Full text of "The stone age in North America; an archæological encyclopedia of the implements, ornaments, weapons, utensils, etc., of the prehistoric tribes of North America"

THE STONE AGE IN
NORTH AMERICA

Fig. 223. (S. i-i.)

Two grooved effigies and two celts, from the Ba
hama Islands, West Indies. Reproduced in natural
colors. B. W. Arnolds collection, Albany, New York.

THE STONE AGE
IN NORTH AMERICA

AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE IMPLEMENTS,
ORNAMENTS, WEAPONS, UTENSILS, ETC., OF THE PRE
HISTORIC TRIBES OF NORTH AMERICA, WITH MORE
THAN THREE HUNDRED FULL-PAGE PLATES AND
FOUR HUNDRED FIGURES ILLUSTRATING OVER
FOUR THOUSAND DIFFERENT OBJECTS

WARREN K. MOOREHEAD, A.M

CURATOR OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AMERICAN ARCHAE
OLOGY, PHILLIPS ACADEMY, MEMBER OF THK
BOARD OF INDIAN COMMISSIONERS, ETC.

IN TWO VOLUMES
VOL. II

BOSTON AND NEW YORK

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY

Cbe Rtbeusifce JJrroe CambrtHgr

1910

Published December iqio

CONTENTS

XXV. GROUND STONE i

Effigies in stone and wood bird-stones I

Animal and human effigies . . 20

XXVI. GROUND STONE 29

Stone pipes 29

The classification of pipes . . 32

XXVII. GROUND STONE 95

Mortars and pestles .... 95

XXVIII. OBJECTS OF SHELL .117

XXIX. OBJECTS OF BONE . 134

Mandan bone implements ... 149

XXX. OBJECTS OF COPPER 161

The native copper implements of Wisconsin . 161

Fabrication I? 2

Distribution 174

Classes and functions 178

Axes 180

Chisels 184

Spuds 186

Gouges 188

Adzes 189

Spatulas 192

Knives 196

Arrow- and spear-points 198

Harpoon-points .214

Pikes and punches 216

Awls and drills 219

Spikes -220

Needles 221

Fish-hooks peculiar implements 222

Banner-stones beads 224

Bangles

Finger-rings ear-rings 22 6

Ear-spools or ear-plugs gorgets and pendants 227

Crescents 228

Other ornaments . 2 3

vi CONTENTS

XXXI. TEXTILE FABRICS 235

XXXII. POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES 247

XXXIII. HEMATITE OBJECTS i . 295

XXXIV. MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS 308

XXXV. THE STONE AGE IN EASTERN CANADA, UTAH, AND DAKOTA .... 330

Eastern Canada 330

The Plains of western and central Canada 333

The stone age in Utah 336

Objects made of wood 336

Textiles; feather objects; bone objects 337

Objects made from teeth; shell objects; stone objects; pottery objects 338

The stone age in Dakota 339

Hide and bark 339

Objects made from deer antlers; bone objects; shell objects . . . 340

Stone objects 341

Objects of copper; of pottery; of unbaked clay 342

XXXVI. CONCLUSIONS 344

The population in prehistoric times 344

The stone age in historic times 348

The antiquity of man in America 350

Adaptation to conditions 354

Art in ancient times and modern art 355

XXXVII. CONCLUSIONS 357

The ancient culture-groups . . 357

The stone-age point of view 363

Field study needed 365

BIBLIOGRAPHY 369

INDFX 411

THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

THE STONE AGE IN
NORTH AMERICA

CHAPTER XXV

GROUND STONE
EFFIGIES IN STONE AND WOOD BIRD-STONES

ABORIGINAL man traced all sorts of figures on the rocks and oc
casionally on the surfaces of flat ornaments and ceremonials. Not
only did he make pictures on shell gorgets and on birch bark, but he
also carved complete figures.

I have not made a special chapter for pictographs and picture writ
ings, but have dismissed them from this \vork, save with here and
there a reference. However, they represent stone-age pictorial art.
Dr. Fewkes, Mr. Gushing, Dr. Garrick Mallory and others have given
us numerous papers on picture writings, pictographs, painted and
sculptured symbols. Garrick Mallory s report on the sign language
among the American Indians was published in the Eleventh Annual
Report of the Bureau of Ethnology and covers four hundred pages.
This treats extensively of picture writings and pictographs. He
portrayed the attempts of stone-age man at expressing his thoughts.
He had not arrived at a written language save in Mexico and Cen
tral America. In North America he was in the advanced stone age.
But he was very skillful in his pictographs and in his carvings of
human, animal, bird, reptile, and fish figures. It has occurred to me
that he first made rude scratches on flat surfaces, on wigwam sides,
on trees, on rocks near trails.

It is significant that the Plains tribes and all the natives who did
not construct mounds or earthworks, natives that had not reached
the stage of barbarism but were still savages, made no effigies of
consequence. The effigies carved in catlinite, and observed among
tribes west of the Mississippi during the historic period, seem to have
been inspired by a knowledge of the superior arts of the white
people. We find that while the roving tribes of the Plains painted
various battle and hunting scenes on their tents and shields, yet

THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

GROUND STONE

FIG. 400. (S. 1-1.) Unfinished bird-stone. Collection of Emily
Fletcher, Westford, Massachusetts.

they were inferior in art as compared with the Pueblo, the Cliff -
Dweller, or the Mound-Building peoples. It is also significant,
and I shall speak of it at greater length in my Conclusions, that
the native American was so little influenced in his art by some
life-forms. I have never seen an effigy of a mountain, a tree, a
plant, or a flower. The modern Ojibwa Indians design flowers in
their bead-work. The ancient Ojibwa did not. The native Ameri
can did not seem to have been impressed by plant-life or inanimate

FIG. 401. (S. 2-3.) Unfinished bird-stone. Phillips Academy collection.

4 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

objects. Occasionally, he scratched a trail or a tipi on an orna
ment, and some of the pictographs in various portions of the
United States show wigwams, trails, etc. But while there are
numerous examples of carvings in stone, shell, and bone of animals,
birds, fish, and reptile life, we search in vain for carvings of the other
things I have mentioned. The highest art is found where the larg
est villages, or the most numerous mounds or cliff-houses, were
located. In small mound groups, or areas where the population
was not sedentary, the art is very crude. Throughout the areas

FIG. 402. (S. i -i.) Central Ontario, Canada. Provin
cial Museum collection.

where the culture is highest, notably Alabama, Georgia, Wisconsin,
Tennessee, Arkansas, Missouri, Ohio, and Illinois, we find these large
mound groups referred to, all of which proves that the people lived
long enough in one place to develop an art.

This art we see in the carved effigies. To study them in detail
requires more space than is available in this volume. The Nomen
clature Committee placed all effigies under one head- " Resem
blances to known forms." Under that general head I have placed:
I. The bird-stone in its various forms.

(A) Plain bird-stones.

(B) With ears or eyes, or with expanding wings.
II. Effigies in stone other than pipes.

III. Human effigies in stone and wood, including idols.

The classification made is rendered difficult because there are
effigies in bone, shell, clay, and stone, not to omit copper. Such
effigies as were drilled and used as pipes are described under the
chapter devoted to pipes. The bone effigies are included in the
chapter devoted to shell and bone, while copper is separately treated.
Yet there remains, after treating more or less completely of these

GROUND STONE 5

various divisions, a large class of stone objects which are not pipes,
or tools, or dishes, and which I have thought best to include by
themselves. The largest division in effigies is the so-called bird-
or saddle-stone which is found between the following lines: Daven
port, Iowa, to central Minnesota, east to New Brunswick, south to
the Atlantic Coast, and thence south down the coast to Washington,
thence west to Davenport. Few bird-stones occur south of Kentucky,
west of Davenport, or north of St. Paul. The other effigies are of
multitudinous kinds and are widely scattered throughout the
United States.

Figs. 399, 400, 401, and the central object in Fig. 269 are all

FIG. 403. (S. i-i and 1-2.) These three problematical forms are
from the Provincial Museum collection, Ontario, Canada. The upper
one is from central Ontario. The base view of the lower specimen is
also shown.

6 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 404. (S. 1-2.) Andover collection.

GROUND STONE

THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

unfinished bird-stones. It was difficult for me to procure these, but
after some years of correspondence they were obtained.

The specimens clearly show the work of the hand-hammer. Fig.
401 and the upper right-hand specimen in Fig. 399 have been pecked

FIG. 406. (S. about 1-3.) Collection of Leslie W. Hills, Fort
Wayne, Indiana.

into shape and the grinding-polishing process was well under way
when the specimen was set aside, or lost.

In collecting numbers of these unfinished bird-stones, my object
was to prove that these slender, delicate objects did not indicate
European knowledge or influence, but were wrought after much
labor from ordinary stone by prehistoric man. None of them show

GROUND STONE

the marks of steel cutting-tools. Fig. 400 is the roughest one and
yet the ears or eyes stand out in relief. Fig. 399 is interesting in
that it shows three on which the result of pecking and battering is
in evidence. The one to the left, lower row, has been pecked, and
ground, and was in process of being polished when the work ceased.

FIG. 407. (S. 1-2.) Collection of Leslie W. Hills,
Fort Wayne, Indiana.

Fig. 401, Anclover collection, found in Ohio, is a large bird-stone
about five inches in length. The marks of the flint cutting-tool or
of the hard grained rubbing-stone, which cut the softer surface of
the slate, are still apparent. Fig. 404 presents various bird-stones,
both rare and common forms, with and without ears. These are
found long and slender, short and thick, almost as low as the bar-

io THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

amulet, and also so high that they merge into other effigies. Six
bird-stones from the collection of Mr. Leslie W. Hills of Fort Wayne,
Indiana, are shown in Fig. 407.

The bird -stones with projection on either side, which by some are
called ears, and by others eyes, are quite frequently found in the
eastern United States, and Canada. An unusual one is illustrated in
Fig. 402, this having one button-shaped knob on the top of the
head. Figs. 406 and 409 from the collection of Mr. Hills illustrate

FIG. 408. (S. 3-5.) "This specimen is from western New York. It is made in the form of
a bird which from the number of similar specimens have given the name to this class. The
eyes are represented by great protuberances, which must have greatly increased the diffi
culty of manufacture. It is made from a boulder or large piece, and while the material is
hard, it is not rough but rather fragile. It could not be chipped like flint nor whittled like
soapstone, but must have been hammered or pecked into shape and afterwards ground
to its present form, then polished until it is as smooth as glass. A consideration of the condi
tions demonstrates the difficulty of making this object and the dexterity and the experi
enced working required." 1 Material: diorite with feldspar crystals. Smithsonian collec
tion. Otis M. Bigelow s collection, Baldwinsville.

bird-stones about one third size, from various portions of Indiana,
Ohio, and Canada; an unfinished one in Fig. 409 (number on its
side 561) is interesting in that the bill or nose is unusually long, the
head high, and the body quite short. One beautiful specimen owned
by Mr. George Little of Xenia, Ohio, is illustrated in Fig. 410, and
the specimen is turned in Fig. 411 so that the perforations are visible.
The neck of this is unusually long. It will be observed that all of
these bird-stones have flat bases; none of the bases are round.

In Figs. 404 to 411 are presented bird-stones, Class I, divisions
A and B. Naturally, there are more of plain bird-stones (A) than

1 Smithsonian Report for 1896, p. 451, Dr. Thomas Wilson.

GROUND STONE n

those with large projecting ears, or elaborate heads. It will be
observed that the width of the tail varies, being long and narrow in
some, short and slightly flaring in others, and in still others broad,
or fan-shaped. Sometimes the eye is very small, as in the lower left-
hand specimen, Fig. 405. Or it may be sunken, several of which
are shown in Fig. 409. But usually it is worked in high relief.

There are presented, all told, in this chapter, sixty bird-stones.
It would be possible for me to present ten times this number.
There are included in the series numbers of effigy-like objects that
might not be classed by other observers as bird-stones. For in
stance, the central specimen, top row, of Fig. 405.

The bird-stones are very interesting and unique objects and the
range in them is considerable. Sometimes they are almost square,
as is seen in the central specimen, lower row, Fig. 405. Again, the
head is a prominent feature, as is observed in the lower one in Fig.
409, and the body is of secondary consideration. A group of these
stones from the Andover collection is shown in Fig. 404. The very
small bird-stone in the upper row to the left is half size of the original,
as are the others. This is the smallest bird-stone, the genuineness
of which is beyond question, brought to my attention. Just below
it is a peculiarly straight effigy from Tennessee, which is almost
bar-amulet in shape, and marks the merging of the bird-stone into
the bar-amulet. Fig. 408 is an expanded-wing type of unusual
beauty. Fig. 405, from the collection of W. A. Holmes, Chicago,
shows typical bird-stones, with an unusual one, almost like a frog,
and shown in the centre at the top. Next to it to the left is a short
stone, hardly bird-like in character, of which a few have been
found in the United States. Fig. 403, from the collection in the Pro
vincial Museum, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, presents at the top
a stone as much bar-amulet as bird in character, and also a stone
at the bottom in the centre of which is worked a projection or knob.

Fig. 412, from the Reverend William Beauchamp s collection, is
somewhat different from ordinary bird-stones, although it is in
cluded under that class. In 1899 I issued a bulletin, "The Bird-
Stone Ceremonial," which is now out of print. It illustrated fifty-
three bird-stones. Since that time Mr. Charles E. Brown has
published a study of bird-stones. 1 This is an excellent review.

Dr. Thomas Wilson once made a statement 2 concerning bird-
stones, and I quote one of his paragraphs: "The United States

1 Wisconsin Archeologist, no. I, vol. 8, 1908. 2 Smithsonian Report for 1896, p. 451.

12 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 409. (S. about 1-3.) Collection of Mr. Leslie W. Hills, Fort Wayne, Indiana.

National Museum possesses many of these specimens. While they
bear a greater resemblance to birds than anything else, yet scarcely
any two of them are alike and they change in form through the
whole gamut until it is difficult to determine whether it is a bird,
a lizard, or a turtle, and finally the series ends in a straight bar
without pretense of presenting any animal."

The range of material is from Huronian slate or shale to red sand
stone, granite, and porphyry. Usually the stone from which they
are made is banded or contains spots of color. They are either red,
gray, or bro\vn, with variations. Sometimes feldspathic granite,
diorite, and porphyritic-feldspar are made use of. Dr. William

GROUND STONE

14 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

Beauchamp gives a very good description of some fifteen bird-
stones. 1 I have reproduced none of the illustrations he gives, but as
his text is timely, I quote at length from his paper:

"The theories about their use seem fanciful, as some certainly
are. Two writers assert that they were worn by married or pregnant
women only, and many have accepted this statement. Others think
they were worn by conjurors, or fixed on the prows of canoes. It is
enough to say that some of the perforations are not adapted to any
of these uses. It seems better to class them with the war and prey
or hunting gods of the Zunis, some of which they resemble. In that
case the holes, of whatever kind, would have given a firm hold on
the thongs which bound the arrows to the amulet, a matter of im
portance in an irregular figure.

"These perforations form the most important feature. The
amulet may be but a simple bar, but to each end of the base is
a sloping hole, bored from the end and base and meeting. To this
necessary feature may be added a simple head or tail, and there may
also be projecting ears. None of these are essential. They are but
appropriate or tasteful accessories.

"Two notable collections contain a large number of amulets.
In the Canadian collection at Toronto there are about fifty bird-
amulets."

Dr. Beauchamp mentions Mr. Douglass s seventy specimens in
the American Museum of Natural History collection, and also re
fers to the rarity of bar-amulets in Western New York:

"They were variable in material as well as form, although most
commonly made of striped slate. Perhaps full half have projecting
ears, when of the bird-form. In the wider forms, usually of harder
materials, there are often cross-bars on the under side, in which the
perforations are made. Occasionally these are not entirely enclosed,
yet are without signs of breakage. This seems to prove that these
were not intended as means of attaching them to any larger object,
on which they would rest, but rather for fastening articles upon
them, as in the Zuni amulets already mentioned, and which were
illustrated by Mr. Frank H. Cushing, in the Second Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology. On comparison a general resemblance to
these will be seen, and in a few cases it is quite striking. That they
were used in this way, rather than in those suggested by others,

1 Polished Stone Articles used by the New York Aborigines, p. 56. Albany, 1897.

GROUND STONE

FIG. 411. (S. i-i.) Side view of Fig. 410.

is a reasonable conclusion which gains strength with fuller study.
As a class they belong to the St. Lawrence basin."

Mr. Gerard Fowke and Professor David Boyle should be quoted
upon this subject. Mr. Fowke says: 1

1 Stone Art, Bureau of Ethnology Report for 1891-92, p. 125.

16 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 412. (S. i-i.) Rev. William Beauchamp s
collection. From Michigan.

" Stone relics of bird-form are quite common north of the Ohio
River, but are exceedingly rare south of that stream. [He illustrates
the same specimen figured by Dr. Wilson.]

According to Gilman, 1 the bird-shape stones were worn on the
head by the Indian women, but only after marriage. Abbott quotes
Colonel Whittlesey to the effect that they were worn by Indian
women to denote pregnancy, and from William Penn that when the
squaws were ready to marry they wore something on their heads
to indicate the fact.

1 Gilman, G., in Smithsonian Report for 1873, p. 371.

GROUND STONE

FIG. 413 (S. 1-4.) Peabody Museum, Cambridge.

"Jones 1 quotes from De Bry that the conjurors among the Vir
ginia Indians wore a small black bird above one of their ears as
a badge of office."

Professor Boyle 2 says: " Although for convenience known as
bird-amulets most of them being apparently highly conven
tionalized bird-forms now and again one sees specimens that are
not suggestive of birds, whatever else they may have been intended
to symbolize. In some instances there has not been any attempt to
imitate eyes even by means of a depression, but in the majority of
cases the eyes are enormously exaggerated, and stand out like but
tons on a short stalk, fully half an inch beyond the side of the
head. In every finished specimen the hole is bored diagonally
through the middle of each end of the base, upwards and downwards.
If merely for suspension when being carried, one hole would be
sufficient, but the probability is that these were intended for fasten
ing the amulets to some other object, but what, or for what pur
pose, is not known.

"It has been suggested that these articles . . . were employed
in playing a game; that they are totems of tribes or clans; and that
they were talismans in some way connected with the hunt for water
fowl. They are, at all events, among the most curious and highly
finished specimens of Indian handicraft in stone found in this part
of America, and the collection of them in the Provincial ArchcTo-
logical Museum is said to be the best that has been made."

1 Antiquities of the Southern Indians, p. 30.

2 Notes on Primitive Man in Ontario, by David Boyle. Toronto, 1895, p. 67.

THE STOXE AGE IX NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 414. (S. 3-8.) Effigy of a whale. Andover collection. This stone was
found near Fall River, Massachusetts. It appears to be an effigy of a whale.
Numbers of rude effigies, more or less whale-like in character, are found along
the Atlantic seaboard in Connecticut and Massachusetts. Doubtless the
whale would excite wonder in the minds of aborigines hence the effigies.

FIG. 415. (S. 1-2.) Bear effigy. Found near the corner of Essex and
Boston Streets, Salem, Massachusetts, in 1830.

GROUND STONE

c
o

o
o.

20 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

Professor Boyle speaks of the bar-amulet after treating of bird-
stones, but he does not class them as the same kind of ceremonials.

Frank Hamilton Gushing illustrated bird-stones and flat tablets,
and he thought the bird-stones were tied on flat tablets and these
worn on the head. I inclined to that opinion when I published "The
Bird-Stone Ceremonial," but now I do not believe this, for the reason
that most bird-stones could not be conveniently tied to flat tablets.

That they are found in regions where there are many mounds
used to be stated, but this is hardly correct. They have never been

FIG. 417. (S. i-i.) Phillips Academy collection.

found in a mound, and I do not know of an instance where they have
been found in graves. They occur more in northern Ohio, Canada,
and New York State than elsewhere except Michigan and Wiscon
sin. I firmly believe that they were not made and used by mound-
building tribes but antedate the mound-building period. As to the
exact purpose of these things I leave others to judge.

ANIMAL AND HUMAN EFFIGIES

There are many crude effigies, many grotesque sculptures found
in this country. There are also stones that are in the border-lands
between highly developed problematical forms and effigies. Fig.
413 presents a group of these from the Peabody Museum at Cam
bridge, Massachusetts. The upper row appears to be whale effigies.
In the lower row are small stone bowls or paint-cups.

FIG. 418 (S. 1-2) shows four peculiar stones from the Salt River Valley, Arizona. The
one in the lower left-hand corner illustrates an armadillo; in the upper right-hand corner,
an owl. The others are unknown effigies. These Arizona specimens are all of volcanic
tufa, and are typical of the region. Large numbers were found by Mr. Gushing during his
explorations of the ruins of the Salt River Valley, and something like a hundred were dug
up by me for Mr. Peabody when I visited the region. The purpose of these is unknown.

22 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 419. (S. i-i.) Front view of the "Owl Ornament," found in a grave at Fort An
cient, Ohio, 1882. Collection of the Ohio State University. One of the first specimens
collected by W. K. Moorehead at Fort Ancient. Material, graphite slate.

Few finer problematical forms have been found. There are two grooves on the face
and back of this object. One runs from the top down about an inch and one half, inter
secting the other. In the angles formed by these two grooves are two perforations ex
tending through the stone and drilled from each side. At the bottom is an oval-shaped hole
on the face extending through. This latter perforation does not exhibit an oval shape from
the rear, but presents a round appearance. Around this oval-shaped depression are four
teen holes, each drilled about one eighth of an inch deep. They present the form of an
arrow-head, or a heart. On the reverse side are two holes above the oval perforations
which are not drilled through the stone, and which lie just under the horizontal groove.
The remarkable part of this stone is that the; symbol, three, occurs on it in three places
on the face twice and on the reverse once.

GROUND STONE 23

Quite a number of these whale and other effigies have been found
in New England; but effigy- work in stone, the making of art-forms
from life, was more general in the South and Southwest than in New
England, where, indeed, effigy animals are exceedingly rare.

Fig. 415 illustrates an effigy of a bear. This was found in Salem
during excavations for a cellar and is in the Peabody Museum of
that city.

Mr. L. C. Deming, Ft. Wayne, Indiana, owns a peculiar effigy in
stone about six inches in height. Just what it represents I am unable
to state, as the ancient workman s sculpture is crude.

Fig. 416 shows a number of spindle- whorls to which reference has

FIG. 420. (S. i -i.) The "Owl Ornament," rear view.

24 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 421. (S. i -i.) Salem collection. This shows a grooved bar-like object at the
bottom, and a curious effigy pendant above.

FIG. 422. (S. 1-3.) W. E. Bryan s collection, Elmira, New York.

GROUND STONE 25

been made elsewhere. These are made of clay, hard baked. In
the lower centre is a stone idol found in a large ruin at Mesa,
Arizona. It is made of hard redstone. There is a little depression
in the top of the head half an inch in depth. Near the top is a curious
animal effigy with eight legs. This is made of fine-grained lava and
has a depression in the centre about one and one half inches in
diameter.

Fig. 417 illustrates two effigies, full size, of black onyx, each typi-

FiG.423. (S. i-i.) From a mound
near South Carrollton, Kentucky.
Presented to the Phillips Academy
Museum, by F. G. Hilman, New
Bedford, Massachusetts.

fying a bird. These are very finely carved and were found in south
ern Arizona in a ruin, by the expedition sent there by Mr. R. S.
Peabody, 1897-98.

The human form was frequently indicated in stone by the Indians.
These sculptures range from very crude delineations, which I have
not shown, to the first steps in more ambitious work, such as is
exhibited in Fig. 422. This stone head was found near Elmira,
New York, by Mr. Ward E. Bryan. The original was seven or eight
inches in length. It is cut out of fine-grained sandstone. On the
back are curious lines and dots as shown in the figure. The face
shown is much cruder than that in Fig. 423. That face is of the
peculiar type known as "Mound-Builder." I have referred to this
resemblance elsewhere. Inspection of Fig. 499 in the pipe series,
found by Professor Mills at Adena, in the Scioto Valley, Ohio, and

26 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 424. (S. 1-4.) An idol and three flutes. B. H. Young s collection.

The long flute at the top is made of slate. The head is an imitation of a serpent s head.
It has five holes regularly spaced. It is evident that a small block of wood was placed in
the mouth to lessen the wind space.

The central one is of stone, open at both ends, with four holes.

The smallest one, of bone, is open at both ends.

On each of these instruments from seven to nine different sounds can be made.

The idol was found in Tennessee, near the Kentucky line. It is made of dark steatite,
and is unique in representing the full human form.

of the idol, Fig. 426, and some of the effigy pottery, will acquaint
readers with this curious, strongly marked, Mound-Builder type of
feature. Other examples are to be seen in books treating of Ameri
can archaeology.

The idol presented in Fig. 426 is a remarkable effigy. Not a
few of these have been found near the Etowah Group of mounds in
Georgia. All such idols have either been found in graves or on the
sites of Southern villages, where population w r as considerable. I never
knew of them being found in a mound, although there may have been
such discoveries.

GROUND STONE

FIG. 425. (S. 1-3.) B. H. Young s collection. Wooden image found many years ago
in Bell County, Kentucky, near Middlesboro, in a cave by a turkey-hunter. It is made
of yellow pine, and is of form similar to the stone effigies found in Kentucky. The ears
are pierced for ear-rings, and the wrists grooved for bracelets.

THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

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CHAPTER XXVI

GROUND STONE

STONE PIPES

PREVIOUS to the discovery of America, that strange custom of
smoking was confined to the New World natives. There have been
some vague references to inhaling of smoke by other ancient peoples
elsewhere in the world. But these are still in the realm of doubt.
Certain it is that the burning of tobacco, dried leaves, bark, etc., in
stone, bone, clay, or copper receptacles was not known to any con
siderable number of men before Columbus set out upon his uncer
tain voyage, on an unknown sea.

There is an extensive literature dealing with pipes and smoking
customs of America, and it is unfortunate that I am unable to
produce more than a portion of what has been said by the early
travelers, and later scholars and others, regarding this peculiar
custom. However, there are two important publications access
ible to all readers. The first was published by Mr. Joseph D.
McGuire. 1 Mr. McGuire illustrates his paper with two hundred
and thirty-one figures and five plates. The other paper was writ
ten by Mr. George A. West and contains seventeen plates and
two hundred and three figures. 2 Mr. McGuire made a study of
pipes and smoking customs throughout the United States; Mr.
West, of the St. Lawrence basin and particularly Wisconsin,
Michigan, Minnesota, and Canada. These two publications will
give readers abundant material for consideration, and because
of their excellence, I have made this somewhat lengthy reference
to them.

In addition to the monographs cited, there are numerous shorter
articles scattered throughout various publications and reports.
These will be found if readers refer to the Bibliography.

In the following pages, I follow the classifications made by Messrs.
McGuire and West with very few changes. These must both stand

1 Report of the United States National Museum, 1897, pages 361-645.

2 Wisconsin Archeologist, April-August, 1905, pages 40-171.

THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

as the best that have appeared on the subject up to the present

time.

Since Mr. McGuire s paper was published there have been large

additions to pipe collections in the museums and private collections.
As to the number of pipes in the Smithsonian,
American Museum, Peabody Museum, and
others, I do not know, but one might venture
the opinion that each of these three institutions
have at the least fifteen hundred or two thou
sand pipes scattered throughout the collections;
and the smaller museums in proportion. Pro
fessor W. C. Mills informs me that there are
two hundred and forty pipes in the exhibit under
his charge at Columbus, comprising collections
owned by the Ohio State University and the
Ohio Archaeological and Historical Society. They
are divided as follows: Monitor, twenty-eight;
effigy, forty ; tubular twenty-four ; miscellaneous,
one hundred and forty-eight. In the Andover
collection there are about one hundred and
seventy pipes.

There are two large private collections of
pipes in America. Mr. John A. Beck of Pitts-
burg owns about eighteen hundred pipes of va
rious kinds from the United States and Canada.
Mr. George A. West reports that there are six
hundred in his possession.

Pipes, from their very nature, were probably
more highly prized among our aborigines than
any other articles. The pipe was sacred, and it
was not until Europeans, with their superior
civilization, took up the smoking custom, that
it became a habit and totally lost its original
significance.
It is quite likely that pipes were more generally exchanged among

tribes than other artifacts. Possibly, one should except copper, but

I am not even sure of that. We find Northern forms South, Eastern

types West, and a general indication that aboriginal barter or trade

in pipes was extensive.

FIG. 427. (S. i-i.)
Stone pipe-bowl made
ofcatlinite. Collection
of the University of To
ronto, Ontario. Found
by Henry Montgomery
in a mound in western
Manitoba.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES

FIG. 428. (S. about 1-2.) Pipes from North Dakota mounds. Explorations of Henry
Montgomery, (a) Pipe-bowl of catlinite. (b) Piece of catlinite pipe-bowl which had been
cut off before burial, (c) Catlinite pipe, 2^ inches in length, (d) Large bowl of catlinite
pipe, 10^/4 inches long; from Ramsey County, (e) Catlinite pipe-bowl found with the
piece of pipe shown in (6). (/) Pipe-bowl made from deer antler; length, about 4 inches.
(g) Clay pipe, bent; length, 5 inches; found in burial-pit in Benson County. (70 Catlinite
pipe-bowl, I }/2 inches long, (i) Straight bowl of clay pipe; length, 2% inches; found in
burial-pit in Ramsey County. (See Fig. 429.)

32 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 429. (S. about 1-2.) Pipes from North Dakota mounds. Described under Fig.
428. (American Anthropologist, vol. 8, no. 4, plate 33.)

The Classification of Pipes

No one save Mr. J. D. McGuire has attempted to group these
objects. In his classification, Mr. McGuire presented four plates
in which he showed the distribution of fifteen types of pipes. I have
followed his numbers, but instead of presenting a map, have named
states or localities, from which these were taken.

1. Curved-base mound pipe. Mississippi Valley, north of the Ohio and

west of Pennsylvania. Also the Great Lakes basin.

2. Heavy bird or animal pipe. South of the Ohio and east of the Missis

sippi.

3. Tubular pipe. East of the Mississippi, and from central Ohio east.

Throughout the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Coast.

4. Iroquoian clay pipe. New England to New York ; Ohio, Michigan, and

West Virginia.

5. Iroquoian grotesque bird-pipe. The same region. Also eastern

Canada.

6. Iroquoian rectangular pipe. Eastern Canada and New York.

7. Disc or jewsharp pipe. Mississippi Valley, central portion.

8. Biconical pipe. Southern Mississippi Valley, east of the Mississippi

and south of the Ohio. Also Ohio and Michigan.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES

9. Micmac, keel-base pipes. The St. Lawrence basin.

10. Siouan and catlinite type. The Great Plains.

11. Southern mound type. The South, east of the Mississippi, and north

of Florida.

12. Pueblo pipes. Southwest.

13. Rectangular pipes, birds, and ani

mals on bowls. Pennsylvania and
Ohio.

14. Monitor pipe. Ohio and Mississippi

Valley, north of the mouth of the
Ohio, and Wisconsin.

15. Bowl and vase-shaped pipes. Kansas

and entire eastern United States,
north of Alabama and Georgia.

This table will serve as a beginning,
but it is incomplete. Many pipes of

FIG. 430. (S. i-i.) Earthenware pipe.
Found near Lake Champlain. Collec
tion of the University of Vermont.

FIG. 431. (S. i -i.) Conoidal tube
pipe. Collection of G. A. West, Mil
waukee, Wisconsin. Sheboygan Coun
ty, red catlinite.

34 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

the types mentioned by Mr. McGuire are found in other sections

than those named by him.

The names of some pipes may not be famil
iar to all of my readers. I therefore repeat Mr.
McGuire s list of fifteen pipe-types, and state
opposite each, the numbers of figures illus
trating that particular type.

The fifteen types of pipes described by Mr.
McGuire are illustrated in this chapter under
the following figure numbers :-

1. Curved-base mound pipe. Fig. 452.

2. Heavy bird or animal pipe. Figs. 477 and

481.

3. Tubular pipe. Figs. 428 and 446.

4. Iroquoian clay pipe. Upper specimen, 465.

5. Iroquoian grotesque bird-pipe. Fig. 470.

6. Iroquoian rectangular pipe. Central specimen,

Fig. 465.

7. Disc or jewsharp pipe. Fig. 447.

8. Biconical pipe. Right specimen, Fig. 489.

9. Micmacs, keel-base pipes. One in Fig. 453;

left specimen in Fig. 464.
10. Siouan and catlinite type. Fig. 437.
1 1 . Southern mound type. Specimen K in Fig. 463.

12. Pueblo pipes. (No figures presented, but they

resemble those in Figs. 428, 446.)

13. Rectangular pipes, birds and animals on bowls.

Fig. 496, specimen in the lower left-hand
corner.

14. Monitor pipe. Figs. 451, 449.

15. Bowl and vase-shaped pipes. Fig. 458, central

specimen, Fig. 464.

Certain areas are characterized by par
ticular forms of pipes, and in regions where
the population was more dense, several types
of pipes are usually found, thus indicating
that they were taken from one region to an-

other

. One fact stands out prominently with re-

Alabama. Collection of ference to these pipes, and it is that any one
J. T. Reeder, Michigan. w ho is familiar with conditions under which

FIG. 432. rs. a little over

1-3.) Found in a mound

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES 35

&gt;

FIG. 433. (S. 1-2.) Collection of S. Van Rensselaer, Newark, New Jersey.

36 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 434. (S. 1-2.) Pottery pipes from Simcoe and Durham counties, Ontario, Canada.
Toronto University collection. Characteristic of northern central Ontario.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES

FIG. 435. Peculiar tube pipes. Collection of G. A. West, Milwaukee,
Wisconsin. Tubular and trumpet-like pipes are shown in Figs. 427-28,
and 430. These are considered to be earliest forms. More complicated
tubes are observed in Fig. 435. Mr. West described these in his paper,
previously cited.

pipes are found can distinguish the prehistoric from the modern in
most instances. Of course there are exceptions. Many modern
pipes show the marks of steel tools, whereas the ancient forms do not.
Certain specimens appear to those who have done a great deal of
field work as ancient, whereas others do not. This is not merely
a matter of opinion. I have found it very difficult, during my
lifetime, to make those observers who have no intimate knowledge
of field conditions realize the importance of this statement. There
is no convenient formula whereby one may explain to a skeptic,
how one specimen appears old and another does not. I shall con
sider this subject at greater length in the Conclusions.

Various remarks offered here and there on the pages of this
chapter may be taken to represent my conclusions as to pipes. I
have not offered a summary at the end of the chapter, preferring
to state pertinent observations, suggested by the figures illustrating
pipes, as they occur.

Of the fifteen types named by Mr. McGuire, the tubular, rect
angular, and slightly curved pipe (of the forms shown in Fig. 433),

38 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 436. (S. 2-3.) Onyx pipe-bowl with wooden stem. From cave-
house ruins in San Juan County, Utah, February, 1894. The pipe lies
against a fragmentary skin covering or robe. Henry Montgomery,
Toronto, Ontario.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES 39

FIG. 437. (S. 1-2.) Diminutive Siouan pipes. Collection of G. A. West. Milwaukee

Wisconsin.

40 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

are most common and widespread in the United States. As some
years have elapsed since Mr. McGuire s paper was written, monitor
pipes in numbers have been reported from Wisconsin, Illinois, and
Indiana.

The modern Sioux, Ojibwa, and Winnebago and other pipes be
tween the years 1700 and 1850 are interesting by way of compari-

FIG. 439. (S. 1-2.) Vase-shaped pipe. John
Weber s collection. "Found by Mr. John
Weber, in Killare, Juneau County, Wiscon
sin, in 1895, is of a pinkish-colored stone, and
exhibits on its two opposite faces etched fig
ures of some animal, possibly a lizard. The
figure is after a sketch furnished by Mr. W.
H. Elkey."

FIG. 438. (S. 1-2.) Peculiar
stone pipe. Collection of H. M.
Whelpley, St. Louis, Missouri.

FIG. 440. (S. 2-3.) Double conoidal pipe. J.
P. Schumacher s collection. "A very attractive
example, from Brown County, Wisconsin, is of
dark sandstone, nearly 4 inches long, 2^/2 inches
high, 3 inches wide, and oval in shape with a flat
base. Its stem and bowl cavities are each fully
an inch in diameter at the surface, and are placed
at right angles to each other. This pipe was evi
dently pecked into shape, both bowl and stem
holes being made by the same process."

GROUND STONE-STONE PIPES 41

son. Mr. West 1 wrote a few paragraphs concerning them, which I
quote.

"No pipe was ever regarded by the American aborigine with
greater reverence and respect than the calumet. It was used in the
ratification of treaties and alliances; in the friendly reception of
strangers; as a symbol in declaring war or peace, and afforded its
bearer safe transport among savage tribes. Its acceptance sacredly

FIG. 441. (S. 1-2.) Black pottery pipe. Collection of G. A. West, Milwaukee, Wiscon
sin. "This is a type of Southern mound pipe taken from a mound in Pepin County, Wiscon
sin. It is well tempered with shell, contains eight knobs or coffee-bean protuberances
about the bowl, and the stem is ornamented on one side by a zigzag line, probably in
tended to represent the emblem of lightning. This pipe is 3% inches long, and the only
one of its kind so far found in this state."

sealed the terms of peace, and its refusal was regarded as a rejection
of them.

"Calumets made of steatite, limestone, sandstone, and granite,
are often found, but a large majority of them are made of catlinite,
a compact clay slate, named after Mr. George Catlin, who lived
for many years among the Indians, and to whom great credit is due
for his many portraits and other paintings true to aboriginal life.
The color of catlinite is usually cherry red, often mottled and shad
ing into ash, grey, or black. This material was quarried by the In
dians in several places in Minnesota, Iowa, South Dakota, Missouri,
and in Barren County, Wisconsin. Specimens of * pipe-stone are

1 " The Aboriginal Pipes of Wisconsin," Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. IV, nos. 3 and 4,
p. 83.

42 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

sometimes secured from the glacial drift. Pipes of catlinite are not
necessarily of modern make. Examples have been found, over a
wide area, in Indian mounds and graves. In 1880 a broken pipe of
this material was found by Ole Rasmussen, in the town of Farming-
ton, Waupaca County, while digging a well, eighteen or twenty feet
below the surface. The material has been known, under different
names, ever since the Discovery.

" Catlin, who in 1835 visited the pipe-stone quarries of Minnesota,
had previously found catlinite in the hands of the savages of every

FIG. 442. (S. i-i.) A pipe of banded slate from the collection
of Albert L. Addis, Albion, Indiana. Pipes of slate are not want
ing, and they are usually either rounded or angular. It is seldom
that the banded slate is worked into pipe effigies.

tribe, and nearly every individual in the tribe has his pipe made
of it. After a visit to the famous quarries, Catlin concludes as
follows: From the very numerous marks of ancient and modern
diggings or excavations, it would appear that this place has been
for many centuries resorted to for the redstone ; and from the great
number of graves and remains of ancient fortifications in it s vicinity,
it would seem, as well as from their actual traditions, that the
Indians have long held this place in high superstitious estimation;
also it has been the resort of different tribes who have made their
regular pilgrimages here to renew their pipes. " 1

1 .\orth American Indian.

GROUND STONE --STONE PIPES

FIG. 443. (S. 4-5.) Handled disc
pipe. Collection of G. A. West, Mil
waukee, Wisconsin. A rare old spe
cimen found in a mound near Dela-
van, Walworth County, Wisconsin,
of greenish-colored limestone, the
color probably due to copper stains.

FIG. 444. (S. 1-2.) Type of moni
tor pipe. Collection of G. A. West,
Milwaukee, Wisconsin. "Found near
Buffalo Creek, Nelson County, Vir
ginia ; of dark schist, is 5 inches long.
It has an alate stem, running the
length of the centre of which is
a pronounced ridge. The largest
specimen of this type so far encoun
tered is probably a Great Pipe,
having a bowl 8 inches long, being
upward of 17 inches in total length,
which was found in a mound in
Marion County, Kentucky."

FIG. 445. (8.4-5.) Short-base mon
itor pipe. Collection of S.D.Mitch
ell. This specimen was "found in
the town of Aurora, Marquette
County, Wisconsin, is of drab slate,
2 1/2 inches long, the end broken
away, base rounded, and is orna
mented near the stem end on each
side by three deep grooves. A second
example of the same shape in G. A.
XVest s collection, found by Mr. Au
gust Battle, in the town of Scott,
Sheboygan County, Wisconsin, in
1901, is of drab steatite. The top
of its bowl is ornamented by four
sets of cross-lines, of three lines
each. The bowl cavities in each pipe
are irregularly conical in shape."

44 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

In Kentucky and Tennessee, as well as southern Ohio, where the
population was dense, there are examples of nearly all the pipes
except the Iroquois and the catlinite. The few of these found in
that region must be set down as strays.

The study of several specimens illustrated by both McGuire and

FIG. 446. (S. 1-2.) Five tubular pipes, from the collection of James A. Barr, Stockton,

California.

West and the comparison of the fifteen figures presented in " The
Stone Age " will acquaint readers w r ith the distribution of forms and
types. The striking thing in all this, and it may be verified by
inspection of any large mound collection, is that the types shown
in Figs. 435, 437, 439, and 465 are usually surface finds and may be
distinguished from specimens found in mounds and from various
village-sites.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES

FIG. 447. (S. i-i.) Handled disc pipe. H. P. Hamilton s collection.

4 6

THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 448. (S. i-i.) Collection of Leslie W. Hills, Fort Wayne, Indiana.
From Kosciusko County, Indiana.

FIG. 449. (S. 2-5.) Straight-base monitor pipe, Logan collection, Beloit College. "It
was ploughed up in an early day by Mr. L. Craigs, on Section 30, Eagle Township, Rich-
land County, is of drab steatite and finely polished. It is 9 inches long, 2^4 inches wide
at the base, 3 inches across the flange of the bowl, with the bowl cavity % inch in its
greatest diameter, and made with a tubular drill. This is certainly one of the finest ex
amples of the straight-base monitor pipe as yet found in Wisconsin."

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES 47

FIG. 450. (S. i-i.) This figure shows the top view of pipe shown in Fig. 451, and is from
the collection of Albert L. Addis, Albion, Indiana. Found in northern Indiana.

Mr. West has kindly permitted me to reproduce portions of his
valuable paper on pipes, and I am sorry that space is insufficient
to quote his descriptions of the numerous figures he has loaned me.
Referring again to the Siouan pipes (Fig. 437), it requires no skill
to distinguish these modern forms from the more ancient. Many
of the pipes shown in that figure will apply to other living tribes
as well as the Sioux.

One may suppose that the tubular pipe soon developed into other
forms. That is, of course, taking it for granted that the tubular
pipe is the first form. Modifications of the tube tending toward the
rectangular are often met with, which seems to bear out this theory.
Be that as it may, we have in Fig. 438 a pipe from Dr. Whelpley s
collection, oval in outline, curiously ornamented with circular de
pressions, and which is hardly of the tubular class, but seems to be

FIG. 451. (S. i-i.) Collection of A. L. Addis, Albion, Indiana.

48 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

a modification of the same. Instead of being perforated through
its long diameter, the bowl is about an inch from the broad end.
Such a pipe as this is of rare occurrence.

It will be seen from an inspection of either Mr. West s or Mr.
McGuire s papers, as well as through a study of any museum col
lection, or of the various figures presented in this section, that pipes
on which there are carvings or decorations, or pipes made in imita
tion of life-figures, are quite as frequently found as plain and un-
ornamented pipes. Why so much skill should be employed on these

FIG. 452. (S. about 1-3.) Large, platform pipe from a burial. Length, 5 1-5 inches.
W. C. Mills s explorations.

pipes, whereas the flat surfaces of slate gorgets and ornaments could
have been more easily decorated, is a problem. This may, however,
be accounted for by the sacred significance accorded to the pipe by
the savage, for it was used in all ceremonial performances, in the
declaration of war and peace, and was among his most treasured
possessions. It is very seldom that we find markings or tracings
on any of these stone gorgets or ceremonial forms, yet on the pipes,
as remarked above, ornamentation is the rule. All of this is signi
ficant to me, and I think that subsequently we shall be able to draw
some valuable lessons from this peculiarity.

The Northern pipes, the pipes from the country west of the Mis
sissippi, excepting of course the calumets, appear to be smaller as
a rule than the Southern pipes, or the mound pipes. One might say
that many of these were individual and sometimes emblematic
pipes rather than council pipes. It must, however, not be forgotten
that \vith the Indians of the Great Lakes region especially, all signi
ficance was attached to the stem and its ornamentation rather
than to the bowl. Fig. 437 shows the well-known Siouan types of

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES

FIG. 454. (S. i-i.) This is a straight-base monitor
pipe from the collection of George A. West. It is

FIG. 453. (S. 1-3.) Collection of Les- made of greenish steatite and was found in Milwau-
lie W. Hills, Fort Wayne, Indiana. kee County, Wisconsin. It is a beautiful specimen.

50 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 455. (S. i-i.) Collection of George Little, Xenia, Ohio.

fuHSITY

CALIFO*^

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES 51

pipes of that people from the time of their migration to what is
now known as Wisconsin. It is therefore possible that some of the
pipes of this place are several centuries old, while others are dis
tinctly of modern make.

There has been some discussion as to the part played by catlin
ite in aboriginal trade or exchange. Catlinite does not appear to be
as old as other stones. It has been my theory that the catlinite
quarry was of recent discovery. By recent, I mean within two or
three thousand years or less. Catlinite pipes are frequently found in
the mounds and graves of Wisconsin, but not in those of the South
in any considerable numbers.

In fact their occurrence there is
very rare, yet they are found in
great numbers in modern graves,
in village-sites where tribes have
lived in the historic period. This
in itself is significant.

FIG. 456. (S. i -i.) Collection of
H. E. Towns, Fond du Lac, Wis-

FiG.457- (S. i-i.) This pipe was ploughed
up five miles east of Delaware, Ohio. Col
lection of Frank L. drove, Delaware, Ohio.

52 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

Fig. 446 shows five tubular pipes from California, collection of
Professor James A. Barr. These are all specialized forms, and some
what different in the method of
treatment, being highly polished
and ornamented by rings carved
in relief.

The disc pipe is placed in a class

FIG. 458. (S. i-i.) Found about four
miles north of Pierceton, Indiana. Col
lection of W. F. Matchett, Pierceton,
Indiana.

FIG. 459. (S. 1-5.) University of Vermont
collection.

by itself by Mr. McGuire. We have six of these at Andover, all
from graves at the mouth of the Wabash, southern Indiana. One
of these is shown in Fig. 447. Mr. West remarks as follows regard
ing this type of pipe: -

The disc pipe, in the writer s opinion, is an old type, and was in
use by the aborigines of this country long before the coming of the
whites. Authorities, however, differ as to this conclusion. General
Gates P. Thruston suggests that the stem-holes of the disc pipe
being funnel-shaped, it may safely be regarded as an old type.

"Mr. J. D. McGuire writes: The shape is so suggestive of the
jewsharp, an instrument used extensively in trade with the Indians,
as to indicate that the pipe itself is modeled after the form of this

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES

primitive musical instrument, even though the file marks, so com
mon on many of the pipes, are absent from those coming under the
writer s observation.

"A careful study of the several forms of this type convinces the
author that it was not modeled after the jewsharp. Of the twenty-

FIG. 460. (S. 1-3.) Collection of L. \V. Hills, Fort Wayne, Indiana.

eight examples in the author s collection, when examined with a
powerful glass, all exhibited innumerable marks and scratches, that
could have been made by the use of a piece of sandstone or flake of
flint. In no case were file marks found.

" Mr. McGuire states: Finding them of catlinite so far from the
quarries would indicate that they are of no great age. If Mr.
McGuire s conclusion is correct, aboriginal barter and trade could
not have been carried on between distant tribes until within a com-

54 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

paratively recent date, an abundance of evidence to the contrary
notwithstanding." l

"Fig. 447, found at Baldwin s Mills, Waupaca County, the larg
est handled disc pipe so far found in Wisconsin, is of beautiful
dark red catlinite with pink flecks. Its bowl is five inches long,

FIG. 461. (S. i-i.) Turtle pipe found at Pierceton, In
diana. Front view. Collection of W. D. Matchett,
Peirceton, Indiana.

terminating in a handle shaped like the blade of a hatchet, with
what would be the cutting edge ornamented with three notches.
The disc is 3^/2 inches wide and so thin that the distance through
from the face of the disk to the outer side of the bowl is but three
fourths of an inch. The stem hole has the characteristic curve and
its interior is nicely polished. Both stem and bowl holes appear to
have been started with a stone drill and enlarged with a wooden
drill used in conjunction with sand. Under a glass this specimen

1 " The Aboriginal Pipes of Wisconsin," Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. iv, nos. 3 and 4,
p. 130.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES 55

shows innumerable scratches, but none of these appear to have been
made by the use of metal tools. The same can be said of eleven
handled disc pipes in the author s collection." Mr. West has a
record of one hundred and four disc pipes found in Wisconsin.
The fact that these disc pipes are frequently made of catlinite

FIG. 462. (S. i -i.) Rear view of Fig. 461 .

leads me to believe that they are not as old as other forms ; yet
there seems to be no evidence of their use after the advent of white
man.

The pipe with the curved base and monitor pipes are closely re
lated. These are found throughout the entire Mississippi Valley,
and are especially numerous in Illinois, to West Virginia and from
southern Wisconsin to southern Tennessee. Many beautiful speci
mens have been taken from mounds and graves, particularly from
the mounds. In Figs. 449-53, I show five of these. Perhaps the
most beautiful ones have been found in the mounds of the Scioto
Valley, Ohio.

Just how this peculiar form originated, no man may know. It was

56 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

j k

FIG. 463. (S. 1-3.) Group of pipes from various localities in the Mississippi Valley.

(a) Scioto County, Ohio. (g) Scioto County, Ohio.

(b) Ross County, Ohio. (h) Wabash Cemetery, Indiana.

(d) Scioto County, Ohio. (j) Silver Creek, Morgantown, North Caro-

(e) Miami County, Ohio. lina.

(f) Scioto County, Ohio. (k) Grovetown, Georgia.

GROUND STONE- STONE PIPES 57

the favorite among the prehistoric peoples. A few examples found
in use among historic tribes are very poor imitations of the old
forms, and cannot compare in workmanship and beauty of finish
with such as are removed from the mounds of the Middle West and
the South.

Beginning with Pig. 449 and continuing to Fig. 453, and from
Fig. 471 through Fig. 500, I present a series of pipes, all of which are

FIG. 464. Three pipe-bowls. Collection of Henry Montgomery, To
ronto, Ontario.

Left. Pipe-bowl made of sandstone. From near Toronto, Ontario,
Canada. Length, 2% inches.

Centre. Pipe-bowl made of limestone. From Markham, Ontario.
Length, 3 inches.

Right. Pipe-bowl made of white quartzite. Found by Henry Mont
gomery in Simcoe County, Ontario. About one third actual size.

decorated either by incised lines or by likenesses of animals, birds,
or human beings, carved in relief. These may be taken as typical
of any large series of pipes in a public museum, and represent the
height of pipe-making art.

As previously remarked, the decoration seems to be the essential
thing in pipes. The idea of the maker was to portray something
on the pipe or to have the pipe stand for more than a mere recep
tacle in which tobacco was smoked. No other conclusion is possible
when we consider the high percentage of decorated and ornamented
pipes, and the surprising number of pipes worked into effigies.
Fig. 469 is a very clumsy pipe at best, and the decorations on it

58 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 465. (S. i-i.) Collection of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, New
York. Typical Iroquois pipes. These are fine examples of Iroquois art and were found in
western New York, where the Iroquois culture was high. From graves at Grand Island,
New York.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES

FIG. 466. (S. 1-3.)

From a stone grave, Wofford Farm, Hurricane
Mills, Humphrey County, Tennessee. Material:
red and brown clay.

Collection of J. T. Reeder, Houghton, Michigan.

FIG. 467. (S. i -i.)

Greenstone pipe found in
Tennessee. Apparently an
Iroquois type of pipe. This
is a rare form.

From the collection of
W. B. Rhodes, Danville,
Pennsylvania.

6o THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 468. (S. 2-3.) New York State Museum collection, Albany, New York.
Human effigy and human bird-pipes from Iroquois sites in northwestern New
York. Both of these sculptures are unusually fine examples of art in pipe-
working, for the greater part of Iroquois pipes are plainer.

GROUND STONE -STONE PIPES

may not indicate age. Examples such as this are not wanting, and
there are a great many in collections. Contrasted with this rough
specimen is Fig. 455, which is also decorated but is worked less
crudely.

The human sculpture of the priest on the altar at Palenque, so
frequently illustrated, illustrates an individual either blowing or

FlG. 469. Pottery pipe with human face; the stem part broken off. Simcoe County,
Ontario, Canada. Toronto University Museum.

drawing smoke through a tube. The tube is ornamented with bands,
and appears to be larger at one end. It is a straight and not a curved
pipe. I have always thought that this interesting figure from an
cient Palenque typified what the pipe meant to the more cultured
American tribes. There is a vast difference between the use of the
pipe as portrayed in that sculpture, and the degeneration of the
smoking ceremony as it appears to-day among modern tribes. We
have in this figure the ancient shaman in full regalia; the elabora-

62 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 470. New York State Museum collection, Albany, New York. The New York
State Museum contains many fine specimens of early Iroquois make. The upper figure
to the right, with long stem, is gracefully curved.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES

FIG. 471. (S. i-i.) Collection of Leslie W. Hills, Fort Wayne, In
diana. This is the form of bird effigy most frequently found. That
is, it is not common, but more of this type are found in the Mound-
Builder country than other bird-forms.

tion with which the slab is wrought, and the fact that it was part of
the sacred altar at Palenque, are significant.

We have no such sculptures in the Mississippi Valley, but w r e have
altar mounds in which effigy and monitor pipes w r ere buried. I have
never found a crude pipe in an altar mound and I do not think that
either Squier and Davis or Professor Mills ever found an example of
crude art in an altar mound. This refers to original interments, on
the base-line not to intrusive burials. Everything indicates that
the pipes in use in pre-Columbian times were of two kinds, the
small, individual pipes, and the large council pipes, or those made
use of at important functions either religious or tribal, being char
acteristic. I have never observed the mark of any steel or iron tool
on a mound pipe in the Ohio Valley.

Whether smoking was discovered through accident, or developed

FIG. 472. (S. 1-2.) This form of pipe is rare in
Wisconsin. But a few mouth-pipes with curved
bases have been found in the St. Lawrence region.
It may have been obtained by trade in the South
Collection of J. (i. Pickett.

