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FRONTISPIECE.
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr.
A TYPICAL MOUNTAIN STOCK RANGE.
From BRIDGER PEAK, LOOKING EAST.
BULLETIN NO. 26.
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
DIVISION OF BOTANY.
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8 OTANIC
THE STOCK-POISOMNG: PLANTS OF MONTANA:
A PRELIMINARY REPORT
BY
V. K. CHESNUT AND E. V. WILCOX.
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
LOOX.
Te —
To the Senate and House of Representatives:
I transmit herewith for the information of the Congress a commu-
nication from the Secretary of Agriculture recommending the print-
ing of the accompanying report on The Stock-Poisoning Plants of
Montana.
Wiuu1am McKintey.
EXECUTIVE MANSION,
February 12, 1901.
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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY,
Washington, D. C., February 9, 1901.
Mr. Prestpent: I have the honor to transmit a preliminary report
on the poisonous plants of the stock ranges of Montana. This report
is the result of an investigation undertaken by the Department of
Agriculture at the request of the State board of sheep commissioners.
It has an important bearing on the stock interests of Montana and
adjacent States, containing as it does not only a detailed account of the
investigations and experiments, but concise summaries of symptoms,
treatment, and remedies, which bring the results of the discoveries to
the point of practical application by stock owners. A report of this
character, which makes possible the saving of heavy annual losses to a
great industry, should be widely distributed among the people who
can profit by it. Under existing statute only a thousand copies could
be printed by this Department, and I have the honor to recommend,
therefore, that the report be transmitted to Congress, and that atten-
tion be called to the desirability of printing an edition sufficient to
permit at least five thousand copies to be distributed by the Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
I have the honor to remain, Mr. President.
Very respectfully,
James WILSON,
Secretary.
-
oO
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL.
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ©
Division OF Borany,
Washington, D. C., February 9, 1901.
Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith for your consideration
a manuscript entitled ‘‘ The Stock-Poisoning Plants of Montana: A
Preliminary Report,” by Mr. V. K. Chesnut, assistant in charge of
investigations of poisonous plants,and Dr. E. V. Wilcox, assistant in
the Office of Experiment Stations.
The State veterinarian of Montana, Dr. M. E. Knowles, in his
annual report to the State board of sheep commissioners for the year
1899, made the following statement:
Poisonous plants every year in this State are responsible for much loss in sheep,
and it is to be hoped that your honorable body will use your influence with the
Department of Agriculture to have the localities in our State, where these plants
exist, mapped out, and, if possible, a description of all the known poisonous plants
published in such language that the layman may understand, and it would-be well,
even, to have cuts made of each plant.
Hon. T. C. Power, president of the board, laid the matter before
you, citing the large losses of live stock in Montana, both cattle and
horses as well as sheep, which were supposed to-be due to poisonous
plants, and secured your approval of the investigation. The coopera-
tion of the Montana agricultural experiment station was secured, and
Mr. Chesnut and Dr. Wilcox, the latter temporarily transferred to the
Division of Botany through the courtesy of Dr. A. C. True, Director
of the Office of Experiment Stations, were detailed to field work on
the lst of May, with suitable instructions. The accompanying manu-
script is the report of their investigations in the season of 1900.
Respectfully,
FREDERICK V. CovILLr,
Botanist.
Hon. JAMES WILSON,
Secretary of Agriculture.
CONTENTS.
PPA NMLEIBCHOR | 22) itu. po lieebey De, Ser se. eee ees. 2s.
Beh wuausiry of Montana se 1... JI SOE Et wk 5.5...
Occasion and aids of the present investigation ..........----------------
Ninmemnty 827i Heke hs Ale pete Sep imeesey te satis 4 Y_. . 8.
Rencral saree compitonls. Sse., serene 9 Aeesut Fee letbeueed... --
Summenand winter ranges for sheep: .--=:-.2-- -2==25:4UU922U% -- 5:
Effect of alkali on stock. -.---.-- Rae SUMS T DY. Boliby ie Sows teed oftrog AS.
Herding and other details of the management of phbepattscotl. 2...
, Water supply on the ranges -.....----..---------.-------#--=------
PMIITIGeTOR Mes Aan Aes yee -— te S855) ol ot coe a. SE es
Climatic character of the season of 1900......-.-...----------------
Conditions under which poisoning occurs -.....-...--------------------
mumence of heavy tain storms 2202... ---- 4-2-2 Me...
Influence of snow storms.....--.-.---- ei stsrd.) Iya ee) de,
Danger arising from driving or trailing sheep.-.-.....-...----------
IgE MIG T MIMRCT 2) 95 2 5 5 sn BU Bia on). 6 Be WEEE 2
Meeimas7aimon of stock.to the-range. >... -.-.--..- i202 s.es--2--
fanucneeior the sate of verectation: 2.2. 29224 .o4- 16 sade en -. -
Influence of the stage of growth of plants -......--.--.---------.---
Variation and localization of the poisonous substances in plants... -.------
Variations in the feeding habits of stock with reference to poisonous plants.
Been Ge CICK SOISOUINLS 1 ok Mees oe ee eee wed ae eu
Experiments on rabbits... _.__- Ost Haase Thy pain BAT! tgitrery it ts.
Methods of prevention and remedies... .....2.---..--------+-----+----- ge
Displacing poisonous plants by forage plants -...-..-..--.----------
Herding stock away from dangerous areas ..-..-.------------------
Eradication of poisonous plants by digging...........-.------------
Dhrections for using permanganate: ..-2 .-.2522222- 2202-22-21. 2250-1
enor drenching. > 3s wolall J 2b4 sri feioswd Sole wilt
mpNONaE EO BE 28) ntl de RS Soe reece) Jue, Ue
Pfants poisonous to stock in Montana, or so reputed... 02. 22240.252022--2-:
Most important poisonous species { -2ui. vos. gworyes eye se ee. eos.
Death camas (Zygadenus venenosus S. Wats.).......-----------------
Description, habitat, and distribution.................-.1.-----
History. a8.2 poisonous plant - 22.2! s2c22 syscall. parched
Experiments 7.524252 es tae) le le ise Neh
Symptoms and evidences of poisoning -................--------
Remedial and preventive measures ...............--.----------
BEATER EAN Yi hi ala os ra a em Ex, ee 182 8
Tall larkspur (Delphiniwm glaucum 8. Wats.) ........-..------------
Description, habitat, and distribution...........-..22222 2-22...
History. 48-2 poisonous plant. ...itieil. 04s A elaw eeace
10 CONTENTS.
Plants poisonous to stock in Montana, or so reputed—Continued.
Most important poisonous species—Continued.
Tall larkspur (Delphinium glaucum 8. Wats. )—Continued.
Experiments... 2... 2 oar ae a cee SS ee
Symptoms... :22.. + 2.25 ipe@epepi sea eee oh ee
Remedial and ‘preventive Ineasures < 22. ahaa ae eee ose
SUMMAPY: 2s. 22. Stet Se ee
Purple larkspur (Delphinium bicolor Nutt. )
Description, habitat, and. distribution... .-........-_ See eee
History as a poisonous plant _..._......:. 2.02.0. Ye ee
Experimenta. ........ dJegieii. esesnien io Se
Symptoms. of poisoning... ou. - sco 3 Sek nec 2
Remedial and preventive measures ---....--------------+------
SumMMaALry, ...-2 1-2-2365 35-3 at Se ee
Wyoming water hemlock ( Cicutu occidentalis Greene) ...------------
Description, habitat, and distribution..................-.------
* Histery as a poisonous plant.......2.2c0u.lil.e.-sLdaus eee
Expenmenta <2 <-..-34caus- eS is blatre paee tee2 tr fel ga
Symptoms,of poisoning {ft Yo..cedw Saabs totseskss A eee
Remedial and preventive measures --....---.------------------
SumMary 2.22.5. 5565s se SA a a ee Ce
White loco weed (Aragallus spicatus. (Hook.) Rydberg) .........-- of)
Description, habitat, and distribution.......-...---..-.---!----
History as.a. poisonous plant.....--.-2-...- «2: Saas eee
Experiments ......4-+--+-5-sesth St ie. se Ce
Symptoms of poisoning... i. 2.s0bse¢2s io spies.) oa
Remedial and preventive measures ........-..-----------------
Summiaryals db yess stale is ekices 2208 lh ee
Other loco:weeds (Aragallusispp.) J..22 so-. 2 sd)-ee sea. 2 ee
Lupines (Lupinus spp:)..~-.+----.-=+s0.5--... jee ;
Description, habitat, and distribution..... ......-------.------
History as poisonous plants - 5s. U.ss08 .2i6 Sse
Experiment... -- ....- hicks faeoie) wae ee ee eee
Symptoms of pOisoninge 24 at ashes aes. cee Se
Remedial and preventive measures ....------------------------
Samimary”..2-52.0 2 sate Fee hie ise io seems
Poisonous species of less importance? ge2sc 12 ee eessag2 kt ese
Exot ( Clavieeps:purpurea ( Fr.) Tuls):cs222sseseeee- tt Seo eee
Cow cockle ( Vaccaria vaccaria (L.) Britton.) ..-...------.-----.----
Swamp camas (Zygadenus elegans Pursh)...-...-------------+--2-5-
Showy milkweed (Asclepias speciosa WPorr: jexodonl roche
California swamp hellebore ( Veratrum californicum Distad) 2. See
Aconite (Aconitum columbianum Nutt.) ...--.-----------------+----
Psoralea (Psoralea tenuiflora Pursh) ....-------------- eeitce
Tall coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata L.).....-----------------------
Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger L.) ....-tisas: sce nkoc ck Lee eee
Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum L.) ..----------------+---------
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L:)....-4 2-6 sste.is 2.2022 eeseeee= ===
Spreading nightshade (Solanum triflorum Nutt.) ....----------------
Plants suspected of being poisonous. ....-.---------------------+-------
Prairie fennels (Lomatium and Musineon spp.) ----------------------
False lupine (Thermopsis spp.) ..---.-------+---+------------------
Synthyris (Synthyris rubra Benth.) ....-.---------+--+----0++--+---
Page.
67
71
72
73
73
73
74
76
79
80
80
80
80
81
82
84
85
86
86
86
87
90
93
97
99
99
100
100
CONTENTS. i iS
Plants poisonous to stock in Montana, or so reputed—Continued. Page.
Plants suspected of being poisonous—Continued.
Western wild cherry (Prunus demissa (Nutt.).Walp.) ..-.----.------ 131
oreperry.(Aciaca cburnea Rydberg) 2 ea. - = = ot 2-53. - 131
Oatamut ( Ustilago avenae (Pers.) Jensen). .---.2------:--------+--- 133
Bremer (eaiphor bia spp.) - .Lessetetaeiee Spee et eae nase 133
rela horetail (Equiselum arvense 1.) . 222-222. Zea see ese =H << 134
Sneezeweed (Helenium montanum Nutt.) -..--.--------------------- 135
Mreenn- yew (Tasustrevifolia Nutt. )o220 922 2ee = ky nee = 2 one 135
Bemretorn | Firms aquaee Le) 0 oa ee eee taste acne sces 135
Arnica (Aries sonecephinr (lL ya en] ho 2 noe. IG soe 135
Anemone ( Pulsatilla hirsutissima (Pursh) Britton) .......----------- 136
Red windflower (Anemone globosa Nutt.) ....--.-------------------- 136
Dom tmars (amen ee ce nk 8 oo nate Deed ee eo a 137
Showy nase erusera speciosa Dol.) -- -- 2... 222225522 2 eee 137
Snowberry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis Hook.) .....---------------- 138
Sie aCane CO ECE HIMES Aka) DoS Sole Hc cet oes Se 138
iaveodesmia ( Tygodesmia-jincea Don). ---...---2-----22--2,-------- 139
Black greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus (Hook.) Torr.) ..-.------- 139
Eriogonum (Eriogonum spp.) ..--------------- Ape Abie i ont aie 139
Scarlet Gaura (Gaura coccinea Pursh)-.--..-----.------------------ 140
Townsendia ( Townsendia parryi D. C. Eaton) .-...-...------------- 140
Edible plants which have been suspected of being poisonous --...------- 141
eMMNREIAENT WAALILIEIL HOT [nn om eo Le Eee Eee es 141
Widecoriee ( Glycyrrhiza lepidoid Pursh) ~-. .-.. 22222-22120 2-2 142
Wild hyacinth ( Leucocrinum montanum Nutt.)...---.----- “fire bacon eh 143
Cow parsnip (Heracleum lanatum Michx.)........--.----.---------- 143
False mallow (Malvastrum coccineum A. Gray).-..-.----------------- 144
eum ETSI (SELDEN ENDED. Foes te See eee aa et Lee 145
Small-leaved cudweed (Antennuria parvifolia Nutt.).....------------ 145
Wild caraway (Carum gairdneri (Hook. & Arn.) A. Gray) ...--.---- 145
Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundindcea L.)..--.-.---.:------------ 146
Wild sunflower (Balsamorhiza sagittata Nutt.) -......--------------- 146
Wild geranium (Geranium viscosissimum Fisch. & Mey.)-.------------ 147
Low milk vetch ( Orophaca caespitosa (Nutt.) Britton) .-----.-------- 148
False esparcet (Astragalus bisulcatus (Hook.) A. Gray) -.....-------- 148
White milk vetch (Astragalus drummondii Dougl.)---..-.------------ 149
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ILLUSTRATIONS.
PLATES.
Page.
A typical mountain stock range. From Bridger Peak, looking east... Frontispiece.
PLATE I. Death camas (Zygadenus venenosus) ......------------------ 51
II. Tall larkspur (Delphintum glaucum): =.---.-.<-----.-.------ 67
III. Wild geranium (Geranium viscosissimum) ....-------------- 66
IV. Purple larkspur (Delphinium bicolor) ..........------------- = he
V. Purple larkspur (Delphinium bicolor), young plants -.-.--- -- 79
VI. Red false mallow (Malvastrum coccineum)...--- ------------ 78
VII. Wyoming water hemlock (Cicuta occidentalis) ......-------- 81
VIII. Wyoming water hemlock ( Cicuta occidentalis), young plant - - 80
IX. White loco weed (Aragallus spicatus), in flower-.------.----- 87
X. White loco weed (Aragallus spicatus), in fruit -..-.--.-.----- 86
XI. Silvery loco weed (Aragallus splendens) ...-..-------------- 100
XII. Purple loco weed (Aragallus besseyi) ......-...------------- 101
XIII. Purple loco weed (Aragallus lagopus) .......--------------- 100
RV? Lupine: (Tupinuis ledeophylius): 02 2520s. 2802 ee = 2 101
Pee nanataaet( -Lonpiiid serieeels)) 2.222 se aes Shae 22h. bet 100
XVI. Ergot ( Claviceps purpurea) , in heads of wild rye grass .----.-- 111
eee Ow Cockle |. VACATE VACCOTIG) "2 = 2252 2 ons -- oases ce ae en's 113
XVIII. Swamp camas (Zygadenus elegans) .......--.--------------- 117
XIX. Showy milkweed (Asclepias speciosa) .......:-...---------.- 118
XX. Black henbane: (Hyoscyamus niger). 22 2222 22-2262. 124
XXI. Prairie fennel (Lomatiwm montanum)...............---.---- 127
XXII. Prairie fennel (Lomatium platycarpum)......-- ee ee 126
MOLL... Prame. fennel (Musincon hookert). = 2 o< sa = 2acen2seancece o- 127
XXIV. Plains Cymopterus ( Cymopterus acaulis) ..........---.------ 126
XXYV. Mountain false lupine ( Thermopsis montana) .........------- 127
ev byathyris (Synthyris rulra) . 2225225552050. J SS 129
XXVII. Western wild cherry (Prunus demissa) .........-.-.--.----- 131
meee baneperrcy:. Achaea eburned) > 2 o— 2 ccm = wiete sian no i 132
eek ATC CATIIEE MONOCEDROAL) . 22 aan ase asec ocak lesa eye 136
XXX. Yellow Eriogonum (Eriogonum flavum) ..........---------- 140
mae eeariet Gaura (Gaura coccinea) =... 2k. See LS 140
XXXII. Pink-flowered wild onion (Allium brevistylum) ...........--- 141
XXXII. Wild hyacinth (Leucocrinum montanum) ........--.-------- 143
XXXIV. Wild sunflower (Balsamorhiza sagittata) ..........-...------ 146
XXXV. Low milk vetch (Orophaca caespitosa)..........--.--------- 148
XXXVI. False esparcet (Astragalus bisulcatus) ........-..-..----.---- 148
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STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION.
STOCK INDUSTRY OF MONTANA.
Montana is a typical grazing State. Long before it was so closely
connected by its two great railway systems, the Northern Pacific and
Great Northern, with the more settled regions to the’east and west,
its wide open ranges were a favorite ground for hunting herbivor-
ous animals. Immense herds of elk, deer, and buffalo then roved over
its grassy plains and mountain sides. These animals have gradually
been almost wholly exterminated from the State, and now in their
place there are hundreds of thousands of horses, cattle, and sheep,
which are being bred or fattened by their owners for profit, advan-
tage being taken of the permitted free use of the large areas of public
domain which the State still contains.
The enormous growth of the stock industry of the State may be
illustrated from the comparative statistics for sheep, the data for
which have, perhaps, been most accurately secured in the different
States. According to the census of 1880, the States which held the
largest number of sheep were in their order, Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, and
Missouri. The sheep were for the most part kept on farms. The
aggregate number on farms was about 35,000,000, the number rang-
ing on the public domain was approximately 7,000,000, and those
otherwise held numbered 3,000,000, making a total of over 45,000,000.
On July 1, 1900, the total aggregate number of sheep in the United
States was reported by the Division of Statistics of the Department of
Agriculture to be nearly 42,000,000. The States which then contained
the largest holdings were in the order of their numbers, New Mexico
and Montana, each with nearly 4,000,000; Wyoming and Ohio, each
with nearly 3,000,000; and, with holdings of over 2,000,000 each,
Idaho, Oregon, Texas, Utah, Colorado, and California. New Mexico,
although the leading State in the number of sheep possessed, ranked
only fourth with respect to money value. Montana, the second State,
with regard to numbers, ranked first as to value, the total holdings
amounting to a little over $11,000,000. The holdings in Ohio aggre-
gated about $10,500,000, and New Mexico about $8,500,000. Oregon,
15
16 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
Idaho, Utah, Colorado, and California, each held over $5,000,000
worth of sheep. The total value of these sheep throughout the
United States on January 1, 1900, was estimated to be $122,665,913,
At as recent a date as 1870 there were, according to the third annual
report of the board of sheep commissioners of Montana, for 1899, but
4,212 sheep in the State. In 1880 there were 249,978. In 1890 the
number had increased to 1,555,116, and now it is about 4,000,000.
OCCASION AND AIDS OF THE PRESENT INVESTIGATION. 5
Notwithstanding the great advantages of which the stock-raising
industry of the State can boast, it has to contend with a few drawbacks.
Two of these come within the domain of botany and agriculture.
They are, first, the existence on the feeding grounds of great quanti-
ties of certain poisonous plants which, as the table given on page 34
will show, are sometimes eaten extensively with fatal effect; and,
second, the difficulty of producing sufficient hay to keep the animals
in good condition over winter. The latter difficulty has recently been
considered by Prof. Robert S. Shaw in Bulletin 21 of the Montana
experiment station. The former ‘has already been considered to a
certain extent by one of us, Dr. E. V. Wilcox, in Bulletins 15 and 22
of the same station.
Much attention has also been and is still being given to the subject;
especially from the chemical standpoint, by Dr. F. W. Traphagen,
chemist of the Montana station, and by his assistants; and from the
veterinary standpoint by Dr. M. E. Knowles, of Helena, the State
yeterinarian, and his associates.
This report gives the results of a short preliminary investigation
which was inaugurated at the urgent solicitation of the State board of
sheep commissioners of Montana and warmly seconded by the State
experiment station as well as by individual stockmen throughout the
State. It is a pleasure for us to refer with thankful appreciation to
the hearty cooperation which was given us by the various members of
the station staff, including especially Director S. M. Emery, Prof.
F. W. Traphagen, Prof. J. W. Blankinship, Prof. Robert 5. Shaw, and
Prof. W. M. Cobleigh. To the last we are indebted for all but two or
three of the photographs reproduced in this report. Professor Trap-
hagen and Professor Blankinship not only gave us the free use of their
libraries and laboratories, but also furnished us with material and their
personal assistance as well as many valuable suggestions. To Dr. P. A.
Rydberg, of the New York Botanical.Garden, we are indebted for the
iinal identification of the plants noted in the report.
It is especially pleasing to refer to the generous assistance which was
received from the stockmen. Hon. T. C. Power took every occasion
to notify them of our presence in the State and to request reports from
them concerning any case of possible poisoning. Many letters of
ITINERARY OF INVESTIGATION. 17
introduction were furnished by this gentleman, and also by Dr. M. E.
Knowles, which rendered possible a rapid and satisfactory survey of
the conditions in different parts of the State. It would have been
impossible to see in the time at our disposal so much of the range
country of Montana without the generous assistance of these gentle-
men, and of Messrs. 8. M. Emery and Cornelius Hedges. In all parts
of the State stockmen gladly accompanied us in studying the actual
conditions where poisoning had taken place, or, where it was impossi-
ble for ranch owners to go on such trips, conveyances were freely fur-
nished for our use. In a number of instances the stockmen were
sufficiently interested to be willing to furnish sheep for feeding experi-
ments with poisonous plants. Among these stockmen to whom we are
especially indebted in the ways just indicated mention may be made of
the following: W. W. Beasley, G. M. Beasley, A. E. Bower, G. C.
Bower, F. I. Bower, Frank Conely, Walter Cooper, G. P. Christian,
P. B. Christian, Daniel Floweree, W. C. Gillette, L. H. Hamilton,
Dr. H. Holloway, S$. S. Hobson, Edward A. Kimpton, C. Kohrs, J. B.
Long, M. M. Jenson, J. L. B. Mayer, J. T. Murphy, I. D. O'Donnell,
C. H. Perrine, McC. Winiger, F. Pool, B. E. Stack, James Vestal,
F. Warren, J. F. Woolman, and Mr. Warden of Augusta.
ITINERARY.
In the course of our investigations of the stock-poisoning plants of
Montana we visited every county of the State, both of the mountains
and the plains. The greater part of the time, however, was spent in
Fergus, Cascade, Teton, Park, Sweet Grass, and Yellowstone counties.
The distance covered by the different trips in the field aggregated
something more than 7,000 miles. Along the line of the Northern
Pacific Railroad the following localities were visited: Wibaux, Glen-
dive, Miles City, Forsyth, Huntley, Billings, Laurel, Joliet, Red Lodge,
Greycliff, Bigtimber, Livingston, Coalspur, Muir, Chesnut, Bozeman,
Belgrade, Logan, Townsend, Helena, Garrison, Deerlodge, Drum-
mond, Bearmouth, Missoula, and Plains; along the course of the
Montana Railroad: Merino, Martinsdale, Dorsey, Lombard; on the
line of the Great Northern Railway: Glasgow, Havre, Shelby Junc-
tion, Baltic, Cutbank, Summit, Columbia Falls, Kalispell, Fort Ben-
ton, Great Falls, Cascade, and Craig. From each of these points
drives or horseback trips of from 10 to 150 miles were made into the
surrounding country. From Great Falls a trip was made across
country through Belt, Geyser, Stanford, Utica, Ubet, Oka, Hopley,
and Martinsdale. From Craig a trip was made by means of stage and
private conveyance to Augusta and the mountain ranges lying
between the forks of the Sun River. These trips by wagon or horse-
back occupied from 1 to 15 days each and rendered possible a
S. Doc. 160-—2
18 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
thorough inspection of the general range conditions in those parts of
the State which are best adapted to stock raising. In general, the
most thorough study was made of ranges where serious losses of stock
had occurred during the season of 1900 or previous seasons, especially
where the stockmien manifested a lively interest in the investigation
and requested a visit to their ranges. Numerous requests were
received by letter or telegram to make such visits, and all such requests
were heeded if time permitted, for the reason that it was considered
highly desirable to see as many cases as possible under natural condi-
tions and thus to be able to note the symptoms of poisoning and the
special circumstances of each case. The stockmen took such interest
in making prompt notifications of cases of poisoning that many
exceptional opportunities were had for observing cattle, horses, and
sheep poisoned by different plants. In some cases it was impossible
to reach the locality in time to observe the early symptoms, but in a
majority of the cases which are recorded in this report the symptoms
and circumstances of poisoning were studied in the field at first hand.
GENERAL RANGE CONDITIONS.
SUMMER AND WINTER RANGES FOR SHEEP.
The majority of sheep raisers in the State are so situated that a part of
their range is of the nature of treeless prairie while another part lies
on the foothills or lower slopes of the mountains. Frequently the
different tracts of range belonging to a single sheep raiser are not
contiguous and it is therefore necessary to drive the sheep for short
distances in order to move them from one range to another. The pre-
vailing practice of sheep men is so to manuge the grazing of the sheep
upon the range that the sheep will be able to find the best possible pas-
ture during the greater part of the year. In the early days of stock
raising in the State the sheep men did not, as a rule, provide forage
in the form of hay for the inclement weather of winter, but were
apparently willing to take chances with their sheep under such climatic
conditions as might develop. It was evidently of prime importance
in this system of management that a portion of the range be reserved
in good condition for winter grazing.
During recent years the sheep men of the State have realized more
and more fully the importance of cutting large quantities of hay for
feeding during the time when the ground may be covered with
snow. The same custom still prevails, however, of dividing the range
into a summer and winter range. Asa general rule the ewe bands are
held near the home ranch during the lambing season and until after
shearing, when all the sheep are taken to the foothills or mountain
ranges, It may be said, therefore, that sheep are held on the open
prairie ranges during the winter and spring, while the mountain ranges
SUMMER AND WINTER RANGES FOR SHEEP. 19
are utilized from July until October. Several reasons may be urged
for this system of management. In the first place, it is most con-
venient to have the ewes near home during the period of lambing,
since they require constant attention at this time. The shearing sea-
son falls almost immediately after that of lambing, and it is obviously
desirable that the wool should be removed at the points which are most
convenient for transporting it to the railroad. A third reason, which
is not less important, is the fact, which has been demonstrated by
repeated experiments, that the foothill or mountain ranges are much
more dangerous from the standpoint of poisonous plants during the
early wet season than during the latter part of the summer and fall.
Sheep men have known for several years that it is relatively or
entirely safe to keep sheep on mountain ranges after the middle of
July on which large numbers of sheep would almost certainly be
poisoned if allowed to graze there during the months of May and
June. It is a fact generally observed by stockmen, and especially
apparent to an observer in traveling over different parts of the State,
that the range becomes freer and freer from plants of all description,
except grasses, the farther one goes from the mountains. In the
open prairie country, at a distance of 20 miles from the foot-
hills or mountains, there are thousands of acres of good grazing
country where almost no vegetation except grass is to be found. The
grass upon the clean prairie range is, for the most part, short, and it
is well known that short grass is preferred by sheep to tall grass,
which, under ordinary circumstances, they avoid. This observed fact
is strikingly illustrated in the different feeding habits of sheep on
prairie ranges and on mountain ranges. On the former, sheep, as
just indicated, seem decidedly to prefer short grass and such other
plants as may in their early vegetative stages resemble grass, as, for
instance, the species of Zygadenus. Other plants of a coarser nature
are almost uniformly avoided on a prairie range during the greater
part of the season. When, on the other hand, sheep are taken to the
mountain range during July they avoid, for the most part, the tall
grass growing in such localities and feed upon other plants, such as
Balsamorhiza, Lepachys, Solidago, Potentilla, Spiraea, Astragalus,
Glycyrrhiza, Lupinus, Geranium, ete.
The difficulties which lie in the way of grazing sheep and cattle
together on a prairie range partly disappear on the mountain ranges
from the fact that the sheep and cattle do not there eat the same kinds
of plants, the cattle preferring grass and the sheep the class of plants
which have just been instanced. The majority of plants known to be
poisonous and which are especially dangerous during the wet months
of May and June are so far advanced by the time the sheep are taken
to the mountain ranges that they are not tempting and are not eaten.
The smaller species of larkspur (Delphinium bicolor) and death camas
20 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
(Zygadenus venenosus) are so dry and shriveled by the middle of July
that they are absolutely unpalatable to any animal. The water hem-
lock ( Cicuta occidentalis) does not grow so abundantly in the moun-
tains as along the small streams and irrigation ditches of the plains,
and becomes so large and coarse by the time mentioned that it is
scarcely ever, if at all, eaten by sheep. The tall larkspur (D. glaucum),
so far as our observations go, does not grow on the plains in any part
of Montana, and is too coarse to be eaten by sheep during the season
from July to October. The sheep owners have found by experience
that these mountain ranges which are so extremely dangerous for sheep
during the early summer are quite safe during the months from July
to September, inclusive.
The safety of the mountain ranges, however, is somewhat affected
by the presence of species of lupines. These plants are poisonous
during certain stages, especially when containing ripe seeds. It is of
interest to observe that sheep seldom eat lupine on the range during
midsummer. If, however, they do eat it at a time when the seeds
are ripe, it invariably causes disastrous poisoning. After the early
fall frosts the pods of this plant rapidly open and the seeds fall out
upon the ground. After this period it seems that the plants may be
eaten with impunity by sheep or other animals. Occasionally, how-
ever, the seeds are retained in considerable numbers in the pods until
October or even November. A number of serious losses of sheep
have been due to eating lupines in this condition after early fal] snow-
storms have covered the other forms of vegetation on the range. On
account of the fact that cattle and horses are for the most part allowed
to run freely upon the open range, the distinction between the summer
and winter range in the case of these animals is not so important as in
the case of sheep. Many cattlemen take advantage of the fall and
spring round-ups to direct their cattle and horses to a range near the
home ranch in winter and farther away in summer. The fact that
horses and cattle are not herded like sheep prevents any arrangement
such as that already mentioned as being commonly adopted in the
management of sheep.
EFFECT OF ALKALI ON STOCK.
A considerable difference of opinion prevails among stock raisers
as tothe physiological effect of alkali upon stock. A number of them
still insist that the ordinary alkali found in the soil or around the
borders of alkali lakes is a complete and perfect substitute for common
salt. On the other hand an equally large and apparently increasing
number of stockmen believe that alkali can under no conditions take
the place of salt in the animal economy.
In discussing the loco problem, attention will be called to the pos-
sible influence of alkali in predisposing animals to the loco habit, In
DETAILS OF THE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP. 21
this connection it may be well to note the possibility that the failure
to provide salt for animals on the range may tend to produce a per-
verted or depraved appetite. Where salt is wanting it is quite pos-
sible that stock more readily eat various noxious plants than when
they are receiving salt regularly in suitable quantities.
In the absence of any direct experiments on this question, it would
seem safe to assume on general principles that the common forms of
alkali found in the State have no physiological effects which compare
with those of common salt. The forms of alkali which occur in the
State are sulphate of soda, epsom salts, and carbonate of soda; and,
as well known, the physiological effects of these substances differ
decidedly from those of common salt.
Observations on this point can most easily be made on the sheep,
since these animals are under constant attention. A number of sheep
men have been led to believe that regular salting has a tendency to
render sheep more docile and more easily managed; that the failure to
give salt in sufficient quantity and at the right time tends to produce
a nervous uneasiness in the sheep which manifests itself partly in the
eating of undue quantities of soil containing alkali. As to any injuri-
ous effects which may be produced in stock by the eating of large
amounts of alkali, no reliable observations have been made. It is
believed by some sheep raisers that the eating of alkali earth may
cause the so-called locoed condition of sheep, but no data are at hand
to prove this assertion.
HERDING AND OTHER DETAILS OF THE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP.
Attention has already been called to the fact that sheep have to be
moved over considerable distances in changing from one range to
another. Some of the most disastrous cases of poisoning among them
have occurred during these drives. It requires but little observation
to convince one that sheep when being driven hurriedly from place to
place are apt to eat many plants which they would not eat if allowed
to feed at leisure. When feeding quietly on the range they exercise
considerable choice in the selection of forage plants, but when being
driven from 6 to 10 miles a day they are frequently forced to bite off
almost all kinds of plants which grow along their course. The writers
have observed a number of striking illustrations of this fact at all sea-
sons of the year. On May 24a band of 2,000 ewes and lambs were
_ driven a distance of about 3 miles. This band of sheep had been graz-
ing for two weeks on a range where death camas was quite abundant,
but no cases of poisoning had occurred up to this time. During the
day a number of sheep were observed to eat the plant. Six ewes and —
10 lambs died. About 20 ewes and 50 lambs were affected. Many
other similar cases might be related, but the fact is well understood by
sheep men that sheep are more likely.to eat poisonous plants when
Do, STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
being driven rapidly and in a hungry condition than under conditions
of rest and full stomach. Similar statements may be made concerning
the trailing of sheep, a practice which prevails to a considerable extent
among sheep men who are located at some distance from the railroad.
In the early spring the sheep raiser selects those sheep which he wishes
to sell and drives them to the nearest railroad or possibly a much lon-
ger distance toward some larger market. During the transit a much
larger percentage of deaths occur from eating poisonous plants than
would occur in the same band of sheep if allowed to feed on the range.
The only reasons which have been suggested or which seem adequate
to explain this condition have already been mentioned.
The ordinary practice of sheep raisers under the conditions which
prevail upon the Western ranges is to keep the sheep under the con-
stant attention of a herder. The size of the bands is generally from
2,000 to 2,500. This number of sheep has been adopted as being the
largest which can be conveniently managed by one man, and also the
largest which can conveniently spread out so far as to graze with ease.
This method of managing sheep has certain disadvantages which
become apparent upon close observation of their feeding habits. As
is well known to sheep raisers, it requires a considerable length of
time for a.band of 2,500 to become widely enough scattered for graz-
ing purposes after being let out of the corral in the morning or after
being rounded up on the range. During this time the sheep which
happen to be on the outside of the band have good opportunity to
graze, while those which are crowded together in the center are utterly
unable to feed until the outside sheep have moved away to some dis-
tance. Experienced herders interfere with the movements of the
sheep justas little as is compatible with directing them over the desired
course for the day. On the other hand it is a fact which all sheep
raisers have observed that a considerable proportion of herders con-
tinually urge forward the sheep which are in the rear of the bands and
drive in the stragglers with the aid of the dog in order to maintain as
compact a herd as possible. This is certainly a wrong method of man-
aging sheep. Whenever they are frightened by the dog or otherwise
their habit is to crowd together in a compact mass, and they remain in
this position for some time before again scattering over the range for
grazing. The worry incident to this repeated dogging and otherwise
frightening the sheep must be severe, aside from the consideration of
the loss of grazing time.
But, desirable as it is to give the sheep the greatest possible free-
dom, under present range conditions in the West it is manifestly
impossible to leave sheep to their own resources. The country is only
partially fenced, and the greater part of the fences which are already
built will not turn sheep. There is nothing, therefore, to prevent
them, when not under the care of a herder, from wandering away to
WATER SUPPLY ON THE RANGES. os
indefinite distances. It must also be remembered that wolves and
coyotes are still to be found in some numbers on sheep and cattle
ranges, and an attack by these animals upon the sheep is sure to
result in disastrous consequences. For the present, therefore, no other
method of managing sheep would seem practicable than the one now
in vogue. When wolves and coyotes shall have been exterminated in
the locality of sheep ranges, and these ranges shall have been inclosed
in sheep-tight fences, it will perhaps be possible to dispense with the
constant attendance of herders. It is probable that the method of
keeping sheep in comparatively small herds in inclosed areas and allow-
ing them to feed without any interference will secure better results in
wool and mutton production than are secured by the present method.
The realization of this change would relieve, moreover, another
perplexing problem in the management of the sheep range, namely,
to obtain efficient and reliable herders. From a business standpoint
the sheep owner must be considered to take great risk when he places
a band of sheep, valued at from $8,000 to $10,000, in the hands of a
man whom he has perhaps not known for more than a week. Many
of the herders are reliable and experienced, while unfortunately many
others, either from lack of experience or from irresponsible conduct,
cause the sheep owners great losses which could have been entirely
avoided. A further possible disadvantage of the existing system is
that the complete control and direction of the movements of the sheep
by herders may tend in a series of generations to render the sheep
more and more helpless and dependent on the protection and guidance
of man. It isa common fact of observation that sheep. which have
been closely herded, if left to themselves, are at first completely help-
less and unable to seek protection against storms and to find water
supply. It would not seem unreasonable to suppose that if the method
of managing sheep mentioned above should become possible in the
western ranges, sheep would gradually acquire a knowledge of the
range and an ability to care for themselves similar to that possessed
by cattle and horses under the same conditions.
The present method of managing sheep possesses the advantage that
when the herder knows by sight the poisonous plants of the range and
is acquainted with their habitat and distribution he may easily herd the
sheep away from the areas where such poisonous plants grow during
the season when they are dangerous. On many sheep ranges certain
areas have been found to be dangerous at certain times of the year,
and the sheep are always kept away from these places during the dan-
gerous season.
WATER SUPPLY ON THE RANGES.
The water supply on the stock ranges of Montana is abundant except
during very dry years. Near the mountains and along the foothills
numerous creeks and small streams are to be found, varying in size
24 STOCK-PCISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
according to the time of year and the amount of snow in the moun-
tains. These small streams flow out over the plains and usually con-
tain throughout their course a fairly uniform volume of water, but
disappear at times where the bed is gravelly. A great number of
springs are to be found in all situations near the mountains and on the
plains, and on many ranges these springs furnish the water which is
to be relied upon in the dry season. Besides the creeks and springs
there are numerous lakes, some of them more or less alkaline, which
furnish water for all kinds of stock. Many of the alkaline lakes are
formed by the water from alkali springs. By the constant evapora-
tion of these lakes the water becomes more strongly alkaline than is
the water which flows into them from the springs. For this reason,
and also on account of the fact that the borders of such lakes are muddy
and difficult to approach, the plan of building troughs to receive the
water directly from the springs has been adopted upon many sheep
ranches. The water in the troughs is of course less strongly alkaline
than is that in the lakes, and it is more easily accessible. This scheme
for watering stock would seem highly commendable in view of the
probable injurious effects of drinking large quantities of strongly
alkaline water.
ALTITUDE OF THE RANGES.
The altitude of the stock ranges in Montana varies from about 1,900
to 9,000 feet. As already indicated, a large number of the stockmen
of Montana have both prairie and mountain ranges. The prairie
ranges average in altitude from 1,900 to about 5,000 feet. The lowest
prairie range is found in the northeastern part of the State, in Valley
and Dawson counties. Perhaps the highest range of this sort is found
in the Smith River country. Cattle and horses during the summer and
autumn occasionally range to the height of 8,000 to 9,000 feet, where
in many parts of the State they find excellent pasture. As a rule,
however, in Montana good range is not to be found above 7,000 feet.
Along the slopes of the Rockies grass and other herbaceous vegetation
have a definite and sharp limit, the upper two to four thousand feet
of the mountains being rocky and without soil. It will be readily
understood that cattle and horses, left as they are to their own resources
and grazing in small herds, will find their way to higher and more
inaccessible pastures than will sheep. With regard to the grazing of
sheep in timber, it may be said that this is not practiced in Mon-
tana. Asa rule there is no vegetation under trees which is desired _
by sheep, and it is exceedingly difficult to manage large bands of them
in timber. On many mountain sides which are covered for the most
part with forests there are large open parks in which good grazing is
found, and such places are much coveted by sheep men for summer
range. The sheep, however, will not of their own accord enter the
CLIMATIC CHARACTER OF THE SEASON OF 1900. 25
timber, and can only with difficulty be driven through it. Even for
the usual noonday rest they uniformly prefer to lie in the open field
exposed to the sun.
CLIMATIC CHARACTER OF THE SEASON OF 1900.
The season of 1900 in Montana was unusually early and unusually
dry. During the previous winter the fall of snow was remarkably
light, except for the unexpectedly severe storm of October, 1899.
During the greater part of the winter there was no snow either on the
mountains or on the plains. At the beginning of May vegetation was
from two weeks to one month in advance of the average season. Over
a considerable portion of the State, moreover, the rains which are
expected during the months of May and June did not occur. As a
result of this failure, the grasses and other plants of the range were
checked in their growth and matured very rapidly. This condition of
affairs prevailed generally over that part of the State which lies east
of the mountains. In some localities westward heavy rainstorms
occurred at intervals during May and June, but here practically no
rain fell during these two months. This was especially true from
Billings east along the line of the Northern Pacific Railroad, and from
Havre east along the Great Northern Railroad. In this tract of coun-
try the range became so exceedingly dry that prairie fires occurred in
several localities during the month of May. These fires assumed dan-
gerous proportions, anda number of sheep were burned to death in
them. In the vicinity of Wibaux the danger from prairie fires was
increased by the fact that the grass had attained an unusual height
during the preceding year and was still standing on the range ina dry
condition. The grass of the present season did not offer sufficient
green material to prevent the fire from spreading in the old grass.
During the month of April the rainfall had been unusually large, and
the ranges in consequence were in excellent condition at the beginning
of May. It might naturally be supposed that with the grass in spe-
cially good condition sheep would be less likely to eat poisonous plants
than during seasons when the grass was more backward. Such, how-
ever, was not the case. The early spring losses from poisonous plants
were fully as serious during the season as they ordinarily are. Dur-
ing June and the first half of July an exceptionally large number of
sheep were killed by eating poisonous plants, but this might have been
reasonably expected from the fact that the ranges, as already indicated,
had become largely dried up at this time. West of the Rocky Moun-
tains, where an abundance of rain fell during the spring and early
summer months, which was particularly the case in Flathead, Bitter-
root, and Deerlodge valleys, some stock poisoning occurred in early
spring, but very little during midsummer.
Such dry seasons as that of 1900 seem not to be so disastrous to the
stock industry as might be expected. The short, dry grass produced
26 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
in such seasons is apparently more nutritious than the longer, softer
grass of wet seasons, and stock keep in better condition when grazing
on the short grass than when supplied with large quantities of the
tall, soft grass. The chief fear of the stock grower in dry seasons is
that he will not be able to cut sufficient quantities of hay for winter
feeding.
CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH POISONING OCCURS.
INFLUENCE OF HEAVY RAINSTORMS.
Stockmen have observed for many years that during the spring
months poisoning is apt to occur after heavy rains. This may be said
to be a general belief of stock raisers and it is supported by numerous
observations. Various explanations have been offered for this fact.
