caused by 215
speeds of 21, 26, 70
strength of track required for 322
typical dynamic wheel loads 72
weight of rail required for 322
weights of 31,32,72
Paris, Lyons and Mediterranean Railway:
arrangement of joints 144
axle loads uacd on 19
early steel raila on 3
experiments on ties 172
screw spikes 143, 144
section of rail 19
Pass diagram, South Works 442
Passenger cars (see Cars).
locomotives (see Locomotives).
cogging, Puppe'e tests 448, 450
number in roUing rail 438
Pay-aa-you-enter cars 88
Pearlite 427
Pecan hickory, physical properties of 164
Pennsylvania Lines:
concrete ties on 97, 102, 104, 105
continuous rail on 267
nickel steel rails on 333
Pacific type engine 32
plantations for tie timber 112
Pennsylvania Lines:
prairie type engine 33
fliie and spacing of ties 121
special steel rail on 333
speed of trains 25,26
Pennsylvania Lines West of Pittsburgh (see
Pennsylvania Lines).
Pennsylvania Railroad:
chemical composition of early rails 323
raib 328,342
committee on rail section ig
development in locomotives since 1850 ... 31
early e:q>erim^ts on wear of rails 3S&
steel rails used on 4
electric locomotive 74, 76, 79
horizontal pressure on rail exerted by
engine wheel 259
joint 264
plantations for tie timber Ill
prairie type engine 33
rail section 10, 18
deflection in drop test 291
failures of u
"P. S." section (see Pennsylvania Stand-
ard section).
siEe and spacing of ties 121
specifications for rail 342, 463
speeds of trains 24, 26, 27, 28
steam and electric locomotives, tests on 74, 257
steel ties on 96
tests on ballast 184
track experiments on, by U. S. Govern-
ment 225
weight of sleeping cars 82
Pennsylvania Standard ("P. 8.") section;
deflection in drop test 291
design of 18, 460
failures of 10
Pennsylvania Steel Company:
bottom easting at 410
early steel rails 4
machine for testing rail wear 303
rail mill 438, 441
shrinkage allowed at 44i
use of iron with high copper , 332
Percival concrete tie 101, 105
Pere Marquette Railroad; concrete ties on,
104,105
Permanent Way;
of EInglish railways 19
maintenance of 1
"Pewter" rails 12
Philadelphia and Reading Railway:
Stub, rails used on, in 1893 7
,y Google
Philadelphia and Reading Railvfty:
performance of fine structure rails on 424
Biie and spacing of ties 121
speed of traina 24, 28
teetg on annealed rails 20S
Philadelphia Rapid Transit, concrete ties
on 101
Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore
Railway, early steel rails on 2, 4
Phosphorus:
oontent in rails of Bessemer steel.. 11, 253, 310
open hearth steel 310
effect of, in steel 329
on duotility of rail sted 286
segregation of
specifications for, in rails {tee aUo Speci-
ficationa) 328, 342,
supply of ores low in 374,
Physical properties:
of rails, form for reporting, American
Railway Engineering Association ....
of special steels (see Special steels).
of steel (see Steel).
of wood, treated
untreated 158, 164, 166,
Pig iron, manufacture of
Pignut hickory, physical properties of
Pine:
effect of moisture on strength of
force required to pull spike from 139,
permissible load under tie plate
physical properties of,
158, 164, 166, 167, 168, 169,
170
amount purchased in the United
States 154,156
annual charge of 115
costof 154,166
effect of preservative treatment on
strength (A 158
teats on treated 158
wear of, under tie plate 123
Pipes in ingots:
bibliography of recent literature on 418
effect of fluid compression on 410, 415
rapid charging into heating fur-
nace 400
titanium on 405
Howe's experiments on 409, 411
teats to detect 464, 469
Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad:
concrete ties on 101, 105
tie plate 122
Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St.
Louis Railway (lee aUo Pennsylvania
chemical composition of early steel rails
on 326
speed of trains 24
Pittsbm^, Fort Wayne and Chicago Rail-
way (see also Pennsylvania Lines),
speed of trains 24
Pittsburgh Railway Club, Fowler's experi-
menta on contact of wheels with
rails 195
Plantationa for growth of tie timber. ... 109, 111
Pneumatic method of "■■''■''e steel (see
Bessemer).
Pole tie 119
force required to pull spike from 140
plantations of, for tie timber Ill
tie plates of, on French Eastern Railway. . 132
Post oak, physical properties of 164
Poutien, friction of joints 261
Prairie type engine;
classification of 29
dimensions of 33, 72
speeds of 70
typical dynamic wheel loads 72
weights of 33, 72
Prepayment cars 88
Preservation, tie (see Treated tiea).