64 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 473. (S. 1-2.) Collection of A. J. Powers, Mt. Vernon, Iowa. Eagle pipe,
Georgia. This remarkable pipe has been described several times in various publica
tions. It is a beautiful specimen.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES

from the use of the straight tube in the hands of the priests, is some
thing we may never be able to determine with accuracy.

While the effigy pipes required particular skill in their manufac
ture, yet some of the tubular, rectangular, and disc pipes, although
unornamented, are wrought skillfully and brought to a high finish,
and the surfaces polished until almost as smooth as glass.

I have often thought that a careful catalogue of all pipes in our
large museums, with a detailed statement as to where each was

FIG. 474. Collection of Leslie W. Hills, Fort Wayne, Indiana. A group of beautiful mound
pipes from Indiana, Kentucky, and Tennessee. None of these can be considered modern.

found, would be of great value, and enable us to prepare accurate
tables as to these and their significance and age. In this connection
it is to be regretted that greater care has not been at all times
exercised in securing complete data relative to aboriginal pipes and
other artifacts deposited in museums and private collections, for
without this a specimen however interesting is of little value in
solving archaeological problems.

The bird seems to have been the favorite sculpture, yet there are
frequent portrayals of the frog. I present three of them, all of sand-

66 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 474.4. (S. 2-3.) Front and rear view of pipe from Trigg County, Kentucky. Hard,
compact, dark reddish stone. B. H. Young s collection.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES

stone, in Figs. 485 and 486, and a beautiful one, full size, in a photo
gravure plate, Fig. 500, from the collection of Mr. F. P. Graves, Doe
Run, Missouri.

Among the Ojibwa Indians, during
observed a number of stone pipes in use.
afforded to study such among

the summer of 1909, I
An excellent opportunity

was

these Indians, as I was on White Earth
Reservation, Minnesota, for seventeen
weeks, and came in contact with all
the full blood Indians and many of
the mixed bloods. Being frequently in
council with these Indians, I observed
their pipes with some care. Except
rectangular pipes of Siouan types,
which were inlaid with lead or silver,
most of the pipes were exceedingly
crude and far inferior in every way to
the ancient forms. Few Indians owned
inlaid pipes. The major part of all the
pipes I observed were common egg-
shaped bowls without stem which were
fitted with the common cane or wooden
stem, such as are sold in stores at a
penny each. Others were rectangular
and unornamented. Two in use by old
medicine-men, one smoked by a Cree
woman, and several others were pur
chased by me and placed in the Ando-
ver collection.

As these Ojibwa are all in possession of steel tools, one would
suppose that their pipes would be well made. But on the con
trary, the art of making pipes has degenerated among them.

While there are tubular pipes in California, they do not occur in
great numbers, and, as has been remarked, other types of pipes are
either very scarce or entirely absent.

It seems to me that among our American aborigines the finest art
existed previous to contact with European civilization. The finest
sculptures on exhibition in our museums come from sites which
appear to be prehistoric. To him who is skeptical and does not
believe these statements, I suggest that he inspect modern Iroquoian,

FIG. 475. (S. about i-i.) Slate
pipe, bird effigy. Collection of
Mrs. Nellie Gowthrop, Camden,
Michigan.

THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 476. (S. about 1-3.) Collection of J. T. Reeder, Houghton, Michigan. Locality,
Tennessee. Materials: soapstone, slate, and quartz.

FIG. 476 A. (S. about 1-3.) Collection of J. T. Reeder, Houghton, Michigan. Locality,
North Carolina. Material, soapstone.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES

FIG. 476 B. (S. 3-4.) Steatite, Barbour County, Kentucky. From a mound on
Stoner s Creek. B. H. Young s collection, Louisville, Kentucky.

Siouan, Ojibwa, and Cherokee pipes, and compare them with the
ancient forms such as have been taken from mounds and graves
in southern Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee.

Most of these tubular pipes are much
larger at one end than the other, cor
responding to the bowl, which is more
highly developed in later forms. There
is one in the Andover collection that
was obtained from the Hupa Indians of
California about fifty years ago by an
early settler. The stem is round, made
of redwood, and a stone ring surrounds
the bowl. The tobacco would of neces
sity have to be packed tightly when
one smoked such a pipe, unless, as has
been reported, the smoker lay upon
his back.

Fig. 457 is a roughly outlined and

FIG. 476 C. (S. 1-2.) This beauti
ful little pipe is of a type occasion
ally found in Pennsylvania and the

Carolinas. It may not be prehis- unfinished effigy pipe, which when
toric. At any rate, it is an inter- complete was intended to represent

the head of some animal. In this we
sylvania. have evidence of the method of work

70 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

on the part of the maker. Instead of the hand-hammer it would
appear that a cutting-tool had been used. He had begun to rim
out the bowl on the top of the head, but the stem hole is not yet
in evidence.

It is in the effigy pipes themselves as a class that we see the great
est skill and care manifested in the manufacture of these strange
objects. This does not, however, mean that all effigy pipes are

FIG. 477. (S. i -i.) Eagle pipe. Clarence B. Moore. A superb pipe of limestone
representing an eagle. "This pipe, 4.6 inches in length, carved with great spirit, is a
worthy exemplar of the prehistoric art of Moundville. The bird is represented on its
back, the head swung around to one side with the beak open and tongue extended. In
cidentally, it may be said that the hump shown on the tongue by the native artist,
though somewhat exaggerated, is not imaginary, as may be proved upon examination
of an eagle. It may be that this pipe, showing as it does the eagle lying on its back, its
legs and claws on the belly, represents the dead bird. By pulling out the tongue of a dead
eagle one would be certain to notice the hump ; hence the examination of a dead bird
would have sufficed so far as correct rendering on the pipe was concerned. On the other
hand, the hump on the tongue is plainly shown on pottery from Moundville, where
the eagle s head is erect and the bird is evidently represented as alive."

models of the carver s art, as many of them show poor workmanship.
In other words, the art in pipes is no exception to the rule of art
elsewhere. There were those who understood their business and
produced masterpieces, and there were those who produced just
the opposite. There may be a totally different method of treatment
in representing the same creature, as for instance Figs. 468 and 470
showing the Iroquois treatment of human and bird forms in life;

GROUND STONE --STONE PIPES 71

and the Southern Mound-Builder, Figs. 473, 474 A, 499, illustrating
birds and men. The Iroquois and the Plains tribes made pipes more
nearly like our modern pipes of to-day. The bowl was round or
angular, and the stem long and tapering, or angular. Excellent
examples from the Buffalo collection are shown in Fig. 465.

The Iroquois pipes and pipes characteristic of the Plains, pipes
classified by Mr. McGuire and Mr. West as Micmacs, and other
modern pipes, are scattered quite generally throughout north,
central, and eastern United States. It is good that Mr. McGuire
has given us so careful a distribution of pipes as is set forth in his
fifteen divisions. The student of archaeology must distinguish be
tween the pipes from the old burial-places and those that are appar
ently modern. The prehistoric cultures and the modern cultures of

FIG. 477/1. (S. i-i.) Eagle pipe. Clarence B. Moore. " Several experts who have
charge of eagles in captivity inform us that under certain circumstances the hump
on the tongue is visible on the living bird. Possibly the aboriginal artist at Mound ville
was familiar with the characteristics on eagles through the possession there of captive
birds a custom observed among the Zuni of New Mexico at the present time.

"Owing to slight disintegration of the stone at that part of the pipe where the head is,
the details of the carving are somewhat indistinct, but by holding the pipe in a suitable
light all the details of the head are still distinguishable. A wing is represented on each side.
The legs, beginning at the tail, which extends outward, rise upward and forward, the feet
and talons resting on the belly and embracing the orifice of the bowl. The opening for the
stem is immediately above the tail."

Moundville Revisited, pp. 384-390.

72 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 478. (S. i-i.) Handled pipe. This figure "represents one of the oldest handled
pipes that has come under the writer s observation. This interesting specimen was taken
from a burial-mound, on the Nicholai farm, Big Bend, Waukesha County, Wisconsin, in
July, 1902, by Mr. La Fayette Ellerson. With it was found a curved-base mound pipe."
From the collection of G. A. West, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

FIG. 478.4. (S. 1-2.) Handled pipe. "Found by Mr. O. S. Ludington, near Prairie
du Chien, of red sandstone, formed, mainly by the pecking process, into the shape of a
fish, and is 5^ inches long, 2^/2 inches wide, and i inch thick. Its bowl cavity is three
fourths of an inch across, the stem hole nearly as large, and both are cone-shaped, having
been made with a stone drill. This specimen is not worked down smooth, nor does it ex
hibit file marks." From the collection of G. A. West, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES

FIG. 479. (S. 1-3.) Six interesting effigy pipes from the collection of Bennett H.
Young, Louisville, Kentucky.

THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 479 A. Turtle pipe. Milwaukee Museum collection. This fig
ure "is of grayish-brown steatite, 3J4 inches long, 2^ inches in its
greatest width, and with a finely carved upper surface representing a
turtle. The bowl is in the centre of the turtle s back, the stem hole
is small, and was doubtless used without the addition of a detachable
mouthpiece. The lower part of the body is flat, with no attempt to
form either legs or tail." This specimen was discovered within the
southern limits of the city of Milwaukee, and is believed to be one of
two ceremonial pipes of turtle-form, so far found in Wisconsin. "The
turtle was an emblem of the Sioux, and from the frequent occurrence
of its shell in graves must have been held in high esteem by the In
dians; yet representations of it in stone are exceedingly rare."

FIG. 480. (S. I -I.) Effigy pipe, Hopewell Group.

GROUND STONE -STONE PIPES

FIG. 481. (S. i-i.) Turtle pipe found near Burnett, Dodge County, Wisconsin.
Milwaukee Public Museum collection.

76 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 481 A. (S. i -i.) Another view of Fig. 481.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES 77

our American aborigines here in the United States may be compared
with those of Europe; where on one
site we might find Roman weapons or
implements, those of early Germanic
tribes associated with the Roman,
and beneath all of these, those of
the stone-age type. But if the soil
had been disturbed, through digging
on the part of people subsequent to
these epochs, stone-age objects, to
gether with those of Roman and
Germanic occupations, might be
found associated together. It fol
lows, therefore, that here in Amer
ica, when we find modern catlinite
pipes and rectangular stone pipes on
a village-site or beneath the sur
face, these may represent different
epochs or cultures. These cultures
may or may not be separated by
hundreds of years.

There are many complications to
be taken into consideration, in our
study of the distribution of pipes. As
has been pointed out, rude pipes are
quite as likely to have been made
by modern Indians as by prehistoric
people.

It does not follow, because the
type of pipes recognized as Iro-
quoian in character is widespread
north of the Ohio Valley and Cana
da, that all pipes in that region \vere
made by the tribes of this stock.

The Iroquois overran the entire
territory north of the Ohio and east
of the Scioto. We know 7 that they
overwhelmed the Eries, Hurons, and
others, whose art was quite differ
ent.

78 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 483. (S. i-i.)

From ossuary in the Township of
Manvers, County of Durham, Ontario,
Canada.

Collection of J. G. Ogle D Olier,
Rochester, New York.

FIG. 484. (S. i-i.)

From ossuary in the Township of
Manvers, County of Durham, Ontario,
Canada.

Collection of J. G. Ogle D Olier,
Rochester, New York.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES

FIG. 485. (S. 2-3.) Beautiful effigy pipe of a frog found in
a grave at Waynesville, Ohio, overlooking the Miami River.
Secured by W. K. Moorehead, 1889. Now in the Ohio State
University Museum, Columbus.

As I have remarked, these Iroquoian pipes are easily distinguished
from other forms; they are not found in the ancient burial-places
of the Mississippi Valley. The beautiful mound and grave pipes
from the Ohio Valley, the middle South, and the far South, shown
in Figs. 474, 477 A, 485 to 491, 494, 496, and 499, are not only
of ancient lineage, but show no mark of steel
tools, and do not appear to have been in
spired by European civilization. On the
other hand, many of the pipes referred to do
appear to have been suggested by a know
ledge of European art. Some of the best
effigy pipes, the monitor or platform pipes,
were not made of stone, but of a fine grade
of fire-clay. There are also effigies in pipes of
terra-cotta. In answering a letter request
ing information, Professor W. C. Mills, un
der date of April 27, 1910, said concerning
the pipes in his collection: "Of the plat
form pipes, ten are fire-clay, of the effigy
pipes, fifteen are fire-clay, and of the tub-
ular pipes, twenty are fire-clay. The fire-
clay pipes were never burned, but were Ohi

FIG. 486. (S. 1-2.) Frog pipe.

8o THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

cut from original pieces of clay. Twenty of the miscellaneous pipes
are made of potter s clay."

The bird is much in evidence as a prehistoric sculpture. In fact,
there are more bird-pipes than any other life-form. This at once
suggests the famous 4&lt; Thunder Bird," so famous in Indian mytho
logy in America. Yet if it is true that these effigies are not totemic,

FIG. 487. (S. 2-3.) An interesting human effigy found
in northern Ohio, now in the collection of the Ohio
State University, Columbus.

as relating to tribes, but stand for "Thunder Birds," it is curious
that so many different kinds of birds should have been represented.
There are the hawk, eagle, crow, woodcock, duck, woodpecker, paro
quet, and others. Examine Fig. 474^4. It is one of the best sculp
tures presented in this chapter. Compare this beautiful carving with
the following bird-pipes, Figs. 470, 471, 473, 476, 477, 480, where
possible readers are advised to visit some public museum or consult
a library and study the illustrations of bird-pipes. The range is
considerable. Even in so brief space as is afforded in this chapter,
it will be observed that it was the intention of the ancient people
to represent not one kind of bird but many. The statement fre
quently made, that it is impossible in some instances to determine
just what species of bird was intended, is true. But we have no
difficulty in distinguishing between the duck, the eagle, the owl,
or the crow, although the different kinds of ducks, or of hawks,
might not be differentiated accurately.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES

FIG. 488. (S. i-i.) Effigy pipe of limestone. A remarkable effigy pipe found by Mr.
Moore in one of the mounds at Moundville, Alabama. This group of mounds has furnished
some remarkable specimens in stone and clay.

Air. West says of the so-called handled pipes: -

" In this class the author has placed a small number of very inter
esting pipes which are provided with an elongated base or handle,
by which they were held or supported ; and in most examples with
a short mouthpiece also. Some are without the latter feature, and
were probably furnished with a short stem of wood or bone. They
differ considerably as to general shape and manner of ornamenta
tion. A few have the bowls artistically carved to represent the head
of a human being, a fish, or an animal.

"A small number of similar pipes have been described from other
sections of the United States. Twenty-two examples have been

82 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 489. (S. 2-3.) These pipes were found together in a small mound, a short distance
south of St. Louis, Missouri. Collection of H. M. Braun, East St. Louis, Illinois.

found in Wisconsin, no two of which are of exactly the same pattern.
No theory of their authorship among the Wisconsin or other Indians
has as yet been advanced. Even though originally limited to one
tribe, so convenient a form of pipe is sure to have been copied by
individuals belonging to others.

"Authorities who have written on the subject, seem to regard this
type of pipe as modern. Some of the Wisconsin finds contain no
marks of metal tools, are unpolished, and have all indications of
being prehistoric, while others are new in appearance, finely polished
and show evidence of the use of metal tools in their manu
facture." 1

FIG. 490. (S. 2-3.) Human effigy pipe, from a grave in the
Willis Cemetery, Hopkinsville, Kentucky. Phillips Academy
collection.

i " The Aboriginal Pipes of Wisconsin," Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. iv, nos. 3 and 4,
125.

GROUND STONE --STONE PIPES

s ^ _

I 8 *

/ ^ So o

u, 2 ="

Si!

a c =

o i&gt; --

r, en ?*&gt;

fe bfl o ^

84 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 492. (S. 4-5.) Collection of W. C. Herriman, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada.

Figs. 492 and 493 present two views of a pipe of the ordinary
clay material. The bowl is behind the head, passing down the
region of the back. The unique feature of this pipe is that when
shaken it gives evidence of a hollow sound in the head with several
small, hard particles which distinctly rattle. These have never
been investigated and their nature is not known.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES 85

Fig. 480 is a remarkable carving in graphite slate. This was found
by me on the altar of the effigy mound, Hopewell Group, Ross
County, Ohio, during the course of explorations, August 1901-
March 1902. The pipe represents a woodcock resting on the back
of a grotesque fish. The bird is true to life, the fish is not. No pipe
found by Squier and Davis in the famous Mound City Group ex
ceeded this in its beautiful artistic lines and skill evinced in manu
facture. With this pipe were thousands of pearl beads, copper

FIG. 493. (S. 4-5.) Side view of Fig. 492.

FIG. 494. (S. about 2-7.) Collection of H. M. Whelpley, St. Louis, Mo. Found near
Muskogee, Ind. Ter. Color, terra-cotta; size, eight and one half inches high by five
and one half inches anterio-posterior, by four and one eighth inches wide; weight, five
pounds. The discoidal in the right hand measures one and three fourths by five eighths
inches. Each of the two sticks in the left hand are four and one eighth inches long. Ear
rings, one by three eighths inch; bead under chin, three fourths by three eighths inch.

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES

FIG. 495. (S. 1-6.) Collection of W. A. Holmes, Chicago, Illinois.

ear ornaments, obsidian blades, and other remarkable objects, all
of which are foreign to Ohio. The pipe, together with the other
objects, is exhibited in the Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago.

In Figs. 481 and 481 A, I present front and rear views of an
effigy pipe from Wisconsin, now in the Milwaukee Public Mu
seum. This is one of the finest examples of mound pipe found in

THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 496. (S. 1-2.) Collection of Leslie W. Hills, Fort Wayne, Indiana. The effigy to
the left is a remarkable and interesting pipe, of hard black stone, and was found in Ohio.

the North. An inspection of the two figures will acquaint readers
with the fact that the top and bottom of the pipe represent two
kinds of reptilia. Prof. S. A. Barrett, who kindly furnished this and
some other photographs for me, explains this peculiarity as follows:
"In sending you the information concerning specimens, there is
one point that I overlooked, and that is the difference between
the carapace and the plastron of the turtle pipe. It is an inter
esting fact that the carapace of this specimen is that of a terra
pin, while the plastron is carved after the fashion of the snapping
turtle."

GROUND STONE STONE PIPES 89

I have referred in a number of places to smoking as a ceremony.
In addition to being a rite, it was always practiced for medicinal
purposes. Not only did the Indians in ancient times inhale fumes
in order to alleviate distress, but the white people did likewise.
Mr. McGuire, in his work which I have previously quoted, makes
this perfectly clear and cites numerous instances as to the supposed

FIG. 497. (S. i -i.) Portrait pipe. Collection of G. A. West,
Milwaukee, Wisconsin. This figure was dug from a grave at
East Jacksonport, Door County, Wisconsin, over which was an
old pine stump 30 inches in diameter, by Mr. L. K. Erkskin, from
whom it was secured by Mr. W r . H. Elkey, for Mr. G. A. West.
This pipe is of compact flinty limestone and most skillfully
carved into a resemblance of the head and face of a frowning
Indian. Both bowl and stem excavations are conical in shape, and
were evidently made with stone drills.

curative property of tobacco. I quote one of his paragraphs l con
cerning the truly remarkable material gathered by Mr. Bragg:
" Bragg s collection of pipes, now in the British Museum, made
from all parts of the world, and his books relating to tobacco, the

1 Report of the United States National Museum, 1897, p. 445.

FIG. 498. (S. 1-2.) Portrait pipe. Described by G. A. West, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
This figure "is of dark sandstone, 10 inches long, with a portion of its bowl broken away.
This remarkable pipe was found many years ago near Fort Atkinson, Jefferson County,
Wisconsin, and is now in a private collection in the State of New Hampshire. It is a calu
met but not of the Siouan type. The writer is informed that this specimen is unpolished,
but has the appearance of great age, contains no metal tool-marks, and show r s much use."

FIG. 499. (S. i-i.J Collection of Professor \V. C. Mills, Columbus, Ohio.

92 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

former consisting of 13,000 specimens and the latter of 500 volumes,
was as rich as it was curious, and has probably never been equaled.
The medicinal and imaginary properties attaching to tobacco have
been marked among the American Indians to no greater extent
than in Europe. Rembert Dodoens in 1578 said the perfume of
dryed leaves, he sayd he layde upon quick coles taken in the mouth
through the pipe of a funnel or tunnel, helpeth such as are troubled
with shortness of winde and fetch their breath thicke and often. " l

In 1901 Professor W. C. Mills explored the Adena Mound near
Chillicothe for the Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society.
One of the skeletons, aside from having arrow-heads, knives, pearl
and bone beads and other relics, had near the left hand the beauti
ful effigy pipe shown in Fig. 499. I present front and side views of
this pipe, and quote from Professor Mills s Report as follows :

"This pipe is eight inches in length, and is composed of clay,
resembling the fire-clay found in Scioto County, which is further
south but in the same valley. The pipe is tubular in form, the hole
extending the entire length of the body ; the large opening is between
the feet, having a hole five eighths inch in diameter. Within an
inch of the top of the head it begins to narrow down to a very small
aperture one eighth inch in diameter. The mouthpiece formed a
part of the head-dress of the image. The front part of the pipe is of
a light gray in color while the back part is of a brick red. The speci
men is covered with a deposit of iron ore; this appears in small
blotches over the entire surface of the specimen, the one side of the
face and body being more densely covered with it than the other
parts of the pipe.

The effigy represents the human form in the nude state with the
exception of the covering around the loins ; this covering extends
round the body and is tied in the back; the ends of the covering
hang down and serve as ornaments. On the front of this covering
is a serpentine or scroll-like ornamentation. From the lobe of each
ear is hung an ear ornament which is quite large in proportion to
the ear, and resembles very much the button-shaped copper orna
ments which are so frequently found in the mounds of the Scioto
Valley."

1 E. A. Barber, The Antiquity of the Tobacco Pipe in Europe, quoting Rembert Dodoens
on the virtues of colefoot in the " historic of plantes," American Antiquarian, n, p. 6.

Fig. 500. (S. i-i.)

Frog pipe, from Tennessee, and rectangular pipe, from
Georgia. Both of fine sandstone. From the collection of
F. P. Graves, Doe Run, Saint Francois County, Missouri.

CHAPTER XXVII

GROUND STONE
MORTARS AND PESTLES

CLASSIFICATION of mortars and pestles.

Mortars.

(a) Oval or circular. (Figs. 501-02.)

(b) Angular or squared (metates). (Figs. 415-16.)

(a) Elongated, plain. (Fig. 517.)

(b) Elongated, ridged or ornamented. (Figs. 513-14.)

(d) With flat surfaces (mano stones). (Fig. 515.)

There grew in North America, at the time of its discovery by
Columbus, a profusion of seeds, nuts, and roots of various kinds,
developing according to climate from northern Canada to south
ern Arizona. Man found these a valuable addition to his food-sup
ply, and he made use of many of them that we of to-day should
consider unpalatable. He procured shell-fish of various kinds both
salt and fresh water; he knew the properties of many roots, bulbs,
barks, and other plants. With the exception of such molluscs as he
ate, and his fresh meat, the greater bulk of his food-supply was in
the form of kernels, or grains, or bulbs, or nuts, which must needs
be reduced to meal, or stripped of husks, or cracked and broken.
To convert the raw food into palatable flour, he used both wooden
and stone pestles in flat, oval, or round mortars, the form varying
in different parts of the country.

In 1895, the American Antiquarian Society published "The Food
of Certain American Indians and Their Method of Preparing It," by
Professor Lucien Carr. Mr. Carr was long Assistant Curator of the
Peabody Museum at Cambridge, and his research in to historic Indian
affairs is well known. I quote a few r paragraphs from Mr. Carr:

"Speaking in a general w^ay, the old chronicler w r as not far wrong
when he told us that the Indian lived on what he got by hunting,

9 6

THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

fishing, and cultivating the soil/ Unquestionably, he derived the
bulk of his food from these sources, though there were times, and
unfortunately they were somewhat frequent, when he was glad to fill
out his bill of fare with the fruits, nuts, and edible roots and grasses
with which a bountiful Nature supplied him. Dividing all these
different articles according to their nature and origin, and beginning

FIG. 501. (S. 1-8.) From the collection of Solon McCoy, Mountain Home, Idaho.

with those the production of which is believed to indicate racial
progress, we find that corn, beans, and pumpkins were cultivated
wherever, within the limits of the United States, they could be
grown to advantage. Of these corn was by far the most important;
and as it seems to have been the main dependence of all the tribes
that lived south of the St. Lawrence and east of the tier of states
that line the west bank of the Mississippi, and as the manner of
cultivating it and the different ways of cooking it were practically
the same everywhere and at all times, we shall confine our remarks
to it and to the Indians living within these limits, merely premising

MORTARS AND PESTLES

that much of what is said about it will apply to its sisters,
beans and squashes were lovingly termed by the Iroquois.

"And here, at the outset of our investigation, we are met by the
fact that modern research has failed to throw a positive light upon
the question of its origin. That it was indigenous to America is
generally believed, and so, also, the statement that it was first culti-

FIG. 502. (S. 1-3.) Ordinary mortar. Collection of Frank L. Grove, Delaware, Ohio.

vated at some point between the tropics is accepted. Beyond this
we have not been able to go; and without entering into a discussion
of the subject, it is probably safe to assume that this is as near the
truth as we can hope to get. However, be this as it may, there seems
to be no doubt that its domestication took place ages ago, for in no
other way is it thought possible to account for the vast extent of
country over which its use had spread, and for the number of vari
eties to which it had given rise. Take our own country, for example,
and when the whites first landed here, there were found growing,
within certain limited areas, a number of different kinds, distin-

98 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 503. (S. 1-4.) Pestles, Class " C." Collection of J. A. Rayner, Piqua, Ohio.

MORTARS AND PESTLES

guished one from another, by the length of time they took to ripen,
by the size of the ear, by the shape and hard
ness of the grain, and by the color, though this
is said to be accidental.

"In addition to these, which were known to
the whites as hominy corn, bread corn, and six-
weeks corn, there was still another sort, called
by the French ble fleuri, and by ourselves pop
corn, of which the Indians were very fond, and
which they served up to those of their guests
whom they wished to honor. With so many
kinds, and planting them at different times
during the spring and early summer, they not
only had successive crops, which they ate green
as long as the season lasted, but they also raised
enough for w r inter use, and, not unfrequently,
had some to spare to their needy neighbors,
white as well as red. Indeed, their pedlers made
long trips for the purpose of exchanging their
surplus corn for skins and anything else that
they needed ; and but for the supplies w r hich the
Pilgrim fathers, and \ve may add the settlers
at Jamestown and New Orleans, obtained
from the Indians willingly or through force/
it is probable, as a recent writer suggests, that
there would have been but few if any of their
descendants left to write their histories and
sing their praises.

The cultivation of corn in the United States
was widespread. De Soto, Coronado, and other
early explorers in their wanderings, as well as
our military expeditions of the French and In
dian War, the wars of the Revolution and
of 1812, found large corn-fields w r herever the
Indian population was thickest.

In addition to corn, which is placed first,
the Indians gathered wild rice in the North

and koonti and tuckahoe in the South. Of

, . . FIG. 504. (S. 1-5.) Collcc-

these roots, it is stated: It grew like a tion of W. A. Holmes, Chi-

flagge, in the marshes, and when made into ca g. Illinois.

ioo THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

bread had the taste of potatoes." There were also great stores
of dried meat and fish put up in every village, quantities of maple
sugar, squashes, beans, pumpkins, and an endless variety of roots
and nuts.

We now know that there are seventeen separate foods for which
civilization is indebted to the Indian.

What we should consider the simplest form of mortar is a question.
Of course, the mortar, rather than the pestle, is the essential thing.
Man must have something in which to grind or crush his food, and
it did not matter to him whether the receptacle was wood, stone, or

FIG. 504.4. (S. 1-4.) From the collection of B. H. Young, Louisville, Kentucky. Rare
forms of pestles from the Cumberland and Tennessee valleys.

leather so long as it served the purpose, and it was of no consequence
to him whether his pestle was a round stone, an oval, an elongated
pestle or bell-shaped, or a flat mano stone. What he wished to
accomplish, the reduction of grains or nuts or chunks of dried beef
to flour, was of primary importance, and the agencies employed to
obtain this result were secondary. Of course, he may have used
elaborately ornamented and artistically worked pestles and mortars

MORTARS AND PESTLES

101

FIG. 505. (S. 1-4.) Cast of a steatite bowl. Found near Lynn. Collec
tion of Salem Museum, Salem, Massachusetts.

102 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

in the preparation of sacred meal ; as to that I do not know. What
I am talking about now is the common form of mortar and pestle.

Wooden mortars, as well as wooden bowls, existed in many por
tions of the country. There are abundant historical references to
these, and readers are referred to the Bibliography in this instance
as in others. The natives smoothed the surface of a fallen tree- trunk,
or the top of a stump, and, by constant friction of either stone or
wooden pestle, soon wore out a mortar cavity. They also selected
glacial boulders, convenient points of bluffs, ledges, etc., in various
parts of the country, and worked out stationary mortars. These
have been found in at least a hundred places in the United States.
Aside from the stationary mortars, there were many small flat
stones, and some large stones of convenient size on which grinding
is evident for a considerable length of time, and as a result a de
pression varying from a few inches to a foot or more in depth occurs.

Paint stones are simply small mortars. Sometimes they are
highly polished and well worked out, but usually they are rude
and may be classed as small mortars, as they are receptacles for
grinding. Fig. 501, from the collection of Mr. Solon McCoy of
Mountain Home, Idaho, illustrates seven short pestles and seven
small mortars, size one eighth, such as are common in the South
west and not infrequent in most portions of the East. This illustra
tion may stand as typical for all such forms in the United States.
The pestles used in them were more properly rubbing-stones; the
end is slightly flattened, more often they are round at either end.
Great numbers of short oval pestles occur in the New England
States, and the South. Fig. 504, from Mr. Holmes s collection, illus
trates three stone pestles; the one to the left may have come from
any one of a dozen states, as the form is the same every where ; to
the right, the typical bell-shaped pestles of the Ohio Valley. In the
centre, the pestle is bell-shaped, short, and has been highly polished,
and there is a prominent depression in the centre.

Fig. 503, from the collection of Mr. J. A. Rayner, pictures fifteen
pestles; all save four of the bell-shaped variety. The one at the top,
the centre, is an ordinary cone, to the right of that, a pestle with
tw r o grinding surfaces, one at either end, which is rare. In the centre
are two long, slightly curved objects which may be pestles or rollers
used in preparing clay for the making of pottery. The variation
in the bell pestle is from an ordinary plain form to that having a
narrow top and an unusually broad, flat base. The pestles shown

MORTARS AND PESTLES

103

FIG. 506. (S. 1-4.) Soapstone dish. From the Peabody
Museum collection, Salem, Massachusetts.

at the right in Fig. 514 are highly specialized forms from the North
west. There are similar types in the Ohio Valley, as shown in Fig.
504^4, Colonel Young s collection. But as a rule the natives of the
Mississippi Valley paid little attention to artistic development of
domestic tools, such as pestles and mortars. Fig. 502 is the ordin
ary large stone mortar common in the eastern United States. It
ranges from a small paint-cup in which a muller no larger than one s
thumb was worked, to stationary mortars in glacial boulders, so
large that they cannot be moved. Fig. 507 presents three mortars
of lava, and some flat mortars of trap rock. These are from Mr. G. B.
Abbott s collection, Corning, California. The stones used on these
are flat, or oval water- worn stones and not finished, like mano stones
common to the Cliff-Dweller country.

FIG. 507. (S. 1-9.) From the collection of G. B. Abbott, Corning. California.

104 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

In the East and the South we have steatite or soapstone mortars,
cooking-pots, dishes, bowls, and sometimes dippers. Most of the
larger museums have examples of these and particularly in highly
finished stone dishes. Fig. 505 is a large, thin stone dish from the
Peabody Museum, Salem, which was found near Lynn. Fig. 508
presents four soapstone dishes, two of them dipper-like in form.

FIG. 508. (S. about 1-5.) Soapstone bowls. Collection of Peabody
Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

The three upper ones are finished and polished, while the lower speci
men has been pecked into shape but not polished.

The quarries from which these dishes are obtained are found in
New England, in the Potomac region, and in the South. Professor
Holmes made them the subject of study. It seems that the natives
worked around the mass they wished to remove and shaped it in
situ, cutting a deep trench entirely around it, and when the dish
had been brought into high relief, they cut away the narrow base
and removed it. Numbers of unfinished dishes in position in the
original ledge have been reported.

Widespread as was the use of steatite in the East for mortars and
dishes and of harder materials for mortars in which heavy grinding

MORTARS AND PESTLES

105

io6 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

was to be done, it is in the Southwest, California, and the Rocky
Mountains where more millstones are found than elsewhere in the
United States. The Southwestern metate (see Fig. 515) is well
known to students of archaeology. All the museums have on ex
hibition hundreds of these, and we have in our museum at Andover,
a hundred or more of them. They vary from small slabs, presenting
a flat surface, to deeply worn rectangular and square specimens,
some of which are two feet in breadth and will weigh a hundred
pounds. These were in common use about the pueblos and cliff-
houses. In our museum and elsewhere there are metates that have
seen service for so many years that they are worn entirely through.

On these metates a flat stone, known as a mano stone, was used,
taking the place of the Eastern roller or bell-pestle. It was pushed
back and forth with the hand. In the Southwest, California, and
Mexico some of the metates are highly ornamented, and have legs,
which raised the body of the stone several inches from the ground.
When I visited the Chaco Group, in 1897, I saw several hundred
metates scattered about on the surface near the ruins. In explora
tions near Phoenix, Arizona, in November, 1897, to June, 1898, I
collected more than ninety good metates. In Kelley Cavern, the
Ozark Mountains, which was explored by Dr. Charles Peabodyand
myself in May, 1908, we found thirty-seven stone mills in one cave
alone, and that cavern was no more than two hundred feet across
the front and about a hundred feet deep.

Mr. J. B. Lewis of Petaluma, California, now deceased, sent me
the photograph of a remarkable collection of California mortars.
After shipping generous quantities to various scientific institutions
in the East, Mr. Lewis still had several hundred in his possession.
He constructed an outdoor cabinet of plank and placed thereon
a portion of his collection. Fig. 511 illustrates a number of his speci
mens. It will be observed, by comparison with the figure of Mr.
Lewis who is standing at the right of his cabinet, that the largest
mortars at the bottom are not upright but are placed at an angle.
These mortars range from two feet in diameter to those about a
foot high. Many of these weigh as much as seventy-five or a hundred
pounds each. The smaller mortars are on the upper rows.

Mr. Lewis, during the last two years of his life, wrote me many
interesting letters regarding the character of the various stone
objects found in his region. He was a keen observer, and during his
fifty years of residence at Petaluma he became thoroughly familiar

MORTARS AND PESTLES

107

io8 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

* -A

cio*

FIG. 511. Collection of J. B. Lewis, Petaluma, California. Mr. Lewis, who stands at
the right, was fifty years in making this collection.

with the various prehistoric sites in that part of California. While
I make substantial quotations from these letters, I change his lan
guage slightly:

"On Sonoma Mountain, seven miles from Petaluma, is a depres
sion in the hills in which the winter rains are collected, forming
a large lake or lagoon of two hundred acres, called by the Indians
Lagoon La Jara, formerly covered with a tall growth of tules, the
home of geese and ducks and blackbirds in their season. Some forty
years since, it was drained and brought under cultivation. On
ploughing, stones were brought to light called ceremonial sinkers,
plumbs, etc. As time passes fewer are found, until now only three
or four a year."

Mr. Lewis, who lived within two miles of the lake, procured half

MORTARS AND PESTLES

of the objects thus discovered. Many of them
are shown in Fig. 383. Another collector has
secured four hundred. In the summer the lagoon
was dry or nearly so. There was neither inlet
nor outlet and no fish lived in its waters. There
fore the stones were not made use of as sinkers.

When I came here in the early fifties, there
used large numbers of Indians go by my ranch in
the fall, down to the creek to catch sturgeon and
dry them, and they always went back by the w r ay
of the lagoon and stayed a day or two and had
some kind of a pow-wow. After the lagoon was
drained, they never came back."
. Mr. Lewis, on arrival in California, heard that
a numerous tribe living near Petaluma was prac
tically exterminated by some contagious disease.
He believed that the Indians returning annually
to hold ceremonies at the lagoon belonged to this
tribe.

It is interesting to note that during the years
of Mr. Lewis s observations he found that the
mortars with straight sides and flat bottoms oc
curred near Sonoma Mountain, where boulders of

109

FIG. 513. (S. 1-4.)
Long effigy pestle.
Butler farm, north
west part of Turkey
j Hill, Ipswich. From
the collection of Pea-

FIG. 512. (S. i-io.) From the collection of H. K. Deisher, body Museum, Salem,

Kutztown, Pennsylvania. Massachusetts.

no THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 514. (S. 1-4.) From the collection of Beloit College, Beloit, Wisconsin.

MORTARS AND PESTLES

basalt are common. But in the sandy hills west of Petaluma pointed
or urn-shaped mortars, such as are shown on the top shelf of Fig.
511, are found in some numbers. It is clear, he states, that the vari
ous types of mortars were confined to certain regions. He knew of
only t\vo mortars found in Indian graves. In one instance, where a
mortar was buried with an Indian, the skull w r as pierced by a flint
point. Near Santa Rosa, twenty miles from his home, a large spring
was cleaned out, and in it were found numerous objects of stone.
Mr. Lewis states that he never found a. mortar and pestle placed
together. They were usually found separate. While the plummets
and so-called sinkers are found scattered throughout this region, yet
nine tenths of his collection came from the lagoon previously men
tioned. Not only has he found mortars upon the surface, but speci
mens have been dug up from a depth of twelve feet in the ground.
The cavities may be large or small, independent of size of mortar. Of

FIG. 515. (S. 1-6.) From the collection of W. A. Holmes,
Chicago, Illinois.

ii2 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

his entire collection of two hundred and fifty mortars he states that
seventy-five had holes in the bottom, seventy-five were more or less
broken, fifty were considered fair specimens, and about fifty were
perfect. The late Mr. Horatio N. Rust, an observer of much experi
ence in California archaeology, described an interesting cache of
stone bowls some years ago. 1 I quote his article : -

"Mr. H. W. Hunt, of San Fernando, California, has been tilling
for several years the site of an old Indian village, and in doing so has
unearthed fragments of not fewer than thirty Indian bowls, but no
whole specimen. A short time ago, while ploughing, he encountered
a stone, and in digging it out discovered a cache of twenty-one sand
stone bowls (see Fig. 510) carefully packed together in a space not
exceeding four or five feet. On Mr. Hunt s invitation I personally
examined the contents of this interesting cache, finding the bowls
quite symmetrical and all except one in perfect condition.

"These utensils measure about ten inches in greatest diameter,
and from seven to ten inches across the bottom ; they are about one
and one fourth inches in thickness at the rim. A shallow groove is
cut in the edge of the rim of each vessel, in which shell beads are
set in asphaltum. About midway in the inside of one of the bowls
a series of holes, about one fourth of an inch in depth and diameter,
is cut, and in each of these holes a shell bead is set in asphaltum.
These inset beads represent the only attempt at ornamentation.

"After carefully examining the field in which these vessels were
found I reached the conclusion that the thirty broken bowls indi
cated the former occupancy of the site by a village of consider
able size, and that they had been broken by an enemy rather than
through use. I was led also to the belief that the villagers had
been killed and many of their vessels destroyed, but that the preda
tory enemy had failed to find the cache of bowls, which had been
secreted by their owners in fear of such an attack.

This conclusion was reached in view of the experience gained
from the examination of many village-sites in California. On one
occasion, at a site south of San Jacinto Mountain, I discovered
twenty-five stone mortars, within the radius of a mile, all of which
had been broken by violence, evidently by an enemy for the pur
pose of depriving the villagers of an important means of preparing
food. Beside these mortars, I found a slab of green talc, about eight
by fifteen inches, and three slabs of sandstone of about the same

1 American Anthropologist, October- December, 1906, p. 686.

MORTARS AND PESTLES

ii 4 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FlG. 517. (S. about 1-6.) Found at Riverside, Rhode Island. Material: greenish black
slate. Collection of S. R. Turner, Riverside, Rhode Island.

width and length and one and one fourth inches in thickness. Frag
ments of similar sandstone slabs have been found near the same
site, but no pestles or other artifacts that had not been broken, a
circumstance that would seem to indicate that everything had been
either stolen or deliberately destroyed."

On the top shelf of Mr. Lewis s exhibit in Fig. 511 are pointed
mortars such as I have placed under classification " C." Usually
these are of volcanic rock, worked down light and rather thin.
They were pointed in order that they might be thrust into soft earth,
or swampy places where certain reeds and roots abounded, they
being held in position by the nature of the soil, w r hile the women
ground grain.

Fig. 517 is a long, beautifully polished, roller pestle, about tw r enty-
six inches in length and owned by Mr. S. R. Turner, Riverside,
Rhode Island, and Fig. 513 is a roller pestle with an effigy head
carved at one end. It is impossible to determine what this effigy
represents. This is from the Salem collection, was found near Ips
wich, and is about thirty inches in length.

FIG. 518. (S. 1-3.) Stone bowl from the collection of H. S.
Hurlbutt, Libertyville, Illinois.

MORTARS AND PESTLES 115

Doubtless there are not a few objects classed as mortars which
were food receptacles. I have included several in this chapter.
The conditions under which some of these more highly finished
bowls are found leads us to admit ignorance of their true meaning.

Fig. 518 is a delicate stone bowl from Illinois; Fig. 519 is a lime
stone bowl, shown one third size. This was found in the oblong
mound of the Hopewell Group in 1901, by our survey. Neither of
these specimens is to be classed as a mortar. Both are highly finished,

FIG. 519. (S. about 1-3.) Stone bowl of twelve or thirteen pounds weight. Cut
from solid limestone. It is somewhat like the type of bowls found on the Pacific
Coast, and nothing comparable to it has been discovered in our Ohio Valley mounds.

and the limestone bowl is an unusual specimen, nothing just like it
having been found in America. We cannot imagine that these were
made use of to contain ordinary food.

Mr. C. E. Brown writes of his region: -

"A small number of stone pestles have been found in Wisconsin,
and a few hollowed-out stones which appear to have been employed
as mortars. The Wisconsin savages employed wooden mortars for
crushing their corn and wild rice. These were hollows cut into the
side of logs or made of sections of logs hollowed out. Wooden pestles
were employed with these. At Lake Winnebago and elsewhere in
the Fox River Valley are large boulders upon the tops of which are

n6 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 519 A. (S. 1-7.) Two are of steatite, and one of limestone. They were found in
eastern Kentucky. From the collection of B. H. Young, Louisville, Kentucky.

shallow depressions in which the Indians of recent times are known
to have ground corn."

There are no special conclusions to be reached with reference to
mortars and pestles. An inspection, in any public museum, of col
lections from the Northwest Coast, Pacific Coast, and New England
will acquaint the readers with the fact that both the mortar and the
pestle were sometimes highly ornamented and worked into fanciful
forms. Fig. 516, a remarkable metate from Professor Barr s collec
tion, is an illustration of the point I have in mind. Metates of this
character are common in Mexico and Central America. Those who
have studied symbolism see evidences of phallic worship in many
of the pestles from California and the Northwest. The range in
all tools and receptacles needed in the Indian s domestic science,
is considerable, and covers the entire field from the rough pebble
to the effigy pestle, or the metate, almost table-like in character.

CHAPTER XXVIII

OBJECTS OF SHELL

ABORIGINAL man used shell and bone for a variety of purposes.
He frequently made of these substances the same forms that he did
in flint or stone, and if one were classifying under use, one would
include, under arrow-points, not only those of flint, but of bone and
shell as well. The same is true of the beads and of flat ornaments,
which may be of shell, or bone, quite as often as of stone. But since
we have begun to classify these objects according to material, it is
necessary to place under the above head many artifacts that would
naturally fall into another subdivision, were we to ignore materials.

FIG. 520. (S. i -i.) Shell hoe from the village-site at Fort Ancient, Ohio.

n8 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

Generally throughout North America shells were made use of for
ornamentation. Shell beads are as widely distributed as chipped
implements and more generally found throughout the United States
than pottery. In fact, in most cemeteries, mounds, and cliff-houses
where human burials occur, are strings of beads of various kinds

and sizes. I might enumerate
all the shells found in both
fresh water and salt, and made
use of by the natives in Amer
ica, but this is hardly required.
However, were I writing more
extendedly upon shell objects,
it would be necessary to give
all the names. These are pur
posely omitted.

The classification of shell
objects is as follows: -

1. For domestic service.

2. For ornamentation.
Under No. i there are the

following subdivisions : -

a. Shells used as hoes.
(Fig. 520.)

As club-heads. (None
shown.)

As cups and bowls.
(Fig. 522.)
Under No. 2 :

a. As small beads, round
or cylindrical. (Figs.
521, 521 4.)
Ear and nose orna-

FIG. 521. (S. 1-4.) Collection of B. Beasley,
Montgomery, Alabama.

ments, circular or oval.

(Fig. 523.)

c. Hairpins. (Fig. 525.)

d. Bracelets and finger-rings. (None shown.)

e. Engraved shell gorgets. (Figs. 530 to 535.)

f. Pendants and unknown forms. (Figs. 524, 529.)

g. Effigies. (Fig. 537.)

The larger shells of the Atlantic Coast between the mouth of the

OBJECTS OF SHELL

119

FIG. 521 A. (S. 1-2.) Beads from Trigg County, at mouth of Little River, where it
enters the Cumberland River, Kentucky. Bennett H. Young s collection.

120 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

Potomac and the Mississippi were employed by the Florida, South
Carolina, and Louisiana Indians as digging-tools, heads to clubs, etc.

Mr. Clarence B. Moore, during the course of his extensive explora
tions in Florida and Alabama, found great quantities of large shells
which had been used as domestic tools. It is well known that the
shell mounds of Florida equal in size many mounds of earth or stone,
farther north.

In the North, the fresh- water unio shells were made general use
of as hoes, such as is shown in Fig. 520, which was found at Fort
Ancient, Ohio, on the village-site along the banks of the Miami

FIG. 522. (S. 1-4.) Large shells, Hopewell Mounds, Ohio.

River. It was much easier to perforate these shells and use them
as hoes than to work out flint or wooden hoes. Persons who explore
ancient sites find them in the ash-pits. The edges are always bat
tered, or worn smooth, proving that they were of importance as
agricultural implements.

Short, heavy shells were perforated and fastened to clubs for
weapons and digging-tools. Moore describes and illustrates many
of these. 1

1 "Antiquities of the Florida West Coast," Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences,
Philadelphia, 1900.

OBJECTS OF SHELL

121

FIG. 523. (S. i-i .) The typical shell nose and ear ornaments are shown in
this illustration. These six were found by W. C. Mills on the Baum Village-
Site, Ross County, Ohio.

Bits of shell may have been set in handles, for use as "swords,"
after the manner of South Sea natives.

However, while shells were useful for other purposes, yet it was
for ornamentation that most of them were used.

Fig. 521, from the collection of Mr. B. Beasley, Montgomery, Ala
bama, is an illustration of small disc beads in the centre, larger beads
about the margin and the string of rude and irregular shell beads
enclosing the rectangular exhibit referred to. This is about one-
fourth size. Shell beads range in size from minute ones as small as
those on the black background in the centre of the picture, to others
three inches in diameter. Mr. Clarence B. Moore found shell beads
as large as walnuts in his Florida and Alabama explorations.

Fig. 521 A shows a number of various shell beads, together with
a few stone beads from mounds and graves at the mouth of Little
River, Kentucky.

Large numbers of pearl beads, have been found in the altar
mounds of the Scioto Valley, Ohio, and in the South. De Soto s nar
rative states that the Indians, in 1540-42, possessed many bushels
of these pearls. Some were of beautiful form and high lustre. All

122 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

of these would have been very valuable, but for the fact that the
natives drilled a hole through each one, thus, from our point of view,
ruining them.

It has been estimated that the pearl beads found in the altars of
the Hopewell Group, when new and undrilled, were worth upwards
of a million dollars.

Practically all shell ornaments were made from the larger unio
shells and also from the busycon and pyrula shells of Florida and the
Carolinas. Fig. 522 presents one of these shells as yet uncut which
was found in a mound at the Hopewell Group and another which
has been cut down into the form of a large dipper or drinking- vessel.

The ornamentation on large shell gorgets is complicated and char
acteristic. I am not sufficiently familiar with California shell gorgets

f 9?9

Fir.. 524. (S. varying.) Shell ornaments from California. Peabody Museum collection,

Cambridge, Massachusetts.

OBJECTS OF SHELL

123

to state whether they are ever engraved. Fig. 529, from Professor
Barr s collection, presents as highly developed gorgets as I have
seen from the Pacific Coast. It is in the mounds and stone graves
of the Cumberland and Tennessee valleys that the art in engraving
or decorating gorgets seems to have reached its height. In Figs.
530, 531, 532, 533, 534, and 535 are presented beautiful specimens

FlG. 525. (S. 3-7.) This figure illustrates some of the shell hairpins, rather rare in Ohio,
but frequently found in the South. These are from the collection of Mr. John T. Reeder,
Houghton, Michigan, and were found in Alabama and Tennessee. It would be impossible
to drill with these, and by common consent they are called hairpins.

124 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 526. (S. 1-2.) An engraved shell gorget found in the
glacial kame burials in northern Ohio. This is shown half-
size and is a remarkable specimen. The material is from a
large fresh-water unio.

from the collections of Mr. John T. Reeder, Colonel Young, and the
Smithsonian Institution.

Professor William H. Holmes of the Smithsonian Institution has
studied shell objects more than any one else in this country. I quote
from his description of Fig. 534 : l

"Among the many interesting relics obtained from mounds and
burial-places in the Mississippi Valley are the engraved shell gorgets,

FIG. 527. (1-2.) Two small shell ornaments from the
collection of John T. Reeder, Houghton, Michigan.
These were found in a mound on Long Island, Ten
nessee. The one to the right is especially interesting
in that the body of the shell is cut out, forming the
bars of the cross. Such gorgets are exceedingly rare.

1 " Shell Ornaments from Kentucky and Mexico," Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec
tions (quarterly issue), vol. XLV, p. 97. Published Dec. 9, 1903.

OBJECTS OF SHELL

125

FIG. 528. (S. 1-2.) Four flat pendants found in Pilot Mound, Manitoba, by Henry Mont
gomery. Two copper beads and one shell bead, Pilot Mound, Manitoba. Two bone whis
tles, respectively nine and ten inches long, from mound near Sourisford, Manitoba.

a number of which are now preserved in our museums. The most
recent addition to this class of objects was obtained by the National
Museum from Mr. C. A. Nelson of Eddyville, Lyon County, Ken
tucky, and comes from a burial-place encountered in opening a
stone-quarry near Eddyville. It is a symmetric saucer-shaped gorget,
Fig. 534, five inches in diameter and made apparently from the
expanded lip of a conch shell (Busy con perversum). It is unusually
well preserved, both faces retaining something of the original high
polish of the ornament. Two perforations placed near the margin
served as a means of suspension. The back or convex side is quite
plain, while the face is occupied by the engraving of a human figure
which extends entirely across the disc. It will be seen by reference
to the illustration that this figure is practically identical in many
respects with others already published. 1 It is executed in firmly
incised lines and is partially inclosed by a border of nine concentric
lines. The position of the figure is that of a discus- thro w r er. The
right hand holds a discoidal object, the arm being thrown back as
if in the act of casting the disc. The left hand extends outward to

1 Holmes, in Second Annual Report, Bureau of Ethnology, pi. LXXIII.

126 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 529. (S. 1-3.) James A. Barr collection, Stockton, California.

the margin of the shell and firmly grasps a wand-like object having
plumes attached at the upper end, the lower end being peculiarly
marked, and bent inward across the border lines. The face is turned
to the left; the right knee is bent and rests on the ground, while the
left foot is set forward as it would be in the act of casting the disc.
The features are boldly outlined; the eye is diamond-shaped, as is
usual in the delineations of this character in the mound region. A
crest or crown representing the hair surmounts the head ; the lower
lobe of the ear contains a disc from which falls a long pendant orna
ment, and three lines representing paint or tattoo marks extend
across the cheek from the ear to the mouth. A bead necklace hangs

OBJECTS OF SHELL 127

FIG. 530. (S. 2-3.) Collection of J. T. Reeder, Houghton, Michigan.

down over the chest and the legs and arms have encircling orna
ments. The lower part of the body is covered with an apron-like
garment attached to the waistband, and over this hangs what ap
pears to be a pouch with pendant ornaments. The moccasins are of
the usual Indian type and are well delineated. A study of this figure
strongly suggests the idea that it must represent a disc-thrower
engaged, possibly, in playing the well-known game of chunky."

Regarding Fig. 535 of Colonel Young s collection, Professor Holmes
writes me, under date of March 28, 1910, as follows:

The shell gorget from Lincoln County, Kentucky, is exception
ally large, being six inches in diameter. The design is engraved on
the concave surface and represents a double-headed eagle treated
in a very conventional manner. The heads are well drawn, but the
bodies are simplified so that two legs only with characteristic talons
are shown. The tail is single. The work corresponds in style to
similar delineations on clay and other materials throughout a large
part of the Gulf States, as shown fully in the works of Mr. Clarence
B. Moore. It is not possible to say whether or not the duplication
of the heads had any significance, or whether it is the result simply of
the common practice in primitive art of employing modified natural
forms to accommodate the spaces to be embellished. That the eagle,
however, had some special significance with the peoples concerned,
may be taken for granted."

128 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 531. (8.2-3.)

Collection of J. T. Reeder, Houghton, Michi
gan. The upper figure is from a mound on Long
Island, Tennessee River, Jackson County, Ala
bama. The lower figure is from a mound at
the mouth of Chickamauga Creek, Hamilton
County, Tennessee.

FIG. 532. (S. 2-3.)

Collection of J. T. Reeder, Houghton, Michi
gan. The upper figure is from a mound at Citico
Furnace, Chattanooga, Tennessee. The lower
figure is from a mound at Long Island, near
Bridgeport, Jackson County, Alabama.

OBJECTS OF SHELL

129

F IG - 533- (S. 1-3.) Shell gorgets from Kentucky. Bennett H. Young s collection.

130 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 534. (S. 2-3.) Shell gorget from Lyon County, Kentucky.

Museum collection.