It has been suggested that certain plants may be more poisonous when
wet with fresh rain or dew than under other conditions, but there
seems to be no ground for such a supposition. The explanation which
is most frequently proposed for this phenomenon is that stock when
feeding immediately after heavy rainstorms are more apt to pull up
the roots of plants than when the range is dry. It is, of course, well
known that in the case of many poisonous plants the active principle
is located mostly in the roots and that large quantities of the leaves or
stems would have to be eaten in order to cause serious poisoning.
After a few days of dry weather the sod of prairie ranges becomes so
exceedingly hard and tough that it is a difficult matter to dig up plants
by the roots even with a trowel made for the purpose. While the
ground is in this state it is simply impossible for the roots of these
plants to be pulled up by stock in grazing. After working with plants
in a dry condition on the range one naturally comes to doubt whether
stock could pull up the roots of plants under any conditions. Obser-
vations upon this point after heavy rainstorms, however, will soon
dispel all doubt. The local rainstorms, usually accompanied by elec-
trical disturbances, are often almost in the nature of cloud-bursts and
are ordinarily yery severe. The ground is so thoroughly soaked by
these storms that large underground bulbs and thick, tuberous roots
are easily pulled out of the ground attached to the stems. It was
found that after such storms Zygadenus bulbs could easily be pulled
up. There seems to be no reasonable explanation of poisoning being
more frequent after rainstorms except this loosening of the roots of
poisonous plants. It is barely possible that storms accompanied by
winds may beat down the weeds and grass together, so that stock will
not distinguish between them so readily as under dry conditions.
CIRCUMSTANCES INCREASING DANGER OF POISONING. 27
INFLUENCE OF SNOWSTORMS.
Many serious cases of stock poisoning have occurred after late
spring and early autumn snowstorms. In all cases which we have
been able to investigate the explanation seems to be that the grass
was covered by snow and nothing remained visible for the stock to
eat except certain plants which happened to be poisonous. On some
of the high ranges in the so-called mountain basins spring snowstorms
frequently occur as late as the first of June. Sometimes the snow
falls to a depth of 1 foot during these storms, and this depth is suf-
ficient to cover all grass at that season of the year. The tall species
of larkspur (Delphinium glaucum) usually stands about 2 feet high
at that time. This plant is greedily eaten by cattle under these cir-
cumstances, largely, perhaps, for the reason that nothing else is to be
obtained without digging under the snow. Cattle and horses are the
only animals which suffer from poison after late snowstorms, for the
reason that sheep are not allowed to graze on the mountain ranges
until considerably later in the season, when the danger from snow-
storms is past. A number of disastrous cases of sheep poisoning
have occurred, however, immediately after early fall snowstorms.
In all such cases which we had opportunity to investigate the plant
which was responsible for the poisoning was lupine. The conditions
were about the same in all cases. The lupine pods had failed to open
as completely as they ordinarily do, and a considerable portion of the
seeds were, therefore, retained in the pods. The lupine was the only
edible material which was left standing above the snow. The influ-
ence of snowstorms upon stock poisoning depends, therefore, upon
the fact that the late spring and early fall snowstorms frequently
cover all forms of vegetation on the range with the exception of some
poisonous plants.
DANGER ARISING FROM DRIVING OR TRAILING SHEEP.
Attention has already been called to the fact that many serious cases
of poisoning among sheep have occurred while the bands were being
driven from one locality to another. The suggestion has already been
made by way of explanation that sheep can not make the same choice
of forage plants while being hurried over the range as they can under
conditions of rest. In following bands of sheep under these different
conditions it was observed that a much greater variety of plants and
even of noxious plants were eaten by sheep when on the trail than
when left to eat at leisure. The more indiscriminate grazing observed
under these conditions is perhaps due partly to sheep being worried
and partly to their being unable to satisfy their hunger so quickly as
under more normal conditions. It would seem highly desirable that,
where possible, two herders be detailed with each band of sheep while
28 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
they are being driven for long distances, especially if the course of
the drive lies in territory that is known to contain poisonous plants.
A herder in front of the band might readily detect the presence of
poisonous plants upon the range and direct the sheep to one side or
the other of this dangerous area. The herder who followed the band
might cooperate with the herder in the lead in such a way as to pre-
vent the sheep from becoming too closely packed together.
INFLUENCE OF HUNGER.
The feeding movements of sheep and cattle are much influenced by
the condition of the stomach, whether full or empty. It is a well-
known fact that ruminants do not feel at ease as long as the stomach
is not full. Consequently, where good forage is not present they eat
anything that may be obtained, including many noxious plants, and
this is especially true of sheep. Eating whatever is in sight, and as
rapidly as possible, they are liable to consume large quantities of
plants of kinds which when taken in small quantities are not harmful,
but which in large amounts may produce serious disturbance. A gen-
eral rule to be observed in grazing is, therefore, that sheep in a starved
or ravenously hungry condition should not be turned upon a range
which is known to contain poisonous plants. The disastrous conse-
quences of neglecting this rule are most frequently experienced by
men who are shipping sheep long distances by railway. As is well
known, the sheep are taken off from the cars for food at rather long
intervals and at such times they are always ravenously hungry. It
usually happens, also, that they are not acquainted with the plants of
localities where they are unloaded for feeding. Serious losses result
from allowing them to feed under such circumstances without first
inspecting the ground for the presence of poisonous plants.
ACCLIMATIZATION OF STOCK TO THE RANGE.
From the experience of sheep raisers, so far as ascertained, and from
observations made in the field during the season of 1900, it is impos-
sible to conclude with certainty that sheep learn by long acquaintance
with a given range to avoid all plants of a poisonous nature. It seems
certain, however, that on any particular range less poisoning occurs
among sheep which are familiar with the range than with strange
sheep. This statement is supported by the experience of a majority
of sheep raisers as being true for all plants of a poisonous nature
except loco. The eating of loco plants seems to be a habit, and on
ranges where these plants are abundant it is safe to graze only such
sheep as are unacquainted with the plants, or have never acquired the
habit of eating them.
CIRCUMSTANCES AFFECTING DANGER OF POISONING. 29
INFLUENCE OF THE STATE OF VEGETATION.
The state of the sum total of the local vegetation as affected by
seasonal and special weather conditions ordinarily exercises consider-
able influence on the occurrence or nonoccurrence of poisoning. In
the early spring certain poisonous plants may start to grow before the
native grasses. In this case, if these poisonous plants are at all con-
spicuous or offer any considerable amount of succulent material, stock
areapt to be tempted to eat them. The acrid, bitter, or otherwise dis-
agreeable taste of such plants seems to have very little influence in
preventing stock from eating them. Under the conditions which have
just been outlined sheep and cattle eat large quantities of various
plants which are extremely unpalatable to the human taste. Later in
the season, when grasses and other plants are all in vigorous vegeta-
tive growth, it often happens that poisonous plants are eaten along
with grasses because of their resemblance to grass, as in the case of
Zygadenus (death camas), or because of their dark-green and tempt-
ing appearance, as in the case of larkspur and water hemlock.
In seasons of unusual drought the native grasses on the range
usually mature early in the season. In such cases a number of other
plants frequently remain green and tempting to the stock after the
grasses have become thoroughly dried. This is especially true of a
number of native leguminous plants, among which are several valuable
forage plants and some poisonous ones, such as the loco and lupine.
In times of drought, accordingly, these plants, including the injurious
species, are eaten by stock to a much greater extent than when grass
is in a green, normal condition. It was noticed that young lambs
when first beginning to eat were especially liable to acquire the habit
of eating loco weeds when the native grasses were badly dried up.
The same statement may be made of older sheep, with the qualification
that they are affected in a less degree. In general, it may be stated
as being obviously true that stock will be more apt to eat poisonous
plants when such plants offer more tempting forage than the grass.
The converse of this statement is also obviously clear that when
grasses and other harmless forage plants are present in abundance and
in good condition sheep and cattle less often make the mistake of eat-
ing poisonous plants.
INFLUENCE OF THE STAGE OF GROWTH OF PLANTS.
The actual stage of growth of any poisonous plant determines very
largely whether or not it is eaten at a given time. Some of the pois-
onous plants—as, for instance, the taller species of larkspur and water
hemlock—become so large and coarse during their later stages that
they are seldom if ever eaten by sheep in that condition. On the
30 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
other hand, the large size or coarseness of the plant does not appa-
rently exercise any influence in preventing cattle from eating it. It
is a most noticeable fact in connection with a class of poisonous plants,
such as Zygadenus (death camas) and the smaller species of larkspur,
that the seeds ripen and the whole plant dries up very quickly after
flowering. The death camas seems to be especially tempting to sheep
just before the flowering stem is formed. Very soon after the flowers
have opened, however, the leaves and stem turn yellow and the plant
shrivels and becomes much less conspicuous than when in a green
condition. Similar statements may be made concerning the smaller
species of larkspur.
Thus far the vegetative stage of poisonous plants has been considered
only with reference to its influence upon the selection of the plants by
stock for forage. It is hardly necessary to observe that poisonous
plants can do no harm to stock except as they are eaten. One of the
most practical problems, therefore, in connection with the study of
poisonous plants is the determination of the circumstances under which
stock eat them.
VARIATION AND LOCALIZATION OF THE POISONOUS SUBSTANCES
IN PLANTS.
There is another group of facts, partly dependent on stage of
growth, partly not, which have an important influence on the danger-
ous character of poisonous plants. It is found to be true, as will now
be shown, that certain parts of a plant may be poisonous while others
are comparatively inert, and that the quantity of poison may vary in
the same parts of the same species under different conditions and
especially at different stages of growth. It is also true that the poison-
ous principle of a plant is often located in a particular part of a seed
or a leaf,so that it is possible that a portion of that organ may be
eaten with impunity while other parts would prove fatal if eaten. — It
will readily be seen that the reputation of a plant as poisonous or non-
poisonous may be affected by these circumstances; since, for example,
if a plant is poisonous only at a stage when it is not eaten, its poison-
ous character would not have opportunity to show itself.
Few of the plants discussed in this report are of sufficient commercial
importance to have been studied chemically with anything like the
detail necessary in order to draw definite conclusions in regard to the
development of their characteristic poisons and their location in the
various organs. But it is certain, in the case of the larkspur, at least,-
as will be shown in the later discussion, that there is marked variation
in the quantity of the poisonous substances in the leaf before and after
flowering. This may be the case with the leaves of the death camas,
but as this plant is not attractive to stock after flowering the question
is of less practical importance. It is of interest to note, however, that
POISONOUS QUALITY AS DEPENDING ON STAGE OF GROWTH. 31
merely on account of the fact that stock are seldom killed by death
camas after it has blossomed it has been considered by some stockmen
as nonpoisonous after that period. As a matter of fact the seed and
bulb are alike poisonous, both before and after flowering. The seed
is seldom eaten and the bulbs can not easily be pulled out of the
ground by stock while grazing after the rainy season in spring is
over.
All druggists and physicians are aware that the chemical compound
by virtue of which a drug is of therapeutic value is almost invariably
more abundant in one part of the plant than in another. The same is
true with regard to poisonous principles, as is perhaps best illustrated
in the case of Montana plants by the lupines. As is shown in the dis-
cussion of these plants, the seed is by far the most poisonous part.
There is, also, a particular stage of the plant’s growth at which the
drug prepared from it must be collected for use. According to the
instructions issued by large wholesale dealers in crude native drugs to
their collectors these periods are as follows: The roots of perennial
plants are gathered at any time between the maturity of the leaves or
flowers and the fresh vegetation of the next period of active growth.
The roots of biennial plants should be collected at any time after the
first year’s growth and before they send up their seed stalk the follow-
ing spring. Barks are gathered as soon as possible after they will
peel in the spring, flowers when they first open, and seeds as well
as leaves and herbs just before they mature. As a general rule all
drugs are most powerful when collected at the appropriate season
as outlined above. By observing these rules uniformity of strength,
a very essential requirement, is also secured and the drugs are more
easily cured and prepared in the most acceptable form for the market.
A good example of how a plant may, according to the stage of its
growth, be poisonous or nonpoisonous to stock is furnished in the case
of the common passion-flower vine in an article published by Mr.
Theodore A. Melter in the Bulletin of Pharmacy for May, 1899. It
has been ascertained that the drug gathered from this vine is most
potent when gathered at the flowering season. Five hundred pounds
of the plant which had been ignorantly collected three months later
was fed by Mr. Melter to a horse as a substitute for hay, with the
result that the animal thrived well and became fat. At another time,
howeyer, his horse accidentally gained access to and ate about 30 pounds
of the same drug which had been gathered at the flowering season.
The horse was found in a stupid state the next day and it remained in
this condition, but with loss of flesh, for six weeks, when it died.
In general the part of a plant which causes most cases of stock poi-
soning is the foliage. The period of its maturity is regarded by some
of the cultivators of medical plants as being the time at which its chlo-
rophyll content is most highly developed or when the leaves are most
intensely green. This is generally soon after the flowering time in
ov STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
the case of herbaceous plants, but with some, such as aconite, purple
larkspur, poison camas, and many bulbiferous plants closely related
to the last, it is earlier, the leaves of some of them having entirely
dried up before the plants have flowered. In these cases the leaves
would naturally be most active physiologically if eaten before the
plants blossomed, and might be practically inert at other times.
Such seems to be the case with the purple larkspur. The taste of the
leaves, as well as the results of our experiments and the observations
of others, indicate that the root as well as the leaves is more poison-
ous before the flowering time than afterwards. The same is true also
of the leaves of the tall larkspur. In both cases the leaves are fre-
quently in the succulent condition after the flowers have expanded.
A very interesting and instructive investigation of the formation
and occurrence of poisonous alkaloids in foliage has recently been
carried out in the case of the cinchona alkaloids in cinchona leaves by
Dr. J. P. Lotsy’in Java. The author showed that the quantity of
alkaloids varied greatly in the leaf as taken by day or night and on
sunshiny or cloudy days, being most abundant in the first instance in
each case. He showed also that these alkaloids are formed in the
leaves during the day and are almost wholly deposited in the branches
or bark at night. If gathered in the early morning, therefore, cin-
chona leaves would be practically inert, while if gathered in the
evening, especially on a sunshiny day, they would be in their most
active state.
It has been shown that the location of alkaloids and other toxic sub-
stances in plants is not always the same even in similar organs. These
are sometimes to be found in the most rapidly growing parts of the
plants, as in the white sprouts of potatoes, and again they are to be
found in parts which have been fully developed, as in the case of
sapotoxin in corn cockle (Agrostemma githago). In both of the above
cases the remaining portion of the organ is edible. Barth’ has shown
that in aconite seeds the central parts contain most of the aconite, while
the seed coats are free from it; in the calabar bean (Physostigma ven-
enosa) the very poisonous alkaloid, eserine or physostigmine, is found
in the cotyledons; in the seeds of jimson weed (Datura stramonium),
black henbane (/Zyoscyamus niger), and belladonna (Atropa belladonna)
the alkaloids are located chiefly in the layer beneath the epidermis.
The epidermis itself and the seed covering is in each case free from
alkaloids; in nux vomica seeds, strychnine and brucine are found in
the endosperm cells, but brucine alone occurs in the embryo. In
jimson-weed seeds the quantity of alkaloids in unsprouted seeds was
found to be 15 times as great as in sprouted seeds. In growing col-
chicum the percentage of alkaloid is very large in the growing tips
and geil atively low in the lower part of the bulb. The first year’s
| 1 Mededeeling uit ’Slands Plantentuin, vol. 36. 1899.
*Merck’s Market Report, vol. 8, pp. 306-307. 1899.
HABITS OF STOCK WITH REFERENCE TO POISONOUS PLANTS. 33
crop of leaves of foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) and henbane is infe-
rior to that of the second on account of the smaller quantity of its
active principles and the larger quantity of water and other inert
compounds. The variation in strength of the powerfully poisonous
drug known as strophanthus is so well known to physicians that its
medical use is being abandoned.
Many other instances of the variable location and quantity of poi-
sonous substances in plants might be cited, but these will show the
importance of knowing the entire history of a plant in testing its
character as poisonous or nonpoisonous.
VARIATIONS IN THE FEEDING HABITS OF STOCK WITH REFER-
ENCE TO POISONOUS PLANTS.
A curious circumstance which one can not fail to observe in the
study of poisonous plants is the great variation in the habits of
domesticated animals with reference to eating them. ‘This applies
both to different individuals of the same species and to the same indi-
vidual at different times. There seems to be no way of accounting
for the appetite or taste of stock. This statement is perhaps espe-
cially true of sheep. We have often observed sheep eating greedily
on one day plants which they could scarcely be persuaded to eat on
the following day on the same range. It is frequently to be observed
that one band of sheep eat freely certain plants which are not touched
by another band of sheep feeding as nearly as possible under the same
conditions. It is also to be observed that there is a striking variation
in the taste of different sheep belonging to the same band. It is
manifestly not safe to conclude, when a certain number of sheep in a
given band are affected by a poisonous plant, that all of the sheep
have eaten the plant, and that the ones which are affected are the only
ones which are susceptible to the poiscnous action of the plant. It
would be fully as safe to assume that the affected sheep alone ate the
plant in any appreciable quantity. Naturally the variation in the
appetite and feeding habits of different sheep is not manifested merely
with reference to poisonous plants, but also to forage plants.
It is rather an easy matter in observing the actions of a band of
sheep upon the range to note striking differences in the dietetic selec-
tions of different sheep. ‘To illustrate, a few observations may be
recorded which were made upon a band of sheep on a foothill range
at an altitude of 4,600 feet. A few of the sheep were observed eating
large quantities of wild sunflower (Balsamorhiza sagittata), a few ate
freely of false lupine (Zhermopsis rhombifolia), some contined their
attention largely to the wild geranium, while others ate false esparcet
(Astragalus bisulcatus) almost exclusively. Two sheep were seen eat-
ing the leaves of lupine, and about fifty ate a greater or less quantity
of Zygadenus venenosus, while the majority of sheep in the band fed
S. Doc. 160
»
oO
34 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
exclusively upon the native grasses on the range. It should be stated
that these grasses were in excellent condition at the time and the
sheep were by no means forced to eat other plants. It may be of
interest to note also that no sheep were observed eating the smaller
species of larkspur, although this plant grew in great abundance on
the range where they were feeding.
Not only are striking differences to be observed in the feeding habits
of individual sheep in a given band and in ditferent bands in different
parts of the State during one season, but a considerable variation is to
be observed in different years on the same range. In many parts of
the State the death camas and the small larkspur grow in the same
locations, and they are both in their most tempting condition at the
same time. Cases of poisoning which occur where both are present
are easily traceable entirely to one or the other of these plants. Dur-
ing some years death camas is eaten, while during other years the
poisoning is traceable to the larkspur. It is difficult to discover the
‘ause of this variation in the appetite of the sheep. Their arbitrary
selection of one plant at one time and another at another time is one
of the chief factors in determining the amount of poisoning which
will occur on a given range during any particular season. It is the
only factor which can not be estimated in any definite manner. It is
a comparatively simple matter for the botanist to determine what poi-
sonous plants grow on the particular range and to indicate their rela-
tive abundance or scarcity. It is possible to determine by feeding
experiments the amount of any particular plant which must be eaten
in order to cause death, but no one can with certainty predict whether
a given band of sheep will eat any particular poisonous plant when
allowed to graze on the range where that plant grows.
EXTENT OF STOCK POISONING.
In order to give an idea of the importance of the general subject of
plant poisoning to the stock industry, the cases which came under our
observation during the season of 1900 due to the more important poi-
sonous plants are here tabulated. The number of fatal cases is indi-
cated in each case. Probably only about one-fourth of the actual
cases came under our notice.
Poisoning cases among cattle, horses, and sheep in Montana observed during the season of 1900.
Sheep. Cattle. Horses.
Poisoned.| Died.| Poisoned.| Died.| Poisoned.} Died.
ZVCACeDUS VED eNOS - 2) om<iec cic os sce ae -s eae 8,080 | 686 |-------.22-}- ems ce|e scenes anf ocmene
Zyeadenus clegans; tctem. so-seccs ce aae oot eee 40 15 6 PAY PRS Se ae © 8 ares 2 '
WEI Go= sas aces ide aston Seas ade tee oc | 3,000" a1), S00) Beem ete are ieee 4 | 3
Welphinium bicolor. Fas. coe secs sce Se ae fretie eed Seep 2 21s doe ose eee
Delphinivum Plaucum. |. ankige- vas 2 15 -eawacie Seles case eee eel eee eee 100 66 |) :.2c< 0. eee
Cicuis OCCIOeNTAlis <2 see 1 eee eee ee ener | 105 80 36 30°) ...-. 1... Se eee
OGORMWECUS oc citee adc me races sok te seep ene 3, 550 700 | So heeae oe 150 3
REARS EE? Sees eee | Oe eee
MOAN Sse c Avec eewes ace ner 9,725 | 3,331 147 | 90 | 154 6
a
DIFFERENCES IN SUSCEPTIBILITY TO POISONING. 35
In the winter of 1898-99,4,700 sheep were poisoned from eating
lupine hay and 1,812 died. In the season of 1900, 150 cattle were
poisoned apparently from eating false lupine and 100 died.
EXPERIMENTS ON RABBITS.
Most excellent facilities for observing cases of stock poisoning as
they occurred in the field were afforded us in 1900 from May until
July, but often it was impossible for either of us to be on hand when
the animals were first poisoned. In practically all accidental cases
occurring on the ranges it is impossible to make anything like a sat-
isfactory inspection of the symptoms of poisoning or to estimate the
quantity of the plant eaten, and it is often difficult even to deter-
mine the plant, still more the particular part of the plant which
caused the mischief. Besides, the accidental cases ordinarily observ-
able cover about five or six of the several dozen plants which have
been cast under suspicion by the stockmen of Montana and concern-
ing which it was necessary that they should have some definite infor-
mation. For these reasons it was necessary to make numerous experi-
ments with various plants on inexpensive animals. Rabbits were
selected for this purpose because, being herbivorous in their nature,
they more closely resemble stock, so far as their eating habits are
concerned, than any other commonly domesticated pets. The neces-
sity of choosing by this standard is apparent when one considers the
wide difference in the susceptibility to certain poisons shown in vari-
ous animals having different feeding habits and corresponding differ-
ences in the nature and extent of the digestive areas in the stomach
and intestinal canal. So, too, there is a difference in the susceptibility
which is somewhat correlative to the general, and especially to the
mental, development of the animal.’ The brain and nerve poisons,
such as morphine, atropine, conine, and aconitine, are much less poi-
sonous to animals than to men. Dogs and horses can, in proportion
to their weight, endure ten times as much morphine as men, while
doves can stand five hundred times and frogs even a thousand times
as much. In herbivorous animals, especially in those which chew
their cud, such as sheep and cattle, the digestive tract is much longer
than in the case of omnivorous or carnivorous animals, consequently
the food remains in the body for a much longer period. In case of
herbivorous animals this period is usually several days, while in car-
nivorous animals it is about twenty-four hours only. In the former
case, therefore, the poison would have much more time to become
absorbed into the blood than in the latter case. This, according to
Fréhner, probably explains why it is that the metallic poisons are
much more fatal to herbivorous than to carnivorous animals. The
fatal dose of calomel is given for a cow as practically the same as that
‘See Froéhner, Lehrbuch der Toxicologie ftir Thierarzte, pp. 12, 13. 1890.
36 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
for a hog, notwithstanding the difference in size. It takes over a
pound of the sugar of lead (lead acetate) to kill a horse, while a tenth
of that. quantity will kill a cow of equal weight. Chemical reaction
between the digestive juice of various animals and the poisons con-
tained within the plants, as well as the chemical reactions between
the poisons and. the chemical constituents of the various food stuffs,
undoubtedly have considerable influence in some cases on the effect
of poisons before they are taken into the blood. If, for example, a
plant containing a poisonous alkaloid were eaten together with another
containing tannin, some or all of the alkaloid would be rendered inert
by the formation of the insoluble tannate of the alkaloid. So, too,
physiological processes in one animal may tend to retard the absorption
of the poison from the stomach, while in others they may exert no
such reaction. In the latter case, of course, the poison will exert its
influence on the system before there is any chance for it to be eliminated.
The fundamental rule relative to the effect of the poisoning of any
animal is that a certain amount of the toxic substance must be in cir-
culation in the blood and that the amount circulating depends not only
on the amount administered but on the rapidity with which excretion
takes place. It may, therefore, happen that very poisonous substances
may so quickly be eliminated by the animal that there will never at
any one time be a sufficient amount of it in the blood to produce a
fatal effect or even any effect at all.’
From the foregoing it is evidently quite probable that the suscepti-
bility to some poisons will differ in the case of rabbits as compared
with that of stock. As arule, however, the results obtained with rab-
bits are considered by pharmacologists as trustworthy indications of
the effects which would be obtained by similar experiments upon stock.
The animals must, of course, be in a healthy condition when used.
The general method of procedure, which after a few preliminary
experiments was adopted in our work, was as follows:
A definite quantity of the fresh plant or an extract thereof was offered
to a rakbit of known weight and the results noted in chronological
order. The weight of the fresh material eaten was determined by sub-
tracting the weight of the residue left after a certain time and making
a proper allowance for the loss of its weight due to the evaporation
of water from its tissues. To ascertain this loss a weighed portion of
the material identical with that which was fed was subjected as far as
possible to the same evaporation influences and again weighed at the
end of the experiment.
In several cases it was found that the rabbits would either eat, but
a very small quantity of the plant or eat it too slowly fora satisfactory
test. In this case extracts were made and fed in known quantity by
—o——_—_ — $$ —_-—__—
*Hermann’s Experimental Pharmacology, p. 65. 1883.
METHODS ADOPTED IN EXPERIMENTING ON RABBITS. 37
means of an ordinary syringe and a piece of rubber tubing. The tube
was well oiled and shoved gently into the animal’s stomach, connection
made with a syringe, and its contents injected into the stomach. In
every case the extracts represented a definite quantity of the fresh
plant. If the first injection produced no characteristic symptoms
within a half hour, a larger dose was given, and this operation repeated
until the true character of the plant was established. When the fatal
dose was determined other animals were given an equal quantity and
th. effect of antidotes, especially of the permanganate of potash, was
determined. In view of the large number of plants to be tested, only
two extracts, one aqueous and one alcoholic, were used in most cases.
A more satisfactory examination would have been made if we had used
about a half dozen of the more common solvents, but lack of time
would not permit this, and it was thought, moreover, that working as
we did, with fresh, green material, the toxic substances would be more
soluble in water than if the dried plants had been used. ‘The aqueous
extract was tried first, then the extract from the well-pressed residue
used for obtaining the aqueous extract, was given. The poison in the
latter case being in a solution of 50 per cent alcohol, it was necessary
to dose other rabbits witn equal quantities of alcohol in order to note
the difference in effect which was due to the poison. The alcohol given
with the poison may in some cases have acted as a partial antidote in
modifying the symptoms, and in some cases it may have increased the
intensity of the action, but as the amount given was in almost every
case very small it could have had but little effect on the ultimate action
of the poison, the real point at issue.
Care was observed in most of the experiments made to use fresh
unwilted plants of a definite stage of growth and to cut up a weighed
quantity finely in a sausage grinder, saving all of the juice and extract-
ing this material for about twelve hours with a definite weight of water
or 50 per cent alcohol, in no case applying a higher temperature for
the extraction than that normal to the human body. The aqueous
extracts were used within a few days after their preparation in
order to preclude changes which might be brought about by molds,
which in some cases attacked the extracts within three or four days.
No difficulty was experienced in keeping the alcoholic extracts in an
uncontaminated condition.
A few of the extracts were, on account of the short time at our dis-
posal, tested hypodermically on the rabbits. In these cases it was our
object simply to discover whether the plants were poisonous or not,
and due allowance was made for the difference in the method of intro-
ducing the poison into the system. As is well known, all poisonous
substances are more energetic when injected under the skin than when
taken into the stomach. Some, such as dilute mineral acids and the
venom of certain poisonous snakes, are practically inert when taken
38 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
into the stomach, but are fatal if injected into the blood. The differ-
ence in the fatal dose when injected hypodermically and when fed
varies somewhat according to the poison and also to the kind of animal
used. With strychnine, for example, the ratio between the fatal dose
given hypodermically and that given by way of the stomach is one to
ten in sheep, one to five in horses, one to three in pigs, and one to two
in dogs. This ratio in the case of sapotoxin, a poisonous substance
found in many plants, is nearly one to one hundred in the case of ani-
mals having a healthy alimentary tract. When the latter is ulcerated,
however, the sapotoxin is far more poisonous. This explains why it
is that some animals in a herd or pen are sometimes killed by eating a
certain plant, while others eat it to a certain extent with impunity.
METHODS OF PREVENTION AND REMEDIES.
DISPLACING POISONOUS PLANTS BY FORAGE PLANTS.
The use of aggressive forage plants for the purpose of displacing
poisonous plants upon the range has been attempted on a small scale
in various parts of the State. The preliminary experiments with such
forage plants are being conducted by the Montana Experiment Station
and by various stockmen with a view to determining whether such
plants are able to maintain themselves under the semiarid conditions
of the Western cattle ranges. The only forage plants which have
been used for this purpose are smooth brome grass (Bromus inermis)
and western wheat grass or ‘‘ bluejoint” (Agropyron occidentale Serib-
ner). Both of these grasses make a vigorous growth upon the ranges
of the plains and mountains. The smooth brome grass has been widely
distributed in the Western States in the hope that it might prove a
valuable pasture and meadow grass under semiarid conditions. Natu-
rally, however, it attains a greater size and covers the ground more
completely when supplied with an abundance of moisture than when
growing in dry situations.
Judging from the present conditions in Montana it will require sey-
eral years for the smooth brome grass to form a sufficiently thick sod
to displace larkspur, death camas, or loco weeds, which are indigenous
to the locality. Under dry conditions the smooth brome grass seems
to cover the ground rather slowly. In many areas of this grass, where
it had been growing for two or three years, the stools were well sepa-
rated by considerable intervals of bare ground. The bluejoint spreads
more rapidly from the root, and is usually more aggressive than the
brome grass. Apparently, however, bluejoint does not do well on
the dry ranges. The short-awned brome grass (Bromus marginatus
Nees), a native species, is spreading rapidly in a number of localities
in various parts of the State. In some places this grass had already
displaced all other native plants and occupied the ground completely.
HERDING STOCK AWAY FROM POISONOUS PLANTS. 39
On a cattle ranch near Augusta it has invaded a timothy meadow and
entirely killed out the timothy as far as it has spread. This brome
grass produces a heavy crop of hay, and a few stockmen, having noticed
its good points, are preparing to save seed for sowing upon other parts
of. their ranges. Although work and observations along this line
extend over only three or four years, the outlook is promising, and it is
perhaps not unreasonable to hope that by assisting the distribution of
the brome grasses, bluejoint, and other aggressive forage plants the
quantity of poisonous plants upon the range may be appreciably
diminished. Both the smooth brome grass and the short-awned begin
to grow in the spring earlier than the other range grasses or poison-
ous plants, and both these grasses are greedily eaten by all range
stock. This being the case, it is evident that stock will be less apt to
eat poisonous plants in the early spring when these desirable grasses
have become established in great abundance.
HERDING STOCK AWAY FROM DANGEROUS AREAS.
Attention has already been called to the possibilities of avoiding
poisoning plants by judicious herding. In the present state of the
study of poisonous plants perhaps the most important practical rec-
ommendation is that all herders should be made thoroughly familiar
with the appearance of the different poisonous plants in all their stages.
This familiarity should be such as to enable the herder to recognize
them at a glance, and to put him in a position, therefore, so to direct
his sheep that they will avoid the areas where poisonous plants grow.
This knowledge is especially desirable for herders when caring for
sheep on the trail or at feeding stations. In discussing lupine poison-
ing a case will be mentioned in which 400 sheep died from eating
lupine immediately after being unloaded from the cars. It would not
have been difficult to prevent these sheep from getting the lupine at
the time if the herder had known the dangerous nature of the plant.
Another instance of this sort happened at Baltic. where a band of
sheep was unloaded for quarantine on account of suspected scab. Dur-
ing the first day after being unloaded the sheep ate death camas, and
100 of them died. The herder recognized the plant, and after that
day avoided areas where it grew, with the result that he lost no more
sheep.
In a dry climate such as that of Montana it is well known that on
portions of range where animals are not allowed to feed the native
grasses attain a considerable height, come to maturity, and remain
standing in the condition of hay without losing any nutritive princi-
ples. It is, therefore, quite possible for a sheep raiser to abandon any
range which is badly infested with poisonous plants until late in the
summer or until fall, when these poisonous plants are too coarse and
dry to be tempting. No loss of torage will be suifered by adopting
40 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
this course, since the range which is abandoned in summer will be
good for winter grazing. By giving serious attention to the problem
of poisonous plants and becoming familiar with the time of the first
appearance in the spring, the time of blooming, and the period when
they begin to shrivel up, and by bearing in mind the period of growth
during which they are poisonous, the stockman will be able so to direct
the movements of his animals as to avoid a large proportion of his
annual loss.
ERADICATION OF POISONOUS PLANTS BY DIGGING.
The possibility of eradicating a given plant from a range will depend
almost entirely upon the extent of its distribution and upon the defi-
niteness and size of the areas upon which it grows. In the case of the
tall larkspur, which ordinarily grows in small, well-defined areas, it
would be a comparatively simple undertaking to dig up all the speci-
mens within the reach of cattle upon the range. On the other hand,
it is manifest that plants which are widely distributed and which occur
under a variety of conditions of soil and moisture could not be exter-
minated by this means. As examples of such plants we may mention
the loco weeds and death camas.
POPULAR METHODS OF TREATING POISONED ANIMALS.
Serious mistakes have been committed by many herders in the care
of poisoned sheep. It seems to be frequently assumed that animals
which are suffering from the effects of poisonous plants must be kept
moving under any and all circumstances. In order to do this the herder
is forced to make free use of the dog and otherwise worry and excite
the sheep. A general principle of great importance in the treatment
of poisoned animals is to let them alone as far as possible. Cases of
narcotic poisoning may be an exception, but with the ordinary kinds
of poisoning the inevitable result of all unnecessary excitement is to
exaggerate the symptoms and to precipitate a fatal outcome. It has
been noted that among the symptoms of poisoning an increasing rate
of respiration and heart beat is especially prominent. Evidently when
such symptoms are present it is not advisable to excite the poisoned
animals in any manner, since such excitement would produce a still
higher rate of respiration and pulse. Ina serious case of larkspur
poisoning of sheep, which occurred in Montana in 1897, it was found
that in attempting to hurry the poisoned sheep the severity of the
symptoms increased, producing fatal results in many cases in which
there would otherwise probably have been recovery. Even where
frenzy is the prominent symptom it is probably advisable to allow the
animals to move about without restraint except during the administer-
ing of remedies. Any interference with the movements of the poisoned
animals is especially liable to increase the excitement, already too great
POPULAR METHODS OF TREATING POISONED ANIMALS. 4]
in cases where cerebral symptoms are prominent. Where no remedies
are at hand for immediate treatment, it is always advisable to leave the
animals to themselves, allowing them to lie down and remain quiet if
they will. In the case of sheep it is, of course, impossible to leave them
unprotected upon the range over night, for the reason that coyotes and
wolves would destroy them. Ifa large number of sheep are affected
at the same time, it will be desirable for the herder to stay out over
night with them. If, on the other hand, only a small number of sheep
are poisoned, it will be possible to haul them in a wagon to the corral.
In nearly all cases of stock poisoning the sheep herders and cowboys
at present resort to bleeding. A considerable difference of opinion
prevails among them as to the best place at which to operate. Some
prefer the root of the tail, others the ear, and still others the inside of
the lips. Bleeding at one or the other of these places is said to be quite
uniformly efficacious, and is tried with great confidence by the sheep
herders and cowboys. As is well known the practice of bleeding was
constantly employed in the early history of human medicine, and
was considered beneficial for all sorts of ailments. The same might
be said of the early history of veterinary medicine. During recent
years, however, the practice has been abandoned except in a few
special instances where it seems to be directly indicated as the appro-
priate procedure. With regard to bleeding poisoned animals, it is
obvious that the practice will have a good or bad effect according to
the symptoms and condition of the animal in question. If the poisons
which are concerned have a depressing effect upon the heart, it is
evidently wrong to further increase their action by withdrawing the
blood and thus lowering the blood pressure. A number of poisonous
plants have this effect upon stock, and where they have been eaten
stimulants are plainly indicated as the proper remedy. If, on the
other hand, the symptoms of poisoning are those of an increased blood
pressure accompanied by cerebral excitement and a hard, wiry pulse,
bleeding might furnish temporary relief. Notwithstanding the confi-
dent manner in which herders and cowboys speak of the beneficial
effects of bleeding in all cases of poisoning it remains very doubtful
whether the practice is to be recommended in any case. It may be
safely asserted that the practice of bleeding indiscriminately does
more harm than good.
It is a quite general practice, also, to give melted lard or fat pork in
any case of stock poisoning by plants and especially in case of bloat.
One of the well-known effects of these substances is a more or less
decided cathartic action, and this action is desirable in so far as it helps
the animal to eliminate the unabsorbed parts of the poisonous plant.
A further beneficial action of the lard may consist in the hindrance to
the absorption of the poisonous alkaloids by the formation of a tem-
porary oily coating upon the stomach wall. In cases where the
49 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
poisoning is not severe and the symptoms not specially violent it is
probable that liberal q antities of lard administered soon after the
symptoms appear may assist materially in bringing about recovery.
Many stockmen administer drenches of soda indiscriminately in
almost all cases of poisoning. But soda being an alkaline substance
has primarily the effect of neutralizing any acid condition of the
stomach. If a fermentation with an alkaline reaction were already in
process in the stomach it is difficult to see how soda could have any
beneficial effect. In cases of bloat from eating large quantities of
clover or alfalfa soda seems frequently to have beneficial effects.
Vinegar is another remedy which is often applied in case of stock
poisoning. This substance is given in cases where for any reason it is
suspected that the stomach contents are strongly alkaline. Under
such circumstances it might be expected to counteract the alkaline
condition. One stockman informed us that he usually gave both soda
and vinegar simultaneously, hoping thereby to counteract whatever
condition was present in the stomach, whether alkaline or acid. It is
quite unlikely that any beneficial results would come from such a pro-
cedure, since the soda and vinegar would neutralize each other.
PERMANGANATE OF POTASH AS A CHEMICAL ANTIDOTE.
It will be observed from the foregoing account of the popular
remedies employed by stockmen that they have no general, simple,
and reliable rule for selecting antidotes or for the application of
remedial measures. This deficiency may be supplied to a large extent
by adopting the regular use of a solution of the permanganate of
potash, which, as will be shown later, is a very effective antidote in
some cases of poisoning by plants and chemical compounds of plant as
well as of animal and mineral origin. Besides being efficacious, its
administration is so simple and its mode of action so easily understood
that we do not hesitate to recommend it as an antidote to be seriously
considered in certain combinations in almost all cases of the poisoning
of stock by plants.
Under the names of Condy’s fluid and mineral chameleon, the per-
manganate of potash, on account of its powerful oxidizing properties,
was first introduced in 1856 by Mr. Condy, of England, as a disinfect-
ant or wash for ulcers and festering skin diseases, and for sanitary
purposes, such as the destruction of filth germs and their poison-
ous products. It was prescribed internally as a remedy for diabetes
without success as early as 1853. But its internal use as an oxidizing
agent was not strongly advocated until 1864 and 1866, when Madamet'
and Muter® published comprehensive articles alleging the value of an
‘Sur ’emploi therapeutique du permanganate de potasse. Thesis, pp. 30, Stras-
burg. 1864.
*The alkaline permanganates and their medicinal uses, pp. 48, 16mo., London,
1866.
PERMANGANATE OF POTASH AS A CHEMICAL ANTIDOTE. 43
aqueous solution of the salt in healing various stomach and intestinal
as well as general diseases, and in cleansing the system from foul
matter. No ill consequences attended such use even when compara-
tively large doses of the solution were taken.
The use of the permanganate salt solution as a chemical antidote to
oxidize organic poisons which might accidentally get into the stomach
was suggested by Muter, but no effort to utilize his suggestion was
made until 1881, when Prof. J. B. Lacerda,t of Rio Janeiro, Brazil,
announced the result of his investigations relative to the hypodermic
use of the salt as an antidote for snake bites. Lacerda’s paper was
widely copied in France and throughout Europe, and as a result per-
manganate of potash, especially in alkaline solution, is still regarded
as a most efficient antidote against the poison of various snakes if
promptly injected into the wound. Some persons whose duty it is
occasionally to handle poisonous snakes always have the means to
apply this remedy at hand when there is danger of being bitten.
Chemists have long been familiar with the rapid decomposition
which is caused in many organic compounds by permanganate of
potash. In 1886 Beckurts and List” showed that several very poison-
ous alkaloids, such as brucine, veratrine, conine, and nicotine, were
instantly decomposed by it, while still others were oxidized in varying
periods of time. The authors did not, however, suggest that the salt
had any value as an antidote.
In 1891 Antal* showed that the dilute solution of permanganate of
potash was an efficient antidote against the effects of phosphorus,
which was oxidized by it in the stomach to phosphoric acid, a compar-
atively nonpoisonous substance. Again in 1892 the same investigator
showed that this salt was a valuable antidote in cases of poisoning due
to strychnine, colchicine, muscarine (the poison of the fly amanita,
Amanita muscaria), the oil of sabine, and oxalic acid. He also sug:
gested that it would probably prove of great value in human cases of
poisoning from many compounds of either animal or plant origin. In
every case a dilute solution of the antidote was given by way of the
mouth. No experiments were made upon stock.
Since the publication of Antal’s work other investigators have
employed dilute solutions of the permanganate of potash, generally
without combination with any other substances, in case of poisoning
from coronillin, prussic acid, atropine, aconitine, nicotine, curarine,
strychnine, and morphine. Its use for all of these compounds was
attended with success in experiments made upon animals, but as yet
there has been but little chance, except in case of morphine and of
phosphorus, to substantiate its value by clinical treatment sufficiently
‘Compt. rend. Acad. sci. Par., vol. 93, pp. 466-469. 1881.
* Druggists’ Circular, vol. 30, p. 176. 1886. (From Pharm. Zeit.)
*Orvosi Hetilap., vol. 35, pp. 591,592, and 606, 607. 1891.