Preaaure:
allowable on aubgrade, amount of. 187,189,317
calculation of 313
under tie plate 171
casting ingots under 410, 415
direct, in roUing 456
distribution of, to subgrade 180, 185
effect of steam, on treated ties 158, 162
indirect, in rolling 456
of wheel on rail:
at point of contact 193
caused by drawbar pull 71
flat spot on wheel 54
excess pressure of counter-
balance and angularity of
mainrod 35,70
impact 68
irregularities in the track.. 45,71
rocking of engine 49, 71
velocity of load 70
weight of tender 71
dynamic, of cars 85
electric engines 78
steam engines 71, 72
^ect of change in grade on 45
inertia of track on 69
>, Google
horizoDt&l component of, on curves 259
static, cars 85
electric locomotives 77, 79, 80
steam locomotives 29
working, of steam locomotives,
37, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44
Production:
lumber, in the United States 108
rail, in the United States 382
ties, in the United States 154, 156
VroSle of raii 46, 47
Prussian Government Railroads:
experiments on tie plates 133
screw spikes used on 144, 145
tests on strength of rails 302
Prussian Hetwian Railways, data on track. . . 218
Prussian Railway Department, hardness
tests 302
Prussian State Railways:
arrangement of joints on 144
rail and tie plate 131
speed of trains 27, 29
spikes used on 144, 145
ties with screw doweb 161
weight of rail on 131, 144
"P. 8." raii section (gee Pentuylvania
Standard section).
Puppe, experiments oa rail rolling 447
Purdue University, teste on tie plates 169
Pyrometers 434, 476
Queen and Crescent, chemical composition
of rails 328
RaU:
advance wave determinations of 221
annealed 208
base (see Base rail).
bearing of, on tie 122
bending, affected by flow of metal in
head 204
bending moment (see Bending moment).
branding 446
broken (see Broken rails).
base (see Broken base).
by defective equipment 57
bull head 19, 484
camber in 444, 477, 482
chemical composition (see Chemical com-
position).
continuous 267
corrugations in 209
creeping of 153
crushed head (see Crushed head).
Rail:
defective (see Defective rails).
design of (see alio Section), investigation
of, by Aahbel Welsh 5
design of (tee alto Section), investigation
of, by Chanute 6
des^ of (»ee also Section), principles
governing 16
double head 19, 484
ductility of steel (see Ductility).
dynamic load for different classes of track . 319
effect of cold on 28i
repeated stress on 2S4
elastic curve of 241, 242
electric steel 383
exhausted metal in 204, 284
failures, chart of, Harriman Lines 524
reported by American Railway
Ei^ineering Association. ... 10
typical, photographs of 11
fastening of, to tie 138
fastenings (see Jointe).
flange (see Base, rail).
flat bottom 19, 488
flow of metal in head of (see Flow of
metal).
(Egging, or cold straitening 446
girder (see Street railway).
grooved (see Street railway).
hardness tests on (tee Hardness tests).
head (see Head, rail).
horizontal pressure of wheel on curves 259
joint (see Joints).
length of 267, 474, 485, 489, 492
lettering from different parts of ingot . . . 416
load for different classes of track 317, 322
manufacture (see Manufacture).
manufacturers (see Association of Ameri-
can Steel Manufacturers).
miU (see Rolling).
moment of inertia of standard (see also
Rail in question) 319
performance of fine structure 424
heavy sections 7, 10
prices of 325
production 3S2
profile of 46, 47
records (see Reports and records).
reports (see Reports and records).
reroUed 459
road (see Road in question).
roaring 209
rolling (see Rolling).
sectbn modulus of standard (see aUo Rail
in question) 31B
>, Google
Rail:
eections (see Section),
she&r in (see Shear).
Bpccial (see Special rails),
specifications {see Specifications).
split head 10, 3
stamping 4
steel, first made in America
used in America
foreign countries
John Brown and Company 4, 5. 3
special (*ee Special rails).
straightening 4
strains produced in, by etraightening i
street railway {tee Street railway).
strength of 270, 3
stresses in (aee Stresses) .
supports of
T- (gee T-raU).
temperature, effect of on, cold i
finishing (see Fia-
ishini?).
tests of, hardness (aee also Hardness testa) . !
impact (see Drop test) .
tests on, by U. S. Government i
stremmatcgraph 71, 212, i
tramway (»ee Street railway).
transverse fissures in head 2
way (see Road in question).
wear («ee Wear).
wrfj (see Web, rail),
weights of, for different loading 310, 3
on Enghsh railways
French railways. ... 18, 19, 1
German railways . . 19, 125, 1
specifications for (see also Speci-
fication In question).
Railroad (gee Road in question).
Railroad Coromission of Indiana:
Buffington, on quality of rail 3
Gushing, on discard of ingot 4
Dudley, on wear of rails 3
Railway (tee Road in question).
Rainfall on ballast in Pennsylvania Roibood
tests 1
Rasch, thermoelectric meaaurements of stress 3
Rear driver (see Driving wheels),
Recalesccnce 4
Recarbonizer (see alto Ferromonganese) 3
Recarbonising:
^ect of, on steel 3
in Bessemer converter 3
in ca.sting ladle 3
in electric furnace 3
in open-hearth furnace 3
R«ciprocating machine, tests on rail head
with S
parts on locomotives (see alto
Counteri>alance) 32,
Records (tee Reports and records).