United States National

533 presents six beautiful engraved gorgets from Colonel
Young s collection, who has in his exhibit as many engraved shells
as any other collector in this country. For many years he has inter
ested himself in the archaeology of Kentucky and has preserved

OBJECTS OF SHELL

: I .

F IC: - 535- ($ 2-3.) Collection of Bennett H. Young, Louisville, Kentucky.

thousands of specimens. No. 3 in this plate is shown in a larger
form in Fig. 535. Xo. 4 is one of the rare gorgets with the design
of the cross worked out by cutting entirely through the shell. No.
6 is practically the same as the right-hand specimen in Fig. 530,
only that it is worked in higher relief. The exact meaning of these
carvings is unknown at the present time.

The natives living in the great pueblos of the Salado Valley,

132 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 536. (S. i -i.) Shell frog, two shell effigies, onyx bead, and effigy-
fish (jade?). From the large ruin near Mesa, Arizona.

southern Arizona, and in fact throughout that entire region, made
use of a great many shells found along the shores of the Gulf of
California. Not only did they make ordinary beads, after the man
ner of the Northern Indians, but they also made finger-rings and
bracelets. These have been so frequently illustrated, I have pur
posely left them out. They worked all manner of effigies out of
shell, as is shown in Figs. 536-37, from the collection at Andover.
These specimens were obtained by me while exploring in 1897 and
1898 for Mr. R. S. Peabody, founder of the Department at Andover.

OBJECTS OF SHP:LL

133

There are also shell frogs inlaid with turquoise real mosaic
work. Dr. Fewkes has illustrated some effigies of this nature, in his
reports, and Dr. Pepper found numbers of them at the great Chaco
Group of ruins, northern New Mexico. When the first shell frogs
were discovered by the late Frank Hamilton Gushing, some of the
archaeologists went so far as to say that Gushing had made these,

FIG. 537. (S. 1-2 to 1-3.) Shell objects from Arizona.

but now so many of them have been found that Cushing s original
contentions are verified.

It is surprising, the skill of prehistoric man in carving. When
Squier and Davis made their exploration of the mounds of the
Mississippi Valley, they found many highly carved and ornamented
pipes. Years afterwards, observers who were unjustly skeptical
endeavored to prove that these were made with rat- tail files or
were the work of white traders. Since the time of Squier and Davis,
even more remarkable carvings, work in copper, intricate designs
on shell, and various tablets have been unearthed, in numbers, and
by men against whom no charge could be made.

It will be seen by an inspection of the few shell objects that I have
illustrated that, notwithstanding the lack of iron tools, aboriginal
man in America was no mean artist.

CHAPTER XXIX

OBJECTS OF BONE

BONE objects served practical purposes more than they did
ornamental uses. Of course some bones were worked into ornaments,
but more of them were in use as utility tools than otherwise. The
classification of bone tools is a subject to which one must give no
little thought, for the material ranges from ordinary beads to highly
decorated and grooved cylinders, or tubes. Therefore, I am not
fully satisfied with the classification I herewith present, and hope
at a future date to improve upon it.

1 . Utility and domestic purposes.

(a) Bone awls. (Figs. 538-39-)

(b) Harpoons. (Figs. 541-42.)

(d) Bone fish-hooks. (Figs. 546-48.)

(e) Tool-handles. (Figs. 549-50.)

(f) Bone scrapers and celts. (Fig. 551.)

(g) Arrow-shaft reducers. (Fig. 554.)
(h) Bone chipping- tools. (Fig. 41.)

2. Bone objects for decorative purposes.

(a) Bone beads. (Fig. 546.)

(b) Bone pendants. (Fig. 556.)

(d) Tracings on bone. (Figs. 564-65.)

(e) Bone effigies. (Figs. 557, 567.)

Bone objects in the United States were in widespread use, and they
served many purposes. In the Mississippi Valley more of them were
worked into beads and awls than into anything else, but on the
Great Plains they were made use of for many purposes. The tips
of antlers were sharpened and fastened on arrows. In the Mandan
country, North Dakota, and elsewhere in the West where stone was
scarce, the bones of the buffalo served as clubs, the shoulder blades
as digging-tools, and the ribs were polished and ground to an edge
and used as knives and scraping- tools. The teeth of carnivorous
animals were mounted as ornaments, and long slender bones of the

OBJECTS OF BONE

135

FIG. 538. (S. i-i.) Typical bone awls from the collection of S. D. Mitchell,

Ripon, Wisconsin.

136 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

smaller animals were cut into beads. Bone and horn spoons were
doubtless common in all parts of the United States.

A larger percentage of bone awls have been recovered from village-
sites than of other objects in bone, excepting beads. The ash-pits
of village-sites preserved practically everything encompassed by
them because of the preservative quality of ashes. Therefore, I have
always believed that the proportion of bone awls to other things is
no criterion as to the use of bone among the aborigines. In the caves
of the Ozarks, during three seasons of exploration, \ve recovered
upwards of a hundred bone awls. More than fifty were taken from
the ashes of Kelley Cavern alone. It must be remembered that these
caves, as is also true of the village-sites of central United States and
the South, mark the residence place of natives where, perhaps,

FIG. 539. (S. 2-3.) Blunt-pointed awls
found with burials. Baum Village-Site,
Ohio. William C. Mills s collection.

FIG. 540. (S. about 3-4.) To the left,
bone awls made from the tarsometa-
tarsus of the wild turkey. To the right,
bone needles. All from the Harness
Mound, Scioto Valley, Ohio.

OBJECTS OF BONE 137

women predominated. Assuming that because of wars there were
usually more women than men, and I think that the early Amer
ican history will bear out this statement, the domestic arts were
in excess of the other arts; and even if the persons engaged in
domestic science were in the minority there would naturally be more
cooking, garment-making, weaving, and general domestic science in
vogue in a village or a cave or a cliff-dwelling than elsewhere. It is
not surprising, therefore, that awls and hammer-stones, pestles and
mortars, rough axes and hoes should predominate in such places.
An unknown number of bone effigies and bone tools that must have
been made and used by the ancient people have disappeared, because
as in the case of textile fabrics they were not preserved unless buried
in ashes.

Aboriginal man was very saving. When he killed a deer or a bear
he not only made use of the meat and the hide^but also of the bones
and sinews. The proof of such economy lies in any large village-site,
where one finds in the ashes bones of practically every bird, ani
mal, and fish formerly in the neighborhood. And these bones have
been broken, or cut, or sawed. Some of them indicate the beginning
of workmanship, many of them are broken to extract the marrow,
and others are perfect. The exhibit is just such as one would expect
from the camp-site of savages. After the feast was over and the
bones cast out, in the ensuing days, when these bones had become
more or less dry, the man, the woman, or perhaps the boy, gathered
them up and worked them into the forms presented in this chapter.

The use of bones for harpoons was widespread. In fact no sub
stance is more convenient. The skeletal remains of numerous ani
mals, birds, and fish furnished the Indians with bones of various
sizes and shapes, and it is quite likely that such bones as could be
made use of were stored away, and that the aborigines selected the
bone suited to their purpose and went to work on it to manufacture
the harpoon, or the awl, or the ornament. Harpoons seem to have
been more in use in the North than in the South, and more are found
in the St. Lawrence basin, Canada, and northern New England, and
New 7 York State, than elsewhere in the United States. The same is
true of the Eskimo country, where bone harpoon-points are very
common. Illustrations 538, 541, 542, present four different bone
harpoons.

It is not difficult to explain the preponderance of harpoons in the
North and the scarcity of them in the South. They are essentially

Ki. 541. (S. 2-3.) Bone harpoon. P. D. \Yin-
hip s collection, Park Rapids, Minnesota.

FIG. 542. (S. 1-2.) (See Fig. 543
for description.)

Description of Figs. 542 and 543.

Objects of antler, bone, shell, and
copper from North Dakota mounds:

a. Deer antler tines, showing per
forations and notches.

b. Bone anklet, somewhat broken,
but showing entire length in front.

c. Carved tine of a deer s antler.

d. Bead made from the columella of
a marine shell.

e. Pearly shell buttons or ornaments,
perforated or notched ; found with the
anklet shown in b.

f. Flat piece of copper coiled into
a bead.

g. Small marine shells perforated
by grinding.

h. Pearly shell rings, probably a por
tion of a necklace.

i. Bone fishing-spear.

From Henry Montgomery s collec
tion, Toronto, Canada.

FIG. 543. (

140 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 544. (S. 1-3.) Elk-horn spoons, from Humboldt County, California.
H. K. Deisher s collection.

a cold-climate implement. In the St. Lawrence region, where they
abound, nets and traps cannot be used save during summer and
fall. The winter sets in early, and the spring is late. While fish
were harpooned when on the spawning-beds, yet most of the har
pooning was done in the winter. Even to this late date the Ojibwa
Indians spear great quantities of fish in the winter season. Pickerel,
pike, muscalonge are attracted by a moving bait. The Indian cuts
a hole through the ice, and erects a small structure to shield himself
from the wind. An effigy of a fish made of wood or bone, or in these
modern times of tin, is dangled about four or five feet beneath the
ice. Large fish approach this decoy, and as they are more sluggish
in their movements in the winter, the Indian has no difficulty in
driving the spear into such one as he wishes, before it is able to
draw r out of range. I suppose that the method did not vary in

OBJECTS OF BONE

141

ancient times. Naturally, where possible, the Indians preferred to
set nets or build fish-weirs. But prac
tically all the nets and weirs of
ancient times have long since disap
peared.

Fig. 541 illustrates a large, strong
harpoon of bone. This spear has sev
eral prominent barbs. The musca-
longe and sturgeon of the far North
were large, strong fish and required a
heavy spear to hold them. Whether
the Indians of the Lake Superior re
gion in ancient times made use of
the spear with a detachable point,
to which was attached a cord and
float, I am unable to state. Possi
bly they made use of devices of that
sort.

In the East and the North the
harder and heavier bones, such as
the horns of elk, deer, and moose,
were made use of as gouges, celts,
and scrapers. Numbers of these have
been found at Madisonville cemetery,
in the Little Miami Valley, ten miles
north of Cincinnati, and also in the
Iroquois sites along the Mohawk
River in western New York. Mr.
David Boyle, Curator of the Provin
cial Museum, Toronto, presents de
scriptions of a number of horn im
plements in his publications. 1

Bones were made use of as
spoons, and ladles. Numerous ex
amples of these are not wanting
in the museums. The longer, slen
der bones were ground and pol-

1 Notes on Primitive Man in Ontario. Report
of the Minister of Education for Ontario. To
ronto, 1895, pp. 73-81.

FIG. 545. (S. 3-4.) This is a long spoon,
badly decayed, but sufficiently preserved
for us to determine its character. It is
about six inches in length. It was found
under an old building in Salem, Massa
chusetts, and is in the Pea body Mu
seum. Very few bone or horn spoons,
ladles, and dishes of the Indians remain,
and yet we know that a great many were
made and used by primitive man in the
United States.

142 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 546. (S. 2-3.) Beads, arrow-points, and bone fish-hooks, from the Mandan Village-
Site, North Dakota.

ished and pointed, and may have served as hairpins and cloak-
fasteners. A splendid example of what we have considered bone
hairpins was taken from the ashes in Kelley Cavern, Arkansas.
This bone was found at a depth of five feet, and is nine inches long.
The slender bones of turkeys and geese were often made into
whistles, the medicine-men used them, and bone tubes were fre
quently employed by shamans in drawing the evil spirit from the
bodies of the sick. Small digits were worked into necklaces. Special
bones of certain animals, it is supposed, were the property of the
medicine-men and were used in their incantations. The skull of
the buffalo played an important part in the mythology except
among Plains tribes. I shall not treat of that phase of the subject
in this volume, but refer readers to the list of titles in the Biblio
graphy, under Buffalo; which will be found to contain full descrip
tions of the ceremonies connected with the buffalo. In another part
of this work (Volume i, pages 208-09) I refer to the importance of
the buffalo to Indians through an extent of territory fifteen hun
dred by one thousand miles.

OBJECTS OF BONE 143

FIG. 547. (S. 2-3.) Stages of fish-hook manufacture. Gartner
Mound, Ohio.

ilrjrj

FIG. 548. (S. i -i.) Typical fish-hooks found in the Baum Village-Site, Ohio.

144 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 549. (S. about 1-3.) Andover collection. The long bones of large animals were
cut or sawed into proper lengths, the openings in the ends enlarged and flint knives in
serted. This figure presents eight such tool-handles. The two at the top were found in a
gravel-pit in central Ohio, together with human skeletons. Flint knives lay at the end of
each of these two bones. The decayed bone shown in the lower part of the picture was
also found in a gravel burial and a slender flint knife rested against it. The position of
the knives and the bones leaves me to conclude that these bones were knife-handles.

OBJECTS OF BONE

145

FIG. 550. (S. 1-3.) Bone tool-handles from the villages along the Upper Missouri River.

Andover collection.

146 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 551. (S. 1-3.) A series of bone celts from the Mandan Site, North Dakota.

OBJECTS OF BONE

FlG. 552. (S. 1-2.) Bone objects from Mandan Sites. Portions of head-dresses.

(See page 154.)

148 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

Fig. 546 is interesting in that it shows not only bone beads to
the left, but also three bone arrow-points (top row in the centre)
and fish-hooks in process of manufacture. Professor William C.
Mills published a valuable paper on the manufacture of fish-hooks. 1

FlG. 552^4. (S. 1-3.) How the Mandans made bracelets and headdresses.
(See pages 154, 155.)

Professor Mills found in the ash-beds of the Baum Village-Site
bones which had been cut down until a narrow rim on both sides
remained. I show Professor Mills s finds in Figs. 547-48.

ProfessorMills s finds of unfinished as well as completed fish-hooks
enabled his museum to secure the best series of such objects in the
United States.

Having split the bones and ground them down until they were
thin, the Indians would cut through the objects near either end,

1 Report for the year 1906, of the Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society.

OBJECTS OF BONE 149

thus producing from a split bone two fish-hooks. Or, the entire
bone yielded four fish-hooks. One side is cut long, the other short,
thus forming the shank and bar. In Fig. 546 the entire process is
shown. The split bone, to the right, the broken bone above the
perfect fish-hook. To complete fish-hooks it was necessary to round

FIG. 553. (S. 1-2.) Mandan bone ornaments.

the base, sharpen the point, cut out a little more space between the
shank and the point, and notch the shank in order that the line
might be attached.

Mandan Bone Implements

Something over twenty years ago, when I was living in Ohio, I
received a communication from Mr. E. R. Steinbrueck of Mandan,

150 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

North Dakota. He wished to begin the study of American archae
ology, to devote special attention to the ancient village-site of the
Mandan Indians, made famous by George Catlin s paintings and
descriptions. I wrote to Mr. Steinbrueck a number of letters ad
vising him. During the ensuing years, Mr. Steinbrueck spent many
seasons in the exploration of the Mandan and other sites. His col-

FIG. 554. (S. 1-3.) Mandan bone objects. This figure repre
sents some perforated bones from Mandan sites. Many similar
to these have been found at Madisonville. The holes are
polished on the edges, and aside from the theory that they
were used to straighten arrow-shafts, no one seems to know
the exact purpose of them. A few are shown in Fig. 555. Pea-
body Museum collection, from Madisonville, Ohio.

lection of bone and stone implements, amounted to about 8000
specimens.

Mr. Steinbrueck wished to have his collection preserved in a
fire-proof building, and as it was through me he began collecting,
he wished Phillips Academy to purchase his exhibit. Through the
kindness of Professor Edward H. Williams, Jr., of Woodstock, Ver
mont, this disposition of the collection was brought about, and
the collection is to-day on exhibition in our museum. I call par
ticular attention to this Mandan exhibit, for the reason that it is,
so far as I am aware, the best and largest collection of bone imple
ments exhumed from one site, in America.

Suitable stone seems to have been scarce in the Mandan country,
and the natives made use of the shoulder blades, ribs, and other
heavy bones of buffalo, elk, and deer for various purposes, and

OBJECTS OF BONE 151

these strong bones served them quite as well as would stone. An
inspection of the illustrations of various Mandan objects will ac
quaint readers with the wealth of material secured by Mr. Stein-
brueck.

I call particular attention to Figs. 550 to 555. In Fig. 550 are
shown heavy bone handles in which were inserted small stone celts
employed as scraping- and cutting-tools. This type was common
on the Plains and has been described by Professor Mason and
others. The handle is so strong that it would last almost a life-

FIG. 555. (S. 1-5.) This presents a bone hairpin,
a fish-hook, a flute and harpoon, two bone celts, a
perforated antler of an elk, and a long bone par
tially cut into bits, all of which were found in the
graves at Madison ville, Ohio. Peabody Museum
collection, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

time, and the Indian women needed but to sharpen the inserted celt,
rather than to make a new handle.

The figure of the bone celts (551) shows that nearly all of them
were hollowed after the manner of Eastern stone gouges. The
second specimen from the top is highly polished on the edge and
there are eight places where notches have been worn into the bone.
Similar wearing is noticed on the lower specimens.

The Mandans raised much corn, beans, and squashes, and the
large shoulder blades of the buffalo and elk were made use of by

152 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 556. (S. 1-2.) Mandan bone ornaments.

these Indians as spades and hoes. There are more than one hun
dred of them in our collection.

Mr. Steinbrueck, at my request, wrote me at considerable length
and sent me several books of field-notes. Particularly interesting
are his descriptions of objects shown in Figs. 552, 552/1, and 553.
I quote from his letter: -

11 After a number of years of continuous researches in the an
cient Indian village-sites on or about the Heart River and along

OBJECTS OF BONE 153

the Missouri River, I have gradually learned to read the pur
pose, the use, and also, in some instances, the manufacture of
certain horn and bone implements and ornaments of the Mandan
Indians."

It would appear that the late J. V. Brower and Rev. G. L. Wilson
and Mr. Steinbrueck made explorations in common during several
seasons.

". . . On our sociable excursions, we used to find three-cornered
pieces of elk-horn (Fig. 552) which showed considerable work.

FIG. 557. (S. 1-2.) Bone ornaments and effigies. Three of these may represent goose
heads. The bone to the right is ridged, and on the elevation are notches.

They were long and pointed, had a round base, showed the incision
of a sharp instrument along the edges, were scraped at both sides;
in short, seemed to be shaped for some purpose, which we could
not guess. Probably they were intended for some kind of an awl, or
some other object of use or ornament. It was strange, though, that
we found such quantities of them and all in the same state of more
or less finish, and still we never found an implement of a shape
similar to these peculiar triangular pieces of horn. We called them
unfinished implements of horn, purpose unknown."

After Mr. Brower returned East, and Rev. Mr. Wilson moved
away from Mandan, Mr. Steinbrueck continued investigations,

154 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 558. (S. 3-4.) Teeth of the opossum and raccoon. Harness Mound, Ohio.

and after several years had passed, came to the conclusion that
the triangular pieces were discarded objects, obtained during the
process of manufacture of other forms. Mr. Steinbrueck has
drawn a series of outlines conveying his ideas as to the manufac
ture of these objects, which I reproduce in Fig. 552 A. Reference
to the letters in Fig. 552 A will make clear Mr. Steinbrueck s con
tentions.

"The part of the elk-horn for the bracelets was chosen just above
the first prong (a). The horn was scraped all around to a smooth
surface. Next, incisions were made with a flint knife, parallel to
each other, up and down the horn, to the soft inside of the horn.
Thus long narrow strips (b) were formed, which were easily (c)
loosened from the stem. Next, the inside was smoothed down and

FIG. 559. (S. 2-3.) To the
left in Fig. 559 is an arrow-
point made of deer-horn, with
a perforation for attachment
to the shaft. The other two
are pendants made of ocean
shell. These are from the
Baum Village-Site, Ohio.

FIG. 560. (S. 1-3.)

Shell crescent. Gartner Mound, Ohio. These
three figures are from the collection of W. C. Mills.

OBJECTS OF BONE

155

the edges rounded off. Then, on the inside generally, not always,
a groove was cut for the easier bending (a). The measure of the arm
or wrist was taken and a hole bored at each end according to size
of arm or wrist, and above the holes the bracelet was cut (e). We
found an abundance of those short pieces (/). Then finally, there
remained nothing to be done but soak the straight bracelet piece,
maybe in hot bear-grease, and bend it. Most of the bracelets (g)
are made in that shape and manner. There are also thinner, nar-

FIG. 561. (S. 2-3.) Bear-tusks in which pearl beads were inserted as ornaments. These
are cut and polished, the bases being cut squarely off or diagonally, for what purpose is
unknown. These specimens were found in various mounds, Ross County, Ohio, as were
several other objects illustrated in this chapter.

rower ones, without a groove and ornamented at the ends or in
cised (i-i), maybe for the purpose of tying together. One of the
necklaces I found, and which is among the specimens at Phillips
Academy, represents a snake, one end showing the head, the other
end the tail. Perfect horn bracelets are very scarce, owing to their
fragility. The first I found was broken in many pieces. I gave it
to Mr. Brower, who was much exalted over it, saying that that
was the first complete bracelet he ever saw; and although broken,
it is now restored. It is erroneous and was a mistake to state that
bracelets were made from ribs of small animals. A test will prove
the truth of my statement, that they all are made from horn and
particularly from the elk-horn.

The manufacture of headgear from the buffalo, or the elk-horn,

156 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

was brought about in the same manner. The buffalo-horn or the
elk-horn was incised, after shaving smooth, from top to bottom, or
vice versa, one incision opposite the other, thus forming two exact
counterparts. Then they were cut or ornamented to fit the head

FIG. 562. (S. i -i.) Dug up by W. C. Mills from Ohio mounds,
as were the specimens shown in Figs. 558 to 565.

and the taste of the wearer. The pieces were scraped thin and
smooth from both sides, and then polished."

I shall conclude the chapter on bone objects with some remarks
from Mr. Charles E. Brown, concerning the distribution of bone
implements in the Wisconsin-Michigan region:

The largest local collection of bone implements is that of Mr.
5. D. Mitchell of Green Lake. It includes harpoon-heads, awls,
tubes, and other articles obtained from a so-called sacred spring
into which it is thought that these and other objects w*ere cast by

OBJECTS OF BONE

157

FIG. 563. (S. I -i.) Cut bear-tusks, and tusks in which pearl beads
are inserted. From Ohio mounds.

early savages, probably for the purpose of propitiating some evil
spirit supposed to dwell therein.

" Bone implements and ornaments of these and other classes have
also been recovered from various village-sites, refuse-heaps, and
mounds. Bone awls are the most numerous. Among these are a few
bone beads, scrapers, and needles. Two ribbons, probably those of

158 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 564. (S. 3-4.) Engraved bone,
Harness Mound, Ohio.

FIG. 565. (S. i -i.) Engraved bone,
Hopewell Mound, Ohio.

OBJECTS OF BONE

159

the moose, were obtained from a mound at Eagle Corners. Both arc
transversely notched by cuts along one edge. One bears thirty-
four cuts, the other thirty-three. The most casual examination . . .
reveals the evidence of rubbing over the projections between the
notches. Dr. Frederick Starr, who has described these specimens,
refers to them as * rattles, and states that they not only might
have been used for dance- timing, but were certainly soused. * It
is probable that some of our native copper perforators were once
mounted in bone or antler handles. The
Winnebago Indians still occasionally mount
wire nails in handles of bone for use as perfo
rators in sewing buckskin. Bone awls are also
occasionally found in use among these Indians
and the local Chippewa. Medicine-tubes made
of sections of bone or horn were formerly em
ployed. Pendants made of the perforated can
ine teeth of the bear are occasionally found in
graves and on camp-sites. Mr. Richard Herr
mann of Dubuque has reported the finding of
two combination bone knives and spoons, sev
eral awls and arrow-points, two eagle claw or
naments, a bone needle with part of the eye

FIG. 566. (S. i-i.) En
graved bone, Hopewell
Mound.

FIG. 567. (S. i-i.) Bone effigy, Hopewell Mound,
Ohio.

Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Science, vol. ix, pp. 181-183.

1 60 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

intact, and a musical instrument from a mound near Garner, in
Grant County."

Dr. W. J. Hoffmann mentions the former use of bone fish-hooks
and notched bone arrow-shaft smoothers among the Wisconsin
Menomini. For evening strands of basswood fibre in cord-making,
these Indians use the perforated shoulder blade of a deer or other
animal. 1

"Radisson found that the early Bceuf Sioux of the upper Missis
sippi Valley tipped their arrows with antler points. A few antler
arrow-points have been found in Wisconsin. These are similar to
those recovered in Ohio during the recent explorations of Dr. W 7 . C.
Mills. In the H. P. Hamilton collection is a portion of an antler
which is ornamented with incised designs. It was found in the city
of Manitowoc. In the same collection is a small human effigy carved
from a piece of antler. Other antler objects found in Wisconsin
include awls, a pendant, a tube, and several articles the exact func
tion of which is still undetermined. Cut sections of antler are oc
casionally found on local village-sites. In the collection of Mr. J. P.
Schumacher, at Green Bay, is a pipe made of the tip of a buffalo-
horn. On its surface are several incised figures. Pieces of the tusk
of a mammoth were obtained with other articles in a Grant County
mound. Doubtless a much larger number of both bone and antler
implements will yet be found in Wisconsin. Local archaeologists
have but recently turned their attention to these."

i Fourteenth Annual Report, Bureau of American Ethnology.

CHAPTER XXX

OBJECTS OF COPPER

MR. CHARLES E. BROWN, Dean of the Museum of the Wiscon
sin Historical Society, Madison, has prepared for me this chapter
on copper objects. Mr. Brown s long association with the Mil
waukee Public Museum, and his knowledge of copper collections
throughout the United States, have made him an authority on this
subject.

I have added a few concluding paragraphs to Mr. Brown s able
paper.

The Native Copper Implements of Wisconsin

The number of native copper articles already recovered from
Wisconsin fields, village-sites, mounds, and graves is very large,
possibly exceeding that already obtained from the balance of the
United States. A careful estimate places the total number of such
articles collected in the state up to the present time at not less than
twenty thousand.

Although the collecting of these implements in Wisconsin has
already continued for nearly forty years the supply has not yet
become exhausted.

The opening to cultivation of new lands in the central and north
ern portions of the state, the increase in the number of collectors, and
the more careful examination of old sites, cause each passing year
to add its large number to the total already in collections.

In an address delivered in 1876 before the Wisconsin Historical
Society, Professor James D. Butler made the statement that the
Society was then the proud possessor of 109 native copper imple
ments. The Smithsonian Institution then owned 30 specimens;
the Wisconsin Natural History Society of Milwaukee, 14; Dr. In
crease A. Lapham, n; Milton College, 4; and Beloit College, i. At
the present clay there are in the combined collections of the State
Historical Museum, Logan Museum at Beloit, Milwaukee Public
Museum, and of Mr. H. P. Hamilton and of Mr. S. D. Mitchell
nearly four thousand specimens.

162 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 568. (S. 1-4.) A group of copper nuggets and implements owned by
S. D. Mitchell, Ripon, Wisconsin.

OBJECTS OF COPPER

163

FIG. 569. (S. 5-8.) Copper beads and small cylinders. Collection of S. D.
Mitchell, Ripon, Wisconsin.

164 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

A very large number of other specimens are in other public and
private collections in Wisconsin and other states. To the activity
of the Wisconsin Archaeological Society and of its members is due
the very great increase in recent years of the number of copper
implements in local educational institutions.

FIG. 570. (S. 2-3.) Copper gorget, \V. H. Ellsworth s collection. Copperheads,
H. P. Hamilton s collection. The gorget came from the banks of Silver Lake,
Kenosha County, Wisconsin.

OBJECTS OF COPPER 165

There is evidence to show that in pioneer days a very consider
able number of such implements, their value being unappreciated,
found their way into the hands of roving pedlers and junk dealers
and afterwards into the founder s crucible. In several institutions
are implements which have been rescued from such a fate.

Others have been found useful by their original finders and wholly
or partially destroyed.

I continue: The conclusion now universally accepted among
archaeologists is that there is no reason for attributing the work
ing of the copper deposits or fabrication of the implements to any

FIG. 571. (S. 1-2.) Copper and stone pendants from the cemetery at
the mouth of the Wabash. Andover collection.

other people than the Indians. The early explorers found both the
northern and southern tribes in this country using implements and
ornaments of native copper often in common with those of stone.
From South America almost to Canada various travellers refer to
this metal being in the possession of or employed by the natives.
Many of these accounts have been so often quoted by writers on
North American archaeology that they are entirely familiar to the
student, and there is therefore no necessity of repeating them
here. There is no doubt that some of these accounts refer to Eu
ropean metal obtained from earlier visitors or traders, or possibly
from shipwrecks along the coast. Thus the natives soon became quite
proficient in fashioning it into articles adapted or better adapted
to their needs than the ruder articles which they then employed.

166 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 572. (S. 1-2.) Copper ornament
and discs from the Hopewell Group,
Ohio.

fore, was discontinued before
the coming of the white man,
or whether the industry was
continued or at least to some
extent resumed by the de
scendants of the pre-Colum
bian miners and artificers
during and after his intru
sion, is still in dispute. It is
doubtful whether this matter
will ever be satisfactorily set
tled.

The accounts of the Jesu
its, as given in the " Rela
tions," give the impression
that while the Wisconsin In
dians of that period were
evidently familiar w r ith the
sources of the metal, they
regarded it with superstition
and employed it only in a
reverential way. Radisson,
however, found native copper
ornaments in use among the
Bceuf (or Buffalo) band of

It is equally certain that
other accounts refer to the
native metal or to objects
fashioned therefrom.

Whether the working of the
copper deposits or the fabrica
tion of copper implements in
this section of the country,
thought to have been begun
at least several centuries be-

. 573- (S. 7-8.) Copper axe, Harness Mound,
Ohio. Professor Mills states: "This axe was
taken from a mound belonging to a group eight
miles south of Chillicothe. Both sides of the
object are greatly corroded and covered with a
finely woven fabric. Beneath the fabric there
seems to have been the skin of some short-haired
animal. The axe was found near the left knee of
an uncremated skeleton."

OBJECTS OF COPPER 167

Dakota, in Minnesota in 1661-62. Alexander Henry, as a result
of his visit to Lake Superior in a later day, stated that the Indians
there obtained copper for the manufacture of implements and orna
ments. In recent times, Indian agents testified to the use of cop
per implements among the Wisconsin Winnebago and Chippewa.
Native copper implements have also occasionally been recovered
from local mounds, where they were found in association with metal
kettles, glass beads, and other articles of European manufacture.

FIG. 574. (S. about i-i.) From a mound on the banks of Black Snake River, Utah.
Milwaukee Public Museum collection.

1 68 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

The evidence of the mounds and of the earlier village-sites is to
the effect that before the coming of white man the use of copper
had become quite general among the Indian tribes of the upper
Mississippi Valley.

It is very probable that the native metal first became known to
them through the accidental discovery of small nuggets among the
debris of the glaciers, and as it quickly came
into demand, was traced to its source in the
Lake Superior region. These deposits they
mined, cutting it into shapes convenient for

FIG. 575. (S. 1-4.) Copper spuds or axes. Collection of
Logan Museum, Beloit, Wisconsin.

FIG. 576. (S. about 1-3.)
Collection of S. D. Mitch
ell, Ripon, Wisconsin.

transportation to their villages, where it was fashioned into articles
for their own use, or for the purpose of trade with distant tribes.

Nowhere in this entire valley do copper implements, however,
appear to have entirely replaced those of stone, the use of which
was continued until quite recent times. The manufacture of copper
implements doubtless extended through several centuries. The
Siouan Winnebago and Dakota of Wisconsin, being nearest the
source of supply, possessed of course the greatest quantity. Even
among them the use of copper artifacts did not in prehistoric times
equal the use of others. Among the outlying tribes in other states
copper implements were yet probably somewhat of a luxury, when
the intrusion of the Algonquian tribes into Wisconsin made more and

OBJECTS OF COPPER

169

FIG. 577. (S. 5-1 1.) Copper awls and chisels. Collection of S. D. Mitchell, Ripon,

Wisconsin.

170 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 578. (S. 1-4.) Copper axes. H. P. Hamilton s collection, Two Rivers, Wisconsin.

more difficult, and finally altogether shut out access to the Lake
Superior mines. It appears certain that the Chippewa after their
occupation of the copper region, did do at least a small amount of
digging for the metal which for purposes of trade, or for other uses,
they found of value. This continued until the arrival of the traders
laden with desirable articles caused a suspension of mining opera
tions, and diverted the attention of the Indian from mining to
other pursuits. * :

OBJECTS OF COPPER

171

FIG. 579. (S. about 1-2.) Copper chisels; the left and central ones were
found near Clintonville, \Vaupaca County, Wisconsin. The right-hand one,
near Chilton, Calumet County, Wisconsin. Milwaukee Public Museum
collection.

172 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

Fabrication

Our native copper implements were fashioned by being ham
mered into shape while the metal was in a cold or heated state with
such rude implements as were at the command of the natives, the
finishing touches being given by cutting and trimming the uneven
edges with sharp flints and smoothing the surfaces by rubbing or
grinding with stones. Successful experiments in reproducing the
various forms of implements from the native or nodular copper by

FIG. 580. (S. about 1-4.) Three copper punches and seven chisels. H. P.
Hamilton s collection, Two Rivers, Wisconsin.

OBJECTS OF COPPER

173

these primitive processes have been made by the late Frank H.
dishing, and by other archaeologists. Mr. Gerard Fowke is author
ity for the following statement : -

"So far as its working qualities are concerned, copper at ordinary
temperature is much more malleable than pure soft iron; and it is
much more easily worked into shape when at a red heat than when

FIG. 581. (S. 1-5.) Collection of J. T. Rceder, Houghton, Michigan. 13 copper
spuds, 4 pick-pointed knives, 4 knives. All except one from Michigan.

cold. If hammered cold it must be annealed occasionally, otherwise
it becomes brittle. It is somewhat hardened by pounding, which
will account for the harder edge of celts and other aboriginal speci
mens beaten out thin." 1

The theory that any of these implements may have been cast is
now discarded by archaeologists. There is no evidence to show

1 Archaeological History of Ohio, p. 712.

174 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

that our local aborigines possessed any knowledge of the working
of this metal in the broad sense.

"Even if copper could be melted in an open fire, which is very
doubtful, it must not be overlooked that Indians had no materials
of which to make crucibles or moulds capable of withstanding such
heat. Admitting they had clay receptacles which would have
answered these purposes, there is no way of handling the molten
metal with safety." 1

While it is probable that many copper implements were fabri
cated in the vicinity of the workings, it is now perfectly clear that
fragments of the native ore were also carried away to be cut up and
fashioned into implements elsewhere. The possession of such masses
by the aborigines was noted by the early explorers and mission
aries. On the extensive village-sites at Two Rivers, Sheboygan,
Green Lake, and elsewhere have been obtained numerous small
chips, scales, and fragments of copper, plainly indicating that the
manufacture of implements was carried on there. Elsewhere in
the state have been found lumps of the metal exhibiting tool-marks,
and other indications of working.

Distribution

To fully discuss this phase of the subject would require many
pages. The student must therefore content himself with such in
formation as can be condensed into a comparatively limited space.

Implements and ornaments of native copper are distributed
commonly or sparingly throughout a large portion of the eastern
half of the United States and in some states west of the Mississippi
River. Outside of our own state, numbers of them have been re
covered in Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, and West Virginia, and
also from the mounds and stone graves and village-sites in the
states of Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Georgia. Mr.
Clarence B. Moore, whose explorations have been very extensive,
has reported their existence in the mounds of Florida and elsewhere
in the extreme South. From five mounds on the St. John s River
in Florida he obtained ornaments of sheet-copper with repousse
designs, beads of sheet-copper, beads of wood, shell, and limestone
copper coated, copper effigies of the turtle and the serpent, and pierc
ing implements of copper. Dr. C. C. Abbott long ago recorded
the existence of copper implements in the Delaware Valley.

1 Archceological History, p. 713.

OBJECTS OF COPPER

175

FIG. 582. (S. 3-4.) Copper gouges. The one to the left was found near Westford, Dodge
County, Wisconsin. The one to the right was found near Chilton, Wisconsin.

176 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FlG. 583. (S. i -i.) Copper spud from Mercer, Iron County, Wisconsin. Loaned to the
Milwaukee Public Museum by Mr. R. L. Ball.

As a result of his researches, Rev. W. M. Beauchamp recently
issued under the auspices of the University of the State of New*
York, at Albany, two finely illustrated bulletins, one descriptive of
the metallic implements and the other of the metallic ornaments
of the New York Indians.

Professor G. H. Perkins states that objects of this metal are

OBJECTS OF COPPER

177

FIG. 584. (S. 5-6.) Copper axe. Found in a mound on Green Bay Road, one
mile north of Milwaukee. Milwaukee Public Museum collection.

178 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

far more numerous in New England than those of bone or shell.
They are found not only on the surface, but in the graves as well.
They are similar in form to Wisconsin artifacts, and he believes it
probable that all are made of metal obtained from the Lake Su
perior district. Dr. David Boyle and others have called our atten
tion to the presence of native copper implements in both eastern
and western Canada.

There is no longer any doubt that much of this metal was thus
distributed, either in the unworked state or as finished artifacts, in
the course of the trades or regular exchanges known to have been
carried on between the aborigines holding possession of the copper
district and those of other regions.

A description of the Wisconsin districts from which the greatest
number of such artifacts have been recovered up to the present
time may be given as extending from about the middle of Mil
waukee County, northward along the west shore of Lake Michi
gan to Door County, thence westward to the Wisconsin River or
slightly beyond, thence southward along this stream to Dane County
and eastward to Milwaukee County, the starting-point. Embraced
within this territory are the extensive lake shore village-sites, from
which thousands of articles have already been recovered, and cer
tain well-known sites in Green Lake and adjoining counties, the Rush
Lake, Lake Chetek, and similarly productive regions. The amount
of copper implements obtained from the mounds and graves of
Wisconsin is very small when compared with the quantity obtained
from the village-sites and fields.

Classes and Functions

The native copper artifacts of Wisconsin admit of separation into
two principal classes, designated as implements and ornaments.
Of these the former class is by far the more numerous. Mr. Henry
P. Hamilton estimates that articles of utility constitute fully 95
per cent of the copper artifacts found in Wisconsin.

It is but natural that on account of its proximity to the source
of supply we should find in our own state not only a more bountiful
supply of implements, but a greater range of classes, types, and va
rieties as well. The correctness of this conclusion is proven beyond
doubt. In the matter of the number and artistic excellence of its
copper ornaments and objects of a ceremonial nature, Wisconsin,
while possessing some types apparently peculiar to itself, cannot

OBJECTS OF COPPER

F I(; - 585- (S. I -I.) Copper spud with incised zigzag decoration.
Fond du Lac, Wisconsin. Milwaukee Public Museum collection.

1 8o THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

properly be said to lead. The artistically cut or embossed sheet-
copper discs, gorgets, and plates, the spool-shaped objects and
copper-sheathed stone and wooden ornaments of Ohio, Illinois, and
the South, are here conspicuous by their almost total absence.

No one Wisconsin collection contains all of the classes and types
of the implements described in this bulletin. An examination of
almost any local copper cabinet, however small, is almost certain
to reveal the presence of some object that is original or peculiar;
or some variation of a well-known type not elsewhere to be seen.
The difficulties attending the making of a proper classification
are therefore apparent. Especially among the objects classed as
arrow- and spear-points the number of well-established types, of
varieties and infrequent forms, is particularly numerous. In a
somewhat lesser degree this is also true of other classes of imple
ments.

Among spear- and arrow-points especially, there appears to be
a gradual development from the primitive leaf-shaped, through the
stemmed, to the numerous and well-executed socketed forms. In
this case the important element in the transition from one form to
another is in the manner of hafting. A gradual transition in some
instances from well-marked types of one class into those of an
other may also be noted. The uses of many of these implements,
because of their close resemblance to modern articles, are readily
understood. The precise function of others is not so readily ascer
tained.

An examination of a large series of any of these should convince
us that each had its special function, although probably also em
ployed for such other exigencies as might arise.

In the following pages the various classes of local copper imple
ments and ornaments are described and such information and sug
gestions concerning their workmanship, purposes, frequency, and
distribution given as is now obtainable.

Axes

Large numbers of these implements have been recovered from
Wisconsin soil and are to-day represented by one or several examples
in nearly every local copper collection. They vary in weight from
half a pound to. three pounds, rarely more, and in size from three to
ten inches. So far as is known no hafted copper axe has yet been
recovered. Probably the usual and most satisfactory method of

OBJECTS OF COPPER

181

FIG. 586. (S. 2-3.) Copper axe, Washington County, Wisconsin. Copper chisel, near
Charleston, Calumet County, Wisconsin.

182 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

hafting one of these implements was to insert it between the parts
of a cleft stick, to which it was afterwards secured by winding the
stick above and below it with strips of hide, a number of turns being
also taken around or across it. There are at least three well-estab
lished types of these implements, which may be briefly described as
follows :

1. Those which are oblong or nearly oblong in outline, having the
edges parallel or nearly so, and whose breadth is such as to exclude
them from the class of implements known as chisels. Specimens
range from less than four up to seven or more inches in length.
They are generally of nearly uniform thickness throughout. (See
Figs. 576, 578.) A variety of the above type has the margin at the
edges slightly elevated, thus giving a depressed or concave surface
in the centre, and from end to end, on one or both broad faces of the
axe. In some examples this margin is fully one half inch in width
at or near the middle of the axe. A curious feature of some examples
of this uncommon form is the concave cutting edge. Such implements
are to be seen in a number of the larger public and private collec
tions in Wisconsin. So far as can be ascertained no examples of these
curious axes have been obtained in surrounding states, where the
normal form also occurs.

2. Axes with straight, tapering edges. They are widest at the
cutting edge and become gradually narrower towards the head,
which is either square, rounded, or pointed. The cutting edge is
straight or convex. This appears to be the most common type of
copper axe. The largest example known is fourteen inches in length
and the smallest only two inches. The large specimen comes from
Neillsville, Clark County, and is in the State Historical Museum.
(See Fig. 578.)

3. A third and less frequent type has the edges curving equally
from the cutting edge to the head. Most examples are quite thin,
broad and flat. The head is square and sometimes nearly as broad
as the cutting edge. By reason of their broad, expanding cutting
edges, some of these axes may be appropriately described as bell-
shaped. Fine specimens of this type are to be seen in the Milwaukee
Public Museum, and in other collections. These axes approach the
modern axes in form. In the H. P. Hamilton collection is a notched
copper axe which comes from the vicinity of Horicon. It is rather
rude and is irregularly oval in outline. Mr. M. C. Long has in his
Kansas City collection the only grooved copper axe known.

OBJECTS OF COPPER

183

FIG. 587. (S. i-i.) Copper spud, Island Lake, near Gagan, Oneida County
Wisconsin. Milwaukee Public Museum collection.

1 84 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

Copper axes were well adapted alike for peaceful and warlike pur
suits. In the hands of the Wisconsin aborigines they were undoubt
edly useful implements, superseding at best the clumsy stone axe
or hatchet, and possibly being in their turn laid aside for the more
serviceable iron axe of the fur-trader.

Employed in warfare or the chase they would be terrible weapons.
As tools they were probably especially useful in the felling of trees,
the shaping of log canoes, the erection of dwellings, barricades, and
stockades.

They may have been employed in connection with or without fire.
It has been suggested that some of the smaller implements may have
served as wedges.

Chisels. (See Figs. 577, 579, 580.)

The aboriginal copper implements known as chisels are of nearly
as frequent occurrence in local cabinets as the implements of the
foregoing class. In the H. P. Hamilton collection there is to be seen
an especially fine series of at least a dozen or more examples, ranging
in size from five to fifteen inches and in weight from five ounces to
five and three fourths pounds. An equally fine series is in the Field
Museum.

The office of these fine implements probably included the excavat
ing of wooden canoes, mortars, and other vessels. Their employment
in connection with the mining operations of the Indians has been
mentioned. Some specimens exhibit upon their heads the flattening
which would result from their being used in conjunction w r ith a
wooden mallet, club, stone, or other weighty object. Others show
no such marks and were probably employed without such agencies.
Rev. W. M. Beauchamp states that a large proportion of the copper
articles found in New York are of the celt (axe) or chisel form. Pro
fessor G. H. Perkins has described similar implements from New
England. At least three distinct types of these implements are
known to occur in Wisconsin : -

i. The first of these is broadest at the cutting edge. The edges
taper gradually upward from the cutting edge to a pointed, rounded,
or squared head. They are usually thickest at or below the middle,
the flat or convex surface sloping toward the narrow extremity.
Some of these have the upper surface convex and the lower surface
flat. The broad or narrow sides may be either convex or flat. Fine
implements of this form are to be seen in the H. P. Hamilton, State

OBJECTS OF COPPER

185

FIG. 588. (S. i-i.) Back view of Fig. 587. Milwaukee Public
Museum collection.

i86 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

Historical Museum, and other local collections. A few approach
fourteen inches in length. (See Fig. 579.)

2. A second type is of nearly uniform width throughout, with
straight, parallel edges. A specimen in the S. D. Mitchell collection
has a cutting edge at either extremity. Implements of this type
are to be seen in various Wisconsin cabinets. They range from
about five to ten or more inches in length, and from one and one
half to two inches in width. (See Fig. 580.)

3. A third and less frequent type is characterized by a more or
less prominent median ridge, which traverses its upper surface from
within an inch or more of the cutting edge to the opposite extremity.
From this ridge the surface bevels off evenly on either side toward
the edge. The lower surface is usually flat, thus giving a triangular
section. The edges are generally parallel for at least three quarters
of the distance back from the cutting edge, whence they taper or
curve gradually to the rounded head. A few are of nearly uniform
width throughout, with an angular or squared head. Several of
these implements have the upper extremity abruptly narrowed and
prolonged into a short tang, as if intended to be set into a wooden
handle. A few are curved or bowed from extremity to extremity.
Some specimens have an expanded, curved cutting edge. One of the
largest of these ridged chisels is fourteen and three fourths inches
in length. It is in the H. P. Hamilton collection and comes from
the town of Oshkosh, Winnebago County. (See specimen to the
left, Fig. 579.)

Spuds. (See Figs. 581, 583.)

In northwestern Wisconsin have been obtained a limited number
of copper implements bearing a close resemblance in form to some
of the so-called stone spuds or spade-shaped implements, after which
they were probably patterned. They are rather broad, flat imple
ments, of nearly uniform thickness throughout, and from six to eight
or more inches in length. The broad, narrow blades are semi
circular or crescentic in outline. From them the handle tapers back
ward to a squared or slightly rounded extremity. The narrow sides
are flattened. The author is indebted to Professor T. H. Lewis for
sketches and information in regard to some of these, which were
obtained by him at Lake Chetek, Barron County, Wisconsin; at
St. Paul, Minnesota, and at Ontonagon, Michigan.

The conclusion, probably correct, in regard to these implements is

OBJECTS OF COPPER

187

FIG. 589. (S. 6-7.) Copper spud from near Pewau-
kee Lake, Waukesha County, Wisconsin.

FIG. 590. (S. 3-5.) Cop
per spear. S. D. Mitchell s
collection, Ripon, Wiscon
sin.

188 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

that they were employed, like the stone and modern iron implements
which they resemble, in stripping bark from trees and for similar
purposes.

Gouges. (See Figs. 582, 585.)

These implements are closely allied to the chisels, from which they
are distinguished by the presence on their lower surface of a con
cavity sometimes reaching quite to the middle. They are well
adapted for working out rounded or oval holes or hollows, and in

FIG. 591. (S. about i-i.) Copper spears. Found on Bluff Point, near Penn Yan,
New York. Collection of L. G. Ogden, Penn Yan, New York.

Wisconsin are generally considered to have been wood-working
tools. Elsewhere they were probably also employed like the more
common stone gouges in quarrying and working steatite, catlinite,
and similar deposits useful to the aborigines. Such implements are
to be seen in the H. P. Hamilton, Field Museum, and one or two
other collections.

Several specimens known to the author approach seven inches in
length.

Professor Perkins mentions copper gouges as being rare in New
England, where stone gouges are a common and characteristic im
plement. Neither stone nor metal gouges are of frequent occurrence
in Wisconsin.

OBJECTS OF COPPER

Adzes

189

These implements have also been called spuds, winged chisels, and
hoes. Of these the term "spud," though unsatisfactory, appears to
he that in most general use at the present time. This name, as has
already been shown, is likewise applied to a rather numerous class
of stone implements of quite different pattern and use. Several
theories as to the possible function of these implements have been
advanced. It has been suggested that they were ice-cutting tools,
or agricultural implements.

An examination of a large series of them suggests the correctness
of the now prevailing opinion that they were employed in shaping
wooden canoes and executing tasks of a like nature. Properly
hafted, their general adaptability to such service is plain.

FIG. 592. (S. 1-2.) Various copper implements. University of Vermont collection.

190 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

A somewhat similar tool is also employed by modern wood
workers.

1. There are at least two well-marked types of these implements.
The first of these is generally nearly square, less frequently oblong
in outline. The flanges of the implement are turned inward to form
a socket, at the base of which is a hip or shoulder, against which
the tip of the wooden handle abuts. The blade is elevated above
the socket and is provided with a straight or slightly curved cutting
edge. The back of the implement, opposite the socket, is flat or
transversely convex, and slopes or curves downward to the cutting
edge. This is certainly the most common type, and has been ob
tained in many parts of Wisconsin, Michigan, and Minnesota.
Examples have also been collected in Ohio, Illinois, and Iowa. The
average specimen appears to be about three inches in length by two
and a half inches in width. The smallest known is only one and a
fourth inches and the largest six and a fourth inches in length.
Fine series of these implements are to be seen in the Logan Museum,
Field Museum, State Historical Museum, Milwaukee Museum, H. P.
Hamilton, and other collections. In weight adzes of this type vary
from a few ounces to one and a half or more pounds. (Fig. 581.)

2. A second type differs from the preceding mainly in the fact
that the extremity of the socket is angular in outline and that the
flanges are bent straight upward or inward, instead of curved. The
hip at the base of the socket is also often absent. The back is gener
ally flat or transversely rounded, and in some specimens traversed
from the top to the cutting edge by a pronounced median ridge.
A specimen in the Milwaukee Public Museum has the middle of its
back ornamented with a double row of zigzag incisions. Its blade is
also ornamented. (Fig. 583.)

These implements are as a class larger than the foregoing. Of
a dozen or more examples which the writer has examined in the
Hamilton and other local cabinets, none are below five inches in
length and two and a fourth inches in breadth, the largest known
being six inches in length and three inches in breadth. The weight
of these specimens ranges from twelve ounces to nearly two pounds.

There are also a small number of peculiar forms, each represented
by a single example. These vary in the length and breadth of the
flanges and the shape of the blade. When a sufficient number of
these shall have been recovered, it may be advisable to expand the
present classification to include them. Many of the implements

OBJECTS OF COPPER

191

593- (S. 2-3.) Copper chisel and awls. Logan Museum collection,
Beloit, Wisconsin.

192 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 594. (S. 2-3.) Copper spears. Collection of the Logan Museum, Beloit, Wisconsin.

included in the adze class are admirable for their symmetry and
perfection. A specimen secured in the Lake Superior region has
a portion of the wooden handle still fitted in the socket.

Spatulas

Of the copper implements known as spatulas only a small number
of examples have as yet been recovered in Wisconsin. The blade of

OBJECTS OF COPPER

193

FIG. 595. (S. about 3-4.) Copper ridged spear-point, socket tang. From Coloma,
Waukesha County, Wisconsin. Milwaukee Public Museum collection.

194 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

these artifacts is usually broad and thin and irregularly rounded or
somewhat triangular in outline. The handle is short, seldom more
than three eighths of an inch in thickness, and nearly square or some
what rectangular in section. Specimens are to be seen in the State
Historical Museum, Milwaukee Public Museum, and other local
collections. They range from four to nearly six inches in length.

The Reverend W. H. Beauchamp has described and figured both
an iron and a copper implement of this class from New York. The

FIG. 596. (S. 1-4.) Copper spears. Collection of H. P. Hamilton, Two Rivers,

\Yi scon sin.

FIG. 597- (S. about 3-5.) Copper knives. Left to right : Hartford,
Washington County, Wisconsin; Alerton, Waukesha County, Wis
consin; Wayne, Washington County, Wisconsin.

196 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

possible employment of these implements in the shaping of aborig
inal earthenware, the removing of the flesh from skins and bones,
and of the scales from fish, has been suggested. They are but poorly
adapted for use as spoons.

The small number of specimens on hand at present makes it
undesirable to venture an opinion of their utility.

Knives. (Figs. 597, 598.)

In point- of numbers these easily rank second to the numerous
class of socketed spear-points. They have been recovered in con
siderable numbers in many parts of the state. At least four distinct
types and some intermediate and peculiar forms are recognized.
The close resemblance of some of these to the white man s knife
has frequently been remarked upon.

1. The most frequent form has a usually straight back and
oblique curved or straight cutting edge. It is provided with a gener
ally short, tapering, pointed tang, suitable for insertion into a wooden,
bone, or horn handle. Such knives, ranging in size from diminutive
specimens one inch in length up to twelve inches, are not uncommon
in local collections. (Left specimen, Fig. 597.)

An exceptionally large and fine example in the Oshkosh Library
collection measures seventeen and a half inches in length and weighs
eleven ounces. The blade is one and a half inches in breadth at its
base, and the tang is six inches in length. A few have the cutting
edge of the blade beveled. In the R. Kuehne collection is a small
hammered native silver knife of this type which was obtained from
the vicinity of Sheboygan. A small number of these knives have
their blades ornamented with incisions and indentations. Specimens
of these are to be seen in the H. George Schuette, H. P. Hamilton,
and other collections.

2. A second type is distinguished from the preceding by the greater
breadths of its broad curved blade, which terminates in a broadly
rounded point. In this style of knife the blade on one or both sides
is frequently traversed from point to tang by a pronounced median
ridge. The broad, flat tang also terminates in a blunt point. Such
implements are to be seen in the Field Museum, Milwaukee Public
Museum, State Historical Museum, H. P. Hamilton, and other col
lections. These vary in size from six to twelve and three fourths
inches in length and from one and a fourth to two and an eighth
inches in the extreme breadth of the blade. (One in Fig. 568.)

OBJECTS OF COPPER

197

FIG. 598. (8.2-3.) Copper spears, knives, and arrow-points. Collection of S. D. Mitchell,

Ripon, Wisconsin.