44 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
to warrant its use to the exclusion of other antidotes. In case of
some of these substances the comparative slowness of the oxidation,
as observed in chemical experiments with the pure salt, does not war-
rant its use. It has been asserted that hypodermic injections of the
permanganate are of value in antidoting the effects of poisons which
have already passed into the general circulation. But from a purely
theoretic standpoint this does not seem probable and, moreover, the
clinical results do not seem to warrant the statement.
The value of permanganate of potash depends almost exclusively on
its strong oxidizing power. When taken into the stomach it is
reduced or destroyed more or less quickly according to the nature and
quantity both of the food and of the stomach contents in general. To
be at all efficacious as an antidote the solution must of course react
upon all or a great part of the poison before it acts upon the other
contents of the stomach. It is evident, therefore, that the more rap-
idly it reacts upon any poisonous substance in the presence of the
other organic matter usually contained in the stomach, the more
effective it must be as an antidote for that substance. For instance,
Dr. William Moor’ has shown by experiment that if to a solution of
one grain of morphine sulphate, dissolved in an ounce of water, and
250 grains of the white of egg, one grain of the permanganate of
potash, dissolved in an ounce of water, be added, the morphine will
be immediately destroyed without the albumen being affected. To
convince the medical fraternity of the practical value of the antidote
he semipublicly swallowed 3 grains of morphine sulphate followed
in about 30 seconds by 4 grains of potassium permanganate. No ill
effects were observed, although the dose taken would ordinarily have
proved fatal. In order to obtain any results with the antidote it is
absolutely necessary that the poison should be in the stomach or in the
intestinal canal when the antidote is given. It can not when taken
either into the blood or into the stomach react on the poison which has
already been absorbed into the general circulation unless, as modern
investigation has shown is sometimes the case, the poison is eliminated
from the blood by the cells in the glandular lining of the stomach.
In an investigation made by Prof. Edward Hitzig and quoted by
Dr. Moor, the former took from the stomach of a dog half of the
morphine which had been given it subcutaneously. As these poisons
are reabsorbed from the stomach and intestines and pass again into
the stomach, it is evidently advisable in such cases to repeat the admin-
istration of the antidote one or more times at short intervals (of about
a half hour), until all of the symptoms have disappeared.
It was stated above that the permanganate of potash is destroyed in
the stomach more or less rapidly according to the nature and quantity
of the material contained along with it. It is highly important to
'New York Medical Reporter, vol. 45, pp. 200, 201. 1894.
PERMANGANATE OF POTASH AS A CHEMICAL ANTIDOTE. 45
recognize the fact that this rapidity may be favored by the presence
of certain compounds. It is known that some complex organic sub-
stances are more readily decomposed by the permanganate salt in
alkaline solution than with acids, but it is believed that the reverse
is the case with a great majority of poisonous compounds. In general,
the oxidation is not only more rapid in the case where an acid is pres-
ent but it is also more complete, a larger amount of oxygen being
made available for the purpose. In some instances the amount of
oxygen liberated with the acid is nearly twice as great as with the
alkali.’
Almost all of the purely medical investigators have failed to appre-
ciate the full value of this joint use of other substances with the per-
manganate solution in favoring a more rapid and complete reaction.
No one has laid particular stress upon the point, although Antal in his
first paper suggested that the use of vinegar or lemon juice would
result in the liberation of more oxygen from the permanganate. In
the case of the phosphorus poison, however, he considered the acid
unessential, and he did not make any use of the idea in his other work.
Schlagdenhauffen and Reeb’ also noted, in 1893, that in test-tube exper-
iments the decomposition of coronillin, the poisonous glucoside of a
European leguminous plant known as Coronilla scorpioides, was has-
tened not only by the presence of sulphuric acid but by that of car-
bonate of soda and various salts, such as the sulphates of potassium and
sodium, phosphate of soda, and common salt (sodium chloride), but he
made no use of the suggestion, other than to show how the reaction
might be favored when the permanganate was injected into the blood,
this fluid being alkaline and containing all of the salts above-mentioned.
Dr. Moor has suggested an addition of sulphuric acid or white (not
red) vinegar to form a salt in cases where morphine, an insoluble alka-
loid, is in the stomach, the idea in this case being to get the alkaloid
into a soluble condition, in which ease it will, as is the case with many
alkaloids, more readily unite with other compounds.
In all of our own experiments aluminum sulphate, a common salt,
1This is shown by the following equations:
2 KMn0O,+2 KHO=2 K,MnO,+H,0+0
2 KMnO,+3 H,SO,=K,.SO,+2 MnS0O,+3 H,0-+5 O
The soluble potassium manganate which is immediately formed in the first reaction
is gradually decomposed into the presence of water to the peroxide of manganese,
which is precipitated into caustic potash and into oxygen. Thus:
2 K,MnO,+2 H,O=2 MnO,+4 KHO+2 0
As seen in the second equation, the permanganate is at once decomposed into
manganese sulphate, a soluble salt representing the lowest oxide of manganese, and
at the same time a larger quantity of oxygen is liberated than in the first case, the
proportion for the complete reaction being three molecules for the alkali to five for
the acid.
2 Journ. der Pharmacie von Elsass-Lothringen, vol. 20, pp. 321-325. 1893,
46 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
obtainable at any drug store, was used with the permanganate of pot-
ash on the ground that it is acid in its reaction and can be far more
readily and safely used by stockmen than acids can. No experiments
were made with the permanganate in alkaline or in neutral solutions,
because the results obtained with the acid salt were wholly satisfactory
and we desired to utilize the full oxidizing effect of the permanganate.
An animal’s stomach is usually acid in reaction, but it was feared that
on account of the general alkaline condition of the water which is
drunk freely by stock in Montana, the stomachs of some animals
might not be sufficiently acid to insure the complete oxidation of the
permanganate solution.
W. D. Zoethout' has shown that the fatal effect of some toxic sub-
stances, such as potassium cyanide and atropine, is hastened in the case
of a certain low form of unicellular protozoan life known as Para-
noecium aurelia, if an acid is present at the same time and is retarded
by the presence of the alkali, sodium hydrate. The effect is purely
physiological. This retarding value has not as yet been confirmed in
an experimental way upon animals; still it is quite possible that the
extended use by the stockmen of Montana of sodium carbonate, the
physiological equivalent of sodium hydrate, as an antidote to the poison
of plants may really be a practical demonstration of the matter. On
this account, also, it may be advisable in some instances to use with the
permanganate an alkali instead of an acid. In case the oxidation is not
completed in the stomach the alkali might tend to retard, if it did not
completely offset, the effects of the toxic compound already absorbed
into the system. It is certain, however, that in case of death camas
and larkspur, the two most important groups of poisonous plants in
Montana, it is advisable to use the permanganate in acid solution, or,
more conveniently, with aluminum sulphate. Our experiments with
this salt mixture are described under death camas, larkspur, and false
hel’ebore. Although not so extended as we could wish, they indicate
that the antidote will prove to be generally successful in cases of poi-
soning caused by these plants, and we do not hesitate to recommend it
as an emergency antidote in all cases of plant poisoning, especially in
those which are observed shortly after the plants have been eaten.
Other antidotes must be relied upon if a fatal dose has already been
absorbed from the stomach.
Sheepmen have a great advantage over cattlemen in the use of this
antidote, because sheep, being constantly herded, are soon detected when
poisoned. It takes considerable time for the poison to be extracted
from the various parts of the plant eaten and to be absorbed from the
stomach, so that if the antidote is administered immediately, as would
naturally be the case, there is an excellent chance to destroy most of
1Science, n. ser., vol. 8, pp. 776-778. 1898.
DIRECTIONS FOR USING PERMANGANATE OF POTASH. 47
the poison before it is absorbed. It would be advisable, on account of
the coarse plant particles which are found in an animal’s stomach and
the consequent slow process of extraction, that the permanganate and
aluminum mixture should be administered again after an interval of
perhaps a half hour, but this did not seem to be necessary in our
experiments. The necessity should, in each case, be determined by the
effect of the previous dose. If the animal is at first relieved and then
succumbs again to the symptoms the dose should be repeated.
DIRECTIONS FOR USING PERMANGANATE.
In case of poisoning by plants, especially by death camas and the
larkspur, a solution containing equal weights of permanganate of
potash and sulphate of aluminum should be administered at once.
For adult sheep, take, according to the weight of the animal, from
5 to 10 grains of each of these compounds dissolved in water and
give asa drench. The same dose should be given to hogs. Fifteen
to 20 grains are required for horses and from 30 to 50 for cattle.
These doses are for adults; for very young animals (from 2 to 4
months old) the dose should be made proportionately smaller. In
making these solutions the water used should be sufficient for drench-
ing purposes and may vary from a pint to a quart, or even more.
The water should be pure well or spring water which is not too
strongly alkaline; the chemicals should be very finely powdered to
insure rapid and complete solution, and care should be taken that they
are entirely dissolved before the solution is used. For emergency in
case a large number of animals should be poisoned at the same time,
five hundred or a thousand doses of the dry finely powdered salts
should be kept at hand for immediate use. There is little danger
even within the wide limits given in the last paragraphs of adminis-
tering an excessive dose of this antidote. In one case as much as 375
grains of each salt was given within one and one-half hours to a
2-pound rabbit without causing any ill effect. It is very necessary,
however, to observe one precaution. All of the salt mixture given to
the animal must be in solution. The solid particles, if swallowed, will
stick to the walls of the throat or stomach and cause intense irritation
and may kill the animal. A few fatal cases of human poisoning are
on record which were caused in this way. Since the solution of the
permanganate of potash, owing to the intensity of its purplish color
even in dilute solutions, is almost opaque, the only practical way to
note whether all of the salt is in solution or not is to carefully pour off
the liquid occasionally after it has been allowed to stand a minute or
two and to see if there is still a crystalline residue. As neither of the
salts are very rapidly soluble in water, especially when not finely
powdered, it may require several minutes before they are completely
dissolved.
48 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
METHOD OF DRENCHING.
The sheep is a docile and easily managed animal, so that no method
of applying remedies presents any difficulties. The only question in
this connection to be considered by the sheep owner is that of the con-
venience and rapidity of application. In cases where hundreds of
sheep are poisoned simultaneously no direct remedy is practicable
which requires special skill or any great length of time for its appli-
cation. Probably the method which will prove most convenient for
the stockman is that of drenching. For this purpose a cow horn,
long-necked bottle, or regular drenching bottle may be used.
In drenching, the sheep should be set upright and care should be
exercised that the solution is not spilled or wasted. With but little
experience the drench may be given rapidly with no danger to the
sheep. Where any considerable number of sheep are poisoned at one
time it will be found convenient to dissolve a large quantity of potas-
sium permanganate in such proportions that an amount of the solution
convenient for drenching, say a pint, will contain the required amount
of potassium permanganate. This substance is a powerful agent and
forms a somewhat explosive mixture when combined with organic
substances, and therefore must not be mixed with sirup or similar
substances. Otherwise, no special precaution is to be observed in its
use. It would, of course, be a strong irritant if taken as a salt or in
a concentrated solution, but no injurious effects were noted when solu-
tions of the strength recommended were given to lambs two weeks old.
The difficulties of drenching horses and cattle are not great in case
of dairy cows and family horses. In treating range stock, however,
it will be necessary, of course, to rope the animal before administering
the drench.
On account of the physiological action of a few poisonous plants in
causing paralysis of the throat, or because of the difficulty in managing
an animal, it is sometimes impossible in the case of sheep, cattle, and
other ruminating animals to force the antidote down the throat. In this
case the solution should be injected directly into the stomach through
the walls of the body. As is well known, the stomach in ruminating
animals is joined without any intervening spaces, as in the case of
horses, to a certain part of the body wall. This circumstance renders
it safe by use of the trochar and canula, sold by dealers in veterinary
instruments for the purpose (or even a common knife), to make an
opening into the stomach and to inject the antidote. It is a common
practice thus to perforate the stomach of a cow or sheep to relieve gas
pressure in case of bloat, and the same method is occasionally employed
in administering medicines. A full account of the practice, with direc-
tions for locating the particular area for the incision, is given in the
directions for the treatment of bloat.
OCCASIONS AND CHARACTER OF BLOAT. 49
TYMPANITES OR BLOAT.
It is well known to stockmen that a number of the legumes may
produce serious or even fatal cases of bloating in sheep and cattle.
The plants which most often cause this trouble are alfalfa, white clover,
and red clover. Asa rule these plants produce bloat only when eaten
in a green condition. A few cases of tympanites, however, have been
reported as due to eating one or the other of these plants in the form
of hay. Stockmen frequently allow cattle and sheep to graze upon
clover and alfalfa meadows in the late fall ’after the stock has been
brought in from the range. At such times the clover and alfalfa
usually have a height of about 4 to 6 inches and are still growing more
or less vigorously according to the prevailing temperature. Cattle
and sheep frequently suffer from various digestive disturbances which
are due to the sudden change of diet from the dry grass upon the
ranges to the green succulent growth of the young clover and alfalfa.
In regard to the tendency to produce bloating, there seems to be iit-
tle difference between the cultivated clover and alfalfa. There is, how-
ever, a strong belief among a large number of stockmen that these
plants do not cause bloat except under peculiar conditions. It is fre-
quently asserted that green alfalfa and clovers may be eaten with
impunity by cattle or sheep at all times except when moistened by dew
or rain. Other stockmen believe that these plants are more likely to
produce bloating when eaten immediately after a slight frost. No
experiments have been conducted which would either prove or dis-
prove these beliefs.
It appears to be well established that cattle and sheep may become
accustomed to eating these plants in a green state so that no bad effects
are produced by feeding upon them. It is, perhaps, to be considered
unwise to allow stock which are not accustomed to these plants in a
green state to feed upon them exclusively. A better plan would be to
permit such animals to graze upon them for a short time each day
until the digestive organs have become accustomed to the change of
diet.
A considerable number of sheep and cattle die every year from bloat-
ing, and this trouble becomes quite serious at times. In the case of
bloat the production of gas in the first stomach of sheep and cattle
goes on so rapidly that the animal may die within from fifteen min-
utes to two hours unless assistance is rendered by the attendants.
With sheep the timely detection of bloating is rendered easy by the
fact that these animals are kept under the constant attention of a
herder. With cattle the matter stands very differently. Little atten-
tion is paid to their movements, and consequently it frequently hap-
pens that cases of bloating among them are not noticed until after the
death of che animal.
S. Doc. 160-——4
50 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
The remedies in common use by herders and cowboys for prevent-
ing fatal results from bloating are doses of lard or fat pork, and
paunching or rumenotomy. The usual method of making an incision
in the stomach is by means of a long knife witha blade an inch or more
in width. The knife is plunged directly through the body wall and
into the stomach with a single stroke. The gases are thus allowed to
escape through this opening and the pressure within the digestive
organs is relieved. Some stockmen prefer to use the trochar and
canula, which are especially designed for such cases and are for sale
by dealers in veterinary instruments. The chief advantage is that the
opening made by this instrument is much smaller than that produced
by the knife, heals more readily, and is less likely to result in any
complications.
With regard to the value of these remedies for bloating it may be
stated that they are exceedingly effective and quite safe in the hands
of the average herder and cowboy. A few cases were observed in
sheep where the herder had cut a slit of the length of 5 or 6 inches
through the walls of the stomach, thus rendering it almost impossible
for the wound to heal without the use of sutures. It is entirely unnec-
essary, however, to make incisions of greater length than 2 inches
either in sheep or cattle to allow the gas to escape readily. In cases
where the formation of gas does not take place rapidly and where the
animals are noticed as soon as they begin to bloat the liberal applica-
tion of cathartics is often quite sufficient to check the process of fer-
mentation. Large doses of soda may also be given in connection with
cathartics. Where, on the other hand, the production of gas has gone
so far that the animal is unable to walk, immediate relief is necessary
in order to prevent fatal consequences. The gas pressure upon the
inside of the first stomach may become so great as to interfere with
respiration and the action of the heart, or even to rupture the dia-
phragm or the stomach walls. The only way in which this pressure
may be relieved is to make an incision directly into the stomach
through that part of its wall which is adherent to the body-wall, as
already explained.
A number of stockmen have inquired concerning the exact point at
which the incision should be made. The proper place is located upon
the left side of the body at a point equidistant from the last rib, the
angle of the hip bone, and the vertebral column. After a little
experience it will be easily found.
NONPOISONOUS PLANTS WHICH ARE MECHANICALLY
DANGEROUS.
There occur in Montana, as indeed throughout the entire West,
occasional losses of stock which are due to plants acting in a purely
mechanical way, no poisonous substance being present. We refer to
ie
Pal
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Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE lI.
DEATH CAMAS (ZYGADENUS VENENOSUS).
DEATH CAMAS. 51
the penetrating action of the sharp barbed awns of the porcupine
grass (Stipa spartea) and squirreltail (Hordeum jubatum). Both of
these grasses niake good fodder if cut when they are still young, but
when nearly mature the awns easily separate and frequently get into
the mouth and throat or the eyes and ears of stock, where they pen-
etrate into the tissues and give rise ultimately to ulcers which cause
such intense suffering to the animal that it must sometimes be killed.
The squirreltail grass is well known throughout the State; the porcu-
pine grass is not nearly so common.
PLANTS POISONOUS TO STOCK IN MONTANA, OR SO REPUTED.
MOST IMPORTANT POISONOUS SPECIES.
DEATH CAMAS.!
(Zygadenus venenosus S. Wats.)
Other names: Poison camas, lobelia, squirrel food, wild onion,
poison sego, poison sego lily, mystery grass.
DESCRIPTION, HABITAT, AND DISTRIBUTION.
A smooth, simple-stemmed perennial with a coated, onion-like bulb,
narrow, linear leaves, and a short terminal cluster of yellowish-green
Howers. The plant grows everywhere in Montana in moderately
moist places on open ranges. Outside of Montana it is found from
British Columbia to South Dakota, Nebraska, Utah, and California.
Of all the various plants which are known or suspected to poison
stock in early spring in Montana the death camas is undoubtedly the
most important. This plant is found in every county of the State,
and on every stock range which we had opportunity to visit. It
usually occurs in great abundance in the localities where it is found,
and these localities are, unfortunately, as a rule, moderately moist
places, where the grass starts earliest in the spring. Another reason
why this plant has to be considered the most important poisonous one
concerned in cases of spring poisoning is that it starts up very early,
usually somewhat in advance of the native grasses. A third reason is
that its leaves are narrow and resemble grass leaves, though at the
same time slightly thicker and more succulent than grass. These
1Under the name death camas we mean to include those Montana forms which
for many years have been known as Zygadenus venenosus. These have recently been
separated into several new species, which were described by Dr. P. A. Rydberg in
the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, vol. 27, pp. 533 to 536, 1900. Our speci-
mens were identified by Rydberg as the species which he has named Z. gramineus and
Z. intermedius. Another authority to whom the specimens were submitted was of the
opinion that our specimens belong to a single species. It is quite possible that they
are distinct from Z. venenosus, but they have not been so considered in making up
our notes.
52 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
facts, combined with the fact that all parts of the plant are poisonous,
make it apparent that in death camas the stockman has a dangerous
enemy.
The preferred habitat or location in which the death camas usually
grows is the familiar shallow ravine, or ‘‘ coulee, ” which occurs in large
numbers on the sides of foothills and mountains and upon the plains.
So far as our observations go, the death camas does not grow in the
driest situations of the level plain. It often grows abundantly, how-
ever, on high bench lands, in the shallow depressions found in such
locations. After a little experience in the study of the habitat of this
plant, one can detect at long distances the particular places in which
it is likely to be found.
In Montana the death camas grows at altitudes varying from 1,900
to 8,000 feet, or, in other words, at all altitudes at which sheep are
grazed in the State. Ordinarily the death camas does not grow along
banks of streams, or in swampy places. It may be said to prefer local-
ities in which a moderate amount of moisture is found as the result of
slow seepage from the surrounding country. It is even more abundant
on pasture lands in Montana than is the purple larkspur (Delphinium
bicolor). On many ranges one could not walk ten feet in a straight
line anywhere without tramping upon at least a half dozen of these
plants.
As already indicated, death camas, although limited in its distribu-
tion to particular localities on the range, nevertheless occurs in great
abundance in these localities. It would, therefore, be an easy matter
for sheep, in a short time, to find and eat a sufficient number of death
camas plants to produce fatal results. In collecting material for feed-
ing experiments, we dug up 250 in the course of a half hour, and it is
quite possible that a sheep might eat the plant even more rapidly in
localities where it was especially abundant.
HISTORY AS A POISONOUS PLANT.
The earlier explorers of the Western, and especially of the North-
western, United States frequently mention the poisonous character of
the bulbs of one or the other of the various species of Zygadenus, and
refer to them as poison camas or poison sego, in order to distinguish
them from bulbs of two other groups of plants, Quamasia and Calo-
chortus, which were commonly known as camas and wild sego, and were
much used for food both by the Indians and by travelers.’ Accounts
of the poisoning of stock from eating the roots and leaves of various
species have but recently been sent in to this Department. These were
from northern California, Nevada, Oregon, Washington, Utah, Idaho,
'The Ogallala Sioux Indians of South Dakota call the plant peji wakan, which,
being interpreted, means ‘‘mystery grass.’’ The real significance of the name is not
known.
DEATH CAMAS. 53
and Montana, and from as far east as South Dakota. Our attention
was particularly called to the abundance and wide distribution of Z.
venenosus in Montana, and to its fatal effect wpon stock, by Mr. Thomas
B. Magee, Browning, Montana. Prof. F. H. Hillman, of the Agri-
cultural Experiment Station of Nevada, has caited attention in two
short newspaper bulletins to the poisonous nature of the wild sego
(Z. paniculatus 5S. Wats).
It is impossible to state definitely whether the parts of the plant
above ground or the bulbs are responsible for the most cases of poi-
soning. Feeding experiments show conclusively that both the leaves
and bulbs are poisonous. Apparently, however, the bulbs are more
actively poisonous than the leaves. Whether the sheep eat the bulbs
of death camas or not, depends almost entirely on the condition of
the ground in each individual case. If the ground is at all dry, or
only moderately moist, it is absolutely impossible for sheep to pull up
the bulb with the stem. We had experimented with hundreds of death
camas plants for the purpose of determining this point, and had come
to the provisional conclusion that it is impossible to pull up the bulbs
with the stems. In collecting some plants immediately after a heavy
rain storm, however, it was found that the bulbs could readily be
pulled through the soft ground. About three out of five plants pulled
in the ordinary manner came up with the bulbs attached.
During the season of 1900, sheep died from eating death camas at
various dates in the month of May and in the earlier part of June.
The earliest date was April 25, and the greatest amount of poisoning
occurred between May 5 and May 20. From notes made in the field
it appears that 636 sheep died during the season of 1900 from the
effect of eating Zygadenus, while the total number poisoned by this
plant was 3,030. About 21 per cent of the number affected died, while
the remaining 79 per cent recovered. This death rate may be slightly
lower or higher than the average rate for this plant, direct observa-
tions on this point being limited to this single year. The figures as
given are based on the death or recovery of aduit sheep, and do not
include fatalities among lambs. The death rate among lambs was in
many instances considerably higher than that of the adult sheep, and
this observation applies to lambs which had not begun to eat grass or
other plants, but which were poisoned by the ewe’s milk. It is of
interest to observe that a considerable number of lambs died from the
effects of the milk of ewes which were themselves only slightly affected
by the death camas. The death rate is, therefore, in reality slightly
higher than the figures already given would indicate, for the reason,
as already mentioned, that deaths among the lambs were not included
in the figures, and for the further reason that the death of an ewe at
a time when ‘the lamb is not older than 2 weeks means the ultimate
death of the lamb. It is the general observation of sheep men that
54 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
lambs seldom begin to eat anything before the age of 1 month, and
that they are unable to make a good growth if deprived of the mother’s
milk before the age of 3 months. The death rate among sheep from
eating Zygadenus varied to a considerable extent in different bands;
for instance, in one band 2,000 sheep were poisoned and 100 died; in
another 200 were poisoned and 90 died, while in a third 100 were
poisoned and 48 died. It will thus be seen that the death rate varied
from 5 to 48 per cent.
EXPERIMENTS.
In order to ascertain the approximate and relative weights of the .
bulbs and the leafy tops at flowering time, five fresh medium-sized
plants were secured June 6. The total weight of these was 32.7
grams. The five bulbs, including 13 inches of the stem, weighed 15.2
grams, while the remainder weighed 17.5 grams. The average weight
for the plant was therefore about 63 grams, of the bulb 33, and of the
leaf and floral parts 3; grams. These bulbs were not bitter or repul-
sive to the taste. Bulbs collected in other parts of the State were
quite bitter, especially after a few moments’ chewing. It is possible
that the taste varies with the stage of growth and the locality. The
leaves of the flowering plants are bitter, and are probably on this
account generally refused by animals. Several attempts were made
to persuade horses to eat a single spray of the leaves, but always
without success. Only once did one allow the plant to get iato its
mouth, and then the leaves were concealed in a large bunch of fresh
lupine leaves.
A supply of plants gathered on the evening of May 22, when the
flowering stem was still crisp and in bud, was kept turgid over night
and then separated into two portions—the well-cleaned bulbs, includ-
ing about an inch of the stem, which weighed 45.6 grams, and the tops,
which weighed 55.5 grams. These were ground separately ina sausage
mill and then macerated for about an hour with about 100 cubic centi-
meters of lukewarm distilled water. Both leaves and rvots had a
decidedly soapy feeling when mashed up with water in the hands.
The pure juice was distinctly irritating when left on the hands for
several minutes. The aqueois extract of the leaves was of a clear
green color, that of the:roots turbid and milky. Both were strained
through a linen sack and diluted to 110 cubic centimeters.
Experiment 1.—On May 23, at 2 p. m., 1 cubic centimeter of the
leaf extract was injected hypodermically into a rabbit weighing 14
pounds. At the end of fifteen minutes there was a decided appear-
ance of uneasiness, the breathing was shallow, and the head moved
rythmically, as if the animal were dizzy. Very shortly afterwards the
animal fell over in a convulsive fit and then ran forcibly into a wall,
thus showing that its eyesight was affected. The breathing speedily
EXPERIMENTS WITH DEATH CAMAS. 55
became irregular, but the heart beat was about normal. The princi-
pal poisonous action was undoubtedly on the lungs. The hind legs
were paralyzed, and soon the animal became entirely motionless, as if
narcotized. It was sensitive to needle pricks, but would permit its
hind legs to be placed in unnatural positions. The heart action was
good during most of the time. The breathing gradually improved,
but the rabbit remained motionless for several hours. -Complete
neryous prostration was apparent throughout the whole of the next
day, the animal appearing as if narcotized. It ate no food, and died
during the next night.
Experiment 2.—One cubic centimeter of the same leaf extract pre-
viously used was administered on May 22, at 4.10 p. m., subcutaneously
to a 2-pound rabbit. The first symptom, a marked choking action
with an oft-repeated backward motion of the head, appeared at 4.27.
At 4.35 it was noticed that the breathing was irregular and slow, and
that the animal was very much disinclined to move. At 5 the breath-
ing was still very much impaired, but the heart action was good. The
rabbit had been motionless since 4.35. At 6 it was reported to be in
nearly the same condition, and on the next morning the recovery was
practically complete.
Experiment 3.—One cubic centimeter of the root extract was admin-
istered hypodermically to a rabbit weighing about 2 pounds, on May
o9, at 4.45 p.m. At 5 there was a slight throbbing or dizzy motion
of the head. At 5.2 it was walking about in a lively manner, but
with a peculiar ambling gait, the fore leg having been partially para-
lyzed. This was continued for about half an hour, the animal being
not at all comfortable. At 6 it was reported to have been in a fair
way to recovery. During the night it made its escape from the pen,
and could not subsequently be recovered.
Experiment 4.—Two cubic centimeters of the leaf extract was
injected hypodermically into a 2-pound rabbit May 23, at 11 a. m.
At 11.9 the choking began, and a little saliva began to run from the
mouth. At 11.15 the breathing was irregular and slow, the animal
having moved but little. At 11.17 it had spasms, falling backward
and sidewise. At 11.20 it had scarcely enough energy to keep its nose
off the floor or to stand. At about 11.27, while dozing, it fell back-
ward in a spasm and lay prostrate on its stomach, with its head side-
wise on the floor. Its hind legs were beyond control, its eyes were
vapidiy losing their luster, and it was gasping for breath. Another
spasm occurred at 11.36, which was followed by gasping. ‘The resp
ration was, on the whole, very shallow. At 11.40 the rabbit was not
sensitive to needle pricks. There was more gasping and another
spasm. Two minutes later the pupils became contracted, and the
rabbit died after three minutes.
The post-mortem exainination made immediately after death showed
56 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
that the heart was full of dark, unaerated blood and that the lungs,
especially the left one, were also badly congested. The liver was
darker than usual, but the other organs were in good condition.
Experiment 5.—¥ive cubic centimeters of the same leaf extract used
in the preceding experiments was fed May 23, at 2.4 p. m., through
a rubber tube to a rabbit weighing 1 pound 10$ ounces. At 2.30,
after having been running around as usual, it became noticeably
quieter and showed a little irregularity of breathing. At 2.54 it was
a little ill at ease. At 4 it appeared much brighter. Ten cubic centi-
meters more of the solution was then administered. It rested quietly
the remainder of the day, being much disinclined to move yet not
strikingly ill at ease. The experiment was unfortunately terminated
by the escape of the rabbit during the night.
Experiment 6.—On May 25, 11.55 a. m., 15 cubic centimeters of
the water extract of the leaves was fed to a rabbit weighing 1 pound
12 ounces. At 12.5 the first sign of uneasiness was exhibited in a
peculiar chewing motion of the mouth, which seemed to indicate burn-
ing pain in that organ. This was followed by prolonged drowsiness,
with an occasional rapid shaking of the head. There was no strongly
marked difficulty in the breathing. At1 the animal was walking around
freely and eating, but it continued the head movements and its ears
were depressed, showing that there was still considerable discomfort.
At 1.15 15 cubic centimeters more of the extract was administered.
At 3.10 and 3.30 the rabbit appeared well, and as it was sufficiently
active to play with a piece of paper at the latter time the experiment
was discontinued. The solution was too dilute for satisfactory feeding
experiments, the capacity of the stomachs of the rabbits used in the
experiment being insufficient for a much larger dose.
Experiment 7.—¥ifty grams of the fresh leafy tops, about half the
flowers of which had expanded, was offered at 5.25 p. m., June 6, to
a rabbit weighing about a pound. As the animal was hungry, it ate
some of the plants, flowers and all, quite readily, even though they
were dry and uninviting in comparison with younger plants not yet in
blossom. At 6, when the residue was weighed, only 13.1 grams had
disappeared, so that this was the amount eaten. As, however, the
first symptoms, which came on at 6, were strongly characteristic of
the poisonous substance contained in the plant, it is quite probable
that most of the 13.1 grams was eaten very shortly after 5.25 p. m.
The first symptom was a pose much like that of a person who is
about to sneeze, the animal resting on its hind feet with its front feet
held close together in front of its face. Instead of sneezing, however,
it threw its head backward again and again, often nearly losing its
balance in so doing. There was an apparent dizziness, and the eye-
sight was slightly impaired, for it once ran into the side of the cage.
This was not, however,a marked symptom. The animal grated its
EXPERIMENTS WITH DEATH CAMAS. 57
teeth and was uneasy and restless. The pupils were considerably
enlarged. At 6.7 a partial paralysis of the respiration was noted.
The breathing was extremely slow and there was considerable chok-
ing. At 10.10 the next morning, June 7, it ate food, although spar-
ingly. It would walk and run of its own accord and in other ways it
afforded proof that it had very nearly recovered.
At 2.40 the same day 50 grams more of the fresh leaves was offered
to the same rabbit. It ate rapidly at first, but soon became dissatis-
fied, and although very hungry, it refused to eat more. The exact
amount eaten was not determined, nor many of the symptoms noted
on account of an accident. A difficulty in the respiration was observed
at 2.55, and Mr. Cockrell, who was watching the animal, thought that
the respiratory symptoms were more pronounced after the animal had
taken a good drink of water. This trouble was apparent throughout
the day. Twenty-five grams of fresh leaves of flowering plants was
offered to the same rabbit at about noon on June 8. The weight of
the leaves left uneaten when compared with the weight of a check sub-
jected to influences even more favorable to evaporation indicated that
none were eaten. No further effects were noted except the continued
defect in respiration, but the rabbit died during the night, probably
from the combined effect of the several feedings.
_ Experiment 8.—Three hundred cubic centimeters of a water extract,
representing 300 grams of the fresh flowering tops and leaves, was fed
to a sheep weighing about 65 pounds at 3.15 p. m. June 12. No
effect whatever was noted up to 8 p. m. nor on the following day.
Euperiment 9.—The strongly expressed residue from the extract
used in the preceding experiment was allowed to stand over night in
such an amount of 50 per cent alcohol that after a very slight dilution
on the same day 1 cubic centimeter represented 1 gram of the fresh
plant. One and one-half cubic centimeters, representing 1} grams of
the fresh plant, was administered hypodermically June 12 to a 40-
ounce rabbit. This amount, although small, had a very marked effect,
but was not fatal. The result warranted the institution of the two
following experiments, which were made with the same extract.
Experiment 10.—Three hundred cubic centimeters of the 50 per
cent alcoholic extract used in the preceding experiment was fed at
12.21 p. m., June 14, to a sheep weighing about 50 pounds. Disre-
garding the general symptoms due to alcohol, which were also observed
in another sheep that received an equal amount of 47 per cent alcohol
at the same time, the prominent characteristic effects were as follows:
At 2.30 there was considerable frothing of green saliva at the mouth,
which was accompanied by a gurgling of the throat and very labored,
irregular breathing. There were but 12 inspirations a minute and
sometimes two attempts at a single one. The pulse was about 160 a
minute and strong. At 3.24 the sheep was becoming conscious, but
58 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
was unable to rise, and it remained in this condition until after 7 p. m.
The gurgling, labored respiration and sighing continued throughout
that time, but the frothing ceased after an hour or so. The rectal
temperature at 5.25 was 101.8. The animal had sufliciently recovered
by the next morning to go out and graze with the remainder of the
little band of which it was a member. ©
Experiment 11.—Precisely the same amount of the same extract
used in Experiment 10 was fed in the same way at 2.55 p. m. to a
sheep weighing approximately the same; but before withdrawing the
tube 25 cubic centimeters of a solution containing 1 per cent each of
the permanganate of potash and sulphate of aluminum was poured
into it and this was washed down into the stomach with water. A
deep sleep soon came over the animal from which it did not awaken
until after night, but although watched very carefully until past 7.15
p- m. it did not exhibit any of the symptoms recorded for the previous
experiment.
Experiment 12.—On May 21 two healthy sheep were placed in a
corral and fed, respectively, 30 plants of death camas without the
bulb and 20 with the bulb, or approximately 105 grams and 220 grams
of these materials. These two sheep were not hungry and would
not of their own accord eat the death camas when placed in a box near
them. When the sheep were held, however, and the death camas
placed in contact with their lips they ate it readily. One hour later
symptoms of poisoning began to be manifested which were exactly
identical with those previously observed in the field. The quantity of
death camas fed to these two sheep was not quite sufficient to cause
death, although they were seriously poisoned and required three days
for a complete recovery from the effects.
Experiment 13.—On June 8 two other sheep were fed each 40 death
camas plants with bulbs, or approximately 440 grams. The same symp-
toms were manifested in a more violent form, and both sheep died
after the lapse of five and six hours respectively. The death camas
plants fed to both these sheep were in full flower. At the time
of this experiment the plants at the lower altitudes were already
in seed and the leaves and stems were yellow and shriveled, but
the plants used were collected at an altitude of about 6,000 feet,
where they were in the prime of flowering. The plants employed in
both experiments were therefore as nearly as possible in the same
stage of growth. As these experiments were conducted in the field
the means were not at hand for weighing accurately. The weights as
given above are calculated from average weights as previously deter-
mined. It would therefore appear that the fatal dose for sheep is
between one-half pound and 1 pound.
Experiment 14.—Remedies which were tried in this and the follow-
ing experiment included hypodermic injections of strychnine in one-
EXPERIMENTS WITH DEATH CAMAS. 59
twentieth, one-tenth, and one-fifth grain doses, hypodermic injections
of atropine in one-sixtieth and one-thirtieth grain doses, and solutions
of potassium permanganate. The strychnine and atropine were given
by means of the ordinary hypodermic syringe in different parts of the
body, usually behind the front leg in the bare area of skin at that point.
The atropine was given both alone and with morphine, as is customary
in human practice. The potassium permanganate was given in 4-grain
doses, and each dose contained also 1 grain of aluminum sulphate.
Both these substances were pulverized and dissolved in about a pint of
water. Doses were given both as a drench and by means of direct
injection through the body wall into the stomach. In some cases also
the sheep were allowed to drink the solution. The results which were
obtained did not indicate any advantage in favor of any method, for in
all cases the solutions seemed to be equally effective, whether given as
a drench, injected directly into the stomach, or asadrink. For inject-
ing the solution directly into the stomach a large aspirating syringe
was used. The solution when applied in this way was kept in a bottle
connected by means of a rubber tube with the syringe. An ordinary
trochar and canula were used for penetrating into the stomach. By
means of this apparatus a half pint of the solution could be very quickly
pumped into the stomach. The process requires, however, rather more
time than the drenching method, and since the action of the solution
was no more effective when injected directly into the stomach than
when given as a drench, the drenching method will probably be pre-
ferred by stockmen as being shorter and more convenient.
The first experiment with these remedies and methods was made on
May 15, 1900, on a sheep range near Great Falls. A number of sheep
had been poisoned by Zygadenus two days previously. About 20 of
the most severe cases had been hauled into a covered shed. Here the
sheep were lying upon their sides in the condition of complete paralysis
referred to in the description of the symptoms of poisoning from this
plant. Five of the sheep were given hypodermic injections of strych-
nine, 5 others similar injections of atropine, 5 others solutions of
potassium permanganate, and the remaining 5 were left without treat-
ment. Of the 5 sheep which were treated with potassium perman-
ganate 2 were drenched, 2 others received direct: injections into the
_stomach, and 1 was allowed to drink the solution from a small bucket.
Of the 5 which were treated with strychnine, 2 sheep received one-
twentieth grain, 2 one-tenth grain, and 1 one-fifth grain. Of the 5
which were treated with atropine, 2 received one-sixtieth and 3 one-
thirtieth grain. All these sheep were examined three hours later,
when it was found that the 5 which had been given potassium perman-
ganate were in a much improved condition and were able to walk.
The herder, who watched the sheep during this period, stated that
60 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
some of these 5 sheep had got up of their own accord, walked about
for a few minutes, and then lain down again. The breathing of these
sheep was much improved and regurgitation through the mouth and
nostrils had ceased. The 5 sheep which were treated with strychnine
were in a slightly better condition than before the treatment. Some
improvement was noticeable in the pulse and respiration. None of
them, however, could stand on their feet even when placed in that
position. Of the 5 sheep which were treated with atropine, 2 had died,
and the other 3 were not improved in their condition. Four out of
the 5 sheep which were untreated were apparently in the same condi-
tion as when previously inspected, while the fifth had died. The 4
others died later. These experiments indicate that potassium perman-
ganate is an efficient antidote for poisoning by death camas. Atropine,
on the other hand, seems not to be indicated in these cases, while strych-
nine seems to have only feeble power of antagonizing the action of
death camas. All of the sheep which were treated with atropine, and
all but 1 of those treated with strychnine, ultimately died, while the
5 sheep which received potassium permanganate made a complete
recovery.
To appreciate fully the force of the evidence, it should be considered
that at the time when the three remedies mentioned above were applied
the sheep were in a hopeless condition. Both the herder and the
foreman gave it as their opinion that all of the 20 sheep would die it
left to themselves. They all had been in a condition of complete
paralysis for a period of from twenty-four to thirty-six hours. Potas-
sium permanganate was used in these experiments as a chemical
antidote on account of its oxidizing power, and a pronounced effect
in counteracting the physiological action of the death camas was not
expected. It was hoped that if given during the early stages of
the poisoning while the most of the poisonous plant which had been
eaten was still in the first stomach, the poisonous principle might be
destroyed by its action before being absorbed into the blood. Not
enough was known concerning its physiological action to lead one to
expect that it would serve as a physiological antidote. The result
would seem to indicate, however, that the physiological action of
potassium permanganate is to some extent antagonistic to that of death
camas, and that at the same time its chemical action brings about
prompt and complete destruction of the poisonous principles of this
plant. In the cases of poisoning now under discussion it is evident
that a considerable quantity of the poison must have been dissolved
and absorbed into the blood at the time when the potassium perman-
ganate was given, and this portion of the poison it was evidently
impossible to destroy by any chemical in the stomach. If it should
prove on further investigation that potassium permanganate has no
physiological action antagonistic to that of death camas, we must
SYMPTOMS OF POISONING WITH DEATH CAMAS. 61
apparently conclude that sheep can recover from very severe cases of
poisoning by this plant, provided such quantity of the plant as still
remains in the stomach is rendered nonpoisonous by chemical means,
such as the use of potassium permanganate.
Experiment 15.—On subsequent dates in the month of May potas-
sium permanganate was given to 15 adult sheep and 20 lambs which
had been poisoned by eating death camas. In all cases the animals
were much improved by this treatment within two hours and the
majority of them recovered ultimately, although reports have not
been received on a few of the lambs. The lambs which received this
treatment were from two weeks to one month old, and did not as yet
eat any grass or other plants. The poison which they received was,
therefore, contained in the mother’s milk. The lambs were given
from one-half gram to 13 grams of the potassium permanganate,
according to the size. The solutions were administered both as a
drench and by direct injection into the stomach. The treatment was
given in most cases immediately after the lamb had been suckled by
the ewe. The potassium permanganate seemed to have a decidedly
beneficial action in checking the digestive disturbances produced by
the action of the death camas in the lambs. The stiffness of gait and
other irregular muscular movements were also corrected within a few
hours. :
SYMPTOMS AND EVIDENCES OF POISONING.