Red cedar, physical properties of 1
Red gum:
crushing strength of 1
plantations of, for tie timber I
Red oait (see alto Oak):
force required to pull spike from I
physical properties of. 139, 164, 1
plantations of, for tie timber 1
tie, annual charge of 1
Red pine, physical properties of 1
Red shortness in steel 330, 3
Bed spruce, physical properties ot 1
Reduction necessary from ingot to rail 4
Reduction of area:
effect of chemical compositioD on (see
Element in question).
siie of grain on 4
in rolling, Puppe's tests 4
of electric steel 5
of rail steel S
Redwood:
physical properties of 166, 1
ties, amount purchased in the United
States 164, 1
cost of 154, 1
Reheating furnace 3
Repeated stress (aee Stresses).
Reports and records;
by American Railway Engineering As-
sociation;
compilation of results for study t
from Division officers I
inspection and shipment at mill t
laboratory examination of i^>ecial rails., t
progressive wear of special rail t
chart of rail failures, Harriman Lines '
form for continuous record shown
graphically t
Republic Iron and Steel Company, blast
furnace 365, J
Rerolled rails 4
RSaal, friction of joints 2
Heversing cogging mill 4
Reynolds and Smith, experiments on re-
peated stress 278, 2
Rhymncy Railway (of England), early steel
Richards, R.H.;
influence of copper on steel i
roasting ores J
Riegler tie 1
>, Google
Riese, elastic curve of tie 172
Roadbed (see Sut^prade).
Roaring rails 209
Roasting ore 344
Rock («ee Stone).
Rock Island (»e« Chicago, Rock Island and
Pacific Railway).
Rocking of eogiiie:
Coes and Howard's experiments on 49
effect ol inertia of track on Htreases pro-
duced by 69
on wheel pressure 49, 71
Roechling Rodenhauser electric furnace .... 385 *
Rogers, F., experiments on repeated stress. . 282
Rolling:
American practice 438
direct pressure in 456
early rails 324, 434
effect of, on grain size 424, 427
experiments at Maryland Steel Company . 430
Watcrtown Arsenal by
Howard 420
by Puppe 447
heavy A.S.C.B. sectionfl 7, 435
indirect pressure in 456
Kennedy-Morrison process 435
mill at Algoma Steel Company 437, 433
Gary 437,438
South Works 438, 443, 444
practice at American 433, 444
power required tor 458
reduction at each pass 436, 438
structural changes during 420
tests on head of rail 205, 256
work done in, I*uppe'B tests 448
worn rails, McKenna process 460
Rolls, design of 457
Rooseboom, H. W. B., carbon-iron diagram . 427
Rosenhain, W.:
experiments on repeated stress 273
slag enclosures in steel 393
Roughing pass 437, 438
RudelofT, experiments on nickel steel 334
Russia:
early ateel rails 3
effect of cold on rails in 285
Rutland Railroad, size and spacing of ties, . . 121
San Antonio and Arkansas Pass Railway:
plantations of tie timber 112
size and spacing of ties 121
Sand:
angle of friction of 314
weight of 316
Sandberg, C, P.:
drop testing machine 288
Sandberg, G. P.:
experiments on dfect of cold on rails. . . 284
manufacture and wear of rails 1
Santa Fc (see Atchison, Topeka and Santa
Fe Railway).
Santa Fe, Prescott and Phceoix Railway,
site and spacing of ties 121
Sarada tie 102, 104
Samia tunnel, electric locomotive 80
Sauveur:
rail structure 429
relation between size of grain and physi-
cal properties of steel 424
hot.,
rail..
445
445
runs at American mills 445
Saxony State Railways (see Kingdom of
Saxony State Railways).
Schubert:
depression of tie in ballast 100
experiments on ballast 180
Schwald, elastic curve of tie 172
Sclerometer 302
Scleroscope 298
Scratch t«8t tor hardness 302
Screw spikes {see Spikes).
Seaboard Air Line Railway, sise and spacing
of ties 121
Seasoning, effect of, on strengtii of wood .... 168
Seating capacity of electric cars 87, 88
Section, rail (see alio Section in question):
American 10, 14, 18, 19, 460
American Electric Railway Association 19
American Railway Association 14
American Society of Civil Engineers 6
British standard 19
bullhead 19
comparison of failures of different
sections 10
designed by Ashbel Welsh 5
Chanute 6
Dudley 11
En^ish 19
flat bottom 19
French 19
German 19,125
girder 19
grooved 19
high tee 19
New York Central and Hudson River
Raihv>ad 11
Pennsylvania Railroad 11
Pennsylvania standard , 18
present 14, 460
,y Google
Section, rail:
principles goveming design of 16
specifications for (.see also Specification in
question) 476
street rulway {see Street railway).
tramway 19
Vignole 18
Section moduli of different rails (see alio Rail
in question) 319
Seeley concrete tie 104
418
bibliography of recent literature Oi
eSe«t of fluid compression on 410,
titanium on
Howe's e;qteriment« on 400,
Selby, 0. E., stresses in the rail
Series "A," American Railway Association. .