198 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

3. A third type, locally known as the "handled copper knife,"
differs from the preceding styles mainly in having the tang so uni
formly broad as to obviate the necessity of a wooden or other handle.
Only a small number of these are in collections. A fine specimen is
seven inches in length. The handle is two and a half inches in length,
and of a nearly uniform breadth of three fourths of an inch. It
comes from Pardeeville, Columbia County, and is in the Logan
Museum at Beloit. A knife in the J. T. Reeder collection, at Hough-
ton, Michigan, has a broad copper ferule still encircling its tang.
The tip of the tang is bent over, meeting the ferule. (Fig. 581, left
specimen, near centre.)

4. Socketed knives. These resemble the knives of the type first
described in the shape of their blades. They are provided with a
socket similar to those of the socketed spears. A small number of
these have been found and are to be seen in the H. P. Hamilton, H.
George Schuette, and other Wisconsin collections. They range from
two to nine inches in size.

In these knives the cutting edge is usually along the right, rarely
along the left side of the blade. A specimen in a Milwaukee collec
tion has its blade ornamented with indentations. A small number
of knives of peculiar forms are also to be seen in local cabinets. (See
Fig. 597-)

Arrow- and Spear-Points

1. Leaf-shaped points. (Fig. 598, upper right-hand specimen.)
These vary considerably in form and size, measuring from two to
six or more inches in length. The average size appears to be about
four inches. Some are oval in outline, others elliptical, lanceolate,
or almond-shaped, the elliptical forms appearing to predominate.
The points are not numerous. One or more specimens are to be seen
in all of the larger Wisconsin collections.

A small number of lanceolate forms in the Hamilton collection
have the added feature of a median ridge which traverses either side
of the blade from end to end. These range from two and three
fourths to nine inches in length.

2. Stemmed, flat points. (Fig. 603 to the right. Fig. 598
lower central specimen.) These are of quite common occurrence in
Wisconsin collections. These points are generally quite flat and of
nearly uniform thickness throughout. The stem is of uniform
breadth or tapers slightly toward its extremity. In the former form

OBJECTS OF COPPER

199

FIG. 599. (S. 4-5.) Copper spear-points. Left to right: Merton, Waukesha County,
Wisconsin; Colgate, Waukesha County, Wisconsin; Wayne, Barton County, Wisconsin.
Milwaukee Public Museum collection.

it sometimes expands at the base. The base is sometimes indented.
In the Field Museum there is a fine specimen of this variety from
Montello, Marquette County. It is nearly seven inches in length.

The blade varies considerably in shape and size. The smallest
example known is one and three fourths and the largest about eight
inches in length. The average size appears to be about three inches.
A very small number have the face of the blade ornamented with
indentations, usually arranged in two parallel rows.

2 a. Ridged points. (Fig. 595.) These and several of the succeed
ing forms are, strictly speaking, only well-established varieties of

200 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 600. (S. 1-2.) Copper spear-heads. Rat-tail type.
Logan Museum collection, Beloit, Wisconsin.

the preceding type. In the present instance they are distinguished
by the presence of a median ridge which traverses both faces of the
point, usually from tip to tip. This is not a frequent form. The
largest specimen now known measures six inches in length. It is in
the H. P. Hamilton cabinet and was found at Two Rivers. Professor
T. H. Lewis obtained a specimen from a mound in Pepin County.
Other specimens are in the Field Museum and Milwaukee Public
Museum and several private collections.

FIG. 60 1. (S. 1-3.) Copper spears and knives. Col
lection of S. D. Mitchell, Ripon, Wisconsin.

FIG. 602. (S. 2-3.) Copper punch, hooked end, to right; from Barton, Wisconsin. Cop
per punch to left; from \Yaukcsha County, Wisconsin. Copper punch in the centre,
Wisconsin. Milwaukee Public Museum collection.

202 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

2 b. Beveled points. Of these only a small number of examples
have been recovered. They are distinguished from the most fre
quent flat, stemmed form by a distinct bevel of generally uniform
width which extends along the edges on both faces of the blade.
Sometimes this bevel is nearly one half inch in breadth. The shape
of the blade varies considerably. The known specimens range from
two and a half to five inches in size. Examples are to be seen in the
Field Museum, H. P. Hamilton, and other collections.

2 c. Eyed points. The base of the stem in this rare form is pro
vided with an eye, opening outward and probably intended for the
reception of a rivet. Otherwise these points do not differ from the
flat, stemmed types. Only a very small number of specimens have
been found.

2 d. Notched points. These bear a close resemblance to a numerous
class of flint arrow- and spear-points, after which they are probably
patterned. No two of them are exactly alike. They differ from
each other in the shape of the blade and shape and position of the
notch. A few are traversed by a median ridge. Some have indented
bases. They vary in size from less than two and up to six inches
in length. Such points are of infrequent occurrence. Specimens
are in existence in the Milwaukee Public Museum, Field Museum,
Logan Museum, and other collections.

2 e. Toothed points. These are rather remarkable and interesting
implements, and are distinguished from all others by the peculiar
angular toothing or serration of the edges of the stem, the purpose
of which is evidently to facilitate the fastening of the point to the
wooden shaft or handle, into which it was inserted, by means of
sinews or strips of hide. A greater solidity of attachment was thus
secured. The number of opposite notches on the stem varies in
different examples, from two to as many as six or seven. The usual
number appears to be two or three. Most examples of this type are
long and narrow. A few, however, are short and broad, and ellip
tical in outline. The largest known example of this form is about
nine and a half inches and the smallest about two inches in length.
The average size appears to be about three and a half inches.
In many specimens a central ridge or elevation extends along
either side from extremity to extremity, or only from the base of
the stem to the point of the blade. (Fig. 599.)

In both the F. M. Benedict and H. P. Hamilton collections are
large and fine series of these points. Upon a specimen in the latter

OBJP:CTS OF COPPER

203

FIG. 603. (S. 1-3.) Copper knives, awls, fish-hooks, and other objects.
S. D. Mitchell s collection, Ripon, Wisconsin.

204 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

collection indications of cloth wrappings are to be seen. Other col
lections also possess one or a number of examples. The greater
part of the known specimens are from the Fox and Wolf river valleys
in northeastern Wisconsin. Now and then flint spear-points of some
what similar pattern have been found in and about the same district.
Michigan has furnished a few specimens of the copper points. Slate
points of very similar form occur in New England, where they are
regarded as knives. A small number of copper points of this pattern
are also reported to have been found there.

3. Spatula-shaped points. (Fig. 596, central ones, and Fig. 600.)
These peculiar points have obtained their name from the resem
blance which the typical form bears to a chemist s spatula. They are
also locally known as "rat- tailed points." In the most frequent
form the blade is rather flat and somewhat elliptical in outline. It
does not generally exceed three inches in length, being usually less
than one half the total length of the implement. A small number
have an elliptical, lanceolate or very rarely elongated lozenge-shaped
blade. The usually long, tapering stem is generally circular or nearly
circular in section , and is well adapted for insertion into a perforation
or socket in a wooden shaft or handle. Several specimens have near
the tips of their pointed stems a succession of rudely cut opposite
notches, probably intended to prevent the easy withdrawal of the
point from the shaft. A very small number have the blade traversed
by a median ridge. The smallest specimen of this type of copper
point now known is four inches and the largest nine and a half
inches in length. A large number attain the size of eight inches.
Fine specimens are to be seen in the State Historical Museum, Logan
Museum, Field Museum, Hamilton, and other collections. The
Reverend Mr. Beauchamp has noted the occurrence of a limited
number of specimens in New York. A small number of iron trade
points of similar shape have been found.

4. Short-stemmed points. The blade is generally long and tri
angular in shape, the stem short, cylindrical, and pointed at the end.
The average size of these points appears to be about six inches.
(Fig. 596.)

The largest example now known is twelve inches in length, the
stem measuring only about three inches. This is not a frequent
form of copper point. Fine specimens are to be seen in the Field
Museum, Hamilton, and other collections. A cache of four of these
singular points found at Chilton, Calumet County, is to be seen in

OBJECTS OF COPPER

205

FIG. 604. (S. i-i.) Copper harpoons. Logan Museum collection, Beloit, Wisconsin.

206 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

the Milwaukee Public Museum. The Reverend W. M. Beauchamp
has described similar spear-points from New York.

4 a. Barbed or pronged points. This type of copper point is of
rather infrequent occurrence. The blade is usually of an oval or
somewhat triangular shape. A few specimens have long narrow
blades. Situated just below the base of the blade on either side is a
single barb or prong. These prongs are sharply or obtusely pointed
and as a general thing do not extend out to a point in line with the
outer edge of the base of the blade. The stem is short, flat, or cylin
drical, and usually tapers to a sharp point. (Upper left-hand speci
men, Fig. 592.)

In some examples the blade is traversed on one or both faces by
a well-defined median ridge. The prongs probably served the double
purpose of barbs and of projections, by means of which the point
could be more firmly secured to the wooden shaft into which it was
inserted. Such points are to be seen in the Hamilton, Field Museum,
and other collections.

The smallest specimen known is three inches and the largest about
seven and one half inches in length. The average size appears to be
about four inches.

This interesting form of spear-point also occurs sparingly in sur
rounding states, and has been recorded from as far east as New York
and New England, where a few specimens have been found.

Large iron spear-points of somewhat similar form, but with the
projections squared at the ends, have been found in Wisconsin.
Some of these have hearts and other devices cut or punched through
the face of their blades. These were probably introduced among the
Indians by the early fur-traders.

5. Conical points. A very large number of these have been col
lected from the extensive Lake Michigan shore village-sites in Wis
consin, of which locations they appear to be more or less character
istic, replacing to a large extent all other types of copper points.
Some fine examples have also been obtained from other sites in
counties farther inland; from the Lake Superior shore, and from the
Lake of the Woods region in Minnesota. Fine series of these points
are to be seen in the A. Gerend, Hamilton, Kuehne, and other collec
tions. (Fig. 598, three lower figures.)

These points vary in length from less than one inch up to six inches
or more. The majority, however, are of small size and do not exceed
two inches in length. The most prevalent form is fashioned in the

FIG. 605. (S. about 3-4.) Copper harpoons. Left to right: Hartford, Washington
County, Wisconsin; Wisconsin; Wauwatosa, Milwaukee County, Wisconsin. Milwau
kee Public Museum collection.

208 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

shape of an attenuated hollow cone of small diameter. Other speci
mens have the point solid for an inch or more back from the tip.
Less frequently they are furnished with an open angular socket and
hip like that of the ordinary socketed copper spear. In a few
examples the flanges of the socket are pierced with a square or round
hole, as if for the reception of a rivet, or possibly for the attachment

FIG. 606. (S. 1-2.) Cop
per harpoon. Collection
of S. G. Crump, Pitts-
ford, New York.

FIG. 607. (S. 1-8.) Front and re
verse of a copper war-club. Dug out
of a prehistoric grave at Spuzzum,
British Columbia. Obtained by Mr.
James Teit.

OBJECTS OF COPPER

209

FIG. 608. The base of the Effigy Mound, Hopewell Group. Explored in 1891-92. Cop
per axes and plates in the foreground, lying as found. Teams, thirty to forty feet distant,
and two feet higher than the deposit.

210 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

of a light line. A few have a rivet-hole also at the base of the socket.
It has been stated that these points have occasionally been found
with fragments of the wooden shaft filling or extending beyond the
socket. Their presence in numbers upon the sandy lake shore sites
where the aboriginal residents appear to have depended largely upon
the fishing industry for subsistence, appears to indicate their employ
ment in such a connection. Possibly in the shooting or spearing of
fish.

6. Ridged socketed points. If we except from consideration the
very numerous small awls and fish-hooks, we may truthfully state
that this is by far the most common type of copper implement oc
curring in Wisconsin.

Thousands of these points have been collected in Wisconsin, and
probably as many or an even greater number are yet to be recovered
from the soil.

They are represented in greater or less numbers in every Wiscon
sin and in many other collections.

This type and its varieties are too w r ell and widely known to re
quire much of a description. They are frequently symmetrically
and beautifully wrought, indicating a degree of skill on the part of
their aboriginal makers that is unsurpassed. The blade varies con
siderably in length and breadth. The stem is provided with flanges
which are bent straight upward or inward, thus forming an angular
socket for the reception of the wooden shaft. Some points having
fragments of this shaft still in place have been found. This form is
rarely if ever provided with a rivet-hole. In most examples there
is a dip or shoulder in the socket at the connection of the stem and
blade, against which the head of the wooden shaft abutted. A dis
tinctive feature of these points is the pronounced central ridge which
traverses the back of the implement from end to end. It is this
feature which has gained for this style of point the local name of
"bayonet-backed spear-point." The tip of the stem is also usually
angularly pointed. A small number of these points have the upper
surface of their blades ornamented with indentations variously
arranged in double rows or lines. This type of copper point has been
found as far to the south as the Gulf, as far east as New England,
westward to the Missouri, and northward into Canada.

The largest example known to have been found in Wisconsin
measures thirteen inches in length. It is in the E. C. Perkins col
lection. The average size is betw r een three and five inches.

OBJECTS OF COPPER

211

FIG. 609. (S. 3-5.) Large copper plate covered with shell beads, Seip Mound, Ohio.

W. C. M ills s collection.

212 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

6 a. Rolled socketed points. (Fig. 601.) This form is almost if not
quite as common as the preceding, from which it is distinguished
mainly by the fact that the back of the blade and stem are not
usually upon the same plane. The central ridge also is absent.
Many examples are provided with a rivet-hole (very rarely with
two, one above the other) within the socket near the base of the
stem. Specimens with a small copper rivet or nail still in place
in the socket are of not infrequent occurrence in Wisconsin col
lections.

At least two well -defined varieties of these points may be re
cognized : -

1. The first of these is provided with a short, broad, oval, or
almond-shaped blade. The stem and socket in this form is usually
broadest at the base, tapering or narrowing toward the blade. The
average length of these specimens is about four inches. A large
specimen found at Ripon, Fond du Lac County, measures seven
inches in length, and two inches in breadth near the base of the
blade. Specimens of this type may be seen in the Hamilton, State
Historical Museum, Logan Museum, and other collections.

2. The second form is furnished with a long, narrow, lanceolate
blade, often twice or more than twice as long as the stem. The
socket and stem rarely taper upward and are of more nearly equal
width throughout. In both this and the preceding form the flanges
of the socket are rolled inward, in some instances nearly meeting.
The average length of these points appears to be about five inches.
The largest specimen known measures eleven and one half inches in
length. Such specimens are to be seen in nearly every Wisconsin
cabinet.

In the very limited number of the smaller specimens the face of
the blade, rarely the back, is ornamented with indentations. The
edges of the blade are also sometimes beveled.

Among the smaller specimens is observed a variety in which
the length of the stem equals or exceeds that of the blade. In some
specimens the socket has the appearance of having been formed by
excavating the stem, the narrow flanges being continuous with the
blade instead of cut and turned inward as in the ordinary form.
A small number of iron socketed spear-points, not differing greatly
from the ordinary socketed copper point, have been found.

Peculiar points. In several Wisconsin collections are several spear-
points of curious form not included under any of the foregoing

OBJECTS OF COPPER

213

FIG. 610. (S. i-i.) Ornamented copper plate, Seip Mound, Ohio.
VV. C. Mills s collection.

214 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

descriptions or represented, so far as can be learned, in other Wis
consin cabinets.

One of these in the H. P. Hamilton collection has a long slender
blade and a very short socket. It is seven and one quarter inches in
length and comes from Two Rivers, Manitowoc County. Its blade
is ornamented with a row of nine indentations.

In the Milwaukee Public Museum is a series of three peculiar
socketed spear-points of an average length of about eight and one
half inches. The blade of each of these is very long and narrow, with
straight edges, and terminates in a sharp point. The stem is very
short and narrow in comparison w r ith the blade and broadens into
a short socket at its base. One specimen has the middle of its blade,
from near the base toward the middle, ornamented with a continu
ous zigzag indentation. Another has upon its blade a series of dots
arranged in a triangular form. Two of these points come from Fond
du Lac County, and the other from Sheboygan County.

Harpoon-Points

The purpose of these implements is too plain to make any explana
tion necessary. Four distinct types of harpoon-points, none of
which are as yet known to be of other than very infrequent occur
rence, have been obtained in Wisconsin. What special application
any of these several patterns may have had is not yet clear. The
following is a brief description of them : -

1. The first are short, flattish points seldom exceeding two and
a half inches in length. (Fig. 605, to the left.) One edge of these
implements is either straight or presents a continuous curve from
extremity to extremity. The other edge is curved or straight from
the point downward to about opposite the middle of the implement,
where it terminates in a barb. From thence it narrows to the other
extremity, thus forming a stem. Occasionally this is notched on either
side near its base. Small numbers of these points have been recov
ered from the village-sites along the Lake Michigan shore.

2. A second and less frequent form is cylindrical in section and
tapers to a sharp point at each extremity. (Fig. 604, second from
right.) Removed from one extremity by several inches, more or
less, is a stout and very pronounced barb. All are of large size. A
particularly large specimen measures ten and three fourths inches in
length and about one half inch in diameter at the middle. Others
are to be seen in the State Historical Museum and H. P. Hamilton

OBJECTS OF COPPER

215

FIG. 611. (S. 2-3.) Copper crescents. Collection of Logan Museum, Beloit, Wisconsin.

2i6 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

collections. Mr. Clarence B. Moore has figured and described a large
example obtained by him in Florida.

Iron harpoons of similar form, but frequently possessing from two
to three barbs, sometimes alternating on opposite sides of the im
plement are still in use by Wisconsin Indians for spearing large fish.

3. Another form of har
poon is represented by a
specimen in the Milwaukee
Public Museum. This im
plement is somewhat trian
gular in section, about eight
and a half inches in length
and about three fourths of
an inch in breadth at the
middle. The ends taper to
a blunted point. The thin
ner edge of the implement
is furnished with four stout,
broad barbs, separated from
each other by a distance of
about one and a half inches.
Bone harpoon-points of this
pattern occur in New York
and Ontario. (Like Fig. 606.)

4. A fourth type, the so-
called " socketed harpoon-
point" (Fig. 604), has one
edge of its blade prolonged

FIG. 612. (S. i-i.) Ear ornaments from the int a barb at the baS6

Hopewell Group, Ohio. This barb may be on either

the right or left side. Other
wise this type does not differ in shape from some of the flat-backed,
socketed spear-points. Only a small number of these points have
been found. All these are provided with a rivet-hole in the socket.
An example in the Logan Museum is about four inches in length,
and comes from Mequon, Ozaukee County.

Pikes and Punches. (See Fig. 602.)

In this class of objects, which are as yet alluded to by students
and collectors by either of the above or other names, are included the

OBJECTS OF COPPER

217

FIG. 613. (S. i -i.) Copper crescent- shaped object obtained near Chattanooga,
Tennessee. Milwaukee Public Museum collection.

2i8 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

largest copper implements found in Wisconsin. They are rod-like
in form, usually circular or square, less frequently rectangular in
section, and taper to a point at one or both ends. Large specimens
of each of these several patterns have been found. The largest is in
the Field Museum. It is about forty inches in length, one inch in
diameter at the middle, and tapers to a point at either extremity. It-
weighs five and a quarter pounds and was obtained from a burial
mound on the Abraham place, at Peshtigo, Marinette County.

A specimen in the H. P. Hamilton collection is twenty-nine inches
in length, seven eighths of an inch in diameter, and weighs two and
three fourths pounds. About one inch from the pointed extremity
there is a broken projection which Mr. Hamilton believes to have

been a barb. The other end
terminates in a small claw or
broken out eye. It comes
from Maple Creek, Outagamie
County. In the T. W. Hamil
ton collection there is another
fine specimen which is eight
een and a half inches in length
and weighs one and a half
pounds. A specimen found at
New Haven, Adams County,
is fourteen and a half inches
in length and weighs one and
three eighths pounds. Other
large specimens are to be seen
in the Logan Museum, State
Historical Museum, and Mil
waukee Museum collections.
Some of these are rather flat,
rectangular in section and one

FIG. 614. (S. 1-3.) Copper crescents. Collec- &

tion of Wisconsin Archaeological Society. mch in Width and less than

three eighths of an inch in

thickness. They are pointed at one extremity and rounded or
blunted at the other. Some other large specimens are known to
have been cut in two and otherwise maltreated by the persons who
found them.

In the Field Museum collections implements of this pattern
ranging from eight inches or less up to the largest size are classed as

OBJECTS OF COPPER

219

FIG. 615. (S. 2-3.) Copper saucer-shaped object. Hopewell Group, Ohio.

"pikes." That they were employed as weapons is extremely doubt
ful. It has been suggested that they may have been heated and
employed in the burning-out of wooden canoes or wooden vessels.
There is reason to believe that some of the lighter forms were mount
ed in wooden handles, at least one example with an accompanying
copper ferule having been found at Milwaukee.

Awls and Drills. (See Figs. 593 and 603.)

These have been obtained nowhere in greater numbers than in the
Lake Michigan coastal region in Wisconsin. They vary in size from
about one to six inches or more, and in thickness from one sixteenth
to one half an inch. The greater number are of very small size.

The simplest and most frequent form is a slender cylindrical piece
of metal pointed at one or both extremities. A second and usually
stouter form is either round or square in section and tapers from
a well-marked shoulder at or near the middle to both extremities.

220 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

Sometimes one end only is pointed. Occasionally also the upper
half of the implement is straight and the lower half tapers to a point.
Many of these small implements were probably mounted in handles
of wood, bone, or antler, the object of the shoulder being to prevent
their passing too far into the handle. Several specimens mounted
in antler handles have been found. Similar implements of bone and
stone have been found in Wisconsin. Most of them were probably
employed in drilling holes in wood, bone, or stone, in piercing skins,

FIG. 616. (S. 1-2.) Possibly this was the crown of a head-mask.
It seems to indicate growing antlers, or those of a young buck.
When found the horns or projections were downward and the raised
surface uppermost. Hopewell Group, Ohio.

and for similar purposes. The Eskimo are said to employ somewhat
similar implements of bone for catching water-fowl. They are used
by attaching a line to the centre, the bone spindle being baited with
a small fish into which the implement is inserted lengthwise. Large
fish are captured by them in the same manner. We have no record
of the employment of such methods by Wisconsin Indians.

Spikes. (See Fig. 580, lower left-hand specimen.)

In a number of Wisconsin cabinets are to be seen copper imple
ments locally known as "spikes," taking their names from the close

OBJECTS OF COPPER

221

resemblance which they bear to the modern articles. These vary
somewhat in shape and size.

One specimen is four and a half inches in length, one fourth of an
inch in thickness, with one extremity pointed and the other enlarged
and blunted to form a head. Another is seven inches in length and
tapers gradually downward from the head, where it is three fourths
of an inch in diameter, to the
point.

A few specimens are decidedly
square in section.

An examination of the heads in
dicates that they are not the result
of pounding while in use, but con
stitute an intentional feature of
these implements. No suggestion
has been offered as to their func
tion. They may be simply perfo
rators or drills. Some of the stouter
implements, with broad, flattish
points, may have been employed
as chisels.

Needles

These are obtained from the
same sites as the foregoing and are
frequently associated with them,
though not nearly as numerous.
All are provided with eyes, and
except in their somewhat ruder
fashioning do not differ from the
needles in ordinary domestic use at
the present day. Their purpose re
quires no explanation.

These implements range in size
from less than two to as much as
eight and an eighth inches. The
average size appears to be between
two and three inches. Such imple
ments are to be seen in manv of r

, . - FIG. 617. (S. i-l.) Pendant of sheet-

trie eastern \\ isconsm Collections. copper. C. B. Moore s explorations.

222 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

In the Milwaukee Public Museum is a small series of copper needles
from Mexico.

Fish- Hooks. (See Fig. 603.)

Hundreds of these and fragments of many others have been col
lected from the aboriginal village- and camp-sites on the west shore
of Lake Michigan in Wisconsin. They have also been obtained in
numbers from the village-sites at Green Lake and at various other
localities along the upper Wisconsin, Fox, Wolf, and Little Wolf
rivers, and elsewhere in this part of the state where good fishing was
to be had. Some have also been found far to the north along the
Lake Superior shore.

Most specimens are of small size, from less than an inch up to
two inches in length. The largest known example is four inches in
length. They are generally circular, though sometimes decidedly
square in section. The points curve and slant outward and inward
at all angles and degrees of curvature. None possess any indication
of a barb.

The shank at the point of attachment to the line is most fre
quently straight. Sometimes, however, it is notched, flattened,
bent over and flattened, or bent over to form an eye. A few speci
mens have been collected which have bits of sinew or twisted fibre
still attached to the shank. Fine series of these useful articles are to
be seen in many local collections.

In the H. P. Hamilton collection there is a series of ten fish-hooks
obtained from the bank of the Little Wolf River, in the township of
Muckwa, in Waupaca County. These are from two and a half to
two and three fourths inches in length, the strongly and broadly
curved hook reaching up to about opposite the middle of the shank.
Some are circular and others square in section, and all are of a nearly
uniform thickness of one fourth of an inch. Several have the tips
of the shank flattened, and all are heavily encrusted with soil and
verdigris, plainly indicating the manner in which they had lain upon
and across each other.

Peculiar Implements

In a few of the large Wisconsin cabinets are to be seen a very small
number of implements whose exact functions are unknown and
which cannot be placed in any of the various classes here de
scribed.

OBJECTS OF COPPER

223

FIG. 618. (S. 1-2.) Remarkable effigy in copper. Collection of J. M. Wolfing,

St. Louis, Missouri.

224 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

One of these, in the H. P. Hamilton collection, is eight and one
quarter inches in length. It is circular in section and tapers to a
point at either extremity. It is seven eighths of an inch in diameter
near the thicker extremity and is knotty all over the surface. Mr.
Hamilton suggests that it may have been employed as a club or
bludgeon. It weighs eight and one half ounces and comes from
Little Chute, Outagamie County. In the same collection there is
also to be seen a long, curved, flattish implement which, it has been
suggested, may have served as a sword. It is about twenty inches
in length and about one inch in width near the middle. It was
obtained with a cache of six other copper implements at Oconto,
Oconto County, Wisconsin.

Banner-Stones

The only specimens in native copper of this interesting and
widely distributed class of ceremonial objects are in the H. P. Hamil
ton collection. One is of the ordinary butterfly pattern with ex
panding wings. Both specimens were found at Oconto, Oconto
County, and were included in a remarkable cache of copper imple
ments and ornaments, consisting of a crescent, sword, chisel, leaf-
shaped blade, and two arrow-points. This specimen, weighing five
ounces, is three and one half inches in length, and one and one fourth
inches in width across the elevated part at the middle. The broad
wings are one and one fourth inches in length and one and one half
inches in width across their outer edges. The perforation at the
middle is of one inch in length and has a short diameter of half an
inch. A second specimen in the same cabinet is of the so-called
"pick" shape. It weighs two and one fourth ounces. It is five
inches in length and only one inch in width across the widest part,
near the middle. The narrow wings are two and one fourth inches
in length and taper to a rounded point, the perforation at the
middle being half an inch in diameter.

Beads. (See Figs. 569, 570.)

The most common local form of copper- bead is somewhat spher
ical in shape and was fashioned by rolling together a small, narrow
strip or welt of native metal, varying in thickness from less than
one eighth to one fourth of an inch or more, only one or two turns
of which were necessary to make a rude bead of quite large size.
Beads of this kind have been obtained in large numbers from Wis-

OBJECTS OF COPPER

225

FIG. 619. (S. 1-3.) Unknown symbols in sheet-copper, Hopewell Group.

consin village-sites, graves, and, sometimes, from the mounds.
Quantities of them, as many as one hundred or more, have occasion
ally been taken from a single grave.

In several Wisconsin collections fine strings or necklaces of such
beads may be seen. Beads of this form have also been obtained in
Ohio, northern Illinois, Michigan, and Minnesota. The Reverend
W. M. Beauchamp has mentioned their occurrence in New York.

A second and quite common form of copper bead is made of a
thin sheet of metal rolled into the form of a cylinder.

They vary in diameter from one eighth to one quarter of an inch
or more, sometimes exceed two inches in length. They are of quite
common occurrence on the Lake Michigan shore and on some inland
village-sites. From aboriginal village-sites at Two Rivers and on the
shores of Green Bay small cylinders formed by twisting thin sheets
of native copper between the fingers in a spiral shape are found.

Bangles. (See Fig. 569.)

These are also made of thin sheets of native copper. They are of
small size, conical or somewhat conical in shape, and open at both
extremities. It is believed that these served as bangles, probably
taking the place, in the past, of the small metal discs, brass or tin
cones, brass thimbles or bells with which it was the custom, among

226 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

the later Indians, to ornament dress fringes or other articles of
wearing apparel. They occur on aboriginal village-sites in the Fox
River Valley and in the Lake Michigan shore region.

Finger-Rings

These consist of small, narrow rods or strips of metal bent into
the form of a simple circlet, the ends abutting or nearly meeting.
Occasionally the rods are thickest at the middle and taper to a

FIG. 620. (S. 1-2.) Copper fish. Hopewell Group. Field Museum collection, Chicago.

point at the extremities. Some may have served equally well as
ear-rings. Specimens are occasionally found in the Lake Michigan
shore region, as well as elsewhere in the state.

Ear- Rings

The fondness of the later Indians for such ornaments is well
known, and it is quite probable that they were also in rather general
use among the earlier aborigines.

In the S. D. Mitchell collection is a small crescent-shaped copper
ornament which may have served as an ear-ring or nose-ring, being
well adapted for such use. It measures one and three eighths inches
in extreme width, and was obtained from an Indian village-site in
Green Lake County. Similar specimens are in several other local
collections.

The Reverend W. M. Beauchamp states that the earliest metallic

OBJECTS OF COPPER

227

FIG. 621. (S. 1-4.) Copper eagle. Hopewell Group. Field Museum collection, Chicago.

ear-rings in use among New York aborigines were probably those of
copper wire coiled and flattened, and believes it possible that per
forated discs and coins may have served the same purpose in early
historic times, but that they were more likely to have been employed
in some other way. Glass and shell beads, and probably many other
things, were so utilized.

Ear-Spools or Ear-Plugs. (See Fig. 612.)

Professor T. H. Lewis has obtained ornaments of this class during
mound explorations conducted by him at Prairie du Chien, Craw
ford County, and Wyalusing, Grant County, in Wisconsin. Ear-
spools have been obtained from various localities in Ohio, Illinois,
and the South. Some of these are rather elaborately ornamented
with embossed figures. In the Field Museum collections are speci
mens which were taken from the mounds of the celebrated Hopewell
Group in Ohio.

A specimen in the Ohio State Archaeological and Historical
Society s collections has still attached to it a fragment of the string
or cord by means of which it was probably attached to the ear of its
aboriginal owner. Similar objects of stone overlaid with sheet-copper
have been described by various authors.

Gorgets and Pendants. (Sec Figs. 570 and 617.)

Careful inquiry has shown the existence of only a small num
ber of these in Wisconsin collections. It is quite possible, however,

228 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

that such ornaments were in more common use among Wisconsin
aborigines than the present limited number would indicate. Be
ing fashioned of sheet-copper, they would even under ordinary
conditions be more likely to suffer destruction, through decom
position, than many other less fragile artifacts, which show very
plainly the effects of chemical action during their interment. One
form of pendant is triangular in shape and is provided at the
broad upper extremity with two perforations, by which means it
could be attached, by a cord, to the person of its aboriginal owner.
Such pendants have been found in Winnebago, Jefferson, Crawford,
and Barron counties. One of the largest measures three and one
eighth inches in length, and one and one fourth inches in width at
the upper edge.

Sheet-copper pendants of circular shape have also been obtained.
These have perforations near the edge or at the middle. The largest
specimen known is about three and one quarter inches in diameter.
Pendants of this form have been obtained in Kenosha, Jefferson,
Dane, Columbia, Grant, Crawford, Barron, Burnett, Winnebago, and
Brown counties. A few specimens of other forms have also been
recovered.

Crescents. (See Figs. 611, 613, 614.)

In this class of copper ornaments are at present included a number
of thin, flattish objects, the basis of all of which appears to be the
crescent, either plain or variously modified by the addition of
prongs or other prolongations arising from the inner or upper edge,
near the middle or extremities.

There is probably little doubt that the greater number of the
objects included in this class were worn by our primitive Indians as
breast ornaments, being fastened to the neck by means of cords.
In this way several of them may have been worn, one below the
other. The adaptability of certain of the pronged forms for use
as hair ornaments is noticeable.

Large numbers have been collected in Wisconsin, and others
will probably be found as old sites are more thoroughly explored,
and new lands opened to cultivation. The existing examples appear
to have been obtained, for the most part, from the village-sites and
graves, where they sometimes occur in association with copper beads
and other articles of personal adornment. But very few have been
recovered from the burial mounds of the state.

OBJECTS OF COPPER

229

A few have also been found in Minnesota, northern Michigan, and
Illinois. The finest series of these copper crescents, representing
nearly all of the known types, is in the H. P. Hamilton collection.
The following is a brief description of the Wisconsin types of copper
crescents : -

1. One of the simplest, although uncommon forms, has the upper
edge quite straight and the low r er ones broadly curved. Specimens
have been found in Manitowoc County, and in Hough ton County,
Michigan.

2. A closely allied type has both edges curved, approaching more
nearly the true crescent form. The degree of curvature varies con
siderably in the small number of spe
cimens known. Specimens have been

found in Washington, Sheboygan,
Marquette, Crawford, and Barron
counties. Minnesota has produced
several specimens : one from Monroe
County, having both extremities
notched to allow for suspension.
(Fig. 6n.)

3. A third type, the so-called "ca
noe-shaped" crescent, usually has
its lower and upper edges curving
equally and formed at the extrem
ities into a short point or embryo
prong, directed inward. This is the
most frequent Wisconsin type, and
examples of it are to be seen in many
collections. The largest and finest
example now known (10X2^ inches,
weight 20 ounces) is in the Hamilton
collection, and was found in the city
of Oconto, Oconto County. Michi
gan and Minnesota have also yielded a number of specimens. (See
Fig. 6 1 1.)

4. A fourth type has the prongs or points at the extremities of
greater length and directed upward or inward. Specimens have been
found in Calumet, Door, Sheboygan, and Marquette counties.
They vary in length from five to seven and one half inches. (One in
Fig. 568.)

FIG. 622. (S. 2-3.) Mica ornament.
Hopewell Group.

230 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

5. In a fifth type the prolongations, arising from the extremities
of the upper edge of the curved base, approach each other and unite
to form a central spike, which is usually circular in section and
formed by the prolongations being twisted about each other. Speci
mens have been obtained in Price, Manitowoc, Green Lake, Wau-
kesha, Washington, and Columbia counties. One has been found in
Minnesota. (Fig. 614, specimen D.)

6. Another peculiar type is furnished with a pair of spikes or
prongs, usually rather long, and either flat or cylindrical in section,
which arise on either side of the middle of the curved top (or base).
(Fig. 613.) Specimens have been obtained in Columbia, Pierce,
Washington, and Vernon counties. One has been found in Ottertail
County, Minnesota. These specimens range from four to eight
inches in length, the prongs being from three to four inches long.
A modification of this type has the prongs united at their points
by a short cross-bar. (Specimen G in Fig. 614.)

Other Ornaments

In the Milwaukee Public Museum are two broad, flat strips of
native copper which may have been worn as headbands.

Both of these fragments, originally curved, have the appearance
of having been straightened, by the finders, and may have formed
a part of the same band. The larger (six inches by one inch) and the
smaller (three and five eighths inches by one inch), and less than
one fourth of an inch in thickness, are ornamented along either edge
and down the middle with a row of deep indentations. The locality
is Sheboygan County. On the skulls of two skeletons in a mound in
Crawford County were found thick copper plates. The larger of
these was ornamented along two edges with a double row of inden
tations, and measured eight inches long by four inches wide. The
other plate was about four and one half inches square.

Mr. Brown has called attention to the distribution of copper and
has described these objects so thoroughly that no remarks on my
part are necessary. However, I wish to offer, briefly, one or two
suggestions.

Copper seems to have played an important part in aboriginal life
in this country. As the natives possessed neither gold nor silver
and because silver ornaments are extremely rare, one may say that
silver was not in use; copper appealed to them as being something

OBJECTS OF COPPER

231

beyond the ordinary, if not possessing supernatural powers. There
was no other substance which they could hammer into shape, or
slightly anneal and work more easily. No other malleable ma
terial possessed that bright, beautiful color and was capable of such
polish. Therefore, copper appealed to the aborigines, and they made

FIG. 623. (S. 3-4.) Mica ornaments. Ohio mounds.
Collection of W. C. Mills, Columbus, Ohio.

general use of it more as an ornament, or a totem, than for ordinary
utility; that is, save in the "copper belt," where it was so common
that tools were made of it.

What the Northern Indians received in exchange for the copper has
always been a mystery to me. In Wisconsin and Michigan where
drift copper occurred in large quantities, and where it still may be
found, it is likely that the natives carried on an extensive trade in
copper and that the peoples of Ohio passed it on, one may suppose,
to the South. This trade was extensive because not only in our muse
ums are there thousands of copper objects, but there are many more
in the hands of private collectors, and in the mounds of the Missis
sippi Valley where there has been much digging, great quantities of
hatchets, plates, nose-rings, and spools are dug up from time to time.

232 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 624. (S. 1-3.) Mica ornaments from mounds of the Hopewell Group.
Field Museum collection, Chicago.

One may question whether the presence of copper in the Ohio
Valley really means extensive aboriginal commerce or trade. I say
Ohio Valley because more mound copper is found there than else
where, although the South should by no means be excluded. Copper
and other foreign materials abound in the middle and lower Mis
sissippi Valley. Yet upon the shores of Lake Superior, about the
copper range, on the streams and lakes of Wisconsin and Michigan
where lived the Indians who possessed so much copper that they
made of it hatchets, fish-hooks, knives, spear-points, etc., usually

OBJECTS OF COPPER 233

are to be found no Southern types save a few pipes and problemat
ical forms in slate. What did these Northern natives receive in re
turn for the quantities of copper which they must have bartered?
Did they receive bird-stones, gorgets, pipes, etc.? Their bird-stones
are very like those of Indiana and Ohio, yet they have a broad bird
effigy usually with ears on both sides of the head which is not found
save occasionally in southern Ohio and Indiana, and seldom in the
South where mound copper is common. Their gorgets and pipes ap
pear to be local. It has occurred to me that the peoples of Indiana
and Ohio, and possibly the South, made raids in the copper country,
or found copper nuggets in the drift, or mined their own copper, or
robbed the Northern peoples of such copper as they wanted. If there
had been any extensive aboriginal trade, we should surely find more
evidence of it.

Mr. Clarence B. Moore 1 has conclusively proved that the copper
taken from the Southern mounds and Ohio mounds is prehistoric
and not of European origin. Some of the gentlemen connected with
the Smithsonian Institution and affiliated museums contend that
the fine repoussk work, on sheet-copper, could not have been made
by aborigines working with stone tools.

A few words regarding the illustrations. An inspection of all the
figures in this chapter, marked from the Hopewell Group, give some
idea of the remarkable copper effigies, ornaments, cut designs, etc.,
comprising the Hopewell collection. This is now on exhibition in the
Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, and can be seen by any
person who will take the pains to visit that institution. It is justly
considered the greatest prehistoric copper collection in the United
States. In the Hopewell Group altars hundreds and hundreds of
copper ear ornaments were found, all more or less affected by heat.
Professor Mills has dug up many ornaments of these same kinds
and says of them :

"Copper ear ornaments were frequently. met with in the graves,
and twenty specimens were secured. They were invariably found in
pairs. The manufacture of these ornaments required skill, as well
as a high degree of advancement in ornamental art. The mode of
manufacture of the ear ornaments, although two different types
were found, was similar. One type was made of two concavo-convex
plates, and were connected by a cylindrical column; but only a few

1 " Discussion as to Copper from the Mounds," American Anthropologist, vol. v, no. I,
January-March, 1903.

234 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

pairs of this type were found. The other type, which was most
common, was made of four plates of copper, two of which are circular,
and two concavo-convex. The concavo-convex plates are attached
to the circular pieces, which form the inside of the ornament. The
discs are connected with a small cylinder of copper. This figure
is a good illustration showing two view r s of the second type of ear
ornaments. Other copper ornaments were found sparingly in the
burial cists. From one grave a large copper crescent was removed,
and from another, six large copper balls."

Sometimes the copper plates were highly ornamented and cut or
trimmed. Fig. 610 is thus described by Professor Mills:

The plate shown in this figure is perhaps the heaviest and smooth
est of all the plates taken from Seip Mound. The scroll pattern cut
upon one side of the plate represents the first specimen of the kind
taken from the mounds of Ohio, as far as known. The plate was
wrapped in leather when it was placed in the grave, and portions still
adhere to the plate, as shown in the cut."

Of the interesting pendants in sheet-copper, Fig. 617, exhumed
from a mound in Moundville, Alabama, Mr. Moore has to say:

The upper part of the pendant has parts excised to form a six-
pointed star within a circle. On the body of the star, repousse, is a
symbol to which we shall revert later. Below is an excised triangle;
beneath which is part of an arm encircled by a string of beads and
an extended hand bearing on it the open eye, all repousse"

The decayed cloth, the fragments of skins and the curious, fine
silt, usually about a handful, lying around copper objects, indicate
that they were at one time carefully wrapped up. If we had pre
served to us some of these wrappings, not a little light might be shed
on the use of the more highly developed copper problematical forms
in the United States.

I am indebted to the directors of the Milwaukee Public Museum
for making illustrations of the finest copper objects in their collec
tions: Figs. 574, 579, 582-89, 595, 597, 599, 602, 605, 613.

CHAPTER XXXI

TEXTILE FABRICS

IT would be comparatively easy for one to write a lengthy chapter
upon textile fabrics. But because of the limited space now at my dis
posal and for the further reason that "The Stone Age" is purpose
ly restricted chiefly to descriptions of art in stone rather than in
fabrics, this chapter must necessarily be brief.

It is unfortunate that almost none of the fabrics of prehistoric
times, made use of by the natives of that period, are in existence
to-day, and aside from pieces of mats and here and there a bit of
cloth from the dry caves of Kentucky and the Ozark Mountains,
there is nothing in our museums to give a clue as to the nature
and material of the garments, robes, blankets, etc. We are depend
ent chiefly on history for our knowledge of the use of textile fabrics.

But in the Southwest the aridity of the climate, together with
the fact that the walls of the cliff-houses kept out the occasional
rains, and that the sands of the desert drifting over the ruined
pueblos, worked in harmony to preserve a goodly number of frag
ments of textile fabrics. Some of these are in the American Museum,
New York City, others in Washington, Denver, and Philadelphia
museums. All are of great interest and were made use of by stone-
age man.

The copper plates found in the mounds of the Mississippi Valley
sometimes contain impressions of cloth and other fabrics. There
are occasionally bits of charred cloth, found in altars or ash-pits or
between copper plates. Professors Holmes, Mills, Putnam, and oth
ers have described these in various reports.

An inspection of the material illustrated in this chapter will ac
quaint readers with the fact that the natives of Kentucky made use
of various plants, the favorite of which is the ordinary flag, for the
manufacture of baskets, sandals, etc.

In the Southwest, desert plants, such as the yucca, possessing
elasticity and strength, were employed for a multitude of purposes.

Could we have preserved for our inspection the textile fabrics
made use of in the Mississippi Valley, we doubtless should observe

236 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 625. (S. 1-4 to 1-5.) Sandals from Salts Cave, made of bark and wild hemp. Col
lection of Bennett H. Young, Louisville, Kentucky.

TEXTILE FABRICS

237

1
O

.0-0

o pj

a o

238 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

that primitive man in this great region employed utensils, garments,
weapons, tools, and other things made of perishable material.

Salts Cave, near Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, has been recently
explored by Colonel Young, and I am indebted to him for proof-
sheets of his work, " Discoveries in Kentucky Caves." Colonel
Young states that the cave has been known for a hundred years
and is an extremely interesting place. Upon examination he
ascertained that many holes had been dug in the cave floor (for it is
covered with debris and cave earth), apparently by the ancient

FIG. 627. (S. 2-5.) Moccasin worn through at toe and heel, from Salts Cave. Material,
leaves of cat-tail. Collection of Bennett H. Young, Louisville, Kentucky.

people who had at some time lived there. Contrary to the caverns
in the Ozarks, this cave has been visited and explored in prehistoric
times, and the remains of man are not confined to the openings,
where it is light, but extend for several miles through the various
labyrinths. Colonel Young writes:

"Along the main cavern for several miles are numerous fireplaces
and ash -heaps; small piles of stone, evidently placed to hold fagots
used in lighting ; innumerable partly burned torches of cane-reed, and
even the footprints of the men who, hundreds of years ago, walked
along these majestic avenues. The cave contains a large amount of
saltpeter, and has a mean temperature of fifty-four degrees. The
atmosphere of the interior is dry and pure, and this, together with the
nitrous matter in the earth, has produced conditions favorable to the
preservation of all kinds of materials. About the hearths and fire
places were found hundreds of fragments of gourds, and also some
shells of the aboriginal squash, both of which were in an excellent
state of preservation. Torches of reed, to be counted by the thou
sands, which had been filled with grease or soaked in oil, traces of
which may still be seen on some specimens, appeared as if they had

TEXTILE FABRICS

239

FIG. 628. (S. 1-4.) Collection of Bennett H. Young, Louisville, Kentucky. Moccasins
and pieces of cloth from Salts Cave.

2 4 o THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG, 629. (S. 1-4.) Flags, wild hemp, and other materials
used in making cloth. From Salts Cave. Collection of
Bennett H. Youpg, Louisville, Kentucky.

been cast aside hut yesterday. Along the main avenues and the
second or lower layer of caves, as well as in many side avenues, these
torches were found. Those who have spent much time in this cavern
say that they have discovered no places where these and other traces
of aboriginal man are absent.

"Among the most interesting discoveries were a number of neatly
braided slippers or sandals, and fragments of textile art. Several
materials seem to have been used in the manufacture of these.
Some were made of the fibre of the cat- tail, or Typha, a plant which

TEXTILE FABRICS

241

Fir.. 630. ($. varying.) Collection of Bennett H. Young, Louisville, Kentucky. Bag of
woven cloth from Salts Cave nine by seven inches; plaited rope; fragments of cloth.

242 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 631. (S. 1-4.) Pair of leggings, with the bone needles used in making them. From
cave-house ruins in eastern Utah, 1895. Collection of Henry Montgomery.

grows abundantly in the ponds in the southern part of the state.
Others were woven of the inner bark of trees, probably the pawpaw
and linn. Still others were made of what appears to be the fibre of
wild hemp, and yet others from a species of grass which grew in great
abundance on the Barrens of Kentucky.

The sandals show several distinct forms of braiding; the material
of the more delicate and graceful appears to be the wild hemp, and
the plait on the outer side exhibits a beautiful triangular figure.
They have raised sides from the heel to the toe, the braids being
worked forward, uniting in a seam in the middle line above the toes.

TEXTILE FABRICS

243

FIG. 632. (S. 1-5.) Wooden pail or tub from
cave-house ruins, San Juan County, Utah,
1894. H. Montgomery s collection.

FIG. 633. (S. reduced 2-3.) Vase, turkey
form. Feathers are indicated by marks made
with black paint. Collection of B. H. Young,
Louisville, Kentucky.

FIG. 634. (S. 1-3.) Birch bark from a burial-pit in Xorth
Dakota. Henry Montgomery s collection, Toronto.

244 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 635. (S. 1-7.) Old wicker and twined baskets from the Pueblo of Zufii, New Mex
ico. This figure shows some old so-called Zufii- ware, collected for the Bureau of Amer
ican Ethnology by James Stevenson, in New Mexico, long ago.

TEXTILE FABRICS

245

Over the instep many were laced with cords, the lacing still being
preserved in some of the specimens. Frequently long ornamental
tassels were placed above the instep. These slippers are found in
the crevices of the rock and on the ledges in out-of-the-way places
where they evidently had been cast aside by these people. All show
signs of wear at toe and heel. Several display a more or less skillful
attempt on the part of the owner at mending or darning. This was
done sometimes with cord, but frequently with bark. In size they
vary from small ones, made for children, to specimens correspond
ing to a number seven shoe."

FIG. 636. (S. 1-4.) Coiled bowl-tray of the ancient basket-makers, cliffs of south
eastern t tah. Ornamented by two sinuous rings in black. Collection of American
Museum of Natural History, New York.

246 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

While we have some numbers of textiles preserved for our inspec
tion, yet our study of the subject is somewhat narrowed. As has
been previously stated, the bulk of prehistoric artifacts are composed
of more lasting materials. It is unfortunate that we have so few of
the garments, robes, head-dresses, baskets, wooden and other
things once in use in America.

Thorough exploration of the caves and caverns, the cliff-houses and
ruined pueblos may bring to light quantities of this textile and
wooden material, and I would urge that such investigations be car
ried on. Many of the caverns are ransacked by curiosity-seekers,
and soon all the objects buried therein will have disappeared.

CHAPTER XXXII

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES

IN Volume I, of this work, on page 26, is presented the classifica
tion of the Nomenclature Committee with reference to pottery,
which covers, as a matter of course, all the specimens illustrated
in this chapter.

While it is true that a great deal of pottery has been taken from
mounds, graves, cliff -houses and ruined pueblos by expeditions under

FIG. 637. (S. varying.) Outlines showing range of form of vases. Middle Mississippi

Valley Group.

my direction, yet I have never made a detailed study of ceramic
art in America, although in a certain sense familiar with the forms
found throughout this country.

It would be presumptuous for one to write of a certain phase of
archaeology that has been more ably and exhaustively treated
by some one who is a recognized authority. And in pottery we
have two scholars, whose explorations and studies place them first,
Professor W. H. Holmes and Mr. Clarence B. Moore. Professor
Holmes s "Aboriginal Pottery of the Eastern United States" 1
will be taken as the last word on the subject. And Mr. Moore s
eighteen reports of explorations in Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and
Mississippi illustrate all the forms in clay found in that extensive
region.

1 Twentieth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1898-99.

248 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

There is in the United States no collection of Southern mound
pottery equal in extent to that obtained by Mr. Moore. His explora
tions have been of great benefit to science, and it is no exaggeration
to state that his works shed very great light on prehistoric art as
well in pottery as in other materials.

Therefore, I have quoted by permission from both Professor
Holmes and Mr. Moore, and made use of numerous illustrations
from their reports, including the outlines of types prepared by the
former.

Pottery may be said to be the barometer indicating the culture
stage of any people. In the far North there is no pottery. In the
St. Lawrence basin pottery is insignificant. In New England the few
artistic specimens of decorative pottery have been made much of by
observers, but these rare examples of the ceramic art indicate pro-

FIG. 638. Outlines showing range of form of vases. Middle Mississippi Valley Group.

gress on the part of a few individuals. There was no real potters art
north of the Ohio River or east of the Wabash. True, there are
some good examples of fine pottery from the Ohio mounds, but the
ancient Northern peoples made but little progress in ceramic art save
on the part of a few individuals living in the Scioto Valley, southern
Ohio. In the Iroquois country it appears that the natives were on
the verge of developing art in pottery, and had they remained in
their barbaric splendor two centuries longer, it is quite likely that
they would have made remarkable advance in the potters art.
Much of their pottery is decorated, but it is crudely so. Their pipes

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES 249

g h i

FIG. 639. Vases of compound form. Middle Mississippi Valley Group.

250 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

of pottery were highly developed, ornate, and interesting. But
these have been considered under the chapter devoted to pipes and
smoking customs.

So far as I am aware, the Wabash River in Indiana marks the
farthest north, of Southern types of pottery. There may be a few

m n o

FIG. 640. Vases of compound form. Middle Mississippi Valley Group.

strays now and then, but the cemetery explored by Mr. Anderson
for Mr. Peabody, at that place, brought to light more than one hun
dred jars, bowls, and effigies, all of distinct types. (A few are shown
in Fig. 681.) Elsewhere north of the Ohio and east of the Wabash,
I have not known of effigy pottery being found. 1 Throughout the
Ohio Valley there are some fine specimens of ceramic art found
in the mounds. But the pottery, as a rule, between the Wabash and
the Alleghenies is of the Fort Ancient culture. Some of it is shown
in Figs. 648, 649.

At the great cemetery at Madison ville, Ohio, the pottery does
not exhibit skill in modeling or high finish. All the pottery of this
great region appears to be crudely made, of inferior materials, tem-

1 " Explorations of the Wabash Cemetery," Bulletin no. 3, Phillips Academy Publica
tions, 1906.

Fig. 641. (S. about i-io.)

Collection of pottery, fromt mounds and graves in southeastern
Missouri. From F. P. Graves s collection, Doe Run, Missouri.

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES 253

FIG. 642. Outlines showing various features of vase elaboration.
Middle Mississippi Valley Group.

FIG. 643. Outlines showing various features of vase elaboration.
Middle Mississippi Valley Group.

254 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

" \

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES

255

256 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 646. (S. 1-4.) Wisconsin bowls. S. D. Mitchell s collection,
Ripon, Wisconsin.

pered with pulverized unio shells or sand. In Indiana and Illinois
there are occasional effigies found in the mounds, but one must pass
to the Cumberland and Tennessee valleys, and to the St. Francis
basin of Arkansas, to southeastern Missouri, and to the region about
Memphis and Nashville for the highest ceramic art of the Southern
Mound-Builders. These people were peculiarly skilled in the potter s
art, and all the museums of the country are filled with their handi
work. Professor Holmes has commented on it at great length in the

FIG. 647. (S. 1-4.) Urn of pottery. From mound in western
Ontario. Collection of Henry Montgomery.

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES

257

publication cited. The potters art was highly developed in regions
explored by Mr. Moore, as is attested by the specimens presented
in Figs. 678, 670-673. But effigy pottery in Florida, Georgia, and
Alabama is rarer than in Arkansas and Missouri. On the contrary,
there is more decorative pottery (with incised lines, tracings of
snakes and birds) in the region explored by Mr. Moore than in the
middle Mississippi Valley.

Through the Great Plains there is a dearth of pottery. The buffalo
hunters had little need of it. The cemeteries and mounds of the
Indian Territory and Oklahoma, and of that long stretch of country

FIG. 648. (S. about 1-6.) The two central ones in the upper row and the left-hand
specimen in the lower row are corrugated; from northeastern Kentucky. The others are
from southern Kentucky. Collection of Bennett H. Young, Louisville, Kentucky.

flanking the Arkansas River, produce good pottery, but not compar
able with that of the stone graves and mounds of the central South.
Northwestern California, the entire Rocky Mountains present an
anomaly in archaeology in that no pottery save here and there a
stray --is found. The Cliff-Dweller country, by which I mean the
Colorado River Valley, including its tributaries, abounds in pottery
of the highest type found on the American continent.