The symptoms were remarkably uniform in the Jarge number of
cases observed, and the following description should enable any sheep
raiser to recognize the cases of poisoning by death camas. The first
signs of poisoning are a certain uneasiness and irregularity in the
movements of the sheep. These irregularities rapidly become more
and more pronounced, accompanied by incoordination of the muscular
movements, spasms, and rapid breathing. Although sheep are highly
excited under the influence of Zygadenus poisoning, the cerebral
symptoms seldom constitute a condition of frenzy. It was readily
observed that until a few minutes before death ewes were able to
recognize their lambs, and indicated in other ways that they were not
in any sense crazed. The later symptoms were those of complete
motor paralysis, combined with an exceedingly rapid and shallow
breathing and a frequent weak pulse. The duration of these different
stages of the poisoning varied to a considerable extent and depended
entirely upon the amount of death camas which the sheep had eaten.
In cases where large quantities had been eaten the different symptoms
succeeded one another rapidly, the spasms and labored breathing were
very noticeable, and death resulted within from one to three hours
after the first manifestations of poisoning. In many cases, however,
the sheep passed through the first symptoms slowly, and after about
62 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
ten or twelve hours became unable to walk, stand, or even raise their
heads, remaining in this condition of complete muscular paralysis for
a period of from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. During this time
the sheep, as just indicated, lay flat upon the side and did not move
any voluntary muscle. The breathing was in these cases so shallow
that it was scarcely perceptible and the sheep appeared to be dead. A
small percentage of the sheep recovered after being in this condition
for a few hours, but very few ever got upon their feet after being
paralyzed for twenty-four hours. Careful post-mortem examinations
were made on about 40 sheep which had died from eating death
camas. The lungs were in all instances much congested and heavy
with blood, being in a so-called hepatized condition. There were no
lesions in the membranes of the brain, and for the most part no con-
gestion of them. In a few instances of cases of long duration there
was a slight congestion of the cerebral membranes. In cases of adult
sheep the effect upon the digestive organs was not marked. There
was usually to be observed an increased salivation and a regurgitation
through the mouth and nostrils. These last symptoms were present
in nearly all cases from the first to the last stages. In lambs the
symptoms which have been described for adult sheep were present,
with the addition of pronounced digestive disturbances. The symp-
toms appeared in the lamb soon after their manifestation in the mother,
and the poisoning usually ran a more rapid course in the former than
in the latter. The digestive disturbances in the lambs were frequently
of an acute nature, usually assuming the form of painful and violent
enteritis and dysentery, from which the lambs died in the course of
afew hours. In cases where the ewes ate only a small quantity of
death camas and were only slightly affected by it, their lambs exhibited
much milder symptoms. The lambs thus affected could be readily
recognized by their stiffness of gait and their inability to keep up
with the herd.
The symptoms which were produced experimentally by feeding the
death camas to sheep, were identical with those which have been men-
tioned as characterizing natural poisoning by this plant. Such experi-
ments, however, were confined to dry sheep, so that no opportunity
was had of observing the symptoms of experimental poisoning in
lambs.
As happens in connection with a number of poisonous plants, the
majority of sheep which were poisoned by death camas were yearlings
and two-year-olds. Perhaps sheep form more fixed and settled habits
of feeding as they grow older, or it is barely possible that they learn
by experience to avoid injurious plants. There was no indication that
ewes with lambs at their sides were any more apt to eat death camas
than were dry sheep.
In conversation with stockmen attention was frequently called to the
DEATH CAMAS. 63
fact that in cases where a large number of sheep were poisoned at the
same time by eating death camas, a striking variation was noticed in
the length of time required for the development of the symptoms of
poisoning in different sheep. This observation seems especially inter-
esting in view of the fact that ordinarily a band of sheep is moved to
another locality as soon as symptoms of poisoning are noticed. Some-
times the band is immediately driven to a corral. Even under these
circumstances the time at which the first symptoms of poisoning appear
may vary from one to five or more hours. The only reasonable expla-
nation which suggests itself is to be found in the anatomy and habits
of the sheep. As is well known, the first stomach of a sheep is capable
of containing a large quantity of material. It is another fact of every-
day observation that sheep are ordinarily not contented, and do not
lie down for noonday rest until this stomach is completely filled. It
will readily be understood that a given quantity of a poisonous plant
eaten along with a much larger quantity of grass, would naturally
come to occupy different positions in the stomach in different sheep.
Evidently the sheep is not affected by a poisonous plant until its sub-
stance is dissolved and absorbed into the general circulation. It might
well happen that a quantity of the poisonous plant, sufficient to cause
death, could be in the center of a great mass of other material found in
the first stomach. In such a position the poison would certainly not
affect the sheep, and it would be evidently impossible to predict how
soon it might come to lie against the wall of the first stomach, or how
soon it might be taken up, masticated, and swallowed into the diges-
tive stomach. The time at which this takes place will naturally vary
in different sheep, and consequently the time at which the first symp-
toms of poisoning are manifested will vary in the same manner. In
the case of animals which have only a single comparatively small
stomach, as in the horse and pig, it would be manifestly impossible for
so long a time to intervene after eating poisonous plants before the
symptoms of poisoning are manifested.
From observation and experiment, the evidence establishing the
poisonous nature of death camas seems quite conclusive. In making
post-mortem examinations of sheep which had died with the above-
mentioned symptoms the stomach contents were carefully studied with
the result that the leaves, flowering stems or bulbs of death camas
were found in every case. Sheep which were seen eating the plant
when feeding at leisure upon the range showed within a few hours the
symptoms described. In looking over the ranges where the sheep had
been poisoned death camas was found growing abundantly in the exact
localities where the sheep were poisoned. A study of these localities
showed that death camas had been eaten extensively there and careful
investigation failed to disclose the presence of any other plant which
64 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
can reasonably be suspected of being poisonous, with the single excep-
tion of the purple larkspur. This latter plant, however, had not been
eaten by the sheep in localities where the death camas was abundant.
Besides this evidence, obtained under natural conditions, experimental
proof was obtained by collecting death camas and feeding it and its
extracts to sheep and rabbits. The symptoms produced by this ex-
perimental poisoning and those which were observed in natural cases
were identical.
During extended trips over different portions of the State many
localities were examined where it was said that poisoning uniformly
occurred if sheep were allowed to range there during the month of
May. ‘The death camas was found to be the only suspicious plant
which grew in abundance in all such localities. A considerable num-
ber of places were visited where poisoning of sheep in the spring had
occurred to such an extent for a number of years that these parts
of the range had had to be abandoned during that season, and sheep
were only allowed to graze there during the late summer and fall.
In all such places the death camas grew abundantly and was the only
plant which could have caused serious poisoning.
REMEDIAL AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES.
In cases of poisoning by death camas, a solution containing equal
weights of permanganate of potash and sulphate of aluminum should
be administered at once according to the directions already given.*
The only practicable preventive measure which can be suggested is
to determine the localities where the plant is most abundant from year
to year and to herd the sheep away from such areas during the early
spring, when the plant is succulent and most tempting. In order to
do this, it is necessary for each sheep herder or owner to become
familiar with the plant in all of its stages of growth.
SUMMARY.
Death camas is an extremely common and widely distributed plant
in Montana.
The bulbs have long been suspected in Montana and elsewhere of
being poisonous to stock and to human beings.
Our observations showed that the plant is frequently eaten by stock,
especially by sheep, with fatal results in a large percentage of cases.
Our experiments with rabbits and sheep demonstrated that the leaves
as well as the bulbs are poisonous in moderate quantities, both rabbits
and sheep having been killed by eating the plant.
Experiments with various remedies indicated that permanganate of
potash was the most effective antidote.
Sheep should be herded away from this plant in early spring.
—_—
1 Page 47.
TALL LARKSPUR. 65
TALL LARKSPUR.
(Delphinium glaucum §. Wats.)
DESCRIPTION, HABITAT, AND DISTRIBUTION.
The common tall larkspur (Pl. II) of Montana (erroneously called
aconite) is a simple-stemmed perennial, 4 to 7 feet high, which is
smooth throughout and covered during most of its growth with an
easily erasable white coating like that commonly observed on ripe
plums. Before flowering time the succulent basal leaves become long-
stemmed and form tufts which about the 1st of June are a foot or so
in height and of nearly the same diameter. In general the lower leaves
are large and geranium-like, being broadly circular in outline, and 4
to 6 inches in diameter, with broad segments having lance-shaped
extremities; the upper floral leaves lance-shaped, simple, and very
much smaller. The numerous flowers are of a pale-blue color, and
are arranged in long slender terminal racemes. ‘The seed capsules are
three-lobed and smooth, the seeds black.
This species of larkspur is easily distinguished from the purple
larkspur, which is the other common species in the State, by the great
difference in the shape of their leaves and the color of their flowers.
The tall larkspur has the flowers considerably smaller than those of
the purple larkspur and arranged in a long, close terminal spike. The
plant with which this species is most likely to be confused is the wild
geranium (PI. III), but the danger is confined to the early part of the
season before the flowers are developed. After the flowers of the
larkspur and geranium appear, the two plants are easily distinguished
by the casual observer. In the earlier stage some help may be obtained
in distinguishing between them by carefully observing the appearance
of the leaves. Those of the tall larkspur are almost, if not quite,
perfectly smooth, while those of the geranium are always more or less
hairy. Although these two plants grow in the same situations and
are frequently found intermingled, a little experience with special
attention devoted to noting the leaf characters will enable one to dis-
tinguish them at a glance, even from a considerable distance.
The tall larkspur has a rather wide distribution inthe State. Its
preferred habitat seems to be rich and moderately moist half-shaded
localities, especially on slopes of foothills or mountains and among
underbrush along streams. It is found in valleys and up to a height
of 9,000 feet. When growing in the higher altitudes, the color of the
flowers is usually a much darker blue than when growing in lower
altitudes, and the height of the plant is less. Otherwise no striking
differences are noticed due to situation or altitude. The tall larkspur
grows very abundantly in the Big Belt and Little Belt Mountains,
Big Snowy, Crazy, and Bridger Mountains, Gallatin Range, Absaroka,
S. Doe. 160-—5
66 _ STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
Bear Tooth, Castle, and Rocky Mountains, Mission Range, and Bitter
Root Mountains. The distribution of this plant so far as observations
of the season of 1900 go, includes the following counties: Flathead,
’ Teton, Ravalli, Lewis and Clarke, Fergus, Meagher, Madison, Jeffer-
son, Gallatin, Park, Sweet Grass, Carbon, and Deerlodge. It is
widely distributed in mountain regions from California to Alaska.
But although this plant is found in a large number of counties of the
State it is far less abundant than the purple larkspur, the localities in
which it is found being as a rule far more restricted. The purple
larkspur is to be found in almost every locality where the conditions
are favorable to its growth, which is far from true of the tall larkspur.
HISTORY AS A POISONOUS PLANT.
The tail larkspur appears not to be eaten by sheep. All cases of
poisoning from this plant observed in Montana during this year and
previous years have been among cattle. As already indicated, sheep
are not driven to the mountain ranges until about the middle of July,
and at this season the tall larkspur is altogether too large and coarse
for their consumption. It is well known, on the other hand, that
cattle will feed on much coarser forage than sheep, and at the same
time they are allowed to run on the high ranges in the early spring.
In Montana the light green tufts of leaves of the tall larkspur first
become conspicuous about the last of April or the first of May, and the
flowers begin to open about the middle of June. This fact is signifi-
cant for the reason that light falls of snow often occur in the larkspur
belt as late as the first week in June, and; since there is then no other
verdure in sight, the uncovered portion of the larkspur is in a high
degree tempting to stock, all the more because it is succulent. The
danger is increased by the fact that at the time of snow falls cattle
seek the shelter of creeks where the larkspur is more abundant and
most advanced in growth. At this period, moreover, the leaves are,
as we can testify from personal observation, very bitter, and they are
probably then more poisonous than at any other stage of growth. The
older ones, as is also the case with the blue larkspur, are not so bitter.
The plant is recognized by cattlemen as dangerous to cattle from May
until about the middle of June. Mr. Vard Cockrell informs us that
on his range in the lower basin of the Gallatin it is the sole duty of one
man during this period to keep his cattle away from the broken moun-
tainous regions where this larkspur abounds.
In response to a communication from the Department Mr. E. (2
Alderson, of Bozeman, Mont., a man of wide experience as a guide in
Manian states that Aaa the middle of July and later he has observed
that horses will sometimes walk out of the beaten trail to nip the tops
of the flowering plants, and Dr. F. W. Traphagen, professor of chem-
istry at the Montana Agricultural College, informs us that he has seen
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE Il.
TALL LARKSPUR (DELPHINIUM GLAUCUM).
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE Ill.
WILD GERANIUM (GERANIUM VISCOSISSIMUM).
TALL LARKSPUR. 67
a horse browse on the flowering plants in August for fully ten minutes
at one time. In such cases the tall larkspur may sometimes be eaten,
_ but as a rule stock do not manifest any special fondness for it. On
both slopes of the Big Belt Mountains the tall larkspur grows abun-
dantly, and cattle and horses range over these areas during summe1
andautumn. Although cattle are sometimes killed by eating the plant
during early summer on the lower slopes, especially near Townsend,
search was made in vain for any evidence of the plant having been
eaten in these localities during late summer and autumn. It was
noticed that while the grass and other plants growing among the stems
of tall larkspur had been eaten the larkspur was left standing. On the
other hand, there are cases on record where cows have been killed by
eating the dry tops of tall larkspur in September, at which time nearly
all the leaves have disappeared and the seeds which, judging from
analogy with other species, probably contain a poisonous alkaloid,
remain in the ripe capsules. We have heard of no observations show-
ing that the plant has ever killed horses nor on the other hand that
the leaves have ever been eaten by them or other stock to any extent
with impunity before flowering time. A few persons believe, however,
that the plant is not dangerous to horses or cattle except when wet or
when snow is on the ground. It is easy to understand why more stock
should be killed by it when snow covers almost every other plant, as it
often does both in spring and autumn; but why it should prove more
fatal when wet is very difficult to understand. The roots are too
woody to be eaten.
Although many cattle are uodoubkedly killed by eating the tall 1a k-
spur there are few recorded instances of such poisoning. One reason
for this; however, lies in the fact that cattle, unlike sheep, being left
to the care of themselves on wide ranges are, when poisoned, more’
frequently found dead than alive, and hence the symptoms, which fur-
nish the most convincing evidence in tracing out any case of poisoning,
remain unrecorded. The plant has been received from Livingston,
Bigtimber, Cherry Creek near the Madison River, and Sedan, accom-
panied by a statement that it caused the death of cattle, and in the
Gallatin Basin the tall larkspur has for many years been recognized as
the cause of more or less serious losses of cattle in the spring.
EXPERIMENTS.
The following experiments were primarily conducted with the object
of determining whether the immature plants are poisonous or not and,
if so, of finding an antidote. As, however, no previous records of
experiments or observations on the plant were found showing the
characteristic symptoms of poisoning by it in stock some notes were
made in this line also.
Experiment 1.—The extract used in this experiment was made by
Irvin Cockrell from dried roots collected during the preceding season.
68 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
These were ground into an impalpable powder and 50 grams was per-
colated with 200 c. c. of 50 per cent alcohol and then filtered.
Ten cubic centimeters of this filtrate, representing 25 grams of the
dried root, was fed at 2.40 p.m. to a white rabbit (A) weighing 35
ounces. The same amount of 50 per cent alcohol was fed five minutes ~
later to another rabbit (B) of nearly equal weight, the object being to
compare the symptoms produced by the alcohol with those produced
by the extract and to note the difference. The symptoms thus obtained
are not of course identical with those which would be produced by the
poison alone, but they show some of the same characteristics, although
the alcohol probably lessens their intensity at certain stages, as Dr.
Wilcox has shown to be the case in poisoning from the blue larkspur.
Both of the rabbits were somewhat similarly affected by the alcohol.
In both instances the voluntary muscles were more or less paralyzed,
especially at first, the disinclination to move being most apparent in
the check B, to which the alcohol was given. During the later stages,
however, it appeared stronger but more stupid. It was also much less
alarmed than A. Its heart action was stronger and less rapid and it
did not show the peculiar spasmodic twitching of the muscles all over
the body which was so characteristic of the rabbit to which the lark-.
spur extract was given. At 3.27 it was noticed that A’s respiration
was not so strong as B’s and that it was decidedly wheezy. ‘The spas-
modic twitching of the muscles was prominent both before and after
this time. The alcoholic symptoms continued in both cases until 5.40,
. at which time the observations were discontinued. The animals were
bright and hungry the next morning.
Experiment 2.—The material for this experiment was obtained from
tufts of nonflowering plants a foot high, collected May 26 im rich,
moist soil on the northern slope of Bridger Peak at an altitude of
about 7,000 feet. While gathering the plant it was noticed that the
leaves though succulent were very bitter. This was also noticed in
leaves gathered at the same place two weeks later. They were pre-
served in nearly their pristine condition in a botanical collecting box
until May 28, when 50 grams was cut up in a sausage mill and
extracted at ordinary temperature over night with 100 c. c. of dis-
tilled water. After warming at blood heat for a half hour next day
the extract was filtered and was ready for use, while the residue (which
was afterwards discarded) was set to soak with 100 ¢. c. of 50 per cent
alcohol.
Eight cubic centimeters of the water extract, representing 4 grams
of the leaves prepared from nonflowering plants as described above,
was fed to a 26-ounce rabbit on June 1, at 3.3 p.m. It caused labored
breathing with wheezing and rapid heart beats, but was not fatal.
This was the case also after a second feeding of 10 ¢. c. given at 4.30
TALL LARKSPUR. 69
p.m. The rabbit was, however, very unwell for several days after-
wards. On June 2 the motion of the head backward and forward,
characteristic of the water extract of the purple larkspur, was very
pronounced, but neither on June 1 nor June 2 was any spasmodic
twitching of-the muscles noted. As the rabbit could not, however, be
closely observed more than an hour or two during all of that time
these symptoms might easily have been unobserved. The rapid but
feeble and wheezy respiration, the rapid heart beats, and the evident
malaise continued with loss of appetite on the third, fourtli and fifth.
On June 6, 14 c. c. more of the same extract, wiltiah had as yet shown
no signs of molding, was fed, but no additional symptoms were noted
on that day. The respiration was extremely rapid (over 110 a minute)
and irregular, and the next morning the animal showed a strong dis-
inclination to move even when urged. It also refused to eat. On
June 9 it appeared to be quite well. On June 13 it was somewhat
droopy, but it eventually recovered. .
Experiment 3.—Fifty grams, including the succulent leaves and
stems of nonflowering plants collected on Bridger Peak on the morn-
ing of June 11, was fed that afternoon, while the plants were still
fresh, to each of two rabbits, numbers 28 and 88 respectively, which
had been deprived of their breakfasts. A third amount of equal
weight was exposed in an adjoining pen in order to ascertain the loss
of weight due to evaporation. After six hours the check had lost 30
per cent of its weight. Rabbit number 28 had, during this time, eaten
all but 64 grams, while number 88 had eaten all but 223 grams. The
actual amount eaten was, therefore, approximately 42 grams and 22
grams. Neither quantity proved fatal. Lack of time forbade any
but the most casual observations on these rabbits and no symptoms
were noted. Both were bright and vigorous the next day, but number
28, which had eaten the larger amount of leaves, was more easily
ieiatitened than usual.
é: Euperiment 4.—Late in the evening of June 12, ib ce. c. of the
expressed juice of the fresh leaves gathered June 11 was given hypo-
dermically to each of two rabbits, but no characteristic symptoms of
poisoning were noted, the rabbits appearing but slightly ill at ease the
next morning.
Experiment 5.—The extracts used in this and the two following
experiments were obtained from a part of the supply of nonflowering
plants gathered on June 11 on Bridger Peak, part of which was used
in the two preceding experiments. All fires of the tests were made
on sheep at Bigtimber on June 14.
On June 12, 1,700 grams of the fresh leaves and stems was ground
up in a sausage mill, care being taken to save the juice which was
pressed out at the same time. The fibrous portion was then placed
70 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
in a strong linen’ bag and subjected to pressure in a filter press, and
the juice thus obtained was added to that already saved in grinding,
870 c. c. inall being obtained. Some of this was used in experiment 4.
On June 14, at 8.15 a. m., 400 c. ¢. of this juice was poured through
a rubber tube and funnel into the stomach of a sheep weighing
approximately 50 pounds. No symptoms were observable up to 10
o'clock, but the animal was uneasy and slightly bloated. The skin
twitched occasionally and the respiration was weaker and somewhat
labored, the rate being 24a minute. The pulse rate was 92. At 10.42
the animal, although a little droopy, would run about readily and did
not appear to be uneasy. Four hundred cubic centimeters more of
the juice was now fed. At 3.15 there was a slight trembling of the
limbs. The animal had been lying down calmly for some time, but
was now on its feet and, although somewhat weak, could walk with
ease. It remained standing in the same condition for over.two hours.
At 7 it was resting contentedly without any sign of discomfort, and
on the next day it was apparently as well and as active as usual.
Experiment 6.—The residue left after expressing the juice from
1,700 grams of the plants used in the previous experiment was soaked
over night in 1,000¢. ¢. of alcohol, to which 10 c. c. of the dilute
acetic acid was added to facilitate the extraction of the alkaloids.
One thousand one hundred and thirty-three cubic centimeters of alco-
holic extract was obtained the next day by filtration and by strong
pressing in the filter press.
Four hundred cubic centimeters of this extract was fed June 14, at
8.53 a. m., to a sheep weighing about 50, pounds. The large quantity
of alcohol contained in the extract caused the sheep to stagger to the
floor within a few minutes and, of course, produced most of the char-
acteristic physiological effects. By comparison with a check of about
‘equal weight to which the same quantity of 50 per cent alcohol had
been given a few minutes before, certain symptoms characteristic of
the larkspur were noted. At 9.20 the animal was lying on the floor
suffering from an almost complete loss of muscularand nervous energy.
The pulse rate was 72 a minute, but the pulse was exceedingly weak.
if ’ p gly
The animal could not raise its head. At 10.20 it was more conscious,
but its skin was quivering constantly and was very sensitive to touch.
The rate of breathing had increased to 33 a minute, but was very shal-
low. The pulse rate was not determinable on account of its great
rapidity and the constarft trembling of the animal’s body. At the
same time it had gained control over its muscles to such an extent that
it could hold its head off the floor for about a minute ata time. It
continued in the same condition, but gradually recovering its strength,
until 6.30, when it got upon its feet. The trembling and twitching of
the muscles ceased to be very prominent at about 3 o'clock, but it was
observed in less pronounced form until 6.30. At 5.12 it was but
TALL LARKSPUR. 71
slightly dizzy and had to a considerable extent regained its bright
appearance. The rectal temperature at 5.30 was 102.6°. At 7.15 the
sheep was running about the pen restlessly and had a good appetite.
On the following day it fed and walked about as usual.
Experiment 7.—At 1.55 on the same day in which the above experi-
ment was made the same quantity of the same extract was fed in the
same way to a sheep of nearly the same weight, but within a minute
afterwards a dose was given which contained a quarter gram each
of potassium permanganate and aluminum sulphate in the form of a
1 per cent aqueous solution. The symptoms subsequently noted, con-
sisting as they did in a deep narcosis only, were wholly attributable
to the effects of the alcohol. The animal was watched closely for five
and one-half hours, but showed none of the symptoms of larkspur
poisoning, and on the following morning it was as well as usual.
Experiment 8.—The only remedy with which experiments were
made in the treatment of cases of poisoning from this plant was
drenching with a solution of potassium permanganate. . The test of
the efliciency of this remedy in the case of cattle was not so severe as
it was in the case of sheep. Potassium permanganate in doses of
25. grams was given to 4 cattle and all of these animals recovered.
The remedy was applied during the incipient stages of poisoning, and
therefore before it was possible to know whether or not they had eaten
a sufficient quantity of the tall larkspur to produce death. The ani-
mals, however, recovered more rapidly than could have been expected
without treatment, when it is considered that three others which were
not treated: died within about six hours after the first development
of the symptoms of poisoning. But it is obviously impossible in the
case of animals just beginning to manifest symptoms of poisoning to
predict whether or not they will die if not treated, unless the identity
of the alkaloid is known, the size of the fatal eS and the amount
which has been eaten os the animal poisoned. Naturally these con-
ditions can not be realized in doing field work on plants of which the
poisonous principles have not yet been isolated or studied chemically.
SYMPTOMS.
The symptoms of poisoning by this plant may be described as fol-
lows: In general, the animals affected manifest symptoms similar to
those produced by overdoses of aconite. The first signs of poisoning
are usually a general stiffness and irregularity of gait. There is often
a pronounced straddling of the hind legs in walking. These symp-
toms increase in severity until locomotion becomes difficult or impos-
sible, and the animal finally falls to the ground. It usually falls and
gets on its feet again a number of times, the muscular movements
becoming more and more irregular and incoordinated. At the same
time the skin is very sensitive to touch, and the muscles of the sides
72 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
and legs soon begin to quiver spasmodically. This a very character-
istic symptom, being usually exhibited for several hours. The function
of the special senses is seldom impaired, the animal being apparently
able to hear and see as well and as correctly as under conditions of
health. Although a slight increase in the quantity of saliva is to be
noticed in some cases, this symptom is never so pronounced as in cases
of poisoning by death camas. During the later stages of poisoning the
animal is usually attacked with violent convulsions, in one of which it
finally dies. In this respect, also, the symptoms differ distinctly from
those of death camas poisoning, which is usually quite without spasms.
The digestive functions seem not to be affected by larkspur poisoning.
The temperature is lowered slightly during the first stages, in one
instance having been as lowas 97°. During the later stages the pulse
becomes very frequent and the breathing rapid and shallow. The
cerebral symptoms are simply those of excitement, and the appetite -
seems not to be lost until shortly before death.
REMEDIAL AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES.
In cases of poisoning by tall larkspur, permanganate of potash
and sulphate of aluminum should be administered as recommended
for poisoning by death camas.' For counteracting the physiological
effects, atropine should be given hypodermically in doses of from $ to |
1 grain for cattle and horses. Alcoholic stimulants and ammonia may
be administered to some advantage. To prevent poisoning from lark-
spur, cattle should be herded away from the localities where it abounds |
in spring until the danger from early snowstorms has passed. —
The distribution of the tall larkspur in Montana is for the most part
in such sharply defined and moderate-sized areas that the possibility of
exterminating it by digging is not out of the question. For example,
in Gallatin County there is a cattle range located at an altitude of
about 6,500 feet, in a basin surrounded on all sides by mountains.
Cattle have been allowed to graze on this range every season for a
number of years, and a greater or less number of ‘animals have died
each year from poisoning by the tall larkspur. In 1898, during the
early part of June, 40 died from eating this plant, while during the
spring of 1900 only 3 were poisoned. A careful inspection of this
range showed that the tall larkspur was entirely confined to a few
areas of small size. It is believed that it could all be completely exter-
minated by twenty-five days’ work with a weed digger designed for
severing the roots at a short distance below the ground. The expense
of this labor would not exceed the value of two cattle, and this num-
ber is much less than the average annual loss from the tall larkspur
on this range. Similar conditions prevail on some of the mountain
ranges in the vicinity of Deerlodge, Redlodge, and Bigtimber. On
1 Pages 47, 64.
& q
f a 2 ‘ae
2 __) % -
te hy ek
Da (ade :
yy
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr.
PuRPLE LARKSPUR (DELPHINIUM BICOLOR).
PLATE IV.
PURPLE LARKSPUR. 73
the summit of the Big Belt Mountains, in the region of the Duck
Creek Pass, and on both slopes for a considerable distance down from
the summit, the tall larkspur grows so abundantly and over such
wide areas that extermination by digging would seem to be. quite
_ impracticable.
In order to eradicate the BA when itis at its most dangerous stage
itis necessary that stockmen familiarize themselves with the difference
between it and the wild geranium in their earlier stages of growth.
SUMMARY.
The tall larkspur is a plant widely distributed in Montana, ocecur-
ring, as a rule, in well-defined areas, especially on mountain ranges.
It has for several years been suspected of poisoning cattle, especially
after snowstorms in spring and autumn.
Our observations show that the plant is sometimes eaten by cattle
with fatal results. Extracts of the leaves of young plants when fed
to rabbits produce alarming symptoms, and the same was true in one
case when fed to sheep.
Experiments on cattle and one sheep indicated that permanganate
of. potash is an effective antidote when given in the first Stages of
poisoning.
Cattle should be kept away from patches of larkspur, especially
during snowstorms.
PURPLE LARKSPUR.
(Delphinium bicolor Nutt.)
DESCRIPTION, HABITAT, AND DISTRIBUTION.
A smooth or somewhat pubescent, tuberous-rooted perennial, 1 to 2
feet high, with a cluster of finely divided long-stemmed root leaves
and a varying number of rich purple flowers, which appear from May
to August, according to altitude (Pls. 1V and V). The flowers are
usually few in number, but large, varying from 1 to 13 inches in
width. In Montana the plant is common throughout the State on
moderately moist hillsides and mountain ranges at all elevations up to
10,500 feet. Its entire range extends from Colorado northwestward
to Alaska. The typical form of the species’is rather glabrate, but
frequently grades into the variety montanense Rydberg, which is
glandular-pilose throughout and has thicker leaves.
The purple larkspur is readily distinguished from the tall larkspur
by its dark purple flowers and its smaller size. It blooms, moreover,
about six weeks earlier, having been found during the season of 1900
in full bloom by the 1st of May. The distribution of the species is
much more general and extensive in the State than that of the tall
larkspur. During the season of 1900 it was observed on all of the
74 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
mountain ranges and in all the counties of the State which have been
mentioned in giving the distribution of that species. The areas
in which it grows are in some cases sharply defined, but, in’ gen-
eral, they are not so definite as in the case of the latter species.
In the greater number of places where it is abundant, it seems to be
impossible to exterminate it by artificial means.
The purple larkspur is often found growing abundantly in the same
situations with death camas, and in general its preferred habitat seems
to be the same as that of this species. It does not, however, occur so
abundantly as death camas in the shallow depressions and coulees of’
the plains. In fact, the purple larkspur is seldom found in situations
far removed from foothills anid mountains, though these localities
seem to be the preferred place of growth for death camas. The soil
in which it grows is generally compact and turfy, but it is frequently
found in loose soil among shrubs and in scattering woods. The first
green leaves begin to appear about the Ist of May or, in early
seasons, the latter part of April, and the flowers bloom, according to
altitude, anywhere between the early part of May and about the first
week in June. The bright purple color of the flowers of this species
serves to distinguish it at a considerable distance. Unfortunately, ©
however, this plant is most frequently eaten before the flowering
period, and it is, therefore, important for sheep herders to familiarize
themselves with the appearance of the leaves, in order that they may
be able to recognize the plant in any stage of growth.
HISTORY AS A POISONOUS PLANT.
Considerable difference of opinion as to the poisonous character of
the purple larkspur exists between stockmen and other persons less
financially interested in stock. The majority of the large holders con-
sider it poisonous, while others, including men of scientific attainment,
assert that stock can eat it, at least to some extent, with impunity.
Experiments have been made which show that at one stage of growth
the leaves of another species (2). menziesi7) may be safely eaten, toa
certain extent, by sheep. Dr. S. B. Nelson, professor of veterinary
science in the Washington Agricultural College, in an article entitled
Feeding Wild Plants to Sheep, published by the Bureau of Animal
Industry of this Department, showed that it is possible to feed as
much as 24% pounds of the fresh leaves of D. menziesii to a shee}
within a period of five days without causing any apparent ill effect.
The stage of growth of the larkspur was not stated, but, judging from
the other experiments described in the same report, it was probably in
a well-advanced flowering stage. Dr. Wilcox’s experiments, published
in the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin, entitled
Larkspur Poisoning of Sheep, show conclusively that the extract from
less than an ounce of the dried leaves of the purple larkspur (D.
PURPLE LARKSPUR. 75
bicolor) was fatal to a yearling lamb, and the nature of the other evi-
dence therein adduced is such that no room is left to doubt the toxic
character of the plant, at least in its earlier stages of growth. In
neither investigation were any experiments made to test the plant at
more than one stage of growth. The following experiments were
made with the view of ascertaining whether the permanganate of pot-
ash, which it was proposed to use in many cases of plant poisoning,
could be used with satisfactory results as a chemical antidote in case
- of this plant, and also of determining which parts of the plant were
most toxic. During some seasons the purple larkspur causes extensive
poisoning of sheep and calves. Cattle and horses, on the other hand,
seem to eat it less frequently than tall larkspur. In the season of
1900 conclusive evidence against this plant was obtained in only one
locality. This was derived from two cases among calves in the Flat-
head Valley. The calves were about 5 weeks old, and at the time when
the poisoning occurred, were running in a native pasture where the
purple larkspur grew sparingly. The symptoms of poisoning in these
two cases were similar to those already outlined from poisoning in the
tall larkspur in cattle, with the exception that a slight bloating was
to be observed in the case of the calves. The respiration and heart
beat became exceedingly rapid as the symptoms of poisoning increased
in severity. The body temperature was slightly lowered, and this.
was accompanied by profuse sweating. ‘The increased perspiration
may have been due in part to the violent spasms in which the animals
finally died. Death occurred about four hours after the appearance
of the first symptoms. No remedy was applied in these cases.
Post-mortem examination made on the two calves just mentioned as
having died from larkspur poisoning disclosed the following condi-
tions: No cerebral congestion was observed, nor had the larkspur pro-
duced any noticeable effect on the walls of the stomach. The blood
was largely found in the venous side of the circulation. The veins in
the mesenteries of the small intestines were much distended with
blood. The same was true of the.right auricle of the heart. The
lungs were extremely heavy and full of blood, being in a condition
similar.to that which was found in post-mortems made on sheep which
had been poisoned by death camas. In general the symptoms exhibited
by these calves were closely similar to those which were observed dur-
ing previous seasons in sheep which died from the same cause. The
post-mortem findings indicated that the blood was insufliciently aerated,
and the symptoms manifested by the animals just before death showed
plainly that the respiratory centers were paralyzed and that respira-
tion was for that reason shallow. When the respiratory movements
are so rapid and shallow as they were observed to be in these cases the
air is not renewed in the lungs, the breathing movements being merely
sufficient to pump the air up and down in the trachea.
76 é STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
EXPERIMENTS.
The roots and leaves of nonflowering plants averaging about 3 inches
in height, gathered May 26 at an altitude of about 8,000 feet on
Bridger Peak, were kept moist and turgid in a tin botanical collecting
box until May 28. Forty-two grams of the leaves was then ground
in a sausage machine and soaked in 100 ¢. ¢. of distilled water at ordi-
nary temperatures over night, heated a half hour at blood heat the
next day, and then filtered by pressing through a linen bag until all
the water was separated. Twenty-seven grams of the roots was treated
with 50 c. ¢. in precisely the same manner at the same time. The
resulting extracts were kept on ice over Decoration Day, while each
of the residues was set to soak with 100 ¢. c. of 50 per cent alcohol.
None of the extracts became moldy before they were used, their
superior keeping quality over other similar extracts being in fact an
argument in favor of their toxic character. Fig. 5 represents the
stage of growth of the plants used in the first five experiments.
Experiment 1.—On June 110 ¢. c. of the water extract, equivalent -
to 4.2 grams of the fresh green leaves, was fed to a 17-ounce rabbit.
The prominent effects noted after a couple of hours were a more rapid
respiration and a dizzy motion of the head backward and forward.
Experiment 2.—On June 6 14 ¢. c. of the same solution, represent-
ing 5.8 grams of the leaf, was fed to the same rabbit. The same symp-
toms were displayed on the same day and the day following, but to a
greater degree. On June 7 respiration was so labored that the whole
body pulsated rhythmically to each movement. The heart action was
also weak and very fluttering, and the animal refused to eat even when-
coaxed. The recovery was, however, complete.
Experiment 3.—The alcoholic extract obtained from the above 42
grams of leaves after extracting with water was evaporated to dryness
over a water bath and the residue dissolved in 15 c. ¢. of about 30 per
cent alcohol. Of this extract 1} c. ¢., representing 4.2 grams of the
fresh leaf, was injected hypodermically into a 40-ounce rabbit. The
animal’s respiration was greatly accelerated in three-quarters of an
hour, but it had completely recovered by the next day.
Experiment 4.—On May 31 7 c. c. of the water extract of the root,
representing 3% grams of the fresh material, was fed to a 63-ounce
rabbit at 11.34 a.m. The animal was energetic and perfectly normal
up to 12.40, when it was noticed that it appeared uneasy and that its
breathing was irregular and rapid. At 3 o0’clock, no additional symp-
toms having been noted, an amount of extract equivalent to 7} grams
of the fresh root was fed, and at 8 p. m. 10 grams more. The symp-
toms produced by the last two were not noted, but the effect was not
fatal.
Experiment 5.—The alcoholic extract from the 27 grams of roots
used in the last experiment was evaporated to dryness, the residue dis-
PURPLE LARKSPUR. is
solved in 30 per cent alcohol as in experiment 3, and 14 c. c¢., the
equivalent of 24 grams, injected hypodermically inte a 55-ounce rabbit,
but with no marked results.
In the next four experiments the extracts used were obtained by
Mr. I. Cockrell from flowering plants which were rather badly wilted.
The plants were divided into four parts—the roots, stems, leaves, and
flowers—each of which was extracted over night with water at ordi-
nary temperature and warmed a half hour at blood heat the next day.
After this the extracts were filtered, and they were then ready for use.
No extracts were made from this material with other solvents than
water. .
Experiment 6.—On June 1 15 ¢. c. of the root extract, representing
‘10 grams of the wilted plant, was fed to a 2-pound rabbit at 3.22 p. m.
No effect having been noted, the dose was increased to 20 ¢. c. at 4.25.
This was likewise without any marked effect, as was a third dose of
28 c. c., which was administered on June 6.
Experiment 7.—On June 1 15 ¢. c. of the stem extract, representing
5 grams of the wilted plant, was fed to a rabbit. Both the heart and
the lungs were slightly stimulated, but in an attempt one hour later to
administer a second dose the animal was accidentally killed.
Experiment 8.—On May 31 10 ¢. ¢. of the leaf extract, representing
65 grams of the wilted leaves, was fed to a 26-ounce rabbit at 2.45 p. m.
A. slight uneasiness was noticed at 3.30, but otherwise the animal
remained perfectly normal... Neither did any pronounced results follow
a second feeding of 20 c. c. given at 8.5 p. m. ]
Experiment 9.—On May 31.10 ¢. ¢. of the flower extract, represent-
ing 34 grams of the withered flowers, was fed to a 47-ounce rabbit at
11.27a.m. At 11.55 there was considerable uneasiness, which was
made evident by a shaking of the head and by holding the breath and
then breathing rapidly. In addition to these symptoms drowsiness set .
_ Iinatabout 12.48. At 2.05 there was a rhythmical movement of the
head with each respiratory movement, which: seemed to indicate that
the brain was being affected. At 3.5 p. m. 30 c. c. more was given,
but the only additional symptom noted was increased difficulty in ~
‘breathing. At 8.5 30 c. c. more was given, but the symptoms were
not noted. The effect was not fatal. .
Sumiing up the results of these experiments, we find that the most
prominent, easily observable symptoms were a stimulation of the respi-
ration and a brain symptom manifested by dizziness or a rhythmical
movement of the head. As it was not the object of the experiment to
determine the symptoms of poisoning, these having been already
secured by Dr. Wilcox, no special effort was made to determine the
pulse rate, but it was to be noted that in experiment 2, which was
as nearly fatal as any, the heart action was extremely rapid and weak.
None of the experiments proved fatal and no results were obtained
on which a satisfactory trial of the permanganate of potassium as an
78 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
antidote could be based; hence no experiments were made in that line.
Neither were the experiments numerous enough to deduce any posi-
tive results as to the comparative toxicity of the various parts. By
inspection of the various experiments, however, it will at once be seen -
that the most satisfactory ones in this regard were the fourth and
sixth, in which the water solution of extracts was fed. The equivalent
of 44 grams of the root of the flowering plant was fed to a rather
small rabbit, 26 ounces in weight, without causing any appreciable
effect, while in experiment 4, where the roots from nonflowering plants
were used, about half the quantity, 214 grams, produced some of the
characteristic symptoms of the plant, although fed to a rabbit weigh-
ing 63 ounces—over twice as much as the other. It seems probable,
therefore, that the older root is little, if at all, toxic. The fact that
the aleoholic extract from 24 grams of the young root was without
effect on a 55-ounce rabbit when injected hypodermically is not signif-
icant. The experiments show that the root of the young plant is poi-
sonous and tend to show that those of the mature plant are not. It is
possible, however, that advanced age may alter the chemical combina-
tion of the alkaloid and render it insoluble in water without affecting
its toxic character. Other more powerful solvents might have
extracted the poison, but the limitations of time and the Te
of other experiments precluded further investigation.
The extracts for experiments 1,2,and 8 were prepared in the same
way. A comparison of the results is interesting, inasmuch as it tends
to explain the apparently anomalous results referred to above, which
were obtained when Dr. Nelson fed a very considerable amount of
a related species of larkspur to sheep without noting any marked
symptoms. The extract from 20 grams of leaves taken from partly
wilted flowering plants produced only a slight uneasiness when fed to
a 26-ounce rabbit, while very positive results were obtained in the
other experiments where a much smaller amount of the extract was
used. The weight of the rabbit in the latter case was somewhat less,
but the difference was not at all sufficient to account for the difference
in effect. That there is a positive difference is also evident from a few
observations made on the comparative taste of the leaves at the two
stages of growth. Those from young plants gathered at the same
time as that from which Pl. V was taken had a decidedly bitter taste,
and those from flowering plants gathered later were distinctly acid and
rather agreeable. Our experiments show that there is a slight amount
of poison in the leaves. Experiments 7 and 9 show that the stalks of
flowering plants, and especially the flowers, are poisonous. It is very
frequently asserted that the fatal effects of larkspur on stock are only
produced when the root has been eaten. One of us, Dr. Wilcox, has,
however, already shown that it is extremely difficult in most cases for
animals to pull up the roots, and our experiments with the young
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE V.
PURPLE LARKSPUR (DELPHINIUM BICOLOR), YOUNG PLANTS.
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE VI.
Reb FALSE MALLOW (MALVASTRUM COCCINEUM).
PURPLE LARKSPUR. 79
leaves show conclusively that the eating of these in sufficient quantity
is an adequate cause of death. The observation is of much value in
emphasizing the necessity for herders to become thoroughly familiar
with the larkspur in its earlier stages of growth. This is all the more
important because the leaves, being succulent only when young, at
which time they also constitute the earliest verdure in pasture land,
are then especially tempting to stock. It is to facilitate the ready rec-
ognition of the young leaves that Pl: V is herewith supplied. Great
care must be observed, however, in distinguishing the leaves from the
earliest leaves of the red false mallow (W/a/vastrum eoccineum Gray)
(Pl. VI), a nonpoisonous plant which is extremely common in many
pasture lands throughout the State. The showy red rose-like blos-
soms of the mallow, which appear from May to August, readily dis-
tinguish it from the larkspur, but before flowering the two plants may
be easily mistaken on account of the close resemblance of the leaves.