"B," American Railway Association. .
Shagbark hickory, physical properties of ... .
Shear:
calculation of, for 100-lb. rail
distribution of, in 100-lb. rail
in rail and joint
calculation of
Love's diagram of
intensity of, at any point
specifications (or (see also Specification in
question)
Ship, used on Great Lakes for transporting
Shipment:
form tor reporting, American Railway
Engineering Association
of iron ore (see Transportation).
Shock {see Impact).
Sbortleaf pine {see alto Pine) :
physical properties of 164, 166, 168,
tie cut through spike boles
Shrinkage;
allowed at American milb
English mills
specifications for (eee also Specification
in question)
Shwedler, elastic curve of tie
172
early open hearth furnace 375
furnace 375
Ideating furnace 437
Sierra Morena ore, used at Maryland Steel
Company 363
Silica, in iron ore 363, 364
Silicon:
content in rails of Beasemer steel. 11, 253, 310
open hearth sl«el 310
effect of, in casting 401, 402
Silicon, effect of, in steel 329
on blowholes 402
segr^^tion of 409
specifications for, in rails {eee also Specifi-
cation in question) 328, 3^, 466
Six-wheel engine:
classification of 29
coupled, classification of 29
Slade, F. J., first opep hearth furnace in
America 375
Slag:
insteel 391
unsound metal caused by 391
Sleeper (gee Ties).
Sleeping car 84
Slip:
bands caused by repeating stress 274
coefficient of, locomotive drivers IBS, 199
means of determining, in
earth 313
Smelting, iron ore 344, 357
Smith, H. E., tests or. chilled car wheek. . . 57
Smith and Reynolds, experiments on re-
peated stress 278, 282
Snyder steel tie 96
Soaking pits _. 396
Soils, supporting power 313
Solid solution of iron 427
South Africa, length of rails used in 267
South America, length of roils used in 267
South Works, Illinois Steel Company:
electric furnace at 383
experiments with new section of rail 462
Foisyth's transferring ladle 390
pass diagram 442
rail miU 438, 442
shrinkage allowed at 444
teeming practice 399
Southern Pacific Company:
Mogul type engine 34
plantations of tie timber 112
siEe and spacing of ties 121
speed of trains 26, 28
timber lands of 113
Southern pine (see Pine).
Southern Railway:
Atlantic type engine 32
chemical composition of early rails on. . . . 326
plantations for tie timber 112
site and spacing of ties 121
Southern Railway (of France):
arrangement of joints on 144
screw spikes on J44
Southern States:
lumber production of 108
>, Google
Spangttiberg'a experimenta on repeated
sttesB 277
SpaniBh oak, physical properties of 164
Special rails (tee alw Special steeta) :
form for reporting laboratory examina-
tion of 511
form for reportiDK wear of 617
Special steela:
chrome nickel 333, 341
chromium 333, 341
cupro-oiekel 332
electric 341, 383
manganese 333, 336, 341
nickel 333, 334, 341
production of 341
titanium {see Titanium).
Specific gravity:
of manganese sulphide 300
of steel 390
of wood 158, 163
SpecificaUons:
axb loads given in bridge 211
for drop testing machine 200
Specifications, rail:
American, comparison of:
bled ingots 473
branding 477
chemical composition 342, 465
discard 473
drilling 477
drop test 470
finishing,
finishing t
inspection 464
length 474
loading 478
Noa. 1 and 2 rails 472
physical requirements 467
process of manufacture 473
quality of manufacture 473
section 476
shearing 473
ehrinkage 475
weight 476
bibliography of 494
British standard bull head railway raits.. . 484
flat bottom railway rails. . 48S
chemical composition (»ee aim Specifica-
tion in question) 342, 465
for street railways, American Society for
Testing Materials 401
of American Railway Engineering Asso-
ciation 463
of American Society for Testing Materials. 491
of Aflaociation of American Steel Manu-
facturers 342, 463
Specifications, rail:
of Harriman Lines 463
of New York Central lines 478
of Pennsylvania RaUroad System 342, 463
Speed:
effect on bridges due to velocity of load . . 69
countertialance pressure 33
depression of tie 190
track 29, 189,101
due to velocity of load 70
Prussian State Railwaj-s 29
fast runs in la«t three decades 23
in rolling mills, Puppe's tests 458
of electric locomotives 27, 29, 79, 80
of modem trains 21, 23
Spiegle (see alto Ferromanganeee) 374
(we alao Perromanganeae) 374
140
used on English railways. .
German railways .
comparative coet of screw
effect of treatment on holding force of . . . . 159
holding power of 139
hook 140
screw 140, 142
cost of equipping track with 142
examples of English 19, 146
French 143, J +4
German 144, 145
influence of design of thread on hokling
power 148
machine tor preparing ties for , , 142
on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe
Railway 141
use of dowel with 142,150
Splice bars (see Joints).