258 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

But while admitting that the Cliff -Dweller pottery was superior
in finish, material, and form of bowls, bottles, and dishes, yet the
effigies of the South and the middle Mississippi Valley are superior
to effigies found in the Cliff-Dweller country.

The uses of pottery are primarily domestic. Whether bowls, jars,
and other forms were used as receptacles in which to boil or stew or

FlG. 649. (S. 1-2.) Perfect pottery found with a skeleton, Gartner
Mound, Ohio. W. C. Mills s collection, Columbus, Ohio.

bake matters not. Man invented pottery because it was more con
venient for him to make a receptacle out of clay and bake the clay
than to hollow a bowl out of stone. He moved in the line of least
resistance, and it was easier to make a bowl or a dish from clay than
to carve such a utensil from stone. While Indians roasted much of
their meat on the end of sticks, or baked the food in the ashes, yet
they preferred to boil and stew their foods. This is especially true
of the established villages where a profusion of pottery fragments
abounds. It is natural to suppose that as the ceramic art developed,
to the variety of forms in clay, man added the dish, the water-
bottle, the effigy, and more or less complicated forms of the jar or
the bowl. And because nothing but true cooking-pots are found in

Fig. 650. (S. about i-io.)

Various jars, bottles, and bowls, from graves and mounds in south
eastern Missouri. Collection of F. P. Graves, Doe Run, Missouri.

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES 261

FIG. 651. (S. about 1-5.) The small vessel is just the size of a
teacup. The restored vessel has a diameter of eleven inches at
the top. Found at Two Rivers, Wisconsin. Collection of H. P.
Hamilton, Two Rivers, Wisconsin.

the Lake Superior region, New England, the Delaware and Sus-
quehanna valleys, I claim that the pottery art was not developed
in those regions beyond the manufacture of rough utensils to be used
about the fire. And although there is some mound pottery in Ohio
of such finish and character as to designate it as above, and pottery
was made use of in the culinary arts, yet these examples are rare and
denote rather a high culture in a certain locality than proficiency in
ceramic art. It is only in the central and southern portions of the
Mississippi Valley and in the Cliff- Dweller country that pottery-
making became an art.

Indeed in the Tennessee stone graves, and at the village at the
mouth of the Wabash River in Indiana, there have been found
numerous clay rattles and clay toys. The latter take the form of
small bowls and dishes. With them are frequently small clay peb-

262 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

bles. These little clay toys are buried with skeletons of children
ranging from two to six years of age. It is remarkable that these
people, whom we have considered as in the middle stage of barbar
ism, should have invented the toy. It is quite probable that the

FIG. 652. (S. about 1-5.) This pottery has been
carefully restored. It was found in Warehouse Point,
Connecticut, and is thirty-eight and one half inches
in circumference and fifteen inches high. Collection
of A. E. Kilbourne, East Hartford, Connecticut.

women who made these clay dishes were not influenced by know
ledge of similar things in use among Europeans, for the Tennessee
graves and the \Yabash cemetery appear to be prehistoric. Such
discoveries as the presence of these dishes alongside of little children
suggest that we should go slowly in our statements that most of the
time of the aborigines was given up to warfare and barbaric cere
monies. We know not the whole story of their daily life, but every
year there are additions to the sum of human knowledge, and such

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES 263

IP III

FIG. 653. University of Vermont collection.

264 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 654. (S. 1-3.) University of Vermont collection.

finds as I have enumerated emphasize the human side of these
people.

The ceramic arts among the aborigines embrace not only clay
forms used in cooking and ollas for cooling, rather common in hot
countries; but also effigies were made of clay, there were clay spindle-
whorls, also clay rings, discs, and objects we know not the use of.
Clay beads have been found in a number of places. Illustrations,

FIG. 655. (S. 1-3.) University of Vermont collection.

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES 265

FIG. 656. (S. 1-2.) Broken pottery from Ohio and Pennsylvania sites.
Andover collection.

266 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 657. (S. 1-5.) Bowls from Kentucky graves and mounds.
B. H. Young s collection.

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES 267

FIG. 658. (S. 1-4.) Florida pottery. Andover collection.

FIG. 659. (S. 1-3.) Vessel, from Arkansas.
Davenport Academy collection. Middle Mis
sissippi Valley Group.

268 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 660. (S. 1-2.) Vase with incised design. From Louisiana.

FIG. 66 1. (S. 1-4.) Florida pottery. Phillips Academy collection.

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES 269

with brief descriptions, are presented of all these clay things. It is
quite likely that on the large village-sites in the Tennessee and Cum
berland valleys, extending from central Kentucky to central Ten
nessee and northern Alabama, many sun-dried clay objects, or objects
imperfectly burned, have disappeared through climatic agencies. I
have remarked on the importance of comparing historic sites with
prehistoric sites and have insisted that this should be done. I shall
show, in the chapter cited above, that the prehistoric as well as the
modern Indians selected the most favorable localities for villages;
therefore modern villages were often built on the site occupied by
a prehistoric building. The presence of stone, clay, bone, and shell

FIG. 662. (S. 1-3.) Vase from Madisonville, Ohio. Ohio Valley Group.

objects on these sites indicates that the population was greater in
prehistoric times than in modern. The fabrics and the wooden ob
jects of ancient times have long since disappeared, as have most such
things of even two centuries ago. It is observed on many sites that
there are no shell objects even in the ash-pits, and few bone objects.
I take this to mean that such sites are the oldest of all. The
things that are preserved are only those of such substances as resist
atmospheric agencies. If one will study a village-site, walking back
and forth across the ploughed field for hours, as I have done, -
one will observe that there are pieces of pottery of firm texture.
There are other pieces of pottery ready to disintegrate. The same is
true of shells. While one s conclusions as to pottery are based upon
the specimens he finds, yet I do not consider it at all visionary to

270 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 663. (S. 1-4.) Vase from a mound at
Madisonvillc, Ohio. Ohio Valley Group.

FIG. 664. (S. 1-2.) Vase from a mound at
Madisonville, Ohio Valley.

assume that forms in clay, other than pottery, were in use among
the Indians. I, myself, have picked up fragments of pottery in such
disintegrated condition that they could be crumbled up between the
thumb and index finger.

The range of pottery in America both north and south is from the
rudest, thick, clumsy bowl, such as has been found in Kansas or
Nebraska or in certain parts of New England, to the highest art of
the ancient Cliff-Dwellers. I do not say highest art of the Pueblo
people, for the modern Pueblo art does not equal that of the an
cient Pueblos or Cliff-Dwellers. It must be remembered, when study
ing American pottery, that although a bowl from Arkansas, a bottle
from Mississippi, a dish from Tennessee, or a pitcher from New Mex-

FIG. 665. (S. a little over 1-3.) Vessel, from Arkansas. Middle Mississippi Valley Group.

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES

271

FIG. 666. (S. 1-3.)
Vase with incised design.
Lower Mississippi Valley.

FIG. 667. (S. 1-3.)

Vessel, from Arkansas.

Davenport Academy collection.

FIG. 668. (S. 1-3.) From a mound near West Bay P. O. "Certain Aborig
inal Remains of the Northwest Florida Coast," p. 131, Fig. i.

272 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FlG. 669. (S. 1-2.) Clay vessels from Iroquoian sites, New York. Collection of the
Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, New York.

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES 273

FIG. 670. (S. 2-3.) Peculiar jar found during C. B. Moore s explorations.
A vase, probably unique, of compound form, representing a short-necked
bottle imposed upon a vessel of eccentric shape, having a series of four
projecting lobes, above and below. The ware is most inferior. The decora
tion, faintly and rudely executed, consists partly of the scroll and partly of
parallel lines and punctate markings.

274 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 671. (S. 2-3.) Mound place. A bottle of gray ware, having a flat
base and a most unusual shape of body possibly a compound form. The
decoration consists of series of curved trailed lines above the spaces in the
lower part of the body.

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES 275

FlG. 672. (S. i-i.) Mound below Hare s Landing. "Mounds; Moundville Revisited;
Mounds of Chattahoochee and Flint River." Moore, p. 431, Fig. 3.

276 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 673. (S. 3-4.) This jar was badly crushed, and lay apart from human
remains. Put together, it proved to be a beautiful jar of highly polished .ware.
The decoration is made of scrolls, depressions, and incised encircling lines.

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES

277

&gt;

3
C

278 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

ico may be of similar form and like pottery found in Greece, Egypt,
or Europe, yet this American pottery has such an individuality of
its own that the museum curator can at once distinguish the one
from the other. Truly American pottery is different from that found
elsewhere in the world. It may seem a paradox and yet it is true

FIG. 675. (S. 1-3.) Vase with incised design. From Mississippi.
Davenport Academy collection.

that while the bowl from Missouri and the bowl from ancient Rome
may be of the same form and size, there is a peculiarity observed in
the American specimen that enables one to set it aside as distinct
and peculiar to the American aborigines. One could assemble and
mingle in a museum a thousand vessels, jars, and bowls from all over
the world, remove all the labels, and yet the students of American
ceramics would at once pick out those that represent American art.

Professor Holmes, in his publication previously cited, divides the
pottery of the United States into seven groups: -

Middle Mississippi Valley Group.

Upper Mississippi Valley, or Northwest Group.

Ohio Valley Group.

Iroquoian Group.

Atlantic Algonquin Group.

South Appalachian Group.

Gulf Coast Group.

About the pottery of New England he states: -

"The vessels were mere pots, and the pipes, although sometimes

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES

279

ornamented with incised lines and indentations, are mainly the
simple bent trumpet of the more southern areas. The clay is tem
pered usually with a large percentage of coarse sand, the finish
is comparatively rude, and the ornament, though varied, is always
elementary. The surfaces have, in many cases, been textured with
cord-covered paddles, and over these, or on spaces smoothed down
for the purpose, are various crude patterns made with cords, bits of
fabric, roulettes, and pointed tools of many varieties. The use of the

FIG. 676. (S. 1-3.) Vessel imitating animal form;
from Arkansas. Middle Mississippi Valley Group.
Davenport Academy collection.

roulette would seem to link the art of this Abnaki region very closely
with that of the middle Atlantic States and portions of the upper
Mississippi region."

In New Jersey, in the Chesapeake region, the pottery-ware is to
a large extent of Algonquin type, although some Iroquoian wares are
found.

As in the case of New England, the forms are simple, the pottery
crudely made. But of course there are found fragments exhibiting
considerable skill in manufacture. These may be exotic types, and
their presence clue to knowledge of the art of more advanced tribes,
or to barter or exchange.

The lower Mississippi mounds furnish some very superior pottery,
though many of the bowls, dishes, and jars taken from the mounds
of that region are no more skillfully made than those of the St.
Francis and Cumberland valleys. There are some examples of black
pottery, very highly finished, found along the Red River. Professor
Holmes says of these : -

2 8o THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

"The most striking characteristics of the better examples of this
ware are the black color and the mechanical perfection of construc
tion, surface finish, and decoration. The forms are varied and
symmetric. The black surface is highly polished and is usually
decorated with incised patterns. The scroll was the favorite decorat-

FIG. 677. (S. 1-3.) Vessel imitating animal form; from Arkansas.

ive design, and it will be difficult to find in any part of the world
a more chaste and elaborate treatment of this motive."

Professor Holmes devotes special attention to the southern
Appalachian stamped ware. Most of the specimens in the Smith
sonian came from the Savannah River Valley. Mr. Moore has dug
up a great deal of this pottery along the Atlantic seaboard. The
designs are stamped by means of a paddle. Professor Holmes gives
us the following description: -

"Although some of the peculiar designs with which the paddle
stamps were embellished may have come, as has been suggested,
from neighboring Antillean peoples, it is probable that the imple
ment is of Continental origin. It is easy to see how the use of figured
modeling-tools could arise with any people out of the simple primitive
processes of vessel-modeling. As the walls were built up by means
of flattish strips of clay, added one upon another, the fingers and
hand were used to weld the parts together and to smooth down the
uneven surfaces. In time various improvised implements would
come into use shells for scraping, smooth stones for rubbing, and
paddle-like tools for malleating. Some of the latter, having textured
surfaces, would leave figured imprints on the plastic surface, and
these, producing a pleasing effect on the primitive mind, would lead

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES 281

FIG. 678. (S. 1-2.) Effigy bottle. Collection of E. E. Baird, Poplar Bluff, Missouri.

282 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

Fig. 680. (5. about 1-8.)

Decorated and painted bowls and jars typical of the
best pottery, from the Middle Mississippi Valley. Taken
from mounds and graves of Arkansas and Missouri.
From the collection of F. P. Graves, Doe Run, Missouri.

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES 285

FIG. 681. (S. 1-5.) Three effigy bowls. From the Wabash Cemetery.

FIG. 682. (S. 1-2.) Remarkable effigy bowl in clay. Supposed to be a life-mask. Found
near Blythesville, Mississippi County, Arkansas. From burial-site which was being washed
away by river. Side view. Collection of H. M. Braun, East St. Louis, Illinois.

286 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 683. (S. 1-2.) Front view of Fig. 682.

to extension of use, and, finally, to the invention of special tools
and the adding of elaborate designs. But the use of figured surfaces
seems to have had other than purely decorative functions, and, in
deed, in most cases, the decorative idea may have been secondary.
"It will be observed by one who attempts the manipulation of
clay that striking or paddling with a smooth surface has often the
tendency to extend flaws and to start new ones, thus weakening
the wall of the vessel, but a ribbed or deeply figured surface properly
applied has the effect of welding the clay together, of kneading the
plastic surface, producing numberless minute dovetailings of the clay
which connect across weak lines and incipient cracks, adding greatly
to the strength of the vessel.

That the figured stamp had a dual function, a technic and an
esthetic one, is fully apparent. When it was applied to the surface

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES 287

FIG. 684. (S. 1-3.) Three typical bowls from the Chaco Group of ruins, New Mexico.
Dug up from debris in a lower room, Pueblo Bonito, in 1897, by W. K. Moorehead.

it removed unevenness and welded the plastic clay into a firm,
tenacious mass. Scarifying with a rude comb-like tool was employed
in some sections for the same purpose, and was so used more generally
on the inner surface, where a paddle or stamp could not be employed.
That this was recognized as one of the functions of the stamp is
shown by the fact that in many neatly finished vessels, where cer
tain portions received a smooth finish, the paddle had first been used
over the entire vessel, the pattern being afterward worked down
with a polishing-stone. However, the beauty of the designs em
ployed and the care and taste with which they were applied to the
vases bear ample testimony to the fact that the function of the
stamp as used in this province was largely esthetic."

Of the life element in decoration on pottery, Professor Holmes
writes at some length. He assembled a number of vessels on which
were various decorations representing man, quadrupeds, birds,
reptiles, batrachians, and fishes. The conclusion reached is that
there is at least a large degree of consistency, and that particular
forms of creatures may be recognized far down the scale toward the
geometric. Exceptions were noted, however. The symbols are
occasionally intermingled, as if the significance of the particular

288 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

forms had been lost sight of, the potter using them as symbols of the
life idea in general, or as mere decorations.

"As a rule, the incised designs are more highly conventional than
the plastic, the eagle and the serpent being the only incised forms,

FIG. 685. (S. about 1-4.) Four typical Chaco pitchers. Andover collection.

so far as has been observed, realistically treated; but it was possible
to recognize others through their association with the modeled
forms. In vessels furnished with the head of a bird in relief, for
example, the same kind of incised figures were generally found
around the vessel, and these are recognized as being more or less
fully conventionalized representations of wings. The same is true
of the fish and its gills, fins, and tail; of the serpent and its spots and
rattles, and of the frog and its legs. The relieved figures, realistic
ally treated, become thus a key to the formal incised designs, en-

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES 289

FIG. 686. (S. 1-4.) Double jar from the Chaco Group. Found in a lower
room in Pueblo Bonito.

abling us to identify them when separately used. It will be seen,
however, that since all forms shade off into the purely geometric,
there comes a stage when all must be practically alike; and in inde
pendent positions, since we have no key, we fail to distinguish them,
and can only say that whatever they represented to the potter they
cannot be to us more than mere suggestions of the life idea. To the
native potter the life concept was probably an essential association
with every vessel."

All writers on pottery observe a great difference between the
ware of the North and that of the South. Professor Holmes points
to this in more than one place in his writings, and he asks this ques
tion : " Is it due to differences in race? Were the Southern tribes as a
body more highly endowed than the Northern, or did the currents of
migration, representing distinct centres of culture, come from op
posite quarters to meet along this line. Or does the difference result
from the unlike environments of the two sections, the one fertile and
salubrious, encouraging progress in art, and the other rigorous and
exacting, checking tendencies in that direction? Or does the weaken-

290 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

C "C

- ,3

c o
o u

*.p en

Fig. 688. (S. indicated.}

A jar of " coiled ware," from a cliff -house in New
Mexico. Collection of M. C. Long, Kansas City, Missouri.

. ir- X^V--C^T!5pi5jK-*jj

. =

^x^Sv 5 ^^

p^spg

POTTERY OF THE UNITED STATES 293

FIG. 689. (S. 1-3.) Stones used in smoothing pottery, kneading clay, etc.

294 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

ing art impulse indicate increasing distance from the great art
centres in the far South, in Mexico, and Yucatan?"

The antiquity of pottery in this country is a question of absorbing
interest. Perhaps the shell mounds of Florida shed more light on
this question than do other remains. Mr. Clarence B. Moore, who
has explored for several seasons, and thoroughly opened numbers
of shell mounds, states that sometimes there was no pottery in the
lower layers of some of these mounds. This would indicate that
some of the shell mounds are very old, and had been in use before
the discovery and utilization of pottery by our aborigines. I. regret
that I have not space to quote Mr. Moore s remarks at length, but
must refer readers to his reports, which take up this important ques
tion in detail.

Mr. Brown reports on the pottery of his region as follows :-

" About thirty-five specimens of the earthenware vessels of the
Wisconsin Indians are now in existence. Most of these have been
described and figured in the Wisconsin Archeologist. The largest
of these vessels in the J. P. Schumacher collection at Green Bay is
twenty inches in height and twenty-two inches in diameter at the
widest part. It has the great capacity of two and one fourth bushels.
The smallest specimen is in the H. P. Hamilton collection and is of
about the size of an ordinary cup.

"Other pottery objects found in Wisconsin include pipes, a few
beads, and perforated discs made of potsherds."

I am indebted to Professor Holmes for Figures 637 to 646, 659,
660, 662 to 667, 675, 677, and to Mr. Moore for Figures 668 to
674.

CHAPTER XXXIII

HEMATITE OBJECTS

THE hematite beds in various portions of the United States fur
nished the Indians with paint and with implements. Hematite, like
copper, being different from other materials with which he was
familiar appealed to the aborigine. Its bright red color attracted
him, and although he found most of it very hard, yet he made use of
it to a remarkable extent when one considers how refractory it was
for him to work. Hematite is found on the surface in large quantities
in portions of Missouri and Arkansas, in western Virginia, Ohio, and
elsewhere. Most of the hematite seems to come from Missouri. It
was common there, and therefore the native made of it grooved hem
atite axes, which he did not do elsewhere in this country. One sup
poses that hematite was exchanged and bartered with remote tribes.
Just as in the case of copper, the natives of Louisiana, Mississippi,
Indiana, and Michigan prized their hematite highly and made of it
their most perfect plummet-shaped ornaments, hematite celts, and
such other objects as it was possible for them to manufacture. The
softer kinds of hematite were ground into paint, and there are fre
quently found on the village-sites along the Ohio River small blocks
of hematite worn to flat surfaces. There is in the Arkansas region a
very hard blue-red or blue-gray hematite. How the Indians cut this
into symmetrical oval plummets has always been a mystery to me.
If the rough nugget was ground by means of other stones or sand,
one is scarcely able to conceive how the finished article was pro
duced. The process must have been long and laborious, much more
so than the manufacture of an effigy pipe, or the making of a pro
blematical form.

The hard gray hematite referred to resists the knife and will wear
an ordinary file in a short time, yet in the altar mounds of the Ohio
Valley, and in the older graves (not graves of the historic period) are
found numbers of these slender hematite plummets (see Fig. 700)
worked from the hardest and most refractory iron ore. It is unfortun
ate that the earliest tribes known to the voyagers and explorers in
this country had no hematite objects in use among them. If so, I

296 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 690. (S. i -i.) Eight hematite objects from the Andover collection. In the upper
right-hand corner is a hematite pebble, polished on two of its angles and rough on the
other side. This illustrates how hematite was cut and ground until reduced to the desired
shape. Flint scratchings are still plain on the surface. Just beneath it is a triangular bit
of hematite. This is of soft hematite. The flat surface may be due to grinding in order to
obtain paint. Beneath are two hematite cones. The four specimens to the left represent
hematite objects in various stages of manufacture.

HEMATITE OBJECTS

297

FIG. 691. (S. 1-2.)

These are from the collection of George Y. Hull, St. Joseph, Missouri.

1. Celt from mound, Andrew County, Missouri. Smooth and well-made but not

polished.

2. Plumb much pitted by age, surface find, Callaway County, Missouri.

3. A fine truncated cone used as a paint-grinder. Top of cone is worn and depressed

from use. Surface find, Callaway County, Missouri.

4. Finely polished celt, surface find, Doniphan County, Kansas.

5. From an old grave near the village-site at Wathena, Kansas.

6. Axe with flat top and flat side, a surface find, Callaway County, Missouri.

7. From an old village-site at King Hill, St. Joseph, Buchanan County, Missouri.
The difference between the celts is self-evident, numbers i and 4 being square, and

5 and 7 oval.

298 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 692. (S. 1-5.) This figure
illustrates three grooved axes in
the lower row; an unfinished
hematite implement of unknown
purpose and a hematite nodule
above. Hematite axes are fre
quently found in Missouri, but
seem rare elsewhere in the coun
try. The groove may entirely
encircle them, or be faintly indi
cated on the back. But usually
they are grooved entirely around.
The one in the lower left-hand
corner has a broad, sharp, cutting
edge. Naturally, because of its
hardness, hematite made excel
lent axes. They retained their
edges longer and more nearly
approached the modern iron axe
than any other aboriginal tool.

fail to find references to such objects. This is unfortunate because
hematite certainly was considered as more than of passing import
ance. It is quite likely that because it was so difficult to reduce it
to the desired shape the so-called plummets were made use of, as
Dr. Yates suggests, as stones used in certain ceremonies, or by
shamans, or as charm-stones. I have seen unfinished hematite
plummets, but cannot work out a satisfactory theory as to their
manufacture.

FIG. 693. (S. 1-2.) Hematite objects from the collection of Dr. Henry M. Whelp-
ley, St. Louis, Missouri. Hematite plummet to the left, grooved axe in the centre, a
hematite cone to the right, a celt in the lower right-hand corner.

Fig. 694. (S. about 1-3.)

Group of nine grooved hematite axes, -from eastern and central
Missouri. Collection of F. P. Graves, Doe Run, Missouri.

HEMATITE OBJECTS

301

I have presented a series of figures covering all the known forms
of hematites. No classification was attempted by the Nomenclature
Committee, and the following is of my own make:

Elongated or oval
hematites.

Edged hematites.

f Plummet-shaped. (Fig. 700.)
J

Egg-shaped. (Fig. 699.)
Egg-shaped, flattened. (Fig. 697, lower row.)
Cone-shaped. (Fig. 697, upper part.)
( Celt form, oval. (Fig. 691, specimens 5 and 7.)
Celt form, beveled edge. (Fig. 693, lower right.)
Axe form. (Figs. 694, 695.)
Irregular forms. (Fig. 701.)
Paint-stone hematite. (Fig. 690, second from the top.)

Hematite being valuable, may have served several purposes and
doubtless did. The small celts might have been set in the heads of
war-clubs and securely gummed in place. I have no particular evi
dence as to this, but have always believed that some of them were
so used. Occasionally, one finds hematite ornaments and hematite
bicaves. The information one is able to impart with reference to
hematite implements and their use is an illustration of the disad
vantages under \vhich we labor in dealing with some of our archaeo
logical problems. There are certain phases of prehistoric life with

FIG. 695. (S. 1-2.) Two of the best grooved axes I have ever
seen are shown in this figure, from the collection of Mr. Braun,
East St. Louis, Illinois. There is one in the National Museum,
and one in the New York Museum, each of which weighs over
ten pounds, and they are nearly as symmetrical as Mr. Braun s
largest axe.

3 02 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

which we are familiar. Others we know nothing of save as we learn
by continuous study, by gleaning a fact here and there from the
specimens themselves, and from exploration.

In the collection at Andover there are about four hundred hema
tite objects. The collections in the Smithsonian and American

FIG. 696. (S. i -i.) A beautiful hematite axe from the collection of Henry
M. Whelpley, St. Louis, Missouri. This was found in central Missouri.

Museum of Natural History are much larger. Doubtless we should
be quite surprised if we were able to reconstruct the past and see to
what use these strange iron ore specimens were put by the natives
who worked so long and laboriously to bring them into a state of
perfection.

Mr. C. E. Brown, reporting on the hematites of his region, states:

HEMATITE OBJECTS

303

FlG. 697. (S. 1-2.) Hematite cones. Collection of H. M. Whelpley, St. Louu
Missouri. Localities: Missouri, Illinois, and Arkansas.

304 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

A small number of implements made of this material have been
obtained in Wisconsin. These include a grooved axe, a number of
celts, several cones and plummets, a gorget, and a pipe. The total
number of specimens of all classes at present known to exist in local
collections does not exceed thirty specimens. Nearly all come from
southern Wisconsin counties. Several specimens have been obtained
as far north in the state as Winnebago County. It is likely that some

^ fil W 9

FIG. 698. (S. 1-2.) Hematite cones. Collection of Henry M. Whelpley, St. Louis,
Missouri. From Illinois, Missouri, Arkansas.

of these hematite implements were introduced into the state through
early trades with middle Mississippi Valley tribes."

Hematite objects do not seem to have served as tools save per
haps as celts and axes but on the contrary they are of the pro
blematical class. The bright color of the stone and its peculiar pro
perties doubtless appealed to stone-age man. The fact that hematite
celts are found in graves and mounds and also hematite plummets,
whereas ordinary stone axes are seldom, if ever, found in mounds or

HEMATITE OBJECTS

305

FIG. 699. (S. 1-2.) Hematite plummets, grooved in the centre. Collection of
Henry M. Whelpley, St. Louis, Missouri.

306 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 700. (S. 1-2.) These objects are also from the Andover collection and show the va
rious types of plummets. In the centre is a fine plummet of steel gray hematite, very hard.
Beneath it, a hematite a trifle softer in which there are some flaws. At the top, an un
finished hematite pecked and ground into shape, but not polished or grooved. On either
side of the centre, ruder hematite plummets, and at the top, to the left, a grooved hema
tite object, the groove extending around the longest periphery of the object. To the right
is a small plummet, grooved in the centre.

HEMATITE OBJECTS

307

graves, would strengthen the hypothesis that objects made of this
peculiar stone were considered apart from the ordinary run of arti
facts.

The reduction of the harder hematites to symmetrical plummets
and cones must have been a severe task for workmen possessed of no
metallic tools. Truly the ancient artisan who had the patience to
cut and grind gray hematite (the hardest of all) " worked at his task
with a resolute will." It must be remembered that there are not
a few but hundreds of these hematite problematical forms worked
from most refractory iron ore.

FIG. 701. (S. i-i.) This ornament is made of
hematite. It is remarkable in that both ends are
decorated by notches. On the upper end there
are eleven notches or incised lines; on the lower
or broad end there are fourteen lines. This
specimen is not a type but an anomaly. It is of
heavy, pure hematite and not of stone discol
ored by iron oxide as are many of the ornaments.
It was extremely difficult to work because of the
density and hardness of the material. Aside from
these facts this form is peculiar. The edges are
slightly beveled. The specimen shows unmistak
able evidence of antiquity because of the patina,
and the cuttings (striae) are irregular and have
been made with flint and not with steel. Ross
County, Ohio. Andover collection.

CHAPTER XXXIV

MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS

AFTER one has attempted to describe and illustrate most of the
types of ancient artifacts occurring in America, one discovers that
there are numerous objects which scarcely fall under any of the
classifications. These I have placed under this chapter devoted to
miscellaneous objects. At some future time I hope to consider these
at greater length, for it will be quite possible to devote an entire
chapter to the club and paddle-like implements of the Pacific Coast,
another to the slate knives of New England, and additional ones to
the arrow-shaft straighteners, or the cup-stones all of which are
illustrated in the ensuing pages.

In Figs. 702, 703, and 703 A are shown some of the curious stone
club and paddle-like implements of the Pacific Coast. Reverend
H. C. Meredith, a collector of some experience in California, called
these " stone ceremonial swords," and described those shown in
Fig. 702 as follows :

"This figure shows two rare ceremonial knives. No. 2 is of fine
sandstone, about sixteen inches long, with a broad blade that is
reduced to a sharp edge. It was found on a village-site near Yaca-
ville, and would make a formidable weapon.

"No. 3 is a double-edged and beautiful specimen. The material
is mottled green and white serpentine. It is finely polished, and not
much less than eighteen inches long. It is in the collection of Mr.
A. B. Carr, Etna Mills. Two specimens similar to this one, but not
nearly so fine, are in the Jewett collection. All three specimens are
from Siskiyou. Like the chipped ceremonials, these knives are of
extreme age, if not prehistoric. Work of this class is not done by
the Indians of to-day."

Whether the paddle-shaped implements in the two following
figures are to be considered as "ceremonial swords," I am not suf
ficiently familiar with California archaeology to state.

Fig. 703 presents three remarkable specimens from Oregon and
Colorado; collection of E. D. Zimmerman, Kutztown, Pennsylvania.
The purpose of these strange objects is unknown to me. They are

MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS

309

310 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 703. (S. about 1-3.) Stone clubs, from Oregon and Washington.
Collection of E. D. Zimmerman.

MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS

wrought with considerable skill and evidently performed some func
tion in ancient times.

Fig. 704 A illustrates four of the curious club-heads, or perforated
stones, common in California and Arizona. Various theories have
been advanced as to these; the most sens
ible of which appears to me to be the
statement that they were made use of as
weights, to facilitate the use of digging-
tools or sticks. There is some reason for
the acceptance of this theory, as the discs
are found in regions where the raising of
crops by means of irrigation was known to
the natives.

Fig- 75 is an illustration of a singular
tool-handle, somewhat common near the
Columbia River and farther north along the
Pacific Coast. A fine one is in the posses
sion of Dr. John Fargo of Los Angeles, Cali
fornia, and it is identical with this one.

Slate was made use of by the New Eng
land Indians not only for arrow- and spear-
points but knives as well. Fig. 707, repro
duced from Dr. William Beauchamp s arti
cle, 1 shows nine 1 slate knives from sites
along the Seneca and Oneida rivers and
Oneida Lake, western New York.

In Fig. 710 are figured two beautiful slate
knives from the Peabody Museum collec
tion, Salem, Massachusetts.

I was very fortunate in procuring for ex
amination the remarkable specimen shown
in Fig. 711. It presents a woman s knife of
black slate in the original handle. When
Mr. B. W. Arnold of Albany went north to
Alaska some years ago, he found this knife
in the hands of a woman who was using it
in cutting open fish. He purchased it from
her and placed it in his collection. It illus
trates the method of mounting.

FIG. 703 A. (S. about 1-5.)
Stone club from near Florence,
Lane County, Oregon; found
on a village-site about three
miles from the Pacific Ocean.
A duplicate club was found
at the same place later. Col
lection of A. F. Barrott,
Owcgo, New York.

" Polished Stone Articles used by the New York Aborigine.^
York State Museum, vol. iv, no. 18.

Bulletin of the New

312 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 704. (S. about 1-3.) Three remarkable specimens from Oregon and Colorado.
E. D. Zimmerman s collection.

MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS

313

The handle is crudely cut out of wood, and the only things modern
about it are the strings which hold it in place, they being ordinary
twine.

But perhaps as interesting as any other of the objects are the oval
and flat stones with creases or depressions across them, which are
supposed to be the result of straightening or reducing arrow-shafts,

FlG. 704 A. (S. 1-3.) Four curious club-heads or perforated stones, common
in California. Beloit College collection.

lance-handles, and other long, slender objects. All of those shown
in Figs. 706, 708, and 709 exhibit differences. Those in Fig. 706, col
lected by Professor Montgomery, are neatly made and ornament-
like in shape.

Mr. Bardwell s specimen, Fig. 708, is an ordinary bit of sandstone

314 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

on which there are two deep grooves at right angles. We have a
number of them in our Andover collection, and I have shown five
in Fig. 709.

Most archaeologists agree that the stones were used for the pur
pose named. Near caverns, rock-shelters, and along bluffs we find
that the surface of gritty stories or ledges exhibit such grooves.
Fig. 712 is a sinew stone, or an oval stone much creased and worn, not
by friction caused by arrow-shafts, but because sinews or cords have
been drawn back and forth against the edge of it. There is another
singular grooved stone in the State Museum of Iowa. The curator
calls it a stone "corn-sheller," and if one will draw an ear of corn
back and forth over the surface of this stone, one is surprised at the
ease with which the kernels are removed. Fig. 715 illustrates three
unknown objects found in Pueblo Bonito. Fig. 716 is interesting
in that it may or may not be a natural formation. It was found on
the site of an old encampment and may have been considered by the
Indians a medicine-stone. Figs. 717, to and including 721, I shall
refer to in the Conclusions of "The Stone Age."

I wish to speak at some
length on Fig. 713. This
specimen is one of the cup-
stones about which there
has been so much discus-

FIG. 705. (S. 1-4.) Stone tool-handle. Col
lection of Frank O. Putnam, Campbell, Cali
fornia.

FIG. 706. (S. 1-2.) Grooved
sandstone arrow- and needle-
sharpeners found near the surface
of a mound, North Dakota. Col
lection of Henry Montgomery.

MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS

315

FIG. 707. (S. i-i.) Slate knives. New York State Museum collection.

316 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 708. (S. i -I.) Grooved stone found on the island of Martha s Vineyard by Ralph
D. Bard well. Collection of Robert D. Barchvell, Pittsfield, Massachusetts.

MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS

317

FIG. 709. (S. 1-2.) Grooved stones found in various parts of the United States.
Phillips Academy collection.

3i8 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

sion. It is something over ten by seven and a half inches in dia
meter, and on the upper surface are fifteen distinct cup-shaped
depressions. It is of sandstone and about two inches thick.

A great deal has been written about cup-stones, as reference to
the Bibliography will attest. The pitted hammer-stone, the cup-

FIG. 710. (S. 1-2.) Slate knives. Peabody Museum collection, Salem, Massachusetts.

stone, and the crude discoidal are more or less related. Cup-stones
themselves have never been satisfactorily explained, and it is my
opinion that such ones as are shown in Fig. 713 mean more than that
they were ordinary depressions in which nuts were cracked. How
ever, one must do justice to those who believe that they were used
for that purpose. There is a suggestion along the lines of that
theory which I would wish to make.

The Indians used large quantities of hickory-nuts, walnuts, and
butternuts. The early historians tell us that they threw these into

MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS

319

FIG. 711. (S. i-i.) Slate knife in handle. B. \Y. Arnold s collection, Albany, New York.

OF ~HE

UNIVERSITY

320 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FlG. 712. (S. 2-3.) Sinew stone found near New Berlin, New York, on the surface.
Collection of Henry W. Bagg, New Berlin, New York.

FIG. 713. (S. 1-3.) Cup-stone from the Mohawk Valley, western
New York. Phillips Academy collection.

MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS

321

FIG. 714. (S. 1-4.) Stone corn-sheller(?); made of gray quartzite. The plane surface is
eight by fifteen inches. Shows fractures on nearly all sides, as though it had been much
larger. The corrugations have a sharp, cutting-like edge. Found in a creek in Kansas.
Collection of the Historical Department of Iowa.

FIG. 715. (S. 1-6.) A stone with square hole
(for unknown purpose), a sandal last, and a
stone sword from the Chaco Group. Phillips
Academy collection.

322 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 716. (S. 1-2.) Cup-stone. Collection of Logan Museum, Beloit, Wisconsin.

kettles of hot water; the oil rising to the top, they skimmed it off
for future use.

On such a stone as is illustrated fifteen nuts could be placed at one
time and crushed by a single blow of a heavy, flat slab. If they used
cup-stones for this purpose, they would naturally employ stones in
which there were many cups rather than the average stones con
taining one or two cups. If so used, the work proceeded rapidly; one
person crushing and two others placing the nuts in position. As the
stone weighs no more than six or seven pounds, it could be quickly
raised and the contents dumped into a receptacle.

MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS 323

FIG. 717. (S. 1-2.) Skull from a Florida shell heap. (See page 351.) Peabody Museum
collection, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

324 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 718. (S. i -i.) Grooved stone axe from Allington, Washington
County, Wisconsin. Collection of the Milwaukee Public Museum.

MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS

325

FIG. 719. (S. 1-5.) A group of bird-stones, boat-shaped objects and other problematical
forms. J. T. Recder s collection, Houghton, Michigan.

326 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

FlG. 720. (S. 2-3.) Problematical forms from near Burlington, Vermont.
Collection of G. H. Perkins.

MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS

327

FIG. 720/1. (S. 1-4.) A group of mound pipes. L. W. Hills collection,
Fort Wayne, Indiana.

328 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

But while this may be true, it has always seemed to me that the
pitted stones may be made use of in some way as controlling or
regulating the apparatus used in drilling. While all the details of
such an explanation were never clear, yet it seemed more plausible
than the statement that the stone was used as a common nut-cracker.
There is another observation to be made which, it seems to me,
militates against the theory that it was necessary to work out cir
cular depressions in order to make a nut-cracker. If one will select
a flat, smooth slab and place a dozen walnuts upon it, and strike
with another flat slab evenly upon these nuts, one finds that they
are crushed quite as completely as if placed in the cup-stones proper.
The Indians wished the oil rather than the kernels; and preferred
the nuts completely crushed. And for all practical purposes in nut-
cracking, two flat surfaces are fully as good as a surface which has
been cupped. Again, stones having deep pits on their surfaces pre
vent the crushing of more than half of each nut. If one studies the
cup-stones carefully, one will observe that some of the pitted stones
are very smooth, others may be rough. In the exact centre of the
pits is a small depression. In some instances this depression appears
as if it was the result of a revolving object; in other words, a drill.
I cannot believe that the cracking of nuts in these depressions would
produce the effect just described.

MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS

329

Fir,. 721. (S. 1-2.) Front and side view of an effigy in stone. Collection of Edward Beatty,

Santa Rosa, California.

CHAPTER XXXV

THE STONE AGE IN EASTERN CANADA, UTAH, AND DAKOTA

(Written for " The Stone Age " by Henry Montgomery, Ph.D., University of Toronto)

EASTERN CANADA

FOR the most part throughout Ontario, Quebec, and the more
eastern provinces of the Dominion of Canada, the ancient stone and
bone and other objects of handiwork of the aborigines are similar or
nearly similar to those found in the New England States of the
Union. There are, however, some exceptions more or less marked.
The history of the seventeenth century tells some interesting things
about the aboriginal peoples of this part of Canada. To some extent
the location and movements of the Algonquins, Hurons, and Iroquois
(" Five Nations") have become known. But the knowledge of these
and of their predecessors in that region is far too limited. Much
remains to be learned about the occupation of the country during
the preceding centuries. Archaeological work appears to have re
vealed several occupations, and the implements, utensils, and orna
ments of different tribes have probably been mixed. Hence, it is
often difficult to distinguish them with certainty.

Some of these objects of manufacture have been found uncovered
upon the surface of the ground, or partially covered by the soil;
others have been dug or ploughed out by the farmer and road-
maker in their operations ; and other artifacts as well as human skele
tons have been taken from pits or excavations six to eight feet in
depth. In only a few localities of eastern Canada have mounds been
discovered containing specimens of the work of ancient or prehis
toric man. There have been found, however, numerous aboriginal
village-sites with many bits of pottery, caches of charred corn,
and various sorts of kitchen refuse and primitive domestic tools and
ornaments.

The following are the principal kinds of ancient artifacts found
in this part of the Dominion: -

Bone articles, such as needles, awls, knives, scrapers, and harpoons.

EASTERN CANADA 331

Shell objects, mostly made from marine shells which had been ob
tained in tropical or sub-tropical seas.

Rude chert, quartzite, and flint objects, some of which are ovate-
leaf-shaped, much like the form of certain palaeoliths of Dordogne,
France.

Drills or borers made of chert and quartzite.

Arrow-heads of chert, quartzite, and flint, barbed and unbarbed,
and of various forms.

Spears of slate, often having the tang laterally serrated.

Stone knives and scrapers, rude or well-finished; generally made
of limestone or of chert.

The chert used in the manufacture of scrapers, drills, and arrow
heads was doubtless procured from the Devonian rocks in south
western Ontario, where it occurs in abundance near Lakes Erie
and Huron.

Stone axes and adzes, often called " celts." These are usually
made of amphibole and hornblende, related minerals, one a light-
green and the latter dark-green in color, and both being hard, ten
acious, and durable. Occasionally, however, celts of grieissoid ma
terial are found. In nearly all cases these wedge-shaped axes or
celts have good form and are highly polished. No doubt they were
sometimes used as spades or digging-tools.

Well-made gouges, of the same minerals as those in the "celts,"
also occur in many localities.

Pipes of sandstone, limestone, and quartzite. Usually these ex
hibit good workmanship. Examples from Ontario are not wanting
in which the bowl alone consists of stone, each having a hor
izontal opening for the insertion of a bone or wooden stem. Some
have a perforation at the bottom bored diagonally, probably for the
suspension of an ornament. Occasionally one is found having stem
and bowl in one piece, and these are chiefly made from a compara
tively hard variety of steatite or soapstone. Such are more fre
quently found northwards toward Hudson Bay, and they may per
haps be referred to the Eskimo, as steatite is used by this people
in the manufacture of pipes as well as of culinary utensils. A pipe
made from Mexican or Utah onyx, and having a human face-mask
carved upon it, has been found in southwestern Ontario.

Gorgets. These are of many kinds as to their form and also the
stone from which they are made. Circular, oval, cylindrical, tubular,
and elongate flattened forms occur. The last-named are often nearly

332 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

rectangular, flat, polished pieces of stone, perforated by one, two, or
three holes. These are sometimes known as banner-stones. The
smaller ones may have been used as ornaments in the head-dress,
a cord of the hair of the head being fastened through one of the
perforations, and feathers inserted in the others. The banner-stone
with a single central perforation is somewhat rare, those with two
or three perforations being more numerous. Banner-stones of red
dish hematitic slate have recently been found here; but striped
Huronian slate from the rocks of northern Ontario is the usual
material from which they have been fashioned.

Amulets, charms, or ceremonial stones. These are bird-like or
animal-like in shape, or rather they have the form of some imagin
ary animal partly avian and partly mammalian. There are holes
bored diagonally through portions of the lower side, apparently for
suspension of these stones by strings. Amulets are usually three or
four inches long. Most of them are regularly formed and beautifully
polished. The material is Huronian slate. But one recently ob
tained by the writer is of limestone, and has a length of nineteen
inches, a height of six inches, and a thickness of five inches. The
holes are large and extend from side to side in the upper part of
what represents the neck and back of the bird.

Copper artifacts are not uncommon in Ontario and some other
eastern localities, although they are not at all plentiful. The ma
terial is native copper from Michigan in the vicinity of Lake Su
perior. Occasionally native silver occurs in spots throughout the
article. Well-formed celts or axes, and spears are found. Knives and
beads also occur. The copper celt often has a flat side and a sloping
raised side, the latter consisting of two flat faces sloping laterally
from a central longitudinal elevation. Both sides of the spear slope
toward the edge in a similar manner; there is a tang for insertion
into a wooden or other handle, and there are usually two lateral
projections at the base of the blade. The beads are of two kinds,
namely, small, circular beads rudely fashioned, yet in shape some
what like the ordinary modern beads of white people ; and the long,
thin leaf of copper loosely rolled, to constitute a small tube through
which the string had to pass.

Pottery or earthenware objects. The pottery of this region is
greatly broken. It consists principally of sherds or fragments of
vessels of different sizes and designs. There are, however, a few
perfect vessels of pottery, and there are many unbroken pottery

WESTERN CANADA 333

tobacco-pipes here. The forms of the pipes and their decorative de
signs are numerous. Some of these are shown in Fig. 434, Toronto
University collection.

With regard to the date of the aforesaid objects of man s handi
work, it may here be stated that none of them are very recent, and
that only the simpler forms, such as some of the arrow-heads, scrapers,
and skewers, were made within the last four or five hundred years.
There can be little doubt that most of them were made many
centuries ago; although, of course, many of them may have been
used in more recent times by the aboriginal successors of their
manufacturers.

THE PLAINS OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL CANADA

In the region of the great plains between Lake Superior and the
Rocky Mountains the prehistoric artifacts differ greatly from those
of eastern Canada. Here are many earthworks of the ancient mound-
builders, some of which have yielded characteristic mound products,
differing considerably from the stone-age relics of the East ; and in
this region also are found large numbers of grooved hammers and
mauls rarely found in Ontario and Quebec. In Ontario the stone
"celt" or wedge is very common; but in Manitoba, with the excep
tion of the extreme eastern part of the province, the celt is prac
tically absent. With its decline and disappearance farther west,
and especially towards the borders of Saskatchewan, the grooved
hammers appear in great numbers, and in a great variety of forms
and sizes. Stone discs and grooved axes likewise occur on the plains.
Another stone tool absent from Manitoba is the amphibole gouge,
of which well-formed, beautiful specimens occur in Ontario and
farther east.

Stone hammers and mauls. The hammers and mauls are long and
short, broad or thick, and narrow, nearly uniform in thickness, or
else tapering more or less toward one end. Most of them are be
tween four and six inches in length, but some have been found
almost a foot in length and six inches in thickness. These latter
are, of course, very heavy, and must have been used in pounding or
splitting hard or tough, heavy substances. The correct name for
such is beetle, maul, or mallet. One specimen of a grooved hammer
found in the region is made from a true hematite nodule and is
only three fourths of an inch in length. Some mauls and hammers
have a complete continuous groove near the middle of the stone;

334 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

but in most cases there is half an inch or more ungrooved, the furrow
ceasing at the point from which the handle of the implement is di
rected. The usual rocks employed in their manufacture are gneiss
and granite; but limestone and amphibole sometimes occur. Un
grooved mauls and hammers have been found, and occasionally one
almost spherical in shape. No fluted specimens have been reported.

Stone discs. Circular stone plates or discs are not of frequent oc
currence in this region; yet quite a number have been found. Like
the beetles and hammers, they are generally turned up by the farm
er s plough in the cultivation of his farm. These discs are made of
fine-grained sandstone and gneissoid rocks, and a few have been
found bearing carvings upon them. In a measure these Manitoba
discs remind one of the interesting stone discs and plates of Alabama
described by Mr. Clarence B. Moore, but they are usually of a
simpler type than those of the South.

Stone spade or shovel. In a mound in 1907 the writer found a
stone implement which strongly resembles the modern shovel in
form and size.

Stone axes. Only a few axes are known here, and they have pro
minent ridges bounding the central encircling groove.

Arrow-heads of quartzite and flint are tolerably numerous. Very
few examples have been taken from the earthworks, nearly all having
been discovered by digging or ploughing the soil. Most of the latter
are rudely finished, while those discovered in the older mounds
usually exhibit superior workmanship.

One specimen of blade or unbarbed arrow-head in the possession
of the writer has a well-marked patina over its entire surface. It is
about three inches in length, and an inch and three quarters wide
at its base. Its material is translucent flint or agate. The patination
of this flint artifact must have required a long period of time, per
haps one thousand years or more. It was ploughed out of the prairie
at a depth of five or six inches.

A few flint scrapers have been collected.

Pipes of stone. These are straight tubular bowls made of catlin-
ite or red "pipestone" from Minnesota, beautifully formed and
polished. They have been found only in the burial-mounds, and they
do not at all resemble the modern Indian pipes.

Objects made from bone. These are not numerous in this district.
They consist chiefly of bone skewers and awls, whistles made from
the ulna of the wing of the eagle or other large bird of flight (see

WESTERN CANADA 335

Fig. 528), bone armlets and beads. The armlets have holes by
which they were evidently laced or fastened upon the arms, and they
are usually decorated by grooves and notches. They are made from
broad, flat bones, generally the scapulae of the larger animals. A bone
blade or knife is sometimes found. A comb-like hide-dressing bone
tool, an arrow-nock, and primitive bone beads have been recently
taken from mounds by the writer. Only a very few simple orna
ments of deer antler have been found.

Shell objects. There is a variety of articles here made from sea-
shells and river-shells. A large spoon is made from one of the
valves of the shell of the fresh-water mollusc Unio. But the major
ity are ornaments, and are made out of univalve shells from the
ocean. Oblong, flat pendants, large circular rings, oval, circular, and
tubular beads of shell occur.

Objects of copper consist chiefly of thin sheets of native copper
rolled in such a way as to form tubular beads. Sometimes larger
pieces of rude sheets of copper have been found. This copper must
have been brought from some locality near Lake Superior, where
copper-mining was carried on in prehistoric times.

Pottery or earthenware objects. Numerous fragments of pottery
bowls, dishes, cups, and other vessels occur in some localities,
usually in fields where the sod has been ploughed for the first time,
and where the location is convenient to a stream or lake. Occasion
ally pottery sherds have been found at greater depths, even to two
or three feet. In such cases they were evidently covered by olay
and sands deposited from the overflow of the waters in some former
period of time, no doubt many centuries ago. In some of the most
ancient burial-mounds a few perfect vessels of pottery have been
discovered. These are small urns with flaring rims and more or less
decoration, the principal part of which consists in most instances
of a continuous, deep groove running spirally around the entire body
of the vessel.

Only one example of a pipe made of pottery has yet been reported
from this region. This is a large pipe, having bowl and stem in one
piece, found by the writer in a burial-mound in 1908. Both the stem
and bowl are decorated with grooves.

The urns here referred to and the straight tubular stone pipes
previously mentioned are precisely similar to most of those found
by the writer in numerous mounds in Dakota some years ago. The
shell articles, pendants, rings, and beads also afford strong evidence

336 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

in support of the view that they who reared most, if not all, of the
mounds of Manitoba and North Dakota were one and the same
people.

THE STONE AGE IN UTAH

The remains of prehistoric and ancient people hitherto discovered
in Utah consist principally of the ruins of various houses in the cliffs
and valleys, and the contents thereof. Besides these there are ancient
irrigation ditches of some size and importance in the southern part
of Utah. There are also petroglyphs or rock carvings of various
kinds upon the vertical faces of many of the rock cliffs; and what
appear to be tracks or prints of the human foot in volcanic rock have
been found in one or two places.

While the houses whose ruins occur in the broad valleys of Utah
vary in size and in the number of rooms, and also in the structure of
their floors and the interior finish of their walls, they may all be
regarded as belonging to the same class of mud or adobe structures.
The cliff-houses, however, differ in so far as some are stone buildings,
others mostly adobe, and others small caves just large enough for
occupation as dwellings or for use as storage-bins.

The more important artifacts obtained from the ruins of Utah
are here enumerated and described : -

Objects made of Wood

Wooden pail or bucket, from a cave (see Fig. 632). This is formed
by digging out a piece of the trunk of a tree.

Flails of several shapes are found. These are from three to four
feet long, and have one end wide and flat for a length of fifteen to
eighteen inches. They were used for beating the yucca plant and
cedar bark in making yarn or thread. Doubtless some of these
wooden articles may have been used also for digging in the earth.

Two atlatls from this region have been described, one by Professor
Otis T. Mason in 1892, and the second by the present writer in 1894.
(See The Archceolo gist for November, 1894, "Prehistoric Man in
Utah," by Henry Montgomery.) The latter atlatl or throwing-stick
had two loops of rawhide and a shallow groove upon it. There had
been a piece broken off the upper part.

Wooden pipes were discovered in 1894, along with mummies and
relics, in cave-house ruins in eastern Utah. These are nearly ovoid
in shape; the passage is not curved or bent; and they have short
bone stems cemented in position for use.

UTAH 337

Textiles

Knitted and plaited articles occur.

Corn-sacks made of the fibre of the bark of the cedar tree have
been obtained by me in the caves of some of the canyon Cliff-
Dwellers.

Baskets, mats, and sandals, chiefly of yucca fibre, have been found
with the bodies of half a dozen mummies and elsewhere in caves
in eastern Utah. These show artistic skill in their manufacture.
In January, February, and March, 1894, Mr. C. B. Lang made an
important collection in three caves of San Juan County, Utah,
which he asked the writer to examine at that time and to make
report thereon to the scientific and other journals. With that end
in view I made an examination and had a number of photographs of
the collection made. Only a few of these were used in publication.
Some of the remaining unpublished photographs are herein repro
duced for the edification of our readers. (See Fig. 631, pair of leg
gings, and Fig. 634, birch bark.) Mr. George H. Pepper described
a number of similar articles from other localities in Utah, and re
ferred them to a distinct race or tribe to which he gave the name
" basket-makers." As sacks and mats of much the same character
have been found by the writer in other caves along w r ith the ordin
ary Cliff-Dweller s artifacts and skeletons, the propriety of sepa
rating these people from the Cliff -Dwellers proper seems, for the
present at least, somewhat doubtful.

Feather Objects

Robes and mantles or shawls made of the feathers of wild turkeys
were also taken from cave-house ruins in eastern Utah. Several
mummies were found clothed with such feather robes, and some
w r earing sandals of yucca fibre, and others having deerskin coverings
upon their feet.

Bone Objects

Pipe-stems, pieces of hollow bone of suitable length, cut from the
hollow wing-bones of birds.

Skewers and awls of bone are numerous.

Circular and oblong pieces of bone. No doubt some of these were
used in playing games.

Beads of bone of various sizes.

338 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

Objects made from Teeth

Beads made out of teeth, probably of the mountain lion, an animal
which is present in considerable numbers in the Wahsatch and
Uintah Mountains.

Shell Objects
Beads made out of shells from the ocean.

Stone Objects

Metates and rubbing-stones, for grinding maize. These corn-
grinding mills are often quite large, and sometimes weigh as much
as a hundred pounds. In the year 1892 the writer found a heavy
metate in a cliff-house in a place one thousand feet above the stream
in the bottom of the canyon, and in a spot very difficult of access.

Arrow-heads of obsidian, chalcedony, and quartz. They are most
ly small, barbed, and well-formed. Many of them are translucent, and
some are transparent. Both obsidian and chalcedony occur in nature
in southern Utah.