In both they are very finely divided, as shown in Pls. V and VI, but
the mallow leaf is smaller and very much more densely covered with
hair than the most hairy form of the purple larkspur. From the
smooth form, which is most common, it may be distinguished at once,
and an ordinary magnifying glass will easily disclose the peculiarly
compound and radiating character of the mallow-leaf hairs.
SYMPTOMS OF POISONING.
The symptoms of poisoning from larkspur are, as before stated,
generally to be distinguished from those of poisoning by death camas
in its later stages. These two plants produce effects which at first are
not very unlike. In cases of poisoning by either the first symptoms
are almost invariably a stiffness and slight irregularity in gait. As
the poisoning progresses regurgitation occurs in both, but is more
pronounced in cases of poisoning from death camas than in those
caused by larkspur. The final stages in cases of larkspur poisoning
are accompanied by attacks of violent spasms interrupted by periods
of rest. The last stages of death camas poisoning, on the other hand,
are passed in a state of complete muscular paralysis. i
Attention has already been called to arbitrary variations in the
appetite of domesticated animals. This fact is illustrated under
range conditions by the changes in the choice of food plants by stock
in different years. During two previous seasons quite conclusive
evidence was obtained that large numbers of sheep were poisoned from
eating the purple larkspur. During the summer of 1900, however, no
sheep were seen eating the plant, and no evidence was obtained to
show that it had been eaten. On one range a band of sheep were
driven over an area of purple larkspur twice each day in going in and
out of the corral. A close examination of this field of larkspur failed
to disclose a single specimen which had been eaten by the sheep.
80 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
During the spring, however, this whole band of sheep was poisoned
from eating death camas. Observations in the field indicate that the
purple larkspur is not as virulent as death camas. When, in addition
to this, it is considered that death camas is apparently eaten more fre-
quently than the purple larkspur, it would seem to be a safe assertion
that death camas is the most important plant concerned in cases of
spring poisoning of stock.
REMEDIAL AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES.
In cases of poisoning from this plant the same remedies should be
applied which were recommended for poisoning by the tall larkspur.
As most of the cases of poisoning occur before larkspur is in bloom,
it is important that stockmen should make themselves familiar with its
‘ appearance in the earlier stages of growth, in order to be able to herd
sheep away from it at that period.
SUMMARY.
The purple larkspur is a plant which is widely distributed in Mon-
tana, especially on foothills and mountains, where its deep blue flowers
are conspicuous over wide areas in springtime.
For a number of years it has been considered fatal to sheep and
occasionally to other stock, and this view has been confirmed by our
investigations.
Sheep are more often poisoned by purple larkspur than are other
domestic animals.
Our observations during the past few years have shown a striking
variation in the appetite of sheep with reference to this plant.
Our experiments indicate that both the leaves and roots of young >
plants are poisonous and that the plant is most dangerous during the
early stages of growth before flowering.
The previous experience of one of us had shown that atropine
is the best antidote for counteracting the physiological effect of this
plant. Permanganate of potash and sulphate of aluminum should be
administered as a chemical antidote.
WYOMING WATER HEMLOCK.
(Cicuta occidentalis Greene.)
Other names: Water hemlock, cowbane, spotted cowbane, wild
parsnip, ete.
DESCRIPTION, HABITAT, AND DISTRIBUTION.
A smooth perennial 2 to 5 feet in height, with 3 to 10 fleshy,
tapering roots, 3 to 5 inches long, clustered at the base of the ascending
axis; leaves doubly compound, with narrow serrate leaflets 2 to 3
inches in length; flowers in clusters, dull greenish-white (Pls. VII and
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE VII.
)) 1) ASF De
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WYOMING WATER HEMLOCK (CICUTA OCCIDENTALIS).
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE VIII.
WYOMING WATER HEMLOCK (CICUTA OCCIDENTALIS), YOUNG PLANT.
WYOMING WATER HEMLOCK. 81
VIII). The plant differs from the common eastern water hemlock in
the more elongated spindling roots and the duller color of its flowers.
One striking peculiarity of the root is its characteristic musky odor,
which is observed especially when a small quantity of the juice gets
upon the fingers. It is generally distributed through the State. Out-
side of Montana it is found abundantly in Wyoming and Colorado,
and in less quantity from the Rocky Mountains of Colorado to the
Sierra Nevada of California and northward.
In Montana the Wyoming water hemlock was observed in every
county. Its ordinary habitat is along the banks of streams and irri-
gation ditches, on wet railroad embankments, and in swamps and wild
meadows. In general it was noticed that in portions of the State west
of the Rocky Mountains this plant was more abundant in wild
meadows, which are cut for hay, than was the case in the eastern part
of the State. In Flathead, Missoula, Deerlodge, and Granite counties
it grows rather abundantly -n many such meadows. In the eastern
part of the State, however, as just indicated, the distribution of the
plant is almost strictly confined to the banks of streams and irrigation
ditches of long standing.
HISTORY AS A POISONOUS PLANT.
In Montana this plant is most commonly known by the name ‘‘ wild
parsnip,” and it appears that from the use of this name, a mistaken
notion has arisen that this is identical with the common parsnip of the
garden. A number of cases of poisoning have happened in Montana
from eating this species, and since the term wild parsnip is commonly
used to designate the cause, it has come to be believed by a large num-
ber of persons that the garden parsnip, when allowed to escape from
cultivation and run wild, acquires poisonous properties. The two
plants should be readily distinguished. The flowers of the garden
parsnip are yellow, while those of the water hemlock are white. The
latter is a much slenderer and a much less leafy plant than the former,
and the leaves of the water hemlock, while of the same general shape,
have much finer subdivisions. Not only water hemlock, but a number
of other plants belonging to the parsnip family are often called by the
name of wild parsnip, as if they all belonged to the same species.
Among the plants whose identity is thus mistaken may be mentioned
the cow parsnip (/Zeraclewm lanatum) and species of Lomatium, Phel-
lopterus, and Leptotaenia.
~ The number of cattle poisoned by water hemlock in Montana dur-
ing 1900, so far as conclusive evidence could be obtained, was 36, and of
these 30 died. About 105 sheep were poisoned by it the same year,
80 of which died. The percentage of fatal cases, therefore, is very
large, being 76 per cent with sheep, and 83 per cent with cattle. The
roots of this plant are occasionally eaten by man, usually with fatal
S. Doc. 160—6
82 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
results. During the season of 1900 in Montana there were five cases
of poisoning in human beings from this cause and four deaths. This
species seems to be equally as dangerous as the better known water
hemlock (C. maculata) of the Eastern States. The symptoms described
are practically identical with those produced by the eastern plant.
Full observations on water hemlock were confined to determining the
extent of its distribution, and the frequency with which it is eaten by
different animals. The time of year when it is most frequently eaten
by sheep and cattle is that of its active growth when it offers an abun-
dance of tempting fodder, mainly before the flowering stems are pro-
duced. During the season of 1900 the water hemlock began to bloom
over the greater part of the State about June 15.
This plant, as already stated, grows in rather wet places, and, except
where grasses have formed a tough sod, its roots may be readily pulled
up with the stem. In fact this is what usually happens, since the stem
is firmly united with the roots and is not easily broken at their junction.
It was not determined to what extent the roots are eaten by sheep and
cattle when pulled up in connection with the stem. In a number of
cases of sheep poisoning the roots had been eaten and were found in
the stomach of the victims. In other cases an examination of the
locality where the poisoning had occurred showed that the plants had
been pulled with the roots attached, but the latter had been left lying
upon the ground. In still other cases water hemlock had been eaten
off without disturbing the roots. Field observations indicate that the
leaves and stems, including the basal portion of this plant, at least dur-
ing the early stages of growth, contained sufficient poison to produce
death. The roots contain » virulent poison. In the cases of human
poisoning the only portion of the plant eaten was the roots. Mr. KE. J.
Moore, of the Agricultural College, informed us that his father lost
horses occasionally while plowing up new land bordering on marshes,
the horses in these instances eating the roots. A few cases of the
poisoning of horses from eating meadow hay containing the plant
have been reported to this Department from Montana. Some farmers
are of the opinion that the tops of the young plants, exclusive of the
roots, are poisonous when less than a foot or so in height, and that later
the whole top may be eaten with impunity. Instances of stock eating
the tops in the more advanced stages without injury were cited by at
least two persons.
EXPERIMENTS. “J
Experiment 1.—The upper portion of nonflowering plants less than
a foot in height were gathered June 3, and having been kept turgid in
a tin box, were fed June 4 and June 5. In the first case the material
was fed out of hand in small pieces to a 1-pound rabbit until, after ten
minutes, it had eaten all of sixteen leaves, The remainder of 60 grams
WYOMING WATER HEMLOCK. 83
was then placed in the cage, and after forty-five minutes 12} grams in
all had been eaten. The rabbit ate the first portion quite readily, but
it had practically refused to eat more of the Cicuta, even when coaxed,
at the end of a half hour. It was then decidedly uneasy, and its respi-
ration was unusually rapid. Ten minutes later it had voided a consid-
erable amount of urine, which relieved it from most of its symptoms,
but five minutes later still its temperature was 102.4°, that of a cheek
being 100.8° F. A little irregularity of breathing was noted three and
one-half hours after the beginning of the experiment, but the next day
the rabbit seemed perfectly normal.
Experiment 2.—In the preceding experiment all of the aerial portion
of the plant was used. In this the thick, whitish basal portions of the
leaves, which were thought to be more poisonous on account of their
more oily appearance and their pungent taste, were discarded. Fifty
grams were offered to a 1-pound rabbit. The amount which had been
eaten five hours afterwards was 12 grams or more, as was ascertained
by weighing the uneaten part and making proper allowance for the
evaporation of water, which was determined by weighing a check
amount of equal weight that had been exposed to practically the same
conditions. No effect whatever was produced.
‘Experiment 3.—On June 9 50 grams of the fresh tops of the non-
flowering plants (1 to 14 feet high), exclusive of the white basal por-
tions, was eaten by a rabbit weighing about 14 pounds without causing
any marked symptoms.
These experiments do not afford sufficient data upon which to base
any very definite conclusions, but it seems certain that the basal portion
of the leaves of young plants is more toxic than the green foliaceous
part, and it may be safely assumed that the leaves of the older plants
are likewise less toxic. When the stems are older, they are not so
tempting to stock in Montana, because at that time there is an abun-
dance of wholesome fodder, and it may be that the mere failure of stock
to eat the stems in that stage has given rise to the idea that the tops
of the older plants are not poisonous. It is more than likely that the
older stems, containing as much oil as they do, are poisonous, but to
a much less degree than the root, which is responsible for a large per-
centage of the cases of water-hemlock poisoning which occur in the
State.
Kuperiment 4.—The remedies which were tried in cases of poisoning
by this plant include morphine and chloral hydrate, combined in a
few instances with emptying the stomach by means of rumenotomy
(paunching), and the use of cathartics. Potassium permanganate was
not tried in any of these cases for the reason that the violent physio-
logical effects of the poison were already sharply pronounced when
the animals were seen. It was thereby evident that most of the poison
84 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
had already been absorbed out of the stomach, and could therefore not
be affected by permanganate of potassium in the stomach.
Two sheep were given morphine hypodermically in quarter-grain
doses at intervals of five minutes. No decided effects of the morphine
were observed until after the third dose, when the sheep became grad-
ually calmer. After receiving five doses both sheep lay down in a
partly stupefied condition, from which they did not arouse for several
hours. These sheep ultimately recovered from the poisoning, although
its effects were noticeable for four or five days.
Experiment 5.—An experiment was tried with chloral hydrate as
an antidote for poisoning by water hemlock. One. sheep was given
one-half ounce of chloral hydrate in three equal doses at intervals of ©
ten minutes. The effect of this substance was not so immediate as
was that of morphine, but seemed to be otherwise very similar. The
sheep finally passed into a stupor similar to that produced by mor-
phine, from which it emerged after about two hours. The sheep did
not manifest any further violent symptoms as the result of the pois-
oning, but it did not recover its appetite, and, after drooping about
for three days, finally died. It would seem that in this case the violent
effects of the poison were not counteracted quickly enough to enable
the animal to make a final recovery.
Experiment 6.—In one case where four cows were poisoned with
water hemlock one of the number was seen when the first symptoms
of poisoning began to be shown. The stomach was at once opened at
the point where the ordinary operation of paunching is performed and
the stomach contents were removed. A large enema of lukewarm
water was then given, followed by a drench of melted lard. No direct
antidotes were given in this case. The animal, however, did not exhibit
the most violent symptoms of the poisoning and made a complete re-
covery after two days without any further care. The three other
cows died before any treatment could be given. In one other case of
poisoning from water hemlock a cow was given two 1-ounce doses of
chloral hydrate fifteen minutes apart with very satisfactory results.
SYMPTOMS OF POISONING.
The symptoms of poisoning from this plant were most closely studied
in sheep. The animals manifested signs of severe pain very quickly
after the appearance of the first symptoms. In sheep the first sign of
poisoning was usually an attempt on the part of the sheep to run away
from the band or to run in any direction in which it happened to get
started. There were also manifestations of great cerebral frenzy,
accompanied by involuntary muscular movements which resembled
to some extent the movements of animals when suffering from colic.
The respiration was labored and somewhat irregular, the pulse was
wiry and intermittent. It is, however, a difficult matter in most cases
WYOMING WATER HEMLOCK. 85
to make reliable observations on this point, for the reason that an
attempt to manipulate the animal always results in increasing the
mental excitement and the violence of the muscular spasms. These
spasms rapidly become more and more severe as the cerebral excite-
ment increases until the animal appears to be in an unconscious condi-
tion and dies in the most violent spasms. In some cases of cattle
poisoned by this plant the victims died within fifteen minutes after
the first signs of poisoning had appeared. In other cases among both
sheep and cattle where the first symptoms succeeded one another less
rapidly the animal lived for two or three hours, dying finally from
exhaustion, apparently as the result of the violent muscular convulsions.
REMEDIAL AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES.
Water hemlock is to be considered as a dangerous poisonous plant,
especially because so large a percentage of the animals poisoned by it
ultimately die, and because its action is so rapid that the possibility of
treating a large number of simultaneous cases is practically precluded.
It will readily be understood that in any case where several hundred
animals are poisoned at the same time considerable skill will be required
to.administer even a simple treatment to each animal in time to pre-
vent the fatal effects of the poisoning. But the difficulty is especially
great when one has to deal with a plant like water hemlock, of which a
fatal dose may produce death within fifteen minutes. As already
indicated, antidotes for poisoning from this plant may be applied with
success if the animals are noticed immediately after the first symptoms
of poisoning appear. Too often, however, especially in the case of
cattle, the poisoning is not discovered until it is too late to give any
remedial treatment.
Permanganate of potash should be promptly administered as pre-
viously recommended for poisoning by other plants. If violent
symptoms are already apparent, give morphine or some other sedative
hypodermically. In no case should these be administered by way of
the mouth if the permanganate has already been given. Morphine
should be given in doses as follows: For adult sheep, 14 grains; for
cattle and horses, 3 to 10 grains.
The distribution of water hemlock is much less extensive in the
localities where it grows than is that of death camas. It would seem,
' therefore, to be a comparatively easy matter to prevent sheep from
grazing on areas where it occurs, at least during the spring and
summer. It seldom happens that water hemlock is found along the
whole course of the stream or around the whole circumference of a
lake. There are, in nearly every case, places free from it at which
the sheep could be watered with safety. Im case the water hemlock
grows along the banks of the stream at points which are the most con-
venient watering places, it could here be exterminated with a moderate
86 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
amount of labor. This can be done by repeatedly cutting it down, or
in other ways. It is advisable to avoid the use of hay containing
water hemlock. The plants should be removed from native meadows
before mowing. Sheep herders should become thoroughly acquainted
with the appearance of the plant, so as to be able to recognize it in
any of its stages. An illustration of the value of such knowledge is
found in the case of a herder who made several attempts to water his
sheep at different points along the bank of a certain stream with dis-
astrous consequences in each case. A close observation would have
shown that the same plant was the cause of the poisoning in all cases.
SUMMARY.
~ Water hemlock is widely distributed in Montana along water courses
and in swampy places from the lowest altitudes up to about 7,500 feet.
The roots have long been known to be fatal when eaten by stock,
und cases of poisoning of stock have been reported from eating dry
seeded specimens in hay.
Our observations from May to July, 1900, showed that a number of
cattle and sheep ate the young plants, including in some cases the
roots, with fatal results in about 80 per cent of the cases.
Our experiments demonstrated that the basal portions of the plants
less than 13 feet high were poisonous to rabbits, and that morphine
and chloral hydrate are useful in counteracting the physiological
effects of this plant.
In cases where large quantities of the plant, especially the root, are
eaten, death results so quickly that remedial measures can not be
applied.
WHITE LOCO WEED.’
(Aragallus spicatus (Hook.) Rydberg.)
DESCRIPTION, HABITAT, AND DISTRIBUTION.
An erect, tufted perennial, 4 to 18 inches high, without branches,
with pinnate leaves and narrow leaflets and spikes of white or slightly
cream-colored flowers resembling those of the pea (Pls. LX and X).
The pod is one-celled and when ripe the seed produces a rattling sound
which gives the plant the name rattleweed. It is exceedingly com-
mon throughout the State, but grows most abundantly on the northern
slopes of foothills and mountains up to an altitude of about 8,000
feet. While it grows freely on nearly all the important ranges of the
State, it is most abundant in Judith Basin, the Musselshell country,
and the Yellowstone Valley. The situations in which it grows are
for the most part rather dry, and in many cases it is found quite
abundantly on dry prairie ranges. The habitat of the plant seems
1 For other loco weeds, see page 99.
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE IX.
WHITE Loco WEED (ARAGALLUS SPICATUS), IN FLOWER.
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE X.
WHITE Loco WEED (ARAGALLUS SPICATUS), IN FRUIT.
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WHITE LOCO WEED. 87
to vary slightly in different parts of the State. In the Judith Basin
and in the Sun River country it does not grow plentifully on the level
prairie, while in these same regions the foothills are so completely
covered with it that they appear as large white tracts when the plant
is in full bloom. On the other hand in the range country along the
course of the Musselshell River the white loco weed is met with more
extensively on the high prairie ranges. Attention has already been
called to the fact that as a general rule native ranges are freer from
poisonous plants the farther one goes away from the mountains. This
statement is also true of the white loco weed, which seldom occurs
abundantly on any prairie range in Montana at a distance of 20 miles
from the mountains.
HISTORY AS A POISONOUS PLANT.
For many years a disease called loco, affecting cattle, horses, and
sheep, has been generally known to the stockmen of the western
ranges. This disease has most commonly been attributed to the action
of certain plants, more rarely to that of alkali. Several species of
plants have been suspected of producing the loco condition in animals
and have been called loco plants or loco weeds and also crazy weeds
from the nature of the disease. Nearly all of the plants which have
been considered loco weeds belong to two genera of the pea family,
Astragalus and Aragallus. These genera are represented by numer-
ous species on the western stock ranges. Most of the species are
somewhat restricted in their distribution either to the southern or
northern portion of the range country, or grow more abundantly in
one region than in another. In Colorado the plant which is most com-
monly known as loco weed is Astragalus mollissimus. In Montana,
on the other hand, the plants most generally called loco weeds by the
stockmen are species of Aragallus. A number of other plants have
occasionally been mistaken for loco weeds, and among these may be
mentioned species of Astragalus and lupine. The species which is
most concerned in causing the loco disease in Montana is Avagadllus
spicatus and is closely related to A. lamberti.
It is the belief of a number of stockmen that a condition almost,
if not quite, the same as the loco disease may be produced in sheep by
eating undue quantities of alkali soil. Reference has already been
made to the fact that some stockmen do not salt their animals at all,
or only at long intervals. When animals are not salted regularly they
soon discover localities where large quantites of alkali are found in the
soil and visit such places frequently for the purpose of eating this alkali
soil. A few of the more observant sheep raisers have come to believe
that sheep are less apt to become locoed when regularly salted than
when they eat large quantities of alkali in consequence of not being
supplied with salt. For this fact two explanations have been offered.
88 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
On the one hand a number of sheep raisers believe that the eating of
large quantities of alkali is itself the cause of the loco disease. A few
sheep men have maintained that the locoed condition is in every case
due to eating alkali or to drinking strongly alkaline water. This asser-
tion is definitely disproved by the fact that sheep and horses are known
to have become locoed while feeding on mountain ranges where no
alkali soil was to be found and where all of the water was free from
alkali. A considerable number of sheep became locoed while feeding
ona range of this character on the slopes of the Rockies near Augusta,
Mont. No alkali was to be found on this range in either soil or water.
These sheep were removed to another range where the loco weed did
not grow so abundantly, but where all the water was somewhat alka-
line. Their condition improved slightly under the changed conditions,
although they were still able to find and eat the loco weed in small
quantities.
On the other hand, an equally large number of sheep men believe
that there is no connection between the loco disease and alkali. A
second explanation for the observed fact that sheep most frequently
acquire the loco habit when not salted is that the lack of salt and the
physiological action of the alkali may bring about a depraved appetite
which manifests itself in the formation of the loco habit. As already
stated in a previous part of this report,’ the different forms of alkali,
such as are found in Montana, can scarcely be considered substitutes
for common salt in the animal economy. Disturbances in the normal
physiology of animals are likely to result in the majority of cases from
total absence of salt. It is well known that a number of diseased con-
ditions in animals are accompanied with manifestations of a depraved
appetite. From a general description given of the loco disease it is
apparent that this condition might very justly be termed a perverted
appetite. It has, to be sure, not been demonstrated by actual observa-
tion that the depraved appetite which is shown in the formation of
the habit of eating loco weeds is in every instance the result of the first
taste of these plants. A number of observations made by the prin-
cipal sheep raisers and by ourselves indicate, as already stated, that
sheep more frequently form the habit of eating the loco plants when
not regularly supplied with salt than when abundantly furnished with
this substance. All reliable observations point to the conclusion that
it is highly desirable to supply sheep with a sufficient quantity of salt,
which they can get whenever they wish it.
It has been frequently suggested that the peculiar effects produced
by eating loco weeds are due to inadequate nutrition. In sucha theory
it isof course assumed that the loco weeds do not contain the elements
necessary to the diet of a sheep or horse. The proof of this assertion
is not forthcoming, and it seems more reasonable to believe that the
1Pages 20, 21.
WHITE LOCO WEED. 89
plants contain a poisonous principle which is harmful to domestic
animals.
It should be stated also that the larvae of sheep bot flies, which are
frequently found in the frontal sinuses of the head, can not possibly be
considered the cause of the nervous symptoms characteristic of the
loco disease, for the reason that these larvae are not found in greater
abundance in locoed than in healthy sheep. For the same reason the
presence of the common tape worm (Zaenia serrata) in the small intes-
tines and bile duct of sheep can not be considered as the cause of the
locoed condition. These worms are almost universally present in the
intestines of sheep, and under ordinary conditions do not cause any
recognizable disturbances. The disease of sheep known as gid is not
to be mistaken for the loco disease and, furthermore, is not prevalent
in this country. No indications were found during the post-mortem
examinations that the walls of the stomach were affected to any appre-
ciable extent by the action of loco weeds, although these plants were
invariably found in the stomach contents of such sheep. In the
majority of cases no apparent changes have been produced in the
spleen, liver, or kidneys. In some instances a slight congestion of the
intestines was noticed. The cerebral membranes were in all cases
somewhat congested. This condition is probably one of the immediate
physical causes of the mental excitement exhibited by locoed animals.
Post-mortem examinations of locoed horses disclosed the same condi-
tions as those found in the sheep.
The most reliable observations on the subject of loco disease indicate
that it is the result of eating undue quantities of certain weeds, of
which a number are known. The disease may assume either an active
or chronic form. In the active form the animal lives but a few days,
while in the chronic form it may live for two or more years and man-
ifest the same symptoms in a milder degree. The eating of alkali may
bring about a perverted appetite which leads the animal to eat loco
weed. Otherwise alkali seems to have no connection with the loco
disease.
The horse and the sheep are the animals which are most frequently
affected by loco disease. Cattle occasionally acquire the loco habit,
but the cases are comparatively rare. In certain parts of Montana
the habit became so wide-spread among horses that the raising of them
was abandoned until the locoed animals were disposed of and other
-horses which had not the loco habit had been imported.
That this plant is seldom eaten by sheep, even under stress of hunger
(unless addicted to its use), is evident from the fact that in a case of
poisoning which happened near Toston, Mont., everything else, includ-
ing the terminal branchlets of greasewood (Chrysothamnus nauseosus)
and sage brush (Artemisia tridentata), and even the thorny branches
of a wild rose, was eaten, while many flowering plants of the white
90) STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
loco weed were left uneaten. No evidence was, in fact, obtained to
show that any of the plants had been even slightly browsed upon b
the sheep.
During the progress of field work in Montana in 1900, about 650
locoed sheep and 150 locoed horses were seen. The locoed horses
were nearly all in one herd, and of the 650 locoed sheep 500 were in
one band and 150 in another. The owner of the band in which 500
locoed sheep were found had lost during the preceding winter 700
sheep from loco weed. The extent of losses among stock from eating
loco weeds is probably larger than is usually suspected. The appear-
ance of locoed animals has become so common that it attracts little
attention, and few reports are made by individual stockmen on the
number of animals affected by loco disease. Among sheep the num-
ber could be ascertained with comparative ease, but with horses an
estimate of the number could only be made after a careful round-up.
It is safe to assume that the number of the latter is large, since a few
are to be seen in almost all parts of the State.
EXPERIMENTS.
The specimens used in experiments 1 and 2 were collected May 25,
by Arthur Williams, on gravelly plains near Crow Creek, at Toston,
Mont., and were received May 27. They were kept moist in a tin
box until May 28. The plants were mostly in fruit, but some speci-
mens were still in flower, and when used all parts were turgid as they
are when fresh. The larger semi-fleshy and coriaceous pods were
separated in one lot, while the leaves were put in another. The large
fruiting specimen and the small showy flowers shown in Pl. X illus-
trate the stage of growth of the parts used in experiments 1 and 2.
Both parts were extracted with water and 50 per cent alcohol in the
same way.
Fifty grams of the leaves and the flowering top (no large pods)
were thoroughly rubbed up in a mortar with about 90 c. c. of water and
allowed to soak over night at ordinary temperature. It was then
warmed over a water bath at about blood heat for a half hour, after
which the water extract was separated from the fiber by means of a
filter pump and by squeezing tightly in a strong linen bag. The resi-
due was set to soak with about 90 ¢. ¢. of 50 per cent alcohol, while
the filtrate, to prevent contamination by molds, was placed on ice
and kept cold until May 31. Both the alcoholic and water extracts
were finally made up to 100 ¢. ¢. in volume.
Experiment 1.—On May 3, at 11.10 a. m., a young Belgian hare
weighing 32 ounces received in the stomach by means of a syringe 10
c. ¢. of the water extract. A slight uneasiness was apparent at 12.45,
and a noticeable lack of appetite at 1.35, when five other rabbits, dosed
with other extract at the same time, were eating well. At 2.50, 15 ¢. ¢,
‘
WHITE LOCO WEED. 91
more was given in the same way. The uneasiness continued, and at
3.25 the animal was quite drowsy, a symptom which continued until
3.50. At 4.5 its appetite was better. Twenty cubic centimeters
were given at 7.45, shortly before stopping work for the day, but no
symptoms other than a slight drowsiness were noted. The stock solu-
tion was slightly moldy on June 5. On June 7 the rabbit’s respiration
was rapid, and the animal was bright and vigorous. None of the com-
monly described symptoms of loco weed poisoning were noted at any
stage of the experiment, but it is quite possible that had the feeding
of the extract been continued they would have developed. The experi-
ment simply indicates that the water extract of the leaves, as prepared
in the above way, is not an acute poison in the doses administered.
The residues, after extracting the pods and the leaves respectively
with water on May 28, were soaked in 50 per cent alcohol until June
16, when they were filtered and given hypodermically to two rabbits.
One and a half cubic centimeters of the leaf extract, diluted so that it
contained but 33 per cent of alcohol, produced no noticeable effect
other than that produced by the alcohol itself. The same amount of
the 50 per cent alcoholic extract of the pods was likewise without
noticeable effect.
Experiment 2.—On June 13 more of the plant, with fully developed
green pods, was secured and, exclusive of the tough stems, was ground
up in a sausage machine and extracted for an hour at ordinary tem-
peratures by grinding up small portions in a mortar with an equal
weight of water. All of the fractional parts were placed together
and the extract separated by means of a filter press. This was slightly
diluted, so that a cubic centimeter of the liquid was equivalent to a
gram of the fresh material. On June 14, 250 c. c. of this was fed at
8.50 a. m. to a sheep weighing about 60 pounds. No effect having been
noted, an equal amount was administered in the same way at 11 o’clock.
No toxic or even prominent physiological effect was noted the next
morning, when the animal grazed as usual.
Experiment 3.—An acute case of loco disease was observed in a two-
year-old ewe with a lamb at her side. The band had been moved to a
new part of the range on the morning of May 22, and the ewe in
question was observed eating large quantities of the white loco weed
(Aragallus spicatus). She was first seen eating this plant at 10 o’clock
a.m., and about 7.30 p. m., when the herder started the band for the
corral, she was unmanageable and the lamb was sick. An examination
of the ewe at this time showed that she was completely blind. A
slight locomotor ataxia was manifested. The ewe walked around in
long circles to the right, the neck being curved in that direction.
Whenever she came in contact with any object, she pushed against it
until exhausted and then remained standing for an instant in a sort of
stupor. At the beginning of each attack the head was slightly elevated
92 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
and turned to the right. The eyelids twitched rapidly and there was
a slight champing of the jaws. After this manifestation the animal
began to walk in a circle to the right. Each attack lasted from one to
two minutes and the intervals between the attacks were about five
minutes. On the morning of the second day it was at once apparent
that the attacks were becoming more severe. Their length and the
interval between them were the same as on the previous day. The
head was now turned much more decidedly to the right and the animal
walked around in much smaller circles. The lips and eyelids twitched
violently and the jaws were moved upon one another with such force
that the sound could be heard for a distance of 200 yards. Similar
symptoms, accompanied by digestive disturbances, were manifested in
the lamb during the second day, and it died in the afternoon. On the
morning of the third day it was found that the ewe had apparently
been pushing against the fence during a greater portion of the night
and was in a much more serious condition than on the second day.
She now wheeled around and around to the right, the neck being
curved so abruptly as to cause her to fall frequently. It was notice-
able, however, that the involuntary twitching of the eyelids and lips
and the grinding of the jaws had ceased. The spasmodic muscular
movements were largely confined to the legs. By the afternoon of the
third day the animal was unable to stand and the symptoms were
entirely confined to convulsive movements of the legs. On the
morning of the fourth day the animal died. The pupil of the eye
was at no time dilated and its expression was perfectly normal. The
pulse on the first day was irregular and intermittent. From 8 to 10
beats occurred in rapid succession, followed by an interval in which
from 4 to 5 beats were omitted. On the second day the pulse was
regular and of normal frequency and strength. During the third day
the pulse became rapid and weaker. The respiration was at first
perfectly normal, during the second day it became more rapid, and on
the third day it was exceedingly shallow and rapid. The only remedy
which was tried in this case consisted of frequent hypodermic injections
of one-fourth-grain doses of morphine. During the forenoon of the
second day six doses were given at intervals of fifteen minutes, appar-
ently with no effect. The attacks of trembling and spasms became
during this treatment more severe, as they probably would have done
if no morphine had been administered. In the lamb belonging to this
ewe potassium permanganate was tried. One dose of 1 gram of this
substance was given by means of a direct injection into the stomach.
The lamb lived much longer than other lambs which were affected in
the same way and were not treated, but it finally succumbed. Two
other ewes ate small quantities of the loco weed at the same time and
were affected in the way which has just been described, except that all
of the symptoms were mild in degree. In these two cases morphine
WHITE LOCO WEED. 93
was again tried with much better success. The spasms became less
pronounced and the ewes recovered on the second day. The lambs,
however, had died in the meantime from the poison contained in the
milk of the mother. The lambs in these three cases were two weeks
old and had not eaten loco weed or any other plants.
SYMPTOMS OF POISONING.
The symptoms of loco disease in animals are familiar to all stock
raisers. Perhaps the most characteristic are those of cerebral origin,
consisting in peculiar irregularities in gait and action, which may be
compared to a drunken condition in men. Sheep and other animals
affected by this disease are commonly said to be crazy or locoed. The
cerebral disturbance may consist in an impairment of the function of
the special senses, or in improperly regulated motor impulses which
produce a more or less pronounced incoordination of muscular move-
ment. Sight is frequently much impaired. In some cases the animal
soon becomes totally blind. This condition is reached more often in
acute cases than in chronic cases of loco disease. More frequently the
animal simply sees incorrectly or makes errors in judgment of size or
distance of objects. These errors in judgment of ocular perceptions
are a common occurrence and are often so pronounced as to become
ludicrous. A locoed horse upon being driven up to a gate may either
attempt to jump over the crossbar, which is usually placed at the
height of about 15 feet, or may lower his head from fear of striking
it. Simple experiments indicate that both sheep and horses in a locoed
condition frequently mistake harmless things for dangerous enemies.
In horses which are affected with the chronic form of loco disease one
has abundant opportunity to observe many peculiar and senseless
actions which are evidently due to cerebral disease. Locoed horses
are often used for both draft and driving purposes. Such horses may
work or travel ina perfectly normal manner for daysatatime. They
frequently, however, run away or are attacked with kicking fits with-
out any apparent external cause. Observations made on horses which
are only slightly locoed indicate that they do at times become fright-
ened by purely imaginary objects. This fright would seem, however,
to be none the less real, since such horses often tremble or become
covered with a cold sweat after these imaginary dangers are passed.
The sense of hearing is frequently affected in locoed animals, as is
easily demonstrated by simple experiments. The response to various
sounds and noises is not always in accordance with the character or
volume of the sound. At times a loud noise is unheeded, while at
other times a slight noise of the same character may produce fright.
The locoed animals are often unable to judge correctly the direction
from which sounds come.
Irregularities of the muscular movements of locoed animals may
94 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
assume a variety of forms. The animal may simply carry its head in
an extended or otherwise unnatural position. In some cases the arched
carriage of the back is to be noticed with awkward movements of the
legs. Trembling is a frequently noticed characteristic of the locoed
animal. This may be confined to the legs, especially to the knees, or
may involve all the voluntary muscles, and occurs in a most pronounced
manner after any fright which the animal may have experienced. It
is often observed of locoed horses that even when they are able to
move forward with considerable precision they experience difficulty in
backing.
It is the universal experience of sheep raisers that locoed sheep are
exceedingly difficult to herd. The sheep may, without a moment’s
warning, stray away from the band, each one in a different direction,
and it is easy to understand how nearly impossible it is to prevent
such a band of sheep from becoming separated. Besides giving the
herder much trouble in directing the course of the band on the range,
locoed sheep often refuse to enter the corral at night, and under any
and all circumstances may suddenly manifest perplexing stubbornness.
Few cases of locoed cattle have come under our observation. The
symptoms, however, in cattle are essentially the same as in sheep and
horses. Occasionally locoed cattle manifest dangerous symptoms and
attack man or animals. It is difficult to understand why the loco habit
is apparently so rare in cattle as compared with sheep and horses. In
their ordinary feeding habits cattle can hardly be said to be as fastidi-
ous in selecting forage plants as horses. The fact remains, however,
that cattle do not acquire the habit of eating loco weeds to any great
extent.
Many sheep raisers believe that in sheep one of the effects of eating
the loco weeds is an elongation and loosening of the teeth. As this
condition is almost invariably noticed in sheep from a year and a half
to two years old it would appear to be quite possible that this is
merely the natural phenomenon of shedding the teeth, which occurs
at the age just mentioned. The symptom in question is one which is
almost always mentioned by sheep raisers as characteristic of the
locoed condition. No careful and continued observations have been
made which would enable one to come to any definite conclusion in
regard to the matter. The suggestion that the loosening of the teeth
is merely a natural process of shedding the teeth was made by Dr.
M. E. Knowles, State veterinarian of Montana, and seems, according
to available observations on the subject, far more reasonable than the
other theory. As this loosening of the teeth occurs at the age when
the loco habit is most apt to be acquired, in the frequent examinations
made by stockmen it might easily be mistaken for an effect of eating
loco weed.
In chronic cases of the loco habit in sheep the animal, as already
WHITE LOCO WEED. 95
stated, becomes more and more emaciated and crazy. One of the fre-
quent effects of this habit is the shedding of the fleece as a whole or
in patches. The animal becomes unable to take care of itself and,
unless carefully watched, is apt to fall into the water and be drowned
while attempting to drink. The sight becomes more and more
affected until the animal is unable to direct its course properly or to
keep along with the band. Fits of trembling are of frequent occur-
rence during the later stages of the disease, and finally the animal
dies from inadequate nutrition and total exhaustion as the result of
the muscular convulsions.
In chronic cases of loco disease in horses the animal is usually left
to its own resources on the range. During the later stages it loses to
a large degree the power of locomotion and remains for two or three
weeks at a time upon a small area of ground. We have had the
opportunity of observing a number of such cases in horses which
were almost unable to walk. Under these circumstances the animals
seldom or never lie down, and it may be doubted whether they could
get up if they once should lie down. One horse which was under con-
tinuous observation for a period of two weeks in 1897 remained dur-
ing this time upon a piece of ground about 150 feet square. The
ground and vegetation were unusually dry,and the horse had no water
during the two weeks. At the end of this time the animal walked
about 1 mile to a small stream where, in attempting to drink, it fell
and was unable to get upon its feet again. It seems very difficult to
understand how, under the dry conditions of the open plain, animals
can live so long without water.
Numerous autopsies made on locoed sheep and horses revealed con-
ditions which, though fairly uniform, did not constitute a well-defined
series. Naturally the post-mortem findings in case of animals allowed
to die a natural death from the loco disease will differ from those of
animals which are killed and bled before being examined. As stated
in the description of the symptoms, locoed animals usually die in more
or less violent spasms. As a result of these spasms the blood is found
after death unevenly distributed in the blood vessels. The lungs are
frequently found to be congested for the reason that the blood was
inadequately aerated at the time of death. We made a large number
of post-mortem examinations upon bodies of locoed sheep which had
been killed and bled immediately before examination. In these cases
there was no lesion or marked changes in the alimentary tract. <A
slight congestion of the membranes of the brain was to be observed
in all cases. The lungs and heart were apparently not affected. The
voluntary muscles were of a paler color than under normal conditions,
and the fat tissue was considerably reduced in quantity.
Undoubtedly a serious mistake has been made by a majority of sheep
men who have suffered losses from the loco disease in allowing the
96 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
locoed sheep to remain with the band. The loco habit seems to be
learned by imitation, and as long as locoed sheep are allowed to
remain with other sheep the number of cases of locoed animals rapidly
increases. Stockmen have frequently suggested the possibility of
animals inheriting the tendency to-eat loco weeds. There seems, how-
ever, to be no support for such a theory. When once started, the
spread of the disease seems to depend almost entirely upon imitation,
one sheep learning the habit from another. On one range in Montana
we found 500 locoed sheep in one band. The owner of this band stated
that the number of locoed sheep in the band was constantly increasing,
and at the same time the werst cases were dying from day to day.
During the previous winter he had lost 700 sheep from loco disease.
With the sheep on this ranch the habit of eating loco weeds had pre-
vailed for two years. Previous to that time no cases of locoed sheep
had been observed, although sheep had been raised upon the range for
fifteen years. The habit had not been acquired in consequence of any
increased abundance of the loco weed. This plant had been observed
in great quantities on the range as far back as could be remembered.
Another band of sheep, belonging to a neighboring sheep man, acci-
dentally came in contact with the band containing the 500 locoed sheep
during the early spring of 1900. In the early part of May the herder
of this second band reported that he noticed two or three cases of
locoed sheep in his band. By June 25, when this band of sheep was
brought to the shearing shed, the number of locoed sheep in it was
found to have increased to 150. This one instance will serve to illus-
trate how rapidly the habit of eating loco spreads among sheep, and
should furnish a forcible argument for removing all cases from the
band as soon as discovered. In another part of the State an experi-
enced sheep raiser became nearly ruined financially through his sheep
acquiring the loco habit. By adopting the method of immediately
isolating the affected sheep, feeding them for mutton, and replacing
them with sheep which are free from the loco habit, he has entirely
eradicated this trouble on his ranch, although the loco weeds grow there
as abundantly as ever.
The fact has generally been observed by sheep raisers that the habit
of eating loco weed is usually acquired by young sheep from the age of
4 to 18 months. Old sheep seldom acquire it. The loco habit has
frequently been compared to the morphine and chloral habits in man,
and in some respects the two habits seem to be comparable. In sheep
which have never before eaten the loco weed, large quantities of it
frequently cause death within from one to three days. In chronic
cases of the loco habit the animal seems to acquire a sort of immunity
or increased resisting power against the action of the loco weed. In
such cases the first effect of eating seems to be that of a stimulant.
This is more easily observed in animals afflicted with the chronic loco
WHITE LOCO WEED. 97
habit when allowed to eat the loco weed after a period of enforced
abstinence. Such animals at first become excited, but as more and
more of the plant is eaten a depressant or stupefying effect is noticed,
such as is characteristic of cases of the chronic loco habit. The habit
assumes the form of an insatiable appetite, with the result that the
animal continually searches for the loco weed and feeds upon it to
the exclusion of other forage plants. Sheep may be seen hurrying
with trembling gait from one loco plant to another, devouring each
with nervous haste. The habit is sometimes observed already fixed
in lambs 2 months old. One of the inevitable results of eating the
loco weed exclusively is that the quantity of fodder obtained during
the day is insufficient, or, where the weed grows in great abundance,
the variety of diet is too small and the nutritive ration is unbalanced.
REMEDIAL AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES.
No specific remedy for the loco disease has ever been discovered.