SpUt head:
clossification of, American Railway En-
gineering Association 10
effect of casting on 390
photc^raphs of typical failures II
rail failures, six months ending April 30,
1909 10
Split wd>:
classification of, American Railway En-
gineering Association 10
photographs of typical failures 11
rail failures, six months ending April 30,
10
Spokane and Inland Railroad, electric
locomotives
Springs, locomotive driving:
Goes and Howard's
dimensions of
effect of inertia of track oi
>, Google
Springa, locomotive driving;
effect of suddenly applied load
rocking of engine on
weiglit borne by, in electric locomotives ...
physical properties of 164, 166, h
ties, amount purchased in the United
States 11
cost of V.
Spruce pine, physical properties of 1<
Spuyten Ihiyvil Rolling Mill Company,
early steel rails
St. Etienne Works, Uannet process at 4.
St. John, I. M., report on eteel rails
St. Louis and San Franciaco Raih«ad :
articulated compound engine '.
plantatbns of tie timber 1
size and spacing of ties II
ten-wheel type engine ;
St. Louis, Brovrnsville and Mexico Railway,
size and spacing of ties i:
St. Louis Southwestern Railway, sise and
spacing of ties 1!
Stamping rails 4
Standard drop testing machine 2!
Stanton and Bairstow, experiments on re-
peated stress Z
Staasano electric furnace 3
State Railways of France (see al»o Road in
question).
concrete ties on li
State Railways of Germany (see alto Road
in question).
concrete ties on 1'
rail faateningB on 1'
rails and tie plates on i:
Static axle loads (see Axle loads).
Stead, granular structure of metals 2'
Steam:
effect of, on ties 158, H
engines (see Locomotives),
loss in reversing, engines for' rolling
mills 4i
shovels, used in mining iron ore. , . . 3i
use for compression of ingot 4
Steaming, effect of, on strength of wood 158, 1<
Steel:
Bessemer (see Bessemer).
changes which take place during
cooling 4:
compression strength (see Compression).
cooling curve of 4;
ductility of (see Ductihty).
effect of chemical composition on physi-
cal properties (see Element in ques-
Steel:
effect of mechanical work on strength
at 424,427
repeated stress on strength
of 276
size of grain on strength of 424
temperature on strength of 284
electric (see Electric).
eutectoid 427
granular structure of (see Grain).
heating curve 426
hyper eutectoid 427
hypo eutectoid 427
manufacture of (see Manufacture).
open hearth (see Open hearth),
rails (see Rail),
special (see Special steels),
strength of (see Strength).
tensile strength (see Tension).
ties (see alio Tie in question) 90
Steel Manufacturers of America (see Asso-
ciation of Am^can St«et Manufac-
turers).
Stetson, E. £.:
flat apota in wheels 56
horizontal pressure on the rail 257
Stevens, Robert L., inventor of T-rail 6
Stock car 83
Stone:
baUaat (see Ballast).
used in blast furnace 363, 364
weight of 316
Stoughton, B., piping and segregation 411
Stoves for blast furnace 359
Straightening press 446
raUs 446
Strain, influence of, on strength of rail
steel 270
Street railway:
cars used on 87, 88
rails, corrugations in 209
sections of 19
specifications for 491
use of manganese in 339
roaring roils 209
ties purchased by 154
welded joints on 267
Stremmatograph tests 71, 212, 236
Strength:
of electric steel 386
rail, as shown by drop test 293
calculation of 239
testsof 288
Bt«el compression (see also Compression).
effect of coW on 284
influence of stress and strain on 270
>, Google
strength:
Bteel inrail 306
in rail head 193, 205
special (see St«el in queetioa).
tension (see Tension),
ties (see Ties).
track 317
wood 158, 164, 166, 168
Stresses:
bending in rail (see Bending moment).
calculation of rail 239
effect of low temperature on tail 282,288
repeated, Ening and Humfrey's
experimealB 274
Ewing and Roeenhain's
experimente 273
Howard's experiments 278
Mg's eiperi-
277
Watertown Araenal
W5hler'B
extreme fiber (lee Extreme fiber stress).
in German rails '.
influence of, on strength of rail steel ',
lines of principal :
proposed solutions (rf rail '.
at point of contact with wheel
calculation of, by Love !
effect of cold on ;
friction of joint on ;
inertia of track on
position of wheel load on !
influence of kind of ballast on '.
produced by rolling ■
shearing (see Shear).
str^nmatograph, determined by 212, '.
tests to determine rail, by Dudley. . . , 212, '.
by U, S. Govem-
stremmatt^rapb 212, :
tie 171,
on German railways ;
U. S. Govermnent tests on rail
web, discussion of, by Hiroi
working rail
wood, compression under rail ....
in cross bending 168,
Stripping ingots
required at iron ore mines '■
Stubba, F., influence of copper on steel. ... ;
StyflFe;
drop testing machine ;
experiments on effect of cold on rails. ...