One straight pipe-bowl of catlinite was found in a cave-house in
San Juan County. This may perhaps indicate intercourse with the
tribes of Dakota or Minnesota.

A nearly pear-shaped pipe-bowl of beautifully polished onyx was
found with mummified human bodies and wooden flails and fibre
mats in a cave in eastern Utah (see Fig. 436). It had a stem of
bone in position, fastened in place by some sort of black cement or
fireproof substance, which also lined the inside of the pipe-bowl.

Stone mauls and hammers are to be mentioned as occurring in
Utah. They are generally provided with a groove in which the
pliant, tough, wooden handle is fastened.

Grooved stone axes likewise occur.

Oblong and other-shaped pendants and ornaments of turquoise
and green variscite have been found in the valley houses.

Pottery Objects

Pipe-bowls of several kinds, straight and curved. Some well-
formed pottery pipes were found by the writer in 1890 in valley-
house ruins.

Balls an inch or two in diameter made of partially baked clay.
Probably used for games of some sort.

DAKOTA 339

Vessels in the form of bowls and jugs. The bowls are of regular .
form, well glazed and tastefully decorated with painted designs,
mostly on the inside.

The jars have one or two handles, and are of many sizes, some
being very large. Occasionally the jars are highly embellished ex
ternally by painted designs of various and interesting kinds. Sim
ilar bowls, jars, and pipes of pottery are found in both the valley-
and the cliff-house ruins.

That the people who built and inhabited the cave and cliff-houses
and the valley-houses were one and the same race of people can
hardly be doubted. This was pointed out by the writer in 1894.
The stone corn-mills, the pipes, the arrow-points, the bowls and jars
of pottery, are similar. The house structures were, of course, slightly
different, owing to the difference in their environment. But both
peoples were agriculturists, both built small rooms or houses for
storing corn, gourds, water, and implements, both had arrows for
defense and the chase, and both manufactured superior pottery
similar in the quality of the material and also in decoration.

THE STONE AGE IN DAKOTA

The former Territory of Dakota included that portion of the
country now forming the States of North and South Dakota.

The ancient specimens of handiwork in the Dakota Territory of
the early " eighties" comprised surface " finds," which were mostly
stone mauls, hammers, and axes, rude bone and pottery articles of
old village-sites, and also various kinds of mound products.

The principal artifacts are here enumerated : -

Hide and Bark

Leather or tanned hide, found occasionally in mound burial-pits.
Although evidently very old, it appears to have been carefully
tanned, and to have been part of the hide of a buffalo.

Baskets made from the bark of the birch tree. These are small
and are nearly all of similar pattern. Usually the basket consists of
but one piece of bark cut in such a manner that it could be bent and
fashioned into a neat basket and stitched together where the parts
overlapped. Sometimes two and even three rows of holes are pre
sent, showing great regularity, and that a small needle and thread
must have IKHMI used in the work.

340 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

Objects made from Deer A ntlers

Pear-shaped deer antler pipe-bowls, three and one half inches
long, and two and one fourth inches wide at the top, have been
found by the writer. (See Fig. 428, F.)

Deer antler, perforated near one end.

Deer antler tyne, perforated and notched. Perhaps this served
as a message stick.

Deer antler tyne, peculiarly cut and furrowed. Probably a tool.
(See Fig. 542.)

Bone Objects

Bone harpoons for spearing or catching large fishes such as the
Great Lake pike of Devils Lake.

Bone anklet, with ornamental carving, and having holes near two
opposing margins for lace-strings, and other holes perhaps for the
attachment of ornaments.

Bone tubes or pipe-stems, cut from the hollow bones of birds
wings.

Bone awls, needles, and knife-blades.

Shell Objects

These comprise objects made from fresh-water shells as well as
those made from ocean-shells.

Among these are the following :

Circular pearly ornaments like buttons, with a central aperture
and four marginal notches at regular intervals. Large pearly shell
rings thicker and wider on one side. (See Fig. 543, E.) Usually more
than twenty of these rings have been found together near a human
skull and in such a position that there seems no doubt they had
formed the principal part of a necklace.

Oblong pearly pendants, notched near one end for the cord of
attachment, and decorated with four or five notches on the other
extremity. (See Fig. 528.)

Long beads made from the columella of shells of the ocean gastero-
pod, Fulgur perversa, of frequent occurrence also in the mounds of
the Mississippi Valley. (See Fig. 543, D.)

Small shell beads made by grinding the ocean shells Nerita,
Natica, and Marginella on the shoulder of the spire. (See Fig.
543, G.)

Scoop or spoon, made from a valve of the bivalve mollusc Unio,

DAKOTA 341

the common fresh-water mussel. This has a very short handle cut
on it, and it is ornamented with a few notches on the margin.

Stone Objects

Sharpening-stones. Ovoid objects made of coarse sandstone and
having a groove in the centre of one side. These were for sharpen
ing bone awls and needles and probably for grinding shells and other
articles into the desired shapes.

The stone mauls and hammers were plentiful in the southern
portions of Dakota; but were absent from a large part of the Terri
tory near the forty-ninth parallel. Most were grooved near the
middle, and they varied considerably in size and shape. There were
also some grooved stone axes, some of which possess a prominent
ridge beside the furrow and upon the side between the furrow and
the edge end of the axe.

Barbed flint and agate spears. Some are very large. All are trans
lucent and exhibit workmanship of a high order. They are found
in the burial-mounds, and are very rare. (See Fig. 214 A.)

Flint and agate arrow-heads. Only a very few of these occur.
They are also well-made.

Effigy stones. Two slender stone serpents have been reported
from South Dakota. One of these is said to have six curves or con
volutions.

Stone pipes. (See Fig. 428.) These are made of catlinite or
red pipestone, and are regularly formed and beautifully polished.
They are all straight tubes constituting bowls, and vary in length
from two to ten inches. One taken out of a mound by the writer
was ten and one quarter inches long (twenty-six cm.). The stem
was at least in some cases made from the hollow ulnar bone of the
wing of a large bird; for bone stems of this character were found
with several of the pipes. Hollow pieces of wood may perhaps also
have been used as pipe-stems. This straight tubular pipe is very
characteristic of the mounds of North Dakota, Manitoba, and Sas
katchewan, very few of other kinds having as yet been reported
from this prairie region.

Stone tablets. Flat pieces of stone are sometimes found; but they
are very rare. One of these found by Montgomery in 1889 is made
from pipestone or catlinite and has the figure of an animal carved
upon each side. (See Fig. 310.) One of the carvings is probably
meant to represent a beaver, and the figure upon the other side ot

342 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

the tablet is a representation of a buffalo cow with open mouth,
and the figure of a stone spear-head with shaft attached, pointing to
the heart. It would seem to indicate that the buffalo had been shot
in the heart by the spear or large arrow, and in consequence the
mouth is represented as being wide open. Some, however, interpret
the position of the spear and shaft to mean the Mine of life," which
may possibly be the correct interpretation. Another tablet found
by Montgomery in a burial-mound has the figure of a beaver carved
upon each side, one representing the upper surface of the animal, and
the other being a side view.

Objects of Copper

The articles made of copper are few in kind and number. They are
chiefly simple cylindrical tubular beads and rudely formed spear
heads of native copper.

Objects of Pottery

The writer has found a number of vessels of pottery in the burial-
mounds of northern Dakota. All of them are small urn-shapecl
vessels of coiled ware, and almost all of them were found in a
perfect condition. In most cases their decoration is a continuous
spiral groove around the body of the urn, terminating near the
centre of the bottom of the vessel. In a few instances the decor
ative design is different; and some are provided with four holes in
the rim for suspension by cords.

On the Mandan village-sites and in the more southern parts of
Dakota many fragments of pottery jars and vessels are found.
These have various incised decorative designs, and in some cases
ears or small handles are present. Much of this pottery closely
resembles the pottery of the eastern part of the continent.

Objects of Unbaked Clay

There have been tobacco-pipes of unbaked clay found by the
writer in the burial-mounds of this region. One form of these con
sists simply of a bowl with a straight tubular passage. (See Fig.
429.) It is nearly of the same design as that of the catlinite pipe.

A second kind (see Fig. 429) has stem and bowl in one piece and is
bent or curved so that the stem is at right angles with the bowl as in
modern pipes. These pipes, like some of the catlinite pipes taken

DAKOTA 343

from the ancient mounds, showed evidence of much usage, there
being a considerable incrustation or deposit within the bowl from
the burning of kinni-kinnic of some kind.

While some of the artifacts herein enumerated and described were
undoubtedly made by Sioux and Mandan Indians, it appears quite
certain that the products of the mound burial-pits, that is, the
spirally grooved urns, the tubular pipes, antler tynes, and sea-shell
ornaments, belonged to some other ancient tribe, possibly to the
ancient Arikaras, or to a yet earlier tribe.

CHAPTER XXXVI

CONCLUSIONS

NATURALLY, the Conclusions to " The Stone Age " are somewhat
long, and while I have embodied them all under two chapters, yet
they have been grouped under subdivisions, as will be observed
by readers.

THE POPULATION IN PREHISTORIC TIMES

We should first consider a subject which has been given, it would
seem, scant attention. I refer to the fact that generally throughout
the American continent are unmistakable evidences of a considerable
population in ancient times. At present there are about three hun
dred and sixty thousand Indians in the United States and Canada.
Perhaps more than half of these show the effects of marriage with
whites or negroes. The population of to-day is no criterion of that in
ancient times. In studying field evidence of population, we must
bear in mind that the Indian of both periods made use of perishable
materials. This is an essential fact to be noted during the course of
our studies. Much that both the historic and prehistoric Indian
made use of was composed of cloth, iron, wood, brass, leather, etc.
It is quite true that the wood, leather, cloth, etc., of prehistoric
times would disappear, but the stone, bone, shell, clay, and copper
objects remained. Iron rusts quickly, and the use of iron was wide
spread from the time of the settlement on the New England coast
(1620) down to the present. A great deal of iron was introduced by
De Soto in Florida, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas;
and by Coronado in the Southwest. Both of these expeditions were
in the years 1540-1543, and on them hundreds of Spaniards pene
trated into the interior carrying thousands of objects, chiefly of iron.
All of this must have had an effect on the natives throughout a con
siderable portion of North America.

I have elsewhere referred to the difference between historic and
modern sites, but the subject is important and has been, it seems to
me, passed over or not appreciated by others, and it is necessary to
emphasize the difference between the ancient and the modern again.
The significant fact is that all of this iron has disappeared leaving

CONCLUSIONS 345

here and there a streak of rust, and that upon the modern sites were
left quantities of glass beads and other objects that are not perish
able. These were in use among the natives, yet few of these things
remain; the only exception being noted in the sites of the Iroquois
of western New York, where the modern artifacts predominate.

In previous articles I have called attention to the fact that on the
four or five Shawano sites in the State of Ohio, there were large
bodies of Indians assembled during the period embraced between
(roughly) 1700 and 1812. These Indians helped to make American
history. They were fairly numerous, of unquestioned ability, and
produced such men as Tecumseh and his brother the Prophet. Their
leaders, Tecumseh and Cornstalk, were engaged in twenty-two
actions with our troops; numerous traders were among them, and
they sent many expeditions against the frontiers. Yet, if one walks
over these populous sites of historic times, one finds practically
nothing save here and there a glass bead or a broken tomahawk.

In any one of perhaps two or three hundred places where prehis
toric villages occurred, an observer may find great quantities of
chips, spawls, broken implements, broken pottery, etc. The needs
of ancient man were few, his implements simple and confined to the
types illustrated in this work. Therefore, the presence of the unnum
bered evidences of human residence indicates either a great length
of occupation, or large numbers of Indians for a short period of
time.

I never believed that the population in America exceeded one
million (north of Mexico) at any time, assuming that the field
evidence is against the statement so often made that there are as
many Indians in America to-day as at the time of the discovery.

If the Ohio Valley had been occupied by mound-building people
when La Salle and Hennepin made their voyages of discovery, these
worthy and zealous explorers would have made reference to it in their
reports. But La Salle and Hennepin heard of the great Illinois towns
on the river of the same name in that state and journeyed from
Quebec to visit those towns. There were thousands of Indians living
in the Illinois country, but Ohio appears to have had little popula
tion that is of Indians, and none whatsoever of mound-building
people.

Between Aurora and Lawrenceburg, Indiana, if the Ohio River has
not during a recent flood covered the bottoms with silt, there may be
seen a village-site nearly three miles in extent. I visited it in 1898

346 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

and collected upwards of three thousand specimens from the surface
in a week s time.

The Indian population was most numerous on that great artery,
the Mississippi River and its tributaries. Perhaps we have not fully
recognized the importance played by this "Father of Waters" in
prehistoric times. Throughout the Mississippi Valley are several
climates varying from extreme cold in northern Minnesota to the
semi-tropical of Louisiana; from the aridity of the foothills of the
Rocky Mountains to the salubrious climate of Tennessee; from the
cold of the extreme Northwest to that of Pennsylvania. The Missis
sippi Valley comprises altitude and sea level, mountains and plains,
every kind of soil and every specimen of plant and animal life found
in North America above the City of Mexico.

It would appear that man had penetrated to the heads of every
stream tributary to the Mississippi. Through the Colorado basin,
throughout the length and breadth of all the Southern rivers; to the
rivers of New England, the great St. Lawrence basin, and the Red
River of the North, and even far Yukon in Alaska, these primi
tive stone-age people carried their simple arts and established their
villages. In the Cumberland and Tennessee valleys such multitudes
of them lived that even after a hundred years of ruthless destruc
tion of the stone grave cemeteries, there still remain thousands of
unopened sepulchres.

Apropos of these stone graves, General Gates P. Thruston, of
Nashville, who has studied ancient man jn Tennessee more than
forty years, reports by letter to me as follows: " I think that there
must have been forty thousand graves within twenty-five miles of
Nashville. I should think there were probably at one time as many
as one hundred thousand prehistoric inhabitants in the two valleys.
The village-sites and cemeteries cannot be numbered."

The officials at Washington have underestimated, it seems to me,
the number of Indians in the United States, because they have
recorded the Indian of the historic period rather than the Indian
of the past. De Soto and Coronado both reported continuous popu
lation throughout the regions traversed by them. Yet shortly after
the year 1700 small-pox, measles, cholera, and other diseases de
stroyed entire tribes. Untold thousands of our Indians perished
during these epidemics. The case of the Mandans is well known.
The early colonists made frequent reference to the spread of these
plagues throughout the country.

CONCLUSIONS

347

FIG. 722. (S. 1-2.) Views of an unknown object of stone,
found in 1885 on a ranch on the Columbia River, Oregon. \V. F.
Parker s collection, Omaha.

348 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

Fourteen years ago I compiled an archaeologic map for the State
of Ohio; the last entry being made in 1897. At that time there were
3292 various monuments and village-sites recorded. Since then
Professor Mills has continued the work and added to the total. Con
stant travel over the State of Ohio in the past years leads me to
believe that there were in ancient times at least twenty thousand
monuments great and small in that state.

All considered, the population in North America in pre-Colum
bian times must have been considerable during two or three thou
sand years, if not for a longer period.

THE STONE AGE IN HISTORIC TIMES

It is unfortunate that Coronado, De Soto, Captain Smith, Henne-
pin, Marquette, and the Pilgrim Fathers did not give us more detail
about stone-age times. When these explorers, or adventurers, or
colonists came here, many of the Indians were still in the stone age.
One of the best references that I have seen is that by Coronado s
historian, who states that in the mountain region along the Colorado
River there lived many wild tribes who were barbarous; "eat human
flesh, worship painted and sculptured stones, and are much given to
witchcraft and sorcery." These men represented savage and not
barbaric stone-age times. They appear to have been exceedingly
fleet of foot, great hunters, very courageous, and quite different from
later Indians. The historian, speaking of one of these tribes, says:

The third language is that of the Acaxes, who are in possession
of a large part of the hilly country and all of the mountains. They
go hunting for men just as they hunt animals. They all eat human
flesh, and he who has the most human bones and skulls hung up
around his house is most feared and respected. They live in settle
ments and in very rough country, avoiding the plains. In passing
from one settlement to another, there is always a ravine in the way
which they cannot cross, although they can talk together across it.
At the slightest call five hundred men collect, and on any pretext kill
and eat one another. Thus it has been very hard to subdue these
people, on account of the roughness of the country, which is very
great."

It has been known for many years that the Seri Indians living on
an island in the Gulf of California are still in the stone age. Professor
W J McGee, of the Bureau of Ethnology, visited these Indians and
wrote a long report concerning them. 1 This book should be read

1 Seventeenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1895-96 The Seri Indians.

CONCLUSIONS 349

by students, as it gives an insight into what prehistoric times must
have been. McGee states a number of interesting facts which I
repeat, with some changes, in condensed form.

The Seris are bitterly opposed to foreigners, and he considers
"their race sense is perhaps the strongest ever known." This is due
to their living alone and apart on this small island away from other
tribes. They had bitter experiences with the cruel Spaniards nearly
three centuries ago, which was a contributing factor in bringing
about this condition. They use shells, with which the sea-front
abounds, for knives, cups, dishes, dippers, and other utensils.

The natural, water-worn pebbles need no chipping or fashioning to
make of them hammers and crushers. Occasionally some of these
implements exhibit a little work to bring them into better shape.
The seacoast abounded in thousands of w r ater-worn stone ob
jects, of such forms as made them convenient for use by the Seri
Indians.

Practically no chipped implements occurred. McGee searched
patiently but found only two, both of which were arrow-points.
The water-worn stones were used in the hand and not hafted, the
aim serving as the handle. " The Seri are wonderfully quick in using
these stones" - the motions being faster than if one held the end of
the handle in which the stone was fashioned. The social organization
of these people is very peculiar. The oldest women are matrons who
seem to dominate each community. In the case of the best-looking
young woman of the tribe, w r ho would not be photographed, the
matron commanded that she permit a picture to be taken, and she,
who had strenuously objected, at once consented. When any of
these people marry with aliens, they are outlawed or driven away
from the other Seri.

The graves of the Seri are simple pits in which the body is placed
with accompaniment of objects belonging to the deceased in life. If
such burials near the surface w^ere made in very ancient times
in more moist or humid climates, it is certain that all bone and other
perishable objects would have disappeared and only the stone things
remained. We would then be unable to determine that a grave once
there existed, and it is possible -- I do not say probable that such
graves may have been made in times of extreme antiquity in the
North or South, and that all of the softer substances and bones have
disappeared. In that event, these graves of an early culture would
not appear to us as graves, but as a small cache of rude implements.

350 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

Aside from these two references I have found a few others, but
because of limited space, I am unable to present them here.

Dr. Charles Peabody kindly furnished me with an interesting
statement regarding the use of the bicaves or discoidals, which is
herewith submitted : -

At the Village of the Houmas. There are eighty cabins, and in
the middle of the village a fine level square, where from morning to
night there are young men w r ho exercise themselves in running after
a flat stone which they throw in the air from one end of the square to
the other, and which they try to have fall on two cylinders that they
roll \vhere they think that the stone will fall." 1

THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN IN AMERICA

We should consider quite briefly this subject. As was remarked on
pages 32-4, man may have occupied America in times of great
antiquity. Personally, I cannot understand how all the different
Indian dialects developed in comparatively recent times. It would
seem that several thousand years at least were required for so many
and diversified tongues to have developed among our aborigines.

Not being a geologist, it would be presumptuous for me to pass
opinion on questions in which geology played prominent part. What
little is offered, therefore, is based upon study of man s handiwork
and distribution of his implements rather than upon geologic evi
dence. There has been not a little said concerning the observations
of Mr. Ernest Volk and Dr. Charles C. Abbott in New Jersey, as both
of these men have labored for many years near Trenton, upon fields
and in the sands and gravels. Recently Dr. Abbott published three
pamphlets. 2 There are some personalities in these pamphlets which
might have been omitted, and one or tw r o statements to which
some persons might object. But on the whole these three pamphlets
sum up all of Dr. Abbott s observations during the past thirty years,
with reference to New Jersey archaeology and the antiquity of
man in the Delaware Valley.

Waiving these minor considerations, which no broad-minded man
would treasure up against Dr. Abbott, we may safely assume that
both he and Mr. Volk are real archaeologists. That is, they under
stand conditions as they existed in ancient times, and that is some
thing that few men of to-day grasp. It cannot be learned from read-

" Father Gravicr s Voyage down and up the Mississippi," pp. 143, 144. Dated Feb.
16, 1701. From Early J oyages up and down the Mississippi. Albany, Joel Nunsell, 1861.
2 Archaologica \rn-a Ccrsarrn, nos. i, 2, and 3. C. C. Abbott, M. D. Trenton, X. J.

CONCLUSIONS

ing the reports, from studying in museums, or through obtaining a
degree from one of our universities. Both Volk and Abbott have
worked hard. There was no fuss made about it. It was a continuous
grind day after day, week in and week out, year upon year.

No man can dig a pit in the ground and fill it up so that it con
forms to the surrounding natural strata. Such a place always shows

FIG. 723. (S. about 1-3.) A remarkably well-preserved gourd water-
jug. Found in the ashes of Salts Cave, Kentucky. B. H. Young s
collection, Louisville, Kentucky.

disturbed soil or clay. Walk along the riverbank, where the water
has washed out a line of fence and left the marks of the post-holes,
and observe; note gravel-banks anywhere in this country where
aborigines buried in graves, and as white men haul away the gravel
and expose the bank, one is able to see clearly defined the outlines of
the graves. The same is true of the holes of burrowing animals and
of tree-roots, etc. The beds of streams mentioned by Or. Abbott
in his work play an important part in archaeology. \Yhen the im
plements found in them were lost, the streams were active. Since

352 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

then they have filled up. The character of one deposit in the Dela
ware Valley investigated by Abbott and Volk differs from that of
another, and the differences are so striking, the deposits being
in the one place sand, and in another place glacial clay, in another
place river gravel, that one cannot but believe that a considerable
period of time elapsed between these various cultures.

In many sections of the country are found not only chipped
implements, but other implements heavily coated with patina, which
is an incrustation accruing by time alone. There are other worn
specimens which appear very old. Select some of these and compare
them with objects from the Mandan or Iroquois sites, or even from
the mounds in the Ohio Valley, and one will observe the apparent
difference in the age of these specimens. The Mandan pottery and
some of the Iroquois pottery are even at this late date coated with
soot. There is no soot on the mound pottery. Along the Atlantic
Coast, and in the South, flint implements are sometimes coated with
patina. In Florida shell heaps are occasionally found skeletons at
great depth. Mr. Clarence B. Moore considered the lower strata of
the larger shell heaps to be very old.

There was a skull found by Dr. Wyman during the course of his
exploration many years ago in the base of a shell mound in Florida. 1
I present a picture of it in Fig. 717. The cranium is heavily in-
crusted by cemented shells. Such a burial must be of great age.

These shell heaps accumulate very slowly during the occupancy
of the sites by many generations of Indians. This skull, and the
skull found at Lansing, Kansas, at a depth of twenty-five or thirty
feet, and other finds, are evidences of considerable antiquity. Dr.
Hrdlicka has said that the Lansing man was of the same type as the
modern Indian. This does not mean that it is modern, for Assyrian
and Egyptian crania five or more thousand years old have been taken
from the tombs, and it would require experts to distinguish them
from crania of living people.

Prof. Edward H. Williams, Jr., of Woodstock, Vt., suggested to me
that an expert analysis be made of the surface of certain problematic
forms and ornaments finished and unfinished. Therefore, I gave to
Prof. Williams some forty objects from our Andover collection, and
he made a careful examination, as did his friend Prof. John D.
Irving of Lehigh University, who is secretary of the Geological

Jeffries Wyman, Fresh-Water Shell Mounds of the St. John s River, Florida, pp. 33, 64.
Peabody Academy of Science, Fourth Memoir. Salem, Massachusetts, 1875.

CONCLUSIONS 353

Society of America, and an expert in such matters. Some of these
specimens are found to be old, a few very old, and others more or
less recent. I shall quote a few of his observations. The numbers
refer to catalogue numbers in our books : -

" 225 1 7 -- From Georgia. This is a fine-grained diabase. Prof.
Irving reports that the ophitic structure is very well marked. This
object has been buried for some time, and the surface is weathered,
and has been pitted since it was worked.

"23449 Syenitic Gneiss. The feldspar had begun to kaolinize
before the pebble was worked. Since working the surface has been
considerably etched, and the hornblende is left rising above the
surface. This black mineral has also been decomposed since work
ing, and the iron component has rusted and stained the horn.

"34772 Extremely fine-grained muscovite schist with grains of
magnetite. This was weathered before working, and the magnetite
has almost wholly rotted to soft dark spots. There was some etching
of the surface since working.

"4137 -- Foliated greenish talc. The lighter pits and scratches
are recent. The surface is darker than the fresh fracture, and shows
age and handling.

"18414 This is a much decomposed rock of the trap variety,
which has become so weathered and softened that it has become
almost entirely chlorite. It looks very much like an argillite. It
belongs to one of the greenstone rocks."

As to the exact number of years required for this weathering, it is
impossible to state, but since these specimens were considered from
a geological and mineralogical point of view, and critically analyzed
by two entirely competent men, it is safe to assume that a few hun
dred years would not account for the disintegration. I do not know
whether these things are a few hundred or several thousand years
old, but the analysis shows that the stone weathered to some con
siderable extent, and this would be indication of age. It would be
interesting to analyze some of the Iroquois objects and to compare.

The different cultures in America would appear to be evidence of
the antiquity of man. One cannot imagine that the Cliff-Dwellers
and mound-building tribes, that the stone-grave people, or the cave
people in the Ozarks, or the shell-heap people of Florida, or the
Plains tribes, and finally, the woods and mountain Indians, who
never made any monuments of any description that all these
cultures developed in a few hundred years. They are so totally dif-

354 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

ferent, and are so influenced and modified by climate and local con
ditions, that it would appear plausible that several thousand years
must have elapsed before these sharp lines of distinction developed.
Again, while all Indians have skins more or less red, the variation in
physical appearance among our aborigines is surprising. No one
could fail to distinguish an Ojibwa from an Iroquois, or a Sioux from
an Apache, or an Osage from a Seminole, even if one had no know
ledge of Indian language or customs. Environment and habitat
must have influenced these tribes and affected their stature and
physical conditions.

ADAPTATION TO CONDITIONS

Among our American aborigines one trait stands out prominently,
and that is the art of adapting themselves to existing and local con
ditions and environments. Perhaps no race so readily appreciated
that it must depend entirely upon its own resources. We find, there
fore, that it is immaterial whether the native Americans live in
Maine or in Florida, in North Dakota, or Texas; they selected the
most available materials. If the stone was easily chipped or of such
consistency that it could be made use of, they adopted that stone
for certain implements. If the stone was refractory and not easily
chipped or worked, they did the best that they could with it. There
fore it is not Always a criterion of poor workmanship nor does it indi
cate low degree of culture if the implements are crude and roughly
and imperfectly made. It even means that there is no good material
at hand and that the Indians selected the best they were able to
secure and worked it out as well as they were able. Again, in certain
sections implements made of good material are to be found, also
of poor, coarse, local materials. Frequently the good material was
transported from a distance. It may have come through trade or by
means of conquest. That is immaterial. The point is that the nat
ives naturally preferred materials more easily worked, but that they
were not always able to obtain them. It is quite likely that few of
the tribes were friendly in prehistoric times. The natives of a given
river valley may have desired the better material to be found two
or three hundred miles distant from their habitat, but because of the
hostility of the nation living in that section where better material
could be obtained, they were unable by either trade or conquest to
obtain it, and had to be content with such unsatisfactory chert or
other stone as occurred in their immediate locality. I think that this
factor entered largely into prehistoric life.

CONCLUSIONS 355

But if no suitable stone could be obtained, the Indians made use
of bone or other substances. In several references to the Mandan
village-sites in this work, the point was made that the Mandans used
the large bones of the buffalo for a multitude of purposes. This was
because suitable stone was scarce, and for the further reason that the
bones were more easily worked and shaped than stone. In certain
sections of the Mississippi Valley w r here materials of all kinds \vere
in abundance many varieties of stone, shell, etc., were employed.

The readiness with w r hich the native adapted himself to condi
tions is shown in the house structure of the Indians. Those of cold
climates lived in very different structures from those of the South.
And the Plains Indians employed skin coverings, whereas the woods
Indians made use of bark or of logs, and the Pacific Coast Indians
used quantities of hewn boards.

This is an interesting subject, and could be followed at consider
able length did space permit.

ART IN ANCIENT TIMES AND MODERN ART

Too much has been made of the presence of stone and bone tools
among modern tribes. While there have been numerous instances of
such clinging to old forms, yet students of modern Indian life, by
their constant reference to these recurrences, have given a wrong
impression to the w^orld.

It is generally known and accepted that art passes through
periods of transition. As an example one might cite the Renaissance.
No student of art would confuse the Renaissance with an earlier or
later period. Examples of earlier art still persisting during the early
Renaissance are in evidence. But as the influence of the Renais
sance broadened, all art of that period was affected, or leavened by
it, and presently practically all art was Renaissance.

This is precisely true of Indian art. We search diligently to find an
old, really old Navajo blanket to-day, and we pay a fabulous price
for it. Likewise we search but in vain for old wooden bowls,
painted buffalo robes, and feather mantles. The utmost corners of
remote South America are visited by explorers from Harvard, the
American Museum, and Berlin and London museums. Why? To
discover primitive man untouched by civilization in order to record
his arts and folk-lore, religion, and daily life, undefiled by contact
with our civilization. Is it found? Scarcely an example remains -
all is tinged and influenced even as the Renaissance changed the pre-

356 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

Renaissance. If one will reflect a moment, one will agree that this is
all true.

Examples of sculptures in stone, carving of shell, effigies in cop
per, ceramic art in the Cliff- Dweller country are in our leading
museums. I would recommend readers to go to these museums and
compare that real art with the wretched examples in vogue among
the Indians at the present time.

I have said so much regarding ancient arts in various places in
this book that now I wish to speak more particularly regarding cer
tain tribes of Indians, among whom I spent the spring and summer
of the year 1909, and contrast their art with stone-age art.

In March, 1909, I was sent by the Department of the Interior to
investigate the condition of the Ojibwa Indians. I returned sev
eral weeks later and was again sent out the first of July and
remained on the White Earth Reservation until in October. Be
cause our work was to establish who w r ere the full bloods, we came in
contact with all the Indians of the Ojibwa tribe who claim to have
no white or negro blood in their veins.

Among our eighteen or twenty witnesses, who were chiefs and
persons ranging from seventy to eighty-five years of age, and who
were familiar with the history of the Ojibwa, with the parents and
grandparents of those whom we established to be full bloods, were
several members of the grand medicine society, the Midiwewin.
These persons were frequently examined by me through our inter
preters all of whom were the most competent we were able to
procure and the best on the reservation as to the past history of
the Ojibwa tribe. The old record -keeper, commonly called Day-
dodge, but whose real name is Bay-bah-dwung-gay-aush, aged
eighty-two, had a remarkable memory. To him had been related all
the Hiawatha traditions by the Indians, and he was able to carry
back history about one hundred and twenty years. This man told
me that there were few, if any, stone implements in use among his
people when he was a boy, and he did not think that stone objects
were in use to any extent when his grandparents were children. He
said that occasionally a woman hafted a stone celt and used it in
scraping or cutting, that some stone mallets were to be found when
his grandparents were young, but he thought that the French and
English traders goods had displaced all stone articles in use among
the Ojibwa.

CHAPTER XXXVII

CONCLUSIONS

THE ANCIENT CULTURE-GROUPS

As Major Powell found many linguistic stocks in North America
in recent times, so we find quite as many cultures in ancient times.
But the language of these people being unknown to us, we must
study them through their implements. Some of these are wide
spread, while others are local. Consider, for instance, the saddle-
shaped or bird-shaped stones, of which numbers are illustrated in
chapter xxv. These, after great study, one must conclude orig
inated in a certain tribe long ago. It is not proper to call them Iro-
quois, or Delaware; if they existed in historic times one might be
more correct in stating that the Eries, or the Snake People, referred
to by the Delawares in their Lenni-Lenape tradition, made and used
them. Certainly they are not Iroquoian in character. Their very
distribution would indicate that they are a product of Northern
people of stone-age culture. As against this the bicave and discoidal
stone is of central South culture and not of New England, the North,
or West. Under other chapters I have presented some conclusions,
and these will not be repeated here. Axes, flint implements, copper
(by Mr. Brown), and several other divisions of artifacts have been
already separated into their culture-groups. At the present writing
there are so many new types on exhibition in public and private
collections which formerly were considered products of individual
fancy, that it is quite difficult for one to determine the number and
extent of the prehistoric cultures in the United States.

However, one must make a beginning. In presenting w^hat ap
pears to me to establish various local cultures, I am quite aware that
future observers when the knowledge of this intricate subject is
more widespread may add or detract from my observations. The
cultures mentioned, therefore, must be considered in the nature of
pioneer observations, subject to development or change as arcruro-
logic knowledge expands and becomes more perfect.

In New Brunswick and Maine and about the mouth of the St.
Lawrence there are the ever-present flint implements and chipped

358 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

objects, and also numbers of slate points, which may be either pro
blematical forms or winged spear-points and arrow-heads. Many of
the slate points found by Mr. C. C. Willoughby in graves at Old-
town, Maine, appear to me to be too long and slender to have made
effective weapons. Yet they may have served as such. The adze
and gouge and the adze-blade celt are numerous in New England.
I have commented on the types of chipped objects and how they
differ in various sections of the country, so that it is not necessary to
re-enter upon a lengthy dissertation on this question.

In New England proper, the region east of the Hudson River, the
slate points are not common, and gradually disappear west of the
Connecticut Valley. But the adze and the gouge and the long roller
pestle abound in numbers. There are also strange effigies of whale,
and rude effigies so rough that one does not know what the maker in
tended to represent. Plummet-shaped stones are also common. But
the slate gorget and ornament, and the bell-shaped pestle, the dis-
coidal and bicave, and many other forms, are almost wanting. The
pipes are not common and far inferior to those of the Ohio Valley
and Middle South and the South. New England, then, may be divided
into two culture-groups, that east of the Merrimack River and that
lying between the Merrimack and the Hudson. These are related
to each other, but differences may be observed.

The next culture-group is that of eastern Canada, north of Lake
Erie and Lake Ontario. All of this region is marked by Iroquois
influence, and the tribes preceding the Iroquois left exceedingly
crude and rude handiwork in stone. The forms which may be con
sidered to be pre-Iroquoian are very like those of the Lake Cham-
plain district. A splendid collection of them is on exhibition in the
Provincial Museum, Toronto, where Mr. David Boyle labored for
many years to bring about the preservation of Canadian antiquities.

Between the Hudson and the line drawn between Buffalo, New
York, and Baltimore, there are at least two cultures and indications
of one or two more. In northern New York is the famous Iroquoian
culture of which so much has been written and by more compe
tent observers that I would not dare describe it here.

Suffice it to say that an inspection of the pipes, pottery, bone
implements, etc., from Iroquoian graves and village -sites will
acquaint one even superficially interested in archaeology with the
fact that the Iroquoian culture is plainly different from anything
else on the American continent. Whether the Iroquois, previous to

CONCLUSIONS 359

their famous Hiawatha, were organized and had developed this
peculiar art is a question for others to decide. But the freshness of
the Iroquoian pipes and pottery and the general tone of the objects
- and by tone I mean that appearance which most of them pos
sess indicate that they show European influence lead the
archaeologist to conclude that as to antiquity they are not in the
class with the other objects found in America. It has always been
my opinion that five or six centuries of time are sufficient to account
for their production. None of them look old in the sense that objects
from other sites appear old.

In southern New York and throughout New Jersey and Delaware
we have chipped and polished implements which are supposed to
stand for the prehistoric Delawares, and these types appear, in the
main, very old. They are more than weather-beaten, many of them
were on the verge of disintegration. Time alone can account for such
condition. The Delaware Valley and the Susquehanna must have
been ideal places for prehistoric man. In both the climate was not
severe; game, nuts, herbs, fish, and other necessities of life abounded.
A careful inspection of the work done by Dr, Charles C. Abbott and
Mr. Ernest Volk leads me to believe that these men have, beyond
question, established that man lived in the Delaware Valley three or
four thousands of years ago. Rude axes and peculiar ornaments- also
abound. The gouge is rare. The adze is scarcely ever found, while
the problematical forms are totally different from those of the Mid
dle West and the Middle South. The roller pestle occurs, but it may
not be considered a local type. Copper is found in limited quanti
ties, hematite is almost entirely wanting, and effigy pipes are very
rare. The bicaves, now and then discovered, may be considered as
strays brought in by means of barter or exchange. The projectile
points are as a rule slender, and are easily distinguished from those
of New England, New York State, or Canada. Jasper, argillite,
quartzite, and rhyolite predominate.

The next culture-group is that of central and western Pennsyl
vania, wherein many New Jersey and New York State types occur.
The problematical forms, the black chert, arrow-points, the jasper
knives, and the notched hoes or axes may be said to enable one to
distinguish this region from other culture-groups of the East, even
if they are more or less related. West Virginia may be said to lie
on the border-line between Pennsylvania, Kentucky, and Ohio.
Hematite appears in the valleys of the Kanawha and other streams

3 6o THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

in West Virginia. The monitor pipes also appear, together with cer
tain forms of axes, spear-heads, and knives which are found in greater
numbers in Kentucky and Ohio.

Ohio and Kentucky stand as two separate cultures separated by
the Ohio River. Yet the Ohio River was made use of by prehistoric
man from above Pittsburg to its mouth at Cairo. Along the stream
itself one may discern, on both north and south bank sites, all kinds
of cultures, thus proving that the Ohio River was not only a thor
oughfare but the thoroughfare in prehistoric times. It is only when
one proceeds up the streams from the Ohio back fifty or a hundred
miles in Illinois, Kentucky, Indiana, and Ohio that one observes
how the local cultures have developed. The culture of the Mus-
kingum and Scioto in Ohio are practically the same ; the Miami is dif
ferent. The Wabash in Indiana is yet another culture and the Illi
nois yet a third. In Kentucky the Cumberland and Tennessee are in
a class by themselves, separate from the others mentioned. These
two latter rivers are so long, and as each is navigable far into the
State of Tennessee, I feel certain that five or six cultures may be
clearly differentiated within their valleys. I have referred to the
stone-grave culture of this region elsewhere. It merits further
detailed study on the part of archaeologists.

In the State of Illinois are long yellow chert spear-heads and lance-
heads and knives, some of which have slightly turned points. Many
of these are not unlike the Scandinavian daggers. In Michigan and
Wisconsin there is a wealth of copper, many of the sugar quartz
spears and knives, large numbers of peculiar winged problematical
forms which have been quite fully illustrated in this work. The
Illinois and Wisconsin cultures are separate and distinct.

Northern Illinois contains types of Wisconsin and Michigan as
well as numbers of central Illinois forms. At Sandwich in DeKalb
County there is a large collection owned by Mr. Henry W. Franck,
who sent me numerous photographs of his exhibit. This collection
illustrates the mingling of types of three cultures and is of great
archaeological importance.

Passing west to the Mississippi in Missouri w r e have the so-called
hematite belt. Along the Missouri River occur great quantities of
iron ore, and the natives worked this into hematite axes, celts, plum
mets, etc. This region of central Missouri appears to be different
from southwestern Missouri. Central and western Missouri (outside
of the Ozarks) are also different from the cultures bordering along
the Mississippi River, or eastern Missouri.

CONCLUSIONS 361

In Kansas and Iowa we have the large notched hatchets which
are peculiar to that section of the country, the white flint of Iowa,
the dark chert of Kansas, and the minute arrow-heads, the small
almost square hand-axes, the profusion of yellow chert and poor
jasper hide-scrapers. These are always typical of the buffalo coun
try. But the strangest culture, it seems to me, in America is that
of the cave region of the Ozark Mountains, where Dr. Peabody and
myself made several investigations. In southwestern Missouri,
northwestern Arkansas, and Indian Territory, in both limestone and
sandstone formation, are some thirty-five or more natural caverns
which had been inhabited by man. In these are great quantities of
ashes and debris. Our inspection of four or five of these caves, the
study of local collections, and an examination of village-sites in the
region revealed the fact that chipped implements of the village-sites
are of different stone from those from the ashes in the caverns.
That man in the Ozark region had no pipes, no slate articles, no
problematical forms, no roller or bell-shaped pestles, no shell orna
ments, no copper, no hematite, no celts, no grooved axes, etc. I say
none, although in the entire region one slate article, one pipe, and two
axes have been found. These may be considered as brought in by
later Indians. The chipped implements are rough save here and
there a long, slender, well-chipped object; they are seldom well
made. There is a profusion of sandstone mano-stones and mortars.
There is every indication that the culture is extremely old and very
primitive, as stalagmites have formed (notably in Jacob s Cavern)
over some of the human remains. This Ozark culture, as stated
above, was carefully worked out by Peabody and myself, and was
found to be an anomaly in American archaeology. I am persuaded
that there are other arid equally peculiar local cultures to be found if
one searches diligently.

The Southern culture shows local developments. It is chiefly dis
tinguished by its pottery, which is different in Florida from that of
Missouri and from Louisiana. The flint implements also differ, as do
many of the types in stone. In Florida stone celts occur, but axes are
extremely rare.

In Texas there is peculiar culture, chiefly of chipped implements
of a rough sort and small minute arrow-points well made, with little
or no pottery, with almost an entire absence of problematical forms,
and of copper, little hematite, etc.

Throughout the entire Rocky Mountain chain, from northern

362 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

British Columbia to the Colorado s headwaters, is a peculiar " moun
tain culture." From this is excepted the Columbia Valley proper,
where large pestles occur, also polished pacldle-shaped stones, minute
chipped objects, and various problematical forms. The mountain
chain proper (back from the Coast) is different as to culture, and
large chipped discs abound, also short, round pestles, rubbing-stones,
hand-hammers, large grooved hammers. Eastern types are entirely-
wanting, and many of the chipped objects may be distinguished from
those of the Coast or the Columbia Valley.

Stone objects in the Rocky Mountains are not very numerous.
This is explained on the ground that before the coming of the whites
it was not necessary for the Indians to live in the mountains to any
appreciable extent. Naturally, they preferred the valleys in the
foothills where there was more game. The tribes were driven to the
mountains by their enemies. The oldest Sioux have told me (at
Pine Ridge) that they never liked to go into the main range of the
Black Hills because evil spirits dwelt there.

The cultures in the Colorado basin might be divided into several
groups the Cliff-Dwellers, the Pueblo culture, the Cave-Dwellers,
and the boulder ruin people. These might be classified by Dr.
Fewkes as all belonging to the same class. I do not know with refer
ence to that, but the implements, the surface indications, and the
character of the burials lead me to suppose that the cave people
of southern Utah and the boulder ruin people of San Juan Valley were
to be considered as distinct from those of the great cliff-houses and
of the modern pueblo towns. There is a wealth of material in this
region in the way of fine pottery, turquoise beads, delicate chipped
implements, shell ornaments and bracelets, etc. We learn much of
prehistoric times by exploration in the cliff-houses, for the reason that
the climate is exceedingly arid and that the objects are placed back
in the rooms where no moisture can penetrate to them, even when it
occasionally rains.

Therefore, axes are found in their original handles; wooden tools,
throwing-sticks, and baskets, sandals, knives in wooden handles,
mats, ropes, and other things that would perish in the North or the
South, are preserved. Thus we have splendid opportunity to study
how the ancient man mounted and used these various tools, etc.

Dr. Yates and the late Reverend Mr. Meredith have shown in their
articles 1 that two separate cultures existed on the Pacific Coast,

1 Prehistoric Implements, sections 7 and 9.

CONCLUSIONS 363

one in northern, and the other in southern California. In addition to
these there is the famous culture of the Columbia Valley, which is
somewhat different from others. Numerous figures and the delicate
arrow-points in that region have been presented in the foregoing
pages. Along the Northwest Coast there is yet another culture.

The Canadian and Utah and Dakota cultures have been described
by Professor Montgomery in Chapter xxxv. I have run over these
various cultures very rapidly. Much more could be said regarding
each one. The finding of different kinds of implements on a given
site may indicate different cultures, for it is probable that a favorable
site was selected by subsequent tribes after it had been abandoned
by the first occupants. This should be borne in mind by students.

THE STONE-AGE POINT OF VIEW

During the Boston meeting of the Anthropological Association,
December 27, 1909, at the conclusion of a paper on " Myths of the
Cayapa Indians of South America," by Dr. S. A. Barrett, remarks
were offered by several gentlemen, including Dr. Franz Boas. He
took occasion to emphasize how important was Dr. Barrett s work
among a people as yet untouched by civilization, and as the point of
view of these Cayapa Indians was so different from ours, it was dif
ficult for us to understand their motives and conceptions. All truly
primitive people live in a world so apart and removed from our own
that one should be able by long study to place himself mentally in
that world. Because many observers were not in sympathy with the
thoughts of these primitive peoples, and could not forget that they
(the observers) were the product of a higher culture, therefore,
much misinformation has been disseminated regarding primitive
beliefs and customs. Other ethnologists spoke along similar lines.

The above is a truism that every student of prehistoric times
should realize, and at the risk of wearying my readers I repeat and
I trust these are not vain repetitions that we must realize what
the term stone age conveys. Nothing that w-e have in use to-day was
known to stone-age man even so common a thing as fire is confined
and changed to suit our will.

Various effigies, polished problematical forms, bright copper,
shell or mica, pottery, textile fabrics, and forms in wood -- these
were the extent of his art. He knew no horizon beyond the stone
effigy, the ornamented gorget, etc. A colored stone, piece of copper,
or anything in stone unusual attracted his eye. I believe that these

364 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

appeared to him different from ordinary stones. For the same rea
son he must have considered hematite as more or less of a mystery.
It is very hard to work, and because of its heaviness and the dif
ficulty of reduction to desired shape, one may surmise it appealed
to him as a "mystery stone."

It is clear, from the amount of hematite and copper in public
and private collections, that both were highly prized. That hematite
was far harder to work than common stone did not deter the ancient
man from digging, grinding, cutting, and polishing the steel-gray
hematites (as hard as any stone) to the desired size. Truly he
worked "at his task with a resolute will, over and over again." I
should like to propose to any person who has lightly waved aside
the skill or patience of the ancient worker, that that person select a
chunk of the hard gray iron ore (not the soft kind) and set to work
with a stone hammer and some flint flakes and a block of sandstone
to make a hematite plummet. A week s labor on the specimen will
increase the respect of the sceptic for the stone-age artist.

We are just beginning to appreciate the point of view of the stone-
age man. At present our knowledge is imperfect. Particularly, do
I feel this personally and realize the responsibility resting on one s
shoulders when one attempts to describe and classify, in a large sense,
the stone implements, etc., of ancient times. Even if one does one s
best, such a work must, for the present at least, remain a pioneer
undertaking, and those who come afterwards will make of the
faintly marked pioneer trail a broad and substantial highway along
which others may travel and find, I trust, guide-posts unnecessary.

\Yhen we realize the point of view, the mind, and the concept of
the stone-age man fully, we shall, quite likely, understand the true
import of the strange problematical polished stones so common in
the Mississippi Valley. These stand for more than mere ornaments.
The very name "ceremonial," which was afterwards changed by
that able archaeologist Professor Holmes to problematical, is a con
fession of ignorance. These problematical forms are found in Wis
consin, West Virginia, New England, Louisiana, Ohio, and Arkansas,
and although varying through a multitude of shapes, yet apparently
convey substantially the same idea. To the people who lived
entirely in the stone-age times, these must have represented certain
"sacred mysteries," to white men and later Indians entirely un
known. The same is true of the abnormally large axes in copper or
in stone, of the large chipped implements in Tennessee and on the

CONCLUSIONS 365

Pacific Coast. None of these things could have served a real purpose.
One cannot strike or cut with the "ceremonial swords" shown in
Fig. 161, neither can the axe illustrated in Fig. 263 A be made use of
for cutting. Such things as these illustrate the height or perfection
of stone-age art, and we must seek their explanation and purposes
along other lines than those suggested by common every-day usage,
to which the smaller and more easily made objects were put.

FIELD STUDY NEEDED

Before concluding my remarks on the stone age in North America,
I would call attention to the necessity of more and careful field
work, and an understanding of the difference between various sites
rather than continued museum work, or the reading of reports and
publications. That man who considers arts and crafts of tribes to
have been pretty much the same in America is very ignorant con
cerning real archaeology. It has been the purpose of this volume to
emphasize differences in the arts and crafts among prehistoric tribes.
Archaeology is like any other comprehensive subject; it requires
study, discriminating care, and enthusiasm. One should further add,
it requires inspiration. A man who does not love to hunt specimens
for the sake of hunting them has not his heart in the work.

We have had many mounds examined, plans have been drawn,
the skeletons carefully set down as so many feet from each other.
A report is published in regard to that mound, and instead of intel
ligent observations on the meaning of the evidence ascertained, there
is usually nothing but a dry and statistical statement of the dis
tances of the skeletons from a given point. Of course it is necessary
to make a survey of mounds and other remains. And it is equally
important to have reports, but I do not think that it is necessary to
publish field notes which are no more than survey notes and
call them a report. Many of the reports published in recent years
have missed the essential thing in American archaeology. They have
emphasized the mathematical features of our explorations. They
are as if one published tabulated census reports, but offered no
explanations as to what the number and assembling of the people
in the United States meant. If no conclusions of value are to be
drawn from the exploration of a given site, then it seems to me that
wealthy people who send out expeditions are wasting their money,
and the scientists their time. We are training young men in our
universities and museums to measure mounds and village-sites very

3 66 THE STONE AGE IN NORTH AMERICA

carefully. All this is eminent and proper, but we are losing sight of
the meaning of those same village-sites and mounds and their rela
tion to others and to prehistoric culture in general.

The explorer Stanley made a statement in his work "Darkest
Africa," which I have never forgotten. The scientist Emin Bey was
much interested in examining a human skull and measuring it very
carefully and setting down the measurements. Stanley was not
interested in the skull. He wished to know something regarding the
life of the man to whom it once belonged. If some of our students
would, for a* few years, lay aside cameras, ground-plans, tape-lines,
and get down to real field work, much more progress would ensue.
The study of sites, collections, types, and local conditions should be
placed first, it seems to me.

In Science, April 15, 1910, there appeared an open letter written
by Professor B. C. Gruenberg of De Witt Clinton School, New York,
along the very lines I have indicated. I quote a paragraph: -

"We all know that there can be no true science that does not rest
solidly upon facts. But the thought must often occur to many of
us that there is some danger, especially among the younger scien
tists, that we may become obsessed with an exaggerated sense of the
value of facts as such. Is there not too much emphasis laid by many
professors in charge of research students on the mere accumulation
of observational, statistical, or experimental facts, with too little
attention to that side of science which concerns itself with those
analytical and synthetic processes that convert facts into valuable
ideas? It seems to me that this latter kind of work needs at the
present time at least as much encouragement as the other. Of
course, there is the possibility for thinking to degenerate into
profitless speculation; but we are certainly as much in need of the
results of thinking about the facts already accumulated as we are of
more facts."

Such studies as those of Professor Holmes on pottery and quar
ries; such explorations as Mr. C. B. Moore s in the South; the work
done by Yolk and Abbott in New r Jersey, where they very carefully
set aside the arg*llite and the quartzite and chipped implements as
found in different places under different conditions; such work as
Professor Mills has done in Ohio in differentiating the Hopewell and
the Fort Ancient culture, are things that will count, and works that
will stand. A surveyor should measure mounds, number skeletons,
and draw plans. The librarian should read reports and compile sta-

CONCLUSIONS 367

tistics, but it requires a real archaeologist to do the work that 1 have
referred to above.

Squier and Davis, whose "Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi
Valley" may be justly considered our standard work upon the
mounds, not only explored, but they drew conclusions which, with
here and there an exception, or a slight change, will stand at the
present time. For many years Dr. Cyrus Thomas used all the tre
mendous energies of the Bureau of Ethnology to dispute the state
ments of those hard-working, painstaking, philosophical pioneers
Squier and Davis. To-day we know that the culture they described
is different from the Shawano, Cherokee, or other cultures which
Thomas wished to establish in the Ohio Valley. The work of that
distinguished citizen of Illinois, George Sellars, will bear compari
son with the work of any other man since his day in the study of
chipped flint objects, and if any one doubts the statement let him
read and ponder upon Sellars s complete narrative in the Smithsonian
Report for 1885, and then read what has been said since by others.

Aside from the technical study of American archaeology, there is
a certain charm and fascination in investigation of these ancient
remains. Although it has been thirty years since I found my first
arro\v-head, I never cease to feel a thrill of pleasure when, walking
about the shores of lakes or streams, I happen to find one of these
evidences of the real and the simple life. One s mind, if he is inclined
to dwell upon prehistoric times in America, naturally reverts to the
past under such circumstances, and I close this work with a quota
tion from Dr. Abbott s recent publication, "When as many a day
has drawn to its close, while yet I lingered in the field and every sign
of white man s industry faded from view, the scattered trees became
again a forest, the cry of the cougar and bleat of the fawn were
heard, the bark of the fox and howling of the wolf filled the air,
a lurid light of a camp-fire lit the sky; the days of the Indian had
returned, nor did the illusion pass away until homeward bound, my
hand was on the latch."

BIBLIOGRAPHY

FOR obvious reasons this bibliography is not complete; to make an ex
haustive catalogue of the titles dealing with the stone age in America
would require the inclusion of many articles in out-of-the-way periodicals
and newspapers that are now lost or out of print; in the next place, if
made complete, even within the limits of possibility, such a list would
require a separate volume out of all proportion to the dimensions of the
present work.

In view of these facts, therefore, the attempt has been made, first, to
give the publications to which reference has been made in the text; second,
to present a list of general works of standard reputation, most of which are
provided either with indexes or tables of contents raisonnes; third, to give
some of the more important series of publications of individual authors
dealing especially with excavations whose results are germane to the mat
ter of the volumes; and fourth, to set forth a classified list of references by
the use of which a student can at least learn something about the desired
subject and at the same time may receive suggestions as to the methods
and the literature necessary to further research.

In view of the change in archaeological processes and opinions that has
often occurred in a comparatively short space of time, the arrangement of
the titles is made as a whole in chronological order.

GENERAL WORKS

Catlin, G. North American Indians. New York. 1841.

Squier, E. G., and Davis, E. H. Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi
Valley. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, I. 1847.

Squier, E. G. The Serpent Symbol. New York. 1851.

Baldwin, J. D. Ancient America. New York. (1871.)