The one definite statement concerning any poisonous principle which
may be contained in loco weeds is that made by Dr. Carl Ruedi, who
claims to have isolated an acid, which he called ‘* loco acid,” from Asfra-
_galusmolissimus, the common loco weed in Colorado. This work has not
been corroborated, and it is not at all certain that the same substance
will be found to be the active principle contained in the loco weeds of
Montana. In the present state of knowledge on this subject the only
treatment to be recommended is that of confinement and feeding with
nutritious diet. It is sometimes possible for the sheep raiser to move
the band of locoed sheep to a range where none of the plants grow.
When sheep are unable to obtain the loco weeds a large majority, even
of chronic cases, may be fattened and will produce good mutton. In
horses which have had the loco habit for a year or more, and which
are then kept in stables or pastures where the locoweed does not grow,
an apparent recovery takes place, but such animals are apt to show
the effects of the loco in various vicious habits, such as kicking or
running away without apparent cause. Sheep which have become
badly affected with the disease may be inclosed in feeding corrals and
fattened for market. A sheep raiser of the Yellowstone Valley dis-
covered in the fall of 1899 that among his sheep he had 1,200 cases of ©
loco disease. These 1,200 sheep were immediately separated from the
other sheep and put together in a corral. The same man bought 1,000
other locoed sheep from other sheep men in the neighborhood, and fed
the 2,200 locoed sheep for two months upon alfalfa and various roots.
At the expiration of this time all of the sheep, with the exception of
50, had apparently made a complete recovery from the loco disease and
were ina good condition for market. Of the 50 which were separated
from the band the majority were cripples and were removed from the
band for that reason. Only 3 or 4 sheep out of the 2,200 failed to
S. Doc. 160——7
98 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
recover from the effects of the loco weed. Other sheep raisers have
had similar experience with locoed sheep. There seems to be little
doubt that such sheep may be brought to a good condition for market
even after being addicted to the loco habit for a whole season.
Although, as just indicated, an apparent recovery may be brought
about in locoed sheep and horses, such animals when allowed to run
upon the range again almost invariably return to their old habit of
eating loco weeds. Animals which have once been locoed are, there-
fore, not to be considered suitable for stocking the range for the reason
that the majority of them will become locoed again, and for the addi-
tional reason that other animals will learn the habit and the loco disease
will thus spread among the stock.
The recommendation concerning locoed animals which is most-in
accord with reason and the experience of practical stockmen is to
remove immediately all locoed animals from contact with other animals.
Following this action it would seem to be advisable, when possible, to
place such animals on ranges where the locoweed does not grow and
allow them to remain in such situations until winter. During the
winter locoed sheep should be fed upon a nutritious diet, and such of
them as become fat should be sold for mutton at the conclusion of the
feeding period. The few sheep which do not respond to this treat-
ment may as well be killed and skinned, as their only value is that of
the pelt. In the case of horses which are kept away trom the loco
weed for a considerable length of time, the value of the animal is a
very uncertain quantity. Such horses may return to the habit of eat-
ing loco weeds at the first opportunity, and even if prevented for a
time they may develop vicious habits, as already stated. A small per-
centage of locoed horses apparently make a complete recovery and
develop into valuable and reliable animals.
In the case of one large sheep raiser such extensive losses were
incurred from sheep eating the white loco weed that the ranch was
finally sold to a new comer who was without experience in the sheep
business. Sheep were imported from other parts of the State and
country to stock this ranch, and no case of locoed sheep has been
observed here for the past four years. The immunity which the new
owner enjoys from the losses caused by eating white loco weed is, as
already indicated, not due to any special precaution on his part nor to
any experience which he has had in managing sheep, nor has the plant
disappeared from the ranch. His sheep have simply not acquired the
habit of eating loco weeds.
Since the loco disease is due to habit it is obviously impossible to
apply any such treatment as would be given to a disease which has a
definite course or to a case of acute poisoning from death camas or other
plants. In the case of poisoning from death camas, water hemlock, or
larkspur the result of treatment depends upon the amount of poison
VARIOUS LOCO WEEDS. 99
which has been eaten and the promptness with which the remedy is
applied. In locoed animals, on the other hand, the stockman has
quite difficult conditions to contend with. He may be able, as in the
two cases just cited, temporarily to counteract the effect of eating the
loco weed. Such cure is, however, only apparent. The habit is formed
and the animals will at once begin to eat the plant again if turned
out upon the range. A permanent cure therefore, in the ordinary
sense of the word, seems to be practically impossible, the loco habit
being comparable, as already indicated, to various injurious habits of
men, such as habitual drunkenness and the morphine habit. For
chronic cases it seems hardly reasonable to expect that any remedy
will be devised. Their treatment must apparently proceed on the
same principles as the treatment of vicious habits of long standing
in man.
SUMMARY.
The white loco weed is a common and widely distributed plant in
Montana, being especially abundant on slopes with a northern expo-
sure. It has long been considered by Montana stockmen as the most
important loco weed.
Our observations show that eating this plant produces the loco dis-
ease, and that the loco Labit is common in sheep and horses but rare
in cattle. Fatal effects were noted in one acute and several chronic
cases in sheep.
Narcotic effects were produced in a rabbit by feeding an extract of
the leaves.
The present state of knowledge concerning the exact physiological
effect of loco weed is so vague that no specific antidote or medical
treatment can be recommended. :
Locoed sheep should be removed from the band and fattened for
market on alfalfa or other forage plants, as above explained.
The immediate isolation of locoed sheep is advisable in order to
prevent the habit from spreading in the band.
It seems desirable to give sheep a regular and abundant supply of
salt in order to prevent the development of any perversion of the
appetite.
Locoed horses are used to the best advantage as draft animals, but —
they must be maintained in good condition and prevented from eating
loco weeds.
. OTHER LOCO WEEDS.
(Aragallus spp.)
In addition to the white loco weed a number of species in this and
closely related genera are considered as loco weeds in Montana, among
which the most important are the silvery loco weed (Aragallus splendens
100 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
(Dougl.) Greene) (Pl. XI), and the purple loco weeds (A. blankinshipii
Rydberg, A. besseyi Rydberg, and A. lagopus (Nutt.) Greene). The
last three species resemble each other so closely that it is difficult for
anyone not a systematic botanist to distinguish them. The illustra-
tions of A. besseyi (Pl. XID) and A. lagopus (Pl. XILD), which are
given herewith, may well serve to show the general appearance of
each.
The silvery loco weed is a handsome perennial, 6 to 12 inches in
height, which is soft and hairy throughout, and has narrow cylindrical
heads of rather inconspicuous flowers. It is fairly common on dry
open prairies and in native meadows throughout the State, blossoming
in June.
Aragallus besseyi, one of the purple loco weeds, is a hairy, tufted
perennial, 4 to 8 inches high, with numerous long, grayish leaves,
bearing 5 to 12 pairs of leaflets, and with short heads of showy pur-
ple flowers. It is common near Bozeman, in Spanish Basin, Judith
Basin, Smith River Valley, and Missouri Canyon, and in various other
places throughout the State, growing preferably in dry, rocky, or
gravelly, barren soil, and blossoming in May and the early part of
June. A. blankinshipii closely resembles A. bessey?.
A. lagopus is readily distinguished by its larger, more membra-
naceous pods, shorter leaves, and smaller number of leaflets.
LUPINES.
(Lupinus spp.)
Other names: Blue pea, blue bean, wild pea, wild bean, pea vine.
DESCRIPTION, HABITAT, AND DISTRIBUTION.
These are coarse, silky-haired, perennial herbs, with blue bean-like
flowers arranged in showy terminal racemes, which blossom in June
and July. The alternate long-stemmed leaves have from 7 to 11 leaf-
lets which radiate from a common point. The fruit is a hairy, sev-
eral-seeded, bean-like pod, and the seeds are small and somewhat
flattened.
The species which interest us here are: L. lewcophyllus (Pl. XIV),
in which the flower clusters are dense and many-flowered on short
stems; L. sericeus (Pl. XV), in which they are looser and shorter, with
fewer but larger flowers and longer stems, and ZL. cyaneus, which is
quite similar to the other two species, resembling more nearly Z. lew-
cophyllus, but differing in its larger and coarser habit.
These plants belong to the pea family, but are easily distinguished
from the loco weeds and other common wila species of this family by
the character of the leaf. The leaves are compound, and the several
parts are all attached to the end of the leaf stem, radiating from this
point in different directions. A number of stockmen call these plants
PLATE XI.
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr.
> > Sein A
opr Spit eke <
i le seston vnux 159) ee
SILVERY LOCO WEED (ARAGALLUS SPLENDENS).
te oA
ya
Wt he
PLATE XIl.
6, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr.
Bu
- Laci waste Le.
PURPLE LOCO WEED (ARAGALLUS BESSEY!I).
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XIll.
Purple Loco WEED (ARAGALLUS LAGOPUS).
PLATE XIV.
BRASH.
KX SF
= Sy >
ie eR KS i; A
Ba A\, aS
iv. of Botany, Dept. of Agr.
Bul. 26, D
LUPINE (LUPINUS LEUCOPHYLLUS).
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XV.
LUPINE (LUPINUS SERICEUS).
LUPINES. 101
lupines, but perhaps the names wild bean, blue bean, and blue pea
are more generally applied to them in Montana. There are a number
of species which occur within the limits of the State, but they so
much resemble one another that a person who knows one of them will
easily recognize the others. Onaccount of their practical importance
it seems highly desirable that stockmen should become sufliciently
acquainted with these plants to recognize them at a glance, and should
learn to call them lupines, since this name is commonly used by botan-
ists and agriculturists in the United States and Europe. Some uncer-
tainty has existed in the minds of a number of stockmen regarding the
identity of the loco weeds and lupines. In a few instances illustrations
have been noticed in agricultural papers of the white loco weed
(Aragallus spicatus) which were labeled ‘‘loco weed or lupine.” But
loco weeds and lupines are not at all alike either in their effects or in
their appearance. A glance at the photographs of these two plants
will show at once thestriking differences in their leaf characters and
should enable anyone to distinguish them (Pls. [IX to XV).
The third of the lupines above mentioned, Z. cyaneus, is abundant
around Livingston and Bigtimber and probably elsewhere in the
State. In this paper it is generally not distinguished from ZL. leuco-
phyllus, with which it is practically identical. As regards L. leuco-
phyllus and L. sericeus, no good evidence could be obtained that the
preferred soil and climatic conditions of these two species differ to
any noticeable degree. The species, however, are not usually found
growing in the same localities. Lupinus leucophyllus is found in
Yellowstone, Sweet Grass, Park, Gallatin, Madison, Meagher, Jef-
ferson, Deerlodge, Ravalli, 'lathead, Teton, Choteau, Lewis and
Clarke, Cascade, and Fergus counties. This species is the most
widely distributed and most abundant of all lupines which grow in the
State. Lupinus sericeus was found in Carbon, Park, Gallatin,
Meagher, Cascade, Choteau, and Teton counties. Both these species
are found ranging from the lowest valleys to an altitude of 8,000 feet.
Asarule the lupines do not grow in the flat river bottoms. The
usual location in which they are abundant is on sloping hillsides or
upon parts of mountain ranges at moderate elevations. In many
parts of the State these plants grow so profusely in such localities as
to cover the ground completely, and when the lupines are in full
bloom, these areas are visible from distances of several miles. The
immense tracts of lupines, with their bright blue flowers, are familiar
to all stockmen.
HISTORY AS POISONOUS PLANTS.
Circumstances affecting their injurious character.—During the season
of 1900 these plants began to bloom about May 20, and the first full
pods were collected on June 5. As already stated, the season was
102 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
unusually advanced, and these dates are earlier than they would be in
an average year.
So far as we have been able to observe, lupines are not very exten-
sively eaten by sheep during the spring and summer. This statement
is at least true for normal conditions where sheep are acquainted with
the range and are not being trailed or driven. Horses and cattle take
kindly to lupines and eat them in large quantities during their imma-
ture stages. When sheep are being trailed through strange country,
or when they have just been unloaded from cars, and are in a hungry
condition, they eat lupines ravenously in any stage of growth. The lu-
pines are not considered valuable as forage plants for sheep until after
early fall frosts, or until other forage plants have become dry and unin-
viting as fodder. In late fall, and especially after early snowstorms,
the lupines constitute one of the chief forage plants on some of the
mountain ranges. It should be remembered that the leaves of lupines
remain green and the plants offer slightly succulent forage after other
plants have become dry.
Besides furnishing late green forage on the range, the lupines
constitute one of the most important native hay crops, if one judges
of the importance of the crop by the amount. In numerous localities
over the greater portion of the State, lupines cover the ground com-
pletely on continuous areas of sufficient size to enable the ranchmen to
cut heavy crops of hay from them. No reports are made which afford
a basis for any definite estimate of the total quantity cut in the State.
A moderate estimate would place the quantity at several thousand
tons per year. In some cases such hay is made up of lupine and a
number of other plants in almost equal quantities. Ordinarily, how-
ever, lupine hay is cut on areas where the lupines occupy the ground
exclusively. Lupine hay is greedily eaten by all kinds of stock during
the winter. Large quantities are fed every year, and this has been
the case for the past 15 or 20 years.
Lupine hay is cut at different seasons in different years. With the
majority of stockmen, who depend upon native wet meadows and
lupine for winter fodder, the time of haying depends largely upon the
press of other business. It therefore happens that lupine in different
years is cut at dates which range from the 1st of July to the middle
of September.
Naturally the stage of growth will differ according to the time when
the lupine is cut. If the plant is cut during the first half of July, the
nearly ripe pods, full of seeds, will be secured in the hay. When the
lupine is cut at this time, the pods do not open sufficiently in drying to
allow the seed to fall out. In cases where the harvesting of lupine
hay is postponed until September, the pods become fully ripe and split
open and the greater number of seeds fall out and are not collected
with the hay. This is especially apt to be the case if early fall frosts
LUPINES. 103
have occurred before the lupine is cut. It may be stated that as a
general rule lupine is not cut until the latter part of August or the
first part of September.
There is a striking variation in the quantity of pods containing
fully developed seeds in different years. During seasons in which the
months of May and June are wet the quantity of pods formed on the
lupines is very large. When, on the other hand, these months are
usually dry, only a few pods are found on each plant, the vast majority
of flowers failing to become fertilized. In a large mountainous State,
such as Montana, one would naturally expect to find great local differ-
ences in the amount of rainfall and other climatic features, depending
partly upon location with reference to the streams, forests, moun-
tains, and partly upon altitude. Corresponding to these differences
variations are noticed in the quantity of pods formed on the lupines
in different parts of the State.
In observing the feeding habits of sheep, one readily notices that
these animals are especially fond of the pods of various native legumi-
nous plants. These pods before becoming mature are usually quite
succulent and possess a sweet, pleasant taste, resembling in many
instances that of the pods of the cultivated pea. The lupines are
among the plants which offer pods of this character. In various parts
of the State it was noticed that sheep had fed extensively upon these
and the other legumes and that the part eaten was almost exclusively
the green pods.
The above observations concerning the native lupines of Montana
are made for the purpose of indicating the large extent to which they
are used for forage, and alsoas a foundation for the discussion of their
poisonous nature.
Cases of poisoning.—The first case of poisoning from lupines which
was brought to our attention occurred in August, 1896. A band of
sheep while being moved from one range to another was driven
rapidly, and was consequently in a very hungry condition, when it
was allowed to feed in a field of lupine for a short time. Within two
hours after beginning to eat the lupine a number of sheep manifested
violent symptoms of poisoning, and a few died within one hour after
the appearance of the first signs of poisoning. Of the 200 sheep in
the band 100 had died before the following morning. The season of
1896 was rather late and at the time when the poisoning occurred the
lupine pods were fully formed, but the seeds were not quite ripe. In
this case the sheep were driven away from the lupine as soon as the
first symptoms of poisoning had been noticed and some of the sheep
had eaten only small quantities of the plant. About 150 out of the
200 were affected, and as only 50 of these ultimately recovered it will
be seen that the death rate was very high.
The owner of these sheep during the same season cut a quantity of
104 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
lupine hay during the second half of July. In the winter of 1897 a
band of 150 bucks belonging to the same sheep raiser were kept in a
covered corral and were fed on cultivated hay. On one afternoon
during the winter these bucks were given a liberal quantity of the
lupine hay. About three hours after feeding this hay a noisy disturb-
ance was noticed among the sheep. Upon investigation the owner
found the sheep ina frenzied condition, and during the night about
90 of them died. No more lupine hay was fed and no more trouble
was experienced.
In August, 1898, a horse came under our own observation two
hours after having eaten a liberal quantity of lupine hay. The horse
became violently ill with symptoms of lupine poisoning, from which
it recovered after three days. The history of this case was similar
to that of 3 2-year-old colts, which, after receiving cultivated hay
during the greater part of the winter of 1897, were fed on lupine hay
for two days. All of these died on the second day.
During October, 1898, serious losses of sheep from lupine poisoning
occurred in various parts of the State, aggregating about 2,000.
About 1,150 died out of a single band of 2,500 sheep, and a number
of large losses from the same cause occurred in other parts of the
State. These cases occurred just after a snowstorm, while the grass
and other plants were covered, the sheep being compelled to eat the
lupine as the only plant which stood above the snow at the time. A
number of the localities were carefully examined and lupine was
found to be the most abundant plant excepting the grass. A study
was made of the stomach contents of poisoned sheep, and in all cases
lupine was found to be almost the only food material. The stems,
leaves, pods, and seeds of this plant were identified in the stomach
contents. The great abundance of pods and seeds was especially
noticeable. Ordinarily the lupine pods split open and the valves
become twisted in such a manner that nearly all of the seeds fall out
upon the ground. For some reason an unusually large quantity of
seeds had this season been retained in the pods until winter.
During the winter of 1898-99 over 3,600 sheep died from eating
lupine hay. This number of deaths occurred among about 7,000
sheep which were affected. The average death rate in investigated
cases of lupine poisoning is therefore about 50 per cent. In all cases
where severe losses occurred, the lupine had been cut at a much earlier
date than usual, the dates given by different sheep men ranging from
July 1 to July 20. During this season the lupines had formed an
unusual quantity of pods. At the early date at which the hay was cut
the seeds were fully formed, but the pods were not yet dry enough to
open and scatter the seeds.
The most extensive losses of sheep from feeding hay occurred in
the Judith Basin. In all cases the hay, a part of which had been left
LUPINES. 105
unfed, was examined and found to consist almost exclusively of lupine
(Lupinus sericeus), with full pods containing ripe seeds. At one ranch
on Sage Creek two tons of lupine hay was fed to a band of 2,000
sheep, with the result that 700 of these sheep died within a period of
forty-eight hours. In this case the feeder did not believe at first that
the lupine was the cause of poisoning. In order, therefore, to show
tke courage of his convictions he tried the experiment of feeding
about 200 pounds of lupine to 50 sheep from another band. Some of
these sheep fell dead before finishing their meal, and altogether 28
died within a period of twenty-four hours. As occasion arose the
remaining portion of the Jupine hay was applied to other purposes.
A small quantity was used as a covering for a lamb shed in the follow-
ing spring. During a windstorm a part of it was blown off on the
ground and eaten by a number of rams, 3 of which died.
At another sheep ranch on Buffalo Creek a band of 2,500 sheep were
fed lupine hay, and 900 out of this number died within forty-eight
hours after eating the hay. The remainder of the stack was left
standing, surrounded by a fence. During December, 1899, the fence
around the stack became broken down at one point, and another
herder, while driving a band of sheep by the stack, allowed a part of
the band to enter the inclosure and eat some of the lupine hay. The
sheep were soon driven out of the inclosure, but many of them showed
signs of poisoning, and 100 died. In this case, in the same manner
as on Sage Creek, a quantity of this hay was used for covering a sheep
shed, with the result that some of it blew off and caused the death of 7
sheep.
In Deerlodge Valley an old and experienced sheep raiser suffered a
loss of 700 sheep from eating lupine hay. The owner of these sheep
had cut lupine hay on the same ground for five or six years, and had
fed it without any bad consequences. During these years the hay had
always been cut during the earlier part of September. The material
which caused the disastrous poisoning just mentioned was cut during
the first half of July. Only a small part of the lupine which was
intended for hay was cut at this early date, other work interfering
with haying, and the remainder was cut in September. That which
was cut at the earlier date was stacked in a temporary manner, and
that which was cut in September, therefore, came to occupy the upper
portion of the stack and was naturally the first to be fed to the sheep.
This hay did not cause any cases of poisoning, but the first feed from
the hay which was cut in July caused the death of 700 of the sheep.
From this case it is evident that the poisonous or nonpoisonous nature
of lupine hay depends partly upon the stage of growth at which it
is cut.
A sheep owner near Birdtail Pass had 500 sheep poisoned from eat-
ing lupine hay, 160 of which died. In this case, as in the previous
106 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
one, the sheep raiser had had some experience in feeding lupine hay,
but had never before had any losses. The lupine was cut in July, at a
time when the seeds were still contained in the pods.
The evidence in regard to lupine hay proves conclusively that such
hay is exceedingly dangerous when cut in full pod, with ripe seeds.
The experience of a number of sheep men indicates, on the other hand,
that lupine cut late in the season, after the seeds have fallen out, may be
fed to sheep with impunity. The case referred to in the Deerlodge
Valley may be cited as proof of both propositions. Experiences sim-
ilar to this have been had by a number of sheep raisers in other parts
of the State. On Buffalo Creek, in the Judith Basin, a quantity of |
lupine hay growing near that which caused the loss of 900 sheep,
already referred to, was cut in September of the same year, and was
fed to sheep without causing any poisoning.
Instances have already been related of sheep poisoning from eating
lupine while growing upon the range, and other instances have been
noted of sheep eating lupine upon the range without becoming poi-
soned. In these experiences, as in those with lupine hay, the general
conclusion is indicated that lupine is poisonous only when containing
ripe seeds. Our observations and experiments show conclusively that
lupines are harmless during the earlier stages, before the pods have
been formed, and also during the later stages, after the seeds have
fallen out. Lupine hay cut during the month of July seems to be
exceedingly dangerous. It would obviously be impossible to state in
advance the actual dates at which lupines become poisonous, and the
‘date in the fall at which they cease to be poisonous. Since, therefore,
it is practically impossible to define these periods accurately, it would
seem doubtful wisdom to cut lupine for hay at all, at least where other
hay can be obtained.
A few other serious cases of sheep poisoning from eating lupine on
the range may be briefly described. In one case a few carloads of
sheep, which were shipped by train, were unloaded near the Mullen
Tunnel, at an altitude of about 6,000 feet. The shipment was made in
July, and at the time when the sheep were unloaded they were in a
ravenously hungry condition. As lupines constituted the most con-
spicuous forage material accessible to the sheep, they filled their
stomachs with them, eating great quantities of the pods. Within a
few hours a large number of the sheep showed the symptoms of
poisoning and 400 died.
During the same month a band of 2,000 sheep was trailed over the
Birdtail Pass. Lupines grew abundantly in this locality, and the
sheep fed almost exclusively on these plants. About 1,000 of these
exhibited signs of poisoning, and 700 of them died from the effects of
lupine.
Perhaps the most disastrous case of sheep poisoning ever known in
ae il
LUPINES. 107
Montana occurred on June 28, 1900, about 5 miles west of Livingston.
Two bands of sheep, each numbering 3,000, were being trailed west-
ward from Livingston. These sheep had been imported from Oregon
about a week previous to the time of poisoning, and had been allowed
to graze during this week upon rather short, dry grass in the vicinity
of the Livingston stock yards. On the day before the sheep were
started on the trail they were liberally salted. On the first day of the
drive the sheep traveled about 5 miles, and the two bands were camped
for the night on opposite sides of a small stream. Both bands of
sheep were watered in the same stream and at exactly the same place.
After watering, one band was driven across the creek and camped on
a bench about 30 feet higher than the stream. The other band was
camped on the same side of the stream from which it was watered.
At the time when the herders went to sleep for the night, about 9
p. m., both bands of sheep were in good condition. On the following
morning nearly all of the 3,000 sheep which had been driven across
the creek manifested symptoms of poisoning, and several hundred of
them were dead. Out of this band 1,900 ultimately died. The greater
number of deaths occurred on the first day, but the sheep continued to
die for a period of three days. During this time the sheep had little
appetite and ate almost nothing. No deaths occurred in the band of
sheep which was camped on the other side of the stream.
Malicious poisoning was at once suspected as the cause of this
unusually heavy loss. A number of persons visited the place where
the sheep were poisoned and made an examination of the range for
the purpose of discovering, if possible, any poison which had been
placed maliciously upon the range. No such poison was to be found,
although careful examination was made immediately after the poisoning
occurred. Although suspicions were entertained by a number of per-
sons against a suspected enemy of the owner of the sheep, these sus-
picions did not rest on any facts which could be supposed to corroborate
them.
A careful study of the circumstances of this case disclosed the fol-
lowing facts: The sheep were driven about 4 miles during the previous
day and ate the plants along the road near the Northern Pacific tracks.
The plants which grew most abundantly along this course were lupine
(Lupinus cyaneus) and milk vetch (Astragalus drummondii). The
sheep ate both these plants extensively. Both were in full pod, and
the sheep seemed to prefer the pods. It was observed that the pods
had been stripped off the flowering stems, leaving the rest of the plant
untouched. Of the Astragalus the sheep ate both the leaves and pods.
The latter was of a much finer and more delicate nature than the lupine
in this Jocality. The lupines were unusually large and woody, attain-
ing a height of from 2 to 3 feet. The facts thus far noted, however,
would hardly justify the belief that the quantity of the lupine which
108 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
had been eaten was sufficient to cause the death of so many sheep,
with a death rate of 63 per cent, nor account for the fact that only one
band of sheep was poisoned while the other remained entirely
unharmed. Yet post-mortem examinations, made on a number of
sheep, one of which had just died, revealed large quantities of lupine
pods and seeds in nearly every stomach, and no evidence of any other
poisonous substance was to be found. The results of the first exami-
nations were confirmed by-a second visit to this locality several days
later for the purpose of making further examination of the stomach
contents. Large numbers of carcasses still lay on the ground in a
badly decomposed condition, but it was a comparatively easy matter
to demonstrate the presence of lupine pods in every stomach. About
75 sheep were examined for this purpose. The fact that lupine pods ~
are exceedingly hard and resist decomposition for weeks, combined
with their characteristic shape, makes their identification a very easy
matter.
Further facts were developed, however, which furnished a satisfac-
tory explanation. A large quantity of lupine grew on the side of the
creek where the band which was poisoned camped for the night,
while on the other side of the creek where the other band camped no ~
lupine was found. The first band was driven across the creek about
8 o'clock in the evening and grazed for some time before lying down.
They thus had opportunity to eat the lupine which grew on that side
of the creek, and an examination of this lupine showed ca the pods
had been stripped off.
_ The immunity of the second band is explained by the fact that with
the exception of the first mile of the drive, this band took a course
different from that of the first band, though parallel with it. No
lupine grew on the first mile of the drive where both bands followed
the same course, and it so happened that the course of the second band
for the rest of the distance led through fields where no lupine was to
be found. The most abundant plant along this course was Astragalus
drummondii, a good forage plant, of which the pods had been eaten
extensively by the sheep. While the first band of sheep, therefore,
had opportunity to eat the lupine, not only near its camping ground
but at several other points along the course of the drive, the second
band had no opportunity of eating it. At one point in the course of
the drive, indeed, all the sheep passed through a small area of another
species of lupine (LZ. pseudoparviflorus); but this species had formed
scarcely any pods and was not eaten by the sheep.
EXPERIMENT.
On June 26 two sheep were fed each 150 medium-sized lupine pods
which were well filled with nearly ripe seeds. The sheep ate the pods
readily and seemed to manifest a fondness for them. Both sheep
became frenzied in about forty-five minutes after eating the lupine
LUPINES. 109
pods and died about one hour later. The symptoms in these two cases
were the same as those observed above and were of the acute form.
SYMPTOMS OF POISONING.
The symptoms of lupine poisoning are tolerably uniform and are so
well known in Europe that chronic lupine poisoning has been given
the name lupinosis. Both acute and chronic forms of the disease are
frequently referred to by European writers. In the United States,
however, the chronic form has thus far not been recognized. The
symptoms observed in cases of lupine poisoning in Montana are prac-
tically identical with those described by European writers as caused
by European species of lupines. There is always to be noticed an
acute cerebral congestion accompanied from the start with great mental
excitement. During this stage the sheep rush about in different direc-
tions, butting one another and other objects. In some cases it was
observed that the sheep ran toward the herder or other persons, but
there is probably no significance to be attached to such actions. The
first stage of frenzy is followed by a second stage, characterized by
pronounced irregularity of movement, violent spasms, and falling fits.
In the large proportion of cases collapse and death occur within from
one-half to one and one-half hours. During the attack the pulse is
strong and irregular. After the animal is no longer able to stand,
attacks of convulsions follow one another at short intervals. These
convulsions resemble to some extent those caused by strychnine.
Universally in lupine poisoning the excretion of the kidneys is much
increased and sometimes it is bloody. In extensive cases of poisoning
by lupine it is to be observed that a number of the sheep linger on for
from two to four days. In these lingering cases the symptoms do not
follow one another so rapidly and do not assume so violent a form.
After the first day a striking weakness of the pulse and slowness of
respiration are manifested.
Post-mortem examinations of the sheep poisoned by lupines revealed
conditions very similar to those found in the acute cases of loco disease,
already described above, with the exception that in loco disease the
kidneys were not affected. The lungs were slightly congested, but
this condition was not so pronounced as in cases of larkspur poisoning.
The cerebral membranes were in all cases congested. In the more
violent cases small blood vessels had been ruptured in various parts of
the body, which may have been due either to increase of blood pres-
sure or to the struggles of the animal.
REMEDIAL AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES.
No remedies have been tried in cases of stock poisoning from eating
American species of lupine, and we can not, therefore, recommend any
treatment which is based on personal experience with these plants. It
is possible that liberal doses of a mixture of potassium permanganate
110 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
and aluminum sulphate, given as previously directed, might destroy
the lupine alkaloids in the stomach and prevent the development of the
most violent symptoms. It is advisable to administer this remedy,
especially in cases which are observed immediately after the manifes-
tation of the first symptoms. The physiological effects of the poison
may be controlled by the hypodermic use of morphine or other seda-
tives. In view of the extensive losses caused by eating lupines in a
ripe condition, both on the range and as hay, it would seem advisable
to abandon the use of these plants for forage, at least until experi-
ments have been conducted to determine more accurately the periods
when such plants are not poisonous. It is certainly dangerous to feed
lupine hay to sheep, especially if such hay contains seeds in a ripe or
nearly ripe condition. It is recommended, therefore, that lupines
should not be cut for hay, if they are to be cut at all, until the pods
are sufficiently matured to allow the seeds to fall out before the hay is
stacked. This period will usually fall after the middle of August. In
case any doubt is entertained concerning lupine hay which has been
stacked, it is advisable to feed liberal quantities of such hay, from
different parts of the stack if cut at different times, to 1 or 2 sheep, in
order to ascertain its true character, before feeding it in a wholesale
way.
It has often been observed by stockmen that cattle and horses may
safely be allowed to eat lupine hay which has been shown to be poison-
ous to sheep. It is not always safe to allow cattle and horses to eat
such hay, but these animals as a rule avoid the lupine pods and eat only
the stems and leaves. This is perhaps the only explanation which can
be suggested at the present time for the observed fact that lupine hay
may be harmless to cattle and horses and at the same time poisonous
to sheep.
SUMMARY.
Lupines are extremely abundant throughout the State, especially on
slopes or foothills and on mountain ranges.
During the past four or five years certain cases of poisoning in Mon-
tana and a few other Western States have been vaguely attributed to
lupines.
Our observations and experiments showed conclusively that lupines,
in certain stages of growth, have caused fatal poisoning in sheep.
Lupines are cut for hay in Montana on an extensive scale, and when
containing ripe seeds such hay is exceedingly dangerous to stock. If
used at all it should be used only when it is known to be free from
ripe or nearly ripe pods.
No remedy for poisoning by American lupine has been ascertained,
but the trial of potassium permanganate and aluminum sulphate is
recommended,
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PLATE XVI.
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr.
ERGOT (CLAVICEPS PURPUREA), IN HEADS OF WILD RYE GRASS.
LESS IMPORTANT SPECIES. 111
POISONOUS PLANTS OF LESS IMPORTANCE.
ERGOT,
(Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul.)
Ergot is a parasitic fungus frequently occurring in Montana on a
variety of grasses, among which the following may be mentioned:
Four species of wild rye grass (Elymus), three species of meadow
grass (Poa), six species of couch grass (Agropyron), prairie June
grass (Koeleria cristata (L.) Pers.), and reed canary grass (Phalaris
arundinacea L.). Ergot most frequently infests wild rye grass (Z/y-
mus condensatus Presl) and bluejoint (Agropyron spicatum (Pursh)
Scribn. & Sm.). The form in which ergot is commonly seen is that of
a black, straight or slightly-curved spur from one-fourth to one-half
inch in length in the fruiting head of the infested grass. (Pl. XVI).
Ergot is found throughout the State, wherever wild rye grass or blue-
joint grows. There are extensive native meadows of bluejoint in the
State which are annually cut for hay. Bluejoint hay is known to be
highly nutritious and is greatly valued by stockmen, some of whom
consider it better than alfalfa, clover, or timothy. Wild rye grass
grows very abundantly in some locations, but it is not so extensively
eut for hay as the bluejoint. As is well known, the wild rye grass
has a habit of growing in large bunches, and seldom covers the ground
completely. The ground where it grows is, therefore, rendered some-
what uneven, and the difficulties of cutting the grass increased. Some
years the wild rye grass is much worse infested than other years.
During such seasons the black spurs of ergot are a conspicuous feature
of the heads of this grass. In ordinary seasons the ergot spurs are
fully formed by the middle of August and remain in the heads of the
infested grass until late in autumn.
Several cases of ergot poisoning came to our notice. In one of
them a horse, while being driven from Helena to Bozeman, was fed
on the first night of the trip with wild rye grass hay which was badly
infested with ergot. On the following day the left hind leg appeared
somewhat stiff and moist with cold sweat. During the second day the
leg became badly swollen and gangrene of all the tissues became ap-
parent. The skin of the leg and a considerable portion of the muscular
tissues were sloughed off before the death of the animal, which took
place on the third day. Cases of the ordinary, slow-acting ergotism
were observed in both cattle and horses. During the season of 1898
one of us had opportunity of observing several cases of what was
apparently another form of ergotism in horses. The animals had
eaten considerable quantities of ergot in bluejoint and wild rye grass
hay. The symptoms, which will presently be described, were mani-
fested within twenty-four hours after eating the ergotized hay, and it
bal be STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
should be stated that no other conditions were present which could
account for the sickness and death of these animals. The symptoms
manifested were the same in all cases. The first sign of poisoning
which was noticed was fatigue and indisposition to work. Soon
afterwards a cold sweat was to be observed on parts of the body, par-
ticularly the neck. A paralytic condition soon began to manifest
itself, beginning with the tongue and muscles concerned in the act of
swallowing and becoming rapidly generalized until the whole body
was involved. In two cases, which were observed from the time of the
first signs of poisoning until death, the paralysis of the tongue and
muscles of the throat was noted about two hours after the first symp-
toms appeared. From this time on the animals were unable to swal-
low. The paralysis progressed rapidly and death resulted within six
or eight hours in the two cases. There were no cerebral symptoms
or mental excitement in these horses. The pulse was at first normal
but gradually became weaker until it was scarcely distinguishable.
Respiration was very slow and deep. The horses had a subnormal
temperature during the greater portion of the time. The remedies
which were tried in all cases included alcoholic stimulants, blistering
the throat, and strychnine. Out of six cases treated in this manner
only two recovered. The experiments indicated that it is practically
impossible, or even dangerous, to give remedies in such cases by way
of the mouth, except during the earliest stages, before the paralysis of
the throat has been developed. In one case a pint of whisky was
given as a drench, and this stimulant was followed by two one-fourth
grain doses of strychnine administered hypodermically. At the time
when this treatment was given the animal was so badly paralyzed that
it was unable to stand. The treatment seemed to benefit it tempora-
rily, and it got upon its feet. After walking about for half an hour
the paralytic symptoms returned, and the horse again lost control of
the tongue, gradually also of the sympathetic voluntary muscles, and
died in an apparently semiconscious condition.
One of the well-known effects of overdoses of ergot is the produc-
tion of abortion. In several parts of the State numerous cases of
abortion have occurred simultaneously or in close connection on the
same ranch. Some of these outbreaks, especially among horses, have
proved to be of an infectious nature and the disinfectant treatment
suitable for this disease was followed by good success. In other
instances, however, outbreaks of abortion were evidently not due to
infection, and were not traceable to any cause except the eating of
ergot in hay. An examination of the hay in such cases disclosed the
presence of ergot in abundance.
In discussing the problem of ergotism with various stockmen it was
found that in many instances the nature and appearance of ergot was
not at all understood. A number of stockmen had noticed the spurs of
XVII.
LESS IMPORTANT SPECIES. 113
ergot in the heads of different grasses, and had come to the conclusion
that these ergot spurs were the seeds of the grass in question. The
- general experience of stockmen in the State with bluejoint is that this
grass seldom forms seeds in the native meadows. It was thought,
therefore, by some that the conspicuous ergot spurs were simply the
rare examples of its seeds. It would be easy, however, for anyone to
convince himself that the ergot spurs are not grass seeds. If one of
them be crushed, it will be found to consist of a black mass which is
the sclerotium tissue of the fungus, of which the spurs may be called
the fruit. These spurs are usually about half an inch in length and
are so conspicuous «as to be visible for several yards. It would seem,
therefore, a simple matter for the stockmen to avoid cutting badly
infested areas of grass for hay. Fortunately ergot is much rarer on
bluejoint than on wild rye grass, and since the latter is used only toa
limited extent for hay, it would not work any particular hardship to
the stockmen to avoid the use of wild rye grass whenever it is infected
with ergot.
It seems possible that the disease of sheep known as ‘‘ mountain
itch” may be due to eating grass affected with this fungus and not to
the mechanical effect of cactus spines, as is thought by some sheep
men. A more thorough study of ergot may show that it is one of the
principal sources of loss throughout the State.
COW COCKLE.
( Vaccaria vaccaria (L.) Britton.)
Other names: Cow herb, soapwort, China cockle, spring cockle,
cockle.
A smooth much-branched annual 1 to 3 feet high, with mucilaginous
juice, lance-shaped leaves, and pale red flowers in diffusely branched
clusters which blossom in May and June (Pl. XVII). This species is
rapidly becoming a noxious weed throughout the State, especially in
cultivated soil. The plant is of European origin and is gradually
becoming established in all parts of the United States, the seeds being
carried in grain and in other ways.
The cow cockle grows in waste places, in cultivated soil, and on
sandy hillsides in Montana, specimens having been collected in Lewis
and Clarke, Cascade, Teton, Sweet Grass, Gallatin, Madison, Yellow-
stone, Flathead, and Custer counties. This and not the corn cockle
(Agrostemma githago) is the plant referred to by the millers of Mon-
tana when they speak of cockle. From the occurrence of the seed in
spring wheat, however, it is called spring cockle. This distinguishes
it from the ordinary corn cockle which occurs sparingly in Montana
in fall wheat. Under the name of cockle, seeds of this plant were, at
our request, furnished for identification by Mr. E. B. Lamme, of the
S. Doc. 160-—8
114 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
Bozeman Milling Company. Mr. Lamme stated that it was much
more easily screened out of wheat than is the true cockle and that the
amount obtained yearly at his mill was about a ton. The seeds, along
with an excess of broken grains of wheat, are sometimes sold as screen-
ings for chicken feed and often thrown away. In gross appearance the
seed is spherical and much like that of mustard, but nearly twice as
large. A magnifying glass discloses a regular, finely granulated sur-
face instead of a smooth one, and on biting the seed it is at once
observed that its coat is harder and thicker and that the kernel lacks
the characteristically pungent taste of mustard seed.
A considerable amount of the wheat from Gallatin Valley and the
adjacent regions which is milled at Bozeman contains cow cockle seeds.
Miss Edna Maynard, a graduate from the botanical department of the
Montana Agricultural College, informed us that at Ennis a man who
had tried to raise wheat for flour found his wheat was not millable on
account of its large content of cockle. It is quite probable, however,
that in addition the wheat was soft. Mr. Lamme states that the soft
wheat containing the seed is of no value for milling, but that the seed
is easily removed from hard wheat. It occurs in barley and oats also,
but is easily screened therefrom.
As a weed, pure and simple, it is getting to be nearly as bad in Mon-
tana as mustard or charlock (Brassica arvensis), but it does not yet
crowd wheat out like the latter. Cow cockle has spread with alarm-
ing rapidity through the Northwest, becoming one of the worst weeds
of that section. In this way it has undoubtedly grown to be worthy
of far more consideration from an economic standpoint than it ever
deserved in Europe or in Asia. Professor Crandall’ states that it was
introduced into Colorado for ornament as early as 1874, and that it
is now sometimes abundant in gardens and among crops throughout
that State. It is widely disseminated in the fall by the tops of the
plants being blown about by the wind like tumbleweeds. In his bul-
letin? on noxious weeds, Prof. James Fletcher, of Ottawa, states
that the cow cockle was first introduced into Manitoba from Europe,
and that it has spread rapidly over the southern portion of the prov-
ince and has been detected in many parts of Manitoba and the North-—
west Territories. It was introduced at Bozeman, according to Mr.
Lamme, about 1885, when the Northern Pacifie Railroad was extended
into the valley. Its distribution in America is given by Britton and
Brown* as from Ontario to British Columbia, south to Florida and
Louisiana, and in the Rocky Mountains. It has been found also in
California, and in the West it promises to become more abundant
wherever it grows.
1 Colorado Weeds, Bul. 23, Colo. Expt. Sta., p. 8. 1893.
2 Govt. N. W. Territories, Dept. Agr. Bul. 1, p. 15. 1898.
5 Tll. Flora of the Northern United States, Canada, etc., vol. 2, p. 18. 1897.
LESS IMPORTANT SPECIES. EES
Very little seems to have been written concerning the action of the
plant on the animal organism. Nicolai Kruskal’ states that the plant
contains a poisonous saponinlike substance, but does not state in what
part of the plant it is to be found or is most abundant. Britton and
Brown in their Flora state that the name ‘‘cow herb” was applied to
the plant in allusion to its value for forage. Cornevin,’® a French
authority on poisonous plants, does not include the cow cockle in his
treatise, but states that animals refuse to touch Saponaria officinalis,
a very closely related species. Mr. Lamme says that when fed with
screenings chickens reject the cockle. Miss Maynard corroborates
this statement, and says that hogs and sheep will eat the screenings,
but that horses reject the cockle.