Subgrade:
bearing power of 187, 317
depression of, U. S. Govonment experi-
ments on 224
distribution of load to 180, 135
effect of heavy traffic on supprnting powo'
of 318
on rail breakages 313
long ties used on weak 188
supporting power required for differokt
ckssea of track 317
Suddenly applied load (tee Dynamic).
Sugar gum, plantations of, for tie timbo'. . 112
Sulphur:
content in different iron ores 363, 364
rails of Bessemer steel. 11, 263, 310
open hearth steel 310
effect of, in ateel 330, 390
removal of, from iron ore by roasting 344
segr^ation of 407
specifications for, in rails (see aleo Specifi-
cations) 328, 467
Support of the rail 90
Supporting power of ballast ISO
of soils 313
of the suli^rade 180, 313
of the subgrade required
for different classes of
track 317
of the track. ... 188, 191, 317
Swedish Government Railroads, reinforced
joint 264
Swedish iron:
effect of repeated stress on 274
structure of 270
Sweet gimi, physical properties of 164
T-rail (see alto RaU):
exwnplee of American 6, 10, 14, 18, 460
English 19
European 18, 19
for street railways 19
high, examples of 19
specifications for 491
inventor of 6
Talbot, A. N., experiments on distribution of
pressure through gravel 187
Talbot, Benjamin:
advantages of open hearth furnace 382
comparison of Bessemer and open hearth
procemes 380
continuous process of making steel 375
English practice of rollii^ rajls 434
segregation, effect of aluminum on 405
Tamarack:
physical properties of 166, 168
>, Google
Tam&nick:
ties, amount purchased in the United
States 154, 156
cost of 154, 156
Ttunping, effect of, on elastic curve of tic., . 177
TangeDt, compariaon of rail failures on, with
curve 10
Technical Conventions of the Union (Ger-
man), design of rails 19
Tee rail (see T-reil).
Teeming (see Casting).
Temperature;
critical, in rolling 426
effect of, ui casting 410, 413
rolling 427, 430, 434
on conversion of steel 366
strength of rails 2S4
finishing (see Finishing).
means for measuring, in rails 434
Ten-wheel type engine:
allowable axle loads 322
classification of 29
coupled, classification of 29
dimensions of 33, 72
effect of excess balance and angularity of
main rod 36, 42, 70
speeds of 24,25,26,70
strength of track required for 322
typical dynamic wheel loads 73
wear (rf tires 198
weight of rail required for 322
we«hls of 33, 72
Tenacity (*ee Tension).
Tender;
effect of, on pressure of drivers 71
weights of 32, 33, 34
Temiessee Central Railroad Company, site
and spacing of ties 121
Tennessee Coal, Iron and Raikoad Com-
pany;
rail miU 438, 444
shrinkage allowed at 444
teeming practice 390
stress in rails on American ratlwa3^ (see
Stresses).
German railways 218
in ties on German railwa3^ 218
test pieces, standard, American Bailway
Engineering Asso-
ciation 512
Engineering Stand-
ards Committee . 487
Tenuon strength of iron-carbon alloys .... 329
Tension strength of special steels {ue Steel in
Tension strength of steel 306
effect of size of grain on 424
infiuence of chemical composition on (aee
Element in question).
Texan oak, physical properties of 164
Thermal cracks in head of rail 205
Thermoelectric measurements of stress 311
Thiollier helical lining 148, 150
Three-high mill 437
Thurston, R. H.:
arrangement of Bessemer plant 369
location of blast furnace. 345
strength of materials 311
Tie pkt«s:
allowable load under 170, 171
American . . . '. 122
European 125
experiments in Germany 133
felt, on L. & N. W. R 19
function of 122, 133
testa at Purdue University 169
by American Railway Engineering .
Association 169
onMcKee 122
wooden 132
Tiemann, H. D., testing by impact 203
Ties;
allowable load on, as determined by bear-
ing on aubgrade 188
allowable load on, as determined by bear-
ing strength under rail 171
allowable load on, as determined by ex-
treme fiber stress in bending 179
allowable load on, as determined by safe
bearing on ballast IgQ
amount uaed annually in the United
States 154, 156
annual charge of 115
bearing of rail on 122, 171
effect of dynamic load on 189
bending moment in 171, 177, 179
effect of dynamic load on 180
composite, used in Cuenot'a experiments.. 173
composition (see aho Tie in question) 96
concrete (see aito Tie in question) 97
service teste on 104
coat of 154, 156
Cuenot'a experiments on 172
depreaaion of, in ballast 172, 176, 189
on German raih^ads 218
U.S. Government experiments. 219,222,233
distribution of load in 118
effect of dynamic bad on 189
elastic curve of 172, 176, 177
granite 90
half-round 116
,y Google
■nea:
holdiog force of Bpikea in 138
kind of wood required for different classes
of track 1S8,317
kiods of wood used for lo4, 156
lite of, in track 115
metal {tee aim Tie in question) 90
permissible load under tie plate 171
pole 119
preservation of (see Treated ties).