Foster, J. W. Prehistoric Races of the United States. Chicago. 1873.

Jones, C. C. Antiquities of the Southern Indians. New York. 1873.

Abbott, C. C. The Stone Age in New Jersey. Report of the Smithsonian
Institution, 1875, pp. 246-380. 1875.

Wyman, J. Fresh-Water Shell Mounds of the St. John s River, Florida.
Peabody Academy of Science, Fourth Memoir. Salem. 1875.

Abbott, C. C. Palaeolithic Implements in the Valley of the Delaware
River. Peabody Museum Report, 10, pp. 30 ff. 1877. Peabody Mu
seum Report, n, pp. 225 ff. 1878.

Conant, A. J. Footprints of Vanished Races. St. Louis. 1879.

MacLean, J. P. The Mound Builders. Cincinnati. 1879.

370 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Evers, E. Ancient Pottery of South Eastern Missouri. St. Louis Academy

of Science. 1880.

Short, J. T. The North Americans of Antiquity. New York. 1880.
Whitney, J. D. The Auriferous Gravels of the Sierra Nevada of California.

Contributions to American Geology, vol. 11. Cambridge. 1880.
de Nadaillec, Marquis. Pre-Historic America. Translated by N. D Anvers.

New York. 1884.

Mercer, H. C. The Lenape Stone. New York. 1885.
McAdams. Records of Ancient Races. St. Louis. 1887.
Shepherd, H. A. Antiquities of the State of Ohio. Cincinnati. 1887.
Read, M. C. Archaeology of Ohio. Cleveland.
Wilson, T. Palaeolithic Period of the Stone Age. Report of the United

States National Museum, 1888, pp. 677 ff. 1888.
Thruston, G. P. Antiquities of Tennessee. Cincinnati. 1890.
Fowke, G. Stone Art. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 13, pp. 57 ff.

1891-92.
Wilson, T. Primitive Industry. Report of the Smithsonian Institution,

1892, pp. 521 ff. 1892.

Berlin, A. F. Lehigh Island and its Relics. The Archaeologist, i, Jan.,

1893, PP- 13 ff. 1893.

Nordenskiold, G. The Cliff-Dwellers of the Mesa Verde. Stockholm. 1893.
Schmidt, E. Vorgeschichte Nordamerikas. Braunschweig. 1894.
Wilson, T. The Swastika. Report of the United States National Museum,

1894, pp. 763 ff. 1894.

Prehistoric Art. Report of the United States National Mu
seum, 1896, pp. 325 ff. 1896.

Arrow-Points, Spear-Points, and Knives. Report of the

United States National Museum, 1897, I, pp. 811 ff. 1897.

Thomas, C. Introduction to the Study of North American Archaeology.

Cincinnati. 1898.

Dellenbaugh, F. S. The North Americans of Yesterday. New York. 1901.
Fowke, G. Archaeological History of Ohio. Columbus. 1902.
Lewis, A. B. Tribes of the Columbia Valley and the Coast of Washington
and Oregon. Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association,
vol. i, pp. 147 ff. Index and Bibliography. 1905-1907.
Abbott, C. C. Archaeologia Nova Caesarea. Three Pamphlets. Trenton.

1907-8.
Mills, W. C. Certain Mounds and Village Sites in Ohio. Vol. i, 1907.

Vol. n, Part i, 1909.

Barrett, S. A. The Ethno-Geography of the Porno and Neighboring
Indians. University of California Publications in American Archae
ology and Ethnology, vol. 6, no. i. Bibliography and Map. 1908.
Randall, E. O. The Masterpieces of the Ohio Mound Builders. Columbus.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 371

Boas Anniversary Volume. New York. 1906.
Putnam Anniversary Volume. New York. 1909.
Moorehead, W. K. See last pages of Bibliography for titles.

WORKS MORE PURELY OF GENERAL REFERENCE

de Mortillet, G. and A. Musee Prehistorique. Paris. 1881.

Evans, Sir John. Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain. London.

1897-
Hodge, F. W. Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. Part i.

Bulletin of the Bureau of Ethnology, no. 30, part I. 1907.
Forrer, R. Reallexikon der Prahistorischen, Klassischen und Friih-

christlichen Altertiimer. Berlin and Stuttgart. (1907.)
Schlemm, J. Worterbuch zur Vorgeschichte. Berlin. 1908.
Dechelette, J. Manuel d Archeologie, i. Paris. 1908.

SERIAL REFERENCES TO THE WORKS OF INDIVIDUALS

Boyle, D. Compare the Archaeological Reports of the Province of Ontario,
being parts of the Appendices of the Reports of the Minister of Educa
tion of Ontario. Toronto, from 1887.
Beauchamp, W. M. Aboriginal Chipped Stone Implements of New York.

Bulletin of the New York State Museum, vol. 4,

no. 16. 1897.
Polished Stone Articles used by the New York

Aborigines. Bulletin of the New York State

Museum, vol. 4, no. 18. 1897.
Earthenware of the New York Aborigines. Bulletin

of the New York State Museum, vol. 5, no. 22.

1898.
Aboriginal Occupation of New York. Bulletin of

the New York State Museum, vol. 7, no. 32. 1900.
Wampum and Shell Articles used by the New York

Indians. Bulletin of the New York State Museum,

vol. 8, no. 41. 1901.

Horn and Bone Implements of the New York In
dians. Bulletin of the New York State Museum,

no. 50. 1902.
Metallic Implements of the New York Indians.

Bulletin of the New York State Museum, no. 55.

1902.
Metallic Ornaments of the New York Indians.

Bulletin of the New York State Museum, no. 73,

Archeology 8. 1903.
Perch Lake Mounds. Bulletin of the New York

State Museum, no. 87, Archaeology 10. 1905.

372 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Beauchamp, W. M. Aboriginal Use of Wood in New York. Bulletin of
the New York State Museum, no. 89, Archaeology
ii. 1905.

Aboriginal Place Names of New York. Bulletin of
the New York State Museum, no. 108, Archaeo
logy 12. 1907.

Civil, Religious, and Mourning Councils, and the
Ceremonies of Adoption of the New York Indians.
Bulletin of the New York State Museum, no. 113,
Archaeology 13. 1907.

Erie Village and Burial Sites. Bulletin of the New

York State Museum, no. 117, Archaeology 14. 1907.

Mills, W. C. Compare the following references to the Ohio Archaeological

and Historical Quarterly:
Vol. vm, pp. 309 ff. Field-Work.
Vol. xm, pp. 129 ff. Gartner Mound and Site.
Vol. xv, pp. 45 ff. Baum Site.
Vol. xvi, pp. 113 ff. Harness Mound.
Vol. xvni, pp. 269 ff. Seip Mound.

Moore, C. B. Compare the following references to the Journal of the Acad
emy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia:
Certain Sand Mounds of the St. John s River, Fla. Part I.

1894.
Certain Sand Mounds of the St. John s River, Florida.

Part n. 1894.

Certain River Mounds of Duval County, Fla.
Two Sand Mounds on Murphy Island, Fla.
Certain Sand Mounds of the Ocklawaha River, Fla. 1895.
Certain Sand Mounds of the Georgia Coast. 1897.
Certain Aboriginal Mounds of the Coast of South Carolina.
Certain Aboriginal Mounds of the Savannah River.
Certain Aboriginal Mounds of the Altamaha River. ,
Recent Acquisitions.
A Cache of Pendant Ornaments. 1898.
Certain Aboriginal Remains of the Alabama River. 1899.
Certain Antiquities of the Florida West Coast. 1900.
Ce rtain Aboriginal Remains of the North West Florida

Coast. Part I. 1901.
Certain Aboriginal Remains of the North West Florida

Coast. Part n. 1902.

Certain Aboriginal Remains of the Tombigbee River. 1901.
Certain Aboriginal Mounds of Florida Central West Coast.
Certain Aboriginal Mounds of the Apalachicola River. 1903.
Certain Aboriginal Remains of the Black Warrior River.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 373

Moore, C. B. Certain Aboriginal Remains of the Lower Tombigbee

River.
Certain Aboriginal Remains of Mobile Bay and Mississippi

Sound.

Miscellaneous Investigations in Florida. 1905.
Moundville Revisited.
Crystal River Revisited.
Mounds of the Lower Chattahoochee and Lower Flint

Rivers.

Notes of the Ten Thousand Islands, Florida. 1907.
Certain Mounds of Arkansas and Mississippi. 1908.
Antiquities of the Ouachita Valley. 1909.

BIBLIOGRAPHY BY SUBJECTS
ADOBE.

Hodge, F. W. The Archaeologist, vol. in, p. 265. 1895.

American Anthropologist, vol. 10, p. 302. 1897. (Adobe

balls.)
Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 7, n. s., p. 205. 1905.

ADZES.

Crosby, H. A. Wisconsin Archaeologist, July, 1903, pp. 91 ff. "The

Triangular Stone Adze." 1903.

Smith, H. I. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, n. s., pp. 298 ff. 1906.
Willoughby, C. C. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, n. s., pp. 296 ff.

" New England." 1907.

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.

Rau, C. Arch, fur Anthropologie, vol. 14, pp. 1-9. A general paper.

1870.

Williams, F. H. American Archaeologist, July, 1898, pp. 177-8. 1898.
Willoughby, C. C. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, n. s., pp. 129-130.

"New England." 1906.

ALTARS.

Putnam, F. W. Kansas City Review, vol. vn, no. I, pp. 32 ff. Ohio.

1883.
Gordon, G. B. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, vol. I, i,p. 15. Copan,

Honduras. 1896.
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374 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Wilson, T. Journal of American Folk-Lore, 1891, pp. 144-6. 1891.

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Rau, C. Prehistoric Fishing, pp. 94 and 192. 1884.

ANKLETS.

Moorehead, W. K. Primitive Man in Ohio, p. no. 1892.
Montgomery, H. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, pi. xxxiv. North

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American Anthropologist, vol. 10, n. s., p. 37. Mani
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Abbott, C. C. Archaeologia Nova Csesarea, etc. (Often.)

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Nissley, J. R. American Antiquarian, 1886, p. 301. Ohio and Illinois.

1886.

Smith, H. I. American Antiquarian, 1889, pp. 249 ff. Michigan. 1889.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 375

Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 15, plates xxxn-

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Winchell, N. H. Records of the Past, 1907, p. 150. 1907.
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ARROW-SHAFT STRAIGHTENERS.

Ehrenreich, P. Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologic, 1900, I, pp. 15 and 24. Ohio

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Dixon, R. B. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, vol.

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Whittlesey, C. American Antiquarian, vol. 3, p. 13. Ethnography. 1880.

376 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 2, pp. 179 ff. Art

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Report of Bureau of Ethnology, 4, pp. 437 ff. Ceram
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Transactions of the Anthropological Society, Wash
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Textile Art. 1884-85.
Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 6, pp. 13 ff. Chiri-

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Putnam, F. W. Bulletins of the Essex Institute, vol. xvm, pp. 155 ff.

Conventionalization. 1887.

Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 13, pp. 9 ff. Tex
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1891-92.
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1893.
Holmes, W. H. American Association for the Advancement of Science,

1893, pp. 291 ff. The Processes. 1893.
Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 15, pp. I ff. The

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Boas, F. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, ix, pp.

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Holmes, W. H. Boas Anniversary Volume, pp. 179 ff. 1906.
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ATLATLS.

Bahnson, K. Archiv fur Ethnographic, vol. 2, pp. 217 ff. South
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 377

Seler, E. Archiv fur Ethnographic, vol. 3, pp. 137 ff. Mexico. 1890.
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Nuttall, Z. Archaeological and Ethnological Papers of the Peabody

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Montgomery, H. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, pp. 230 ff. Utah. 1894.
Peabody, C. Papers of the Peabody Museum, vol. 3, no. 2, p. 50.

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Bushnell, D. I. Jr. American Anthropologist, vol. 7, n. s., p. 218. 1905.

AXES.

Stevenson, J. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 2, pp. 375 ff.

Walpi. 1880-81.
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i 880-8 i.

McGuire, J. D. American Anthropologist, vol. 5, pp. 166 ff. 1892.
Fisher, A. W. The Archaeologist, vol. in, p. 75. 1895.
Laidlaw, G. E. American Antiquarian, vol. 19, pp. 68 ff. Ontario.

1897.
Peet, S. D. American Antiquarian, vol. 21, p. 100. Cliff- Dweller.

1899.
Peterson, C. A. Records of the Past, 1903, p. 27. Missouri. 1903.

Records of the Past, 1903, p. 351. Iowa. 1903.
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Gesner, A. T. Records of the Past, 1908, p. 243. Minnesota. 1908.
Fewkes, J. W. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, n. s., p. 633. 1908.

BANNER-STONES.

Fountain, G. H. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 186. 1898.
Williams, F. H. American Archaeologist, 1898, pp. 201 ff. 1898.
Peet, S. D. American Antiquarian, vol. 19, p. 26. Distribution. 1897.
Robinson, C. H. Wisconsin Archeologist, 1908, p. 134. 1908.

BASALT.

McGuire, J. D. American Anthropologist, vol. 5, p. 169. 1892.

BASKETRY.

Swan, J. G. Smithsonian Contributions, xvi, p. 45. Cape Flattery.
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Montgomery, H. American Association for the Advancement of Sci
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Matthews, W. American Anthropologist, vol. 7, p. 202. Navajo. 1894.

Dixon, R. B. American Anthropologist, vol. 2, n. s., pp. 266 ff. 1900.

378 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Farrand, L. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History,

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Holmes, W. H. Anthropological Studies in California, pp. 155 ff. 1900.
Fewkes, J. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 22, pt. I, p. 98.

Pueblo. 1900-01.

Mason, O. T. American Anthropologist, vol. 3, n. s., pp. 109 ff. 1901.
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Pepper, G. H. Journal of American Museum of Natural History, vol.

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Transactions of the University of Pennsylvania, vol. 2, pt.

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Kissell, M. L. Science, Dec. 24, 1909, p. 933. Classification. 1909.
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Henshaw, H. W. American Anthropologist, vol. in, p. 104. 1890.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 379

Richmond, J. F. Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly, 1907,

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Moorehead, W. K. The Birdstone Ceremonial. A general discussion.
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BLANKETS.

Pepper, G. H. The Making of a Navajo Blanket. New York. 1902.
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Berlin, A. F. The Antiquarian, 1897, p. 172. 1897.
BODKINS.

McGuire, J. G. Report of the United States National Museum, 1894,
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BONE AND BONE IMPLEMENTS.

Rau, C. Prehistoric Fishing, pp. 7, 13, 46, 120, etc. 1884.
Moorehead, W. K. Fort Ancient, p. 43. 1890.
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1900-01.
Mason, O. T. American Anthropologist, vol. 3, n. s., p. 121. Perforators.

1901.
Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 4, n. s., p. 120. Indian

Territory. 1902.
Smith, H. I. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History,

vol. 4, p. 171. (Anthropology, in, iv.) British Columbia. 1903.
Fewkes, J. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 25, p. 192. Porto

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Peabody, C. Papers of the Peabody Museum, vol. 3, 2, p. 50. Missis
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Smith, H. I. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History,

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380 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Sinclair, W. J. Publications of the University of California, vol. 2, i,

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Wintemberg, W. J. Records of the Past, 1905, p. 271. Attiwandarons.

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Gesner, A. T. Records of the Past, 1905, p. 366. Mandans. 1905.
Will, G. F., and Spinden, H. J. Papers of the Peabody Museum, vol. 3,

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Montgomery, H. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, n. s., p. 648. Dakota.

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1907.
Hough, W. Bulletin of the Bureau of Ethnology, 35, p. 23. South West.

1907.
Brown, C. E. Wisconsin Archeologist, 1907, p. 68. Wisconsin Caches.

1907.
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Fort Ancient. 1908.
Lowie, R. H. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of

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BOWLS.

Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 4, pp. 257 ff.

Pueblo. 1882-83.
Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 4, pp. 360 ff.

Mississippi Valley. 1882-83.

Smyth, S. G. Records of the Past, 1905, p. 340. Pennsylvania. 1905.
Will, G. F., and Spinden, H. J. Papers of the Peabody Museum, vol.

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Wooden Bowls of the Algonquins. 1908.

(u.

OF THE

UNIVERSITY

OF /&gt;

BIBLIOGRAPHY 381

Bows AND ARROWS. (See also under ARROWS.)

Mason, O. T. Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1893, pp. 631 ff.
General North American discussion. 1893.

Frisbin, J. S. The Archaeologist, vol. i, p. 70. 1893.

Knight, E. H. A Study of Savage Weapons, p. 74.

Goddard, P. E. Publications of the University of California, vol. I, I,
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Mylius, E. Archiv fur Anthropologie, N. F. in, pp. 219 ff. The Theory.
1905.

Gordon, G. B. Transactions of the University of Pennsylvania, vol. 2,
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Wissler, C. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natu
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Willoughby, C. C. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, n. s., p. 81. Virginia.
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Sapir, E. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, p. 272. Oregon. 1907.

Harrington, M. R. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, p. 414. 1908.

Dixon, R. B. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, p. 213. California. 1908.

Kroeber, A. L. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of
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Sparkman, P. S. Publications of the University of California, vol. 8,
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Peet, S. D. American Antiquarian, vol. 30, p. 261. 1908.

Lowie, R. H. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Nat
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BRACELETS.

Nelson, E. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 18, p. 58. Eskimo.

1896-97.
Montgomery, H. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, p. 646. Dakota.

1906.

BUFFALO.

Allen, in Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Kentucky, I, pt. n. 1876.
Chittenden. Fur Trade. 1902.

Hornaday, in Report of the National Museum, 1887, 1889.
Alvar Nunez Cabega de Vaca, Relation of. B. Smith, translator. 1871.
Winship. Coronado Expedition, I4th Report of the Bureau of American
Ethnology. 1896.

BUFFALO HAIR.

Bushnell, D. I., Jr. American Anthropologist, vol. n, n. s., p. 401. A
general discussion. 1909.

382 BIBLIOGRAPHY

BURIALS.

Yarrow, H. C. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, i, pp. 89 ft. A

general discussion. 1879-80.
Bahnson, K. Aarb. f. Nord. Old. og Hist. 1882. Discussion on America,

pp. 125 ff. 1882.
Montgomery, H. Proceedings of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science, 1889, p. 343. 1889.
American Anthropologist, vol. 8, pp. 640, 641, 642.

1906.

Toronto Globe, August 3, 1878.

Moore, C. B. International Congress of Americanists, p. 28. 1902.
Peabody, C. Papers of the Peabody Museum, vol. 3, 2, p. 24. Missis
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Moore, C. B. American Anthropologist, vol. 6, n. s., p. 660. Urn-burial.

1904.

Mills, W. C. Records of the Past, 1906, p. 348. Ohio. 1906.
Pepper, G. H. Ancient Basket Makers of South Western Utah, pp. 5-7.
Gardner, W. American Antiquarian, vol. 31, p. 78. Nebraska. 1909.

CACHES. (Also, see Discs.)

Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 15, p. 79. Potomac-
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Volk, E. Memoirs of the International Congress of Anthropology,

Chicago, pp. 140 ff . New Jersey. 1894.

Brown, C. E. Records of the Past, 1905, pp. 82, ff. Wisconsin. 1905.
"The Implement Caches of the Wisconsin Indians."
Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 47 ff. 1907.
CALENDAR STONE.
Blake, W. W. Records of the Past, 1903, p. 16. 1903.

CARRYING INDUSTRY.

Mason, O. T. American Anthropologist, 1889, pp. 21 ff. 1889.

CARVINGS.

Henshaw, H. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 2, pp. 123 ff.

i 880-8 i.

CATLINITE.

Brower. "Kansas Explorations," pp. 33 and 64.

McGuire, J. D. American Anthropologist, vol. 5, pp. 168 and 173. 1892.

Montgomery, H. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, n. s., p. 645. Dakota.

1906.

American Anthropologist, vol. 10, pp. 36 and 39.
Manitoba and Saskatchewan. 1908.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 383

CELTS.

Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 6, p. 30. Chiriqui.

1884-85.
Proudfit, S. V. American Anthropologist, vol. i, p. 337. Potomac

Region. 1888.
Willoughby, C. C. Papers of the Peabody Museum, vol. i, no. 6, p. 43.

Maine. 1898.

Williams, F. H. American Archaeologist, 1898, pp. 147-48. 1898.
Fewkes, J. W. Miscellaneous Collections of the Smithsonian Institu
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American Anthropologist, vol. 6, n. s., p. 595. Cuba.

1904.

Squier, G. H. Wisconsin Archeologist, 1905, p. 33. Wisconsin. 1905.
Richmond, J. F. Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly, vol. 16,
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CEREMONIALS.

Welch, L. B., and Richardson, J. M. American Antiquarian, vol. 4,

pp. 43 ff. Ohio. 1 88 1.

Williams, F. H. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 182. 1898.
Ward, H. L. Bulletin of the Wisconsin Society of Natural History,

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Kroeber, A. L. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Nat
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Nomenclature Report. American Anthropologist, vol. n, n. s., pp. 114

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CHARM-STONES.

Yates, L. C. Report of Smithsonian Institution 1886, pt. i, pp. 296 ff.

1886.
CHISELS.

Carr, L., and Shaler, N. S. Prehistoric Remains of Kentucky, p. 18.

1876.
Nelson, E. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 18, p. 86. Eskimo.

1896-97.
Laidlaw, G. E. American Antiquarian, vol. 19, pp. 68 ff. Ontario. 1897.

CHISELS.

Smith, H. I. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, vol.

4, p. 162. British Columbia. 1903.
Willoughby, C. C. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, p. 77. Virginia.

1907.

CHIPPED ARTIFACTS.

Smith, H. I. American Anthropologist, vol. n, p. 359. British Columbia.
1909-

384 BIBLIOGRAPHY

CLAY.

Montgomery, H. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, p. 646. Dakota.

1906.
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Knight, E. H. Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1879, p. 214.

1879.
COMBS.

Nelson, E. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 18, p. 57. Eskimo.

1896-97.

Laidlaw, G. E. American Archaeologist, 1899, p. 16. 1899.
Thalbitzer, W. Meddelelser om Gronland, vol. xxvm pp. 467 ff.

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Brown, C. E. Wisconsin Archeologist, 1909, pp. 139 ff. Wisconsin.

1909.
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Atwater, C. Archaeologia Americana, pp. 162, etc. 1820.

Putnam, F. W. Archaeological Explorations in Tennessee, p. 307. 1878.

Schmidt, E. Archiv f (ir Anthropologie, vol. n, pp. 65 ff. North America.

1879.

Butler, J. D. American Antiquarian, vol. 3, p. 33. 1880.
Lewis, T. H. American Antiquarian, vol. n, p. 293. 1889.
Montgomery, H. Proceedings of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science, 1889, p. 344. 1889.

Henshaw, H. W. American Anthropologist, vol. 3, p. 103. 1890.
Packard, R. L. American Antiquarian, vol. 15, pp. 67 and 152. 1893.
Thomas, C. American Archaeology, p. 109. 1898.
Hamilton. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 158. 1898.
Laidlaw, G. E. American Antiquarian, vol. 21, p. 83. Ontario. 1899.
Lathrop, J. H. American Antiquarian, vol. 23, p. 248. 1901.
Hamilton, H. P. Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. I, 3, pp. 7 ff. 1901.
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McGuire, Moore, Putnam, Willoughby, Moorehead, etc. American

Anthropologist, vol. 5, no. I, n. s. A symposium. 1903.
Brown, C. E. Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 3, pp. 49 ff. Implements.

1904.

Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 3, pp. IOI ff. Ornaments.
1904.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 385

Montgomery, H. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, p. 644. 1906.
American Anthropologist, vol. 10, p. 36. 1908.
Peet, S. D. American Antiquarian, vol. 28, pp. 213 ff. 1906.
Smith, H. I. Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 6, pp. 20 ff. 1906-07.
Willoughby, C. C. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, op. 73 ff. 1907.
Mead, C. W. Peruvian Mummies, p. 15. 1907.

COPPER TABLETS.

Thomas, C. American Anthropologist, vol. 4, p. 245. 1891.
McGuire, J. G. American Anthropologist, vol. 5, p. 175. 1892.
Thruston, G. P. American Antiquarian, vol. 14, p. 96. 1892.

CRADLES.

Mason, O. T. Report of the United States National Museum, 1887, pp.
161 ff. 1887.

CUP-STONES.

Rau, C. In Contributions to North American Ethnology, vol. 5, 1882.
(U. S. Geog. and Geol. Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region.)
Fountain, G. H. The Antiquarian, 1897, p. 272. 1897.
Laubach, C. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 185. 1898.
Ivey, H. J. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 46. 1898.
Stilwell, L. W. American Archaeologist, 1898 p. 51. 1898.

Discs.

Holmes, W.H. Reportof the Bureau of Ethnology, 2, pp. 267 ff. 1880-81.

Snyder, J. F. The Archaeologist, 1893, p. 181. 1893.

Moorehead. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 39. 1898.

Fewkes, J. W. Miscellaneous Collections of the Smithsonian Institution,

45, p. 125. West Indies. 1904.

Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 7, n. s., p. 210. 1905.
Smith, H. I. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, n. s., p. 305. Lower

Columbia Valley. 1906.

Brown, C. E. Wisconsin Archeologist, 1907, pp. 53 ff. 1907.
Hartman, C. V. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, p. 447. Tennessee.

1907.
Brown, C. E. Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 8, no. 4. 1909.

EARTHENWARE.

Lawson, P. V. Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. I, pp. 96 ff. 1902.

Gerend, A. Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 4, pp. 4 ff. 1904.

Gerend, A., and Brown, C. E. Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 4, pp. 19 ff.

1904.
EFFIGIES.

Editorial Article. American Antiquarian, vol. 10, p. 384. 1888.

Peet, S. D. American Antiquarian, vol. 12, p. 211. 1890.

3 86 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Moorehead, W. K. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 209. 1898.
Wardle, H. N. International Congress of Americanists, p. 213. Mexico.

1902.

Moorehead, W. K. Records of the Past, pp. 246 ff. Southwest. 1902.
Pepper, G. H. Human Effigy Vases. Chaco. 1906.
Ashmead, A. S. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, p. 738. Peru. 1907.
Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, pp. 691 ff. 1907.

EOLITHIC PROBLEM.

MacCurdy, G. G. American Anthropologist, vol. 7, pp. 425 ff. 1905.
FIRE AND FIRE-PLACES.

Catlin. North American Indians, p. 82. 1841.

Robinson, C. H. "The First Fire-Place."

Richey, W. E. Early Spanish Explorations and Indian Implements, p. 9.

Hough, W. American Anthropologist, 1890, pp. 359 ff. 1890.

Mills, W. C. Records of the Past, 1903, p. 351. 1903.

Sheldon, A. E. American Anthropologist, vol. 7, n. s., p. 46. South
Dakota. 1905.

Fewkes, J. W. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, n. s., p. 390. South
western Kivas. 1908.

FISH-HOOKS.

Brown, C. E. Wisconsin Archeologist, 1904, p. 83. 1904.
FLINT AND CHERT.

Mercer, H. C. International Congress of Anthropology, p. 63. 1894.

Wright, G. F. Proceedings of the American Association for the Advance
ment of Science. Springfield, p. 296. 1895.

Seever, W. J. The Antiquarian, 1897, p. 141. Tennessee. 1897.

Snyder, J. F. The Antiquarian, 1897, p. 160. 1897.

Barrott, A. F. The Antiquarian, 1897, p. 252. New York. 1897.

Brooks, J. M. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 39. Missouri. 1898.

Hamilton, H. P. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 158. 1898.

Barnard, W. C. Records of the Past, 1905, p. 307. Missouri. 1905.

Gesner, A. T. Records of the Past, 1905, p. 364. Mandan. 1905.

Fowke, G. Bulletin of the Phillips Academy, Andover, no. 3, Appendix.
Flint Ridge, Ohio. 1906.

Barnard, W. C. Records of the Past, 1906, p. 89. Missouri. 1906.

Blackman, E. E. Records of the Past, 1907, p. 103. Nebraska. 1907.

FOOD.

Carr, L. Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, April, 1895.

1895.
FRAUDS.

Jenks, A. E. American Anthropologist, 1900, pp. 292 ff. 1900.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 387

Kelsey, F. W. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, n. s., pp. 48 ff. Michi
gan. 1908.

FURNACES.

Flower, F. A. Records of the Past, 1907, p. 184. Illinois and Wisconsin.

1907.
GAMES.

Culin, S. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 24. A general discussion.
1902-03.

GORGETS.

Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 2, pp. 179 ff. Art

in Shell. 1 880-81.

Thomas, C. Bulletin of the Bureau of Ethnology, no. 4, p. 34. 1889.
Myer, W. E. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 6. Tennessee. 1894.
Starr, F. The Antiquarian, 1897, p. 57. Mexico. 1897.
Thruston, G. P. American Antiquarian, vol. 19, p. 96. Southern States.

1897.

Williams, F. H. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 182. 1898.
Peabody, C., and Moorehead, W. K. Bulletin 2, Phillips Academy,

Andover. A general discussion. 1906.
GOUGES.

Perkins, G. H. International Congress of Anthropology, p. 89. Cham-
plain Valley. 1894.

Laidlaw, G. E. American Anthropologist, vol. 19, p. 68. Ontario. 1897.
Williams, F. H. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 180. 1898.
Willoughby, C. C. Papers of the Peabody Museum, vol. I, no. 16, p. 23.

Maine. 1898.
GRAVES.

Thomas, C. American Anthropologist, vol. 4, pp. 109 ff. Shawnees.

1891.
Deans, J. American Antiquarian, vol. 14, pp. 41 ff. British Columbia.

1892.

Thruston, G. P. The Archaeologist, 1893, p. 146. Tennessee. 1893.
Cleaveland. The Archaeologist, 1893, p. 189. Ohio River. 1893.
Smith, H. I. Records of the Past, 1904, pp. 243 ff. British Columbia.

1904.
Nickerson, W. B. Records of the Past, 1908, p. 52. Illinois. 1908.

GRINDING-STONES.

Hough, W. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, p. 191. Arizona. 1897.
GROOVED AXES.

Brown, C. E. Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. I, p. 13. 1901.

Collie, G. L. Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 7, p. 125. 1908.

3 88 BIBLIOGRAPHY

GYPSUM.

Bandelier, A. F. Report of the Archaeological Institute of America,

5, p. 74. 1884.

HAMMER-STONES.

McGuire, J. D. American Anthropologist, vol. 4, pp. 301 ff. 1891.
Jenney, W. P. American Anthropologist, vol. 4, p. 317. 1891.
Smith, W. G. "Man the Primeval Savage," p. 121. 1894.
Mercer, H. C. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 276. 1894.
Beauchamp, W. M. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 318. 1894.
Snyder, J. F. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 378. 1894.
Remsburg, G. J. The Archaeologist, vol. 3, p. 175. 1895.
Williams, F. H. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 87. 1898.
Mason, O. T. American Anthropologist, vol. n, p. 382. Alaska and

Hawaii. 1898.

Phillips, W. A. Proceedings of the American Association for the Ad
vancement of Science, p. 362. Columbus. 1899.
Dorsey, G. A. Publications, 51, Field Museum. 1900.
MacCurdy, G. G. American Anthropologist, vol. 7, n. s., pp. 454 ff.

Palaeolithic and Eolithic. 1905.
Smith, H. I. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, n. s., p. 299. Columbia

Valley. 1906.

Notes. American Antiquarian, vol. 29, p. 344. 1907.
Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, n. s., p. 125. 1907.
Branch, C. W. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, n. s., p. 318. West

Indies. 1907.
Boas, F. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 15, 2,

p. 379. Eskimo. 1907.
HARPOONS.

Hayes, S. Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, Jan.,

1895. Ohio.
Mason, O. T. Report of the United States National Museum, 1900, pp.

189 ff. Distribution. 1900.

Smith, H. I. American Antiquarian, vol. 29, pp. 115 ff. 1907.
Boas, F. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, 15, 2,

p. 397. Eskimo. 1907.
HEDDLE-FRAME.

Mason, O. T. Report of the United States National Museum, 1899,

p. 488. 1899.
HEMATITE.

Fowke, G. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 345. 1894.

Moorehead, W. K. Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly, vol.

5, p. 236. 1897.
Bushnell, D. I., Jr. Records of the Past, 1903, p. 154. Missouri. 1903.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 389

HOES.

Brown, C. E. Wisconsin Archeologist, Oct., 1902, pp. 15 ff. 1902.
Moore, C. B. American Anthropologist, vol. 5, n. s., p. 498. A general

discussion. 1903.
IDOLS.

Atwater, C. Archaeologia Americana, p. 210. 1820.
Peet, S. D. American Antiquarian, vol. 14, pp. 197 ff. A general dis
cussion. 1892.
Fewkes, J. W. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 45, p. 120.

West Indies. 1903.
American Anthropologist, vol. 6, n. s., p. 589. Cuba.

1904.

IMPLEMENTS.
Proudfit, S. V. American Antiquarian, vol. 3, p. 277. Missouri River.

1880.

Wilson, C. B. American Antiquarian, vol. 5, p. 181. Mexico. 1883.
Nelson, E. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 18, p. 80. Es
kimo, 1896-97.

Hrdlicka, A. American Anthropologist, vol. 6, p. 66. Yaqui. 1904.
Bushnell, D. I., Jr. American Anthropologist, vol. 6, n. s., p. 295.

Ozark Region. 1904.
MacCurdy, G. G. American Anthropologist, vol. 7, pp. 434 ff. Eolithic.

1905.
Gilder, R. F. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, p. 706. Nebraska. 1907.

INDUSTRIES.

Powell, J. W. American Anthropologist, 1899, P- 3 J 9- Technology.

1899.
IRON.

Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 5, n. s., p. 503. Mis
souri. 1903.

IRON AGE.

Mason, O. T. American Anthropologist, June, 1896, p. 191. Its Intro
duction into America. 1896.
JADE.

Meyer, A. B. American Anthropologist, vol. i, p. 231. 1888.

Gordon, etc. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, vol. i, no. i, p. 24.
Copan. 1896.

Laidlaw, G. E. Archaeological Report, Ontario, p. 85. 1896-97.

Brown, A. P. Bulletin of the University of Pennsylvania, April, 1898,
p. 140. 1898.

Hill-Tout, C. American Archaeologist, p. 35. 1898.

Smith, H. I. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 72. 1898.

390 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Hill-Tout, C. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 152. 1898.
Brown, A. P. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 290. 1898.

JASPER.

Mercer, H. C. The Archaeologist, vol. i, p. I. 1893.

American Anthropologist, vol. 7, p. 80. 1894.
Van Epps, P. M. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 29. 1894.
Laubach, C. American Archaeologist, 1898, pp. 144, and 265. 1898.

JET.

Pepper, G. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 7, n. s., pp. 191 ff. 1905.
KNIVES.

Nissly, J. R. The Archaeologist, vol. I, p. 67. 1893.
Smith, W. G. " Man, the Primeval Savage," p. 247. 1894.
Willoughby, C. C. Papers of the Peabody Museum, 1898, p. 44. Maine.

1898.

American Naturalist, Jan., 1902. 1902.

Dorsey, G. A. Publications, 75, Field Museum, p. 59. Arapaho. 1903.
Dixon, R. B. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, vol.

17, no. 3, p. 132. Maidu. 1905.

Willoughby, C. C. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, n. s., p. 77. Vir
ginia. 1907.
Brown, C. E. Wisconsin Archeologist, 1907, pp. 61 ff. 1907.

LABRETS.

Nelson, E. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 18, p. 44. Eskimo.

1896-97-
LANCE-HEADS.

Breton, A. International Congress of Americanists, New York, p. 65.
1902.

LANSING SKELETON.

Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 4, n. s., p. 743. 1902.
Williston, S. W. International Congress of Americanists, New York,

p. 85. 1902.

Upham, W. Records of the Past, 1902, p. 273. 1902.
Wright, G. F. Records of the Past, 1903, p. 119. 1903.
Winchell, N. H. Records of the Past, 1907, p. 151. 1907.

LEAF-SHAPED IMPLEMENTS.

Read, M. C. American Antiquarian, vol. I, p. 98. 1878.
Smith, H. I. The Archaeologist, vol. i, p. 52. Michigan. 1893.

MA NO STONES.

Kroeber, A. L. Publications of the University of California, vol. vin,
no. 2, p. 51. Cahuilla. 1908.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 391

MANUAL CONCEPTS.

Gushing, F. H. American Anthropologist, 1892, pp. 289 ff. 1892.
MASKS.

Dall, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 73. 1881-82.
METATES.

Holmes, W. H. Report of the United States National Museum, 1900,

p. 179. California. 1900.
Dixon, R. B. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History,

vol. 17, pt. 3, p. 138. Maidu. 1905.
Du Bois, C. G. Publications of the University of California, vol. 8, no. 3,

p. 185. Luiseno. 1908.
MICA.

Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 15, p. 105. 1893-94.
MINERALS.

Rau, C. Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1872-73. Aboriginal

Trade. "/Copper, Galena, Obsidian, Mica, Slate, Flint, Pipestone,

Shells, and Pearls.
Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 6, p. 35. Chiriqui.

1884-85.

Blake, W. W. American Antiquarian, 1887, pp. 164 ff. Aztecs. 1887.
Tassin, W. Report of the United States National Museum, 1897, J &gt; PP-

649-688 and 749-810. 1897. Lead, Iron, Copper, Silver, Crystals,

etc. Agate, Cassiterite, Calcite, Chalcedony, Emery, Flint, Fluor-

ite, Hornblende, Jadeite, Jasper, Nephrite, Pyrite, Quartz, Tin,

Turquoise.
Brown, C. E. Wisconsin Archeologist, 1907, pp. 66 ff. 1907.

MORTARS.

Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, 1899, P- TI 5- 1899.
Bourke, J. G. American Anthropologist, vol. 3, p. 61. South West.

1890.

Brunner, H. L. American Anthropologist, vol. 4, p. 385. Texas. 1891.
Perkins, C. H. International Congress of Anthropology, p. 90.

Champlain Valley. 1894.
Fewkes, J. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 25, p. 106. Porto

Rico. 1903-04.

Kemp, J. F. Records of the Past, 1906, p. 191. Oregon. 1906.
Mills, W. C. Records of the Past, 1906, p. 346. Ohio. 1906.
Fewkes, J. W. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, p. 630. Porto Rico.

1908.
Kroeber, A. L. Publications of the University of California, vol. 8, 2,

p. 51. Cahuilla. 1908

392 BIBLIOGRAPHY

MORTUARY STONES.

Du Bois, C. G. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, p. 484. California.
1907.

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS.

Hoffman, W. J. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 14, p. 77. Menom-

inee. 1892-93.
Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 20, p. 34. Eastern

United States. 1898-99.

Dorsey, G. A. Publications, 75, Field Museum, p. 42. Arapaho. 1903.
Mead, C. W. "Musical Instruments of the Incas." Peru. 1903.
Russell, F. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 26, p. 166. Pima.

1904-05.
Dixon, R. B. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, vol.

I7 Pt. 3, P- 221. Maidu. 1905.
Bushnell, G. I., Jr. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, n. s., p. 676.

Virginia. 1906.
Kroeber, A. L. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History,

vol. 1 8, 4. Arapaho. 1907.
Spinden, H. J. Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association,

vol. 2, pt. 3, p. 230. Nez Perce. 1908.
Lowie, R. H. Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol.

2, pt. 2, p. 219. Shoshone. 1909.

NECKLACES.

Kroeber, A. L. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History,
vol. 18, no. 4, p. 440. Arapaho. 1907.

NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS.

Note. American Antiquarian, vol. 2, p. 177. 1880.
Cresson, H. T. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 163. 1894.

NET-SINKERS.

West, G. A. Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 7, pp. 131 ff. 1908.

OBSIDIAN.

McGee, W J American Anthropologist, vol. 2, p. 301. Nevada. 1889.
McGuire, J. D. American Anthropologist, vol. 5, p. 169. Manufacture.

1892.
Fewkes, J. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 17, 2, p. 732.

1895-96.

Brower, J. V. "Missouri River," p. 23. 1896.
Meredith. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 320. 1898.
Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 2, n. s., p. 405. Mexico.

1900.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 393

MacCurdy, G. G. American Anthropologist, vol. 2, n. s., p. 417. Aztec.

1900.

Lawson, P. V. Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 2, pp. 95 ff. 1903.
Rust, H. N., and Kroeber, A. L. American Anthropologist, vol. 7, n. s.,

pp. 688 ff. 1905.

ORNAMENTS.

Putnam, F. W. Report of the Peabody Museum, vol. n, p. 310. 1878.
Peet, S. D. American Antiquarian, vol. I, p. 380. 1887.
Henshaw, H. W. American Anthropologist, vol. 3, p. 103. 1890.
Thompson, E. H. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, vol. I, p. 18.

Yucatan. 1897.
Fewkes, J. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 22, p. 87. Pueblo.

1900-01.
Seler, E. Bulletin of the Bureau of Ethnology, 28, p. 59. Mexican

Feather Work. 1904.
Willoughby, C. C. American Anthropologist, vol. 7, n. s., p. 506. New

England. 1905.

American Anthropologist, vol. 9, pp. 70 ff. 1907.
PEARLS.

Carr, L. Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, 1897, p. 65.

1897.
PENDANTS.

Thompson, E. H. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, vol. I, 2, p. 19.

Yucatan. 1897.
Willoughby, C. C. Papers of the Peabody Museum, vol. i, 6, p. 24.

Maine. 1898.

PERFORATED STONES.

Henshaw, H. W. Bulletin of the Bureau of Ethnology, 2, pp. 5 ff.

California. 1887.
Fison, L. American Anthropologist, vol. 2, p. 177. New Britain. 1889.

PERFORATORS.

McGuire, J. D. Report of the United States National Museum, 1894,

pp. 623 ff. A general discussion. 1894.

Mason, O. T. International Congress of Anthropology, p. 73. 1894.
Sherman, G. M. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 45. 1898.
Bushnell, D. I., Jr. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, n. s., p. 540.

Virginia. 1908.
West, G. A. Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 8, 2, pp. 37 ff. 1909.

PESTLES.

Smith, H. I. American Anthropologist, vol. I, n. s., p. 363. 1899.

394 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, n. s., p. 124. Middle

Atlantic Shell-Heaps. 1907.
Bushnell, D. I., Jr. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, n. s., p. 544.

1908.
Sinclair, W. J. Publications of the University of California, vol. 7, 2,

p. 113. 1908.
Kroeber, A. L. Publications of the University of California, vol. 8, 2,

p. 51. Cahuilla. 1908.

PICTOGRAPHS.

Brown, E. American Antiquarian, vol. 2, p. 257. 1880.
Note. American Antiquarian, vol. 6, p. 119. 1884.
Barber, E. A. American Antiquarian, vol. 6, p. 386. 1884.
Hoffman, E. A. American Anthropologist, vol. i, p. 209. Ojibwa.

1888.
Mallery, G. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 10, pp. 31 ff. A general

discussion. 1888-89.

Emerson, E. R. American Antiquarian, vol. n, p. 381. 1889.
Rawson, A. L. American Antiquarian, vol. 14, p. 221. 1892.
Gunckel, L. American Antiquarian, vol. 15, p. 223. Southwest. 1893.
Montgomery, H. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 335. Utah. 1894.
Fewkes, J. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 17, 2, p. 545.

Arizona. 1895-96.
American Anthropologist, vol. 5, n. s., p. 441. Porto

Rico. 1903-04.
Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 15, pp. 148 ff,

Porto Rico. 1903-04.
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. 45, p. 132.

West Indies. 1904.

Smith, H. I. Records of the Past, 1905, p. 125. Colorado Valley. 1905.
Bierbower, Mrs. S. Records of the Past, 1905, p. 231. New Mexico.

1905.

Pittier de Fabriga, H. Memoirs of the American Anthropological Asso
ciation, vol. i, 5, p. 307. Colombia. 1905-07.
Moorehead, W. K. Bulletin 3, Phillips Academy, Andover, p. 159.

A Pictograph on Birch Bark.

Hewett, E. L. Bulletin of the Bureau of Ethnology, 32, p. n. South
west. 1906.
Sherwood, C. C. Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly, vol. 17,

p. 307. 1908.

Emmons, G. V. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, n. s., p. 221. Alaska,
1908.

PITTED STONES.

Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, n. s., p. 124. 1907.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

395

PIPES.

Beauchamp, W. M. American Antiquarian, vol. 4, p. 326. 1882.
Douglass, A. E. American Antiquarian, vol. n, p. 348. 1889.
Thomas, C. Bulletin of the Bureau of Ethnology, 4, p. 39. 1889.
Henshaw, H. W. American Anthropologist, vol. 3, p. 103. Georgia.

1890.

Peet, S. D. American Antiquarian, vol. 13, p. 267. 1891.
McGuire, J. G. American Anthropologist, vol. 5, p. 170. 1892.
Peet, S. D. American Antiquarian, vol. 14, p. 69. 1892.
McWhorter, L. V. The Archaeologist, 1893, p. 56. West Virginia. 1893.
Clark, C. W. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 84. Mississippi. 1894.
Berlin, A. F. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 278. A general discussion.

1894.

Beauchamp, W. M. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 349. 1894.
Perkins, C. H. International Congress of Anthropologists, p. 88.

Champlain Valley. 1894.
Fewkes, J. W., Stephen, A. M., and Owen, J. G. Journal of American

Ethnology and Archaeology, vol. 4, p. 31. Southwest. 1894.
Fewkes, J. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 17, 2, p. 733. South
west. 1895-96.

Laidlaw, G. E. American Antiquarian, vol. 19, p. 138. Ontario. 1897.
McGuire, J. D. Report of the United States National Museum, 1897,

! PP- 351 ff- A general discussion. 1897.
Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 20, pp. 45 and 173.

Eastern United States. 1898-99.

Laidlaw, G. E. American Archaeologist, 1899, p. 16. 1899.
Cadle, C. Records of the Past, 1902, p. 218. 1902.
Dorsey, G. A. Publications, 75, Field Museum, p. 43. Arapaho.

1903.
Goddard, P. E. Publications of the University of California, vol. I, I,

p. 37. Hupa. 1903-04.
West, G. A. Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 4, nos. 3 and 4. Wisconsin.

1905.
Dixon, R. B. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, vol.

17, pt. 3, p. 138. 1905.

Dorsey, G. A. Publications, 103, Field Museum, p. 76. Cheyenne. 1905.
Berlin, A. F. Proceedings of the Wyoming Historical and Geological

Societies, p. 108. A general discussion. 1905.
Montgomery, H. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, n. s., p. 646. Dakota.

1906.

The Archaeologist, vol. 2, pp. 228 to 232. 1894.
Ward, H. L. Bulletin of the Wisconsin Natural History Society, April,

1906, p. 9. Wisconsin. 1906.

396 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Herrmann, R. Records of the Past, 1906, p. 237. 1906.

Spinden, H. J. Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association,

vol. 2, 3, p. 1 88. Nez Perce. 1908.
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1908.

PLUMMETS.

Snyder, J. F., and Muhlig, F. M. The Antiquarian, 1897, p. 101. 1897.
Willoughby, C. C. Papers of the Peabody Museum, 1898, p. 29.

Maine. 1898.

Williams, F. H. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 181.
Peabody, C. Bulletin of the University of Pennsylvania, May, 1901,

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POTTERY.

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Barbour, E. A. American Antiquarian, vol. I, p. 61. 1878.

Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 4, pp. 257 ff.

Pueblo. 1882-83.
Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 4, pp. 361 ff.

Mississippi Valley. 1882-83.
Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 4, pp. 437 ff.

Form and Ornament. 1882-83.
Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 6, pp. 53 ff. Chiri-

qui. 1884-85.

American Anthropologist, vol. 2, pp. 246 ff. 1889.
Henshaw, H. W. American Anthropologist, vol. 3, pp. 102 ff. Georgia.

1890.

Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 3, pp. 324 ff. 1890.
Shrew, J. P. American Antiquarian, vol. 13, p. 154. 1891.
Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 5, pp. 67 and 149 ff.

1892.

Hales, H. The Archaeologist, vol. i, p. 219. Coiled Ware. 1893.
Mooney, J. American Anthropologist, vol. 6, pp. 283 ff. Arizona. 1893.
Pollard, J. G. The Pamunkey Indians, p. 18. Virginia. 1894.
Perkins, G. H. International Congress of Anthropology, p. 87. Cham-
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Gushing, F. H. International Congress of Anthropology, p. 217. 1894.
Fewkes, J. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 17, 2, pp. 569 ff.

Arizona. 1895-96.
Gordon, G. B., etc. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, vol. I, no. I,

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Nelson, E. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 18, p. 201. Eskimo.
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Fewkes, J. W. American Anthropologist, vol. n, p. 165. Arizona.

1898.

Holmes, W. H. Report of Bureau of Ethnology, 20, pp. i ff. East
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Fewkes, J. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 22, pp. 56, ff. Little

Colorado Valley. 1900-01.
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Pepper, G. H. American Museum Guide Leaflet, 6, p. 9. Utah. 1902.
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Pottery." 1902.
Lawson, P. V. American Antiquarian, 1902, pp. 157 ff. Wisconsin.

1902.
Fewkes, J. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 25, pp. 179 ff. Porto

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Thompson, E. H. Memoirs of the Peabody Museum, vol. 3, i, p. 6.

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Reid, W. M. Records of the Past, 1904, p. 184. Mohawk Valley. 1904.
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1904.
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Gerend, A. Wisconsin Archeologist, October, 1904, p. 3. 1904.
Russell, F. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 26, pp. 126 ff. Pima.

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Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 7, n. s., p. 211. South
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Hrdlicka, A. American Anthropologist, vol. 7, p. 487. Apache. 1905.
Wren, C. Proceedings and Collections of the Wyoming Historical and

Geological Society, pp. 137 ff. Wyoming Valley. 1905.
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pt. i, p. 83. Eskimo. 1906.
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1906.
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Peet, S. D. American Antiquarian, vol. 28, p. 277. A general discus
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Flower, F. A. Records of the Past, 1906, p. 102. Lake Superior. 1906.
Herrmann, R. Records of the Past, 1906, p. 237. Mississippi Valley.

1906.

Mills, W. C. Records of the Past, 1906, p. 346. Ohio. 1906.
Herrmann, R. Records of the Past, 1906, p. 366. Pueblo. 1906.
MacCurdy, G. G. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, n. s., p. 174. Staten

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Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, n. s., p. 126. 1907.
Hartman, C. V. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, n. s., p. 307. Costa

Rica. 1907.
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1907.

MacCurdy, G. G. Yale Alumni Weekly, June 19, p. 5. 1907.
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Sparkman, P. S. Publications of the University of California, vol. 8, 4,

p. 201. Luiseno. 1908.
Harrington, M. R. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, pp. 399 ff. South

Carolina. 1908.

Gesner, A. Records of the Past, 1908, p. 243. Minnesota. 1908.
Straley, M. W. Records of the Past, 1908, p. 263. Nebraska. 1908.
Kroeber, A. L. Publications of the University of California, vol. 8, 2, p.

54. Cahuilla. 1908.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 399

Lowie, R. H. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum, vol. 2,

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Gilder, R. F. American Anthropologist, vol. u, n. s., p. 71. 1909.
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i, pi. in. Yuchi. 1909.

PRIMITIVE CULTURES.

Moorehead, W. K. Putnam Anniversary vol., pp. 137 ff. Ohio. 1909.
PRIMITIVE MAN.

Dall. Contributions to North American Ethnology, i. 1877.

Shaler. Report of the Peabody Museum, vol. n, no. i. 1877.

Foster. Prehistoric Races. 1878.

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Whitney. Auriferous Gravels. 1879.

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1881-83.

Bancroft. Native Races, iv. 1882.
Morse. Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement

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1885-88.

Skertchley. Journal of the Anthropological Institute, xvn. 1888.
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Wright, G. F. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History,

xxni. 1888.
Abbott. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, xxnr.

1888.
Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement

of Science, xxxvu. 1888.

McGee. Popular Science Monthly, Nov., 1888.
American Anthropologist, vol. 2. 1889.
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1889.

Wright, G. F. Ice Age in North America. 1889.
Powell. The Forum. 1890.

Thomas. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 12. 1890-91.
Becker. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, n. 1891.
McGee. American Antiquarian, vol. 13. 1891.

American Anthropologist, vol. 5. 1892.
Holmes. Science, November 25, 1892.
Wright, G. F. Man and the Glacial Period. 1892.
Claypole. Popular Science Monthly for April, 1893.

400 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Wright, G. F. Popular Science Monthly for May, 1893.

Holmes. Journal of Geology, I, nos. I and 2. 1893.
Science, January 25, 1893.

McGee. American Anthropologist, vol. 6. 1893.

Mercer. American Naturalist, xxvu. 1893.

Claypole. American Geologist, xvm. 1896.

Kummel. Proceedings of the American Association for the Advance
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Mercer. Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement

of Science, XLVI. 1897.
Publications of the University of Pennsylvania, vi. 1897.

Putnam. Proceedings of the American Association for the Advance
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Salisbury. Proceedings of the American Association for the Advance
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Auringer. American Archaeologist for February, 1898.

Thomas. American Archaeology. 1898.

Blake. Journal of Geology, vn, 7. 1899.

Dall. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.
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Holmes. Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1899.
American Anthropologist. 1899.

Putnam. Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1899.

Report of the American Museum of Natural History, 1900.

Holmes. Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1901.

Brower. Memoirs, v. 1902.

Chamberlin and Brower. Journal of Geology, vol. x. 1902.

Fowke. Archaeological History of Ohio. 1902.

Holmes. Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1902.

Hrdlicka. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, XVI.
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Upham. Science for August 29, 1902.

Williston. Science for August I, 1902.

Winchell. American Geologist for September, 1902.

Holmes. Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1903.

Hrdlicka. American Anthropologist, vol. 5, n. s. 1903.

Peterson. Records of the Past, vol. 2. 1903.

Winchell. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, xiv. 1903.

Sinclair. Publications of the University of California, n, i. 1904.

Munro. Archaeological and False Antiquities. 1905.

Wright, D. F. Records of the Past, vol. 4. 1905.

Abbott. Archaeologia Nova Caesarea. 1907, etc.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 401

Hrdlicka. Bulletin of the Bureau of Ethnology, 33. 1907.
Winchell. Records of the Past, vol. 6. 1907.
Owen. Records of the Past, vol. 8. 1909.
Volk. Peabody Museum Papers, vol. 5. 1910.

QUARRIES.

Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 15, p. 33. District

of Columbia. 1893-94.

Dorsey, G. A. Publications of the Field Columbian Museum. Anthro
pological ser. 51. Wyoming. 1900.
Moorehead, W. K. Bulletin 3 of the Phillips Academy of Andover,

p. 126. Tennessee. 1906.
Fowke, G. Bulletin 3 of the Phillips Academy of Andover, Appendix.