No cases of stock poisoning were reported, but, as the seeds are ~
sometimes rejected as food, it was concluded that there must be a
reason for it. It was thought also that, since the seed has been but
recently offered to animals in large quantity, the toxic effects, as in
many cases of corn cockle poisoning, might have been mainly of a
chronic order and on this account easily overlooked. An investigation
was therefore started and 1194 grams of the finely ground seed was
mixed with an equal weight of distilled water, heated for two hours
at a temperature (60° C.) somewhat less than commonly used for
scalding, allowed to stand at the ordinary room temperature overnight,
and then filtered under pressure through a strong linen bag. The
filtrate was a thick, milky, and very frothy fluid, which rapidly dark-
ened on exposure. It, as well as the residue, had a sharp pungent
and repulsive odor and taste. On dilution with water it frothed a
great deal even in very dilute solutions, thus exhibiting one of the
most characteristic tests of the sapotoxin-like compounds. The froth-
ing was, indeed, so marked that it was at first impossible in water
solution to measure off any given amount, but after long standing the
bubbles disappeared, leaving a clear solution. Only 31 grams of the
fluid extract was obtained (on June 5) from the 119} grams of seed.
This quantity is not, of course, the full proportion of extract from
the entire quantity of seed, but is equivalent to that from about 31
grams, the remainder being kept in solution in the water mingled with
the finely ground seeds. After the filtrate was secured the residue
was dried and then put to soak with 50 per cent alcohol.
Experiment 1.—On June 6, 7 grams of the water extract, represent-
ing approximately 7 grams of seed, was fed at 12.17 p. m. to a white
rabbit weighing about 3 pounds. At 2.20 the pulse was normal, but
the respiration was slow and shallow. ' The rabbit was lying prostrate
on the ground with the head stretched out so that the throat also was
' Ueber einige Saponinsubstanzen, Arbeiten des Pharmakol. Inst., Dorpat, vol. 6,
p.7. (1891.
* Les Plantes Vénéneuses, p. 262. 1893,
116 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
resting on the ground. It would move only when strongly urged to
do so.
At 3.12 an additional amount, about 14 grams, of the extract was
administered. At 3.16 the rabbit was in a very bad condition. Its
heart was in a constant flutter and it sneezed hard, almost continuously,
for several minutes. At 4 and 5.30 it was torpid and sleepy, but was
able to move actively when sufficiently urged. At 5.40 it ate a few
mouthfuls of grass. At 9 o’clock the next morning its appetite was
still poor and its pulse and respiration both higher than normal. It
could walk a little, but would not do so of its own accord, the stomach
in particular appearing heavy, and being so much paralyzed and dis-
tended that it impeded progress. A small amount of exercise, such as
that involved in walking 5 or 6 feet, caused very rapid breathing. At
9.20 it had eaten very little. Another violent coughing and sneezing
spell then came on, causing much uneasiness. On June 8, the rabbit’s
respiration and pulse had greatly improved, but it was still unusually
stupid. On June 9 it was still somewhat sickly in appearance. No
further observations were made.
Experiment 2.—The residue from which the water extract used in
experiment 1 was prepared was first dried and then allowed to stand
in contact with 50 per cent alcohol for a day or more, after which it
was filtered under pressure. Twelve cubic centimeters of extract, the
equivalent of approximately 12 grams of the seed, was filtered off. On
June 10, 14 c. c. of this was injected hypodermically into a 32-ounce
rabbit at 12.50 p.m. The animal was almost immediately attacked
with a violent spasm, accompanied with rapid breathing and a partial
paralysis of the rear quarters. At 1.45 the paralysis still continued.
The animal had no desire to move and when compelled to do so its
hind legs dragged heavily.
Mr. Irvin Cockrell, who had assisted in the experimental work, con-
tinued the Sieeeeatien on this rabbit. At 5.5 p.m. on the same day
the pulse and respiration were much weaker, but regular. The animal
was unconscious and its body was becoming rigid. At 5.30 it was still
weaker; the pulse was slow and irregular and the respiration about
nine times a minute. The body became more and more rigid, and
even before death, which occurred at 5.40, it was as stiff as animals
become after death. The pupils were contracted throughout the
experiment.
An inspection of these two experiments shows that the toxic sub-
stance is at least partially soluble in both water and alcohol, that the
water solution froths upon brisk agitation, and that the physiological
effect is both immediate and remote, as is the case with the poisonous
sapotoxin-like bodies found in many poisonous plants such as the seed
of corn cockle (Agrostemma githago) and the root of bouncing bet
(Saponaria officinalis).
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XVIII
Swamp CAMAS (ZYGADENUS ELEGANS).
LESS IMPORTANT SPECIES. AD Of
Some animals with sound digestive tracts will accustom themselves
to feeding on vegetable products containing these compounds, while
animals of the same kind having ulcerated digestive organs will often
succumb to them. In using such food stuffs regularly one also runs a
considerable risk of inducing chronic poisoning, the symptoms of
which have not been well investigated. Under this influence the stock
will rapidly decline, or fall off in flesh,.the reason not being usually
apparent to the common observer.
No antidotes were experimented with. On general grounds, how-
ever, it would be well to use the permanganate solution if it is proba-
ble that some of the seeds still remain in the stomach. The applica-
tion of soda will probably do no good. Oils and demulcent drinks
should be administered as quickly as possible, but for further treat-
ment the service of a veterinarian should be obtained. Cow cockle has
a shallow root and consequently may be easily pulled out of the soil,
but when it is abundant it should be killed off by summer-fallowing,
a practice which is often made use of in Montana.
SWAMP CAMAS.
(Zygadenus elegans Pursh.)
This species resembles death camas, but is distinguished from it by
its taller stature, larger flowers, and wider leaves, which sometimes
attain the width of a half inch (Pl. XVIII). The flowering of death
camas begins in different years from the 1st to the 15th of May; swamp
camas blooms about two weeks later.
The distribution of swamp camas in Montana is less extensive than
that of death camas, but the plant is extremely abundant in certain
limited areas. It is found in the Judith Basin, near Grafton, Utica,
Ubet, and Lewistown. Other localities in the State in which it was
found were Bozeman, Spanish Creek, Sixteenmile Creek, Helena,
Mill Creek, Deerlodge, Columbia Falls, and on Shields River. Its
general range is very wide, extending from New Brunswick to Alaska,
and south to Vermont, New York, and in the Rocky Mountain region
to New Mexico. The general appearance of both species of this genus
varies to a considerable extent, depending upon the amount of mois-
ture in the soil where they grow. Swamp camas grows in wet mead-
ows and in much moister localities than those in which death camas is
ordinarily found. When growing in wet meadows it is usually in full
seed at the time when the grass is cut. On one sheep ranch a few
tons of hay had been cut in the fall of 1899 and it was intended to
feed the hay during the fall and winter. This hay proved on the first
feeding to be poisonous to sheep and no more of it was fed out. An
examination of the remaining portion of the hay in the stack showed
that large quantities of swamp camas were present. No other plant
118 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
which could be considered poisonous was found in the hay. An
examination of the meadow showed a similar condition there, namely,
the presence of a considerable quantity of swamp camas, but of no
other plant of a poisonous nature. It should be observed that this
species of Zygadenus does not dry up so rapidly as does death camas,
and being coarser the vegetative portion was conspicuous in the hay.
This was the only case observed where the plant was epee of
poisoning hay.
On another ranch in a different part of the State six cattle were
poisoned while feeding in a wet pasture where swamp camas grew in
abundance, and two of the number died. The symptoms manifested
by these cattle were as nearly identical with those displayed by sheep
in cases of poisoning by death camas as the natures of the two ani-
mals would permit. Postmortem examination of these two animals
revealed the same anatomical conditions as those found in sheep
which had died from eating death camas. Larger quantities of swamp
camas were found in the stomachs of the dead animals. The obserya-
tions thus far made on this species seem to indicate the presence of a
poisonous principle similar to that found in death camas.
SHOWY MILKWEED.
(Asclepias speciosa Tory.)
A perennial 2 to 5 feet high, with a simple stem, milky juice, large,
opposite, entire leaves, purplish flowers in spherical clusters, and large
pods containing numerous seeds with fine, silky hairs (Pl. XIX). The
plant blossoms in June and July, and is found in wet bottom land and
along damp railroad embankments at Helena, Ravalli, and various
points in the Bitter Root Valley, and in Beaver Head, Gallatin, Cho-
teau, Flathead, and Sweet Grass counties, and along the Yellowstone
Valley. The general distribution of this species is from Nebraska to
Arkansas and across the continent westward.
On June 1 124 grams of the budding top, including the stem and
several leaves of the plant, collected May 30, was offered to a small
rabbit weighing about a pound, which had been deprived of its break-
fast. All of the material, which had been kept in a closed collecting
can and was turgid with milky juice, was eaten within a couple of
hours without any ill effect arising therefrom. Thirty grams more
was offered in the evening of the same day to the same rabbit. All of
this, save a small portion of the juicy stem weighing 12 grams, was
eaten by the next morning. No ill effect having been noted, 92 grams,
including the whole length of the plant, was offered to the same rabbit
the next day. The animal, although it had been deprived of its food
since noon of the preceding day, merely nibbled at the leaves. In
other ways, also, it exhibited an evident dislike for the plant. After a
few hours 57 grams of the badly desiccated plant remained uneaten.
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XIX.
SHowy MILKWEED (ASCLEPIAS SPECIOSA).
fa ony eile
Te
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o
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ity” Viv
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aya a. WAS “ ay.
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| if it ral > \ » fe } f iory x at ¥
0 ak Fee me : : , Sore
= ~ 2 ‘ae oi . ry Se
: r » . : : peat ay
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’ we. : i
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LESS IMPORTANT SPECIES. 119
An inspection of the latter showed, however, that about two leaves
and a small portion of the basal part of the stem was all that had been
eaten. The apparent loss of 35 grams was therefore almost entirely
due to desiccation. No ill effect was noted, but the experiment showed
conclusively that the plant was objectionable.
With the hope of obtaining some idea of the symptoms of -poison-
ing, all of the remaining portions of the plants gathered May 30 were
ground in a sausage mill on June 5, and the olive-green, slightly
turbid juice expressed therefrom was fed to another rabbit. The
plant material used had been retained in a tin box, as above mentioned,
and was still nearly as turgid with milky juice as when fresh. A
quarter ounce was injected through the mouth into the stomach of a
vigorous 1-pound rabbit at noon, June 6. After three hours the effect
exhibited had been so slight that one-half ounce more was given. An
hour afterwards the animal appeared anxious, and was easily frightened
and much disinclined to move. The respiration was rapid. The head
was also throbbing and pulsating in a way which indicated that the
brain was badly affected by the poison. This throbbing of the head
continued with nearly total loss of appetite until 5.30. It was still
apparent the next morning. The respiration and pulse were then
rapid and the animal was not at all vigorous. Nearly the same condi-
tions prevailed on June 8 and 9. On June 12 it had recovered its nor-
mal condition to a great extent and was used for another experiment.
Twenty-five minims of the expressed juice from plants collected in
the evening of June 14 were administered hypodermically on June 16
to a 26-ounce rabbit, but no marked symptoms resulted.
The woolly-pod milkweed (Asclepias eriocarpa), a plant which, on
account of the great similarity between the two, is often mistaken for
the showy milkweed in California, is especially dreaded by California
sheep men on hot days when they are obliged to drive their flocks
through barren valleys where there is little water, because the succu-
lence of the plants tempts the animals to quench their thirst by eating
them. The remedy employed is to send someone a few days ahead of
the sheep to cut the plants down. The dried herbage may still be
poisonous, but the sheep are not tempted to eat it.
No experiments were made to determine the value of the perman-
ganate mixture as an antidote, but it could probably be used to great
advantage.
CALIFORNIA SWAMP HELLEBORE.
(Veratrum californicum Durand.)
A stout herbaceous simple-stemmed perennial 2 to 7 feet high, with
a fleshy root 3 to 6 inches long, large plaited leaves of varying
size, and a large, branched, terminal cluster of many small greenish-
yellow flowers which bloom in June and July. In Montana the only
120 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
known localities for this plant are Belt Creek, Little Belt Mountains,
Bridger Mountains, Bozeman, Deerlodge, and Loto Creek. Outside
the State the plant grows from Colorado to Wyoming, northern Cali-
fornia, and Oregon. The root ‘and leaves have been frequently
reported as having caused death to cattle and horses. Both the com-
moner Western and Eastern species of Veratrum are known to be
poisonous. The only doubtful question in connection with the impor-
tance of this species as a plant poisonous to stock is that of the extent
to which it is eaten. We have never observed stock eating it, although
this may frequently happen. The symptoms of poisoning as given by
stock owners are dizziness, reeling, impaired vision, frothing at the
mouth, and convulsions.
The distribution of this plant in Montana is very limited, and for
this reason it could be easily avoided. Since it grows only on moun-
tains, it is quite unlikely that it will cause sheep poisoning. It is
altogether too large and coarse for sheep to forage upon at the time
of year when these animals are allowed on mountain ranges. The
only animals reported as having been killed by it are horses and
cattle. As already stated, it is undoubtedly poisonous and it is there-
fore desirable that stockmen should become acquainted with the appear-
ance of the plant and its distribution. The species is found most abun-
dantly on the Smith River slopes of the Big Belt Mountains below the
Duck Creek Pass. On Belt Creek, near Monarch, and in the Bridger
Mountains it is also rather common. In all of these localities this
plant could be exterminated with a moderate amount of labor, digging
or cutting off below the ground with a spud being perhaps the best
method. Prevention by this means is the best remedy which can at
present be offered. No material was obtained for experimental pur-
poses, as our attention was fully occupied with plants much more easily
accessible. Experiments were, however, made with the poisonous
alkaloid veratrine which, judging from analogy with the common
swamp hellebore of the East (V. viride Ait.), probably exists in the
plants, especially in the root. The object of the experiments was not
to observe the symptoms, but simply to determine whether or not the
mixture of permanganate of potash and sulphate of aluminum would
serve as a good chemical antidote. From chemical experiments made
by Dr. Moore with the permanganate and veratrine chloride, he con-
cluded that the permanganate would be of no value as an antidote for
this alkaloid. Test-tube experiments made by ourselves with a 1 per
cent solution of Merck’s sulphate of veratrine and a 1 per cent solution
of the permanganate with a half per cent solution of the aluminum
salt showed conclusively that the mixture acted energetically upon the
alkaloid. A substantial basis was thus afforded for the institution of
experiments on animals. Had there been no reaction experiments
would of course have been out of the question.
LESS IMPORTANT SPECIES. 121
Experiment 1.—On June 2, 14 mgs. of a solution of Merck’s sul-
phate of veratrine was fed at 3.27 p. m. to a 63-ounce rabbit. No
pronounced effect was noted up to 4.25, when 7 mgs. more was fed.
The rabbit died from the effects of this dose in about one minute.
Experiment 2.—On the same day 7 mgs. of the same solution was
fed to another rabbit, weighing 26 ounces. Death took place inside of
two minutes.
Experiment 3.—On June 4, 7 mgs. of the same solution of vera-
trine sulphate was quickly mixed in a test tube with 3 c. c. of the
permanganate solution noted above, and fed within four minutes to a
large white rabbit. The weight of this animal was not ascertained,
but it was not less than 24 and was probably about 3 pounds. The
permanganate solution, which has a deep-purple color, was added to
the veratrine solution, a cubic centimeter at a time. In the first two
instances the purple color was changed very rapidly, the resulting
liquid presenting a straw-colored appearance, but the last cubic centi-
meter was not completely decolorized inside of a minute. No marked
turbidity was produced. The whole of the mixture was then immedi-
ately fed, at 3.53 p. m., to the rabbit. The animal was carefully watched
until 5 p. m., but appeared to remain in a perfectly normal condition.
It was also in perfect health on the next day.
Experiment 4.—On June 14, 500 mgs. of an aqueous veratrine sul-
phate solution was poured, by means of a funnel and a rubber tube,
directly into the stomach of a 50-pound sheep. This was followed
almost immediately by 25 c. c. of a 1 per cent solution of permanga-
nate of potash with a 1 per cent addition of aluminum sulphate, and
the whole was washed down into the stomach with 100 or more cubic
centimeters of pure well water. The time of administration, which
was begun at 3.44 p. m., did not exceed two minutes. At 4.25 there
was a slight indication of weakness in the hind legs, but the animal
could walk as well as usual. This was the only symptom that was
exhibited. When let out of the pen the next morning it grazed as
heartily as ever.
ACONITE.
(Aconitum columbianum Nutt.)
An erect, smooth, single-stemmed plant 2 to 5 feet high, with a leafy
base and a long terminal cluster of blue flowers. The divisions of the
leaves are broader and less conspicuously separated from one another
than in the species of larkspur. In Montana the plant grows in Gal-
latin and Park counties, near the Yellowstone Park and on Lolo Creek.
The distribution of this plant in the United States outside of Mon-
tana includes South Dakota, Colorado, Wyoming, Idaho, Washington,
Oregon, and California.
22 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
The different species of aconite are known to contain poisonous prin-
ciples, probably more virulent than those contained in their nearest
relatives—the larkspurs. Fortunately this species has an exceedingly
limited distribution in Montana, being found, so far as known, only in
the Bitter Root Mountains near Lolo and the Gallatin Range near the
Yellowstone Park. Since the altitude of both of these places is high
and the surrounding country not suitable for grazing, it is not likely
that the plant will ever become of great importance in stock poisoning.
Stockmen frequently speak of aconite poisoning, but all specimens of
supposed aconite which we examined proved to be the tall larkspur.
PSORALEA.
(Psoralea tenuiflora Pursh.)
A slender, much-branched, hoary perennial, with digitately parted
leaves, white or purplish flowers, and glandular pods. The plant
resembles the lupines in general habit. This species grows on dry hills
and plains at Great Falls, Billings, and Livingston. The plant has the
peculiar and rather agreeable odor characteristic of the dried roots
of another species of the same genus, P. macrostachya, which is used
to some extent by the Indians of Mendocino County, Cal., as a
fiber plant. Its general distribution is from Texas to Arizona, north-
ward to the Missouri River and eastward to I]linois.
While botanizing at Livingston on May 30 attention was attracted
to this plant on account of the close resemblance between it in its
earlier or foliaceous stage of growth and the corresponding stage of
Malvastrum coccineum. It grew plentifully on level pasture lands,
and although at that time it was fairly succulent, it was left unmolested
among closely cropped grass, thus suggesting the idea that it was
probably poisonous. Upon chewing a small portion of a leaf that
idea was made still more emphatic. The taste was not at all bad, and
was even pleasant for a few minutes, but later the tongue was consid-
erably benumbed, a sensation which lasted nearly two hours.
A quantity of the nonflowering plants 5 to 6 inches in height was
collected for further investigation, and was preserved ina good turgid
condition in a tin box until June 6. On June 3 an attempt was made
to feed the plants to a rabbit, but the animal refused to eat more than
four leaves, and as that quantity had no pronounced effect the prepa-
ration of an extract was deemed necessary. The basal portion of the
stem, rather tough and fibrous, was rejected, but 36.5 grams of the
fairly crisp growth was obtained, and, after thorough grinding in a
sausage mill, was digested 14 hours at blood heat with an equal weight
of distilled water and then filtered through a linen bag, 47 c. ec. of
extract being obtained. For easy calculation, however, this was
diluted up to 50c.c. Seven centimeters of this extract, representing
LESS IMPORTANT SPECIES. 123
5 grams of the green plant, was fed at 12.7 o’clock to a small rabbit
weighing about 13 pounds, and as no effect was noted up to 3.2 o’clock
14 c. c. more was administered. At 4.5 o’clock the rabbit was dejected
and very uneasy, as was plainly evident from its labored respiration
and its frightened actions, symptoms which were maintained until after
5.30 o’clock. At 9 o’clock the next morning the heart action and res-
piration were still exceedingly weak and rapid, the rate of the latter
being over 150 a minute. The posterior part of the body was weak,
being more or less decumbent. The animal was almost too weak to
move its legs into a comfortable position after they had purposely been
placed in an awkward way. It would not eat or drink even when
coaxed. On June 8 the respiration and heart action had improved,
and it began to eat with relish. On June 9 the appetite had greatly
improved, so that observations were discontinued, although the fune-
tions of the heart and lungs had not yet become normal.
TALL CONE FLOWER.
(Rudbeckia laciniata 1.)
This plant is known in Montanaas wild sunflower and by other local
names. ‘The plant attains a height of from 2 to 7 feet, and is usually
smooth, except for a slight roughness of the margins and upper sur-
face of the leaves. The root leaves are divided into from 5 to 7 parts
and those of the lower portion of the stem into 3 to 5 parts, while the
uppermost leaves are 3-parted. The flower heads are from 2 to 3
inches across, with yellow drooping rays and a dull yellow disk. The
plant grows in all parts of Montana in moist places, especially along
the banks of streams and irrigating ditches.
In the summer of 1898 a farmer in the Gallatin Valley sheared his
sheep, numbering about 100, during the first half of June. Soon after
shearing, a season of cold rainy weather set in and the sheep sought
shelter during that period. For two or three days they grazed exclu-
sively in a small area of timber through which ran several streams.
The tall cone flower was the most conspicuous plant in this area and
stood about 2 feet high. During the time in question the sheep fed
almost exclusively upon this plant. On the second day about 20 of
the sheep showed symptoms of poisoning, and of this number 7 died.
The symptoms were not observed by us and were very imperfectly
described by the owner of the sheep. The sheep were at once driven
away from this locality, with the result that no further case of poison-
ing occurred. No other plant which could possibly be suspected was
to be found in the locality where the sheep were poisoned and appear-
ances pointed strongly to this plant as the cause of the trouble. Speci-
mens of the plant have also been sent to this Department from Missouri
with the complaint that it is not infrequently fatal to hogs.
124 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
HENBANE.
(Hyoscyamus niger L.)
A coarse biennial 1 to 2 feet high, with wavy, clasping leaves and
dull yellow, finely spotted flowers 1 to 2 inches in width, in long, one-
sided leafy spikes (Pl. XX). This. plant was found at Bigtimber,
Mont., but no other locality is known in the State. It has also
escaped from cultivation in Nova Scotia, Ontario, New York, and
Michigan.
The henbane, or black henbane, is the most important and interest-
ing representative of the potato family found in Montana. The order
is very feebly represented on account of the high latitude, but this
coarse, viscid plant, which is a native weed of Europe, has become
well established in at least one station in the State. Herbarium speci-
mens were collected at Bigtimber on May 12. Other specimens were
collected at the same place on June 15. Stock generally shun the
plant on account of its ill odor and harsh texture, but a few cases of
poisoning by it are recorded in foreign literature. Inquiry at Bigtim-
ber revealed the fact that the plant has there proved poisonous to
chickens which ate the ripe seeds. Ripe seeds were collected inJ uly and
furnished to this Department by Mr. Roy Spillman. Since the hen-
bane yields an abundance of seed, and since the plant has developed so
robustly at Bigtimber, it is quite possible that it may spread to other
localities, if it has not already done so. The plant is a deep-rooted
perennial and requires vigorous pulling to eradicate it thoroughly.
Experiments with the permanganate mixture and hyoscyamine, the
characteristic alkaloid of the henbane, seem to indicate that it would
not serve well as an antidote in case of poisoning caused by the plant.
BLACK NIGHTSHADE.
(Solanum nigrum 1.)
A smooth, much-branched annual, 4 to 12 inches high, with ovate,
wavy toothed leaves, white flowers in small clusters on the sides of the
stem, and black globular berries. The plant blossoms from June to
August. This species is becoming common in cultivated and waste
ground in all parts of Montana. It is common throughout the United
States in similar situations. Very little, if any, damage is to be attrib-
uted to the plant in Montana. <A few cases of poisoning are recorded
against it elsewhere for calves, sheep, goats, and swine.
POTATO.
(Solanum tuberosum UL.)
On a stock ranch in the Flathead Valley 6 pigs died from eating
uncooked potatoes. The potatoes had all sprouted and were considered
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XX.
BLACK HENBANE (HYOSCYAMUS NIGER).
SUSPECTED SPECIES. 125
of no value, except for feeding. As soon as it was found that they
were poisonous in an uncooked condition, the owner of the pigs
cooked some more potatoes in the same condition and fed them to other
pigs without causing any poisoning. The symptoms of poisoning by
this plant were a slowly progressing paralysis, which became complete
after about twenty-four hours, an increased salivation, and a regurgi-
tation of the stomach contents.
SPREADING NIGHTSHADE.
(Solanum triflorum Nutt.)
A smooth prostrate annual with rough, widely branching stems, 7
to 9 lobed leaves, numerous clusters of small white flowers in groups
of three, and green berries a half inch in diameter. The appearance
of the fruit has given the names wild potato and wild tomato to this
plant. It grows in Madison, Gallatin, Park, and Cascade counties, as
- well as in other isolated localities, on cultivated ground and around
prairie dog towns.
The spreading nightshade is native to the Great Plains, and is a com-
mon garden weed from Arizona to Texas, and through Montana to
British America. A single complaint of the poisoning of cattle by the
fruit was sent to this Department from Nebraska, and rabbits inocu-
lated with the juice of the berries sent from that State were badly
poisoned. Berries sent to us at Washington by Mr. W. W. Jones, of
Bozeman, proved to be equally bitter, even after preserving in the
form of a jam. No experiments were made with the berries or with
extracts upon animals. In Montana, it is asserted, the fruit under the
name of ground cherries is pickled with vinegar, and eaten either in
that state or while still raw.
PLANTS SUSPECTED OF BEING POISONOUS.
PRAIRIE FENNELS.
(Lomatium and Musineon spp.)
Several species of Lomatium and one of Musineon grow quite abun-
dantly on the dry open ranges, and some of these have, perhaps on
account of their ill odor, been suspected by stockmen of poisoning
sheep in the early spring. These plants are among the first to appear
in the spring, and this circumstance, together with the umbels of yel-
low or white flowers and the general resemblance to other members of
the parsley family, should serve to identify them in connection with
the illustrations. We were unable to obtain any evidences in the field
which would tend to establish the poisonous character of these plants.
The only native species in these two genera which has thus far been
proved to be poisonous to stock is Z. nudicawle (Pursh) Coult. & Rose,
126 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
a plant native to Washington. Satisfactory evidence against this plant
has been given by Prof. C. V. Piper and Mr. G. R. Vasey of the State
of Washington. So far as known, however, this species does not.
occur in Montana. Several localities were examined where poisoning
of sheep had occurred in the early spring, but in all of them other
plants of known poisonous character, especially death camas, were:
found in abundance. Some of the species of Lomatium which grow
in other States are known to be edible. It must, therefore, remain
somewhat doubtful if any of the species which grow upon the ranges:
in Montana were concerned in the cases of sheep poisoning where they
were suspected, and it appears probable, moreover, that one species,
Lomatium montanum Coult. & Rose (Pl. XX1), could easily be improved.
by careful selection and cultivation sufficiently to serve as a staple
vegetable.
On June 16 14 ¢. ¢. of a 50-per-cent alcoholic extract of the leaves
and stems of Lomatiwm platycarpum (Torr.) Coult. & Rose (Pl. XXII),
representing 1.3 grams of the fresh leaves of nonflowering plants col-
lected May 28, was injected hyperdermically into a 59-ounce rabbit
without causing any apparent ill effect. Dr. 5S. B. Nelson has recorded?
an experiment made by himself at Pullman, Washington, on a sheep,
in which the animal ate 4 pounds of Lomatiwm grayii Coult. & Rose,
a vile-smelling plant, without causing any noticeable ill effect. This
species does not occur in Montana.
Musineon hookert (Yorr. & Gray) Nutt. (Pl. XXII) is a plant of
the same family and has been suspected by stockmen of being poison-
ous. On May 22 specimens of this plant growing on steep rocky hill-
side pastures east of Bozeman Creek were observed, the leaves of
which had been closely cropped. The flowering stem, on the contrary,
had in all of the several instances noted been untouched. This cir-
cumstance was at once explained by comparison of the taste of each.
The leaves had a rather agreeable taste, like that of parsley, while the
flower stem was disagreeably bitter. The parsley-like taste of the
leaves, considered together with their parsley-like appearance, sug-
gests that the plant might easily be mistaken for parsley. The finger-
like subdivisions of the leaves of the latter and their curly edges suffice
at once to distinguish them from the former, and, besides, parsley
seldom, if ever, escapes from cultivation in Montana.
The plains Cymopterus (Cymopterus acaulis (Pursh) Rydberg) (Pl.
XXIV) also belongs to the carrot family. According to observations
made near Custer in 1890 by Dr. J. W. Blankinship, the Crow Indians
hold that its semifleshy root is poisonous. No cases of stock poisoning
from it have been reported. It has been suspected by some stockmen
in Montana, being included by them in the general term ‘‘ wild
parsnip.”
1U. 8. Dept. Agr., B. A. I. Bul. 22, p. 14. 1898.
4 . ’ ore
7 f 9 és 7 °
~ = 7
*
‘. — nat ve -
z SS eS: SF he). a Soe CA Mee Coven rte gem, Seen anne
Bul. 26, Div of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XXlI.
PRAIRIE FENNEL (LOMATIUM MONTANUM).
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XXII.
PRAIRIE FENNEL (LOMATIUM PLATYCARPUM).
———
cg mm il” amma mam ee
——«_ = =e
-
”
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XXIII.
PRAIRIE FENNEL (MUSINEON HOOKER)).
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XXIV.
:!
PLAINS CYMOPTERUS (CYMOPTERUS ACAULIS).
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XXV.
MOUNTAIN FALSE LUPINE (THERMOPSIS MONTANA).
SUSPECTED SPECIES. 127
FALSE LUPINE.
(Thermopsis spp.)
Erect perennial herbs 1 to 3 feet high, with trifoliate leaves and
bright yellow flowers in terminal racemes (Pl. XXV). The two spe-
cies are distinguished by the fact that in the first the pods are curved
_ and pendulous, while in the second they are straight and erect, and by
the further fact that the first species, which is the taller plant, is more
abundant in dry places, while the second seems to prefer rich, moist
meadows or the banks of streams. The difference in habitat, how-
ever, is not without its exception. The yellow pea (as it is commonly
known in Montana) or prairie false lupine (Zhermopsis rhombifolia
(Nutt.) Richards) occurs along the Yellowstone Valley from the east-
ern border of Montana to Livingston, along the Missouri from its
head waters to Fort Benton, and in Flathead, Missoula, Ravalli, Lewis
and Clarke, Beaverhead, Gallatin, and Madison counties. The general
distribution of these plants is from Colorado to New Mexico, north to
Washington, and eastward to Nebraska and Dakota.
The yellow pea has a general distribution throughout Montana. It
is especially abundant east of the Rocky Mountains, occurring from
the lowest altitude up to 6,500 feet. In many places it covers the
ground so completely over large areas as to form conspicuous patches
of bright yellow at the time when the plant is in bloom. Mention has
already been made of the fact that sheep were observed feeding upon
the leaves of this plant without suffering any serious consequences. It
was observed that a small number of pods were formed on this plant
during the season of 1900. In some localities it was difficult to find a
single pod on the plant. Considerable variation in the number of pods
which mature is frequently observed in the case of a number of native
species of the pea family.
On May 9 a serious case of poisoning occurred on a cattle ranch
near Wibaux. About 150 cattle were affected with symptoms of
poisoning, and of this number 100 died. A telegram was received
from the owner of the cattle by Dr. M. E. Knowles, who requested
one of us to visit the locality with him. Upon arriving at the place it
was found that the animals had been dead for two days, and post-
mortem examinations were, under the circumstances, practically value-
less. ‘One such examination was made with such unsatisfactory results
that no further work of this sort was attempted. No definite statement
could be obtained concerning the symptoms manifested by the animals
before death. In this case, as in many others, malicious poisoning had
been suspected, and it was suggested that the water had been poisoned.
Only one dead animal was found near the water, and the others lay
scattered about the plains at some distance from one another. The
stomach of the one animal upon which a post-mortem examination was
128 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
made contained what appeared to be the leaf and pods of Thermopsis.
The progress of decomposition was so far advanced that a positive
identification of the stomach contents was impossible. All parts of
this plant are comparatively soft, and therefore soon lose their identity
in the stomach. :
The range upon which these animals died was remarkably free from
weeds and poisonous plants, with the single exception of Thermopsis
rhombifolia. During a drive of 30 miles on this range no other plants
were seen which had ever been suspected of being poisonous. But
in the absence of clear postmortem evidence, and without even a
knowledge of the symptoms, it is impossible to arrive at any positive
conclusion regarding the case.
The seeds of the yellow pea are strongly suspected of causing the
death of children near Winnipeg.
It can hardly be stated that the mountain false lupine (Zhermopsis
montana Nutt.) (Pl. XXV) is considered a poisonous plant in Mon-
tana; on the contrary, it is regarded by stockmen as good hay if cut
young. Large quantities of the flowering plant, however, were
observed to be left unmolested in stock yards where stock were stand-
ing and where there was no other verdure. This fact suggests very
strongly that the flowering plant, at least, is not edible. It is barely
possible, also, that a suspected plant described as being gray and
growing near water at Logan is this species. It grows in very great
abundance in wet creek bottoms near that place. It was said that this
gray plant is especially poisonous after a rain storm.
A supply of the flowering plants was sent at my request from Tos-
ton on May 26, and arrived on the 27th, in a slightly wilted condition.
The leaves regained their freshness, however, after they had been
sprinkled and had lain in a moist piece of newspaper for a few hours.
Fifty grams each of the flowering stems, exclusive of leaves, and of
the leaves and stems, exclusive of flowers and the tough basal portion,
were deprived of adhering moisture by the use of blotting paper,
ground separately in a sausage mill, and each soaked for a day in 100
c. c. of water, after which they were heated a half hour at blood heat
and then filtered. The taste of the ground leaves was very nauseating
and much like that of green beans.
Experiment 1.—On May 31 10. c. of the water extract from the
flowers, equivalent to 5 grams of the fresh material, was fed at 11.42
to a rabbit the weight of which was not ascertained. From 12 m. to
1.26 p. m. the symptoms noted were a slight malaise and drowsiness,
with more or less labored, wheezy breathing. At 3.15 more of the
extract was offered to the animal, but unfortunately it was accidentally
killed in the attempt to feed it. The solution rapidly became moldy
and was unfit for further experiments.
Experiment 2.—On June 1 10 ¢. ¢. of the leaf extract, equivalent to
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr.
SYNTHYRIS (SYNTHYRIS RUBRA).
PLATE XXVI.
SUSPECTED SPECIES. 129
5 grams of the fresh leaf, was fed at 2.53 p. m. to a 26-ounce rabbit.
No marked symptoms were noted up to 5 o’clock. The rabbit was
well and sound the next morning.
Experiment 3.—On June 5, 20 grams of the fully turgid leaves
of plants collected on Middle Creek on June 3 was offered at 10.20
a. m. toa 1-pound rabbit. At 5.5 p.m. it was found that after making
the proper deduction for evaporation, as determined from a check,
the amount eaten was but little over 2.8 grams. No ill effect was
observed. The rabbit was not hungry when the leaves were offered.
Experiment 4.—The residue from which the water extract of the
flowers used in Experiment 1 was obtained remained soaking in 50 per
cent alcohol until June 12, when it was evaporated down to 20 c¢. ¢.
Half of this was fed at 2.10 p. m. on June 12 to arabbit. It exhibited
no acute symptoms during that day and on the following day it was
perfectly well.
Experiment 5.—The residue from which the water extract of the
leaves used in Experiment 2 was obtained was likewise soaked in 50
per cent alcohol for the same length of time and then filtered and
evaporated down to 17 c.c. On June 16, 13 ¢. c. of this solution, rep-
resenting 4.4 grams of the fresh leaves, was injected hypodermically
into a 25-ounce rabbit without causing any ill effect.
SYNTHYRIS.
(Synthyris rubra Benth.)
An erect simple-stemmed perennial, 3 to 18 inches high, with a
thick rootstock, long-stemmed basal leaves and small stemless upper
leaves, and small purplish pink flowers in a dense leafy terminal spike,
blossoming in earliest spring (Pl. XX VI). This plant grows on hills
and mountain sides throughout the State. The general distribution
of the species extends from Montana to Utah and westward to Oregon
and Washington.
The species is common in loose soil and in turf up to an altitude of
about 7,500 feet near Bozeman. On May 28 it was found in flower at
an altitude of about 7,000 feet on Bridger Peak, where specimens were
collected for investigation and for the photograph here reproduced.
At lower altitudes it had already passed out of bloom.
Fifty grams of the whole plant exclusive of the root was ground up
while still fresh in a sausage mill and soaked for a day with 100 c. ¢.
of distilled water, after which it was warmed at blood heat for a half
hour and then filtered, the residue being put to soak with 100 c. c. of
50 per cent alcohol.
Experiment 1.—Ten cubic centimeters of the water extract, equiva-
lent to 5 grams of the fresh plant, was fed at 11.19 a. m. to a 33-ounce
S. Doc. 160——9
130 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
white rabbit. Only a slight uneasiness was noticeable up to about 1
o’clock, when this feature became strongly marked and was accompa-
nied with rather heavy breathing. During most of the time from
1.13 to 2.57 it remained quiet and was very sleepy. At 2.57, 15¢. ¢.
more of the extract was given. At 3.30 the drowsiness was strongly
marked, and at the same time the heart’s.action was tumultuous, the
thumping being very conspicuous. At 3.40 there was a curious
lateral movement of the jaws; the ears and the skin were cold, and the
heart still rapid. At 3.55 there was much restlessness, but at 4.5 the
rabbit was so much easier that it would eat well. At 7.55 32 ¢. ¢.
more of the extract was administered by mouth in the same way as
before, and on the next morning the rabbit was found dead.
Experiment 2.—A second experiment was begun with the same water
extract on June 6, but in the attempt to feed an ounce to a rabbit it
died, and as there was not then a sufficient amount of the extract left,
no other experiments were made with the same solution.
Experiment 3.—A stable horse to which some of the fresh leaves
were offered while in the field would not touch them, although
strongly persuaded to do so.
Experiment 4.—On June 11 fresh material from fruiting plants, the
leaves of which had a decidedly bitter taste, was collected on Bridger
Peak and a water extract was made of it on the same day. On June
14, 200 c. c. of this extract, the equivalent of 155 grams of leaves, was
fed at 1.15 p. m. to asheep weighing about 50 pounds, the liquid
being poured into the stomach by means of a funnel and rubber tube,
as explained in the introduction. Up to 3 p. m. no particular uneasi-
ness had been noted, and so the remainder of the extract, the equiva-
lent of 176 grams of the fresh leaves, was given in the same way. At
3.25 a slight giddiness was noted, which was accompanied with heavy
breathing, a disinclination to move, and a weaker heart action. The
animal remained uneasy during the remainder of the day up to 7.15
o’clock, but on the next morning it fed heartily and was about as well
as usual.
Experiment 5.—The residue from which the water extract used in
Experiment 1 was prepared remained in contact with some 50 per cent
alcohol until June 16, when it was filtered and the filtrate evaporated
down to 25 ¢. c. One and one-half cubic centimeters of this, equiva-
lent to about 3 grams of the fresh leaves, was injected hypodermically
into a 48-ounce rabbit, but no ill consequence was noted.
In an experiment made by Dr. S. B. Nelson' with the same plant at
Pullman, Washington, a sheep ate a pound of the plant within a period
of twenty-four hours without experiencing any ill effect.
1U.5S. Dept. Agr. B, A, I, Bul. 22, p.14. 1898,
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XXVII.
WESTERN WILD CHERRY (PRUNUS DEMISSA).
SUSPECTED SPECIES. 131
WESTERN WILD CHERRY.
(Prunus demissa (Nutt.) Walp.)
A shrub or small tree, greatest height about 30 feet and diameter
14 feet, with rather thick, acute leaves, white flowers in terminal
dense racemes, and dark purple or black, rather sweet, edible fruit.
(Pl. XX VII.) This species is rather common in valleys and canyons
in all parts of the State. The general distribution of the Western wild
cherry extends from the Dakotas to Nebraska and New Mexico, and
west to California.
The first wild cherry blossoms of the season were observed at Logan,
Montana, on May 17. The bush is most plentiful along the creeks,
but grows at the base of rocky ledges and in association with juniper
among granite bowlders in the mountains. A few bushes were noted at
Logan the crisp, leafy ends of which had been slightly browsed, and as
cattle were grazing in the immediate vicinity it is to be presumed that
they ate them. Stock do not often eat cherry leaves, though they eat
them occasionally; but no cases are on record where stock have been
poisoned by eating the leaves of any species while still on the tree.
It is only after they have been cut off and have partially wilted
that they are considered dangerous, the reason for this being that
during the process of wilting prussic acid is formed from nonpoison-
ous constituents which are always present in the living leaf. This is
known to be true of wild black cherry (P. serotina), choke cherry (7.
virgmiana), and wild red cherry (P. pennsylvanica), and is probably
true of the present species, which resembles P. serotina, the most
poisonous species, more closely than it does any other species. The
wilted leaves have the characteristic odor of prussic acid.
Forty-three grams of crisp leafy shoots, collected May 14 and pre-
served unwilted in a tin box, were carefully rubbed up in a mortar
with 200 c. c. of water three hours later, and allowed to stand until
the next morning when it was filtered. This extract had the charac-
teristic odor of prussic acid. One cubic centimeter, representing less
than a half gram of the fresh leaf, was then injected hypodermically
into a young rabbit, but it was without effect. The extract was too
dilute to show the characteristic effects. Had a stronger extract been
made from leaves more thoroughly shredded, it would undoubtedly
have given the characteristic tests for prussic acid.
BANEBERRY.
(Actaea eburnea Rydberg.)
A smooth perennial, 1 to 2 feet high, with compound leaves repeat:
edly divided and an elongated raceme. ‘The small white flowers, which
tse STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
bloom in May and June, later produce white ellipsoidal berries con-
taining about 12 seeds. (Pl. XXVIII.) The plant is generally dis-
tributed in the State in moist, shady places. It very closely resembles
the plant known to botanists as Actaea arguta, which has commonly
been mistaken for it, but which may at once be distinguished, when in
fruit, by its red berries. A. rubra, which also has red berries, is
native east of the State.