reaction of, in track 191
size and spacing of, for different classes of
track 317
size of, on American railways 121
Gennan railways 218
L.&N. W. R 19
spacing of, on Am^ican railways 121
German milways 218
L. & N, W. R. 19
steel {gee aUo Tie in question) 90
Btrength of 163
wood 158, 170
stresses in (aee Stresses).
supply of 106
supporting power of 188, 191
treated (see Treated ties).
twelve foot, on muskeg swamp 188
U. S. Government experiments on depres-
sion of, in ballsflt 190
wood, future supply of 106
wooden plug for 149
Tilting open hearth furnace 375
Timber:
supply of, for ties 106
in the United States 108
wasteful cutting of, for ties 116
Tirefond {see also Spikes, screw) 142
Tires:
cylindrical and conical, comparison of ... . 6
defective (see Defective equipment).
M. C. B. standani 7
wearof 196
Titanium:
influence of, on segregation 405
ferro, analysis of 405
effect of, in casting at«el 341, 405
Titanium steel:
analysis of 340, 406
behavior of, at low temperatures 286
branding 447
cost of 341
ductility of 288
hardness of, as determined by the sclero-
acopc 300
rails, production of 341
strength of 287, 340
Toledo Terminal Railway, concrete ties on . . 104
Torrey continuous rail 26S
Track:
automatic inspector machine 45
bolt (see Bolt).
classification of 317
depression of, U. S. Government expoi-
mente on 219, 222, 233
effect of dynamic load on 189, 190
inertia of, on rail stresses 31$
irregularities in, on wheel pres-
sure 43
speed on 29, 189, 190
experiments by U. S. Government 21S
loading for different classes of 322
principles governing design of 313
streromatograph experiments 236
strength of 310
U. S. Government experiments 21H
Trackman's surface, depression of rail betow 190
Tractive force, effect of, on pressure of
drivers 71
Trailing truck (see Truck).
Train:
effect of, on pressure of drivers 71
speeds of 21,23
weights of 21,23
Tram rails, examples of 19
Tramway rails, British standard 19
Transition points in cooling steel 426
Transportation:
cost of ore .^45, 3*9
docks used in ore 351, 357
effect of, on locationof blast furnace plant. 315
of iron ore on Great Lakes 319
vessels used in ore 349
Transverse fissures in head of rail 203
Trap rock, tests on baUast of ISl
Tread (see Tires).
Treated ties:
amount treated in the United States 157
cost of ■. 115
strength of 158
U. S. Forest Service, tests on 158
Tree plantations 109
Trenail:
Collet 148, 150
used on English railways 146, 147
Truck:
allowable weights on 320
leading, on freight and pamenger en-
gines. 32, 33, 34
trailing, on passenger engines 32, 33
weight of car 82, S9
on electric engine 79, >*
steam engine . 32, 33, 34, 72
>, Google
orks (AtiEtria), haMneea
tirsenic on ateel
or, impact teats on
urements of atreee. 384,311
ilaasificatioa of 29
^ted Btreas on (see
158, 164, 166, 168
Ttd value. 154,156
108
duct in the
108
^tes 156
nent, hard-
303
(see Plant
94
r of safety 312
116
Vandalia Rajlroad:
apced of trains 25
Vaughan, H. H., flat spots on car wheels. . . 55
Vebcity of load, effect of 69
Vessels for transporting ore 349
Vipiolo rail 18
Voiron St. Beron Railway (of France), con-
crete tie 105
Von Maltitz, E.:
biowholea 389, 391, 404
effect of recarbonizing 391
Von Schrenk, H.:
cross-tie forms 116
use of wooden tie plate 132, 133
Wabaah Railroad:
Atlantic type engine 32
speed of trains 25
Walker, W. R., agitation of steel in castmg . . 390
Walnut, plantations of, for tie timber Ill
Wanner pyrometer 434
Washington, Baltimore, Ann^mlis Railway,
car used on 87
Wat^:
contained in iron ore 360, 363
cooling curve of 425
eSeet of, on gravel ballast 187
strength of wood 168
eubgrade 314
removal of, by dry blast of Gayley 360
from iron ore by roasting 344
used in ballast teste, Pennsylvania
Raiboad 184
Water hickory, physical properties of 164
Waleriiouae, G. B.:
examination of strength of rail steeL 309
titanium steel 340, 406
Water oak, physical properties of 164
Watertown Arsenal:
examination of steel at different stages
of rolling 420
experiments on repeated stress 278
tests on joints 260, 264
steel at different temperatures. . . 286
Wear of rails:
Dudley's investigation of 326
form for reporting 517
iron 1,2
Kirkaldy on 205
machine tor testing 304
of similar chemical composition 327
Wear of Ures 196
Web rail:
principles governing design of 16
strength of 247, 252
Bted from 307
\:)Og[e
WebreJI:
stresses (see StPessee).