Ohio. 1906.
QUARTZ.

Babbitt, F. E. American Antiquarian, vol. 3, pp. 18 ff. Minnesota.

1880.

Proceedings of the American Association for the Advance
ment of Science, p. 333. Little Falls. 1890.

Bushnell, D. I., Jr. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, n. s., p. 547.
Virginia. 1908.

QUARTZITE.

Brown, C. E. Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Arts, Science,
and Letters, vol. xv, part II.

RATTLES.

Starr, F. Proceedings of the Davenport Academy of Science, 9, p. 181.

1901-03.
Du Bois, C. G. Publications of the University of California, vol. 8, 3,

p. 185. Luiseno. 1908.
Sparkman, P. G. Publications of the University of California, vol. 8, 4,

p. 210. Luiseno. 1908.
Wren, C. Proceedings and Collections of the Wyoming Historical and

Geological Society, vol. 10, pp. 195 ff. Pennsylvania, 1908.
ROPE.

McGee, WJ American Anthropologist, vol. 10, p. 114. Mexico. 1897.
SANDALS.

Snyder, J. F. American Archaeologist, 1899, pp. 5 ff. 1899.

Pepper, G. H. Journal of the American Museum of Natural History,

1902, p. ii. Utah. (Guide Leaflet, 6.) 1902.
SCRAPERS.

Turner, L. M. American Anthropologist, vol. i, p. 186. Naskopie.
1888.

402 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Perkins, G. H. The Archaeologist, I, p. 59. 1893.

Dilg, K. The Antiquarian, 1897, p. 127. 1897.

Williams, F. H. American Archaeologist, p. 90. 1898.

Pepper, G. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 7, pp. 187 ff. (n. s.)

Pueblo Bonito. 1905.
Gilder, R. F. Records of the Past, 1909, p. 6. Wyoming. 1909.

SHELL.

Putnam, F. W. Explorations in Tennessee, p. 335. 1878.

Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 2, pp. 179, ff. Art

in Shell. 1880-81.
Montgomery, H. Proceedings of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science, 1889, p. 343. Dakota. 1889.
Reynolds, E. R. American Anthropologist, vol. 2, p. 252. Potomac

Region. 1889.
Peet, S.D. American Antiquarian, vol. 13, p. 264. A general discussion.

1891.

Thomas, C. American Anthropologist, vol. 4, p. 237. Shawnee. 1891.
Snodgrass, J. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 115. Ohio. 1894.
Chidsey, C. E. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 141. Pascagoula. 1894.
Howe, G. L. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 254. California. 1894.
Fewkes, J. W. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, p. 359. Pacific. 1896.
American Antiquarian, vol. 18, p. 30. Prince Edward

Island. 1896.
Carr, L. Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, 1897, P- 7 1 -

" Dress and Ornament." 1897.
Snyder, J. F. The Antiquarian, 1897, P- 2 5- Washington (State).

1897.

Fountain, G. H. The Antiquarian, 1897, p. 48. New Jersey. 1897.
Calver, W. L. The Antiquarian, 1897, p. 87. New York City. 1897.
Laidlaw, G. E. American Antiquarian, vol. 19, p. 68. Ontario. 1897.
Wintemberg, W. J. Archaeological Report of Ontario, 1900, p. 39. 1900.
Lawson, P. V. Wisconsin Archeologist, October, 1902, p. 6. 1902.
Fewkes, J. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 25, p. 192. Porto

Rico. 1903-04.
Smith, H. I. Records of the Past, 1904, pp. 79 ff. British Columbia.

1904.

Records of the Past, 1904, p. 220. Dakota. 1904.
Dixon, R. B. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, vol.

17, 3, p. 141. California. 1905.

Montgomery, H. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, n. s. pp. 643 ff. 1906.
Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, n. s., pp. 113 ff.

Atlantic Tide-Water Province. 1907.
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Indies. 1907.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 403

Hough, W. Bulletin of the Bureau of Ethnology, 35, p. 23. Southwest.

1907.
Montgomery, H. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, n. s. p. 38. Manitoba.

1908.
Lowie, R. H. Anthropological Papers, American Museum of Natural

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Gilder, R. F. American Anthropologist, vol. 11, n. s., p. 70. Nebraska.

1909.
SHIELDS.

Knight, E. H. A Study of Savage Weapons, p. 66.

Russell, F. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 26, p. 120. Pima.

1904-05.
SILVER.

Kunz, G. F. American Antiquarian, vol. 9, p. 219. Florida. 1887.
Moorehead, W. K. Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly, vol.

7, p. 120. Ohio. 1898.

Harrington, M. R. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum
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American Anthropologist, vol. 10, p. 413, n. s. 1908.
SKELETAL REMAINS.

Montgomery, H, The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 231. Utah. 1894.
Baker, F. American Anthropologist, vol. u, pp. 357 ff. 1898.
Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. I, n.s.,p.623. Calaveras.

1899.
Chamberlin, T. C. Journal of Geology, vol. 10, 7, pp. 745 ff. Lansing.

1902.
Hrdlicka, A. American Anthropologist, vol. 5, n. s., p. 323. Lansing.

1903.
MacCurdy, G. G. American Anthropologist, vol. 6, n. s., pp. 336 ff.

1904.

Wilder, H. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 7, p. 298, n. s. Massachu
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Moorehead, W. K. Bulletin 3 of Phillips Academy of Andovcr, p. 120.

Kentucky. 1906.

Gates, H. Records of the Past, i, 1906, pp. 271 ff. Minnesota. 1906.
Gilder, R. F. Records of the Past, 1907, p. 37. Nebraska. 1907.
Barbour, E. H. Records of the Past, 1907, p. 40. Nebraska. 1907.
Mead, C. W. Peruvian Mummies, p. 20. 1907.
Hrdlicka. A. Bulletin of the Bureau of Ethnology, 33, pp. 9 ff. A

general discussion. 1907.
Sinclair, W. J. Publications of the University of California, vol. 7, 2,

p. 109. California. 1908.
Wright, F. B. Records of the Past, 1908, p. 167. 1908.

404 BIBLIOGRAPHY

SPADES.

Rau, C. Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1863, p. 379. "Agri
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SPEARS.

Bourke, J. G. American Anthropologist, vol. 3, p. 56. A general dis
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Holmes, W. J. American Anthropologist, vol. 4, p. 143. Shawnees.
1891.

Crawford, J. The Archaeologist, vol. 3, p. 220, Nicaragua. 1895.

Nelson, E. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 18, I, p. 147.
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Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, 1902, p. 118. Indian Terri
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Dixon, R. B. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History,
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Montgomery, H. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, p. 644. Dakota.
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Blackman, E. Records of the Past, 1907, p. 78. Nebraska. 1907.

Spinden, H. J. Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association,
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SPINDLE-WHORLS.

Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 6, p. 149. Chiriqui.

1884-85.
Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 20, p. 33. Eastern

United States. 1898-99.
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Montgomery, H. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, n.s., p. 645. Dakota.

1906.
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2, p. 1 60. Osage. 1907.

Montgomery, H. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, n. s., p. 35. Mani
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Brown, C. E. Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 2, I, pp. 15 ff. 1902.
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Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 15, pp. 106 ff.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY 405

MacCurdy, G. G. American Anthropologist, vol. 5, n. s. f p. 68. 1903.

Bushnell, G. I., Jr. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, 1908, p. 546.
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Skinner, A. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, n. s., p. 702. 1908.

Lowie, R. H. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Nat
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STONE AND STONE IMPLEMENTS.

Sylvester, J. E. American Antiquarian, vol. I, p. 73. Ohio. 1878.
Read, M. C. American Antiquarian, vol. I, p. 139. Grave Creek. 1878.
Stevenson, J. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 2, p. 320. Zuni.

1880-81.

Buckingham, H. American Antiquarian, vol. 3, p. 135. Oregon. 1881.
Rau, C. American Naturalist, July, 1881, pp. 536 ff. 1881.
Butler, J. D. American Antiquarian, vol. 4, p. 229. 1882.
Bandelier, A. F. Report of the Archaeological Institute of America, 5,

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of Mexico. 1884.

Peet, S. D. American Antiquarian, vol. 9, p. 280. 1887.
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Bulletin of the Bureau of Ethnology, 4, p. 22. Ohio. 1889.
McGuire, J. D. American Anthropologist, vol. 5, pp. 165 ff. A general

discussion. 1892.
Holmes, W. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 6, pp. I ff. A general

discussion. 1893.
Fowke, G. Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly, vol. 2, p. 514.

1893-

Mercer, H. C. American Naturalist, 1893, pp. 962 ff. 1893.
Berlin, A. F. The Archaeologist, vol. I, p. 53. Indiana. 1893.
Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 15, pp. 3 ff.

Potomac-Chesapeake Province. 1893-94.
Newton, W. S. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 192. 1894.
Fowke, G. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 328. 1894.
Holmes, W. H. International Congress of Anthropology, pp. 120 ff.

1894.

Fowke, G. The Archaeologist, vol. 3, p. 197. 1895.
Crawford. The Archaeologist, vol. 3, p. 220. Nicaragua. 1895.
Wilson, T. The Archaeologist, vol. 3, p. 179. 1895.
Fowke, G. The Archaeologist, vol. 3, p. 300. 1895.
Fewkes, J. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 17, 2, p. 729.

Arizona. 1895-96.

McGuire, J. D. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, p. 227. 1896.
9 Thomas, C. American Anthropologist, vol. 9, p. 405. 1896.

406 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Thomas, C. The Antiquarian, 1897, p. 63. (Cf. preceding article.)

Leeper, D. R. The Antiquarian, 1897, p. 197. 1897.

Laubach, C. The Antiquarian, 1897, p. 126. Delaware River. 1897.

Seever, W. J. The Antiquarian, 1897, p. 141. Tennessee. 1897.

Coover, A. B. The Antiquarian, 1897, p. 304. Ohio. 1897.

Starr, F. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, p. 45. Mexico. 1897.

Thomas, C. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, p. 376. Washington

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Powers, A. J. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 12. Georgia. 1898.
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Thacker, W. H. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 189. San Juan

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Ivey, H. J. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 289. 1898.
Laubach, C. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 296. 1898.
Williams, F. H. American Archaeologist, 1898, p. 102. 1898.
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Phillips, W. A. American Anthropologist, vol. 2, n. s., p. 37. Illinois.

1900.
Holmes, W. H. Report of the United States National Museum, 1900.

p. 177. California. 1900.
Smith, H. I. American Anthropologist, vol. 3, n. s., pp. 289, 501, 726.

Michigan. 1901.
Fewkes, J. W. American Anthropologist, vol. 4, p. 487, n. s. Hopi.

1902.

Wren, C. Proceedings of the Wyoming Historical and Geological So
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Culin, S. American Anthropologist, vol. 5, n. s., p. 62. 1903.
Fewkes, J. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 25, pp. 1 10 and 167.

Porto Rico. 1902-03.

Peabody, C. Papers of the Peabody Museum, vol. 3, no. 2, p. 40. Mis
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Fewkes, J. W. American Anthropologist, vol. 6, p. 593, n. s. Cuba.

1904.
Will, G. F., and Spinden, H. J. Papers of the Peabody Museum, vol. 3.

no. 4, p. 163. The Mandans. 1906.
Smith, H. I. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, n. s.. p. 305. Lower

Columbia Valley. 1906.

Rust, H. N. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, n. s., p. 686. 1906.
Moorehead, W. K. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, p. 257. New

Mexico. 1908.
Coover, A. B. Ohio Archaeological and Historical Quarterly, vol. xvu,

p. 38. Ohio. 1908.
Fewkes, J. W. American Anthropologist, vol. 10, n. s., p. 625. Porto

Rico. 1908.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 407

Lowie, R. H. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Nat
ural History, vol. 2, pt. 2, p. 173. Shoshone. 1909.

STONE GRAVES.

Peet, S. D. American Antiquarian, vol. 12, p. 329. 1890.
Thruston, G. P. The Archaeologist, 1893, p. 146. Tennessee. 1893.
Thompson, A. H. American Antiquarian, vol. 23, p. 411. Tennessee.
1901.

STONE MONUMENTS.

Simms, S. C. American Anthropologist, vol. 5, n. s., pp. 107 and 374.
1903.

SWASTIKA.

Wilson, T. Report of the United States National Museum, pp. 757 ff.

A general discussion. 1894.
Brower, C. de W. Records of the Past, 1907, pp. 236 ff. 1907.

TABLETS.

Rau, C. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. xxn, p. 331.

Palenque. 1879.

Campbell, J. American Antiquarian, vol. 4, p. 145. Davenport. 1882.
Brinton, D. G. The Archaeologist, 1893, p. 201. Long Island. 1893.
Montgomery, H. American Anthropologist, vol. 8, p. 645. Dakota.

1906.
Moorehead, W. K. Bulletin 4 of the Phillips Academy, Andover,

p. 135. Guest." 1908.

TATTOOING.

Sinclair, A. T. American Anthropologist, vol. 11, n. s., p. 362. A general
discussion. 1909.

TEXTILES.

Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 3, pp. 393 ff.

1881-82.

Dixon, R. B. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History,
vol. 17, 3, p. 149. California. 1905.

TH ROWING-STICK.

Nelson, E. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1 8, p. 152. Eskimo.

1896-97.

Note. American Antiquarian, vol. 29, p. 119. 1907.
Pepper, G. H. "The Throwing-Stick of a Prehistoric People." (South-

TRAPS.

Mason, O. T. American Anthropologist, 1900, pp. 657 ff. A general
discussion. 1900.

4 o8 BIBLIOGRAPHY

TUBES.

Read, M. C. American Antiquarian, vol. 2, p. 53. 1879.

TURQUOISE.

Pepper, G. H. American Anthropologist, vol. 7, n. s., pp. 194 ff. Pueblo
Bonito. 1905.

WAMPUM.

Parkman, F. The Jesuits in North America, p. xxxi.

Holmes, W. H. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 2, pp. 235 ff.

i 880-8 i.

Adams, W. W. The Archaeologist, vol. i, p. 83. 1893.
Beauchamp, W. M. The Archaeologist, vol. 2, p. 94. 1894.
Calver, W. L. American Antiquarian, 1897, p. 89. New York. 1897.
Beauchamp, W. M. American Antiquarian, vol. 20, p. I. 1898.

WAR-CLUBS.

Wickersham, J. American Antiquarian, vol. 17, p. 72. A general dis
cussion. 1895.

WEDGES.

Gilder, R. Records of the Past, 1909, p. 6. 1909.
WOOD.

Hough, W. Report of the United States National Museum, 1888, pp.

531 ff. 1888.
Hale, J. P. American Antiquarian, 1897, p. 122. West Virginia and

Kentucky. 1897.
Fewkes, J. W. Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 25, p. 194. Porto

Rico. 1903-04.
Russell, F. Report of Bureau of Ethnology, 26, p. 97. Pima. 1904-05.

ZOOTECHNY.

Mason, O. T. American Anthropologist, 1899, p. 45. 1899.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE WRITINGS OF WARREN K. MOOREHEAD

As nearly all of my own articles, reports, and books deal with archae
ological subjects, I have thought best to include a bibliography of these,
placed separately, although a few are referred to in various places in the
preceding pages of the Bibliography.

American Antiquarian, The, 1887-1901. Numerous articles.
American Archaeologist, 1897-1899. Columbus, Ohio. Numerous articles.
Archaeologist, The, 1893-1895. Columbus, Ohio. Numerous articles.
Are the Hopewell Copper Objects Prehistoric? American Anthropologist,
January-March, 1903.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 409

Bird Stone Ceremonial, The. 31 pp. 42 figures. Large pamphlet.
Saranac Lake, N. Y. 1899.

Bird Stone Ceremonial and Suggestion of Archax&gt;logic Nomenclature.
American Association for the Advancement of Science Report. 1900.

Cincinnati Society, Natural History. Various papers in Reports, 1888-
1900.

Commercial vs. Scientific Collecting. Ohio Archaeological and Historical
Quarterly, January, 1904.

Exhibit from M. C. Hopewell s Farm, Description of the. Ross County,
Ohio. 20 pp. 9 full-page plates. Chicago, 1893.

Expedition to the Southwest. A score of illustrated articles in the Illus
trated American, 1892. New York.

Exploration of Jacobs Cavern, The. Bulletin I, Department of Archae
ology, Phillips Academy. 29 pp. n full-page plates; large folding-
map. Norwood, Mass., January, 1904. Co-author with Dr. C. Peabody.

Field Diary of an Archaeological Collector, The. 71 large pp., 42 figures.
American Inventor, Washington, D. C. March, i9O3-April, 1904.

Field Work, Report of. 108 pp. 45 figs. Vol. v (1897) of the Ohio State
Archaeological and Historical Society Report. Columbus, Ohio.

Field Work, Report of. 96 pp. 22 figures. Vol. vn (1898) of the Ohio
State Archaeological and Historical Society Report. Columbus, Ohio.

First Report of the Curator of the Archaeological Museum of the Ohio State
University. Also Preliminary Exploration of Ohio Caves. 17 pp.;
a table. Columbus, 1895.

Fort Ancient. 129 pp. 37 full-page plates; large folding map. Cincinnati,
1889. Robert Clarke Co.

Fort Ancient, Description of. 16 pp. 12 figures and large map. Vol. iv
(1896) of the Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society Report.
Columbus, Ohio.

Fort Ancient, the Great Prehistoric Earth Work of Warren County, Ohio.
1 66 pp. Pt. n, Bulletin iv, Department of Archaeology, Phillips Acad
emy, Andover, Mass. 1908.

Ghost Dance, The. 6 illustrated articles appearing in the Illustrated Amer
ican. New York, January-March, 1891.

Gravel Kame Burials in Ohio. American Association for the Advance
ment of Science Report. 1902.

Hopewell Group, The. About 60 pages. 70 figures. Continued from May,
1897, to February, 1898, in the American Archaeologist. Columbus, O.

Indian Tribes of Ohio, The. 109 pp. Vol. vn (1898) of the Ohio Archae
ological and Historical Society Report. Columbus, Ohio.

Metzger Mound, The. 10 pp. 4 figures. Proceedings of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 1894.

Modern and Prehistoric Village Sites in Ohio, compared. American Asso
ciation for the Advancement of Science Report. 1894.

4 io BIBLIOGRAPHY

Narrative of Explorations in Arizona, New Mexico, etc. Bulletin in, De
partment of Archaeology, Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass. 200 pp.
82 figures. 1906.

New Science, A., at the World s Columbian Exposition. North American
Review, 1903.

Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Reports, The. Numerous articles.
1894-1895.

Popular Science News. 1895-1900. New York. Numerous articles.

Prehistoric Implements. 621 figures. 431 pp. Saranac Lake, New York.
June, 1900.

Prehistoric Relics. 176 pp. 1 80 figures. Andover, Mass. 1904.

Primitive Man in Ohio. 246pp. 54 figures. G. P. Putnam s Sons. New
York, 1892.

Primitive Cultures in Ohio, A Study of. Putnam Anniversary Volume,
p. 137. Washington, D. C., 1909.

Recent Archaeological Discoveries in Ohio. Scientific American Supple
ment, August, 1892.

Red Cloud, A Sketch of His Life. Boston Transcript, December 22, 1909.

Remarks upon the Sheet Copper Designs of the Hopewell Group, Ohio.
American Association for the Advancement of Science Report. 1893.

Report of the Committee on Archaeological Nomenclature. American
Anthropologist, March, 1909.

Ruins at Aztec on the Rio La Plata, New Mexico. Explored 1892. Amer
ican Anthropologist, June, 1908.

Ruins of Southern Utah, The. American Association for the Advancement
of Science Report. 1892.

Science. 1890-1903. Numerous articles.

Singular Copper Implements and Ornaments from the Hopewell Group,
Ross County, Ohio. American Association for the Advancement of
Science Report. 1892.

So-called " Gorgets," The. Bulletin n, Department of Archaeology, Phillips
Academy. loopp. 18 plates. Andover, Mass, 1906. Co-author with
Dr. C. Peabody.

Unknown Forms of Stone Objects. Some 6 pp. 9 figures. Records of the
Past, September, 1904. Washington, D. C.

Wilson, The Late Dr. Thomas. American Association for the Advance
ment of Science. Meeting at Pittsburg, Pa., 1902.

INDEX

Abbott, C. C., i. 345 H. 350.

Abbott, G. B., Corning, California, II, 103.

Acaxes, n, 348.

Adaptation, n, 354 ff-

Adzes, i, 254, 273 ff.; conclusions, I. 322 fl.; copper,

n, 189.

Adze, triangular, I, 274.
Afton, Indian Territory (Oklahoma), I, 215.
Agricultural implements, chapter ix, 175 ff.
Agua Caliente, axes, i, 316.
Alaska, woman s knife, n, 311.
Algonquian pottery, n, 278.
Algonquins, II, 330.

Allentown, Pennsylvania, i, 35 ; knives, I, 86.
Altar- mounds, containing finer specimens, H. 63;

hematites, n, 295-
American Museum of Natural History, New York,

i, 427; n, 302.

Amulets in Eastern Canada, n, 332.
Analyses of specimens, 11, 353.
Ancient vs. modern art, n, 355.
Anderson, Clifford, n, 250.
Animal effigies, n, 20.
Antiquity of pottery-making, n, 294.
Antler in Dakota, n, 340.
Antler-tips, as arrow-points, n, 134.
Apaches, n, 354-
Appalachian pottery, n, 278.
" Archaeologia Nova Caesarea," n, 350.
Archaeological map of Ohio, n, 348.
Arizona, chipped implements, i, 244; rings, i, 442.
Arkansas, chipped implements, I, 238; engraved

disc, i, 452.
Armlets, n, 335-
Army and Medical Museum, Washington, D. C., i,

121.

Arnold, B. W., Albany, New York, n, 311.
Arrow-heads in eastern Canada, n, 331; Canadian

Plains, n, 334; Utah, n, 338; Dakota, n, 341.
Arrow-point, analyzed, I, 100.
Arrow-points embedded in bone, I, 108.
Arrow-points, manufacture, i, 58.
Arrow-points, "rotary," i, 68.
Arrow-shaft reducers, n, 134.
Arrow-wounds, I, 112.

Art at its best before European contact, n, 67.
Art in flint-chipping, I, 135.
Artifacts, number available for study, I, 10.
Ash-pits as preservatives, n, 136.
Atlantic Coast, shells, II, 118, 120.
Atlatls, Utah, n, 336.

Awls of bone, n, 134; in eastern Canada, H, 330.
Axes, i, 186 ff.; cached, I, 221; manufacture, I, 226 ff.;

conclusions, i, 322 ff.; copper, n, 180.

BainbridRe, Ohio, large blade, I, 233.

Banded slate, material for problematical forms, i,

343-
Bangles of copper, n, 225.

" Banner " stones, i. 346; of copper, n, 224; in eastern
Canada, n, 332.

Bar-amulets, i, 402.

Barbed axes, i, 312.

Bark, Dakota, n, 339.

Barnard, W. C., i, 43.

Barr, James A., I, 154.

Barrett. Professor S. A., pipes, H. 88; Cayapa In
dians, ii, 363.

Basalt, n, in.

Baskets, n, 235.

Batrachians, represented in pottery, 11, 287.

Bay-bah-dwung-gay-aush ("Daydodge"), n, 356.

" Bayonet-backed spear-points," of copper, 11, 210.

Beads, i, 355, 453; of shell, n, 118; of bone, n, 134;
of copper, n, 224; of glass, n, 227.

Beasley, B., Montgomery, Alabama, n, 121.

Beauchamp, Dr. Wm., i. 260, 380; n, 14.

Bell-shaped pestles, n, 102.

Benedict, F. M., n, 202.

Beveled points, of copper, n, 202.

Bicaves, i, 443 ff.; n, 350.

Bird, much in evidence in prehistoric sculpture, u,
80; pottery, n, 287.

Bird-stones in eastern Canada, u, 332.

Bird-stones, 11, 4 ff .; unfinished, 11, 8.

Black Hills, ii, 362.

Bludgeon, of copper, n, 224.

Bluffs, worked into mortars, ii, 102.

Boas, Professor Franz, n, 363.

Boat-shaped objects, i, 341, 402.

Bone, in general, n, 134 ff.; as material for orna
ments, i, 358.

Borers, in eastern Canada, n, 33 1-

Boulders, as mortars, ii, 102.

Boulder ruin culture, ii, 362.

Bows, classified, I, 105.

Bows and arrows, i, 100 ff.

Bowls from tree-knots, I, 288.

Boyle, Professor David, ii, 17.

Bracelets, i, 356; of shell, n, 132; of hom. n. 154-

Bragg s collection of pipes, n, 89.

Braiding, methods, n, 242.

Brewerton, New York, I, 270.

British Museum, n, 89.

Broken winged forms, I, 379.

Brower, J. V., n, 153-

Brown, C.E., Wisconsin, etc., i, ii, 180,230, 306, 374.
386, 418: n, 115. 156, 161, 294. 304.

Buffalo, classification of uses, i, 207; extermination,
i, 208-209; bones, n, 150.

Buffalo hides, preparation, I, 208.

Bull-roarers, i, 416.

Burial of problematical forms, I, 347.

Busycon shells, ii, 122.

"Butterfly" stones, i, 341.

Cabeza de Vaca. i. 02.

Caches, flakes, etc.. i, 57. 166; leaf-shaped imple-

4 I2

INDEX

ments, i, 138; flint objects, i, 216; bowls, n,
112.

California, quarries, i, 35 , obsidian blades, I, 232;
rings, i, 442; pestles, n, 103.

Calumet pipe, 11, 41.

Canada, northeastern, celts, adzes, and gouges, I,
273; harpoons, n, 137.

Canadian culture areas, n, 363.

Cannel-coal, gorget, I, 373-

Cannibals, n, 348.

Canoes, manufacture, I, 280.

Carolina, ear-bobs, i, 356; shells, II, 122.

Carr, A. B., Etna Mills, n, 308.

Carr, Lucien, i, 350.

Carvings on pipes, n, 48.

Catlin, collection of Indian portraits, I, 52.

Catlinite, n, 41; a comparatively recent mineral, n,
Si.

Catlinite quarries, n, 42.

Caves, of Kentucky and the Ozarks, n, 235-

Cave-Dweller culture, n, 362.

Cayapa Indians, n, 363.

Celts, i, 1 86 ff.; (ground), I, 252 ff.; conclusions, I,
322 ff.; of bone, n, 134.

Celts in eastern Canada, n, 331-

Cemeteries, Tennessee, i, 164.

Central America, metates, H, 116.

Central and western Pennsylvania culture group, n,
359.

" Ceremonials," I, 346.

Ceremonial pipes, n, 57.

" Ceremonial swords," i, 162.

Chaco Group, n, 133.

Chamberlin, T. C., i, 34.

Champlain, Lake, i, 236.

Chandler, G. P., Knoxville, Tennessee, I, 455.

Charleston, S. C., Museum, I, 10.

" Charms," I, 346.

Chattanooga, Tennessee, discoidals, i, 451.

Chesapeake region, chipped implements, i, 236.

Chipped implements, Sellars s remarks, i, 48 ff.;
types: knives, chapter v, p. 80 ff .; projectile points,
chapter vi, p. 99 ff.; chapter vn, p. 127 ff.; un
usual forms, chapter vm, p. 154 ff.; conclusions, i,
232 ff.

Chippewa Indians, n, 159, 167.

Chipping-tools of bone, n, 134.

Chisels, copper, n, 184.

Choice of materials, i, 294 ff .

Chunky stones, I, 444.

Cincinnati (Ohio), Art Museum, I, 334-

Classification, by Committee on Nomenclature, I,
23 ff.

Classification, need of, i, 9; presented, 31 ff .; of pot
tery, n, 278; of hematites, n, 301.

Classification, plans for, I, 10 ff .

Claws, as ornaments, i, 356.

Cliff-Dwellers, axes, I, 312, 316; mano-stones, n, 103.

Cliff-Dweller country, pottery, II, 257.

Cliff-Dweller culture, n, 362.

Cliff ruins in Utah, n, 336.

Cloth, as wrapping for copper objects, n, 234.

Coffin-shaped gorgets, i, 341.

Collie, Professor G. L., I, 289.

Columbia Valley, I, 233.

Columbia Valley culture area, n, 363.

Conclusions of "Stone Age," n, 344 ff.

Conical projectile points of copper, n, 206.

Conventional design, n, 288.
Conventionalization, 11, 288.
Copper, discovery of, n, 168; distribution of, n, 174;

fabrication of, n, 172 ff.; in general, n, 161 ff.;

manufacture of, aboriginal, II, 165; in eastern

Canada, n, 332; in Plains of Canada, n, 335; in

Dakota, n, 342.

Copper-casting, not aboriginal, n, 173, 174.
Cord for attaching ear-rings, n, 227.
Cores (Flint Ridge, O.), Fig. 27, I, p. 33.
Corn (maize), H, 96.
" Corn-shellers," n, 314.
Cornstalk, n, 345.
Coronado s historian, n, 348.
Coshocton, Ohio, i, 35.
Crescents, i, 341, 402; of copper, II, 228.
Crosby, H. A., I, 274.

Crosses, as decoration, I, 404; on shell, n, 131.
Crow Indians, necklaces, I, 216.
Culture groups, n, 357 ff.
Cumberland Valley (Tennessee and Kentucky), n,

123; pottery, H, 256.
Cup-stones, 11, 314 ff.
Cushing, F. H., i, u; "gorgets as bases," i, 412 ;

Piney Branch, I, 39; copper, n, 173.
Cylinders of copper (beads), n, 225.

Dakota, culture area, n, 363.

Dakota Indians, n, 166, 167.

Deer, n, 150.

Degeneration, of forms, I, 32; of ceremonial, II, 61.

Delaware River, i, 35; axes, I, 323; copper, n, 174.

Delaware Valley and region (culture group), n,
359-

Denver Museum, Colorado, n, 235.

Digging-tools (see also Agricultural implements ), of
shell, n, 120.

Discs, i, 98; cached, I, 216; of copper, u, 180; of clay,
II, 264.

Discoidal stones, I, 443 ff.

Discus-thrower, figure in resemblance on shell gor
get, II, 125.

Disease among aborigines, n, 346.

Diversity of cultures as an argument for antiquity,
n, 353-

Division of labor, I, 54.

Domestic science, n, 137.

Dominion Museum, Toronto, Ontario, I, 334.

Dorsey, G. A., i, 6.

"Double-bitted" axes, i, 307.

Douglas, A. E., I, 402.

Dress of American Indians, i, 350.

Drift-copper, in Wisconsin and Michigan, n, 231.

Drills, as war-points, I, 122.

Eastern Canada, in stone age, H. Montgomery, n,

330.

Eastman, Dr. C. A., I, 249.
Eddyville, Kentucky, shell gorget, n, 125.
Etowah Group, Georgia, n, 26.
Evolution of ornaments, I, 332.
Extreme North, absence of pottery, n, 248.
Folk-lore, value of, I, 6.
Eagle, realistically treated, n, 288.
Far-piercing, I, 353-354-
Ear-plugs, of copper, n, 227.
Ear-rings, of copper, n, 226.
Eastern Canada culture group, II, 358.

INDEX

Effigies, ii, i ff.; of shell, n, 132; of bone, n, 134; of

clay, n, 264.

Effigy pestles, n, 114; pipes, n, 57.
Egyptian pottery, n, . 78.
Elk, n, 150.

Ellsworth, VV. H., Milwaukee, Wisconsin, i, 240.
Eskimo harpoons, n, 137.
Eyed projectile ppints of copper, n, 202,

Feather objects in Utah, n, 337-

Fewkes, Dr. J. W., shell effigies, n. 133.

Field Museum, Chicago, Illinois, I, 232, 334.

Field study, n, 365 ff.

Figured stamp, n, 286.

Finger-rings, i, 442; of shell, n, 132; of copper, n,

226.

Finishing-shops, I, 37~38.
Fishes represented in pottery, 11, 287.
Fish-bladders as ornaments, I, 356.
Fish-hooks, n, 134; of copper, 11, 222.
Fishing by harpoons, n, 140.
Fish-nets, n, 141.
Five Nations, n, 330.
Flint celts, classified, I, 191; rare at Flint Ridge,

Ohio, i, 196.
Flint Ridge, Ohio, i, 35.
Florida, chipped implements, i, 239; shells, II, 122;

copper, ii, 174.
Fluted celts, i, 272.
Fluted stone axes, i, 316 ff.
Fort Ancient, Ohio, I, 373-
Fort Ancient culture, n, 250.
Fowke, G., i, 10; on quarrying, I, 36; on discoidal

stones, i, 447; on copper, n, 173.
Franck, H. W. n, 360.
Frankfort, Ohio, gorget, i, 373.

Game-bones, as "good medicine," i, 439.

Georgia, chipped implements, i, 238; copper, n, 174.

Gerend, A. n, 206.

Glacial man, i, 34.

Gorgets, i, 341 and passim; in general, i, 362 ff.; re
made, i, 362, 374; re-perforated, i, 367; on skele
tons, i, 372; of shell, n, 122 ff.; of copper, n, 180,
227; in eastern Canada, n, 331.

Gouges, i, 254; conclusions, I, 322 ff.; copper, n, 188;
in eastern Canada, ii, 331.

Gourds, n, 238.

Graves, occurrence of copper in, n, 233.

Great Plains, large proportion cf scrapers on, I, 205.

Greece, pottery, n, 278.

Greenstone, i, 300.

Grooves, variety, I, 326.

Grooved stone axes, i, 287 ff.; classified I, 306-307,
312.

Ground stone, I, 251 ff.

Gruenberg, Professor B. C., n, 367.

Gulf of California, shells, n, 132.

Gulf States, pottery, n. 247.

Gums for fastening the hafting. i, 286.

Hafting, scrapers, i, 205; celts, i, 284; "spuds." I,

430; bone, ii, 151.
Hair-dressing, I, 356.
Hairpins, I, 210.
Hamilton, H. P., I, 242; n, 161.
Hammers, Canadian Plains, n, 333; Utah, n, 338;

Dakota, n, 341.

Hammer-stones, I, 36, 224 ff.; types. I, 230.

" Handbook of American Indians," compared with
" The Stone Age." i, i; problematical forms, I, 343.

Hand-hatchet, i. 197, 270.

Handles, fastened with sinews and gum, i, 286; of
bone, n, 134.

Harpoons, u, 134; of copper, n, 214; of bone in east
ern Canada, li, 330.

Hatchets, i, 252.

Head-dresses, n, 134.

Hematite, where found, n, 295; plummets, n, 295.

Hematite objects, cached, i, 221; in general, n, 295 ff.

Herrmann, R., Dubuque, Iowa, II, 159.

Hiawatha traditions, n, 356.

Hodge, F. W., i, ii.

Hoes, of shell, n, 120.

Holmes, W. H., i, 10, 34. 289; Potomac-Chesapeake
Province, I, 38; Afton, Indian Territory (Okla
homa), i, 215; problematical forms, 1,346; quarries,
ii, 104; shell objects, n, 124; pottery, ii, 247.

Hopewell Group, cache of discs, i, 218; value of
beads, n, 122.

Horses, unknown to aborigines, n, 366.

Hostility of Indians to whites, n, 366.

Houmas, n, 350.

Hrdlicka, Dr. A., ii, 352.

Human effigies, n, 25.

Human features in flint, i, 162; on pottery, H, 287.

Hupa Indians, n, 69.

Hurons, n, 330.

Ice, celts used for chopping, i, 270.

Illinois, chipped implements, i, 242; copper, n, 174;

culture, n, 360.
Impressions of fabrics, ii, 235.
Incised vs. plastic designs, n, 288.
Indians, compared with Australians and Africans, I,

331.

Indian Territory (Oklahoma), I, 86; quarries, 135.
Insertion, inlaying, n, 155.
Invention of specialized tools, n, 286.
Iowa, chipped implements, i, 242; bird-stones, n, 5;

copper, n, 174; State Museum, n, 314.
Iron, use of, n, 344; arrow-points of, used for trade,

i, 52.

Iroquoian culture group, n, 358-359.
Iroquois pottery, n, 248.
Irving, Professor J. D., II, 352.

"Jesuit Relations," I, 4; II, 166.
Jesup North Pacific Expedition, i, 302.
Jewsharp pipe, n, 32; origin, u, 52, 53.
Jones, Dr. J., i, 422.

Kansas pottery, n, 270.

Kansas- Iowa buffalo culture, n, 361.

Kelley Cavern, Arkansas, n, 106, 136.

Kentucky, types of chipped implements, i, 238;

copper, n, 174; culture, ii, 360.
Kern, D. N., I, 38.
Knives, of bone, in eastern Canada, n, 330; chipped,

passim; see also, Points; of copper, n, 106; of stone

in eastern Canada, n, 331.
Kroeber. Professor A. L., i, 246.
Kuehne, R., n, 196.

L-shaped stones, i, 402,

Labrador, material and its distribution, I, 249.

414

INDEX

Labrets, I, 352.

Lacing of sandals, n, 245.

Ladles, of bone, n, 134.

Lagoon La Jara, California, H, 108.

Laminae, I, 336.

Lansing man, H, 352.

Lapidary, aboriginal, I, 145.

Lawson, P. V., i, 240.

Leather, in Dakota, n, 339.

Lehigh County, Pennsylvania, knives, I, 86.

Lenni-Lenape, n, 357-

Lewis, J. B., California, I, 436; n, 106.

Lewis, Professor T. H., n, 186.

Linguistic stocks, n, 357.

Little River, Tennessee, i, 35; flint, I, 218.

Living forms, influence on American art, II, 3; in

pottery, n, 287.
Logan Museum, Beloit, Wisconsin, I, 241, 308; n,

161.

Long, Major S. H., i, 50.
" Long-bitted " axes, I, 306.
Louisiana, chipped implements, i, 238.

Maces, i, 422.

Madisonville, Ohio, bone handles, i, 205; pottery, n,

250.

Mah-een-gonce, Ojibwa, I, 216.
Malleating pottery, n, 280.
Mallery, G., n, i.
Mammoth, n, 160.
Mandans, scrapers, i, 198; necklaces, I, 216; bone

implements, n, 150.
Manitoba, n, 341-
Mano-stones, n, 103.
Marriage tokens (bird-stones), n, 16.
Martin s Creek, Pennsylvania, problematical forms,

i, 376.

Mason, O. T., industries, i, 16 ff.
Mats, n, 235.

Mauls, i, 260; on Canadian Plains, n, 333-
McCoy, Solon, Mountain Home, Idaho, n, 102.
McGee, W J, i, 330; Seris, n, 348.
McGuire, J. D. (pipes), I, n; n, 29; nephrite axe, I,

226 ff.

Medicine-man, " Badthing," I, 94.
Meredith, Rev. H. C., I, 154; 437; n, 308.
Metates, 11, 95 ff . See also Mortars.
Mexico, metates, n, 115.

Michigan, II, 186, and passim. See also under Wis
consin.

Michigan, barbed axes, I, 312.
Midiwewin Society, n, 356.
Migration, i, 249.
Mills, W. C., n, 79, 148.
Mill-stones, n, 106.
Milton College, n, 161.
Milwaukee Public Museum, i, 241, 308.
Minnesota, bird-stones, II, 5; copper, n, 174.
Mississippi, chipped implements, i, 238; pottery, n,

270.
Mississippi Valley, axes, i, 323; importance of, n,

346.
Missouri, quarries, i, 35; chipped implements, i, 242;

pottery, n, 256; hematite, n, 295; culture area,

hematite belt, n, 360.
Missouri Historical Society, i, 232.
Mitchell, S. D., n, 161.
Mixed cultures, may be found together, n, 77.

Moccasin Bend, Tennessee, I, 232.

Monitor pipes, n, 33; Wisconsin, Illinois, and In
diana, II, 40.

Montgomery, Alabama, i, 430.

Montgomery, Henry, n, 242; reducing stone, n, 313;
eastern Canada, Utah, and Dakota, n, 330 ff .

Moore, C. B., I, 328, 422, 430; shells, n, 120; pottery,
n, 247.

Moose-antler; imitated in flint, i, 160.

Mortars, n, 95 ff.

Mortars and pestles, not always found together, H,
in.

Mounds, eastern Canada, n, 330.

Mounting. See Hafting.

"Mullers," i, 434.

Musical instruments, n, 160.

Mutilation, for purposes of ornament, I, 352-353.

"Mystery," Indian, i, 215.

" Mystery stones," i, 249.

National Museum, Washington, D. C-, H, 12.

Navajo blankets, n, 355.

Nebraska pottery, n, 270.

Necklaces, of bone, n, 142.

Needles, of bone, n, 157; in eastern Canada, H, 330;

of copper, n, 221.
Nelson, C. A., n, 125.
Net-sinkers, I, 432.

New Brunswick, limit of bird-stones, n, 5.
New England, slate spear-heads, i, 234, 236; celts,

adzes, and gouges, I, 273; winged forms, I, 386;

pestles, n, 102; harpoons, n, 137; copper, n, 178;

pottery, n, 248; culture group, n, 358.
New Hampshire, quartzite, etc., I, 234.
New Jersey, long slender chipped forms, i, 236.
New Mexico, quarries, i, 35; chipped implements, I,

244-

New York State, harpoons, n, 137.
New York State Museum, i, 260.
Nomenclature committee, membership, I, u.
Northern California culture, n, 362.
North Carolina, copper, n, 174.
Northwest Pacific Coast culture, II, 363.
Nose-piercing, i, 353-354.
Nose rings, i, 355.
Notched implements, I, 426.
Notched projectile points of copper, n, 202.
Notched rattles, n, 159.
Nut-cracking by Indians, n, 322.

Objects of bone, Canadian Plains, n, 334; Utah, n,
337; Dakota, n, 340; of shell, in eastern Canada,
II, 33i; Canadian Plains, n, 335; Dakota, II, 340;
of wood, in Utah, n, 336.

Observation necessary to an archaeologist, n, 351.

Obsidian blades, their value, I, 246.

Ohio, chipped implements, I, 238; gorgets, i, 373;
copper, ii, 174; culture, II, 360.

Ohio River between Aurora and Laurenceburg, In
diana, n, 345.

Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society,
Columbus, Ohio, i, 334.

Ohio Valley, chisel celts, i, 324.

Ojibwa, i, 432; ii, 40, 67, 356.

Ollas, for cooking, n, 264.

Ornaments, i, 329 ff.; of bone, n, 134; of copper, II,
230 ff.; of silver, ii, 230.

Osages, n, 354-

INDEX

Oshkosh Library Collection, n, 196.
Ozark culture area, n, 361.
Ozark region, axes, i, 234.

Pacific Coast, knives, I, 96; chipped implements, i,

244.

Paddles, n, 280.

Paducah, Kentucky, pebbles, i, 70, 126.
Painting, or tattoo-marks, n, 126.
Paint- pestles, I, 434.
Paint-stones, as mortars, n, 102.
Paint-stone hematite, a, 301.
Palaeolithic forms with resemblances in eastern

Canada, n, 331.
Palaeolithic implements, i, 81.
Palenque, Mexico, n, 61.
Parker, W. Thornton, M. D.. i, 122.
Patination, i, 178; H, 352.
Peabody, C.. i, n. 362, 431.
Peabody, R. S., II, 25.
Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts, i,

232, 334. 362.

Peabody Museum, Salem, Massachusetts, n, 104.
Peale, C. W., of the Philadelphia Museum, i, 50.
Pearls, i, 360.

Pebbles, drilled and used as ornaments, I, 329.
Pendants, i, 329 ff.; of bone, n, 134; of copper, n, 227.
Pennsylvania, large range of chipped implements, i,

238.

Pepper, G. H., shell effigies, n, 133.
Perforated clubs, ir, 311.
Perforations, in problematical forms, i, 347; in shell

gorgets, n, 125.
Perforators (see also Awls, Drills), in general, i,

210 ff.; classification, i, 210; use as pins, i, 210; of

copper, n, 219.

Perishable materials, i, 32; n, 344-
Perkins, E. C., II, 210.
Perkins, Professor G. H., i, 236, 277.
Pestles, ii, 95 ff.

Petaluma, California, plummets, i, 436.
Phallic pestles, 11, 116.
Philadelphia Museum, ii, 235.
Phillips Academy collection, Andover, Massachu-

setts, i, 362, and passim.
Phoenix, Arizona, I, 138.
Pick-shaped forms, I, 341, 402.
Pictographs on gorget, i, 380; in general, n, i.
Pikes, of copper, ii, 216.
Piney Branch (D. C.), I, 35-
Pipes, n, 29 ff.; eastern Canada, ii, 331; Canadian

Plains, n, 334; Utah, n, 338; Dakota, n, 341.
Pitted stones, II, 314 ff.
Plastic vs. incised designs, n, 288.
Plummet-shaped forms, I, 431 ff.
Pointed bowls for insertion in the ground, n, 114.
Point of view of the peoples of the stone age, n, 363.
Population in ancient times, n, 344.
Pottery, in general, n, 247; invention, ii, 258; classi
fied, ii, 278; in eastern Canada, n, 332; Plains of

Canada, II, 335; Utah, 338 : Dakota, II, 342.
Powell, Major J. W., n, 357.
Precious minerals, n, 364.
Problematical forms, in general, i, 329 ff.; peculiar

to America, I, 414.
Processes of stone-shaping, I, 280.
Progression of types, i, 260.
Projectile points, copper, II, 180, 198.

Provincial Museum. Toronto. Ontario, n, ii.
Pueblo culture, n, 362.
Punches, of copper, ii, 216.
Putnam, Professor F. W., n, 235.
Pyrula shells, n, 122.

Quadrupeds in or on pottery, n, 287.

Quarries, I, 34 ff.; soapstone, n, 104.

Quarrying materials, i, 31 ff.

Question of antiquity of man in America, n, 350 ff.

Rat-tail files, discussion, n, 133.
Rattles, i, 357; of clay, n, 261.
Rau, Dr. Charles, i, 421.
Reeder, J. T., n, 124.
Reamers, i, 212.
Re-chipped specimens, i, 124.
Rejects, i, 43, Fig. 36.

Re-made specimens, axes as hammers I, 231 ; problem
atical forms, i, 347-
Renaissance art, ii, 355-
Repouss6 work, copper, n, 234.
Rhode Island, pestle, n, 114.
Ribbons of (the moose), n, 159.
Ribs of animals, as knives, etc., n, 134.
Ridged gorgets, i, 341; developing into bars, I, 403.
Rings, i, 440; of clay, n, 264.
Rivet-holes in sockets, n, 210.
Rocky Mountain culture, n, 361-362.
Rocky Mountain region, chipped implements, I, 242.
Rolled socketed points, of copper, n, 212
Roller pestles, u, 114.
Rubbing pottery, n, 280.

Rudeness of object no evidence of antiquity, i, 82.
Rust. H. N., i, 245.

"Saddle-stones," n, 5.

St. Francis Basin, Arkansas, pottery, ii. 256.

St. Lawrence Basin, celts, i, 267; harpoons, n, 137.

Salado Valley, Arizona, n, 131, 132.

Salts Cave, Kentucky, n, 238.

Saltpeter, as preservative, n, 238.

Sandals, n, 235.

Santo Domingo, celts, i, 328.

Saskatchewan, ii, 341.

Savage, Father James, i, 312.

Savage vs. barbaric cultures, ii, 348.

Savannah River, pottery, n, 280.

Scarifying of pottery, ii, 287.

Secondary uses of forms, i, 304 ff-

Scandinavian daggers, I, 62.

Sceptres, i, 166.

Schumacher, J. P., i, 242.

Schuette, G., n, 196.

Scrapers, compared with Eskimo, I, 67; in general, i.
198 ff.; classified, i, 198; mounting, I, 205; of bone,
ii, 134; in eastern Canada, II, 330, 331.

Scraping pottery, n, 280.

Screw-pressure, i, 71.

Seever, W. J., i, 164.

Sellars, G.. i, 40. 48.

Seminoles, n, 354.

Seris, I, 330; ii, 348.

Serpent, realistically treated, n, 288.

Sharpening-stones, Dakota, ii, 341.

Shawano sites, II, 345.

Shell, ii, 117 ff.; in Dakota, n, 340.

Shell gorgets, n, 122 ff.

416

INDEX

Shoulder blades of animals, as digging- tools, 11, 134.

Shuttles, i, 410.

Sinew, for hafting, i, 286.

Sinew-smoother, i, 369.

" Sinew-stone," II, 314.

Sioux, necklaces, I, 216; pipes, n, 40.

Sites, prehistoric, historic, modern, n, 344, 345-

Skull, incrusted with shells, n, 352.

Slate spears, in eastern Canada, u, 331.

Smith, Captain John, I, 49.

Smith, Harlan I., i, 302.

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.,

chipped implements, I, 232, 334; copper, n, 161;

pottery, n, 280; hematites, n, 302.
Snake-form in necklaces, n, 155.
Snyder, Dr. J. F., Virginia, Illinois, I, 218, 427.
Sockets, copper, n, 190.
Socketed points, n, 180.
Soapstone, II, 104.
South America, copper, II, 165.
South Carolina, chippqcl implements, I, 239.
Southern California culture, II, 362.
Southern culture areas, n, 361.
Southwest, numerous effigies, n, 23.
Spades, manufacture, i, 64.
Spatulas, copper, n, 192.
Specialization in work, I, 145 ff.
Spikes, of copper, n, 220.
Spindle-whorls, n, 23.
Split stick for hafting, I, 305.
Spool-shaped forms, I, 403.
Spoons, of bone, n, 141.
Springfield, Illinois, i, 180.
Spuds, of copper, n, 186.
Spud-shaped forms, i, 418 ff.; habitat, I, 421.
Squash, u, 238.
Squier and Davis, n, 133.
Stamping pottery, n, 280.
Stanley, H. M., n, 367.
Starr, Professor Frederick, n, 159.
Steatite, n, 104.
Steinbrueck, E. R., Mandan collection, I, 198; n,

150.

Stems, classified, i, 99.
Stockton, California, i, 154.
Stoddard, II. L., I, 452.
" Stone ceremonial swords," n, 308.
Stone graves, Tennessee, n, 261; number, n, 346.
" Stone swords," I, 164.
Sun-dance, Mandan and Kiowa, i, 6, 7.
Sun-dried clay, liable to disappear, n, 269.
" Sun-fish spears," Greene County, Ohio, i, 233.
Superior-Michigan region, chipped implements, i,

239.

Susquehanna River, I, 35; axes, I, 323.
"Swords" of shell, n, 121.
Symbolic decoration, n, 287.
Symposium on copper, n, 233.

Talets. i, 347 ff.; of stone in Dakota, n, 341.
Tattoo-marks, or painting, 11, 126.
Technology of flint implements, I, 234.
Tecumseh, n, 345.
Teeth as ornaments, II, 134.
" Telescopes," I, 455.
Tempering, of pottery, n, 256.

Tennessee, types of chipped implements, i, 238;
bicaves, i, 446; copper, ir, 174.

! Tennessee Historical Society, I, 232.

| Tennessee Valley, shell gorgets, n, 123; pottery, II,

ii, 256.

j Texas, i, 40; chipped implements, I, 244.
| Texas culture area, n, 361.
j Textile fabrics, in general, n, 235 ff.

Textiles in Utah, n, 337.
J Thomas, Dr. Cyrus, n, 368.
[ Thruston, General G. P., i, 422.

Thunder-bird, as represented by winged forms, I,
380.

Tobacco and tobacco-smoking, n, 29.

Tomahawks, i, 270.

Tooker, Paul S., Westfield, New Jersey, I, 380.

Toothed points, of copper, n, 202.

Torches, of reed, II, 238.

Totems, n, 17.

Toys, of pottery, ii, 261.

Trade, aboriginal, i, 221; in copper, n, 23, 231.

Transportation of material, I, 40 ff; I, 218-220.

Trenton, New Jersey, n, 350.

Triangular pieces of horn, n, 153, 154.

Tubular forms, I, 453 ff.

Turtlebacks, n, 40; 191, 348.

Typha (cat-tail), fibres for braiding, II, 240.

Unbaked clay, Dakota, n, 342.

Unfinished fish-hooks, process of manufacture, II,

148.

Unfinished winged forms, I, 379.
Unio shells, ii, 122.
University of Vermont, n, 189.
Utah, in general (Montgomery), n, 336 ff.; culture

area, n, 363.

Valuation of chipped implements, I, 245.
Variety is ceramics, n, 289.
Village-site of antiquity, n, 269.
Volk, E., n, 350.

Wabash River, limit of effigy pottery, n, 250.

Wagon-pressure, i, 71.

War points, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Missis
sippi, Texas, Georgia, Virginia, Massachusetts,
Oregon, Illinois, i, 86, 88.

Wearing of perforations, i, 372.

Weathering, n, 353.

Wedges, copper, ii, 184.

Weirs, n, 141.

West, G. A., pipes, n, 29.

West Virginia, plummets, i, 436; copper, n, 174-

Whistles, ii, 142.

Wild hemp, n, 242.

Willamette Valley, Oregon, small points, ., 233.

Williams, Professor E. H., Jr., I, 205, 413; n, 352.

Willoughby, C. C., i, 251.

Wilson, Rev. G. L., n, iS3-

Wilson, Dr. T., i, 10, 34, 251.

Winged forms of greater age than the mounds. I, 41 1.

Winged problematical forms, I, 376 ff.

Winnebago Indians, n, 40; n, 159, 167.

Wintuns, I, 74.

Wisconsin, knives, I, 92; spades, I, 184; grooved
hammers, I, 231 ; celts, i, 272; grooved axes. I, 306;
fluted axes, I, 316; gorgets, i, 374; winged forms,
i, 386; spuds, i, 427; pestles, n, 115; bone, n, 156;
copper, ii, 161 ff.; pottery, n, 294; hematite, II,
304.

INDEX

Wisconsin Archaeological Society, n, 164.
Wisconsin Natural History-Society, II, 161.
Wisconsin State Historical Museum, i, 241-242.

308; ii, 161.
Woman s knife, n, 311.

Women, compared with men in population, u, 13?-
Wooden bowls, n, 102.

Workmanship, depending on material, i, 233.
Wrappings of cloth, n, 204.
Wright, Professor G. Frederick, T, 34.
Wright, Professor John H., i, 1 1.

Wyman, Dr. Jeffries, n, 352.
Wyoming, quarries, i, 35.

Vale, British Columbia, I, 304.
Yellowstone Park, i. 35.
Young, Colonel B. H., n, 124; shell gorgets
Salts Cave, n, 238.

417

n, 130;

Zigzag ornamentation, or pattern, n, 214.
Zimmerman, E. D., Kutztown. Pennsylvania, H,
308.

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