No cases of stock poisoning have been reported against this plant,
and indeed few cases are reported against the similar species which
are abundant both in the Eastern States and in Europe. Sheep are,
however, said to be poisoned in Europe by eating the white baneberry
(A. spicata). The berry is probably the most poisonous part, exclu-
sive of the root.
Experiments.—Two weighed portions of the fresh flowering plants,
exclusive of the flowering heads, were macerated in a mortar with
definite amounts, respectively, of water and of 50 per cent alcohol,
both being added by small portions successively. The water extract
became moldy before it could be used, and was therefore discarded.
The alcoholic extracts were placed together with the macerated fiber
and allowed to stand from May 14 to May 25. Forty-four grams of
the fresh plant were thus extracted with 200 c. c. of aleohol. The
alcohol from half of this extract was then driven off at the tempera-
ture of boiling water. To the residue, which was sirupy and ill
smelling, 50 c. c. of distilled water and 25 c. c. of 95 per cent alcohol
was added to bring it fully into solution again. Fifteen cubic centi-
meters of this, an amount representing 4? grams of the fresh plant,
was then fed with a stomach tube and syringe to a rabbit weighing 28
ounces. For checking the effect of the alcohol, the same quantity
was fed in the same dilution to another rabbit having approximately
the same weight; but although both were strongly affected no pro-
nounced differences were noted inthe symptoms. It is quite possible,
of course, that any toxic effect that might have had a tendency to
show itself was counteracted by the comparatively large amount of
alcohol contained in the extract. A larger dose was not given
because it was thought inadvisable to give a larger dose of the alcohol.
The sirupy extract could not, unfortunately, be completely dissolved
in water, and could not on this account be very easily administered to
rabbits. On theoretic grounds and from the odor and taste we believe
that it would prove poisonous. The after taste of the leaves, a few
of which were chewed, was anything but agreeable, being very bitter
and nauseating, although at first no bad taste was apparent. After
drinking water, a sweet taste was noted fifteen to thirty minutes sub-
sequent to chewing the leaves.
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XXVIII.
BANEBERRY (ACTAEA EBURNEA).
nm
=
ae afer? Fe
—
ee
SUSPECTED SPECIES. 133
OAT SMUT.
(Ustilago avenae (Pers.) Jensen.)
It frequently happens that where seed oats are untreated the smut
develops to such an extent that the crop is worthless for grain.
Usually, however, the crop is harvested at the regular season and
thrashed for the small quantity of grain which is present. Ina case
of this sort which occurred in the Gallatin Valley during the summer
of 1898 the crop of oats appeared so badly infested with smut that it
was cut before becoming matured and stored for hay. During. the
following winter a herd of dairy cows belonging to the owner of the
hay were fed upon clover and timothy hay until late in winter, when
orders were given to begin feeding the smutty oat hay. Within
twelve hours after the first feed one-half of the dairy cows died with
symptoms of gastritis and cerebral excitement. No more of this hay
was fed and no further loss of dairy cows was suffered. On post-
mortem examination it was found that the walls of the stomach were
much congested, showing a decided irritation. On examination of
the oat hay it appeared that the oat heads were almost a solid mass of
smut, having been cut before the smut had blown away. ‘The evi-
dence against the oat smut as being the cause of the death of these
animals is considered very strong.
SPURGES.
(EHuphorbia spp.)
Erect, spreading, or prostrate herbs, with milky, acrid juice, and
opposite or alternate leaves, the upper in whorls and frequently
colored at the tops.
All of the numerous spurges native to the United States contain an
acrid, milky juice which is poisonous, but stock very rarely eat the
plants, as almost all are rather inconspicuous and would offer but little
attraction, even if they were not repulsive to the taste. Stock have,
however, been poisoned by drinking the water into which the leaves
had been thrown. Six species are accredited to Montana, but none
have been suspected of being poisonous to stock. They seldom grow
at an altitude higher than 6,000 feet, and are common, as a rule, only
in the lower plains region.
Euphorbia glyptosperma Engelm., which is probably the most abun-
dantly distributed species, is a troublesome garden weed near Custer,
Mont. It isasmooth plant, with linear-oblong, sharply serrate leaves.
Its flowers are in leafy clusters on the side of the stem. Huphorbia
marginata Pursh, the juice of which is used to some extent in Texas
to brand cattle, and which has once been suspected of being poisonous
to cattle, grows on prairie pastures up to about 3,000 feet in Custer,
134 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
Dawson, and Valley counties and in the Yellowstone Valley. It is a
smooth, erect plant, 2 to 3 feet high, with ovate leaves, the uppermost
of which have petal-like margins. The seeds of this plant have proved
nearly fatal to children who ate a few of them, and the juice is well
known to be poisonous to the skin of many persons, the effect being
somewhat like that caused by the oil of the ordinary poison ivy (Rhus
radicans) of the eastern United States.
FIELD HORSETAIL.
(Lquisetum arvense 1.)
A rush-like, branching plant, with jointed stems from running root-
stocks, having sheaths at the joints and, when fertile, terminated by a
conical, spike-like fructification composed of shield-shaped, stalked
scales. The fertile stems are from 4 to 10 inches high, the sheaths 8
to 12 toothed. The sterile stems are slender and produce long, much-
branched, quadrangular branches. This plant occurs everywhere in
moist places across the continent, but is more abundant in the eastern
part of the country.
A case of the poisoning of horses by eating the field horsetail was
reported to the United States Department of Agriculture from Con-
necticut in 1871, and one of horses and sheep from Vermont in 1899
and also in 1900. Cases are not, however, at all common in the United
States and the plant has not been laid under suspicion at all in Mon-
tana. It grows very commonly around Bozeman.
Fifty grams of the more foliaceous male plants was gathered on June
6 and fed at 11 o’clock the same morning to a small rabbit weighing
somewhat less than a pound, which had been deprived of its breakfast.
It ate the plant readily and with apparent relish, all of it having dis-
appeared within four hours. The only symptom of distress noted dur-
ing the whole day was a decided thirst, which was made evident
especially at 3 o’clock when, after voiding a copious amount of urine,
the animal turned around and lapped it up again. The water then
offered was consumed in unusual quantity. On the next morning a
peculiar action of the jaws was noted, which seemed to indicate that
the mouth had been made sore by eating the harsh leaves. Inspection
of the mouth, however, showed no apparent abrasion. The rabbit was
otherwise perfectly well, and at 2 p. m. it readily ate some fresh plants
which were offered. Had the feeding been continued daily as a nearly
exclusive diet some harm, and possibly fatal results, might have
followed; for the experiments made in Europe show that a very simi-
lar species (4. palustre) is fatal to horses when hay contaminated with
it is fed to them in considerable quantity. The plant, if deleterious,
is evidently so only on account of its harsh scouring action in the
mouth and intestinal tract. Meadow hay containing a large amount of
field horsetail should be fed sparingly.
SUSPECTED SPECIES. 3135
SNEEZEWEED.
(Helenium montanum Nutt.)
A smooth, angular, branching perennial 1 to 3 feet high, with lance-
shaped leaves and numerous conspicuous yellow flowers, which appear
inautumn. The plant is commonly called sunflower or wild sunflower
in Montana. This species occurs abundantly in moist grounds in Gal-
latin, Lewis and Clarke, Madison, Cascade, Choteau, and Missoula
counties. Its general distribution is from Mississippi and Texas to
Nebraska, Saskatchewan, and Montana. The closely related Eastern
species, H/. autumnale L., is known to be poisonous to stock, but no
cases have been reported against 7. montanwm from the State.
OREGON YEW.
(Taxus brevifolia Nutt.)
A tree with leaves resembling those of the red fir. The fertile
cones.are represented by a single ovule, surrounded by a red, thickened
disk, which becomes fleshy and berry-like. This species is found
sparingly in Montana, west of the Rocky Mountains, at Columbia
Falls, Kalispell, Bearmouth, and Lolo.
The leaves would probably prove fatal if eaten by stock, but inas-
much as the tree grows in very inaccessible places, there is little danger
_ to be apprehended from it. The leaves and seeds of the European
yew (7. baccata L.) are well known to be poisonous.
EAGLE FERN.
(Pteris aquilina 1.)
The common eagle or bracken fern has a stout, woody rootstock and
large leaves, 2 to 4 feet long by 1 to 3 feet wide, which are 3-divided,
each branch being pinnately compound. It occurs in woodland at
Summit, Columbia Falls, Libby, Kalispell, and Missoula, and in the
Bitter Root and Deerlodge valleys. The distribution of this plant
includes nearly all of North America.
Cases of poisoning of horses and cattle by this plant have been
reported from England and from a few localities in the United States.
No complaint against it has been sent in to the Department of Agri-
culture from Montana.
ARNICA.
(Arnica monocephala (.) Olin.)
Other names: Mountain tobacco: Arctic leopard’s bane; Arctic
arnica.
An erect, simple, branching perennial 1 to 2 feet high, with opposite
leaves and long-stemmed beads of yellow flowers from 1 to 2 inches
136 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
in diameter (Pl. X XIX). The leaves are narrowly oblong or lance-
shaped, thickish, the upper ones linear. The plant grows in all parts
of Montana in woodland and moderately moist localities. This species
is common throughout the Rocky Mountain region.
This plant, most commonly known as arnica, is one of the most
common flowers in pasture lands in and about Bozeman in May and in
the early part of June. It has an odor and taste much like that of the
official drug, and, in fact, an extract made from the heads is consider-
ably used locally as a liniment. No specific cases of poisoning caused
by the plant have been reported from Montana, and we are not aware
that it is eaten, but it has, nevertheless, been suspected of being poi-
sonous to stock.
Dr. S. B. Nelson’ states that a sheep ate 2 pounds (of the leaves?)
of A. fulgens within a day without experiencing any bad effect. The
plants had been gathered eighteen hours.
ANEMONE.
(Pulsatilla hirsutissima (Pursh) Britton.)
A silky perennial 3 to 10 inches high, with an erect purplish flower
developed before the leaves, its parts numbering from 5 to 7, the
leaves 3-parted with the parts further subdivided. The flowers are
from 2 to 3 inches in diameter when fully opened, and the seeds in the
fruiting heads bear long silky tails. The flowers appear in earliest
spring. This plant is one of the most common spring flowers on hill-
sides in all parts of the State. Its general distribution is from the
Rocky Mountains eastward to Illinois and Wisconsin.
Specimens were found in blossom at middle elevations on Bridger
Peak as late as May 26. The taste of the plant is acrid, and it has been
suspected of being poisonous by stockmen, but no cases have been
brought to our attention in which good evidence could be obtained
against the plant.
RED WIND FLOWER.
(Anemone globosa Nutt.)
Perennial silky herbs 6 to 12 inches high with 2 to 3 parted leaves,
their divisions linear, and with white, greenish, or red flowers, followed
by an oblong, silky, fruiting head. The flowers appear in May or
June. The plant is common n valleys and open woodlands throughout
the State. The general distribution of the plant includes the northern
borders of the United States and northward across the continent, and
also the Rocky Mountain region through Colorado. The stem has a
very acrid taste, and would undoubtedly prove poisonous if eaten.
No instances of poisoning are known, and no evidence has been adduced
to show that stock have eaten the plant.
1U. 8. Dept. Agr., B. A. I. Bul. 22, p.13. 1898.
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XXIX.
ARNICA (ARNICA MONOCEPHALA).
é o
7
oy
me,
pone,
Dla
Fat
in
vit)
s s a ;
t
SUSPECTED SPECIES. 13%
DOGBANE.
(Apocynum spp.)
Pale smooth perennials, 1 to 5 feet high, with tough fiber, opposite
sharp-pointed leaves, small white or rose-colored fiowers in terminal
clusters, and pods 2 to 7 inches long. Two species of dogbane grow
in Montana, both flowering in similar situations from May to June.
Their preferred habitat is in waste places, along public highways, and
on banks. The two species seldom grow together. They may be
distinguished by the rose-colored flowers of the one species and by the
greenish white flowers of the other. Both species are generally dis-
tributed across the continent. Dr. J. W. Blankinship states that
Apocynum androsaemifolium Li. is very common on dry hillsides in
Montana. On June 11 the crisp, reddish brown plants of this species
were but 3 to 5 inches high, but they were abundantly supplied with
an acrid milky juice. On Juue 17, at lower elevations eastward, the
plants were seen in railroad excavations in a much more advanced
stage of growth. This plant, as well as A. cannabinumL., is poison-
ous. Both have tough stems and are not therefore enticing to stock,
especially since wholesome vegetation is abundant at the season when
they are in a crisp and succulent condition. Both have, however, been
suspected by stockmen of being poisonous. The dried plants are not
so poisonous as the fresh ones.
SHOWY FRASERA.
(Frasera speciosa Doug}.)
A large, stout leafy herb 2 to 5 feet high, with a single erect stem
from a thick bitter root and numerous greenish white, dark-dotted
flowers in a long leafy cluster. The root leaves are from 6 to 10 inches
long, and the stem leaves are arranged in whorls of 4 to 6. The plant
is found in Montana on dry hillsides in the Judith Basin and on the
Belt, Bridger, Absaroka, Rocky, and Bitter Root mountains. The
general distribution is from Wyoming to Oregon and southward to
New Mexico and California.
Four plants 6 inches in height and without any sign of a flowering
stalk, were collected in Rocky Canyon on May 26 by Dr. J. W. Blank-
inship and delivered at the laboratory in a fresh condition on May 28.
Thirty-one grams were roughly torn into small pieces and rubbed up
vigorously in a mortar with 50 ¢. c. of water. The water extract was
lost, but the residue was allowed to soak in 50 c. ce. of 50 per cent alco-
hol from May 29 to June 16, when the filtrate therefrom was given
hypodermically to a healthy young rabbit. Previous to this the solu-
tion had been evaporated on a water bath down to 7 ¢. ¢., most of the
alcohol being thus expelled. One and one-half cubic centimeters of
138 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
this evaporated extract, representing 4.4 grams of the fresh plant, was ©
injected under the skin of a 413 ounce rabbit without causing any
marked symptoms. No further opportunity for securing a supply of
the plants was offered. The species is abundant in the Yellowstone
Park.
A similar species, /” albicaulis, which grows in the State of Wash-
ington, was fed by Dr. S. B. Nelson’ to a sheep without causing any
noticeably bad effects. In all 74 pounds was given in the course of
five days, but no more than about 23 pounds was eaten within any
twelve hours of that period. ;
SNOWBERRY.
(Symphoricarpos occidentalis Hook.)
A low-branching erect shrub from 2 to 4 feet high, with small entire
leaves and small white or pinkish flowers which are densely covered
with long silky hairs. The plant blossoms in June. This shrub,
called ‘‘ buck brush” in many parts of the State, is known to be a good
honey-producing plant. Snowberry grows abundantly in nearly all
parts of the State, being especially abundant in the neighborhood of
Flathead Lake, where it is occasionally grazed upon by cattle and
horses. The general distribution of this species is from the mountains
of Colorado to Montana and eastward. As a rule, however, the leaves
of the snowberry are objectionable to stock and are rarely eaten by
them. The berries have, according to Irvin Cockrell, been suspected
of poisoning stock in winter.
The taste of the leaves taken directly from the bush on June 6 was
not bad at first, but on prolonged chewing became disagreeably bitter.
Six rabbits refused to touch the leaves, but the seventh, which was
quite hungry, did venture to eat 14 leaves. It would not eat more.
No bad effect followed. The data in hand are not sufficient to condemn
the shrub.
~
SLENDER NETTLE.
(Urtica gracilis Ait.)
A smooth-stemmed perennial from 1 to 4 feet high, with stinging
hairs, lance-shaped leaves, and loose clusters of small greenish flowers,
which blossom in June and July. This species grows in Montana in
waste places in Gallatin, Meagher, Park, Madison, Lewis and Clarke,
Cascade, Flathead, and Missoula counties. The general distribution
of the plant includes the Rocky Mountains from California northward
and thence eastward across the country.
The slender nettle is abundant in waste land and along creeks near
Bozeman, but is not looked upon as in any way objectionable to stock.
10.8. Dept. Agr., B. A. I. Bul. 22, p.13. 1898.
pt. Ag I
SUSPECTED SPECIES. 139
Hundreds of acres of reclaimed swamp land in Michigan and Wiscon-
sin have, however, been made worthless by the dense growth, horses
refusing to pass through it to cultivate the soil. The stinging hairs
of a closely related species, U/. holosericea were the cause of the death
of several horses in California in April, 1900.
LYGODESMIA.
(Lygodesmia juncea Don.)
A smooth erect perennial, 4 to 12 inches high, with rush-like
rigid, much-branched stems, linear or scale-like leaves, and scattered
heads of pink or rose colored flowers. This species, sometimes
known as prairie pink, grows abundantly on dry prairies and plains
in Park, Sweet Grass, Gallatin, Meagher, Lewis and Clarke, Choteau,
and Teton counties. The general distribution of the plant is from
Minnesota to New Mexico and Nevada. It has been suspected by
stockmen both in Montana and Utah of being poisonous to stock.
The plant was not investigated, but it was ascertained that the milky
orange-colored juice of nonflowering plants gathered at Toston was
extremely bitter and disagreeable to the taste.
BLACK GREASEWOOD.
(Sarcobatus vermiculatus (Hook.) Torr.)
A rigid, much-branched, erect, and scraggy shrub, 2 to 8 feet high,
with linear leaves and smooth white bark upon the branches. This
plant is found in alkaline soil near the head waters of the Missouri
and Yellowstone, at Great Falls, and along Belt Creek. It is distrib-
uted from western Nebraska to Wyoming and Nevada and to New
Mexico.
This plant grows in strongly alkaline soil, and is as a rule abundant
wherever it occurs. No complaint of the plant being deleterious to
stock in any way has been sent in to the Department of Agriculture
from Montana. A correspondent in New Mexico states, however,
that on one occasion he counted as many as 1,000 sheep that had been
killed by eating the leaves of this plant. He claimed that cows are
not affected by eating it at any time and that sheep can eat it freely in
winter. Fatalities caused by eating the plant may perhaps be due
more to the bloating effect than to any poisonous substances which
the plant contains.
ERIOGONUM.
(Ervogonum spp.)
Plants with acid juice, alternate entire leaves, stems from 3 to 10
inches high, and small, delicate flowers of a white or yellow color.
140 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
One of the most common species, Z: flavum Nutt., yellow eriogonum,
is woolly throughout and has yellow, silky flowers, which blossom from
May to July (Pl. XXX). These plants are found everywhere through- |
out the State on dry ranges, especially in poor soil.
On June 11 the yellow eriogonum, with scanty foliage, was observed
in bud at an altitude of about 7,000 feet on Bridger Peak. It was
not at all plentiful and there was an abundance of good pasturage at
hand. An investigation of the plant was deemed much less important
than of several others which had been suspected more strongly, and
no experiments were attempted. Dr. S. B. Nelson’ fed 3} pounds of
E. heracleoides to a sheep within one day without any ill effect.
SCARLET GAURA.
(Gaura coccinea Pursh.)
A nearly smooth herb, 6 to 12 inches high, with numerous narrow
leaves and rose-colored or scarlet flowers in simple spikes (Pl. XXX1).
The plant is common throughout the State on dry plains, blooming in
May and June. The general distribution of this species is from
Montana to Colorado and eastward to Arkansas.
Experiment 1.—On June 3, 32 grams of this plant collected at
Livingston, May 30, about a week before the flowering time, was
offered, still fresh, to a 14-pound rabbit. The whole quantity was
eaten up clean within five hours, but no ill effect was subsequently
noted.
Experiment 2.—On June 4 50 grams of the plants collected at
Bozeman in the same stage of growth as before was fed within an
hour after gathering to the above rabbit. In this case the herbage
was eaten very slowly and without relish. A check experiment
showed that three and a half hours afterwards only 20 grams had
been consumed. There were no ill consequences.
Experiment 3.—On June 9 25 grams of rather succulent leaves
from nonflowering plants nearly in bloom were eaten by a #-pound
rabbit. The same animal had eaten a small amount of lupine leaves
and seemed to be unwell prior to both experiments. It showed no
additional symptoms of uneasiness after eating the leaves.
Experiment 4.—On June 10 a stable horse entirely refused to eat
the plant either in the flowering or nonflowering stage.
TOWNSENDIA.
(Townsendia parryi D. C. Eaton.)
A low, erect, several-stemmed perennial, 2 to 6 inches high, with
hairy stems, small stemless leaves having entire margins, and large.
1U. 8. Dept. Agr., B. A. I. Bul. 22, p. 14. 1898.
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XXX
YELLOW ERIOGONUM (ERIOGONUM FLAVUM).
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XXXI.
SCARLET GAURA (GAURA COCCINEA).
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Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XXXII.
PINK-FLOWERED WILD ONION (ALLIUM BREVISTYLUM).
WRONGLY SUSPECTED SPECIES. 141
showy blue or white flowers, which appear in early spring. It is com-
mon on dry hillsides up to an altitude of about 8,000 feet.
It is one of the many plants which, perhaps, on account of its bitter
taste, has been suspected in Montana of killing stock. No concrete
cases have been reported to the Department against it. The fresh
leaves from flowering plants gathered June 9 tasted a little like sun-
flower seed when first chewed, but after a minute or two it became
bitter and disagreeable. Rabbits refused to eat the leaves when fresh.
An inspection of plants in the field revealed but one or two which
showed signs of having been grazed upon.
EDIBLE PLANTS WHICH HAVE BEEN SUSPECTED OF BEING
POISONOUS.
WILD ONION.
(Allium spp.)
Strong-scented stemless herbs with linear leaves and a flowering
stalk rising from a coated bulb. The plants attain the height of
from 3 to 20 inches, and the flowers are borne in flat-topped clusters.
The odor of the plant and the shape of the flowering cluster should at
once distinguish it from death camas, with which it seems to have been
confused by some stockmen. The species of wild onion are generally
distributed throughout Montana and grow in much drier situations
than does the death camas. The taste of the pink-flowered wild onion
(A. brevistylum S. Wats.) (Pl. XXXII) does not differ materially from
that of the ordinary onion, but may perhaps be somewhat stronger.
It is claimed to be more pungent than the white-flowered species (A.
reticulatum Fraser), which grows in great abundance in open grassy
fields and which has a larger bulb.
The white-flowered wild onion was in blossom on May 23 on the
slope leading up to the bench land from the east side of Bozeman
Creek. On June 11 the pink-flowered species was in bloom on the
north slope of Bridger Peak at an altitude of about 6,000 feet. Fora
number of years complaints had been made of the poisonous action of
wild onion, which was suspected of causing the death of sheep in a
number of instances. We were unable, however, to obtain any
evidence against any of the species, and could not understand why the
plant should be suspected. But during the present season it was
found that a considerable number of stockmen applied the name wild
onion to death camas without distinguishing between the two species.
Apparently this confusion of names accounts for the suspicion that
has attached to the wild onion. It is not believed that the species of
wild onion have any injurious effect upon animals except to taint the
meat and the milk with a disagreeable flavor. A few residents of
142 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
Montana claim that, while the white-flowered wild onion is not poison-
ous, the pink-flowered is so, an idea which may be due to the fact that
the latter species is not nearly so well known as the white, and is more
easily confused with poison camas, which has a somewhat similar bulb.
One of our assistants, indeed, ate a considerable portion of a poison
camas bulb before he was convinced that it was not an onion.
At 2 p. m., June 12, a Belgian hare, which had his food withheld
since the preceding night, received 50 grams of the whole flowering
plant of A. brevistylum. This was eaten somewhat gingerly, but at 8
o’clock, applying the correction for loss of weight due to evaporation
of water, it was found that 483 grams, nearly the whole amount, had
been eaten. No ill effect was noted, and the same rabbit readily ate a
few grams of the fresh onion the next day.
WILD LICORICE.
(Glycyrrhiza lepidota Pursh.)
An erect perennial half-woody herb, 1 to 4 feet high, with a thick,
sweet root, slightly hairy pinnate leaves, yellowish-white flowers in
dense spikes on the sides of the stem, and pods thickly covered with
hooked prickles. The plant is generally distributed throughout the
State along river banks and in moist, shady places. During the
season of 1900 it was observed in abundance in Cascade, Flathead,
Choteau, Lewis and Clarke, Meagher, Gallatin, Missoula, and Park
counties. The general distribution is from Montana to New Mexico
and westward to Nevada and California. The plant is quite commonly
known to stockmen of the State by the name of licorice. The pods
frequently become entangled in the wool of sheep and the hair of
cattle. The leaves and stems of the wild licorice are freely eaten by
cattle and horses on the range, but not by sheep so far as commonly
observed. In many localities it grows so abundantly that stockmen
have cut it for hay. Obviously the crop must be cut before the burs
are formed, since these structures would render it almost impossible
for stock to eat the hay. A fewinquiries have been received in regard
to the possible poisonous nature of the plant. There seems to be no
reason for suspecting it, since large quantities of wild licorice have
been eaten as hay, and direct feeding experiments with sheep and
calves indicate that the plant is entirely harmless.
On June 3, 68 grams of the crisper upper portion of nonflowering
plants collected along the banks of the Yellowstone and Livingston on
May 320 was offered in a good turgid condition to a hungry rabbit. It
was thought that the disagreeably bitter and astringent taste of the
plant would cause the rabbit to shun it, but five hours afterwards it was
found that about 18 grams had been eaten. No marked symptoms
were presented, and the animal was in good condition the next day,
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XXXIII.
WILD HYACINTH (LEUCOCRINUM MONTANUM).
WRONGLY SUSPECTED SPECIES. 143
WILD HYACINTH.
(Leucocrinum montanum Nutt.)
A low stemless perennial, with a tuft of rather thick linear leaves,
thick tuberous roots, and 4 to 8 pure white fragrant flowers, with a
slender tube 1 to 2 inches long, which rises from below the surface of
the ground (Pl. XX XIII). The flowers appear in early spring. The
plant grows abundantly in dry, gravelly soil in the Yellowstone Valley,
Judith Bas‘n, and Gallatin Valley near Belgrade. It is found plenti-
fully from Livingston to Big Timber, and especially north of these
points to the Musselshell River. Outside of Montana the plant grow-
from Montana to Northern California.
It is supposed in Montana that this plant is poisonous to sheep after
the fruit has been developed. No authentic cases have been investi-
gated, and since the seed capsules are underground it appears very
doubtful if they are ever eaten by stock. The plant blossoms early in
May and the leaves dry up generally before the last of May. The
roots consist of semi-fleshy fibers which can not be readily pulled up.
Dr. Blankinship, who in 1890 made an investigation of the plants used
by the Crows, stated that this tribe of Indians ate the roots. The taste
of partially dried herbarium specimens is rather agreeable. No defi-
nite evidence whatever could be obtained which would connect tnis
plant with any case of stock poisoning.
COW PARSNIP.
(Heracleum lanatum Michx.)
A coarse, strong-scented, woolly perennial 4 to 9 feet high, with
decompound leaves and somewhat beart-shaped leaflets. Flowers
white, in large flat-topped clusters. This plant is sometimes called
wild parsnip, but may be readily distinguished from that plant by its
much greater size and coarser character. It is common in situations
similar to that in which the poison hemlock grows. In 1900 it was
found in Gallatin, Park, Carbon, Sweet Grass, Meagher, Choteau, Cas-
cade, Teton, Flathead, Lewis and Clarke, and Missoula counties. The
general distribution of this species is from Colorado to British America
and to the Atlantic; also in California.
The plant was first observed to be well in bloom at Bozeman on
June 26. It is especially abundant and luxuriant in level swampy
land among willows, but it grows well among shrubbery along creeks
everywhere throughout Moatana. Fifty grams of the succulent leafy
nonflowering tops, collected on June 6, was fed on the same morning
toa small yellow rabbit weighing about 14 pounds. All of this amount
was readily eaten with the exception of a small part of a leaf, which
finally became very badly wilted, and a fragment of a flower cluster
144 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
which was in bud. The succulent stem was especially well liked. At
the end of seven hours it was calculated that 36 grams had been eaten.
No bad results followed, but the animal was at times a little more
drowsy than several others were. It was in good condition on the
following morning.
The succulent stem of this plant is greatly relished before flowering
time by the Indians of Round Valley, California. Before eating it,
however, the more pungent skin is removed. The taste is then agree-
ably aromatic.
FALSE MALLOW.
(Malwastrum coceineum A. Gray.)
A tufted hoary perennial, 2 to 8 inches high, with numerous 5-parted
leaves and racemes of showy brick-red flowers, which blossom in May
and June (Pl. VI). This plant is very abundant on dry prairies, espe-
cially on poor soil, near Craig, Augusta, Choteau, Great Falls, Fort
Benton, Utica, Lewiston, Martinsdale, Helena, Bozeman, and Living-
ston. The species grows on plains from Colorado to British America
and eastward to Iowa and Minnesota.
The plant is not well in blossom near Bozeman until after the first
of June. It is extremely abundant on some dry hillside pastures
which are much used for grazing sheep, where, before flowering, the
leaves may easily be mistaken for those of the purple larkspur. The
latter, however, may at once be distinguished by the absence of
stellate hairs.
The plant was at one time suspected in another State of being the
cause of a certain case of poisoning, but the accusation was after-
wards retracted, although the cause of death was never established.
The leaves have no bad taste, but they are so densely covered with
minute star-shaped clusters of rather rigid hairs that it seems possible
that they might cause some physical ill effect on the digestive tract.
The hairs are not without effect on the tongue when the leaves are
chewed, and the fresh nonflowering plants were wholly rejected by a
stable horse, to which they were offered. As a matter of fact, how-
ever, the plant, although it does not appear attractive as forage, is
eaten extensively by sheep in several parts of the State. On a sheep
range near Craig there are large areas which are occupied exclusively
by the false mallow. It was noticed that sheep had a decided liking
for the plant, and grazed upon such areas as long as any of this plant
could be found. Similar conditions were observed iu other parts of
the State. A number of sheep raisers have noticed sheep eating this
plant, and have, in one or two instances, suspected it of being poison-
ous. These suspicions are probably unfounded, since, as already indi-
cated, the plant is eaten extensively by sheep in some localities without
untoward results.
WRONGLY SUSPECTED SPECIES. 145
SAGEBRUSH.
(Artemisia spp.)
Bitter aromatic herbs or shrubs, with narrrow alternate leaves and
small yellowish or greenish flowers in terminal clusters. The species
are somewhat hairy throughout. About 20 species of sagebrush
grow in different parts of Montana, and some of them are recognized
by stockmen as valuable forage plants for the late fall and winter
grazing.
Various species are suspected in Montana of being poisonous to
stock, but no specific cases have been reported to the Department.
At Toston in May, 1900, it was noticed that the terminal branchlets
of A. tridentata had all been eaten off from a considerable number of
plants.
SMALL-LEAVED CUDWEED.
(Antennaria parvifolia Nutt.)
The small, silky, curly-leaved cudweed, about 6 inches high, which
grows abundantly in small patches on open hillside pastures, was
eaten voluntarily and with considerable relish by a horse. Dr. S. P.
Nelson'* states that he fed three pounds of A. luzuloides to a sheep
inside of 24 hours without causing any ill effect.
WILD CARAWAY.
(Carum gairdnert (Hook. & Arn.) A. Gray.)
A smooth, erect biennial, 1 to 4 feet high, with tuberous or turnip-
shaped root, 3-parted leaves, and white flowers in flat-topped clusters.
_ The plant is common in meadows and on hillsides throughout the
State. The general distribution is from Washington and California to
Idaho and Wyoming.
This species of wild caraway has been suspected of being poisonous
to stock, but this is undoubtedly a mistake, for, according to our own
observations, the roots under the erroneous name of wild parsnip are
very frequently eaten in the raw state by boys, while according to
Coulter, Rydberg, and others it is an article of food among the Indians.
Coulter* states that ‘‘ under the name of ‘ yamp’ the root is a common
article of food among the Indians of Idaho and Wyoming.” He fur-
ther states that ‘‘itis very palatable and nutritious, having somewhat
the flavor of cirrot.”
*U. 8. Dept. Agr. B. A. I., Bul. 22, p. 13: 1898.
*Sixth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Sury. of the Territories, p. 767. 1873.
S. Doe. 160 10
146 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
REED CANARY GRASS.
(Phalaris arundinacea 1.)
A perennial reed-like grass, 2 to 4 feet high, with broad flat leaves,
3 to 10 inches long, and flowering heads in large terminal panicles.
This species is very common in wet meadows and sloughs throughout
the State and is an important element of wild hay. Itis found from
Nova Scotia to British Columbia, south to New Jersey, Kentucky,
Kansas, and Nevada. Prof. J. M. Coulter’ quoting from Watson, says
that ‘‘it is known as ‘crazy grass’ from its reputed injurious effect
upon horses.” Although coarse in texture it is considered harmless
by the Minnesota agricultural station and by the Division of Agros-
tology of this Department. Our observations show that it is some-
times infested by ergot. This fungus is therefore most probably
responsible for any ill effects which have been attributed to the grass.
WILD SUNFLOWER.
(Balsamorhiza sagittata Nutt.)
A perennial with thick balsamic roots, tufted, long, hairy root leaves,
and simple, few-flowered, flowering stems 1 to 2 feet high, bearing
usually solitary flower heads from 2 to 5 inches in diameter (Pl.
XXXIV). The flowers appear in May and are among the most con-
spicuous of the season. This plant grows on dry hillsides in all parts
of the State.
The dry rocky hillsides and shallow coulees, at an altitude of from
about 5,000 to 7,000 feet, near Bozeman were yellow with the showy
blossoms of this plant from the middle of May to nearly the middle of
June. It is the most conspicuous of all the herbaceous plants at those
altitudes, and is often seen in association with death camas, white
lupine, and blue larkspur. The plant is generally distributed in the
Rocky Mountains from Colorado through Montana to British Colum-
bia. Close inspection of many growing plants during May and the
first half of June in the Gallatin Valley failed to reveal any signs of
its having been grazed upon, although another plant, the low milk
vetch (Orophaca caespitosa)” which was named to us as a suspect,
had been closely grazed in close proximity. A single leaf was fed out
of hand to a stable horse four or five times, but the animal finally
refused to eat any more, although it was strongly urged to do so.
Even at first it ate none at all when purposely grazed with its nose
close to the bunches. The wild sunflower is eaten on the range in other
parts of the State by cattle and horses, and less extensively by sheep.
On the summer ranges in the foothills and on the mountains, sheep eat
1Sixth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., vol. 6, p. 787. 1873. 2See p. 148.
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PLATE XXXIV.
\ an ae
WILD SUNFLOWER (BALSAMORHIZA SAGITTATA).
os,
WRONGLY SUSPECTED SPECIES. eh
the leaves of this plant with considerable relish, but at other times of
the year they seldom touch it. The habits of horses and cattle in
regard to it vary according to the individual animal, some eating it
greedily and others passing it by. It is doubtful if its forage value is
equal to that of some of the native legumes, but it occurs so abundantly
throughout such a wide range that it must be considered of some eco-
nomic importarce. Large quantities of the plant were fed to horses
and sheep without producing any bad effects, and animals were
observed eating it freely on the ranges at different seasons of the
year.
In two feeding experiments with rabbits 20 to 26 grams, respectively,
out of 50 grams of the fresh leaves of the flowering plant offered were
eaten without any apparent ill effect by two hungry 14-pound rabbits
within six hours. In another experiment 17 out of 50 grams was
eaten. In every case the material was eaten very reluctantly, and the
remainder of the 50 grams was refused in spite of hunger. No symp-
toms of poison were presented.
Our observations indicate that, as a rule, the leaves of the plant are
not an acceptable food, and it is possible that if eaten in large quanti-
ties they might prove deleterious if not poisonous. All parts of the
plant have a decidedly resinous taste. According to Rydberg, the
seed, root, and young stalks are used for food by the Indians. A very
similar plant, Wyethia longicaulis, is used for food by some of the
California Indians, but in this case only the seed and the lower third
of the tenderest leaves, together with a part of the flower stalks while
they are still crisp and tender, are eaten. The root, which is far more
resinous, is considered a valuable medicine.
WILD GERANIUM.
(Geranium viscosissimum Fisch. & Mey.)
A perennial herb 2 to 4 feet high, hairy throughout, with sharply
serrate leaves and <onspicuous purple flowers (Pl. III). The plant is
common in valleys and on moist, shady hillsides in all parts of the
State. The general distribution of this species is from California
through Montana to the Saskatchewan.
On June 7, 193 grams of the fresh leaves was offered to a young
rabbit which had been deprived of its breakfast. It did not take to
the ration readily, but about half of the quantity was eaten at 5 o’clock,
when an accident put an end to further observations for the day. No
ill effect was noted up to that time.
At Pullman, Wash.,' 3$ pounds of the fresh leaves of a similar
species was fed in the course of a day to a sheep without causing any
ill effect.
1U. S. Dept. Agr., B. A. I. Bul. 22, p. 14. 1898.
148 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
LOW MILK VETCH.
(Orophaca caespitosa (Nutt.) Britton.)
A low stemless, tufted, silky perennial, with 3-parted leaves crowded
upon a short, branched, woody base, and numerous flowers which
are exceeded by the leaves (Pl. XXXV). This species is locally
abundant on dry plains and hillsides near Bozeman, Fort Benton,
Fridley, Gardiner, Grafton, Billings, Lewiston, Baltic, Missoula, and
Deerlodge. The general distribution of the species is from Nebraska
and South Dakota to Montana and the Northwest Territory. It is
abundant in the grazing land on the benches near Bozeman. The
plant has been suspected of being one of the Montana locoweeds, but
numerous closely grazed flowering plants were noticed in one field
where the horses were not known to be affected by the loco disease. °
Immediately adjacent to these plants were numerous specimens of
Balsamorhiza sagittata which had not been grazed upon at all, a fact
that suggests that the vetch is the better fodder. Experiments made
with both plants verify that belief.
Fifty grams of the perfectly fresh flowering and fruiting plant was
offered to a hungry young rabbit two hours or so after gathering.
All but the seed pods had been eaten after seven hours, and they, too,
were all eaten next morning. No ill consequences resulted, and in
fact the rabbit readily ate about 5 grams more of the plant the second
day, thus showing that it was an acceptable food.
FALSE ESPARCET.
(Astragalus bisulcatus (Hook.) A. Gray.)
A rather stout perennial, 2 to 3 feet high, with numerous simple
stems forming a large stool, long many-pinnate leaves, and narrow
elongated racemes of showy purpie flowers (Pl. XXXVI). The
seed pods are characteristically two-grooved on the upper surface.
It blossoms during May and June and the seeds ripen in July and
August. This plant has attracted considerable attention in Montana
on account of its abundance and its aggressive habits in certain locali-
ties. It is generally distributed over the State, and in many places
grows so abundantly that it yields a fair crop of hay. Ordinarily it
does not cover the ground completely, but grows in large stools
which are separated by varying distances. A few large areas were
observed where it covered the ground in the manner of a cultivated
forage plant. Such areas are quite striking on account of the numer-
ous bright violet-colored flowers. The plant is known to a number of
stockmen by the name wild esparcet on account of its slight resem-
blance in general habit to the cultivated esparcet. It is at present
cut for hay in only a small number of localities. When offered to
Bul. 26. Div. of Botany, Dept. of Agr. PATE OKs
Low MILK VETCH (OROPHACA CAESPITOSA).
Bul. 26, Div. of Botany, Dept of Agr PLATE XXXVI.
FALSE ESPARCET (ASTRAGALUS BISULCATUS).
WRONGLY SUSPECTED SPECIES. 149
animals it is eaten greedily—sheep, cattle, and horses appearing to
like it as well as the cultivated legumes. It was observed that it
makes a good growth even in exceedingly dry soil. In one locality
which had been less favored with rain, and where native grasses had
been badly dried up, a field was found in which the plants stood at a
height of 18 inches and coveredthe ground completely. It was in full
bloom and in good condition to be cut for hay by June 10. As soon
as the pods appear they are greedily eaten by sheep, and seem to be
preferred to the other parts of the plant. All parts, however, are
eaten in hay. Large quantities of it were fed to sheep and calves
without any injurious effects, and it is certainly destined to be a
valuable forage plant.
WHITE MILK VETCH.
(Astragalus drummondii Doug].)
An erect perennial, 1 to 2 feet high, soft-hairy throughout, with
numerous pinnately divided leaves, white flowers in long crowded
racemes which blossom in June and July, and long slender greenish
pods which droop upon the stems. The species grow abundantly upon
prairies and hillsides in nearly all parts of the State, having been
found in the season of 1900 at Livingston, Bozeman, Red Lodge, Big-
timber, Kalispell, Great Falls, Fort Benton, Lewistown, Missoula, and
Deerlodge. The general distribution of this plant is from Colorado
and Nebraska to the Saskatchewan.
No localities were found where this plant occupied the ground
exclusively. It grows, however, in many areas where native hay is
cut and constitutes an important element of such hay. It was abund-
ant in pastures at Bozeman and at Livingston, but was not eaten by
stock in the pre-flowering stage. Rabbits and also a stable horse
refused to eat it out of hand in that condition, but a horse that had
been staked out to graze and had perhaps somewhat accustomed itself
to the plant ate a handful with apparent relish. One cow out of a
large herd which was grazing amongst it voluntarily ate a large
clump, but immediately afterwards passed many others without even
nibbling at them. The herder stated that the cows ate the plants very
rarely, but his remarks probably referred only to the period before
blossoming. He had noted no ill effect from eating it.
A hungry rabbit ate ina period of seven hours only 6 out of 50
grams of the plant in the preflowering stage. No ill effect was noted.
Another hungry rabbit that utterly refused to eat the leaves out of
hand ate several bunches of the white flowers with great relish. The
plant seems to be eaten more readily on the range by sheep than by
cattle and horses. It is much liked in hay by all stock. Sheep seem
to have a special fondness for the pods of the various native legumes
150 STOCK-POISONING PLANTS OF MONTANA.
and it was frequently observed that bands of sheep were feeding exclu-
sively upon the pods of A. drummondi. The pods when green have
an agreeable flavor somewhat resembling that of the cultivated pea,
and since they grow in large numbers on each plant and are of con-
siderable size, it is an easy matter for sheep to fill themselves with
this one kind of forage. On some sheep ranges this plant grows
abundantly and it was noted that at the time when the pods were in
best condition for eating they were entirely stripped from the plants,
while the leaves and stems were left untouched.
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