Weber, depression of tie in ballaat 189
Weber joint 264
Wedding, experiments on nickel steel 334
Weight:
ballast 316
cars 85,89
bcomotivea, electric 74, 79, 80
increase in 15, 30
modem Bt«am 29
of TailfordifFerentconditionBof loading 310,322
specifications for (*m at»o Specification
in question) 476
wood 168, 163
Welded joints 267
Wellington, A. M., on soft raib 328
Wellman tilting fumace 377
Welsh, Ashbel:
rail section 5
report on ateel rails 5
West Coast Railway of England, speed of
trains 25, 28
West Jersey and Seashore Railway;
experiments on horiztrntal component of
wheel pressure 259
speed of trains 24, 28
West, T. D., manufacture of car wheels 57
Western hemlock, physical properties of 166, 168
Western larch, physical properties of 166
Western Railway Club, flat spots on car
wheels 60
Western Railway of France:
screw spikes on 143, 144
Westinghouse, George, on electric loco-
motives 74
Wheel:
detective (see Defective equipment),
dynamic load (rf (see Dynamic),
effect of position of, on stresses in rail. . , . 230
flat spot in 64
horizontal pressure of, on curves 269
impact of 62
load (seeoiM Axle loads): dynamic augment
of 69
effect of spacing
of wheels on . . 247
able on rail... 319
main, increase in pressure due to angu-
larity of main rod 35
manufacture 57
path of, on irregular track 47
pressure of, on rail (see aUo Pressure) .... 21
spacing given in modem bridge specifi-
cations 211
Wheel.
spacing of cars 85, 89
locomotives 32, 33, 34, 72
stresses at point of contact with rail 193
tests on chilled cor 57
tire wear 196
tread (see Tii«»}.
Wheel base:
cara 86,89
electric locomotives 79, 80
steam locomotives 32, 33, 34
Wheeling and I^e Erie Railroad, sise and
spacing of ties 121
White ash, physical properties of 164
cedar, physical properties of 164
. elm, physical properties of 164
oak (see also Oak) ;
force required to pull spike from . . 139
physical properties of 164, 168
tie, annual charge of 115
pine, physical properties of 164, 168
sprace, physical properties of 166
Whitwell stove 359
Whit worth's process for comprcssbn of
ingot 411,415
Whyte's classification of locomotives 29
Wickhoret, M. H.:
blast fumace practice 363
(ximments on Howard's rolling tests 420
description of process of making Bessemer
steel 374
description of process of malring open
tearth steel 378
energy dissipated in drop test 293
flow of rail head under wheel loads 205
grain in head of roil 432
strength of rail head and web 253
steel 304
Wille, increase in axle loads 15
Williams' process for compression of ingot 410, 415
Williams, R. Price, iron rails 1,2
Willow oak, physical properties of 164
Winckler:
depression of tie in ballast 189
elastic curve of tie 172
Wingham, influence of copper on steel 331
Wjnslow and Griswold, Bessemer Steel
Works at Troy 4
Wire testa of Professor Goss 63
Wohler's experiments on repeated stress, . . . 277
Wolhaupter:
joint . 264
tie plate 122
Wood:
ferrule for spike 19
future supply of 106
>, Google
Wood: WQrttemberg State Railway (see Kingdom
key for double-headed rail 16 of WQrttemberg State Railways).
preservation of («ee Treated ties). Wyandotte Rolling Mill, early steel rails ... 3
specific gravity of 163
strength ot 158, 164, 166, 168 Yellow locuat, plantations of, for tie timber. . Ill
effect ot moiirture on 168 oak, physical properties of. 164
steaming on 158 Yield point (see Elastic limit).
treatment on 158 Yielding:
test of, by American Railway Eln^eer- coefficient of, in ballast on German rail-
ing Association 169 ways 218
tie (see Ties). of tie in ballast, amount ot 172, 176, 189
plates 132 effect ot, on stress in rail 243
unit Btreasea recommended by American
Railway Engineering Association . . . . 168 Zunmerman, H.:
used for ties, kinds of 154, 156 depression of tie In ballast 189
weight of 158, 163 effect ot dynamic loading 69
Working load, relation of, to ultimate elastic curve of tie 172
strength 311 stresses in the rail 217
pressure, steam locomotives. Zinc chloride treatment (see Treated ties).
37, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44 Zorts iron 173
,y Google
>, Google
D.Van Nostrand Company
are prq>ared to supply, either frbm
their complete stock or at
short notice,
Any Technical or
Scientific Book
In addition to publishing a very large
and varied number of Scientific and
Engineering Books, D. Van Nostrand
Company have on hand the largest
assortment in the United States of such
books issued by American and foreign
publishers.
All inquiries are cheerfully and care-
fully answered and complete catalogs
sent free on request
8 Warben Street
■vGooglc
>, Google
>, Google
^